,the ,golden ,bough ,studies in the ,history of ,oriental ,religion ,by ,james ,george ,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge ,professor of ,social ,anthropology in the ,university of ,liverpool ,vol4 ,v4 of ,,xii4 ,part ,,iv3 ,adonis ,attis ,osiris4 ,vol4 #a of #b4 ,new ,york and ,london ,mac,millan and ,co4 #aiad ,,contents ,preface to the ,first ,edition4 ,preface to the ,second ,edition4 ,preface to the ,third ,edition4 ,book ,first4 ,adonis4 ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,myth of ,adonis4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,adonis in ,syria4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,adonis in ,cyprus4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,sacred ,men and ,women4 #a4 ,an ,alternative ,theory4 #b4 ,sacred ,women in ,india4 #c4 ,sacred ,men and ,women in ,west ,africa4 #d4 ,sacred ,women in ,western ,asia4 #e4 ,sacred ,men in ,western ,asia4 #f4 ,sons of ,god4 #g4 ,reincarnation of the ,dead4 #h4 ,sacred ,stocks and ,stones among the ,semites4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,burning of ,melcarth4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,burning of ,sandan4 #a4 ,the ,baal of ,tarsus4 #b4 ,the ,god of ,ibreez4 #c4 ,sandan of ,tarsus4 #d4 ,the ,gods of ,boghaz-,keui4 #e4 ,sandan and ,baal at ,tarsus4 #f4 ,priestly ,kings of ,olba4 #g4 ,the ,god of the ,corycian ,cave4 #h4 ,cilician ,goddesses4 #i4 ,the ,burning of ,cilician ,gods4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,sardanapalus and ,hercules4 #a4 ,the ,burning of ,sardanapalus4 #b4 ,the ,burning of ,croesus4 #c4 ,purification by ,fire4 #d4 ,the ,divinity of ,lydian ,kings4 #e4 ,hittite ,gods at ,tarsus and ,sardes4 #f4 ,the ,resurrection of ,tylon4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,volcanic ,religion4 #a4 ,the ,burning of a ,god4 #b4 ,the ,volcanic ,region of ,cappadocia4 #c4 ,fire-,worship in ,cappadocia4 #d4 ,the ,burnt ,land of ,lydia4 #e4 ,the ,earthquake ,god4 #f4 ,the ,worship of ,mephitic ,vapours4 #g4 ,the ,worship of ,hot ,springs4 #h4 ,the ,worship of ,volcanoes in other ,lands4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,ritual of ,adonis4 ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,gardens of ,adonis4 ,book ,second4 ,attis4 ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,myth and ,ritual of ,attis4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,attis ,as a ,god of ,vegetation4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,attis ,as ,the ,father ,god4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,human ,representatives of ,attis4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,hanged ,god4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,oriental ,religions in the ,west4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,hyacinth4 ,footnotes ,cover ,art ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the above cover image was produced by the submitter at ,distributed ,proofreaders1 and is being placed into the public domain4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,these studies are an expansion of the corresponding sections in my book ,the ,golden ,bough1 and they will form part of the third edition of that work1 on the preparation of which ,i have been engaged for some time4 ,by far the greater portion of them is new1 and they make by themselves a fairly complete and1 ,i hope1 intelligible whole4 ,i shall be glad if criticisms passed on the essays in their present shape should enable me to correct and improve them when ,i come to incorporate them in my larger work4 ,in studying afresh these three ,oriental worships1 akin to each other in character1 ,i have paid more attention than formerly to the natural features of the countries in which they arose1 because ,i am more than ever persuaded that religion1 like all other institutions1 has been profoundly influenced by physical environment1 and cannot be understood without some appreciation of those aspects of external nature which stamp themselves indelibly on the thoughts1 the habits1 the whole life of a people4 ,it is a matter of great regret to me that ,i have never visited the ,east1 and so cannot describe from personal knowledge the native lands of ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris4 ,but ,i have sought to remedy the defect by comparing the descriptions of eye-witnesses1 and painting from them what may be called composite pictures of some of the scenes on which ,i have been led to touch in the course of this volume4 ,i shall not have wholly failed if ,i have caught from my authorities and conveyed to my readers some notion1 however dim1 of the scenery1 the atmosphere1 the gorgeous colouring of the ,east4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer4 ,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 #bbnd ,july #aijf4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,in this second edition some minor corrections have been made and some fresh matter added4 ,where my views appear to have been misunderstood1 ,i have endeavoured to state them more clearly2 where they have been disputed1 ,i have carefully reconsidered the evidence and given my reasons for adhering to my former opinions4 ,most of the additions thus made to the volume are comprised in a new chapter 78,sacred ,men and ,women071 a new section 78,influence of ,mother-kin on ,religion071 and three new appendices 78,moloch the ,king10 8,the ,widowed ,flamen10 and 8,some ,customs of the ,pelew ,islanders074 ,among the friends and correspondents who have kindly helped me with information and criticisms of various sorts ,i wish to thank particularly ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,professor ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill of the ,british ,museum1 the ,reverend ,j4 ,roscoe of the ,church ,missionary ,society1 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,wyse4 ,above all ,i owe much to my teacher the ,reverend ,professor ,r4 ,h4 ,kennett1 who1 besides initiating me into the charms of the ,hebrew language and giving me a clearer insight into the course of ,hebrew history1 has contributed several valuable suggestions to the book and enhanced the kindness by reading and criticizing some of the proofs4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer4 ,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 #bbnd ,september #aijg4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,in revising the book for this third edition ,i have made use of several important works which have appeared since the last edition was published4 ,among these ,i would name particularly the learned treatises of ,count ,baudissin on ,adonis1 of ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge on ,osiris1 and of my colleague ,professor ,j4 ,garstang on the civilization of the ,hittites1 that still mysterious people1 who begin to loom a little more distinctly from the mists of the past4 ,following the example of ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,i have indicated certain analogies which may be traced between the worship of ,osiris and the worship of the dead1 especially of dead kings1 among the modern tribes of ,africa4 ,the conclusion to which these analogies appear to point is that under the mythical pall of the glorified ,osiris1 the god who died and rose again from the dead1 there once lay the body of a dead man4 ,whether that was so or not1 ,i will not venture to say4 ,the longer ,i occupy myself with questions of ancient mythology the more diffident ,i become of success in dealing with them1 and ,i am apt to think that we who spend our years in searching for solutions of these insoluble problems are like ,sisyphus perpetually rolling his stone up hill only to see it revolve again into the valley1 or like the daughters of ,danaus doomed for ever to pour water into broken jars that can hold no water4 ,if we are taxed with wasting life in seeking to know what can never be known1 and what1 if it could be discovered1 would not be worth knowing1 what can we plead in our defence8 ,i fear1 very little4 ,such pursuits can hardly be defended on the ground of pure reason4 ,we can only say that something1 we know not what1 drives us to attack the great enemy ,ignorance wherever we see him1 and that if we fail1 as we probably shall1 in our attack on his entrenchments1 it may be useless but it is not inglorious to fall in leading a ,forlorn ,hope4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer ,,cambridge1 #afth ,january #aiad4 ,,book ,,first4 ,,adonis4 ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,myth of ,adonis4 7,m#a7 ,the spectacle of the great changes which annually pass over the face of the earth has powerfully impressed the minds of men in all ages1 and stirred them to meditate on the causes of transformations so vast and wonderful4 ,their curiosity has not been purely disinterested2 for even the savage cannot fail to perceive how intimately his own life is bound up with the life of nature1 and how the same processes which freeze the stream and strip the earth of vegetation menace him with extinction4 ,at a certain stage of development men seem to have imagined that the means of averting the threatened calamity were in their own hands1 and that they could hasten or retard the flight of the seasons by magic art4 ,accordingly they performed ceremonies and recited spells to make the rain to fall1 the sun to shine1 animals to multiply1 and the fruits of the earth to grow4 ,in course of time the slow advance of knowledge1 which has dispelled so many cherished illusions1 convinced at least the more thoughtful portion of mankind that the alternations of summer and winter1 of spring and autumn1 were not merely the result of their own magical rites1 but that some deeper cause1 some mightier power1 was at work behind the shifting scenes of nature4 ,they now pictured to themselves the growth and decay of vegetation1 the birth and death of living creatures1 as effects of the waxing or waning strength of divine beings1 of gods and goddesses1 who were born and died1 who married and begot children1 on the pattern of human life4 7,m#b7 ,thus the old magical theory of the seasons was displaced1 or rather supplemented1 by a religious theory4 ,for although men now attributed the annual cycle of change primarily to corresponding changes in their deities1 they still thought that by performing certain magical rites they could aid the god1 who was the principle of life1 in his struggle with the opposing principle of death4 ,they imagined that they could recruit his failing energies and even raise him from the dead4 ,the ceremonies which they observed for this purpose were in substance a dramatic representation of the natural processes which they wished to facilitate2 for it is a familiar tenet of magic that you can produce any desired effect by merely imitating it4 ,and as they now explained the fluctuations of growth and decay1 of reproduction and dissolution1 by the marriage1 the death1 and the rebirth or revival of the gods1 their religious or rather magical dramas turned in great measure on these themes4 ,they set forth the fruitful union of the powers of fertility1 the sad death of one at least of the divine partners1 and his joyful resurrection4 ,thus a religious theory was blended with a magical practice4 ,the combination is familiar in history4 ,indeed1 few religions have ever succeeded in wholly extricating themselves from the old trammels of magic4 ,the inconsistency of acting on two opposite principles1 however it may vex the soul of the philosopher1 rarely troubles the common man2 indeed he is seldom even aware of it4 ,his affair is to act1 not to analyse the motives of his action4 ,if mankind had always been logical and wise1 history would not be a long chronicle of folly and crime47#a7 7,m#c7 ,of the changes which the seasons bring with them1 the most striking within the temperate zone are those which affect vegetation4 ,the influence of the seasons on animals1 though great1 is not nearly so manifest4 ,hence it is natural that in the magical dramas designed to dispel winter and bring back spring the emphasis should be laid on vegetation1 and that trees and plants should in them more prominently than beasts and birds4 ,yet the two sides of life1 the vegetable and the animal1 were not dissociated in the minds of those who observed the ceremonies4 ,indeed they commonly believed that the tie between the animal and the vegetable world was even closer than it really is2 hence they often combined the dramatic representation of reviving plants with a real or a dramatic union of the sexes for the purpose of furthering at the same time and by the same act the multiplication of fruits1 of animals1 and of men4 ,to them the principle of life and fertility1 whether animal or vegetable1 was one and indivisible4 ,to live and to cause to live1 to eat food and to beget children1 these were the primary wants of men in the past1 and they will be the primary wants of men in the future so long as the world lasts4 ,other things may be added to enrich and beautify human life1 but unless these wants are first satisfied1 humanity itself must cease to exist4 ,these two things1 therefore1 food and children1 were what men chiefly sought to procure by the performance of magical rites for the regulation of the seasons4 7,m#d7 ,nowhere1 apparently1 have these rites been more widely and solemnly celebrated than in the lands which border the ,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,under the names of ,osiris1 ,tammuz1 ,adonis1 and ,attis1 the peoples of ,egypt and ,western ,asia represented the yearly decay and revival of life1 especially of vegetable life1 which they personified as a god who annually died and rose again from the dead4 ,in name and detail the rites varied from place to place3 in substance they were the same4 ,the supposed death and resurrection of this oriental deity1 a god of many names but of essentially one nature1 is the subject of the present inquiry4 ,we begin with ,tammuz or ,adonis47#b7 7,m#e7 ,the worship of ,adonis was practised by the ,semitic peoples of ,babylonia and ,syria1 and the ,greeks borrowed it from them as early as the seventh century before ,christ47#c7 ,the true name of the deity was ,tammuz3 the appellation of ,adonis is merely the ,semitic ,adon1 8lord10 a title of honour by which his worshippers addressed him47#d7 ,in the ,hebrew text of the ,old ,testament the same name ,adonai1 originally perhaps ,adoni1 8my lord10 is often applied to ,jehovah47#e7 ,but the ,greeks through a misunderstanding converted the title of honour into a proper name4 ,while ,tammuz or his equivalent ,adonis enjoyed a wide and lasting popularity among peoples of the ,semitic stock1 there are grounds for thinking that his worship originated with a race of other blood and other speech1 the ,sumerians1 who in the dawn of history inhabited the flat alluvial plain at the head of the ,persian ,gulf and created the civilization which was afterwards called ,babylonian4 ,the origin and affinities of this people are unknown2 in physical type and language they differed from all their neighbours1 and their isolated position1 wedged in between alien races1 presents to the student of mankind problems of the same sort as the isolation of the ,basques and ,etruscans among the ,aryan peoples of ,europe4 ,an ingenious1 but unproved1 hypothesis would represent them as immigrants driven from central ,asia by that gradual desiccation which for ages seems to have been converting once fruitful lands into a waste and burying the seats of ancient civilization under a sea of shifting sand4 ,whatever their place of origin may have been1 it is certain that in ,southern ,babylonia the ,sumerians attained at a very early period to a considerable pitch of civilization2 for they tilled the soil1 reared cattle1 built cities1 dug canals1 and even invented a system of writing1 which their ,semitic neighbours in time borrowed from them47#f7 ,in the pantheon of this ancient people ,tammuz appears to have been one of the oldest1 though certainly not one of the most important figures47#g7 ,his name consists of a ,sumerian phrase meaning 8true son0 or1 in a fuller form1 8true son of the deep water107#h7 and among the inscribed ,sumerian texts which have survived the wreck of empires are a number of hymns in his honour1 which were written down not later than about two thousand years before our era but were almost certainly composed at a much earlier time47#i7 7,m#f7 ,in the religious literature of ,babylonia ,tammuz appears as the youthful spouse or lover of ,ishtar1 the great mother goddess1 the embodiment of the reproductive energies of nature4 ,the references to their connexion with each other in myth and ritual are both fragmentary and obscure1 but we gather from them that every year ,tammuz was believed to die1 passing away from the cheerful earth to the gloomy subterranean world1 and that every year his divine mistress journeyed in quest of him 8to the land from which there is no returning1 to the house of darkness1 where dust lies on door and bolt40 ,during her absence the passion of love ceased to operate3 men and beasts alike forgot to reproduce their kinds3 all life was threatened with extinction4 ,so intimately bound up with the goddess were the sexual functions of the whole animal kingdom that without her presence they could not be discharged4 ,a messenger of the great god ,ea was accordingly despatched to rescue the goddess on whom so much depended4 ,the stern queen of the infernal regions1 ,allatu or ,eresh-,kigal by name1 reluctantly allowed ,ishtar to be sprinkled with the ,water of ,life and to depart1 in company probably with her lover ,tammuz1 that the two might return together to the upper world1 and that with their return all nature might revive4 7,m#g7 ,laments for the departed ,tammuz are contained in several ,babylonian hymns1 which liken him to plants that quickly fade4 ,he is 8,a tamarisk that in the garden has drunk no water1 ,whose crown in the field has brought forth no blossom4 ,a willow that rejoiced not by the watercourse1 ,a willow whose roots were torn up4 ,a herb that in the garden had drunk no water40 ,his death appears to have been annually mourned1 to the shrill music of flutes1 by men and women about midsummer in the month named after him1 the month of ,tammuz4 ,the dirges were seemingly chanted over an effigy of the dead god1 which was washed with pure water1 anointed with oil1 and clad in a red robe1 while the fumes of incense rose into the air1 as if to stir his dormant senses by their pungent fragrance and wake him from the sleep of death4 ,in one of these dirges1 inscribed ,lament of the ,flutes for ,tammuz1 we seem still to hear the voices of the singers chanting the sad refrain and to catch1 like far-away music1 the wailing notes of the flutes3-- 8,at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament1 #8,oh my child6' at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament2 #8,my ,damu6' at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament4 #8,my enchanter and priest6' at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament1 ,at the shining cedar1 rooted in a spacious place1 ,in ,eanna1 above and below1 she lifts up a lament4 ,like the lament that a house lifts up for its master1 lifts she up a lament1 ,like the lament that a city lifts up for its lord1 lifts she up a lament4 ,her lament is the lament for a herb that grows not in the bed1 ,her lament is the lament for the corn that grows not in the ear4 ,her chamber is a possession that brings not forth a possession1 ,a weary woman1 a weary child1 forspent4 ,her lament is for a great river1 where no willows grow1 ,her lament is for a field1 where corn and herbs grow not4 ,her lament is for a pool1 where fishes grow not4 ,her lament is for a thicket of reeds1 where no reeds grow4 ,her lament is for woods1 where tamarisks grow not4 ,her lament is for a wilderness where no cypresses 787 grow4 ,her lament is for the depth of a garden of trees1 where honey and wine grow not4 ,her lament is for meadows1 where no plants grow4 ,her lament is for a palace1 where length of life grows not407#aj7 7,m#h7 ,the tragical story and the melancholy rites of ,adonis are better known to us from the descriptions of ,greek writers than from the fragments of ,babylonian literature or the brief reference of the prophet ,ezekiel1 who saw the women of ,jerusalem weeping for ,tammuz at the north gate of the temple47#aa7 ,mirrored in the glass of ,greek mythology1 the oriental deity appears as a comely youth beloved by ,aphrodite4 ,in his infancy the goddess hid him in a chest1 which she gave in charge to ,persephone1 queen of the nether world4 ,but when ,persephone opened the chest and beheld the beauty of the babe1 she refused to give him back to ,aphrodite1 though the goddess of love went down herself to hell to ransom her dear one from the power of the grave4 ,the dispute between the two goddesses of love and death was settled by ,zeus1 who decreed that ,adonis should abide with ,persephone in the under world for one part of the year1 and with ,aphrodite in the upper world for another part4 ,at last the fair youth was killed in hunting by a wild boar1 or by the jealous ,ares1 who turned himself into the likeness of a boar in order to compass the death of his rival4 ,bitterly did ,aphrodite lament her loved and lost ,adonis47#ab7 ,the strife between the divine rivals for the possession of ,adonis appears to be depicted on an ,etruscan mirror4 ,the two goddesses1 identified by inscriptions1 are stationed on either side of ,jupiter1 who occupies the seat of judgment and lifts an admonitory finger as he looks sternly towards ,persephone4 ,overcome with grief the goddess of love buries her face in her mantle1 while her pertinacious rival1 grasping a branch in one hand1 points with the other at a closed coffer1 which probably contains the youthful ,adonis47#ac7 ,in this form of the myth1 the contest between ,aphrodite and ,persephone for the possession of ,adonis clearly reflects the struggle between ,ishtar and ,allatu in the land of the dead1 while the decision of ,zeus that ,adonis is to spend one part of the year under ground and another part above ground is merely a ,greek version of the annual disappearance and reappearance of ,tammuz4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,adonis in ,syria4 7,m#i7 ,the myth of ,adonis was localized and his rites celebrated with much solemnity at two places in ,western ,asia4 ,one of these was ,byblus on the coast of ,syria1 the other was ,paphos in ,cyprus4 ,both were great seats of the worship of ,aphrodite1 or rather of her ,semitic counterpart1 ,astarte27#ad7 and of both1 if we accept the legends1 ,cinyras1 the father of ,adonis1 was king47#ae7 ,of the two cities ,byblus was the more ancient2 indeed it claimed to be the oldest city in ,phoenicia1 and to have been founded in the early ages of the world by the great god ,el1 whom ,greeks and ,romans identified with ,cronus and ,saturn respectively47#af7 ,however that may have been1 in historical times it ranked as a holy place1 the religious capital of the country1 the ,mecca or ,jerusalem of the ,phoenicians47#ag7 ,the city stood on a height beside the sea17#ah7 and contained a great sanctuary of ,astarte17#ai7 where in the midst of a spacious open court1 surrounded by cloisters and approached from below by staircases1 rose a tall cone or obelisk1 the holy image of the goddess47#bj7 ,in this sanctuary the rites of ,adonis were celebrated47#ba7 ,indeed the whole city was sacred to him17#bb7 and the river ,nahr ,ibrahim1 which falls into the sea a little to the south of ,byblus1 bore in antiquity the name of ,adonis47#bc7 ,this was the kingdom of ,cinyras47#bd7 ,from the earliest to the latest times the city appears to have been ruled by kings1 assisted perhaps by a senate or council of elders47#be7 ,the first of the kings of whom we have historical evidence was a certain ,zekar-baal4 ,he reigned about a century before ,solomon2 yet from that dim past his figure stands out strangely fresh and lifelike in the journal of an ,egyptian merchant or official named ,wen-,ammon1 which has fortunately been preserved in a papyrus4 ,this man spent some time with the king at ,byblus1 and received from him1 in return for rich presents1 a supply of timber felled in the forests of ,lebanon47#bf7 ,another king of ,byblus1 who bore the name of ,sibitti-baal1 paid tribute to ,tiglath-pileser ,,iii41 king of ,assyria1 about the year #gci ,b4,c47#bg7 ,further1 from an inscription of the fifth or fourth century before our era we learn that a king of ,byblus1 by name ,yehaw-melech1 son of ,yehar-baal1 and grandson of ,adom-melech or ,uri-melech1 dedicated a pillared portico with a carved work of gold and a bronze altar to the goddess1 whom he worshipped under the name of ,baalath ,gebal1 that is1 the female ,baal of ,byblus47#bh7 7,m#aj7 ,the names of these kings suggest that they claimed affinity with their god ,baal or ,moloch1 for ,moloch is only a corruption of melech1 that is1 8king40 ,such a claim at all events appears to have been put forward by many other ,semitic kings47#bi7 ,the early monarchs of ,babylon were worshipped as gods in their lifetime47#cj7 ,mesha1 king of ,moab1 perhaps called himself the son of his god ,kemosh47#ca7 ,among the ,aramean sovereigns of ,damascus1 mentioned in the ,bible1 we find more than one ,ben-hadad1 that is1 8son of the god ,hadad10 the chief male deity of the ,syrians27#cb7 and ,josephus tells us that down to his own time1 in the first century of our era1 ,ben-hadad ,i41 whom he calls simply ,adad1 and his successor1 ,hazael1 continued to be worshipped as gods by the people of ,damascus1 who held processions daily in their honour47#cc7 ,some of the kings of ,edom seem to have gone a step farther and identified themselves with the god in their lifetime2 at all events they bore his name ,hadad without any qualification47#cd7 ,king ,bar-rekub1 who reigned over ,samal in ,north-,western ,syria in the time of ,tiglath-pileser 7#gde-gbg ,b4,c47 appears from his name to have reckoned himself a son of ,rekub-el1 the god to whose favour he deemed himself indebted for the kingdom47#ce7 ,the kings of ,tyre traced their descent from ,baal17#cf7 and apparently professed to be gods in their own person47#cg7 ,several of them bore names which are partly composed of the names of ,baal and ,astarte2 one of them bore the name of ,baal pure and simple47#ch7 ,the ,baal whom they personated was no doubt ,melcarth1 8the king of the city10 as his name signifies1 the great god whom the ,greeks identified with ,hercules2 for the equivalence of the ,baal of ,tyre both to ,melcarth and to ,hercules is placed beyond the reach of doubt by a bilingual inscription1 in ,phoenician and ,greek1 which was found in ,malta47#ci7 7,m#aa7 ,in like manner the kings of ,byblus may have assumed the style of ,adonis2 for ,adonis was simply the divine ,adon or 8lord0 of the city1 a title which hardly differs in sense from ,baal 78master07 and ,melech 78king074 ,this conjecture would be confirmed if one of the kings of ,byblus actually bore1 as ,renan believed1 the name of ,adom-melech1 that is1 ,adonis ,melech1 the ,lord ,king4 ,but1 unfortunately1 the reading of the inscription in which the name occurs is doubtful47#dj7 ,some of the old ,canaanite kings of ,jerusalem appear to have played the part of ,adonis in their lifetime1 if we may judge from their names1 ,adoni-bezek and ,adoni-zedek17#da7 which are divine rather than human titles4 ,adoni-zedek means 8lord of righteousness10 and is therefore equivalent to ,melchizedek1 that is1 8king of righteousness10 the title of that mysterious king of ,salem and priest of ,god ,most ,high1 who seems to have been neither more nor less than one of these same ,canaanitish kings of ,jerusalem47#db7 ,thus if the old priestly kings of ,jerusalem regularly played the part of ,adonis1 we need not wonder that in later times the women of ,jerusalem used to weep for ,tammuz1 that is1 for ,adonis1 at the north gate of the temple47#dc7 ,in doing so they may only have been continuing a custom which had been observed in the same place by the ,canaanites long before the ,hebrews invaded the land4 ,perhaps the 8sacred men10 as they were called1 who lodged within the walls of the temple at ,jerusalem down almost to the end of the ,jewish kingdom17#dd7 may have acted the part of the living ,adonis to the living ,astarte of the women4 ,at all events we know that in the cells of these strange clergy women wove garments for the asherim17#de7 the sacred poles which stood beside the altar and which appear to have been by some regarded as embodiments of ,astarte47#df7 ,certainly these 8sacred men0 must have discharged some function which was deemed religious in the temple at ,jerusalem2 and we can hardly doubt that the prohibition to bring the wages of prostitution into the house of ,god1 which was published at the very same time that the men were expelled from the temple17#dg7 was directed against an existing practice4 ,in ,palestine as in other ,semitic lands the hire of sacred prostitutes was probably dedicated to the deity as one of his regular dues3 he took tribute of men and women as of flocks and herds1 of fields and vineyards and oliveyards4 7,m#ab7 ,but if ,jerusalem had been from of old the seat of a dynasty of spiritual potentates or ,grand ,lamas1 who held the keys of heaven and were revered far and wide as kings and gods in one1 we can easily understand why the upstart ,david chose it for the capital of the new kingdom which he had won for himself at the point of the sword4 ,the central position and the natural strength of the virgin fortress need not have been the only or the principal inducements which decided the politic monarch to transfer his throne from ,hebron to ,jerusalem47#dh7 ,by serving himself heir to the ancient kings of the city he might reasonably hope to inherit their ghostly repute along with their broad acres1 to wear their nimbus as well as their crown47#di7 ,so at a later time when he had conquered ,ammon and captured the royal city of ,rabbah1 he took the heavy gold crown of the ,ammonite god ,milcom and placed it on his own brows1 thus posing as the deity in person47#ej7 ,it can hardly1 therefore1 be unreasonable to suppose that he pursued precisely the same policy at the conquest of ,jerusalem4 ,and on the other side the calm confidence with which the ,jebusite inhabitants of that city awaited his attack1 jeering at the besiegers from the battlements17#ea7 may well have been born of a firm trust in the local deity rather than in the height and thickness of their grim old walls4 ,certainly the obstinacy with which in after ages the ,jews defended the same place against the armies of ,assyria and ,rome sprang in large measure from a similar faith in the ,god of ,zion4 7,m#ac7 ,be that as it may1 the history of the ,hebrew kings presents some features which may perhaps1 without straining them too far1 be interpreted as traces or relics of a time when they or their predecessors played the part of a divinity1 and particularly of ,adonis1 the divine lord of the land4 ,in life the ,hebrew king was regularly addressed as ,adoni-ham-melech1 8,my ,lord the ,king107#eb7 