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ijadbahg      ,,foods ,,and ,,culinary  
,,utensils ,,of ,,the ,,ancients        
,compiled from standard historical works
 by  ,,charles ,,martyn4                
,published by ,the ,caterer ,publishing 
,co41 ,new ,york     ,,contents4        
,page4 ,in the beginning--,the coming of
 the nations          #c  ,assyria and  
the other kingdoms of the tawny men     
#i  ,egypt and the ,egyptians           
#ac  ,the vegetable kingdom of ,ancient 
,egypt              #be  ,greece before 
the age of luxury                       
#cj  ,rome in the days of her greatest  

prosperity           #ci  ,the ancient  
,jews                                   
#di  ,the ,chinese                      
#fj     ,,in ,,the ,,beginning4   ,the  
influence exerted by different foods    
over the physical and mental faculties  
of mankind is so marked as to verify the
 famous pun of the philosophic          
,feuerbach1 ,der ,mensch ist was er isst
 7,man is what he eats74 ,the advance of
 civilization has always been           
accompanied by an increased knowledge of
 culinary matters1 until cooking has    
become a science and its various forms  
great in number4 ,so in tracing back the
 history of foods1 culinary utensils and
 their uses1 we of necessity trace back 
the history of the world4  ,it is of    
course impossible at this late date to  
determine what was the first food of    
primeval man2 ignorant as we are of even
 the approximate date of his first      
appearance and of the manner and means  
of that appearance4  ,but it is worthy  
of note that if he had not been endowed 

with an intelligence superior to that of
 the other inhabitants of the globe1 his
 existence here would have been very    
brief4 ,nature provided him with a body 
which1 in those days1 was well nigh     
useless4 ,his prehensile organs1 his    
teeth1 jaws1 feet and nails1 did not fit
 him for overcoming any of the          
difficulties entailed by the adoption of
 most foods prepared by nature4 ,he     
could not tear his prey conveniently nor
 crack many nuts1 nor grub roots1 nor   
graze4 ,his digestive viscera were in   
the middle age too bulky and heavy for  
the rapid movements of the carnivora2   
they were not long enough to extract    
nourishment from raw vegetables4 ,the   
only foods1 therefore1 primarily        
obtainable by him which he could use to 
advantage were fruits and soft-shelled  
nuts4  ,as man1 however1 advanced in    
knowledge1 his skill in the art of      
cooking rendered any or all objects used
 for nourishment by other mammalia fit  
subjects of diet for himself4 ,this may 

appear a sweeping assertion1 but the    
statements of reliable travelers prove  
its truth4 ,the fact should be carefully
 considered by those who advocate a diet
 exclusively of vegetables1 and by those
 few enthusiasts who preach that man was
 not intended to be a cooking animal4   
,whatever else may be clouded with      
doubt1 it is certain that man was so    
fashioned as to be compelled to eat in  
order to sustain life6 ,in the          
beginning1 instinct must have taught him
 that the consumption of food was the   
sine qua non of his existence4  ,when   
was the beginning8  ,the ,biblical      
chronology of events prior to the       
,deluge is not accepted by scientists4  
,the students of to-day believe1 and    
seek to prove1 that the earth has       
existed for several million years1 and  
has passed through many different       
stages2 that animal life was first      
evolved from the inanimate state of     
matter2 that man is the most highly     
finished creature that has as yet been  

attained in the ascending scale of      
evolution1 and that he will1 in the     
natural course of events1 make place for
 a still more nearly perfect being4     
,the exact date of the first appearance 
of man cannot now be ascertained4       
,geological research has led to the     
assertion that he probably existed      
thousands of years before the time      
usually assigned4 ,but if we commence   
our history from the last great glacial 
visitation we find that the conceded    
date of its occurrence1 about #e1jjj    
years before the birth of ,christ1      
coincides rather closely with the date  
of the creation as given in the book of 
,genesis4 ,assuming then that the       
neolithic1 or stone age followed not    
only the ice visitation1 but the        
creation 7to use a familiar phrase71 the
 theory of many scientists and the story
 of the ,bible agree on the one1 to us1 
essential point--the birth of the first 
people4  ,horace1 in his third satire   
7first book71 gives his views of the    

first food of the human race4 7,at that 
time1 six hundred years before the      
,christian era1 it was held that man was
 not created in a perfectly developed   
form1 but was engendered from beings of 
a different kind47 ,he says3 ,when first
 these creatures crawled out of the     
ground1 dumb and foul brutes1 they      
fought for nuts1 first with nails and   
fists1 then with sticks1 and later with 
weapons made of metal4 ,this coincides  
with the deduction made in the third    
paragraph1 that nuts have a just claim  
to the title of one of the first foods4 
,these savages must have suffered from  
exposure to the occasional inclemency of
 the weather4 ,to protect themselves1   
they1 being endowed with an             
ever-increasing power of reason1        
resorted to the skins of wild animals   
for covering4 ,failing to obtain a      
sufficient number from the carcasses of 
those which had died a natural death1   
they conceived the idea of destroying   
life in order to obtain the coveted     

article4 ,they may not at first have    
availed themselves of anything but the  
outer covering1 leaving the flesh to be 
eaten by other animals or birds1 but the
 flesh adhering to the hide would soon  
become offensive from decomposition1 and
 what is more probable than that their  
common sense soon directed them to      
remove it directly after being stripped 
from the slaughtered animal8 ,the teeth 
of the primitive man were constantly in 
use for many purposes2 so1 in tearing   
off the pieces of flesh with them1 may  
the first appetite for meat as food have
 been acquired4  ,it is difficult to    
determine when food was first subjected 
to the influence of heat2 it is still   
more useless to attempt to explain how  
the properties of fire were first       
discovered4 ,it is presumed that the    
first fire witnessed by man1 was caused 
by the fall of a meteorite1 a volcanic  
eruption or a lightning flash4 ,the     
observation of its peculiar effects     
excited the still dormant inventive     

spirit of the neolithic1 and he essayed 
the production of it himself4 ,evidence 
proves that he first attained his end by
 striking pieces of flint against iron  
pyrites and letting the sparks fall upon
 some combustible material1 placed      
accidentally or intentionally beneath4  
,it is easy to imagine that it was soon 
learned that fire would destroy human   
life and that the pleasing odor of the  
burning flesh led to the use of cooked  
meat as food4  ,the cradle of the       
fathers of the human race was           
undoubtedly the southern portion of     
,asia4 ,they were nomadic in their      
habits and satisfied their acquired     
cravings by hunting and fishing4 ,the   
stone floors of the caves in which they 
made their temporary abodes were        
admirably suited to the building of     
their rude fires4  ,ultimately these    
neolithics became owners of flocks and  
herds1 usually of sheep and goats1 and  
moved about from place to place in      
search of fresh pastures4 ,members of   

these flocks were slain from time to    
time as convenience dictated4 ,when for 
any reason food was scarce1 their other 
domestic animals1 even their dogs1 fell 
a prey to the insatiable appetite for   
blood4 ,the forests abounded with living
 things1 now generally classified under 
the title of game1 and these also       
contributed materially to the food      
supply4  ,no fancy methods of preparing 
meats or game were then practiced4      
,everything was either roasted or cooked
 by means of hot stones4 ,the roasting  
was in all probability accomplished by  
suspending the whole carcass of the     
animal1 denuded of the skin1 over       
burning embers1 composed of the limbs of
 trees broken up into suitable          
lengths--as indeed do the gypsies of    
,europe to the present day4 ,the roasted
 meat was at first separated from the   
body by the hand1 later by sharpened    
sticks or flint flakes1 subsequently by 
flint knives4 ,there is no evidence of  
any metal being used for that purpose   

before the ,deluge4  ,though these first
 people are known to have partaken      
freely of the flesh of animals and of   
the fruits of trees1 both of the nut and
 pulp varieties1 there is nothing that  
leads one to believe that fish was used 
as an article of food until after the   
,deluge4  ,turning again to the         
,scriptures1 many interesting things may
 be noted4 ,the first mention made of a 
flesh offering and of the ownership of  
domestic animals is in ,genesis1 when   
,abel gave of the firstlings of his     
flocks and of the fat thereof1 while    
,cain brought of the fruits of the      
ground4 ,the earliest mention of cooked 
animal flesh is found in ,genesis #h3   
#ba1 when ,noah offered up burnt        
offerings of every clean beast and every
 clean fowl after the ,deluge4 ,in the  
story of the creation1 man is enjoined  
to sustain life by vegetable food3      
,every herb bearing seed1 which is upon 
the face of all the earth1 and every    
tree in which is the fruit of a tree    

yielding seed were given to him for     
meat4 ,nothing was said about the flesh 
of animals4 ,but1 after the ,flood1 ,god
 blessed ,noah and his sons and said    
unto them3 99 99 99 ,every moving thing 
that liveth shall be meat for you1 even 
as the green herbs have ,i given you all
 things4  ,so in many ways scientists   
and the ,bible agree on the habits of   
the neolithics4 ,both state that the    
primitive food of man consisted of nuts 
and fruits2 both mention the subsequent 
possession of flocks and herds1 and both
 refer to the knowledge obtained later  
of the effects of fire on meat--with the
 one difference that the evolutionists  
seek to prove that the meat so roasted  
was eaten1 while the ,biblical man prior
 to the ,deluge offered it untouched to 
his ,maker4  ,although it is now        
generally acknowledged that the ,deluge 
was not universal1 it is undeniable that
 it marked an all-important epoch1 for  
from it may be said to date the recorded
 history of the present race of men4    

,from the posterity of ,noah sprang up  
the principal nations which have made   
the world what it is to-day4   ,,the    
,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,nations4  ,if we  
accept the biblical chronology of the   
events which immediately followed the   
,deluge1 we find that ,noah and his     
three sons1 ,shem1 ,ham and ,japheth1   
landed on ,mt4 ,ararat and fixed their  
habitations in the plains directly      
below4 ,a formal division of the earth  
into three portions was made by ,noah   
about a hundred years later1 when he was
 still in the prime of life and when men
 were beginning to multiply sufficiently
 to form colonies and settlements4 ,one 
portion was assigned to each of his sons
 with his posterity4  ,the three        
territories may be roughly classed as   
the northern1 or the region of the ruddy
 men2 the central1 the region of the    
tawny men1 and the southern1 the region 
of the blacks4  ,to the offspring of    
,japheth was allotted ,garbia 7the      
north7--,spain1 ,france1 the countries  

of the ,greeks1 ,sclavonians1           
,bulgarians and ,armenians4 ,the        
offspring of ,shem were given the       
central region--,palestine1 ,syria1     
,assyria1 ,samaria1 ,babel or           
,babylonia1 and ,hedjaz 7,arabia74 ,the 
sons of ,ham received the southern      
division--,teman 7or ,idumea71 ,africa1 
,nigritia1 ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,ethiopia1   
,scindia and ,india4  ,various causes   
scattered the posterities of the three  
brothers1 and nations were founded in   
many parts of the world4  ,ultimately   
six great monarchies were established1  
,chaldea1 ,assyria1 ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 
,media and ,persia4     ,,assyria ,,and 
,,other ,,kingdoms ,,of ,,the ,,tawny   
,,men4   ,the territories ruled by      
,chaldea1 ,assyria and ,babylonia were  
located almost entirely on the vast     
plains of ,mesopotamia4 ,although 7or   
rather because7 these nations were      
continually at war with one another they
 may be considered1 for present         
purposes1 as one country4  ,babylonia   

was the first to be settled1 with       
,nimrod1 the mighty hunter1 as its      
monarch1 about #bcej ,b4 ,c4  ,although 
,assyria advanced rather more in        
civilization than the other two1 the    
constant warfare waged and the varying  
degrees of supremacy and subjection held
 by the three kingdoms necessarily      
resulted in much intermingling of their 
inhabitants and a consequent similarity 
of domestic manners and customs as they 
emerged from barbarism4  ,agriculture   
soon became the most general industry4  
,wheat1 barley1 millet and sesame were  
largely raised4 ,other varieties of     
pulse and grains were plentiful also1 as
 well as many excellent fruits1 which   
have since been transported to our own  
countries with remarkable success4  ,the
 different grains were ground to varying
 degrees of fineness between two stones4
 ,the flour or meal was then moistened  
with water1 kneaded in a dish or bowl1  
and either rolled into thin cakes or    
pressed by the hand into small balls or 

loaves4  ,the wheaten bread was         
generally preferred1 but the poorer     
classes were perforce content with the  
cakes of coarse millet or durrha flour1 
eaten with milk1 butter1 oil or the fat 
of animals4  ,dates formed an important 
article of diet amongst the people of   
,chaldea and ,babylonia1 although they  
do not appear to have been very         
favorably regarded by the ,assyrians4   
,date groves flourished in many parts of
 the land1 and the fruit was dried and  
pressed into cakes4 ,these with goats'  
milk and such vegetables as gourds1     
melons and cucumbers helped nourish the 
great mass of the population4  ,other   
fruits1 some of them found in great     
numbers1 were pomegranates1 grapes1     
citrons1 pineapples1 oranges1 pears1    
apples and many small berries4  ,bread1 
wine and a kind of honey were made from 
the fruit of the palm tree4  ,king      
,sennacherib called ,assyria ,a land of 
corn and wine1 a land of bread and      
vineyards1 a land of oil1 olives and    

honey4  ,nature seems indeed1 to have   
blessed her first children with an      
abundance of the good things of life6   
,it does not appear that the flesh of   
domestic animals was eaten to any great 
extent1 and the inference is that it was
 beyond the means of most persons1 for  
when warriors1 upon an expedition1 were 
able to obtain it at the expense of     
others1 they freely indulged their      
appetites4 ,after their victories they  
killed and cut up sheep and oxen1 and   
roasted the joints over the embers of a 
wood fire4 ,sometimes they boiled the   
joints or the whole body in a huge pot  
or caldron1 over a dead wood fire--on   
which1 also1 pieces of the flesh were   
fried4  ,amongst the upper classes      
mutton appears to have been the favorite
 meat4 ,chickens were also considered a 
great delicacy4  ,as the races of those 
days1 with the exception probably of a  
few people closely confined in the      
cities1 were great hunters1 a plentiful 
supply of game was usually              

