,,the ,,popular ,,religion              
,,and ,,folk-,,lore ,,of                
,,northern ,,india                      
,,by                                ,w4 
,,crooke1 ,b4,a4                        
,,bengal ,,civil ,,service              
,,in ,,two ,,volumes                    
,,vol4 ,i4                     ,a ,,new 
,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,illustrated
                                        
,,westminster                           
,,archibald ,,constable  ,,co4          
#b1 ,whitehall ,gardens1 ,s4,w4         
#ahif                ,,preface ,,to     
,,the ,,second ,,edition4      ,the     
success of this book has been much      
beyond my expectations4 ,that  a        
considerable edition has been exhausted 
within a few months after  publication  
proves that it meets a want4    ,i have 
now practically re-written the book1 and
 have taken  the opportunity of         
introducing a considerable amount of    
fresh  information collected in the     
course of the ,ethnographical ,survey of

  the ,north-,western ,provinces1 the   
results of which will be separately     
published4    ,for the illustrations1   
which now appear for the first time1 ,i 
am  indebted to the photographic skill  
of ,mr4 ,j4 ,o',neal1 of the ,thomason  
,engineering ,college1 ,rurki4 ,i could 
have wished that they could have  been  
drawn from a wider area4 ,but ,hardwar  
and its shrines are very  fairly        
representative of popular ,hinduism in  
,northern ,india4      ,w4 ,crooke4     
,saharanpur1  ,february1 #ahie4         
,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 
,many books have been written on        
,brhmanism1 or the official religion  of
 the ,hindu2 but1 as far as ,i am aware1
 this is the first attempt  to bring    
together some of the information        
available on the popular  beliefs of the
 races of ,upper ,india4    ,my object  
in writing this book has been threefold4
 ,in the first place  ,i desired to     
collect1 for the use of all officers    
whose work lies  among the rural        

classes1 some information on the beliefs
 of the people  which will enable them1 
in some degree1 to understand the       
mysterious  inner life of the races     
among whom their lot is cast2 secondly1 
it  may be hoped that this introductory 
sketch will stimulate inquiry1          
particularly among the educated races of
 the country1 who have1  as yet1 done   
little to enable ,europeans to gain a   
fuller and more  sympathetic knowledge  
of their rural brethren2 and lastly1    
while ,i  have endeavoured more to      
collect facts than to theorize upon     
them1  ,i hope that ,european scholars  
may find in these pages some fresh      
examples of familiar principles4 ,my    
difficulty has arisen not so much  from 
deficiency of material1 as in the       
selection and arrangement of  the mass  
of information1 which lies scattered    
through a considerable  literature1 much
 of which is fugitive4    ,i believe    
that the more we explore these popular  
superstitions and  usages1 the nearer   

are we likely to attain to the discovery
 of the  basis on which ,hinduism has   
been founded4 ,the official creed has   
always been characterized by extreme    
catholicism and receptivity1 and  many  
of its principles and legends have      
undoubtedly been derived from  that     
stratum of the people which it is       
convenient to call non-,aryan  or       
,drvidian4 ,the necessity1 then1 of     
investigating these beliefs  before they
 become absorbed in ,brhminism1 one of  
the most active  missionary religions of
 the world1 is obvious4    ,i may say   
that the materials of this book were    
practically complete  before ,i was able
 to use ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,campbell's        
valuable collection of  ,notes on the   
,spirit ,basis of ,belief and ,custom2  
but1 in revising  the manuscript1 ,i    
have availed myself to some extent of   
this useful  collection1 and when ,i    
have done so1 ,i have been careful to   
acknowledge  my obligations to it4 ,even
 at the risk of overloading the notes   

with references1 ,i have quoted the     
authorities which ,i have used1  and ,i 
have added a ,bibliography which may be 
of use to students to  whom the subject 
is unfamiliar4    ,the only excuse ,i   
can plead for the obvious imperfections 
of this  hasty survey of a very wide    
subject is that it has been written in  
the intervals of the scanty leisure of a
 ,district ,officer's life in  ,india1  
and often at a distance from works of   
reference and libraries4      ,w4       
,crooke4    ,mirzapur1  ,february1      
#ahic4                ,,contents4       
,,chapter ,i4                           
,,page        ,the ,godlings of ,nature 
#a        ,,chapter ,,ii4        ,the   
,heroic and ,village ,godlings          
#hc        ,,chapter ,,iii4        ,the 
,godlings of ,disease                   
#abc        ,,chapter ,,iv4        ,the 
,worship of the ,sainted ,dead          
#age        ,,chapter ,v4               
,worship of the ,malevolent ,dead       
#bcj                ,,folk-,,lore ,,of  

,,northern ,,india4      ,,chapter ,i4  
,,the ,,godlings ,,of ,,nature4         
,en men gaian eteux' en d' ouranon1 en  
de thalassan                  elion t'  
akamanta selnn te plthousan1            
en de ta teirea panta1 ta t' ouranos    
estephantai                  ,pladas th'
 ,hyadas te1 to te sthenos rinos        
,arkton th'1 hn kai amaxan epiklsin     
kaleousin1                  ht autou    
strephatai kai t' rina dokeuei1         
oi d' ammoros esti loetrn keanoio4      
,iliad1 xviii4 #dhc-hh4      ,among all 
the great religions of the world there  
is none more catholic1  more            
assimilative than the mass of beliefs   
which go to make up what  is popularly  
known as ,hinduism4 ,to what was        
probably its original  form--a nature   
worship in a large degree introduced by 
the ,aryan  missionaries--has been added
 an enormous amount of demonolatry1     
fetishism and kindred forms of primitive
 religion1 much of which  has been      
adopted from races which it is          

convenient to describe as  aboriginal or
 autochthonous4    ,the same was the    
case in ,western lands4 ,as the ,romans 
extended their  ,empire they brought    
with them and included in the national  
pantheon the  deities of the conquered  
peoples4 ,greece and ,syria1 ,egypt1    
,gallia and  ,germania were thus        
successively laid under contribution4   
,this power  of assimilation in the     
domain of religion had its advantages as
 well  as its dangers4 ,while on the one
 hand it tended to promote the unity  of
 the empire1 it degraded1 on the other  
hand1 the national character  by the    
introduction of the impure cults which  
flourished along the  eastern shores of 
the ,mediterranean4 #a    ,but1 besides 
these forms of religion which were      
directly imported  from foreign lands1  
there remained a stratum of local       
beliefs  which even after twenty        
centuries of ,christianity still        
flourish1  discredited though they may  
be by priests and placed under the ban  

of the official creed4 ,thus in ,greece1
 while the high gods of the  divine race
 of ,achilles and ,agamemnon are        
forgotten1 the ,nereids1  the ,cyclopes 
and the ,lamia still live in the faith  
of the peasants of  ,thessaly4 #b ,so in
 modern ,tuscany there is actually as   
much heathenism  as catholicism1 and    
they still believe in ,la ,vecchia      
,religione--the  old religion2--and     
while on great occasions they have      
recourse to the  priests1 they use magic
 and witchcraft for all ordinary        
purposes4 #c    ,it is part of the      
object of the following pages to show   
that in  ,india the history of religious
 belief has been developed on similar   
lines4 ,everywhere we find that the     
great primal gods of ,hinduism have     
suffered grievous degradation4          
,throughout the length and breadth  of  
the ,indian peninsula ,brahma1 the      
,creator1 has hardly more than  a couple
 of shrines specially dedicated to him4 
#d ,indra has1 as  we shall see1 become 

a vague weather deity1 who rules the    
choirs of  fairies in his heaven        
,indra-loka3 ,varuna1 as ,barun1 has    
also become a  degraded weather godling1
 and sailors worship their boat as his  
fetish  when they commence a voyage4    
,the worship of ,agni survives in the   
fire  sacrifice which has been          
specialized by the ,agnihotri ,brhmans4 
,of  ,pshan and ,ushas1 ,vyu and the    
,maruts1 hardly even the names survive1 
except among the small philosophical    
class of reformers who aim at  restoring
 ,vedism1 a faith which is as dead as   
,jupiter or ,aphrodite4        ,the     
,deva4    ,the general term for these   
great gods of ,hinduism is ,deva1 or the
  shining ones4 ,of these even the      
survivors have in the course of the     
development of the religious belief of  
the people suffered serious  change4    
,modern ,vaishnavism has little left of 
the original conception  of the solar   
deity who in the ,rig ,veda strides in  
three steps through  the seven regions  

of the universe1 and envelops all things
 in the dust  of his beams4 ,to his cult
 has1 in modern times1 been added the   
erotic  cycle of myths which centre     
round ,krishna and ,rdh and ,rukmin4    
,the  successive ,avatras or            
incarnations mark the progressive       
development of  the cultus which has    
absorbed in succession the totemistic or
 fetish  worship of the tortoise1 the   
boar1 the fish and the man-lion4 ,in    
the same way ,rudra-,siva has annexed   
various faiths1 many of which  are      
probably of local origin1 such as the   
worship of the bull and  the linga4     
,durg-,dev1 again1 most likely is       
indebted to the same  sources for the   
blood sacrifices which she loves in her 
forms of ,kl1  ,bhawn1 ,chandik or      
,bhairav4 ,a still later development is 
that of  the foul mysteries of the      
,tantra and the ,sktis4        ,the     
,deot4    ,but in the present survey of 
the popular1 as contrasted with the     
official faith1 we have little concern  

with these supremely powerful  deities4 
,they are the gods of the richer or     
higher classes1 and to  the ordinary    
peasant of ,northern ,india are now     
little more than  a name4 ,he will1 it  
is true1 occasionally bow at their      
shrines2  he will pour some water or lay
 some flowers on the images or fetish   
stones which are the special            
resting-places of these divinities or   
represent the productive powers of      
nature4 ,but from time immemorial1  when
 ,brhmanism had as yet not succeeded in 
occupying the land1 his  allegiance was 
bestowed on a class of deities of a much
 lower and  more primitive kind4 ,their 
inferiority to the greater gods is      
marked  in their title3 they are ,devat 
or ,deot1 godlings1 not gods4 #e        
,godlings ,pure and ,impure4    ,these  
godlings fall into two well marked      
classes--the pure and the  impure4 ,the 
former are1 as a rule1 served by priests
 of the ,brhman  castes or one of the   
ascetic orders3 their offerings are such

 things  as are pure food to the        
,hindu--cakes of wheaten flour1         
particularly  those which have been     
still further purified by intermixture  
with  clarified butter 7gh71 the most   
valued product of the sacred  cow1      
washed rice 7akshata7 and sweetmeats4   
,they are very generally  worshipped on 
a ,sunday1 and the officiating          
high-caste priest accepts  the          
offerings4 ,the offerings to the impure 
godlings contain articles  such as pork 
and spirits1 which are abomination to   
the orthodox  ,hindu4 ,in the ,central  
,indian hills their priest is the       
,baiga1 who  rules the ghosts and demons
 of the village and is always drawn from
  one of the ,drvidian tribes4 ,in the  
plain country the priest is a           
non-,aryan ,chamr1 ,dusdh1 or even a    
sweeper or a ,muhammadan ,dafli  or     
drummer4 ,no respectable ,hindu will1 it
 is needless to say1 partake  of a share
 of the food consecrated 7prasd7 to a   
hedge deity of this  class4 ,much of the

 worship consists in offering of blood4 
,but the  jungle man or the village     
menial of the plains can seldom1 except 
in  an hour of grievous need1 afford an 
expensive animal victim1 and it  is only
 when the village shrine has come under 
the patronage of the  official priests  
of the orthodox faith1 that the altar of
 the goddess  reeks with gore1 like     
those of the ,devs of ,bindhchal or ,dev
 ,ptan4    ,but as regards the          
acceptance of a share of the offering   
the line is  often not very rigidly     
drawn4 ,as ,mr4 ,ibbetson writing of the
 ,panjb  says3 #f ,of course1 the line  
cannot always be drawn with precision1  
and ,brhmans will often consent to be   
fed in the name of a deity1  while they 
will not take offerings made at his     
shrine1 or will allow  their girls1 but 
not their boys1 to accept the offering1 
as1 if the  girls die in consequence1 it
 does not much matter4 ,in fact1 as we  
shall see later on1 the ,baiga or devil 
priest of the aboriginal tribes1  is    

gradually merging into the ,ojha or     
meaner class of demon exorciser1  who   
calls himself a ,brhman and performs the
 same functions for tribes  of a        
somewhat higher social rank4            
,sraj ,nryan1 the ,sun ,godling4    ,the
 first and greatest of the pure godlings
 is ,srya or ,sraj  ,nryan1 the ,sun    
godling4 ,he is thus regarded as ,nryana
 or  ,vishnu occupying the sun4 ,a      
curiously primitive legend represents   
his father-in-law1 ,viswakarma1 as      
placing the deity on his lathe  and     
trimming away one-eighth of his         
effulgence1 leaving only his  feet4 ,out
 of the blazing fragments he welded the 
weapons of the  gods4 ,srya was one of  
the great deities of the ,vedic         
pantheon3  he is called ,prajapati or   
lord of creatures3 he was the son of    
,dyaus1 or the bright sky4 ,ushas1 the  
dawn1 was his wife1 and he moves        
through the sky drawn by seven ruddy    
mares4 ,his worship was perhaps         
originally connected with that of fire1 

but it is easy to understand  how1 under
 a tropical sky1 the ,indian peasant    
came to look on him as  the lord of life
 and death1 the bringer of plenty or of 
famine4 ,if  one interpretation of the  
rite be correct1 the ,hol festival is   
intended as a means of propitiating     
sunshine4 ,he is now1 however1  like    
,helios in the ,homeric mythology1      
looked on as only a godling1  not a god1
 and even as a hero who had once lived  
and reigned on earth4    ,as far as the 
village worship of ,sraj ,nryan goes1   
the assertion1  which has sometimes been
 made1 that no shrine has been erected  
in  his honour is correct enough2 and   
there is no doubt that images of  ,srya 
and ,aditya are comparatively rare in   
recent epochs4 ,but there  are many     
noted temples dedicated to him1 such as 
those at ,taxila1  ,gwlior1 ,gaya1      
,multn1 ,jaypur1 and in the             
,north-,western ,provinces  at ,indor1  
,hawalbgh1 ,srya ,bhta and ,lakhmipur4  
#g ,his shrine at  ,kanrak in ,orissa   

near that of ,jagannth1 is described as 
one of the  most exquisite memorials of 
,sun-worship in existence4 #h ,mr4      
,bendall  recently found in ,nepl an    
image dedicated to him as late as the   
eleventh century4 #i ,there is a small  
shrine in his honour close to  the      
,annaprna temple in ,benares1 where the 
god is represented seated  in a chariot 
drawn by seven horses1 and is worshipped
 with the fire  sacrifice 7homa7 in a   
building detached from the temple4 #aj  
,in the time of ,sankara ,achrya 7,a4,d4
 #ajjj7 there were six distinct  sects  
of ,sun-worshippers--one worshipping the
 rising sun as identified  with ,brahma2
 the second the meridian sun as ,siva2  
the third the  setting sun as ,vishnu2  
the fourth worshippers of the sun in all
 the  above phases as identified with   
the ,trimurti2 the fifth worshippers  of
 the sun regarded as a material being in
 the form of a man with a  golden beard 
and golden hair4 ,zealous members of    
this sect refused  to eat anything in   

the morning till they had seen the sun  
rise4 ,the  last class worshipped an    
image of the sun formed in the mind4    
,these  spent all their time meditating 
on the sun1 and were in the habit  of   
branding circular representations of his
 disc on their foreheads1  arms and     
breasts4 #aa    ,the ,saura sect worship
 ,sryapati as their special god4 ,they  
wear a  crystal necklace in his honour1 
abstain from eating salt on ,sundays    
and on the days when the sun enters a   
sign of the zodiac4 ,they make  a       
frontal mark with red sandars1 and      
nowadays have their headquarters  in    
,oudh4 #ab    ,another sect of          
,vaishnavas1 the ,nmbrak1 worship the   
sun in a  modified form4 ,their name    
means the sun in a ,nm tree             
7,azidirachta  ,indica74 ,the story of  
the sect runs that their founder1 an    
ascetic  named ,bhskarchrya1 had invited
 a ,bairgi to dine with him1 and had    
arranged everything for his reception1  
but unfortunately delayed to  call his  

guest till after sunset4 ,the holy man  
was forbidden by the  rules of his order
 to eat except in the day-time1 and was 
afraid that  he would be compelled to   
practise an unwilling abstinence2 but at
 the  solicitation of his host1 the ,sun
 god1 ,sraj ,nryan1 descended on the    
,nm tree under which the feast was      
spread and continued beaming on them    
until dinner was over4 #ac ,in this we  
observe an approximation to the  ,jaina 
rule by which it is forbidden to eat    
after sunset1 lest insects  may enter   
the mouth and be destroyed4 ,this       
over-strained respect for  animal life  
is one of the main features of the      
creed4 ,as a curious  parallel it may be
 noted that when an ,australian         
black-fellow wishes  to stay the sun    
from going down till he gets home1 he   
places a sod  in the fork of a tree     
exactly facing the setting sun2 and an  
,indian  of ,yucatan1 journeying        
westward1 places a stone in a tree1 or  
pulls  out some of his eye-lashes and   

blows them towards the sun4 #ad    ,the 
great ,emperor ,akbar endeavoured to    
introduce a special form of             
,sun-worship4 ,he ordered that it was to
 be adored four times a day3 in  the    
morning1 noon1 evening1 and midnight4   
,his majesty had also one  thousand and 
one ,sanskrit names of the sun          
collected1 and read them  daily1        
devoutly turning to the sun4 ,he then   
used to get hold of both  ears1 and     
turning himself quickly round1 used to  
strike the lower ends  of his ears with 
his fists4 ,he ordered his band to play 
at midnight1  and used to be weighed    
against gold at his solar anniversary4  
#ae        ,village ,worship of ,sraj   
,nryan4    ,the village worship of ,sraj
 ,nryan is quite distinct from this4    
,many  peasants in ,upper ,india do not 
eat salt on ,sundays1 and do not set    
their milk for butter1 but make         
rice-milk of it1 and give a portion  to 
,brhmans4 ,brhmans are sometimes fed in 
his honour at harvests1  and the pious  

householder bows to him as he leaves his
 house in the  morning4 ,his more       
learned brethren repeat the ,gyatr1 that
 most  ancient of ,aryan prayers3 ,tat  
savitur varenyam bhargo devasya  dhmahi1
 ,dhiyo yo nah prachodayt 7,may we      
receive the glorious  brightness of     
this1 the generator1 the ,god who shall 
prosper our  works674 ,in the chilly    
mornings of the cold weather you will   
hear  the sleepy coolies as they wake1  
yawning and muttering ,sraj ,nryan1  as 
the yellow gleam of dawn spreads over   
the ,eastern sky4 ,in fact1  even in    
,vedic times there seems to have been a 
local worship of ,srya  connected with  
some primitive folk-lore4 ,haradatta    
mentions as one  of the customs not     
sanctioned in the ,veda1 that when the  
sun is in  ,aries the young girls would 
paint the sun with his retinue on the   
soil in coloured dust1 and worship this 
in the morning and evening2  #af and in 
,central ,india the sun was in the      
,middle ,ages worshipped  under the     

local form of ,bhilla1 or ,lord of      
,life1 a term which  appears to have    
been the origin of the name ,bhilsa1    
known to more  recent ages as a famous  
seat of ,buddhism4 #ag    ,at ,udaypur  
in ,rjputna the sun has universal       
precedence4 ,his portal  7,sryapul7 is  
the chief entrance to the city2 his name
 gives dignity  to the chief apartment  
or hall 7,sryamahal7 of the palace1 and 
from the  balcony of the sun            
7,srya-gokhru71 the descendant of ,rma  
shows himself  in the dark monsoon as   
the sun's representative4 ,a large      
painted sun  of gypsum in high relief   
with gilded rays adorns the hall of     
audience1  and in front of it is the    
throne4 ,the sacred standard bears his  
image1  as does the disc 7chang7 of     
black felt or ostrich feathers with a   
plate of gold in its centre to represent
 the sun1 borne aloft on a  pole4 ,the  
royal parasol is called ,kiraniya1 in   
allusion to its shape1  like a ray      
7kiran7 of the orb4 #ah    ,another     

famous centre of ,sun-worship was       
,multn1 where1 as we have  seen1 a      
temple dedicated to him has been        
discovered1 and where the  tribes of the
 ,blas and ,kthis were devoted to him4  
,the worship  continued till the idol   
was destroyed by orders of ,aurangzeb4  
,sun-worship among the non-,aryan       
,races4    ,the ,aheriyas1 a tribe of   
jungle-livers and thieves in the        
,central  ,dub of the ,ganges and       
,jumna1 have adopted as their mythical  
ancestor  ,priyavrata1 who being        
dissatisfied that only half the earth   
was at one  time illuminated by the rays
 of the sun1 followed him seven times   
round  the earth in his flaming car1    
resolved to turn night into day4 ,but   
he was stopped by ,brahma1 and the      
wheels of his chariot formed the  seven 
oceans which divide the seven continents
 of the world4    ,in the lower ranges  
of the ,himlaya ,sun-worship is         
conducted in the  months of ,december   
and ,january and when eclipses occur4   

,the principal  observances are the     
eating of a meal without salt at each   
passage  of the sun into a new sign of  
zodiac1 and eating meals on other days  
only when the sun has risen4    ,among  
the ,drvidian races1 along the ,central 
,indian hills1 ,sun-worship  is widely  
prevalent4 ,when in great affliction the
 ,kharwrs appeal  to the sun4 ,any open 
space in which he shines may be his     
altar4 ,the  ,kisns offer a white cock  
to him when a sacrifice is needed4 ,he  
is worshipped by the ,bhuiyas and ,orons
 as ,borm or ,dharm ,devat1  the godling
 of pity1 and is propitiated at the     
sowing season by  the sacrifice of a    
white cock4 ,the ,korwas worship him as 
,bhagwn1 or  the only ,god1 in an open  
space with an ant-hill as an altar4 ,the
  ,khariyas adore him under the name of 
,bero4 ,every head of a family  should  
during his lifetime make not less than  
five sacrifices to  this deity--the     
first of fowls1 the second of a pig1 the
 third of a  white goat1 the fourth of a

 ram1 and the fifth of a buffalo4 ,he is
  then considered sufficiently          
propitiated for that generation1 and    
regarded as an ungrateful god if he does
 not behave handsomely to  his votary4  
,he is addressed as ,parameswar1 or     
great god1 and his  sacrifices are      
always made in front of an ant-hill     
which is regarded  as his altar4 ,the   
,kols worship ,sing ,bonga1 the creator 
and preserver1  as the sun4 ,prayer and 
sacrifice are made to him1 as to a      
beneficent  deity1 who has no pleasure  
in the destruction of any of his        
subjects1  though1 as a father1 he      
chastises his erring children1 who owe  
him  gratitude for all the blessings    
they enjoy4 ,he is said to have married 
,chando ,omal1 the moon4 ,she deceived  
him on one occasion1 and he cut her  in 
two2 but repenting of his anger1 he     
restores her to her original  shape once
 a month1 when she shines in her full   
beauty4 ,the ,orons  address the sun as 
,dharmi1 or the holy one1 and do not    

regard him as  the author of sickness or
 calamity2 but he may be invoked to     
avert it1  and this appeal is often made
 when the sacrifices to minor deities   
have  been unproductive4 ,he is the     
tribal god of the ,korkus of ,hoshangbd2
  they do not1 however1 offer libations 
to him1 as ,hindus do2 but once  in     
three years the head of each family1 on 
some ,sunday in ,april or  ,may1 offers 
outside the village a white she-goat and
 a white fowl1  turning his face to the 
,east during the sacrifice4 ,similarly  
the ,krs  of the ,central ,provinces    
carve rude representations of the sun   
and  moon on wooden pillars1 which they 
worship1 near their villages4 #ai       
,sun-worship in the ,domestic ,ritual4  
,it is needless to say that the custom  
of walking round any sacred  object in  
the course of the sun prevails widely4  
,thus in ,ireland1  when in a graveyard1
 it is customary to walk as much as     
possible with  the sun1 with the right  
hand towards the centre of the circle4  

#bj  ,even to this day in the ,hebrides 
animals are led round a sick person1    
following the sun2 and in the ,highlands
 it is the custom to make the  deazil or
 walk three times in the sun's course   
round those whom  they wish well4 ,when 
a ,highlander goes to bathe or to drink 
water  out of a consecrated spring1 he  
must always approach by going round  the
 place from east to west on the south   
side1 in imitation of the  daily motion 
of the sun4 #ba ,we follow the same rule
 when we pass  the decanters round our  
dinner tables4 ,in the same way in      
,india  the bride and bridegroom are    
made to revolve round the sacred fire   
or the central pole of the marriage-shed
 in the course of the sun2  the pilgrim 
makes his solemn perambulation          
7parikrama7 round a temple  or shrine in
 the same way2 in this direction the    
cattle move as they  tread out the      
grain4    ,one special part of the      
purificatory rite following childbirth  
is  to bring the mother out and expose  

her to the rays of the sun4 ,all        
through the range of popular belief and 
folk-lore appears the idea  that girls  
may be impregnated by the sun4 #bb      
,hence they are not  allowed to expose  
themselves to his rays at the menstrual 
period4 ,for  the same reason the bride 
is brought out to salute the rising sun 
on the morning after she begins to live 
with her husband4 ,a survival  of the   
same belief may be traced in the        
,english belief that happy is  the bride
 on whom the sun shines4 ,the same      
belief in the power of the  sun is shown
 in the principle so common in folk-lore
 that to show a  certain thing to it 7in
 a ,kashmr tale it is a tuft of the hair
 of  the kindly tigress7 will be        
sufficient to summon an absent friend4  
#bc    ,the mystical emblem of the      
,swstika1 which appears to represent the
  sun in his journey through the        
heavens1 is of constant occurrence4 ,the
  trader paints it on the fly-leaf of   
his ledger2 the man who has young       

children or animals liable to the ,evil 
,eye makes a representation of  it on   
the wall beside his door-post2 it holds 
the first place among  the lucky marks  
of the ,jainas2 it is drawn on the      
shaven heads of  children on the        
marriage-day in ,gujart2 a red circle   
with a ,swstika  in the centre is       
depicted on the place where the gods are
 kept4 #bd  ,in those parts of the      
country where ,bhmiya is worshipped as a
 village  guardian deity his votary     
constructs a rude model of it on the    
shrine  by fixing up two crossed straws 
with a daub of plaster4 ,it often occurs
  in folk-lore4 ,in the drama of the    
,toy ,cart the thief hesitates  whether 
he shall make the hole in the wall of   
,charudatta's house in  the likeness of 
a ,swstika or of a water jar4 ,a hymn of
 the ,rigveda  #be speaks of the        
all-seeing eye of the sun whose beams   
reveal his  presence1 gleaming like     
brilliant flames to nation after nation4
 ,this  same conception of the sun as an

 eye is common in the folk-lore of  the 
,west4 #bf        ,moon-worship4    ,the
 fate of ,chandra or ,soma1 the ,moon   
godling1 is very similar4 ,the  name    
,soma1 originally applied to the plant  
the juice of which was used  as a       
religious intoxicant1 came to be used in
 connection with the  moon in the       
post-,vedic mythology4 ,there are many  
legends to account  for the waning of   
the moon and the spots on his surface1  
for the moon1  like the sun1 is always  
treated as a male godling4 ,one of the  
legends  current to explain the phases  
of the moon has been already referred   
to4 ,according to another story the moon
 married the twenty-seven  asterisms1   
the daughters of the ,rishi ,daksha1 who
 is the hero of  the curious tale of the
 sacrifice now located at ,kankhal1 a   
suburb  of ,hardwr4 ,um or ,prvat1 the  
spouse of ,siva1 was also a daughter  of
 ,daksha1 and when he1 offended with his
 son-in-law ,siva1 did not  invite him  
to the great sacrifice1 ,um became ,sat1

 and in his rage  ,siva created         
,vrabhadra1 who killed the sage4 ,soma  
after marrying  the asterisms devoted   
himself to one of them1 ,rohin1 which   
aroused  the jealousy of the others4    
,they complained to their father        
,daksha1  who cursed the moon with      
childlessness and consumption4 ,his     
wives1  in pity1 interceded for him1 but
 the curse of the angry sage could not  
be wholly removed3 all that was possible
 was to modify it so that it  should be 
periodical1 not permanent4 ,in an       
earlier legend1 of which  there is a    
trace in the ,rig ,veda1 #bg the gods1  
by drinking up the  nectar1 caused the  
waning of the moon4 ,another curious    
explanation  is current in ,bombay4 ,one
 evening ,ganesa fell off his steed1 the
 rat1  and the moon could not help      
laughing at his misfortune4 ,to punish  
him  the angry god vowed that no one    
should ever see the moon again4 ,the    
moon prayed for forgiveness1 and ,ganesa
 agreed that the moon should  be        

disgraced only on his birthday1 the     
,ganesa ,chaturth4 ,on this  night the  
wild hogs hide themselves that they may 
not see the moon1  and the ,kunbis hunt 
them down and kill them4 #bh    ,there  
are also many explanations to account   
for the spots in the  moon4 ,in ,western
 lands the moon is inhabited by a man   
with a bundle  of sticks on his back2   
but it is not clear of what offence this
 was  the punishment4 ,dante says he is 
,cain2 ,chaucer says he was a thief1    
and gives him a thorn-bush to carry2    
,shakespeare gives him thorns to  carry1
 but provides him with a dog as a       
companion4 ,in ,ireland children  are   
taught that he picked faggots on a      
,sunday and is punished as a            
,sabbath-breaker4 ,in ,india the        
creature in the moon is usually a hare1 
and hence the moon is called ,sasadhara1
 he that is marked like a  hare4        
,according to one legend the moon became
 enamoured of ,ahaly1  the wife of the  
,rishi ,gautama1 and visited her in the 

absence of her  husband4 ,he returned1  
and finding the guilty pair together1   
cursed his  wife1 who was turned into a 
stone2 then he threw his shoe at the    
moon1  which left a black mark1 and this
 remains to this day4 ,the scene of     
this event has been localized at ,gondar
 in the ,karnl ,district4 ,by  another  
variant of the legend it was            
,vrihaspati1 the ,guru or religious     
adviser of the gods1 who found the moon 
with his wife4 ,the holy man  was just  
returning from his bath in the ,ganges1 
and he threw his  dripping loin-cloth at
 the moon1 which produced the spots4 ,in
 ,upper  ,india1 again1 little children 
are taught to call the moon ,mm or      
maternal uncle1 and the dark spots are  
said to represent an old  woman who sits
 there working her spinning-wheel4      
,the moon has one special function in   
connection with disease4 ,one of  his   
titles is ,oshadhipati or lord of the   
medicinal plants4 ,hence  comes the idea
 that roots and simples1 and in         

particular those that  are to be used   
for any magical or mystic purpose1      
should be collected  by moonlight4 ,thus
 in ,shakespeare ,jessica says1--       
,in such a night ,medea gathered the    
enchanted herbs      ,that did renew old
 ,aeson4      ,and ,laertes speaks of   
the poison collected from all simples   
that  have virtue under the moon4 #bi   
,hence the belief that the moon  has a  
sympathetic influence over vegetation4  
,tusser #cj advised  the peasant1--     
,sow peason and beans1 in the wane of   
the moon4      ,who soweth them sooner1 
he soweth too soon2      ,that they with
 the planet may rest and arise1         
,and flourish1 with bearing most        
plentiful wise4      ,the same rule     
applies all over ,northern ,india1 and  
the phases of the  moon exercise an     
important influence on all agricultural 
operations4    ,based on the same       
principle is the custom of drinking the 
moon4 ,among  ,muhammadans in ,oudh1 a  
silver basin being filled with water1 is

 held  in such a situation that the full
 moon may be reflected in it4 ,the      
person to be benefited by the draught is
 required to look steadfastly  on the   
moon in the basin1 then shut his eyes   
and quaff the liquid at  a draught4     
,this remedy is advised by medical      
professors in nervous  cases1 and also  
for palpitation of the heart4 #ca       
,somewhat similar  customs prevail among
 ,hindus in ,northern ,india4 ,at the   
full moon of the  month ,kur            
7,september-,october7 people lay out    
food on the house-tops1  and when it has
 absorbed the rays of the moon they     
distribute it among  their relations2   
this is supposed to lengthen life4 ,on  
the same night  girls pour out water in 
the moonlight1 and say that they are    
pouring  out the cold weather1 which was
 hidden in the water jar4 ,the habit of 
making patients look at the moon in ghi1
 oil1 or milk is common1 and  is said to
 be specially efficacious for leprosy   
and similar diseases4    ,there is now  

little special worship of ,soma or      
,chandra1 and when  an image is erected 
to him it is generally associated with  
that of  ,srya4 ,in the old ritual      
,anumati or the moon just short of full 
was  specially worshipped in connection 
with the ,manes4 ,the full-moon  day was
 provided with a special goddess1 ,rk4  
,nowadays the phases  largely influence 
the domestic ritual4 ,all over the world
 we find the  idea that anything done or
 suffered by man on a waxing moon tends 
to  develop1 whereas anything done or   
suffered on a waning moon tends to      
diminish4 ,thus a popular trick charm   
for warts is to look at the new  moon1  
lift some dust from under the left foot1
 rub the wart with it1  and as the moon 
wanes the wart dies4 #cb ,it is on the  
days of the new  and full moon that     
spirits are most numerous and active4   
,the ,code of  ,manu directs that       
ceremonies are to be performed at the   
conjunction  and opposition of the moon4
 #cc ,among the ,jews it would seem that

 the  full moon was prescribed for      
national celebrations1 while those of a 
domestic character took place at the new
 moon2 there is some evidence  to show  
that this may be connected with the     
habit of pastoral nations  performing   
journeys in the cool moonlight nights4  
#cd    ,horace speaks of rustic         
,phidyle1--          ,coelo supinas si  
tuleris manus1      ,nascente ,lun      
rustica ,phidyle1 #ce      and ,aubrey  
of the ,yorkshire maids who doe worship 
the new moon on  their bare knees1      
kneeling upon an earth-fast stone4      
,irish girls on  first seeing the moon  
when new fall on their knees and address
 her  with a loud voice in the          
prayer--,o ,moon6 ,leave us as well as  
you  found us6 #cf ,it is a common      
practice in ,europe to turn a piece of  
silver1 which being white is the lunar  
metal1 when the new moon is  first seen4
 ,so ,hindus at the first sight of the  
new moon hold one end  of their turbans 
in their hands1 take from it seven      

threads1 present  them to the moon with 
a prayer1 and then exchange the         
compliments  of the season4 ,in ,bombay 
#cg on all new moon days ,brhmans offer 
oblations of water and sesamum seed to  
their ancestors1 and those who  are     
,agnihotris and do the fire sacrifice   
kindle the sacred fire on all  new and  
full moon days4 ,musalmns on the new    
moon which comes after  the new year    
sprinkle the blood of a goat beside the 
house door4 ,in  ,bombay a young        
,musalmn girl will not go out at the new
 moon or on a  ,thursday1 apparently    
because this is the time that evil      
spirits roam  abroad4 ,in ,upper ,india 
the houses of the pious are freely      
plastered  with a mixture of earth and  
cow-dung1 and no animal is yoked4    ,a 
curious idea applies to the new moon of 
,bhdon 7,august74 ,whoever  looks at the
 moon on this day will be the victim of 
false accusations  during the following 
year4 ,the only way to avoid this is to 
perform  a sort of penance by getting   

someone to shy brickbats at your house1 
which at other times is regarded as an  
extreme form of insult and  degradation4
 ,there is a regular festival held for  
this purpose at  ,benares on the fourth 
day of ,bhdon 7,august71 which is known 
as  the ,dhela ,chauth ,mela1 or the    
clod festival of the fourth4 #ch  ,we   
shall come across later on other        
examples of the principle that to  court
 abuse under certain circumstances is a 
means of propitiating the  spirits of   
evil and avoiding danger from them4     
,this is probably the  origin of the    
practice in ,orissa--,on the ,khurda    
estate the peasants  give a curious     
reason for the absence of garden        
cultivation and fruit  trees1 which form
 a salient feature in that part of the  
country4 ,in  our own districts every   
homestead has its little ring of        
vegetable  ground4 ,but in ,khurda one  
seldom meets with these green spots     
except in  ,brhman villages4 ,the common
 cultivators say that from time         

immemorial  they considered it lucky at 
a certain festival for a man to be      
annoyed  and abused by his neighbours4  
,with a view to giving ample cause of   
offence they mutilate the fruit trees   
and trample the gardens of  their       
neighbours1 and so court fortune by     
bringing down the wrath  of the injured 
owner4 #ci ,we shall see that this is   
one probable  explanation of the        
indecency which prevails at the ,hol    
festival4    ,moon-worship appears to be
 more popular in ,bihr and ,bengal than 
in  the ,north-,west ,provinces or the  
,panjb4 #dj ,the fourth day of the      
waxing moon in the month of ,bhdon is   
sacred to the moon and known  as ,chauk 
,chanda4 ,it is very unlucky to look at 
the moon on that day1  as whoever does  
so will make his name infamous4 ,the    
story runs that  ,takshaka1 the king of 
the snakes1 stole the ear-rings of ,king
 ,aditi1  who1 being unable to discover 
the thief1 laid it to the charge of     
,krishna1 whose thefts of milk and cream

 from the ,gops had made him            
sufficiently notorious4 ,krishna1       
mortified at this false accusation1     
recovered and restored the ear-ring1 and
 as this was the day on which  ,krishna 
was wrongfully disgraced1 the moon of   
that night is invested  with            
associations of special sinfulness4     
,some people fast and in  the evening   
eat only rice and curds4 ,brhmans       
worship the moon with  offerings of     
flowers and sweetmeats1 and people get  
stones thrown  at their houses1 as      
further west on the day of the ,dhela   
,chauth4 ,on  this day schoolboys visit 
their friends and make a peculiar noise 
by  knocking together two coloured      
sticks1 like castanets4    ,one idea    
lying at the base of much of the respect
 paid to the moon  is that it is the    
abode of the ,pitri or sainted dead4    
,this is a  theory which is the common  
property of many primitive races4 #da   
,the explanation probably is that the   
soul of the dead man rises with  the    

smoke of the funeral pyre1 and hence the
 realm of ,yama would  naturally be     
fixed in the moon4 ,this seems to be the
 reason why the  early ,indian          
,buddhists worshipped the moon4 ,at the 
new moon the monks  bathed and shaved   
each other2 and at a special service the
 duties of  a monk were recited4 ,on    
full moon days they dined at the houses 
of  laymen4 ,on that night a platform   
was raised in the preaching hall4 ,the  
superior brethren chanted the law1 and  
the people greeted the name  of ,buddha 
with shouts of ,sdhu or the holy one4   
#db        ,eclipses and the ,fire      
,sacrifice4    ,hindus1 like other      
primitive races1 have their eclipse     
demons4 ,when  once the practice of     
bringing down the moon had become       
familiar to  the primitive ,greek1 who  
saw it done at sacred marriages and     
other  rites1 he was provided with an   
explanation of lunar eclipses2 some     
other fellow was bringing down the moon 
for his private ends4 ,and  at the      

present day in ,greece the proper way to
 stop a lunar eclipse  is to call out   
',i see you6' and thus make the worker  
of this deed of  darkness desist4 ,so   
completely did this theory1 which we    
must regard as  peculiarly ,greek1      
establish itself in ancient ,greece1    
that strange to  say1 not a trace of the
 earlier primitive theory1 according to 
which  some monster swallows the        
eclipsed moon1 is to be found in        
classical  ,greek literature1 unless the
 beating of metal instruments to        
frighten  away the monster be a survival
 of the primitive practice4 #dc    ,in  
,india1 however1 this earlier           
explanation of the phenomena of         
eclipses flourishes in full vigour4 ,the
 eclipse demon1 ,rhu1 whose  name means 
the looser or the seizer1 was one of the
 ,asuras or  demons4 ,when the gods     
produced the ,amrita1 or nectar1 from   
the churned  ocean1 he disguised himself
 like one of them and drank a portion   
of it4 ,the sun and moon detected his   

fraud and informed ,vishnu1  who severed
 the head and two of the arms of ,rhu   
from the trunk4 ,the  portion of nectar 
which he had drunk secured his          
immortality2 the head  and tail were    
transferred to the solar sphere1 the    
head wreaking its  vengeance on the sun 
and moon by occasionally swallowing     
them1 while  the tail1 under the name of
 ,ketu1 gave birth to a numerous progeny
  of comets and fiery meteors4 ,by      
another legend ,ketu was turned into    
the demon ,sainhikeya and the ,arunah   
,ketavah or ,red apparitions1  which    
often appear in the older folk-lore4    
,ketu nowadays is only a vague demon of 
disease1 and ,rhu too has  suffered a   
grievous degradation4 ,he is now the    
special godling of  the ,dusdhs and     
,dhngars1 two menial tribes found in the
 ,eastern  districts of the             
,north-,western ,provinces4 ,his worship
 is a kind of  fire sacrifice4 ,a ditch 
seven cubits long and one and a quarter 
cubits  broad 7both numbers of mystical 

significance7 is dug and filled with    
burning faggots1 which are allowed to   
smoulder into cinders4 ,one of  the     
tribal priests in a state of religious  
afflatus walks through  the fire1 into  
which some oil or butter is poured to   
make a sudden  blaze4 ,it is said that  
the sacred fire is harmless2 but some   
admit  that a certain preservative      
ointment is used by the performers4 ,the
  worshippers insist on the priest      
coming in actual contact with the       
flames1 and a case occurred some years  
ago in ,gorakhpur when one of  the      
priests was degraded on account of his  
perfunctory discharge of  this sacred   
duty4 ,the same rule applies to the     
priest who performs  the rites at the   
lighting of the ,hol fire4 ,it is       
needless to say  that similar rites     
prevail elsewhere1 chiefly in ,southern 
,india4 #dd    ,in connection with this 
rite of fire-walking they have another  
function  in which a ladder is made of  
wooden sword-blades1 up which the priest

  is compelled to climb1 resting the    
soles of his feet on the edges  of the  
weapons4 ,when he reaches the top he    
decapitates a white cock  which is tied 
to the summit of the ladder4 ,this kind 
of victim is1  as we have already seen1 
appropriate to propitiate the ,sun      
godling1  and there can be little doubt 
that the main object of this form of    
symbolical magic is to appease the      
deities which control the rain  and     
harvests4    ,brhmans so far join in    
this low-caste worship as to perform the
  fire sacrifice 7homa7 near the trench 
where the ceremony is being  performed4 
,in ,mirzapur one of the songs recited  
on this occasion runs3  ,o devotee6 ,how
 many cubits long is the trench which   
thou hast dug8 ,how  many maunds of     
butter hast thou poured upon it that the
 fire billows  rise in the air8 ,seven  
cubits long is the trench2 seven maunds 
of  firewood hast thou placed within it4
 ,one and a quarter maunds of  firewood 
hast thou placed within it4 ,one and a  

quarter maunds of butter  hast thou     
poured into the trench that the fire    
billows rise to the  sky4 ,all this is  
based on the idea that fire is a scarer 
of demons1  a theory which widely       
prevails4 ,the ,romans made their flocks
 and herds  pass through fire1 over     
which they leaped themselves4 ,in       
,ireland1  when the ,st4 ,john's ,eve   
fire has burnt low1 the young men strip 
to  the waist and leap over or through  
the flames1 and he who braves the       
greatest blaze is considered the victor 
over the powers of evil4 #de    ,by a   
curious process of anthropomorphism1    
another legend makes ,rh or  ,rhu1 the  
,dusdh godling1 to have been not an     
eclipse demon1 but the  ghost of an     
ancient leader of the tribe who was     
killed in battle4 #df  ,a still grosser 
theory of eclipses is found in the      
belief held by the  ,ghasiyas of        
,mirzapur that the sun and moon once    
borrowed money from  some of the ,dom   
tribe and did not pay it back4 ,now in  

revenge a ,dom  occasionally devours    
them and vomits them up again when the  
eclipse  is over4        ,eclipse       
,observances4    ,eclipses are of evil  
omen4 ,gloucester sums up the matter3   
#dg  ,these late eclipses in the sun and
 moon portend no good to us2  though the
 wisdom of nature can reason it thus and
 thus1 yet nature  finds itself scourged
 by the sequent effects2 love cools1    
friendship  falls off1 brothers divide2 
in cities mutinies2 in countries        
discord2  in palaces treason2 and the   
bond cracked 'twixt son and father4 ,the
  ,hindu authority #dh writes much to   
the same effect4 ,eclipses usually      
portend or cause grief2 but if rain     
without unusual symptoms fall  within a 
week of the eclipse1 all baneful        
influences come to nought4    ,among    
high-caste ,hindus no food which has    
remained in the house during  an eclipse
 of the sun or moon can be eaten2 it    
must be given away1  and all earthen    
vessels in use in the house at the time 

must be  broken4 ,mr4 ,conway #di takes 
this to mean that the eclipse was to    
have his attention called by outcries   
and prayers to the fact that  if it was 
fire he needed there was plenty on      
earth2 and if food1 he  might have all  
in the house1 provided he would consent 
to satisfy his  appetite with articles  
of food less important than the         
luminaries  of heaven4 ,the observance  
is more probably based on the idea of   
ceremonial pollution caused by the      
actual working of demoniacal agency4    
,food is particularly liable to this    
form of pollution4 ,the wise  housewife1
 when an eclipse is announced1 takes a  
leaf of the ,tulas  or sacred basil1 and
 sprinkling ,ganges water on it1 puts   
the leaf in  the jars containing the    
drinking water for the use of the family
 and  the cooked food1 and thus keeps   
them pure while the eclipse is going    
on4 ,confectioners1 who are obliged to  
keep large quantities of cooked  food   
ready1 relieve themselves and their     

customers from the taboo by  keeping    
some of the sacred ,kusa or ,db grass in
 their vessels when  an eclipse is      
expected4 ,a pregnant woman will do no  
work during an  eclipse1 as otherwise   
she believes that her child would be    
deformed1  and the deformity is supposed
 to bear some relation to the work which
  is being done by her at the time4     
,thus1 if she were to sew anything1  the
 baby would have a hole in its flesh1   
generally near the ear2  if she cut     
anything1 the child would have a        
hare-lip4 ,on the same  principle the   
horns of pregnant cattle are smeared    
with red paint  during an eclipse1      
because red is a colour abhorred by     
demons4 ,while  the eclipse is going on1
 drinking water1 eating food1 and all   
household  business1 as well as the     
worship of the gods1 are all prohibited4
 ,no  respectable ,hindu will at such a 
time sleep on a bedstead or lie down  to
 rest1 and he will give alms in barley  
or copper coins to relieve  the pain of 

the suffering luminaries4    ,so among  
,muhammadans1 #ej a bride-elect sends   
offerings of  intercession 7sadqa7 to   
her intended husband1 accompanied by a  
goat or  kid1 which must be tied to his 
bedstead during the continuance of the  
eclipse4 ,these offerings are afterwards
 distributed in charity4 ,women         
expecting to be mothers are carefully   
kept awake1 as they believe  that the   
security of the coming infant depends on
 the mother being  kept from sleep4     
,they are not allowed to use a needle1  
scissors1  knife1 or any other          
instrument for fear of drawing blood1   
which at  that time would be injurious  
to both mother and child4    ,but among 
,hindus the most effectual means of     
scaring the demon and  releasing the    
afflicted planet is to bathe in some    
sacred stream4 ,at  this time a ,brhman 
should stand in the water beside the    
worshipper and  recite the ,gyatr4 ,at  
an eclipse of the moon it is advisable  
to bathe  at ,benares1 and when the sun 

is eclipsed at ,kurukshetra4 ,bernier   
#ea  gives a very curious account of the
 bathing which he witnessed at ,delhi   
during the great eclipse of #afff4 ,in  
the lower ,himlayas the current  ritual 
prescribes an elaborate ceremony1 when  
numerous articles are  placed in the    
sacred water jar2 the image of the snake
 god1 stamped  in silver1 is worshipped1
 and the usual gifts are made4 #eb      
,in ,ladkh ram horns are fixed on the   
stems of fruit trees as a  propitiatory 
offering at the time of an eclipse1 and 
trees thus  honoured are believed to    
bear an unfailing crop of the choicest  
fruit4 #ec    ,another effectual means  
of scaring the demon is by music and    
noise1 of  which we shall find instances
 later on4 ,the ,irish and ,welsh1      
during  eclipses1 run about beating     
kettles and pans1 thinking their clamour
  and vexations available to the        
assistance of the higher orbs4 #ed  ,so 
in ,india1 women go about with brass    
pans and beat them to drive  ,rhu from  

his prey4    ,of course1 the time of an 
eclipse is most inauspicious for the    
commencement of any important business4 
,here again the learned  ,aubrey        
confirms the current ,hindu belief4     
,according to the rules  of astrology1  
he says1 it is not good to undertake any
 business of  importance in the new moon
 or at an eclipse4        ,star-worship4
    ,the worship of the other           
constellations is much less important   
than  those of the greater luminaries   
which we have been discussing4 ,the     
,hindu names nine constellations1 known 
as ,nava-graha1 the nine  seizers1      
specially in reference to ,rhu1 which   
grips the sun and  moon in eclipses1 and
 more generally in the astrological     
sense of  influencing the destinies of  
men4 ,these nine stars are the sun      
7,srya71 the moon 7,soma1 ,chandra71 the
 ascending and descending  nodes 7,rhu1 
,ketu71 and the five planets--,mercury  
7,budha71 ,venus  7,sukra71 ,mars       
7,mangala1 ,angraka71 ,jupiter          

7,vrihaspati71 and ,saturn  7,sani74    
,this group of nine stars is worshipped 
at marriages and other  important       
religious rites4 ,of the signs of the   
,zodiac 7rsi-chakra7  the rural ,hindu  
knows little more than the names--,mesha
 7,aries71  ,vrisha 7,taurus71 ,mithuna 
7,gemini71 ,karka 7,cancer71 ,sinha     
7,leo71 ,kanya  7,virgo71 ,tula         
7,libra71 ,vrischika 7,scorpio71 ,dhanu 
7,sagittarius71 ,makara  7,capricornus71
 ,kumbha 7,aquarius71 and ,mna          
7,pisces74 ,practically the  only direct
 influence they exercise over his life  
is that from the  opening ,rsi or sign  
in which he is born the first letter of 
the  secret name which he bears is      
selected4 ,still less concern has he    
with the asterisms or ,nakshatra1 a word
 which has been variously  interpreted  
to mean coming or ascending1 night      
guardians1 or  undecaying4 ,as already  
stated1 they are said to have been the  
twenty-seven daughters of the ,rishi    
,daksha1 and wives of ,soma or  the     

moon4 ,the usual enumeration gives      
twenty-eight1 and they are  vaguely     
supposed to represent certain stars or  
constellations1 but  the identification 
of these is very uncertain4 ,one list1  
with some of  the corresponding stars1  
gives ,sravishth or ,dhanishth          
7,delphinus71  ,sata-bhishaj            
7,aquarius71 ,prva ,bhdrapad1 ,uttara   
,bhdrapad1  ,revat1 ,asvin 7,aries71    
,bharan 7,musca71 ,krittik 7the         
,pleiades71  ,rohin 7,aldebaran71       
,mriga-siras 7,orion71 rdr1 ,punarvas1  
,pushya1  slesh1 ,magh 7,leo71          
,prv-,phalgun1 ,uttara ,phalgun1 ,hasta 
7,corvus71  ,chitr 7,spica ,virginis71  
,svt 7,arcturus71 ,viskha 7,libra71     
,anurdh1  ,jyeshth1 ,mla1 ,prva shdh1   
,uttara shdh1 ,abhijit 7,lyra71 and     
,sravana4 ,these are used only in       
calculating the marriage horoscope1  and
 the only one of them with which the    
fairly well-to-do rustic has  much      
concern is with the unlucky ,mla4       
,should by an evil chance his  son be   

born in this asterism1 he has to undergo
 a most elaborate rite  of purification4
    ,others stars have their legends4   
,the ,riksha or constellation of the    
,great ,bear represents the seven       
deified ,rishis--,gautama1 ,bhradwaja1  
,viswamitra1 ,jamadagni1 ,vashishtha1   
,kasyapa and ,atri4 ,dhruva1 the ,pole  
,star1 was the grandson of ,manu        
,swayambhuva1 and was driven from his   
home by his step-mother4 ,he1 though a  
,kshatriya1 joined the company  of the  
,rishis and was finally raised to the   
skies as ,grahadhra1 the  pivot of the  
plants4 ,so ,canopus is the ,rishi      
,agastya who was perhaps  one of the    
early ,aryan missionaries to ,southern  
,india and won a place  in heaven by his
 piety4 ,orion is ,mrigasiras1 the head 
of ,brahma in the  form of a stag which 
was struck off by ,siva when the deity  
attempted  violence to his own daughter 
,sandhy1 the twilight4 ,krittik or the  
,pleiades represent the six nurses of   
,krttikeya1 the god of war4    ,part of 

the purificatory rite for a woman after 
her delivery is  to bring her out at    
night and let her look at the stars1    
while her  husband stands over her with 
a bludgeon to guard her from the        
assaults  of demons4 ,one interesting   
survival of the old mythology is that in
  ,upper ,india women are fond of       
teaching their children that the stars  
are kine and the moon their shepherd1 an
 idea which has formed the  basis of    
much of the speculations of a school of 
comparative mythology  now almost       
completely discredited4        ,the     
,rainbow4    ,there is much curious     
folk-lore about the rainbow4 ,by most   
,hindus it is  called the ,dhanus or bow
 of ,rma ,chandra1 and by ,muhammadans  
the bow of  ,bba dam or father ,adam4   
,in the ,panjb it is often known as the 
swing  of ,bb ,b1 the wife of the ,saint
 ,sakhi ,sarwar4 ,the ,persians call it 
the bow of ,rustam or of ,shaitn or     
,satan1 or ,shamsher-i-',ali--the  sword
 of ',ali4 ,in ,sanskrit it is ,rohitam1

 the invisible bow of  ,indra4 ,in the  
hills it is called ,panihrin or the     
female water-bearer4        ,the ,milky 
,way4    ,so with the ,milky ,way1 of   
which an early name is ,ngavithi or the 
path of the snake4 ,the ,persians call  
it ,kahkashn1 the dragging of  a bundle 
of straw through the sky4 ,the ,hindu   
calls it ,aksh ,gang  or the heavenly   
,ganges1 ,bhagwn k kachahr or the ,court
 of ,god1  ,swarga-duri or the door of  
,paradise2 while to the ,panjbi it is   
known as ,bera d ghs or the path of     
,noah's ,ark4 ,in ,celtic legend it  is 
the road along which ,gwydion pursued   
his erring wife4        ,earth-worship4 
,next in order of reverence to the      
heavenly bodies comes the ,earth        
goddess1 ,dharitr or ,dhart ,mt or      
,dhart ,m1 a name which means the       
upholder or supporter4 ,she is          
distinguished from ,bhmi1 the soil1     
which1 as we shall see1 has a god of its
 own1 and from ,prithiv1 the  wide      
extended world1 which in the ,vedas is  

personified as the mother  of all       
things1 an idea common to all folk-lore4
 ,the myth of ,dyaus1  the sky1 and     
,prithiv1 the earth1 once joined and now
 separated1 is the  basis of a great    
chapter in mythology1 such as the       
mutilation of ,uranus  by ,cronus and   
other tales of a most distinctively     
savage type4 #ee  ,we meet the same idea
 in the case of ,demeter1 the fruitful  
soil1  as contrasted with ,gaea1 the    
earlier1 ,titanic1 formless earth2      
unless1  indeed1 we are to accept ,mr4  
,frazer's identification of ,demeter    
with  the ,corn ,mother4 #ef            
,worship of ,mother ,earth4    ,the     
worship of ,mother ,earth assumes many  
varied forms4 ,the pious  ,hindu does   
reverence to her as he rises from his   
bed in the morning2  and even the       
indifferent follows his example when he 
begins to plough  and sow4 ,in the      
,panjb1 #eg when a cow or buffalo is    
first bought1  or when she first gives  
milk after calving1 the first five      

streams  of milk drawn from her are     
allowed to fall on the ground in honour 
of the goddess1 and every time of       
milking the first stream is so  treated4
 ,so1 when medicine is taken1 a little  
is sprinkled in her  honour4 ,on the    
same principle the great ,kublai ,khn   
used to sprinkle  the milk of his mares 
on the ground4 ,this is done1 says      
,marco ,polo1  #eh on the injunction of 
the idolaters and idol priests1 who say 
that it is an excellent thing to        
sprinkle milk on the ground every  #bhth
 of ,august1 so that the earth and the  
air and the false gods  shall have their
 share of it1 and the spirits likewise  
that inhabit  the air and the earth1 and
 those beings will protect and bless the
  ,kaan and his children1 and his wives1
 and his folk and his gear1  and his    
cattle and his horses1 and all that is  
his4    ,the same feeling is also shown 
in the primitive taboo1 which forbids   
that any holy thing1 such as the blood  
of a tribesman1 should fall  upon the   

ground4 ,thus we are told that ,kublai  
,khn ordered his captive  ,nayan to be  
wrapped in a carpet and tossed to and   
fro so mercilessly  that he died1 and   
the ,kaan caused him to be put to death 
in this way1  because he would not have 
the blood of his ,line ,imperial spilt  
upon  the ground1 and exposed to the eye
 of heaven and before the sun4 ,even    
some savages when they are obliged to   
shed the blood of a member of  the      
tribe1 as at the rite of circumcision1  
receive it upon their own  bodies4 ,the 
soul1 in fact1 is supposed to be in the 
blood1 and any  ground on which the     
blood falls becomes taboo or accursed4  
#ei    ,throughout ,northern ,india the 
belief in the sanctity of the earth  is 
universal4 ,the dying man is laid on the
 earth at the moment of  dissolution1   
and so is the mother at the time of     
parturition4 ,in the  case of the dying 
there is perhaps another influence at   
work in this  precaution1 the idea that 
the soul must not be barred by roof or  

wall1  and allowed to wing its course   
unimpeded to the place reserved for it4 
,in the eastern districts of the        
,north-,western ,provinces there is  a  
regular rite common to all the inferior 
castes that a few days  before a wedding
 the women go in procession to the      
village clay-pit  and fetch from there  
the sacred earth 7matmangara71 which is 
used in  making the marriage altar and  
the fireplace on which the wedding feast
  is cooked4 ,there are various elements
 in the ritual which point to a  very   
primitive origin4 ,thus1 one part of the
 proceedings is that a  ,chamr1 one of  
the non-,aryan castes1 leads the        
procession1 beating  his drum the whole 
time to scare demons4 ,when the earth   
has been  collected the drum is         
worshipped and smeared with red lead4   
,there can  be little doubt that the    
drum was one of the very primitive      
fetishes  of the aboriginal races4 ,one1
 and perhaps about the most primitive1  
form of it is the ,damaru or drum shaped

 like an hour-glass which  accompanies  
,siva1 and next to this comes the       
,mndar1 the sides of  which are formed  
out of earthenware1 and which is the    
first stage in  the development of a    
musical instrument from a vessel covered
 with  some substance which resounds    
when beaten4 ,this latter form of drum  
is the national musical instrument of   
the ,central ,indian ,gonds and  their  
brethren4 ,the ,chamr1 again1 digs the  
earth with an affectation  of secrecy1  
which1 as we shall see1 is indispensable
 in rites of this  class4 ,the mother of
 the bride or bridegroom veils herself  
with her  sheet1 and the digger passes  
the earth over his left shoulder to a   
virgin who stands behind him and        
receives it in a corner of her robe4    
,dust1 again1 which has been trodden on 
has mystic powers4 ,in the  villages you
 may see little children after an       
elephant has passed  patting the marks  
of his feet in the dust and singing a   
song4 ,among  the ,kunbis of ,kolba1    

when the women neighbours come to       
inspect a  newly-born child1 they touch 
the soles of the mother's feet1 as if   
picking some dust off them1 wave it over
 the child1 and blow the dust           
particularly into the air and partly    
over the baby4 #fj ,in ,thna1  when a   
mother goes out with a young child on   
her hip1 if she cannot  get lamp-black  
to rub between its eyes1 she takes dust 
off her left  foot and rubs it on the   
child's forehead4 #fa ,so we read of the
 ,isle  of ,man--,if a person endowed   
with the ,evil ,eye has just passed by a
  farmer's herd of cattle1 and a calf   
has suddenly been seized with a  serious
 illness1 the farmer hurries after the  
man with the ,evil ,eye  to get the dust
 from under his feet4 ,if he objects1 he
 may1 as has  sometimes been very       
unceremoniously done1 throw him down by 
force1  take off his shoes and scrape   
off the dust adhering to their soles1   
and carry it back to throw over the     
calf4 ,even that is not always          

necessary1 as it appears to be quite    
enough if he takes up dust where  he of 
the ,evil ,eye has just trod4 #fb       
,earth1 again1 is regarded as a remedy  
for disease4 ,i have seen people  in    
,ireland take a pinch of earth from the 
grave of a priest noted for  his piety1 
and drink it dissolved in water4 ,people
 suffering from  a certain class of     
disease come to the tomb of the ,saint  
,kadri at  ,yemnur in ,dharwr and smear 
their bodies with mud that they may be  
cured of the disease4 #fc ,there are    
numerous instances of the use  of earth 
as a poultice and an application for the
 cure of wounds and  sores among the    
savage tribes of ,africa and elsewhere4 
,it is on much the same principle that  
among some tribes in ,india ,mother     
,earth is worshipped as a ,kuladevat or 
household goddess and appealed  to in   
times of danger4 ,the ,hindu troopers at
 the battle of ,kmpti1 at  the crisis of
 the engagement1 took dust from their   
grooms and threw  it over their heads4  

,at ,srat in #afdj1 in fear of drought1 
,brhmans  went about carrying a board   
with earth on it on their heads4 #fd    
,so wrestlers1 when they are about to   
engage in a contest1 rub earth  on their
 arms and legs and roll on the ground4  
,as in the classical  legend of         
,antaeus1 they believe that they derive 
strength from the  touch of ,mother     
,earth4    ,the same principle1 also1   
appears to be at the bottom of many     
similar  practices4 ,thus the ,hindu    
always uses earth to purify his cooking 
vessels1 which he regards with peculiar 
respect4 ,mourners of the ,jaina  creed 
on going home after a funeral rub their 
hands with earth and  water to remove   
the death impurity4 ,in his daily bath  
the pious ,hindu  rubs a little ,ganges 
mud on his body4 ,the ,prsis cover the  
parings of  their hair and nails with a 
little earth so that demons may not     
enter  into them4 ,the ,muhammadan uses 
earth for the purpose of purification   
when water is not procurable4 ,for the  

same reason the ascetic rubs  his body  
with dust and ashes1 which1 as we shall 
see1 is a potent  scarer of demons4     
,though here there is possibly another  
theory at  work at the same time4 ,the  
practice was common to the ,greek as    
well  as to the barbarian mysteries1 and
 according to ,mr4 ,lang1 the idea      
clearly was that by cleaning away the   
filth plastered over the body  was      
symbolized the pure and free condition  
of the initiate4 #fe    ,lastly1 it is  
perhaps on the same principle that many 
universal  burial customs have          
originated4 ,the ,muhammadan phrase for 
burial is  matt-den1 to give earth4 ,the
 unburied mariner asks ,horace for  the 
gift of a little earth4 ,we ourselves   
consider it a pious duty  to throw a    
little earth on the coffin of a departed
 friend4 ,the  same custom prevails     
among many ,hindu tribes4 ,the ,chambhrs
 of ,pna  throw handfuls of earth over  
the corpse2 so do the ,hall-khors2 the  
,lingyats of ,dharwr follow the same    

practice4 ,the ,bani ,isrils at  a      
funeral stuff a handful of earth into a 
pillow which is put under  the head of  
the corpse4 #ff ,the same conception was
 probably the  basis of the universal   
custom of funeral oblations4 ,even      
nowadays  in ,scotland all the milk in  
the house is poured on the ground at  a 
death1 and the same custom is familiar  
through many ,hebrew and  ,homeric      
instances4 ,the same idea appears in the
 custom prevalent in  the ,middle ,ages 
in ,germany1 that when a nun renounced  
the world and  became civilly dead her  
relations threw dust on her arms4 #fg   
,earth-worship among the ,drvidians4    
,among the ,drvidian races of ,central  
,india earth-worship prevails  widely4  
,in ,chota ,ngpur the ,orons celebrate  
in spring the marriage  of the earth4   
,the ,dryad of the ,sl tree 7,shorea    
robusta71 who controls  the rain1 is    
propitiated with a sacrifice of fowls4  
,flowers of the ,sl  tree are taken to  
the village and carried round from house

 to house  in a basket4 ,the women wash 
the feet of the priest and do obeisance 
to him4 ,he dances with them and puts   
some flowers upon them and upon  the    
house4 ,they first douse him with water 
as a means of bringing  the rain1 and   
then refresh him with beer4 #fh    ,in  
,hoshangbd1 when the sowing is over1 its
 completion is celebrated  by the       
,machandr ,pj1 or worship of ,mother    
,earth1 a ceremony intended  to invoke  
fertility4 ,every cultivator does the   
worship himself1  with his family1      
servants1 etc42 no ,brhman need join in 
it4 ,at the  edge of one of his fields  
intended for the spring harvest1 he puts
 up  a little semicircle or three-sided 
wall of clods about a foot high1  meant 
to represent a hut4 ,this is covered    
over with green ,kns grass  7,imperata  
spontanea7 to represent thatch4 ,at the 
two ends of the hut  two posts of ,palsa
 wood 7,butea frondosa7 are erected1    
with leaves  round the head like those  
which are put up at marriage4 ,they are 

tied  to the thatch with red thread4 ,in
 the centre of this little house1  which
 is the temple of ,machandr1 or ,mother 
,earth1 a little fire  is made1 and milk
 placed on it to boil in a tiny earthen 
pot4 ,it is  allowed to boil over as a  
sign of abundance4 ,while this is going 
on1  the ploughmen1 who are all         
collected in a field1 drive their       
bullocks  at a trot1 striking them      
wildly2 it is the end of the year's     
labour for  the cattle4 ,the cultivator 
meanwhile offers a little rice1         
molasses1  and saffron to ,machandr1 and
 then makes two tiny holes in the ground
  to represent granaries2 he drops a few
 grains in and covers them over2  this  
is a symbol of prayer1 that his granary 
may be filled from the  produce of the  
land4 ,similar instances of symbolical  
magic will  constantly occur in         
connection with similar rites4 ,then he 
puts a  little saffron on the foreheads 
of the ploughman and the bullocks1  and 
ties a red thread round the horns of the

 cattle4 ,the animals are  then let go1 
and the ploughmen run off at full speed 
across country1  scattering wheat boiled
 whole as a sign of abundance4 ,this    
concludes  the rite1 and every one      
returns home4 #fi    ,many similar      
usages prevail among the jungle tribes  
of ,south  ,mirzapur4 ,the ,korwas      
consider ,dhart ,mt one of their chief  
godlings4 ,she lives in the village in  
the ,deohr or general village  shrine   
under a ,sl tree4 ,in the month of      
,aghan 7,november-,december7  she is    
worshipped with flowers and the offering
 of a goat4 ,when she  is duly          
worshipped the crops prosper and there  
are no epidemics4 ,the  ,patris and     
,majhwrs also recognize her as a        
goddess1 and worship her  in the month  
of ,swan 7,august74 ,the local devil    
priest or ,baiga offers  to her a goat1 
cock1 and rich cakes 7pri74 ,she is also
 worshipped in  the cold weather before 
the grain and barley are sown1 and again
 on the  threshing-floor before the     

winnowing begins4 ,the flesh of the     
animals  is consumed by the males and   
unmarried girls2 no grown-up girl or    
married woman is allowed to touch the   
flesh4 ,the ,ghasiyas also believe  in  
,dhart ,mt4 ,she is their village       
goddess1 and is presented with a  ram or
 a goat or cakes4 ,the offering is made 
by the ,baiga1 for whom the  materials  
are provided by a general contribution  
in the village4 ,the  ,kharwrs worship  
her at the village shrine before        
wood-cutting and  ploughing begin4 ,in  
the month of ,swan 7,august7 they do a  
special  service in her honour1 known as
 the ,hariyr ,pj1 or worship of         
greenery1 at the time of transplanting  
the rice4 ,in ,aghan 7,november7  they  
do the ,khar ,pj1 when they begin       
cutting thatching-grass  7khar74 ,a     
cock1 some ,mahua 7,bassia latifolia7   
and parched grain  are offered to her4  
,all this is done by the ,baiga1 who    
receives  the offerings1 and none but   
males are allowed to attend4 ,similarly 

the ,pankas worship her before sowing   
and harvesting the grain4 ,they  and the
 ,bhuiyrs offer a pig and some liquor at
 the more important  agricultural       
seasons4 ,the ,kharwrs sometimes call   
her ,dev ,d1 or  ,nurse ,dev1 and in    
times of trouble sprinkle rice and pulse
 in  her name on the ground4 ,when the  
crops are being sown they release  a    
fowl as a scapegoat and pray--,h ,dhart 
,mahtr6 ,kusal mangala  rakhiyo6 ,harwh1
 bail1 sab bachen rahen--,o ,mother     
,earth6 ,keep in  prosperity and protect
 the ploughmen and the oxen4 ,in much   
the same  spirit is the prayer of the   
peasant in ,karnl to ,mother            
,earth3--,sh  ,bdshh s surkhr rakhiy6   
,aur is men achchha nj d1 to bdshh ko   
bh paisa den1 aur ,sh k bhi utar        
jw--,keep our rulers and bankers        
contented6 ,grant us a plentiful yield6 
,so shall we pay our revenue  and       
satisfy our banker6 #gj        ,secrecy 
in ,worship of ,mother ,earth4    ,we   
shall meet other instances in which     

secrecy is an essential  element in     
these rural rites4 ,this condition      
prevails almost  universally4 ,notable1 
too1 is the rule by which married women 
are  excluded from a share in offerings 
to the ,earth goddess4        ,thunder  
and ,lightning4    ,as is natural1      
thunder and lightning are considered    
ill-omened4 ,in the  old mythology      
lightning 7vidyut7 was one of the       
weapons of the ,maruts1  and ,parjanya  
was the deity who wielded the           
thunderbolt4 ,many legends  tell that   
the soul of the first man came to earth 
in the form of the  lightning4 ,thus    
,yama was the first man born of the     
thunderbolt1 and he  first trod the path
 of death and became regent of the dead4
 ,many are  the devices to scare the    
lightning demon4 ,during a thunderstorm 
it  was a ,greek custom to put out the  
fire1 and hiss and cheep with the  lips4
 ,the reason for the custom was         
explained by the ,pythagoreans  to be   
that by acting thus you scared the      

spirits in ,tartarus1 who  were         
doubtless supposed to make the thunder  
and lightning4 ,similarly  some of the  
,australian blacks1 who attribute       
thunder to the agency  of demons1 and   
are much afraid of it1 believe that they
 can dispel  it by chanting some        
particular words and breathing hard2 and
 it is  a ,german superstition that the 
danger from a thunderstorm can be       
averted by putting out the fire4 ,during
 a thunderstorm the ,sakai  of the      
,malay ,peninsula run out of their      
houses and brandish their  weapons to   
drive away the demons2 and the          
,esthonians in ,russia fasten  scythes1 
edge upwards1 over the door1 that the   
demons1 fleeing from the  thundering    
god1 may cut their feet if they try to  
seek shelter in the  house4 ,sometimes  
the ,esthonians1 for a similar purpose1 
take all the  edged tools in the house  
and throw them out into the yard4 ,it is
 said  that when the thunder is over1   
spots of blood are often found on the   

scythes and knives1 showing that the    
demons have been wounded by them4    ,so
 when the ,indians of ,canada were asked
 by the ,jesuit missionaries  why they  
planted their swords in the ground point
 upwards1 they  replied that the spirit 
of the thunder was sensible1 and that if
 he  saw the naked blades he would turn 
away and take good care not to  approach
 their huts4 ,this is a fair example of 
the close similarity  of ,european      
superstitions to the superstitions of   
savages4 ,in the  present case the      
difference happens to be slightly in    
favour of  the ,indians1 since they did 
not1 like our ,european savages1 delude 
themselves into seeing the blood of     
demons on the swords4 ,the reason  for  
the ,greek and ,german custom of putting
 out the fire during a  thunderstorm is 
probably a wish to avoid attracting the 
attention of  the thunder demons4 ,from 
a like motive some of the ,australian   
blacks  hide themselves during a        
thunderstorm1 and keep absolutely       

silent1  lest the thunder should find   
them out4 ,once during a storm a white  
man called out in a loud voice to a     
black fellow1 with whom he was  working1
 to put the saw under a log and seek    
shelter4 ,he found that  the saw had    
been already put aside1 and the black   
fellow was very  indignant at his master
 for speaking so loud4 ',what for1' said
 he1  in great wrath--'what for speak so
 loud8 ,now um thunder hear and know    
where um saw is4' ,and he went out and  
changed its hiding-place4 #ga    ,all   
these precautions are well known to the 
people of ,upper ,india4 ,it  is a very 
common habit to throw out axes and      
knives to scare the  thunder demon1 as  
we shall see is the case with the evil  
spirit of  hail4 ,the rule of keeping   
quiet and muttering incantations under  
the  breath is also familiar to them4   
,they are particularly careful lest a   
first-born son may lean against anything
 and thus attract the demon  on himself4
 ,thunder in a clear sky is much        

dreaded1 an idea which  often appears in
 classical literature4 #gb              
,earthquakes4    ,earthquakes are also  
naturally an object of terror4          
,pythagoras believed  that they were    
caused by dead men fighting beneath the 
earth4 ,the  common explanation of these
 occurrences in ,india is that ,varha1  
or  the boar incarnation of ,vishnu1 who
 supports the earth1 is changing the    
burden of the world from one tusk to    
another4 ,by another account it is  due 
to the great bull or elephant which     
supports the world4 ,derived  from a    
more advanced theological stage is the  
theory that the earth  shakes because it
 is over-burdened by the sins of mankind
 in this  evil age4 ,colonel ,dalton    
describes how a rumbling 7probably      
caused by  an earthquake7 in the cave in
 which the bloodthirsty divinity of the 
,korwas was supposed to dwell1 caused   
extreme terror among them4 #gc          
,river-worship4    ,high on the list of 
benevolent deities of ,northern ,india  

are the  great rivers1 especially the   
,ganges and the ,jumn1 which are known  
respectively as ,gang ,m or ,mother     
,ganges and ,jumn j or ,lady  ,jumn4    
,gang1 of course1 in the mythologies has
 a divine origin4 ,according  to one    
account she flows from the toe of       
,vishnu1 and was brought down  from     
heaven by the incantations of the ,saint
 ,bhgratha1 to purify  the ashes of the 
sixty thousand sons of ,king ,sgara1 who
 had been  burnt up by the angry glance 
of ,kapila1 the sage4 ,by another story 
she descends in seven streams from      
,siva's brow4 ,the descent of ,gang     
disturbed the ,saint ,jahnu at his      
austerities1 and in his anger he  drank 
up the stream2 but he finally relented1 
and allowed the river to  flow from his 
ear4 ,by a third account she is the     
daughter of ,himavat1  the impersonation
 of the ,himlayan range4 ,another       
curious tale1 which  must have been     
based on some ,indian tradition1 is     
found in ,plutarch  #gd--,the ,ganges is

 a river of ,india1 called so for the   
following  reason3--,the nymph ,kalauria
 bore to ,indus a son of notable beauty1
 by  name ,ganges1 who in the ignorance 
of intoxication had connection with  his
 mother4 ,but when later on he learned  
the truth from his nurse1 in  the       
passion of his remorse he threw himself 
into the river ,chliaros1  which was    
called ,ganges after him4 ,another      
legend again is found in  the           
,mahbhrata4 #ge ,the wise ,santanu goes 
to hunt on the banks of the  ,ganges and
 finds a lovely nymph1 of whom he       
becomes enamoured4 ,she puts  him under 
the taboo that he is never to say       
anything to displease her1  an idea     
familiar in the well-known ,swan ,maiden
 cycle of folk-tales4 ,she  bears him   
eight sons1 of whom she throws seven    
into the river1 and her  husband dares  
not remonstrate with her4 ,when she is  
about to throw  away the last child he  
challenges her to tell him who she is   
and to  have pity upon him4 ,she then   

tells him that she is ,gang personified1
  and that the seven sons are the divine
 ,vasavas1 who by being thrown  into the
 river are liberated from the curse of  
human life4 ,the eighth  remains among  
men as ,dyaus1 the sky1 in the form of  
the eunuch ,bhshma4    ,it is remarkable
 that1 as in ,plutarch's legend1 the    
,jumn is connected  with a tale of      
incest4 ,yam or ,yamun was the daughter 
of the ,sun  and sister of ,yama1 the   
god of death4 ,they were the first human
 pair  and the progenitors of the race  
of men4 ,it is needless to say that     
similar traditions of brother and sister
 marriage are found in ,egypt1  ,peru   
and elsewhere4 ,yamun1 according to the 
modern story told on  her banks1 was    
unmarried1 and hence some people will   
not drink from  her because she was not 
purified by the marriage rite1 and so   
the  water is heavy and indigestible4   
,another tale tells how ,balarma1  in a 
state of inebriety1 called upon her to  
come to him that he  might bathe in her 

waters2 and as she did not heed1 he1 in 
his rage1  seized his ploughshare       
weapon1 dragged her to him1 and         
compelled her  to follow him            
whithersoever he wandered through the   
forest4 ,the river  then assumed a human
 form and besought his forgiveness2 but 
it was  some time before she could      
appease the angry hero4 ,this has been  
taken  to represent the construction of 
some ancient canal from the river2  but 
,mr4 ,growse shows that this idea is    
incorrect4 #gf    ,the worship of       
,mother ,ganges is comparatively modern4
 ,she is  mentioned only twice in the   
,rig ,veda1 and then without any        
emphasis  or complementary epithet4     
,apparently at this time the so-called  
,aryan  invaders had not reached her    
banks4 #gg ,there are numerous temples  
to  ,gang all along her banks1 of which 
those at ,hardwr1 ,garhmuktesar1        
,soron1 ,mathura1 ,prayg1 and ,benares  
are perhaps the most important  in      
,upper ,india4 ,she has her special     

festival on the seventh of the  month of
 ,baiskh 7,may-,june71 which is         
celebrated by general bathing  all along
 the banks of the sacred stream4 ,ganges
 water is carried  long distances into  
the interior1 and is highly valued for  
its use  in sacrifices1 as a remedy1 a  
form of stringent oath1 and a viaticum  
for the dying4 ,the water of certain    
holy wells in ,scotland #gh  and        
elsewhere enjoys a similar value4       
,but it is by bathing in the sacred     
stream at the full moon1 during         
eclipses1 and on special festivals that 
the greatest efficacy is  assured4 ,on  
these occasions an opportunity is taken 
for making  oblations to the sainted    
dead whose ashes have been consigned to 
her waters4 ,bathing is throughout      
,india regarded as one of the chief     
means of religious advancement4 ,the    
idea rests on a metaphor--as the  body  
is cleansed from physical pollution1 so 
the soul is purified from  sin4 ,the    
stock case of the merit of this         

religious bathing is that of  ,king     
,trisanku1 he who had committed the     
three deadly sins1 who is  also known as
 ,satyavrata4 ,the legend appears in    
various forms4 ,by one  story he tried  
to win his way to heaven by a great     
sacrifice which his  priest1 ,vasishtha1
 declined to perform4 ,he then applied  
to ,visvamitra1  the rival ,levite1 who 
agreed to assist him4 ,he was opposed by
 the  sons of ,vasishtha1 whom he       
consumed to ashes4 ,finally1 ,trisanku  
was  admitted to heaven1 but he was     
forced by the angry saint to hang for   
ever with his head downwards4 ,by       
another account he committed the  deadly
 sins of running away with the wife of a
 citizen1 offending  his father1 and    
killing in a time of famine ,kmadhenu1  
the wondrous  cow of ,vashishtha4 ,by   
another story he killed a cow and a     
,brhman  and married his step-mother4   
,at any rate he and the wicked ,rja     
,vena  were the types of violent sinners
 in the early legends2 possibly they    

represent a revolt against the          
pretensions of the ,brhmans4 ,at length 
the sage ,visvamitra took pity upon him1
 and having collected water from  all   
the sacred places in the world1 washed  
him clean of his offences4              
,springs ,connected with the ,ganges4   
,many famous springs are supposed to    
have underground connection with  the   
,ganges4 ,such is that of ,chngdeo in   
,khndesh1 of which ,abul ,fazl  gives an
 account1 and that at ,jahnpur in       
,alwar4 #gi ,it was at the  village of  
,bastali in the ,karnl ,district that   
the sage ,vysa lived1  and there the    
,ganges flowed into his well to save him
 the trouble  of going to the river to  
bathe1 bringing with her his loin cloth 
and  water-pot to convince him that she 
was really the ,ganges herself4 #hj     
,sacred ,river ,junctions4    ,when two 
sacred rivers combine their waters the  
junction 7,sangama7  is regarded as of  
peculiar sanctity4 ,such is the famous  
junction  of the ,ganges and ,jumn at   