and after death he was lamented with cries of ,hoi ahi6 ,hoi ,adon6 8,alas my brother6 alas ,lord607#ec7 ,these exclamations of grief uttered for the death of a king of ,judah were1 we can hardly doubt1 the very same cries which the weeping women of ,jerusalem uttered in the north porch of the temple for the dead ,tammuz47#ed7 ,however1 little stress can be laid on such forms of address1 since ,adon in ,hebrew1 like 8lord0 in ,english1 was a secular as well as a religious title4 ,but whether identified with ,adonis or not1 the ,hebrew kings certainly seem to have been regarded as in a sense divine1 as representing and to some extent embodying ,jehovah on earth4 ,for the king's throne was called the throne of ,jehovah27#ee7 and the application of the holy oil to his head was believed to impart to him directly a portion of the divine spirit47#ef7 ,hence he bore the title of ,messiah1 which with its ,greek equivalent ,christ means no more than 8the ,anointed ,one40 ,thus when ,david had cut off the skirt of ,saul's robe in the darkness of a cave where he was in hiding1 his heart smote him for having laid sacrilegious hands upon ,adoni ,messiah ,jehovah1 8my ,lord the ,anointed of ,jehovah407#eg7 7,m#ad7 ,like other divine or semi-divine rulers the ,hebrew kings were apparently held answerable for famine and pestilence4 ,when a dearth1 caused perhaps by a failure of the winter rains1 had visited the land for three years1 ,king ,david inquired of the oracle1 which discreetly laid the blame not on him but on his predecessor ,saul4 ,the dead king was indeed beyond the reach of punishment1 but his sons were not4 ,so ,david had seven of them sought out1 and they were hanged before the ,lord at the beginning of barley harvest in spring3 and all the long summer the mother of two of the dead men sat under the gallows-tree1 keeping off the jackals by night and the vultures by day1 till with the autumn the blessed rain came at last to wet their dangling bodies and fertilize the barren earth once more4 ,then the bones of the dead were taken down from the gibbet and buried in the sepulchre of their fathers47#eh7 ,the season when these princes were put to death1 at the beginning of barley harvest1 and the length of time they hung on the gallows1 seem to show that their execution was not a mere punishment1 but that it partook of the nature of a rain-charm4 ,for it is a common belief that rain can be procured by magical ceremonies performed with dead men's bones17#ei7 and it would be natural to ascribe a special virtue in this respect to the bones of princes1 who are often expected to give rain in their life4 ,when the ,israelites demanded of ,samuel that he should give them a king1 the indignant prophet1 loth to be superseded by the upstart ,saul1 called on the ,lord to send thunder and rain1 and the ,lord did so at once1 though the season was early summer and the reapers were at work in the wheat-fields1 a time when in common years no rain falls from the cloudless ,syrian sky47#fj7 ,the pious historian who records the miracle seems to have regarded it as a mere token of the wrath of the deity1 whose voice was heard in the roll of thunder2 but we may surmise that in giving this impressive proof of his control of the weather ,samuel meant to hint gently at the naughtiness of asking for a king to do for the fertility of the land what could be done quite as well and far more cheaply by a prophet4 7,m#ae7 ,in ,israel the excess as well as the deficiency of rain seems to have been set down to the wrath of the deity47#fa7 ,when the ,jews returned to ,jerusalem from the great captivity and assembled for the first time in the square before the ruined temple1 it happened that the weather was very wet1 and as the people sat shelterless and drenched in the piazza they trembled at their sin and at the rain47#fb7 ,in all ages it has been the strength or the weakness of ,israel to read the hand of ,god in the changing aspects of nature1 and we need not wonder that at such a time and in so dismal a scene1 with a lowering sky overhead1 the blackened ruins of the temple before their eyes1 and the steady drip of the rain over all1 the returned exiles should have been oppressed with a double sense of their own guilt and of the divine anger4 ,perhaps1 though they hardly knew it1 memories of the bright sun1 fat fields1 and broad willow-fringed rivers of ,babylon17#fc7 which had been so long their home1 lent a deeper shade of sadness to the austerity of the ,judean landscape1 with its gaunt grey hills stretching away1 range beyond range1 to the horizon1 or dipping eastward to the far line of sombre blue which marks the sullen waters of the ,dead ,sea47#fd7 7,m#af7 ,in the days of the ,hebrew monarchy the king was apparently credited with the power of making sick and making whole4 ,thus the king of ,syria sent a leper to the king of ,israel to be healed by him1 just as scrofulous patients used to fancy that they could be cured by the touch of a ,french or ,english king4 ,however1 the ,hebrew monarch1 with more sense than has been shown by his royal brothers in modern times1 professed himself unable to work any such miracle4 8,am ,i ,god10 he asked1 8to kill and to make alive1 that this man doth send unto me to recover a man of his leprosy807#fe7 ,on another occasion1 when pestilence ravaged the country and the excited fancy of the plague-stricken people saw in the clouds the figure of the ,destroying ,angel with his sword stretched out over ,jerusalem1 they laid the blame on ,king ,david1 who had offended the touchy and irascible deity by taking a census4 ,the prudent monarch bowed to the popular storm1 acknowledged his guilt1 and appeased the angry god by offering burnt sacrifices on the threshing-floor of ,araunah1 one of the old ,jebusite inhabitants of ,jerusalem4 ,then the angel sheathed his flashing sword1 and the shrieks of the dying and the lamentations for the dead no longer resounded in the streets47#ff7 7,m#ag7 ,to this theory of the sanctity1 nay the divinity of the ,hebrew kings it may be objected that few traces of it survive in the historical books of the ,bible4 ,but the force of the objection is weakened by a consideration of the time and the circumstances in which these books assumed their final shape4 ,the great prophets of the eighth and the seventh centuries by the spiritual ideals and the ethical fervour of their teaching had wrought a religious and moral reform perhaps unparalleled in history4 ,under their influence an austere monotheism had replaced the old sensuous worship of the natural powers3 a stern ,puritanical spirit1 an unbending rigour of mind1 had succeeded to the old easy supple temper with its weak compliances1 its wax-like impressionability1 its proclivities to the sins of the flesh4 ,and the moral lessons which the prophets inculcated were driven home by the political events of the time1 above all by the ever-growing pressure of the great ,assyrian empire on the petty states of ,palestine4 ,the long agony of the siege of ,samaria7#fg7 must have been followed with trembling anxiety by the inhabitants of ,judea1 for the danger was at their door4 ,they had only to lift up their eyes and look north to see the blue hills of ,ephraim1 at whose foot lay the beleaguered city4 ,its final fall and the destruction of the northern kingdom could not fail to fill every thoughtful mind in the sister realm with sad forebodings4 ,it was as if the sky had lowered and thunder muttered over ,jerusalem4 ,thenceforth to the close of the ,jewish monarchy1 about a century and a half later1 the cloud never passed away1 though once for a little it seemed to lift1 when ,sennacherib raised the siege of ,jerusalem7#fh7 and the watchers on the walls beheld the last of the long line of spears and standards disappearing1 the last squadron of the blue-coated ,assyrian cavalry sweeping1 in a cloud of dust1 out of sight47#fi7 7,m#ah7 ,it was in this period of national gloom and despondency that the two great reformations of ,israel's religion were accomplished1 the first by king ,hezekiah1 the second a century later by king ,josiah47#gj7 ,we need not wonder then that the reformers who in that and subsequent ages composed or edited the annals of their nation should have looked as sourly on the old unreformed paganism of their forefathers as the fierce zealots of the ,commonwealth looked on the far more innocent pastimes of ,merry ,england2 and that in their zeal for the glory of ,god they should have blotted many pages of history lest they should perpetuate the memory of practices to which they traced the calamities of their country4 ,all the historical books passed through the office of the ,puritan censor17#ga7 and we can hardly doubt that they emerged from it stript of many gay feathers which they had flaunted when they went in4 ,among the shed plumage may well have been the passages which invested human beings1 whether kings or commoners1 with the attributes of deity4 ,certainly no pages could seem to the censor more rankly blasphemous2 on none1 therefore1 was he likely to press more firmly the official sponge4 7,m#ai7 ,but if ,semitic kings in general and the kings of ,byblus in particular often assumed the style of ,baal or ,adonis1 it follows that they may have mated with the goddess1 the ,baalath or ,astarte of the city4 ,certainly we hear of kings of ,tyre and ,sidon who were priests of ,astarte47#gb7 ,now to the agricultural ,semites the ,baal or god of a land was the author of all its fertility2 he it was who produced the corn1 the wine1 the figs1 the oil1 and the flax1 by means of his quickening waters1 which in the arid parts of the ,semitic world are oftener springs1 streams1 and underground flow than the rains of heaven47#gc7 ,further1 8the life-giving power of the god was not limited to vegetative nature1 but to him also was ascribed the increase of animal life1 the multiplication of flocks and herds1 and1 not least1 of the human inhabitants of the land4 ,for the increase of animate nature is obviously conditioned1 in the last resort1 by the fertility of the soil1 and primitive races1 which have not learned to differentiate the various kinds of life with precision1 think of animate as well as vegetable life as rooted in the earth and sprung from it4 ,the earth is the great mother of all things in most mythological philosophies1 and the comparison of the life of mankind1 or of a stock of men1 with the life of a tree1 which is so common in ,semitic as in other primitive poetry1 is not in its origin a mere figure4 ,thus where the growth of vegetation is ascribed to a particular divine power1 the same power receives the thanks and homage of his worshippers for the increase of cattle and of men4 ,firstlings as well as first-fruits were offered at the shrines of the ,baalim1 and one of the commonest classes of personal names given by parents to their sons or daughters designates the child as the gift of the god40 ,in short1 8the ,baal was conceived as the male principle of reproduction1 the husband of the land which he fertilised407#gd7 ,so far1 therefore1 as the ,semite personified the reproductive energies of nature as male and female1 as a ,baal and a ,baalath1 he appears to have identified the male power especially with water and the female especially with earth4 ,on this view plants and trees1 animals and men1 are the offspring or children of the ,baal and ,baalath4 7,m#bj7 ,if1 then1 at ,byblus and elsewhere1 the ,semitic king was allowed1 or rather required1 to personate the god and marry the goddess1 the intention of the custom can only have been to ensure the fertility of the land and the increase of men and cattle by means of homoeopathic magic4 ,there is reason to think that a similar custom was observed from a similar motive in other parts of the ancient world1 and particularly at ,nemi1 where both the male and the female powers1 the ,dianus and ,diana1 were in one aspect of their nature personifications of the life-giving waters47#ge7 7,m#ba7 ,the last king of ,byblus bore the ancient name of ,cinyras1 and was beheaded by ,pompey the ,great for his tyrannous excesses47#gf7 ,his legendary namesake ,cinyras is said to have founded a sanctuary of ,aphrodite1 that is1 of ,astarte1 at a place on ,mount ,lebanon1 distant a day's journey from the capital47#gg7 ,the spot was probably ,aphaca1 at the source of the river ,adonis1 half-way between ,byblus and ,baalbec2 for at ,aphaca there was a famous grove and sanctuary of ,astarte which ,constantine destroyed on account of the flagitious character of the worship47#gh7 ,the site of the temple has been discovered by modern travellers near the miserable village which still bears the name of ,afka at the head of the wild1 romantic1 wooded gorge of the ,adonis4 ,the hamlet stands among groves of noble walnut-trees on the brink of the lyn4 ,a little way off the river rushes from a cavern at the foot of a mighty amphitheatre of towering cliffs to plunge in a series of cascades into the awful depths of the glen4 ,the deeper it descends1 the ranker and denser grows the vegetation1 which1 sprouting from the crannies and fissures of the rocks1 spreads a green veil over the roaring or murmuring stream in the tremendous chasm below4 ,there is something delicious1 almost intoxicating1 in the freshness of these tumbling waters1 in the sweetness and purity of the mountain air1 in the vivid green of the vegetation4 ,the temple1 of which some massive hewn blocks and a fine column of ,syenite granite still mark the site1 occupied a terrace facing the source of the river and commanding a magnificent prospect4 ,across the foam and the roar of the waterfalls you look up to the cavern and away to the top of the sublime precipices above4 ,so lofty is the cliff that the goats which creep along its ledges to browse on the bushes appear like ants to the spectator hundreds of feet below4 ,seaward the view is especially impressive when the sun floods the profound gorge with golden light1 revealing all the fantastic buttresses and rounded towers of its mountain rampart1 and falling softly on the varied green of the woods which clothe its depths47#gi7 ,it was here that1 according to the legend1 ,adonis met ,aphrodite for the first or the last time17#hj7 and here his mangled body was buried47#ha7 ,a fairer scene could hardly be imagined for a story of tragic love and death4 ,yet1 sequestered as the valley is and must always have been1 it is not wholly deserted4 ,a convent or a village may be observed here and there standing out against the sky on the top of some beetling crag1 or clinging to the face of a nearly perpendicular cliff high above the foam and the din of the river2 and at evening the lights that twinkle through the gloom betray the presence of human habitations on slopes which might seem inaccessible to man4 ,in antiquity the whole of the lovely vale appears have been dedicated to ,adonis1 and to this day it is haunted by his memory2 for the heights which shut it in are crested at various points by ruined monuments of his worship1 some of them overhanging dreadful abysses1 down which it turns the head dizzy to look and see the eagles wheeling about their nests far below4 ,one such monument exists at ,ghineh4 ,the face of a great rock1 above a roughly hewn recess1 is here carved with figures of ,adonis and ,aphrodite4 ,he is portrayed with spear in rest1 awaiting the attack of a bear1 while she is seated in an attitude of sorrow47#hb7 ,her grief-stricken figure may well be the mourning ,aphrodite of the ,lebanon described by ,macrobius17#hc7 and the recess in the rock is perhaps her lover's tomb4 ,every year1 in the belief of his worshippers1 ,adonis was wounded to death on the mountains1 and every year the face of nature itself was dyed with his sacred blood4 ,so year by year the ,syrian damsels lamented his untimely fate17#hd7 while the red anemone1 his flower1 bloomed among the cedars of ,lebanon1 and the river ran red to the sea1 fringing the winding shores of the blue ,mediterranean1 whenever the wind set inshore1 with a sinuous1 band of crimson4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,adonis in ,cyprus4 7,m#bb7 ,the island of ,cyprus lies but one day's sail from the coast of ,syria4 ,indeed1 on fine summer evenings its mountains may be descried looming low and dark against the red fires of sunset47#he7 ,with its rich mines of copper and its forests of firs and stately cedars1 the island naturally attracted a commercial and maritime people like the ,phoenicians2 while the abundance of its corn1 its wine1 and its oil must have rendered it in their eyes a ,land of ,promise by comparison with the niggardly nature of their own rugged coast1 hemmed in between the mountains and the sea47#hf7 ,accordingly they settled in ,cyprus at a very early date and remained there long after the ,greeks had also established themselves on its shores2 for we know from inscriptions and coins that ,phoenician kings reigned at ,citium1 the ,chittim of the ,hebrews1 down to the time of ,alexander the ,great47#hg7 ,naturally the ,semitic colonists brought their gods with them from the mother-land4 ,they worshipped ,baal of the ,lebanon17#hh7 who may well have been ,adonis1 and at ,amathus on the south coast they instituted the rites of ,adonis and ,aphrodite1 or rather ,astarte47#hi7 ,here1 as at ,byblus1 these rites resembled the ,egyptian worship of ,osiris so closely that some people even identified the ,adonis of ,amathus with ,osiris47#ij7 ,the ,tyrian ,melcarth or ,moloch was also worshipped at ,amathus17#ia7 and the tombs discovered in the neighbourhood prove that the city remained ,phoenician to a late period47#ib7 7,m#bc7 ,but the great seat of the worship of ,aphrodite and ,adonis in ,cyprus was ,paphos on the south-western side of the island4 ,among the petty kingdoms into which ,cyprus was divided from the earliest times until the end of the fourth century before our era ,paphos must have ranked with the best4 ,it is a land of hills and billowy ridges1 diversified by fields and vineyards and intersected by rivers1 which in the course of ages have carved for themselves beds of such tremendous depth that travelling in the interior is difficult and tedious4 ,the lofty range of ,mount ,olympus 7the modern ,troodos71 capped with snow the greater part of the year1 screens ,paphos from the northerly and easterly winds and cuts it off from the rest of the island4 ,on the slopes of the range the last pine-woods of ,cyprus linger1 sheltering here and there monasteries in scenery not unworthy of the ,apennines4 ,the old city of ,paphos occupied the summit of a hill about a mile from the sea2 the newer city sprang up at the harbour some ten miles off47#ic7 ,the sanctuary of ,aphrodite at ,old ,paphos 7the modern ,kuklia7 was one of the most celebrated shrines in the ancient world4 ,from the earliest to the latest times it would seem to have preserved its essential features unchanged4 ,for the sanctuary is represented on coins of the ,imperial age17#id7 and these representations agree closely with little golden models of a shrine which were found in two of the royal graves at ,mycenae47#ie7 ,both on the coins and in the models we see a faade surmounted by a pair of doves and divided into three compartments or chapels1 of which the central one is crowned by a lofty superstructure4 ,in the golden models each chapel contains a pillar standing in a pair of horns3 the central superstructure is crowned by two pairs of horns1 one within the other2 and the two side chapels are in like manner crowned each with a pair of horns and a single dove perched on the outer horn of each pair4 ,on the coins each of the side chapels contains a pillar or candelabra-like object3 the central chapel contains a cone and is flanked by two high columns1 each terminating in a pair of ball-topped pinnacles1 with a star and crescent appearing between the tops of the columns4 ,the doves are doubtless the sacred doves of ,aphrodite or ,astarte17#if7 and the horns and pillars remind us of the similar religious emblems which have been found in the great prehistoric palace of ,cnossus in ,crete1 as well as on many monuments of the ,mycenaean or ,minoan age of ,greece47#ig7 ,if antiquaries are right in regarding the golden models as copies of the ,paphian shrine1 that shrine must have suffered little outward change for more than a thousand years2 for the royal graves at ,mycenae1 in which the models were found1 can hardly be of later date than the twelfth century before our era4 7,m#bd7 ,thus the sanctuary of ,aphrodite at ,paphos was apparently of great antiquity47#ih7 ,according to ,herodotus1 it was founded by ,phoenician colonists from ,ascalon27#ii7 but it is possible that a native goddess of fertility was worshipped on the spot before the arrival of the ,phoenicians1 and that the newcomers identified her with their own ,baalath or ,astarte1 whom she may have closely resembled4 ,if two deities were thus fused in one1 we may suppose that they were both varieties of that great goddess of motherhood and fertility whose worship appears to have been spread all over ,western ,asia from a very early time4 ,the supposition is confirmed as well by the archaic shape of her image as by the licentious character of her rites2 for both that shape and those rites were shared by her with other ,asiatic deities4 ,her image was simply a white cone or pyramid47#ajj7 ,in like manner1 a cone was the emblem of ,astarte at ,byblus17#aja7 of the native goddess whom the ,greeks called ,artemis at ,perga in ,pamphylia17#ajb7 and of the sun-god ,heliogabalus at ,emesa in ,syria47#ajc7 ,conical stones1 which apparently served as idols1 have also been found at ,golgi in ,cyprus1 and in the ,phoenician temples of ,malta27#ajd7 and cones of sandstone came to light at the shrine of the 8,mistress of ,torquoise0 among the barren hills and frowning precipices of ,sinai47#aje7 ,the precise significance of such an emblem remains as obscure as it was in the time of ,tacitus47#ajf7 ,it appears to have been customary to anoint the sacred cone with olive oil at a solemn festival1 in which people from ,lycia and ,caria participated47#ajg7 ,the custom of anointing a holy stone has been observed in many parts of the world2 for example1 in the sanctuary of ,apollo at ,delphi47#ajh7 ,to this day the old custom appears to survive at ,paphos1 for 8in honour of the ,maid of ,bethlehem the peasants of ,kuklia anointed lately1 and probably still anoint each year1 the great corner-stones of the ruined ,temple of the ,paphian ,goddess4 ,as ,aphrodite was supplicated once with cryptic rites1 so is ,mary entreated still by ,moslems as well as ,christians1 with incantations and passings through perforated stones1 to remove the curse of barrenness from ,cypriote women1 or increase the manhood of ,cypriote men407#aji7 ,thus the ancient worship of the goddess of fertility is continued under a different name4 ,even the name of the old goddess is retained in some parts of the island2 for in more than one chapel the ,cypriote peasants adore the mother of ,christ under the title ,panaghia ,aphroditessa47#aaj7 7,m#be7 ,in ,cyprus it appears that before marriage all women were formerly obliged by custom to prostitute themselves to strangers at the sanctuary of the goddess1 whether she went by the name of ,aphrodite1 ,astarte1 or what not47#aaa7 ,similar customs prevailed in many parts of ,western ,asia4 ,whatever its motive1 the practice was clearly regarded1 not as an orgy of lust1 but as a solemn religious duty performed in the service of that great ,mother ,goddess of ,western ,asia whose name varied1 while her type remained constant1 from place to place4 ,thus at ,babylon every woman1 whether rich or poor1 had once in her life to submit to the embraces of a stranger at the temple of ,mylitta1 that is1 of ,ishtar or ,astarte1 and to dedicate to the goddess the wages earned by this sanctified harlotry4 ,the sacred precinct was crowded with women waiting to observe the custom4 ,some of them had to wait there for years47#aab7 ,at ,heliopolis or ,baalbec in ,syria1 famous for the imposing grandeur of its ruined temples1 the custom of the country required that every maiden should prostitute herself to a stranger at the temple of ,astarte1 and matrons as well as maids testified their devotion to the goddess in the same manner4 ,the emperor ,constantine abolished the custom1 destroyed the temple1 and built a church in its stead47#aac7 ,in ,phoenician temples women prostituted themselves for hire in the service of religion1 believing that by this conduct they propitiated the goddess and won her favour47#aad7 8,it was a law of the ,amorites1 that she who was about to marry should sit in fornication seven days by the gate407#aae7 ,at ,byblus the people shaved their heads in the annual mourning for ,adonis4 ,women who refused to sacrifice their hair had to give themselves up to strangers on a certain day of the festival1 and the money which they thus earned was devoted to the goddess47#aaf7 ,this custom may have been a mitigation of an older rule which at ,byblus as elsewhere formerly compelled every woman without exception to sacrifice her virtue in the service of religion4 ,i have already suggested a reason why the offering of a woman's hair was accepted as an equivalent for the surrender of her person47#aag7 ,we are told that in ,lydia all girls were obliged to prostitute themselves in order to earn a dowry27#aah7 but we may suspect that the real motive of the custom was devotion rather than economy4 ,the suspicion is confirmed by a ,greek inscription found at ,tralles in ,lydia1 which proves that the practice of religious prostitution survived in that country as late as the second century of our era4 ,it records of a certain woman1 ,aurelia ,aemilia by name1 not only that she herself served the god in the capacity of a harlot at his express command1 but that her mother and other female ancestors had done the same before her2 and the publicity of the record1 engraved on a marble column which supported a votive offering1 shows that no stain attached to such a life and such a parentage47#aai7 ,in ,armenia the noblest families dedicated their daughters to the service of the goddess ,anaitis in her temple at ,acilisena1 where the damsels acted as prostitutes for a long time before they were given in marriage4 ,nobody scrupled to take one of these girls to wife when her period of service was over47#abj7 ,again1 the goddess ,ma was served by a multitude of sacred harlots at ,comana in ,pontus1 and crowds of men and women flocked to her sanctuary from the neighbouring cities and country to attend the biennial festivals or to pay their vows to the goddess47#aba7 7,m#bf7 ,if we survey the whole of the evidence on this subject1 some of which has still to be laid before the reader1 we may conclude that a great ,mother ,goddess1 the personification of all the reproductive energies of nature1 was worshipped under different names but with a substantial similarity of myth and ritual by many peoples of ,western ,asia2 that associated with her was a lover1 or rather series of lovers1 divine yet mortal1 with whom she mated year by year1 their commerce being deemed essential to the propagation of animals and plants1 each in their several kind27#abb7 and further1 that the fabulous union of the divine pair was simulated and1 as it were1 multiplied on earth by the real1 though temporary1 union of the human sexes at the sanctuary of the goddess for the sake of thereby ensuring the fruitfulness of the ground and the increase of man and beast47#abc7 ,and if the conception of such a ,mother ,goddess dates1 as seems probable1 from a time when the institution of marriage was either unknown or at most barely tolerated as an immoral infringement of old communal rights1 we can understand both why the goddess herself was regularly supposed to be at once unmarried and unchaste1 and why her worshippers were obliged to imitate her more or less completely in these respects4 ,for had she been a divine wife united to a divine husband1 the natural counterpart of their union would have been the lawful marriage of men and women1 and there would have been no need to resort to a system of prostitution or promiscuity in order to effect those purposes which1 on the principles of homoeopathic magic1 might in that case have been as well or better attained by the legitimate intercourse of the sexes in matrimony4 ,formerly1 perhaps1 every woman was obliged to submit at least once in her life to the exercise of those marital rights which at a still earlier period had theoretically belonged in permanence to all the males of the tribe4 ,but in course of time1 as the institution of individual marriage grew in favour1 and the old communism fell more and more into discredit1 the revival of the ancient practice even for a single occasion in a woman's life became ever more repugnant to the moral sense of the people1 and accordingly they resorted to various expedients for evading in practice the obligation which they still acknowledged in theory4 ,one of these evasions was to let the woman offer her hair instead of her person2 another apparently was to substitute an obscene symbol for the obscene act47#abd7 ,but while the majority of women thus contrived to observe the forms of religion without sacrificing their virtue1 it was still thought necessary to the general welfare that a certain number of them should discharge the old obligation in the old way4 ,these became prostitutes either for life or for a term of years at one of the temples3 dedicated to the service of religion1 they were invested with a sacred character17#abe7 and their vocation1 far from being deemed infamous1 was probably long regarded by the laity as an exercise of more than common virtue1 and rewarded with a tribute of mixed wonder1 reverence1 and pity1 not unlike that which in some parts of the world is still paid to women who seek to honour their ,creator in a different way by renouncing the natural functions of their sex and the tenderest relations of humanity4 ,it is thus that the folly of mankind finds vent in opposite extremes alike harmful and deplorable4 7,m#bg7 ,at ,paphos the custom of religious prostitution is said to have been instituted by ,king ,cinyras17#abf7 and to have been practised by his daughters1 the sisters of ,adonis1 who1 having incurred the wrath of ,aphrodite1 mated with strangers and ended their days in ,egypt47#abg7 ,in this form of the tradition the wrath of ,aphrodite is probably a feature added by a later authority1 who could only regard conduct which shocked his own moral sense as a punishment inflicted by the goddess instead of as a sacrifice regularly enjoined by her on all her devotees4 ,at all events the story indicates that the princesses of ,paphos had to conform to the custom as well as women of humble birth4 7,m#bh7 ,the legendary history of the royal and priestly family of the ,cinyrads is instructive4 ,we are told that a ,syrian man1 by name ,sandacus1 migrated to ,cilicia1 married ,pharnace1 daughter of ,megassares1 king of ,hyria1 and founded the city of ,celenderis4 ,his wife bore him a son1 ,cinyras1 who in time crossed the sea with a company of people to ,cyprus1 wedded ,metharme1 daughter of ,pygmalion1 king of the island1 and founded ,paphos47#abh7 ,these legends