obtainable--venison1 antelopes' flesh1  
hares1 partridges1 etc4 ,the flesh of   
the wild boar was also eaten1 but there 
is no evidence to prove that the animal 
was domesticated with the intention of  
using it for food4  ,according to       
,herodotus1 some of the ,babylonian     
tribes ate nothing but fish1 dried in   
the sun1 pounded in a mortar until the  
fibres would pass through a fine cloth1 
and then kneaded into a sort of bread   
and baked4 ,at first a prejudice against
 this species of food seems to have     
existed1 but later it was held in much  
esteem4 ,the supply of both fresh and   
salt water fish was practically         
unlimited4  ,locusts were also eaten    
with great gusto4  ,the culinary        
arrangements and operations are not yet 
very clearly defined by the chroniclers4
  ,the fireplace1 built presumably of   
well-burned bricks1 was open at the top1
 about two feet in height1 and          
occasionally covering an area of many   
square feet4 ,whether it was of square  

or cylindrical shape does not appear4   
,over the top was set or suspended a    
large bronze caldron4  ,these caldrons  
were sometimes of great value4 ,they    
were usually circular in shape1 flat or 
nearly flat at the bottom1 without feet1
 and furnished at the rim with ears or  
rings to receive an arched handle or a  
hooked chain4 ,many belonging to the    
wealthier classes were embossed with    
flowers and otherwise richly ornamented4
 ,they were commonly known as seething  
pots4 ,they varied from eighteen inches 
to five feet in height1 and from two and
 a half to six feet in diameter4        
,roasting was perhaps the most common   
mode of preparing meat1 but it was also 
broiled1 slices being cut from the      
divided joints and transfixed with      
wooden spits4  ,for delicate operations1
 a fire of coal was later on made in a  
portable brazier4 ,the oven then used   
was cylindrical in form1 much deeper    
than wide1 and made of fire-burnt bricks
 or indurated clay4  ,in the houses of  

the wealthy1 and the palaces of the     
monarchs1 the cooks1 though usually     
slaves1 were treated with much respect4 
,they were distinguished by the wearing 
of a cap 7not unlike the tiara of the   
reigning sovereign1 except that it was  
devoid of jewels and unsurmounted by an 
apex or peak71 and they had numerous    
assistants to relieve them from all the 
menial labor4  ,the cook's knife1       
closely resembling the modern two-bladed
 dagger1 was usually made of bronze1    
often thickly gilded1 with a much       
ornamented hilt carved from the hard    
black wood of the ,syrian terebinth4    
,some1 however1 were fashioned from     
bone1 partly covered with metal and     
adorned with pins and studs of gold4    
,others had handles of ivory carved to  
represent the foreparts of bulls and    
other animals1 and many were embellished
 with precious stones4 ,quite a number  
were of copper1 with hollow handles4    
,among the kitchen utensils was a jug   
with a long neck1 an angular handle1 and

 a pointed bottom4 ,it was usually      
suspended from a nail or hook4  ,there  
was also a plentiful and varied supply  
of vases1 large and small1 pitchers for 
holding water and other liquids1 bowls1 
cups1 pans1 small bottles1 ladles1 jars 
and funnels--some of pottery and others 
of bronze1 some of simple form and      
others elaborately patterned4 ,the      
funnels were generally shaped like the  
wine strainers of to-day4  ,skins were  
often used for holding both wine and    
water4  ,the dining tables were         
supported by props with one or several  
feet1 in the houses of the rich made    
often of ivory and carved in the form of
 a lion or a hero such as ,atlas1 and   
among the poor of stone4  ,the plates   
and dishes were of stone1 alabaster or  
bronze4 ,the dishes were generally made 
with handles1 either fixed or movable1  
by which they could be carried or hung  
on pegs when not in use1 and the red    
unglazed basins bore inscriptions1 in   
cursive character1 running round the    

interior in many lines to the bottom4   
,the cups1 especially those used for    
wine1 were very beautiful4 ,the lower   
part was often modeled in the form of a 
lion's head from which the cup itself   
rose in a graceful outward curve4 ,many 
of them were of gold and silver4  ,to   
,assyria is due the birth of the        
culinary art and its gradual growth to a
 state closely bordering on perfection4 
,it will be noted that it was marked    
also by the manufacture of utensils and 
vessels far more costly and elaborate   
than any in use at the present time4    
,,egypt ,,and ,,the ,,egyptians4   ,the 
recorded history of ancient ,egypt which
 was1 according to ,herodotus1 known as 
,thebes1 commences with the reign of    
,menes1 or ,menas1 who is supposed to   
have been its first king4 ,he ascended  
the throne about #bcbj ,b4 ,c4  ,the    
growth of civilization among the early  
,egyptians was much more rapid than     
among the people of any contemporary    
nation4 ,even in the days of ,abraham   

and ,joseph they had attained to as high
 a degree of social culture as during   
the most glorious periods of their      
career4 ,in art and science their       
advancement was especially marked4  ,in 
her infancy1 ,egypt contented herself   
with the pursuits of agriculture1 the   
chase1 and1 as the habits of the people 
became more settled1 the rearing of     
cattle4  ,the domestic oxen were usually
 of the hump-backed variety4 ,but not   
only were the ordinary domestic animals 
tamed and reared1 but also animals such 
as gazelles and oryxes4  ,sheep1 though1
 do not appear to have been generally   
eaten2 in some parts it was1 indeed1    
unlawful to devour them4  ,goats were   
kept1 presumably for their milk1 and    
kids were occasionally allowed to browse
 on the vines in order to impart to     
their flesh a more delicate flavor4     
,pigs were generally looked upon as     
unclean1 and therefore unfit for food4  
,the chroniclers show them as used for  
food at only one festival4 ,those       

represented on the monuments were ugly  
in the extreme1 with long legs and      
necks1 rough hair1 and a crest of       
bristles running down the back4  ,beef  
and goose were more generally eaten than
 any other kind of animal food4 ,the    
flesh of the cow was1 though1 never     
consumed on account of its supposedly   
sacred character4  ,the animals chiefly 
hunted were the gazelle1 wild goat1 auk1
 wild ox1 stag1 wild sheep1 hare1       
porcupine and even the hyena4 ,the wild 
boar is not represented on the          
monuments1 but it probably thrived in   
ancient ,egypt1 for the country was     
admirably suited to its habits1 as is   
proved by its tenancy there at the      
present date4  ,in lower ,egypt1 people 
were in the habit of drying and salting 
birds of various kinds1 such as geese1  
teal1 quail1 duck1 and some of smaller  
size4  ,pigeons were also very plentiful
 and were much liked1 and many of the   
wading tribe1 as for instance the ardea1
 were so highly esteemed as to have been

 considered choice offerings for the    
gods4  ,the greatest favorite1 however1 
was the ,vulpanser1 known to us as the  
,egyptian goose1 which1 with some others
 of the same genus1 was caught alive and
 tamed4 ,they were also taken in a wild 
state to the poulterers' shops to be    
displayed for immediate sale1 and when  
not so disposed of were then often      
salted and potted in earthenware jars4  
,according to ,diodorus1 the eggs of    
domestic birds were hatched by the use  
of artificial heat furnished by manure4 
,of the wild birds1 the sic sac1 a small
 plover1 was often mentioned4  ,the     
river of ,egypt was noted for the       
excellent quality of its fish 7eaten    
both fresh and salted or dried71 many   
varieties of which seem to have been    
peculiar to it4 ,the ,israelites        
remembered with regret the fish which   
they did eat in ,egypt freely4  ,the    
kinds most highly regarded were the     
oxyrhynchus1 lepidotus and lotus4  ,the 
oxyrhynchus is now believed to have been

 the mormyrus or the mizdeh of the      
,arabs4 ,it has a smooth skin and a long
 nose1 pointed downwards4 ,in some      
districts it was held sacred to ,athor4 
,the lepidotus may have been the salmo  
dentex or the binny 7,cyprinis          
lepidotus74 ,as its name implies1 its   
body was covered with long scales4 ,its 
flesh was excellent4  ,the lotus1 sacred
 in the region of ,latopolis1 is        
supposed by ,de ,pauw to be the perca   
nilotica4  ,other varieties much liked  
were3 ,the oulti1 to modern palates the 
best of all2 the nefareh or ,nile       
salmon1 which occasionally attained the 
weight of one hundred pounds2 the       
sagbosa1 a kind of herring2 a species of
 mullet1 the shall1 shilbeh byad1 kilbel
 bahr1 7the ,nile dogfish7 a species of 
carp1 eels1 and turtles of the          
soft-shelled variety4  ,illustration3   
,roasting a goose over a fire of        
peculiar construction4  7,from a tomb at
 ,thebes47  ,eels were1 though1         
considered unwholesome in summer        

7,ibid474  ,crocodiles were considered  
sacred in the neighborhood of ,lake     
,moeris and of ,thebes1 but were eaten  
by the natives of the southern frontier4
  ,the many restrictions imposed by     
religion and custom on the diet of the  
early ,egyptians subjected them to much 
ridicule from the inhabitants of        
contemporary nations1 especially from   
the ,greeks4 ,anaxandrides taunted them 
in his verses4  ,the priests lived      
solely on oxen1 geese1 wine1 bread and a
 few vegetables4 ,mutton1 pork and fish 
were expressly forbidden them4 ,they    
were also warned to abstain from beans1 
peas1 lentils1 onions1 garlic and leeks4
 ,on fast days they ate only bread and  
drank only water4  ,the people of the   
higher classes probably ate only two    
meals a day1 as was the custom with the 
early ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the         
breakfast was usually served at #aj or  
#aa a4 m41 and the dinner or supper in  
the evening4  ,in the early ages1 before
 men had acquired the art of smelting   

ore1 many of the culinary utensils of   
the ,egyptians were either of stone or  
earthenware4  ,knives were made of flint
 or stone1 and were of two kinds1 one   
broad and flat1 the other narrow and    
pointed4  ,the skins of the goat and    
gazelle were fashioned into vessels for 
the carrying of water1 and pans1 dishes 
and vases for kitchen purposes were made
 of a red ware--sometimes of a light or 
yellow tint1 sometimes of a brilliant   
and polished appearance4  ,the          
,egyptians were acquainted with the use 
of glass at least as early as the reign 
of ,sesortasen ,,ii4 7more than #chjj   
years ago71 and made for it bottles and 
other utensils4 ,some of the former were
 made from two thicknesses of glass1    
enclosing between them bands of gold1   
alternating with a set of blue1 green or
 other color4  ,as the ,egyptians       
advanced in social culture1 the         
wealthier classes gave more and more    
attention to the pleasures of the table4
 ,banquets became more general and      

increasingly more elaborate4 ,the sums  
of money spent on some of these         
entertainments were fabulous2 they have 
never since been equalled in their      
costly1 wasteful magnificence4  ,the    
preparation of a big dinner was in those
 days a weighty undertaking1 for there  
were no big hotels to take the burden   
off the host's shoulders4 ,game had to  
be procured1 professionals engaged1     
extra attendants hired1 etc4  ,as all   
the meat used was freshly slaughtered1  
the kitchen and the butcher's department
 presented an active appearance for many
 hours previous to the feast4  ,in      
slaughtering1 it was customary to take  
the ox or other animal into a courtyard 
near the house1 tie its legs together   
and throw it to the ground1 to be held  
in that position by one or more persons 
while the butcher prepared to cut its   
throat1 as nearly as possible from one  
ear to the other1 sometimes continuing  
the opening downwards along the neck1   
the blood being received in a vase or   

basin to be utilized later in cooking4  
,the head was then taken off and the    
animal skinned1 the operators beginning 
with the leg and neck4 ,the first joint 
removed was the right foreleg or        
shoulder1 the other parts following in  
succession according to convenience4    
,one of their most remarkable joints1   
still seen in ,egypt 7although nowhere  
else7 was cut from the leg and consisted
 of the flesh covering the tibia1 whose 
two extremities projected slightly      
beyond it1 as seen in the illustration4 
,illustration3 ,the ,tibia1 a peculiar  
,egyptian joint4  ,servants carried the 
joints to the kitchen on wooden trays4  
,there they were washed and prepared for
 the different processes of cooking4    
,then the various cooks were kept busy  
scouring the utensils1 attending to the 
boiling1 roasting1 etc41 pounding spice1
 making macaroni and performing all the 
other details of kitchen work4  ,the    
head of the animal was usually given    
away in return for extra services1 such 

as the holding of the guests' sticks1   
but it was occasionally eaten by the    
people of the higher classes1 the       
assertion of ,herodotus to the contrary 
notwithstanding4  ,geese and other tame 
and wild fowl were served up entire1 and
 fish also came to table deprived of    
only the tails and fins4  ,vegetables   
were cooked in enormous quantities4     
,bronze caldrons of various sizes were  
used for boiling4 ,they were placed over
 the fire on metal stands or tripods or 
supported on stones4 ,some of the       
smaller vessels1 used for stewing meats1
 were heated over pans of charcoal4     
,they resembled almost exactly the      
magoor of modern ,egypt4  ,the mortars  
used for the pounding of spices were    
made of hard stone and the pestles of   
metal4  ,most of the bowls1 ewers1 jugs1
 buckets1 basins1 vases and ladles used 
in the kitchen were made of bronze      
alloyed with tin and iron4 ,the usual   
proportion of tin was #ab per cent4 and 
iron #a per cent41 although occasionally

 the amount of tin was as high as #ae   
7,ibid47 and as low as #f per cent4     
,illustration3 ,slaves boiling meat and 
stirring fire4  ,simpula1 or ladles1    
were commonly made of bronze 7often     
gilded71 with the curved summit of the  
handle1 which served to suspend the     
ladle at the side of the tureen or other
 vessel1 terminating in the likeness of 
a goose's head 7a favorite ,egyptian    
ornament74  ,small strainers or         
collanders of bronze were also used1    
though for kitchen purposes they were   
made of strong papyrus stalks or rushes4
  ,the spoons were of various forms and 
made from ivory1 wood and divers metals4
 ,in some the handle ended in a hook1 by
 which when required they were suspended
 on nails4 ,the handles of others were  
made to represent men1 women or animals4
 ,many were ornamented with lotus       
flowers4  ,skins were also used for     
holding wine and water4  ,the roasting  
was performed over fire burning in      
shallow pans4 ,these were regulated by  