,prayg1 the modern ,allahbd1 which is   
presided over by the guardian deity     
,veni ,mdhava4 ,the same virtue1  but in
 a lesser degree1 attaches to the       
junction of the ,ganges and the  ,son or
 ,gandak4 ,in the ,himlayas cairns are  
raised at the junction of  three        
streams1 and every passer-by adds a     
stone4 ,at the confluence of  the ,gaula
 and ,baliya rivers in the ,hills there 
is said to be a house  of gold1 but     
unfortunately it is at present invisible
 on account of  some potent enchantment4
 #ha ,bathing in such rivers is not only
  a propitiation for sin1 but is also   
efficacious for the cure of  disease4   
,even the wicked ,rja ,vena1 who was1 as
 we have seen1 a type  of old-world     
impiety1 was cured1 like ,naaman the    
,syrian1 of his leprosy  by bathing in  
the ,sraswati1 the lost river of the    
,indian desert4    ,even minor streams  
have their sanctity and their legends4  
,the  course of the ,sarju was opened by
 a ,rishi1 from which time dates  the   

efficacy of a pilgrimage to ,bgheswar4  
#hb ,rja ,rantideva was  such a pious   
king and offered up so many cattle in   
sacrifice1 that  his blood formed the   
river ,chambal4 ,anasy1 the wife of     
,atri1 was a  daughter of the ,rishi    
,daksha4 ,she did penance for ten       
thousand years1  and so was enabled to  
create the river ,mandkin1 and thus     
saved the  land from famine4 ,her       
worship is localized at ,ansuyaji in the
 ,bnda  ,district4 ,the sacred portion  
of the ,phalgu is said occasionally to  
flow with milk1 though ,dr4 ,buchanan   
was not fortunate enough to  meet anyone
 who professed to have witnessed the    
occurrence4 #hc  ,the ,narmad was wooed 
by the river ,son1 who proved faithless 
to her1  and was beguiled by the ,johil1
 a rival lady stream1 who acted the     
part of the barber's wife at the        
wedding4 ,the ,narmad1 enraged at her   
lover's perfidy1 tore her way through   
the marble rocks at ,jabalpur1  and has 
worn the willow ever since4 #hd ,she is 

now the great rival  of ,mother ,ganges4
 ,while in the case of the latter only  
the ,northern  7or as it is called the  
,ksi or ,benares bank7 is efficacious   
for  bathing or for the cremation of the
 dead1 the ,narmad is free from  any    
restriction of the kind4 ,the same is   
the case with the ,son1 at  least during
 its course through the ,district of    
,mirzapur4 ,by some  the sanctity of the
 ,narmad is regarded as superior even to
 that of  the ,ganges4 ,while according 
to some authorities it is necessary to  
bathe in the ,ganges in order to obtain 
forgiveness of sins1 the same  result is
 attained by mere contemplation of the  
,narmad4 ,according  to the ,bhvishya   
,purna the sanctity of the ,ganges will 
cease on the  expiration of five        
thousand years of the ,kali ,yuga1 or   
the fourth age  of the world1 which     
occurred in #ahie1 and the ,narmad will 
take its  place4 ,the ,ganges priests1  
however1 repudiate this calumny1 and it 
may safely be assumed that ,mother      

,ganges will not abandon her primacy  in
 the religious world of ,hinduism       
without a determined struggle4 #he      
,ill-omened ,streams4    ,but all rivers
 are not beneficent4 ,worst of all is   
the dread ,vaitaran1  the river of      
death1 which is localized in ,orissa and
 pours its stream  of ordure and blood  
on the confines of the realm of ,yama4  
,woe to the  wretch who in that dread   
hour lacks the aid of the ,brhman and   
the  holy cow to help him to the other  
shore4 ,the name of one stream is       
accursed in the ears of all ,hindus1 the
 hateful ,karamnsa1 which  flows for    
part of its course through the ,mirzapur
 ,district4 ,even  to touch it destroys 
the merit of works of piety1 for such is
 the  popular interpretation of its     
name4 ,no plausible reason for the evil 
reputation of this particular stream has
 been suggested except that it  may have
 been in early times the frontier       
between the invading ,aryans  and the   
aborigines1 and possibly the scene of a 

campaign in which  the latter were      
victorious4 ,the ,karam tree is1        
however1 the totem  of the ,drvidian    
,kharwrs and ,mnjhis1 who live along its
 banks1 and  it is perhaps possible that
 this may be the real origin of the     
name1  and that its association with    
good works 7karma7 was an afterthought4 
,the legend of this ill-omened stream is
 associated with that of the  wicked    
king ,trisanku1 to whom reference has   
already been made4 ,when  the sage      
,visvamitra collected water from all the
 sacred streams of the  world1 it fell  
burdened with the monarch's sins into   
the ,karamnsa1  which has remained      
defiled ever since4 ,by another account1
 the sinner  was hung up between heaven 
and earth as a punishment for his       
offences1  and from his body drips a    
baneful moisture which still pollutes   
the  water4 ,similar legends of the     
origin of rivers are not wanting in     
folk-lore4 ,an ,austrian story tells    
that all rivers take their origin  from 

the tears shed by a giant's wife as she 
laments his death4 #hf  ,the same idea  
of a river springing from a corpse      
appears in one of the  tales of         
,somadeva and in the twelfth novel of   
the ,gesta ,romanorum4 #hg  ,nowadays no
 ,hindu with any pretensions to personal
 purity will drink  from this accursed  
stream1 and at its fords many low caste 
people make  their living by conveying  
on their shoulders their more scrupulous
  brethren across its waters4           
,origin of ,river-worship4    ,it is    
perhaps worth considering the possible  
origin of this  river-worship4 ,far from
 being peculiar to ,hinduism1 it is     
common  to the whole ,aryan world4 ,the 
prayer of the patient ,odysseus #hh  to 
the river after his sufferings in the   
deep is heard in almost the  same       
language at every bathing ,ght in ,upper
 ,india1 from the source  of ,mother    
,ganges to where she joins the ocean4   
,the river is always  flowing1 always   
being replenished by its tributary      

streams1 and  hence comes to be regarded
 as a thing of life1 an emblem of       
eternal  existence1 a benevolent spirit 
which washes away the sins of humanity  
and supplies in a tropical land the     
chief needs of men4 ,in a thirsty  land 
the mighty stream of the ,ganges would  
naturally arouse feelings  of respect   
and adoration1 not so much perhaps to   
those living on its  banks and ever     
blessed by its kindly influence1 as to  
the travel-worn  pilgrim from the sandy 
steppes of ,rjasthn or the waterless    
valleys  of the ,central ,indian hills4 
,we can hardly doubt that from this     
point of view ,mother ,ganges has been a
 potent factor in the spread  of        
,hinduism4 ,she became the handmaid of  
the only real civilization  of which    
,hindustn could boast1 and from her     
shrines bands of eager  missionaries    
were ever starting to sow the seeds of  
the worship of  the gods in the lands of
 the unbeliever4    ,the two great      
rivers of ,upper ,india were1 again1    

associated with  that land of fable and 
mystery1 the snowy range which was the  
home of  the gods and the refuge of     
countless saints and mystics1 who in its
  solitudes worked out the enigma of the
 world for the modern ,hindu4 ,they     
ended in the great ocean1 the final home
 of the ashes of the sainted  dead4     
,even the partially ,hinduised ,drvidian
 tribes of the ,vindhyan  ,plateau bring
 the bones of their dead relations to   
mingle with those  of the congregation  
of the faithful1 who have found their   
final rest in  its waters since the     
world was young4 ,the ,ganges and the   
streams which  swell its flood thus come
 to be associated with the deepest      
beliefs of  the race1 and it is hard to 
exaggerate its influence as a bond of   
union  between the nondescript entities 
which go to make up modern ,hinduism4   
,again1 much of the worship of rivers is
 connected with the propitiation  of the
 water-snakes1 demons and goblins1 with 
which in popular belief  many of them   

are infested4 ,such were ,kliy1 the     
great black serpent  of the ,jumn1 which
 attacked the infant ,krishna2 the      
serpent ,king  of ,nepl1 ,karkotaka1 who
 dwelt in the lake ,ngarsa when the     
divine  lotus of ,adi ,buddha floated on
 its surface4 #hi ,at the temple of     
,triyugi ,nryana in ,garhwl is a pool   
said to be full of snakes of  a yellow  
colour which come out at the feast of   
the ,ngpancham to  be worshipped4 ,the  
,grdev1 or river sprite of ,garhwl1 is  
very  malignant1 and is the ghost of a  
person who has met his death by         
suicide1 violence1 or accident4 #ij     
,these malignant water demons  naturally
 infest dangerous rapids and whirlpools1
 and it is necessary  to propitiate     
them4 ,thus we learn that on the river  
,tpti in ,berr  timber floated down     
sometimes disappears in a subterraneous 
cavity2  so before trying the navigation
 there the ,gonds sacrifice a goat to   
propitiate the river demon4 #ia         
,another variety of these demons of     

water is the ,nga and his wife the      
,ngin1 of whom we shall hear more in    
connection with snake-worship4 ,in  the 
,sikandar1 a tributary of the ,son1 is a
 deep water-hole where no  one dares to 
go4 ,the water is said to reach down as 
far as ,ptla1  or the infernal regions4 
,here live the ,nga and the ,ngin4 ,in  
the  middle of the river is a tree of   
the ,kulo variety1 and when ghosts      
trouble the neighbourhood an experienced
 ,ojha or sorcerer is called1  who bores
 holes in the bark of the tree and there
 shuts up the noxious  ghosts1 which    
then come under the rule of the ,nga and
 ,ngin1 who  are the supreme rulers of  
the ghostly band4    ,another ,mirzapur 
river1 the ,karsa1 is infested by a     
,deo1 or demon1  known as ,jata ,rohini1
 or ,rohini of the matted locks4 ,he is 
worshipped  by the ,baiga priest to     
ensure abundant rain and harvests and to
 keep  off disease4 ,the ,baiga catches 
a fish which he presents to the ,deo1   
but if any one but a ,baiga dares to    

drink there1 the water bubbles  up and  
the demon sweeps him away4    ,like this
 ,deo of ,mirzapur1 most of these water 
demons are malignant  and wait until    
some wretched creature enters their     
domains1 when they  seize and drag him  
away4 ,some of them can even catch the  
reflection  of a person as he looks into
 water1 and hence savages all over the  
world are very averse to looking into   
deep water-holes4 ,thus1 the ,zulus     
believe that there is a beast in the    
water which can seize the shadow  of a  
man1 and men are forbidden to lean over 
and look into a deep pool1  lest their  
shadow should be taken away4 ,there is a
 tale of the ,godiva  cycle in which a  
woman at ,arles is carried off by a     
creature called a  ,drac and made to act
 as nurse to the demon's child4 #ib ,in 
,scotland  water-holes are known as the 
cups of the fairies4 ,and there is the  
,trinity well in ,ireland1 into which no
 one can gaze with impunity1  and from  
which the river ,boyne once burst forth 

in pursuit of a lady  who had insulted  
it4 #ic    ,in ,india1 also1 dangerous  
creatures of this kind abound4 ,there is
 in  ,mirzapur a famous water-hole1     
known as ,barewa4 ,a herdsman was once  
grazing his buffaloes near the place1   
when the waters rose in anger  and      
carried off him and his cattle4         
,nowadays the drowned buffaloes  have   
taken the shape of a dangerous demon    
known as ,bhainssura1 or the  buffalo   
demon1 who now in company with the ,nga 
and the ,ngin lives in  this place1 and 
no one dares to fish there until he has 
propitiated  the demons with the        
offering of a fowl1 eggs1 and a goat4   
,another  kind of water demon attacks   
fishermen2 it appears in the form of a  
turban which fixes itself to his hook   
and increases in length as he  tries to 
drag it to the shore4    ,there is1     
again1 the water-horse1 with whom we are
 familiar in the  ,arabian ,nights1     
where he consorts with mares of mortal  
race4 ,this  creature is known in       

,kashmr as the ,zalgur4 #id ,the        
water-bull of  ,manxland is a creature  
of the same class1 and they constantly  
appear  through the whole range of      
,celtic folk-lore4 #ie ,such again is   
the  ,hydra of ,greek mythology1 and the
 ,teutonic ,nikke or ,nixy1 who has     
originated the legend of the ,flying    
,dutchman1 and in the shape of ,old     
,nick is the terror of sailors4 ,like   
him is the ,kelpie of ,scotland1  a     
water-horse who is believed to carry off
 the unwary by sudden floods  and devour
 them4 ,of the same kindred is the last 
of the dragons which  ,st4 ,patrick     
chained up in a lake on the ,galtee     
,mountains in ,tipperary4    ,many      
pools1 again1 in ,northern ,india are   
infested by a creature known  as the    
,brna1 who is the ghost of a drowned    
person4 ,he is always on  the look-out  
for someone to take his place1 so he    
drags in people  who come to fish in his
 domains4 #if ,he is particularly feared
 by  the ,magahiya ,doms1 a caste of    

degraded nomadic gipsies who infest     
,gorakhpur and ,behr4    ,many of these 
demons1 such as the ,nga and ,ngin1 have
 kingdoms and  palaces stored with      
treasure under the water1 and there they
 entice  young men and maidens1 who     
occasionally come back to their mortal  
kindred and tell them of the wonders    
which they have seen4 ,these are  akin  
to ,morgan la ,fay of the ,orlando      
,innamorato1 ,la ,motte ,fouqu's        
,undine1 and they often merge into the  
mermaid of the ,swan ,maiden type  of   
tale1 who marries a mortal lover and    
leaves him at last because in  his folly
 he breaks some taboo which is a        
condition of the permanence  of their   
love4    ,but besides these dragons     
which infest rivers and lakes there are 
special water gods1 many of which are   
the primitive water monster in  a       
developed form4 ,such is ,mahishsura1   
who is the ,mahishoba of ,berr1  and    
like the ,bhainssura already mentioned1 
infests great rivers and  demands       

propitiation4 ,according to the early   
mythology this ,mahisha1  the buffalo   
demon1 was killed by ,krttikeya at the  
,krauncha pass  in the ,himlaya1 which  
was opened by the god to make a passage 
for  the deities to visit the plains    
from ,kailsa4 ,the ,kols1 again1 have   
,nga ,era1 who presides over tanks1     
wells1 and any stagnant water1  and     
,garha ,era1 the river goddess4 ,they1  
as ,col4 ,dalton remarks1  are          
frequently and very truly denounced as  
the cause of sickness  and propitiated  
with sacrifices to spare their victims4 
#ig        ,floods and ,drowning        
,people4    ,floods are1 as we have     
seen1 regarded as produced by demoniacal
  agency4 ,in the ,panjb1 when a village
 is in danger of floods1 the  headman   
makes an offering of a cocoa-nut and a  
rupee to the flood  demon4 ,as in many  
other places the cocoa-nut represents   
the head of a  human victim1 which in   
olden times was the proper offering4 ,he
 holds  the offering in his hand and    

stands in the water4 ,when the flood    
rises  high enough to wash the offering 
from his hand1 it is believed that the  
waters will abate4 ,some people throw   
seven handfuls of boiled wheat and      
sugar into the stream and distribute the
 remainder among the persons  present4  
,some take a male buffalo1 a horse1 or a
 ram1 and after boring  the right ear of
 the victim1 throw it into the water4   
,if the victim be  a horse1 it should be
 saddled before it is offered4 ,a short 
time ago1  when the town and temples at 
,hardwr were in imminent danger during  
the ,gohna flood1 the ,brhmans poured   
vessels of milk1 rice and flowers  into 
the waters of ,mother ,ganges and prayed
 to her to spare them4    ,in the same  
connection may be noticed the very      
common prejudice  which exists in ,india
 against saving drowning people4 ,this  
is  familiar in ,western folk-lore4 ,it 
is supposed to be alluded to in  the    
,twelfth ,night of ,shakespeare1 and the
 plot of ,sir ,w4 ,scott's  ,pirate     

turns upon it4 ,numerous instances of   
the same idea have been  collected by   
,dr4 ,tylor and ,mr4 ,conway4 #ih ,dr4  
,tylor considers that  it is based upon 
the belief that to snatch a victim from 
the very  clutches of the water spirit  
is a rash defiance of the deity which   
would hardly pass unavenged4 ,mr4 ,black
 #ii accounts for the idea on  the      
ground that the spirits of people who   
have died a violent death  may return to
 earth if they can find a substitute2   
hence the soul  of the last dead man is 
insulted or injured by anyone preventing
  another from taking his place4 ,this  
last theory is very common in  ,western 
folk-lore4 ,thus ,lady ,wilde writes    
from ,ireland #ajj3--;,it  is believed  
that the spirit of the dead last buried 
has to watch  in the churchyard until   
another corpse is laid there1 or to     
perform  menial offices in the spirit   
world1 such as carrying wood and water1 
till the next spirit comes from earth4  
,they are also sent on messages  to     

earth1 chiefly to announce the coming   
death of some relative1 and  at this    
they are glad1 for their own time of    
peace and rest will come  at last4 ,so  
in ,argyllshire1 #aja it was believed   
that the spirit of  the last interred   
kept watch around the churchyard until  
the arrival  of another occupant1 to    
whom its custody was transmitted4 ,this1
 as we  shall see in connection with the
 custom of barring the return of the    
ghost1 quite agrees with popular feeling
 in ,india1 and furnishes an  adequate  
explanation of the prejudice against    
rescuing the drowning  and incurring the
 wrath of the former ghost1 who is thus 
deprived of  the chance of release by   
making over his functions to a          
substitute4        ,khwja ,khizr1 the   
,god of ,water4    ,but besides these   
water spirits and local river gods1 the 
,hindus  have a special god of water1   
,khwja ,khizr1 whose ,muhammadan title  
has been ,hinduised into ,rja ,kidr1 or 
as he is called in ,bengal1  ,kwaj or   

,pr ,badr4 ,this is a good instance of a
 fact1 which will be  separately        
discussed elsewhere1 that the ,hindus   
are always ready to  annex the deities  
and beliefs of other races4             
,according to the ,sikandarnma1 ,khwja  
,khizr was a saint of ,islm1  who       
presided over the well of immortality1  
and directed ,alexander of  ,macedon in 
his vain search for the blessed waters4 
,the fish is his  vehicle1 and hence its
 image is painted over the doors of both
 ,hindus  and ,muhammadans1 while it    
became the family crest of the late     
royal  house of ,oudh4 ,among           
,muhammadans a prayer is said to ,khwja 
,khizr at  the first shaving of a boy1  
and a little boat is launched in a river
  or tank in his honour4 ,the same rite 
is performed at the close of the  rainy 
season1 when it is supposed to have some
 connection with the  saint ,ilisha1    
that is to say the prophet ,elisha4     
,elisha1 by the way1  apparently from   
the miraculous way in which his bones   

revived the  dead1 has come down in     
modern times to ,italy as a worker of   
miracles1  and is known to the ,tuscan  
peasant as ,elisaeus4 #ajb    ,another  
legend represents ,khwja ,khizr to be of
 the family of ,noah1 who  is also      
regarded by rural ,muhammadans as a     
water deity in connection  with the     
flood4 ,others connect him with ,st4    
,george1 the patron saint  of ,england1 
who is the ,ghergis of ,syria1 and      
according to ,muhammadan  tradition was 
sent in the time of the ,prophet to     
convert the ,king of  ,maushil1 and came
 to life after three successive         
martyrdoms4 ,others  identify him with  
,thammuz1 ,tauz1 or ,adonis4 ,others    
call him the  companion of ,moses1 and  
the commentator ,husain says he was a   
general  in the army of ,zu'l ,qarnain1 
he of the horns1 or ,alexander the      
,great4 #ajc    ,out of this jumble of  
all the mythologies has been evolved the
 ,hindu  god of water1 the patron deity 
of boatmen1 who is invoked by them to   

prevent their boats from being broken or
 submerged1 or to show them  the way    
when they have lost it4 ,he is          
worshipped by burning lamps1  feeding   
,brhmans1 and by setting afloat on a    
village pond a little raft  of grass    
with a lighted lamp placed upon it4     
,this1 it may be noted1  is one of the  
many ways in which the demon of evil or 
disease is sent  away in many parts of  
the world4 #ajd ,another curious        
function is1  in popular belief1        
allotted to ,khwja ,khizr1 that of      
haunting markets  in the early morning  
and fixing the rates of grain1 which he 
also  protects from the ,evil ,eye4 #aje
        ,the ,folk-lore of ,wells4      
,in this connection some of the         
folk-lore of wells may be mentioned4    
,the  digging of a well is a duty       
requiring infinite care and caution4    
,the  work should begin on ,sunday1 and 
on the previous ,saturday night little  
bowls of water are placed round the     
proposed site1 and the one which  dries 

up least marks the best site for the    
well1 which reminds us  of the fleece of
 ,gideon4 ,the circumference is then    
marked and they  commence to dig1       
leaving the central lump of earth       
intact4 ,they cut  out this clod of     
earth last and in the ,panjb call it    
,khwjaj1  perhaps after ,khwja ,khizr1  
the water god1 worship it and feed      
,brhmans4 ,if it breaks it is a bad     
omen1 and a new site will be  selected a
 week afterwards4 ,further east when a  
man intends to sink a  well he inquires 
from the ,pandit an auspicious moment   
for commencing  the work4 ,when that    
hour comes he worships ,gaur1 ,ganesa1  
,sesha ,nga1  the world serpent1 the    
earth1 the spade and the nine planets4  
,then  facing in the direction in which1
 according to the directions of the     
,pandit1 ,sesha ,nga is supposed to be  
lying at the time1 he cuts five  clods  
with the spade4 ,when the workmen reach 
the point at which the  wooden well-curb
 has to be fixed1 the owner smears the  

curb in five  places with red powder1   
and tying ,db grass and a sacred thread 
to it1  lowers it into its place4 ,a    
fire sacrifice is done1 and ,brhmans are
  fed4 ,when the well is ready1         
cow-dung1 milk1 cow urine1 butter and   
,ganges water1 leaves of the sacred     
,tulas and honey are thrown in  before  
the water is used4    ,but no well is   
considered lucky until the ,slagrma1 or 
spiral ammonite  sacred to ,vishnu1 is  
solemnly wedded to the ,tulas or basil  
plant1  representing the garden which   
the well is intended to water4 ,the rite
  is done according to the standard     
marriage formula3 the relations  are    
assembled2 the owner of the garden      
represents the bridegroom1  while a     
kinsman of his wife stands for the      
bride4 ,gifts are given to  ,brhmans1 a 
feast is held in the garden1 and both it
 and the well  may then be used without 
danger4 ,all this is on the same lines  
as  many of the emblematical marriage   
rites which in other places are         

intended to promote the growth of       
vegetation4 #ajf    ,in ,sirsa they have
 a legend that long ago1 in time of     
drought1 a  headman of a village went to
 a ,faqr to beg him to pray for rain1   
and  promised him his daughter in       
marriage if his prayer was successful4  
,the  rain came1 but the headman would  
not perform his promise1 and the  ,faqr 
cursed the land1 so that all the water  
became brackish4 ,but  he so far        
relented as to permit sweet water to    
flow on condition  that it was given to 
all men free of cost4 ,in one village   
the spring  became at once brackish when
 a water-rate was levied1 and turned    
sweet  again when the tax was remitted4 
,in another the brackish water became   
sweet at the intercession of a ,faqr4   
,in the ,panjb there is a class  of     
,faqrs who are known as ,snga1 or       
sniffers1 because they can  smell out   
sweet water underground4 ,they work on  
much the same lines  as their brethren  
in ,england1 who discover springs by    

means of the  divining rod4 #ajg ,in one
 of the tales of ,somadeva we have a    
doll  which can produce water at will1  
which is like ,lucian's story of the    
pestle that was sent to fetch water4    
,when the ,egyptian sorcerer was  away  
his pupil tried to perform the trick1   
but he did not know the  charm for      
making the water stop1 and the house was
 flooded4 ,then he  chopped the pestle  
in two1 but that only made matters      
worse1 for both  halves set to bring the
 water4 ,this is somewhat like the magic
 quern  of ,european folk-lore4 #ajh    
,the water of many wells is efficacious 
in the cure of disease4 ,in  ,ireland1  
the first water drawn from a sacred well
 after midnight  on ,may ,eve is        
considered an effective antidote to     
witchcraft4 #aji  ,in ,india many wells 
have a reputation for curing barrenness1
 which is  universally regarded as a    
disease1 the work of supernatural       
agency4 ,in  ,india the water of seven  
wells is collected on the night of the  

,diwl1  or feast of lamps1 and barren   
women bathe in it as a means of         
procuring  children4 ,in a well in      
,orissa the priests throw betel-nuts    
into the  mud1 and barren women scramble
 for them4 ,those who find them will    
have  their desire for children         
gratified before long4 #aaj ,for the    
same  reason1 after childbirth the      
mother is taken to worship the village  
well4 ,she walks round it in the course 
of the sun and smears the  platform with
 red lead1 which is probably a survival 
of the original  rite of blood          
sacrifice4 ,in ,dharwr the child of a   
,brhman is taken  in the third month to 
worship water at the village well4 #aaa 
,in  ,palmau the ,srhul feast is        
observed in the month of ,baiskh 7,may71
  when dancing and singing goes on and  
the headmen entertain their  tenants4   
,the whole village is purified1 and then
 they proceed to the  village well1     
which is cleaned out1 while the village 
,baiga does a  sacrifice and every one  

smears the platform with red lead4 ,no  
one  may draw water from the well during
 the ,srhul4 #aab ,hydrophobia all  over
 ,northern ,india is cured by looking   
down seven wells in succession4    ,in  
the ,panjb the sites of deserted wells  
are discovered by driving  about a herd 
of goats1 which are supposed to lie down
 at the place  where search should be   
made4 ,some people discover wells by    
dreams2  others1 as the ,luniyas1 a     
caste of navvies1 are said1 like the    
,faqrs  in ,sirsa1 to be able to        
discover by smell where water is likely 
to  be found4 ,i was once shown a well  
in the ,muzaffarnagar district into     
which a ,faqr once spat1 and for a long 
time after the visit of the  holy man it
 ran with excellent milk4 ,the supply   
had ceased1 ,i regret  to say1 before my
 visit4 ,the well of life which can     
survive even the  ashes of a corpse is  
found throughout the ,indian folk-tales4
 #aac        ,sacred ,wells4    ,sacred 
wells1 of course1 abound all over the   

country4 ,many of them are  supposed to 
have underground connection with the    
,ganges or some other  holy river4 ,many
 of these are connected with the        
wanderings of ,rma  and ,st after their 
exile from ,ayodhya4 ,st's kitchen 7,st 
k raso7  is shown in various places1 as 
at ,kanauj and ,deoriya in the ,allahbd 
,district4 #aad ,her well is on the     
,bindhchal hill in ,mirzapur1 and  is a 
famous resort of pilgrims4 ,there is    
another near ,monghyr1 and  a third in  
the ,sultnpur ,district in ,oudh4 ,the  
,monghyr well has been  provided with a 
special legend4 ,st was suspected of    
faithlessness  during her captivity in  
the kingdom of ,rvana4 ,she threw       
herself into  a pit filled with fire1   
where the hot spring now flows1 and came
 out  purified4 ,when ,dr4 ,buchanan    
visited the place they had just invented
  a new legend in connection with it4   
,shortly before1 it was said1 the  water
 became so cool as to allow bathing in  
it4 ,the governor prohibited  the       

practice1 as it made the water so dirty 
that ,europeans could not  drink it4    
,but on the very day when the           
bricklayers began to build a  wall in   
order to exclude the bathers1 the water 
became so hot that no  one could dare to
 touch it1 so that the precaution being 
unnecessary1  the work of the infidels  
was abandoned4 #aae    ,at ,benares are 
the ,manikarnika well1 which was        
produced by an ear-ring  of ,siva       
falling into it1 and the ,jnnavpi1 to   
drink of which brings  wisdom4 ,the well
 at ,sihor in ,rjputna is sacred to     
,gautama1 and is  considered efficacious
 in the cure of various disorders4 ,at  
,sarkuhiya  in the ,basti ,district is a
 well where ,buddha struck the ground   
with his  arrow and caused water to     
flow1 as ,moses did from the rock4      
,there are1  again1 many wells which    
give omens4 ,in the ,middle ,ages people
 used to  resort to the fountain of     
,baranta in the ,forest of ,breclieu and
 fling  water from a tankard on a stone 

close by1 an act which was followed by  
thunder1 lightning and rain4 #aaf ,at a 
,cornish well people used to  go and    
inquire about absent friends4 ,if the   
person be living and in  health1 the    
still1 quiet waters of the well pit will
 instantly bubble  or boil up as a pot  
of clear1 crystalline water2 if sick1   
foul and  puddled water2 if dead1 it    
will neither boil nor bubble up1 nor    
alter  its colour or stillness4 #aag    
,many other instances of the same fact  
might be given4 ,so in ,kashmr1 in one  
well water rushes out when a  sheep or  
goat is sacrificed2 another runs if the 
ninth of any month  happen to fall on   
,friday2 in a third1 those who have any 
special needs  throw in a nut2 if it    
floats1 it is considered an omen of     
success2  if it sinks1 it is considered 
adverse4 ,at ,askot1 in the ,himlaya1   
there is a holy well which is used for  
divination of the prospects  of the     
harvest4 ,if the spring in a given time 
fills the brass vessel  to the brim into

 which the water falls1 there will be a 
good season2  if only a little water    
comes1 drought may be expected4 #aah    
,hot ,springs4    ,hot springs are      
naturally regarded as sacred4 ,we have  
already noticed  an example in the case 
of ,st's well at ,monghyr4 ,the holy    
tract in  the hills1 known as ,vaishnava
 ,kshetra1 contains several hot springs1
  in which ,agni1 the fire god1 resides 
by the permission of ,vishnu4 ,the  hot 
springs at ,jamnotri are occupied by the
 twelve ,rishis who followed  ,mahdeva  
from ,lanka4 #aai        ,waterfalls4   
,waterfalls1 naturally uncommon in the  
flat country of ,upper ,india1 are1  as 
might have been expected1 regarded with 
veneration1 and the deity  of the fall  
is carefully propitiated4 ,the visitor  
to the magnificent  waterfall in which  
the river ,chandraprabha pours its      
waters over  a sheer precipice three    
hundred feet high in its descent from   
the  ,vindhyan plateau to the ,gangetic 
valley1 will learn that it is visited   

by women1 particularly those who are    
desirous of offspring4 ,on a  rock      
beside the fall they lay a simple       
offering consisting of a few  glass     
bangles1 ear ornaments made of palm     
leaves1 and cotton waist  strings4 ,in  
,garhwl there is a waterfall known as   
,basodhra1 which  ceases to flow when it
 is looked at by an impure person4 #abj 
,sacred ,lakes4    ,there are also      
numerous lakes which are considered     
sacred and visited  by pilgrims4 ,such  
is ,pushkar1 or ,pokhar1 the lake par   
excellence1  in ,rjputna4 ,one theory of
 the sanctity of this lake is that it   
was  originally a natural depression and
 enlarged at a subsequent date  by      
supernatural agency4 ,every ,hindu      
family of note has its niche  for       
purposes of devotion4 ,here is the only 
temple in ,india sacred to  ,brahma1 the
 ,creator4 ,while he was creating the   
world he kindled the  sacred fire2 but  
his wife ,sawantar was nowhere to be    
found1 and as  without a woman the rites

 could not proceed1 a ,gjar girl took   
her  place4 ,sawantar on her return was 
so enraged at the indignity that  she   
retired to the height close by1 known as
 ,ratnagir1 or 'the hill  of gems1'     
where she disappeared4 ,on this spot a  
fountain gushed out1  still called by   
her name1 close to which is her shrine1 
not the least  attractive in the        
precincts of ,pokhar4 ,like many of     
these lakes1  such as are known in      
,great ,britain as the ,devil's         
,punch-bowls1 ,pokhar  has its dragon   
legend1 and one of the rocks near the   
lake is known as  ,ngpahr1 or ,dragon   
,hill4 ,there is a similar legend       
attached to the  ,lonr ,lake in ,berr1  
which was then the den of the giant     
,lonsura1  whom ,vishnu destroyed4 #aba 
,most famous of all the lakes is ,mna   
,sarovara in ,tibet1 about which  many  
legends are told4 ,the lake of ,mna     
,sarovara was formed from the  mind of  
,brahma1 and thence derived its name4   
,there dwell also ,mahdeva  and the     

gods1 and thence flow the ,sarj and     
other female rivers1  and the ,satadru  
7,satlaj7 and other male rivers4 ,when  
the earth of  ,mna ,sarovara touches any
 one's body1 or when any one bathes     
therein1  he shall go to the ,paradise  
of ,brahma2 and he who drinks its waters
  shall go to the ,heaven of ,siva1 and 
shall be released from the sins  of a   
hundred births2 and even the beast which
 bears the name of ,mna  ,sarovara shall
 go to the ,paradise of ,brahma4 ,it is 
said that the  sons of ,brahma1         
,marichi1 ,vasishtha and the rest of the
 sages proceeded  to the north of       
,himlaya and performed austerities on   
,mount ,kailsa1  where they saw ,siva   
and ,prvat and remained for twelve years
 absorbed  in meditation and prayer4    
,there was very little rain and water   
was  scanty4 ,in their distress they    
appealed to ,brahma4 ,he asked them what
  their wishes might be4 ,the ,rishis   
replied1 ,we are absorbed in devotion   
on ,kailsa1 and must always go thence to

 bathe in the ,mandkin river2  make a   
place for us to bathe in4 ,then ,brahma1
 by a mental effort1  formed the holy   
lake of ,mnasa1 and the ,rishis         
worshipped the golden  ,linga which rose
 from the midst of the waters of the    
lake4 #abb    ,so the ,nain ,tl ,lake is
 sacred to ,kl in one of her numerous   
forms4 ,the goddess ,sambr1 the tutelary
 deity of the ,chauhn ,rjputs1          
converted a dense forest into a plain of
 gold and silver4 ,but they1  dreading  
the strife which such a possession would
 excite1 begged the  goddess to retract 
her gift1 and she gave them the present 
lake of  salt4 #abc ,the people say that
 the ,katr valley was once a great lake 
where lived a ,rkshasa named ,rna who   
used to devour the inhabitants  of the  
neighbouring villages4 ,indra's elephant
 ,airvata descended  to earth at the    
place now known after him by the name   
,hthi ,chna1  and with his mighty tusks 
he burst the embankment of the lake and 
the water flowed away1 so that the      

goddess ,bhrawar1 whose shrine is  there
 to this day1 was enabled to destroy the
 monster4        ,the ,lake of the      
,fairy ,gifts4    ,in the ,chnda        
,district of the ,central ,provinces is 
the lake of ,taroba  or ,tadala1 which  
is connected with an interesting series 
of folk-lore  legends4 ,a marriage      
procession was once passing the place1  
and1 finding  no water1 a strange old   
man suggested that the bride and        
bridegroom  should join in digging for a
 spring4 ,they laughingly consented1    
and after removing a little earth a     
clear fountain gushed forth4 ,as  they  
were all drinking with delight the      
waters rose1 and spreading  over the    
land1 overwhelmed the married pair4 ,but
 fairy hands soon  constructed a temple 
in the depths1 where the spirits of the 
drowned  are supposed to dwell4         
,afterwards1 on the lake side1 a palm   
tree grew  up1 which appeared only      
during the day1 sinking into the earth  
at  twilight4 ,one day a rash pilgrim   

seated himself on the tree and was      
borne into the skies1 where the flames  
of the sun consumed him4 ,this  part of 
the story reads like a genuine solar    
myth4 ,the palm tree then  shrivelled   
away into dust1 and in its place        
appeared an image of the  spirit of the 
lake1 which is worshipped under the name
 of ,taroba1 or  'the palm-tree deity4' 
,formerly1 at the call of pilgrims1 all 
necessary  vessels rose from the lake1  
and after being washed were returned to 
the waters4 ,but an evil-minded man at  
last took those he had received  to his 
house1 and from that day the mystic     
provision wholly ceased4    ,this legend
 of the fairy gifts which are lost      
through the selfish  greed of some      
mean-spirited man has been admirably    
illustrated by  ,mr4 ,hartland4 ,it is  
also told of the ,amner ,lake in        
,elichpur1 of the  ,karsota ,lake in    
,mirzapur1 and of many other places4    
#abd    ,many of these lakes possess    
subaqueous palaces beneath their        

waters4 ,at ,cudden ,point in ,cornwall1
 the unhallowed revelry of a  party of  
roisterers is heard from under the      
waves4 #abe ,in one  of ,somadeva's     
stories the hero dives after a lady1 and
 comes on a  splendid temple of ,siva2  
,sattvasila falls into the sea and finds
 a  city with palaces of gold1 supported
 on pillars of jewels2 ,yasahketu       
plunges into the sea and finds a city   
gleaming with palaces that  had bright  
pillars of precious stone1 walls        
flashing with gold1  and latticed       
windows of pearl4 ,so in the sixth fable
 of the second  chapter of the          
,hitopadesa1 the hero dives into the    
water and sees a  princess seated on a  
couch in a palace of gold1 waited on by 
youthful  sylphs4 ,the sage ,mandakarni 
alarmed the gods by his austerities1    
and ,indra sent five of his fairies to  
beguile him4 ,they succeeded1  and now  
dwell in a house beneath the waters of  
the lake called from  them              
,panchapsaras4 ,at the ,lake of ,taroba1

 the tale of which has been  already    
told1 on quiet nights the country people
 hear faint sounds  of drum and trumpet 
passing round the lake1 and old men say 
that in  one dry year when the waters   
sank low1 golden pinnacles of a fairy   
temple were seen glittering in the      
depths4 ,this is exactly the legend  of 
,lough ,neagh1 immortalized by ,thomas  
,moore4        ,the ,shhgarh ,lake4     
,a lake at ,shhgarh in the ,bareilly    
,district is the seat of another  legend
 which appears widely in folk-lore4     
,when ,rja ,vena ruled the  land1 he1   
like ,buddha1 struck by the inequality  
of human life1 retired  with his young  
wife ,sundar or ,ketak to live like a   
peasant4 ,one  day she went to the lake 
to draw water1 and she had naught but a 
jar  of unbaked clay and a thread of    
untwisted cotton4 ,in the innocence of  
her heart she stepped into the lake1 but
 the gods preserved her4 ,after  a time 
she wearied of this sordid life1 and one
 morning she arrayed  herself in her    

queenly robes and jewels1 and going to  
the lake1 as  usual1 stepped on the     
lotus petals4 ,when she plunged in her  
jar it  melted away1 and the untwisted  
thread broke1 and she herself sank      
beneath the water4 ,but she was saved1  
and thenceforward learned the  evil of  
vanity and pride in riches1 and the     
strength of innocence  and a pure mind4 
,and the lotus pool1 in honour of the   
good queen  ,sundar1 was called by all  
men the ,rn ,tl1 or the ,queen's ,tank1 
and is to be seen to this day just      
outside the town of ,kbar1 though  the  
lotus flowers have perished and the     
castle of ,shhgarh has sunk  into dust4 
#abf    ,the same tale is told in       
,southern ,india of ,renuk1 the mother  
of  ,parasurma4 ,in its ,western form it
 is told in ,switzerland of a pious  boy
 who served a monastery1 and in his     
innocence was able to carry  water in a 
sieve without spilling a single drop4   
#abg        ,other ,sacred ,tanks4      
,the number of lakes and tanks          

associated with some legend1 or endued  
with some special sanctity of their own1
 is legion4 ,thus1 the tank  at         
,chakratratha1 near ,nmkhr1 marks the   
spot where the ,chakra or  discus of    
,vishnu fell during his contest with    
,asuras4 #abh ,that  near the ,satopant 
glacier is said to be fathomless1 and no
 bird can  fly over it4 ,bhotiyas       
presents offerings to the lake1         
requesting the  water spirit to keep the
 passes open and aid them in their      
dangerous  journeys4 ,as they are denied
 entrance into the temple of ,badarinth1
  it has for them all the virtue of     
,badarinth itself4 #abi ,another  famous
 tank is that at ,amritsar1 the ,lake of
 ,immortality4 ,a holy  woman once took 
pity on a leper1 and carried him to the 
banks of the  tank4 ,as he lay there a  
crow swooped into the water and came out
 a  dove as white as snow4 ,the leper   
saw the miracle1 bathed1 and was        
healed4 ,the woman on her return could  
not recognize her friend1 and  withdrew 

in horror from his embraces4 ,but the   
,guru ,rm ,ds came and  explained       
matters1 and the grateful pair assisted 
him in embellishing  the tank1 which has
 become the centre of the ,sikh         
religion4 ,the ,tadag  ,tl in the ,hills
 is sacred to ,bhm ,sen1 and the curious
 fish which  it contains are said to be 
lice from the body of the hero4    ,one 
day a ,brhman was passing the ,mandkalla
 tank and saw a marriage  party sitting 
before the wedding feast2 but they were 
all most  unaccountably silent and      
motionless4 ,they asked him to join in  
the  meal1 and he did so with some      
misgivings1 which were soon justified   
when he saw the heads of the whole party
 fall off before his eyes1  and they    
soon disappeared4 #acj ,the ,rja ,rma   
,chandra ,sena was once  hunting near   
the site of the present ,dharwat tank4  
,he saw a crow  drinking from a puddle1 
and1 being in want of water1 he ordered 
the  courtiers to have a tank dug1 the  
limits of which were to be the  space   

that his horse would gallop round when  
released4 ,fortunately  for them they   
selected a site close to some hills     
which checked the  course of the horse4 
,this reduced the tank to comparatively 
moderate  dimensions4 #aca    ,the tank 
at ,lalitpur is famous for the cure of  
leprosy4 ,one day1 a  ,rja afflicted    
with the disease was passing by1 and his
 ,rn dreamt  that he should eat some of 
the conferv on the surface4 ,he ate it1 
and was cured2 and next night the ,rn   
dreamt that there was a vast  treasure  
concealed there1 which when dug up was  
sufficient to pay  the cost of          
excavation4 #acb ,so1 at ,qasr is the   
tank of the saint  ,basant ,shh1 in     
which children are bathed to cure them  
of boils4    ,of the ,rin ,mochan pool  
the ,brhmans say that any one who bathes
 there  becomes free from debt4 #acc    
,another at ,pushkar turns red if the   
shadow of a woman during her menstrual  
period fall upon it4 #acd  ,st proved   
her virtue by bathing in a tank4 ,she   

prayed to ,mother  ,earth1 who appeared 
and carried her to the other bank1 an   
incident of  which a curious parallel is
 quoted by ,mr4 ,clouston from the      
,gospel of  the pseudo ,mathew4 #ace ,in
 the legend of ,chyavana1 as told in the
  ,mahbhrata1 the three suitors of      
,sukany bathed in a tank and came  forth
 of a celestial beauty equal to hers4   
,so in one of the ,bengal  folk-tales   
the old discarded wife bathes in a tank 
and recovers her  youth and beauty4 #acf
 ,it is a frequent condition imposed on 
visitors  to these holy tanks that they 
should remove a certain quantity of     
earth and thus improve it4    ,many     
tanks1 again1 are supposed to contain   
buried treasure which is  generally in  
charge of a ,yaksha4 ,hence such places 
are regarded with  much awe4 ,there is a
 tank of this kind in the ,bijaygarh    
fort in the  ,mirzapur ,district1 where 
many speculators have dug in vain2      
another  forms an incident in ,ll ,bihri
 ,d's tale of ,govinda ,smanta4 #acg    

,mountain-worship2 the ,himlaya4    ,he 
who thinks of ,himchal 7the ,himlaya71  
though he should not behold  him1 is    
greater than he who performs all worship
 at ,ksi 7,benares72  as the dew is     
dried up by the morning sun1 so are the 
sins of mankind  by the sight of        
,himchal4 #ach ,such was the devotion   
with which the  early ,hindus looked on 
it as the home of the gods4 ,beyond it  
their  fancy created the elysium of     
,uttara ,kuru1 which may be most        
properly  regarded as an ideal picture  
created by the imagination of a life of 
tranquil felicity1 and not as a         
reminiscence of any actual residence  of
 the ,kurus in the north4 #aci    ,from 
early times the ,himlayan valleys were  
the resort of the sage  and the ascetic4
 ,almost every hill and river is        
consecrated by their  legends1 and the  
whole country teems with memories of the
 early  religious life of the ,hindu    
race4 ,as in the mythology of many other
  peoples1 #adj it was regarded as the  

home of the sainted dead1 and  the      
common source or origin of ,hinduism4   
,its caves were believed to  be the     
haunt of witches and fairies4 ,demons   
lurked in its recesses1  as at the      
,blockberg1 where1 as ,aubrey tells us1 
the devils and  witches do dance and    
feast4 #ada ,many of its most noted     
peaks  are the home of the deities4     
,siva and ,kuvera rest on ,mount        
,kailsa2  ,vaikuntha1 the paradise of   
,vishnu1 is on ,mount ,meru4 ,the whole 
range  is personified in ,himavat1 who  
is the father of ,gang and ,um ,dev1    
who from her origin is known as ,prvat1 
or the mountaineer4 ,one of  the titles 
of ,siva is ,girisa1 the mountain god4  
,his son ,krttikeya  delights in the    
weird mountain heights4                 
,mountain-worship among the ,drvidians4 
,but1 deeply rooted as the veneration   
for mountains is in the minds  of the   
early ,aryans1 there is reason to       
suspect that this regard for  mountains 
may be a survival from the beliefs of   

non-,aryan races whom  the ,hindus      
supplanted or absorbed4 ,at any rate1   
the belief in the  sanctity of mountains
 widely prevails among the non-,aryan or
 ,drvidian  races4 ,most of these       
peoples worship mountains in connection 
with the  god of the rain4 ,the ,santls 
sacrifice to ,marang ,bura on a flat    
rock  on the top of a mountain1 and     
after feasting1 work themselves up into 
a state of frenzy to charm the rain4    
,the ,korwas and ,krs worship in  the   
same way ,mainpt1 a plateau in the      
mountainous country south of  the ,son4 
,the ,ngbansis and the ,mundri ,kols    
worship a huge rock as  the abode of the
 great god1 ,baradeo4 #adb ,so1 in      
,garhwl in the  ,chhipula pass is a     
shrine to the god of the mountain4 ,at  
,tolma is a  temple to the ,himlaya1 and
 below ,dungagiri in the same valley is 
a  shrine in honour of the same peak4   
#adc ,in ,hoshangbd in the ,central     
,indian plateau1 ,sryabhn or ,sun-rays  
is a very common name for  isolated     

round-peaked hills1 on which the god is 
supposed to dwell1  and among the       
,kurkus1 ,dungardeo1 the mountain god1  
resides on the  nearest hill outside the
 village4 ,he is worshipped every year  
at  the ,dasahra festival with a goat1  
two cocoa-nuts1 five dates1 with  a ball
 of vermilion paste1 and is regarded by 
them as their special  god4 #add ,the   
idea that dwarfs1 spirits1 and fairies  
live on the  tops of mountains is a     
common belief in ,europe4    ,as in the 
,himlaya1 one of the main peaks1 ,nand  
,dev1 has been  identified with ,prvat1 
the mountain goddess1 so the aborigines 
of  the ,central ,provinces have in     
,kattarpr1 the ,kattipen of the ,khndhs1
  a special deity of ravines1 as ,rhoea 
,sybeli was to the ,etruscans4 #ade  ,in
 the ,mirzapur hills the aboriginal     
tribes have an intense respect for      
mountains4 ,on the ,mtra hill lives a   
,deo or demon known as ,darrapt  ,deo4  
,when ,rvana abducted ,st he is said to 
have kept her on this  hill for some    

time1 and her palanquin1 turned into    
stone1 is there  to this day4 ,no one   
ascends the mountain through fear of the
 demon1  except an ,ojha or sorcerer1   
who sacrifices a goat at the foot of    
the hill before he makes the attempt4   
,so1 in ,garhwl the peak of  ,barmdeo is
 sacred to ,dev1 and none can intrude   
with impunity4 ,a  ,faqr who ventured to
 do so in the days of yore was pitched  
across  the river by the offended       
goddess4 #adf ,on another ,mirzapur     
hill1  ,chainpur1 lives ,kot ,rn1 who is
 embodied in the locusts which  usually 
are found there4 ,similarly ,pahr ,pando
 is a mountain deity  of the ,dharkrs1 a
 sub-caste of the ,doms4 ,bansapt ,m1   
who is half a  forest and half a        
mountain goddess1 lives on ,jhurma hill1
 and if any  one dares to sing in her   
neighbourhood1 he becomes sick or mad4  
,these  mountain demons often take the  
form of tigers and kill incautious      
intruders on their domains4 ,on the     
,aunri hill are two dreaded demons1     

,deorsan and ,birwat1 the latter a ,br  
or malignant ghost of some one  who died
 a violent death4 ,they rule the hail1  
and at harvest time the  ,baiga offers a
 goat1 and spreading rice on the ground1
 prays--,o ,lord  ,mahdeva6 ,may this   
offering be effectual4 ,mangesar1 the   
rugged peak  which frowns over the      
valley of the ,son1 is a popular local  
god of  the various ,kolarian races1 and
 a shrine to ,bba or ,rja ,mangesar1    
the father and the king1 is found in    
many of their villages4        ,respect 
,paid to the ,vindhya and ,kaimr        
,ranges4    ,the ,kaimr and ,vindhyan   
ranges also enjoy a certain amount of   
sanctity4 ,on the latter the most famous
 shrines are those of ,asthbhuja  or the
 eight-armed ,dev1 ,stkunda or the pool 
of ,st1 and the  temple of ,mahrn       
,vindhyeswar1 the patron goddess of the 
range1  built where it trends towards   
the ,gangetic valley4 ,she has travelled
  as far as ,cutch1 where she is        
worshipped under the corrupted name  of 

,vinjn4 #adg ,her shrine has evil       
associations with traditions of  human  
sacrifice1 derived from the coarser     
aboriginal cultus which has  now been   
adopted into ,brhmanism4 #adh ,there the
 ,thags used to meet  and share their   
spoils with their patron goddess1 and   
her ,pandas or  priests are so          
disorderly that a special police guard  
has to be posted  at the shrine to      
ensure the peaceable division of the    
offerings among  the sharers1 who       
mortgage and sell their right to        
participate in the  profits1 like the   
advowson of a living in the ,english    
,church4    ,these two ranges1 says the 
legend1 are an offshoot from the        
,himlaya4 ,when ,rma was building the   
bridge across the strait to ,lanka1  he 
sent his followers to ,himlaya to       
collect materials4 ,they returned  with 
a mighty burden1 but meanwhile the hero 
had completed his task2  so he ordered  
them to throw down their loads1 and     
where the stones  fell these ranges were

 produced4 ,in the same way the         
,maniparvata at  ,ajudhya is said to    
have been dropped by ,sugrva1 the monkey
 king of  ,kishkindhya1 and the ,irichh 
hills at ,jhnsi are described to have   
been formed in the same way4    ,there  
is another legend of the ,vindhyas told 
in the story of ,nala  and ,damayant4   
,they were jealous of the ,himlaya1 the 
peaks of which  were each morning       
visited by the earliest rays of the     
rising sun4 ,the  sun1 on being appealed
 to1 declared that it was impossible for
 him  to change his course4 ,immediately
 the ,vindhyas swelled with rage1  and  
rising in the heavens1 intercepted the  
view of the sun1 moon1  and the         
constellations4 ,the gods1 alarmed1     
invoked the aid of the  saint ,agastya4 
,he went1 accompanied by his wife1 and  
requested the  ,vindhyas to sink and let
 him pass to the south1 and not rise    
till  he returned4 ,they agreed1 and    
gave passage to the saint1 but as he    
never came back they have never resumed 

their former height4 ,agastya  finally  
settled on the ,malayam or ,potiyam     
mountain1 not far from  ,cape ,comorin4 
,he now shines in the heavens as the    
regent of the star  ,canopus1 and to him
 is ascribed almost all the civilization
 of ,southern  ,india4 ,the legend      
possibly goes back to the arrival of the
 earliest  ,brhmanic missionaries in    
,southern ,india1 and the name of the   
range1  which probably means the        
divider1 marked the boundary between the
  ,aryan and ,drvidian peoples4 ,a      
similar story is told of one of the     
ranges in ,nepl4 #adi        ,other     
,famous ,hills4    ,a mention of some   
other famous hills in ,northern ,india  
may close  this account of              
mountain-worship4 ,at ,gaya is the      
,dharma ,sila1 or  rock of piety1 which 
was once the wife of the saint ,marchi4 
,the  lord of the infernal regions1 by  
order of ,brahma1 crushed it down  on   
the head of the local demon4 #aej ,the  
hills of ,goghar k dhr1  in the ,mundi  

,state1 have a reputation similar to    
that of the ,brocken  in the ,hartz     
mountains on ,wulpurgis night4 ,on the  
#crd of ,september  the demons1 witches1
 and magicians from the most distant    
parts of  ,india assemble here and hold 
their revels1 from which time it is     
dangerous for men to cross the          
mountains4 ,the spirits of the ,kulu    
range are said to wage war with those of
 the ,goghar1 and after a  violent storm
 the peasants will show the traveller   
the stones which  have been hurled from 
range to range4 ,the last chief of      
,mundi was  a mighty wizard himself4 ,he
 had a little book of spells which the  
demons were forced to obey1 and when he 
placed it in his mouth he  was instantly
 transported where he pleased through   
the air4 #aea    ,another famous hill is
 that of ,govardhan1 near ,mathura4     
,this is  the hill which ,krishna is    
fabled to have held aloft on the tip of 
his finger for seven days1 to protect   
the people of ,braj from the  tempests  

poured down on them by ,indra when he   
was deprived of his  wonted sacrifices4 
,there is a local belief that as the    
waters of  the ,jumn are yearly         
decreasing in volume1 so this hill is   
gradually  sinking4 ,not a particle of  
stone is allowed to be removed from it1 
and even the road which crosses it at   
its lowest point1 where only a  few     
fragments of the rock crop up           
overground1 had to be carried over  them
 by a paved causeway4 #aeb        ,the  
,spirits of the ,air4    ,aerial spirits
 or devils are such as keep quarter in  
the air1 cause  many tempests1 thunder  
and lightnings1 tear oaks1 fire         
steeples1  houses1 strike men and       
beasts1 make it rain wool1 frogs1 etc4  
,they  cause whirlwinds on a sudden1 and
 tempestuous storms1 which though  our  
meteorologists refer to natural causes1 
yet ,i am of ,bodin's mind  that they   
are more often caused by those aerial   
devils in their several  quarters4 #aec 
,this statement of ,burton is a good    

summary of current  ,hindu opinion on   
this subject2 and it is just this class 
of physical  phenomena which civilized  
man admits to be beyond his control1    
that  primitive races profess to be able
 to regulate4 ,as ,dr4 ,taylor puts     
it--,the rainfall is passing from the   
region of the supernatural to  join the 
tides and seasons in the realm of       
physical science4 #aed    ,the old      
weather god was ,indra1 who wars with   
,vritra or ,ahi1 the dragon  demon of   
drought1 whom he compels to dispense the
 rain4 ,he was revered  as the causer of
 fertility1 and feared as the lord of   
the lightning  and the thunder4 ,he has 
now been deposed from his pre-eminence1 
and  is little more than a roi fainant1 
who lives in a luxurious heaven  of his 
own1 solaced by the dances of the       
fairies who form his court1  one of whom
 he occasionally bestows on some        
favoured mortal who wins  his kindness  
or forces him to obey his orders4 ,but  
his status is at  present decidedly low1

 and it is remarkable in what a         
contemptuous way  even so orthodox a    
poet as ,tulas ,ds speaks of him4 #aee  
,mr4 ,wheeler  #aef suggests that this  
degradation of ,indra may possibly be   
due to  the fact that he was a tribal   
god notoriously hostile to ,brhmans2    
and it is certainly very suggestive from
 this point of view that he  has come to
 be regarded as the great deity of the  
,burman ,buddhists4 ,it  is still       
further remarkable that at ,benares1 the
 headquarters of  ,brhmanism1 he has    
been replaced by a special rain god1    
,dalbhyeswara1  who perhaps takes his   
name from ,dalbhya1 an ancient ,rishi1  
who must  be worshipped and kept        
properly dressed if the seasons are not 
to  become unfavourable4 #aeg           
,bhmsen1 a ,weather ,godling4           
,bhmsen1 of whom more will be said later
 on1 is regarded by the ,gonds  as a god
 of rain1 and has a festival of four or 
five days' duration  held in his honour 
at the end of the rainy season1 when two

 poles  about twenty feet high and five 
feet apart are set up with a rope       
attached to the top1 by which the boys  
of the village climb up and  then slide 
down the poles4 ,this is apparently an  
instance of rude  sympathetic magic1    
representing the descent of the rain4   
#aeh        ,demoniacal ,control of the 
,weather4    ,it is an idea common to   
the beliefs of many races1 that the     
spirits  of the wind may be tied up in  
sacks and let out to injure an enemy    
and assist a friend4 ,to this day the   
,lapps give their sailors magic  sacks  
containing certain winds to secure them 
a safe journey4 #aei    ,another side of
 the matter may be illustrated from     
,marco ,polo4 ,during  the three months 
of every year that the ,lord 7,kublai   
,khn7 resides at  that place1 if it     
should happen to be bad weather1 there  
are certain  crafty enchanters and      
astrologers in his train1 who are such  
adepts in  necromancy and the diabolical
 arts1 that they are able to prevent any

  cloud or storm passing over the spot  
on which the ,emperor's palace  stands4 
,whatever they do in this way is by the 
help of the ,devil2  but they make those
 people believe that it is compassed by 
their own  sanctity and the help of     
,god4 ,they always go in a state of dirt
 and  uncleanness1 devoid of respect for
 themselves or for those who see  them1 
unkempt and sordidly attired4 ,timr in  
his ,memoirs speaks  of the ,indian ,jts
 using incantations to produce heavy    
rain1 which  hindered his cavalry from  
acting against them4 ,a ,yadachi was    
captured1  and when his head had been   
taken off the storm ceased4 ,bbar speaks
  of one of his early friends1 ,khwjaka 
,mulai1 who was acquainted with         
,yadagar1 or the art of bringing on rain
 and snow by incantations4 ,in  the same
 way in ,nepl the control of the weather
 is supposed to be  vested in the       
,lamas4 #afj        ,rain-making and    
,nudity4    ,one very curious custom of 
rain-making has a series of remarkable  

parallels in ,europe4 ,in ,servia1 in   
time of drought1 a girl is stripped  and
 covered with flowers4 ,she dances at   
each house1 and the mistress  steps out 
and pours a jar of water over her1 while
 her companions sing  rain songs4 #afa  
,in ,russia the women draw a furrow     
round the village1  and bury at the     
juncture a cock1 a cat1 and a dog4 ,the 
dog is a  demonic character in ,russia1 
while the cat is sacred4 ,the offering  
of both seems to represent a desire to  
conciliate both sides4 #afb  ,mr4       
,conway thinks that the nudity of the   
women represents their utter  poverty   
and inability to give more to conciliate
 the god of the rain2  or that we have  
here a form of the ,godiva and ,peeping 
,tom legend1  where there is probably a 
distant reflection of the punishment    
sometimes said to overtake those who    
gazed too curiously upon the  ,swan     
,maiden with her feathers4 #afc    ,the 
,godiva legend has been admirably       
illustrated by ,mr4 ,hartland1  #afd who

 comes to the conclusion that it is the 
survival of an annual  rite in honour of
 a heathen goddess1 and closely         
connected with those  nudity observances
 which we are discussing4 ,the          
difficulty is1 however1  to account for 
the nudity part of the ceremony4 ,it may
 possibly be  based on the theory that  
spirits dread indecency1 or rather the  
male  and female principles4 #afe       
,this may be the origin of the          
indecencies of word and act practised at
  the ,hol and ,kajar festivals in      
,upper ,india1 which are both closely   
connected with the control of the       
weather4 ,among the ,ramoshis of  the   
,dakkhin the bridegroom is stripped     
naked before the anointing  ceremony    
commences1 and the same custom prevails 
very generally  in ,upper ,india4 ,the  
,mhrs of ,sholapur are buried naked1    
even the  loin-cloth being taken off4   
,barren women worship a naked female    
figure  at ,bijapur4 ,at ,dayamava's    
festival in the ,karntak1 women walk    

naked  to the temple where they make    
their vows2 and the ,mng1 who carries   
the scraps of holy meat which he        
scatters in the fields to promote       
fertility1 is also naked4 #aff ,the same
 idea of scaring evil spirits  from     
temples possibly accounts for much of   
the obscene sculpture to  be found on   
the walls of many ,hindu shrines1 and it
 may be noted in  illustration of the   
same principle that in ,nepl temples are
 decorated  with groups of obscene      
figures as a protection against         
lightning4 #afg        ,rites ,special  
to ,women4    ,connected with the same  
principle it may be noted that in       
,india1 as in  many other places1 there 
are rites of the nature of the ,bona    
,dea1 in  which only women take part1   
and from which males are excluded4 ,in  
some  of these rites nudity forms a     
part4 ,thus1 in ,italy1 ,la ,bella      
,marte is  invoked when three girls1    
always stark naked1 consult the cards to
 know  whether a lover is true or which 

of them is likely to be married4 #afh   
,a number of similar usages have been   
discussed by ,mr4 ,hartland4 ,we  have  
already noticed the custom of sun       
impregnation4 ,among ,hindus1  a woman  
who is barren and desires a child stands
 naked facing the sun  and desires his  
aid to remove her barrenness4 ,in one of
 the folk-tales  the witch stands naked 
while she performs her spells4 #afi     
,the rain custom in ,india is precisely 
the same as has been already            
illustrated by examples from ,europe4   
,during the ,gorakhpur ,famine  in      
#ahgc-gd1 there were many accounts      
received of women going about  with a   
plough by night1 stripping themselves   
naked and dragging  the plough over the 
fields as an invocation of the rain god4
 ,the  men kept carefully out of the way
 while this was being done1 and it  was 
supposed that if the women were seen by 
the men the rite would  lose its effect4
 ,mr4 ,frazer on this remarks that it is
 not said  they plunge the plough into a

 stream or sprinkle it with water4 ,but 
the charm would hardly be complete      
without it4 #agj ,it was on my          
authority that the custom which ,messrs4
 ,frazer and ,hartland quote  was       
originally recorded1 and ,i do not      
remember at the time hearing  of this   
part of the ritual4 ,later inquiries do 
not point to it as  part of the rite in 
,upper ,india4    ,it may be well to    
adduce other instances of this nudity   
rite4 ,in ,sirsa1  when a horse falls   
sick1 the cure is to kill a fowl or a   
he-goat and  let its warm blood flow    
into the mouth of the animal2 but if    
this  cannot be done quickly1 it is     
sufficient for a man to take off all    
his clothes and strike the horse seven  
times on the forehead with his  shoe4   
#aga ,here the nudity and the blows with
 the shoe are means  to drive off the   
demon of disease4 ,in ,chhattarpur1 when
 rain falls  a woman and her husband's  
sister take off all their clothes and   
drop  seven cakes of cow-dung into a mud

 reservoir for storing grain4 ,if a  man
 and his maternal uncle perform the same
 ceremony1 it is equally  effective2 but
 as a rule women do it1 and the special 
days for the  rite are ,sunday and      
,wednesday4 ,here we have the custom in 
process of  modification1 males1 one of 
whom is a relation in the female line1  
being substituted for the female        
officiants4    ,another similar means of
 expelling the demon of disease is given
  by ,mrs4 ,fanny ,parkes in her curious
 book entitled ,wanderings of a         
,pilgrim in search of the ,picturesque4 
#agb ,the ,hindu women in a  most       
curious way propitiate the goddess who  
brings cholera into the  bzr4 ,they go  
out in the evening1 about #g p4m41      
sometimes two or  three hundred at a    
time1 each carrying a lota or brass     
vessel filled  with sugar1 water1       
cloves1 etc4 ,in the first place they   
make pj2  then1 stripping off their     
sheets and binding their sole petticoat 
round their waists1 as high above the   

knee as it can be pulled up1  they      
perform a most frantic sort of dance1   
forming themselves into  a circle1 while
 in the centre of the circle about five 
or six women  dance entirely naked1     
beating their hands together over their 
heads1  and then applying them behind   
with a great smack that keeps time with 
the music1 and with the song they scream
 out all the time1 accompanied  by      
native instruments played by men who    
stand at a distance1 to  the sound of   
which these women dance and sing1       
looking like frantic  creatures4 ,the   
men avoid the place where the ceremony  
takes place1  but here and there one or 
two men may be seen looking on1 whose   
presence does not seem to molest the    
nut-brown dancers in the least2  they   
shriek and sing and dance and scream    
most marvellously4 ,here  we find the   
rule of privacy at these nudity rites   
slightly modified4    ,another instance 
of the nudity rite in connection with   
cattle disease  comes from ,jlandhar4   

#agc ,when an animal is sick the remedy 
is  for some one to strip himself and to
 walk round the patient with some       
burning straw or cane fibre in his      
hands4    ,nudity also appears to be in 
some places a condition of the erection 
of  a pinnacle on a ,hindu temple4 ,the 
,temple of ,arang in ,rpur district  and
 that at ,deobalada were built at the   
same time4 ,when they were  finished and
 the pinnacles 7kalas7 had to be put on1
 the mason and  his sister agreed to put
 them on simultaneously at an auspicious
  moment4 ,the day and hour being fixed 
by ,brhmans1 the two1 stripping         
themselves naked1 according to custom on
 such occasions1 climbed  up to the top4
 ,as they got up to the top each could  
see the other1  and each through shame  
jumped down into the tank close to their
  respective temples1 where they still  
stand turned into stone1 and  are       
visible when the tank water falls low in
 seasons of drought4 #agd    ,of the    
regular nudity rite in case of failure  

of rain1 we have a  recent instance from
 ,chunr in the ,mirzapur district4 ,the 
rains  this year held off for a long    
time1 and last night 7#bdth ,july1      
#ahib7  the following ceremony was      
performed secretly4 ,between the hours  
of  #i and #aj p4m4 a barber's wife went
 from door to door and invited all  the 
women to join in ploughing4 ,they all   
collected in a field from  which all    
males were excluded4 ,three women from a
 cultivator's family  stripped off all  
their clothes2 two were yoked to a      
plough like oxen1  and a third held the 
handle4 ,they then began to imitate the 
operation  of ploughing4 ,the woman who 
had the plough in her hand shouted1  ',o
 ,mother ,earth6 bring parched grain1   
water and chaff4 ,our bellies  are      
bursting to pieces from hunger and      
thirst4' ,then the landlord and  village
 accountant approached them and laid    
down some grain1 water  and chaff in the
 field4 ,the women then dressed and went
 home4 ,by the  grace of ,god the       

weather changed almost immediately1 and 
we had a  good shower4 #age ,here we see
 the ceremony elaborately organized2    
the privacy taboo is enforced1 and the  
ritual is in the nature of  sympathetic 
magic1 intended to propitiate ,mother   
,earth4    ,the nudity rite for the     
expulsion of disease is also found in   
,madras4 ,the image of ,mariyamma1 cut  
out of ,margosa wood1 is carried  from  
her temple to a stone called a          
,baddukal1 in the centre of the         
village1 on the afternoon of the first  
day of the feast4 ,a rounded  stone1    
about six inches above the ground and   
about eight inches  across1 is to be    
seen just inside the gate of every      
village4 ,it  is what is called the     
,baddukal or navel stone2 it is         
worshipped  in times of calamity1       
especially during periods of cattle     
disease2  often women passing it with   
water pour a little on it1 and every one
  on first going out of the village in  
the morning is supposed to give  it some

 little tribute of attention4 ,the      
following day all men and  women of     
,sdra castes substitute garments of     
leaves of the ,margosa1  little branches
 tied together1 for their ordinary      
clothes1 and thus  attired go with music
 to the goddess4 #agf ,here the dress   
may imply  some form of nudity rite1 or 
may be a reminiscence of the time when1 
like the ,jungs of ,chota ,ngpur1 they  
wore leaf aprons4    ,there can be      
little doubt that rites of this kind    
largely prevail in  ,india1 but1 as     
might naturally be expected1 they are   
very carefully  concealed1 and it is    
extremely difficult to obtain precise   
information  about them4        ,other  
,rites to bring ,rain4    ,besides these
 nudity rites there are many ways of    
causing rain to  fall4 ,in ,kumaun when 
rain fails they sink a ,brhman up to his
 lips  in a tank1 and there he goes on  
repeating the name of ,rja ,indra1  the 
god of rain1 for a day or two1 when rain
 is sure to fall2 or they  dig a trench 

five or six feet deep and make a ,brhman
 or a ,jogi sit  in it1 when the god1 in
 pity for the holy man1 will relent and 
give  rain4 ,another plan is to hang a  
frog with his mouth open on a bamboo1   
and the deity pities him and brings the 
rain4 #agg ,in ,mirzapur they  turn a   
plough upside down and bury it in a     
field1 rub the lingam of  ,mahdeva with 
cow-dung1 and offer water at the grave  
of a ,brahm or  bachelor ,brhman4       
,among the ,bhls in time of drought     
women and girls go out dancing and      
singing with bows and arrows in their   
hands1 and seizing a buffalo  belonging 
to another village1 sacrifice it to the 
goddess ,kl4 ,the  headman of the       
village to which the animal belongs     
seldom objects  to the appropriation of 
it4 ,if he does1 the women by abusing   
and  threatening to shoot him always    
have their own way4 #agh ,analogous  to 
this regular rain sacrifice is the      
custom at ,ahmadnagar1 where on  the    
bright #crd of ,baiskh 7,april-,may7 the

 boys of two neighbouring  villages     
fight with slings and stones4 ,the local
 belief is that if  the fight be        
discontinued1 rain fails1 or if rain    
does fall that it  produces a plague of 
rats4 #agi ,at ,ahmadbd1 again1 there is
 a city  headman1 known as the ,nagar   
,seth or chief man of the town4 ,when   
rain  holds off he has to perambulate   
the city walls1 pouring out milk to     
appease ,rja ,indra4 #ahj ,here we reach
 the sympathetic magic type  of         
observance under which most of the other
 practices may be classed1  though here 
and there we seem to find the germ of   
the principle of  vicarious sacrifice4  
,thus in the ,panjb the village girls   
pour down  on an old woman as she passes
 some cow-dung dissolved in water2 or   
an old woman is made to sit down under  
the house-roof spout and get  a wetting 
when it rains4 ,here the idea must be   
that her sufferings  in some way        
propitiate the angry god4 ,in the       
,muzaffarnagar ,district1  if rain      

fails1 they worship ,rja ,indra and read
 the story of the  ,megha ,rja1 or king 
of the rain4 ,in his name they give alms
 to the  poor and release a young bull  
or buffalo4 ,crushed grain is cooked  on
 the edge of a tank in his honour and in
 the name of the rain god  ,khwja       
,khizr1 and some offering is made to    
,bhmiya1 the lord of the  soil4 ,in     
,chhattarpur1 on a wall facing the east1
 they paint two figures  with           
cow-dung--one representing ,indra and   
the other ,megha ,rja1 with  their legs 
up and their heads hanging down4 ,it is 
supposed that the  discomfort thus      
caused to them will compel them to grant
 the boon of  rain4 ,the ,mirzapur      
,korwas1 when rain fails1 get the ,baiga
 to make a  sacrifice and prayer to     
,sraj ,deota1 the ,sun godling4         
,another common plan in ,upper ,india is
 for a gang of women to come  out to    
where a man is ploughing and drive him  
and his oxen by force  back to the      
village1 where he and his cattle are    

well fed4 ,another  device is to seize  
the blacksmith's anvil and pitch it into
 a well or  the village tank4 ,we have  
already given instances of the          
connection  of wells with rainfall1 such
 as the case of the well in ,farghna    
which caused rain if defiled4 #aha ,mr4 
,gomme has collected several  ,european 
instances of the same belief4 #ahb ,the 
anvil is probably  used for this purpose
 because it is regarded as a sort of    
fetish1  and the blacksmith himself is1 
as we shall see later on1 considered  as
 invested with supernatural powers4     
,in the ,panjb1 apparently on the       
principle of vicarious sacrifice  to    
which reference has been already made1  
an earthen pot of filth  is carried to  
the door of some old woman cursed with a
 bad temper1  and thrown down at her    
threshold1 which is a sacred place4 ,if 
she then  falls into a rage and gives   
vent to her feelings in abusive         
language1  the rain will come down4 ,the
 old woman is considered a sort of      

witch1  and if she is punished the      
influence which restrains the rain will 
be removed4 #ahc    ,there are numerous 
instances in which the king is held     
responsible  for a failure of the rain4 
,in ,kngra there are some local gods    
whose  temples are endowed with         
rent-free lands4 ,when rain is wanted1  
these  deities are ordered to provide   
it2 and if they fail1 they have to pay  
a fine into the ,rja's treasury4 ,this  
is the way the ,chinese treat  their    
gods who refuse to do their duty4 #ahd  
,the song of ,alha and ,udal1 which     
describes the struggle between the      
,hindus and the early ,muhammadan       
invaders1 is sung in ,oudh to procure   
rain4 ,in the ,hills smart showers are  
attributed to the number of  marriages  
going on at the time in the plains4 ,the
 bride and bridegroom1  as we shall see 
in the legend of ,dulha ,deo1 are       
particularly exposed  to the demoniacal 
influence of the weather4 ,in the       
,eastern ,districts  of the             