seem to contain reminiscences of kingdoms in ,cilicia and ,cyprus which passed in the female line1 and were held by men1 sometimes foreigners1 who married the hereditary princesses4 ,there are some indications that ,cinyras was not in fact the founder of the temple at ,paphos4 ,an older tradition ascribed the foundation to a certain ,aerias1 whom some regarded as a king1 and others as the goddess herself47#abi7 ,moreover1 ,cinyras or his descendants at ,paphos had to reckon with rivals4 ,these were the ,tamirads1 a family of diviners who traced their descent from ,tamiras1 a ,cilician augur4 ,at first it was arranged that both families should preside at the ceremonies1 but afterwards the ,tamirads gave way to the ,cinyrads47#acj7 ,many tales were told of ,cinyras1 the founder of the dynasty4 ,he was a priest of ,aphrodite as well as a king17#aca7 and his riches passed into a proverb47#acb7 ,to his descendants1 the ,cinyrads1 he appears to have bequeathed his wealth and his dignities2 at all events1 they reigned as kings of ,paphos and served the goddess as priests4 ,their dead bodies1 with that of ,cinyras himself1 were buried in the sanctuary47#acc7 ,but by the fourth century before our era the family had declined and become nearly extinct4 ,when ,alexander the ,great expelled a king of ,paphos for injustice and wickedness1 his envoys made search for a member of the ancient house to set on the throne of his fathers4 ,at last they found one of them living in obscurity and earning his bread as a market gardener4 ,he was in the very act of watering his beds when the king's messengers carried him off1 much to his astonishment1 to receive the crown at the hands of their master47#acd7 ,yet if the dynasty decayed1 the shrine of the goddess1 enriched by the offerings of kings and private persons1 maintained its reputation for wealth down to ,roman times47#ace7 ,when ,ptolemy ,auletes1 king of ,egypt1 was expelled by his people in #eg ,b4,c41 ,cato offered him the priesthood of ,paphos as a sufficient consolation in money and dignity for the loss of a throne47#acf7 7,m#bi7 ,among the stories which were told of ,cinyras1 the ancestor of these priestly kings and the father of ,adonis1 there are some that deserve our attention4 ,in the first place1 he is said to have begotten his son ,adonis in incestuous intercourse with his daughter ,myrrha at a festival of the corn-goddess1 at which women robed in white were wont to offer corn-wreaths as first-fruits of the harvest and to observe strict chastity for nine days47#acg7 ,similar cases of incest with a daughter are reported of many ancient kings47#ach7 ,it seems unlikely that such reports are without foundation1 and perhaps equally improbable that they refer to mere fortuitous outbursts of unnatural lust4 ,we may suspect that they are based on a practice actually observed for a definite reason in certain special circumstances4 ,now in countries where the royal blood was traced through women only1 and where consequently the king held office merely in virtue of his marriage with an hereditary princess1 who was the real sovereign1 it appears to have often happened that a prince married his own sister1 the princess royal1 in order to obtain with her hand the crown which otherwise would have gone to another man1 perhaps to a stranger47#aci7 ,may not the same rule of descent have furnished a motive for incest with a daughter8 ,for it seems a natural corollary from such a rule that the king was bound to vacate the throne on the death of his wife1 the queen1 since he occupied it only by virtue of his marriage with her4 ,when that marriage terminated1 his right to the throne terminated with it and passed at once to his daughter's husband4 ,hence if the king desired to reign after his wife's death1 the only way in which he could legitimately continue to do so was by marrying his daughter1 and thus prolonging through her the title which had formerly been his through her mother4 7,m#cj7 ,in this connexion it is worth while to remember that at ,rome the ,flamen ,dialis was bound to vacate his priesthood on the death of his wife1 the ,flaminica47#adj7 ,the rule would be intelligible if the ,flaminica had originally been the more important functionary of the two1 and if the ,flamen held office only by virtue of his marriage with her47#ada7 ,elsewhere ,i have shown reason to suppose that he and his wife represented an old line of priestly kings and queens1 who played the parts of ,jupiter and ,juno1 or perhaps rather ,dianus and ,diana1 respectively47#adb7 ,if the supposition is correct1 the custom which obliged him to resign his priesthood on the death of his wife seems to prove that of the two deities whom they personated1 the goddess1 whether named ,juno or ,diana1 was indeed the better half4 ,but at ,rome the goddess ,juno always played an insignificant part2 whereas at ,nemi her old double1 ,diana1 was all-powerful1 casting her mate1 ,dianus or ,virbius1 into deep shadow4 ,thus a rule which points to the superiority of the ,flaminica over the ,flamen1 appears to indicate that the divine originals of the two were ,dianus and ,diana rather than ,jupiter and ,juno2 and further1 that if ,jupiter and ,juno at ,rome stood for the principle of father-kin1 or the predominance of the husband over the wife1 ,dianus and ,diana at ,nemi stood for the older principle of mother-kin1 or the predominance of the wife in matters of inheritance over the husband4 ,if1 then1 ,i am right in holding that the kingship at ,rome was originally a plebeian institution and descended through women17#adc7 we must conclude that the people who founded the sanctuary of ,diana at ,nemi were of the same plebeian stock as the ,roman kings1 that they traced descent in the female line1 and that they worshipped a great ,mother ,goddess1 not a great ,father ,god4 ,that goddess was ,diana2 her maternal functions are abundantly proved by the votive offerings found at her ancient shrine among the wooded hills47#add7 ,on the other hand1 the patricians1 who afterwards invaded the country1 brought with them father-kin in its strictest form1 and consistently enough paid their devotions rather to ,father ,jove than to ,mother ,juno4 7,m#ca7 ,a parallel to what ,i conjecture to have been the original relation of the ,flaminica to her husband the ,flamen may to a certain extent be found among the ,khasis of ,assam1 who preserve to this day the ancient system of mother-kin in matters of inheritance and religion4 ,for among these people the propitiation of deceased ancestors is deemed essential to the welfare of the community1 and of all their ancestors they revere most the primaeval ancestress of the clan4 ,accordingly in every sacrifice a priest must be assisted by a priestess2 indeed1 we are told that he merely acts as her deputy1 and that she 8is without doubt a survival of the time when1 under the matriarchate1 the priestess was the agent for the performance of all religious ceremonies40 ,it does not appear that the priest need be the husband of the priestess2 but in the ,khyrim ,state1 where each division has its own goddess to whom sacrifices are offered1 the priestess is the mother1 sister1 niece1 or other maternal relation of the priest4 ,it is her duty to prepare all the sacrificial articles1 and without her assistance the sacrifice cannot take place47#ade7 ,here1 then1 as among the ancient ,romans on my hypothesis1 we have the superiority of the priestess over the priest based on a corresponding superiority of the goddess or divine ancestress over the god or divine ancestor2 and here1 as at ,rome1 a priest would clearly have to vacate office if he had no woman of the proper relationship to assist him in the performance of his sacred duties4 7,m#cb7 ,further1 ,i have conjectured that as representatives of ,jupiter and ,juno respectively the ,flamen and ,flaminica at ,rome may have annually celebrated a ,sacred ,marriage for the purpose of ensuring the fertility of the powers of nature47#adf7 ,this conjecture also may be supported by an analogous custom which is still observed in ,india4 ,we have seen how among the ,oraons1 a primitive hill-tribe of ,bengal1 the marriage of the ,sun and the ,earth is annually celebrated by a priest and priestess who personate respectively the god of the ,sun and the goddess of the ,earth47#adg7 ,the ceremony of the ,sacred ,marriage has been described more fully by a ,jesuit missionary1 who was intimately acquainted with the people and their native religion4 ,the rite is celebrated in the month of ,may1 when the sal tree is in bloom1 and the festival takes its native name 7khaddi7 from the flower of the tree4 ,it is the greatest festival of the year4 8,the object of this feast is to celebrate the mystical marriage of the ,sun-god 7,bhagawan7 with the ,goddess-earth 7,dharti-mai71 to induce them to be fruitful and give good crops40 ,at the same time all the minor deities or demons of the village are propitiated1 in order that they may not hinder the beneficent activity of the ,sun ,god and the ,earth ,goddess4 ,on the eve of the appointed day no man may plough his fields1 and the priest1 accompanied by some of the villagers1 repairs to the sacred grove1 where he beats a drum and invites all the invisible guests to the great feast that will await them on the morrow4 ,next morning very early1 before cock-crow1 an acolyte steals out as quietly as possible to the sacred spring to fetch water in a new earthen pot4 ,this holy water is full of all kinds of blessings for the crops4 ,the priest has prepared a place for it in the middle of his house surrounded by cotton threads of diverse colours4 ,so sacred is the water that it would be defiled and lose all its virtue1 were any profane eye to fall on it before it entered the priest's house4 ,during the morning the acolyte and the priest's deputy go round from house to house collecting victims for the sacrifice4 ,in the afternoon the people all gather at the sacred grove1 and the priest proceeds to consummate the sacrifice4 ,the first victims to be immolated are a white cock for the ,sun ,god and a black hen for the ,earth ,goddess2 and as the feast is the marriage of these great deities the marriage service is performed over the two fowls before they are hurried into eternity4 ,amongst other things both birds are marked with vermilion just as a bride and bridegroom are marked at a human marriage2 and the earth is also smeared with vermilion1 as if it were a real bride1 on the spot where the sacrifice is offered4 ,sacrifices of fowls or goats to the minor deities or demons follow4 ,the bodies of the victims are collected by the village boys1 who cook them on the spot2 all the heads go to the sacrificers4 ,the gods take what they can get and are more or less thankful4 ,meantime the acolyte has collected flowers of the sal tree and set them round the place of sacrifice1 and he has also fetched the holy water from the priest's house4 ,a procession is now formed and the priest is carried in triumph to his own abode4 ,there his wife has been watching for him1 and on his arrival the two go through the marriage ceremony1 applying vermilion to each other in the usual way 8to symbolise the mystical marriage of the ,sun-god with the ,earth-goddess40 ,meantime all the women of the village are standing on the thresholds of their houses each with a winnowing-fan in her hand4 ,in the fan are two cups1 one empty to receive the holy water1 and the other full of rice-beer for the consumption of the holy man4 ,as he arrives at each house1 he distributes flowers and holy water to the happy women1 and enriches them with a shower of blessings1 saying1 8,may your rooms and granary be filled with rice1 that the priest's name may be great40 ,the holy water which he leaves at each house is sprinkled on the seeds that have been kept to sow next year's crop4 ,having thus imparted his benediction to the household the priest swigs the beer2 and as he repeats his benediction and his potation at every house he is naturally dead-drunk by the time he gets to the end of the village4 8,by that time every one has taken copious libations of rice-beer1 and all the devils of the village seem to be let loose1 and there follows a scene of debauchery baffling description--all these to induce the ,sun and the ,earth to be fruitful407#adh7 ,thus the people of ,cyprus and ,western ,asia in antiquity were by no means singular in their belief that the profligacy of the human sexes served to quicken the fruits of the earth47#adi7 7,m#cc7 ,cinyras is said to have been famed for his exquisite beauty7#aej7 and to have been wooed by ,aphrodite herself47#aea7 ,thus it would appear1 as scholars have already observed17#aeb7 that ,cinyras was in a sense a duplicate of his handsome son ,adonis1 to whom the inflammable goddess also lost her heart4 ,further1 these stories of the love of ,aphrodite for two members of the royal house of ,paphos can hardly be dissociated from the corresponding legend told of ,pygmalion1 the ,phoenician king of ,cyprus1 who is said to have fallen in love with an image of ,aphrodite and taken it to his bed47#aec7 ,when we consider that ,pygmalion was the father-in-law of ,cinyras1 that the son of ,cinyras was ,adonis1 and that all three1 in successive generations1 are said to have been concerned in a love-intrigue with ,aphrodite1 we can hardly help concluding that the early ,phoenician kings of ,paphos1 or their sons1 regularly claimed to be not merely the priests of the goddess7#aed7 but also her lovers1 in other words1 that in their official capacity they personated ,adonis4 ,at all events ,adonis is said to have reigned in ,cyprus17#aee7 and it appears to be certain that the title of ,adonis was regularly borne by the sons of all the ,phoenician kings of the island47#aef7 ,it is true that the title strictly signified no more than 8lord02 yet the legends which connect these ,cyprian princes with the goddess of love make it probable that they claimed the divine nature as well as the human dignity of ,adonis4 ,the story of ,pygmalion points to a ceremony of a sacred marriage in which the king wedded the image of ,aphrodite1 or rather of ,astarte4 ,if that was so1 the tale was in a sense true1 not of a single man only1 but of a whole series of men1 and it would be all the more likely to be told of ,pygmalion1 if that was a common name of ,semitic kings in general1 and of ,cyprian kings in particular4 ,pygmalion1 at all events1 is known as the name of the famous king of ,tyre from whom his sister ,dido fled27#aeg7 and a king of ,citium and ,idalium in ,cyprus1 who reigned in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 was also called ,pygmalion1 or rather ,pumiyathon1 the ,phoenician name which the ,greeks corrupted into ,pygmalion47#aeh7 ,further1 it deserves to be noted that the names ,pygmalion and ,astarte occur together in a ,punic inscription on a gold medallion which was found in a grave at ,carthage2 the characters of the inscription are of the earliest type47#aei7 ,as the custom of religious prostitution at ,paphos is said to have been founded by ,king ,cinyras and observed by his daughters17#afj7 we may surmise that the kings of ,paphos played the part of the divine bridegroom in a less innocent rite than the form of marriage with a statue2 in fact1 that at certain festivals each of them had to mate with one or more of the sacred harlots of the temple1 who played ,astarte to his ,adonis4 ,if that was so1 there is more truth than has commonly been supposed in the reproach cast by the ,christian fathers that the ,aphrodite worshipped by ,cinyras was a common whore47#afa7 ,the fruit of their union would rank as sons and daughters of the deity1 and would in time become the parents of gods and goddesses1 like their fathers and mothers before them4 ,in this manner ,paphos1 and perhaps all sanctuaries of the great ,asiatic goddess where sacred prostitution was practised1 might be well stocked with human deities1 the offspring of the divine king by his wives1 concubines1 and temple harlots4 ,any one of these might probably succeed his father on the throne7#afb7 or be sacrificed in his stead whenever stress of war or other grave junctures called1 as they sometimes did17#afc7 for the death of a royal victim4 ,such a tax1 levied occasionally on the king's numerous progeny for the good of the country1 would neither extinguish the divine stock nor break the father's heart1 who divided his paternal affection among so many4 ,at all events1 if1 as there seems reason to believe1 ,semitic kings were often regarded at the same time as hereditary deities1 it is easy to understand the frequency of ,semitic personal names which imply that the bearers of them were the sons or daughters1 the brothers or sisters1 the fathers or mothers of a god1 and we need not resort to the shifts employed by some scholars to evade the plain sense of the words47#afd7 ,this interpretation is confirmed by a parallel ,egyptian usage2 for in ,egypt1 where the kings were worshipped as divine17#afe7 the queen was called 8the wife of the god0 or 8the mother of the god107#aff7 and the title 8father of the god0 was borne not only by the king's real father but also by his father-in-law47#afg7 ,similarly1 perhaps1 among the ,semites any man who sent his daughter to swell the royal harem may have been allowed to call himself 8the father of the god40 7,m#cd7 ,if we may judge by his name1 the ,semitic king who bore the name of ,cinyras was1 like ,king ,david1 a harper2 for the name of ,cinyras is clearly connected with the ,greek cinyra1 8a lyre10 which in its turn comes from the ,semitic kinnor1 8a lyre10 the very word applied to the instrument on which ,david played before ,saul47#afh7 ,we shall probably not err in assuming that at ,paphos as at ,jerusalem the music of the lyre or harp was not a mere pastime designed to while away an idle hour1 but formed part of the service of religion1 the moving influence of its melodies being perhaps set down1 like the effect of wine1 to the direct inspiration of a deity4 ,certainly at ,jerusalem the regular clergy of the temple prophesied to the music of harps1 of psalteries1 and of cymbals27#afi7 and it appears that the irregular clergy also1 as we may call the prophets1 depended on some such stimulus for inducing the ecstatic state which they took for immediate converse with the divinity47#agj7 ,thus we read of a band of prophets coming down from a high place with a psaltery1 a timbrel1 a pipe1 and a harp before them1 and prophesying as they went47#aga7 ,again1 when the united forces of ,judah and ,ephraim were traversing the wilderness of ,moab in pursuit of the enemy1 they could find no water for three days1 and were like to die of thirst1 they and the beasts of burden4 ,in this emergency the prophet ,elisha1 who was with the army1 called for a minstrel and bade him play4 ,under the influence of the music he ordered the soldiers to dig trenches in the sandy bed of the waterless waddy through which lay the line of march4 ,they did so1 and next morning the trenches were full of the water that had drained down into them underground from the desolate1 forbidding mountains on either hand4 ,the prophet's success in striking water in the wilderness resembles the reported success of modern dowsers1 though his mode of procedure was different4 ,incidentally he rendered another service to his countrymen4 ,for the skulking ,moabites from their lairs among the rocks saw the red sun of the desert reflected in the water1 and taking it for the blood1 or perhaps rather for an omen of the blood1 of their enemies1 they plucked up heart to attack the camp and were defeated with great slaughter47#agb7 7,m#ce7 ,again1 just as the cloud of melancholy which from time to time darkened the moody mind of ,saul was viewed as an evil spirit from the ,lord vexing him1 so on the other hand the solemn strains of the harp1 which soothed and composed his troubled thoughts17#agc7 may well have seemed to the hag-ridden king the very voice of ,god or of his good angel whispering peace4 ,even in our own day a great religious writer1 himself deeply sensitive to the witchery of music1 has said that musical notes1 with all their power to fire the blood and melt the heart1 cannot be mere empty sounds and nothing more2 no1 they have escaped from some higher sphere1 they are outpourings of eternal harmony1 the voice of angels1 the ,magnificat of saints47#agd7 ,it is thus that the rude imaginings of primitive man are transfigured and his feeble lispings echoed with a rolling reverberation in the musical prose of ,newman4 ,indeed the influence of music on the development of religion is a subject which would repay a sympathetic study4 ,for we cannot doubt that this1 the most intimate and affecting of all the arts1 has done much to create as well as to express the religious emotions1 thus modifying more or less deeply the fabric of belief to which at first sight it seems only to minister4 ,the musician has done his part as well as the prophet and the thinker in the making of religion4 ,every faith has its appropriate music1 and the difference between the creeds might almost be expressed in musical notation4 ,the interval1 for example1 which divides the wild revels of ,cybele from the stately ritual of the ,catholic ,church is measured by the gulf which severs the dissonant clash of cymbals and tambourines from the grave harmonies of ,palestrina and ,handel4 ,a different spirit breathes in the difference of the music47#age7 7,m#cf7 ,the legend which made ,apollo the friend of ,cinyras7#agf7 may be based on a belief in their common devotion to the lyre4 ,but what function1 we may ask1 did string music perform in the ,greek and the ,semitic ritual8 ,did it serve to rouse the human mouthpiece of the god to prophetic ecstasy8 or did it merely ban goblins and demons from the holy places and the holy service1 drawing as it were around the worshippers a magic circle within which no evil thing might intrude8 ,in short1 did it aim at summoning good or banishing evil spirits8 was its object inspiration or exorcism8 ,the examples drawn from the lives or legends of ,elisha and ,david prove that with the ,hebrews the music of the lyre might be used for either purpose2 for while ,elisha employed it to tune himself to the prophetic pitch1 ,david resorted to it for the sake of exorcising the foul fiend from ,saul4 ,with the ,greeks1 on the other hand1 in historical times1 it does not appear that string music served as a means of inducing the condition of trance or ecstasy in the human mouthpieces of ,apollo and the other oracular gods2 on the contrary1 its sobering and composing influence1 as contrasted with the exciting influence of flute music1 is the aspect which chiefly impressed the ,greek mind47#agg7 ,the religious or1 at all events1 the superstitious man might naturally ascribe the mental composure wrought by grave1 sweet music to a riddance of evil spirits1 in short to exorcism2 and in harmony with this view1 ,pindar1 speaking of the lyre1 says that all things hateful to ,zeus in earth and sea tremble at the sound of music47#agh7 ,yet the association of the lyre with the legendary prophet ,orpheus as well as with the oracular god ,apollo seems to hint that in early days its strains may have been employed by the ,greeks1 as they certainly were by the ,hebrews1 to bring on that state of mental exaltation in which the thick-coming fancies of the visionary are regarded as divine communications47#agi7 ,which of these two functions of music1 the positive or the negative1 the inspiring or the protective1 predominated in the religion of ,adonis we cannot say2 perhaps the two were not clearly distinguished in the minds of his worshippers4 7,m#cg7 ,a constant feature in the myth of ,adonis was his premature and violent death4 ,if1 then1 the kings of ,paphos regularly personated ,adonis1 we must ask whether they imitated their divine prototype in death as in life4 ,tradition varied as to the end of ,cinyras4 ,some thought that he slew himself on discovering his incest with his daughter27#ahj7 others alleged that1 like ,marsyas1 he was defeated by ,apollo in a musical contest and put to death by the victor47#aha7 ,yet he cannot strictly be said to have perished in the flower of his youth if he lived1 as ,anacreon averred1 to the ripe age of one hundred and sixty47#ahb7 ,if we must choose between the two stories1 it is perhaps more likely that he died a violent death than that he survived to an age which surpassed that of ,thomas ,parr by eight years17#ahc7 though it fell far short of the antediluvian standard4 ,the life of eminent men in remote ages is exceedingly elastic and may be lengthened or shortened1 in the interests of history1 at the taste and fancy of the historian4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,sacred ,men and ,women4 #a4 ,an ,alternative ,theory4 7,m#ch7 ,in the preceding chapter we saw that a system of sacred prostitution was regularly carried on all over ,western ,asia1 and that both in ,phoenicia and in ,cyprus the practice was specially associated with the worship of ,adonis4 ,as the explanation which ,i have adopted of the custom has been rejected in favour of another by writers whose opinions are entitled to be treated with respect1 ,i shall devote the present chapter to a further consideration of the subject1 and shall attempt to gather1 from a closer scrutiny and a wider survey of the field1 such evidence as may set the custom and with it the worship of ,adonis in a clearer light4 ,at the outset it will be well to examine the alternative theory which has been put forward to explain the facts4 7,m#ci7 ,it has been proposed to derive the religious prostitution of ,western ,asia from a purely secular and precautionary practice of destroying a bride's virginity before handing her over to her husband in order that 8the bridegroom's intercourse should be safe from a peril that is much dreaded by men in a certain stage of culture407#ahd7 ,among the objections which may be taken to this view are the following3-- 7,m#dj7 7#a7 ,the theory fails to account for the deeply religious character of the customs as practised in antiquity all over ,western ,asia4 ,that religious character appears from the observance of the custom at the sanctuaries of a great goddess1 the dedication of the wages of prostitution to her1 the belief of the women that they earned her favour by prostituting themselves17#ahe7 and the command of a male deity to serve him in this manner47#ahf7 7,m#da7 7#b7 ,the theory fails to account for the prostitution of married women at ,heliopolis7#ahg7 and apparently also at ,babylon and ,byblus2 for in describing the practice at the two latter places our authorities1 ,herodotus and ,lucian1 speak only of women1 not of virgins47#ahh7 ,in ,israel also we know from ,hosea that young married women prostituted themselves at the sanctuaries on the hilltops under the shadow of the sacred oaks1 poplars1 and terebinths47#ahi7 ,the prophet makes no mention of virgins participating in these orgies4 ,they may have done so1 but his language does not imply it3 he speaks only of 8your daughters0 and 8your daughters-in-law40 ,the prostitution of married women is wholly inexplicable on the hypothesis here criticized4 ,yet it can hardly be separated from the prostitution of virgins1 which in some places at least was carried on side by side with it4 7,m#db7 7#c7 ,the theory fails to account for the repeated and professional prostitution of women in ,lydia1 ,pontus1 ,armenia1 and apparently all over ,palestine47#aij7 ,yet this habitual prostitution can in its turn hardly be separated from the first prostitution in a woman's life4 ,or are we to suppose that the first act of unchastity is to be explained in one way and all the subsequent acts in quite another8 that the first act was purely secular and all the subsequent acts purely religious8 7,m#dc7 7#d7 ,the theory fails to account for the edeshim 78sacred men07 side by side with the edeshoth 78sacred women07 at the sanctuaries27#aia7 for whatever the religious functions of these 8sacred men0 may have been1 it is highly probable that they were analogous to those of the 8sacred women0 and are to be explained in the same way4 7,m#dd7 7#e7 ,on the hypothesis which ,i am considering we should expect to find the man who deflowers the maid remunerated for rendering a dangerous service2 and so in fact we commonly find him remunerated in places where the supposed custom is really practised47#aib7 ,but in ,western ,asia it was just the contrary4 ,it was the woman who was paid1 not the man2 indeed1 so well was she paid that in ,lydia and ,cyprus the girls earned dowries for themselves in this fashion47#aic7 ,this clearly shows that it was the woman1 and not the man1 who was believed to render the service4 ,or are we to suppose that the man had to pay for rendering a dangerous service87#aid7 ,these considerations seem to prove conclusively that whatever the remote origin of these ,western ,asiatic customs may have been1 they cannot have been observed in historical times from any such motive as is assumed by the hypothesis under discussion4 ,at the period when we have to do with them the customs were to all appearance purely religious in character1 and a religious motive must accordingly be found for them4 ,such a motive is supplied by the theory ,i have adopted1 which1 so far as ,i can judge1 adequately explains all the known facts4 7,m#de7 ,at the same time1 in justice to the writers whose views ,i have criticized1 ,i wish to point out that the practice from which they propose to derive the sacred prostitution of ,western ,asia has not always been purely secular in character4 ,for1 in the first place1 the agent employed is sometimes reported to be a priest27#aie7 and1 in the second place1 the sacrifice of virginity has in some places1 for example at ,rome and in parts of ,india1 been made directly to the image of a male deity47#aif7 ,the meaning of these practices is very obscure1 and in the present state of our ignorance on the subject it is unsafe to build conclusions on them4 ,it is possible that what seems to be a purely secular precaution may be only a degenerate form of a religious rite2 and on the other hand it is possible that the religious rite may go back to a purely physical preparation for marriage1 such as is still observed among the aborigines of ,australia47#aig7 ,but even if such an historical origin could be established1 it would not explain the motives from which the customs described in this volume were practised by the people of ,western ,asia in historical times4 ,the true parallel to these customs is the sacred prostitution which is carried on to this day by dedicated women in ,india and ,africa4 ,an examination of these modern practices may throw light on the ancient customs4 #b4 ,sacred ,women in ,india4 7,m#df7 ,in ,india the dancing-girls dedicated to the service of the ,tamil temples take the name of deva-dasis1 8servants or slaves of the gods10 but in common parlance they are spoken of simply as harlots4 ,every ,tamil temple of note in ,southern ,india has its troop of these sacred women4 ,their official duties are to dance twice a day1 morning and evening1 in the temple1 to fan the idol with ,tibetan ox-tails1 to dance and sing before it when it is borne in procession1 