slaves1 who raised them with pokers and 
blew them with bellows worked by the    
feet4  ,though the ,egyptians1 except   
when impelled by the desire for         
extravagant display1 partook sparingly  
of all but one or two meats1 they were  
fond of a great variety of cakes and    
dainty confections4 ,the more elaborate 
forms of pastry were mixed with fruits  
and spirits1 and shaped to represent    
animals1 birds and human beings4  ,the  
plainer rolls were generally mixed and  
shaped by hand and sprinkled with seeds 
before baking4 ,at other times1 though1 
they were prepared from a thinner       
mixture1 first well kneaded in a large  
wooden bowl 7the feet often being used  
for this purpose71 and then carried in  
vases to the chief pastry cook1 who     
formed it into a sort of macaroni upon a
 metal pan over the fire1 stirring the  
mixture with a wooden spatula1 whilst an
 assistant stood ready with two pointed 
sticks to remove it when sufficiently   
cooked4  ,wine and water were placed in 

porous jars and fanned until cool4 ,the 
water was purified by the use of paste  
of almonds 7as it is1 indeed1 at the    
present day74  ,in the meantime1 the    
reception room had been arranged for the
 guests4 ,chairs or stools were placed  
in rows or groups1 extra carpets and    
mats strewn about1 flowers put in and   
around vases and the house decorated in 
every other conceivable manner4  ,when  
guests began to arrive1 they were first 
received in the vestibule by the        
attendants1 who presented them with     
bouquets1 placed garlands of lotus upon 
their heads and sometimes collars of    
lotus around their necks4 ,to those who 
had come from a distance1 they offered  
water and rinsed their feet4 ,they then 
anointed their heads with sweet-smelling
 unguents and offered them wine and     
other beverages4 ,during these          
proceedings the visitors were generally 
seated on the mats4  ,illustration3 ,a  
black and white slave waiting upon a    
lady4  ,after having received these     

attentions1 the ladies and gentlemen    
intermingled and passed on to the main  
apartment1 where the host and hostess   
received them and begged them to take   
their seats on the chairs and fauteuils 
which had been arranged for them4 ,here 
more refreshments were handed around and
 more flowers offered1 while the guests1
 generally in couples1 but sometimes in 
groups1 conversed with one another4     
,music was next commonly introduced1    
sometimes accompanied by dancing4 ,the  
performers in both acts were            
professionals and the dancing girls     
nearly if not quite naked4 ,sometimes at
 the same party there would be two      
bands1 which we may suppose played      
alternately4 ,pet animals1 such as dogs1
 gazelles and monkeys1 were also often  
present 7,ibid474  ,on some occasions   
the music1 dancing and light            
refreshments constituted the whole of   
the entertainment1 but more generally   
the proceedings described formed only   
the prelude to the more important part  

to follow4 ,the stone pictures show us  
round tables loaded with a great variety
 of delicacies1 such as joints of meat1 
geese1 duck and waterfowl of different  
kinds1 cakes1 pastry1 fruits1 etc41     
interspersed amongst the guests4  ,these
 tables could be more accurately        
described as low stools supporting round
 trays4 ,the stool or pillar was often  
in the shape of a man1 usually a        
captive1 who bore the slab on his head4 
,the whole was made of stone or some    
hard wood4 ,it was not often covered    
with linen1 but was from time to time   
cleansed with a moist rag or cloth      
7,homer74  ,the dishes were probably    
handed round by the attendants and the  
guests helped themselves with their     
hands1 as knives and forks were then    
unknown and the spoons that were        
manufactured do not seem to have been   
used for eating4 ,the guests took as    
much as they could hold in their hands  
and1 after eating1 dipped them in water 
or wiped them in napkins which1 it will 

be observed1 the waiters carried4 ,beer 
and wine were supplied to quench the    
thirst4  ,as individual cups were not   
usually seen1 the women were presented  
with the desired beverage in silver     
vases1 and the men with it in hand      
goblets1 which after being drained were 
returned to the attendant4 ,women and   
men both imbibed freely and drunkenness 
was a universal and fashionable habit of
 both sexes4  ,when the country was in  
the zenith of her power and             
magnificence1 the drinking goblets were 
of gold1 silver1 glass1 porcelain1      
alabaster and bronze4 ,they varied also 
in form1 some plain in appearance1      
others beautifully engraved and studded 
with precious stones4 ,heads of animals 
often adorned the handles1 the eyes     
frequently composed of various gems4    
,many were without handles1 while others
 were so shaped as to more properly come
 under the name of beakers and saucers4 
,the beakers were frequently made of    
alabaster with a round base1 which      

prevented their maintaining an upright  
position without additional support2 and
 when empty they were turned downwards  
upon their rims4 ,the saucers1 which    
were of glazed pottery1 were ornamented 
with lotus and fish carved or molded on 
their concave surface4  ,many of the    
vases have never yet been surpassed in  
daintiness of ornamentation4 ,the most  
remarkable were those fashioned from    
porcelain which was made of a fine sand 
or grit1 loosely fused and covered with 
a thick silicious glaze of a blue1      
green1 white1 purple or yellow color4   
,the blue tints obtained have never been
 equalled in modern times4  ,herodotus  
tells us that1 after the heavier part of
 a banquet1 it was the custom to have a 
man carry round a coffin containing a   
wooden image in exact imitation of a    
corpse4 ,showing this to each of the    
revelers1 the bearer would say3 ,look   
upon this and then drink and enjoy      
yourself1 for when dead you will be like
 unto this4 ,a rather weird observance1 

which might be traced back to the death 
of ,osiris4  ,if the phrases are        
correctly reported1 we must suppose the 
figure1 brought in after the eating was 
ended and when the drinking began1 was  
for the purpose of stimulating the      
guests to still greater conviviality4   
,but if that were the case when         
,herodotus visited ,egypt it must have  
been originated with a very different   
intention4 ,the ,egyptians were too much
 inclined to excesses in eating and     
drinking1 both men and women 7,herodotus
 and ,plutarch71 and the priests        
probably endeavored to thus check their 
too riotous mirth without personally    
interfering4 ,plutarch said concerning  
it3  ,the skeleton which the ,egyptians 
appropriately introduce at their        
banquets1 exhorting the guests to       
remember that they shall soon be like   
him1 though he comes as an unwelcome and
 unseasonable boon companion1 is        
nevertheless in a certain degree        
seasonable1 if he exhorts them not to   

drink too deeply or indulge only in     
pleasures1 but to cultivate mutual      
friendship and affection and not to     
render life1 which is short in duration1
 long by evil deeds4  ,illustration3    
,,egyptian ,,party4 7,from a ,tomb at   
,thebes47  ,host and hostess receiving  
presents4 ,dancing girls4 ,slaves       
waiting on guests4 ,placing collars of  
lotus around their necks4 ,slaves       
preparing bouquets4 ,scribe4 ,butchers  
cutting up ox4 ,carrying trays of meat4 
,man clapping hands and singing4 ,guitar
 player4 ,harpist4 ,slave carrying head 
and haunch4 ,stick custodian rewarded4  
,after the skeleton1 there was sung a   
doleful song in honor of ,maneros1 whose
 identity is clouded by traditional     
disputes4  ,next1 music and songs of    
more mirthful character were resumed4   
,sometimes jugglers1 male and female1   
were hired for the occasion4 ,they      
amused their audience with ball tossing1
 turning somersaults1 leaping and       
wrestling4 ,occasionally1 games1        

resembling our draughts or checkers1    
served to amuse those present 7,ibid471 
but as a rule the fumes of wine         
prevented any such quiet occupation1 and
 the festival in many cases ended with a
 most riotous carousal4  ,the foregoing 
is probably a true picture of a banquet 
in ancient ,egypt--except that1         
according to some writers1 the diners   
were seated on the floor and ate from   
very low stools or tables4  ,yet1 in    
spite of all1 the moral code of the     
early ,egyptians was purer than that of 
contemporary nations4 ,and commerce and 
war carried abroad the advanced         
thoughts1 great learning and luxurious  
tastes of these ancient people1 to be   
the foundations in after years of divers
 civilizations1 amongst them our own4   
,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom ,,of        
,,ancient ,,egypt4   ,the vegetable     
kingdom of ancient ,egypt may be roughly
 divided into four great classes--trees 
and shrubs1 esculent plants1 grains and 
artificial grasses4  ,of the first      

named1 the most important food providing
 trees were the doom and date palms1 the
 sycamore1 tamarisk and mokhayp or myxa4
  ,the doom palm 7,cucifera ,thebaica7  
grows abundantly throughout all upper   
,egypt4 ,it is a very picturesque tree  
which1 unlike its date-bearing sister1  
spreads out into numerous limbs or      
branches1 reaching an elevation of about
 thirty feet4 ,its wood is more solid   
than that of the date tree1 and was     
found to be very serviceable for the    
building of boats1 etc4  ,the blossoms  
are of two kinds1 male and female4 ,the 
fruit1 which is developed from the      
female blossom1 grows in large clusters1
 each fruit attaining the size of a     
goose's egg1 although the nut within the
 fibrous external envelope is not much  
bigger than a large almond4 ,the flavor 
of the nut is peculiarly sweet1         
resembling our ginger bread4 ,it was    
eaten both in a ripe and unripe         
condition--in the latter it has about   
the texture of cartilage2 in the former 

it is harder1 and has been compared to  
the edible portion of the cocoanut4     
,the date palm is too well known to need
 any general description4 ,two kinds1   
however1 flourished--the wild and the   
cultivated4 ,the wild variety grew from 
seeds1 and often bore an enormous       
quantity of fruit4 ,sir ,g4 ,wilkinson  
is authority for the statement that a   
single bunch has been known to contain  
between #f1jjj and #g1jjj dates1 and as 
it is a common thing for a tree to bear 
from five to twenty-two bunches1 the    
average total is often from #cj1jjj to  
#ajj1jjj dates per tree4 ,the fruit is1 
though1 small and of poor quality1 and  
consequently it is not often gathered4  
,the cultivated variety was grown from  
off-shoots selected with care1 planted  
out at regular intervals and abundantly 
irrigated 7,ibid474 ,it began to bear in
 five or six years and continued        
productive for sixty or seventy4        
,besides the amount of nourishing food  
furnished and the value of the wood of  

the date palm1 an exhilarating drink was
 made from its sap and brandy or        
lowbgeh1 date wine and vinegar from the 
fruit without much difficulty4  ,the    
fruit of the sycamore 7,ficus sycamorus7
 ripens in ,june4 ,although it was much 
esteemed by the ancients1 it has been   
denounced by moderns as insipid4  ,the  
mokhayt 7,cardia myxa7 grows to the     
height of about thirty feet1 commencing 
to branch out at a distance of twelve   
feet from the ground1 with a diameter at
 the base of about three feet4 ,its     
fruit is of a pale yellow color1        
inclosed in two skins4 ,its texture is  
viscous and its taste not very          
agreeable4 ,it was used extensively as a
 medicine1 and was also1 according to   
,pliny1 made into a fermented liquor    
7,ex myxis in ,aegypto et vina fiunt74  
,among other fruit trees and shrubs may 
be mentioned the fig1 pomegranate1 vine1
 olive1 peach1 pear1 plum1 apple1 carob 
or locust 7,ceratonia siliqua71 persea1 
palma1 christi or castor oil plant1 nebk

 7,rhamnus ,nabeca71 and the prickly    
pear or shok4  ,the persea 7,balanite   
,aegyptiaca7 is a bushy tree or shrub   
which under favorable circumstances     
reaches an altitude of eighteen or      
twenty feet4 ,its bark is of whitish    
color1 its branches gracefully curved1  
its foliage of an ashy gray hue4 ,its   
lower branches are supplied with long   
thorns2 on its upper branches grows the 
fruit1 which resembles a small date in  
general character4 ,its exterior        
consists of a pulpy substance of subacid
 flavor2 its stone is large for the size
 of the fruit1 and incloses a kernel of 
yellowish-white color and an oily1      
rather bitter flavor4 ,both the exterior
 and the kernel were eaten4  ,the nebk  
or sidr is another fruit of the date    
variety4 ,it was eaten raw1 or the      
flesh1 detached from the stone1 was     
dried in the sun4 ,it enjoyed the       
reputation of being a sustaining as well
 as agreeable article4  ,the most common
 fig was that known to the ,romans as   

cottana1 and by the modern ,arabs as    
qottaya4  ,the olives grown were large  
and fleshy1 but contained little oil4   
,vines were undoubtedly much cultivated1
 in spite of the assertion of ,herodotus
 to the contrary4 ,the bunches of       
grapes1 when intended for immediate     
consumption1 were1 after being gathered1
 placed in flat open baskets4 ,when     
intended for the wine press they were   
closely packed in deep baskets or       
hampers1 which were carried to the shed 
or storehouse on men's heads or by means
 of shoulder yokes4 ,the juice was      
extracted by treading or squeezing in a 
bag4  ,the juice of the grape was       
sometimes drunk in its fresh condition  
7,genesis71 but fermentation was usually
 awaited1 and the wine was then stored  
away in vases or amphorae of elegant    
shape1 closed with stoppers and         
hermetically sealed with moist clay1    
pitch1 gypsum or other similar          
substances4  ,the best brands came from 
,anthylla 7,athenaeus71 ,marestis       