,north-,western ,provinces the people   
will not kill wolves1 as  they say that 
wherever there falls a drop of a wolf's 
blood the rain  will be deficient4      
,to close this catalogue of devices to  
procure rain1 we may note that it  is a 
common belief that sacred stones are    
connected with rainfall4 ,in  the temple
 of ,mars at ,rome there was a great    
stone cylinder which1 when  there was a 
drought1 was rolled by the priests      
through the town4 #ahe  ,in ,mingrelia1 
to get rain they dip a holy image in    
water daily till  it rains4 ,in ,navarre
 the image of ,st4 ,peter was taken to a
 river1  where some prayed to him for   
rain1 but others called out to duck him 
in the water4 #ahf ,a stone in the form 
of a cross at ,iona was used  for the   
same purpose4 #ahg ,so in ,india the    
relics of ,gautama ,buddha  were        
believed to have the same influence4    
#ahh ,in ,behr in seasons  of drought a 
holy stone1 known as ,nryana ,chakra1 is
 kept in a vessel  of water2 sometimes a

 piece of plantain leaf on which are    
written the  names of one hundred and   
eight villages beginning with the letter
 ,k  and not ending in ,pur is thrown   
into the water4 #ahi ,in the same  way  
the lingam of ,mahdeva1 a thirsty deity1
 who needs continual  cooling to relieve
 his distress1 must be kept continually 
moist to  avoid drought4 ,not long ago  
when rain failed at ,mirzapur1 the      
people  contributed to maintain a gang  
of labourers who brought water to pour  
on a famous lingam4 ,the same custom    
prevails in ,samoa4 #aij ,there1  when  
rain was excessive1 the stone           
representing the rain-making god was    
laid by the fire and kept warm till fine
 weather set in2 but in time  of drought
 the priest and his followers1 dressed  
up in fine mats1 went  in procession to 
the stream1 dipped the stone1 and prayed
 for a shower4        ,devices to ,cause
 ,rain to ,cease4    ,in ,england when  
rain is in excess the little children   
sing1 ,rain6  ,rain6 ,go away6 ,come    

again on a ,saturday6    ,in ,india     
there are many devices intended to      
secure the same object4 ,one  is the    
reverse of the nudity charm which we    
have already discussed4 ,in  ,madras1 a 
woman1 generally an ugly widow1 is made 
to dance1 sometimes  naked1 with a      
burning stick in her hand and facing the
 sky4 ,this is  supposed to disgust     
,varuna1 the sky god1 who shrinks away  
from such  a sight and withholds the    
rain4 #aia ,other devices have the same 
object1 to put pressure on the deities  
who are responsible for the  excessive  
rain4 ,thus1 in ,muzaffarnagar the ,muni
 or ,rishi ,agastya1 who  is a great    
personage in early folk-lore1 is        
supposed to have power to  stop the     
rain4 ,when rain is in excess they draw 
a figure of him on a  loin cloth and put
 it out in the rain4 ,some paint his    
figure on the  outside of the house and 
let the rain wash it away4 ,this        
generally  brings him to his senses and 
he gives relief4 ,another practice1     

which  is believed to be employed by    
evil-minded people who are selfishly    
interested in a drought1 is to light a  
lamp with melted butter and  put it     
outside when the rain-clouds collect4   
,the rain god is afraid  to put out the 
sacred light1 and retires4 ,another way 
in use in the  ,panjb is to give an     
unmarried girl some oil and get her to  
pour  it on the ground1 saying1 ,if ,i  
pour not out the oil1 mine the sin2  if 
thou disperse not the clouds1 thine the 
sin4 ,in ,mirzapur it is  considered a  
good plan to name twenty-one men who are
 blind of an eye1  and consequently     
ill-omened1 and make twenty-one knots in
 a cord and  tie it under the eaves of  
the house4 ,in ,kumaun many devices are 
used to  effect the same result4 ,some  
hot oil is poured into the left ear of a
  dog4 ,when the pain makes him yell it 
is believed that ,rja ,indra takes  pity
 on him and stops the rain4 ,another    
plan is very like the ,mirzapur  device4
 ,five1 seven1 or eleven grains of ,urad

 pulse are placed in a  piece of cloth1 
wrapped up and tied with a treble cord4 
,each grain  bears the name of a blind  
person1 known to the man who is carrying
  out the rite4 ,this is known as the   
binding of the blind men4 ,the  packet  
is either buried under the eaves of a   
house where the water  drips1 or put in 
a tree4 ,the object is to excite the    
compassion of  ,rja ,indra by their     
sufferings4 ,others take seven pieces of
 granite1  seven grains of mustard1 and 
seven bits of goat-dung1 parch them in  
an  oven1 and then put them under the   
drip of the eaves4 ,these represent  the
 demons1 who are enemies of ,indra1 and 
he is so pleased at their  discomfiture 
that he disperses the clouds4 ,others   
fix up a harrow  perpendicularly where  
four roads meet4 ,as this instrument is 
always  used in a horizontal position1  
this indicates that gross injustice  is 
being done to the world1 and the rain   
god relents4 ,others when  the thunder  
roars in the rain-clouds invoke the     

saint ,agastya1 who  once drank up all  
the waters of the world in four sips2 so
 all the  clouds fear him and disperse  
when he is invoked4    ,another         
favourite plan is to fee a ,brhman to   
make sixty holes in a  piece of wood and
 run a string through all of them4      
,while he is thus  binding up the rain  
he recites spells in honour of the ,sun 
godling1  ,sraj ,nryan1 who is moved to 
interfere4 ,others take a piece of      
unleavened bread1 go into the fields and
 place it on the ground2  or taking some
 sugar1 rice1 and other articles        
ordinarily used in  worship to a place  
where four roads meet1 defile them in a 
particularly  disgusting way4 ,on such  
substances the rain is ashamed to fall4 
,in  ,bombay a leaf-plate filled with   
cooked rice and curds is placed in  some
 open spot where the rain can see it and
 avoid it4 ,if the rain  should persist 
in coming1 a live coal is laid on a tile
 and placed in  some open place1 where  
it is implored to swallow the hateful   

rain4 ,all  these practices are magic of
 the ordinary sympathetic kind4 #aib    
,rain-clouds are supposed also to be    
under the influence of the ,evil  ,eye1 
and will blow over without giving rain  
if the malicious glance  falls upon     
them4 ,hence1 when rain is needed1 if   
any one runs out of  a house bareheaded 
while it is raining1 he is ordered in at
 once1  or he is told to put on his cap 
or turban1 for a bareheaded man is  apt 
to wish involuntarily that the rain may 
cease1 and thus injure  his neighbours4 
,everywhere it is believed that the     
,banya or cornchandler1 who is          
interested in high prices1 buries some  
water in an earthen pot in  order to    
stop the rain4        ,hail and         
,whirlwind4    ,the hail and the        
whirlwind are1 like most of the natural 
phenomena  which we have been           
discussing1 attributed to demoniacal    
agency4 ,the  ,maruts who ride on the   
whirlwind and direct the storm hold a   
prominent  place in the ,veda1 where    

they are represented as the friends and 
allies of ,indra4 ,another famous       
tempest demon was ,trinvartta1 who      
assumed the form of a whirlwind and     
carried off the infant ,krishna1  but   
was killed by the child4    ,mr4 ,leland
 #aic tells a curious ,italian story of 
a peasant who killed  the church sexton 
with his billhook because he stopped    
ringing the  bell and thus allowed the  
hail to injure his vines4 ,this         
illustrates  a well-known principle that
 demons1 and in particular the demon    
who brings the hail1 can be scared by   
noise4 ,thus ,aubrey tells us3          
#aid--;,at ,paris1 when it begins to    
thunder and lighten1 they do  presently 
ring out the great bell at the ,abbey of
 ,st4 ,germain1 which  they do believe  
makes it cease4 ,when it thundered and  
lightened they  did ring ,st4 ,adelm's  
bell in ,malmesbury ,abbey4 ,the curious
 do say that  the ringing of bells      
exceedingly disturbs spirits4 ,hence one
 plan of  driving away the hail is to   

take out an iron griddle-plate and beat 
it with a bamboo4 ,here the use of iron1
 a well-known demon scarer1  increases  
the efficacy of the rite4 ,it is also an
 improvement if this  be done by a      
virgin1 and in some places it is        
considered sufficient  if when the hail 
falls an unmarried girl is sent out with
 an iron  plate in her hand4 ,possibly  
following out the same train of ideas1  
the ,kharwrs of ,mirzapur1 when hail    
falls1 throw into the courtyard  the    
wooden peg of the corn-mill1 which1 as  
we shall see1 is considered  possessed  
of certain magical powers4    ,in       
,muzaffarnagar1 when hail begins they   
pray at once to two noted  demons1 ,isml
 ,jogi and ,non ,chamrin1 and ring a    
bell in a ,saiva  temple to scare the   
demon4    ,another method is to put     
pressure on the hail demon by the       
pretence  of sheer physical pain4 ,thus 
in ,multn it is believed that if you    
can catch a hailstone in the air before 
it reaches the ground and  cut it in two

 with a pair of scissors the hail will  
abate4 #aie  ,not long ago a lady at    
,nam ,tl1 when a hailstorm came on1 saw 
her  gardener rush into the kitchen and 
bring out the cook's chopper1  with     
which he began to make strokes on the   
ground where the hail was  falling4 ,it 
appeared on inquiry that he believed    
that the hail would  dread being cut and
 cease to fall4 #aif ,in ,kumaun1 where 
hail is much  dreaded1 there are many   
devices of the same kind4 ,some put an  
axe in  the open air with the edge      
turned up1 so that the hailstones may be
  cut in pieces and cease falling4      
,another plan is to spit at the hail  as
 it falls1 or to sprinkle the hailstones
 with blood drawn from some  famous     
magician1 a rite which can hardly be    
anything but a survival of  human       
sacrifice4 ,a third device is to call an
 enchanter and make him  blow a         
conch-shell in the direction of the     
hail4 ,others put a churn  in the open  
air when the rain is falling1 in the    

belief that when  the hailstones touch  
it they will become as soft as butter4  
,others1  again1 when hail falls1 send  
out a wizard or one possessed by some   
deity and make him beat the hailstones  
with a shoe4 #aig    ,there are1 again1 
certain persons specially in charge of  
the  hail4 ,thus1 at the town of ,cleon 
in ,argolis there were watchmen         
maintained at the public expense to look
 out for hailstorms4 ,when  they saw a  
hail-cloud approaching they made a      
signal1 whereupon the  farmers turned   
out and sacrificed lambs and fowls4     
,they believed that  when the clouds had
 tasted the blood they would turn aside 
and go  somewhere else4 ,if any man was 
too poor to afford a lamb or a fowl1  he
 pricked his finger with a sharp        
instrument and offered his own  blood to
 the clouds2 and the hail1 we are told1 
turned aside from his  fields as readily
 as from those where it had been        
propitiated with  the blood of victims4 
#aih ,in the same way the duty of       

charming  away the hail is1 in ,kumaun1 
entrusted to a certain class of ,brhmans
  known as ,woli or ,oliya 7ola1 hail74 
,their method is to take a dry  gourd1  
which they fill with pebbles1 grains of 
,urad pulse1 mustard1  goat-dung and    
seeds of cotton4 ,this is then tied by a
 triple cord  to the highest tree on a  
mountain overhanging the village4 ,until
 the  crops are cut the ,oliya goes to  
this place every day and mutters his    
incantations4 ,if the crops are reaped  
without disaster of any kind  he is     
liberally remunerated4 #aii    ,as has  
been already said1 whirlwinds are the   
work of demons4 ,the  witches in        
,macbeth meet in thunder1 lightning and 
rain1 they can loose  and bind the winds
 and cause vessels to be tempest-tossed 
at sea4 ,the  same principle was laid   
down by ,pythagoras2 #bjj and ,herodotus
 #bja  describes the people of ,psylli  
marching in a body to fight the south   
wind which had dried up their           
water-tanks4 ,in ,ireland it is believed

  that a whirlwind denotes that a devil 
is dancing with a witch2 or  that the   
fairies are rushing by1 intent on       
carrying off some victim  to fairyland4 
,the only help is to fling clay at the  
passing wind1  and the fairies will be  
compelled to drop the mortal child or   
the  beautiful young girl they have     
abducted4 #bjb ,a gentleman at ,listowel
  not long ago was much astonished when 
a cloud of dust was being blown  along a
 road to see an old woman rush to the   
side and drag handfuls  of grass out of 
the fence1 which she threw in great     
haste into the  cloud of dust4 ,he      
inquired and learned that this was in   
order to give  something to the fairies 
which were flying along in the dust4 ,so
 in  ,italy1 ,spolviero is the wind     
spirit which flies along in the dust    
eddies4 #bjc    ,in the ,panjb ,pheru   
#bjd is the deity of the petty          
whirlwinds which  blow when the little  
dust-clouds rise in the hot weather4 ,he
 was a  ,brhman1 and a long story is    

told of him1 how he worshipped ,sakhi   
,sarwar1 was made ,governor of ,imnbd by
 ,akbar1 but he abandoned  the saint and
 returned to his caste1 whereupon he was
 afflicted with  leprosy4 ,when he      
repented he was cured by eating some    
magical earth  and believed in the saint
 till he died4 ,his shrine is at ,miynk1
 in  the ,lahore ,district1 and when a  
,panjbi sees a whirlwind he calls out1  
,bhi ,pheru1 teri kr--,may ,bhi ,pheru  
protect us6 ,another whirlwind  demon1  
the saint ,rahma1 was once neglected at 
the wheat harvest1  and he raised a     
whirlwind which blew for nine days in   
succession1  and wrought such damage in 
the threshing-floors that since then his
  shrine receives the appropriate       
offerings4 ,on the same principle       
whirlwinds are called in ,bombay ,baglya
 or devils4 #bje    ,among the ,mirzapur
 ,korwas1 when a dust-storm comes1 the  
women thrust  the house broom1 which1 as
 we shall see1 is a demon scarer1 into  
the  thatch1 so that it may not be blown

 away4 ,the ,pankas in the same way     
make their women hold the thatch and    
throw the rice mortar and the           
flour-mill pivot into the courtyard4    
,the wind is ashamed of being  defeated 
by the power of women and ceases to     
blow4        ,aerolites4    ,all over   
the world people say that if when a     
meteor or falling star  darts across the
 sky they can utter a wish before it    
disappears1  that wish will be granted4 
,the old ,norsemen believed that it     
implied  that a dragon was flashing     
through the air4 ,in ,italy #bjf the    
sight  of such a body is a cure for     
blear eyes4 ,in ,india it is believed   
that  the residence of a soul in heaven 
is proportionate to the charities  done 
by him on earth1 and when his allotted  
period is over he falls  as an aerolite4
 ,a falling star means that the soul of 
some great man  is passing through the  
air1 and when people see one of these   
stars  they thrust their five fingers   
into their mouths to prevent their own  

souls from joining his company4 ,many of
 these aerolites are worshipped  as     
lingams in ,saiva shrines4 ,one which   
fell at ,stmarhi in ,bengal  in #ahhj1  
has now been deified1 and is worshipped 
as ,adbht-ntha1 or  the miraculous god4 
#bjg                ,,chapter ,,ii4     
,,the ,,heroic ,,and ,,village          
,,godlings4                             
,arma procul currusque virum miratur    
inanes4                      ,stant terr
 defix hast1 passimque soluti           
,per campum pascuntur equi4             
neid1 vi4 #feb-fed4      ,the ,heroic   
,godlings4    ,next to these deities    
which have been classed as the godlings 
of  nature1 come those which have a     
special local worship of their  own4    
,the number of these godlings is        
immense1 and their functions  and       
attributes so varied1 that it is        
extremely difficult to classify  them on
 any intelligible principle4 ,some of   
them are pure village  godlings1 of whom
 the last ,census has unearthed an      

enormous number  all through ,northern  
,india4 ,some of them1 like ,hanumn or  
,bhmsen1  are survivals in a somewhat   
debased form of the second-rate deities 
or heroes of the older mythology4 ,some 
have risen to the rank1 or are          
gradually being elevated to the status1 
of national deities4 ,some  are in all  
probability the local gods of the       
degraded races1 whom  we may tentatively
 assume to be autochthonous4 ,many of   
these have  almost certainly been       
absorbed into ,brhmanism at a           
comparatively  recent period4 ,some are 
in process of elevation to the orthodox 
pantheon4 ,but it will require a much   
more detailed analysis of the  national 
faith than the existing materials       
permit1 before it will  be possible to  
make a final classification of this mob 
of deities on  anything approaching a   
definite principle4    ,the deities of  
the heroic class are as a rule          
benignant1 and are  generally worshipped
 by most ,hindus4 ,those that have been 

definitely  promoted into the           
respectable divine cabinet1 like        
,hanumn1 have  ,brhmans or members of   
the ascetic orders as their priests1 and
  their images1 if not exactly admitted 
into the holy of holies of the  greater 
shrines1 are still allotted a           
respectable position in the             
neighbourhood1 and receive a share in   
the offerings of the faithful4    ,the  
local position of the shrine very often 
defines the status of the  deity4 ,to   
many godlings of this class is allotted 
the duty of acting  as warders 7dwrapla7
 to the temples of the great gods4      
,thus1 at  the ,ashthbhuja hill in      
,mirzapur1 the pilgrim to the shrine of 
the  eight-armed ,dev meets first on the
 road an image of the monkey  god       
,hanumn1 before he comes into the       
immediate presence of the  goddess4 ,so 
at ,benares1 ,bhaironnth is chief police
 officer 7,kotwl7  or guardian of all   
the ,saiva temples4 ,similarly at       
,jageswar beyond  ,almora we find       

,kshetrapl1 at ,badarinth ,ghantakaran1 
at ,kedrnth  ,bhairava1 and at ,tungnth 
,kl ,bhairon4 #bjh ,in many places1 as  
the  pilgrim ascends to the greater     
temples1 he comes to a place where the  
first view of the shrine is obtained4   
,this is known as the ,devadekhn  or    
spot from which the deity is viewed4    
,this is generally occupied  by some    
lower-class deity1 who is just beginning
 to be considered  respectable4 ,then   
comes the temple dedicated to the       
warden1 and lastly  the real shrine     
itself4 ,there can be little doubt that 
this represents  the process by which   
gods which are now admittedly within the
 inner  circle of the first class1 such 
as the beast incarnations of ,vishnu1   
the elephant-headed ,ganesa1 and the    
,sktis or impersonations of the  female 
energies of nature1 underwent a gradual 
elevation4    ,this process is actually 
still going on before our eyes4 ,thus1  
the  familiar ,gor ,bba1 a deified ghost
 of the aboriginal races1 has in many   

places become a new manifestation of    
,siva1 as ,goreswara4 ,similarly1  the  
powerful and malignant goddesses1 who   
were by ruder tribes  propitiated with  
the sacrifice of a buffalo or a goat1   
have been  annexed to ,brhmanism as two 
of the numerous forms of ,durg ,dev1  by
 the transparent fiction of a ,bhainssur
 or ,kl ,dev4 ,in the  case of the      
former her origin is clearly proved by  
the fact that  she is regarded as a sort
 of tribal deity of the mixed tribe of  
,knhpuriya ,rjputs in ,oudh4 ,similarly 
,mahm1 or the ,great ,mother1  a        
distinctively aboriginal goddess whose  
shrine consists of a low  flat mound of 
earth with seven knobs of coloured clay 
at the head or  west side1 has been     
promoted into the higher pantheon as    
,jagadamb  ,dev1 or ,mother of the      
,world4 ,her shrine is still a simple   
flat  mound of earth with seven knobs at
 the top1 and a flag in front to  the   
east4 #bji ,more extended analysis will 
probably show that the  obligations of  

,brhmanism to the local cultus are much 
greater than  is commonly supposed4     
,hanumn4    ,first among the heroic     
godlings is ,hanumn1 ,he of the large   
jaws1 or1 as he is generally called1    
,mahbr1 the great hero1  the celebrated 
monkey chief of the ,rmyana1 who        
assisted ,rma in  his campaign against  
the giant ,rvana to recover ,st4 ,hardly
 any  event in his mythology1 thanks to 
the genius of ,tulas ,ds1 the great     
,hindi poet of ,hindustn1 is more       
familiar to the ,hindu peasant than     
this4 ,it forms the favourite subject of
 dramatic representation at  the annual 
festival of the ,dasahra4 ,there        
,hanumn1 in fitting attire1  marches    
along the stage at the head of his army 
of bears and monkeys1  and the play ends
 with the destruction of ,rvana1 whose  
great body1  formed of wickerwork and   
paper1 is blown up with fireworks1 amid 
the  delighted enthusiasm of the excited
 audience4    ,it is almost certain that
 the worship of ,hanumn does not come   

down  from the earliest ages of the     
,hindu faith1 though it has been        
suggested  that he is the legitimate    
descendant of ,vrisha-kapi1 the great   
monkey  of the ,veda4 #baj ,besides     
being a great warrior he was noted for  
his  skill in magic1 grammar and the art
 of healing4 ,many local legends        
connect him with sites in ,northern     
,india4 ,hills1 like the ,vindhya  and  
that at ,govardhan1 are1 as we have     
seen1 attributed to him or  to his      
companions4 ,the more extreme school of 
modern comparative  mythologists would  
make out that ,hanumn is only the       
impersonation  of the great cloud-monkey
 which fights the sun4 #baa    ,but the 
fact of monkey-worship is susceptible of
 a much simpler  explanation4 ,the ape1 
from his appearance and human ways1 is  
closely  associated with man4 ,it is a  
belief common to all folk-lore that     
monkeys were once human beings who have 
suffered degradation1 #bab  and         
according to one common belief stealers 

of fruit become monkeys  in their next  
incarnation4 ,but the common theory that
 the monkey is  venerated in memory of  
the demigod ,hanumn is1 as ,sir ,a4     
,lyall #bac  remarks1 plainly putting   
the cart before the horse1 for the      
monkey is  evidently at the bottom of   
the whole story4 ,hanumn is now         
generally  supposed to have been adopted
 into the ,hindu heaven from the        
non-,aryan  or aboriginal idolaters2    
though1 to my mind1 any uncivilized     
,indian  would surely fall down and     
worship at first sight of an ape4 ,then 
there  is the modern idea that the god  
was really a great chief of some such   
aboriginal tribe as those which to this 
day dwell almost like wild  creatures in
 the remote forests of ,india2 and this 
may be the nucleus  of fact in the      
legend regarding him4 ,it seems as if   
hero-worship and  animal-worship had got
 mixed up in the legend of ,hanumn4     
,at the same time1 it must be remembered
 that the so-called ,aryans  enjoy no   

monopoly of his worship4 ,he is         
sometimes like a tribal  godling of the 
aboriginal ,suiris1 and the wild        
,bhuiyas of ,keunjhar  identify him with
 ,borm1 the ,sun godling4 #bad ,it is at
 least a  possible supposition that his 
worship may have been imported into     
,brhmanism from some such source as     
these4        ,hanumn as a ,village     
,godling4    ,but whatever may be the   
origin of the cult1 the fact remains    
that  he is a great village godling1    
with potent influence to scare evil     
spirits from his votaries4 ,his rude    
image1 smeared with oil and red  ochre1 
meets one somewhere or other in almost  
every respectable ,hindu  village4 ,one 
of his functions is to act as an        
embodiment of virile  power4 ,he is a   
giver of offspring1 and in ,bombay women
 sometimes  go to his temple in the     
early morning1 strip themselves naked1  
and  embrace the god4 #bae ,mr4         
,hartland has collected many instances  
of similar practices4 ,thus a cannon at 

,batavia used to be utilized  in the    
same way2 and at ,athens there is a rock
 near the ,callirrhoe1  whereon women   
who wish to be made fertile rub         
themselves1 calling on  the ,moirai to  
be gracious to them4 #baf    ,on the    
same principle he is1 with ,hindu       
wrestlers1 their patron deity1  his     
place among ,musalmns being taken by    
',ali4 ,their aid is invoked  at the    
commencement of all athletic exercises1 
and at each wrestling  school a platform
 is erected in their honour4 ,tuesday is
 sacred to  ,mahbr and ,friday to ',ali4
 ,hindu wrestlers on ,mahbr's day bathe 
in  a river in the morning1 and after   
bathing dress in clean clothes4 ,then   
taking a jar of water1 some incense1    
sweets1 and red or white flowers1  they 
repair to the wrestling school1 bow down
 before the platform and  smear it with 
cow-dung or earth4 ,after this the      
sweets are offered  to ,mahbr and verses
 are recited in his honour4 ,then they  
do the  exercise five times and bow     

before the platform4 ,when the service  
is  over they smear their bodies with   
the incense1 which is supposed to  give 
them strength and courage4 ,care is     
taken that no woman sees the  athletes  
exercising1 lest she should cast the    
,evil ,eye upon them4    ,one special   
haunt of the monkey deity is what is    
known as the  ,bandarpnchh or monkey    
tail peak in the ,himlayas4 ,they say   
that  every year in the spring a single 
monkey comes from ,hardwr to  this peak 
and remains there twelve months1 when he
 makes way for  his successor4          
,hanumn is a favourite deity of the     
semi-,hinduized ,drvidian races  of the 
,vindhya-,kaimr plateau4 ,the most      
awe-inspiring of their  tremendous rocks
 are his fanes2 the most lovely of their
 pools are  sacred by virtue of the     
tradition of his having bathed in them4 
,he  was known as ,pawan-k-pt1 or son of
 the wind1 which corresponds  to his    
older title of ,marutputra1 or son of   
the wind god4 ,and the  ,bhuiyas of     

,sinhbhm1 who are1 as ,colonel ,dalton  
gravely remarks1  without doubt the apes
 of the ,rmyana1 call themselves        
,pawan-bans1  or sons of the wind1 to   
this day4 #bag ,but in the plains his   
chief  function is as a warden or       
guardian against demoniacal influence1  
and at the ,hanumngarhi shrine at       
,ajudhya he is provided with a  regular 
priesthood consisting of ,khki ascetics4
    ,the respect paid to the monkey does
 not need much illustration4 ,the       
ordinary monkey of the plains 7,macacus 
,rhesus7 is a most troublesome1         
mischievous beast1 and does enormous    
mischief to crops1 while in  cities he  
is little short of a pest4 ,but his life
 is protected by a  most effective      
sanction1 and no one dares to injure    
him4    ,general ,sleeman #bah tells a  
story of a ,muhammadan ,nawb of ,oudh1  
who was believed to have died of fever1 
the result of killing a  monkey4        
,mumtz-ud-daula1 said his informant1    
might have been  ,king of ,oudh had his 

father not shot that monkey4 ,in the    
,panjb  an appeal to the monkey         
overcomes the demon of the whirlwind4   
,there  is a ,bombay story that in the  
village of ,makargon1 whenever there  is
 a marriage in a house1 the owner puts  
outside the wedding booth  a turban1 a  
waist-cloth1 rice1 fruits1 turmeric1 and
 betel-nuts for  the village monkeys4   
,the monkeys assemble and sit round     
their ,patel1  or chief4 ,the chief     
tears the turban and gives a piece to   
each of  them1 and the other things are 
divided4 ,if the householder does not   
present these offerings they ascend the 
booth and defile the wedding  feast4 ,he
 has then to come out and apologize1 and
 when he gives them  the usual gifts    
they retire4 #bai ,the feeding of       
monkeys is part of  the ritual at the   
,durg ,temple at ,benares1 and there1   
too1 there is  a king of the monkeys who
 is treated with much respect4          
,instances of  ,rjas carrying out the   
wedding of a monkey at enormous expense 

are  not unknown4 ,where a monkey has   
been killed it is believed that no  one 
can live4 ,his bones are also           
exceedingly unlucky1 and a special      
class of exorcisers in ,bihr make it    
their business to ascertain that  his   
bones do not pollute the ground on which
 a house is about to be  erected4 #bbj  
,the worship of ,hanumn appears1 if the 
,census returns are to be  trusted1 to  
be much more popular in the ,north-,west
 ,provinces than  in the ,panjb4 ,in the
 former his devotees numbered about a   
million1  and in the latter less than   
ten thousand persons4 ,but the figures  
are  probably open to question1 as he is
 often worshipped in association  with  
other deities4        ,worship of       
,bhmsen4    ,another of these beneficent
 guardians or wardens is ,bhmsen1 he    
who has a terrible army4 ,he has now in 
popular belief very little  in common   
with the burly hero of the ,mahbhrata1  
who was notorious  for his gigantic     
strength1 great animal courage1         

prodigious appetite  and irascible      
temper2 jovial and jocular when in good 
humour1 but  abusive1 truculent and     
brutal when his passions were roused4   
#bba  ,he is now little more than one of
 the wardens of the house or village4   
,in parts of the ,central ,provinces he 
has become degraded into  a mere fetish1
 and is represented by a piece of iron  
fixed in a  stone or in a tree4 #bbb    
,under the name of ,bhmsen or ,bhmpen1  
his worship extends from ,berr to the   
extreme east of ,bastar1  and not merely
 among the ,hinduized aborigines1 who   
have begun to  honour ,khandoba1        
,hanumn1 ,ganpati and their brethren1   
but among the  rudest and most savage   
tribes4 ,he is generally adored under   
the form  of an unshapely stone covered 
with vermilion1 or of two pieces of     
wood standing from three to four feet   
out of the ground1 which are  possibly  
connected with the phallic idea1 towards
 which so many  of these deities often  
diverge4 ,bhiwsu1 the regular ,gond     

deity1  is identical with him4 ,mr4     
,hislop #bbc mentions a large idol of   
him eight feet high1 with a dagger in   
one hand and a javelin in the  other4   
,he has an aboriginal priest1 known as  
,bhmak1 or he of the  soil1 and the     
people repair to worship on ,tuesdays   
and ,saturdays1  offering he-goats1     
hogs1 hens1 cocks and cocoa-nuts4 ,the  
headman of  the village and the         
cultivators subscribe for an annual     
feast1 which  takes place at the        
commencement of the rains1 when the     
priest takes  a cow from the headman by 
force and offers it to the godling in   
the  presence of his congregation4 ,the 
,mriya ,gonds worship him in the  form  
of two pieces of wood previous to the   
sowing of the crops4 ,the  ,naikud      
,gonds adore him in the form of a huge  
stone daubed with  vermilion4 ,before it
 a little rice is cooked4 ,they then    
besmear the  stone with vermilion and   
burn resin as incense in its honour1    
after  which the victims--sheep1 hogs   

and fowls--with the usual oblation of   
spirits1 are offered4 ,the god is now   
supposed to inspire the priest1  who    
rolls his head1 leaps frantically round 
and round1 and finally  falls down in a 
trance1 when he announces whether       
,bhmsen has accepted  the service or    
not4 ,at night all join in drinking1    
dancing and beating  drums4 ,next       
morning the congregation disperses4     
,those who are unable  to attend this   
tribal gathering perform similar rites  
at home under  the shade of the ,mahua  
tree 7,bassia latifolia74 #bbd          
,pillar-worship of ,bhmsen4    ,the     
local worship of ,bhmsen beyond the     
,drvidian tract is specially  in the    
form of pillars1 which are called       
,bhmlth or ,bhmgada1 ,bhm's  clubs4     
,many of these are really the edict     
pillars which were erected  by the pious
 ,buddhist ,king ,asoka1 but they have  
been appropriated by  ,bhmsen4 ,such are
 the pillars in the ,blaght ,district of
 the ,central  ,provinces and at ,kahon 

in ,gorakhpur4 ,at ,devadhra1 in the    
,lower  ,himlaya1 are two boulders1 the 
uppermost of which is called ,ransila1  
or the stone of war4 ,on this rests a   
smaller boulder1 said to be  the same as
 that used by ,bhmsen to produce the    
fissures in the rocks2  in proof of     
which the print of his five fingers is  
still pointed out1  as they show the    
hand-mark of the ,giant ,bolster in     
,cornwall4 #bbe    ,bhmsen is one of the
 special gods of the ,bhuiyas of        
,keunjhar1 and they  consider themselves
 to be descended from him1 as he is the 
brother of  ,hanumn1 the founder of     
their race4 ,according to the ,hindu    
ritual he  has his special feast on the 
,bhaimy ,ekdash1 or eleventh of the     
bright  fortnight in the month of ,mgh4 
,the ,bengal legend tells that ,bhmsen1 
the brother of ,yudhisthira1 when he was
 sent to the snowy mountains  and lay   
benumbed with cold1 was restored by the 
,saint ,gorakhnth1  and made king of one
 hundred and ten thousand hills1        

stretching from  the source of the      
,ganges to ,bhutn4 ,among other miracles
 ,bhmsen and  ,gorakhnth introduced the 
sacrifice of buffaloes in place of human
  beings1 and in order to effect this   
,bhmsen thrust some of the flesh  down  
the throat of the holy man4 ,so though  
they have both lost caste  in           
consequence1 they are both deified4 ,the
 saint is still the tutelary  deity of  
the reigning family of ,nepl1 and all   
over that kingdom and  ,mithila ,bhmsen 
is a very common object of worship4     
,that mysterious  personage ,gorakhnth  
flits through religious legend and      
folk-lore  from post-,vedic to medival  
times2 and little has yet been done to  
discover the element of historical truth
 which underlies an immense  mass of the
 wildest fiction4 #bbf        ,worship  
of ,bhshma4    ,in about the same rank  
as ,bhmsen is ,bhshma1 the terrible one1
  another hero of the ,mahbhrata4 ,to   
the ,hindu nowadays he is chiefly  known
 by the tragic circumstances of his     

death4 ,he was covered all  over by the 
innumerable arrows discharged at him by 
,arjuna1 and when he  fell from his     
chariot he was upheld from the ground by
 the arrows and  lay as on a couch of   
darts4 ,this ,sara-sayya or arrow-bed of
 ,bhshma  is probably the origin of the 
,kantaka-sayya or thorn-couch of some   
modern ,bairgis1 who lie and sleep on a 
couch studded with nails4 ,he  wished to
 marry the maiden ,satyavat1 but he gave
 her up to his father  ,sntanu1 and     
,bhshma elected to live a single life1  
so that his sons  might not claim the   
throne from his step-brethren4 ,hence1  
as he died  childless and left no       
descendant to perform his funeral rites1
 he is  worshipped with libations of    
water on the ,bhshma ,ashtam1 or #bcrd  
of the month of ,mgh2 but this ceremony 
hardly extends beyond ,bengal4    ,in   
,upper ,india five days in the month of 
,krttik 7,november-,december7  are      
sacred to him4 ,this is a woman's       
festival4 ,they send lamps to a         

,brhman's house1 whose wife during these
 five days must sleep on the  ground1 on
 a spot covered with cow-dung1 close to 
the lamps1 which it  is her duty to keep
 alight4 ,the lamps are filled with     
sesamum oil1  and red wicks wound round 
sticks of the sesamum plant rest in the 
lamp saucers4 ,a walnut1 an onla 7the   
fruit of the emblic myrobolon71  a      
lotus-seed1 and two copper coins are    
placed in each lamp4 ,each  evening the 
women come and prostrate themselves     
before the lamps or  walk round them4   
,they bathe on each day of the feast    
before sunrise1  and are allowed only   
one meal in the day1 consisting of      
sugar-cane1  sweet potatoes and other   
roots1 with meal made of amarinth seed1 
millet and buckwheat cakes1 to which the
 rich add sugar1 dry  ginger1 and       
butter4 ,they drink only milk4 ,of      
course the ,brhman  gets a share of     
these good things1 to which the rich    
contribute in  addition a lamp-saucer   
made of silver1 with a golden wick1     

clothes1  and money4 ,at the early      
morning bath of the last day five       
lighted  lamps made of dough are placed1
 one at the entrance of the town or     
village1 others at the four cross-roads1
 under the ,ppal or sacred  fig tree1 at
 a temple of ,siva1 and at a pond4 ,this
 last is put in a  small raft made of   
the leaves of the sugar-cane1 and       
floated on the  water4 ,a little grain  
is placed beside each lamp4 ,after the  
lamps  handed over to the ,brhman have  
burnt away or gone out1 the black  from 
the wicks is rubbed on the eyes and     
fingers of the worshippers1  and their  
toe-nails are anointed with the         
remainder of the oil4 ,all  the articles
 used in the worship are well-known     
scarers of demons1  and there can be    
little doubt that the rite is intended  
to conciliate  ,bhshma in his character 
of a guardian deity1 and induce him to  
ward  off evil spirits from the         
household of the worshipper4    ,there  
is a curious legend told to explain the 

motive of the rite4 ,a  childless ,rja  
once threatened to kill all his queens  
unless one  of them gave birth to a     
child4 ,one of the ,rns who had a cat1  
announced that she had been brought to  
bed of a girl1 who was to be  shut up   
for twelve years1 a common incident in  
the folk-tales4 #bbg  ,this was all very
 well1 but the supposed princess had to 
be married1  and here lay the           
difficulty4 ,now this cat had been very 
attentive  during this rite in honour of
 ,bhshma1 keeping the wicks alight by   
raising them from time to time with her 
paws1 and cleaning them on  her body4   
,so the grateful godling turned her into
 a beautiful girl1  but her tail        
remained as before4 ,however1 the       
bridegroom's friends  admired her so    
much that they kept her secret at the   
wedding1 and  so saved the ,rn from     
destruction1 and when the time came for 
the  bride to go to her husband her tail
 dropped off too4 ,so ,hindu ladies  use
 the oil and lamp-black of ,bhshma's    

feast day as valuable aids  to beauty4  
,such cases of animal transformation    
constantly appear in  the folk-tales4   
,in one of the ,kashmr stories a cat1 by
 the advice  of ,prvat1 rubs herself    
with oil and is turned into a girl2 but 
she  does not rub a small patch between 
her shoulders1 and this remained        
covered with the cat's fur4 #bbh    ,the
 worship of the heroes of the ,mahbhrata
 does not prevail widely1  unless we    
have a survival of it in the worship of 
the ,pnch ,pr4 ,at  the last ,census in 
the ,north-,western ,provinces less than
 four thousand  persons declared        
themselves worshippers of the ,pndavas4 
,the number  in the ,panjb is even      
smaller4        ,worship of the ,local  
,godlings4    ,we now come to the local 
or village godlings1 a most nondescript 
collection of deities1 possessing very  
various attributes4 ,there  is good     
reason to believe that most of these    
deities1 if not all1  belong to the     
races whom it is convenient to call     

non-,aryan1 or at  least outside        
,brhmanism1 though some of them may have
 been from time  to time promoted into  
the official pantheon4 ,but ,dr4        
,oppert1 #bbi  writing of ,southern     
,india1 remarks that if the pure ,vedic 
doctrine  has been altered by the influx
 of non-,aryan tenets1 so have also the 
latter undergone a change by coming in  
contact with ,aryan ideas1 and  not only
 have males intruded into the once      
exclusive female circle of  the         
,grmadevats1 but also a motley of queer 
figures have crept in1  forming indeed a
 very strange gathering4 ,the           
,grmadevat-prathishtha  mentions as     
,grmadevats the skull of ,brahma1 the   
head of ,vishnu1  the skull of ,renuk1  
the figure of ,draupad1 the body of ,st1
  the harassing followers of ,siva 7the 
,pramathas71 the attendants  of ,vishnu 
7,prishadas71 demons1 ,yogins1 various  
kinds of ,sktis  made of wood1 stone1 or
 clay2 persons who were unsuccessful in 
their devotional practice1 ,sunasepha1  

,trisanku1 ,ghatotkacha1 and  others2   
,devak's daughter1 multiform ,durgs and 
,sktis2 ,ptan and  others who kill      
children2 ,bhtas1 ,pretas1 and ,pischas2
 ,ksmnda1  ,skin1 ,dkin1 ,vetlas1 and   
others2 ,yakshas1 ,kirtadev1 ,sabar1    
,rudra1 one hundred millions of forms of
 ,rudra2 ,mtang1 ,symal1  unclean       
,ganapati1 unclean ,chndal1 the goddess 
of the liquor pot  7,surabhandeswar71   
,mohin1 ,rkshas1 ,tripur1 ,lankhin1     
,saubhadev1  ,smudrik1 ,vanadurg1       
,jaladurg1 ,agnidurg1 suicides1         
culprits1  faithful wives1 the goddesses
 of matter1 goddesses of qualities1  and
 goddesses of deeds1 etc4 ,through such 
a maze as this it is no  easy task to   
find a clue4    ,the non-,brhmanic      
character of the worship is implied by  
the character  of the priesthood4 ,in   
the neighbourhood of ,delhi1 where the  
worship  of ,bhmiya as a local godling  
widely prevails1 the so-called priest   
of the shrine1 whose functions are      
limited to beating a drum during  the   

service and receiving the offerings1 is 
usually of the sweeper  caste4 ,stal1   
the small-pox goddess1 is very often    
served by a ,mli1  or gardener4 ,sir    
,john ,malcolm notes that the ,bhopa of 
,central ,india1  who acts as the       
village priest1 is generally drawn from 
some menial  tribe4 #bcj ,in the hill   
country of ,south ,mirzapur1 the ,baiga 
who  manages the worship of ,gansm1 ,rja
 ,lkhan1 or the aggregate of the  local 
deities1 known as the ,dih or ,deohr1 is
 almost invariably a  ,bhuiyr or a      
,chero1 both semi-savage ,drvidian      
tribes4 ,even the shrine  erected in    
honour of ,nhar ,ro1 the famous ,king of
 ,mandor1 who met  in equal combat the  
chivalrous ,chauhn in the pass of the   
,aravalli  range1 is tended by a barber 
officiant4 #bca ,though the votaries of 
the meaner godling are looked on with   
some contempt or pity by their  more    
respectable neighbours1 little active   
hostility or intolerance is  exhibited4 
,more than this1 the higher classes1 and

 particularly their  women1 occasionally
 join in the worship of the older gods4 
,at weddings  and other feasts their aid
 and protection are invoked4 ,every     
woman1  no matter what her caste may be1
 will bow to the ghosts which haunt  the
 old banyan or ppal tree in the village1
 and in time of trouble1  when the      
clouds withhold the rain1 when the      
pestilence walketh in  darkness1 and the
 murrain devastates the herds1 it is to 
the patron  deities of the village that 
they appeal for assistance4             
,village ,shrines4    ,the shrine of the
 regular village godling1 the ,grmadevat
 or  ,ganwdevat1 is generally a small   
square building of brick masonry1  with 
a bulbous head and perhaps an iron spike
 as a finial4 ,a red flag  hung on an   
adjoining tree1 often a ppal1 or some   
other sacred fig1  or a nm1 marks the   
position of the shrine4 ,in the interior
 lamps  are occasionally lighted1 fire  
sacrifices 7homa7 made and petty        
offerings presented4 ,if a victim is    

offered1 its head is cut off  outside   
the shrine and perhaps a few drops of   
blood allowed to fall on  the inner     
platform1 which is the seat of the      
godling4 ,these shrines  never contain a
 special image1 such as are found in the
 temples of  the higher gods4 ,there may
 be a few carved stones lying about1 the
  relics of some dismantled temple1 but 
these are seldom identified  with any   
special deity1 and villagers will rub a 
projecting knob on  one of them with a  
little vermilion and oil as an act of   
worship4    ,speaking of this class of  
shrine in the ,panjb1 ,mr4 ,ibbetson    
writes3  #bcb ,the ,hindu shrine must   
always face east1 while the ,musalmn    
shrine is in the form of a tomb and     
faces the south4 ,this sometimes  gives 
rise to delicate questions4 ,in one     
village a section of the  community had 
become ,muhammadan4 ,the shrine of the  
common ancestor  needed rebuilding1 and 
there was much dispute as to its shape  
and  aspect4 ,they solved the difficulty

 by building a ,musalmn grave facing    
south1 and over it a ,hindu shrine      
facing east4 ,in another village  an    
,imperial trooper was once burnt alive  
by the shed in which he was  sleeping   
catching fire1 and it was thought best  
to propitiate him by  a shrine1 or his  
ghost might become troublesome4 ,he was 
by religion  a ,musalmn1 but he had been
 burnt1 not buried1 which seemed to make
  him a ,hindu4 ,after much discussion  
the latter opinion prevailed1  and a    
,hindu shrine with an eastern aspect now
 stands to his memory4    ,to the east  
of the ,north-,western ,provinces the   
village shrines are  much less          
substantial erections4 ,in the ,gangetic
 valley1 where  the population has been 
completely ,hinduized1 the shrine of the
  collective village deities1 known as  
the ,deohr1 consists of a pile  of      
stones1 some of which may be the        
fragments of a temple of the  olden     
days1 collected under some ancient1     
sacred tree4 ,the shrine  is the        

store-house of anything in the way of a 
curious stone to be  found in the       
village1 water-worn pebbles or boulders1
 anything with  eccentric veining or    
marking4 ,here have been occasionally   
found celts  and stone hatchets1 relics 
of an age anterior to the general use of
  iron4 ,in the same way in some        
,european countries the celt or stone   
arrow-head is worn as an amulet4        
,little clay images of elephants and    
horses are often found near these       
shrines4 ,some villagers will say that  
these represent the equipage  7sawr7 of 
the deity2 others explain them by the   
fact that a person in  distress vows a  
horse or an elephant to the god1 and    
when his wishes  are realized1 offers as
 a substitute this trumpery donation4   
,it was  a common practice to offer     
substitutes of this kind4 ,thus when an 
animal could not be procured for        
sacrifice1 an image of it in dough  or  
wax was prepared and offered as a       
substitute4 #bcc ,we shall meet  later  

on other examples of substitution of the
 same kind4 ,on the  same principle     
women used to give cakes in the form of 
a phallus to  a ,brhman4 #bcd ,at these 
shrines are also found curious little   
clay  bowls with short legs which are   
known as kalsa4 ,the kalsa or water  jar
 is always placed near the pole of the  
marriage shed1 and the use  of these    
beehive-shaped vessels at village       
shrines is found all along  the hills of
 ,central ,india4 #bce ,on the          
neighbouring trees are often  hung      
miniature cots1 which commemorate the   
recovery of a patient from  small-pox or
 other infectious disease4    ,among the
 semi-,hinduized ,drvidian races of the 
,vindhyan range1 many  of whom worship  
,gansm or ,rja ,lkhan1 the shrine       
usually consists of  a rude mud building
 or a structure made of bamboo and      
straw1 roofed  with a coarse thatch1    
which is often allowed to fall into     
disrepair1  until the godling reminds   
his votaries of his displeasure by an   

outbreak of epidemic disease or some    
other misfortune which attacks  the     
village4 ,the shrine is in charge of the
 village ,baiga1 who is  invariably     
selected from among some of the ruder   
forest tribes1 such  as the ,bhuiya1    
,bhuiyr or ,chero4 ,inside is a small   
platform known as  the seat of the      
godling 7,devat k baithak71 on which are
 usually  placed some of the curious    
earthen bowls already described1 which  
are made specially for this worship1 and
 are not used for domestic  purposes4   
,in these water is placed for the       
refreshment of the godling1  and they   
thus resemble the funeral vases of the  
,greeks4 ,in ordinary  cases the        
offering deposited on the platform      
consists of a thick  griddle cake1 a    
little milk1 and perhaps a few jungle   
flowers2 but  in more serious cases     
where the deity makes his presence      
disagreeably  felt1 he is propitiated   
with a goat1 pig1 or fowl1 which is     
decapitated  outside the shrine1 with   

the national and sacrificial axe4 ,the  
head  is brought inside dripping with   
blood1 and a few drops of blood are     
allowed to fall on the platform4 ,the   
head of the victim then becomes  the    
perquisite of the officiating ,baiga1   
and the rest of the meat  is cooked and 
eaten near the shrine by the adult male 
worshippers1  married women and children
 being carefully excluded from a share  
in the  offering4 ,the special regard   
paid to the head of the victim is quite 
in  consonance with traditions of       
,european paganism and folk-lore in many
  countries4 #bcf ,lower south1 beyond  
the river ,son1 the shrine is of  even a
 simpler type1 and is there often       
represented by a few boulders  near a   
stream1 where the worshippers assemble  
and make their offerings4    ,the       
non-,brhmanic character of the worship  
is still further marked by  the fact    
that no special direction from the      
homestead is prescribed  in selecting   
the site for the shrine4 ,no orthodox   

,hindu temple can be  built south of the
 village site1 as this quarter is       
regarded as the  realm of ,yama1 the god
 of death2 here vagrant evil spirits    
prowl and  consume or defile the        
offerings made to the greater gods4 ,in 
the more  ,hinduized jungle villages    
some attempt is occasionally made to    
conform  to this rule1 and sometimes1 as
 in the case of the more respectable    
,hindu shrines1 the door faces the east4
 ,but this rule is not universal1  and  
the site of the shrine is often selected
 under some suitable  tree1 whatever may
 be its position as regards the         
homestead1 and it  very often           
commemorates some half-forgotten        
tragedy1 where a man was  carried off by
 a tiger or slain or murdered1 where he 
fell from a tree  or was drowned in a   
watercourse4 ,here some sort of shrine  
is generally  erected with the object of
 appeasing the angry spirit of the dead 
man4    ,these shrines have no idol1 no 
bell to scare vagrant ghosts and awake  

the godling to partake of the offerings 
or listen to the prayers  of his        
votaries4 ,if he is believed to be      
absent or asleep1 a drum  is beaten to  
awaken or recall him1 and this answers  
the additional  purpose of scaring off  
intruding spirits1 who are always hungry
 and  on the watch to appropriate the   
offerings of the faithful4 ,here are    
also none of the sacrificial vessels1   
brazen lamps and cups1 which  are       
largely used in respectable fanes for   
waving a light before the  deity as part
 of the service1 or for cooling the idol
 with libations  of water1 and the      
instrument used for sacrificing the     
victim is only  the ordinary axe which  
the dweller in the jungle always        
carries4    ,there is one special       
implement which is very commonly found  
in the  village shrines of the hill     
country south of the ,ganges4 ,this is  
an  iron chain with a heavy knob at the 
end1 to which a strap1 like a  ,scotch  
tawse1 is often attached4 ,the chain is 

ordinarily three and  a half feet long1 
the tawse two feet1 and the total weight
 is about  seven pounds4 ,this is known 
as the ,gurda2 it hangs from the roof of
  the shrine1 and is believed to be     
directly under the influence of  the    
deity1 so that it is very difficult to  
procure a specimen4 ,the  ,baiga priest1
 when his services are required for the 
exorcism of a  disease ghost1 thrashes  
himself on the back and loins with his  
chain1  until he works himself up to the
 proper degree of religious ecstasy4    
,among the more primitive ,gonds the    
chain has become a godling and  is      
regularly worshipped4 ,in serious cases 
of epilepsy1 hysteria1  and the like1   
which do not readily yield to ordinary  
exorcism1 the  patient is taken to the  
shrine and severely beaten with the holy
  chain until the demon is expelled4    
,this treatment is1 ,i understand1      
considered particularly effective in the
 case of hysteria and kindred  ailments 
under which young women are wont to     

suffer1 and like the  use of the thong  
at the ,lupercalia at ,rome1 a few blows
 of the chain  are considered advisable 
as a remedy for barrenness4 ,the custom 
of  castigating girls when they attain  
puberty prevails among many races  of   
savages4 #bcg        ,identification of 
the ,local ,godling4    ,the business of
 selecting a site for a new village or  
hamlet is one  which needs infinite care
 and attention to the local godlings of 
the  place4 ,no place can be chosen     
without special regard to the local     
omens4 ,there is a story told of one of 
the ,gond ,rjas of ,garh ,mandla1  whose
 attention was first called to the place
 by seeing a hare1  when pursued by his 
dogs1 turn and chase them4 ,it struck   
him that  there must be much virtue in  
the air of a place where a timid animal 
acquired such courage4 #bch ,the site of
 the settlement of ,almora is  said to  
have been selected by one of the kings  
before whom in this  place a hare was   
transformed into a tiger4 #bci ,similar 

legends are  told of the foundation of  
many forts and cities4    ,but it is    
with the local godlings that the founder
 of a new settlement  has most concern4 
,the speciality of this class of        
godlings is  that they frequent only    
particular places4 ,each has his        
separate  jurisdiction1 which includes  
generally one or sometimes a group of   
villages4 ,this idea has doubtless      
promoted the rooted disinclination  of  
the ,hindu to leave his home and come   
into the domain of a fresh set  of      
godlings with whom he has no            
acquaintance1 who have never received   
due propitiation from him or his        
forefathers1 and who are hence in  all  
probability inimical to him4 ,but people
 to whom the local godling  of their    
village has shown his hostility by      
bringing affliction upon  them for their
 neglect of his service1 can usually    
escape from his  malignity by leaving   
his district4 ,this habit of emigration 
to escape  the malignity of the offended

 godling doubtless accounts for many  of
 the sites of deserted villages1 which  
are scattered all over the  country4 ,we
 say that they were abandoned on account
 of a great famine  or a severe         
epidemic1 but to the native mind these  
afflictions are  the work of the local  
deity1 who could have warded them off   
had he  been so disposed4 ,hence when a 
settlement is being founded it is a     
matter of prime necessity that the local
 godling or group of godlings  should be
 brought under proper control and       
carefully identified1  so as to ensure  
the safety and prosperity of the        
settlement4 ,the  next and final stage  
is the establishment of a suitable      
shrine and  the appointment of a        
competent priest4    ,there are1 as     
might have been expected1 many methods  
of identifying  and establishing the    
local gods4 ,thus in ,north ,oudh1 when 
a village  is founded the site is marked
 off by cross stakes of wood driven into
  the ground1 which are solemnly        

worshipped on the day of the completion 
of the settlement1 and then lapse into  
neglect unless some indication  of the  
displeasure of the god again direct     
attention to them4 ,these  crosses1     
which are called ,daharchand1 are       
particularly frequent and  well-marked  
in the villages occupied by the         
aboriginal ,thrus in the  sub-,himlayan 
,tar1 where they may be found in groups 
of ten or more  on the edge of the      
cultivated lands4 ,so1 among the        
,santls1 a piece  of split bamboo1 about
 three feet high1 is placed in the      
ground in an  inclined position and is  
called the ,siph or sentinel of the     
hamlet2  among the ,gonds two curved    
posts1 one of which is much smaller than
  the other1 represent the male and     
female tutelary gods4 #bdj    ,in the   
,eastern ,districts of the              
,north-,western ,provinces a more       
elaborate process is carried out1 which 
admirably illustrates the  special form 
of local worship now under              

consideration4 ,when the site  of a new 
settlement is selected1 an ,ojha is     
called in to identify  and mark down the
 deities of the place4 ,he begins by    
beating a drum  round the place for some
 time1 which is intended to scare       
vagrant1  outsider ghosts and to call   
together the local deities4 ,all the    
people  assemble1 and two men1 known as 
the ,mattiwh and the ,pattiwh1 the      
earth man and the leaf man1 who         
represent the gods of the soil and  of  
the trees1 soon become filled with the  
spirit and are found to be  possessed by
 the local deities4 ,they dance and     
shout for some time in  a state of      
religious frenzy1 and their disconnected
 ejaculations are  interpreted by the   
,ojha1 who suddenly rushes upon them1   
grasps with  his hands at the spirits   
which are supposed to be circling round 
them1  and finally pours through their  
hands some grains of sesamum1 which  is 
received in a perforated piece of the   
wood of the ,glar or sacred  fig-tree4  

,the whole is immediately plastered up  
with a mixture of clay  and cow-dung1   
and the wood is carefully buried on the 
site selected for  the ,deohr or local  
shrine4 ,by this process the deities are
 supposed to  be fastened up in the     
sacred wood and to be unable to do any  
mischief1  provided that the usual      
periodical offerings are made in their  
honour4    ,this system does not seem to
 prevail among the ,drvidian races of   
the  ,vindhyan plateau4 ,some time ago  
,i discussed the matter with ,hannu     
,baiga1 the chief priest of the ,bhuiyas
 beyond the ,son1 and he was  pleased to
 express his unqualified approval of the
 arrangement4 ,indeed1  he promised to  
adopt it himself1 but unfortunately     
,hannu1 who was a  mine of information  
on the religion and demonology of his   
people1 died  before he could apply this
 test to the local deities of his       
parish4 ,his  wife has died also1 and ,i
 understand that he is known to be the  
head  of all the ,bhts or malignant     

ghosts of the neighbourhood1 while his  
wife rules all the ,churels who infest  
that part of the country4    ,at the    
same time1 to an ordinary ,baiga the    
plan would hardly be as  comfortable as 
the present arrangement4 ,it would not  
suit him to  have the local ghosts      
brought under any control1 because he   
makes his  living by doing the          
periodical services to propitiate them4 
,nowadays he  believes fully in the     
influence of the magic circle and of    
spirituous  liquor as ghost scarers4    
,both these principles will be discussed
  elsewhere4 ,so he is supposed once a  
year at least1 or oftener in case  of   
pestilence or other trouble1 to         
perambulate all round the village       
boundary1 sprinkling a line of spirits  
as he walks4 ,the idea is to  form a    
magic circle impervious to strange and1 
in the nature of the  case1 necessarily 
malignant ghosts1 who might wish to     
intrude from  outside2 and to control   
the resident local deities1 and prevent 

them  from contracting evil habits of   
mischief by wandering beyond their      
prescribed domains4    ,the worst about 
this ritual is that the ,baiga is apt to
 be very  deliberate in his movements1  
and to drink the liquor on the  road and
 to spoil the symmetry of the circle    
during his fits of  intoxication4 ,i    
know of one disreputable shepherd who   
was upwards of  a fortnight getting     
round an ordinary sized village1 and the
 levy on  his parishioners to pay the   
wine bill was1 as may easily be         
imagined1  a very serious matter1 to say
 nothing of several calamities1 which   
occurred to the inhabitants in their    
unprotected state owing to his          
negligence4 ,at present the feeling in  
his parish is very strong against  him1 
and his constituents are thinking of    
removing him1 particularly  as he has   
only one eye4 ,this is a very dangerous 
deformity in ordinary  people1 but in a 
,baiga1 who is invested with religious  
functions1  it is most objectionable1   

and likely to detract from his          
efficiency4    ,in ,hoshangbd a         
different system prevails4 ,when a new  
village is  formed by the aboriginal    
,kurkus1 there is no difficulty in      
finding the  abode of the godlings      
,dngar ,devat and ,mt1 because you have 
only to  look for and discover them upon
 their hill and under their tree4 ,but  
,mutua ,devat has generally to be       
created by taking a heap of stones  from
 the nearest stream and sacrificing a   
pig and seven chickens  to him4 ,there  
is one ceremony1 however1 which is worth
 notice1  not so much as being          
distinctively ,kurku1 as illustrating   
the sense  of mystery and chance which  
in the native mind seems to be connected
  with the idea of measurement1 and     
which arises probably from the fact     
that with superficial measures1 by      
heaping lightly or pressing down  tight1
 very different results can be obtained4
 ,a measure is filled  up with grain to 
the level of the brim1 but no head is   

poured on1  and it is put before ,mutua 
,devat4 ,they watch it all night1 and in
  the morning pour it out1 and measure  
it again4 ,if the grain now fills  up   
the measure and leaves enough for a head
 to it1 and still more1  if it brims and
 runs over1 this is a sign that the     
village will be  very prosperous1 and   
that every cultivator's granaries will  
run over  in the same way4 ,but it is an
 evil omen if the grain does not fill up
  to the level of the rims of the       
vessel4 ,a similar practice obtains  in 
the ,narmad valley when they begin      
winnowing1 and some repeat it  every    
night while the winnowing goes on4 #bda 
,the same custom prevails among the     
,kols and kindred races in ,mirzapur1   
who make the bride and bridegroom carry 
it out as an omen of their  success or  
failure in life4 ,by carefully packing  
and pressing down  the grain1 any chance
 of an evil augury is easily avoided4   
,we shall  see later on that measuring  
the grain is a favourite device intended

  to save it from the depredations of   
evil-minded ghosts4        ,worship of  
,dwra ,gusn4    ,a typical case of the  
worship of a local godling is found     
among the  ,malers of ,chota ,ngpur4    
,his name is ,dwra ,gusn1 or ,lord of   
the  house door4 ,whenever from some    
calamity falling upon the household1  it
 is considered necessary to propitiate  
him1 the head of the family  cleans a   
place in front of his door1 and sets up 
a branch of the  tree called ,mukmum1   
which is held very sacred2 an egg is    
placed near  the branch1 then a hog is  
killed and friends feasted2 and when the
  ceremony is over the egg is broken and
 the branch placed on the  suppliant's  
house4 #bdb ,dwra ,gusn is now called   
,brahdvri1  because he is supposed to   
live in a temple with twelve doors and  
is  worshipped by the whole village in  
the month of ,mgh4 #bdc ,the egg is     
apparently supposed to hold the deity1  
and this1 it may be remarked1  is not an
 uncommon folk-lore incident4 #bdd      

,worship of ,bhmiya4    ,one of the most
 characteristic of the benevolent       
village godlings is  ,bhmiya--the       
godling of the land or soil 7bhmi74 ,he 
is very commonly  known as ,khetpl or   
,kshetrapla1 the protector of the       
fields2 ,khera  or the homestead mound2 
,zamndr or the landowner2 and in the    
hills  ,sim or ,syam1 the black one     
7,sanskrit syma74 ,in the neighbourhood 
of ,delhi he is a male godling2 in ,oudh
 ,bhmiy is a goddess and is  called     
,bhmiy ,rn or soil queen4 ,she is       
worshipped by spreading  flat cakes and 
sweetmeats on the ground1 which having  
been exposed  some time to the sun1 are 
eventually consumed by the worshipper   
and  his family4 ,the rite obviously    
implies the close connection between    
the fertility of the soil and sunshine4 
,to the west of the ,province the       
creation of ,bhmiya's shrine is  the    
first formal act by which the proposed  
site of a village is  consecrated1 and  
when two villages have combined their   

homesteads  for greater security against
 the marauders of former days1 the      
people  of the one which moved still    
worship at the ,bhmiya of the deserted  
site4 ,bhmiya is worshipped after the   
harvests1 at marriages1 and  on the     
birth of a male child2 and ,brhmans are 
commonly fed in his  name4 ,women often 
take their children to the shrine on    
,sundays1 and  the first milk of a cow  
or buffalo is always offered there4 #bde
  ,young bulls are sometimes released in
 his honour1 and the term ,bhmiya  snd  
has come to be equivalent to our parish 
bull4    ,in the ,hills he is regarded  
by some as a beneficent deity1 who does 
not1 as a rule1 force his worship on    
anyone by possessing them  or injuring  
their crops4 ,when seed is sown1 a      
handful of grain  is sprinkled over a   
stone in the field nearest to his       
shrine1 in  order to protect the crop   
from hail1 blight1 and the ravages of   
wild  animals1 and at harvest time he   
receives the first-fruits to protect    

the garnered grain from rats and        
insects4 ,he punishes the wicked and    
rewards the virtuous1 and is lord of the
 village1 always interested  in its     
prosperity1 and a partaker in the good  
things provided on  all occasions of    
rejoicing1 such as marriage1 the birth  
of a son1  or any great good fortune4   
,unlike the other rural deities1 he     
seldom  receives animal sacrifices1 but 
is satisfied with the humblest offering 
of the fruits of the earth4 #bdf    ,in 
,gurgon1 again1 he is very generally    
identified with one of the  founders of 
the village or with a ,brhman priest of 
the original  settlers4 ,the special day
 for making offerings to him is the     
fourteenth  day of the month4 ,some of  
the ,bhmiyas are said to grant the      
prayers  of their votaries and to punish
 severely those who offend them4 ,he    
visits people who sleep in the vicinity 
of his shrine with pains in  the chest1 
and one man who was rash enough to clean
 his teeth near  his shrine was attacked

 with sore disease4 ,those ,bhmiyas who 
thus  bear the reputation of being      
revengeful and vicious in temper are    
respected1 and offerings to them are    
often made1 while those who have  the   
character of easy good-nature are       
neglected4 #bdg    ,in parts of the     
,panjb #bdh ,khera ,devat or ,chnwand is
 identified  with ,bhmiya2 according to 
another account she is a lady and the   
wife  of ,bhmiya1 and she sometimes has 
a special shrine1 and is worshipped  on 
,sunday only4 ,to illustrate the close  
connection between this worship  of     
,bhmiya as the soil godling with that of
 the sainted dead1 it may be  noted that
 in some places the shrine of ,bhmiya is
 identified with the  ,jathera1 which is
 the ancestral mound1 sacred to the     
common ancestor of  the village or      
tribe4 ,one of the most celebrated of   
these ,jatheras is  ,kla ,mahar1 the    
ancestor of the ,sindhu ,jts1 who has   
peculiar influence  over cows1 and to   
whom the first milk of every cow is     

offered4 ,the  place of the ,jathera is1
 however1 often taken by the ,theh or   
mound  which marks the site of the      
original village of the tribe4    ,but  
,bhmiya1 a simple village godling1 is   
already well on his way to  promotion to
 the higher heaven4 ,in ,patna some have
 already begun to  identify him with    
,vishnu4 ,in the ,hills the same process
 is going on1  and he is beginning to be
 known as ,sim1 a corruption of         
,svayambhuva1  the ,bauddha form now    
worshipped in ,nepl4 ,in the plains he  
is  becoming promoted under the title of
 ,bhmsvara ,mahdeva and his  spouse     
,bhmsvar ,dev1 both of whom have temples
 at ,bnda4 #bdi  ,in the ,hills it is   
believed that he sometimes possesses    
people1 and  the sign of this is that   
the hair of the scalplock becomes       
hopelessly  entangled4 ,this reminds us 
of that very ,mab that plaits the manes 
of horses in the night and bakes the    
elflocks in foul sluttish hairs1  which 
once untangled much misfortune bodes4   

,it was a common ,english belief that   
all who have communication with  fairies
 find their hair all tied in double     
knots4 #bej ,as we shall see  later on1 
the hair is universally regarded as an  
entry for spirits1  perhaps1 as ,mr4    
,campbell suggests1 because it leads to 
the opening  in the skull through which 
the dying spirit makes its exit4 ,hence 
many of the customs connected with      
letting the hair loose1 cutting  it off 
or shaving4    ,no less than eighty-five
 thousand persons declared themselves1  
at  the last census1 to be worshippers  
of ,bhmiya in the ,north-,western       
,provinces1 while in the ,panjb they    
numbered only one hundred and           
sixty-three4        ,worship of         
,bhairon4    ,bhmiya1 again1 is often   
confounded with ,bhairon1 another warden
  godling of the land2 while1 to        
illustrate the extraordinary jumble  of 
these mythologies1 ,bhairon1 who is     
almost certainly the ,kro ,bairo  7,kl  
,bhairon7 of the ,bhuiyas of ,keunjhar1 

is identified by them with  ,bhmsen4    
#bea    ,bhairon has a curious history4 
,there is little doubt that he was      
originally a simple village deity2 but  
with a slight change of name  he has    
been adopted into ,brhmanism as         
,bhairava1 the terrible one1  one of the
 most awful forms of ,siva1 while the   
female form ,bhairav  is an equivalent  
for ,dev1 a worship specially prevalent 
among ,jogis  and ,sktas4 ,on the other 
hand1 the ,jainas worship ,bhairava as  
the  protector or agent of the ,jaina   
church and community1 and do not  offer 
him flesh and blood sacrifices1 but     
fruits and sweetmeats4 #beb    ,in his  
,saiva form he is often called ,svsva1  
or he who rides  on a dog1 and this     
vehicle of his marks him down at once as
 an  offshoot from the village ,bhairon1
 because all through ,upper ,india  the 
favourite method of conciliating        
,bhairon is to feed a black dog  until  
he is surfeited4    ,one of his         
distinctive forms is ,kl ,bhairon1 or   

,kla ,bhairava1 whose  image depicted   
with his dog is often found as a sort of
 warden in ,saiva  temples4 ,one of his 
most famous shrines is at ,kalinjar1 of 
which ,abul  ,fazl says marvellous tales
 are related4 #bec ,he is depicted with 
eighteen arms and is ornamented with the
 usual garlands of skulls1  with snake  
earrings and snake armlets and a serpent
 twined round his  head4 ,in his hands  
he holds a sword and a bowl of blood4   
,in the ,panjb  he is said to frighten  
away death1 and in ,rjputna ,col4 ,tod  
calls  him the blood-stained divinity of
 war4 #bed ,the same godling is  known  
in ,bombay as ,bhairoba1 of whom ,mr4   
,campbell #bee writes--,he is           
represented as a standing male figure   
with a trident in the left hand  and a  
drum 7damaru7 in the right1 and         
encircled with a serpent4 ,when  thus   
represented he is called ,kla ,bhairava4
 ,but generally he is  represented by a 
rough stone covered over with oil and   
red lead4 ,he  is said to be very       

terrible1 and1 when offended1 difficult 
to be  pleased4 ,by some he is believed 
to be an incarnation of ,siva himself1  
and by others as a spirit much in favour
 with the god ,siva4 ,he is  also       
consulted as an oracle4 ,when anyone is 
desirous of ascertaining  whether       
anything he is about to undertake will  
turn out according to  his wishes1 he   
sticks two unbroken betel-nuts1 one on  
each breast  of the stone image of      
,bhairava1 and tells it1 if his wish is 
to be  accomplished1 that the right or  
left nut is to fall first4 ,it is  said1
 like other spirits1 ,bhairava is not a 
subordinate of ,vetla1  and that when he
 sets out on his circuit at night1 he   
rides a black  horse and is accompanied 
by a black dog4    ,in the ,panjb he    
#bef is usually represented as an       
inferior deity1  a stout black figure1  
with a bottle of wine in his hand2 he is
 an evil  spirit1 and his followers     
drink wine and eat meat4 ,one set of    
ascetics1  akin to the ,jogis1 besmear  

themselves with red powder and oil and  
go  about begging and singing the       
praises of ,bhairon1 with bells or gongs
  hung about their loins and striking   
themselves with whips4 ,they are  found 
mainly in large towns1 and are not      
celibates4 ,their chief place  of       
pilgrimage is the ,girnr ,hill in       
,kthiawr4 ,that very old temple1  the   
,bhairon ,k ,asthn near ,lahore1 is so  
named from a quaint legend  regarding   
,bhairon1 connected with its foundation4
 ,in the old days the  ,dhnwr girls of  
,riwri used to be married to the godling
 at ,bandoda1  but they always died soon
 after1 and the custom has been         
abandoned4 ,we  shall meet later on     
other instances of the marriage of girls
 to a god4    ,as a village godling     
,bhairon appears in various forms as    
,lth ,bhairon  or ,bhairon of the club1 
which approximates him to ,bhmsen1      
,battuk  ,bhairon or the child ,bhairon1
 and ,nand ,bhairon1 in which we may    
possibly trace a connection with the    

legend of the divine child  ,krishna and
 his foster-father ,nanda4 ,in ,benares1
 again1 he is known  as ,bhaironnth or  
,lord ,bhairon1 and ,bht ,bhairon1      
,ghost ,bhairon1  and he is regarded as 
the deified magistrate of the city1 who 
guards  all the temples of ,siva and    
saves his votaries from demons4 #beg    
,but in his original character as a     
simple village godling ,bhairon is      
worshipped with milk and sweetmeats as  
the protector of fields1 cattle  and    
homestead4 ,some worship him by pouring 
spirits at his shrine and  drinking     
there2 and on a new house being built1  
he is propitiated to  expel the local   
ghosts4 ,he is respected even by        
,muhammadans as the  minister of the    
great saint ,sakhi ,sarwar1 and in this 
connection is  usually known as ,bhairon
 ,jati or ,bhairon the chaste4 #beh ,but
 as we  have seen1 he is becoming       
rapidly promoted into the more          
respectable  cabinet of the gods1 and   
his apotheosis will possibly finally    

take  place at the great ,saiva shrine  
of ,mandhta on the ,narmad1 with  which 
a local legend closely connects him4    
#bei ,all over ,northern  ,india his    
stone fetish is found in close          
connection with the images  of the      
greater gods1 to whom he acts the part  
of guardian1 and this1  as we have      
already seen1 probably marks a stage in 
his promotion4    ,he has1 according to 
the last census1 only five thousand     
followers  in the ,panjb1 as compared   
with one hundred and and seventy-five   
thousand in the ,north-,western         
,provinces4        ,worship of ,ganesa4 
,on pretty much the same stage as these 
warden godlings whom we have  been      
considering is ,ganesa1 whose name means
 lord of the ,ganas  or inferior        
deities1 especially those in attendance 
on ,siva4 ,he  is represented as a      
short1 fat man1 of a yellow colour1 with
 a  protuberant belly1 four hands1 and  
the head of an elephant with a  single  
tusk4 ,prvat is said to have formed him 

from the scurf of  her body1 and so     
proud was she of her offspring that she 
showed him  to the ill-omened ,sani1 who
 when he looked at him reduced his head 
to ashes4 ,brahma advised her to replace
 the head with the first she  could     
find1 and the first she found was that  
of an elephant4 ,another  story says    
that ,ganesa's head was that of the     
elephant of ,indra1 and  that one of his
 tusks was broken off by the axe of     
,parasurma4 ,ganesa  is the god of      
learning1 the patron of undertakings and
 the remover of  obstacles4 ,hence he is
 worshipped at marriages1 and his quaint
 figure  stands over the house door and 
the entrance of the greater temples4    
,but  there can be little doubt that he1
 too1 is an importation from the        
indigenous mythology4 ,his elephant head
 and the rat as his vehicle  suggest    
that his worship arose from the         
primitive animal cultus4        ,the    
,worship of the ,great ,mothers4        
,from these generally benevolent village

 godlings we pass on to a  very obscure 
form of local worship1 that of the      
,great ,mothers4 ,it  prevails both in  
,aryan and ,semetic lands1 #bfj and     
there can be very  little doubt that it 
is founded on some of the very earliest 
beliefs  of the human race4 ,no great   
religion is without its deified woman1  
the ,virgin1 ,my1 ,rdh1 ,ftimah1 and it 
has been suggested that the  cultus has 
come down from a time before the present
 organization of  the family came into  
existence1 and when descent through the 
mother  was the only recognized form4   
#bfa    ,we have already met instances  
of this mother-worship in the case of   
,gang ,m1 ,mother ,ganges1 and ,dhart   
,mt1 the ,earth ,mother4 ,we  shall meet
 it again in ,stal ,mt1 the small-pox   
,mother4    ,in the old mythology ,adit1
 or infinite space1 was regarded as the 
,eternal ,mother1 and ,prkrit was the   
,eternal ,mother1 capable of  evolving  
all created things out of herself1 but  
never so creating  unless united with   

the eternal spirit principle embodied in
 the ,eternal  ,male1 ,parusha4 ,there  
appears to have been a tendency on the  
part of  the ,indo-,germanic race to    
look upon their deities as belonging to 
both sexes at once1 and hence the       
dualistic idea in ,brhmanism of         
,ardhanari1 or the androgynous ,siva4   
#bfb    ,we shall meet later on with the
 ghost of the unpurified mother1  the   
,churel1 which is based on a different  
but cognate association of  ideas4 ,akin
 to this1 again1 is the worship of the  
,sat1 or model wife1  to which we shall 
refer again1 and that of the ,chran     
women of ,gujart1  who were obliged to  
immolate themselves to prevent outrage  
from the  ,kolis and other freebooters4 
,this worship1 probably derived from one
 of the so-called non-,aryan  races1 was
 subsequently developed into that of the
 female energies  of the greater gods1 a
 ,brhmn of ,brahma1 ,indrn of ,indra1   
and  so on2 and thus the simple worship 
of the mother has developed and         

degenerated into the abominations of the
 ,tantras4 ,these mothers  are usually  
regarded as eight in number1 the ,ashta 
,mtr1 but the  enumeration of them      
varies4 ,sometimes there are only       
seven--,brhm or  ,brhmn1 ,maheshvar1    
,kaumr1 ,vaishnav1 ,vrh1 ,indrn or      
,aindrn1  or ,mahendr and ,chmund4      
,sometimes the number is nine--,brhmn1  
,vaishnav1 ,raudr1 ,vrh1 ,narasinhik1   
,kaumr1 ,mahendr1 ,chmund1  ,chandik4   
,sometimes sixteen--,gaur1 ,padm1 ,sach1
 ,medh1 ,savitr1  ,vijay1 ,jay1         
,devasen1 ,svadh1 ,svh1 ,snt1 ,pusht1   
,dhrit1 ,tusht1  ,atmadevat1 ,kuladevat4
 #bfc ,they are closely connected with  
the  worship of ,siva and are attendants
 on his son ,skanda1 or ,krttikeya1  and
 rise in the later mythology to a much  
greater number4        ,mother-worship  
in ,gujart4    ,but it is in ,gujart    
that this form of worship prevails most 
widely  at the present day4 ,sir        
,monier-,williams enumerates about one  
hundred  and forty distinct ,mothers1   

besides numerous varieties of the more  
popular forms4 ,they are probably all   
local deities of the ,churel  type1 who 
have been adopted into ,brhmanism4 ,some
 are represented  by rudely carved      
images1 others by simple shrines1 and   
others are  remarkable for preferring   
empty shrines1 and the absence of all   
visible representations4 ,each has      
special functions4 ,thus one called     
,khodir1 or mischief1 is said to cause  
trouble unless propitiated2  another    
called ,ant causes and prevents whooping
 cough2 another named  ,ber prevents    
cholera2 another called ,marak causes   
cholera2 ,hadak  controls mad dogs and  
prevents hydrophobia2 ,asapur1          
represented by  two idols1 satisfies the
 hopes of wives by giving children4 ,not
 a few  are worshipped either as causing
 or preventing demoniacal possession  as
 a form of disease4 ,the offering of a  
goat's blood to some of these  ,mothers 
is regarded as very effectual4 ,a story 
is told of a ,hindu  doctor who cured a 

whole village of an outbreak of violent 
influenza1  attributed to the malignant 
influence of an angry ,mother goddess1  
by  simply assembling the inhabitants1  
muttering some cabalistic texts1  and   
solemnly letting loose a pair of        
scapegoats in a neighbouring wood  as an
 offering to the offended deity4 ,one of
 these ,mothers is connected  with the  
curious custom of the ,couvade1 which   
will be discussed later  on4 #bfd       
,another famous ,gujart ,mother is ,amb 
,bhavn4 ,on the eighth  night of the    
,naurtra the ,rna of ,danta attends the 
worship1 fans the  goddess with a       
horsehair fly-flapper1 celebrates the   
fire sacrifice1  and fills with         
sweetmeats a huge cauldron1 which1 on   
the fall of  the garland from the neck  
of the goddess1 the ,bhls empty4 ,among 
the offerings to her are animal         
sacrifice and spirituous liquor4 ,the   
image is a block of stone roughly hewn  
into the semblance of a human  figure4  
#bfe        ,mother-worship in ,upper   

,india4    ,in the ,hills what is known 
as the ,mtr ,pj is very popular4 ,the   
celebrant takes a plank and cleans it   
with rice flour4 ,on it he  draws       
sixteen figures representing the ,mtrs1 
and to the right  of them a             
representation of ,ganesa4 ,figures of  
the sun and moon  are also delineated1  
and a brush made of sacred grass is     
dipped in  cow-dung and the figures     
touched with it4 ,after the recital of  
verses1  a mixture of sugar and butter  
is let drop on the plank1 three1 five1  
or seven times4 ,the celebrant then     
marks the forehead of the person for    
whose benefit the service is intended   
with a coin soaked in butter1  and keeps
 the money as his fee4 ,the service     
concludes with a waving  of lamps to    
scare vicious ghosts1 singing of hymns  
and offering of  gifts to ,brhmans4 #bff
    ,at ,khalr1 in the ,rpur ,district  
of the ,central ,provinces1 is a  ,sat  
pillar worshipped under the name of     
,khalr ,mt4 ,according to  the current  

legend ,khalr ,mt often assumes a female
 human form and  goes to the adjacent   
fairs1 carrying vegetables for sale4    
,whoever asks  any gift from her        
receives it4 ,once a young man returning
 from a fair  was overtaken by a strange
 woman on the road1 who said she was    
going  to see her sister4 ,she asked him
 to go in front1 and said that she      
would follow4 ,not wishing to allow a   
beautiful young woman to travel  alone  
at night1 he hid himself among some     
bushes4 ,presently he heard  a great    
jingling noise and saw a four-armed     
woman go up the steep1  bare hill and   
disappear4 ,it was quite certain that   
this was ,khalr  ,mt herself4 #bfg      
,in many parts of the plains1 ,my1 the  
mother of ,buddha1 has been  introduced 
into the local worship as the ,gnwdev1  
or village  goddess4 ,her statues1 which
 are very numerous in some places1 are  
freely utilized for this purpose4 ,in   
the same way a figure of the  ,buddha   
,asvaghosha is worshipped at ,deoriya in

 the ,allahbd ,district  as ,srinagar   
,dev4 #bfh        ,the ,jungle ,mothers4
    ,as an instance of another type of  
,mother-worship we may take ,por ,m  of 
,nadiya4 ,she is represented by a little
 piece of rough black stone  painted    
with red ochre1 and placed beneath the  
boughs of an ancient  banyan tree4 ,she 
is said to have been in the heart of the
 jungles1  with which ,nadiya was       
originally covered1 and to have suffered
  from the fire which ,rja ,ksi ,nth's  
men lighted to burn down the  jungle4   
#bfi ,she is1 in fact1 a ,mother goddess
 of the jungle1 of  whom there are      
numerous instances4 ,in the             
,north-,western ,provinces she  is      
usually known as ,banspat or ,bansapat  
,m 7,vanaspat1 mistress  of the wood74  
,agni1 the fire god1 is described in the
 ,rig ,veda as  the son of the          
,vanaspatis1 or the deities of the      
large1 old forest  trees4 #bgj ,another 
name for her in the ,western ,districts 
is saror1  because her shrine is a pile 

of pebbles 7ror7 in which her votaries  
have confidence 7s7 that it will protect
 them from harm4 ,the shrine  of the    
jungle mother is usually a pile of      
stones and branches to which  every     
passer-by contributes4 ,when she is     
displeased she allows a tiger  or a     
leopard to kill her negligent votary4   
,she is the great goddess  of the       
herdsmen and other dwellers in the      
forest1 and they vow to her  a cock1 a  
goat1 or a young pig if she saves them  
and their cattle  from beasts of prey4  
,sometimes she is identified with the   
,churel1  more often with a ,havva or   
,bht1 the spirit1 usually malignant1 of 
some one who has met untimely death in  
the jungle4 ,akin to her is  the        
,ghataut of ,mirzapur1 who is the deity 
of dangerous hill passes  7ght7 and is  
worshipped in the same way1 and         
,baghaut1 the ghost of  a man who was   
killed by a tiger 7bgh74 ,these all1 in 
the villages  along the edge of the     
jungle1 merge in character and function 

with  the divine council1 or ,deohr1 of 
the local gods4        ,other ,mother   
,goddesses4    ,another of these divine 
mothers1 ,mt ,januv or ,janam1 the      
goddess  of births1 is a sort of ,juno  
,lucina among the ,rjputs1 like the     
,greek  ,ilithyia1 or the ,carmenta of  
the ,romans4 ,her power rests in a bead1
  and all over ,northern ,india midwives
 carry as a charm to secure  easy       
delivery a particular sort of bead1     
known as ,kails ,maura1 or  the crown of
 the sacred mountain ,kailsa4 ,difficult
 parturition is  a disease caused by    
malignant spirits1 and numerous are the 
devices  to cure it4 ,the ancient       
,britons1 we are told1 #bga used to bind
 a  magic girdle1 impressed with        
numerous mystical figures1 round the    
waist of the expectant mother1 and the  
jewel named ,aetites1 found  in the     
eagle's nest1 applied to the thigh of   
one in labour1 eases  pain and quickens 
delivery4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott #bgb had a    
small stone1  called a toad-stone1 which

 repelled demons from lying-in women4   
,on the sacred plain of ,kurukshetra    
there once stood a fort1 known  as      
,chakravyha1 and to the moderns as      
,chakbu ,k ,qila1 from which to  the    
present day immense ancient bricks are  
occasionally dug4 ,popular  belief      
ascribes great efficacy to these bricks1
 and in cases of  protracted labour1 one
 of them is soaked in water1 which is   
given to  the patient to drink4         
,sometimes an image of the fort1 which  
is in the  form of a labyrinth or maze1 
is drawn on a dish1 which is first shown
  to the mother and then washed in      
water1 which is administered to the     
woman4 ,all through ,nepl and the       
neighbouring districts1 the local       
rupee1 which is covered with ,saiva     
emblems1 is used in the same way1  and  
,akbar's square rupee1 known as the     
,chryr1 because it bears the  names of  
the four companions 7,chr-,yr7 of the   
,prophet1 is credited  with the same    
power4 ,there are numerous ,mantras or  

mystic formul  which are used for the   
same purpose4    ,dread famine has      
become a goddess under the title of     
,bhkh ,mt1  the hunger ,mother1 who1    
like all the deities of this class1 is  
of a lean and starved appearance4 #bgc  
,an interesting ceremony  for the       
exorcism of the hunger ,mother is       
recorded from ,bombay4 ,the  people     
subscribed to purchase ten sheep1 fifty 
fowls1 one hundred  cocoanuts1 betel    
nuts1 sugar1 clarified butter1          
frankincense1 red  powder1 turmeric1 and
 flowers4 ,a day previous to the        
commencement  of the ceremony1 all the  
inhabitants of the village1 taking with 
them their clothes1 vessels1 cattle1 and
 other movable goods1 left  their houses
 and encamped at the gate or boundary of
 the village4 ,at  the village gate a   
triumphal arch was erected1 and it was  
adorned  with garlands of flowers and   
mango leaves covered with red powder    
and turmeric4 ,all these things are1 as 
we shall see1 well known  as scarers of 

demons4 ,the villagers bathed1 put on   
new clothes1  and then a procession was 
formed4 ,on coming to the triumphal arch
  the whole procession was stopped4 ,a  
hole was dug in the ground1  and the    
village watchman put in it the head of a
 sheep1 a cocoanut1  betel nuts1 with   
leaves and flowers4 ,the arch was then  
worshipped by  each of the villagers4   
,the village watchman first entered the 
arch1  and he was followed by the       
villagers with music1 loud cheering1 and
  clapping of hands4 ,the whole party   
then went to the village temple1  bowed 
to the village god1 and went to their   
respective houses4 ,the  blood of the   
ten sheep and fifty fowls was offered to
 the village god1  and the flesh was    
distributed among the people4 ,a dinner 
was given to  ,brhmans and the rite came
 to an end4 #bgd ,the idea of the       
sanctity of  the arch is probably based 
on the same principle as that of        
perforated  stones1 to which reference  
will be made in another connection4     