and to carry the holy light called ,kmbarti4 ,inscriptions show that in ,a4,d4 #ajjd the great temple of the ,chola king ,rajaraja at ,tanjore had attached to it four hundred 8women of the temple10 who lived at free quarters in the streets round about it and were allowed land free of taxes out of its endowment4 ,from infancy they are trained to dance and sing4 ,in order to obtain a safe delivery expectant mothers will often vow to dedicate their child1 if she should prove to be a girl1 to the service of ,god4 ,among the weavers of ,tiru-kalli-kundram1 a little town in the ,madras ,presidency1 the eldest daughter of every family is devoted to the temple4 ,girls thus made over to the deity are formally married1 sometimes to the idol1 sometimes to a sword1 before they enter on their duties2 from which it appears that they are often1 if not regularly1 regarded as the wives of the god47#aih7 ,among the ,kaikolans1 a large caste of ,tamil weavers who are spread all over ,southern ,india1 at least one girl in every family should be dedicated to the temple service4 ,the ritual1 as it is observed at the initiation of one of these girls in ,coimbatore1 includes 8a form of nuptial ceremony4 ,the relations are invited for an auspicious day1 and the maternal uncle1 or his representative1 ties a gold band on the girl's forehead1 and1 carrying her1 places her on a plank before the assembled guests4 ,a ,brahman priest recites the mantrams1 and prepares the sacred fire 7hmam74 ,the uncle is presented with new cloths by the girl's mother4 ,for the actual nuptials a rich ,brahman1 if possible1 and1 if not1 a ,brahman of more lowly status is invited4 ,a ,brahman is called in1 as he is next in importance to1 and the representative of the idol4 ,it is said that1 when the man who is to receive her first favours1 joins the girl1 a sword must be placed1 at least for a few minutes1 by her side40 ,when one of these dancing-girls dies1 her body is covered with a new cloth which has been taken for the purpose from the idol1 and flowers are supplied from the temple to which she belonged4 ,no worship is performed in the temple until the last rites have been performed over her body1 because the idol1 being deemed her husband1 is held to be in that state of ceremonial pollution common to human mourners which debars him from the offices of religion47#aii7 ,in ,mahratta such a female devotee is called ,murli4 ,common folk believe that from time to time the shadow of the god falls on her and possesses her person4 ,at such times the possessed woman rocks herself to and fro1 and the people occasionally consult her as a soothsayer1 laying money at her feet and accepting as an oracle the words of wisdom or folly that drop from her lips47#bjj7 ,nor is the profession of a temple prostitute adopted only by girls4 ,in ,tulava1 a district of ,southern ,india1 any woman of the four highest castes who wearies of her husband or1 as a widow and therefore incapable of marriage1 grows tired of celibacy1 may go to a temple and eat of the rice offered to the idol4 ,thereupon1 if she is a ,brahman1 she has the right to live either in the temple or outside of its precincts1 as she pleases4 ,if she decides to live in it1 she gets a daily allowance of rice1 and must sweep the temple1 fan the idol1 and confine her amours to the ,brahmans4 ,the male children of these women form a special class called ,moylar1 but are fond of assuming the title of ,stanikas4 ,as many of them as can find employment hang about the temple1 sweeping the areas1 sprinkling them with cow-dung1 carrying torches before the gods1 and doing other odd jobs4 ,some of them1 debarred from these holy offices1 are reduced to the painful necessity of earning their bread by honest work4 ,the daughters are either brought up to live like their mothers or are given in marriage to the ,stanikas4 ,brahman women who do not choose to live in the temples1 and all the women of the three lower castes1 cohabit with any man of pure descent1 but they have to pay a fixed sum annually to the temple47#bja7 7,m#dg7 ,in ,travancore a dancing-girl attached to a temple is known as a ,ds1 or ,dvads1 or ,dvaratil1 8a servant of ,god40 ,the following account of her dedication and way of life deserves to be quoted because1 while it ignores the baser side of her vocation1 it brings clearly out the idea of her marriage to the deity4 8,marriage in the case of a ,dvaratil in its original import is a renunciation of ordinary family life and a consecration to the service of ,god4 ,with a lady-nurse at a ,hospital1 or a sister at a ,convent1 a ,dvads at a ,hindu shrine1 such as she probably was in the early ages of ,hindu spirituality1 would have claimed favourable comparison4 ,in the ceremonial of the dedication-marriage of the ,ds1 elements are not wanting which indicate a past quite the reverse of disreputable4 ,the girl to be married is generally from six to eight years in age4 ,the bridegroom is the presiding deity of the local temple4 ,the ceremony is done at his house4 ,the expenses of the celebration are supposed to be partly paid from his funds4 ,to instance the practice at the ,suchndram temple1 a ,yga or meeting of the chief functionaries of the temple arranges the preliminaries4 ,the girl to be wedded bathes and goes to the temple with two pieces of cloth1 a tli1 betel1 areca-nut1 etc4 ,these are placed by the priest at the feet of the image4 ,the girl sits with the face towards the deity4 ,the priest kindles the sacred fire and goes through all the rituals of the ,tirukkalynam festival4 ,he then initiates the bride into the ,panchkshara mantra1 if in a ,saiva temple1 and the ,ashtkshara1 if in a ,vaishnava temple4 ,on behalf of the divine bridegroom1 he presents one of the two cloths she has brought as offering and ties the ,tli around her neck4 ,the practice1 how old it is not possible to say1 is then to take her to her house where the usual marriage festivities are celebrated for four days4 ,as in ,brahminical marriages1 the ,nalunku ceremony1 i4e4 the rolling of a cocoanut by the bride to the bridegroom and vice versa a number of times to the accompaniment of music1 is gone through1 the temple priest playing the bridegroom's part4 ,thenceforth she becomes the wife of the deity in the sense that she formally and solemnly dedicates the rest of her life to his service with the same constancy and devotion that a faithful wife united in holy matrimony shows to her wedded lord4 ,the life of a ,dvads bedecked with all the accomplishments that the muses could give was one of spotless purity4 ,even now she is maintained by the temple4 ,she undertakes fasts in connection with the temple festivals1 such as the seven days' fast for the ,apamrgam ceremony4 ,during the period of this fast1 strict continence is enjoined2 she is required to take only one meal1 and that within the temple--in fact to live and behave at least for a term1 in the manner ordained for her throughout life4 ,some of the details of her daily work seem interesting2 she attends the ,dpradhana1 the waving of lighted lamps in front of the deity at sunset every day2 sings hymns in his praise1 dances before his presence1 goes round with him in his processions with lights in hand4 ,after the procession1 she sings a song or two from ,jayadva's ,gtagvinda and with a few lullaby hymns1 her work for the night is over4 ,when she grows physically unfit for these duties1 she is formally invalided by a special ceremony1 i4e4 ,ttuvaikkuka1 or the laying down of the ear-pendants4 ,it is gone through at the ,maha ,raja's palace1 whereafter she becomes a ,tikkizhavi 7old mother71 entitled only to a subsistence-allowance4 ,when she dies1 the temple contributes to the funeral expenses4 ,on her death-bed1 the priest attends and after a few ceremonies immediately after death1 gets her bathed with saffron-powder407#bjb7 #c4 ,sacred ,men and ,women in ,west ,africa4 7,m#dh7 ,still more instructive for our present purpose are the ,west ,african customs4 ,among the ,ewe-speaking peoples of the ,slave ,coast 8recruits for the priesthood are obtained in two ways1 viz4 by the affiliation of young persons1 and by the direct consecration of adults4 ,young people of either sex dedicated or affiliated to a god are termed kosio1 from kono1 #8unfruitful1' because a child dedicated to a god passes into his service and is practically lost to his parents1 and si1 #8to run away4' ,as the females become the #8wives' of the god to whom they are dedicated1 the termination si in vdu-si another name for these dedicated women1 has been translated #8wife' by some ,europeans2 but it is never used in the general acceptation of that term1 being entirely restricted to persons consecrated to the gods4 ,the chief business of the female kosi is prostitution1 and in every town there is at least one institution in which the best-looking girls1 between ten and twelve years of age1 are received4 ,here they remain for three years1 learning the chants and dances peculiar to the worship of the gods1 and prostituting themselves to the priests and the inmates of the male seminaries2 and at the termination of their novitiate they become public prostitutes4 ,this condition1 however1 is not regarded as one for reproach2 they are considered to be married to the god1 and their excesses are supposed to be caused and directed by him4 ,properly speaking1 their libertinage should be confined to the male worshippers at the temple of the god1 but practically it is indiscriminate4 ,children who are born from such unions belong to the god407#bjc7 ,these women are not allowed to marry since they are deemed the wives of a god47#bjd7 7,m#di7 ,again1 in this part of ,africa 8the female ,kosio of ,dah-gbi1 or ,dah-sio1 that is1 the wives1 priestesses1 and temple prostitutes of ,dah-gbi1 the python-god1 have their own organization4 ,generally they live together in a group of houses or huts inclosed by a fence1 and in these inclosures the novices undergo their three years of initiation4 ,most new members are obtained by the affiliation of young girls2 but any woman whatever1 married or single1 slave or free1 by publicly simulating possession1 and uttering the conventional cries recognized as indicative of possession by the god1 can at once join the body1 and be admitted to the habitations of the order4 ,the person of a woman who has joined in this manner is inviolable1 and during the period of her novitiate she is forbidden1 if single1 to enter the house of her parents1 and1 if married1 that of her husband4 ,this inviolability1 while it gives women opportunities of gratifying an illicit passion1 at the same time serves occasionally to save the persecuted slave1 or neglected wife1 from the ill-treatment of the lord and master2 for she has only to go through the conventional form of possession and an asylum is assured407#bje7 ,the python-god marries these women secretly in his temple1 and they father their offspring on him2 but it is the priests who consummate the union47#bjf7 7,m#ej7 ,for our purpose it is important to note that a close connexion is apparently supposed to exist between the fertility of the soil and the marriage of these women to the serpent4 ,for the time when new brides are sought for the reptile-god is the season when the millet is beginning to sprout4 ,then the old priestesses1 armed with clubs1 run frantically through the streets shrieking like mad women and carrying off to be brides of the serpent any little girls between the ages of eight and twelve whom they may find outside of the houses4 ,pious people at such times will sometimes leave their daughters at their doors on purpose that they may have the honour of being dedicated to the god47#bjg7 ,the marriage of wives to the serpent-god is probably deemed necessary to enable him to discharge the important function of making the crops to grow and the cattle to multiply2 for we read that these people 8invoke the snake in excessively wet1 dry1 or barren seasons2 on all occasions relating to their government and the preservation of their cattle2 or rather1 in one word1 in all necessities and difficulties1 in which they do not apply to their new batch of gods407#bjh7 ,once in a bad season the ,dutch factor ,bosman found the ,king of ,whydah in a great rage4 ,his ,majesty explained the reason of his discomposure by saying 8that that year he had sent much larger offerings to the snake-house than usual1 in order to obtain a good crop2 and that one of his vice-roys 7whom he shewed me7 had desired him afresh1 in the name of the priests1 who threatened a barren year1 to send yet more4 ,to which he answered that he did not intend to make any further offerings this year2 and if the snake would not bestow a plentiful harvest on them1 he might let it alone2 for 7said he7 ,i cannot be more damaged thereby1 the greatest part of my corn being already rotten in the field407#bji7 7,m#ea7 ,the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa 8have a custom which reminds one of the ,west ,african python-god and his wives4 ,at intervals of1 ,i believe1 several years the medicine-men order huts to be built for the purpose of worshipping a river snake4 ,the snake-god requires wives1 and women or more especially girls go to the huts4 ,here the union is consummated by the medicine-men4 ,if the number of females who go to the huts voluntarily is not sufficient1 girls are seized and dragged there4 ,i believe the offspring of such a union is said to be fathered by ,god 7,ngai73 at any rate there are children in ,kikuyu who are regarded as the children of ,god407#baj7 7,m#eb7 ,among the negroes of the ,slave ,coast there are1 as we have seen1 male kosio as well as female kosio2 that is1 there are dedicated men as well as dedicated women1 priests as well as priestesses1 and the ideas and customs in regard to them seem to be similar4 ,like the women1 the men undergo a three years' novitiate1 at the end of which each candidate has to prove that the god accepts him and finds him worthy of inspiration4 ,escorted by a party of priests he goes to a shrine and seats himself on a stool that belongs to the deity4 ,the priests then anoint his head with a mystic decoction and invoke the god in a long and wild chorus4 ,during the singing the youth1 if he is acceptable to the deity1 trembles violently1 simulates convulsions1 foams at the mouth1 and dances in a frenzied style1 sometimes for more than an hour4 ,this is the proof that the god has taken possession of him4 ,after that he has to remain in a temple without speaking for seven days and nights4 ,at the end of that time1 he is brought out1 a priest opens his mouth to show that he may now use his tongue1 a new name is given him1 and he is fully ordained47#baa7 ,henceforth he is regarded as the priest and medium of the deity whom he serves1 and the words which he utters in that morbid state of mental excitement which passes for divine inspiration1 are accepted by the hearers as the very words of the god spoken by the mouth of the man47#bab7 ,any crime which a priest committed in a state of frenzy used to remain unpunished1 no doubt because the act was thought to be the act of the god4 ,but this benefit of clergy was so much abused that under ,king ,gezo the law had to be altered2 and although1 while he is still possessed by the god1 the inspired criminal is safe1 he is now liable to punishment as soon as the divine spirit leaves him4 ,nevertheless on the whole among these people 8the person of a priest or priestess is sacred4 ,not only must a layman not lay hands on or insult one2 he must be careful not even to knock one by accident1 or jostle against one in the street4 ,the ,abb ,bouche relates7#bac7 that once when he was paying a visit to the chief of ,agweh1 one of the wives of the chief was brought into the house by four priestesses1 her face bloody1 and her body covered with stripes4 ,she had been savagely flogged for having accidentally trodden upon the foot of one of them2 and the chief not only dared not give vent to his anger1 but had to give them a bottle of rum as a peace-offering407#bad7 7,m#ec7 ,among the ,tshi-speaking peoples of the ,gold ,coast1 who border on the ,ewe-speaking peoples of the ,slave ,coast to the west1 the customs and beliefs in regard to the dedicated men and dedicated women1 the priests and priestesses1 are very similar4 ,these persons are believed to be from time to time possessed or inspired by the deity whom they serve2 and in that state they are consulted as oracles4 ,they work themselves up to the necessary pitch of excitement by dancing to the music of drums2 each god has his special hymn1 sung to a special beat of the drum1 and accompanied by a special dance4 ,it is while thus dancing to the drums that the priest or priestess lets fall the oracular words in a croaking or guttural voice which the hearers take to be the voice of the god4 ,hence dancing has an important place in the education of priests and priestesses2 they are trained in it for months before they may perform in public4 ,these mouthpieces of the deity are consulted in almost every concern of life and are handsomely paid for their services47#bae7 8,priests marry like any other members of the community1 and purchase wives2 but priestesses are never married1 nor can any #8head money' be paid for a priestess4 ,the reason appears to be that a priestess belongs to the god she serves1 and therefore cannot become the property of a man1 as would be the case if she married one4 ,this prohibition extends to marriage only1 and a priestess is not debarred from sexual commerce4 ,the children of a priest or priestess are not ordinarily educated for the priestly profession1 one generation being usually passed over1 and the grandchildren selected4 ,priestesses are ordinarily most licentious1 and custom allows them to gratify their passions with any man who may chance to take their fancy407#baf7 ,the ranks of the hereditary priesthood are constantly recruited by persons who devote themselves or who are devoted by their relations or masters to the profession4 ,men1 women1 and even children can thus become members of the priesthood4 ,if a mother has lost several of her children by death1 she will not uncommonly vow to devote the next born to the service of the gods2 for in this way she hopes to save the child's life4 ,so when the child is born it is set apart for the priesthood1 and on arriving at maturity generally fulfils the vow made by the mother and becomes a priest or priestess4 ,at the ceremony of ordination the votary has to prove his or her vocation for the sacred life in the usual way by falling into or simulating convulsions1 dancing frantically to the beat of drums1 and speaking in a hoarse unnatural voice words which are deemed to be the utterance of the deity temporarily lodged in the body of the man or woman47#bag7 #d4 ,sacred ,women in ,western ,asia4 7,m#ed7 ,thus in ,africa1 and sometimes if not regularly in ,india1 the sacred prostitutes attached to temples are regarded as the wives of the god1 and their excesses are excused on the ground that the women are not themselves1 but that they act under the influence of divine inspiration4 ,this is in substance the explanation which ,i have given of the custom of sacred prostitution as it was practised in antiquity by the peoples of ,western ,asia4 ,in their licentious intercourse at the temples the women1 whether maidens or matrons or professional harlots1 imitated the licentious conduct of a great goddess of fertility for the purpose of ensuring the fruitfulness of fields and trees1 of man and beast2 and in discharging this sacred and important function the women were probably supposed1 like their ,west ,african sisters1 to be actually possessed by the goddess4 ,the hypothesis at least explains all the facts in a simple and natural manner2 and in assuming that women could be married to gods it assumes a principle which we know to have been recognized in ,babylon1 ,assyria1 and ,egypt47#bah7 ,at ,babylon a woman regularly slept in the great bed of ,bel or ,marduk1 which stood in his temple on the summit of a lofty pyramid2 and it was believed that the god chose her from all the women of ,babylon and slept with her in the bed4 ,however1 unlike the ,indian and ,west ,african wives of gods1 this spouse of the ,babylonian deity is reported by ,herodotus to have been chaste47#bai7 ,yet we may doubt whether she was so2 for these wives or perhaps paramours of ,bel are probably to be identified with the wives or votaries of ,marduk mentioned in the code of ,hammurabi1 and we know from the code that female votaries of the gods might be mothers and married to men47#bbj7 ,at ,babylon the sun-god ,shamash as well as ,marduk had human wives formerly dedicated to his service1 and they like the votaries of ,marduk might have children47#bba7 ,it is significant that a name for these ,babylonian votaries was adishtu1 which is the same word as edesha1 8consecrated woman10 the regular ,hebrew word for a temple harlot47#bbb7 ,it is true that the law severely punished any disrespect shown to these sacred women27#bbc7 but the example of ,west ,africa warns us that a formal respect shown to such persons1 even when it is enforced by severe penalties1 need be no proof at all of their virtuous character47#bbd7 ,in ,egypt a woman used to sleep in the temple of ,ammon at ,thebes1 and the god was believed to visit her47#bbe7 ,egyptian texts often mention her as 8the divine consort10 and in old days she seems to have usually been the ,queen of ,egypt herself47#bbf7 ,but in the time of ,strabo1 at the beginning of our era1 these consorts or concubines of ,ammon1 as they were called1 were beautiful young girls of noble birth1 who held office only till puberty4 ,during their term of office they prostituted themselves freely to any man who took their fancy4 ,after puberty they were given in marriage1 and a ceremony of mourning was performed for them as if they were dead47#bbg7 ,when they died in good earnest1 their bodies were laid in special graves47#bbh7 #e4 ,sacred ,men in ,western ,asia4 7,m#ee7 ,as in ,west ,africa the dedicated women have their counterpart in the dedicated men1 so it was in ,western ,asia2 for there the sacred men 7edeshim7 clearly corresponded to the sacred women 7edeshoth71 in other words1 the sacred male slaves7#bbi7 of the temples were the complement of the sacred female slaves4 ,and as the characteristic feature of the dedicated men in ,west ,africa is their supposed possession or inspiration by the deity1 so we may conjecture was it with the sacred male slaves 7the edeshim7 of ,western ,asia2 they1 too1 may have been regarded as temporary or permanent embodiments of the deity1 possessed from time to time by his divine spirit1 acting in his name1 and speaking with his voice47#bcj7 ,at all events we know that this was so at the sanctuary of the ,moon among the ,albanians of the ,caucasus4 ,the sanctuary owned church lands of great extent peopled by sacred slaves1 and it was ruled by a high-priest1 who ranked next after the king4 ,many of these slaves were inspired by the deity and prophesied2 and when one of them had been for some time in this state of divine frenzy1 wandering alone in the forest1 the high-priest had him caught1 bound with a sacred chain1 and maintained in luxury for a year4 ,then the poor wretch was led out1 anointed with unguents1 and sacrificed with other victims to the ,moon4 ,the mode of sacrifice was this4 ,a man took a sacred spear1 and thrust it through the victim's side to the heart4 ,as he staggered and fell1 the rest observed him closely and drew omens from the manner of his fall4 ,then the body was dragged or carried away to a certain place1 where all his fellows stood upon it by way of purification47#bca7 ,in this custom the prophet1 or rather the maniac1 was plainly supposed to be moon-struck in the most literal sense1 that is1 possessed or inspired by the deity of the ,moon1 who was perhaps thought by the ,albanians1 as by the ,phrygians17#bcb7 to be a male god1 since his chosen minister and mouthpiece was a man1 not a woman47#bcc7 ,it can hardly therefore be deemed improbable that at other sanctuaries of ,western ,asia1 where sacred men were kept1 these ministers of religion should have discharged a similar prophetic function1 even though they did not share the tragic fate of the moon-struck ,albanian prophet4 ,nor was the influence of these ,asiatic prophets confined to ,asia4 ,in ,sicily the spark which kindled the devastating ,servile ,war was struck by a ,syrian slave1 who simulated the prophetic ecstasy in order to rouse his fellow-slaves to arms in the name of the ,syrian goddess4 ,to inflame still more his inflammatory words this ancient ,mahdi ingeniously interlarded them with real fire and smoke1 which by a common conjurer's trick he breathed from his lips47#bcd7 7,m#ef7 ,in like manner the ,hebrew prophets were believed to be temporarily possessed and inspired by a divine spirit who spoke through them1 just as a divine spirit is supposed by ,west ,african negroes to speak through the mouth of the dedicated men his priests4 ,indeed the points of resemblance between the prophets of ,israel and ,west ,africa are close and curious4 ,like their black brothers1 the ,hebrew prophets employed music in order to bring on the prophetic trance27#bce7 like them1 they received the divine spirit through the application of a magic oil to their heads27#bcf7 like them1 they were apparently distinguished from common people by certain marks on the face27#bcg7 and like them they were consulted not merely in great national emergencies but in the ordinary affairs of everyday life1 in which they were expected to give information and advice for a small fee4 ,for example1 ,samuel was consulted about lost asses17#bch7 just as a ,zulu diviner is consulted about lost cows27#bci7 and we have seen ,elisha acting as a dowser when water ran short47#bdj7 ,indeed1 we learn that the old name for a prophet was a seer17#bda7 a word which may be understood to imply that his special function was divination rather than prophecy in the sense of prediction4 ,be that as it may1 prophecy of the ,hebrew type has not been limited to ,israel2 it is indeed a phenomenon of almost world-wide occurrence2 in many lands and in many ages the wild1 whirling words of frenzied men and women have been accepted as the utterances of an indwelling deity47#bdb7 ,what does distinguish ,hebrew prophecy from all others is that the genius of a few members of the profession wrested this vulgar but powerful instrument from baser uses1 and by wielding it in the interest of a high morality rendered a service of incalculable value to humanity4 ,that is indeed the glory of ,israel1 but it is not the side of prophecy with which we are here concerned4 7,m#eg7 ,more to our purpose is to note that prophecy of the ordinary sort appears to have been in vogue at ,byblus1 the sacred city of ,adonis1 centuries before the life-time of the earliest ,hebrew prophet whose writings have come down to us4 ,when the ,egyptian traveller1 ,wen-,ammon1 was lingering in the port of ,byblus1 under the ,king's orders to quit the place1 the spirit of ,god came on one of the royal pages or henchmen1 and in a prophetic frenzy he announced that the ,king should receive the ,egyptian stranger as a messenger sent from the god ,ammon47#bdc7 ,the god who thus took possession of the page and spoke through him was probably ,adonis1 the god of the city4 ,with regard to the office of these royal pages we have no information2 but as ministers of a sacred king and liable to be inspired by the deity1 they would naturally be themselves sacred2 in fact they may have belonged to the class of sacred slaves or edeshim4 ,if that was so it would confirm the conclusion to which the foregoing investigation points1 namely1 that originally no sharp line of distinction existed between the prophets and the edeshim2 both were 8men of ,god10 as the prophets were constantly called27#bdd7 in other words1 they were inspired mediums1 men in whom the god manifested himself from time to time by word and deed1 in short temporary incarnations of the deity4 ,but while the prophets roved freely about the country1 the edeshim appear to have been regularly attached to a sanctuary2 and among the duties which they performed at the shrines there were clearly some which revolted the conscience of men imbued with a purer morality4 ,what these duties were1 we may surmise partly from the behaviour of the sons of ,eli to the women who came to the tabernacle17#bde7 partly from the beliefs and practices as to 8holy men0 which survive to this day among the ,syrian peasantry4 7,m#eh7 ,of these 8holy men0 we are told that 8so far as they are not impostors1 they are men whom we would call insane1 known among the ,syrians as mejnn1 possessed by a jinn or spirit4 ,they often go in filthy garments1 or without clothing4 ,since they are regarded as intoxicated by deity1 the most dignified men1 and of the highest standing among the ,moslems1 submit to utter indecent language at their bidding without rebuke1 and ignorant ,moslem women do not shrink from their approach1 because in their superstitious belief they attribute to them1 as men possessed by ,god1 a divine authority which they dare not resist4 ,such an attitude of compliance may be exceptional1 but there are more than rumours of its existence4 ,these #8holy men' differ from the ordinary derwishes whom travellers so often see in ,cairo1 and from the ordinary madmen who are kept in fetters1 so that they may not do injury to themselves and others4 ,but their appearance1 and the expressions regarding them1 afford some illustrations of the popular estimate of ancient seers1 or prophets1 in the time of ,hosea3 #8,the prophet is a fool1 the man that hath the spirit is mad'27#bdf7 and in the time of ,jeremiah17#bdg7 the man who made himself a prophet was considered as good as a madman407#bdh7 ,to complete the parallel these vagabonds 8are also believed to be possessed of prophetic power1 so that they are able to foretell the future1 and warn the people among whom they live of impending danger407#bdi7 7,m#ei7 ,we may conjecture that with women a powerful motive for submitting to the embraces of the 8holy men0 is a hope of obtaining offspring by them4 ,for in ,syria it is still believed that even dead saints can beget children on barren women1 who accordingly resort to their shrines in order to obtain the wish of their hearts4 ,for example1 at the ,baths of ,solomon in ,northern ,palestine1 blasts of hot air escape from the ground2 and one of them1 named ,abu ,rabah1 is a famous resort of childless wives who wish to satisfy their maternal longings4 ,they let the hot air stream up over their bodies and really believe that children born to them after such a visit are begotten by the saint of the shrine47#bej7 ,but the saint who enjoys the highest reputation in this respect is ,st4 ,george4 ,he reveals himself at his shrines which are scattered all over the country2 at each of them there is a tomb or the likeness of a tomb4 ,the most celebrated of these sanctuaries is at ,kalat el ,hosn in ,northern ,syria4 ,barren women of all sects1 including ,moslems1 resort to it4 8,there are many natives who shrug their shoulders when this shrine is mentioned in connection with women4 ,but it is doubtless true that