7,pliny and ,strabo71 and the tract     
about ,lake ,marea4 ,sebennytic1        
,thebaid and ,coptos also produced      
light1 wholesome wines4  ,the esculent  
plants consisted of both wild and       
cultivated varieties4 ,those most in    
demand were the byblus or papyrus1 the  
,nymphaea lotus1 lotus coerulea and the 
,nymphaea nelumbo 7called by ,pliny     
colocasia and also cyamon74  ,the       
papyrus grew luxuriantly in ancient     
,egypt1 especially in the marshy        
districts of the ,delta1 although it is 
no longer found in the country4 ,the    
pith of the upper and middle portions of
 the tall1 smooth1 triangular-shaped    
reed was used for paper1 but that of the
 lower portion and the root were        
regarded as an edible delicacy4         
,according to ,herodotus1 it was        
prepared for the table by being baked in
 a closed vessel4  ,the ,nymphaea lotus1
 which resembles our white water lily1  
was also a product of the lowlands4 ,the
 seed vessels were collected and dried1 

to be afterward crushed and made into   
cakes4 ,the rest of the plant was also  
eaten cooked or raw1 and was said to be 
of a pleasant sweet taste1 but          
nineteenth century palates declare it to
 be no better than a bad truffle4 ,the  
lotus coerulea was merely another       
variety of the same plant4  ,the        
,nymphaea nelumbo1 which is1 by the way1
 no longer found in ,africa1 was called 
by the ,greeks and ,romans the ,egyptian
 bean1 and was regarded by those races  
as emblematic of ,egypt4 ,it did not    
differ from the ordinary lotus except in
 the large dimensions of the leaves and 
the size and loveliness of its blossoms4
 ,the leaf of the flower varied from one
 to one and a half feet in diameter4 ,it
 had two rows of petals six inches in   
length1 of a crimson or rose-colored    
purple1 and inside of these was a dense 
fringe of stamens surrounding and       
protecting the ovary4 ,the fruit        
developed into a sweet1 wholesome nut or
 almond1 divided into two lobes by a    

bitter green leaf or corculum 7removed  
before eating71 with a shell shaped like
 the rose of a watering pot and studded 
with seeds 7about the size of small     
acorns and to the number of twenty or   
thirty71 which projected from the upper 
surface in a circle about three inches  
in diameter4 ,both the nuts and roots   
were eaten by the poorer classes4       
,wheat and barley were grown in all the 
provinces in the valley of the ,nile1 as
 were also1 though to a lesser extent1  
rice1 millet1 pulse1 peas1 beans1       
lentils1 hommos 7,cicer arietinum71     
gilban 7,lathyrus sativus71 carthamus1  
lupins1 bamia1 jigl 7,raphanus          
sativus--,linn41 ,herodot41 ,pliny71    
simsin1 indigo1 cassia1 senna1          
colocynth1 cummin 7the seeds of which   
were used for bread71 durrha1 coriander1
 cucurbitae1 onions1 cucumbers1 leeks1  
etc4  ,the onions were mild and of an   
excellent flavor4 ,nicerates quotes     
,homer as authority for the statement   
that they were much relished when eaten 

with wine4  ,according to ,diodorus1    
children and even some grown persons    
lived at that time solely on roots and  
esculent herbs1 eating them both raw and
 cooked4  ,the bread or cake used in the
 homes of the wealthy was made from     
wheaten flour2 those one degree lower in
 the social scale made use of barley    
meal1 and the poorer classes ate bread  
of the durrha 7,holcus sorghum7 flour4  
,,greece ,,before ,,the ,,age ,,of      
,,luxury4   ,it is impossible within    
these pages to tabulate with absolute   
correctness any hard and fast menu as   
the diet of the ancient ,greeks1 as it  
varied greatly according to the products
 of the several parts of the diversified
 country over which they ruled1 but one 
can by the process of elimination arrive
 at fairly satisfactory generalities4   
,the principal food of the poorer       
classes was bread4 ,it was not a very   
appetizing kind1 however1 as it usually 
consisted of a simple dough of barley   
meal moistened with water1 or1          

occasionally1 poor wine4 ,it was eaten  
without cooking or any further          
preparation4 ,this was the universal    
food of the ,spartans4  ,the middle and 
wealthy classes partook1 though1 of     
baked wheaten bread1 which was called by
 ,homer the strength of life4  ,all     
other kinds of food1 with the exception 
of sweet cakes1 cheese and a few        
vegetables and fruits1 were at first    
considered 7save by the inhabitants of  
the cities7 as luxuries--somewhat as    
even now amongst old-fashioned people in
 ,scotland1 the term kitchen is applied 
to all edible articles other than dry   
bread4  ,of sweet cakes there were many 
kinds4 ,they were flavored with various 
seeds and sweetened with honey4 ,sugar1 
though1 if known at all1 was used only  
for its medicinal properties4  ,cheese  
was eaten mixed with wine or honey and  
salt4  ,dried figs and grapes were much 
liked1 especially by the ,athenians1 and
 olives were even then pickled for a    
relish4  ,the vegetables that were      

formerly cultivated are not easily      
distinguished by the names applied to   
them by different writers1 but it is    
certain that lettuce1 cabbage1 peas1    
beans1 vetches1 leeks1 onions1 parsley  
and thyme were grown1 as well as        
truffles and mushrooms4 ,vegetables were
 eaten in the form of soup1 served on   
hot dishes with sauce or dressed as     
salad4  ,in the numerous towns large    
quantities of fish were sold4 ,the salt 
water were more generally preferred than
 the fresh water varieties1 although    
especial favor was bestowed on the eels 
that were obtained from ,lake ,copais in
 ,boeotia4 ,there grew up early in      
history a heavy trade in fish from the  
,black ,sea and even from the coasts of 
,spain4  ,although frequent mention is  
made of fish1 cheese and vegetable      
markets1 a meat market seems to have    
been almost unknown4 ,from this and also
 from the fact that the word which      
designated butchers' meat also signified
 victim1 it may be concluded that oxen  

were primarily slaughtered only at      
sacrificial feasts4  ,the flesh of the  
hare was more highly esteemed than that 
of any other kind of four-footed game4  
,of wild birds the thrush was most      
relished4  ,pheasants and woodcock were 
plentiful1 and quails were made to act  
as combatants for the edification of the
 ,grecian youth4  ,domestic fowls and   
eggs were common4  ,butter was seldom   
made1 as it was considered unwholesome1 
olive oil 7as at the present time7 being
 used in its place4  ,although the      
,greeks were fond of water as a         
beverage1 the difficulty of obtaining it
 of good quality1 combined with the     
tremendous production of wine1 made the 
latter the national drink4 ,it was1     
however1 seldom drank in an undiluted   
condition1 and the ,northerners1 who    
were in the habit of drinking it neat1  
were denounced as unappreciative        
barbarians4 ,but this is not very       
strange1 as the large amount of fir     
resin which is still added to most      

,greek wines1 makes them too strong and 
bitter for the civilized palate to drink
 unless tempered by water4  ,the first  
juice extracted from the press before   
treading was set apart as choice wine1  
the pressed grapes being then used for  
the making of the commoner variety or   
vinegar4  ,the wine was often boiled and
 mixed with salt for exportation1 and   
aromatic herbs and berries were added to
 impart different flavors4 ,it was then 
placed in earthenware jars sealed with  
pitch4  ,the various kinds may be       
roughly classed by colors4 ,the black   
was the strongest and sweetest2 the     
white was the weakest1 and that of      
golden color was dry and very fine in   
flavor4  ,the wines grown in the        
districts of ,lesbos1 ,chios1 ,sikyon1  
and ,phlios were the most esteemed4 ,age
 was considered when estimating the     
value of wine1 but the preference for   
any special year of vintage seems to    
have been unknown4  ,even in those early
 days epicures whenever possible cooled 

their jars with snow before pouring out 
the wine4  ,cow's milk was not liked1   
but the first milk of goats and sheep   
was often drank1 although more generally
 used for the manufacture of cheese4    
,the morning meal seldom consisted of   
more than bread dipped in wine and      
water1 resembling closely the morning   
coffee of the ,continent4 ,the principal
 meal of the very early ,grecians1 as in
 the case of nearly all young nations1  
was served about noon1 but as           
civilization advanced1 the hour grew    
later1 until #e o'clock became most     
popular1 a light luncheon then being    
served in the middle of the day4        
,although ,homer represents his chiefs  
as being always ready to sit down and   
gorge themselves with meat1 the ,grecian
 gentleman was not a disciple of high   
living or indolence4 ,he desired and    
appreciated the charm of sober          
conversation and intellectual stimulus4 
,homer recognized this when he said1    
,nor did the mind of any stand in want  

of an equal feast4  ,the social         
instincts and the warmth of feeling     
amongst the ,hellenic race made dinners 
and festival events of every day        
occurrence1 and caused them to fill a   
prominent part in the lives of all1 but 
the diet of the ,homeric age was        
wonderfully simple 7in those early days 
the most elaborate dinners consisted of 
only two courses--the first of meat1    
usually roasted sheep1 oxen or pigs1 and
 vegetables2 the second of cakes1       
sweetened with the honey of ,hymettus1  
and dried and fresh fruits71 for        
appetites were held subordinate to the  
love of music and the dance4            
99 99 99 ,nor can ,i deem      ,aught   
more delightful than the general joy    
,of a whole people1 when the assembled  
guests1      ,seated in order in the    
royal hall1      ,are listening to the  
minstrel1 while the board      ,is      
spread with bread and meats1 and from   
the jars      ,the cup-bearer draws wine
 and fills the cups4      ,to me there  

is no more delightful sight4            
7,plato47   ,invitations were generally 
given a few days in advance by the host 
in person in the market or any other    
place of common sojourn4  ,unlike the   
,egyptians1 the ,grecians made their    
toilets and anointed themselves before  
arriving at their host's house4  ,but   
before eating1                    99 99 
99 ,in a bowl      ,of silver1 from a   
shapely ewer of gold1      ,a maid      
poured water o'er the hands and set     
,a polished table near them4   ,then1 if
 any had traveled from a distance1 their
 feet were bathed in perfumed water and 
wine4  ,meanwhile the male attendants   
were not idle--                99 99 99 
,some in the bowls      ,tempered the   
wine with water1 some cleansed      ,the
 table with light sponges and set       
,the banquet forth and carved the meats 
for all4   ,a separate table was in     
those days usually provided for each    
guest1 though the rule was not strictly 
observed4  ,in some cases1 diners-out   

were accompanied and attended by their  
own servants4 ,in a few districts in    
modern ,greece this is still habitual4  
,chairs and stools were generally used  
as seats1 the custom of reclining on    
couches not being introduced until a    
later date4  ,as napkins were then      
unknown1 the guests wiped their fingers 
on towels and in pieces of specially    
prepared dough1 which were thrown under 
the table after being used4  ,there were
 spoons 7of metal1 often of             
gold--,athenaeus71 but hollow pieces of 
bread were generally used in their      
stead4  ,the carver presided at a table 
and cut the meats into small pieces1 as 
individual forks and knives were then   
unknown4 ,the portions were usually of  
uniform size1 although any very honored 
person was presented with larger or     
choicer morsels4  ,the diluted wine was 
then transferred by ladles to the       
drinking cups or beakers1 to be         
distributed by boy servants4 ,the first 
cup was handed from one to another of   

the guests untouched as a sort of       
salutation4  ,it was not customary to   
drink before the meal had been served4  
,bread was handed round in little       
baskets woven from slips of ivory4      
,moderation was universally observed4   
,it was deemed gluttonous to linger long
 over a repast1 and contemptible to     
imbibe too freely of wine4              
99 99 99 ,when the calls of thirst      
,and hunger were appeased1 the diners   
thought      ,of other things that well 
become a feast4      ,song and the      
dance4   ,but here again all ribaldry   
was debarred4 ,tender hymns and         
rhapsodies were sung to the             
accompaniment of the harp by trained    
singers1 who were seated at special     
tables on silver-mounted thrones4       
,games of various kinds usually         
followed1 and with conversation filled  
out the time until the gathering        
dispersed4  ,house picnics were much in 
vogue3                          99 99 99
 99 ,meantime came      ,those who      

prepared the banquets to the halls      
,of the great monarch4 ,bringing sheep  
,and strengthening wine they came4      
,their wives1 who on their brows        
,wore snowy fillets1 brought the bread1 
and thus      ,within the halls of      
,menelaus all      ,was bustle setting  
forth the evening meal4   ,among the    
dining room utensils should be mentioned
 the various baskets of copper1 silver1 
gold and ivory wire2 vessels for mixing 
wine1 usually of silver1 but sometimes  
of the more precious metal1 and cups of 
elaborate design and costly workmanship4
  ,illustration3 ,drinking vessels3     
,bowls1 beakers and rhyta4  ,the cups   
were of various shapes and sizes4 ,the  
depas had two handles and was made of   
wood1 thickly covered with gold studs4  
,another1 the kypellon1 was broad and   
shallow1 made of various metals1 usually
 gold4 ,the phiate was very similar in  
appearance to the kypellon4 ,the kotyle 
was so small as to merely hold a scanty 
draught1 which only wet the lips1 but   

not the palate4  ,the sykphos and       
kissybion were simple wooden cups in use
 amongst the peasantry4 ,they were      
usually made of the wood of the cypress4
  ,skilled cooks were seldom regularly  
employed on the domestic staff4 ,they   
usually congregated in the market places
 and when any particular occasion       
necessitated their services they were   
hired by the day4 ,as also nowadays they
 generally represented several nations1 
and they gained in social importance as 
the love of luxury gradually overcame   
the custom of simple fare4  ,the regular
 staff of household servants1 slaves in 
fact1 were under the management of a    
general steward1 himself a slave1 who   
attended personally to the buying and   
superintended the details of all the    
other departments4  ,illustration3 ,wine
 jugs or oinochoai4  ,but besides these 
private dinners1 occasion often brought 
about banquets on a much larger scale1  
sometimes in honor of religion or of    
death4            99 99 99 ,there upon  

the ocean's side      ,they found the   
people offering coal black steers       
,to dark haired ,neptune4 ,on nine seats
 they sat1      ,five hundred on each   
seat2 nine steers were slain      ,for  
each five hundred there4   ,there was   
also a great difference between the     
foods of the ordinary people and that of
 the heroes described in the classics4  
,according to ,homer1 who was probably  
guilty of exaggeration1 the athletes    
consumed enormous quantities of various 
meats 7roasted or broiled1 by the       
way--never boiled71 which comprised     
their entire diet with the exception of 
wine and bread4 ,beef1 mutton1 venison1 
and especially pork1 were mentioned4    
,he spake and girt his tunic round his  
loins      ,and hastened to the sties in
 which the herds      ,of swine were    
lying4 ,thence he took out two      ,and
 slaughtered them and scraped them1     
sliced the flesh      ,and fried it upon
 spits and when the whole      ,was     
roasted1 brought and placed it reeking  