,greatest of all the mother goddesses of
 the ,rjputs is ,mm ,dev1  the mother of
 the gods4 ,she is thus on the same     
plane as ,cybele ,rhea  and ,demeter1   
the ,corn ,mother1 who gives the kindly 
increase of the  fruits of the earth4   
,in one of her temples she is           
represented in the  midst of her        
numerous family1 including the greater  
and the minor  divinities4 ,their       
statues are all of the purest marble1   
each about  three feet high and         
tolerably executed1 though evidently    
since the  decline of the art4 #bge     
,worship of ,gansm ,deo4    ,we now come
 to consider some divinities special to 
the ,drvidian  races1 who touch on the  
,north-,western ,provinces to the south1
 across  the ,kaimr and ,vindhyan       
ranges1 the physical as well as the     
ethnical  frontier between the valleys  
of the ,ganges and ,jumn and the        
mountain  country of ,central ,india4   
,the chief ,gond deity is ,gansm ,deo4  
,some  vague attempt has been made to   

elevate him into the pantheon of        
,brhmanism1 and his name has been       
corrupted into ,ghanasyma1 which  means 
in ,sanskrit1 black like the heavy rain 
clouds of the rainy  season1 and is an  
epithet of ,rma and of ,krishna4 ,one   
legend derives  him from an actual ,gond
 chieftain1 just as many of the local   
godlings  whom we shall consider        
afterwards have sprung from real living 
persons  of eminence1 or those who have 
lost their lives in some exceptional    
way4 ,it is said that this chieftain was
 devoured by a tiger soon after  his    
marriage4 ,as might have been expected1 
his spirit was restless1  and one year  
after his death he visited his wife and 
she conceived  by him4 ,instances of    
such miraculous conceptions are common  
in  folk-lore4 #bgf ,the descendants of 
this ghostly embrace are1 it is  said1  
living to this day at ,amoda1 in the    
,central ,provinces4 ,he1 about  the    
same time1 appeared to many of his old  
friends1 and persuaded them  that he    

could save them from the maws of tigers 
and other calamities1  if his worship   
were duly inaugurated and regularly     
performed2 and in  consequence of this1 
two festivals in the year were          
established in  his honour2 but he may  
be worshipped at any time1 and in all   
sickness  and misfortunes his votaries  
confidently appeal to him4 #bgg    ,in  
the ,hill country of ,mirzapur1 the     
shrine of ,gansm is about one  hundred  
yards from the village site and without 
any ornamentation4 ,both  inside and    
outside is a platform of mud1 on which  
the deity can rest  when so disposed4   
,the only special offerings to him are  
the curious  water-pots 7kalsa7 already 
described1 and some rude clay figures of
  horses and elephants1 which are       
regarded as the equipage 7sawr7 of  the 
deity4 ,in the ,central ,provinces1 a   
bamboo with a red or yellow  flag tied  
to the end is planted in one corner1 an 
old withered garland  or two is hung up1
 a few blocks of rough stone1 some      

smeared with  vermilion1 are strewn     
about the place which is specially      
dedicated  to ,gansm ,deo4 #bgh         
,worship of ,dntan ,deo and ,lalit4     
,to the east of the ,mirzapur ,district1
 there is a projecting mass  of rock1   
which1 looked at from a particular      
place1 bears a rude  resemblance to a   
hideous1 grinning skull1 with enormous  
teeth4 ,this  has come to be known as   
,dntan ,deo or the deity of the teeth1  
and is carefully propitiated by people  
when they are sick or in  trouble4 ,akin
 to this deity is ,lalit1 who is        
worshipped to the west  of the          
,province4 ,she is the sister of ,kl1   
and brings bad dreams4 ,her  speciality 
is her long teeth1 and she has sometimes
 a curious way  of blowing up or        
inflating the bodies of people who do   
not pay her  due respect4               
,worship of ,dlha ,deo1 the ,bridegroom 
,godling4    ,another great godling of  
the ,drvidian races is ,dlha ,deo1 the  
bridegroom godling4 ,in his worship we  

have an echo of some great  tragedy1    
which still exercises a profound        
influence over the minds  of the people4
    ,the bridegroom on his way to fetch 
the bride1 is1 by established  ,hindu   
custom1 treated with special reverence1 
and this unfortunate  bridegroom1 whose 
name is forgotten1 is said to have been 
killed by  lightning in the midst of his
 marriage rejoicings1 and he and his    
horse were turned into stone4 ,in fact1 
like ,ganymede or ,hylas1 he was        
carried off by the envy or cruel love of
 the merciless divine powers4    ,he is 
now one of the chief household deities  
of the ,drvidian  people4 ,flowers are  
offered to him on the last day of       
,phlgun  7,february71 and at marriages a
 goat4 ,among some of the ,gond tribes  
he has the first place1 and is          
identified with ,pharsipen1 the god  of 
war4 ,in the native ,states of ,rwa and 
,sarguja1 even ,brhmans  worship him1   
and his symbol or fetish is the         
battle-axe1 the national  weapon of the 

,drvidian races1 fastened to a tree4 ,in
 ,mirzapur he  is pre-eminently the     
marriage godling4 ,in the marriage      
season he is  worshipped in the family  
cook-room1 and at weddings oil and      
turmeric  are offered to him4 ,when two 
or three children in the same hamlet    
are being married at the same time1     
there is a great offering made  of a red
 goat and cakes2 and to mark the        
benevolent character of the  deity as a 
household godling1 the women1 contrary  
to the usual rule1  are allowed a share 
of the meat4 ,this purely domestic      
worship is  not done by the ,baiga or   
devil priest1 but by the ,tikit or      
eldest  son of the family4 ,he is       
specially the tribal god of the         
,ghasiyas1  who pour a little spirits in
 the cook-room in honour of him and of  
deceased relatives4 ,the songs in his   
honour lay special stress on the        
delicacies which the house-mother       
prepares for his entertainment4 ,among  
the ,kharwrs1 when the newly married    

pair come home1 he is worshipped  near  
the family hearth4 ,a goat is fed on    
rice and pulse1 and its head  is cut off
 with an axe1 the worshipper folding his
 hands and saying1  ,take it1 ,dlha     
,deo6    ,on the day when this worship  
is performed1 the ashes of the fireplace
  are carefully removed with the hands1 
a broom is not used1 and special        
precautions are taken that none of the  
ashes fall on the ground4    ,general   
,sleeman gives the legend of ,dlha ,deo 
in another form4    ,in descending into 
the valley of the ,narmad over the      
,vindhya range  from ,bhopl1 one may see
 on the side of the road1 upon a spur of
  the hill1 a singular pillar of        
sandstone rising in two spires1 one     
turning and rising above the other to   
the height of some twenty to  thirty    
feet4 ,on the spur of a hill1 half a    
mile distant1 is another  sandstone     
pillar not quite so high4 ,the tradition
 is that the smaller  pillar was the    
affianced bride of the larger one1 who  

was a youth  of a family of great       
eminence in those parts4 ,coming with   
his uncle  to pay his first visit to his
 bride in the marriage procession1 he   
grew more and more impatient as he      
approached nearer and nearer1  and she  
shared the feeling4 ,at last1 unable to 
restrain himself1  he jumped from his   
uncle's shoulders1 and looked with all  
his might  towards the place where his  
bride was said to be seated4 ,unhappily 
she felt no less impatient than he did1 
and they saw each other at  the same    
moment4 ,in that moment the bride1      
bridegroom1 and uncle were1  all three1 
converted into pillars1 and there they  
stand to this day1  a monument to warn  
mankind against an inclination to       
indulge in  curiosity4 ,it is a singular
 fact that in one of the most extensive 
tribes of the ,gond population1 to which
 this couple is said to have  belonged1 
the bride always1 contrary to the usual 
,hindu custom1  goes to the bridegroom  
in procession to prevent a recurrence of

 this  calamity4 #bgi    ,this legend is
 interesting from various points of     
view4 ,in the first  place it is an     
example of a process of thought of which
 we shall find  instances in dealing    
with fetishism1 whereby a legend is     
localized in  connection with some      
curious phenomenon in the scenery1 which
 attracts  general attention4 ,secondly1
 we have an instance of the primitive   
taboo which appears constantly in       
folk-lore1 where1 as in the case  of    
,lot's wife1 the person who shows       
indiscreet curiosity by a look is       
turned into stone or ashes4 #bhj        
,thirdly1 it may represent a survival   
of a custom not uncommon among primitive
 races1 where the marriage  capturing is
 done1 not by the bridegroom1 but by the
 bride4 ,thus1  among the ,gros1 all    
proposals of marriage must come from the
 lady's  side1 and any infringement of  
the custom can only be atoned for by    
liberal presents of beer given to her   
relations by the friends of  the        

bridegroom1 who pretends to be unwilling
 and runs away1 but is  caught and      
subjected to ablution1 and then taken1  
in spite of the  resistance and         
counterfeited grief and lamentations of 
the parents1  to the bride's house4 #bha
 ,it may then reasonably be expected    
that  this custom of marriage prevailed 
among some branches of the ,gond  tribe1
 and that as they came more and more    
under ,hindu influence1  an unorthodox  
ritual prevailing in certain clans was  
explained by  annexing the familiar     
legend of ,dlha ,deo4                   
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,the ,,godlings    
,,of ,,disease4                         
,kai gar toisi kakon chrysothronos      
,artemis rsen                  ,chsamen 
ho oi outi thalysia goun als            
,oineus rhex4                           
,iliad ix4 #ecc-ece4      ,we now come  
to consider a class of rural godlings1  
the deities who  control disease4       
,the ,demoniacal ,theory of ,disease4   
,it is a commonplace of folk-lore and   

the beliefs of all savage  races that   
disease and death are not the result of 
natural causes1  but are the work of    
devils and demons1 witchcraft1 the ,evil
 ,eye1  and so forth4 ,it is not        
difficult to understand the basis on    
which  beliefs of this class depend4    
,there are certain varieties of disease1
  such as hysteria1 dementia1 epilepsy1 
convulsions1 the delirium of  fever1    
which in the rural mind indicate the    
actual working of an evil  spirit which 
has attacked the patient4 ,there are1   
again1 others1 such  as cholera1 which  
are so sudden and unexpected1 so        
irregular in their  appearances1 so     
capricious in the victims which they    
select1 that they  naturally suggest the
 idea that they are caused by demons4   
,even to  this day the belief in the    
origin of disease from spirit possession
  is still common in rural ,england4    
,fits1 the falling sickness1 ague1      
cramp1 warts1 are all believed to be    
caused by a spirit entering the  body of

 the patient4 ,hence comes the idea that
 the spirit which is  working the       
mischief can be scared by a charm or by 
the exorcism of  a sorcerer4 ,they say  
to the ague1 ,ague6 farewell till we    
meet in  hell1 and to the cramp1 ,cramp6
 be thou faultless1 as ,our ,lady was   
when she bore ,jesus4    ,it is needless
 to say that the same theory flourishes 
in rural  ,india4 ,thus1 in ,rjputna1   
#bhb sickness is popularly attributed to
  ,khor1 or the agency of the offended  
spirits of deceased relations1  and for 
treatment they call in a cunning man1   
who propitiates the  ,khor by offering  
sweetmeats1 milk1 and similar things1   
and gives burnt  ash and black pepper   
sanctified by charms to the patient4    
,the ,mahadeo  ,kolis of ,ahmadnagar    
believe that every malady or disease    
that seizes  man1 woman1 child1 or      
cattle is caused either by an evil      
spirit or  by an angry god4 ,the        
,bijapur ,vaddars have a yearly feast to
 their  ancestors to prevent the dead   

bringing sickness into the house4 #bhc  
,further east in ,north ,bhutan all     
diseases are supposed to be due to      
possession1 and the only treatment is by
 the use of exorcisms4 ,among  the      
,gros1 when a man sickens the priest    
asks which god has done  it4 ,the ,kukis
 and ,khndhs believe that all sickness  
is caused by a  god or by an offended   
ancestor4 #bhd    ,so among the jungle  
tribes of ,mirzapur1 the ,korwas believe
 that all  disease is caused by the     
displeasure of the ,deohr1 or the       
collective  village godlings4 ,these    
deities sometimes become displeased for 
no apparent reason1 sometimes because   
their accustomed worship is  neglected1 
and sometimes through the malignity of  
some witch4 ,the  special diseases which
 are attributed to the displeasure of   
these  godlings are fever1 diarrhoea and
 cough4 ,if small-pox comes of its  own 
accord in the ordinary form1 it is      
harmless1 but a more dangerous  variety 
is attributed to the anger of the local 

deities4 ,cholera  and fever are        
regarded as generally the work of some  
special ,bht or  angry ghost4 ,the      
,kharwrs believe that disease is due to 
the ,baiga not  having paid proper      
attention to ,rja ,chandol and the other
 tutelary  godlings of the village4 ,the
 ,pankas think that disease comes in    
various ways--sometimes through ghosts  
or witches1 sometimes because  the      
godlings and deceased ancestors were not
 suitably propitiated4 ,all  these      
people believe that in the blazing days 
of the ,indian summer  the goddess ,dev 
flies through the air and strikes any   
child which  wears a red garment4 ,the  
result is the symptoms which less       
imaginative  people call sunstroke4     
,instances of similar beliefs drawn from
 the  superstitions of the lower races  
all over the country might be almost    
indefinitely extended4 ,even in our own 
prayers for the sick we pray the        
,father to renew whatsoever has been    
decayed by the fraud and malice  of the 

,devil1 or by the carnal will and       
frailness of the patient4    ,leprosy is
 a disease which is specially regarded  
as a punishment for  sin1 and a ,hindu  
affected by this disease remains an     
outcast until he  can afford to         
undertake a purificatory ceremony4 ,even
 lesser ailments  are often attributed  
to the wrath of some offended god or    
saint4 ,thus1  in ,satra1 the ,king     
,sateswar asked the saint ,sumitra for  
water4 ,the  sage was wrapped in        
contemplation1 and did not answer him4  
,so the  angry monarch took some lice   
from the ground and threw them at the   
saint1 who cursed the ,king with vermin 
all over his body4 ,he endured  the     
affliction for twelve years1 until he   
was cured by ablution at  the sacred    
fountain of ,devrshta4 #bhe ,as we shall
 see1 the ,benglis  have a special deity
 who rules the itch4    ,from ideas of  
this kind the next stage is the actual  
impersonation of  the deity who brings  
disease1 and hence the troop of disease 

godlings  which are worshipped all over 
,india1 and to whose propitiation much  
of the thoughts of the peasant are      
devoted4        ,stal1 the ,goddess of  
,small-pox4    ,of these deities the    
most familiar is ,stal1 she that loves  
the  cool1 so called euphemistically in 
consequence of the fever which          
accompanies small-pox1 the chief infant 
plague of ,india1 which is under  her   
control4 ,stal has other euphemistic    
names4 ,she is called ,mt1  the ,mother 
par excellence2 ,jag ,rn1 the queen of  
the world2  ,phapholewl1 she of the     
vesicle2 ,kalejewl1 she who attacks the 
liver1 which is to the rustic the seat  
of all disease4 ,some call  her ,mah ,m1
 the great ,mother4 ,these euphemistic  
titles for the  deities of terror are   
common to all the mythologies4 ,the     
,greeks of old  called the awful        
,erinyes1 the ,eumenides1 the           
well-meaning4 ,so the  modern ,greeks   
picture the small-pox as a woman1 the   
enemy of children1  and call her        

,sunchoremene1 indulgent1 or exorable1  
and ,eulogia1  one to be praised or     
blessed2 and the ,celts call the fairies
 the  men of peace and the good people1 
or good neighbours4 #bhf    ,in her     
original form as a village goddess she  
has seldom a special  priest or a       
regular temple4 ,a few fetish stones1   
tended by some  low-class menial1       
constitute her shrine4 ,as she comes to 
be promoted  into some form of ,kl or   
,dev1 she is provided with an orthodox  
shrine4 ,she receives little or no      
respect from men1 but women and         
children attend her service in large    
numbers on ,stal's seventh1  ,stal ,k   
,saptam1 which is her feast day4 ,in    
,bengal she is worshipped  on a piece of
 ground marked out and smeared with     
cow-dung4 ,a fire  being lighted1 and   
butter and spirits thrown upon it1 the  
worshipper  makes obeisance1 bowing his 
forehead to the ground and muttering    
incantations4 ,a hog is then sacrificed1
 and the bones and offal being  burnt1  

the flesh is roasted and eaten1 but no  
one must take home with  him any scrap  
of the victim4 #bhg    ,two special     
shrines of ,stal in ,upper ,india may be
 specially referred  to4 ,that at       
,kankhal near ,hardwr has a curious     
legend1 which admirably  illustrates the
 catholicity of ,hinduism4 ,here the    
local ,stal has  the special title of   
,turkin1 or the ,muhammadan lady4 ,there
 was once  a princess born to one of the
 ,mughal ,emperors1 who1 according to   
the  traditions of the dynasty1 when    
many of the chief ladies of the harem   
were of ,hindu birth1 had a warm        
sympathy for her ancestral faith4 ,so   
she made a pilgrimage to ,hardwr1 and   
thence set off to visit the holy        
shrines situated in the upper course of 
the ,ganges4 ,when she reached  the holy
 land of ,badarinth1 the god himself    
appeared to her in a  dream1 and warned 
her that she being a ,musalmn1 her      
intrusion into  his domains would       
probably encourage the attacks of the   

infidel4 ,so  he ordered her to return  
and take up her abode in ,kankhal1 where
 as a  reward for her piety she should  
after her death become the guardian     
goddess of children and be deified as a 
manifestation of ,stal4 ,so  after her  
death a temple was erected on the site  
of her tomb1 and she  receives the      
homage of multitudes of pilgrims4 ,there
 is another noted  shrine of ,stal at   
,rwala1 in the ,dehra ,dn ,district4    
,she is a ,sat1  ,gndhar1 the wife of   
,dhritarshtra1 the mother of            
,duryodhana4 ,when  ,dhritarshtra1      
through the force of his divine         
absorption1 was consumed  with fire at  
,sapta-srota1 near ,hardwr1 ,gndhar also
 jumped into  the fire and became ,sat  
with her husband4 ,then1 in recognition 
of  her piety1 the gods blessed her with
 the boon that in the ,iron ,age  she   
should become the guardian deity of     
children and the goddess of  small-pox  
in particular4 ,another noted ,stal in  
this part of the  country is the deity  

known as ,ujal ,mt1 or the ,white       
,mother1  who has a shrine in the       
,muzaffarnagar ,district4 ,here vast    
crowds  assemble1 and women make vows at
 her temple for the boon of sons1  and  
when a child is born they take it there 
and perform their vow  by making the    
necessary offering to the goddess4 ,one 
peculiarity of  the worship of the      
,kankhal goddess and of ,ujal ,mt is    
that calves  are released at her shrine4
 ,this can hardly be anything else but a
  survival of the rite of cattle        
slaughter1 and this is one of many      
indications that the worship of ,stal is
 a most primitive cult1  and probably of
 indigenous origin4    ,stal1 according 
to one story1 is only the eldest of a   
band of seven  sisters1 by whom the     
pustular group of diseases is supposed  
to be  caused4 ,so the charmer ,lilith  
has twelve daughters1 who are the twelve
  kinds of fevers1 and this arrangement 
of diseases or evil spirits in          
categories of sevens or twelves is found

 in the ,chaldaic magic4 #bhh           
,similarly in the older ,indian         
mythology we have the seven ,mtrs1  the 
seven oceans1 the seven ,rishis1 the    
seven ,adityas and ,dnavas1  and the    
seven horses of the sun1 and numerous   
other combinations of  this mystic      
number4 ,one list gives their names as  
,stal1 ,masn1  ,basanti1 ,mah ,m1       
,polamd1 ,lamkariy1 and ,agwn4 #bhi ,we 
shall  meet ,masn or ,masn1 the deity of
 the cremation ground1 in another       
connection4 ,basant is the yellow       
goddess1 so called probably on  account 
of the colour of the skin in these      
diseases4 ,mah ,m is merely  the great  
,mother4 ,polamd is possibly she who    
makes the body soft or  flabby1 and     
,lamkariy1 she that hasteneth4 ,agwn is 
said to mean  the leader1 and by one    
account1 ,agwn1 who has twenty-five     
thousand  votaries1 according to the    
last census returns1 in the ,north-,west
  ,provinces1 is the son of ,rja ,ben1  
or ,vena1 and the brother of the        

small-pox sisters4 ,at ,hardwr they give
 the names of the seven sisters  as     
,stal1 ,sedal1 ,runuk1 ,jhunuk1 ,mihil1 
,merhal1 and ,mandil1 a  set of names   
which smacks of some modification of an 
aboriginal cultus4    ,their shrines    
cluster round the special shrine of     
,stal1 and the  villagers to the west of
 the ,north-,west ,provinces call them  
her  ,khidmatgrs1 or body servants4     
,round many of the shrines again1 as at 
,kankhal1 we find a group of minor      
shrines1 which by one explanation  are  
called the shrines of the other disease 
godlings4 ,villagers  say that when     
disease appears in a family1 the        
housewife comes and  makes a vow1 and if
 the patient recovers she makes a little
 shrine  to the peculiar form of ,dev   
which she considers responsible for the 
illness4 ,the ,brhmans say that these   
minor shrines are in honour  of the     
,yogins1 who are usually said to number 
eight--,mrjan1  ,karpratilak1           
,malayagandhin ,kauamudik1 ,bherund1    

,mtl1 ,nyak1  ,jay or ,subhchr1         
,sulakshan and ,sunand4 ,in the ,gurgon 
,district1  accompanying images of      
,stal1 is one of ,sedhu ,lla1 who is    
inferior  to her1 yet often worshipped  
before her1 because he is regarded as   
her  servant and intercessor4 ,copper   
coins are thrown behind her shrine into 
a saucer1 which is known as her ,mlkhna 
or ,treasury4 ,rice and other  articles 
of food are placed in front of her      
shrine1 and afterwards  distributed to  
,chamrs1 the currier caste1 and to dogs4
 #bij    ,like so many deities of this  
class ,stal is on the way to promotion  
to the higher heaven4 ,in some places   
she is identified with ,klik  ,bhavn1   
and one list of the seven small-pox     
sisters gives their  names as ,stal1    
,phlmat1 ,chamariy1 ,durg ,kl1 ,mah ,kl1
  and ,bhadr ,kl4 ,this has obviously   
passed through the mill of  ,brhmanism4 
,of these1 ,chamariy is doubtless allied
 to ,chmar1 who is  a vaguely described 
low-caste deity1 worshipped in the      

,north-,western  ,provinces4 ,some say  
he is the ghost of a ,chamr1 or worker  
in leather1  who died an untimely death4
 ,chamariy is said to be the eldest and 
,phlmat the youngest sister of ,stal4   
,she1 by the common account1  takes her 
name from the pustules 7phl7 of the     
disease4 ,she brings  the malady in its 
mildest form1 and the worst variety is  
the work  of ,stal in person4 ,she lives
 in the ,nm tree1 and hence a patient   
suffering from the disease is fanned    
with its leaves4 ,a very bad  form of   
confluent small-pox is the work of      
,chamariy1 who must be  propitiated with
 the offering of a pig through a ,chamr 
or other  low-caste priest4 ,the        
influence of ,kl in her threefold form  
is  chiefly felt in connection with     
other pustular diseases besides         
small-pox4 ,earthenware images of       
elephants are placed at her shrine1  and
 her offerings consist of cakes1        
sweetmeats1 pigs1 goats1 sheep1  and    
black fowls4 ,bhadr ,kl is the least    

formidable of all4 ,the only  person who
 has influence over ,kl is the ,ojha1 or
 sorcerer1 who1  when cholera and       
similar epidemics prevail1 collects a   
subscription  and performs a regular    
expiatory service4        ,connection of
 ,stal with ,human ,sacrifice4    ,in   
her form as household goddess1 ,stal is 
often known as ,thand1  or the cool one1
 and her habitation is in the house     
behind the  water-pots1 in the cold1    
damp place where the water drips4 ,here 
she  is worshipped by the house-mother1 
but only cold food or cold water  is    
offered to her4    ,there is1 however1 a
 darker side to the worship of ,stal and
 the  other disease godlings than this  
mild household service4 ,in #ahag  a    
terrible epidemic of cholera broke out  
at ,jessore4 ,the disease  commenced its
 ravages in ,august1 and it was at once 
discovered that  the ,august of this    
year had five ,saturdays 7a day under   
the influence  of the ill-omened ,sani74
 ,the number five being the express     

property of  the destructive ,siva1 a   
mystical connection was at once         
detected1 the  infallibly baneful       
influence of which it would have been   
sacrilege to  question4 ,on the night of
 the #bgth a strange commotion spread   
through  the villages adjacent to the   
station4 ,a number of magicians were    
reported to have quitted ,marelli with a
 human head in their possession1  which 
they were to be directed by the presence
 of supernatural signs  to leave in a   
certain1 and to them unknown1 village4  
,the people on all  sides were ready by 
force to arrest the progress of these   
nocturnal  visitors4 ,for the prophecy  
foretold that wherever the head fell1   
the destroying angel terminating her    
sanguinary course would rest1  and the  
demon of death1 thus satisfied1 would   
refrain from further  devastation in    
that part of the country4 ,dr4 ,tytler  
says that on  that night1 while walking 
along the road1 endeavouring to allay   
the  agitation1 the judge and he        

perceived a faint light arising from  a 
thick clump of bamboos4 ,attracted to   
the spot1 they found a hut  which was   
illuminated1 and contained images of    
five ,hindu gods1 one of  which was     
,stal1 the celebrated and formidable    
,aul ,bb1 ',our ,lady  of the ,flux1' an
 incarnation of ,kl1 who it is believed 
is one day  to appear riding on a horse 
for the purpose of slaughtering mankind1
  and of setting the world on fire4 ,in 
front of the idol a female child  about 
nine years of age lay on the ground4    
,she was evidently stupefied  with      
intoxicating drugs1 and in this way     
prepared to answer responses  to such   
questions as those initiated into the   
mysteries should think  proper to       
propose4 #bia ,there is much in this    
statement which is open  to question1   
and it seems doubtful whether1 as ,dr4  
,chevers is disposed  to believe1 the   
case was really one of intended human   
sacrifice4        ,small-pox ,worship in
 ,bengal4    ,in ,bengal the divine     

force antagonistic to ,stal is ,shashth1
  goddess of the sixth1 who is regarded 
as the special guardian of  children4   
,the worship of ,shashth rests on a     
physiological fact1  which has only     
recently been applied to explain this   
special form  of worship4 ,the most     
fatal disease of ,indian children is a  
form of  infantile lock-jaw1 which is   
caused by the use of a coarse1 blunt    
instrument1 such as a sickle1 for       
severing the umbilical cord4 ,this      
disease usually makes its appearance    
between the sixth and twelfth  day of   
the life of the child1 and hence we have
 the formal rites of  purification from 
the birth pollution performed as the    
,chhath on  the sixth and the ,barah on 
the twelfth day after delivery4    ,in  
,bengal when small-pox rages1 the       
gardeners are busiest4 ,as  soon as the 
nature of the disease is determined1 the
 physician  retires and a gardener is   
summoned4 ,his first act is to forbid   
the  introduction of meat1 fish1 and all

 food requiring oil or spices  for its  
preparation4 ,he then ties a lock of    
hair1 a cowry shell1  a piece of        
turmeric1 and an article of gold on the 
right wrist of  the patient4 7,the use  
of these articles as scarers of evil    
spirits  will be considered later on47  
,the sick person is then laid on the    
,majhpatta1 the young and unexpanded    
leaf of the plantain tree1 and  milk is 
prescribed as the sole article of food4 
,he is fanned with a  branch of the     
sacred ,nm 7,azidirachta ,indica71 and  
any one entering  the chamber is        
sprinkled with water4 ,should the fever 
become aggravated  and delirium ensue1  
or if the child cries much and sleeps   
little1 the  gardener performs the ,mt  
,pj4 ,this consists in bathing an image 
of  the goddess causing the disease1 and
 giving a draught of the water to       
drink4 ,to relieve the irritation of the
 skin1 pease meal1 turmeric1  flour or  
shell sawdust is sprinkled over the     
body4 ,if the eruption  be copious1 a   

piece of new cloth in the figure of     
eight is wrapped  round the chest and   
shoulders4 ,on the night between the    
seventh and  eighth days of the         
eruption1 the gardener has much to do4  
,he places  a water-pot in the          
sick-room1 and puts on it rice1 a       
cocoanut1 sugar1  plantains1 a yellow   
rag1 flowers1 and a few ,nm leaves4     
,having mumbled  several spells         
7mantra71 he recites the tale 7qissa7 of
 the particular  goddess1 which often   
occupies several hours4 ,when the       
pustules  are mature1 the gardener dips 
a thorn of the ,karaunda 7,carissa7 in  
sesamum oil and punctures each one4 ,the
 body is then anointed with  oil1 and   
cooling fruits are given4 ,when the     
scabs have peeled off1  another ceremony
 called ,godm is gone through4 ,all the 
offerings on  the water-pot are rolled  
in a cloth and fastened round the waist 
of  the patient4 ,the offerings are the 
perquisite of the gardener1 who  also   
receives a fee4 ,government vaccinators 

earn a considerable sum  yearly by      
executing the ,stal worship1 and when a 
child is vaccinated1  a portion of the  
service is performed--a curious         
compromise between  the indigenous faith
 and ,european medical science4 #bib    
,the special ,tirht observance of the   
,jur ,stal or smallpox fever  feast will
 be more conveniently considered in     
connection with other  usages of the    
same kind4        ,mtang ,sakt and      
,masn4    ,we have already seen that    
,stal is in the stage of promotion to   
the  ,brhmanical heaven4 ,here her      
special name is ,mtang ,sakt1 a word    
which has been connected with ,mt and   
,masn1 but really refers to  ,durg-,dev 
in her terrible elephant form4 ,masn or 
,masn is quite  a different goddess4    
,she resides at the ,masn or cremation  
ground1  and is greatly dreaded4 ,the   
same name is in the eastern district of 
the ,north-,western ,provinces applied  
to the tomb of some low-caste man1  very
 often a ,teli or oilman1 or a ,dhobi or

 washerman1 both of whose  ghosts are   
generally obnoxious4 ,envious women will
 take the ashes  from a cremation ground
 and throw them over an enemy's child4  
,this is  said to cause them to be under
 the influence of the shadow 7,sya1     
,chhya7 and to waste away by slow       
decline4 ,this idea is familiar  in     
folk-lore4 ,all savages believe that    
their shadow is a part of  themselves1  
that if it be hurt the owner of it will 
feel pain1 that a  man may lose his     
shadow altogether and thus be deprived  
of part of his  soul and strength1 and  
that vicious people1 as in the present  
case1  can fling their shadow upon you  
and cause you injury4 #bic    ,mtang    
,sakt1 again1 appears in at least eight 
forms--,rauk ,dev1  ,ghrauk ,dev1 ,mel  
,dev1 ,mandl ,dev1 ,stal ,dev1 ,durg    
,dev and  ,sankar ,dev1 a collection of 
names which indicates the extraordinary 
mixture of beliefs1 some of them        
importations from the regular           
mythology1 but others obscure and local 

manifestations of the deity1  out of    
which this worship has been developed4  
,she is described as  having ears as    
large as a winnowing fan1 projecting    
teeth1 a hideous  face with a wide open 
mouth4 ,her vehicle is the ass1 an      
animal very  often found in association 
with shrines of ,stal4 ,she carries a   
broom  and winnowing fan with which she 
sifts mankind1 and in one hand a        
pitcher and ewer4 ,this fan and broom   
are1 as we shall see later on1  most    
powerful fetishes4 ,all this is sheer   
mythology at its lowest  stage1 and     
represents the grouping of various local
 fetish beliefs  on the original        
household worship4        ,journey      
forbidden during an ,epidemic of        
,small-pox4    ,during a small-pox      
epidemic no journey1 not even a         
pilgrimage to a holy  shrine1 should be 
undertaken4 ,gen4 ,sleeman #bid gives a 
curious case  in illustration of this3  
,at this time the only son of ,rma      
,krishna's  brother1 ,khushhl ,chand1 an

 interesting boy of about four years of 
age1  was extremely ill of small-pox4   
,his father was told that he had better 
defer his journey to ,benares till the  
child should recover2 but he  could     
neither eat nor sleep1 so great was his 
terror lest some dreadful  calamity     
should befall the whole family before he
 could expiate a  sacrilege which he had
 committed unwittingly1 or take the     
advice of  his high priest1 as to the   
best manner of doing so1 and he resolved
  to leave the decision to ,god himself4
 ,he took two pieces of paper and       
having caused ,benares to be written on 
one and ,jabalpur on the other1  he put 
them both in a brass vessel4 ,after     
shaking the vessel well1  he drew forth 
that on which ,benares had been written4
 ',it is the will  of ,god1' said ,rma  
,krishna4 ,all the family who were      
interested in the  preservation of the  
poor boy implored him not to set out1   
lest the ,dev  who presides over        
small-pox should be angry4 ,it was all  

in vain4 ,he  would set out with his    
household god1 and unable to carry it   
himself1  he put it upon a small litter 
upon a pole1 and hired a bearer to carry
  it at one end while he supported the  
other4 ,his brother ,khushhl ,chand     
sent his second wife at the same time   
with offerings to the ,dev1 to  ward off
 the effects of his brother's rashness  
from the child4 ,by the  time his       
brother had got with his god to         
,adhartl1 three miles from  ,jabalpur1  
he heard of the death of his nephew4    
,but he seemed not to  feel this slight 
blow in the terror of the dreadful1 but 
undefined1  calamity which he felt to be
 impending over him and the whole       
family1  and he went on his road4 ,soon 
after1 an infant son of his uncle died  
of the same disease1 and the whole town 
at once became divided into  two        
parties--those who held that the child  
had been killed by the ,dev  as a       
punishment for ,rma ,krishna's presuming
 to leave ,jabalpur before  they        

recovered1 and those who held that they 
were killed by the god  ,vishnu himself 
for having deprived him of one of his   
arms4 ,khushhl  ,chand's wife sickened  
on the road and died before reaching    
,mirzapur2  and as the ,dev was supposed
 to have nothing to say to fevers1 this 
event greatly augmented the advocates of
 ,vishnu4        ,observances during    
,small-pox ,epidemics4    ,in the ,panjb
 when a child falls ill of small-pox no 
one is allowed  to enter the house1     
especially if he have bathed1 washed1 or
 combed  his hair1 and if any one does  
come in1 he is made to burn incense  at 
the door4 ,should a thunderstorm come on
 before the vesicles have  fully come   
out1 the sound is not allowed to enter  
the ear of the  sick child1 and metal   
plates are violently beaten to drown the
 noise  of the thunder4 ,for six or     
seven days1 when the disease is at its  
height1 the child is fed with raisins   
covered with silver leaf4 ,when  the    
vesicles have fully developed it is     

believed that ,dev ,mt has  come4 ,when 
the disease has abated a little1 water  
is thrown over the  child4 ,singers and 
drummers are summoned and the parents   
make with  their friends a procession to
 the temple of ,dev1 carrying the child 
dressed in saffron-coloured clothes4 ,a 
man goes in advance with a bunch  of    
sacred grass in his hands1 from which he
 sprinkles a mixture of  milk and water4
 ,in this way they visit some fig-tree  
or other shrine  of ,dev1 to which they 
tie red ribbons and besmear it with red 
lead1  paint and curds4 #bie    ,one    
method of protecting children from the  
disease is to give them  opprobrious    
names1 and dress them in rags4 ,this1   
with other devices  for disease         
transference1 will be discussed later   
on4 ,we have seen that  the ,nm tree is 
supposed to influence the disease2 hence
 branches of it  are hung over the door 
of the sick-room4 ,thunder disturbs the 
goddess  in possession of the child1 so 
the family flour-mill1 which1 as as  we 

shall see1 has mystic powers1 is rattled
 near the child4 ,another  device is to 
feed a donkey1 which is the animal on   
which ,stal  rides4 ,this is specially  
known in the ,panjb as the ,jand ,pj4   
#bif  ,in the same belief that the      
patient is under the direct influence   
of the goddess1 if death ensues the     
purification of the corpse by  cremation
 is considered both unnecessary and     
improper4 ,like ,gusns1  ,jogis1 and    
similar persons who are regarded as     
inspired1 those who  die of this disease
 are buried1 not cremated4 ,as ,sir ,a4 
,c4 ,lyall  observes1 #big ,the rule is 
ordinarily expounded by the priests to  
be imperative1 because the outward signs
 and symptoms mark the actual  presence 
of divinity2 the small-pox is not the   
god's work1 but the  god himself        
manifest2 but there is also some ground 
for concluding  that the process of     
burying has been found more wholesome   
than the  hurried and ill-managed       
cremation1 which prevails during a fatal

  epidemic4 ,gen4 ,sleeman gives an     
instance of an outbreak of the disease  
which was attributed to a violation of  
this traditional rule4 #bih             
,minor ,disease ,godlings4    ,there are
 a number of minor disease godlings1    
some of whom may be  mentioned here4    
,the ,benares godling of malaria is     
,jvaraharsvara1  the god who repels the 
fever4 ,the special offering to him is  
what  is called ,dudhbhanga1 a          
confection made of milk1 the leaves of  
the  hemp plant and sweetmeats4 ,among  
the ,kols of ,chaibsa1 ,bangara is  the 
godling of fever and is associated with 
,gohem1 ,chondu1 ,negra and  ,dichali1  
who are considered respectively the     
godlings of cholera1  the itch1         
indigestion and death4 ,the ,benglis    
have a special service  for the worship 
of ,ghentu1 the itch godling4 ,the scene
 of the service  is a dunghill4 ,a      
broken earthenware pot1 its bottom      
blackened with  constant use for        
cooking1 daubed white with lime1        

interspersed with a  few streaks of     
turmeric1 together with a branch or two 
of the ,ghentu  plant1 and last1 not    
least1 a broomstick of the genuine      
palmyra or  cocoanut stock1 serve as the
 representation of the presiding deity  
of itch4 ,the mistress of the family1   
for whose benefit the worship  is done1 
acts as priestess4 ,after a few doggrel 
lines are recited1  the pot is broken   
and the pieces collected by the         
children1 who sing  songs about the itch
 godling4 #bii    ,some of these        
godlings are1 like ,shashth1 protectors 
of children  from infantile disorders4  
,such are in ,hoshangbd ,bijaysen1 in   
whose name a string1 which1 as we shall 
see1 exercises a powerful  influence    
over demons1 is hung round the necks of 
children from birth  till marriage1 and 
,kurdeo1 whose name represents the      
,kuladevat1 or  family deity4 ,among the
 ,kurkus he presides over the growth and
 health  of the children in three or    
four villages together4 #cjj ,acheri1 a 

disease sprite in the ,hills1           
particularly favours those who wear red 
garments1 and in his name a scarlet     
thread is tied round the throat as  an  
amulet against cold1 and goitre4 ,ghanta
 ,karana1 he who has ears  as broad as a
 bell1 or who wears bells in his ears1  
is another  disease godling of the      
,hills4 ,he is supposed to be of great  
personal  attractions1 and is worshipped
 under the form of a water jar as the   
healer of cutaneous diseases4 ,he is a  
gate-keeper1 or1 in other words1  a     
godling on his promotion1 in many of the
 ,garhwl temples4 #cja    ,among the    
,kurkus of ,hoshangbd1 ,mutua ,deo is   
represented by a heap  of stones inside 
the village4 ,his special sacrifice is a
 pig1 and his  particular mission is to 
send epidemics1 and particularly fevers1
 in  which case he must be propitiated  
with extraordinary sacrifices4 #cjb     
,one of the great disease ,mothers is   
,mar ,bhavn4 ,she has  her speciality in
 the regulation of cholera1 which she   

spreads or  withholds according to the  
attention she receives4 ,they tell a    
curious  story about her in ,oudh4      
,safdar ,jang1 having established his   
virtual  independence of the ,mughal    
,empire1 determined to build a capital4 
,he  selected as the site for it the    
high bank of the ,gmti1 overlooking     
,pparght in ,sultnpur4 ,and but for the 
accident of a sickly season1  that now  
comparatively unknown locality might    
have enjoyed the  celebrity which       
afterwards fell to the lot of ,faizbd4  
,the fort was  already begun when the   
news reached the ,emperor1 who sent his 
minister  a khilat1 to all outward      
appearance suited to his rank and       
dignity4 ,the  royal gift had been      
packed up with becoming care1 and its   
arrival does  not seem to have struck   
,safdar ,jang as incompatible with the  
rebellious  attitude which he had       
assumed4 ,the box in which it was       
enclosed was  opened with due ceremony1 
when it was discovered that the         

,emperor1  with grim pleasantry1 had    
selected as an appropriate gift an image
  of ,mar ,bhavn4 ,the mortality which  
ensued in ,safdar ,jang's army was      
appalling1 and the site was abandoned1  
,mar ,bhavn being left in sole          
possession4 ,periodical fairs are now   
held there in her honour4 #cjc          
,hardaul ,lla1 the ,cholera ,godling4   
,but the great cholera godling of       
,northern ,india is ,hardaul1 ,hardaur1 
,harda1 ,hardiya or ,hardiha ,lla4 ,it  
is only north of the ,jumn that he      
appears to control the plague1 and in   
,bundelkhand1 his native home1  he seems
 to have little connection with it4     
,with him we reach a class  of godlings 
quite distinct from nearly all those    
whom we have been  considering4 ,he is  
one of that numerous class who were in  
their  lifetime actual historical       
personages1 and who from some special   
cause1 in his case from the tragic      
circumstances of his death1 have  been  
elevated to a seat among the hosts of   

heaven4 ,hardaur ,lla1 or  ,dvn         
,hardaur1 was the second son of ,br     
,sinha ,deva1 the miscreant  ,rja of    
,orchha1 in ,bundelkhand1 who1 at the   
instigation of ,prince  ,jahngr1        
assassinated the accomplished ,abul     
,fazl1 the litterateur  of the court of 
,akbar4 #cjd ,his brother ,jhajhr1 or   
,jhujhr1 ,sinh  succeeded to the throne 
on the death of his father2 and after   
some  time suspecting ,hardaur of undue 
intimacy with his wife1 he compelled    
her to poison her lover with all his    
companions at a feast in #afbg ,a4,d4   
,after this tragedy it happened that the
 daughter of the ,princess  ,kanjvat1   
sister of ,jhajhr and ,hardaur1 was     
about to be married4 ,her  mother1      
according to the ordinary rule of family
 etiquette1 sent an  invitation to      
,jhajhr ,sinh to attend the wedding4 ,he
 refused with the  mocking taunt that   
she would be wise to invite her         
favourite brother  ,hardaur4 ,thereupon1
 she in despair went to his cenotaph and

 lamented  his wretched end4 ,hardaur   
from below answered her cries1 and      
promised  to attend the wedding and make
 all the necessary arrangements4 ,the   
ghost kept his promise1 and arranged the
 marriage ceremony as befitted  the     
honour of his house4    ,subsequently he
 is said to have visited the bedside of 
the ,emperor  ,akbar at midnight1 and   
besought him to issue an order that     
platforms  should be erected in his     
name1 and honour be paid to him in every
  village of the ,empire1 promising that
 if he were duly propitiated1  no       
wedding should ever be marred with storm
 or rain1 and that no one  who before   
eating presented a share of his meal to 
him1 should ever  want for bread4       
,akbar1 it is said1 complied with these 
requests1 and  since then the ghost of  
,hardaul has been worshipped in nearly  
every  village in ,northern ,india4 ,but
 here1 as in many of these legends1  the
 chronology is hopeless4 ,akbar died in 
#afje ,a4,d41 and the murder  of        

,hardaul is fixed in #afbg4    ,he is   
chiefly honoured at weddings1 and in the
 month of ,baiskh 7,may71  when the     
women1 particularly those of the lower  
classes1 visit his  shrine and eat the  
offerings presented to him4 ,the shrine 
is always  erected outside the hamlet1  
and is decorated with flags4 ,on the day
  but one before the arrival of a       
wedding procession1 the women of  the   
family worship ,hardaul1 and invite him 
to the ceremony4 ,if any  signs of a    
storm appear1 he is propitiated with    
songs1 one of the  best known of which  
runs thus--          ,lla6 ,thy shrine  
is in every hamlet6      ,thy name      
throughout the land6      ,lord of the  
,bundela land6      ,may ,god increase  
thy fame6      ,or in the local patois--
          ,gnwn chauntra1      ,lla     
desan nm3      ,bundel des k ,raiya1    
,r k4      ,tumhr jay rakh      ,bhagwn6
      ,many of these shrines have a     
stone figure of the hero represented on 
horseback1 set up at the head or west   

side of the platform4 ,from his         
birthplace ,hardaul is also known as    
,bundela1 and one of the quarters  in   
,mirzapur1 and in the town of ,brindaban
 in the ,mathura ,district1  is named   
after him4 #cje    ,but while in his    
native land of ,bundelkhand ,hardaul is 
a wedding  godling1 in about the same   
rank as ,dulha ,deo among the ,drvidian 
tribes1 to the north of the ,jumn it is 
on his power of influencing  epidemics  
of cholera that his reputation mainly   
rests4 ,the terrible  outbreak of this  
pestilence1 which occurred in the camp  
of the  ,governor-,general1 the         
,marquess ,hastings1 during the ,pindri 
war1 was  generally attributed by the   
people to the killing of beef for the   
use of the ,british troops in the grove 
where the ashes of ,hardaul  repose4    
,sir ,c4 ,a4 ,elliott remarks that he   
has seen statements in  the old official
 correspondence of #ahbh ,a4,d41 when we
 first took  possession of ,hoshangbd1  
that the district officers were directed

  to force the village headmen to set up
 altars to ,hardaul ,lla in every       
village4 ,this was part of the system of
 preserving the cultivators1  since it  
was found that they ran away1 if their  
fears of epidemics were  not calmed by  
the respect paid to the local gods4 ,but
 in ,hoshangbd1  the worship of ,hardaul
 ,lla has fallen into great neglect in  
recent  times1 the repeated recurrence  
of cholera having shaken the belief  in 
the potency of his influence over the   
disease4 #cjf        ,exorcism of the   
,cholera ,demon4    ,mention has been   
already made of the common belief in an 
actual  embodiment of pestilence in a   
human or ghostly form4 ,a disease  so   
sudden and mysterious as cholera is     
naturally capable of a  superstitious   
explanation of this kind4 ,everywhere it
 is believed to  be due to the agency of
 a demon1 which can be expelled by noise
 and  special incantations1 or removed  
by means of a scapegoat4 ,thus1 the     
,muhammadans of ,herat believed that a  

spirit of cholera stalked through  the  
land in advance of the actual disease4  
#cjg ,all over ,upper ,india1  when     
cholera prevails1 you may see fires     
lighted on the boundaries  of villages  
to bar the approach of the demon of the 
plague1 and the  people shouting and    
beating drums to hasten his departure4  
,on one  occasion ,i was present at such
 a ceremonial while out for an evening  
drive1 and as we approached the place   
the grooms advised us to stop  the      
horses in order to allow the demon to   
cross the road ahead of us  without     
interruption4    ,this expulsion of the 
disease spirit is often a cause of      
quarrels and  riots1 as villages who are
 still safe from the epidemic strongly  
resent  the introduction of the demon   
within their boundaries4 ,in a recent   
case  at ,allahbd a man stated that the 
cholera monster used to attempt to      
enter his house nightly1 that his head  
resembled a large earthen pot1  and that
 he and his brother were obliged to bar 

his entrance with their  clubs4 ,another
 attributed the immunity of his family  
to the fact that  he possessed a gun1   
which he regularly fired at night to    
scare the  demon4 ,not long ago some men
 in the same district enticed the       
cholera  demon into an earthen pot by   
magical rites1 and clapping on the lid1 
formed a procession in the dead of night
 for the purpose of carrying  the pot to
 a neighbouring village1 with which     
their relations were the  reverse of    
cordial1 and burying it there secretly4 
,but the enemy were  on the watch1 and  
turned out in force to frustrate this   
fell intent4 ,a  serious riot occurred1 
in the course of which the receptacle   
containing  the evil spirit was         
unfortunately broken and he escaped to  
continue  his ravages in the            
neighbourhood4 #cjh ,in ,bombay1 when   
cholera breaks  out in a village1 the   
village potter is asked to make an image
 of the  goddess of cholera4 ,when the  
image is ready1 the village people go in

  procession to the potter's house1 and 
tell him to carry the image to  a spot  
outside the village4 ,when it is taken  
to the selected place1  it is first     
worshipped by the potter and then by the
 villagers4 #cji  ,here1 as in many     
instances of similar rites1 the priest  
is a man of  low caste1 which points to 
the indigenous character of the worship4
    ,in the western districts of the    
,north-,western ,provinces the rite     
takes  a more advanced form4 ,when      
cholera prevails1 ,kl ,dev is           
worshipped1  and a magic circle of milk 
and spirits is drawn round the village1 
over which the cholera demon does not   
care to step4 ,they have also  a reading
 of the ,scriptures in honour of ,durg1 
and worship a ,sat  shrine1 if there be 
one in the village4 ,the next stage is  
the actual  scapegoat1 which is1 as we  
shall see1 very generally used for this 
purpose4 ,a buffalo bull is marked with 
a red pigment and driven to the  next   
village1 where he carries the plague    

with him4 ,quite recently1  at ,meerut1 
the people purchased a buffalo1 painted 
it red and led  the animal through the  
city in procession4 ,colonel ,tod       
describes how  ,zlim ,sinh1 the         
celebrated regent of ,kota1 drove       
cholera out of the  place4 ,having      
assembled the ,brhmans1 astrologers and 
those versed  in incantations1 a grand  
rite was got up1 sacrifices made1 and a 
solemn decree of banishment was         
pronounced against ,mar1 the cholera    
goddess4 ,accordingly an equipage was   
prepared for her1 decorated with        
funeral emblems1 painted black and drawn
 by a double team of black  oxen2 bags  
of grain1 also black1 were put into the 
vehicle1 that the  lady might not go    
without food1 and driven by a man in    
sable vestments1  followed by the yells 
of the populace1 ,mar was deported      
across the  ,chambal river1 with the    
commands of the priests that she should 
never  again set foot in ,kota4 ,no     
sooner did my deceased friend hear of   

her  expulsion from that capital1 and   
being placed on the road for ,bndi1     
than the wise men of the city were      
called on to provide means to keep  her 
from entering therein4 ,accordingly1 all
 the water of the ,ganges  at hand was  
in requisition2 an earthen vessel was   
placed over the  southern portal from   
which the sacred water was continually  
dripping1  and against which no evil    
could prevail4 ,whether my friend's     
supply  of the holy water failed1 or    
,mar disregarded such opposition1 she   
reached the palace4 #caj        ,cholera
 caused by ,witchcraft4    ,in ,gujart1 
among the wilder tribes1 the belief     
prevails that cholera  is caused by old 
women who feed on the corpses of the    
victims of the  pestilence4 ,formerly1  
when a case occurred their practice was 
to go to  the soothsayer 7,bhagat71 find
 out from him who was the guilty witch1 
and kill her with much torture4 ,of late
 years this practice has1  to a great   
extent1 ceased4 ,the people now         

attribute an outbreak to  the wrath of  
the goddess ,kl1 and1 to please her1    
draw her cart  through the streets1 and 
lifting it over the village boundaries1 
offer up goats and buffaloes4           
,sometimes1 to keep off the disease1    
they make a magic circle with milk or   
coloured threads round the  village4 ,at
 ,nsik1 when cholera breaks out in the  
city1 the leading  ,brhmans collect in  
little doles from each house a small    
allowance of  rice1 put the rice in a   
cart1 take it beyond the limits of the  
town1  and there it is thrown away4 #caa
    ,a visitation of the plague in ,nepl
 was attributed to the ,rja  insisting  
on celebrating the ,dasahra during an   
intercalary month4 ,on  another occasion
 the arrival of the disease was         
attributed to the  ,evil ,eye of ,saturn
 and other planets1 which secretly came 
together  in one sign of the zodiac4 ,a 
third attack was supposed to be caused  
by the ,rja being in his eighteenth     
year1 and the year of the cycle  being  

eighty-eight--eight being a very unlucky
 number4 #cab    ,so the ,gonds try to  
ward off the anger of the spirits of    
cholera and  small-pox by sacrifices1   
and by thoroughly cleaning their        
villages and  transferring the sweepings
 into some road or travelled track4     
,their  idea is that unless the disease 
is communicated to some person who will 
take it on to the next village1 the     
plague will not leave them4 ,for  this  
reason they do not throw the sweepings  
into the jungle1 as no  one passes that 
way1 and consequently the benefit of    
sweeping is  lost4 #cac    ,an          
extraordinary case was recently reported
 from the ,dehra ,isml ,khn  ,district4 
,there had been a good deal of sickness 
in the village1 and  the people spread a
 report that this was due to the fact   
that a woman1  who had died some seven  
months previously1 had been chewing her 
funeral  sheet4 ,the relatives were     
asked to allow the body to be examined1 
which  was done1 and it was found that  

owing to the subsidence of the ground   
through rain1 some earth had fallen into
 the mouth of the corpse4 ,a  copper    
coin was placed in the mouth as a       
viaticum1 and a fowl killed  and laid on
 the body1 which was again interred4    
,the same result is very  often believed
 to follow from burying persons of the  
sweeper caste in  the usual extended    
position1 instead of a sitting posture  
or with the  face downwards4 ,a sweeper 
being one of the aboriginal or casteless
  tribes is believed to have something  
uncanny about him4 ,recently in         
,muzaffarnagar1 a corpse buried in the  
unorthodox way was disinterred  by      
force1 and the matter finally came      
before the courts4        ,the ,demon of
 ,cattle ,disease4    ,in the same way  
cattle disease is caused by the plague  
demon4 ,once  upon a time a man1 whose  
descendants live in the ,mathura        
,district1  was sleeping out in the     
fields when he saw the cattle disease   
creeping  up to his oxen in an animal   

shape4 ,he watched his opportunity and  
got  the demon under his shield1 which  
he fixed firmly down4 ,the disease      
demon entreated to be released1 but he  
would not let it go till it  promised   
that it would never remain where he or  
his descendants  were present4 ,so to   
this day1 when the murrain visits a     
village1  his descendants are summoned  
and work round the village1 calling on  
the disease to fulfil its contract4 #cad
    ,the murrain demon is expelled in   
the same way as that of the cholera1    
and removed by the agency of the        
scapegoat4 ,in the western part of  the 
,north-,western ,provinces you will     
often notice wisps of straw tied  round 
the trunks of acacia trees1 which1 as we
 shall see1 possess  mystic powers1 as a
 means to bar disease4    ,ksi ,bba is  
the tribal deity of the ,binds of       
,bengal4 ,of him it is  reported3 ,a    
mysterious epidemic was carrying off the
 herds on the  banks of the ,ganges1 and
 the ordinary expiatory sacrifices were 

ineffectual4 ,one evening a clownish    
,ahr1 on going to the river1  saw a     
figure rinsing its mouth from time to   
time1 and making an  unearthly sound    
with a conch shell4 ,the lout1          
concluding that this  must be the demon 
that caused the epidemic1 crept up and  
clubbed the  unsuspecting bather4 ,ksi  
,nth was the name of the murdered       
,brhman1  and as the cessation of the   
murrain coincided with his death1 the   
low  ,hindustni castes have ever since  
regarded ,ksi ,bba as the maleficent    
spirit that sends disease among the     
cattle4 ,nowadays he is propitiated  by 
the following curious ceremony4 ,as soon
 as an infectious disease  breaks out1  
the village cattle are massed together1 
and cotton seed  sprinkled over them4   
,the fattest and sleekest animal being  
singled  out1 is severely beaten with   
rods4 ,the herd1 scared by the noise1   
scamper off to the nearest shelter1     
followed by the scape bull2  and by this
 means it is thought the murrain is     

stayed4 #cae    ,ksi ,ds1 according to  
the last census1 has #agb1jjj           
worshippers in  the eastern districts of
 the ,north-,western ,provinces4        
,other ,cholera ,godlings4    ,beside   
,hardaul ,lla1 the great cholera        
godling1 ,hulk ,dev1 the  impersonation 
of vomiting1 is worshipped in ,bengal   
with the same  object4 ,she appears to  
be the same as ,holik or ,hork ,maiyy1  
whom  we shall meet in connection with  
the ,hol festival4 ,we have already     
noticed ,mar or ,mar ,m1 ,mother death1 
or as she is called when  promoted to   
,brhmanism1 ,mar ,bhavn4 ,she and       
,hatth1 a minor cholera  goddess1 are   
worshipped when cholera prevails4 ,by   
one account she and  ,stal are daughters
 of ,rja ,vena4 ,about ten thousand     
people recorded  themselves at the last 
census as worshippers of ,hatth and ,mar
 in the  ,north-,western ,provinces4    
,among the jungle tribes of ,mirzapur   
she is  known as ,ob1 an ,arabic word   
7waba7 meaning pestilence4 ,mar1 as we  

have said1 has a special shrine in      
,sultnpur to commemorate a fatal        
outbreak of cholera in the army of      
,safdar ,jang4 ,in the ,panjb ,mar  is  
honoured with an offering of a pumpkin1 
a male buffalo1 a cock1 a  ram and a    
goat4 ,these animals are each           
decapitated with a single blow  before  
her altar4 ,if more than one blow is    
required the ceremony is a  failure4    
,formerly1 in addition to these five    
kinds of offering a man  and woman were 
sacrificed1 to make up the mystic number
 seven4 #caf        ,exorcism of        
,disease4    ,the practice of exorcising
 these demons of disease has been       
elaborated  into something like a       
science4 ,disease1 according to the     
general belief  of the rural population1
 can be removed by a species of magic1  
usually  of the variety known as        
sympathetic1 and it can be transferred  
from the sufferer to some one else4 ,the
 special incantations for  disease are  
in the hands of low-caste sorcerers or  

magicians4 ,among  the more primitive   
races1 such as those of ,drvidian origin
 in  ,central ,india1 this is the       
business of the ,baiga1 or aboriginal   
devil priest4 ,but even here there is a 
differentiation of function1  and though
 the ,baiga is usually considered       
competent to deal with  the cases of    
persons possessed of evil spirits1 it is
 only special  persons who can undertake
 the regular exorcism4 ,this is among   
the  lower tribes of ,hindus the        
business of the ,syna1 the cunning man1 
the ,sokha 7,sanskrit sukskma1 the      
subtile one71 or the ,ojha1 which  is a 
corruption of the ,sanskrit ,updhyya or 
teacher4    ,like sculapius1 ,paieon1   
and even ,apollo himself1 the successful
  magician and healer gradually develops
 into a god4 ,all over the  country     
there are1 as we have seen1 the shrines 
of saints who won  the reverence of the 
people by the cures wrought at their    
tombs4 ,the  great deified healer in    
,behr and the eastern ,districts of the 

,north-,western ,provinces is ,sokha    
,bba1 who1 according to the last        
census1 had thirteen thousand special   
worshippers4 ,he is said to have  been a
 ,brhman who was killed by a snake1 and 
now possesses the power  of inflicting  
snake-bite on those who do not          
propitiate him4    ,exorcisers are both 
professional and non-professional4      
,non-professional exorcisers are        
generally persons who get naturally     
improved by a guardian spirit 7deva71   
and a few of them learn the art  of     
exorcism from a ,guru or teacher4 ,most 
of the professional  exorcisers learn   
from a ,guru4 ,the first study is begun 
on a lunar or  on a solar eclipse day4  
,on such a day the teacher after        
bathing1 and  without wiping his body1  
or his head or hair1 puts on dry        
clothes1  and goes to the village       
godling's temple4 ,the candidate then   
spreads  a white cloth before the god1  
and on one side of the cloth makes a    
heap of rice1 and on another a heap of  

,urad 7phaseolus radiatus71  sprinkles  
red lead on the heaps1 and breaks a     
cocoanut in front of  the idol4 ,the    
,guru then teaches him the incantation  
7mantra71 which  he commits to memory4  
,an ochre-coloured flag is then tied to 
a staff  in front of the temple1 and the
 teacher and candidate come home4       
,after this1 on the first new moon which
 falls on a ,saturday1 the  teacher and 
the candidate go together out of the    
village to a place  previously marked   
out by them on the boundary4 ,a servant 
accompanies  them1 who carries a bag of 
,urad1 oil1 seven earthen lamps1 lemons1
  cocoanuts1 and red powder4 ,after     
coming to the spot1 the teacher and  the
 candidate bathe1 and then the teacher  
goes to the village temple1  and sits   
praying for the safety of the candidate4
 ,the candidate1  who has been already  
instructed as to what should be done1   
then  starts for the boundary of the    
next village1 accompanied by the        
servant4 ,on reaching the village       

boundary1 he picks up seven pebbles1    
sets them in a line on the road1 and    
after lighting a lamp near them1  he    
worships them with flowers1 red powder1 
and ,urad4 ,incense is then  burnt1 and 
a cocoanut is broken near the pebble    
which represents ,vetla  and his        
lieutenants1 and a second cocoanut is   
broken for the village  godling4 ,here  
the cocoanut is symbolical of a         
sacrifice which was  probably originally
 of a human victim4    ,when this is    
over1 he goes to a river1 well1 or other
 bathing place1  and bathes1 and without
 wiping his body or putting on dry      
clothes1  proceeds to the boundary of   
the next village4 ,there he repeats the 
same process as he did before1 and then 
goes to the boundary of a third         
village4 ,in this manner he goes to     
seven villages and repeats the same     
process4 ,all this while he keeps on    
repeating incantations4 ,after          
finishing his worship at the seventh    
village1 the candidate returns  to his  

village1 and going to the temple1 sees  
his teacher and tells  him what he has  
done4    ,in this manner1 having        
worshipped and propitiated the ,vetlas  
of  seven villages1 he becomes an       
exorcist4 ,after having been able to    
exercise these powers1 he must observe  
certain rules4 ,thus1 on every  eclipse 
day he must go to a sea-shore or a river
 bank1 bathe in cold  water1 and while  
standing in the water repeat            
incantations a number  of times4 ,after 
bathing daily he must neither wring his 
head hair1  nor wipe his body dry4      
,while he is taking his meals1 he should
 leave  off if he hears a woman in her  
monthly sickness speak or if a lamp  be 
extinguished4    ,the ,muhammadan       
methods of studying exorcism are        
different from those  of the ,hindus4   
,one of them is as follows3--,the       
candidate begins his  study under the   
guidance of his teacher on the last day 
of the lunar  month1 provided it falls  
on a ,tuesday or ,sunday4 ,the          

initiation takes  place in a room1 the  
walls and floor of which have been      
plastered  with mud1 and here and there 
daubed with sandal paste4 ,on the floor 
a white sheet is spread1 and the        
candidate after washing his hands  and  
feet1 and wearing a new waist-cloth or  
trousers1 sits on the  sheet4 ,he lights
 one or two incense sticks and makes    
offerings of a  white cloth and meat to 
one of the principal ,musalmn saints4   
,this  process is repeated for from     
fourteen to forty days4 #cag    ,few    
rural exorcisers go through this        
elaborate ritual1 the object of  which  
it is not difficult to understand4 ,the 
candidate wishes to get  the ,vetla or  
local demon of the village into his     
power and to make  him work his will4   
,so he provides himself with a number of
 articles  which1 as we shall see1 are  
known for their influence over the      
spirits of evil1 such as the ,urad      
pulse1 lamps1 cocoanuts1 etc4 ,the      
careful rule of bathing1 the precautions

 against personal impurity1  the worship
 done at the shrine of the village      
godling by the teacher1  are all        
intended to guard him in the hour of    
danger4 ,the common village  wise man   
contents himself with learning a few    
charms of the hocus  pocus variety1 and 
a cure in some difficult case of devil  
possession  secures his reputation as a 
healer4        ,methods of ,rural       
,exorcism4    ,the number of these      
charms is legion1 and most exorcisers   
have  one of their own in which they    
place special confidence and which  they
 are unwilling to disclose4 ,as ,sir    
,monier ,williams writes  #cah3--,no    
magician1 wizard1 sorcerer or witch     
whose feats are  recorded in history1   
biography or fable1 has ever pretended  
to be  able to accomplish by incantation
 and enchantment half of what  the      
,mantra-sstri claims to have power to   
effect by help of his  ,mantras4 ,for   
example1 he can prognosticate futurity1 
work the most  startling prodigies1     

infuse breath into dead bodies1 kill or 
humiliate  enemies1 afflict any one     
anywhere with disease or madness1       
inspire  anyone with love1 charm weapons
 and give them unerring efficacy1       
enchant armour and make it impenetrable1
 turn milk into wine1 plants  into meat1
 or invert all such processes at will4  
,he is even superior to  the gods1 and  
can make goddesses1 gods1 imps and      
demons carry out his  most trifling     
behests4 ,hence it is not surprising    
that the following  remarkable saying is
 everywhere current throughout ,india3  
',the whole  universe is subject to the 
gods2 the gods are subject to the       
,mantras2  the ,mantras to the ,brhmans2
 therefore the ,brhmans are our gods4'  
,all these devices of ,mantras or       
spells1 ,kavchas or amulets1 ,nysas  or 
mentally assigning various parts of the 
body to the protection  of tutelary     
presiding deities1 and ,mudras or       
intertwining of the  fingers with a     
mystic meaning1 spring from the corrupt 

fountain head  of the ,tantras1 the     
bible of ,sktism4 ,but these are the    
speciality  of the higher class of      
professional exorciser1 who is very     
generally  a ,brhman1 and do not concern
 us here4    ,a few examples of the     
formul used by the village cunning man  
may  be given here4 ,thus in ,mirzapur  
when a person is known to be under  the 
influence of a witch the ,ojha recites a
 spell1 which runs--,bind  the evil eye2
 bind the fist2 bind the spell2 bind the
 curse2 bind the  ghost and the churel2 
bind the witch's hands and feet4 ,who   
can bind  her8 ,the teacher can bind    
her4 ,i1 the disciple of the teacher1   
can bind  her4 ,go1 witch1 to wherever  
thy shrine may be2 sit there and leave  
the afflicted person4 ,in these spells  
,hanumn1 the monkey godling1  is often  
invoked4 ,thus--,i salute the command of
 my teacher4 ,hanumn1  the hero1 is the 
hero of heroes4 ,he has in his quiver   
nine lkhs  of arrows4 ,he is sometimes  
on the right1 sometimes on the left1    

and sometimes in the front4 ,i serve    
thee1 powerful master4 ,may not  this   
man's body be crippled4 ,i see the      
cremation ground in the two  worlds and 
outside them4 ,if in my body or in the  
body of this man  any ill arise1 then ,i
 call on the influence of ,hanumn4 ,my  
piety1  the power of the teacher1 this  
charm is true because it comes from  the
 ,almighty4 ,in the same way two great  
witches1 ,lon ,chamrin and  ,isml the   
,jogi are often invoked4 ,the ,musalmn  
calls on ,sulaimn1  the lord ,solomon1  
who is a leader of demons and a         
controller of evil  spirits1 for which  
there is ample authority in the ,qurn4  
,but it is in charms for disease that   
the rural exorciser is most  proficient4
 ,accidents1 such as the bites of       
snakes1 stings of  scorpions1 or wasps  
are in particular treated in this way1  
and these  charms make up most of the   
folk-medicine of ,northern ,india4      
,thus1  when a man is stung by a        
scorpion the exorciser says--,black     

scorpion  of the limestone6 ,green is   
thy tail and black thy mouth4 ,god      
orders  thee to go home4 ,come out6     
,come out6 ,if thou fail to come out    
,mahdeva  and ,prvat will drive thee    
out6 ,another spell for scorpion sting  
runs thus--,on the hill and mountain is 
the holy cow4 ,from its dung  the       
scorpions were born1 six black and six  
brown4 ,help me6 ,o ,nara  ,sinha6 7the 
man lion incarnation of ,vishnu74 ,rub  
each foot with  millet and the poison   
will depart4 ,so1 to cure the bite of a 
dog1  get some clay which has been      
worked on a potter's wheel1 which as we 
shall see is a noted fetish1 make a lump
 of it and rub it to the wound  and     
say--,the black dog is covered with     
thick hair4 ,another plan in  cases of  
hydrophobia is to kill a dog1 and after 
burning it to make  the patient imbibe  
the smoke4 ,headache is caused by a worm
 in the  head1 which comes out if the   
ear be rubbed with butter4 ,women of the
  gipsy tribes are noted for their      

charms to take out the worm which       
causes toothache4 ,when a man is bitten 
by a snake the practitioner  says--,true
 god1 true hero1 ,hanumn6 ,the snake    
moves in a tortuous  way4 ,the male and 
female weasel come out of their hole to 
destroy  it4 ,which poison will they    
devour8 ,first they will eat the black  
,karait  snake1 then the snake with the 
jewel1 then the ,ghor snake4 ,i pray to 
thee for help1 my true teacher4 ,so1 if 
you desire to be safe from  the attacks 
of the tiger1 say--,tie up the tiger1   
tie up the tigress1  tie up her seven   
cubs4 ,tie up the roads and the         
footpaths and the  fields4 ,o ,vasudeva1
 have mercy8 ,have mercy1 ,o ,lon       
,chamrin6 ,lastly1  if you desire an    
appointment1 say--,o ,kl1 ,kankl1       
,mahkli6 ,thy  face is beautiful1 but at
 thy heart is a serpent4 ,there are four
  demon heroes and eighty-four          
,bhairons4 ,if thou givest the order ,i 
will worship them with betel nuts and   
sweetmeats4 ,now shout--',mercy1 ,o     

,mother ,kali6' ,it would not be        
difficult to describe hundreds of such  
charms1 but what has been recorded will 
be sufficient to exemplify  the ordinary
 methods of rural exorcism4 #cai        
,when the ,ojha is called in to identify
 the demon which has beset  a patient1  
he begins by ascertaining whether it is 
a local ghost  or an outsider which has 
attacked him on a journey4 ,then he     
calls  for some cloves1 and muttering a 
charm over them1 ties them to the       
bedstead on which the sick man lies4    
,then the patient is told to  name the  
ghost which has possessed him1 and he   
generally names one  of his dead        
relations1 or the ghost of a hill1 a    
tree or a burial  ground4 ,then the     
,ojha suggests an appropriate offering1 
which when  bestowed and food given to  
,brhmans1 the patient ought in all      
decency  to recover4 ,if he does not1   
the ,ojha asserts that the right ghost  
has not been named1 and the whole       
process is gone through again1  if      

necessary funds are forthcoming4    ,the
 ,baiga of ,mirzapur1 who very often    
combines the function of an ,ojha  with 
his own legitimate business of managing 
the local ghosts1 works  in very much   
the same way4 ,he takes some barley in a
 sieve1 which as  we shall see is a very
 powerful fetish1 and shakes it until   
only a few  grains are left in the      
interstices4 ,then he marks down the    
intruding  ghost by counting the grains1
 and recommends the sacrifice of a fowl 
or a goat1 or the offering of some      
liquor1 most of which he usually        
consumes himself4 ,if his patient die1  
he gets out of the difficulty  by       
saying--,such and such a powerful ,bht  
carried him off4 ,what can  a poor man1 
such as ,i am1 do8 ,if a tiger or a bear
 kills a man1  the ,baiga tells his     
friends that such and such a ,bht was   
offended  because no attention was paid 
to him1 and in revenge entered into  the
 animal which killed the deceased1 the  
obvious moral being that  in future more

 regular offerings should be made       
through the ,baiga4    ,in ,hoshangbd   
the ,bhomka sorcerer has a handful of   
grain waved over  the head of the sick  
man4 ,this is then carried to the       
,bhomka1 who makes  a heap of it on the 
floor1 and sitting over it1 swings a    
lighted lamp  suspended by four strings 
from his fingers4 ,he then repeats      
slowly  the names of the patient's      
ancestors and of the village and local  
godling1 pausing between each1 and when 
the lamp stops spinning the  name at    
which it halts is the name to be        
propitiated4 ,then in the  same way he  
asks--,what is the propitiation offering
 to be8 ,a pig8 ,a  cocoanut8 ,a        
chicken8 ,a goat8 ,and the same mystic  
sign indicates the  satisfaction of the 
god4 #cbj    ,the ,kol diviner drops oil
 into a vessel of water4 ,the name of   
the  deity is pronounced as the oil is  
dropped4 ,if it forms one globule  in   
the water1 it is considered that the    
particular god to be appeased  has been 

correctly named2 if it splutters and    
forms several globules1  another name is
 tried4 ,the ,oron ,ojha puts the fowls 
intended as  victims before a small mud 
image1 on which he sprinkles a few      
grains  of rice2 if they pick at the    
rice it indicates that the particular   
devil represented by the image is       
satisfied with the intentions of  his   
votaries1 and the sacrifice proceeds4   
#cba    ,the ,panjb diviner adopts a    
stock method common to such             
practitioners  all over the world4 ,he  
writes some spells on a piece of paper1 
and pours on it a large drop of ink4    
,flowers are then placed in the  hands  
of a young child1 who is told to look   
into the ink and say1  ,summon the four 
guardians4 ,he is asked if he sees      
anything in the  ink1 and according to  
the answer a result is arrived at4 #cbb 
,the  modus operandi of these exorcisers
 is1 in fact1 very much the same  in    
,india as in other parts of the world4  
#cbc        ,exorcism by ,dancing4      

,in all rites of this class religious   
dancing as a means of scaring  the demon
 of evil holds an important place4 ,thus
 of the ,bengal ,musis  ,col4 ,dalton   
writes #cbd--,the affection comes on    
like a fit of ague1  lasting sometimes  
for a quarter of an hour1 the patient or
 possessed  person writhing and         
trembling with intense violence1        
especially at  the commencement of the  
paroxysm4 ,then he is seen to spring    
from the  ground into the air1 and a    
succession of leaps follow1 all executed
  as though he were shot at by unseen   
agency4 ,during this stage of  the      
seizure he is supposed to be quite      
unconscious1 and rolls into  the fire1  
if there be one1 or under the feet of   
the dancers1 without  sustaining injury 
from the heat or from the pressure4     
,this lasts for  a few minutes only1 and
 is followed by the spasmodic stage4    
,with hands  and knees on the ground and
 hair loosened1 the body is convulsed1  
and  the head shakes violently1 whilst  

from the mouth issues a hissing or      
gurgling noise4 ,the patient next       
evincing an inclination to stand on  his
 legs1 the bystanders assist him1 and   
place a stick in his hand1  with the aid
 of which he hops about1 the spasmodic  
action of the  body still continuing1   
and the head performing by jerks a      
violently  fatiguing circular movement4 
,this may go on for hours1 though       
,captain  ,samuells says that no one in 
his senses could continue such exertion 
for many minutes4 ,when the ,baiga is   
appealed to to cast out the  spirit1 he 
must first ascertain whether it is      
,gansm or one of his  familiars that has
 possessed the victim4 ,if it be the    
great ,gansm1  the ,baiga implores him  
to desist1 meanwhile gradually anointing
 the  victim with butter2 and if the    
treatment is successful1 the patient    
gradually and naturally subsides into a 
state of repose1 from which  he rises   
into consciousness1 and1 restored to his
 normal state1  feels no fatigue or     

other ill-effects from the attack4      
,the same religious dance of ecstasy    
appears in what is known as the ,rs     
,mandala of the modern ,vaishnava sects1
 which is supposed to represent  the    
dance of the ,gops with ,krishna4 ,so in
 ,bombay among the ,marthas  the worship
 of the chief goddess of the ,dakkhin1  
,tulj ,bhavn1  is celebrated by a set of
 dancing devotees1 called ,gondhalis1   
whose  leader becomes possessed by the  
goddess4 ,a high stool is covered with  
a black cloth4 ,on the cloth thirty-six 
pinches of rice are dropped in  a heap1 
and with them turmeric and red powder1  
all scarers of demons1  are mixed4 ,on  
the rice is set a copper vessel filled  
with milk and  water1 and in this the   
goddess is supposed to take her abode4  
,over it  are laid betel leaves and a   
cocoanut4 ,five torches are carried     
round  the vessel by five men1 each     
shouting ,amb ,bhavn6 ,the music plays1 
and dancers dance before her4 ,so at a  
,brhman marriage at ,pna the  boy and   

girl are seated on the shoulders of     
their maternal uncles  or other         
relations1 who perform a frantic dance1 
the object being1  as in all these      
cases1 to scare away the spirits of     
evil4 #cbe        ,flagellation4    ,so 
with flagellation1 which all over the   
world is supposed to have the  power of 
scaring demons4 ,thus in the ,central   
,indian ,hills the ,baiga  with his     
,gurda1 or sacred chain1 which being    
made of iron1 possesses  additional     
potency1 soundly thrashes patients      
attacked with epilepsy1  hysteria1 and  
similar ailments1 which from their      
nature are obviously  due to demoniacal 
agency4 ,there are numerous instances of
 the use of  the lash for this purpose4 
,in ,bombay1 among the ,lingyats1 the   
woman  who names the child has her back 
beaten with gentle blows2 and some      
beggar ,brhmans refuse to take alms     
until the giver beats them4 #cbf  ,there
 is a famous shrine at ,ghauspur1 in the
 ,jaunpur ,district1 where  the ,ojhas  

beat their patients to drive out the    
disease demon4 #cbg  ,the records of    
,roman ,catholic hagiology and of the   
special sect of  the ,flagellants will  
furnish numerous parallel instances4    
,treatment of ,sorcerers4    ,while the 
sorcerer by virtue of his profession is 
generally  respected and feared1 in some
 places they have been dealt with       
rather summarily4 ,there is everywhere a
 struggle between the  ,brhman priest of
 the greater gods and the exorciser1 who
 works by  the agency of demons4        
,sudarsan ,sh rid ,garhwl of them by    
summoning  all the professors of the    
black art with their books4 ,when they  
were  collected he had them bound hand  
and foot and thrown with their books    
and implements into the river4 ,the same
 monarch also disposed very  effectually
 of a case of possession in his own     
family4 ,one day he heard  a sound of   
drumming and dancing in one of his      
courtyards1 and learnt  that a ghost    
named ,goril had taken possession of one

 of his female  slaves4 ,the ,rja was   
wroth1 and taking a thick bamboo1 he    
proceeded to  the spot and laid about   
him so vigorously that the votaries of  
,goril  soon declared that the deity had
 taken his departure4 ,the ,rja then    
ordered ,goril to cease from possessing 
people1 and nowadays if any  ,garhwli   
thinks himself possessed1 he has only to
 call on the name  of ,sudarsan ,sh and 
the demon departs4 #cbh                 
,appointment of ,ojhas4    ,the mode of 
succession to the dignity of an ,ojha   
varies in different  places4 ,in        
,mirzapur the son is usually educated by
 his father1  and taught the various    
spells and modes of incantation4 ,but   
this is  not always the case2 and here  
at the present time the institution  is 
in a transition stage4 ,south of the    
,son we have the ,baiga1 who  usually   
acts as an ,ojha also2 and he is        
invariably drawn from the  aboriginal   
races4 ,further north he is known as    
,nya 7,sanskrit nyaka7  or leader4      