many do not know what seems to be its true character1 and who think that the most puissant saint1 as they believe1 in the world can give them sons40 8,but the true character of the place is beginning to be recognized1 so that many ,moslems have forbidden their wives to visit it407#bea7 #f4 ,sons of ,god4 7,m#fj7 ,customs like the foregoing may serve to explain the belief1 which is not confined to ,syria1 that men and women may be in fact and not merely in metaphor the sons and daughters of a god2 for these modern saints1 whether ,christian or ,moslem1 who father the children of ,syrian mothers1 are nothing but the old gods under a thin disguise4 ,if in antiquity as at the present day ,semitic women often repaired to shrines in order to have the reproach of barrenness removed from them--and the prayer of ,hannah is a familiar example of the practice17#beb7 we could easily understand not only the tradition of the sons of ,god who begat children on the daughters of men17#bec7 but also the exceedingly common occurrence of the divine titles in ,hebrew names of human beings47#bed7 ,multitudes of men and women1 in fact1 whose mothers had resorted to holy places in order to procure offspring1 would be regarded as the actual children of the god and would be named accordingly4 ,hence ,hannah called her infant ,samuel1 which means 8name of ,god0 or 8his name is ,god027#bee7 and probably she sincerely believed that the child was actually begotten in her womb by the deity47#bef7 ,the dedication of such children to the service of ,god at the sanctuary was merely giving back the divine son to the divine father4 ,similarly in ,west ,africa1 when a woman has got a child at the shrine of ,agbasia1 the god who alone bestows offspring on women1 she dedicates him or her as a sacred slave to the deity47#beg7 7,m#fa7 ,thus in the ,syrian beliefs and customs of to-day we probably have the clue to the religious prostitution practised in the very same regions in antiquity4 ,then as now women looked to the local god1 the ,baal or ,adonis of old1 the ,abu ,rabah or ,st4 ,george of to-day1 to satisfy the natural craving of a woman's heart2 and then as now1 apparently1 the part of the local god was played by sacred men1 who in personating him may often have sincerely believed that they were acting under divine inspiration1 and that the functions which they discharged were necessary for the fertility of the land as well as for the propagation of the human species4 ,the purifying influence of ,christianity and ,mohammedanism has restricted such customs within narrow limits2 even under ,turkish rule they are now only carried on in holes and corners4 ,yet if the practice has dwindled1 the principle which it embodies appears to be fundamentally the same2 it is a desire for the continuance of the species1 and a belief that an object so natural and legitimate can be accomplished by divine power manifesting itself in the bodies of men and women4 7,m#fb7 ,the belief in the physical fatherhood of ,god has not been confined to ,syria in ancient and modern times4 ,elsewhere many men have been counted the sons of ,god in the most literal sense of the word1 being supposed to have been begotten by his holy spirit in the wombs of mortal women4 ,here ,i shall merely illustrate the creed by a few examples drawn from classical antiquity47#beh7 ,thus in order to obtain offspring women used to resort to the great sanctuary of ,aesculapius1 situated in a beautiful upland valley1 to which a path1 winding through a long wooded gorge1 leads from the bay of ,epidaurus4 ,here the women slept in the holy place and were visited in dreams by a serpent2 and the children to whom they afterwards gave birth were believed to have been begotten by the reptile47#bei7 ,that the serpent was supposed to be the god himself seems certain2 for ,aesculapius repeatedly appeared in the form of a serpent17#bfj7 and live serpents were kept and fed in his sanctuaries for the healing of the sick1 being no doubt regarded as his incarnations47#bfa7 ,hence the children born to women who had thus visited a sanctuary of ,aesculapius were probably fathered on the serpent-god4 ,many celebrated men in classical antiquity were thus promoted to the heavenly hierarchy by similar legends of a miraculous birth4 ,the famous ,aratus of ,sicyon was certainly believed by his countrymen to be a son of ,aesculapius2 his mother is said to have got him in intercourse with a serpent47#bfb7 ,probably she slept either in the shrine of ,aesculapius at ,sicyon1 where a figurine of her was shown seated on a serpent17#bfc7 or perhaps in the more secluded sanctuary of the god at ,titane1 not many miles off1 where the sacred serpents crawled among ancient cypresses on the hill-top which overlooks the narrow green valley of the ,asopus with the white turbid river rushing in its depths47#bfd7 ,there1 under the shadow of the cypresses1 with the murmur of the ,asopus in her ears1 the mother of ,aratus may have conceived1 or fancied she conceived1 the future deliverer of his country4 ,again1 the mother of ,augustus is said to have got him by intercourse with a serpent in a temple of ,apollo2 hence the emperor was reputed to be the son of that god47#bfe7 ,similar tales were told of the ,messenian hero ,aristomenes1 ,alexander the ,great1 and the elder ,scipio3 all of them were reported to have been begotten by snakes47#bff7 ,in the time of ,herod a serpent1 according to ,aelian1 in like manner made love to a ,judean maid47#bfg7 ,can the story be a distorted rumour of the parentage of ,christ8 7,m#fc7 ,in ,india even stone serpents are credited with a power of bestowing offspring on women4 ,thus the ,komatis of ,mysore 8worship ,nga or the serpent god4 ,this worship is generally confined to women and is carried on on a large scale once a year on the fifth day of the bright fortnight of ,srvana 7,july and ,august74 ,the representations of serpents are cut in stone slabs and are set up round an ,asvattha tree on a platform1 on which is also generally planted a margosa tree4 ,these snakes in stones are set up in performance of vows and are said to be specially efficacious in curing bad sores and other skin diseases and in giving children4 ,the women go to such places for worship with milk1 fruits1 and flowers on the prescribed day which is observed as a feast day40 ,they wash the stones1 smear them with turmeric1 and offer them curds and fruits4 ,sometimes they search out the dens of serpents and pour milk into the holes for the live reptiles47#bfh7 #g4 ,reincarnation of the ,dead4 7,m#fd7 ,the reason why snakes were so often supposed to be the fathers of human beings is probably to be found in the common belief that the dead come to life and revisit their old homes in the shape of serpents4 ,this notion is widely spread in ,africa1 especially among tribes of the ,bantu stock4 ,it is held1 for example1 by the ,zulus1 the ,thonga1 and other ,caffre tribes of ,south ,africa27#bfi7 by the ,ngoni of ,british ,central ,africa27#bgj7 by the ,wabondei17#bga7 the ,masai17#bgb7 the ,suk17#bgc7 the ,nandi17#bgd7 and the ,akikuyu of ,german and ,british ,east ,africa27#bge7 and by the ,dinkas of the ,upper ,nile47#bgf7 ,it prevails also among the ,betsileo and other tribes of ,madagascar47#bgg7 ,among the ,iban or ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo a man's guardian spirit 7,tua7 8has its external manifestation in a snake1 a leopard or some other denizen of the forest4 ,it is supposed to be the spirit of some ancestor renowned for bravery or some other virtue who at death has taken an animal form4 ,it is a custom among the ,iban when a person of note in the tribe dies1 not to bury the body but to place it on a neighbouring hill or in some solitary spot above ground4 ,a quantity of food is taken to the place every day1 and if after a few days the body disappears1 the deceased is said to have become a ,tua or guardian spirit4 ,people who have been suffering from some chronic complaint often go to such a tomb1 taking with them an offering to the soul of the deceased to obtain his help4 ,to such it is revealed in a dream what animal form the honoured dead has taken4 ,the most frequent form is that of a snake4 ,thus when a snake is found in a ,dyak house it is seldom killed or driven away2 food is offered to it1 for it is a guardian spirit who has come to inquire after the welfare of its clients and bring them good luck4 ,anything that may be found in the mouth of such a snake is taken and kept as a charm407#bgh7 ,similarly in ,kiriwina1 an island of the ,trobriands ,group1 to the east of ,new ,guinea1 8the natives regarded the snake as one of their ancestral chiefs1 or rather as the abode of his spirit1 and when one was seen in a house it was believed that the chief was paying a visit to his old home4 ,the natives considered this as an ill omen and so always tried to persuade the animal to depart as soon as possible4 ,the honours of a chief were paid to the snake3 the natives passed it in a crouching posture1 and as they did so1 saluted it as a chief of high rank4 ,native property was presented to it as an appeasing gift1 accompanied by prayers that it would not do them any harm1 but would go away quickly4 ,they dared not kill the snake1 for its death would bring disease and death upon those who did so407#bgi7 7,m#fe7 ,where serpents are thus viewed as ancestors come to life1 the people naturally treat them with great respect and often feed them with milk1 perhaps because milk is the food of human babes and the reptiles are treated as human beings in embryo1 who can be born again from women4 ,thus 8the ,zulu-,caffres imagine that their ancestors generally visit them under the form of serpents4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as one of these reptiles appears near their dwellings1 they hasten to salute it by the name of father1 place bowls of milk in its way1 and turn it back gently1 and with the greatest respect407#bhj7 ,among the ,masai of ,east ,africa1 8when a medicine-man or a rich person dies and is buried1 his soul turns into a snake as soon as his body rots2 and the snake goes to his children's kraal to look after them4 ,the ,masai in consequence do not kill their sacred snakes1 and if a woman sees one in her hut1 she pours some milk on the ground for it to lick1 after which it will go away407#bha7 ,among the ,nandi of ,british ,east ,africa1 8if a snake goes on to the woman's bed1 it may not be killed1 as it is believed that it personifies the spirit of a deceased ancestor or relation1 and that it has been sent to intimate to the woman that her next child will be born safely4 ,milk is put on the ground for it to drink1 and the man or his wife says3 #8444 ,if thou wantest the call1 come1 thou art being called4' ,it is then allowed to leave the house4 ,if a snake enters the houses of old people they give it milk1 and say3 #8,if thou wantest the call1 go to the huts of the children1' and they drive it away407#bhb7 ,this association of the serpent1 regarded as an incarnation of the dead1 both with the marriage bed and with the huts of young people1 points to a belief that the deceased person who is incarnate in the snake may be born again as a human child into the world4 ,again1 among the ,suk of ,british ,east ,africa 8it seems to be generally believed that a man's spirit passes into a snake at death4 ,if a snake enters a house1 the spirit of the dead man is believed to be very hungry4 ,milk is poured on to its tracks1 and a little meat and tobacco placed on the ground for it to eat4 ,it is believed that if no food is given to the snake one or all of the members of the household will die4 ,it1 however1 may none the less be killed if encountered outside the house1 and if at the time of its death it is inhabited by the spirit of a dead man1 #8that spirit dies also4' 07#bhc7 ,the ,akikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa1 who similarly believe that snakes are ngoma or spirits of the departed1 8do not kill a snake but pour out honey and milk for it to drink1 which they say it licks up and then goes its way4 ,if a man causes the death of a snake he must without delay summon the senior ,elders in the village and slaughter a sheep1 which they eat and cut a rukwaru from the skin of its right shoulder for the offender to wear on his right wrist2 if this ceremony is neglected he1 his wife and his children will die407#bhd7 ,among the ,baganda the python god ,selwanga had his temple on the shore of the lake ,victoria ,nyanza1 where he dwelt in the form of a live python4 ,the temple was a hut of the ordinary conical shape with a round hole in the wall1 through which the sinuous deity crawled out and in at his pleasure4 ,a woman lived in the temple1 and it was her duty to feed the python daily with fresh milk from a wooden bowl1 which she held out to the divine reptile while he drained it4 ,the serpent was thought to be the giver of children2 hence young couples living in the neighbourhood always came to the shrine to ensure the blessing of the god on their union1 and childless women repaired from long distances to be relieved by him from the curse of barrenness47#bhe7 ,it is not said that this python god embodied the soul of a dead ancestor1 but it may have been so2 his power of bestowing offspring on women suggests it4 7,m#ff7 ,the ,romans and ,greeks appear to have also believed that the souls of the dead were incarnate in the bodies of serpents4 ,among the ,romans the regular symbol of the genius or guardian spirit of every man was a serpent17#bhf7 and in ,roman houses serpents were lodged and fed in such numbers that if their swarms had not been sometimes reduced by conflagrations there would have been no living for them47#bhg7 ,in ,greek legend ,cadmus and his wife ,harmonia were turned at death into snakes47#bhh7 ,when the ,spartan king ,cleomenes was slain and crucified in ,egypt1 a great serpent coiled round his head on the cross and kept off the vultures from his face4 ,the people regarded the prodigy as a proof that ,cleomenes was a son of the gods47#bhi7 ,again1 when ,plotinus lay dying1 a snake crawled from under his bed and disappeared into a hole in the wall1 and at the same moment the philosopher expired47#bij7 ,apparently superstition saw in these serpents the souls of the dead men4 ,in ,greek religion the serpent was indeed the regular symbol or attribute of the worshipful dead17#bia7 and we can hardly doubt that the early ,greeks1 like the ,zulus and other ,african tribes at the present day1 really believed the soul of the departed to be lodged in the reptile4 ,the sacred serpent which lived in the ,erechtheum at ,athens1 and was fed with honey-cakes once a month1 may have been supposed to house the soul of the dead king ,erechtheus1 who had reigned in his lifetime on the same spot47#bib7 ,perhaps the libations of milk which the ,greeks poured upon graves7#bic7 were intended to be drunk by serpents as the embodiments of the deceased2 on two tombstones found at ,tegea a man and a woman are respectively represented holding out to a serpent a cup which may be supposed to contain milk47#bid7 ,we have seen that various ,african tribes feed serpents with milk because they imagine the reptiles to be incarnations of their dead kinsfolk27#bie7 and the ,dinkas1 who practise the custom1 also pour milk on the graves of their friends for some time after the burial47#bif7 ,it is possible that a common type in ,greek art1 which exhibits a woman feeding a serpent out of a saucer1 may have been borrowed from a practice of thus ministering to the souls of the departed47#big7 7,m#fg7 ,further1 at the sowing festival of the ,thesmophoria1 held by ,greek women in ,october1 it was customary to throw cakes and pigs to serpents1 which lived in caverns or vaults sacred to the corn-goddess ,demeter47#bih7 ,we may guess that the serpents thus propitiated were deemed to be incarnations of dead men and women1 who might easily be incommoded in their earthy beds by the operations of husbandry4 ,what indeed could be more disturbing than to have the roof of the narrow house shaken and rent over their heads by clumsy oxen dragging a plough up and down on the top of it8 ,no wonder that at such times it was thought desirable to appease them with offerings4 ,sometimes1 however1 it is not the dead but the ,earth ,goddess herself who is disturbed by the husbandman4 ,an ,indian prophet at ,priest ,rapids1 on the ,middle ,columbia ,river1 dissuaded his many followers from tilling the ground because 8it is a sin to wound or cut1 tear up or scratch our common mother by agricultural pursuits407#bii7 8,you ask me10 said this ,indian sage1 8to plough the ground4 ,shall ,i take a knife and tear my mother's bosom8 ,you ask me to dig for stone4 ,shall ,i dig under her skin for her bones8 ,you ask me to cut grass and hay and sell it and be rich like white men4 ,but how dare ,i cut off my mother's hair807#cjj7 ,the ,baigas1 a primitive ,dravidian tribe of the ,central ,provinces in ,india1 used to practise a fitful and migratory agriculture1 burning down patches of jungle and sowing seed in the soil fertilized by the ashes after the breaking of the rains4 8,one explanation of their refusal to till the ground is that they consider it a sin to lacerate the breast of their mother earth with a ploughshare407#cja7 ,in ,china the disturbance caused to the earth-spirits by the operations of digging and ploughing was so very serious that ,chinese philosophy appears to have contemplated a plan for allowing the perturbed spirits a close time by forbidding the farmer to put his spade or his plough into the ground except on certain days1 when the earth-spirits were either not at home or kindly consented to put up with some temporary inconvenience for the good of man4 ,this we may infer from a passage in a ,chinese author who wrote in the first century of our era4 8,if it is true10 he says1 8that the spirits who inhabit the soil object to it being disturbed and dug up1 then it is proper for us to select special good days for digging ditches and ploughing our fields4 7,but this is never done72 it therefore follows that the spirits of the soil1 even though really annoyed when it is disturbed1 pass over such an offence if man commits it without evil intent4 ,as he commits it merely to ensure his rest and comfort1 the act cannot possibly excite any anger against him in the perfect heart of those spirits2 and this being the case1 they will not visit him with misfortune even if he do not choose auspicious days for it4 ,but if we believe that the earth-spirits cannot excuse man on account of the object he pursues1 and detest him for annoying them by disturbing the ground1 what advantage then can he derive from selecting proper days for doing so807#cjb7 ,what advantage indeed8 ,in that case the only logical conclusion is1 with the ,indian prophet1 to forbid agriculture altogether1 as an impious encroachment on the spiritual world4 ,few peoples1 however1 who have once contracted the habit of agriculture are willing to renounce it out of a regard for the higher powers2 the utmost concession which they are willing to make to religion in the matter is to prohibit agricultural operations at certain times and seasons1 when the exercise of them would be more than usually painful to the earth-spirits4 ,thus in ,bengal the chief festival in honour of ,mother ,earth is held at the end of the hot season1 when she is supposed to suffer from the impurity common to women1 and during that time all ploughing1 sowing1 and other work cease47#cjc7 ,on a certain day of the year1 when offerings are made to the ,earth1 the ,ewe farmer of ,west ,africa will not hoe the ground1 and the ,ewe weaver will not drive a sharp stake into it1 8because the hoe and the stake would wound the ,earth and cause her pain407#cjd7 ,when ,ratumaimbulu1 the god who made fruit-trees to blossom and bear fruit1 came once a year to ,fiji1 the people had to live very quietly for a month lest they should disturb him at his important work4 ,during this time they might not plant nor build nor sail about nor go to war2 indeed most kinds of work were forbidden4 ,the priests announced the time of the god's arrival and departure47#cje7 ,these periods of rest and quiet would seem to be the ,indian and ,fijian ,lent4 7,m#fh7 ,thus behind the ,greek notion that women may conceive by a serpent-god7#cjf7 seems to lie the belief that they can conceive by the dead in the form of serpents4 ,if such a belief was ever held1 it would be natural that barren women should resort to graves in order to have their wombs quickened1 and this may explain why they visited the shrine of the serpent-god ,aesculapius for that purpose2 the shrine was perhaps at first a grave4 ,it is significant that in ,syria the shrines of ,st4 ,george1 to which childless women go to get offspring1 always include a tomb or the likeness of one27#cjg7 and further1 that in the opinion of ,syrian peasants at the present day women may1 without intercourse with a living man1 bear children to a dead husband1 a dead saint1 or a jinnee47#cjh7 ,in the ,east ,indies also it is still commonly believed that spirits can consort with women and beget children on them4 ,the ,olo ,ngadjoe of ,borneo imagine that albinoes are the offspring of the spirit of the moon by mortal women1 the pallid hue of the human children naturally reflecting the pallor of their heavenly father47#cji7 7,m#fi7 ,such beliefs are closely akin to the idea1 entertained by many peoples1 that the souls of the dead may pass directly into the wombs of women and be born again as infants4 ,thus the ,hurons used to bury little children beside the paths in the hope that their souls might enter the passing squaws and be born again27#caj7 and similarly some negroes of ,west ,africa throw the bodies of infants into the bush in order that their souls may choose a new mother from the women who pass by47#caa7 ,among the tribes of the ,lower ,congo 8a baby is always buried near the house of its mother1 never in the bush4 ,they think that1 if the child is not buried near its mother's house1 she will be unlucky and never have any more children40 ,the notion probably is that the dead child1 buried near its mother's house1 will enter into her womb and be born again1 for these people believe in the reincarnation of the dead4 ,they think that 8the only new thing about a child is its body4 ,the spirit is old and formerly belonged to some deceased person1 or it may have the spirit of some living person40 ,for example1 if a child is like its mother1 father1 or uncle1 they imagine that it must have the spirit of the relative whom it resembles1 and that therefore the person whose soul has thus been abstracted by the infant will soon die47#cab7 ,among the ,bangalas1 a tribe of cannibals in ,equatorial ,africa1 to the north of the ,congo1 a woman was one day seen digging a hole in the public road4 ,her husband entreated a ,belgian officer to let her alone1 promising to mend the road afterwards1 and explaining that his wife wished to become a mother4 ,the good-natured officer complied with his request and watched the woman4 ,she continued to dig till she had uncovered a little skeleton1 the remains of her first-born1 which she tenderly embraced1 humbly entreating the dead child to enter into her and give her again a mother's joy4 ,the officer rightly did not smile47#cac7 ,the ,bagishu1 a ,bantu tribe of ,mount ,elgon1 in the ,uganda ,protectorate1 practise the custom of throwing out their dead 8except in the case of the youngest child or the old grandfather or grandmother1 for whom1 like the child1 a prolonged life on earth is desired4444 ,when it is desired to perpetuate on the earth the life of some old man or woman1 or that of some young baby1 the corpse is buried inside the house or just under the eaves1 until another child is born to the nearest relation of the corpse4 ,this child1 male or female1 takes the name of the corpse1 and the ,bagishu firmly believe that the spirit of the dead has passed into this new child and lives again on earth4 ,the remains are then dug up and thrown out into the open407#cad7 7,m#gj7 ,again1 just as measures are adopted to facilitate the rebirth of good ghosts1 so on the other hand precautions are taken to prevent the rebirth of bad ones4 ,thus1 with regard to the ,baganda of ,central ,africa we read that1 8while the present generation know the cause of pregnancy1 the people in the earlier times were uncertain as to its real cause1 and thought that it was possible to conceive without any intercourse with the male sex4 ,hence their precautions in passing places where either a suicide had been burnt1 or a child born feet first had been buried4 ,women were careful to throw grass or sticks on such a spot1 for by so doing they thought that they could prevent the ghost of the dead from entering into them1 and being reborn407#cae7 ,the fear of being got with child by such ghosts was not confined to married women1 it was shared by all women alike1 whether young or old1 whether married or single2 and all of them sought to avert the danger in the same way47#caf7 ,and ,baganda women imagined that without the help of the other sex they could be impregnated not only by these unpleasant ghosts but also by the flower of the banana4 ,if while a woman was busy in her garden under the shadow of the banana trees1 a great purple bloom chanced to fall from one of the trees on her back or shoulders1 it was quite enough1 in the opinion of the ,baganda1 to get her with child2 and were a wife accused of adultery because she gave birth to a child who could not possibly have been begotten by her husband1 she had only to father the infant on a banana flower to be honourably acquitted of the charge4 ,the reason why this remarkable property was ascribed to the bloom of the banana would seem to be that ghosts of ancestors were thought to haunt banana groves1 and that the afterbirths of children1 which the ,baganda regarded as twins of the children1 were commonly buried at the root of the trees47#cag7 ,what more natural than that a ghost should lurk in each flower1 and dropping adroitly in the likeness of a blossom on a woman's back effect a lodgment in her womb8 7,m#ga7 ,again1 when a child dies in ,northern ,india it is usually buried under the threshold of the house1 8in the belief that as the parents tread daily over its grave1 its soul will be reborn in the family4 ,here1 as ,mr4 ,rose suggests1 we reach an explanation of the rule that children of ,hindus are buried1 not cremated4 ,their souls do not pass into the ether with the smoke of the pyre1 but remain on earth to be reincarnated in the household407#cah7 ,in the ,punjaub this belief in the reincarnation of dead infants gives rise to some quaint or pathetic customs4 ,thus1 8in the ,hissar ,district1 ,bishnois bury dead infants at the threshold1 in the belief that it would facilitate the return of the soul to the mother4 ,the practice is also in vogue in the ,kangra ,district1 where the body is buried in front of the back door4 ,in some places it is believed that1 if the child dies in infancy and the mother drops her milk for two or three days on the ground1 the soul of the child comes back to be born again4 ,for this purpose milk diluted with water is placed in a small earthen pot and offered to the dead child's spirit for three consecutive evenings4 ,there is also a belief in the ,ambala and ,gujrat ,districts that if jackals and dogs dig out the dead body of the child and bring it towards the town or village1 it means that the child will return to its mother1 but if they take it to some other side1 the soul will reincarnate in some other family4 ,for this purpose1 the second day after the infant's death1 the mother goes out early in the morning to see whether the dogs have brought the body towards the village4 ,when the child is being taken away for burial the mother cuts off and preserves a piece of its garment with a view to persuade the soul to return to her4 ,barren women or those who have lost children in infancy tear a piece off the clothing of a dead child and stitch it to their wearing apparel1 believing that the soul of the child will return to them instead of its own mother4 ,on this account1 people take great care not to lose the clothes of dead children1 and some bury them in the house407#cai7 ,in ,bilaspore 8a still-born child1 or one who has passed away before the ,chhatti 7the sixth day1 the day of purification7 is not taken out of the house for burial1 but is placed in an earthen vessel and is buried in the doorway or in the yard of the house4 ,some say that this is done in order that the mother may bear another child407#cbj7 ,here in ,bilaspore the people have devised a very simple way of identifying a dead person when he or she is born again as an infant4 ,when anybody dies1 they mark the body with soot or oil1 and the next baby born in the family with a similar mark is hailed as the departed come to life again47#cba7 ,among the ,kois of the ,godavari district1 in ,southern ,india1 the dead are usually burnt1 but the bodies of children and of young men and women are buried4 ,if a child dies within a month of its birth1 it is generally buried close to the house 8so that the rain1 dripping from the eaves1 may fall upon the grave1 and thereby cause the parents to be blessed with another child407#cbb7 ,apparently it is supposed that the soul of the dead child1 refreshed and revived by the rain1 will pass again into the mother's womb4 ,indian criminal records contain many cases in which 8the ceremonial killing of a male child has been performed as a cure for barrenness1 the theory being that the soul of the murdered boy becomes reincarnated in the woman1 who performs the rite with a desire to secure offspring4 ,usually she effects union with the spirit of the child by bathing over its body or in the water in which the corpse has been washed4 ,cases have recently occurred in which the woman actually bathed in the blood of the child407#cbc7 7,m#gb7 ,on the fifth day after a death the ,gonds perform the ceremony of bringing back the soul4 ,they go to the bank of a river1 call aloud the name of the deceased1 and entering the water catch a fish or an insect4 ,this creature they then take home and place among the sainted dead of the family1 supposing that in this manner the spirit of the departed has been brought back to the house4 ,sometimes the fish or insect is eaten in the belief that it will be thus reborn as a child47#cbd7 ,this last custom explains the widely diffused story of virgins who have conceived by eating of a plant or an animal or merely by taking it to their bosom47#cbe7 ,in all such cases we may surmise that the plant or animal was thought to contain the soul of a dead person1 which thus passed into the virgin's womb and was born again as an infant4 ,among the ,south ,slavs childless women often resort to a grave in which a pregnant woman is buried4 ,there they bite some grass from the grave1 invoke the deceased by name1 and beg her to give them the fruit of her womb4 ,after that they take a little of the mould from the grave and carry it about with them thenceforth under their girdle47#cbf7 ,apparently they imagine that the soul of the unborn infant is in the grass or the mould and will pass from it into their body4 7,m#gc7 ,among the ,kai