hot1      ,still in the spits and       
sprinkled with white meal4   ,fish and  
cheese were only considered worthy of   
the athletic when animal flesh was      
scarce4 ,nor were these giants possessed
 of very fastidious palates4            
99 99 99 99 ,at the fire      ,already  
lie the paunches of two goats           
,preparing for our evening meal1 and    
both      ,are filled with fat and      
blood4           99 99 99 99 ,as one    
turns and turns      ,the stomach of a  
bullock filled with fat      ,and blood 
before a fiercely blazing fire      ,and
 wishes it were done 99 99 99 994   ,the
 hospitality of the early ,grecians was 
unbounded4 ,the high moral and social   
standard of the masses of the people    
rendered it possible to extend greater  
courtesy towards strangers than would   
have been deemed prudent in later days4 
,every stranger or traveller who knocked
 at the door of a residence was sure of 
a welcome4 ,no questions were asked him 
until he had been generously entertained

 in every feasible manner1 for he stood 
under the protection of ,zeus ,xenios1  
guardian of the guest4  ,this lavish    
friendliness was probably caused by1 or 
was perhaps itself the cause of1 the    
scarcity of hostelries of reputable     
character4 ,a spirit of compassion also 
existed1 as it was then considered an   
ill fortune that made one journey far   
from home4  ,as the centuries of        
increasing wealth and power relaxed the 
rigidity of the morals of these ancient 
inhabitants of ,greece1 the love of     
luxury gradually supplanted the         
absorbing desire for intellectual       
enjoyment which had at first raised them
 so far above the people of the         
neighboring territories4 ,gluttonous    
devotion to the table1 in conjunction   
with numerous vices1 undermined the     
physical as well as the moral           
constitution1 and the country which had 
astounded the ages with the valor of its
 sons1 which had proved invulnerable to 
numerous martial forces1 succumbed to   

the influence of sensual tastes and     
passions1 suggested by the idleness of  
worldly success4 ,and as their worship  
of their palates grew1 the trained cook 
obtained an even greater influence until
 his position became one of extreme     
importance1 and was so recorded by the  
poets and dramatists of the time4       
,little difference1 in fact1 was there  
between the habits of the latter day    
,greeks and the ,romans in the days of  
their great wealth1 for ,grecian        
luxuries and ,grecian habits were the   
models that ,rome took as its models1 so
 we will pass on to the next chapter1   
inferentially describing the former     
while depicting the latter4     ,,rome  
,,in ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,her ,,greatest 
,,prosperity4   ,the food of the early  
,romans resembled to a great extent that
 of the ,greek heroes 7their national   
dish was pulmentarium1 a porridge made  
of pulse71 but to avoid repetitions we  
will pass over the first centuries of   
,roman history1 choosing as our subject 

,rome in the days of prosperity4  ,it   
should1 however1 be mentioned that      
,greece never attained such enormous    
wealth as ,rome1 and that even in her   
greatest recklessness she was more      
refined4 ,goethe said that in the days  
of their highest civilization the       
,romans remained parvenus2 that they did
 not know how to live1 that they wasted 
their riches in tasteless extravagance  
and vulgar ostentation--but it must be  
remembered that1 whereas the            
civilization of the nineteenth century  
is industrial1 that of ,rome was        
militant1 and to that should be         
attributed the fact that some of the    
simplest means of comfort were then     
unknown4  ,many moderns are inclined to 
doubt the assertions made concerning the
 countless riches and marvellous        
expenditures of those days4 ,they read  
with skepticism the writings of         
,juvenal1 ,seneca and the elder ,pliny4 
,but1 though in some cases exaggeration 
was doubtless resorted to1 sufficient   

proof remains to convince the observing 
mind that the wealth of the ,roman far  
surpassed the wildest dreams of the     
richest man of the present day4 ,the    
ruins of the ,colosseum and of the baths
 of ,caracalla1 two structures raised   
solely for pleasure1 impress us with    
their stupendous magnificence1 and even 
the twentieth century has failed to     
equal the palaces of the nobles4        
,moreover1 it must be remembered that   
the wealthy ,roman owned many mansions4 
,each of the larger ones was a miniature
 city1 sheltering a small army of       
slaves4 ,the buildings were surrounded  
by parks1 vineyards1 woods and          
artificial lakes4 ,the atria and        
peristyles were embellished with        
valuable paintings and statues4 ,the    
walls and ceilings of the chambers were 
decorated with gold and precious stones4
 ,nowhere else1 recorded in the history 
of the world1 with the possible         
exception of the palaces of the ,incas1 
has gold ever been so lavishly used4 ,on

 the furniture and ornaments alone1     
millions were expended4 ,a single cup of
 murra brought #a1jjj1jjj sesterces     
7#dj1jjj74 ,a small citrus wood table   
cost a similar sum--yet ,seneca owned   
#ejj of them1 an outlay on that class of
 furniture alone of #bj1jjj1jjj4  ,all  
,italy was covered with the country     
residences of the patricians4 ,they were
 found in numbers on the coast of       
,campania1 the ,sabine hills and the    
lakes of the ,north4  ,the most esteemed
 members of the household staff were the
 coqui 7cooks7 and the pistores 7fancy  
bakers74 ,they often amassed large      
fortunes from their salaries and the    
many presents they received4 ,all the   
other servants 7who were usually slaves7
 were under the jurisdiction of a       
headman1 an atriensis4  ,the first meal 
7ientaculum7 was light1 consisting      
ordinarily of bread and wine with honey1
 dates1 olives or cheese4 ,at the       
prandium 7their djeuner  la fourchette1 
which took the place of their noon      

dinner of former days71 meats1          
vegetables1 fruits1 bread and wine were 
provided4 ,after the second meal1 the   
meridiato 7or in modern language1 the   
siesta7 was enjoyed1 as it is in the    
,italy of this century--although1 unlike
 the sleepy town we know1 business ,rome
 then never slept4  ,after the short    
midday rest came games and exercises4   
,the youth betook themselves to ,campus 
,martius4 ,the older members of the     
family made use of the sphaeristerium1 a
 private gymnasium and ball room1 which 
was found in every house4 ,with it were 
connected the private baths4  ,the cena1
 the principal meal1 commenced at #c1 #d
 or #e o'clock in the afternoon4 ,seldom
 less than four hours were spent at     
table4 ,pliny1 the elder1 who was       
considered a very abstemious man1 sat   
down to his meal at #d o'clock1 and     
remained there until it began to grow   
dark in summer and soon after night in  
winter1 at least three hours4 ,the      
amount of food consumed would be        

incredible were it not for the          
explanation recorded by ,seneca1 ,edunt 
ut vomant2 vomant ut edunt4  ,the dinner
 menu given below was of a very ordinary
 affair3        ,gustus4       ,sorrel  
,lettuce      ,pickled ,cabbage and     
,gherkins      ,radishes1 ,mushrooms1   
etc4      ,oysters      ,sardines       
,eggs        ,first ,course4            
,conger ,eels      ,oysters      ,two   
kinds of ,mussels      ,thrushes on     
,asparagus      ,fat ,fowls      ,ragout
 of ,oysters and other ,shellfish with  
black and white ,maroons4        ,second
 ,course4       ,shellfish and other    
,marine ,products      ,beccaficos      
,haunches of ,venison      ,wild ,boar  
,pastry of ,beccaficos and other ,birds4
        ,third ,course4       ,sow's    
,udder      ,boar's ,head               
,fricassee of ,fish      ,fricassee of  
,sow's ,udders      ,various kinds of   
ducks      ,roast ,fowl      ,hares     
,sausages      ,roast ,pig              
,peacocks        ,fourth ,course4       

,pastry in wonderfully elaborate forms  
and colors      ,pirentine bread        
,fifth ,course4       ,fruits and wines4
   ,the gustus1 or appetizer1 was also  
variously known as the gustatio4 ,a     
favorite drink served with it was a     
mulsum of ,hymetian honey and ,falernian
 wine4  ,toothpicks made from the leaves
 of the mastich pistachio were in common
 use4  ,all the dishes were carved at   
the sideboards by expert carvers who    
were trained in schools by practice on  
jointed wooden models4  ,salt was much  
used in the flavoring of dishes and also
 to mingle with sacrifices4             
,illustration3 ,a ,roman bakery4  ,fowls
 were fattened in the dark4 ,ducks and  
geese were fed on figs and dates4 ,pigs 
were cooked in fifty different ways4    
,boars were cooked whole2 peacocks with 
their tails4 ,sausages were imported    
from ,gaul4  ,vitellius and ,apicius    
feasted on the tongues of flamingoes1   
and ,elagabalus on their brains4  ,the  
greater the waste at a dinner1 the more 

absurd the extravagance1 the more       
successful it was deemed4 ,this idea was
 carried out in every department4 ,a    
mullet of ordinary size was cheap--one  
that was rather heavy easily brought    
#f1jjj sesterces 7#bdj4jj74             
,illustration3 ,frame work of a ,roman  
dining couch4  ,in order to lengthen the
 time1 jugglers1 rope-dancers1 buffoons 
and actors were introduced between      
courses4 ,beautiful ,andalusian girls   
charmed the dinners with their          
voluptuous dances4 ,even gladiators were
 engaged4 ,games of chance concluded the
 entertainment when the condition of the
 revellers permitted4  ,at any large    
affair1 an archon1 or toastmaster1 was  
selected by ballot or acclamation4 ,his 
duty it was to regulate the proportions 
of water and wine and the size of the   
cups in which it was served4 ,it was    
usual to commence with the smallest and 
end with the largest4  ,at the table1   
the somber togas were exchanged for     
gay-colored garments 7syntheses71 and   

the shoes for sandals4 ,some of the more
 ostentatious changed their costumes    
several times during the progress of a  
meal4 ,the head and breast were         
sometimes wreathed with flowers and     
ornaments4  ,the tables first used were 
of quadrangular shape--three sides being
 decorated for the guests and the fourth
 left vacant to facilitate the movements
 of the attendants4 ,they1 however1 were
 soon supplanted by small tables of     
marble1 bronze or citrus4 ,these and a  
large sideboard supported an amount of  
heavy gold and silver utensils4  ,the   
diners reclined on costly sofas1 inlaid 
with tortoise shells and jewels1 and the
 lower parts decked with embroidered    
gold4 ,the pillows were stuffed with    
wool and covered with gorgeous purple4  
,the cushions which supported the elbows
 were covered with silk stuffs1 often   
marked to designate the places of the   
various guests4  ,three people occupied 
each sofa4 ,the lowest place on the     
middle sofa was the seat of honor4  ,the

 room or hall was illuminated by lamps  
and candles1 set on individual and very 
expensive stands or massed in           
candelabras of great magnificence4 ,the 
oils and fats used for illumination were
 diluted with substances which under the
 influence of heat gave forth odors of  
great fragrance4  ,each guest brought   
his own napkin4  ,ivory-handled knives  
were manufactured1 but seldom used1 as  
the reclining position rendered the     
spoons 7ligulae7 more convenient4  ,the 
dessert was arranged on the sideboards  
under the supervision of the pistor and 
structor before the meal commenced4  ,a 
nomenclator was the regular employe of  
every patrician4 ,his sole office was to
 prompt his master on the names of his  
guests and clients1 or hangers-on4      
,much care was devoted by the wealthy to
 their private stores of wines4 ,they   
were sealed in jars or bottles of baked 
clay1 with labels attached bearing the  
year of the consulship during which they
 were made4 ,some old wines were very   

expensive4 ,that of ,campania was       
considered the best4 ,the ,caecuban     
,falernian was very good4 ,he was pitied
 who was forced to drink the ,vatican6  
,illustration3 ,a banquet in the days of
 ancient ,rome 7original taken from a   
stone carving excavated from the site of
 ,pompeii74  ,greek wines were popular  
and were found in many ,roman cellars4  
,in winter1 wine was heated with water1 
honey and spices in a caldarium1 a      
vessel fitted with a small charcoal     
furnace1 closely resembling the ,russian
 samovar4  ,being unable to sensibly    
decrease their riches by ordinary       
methods1 many novel ideas were put in   
use1 often at great expense4  ,nero     
constructed in his golden house a       
vaulted ceiling which turned            
continuously on its axis4  ,at a banquet
 given by ,otho1 tubes of gold and      
silver suddenly protruded from various  
parts of the hall and sprinkled perfumes
 on the assembly4  ,petronius describes 
a rather fanciful affair given by       