,further north1 again1 as we leave the  
hilly country and  enter the completely 
,brhmanized ,gangetic valley1 he changes
 into  the regular ,ojha1 who is always 
a low-class ,brhman4    ,in one instance
 which came under my own notice1 the    
,nya of the village  had been an        
aboriginal ,kol1 and he before his death
 announced that  the god had sat on the 
head of a ,brhman candidate for the     
office1  who was duly initiated1 and is 
now the recognized village ,ojha4 ,this 
is a good example of the way in which   
,brhmanism annexes and absorbs  the     
demonolatry of the lower races4 ,this1  
too1 enables us to correct  a statement 
which has been made even by such a      
careful inquirer  as ,mr4 ,sherring when
 he says #cbi--;,formerly the ,ojha was 
always  a ,brhman2 but his profession   
has become so lucrative that sharp1     
clever1 shrewd men in all the ,hindu    
castes have taken to it4 ,there  can be 
no question that the process has been   
the very reverse of this1  and that the 

early ,ojhas were aboriginal sorcerers1 
and that their  trade was taken over by 
the ,brhman as the land became          
,hinduized4    ,in ,hoshangbd the son   
usually succeeds his father1 but a      
,bhomka does  not necessarily marry into
 a ,bhomka family1 nor does it follow   
that  once a ,bhomka1 always a ,bhomka4 
,on the contrary1 the position seems  to
 be the result of the special favour of 
the godling of the particular  village  
in which he lives2 and if the whole of  
the residents emigrate  in a body1 then 
the godling of the new village site will
 have to be  consulted afresh as to the 
servant whom he chooses to attend upon  
him4    ,if a ,bhomka dies or goes away1
 or a new village is established1 his   
successor is appointed in the following 
way4 ,all the villagers assemble  at the
 shrine of ,mutua ,deo1 and offer a     
black and white chicken to  him4 ,a     
,parihr1 or priest1 should be enticed to
 grace the solemnity  and make the      
sacrifice1 but if that cannot be done   

the oldest man  in the assembly does it4
 ,then he sets a wooden grain measure   
rolling  along the line of seated       
people1 and the man before whom it stops
 is  marked out by the intervention of  
the deity as the new ,bhomka4 #ccj      
,it marks perhaps some approximation to 
,hinduism that the priest1  when        
inspired by the god1 wears a thread made
 of the hair of a  bullock's tail1      
unless this is based on the common use  
of thread or  hair as a scarer of       
demons1 or is some token or fetish      
peculiar to  the race4 ,at the same time
 the non-,brhmanic character of the     
worship  is proved by the fact that the 
priest1 when in a state of ecstasy1     
cannot bear the presence of a cow1 or   
,brhman4 ,the god1 they say1  would     
leave their heads if either of these    
came near4    ,on one occasion1 when    
,sir ,c4 ,a4 ,elliott saw the process of
 exorcism1  the men did not actually    
revolve when the god came on his head4  
,he  covered his head up well in a      

cloth1 leaving space for the god to     
approach1 and in this state he twisted  
and turned himself rapidly1  and soon   
sat down exhausted4 ,we shall see       
elsewhere that the head  is one of the  
chief spirit entries1 and the top of the
 head is left  uncovered in order to let
 the spirit make its way through the    
sutures  of the skull4 ,then from the   
pit of his stomach he uttered words     
which  the bystanders interpreted to    
direct a certain line of conduct for    
the sick man to pursue4 ,but perhaps the
 occasion was not a fair test1  as the  
,parihr strongly objected to the        
presence of an unbeliever1 on  the      
pretence that the god would be afraid to
 come before so great an  official4     
,this has always been the standing      
difficulty in ,europeans  obtaining a   
practical knowledge of the details of   
rural sorcery1  and when a performance  
of the kind is specially arranged1 it   
will  usually be found that the         
officiant performs the introductory     

rites  with comparative success1 but as 
it comes to the crucial point he  breaks
 down1 just as the ecstatic crisis      
should have commenced4 ,this is  always 
attributed to the presence of an        
unbeliever1 however interested  and     
sympathetic4 ,the same result usually   
happens at spiritualistic  sances1 when 
anyone with even an elementary knowledge
 of physics or  mechanics happens to be 
one of the audience4        ,fraud in   
,exorcism4    ,the question naturally   
arises--,are all these ,ojhas and       
,baigas  conscious hypocrites and       
swindlers8 ,dr4 ,tylor shrewdly remarks 
that  the sorcerer generally learns his 
time-honoured profession in good  faith1
 and retains the belief in it more or   
less from first to last4 ,at  once dupe 
and cheat1 he combines the energy of a  
believer with the  cunning of a         
hypocrite4 #cca ,this coincides with the
 experience  of most competent ,indian  
observers4 ,no one who consults a ,syna 
and  observes the confident way in which

 he asserts his mystic power1 can  doubt
 that he at least believes to a large   
extent in the sacredness  of his        
mission4 ,captain ,samuells1 who        
repeatedly witnessed these              
performances1 distinctly asserts that it
 is a mistake to suppose that  there is 
always intentional deception4 #ccb      
,disease ,charms4    ,next to the       
services of the professional exorciser  
for the purpose  of preventing or curing
 disease1 comes the use of special      
charms for  this purpose4 ,there is a   
large native literature dealing with    
this  branch of science4 ,as a rule most
 native patients undergo a course  of   
this treatment before they visit our    
hospitals1 and the result  of ,european 
medical science is hence occasionally   
disappointing4 ,one  favourite talisman 
of this kind is the magic square1 which 
consists  in an arrangement of certain  
numbers in a special way4 ,for instance1
  in order to cure barrenness1 it is a  
good plan to write a series  of numbers 

which added up make #gc both ways on a  
piece of bread1  and with it feed a     
black dog1 which is the attendant of    
,bhairon1 a  giver of offspring4 ,to    
cure a tumour a figure in the form of a 
cross  is drawn with three cyphers in   
the centre and one at each of the four  
ends4 ,this is prepared on a ,sunday and
 tied round the left arm4 ,another  has 
a series of numbers aggregating #ae     
every way4 ,this is engraved on  copper 
and tied round a child's neck to keep   
off the ,evil ,eye4 ,in the  case of    
cattle disease1 some gibberish1 which   
pretends to be ,arabic  or ,sanskrit1   
appealing for the aid of ,lon ,chamrin  
or ,isml ,jogi1  with a series of mystic
 numbers1 is written on a piece of tile4
 ,this  is hung on a rope over the      
village cattle path1 and a ploughshare  
is  buried at the entrance to make the  
charm more powerful4 ,when cattle  are  
attacked with worms1 the owner fills a  
clean earthen pot with  water drawn from
 the well with one hand2 he then mutters

 a blessing1  and with some sacred ,dbh 
grass sprinkles a little water seven    
times  along the back of the animal4    
,the number of these charms is legion4  
,many of them merge into the  special   
preservatives against the ,evil ,eye1   
which will be discussed  later on4 ,thus
 the bzr merchant writes the words ,rm6 
,rm6 several  times near his door1 or he
 makes a representation of the sun and  
moon1  or a rude image of ,ganesa1 the  
godling of good luck1 or draws the      
mystical ,swstika4 ,a house of a banker 
at ,kankhal which ,i recently  examined 
bore a whole gallery of pictures round  
it4 ,there were ,siva  and ,prvat on an 
ox with their son ,mrkandeya2 ,yamarja1 
the deity  of death1 with a servant     
waving a fan over his head2 ,krishna    
with  his spouse ,rdh3 ,hanumn1 the     
monkey godling2 the ,ganges riding on a 
fish1 with ,bhgratha1 who brought her   
down from heaven2 ,bhshma1 the  hero of 
the ,mahbhrata2 ,arjuna representing the
 ,pndavas2 the saints  ,uddalaka and    

,nrada ,muni2 ,ganesa with his two      
maidservants2 and ,brahma  and ,vishnu  
riding on ,sesha ,nga1 the great        
serpent4 ,beneath these  was an         
inscription invoking ,rma1 ,lakshmana1  
the ,ganges and ,hanumn4        ,rag    
,offerings4    ,next come the           
arrangements by which disease may be    
expelled or  transferred to someone     
else4 ,in this connection we may discuss
 the  curious custom of hanging up rags 
on trees or near sacred wells4 ,of  this
 custom ,india supplies numerous        
examples4 ,at the ,balchha pass in      
,garhwl there is a small heap of stones 
at the summit1 with sticks and  rags    
attached to them1 to which travellers   
add a stone or two as they  pass4 #ccc  
,in ,persia they fix rags on bushes in  
the name of the ,imm  ,raza4 ,they      
explain the custom by saying that the   
eye of the ,imm being  always on the top
 of the mountain1 the shreds which are  
left there by  those who hold him in    
reverence1 remind him of what he ought  

to do  in their behalf with ,muhammad1  
',ali and the other holy personages1    
who are able to propitiate the ,almighty
 in their favour4 #ccd  ,moorcroft in   
his journey to ,ladkh describes how he  
propitiated the  evil spirit of a       
dangerous pass with the leg of a pair of
 worn-out  nankin trousers4 #cce ,among 
the ,mirzapur ,korwas the ,baiga hangs  
rags  on the trees which shade the      
village shrine1 as a charm to bring     
health  and good luck4 ,these rag       
shrines are to be found all over the    
country1  and are generally known as    
,chithariy or ,chithraiy ,bhavn1 ,our   
,lady  of ,tatters4 ,so in the ,panjb   
the trees on which rags are hung are    
called ,lingr ,pr or the rag saint4 #ccf
 ,the same custom prevails at  various  
,himlayan shrines and at the ,vastra    
,harana or sacred tree at  ,brindaban   
near ,mathura1 which is now invested    
with a special legend1  as commemorating
 the place where ,krishna carried off   
the clothes of  the milkmaids when they 

were bathing1 an incident which         
constantly  appears in both ,european   
and ,indian folk-lore4 #ccg ,in ,berr a 
heap  of stones daubed with red and     
placed under a tree fluttering with     
rags represents ,chindiya ,deo or the   
,lord of ,tatters1 where1 if you        
present a rag in due season1 you may    
chance to get new clothes4 #cch  ,the   
practice of putting or tying rags from  
the person of the sick to a  tree1      
especially a banyan1 cocoanut1 or some  
thorny tree1 is prevalent  in the       
,konkan1 but not to such an extent as   
that of fixing nails or  tying bottles  
to trees4 ,in the ,konkan1 when a person
 is suffering from  a spirit disease1   
the exorcist takes the spirit away from 
the sick  man and fixes it in a tree by 
thrusting a nail in it4 ,we have already
  had an example of this treatment of   
ghosts by the ,baiga4 ,sometimes he     
catches the spirit of the disease in a  
bottle and ties the bottle to  a tree4  
#cci ,in a well-known story of the      

,arabian ,knights the ,jinn  is shut up 
in a bottle under the seal of the ,lord 
,solomon4    ,there have been various   
explanations of this custom of hanging  
rags  on trees4 #cdj ,one is that they  
are offerings to the local deity  of the
 tree4 ,mr4 ,gomme quotes an instance of
 an ,irishman who made a  similar       
offering with the following invocation3 
,to ,st4 ,columbkill--,i  offer up this 
button1 a bit o' the waistband o' my own
 breeches1  an' a taste o' my wife's    
petticoat1 in remembrance of us havin'  
made  this holy station2 an' may they   
rise up in glory to prove it for us  in 
the last day4    ,he points to the      
undoubted nature of the offerings and   
their service1  in the identification of
 their owners--a service which implies  
their  power to bear witness in         
spirit-land to the pilgrimage of those  
who deposited them during lifetime at   
the sacred well4 ,some of the  ,indian  
evidence seems to show that these rags  
are really offerings  to the sacred     

tree4 ,thus1 ,colonel ,tod #cda         
describes the trees  in a sacred grove  
in ,rjputna as decorated with shreds of 
various  coloured cloth1 offerings of   
the traveller to the forest divinity for
  protection against evil spirits4 ,this
 usage often merges into actual         
tree-worship1 as among the ,mirzapur    
,patris1 who1 when fever prevails1  tie 
a cotton string which has never touched 
water round the trunk of  a ,ppal tree1 
and hang rags from the branches4 ,so1   
the ,kharwrs have  a sacred ,mahua tree1
 known as the ,byhi ,mahua or ,mahua of 
marriage1  on which threads are hung at 
marriages4 ,at almost any holy place    
women  may be seen winding a cotton     
thread round the trunk of a ,ppal tree4 
,another explanation is that the hanging
 of the rags is done with the  object of
 transferring a disease to some one     
else4 ,professor ,rhys  suggests that a 
distinction is to be drawn between the  
rags hung on  trees or near a well and  
the pins1 which are so commonly thrown  

into  the water itself4 ,it is          
noteworthy that in some cases the pins  
are  replaced by buttons1 or even by    
copper coins4 ,the rags1 on the other   
hand1 he thinks may be vehicles of the  
disease4 ,to this ,mr4 ,hartland        
objects--,if this opinion were correct1 
one would expect to find both           
ceremonies performed by the same patient
 at the same well2 he would  throw in   
the pin and also place the rag on the   
bush1 or wherever its  proper place     
might be4 ,the performance of both      
ceremonies is1 however1  ,i think1      
exceptional4 ,where the pin or button is
 dropped into the well1  the patient    
does not trouble about the rag1 and vice
 vers4    ,he goes on to say that the   
curious detail mentioned by ,mrs4 ,evans
 in  reference to the rags tied on the  
bushes at ,st4 ,elian's well--namely1   
that they must be tied with wool--points
 to a still further degradation  of the 
rite in the case we are now examining4  
,probably at one time  rags were used   

and simply tied to the sacred tree with 
wool4 ,what may  have been the reason   
for using wool remains to be discovered4
 ,but it  is easy to see how1 if the    
reason were lost1 the wool might be     
looked  on as the essential condition of
 the due performance of the ceremony1   
and so continue after the disuse of the 
rags4    ,in reference to this it may be
 noted that there is some reason to     
believe that the sheep was a sacred     
animal4 ,in ,western ,india high-caste  
,hindus wear blankets after bathing4    
,the ,kunbis use a mixture of  sheep's  
milk with lime juice and opium as a cure
 for diarrhoea4 ,the  ,parheyas of      
,bengal used to wash their houses with  
sheep's dung to  scare spirits4 ,and the
 use of woollen clothes in certain rites
 is  prescribed in the current ritual4  
,mr4 ,hartland is inclined to think that
 the rags represent entire  articles of 
clothing which were at an earlier time  
deposited1 and on  the analogy of the   
habit of the witch of getting hold of   

some part of  the body1 such as         
nail-cuttings and so on1 by which she   
may get the  owner into her power1 the  
rags were meant to connect the          
worshipper  with the deity4 ,in like    
manner my shirt or stocking1 or a rag to
  represent it1 placed upon a sacred    
bush or thrust into a sacred well1  my  
name written on the walls of a temple1 a
 stone or pellet from  my hand cast upon
 a sacred image or a sacred cairn1 is   
thenceforth  in constant contact with   
divinity2 and the effluence of divinity1
  reaching and involving it1 will reach 
and involve me4 ,in this way ,i  may be 
permanently united with the god4    ,it 
is quite possible that some or all of   
the ideas thus given may  have resulted 
in the present practice in ,india4      
,disease ,transference4    ,disease is  
also transferred in an actual physical  
way4 ,thus1 in  ,ireland1 a charm or    
curse is left on a gate or stile1 and   
the first  healthy person who passes    
through will1 it is believed1 have the  

disease transferred to him4 ,so1 in     
,scotland1 if a child is affected  with 
the whooping cough1 it is taken into the
 land of another laird1  and there the  
disease is left4 #cdb ,similarly1 in    
,northern ,india1  one way of           
transferring disease is to fill a pot   
with flowers and  rice and bury it in a 
path1 with a stone to cover it4 ,whoever
 touches  this is supposed to contract  
the disease4 ,this is known as          
,chalauwa1  which means passing on the  
malady4 ,this goes on daily in ,upper   
,india4 ,often when walking in a bzr in 
the early morning1 you will  see a      
little pile of earth decorated with     
flowers in the middle of  the road4     
,this usually contains some of the scabs
 or scales from  the body of a small-pox
 patient1 which are placed there in the 
hope  that someone may touch them1      
contract the malady and thus relieve the
  sufferer4 ,in #ahhe it was officially 
reported that in ,cawnpur small-pox  had
 greatly increased from the practice of 

placing these scales on  the roads4 ,at 
the instance of ,government the matter  
was investigated1  and it was found that
 in the early stages of the disease1 the
 ,diuli  ceremony is performed at       
cross-roads2 and that at a later period 
the  crusts from smallpox patients mixed
 with curdled milk and cocoanut  juice  
are carried to the temple or platform of
 the small-pox goddess  and are         
dedicated to her4 #cdc    ,one morning1 
in a village near ,agra1 ,i came by     
chance on two old women  fiercely       
quarrelling4 ,on making inquiries1 ,i   
found that one of them  had placed some 
small-pox crusts from her child on her  
neighbour's  threshold4 ,the people     
agreed that this was a wicked act1 as it
  displayed special animus against a    
particular person4 ,if they had  been   
placed on the cross-road1 and any one   
had been unlucky enough  to touch them  
and contract the disease1 it would not  
have mattered  much--that was the will  
of ,god4    ,some time ago an indigo    

planter1 near ,benares1 was astonished  
by a  respectable native friend asking  
the loan of one of his geese4 ,on       
inquiry he ascertained that his friend's
 son was suffering from bowel           
complaint1 and that he had been advised 
by a native physician to get  a goose1  
place it in the boy's bed1 and that the 
disease would be  communicated to the   
bird1 with the result of curing the     
patient4 ,this  remedy was known in     
,italy4 ,one of the prescriptions of    
,marcellus runs3  #cdd ,to those who are
 suffering from a colic4 ,let them      
fasten a  live duck to their stomachs1  
thus the disease will pass from the  man
 to the duck1 and the duck will die4 ,in
 the same way when any  one wants to set
 their neighbour's household at         
variance1 a quill  of a porcupine1 which
 is supposed to be a quarrelsome animal1
 is  thrown over the wall4 ,on this     
principle in ,italy a short and simple  
method of setting people by the ears is 
to buy some of the herb  ,discordia and 

throw it into a house1 when the result  
is sure to be  a vendetta4 #cde ,in the 
,indian ,hills1 in case of illness a    
stake is  driven down into the earth    
where four roads meet1 and certain drugs
  and grains are buried close by1 which 
are speedily disinterred and  eaten by  
crows4 ,this gives immediate relief to  
the sufferer4 #cdf  ,here the idea      
apparently is1 that the disease is      
transferred to the  crow1 a sacred bird1
 and in close communication with the    
spirits of  the sainted dead4 ,so in    
cases of cattle disease1 a buffalo's    
skull1  a small lamb1 fire in a pan1    
vessels of butter and milk1 wisps of    
grass and branches of the ,siras tree   
7,acacia speciosa7 are thrown  over the 
boundary of another village and are     
supposed to carry the  disease demon    
with them4 ,this often causes a riot4   
#cdg ,in the same  way1 killing         
buffaloes and putting their heads in the
 next village  removes cholera1 and by  
pouring oil on grain and burning it1 the

  disease flies elsewhere in the smoke4 
,this seems to be one of the  principles
 which underlie the general practice of 
fire sacrifice4        ,scapegoats4     
,this brings us to the regular          
scapegoat4 ,at shrines of ,stal1 the    
small-pox goddess1 sweepers bring round 
a small pig4 ,contributions are  called 
for from the worshippers1 and when the  
value of the animal is  made up1 it is  
driven by the people into the jungle1   
pursued by an  excited crowd1 who       
believe that the creature has taken the 
disease  with it4    ,general ,sleeman  
gives an excellent example of this      
custom4 #cdh  ,more than four-fifths of 
the city and cantonments of ,sgar had   
been affected by a violent influenza1   
which1 commencing with a  violent cough1
 was followed by a fever and in some    
cases terminated  in death4 ,i had an   
application from the old ,queen ,dowager
 of ,sgar1  to allow of a noisy         
religious procession for the purpose of 
imploring  deliverance from this great  

calamity4 ,the women and children in    
this  procession were to do their utmost
 to add to the noise by raising  their  
voices in psalmody1 beating upon their  
brass pans and pots  with all their     
might1 and discharging firearms where   
they could  get them4 ,before the noisy 
crowd was to be driven a buffalo1 which 
had been purchased by general           
subscription1 in order that every       
family might participate in the merit4  
,they were to follow it out  eight      
miles1 where it was to be turned out for
 anyone who would take  it4 ,if the     
animal returned1 the disease must return
 with it1 and the  ceremony be performed
 over again4 ,i was requested to        
intimate the  circumstances to the      
officer commanding the troops in        
cantonments1  in order that the noise   
they intended to make might not excite  
any  alarm and bring down upon them the 
visit of the soldiery4 ,it was1         
however1 subsequently determined that   
the animal should be a goat1  and he was

 driven before the crowd4 ,accordingly1 
,i have on several  occasions been      
requested to allow of such noisy        
ceremonies in cases of  epidemics1 and  
the confidence the people feel in their 
efficacy has1  no doubt1 a good effect4 
,demons ,scared by ,noise4    ,this     
incidentally leads to the consideration 
of the principle that evil  spirits are 
scared by noise4 ,in the first place    
this appears largely  to account for the
 use of bells in religious worship4 ,the
 tolling of  the bells keeps off the    
evil spirits which throng round any     
place where  the worship of the regular 
gods is being performed4 ,milton speaks 
of--          ,the bellman's drowsy     
charm2      ,to bless the doors from    
nightly harm4 #cdi      ,so1 the passing
 bell protects the departing soul as it 
flies through  the air from demoniacal  
influence4 ,as ,grose writes #cej--,the 
passing  bell was anciently rung for two
 purposes2 one to bespeak the prayers   
of all good ,christians for a soul just 

departing2 the other1 to drive  away the
 evil spirits who stood at the bed's    
foot1 and about the house1  ready to    
seize their prey1 or at least to molest 
and terrify the soul  in its passage2   
but by the ringing of that bell 7for    
,durandus informs  us evil spirits are  
much afraid of bells71 they were kept   
aloof1  and the soul1 like a hunted     
hare1 gained the start1 or had what is  
by  sportsmen called 'law4' ,the keening
 at an ,irish wake is probably a        
survival of the same custom4 ,but       
,panjbi ,musalmns have a prejudice      
against beating a brass tray1 as it is  
believed to disturb the dead1  who wake1
 supposing the ,day of ,judgment has    
arrived4 #cea    ,another fact which    
adds to the efficacy of bells for this  
purpose1  is that they are made of      
metal1 which1 as we shall see elsewhere1
  is a well-known scarer of demons4     
,hence in ,indian temples the use of the
 bell1 or resounding shell  trumpet1 is 
universal4 ,the intention is to call the

 divinity and wake  him from his sleep1 
so that he may consume the offerings    
prepared for  him by his votaries1 and  
to scare vagrant ghosts1 who would      
otherwise  partake of the meal4 ,on the 
same principle the drum is1 as we have  
seen1 a sacred instrument4 ,the same is 
the case with bells4 ,the ,todas  of    
,madras worship ,hiriya ,deva1 whose    
representative is the sacred  buffalo   
bell1 which hangs from the neck of the  
finest buffalo in  the sacred herd4 #ceb
 ,the ,gonds have also elevated the bell
 into  a deity in the form of           
,ghgarapen1 and one special class of    
their  devil priests1 the ,ojhyls1      
always wear bells4 #cec ,so1 the ,patri 
priest in ,mirzapur and many classes of 
ascetics throughout the country  carry  
bells and rattles made of iron1 which   
they move as they walk to  scare demons4
 ,iron1 it need hardly be said1 is most 
efficacious for  this purpose4 ,this    
also accounts for the music played at   
weddings1  when the young pair are in   

special danger from the attacks of evil 
spirits4 ,at many rites it is the rule  
to clap the hands at a special  part of 
the ritual with the same purpose4 ,the  
,rdsi ,chamrs and  many other people    
shout or sing loudly as they remove a   
corpse for  burial or cremation1 and    
there are few magistrates in ,india who 
have  not been asked for leave by some  
happy father to allow guns to be  fired 
from his house-top to drive evil spirits
 from the mother and  her child4 ,mr4   
,campbell records that they fire a gun  
over the back  of a sick cow in         
,scotland with the same intention4 #ced 
,disease ,scapegoats4    ,to return to  
the use of the scape animal as a means  
of expelling  disease4 ,in ,berr1 if    
cholera is very severe1 the people get a
  scapegoat or young buffalo1 but in    
either case it must be a female and  as 
black as possible1 the latter condition 
being based on the fact that  ,yamarja1 
the lord of death1 uses such an animal  
as his vehicle4 ,they  then tie some    

grain1 cloves and red lead 7all demon   
scarers7 on its  back and turn it out of
 the village4 ,a man of the gardener    
caste takes  the goat outside the       
boundary1 and it is not allowed to      
return4 #cee  ,so among the ,korwas of  
,mirzapur1 when cholera begins1 a black 
cock1  and when it is severe1 a black   
goat1 is offered by the ,baiga at the   
shrine of the village godling1 and he   
then drives the animal off  in the      
direction of some other village4 ,after 
it has gone a little  distance1 the     
,baiga1 who is protected from evil by   
virtue of his holy  office1 follows it1 
kills it and eats it4 ,among the ,patris
 in cholera  epidemics the elders of the
 village and the ,ojha wizard feed a    
black  fowl with grain and drive it     
beyond the boundary1 ordering it to take
  the plague with it4 ,if the resident  
of another village finds such  a fowl   
and eats it1 cholera comes with it into 
his village4 ,hence1  when disease      
prevails1 people are very cautious about

 meddling with  strange fowls4 ,when    
these animals are sent off1 a little    
oil1 red lead1  and a woman's forehead  
spangle are put upon it1 a decoration   
which1  perhaps1 points to a survival of
 an actual sacrifice to appease the     
demon of disease4 ,when such an animal  
comes into a village1 the ,baiga  takes 
it to the local shrine1 worships it and 
then passes it on quietly  outside the  
boundary4 ,among the ,kharwrs1 when     
rinderpest attacks the  cattle1 they    
take a black cock1 put some red lead on 
its head1 some  antimony on its eyes1 a 
spangle on its forehead1 and fixing a   
pewter  bangle to its leg1 let it loose1
 calling to the disease--,mount on  the 
fowl and go elsewhere into the ravines  
and thickets2 destroy the  sin6 ,this   
dressing up of the scape animal in a    
woman's ornaments  and trinkets is      
almost certainly a relic of some grosser
 form of  expiation in which a human    
being was sacrificed4 ,we have another  
survival of the same practice in the    

,panjb custom1 which directs  that when 
cholera prevails1 a man of the ,chamr or
 currier caste1  one of the hereditary  
menials1 should be branded on the       
buttocks and  turned out of the village4
 #cef    ,a curious modification of the 
ordinary scape animal1 of which it  is  
unnecessary to give any more instances1 
comes from ,kulu4 #ceg  ,the people     
occasionally perform an expiatory       
ceremony with the  object of removing   
ill-luck or evil influence1 which is    
supposed to  be brooding over the       
hamlet4 ,the godling 7,deota7 of the    
place is1  as usual1 first consulted    
through his disciple 7,chela7 and       
declares  himself also under the        
influence of a charm and advises a      
feast1  which is given in the evening at
 the temple4 ,next morning a man  goes  
round from house to house1 a creel on   
his back1 into which  each family throws
 all sorts of odds and ends1 parings of 
nails1  pinches of salt1 bits of old    
iron1 handfuls of grain1 etc4 ,the whole

  community then turns out and          
perambulates the village1 at the same   
time stretching an unbroken thread round
 it1 fastened to pegs at the  four      
corners4 ,this done1 the man with the   
creel carries it down to  the river bank
 and empties the contents therein1 and a
 sheep1 fowl1  and some small animals   
are sacrificed on the spot4 ,half the   
sheep is  the property of the man who   
dares to carry the creel1 and he is also
  entertained from house to house on the
 following night4    ,it is obvious that
 this exactly corresponds with the old  
,english  custom of sin-eating4 ,thus we
 read3 #ceh--,within the memory of our  
fathers1 in ,shropshire1 when a person  
died1 there was a notice given  to an   
old sire 7for so they called him71 who  
presently repaired to the  place where  
the deceased lay1 and stood before the  
door of the house1  when some of the    
family came out and furnished him with a
 cricket on  which he sat down facing   
the door4 ,then they gave him a groat1  

which  he put in his pocket2 a crust of 
bread1 which he ate2 and a full bowl  of
 ale1 which he drank off at a draught4  
,after this he got out from  the cricket
 and pronounced1 with a composed        
gesture1 the ease and  rest of the soul 
departed1 for which he would pawn his   
own soul4    ,there are other ,indian   
customs based on the same principle4    
#cei  ,thus1 in the ,ambla ,district a  
,brhman named ,nathu stated that he had 
eaten food out of the hand of the ,rja  
of ,bilspur1 after his death1  and that 
in consequence he had for the space of  
one year been placed  on the throne at  
,bilspur4 ,at the end of the year he had
 been given  presents1 including a      
village1 and had then been turned out of
 ,bilspur  territory and forbidden      
apparently to return4 ,now he is an     
outcast  among his co-religionists1 as  
he has eaten food out of the dead man's 
hand4 ,so at the funeral ceremonies of  
the late ,rn of ,chamba1 it is  said    
that rice and ghi were placed in the    

hands of the corpse1 which  a ,brhman   
consumed on payment of a fee4 ,the      
custom has given rise to a  class of    
outcast ,brhmans in the ,hill ,states   
about ,kngra4 ,in another  account of   
the funeral rites of the ,rn of ,chamba1
 it is added that  after the feeding of 
the ,brhman1 as already described1 a    
stranger1  who had been caught beyond   
,chamba territory1 was given the costly 
wrappings round the corpse1 a new bed   
and a change of raiment1 and  then told 
to depart1 and never to show his face in
 ,chamba again4 ,at  the death of a     
respectable ,hindu the clothes and other
 belongings of  the dead man are1 in the
 same way1 given to the ,mahbrhman or   
funeral  priest4 ,this seems to be      
partly based on the principle that he1  
by  using these articles1 passes them on
 for the use of the deceased in  the    
land of death2 but the detestation and  
contempt felt for this class  of priest 
may be1 to some extent1 based on the    
idea that by the use of  these articles 

he takes upon his head the sins of the  
dead man4 #cfj    ,again1 writing of the
 customs prevailing among the ,rjput    
tribes  of ,oudh which practise female  
infanticide1 ,gen4 ,sleeman writes3     
#cfa--,the infant is destroyed in the   
room where it was born1  and there      
buried4 ,the room is then plastered over
 with cow-dung1  and on the thirteenth  
day after1 the village or family priest 
must  cook and eat his food in this     
room4 ,he is provided with wood1 ghi1   
barley1 rice1 and sesamum4 ,he boils the
 rice1 barley1 and sesamum  in a brass  
vessel1 throws the ghi over them when   
they are dressed1  and eats the whole4  
,this is considered as a ,homa or burnt 
offering1  and by eating it in that     
place1 the priest is supposed to take   
the  whole ,hatya or sin upon himself1  
and to cleanse the family from it4      
,so1 in ,central ,india the ,gonds in   
,november assemble at the shrine of     
,gansym ,deo to worship him4 ,sacrifices
 of fowls and spirits1 or a pig1        

occasionally1 according to the size of  
the village1 are offered1 and  ,gansym  
,deo is said to descend on the head of  
one of the worshippers1  who is suddenly
 seized with a kind of fit1 and after   
staggering  about for a while1 rushes   
off into the wildest jungles1 where the 
popular theory is that1 if not pursued  
and brought back1 he would  inevitably  
die of starvation1 and become a raving  
lunatic4 ,as it is1  after being brought
 back by one or two men1 he does not    
recover his  senses for one or two days4
 ,the idea is that one man is thus      
singled  out as a scapegoat for the sins
 of the rest of the village4    ,in the 
final stage we find the scape animal    
merging into a regular  expiatory       
sacrifice4 ,other examples will be given
 in another connection  of the curious  
customs1 like that of the ,irish and    
,manxland rites of  hunting the wren1   
which are almost certainly based on the 
principle  of a sacrifice4 ,here it may 
be noted that at one of their festivals1

  the ,bhmij used to drive two male     
buffaloes into a small enclosure1  while
 the ,rja and his suite used to witness 
the proceedings4 ,they  first discharged
 arrows at the animals1 and the         
tormented and enraged  beasts fell to   
and gored each other1 while arrow after 
arrow was  discharged4 ,when the animals
 were past doing very much mischief1 the
  people rushed in and hacked them to   
pieces with axes4 ,this custom is  now  
discontinued4 #cfb    ,similarly in the 
,hills1 at the ,nand ,ashtam1 or feast  
in honour of  ,nanda1 the foster father 
of ,krishna1 a buffalo is specially fed 
with  sweetmeats1 and1 after being      
decked with a garland round the neck1 is
  worshipped4 ,the headman of the       
village then lays a sword across its    
neck and the beast is let loose1 when   
all proceed to chase it1 pelt  it with  
stones1 and hack it with knives until it
 dies4 ,it is curious  that this savage 
rite is carried out in connection with  
the worship  of the ,krishna ,cultus1 in

 which blood sacrifice finds no place4  
#cfc    ,in the same part of the country
 the same rite is performed after a     
death1 on the analogy of the other      
instances1 which have been already      
quoted4 ,when a man dies1 his relations 
assemble at the end of the year  in     
which the death occurred1 and the       
nearest male relative dances  naked     
7another instance of the nudity charm1  
to which reference has  been already    
made7 with a drawn sword in his hand1 to
 the music of a  drum1 in which he is   
assisted by others for a whole day and  
night4 ,the  following day a buffalo is 
brought and made intoxicated with ,bhang
  or ,indian hemp1 and spirits1 and     
beaten to death with sticks1 stones  and
 weapons4    ,so1 the ,hill ,bhotiyas   
have a feast in honour of the village   
god1 and  towards evening they take a   
dog1 make him drunk with spirits and    
hemp1  and kill him with sticks and     
stones1 in the belief that no disease   
or misfortune will visit the village    

during the year4 #cfd ,at the           
periodical feast in honour of the       
mountain goddess of the ,himlaya1  ,nand
 ,dev1 it is said that a four-horned    
goat is invariably born and  accompanies
 the pilgrims4 ,when unloosed on the    
mountain1 the sacred  goat suddenly     
disappears and as suddenly reappears    
without its head1  and then furnishes   
food for the party4 ,the head is        
supposed to be  consumed by the goddess 
herself1 who by accepting it with its   
load  of sin1 washes away the           
transgressions of her votaries4         
,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,the ,,worship ,,of 
,,the ,,sainted ,,dead4                 
,aipssa d' ikonto kat' asphodelon leimna
                      ,entha te naiousi 
psychai1 eidla kamontn4                 
,odyssey1 xxiv4 #ab1 #ad4               
,ancestor-worship3 its ,origin4    ,the 
worship of ancestors is one of the main 
branches of the religion  of the ,indian
 races4 ,its principles are not         
difficult to understand1  for they      

plainly keep up the arrangements of the 
living world4 ,the  dead ancestor1 now  
passed into a deity1 simply goes on     
protecting  his own family1 and         
receiving suit and service from them as 
of old2  the dead chief still watches   
over his own tribe1 still holds his     
authority by helping friends and harming
 enemies2 still rewards the  right and  
sharply punishes the wrong4 #cfe ,it is 
in fact the earliest  attempt of the    
savage to realize the problems of human 
existence1  as the theology of the      
,vedas or ,olympus is the explanation   
which  the youth of the world offers of 
physical phenomena4 ,the latter is      
primitive physics1 the former primitive 
biology1 and it marks a stage  in the   
growth of anthropomorphism when the     
worship of unseen spirits  in general   
passes to that of unseen spirits in     
particular4        ,among the ,aryans   
and ,drvidians4    ,it is admitted on   
all sides that this form of worship was 
general  among the ,aryan nations2 #cff 

but it is a mistake to suppose1 as  is  
too often done1 that the worship was    
peculiar to them4 ,that such  was not   
the case can be proved by numerous      
examples drawn from the  practices of   
aboriginal tribes in ,india1 who have   
lived hitherto  in such complete        
isolation1 that the worship can hardly  
be due to  imitation of the customs of  
their more civilized neighbours4        
,thus1 on the tenth day after a death in
 the family1 the ,ghasiyas of           
,mirzapur1 about the most degraded of   
the ,drvidian tribes1 feed the          
brotherhood1 and at the door of the     
cook-house spread flour or ashes a      
cubit square on the ground4 ,they light 
a lamp there and cover both the  square 
and the light with a basket4 ,then the  
son of the dead man goes a  little      
distance in the direction in which the  
corpse had been carried  out1 and calls 
out his name loudly two or three times4 
,he invites him  to come and sit on the 
shrine which his descendants have       

prepared for  him1 and to consume the   
offerings which they are ready to       
present4 ,it  is said that if the       
deceased died in any ordinary way and   
not by the  attack of a ,bht1 he often  
calls from the burying ground and says1 
,i am coming6 ,after calling his        
father's spirit two or three times1  the
 son returns to the house and examines  
the flour or ashes1 and  if the deceased
 did not die by the attack of a ,bht1   
the mark of his  spirit is found on the 
flour or ashes in the shape of the      
footprint  of a rat or a weasel4 ,when  
this is observed1 the son takes a white 
fowl and sacrifices it with a knife near
 the cook-house1 calling  to the spirit 
of his father--,come and accept the     
offering which is  ready for you6 ,some 
of them strangle the fowl with their    
hands1 and  before killing it sprinkle a
 little grain before it1 saying--,if you
  are really the spirit of my father1   
you will accept the grain6 ,then  he    
goes on to his father's spirit--,accept 

the offering1 sit in  the corner and    
bless your offspring6 ,if the fowl eats 
the grain1  there is great rejoicing1 as
 it implies that the spirit has quietly 
taken up its residence in the house4 ,if
 the fowl does not eat1 it is  supposed 
that some sorcerer or enemy has detained
 the spirit with the  ultimate object of
 releasing it some time or other on its 
own family1  with whom it is presumably 
displeased because they have taken no   
care to propitiate it4 ,if the soul does
 not answer from the burial  ground1 or 
if there is no mark on the square of    
ashes1 it is assumed  that he has fallen
 into the hands of some ,bht or ,pret1  
who has shut  him up in the hollow stalk
 of a bamboo1 or buried him in the      
earth2  in any case there is a risk that
 he may return1 and the rite is still   
performed as a precautionary measure4   
,among the ,kharwrs the holiest part of 
the house is the south room1  where it  
is supposed that the ,devat pitri or    
sainted dead reside4 ,they  worship the 

spirits of the dead in the month of     
,swan 7,august7 near  the house-fire4   
,the house-master offers up one or two  
black fowls and  some cakes and makes a 
burnt offering with butter and molasses4
 ,then he  calls out--,whatever ghosts  
of the holy dead or evil spirits may be 
in  my family1 accept this offering and 
keep the field and house free from      
trouble6 ,many of the ,kharwrs are now  
coming more completely under            
,brhmanical influence1 and these worship
 the ,pitri at weddings in the          
courtyard4 ,the house-master offers some
 balls of rice boiled in milk1  and a   
,brhman standing by mutters some texts4 
,they are now so advanced  as to do the 
annual service for the repose of the    
sainted spirits at  the ,pitripaksha or 
fortnight of the dead in the month of   
,kur 7,august74    ,the other ,drvidian 
tribes follow similar customs4 ,thus1   
the ,korwas  worship their dead         
relations in ,february with an offering 
of goats1  which is done by the eldest  

son of the dead man in the family       
cook-house4 ,their ancestors are said   
not to appear in the flesh after  death1
 but to show themselves in dreams if    
they are dissatisfied  with the         
arrangements made for their comfort4 ,on
 the day on which  they are expected to 
appear the householder makes an offering
 of  cakes to them in the family        
kitchen4 ,the ,patris think that the    
dead  occasionally attend when worship  
is being done to them4 ,at other times  
they remain in the sky or wander about  
the mountains4 ,sometimes they  call in 
the night to their descendants and      
say--,worship us6 ,give  us food and    
drink6 ,if they are not propitiated they
 give trouble  and cause sickness4 ,the 
,kisns and ,bhuiyrs of ,chota ,ngpur    
adore  their ancestors1 but they have no
 notion that the latter are now         
spirits1 or that there are spirits and  
ghosts1 or a future state1  or anything4
 ,the ,bhuiyas revere their ancestors   
under the name of  ,br or ,vra1 hero1 a 

term which is elsewhere applied to      
ghosts of  a specially malignant        
character4 ,the ,khariyas put the ashes 
of their  dead into an earthen pot and  
throw it into a river4 ,they afterwards 
set up in the vicinity slabs of stone as
 a resting-place for them1  and to these
 they make daily oblations4 ,the only   
worship performed by  the ,korwas of    
,chota ,ngpur is to their dead          
relatives1 and the same is  the case    
with other allied races1 such as the    
,bhls and ,santls4 #cfg        ,spirits 
,mortal4    ,most of these ,drvidian    
tribes believe that like themselves the 
spirits of the dead are mortal4 ,what   
becomes of them after a couple  of      
generations no one can say4 ,but when   
this period has elapsed  they are       
supposed to be finally disposed of some 
way or other1  and being no longer      
objects of fear to the survivors1 their 
worship  is neglected1 and attention is 
paid only to the more recent dead1      
whose powers of mischief still continue4

 ,the ,gonds go further and  propitiate 
for only one year the spirits of their  
departed friends1  and this is done even
 if they have been persons of no note   
during  their lifetime2 but with        
worthies of the tribe the case is       
different1  and if one of them1 for     
example1 has founded a village or been  
its  headman or priest1 then he is      
treated as a god for years1 and a  small
 shrine of earth is erected to his      
memory1 at which sacrifices  are        
annually offered4 #cfh ,it is said that 
the ,jungs1 who until  quite recently   
used to dress in garments of leaves1 are
 the only one  of these tribes who do   
not practise this form of worship4 #cfi 
,but  these races are particularly      
reticent about their beliefs and usages1
  and it is more than probable that     
further inquiry will show that they  are
 not peculiar in this respect4          
,ancestors ,re-born in ,children4       
,among many races1 again1 there is a    
common belief that the father or        

grandfather is re-born in one of his    
descendants4 ,the modern reader  is     
familiar with examples of such beliefs  
in ,mr4 ,du ,maurier's ,peter           
,ibbetson1 and ,mr4 ,rider ,haggard's   
,she4 ,manu expresses this belief  when 
he writes--,the husband after conception
 by his wife1 becomes  an embryo and is 
born again of her2 for that is the      
wifehood of a  wife1 that he is born    
again by her4 ,the feeling that children
 are  really the ancestors re-born is   
obviously based on the principle of     
hereditary resemblance4 ,hence the      
general feeling in favour of calling  a 
child by the name of the grandfather or 
grandmother1 which is about  as far as  
the rustic goes in recognizing the      
ascending line4 ,the  ,konkan ,kunbis1  
and even ,brhmans1 believe that the dead
 ancestors  sometimes appear in         
children4 ,among ,gujart ,musalmns the  
nurse1  if a child is peevish1 says1    
,its kind has come upon its head4 ,the  
same idea is found among the ,khndhs4   

,among the ,laplanders of ,europe  an   
ancestral spirit tells the mother that  
he has come into the child1  and directs
 her to call it after his name4 #cgj    
,another variant of  the same belief is 
that common among some of the ,drvidian 
races that  the ancestor is revived in a
 calf1 which is in consequence well fed 
and treated with particular respect4    
,the ,srddha4    ,the ordinary worship  
of ancestors among ,brhmanized ,hindu   
races has  been so often described in   
well-known books as to need little      
further  illustration4 #cga ,the spirits
 of departed ancestors attend upon the  
,brhmans invited to the ceremony of the 
,srddha1 hovering round them  like pure 
spirits1 and sitting by them when they  
are seated4 ,an  offering to the gods is
 to be made at the beginning and end of 
the  ,srddha2 it must not begin and end 
with an offering to ancestors1  for he  
who begins and ends it with an offering 
to the ,pitri quickly  perishes with his
 progeny4 ,the belief is common to many 

races that the  spirits of the dead     
assemble to partake of the food provided
 by the  piety of their relations on    
earth4 ,alcinous addressing the         
,phacians  tells them--,for ever        
heretofore the gods appear manifest     
among us1  whensoever we offer glorious 
hecatombs1 and they feast at our side   
sitting by the same board4 ,and the old 
,prussians used to prepare a  meal1 to  
which1 standing at the door1 they       
invited the soul of the  deceased4 ,when
 the meal was over the priest took a    
broom and swept  the souls out of the   
house1 saying--',dear souls6 ye have    
eaten and  drunk4 ,go forth6 go forth6' 
#cgb    ,the place where the oblation is
 to be made is to be sequestered1       
facing the south1 the land of departed  
spirits1 and smeared with  cow-dung4    
,the use of this substance is easily to 
be accounted for1  without following the
 remarkable explanation of a modern     
writer1 who  connects it with the       
dropping of the ,aurora4 #cgc ,the      

divine manes  are always pleased with an
 oblation in empty glades1 naturally    
clean1  on the banks of rivers1 and in  
solitary spots4 ,the ceremony is to  be 
performed by the eldest son1 which      
furnishes the ,hindu with the           
well-known argument for marriage and the
 procreation of male issue4 ,we  have   
seen that the ,drvidians also regard the
 rite as merely domestic  and to be     
performed by the house-master4    ,the  
orthodox ,hindu1 besides the usual      
,srddha1 in connection with  his daily  
worship1 offers the ,tarpana or water   
oblation to the  sainted dead4 ,the     
object of the annual ,srddha is1 as is  
well known1  to accelerate the progress 
7gati7 of the soul through the various  
stages of bliss1 known as ,slokya1      
,smpya and ,srpya1 and by its           
performance at ,gaya the wearied soul   
passes into ,vaikuntha1 or the  paradise
 of ,vishnu4    ,hindus do not allow    
their sons to bathe during the fortnight
 sacred to  the manes1 as they believe  

that the dirt produced by bathing1      
shaving1  and washing the apparel will  
reach and annoy the sainted dead4 ,the  
story goes that ,rja ,karana made a vow 
that he would not touch food  until he  
had given a maund and a quarter 7about  
one hundred pounds7 of  gold daily to   
,brhmans4 ,when he died he went to      
heaven1 and was there  given a palace of
 gold to dwell in1 and gold for his food
 and drink1  as this was all he had     
given away in charity during his mortal 
life4 ,so  in his distress he asked to  
be allowed to return to earth for       
fifteen  days4 ,his prayer was granted1 
and warned by sad experience he occupied
  himself during his time of grace in   
giving nothing but food in charity1     
being so busy that he neglected to      
bathe1 shave1 or wash his clothes1  and 
thus he became an example to succeeding 
generations4 #cgd        ,degradation of
 ,ancestor-worship4    ,the worship     
which has been thus described easily    
passes into other  and grosser forms4   

,thus1 in the family of the ,gikwrs of  
,baroda1  when they worship ,mahdeva    
they think of the greatest of this line 
of  princes4 ,the temple contains a     
rudely-executed portrait of ,khnd ,ro1  
the shrine to the left the bed1         
garments1 and phial of ,ganges water1   
which commemorate his mother1 ,chimnb4  
,govind ,ro has an image  dressed up1   
and ,fateh ,sinh a stone face4 #cge     
,in ,central ,india ,rjputs wear the    
figure of a distinguished ancestor  or  
relation engraved in gold or silver4    
,this image1 usually that of a  warrior 
on horseback1 is sometimes worshipped1  
but its chief utility  is as a charm to 
keep off ghosts and evil spirits4 #cgf  
,the aboriginal ,bhuiyas of ,chota      
,ngpur1 after disposing of their dead1  
perform a ceremony which is supposed to 
bring back to the house the  spirit of  
the deceased1 henceforth an object of   
household worship4 ,a  vessel filled    
with rice and flour is placed for the   
time on the tomb1  and when brought back

 the mark of a fowl's foot is found at  
the bottom  of the vessel1 and this     
indicates that the spirit of the        
deceased  has returned4 #cgg ,this is1  
as we have seen1 common to many of the  
,drvidian tribes1 and we shall meet     
instances of similar practices  when we 
consider the malignant variety of       
ghosts4    ,a curious example of the    
popular form of ancestor-worship is     
given by  ,general ,sleeman3--,rma      
,chandra1 the ,pandit1 said that        
villages which  had been held by old    
,gond proprietors were more liable than 
others to  visitation from local ghosts1
 that it was easy to say what village   
was  or was not haunted1 but often      
exceedingly difficult to say to whom the
  ghost belonged4 ,this once discovered1
 the nearest surviving relation  was1 of
 course1 expected to take steps to put  
him to rest4 ,but1  said he1 it is wrong
 to suppose that the ghost of an old    
proprietor  must be always doing        
mischief4 ,he is often the best friend  

of the  cultivators1 and of the present 
proprietor too1 if he treats him with   
proper respect2 for he will not allow   
the people of any other village  to     
encroach upon the boundaries with       
impunity1 and they will be saved  all   
expense and annoyance of a reference to 
the judicial tribunals  for the         
settlement of boundary disputes4 ,it    
will not cost much to  conciliate these 
spirits1 and the money is generally well
 laid out4    ,he instances a case of a 
family of village proprietors1 who had  
for  several generations insisted at    
every new settlement upon having the    
name of the spirit of the old proprietor
 inserted in the lease instead  of their
 own1 and thereby secured his good      
graces on all occasions4 ,a  cultivator 
who trespassed on land believed to be in
 charge of such a  spirit had his son   
bitten by a snake1 and his two oxen were
 seized with  the murrain4 ,in terror he
 went off to the village temple1        
confessed  his sin1 and vowed to restore

 not only the half-acre of land1 but to 
build a very handsome temple on the spot
 as a perpetual sign of his  repentance4
 ,the boy and the bullocks all then     
recovered1 the shrine was  built1 and   
is1 ,i believe1 still to be seen as a   
boundary mark4 #cgh        ,worship of  
,worthies4    ,from this family worship 
of deceased relations1 the transition to
  the special worship of persons of high
 local reputation in life1  or who have 
died in some remarkable way1 is easy4   
,the intermediate  links are the ,sdhu  
and the ,sat1 and the worship finally   
culminates  in a creed like that of the 
,jainas1 who worship a pantheon of      
deified  saints1 that of the ,lingyat   
worship of ,siva incarnated as          
,chambaspa1  or the godlike weaver ,kabr
 of the ,kabrpanthis4 ,the lowest phase 
of  all is the worship by the ,halbas of
 ,central ,india of a pantheon of       
glorified distillers4 #cgi        ,the  
,sdhu4    ,the ,sdhu is a saint who is  
regarded as the great power of ,god1    

the name meaning he that is eminent in  
virtue4 ,he is a visible  manifestation 
of the divine energy acquired by his    
piety and  self-devotion4 ,we shall meet
 later on instances of deified holy men 
of  this class4 ,meanwhile1 it may be   
noted1 we see around us the constant    
development of the cultus in all its    
successive stages4 ,thus1 in ,berr  at  
,askot the saint is still alive2 at     
,wadnera he died nearly a century  ago1 
and his descendants live on the         
offerings made by the pious2 at  ,jalgnw
 a crazy vagabond was canonized on      
grounds which strict people  consider   
quite insufficient4 ,there is1 of       
course1 among the disciples  and        
descendants of these local saints a     
constant competition going  on for the  
honour of canonization1 which once      
secured1 the shrine  may become a very  
valuable source of income and           
reputation4 ,but the  indiscriminate and
 ill-regulated deification of mortals is
 one of the  main causes of the weakness

 of modern ,hinduism1 because1 by a     
process  of abscission1 the formation of
 multitudinous sects1 which take their  
titles and special forms of belief from 
the saint whose disciples  they profess 
to be1 is promoted and encouraged4      
,thus1 as has been  well remarked1      
,hinduism lies in urgent need of a ,pope
 or acknowledged  orthodox head1 to     
control its wonderful elasticity and    
receptivity1  to keep up the standard of
 deities and saints1 and generally to   
prevent  superstitions running wild into
 a tangled jungle of polytheism4 #chj   
,it would be out of place to give here  
any of the details of the  numerous     
sects which have been founded in this   
way to commemorate the  life and        
teaching of some eminent saint4 ,the    
remarkable point about  this movement is
 that the leaders of these sects are not
 always or  even constantly drawn from  
the priestly classes4 ,thus the         
,charandsis1  who are ,krishna          
worshippers1 take their name from       

,charan ,ds1 a ,dhsar1  who are usually 
classed as ,banyas1 but claim to be     
,brhmans2 ,jhambaj1  the founder of the 
,bishnois1 was a ,rjput2 ,kabr1 whoever 
he may have  been1 was brought up by a  
family of ,muhammadan weavers at        
,benares2  ,nmdeo was a cotton carder2  
,r ,ds is said to have been a ,chamr2   
,ddu was a cotton cleaner2 many of them 
are half ,muhammadans1 as  the          
,chhaju-panthis and ,shamsis4 ,it is    
difficult to estimate highly  enough the
 result of this feeling of toleration   
and catholicism on  the progress of     
modern ,hinduism4                       
,miracle-working ,tombs4    ,these      
saints have wrested from the reluctant  
gods by sheer piety and  relentless     
austerities1 a portion of the divine    
thaumaturgic power1  which exudes after 
their death from the places where their 
bodies are  laid4 ,this is the case with
 the shrines of both ,hindu and ,musalmn
  saints4 ,many instances of this will  
be found in succeeding pages4 ,thus  at 

,chunr there is a famous shrine in      
honour of ,shh ,qsim ,sulaimni1  #cha a 
local saint whose opinions were so      
displeasing to ,akbar that  he          
imprisoned him here till his death in   
#afad ,a4,d4 ,his cap and turban  are   
still shown at his tomb1 and these1 when
 gently rubbed by one  of his disciples1
 pour out a divine influence through the
 assembled  multitude of votaries1 many 
of whom are ,hindus4 ,this holy         
influence  extends even to the animal   
kingdom4 ,thus the tomb of the saint    
,nirgan  ,shh at ,sarauli in the        
,bareilly ,district abounds in          
scorpions1 which  bite no one through   
the virtue of the saint4    ,hindu      
saints of the same class are so directly
 imbued with the  divine afflatus that  
they need not the purifying influence of
 fire1  and are buried1 not cremated4   
,their ,samdhi or final resting-place   
is usually represented by a pile of     
earth1 or a tomb or tumulus of  a       
conical or circular form4 ,others1      

again1 like some of the ,gusns1  are    
after death enclosed in a box of stone  
and consigned to the waters  of the     
,ganges4 ,these shrines are generally   
occupied by a disciple or  actual       
descendant of the saint1 and there vows 
and prayers are made  and offerings     
presented4        ,the ,sat4    ,the    
next link between ancestor-worship and  
that of special deceased  worthies is   
seen in the ,sat1 or faithful wife1 who1
 before the  practice was prohibited by 
our ,government1 was bound to bear her  
deceased lord company to the world of   
spirits for his consolation and         
service4 ,the rite seems to have at one 
time prevailed throughout the  ,aryan   
world4 #chb ,it undoubtedly prevailed in
 ,slavonic lands1 #chc  and there are   
even traces of it in ,greece4 ,evadne is
 said to have  burnt herself with the   
body of her husband1 ,capaneus1 and     
,oenone1  according to one account1     
leaped into the pyre on which the body  
of ,paris was being cremated4 ,there are

 indications that the rite  prevailed   
among the ,drvidian races1 and it has   
been suggested that  the ,hindus may    
have adopted it from them4 ,even to the 
present day  among some of the ,bhl     
tribes the wife of the dead man is      
carried  along with him on the bier to  
the burning ground1 where she is laid   
down4 ,there she breaks her marriage    
necklace1 and her ornaments are         
consumed with the corpse of her husband1
 obviously a survival of the  time when 
she was actually burnt with him4 #chd   
,it is unnecessary here to enter into   
the controversy whether or not  the rite
 was based on a misinterpretation or    
perversion of one of the  sacred texts4 
,that in old times the ,sat was treated 
with exceptional  honour is certain4 ,in
 some places she went to the burning    
ground  richly dressed1 scattering money
 and flowers1 and calling out the  names
 of the deities1 with music sounding and
 drums beating4 ,in some  places she    
used to mark with her hands the gateways

 and walls of the  chief temple1 and she
 sometimes marked in the same way a     
stone for  her descendants to worship1 a
 practice to which reference will be    
made  later on4 ,on such stones it was  
the custom to carve a representation  of
 her1 and in many places a ,chhatri1 or 
ornamental cenotaph pavilion1  was      
erected in her honour4 ,the small       
shrines in honour of the village  ,sat  
are found often in considerable numbers 
on the banks of tanks  all over ,upper  
,india4 ,they are visited by women at   
marriages and other  festivals1 and are 
periodically repaired and kept in order4
 ,according  to ,mr4 ,ibbetson1 #che in 
the ,delhi territory1 these shrines take
 the  place of those dedicated to the   
,pitri1 or sainted dead4 ,they often    
contain a representation in stone of the
 lord and his faithful spouse1  and one 
of his arms rests affectionately on her 
neck4 ,sometimes1 if he  died in battle1
 he is mounted on his war steed and she 
walks beside  him2 but her worshippers  

are not always careful in identifying   
her  shrine1 and ,i have seen at least  
one undoubted ,revenue ,survey pillar   
doing duty as a monument to some unnamed
 local divinity of this class4    ,among
 the warrior tribes of ,rjputna1 the    
,sat shrine usually takes  the form of a
 monument1 on which is carved the       
warrior on his charger1  with his wife  
standing beside him1 and the images of  
the sun and the  moon on either side1   
emblematical of never-dying fame4 ,such 
places  are the scene of many a ghostly 
legend4 ,as ,col4 ,tod writes in his    
sentimental way #chf--;,among the altars
 on which have burnt the  beautiful and 
brave1 the harpy or ,dkin takes up her  
abode1 and stalks  forth to devour the  
heart of her victims4 ,the ,rjput never 
enters  these places of silence1 but to 
perform stated rites or anniversary     
offerings of flowers and water to the   
manes of his ancestors4 ,there  is a    
peculiarly beautiful ,sat necropolis at 
,udaypur1 and the ,sat  ,burj1 or tower 

at ,mathura1 erected in honour of the   
queen of ,rja  ,bihr ,mal of ,jaypur in 
#aegj ,a4,d41 is one of the chief       
ornaments of  the city4 #chg        ,the
 ,sat and the ,pitri4    ,the connection
 between the special worship of the ,sat
 and that of the  ,pitri or sainted dead
 will have been remarked4 ,in many      
places the ,sat  represents the company 
of the venerated ancestors and is       
regarded as  the guardian mother of the 
village1 and in many of the rustic      
shrines  of this class the same         
connection with the ,pitri is shown in  
another  interesting way4 ,the snake is1
 as we shall see1 regarded as a type  of
 the household deity1 which is often one
 of the deified ancestors1  and so1 in  
the ,sat shrine we often see a snake    
delineated in the  act of rising out of 
the masonry1 as if it were the guardian 
mother  snake arising to receive the    
devotion of her descendants4    ,the    
,sat having thus secured the honour of  
deification by her  sacrifice1 is able  

to protect her worshippers and gratify  
their  desires4 ,some are even the      
subject of special honour1 such as      
,sakh ,b1 who is worshipped at ,akola4  
#chh ,even the ,drvidian  ,kaurs of     
,sarguja worship a deified ,sat1 another
 link connecting  the cultus with the   
aboriginal races4 ,she has a sacred     
grove1  and every year a fowl is        
sacrificed to her1 and every third year 
a goat4 ,col4 ,dalton #chi observes that
 the ,hindus who accompanied  him were  
intensely amused at the idea of offering
 fowls to a ,sat1  who is accustomed to 
the simpler bloodless tribute of milk1  
cakes1  fruit and flowers4 ,this is the 
form of the offering at ,jilmili1 the   
,sat shrines belonging to the local     
,rja4 ,the curses of a dying ,sat  were 
greatly feared4 ,numerous instances of  
families ruined in this  way are told   
both in ,rjputna and in ,nepl1 the last 
places where  the rite is occasionally  
performed4 #cij    ,the arrangements for
 the cremation varied in different      

places4 ,in  ,western ,india she sat in 
a specially built grass hut1 and keeping
 her  husband's head in her lap1        
supported it with her right hand1 while 
she kindled the hut with a torch held in
 her left hand4 ,nowadays in  ,nepl the 
husband and the ,sat are made to lie    
side by side on the  pyre4 ,the woman's 
right hand is put under the husband's   
neck1 and  round her face are placed all
 kinds of inflammable substances4 ,three
  long poles of undried wood are laid   
over the bodies--one over the  legs1 the
 second over the chest1 and the third   
over the neck4 ,three  men on either    
side press down the poles till the woman
 is burnt to  death4 ,there have been   
cases in which the wretched victim tried
 to  escape1 and was dragged back by    
force to her death4    ,a curious       
modification of the practice of ,sat1   
which so far has been  traced only in   
,rjputna1 is what is known as ,m ,sat1  
or mother ,sat1  where the mother       
immolates herself with her dead child4  

,colonel ,powlett  #cia remarks that in 
inquiring about it one is often told    
that it is  really ,mah ,sat1 or the    
great ,sat4 ,he adds that there can be  
no  doubt that mother ,sat really       
prevails1 but was confined to the sandy 
and desert tract1 where domestic        
affection is said to be stronger  than  
elsewhere4 ,in one large remote village 
,i found five monuments  to ,mother     
,sats1 one a ,chhatri or pavilion of    
some pretensions4 ,a  ,rjput lady from  
,jaysalmer was on a visit to her        
father's family  with her youngest son4 
,the boy was thrown when exercising his 
pony1  dragged in the stirrup and       
killed4 ,his mother became ,sat with her
  son's body1 and probably her example1 
for she was a person of some  rank1 led 
to the subsequent practice of ,m ,sat in
 the same district4        ,modern      
,saints4    ,we have already noticed    
some instances of the canonization in   
modern  times of saints and holy men4   
,of worthies of this kind1 who have     

received divine honours1 the number is  
legion4 ,this deification of  human     
beings is found in the very early       
,brhmanical literature4 ,one  of the    
most noteworthy ideas to be found in the
 ,brhmanas is that  the gods were merely
 mortal till they conquered ,death by   
their  sacrifices4 ,death1 alarmed1     
protested to the gods1 and it was then  
arranged that no one should become      
immortal by the force of his piety      
without first offering his body to      
,death4 ,manu declares that from  his   
birth alone a ,brhman is regarded as a  
divinity1 even by the  gods4 #cib       
,modern practice supports this by       
calling him ,mah-rja  or ,great king1   
and he rises to heaven as a deity1 like 
many of the  famous kings of old4 #cic  
,in the same way the ,etruscans had     
certain  rites through which the souls  
of men could become gods and were       
called ,dii ,animales1 because they had 
once been human souls4 ,quite in        
consonance with ,indian practice they   

first became ,penates and ,lares  before
 they rose to the rank of the superior  
deities4 #cid        ,deification in    
,modern ,times4    ,a few examples of   
modern deification may be given to      
illustrate this  phase of the popular   
faith4 ,thus1 one ,gauhar ,shh was quite
 recently  canonized at ,meerut because 
he delivered a prophecy that a windmill 
belonging to a certain ,mr4 ,smith would
 soon cease to work4 ,the  fulfilment of
 his prediction was considered ample    
evidence of his  sanctity1 and the      
question was put beyond the possibility 
of doubt  when1 just before his death1  
the holy man directed his disciples to  
remove him from an inn1 which           
immediately fell down4 ,another saint   
of the same place is said to have given 
five years of his life to the  notorious
 ,begam ,samru1 who died in #ahcf1 in   
all the odour of sanctity4              
,shaikh ,brhan4    ,shaikh ,brhan1 a    
saint of ,amber1 was offered a drink of 
milk by ,mokul1  one of the ,shaikhwat  

chiefs1 and immediately performed the   
miracle of  drawing a copious stream of 
milk from the udder of an exhausted     
female  buffalo4 ,this was sufficient to
 convince the old chief that he could   
work other miracles1 and he prayed that 
through his means he might no  longer be
 childless4 ,in due time he had an heir1
 who1 according to the  injunction of   
,brhan1 was styled1 after his own tribe1
 ,shaikh1 whence  the title of the clan4
 ,he directed that the child should wear
 the cross  strings 7baddiya7 worn by   
,muhammadan children1 which1 when laid  
aside1  were to be deposited at the     
saint's shrine1 and further that he     
should  assume the blue tunic and cap1  
abstain from hog's flesh1 and eat no    
meat in which the blood remained4 ,he   
also ordained that at the birth  of     
every ,shaikhwat a goat should be       
sacrificed1 the ,islmite creed or       
,kalima recited1 and the child sprinkled
 with the blood4 ,these customs  are    
still observed1 and the ,shaikh's shrine

 is still a sanctuary1  while his       
descendants enjoy lands specially       
assigned to them4 #cie        ,salm     
,chishti4    ,the power of conferring   
male offspring has made the reputation  
of many  saints of this class1 like the 
famous ,salm ,chishti of ,fatehpur      
,skri1  whose prayers were efficacious  
in procuring an heir for the ,emperor   
,akbar4 ,up to the present day childless
 women visit his shrine and hang  rags  
on the delicate marble traceries of his 
tomb to mark their vows4                
,deification of ,noted ,persons4        
,besides this sainthood which is based  
on sanctity of life and approved        
thaumaturgic powers1 the right of       
deification is conferred on persons  who
 have been eminent or notorious in their
 lives1 or who have died  in some       
extraordinary or notorious way4 ,all or 
nearly all the deified  saints of       
,northern ,india may be grouped under   
one or other of these  categories4      
,harshu ,pnr4    ,we have already given 

an instance of the second class in      
,hardaul ,lla1  the cholera godling4    
,another example of the same kind is    
that of ,harshu  ,pnr or ,harshu ,bba1  
the local god of ,chayanpur1 near       
,sahsarm in  ,bengal1 whose worship is  
now rapidly spreading over ,northern    
,india1 and  promises to become as      
widely diffused as that of ,hardaul     
himself4 ,he  was1 according to the     
current account1 a ,kanaujiya ,brhman1  
the family  priest of ,rja ,slivhana of 
,chayanpur4 ,the ,rja had two queens1   
one of  whom was jealous of the priest's
 influence4 ,about this time the priest 
built a fine house close to the palace1 
and one night the ,rja and the  ,rn saw 
a light from its upper story gleaming   
aloft in the sky4 ,the  ,rn hinted to   
the ,rja that the priest had designs of 
ousting his  master from the kingdom2 so
 the ,rja had his house demolished and  
resumed the lands which had been        
conferred upon him4 ,the enraged        
,brhman did dharn1 in other words fasted

 till he died at the palace  gate4 ,this
 tragical event occurred in #adbg       
,a4,d41 and when they took his  body for
 cremation at ,benares1 they found      
,harshu standing in his wooden  sandals 
on the steps of the burning ,ght4 ,he   
then informed them that  he had become a
 ,brahm1 or malignant ,brhman ghost4    
,the ,rja's daughter  had been kind to  
the ,brhman in his misfortunes and he   
blessed her1  so that her family exists 
in prosperity to this day4 ,but the rest
  of his house was destroyed1 and now   
only the gateway at which the  ,brhman  
died remains to commemorate the tragedy4
 #cif    ,harshu is now worshipped as a 
,brahm with the fire sacrifice and      
offerings of ,brhmanical cords and      
sweetmeats4 ,if any one obtains his     
desires through his intercession1 he    
makes an offering of a golden  sacred   
cord and a silken waist-string1 and     
feeds ,brhmans in his  honour4 ,harshu's
 speciality is exorcising evil spirits  
which attack  people and cause disease4 

,such spirits are usually of low caste  
and  cannot withstand the influence of  
this deified ,brhman4        ,ratan     
,pnr4    ,another worthy1 whose legend  
much resembles that of ,harshu1 is      
,ratan  ,pnr1 who is venerated by the   
,kalhans ,rjputs of ,oudh4 ,the last of 
the race1 ,rja ,achal ,nryan ,sinh1     
ravished the daughter of ,ratan  ,pnr4  
,he pleaded in vain to the wicked ,rja  
for reparation1 and at  last he and his 
wife starved themselves to death at the 
gate of the  fort4 ,he too1 like        
,harshu1 spared a princess of the ,rja's
 house1  but he cursed the rest of his  
family with ruin4 ,after he died his    
ghost went to the river ,sarj and       
claimed her assistance in revenging     
himself on the ,rja4 ,she at last       
consented to help him1 provided  he     
could get the ,rja into his power by    
inducing him to accept some  present    
from him4 ,so he went to the ,rja's     
family priest and induced  him to take  
from him a sacred cord with which he was

 to invest the  ,rja4 ,when ,achal      
,nryan ,sinh heard to whom he was       
indebted for the  gift he flung it away 
in terror4 ,but soon after an angry wave
 rushed  from the ,sarj1 and on its     
crest sat the wraith of ,ratan ,pnr4 ,it
  swept away his palace and left not a  
soul of his household alive4 #cig       
,mahen4    ,there is a similar case     
among the ,hayobans ,rjputs of ,ghzipur4
 ,in  #aebh ,a4,d4 their ,rja ,bhopat   
,deva1 or perhaps one of his sons1      
seduced  ,mahen1 a ,brhman girl1 a      
relation of their family priest4 ,she   
burned  herself to death1 and in dying1 
imprecated the most fearful curses on   
the ,hayobans sept4 ,in consequence of a
 succession of disasters which          
followed1 the tribe completely abandoned
 their family settlement  at ,baliya1   
where the woman's tomb is worshipped to 
this day4 ,even  now none of the sept   
dares to enter the precincts of their   
former  home4 ,in the same way1 in the  
case of ,harshu ,pnr no pilgrim will    

eat or drink near his tomb1 as the place
 is accursed through the  murder of a   
,brhman4 #cih    ,there are numerous    
other cases of this deification of      
suicide ,brhmans  in ,northern ,india4  
,the forms in which they sought         
vengeance by their  death on their      
persecutors are diversified in the      
extreme4 ,there is  a case of a ,brhman 
in the ,partbgarh ,district who1 when   
turned out  of his land1 to avenge      
himself1 gathered a heap of cow-dung in 
the  centre of one of the fields and lay
 down on it till he was devoured  by    
worms4 ,this happened sixty years ago1  
but his fields still stand  a waste of  
jungle grass in the midst of rich       
cultivation1 and neither  ,hindu nor    
,muhammadan dares to plough them4 #cii  
,at the last census of the              
,north-,western ,provinces over four    
hundred  thousand people recorded       
themselves as worshippers of various    
forms  of the ,brahm or malignant       
,brhman ghost4 ,most of these are       

,rjputs1  who were probably the most    
violent oppressors of ,brhmans in the   
olden days4        ,nhar ,khn4          
,another instance of the same type may  
be given from ,rjputna4 ,jaswant  ,sinh 
of ,mrwr had an intrigue with the       
daughter of one of his chief  officers4 
,but the avenging ghost of the ,brhman  
interposed between  him and his wishes2 
a dreadful struggle ensued1 in which    
,jaswant  lost his senses1 and no effort
 could banish the impression from his   
mind4 ,the ghost persecuted his fancy1  
and he was generally believed  to be    
possessed of a wicked spirit1 which when
 exorcised was made to  say he would    
depart only on the sacrifice of a chief 
equal in dignity  to ,jaswant4 ,nhar    
,khn1 'the tiger lord1' chief of the    
,kumpwat clan1  who led the van in all  
his battles1 immediately offered his    
head in  expiation for his prince2 and  
he had no sooner expressed his loyal    
determination1 than the holy man who    
exorcised the spirit1 caused  it to     

descend into a vessel of water1 and     
having waved it round his  head1 they   
presented it to ,nhar ,khn1 who drank it
 off1 and ,jaswant's  senses were       
instantly restored4 ,this miraculous    
transfer of the ghost  is implicitly    
believed by every chief of ,rjasthn1 by 
whom ,nhar  ,khn is called 'the faithful
 of the faithful1' and worshipped as a  
local god4 #djj        ,gangnth and     
,bholanth4    ,two other godlings of the
 ,hills owe their promotion to the      
tragic  circumstances of their deaths4  
,gangnth was a ,rja's son1 who          
quarrelled with his father and became a 
religious mendicant4 ,he  subsequently  
fell into an intrigue with the wife of  
an astrologer1  who murdered him and his
 paramour4 ,they both became malignant  
ghosts1  to whom numerous temples were  
erected4 ,when anyone is injured by the 
wicked or powerful1 he has recourse to  
,gangnth1 who punishes the  evil-doer4  
,of the same type is ,bholanth1 whose   
brother1 ,gyn ,chand1  was one of the   

,almora princes4 ,he had him            
assassinated with his  pregnant         
mistress1 both of whom became malignant 
ghosts1 and are  especially obnoxious to
 gardeners1 one of whom murdered them4  
,this  caste now specially worships     
them1 and a small iron trident is       
sometimes placed in the corner of a     
cottage and resorted to in  their names 
when any sudden or unexpected calamity  
attacks the  occupants4 #dja            
,bhairwanand4    ,similar is the case of
 ,bhairwanand1 the tribal deity of the  
,rikwr  ,rjputs of ,oudh4 ,he was pushed
 into a well in order to fulfil a       
prophecy1 and has since been deified4   
#djb    ,so with the queen of ,ganor1   
who killed herself by means of a        
poisoned  robe when she was obliged to  
surrender her honour to her ,mughal     
conqueror4 ,he died in extreme torture1 
and was buried on the road to  ,bhopl4  
,a visit to his grave is believed to    
cure tertian ague4 #djc        ,vysa4   
,next come those mortals who have been  

deified on account of the glory  of     
their lives4 ,vysa1 the compiler of the 
,vedas1 has been canonized1  and there  
is a temple in his honour both at       
,benares and ,rmnagar4 ,in  the latter  
place he has been promoted to the       
dignity of an incarnation  of ,siva1    
whereas in ,benares he has a temple of  
his own4 ,his worship  extends as far as
 ,kulu1 where he has an image near a    
stream4 ,pilgrims  offer flowers in his 
name and set up a stone on end in       
commemoration  of their visit4 #djd     
,vlmki4    ,vlmki1 the author of the    
,rmyana1 is worshipped in the same  way4
 ,he has shrines at ,blu in the ,karnl  
,district and at ,baleni  of ,meerut4   
,baliya1 the headquarters of the        
district of that name1  is said to be   
called after him4 ,the ,aheriyas and    
,baheliyas1 both  hunting tribes of the 
,north-,western ,provinces1 claim       
descent from  him1 and he has now1 by an
 extraordinary feat in hagiolatry1      
become  identified with ,ll ,beg1 the   

low caste godling of the sweepers4 #dje 
,various ,saints4    ,many other        
worthies of the olden time are          
worshipped in the same  way4 ,from the  
,himlaya to ,bombay1 ,datttreya1 a saint
 in whom a  part of ,brahma1 ,vishnu1   
and ,siva was incarnate1 is worshipped  
by  ,vaishnavas as a partial            
manifestation of the deity1 and by      
,saivas as  a distinguished authority on
 the ,yoga philosophy4 ,he has temples  
both  in ,garhwl and in the ,konkan1    
like ,parsara ,rishi1 the reputed author
  of the ,vishnu ,purna1 who wished to  
make a sacrifice to destroy the         
,rkshasas1 but was dissuaded by the     
saints1 and then scattered the  fire    
over the slope of the ,himlaya1 where it
 blazes forth at the  phases of the     
moon4 #djf ,in like fashion the records 
of the last  census have shown          
worshippers of the poets ,klidsa and    
,tulasi ,ds1  as in ,bombay their great 
writers ,dnynadeva and ,tkarm are       
deified  by the ,marthas4 ,nearly seven 

thousand people in the ,north-,western  
,provinces adore ,vasishtha1 the famous 
,rishi1 and many others ,nrada  ,muni1  
who is a well-known personage and       
generally acts as a sort of  ,deus ex   
machin in the folk-tales4 ,on the whole 
in the ,north-,western  ,provinces over 
a quarter million people recorded       
themselves as votaries  of these deified
 saints1 devotees and teachers4    ,the 
same form of worship largely prevails in
 the ,panjb4 ,among other  worthies we  
find ,symji1 a ,chauhn ,rja who is said 
to have given his  head to ,krishna and 
,arjuna on condition that he should be  
allowed to  witness the fight between   
the ,kauravas and ,pndavas2             
,dhanwantari1  the physician of the     
gods2 ,drona ,achrya1 the teacher of    
military  science to the heroes of the  
great war4 ,the ,kumhrs or potters      
worship  ,prajapati1 the active creator 
of the universe2 and the ,kyasth scribes
  adore ,chitragupta1 who keeps the     
register of the deeds of men1 which     

will be opened at the last day4 ,this is
 quite irrespective of a horde  of      
tutelary saints1 who are adored by      
various tribes of handicraftsmen4       
,deified ,robbers4    ,even the thieving
 and nomadic tribes have as their       
godlings deified  bandits4 ,such is     
,gandak1 the patron of the ,magahiya    
,doms1 and ,salhes1  who is worshipped  
by the ,doms and ,dusdhs of ,behr4 ,he  
was a great  hero and the first         
watchman4 ,he fought a famous battle    
with ,chhar ,m  of ,mohma1 and is the   
subject of a popular epic in ,tirht4    
,with his  worship is associated that of
 his brother ,motirm1 another worthy of 
the same kind4 #djg ,at ,sherpur near   
,patna is the shrine of ,goraiya or     
,gauraiya1 a ,dusdh bandit chief1 to    
which members of all castes resort1  the
 higher castes making offerings of meal1
 the outcastes sacrificing  a hog or    
several young pigs and pouring out      
libations of spirits on  the ground4    
,but even here the primitive local      

cultus is in a state  of transition1 as 
in the case of ,salhes1 who1 according  
to some1 was  the porter of ,bhm ,sen4  
#djh ,doubtless he and his comrades will
 some  day blossom forth as             
manifestations of one or other of the   
higher gods4    ,another bandit godling 
is ,mitthu ,bhkhiya1 a freebooter1      
worshipped  by the ,banjras or wandering
 carriers4 ,he has a special hut1 in    
which  no one may drink or sleep1 and   
which is marked with a white flag4 ,the 
tribe always worship him before         
committing a crime4 ,they assemble      
together and an image of the famous     
tribal ,sat is produced4 ,butter  is put
 into a saucer1 and in this a light is  
placed1 very broad at  the bottom and   
tapering upwards4 ,the wick1 standing   
erect1 is lit1  an appeal is made to the
 ,sat for an omen1 and those worshipping
  mention in a low tone to the godling  
where they are going1 and what  they    
propose to do4 ,the wick is then        
carefully watched1 and should  it drop  

at all1 the omen is propitious4 ,all    
then salute the flag and  start on their
 marauding expedition4 #dji             
,vindhya-bsin ,dev1 the personification 
of the ,vindhyan range1  is1 as we have 
seen1 the goddess of the ,thags1 and the
 ,dhnuks1 a  thieving tribe in ,behr1   
worship one of their chiefs who was     
killed  in a skirmish with the          
,muhammadans six hundred years ago1 and 
whose  ghost has since been troublesome4
 ,he is worshipped in a shrine of       
brick1 and one of the members of the    
tribe acts as his priest4 #daj          
,rja ,lkhan4    ,we have already spoken 
of ,gansm1 one of the tribal deities of 
the  ,kols4 ,another famous ,kol deity  
in ,mirzapur is ,rja ,lkhan4 ,one story 
of him is that he came from ,lucknow1 a 
legend based1 of course1  on the        
similarity of the name4 ,but there can  
be no reasonable doubt  that he was     
really ,lakhana ,deva1 the son of the   
famous ,rja ,jaychand  of ,kanauj1 who  
is known in the popular ballads as the  

,kanaujiya  ,r4 ,there is an inscribed  
pillar erected by him near ,bhuili in   
the  ,mirzapur ,district1 and he was    
perhaps locally connected with that     
part of the country in some way4 #daa   
,some say that he was taken to  ,delhi1 
where he became a ,musalmn1 and the     
popularity of his name in  the local    
legends points to the theory that he was
 possibly one of  the leaders of the    
,hindus against the ,muhammadan         
invaders4 ,all this  being granted1 it  
is remarkable that he1 a ,rjput1 and    
almost as much  a stranger to those     
primitive jungle dwellers as his        
,muhammadan rival1  should have found a 
place in the ,drvidian pantheon4        
,rja ,chandol4    ,another deity of the 
same race is ,rja ,chandol1 who is said 
to  have been a jungle ,rja of the      
,bhuiyr tribe4 ,he was attacked by  his 
neighbour the ,rja of ,nagar1 who       
overcame him and cut off his  head4     
,meanwhile the conqueror forgot his     
patron deity1 and his temple  was       

overturned and the image buried in the  
earth4 ,one day a goldsmith  who was    
passing by the place heard a voice from 
beneath the ground  saying that if he   
dug there he would find the idol4 ,he   
did so1 and1  digging up the image1     
which was of gold1 cut it up and sold   
it4 ,but  his whole household came to   
ruin1 and then the ,rja of ,nagar       
restored  the temple1 and the ,kols     
remembered ,rja ,chandol and have       
venerated  him ever since4        ,bel4 
,the goddess ,bel was the sister of     
,lakhana ,deva1 whose story has  been   
already told4 ,once1 the story goes1    
,siva went to pay a visit to            
,hastinapura1 and the bell of his bull  
,nandi disturbed the brothers  ,arjuna  
and ,bhma1 who1 thinking the god a      
wandering beggar1 drove  him out of the 
palace4 ,then he cursed the ,rjput race 
that among  them should be born two     
fatal women1 who should work the ruin of
  their power4 ,so first was born       
,draupad1 who caused the war of the     