of ,german ,new ,guinea1 8impossible as it may be thought1 it is yet a fact that women here and there deny in all seriousness the connexion between sexual intercourse and pregnancy4 ,of course most people are clear as to the process4 ,the ignorance of some individuals is perhaps based on the consideration that not uncommonly married women remain childless for years or for life4 ,finally1 the animistic faith contributes its share to support the ignorance407#cbg7 ,in some islands of ,southern ,melanesia the natives appear similarly to believe that sexual intercourse is not necessary to impregnation1 and that a woman can conceive through the simple passage into her womb of a spirit-animal or a spirit-fruit without the help of a man4 ,in the island of ,mota1 one of the ,banks' group1 8the course of events is usually as follows3 a woman sitting down in her garden or in the bush or on the shore finds an animal or fruit in her loincloth4 ,she takes it up and carries it to the village1 where she asks the meaning of the appearance4 ,the people say that she will give birth to a child who will have the characters of this animal or even1 it appeared1 would be himself or herself the animal4 ,the woman then takes the creature back to the place where she had found it and places it in its proper home2 if it is a land animal on the land2 if a water animal in the pool or stream from which it had probably come4 ,she builds up a wall round it and goes to feed and visit it every day4 ,after a time the animal will disappear1 and it is believed that that is because the animal has at the time of its disappearance entered into the woman4 ,it seemed quite clear that there was no belief in physical impregnation on the part of the animal1 nor of the entry of a material object in the form of the animal into her womb1 but so far as ,i could gather1 an animal found in this way was regarded as more or less supernatural1 a spirit animal and not one material1 from the beginning4 ,it has happened in the memory of an old man now living in ,mota that a woman who has found an animal in her loincloth has carried it carefully in her closed hands to the village1 but that when she opened her hands to show it to the people1 the animal has gone1 and in this case it was believed that the entry had taken place while the woman was on her way from the bush to the village4444 ,when the child is born it is regarded as being in some sense the animal or fruit which had been found and tended by the mother4 ,the child may not eat the animal during the whole of its life1 and if it does so1 will suffer serious illness1 if not death4 ,if it is a fruit which has been found1 the child may not eat this fruit or touch the tree on which it grows1 the latter restriction remaining in those cases in which the fruit is inedible4444 ,i inquired into the idea at the bottom of the prohibition of the animal as food1 and it appeared to be that the person would be eating himself4 ,it seemed that the act would be regarded as a kind of cannibalism4 ,it was evident that there is a belief in the most intimate relation between the person and all individuals of the species with which he is identified4 8,a further aspect of the belief in the animal nature of a child is that it partakes of the physical and mental characters of the animal with which it is identified4 ,thus1 if the animal found has been a sea-snake1 and this is a frequent occurrence1 the child would be weak1 indolent and slow2 if an eel1 there will be a similar disposition2 if a hermit crab1 the child will be hot-tempered2 if a flying fox1 it will also be hot-tempered and the body will be dark2 if a brush turkey1 the disposition will be good2 if a lizard1 the child will be soft and gentle2 if a rat1 thoughtless1 hasty and intemperate4 ,if the object found has been a fruit1 here also the child will partake of its nature4 ,in the case of a wild ,malay apple 7malmalagaviga7 the child will have a big belly1 and a person with this condition will be asked1 #8,do you come from the malmalagaviga8' ,again1 if the fruit is one called womarakaraqat1 the child will have a good disposition4 7,m#gd7 8,in the island of ,motlav not far from ,mota they have the same belief that if a mother has found an animal in her dress1 the child will be identified with that animal and will not be allowed to eat it4 ,here again the child is believed to have the characters of the animal1 and two instances given were that a child identified with a yellow crab will have a good disposition and be of a light colour1 while if a hermit crab has been found1 the child will be angry and disagreeable4 ,in this island a woman who desires her child to have certain characters will frequent a place where she will be likely to encounter the animal which causes the appearance of these characters4 ,thus1 if she wants to have a light coloured child1 she will go to a place where there are light coloured crabs407#cbh7 7,m#ge7 ,throughout a large part of ,australia1 particularly in the ,centre1 the ,north1 and the ,west1 the aborigines hold that the commerce of the human sexes is not necessary to the production of children2 indeed many of them go further and deny that sexual intercourse is the real cause of the propagation of the species4 ,among the ,arunta1 ,kaitish1 ,luritcha1 ,ilpirra and other tribes1 who roam the barren steppes of ,central ,australia1 it appears to be a universal article of belief that every person is the reincarnation of a deceased ancestor1 and that the souls of the dead pass directly into the wombs of women1 who give them birth without the need of commerce with the other sex4 ,they think that the spirits of the departed gather and dwell at particular spots1 marked by a natural feature such as a rock or a tree1 and that from these lurking-places they dart out and enter the bodies of passing women or girls4 ,when a woman feels her womb quickened1 she knows that a spirit has made its way into her from the nearest abode of the dead4 ,this is their regular explanation of conception and childbirth4 8,the natives1 one and all in these tribes1 believe that the child is the direct result of the entrance into the mother of an ancestral spirit individual4 ,they have no idea of procreation as being associated with sexual intercourse1 and firmly believe that children can be born without this taking place407#cbi7 ,the spots where the souls thus congregate waiting to be born again are usually the places where the remote ancestors of the dream-time are said to have passed into the ground2 that is1 they are the places where the forefathers of the tribe are supposed to have died or to have been buried4 ,for example1 in the ,warramunga tribe the ancestor of the ,black-snake clan is said to have left many spirits of ,black-snake children in the rocks and trees which border a certain creek4 ,hence no woman at the present day dares to strike one of these trees with an axe1 being quite convinced that the blow would release one of the spirit-children1 who would at once enter her body4 ,they imagine that the spirit is no larger than a grain of sand1 and that it enters the woman through her navel and grows into a child in her womb47#ccj7 ,again1 at several places in the wide territory of the ,arunta tribe there are certain stones which are in like manner thought to be the abode of souls awaiting rebirth4 ,hence the stones are called 8child-stones40 ,in one of them there is a hole through which the spirit-children look out for passing women1 and it is firmly believed that a visit to the stone would result in conception4 ,if a young woman is obliged to pass near the stone and does not wish to have a child1 she will carefully disguise her youth1 pulling a wry face and hobbling along on a stick4 ,she will bend herself double like a very old woman1 and imitating the cracked voice of age she will say1 8,don't come to me1 ,i am an old woman40 ,nay1 it is thought that women may conceive by the stone without visiting it4 ,if a man and his wife both wish for a child1 the husband will tie his hair-girdle round the stone1 rub it1 and mutter a direction to the spirits to give heed to his wife4 ,and it is believed that by performing a similar ceremony a malicious man can cause women and even children at a distance to be pregnant47#cca7 7,m#gf7 ,such beliefs are not confined to the tribes of ,central ,australia but prevail among all the tribes from ,lake ,eyre northwards to the sea and the ,gulf of ,carpentaria47#ccb7 ,thus the ,mungarai say that in the far past time their old ancestors walked about the country1 making all the natural features of the landscape and leaving spirit-children behind them where they stopped4 ,these children emanated from the bodies of the ancestors1 and they still wait at various spots looking out for women into whom they may go and be born4 ,for example1 near ,mc,minn's bar on the ,roper ,river there is a large gum tree full of spirit-children1 who all belong to one particular totem and are always agog to enter into women of that totem4 ,again1 at ,crescent ,lagoon an ancestor1 who belonged to the thunder totem1 deposited numbers of spirit-children2 and if a woman of the ,gnaritjbellan subclass so much as dips her foot in the water1 one of the spirit-children passes up her leg and into her body and in due time is born as a child1 who has thunder for its totem4 ,or if the woman stoops and drinks water1 one of the sprites will enter her through the mouth4 ,again1 there are lagoons along the ,roper ,river where red lilies grow2 and the water is full of spirit-children which were deposited there by a kangaroo man4 ,so when women of the ,gnaritjbellan subclass wade into the water to gather lilies1 little sprites swarm up their legs and are born as kangaroo children4 ,again1 in the territory of the ,nullakun tribe there is a certain spring where a man once deposited spirit-children of the rainbow totem2 and to this day when a woman of the right totem comes to drink at the spring1 the spirit of a rainbow child will dart into her and be born4 ,once more1 in the territory of the ,yungman tribe the trees and stones near ,elsey ,creek are full of spirit-children who belong to the sugar-bag 7honeycomb7 totem2 and these sugar-bag children are constantly entering into the right women and being born into the world47#ccc7 7,m#gg7 ,the natives of the ,tully ,river in ,queensland do not recognize sexual intercourse as a cause of conception in women1 though curiously enough they do recognize it as the cause of conception in all animals1 and pride themselves on their superiority to the brutes in that they are not indebted for the continuance of their species to such low and vulgar means4 ,the true causes of conception in a woman1 according to them1 are four in number4 ,first1 she may have received a particular species of black bream from a man whom the ,european in his ignorance would call the father2 this she may have roasted and sat over the fire inhaling the savoury smell of the roast fish4 ,that is quite sufficient to get her with child4 ,or1 secondly1 she may have gone out on purpose to catch a certain kind of bull-frog1 and if she succeeds in capturing it1 that again is a full and satisfactory explanation of her pregnancy4 ,thirdly1 some man may have told her to conceive a child1 and the mere command produces the desired effect4 ,or1 fourth and lastly1 she may have simply dreamed that the child was put into her1 and the dream necessarily works its own fulfilment4 ,whatever white men may think about the matter1 these are the real causes why babies are born among the blacks on the ,tully ,river47#ccd7 ,about ,cape ,bedford in ,queensland the natives believe that babies are sent by certain long-haired spirits1 with two sets of eyes in the front and back of their heads1 who live in the dense scrub and underwood4 ,the children are made in the far west where the sun goes down1 and they are made not in the form of infants but full grown2 but on their passage from the sunset land to the wombs they are changed into the shape of spur-winged plovers1 if they are girls1 or of pretty snakes1 if they are boys4 ,so when the cry of a plover is heard by night1 the blacks prick up their ears and say1 8,hallo6 there is a baby somewhere about40 ,and if a woman is out in the bush searching for food and sees one of the pretty snakes1 which are really baby boys on the look out for mothers1 she will call out to her mates1 and they will come running and turn over stones1 and leaves1 and logs in the search for the snake2 and if they cannot find it they know that it has gone into the woman and that she will soon give birth to a baby boy47#cce7 ,on the ,pennefather ,river in ,queensland the being who puts babies into women is called ,anje-a4 ,he takes a lump of mud out of one of the mangrove swamps1 moulds it into the shape of an infant1 and insinuates it into a woman's womb4 ,you can never see him1 for he lives in the depths of the woods1 among the rocks1 and along the mangrove swamps2 but sometimes you can hear him laughing there to himself1 and when you hear him you may know that he has got a baby ready for somebody47#ccf7 ,among the tribes of the ,cairns district in ,north ,queensland 8the acceptance of food from a man by a woman was not merely regarded as a marriage ceremony1 but as the actual cause of conception407#ccg7 7,m#gh7 ,similarly among the ,australian tribes of the ,northern ,territory1 about ,port ,darwin and the ,daly ,river1 especially among the ,larrekiya and ,wogait1 8conception is not regarded as a direct result of cohabitation40 ,the old men of the ,wogait say that there is an evil spirit who takes babies from a big fire and puts them in the wombs of women1 who must give birth to them4 ,in the ordinary course of events1 when a man is out hunting and kills game or collects other food1 he gives it to his wife and she eats it1 believing that the game or other food will cause her to conceive and bring forth a child4 ,when the child is born1 it may on no account partake of the food which caused conception in the mother until it has got its first teeth47#cch7 ,a similar belief that conception is caused by the food which a woman eats is held by some tribes of ,western ,australia4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,brown reports as follows3 8,in the ,ingarda tribe at the mouth of the ,gascoyne ,river1 ,i found a belief that a child is the product of some food of which the mother has partaken just before her first sickness in pregnancy4 ,my principal informant on this subject told me that his father had speared a small animal called bandaru1 probably a bandicoot1 but now extinct in this neighbourhood4 ,his mother ate the animal1 with the result that she gave birth to my informant4 ,he showed me the mark in his side where1 as he said1 he had been speared by his father before being eaten by his mother4 ,a little girl was pointed out to me as being the result of her mother eating a domestic cat1 and her brother was said to have been produced from a bustard4444 ,the bustard was one of the totems of the father of these two children and1 therefore1 of the children themselves4 ,this1 however1 seems to have been purely accidental4 ,in most cases the animal to which conception is due is not one of the father's totems4 ,the species that is thus connected with an individual by birth is not in any way sacred to him4 ,he may kill or eat it2 he may marry a woman whose conceptional animal is of the same species1 and he is not by the accident of his birth entitled to take part in the totemic ceremonies connected with it4 8,i found traces of this same belief in a number of tribes north of the ,ingarda1 but everywhere the belief seemed to be sporadic2 that is to say1 some persons believed in it and others did not4 ,some individuals could tell the animal or plant from which they or others were descended1 while others did not know or in some cases denied that conception was so caused4 ,there were to be met with1 however1 some beliefs of the same character4 ,a woman of the ,buduna tribe said that native women nowadays bear half-caste children because they eat bread made of white flour4 ,many of the men believed that conception is due to sexual intercourse1 but as these natives have been for many years in contact with the whites this cannot be regarded as satisfactory evidence of the nature of their original beliefs4 7,m#gi7 8,in some tribes further to the north ,i found a more interesting and better organised system of beliefs4 ,in the ,kariera1 amal1 and ,injibandi tribes the conception of a child is believed to be due to the agency of a particular man1 who is not the father4 ,this man is the wororu of the child when it is born4 ,there were three different accounts of how the wororu produces conception1 each of them given to me on several different occasions4 ,according to the first1 the man gives some food1 either animal or vegetable1 to the woman1 and she eats this and becomes pregnant4 ,according to the second1 the man when he is out hunting kills an animal1 preferably a kangaroo or an emu1 and as it is dying he tells its spirit or ghost to go to a particular woman4 ,the spirit of the dead animal goes into the woman and is born as a child4 ,the third account is very similar to the last4 ,a hunter1 when he has killed a kangaroo or an emu1 takes a portion of the fat of the dead animal which he places on one side4 ,this fat turns into what we may speak of as a spirit-baby1 and follows the man to his camp4 ,when the man is asleep at night the spirit-baby comes to him and he directs it to enter a certain woman who thus becomes pregnant4 ,when the child is born the man acknowledges that he sent it1 and becomes its wororu4 ,in practically every case that ,i examined1 some forty in all1 the wororu of a man or woman was a person standing to him or her in the relation of father's brother own or tribal4 ,in one case a man had a wororu who was his father's sister4 ,the duties of a man to his wororu are very vaguely defined4 ,i was told that a man #8looks after' his wororu1 that is1 performs small services for him1 and1 perhaps1 gives him food4 ,the conceptional animal or plant is not the totem of either the child or the wororu4 ,the child has no particular magical connection with the animal from which he is derived4 ,in a very large number of cases that animal is either the kangaroo or the emu407#cci7 7,m#hj7 ,thus it appears that a childlike ignorance as to the physical process of procreation still prevails to some extent among certain rude races of mankind1 who are accordingly driven to account for it in various fanciful ways such as might content the curiosity of children4 ,we may safely assume that formerly a like ignorance was far more widely spread than it is now2 indeed in the long ages which elapsed before any portion of mankind emerged from savagery1 it is probable that the true cause of childbirth was universally unknown1 and that people made shift to explain the mystery by some such theories as are still current among the savage or barbarous races of ,central ,africa1 ,melanesia1 and ,australia4 ,a little reflection on the conditions of savage life may satisfy us that the ignorance is by no means so surprising as it may seem at first sight to a civilized observer1 or1 to put it otherwise1 that the true cause of the birth of children is not nearly so obvious as we are apt to think4 ,among low savages1 such as all men were originally1 it is customary for boys and girls to cohabit freely with each other under the age of puberty1 so that they are familiar with a commerce of the sexes which is not and cannot be attended with the birth of children4 ,it is1 therefore1 not very wonderful that they should confidently deny the connexion of sexual intercourse with the production of offspring4 ,again1 the long interval of time which divides the act of conception from the first manifest symptoms of pregnancy might easily disguise from the heedless savage the vital relation between the two4 ,these considerations may remove or lessen the hesitation which civilized man naturally feels at admitting that a considerable part or even the whole of his species should ever have doubted or denied what seems to him one of the most obvious and elementary truths of nature47#cdj7 7,m#ha7 ,in the light of the foregoing evidence1 stories of the miraculous birth of gods and heroes from virgin mothers lose much of the glamour that encircled them in days of old1 and we view them simply as relics of superstition surviving like fossils to tell us of a bygone age of childlike ignorance and credulity4 #h4 ,sacred ,stocks and ,stones among the ,semites4 7,m#hb7 ,traces of beliefs and customs like the foregoing may perhaps be detected among the ancient ,semites4 ,when the prophet ,jeremiah speaks of the ,israelites who said to a stock or to a tree 7for in ,hebrew the words are the same71 8,thou art my father10 and to a stone1 8,thou hast brought me forth107#cda7 it is probable that he was not using vague rhetorical language1 but denouncing real beliefs current among his contemporaries4 ,now we know that at all the old ,canaanite sanctuaries1 including the sanctuaries of ,jehovah down to the reformations of ,hezekiah and ,josiah1 the two regular objects of worship were a sacred stock and a sacred stone17#cdb7 and that these sanctuaries were the seats of profligate rites performed by sacred men 7edeshim7 and sacred women 7edeshoth74 ,is it not natural to suppose that the stock and stone which the superstitious ,israelites regarded as their father and mother were the sacred stock 7asherah7 and the sacred stone 7massebah7 of the sanctuary1 and that the children born of the loose intercourse of the sexes at these places were believed to be the offspring or emanations of these uncouth but worshipful idols in which1 as in the sacred trees and stones of ,central ,australia1 the souls of the dead may have been supposed to await rebirth8 ,on this view the sacred men and women who actually begot or bore the children were deemed the human embodiments of the two divinities1 the men perhaps personating the sacred stock1 which appears to have been a tree stripped of its branches1 and the women personating the sacred stone1 which seems to have been in the shape of a cone1 an obelisk1 or a pillar47#cdc7 7,m#hc7 ,these conclusions are confirmed by the result of recent researches at ,gezer1 an ancient ,canaanitish city1 which occupied a high1 isolated point on the southern border of ,ephraim1 between ,jerusalem and the sea4 ,here the ,english excavations have laid bare the remains of a sanctuary with the sacred stone pillars or obelisks 7masseboth7 still standing in a row1 while between two of them is set a large socketed stone1 beautifully squared1 which perhaps contained the sacred stock or pole 7asherah74 ,in the soil which had accumulated over the floor of the temple were found vast numbers of male emblems rudely carved out of soft limestone2 and tablets of terra-cotta1 representing in low relief the mother-goddess1 were discovered throughout the strata4 ,these objects were no doubt votive-offerings presented by the worshippers to the male and female deities who were represented by the sacred stock and the sacred stones2 and their occurrence in large quantities raises a strong presumption that the divinities of the sanctuary were a god and goddess regarded as above all sources of fertility4 ,the supposition is further strengthened by a very remarkable discovery4 ,under the floor of the temple were found the bones of many new-born children1 none more than a week old1 buried in large jars4 ,none of these little bodies showed any trace of mutilation or violence2 and in the light of the customs practised in many other lands7#cdd7 we seem to be justified in conjecturing that the infants were still-born or died soon after birth1 and that they were buried by their parents in the sanctuary in the hope that1 quickened by the divine power1 they might enter again into the mother's womb and again be born into the world47#cde7 ,if the souls of these buried babes were supposed to pass into the sacred stocks and stones and to dart from them into the bodies of would-be mothers who resorted to the sanctuary1 the analogy with ,central ,australia would be complete4 ,that the analogy is real and not fanciful is strongly suggested by the modern practice of ,syrian women who still repair to the shrines of saints to procure offspring1 and who still look on 8holy men0 as human embodiments of divinity4 ,in this1 as in many other dark places of superstition1 the present is the best guide to the interpretation of the past2 for while the higher forms of religious faith pass away like clouds1 the lower stand firm and indestructible like rocks4 ,the 8sacred men0 of one age are the dervishes of the next1 the ,adonis of yesterday is the ,st4 ,george of to-day4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,burning of ,melcarth4 7,m#hd7 ,if a custom of putting a king or his son to death in the character of a god has left small traces of itself in ,cyprus1 an island where the fierce zeal of ,semitic religion was early tempered by ,greek humanity1 the vestiges of that gloomy rite are clearer in ,phoenicia itself and in the ,phoenician colonies1 which lay more remote from the highways of ,grecian commerce4 ,we know that the ,semites were in the habit of sacrificing some of their children1 generally the first-born1 either as a tribute regularly due to the deity or to appease his anger in seasons of public danger and calamity47#cdf7 ,if commoners did so1 is it likely that kings1 with all their heavy responsibilities1 could exempt themselves from this dreadful sacrifice for the fatherland8 ,in point of fact1 history informs us that kings steeled themselves to do as others did47#cdg7 ,it deserves to be noticed that if ,mesha1 king of ,moab1 who sacrificed his eldest son by fire1 claimed to be a son of his god17#cdh7 he would no doubt transmit his divinity to his offspring2 and further1 that the same sacrifice is said to have been performed in the same way by the divine founder of ,byblus1 the great seat of the worship of ,adonis47#cdi7 ,this suggests that the human representatives of ,adonis formerly perished in the flames4 ,at all events1 a custom of periodically burning the chief god of the city in effigy appears to have prevailed at ,tyre and in the ,tyrian colonies down to a late time1 and the effigy may well have been a later substitute for a man4 ,for ,melcarth1 the great god of ,tyre1 was identified by the ,greeks with ,hercules17#cej7 who is said to have burned himself to death on a great pyre1 ascending up to heaven in a cloud and a peal of thunder47#cea7 ,the common ,greek legend1 immortalized by ,sophocles1 laid the scene of the fiery tragedy on the top of ,mount ,oeta1 but another version transferred it significantly to ,tyre itself47#ceb7 ,combined with the other evidence which ,i shall adduce1 this latter tradition raises a strong presumption that an effigy of ,hercules1 or rather of ,melcarth1 was regularly burned at a great festival in ,tyre4 ,that festival may have been the one known as 8the awakening of ,hercules10 which was held in the month of ,peritius1 answering nearly to ,january47#cec7 ,the name of the festival suggests that the dramatic representation of the death of the god on the pyre was followed by a semblance of his resurrection4 ,the mode in which the resurrection was supposed to be effected is perhaps indicated by the statement of a ,greek writer that the ,phoenicians used to sacrifice quails to ,hercules1 because ,hercules on his journey to ,libya had been slain by ,typhon and brought to life again by ,iolaus1 who held a quail under his nose3 the dead god snuffed at the bird and revived47#ced7 ,according to another account ,iolaus burnt a quail alive1 and the dead hero1 who loved quails1 came to life again through the savoury smell of the roasted bird47#cee7 ,this latter tradition seems to point to a custom of burning the quails alive in the ,phoenician sacrifices to ,melcarth47#cef7 ,a festival of the god's resurrection might appropriately be held in spring1 when the quails migrate northwards across the ,mediterranean in great bands1 and immense numbers of them are netted for the market47#ceg7 ,in the month of ,march the birds return to ,palestine by myriads in a single night1 and remain to breed in all the open plains1 marshes1 and cornfields47#ceh7 ,certainly a close connexion seems to have subsisted between quails and ,melcarth2 for legend ran that ,asteria1 the mother of the ,tyrian ,hercules1 that is1 of ,melcarth1 was transformed into a quail47#cei7 ,it was probably to this annual festival of the death and resurrection of ,melcarth that the ,carthaginians were wont to send ambassadors every year to ,tyre1 their mother-city47#cfj7 7,m#he7 ,in ,gades1 the modern ,cadiz1 an early colony of ,tyre on the ,atlantic coast of ,spain17#cfa7 there was an ancient1 famous1 and wealthy sanctuary of ,hercules1 the ,tyrian ,melcarth4 ,indeed the god was said to be buried on the spot4 ,no image stood in his temple1 but a perpetual fire burned on the altar1 and incense was offered by white-robed priests1 with bare feet and shorn heads1 who were bound to chastity4 ,neither women nor pigs might pollute the holy place by their presence4 ,in later times many distinguished ,romans went on pilgrimage to this remote shrine on the ,atlantic shore when they were about to embark on some perilous enterprise1 and they returned to it to pay their vows when their petitions had been granted47#cfb7 ,one of the last things ,hannibal himself did before he marched on ,italy was to repair to ,gades and offer up to ,melcarth prayers which were never to be answered4 ,soon after he dreamed an ominous dream47#cfc7 ,now it would appear that at ,gades1 as at ,tyre1 though no image of ,melcarth stood in the temple1 an effigy of him was made up and burned at a yearly festival4 ,for a certain ,cleon of ,magnesia related how1 visiting ,gades1 he was obliged to sail away from the island with the rest of the multitude in obedience to the command of ,hercules1 that is1 of ,melcarth1 and how on their return they found a monstrous man of the sea stranded on the beach and burning2 for the god1 they were told1 had struck him with a thunderbolt47#cfd7 ,we may conjecture that at the annual festival of ,melcarth strangers were obliged to quit the city1 and that in their absence the mystery of burning the god was consummated4 ,what ,cleon and the rest saw on their return to ,gades would1 on this hypothesis1 be the smouldering remains of a gigantic effigy of ,melcarth in the likeness of a man riding on a sea-horse1 just as he is represented on coins of ,tyre47#cfe7 ,in like manner the ,greeks portrayed the sea-god ,melicertes1 whose name is only a slightly altered form of ,melcarth1 riding on a dolphin or stretched on the beast's back47#cff7 7,m#hf7 ,at ,carthage1 the greatest of the ,tyrian colonies1 a reminiscence of the custom of burning a deity in effigy seems to linger in the story that ,dido or ,elissa1 the foundress and queen of the city1 stabbed herself to death upon a pyre1 or leaped from her palace into the blazing pile1 to escape the fond importunities of one lover or in despair at the cruel desertion of another47#cfg7 ,we are told that ,dido was worshipped as a goddess at ,carthage so long as the country