,trimalchio4  ,after the company had    
taken their places and young ,egyptian  
slave girls had bathed their hands and  
feet in scented snow water1 there was   
placed on the table a gold salver1      
inlaid with tortoise shell1 in the      
middle of which stood an ass of bronze  
bearing silver panniers1 one filled with
 white and the other with black olives4 
,on his back sat a ,silenus pouring from
 a wineskin the favorite sauce the      
garum2 at one side were sausages on a   
silver gridiron1 under which were plums 
and red pomegranate kernels to represent
 glowing coals1 and placed around were  
trays bearing vegetables1 snails1       
oysters and other appetizers4  ,when    
that course had been removed1 another   
dish was brought in1 of which the       
central feature was a hen of carved     
citrus wood with expanded wings1        
brooding over a nest of peafowls' eggs4 
,these eggs were handed around on silver
 egg-spoons weighing each more than half
 a pound4 ,when the shells were broken1 

some of the guests were horrified to    
find within them half-hatched chicks2   
but on closer inspection these proved to
 be beccaficos cooked in egg sauce4  ,as
 the plates were being removed1 a chorus
 of ,oriental beauties chanted their    
strange songs4 ,a slave by accident let 
fall a silver dish2 he stooped to pick  
it up--the atriensis boxed his ears and 
bade him sweep it out with the other    
fragments4  ,wine of rare virtue and    
great age was then brought in and       
distributed with almost obtrusive       
extravagance4  ,the first heavy course  
again surprised many of those who were  
present4 ,it consisted apparently of the
 most ordinary dishes and joints4 ,but  
these proved to be merely cleverly      
designed covers1 which on being lifted1 
disclosed roasted pigs1 field fares1    
capons1 noble bartels and turbots4 ,in  
the centre was a plump hare which1 by   
the addition of a pair of wings1 had    
been made to resemble a ,pegasus4 ,the  
carving was done in the presence of the 

diners and to the strains of slow music4
  ,next came a huge boar roasted whole1 
with two palm twig baskets filled with  
dates1 hanging from his tusks4 ,by his  
side were eight small pigs1 cleverly    
molded in paste1 which were presented to
 guests as remembrances of the occasion4
  ,following the boar was a large swine1
 also cooked whole4 ,after much         
acclamation1 the carver was about to do 
his work1 when with a look of disgust he
 announced that it had not been         
disemboweled4 ,the cook was called and  
severely chided4 ,he feigned regret and 
made many excuses2 then seizing a heavy 
knife1 ripped the animal open1 letting  
fall into the dish a mass of sausages   
and rich puddings4  ,after the pig had  
been carried away and while the dessert 
was being placed on the table1 the      
ceiling opened and a silver hoop        
descended bearing gold1 silver and      
alabaster phials of essences1 silver and
 jewel coronets and many other things of
 similar character4  ,the pastry had    

been made to resemble shellfish1 field  
fares1 etc4 ,quinces were stuck full of 
almonds to imitate sea urchins4         
,surrounded by flowers was a figure of  
,vertumnus1 with its bosom piled with   
fruits4 ,the guests were invited to help
 themselves1 and the pressure of their  
hands on the fruit caused a shower of   
the daintiest perfume4  ,when all had   
partaken to repletion of the goods      
served1 the spirit of ,bacchus was given
 full sway1 half nude dancers and       
singers threw off all restraint1 and    
there were enacted scenes of riotous    
carousing for which ,rome in its        
decadence became notorious4  ,a weird   
dinner was once given by the ,emperor   
,domitian4 ,he invited a number of      
senators and knights to dine with him at
 a late hour4 ,when they arrived they   
found that the banquet room had been    
draped in somber black4 ,at each seat   
had been placed a tombstone bearing the 
inscription of a diner and naked black  
slaves danced weird dances and served up

 funeral viands on black dishes4 ,when  
the company had been dismissed1 its     
members found that all their slaves had 
disappeared and unknown bearers carried 
them to their homes4 ,each found on his 
return a message and a souvenir awaiting
 him--a silver tombstone bearing his    
name4     ,,the ,,ancient ,,jews4       
,readers will find recorded in this     
chapter many things which are matters of
 general knowledge1 but this1 they will 
readily understand1 is unavoidable when 
treating on the customs of so well known
 a people as the ,jews and drawing on   
the ,bible for much of the information  
given4 ,as the facts drawn from the     
,scriptures have though been            
supplemented by the results of the      
researches of many eminent travelers and
 writers1 it is hoped that the          
combination will be found worthy of the 
time expended on its perusal4  ,the     
,mosaic dietary laws which for more than
 three thousand years formed the text of
 important social and religious         

observances among the inhabitants of the
 chosen kingdom were the outcome of a   
comparison of the regulations and       
practices of contemporary nations4      
,whether the system was compiled in the 
interest of humanity or health1 it      
remains true that it has proved itself  
to be one of the best economic regimes  
ever made public4 ,if for no other      
reason1 the life of the ancient ,jew is 
especially interesting to those who     
study the foods of men1 past and        
present--although it must be admitted   
that the precepts they compiled were    
more conducive to sound digestion than  
some of the practices they followed6    
,the diet of the ancient ,jews consisted
 at first1 as did that of all the       
pioneers of the human race1 of but a few
 articles of food4 ,but1 though meat was
 not consumed in large quantities1      
writers err when they describe the food 
of ,orientals as being light and simple4
 ,orientals did1 and do1 make use of an 
inordinate amount of grease in cooking4 

,eggs and rice were1 whenever           
circumstances permitted1 saturated with 
fat or oil and meats and vegetables were
 frequently simmered in fat before being
 stewed4 ,it was not unusual for a      
family of six or seven persons to       
consume an average of two hundred pounds
 a year1 and some of their compounds    
would have ill suited delicate stomachs4
  ,bread1 as in all ancient countries1  
constituted the greater part of the food
 of the middle and lower classes4 ,in   
,leviticus1 ,psalms and ,ezekiel1       
reference is made to the staff of bread4
 ,it was most generally eaten after     
being dipped into cheap wine or weak    
gravy4  ,the fresh green ears of wheat  
were often eaten without cooking1 the   
husks being rubbed off by hand4 ,the    
grain was1 though1 more usually roasted 
in a pan after being carefully sorted   
over1 and it was sometimes bruised and  
dried in the sun1 to be afterwards      
served with oil4  ,kibbe was a mixture  
composed of cracked wheat1 boiled and   

dried1 beaten up with meat1 onions1     
spices and the nut of a species of pine4
  ,wheat was also ground by women in    
hand mills formed of two stones1 the    
under one fixed and the upper movable4  
,the middle classes ate meat1           
vegetables1 fruit or fish also1 but     
always as supplementary dishes to the   
staple article1 bread4  ,although in the
 earliest days the mistress and         
daughters of the house did the baking1  
female servants were later employed by  
the wealthier families4 ,in ,jerusalem  
indeed professional bakers1 men1 became 
so numerous that a section of the town  
bore the title of ,bakers' ,street4     
,the flour used in the manufacture of   
the common bread was mixed with water or
 milk and kneaded with the hands in a   
small wooden bowl or trough4 ,except in 
cases of great haste1 leavening was then
 added4 ,the dough was allowed to stand 
for several hours1 sometimes for the    
whole night1 in moderate heat4 ,it was  
next rolled out and cut into circular   

pieces about eight inches in diameter   
and three-quarters of an inch in        
thickness4 ,these were occasionally     
punctured and soaked with oil4          
,illustration3 ,a portable oven of the  
,jews and ,egyptians4  7,from an old    
,egyptian drawing47  ,a more delicate   
kind of bread was twice kneaded before  
baking1 and stimulating seeds were added
 to it4 ,various varieties of thin cakes
 were also baked every day and biscuits 
of substantial character were furnished 
for travelers4  ,the professional bakers
 did their work in fixed1 specially     
constructed ovens1 but portable ovens   
were usually found in private houses4   
,they were in the shape of stone or     
metal jars about three feet in height1  
and were heated from the interior with  
wood1 dried grass or flower stalks1 the 
cakes being placed on the ashes or the  
exterior sides of the oven after the    
fire had burned down4  ,in other cases1 
a hole dug in the ground formed the     
oven1 the sides being covered with clay 

and the bottom with pebbles4 ,again1    
sometimes the cakes were cooked on      
heated stones or by the more primitive  
method of laying them directly on       
burning logs1 or between two layers of  
dried dung 7then lighted and burned74   
,some also baked the cakes in pans with 
oil and ate them whilst hot with honey1 
or cooked them in such thin layers that 
they crumbled in the fingers4  ,figs    
were eaten fresh and dried4             
,pomegranates1 mulberries1 sycamore     
figs1 citrons and apples were widely    
cultivated4 ,grapes were eaten raw or   
made into fruit cake 7which possessed   
distinctly stimulating qualities74      
,similar cakes were also made of        
raisins1 dates and figs--which were     
compressed into bricks1 and when        
hardened could be cut up only by the use
 of an axe6  ,the bunches of grapes     
often attained a weight of twelve       
pounds4  ,walnuts were plentiful4       
,oranges were introduced at a later     
date4  ,among the vegetables grown were 

lentils 7which were boiled and eaten    
with butter oil or fat and pepper71     
leeks1 onions1 beans1 barley1 lettuce1  
endive1 purslane and other herbs4       
,vegetables were usually boiled as      
potage4  ,the spices most in favor were 
cummin1 dill1 coriander1 mint1 mustard  
and salt4 ,cummin was threshed with a   
rod and with salt served as a sauce4    
,pistachio nuts and almonds were popular
 as whets4  ,salads were extensively    
known4  ,honey was used in some cakes as
 a substitute for sugar4 ,it was also   
eaten raw or with other articles of     
food1 even fish4  ,various artificial   
productions made from fruits and the    
exudations of trees and shrubs bore the 
title of honey1 the best known of which 
was the boiled down juice of the grape1 
then called d'bash1 known to modern     
,arabs as dibs4  ,butter and honey and  
milk and honey are in ,biblical language
 synonyms of the diet of prosperity4    
,the butter then used differed from our 
own product inasmuch as the hot sun to  

which the cream was exposed when being  
churned rendered the completed article  
more liquid4 ,even to-day in some parts 
of the ,orient the butter served to     
visiting ,europeans has to be           
manufactured especially for them from   
cold cream4  ,cheese consisted of       
coagulated buttermilk1 dried until hard 
and then ground4  ,oil was made from    
various vegetables1 but that of the     
olive was most esteemed4  ,wine and     
water were carried in vessels made of   
the skins of goats1 kids or other clean 
animals4 ,after the animal had been     
killed1 the head1 feet and tail were cut
 off and the body was drawn out of the  
skin1 which was then tanned 7acacia bark
 being sometimes called into service74  
,the hairy part of the skin formed the  
exterior of the vessel1 the legs and the
 end of the tail being sewn up4 ,when   
filled1 the neck was tied up4  ,an ox   
skin was used to make a gerba which     
formed a storage chamber for large      
quantities of liquor4 ,one of average   

size contained sixty gallons4  ,the milk
 of cows1 sheep1 camels and goats was   
drank4 ,when fresh it was known as      
khalab1 when sour as khema4 ,the latter 
was used in the composition of salads   
and for cooking meats1 etc4  ,a         
strengthening beverage was made by      
heating milk over a slow fire and then  
adding a small piece of old khema or    
other acid to make it coagulate4 ,much  
of this was bottled and kept for future 
use4 ,it was the universal refreshment  
offered strangers and the ancient ,jew1 
like the modern ,arab1 refused to accept
 payment for it4  ,the other drinks of  
the people were barley water2 sherbet   
7made by partially dissolving fig cake  
in water72 pomegranate wine2 beer made  
from barley with herbs such as the lupin
 and skirret2 honey1 date1 fig1 millet  
and grape wines and a drink made by     
placing raisins in jars of water and    
burying them until fermentation had     
taken place4 ,water was imbibed in large
 quantities after meals4  ,vinegar was  

made by mixing barley with wine1 or     
soured wine was used4  ,the prohibition 
expressed in the ninth chapter of       
,genesis against animal blood as an     
article of diet was repeated with       
detailed instructions in ,leviticus4    
,instead of devoting a large amount of  
space to recounting the regulations     
there expressed1 it will perhaps be     
better to make only a general           
classification of them4  ,there were    
interdicted3 ,sheretz haaretz1 creeping 
things2 sheretz haof1 winged insects1   
with the exception of the fully         
developed locust2 of sheretz hamayim1   
creatures dwelling in water1 those which
 were not provided with fins and scales2
 of the feathered species those which   
were not furnished by nature with the   
implements with which to clean          
themselves2 of the quadrupeds and       
animals of the chase those that did not 
chew the cud or were not provided with  
split hoofs4  ,the fat parts of animals 
were also reserved for the altar and    

temple offerings4  ,special             
interdictions were announced against    
dead or injured animals2 though these   
did not extend to strangers4 ,in the    
,new ,testament1 these laws are also    
mentioned as applying to healthy animals
 that had been strangled or killed in   
any manner other than that prescribed4  
,in a word1 the ,mosaic laws prohibited 
the use of any flesh that was diseased1 
bruised or rendered unwholesome by the  
presence of too much blood and also of  
the flesh of animals that were not      
cleanly in habits1 diet or body4  ,oxen 
were not eaten when older than three    
years4  ,it is not necessary to give    
here the oft-repeated methods of ,jewish
 butchery1 as they have been of late so 
frequently described--and highly        
endorsed--by medical and scientific men4
  ,fresh fish 7eaten generally broiled7 
appears to have been the principal      
article of diet in the environs of the  
,sea of ,galilee4 ,the ,jews1 however1  
were not well versed in the character of

 the different species4 ,they roughly   
classed them as big1 small1 clean and   
unclean4  ,salt fish also was imported  
into ,jerusalem4  ,locusts were         
considered to be but meagre fare1 but   
they were eaten salted1 dried and       
roasted with butter in a pan4  ,an      
ordinary kitchen was equipped with a    
range1 a heavy caldron1 a large fork or 
flesh hook1 a wide1 open metal vessel   
for heating water1 etc41 two or more    
earthenware pots and numerous dishes4   
,the kid1 lamb or calf1 killed on the   
advent of a holiday or in honor of a    
guest1 would sometimes be roasted or    
baked whole1 but it was usually cut up  
and boiled in a caldron filled with     
water or milk and set over a wood fire1 
the scum being taken off from time to   
time and salt and spices added4  ,the   
meat and broth were served up separately
 or together as desire might dictate4   
,the principal meal was held in the     
early evening1 although occasionally    
noon was chosen for a big banquet4  ,the

 early ,hebrews seated themselves on the
 ground when partaking of a meal2 but   
their descendants soon succumbed to the 
example of the ,egyptians and adopted   
the reclining couch1 which was          
universally used in the time of ,christ4
  ,the first reference we have to the   
change in custom is found in the book of
 ,amos1 where the prophet rebukes those 
who lie upon beds of ivory4 ,ezekiel    
also inveighs against one who sat on a  
stately bed with a table prepared before
 it4  ,each couch seated from three to  
five persons1 and the women usually     
dined with the men4  ,the meat and      
vegetables were sometimes served in one 
large dish1 into which each in turn     
dipped his bread1 but on other occasions
 portions were placed on individual     
plates4  ,many events were made excuses 
for festivals4  ,the mishteh was a      
drinking party1 which in the apostolic  
age was called a komos and was often the
 occasion of gross licentiousness4  ,the
 cups used were modelled after those    