,mahbhrata1 and after her ,bel1 to whom 
was due the unhappy warfare  which paved
 the way to the ,musalmn invasion4 ,bel 
now has a famous  temple at ,belaun on  
the banks of the ,ganges in             
,bulandshahr4    ,we shall come         
elsewhere on instances of the belief    
that human beings  were sacrificed under
 the foundations of important buildings4
 ,nathu  ,kahr1 the godling of the ,oudh
 boatmen1 is said to have been buried   
alive under the foundations of the fort 
of ,akbarpur in the ,faizbd  ,district1 
where a fair is held in his honour4 #dab
 ,at the last census  one hundred and   
twenty-four thousand persons recorded   
themselves as  his votaries4            
,jokhaiya4    ,jokhaiya1 who had by the 
same enumeration eighty-seven thousand  
worshippers1 was a ,bhangi or sweeper1  
who is said to have been killed  in the 
war between ,prithiv ,rja of ,delhi and 
,jaychand of ,kanauj4 ,he  has a noted  
shrine at ,paindhat in the ,mainpuri    
,district1 where a  sweeper for a small 

fee will kill a pig and let its blood   
drop on  his shrine4        ,ramsa ,pr4 
,so1 the godling invoked by the ,pindhri
 women when their husbands  went on     
marauding expeditions1 was ,ramsa ,pr4  
,he was a well-known  warrior killed in 
a battle at ,ranuja1 near ,pushkar4     
,saturday is his  day for prayer1 on    
which occasions small images of horses  
in clay or  stone are offered at his    
shrine4 ,the figure of a man on         
horseback1  stamped in gold or silver1  
representing the godling1 was found on  
the necks of many of the ,pindhris      
killed in the great campaign of         
#ahag-ah4 ,it was worn by them as an    
amulet4 ,he is now known as ,deva       
,dharma ,rja1 which is one of the titles
 of ,yama1 the god of death1  and       
,yudhisthira1 his putative son4         
,r ,sinh4    ,another local godling of  
the same class is ,r ,sinh1 whose legend
 is  thus told by ,general ,sleeman3 ,at
 ,sanoda there is a very beautiful      
little fortress or castle1 now occupied1

 but still entire4 ,it was built  by an 
officer of ,rja ,chhattar ,sl of        
,bundelkhand about #agbe ,a4,d4 ,his    
son1 by name ,r ,sinh1 was1 soon after  
the castle had been completed1  killed  
in an attack upon a town near           
,chhatarkot1 and having in the          
estimation of the people become a god1  
he had a temple and a tank  raised to   
him4 ,i asked the people how he became a
 god1 and was told  that some one who   
had been long suffering from quartan    
ague went to  the tomb one night and    
promised ,r ,sinh1 whose ashes lay under
 it1  that if he could contrive to cure 
his ague for him1 he would during the   
rest of his life make offerings at his  
shrine4 ,after this he never had  an    
attack and was very punctual in his     
offerings4 ,others followed his  example
 and with like success1 till ,r ,sinh   
was recognized universally  among them  
as a god1 and had a temple raised to his
 name4 ,this is  the way1 remarks       
,general ,sleeman1 gods were made all   

over the world  and are now made in     
,india4 #dac        ,the ,prs and       
,sayyids4    ,we now come to a more     
miscellaneous class--the ,prs and       
,sayyids4 ,some  of these we have       
encountered already4 ,we have also seen 
instances of  some holy men who1 like   
,paul and ,silas at ,lystra1 have been  
raised to  the rank of deities4 ,these  
saints are usually of ,muhammadan       
origin1  but most of them are worshipped
 indiscriminately both by ,musalmns  and
 low class ,hindus4 ,the word ,pr       
properly means an elder1 but  according 
to ,sfi belief is the equivalent of     
,murshid1 or religious  leader4 ,sayyid1
 an ,arabic word meaning lord or prince1
 is probably  in many cases a corruption
 of ,shahd1 a martyr of the faith1      
because  many of these worthies owe     
their reputation to having lost their   
lives  in the early struggles between   
,islm and ,hinduism4 ,mr4 ,ibbetson     
notes  that he has seen a shrine of some
 ,sayyids in the ,jlandhar ,district1   

who were said to have been ,sikhs1 who  
died in the front of the  battle4 ,it   
took the form of a ,muhammadan tomb1    
lying east and west1  surmounted by two 
small domes of ,hindu shape with their  
openings  to the south4 ,under each1 in 
the face of the tomb1 was a niche to    
receive a lamp4 #dad    ,this and many  
other instances of the same kind        
illustrate in an  admirable way the     
extreme receptivity of the popular      
belief4 ,we  have here a body of saints1
 many of whom were deadly enemies of the
  ,hindu faith1 who are now worshipped  
by ,hindus4 ,this is well put by  ,sir  
,a4 ,lyall--,the ',urs1 or annual       
ceremony of these saints1 like the      
martyr's day of ,st4 ,edmund or ,st4    
,thomas of ,canterbury1 has degenerated 
into much that is mere carnal traffic   
and pagan idolatry1 a scandal  to the   
rigid ,islmite4 ,yet1 if he uplifts his 
voice against such  soul-destroying     
abuses1 he may be hooted by loose-living
 ,musalmns as  a ,wahhbi who denies the 

power of intercession1 while the        
shopkeepers  are no better than         
,ephesian goldsmiths in crying down an  
inconvenient  religious reformer4 #dae  
,and the same writer illustrates the    
fusion  of the two creeds in their lower
 forms by the fact that the holy ,hindu 
now in the flesh at ,askot has only     
recently taken over the business1  as it
 were1 from a ,muhammadan ,faqr1 whose  
disciple he was during  his life1 and   
now that the ,faqr is dead1 ,narsinh    
,bwa presides over  the annual          
veneration of his slippers4 ,similarly  
at the ,muharram  celebration and at    
pilgrimages to tombs1 like those of     
,ghzi ,miyn1 a  large number of the     
votaries are ,hindus4 ,in many towns the
 maintenance  of these ,muhammadan      
festivals mainly depends on the         
assistance of the  ,hindus1 and it is   
only recently that the unfortunate      
concurrence of  these exhibitions with  
special ,hindu holidays has1 it may be  
hoped  only temporarily1 interrupted the

 tolerant and kindly intercourse        
between the followers of the rival      
creeds4    ,in many of these shrines the
 actual or pretended relics of the      
deceased  worthy are exhibited4 ,under  
the shadow of the ,fort of ,chunr is the
  shrine of ,shh ,qsim ,sulaimni1 of    
whom mention has been already  made4    
,the guardian of the shrine shows to    
pilgrims the turban of the  saint1 who  
was deified about three hundred years   
ago1 and the conical  cap of his        
supposed preceptor1 the eminent ,pr     
,jahniya ,jahngasht2  but1 as in many   
such cases1 the chronology is hopeless4 
,the ,panj ,pr4    ,the most eminent of 
the ,prs are1 of course1 the ,panj ,pr1 
or five  original saints of ,islm4 ,they
 were--the ,prophet ,muhammad1 ',ali1   
his  cousin-german and adopted son1     
,ftima1 the daughter of the ,prophet and
  wife of ',ali1 and their sons1 ,hasan 
and ,husain1 whose tragical fate  is    
commemorated with such ardent sympathy  
at the annual celebration  of the       

,muharram4 #daf ,but by modern ,indian  
,muhammadans the name is  usually       
applied to five leading                 
saints--,bah-ud-dn ,zikariya of ,multn1 
,shh ,ruqa-i-lam ,hazrat of ,lucknow1   
,shh ,shams ,tabrz of ,multn1  ,shaikh  
,jall ,makhdm ,jahniyn ,jahngasht of    
,uchcha in ,multn1  and ,bba ,shaikh    
,fard-ud-dn ,shakkarganj of ,pk ,patan4 
,another  enumeration gives the ,chr ,pr
 or four great saints as ',ali and  his 
successors in saintship--,khwja ,hasan  
,basri1 ,khwja ,habb ',ajmi1  ',abdul   
,whid4 ,another list of ,prs of ,upper  
,india gives their names as  ,ghzi      
,miyn1 ,pr ,hathl1 sister's son of ,ghzi
 ,miyn1 ,pr ,jall of  ,lucknow1 and ,pr 
,muhammad of ,jaunpur4 ,it is1 in fact1 
impossible to  find a generally         
recognized catalogue of these worthies1 
and modern  ,islm is no less subject to 
periodical change than other religions  
organized on a less rigid system4 #dag  
,caste ,saints4    ,the worship of the  
original saints of ,islm has1 however1  

undergone  a grievous degradation4 ,we  
are familiar in ,western hagiology with 
the specialization of saints for certain
 purposes4 ,st4 ,agatha is  invoked to  
cure sore breasts1 ,st4 ,anthony against
 inflammation1  ,st4 ,blaise against    
bones sticking in the throat1 ,st4      
,martin for  the itch1 ,st4 ,valentine  
against epilepsy1 and so on4 ,so ,st4   
,agatha  presides over nurses1 ,st4     
,catherine and ,st4 ,gregory over       
learned men1  ,st4 ,cecilia over        
musicians1 ,st4 ,valentine over lovers1 
,st4 ,nicholas  over thieves1 while ,st4
 ,thomas  ,becket looks after blind men1
  eunuchs1 and sinners4 #dah ,so almost 
all the artizan classes have  each their
 special patron saint4 ,the dyers       
venerate ,pr ',ali ,rangrez1  the ,lohrs
 or blacksmiths1 ,hazrat ,dd1 or the    
,lord ,david1 because  the ,qurn        
says--,we taught him the art of making  
coats of mail  that they might defend   
you from your suffering in warring with 
your  enemies4 ,the ,mehtars or sweepers

 have ,ll ,pr or ,ll ,beg1 of whom      
something more will be said later on4   
,in the ,panjb ,sadhua ,bhagat is  the  
saint of butchers1 because once when he 
was about to kill a goat1  the animal   
threatened that he would revenge himself
 in another life1  and so he joined the 
sect of ,sdhs1 who refrain from         
destroying animal  life4 ,the barbers   
revere ,sain ,bhagat or ,husain ,bhagat4
 ,he is said  to have been a resident of
 ,pratppura in the ,jlandhar ,district1 
and  his descendants were for some time 
family ,gurus or preceptors of the  ,rja
 of ,bandhogarh4 ,one day he was so     
engaged in his devotions that he  forgot
 to shave the ,rja's head1 but when he  
came in fear and trembling  to          
apologize1 he found the ,rja shaved and 
in his right mind4 ,then it  was found  
that the deity himself had come and     
officiated for him4 ,so1  ,nmdeo1 the   
,chhpi or cotton-printer1 became a      
follower of ,rmanand1  and is regarded  
as the tribal saint4        ,domestic   

,worship of the ,pr4    ,muhammadan     
domestic worship is largely concerned   
with the propitiation  of the household 
,pr4 ,in almost every house is a dreaded
 spot where1  as the ,russian peasant   
keeps his holy image1 is the abode or   
corner  of the ,pr1 and the owner erects
 a little shelf1 lights a lamp every    
,thursday night1 and hangs up garlands  
of flowers4 ,shaikh ,saddu1  of whom we 
shall see more later on1 is the women's 
favourite ,pr1  especially with those   
who wish to gain an undue ascendency    
over  their husbands4 ,when a woman     
wishes to have a private entertainment  
of her own1 she pretends to be shadow   
smitten1 that is that the  shadow of    
some ,pr1 usually ,shaikh ,saddu1 has   
fallen upon her1 and  her husband is    
bound to give an entertainment1 known as
 a ,baithak or  session1 for the purpose
 of exorcising him1 to which no male is 
allowed admittance4 ,at these rites of  
the ,bona ,dea1 it is believed  that the
 ,pr enters the woman's head and that   

she becomes possessed1  and in that     
state of frenzy can answer any question 
put to her4 ,all  her female neighbours1
 accordingly1 assemble to have their    
fortunes  told by the ,pr1 and when they
 are satisfied they exorcise him with   
music and singing4        ,the          
,pachpiriyas4    ,but it is in the      
eastern districts of the ,north-,western
 ,provinces and  ,behr that the worship 
has reached its most degraded form4 ,no 
less  than one million seven hundred    
thousand persons at the last census1    
almost entirely in the ,gorakhpur and   
,benares ,divisions1 recorded           
themselves as ,pachpiriyas or           
worshippers of the ,pnch ,pr4 ,it  is   
impossible to get any consistent account
 of these worthies1  and the whole      
cultus has become imbedded in a mass of 
the wildest  legend and mythology4 #dai 
,according to the census lists these    
five saints are1 in the order of their  
popularity--,ghzi ,miyn1  ,buahna ,pr1  
,palihr1 ,amin ,sat and ,hathl or       

,hathla4 ,in ,benares1  according to    
,mr4 ,greeven1 there are no less than   
five enumerations  of the sacred        
quintette4 ,one gives--,ghzi ,miyn1     
,amin ,sat1 ,suthn1  ',ajab ,slr and    
,palihr2 a second--,ghzi ,miyn1 ,amin   
,sat1 ,suthn1  ',ajab ,slr and ,buahna2 
a third--,ghzi ,miyn1 ,amin ,sat1       
,buahna1  ,bhairon and ,band2 a         
fourth--,ghzi ,miyn1 ,amin ,sat1        
,palihr1  ,klik and ,shahz2 a           
fifth--,ghzi ,miyn1 ,suthn1 ',ajab ,slr1
 ,buahna  and ,bahlno4 ,among these we  
have the names of well-known ,hindu     
gods1  like ,bhairon and ,klik1 a form  
of ,kl4 ,among the actual companions of 
,ghzi ,miyn are1 it is believed1 ,hathl 
,pr1 who is said to have been  his      
sister's son1 ,miyn ,rajjab or ,rajjab  
,slr1 and ,sikandar ,diwna1  the ,buahna
 ,pr1 who are all buried at ,bahrich1   
and ,shu ,slr1  father of the martyr    
prince1 whose tomb is near ,brabanki4   
,in ,behr1 again1 the five saints are   
,ghzi ,miyn1 ,hathla1 ,parihr1  ,sahj ,m

 and ',ajab ,slr1 and with them are     
associated ,amin ,sat1  ,langra ,tr1 who
 is represented by a piece of crooked   
wire1 and ,sobarna  ,tr1 the bank of the
 ,sobarna river4 ,here we reach an      
atmosphere of  the crudest fetishism4 ,a
 little further west ,snwar or ,kunwar  
,dhr1  of whom nothing certain is known1
 is joined with them1 and has numerous  
worshippers in the ,gorakhpur and       
,benares ,divisions4        ,the ,pnch  
,pr and the ,pndavas4    ,it has often  
been remarked that the five ,pndavas    
have strangely passed  out of the       
national worship4 ,at the last census in
 the ,north-,western  ,provinces only   
four thousand people gave them as their 
personal  deities1 and in the ,panjb    
only one hundred acknowledged them4 ,now
  in the west the title of ,pnch ,pr is 
sometimes given to five ,rjput  heroes1 
,rmdeo1 ,pbu1 ,harbu1 ,mallinth and     
,gga1 #dbj and it is  at least a        
plausible theory that the five ,prs may 
have originally  been the five ,pndu    

brothers1 whose worship has1 in course  
of time1  become degraded1 been annexed 
by the lower ,musalmns1 and again taken 
over by their menial ,hindu brethren4   
,as a matter of fact1 the system of     
worship does not materially differ  from
 the cultus of the degraded indigenous  
godlings1 such as ,kr  ,gr ,deo1 ,brh   
,bba1 ,jokhaiya1 and their kindred4 ,the
 priests of  the faith are drawn from   
the ,dafli or ,musalmn drummer caste1   
who  go about from house to house       
reciting the tale of ,ghzi ,miyn and    
his martyrdom1 with a number of wild    
legends which have in course  of time   
been adopted in connection with him4 ,an
 iron bar wrapped in  red cloth and     
adorned with flowers represents ,ghzi   
,miyn1 which is  taken from door to     
door1 drums are beaten and petty        
offerings of grain  collected from the  
villagers4 ,low caste ,hindus1 like     
,psis and ,chamrs1  worship them in the 
form of five wooden pegs fixed in the   
courtyard  of the house4 ,the ,barwrs1 a

 degraded criminal tribe in ,oudh1 build
  in their houses an altar in the shape 
of a tomb1 at which yearly in  ,august  
the head of the family sacrifices in the
 name of the ,prs a  fowl and offers    
some thin cakes1 which he makes over to 
a ,muhammadan  beggar who goes about    
from house to house beating a drum4     
,ghzi ,miyn4    ,the whole worship      
centres round ,ghzi ,miyn4 ,his real    
name was ,sayyid  ,slr ,masaud1 and he  
was nephew of ,sultn ,mahmd of ,ghazni4 
,he was  born in #ajae ,a4,d41 was      
leader of one of the early invasions of 
,oudh1  and is claimed as one of the    
first martyrs of ,islm in ,india4 ,he   
was  killed in battle with the ,hindus  
of ,bahrich in #ajcd ,a4,d4 ,close to   
the battle-field was a tank with an     
image of the sun on its banks1 a  shrine
 sacred in the eyes of all ,hindus4     
,masaud1 whenever he passed it1  was    
wont to say that he wished to have this 
spot for a dwelling-place1  and would1  
if it so pleased ,god1 through the power

 of the spiritual  sun1 destroy the     
worship of the material4 ,he was1 it is 
said1 buried  by some of his followers  
in the place which he had chosen for his
  resting-place1 and tradition avers    
that his head rests on the image  of the
 sun1 the worship of which he had given 
his life to destroy4    ,there is some  
reason to believe that this cultus of   
,masaud may have  merely succeeded to   
some local worship1 such as that of the 
sun1 and  in this connection it is      
significant that the great rite in      
honour of  the martyr is called the ,byh
 or marriage of the saint1 and this     
would  associate it with other          
emblematical marriages of the earth and 
sun  or sky which were intended to      
promote fertility4 #dba ,masaud1 again1 
is the type of youth and valour in      
military ,islm1 and to the ,hindu  mind 
assumes the form of one of those godlike
 youths1 such as ,krishna  or ,dlha     
,deo1 snatched away by an untimely and  
tragical fate in the  prime of boyish   

beauty4 ,so1 though he was a fanatical  
devotee of ,islm1  his tomb is visited  
as much by ,hindus as by ,muhammadans4  
,besides his  regular shrine at         
,bahrich1 he has cenotaphs at various   
places1 as at  ,gorakhpur and ,bhadohi  
in the ,mirzapur ,district1 where annual
 fairs are  held in his honour4 ,the    
worship of ,masaud1 which is now        
discouraged by  ,muhammadan purists1    
embodied1 even in early times1 so much  
idolatry  and fetishism as to be        
obnoxious to the puritanic party2 it    
fell  under the censure of the          
authorities1 and ,sikandar ,lodi        
interdicted  the procession of his      
spear4 #dbb ,nowadays at his festivals a
 long  spear or pole is paraded about1  
crowned at the top with bushy hair1     
representing the head of the martyr1    
which1 it is said1 kept rolling  on the 
ground long after it was severed from   
the trunk4 #dbc        ,sakhi ,sarwar4  
,sakhi ,sarwar1 or generous leader1 the 
title of a saint whose  real name was   

,sayyid ,ahmad1 is hardly popular beyond
 the ,panjb1  where his followers are   
known as ,sultnis1 and are more than    
four  hundred thousand in number4 #dbd  
,no one knows exactly when he lived2    
some place him in the twelfth and others
 in the thirteenth century2  but there  
are other traditions which would bring  
him down to the  sixteenth4 ,whatever be
 the exact time of his birth and death1 
he  was one of the class of ,muhammadan 
saints1 like ,bah-ud-dn and  ,shams     
,tabrz1 who settled and practised       
austerities in the country  about       
,multn4 ,other names for him are ,lkhdta
 or the giver of  lkhs1 ,llanwla1 he of 
the rubies1 and ,rohinwla1 or he of the 
,hills4 ,his life1 as we have it1 is but
 a mass of legends4 ,he once  cured a   
camel of a broken leg by riveting it    
together4 ,miraculously1  as so many of 
these saints do1 he gave two sons to one
 ,gannu of  ,multn and married his      
daughter4 ,the hill that overlooks his  
tomb at  ,nigha in the ,dera ,ghzi ,khn 

,district1 at the edge of the ,sulaimn  
mountains1 is said to have been infested
 by a fearful giant4 ,this  monster used
 at night to stand on the hill-top and  
with a torch lure  unwary travellers to 
their destruction4 ,against him ,sakhi  
,sarwar and  his four companions waged  
war1 but all except the saint were      
killed2  and such was the fall of the   
monster that the hill trembled to its   
base4 ,within an enclosure are seen the 
tombs of the saint1 his lady1  ,bb ,r1  
and a ,jinn who fell before the onset of
 the hero4 ,to the  east is the         
apartment containing the stool and      
spinning-wheel of  ,m ',aeshan1 ,sakhi  
,sarwar's mother4 ,it is a curious      
instance of the  combination of the two 
rival faiths1 so constantly observable  
in this  phase of the popular worship1  
that close to the shrine of ,sakhi      
,sarwar  is a temple of ,vishnu1 a      
shrine of ,bba ,nnak1 the founder of    
,sikhism1  and an image of ,bhairon1 who
 appears in the legends as the servant  

or messenger of the saint4 ,the tomb    
presents a curious mixture of  ,musalmn 
and ,hindu architecture4 ,it was        
recently destroyed by fire1  and two    
rubies presented by ,ndir ,shh1 and some
 valuable jewels1  the gift of ,sultn   
,zamn ,shh1 were destroyed or lost4     
,the ,sultni sect1 in large numbers1    
under the guidance of conductors  known 
as ,bharai1 make pilgrimages to the     
tomb4 ,near it are two dead  trees1 said
 to have sprung from the pegs which were
 used to tether  ,kakk1 the saint's     
mare4 ,the walls are hung with small    
pillows of  various degrees of          
ornamentation4 ,persons who suffer from 
ophthalmia  vow gold or silver eyes for 
their recovery4 ,they vow to shave the  
hair of an expected child at the temple1
 and its weight in gold or  silver is   
presented to the saint4 ,some childless 
parents vow to him  their first child1  
and on its birth take it to the temple  
with a cord  round its neck4 ,there are 
numbers of sacred pigeons attached to   

the  shrine1 which are supported by an  
allowance realized from certain         
dedicated villages4 ,the marks of       
',ali's fingers and the print of  his   
foot are still shown to the devout in   
consideration of a fee to  the          
guardians1 and a visit is considered    
peculiarly efficacious for  the cure of 
demoniacal possession1 exhibiting itself
 in the form of  epilepsy or hysteria4  
,besides the shrine at ,nigha1 there are
 numerous other shrines of  the saint1  
of which the most celebrated are those  
connected with the  annual fair at      
,dhonkal in ,gujrnwla1 the ,jhanda fair 
at ,peshwar1  and the ,kadmon fair at   
,anrkali1 near ,lahore4 ,at ,dhonkal    
there is a  magic well which was        
produced by the saint1 the water of     
which is  much in request4 ,at ,anrkali 
a class of musicians1 called ,dholis1   
take young children1 who are presented  
at the tomb1 and dance about  with them4
 ,in the neighbourhood of ,delhi he is  
not held in so much  respect1 but       

shrines in his honour are common1 vows  
and pilgrimages  to him are frequent1   
and ,brhmans tie threads on the wrists  
of their  clients on a fixed day in his 
name4 ,under the name of ,lkhdta he  has
 become the patron deity of athletes1   
and especially of wrestlers4    ,in the 
central districts of the ,panjb1 his    
shrine1 an unpretending  little edifice1
 is to be seen outside nearly every     
hamlet4 ,the shrine  is a hollow        
plastered brick cube1 eight or ten feet 
in each direction1  covered with a dome 
some ten or twelve feet high and with   
low minarets  or pillars at the four    
corners1 and a doorway in front1 opening
 out  generally on a plastered brick    
platform4 ,facing the doorway inside are
  two or three niches for lamps1 but    
otherwise the shrine is perfectly       
empty4 ,the saint is especially         
worshipped on ,thursdays1 when the      
shrine  is swept1 and at night lamps are
 lit inside it4 ,the guardians of the   
shrine are ,musalmns of the ,bharai     

clan1 who go round on ,thursdays        
beating drums and collecting offerings4 
,these offerings1 which are  generally  
in small change or small handfuls of    
grain or cotton1 are  mainly presented  
by women4 ,another method of pleasing   
the saint is by  vowing a ,rt2 the ,rt  
is made by placing dough to the extent  
vowed on  a hot piece of earth1 where a 
fire has been burning1 and distributing 
it when it is baked4 ,he is also        
worshipped by sleeping on the ground    
instead of on a bed4 ,wrestling matches 
are also held in his honour1  and the   
offerings made to the performers go     
towards keeping up the  shrine at       
,nigha4 ,a true worshipper of ,sultn    
will not sell milk on  ,thursday2 he    
will consume it himself or give it away4
    ,sarwar is essentially a saint of   
the ,jts1 and he is also revered  by    
,gjars and ,jhnwars1 and women even of  
the ,khatri and ,brhman  castes adore   
him4 ,he has1 according to the last     
returns1 over four  hundred thousand    

worshippers in the ,panjb1 and eight    
thousand in  the ,north-,western        
,provinces4        ,gga ,pr4    ,another
 noted local saint is ,gga ,pr1 also    
known as ,zhir ,pr1  the saint apparent1
 or ,zhir ,dwn1 the minister apparent1  
or in  the ,panjb as ,bgarwla1 as his   
grave is near ,dadrewa in ,bikner1  and 
he is said to have reigned over the     
,bgar or great prairies of  ,northern   
,rjputna4 ,nothing is known for certain 
about him1 and the  tales told of him   
are merely a mass of wild legends4      
,according to some  he flourished       
somewhere about the middle of the       
twelfth century1 when  ,indian          
hagiolatry was at its zenith4 ,others   
say that he was a ,chauhn  ,rjput1 a    
contemporary of ,prithiv ,rja of ,delhi1
 while by another  story he died with   
his forty-five sons and sixty nephews   
opposing  ,mahmd of ,ghazni4 ,he is said
 to have been a ,hindu with the title   
of ,gga ,br1 or the hero2 and one       
account represents him to have  become a

 convert to ,islm4 ,he is said to have  
killed his two nephews  and to have been
 condemned by their mother to follow    
them below4 ,he  attempted to do so1 but
 the earth objected that he being a     
,hindu1 she  was quite unable to receive
 him till he should be properly burnt4  
,as  he was anxious to revisit his wife 
nightly1 this did not suit him1  and so 
he became a ,musalmn1 and her scruples  
being thus removed1  the earth swallowed
 him and his horse alive4 #dbe ,in      
another and  more degraded form of the  
legend current in ,muzaffarnagar1 he is 
said to have jumped into a pile of      
cow-dung1 where he disappeared1  a      
series of stories which remind us of the
 ,curtius myth4 #dbf    ,another        
elaborate legend represents ,gga to be  
the son of the ,rn  ,bchhal1 and fixes  
his birthplace at ,sirswa in the        
,sahranpur  ,district4 ,about the time  
of the invasion of ,mahmd of ,ghazni1   
she  married ,vatsa1 the ,rja of        
,bgardesa1 or the ,rjputna desert4 ,by  

the influence of that ubiquitous saint1 
,gorakhnth1 she conceived in  spite of  
the intrigues of her sister1 and her    
child was called ,gga1  because the     
saint gave to his mother1 as a          
preservative1 a piece of  gum resin     
known as ,ggal4 ,his cousins attacked   
him and tried to rob  him of his        
kingdom1 but ,gga defeated them and cut 
off their heads1  which he presented to 
his mother4 ,she1 in her anger1 ordered 
him to  go to the place where he had    
sent her nephews2 so he requested the   
earth to receive him into her bosom1    
which she refused to do until  he became
 a convert to ,islm4 ,he then went to   
,mecca1 and became a  disciple of one   
,ratan ,hji1 and on his return the earth
 opened and  received him1 with his     
famous black mare ,javdiy4 #dbg    ,the 
mare has1 of course1 a story of her own4
 ,gga had no children1  and lamenting   
this to his guardian deity1 he received 
from him two  barley-corns1 one of which
 he gave to his wife and the other to   

his  famous mare1 which gave birth to   
his charger1 hence called ,javdiy  or   
barley-born4 ,we find this wonderful    
mare through the whole range  of        
folk-lore1 but the best parallel to her 
is the famous mare of ,gwri  of the     
golden hair1 and ,setanta in the ,celtic
 tale4 #dbh    ,from ,scotland1 too1 we 
get a parallel to the magic birth3 ,here
 are  three grains for thee that thou   
shalt give thy wife this very night1    
and three others to the dog1 and these  
three to the mare2 and these  three thou
 shalt plant behind thy house2 and in   
their own time thy wife  will have three
 sons1 the mare three foals1 and the dog
 three puppies1  and there will grow    
three trees behind thy house2 and the   
trees will be  a sign1 when one of thy  
sons dies one of the trees will wither4 
#dbi  ,it is needless to say that this  
is a stock incident in folk-lore4       
,gga and ,snake-worship4    ,but it is  
in his function as one of the ,snake    
kings that ,gga is  specially           

worshipped4 ,when he is duly propitiated
 he can save from  snake-bite1 and cause
 those who neglect him to be bitten4    
,his shrine  is often found in          
association with that of ,nara ,sinha1  
the man-lion  incarnation of ,vishnu1   
and of ,gorakhnth1 the famous ascetic1  
whose disciple he is said to have been4 
,he is adored by ,hindus  and           
,muhammadans alike1 and by all castes1  
by ,rjputs and ,jts1 as  well as by     
,chamrs and ,chhras4 ,even the ,brhman  
looks on him with  respect4 ,which is   
greater1 says the proverb1 ,rma or ,gga8
 and  the reply is1 ,be who may the     
greater1 shall ,i get myself bitten by  
a snake8 in other words1 ,though ,rma   
may be the greater1 between  ourselves1 
,i dare not say so for fear of offending
 ,gga4    ,he is represented on         
horseback1 with his mother trying to    
detain  him as he descends to the       
infernal regions4 ,he holds as a mark of
  dignity a long staff in his hands1 and
 over him two snakes meet1 one  being   

coiled round his staff4 ,both the ,hindu
 and ,muhammadan ,faqrs  take the       
offerings devoted to him1 and carry his 
,chhar or standard1  covered with       
peacocks' feathers1 from house to house 
in the month of  ,august4 ,as is the    
case with godlings of this class all    
over ,india1  it is significant of the  
association of his worship with some    
early  non-,aryan beliefs that the      
village scavenger is considered to be   
entitled to a share of the offerings    
presented at his shrine4    ,according  
to the last census ,gga had thirty-five 
thousand worshippers  in the ,panjb and 
one hundred and twenty-three thousand in
 the  ,north-,western ,provinces4       
,worship of ,tejaj4    ,another godling 
of the same kind is ,tejaj1 the ,jt     
snake godling  of ,mrwr4 ,he is said to 
have lived about #ijj years ago4 ,one   
day he  noticed that a ,brhman's cow was
 in the habit of going to a certain     
place in the jungle1 where milk fell    
from her udder into the hole  of a      

snake4 ,teja agreed to supply the snake 
daily with milk1 and  thus save the     
,brhman from loss4 ,once when he was    
preparing to visit  his father-in-law1  
he forgot the compact1 and the snake    
appearing1  declared that it was        
necessary that he should bite ,teja4 ,he
 stipulated  for permission first to    
visit his father-in-law1 to which the   
snake  agreed4 ,teja proceeded on his   
journey1 and on the way rescued the     
village cattle from a gang of robbers1  
but was desperately wounded in  the     
encounter4 ,mindful of his promise1 he  
with difficulty presented  himself to   
the snake1 who1 however1 could find no  
spot to bite1 as  ,teja had been so     
grievously wounded by the robbers4 ,teja
 therefore  put out his tongue1 which   
the snake bit1 and so he died4 ,he is   
now a  protector against snake-bite1 and
 is represented as a man on horseback1  
while a snake is biting his tongue4 #dcj
 ,tejaj and ,gga1 as snake  godlings1   
thus rank with ,bhajang1 the snake      

godling of ,kthiawr1 who  is a brother  
of ,sesha ,nga1 and with ,mnas1 the     
goddess of ,bengal1  who is the sister  
of ,vsuki1 the wife of ,jaratkru1 and   
mother of  ,astik1 whose intervention   
saved the snake race from destruction by
  ,janamejya4 #dca        ,worship of   
,bba ,fard ,shakkarganj4    ,bba ,fard  
,shakkarganj1 or fountain of sweets1 so 
called because he  was able miraculously
 to transmute dust or salt into sugar1  
was born  in #aagc ,a4,d41 and died in  
#abfe4 ,his tomb is at ,pkpatan1 and he 
enjoys  high consideration in ,northern 
,india4 ,he was a disciple of           
,qutb-ud-dn  ,bakhtyr ,kki1 who again   
sat at the feet of ,mun-ud-dn ,chishti  
of  ,ajmer1 also a great name to swear  
by4 ,fard's most distinguished  disciple
 was ,nizm-ud-dn ,auliya1 who has a     
lovely tomb at ,ghayspur1  near ,delhi4 
,fard was very closely associated with  
,bba ,nnak1  and much of the doctrine of
 early ,sikhism seems to have been based
  on his teaching4 ,he is said to have  

possessed the ,dast-i-ghaib1 or  hidden 
hand1 a sort of magic bag which gave him
 anything he wished1  which is like the 
wishing hat and inexhaustible pot or    
purse1 which  is a stock element in     
,indian and ,european folk-lore4 #dcb   
,the ,emperor1 it is said1 tried to     
humble him when he came to ,delhi1 but  
he answered in the famous proverb--,delh
 dr ast--,delhi is far away1  the       
,oriental equivalent to ,rob ,roy's ,it 
is a far cry to ,lochow4    ,the        
,musalmn ,thags looked on him as the    
founder of their system1  and used to   
make pilgrimages to his tomb4 ,he is    
believed to have  been connected with   
the ,assassins or disciples of the ,old 
,man of  the ,mountain4 #dcc ,every     
devotee who contrives to get through the
  door of his mausoleum at the          
prescribed time of his feast is assured 
of a free entrance into ,paradise       
hereafter4 ,the crowd is therefore      
immense1 and the pressure so great that 
two or three layers of men1  pushed     

closely over each other1 generally      
attempt the passage at the  same time1  
and serious accidents1 notwithstanding  
every precaution  taken by the police1  
are not uncommon4 #dcd    ,he comes in  
direct succession to some of the        
worthies to whom reference  has been    
already made4 ,to ,khwja ,mun-ud-dn     
,chishti succeeded ,khwja  ,qutb-ud-dn  
,bakhtyr ,kki1 and ,bba ,fard followed  
him4 ,they were  the founders of the    
,chishtiya order of ,faqrs4    ,besides 
his shrine at ,pkpatan he has another   
famous ,dargh at  ,shaikhsir in ,bikner1
 which is called after him1 and the ,jts
 used  to esteem him highly until1 as   
,col4 ,tod #dce says1 ,the ,bona ,dea   
assumed the shape of a ,jtn1 to whom in 
the name of ,kiran ,mt1  ',our ,mother  
of the ray1' all bend the head4 ,another
 legend fixes  his tomb at ,girr1 in the
 ,wrdha ,district of the ,central       
,provinces4    ,the zeolitic concretions
 of the ,girr hill are accounted for as 
the  petrified cocoanuts and other      

articles of merchandise belonging to    
two travelling dealers who mocked the   
saint1 on which he turned their  whole  
stock-in-trade into stones as a         
punishment4 ,they implored his  pardon1 
and he created a fresh supply for them  
from dry leaves1 on  which they were so 
struck by his power that they attached  
themselves  to his service till they    
died4 #dcf    ,in the ,western districts
 of the ,north-,western ,provinces the  
first-fruits of the sugar-cane crop are 
dedicated to him4    ,he was a thrifty  
saint1 and for the last thirty years of 
his life he  supported himself by       
holding to his stomach wooden cakes and 
fruits  whenever he felt hungry4 ,in    
this he resembled ,qutb-ud-,dn ,ushi1   
who  was able by a miracle to produce   
cakes for the support of his family  and
 himself4 #dcg        ,minor ,saints4   
,of the minor saints the number is      
legion1 and only a few instances  can be
 given4 ,at ,makanpur in the ,cawnpur   
,district is the tomb of ,zinda  ,shh   

,madr1 who gives his name to the class  
of ,musalmn ,faqrs1 known  as ,madri4   
,he is said to have been a native of    
,halab or ,aleppo1 and to  have come to 
this place in #adae ,a4,d41 when he     
expelled a famous demon  named ,makan   
,deo1 after whom the place was named4   
,low class ,hindus and  ,musalmns       
worship him because he is supposed to   
save them from snakes  and scorpions1   
and the ,kahr bearers1 as they go       
through jungle at  night1 call out ,dam 
,madr6 ,the saint is said to have had   
the power  of restraining his breath1   
whence his name4 ,in the holy of holies 
of his shrine no woman is allowed to    
enter1 no lights are lighted1  no hymns 
are chanted and no food is cooked4      
',abdul ,qdir ,jilni1 who is said to    
take his name from ,jil1 a  village near
 ,bghdd1 is another noted saint4 ,he is 
also known as  ,pr-i-,dastgr1           
,pr-i-',azam1 ,ghaus-ul-',azam1 and was 
born in #ajgh ,a4,d41  and died at      
,bghdd4 ,some say that he is identical  

with ,mrn ,shib1  who is worshipped all 
over ,northern ,india4 ,he is said to   
have been a  magician1 and to have      
subdued to his service a ,jinn named    
,zain ,khn1  whom he treated with great 
cruelty4 ,one day the ,jinn surprised   
his  master in a state of uncleanness   
and slew him1 but even then he was      
unable to escape from the influence of  
this arch-magician1 who rules  him in   
the world of spirits4 ,mrn ,shib is said
 to be buried at  ,ajmer1 but he has    
,darghs at ,amroha1 in the ,mordbd      
,district1 at  ,benares and at ,bndi4   
,by another account the tomb at ,amroha 
is that  of ,shaikh ,saddu or           
,sadr-ud-dn1 who was once a crier of the
 mosque1  and near his are pointed out  
the tombs of his mother ,ghziy or ,as   
and of ,zain ,khn1 the ,jinn4 ,the saint
 of ,jalesar1 ,hazrat ,pr ,zari1  is    
also known as ,mrn ,shib1 and he is by  
some identified with the  ,amroha       
worthy4 ,in ,karnl he is said to have   
led the ,sayyid army against  the ,rja  

of ,tharwa1 and had his head carried off
 by a cannon ball  during the battle4   
,he did not mind this1 and went on      
fighting4 ,then a  woman in one of the  
,rja's villages said--,who is fighting  
without his  head8 upon which the body  
said--,haq6 ,haq6 ,the ,lord6 the ,lord6
 and  fell down dead1 calling           
out--,what8 ,are not these villages     
upside down  yet8 upon which every      
village in the ,rja's territory was     
turned  upside down and everyone killed 
except a ,brhman girl1 the paramour  of 
the ,rja4 ,their ruins remain to        
authenticate the story4 ,now the  saint 
and his sister's son1 ,sayyid ,kabr1 are
 jointly worshipped4 ,we  shall meet    
this headless hero again in the case of 
the ,dnd1 and it  will be remembered    
that a similar legend is told of ,ghzi  
,miyn4        ,villages ,overturned4    
,of these villages which were overturned
 by a curse we have many  examples all  
over the country4 ,the ruins at ,bakhira
 ,dih in ,basti  are said to have been a

 great city which was overthrown because
 a  ,rja seduced a ,brhman girl4 ,at    
,batesar in ,agra is the ,aundha ,khera1
  which records a similar catastrophe4  
,so ,bngarmau in ,uno is called  the    
,lauta ,shahr or overthrown city1       
because ,mrn ,shib destroyed  it to     
punish the curiosity of the ,rja who    
wanted to know why the  robes of the    
saint which a washerman was washing gave
 forth a divine  perfume4 ,so the town  
of ,kko was overwhelmed by the saint ,bb
 ,kamlo  because the ,buddhist ,rja gave
 her a dish cooked of the flesh of rats1
  which came to life when she touched   
them4 ,at ,besnagar in ,bhopl the  king 
and his subjects clung to a heavenly    
chariot and were carried  to the skies  
and their city was overthrown1 and the  
saint ,qutb ,shh  overturned the city of
 ,sunit because the ,rja used to kill a 
child  daily to cure an ulcer with which
 he was afflicted4 #dch    ,ab ',ali    
,qalandar is hardly known beyond the    
,panjb4 ,he came from  ,persia and died 

at ,pnipat in #acbd ,a4,d4 ,he is       
usually known as ,b ',ali  ,qalandar1   
and it is said that he used to ride     
about on a wall4 ,he  prayed so         
constantly that it was laborious to get 
water for his  ablutions each time2 so  
he stood in the ,jumn1 which then ran   
past  the town4 ,after standing there   
seven years the fishes had gnawed his   
legs and he was so stiff that he could  
hardly move1 so he asked the  ,jumn to  
step back seven paces4 ,she1 in her     
hurry to oblige the saint1  went back   
seven ,kos or ten miles1 and there she  
is now4 #dci    ,many other saints are  
said to have had similar power over     
rivers4 ,so  recently as #ahfe ,a4,d41 a
 miraculous bridge of sand was built    
over  the ,jumn at ,karnl by the prayer 
of a ,faqr1 of such rare virtue  that   
lepers passing over and bathing at both 
ends were cured2 but the  people say    
that the bridge had got lost when they  
came there4 #ddj  ,it was only the      
prayers of the saint ,fard-ud-din       

,shakkarganj which  stopped the westward
 movement of the ,satlaj1 and the       
intercession of  a holy ,rishi changed  
the course of the river at ,bgheswar4   
#dda    ,b ',ali gave the ,pnipat people
 a charm which dispelled all the flies  
from the town1 but they grumbled and    
said that they rather liked  flies2 so  
he brought them back a thousandfold4 ,he
 was buried first at  ,karnl1 but the   
,pnipat people claimed his body1 and    
opened his grave1  whereupon he sat up  
and looked at them till they became     
ashamed4 ,they  then took away some     
bricks for the foundation of a shrine2  
but when  they got to ,pnipat and opened
 the box1 they found his body in it2  so
 he is now buried in both places1 and   
there is a shrine erected  over the     
place where he used to ride on the wall4
        ,malmat ,shh4    ,malmat ,shh is
 treated with much respect in ,brabanki4
 ,the disciple in  charge of his tomb   
calls the jackals with a peculiar cry at
 dusk4 ,they  devour what is left of the

 offerings1 but will only touch such    
things  as are given with a sincere mind
 and not to be seen of men4 ,a religious
  tiger is also said to come over from  
,bahrich and pay an annual visit  to the
 shrine4 #ddb        ,miyn ,ahmad4      
,at ,qasr is the tomb of the saint ,miyn
 ,ahmad ,khn ,darvesh1 on which  the    
attendants place a number of small      
pebbles4 ,these are called  ,ahmad      
,khn's lions1 and are sold to people who
 tie them round the  necks of children  
troubled in their sleep4 #ddc           
,shaikh ,sadd4    ,shaikh ,sadd has been
 mentioned in another connection4 ,his  
visitations  cause melancholy and       
hypochondria4 ,he is exorcised by the   
distribution  of sweets to the poor and 
the sacrifice of a black goat4 ,he once 
found  a magic lamp1 like that of       
,aluddin1 the powers of which he abused1
  and was torn to pieces by the ,jinn4  
#ddd    ,the list of these worthies is  
immense4 ,we can only mention in passing
  ,shh ,abdul ,ghafr1 commonly known as 

,bba ,kapr1 a disciple of ,shh  ,madr1  
whose shrine is in ,gwlyr2 ,mr ,abdul   
',ala1 the ,nakhshbandi who  is buried  
at ,agra2 ,sultn ,bayazd1 who kindled a 
lamp which lighted  the world for one   
hundred and twenty miles1 and thus drove
 the ,jinn  from ,chatgnw in ,bengal1   
where he is worshipped2 ,shaikh ,kabr1  
known  as ,bla ,pr1 the son of ,shh     
,qsim ,sulaimni of ,chunr1 whose shrine 
is at ,kanauj2 ,shaikh ,muhammad ,ghaus 
of ,gwliyr2 and ,sidi ,maula1 who       
possessed the power of transmuting      
metals into gold4 ,lastly comes  ,shh   
,daula1 whose shrine is at ,gujart in   
the ,panjb4 ,his priest  is able to     
confer offspring on childless people on 
condition that  they dedicate the first 
child to the saint1 and this child is   
then  born with the head of a rat4 ,some
 wretched imbeciles with rat-like       
features are found at his tomb4 #dde    
,these wonder-working shrines belong to 
,hindu as well as ,musalmn  saints4 ,in 
the ,etah ,district is the tomb of      

,kalyn ,bhrati1 a  ,hindu ascetic4 ,he  
was buried alive at his own request     
about four  hundred years ago4 ,before  
his death he announced that exactly six 
months after he was dead the arch of his
 tomb would crack1 and so  it happened4 
,now a mound of earth in the centre is  
supposed to mark  the head of the saint4
 ,the virtue of his shrine is such that 
if any  one take a false oath within its
 precincts he will die at once4 ,the    
tomb is hence largely used for the      
settlement of disputes1 and many  a     
wearied district officer longs that     
there were more such places  throughout 
the land4        ,shrines ,which ,cure  
,disease4    ,many of these local       
shrines owe their reputation to         
notorious cures1  which have been       
performed by the intervention of the    
local saint4 ,at  ,chhattarpur is the   
shrine of ,rkhar ,bba1 an ascetic of the
 ,gusn  class1 who has the power of     
removing fever and ague1 and hence among
  the many tombs of his brethren his is 

kept clean and white-washed1  while the 
others are neglected4 #ddf ,a shrine in 
,berr is noted for  its power in cases  
of snake-bite and scrofula4 ,a large    
two-storied  gate of its enclosure owes 
its erection to the gratitude of a      
wealthy  tailor1 who was cured of sore  
disease of the loins4 #ddg ,recently at 
the shrine of the saint of ,fatehpur in 
the ,sahranpur ,district1 the  ,faqr in 
charge informed me that when the people 
bring sick children  to him1 he pulls   
off a leaf from the tree overhanging the
 tomb1 blows  upon it1 and says to the  
disease1 ,begone1 you rascal6 and the   
child  is cured4 ,at the tomb of ,pr    
,jahniyn in the ,muzaffargarh ,district1
  people suffering from leprosy and     
boils get the incumbent to prepare      
baths of heated sand1 in which the      
diseased part1 or the whole body  is    
placed4 ,the efficacy of the remedy is  
ascribed to the thaumaturgic  power of  
the saint4 #ddh ,the tomb of ,makhdm    
,shib in the ,faizbd  ,district is      

famous for the exorcism of evil spirits1
 a reputation  which it shares with the 
shrine of ,bairm at ,bidauli in         
,muzaffarnagar1  and that of ,bb ,kamlo 
at ,kko1 half-way between ,gaya and     
,patna4 #ddi    ,so1 in ,bengal1 the    
chief disease shrines are those of      
,tarakeswara in  ,hughli1 sacred to     
,mahdeva1 of ,vaidyantha in the ,santl  
,parganas1  and ,gondalpra in ,hughli1  
famous in cases of hydrophobia4 ,the    
device  followed at the last place is   
for the bitten person1 after fasting1   
to defray the expense of a special      
service1 and to receive a piece of      
broad cloth impregnated with the snuff  
of a lamp-wick1 and secreted  in the    
heart of a plantain4 ,as long as this   
charm is preserved and the  patient     
abstains from eating of this variety of 
plantain1 the effects  of the bite are  
warded off4 ,another plan is for the    
patient to take  a secret medicine1     
probably cantharides1 pounded with      
twenty-one  pepper-corns1 before the    

twenty-first day4 ,this causes the      
patient  to throw off some mucus1 known 
as 'the dog's whelp1' and this leads  to
 cure4 #dej    ,in the ,partbgarh       
,district are to be seen here and there 
strange-looking brick-built erections   
called ,kkar ,deora or dogs'  house1 in 
the shape of cupolas or pyramids4 ,some 
of them are supposed  to be the treasure
 houses of the ancient races4 ,if a man 
walks round  one of these seven times   
and then looks in at the door1 he will  
be  cured from the bite of a mad dog4   
#dea        ,sayyid ,ysuf4    ,dr4      
,buchanan gives a case at ,patna of a   
certain ,sayyid ,ysuf1 who  manifested  
himself to a poor blind weaver and told 
him that he would  recover his sight    
next day4 ,at the same time the saint   
ordered his  patient to search for his  
tomb and proclaim its virtues4 ,the     
weaver1  on recovering his sight1 did   
not fail to obey the orders of his      
benefactor1 and he and his descendants  
have since then lived on the            

contributions of the faithful1 though   
the tomb is a mere heap of clay  and has
 no endowment4 #deb    ,the tomb at     
,faizbd known as ,fazl-ul-haqq1 or      
,grace of ,god1 brings  good luck if    
sweetmeats are offered every ,thursday1 
and another1 called  ',ilm ,bakhsh1 or  
,wisdom-giver1 causes boys who are taken
 there to  learn their lessons quickly4 
#dec ,the same result may be secured by 
a charm which is found in the           
,samavidhana ,brhmana--,after a fast of 
three nights1 take a plant of ,soma1    
recite a certain formula and eat  of the
 plant a thousand times1 you will be    
able to repeat anything  after hearing  
it once4        ,wonder-working ,tombs4 
,there are other tombs which present    
special peculiarities4 ,thus1  not long 
since crowds of people assembled at     
,khetwadi1 in ,bombay1  to see a shrine 
erected by some sweepers to ,zhir ,pr1  
which at  intervals seemed to oscillate 
from its foundations4 ,at ,anjar in     
,sindh are the tombs of a noted outlaw  

named ,jaisar ,pr and his wife  ,tur    
,khatrn1 who were originally buried     
apart1 but their tombs  are gradually   
approaching1 and it is believed that at 
their meeting  the world will be        
destroyed4 ,so there is a wall at       
,gurdspur which  a ,faqr saw being      
built1 and asked the master-mason if he 
considered  it to be firm4 ,the mason   
said that he believed it to be          
substantial1  whereupon the holy man    
touched it and made it shake1 and it has
 gone  on shaking ever since4 ,at       
,faizbd is the tomb of a saint1 and some
  time ago the metal top of one of the  
pinnacles took to shaking1 and  the     
weaver population were so impressed that
 they levied a tax on the  community for
 its repair4 ,at ,jhanjhna is the tomb  
of ,sayyid ,mahmd1  who was buried next 
to one of his disciples4 ,but the latter
 is too  modest to place himself on an  
equality with his master1 so his tomb1  
however much it is repaired1 always     
sinks to a lower level than that  of his

 preceptor4 ,at ,brabanki is the tomb of
 the saint ,shaikh ,ahmad  ,abdul-haq1  
who thought he could acquire some useful
 information by  keeping company with   
the dead4 ,so he got himself buried     
alive1 and  after six months his grave  
opened of its own accord and he was     
taken  out half dead4        ,the       
,nine-yard ,tombs4    ,there is another 
class of tombs which are known as the   
,naugaza or  ,naugaja1 that is to say   
tombs nine yards long4 ,in these rest   
the  giants of the older world4 ,there  
is one of these tombs at ,ngaur in      
,rjputna1 and several others have been  
discovered in the course of the         
,archological ,survey4 #ded ,five of    
them at ,vijhi measure respectively     
#bi1 #ca1 #cj and #ch feet4 ,mr4 ,w4    
,simpson calls these tombs ,buddhistic1 
but this is very doubtful4 #dee ,the    
belief largely prevails among           
,muhammadans that there were giants in  
the early times4 ,adam himself  is said 
to have been sixty yards in height1 and 

there was a monster  called ',uj in the 
days of ,adam1 and the flood of ,noah   
reached only  to his waist4 ,there is a 
tomb of ,noah at ,faizbd which is said  
to  have been built by ,alexander the   
,great1 and not far off are those of    
,seth and ,job4 ,the latter1 curiously  
enough1 are gradually growing in  size4 
,they are now #ag and #ab feet long     
respectively1 but when ,abul  ,fazl     
wrote they were only #aj-a_/b and #i    
feet long4 #def        ,shrines with    
,images or ,relics4    ,the reputation1 
again1 of many shrines rests on the     
assumed discovery1  generally by means  
of a dream1 that an ancient image or the
 bones of  a martyr were buried on the  
spot1 and in their honour a shrine was  
established4 ,thus1 the great temple at 
,bandakpur in the ,damoh ,district  owes
 its origin to the fact that a ,pandit  
in #agha ,a4,d4 dreamed a  dream1 that  
in a certain spot lay buried in the     
earth an image of  ,jagswar ,mahdeva1   
and that if he built a suitable temple  

over the  place indicated1 the image    
would make its appearance4 ,on the      
strength  of this dream the ,pandit     
built a temple1 and it is asserted that 
in due course of time the image         
developed itself without the aid  of    
man4 #deg ,so1 the ,bhairava temple on  
the ,langr peak owes its  establishment 
to a cowherd having found on the spot a 
yellow-coloured  stick1 which on his    
attempting to cut it with an axe1 poured
 out  drops of blood4 ,frightened at the
 sight1 the cowherd fled1 only to  be   
visited at night by the god in his      
terrible form1 who commanded  him to set
 up his shrine here4 ,a similar legend  
is attached to the  ,nryana image in    
,nepl4 #deh ,the celebrated shrine of   
,hanumn at  ,beguthiya was discovered by
 a wandering ascetic1 #dei and a ,gjar  
cowboy is said not very long ago to have
 found in one of the ,sahranpur  jungles
 the image of the goddess ,skambar ,dev1
 which now attracts  large numbers of   
worshippers4 ,the ,mahrja of ,balrmpur  

some time ago  noticed a rude shrine of 
,bijleswar ,dev1 the goddess of         
lightning1  and remarked that he would  
build a handsome temple in honour of    
her1  were it not for the sacred banyan 
tree which shaded it and prevented  the 
erection of the spire to the proper     
height4 ,that very night the  tree was  
uprooted by a hurricane1 and a handsome 
temple was erected1  this manifestation 
of her power having made the goddess    
more popular  than ever4 #dfj           
,mistakes are1 however1 sometimes made4 
,this was the case some time  ago at    
,ajudhya1 where certain images were     
discovered and worshipped1  until a     
learned ,pandit ascertained that they   
were actually the deities  of the       
aboriginal ,bhars1 who used to sacrifice
 ,brhmans to them4 ,they  were really   
,jaina images1 but it is needless to say
 that their worship  was immediately    
abandoned4 #dfa    ,as is only natural1 
shrines which have been discovered in   
this way at  the outset rest under a    

certain degree of suspicion1 and have to
 make  their reputation by works of     
healing and similar miracles4 ,if they  
fail to do so they sink into disrepute4 
,such was the case with a very          
promising shrine1 supposed to be that of
 the saint ,ashraf ',ali1 whose  bones  
were found accidentally not long ago at 
,ahraura in the ,mirzapur  ,district4   
,it enjoyed considerable reputation for 
a time1 but failing  to maintain its    
character1 was finally discredited and  
abandoned4    ,continuous respect is    
naturally accorded to ancient saints and
 local  godlings1 who have long since   
established their claim to recognition  
by a series of exhibitions of their     
thaumaturgic virtues4 ,but the          
competition is so keen and the pecuniary
 value of a successful  institution of  
this kind so considerable1 that the     
claims of any  interloper must be well  
tested and approved before it           
establishes  its position and succeeds  
in attracting pilgrims4        ,the     

,curing of ,barrenness4    ,barrenness  
is in popular belief mainly due to the  
agency of evil  spirits4 ,sterile women 
were in ,rome beaten with rods by the   
naked  youths who ran through the city  
at the ,lupercalia4 ,the barren1  as    
,shakespeare says1 ,touched by this holy
 chase1 shake off their  sterile curse4 
,in ,bombay it is believed that the     
cause of not  getting children is that  
the man or his wife must have killed a  
serpent in their former birth1 whose    
spirit haunts them and makes the  woman 
barren4 ,to get rid of the spirit which 
causes sterility1 the  serpent's image  
is burnt and its funeral rites are      
performed4 #dfb  ,the desire for male   
offspring is so intense that some of    
these shrines  do a thriving trade in   
providing nostrums for this purpose4    
,one extraordinary method of procuring  
children1 which long troubled  our      
magistrates in ,upper ,india1 was for   
the would-be mother to burn  down the   
hut of some neighbour4 ,the ,panjbi     

woman1 who under the reign  of ,british 
law is prevented from burning the house 
of her neighbour1  now takes a little   
grass from seven thatches and burns it4 
#dfc    ,in another form of the charm   
the ,khndh priest takes the woman to    
the confluence of two streams1 sprinkles
 water over her to purify her  from the 
dangerous influence of the spirit and   
makes an offering to  the god of births4
    ,some special influence has been in 
many lands considered to attach  to a   
person who has been publicly executed1  
and to the appliances  used by the      
hangman4    ,recently at an execution in
 ,bombay1 the hangman was observed to   
carefully secure the rope1 and          
particularly that part of it which had  
encircled the neck of the culprit4 ,he  
stated that he could sell every  quarter
 inch of it1 as it averted evil spirits 
and ghosts1 and even  prevented death   
from hanging4 ,this idea accounts for   
the respect paid  throughout ,europe to 
the mandrake1 which is supposed to be   

generated  from the droppings of the    
brain of a thief on the gallows4 ,in    
,cornwall  a wen or strumous swelling   
can be cured by touching it with the    
hand  of a man who has been publicly    
hanged4 #dfd ,according to the same     
principle1 barren women in ,india bathe 
underneath a person who has  been       
hanged1 and women of the middle classes 
try to obtain a piece  of the wood of   
the gallows for the same object4        
,another practice depends upon the      
principle that creeping under  a bent   
tree or through a perforated stone      
expels the demon4 ,other  instances of  
this will be given in another place4    
,hence in ,gujart1  when an ascetic of  
the ,dndiya sect dies1 women who seek   
the blessing  of a son try to secure it 
by creeping under the litter on which   
his  corpse is removed4 #dfe    ,a rite 
carried out with the same object rests  
on a sort of symbolic  magic indicating 
fertility4 ,along the roads may often be
 seen trees  almost destroyed by a      

noxious creeper known as the ,aksh ,bel4
 ,women  in hope of offspring often     
transplant this from one tree to        
another1  and are thus a decided        
nuisance to a district officer with a   
taste  for arboriculture4    ,but the   
most approved plan is to visit a shrine 
with a reputation for  healing this     
class of malady4 ,there the patient is  
given a cocoanut1  which is a magic     
substance1 a fruit1 or even a           
barley-corn from the  holy of holies4   
,mr4 ,hartland has recently made an     
elaborate study of  this subject1 and he
 points out the principle on which the  
eating of  such substances produced the 
desired effect4 ,whether from an analogy
  between the normal act of impregnation
 and that of eating and drinking1  or   
because savages had learnt that at least
 one mode of operating  effectively on  
the organism1 for purposes alike of     
injury and healing1  was by drugs taken 
through the mouth1 this was the         
favourite method  of supernatural       

impregnation4    ,and again--,flowers1  
fruit and other vegetables1 eggs1       
fishes1  spiders1 worms1 and even       
stones1 are all capable of becoming     
human  beings4 ,they only await         
absorption in the shape of food1 or in  
some  other appropriate manner1 into the
 body of a woman1 to enable the         
metamorphosis to be accomplished4 #dff  
,the same idea constantly occurs in     
,indian folk-lore4 ,the barren queen  is
 given the juice of a pomegranate by a  
,faqr1 or the king plucks one  of the   
seven mangoes which grow on a special   
tree1 or a beggar gives  the princess   
the drug which causes her to give birth 
to twins4 #dfg  ,even in the ,rmyana we 
read that ,rja ,dasaratha divides the   
oblation  among his wives and they      
conceive4 ,even nowadays in ,florence1  
if a  woman wishes to be with child1 she
 goes to a priest and gets from  him an 
enchanted apple1 with which she repairs 
to ,saint ,anna1 who  was the ,lucina of
 ,roman times1 and repeats a prayer or a

 spell4 #dfh    ,some holy men1 it must 
be admitted1 do not escape the tongue of
  slander for their doings in this      
department of their business4           
,harmless ,saints and ,godlings4        
,most of these saints and godlings whom 
we have been considering1 are           
comparatively harmless1 and even        
benevolent4 ,such is nearly always  the 
case with the ghosts of the ,european   
dead1 who are constantly  deified4      
,perhaps because the ,shib is such a    
curiously incomprehensible  personage to
 the rustic1 he is believed to retain   
his powers in the  other world4 ,but it 
is a remarkable and unconscious tribute 
to the  foreign ruler that his ghost    
should be beneficent4    ,the gardener  
in charge of the station cemetery in    
,mirzapur some time  ago informed me    
that he constantly sees the ghosts of   
the ladies and  gentlemen buried there  
coming out for a walk in the hot summer 
nights1  and that they never harm him4  
,but with ordinary graves it is         

necessary to be cautious4 ,as appears   
in the cycle of tales which turn on the 
magic ointment which enables  the       
possessor to see the beings of the other
 world1 spirits hate being  watched4    
,the spirit1 for instance1 often        
announces its wishes4 ,when  the        
,emperor ,tughlaq began to build the    
tomb of the ,saint ,bahwal  ,haq1 a     
voice was heard from below1 saying1 ,you
 are treading on my  body4 ,another site
 was chosen at a short distance1 and the
 voice  said1 ,you are treading on my   
knees4 ,he went a little further1  and  
the voice said1 ,you are treading on my 
toes4 ,so he had to go  to the other end
 of the fort1 and as the voice was not  
heard there1  the tomb was built4 ,if   
you visit an old tomb1 it is well to    
clap  your hands1 as the ghost sometimes
 revisits its resting-place1 and  if    
discovered in dshabille1 is likely to   
resent the intrusion in a  very         
disagreeable manner4 ,so it is very     
dangerous to pollute a tomb  or insult  

its occupant in any way1 and instances  
have occurred of  cases of epilepsy and 
hysteria1 which were attributed to the  
neglect  of these precautions4    ,thus1
 there is nothing permanent1 no         
established rule of faith in the        
popular belief of the rustic4           
,discredited saints and shrines are     
always  passing into contempt and       
oblivion2 new worthies are being        
constantly  canonized4 ,the worst part  
of the matter is that there is no       
official  controller of the right to    
deification1 no ,advocatus ,diaboli to  
dispute  the claims of the candidate to 
celestial honours4 ,at the same time the
  system1 though often discredited by   
fraud1 admirably illustrates the        
elastic character of the popular creed4 
,hinduism would hardly be so  congenial 
to the minds of the masses1 if some     
rigid supervising agency  disputed the  
right of any tribe to worship its hero1 
of any village  to canonize its local   
worthy4 ,the steady popularity of the   

system1  for the present at least1 shows
 that it satisfactorily provides for    
the religious wants of the people4      
,,chapter ,v4    ,,worship ,,of ,,the   
,,malevolent ,,dead4                    
,prt de psych ,elpnoros lthen etairou1  
,ou gar p etethapto hypo chthonos       
euryodeis4                              
,odyssey1 xi4 #ea1 #eb4      ,these     
deified ghosts and saints whom we have  
been discussing1 though  occasionally   
touchy and sensitive to insult or       
disrespect1 are1 as  a rule1 benevolent4
 ,but there is another class of beings  
at whose  feet the rustic lies in       
grievous and perpetual bondage4 ,these  
are  the malevolent dead4               
,spirits of the ,dead ,hostile4    ,it  
is not difficult to understand why the  
spirits of the dead should  be regarded 
as hostile4 ,a stranger is1 in the      
belief of all primitive  people1        
synonymous with an enemy2 and the spirit
 of the departed  having abandoned his  
own and joined some other and invisible 

tribe1  whose domains lie outside the   
world of sense1 is sure to be considered
  inimical to the survivors left on     
earth4 ,as we have already seen1 even   
the usually kindly spirit of the        
departed household dead requires        
propitiation and resents neglect2 much  
more those of a different  tribe or     
family4    ,again1 those disembodied    
souls in particular whose departure from
 the  earth occurred under unexpected or
 specially tragical circumstances  are  
naturally considered to have been       
ejected against their will  from their  
tenement of clay1 and as for many of    
them the proper  funeral rites have not 
been performed1 they carry with them to 
the  next world an angry longing for    
revenge4 ,as ,brand1 writing of ,british
  ghosts1 says1 ,the ghosts of murdered 
persons1 whose bodies have been         
secretly buried1 are restless until     
their bones have been taken up  and     
deposited in consecrated ground with the
 due rites of ,christian  burial2 this  

idea being the survival of the old      
heathen superstition  that ,charon was  
not allowed to ferry over the ghosts of 
the unburied1  but that they wandered up
 and down the banks of the river ,styx  
for  a period of a hundred years1 at the
 expiration of which they were  admitted
 to a passage4 #dfi    ,this conception 
of the state of the soul after death may
 be illustrated  by the savage theory of
 dreams4        ,savage ,theory of      
,dreams4    ,many savages believe that  
the evidence of dreams is sufficient to 
prove that the soul moves about during  
sleep1 and that the dream is  the record
 of its experiences in hunting1 dancing1
 visiting friends1  and so on4          
,the ,separable ,soul4    ,hence arises 
the possibility that in the temporary   
absence of a man's  soul his body may be
 occupied by some other person's spirit1
 or even by  a malignant ghost or demon4
 ,in the ,panchatantra there is a story 
of a  king who lost his own soul1 but   
afterwards recovered it4 ,a ,panjb tale 

tells how a ,hindu was once asleep and  
his soul went on its travels as  usual4 
,during its wanderings it felt thirsty  
and went into a pitcher of  water to    
drink4 ,while it was in the pitcher some
 one shut the lid1 and  it was          
imprisoned4 ,his friends took the corpse
 to the cremation ground1  but some one 
happened fortunately to open the pitcher
 just in time1  and the spirit flew into
 its own body1 which awoke on the bier4 
#dgj  ,in the same way1 according to    
,apollonius1 the soul of ,hermotimos of 
,klazomenoe left his body frequently1   
resided in different places1  uttered   
all sorts of predictions1 and used to   
come back to his body1  which remained  
in his house4 ,at last some spiteful    
persons burnt  his body in the absence  
of his soul4 ,in another tale of        
,somadeva the  soul of ,chandraprabha   
abandons his own body and enters that of
 a hero  under the influence of ,my or  
delusion4 #dga    ,on this principle    
,hindus are very cautious about awaking 

a sleeping  friend1 lest his soul may   
happen to be absent at the time1 and in 
,bombay it is considered most           
reprehensible to play jokes on a        
sleeping  person1 such as painting the  
face in fantastic colours1 or giving    
moustaches to a sleeping woman4 ,the    
absent soul may not be able to  find its
 own body1 the appearance of which has  
been thus changed1  and may depart      
altogether1 leaving the body a corpse4  
,it is a common incident of the         
folk-tales that the soul departs  in a  
dream and falls in love with a girl4 ,we
 have it in the common  tale of the     
,rival ,queens1 where the king sees in a
 dream the most  lovely woman in the    
world1 and imposes on his courtiers the 
task of  finding her4 ,the same idea is 
found more or less in ,somadeva1 and    
constantly recurs in ,european          
folk-lore4 #dgb ,in the same way we have
  the well-known tale of the            
instantaneous lapse of time in dreams1  
as that of the king who plunges his head

 into water1 goes through  wondrous     
adventures1 and when he takes his head  
out of the vessel1  finds himself       
surrounded by his courtiers as before4  
,the rustic ,hindu firmly believes that 
in the absence of a man's proper  soul  
in a dream his body is occupied by some 
strange and consequently  malignant     
ghost4 ,hence come the nightmare and    
evil dreams4 ,thus the  ,korwas of      
,mirzapur believe that a ,bhtin or      
dangerous female ghost  named ,reiy     
besets them at night under the orders of
 some witch1 and  attacks people's      
joints with the rheumatism4 ,the        
,majhwrs believe that  the ,rkshasa     
attacks them in dreams4 ,he comes in the
 shape of an old  man with enormous     
teeth1 brown of colour1 with black1     
entangled hair1  and sometimes swallows 
his victims4 ,it is fear of him that    
brings the  fever1 and he can be        
exorcised only by the ,baiga with an    
offering  of rice and pulse4 ,the ,dno  
also comes in dreams1 squeezes a man's  

throat1 and stops his breath4 ,the      
,bhuiyrs have adopted from the  ,hindu  
mythology ,jam or ,yama as one of their 
dream ghosts4 ,he sits  on his victim's 
breast in sleep1 and it is impossible to
 shake him  off or make an alarm4       
,sometimes these night ghosts come as   
tigers1  wolves1 or bears1 and hunt a   
man down in his sleep4    ,on the same  
principle the shadow of a man is        
believed to be part of  a man's soul1   
and may be separated from him1 injured  
or wounded by  an enemy4 ,hence it is   
considered dangerous to tread on the    
shadow of  a man in the sunshine4       
,buddha is said to have left his shadow 
in the  cave at ,pabhosa1 where he      
killed the ,nga4 #dgc    ,the same is   
the case with looking into other        
people's mirrors1 because  you may      
chance leave behind your reflection1    
which is part of your  soul4 ,as we have
 seen1 this is the basis of much of the 
theory of water  spirits1 which lurk in 
water holes and seize the reflection of 

anyone  who looks into them4 ,the ,sunni
 ,muhammadans in ,bombay cover up all   
the  looking-glasses in a house when a  
person is sick1 as the soul1 which is   
just then on the prowl1 may be absorbed1
 and leave its owner a corpse4          
,lastly1 the same theory accounts for   
the disinclination which rustics  have  
to being painted or photographed4 ,some 
of the soul goes out in  the image and  
does not return4 ,there is a rest-house 
on the ,asthbhuja  ,hill at ,mirzapur   
which was many years ago presented to   
the ,europeans  of the station by a     
wealthy banker4 ,he was overpersuaded to
 allow  his picture to be painted1 and  
fell into a lingering consumption1  of  
which he soon after died4        ,the   
,bht4    ,the general term for these    
spirits is ,bht1 in ,sanskrit ,bhta1    
which  means formed or created4 ,in the 
earlier ,hindu writings the word  is    
applied to the powers of ,nature1 and   
even to deities4 ,siva himself  is      
called ,bhtsvara1 or ,lord of spirits1  

and1 under the name of  ,bhtsvara       
,mahdeva1 has a shrine at ,mathura4 ,but
 as the ,greek ,dmon  acquired a less   
respectable meaning in the later ages of
 the history  of the nation1 so ,bht has
 now come to imply a malignant evil     
spirit4    ,but ,bht is a general term  
which includes many grades of evil      
spirits  which it is necessary to       
distinguish4 ,we shall first1 however1  
deal  with certain characters common to 
,bhts in general4    ,the proper ,bht is
 the spirit emanating from a man who has
 died a  violent death1 either by       
accident1 suicide1 or capital           
punishment4 ,such  a soul reaches an    
additional grade of malignancy if he has
 been  denied proper funeral ceremonies 
after death4 ,this is one of his        
special wants which deprive the spirit  
of his longed-for rest4 ,thus1  we read 
in ,childe ,harold1 ,unsepulchred they  
roamed and shrieked1  each wandering    
ghost4 ,the shade of ,patroclus appeared
 to ,achilles  in his sleep and demanded

 the performance of his funeral1 and the
  younger ,pliny tells of a haunted     
house in ,athens1 in which a ghost      
played all kinds of pranks owing to his 
funeral rites having been  neglected4   
,this idea is at the base of the ,hindu 
funeral ceremonies1  and of the         
periodical ,srddha4 ,hence arose the    
conception of the ,gayl1  or sonless    
ghost4 ,he is the spirit of a man who   
has died without any  issue competent to
 perform the customary rites2 hence he  
is spiteful1  and he is especially      
obnoxious to the lives of the young sons
 of  other people4 ,accordingly in every
 ,panjb village will be seen small      
platforms1 with rows of little          
hemispherical depressions into which    
milk and ,ganges water are poured1 and  
by which lamps are lit and  ,brhmans fed
 to conciliate the ,gayl2 while the     
careful mother will  always dedicate a  
rupee to him1 and hang it round her     
child's neck  till he grows up4 ,mr4    
,ibbetson #dgd suggests that this may   

have  been the origin of the mysterious 
so-called cup-marks1 described  by ,mr4 
,rivett-,carnac4 ,but this is far from  
certain2 they may equally  well have    
been used for sacrifices to ,mother     
,earth1 or in any other  primeval form  
of worship4        ,shrines to ,persons 
,accidentally ,killed4    ,many of these
 shrines to persons who have died by an 
untimely death  are known by special    
names1 which indicate the character of  
the  accident4 ,we shall meet again with
 the ,baghaut1 or shrine1 to a man      
killed by a tiger4 ,we have also        
,bijaliya ,br1 the man who was killed   
by lightning1 ,tr ,br1 a man who fell   
from a ,tr or toddy tree1 and  ,ngiya   
,br1 a person killed by a snake4        
,general ,cunningham mentions  shrines  
of this kind2 one to an elephant driver 
who was killed by  a fall from a tree1  
another to a ,brhman who was killed by a
 cow1 a  third to a ,kashmri lady who   
had only one leg and died in her flight 
from ,delhi to ,oudh of exhaustion on   

the journey4    ,bhts are most to be    
feared by women and children1 and by    
people at any  serious crisis of their  
lives1 such as marriage or child-birth4 
,they  also attack people after eating  
sweets1 so that if you treat a  school  
to sweetmeats1 the sweetmeat seller will
 also bring salt1 of  which he will give
 a pinch to each boy to take the sweet  
taste out  of his mouth4 #dge ,salt is1 
as we shall see later on1 particularly  
offensive to evil spirits4 #dgf         
,second ,marriage and ,bhts4    ,women  
who have married a second time are      
specially liable to the  envious attacks
 of the first husband4 ,if in ,bombay a 
,mahdeo  ,koli widow bride or her       
husband sicken1 it is considered the    
work  of the former husband4 ,among the 
,somavansi ,kshatriyas1 there is a      
strong belief that when a woman marries 
another husband1 her first  husband     
becomes a ghost and troubles her4 ,this 
fear is so strongly  rooted in their    
minds1 that whenever a woman of this    

caste sickens1  she attributes her      
sickness to the ghost of her former     
husband1 and  consults an exorcist as to
 how she can get rid of him4 ,the       
exorcist  gives her some charmed rice1  
flowers1 and basil leaves1 and tells    
her to enclose them in a small copper   
box and wear it round her  neck4        
,sometimes the exorcist gives her a     
charmed cocoanut1 which he  tells her to
 worship daily1 and in some cases he    
advises the woman  to make a copper or  
silver image of the dead and worship it 
every  day4 #dgg    ,so in ,northern    
,india1 people who marry again after the
 death of the  first wife wear what is  
known as the ,saukan ,maura1 or second  
wife's  crown4 ,this is a little silver 
amulet1 generally with an image of ,dev 
engraved on it4 ,this is hung round the 
husband's neck1 and all presents  made  
to the second wife are first dedicated  
to it4 ,the idea is that  the new wife  
recognizes the superiority of her       
predecessor1 and thus  appeases her     

malignity4 ,the illness or death of the 
second wife or  of her husband soon     
after marriage is attributed to the     
jealousy of  the ghost of the first     
wife1 which has not been suitably       
propitiated4    ,in the ,panjb1 on the  
same principle1 if a man has lost two or
 three  wives in succession1 he gets a  
woman to catch a bird and adopt it  as  
her daughter4 ,he then pays the dower1  
marries his bird bride1  and immediately
 divorces her4 ,by this means the       
malignant influence  is diverted to the 
bird1 and the real wife is safe4 #dgh   
,we shall  meet again with the same     
principle in dealing with the curious   
custom  of tree marriage4        ,food  
of ,bhts4    ,like evil spirits all the 
world over1 ,bhts will eat filthy food1 
and as they are always thirsty1 they are
 glad to secure even a drop  of water1  
no matter how impure the purpose may    
have been for which  it has been used4  
,on the other hand1 they are very fond  
of milk1 and  no ,panjbi woman likes her

 child to leave the house after drinking
  fresh milk4 ,if she cannot prevent it 
from going1 she puts some salt  or ashes
 into its mouth to scare the ,bht4 #dgi 
,posture of ,bhts4    ,bhts can never   
sit on the ground1 apparently1 because1 
as has been  shown already1 the earth1  
personified as a goddess1 scares away   
all  evil influence4 ,hence1 near the   
low-caste shrines a couple of pegs  or  
bricks are set up for the ,bht to rest  
on1 or a bamboo is hung  over it1 on    
which the ,bht perches when he visits   
the place4 #dhj  ,on the same principle 
the ,orons hang up the cinerary urn     
containing  the bones of a dead man on a
 post in front of the house1 #dha and   
the person who is going on a pilgrimage1
 or conveying the bones of a  relative  
to the ,ganges1 sleeps on the ground2   
but the bones must not  rest on the     
ground2 they are hung on the branch of a
 tree1 so that  their late owner may    
revisit them if so disposed4 ,near      
shrines where  ,bhts are always about on

 the chance of appropriating the        
offerings1  it is expedient to sleep on 
the ground4 ,so the bride and bridegroom
  rest1 and the dying man is laid at the
 moment of dissolution4        ,tests of
 ,bhts4    ,there are at least three    
infallible tests by which you may       
recognize a ,bht4 ,in the first place he
 casts no shadow4 ,in the  third ,canto 
of the ,purgatorio1 ,dante is much      
distressed because  ,virgil1 being a    
disembodied spirit1 casts no shadow4 ,in
 the second  place a ,bht can stand     
almost anything in his neighbourhood but
 the  scent of burning turmeric1 which1 
as we shall see1 is a well-known        
demon-scarer4 ,thirdly1 a genuine ,bht  
always speaks with a nasal twang1  and  
it is possibly for this last reason that
 the term for the gibberish  in the     
medival plays and for modern ,english is
 ,pischa ,bhsha1 or  the language of    
goblins4 #dhb ,some of them have throats
 as narrow  as a needle1 but they can   
drink gallons of water at a time4 ,some1

  like the ,churel1 whom we shall meet  
later on1 have their feet turned        
backwards4 ,some1 like ,brhman ghosts1  
are wheat-coloured or white2  others1   
like the ,kfari1 the ghost of a murdered
 negro1 are black1  and particularly    
dreaded4 ,a famous ghost of this class  
haunts a lane  in ,calcutta1 which takes
 its name from him4        ,spirit      
,lovers4    ,many denizens of the spirit
 land have connection with mortals4 ,we 
have the cycle of folk-tales known as   
that of the ,swan maidens4    ,urvas    
came and lived with ,parravas until he  
broke the curiosity  taboo4 ,we shall   
see instances where ,indra gives one of 
his fairies to  a mortal lover1 and     
spirits like the ,incubi and ,succubi of
 ,european  folk-lore can be brought    
down by incantation4        ,spirit     
,entries3 ,the ,head4    ,spirits enter 
and leave the body in various ways4     
,they often use the  head in this way1  
and in particular the tenth aperture of 
the body1  one of the skull sutures1    

known as ,brahma-randhra4 ,this is the  
reason  why the skull is broken at      
cremation to open the crevice of        
,brahma1  as this orifice is called4    
,in the case of one of the ascetic      
orders1 who are buried and not          
cremated1 a blow is given on the head   
with a cocoanut or a conch  shell4      
,thus1 when the chief teacher of the    
,brhmans in ,bombay dies1  his successor
 breaks a cocoanut on his skull and     
makes an opening1  in which the sacred  
,slagrma stone is laid4 #dhc ,this rite 
of  skull-breaking1 which is done by the
 next relation1 is a recognized  part of
 the ,hindu cremation rite1 and is known
 as ,kaplakriya4    ,the same theory    
that the head is an entry for spirits   
accounts for  numerous strange          
practices4 ,thus1 when in ,kumaun a man 
is bitten  by a snake they pull three   
hairs from his scalp-lock and strike    
him three times on the top of the head  
with the first joint of the  middle     
finger1 a kind of blow which in ordinary

 cases is regarded  with the utmost     
terror4 ,so when a person has fever1    
they take a bone  and fill it with      
grain1 and1 making the patient stand in 
the sun1 dig  a hole where the shadow of
 his head falls1 and there bury the     
bone1  saying1 ,fever6 ,begone with the 
bone6 #dhd ,at a ,gond wedding1 the  old
 man who officiates knocks the heads of 
the bride and bridegroom  together to   
scare the evil spirits1 #dhe and at a   
,hindu marriage  in ,northern ,india the
 mother of the youth1 as he leaves to   
fetch  his bride1 and as he returns with
 her1 waves lamps1 a brass tray1  grain1
 and a rice pounder1 to drive off the   
,bhts fluttering round  his head4 ,it is
 on the same principle that the         
bridegroom wears a  marriage crown1 and 
this also accounts for many of the      
customs of  blessing by the laying on of
 hands and anointing which prevail all  
over the world4 ,in the same way the    
hair has always been regarded  as a     
spirit entry4 ,magistrates in ,northern 