maintained its independence47#cfh7 ,her temple stood in the centre of the city shaded by a grove of solemn yews and firs47#cfi7 ,the two apparently contradictory views of her character as a queen and a goddess may be reconciled if we suppose that she was both the one and the other2 that in fact the queen of ,carthage in early days1 like the queen of ,egypt down to historical times1 was regarded as divine1 and had1 like human deities elsewhere1 to die a violent death either at the end of a fixed period or whenever her bodily and mental powers began to fail4 ,in later ages the stern old custom might be softened down into a pretence by substituting an effigy for the queen or by allowing her to pass through the fire unscathed4 ,a similar modification of the ancient rule appears to have been allowed at ,tyre itself1 the mother-city of ,carthage4 ,we have seen reason to think that the kings of ,tyre1 from whom ,dido was descended1 claimed to personate the god ,melcarth1 and that the deity was burned either in effigy or in the person of a man at an annual festival47#cgj7 ,now in the same chapter in which ,ezekiel charges the king of ,tyre with claiming to be a god1 the prophet describes him as walking 8up and down amidst the stones of fire407#cga7 ,the description becomes at once intelligible if we suppose that in later times the king of ,tyre compounded for being burnt in the fire by walking up and down on hot stones1 thereby saving his life at the expense perhaps of a few blisters on his feet4 ,it is possible that when all went well with the commonwealth1 children whom strict law doomed to the furnace of ,moloch may also have been mercifully allowed to escape on condition of running the fiery gauntlet4 ,at all events1 a religious rite of this sort has been and is still practised in many parts of the world3 the performers solemnly pace through a furnace of heated stones or glowing wood-ashes in the presence of a multitude of spectators4 ,examples of the custom have been adduced in another part of this work47#cgb7 ,here ,i will cite only one4 ,at ,castabala1 in ,southern ,cappadocia1 there was worshipped an ,asiatic goddess whom the ,greeks called the ,perasian ,artemis4 ,her priestesses used to walk barefoot over a fire of charcoal without sustaining any injury4 ,that this rite was a substitute for burning human beings alive or dead is suggested by the tradition which placed the adventure of ,orestes and the ,tauric ,artemis at ,castabala27#cgc7 for the men or women sacrificed to the ,tauric ,artemis were first put to the sword and then burned in a pit of sacred fire47#cgd7 ,among the ,carthaginians another trace of such a practice may perhaps be detected in the story that at the desperate battle of ,himera1 fought from dawn of day till late in the evening1 the ,carthaginian king ,hamilcar remained in the camp and kept sacrificing holocausts of victims on a huge pyre2 but when he saw his army giving way before the ,greeks1 he flung himself into the flames and was burned to death4 ,afterwards his countrymen sacrificed to him and erected a great monument in his honour at ,carthage1 while lesser monuments were reared to his memory in all the ,punic colonies47#cge7 ,in public emergencies which called for extraordinary measures a king of ,carthage may well have felt bound in honour to sacrifice himself in the old way for the good of his country4 ,that the ,carthaginians regarded the death of ,hamilcar as an act of heroism and not as a mere suicide of despair1 is proved by the posthumous honours they paid him4 7,m#hg7 ,the foregoing evidence1 taken altogether1 raises a strong presumption1 though it cannot be said to amount to a proof1 that a practice of burning a deity1 and especially ,melcarth1 in effigy or in the person of a human representative1 was observed at an annual festival in ,tyre and its colonies4 ,we can thus understand how ,hercules1 in so far as he represented the ,tyrian god1 was believed to have perished by a voluntary death on a pyre4 ,for on many a beach and headland of the ,aegean1 where the ,phoenicians had their trading factories1 the ,greeks may have watched the bale-fires of ,melcarth blazing in the darkness of night1 and have learned with wonder that the strange foreign folk were burning their god4 ,in this way the legend of the voyages of ,hercules and his death in the flames may be supposed to have originated4 ,yet with the legend the ,greeks borrowed the custom of burning the god2 for at the festivals of ,hercules a pyre used to be kindled in memory of the hero's fiery death on ,mount ,oeta47#cgf7 ,we may surmise1 though we are not expressly told1 that an effigy of ,hercules was regularly burned on the pyre4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,burning of ,sandan4 #a4 ,the ,baal of ,tarsus4 7,m#hh7 ,in ,cyprus the ,tyrian ,melcarth was worshipped side by side with ,adonis at ,amathus17#cgg7 and ,phoenician inscriptions prove that he was revered also at ,idalium and ,larnax ,lapethus4 ,at the last of these places he seems to have been regarded by the ,greeks as a marine deity and identified with ,poseidon47#cgh7 ,a remarkable statue found at ,amathus may represent ,melcarth in the character of the lion-slayer1 a character which the ,greeks bestowed on ,hercules4 ,the statue in question is of colossal size1 and exhibits a thick-set1 muscular1 hirsute deity of almost bestial aspect1 with goggle eyes1 huge ears1 and a pair of stumpy horns on the top of his head4 ,his beard is square and curly3 his hair falls in three pigtails on his shoulders3 his brawny arms appear to be tattooed4 ,a lion's skin1 clasped by a buckle1 is knotted round his loins2 and he holds the skin of a lioness in front of him1 grasping a hind paw with each hand1 while the head of the beast1 which is missing1 hung down between his legs4 ,a fountain must have issued from the jaws of the lioness1 for a rectangular hole1 where the beast's head should be1 communicates by a channel with another hole in the back of the statue4 ,greek artists working on this or a similar barbarous model produced the refined type of the ,grecian ,hercules with the lion's scalp thrown like a cowl over his head4 ,statues of him have been found in ,cyprus1 which represent intermediate stages in this artistic evolution47#cgi7 ,but there is no proof that in ,cyprus the ,tyrian ,melcarth was burned either in effigy or in the person of a human representative47#chj7 7,m#hi7 ,on the other hand1 there is clear evidence of the observance of such a custom in ,cilicia1 the country which lies across the sea from ,cyprus1 and from which the worship of ,adonis1 according to tradition1 was derived47#cha7 ,whether the ,phoenicians ever colonized ,cilicia or not is doubtful17#chb7 but at all events the natives of the country1 down to late times1 worshipped a male deity who1 in spite of a superficial assimilation to a fashionable ,greek god1 appears to have been an ,oriental by birth and character4 ,he had his principal seat at ,tarsus1 in a plain of luxuriant fertility and almost tropical climate1 tempered by breezes from the snowy range of ,tarsus on the north and from the sea on the south47#chc7 ,though ,tarsus boasted of a school of ,greek philosophy which at the beginning of our era surpassed those of ,athens and ,alexandria17#chd7 the city apparently remained in manners and spirit essentially ,oriental4 ,the women went about the streets muffled up to the eyes in ,eastern fashion1 and ,dio ,chrysostom reproaches the natives with resembling the most dissolute of the ,phoenicians rather than the ,greeks whose civilization they aped47#che7 ,on the coins of the city they assimilated their native deity to ,zeus by representing him seated on a throne1 the upper part of his body bare1 the lower limbs draped in a flowing robe1 while in one hand he holds a sceptre1 which is topped sometimes with an eagle but often with a lotus flower4 ,yet his foreign nature is indicated both by his name and his attributes2 for in ,aramaic inscriptions on the coins he bears the name of the ,baal of ,tarsus1 and in one hand he grasps an ear of corn and a bunch of grapes47#chf7 ,these attributes clearly mark him out as a god of fertility in general1 who conferred on his worshippers the two things which they prized above all other gifts of nature1 the corn and the wine4 ,he was probably therefore a ,semitic1 or at all events an ,oriental1 rather than a ,greek deity4 ,for while the ,semite cast all his gods more or less in the same mould1 and expected them all to render him nearly the same services1 the ,greek1 with his keener intelligence and more pictorial imagination1 invested his deities with individual characteristics1 allotting to each of them his or her separate function in the divine economy of the world4 ,thus he assigned the production of the corn to ,demeter1 and that of the grapes to ,dionysus2 he was not so unreasonable as to demand both from the same hard-worked deity4 #b4 ,the ,god of ,ibreez4 7,m#ij7 ,now the suspicion that the ,baal of ,tarsus1 for all his posing in the attitude of ,zeus1 was really an ,oriental is confirmed by a remarkable rock-hewn monument which is to be seen at ,ibreez in ,southern ,cappadocia4 ,though the place is distant little more than fifty miles from ,tarsus as the crow flies1 yet the journey on horseback occupies five days2 for the great barrier of the ,taurus mountains rises like a wall between4 ,the road runs through the famous pass of the ,cilician ,gates1 and the scenery throughout is of the grandest ,alpine character4 ,on all sides the mountains tower skyward1 their peaks sheeted in a dazzling pall of snow1 their lower slopes veiled in the almost inky blackness of dense pine-forests1 torn here and there by impassable ravines1 or broken into prodigious precipices of red and grey rock which border the narrow valley for miles4 ,the magnificence of the landscape is enhanced by the exhilarating influence of the brisk mountain air1 all the more by contrast with the sultry heat of the plain of ,tarsus which the traveller has left behind4 ,when he emerges from the defile on the wide open tableland of ,anatolia he feels that in a sense he has passed out of ,asia1 and that the highroad to ,europe lies straight before him4 ,the great mountains on which he now looks back formed for centuries the boundary between the ,christian ,west and the ,mohammedan ,east2 on the southern side lay the domain of the ,caliphs1 on the northern side the ,byzantine ,empire4 ,the ,taurus was the dam that long repelled the tide of ,arab invasion2 and though year by year the waves broke through the pass of the ,cilician ,gates and carried havoc and devastation through the tableland1 the refluent waters always retired to the lower level of the ,cilician plains4 ,a line of beacon lights stretching from the ,taurus to ,constantinople flashed to the ,byzantine capital tidings of the approach of the ,moslem invaders47#chg7 7,m#ia7 ,the village of ,ibreez is charmingly situated at the northern foot of the ,taurus1 some six or seven miles south of the town of ,eregli1 the ancient ,cybistra1 ,from the town to the village the path goes through a richly cultivated district of wheat and vines along green lanes more lovely than those of ,devonshire1 lined by thick hedges and rows of willow1 poplar1 hazel1 hawthorn1 and huge old walnut-trees1 where in early summer the nightingales warble on every side4 ,ibreez itself is embowered in the verdure of orchards1 walnuts1 and vines4 ,it stands at the mouth of a deep ravine enclosed by great precipices of red rock4 ,from the western of these precipices a river clear as crystal1 but of a deep blue tint1 bursts in a powerful jet1 and being reinforced by a multitude of springs becomes at once a raging impassable torrent foaming and leaping with a roar of waters over the rocks in its bed4 ,a little way from the source a branch of the main stream flows in a deep narrow channel along the foot of a reddish weather-stained rock which rises sheer from the water4 ,on its face1 which has been smoothed to receive them1 are the sculptures4 ,they consist of two colossal figures1 representing a god adored by his worshipper4 ,the deity1 some fourteen feet high1 is a bearded male figure1 wearing on his head a high pointed cap adorned with several pairs of horns1 and plainly clad in a short tunic1 which does not reach his knees and is drawn in at the waist by a belt4 ,his legs and arms are bare2 the wrists are encircled by bangles or bracelets4 ,his feet are shod in high boots with turned-up toes4 ,in his right hand he holds a vine-branch laden with clusters of grapes1 and in his raised left hand he grasps a bunch of bearded wheat1 such as is still grown in ,cappadocia2 the ears of corn project above his fingers1 while the long stalks hang down to his feet4 ,in front of him stands the lesser figure1 some eight feet high4 ,he is clearly a priest or king1 more probably perhaps both in one4 ,his rich vestments contrast with the simple costume of the god4 ,on his head he wears a round but not pointed cap1 encircled by flat bands and ornamented in front with a rosette or bunch of jewels1 such as is still worn by ,eastern princes4 ,he is draped from the neck to the ankles in a long robe heavily fringed at the bottom1 over which is thrown a shawl or mantle secured at the breast by a clasp of precious stones4 ,both robe and shawl are elaborately carved with patterns in imitation of embroidery4 ,a heavy necklace of rings or beads encircles the neck2 a bracelet or bangle clasps the one wrist that is visible2 the feet are shod in boots like those of the god4 ,one or perhaps both hands are raised in the act of adoration4 ,the large aquiline nose1 like the beak of a hawk1 is a conspicuous feature in the face both of the god and of his worshipper2 the hair and beard of both are thick and curly47#chh7 7,m#ib7 ,the situation of this remarkable monument resembles that of ,aphaca on the ,lebanon27#chi7 for in both places we see a noble river issuing abruptly from the rock to spread fertility through the rich vale below4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 could man more appropriately revere those great powers of nature to whose favour he ascribes the fruitfulness of the earth1 and through it the life of animate creation4 ,with its cool bracing air1 its mass of verdure1 its magnificent stream of pure ice-cold water--so grateful in the burning heat of summer--and its wide stretch of fertile land1 the valley may well have been the residence of an ancient prince or high-priest1 who desired to testify by this monument his devotion and gratitude to the god4 ,the seat of this royal or priestly potentate may have been at ,cybistra17#cij7 the modern ,eregli1 now a decayed and miserable place straggling amid orchards and gardens full of luxuriant groves of walnut1 poplar1 willow1 mulberry1 and oak4 ,the place is a paradise of birds4 ,here the thrush and the nightingale sing full-throated1 the hoopoe waves his crested top-knot1 the bright-hued woodpeckers flit from bough to bough1 and the swifts dart screaming by hundreds through the air4 ,yet a little way off1 beyond the beneficent influence of the springs and streams1 all is desolation--in summer an arid waste broken by great marshes and wide patches of salt1 in winter a broad sheet of stagnant water1 which as it dries up with the growing heat of the sun exhales a poisonous malaria4 ,to the west1 as far as the eye can see1 stretches the endless expanse of the dreary ,lycaonian plain1 barren1 treeless1 and solitary1 till it fades into the blue distance1 or is bounded afar off by abrupt ranges of jagged volcanic mountains1 on which in sunshiny weather the shadows of the clouds rest1 purple and soft as velvet47#cia7 ,no wonder that the smiling luxuriance of the one landscape1 sharply contrasting with the bleak sterility of the other1 should have rendered it in the eyes of primitive man a veritable garden of ,god4 7,m#ic7 ,among the attributes which mark out the deity of ,ibreez as a power of fertility the horns on his high cap should not be overlooked4 ,they are probably the horns of a bull2 for to primitive cattle-breeders the bull is the most natural emblem of generative force4 ,at ,carchemish1 the great ,hittite capital on the ,euphrates1 a relief has been discovered which represents a god or a priest clad in a rich robe1 and wearing on his head a tall horned cap surmounted by a disc47#cib7 ,sculptures found at the palace of ,euyuk in ,north-,western ,cappadocia prove that the ,hittites worshipped the bull and sacrificed rams to it47#cic7 ,similarly the ,greeks conceived the vine-god ,dionysus in the form of a bull47#cid7 #c4 ,sandan of ,tarsus4 7,m#id7 ,that the god of ,ibreez1 with the grapes and corn in his hands1 is identical with the ,baal of ,tarsus1 who bears the same emblems1 may be taken as certain47#cie7 ,but what was his name8 and who were his worshippers8 ,the ,greeks apparently called him ,hercules2 at least in ,byzantine times the neighbouring town of ,cybistra adopted the name of ,heraclea1 which seems to show that ,hercules was deemed the principal deity of the place47#cif7 ,yet the style and costume of the figures at ,ibreez prove unquestionably that the god was an ,oriental4 ,if any confirmation of this view were needed1 it is furnished by the inscriptions carved on the rock beside the sculptures1 for these inscriptions are composed in the peculiar system of hieroglyphics now known as ,hittite4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the deity worshipped at ,tarsus and ,ibreez was a god of the ,hittites1 that ancient and little-known people who occupied the centre of ,asia ,minor1 invented a system of writing1 and extended their influence1 if not their dominion1 at one time from the ,euphrates to the ,aegean4 ,from the lofty and arid tablelands of the interior1 a prolongation of the great plateau of ,central ,asia1 with a climate ranging from the most burning heat in summer to the most piercing cold in winter17#cig7 these hardy highlanders seem to have swept down through the mountain-passes and established themselves at a very early date in the rich southern lowlands of ,syria and ,cilicia47#cih7 ,their language and race are still under discussion1 but a great preponderance of opinion appears to declare that neither the one nor the other was ,semitic47#cii7 7,m#ie7 ,in the inscription attached to the colossal figure of the god at ,ibreez two scholars have professed to read the name of ,sandan or ,sanda47#djj7 ,be that as it may1 there are independent grounds for thinking that ,sandan1 ,sandon1 or ,sandes may have been the name of the ,cappadocian and ,cilician god of fertility4 ,for the god of ,ibreez in ,cappadocia appears1 as we saw1 to have been identified by the ,greeks with ,hercules1 and we are told that a ,cappadocian and ,cilician name of ,hercules was ,sandan or ,sandes47#dja7 ,now this ,sandan or ,hercules is said to have founded ,tarsus1 and the people of the city commemorated him at an annual or1 at all events1 periodical festival by erecting a fine pyre in his honour47#djb7 ,apparently at this festival1 as at the festival of ,melcarth1 the god was burned in effigy on his own pyre4 ,for coins of ,tarsus often exhibit the pyre as a conical structure resting on a garlanded altar or basis1 with the figure of ,sandan himself in the midst of it1 while an eagle with spread wings perches on the top of the pyre1 as if about to bear the soul of the burning god in the pillar of smoke and fire to heaven47#djc7 ,in like manner when a ,roman emperor died leaving a son to succeed him on the throne1 a waxen effigy was made in the likeness of the deceased and burned on a huge pyramidal pyre1 which was reared upon a square basis of wood2 and from the summit of the blazing pile an eagle was released for the purpose of carrying to heaven the soul of the dead and deified emperor47#djd7 ,the ,romans may have borrowed from the ,east a grandiose custom which savours of ,oriental adulation rather than of ,roman simplicity47#dje7 7,m#if7 ,the type of ,sandan or ,hercules1 as he is portrayed on the coins of ,tarsus1 is that of an ,asiatic deity standing on a lion4 ,it is thus that he is represented on the pyre1 and it is thus that he appears as a separate figure without the pyre4 ,from these representations we can form a fairly accurate conception of the form and attributes of the god4 ,they exhibit him as a bearded man standing on a horned and often winged lion4 ,upon his head he wears a high pointed cap or mitre1 and he is clad sometimes in a long robe1 sometimes in a short tunic4 ,on at least one coin his feet are shod in high boots with flaps4 ,at his side or over his shoulder are slung a sword1 a bow-case1 and a quiver1 sometimes only one or two of them4 ,his right hand is raised and sometimes holds a flower4 ,his left hand grasps a double-headed axe1 and sometimes a wreath either in addition to the axe or instead of it2 but the double-headed axe is one of ,sandan's most constant attributes47#djf7 #d4 ,the ,gods of ,boghaz-,keui4 7,m#ig7 ,now a deity of almost precisely the same type figures prominently in the celebrated group of ,hittite sculptures which is carved on the rocks at ,boghaz-,keui in ,north-,western ,cappadocia4 ,the village of ,boghaz-,keui1 that is1 8the village of the defile10 stands at the mouth of a deep1 narrow1 and picturesque gorge in a wild upland valley1 shut in by rugged mountains of grey limestone4 ,the houses are built on the lower slopes of the hills1 and a stream issuing from the gorge flows past them to join the ,halys1 which is distant about ten hours' journey to the west4 ,immediately above the modern village a great ancient city1 enclosed by massive fortification walls1 rose on the rough broken ground of the mountainside1 culminating in two citadels perched on the tops of precipitous crags4 ,the walls are still standing in many places to a height of twelve feet or more4 ,they are about fourteen feet thick and consist of an outer and inner facing built of large blocks with a core of rubble between them4 ,on the outer side they are strengthened at intervals of about a hundred feet by projecting towers or buttresses1 which seem designed rather as architectural supports than as military defences4 ,the masonry1 composed of large stones laid in roughly parallel courses1 resembles in style that of the walls of ,mycenae1 with which it may be contemporary2 and the celebrated ,lion-gate at ,mycenae has its counterpart in the southern gate of ,boghaz-,keui1 which is flanked by a pair of colossal stone lions executed in the best style of ,hittite art4 ,the eastern gate is adorned on its inner side with the figure of a ,hittite warrior or ,amazon carved in high relief4 ,a dense undergrowth of stunted oak coppice now covers much of the site4 ,the ruins of a large palace or temple1 built of enormous blocks of stone1 occupy a terrace in a commanding situation within the circuit of the walls4 ,this vast city1 some four or five miles in circumference1 appears to have been the ancient ,pteria1 which ,croesus1 king of ,lydia1 captured in his war with ,cyrus4 ,it was probably the capital of a powerful ,hittite empire before the ,phrygians made their way from ,europe into the interior of ,asia ,minor and established a rival state to the west of the ,halys47#djg7 7,m#ih7 ,from the village of ,boghaz-,keui a steep and rugged path leads up hill to a sanctuary1 distant about a mile and a half to the east4 ,here among the grey limestone cliffs there is a spacious natural chamber or hall of roughly oblong shape1 roofed only by the sky1 and enclosed on three sides by high rocks4 ,one of the short sides is open1 and through it you look out on the broken slopes beyond and the more distant mountains1 which make a graceful picture set in a massy frame4 ,the length of the chamber is about a hundred feet2 its breadth varies from twenty-five to fifty feet4 ,a nearly level sward forms the floor4 ,on the right-hand side1 as you face inward1 a narrow opening in the rock leads into another but much smaller chamber1 or rather corridor1 which would seem to have been the inner sanctuary or ,holy of ,holies4 ,it is a romantic spot1 where the deep shadows of the rocks are relieved by the bright foliage of walnut-trees and by the sight of the sky and clouds overhead4 ,on the rock-walls of both chamber are carved the famous bas-reliefs4 ,in the outer sanctuary these reliefs represent two great processions which defile along the two long sides of the chamber and meet face to face on the short wall at the inner end4 ,the figures on the left-hand wall are for the most part men clad in the characteristic ,hittite costume1 which consists of a high pointed cap1 shoes with turned-up toes1 and a tunic drawn in at the waist and falling short of the knees47#djh7 ,the figures on the right-hand wall are women wearing tall1 square1 flat-topped bonnets with ribbed sides2 their long dresses fall in perpendicular folds to their feet1 which are shod in shoes like those of the men4 ,on the short wall1 where the processions meet1 the greater size of the central figures1 as well as their postures and attributes1 mark them out as divine4 ,at the head of the male procession marches or is carried a bearded deity clad in the ordinary ,hittite costume of tall pointed cap1 short tunic1 and turned-up shoes2 but his feet rest on the bowed heads of two men1 in his right hand he holds on his shoulder a mace or truncheon topped with a knob1 while his extended left hand grasps a symbol1 which apparently consists of a trident surmounted by an oval with a cross-bar4 ,behind him follows a similar1 though somewhat smaller1 figure of a man1 or perhaps rather of a god1 carrying a mace or truncheon over his shoulder in his right hand1 while with his left he holds aloft a long sword with a flat hilt2 his feet rest not on two men but on two flat-topped pinnacles1 which perhaps represent mountains4 ,at the head of the female procession and facing the great god who is borne on the two men1 stands a goddess on a lioness or panther4 ,her costume does not differ from that of the women3 her hair hangs down in a long plait behind3 in her extended right hand she holds out an emblem to touch that of the god4 ,the shape and meaning of her emblem are obscure4 ,it consists of a stem with two pairs of protuberances1 perhaps leaves or branches1 one above the other1 the whole being surmounted1 like the emblem of the god1 by an oval with a cross-bar4 ,under the outstretched arms of the two deities appear the front parts of two animals1 which have been usually interpreted as bulls but are rather goats2 each of them wears on its head the high conical ,hittite cap1 and its body is concealed by that of the deity4 ,immediately behind the goddess marches a smaller and apparently youthful male figure1 standing like her upon a lioness or panther4 ,he is beardless and wears the ,hittite dress of high pointed cap1 short tunic1 and shoes with turned-up toes4 ,a crescent-hilted sword is girt at his side2 in his left hand he holds a double-headed axe1 and in his right a staff topped by an armless doll with the symbol of the cross-barred oval instead of a head4 ,behind him follow two women1 or rather perhaps goddesses1 resembling the goddess at the head of the procession1 but with different emblems and standing not on a lioness but on a single two-headed eagle with outspread wings4 7,m#ii7 ,the entrance to the smaller chamber is guarded on either side by the figure of a winged monster carved on the rock2 the bodies of both figures are human1 but one of them has the head of a dog1 the other the head of a lion4 ,in the inner sanctuary1 to which this monster-guarded passage leads1 the walls are also carved in relief4 ,on one side we see a procession of twelve men in ,hittite costume marching with curved swords in their right hands4 ,on the opposite wall is a colossal erect figure of a deity with a human head and a body curiously composed of four lions1 two above and two below1 the latter standing on their heads4 ,the god wears the high conical ,hittite hat3 his face is youthful and beardless like that of the male figure standing on the lioness in the large chamber2 and the ear turned to the spectator is pierced with a ring4 ,from the knees downwards the legs1 curiously enough1 are replaced by a device which has been interpreted as the tapering point of a great dagger or dirk with a midrib4 ,to the right of this deity a square panel cut in the face of the rock exhibits a group of two figures in relief4 ,the larger of the two figures closely resembles the youth on the lioness in the outer sanctuary4 ,his chin is beardless2 he wears the same high pointed cap1 the same short tunic1 the same turned-up shoes1 the same crescent-hilted sword1 and he carries a similar armless doll in his right hand4 ,but his left arm encircles the neck of the smaller figure1 whom he seems to clasp to his side in an attitude of protection4 ,the smaller figure thus embraced by the god is clearly a priest or priestly king4 ,his face is beardless2 he wears a skull-cap and a long mantle reaching to his feet with a sort of chasuble thrown over it4 ,the crescent-shaped hilt of a sword projects from under his mantle4 ,the wrist of his right arm is clasped by the god's left hand2 in his left hand the priest holds a crook or pastoral staff which ends below in a curl4 ,both the priest and his protector are facing towards the lion-god4 ,in an upper corner of the panel behind them is a divine emblem composed of a winged disc resting on what look like two ,ionic columns1 while between them appear three symbols of doubtful significance4 ,the figure of the priest or king in this costume1 though not in this attitude1 is a familiar one2 for it occurs twice in the outer sanctuary and is repeated twice at the great ,hittite palace of ,euyuk1 distant about four and a half hours' ride to the north-east of ,boghaz-,keui4 ,in the outer sanctuary at ,boghaz-,keui we see the priest marching in the procession of the men1 and holding in one hand his curled staff1 or lituus1 and in the other a symbol like that of the goddess on the lioness3 above his head appears the winged disc without the other attributes4 ,moreover he occupies a conspicuous place by himself on the right-hand wall of the outer sanctuary1 quite apart from the two processions1 and carved on a larger scale than any of the other figures in them4 ,here he stands on two heaps1 perhaps intended to represent mountains1 and he carries in his right hand the emblem of the winged disc supported on two ,ionic columns with the other symbols between them1 except that the central symbol is replaced by a masculine figure wearing a pointed cap and a long robe decorated with a dog-tooth pattern4 ,on one of the reliefs at the palace of ,euyuk we see the priest with his characteristic dress and staff followed by a priestess1 each of them with a hand raised as if in adoration3 they are approaching the image of a bull which stands on a high pedestal with an altar before it4 ,behind them a priest leads a flock of rams to the sacrifice4 ,on another relief at ,euyuk the priest1 similarly attired and followed by a priestess1 is approaching a seated goddess and apparently pouring a libation at her feet4 ,both these scenes doubtless represent acts of worship paid in the one case to a goddess1 in the other to