made by the ,egyptians4 ,the cup bearer 
or butler held a very important position
 in a rich man's household4  ,during    
times of fasting or sorrow1 all meats1  
wines1 etc41 were eschewed4 ,they were  
called the bread of desires4  ,prison   
fare consisted of bread or pulse and    
water4  ,the vine or apples of ,sodom1  
the ,dead ,sea fruits that tempt the    
eye1 but turn to ashes on the lips of   
which ,josephus wrote and ,moore and    
,byron sang1 are worthy of more than    
passing notice4 ,they have caused a     
great deal of discussion among          
scientists and travelers who have       
differed in their opinions as to the    
identity of the fruit or plant          
mentioned4  ,illustration3 ,the         
colocynth--the ,dead ,sea fruits4  ,as  
the ecbalium elaterium1 with variations 
in name1 it has been described by       
,dioscorides1 ,theophrastus1 ,pliny1    
,celeius1 ,rosenmuller1 ,winner and     
,gesenius2 as the cucumbis prophetarium1
 and solanium sodomaeum by others2 as   

the asclepias procera by ,burckhardt1   
,irby1 ,mangles and ,dr4 ,robinson4     
,among still other disputing writers may
 be mentioned ,pococke1 ,hasselquist1   
,seetzen1 ,elliot and ,chateaubriand4   
,michaelis1 ,oedman1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4       
,hooker and the ,rev4 ,w4 ,houghton     
agree that ,josephus referred to the    
fruit of the colocynth 7citrullus       
colocynthis7 which resembles an orange  
in appearance1 and when dry will burst  
on pressure with a crashing noise4      
,illustration3 ,tamarix ,gallica--,the  
,manna plant of the ,scriptural desert4 
,the varying opinions may be ascribed to
 the fact that in the south of          
,palestine are found several members of 
the gourd tribe1 as well as the fruits  
of several shrubs and trees1 which under
 certain conditions answer very closely 
to the descriptions afforded us of the  
,dead ,sea ,fruits1 although the        
colocynth is the only one that answers  
them in every way4  ,the palm tree1 once
 so plentiful in ,judaea1 is now rare   

and in the vicinity of ,jericho is      
extinct1 the last one having died a few 
years ago4  ,all readers of the         
,scriptures remember the important part 
which manna played in the history of the
 ,jews4 ,the manna which is at the      
present day known in the ,arabian desert
 through which the ,israelites passed is
 collected in ,june from the tarfa or   
tamarisk shrub 7,tamarix ,gallica74     
,according to ,burkhardt1 it drops from 
the thorns on to the sticks and leaves  
which cover the ground and must be      
gathered early in the day or it will be 
melted by the heat of the sun4 ,its fall
 is said to be caused by the punctures  
made by insects4 ,the ,arabs cleanse1   
boil and strain it and put it up in     
leather bottles1 and thus prepared it   
will retain its virtues for several     
years4 ,it is used in the place of honey
 or butter--it is never eaten alone4 ,it
 is abundant only in wet seasons1 and in
 a very dry year it is not found at all4
 ,it is not exactly peculiar in         

character1 as there are several shrubs  
in ,india and ,syria4  ,illustration3   
,salvadora--,the arboreous ,mustard     
,plant of ,palestine4  ,niebuhr         
discovered at ,mardin1 in ,mesopotamia1 
on the leaves of a tree1 a species of   
capparis1 a kind of manna which appears 
during the months of ,july and ,august1 
being most plentiful in wet seasons4 ,if
 shaken off before sunrise1 it is pure  
white in color4 ,if let remain1 it      
collects until very thick1 and the      
leaves are then gathered and steeped in 
boiling water until the manna floats to 
the top like oil4 ,this is called by the
 natives manna essemma1 heavenly manna4 
,burkhardt found in the valley of       
,jordan a similar gum on the leaves and 
branches of the tree gharrob 7a species 
of oak71 which fell to the ground in    
drops of brown-gray dew4 ,its taste at  
first was sweet1 but after a day's      
exposure to the elements became acrid4  
,the manna of ,european commerce is     
exported from ,calabria and ,sicily4 ,it

 drops from punctures made in a species 
of ash by an insect resembling the      
locust4 ,it is fluid at night1 but      
begins to harden in the morning4  ,the  
manna of ,scripture1 which was the sole 
support of the ,israelites for forty    
years1 must be regarded as miraculous1  
as 7#a7 manna is under ordinary         
circumstances stimulating rather than   
sustaining1 7#b7 the season in which it 
is found does not extend over a term of 
more than three or four months1 7#c7 it 
is found only in small quantities       
compared to the enormous                
amount--#ae1jjj1jjj pounds a week--which
 would have been necessary to provide   
each member of the ,israelite camp with 
the rations mentioned1 7#d7 a double    
quantity certainly does not fall on the 
day preceding the ,sabbath and 7#e7 no  
natural product ceases at once and      
forever4  ,the mustard plant mentioned  
in the ,gospels may have been either the
 common mustard plant which grows to a  
large size in the ,orient1 or it may    

have been the ,salvadora persica1 an    
arboreous plant of abundant foliage1 the
 seeds and leaves of which have a       
distinct flavor of mustard4     ,,the   
,,chinese4   ,it would be foolish to    
publish any strict dietary code as      
descriptive of the food of the people of
 the vast region generally known as the 
,chinese ,empire1 for apart from the    
difference in the products of the       
various sections of that diversified    
country1 it must be remembered that the 
numerous tribes1 which when amalgamated 
centuries ago formed the ,empire1 have  
retained most of their original customs1
 owing partly to the paucity of         
transportation facilities and the       
consequent impediments to an interchange
 of ideas1 partly to the conservative   
nature of the people and partly to the  
influence of climate and surroundings4  
,furthermore1 as1 excepting a few fruits
 which are of comparatively recent      
introduction1 such as the pineapple1 the
 foods of ,chinamen to-day closely      

resemble the foods of ,chinamen four    
thousand years ago1 it will not be      
necessary in this volume to keep very   
strictly apart the past and the present4
  ,until quite recently it was customary
 to regard the ,chinese as uncivilized  
and degraded heathens who voraciously   
devoured all kinds of vermin and other  
miscellaneous tit-bits which to most    
people of the ,western ,hemisphere are  
repulsive even in suggestion1 hence it  
may be well to repeat here that1        
although it remains true that cats1 dogs
 and rats occasionally serve as articles
 of food1 this happens only when        
provisions are scarce or among the very 
poor1 who 7as in all civilized          
countries71 linger always on the        
threshold of starvation4  ,the ,chinese1
 in spite of the doleful tales of some  
writers1 are on the whole a well fed    
race4 ,beef and mutton are not plentiful
 except in the north1 but hogs1 poultry 
and fish1 with vegetables1 fruits and   
rice are within the reach of a majority 

of the population4 ,wrote a ,chinese    
sage3 ,the scholar forsakes not his     
books nor the poor man his pig4         
,furthermore1 in the preparation of     
their national dishes the ,chinese cooks
 7especially those in the cities and in 
the households of the rich7 display a   
high degree of skill4  ,wheat1 several  
varieties of rice and sweet potatoes are
 grown in all parts of the ,empire1 and 
barley1 sorghum1 cabbages1 beans and    
other vegetables and sugar cane are also
 raised in large quantities4  ,rice is  
seldom ground except when made into     
cakes4  ,the sorghum1 or hauliang       
7extensively cultivated in the north71  
is not used as in ,america for the      
manufacture of sugar1 but the seeds are 
ground and made into a coarse bread or  
used for the preparation of some brands 
of whiskey4  ,sweet potatoes are sliced 
into coarse strips and dried in the sun4
 ,it is1 though1 considered a sign of   
extreme poverty to be seen eating them  
at any meal other than a lunch or       

hurried repast4  ,of the vegetables1 the
 petsae or white cabbage is the most    
widely cultivated4  ,beans grow         
luxuriantly4 ,fully one-half of the crop
 is crushed for the sake of the oil1 the
 residue being pressed into bricks and  
used as a fertilizer4  ,bean curds is a 
very popular dish1 especially for       
breakfast4 ,the beans are ground to a   
flour1 which is passed through three    
strainers of coarse1 medium fine and    
very fine linen4 ,this is boiled for an 
hour over a slow fire until the proper  
consistency is obtained4  ,salted beans 
form quite an important article of      
commerce4 ,four catties of beans are put
 in a jar with one catty of salt1 half a
 catty of ginger and a few taels of     
almonds and spices4 ,the jars are then  
sealed and left untouched for about a   
month4  ,a more novel way is to put the 
beans in earthenware jars filled with   
very clear spring water1 changing the   
water every four hours4 ,in seven days  
tender shoots have appeared and the     

beans are then sold as a delicacy4      
,peanuts are grown for the sake of their
 oil4  ,hsiang-yu is a fragrant oil made
 from peanuts and beans1 which is used  
for the toilet and by the poor for      
cooking4 ,castor oil answers the same   
purposes4  ,the juice of the sugar cane 
is extracted by crushing the stalks in  
two perpendicular cylinders1 kept in    
motion by a yoke of buffalos1 the juice 
being received in a tub placed beneath4 
,lime is added to the juice and it is   
then immediately boiled4  ,illustration3
 ,a ,chinese poulterer's shop4  ,within 
the limits of ,chinese territory are    
found almost all known varieties of     
fruits1 some of which are indigenous to 
it4  ,the whampee is a yellow skinned   
fruit about the size of a grape which   
hangs in clusters from the glossy-leaved
 trees which produce it4 ,the flavor is 
tart and its three or four stones are of
 a greenish color4  ,the li-chi has a   
rough red exterior4 ,inside is a white  
film which incloses a watery translucent

 pulp of a sweetish taste and a brownish
 black ovoid stone4  ,the lo-quat is a  
species of medlar4  ,oranges1 ginger1   
etc41 are preserved in sugar4  ,ducks   
are raised in almost incredible numbers4
 ,their eggs and those of fowls are     
frequently hatched by artificial heat4  
,eggs that have been preserved in lime  
for several1 sometimes a great many1    
years are much esteemed4 ,after a       
quarter of a century1 the yellow assumes
 a dark brown color and the whites have 
the appearance of meat jelly--strange   
though it may seem1 they are really     
excellent in that condition4  ,all foods
 served at a genuine ,chinese dinner are
 previously cut into minute particles4  
,the large roast pieces which adorn the 
tables at dinners given in seaport towns
 to foreigners of note are placed there 
merely in deference to the customs of   
the guests4  ,illustration3 ,a ,chinese 
dinner party4  ,rice and soup are       
brought on to the table in large vessels
 from which individual saucers are      

filled4 ,other dishes are partaken of by
 all present directly from the common   
bowl4  ,it is considered a token of     
hospitality on the part of the host or  
friendliness on the part of an          
acquaintance to take an especially      
choice piece of meat or vegetable from  
the bowl and to place it on the plate or
 in the mouth of a fellow diner4  ,the  
two chopsticks are both held in the     
right instead of separately in each hand
 as ordinarily believed4 ,they are      
maintained by the thumb and ring finger 
and manipulated by the index and middle 
fingers4 ,one stick remains motionless1 
the other is so manoeuvred as to entrap 
with ease a morsel of meat or even the  
smallest grain of rice4  ,the sticks    
7square at the top and round for the    
rest of their length7 are made of bamboo
 or more precious woods1 ivory or       
silver4 ,on the upper portions1 poems   
and pictures are often engraved4        
,spoons are used for liquids4           
,illustration3 ,chopsticks and bowl4    

,an ordinary meal among the middle      
classes consists of eight dishes--two   
vegetables1 eggs1 fish1 shell fish1 bird
 and two meats 7pork and goat2 or1 in   
some parts of the north1 mutton and     
beef74  ,with this will be served a     
large tureen of soup with rice1 the     
latter taking the place of bread4  ,when
 eating rice1 the bowl is raised by the 
left hand to a close proximity to the   
mouth and the rice is rather scooped    
than picked up4  ,the importance which  
is attached to rice as a life-sustaining
 article may be judged from the         
exclamation of a ,chinese sailor when he
 was informed that it was held in but   
secondary repute in ,america4 ,throwing 
up both hands with an expression in     
which were combined horror and pity1 he 
cried3 ,oh1 the sterile region of       
barbarians which produces not the       
necessaries of life2 strange that the   
inhabitants have not long ago died of   
hunger6  ,two good meals a day1 the     
customary number1 and a light luncheon1 

will in the average native home         
represent the expenditure of about ten  
cents in ,american money4  ,wine is     
served only on special occasions4  ,the 
hotels in the large cities are          
distinguished by titles as in this      
country1 though the ,chinese proprietor 
gives freer rein to his imagination1    
choosing such titles as ,cum ,lee       
7,golden ,profits71 ,cut ,shing 7,rank  
,conferring ,hotel71 the ,cut ,sing     
7,fortunate ,star71 etc4 ,they are often
 comparatively tall structures and are  
usually clustered together in one       
quarter of the town4  ,illustration3 ,a 
,chinese distillery4  ,the ground floor 
of the ordinary hotel is reserved for   
the proprietor's apartments and the     
kitchen4 ,the first floor contains one  
public and several private dining-rooms2
 and the second and upper floors are    
divided into sleeping apartments--the   
partitions of which are so thin that    
even a whispered conversation is        
intelligible to a party in the adjoining

 room4  ,there is not much comfort to be
 obtained in the villages1 and the      
accommodations are worse in the south   
and central districts than in the north 
and ,mongolia4  ,the country caravansary
 is built in the form of a quadrangle   
with the walls1 in the ,north1 of mud or
 clay4  ,in the one public room1 the    
traveler perforce mingles with cattle   
drovers and muleteers1 but the private  
apartments are fairly comfortable4  ,the
 stables are usually attached to the    
building1 with large compounds for sheep
 or cattle4 ,some of the larger         
establishments boast separate quadrangle
 stables1 while some of the smaller have
 none at all1 the animals being hitched 
to troughs or racks in the centre of the
 quadrangle4  ,illustration3 ,a ,chinese
 restaurant4  ,the beds 7cangues7 are   
shaped like furnaces4 ,the occupant1    
protected by a thick coverlet1 reclines 
on the top of a stratum of chunam or    
asphalt1 with an opening similar to the 
door of a furnace1 in one of the        