,india are often troubled  by people who
 announce their intention of letting    
their hair grow  at some one whom they  
desire to injure4 ,this1 if one can     
judge by  the manifest terror exhibited 
by the person against whom this rite  is
 directed1 must be a very stringent form
 of coercion4 ,for the same  reason     
ascetics wear the hair loose and keep it
 uncut1 as ,sampson  did1 and the same  
idea probably accounts for the rites of 
ceremonial  shaving of youths1 and of   
the mourners after death4        ,the   
,mouth4    ,as might have been expected1
 ,bhts are very fond of entering by the 
mouth4 ,hence arise much of the         
mouth-washing which is part of the      
daily ritual of the ,hindu1 and many of 
the elaborate precautions which  he     
takes at meals4 ,this will be referred  
to again in connection with  the ,evil  
,eye4        ,yawning4    ,hence it is  
very dangerous to yawn1 as two kinds of 
danger are to  be apprehended--either a 
,bht may go down your throat1 or part of

  your soul may escape1 and you will be 
hard set to recover it4 ,so if  you     
chance to yawn1 you should put your hand
 to your mouth and say  ,nryan--,great  
,god6 afterwards1 or you should crack   
your fingers1  which scares the evil    
spirit4 ,this idea is the common        
property of  folk-lore4 #dhf            
,sneezing4    ,so1 sneezing is due to   
demoniacal influence1 but opinions      
differ as  to whether it is caused by a 
,bht entering or leaving the nose4 ,the 
latter view is generally taken by       
,musalmns1 because it is one of the     
traditions of the ,prophet that the nose
 should be washed out with  water1 as   
the devil resides in it during the      
night4 ,the sneezing  superstition in   
,india is at least as old as the        
,buddhist ,jtakas1  where we have a     
remarkable tale about it1 which         
describes how the  future ,buddha and   
his father ,gagga went to pass the night
 in a place  haunted by a ,yakkha1 or   
,yaksha1 and were very near being       

devoured by  him because they did not   
say the spell ,live6 when they sneezed4 
#dhg    ,so1 in ,somadeva's tale of     
,sulochana and ,sushena1 the spirit of  
the  air says1 ,when he enters into his 
private apartments1 he shall sneeze  a  
hundred times2 and if some one there    
does not say to him a hundred  times1   
',god bless you1' he shall fall into the
 grasp of death4 #dhh  ,it is needless  
to say that the same belief prevails in 
,europe4 ,as  ,dr4 ,tylor says1 ,even   
the ,emperor ,tiberius1 that saddest of 
men1  exacted this observance4          
,according to the ,muhammadan rule1 if a
  person sneezes and then says          
immediately afterwards1 ,al-hamdu       
li'llah1  ,god be praised1 it is        
incumbent upon at least one of the party
 to  reply1 ,yarhamu-ka 'llah1 just as  
among the ,jews the sneezing formula    
was ,tobkin ,khayim1 ,good life6    ,on 
the whole1 sneezing is considered       
auspicious1 because it implies  the     
expulsion of a ,bht4 ,as a general rule1

 if a person sneezes  when another is   
beginning some work1 the latter stops   
for a while1  and then begins afresh2 if
 there be two sneezes in succession1    
there  is no necessity for interruption4
 ,if a man sneezes behind the back  of  
another1 the back of the latter is      
slightly pinched4 ,in ,bombay1  if a man
 sneezes during a meal1 one of the party
 calls on him to  name his birthplace4  
#dhi ,the threshold in the folk-lore of 
all  nations is regarded as a sacred    
place4 ,it is here1 according to the    
,scotch and ,irish belief1 that the     
house fairies reside4 ,sitting  on the  
threshold is believed by ,indian matrons
 likely to produce  boils in children in
 that part of the body which touches it1
 and it  is thought most unlucky to     
sneeze on the threshold4 ,on the whole1 
one sneeze is ominous1 while after two  
work may be commenced with  safety4 ,so 
it was in the days of ,homer--,even so  
she spoke1 and  ,telemachus sneezed     
loudly1 and around the roof rang        

wondrously1  and ,penelope laughed1 and 
straightway spoke ,eumoeus winged words1
  ',go6 call me the stranger1 even so   
into my presence4 ,dost thou not  mark  
how my son has sneezed a blessing on all
 my words8' #dij        ,the ,hands and 
,feet4    ,the hands and feet are also  
means by which ,bhts enter the body4    
,hence  much of the ablution at prayers 
and meals2 the hand-clapping which      
accompanies so many religious and       
mystical rites2 the passing of the  hand
 over the head2 the laying of the hands 
on the eyes to restore  sight1 of which 
we have many examples in the ,indian    
folk-tales2  the hand-pledging at       
marriages2 the drinking of the          
,charan-amrita1  or water1 in which the 
feet of a holy man have been washed2 the
  ceremonial washing of the feet of the 
bridegroom at a wedding by  the father  
of the bride4 ,the stock case of the    
danger of the not  washing the feet at  
night is that of ,adil1 whose impurity  
allowed  ,indra to form the ,maruts out 

of her embryo4 ,a man with flat feet is 
considered most unlucky1 as in ,north   
,england1 where if you meet a           
flat-soled man on ,monday you are       
advised to go home1 eat and drink1  or  
evil will befall you4 #dia ,the chief   
basis of feet-washing is the  idea that 
a person coming from abroad and not     
immediately carrying  out the required  
ablution runs the risk of bringing some 
foreign1  and presumably dangerous1     
spirit with him4        ,the ,ears4     
,and so with the ears1 which are        
believed to communicate direct with  the
 brain1 and are kept by the rustic      
carefully muffled up on chilly          
mornings4 ,hence the custom of          
,kanchhedan1 or ear-piercing1 which is  
in ,northern ,india about the only      
survival of the world-wide rite of      
mutilation when males attain puberty1   
and of wearing ear-rings and  similar   
ornaments1 which is habitual with all   
classes of ,hindus1  and specialized    
among the ,kanphata ,jogis1 who take    

their name from  this practice4         
,varieties of ,bhts4    ,in ,bengal the 
ordinary ,bht is a member of the        
,kshatriya1 ,vaisya1  or ,sdra class4   
,the ,brhman ,bht1 or ,brahmadaitya1 is 
quite another  variety4 ,the ordinary   
,bhts are as tall as palmyra trees1     
generally  thin and very black4 ,they   
usually live on trees1 except those     
which  the ,brahmadaitya frequent4 ,at  
night1 and especially at the hour of    
midnight1 they wander about the fields  
frightening travellers4 ,they  prefer   
dirty places to those which are clean2  
so when a person goes  to worship a     
,bht1 he does so in some dirty1 retired 
place1 and gives  him only half-cooked  
food1 so that he may not have time to   
gobble  it up1 and perchance rend his   
worshipper4 ,they are never seen in  the
 temples of the gods1 though they often1
 as we have seen1 lurk  about in the    
vicinity in the hope of getting some of 
the offerings  if the priest be not on  
the alert and scare them with his bell  

or  shell-trumpet4 ,they are always     
stark naked1 and are fond of women1     
whom they sometimes abduct4 ,they eat   
rice1 and all sorts of human  food1 but 
their favourite diet is fish4 ,hence no 
,bengli1 except for  a considerable     
bribe1 will talk about fish at night4   
,here they agree  with the fairies of   
,manxland4 ,professor ,rhys #dib tells a
 story of a  ,manx fisherman1 who was   
taking a fresh fish home1 and was       
pursued by a  pack of fairy dogs1 so    
that it was only with great trouble he  
reached  his own door4 ,he drove the    
dogs away with a stone1 but he was shot 
by  the fairies1 and had a narrow escape
 of his life4 ,on the other hand1  the  
,small ,people in ,cornwall hate the    
smell of fish as much as the  savour of 
salt or grease4 #dic ,the best chance of
 escape from these  ,bengal ,bhts is    
when they begin to quarrel among        
themselves4 ,a person  beset by them    
should invoke the gods and goddesses1   
especially ,kl1  ,durg1 and ,siva1 the  

last of whom is1 as already noted1 the  
,lord of  ,bhts4 #did    ,bhts are of   
many varieties4 ,vetla1 or ,baitl1 their
 leader1 is  familiar to everyone in the
 tales of the ,baitl ,pachsi4 ,he is    
not1  as a rule1 particularly offensive4
 ,more usually he is a vagrant ,bht     
which enters the body of a man when the 
real spirit is absent4 ,but  he often   
approximates to the ,vampire as we meet 
him in ,western  folk-lore4 ,it is as a 
vitalized corpse that the visitor from  
the other world comes to trouble        
mankind1 often subject to human         
appetites1 constantly endowed with more 
than human strength and  malignity4 #die
 ,thus in one of ,somadeva's stories the
 hero goes at  night to a cemetery and  
summons at the foot of a tree a ,vetla  
into  the body of a man1 and after      
worshipping him1 makes an oblation of   
human flesh to him4 ,in another there is
 a ,vetla with a body made up  of the   
limbs of many animals1 who hurls the    
king to the earth1 and  when he sits on 

the ,vetla's back the demon flies with  
him through  the air like a bird and    
flings him into the sea4 #dif ,the      
spirit  entering the body of the dead   
man forms the leading incident in the   
tale of ,fadlallah in the ,arabian      
,nights1 and there are many instances   
of it in ,indian folk-lore4 ,this       
disposes of the assertion which has     
been sometimes made that among races    
which bury their dead little  is known  
of regular corpse spectres1 or that they
 are special to  lands tenanted or      
influenced by the ,slavonians4 #dig     
,most usually  the ,vetla appears as the
 spirit of some living person           
dissatisfied  with his lodgings on      
earth1 which leaves his own body and    
occupies a  corpse in preference4 ,he1  
in company with the ,vasus1 ,yakshas1   
,bhtas1  and ,gandharvas1 has passed    
into the degraded ,tantrika worship4    
#dih        ,the ,pret4    ,the ,hindu  
notion of the state of the soul between 
death and the  performance of the       

prescribed funeral rites agrees exactly 
with that  of the older ,european races4
 ,they wandered about in a state of     
unhappy  restlessness1 and were not     
suffered to mix with the other dead4    
,the  term ,pret or ,preta1 which simply
 means deceased or departed1  represents
 the soul during this time4 ,it wanders 
round its original  home1 and1 like the 
,blakhilyas1 who surround the chariot of
 the  sun1 is no larger than a man's    
thumb4 ,the stages of his progress1     
according to the best authorities1 are  
that up to the performance of  the ten  
,pindas the dead man remains a ,preta1  
through the ,nryanabali  rite he becomes
 a ,pischa1 and by the ,sapindikarana he
 reaches the  dignity of the ,pitri or  
sainted dead4 ,the term ,preta is1      
however1  sometimes applied to the      
spirit of a deformed or crippled person1
  or one defective in some limb or      
organ1 or of a child who dies           
prematurely owing to the omission of the
 prescribed ceremonies during  the      

formation of the embryo4 ,here it may be
 noted that there are  indications in   
,india of the belief which is common    
among savages1  that young children1    
apparently in consequence of their      
incomplete  protection from the birth   
impurity1 are under a taboo4 ,thus in   
,india a  child is regarded as a ,bht   
until the birth hair is cut4 ,some of   
the  jungle tribes believe that it is   
unnecessary to protect a child from     
evil spirits until it begins to eat     
grain1 because up to that time  it is   
nothing more than a ,bht itself4 ,under 
the old ritual a child  under two years 
of age was not burnt1 but buried1 and no
 offering of  water was made to it4 ,we 
are familiar with the same idea in      
,england  regarding unbaptized children1
 whose spirits are supposed to be       
responsible for the noise of ,gabriel's 
,hounds in the sky1 really  caused by   
the bean geese in their southern flight4
    ,the ,pret is occasionally under    
provocation malignant1 but as it        

partakes to some degree of the functions
 of the benign ancestral  household     
spirit1 it is not necessarily malicious 
or evil-disposed  towards living        
persons4 ,the ,pret is specially        
worshipped at ,gaya  on the ,hill1 known
 as ,pretsila1 or the rock of the ,pret1
 and a  special class of ,brhmans at    
,patna call themselves ,pretiya1 because
  they worship the ghost of some hero or
 saint4 #dii        ,the ,pischa4       
,next comes the ,pischa1 which1 as we   
have seen1 is by one account  only a    
stage in the progress of the soul to its
 final rest4 ,but more  properly        
speaking it is an evil spirit produced  
by a man's vices1  the ghost of a liar1 
adulterer1 or criminal of any kind1 or  
of one who  has died insane4 ,but his   
attributes and functions are not very   
clearly  defined1 and he merges into the
 general class of ,bhts4 ,in some cases 
he seems to have the power to cure      
disease4 ,thus we read in ,somadeva1    
,rise up in the last watch of the night1

 and with dishevelled hair1  and naked1 
and without rinsing your mouth1 take two
 handfuls of rice  as large as you can  
grasp with the two hands1 and1 uttering 
a form  of words1 go to a place where   
four roads meet and there place the  two
 handfuls of rice1 and return in silence
 without looking behind  you4 ,do so    
always until that ,pischa appears and   
says1 ',i will put  an end to your      
ailment4' ,then receive his aid gladly1 
and he will  remove your complaint4 #ejj
        ,the ,rkshasa4    ,the ,rkshasa 
again1 a word that means the harmer or  
the destroyer1  is of the ogre-vampire  
type4 ,he goes about at night1 haunts   
cemeteries1  disturbs sacrifices and    
devout men1 animates dead bodies1 even  
devouring human beings1 in which        
capacity he is known as ,kravyda1  or   
carnivorous1 and is generally hostile to
 the human race4 ,he is  emphatically a 
devourer of human flesh1 and eats       
carrion4 ,he is  often represented in   
the folk-tales as having a pretty       

daughter1 who  protects the hero when he
 ventures perchance into the abode of   
the  monster4 ,her father comes in1 and 
with the cry of ,manush gandha1  which  
is equivalent to the ,fee6 fo6 fum6 ,i  
smell the blood of an  ,englishman6 of  
the ,western tale1 searches about1 but  
fails to find  him4 ,when ,hanumn       
entered the city of ,lanka in the form  
of a cat1 to  reconnoitre1 he saw that  
the ,rkshasas who slept in the house    
were  of every shape and form4 ,some of 
them disgusted the eye1 while some  were
 beautiful to look on4 ,some had long   
arms and frightful shapes2  some were   
very fat and some were very lean2 some  
were dwarf and some  were prodigiously  
tall4 ,some had only one eye1 and others
 had only  one ear4 ,some had monstrous 
bellies1 hanging breasts1 long          
projecting  teeth1 and crooked thighs2  
whilst others were exceedingly beautiful
 to  behold and clothed in great        
splendour4 ,some had the heads of       
serpents1  some the heads of asses1 some

 of horses1 and some of elephants4 ,the 
leader of them was ,rvana1 who is said  
to have been once a ,brhman and  to have
 been turned into a ,rkshasa1 with      
twenty arms1 copper-coloured  eyes1 and 
bright teeth like the young moon4 ,his  
form was as a thick  cloud or as a      
mountain1 or the god of death with open 
mouth4    ,the ,rkshasa is the great    
,deus ex machin of folk-lore4 ,he can   
change  into almost any form he pleases1
 his breath is a roaring wind2 he can   
lengthen his arms to eighty miles2 he   
can smell out human beings like  ,giant 
,blunderbore4 ,he can carry a man       
leagues through the air2 if his  head be
 cut off1 it grows again4 ,he is the    
,eastern type of the monster  dragon    
which is subdued by ,st4 ,george1       
,siegmund1 ,siegfried1 or ,beowulf4     
,his spouse1 the ,rkshas1 is a creature 
of much the same kind4 ,in the          
folk-tales she often takes the form of  
the ogress queen who marries  the king  
and gets up at night and devours an     

elephant1 or two or  three horses1 or   
some sheep or a camel1 and then puts the
 blood and  scraps of meat at the doors 
of her rivals1 and gets them banished1  
until the clever lad discovers her wiles
 and brings her to condign  punishment4 
#eja ,often she besets a city and       
demands the daily  tribute of a human   
victim4 ,the king takes the place of the
 victim1  and the ,rkshas is so affected
 by his generosity that she abandons    
eating the flesh of men4 ,in a case in  
the folk-tales a boy becomes  a ,rkshasa
 by eating the brains of a corpse4 #ejb 
,like all other  demons1 ,rkshasas are  
scared by light1 and one of the names of
 the  lamp is ,rkshogna1 or the         
destroyer of the ,rkshasas4    ,the idea
 of the ,rkshasa comes from the earliest
 times4 ,some have  thought them to be  
types of the early ,drvidian opponents  
of the  ,hindus4 ,nirrit1 the female    
personification of death1 is a ,rkshasa 
deity in the ,vedas1 and ,dr4 ,muir has 
traced the various stages  by which the 

,rkshasa was developed into a godling4  
#ejc ,thus1  in the ,mahbhrata1 ,jar is 
called a household goddess2 the great   
,king ,jarasandha was born in two       
halves1 and ,jar united them2 she  is   
always represented as seeking to requite
 by benefits the worship  which is paid 
to her4 ,manu prescribes a special      
oblation for the  spirits which walk in 
darkness4 ,the blood in the sacrifice   
is1  according to the old ritual1       
offered to them1 though even here we    
notice the transition from animal to    
corn offerings4 #ejd    ,nowadays       
,rkshasas live in trees and cause       
vomiting and indigestion  to those who  
trespass on their domains at night4     
,they mislead night  travellers like    
,will-o'-the-,wisp1 and they are always 
greedy and in  quest of food4 ,so1 if a 
man is eating by lamp-light and the     
light  goes out1 he will cover the dish 
with his hands1 which are1 as we  have  
already seen1 scarers of demons1 to     
preserve the food from the  ,rkshasa1   

and ,bengal women go at night with a    
lamp into every room  to expel the evil 
spirits4 #eje    ,the ,rkshasas are said
 to be always fighting with the gods and
  their blood remains on many of these  
ghostly battlefields4 ,in the  ,hills   
this is believed to be the cause of the 
red ferruginous clay  which is          
occasionally observed1 and the ,loh or  
blood-red river  has a similar origin4  
#ejf ,the same idea appears in the      
folk-lore of  ,europe4 ,in a ,swabian   
legend the red colour of shoots of rye  
when they  first appear above the       
surface is attributed to ,cain having   
killed ,abel  in a rye-field1 which thus
 became reddened with innocent blood4   
#ejg  ,one species of feathered pink has
 a dark purple spot in it which people  
in ,germany say is a drop of the blood  
of the ,redeemer which fell from  the   
,cross4 #ejh ,in one of the ,irish      
,sagas the blood of a murdered man  fell
 on a white stone and formed the red    
veins which are still shown  to the     

traveller4 #eji ,in ,cornwall a red     
stain on the rocks marks  where giant   
,bolster died1 and the red lichen in a  
brook commemorates a  murder4 #eaj      
,every ,english child knows the legend  
of ,robin ,redbreast4    ,in folk-lore  
,rkshasas have kingdoms1 and possess    
enormous riches1  which they bestow on  
those whom they favour1 like ,tr ,b in  
the story  of ,seventee ,b4 ,in this    
they resemble the ,irish fairies1 who   
hide away  much treasure in their       
palaces underneath the hills and in the 
lakes  and sea4 ,all the treasure of    
wrecked ships is theirs2 and all the    
gold  that men have hidden or buried in 
the earth when danger was on them1  and 
then died and left no sign to their     
descendants4 ,and all the gold  of the  
mine and the jewels of the rocks belong 
to them1 and in the  ,sifra or fairy    
house the walls are silver and the      
pavement is gold1  and the banquet hall 
is lit by the diamonds that stud the    
rocks4 #eaa    ,the finger nails of the 

,rkshasas1 as those of ,europeans in    
popular belief1 are a deadly poison1 and
 the touch of them produces             
insensibility1 or even death4 ,they     
often take the disguise of old women    
and have very long hair1 which is a     
potent charm4 ,their malignity is  so   
great that it would be difficult to     
avoid them1 but fortunately1  like the  
,devil in the ,european tales1 and evil 
spirits all the world  over1 they are   
usually fools1 and readily disclose the 
secrets of  their enchantment to the    
distressed heroine who is unlucky enough
 to  fall into their power1 and the     
victim has generally only to address    
the monster as ,uncle6 to escape from   
his clutches4 #eab    ,they are1 as has 
been said already1 usually cannibals4   
,one of these  was ,vaka in the         
,mahbhrata1 who lived at ,ekachakra and 
levied a  daily toll of food and human  
victims on the ,rja till he was torn  to
 pieces by ,bhma4 ,bhma also contrived  
to kill another monster of  the same    

kind named ,hidimba4 ,in the great      
,panjb legend of ,raslu1  he conquers   
the seven ,rkshasas1 who used to eat a  
human being every  day1 and there is a  
,nepl story of the ,rkshasa ,gurung     
,mpa1 who used  to eat corpses4 ,he was 
propitiated with a grant of land to live
 on  and an annual offering of a buffalo
 and some rice4 #eac        ,power of   
,lengthening ,themselves4    ,all       
ghosts1 as we shall see later on1 have  
the power of lengthening  themselves    
like the ,naugaza1 whom we have already 
mentioned4 ,for  this reason demons1 as 
a rule1 are of gigantic form1 and many  
of the  enormous fossil bones found in  
the ,siwlik ,hills were confidently     
attributed to the ,rkshasas1 which      
reminds us of the story of the  smith in
 ,herodotus who found the gigantic      
coffin seven cubits long  containing the
 bones of ,orestes4 #ead        ,night  
,spirits4    ,like the ghost in ,hamlet1
 the angel that visited ,jacob1 and the 
destroying angels of ,sodom1 the        

,rkshasas always fly before the  dawn4  
,they invariably travel through the air 
and keep their souls in  birds or       
trees--a fertile element in folk-lore   
which has been called  by ,major ,temple
 ,the ,life ,index4 #eae                
,rkshasas as ,builders4    ,the tales of
 ,western lands abound with instances of
 buildings1 bridges1  etc41 constructed 
by the ,devil4 ,so the ,indian ,rkshasa 
is commonly  regarded as an architect4  
,thus1 at ,rmtek in the ,central        
,provinces  there is a curious old      
temple built of hewn stones1 well fitted
  together without mortar4 ,from its    
shape and structure it is probably  of  
,jaina origin1 though local tradition   
connects it with the name of  ,hemdpant1
 the ,rkshasa4 ,he is an example of     
,rkshasas developed in  comparatively   
recent times from a historical          
personage4 ,he was probably  the        
,minister of ,mahdeva 7#abfj-abga       
,a4,d471 the fourth of the ,ydava       
,kings of ,deogiri4 ,according to the   

common story1 he was a giant or a       
physician1 who brought the current      
,marthi character from ,ceylon4 ,the    
,dakkhin swarms with ancient buildings  
attributed to him4 #eaf    ,such is also
 the case with another class of demons1 
the ,asuras1  a word which means        
spiritual or superhuman1 who were the   
rivals  of the gods4 ,in ,mirzapur the  
ancient embankment at the ,karsota tank 
is considered to be their work4 ,once   
upon a time two of these demons  vowed  
that whoever first succeeded in building
 a fort should be the  conqueror1 and   
that his defeated rival should lose his 
life4 ,so  they set to work in the      
evening1 one on the ,bijaygarh ,hill1   
and  the other on the opposite peak of  
,kundakot1 about twelve miles  distant4 
,the demon of ,bijaygarh1 having lost   
his tools in the dark1  struck a light  
to search for them4 ,his adversary      
seeing the light1  and imagining that   
the sun was rising and his rival's work 
completed1  fled precipitously4 ,the    

,bijaygarh fort was completed during the
 night  and stands to the present day1  
while on ,kundakot you see only a few   
enormous blocks of stone which was all  
the vanquished ,asura had time  to      
collect4 ,the tales of demons           
interfering with the construction of    
buildings are common in ,european       
folk-lore4    ,many other buildings are 
said to have been built in the same way4
 ,the  ,brahkhamba at ,shikrpur in the  
,bulandshahr ,district was built by     
demons2 ,baliya in ,pilibht was the work
 of ,bali1 the ,daitya2 the  demon ,loha
 or ,lohajangha built ,lohban in        
,mathura4 #eag ,in the same  way the    
,cornish giants built chiefly in        
granite1 and the ,hack and  ,cast       
embankment was constructed by them4 #eah
 ,in ,patna the ,asura  ,jarsandha is   
the reputed builder of an enormous      
embankment which is  called ,asuren     
after him1 and another demon of the same
 class is said  to be the architect of  
an ancient fortification in ,puraniya4  

#eai    ,many buildings1 again1 are     
attributed to personages who succeeded  
in  getting an ,asura under their       
influence1 and being obliged to find    
work for him1 compelled him to occupy   
his time in architecture4 ,in  the ,lay 
of the ,last ,minstrel ,michael ,scott  
got out of the dilemma  by making the   
demons twist ropes of sand1 and the same
 tale is told  of ,tregeagle in         
,cornwall4 #ebj        ,modern          
,rkshasas4    ,rkshasas are developed   
even in these prosaic days of ours4 ,in 
the  folk-tales many human beings lie   
under the well-founded suspicion  of    
being ,asuras or ,rkshasas4 #eba ,the   
ghost of some ,musalmns is  believed by 
some ,hindus to become a most malignant 
,rkshasa4 ,such a  ghost is conciliated 
by being addressed by the euphemistic   
title of  ,mamduh1 the praised one4     
,visaladeva1 the famous ,king of ,ajmer1
 was  turned into a ,rkshasa on account 
of his oppression of his subjects1  in  
which condition he resumed the evil work

 of his earthly existence1  devouring   
his subjects1 until one of his          
grandchildren offered  himself as a     
victim to appease his hitherto          
insatiable appetite4 ,the  language of  
innocent affection1 says ,col4 ,tod1    
made its way to the  heart of the       
,rkshasa1 who recognized his offspring1 
and winged his  flight to the ,jumn4    
#ebb    ,young men who are obliged to   
travel at night have reason to be       
cautious of the ,rkshas1 as well as of  
the ,churel1 with whom she  is          
occasionally identified4 ,she takes the 
form of a lovely woman and  lures her   
victims to destruction4        ,brhman  
,ghosts4    ,we have already mentioned  
the ,brahm or malignant ,brhman ghost4  
,these  often develop into ,rkshasas1   
and are a particularly dangerous        
species4 ,thus the sept of ,gaur ,rjputs
 are haunted by the ,rkshasa  or ghost  
of the ,brhman ,mansa ,rm1 who1 on      
account of the tyranny  of the ,rja ,tej
 ,sinh1 committed suicide4 ,he lives in 

a tree in a  fort in the ,stapur        
,district1 and no marriage or any other 
important  business in the family of the
 ,rja is undertaken until he has been   
duly  propitiated4 #ebc ,so1 at the     
mound of ,bilsar in the ,etah ,district1
  there lived a ,rja whose house        
overlooked that of a ,brhman named      
,pran ,mall4 ,the ,brhman asked the ,rja
 to change the position of his          
sitting-room1 as it was inconvenient to 
the ladies of his family1  and when the 
request was refused1 poisoned himself   
with a dose  of opium4 ,his body turned 
blue like indigo1 and he became a most  
malignant demon or ,br1 known as the    
,brahm ,rkshasa1 which caused  the death
 of the ,rja and his family1 and forced 
his successors to  remove to a distance 
from their original family residence4   
,the ,deo4    ,closely connected with   
the ,rkshasas are various classes of    
demons1  known as ,deo1 ,dno1 or ,br4   
,the ,deo is a survival of the ,devas or
  shining ones of the old mythology4 ,it

 is another of the terms  which have    
suffered grievous degradation4 ,it was  
originally applied  to the thirty-three 
great divinities1 eleven of which       
inhabited each  of the three worlds4    
,now the term represents a vague class  
of the  demon-ogre family4 ,the ,deo is 
a cannibal1 and were he not exceedingly 
stupid could do much harm1 but in the   
folk-tales he is always being  deceived 
in the most silly way4 ,he has long     
lips1 one of which sticks  up in the    
air1 while the other hangs down pendant4
 ,like many of his  kinsfolk all over   
the world1 he is a potent cause of      
tempests4 #ebd        ,the ,br4    ,the 
,br1 who takes his name from the        
,sanskrit ,vra1 hero1 is a  very        
malignant village demon4 ,in one of the 
,mirzapur villages is  the shrine of    
,kharbar ,br1 or the noisy hero4 ,no one
 can give any  satisfactory account of  
him1 but it is quite certain that if he 
is not  propitiated by the ,baiga1 he   
brings disease on men and cattle4 ,gend 

,br1 a woman who was tired of life1 and1
 instead of burning herself1  threw     
herself down from a tree1 is worshipped 
at ,ngpur4 #ebe ,kerr  ,br has1         
according to the last census returns1   
thirty-one thousand  worshippers in the 
eastern districts of the ,north-,west   
,provinces4 ,he  is said to have been a 
demon who resided on the spot where the 
present  fort of ,jaunpur now stands4   
,he became such a pest to the country   
about1  that the great ,rma ,chandra    
warred against him and overcame him4    
,his  head and limbs he flung to the    
four corners of heaven1 and his trunk   
in the form of a shapeless mass of stone
 remains as a memorial and is           
worshipped4 ,some allege that he was    
really some hero of the aboriginal      
,bhar race who fell in battle with the  
,aryan4 ,it is also alleged that  when  
the ,british engineers attempted to blow
 down the fort their  mines failed to   
disturb the shrine of ,kerr1 whose      
importance has  been much increased by  

this example of his prowess4 #ebf ,in   
,bombay  there are seven ,brs who go    
about together and scour the fields and 
gardens at night4 #ebg        ,the ,dno4
    ,the ,dno represents the ,dnava of  
the early mythology4 ,of these  there   
are seven also1 and the leader of them  
is ,vritra1 who is  the ancestor of the 
dragons and keeps back and steals the   
heavenly  waters1 on which account      
,indra slays him with his thunderbolt4  
,vala1  the cave in which the rain cows 
are hidden1 is called the brother of    
,vritra4 ,no trace remains now of this  
beautiful weather myth4 ,the ,dno       
nowadays is hardly to be distinguished  
from the ,br and his brethren1  and at  
,hazribgh he is worshipped in the form  
of a stone daubed with  five streaks of 
red lead and set up outside the house4  
#ebh        ,the ,daitya4    ,so with   
the ,dait or ,daitya1 who is connected  
in nothing but name with  the demons of 
the olden world who warred with the     
gods4 ,in ,mirzapur he  lives in a tree2

 in front he looks like a man1 but seen 
from behind  he is quite hollow1 only a 
mere husk without a backbone4 ,in this  
he resembles the ,ellekone of ,denmark1 
who is beautiful in front1 but  hollow  
in the back like a kneading trough4 #ebi
 ,so the ,hadal or ,hedali  of ,bombay  
is said to be plump in front and a      
skeleton behind4 #ecj    ,at midnight   
the ,daitya shows himself in his tree in
 a flash of fire and  smoke1 and        
sometimes flies off to another tree a   
short distance off4    ,in ,mirzapur he 
is sometimes known as ,daitra ,br and is
 associated  with two others named      
,akata ,br and ,latora ,br1 all of whom 
live  in trees and go out at night and  
dance for a while with torches  in their
 hands4 ,they are worshipped with an    
offering consisting of  the ,kalsa or   
holy water-pots and some greens4 #eca   
,in one village  the ,daitya is known as
 ,beohr ,bba or the father of           
merchandise1  as he is supposed in some 
way to guard merchants4 ,col4 ,tod      

describes  a place in the table-land of 
,central ,india known as ,daitya k har  
or  the demon's bone1 on which those who
 are in search of ease jump from  above4
 ,although most of the leapers perish1  
some instances of escape  are recorded4 
,the hope of obtaining offspring is said
 to be the most  usual motive for the   
act4 #ecb ,instances of religious       
suicides are  common4 ,one of the most  
famous places for this is behind the    
peak  of ,kedr1 where the ,pndavas      
devoted themselves and were carried off 
to heaven4 ,the practice seems to have  
almost completely ceased under  ,british
 rule4        ,the ,headless ,horseman4 
,at the present time the most dreaded of
 these creatures is1 perhaps1  the      
,headless ,horseman1 who is popularly   
known as ,dnd1 or truncated4    ,he has 
many of his kindred in other lands4 ,sir
 ,francis ,drake used  to drive a hearse
 into ,plymouth with headless horses and
 followed  by yelling hounds4 ,coluinn  
gun ,cheann of the ,highlands goes about

  a headless trunk4 ,a coach without    
horses used to career about the         
neighbourhood of ,listowel when any     
misfortune was about to take  place4 ,a 
monster in one of the ,german tales     
carries about his head  under his arm4  
#ecc    ,by one account the ,dnd took   
his origin from the wars of the         
,mahbhrata4 ,however this may be1 he    
appears periodically in the form  of a  
headless trunk seated on horseback1 with
 his head tied before him  on the pommel
 of the saddle4 ,he makes his rounds at 
night and calls  to the householder from
 outside2 but woe to any one who answers
 him1  for this means death4 ,the belief
 in these visionary death summonses is  
very common4 ,the ,irish ,banshee howls 
at night and announces death4 ,in       
,mirzapur1 ,bghesar1 or the tiger demon1
 lives on the ,churni ,hill4 ,he        
sometimes comes down at night in human  
form1 and calls people by name  at their
 doors4 ,if any one answers him he      
becomes sick4 ,the ,bengli  personifies 

,nisi or ,night as the ,homeric ,greeks 
did4 #ecd ,she often  comes at midnight1
 calls the house-master1 who when he    
opens the door  falls senseless and     
follows her where she will4 ,sometimes  
she takes  him into a tank and drowns   
him1 or leads him into a dense forest   
and  drops him among thorns or on the   
top of some high tree4 ,in fact it is   
always very dangerous to speak to these 
spirits or ghosts4 ,falstaff  knew this 
well when he said1 ,they are fairies2 he
 that speaks to  them shall die4    ,the
 ,dnd makes occasional incursions       
throughout the country4 ,he was  in the 
neighbourhood of ,agra in #ahhb1 and    
some twelve years after  appeared in    
,mirzapur4 ,on both occasions the news  
of his arrival caused  considerable     
alarm4 ,every one shut up their houses  
at sunset1 and  no one on any           
consideration would answer a call from  
outside after  nightfall4 ,it was       
shrewdly suspected at the time that this
 rumour  was spread by some professional

 burglar who made a harvest while the   
scare lasted4    ,somewhat akin to the  
,dnd is the spectral ,rja of ,bndi who  
occasionally appears in the             
neighbourhood of ,sahranpur4 ,some years
  ago a ,brhman astrologer heard some   
one calling him from outside  one night4
 ,when he answered the summons he was   
told that the ,rja  of ,bndi wanted to  
have his horoscope examined and was then
 encamped  near the town4 ,the ,pandit  
proceeded to the place with the guide   
and  saw a splendid encampment1 and the 
,rja in his royal robes sitting  in a   
tent ornamented with pearls4 ,when he   
saw him the unfortunate  astrologer knew
 that he was a ,rkshasa1 and he was the 
more convinced  of this when he examined
 his horoscope and found that he was    
fated  to live for ever4 ,he told the   
,rja that his life would be long and    
prosperous1 and after receiving three   
gold coins as his fee went home  more   
dead than alive4 ,next morning he went  
to the place1 but could  find no sign of

 the camp1 and when he looked in his box
 the coins  were found to have          
disappeared4    ,there are numerous     
other versions of the ,headless         
,horseman story  in ,northern ,india4   
,in a fight at ,khndesh the ,goli prince
 engaged  in personal conflict with the 
saint ,sayyid ,saadat ,pr1 and struck   
off his head4 ,the headless body        
continued to fight1 and the ,hindu  army
 fled in panic4 ,the trunk then snatched
 up the head and led the  victorious    
troops to a neighbouring hill1 where the
 earth opened  and swallowed it4 #ece   
,so1 in ,oudh1 ,malik ,ambar1 the       
companion of  ,slr ,masaud1 was1 it is  
said1 killed with his master at         
,bahrich1  but wandering back from      
,bijnor1 a headless trunk on horseback1 
he at  length reached the place where   
his tomb now stands1 when the earth     
opened and received him and his horse4  
#ecf    ,the ,dnd is apparently a close 
relation of the ,skandhahta of ,bengal1 
who goes about with his head cut off    

from the shoulders4 ,he dwells in  low  
moist lands outside a village1 in bogs  
and fens1 and goes about  in the dark1  
rolling about on the ground1 with his   
long arms stretched  out4 ,woe betide   
the belated peasant who falls within his
 grasp4 #ecg        ,the ,ghostly ,army4
    ,closely connected with this are the
 numerous legends of the ,ghostly       
,army4 ,thus1 at ,faizbd1 the country   
people point out a portion of  the      
,queen's highway along which they will  
not pass at night4 ,they say  that after
 dark the road is thronged with troops  
of headless horsemen1  the dead of the  
army of ,prince ,sayyid ,slr4 ,the great
 host moves on  with a noiseless tread2 
the ghostly horses make no sound2 and no
 words  of command are shouted to the   
headless squadrons4 ,another version    
comes from ,ajmer4 ,there for some time 
past a troop of four or five  hundred   
horsemen1 armed and dressed in green1   
issue from a valley in  the             
neighbourhood of the city1 and after    

riding about for some time1             
mysteriously disappear4 ,they are       
believed to be the escort of the  ,imm  
,husain1 whose tragical fate is         
commemorated at the ,muharram4    ,the  
same idea prevails all through ,india1  
and indeed all the world  over4 ,the    
persons killed at a recent disastrous   
railway accident haunt  the locality1   
and have caused the breakdown of other  
trains at the same  place4 #ech ,the    
ghosts of the battle of ,chilinwla began
 to appear  very shortly after the      
battle1 and ,abul ,fazl mentions the    
ghosts of  ,pnipat in the days of       
,akbar4 #eci ,in ,america the           
anniversaries of the  battles of        
,bunker's ,hill1 ,concord1 ,saratoga1   
and even as late as that  of            
,gettysburg1 are celebrated by spectral 
armies1 who fight by night  the conflict
 o'er again4 #edj ,if you walk nine     
times round ,neville's  ,cross1 you will
 hear the noise of the battle and the   
clash of armour1  and the same tale is  

told of the battle of ,marathon1 which a
 recent  prosaic authority attributes to
 the beating of the waves on the shore1 
while others say that these spectral    
armies of the sky are nothing more  than
 wild geese or other migratory birds    
calling in the darkness4 #eda           
,masn4    ,masn1 the modern form of the 
,sanskrit ,smasna1 a place of cremation1
  is the general term for those evil    
spirits which haunt the place  where    
they were forced to abandon their       
tenements of clay4 ,so the  modern      
,italian ,lemuri are the spirits of the 
churchyard and represent  the ,lemures  
or ,larv1 the unhappy ghosts of those   
who have died evil  deaths or under a   
ban1 to which there are innumerable     
allusions in  the ,latin writers4 #edb  
,in ,india ,masn is very generally      
regarded  as the ghost of a child1 and  
we have already seen that some tribes   
regard an infant as a ,bht4 ,he is      
occasionally the ghost of a low-caste   
man1 very often that of an oilman1 who1 

possibly from the dirt which            
accompanies his trade1 is considered    
ill-omened4 ,by another account  such   
ghosts prowl about in villages in the   
,hills in the form of  bears and other  
wild animals4 #edc ,others say that     
,masn is of black  and hideous          
appearance1 comes from the ashes of a   
funeral pyre1 and  chases people as they
 pass by4 ,some die of fright from his  
attacks1  others linger for a few days1 
and some even go mad4 ,when a person    
becomes possessed of ,masn1 the people  
invoke the beneficent spirit of  the    
house to come and take possession of    
some member of the family1  and all     
begin to dance4 ,at length some one     
works himself up into a  state of       
frenzy1 and commences to torture and    
belabour the body of the  person        
possessed by ,masn1 until at length a   
cure is effected1 or the  patient       
perishes under this drastic treatment4  
,khabish resembles ,masn  in his        
malignant nature and his fondness for   

burial grounds4 ,he is  also met with in
 dark glens and forests in various      
shapes4 ,sometimes  he imitates the     
bellow of a buffalo1 or the cry of a    
goatherd or  neatherd1 and sometimes he 
grunts like a pig4 ,at other times he   
assumes the disguise of a religious     
mendicant and joins travellers  on their
 way2 but his conversation is1 like that
 of ordinary ,bhts1  always             
unintelligible4 ,like ,masn1 he often   
frightens people and  makes them ill1   
and sometimes possesses unfortunate     
travellers who  get benighted4 #edd     
,children afflicted by ,masn are said to
 be under his shadow 7chhya71  and waste
 away by a sort of consumption4 ,here we
 have another instance  of the principle
 already referred to1 that the shadow   
represents the  actual soul4 #ede ,this 
malady is believed to be due to some    
enemy  flinging the ashes from a funeral
 pyre over the child4 ,the remedy in    
such cases is to weigh the child in     
salt1 a well-known demon scarer1  and   

give it away in charity4 ,the cremation 
ground and the bones  and ashes which it
 contains are constantly used in various
 kinds  of magical rites4 ,it is        
believed when thieves enter a house1    
that  they throw over the inmates some  
,masn or ashes from a pyre and make     
them unconscious while the robbery is   
going on4 ,this resembles the  ,english 
,hand of ,glory1 to which reference will
 be made in another  connection4 ,as to 
the influence by means of the shadow1 it
 may be  noted that a ,nepl legend      
describes how a ,lma arrested the flight
  of a ,brhman by piercing his shadow   
with a spear1 and the ,rkshas  ,sinhik  
used to seize the shadow of the object  
she desired to devour  and so drag the  
prey into her jaws4 #edf        ,tola4  
,tola is a sort of ,will-o'-the-,wisp in
 the ,hills4 ,according to one  account1
 he is1 like the ,gayl1 of whom we have 
spoken already1 the  ghost of a         
bachelor1 and other ghosts refuse to    
associate with him2  so he is seen only 

in wild and solitary places4 ,others say
 that he  belongs to the class of       
children ghosts1 who have died too young
  to undergo the rites of tonsure or    
cremation4 ,they are1 as a rule1        
harmless1 and are not much dreaded4     
,after a child undergoes the  specified 
religious ceremonies1 its soul is       
matured1 and fitted  either to join the 
spirits of the sainted dead or to assume
 a new  existence by transmigration4    
,the estate of the ,tola is only        
temporary1  and after a time1 it1 too1  
enters another form of existence4 #edg  
,airi4    ,another famous ,hill ,bht is 
,airi4 ,he is the ghost of some one who 
was killed in hunting4 ,we have many    
instances of these huntsmen  ghosts1 of 
which the most familiar example is the  
,european legend of  the ,wild          
,huntsman1 who haunts the forest in     
which he used to hunt1  and is sometimes
 heard hallooing to his dogs4 ,so in    
,cornwall ,dando  rides about           
accompanied with his hounds4 #edh ,the  

,british fairies  ride at night on      
horses which they steal from the        
stables1 and in the  morning the poor   
beasts are found covered with sweat and 
foam4 #edi  ,in ,southern ,india ,aiyanr
 rides about the land at night on a wild
  elephant1 sword in hand1 and          
surrounded by torch-bearers1 to clear   
the country from all obnoxious spirits4 
#eej    ,the companions of ,airi are    
fairies1 who1 like the ,churel1 have    
their  feet turned backwards4 ,he is    
accompanied by two litter-bearers  and a
 pack of hounds with bells round their  
necks4 ,whoever hears  their bark is    
certain to meet with calamity4 ,airi is 
much given to  expectoration1 and his   
saliva is so venomous that it wounds    
those on  whom it falls4 ,incantations  
must be used and the affected part      
rubbed  with the branch of a tree4 ,if  
this be not done at once1 the injured   
man dies1 and in any case he must       
abstain from rich food for several      
days4 ,we shall meet again with the     

magical power of spittle4 ,here  it may 
be noted that in ,western folk-lore it  
confers the power of  seeing spirits4   
,those who see ,airi face to face are   
burnt up by the flash of his eye1  or   
are torn to pieces by his dogs1 or have 
their livers extracted  and eaten by the
 fairies who accompany him4 ,but should 
any one be  fortunate enough to survive1
 the ,bht discloses hidden treasures to 
him4 ,the treasure-trove thus disclosed 
varies in value from gold  coins to old 
bones4 ,his temples are always in       
deserted places4 ,a  trident represents 
the god1 and a number of surrounding    
stones  his followers4 ,he is worshipped
 once a year by lighting a bonfire1     
round which all the people sit4 ,a      
kettle-drum is played1 and one after    
another they become possessed1 and leap 
and shout round the fire4 ,some  brand  
themselves with heated iron spoons1 and 
sit in the flames4 ,those  who escape   
burning are believed to be truly        
possessed1 while those  who are burned  

are considered mere pretenders to divine
 frenzy4 #eea  ,this closely resembles  
the worship of ,rhu already described4  
,the revels usually last for about ten  
nights1 and until they are  ended1 a    
lamp is kept burning at the shrine of   
the god4 ,those possessed  dye a yard of
 cloth in red ochre and bind it round   
their heads1 and  carry a wallet in     
which they place the alms they receive4 
,while in this  state they bathe twice1 
and eat but once in the twenty-four     
hours4 ,they  allow no one to touch     
them1 as they consider other men        
unclean1 and  no one but themselves is  
permitted to touch the trident and      
stones in  ,airi's temple1 at least as  
long as the festival lasts4 ,the        
offerings1  goats1 milk1 etc41 are      
consumed by the worshippers4 ,the kid is
 marked  on the forehead with red1 and  
rice and water are thrown over him4 ,if 
he  shakes himself to get rid of it1 the
 god has accepted the offering1         
whereupon his head is severed with a    

knife4 ,if he does not shake  himself1  
or bleats1 it is a sign that the        
offering is not accepted1  and the      
victim escapes4    ,the same rule of    
testing the suitability of the sacrifice
 prevailed  among the ,greeks4 ,the same
 practice prevails among other tribes4  
,thus1  the ,bwariyas1 when they        
sacrifice a goat1 take a little water in
 the  palm of the hand and pour it on   
the nose of the victim4 ,if it shiver1  
its head is cut off with a single blow  
of a sword4 ,the rule has  elsewhere    
received a further development4 ,thus   
when the ,ro of ,cutch  sacrifices a    
buffalo1 as it stoops to eat1 a few     
drops of water are  scattered between   
its horns4 ,if it shake its head it is  
led away as  displeasing to the goddess2
 if it nods its head a glittering       
scimitar  descends on its neck4 #eeb    
,hill ,demons4    ,other ,bhts in the   
,hills are ,acheri1 the ghosts of little
 girls1  who live on the tops of        
mountains1 but descend at night to hold 

their  revels in more convenient places4
 ,to fall in with their train is fatal1 
and they have a particular antipathy to 
red colour4 ,when little girls  fall    
suddenly ill1 the ,acheri is supposed to
 have cast her shadow  over them4 ,the  
,deo are the regular demons already     
described2 some are  obnoxious to men1  
some to cattle4 ,the ,rniya moves about 
at night and  uses a huge rock as his   
steed1 the clattering of which announces
 his  approach4 ,he is the demon of the 
avalanche and landslip4 ,should he  take
 a fancy to a woman1 she is haunted by  
his spirit in her dreams1  and gradually
 wasting away1 finally falls a victim to
 her passion4 ,he  thus resembles the   
,faun and the ,satyr1 the ,incubus and  
,succubus1  against whose wiles and     
fascination the ,roman maiden was       
warned4 #eec        ,birth ,fiends4     
,another of these night fiends is the   
,jilaiya of ,bihr1 which takes the      
shape of a night bird1 and is able to   
suck the blood of any person  whose name

 it hears4 ,hence women are very careful
 not to call their  children at night4  
,it is believed that if this bird fly   
over the head  of a pregnant woman her  
child will be born a weakling4 #eed     
,hence it closely approximates to the   
birth fiends which beset the  mother and
 child during the period of impurity    
after parturition4 ,thus  the ,orons of 
,chota ,ngpur believe that the fiend    
,chordevan comes  in the form of a cat  
and tears the mother's womb4 #eee ,the  
,brhman1  ,prabhu1 and other high-caste 
women of ,bombay believe that on the    
fifth  and sixth night after birth the  
mother and child are liable to be       
attacked by the birth spirit ,satv1 who 
comes in the shape of a cat  or a hen4  
,consequently they keep a watch in the  
lying-in room during  the whole night1  
passing the time in playing1 singing and
 talking  to scare the fiend4 ,the      
,marthas of ,nsik believe that on the   
fifth  night1 at about twelve o'clock1  
the spirit ,sath1 accompanied by a  male

 fiend1 called ,burmiya1 comes to the   
lying-in room1 and making  the mother   
insensible1 either kills or disfigures  
the child4 ,the  ,vadls of ,thna think  
that on the fifth night the birth spirit
 ,sath  comes in the form of a cat1 hen1
 or dog1 and devours the heart and      
skull of the child4 ,they therefore     
surround the bed with strands of  a     
creeper1 place an iron knife or scythe  
on the mother's cot1 fire  in an iron   
bickern at the entrance of the lying-in 
room1 and keep a  watch for the night4  
,the customs all through ,northern      
,india are very  much of the same type4 
,it is essential that the fire should be
 kept  constantly burning1 lest the     
spirit of evil1 stepping over the cold  
ashes1 should enter and make its fatal  
mark on the forehead of the  child4 ,the
 whole belief turns on the fear of      
infantile lockjaw1 which  is caused by  
the use of foul implements in cutting   
the umbilical cord  and the neglect of  
all sanitary precautions4 ,it usually   

comes between  the fifth and twelfth    
day1 and as ,satv1 or the ,chhath of    
,northern  ,india1 has been raised to   
the dignity of a goddess4 ,all this is  
akin  to the belief in fairy changelings
 and the malignant influences which     
surround the ,european mother and her   
child4 #eef        ,the ,par and ,jinn4 
,little reference has yet been made to  
the ,par or fairies1 or the  ,jinn or   
genii1 because they are1 in their       
present state at least1 of  exotic      
origin1 though their original basis was 
possibly laid on ,indian  soil4 ,thus we
 have the ,apsaras1 who in name at      
least1 moving in the  water1 is akin to 
,aphrodite4 ,they appear only faintly in
 the ,veda  as the nymphs of ,indra's   
heaven1 and the chief of them is ,urvas1
 to  whom reference has been already    
made4 ,two of them1 ,rambh and ,menak1  
are shown as luring austere sages from  
their devotions1 as in the  ,irish      
legend of ,glendalough4 ,they are the   
wives or mistresses of the  ,gandharvas1

 the singers and musicians who attend   
the banquets of the  gods4 ,indra in the
 ,rig ,veda is the giver of women1 and  
he provides  one of his aged friends    
with a young wife4 #eeg ,rambh1 one of  
the  fairies of his court1 appears      
constantly in the tales of ,somadeva1   
and  descends in human form to the arms 
of her earthly lovers1 as ,titania  with
 ,bottom in the ,midsummer ,night's     
,dream4 ,their successor in the  modern 
tales is ,shhpasand1 ,the beloved of the
 king1 who takes the  shape of a pigeon 
and kisses the beautiful hero4 ,in one  
of the stories  which appears in many   
forms1 the youth with the help of a     
,faqr finds  his way to the dance of    
,rja ,indra1 takes the place of his     
drummer1  and wins the fairy1 whom he   
identifies in spite of the many schemes 
which the jovial god invents to deceive 
him4 ,these ladies are all of           
surpassing beauty1 skilled in music and 
the dance1 with white skins1  and always
 dressed in red4    ,with the ,jinn we  

reach a chapter of folk-lore of great   
extent and  complexity4 ,they are       
probably in origin closely allied to the
 ,rkshasa1  ,deo and his kindred4 #eeh  
,they are usually divided into the      
,jann1  who are the least powerful of   
all the ,jinn1 the ,shaitn or ,satan  of
 the ,hebrews1 the ,ifrt and the ,mrid1 
the last of whom rules  the rest4 ,the  
,jann1 according to the ,prophet1 were  
created out of a  smokeless fire4 ,the  
,jann is sometimes identified with the  
serpent1  and sometimes with ,ibls1 who 
has been imported direct from the ,greek
  ,diabolos4 ,the ,jinn were the        
pre-,adamite rulers of the world1 and   
for  their sins were overcome by the    
angels1 taken prisoners and driven to   
distant islands4 ,they appear as        
serpents1 lions1 wolves or jackals4 ,one
  kind rules the land1 another the air1 
a third the sea4 ,there are forty       
troops of them1 each consisting of six  
hundred thousand4 ,some have  wings and 
fly1 others move like snakes and dogs1  

others go about like  men4 ,they are of 
gigantic stature1 sometimes             
resplendently handsome1  sometimes      
horridly hideous4 ,they can become      
invisible and move on  earth when they  
please4 ,sometimes one of them is shut  
up in a jar  under the seal of the ,lord
 ,solomon who rules them4 ,they ride the
  whirlwind like ,indian demons1 and    
direct the storm4 ,their chief home  is 
the mountains of ,qf1 which encompass   
the earth4        ,the ,ghoul4          
,besides these there is a host of minor 
demons1 such as the ,ghl1 the  ,english 
,ghoul1 who is a kind of ,shaitn1 eats  
men1 and is variously  described as a   
,jinn or as an enchanter4 ,by one       
tradition1 when the  ,shaitn attempt by 
stealth to hear the words of men1 they  
are struck  by shooting stars1 some are 
burnt1 some fall into the sea and become
  crocodiles1 and some fall upon the    
land and become ,ghls4 ,the ,ghl is     
properly a female1 and the male is      
,qutrub4 ,they are the offspring  of    

,ibls and his wife4 ,the ,silt or ,sil  
lives in forests1 and  when it captures 
a man makes him dance and plays with    
him1 as the  cat plays with the mouse4  
,similar to this creature is the        
,ghaddr1  who tortures and terrifies    
men1 the ,dalhm1 who is in the form of  
a man and rides upon an ostrich1 and the
 ,shiqq or ,nasns1 who are  ogres and   
vampires4 ,but these are little known in
 ,indian folk-lore1  except that        
directly imported from ,arabic sources4 
#eei        ,the ,baghaut4    ,as an    
instance of the respect paid to the     
ghosts of those who have  perished by an
 untimely death1 we may mention the     
,baghaut4 ,according  to the last census
 returns some eight thousand persons    
recorded  themselves as worshippers in  
the ,north-,western ,provinces of       
,bagahu or  ,sapaha1 the ghosts of      
people killed by tigers or snakes4 ,the 
,baghaut  is usually erected on the     
place where a man was killed by a tiger1
  but it sometimes merges into the      

common form of shrine1 as in a  case    
given by ,dr4 ,buchanan1 where a person 
received the same honour  because he had
 been killed by the aboriginal ,kols4   
#efj ,the shrine  is generally a heap of
 stones or branches near some pathway in
 the  jungle4 ,every passer-by adds to  
the pile1 which is in charge of the     
,baiga or aboriginal priest1 who offers 
upon it a pig1 or a cock1  or some      
spirits1 and lights a little lamp there 
occasionally4 ,many  such shrines are to
 be found in the ,mirzapur jungles4 ,in 
the ,central  ,provinces they are known 
as ,pt1 a term applied in ,chota ,ngpur 
to  holy heights dedicated to various   
divinities4 #efa ,they are usually      
erected in a place where a man has been 
killed by a tiger or by a  snake2       
sometimes no reason whatever is given   
for their selection4 ,in  connection    
with these shrines they have a special  
ceremony for laying  the ghost of a     
tiger4 ,until it is gone through1       
neither ,gond nor  ,baiga will go into  

the jungles if he can help it1 as they  
say not  only does the spirit of the    
dead man walk1 but the tiger is also    
possessed1 for the nonce1 with an       
additional spirit of evil 7by the  soul 
of the dead man entering into him7 which
 increases his power of  intelligence   
and ferocity1 rendering him more        
formidable than usual1  and more eager  
to pursue his natural enemy1 man4 ,some 
of the ,baigas  are supposed to be      
gifted with great powers of witchcraft1 
and it  is common for a ,baiga medicine 
man to be called in to bewitch the      
tigers and prevent them carrying off the
 village cattle4 ,the ,gonds  thoroughly
 believe in the powers of these men4    
#efb    ,i myself came across a singular
 instance of this some time ago4 ,i  was
 asking a ,baiga of the ,chero tribe    
what he could do in this way1  but ,i   
found him singularly reticent on the    
subject4 ,i asked the  ,superintendent  
of the ,dudhi ,estate1 who was with me1 
to explain the  reason4 ,well1 he       

answered1 when ,i came here first many  
years ago1  a noted ,baiga came to me   
and proposed to do some witchcraft to   
protect  me from tigers1 which were very
 numerous in the neighbourhood at the   
time4 ,i told him that ,i could look    
after myself1 and advised him to  do the
 same4 ,that night a tiger seized the   
wretched ,baiga while he  was on his way
 home1 and all that was found of him    
were some scraps  of cloth and pieces of
 bone4 ,since then ,i notice that the   
,baigas of  these parts do not talk so  
loudly of their power of managing tigers
  when ,i am present4        ,the       
,churel4    ,more dreaded even than the 
ghost of a man who has been killed by  a
 tiger is the ,churel1 a name which has 
been connected with that  of the ,chhra 
or sweeper caste4 ,the ghosts of all    
low-caste people  are notoriously       
malignant1 an idea which possibly arises
 from their  connection with the        
aboriginal faith1 which was treated half
 with fear  and half with contempt by   

their conquerors4 ,the corpses of such  
people  are either cremated or buried   
face downwards1 in order to prevent the 
evil spirit from escaping and troubling 
its neighbours4 ,so1 it was  the old    
custom in ,great ,britain in order to   
prevent the spirit of a  suicide from   
walking and becoming a terror to the    
neighbourhood1  to turn the coffin      
upside down and thrust a spear through  
it and the  body which it contained so  
as to fix it to the ground4 #efc ,riots 
have taken place and the authority of   
the magistrates has been invoked  to    
prevent a sweeper from being buried in  
the ordinary way4 #efd    ,the ,churel1 
who corresponds to the ,jakh1 ,jokh1    
,muk1 or ,naval  of ,bombay1 #efe is the
 ghost of a woman dying while pregnant1 
or  on the day of the child's birth1 or 
within the prescribed period  of        
impurity4 ,the superstition is based on 
the horror felt by all  savages at the  
blood1 or even touch of a woman who is  
ceremonially  impure4 #eff ,the idea is1

 it is needless to say1 common in       
,india4 ,the  woman in her menses is    
kept carefully apart1 and is not allowed
 to do  cooking or any domestic work    
until she has undergone the purification
  by bathing and changing her garments4 
,some of the ,drvidian tribes  refuse to
 allow a woman in this condition to     
touch the house-thatch1  and she is     
obliged to creep through a narrow hole  
in the back wall  whenever she has to   
leave the house4 ,hence1 too1 the       
objection felt  by men to walk under    
walls or balconies where women may be   
seated and  thus convey the pollution4  
,from ,kulu1 on the slopes of the       
,himlayas1  a custom is reported which  
is probably connected with this         
principle  and with the rules of the    
,couvade1 to which reference will be    
made  later on4 ,when a woman who is    
pregnant dies1 her husband is supposed  
to have committed some sin1 and he is   
deemed unclean for a time4 ,he  turns a 
,faqr and goes on pilgrimage for a month

 or so1 and1 having  bathed in some     
sacred place1 is re-admitted into caste4
 ,the woman is  buried1 the child having
 been first removed from her body by one
 of  the ,dgi caste1 and her death is   
not considered a natural one under  any 
circumstances4 #efg    ,the ,churel is  
particularly malignant to her own       
family4 ,she appears  in various forms4 
,sometimes she is fair in front and     
black behind1  but she invariably has   
her feet turned round1 heels in front   
and  toes behind4 ,the same idea        
prevails in many other places4 ,the     
,gira1  a water-spirit of the ,konkan1  
has his feet turned backwards4 #efh  ,in
 the ,teignmouth story of the ,devil he 
leaves his backward footsteps  in the   
snow4 ,pliny so describes ,anthropophagi
 of ,mount ,imoeus1 and  ,megasthenes   
speaks of a similar race on ,mount      
,nilo4 #efi    ,she generally1 however1 
assumes the form of a beautiful young   
woman and  seduces youths at night1     
especially those who are good-looking4  

,she  carries them off to some kingdom  
of her own1 and if they venture to  eat 
the food offered to them there1 she     
keeps them till they lose their  manly  
beauty and then sends them back to the  
world grey-haired old men1  who1 like   
,rip ,van ,winkle1 find all their       
friends dead long ago4    ,so the ,lady 
of the ,lake won ,merlin to her arms4   
#egj ,the same idea  prevails in ,italy1
 but there the absence is only          
temporary4 ,among the  wizards and      
witches are even princes and princesses1
 who to conceal  their debauchery and   
dishonour take the goat form and carry  
away  partners for the dance1 bearing   
them upon their backs1 and so they  fly 
many miles in a few minutes1 and go with
 them to distant cities  and other      
places1 where they feast1 dance1 drink1 
and make love4 ,but  when day approaches
 they carry their partners home again1  
and when  they wake they think they have
 had pleasant dreams4 ,but indeed their 
diversion was more real than they       

supposed4 #ega ,so1 the ,manxmen tell   
of a man who was absent from his people 
for four years1 which he spent  with the
 fairies4 ,he could not tell how he     
returned1 but it seemed as  if1 having  
been unconscious1 he woke up at last in 
this world4 #egb  ,i had a smart young  
butler at ,etah1 who once described to  
me vividly  the narrow escape he had    
from the fascinations of a ,churel1 who 
lived  on a ,ppal tree near the         
cemetery4 ,he saw her sitting on the    
wall in  the dusk and entered into      
conversation with her2 but he           
fortunately  observed her tell-tale feet
 and escaped4 ,he would never go again  
by  that road without an escort4 ,so1   
the fairies of ,england and ,ireland    
look with envy on the beautiful boys and
 girls1 and carry them off  to          
fairyland1 where they keep them till    
youth and beauty have departed4         
,eating ,food in ,spirit ,land4    ,the 
consequences of rashly eating the food  
of the underworld are well  known4 ,the 

reason is that eating together implies  
kinship with the  dwellers in the land  
of spirits1 and he who does so never    
returns to  the land of men4 #egc       
,the ,churel superstition appears in    
other forms4 ,thus1 the ,korwas of      
,mirzapur say that if a woman dies in   
the delivery-room1 she becomes  a       
,churel1 but they do not know1 or do not
 care to say1 what finally  becomes of  
her4 ,the ,patris and ,majhwrs think    
that if a woman  dies within the period 
of pregnancy or uncleanness1 she becomes
 a  ,churel4 ,she appears in the form of
 a pretty little girl in white  clothes1
 and seduces them away to the mountains1
 until the ,baiga is  called in to      
sacrifice a goat and release her victim4
 ,the ,bhuiyrs  go further and say that 
little baby girls who die before they   
are  twenty days old become ,churels4   
,they live in stones in the mountains   
and cause pain to men4 ,the remedy is   
for the afflicted one to put  some rice 
and barley on his head1 turn round two  

or three times1  and shake off the grain
 in the direction of the jungle1 when   
she  releases her victim4 ,the idea     
seems to be that with these holy grains1
  which are scarers of demons1 the evil 
influence is dispersed4 ,but  she       
continues to visit him1 and requires    
propitiation4 ,among these  people the  
,churel has been very generally enrolled
 among the regular  village godlings and
 resides with them in the common village
 shrine1  where she receives her share  
of the periodical offerings4 ,any one   
who sees a ,churel is liable to be      
attacked by a wasting disease1 and1  as 
in the case of the ,dnd1 to answer her  
night summons brings death4             
,modes of ,repelling the ,churel4       
,there are fortunately various remedies 
which are effective in  preventing a    
woman who dies under these circumstances
 from becoming  a ,churel4 ,one way is  
that practised by the ,majhwrs of       
,mirzapur1  which resembles that for    
laying the evil spirit of a sweeper1 to 

which reference has been made already4  
,they do not cremate the body1  but bury
 it1 fill the grave with thorns and pile
 heavy stones above  to keep down the   
ghost4    ,among the ,bhandris of       
,bengal1 when a pregnant woman dies     
before  delivery1 her body is cut open  
and the child taken out1 both corpses   
being buried in the same grave4 #egd ,in
 ,bombay1 when a woman dies  in         
pregnancy1 her corpse1 after being      
bathed and decked with flowers  and     
ornaments1 is carried to the burning    
ground4 ,there her husband  sprinkles   
water on her body from the points of a  
wisp of the sacred  ,darbha grass and   
repeats holy verses4 ,then he cuts her  
right side  with a sharp weapon and     
takes out the child4 ,should it be      
alive1  it is taken home and cared for2 
should it be dead1 it is then and  there
 buried4 ,the hole in the side of the   
corpse is filled with curds  and butter1
 covered with cotton threads1 and then  
the usual rite  of cremation is carried 

out4 #ege ,in one of the tales of       
,somadeva1  ,saktideva cuts the child   
out of his pregnant wife4 #egf    ,in   
the ,hills1 if a woman dies during the  
menstrual period or  in childbirth1 the 
corpse is anointed with the five        
products of  the cow1 and special texts 
are recited4 ,a small quantity of fire  
is then placed on the chest of the      
corpse1 which is either buried  or      
thrown into flowing water4 #egg ,here we
 have the three great                   
demon-scarers1--fire1 earth and water1  
combined4 ,in another device1  iron1    
which has similar virtue1 is used4      
,small round-headed iron  spikes1       
specially made for the purpose1 are     
driven into the nails  of the four      
fingers of the corpse1 while the thumbs 
and great toes  are securely fastened   
together with iron rings4 ,most ,hindus1
 it may  be remarked1 tie the corpse to 
the bier1 whatever may have been the    
cause of death1 and in parts of ,ireland
 a thread is tied round the  toe of the 

corpse1 the object apparently being to  
secure the body  and prevent an evil    
spirit from entering it4 #egh    ,in the
 ,hills the place where a pregnant woman
 died is carefully  scraped and the     
earth removed4 ,the spot is then sown   
with mustard1  which is sprinkled along 
the road traversed by the corpse on its 
way  to the burial ground4 ,the reason  
given for this is twofold4 ,first1  the 
mustard blossoms in the world of the    
dead1 and its sweet smell  pleases the  
spirit and keeps her content1 so that   
she does not long to  revisit her       
earthly home2 secondly1 the ,churel     
rises from her grave  at nightfall and  
seeks to return to her friends2 she sees
 the minute  grains of the mustard      
scattered abroad and stoops to pick it  
up1 and  while so engaged cock-crow     
comes1 she is unable to visit her home1 
and must return to her grave4 ,this is  
another instance of the rule  that evil 
spirits move about only at night4       
,counting4    ,this counting of the     

grains of mustard illustrates another   
principle  which is thus explained by   
,mr4 ,leland3 #egi ,a traveller in      
,persia  has observed that the patterns 
of carpets are made intricate1  so that 
the ,evil ,eye1 resting upon them and   
following the design1  loses its power4 
,this was the motive of all the         
interlaces of the  ,celtic and ,norse   
designs4 ,when the witch sees the       
,slagrma1 her  glance is at once        
bewildered with its holes and veins4 ,as
 ,i have  elsewhere remarked1 the herb  
,rosaloaccio1 not the corn poppy1 but  a
 kind of small house leek1 otherwise    
called ',rice of the ,goddess  of the   
four ,winds1' derives its name from     
looking1 ere it unfolds1  like confused 
grains of rice1 and when a witch sees it
 she cannot  enter till she has counted 
them1 which is impossible2 therefore it 
is used to protect rooms from           
witchcraft4 ,sarson or mustard is1  it  
may be noted1 used as a scarer of       
demons4 ,in all the principal  ,hindu   

ceremonies in ,western ,india1 grains of
 ,sarshapa or ,sarson  7,sinapts        
dichotoma7 and parched rice are         
scattered about to scare  fiends4 ,akbar
 used to have ,sipand or ,sarson burnt  
on a hot plate to  keep off the ,evil   
,eye--,nazar-i-bad--from his valuable   
horses4 #ehj    ,though the ,churel is  
regarded with disgust and terror1       
curiously  enough a family of ,chauhn   
,rjputs in ,oudh claim one as their     
ancestress4 #eha        ,the ,couvade4  
,in connection with this subject of     
parturition impurity1 the very          
remarkable custom of the ,couvade may be
 referred to here4 ,this is  the rule by
 which at the birth of a child the      
father is treated as  an invalid1       
instead of or in addition to the        
mother3--          ,when ,chineses go to
 bed1      ,and lie in in their ladies' 
stead4      ,marco ,polo1 writing of    
,zardandan1 gives a good example3--,when
 one  of their wives has been delivered 
of a child1 the infant is washed  and   

swathed1 and then the woman gets up and 
goes about her household  affairs1      
whilst the husband takes to bed with the
 child by his side1  and so keeps his   
bed for forty days2 and all the kith and
 kin come to  visit her1 and keep up a  
great festivity4 ,they do this because  
they  say the woman has had a bad time  
of it1 and it is but fair that the  man 
should have a share of suffering4 #ehb  
,professor ,rhys remarks  that the gods 
of ,celtic ,ireland used to practise the
 ,couvade4 #ehc    ,professor ,max      
,mller thinks that it is clear that the 
poor husband  was at first tyrannized   
over by his female relations and        
afterwards  frightened into             
superstition4 ,he then began to make a  
martyr  of himself1 till he made himself
 really ill1 or took to bed in          
self-defence4 ,the custom appears1      
however1 to rest on a much more         
primitive set of ideas4 ,it partly      
implies1 perhaps1 the transition  from  
that social state in which1 owing to the

 laxity of the connection  between the  
sexes1 the only recognized form of      
descent was through  the mother1 and    
partly1 the kindred conception that the 
father has  more to do with the         
production of the child than the mother1
 and  that the father must1 at the      
critical period of the baby's existence1
  exercise particular caution that      
through his negligence no demoniacal    
influence may assail the infant1 #ehd   
,it is curious that in ,india itself so 
few actual instances of the  ,couvade   
have been discovered4 ,this1 however1 as
 ,mr4 ,hartland shows1  is not unusual1 
and the ,couvade is not found in the    
lowest stage  of savagery4 ,but that the
 custom once generally prevailed is     
quite  certain1 and in ,northern ,india1
 at least1 it seems to have been masked 
by special birth ceremonies of great    
stringency and elaborate detail1  but of
 distinctly later date than the very    
primitive usage with which  we are now  
concerned4    ,one instance of the      

actual ,couvade is given by ,professor  
,sir  ,monier-,williams4 #ehe ,among a  
very low caste of basket-makers in      
,gujart1 it is the usual practice for a 
wife to go about her work  immediately  
after delivery1 as if nothing had       
occurred4 ,the presiding  ,mother 7,mt7 
of the tribe is supposed to transfer the
 weakness to her  husband1 who takes to 
his bed and has to be supported for     
several days  with good nourishing food4
 ,again1 among the ,kols of ,chota      
,ngpur1  father and mother are          
considered impure for eight days1 during
  which period the members of the family
 are sent out of the house1  and the    
husband has to cook for his wife4 ,if it
 be a difficult case  of parturition1   
the malignancy of some spirit of evil is
 supposed to  be at work1 and after     
divination to ascertain his name1 a     
sacrifice  is made to appease him4 #ehf 
,among many of the ,drvidian tribes of  
,mirzapur1 when the posset or spiced    
drink is prepared for the mother  after 

her confinement1 the father is obliged  
to drink the first sup  of it4 ,among   
all these people1 the father does not   
work or leave the  house during the     
period of parturition impurity1 and     
cooks for his  wife4 ,when asked why he 
refrains from work1 they simply say that
 he  is so pleased with the safety of   
his wife and the birth of his child1    
that he takes a holiday2 but some       
survival of the ,couvade is probably  at
 the root of the custom4 ,the same idea 
prevails in a modified form in  ,bombay4
 ,the ,pomaliyas1 gold-washers of ,south
 ,gujart1 after a birth1  take great    
care of the husband1 give him food1 and 
do not allow him  to go out2 and when a 
child is born to a ,deshasth ,brhman1 he
 throws  himself into a well with all   
his clothes on1 and1 in the presence of 
his wife's relations1 lets a couple of  
drops of honey and butter fall  into the
 mouth of the child4 #ehg               
,various ,birth ,ceremonies4    ,the    
same idea that the infant is likely to  

receive demoniacal  influences through  
its father appears to be the explanation
 of another  class of birth ceremonies4 
,in ,northern ,india1 in respectable    
families1  the father does not look on  
the child until the astrologer selects a
  favourable moment4 ,if the birth occur
 in the unlucky lunar asterism  of ,ml1 
the father is often not allowed to see  
his child for years1  and has in        
addition to undergo an elaborate rite of
 purification1  known as ,mla-snti4 ,so1
 in ,bombay1 the ,belgaum ,chitpavans do
 not  allow the father to look on the   
new-born child1 but at its reflection   
in butter4 ,the ,dharwr ,radders do not 
allow the father to see the  lamp being 
waved round the image of ,satv1 the     
birth goddess4 ,if  the father sees it1 
it is believed that the mother and child
 will  sicken4 ,the ,karntak ,jainas    
allow anyone to feed the new-born babe  
with honey and castor oil1 except the   
father4 ,among the ,beni ,isrels1  when 
the boy is being circumcised1 the father

 sits apart covered  with a veil4 ,among
 the ,pna ,musalmns1 friends are called 
to eat  the goat offered as a sacrifice 
on the birth of a child4 ,all join in   
the feast except the parents1 who may   
not eat the sacrifice4 #ehh  ,probably  
on the same principle1 among most of the
 lower castes1 the  father and mother do
 not eat on the wedding day of their    
children  until the ceremony is over4   
,places ,infested by ,bhts3 ,burial     
,places4    ,there are1 of course1      
certain places which are particularly   
infested  by ,bhts4 ,to begin with1 they
 naturally infest the neighbourhood of  
burial places and cremation grounds4    
,this idea is found all over the  world4
 ,virgil says3--          ,moerim1 saepe
 animas imis excire sepulcris1          
,atque satas alio vidi traducere messes2
      and ,shakespeare in the ,midsummer
 ,night's ,dream1--          ,now it is 
the time of night      ,that graves all 
gaping wide1      ,every one lets forth 
its sprite1      ,in the church-way     

paths to glide4        ,deserts4    ,all
 deserts1 also1 are a resort of ,bhts1  
as the great desert of ,lop1  where     
,marco ,polo assures us they are        
constantly seen at night4 ,in the       
,western ,panjb deserts1 during the     
prairie fires and in the dead of  night1
 the lonely herdsmen used to hear cries 
arising from the ground1  and shouts of 
,mr6 ,mr6 ,strike6 ,strike6 which were  
ascribed to the  spirits of men who had 
been killed in former frontier raids4   
,such  supernatural sounds were heard by
 the early settlers within the last     
fifty years1 and1 until quite recently1 
the people were afraid to  travel       
without forming large parties for fear  
of encountering the  supernatural       
enemies who frequented these uninhabited
 tracts4 #ehi  ,so1 among the ,mirzapur 
jungle tribes1 the wild forests of      
,sarguja  are supposed to be infested   
with ,bhts1 and if any one goes there   
rashly he is attacked through their     
influence with diarrhoea and  vomiting4 