perpendicular sides1 by means of which a
 small fire is in cold weather built    
directly beneath the bed4  ,the poorer  
travelers sleep in the public hall4  ,in
 some cities are khans which act as     
depots for the goods of traveling       
merchants1 who are boarded and lodged   
without charge until they have disposed 
of their stock1 the landlord then       
receiving a small percentage of the     
sales4  ,the proprietor of a public inn 
is compelled to furnish the authorities 
each month with a list of the persons   
whom he has lodged or fed1 and women are
 not received at all in the public      
hotels in the ,south4  ,the restaurants 
in the cities are often quite large1    
running to two and three stories in     
height4  ,on the ground floor is the    
kitchen4 ,on the first floor at the head
 of the first staircase is the public   
dining room where a good cheap meal can 
be obtained1 and on the second and third
 floors are the private and more select 
chambers4 ,in each room is a bill of    

fare4  ,an ordinary first class         
restaurant dinner comprises from ten to 
thirty dishes1 and for any special      
occasion a hundred or more are often    
served4  ,below is the menu of a dinner 
which1 if served to eight or ten persons
 at a good public city restaurant1 would
 cost about seventy-five cents per head4
        ,fried ,ham      ,gizzards      
,grated meat ,grilled      ,dried       
shrimps      ,preserved eggs       ,four
 kinds of dried fruits      ,four kinds 
of fresh fruits       ,fat duck         
,shark's fins      ,swallowsnest soup   
,meats       ,salted chicken            
,shellfish      ,meats      ,oysters    
,mushroom morels 7called ,ears of the   
,forest74      ,rice of ,immortals 7a   
species of mushrooms74      ,tender     
sprouts of bamboo       ,fish           
,meats   ,the diners are usually seated 
at square tables in groups of eight4    
,chinese whiskey or wine is served in   
small double-handled cups1 which are    
constantly replenished by the attendants

 from vessels resembling silver coffee  
pots4 ,pipes of tobacco are also passed 
around at intervals4  ,before eating1   
the host or most prominent guest pours  
out a libation4 ,his table companions   
follow his example and all bow politely 
to each other4  ,illustration3 ,chinaman
 spearing fresh water turtles4  ,pastry 
is brought on between courses4 ,if salt1
 a cup of chicken broth2 if sweet1      
almond milk is furnished with it4  ,no  
napkins are provided1 pieces of coarse  
brown paper being used in their stead4  
,the last is a sort of trial of appetite
 course4 ,it consists of large          
dishes--sometimes eight or ten arranged 
in pyramid form--and the ever           
forthcoming refusal to partake of it    
announces the termination of the meal4  
,the attendants then bring in towels and
 bowls of hot water4 ,they immerse the  
towels in the water1 and after wringing 
them out present them to the guests in  
the order of their importance4  ,on     
special occasions the water is scented  

with otto of roses4  ,one habit of the  
attendants which is especially          
surprising to the novice is that as     
their labors during the meal increase   
the temperature of their bodies1 the    
waiters divest themselves of the greater
 part of their clothing6  ,one          
restaurant in ,canton which caters for  
the cheaper class of trade1 feeds on an 
average five thousand persons daily4    
,each patron is served with portions of 
regular size1 and allowance is made for 
any pieces which he may not eat4  ,the  
tea saloons are divided into two large  
rooms furnished with stools and tables4 
,cakes1 preserved fruits and tea are    
served4 ,the cups are usually covered so
 as to prevent the aroma of the tea from
 evaporating4  ,dog and cat restaurants 
consist of one large public apartment1  
with the entrance to the dining room    
through the kitchen4  ,soup stalls are  
found on the street corners of the      
cities4 ,they sell luncheons of fish1   
pork1 soups1 vegetables1 fried locusts1 

etc41 from one to two cents4  ,the oven1
 or1 to speak more accurately1 the      
baking apparatus1 of the average        
establishment is somewhat singular4 ,it 
consists of a furnace resembling a      
copper in shape1 built in the center of 
an outhouse4 ,the hollow part 7which is 
shallow7 is filled with charcoal4 ,a    
lid1 which fits the aperture1 is so     
suspended by chains from the beams above
 as to be capable of elevation or       
depression4 ,upon this lid1 pastry and  
cakes are placed and kept directly above
 or at any distance from the fire1      
according to the heat desired4  ,the    
bakers often manufacture their bread    
without the use of shortening of any    
description4  ,a very popular cake      
consists partially of mincemeat4 ,the   
baker before commencing to make it1     
places a pile of dough on one side and  
opposite it a heap of mincemeat--a      
mixture of pork1 sugar1 spices1 etc4 ,he
 then pulls off a piece of dough1 rolls 
it into a ball1 flattens it1 covers it  

with the meat1 rolls it into a ball     
again1 shapes it into a ring and        
flattens it by a stroke of the hand into
 a cake of definite size and thickness4 
,among other dainty dishes of ,chinaland
 are the t'ien ya tzu1 a species of     
delicately flavored fat duck2 feng chi1 
salted chicken2 a dish of amber         
gelatine2 a salad of bamboo shoots2 huo 
t'ui1 a dainty ham of the appearance of 
veal2 y ch'ih1 shark's fins1 and hai li 
tzu1 devilled oysters with mushrooms4   
,other items are salted earthworms1     
pigeon's eggs1 pounded shrimps2 bird's  
nest soup1 a gelatinous article2 beches 
de mer 7sea slugs71 water beetles and   
silkworms1 the last named fried in oil  
after they have made their cocoons4  ,a 
much admired soup1 prepared for an      
imperial feast1 was of blood and mare's 
milk4  ,oysters are very cheap in       
winter1 selling at from five to six     
cents per pound4  ,the following        
receipts may be of interest as literal  
translations from a genuine ,chinese    

cook book3        ,steamed ,shark's     
,fins4       ,take the sun-dried shark's
 fins1 place in a cooking pan1 add wood 
ashes and boil in several waters4 ,then 
take out and scrape the      roughness  
from the fins4 ,if not clean1 boil again
 and scrape again      until clean4     
,then change the water and boil again4  
,take out and      remove the flesh1    
keeping only the fins themselves4 ,boil 
again and      put in spring water4 ,the
 frequent changing of the water is      
necessary to take out the lime taste4   
,put the fins into the soup      and    
stew until quite tender4 ,dish in a     
bowl1 placing crab meat      below and a
 little ham on top4        ,chicken with
 the ,liquor of ,fermented ,rice4       
,bone a chicken and steam until just    
right2 take out and let cool1      then 
cut into thin slices4 ,next1 take       
gelatinous rice which has      been     
fermented with yeast and water2 cook    
this for two hours1 add a      little of
 the juice expressed from fresh ginger1 

soy1 sesamum and      oil4 ,mix together
 with peanut oil4 ,dish and add fragrant
 herbs4        ,genii ,ducks4           
,take a fat duck2 open and clean4 ,take 
two mace of salt1 rub it both           
outside and inside and put into an      
earthen dish4 ,take one cup of      fan 
spirits and put 7the cup with the       
spirits7 inside the      duck--only the 
vapor of the spirits is wanted4 ,steam  
over water      until quite tender1 then
 lift out the wine cup and put the bird 
into a bowl4   ,the most common native  
liquor are suee chow1 a rice brandy2    
shas chin1 an impure alcohol made from  
kauliang or sorghum2 huary chin1 a      
yellow wine made from millet1 and       
various spirits extracted from plums1   
apples1 pears1 etc4 ,all liquors are    
drunk hot1 and some of them are steeped 
with spices or the leaves of flowers4   
,although spirits are plentiful and     
cheap1 drunkenness is rare4  ,tea1 of   
course1 is consumed by all classes4  ,a 
curious custom annually observed is the 

propitiatory offering to the ,god of the
 ,kitchen1 who is worshipped in all     
parts of ,china1 and who is supposed to 
report his observations to the ,pearly  
,emperor ,supreme ,ruler4               
,illustration3 ,family ,offering to the 
,kitchen ,god4  ,he is represented in   
each kitchen by a slip of white or red  
paper 7changed each year as a rule7     
bearing his name and title and sometimes
 his portrait1 pasted on the wall in    
some convenient part of the room4       
,among the better classes the kitchen   
god is also known as the superintendent 
or inspector of good and evil4  ,on the 
evening of the twenty-third day of the  
twelfth month a special sacrifice is    
made in his honor by about sixty per    
cent4 of the population4 ,meats1 cakes1 
fruits and wines are offered with       
candles1 incense1 mock money1 etc41 and 
all members of the family then kneel    
reverently before his representation and
 bow their heads in homage4  ,on the    
evening of the twenty-fourth those who  

have not participated in the ceremonies 
of the previous day1 make a vegetable   
offering in a similar manner4           
,illustration3 ,a ,chinese kitchen boat4
  ,many of the wealthier classes make   
both offerings on the twenty-third4 ,the
 poorest use only incense and candles4  
,the numerous sailing vessels on the    
rivers and lakes are as well fitted to  
supply the wants of the traveler as the 
hotels on shore4  ,the houseboats and   
some of the passenger boats rely for    
their meals on the kitchen boats1 which 
are really admirably managed4  ,the     
fishing boats make use of a very        
primitive heating apparatus--a large    
boiler in an earthenware furnace set in 
a part of the deck1 serving as the      
general cook book4  ,a great many pages 
might be covered by treating on the     
curious festivities which celebrate so  
many occasions1 but they have been so   
often described in other works that a   
description of them here would perhaps  
savor too much of needless repetition4  

,other ,works from the ,book ,department
 of ,,the ,,caterer   ,martyn's ,menu   
,dictionary  ,price #a       7#acj      
pages1 two columns to a page1 cloth     
bound47  ,the most complete dictionary  
of menu1 culinary and food terms ever   
published4 ,more than five thousand     
items4 ,in two sections3                
,french-,english and ,english-,french4  
,the first section includes also about  
#fjj wine names with brief descriptive  
notes and both parts list a number of   
,german words with ,english and ,french 
translations4   ,how to ,make ,money in 
a ,country ,hotel  ,price #b       7#bjj
 pages1 printed on the finest paper and 
handsomely bound74      ,third edition4 
,the reason for the great success of    
this work is probably to be found in the
 fact that the author does not content  
himself with merely advising greater    
economy1 or better business             
methods--instead he gets right down to a
 practical hold of the subject and shows
 how to economize and how to increase   

one's trade4   ,the ,financial ,side of 
,hotel ,keeping  ,price #b       7#cjj  
pages1 handsomely printed and bound47   
,second ,edition4  ,this book is        
entirely different from any other work  
on the hotel business4 ,the main story  
takes up the matter of location1        
investment1 equipment1 etc41 the        
financing of the business after         
starting1 and many points touching on   
policy1 organization1 etc41 and the     
management of the back part of the      
house4 ,following this is a series of   
papers on the restaurant business4      
,the ,wine ,steward's ,manual  ,price #a
       7#ajh pages1 illustrated1 cloth  
bound47  ,a handy volume on the care and
 service of wines1 with contributions   
from the highest authorities4   ,foods  
and ,culinary ,utensils of the ,ancients
  ,price #ej cents  ,compiled from      
standard historical works4 ,seventy-two 
pages1 well illustrated4   ,dainty      
,dishes  ,price 7cloth bound7 #a        
,by ,adolphe ,meyer1 author of ,the     

,post-,graduate ,cookery ,book1 ,eggs   
and ,how to ,use ,them1 etc4  ,a book of
 specially dainty dishes which offers   
many opportunities to vary the daily    
bill of fare or the banquet or ball     
supper menu--usually without adding     
anything to the cost and sometimes at   
smaller expense4   ,the ,post-,graduate 
,cookery ,book  ,price 7cloth bound7 #b 
,by ,adolphe ,meyer1 for #aa years chef 
of the exclusive ,union ,club1      ,new
 ,york4       7,nearly #cjj pages4      
,about #a1jjj receipts47  ,the          
,post-,graduate ,cookery ,book is a work
 containing matter supplementary to1 or 
in advance of1 the regular standard     
works on cookery and kindred matters4   
,it has a special intrinsic value to the
 purchaser1 for it contains a large     
number of receipts for special dishes   
which have never appeared in print      
elsewhere4 ,some of these receipts are  
new1 others are for special dishes which
 have helped to enhance the reputations 
of famous establishments both in ,europe

 and this country4   ,eggs and ,how to  
,use ,them  ,price #a       ,by ,adolphe
 ,meyer1 ,author of ,the ,post-,graduate
 ,cookery ,book1 etc4      7,third      
,edition47       7#aej pages1 cloth     
bound47  ,about #fjj receipts1          
classified as poached1 shirred1 molded1 
omelettes1 etc41 etc41 and with titles  
in both ,french and ,english4   ,fables 
of the ,hotel ,profession and ,poems of 
,good ,cheer  ,price #ej cts4       ,a  
dainty little volume of #hh pages1 bound
 in gilt lettered cloth4  ,the ,fables  
7by ,charles ,martyn7 are little stories
 of the hotel business1 which hit off1  
in semi-humorous manner1 many typical   
characters and conditions4  ,poems of   
,good ,cheer 7by ,frank ,w4 ,doolittle7 
is a title made generously broad to     
cover a number of verses on the hotel   
business1 those engaged in it and the   
good things dispensed4   ,,the ,,caterer
 ,,publishing ,,co41 ,established #ahic4
      ,,new ,,york4  ,publishers of     
,,the ,,caterer1 the monthly text book  

of the hotel1 club and high-class       
restaurant business4 ,subscription      
price1 #b a year2 #a4be for six months4 
,,the ,,caterer keeps its readers       
informed on everything that is new in   
the hotel1 club and high-class          
restaurant business--new ideas in       
service1 reports of special occasions   
7such as banquets1 etc471 new items of  
equipment1 new points in system1 etc4   
,every issue also contains a variety of 
other matter of general interest1 what's
 happening among our subscribers1       
etc4--all written in entertaining style4