,the site of the present ,british       
,residency at ,kathmndu in  ,nepl was   
specially selected by the ,neplese as it
 was a barren patch1  supposed to be the
 abode of demons4 ,so1 in ,scotland1 the
 local spirit  lives in a patch of      
untilled ground1 known as the ,gudeman's
 field  or ,cloutie's ,croft4 #eij      
,owls and ,bats4    ,the goblins of the 
churchyard type very often take the form
 of owls  and bats1 which haunt the     
abodes of the dead4 ,screech owls are   
held  unlucky in our days1 says ,aubrey4
 #eia          ,sedit in adverso        
nocturnus culmine bubo1                 
,funereosque graves edidit ore sonos4   
,the ,strix1 or screech owl1 in ,roman  
folk-lore was supposed to suck the      
blood of young children4 ,another form  
of the word in ,latin is ,striga1       
meaning a hag or witch4 ,the ,lilith of 
the ,jews1 the night monster  of our    
latest version of the ,old ,testament1  
becomes in the ,rabbinical  stories     
,adam's first wife1 the ,queen of demons

 and murderess of  young children1 who  
is the night hag of ,milton4 #eib       
,the ,kumaun owl legend is that they had
 originally no plumes of their  own1 and
 were forced to borrow those of their   
neighbours1 who pursue  them if they    
find them abroad at daylight4 ,owl's    
flesh is a powerful  love philter1 and  
the eating of it causes a man to become 
a fool and  to lose his memory2 hence1  
women give it to their husbands1 that as
  a result of the mental weakness which 
it produces they may be able  to carry  
on their flirtations with impunity4 ,on 
the other hand1 the  owl is the type of 
wisdom1 and eating the eyeballs of an   
owl gives  the power of seeing in the   
dark1 an excellent example of           
sympathetic  magic4 ,if you put an owl  
in a room1 go in naked1 shut the door   
and  feed the bird with meat all night1 
you acquire magical powers4 ,i once  had
 a native clerk who was supposed to have
 gone through this ordeal1  and was much
 feared accordingly4 ,here we have      

another instance of  the nudity charm4  
,in the same way in ,gujart1 if a man   
takes seven  cotton threads1 goes to a  
place where an owl is hooting1 strips   
naked1  ties a knot at each hoot1 and   
fastens the thread round the right arm  
of a fever patient1 the fever goes away4
 #eic        ,ghosts and ,burial        
,grounds4    ,to return to the          
connection of ghosts with burial        
grounds4 ,at ,bishesar  in the ,hills1  
the ,hindu dead from ,almora are burnt4 
,the spirits  of the departed are       
supposed to lurk there and are          
occasionally  seen4 ,sometimes1 under   
the guidance of their leader ,bholanth1 
whom  we have mentioned already1 they   
come1 some in palanquins and some  on   
foot1 at night1 to the ,almora ,bzr and 
visit the merchants'  shops4 ,death is  
supposed to follow soon on a meeting    
with their  processions4 ,these ghosts  
are supposed to be deficient in some of 
their members4 ,one has no head1 another
 no feet1 and so on2 but they  can all  

talk and dance4 #eid        ,mutilation4
    ,this illustrates another principle 
about ghosts1 that mutilation  during   
life is avoided1 as being likely to turn
 the spirit into a  malignant ghost     
after death4 ,this is the reason that   
many savages  keep the cuttings of their
 hair and nails1 not only to put them   
out  of the way of witches1 who might   
work evil charms by their means1  but   
also that the body when it rises at the 
,last ,day may not be  deficient in any 
part4 #eie ,this also explains the      
strong feeling  among ,hindus against   
decapitation as a form of execution1 and
 the  dread which ,musalmns exhibit     
towards cremation4 ,it also1 in all     
probability1 explains the lame demons1  
which abound all the world  over1 like  
,hephaistos1 ,wayland ,smith1 the       
,persian shma1 the ,asmodeus  of the    
book of ,tobit1 and the ,club-footed    
,devil of ,christianity4 ,the  prejudice
 against amputation1 based on this idea1
 is one of the many  difficulties which 

meet our surgeons in ,india4            
,ghosts of ,old ,ruins4    ,another     
place where ghosts1 as might have been  
expected1 resort is in  old ruins4 ,many
 old buildings are1 as we have seen1    
attributed to the  agency of demons1 and
 in any case interference with them is  
resented  by the ,deus loci who occupies
 them4 ,this explains the number of old 
ruined houses which one sees in an      
,indian town1 and with which no  one    
cares to meddle1 as they are occupied by
 the spirits of their  former owners4   
,the same idea extends to the large     
bricks of the  ancient buildings which  
are occasionally disinterred4 ,dr4      
,buchanan  describes how on one occasion
 no one would assist him in digging out 
an ancient stone image4 ,the people told
 him that a man who had made  an attempt
 to do so some time before had met with 
sudden death4 #eif  ,the landlord of the
 village stated that he would gladly use
 the bricks  from these ruins1 but that 
he was afraid of the consequences4 ,so1 

in ,bombay1 interference with the bricks
 of an ancient dam brought  ,guinea worm
 and dysentery into a village1 and some 
labourers were  cut off who meddled with
 some ancient tombs at ,ahmadnagar4 #eig
  ,general ,cunningham1 in one of his   
,reports1 describes how on one          
occasion1 when carrying on some         
excavations1 his elephant escaped1  and 
was recovered with difficulty2 the      
people unanimously attributed  the      
disaster to the vengeance of the local  
ghosts1 who resented his  proceedings4  
,the people who live in the             
neighbourhood of the old city  of ,sahet
 ,mahet are1 for the same reason1 very  
unwilling to meddle with  its ruins1 or 
even to enter it at night4 ,when ,mr4   
,benett was there1  a storm which       
occurred was generally believed to be a 
token of the  displeasure of the spirits
 at his intrusion on their domains4 #eih
  ,the tomb of ,shaikh ,mna ,shh at     
,lucknow was demolished during the      
,mutiny1 and the workmen suffered so    

much trouble from the wrath of  the     
saint1 that when the disturbances were  
over they collected and  rebuilt it at  
their own expense4    ,the same theory  
exists in other countries4 ,thus1 in the
 ,isle of ,man1  a good ,manx scholar   
told me how a relative of his had carted
 the  earth from an old burial ground on
 his farm and used it as manure  for his
 fields1 and how his beasts died        
afterwards4 ,it is possible  for a      
similar reason that a house in ruins is 
seldom pulled down  and the materials   
used for other buildings2 where that has
 been done  misfortunes have ensued4    
#eii    ,in the ,konkan it is believed  
that all treasures buried underground1  
all the mines of gold1 silver1 and      
precious stones1 all old caves and  all 
ruined fortresses1 are guarded by       
underground spirits in the shape  of a  
hairy serpent or frog4 ,these spirits   
never leave their places1  and they     
attack and injure only those persons who
 come to remove the  things which they  

are guarding4 #fjj ,in short1 these     
places are like  the ,sith ,bhruaith    
mounds in ,scotland1 which were         
respected1 and it  was deemed unlawful  
and dangerous to cut wood1 dig earth    
there1 or  otherwise disturb them4 ,in  
the same way the sites of ancient       
villages  which abound in ,northern     
,india are more or less respected4 ,they
 were  abandoned on account of the      
ravages of war1 famine1 or pestilence1  
and  are guarded by the spirits of the  
original owners1 these calamities  being
 self-evident proofs of the malignity   
and displeasure of the  local deities4  
,mine and ,cave ,spirits4    ,we have   
already mentioned incidentally the mine 
spirits4 ,it is not  difficult to see   
why the spirits of mine and cave should 
be malignant  and resent trespass on    
their territories1 because by the nature
 of  the case they are directly in      
communication with the under-world4 ,in 
the folk-tales of ,somadeva we have more
 than one reference to a  cave which    

leads to ,ptla1 the rifted rock whose   
entrance leads to  hell4 ,others are the
 entrance to fairy palaces1 where dwell 
the ,asura  maidens beneath the earth4  
#fja ,of a mine at ,patna1 ,dr4         
,buchanan  writes3 ,a stone-cutter who  
was in my service was going into one of 
the shafts to break a specimen1 when the
 guide1 a ,muhammadan trader1           
acquainted with the fears of the        
workmen1 pulled him back in alarm1  and 
said1 ',pull off your shoes6 ,will you  
profane the abode of the  gods8' ,under 
the same belief1 the ,cornish miners    
will allow no  whistling underground4   
#fjb    ,mr4 ,spencer suggests that the 
respect for caves is based on the early 
practice of burial in such places4 #fjc 
,at any rate1 the belief is  very       
general that spirits and deities live in
 caves4 ,there is a whole  cycle of     
fairy legend centering round the belief 
that some of the  heroes of old live in 
caves surrounded by their faithful      
followers1  and will arise some day to  

win back their kingdom4 ,thus1 ,bruce   
and  his enchanted warriors lie in a    
cave in ,rathlin ,island1 and one day   
they will arise and win back the island 
for ,scotland4 #fjd ,the same  tale is  
told of ,arthur1 ,karl the ,great1      
,barbarossa1 and many other  heroes4    
,the same tale appears in ,oriental     
folk-lore in the shape of  the          
,ashbu-'l-,kahf1 the companions of the  
cave1 the seven sleepers  of ,ephesus4  
,so the famous ,alha of the ,bundelkhand
 epic is said to be  still alive4 ,he   
makes regular visits on the last day of 
the moon to  ,dev ,srad's temple on the 
,mahiyr ,hill1 where he has been        
repeatedly  seen and followed4 ,but he  
sternly warns any one from approaching  
him1  and the main proof of his presence
 is that some unknown hand puts a  fresh
 garland on the statue of the goddess   
every day4 #fje        ,cave ,deities4  
,in ,india many deities live in caves4  
,there are cave temples of ,kl1         
,annaprna1 and ,sraj ,nryan1 the ,sun   

god1 at ,hardwr4 ,kumaun abounds  in    
such temples4 ,that at ,gaur ,udyr is   
where ,siva and ,prvat once  halted for 
the night with their marriage           
procession4 ,their attendants  overslept
 themselves and were turned into the    
stalactites for which the  cave is      
famous4 ,another is called from its     
depth ,ptla ,bhuvaneswar1  from the roof
 of which a white liquid trickles4 ,the 
attendant of the  shrine says that this 
was milk in the olden days1 but a greedy
 ,jogi  boiled his rice in it and since 
then the supply has ceased4 ,another  is
 called ,gupt ,gang or the hidden       
,ganges1 whose waters may be  heard     
rushing below4 ,hence bathing there is  
as efficacious as in the  sacred river  
itself4 #fjf ,among the ,korwas of      
,chota ,ngpur1 their  bloodthirsty deity
 has a cave for her residence4 ,mahdeva1
 say the  ,gonds1 shut up the founders  
of their race in a cave in the          
,himlayas1  but ,lingo removed the stone
 and released sixteen crores of ,gonds4 

,talo  ,daitya1 a noted demon of        
,kthiwr1 lives in a cave where a lamp is
  lit which never goes out1 however     
violently the wind may blow or the  rain
 may fall4 ,saptasr ,dev1 a much dreaded
 spirit in the ,konkan1  lives in a     
cave2 such is also the case with the    
eight-armed ,dev  at ,asthbhuja1 in the 
,mirzapur ,district4 ,her devotees have 
to creep  through a narrow passage into 
what is now the shrine of the goddess1  
but is said to have been1 and very      
probably was1 a cave4 #fjg    ,when the 
,korwas of ,mirzapur have to enter a    
cave1 they first  arm themselves with a 
rude spear and axe as a protection      
against  ,bhts4 ,there are two haunted  
caves in the ,mircha and ,banka ,hills  
in ,sarguja4 ,the ,mircha cave is       
inhabited by a demon called ,mahdni     
,deo1 who is much feared4 ,not even a   
,baiga can enter this cave1 but  many of
 them have seen his white horse tied up 
near the entrance1  and green grass and 
horsedung lying there4 ,in the cave on  

the ,banka  ,hill lives a ,dno1 whose   
name either no one knows or dares to    
tell4 ,no  one ventures to enter his    
cave1 and he worries people in dreams   
and  brings sickness1 unless a ,baiga   
periodically offers a cock with black   
and white feathers below the cave1 makes
 a fire sacrifice and throws  some      
grains of rice in the direction of the  
mountain4 ,when this ,deo  is enraged1 a
 noise which sounds like ,gudgud6       
,gudgud6 comes from the  cave4 ,he is   
also heard shouting at night1 and when  
cholera is coming  he calls out         
,khabardr6 ,khabardr6 ,be cautious6 ,be 
cautious6 ,any  one who goes near the   
cave gets diarrhoea4 ,captain           
,younghusband has  recently solved the  
mystery of the famous ,lamp ,rock cave  
of ,central  ,asia1 which is simply the 
light coming through a concealed        
aperture  at the rear of the entrance4  
#fjh    ,many caves1 again1 have        
acquired their sanctity by being        
occupied by  famous ,hindu and          

,muhammadan saints4 ,such are some of   
the ,buddhistic  caves found in many    
places1 which are now occupied by their 
successors  of other faiths4 ,there is a
 cave at ,bhuili1 in the ,mirzapur      
,district1  which has a very narrow     
entrance1 but miraculously expands to   
accommodate any possible number of      
pilgrims4 ,they say that when the  saint
 ,salm ,chishti came to visit ,shh      
,vilyat at ,agra1 the stone seat  in    
front of the mosque of the latter was   
large enough to accommodate  only one   
person1 but when ,salm ,chishti sat on  
it its length was  miraculously doubled4
 #fji    ,these cave spirits are common 
in ,european folk-lore4 ,such are the   
,buccas and ,knockers of the ,cornwall  
mines1 #faj and the ,kobolds of         
,germany4 ,falstaff speaks of learning1 
a mere hoard of gold kept by  a devil4  
,burton thus sums up the matter3        
,subterraneous devils are  as common as 
the rest1 and do as much harm4 ,these   
7saith ,munster7  are commonly seen     

among mines of metals1 and are some of  
them noxious2  some1 again1 do no harm4 
,the metal men in many places account it
 good  luck1 a sign of treasure and rich
 ore1 when they see them4 ,georgius     
,agricola reckons two more notable kinds
 of them1 ,getuli and ,kobali2  both are
 clothed after the manner of mortal men1
 and will many times  imitate their     
works4 ,their office is1 as ,pictorius  
and ,paracelsus  think1 to keep treasure
 in the earth1 that it be not all at    
once  revealed4 #faa        ,bhts       
,treasure ,guardians4    ,this leads us 
to the common idea that ,bhts1 like the 
,cornwall  ,spriggans1 #fab guard       
treasure4 ,ill luck very often attaches 
to treasure-trove4 ,some years ago a    
,chamr dug up some treasure  in the     
ancient fort of ,atranji ,khera in the  
,etah ,district4 ,he did  his best to   
purge himself of the ill luck attaching 
to it by giving  away a large portion in
 charity4 ,but he died a beggar1 and the
 whole  country-side attributes his ruin

 to the anger of the ,bhts who guarded  
the treasure4 ,some time ago an old man 
came into my court at ,mirzapur  and    
gave up two old brass pots1 which he had
 found while ploughing  about a year    
before4 ,since then he had suffered a   
succession of  troubles1 and his son1   
who was with him when he found the      
property1  died4 ,he then called a      
conference of sorcerers to consider the 
matter1  and they advised him to appease
 the ,bht by giving up the treasure4 ,he
  further remarked that the ,sarkr or   
,government doubtless knew some  ,mantra
 or charm which would prevent any harm  
to it from taking over  such dangerous  
property4 ,occasionally1 however1 the   
,bht is worsted1  as in a ,kumaun tale1 
where an old man and his daughter-in-law
 tie up  a ,bht and make him give up    
five jars full of gold4 #fac            
,treasure is often thus kept guarded in 
sacred caves4 ,in ,jaynagar is  said to 
be the treasury of ,indradyumna1 sealed 
with a magic seal4 ,he  was king of     

,avanti1 who set up the image of        
,jaganntha in ,orissa4 ,the  spot       
presents the appearance of a plain      
smooth rock1 which has been  perhaps    
artificially smoothed4 ,it is said that 
,indradyumna had  a great warrior1 whom 
he fully trusted and raised to the      
highest  honours4 ,at last this man     
began to entertain the idea of asking   
his  master's daughter in marriage4 ,the
 king1 hearing this1 was sorely  wroth1 
but his dependent was too powerful to be
 easily subdued4 ,so  he contrived that 
a cavern should be excavated1 and here  
he removed  all his treasure1 and when  
all was secured he invited the warrior  
to  the place4 ,the man unsuspectingly  
went in1 when ,indradyumna let fall  the
 trap-door and sealed it with his magic 
seal2 but he was punished  for his      
wickedness by defeat at the hands of the
 ,muhammadans4 #fad    ,in ,ireland the 
,leprehaun1 a little cobbler who sits   
under the hedge  and whose tapping as he
 mends his shoes may be heard in the    

soft  summer twilight1 is a guardian of 
treasure1 and if any one can seize  him 
he will give a pot of gold to secure his
 escape4 #fae        ,fairy ,gifts4     
,in connection with these treasure      
guardians1 we reach another  cycle of   
folk-lore legends1 that of gifts or     
robberies from  fairy-land4 ,professor  
,rhys1 writing of the ,celts1 well      
explains the  principle on which these  
are based4 #faf ,the ,celts1 in common  
with  all other peoples of ,aryan race1 
regarded all their domestic comforts  as
 derived by them from their ancestors in
 the forgotten past1 that  is to say    
from the departed4 ,they seem1          
therefore1 to have argued  that there   
must be a land of untold wealth and     
bliss somewhere in  the nether world    
inhabited by their dead ancestors2 and  
the further  inference would be that the
 things they most valued in life had    
been procured from the leaders of that  
nether world through fraud  or force by 
some great benefactor of the human race2

 for it seldom  seems to have entered   
their minds that the powers below would 
give  up anything for nothing4 ,hence   
the many tales which thus account  for  
the bringing of fire and other blessings
 to man4    ,of the same type are the   
usual tales of the fairy gifts4 ,thus1  
in  one version from ,patna we read that
 one day a corpse came floating  down   
the river1 and a ,faqr announced that   
this was ,chn ,hji4 ,he  was duly buried
 and honoured1 and in many places he    
used to keep  silver and gold vessels   
for the use of travellers4 ,if anyone   
wanted  a vessel1 he had only to say so1
 and one used to float out of the       
water4 ,but a covetous man appropriated 
one1 and since then the supply  has     
ceased4 #fag ,the same legend is told of
 the great ,karsota lake  in ,mirzapur1 
and of numbers of others all over the   
country4 ,the  culprit is generally a   
,banya1 or corn-chandler1 the type of   
sneaking  greediness4 ,the same story   
appears constantly in ,european         

folk-lore1  as is shown by ,mr4         
,hartland's admirable summary4 #fah     
,another version current in ,india also 
corresponds with the ,western           
tradition4 ,this is where a person      
receives a gift from the fairies1  which
 he does not appreciate1 and so loses4  
,thus1 in a tale from  ,rpur1 in the    
,central ,provinces1 the goatherd used  
to watch a  strange goat1 which joined  
his flock4 ,one day it walked into the  
tank and disappeared4 ,while the        
goatherd was looking on in wonder1  a   
stone was thrown to him from the water1 
and a voice exclaimed1  ,this is the    
reward of your labour4 ,the disappointed
 goatherd knocked  the stone back into  
the water with his axe4 ,but he found   
that his axe  had been changed by the   
touch into gold4 ,he searched for the   
stone1  but could never find it again4  
#fai    ,in another tale of the same    
kind1 the cowherd tends the cow of the  
fairy1 and1 following the animal into a 
cave1 receives some golden  wheat4 ,in a

 third version1 the fool throws away a  
handful of golden  barley1 and only     
comes to know of his mistake when his   
wife finds  that some fuel cakes1 on    
which he had laid his blanket1 had      
turned  into gold4 #fbj ,so1 at         
,pathari1 in ,bhopl1 there lived a      
,muni1 or  a ,pr1 in a cave unknown to  
any one4 ,his goat used to graze with   
the  herdsman's flock4 ,the shepherd1   
one day1 followed the goat into the     
cave and found an old man sitting intent
 in meditation4 ,he made a  noise to    
attract the saint's attention1 who asked
 the object of his  visit4 ,the herdsman
 asked for wages1 whereupon the saint   
gave him a  handful of barley4 ,he took 
it home1 and1 in disgust1 threw it on   
fire1  where his wife soon after found  
it turned into gold4 ,the herdsman  went
 back to thank the old man1 but found   
the cave deserted1 and its  occupant was
 never heard of again4 ,the shepherd    
devoted the wealth1  thus miraculously  
acquired1 to building a temple4 #fba    

,underground ,treasure4    ,this        
underground kingdom1 stored with untold 
treasure1 appears in other  tales4      
,thus1 ,kfir ,kot1 like many other      
places of the same kind1 is  supposed to
 have underground galleries holding     
untold treasures4 ,one  day a man is    
said to have entered an opening1 where  
he found a flight  of steps4 ,going down
 the steps1 he came to rooms filled with
 many  valuable things4 ,selecting a    
few1 he turned to go1 but he found the  
entrance closed4 ,on dropping the       
treasure the door opened again1 and  it 
shut when he again tried to take        
something with him4 ,according to       
another version he lost his sight when  
he touched the magic wealth1  and it was
 restored when he surrendered the       
treasure4 #fbb    ,another tale of the  
same kind is preserved by the old       
,buddhist  traveller1 ,hwen ,thsang4    
#fbc ,there was a herdsman who tended   
his  cattle near ,bhgalpur4 ,one day a  
bull separated from the rest of the     

herd and roamed into the forest4 ,the   
herdsman feared that the animal  was    
lost1 but in the evening he returned    
radiant with beauty4 ,even his  lowing  
was so remarkable that the rest of the  
cattle feared to approach  him4 ,at last
 the herdsman followed him into a cleft 
of the rock1 where  he found a lovely   
garden filled with fruits1 exquisite of 
colour and  unknown to man4 ,the        
herdsman plucked one1 but was afraid to 
taste it1  and1 as he passed out1 a     
demon snatched it from his hand4 ,he    
consulted  a doctor1 who recommended him
 next time to eat the fruit4 ,when he   
again met the demon1 who as before tried
 to pluck it out of his hand1  the      
herdsman ate it4 ,but no sooner had it  
reached his stomach than it  began to   
swell inside him1 and he grew so        
enormous1 that although his  head was   
outside1 his body was jammed in the     
fissure of the rock4 ,his  friends in   
vain tried to release him1 and he was   
gradually changed into  stone4 ,ages    

after1 a king who believed that such a  
stone must possess  medical virtues1    
tried to chisel away a small portion1   
but the workmen1  after ten days'       
labour1 were not able to get even a     
pinch of dust4    ,these treasure rocks1
 which open to the touch of magic1 are  
common  in folk-lore4 #fbd              
,ghosts of ,roads4    ,bhts are also    
found at roads1 cross-roads1 and        
boundaries4 ,it is  so in ,russia1      
where1 at cross-roads1 or in the        
neighbourhood of  cemeteries1 an        
animated corpse often lurks watching for
 some unwary  traveller whom it may be  
able to slay and eat4 #fbe ,thus1 in the
  ,hills1 and indeed as far as ,madras1 
an approved charm for getting  rid of a 
disease of demoniacal origin is to plant
 a stake where four  roads meet1 and to 
bury grains underneath1 which crows     
disinter  and eat4 #fbf ,the custom of  
laying small-pox scabs on roads has     
been already noticed4 ,the same idea is 
probably at the root of the  old        

,english plan of burying suicides at    
cross-roads1 with a stake  driven       
through the chest of the corpse4 ,in the
 eastern parts of the  ,north-,west     
,provinces we have ,sewanriya1 who1 like
 ,terminus1 is a  special godling of    
boundaries1 and whose function is to    
keep foreign  ,bhts from intruding into 
the village under his charge4 ,for the  
same  reason the ,baiga pours a stream  
of spirits round the boundary4 ,this  is
 also probably the basis of a long      
series of customs performed1  when the  
bridegroom1 with his procession1 reaches
 the boundary of the  bride's village4  
,of the ,khndh godling of boundaries1 we
 read3--,he  is adored by sacrifices    
human and bestial4 ,particular points   
upon the  boundaries of districts1 fixed
 by ancient usage1 and generally upon   
the highways1 are his altars1 and these 
demand each an annual victim1  who is   
either an unsuspecting traveller struck 
down by the priests1  or a sacrifice    
provided by purchase4 #fbg              

,ghosts of ,empty ,houses4    ,bhts     
particularly infest ancient empty       
houses4 ,if a house be  unoccupied for  
any time1 a ,bht is sure to take up his 
quarters  there4 ,such houses abound    
everywhere4 ,the old ,fort of ,agori on 
the  ,son is said to have been abandoned
 on account of the malignancy  of its   
,bhts4 ,not long ago a merchant built a 
splendid house in the  ,mirzapur ,bzr1  
and was obliged to abandon it for the   
same reason4 ,the  ,collector's house at
 ,sahranpur is haunted by a young       
,english lady2  there is one in the     
,jhnsi cantonment1 where a ,bht1 in the 
form of  a ,faqr1 dressed in white      
clothes1 appears at night4 ,fortunately 
he  is of a kindly disposition4         
,ghosts of ,flowers4    ,bhts           
occasionally take up their abode in     
flowers1 and hence it is  dangerous to  
allow children to smell them4 ,in       
,kumaun the ,betaina  tree 7,melia      
sempervivens7 is supposed to be infested
 by ,bhts1 and  its flowers are never   

used as offerings to the gods4 #fbh     
,but1  on the other hand1 as we shall   
see elsewhere1 flowers and fruits  are  
considered scarers of demons4 ,bhts1 it 
is believed1 do their  cooking at noon  
and evening1 so women and children      
should be cautious  about walking at    
such times1 lest they should tread      
unwittingly upon  this ghostly food and 
incur the resentment of its owners4 #fbi
 ,in  the same way the ,scotch fairies  
are supposed to be at their meals  when 
rain and sunshine come together4 ,in    
,england1 at such times the  devil is   
said to be beating his wife1 and in     
,india they call it the  ,jackal's      
wedding4 #fcj        ,the ,hearth4      
,among the many places where ,bhts      
resort comes the house hearth4 ,this    
probably in a large measure accounts for
 the precautions taken by  ,hindus in   
preparing and protecting the family     
cooking-place1 and  smearing it with    
fresh cowdung1 which is a scarer of     
demons4 ,the  idea was common among all 

the ,aryan races1 #fca but it is found  
also among the ,drvidian tribes1 who    
perform much of the worship  of ,dulha  
,deo and similar family guardians at the
 family hearth4 ,in  ,northern ,india1  
when a bride first goes to the house of 
her husband  she is not permitted to    
cook4 ,on an auspicious day1 selected by
  the family priest1 she commences her  
duties1 and receives presents  of money 
and jewellery from her relations4 ,among
 the low castes1  at marriages a special
 rite1 that of ,matmangara1 or lucky    
earth1  is performed1 when the earth    
intended for the preparation of the     
marriage cooking-place is brought home4 
,the women go in procession  to the     
village clay-pit1 accompanied by a      
,chamr beating a drum1  which is        
decorated with streaks of red lead4 ,the
 earth is dug by the  village ,baiga1   
who passes five shovelfuls into the     
breast-cloth of  a veiled virgin1 who   
stands behind him4 ,so1 in ,bihr1 after 
bathing  the bride and bridegroom1 the  

mother or female guardian brings home  a
 clod of earth1 out of which a rude     
fireplace is prepared4 ,on this  butter 
is burnt1 and paddy parched on the      
threshold of the kitchen1  where the    
spirit is supposed to dwell4 ,a goat is 
sacrificed at the  same time1 and some  
of this parched paddy is reserved1 to be
 flung  over the pair as they make the  
marriage revolutions4 #fcb    ,for the  
same reason great care is taken of the  
ashes1 which must be  removed with      
caution and not allowed to fall on the  
ground4 ,we have  seen that it is used  
to identify the spirits of the returning
 dead1  and ashes blown over by a holy  
man are used to expel the ,evil ,eye4   
,in  ,bombay a person excommunicated    
from caste is re-admitted on swallowing 
ashes given him by the religious teacher
 of the caste4    ,most ,hindus         
particularly dislike being watched at   
their meals1  and make a pretence of    
eating in secret4 ,if on a walk round   
your  camp you come on one of your      

servants eating1 he pretends not to     
recognize his master1 and his hang-dog  
look is the equivalent of the  ordinary 
salaam4 ,this is an idea which prevails 
in many parts of the  world4 ,the       
,vaishnava sect of ,rmnujas #fcc are    
very particular in  this respect4 ,they 
cook for themselves1 and should the meal
 during its  preparation1 or while they 
are eating1 attract the looks of a      
stranger1  the operation is instantly   
stopped1 and the food buried in the     
ground4        ,ghosts of ,filthy       
,places4    ,bhts1 again1 frequent      
privies and dirty places of all kinds4  
,hence  the caution with which a ,hindu 
performs the offices of nature1 his     
aversion to going into a privy at night1
 and the precaution he uses of  taking a
 brass vessel with him on such          
occasions4 ,mr4 ,campbell supposes  this
 to depend on the experience of the     
disease-bearing properties  of dirt4    
#fcd ,this belief explains the puzzling 
inconsistencies  of ,hindus of all      

classes that the house1 house door1 and 
a little in  front is scrupulously      
clean1 while the yard may be a dung-heap
 or a  privy4 ,as long as the house is  
clean1 the ,bht cannot come in4 ,let    
him live in the privy2 he cannot do much
 harm there4        ,the ,house ,roof4  
,lastly comes the house roof4 ,we have  
already seen that the ,drvidian  tribes 
will not allow their women to touch the 
thatch during a  whirlwind4 ,so1 most   
people particularly object to people    
standing on  their roof1 and in a       
special degree to a buffalo getting upon
 it4 ,it  is on the roof1 too1 that the 
old shoe or black pot or painted tile   
is always kept to scare the ,bhts which 
use it as a perch4                      
,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4                   
,,notes      #a ,on the assimilation by 
,rome of ,celtic faiths1 see ,rhys1     
,origin  and ,growth of ,religion as    
illustrated by ,celtic ,heathendom1 #b  
sq4    #b ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1     
#agh4    #c ,leland1 ,etruscan ,remains1

 #i4    #d ,at ,pushkar and ,idar4      
,monier ,williams1 ,brhmanism and       
,hinduism1  #eff sqq4    #e ,devat in   
,sanskrit properly means the state or   
nature of a deity1  divinity1 without   
any very decided idea of inferiority4   
,in modern  usage it certainly has this 
implication4    #f ,panjb ,ethnography1 
#aac4    #g ,cunningham1 ,archological  
,reports1 ii4 #aad1 #cdb1 #cec2 iii4    
#aaj1  #aab2 xiii4 #fc2 ,rjputna        
,gazetteer1 ii4 #afj2 ,fhrer1           
,monumental  ,antiquities1 #f1 #ej1     
#ade1 #bhf4    #h ,hunter1 ,orissa1 i4  
#ahh2 ,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4 #abh4
    #i ,asiatic ,quarterly ,review1 ii4 
#bcf4    #aj ,sherring1 ,sacred ,city of
 the ,hindus1 #ei1 #aeg2 ,bholanth      
,chandra1  ,travels1 ii4 #chd4    #aa   
,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and       
,hinduism1 #cdb4    #ab ,wilson1        
,essays1 ii4 #chd4    #ac ,growse1      
,mathura1 #ahj4 ,the story of ,joshua   
7x4 #ab-ad7 is an  obvious parallel4    
#ad ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #be4    

#ae ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4       
#bjj-bff4    #af ,max ,mller1 ,ancient  
,sanskrit ,literature1 #ec1 note4    #ag
 ,hall1 ,vishnu ,purna1 ii4 #aej2       
,journal ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1    
#ahfb1 p4 #aab4    #ah ,tod1 ,annals1 i4
 #eig4    #ai ,dalton1 ,descriptive     
,ethnology1 #acj1 #acb1 #acc1 #ada1     
#aeg1 #aei1  #ahf1 #bbc2 ,elliott1      
,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 #bee2   
,hislop1  ,papers1 #bf4    #bj          
,folk-lore1 iv4 #ceh4    #ba ,gordon    
,cumming1 ,from the ,hebrides to the    
,himlayas1 ii4 #afd2  ,brand1           
,observations1 #abf2 ,henderson1        
,folk-lore of the ,northern  ,counties1 
#fa2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4  
#ih1 #egc4    #bb ,frazer1 ,golden      
,bough1 ii4 #bcd2 ,grimm1 ,household    
,tales1  ii4 #dic1 #ebd2 ,leland1       
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #afj2        
,hartland1  ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #ii1
 #aci1 #agj4    #bc ,knowles1 ,kashmr   
,folk-tales1 #c2 fire is used in the    
same way2  ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1

 #cb1 #bga2 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4  
#db2  ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 #ajd4    
#bd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #gj4    #be i4   
#ej4    #bf ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1  
ii4 #dae4    #bg x4 #he1 #e4    #bh     
,bombay ,gazetteer1 xiii4 #ic4    #bi   
,merchant of ,venice1 v4 #a2 ,hamlet1   
iv4 #g4    #cj ,five ,hundred ,points of
 ,good ,husbandry1 ,february2 see other 
references collected by ,frazer1 ,golden
 ,bough1 i4 #cah4    #ca ,mrs4 ,mr      
,hasan ',ali1 ,manners and ,customs of  
the ,muhammadans of  ,india1 i4 #bge4   
#cb ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bbb2 iv4 #cee4     
#cc ,institutes1 vi4 #i2 ,wilson1       
,vishnu ,purna1 #ade1 #bge note4    #cd 
,ewald1 ,antiquities of ,israel1 #cdi   
sq42 ,goldziher1 ,mythology  among the  
,hebrews1 #fc4    #ce ,odes1 iii4 #bc1  
#a1 #b1 and compare ,job xxxi4 #bf1 #bg2
 ,psalm  lxxxi4 #c4    #cf ,lady ,wilde1
 ,legends1 #bje sq4    #cg ,campbell1   
,notes1 #ahg4    #ch ,sherring1 ,sacred 
,city1 #bba2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1
 ii4 #db4    #ci ,hunter1 ,orissa1 ii4  

#adj4    #dj ,sarat ,chandra ,mitra1    
,vestiges of ,moon-worship in ,bihr and 
,bengal1 in the ,journal                
,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1   
#ahic4    #da ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bba2     
,monier ,williams1 ,brhmanism and       
,hinduism1  #cdc4    #db ,hardy1        
,eastern ,monachism1 #adi4    #dc       
,folk-lore1 ii4 #bbh4    #dd ,oppert1   
,original ,inhabitants of ,bharatavarsa1
 #ig1 #ih1 #dj4    #de ,ovid1 ,fasti1   
iv4 #gbh2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aac2 
,folk-lore1  ii4 #abh2 ,dalton1         
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #cbf2 ,indian  
,antiquary1  ii4 #ij2 iii4 #fh2 vii4    
#abf sqq42 ,wilson1 ,essays1 s4v4 ,hol2 
,leviticus xviii4 #ba2 #b ,kings xxiii4 
#aj2 ,herklot1 ,qnn-i-,islm1  s4v4      
,muharram4    #df ,cunningham1          
,archological ,reports1 xvi4 #bh4    #dg
 ,lear1 i4 #b4    #dh ,brihat ,sanhita4 
,manning1 ,ancient ,india1 i4 #cga4     
#di ,demonology1 i4 #de4    #ej ,mrs4   
,mr ,hasan ',ali1 ,observations1 i4 #big
 sq4    #ea ,travels1 #cja4    #eb      

,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4    
#iac sq4    #ec ,north ,indian ,notes   
and ,queries1 i4 #ch4    #ed ,brand1    
,observations1 #ffe2 ,aubrey1 ,remaines1
 #cg1 #he4    #ee ,the ,celtic form of  
the myth is given by ,rhys1 ,lectures1  
#adj sq42  the ,indian legend in ,muir1 
,ancient ,sanskrit ,texts1 ii4 #bc4     
#ef ,golden ,bough1 i4 #cca sq42 and see
 ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1  ii4 #bfb4   
#eg ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnology1 #aad4 
#eh ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 i4 #bia1 with  
note ii4 #edc4    #ei ,for instances1   
see ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #agi4   
#fj ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xi4 #ee4    #fa 
,campbell1 ,notes1 #gi4    #fb          
,folk-lore1 ii4 #bih4    #fc ,bombay    
,gazetteer1 xxii4 #gij4    #fd ,fryer1  
,travels1 #dah2 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ha4 
#fe ,custom and ,myth1 i4 #bhe2 ii4     
#bbi1 note4    #ff ,campbell1 ,notes1   
#gh sqq4    #fg ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of  
,north-,east ,scotland1 #bjf2 ,aubrey1  
,remaines1 #cg2 ,ewald1 ,antiquities of 
,israel1 #cd2 ,spencer1  ,principles of 

,sociology1 i4 #bei1 #cad2 ,grimm1      
,teutonic ,mythology1  ii4 #fdc4    #fh 
,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bfa4 
#fi ,elliott1 ,settlement ,report1 #abe4
    #gj ,settlement ,report1 #afh4      
#ga ,folk-lore1 i4 #aec4    #gb ,virgil1
 ,georgics1 i4 #dhg2 neid1 vii4 #ada2   
,horace1 ,odes1  i4 #cd1 #e4    #gc     
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bbi4    #gd   
,peri ,potamn4    #ge i4 #chhh sqq4     
#gf ,mathura1 #agi sq4    #gg ,duncker1 
,history1 iv4 ,,ii1 note2 ,romesh       
,chandra ,datt1 ,history  of            
,civilization1 i4 #id4    #gh ,gregor1  
,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1   
#da4    #gi ,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4
 #bbd2 ,rjputna ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bai4  
#hj ,karnl ,gazetteer1 #ca4    #ha      
,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 i4 ,,ii2    
,madden1 ,journal ,asiatic  ,society1   
,bengal1 #ahdg1 #bbh1 #djj2 ,wright1    
,history of ,nepl1 #aed1 #afc4    #hb   
,madden1 loc4 cit41 #bcc4    #hc ,loc4  
cit41 i4 #ad4    #hd ,sleeman1 ,rambles1
 i4 #ag4    #he ,central ,provinces     

,gazetteer1 #bfd4    #hf ,folk-lore1    
iii4 #cb4    #hg ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1  
i4 #cgd4    #hh ,odyssey1 v4 #dej2 and  
for other instances see ,tylor1         
,primitive  ,culture1 ii4 #bac2         
,campbell1 ,notes1 #cbe sqq4    #hi     
,growse1 ,mathura1 #ee2 ,tod1 ,annals1  
i4 #fge2 ,oldfield1 ,sketches  from     
,nepl1 ii4 #bjd4    #ij ,atkinson1      
,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #ghh1 #hcb4   
#ia ,berar ,gazetteer1 #ce4    #ib      
,folk-lore1 i4 #aeb1 #bji2 iii4 #gb4    
#ic ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #abc4    #id      
,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #cac4    #ie     
,folk-lore1 ii4 #bhd1 #eji2 ,hunt1      
,popular ,romances1 #aid2  ,campbell1   
,popular ,tales1 ii4 #bje2 ,conway1     
,demonology1 i4 #aaj sq42  ,sir ,w4     
,scott1 ,letters on ,demonology1 #he2   
,spencer1 ,principles  of ,sociology1 i4
 #bai2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1    
#cff2 ,aubrey1  ,remaines1 #cj2 ,gordon 
,cumming1 ,from the ,hebrides to the    
,himlayas1  i4 #aci2 ,tylor1 ,primitive 
,culture1 i4 #aji sq42 ii4 #bjh2        

,gregor1  ,folk-lore1 #ff sq42 ,lady    
,wilde1 ,legends1 #baf2 ,tawney1 ,katha 
,sarit  ,sgara1 i4 #eh4    #if ,tylor1  
,primitive ,culture1 i4 #aji4    #ig    
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ahh4    #ih   
,primitive ,culture1 i4 #ajh sq42       
,demonology1 i4 #bje4    #ii ,folk      
,medicine1 #bh sq4    #ajj ,legends1 #hb
 sq4    #aja ,brand1 ,observations1     
#dhj4    #ajb ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman 
,remains1 #bdb4    #ajc ,herklots1      
,qnn-i-,islm1 #ba1 #ff sq1 #bib2        
,hughes1 ,dictionary  of ,islm1 s4v4    
#ajd ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #ahe4 
#aje ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1    
#aad2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1  ii4  
#a2 iii4 #g2 iv4 #fh4    #ajf ,frazer1  
,golden ,bough1 i4 #ajb4    #ajg ,sirsa 
,settlement ,report1 #agh4    #ajh      
,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #beh2          
,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #aah4    
#aji ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #abd4      
#aaj ,ball1 ,jungle ,life in ,india1    
#eca2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1  ii4  
#aff2 ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1  

i4 #b2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1  #bcf    
sqq4    #aaa ,campbell1 ,notes1 #djd4   
#aab ,forbes1 ,settlement ,report1 #da4 
#aac ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1  
#ejd1 with note2 ,katha ,sarit  ,sgara1 
i4 #dii4    #aad ,fhrer1 ,monumental    
,antiquities1 #hj1 #acd4    #aae        
,eastern ,india1 ii4 #dc4    #aaf ,rhys1
 ,lectures1 #ahd4    #aag ,hunt1        
,popular ,romances1 #bib4    #aah       
,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4    
#gic1 #gih4    #aai ,ibid41 iii4 #ch4   
#abj ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1   
iii4 #bf4    #aba ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #had
 sq42 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #aac2    
,berr ,gazetteer1 #afi4    #abb ,from   
the ,mnasa ,khanda2 ,atkinson1 ,himlayan
 ,gazetteer1  ii4 #cjh4    #abc ,rjputna
 ,gazetteer1 ii4 #aca4    #abd ,science 
of ,fairy ,tales1 chapter vi42 ,berr    
,gazetteer1 #adh4    #abe ,hunt1        
,popular ,romances1 #aid4    #abf       
,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 #bj2     
,fhrer1 ,monumental  ,antiquities1 #bf2 
,bhandra ,settlement ,report1 #dg2      

,temple1 ,legends  of the ,panjb1 i4    
#ci4    #abg ,oppert1 ,ancient          
,inhabitants1 #dfg2 ,grimm1 ,household  
,tales1  ii4 #dff4    #abh ,fhrer1 loc  
cit41 #bij4    #abi ,himlayan           
,gazetteer1 iii4 #bg4    #acj           
,archological ,reports1 iv4 #aib4       
#aca ,ibid41 viii4 #ci4    #acb ,ibid41 
xxi4 #age4    #acc ,ibid41 xiv4 #gf4    
#acd ,oppert1 ,original ,inhabitants1   
#bhi4    #ace ,popular ,tales1 i4 #agf4 
#acf ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales of      
,bengal1 #bha2 ,berr ,gazetteer1  #aeh1 
#agf2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4  
#db2 ,wright1 ,history  of ,nepl1 #ace2 
,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #ddj2 ,rjputna   
,gazetteer1  ii4 #bbj4    #acg i4 #ag4  
#ach ,mnasa ,khanda2 ,atkinson1         
,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #bga4    #aci 
,see the remarks by ,lassen1 quoted by  
,muir1 ,ancient ,sanskrit  ,texts1 ii4  
#ccg4    #adj ,spencer1 ,principles of  
,sociology1 i4 #bjj sq41 #baj1 #ccf4    
#ada ,remaines1 #ah2 ,sir ,w4 ,scott1   
,lectures on ,demonology1 #ace4    #adb 

,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ahh1 
#baj1 #bbc1 #bcj1 #ace1 #ahf2  ,lubbock1
 ,origin of ,civilization1 #cjf4    #adc
 ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4   
#hcb4    #add ,settlement ,report1 #aba1
 #bed4    #ade ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41 ii4
 #gib2 ,hislop1 ,papers1 #ad2 ,leland1  
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #aci4    #adf
 ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41 iii4 #dh4    #adg
 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #beb4    #adh   
,human sacrifice to the ,durg of the    
,vindhyas occurs often in  ,indian      
folk-lore4 ,see ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit  
,sgara1 i4 #fd4    #adi ,oppert1        
,original ,inhabitants1 #bd2 ,wright1   
,history of ,nepl1  #agh4    #aej       
,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 i4 #ea sq42 
,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit  ,sgara1 ii4     
#ccc4    #aea ,griffin1 ,rjas of the    
,panjb4    #aeb ,growse1 ,mathura1 #bgh1
 where all the local legends are given  
in full4    #aec ,anatomy of            
,melancholy1 #abc4    #aed ,primitive   
,culture1 ii4 #bfa4    #aee ,growse1    
,rmyana1 #cah4    #aef ,history of      

,india1 chapter iii4 #ba1 #ccj4    #aeg 
,sherring1 ,sacred ,city1 #abi4    #aeh 
,hislop1 ,papers1 #ah4    #aei          
,folk-lore1 iii4 #eda4    #afj ,yule1   
,marco ,polo1 i4 #bib1 #cja2 ,oldfield1 
,sketches from ,nepl1  ii4 #f4    #afa  
,notes and ,queries1 v4 ,ser4 iii4 #dbd2
 ,farrer1 ,primitive  ,manners1 #gj2    
,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #af4    #afb
 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #bfg4    #afc 
,ibid41 #bbd4    #afd ,science of ,fairy
 ,tales1 #ga sqq4    #afe ,campbell1    
,notes1 #aja sq4    #aff ,bombay        
,gazetteer1 xviii4 #daf2 xxi4 #ahj2     
,journal ,ethnological  ,society1 ,n4   
,s4 i4 #ih4 ,in the ,katha ,sarit       
,sgara1 i4 #aed1 the queen  ,kavalayaval
 worships the gods stark naked4    #afg 
,wright1 ,history1 #aj4    #afh ,leland1
 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #adh1 #cja4 
#afi ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 iii4 #ca1 #ce4    #agj ,golden ,bough1 
i4 #ag2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4
 #da1  #aae2 ,hartland1 ,science of     
,fairy ,tales1 #hd4    #aga ,settlement 

,report1 #bjg4    #agb ,i cannot procure
 this book4 ,the quotation is from      
,calcutta  ,review1 xv4 #dhf4    #agc   
,settlement ,report1 #ace4    #agd      
,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1    
vii4 #afb4    #age ,north ,indian ,notes
 and ,queries1 i4 #baj4    #agf ,oppert1
 ,original ,inhabitants1 #dgf1 quoting  
,mr4 ,fawcett4    #agg ,north ,indian   
,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #acd4    #agh 
,bombay ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bba4    #agi  
,indian ,antiquary1 v4 #e4    #ahj      
,bombay ,gazetteer1 iv4 #aad4    #aha   
,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4 #djh1      
quoting ,alberuni1 chapter viii4    #ahb
 ,ethnology in ,folk-lore1 #id4    #ahc 
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ajb4    
#ahd ,ibid41 ii4 #da2 ,lyall1 ,asiatic  
,studies1 #acf4    #ahe ,leland1        
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #cfi4    #ahf
 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #ad4    #ahg ,brand1
 ,observations1 #gec4    #ahh ,beal1    
,fah ,hian1 #gh4    #ahi ,panjb ,notes  
and ,queries1 iv4 #bah4    #aij ,turner1
 ,samoa1 #de4    #aia ,north ,indian    

,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aja2 ,aubrey1  
,remaines1  #ahj2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore
 of the ,northern ,counties1 #bd4       
#aib ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #ahj2          
,henderson1 ,folk-lore1 #bd2 ,panjb     
,notes and ,queries1 i4 #fe1 #ge1 #aji1 
#abf4    #aic ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1
 #bag4    #aid ,brand1 ,observations1   
#dca4    #aie ,archological ,reports1 v4
 #acf4    #aif ,north ,indian ,notes and
 ,queries1 i4 #ac4    #aig ,north       
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ace4 
#aih ,folk-lore1 i4 #afb4    #aii ,north
 ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ajf4
    #bjj ,folk-lore1 i4 #adi4    #bja   
,ibid41 iv4 #agc4    #bjb ,lady ,wilde1 
,legends1 #abh2 ,folk-lore1 i4 #adi1    
#aec2 iv4 #cea4    #bjc ,leland1        
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #gi4    #bjd 
,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 ii4    
#ajd sqq42 iii4 #cja4    #bje ,north    
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ci2    
,forbes1 ,oriental  ,memoirs1 i4 #bje4  
#bjf ,leland1 loc4 cit41 #bgb4    #bjg  
,archological ,reports1 xvi4 #cb4       

#bjh ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1   
ii4 #gfb4    #bji ,cunningham1          
,archological ,reports1 xvii4 #ada4     
#baj ,barth1 ,religions of ,india1 #bfe4
    #baa ,gubernatis1 ,zoological       
,mythology1 ii4 #ii sq4    #bab ,see    
instances collected by ,tylor1          
,primitive ,culture1  i4 #cgf sqq4      
#bac ,asiatic ,studies1 #ac sq4    #bad 
,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 i4 #dfg2    
,dalton1 ,descriptive  ,ethnology1 #adg4
    #bae ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bfj4       
#baf ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #agc4      
#bag ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #adj4     
#bah ,journey through ,oudh1 ii4 #acc4  
#bai ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bfj4    #bbj   
,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #ada    
sq42 ,panjb ,notes and  ,queries1 iv4   
#i4    #bba ,dowson1 ,classical         
,dictionary1 s4v4    #bbb ,gazetteer1   
#cbc4    #bbc ,papers1 #af4    #bbd     
,ibid41 #bc sq4    #bbe ,madden1        
,journal ,asiatic ,society ,bengal1     
#ahdh1 p4 #fjj2 ,hunt1  ,popular        
,romances1 #gc4    #bbf ,buchanan1      

,eastern ,india1 iii4 #ch4    #bbg      
,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #bbe sqq42 
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1  iii4 #aha  
sq4    #bbh ,knowles1 ,folk-tales from  
,kashmr1 #aj4    #bbi ,original         
,inhabitants1 #dee4    #bcj ,central    
,india1 ii4 #bjf4    #bca ,tod1 ,annals1
 i4 #fg2 for other examples see         
,buchanan1 ,eastern  ,india1 ii4 #aca1  
#ceb1 #dgh2 ,central ,provinces         
,gazetteer1 #aaj4    #bcb ,panjb        
,ethnography1 #aad4    #bcc ,frazer1    
,golden ,bough1 ii4 #hc4    #bcd        
,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #h4   
#bce ,bombay ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bbj2     
,rjputna ,gazetteer1 iii4 #fe4    #bcf  
,gomme1 ,ethnology in ,folk-lore1 #cd   
sq4    #bcg ,frazer ,golden ,bough1 ii4 
#bcc4    #bch ,bhandra ,settlement      
,report1 #ea4    #bci ,ganga ,datt      
,upreti1 ,folk-lore of ,kumaun1         
,introduction1 vii4    #bdj ,dalton1    
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bbj1 #bha4    
#bda ,settlement ,report1 #beg4    #bdb 
,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bfh4 

#bdc ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of    
,bengal1 ii4 #eh4    #bdd ,temple1      
,wideawake ,stories1 #cii4    #bde      
,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #aad2   
,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #eah4    #bdf      
,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4    
#hbe4    #bdg ,channing1 ,settlement    
,report1 #cd4    #bdh ,maclagan1 ,panjb 
,census ,report1 #ajc sq4    #bdi       
,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #adf4 
#bej ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 ,letters on       
,demonology1 #adc4    #bea ,dalton1     
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #adg4    #beb  
,wilson1 ,essays1 i4 #ba2 ,bombay       
,gazetteer1 xvi4 #efh4    #bec ,jarrett1
 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4 #aei2 ,fhrer1       
,monumental  ,antiquities1 #aec4    #bed
 ,annals1 ii4 #ae4    #bee ,notes1 #adg4
    #bef ,mac,iagan1 ,panjb ,census     
,report1 #ajg4    #beg ,sherring1       
,sacred ,city1 #aai4    #beh ,panjb     
,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ce4    #bei    
,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1 #bei4   
#bfj ,for the ,celtic ,mothers see      
,rhys1 ,lectures1 #ajj1 #hii2 for       

,arabia1 ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1   
#agi4    #bfa ,lubbock1 ,origin of      
,civilization1 #adf2 ,starke1 ,primitive
  ,family1 #ag sqq42 ,letourneau1       
,sociology1 #chd4    #bfb ,benfey1      
,panchatantra1 i4 #da-eb2 quoted by     
,tawney1 ,katha  ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4     
#fch4    #bfc ,monier-,williams1        
,sanskrit ,dictionary1 s4v4 ,mtr2 for   
the ,nepl  enumeration1 ,oldfield1      
,sketches1 i4 #aea2 for ,bombay1        
,gazetteer1  xvii4 #gae4 ,in the ,katha 
,sarit ,sgara 7i4 #eeb71 ,nryan is their
  leader4 ,there is a very remarkable   
story of the gambler who swindled  the  
,divine ,mothers 7ibid41 ii4 #egd sqq474
    #bfd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #caa2       
,athenum1 #fth ,december1 #ahgi2        
,folk-lore ,record1 iii4 ,part i4 #aag  
sqq4    #bfe ,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #dcb
 sq4    #bff ,atkinson1 ,himlayan       
,gazetteer1 ii4 #hhd4    #bfg           
,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1    
vii4 #aeh4    #bfh ,growse1 ,mathura1   
#aaf1 #abe2 ,fhrer1 ,monumental         

,antiquities1  #bg1 #acb4    #bfi       
,bholanth ,chandra1 ,travels of a       
,hindu1 i4 #ch4    #bgj ,rig ,veda1     
viii4 #bc1 #be4    #bga ,brand1         
,observations1 #cca4    #bgb ,border    
,minstrelsy1 #dff4    #bgc ,tod1        
,annals1 ii4 #cfc sq41 #gfc2 ,conway1   
,demonology1 i4 #ed4    #bgd ,campbell1 
,notes1 #ade4    #bge ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 
#gjh2 ii4 #fgj4    #bgf ,hartland1      
,legend of ,perseus1 i4 chap4 iv4       
#bgg ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1  
#bcb4    #bgh ,gazetteer1 #bgf4    #bgi 
,rambles and ,recollections1 i4 #abc4   
#bhj ,stokes1 ,indian ,fairy ,tales1    
#adj sqq42 ,temple1 ,wideawake          
,stories1 #aji1 #cjb2 ,indian           
,antiquary1 iv4 #eg2 ,grimm1 ,household 
,tales1 ii4 #djj4    #bha ,dalton1      
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #fd2 other     
instances in  ,westermarck1 ,history of 
,human ,marriage1 #aeh sq4    #bhb      
,gazetteer1 i4 #age4    #bhc ,bombay    
,gazetteer1 xvii4 #bjj2 xxiii4 #ab2     
,campbell1 ,notes1  #ab sqq4    #bhd    

,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ig1  
#fj1 #df4    #bhe ,bombay ,gazetteer1   
xix4 #dfe4    #bhf ,grimm1 ,teutonic    
,mythology1 ii4 #aafa2 ,tylor1 ,early   
,history1  #adc2 ,spencer1 ,principles  
of ,sociology1 i4 #bbi2 ,sir ,w4 ,scott1
  ,lectures on ,demonology1 #aje4       
#bhg ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of    
,bengal1 i4 #agi4    #bhh ,leland1      
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #aec4    #bhi
 ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #aad4  
#bij ,indian ,antiquary1 viii4 #baa4    
#bia ,chevers1 ,medical ,jurisprudence  
for ,india1 #dae sq4    #bib ,risley1   
,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #fb4    #bic   
,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 
#aae2 ,frazer1 ,golden  ,bough1 i4 #ada 
sqq4    #bid ,rambles and               
,recollections1 i4 #bjg4    #bie ,nr    
,ahmad ,chishti1 ,ydgr-i-,chishti4      
#bif ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4   
#db1 #afg4    #big ,asiatic ,studies1   
#eg sq4    #bih ,rambles and            
,recollections1 i4 #bjh4    #bii        
,calcutta ,review1 xviii4 #fh4    #cjj  

,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 #aai1   
#bee4    #cja ,atkinson1 ,himlayan      
,gazetteer1 ii4 #hcc1 #haf sq4    #cjb  
,settlement ,report1 #bed sq4    #cjc   
,sultnpur1 ,settlement ,report1 #db4    
#cjd ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1         
,introduction1 xxiv4    #cje ,the chief 
authorities for ,hardaul are            
,cunningham1 ,archological  ,reports1   
xvii4 #afb sqq42 ,v4 ,a4 ,smith1        
,journal ,asiatic ,society of  ,bengal1 
#ahge4    #cjf ,settlement ,report1 #dea
 sq4    #cjg ,ferrier1 ,caravan         
,journeys1 #dea sq4    #cjh ,allahbd    
,pioneer1 #ajth ,march1 #ahia4    #cji  
,bombay ,gazetteer1 xxii4 #aee4    #caj 
,annals1 ii4 #gdd4    #caa ,bombay      
,gazetteer1 xvi4 #ebj2 ,campbell1       
,notes1 #if4    #cab ,wright1 ,history1 
#bba1 #bfg1 #bfh4    #cac ,central      
,provinces ,gazetteer1 #bgf4    #cad    
,gurgon ,settlement ,report1 #cg4       
#cae ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of    
,bengal1 i4 #acb4    #caf ,panjb ,notes 
and ,queries1 i4 #a2 iv4 #ea2 ,oudh     

,gazetteer1  i4 #cee1 #eag2 ,tod1       
,annals1 ii4 #ge4    #cag ,campbell1    
,notes1 #aib sqq4    #cah ,brhmanism and
 ,hinduism1 #bja4    #cai ,numbers of   
such charms are to be found in vols4 i41
 ii41 iii41  ,north ,indian ,notes and  
,queries4    #cbj ,settlement ,report1  
#bef4    #cba ,dalton1 ,descriptive     
,ethnology1 #ahh1 #beg4    #cbb ,north  
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #he4    
#cbc ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 i4 #ga sq41   
with note2 ,tylor1 ,primitive  ,culture1
 i4 #abg2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of          
,civilization1 #bcg2 ,farrer1           
,primitive ,manners1 #aei sq4    #cbd   
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bcb4    #cbe  
,campbell1 ,notes1 #gb sq4    #cbf      
,cooper1 ,flagellation and the          
,flagellants1 passim2 ,dalton1  loc4    
cit41 #bef2 ,campbell1 loc4 cit41 #dd   
sq42 for restoration to life  by        
beating1 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 
ii4 #bde4    #cbg ,nineteenth ,century1 
#ahhj4    #cbh ,atkinson1 ,himlayan     
,gazetteer1 ii4 #hcc1 #hbc4    #cbi     

,hindu ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #cf4     
#ccj ,settlement ,report1 #bef sq4      
#cca ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #acd2 and  
compare ,lubbock1 ,origin of            
,civilization1 #bea4    #ccb ,dalton1   
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bcb4    #ccc  
,himlayan ,gazetteer1 iii4 #ch4    #ccd 
,ferrier1 ,caravan ,journeys1 #aac4     
#cce ,travels in the ,himlayas1 i4 #dbh4
    #ccf ,o',brien1 ,multn ,glossary1   
#bah4    #ccg ,clouston1 ,popular       
,tales1 i4 #aia4    #cch ,gazetteer1    
#aia4    #cci ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bci4  
#cdj ,folk-lore1 iii4 #ac1 #chj2 iv4    
#daj2 ,hartland1 ,legend of  ,perseus1  
ii4 chap4 xi4    #cda ,annals1 ii4 #gag4
    #cdb ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,n4,e4  
,scotland1 #df1 #aeg4    #cdc ,panjb    
,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #db4    #cdd   
,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1     
#bic4    #cde ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman 
,remains1 #ccj2 for other instances1    
see ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 
#aja4    #cdf ,madden1 ,journal ,asiatic
 ,society1 ,bengal1 #ahdh1 p4 #ehc4     

#cdg ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #fd4
    #cdh ,rambles and ,recollections1 i4
 #bjc4    #cdi ,penseroso1 #hc1 #hd4    
#cej ,brand1 ,observations1 #dbd4       
#cea ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 i4 #af4    #ceb ,oppert1 ,original     
,inhabitants1 #ahg4    #cec ,hislop1    
,papers1 #f1 #dg4    #ced ,popular      
,tales1 ,introduction1 lxviii42         
,calcutta ,review1  ,april1 #ahhd4      
#cee ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4   
#ha4    #cef ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1
 i4 #bg4    #ceg ,settlement ,report1   
#aee4    #ceh ,brand1 ,observations1    
#ddg4    #cei ,panjb ,notes and         
,queries1 i4 #hf1 ii4 #ic4    #cfj ,with
 this compare the ,karnigor of          
,sindh--,hartland1 ,legend of  ,perseus1
 ii4 #bie4    #cfa ,journey through     
,oudh1 ii4 #ci4    #cfb ,dalton1        
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #agj4    #cfc  
,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hea sq4      
#cfd ,ibid4 ii4 #hga4    #cfe ,tylor1   
,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #aac4    #cff  
,hearn1 ,aryan ,household1 #ah2         

,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1  i4
 #bgj sq2 ,whitney1 ,oriental and       
,linguistic ,studies1 #ast ,ser4 #ei2   
,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 i4 #gc4    
#cfg ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1  
#acb1 #acc1 #aci1 #afj1 #bbi2           
,campbell1 ,notes1 #b sqq42 ,tylor1     
,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #aag4    #cfh  
,hislop1 ,papers1 #af sq4    #cfi       
,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #aeh4    #cgj       
,campbell1 ,notes1 #e2 ,tylor1 loc4     
cit41 ii4 #aaf4    #cga ,e4g4           
,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and       
,hinduism1 #bgh sqq4    #cgb ,see       
,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #agg4       
#cgc ,gubernatis1 ,zoological           
,mythology1 i4 #bgi4    #cgd ,north     
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ie4    
#cge ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vii4 #af sq4   
#cgf ,malcolm1 ,central ,india1 i4 #add4
    #cgg ,dalton1 ,descriptive          
,ethnology1 #adh4    #cgh ,rambles and  
,recollections1 i4 #bfi sqq4    #cgi    
,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1         
,introduction1 cxxi4    #chj ,berar     

,gazetteer1 #aia4    #cha ,for an       
account of this worthy see ,north       
,indian ,notes and  ,queries1 i4 #afc4  
#chb ,spencer1 ,principles of           
,sociology1 i4 #ahg2 ,lubbock1 ,origin  
of ,civilization1 #bhd2 ,tylor1         
,primitive ,culture1 i4 #deh sq4    #chc
 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian       
,people1 #cbg4    #chd ,hislop1 ,papers1
 #ai2 ,appendix1 iii4    #che ,panjb    
,ethnography1 #aae4    #chf ,annals1 i4 
#gi4    #chg ,ferguson1 ,history of     
,indian ,architecture1 #dgj2 ,rjputna   
,gazetteer1 iii4 #df2 ,growse1 ,mathura1
 #ach4    #chh ,berr ,gazetteer1 #aia4  
#chi ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ach4     
#cij ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #edd1 #edf1     
#fgf2 ,wright1 ,history of ,nepl1  #aei1
 #bab4    #cia ,north ,indian ,notes and
 ,queries1 ii4 #aii2 ,panjb ,notes and  
,queries1 iv4 #dd sq4 ,in the ,katha    
,sarit ,sgara 7,tawney1 ii4 #bed71  a   
mother proposes to go into the fire with
 her dead children4    #cib ,institutes1
 xi4 #hd4    #cic ,frazer1 ,golden      

,bough1 i4 #h4    #cid ,leland1         
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bjb4    #cie
 ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #dcj sq4    #cif    
,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1    
xvii4 #afj sqq42 ,buchanan1  ,eastern   
,india1 i4 #dhh2 ,north ,indian ,notes  
and ,queries1 ii4 #ch4    #cig ,oudh    
,gazetteer1 i4 #edj sq4    #cih ,oldham1
 ,memoir of ,ghazipur1 i4 #ee sq4       
#cii ,baillie1 ,n4-,w4,p4 ,census       
,report1 #bad4    #djj ,tod1 ,annals1   
ii4 #dj4    #dja ,atkinson1 ,himlayan   
,gazetteer1 ii4 #hag2 ,north ,indian    
,notes  and ,queries1 iii4 #e4    #djb  
,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #bhd4    #djc ,tod1
 ,annals1 i4 #fei sq4    #djd ,sherring1
 ,sacred ,city1 #aah1 #agd2 ,moorcroft1 
,journey to  ,ladakh1 i4 #aij4    #dje  
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #a2      
,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 #bij2           
,gazetteer1 ,n4-,w4,p41 vi4 #fcd2       
,dbistn1 ii4 #bd sq4    #djf ,atkinson1 
loc cit41 ii4 #hje2 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 
xi4 #cjj1 #cjb4    #djg ,cunningham1    
,archological ,reports1 xvi4 #bh2       

,grierson1 ,behr  ,peasant ,life1 #djg2 
,maithili ,chrestomathy1 #c sqq4    #djh
 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #bef4 
#dji ,berr ,gazetteer1 #aii sq4    #daj 
,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 i4 #hc4     
#daa ,cunningham1 ,archological         
,reports1 xi4 #abi4    #dab ,oudh       
,gazetteer1 i4 #eag4    #dac ,rambles   
and ,recollections1 i4 #aaf4    #dad    
,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4
 #bjj4    #dae ,berr ,gazetteer1 #aie4  
#daf ,the ,persian version of the play  
has been translated by ,sir  ,lewis     
,pelly4 ,see ,hughes' ,dictionary of    
,islm1 #ahe sq4    #dag ,the five ,prs  
give their name to the ,pr ,panjl pass  
in ,kashmr  7,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1   
ii4 #cgb1 note74 ,for another list of   
the  ,prs see ,temple's ,legends of the 
,panjb1 ii4 #cgb1 note4    #dah ,see    
,brand1 ,observations1 #aig4    #dai    
,for a very complete account of the     
cultus1 see ,mr4 ,r4 ,greeven's         
articles in ,vol4 ,i4 ,north ,indian    
,notes and ,queries1 afterwards         

republished as ,heroes ,five4    #dbj   
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #fd4    
#dba ,for instances see ,frazer1 ,golden
 ,bough1 i4 #bgi4    #dbb ,briggs1      
,farishta1 i4 #ehg4    #dbc ,for the    
history of ,masaud1 see ,oudh           
,gazetteer1 i4 #aaa sqq42  ,sleeman1    
,journey through ,oudh1 i4 #dh2 ,elliot1
 ,supplementary  ,glossary1 #ea4    #dbd
 ,maclagan1 ,panjb ,census ,report1     
#acb2 ,north ,indian ,notes  and        
,queries1 ii4 #ahb2 ,calcutta ,review1  
lx4 #gh sqq42 ,ibbetson1  ,panjb        
,ethnography1 #aae2 ,oldham1            
,contemporary ,review1 xlvii4 #dab2     
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aha    
sq42 ,temple1 ,legends of the  ,panjb1  
i4 #ff sqq4    #dbe ,ibbetson1 loc4 cit4
 #aae sq4    #dbf ,temple1 ,legends of  
the ,panjb1 i4 #aba sqq42 iii4 #bfa     
sqq42 ,tod1  ,annals1 ii4 #dib4    #dbg 
,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 #cc sq42        
,cunningham1 ,archological  ,reports1   
xvii4 #aei2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 
ii4 #a4    #dbh ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #ejb4 

#dbi ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #gb4
    #dcj ,rjputna ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cg4  
#dca ,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #bah2       
,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of         
,bengal1 i4 #da4    #dcb ,miss ,roalfe  
,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dhd2 ,temple1       
,wideawake ,stories1  #dbc2 ,knowles1   
,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 #ba2 ,clouston1 
,popular ,tales1  i4 #aag2 ,tawney1     
,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ad1 note1     
#ega4    #dcc ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 i4   
#acb sq4    #dcd ,ibbetson1 ,panjb      
,ethnography1 #aae4    #dce ,annals1 ii4
 #aii1 note4    #dcf ,central ,provinces
 ,gazetteer1 #aig sq41 #eae4    #dcg    
,for the ,history of ,fard1 see ,indian 
,antiquary1 xi4 #cc sq42  ,thomas1      
,chronicles of the ,pathn ,kings1 #bje2 
,ibbetson1 ,panjb  ,ethnography1 #aae2  
,sleeman1 ,rambles and ,recollections1  
ii4 #afe2  ,maclagan1 ,panjb ,census    
,report1 #aic4    #dch ,fhrer1          
,monumental ,antiquities1 #fi1 #bgj2    
,north ,indian ,notes  and ,queries1 ii4
 #ba1 #ef1 #aee1 #ahi4    #dci ,karnl   

,settlement ,report1 #aec4    #ddj      
,karnl ,gazetteer1 #ajc4    #dda ,north 
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ag4  
#ddb ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #ib4    #ddc  
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ha4   
#ddd ,mrs4 ,mr ,hasan ',ali1            
,observations on the ,muhammadans of    
,india1  ii4 #cbd4    #dde ,maclagan1   
,panjb ,census ,report1 #aih4    #ddf   
,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4
 #ah4    #ddg ,berr ,gazetteer1 #aib4   
#ddh ,o',brien1 ,multni ,glossary1 #adf4
    #ddi ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #ccd2     
,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1    
xvi4 #e4 ,for the ,chanod shrine1       
,bombay ,gazetteer1 vi4 #afj4    #dej   
,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #cfg4  
#dea ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 iii4 #add4    #deb ,eastern ,india1 i4 
#hb sq4    #dec ,panjb ,notes and       
,queries1 iii4 #adc4    #ded ,reports1  
i4 #ih1 #acj2 xiv4 #da2 xxiii4 #fc4     
#dee ,journal1 ,asiatic ,society of     
,bengal1 xiii4 #bje2 ,panjb ,notes  and 
,queries1 i4 #aji4    #def ,oudh        

,gazetteer1 i4 #aa sq4    #deg ,central 
,provinces ,gazetteer1 #age4    #deh    
,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4    
#ggg2 ,wright1 ,history1  #aad1 #abd4   
#dei ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #ch4    #dfj  
,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #baj sq4    #dfa   
,ibid41 i4 #h sq4    #dfb ,campbell1    
,notes1 #cff4    #dfc ,north ,indian    
,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ej4    #dfd    
,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #cgh4    #dfe
 ,forbes1 ,rs ,mla1 ii4 #ccb1 quoted by 
,campbell1 ,notes1 #ae4    #dff ,legend 
of ,perseus1 i4 #gb1 #bjg4    #dfg ,ll  
,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal1 #a1  
#aag1 #ahg2 ,tawney1  ,katha ,sarit     
,sgara1 i4 #eb1 #agb1 #cee1 #chb2 ii4   
#baf2 ,knowles1  ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1
 #aca1 #daf4    #dfh ,leland1 ,etruscan 
,roman ,remains1 #bdf4    #dfi          
,observations1 #fbe2 and see ,frazer1   
,golden ,bough1 i4 #aej2  ,lubbock1     
,origin of ,civilization1 #bbj2 ,tylor1 
,primitive ,culture1  ii4 #bg2 ,spencer1
 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bae sq42
 ,sir ,w4 ,scott1  ,letters on          

,demonology1 #ij4    #dgj ,panjb ,notes 
and ,queries1 iii4 #aff4    #dga        
,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ba1  
#dbj2 ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1  #dhi2   
,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #dcg4    
#dgb ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 iii4 #ca2 ,clouston1 loc4 cit41  ii4   
#bbh2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4
 #ehh4    #dgc ,fhrer1 ,monumental      
,antiquities1 #add4    #dgd ,panjb      
,ethnography1 #aaf4    #dge ,ibbetson1  
loc4 cit41 #aag4    #dgf ,aubrey1       
,remaines1 #aba2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1
 #dd1 #bcc4    #dgg ,campbell1 ,notes1  
#aga4    #dgh ,panjb ,notes and         
,queries1 i4 #ac2 ,north ,indian ,notes 
and  ,queries1 i4 #d4    #dgi ,panjb    
,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #eg4    #dhj   
,see ,cunningham1 ,archological         
,reports1 xvii4 #adg4    #dha ,dalton1  
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bfa4    #dhb  
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #ea2 ,ll
 ,bihri ,d1 ,folk ,tales1  #aii2        
,govinda ,smanta1 i4 #aji1 #aeb sq41    
#aeg2 ,north ,indian ,notes  and        

,queries1 i4 #hc4    #dhc ,bombay       
,gazetteer1 xv4 #aej2 ,campbell1 ,notes1
 #agb4    #dhd ,panjb ,notes and        
,queries1 iv4 #e2 ,north ,indian ,notes 
and  ,queries1 ii4 #i2 iii4 #gd4    #dhe
 ,hislop1 ,notes1 i4 #c4    #dhf ,panjb 
,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aad1 #afg2    
,tylor1 ,primitive  ,culture1 i4 #ajb2  
,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #agg1 #aid2         
,campbell1 ,notes1 #agg4    #dhg        
,fausbll1 ,jtaka1 ii4 #ae sq42          
,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1  #aah4  
#dhh ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4  
#bed4    #dhi ,campbell1 ,notes1 #agg4  
#dij ,odyssey1 xvii4 #eda sq42 ,yule1   
,marco ,polo1 ii4 #cea2 ,aubrey1        
,remaines1 #agg4    #dia ,henderson1    
,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1  
#aag4    #dib ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bhi4     
#dic ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #aji4   
#did ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,gobinda ,smanta1 i4
 #aae sqq4    #die ,ralston1 ,russian   
,folk-tales1 #cjf4    #dif ,tawney1     
,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bca1 #edc4    
#dig ,ibid41 ii4 #bjh4    #dih ,wilson1 

,essays1 i4 #bf4    #dii ,buchanan1     
,eastern ,india1 i4 #fe1 #aff4    #ejj  
,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bef  
sqq4    #eja ,knowles1 ,kashmr          
,folk-tales1 #dc2 ,clouston1 ,popular   
,tales1  i4 #ace4    #ejb ,tawney1      
,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #baj2 ii4 #cah4
    #ejc ,journal ,royal ,asiatic       
,society1 ,n4,s4 ii4 #cjj2 ,ancient     
,sanskrit  ,texts1 iv4 #bdg2 ,wilson1   
,rig ,veda1 i4 #ajg4    #ejd ,manu1     
,institutes1 iii4 #ij2 ,haug1 ,aitareya 
,brhmanam1 ii4 #hg1  #ij sq4    #eje    
,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #acb2   
,lai ,behri ,d1 ,govinda  ,smanta1 i4   
#aag2 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bd sqq4       
#ejf ,journal ,asiatic ,society ,bengal1
 #ahdg1 p4 #ehb4    #ejg ,folk-lore1    
iii4 #cbc4    #ejh ,grimm1 ,household   
,tales1 ii4 #cha4    #eji ,hartland1    
,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #af4    #eaj    
,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #ge1 #bgj4   
#eaa ,miss ,frere1 ,old ,deccan ,days1  
#da1 #aih2 ,wright1 ,history of  ,nepl1 
#age2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #beg4     

#eab ,miss ,frere1 loc4 cit41 #hb1 #eh1 
#fb1 #bjh1 #bfh sqq42 ,knowles1  ,kashmr
 ,folk-tales1 #dg4    #eac ,atkinson1   
,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #ceb1 note2   
,cunningham1  ,archological ,reports1   
ii4 #ba4    #ead ,tylor1 ,early         
,history1 #caf2 ,herodotus1 i4 #fh4     
#eae ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 ii4    
#ie2 ,wideawake ,stories1 #djd sqq42    
,miss ,stokes1 ,fairy ,tales1 #bfa2     
,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #afa2   
,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #cjj2      
,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #db1  
#dg2 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4
 chap4 viii4    #eaf ,central ,provinces
 ,gazetteer1 #dbh2 ,cunningham1         
,archological  ,reports1 ix4 #adb2      
xviii4 #e2 ,indian ,antiquary1 vi4 #cfj2
 ,bombay  ,gazetteer1 xii4 #ddi2 compare
 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cid   
sq42  ,wright1 ,history of ,nepl1 #age2 
,folk-lore1 i4 #ebd4    #eag ,fhrer1    
,monumental ,antiquities1 #g1 #dj1 #ajc4
    #eah ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #dc1
 #ge4    #eai ,buchanan1 ,eastern       

,india1 i4 #hh2 iii4 #ef4    #ebj       
,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #dac2    
,hunt1 loc4 cit41 #acf4    #eba         
,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 #dbc4 
#ebb ,annals1 ii4 #chb1 note2 ,wright1  
,history of ,nepl1 #hf4    #ebc ,north  
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ga4  
#ebd ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #beg2  
,miss ,stokes1 ,fairy ,tales1  #bgc1    
#bia2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4  
#ih sq41 #cgh2 ,hunt1 ,popular          
,romances1 #ee4    #ebe ,cunningham1    
,archological ,reports1 xvii4 #a4       
#ebf ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 ii4 #a4    #ebg ,gazetteer1 xi4 #cjh4  
#ebh ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of    
,bengal1 i4 #cjc4    #ebi ,grimm1       
,teutonic ,mythology1 ii4 #ddi4    #ecj 
,campbell1 ,notes1 #aej4    #eca ,north 
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #eg1  
#hj1 #acj4    #ecb ,annals1 ii4 #fha4   
#ecc ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #ade1   
#bdd2 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1  ii4  
#aja2 ,folk-lore1 iv4 #ceb2 ,grimm1     
,household ,tales1 i4 #cdf4    #ecd ,ll 

,bihri ,d1 ,govinda ,smanta1 i4 #i2     
,north ,indian ,notes  and ,queries1    
iii4 #aii4    #ece ,bombay ,gazetteer1  
xxv4 #deg4    #ecf ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 
#cjh1 #caa4    #ecg ,ll ,behri ,d1      
,govinda ,smanta1 i4 #aeh4    #ech      
,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4
 #ahj4    #eci ,cunningham1             
,archological ,reports1 xx4 #if4    #edj
 ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1    
#bac4    #eda ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of 
the ,northern ,counties1 #cjh2 ,grote1  
,history of ,greece1 iv4 #bhe2          
,folk-lore1 i4 #afg4    #edb ,leland1   
loc4 cit41 #ie4    #edc ,traill1        
,asiatic ,researches1 xvi4 #acg sq4     
#edd ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1   
ii4 #hbj4    #ede ,tylor1 ,primitive    
,culture1 i4 #dbh sq4    #edf ,wright1  
,history1 #aec2 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1
 i4 #adb4    #edg ,traill1 ,asiatic     
,researches1 xvi4 #acg sq42 ,north      
,indian ,notes  and ,queries1 ii4 #bg4  
#edh ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #bbc4   
#edi ,brand1 ,observation1 #ega4    #eej

 ,oppert1 ,original ,inhabitants1 #eje4 
#eea ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1   
ii4 #hbe sqq42 ,madden1 ,journal        
,asiatic ,society ,bengal1 #ahdg1 p4    
#eii sqq4    #eeb ,panjb ,notes and     
,queries1 i4 #abj2 iii4 #aga4    #eec   
,traill1 ,asiatic ,researches1 xvi4     
#acg2 ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41  ii4 #hca2  
,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1     
#aja4    #eed ,grierson1 ,behr ,peasant 
,life1 #djh4    #eee ,dalton1           
,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bea4    #eef  
,campbell1 ,notes1 #chg2 ,hartland1     
,science of ,fairy ,tales1  #ic sqq4    
#eeg ,rig ,veda1 iv4 #ag1 #af2 i4 #ea1  
#ac4    #eeh ,burton1 ,arabian ,nights1 
i4 #i1 note4    #eei ,hughes1           
,dictionary of ,islm1 s4v4 ,genii2      
,burton1 ,arabian  ,nights1 passim4     
#efj ,eastern ,india1 i4 #ajf4    #efa  
,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #acb4 
#efb ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1    
#bhj4    #efc ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1
 #bec4    #efd ,ibbetson1 ,panjb        
,ethnography1 #aag4    #efe ,campbell1  

,notes1 #adi4    #eff ,frazer1 ,golden  
,bough1 i4 #ahe1 #ahg2 ii4 #bch4    #efg
 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1    
iii4 #bjd4    #efh ,campbell1 ,notes1   
#aef4    #efi ,tylor1 ,primitive        
,culture1 i4 #cjg2 ,pliny1 ,natural     
,history1  vii4 #b4    #egj ,rhys1      
,lectures1 #aef4    #ega ,leland1       
,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #aeh4    #egb
 ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bhh2 ,lady ,wilde1    
,legends1 #g1 #ci4    #egc ,tawney1     
,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #aih2         
,hartland1 ,science of  ,fairy ,tales1  
#db4    #egd ,risley1 ,tribes and       
,castes1 i4 #id4    #ege ,campbell1     
,notes1 #dhh4    #egf ,tawney1 ,katha   
,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bbg4    #egg         
,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4    
#icb4    #egh ,folk-lore1 iv4 #cfc4     
#egi ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #ccg4   
#ehj ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4 #aci4
    #eha ,oudh ,gazetteer1 ii4 #dah4    
#ehb ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 ii4 #gj1 with 
note4    #ehc ,lectures1 #fbf sq4       
#ehd ,the most recent authority on the  

subject1 ,mr4 ,hartland1 sums  up the   
matter thus3 ,it is founded on the      
belief that the child is  a part of the 
parent2 and1 just as after apparent     
severance of hair  and nails from the   
remainder of the body1 the bulk is      
affected by  anything which happens to  
the severed portion1 so as well after as
  before the infant has been severed    
from the parent's body1 and in our  eyes
 has acquired a distinct existence1 he  
will be affected by whatever  operates  
on the parent4 ,hence whatever the      
parent ought for the child's  sake to do
 or avoid before severance it is equally
 necessary to do or  avoid after4       
,gradually1 however1 as the infant grows
 and strengthens  he becomes able to    
digest the same food as his parents1 and
 to take  part in the ordinary          
avocations of their lives4 ,precaution  
then may  be relaxed1 and ultimately    
remitted altogether1--,legend of        
,perseus1  ii4 #djf4    #ehe ,brhmanism 
and ,hinduism1 #bbi4    #ehf ,dalton1   

,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aia2 ,risley1 
,tribes and  ,castes1 i4 #cbc2 ,tylor1  
,primitive ,culture1 i4 #hd4    #ehg    
,campbell1 ,notes1 #daj4    #ehh ,ibid4 
#ehi ,sirsa ,settlement ,report1 #cb4   
#eij ,wright1 ,history1 #ae2 ,yule1     
,marco ,polo1 i4 #bjc2 ,spencer1        
,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bdi sq42 
,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the  ,northern
 ,counties1 #bgh4    #eia ,remaines1    
#aji sq42 ,spencer1 loc4 cit41 i4 #cbi2 
,farrer1  ,primitive ,manners1 #bd1 #bbe
 sq4    #eib ,isaiah xxxiv4 #ad2        
,mayhew1 ,academy1 ,june #adth1 #ahhd2  
,conway1  ,demonology1 ii4 #ia sqq42    
,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4
 #bjb4    #eic ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ei4  
#eid ,journal ,asiatic ,society ,bengal1
 #ahdh1 p4 #fji2 ,benjamin1  ,persia1   
#aib2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4   
#dea4    #eie ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1  
i4 #bjd2 ,tylor1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #bcj2   
,early ,history1 #ceh2 ,cox1 ,mythology 
of the ,aryan ,nations1 ii4 #cbg2       
,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #ah4    #eif   

,eastern ,india1 i4 #dad4    #eig       
,bombay ,gazetteer1 xii4 #ac2 xvii4     
#gjc4    #eih ,oudh ,gazetteer1 iii4    
#bhf4    #eii ,folk-lore1 iii4 #hc4     
#fjj ,campbell1 ,notes1 #aej sq4    #fja
 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ddf1
 #eeh2 ii4 #aig4    #fjb ,hunt1 ,popular
 ,romances1 #dca4    #fjc ,principles of
 ,sociology1 i4 #bja4    #fjd ,lady     
,wilde1 ,legends1 #hf4    #fje ,north   
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bg4   
#fjf ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 ii4 #ajf2 iii4 #adg4    #fjg ,atkinson1
 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cba sq42    
,bombay ,gazetteer1  viii4 #ffj2 xi4    
#chc4    #fjh ,north ,indian ,notes and 
,queries1 i4 #ajc sq4    #fji ,ibid41   
ii4 #c4    #faj ,hunt1 ,popular         
,romances1 #hb4    #faa ,anatomy of     
,melancholy1 #abf4    #fab ,hunt1 loc4  
cit41 #ha4    #fac ,ganga ,datt ,upreti1
 ,folk-lore1 #aj4    #fad ,cunningham1  
,archological ,reports1 x4 #aag4    #fae
 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #ef2           
,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern 

,counties1 #cbj sq42 ,folk-lore1 iv4    
#ahj4    #faf ,lectures1 #bfe4    #fag  
,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 
#eh4    #fah ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 
chap4 vi4    #fai ,archological         
,reports1 xxiii4 #ia4    #fbj ,ibid41   
xvii4 #ca2 x4 #gb4    #fba ,north       
,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ,,ii4 #agd4
    #fbb ,ibid41 ,,ii4 #bi4    #fbc     
,julien's ,translation1 i4 #agi4    #fbd
 ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dih4    #fbe 
,ralston1 ,russian ,folk-tales1 #caa4   
#fbf ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 i4 #ajj4    #fbg ,macpherson1 ,khonds1 
#fg sq4    #fbh ,ganga ,datt1           
,folk-lore1 #ig4    #fbi ,panjb ,notes  
and ,queries1 iv4 #acb4    #fcj         
,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 ii4 #fc4    
#fca ,hearn1 ,aryan ,household1 #ee sq4 
#fcb ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4   
#def4    #fcc ,wilson1 ,essays1 i4 #ci4 
#fcd ,notes1 #afi4