a bull47#dji7 7,m#ajj7 ,we have still to inquire into the meaning of the rock-carvings at ,boghaz-,keui4 ,what are these processions which are meeting8 ,who are the personages represented8 and what are they doing8 ,some have thought that the scene is historical and commemorates a great event1 such as a treaty of peace between two peoples or the marriage of a king's son to a king's daughter47#daj7 ,but to this view it has been rightly objected that the attributes of the principal figures prove them to be divine or priestly1 and that the scene is therefore religious or mythical rather than historical4 ,with regard to the two personages who head the processions and hold out their symbols to each other1 the most probable opinion appears to be that they stand for the great ,asiatic goddess of fertility and her consort1 by whatever names these deities were known2 for under diverse names a similar divine couple appears to have been worshipped with similar rites all over ,western ,asia47#daa7 ,the bearded god who1 grasping a trident in his extended left hand1 heads the procession of male figures is probably the ,father deity1 the great ,hittite god of the thundering sky1 whose emblems were the thunderbolt and the bull2 for the trident which he carries may reasonably be interpreted as a thunderbolt4 ,the deity is represented in similar form on two stone monuments of ,hittite art which were found at ,zenjirli in ,northern ,syria and at ,babylon respectively4 ,on both we see a bearded male god wearing the usual ,hittite costume of tall cap1 short tunic1 and shoes turned up at the toes3 a crescent-hilted sword is girt at his side3 his hands are raised3 in the right he holds a single-headed axe or hammer1 in the left a trident of wavy lines1 which is thought to stand for forked lightning or a bundle of thunderbolts4 ,on the ,babylonian slab1 which bears a long ,hittite inscription1 the god's cap is ornamented with a pair of horns47#dab7 ,the horns on the cap are probably those of a bull2 for on another ,hittite monument1 found at ,malatia on the ,euphrates1 there is carved a deity in the usual ,hittite costume standing on a bull and grasping a trident or thunderbolt in his left hand1 while facing him stands a priest clad in a long robe1 holding a crook or curled staff in one hand and pouring a libation with the other47#dac7 ,the ,hittite thunder-god is also known to us from a treaty of alliance which about the year #abij ,b4,c4 was contracted between ,hattusil1 ,king of the ,hittites1 and ,rameses ,,ii41 ,king of ,egypt4 ,by a singular piece of good fortune we possess copies of this treaty both in the ,hittite and in the ,egyptian language4 ,the ,hittite copy was found some years ago inscribed in cuneiform characters on a clay tablet at ,boghaz-,keui2 two copies of the treaty in the ,egyptian language are engraved on the walls of temples at ,thebes4 ,from the ,egyptian copies1 which have been read and translated1 we gather that the thunder-god was the principal deity of the ,hittites1 and that the two ,hittite seals which were appended to the treaty exhibited the ,king embraced by the thunder-god and the ,queen embraced by the sun-goddess of ,arenna47#dad7 ,this ,hittite divinity of the thundering sky appears to have long survived at ,doliche in ,commagene1 for in later ,roman art he reappears under the title of ,jupiter ,dolichenus1 wearing a ,phrygian cap1 standing on a bull1 and wielding a double axe in one hand and a thunderbolt in the other4 ,in this form his worship was transported from his native ,syrian home by soldiers and slaves1 till it had spread over a large part of the ,roman empire1 especially on the frontiers1 where it flourished in the camps of the legions47#dae7 ,the combination of the bull with the thunderbolt as emblems of the deity suggests that the animal may have been chosen to represent the sky-god for the sake not merely of its virility but of its voice2 for in the peal of thunder primitive man may well have heard the bellowing of a celestial bull4 7,m#aja7 ,the goddess who at the head of the procession of women confronts the great sky-god in the sanctuary at ,boghaz-,keui is generally recognized as the divine ,mother1 the great ,asiatic goddess of life and fertility4 ,the tall flat-topped hat with perpendicular grooves which she wears1 and the lioness or panther on which she stands1 remind us of the turreted crown and lion-drawn car of ,cybele1 who was worshipped in the neighbouring land of ,phrygia across the ,halys47#daf7 ,so ,atargatis1 the great ,syrian goddess of ,hierapolis-,bambyce1 was portrayed sitting on lions and wearing a tower on her head47#dag7 ,at ,babylon an image of a goddess whom the ,greeks called ,rhea had the figures of two lions standing on her knees47#dah7 7,m#ajb7 ,but in the rock-hewn sculptures of ,boghaz-,keui1 who is the youth with the tall pointed cap and double axe who stands on a lioness or panther immediately behind the great goddess8 ,his figure is all the more remarkable because he is the only male who interrupts the long procession of women4 ,probably he is at once the divine son and the divine lover of the goddess2 for we shall find later on that in ,phrygian mythology ,attis united in himself both these characters47#dai7 ,the lioness or panther on which he stands marks his affinity with the goddess1 who is supported by a similar animal4 ,it is natural that the lion-goddess should have a lion-son and a lion-lover4 ,for we may take it as probable that the ,oriental deities who are represented standing or sitting in human form on the backs of lions and other animals were originally indistinguishable from the beasts1 and that the complete separation of the bestial from the human or divine shape was a consequence of that growth of knowledge and of power which led man in time to respect himself more and the brutes less4 ,the hybrid gods of ,egypt with their human bodies and animal heads form an intermediate stage in this evolution of anthropomorphic deities out of beasts4 7,m#ajc7 ,we may now perhaps hazard a conjecture as to the meaning of that strange colossal figure in the inner shrine at ,boghaz-,keui with its human head and its body composed of lions4 ,for it is to be observed that the head of the figure is youthful and beardless1 and that it wears a tall pointed cap1 thus resembling in both respects the youth with the double-headed axe who stands on a lion in the outer sanctuary4 ,we may suppose that the leonine figure in the inner shrine sets forth the true mystic1 that is1 the old savage nature of the god who in the outer shrine presented himself to his worshippers in the decent semblance of a man4 ,to the chosen few who were allowed to pass the monster-guarded portal into the ,holy of ,holies1 the awful secret may have been revealed that their god was a lion1 or rather a lion-man1 a being in whom the bestial and human natures mysteriously co-existed47#dbj7 ,the reader may remember that on the rock beside this leonine divinity is carved a group which represents a god with his arm twined round the neck of his priest in an attitude of protection1 holding one of the priest's hands in his own4 ,both figures are looking and stepping towards the lion-monster1 and the god is holding out his right hand as if pointing to it4 ,the scene may represent the deity revealing the mystery to the priest1 or preparing him to act his part in some solemn rite for which all his strength and courage will be needed4 ,he seems to be leading his minister onward1 comforting him with an assurance that no harm can come near him while the divine arm is around him and the divine hand clasps his4 ,whither is he leading him8 ,perhaps to death4 ,the deep shadows of the rocks which fall on the two figures in the gloomy chasm may be an emblem of darker shadows soon to fall on the priest4 ,yet still he grasps his pastoral staff and goes forward1 as though he said1 8,yea1 though ,i walk through the valley of the shadow of death1 ,i will fear no evil2 for thou art with me3 thy rod and thy staff they comfort me40 7,m#ajd7 ,if there is any truth in these guesses--for they are little more--the three principal figures in the processional scene at ,boghaz-,keui represent the divine ,father1 the divine ,mother1 and the divine ,son4 ,but we have still to ask1 ,what are they doing8 ,that they are engaged in the performance of some religious rite seems certain4 ,but what is it8 ,we may conjecture that it is the rite of the ,sacred ,marriage1 and that the scene is copied from a ceremony which was periodically performed in this very place by human representatives of the deities47#dba7 ,indeed1 the solemn meeting of the male and female figures at the head of their respective processions obviously suggests a marriage1 and has been so interpreted by scholars1 who1 however1 regarded it as the historical wedding of a prince and princess instead of the mystic union of a god and goddess1 overlooking or explaining away the symbols of divinity which accompany the principal personages47#dbb7 ,we may suppose that at ,boghaz-,keui1 as at many other places in the interior of ,asia ,minor1 the government was in the hands of a family who combined royal with priestly functions and personated the gods whose names they bore4 ,thus at ,pessinus in ,phrygia1 as we shall see later on1 the priests of ,cybele bore the name of her consort ,attis1 and doubtless represented him in the ritual47#dbc7 ,if this was so at ,boghaz-,keui1 we may surmise that the chief pontiff and his family annually celebrated the marriage of the divine powers of fertility1 the ,father ,god and the ,mother ,goddess1 for the purpose of ensuring the fruitfulness of the earth and the multiplication of men and beasts4 ,the principal parts in the ceremony would naturally be played by the pontiff himself and his wife1 unless indeed they preferred for good reasons to delegate the onerous duty to others4 ,that such a delegation took place is perhaps suggested by the appearance of the pontiff himself in a subordinate place in the procession1 as well as by his separate representation in another place1 as if he were in the act of surveying the ceremony from a distance47#dbd7 ,the part of the divine ,son at the rite would fitly devolve upon one of the high-priest's own offspring1 who may well have been numerous4 ,for it is probable that here1 as elsewhere in ,asia ,minor1 the ,mother ,goddess was personated by a crowd of sacred harlots17#dbe7 with whom the spiritual ruler may have been required to consort in his character of incarnate deity4 ,but if the personation of the ,son of ,god at the rites laid a heavy burden of suffering on the shoulders of the actor1 it is possible that the representative of the deity may have been drawn1 perhaps by lot1 from among the numerous progeny of the consecrated courtesans2 for these women1 as incarnations of the ,mother ,goddess1 were probably supposed to transmit to their offspring some portion of their own divinity4 ,be that as it may1 if the three principal personages in the processional scene at ,boghaz-,keui are indeed the ,father1 the ,mother1 and the ,son1 the remarkable position assigned to the third of them in the procession1 where he walks behind his ,mother alone in the procession of women1 appears to indicate that he was supposed to be more closely akin to her than to his ,father4 ,from this again we may conjecturally infer that mother-kin rather than father-kin was the rule which regulated descent among the ,hittites4 ,the conjecture derives some support from ,hittite archives1 for the names of the ,great ,queen and the ,queen ,mother are mentioned along with that of the ,king in state documents47#dbf7 ,the other personages who figure in the procession may represent human beings masquerading in the costumes and with the attributes of deities4 ,such1 for example1 are the two female figures who stand on a double-headed eagle2 the two male figures stepping on what seem to be two mountains2 and the two winged beings in the procession of men1 one of whom may be the ,moon-god1 for he wears a crescent on his head47#dbg7 #e4 ,sandan and ,baal at ,tarsus4 7,m#aje7 ,whatever may be thought of these speculations1 one thing seems fairly clear and certain4 ,the figure which ,i have called the divine ,son at ,boghaz-,keui is identical with the god ,sandan1 who appears on the pyre at ,tarsus4 ,in both personages the costume1 the attributes1 the attitude are the same4 ,both represent a man clad in a short tunic with a tall pointed cap on his head1 a sword at his side1 a double-headed axe in his hand1 and a lion or panther under his feet47#dbh7 ,accordingly1 if we are right in identifying him as the divine ,son at ,boghaz-,keui1 we may conjecture that under the name of ,sandan he bore the same character at ,tarsus4 ,the conjecture squares perfectly with the title of ,hercules1 which the ,greeks bestowed on ,sandan2 for ,hercules was the son of ,zeus1 the great father-god4 ,moreover1 we have seen that the ,baal of ,tarsus1 with the grapes and the corn in his hand1 was assimilated to ,zeus47#dbi7 ,thus it would appear that at ,tarsus as at ,boghaz-,keui there was a pair of deities1 a divine ,father and a divine ,son1 whom the ,greeks identified with ,zeus and ,hercules respectively4 ,if the ,baal of ,tarsus was a god of fertility1 as his attributes clearly imply1 his identification with ,zeus would be natural1 since it was ,zeus who1 in the belief of the ,greeks1 sent the fertilizing rain from heaven47#dcj7 ,and the identification of ,sandan with ,hercules would be equally natural1 since the lion and the death on the pyre were features common to both4 ,our conclusion then is that it was the divine ,son1 the lion-god1 who was burned in effigy or in the person of a human representative at ,tarsus1 and perhaps at ,boghaz-,keui4 ,semitic parallels suggest that the victim who played the part of the ,son of ,god in the fiery furnace ought in strictness to be the king's son47#dca7 ,but no doubt in later times an effigy would be substituted for the man4 #f4 ,priestly ,kings of ,olba4 7,m#ajf7 ,unfortunately we know next to nothing of the kings and priests of ,tarsus4 ,in ,greek times we hear of an ,epicurean philosopher of the city1 ,lysias by name1 who was elected by his fellow-citizens to the office of ,crown-wearer1 that is1 to the priesthood of ,hercules4 ,once raised to that dignity1 he would not lay it down again1 but played the part of tyrant1 wearing a white robe edged with purple1 a costly cloak1 white shoes1 and a golden wreath of laurel4 ,he truckled to the mob by distributing among them the property of the wealthy1 while he put to death such as refused to open their money-bags to him47#dcb7 ,though we cannot distinguish in this account between the legal and the illegal exercise of authority1 yet we may safely infer that the priesthood of ,hercules1 that is of ,sandan1 at ,tarsus continued down to late times to be an office of great dignity and power1 not unworthy to be held in earlier times by the kings themselves4 ,scanty as is our information as to the kings of ,cilicia1 we hear of two whose names appear to indicate that they stood in some special relation to the divine ,sandan4 ,one of them was ,sandu'arri1 lord of ,kundi and ,sizu1 which have been identified with ,anchiale and ,sis in ,cilicia47#dcc7 ,the other was ,sanda-sarme1 who gave his daughter in marriage to ,ashurbanipal1 king of ,assyria47#dcd7 ,it would be in accordance with analogy if the kings of ,tarsus formerly held the priesthood of ,sandan and claimed to represent him in their own person4 7,m#ajg7 ,we know that the whole of ,western or ,mountainous ,cilicia was ruled by kings who combined the regal office with the priesthood of ,zeus1 or rather of a native deity whom1 like the ,baal of ,tarsus1 the ,greeks assimilated to their own ,zeus4 ,these priestly potentates had their seat at ,olba1 and most of them bore the name either of ,teucer or of ,ajax17#dce7 but we may suspect that these appellations are merely ,greek distortions of native ,cilician names4 ,teucer 7,teukros7 may be a corruption of ,tark1 ,trok1 ,tarku1 or ,troko1 all of which occur in the names of ,cilician priests and kings4 ,at all events1 it is worthy of notice that one1 if not two1 of these priestly ,teucers had a father called ,tarkuaris17#dcf7 and that in a long list of priests who served ,zeus at the ,corycian cave1 not many miles from ,olba1 the names ,tarkuaris1 ,tarkumbios1 ,tarkimos1 ,trokoarbasis1 and ,trokombigremis1 besides many other obviously native names1 occur side by side with ,teucer and other purely ,greek appellations47#dcg7 ,in like manner the ,teucrids1 who traced their descent from ,zeus and reigned at ,salamis in ,cyprus17#dch7 may well have been a native dynasty1 who concocted a ,greek pedigree for themselves in the days when ,greek civilization was fashionable4 ,the legend which attributed the foundation of the ,cyprian ,salamis to ,teucer1 son of ,telamon1 appears to be late and unknown to ,homer47#dci7 ,moreover1 a cruel form of human sacrifice which was practised in the city down to historical times savours rather of ,oriental barbarity than of ,greek humanity4 ,led or driven by the youths1 a man ran thrice round the altar2 then the priest stabbed him in the throat with a spear and burned his body whole on a heaped-up pyre4 ,the sacrifice was offered in the month of ,aphrodite to ,diomede1 who along with ,agraulus1 daughter of ,cecrops1 had a temple at ,salamis4 ,a temple of ,athena stood within the same sacred enclosure4 ,it is said that in olden times the sacrifice was offered to ,agraulus1 and not to ,diomede4 ,according to another account it was instituted by ,teucer in honour of ,zeus4 ,however that may have been1 the barbarous custom lasted down to the reign of ,hadrian1 when ,diphilus1 king of ,cyprus1 abolished or rather mitigated it by substituting the sacrifice of an ox for that of a man47#ddj7 ,on the hypothesis here suggested we must suppose that these ,greek names of divine or heroic figures at the ,cyprian ,salamis covered more or less similar figures of the ,asiatic pantheon4 ,and in the ,salaminian burnt-sacrifice of a man we may perhaps detect the original form of the ceremony which in historical times appears to have been performed upon an image of ,sandan or ,hercules at ,tarsus4 ,when an ox was sacrificed instead of a man1 the old sacrificial rites would naturally continue to be observed in all other respects exactly as before3 the animal would be led thrice round the altar1 stabbed with a spear1 and burned on a pyre4 ,now at the ,syrian ,hierapolis the greatest festival of the year bore the name of the ,pyre or the ,torch4 ,it was held at the beginning of spring4 ,great trees were then cut down and planted in the court of the temple3 sheep1 goats1 birds1 and other creatures were hung upon them3 sacrificial victims were led round3 then fire was set to the whole1 and everything was consumed in the flames47#dda7 ,perhaps here also the burning of animals was a substitute for the burning of men4 ,when the practice of human sacrifice becomes too revolting to humanity to be tolerated1 its abolition is commonly effected by substituting either animals or images for living men or women4 ,at ,salamis certainly1 and perhaps at ,hierapolis1 the substitutes were animals3 at ,tarsus1 if ,i am right1 they were images4 ,in this connexion the statement of a ,greek writer as to the worship of ,adonis in ,cyprus deserves attention4 ,he says that as ,adonis had been honoured by ,aphrodite1 the ,cyprians after his death cast live doves on a pyre to him1 and that the birds1 flying away from the flames1 fell into another pyre and were consumed47#ddb7 ,the statement seems to be a description of an actual custom of burning doves in sacrifice to ,adonis4 ,such a mode of honouring him would be very remarkable1 since doves were commonly sacred to his divine mistress ,aphrodite or ,astarte4 ,for example1 at the ,syrian ,hierapolis1 one of the chief seats of her worship1 these birds were so holy that they might not even be touched4 ,if a man inadvertently touched a dove1 he was unclean or tabooed for the rest of the day4 ,hence the birds1 never being molested1 were so tame that they lived with the people in their houses1 and commonly picked up their food fearlessly on the ground47#ddc7 ,can the burning of the sacred bird of ,aphrodite in the ,cyprian worship of ,adonis have been a substitute for the burning of a sacred man who personated the lover of the goddess8 7,m#ajh7 ,if1 as many scholars think1 ,tark or ,tarku was the name1 or part of the name1 of a great ,hittite deity1 sometimes identified as the god of the sky and the lightning17#ddd7 we may conjecture that ,tark or ,tarku was the native name of the god of ,olba1 whom the ,greeks called ,zeus1 and that the priestly kings who bore the name of ,teucer represented the god ,tark or ,tarku in their own persons4 ,this conjecture is confirmed by the observation that ,olba1 the ancient name of the city1 is itself merely a ,grecized form of ,oura1 the name which the place retains to this day47#dde7 ,the situation of the town1 moreover1 speaks strongly in favour of the view that it was from the beginning an aboriginal settlement1 though in after days1 like so many other ,asiatic cities1 it took on a varnish of ,greek culture4 ,for it stood remote from the sea on a lofty and barren tableland1 with a rigorous winter climate1 in the highlands of ,cilicia4 7,m#aji7 ,great indeed is the contrast between the bleak windy uplands of ,western or ,rugged ,cilicia1 as the ancients called it1 and the soft luxuriant lowlands of ,eastern ,cilicia1 where winter is almost unknown and summer annually drives the population to seek in the cool air of the mountains a refuge from the intolerable heat and deadly fevers of the plains4 ,in ,western ,cilicia1 on the other hand1 a lofty tableland1 ending in a high sharp edge on the coast1 rises steadily inland till it passes gradually into the chain of heights which divide it from the interior4 ,looked at from the sea it resembles a great blue wave swelling in one uniform sweep till its crest breaks into foam in the distant snows of the ,taurus4 ,the surface of the tableland is almost everywhere rocky and overgrown1 in the intervals of the rocks1 with dense1 thorny1 almost impenetrable scrub4 ,only here and there in a hollow or glen the niggardly soil allows of a patch of cultivation2 and here and there fine oaks and planes1 towering over the brushwood1 clothe with a richer foliage the depth of the valleys4 ,none but wandering herdsmen with their flocks now maintain a precarious existence in this rocky wilderness4 ,yet the ruined towns which stud the country prove that a dense population lived and throve here in antiquity1 while numerous remains of wine-presses and wine-vats bear witness to the successful cultivation of the grape4 ,the chief cause of the present desolation is lack of water2 for wells are few and brackish1 perennial streams hardly exist1 and the ancient aqueducts1 which once brought life and fertility to the land1 have long been suffered to fall into disrepair4 7,m#aaj7 ,but for ages together the ancient inhabitants of these uplands earned their bread by less reputable means than the toil of the husbandman and the vinedresser4 ,they were buccaneers and slavers1 scouring the high seas with their galleys and retiring with their booty to the inaccessible fastnesses of their mountains4 ,in the decline of ,greek power all over the ,east the pirate communities of ,cilicia grew into a formidable state1 recruited by gangs of desperadoes and broken men who flocked to it from all sides4 ,the holds of these robbers may still be seen perched on the brink of the profound ravines which cleave the tableland at frequent intervals4 ,with their walls of massive masonry1 their towers and battlements1 overhanging dizzy depths1 they are admirably adapted to bid defiance to the pursuit of justice4 ,in antiquity the dark forests of cedar1 which clothed much of the country and supplied the pirates with timber for their ships1 must have rendered access to these fastnesses still more difficult4 ,the great gorge of the ,lamas ,river1 which eats its way like a sheet of forked lightning into the heart of the mountains1 is dotted every few miles with fortified towns1 some of them still magnificent in their ruins1 dominating sheer cliffs high above the stream4 ,they are now the haunt only of the ibex and the bear4 ,each of these communities had its own crest or badge1 which may still be seen carved on the corners of the mouldering towers4 ,no doubt1 too1 it blazoned the same crest on the hull1 the sails1 or the streamers of the galley which1 manned with a crew of ruffians1 it sent out to prey upon the rich merchantmen in the ,golden ,sea1 as the corsairs called the highway of commerce between ,crete and ,africa4 7,m#aaa7 ,a staircase cut in the rock connects one of these ruined castles with the river in the glen1 a thousand feet below4 ,but the steps are worn and dangerous1 indeed impassable4 ,you may go for miles along the edge of these stupendous cliffs before you find a way down4 ,the paths keep on the heights1 for in many of its reaches the gully affords no foothold even to the agile nomads who alone roam these solitudes4 ,at evening the winding course of the river may be traced for a long distance by a mist which1 as the heat of the day declines1 rises like steam from the deep gorge and hangs suspended in a wavy line of fleecy cloud above it4 ,but even more imposing than the ravine of the ,lamas is the terrific gorge known as the ,sheitan dere or ,devil's ,glen near the ,corycian cave4 ,prodigious walls of rock1 glowing in the intense sunlight1 black in the shadow1 and spanned by a summer sky of the deepest blue1 hem in the dry bed of a winter torrent1 choked with rocks and tangled with thickets of evergreens1 among which the oleanders with their slim stalks1 delicate taper leaves1 and bunches of crimson blossom stand out conspicuous47#ddf7 7,m#aab7 ,the ruins of ,olba1 among the most extensive and remarkable in ,asia ,minor1 were discovered in #ahij by ,mr4 ,j4 ,theodore ,bent4 ,but three years before another ,english traveller had caught a distant view of its battlements and towers outlined against the sky like a city of enchantment or dreams47#ddg7 ,standing at a height of nearly six thousand feet above the sea1 the upper town commands a free1 though somewhat uniform1 prospect for immense distances in all directions4 ,the sea is just visible far away to the south4 ,on these heights the winter is long and severe4 ,snow lies on the ground for months4 ,no ,greek would have chosen such a site for a city1 so bleak and chill1 so far from blue water2 but it served well for a fastness of brigands4 ,deep gorges1 one of them filled for miles with tombs1 surround it on all sides1 rendering fortification walls superfluous4 ,but a great square tower1 four stories high1 rises conspicuous on the hill1 forming a landmark and earning for this upper town the native name of ,jebel ,hissar1 or the ,mountain of the ,castle4 ,a ,greek inscription cut on the tower proves that it was built by ,teucer1 son of ,tarkuaris1 one of the priestly potentates of ,olba4 ,among other remains of public buildings the most notable are forty tall ,corinthian columns of the great temple of ,olbian ,zeus4 ,though coarse in style and corroded by long exposure to frost and snow1 these massive pillars1 towering above the ruins1 produce an imposing effect4 ,that the temple of which they formed part belonged indeed to ,olbian ,zeus is shown by a ,greek inscription found within the sacred area1 which records that the pent-houses on the inner side of the boundary wall were built by ,king ,seleucus ,nicator and repaired for ,olbian ,zeus by 8the great high-priest ,teucer1 son of ,zenophanes40 ,about two hundred yards from this great temple are standing five elegant granite columns of a small temple dedicated to the goddess ,fortune4 ,further1 the remains of two theatres and many other public buildings attest the former splendour of this mountain city4 ,an arched colonnade1 of which some ,corinthian columns are standing with their architraves1 ran through the town2 and an ancient paved road1 lined with tombs and ruins1 leads down hill to a lower and smaller city two or three miles distant4 ,it is this lower town which retains the ancient name of ,oura4 ,here the principal ruins occupy an isolated fir-clad height bounded by two narrow ravines full of rock-cut tombs4 ,below the town the ravines unite and form a fine gorge1 down which the old road passed seaward47#ddh7 #g4 ,the ,god of the ,corycian ,cave4 7,m#aac7 ,nothing yet found at ,olba throws light on the nature of the god who was worshipped there under the ,greek name of ,zeus4 ,but at two places near the coast1 distant only some fourteen or fifteen miles from ,olba1 a deity also called ,zeus by the ,greeks was revered in natural surroundings of a remarkable kind1 which must have stood in close relation with the worship1 and are therefore fitted to illustrate it4 ,in both places the features of the landscape are of the same general cast1 and at one of them the god was definitely identified with the ,zeus of ,olba4 ,the country here consists of a tableland of calcareous rock rent at intervals by those great chasms which are characteristic of a limestone formation4 ,similar fissures1 with the accompaniment of streams or rivers which pour into them and vanish under ground1 are frequent in ,greece1 and may be observed in our own country near ,ingleborough in ,yorkshire4 ,fossil bones of extinct animals are often found embedded in the stalagmite or breccia of limestone caves4 ,for example1 the famous ,kent's ,hole near ,torquay contained bones of the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 lion1 hyaena1 and bear2 and red osseous breccias1 charged with the bones of quadrupeds which have long disappeared from ,europe1 are common in almost all the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean47#ddi7 ,western ,cilicia is richer in ,miocene deposits than any other part of ,anatolia1 and the limestone gorges of the coast near ,olba are crowded with fossil oysters1 corals1 and other shells47#dej7 ,here1 too1 within the space of five miles the limestone plateau is rent by three great chasms1 which ,greek religion associated with ,zeus and ,typhon4 ,one of these fissures is the celebrated ,corycian cave4 7,m#aad7 ,to visit this spot1 invested with the double charm of natural beauty and legendary renown1 you start from the dead ,cilician city of ,corycus on the sea1 with its ruined walls1 towers1 and churches1 its rock-hewn houses and cisterns1 its shattered mole1 its island-fortress1 still imposing in decay4 ,viewed from the sea1 this part of the ,cilician coast1 with its long succession of white ruins1 relieved by the dark wooded hills behind1 presents an appearance of populousness and splendour4 ,but a nearer approach reveals the nakedness and desolation of the once prosperous land47#dea7 ,following the shore westward from ,corycus for about an hour you come to a pretty cove enclosed by wooded heights1 where a spring of pure cold water bubbles up close to the sea1 giving to the spot its name of ,tatlu-su1 or the ,sweet ,water4 ,from this bay a steep ascent of about a mile along an ancient paved road leads inland to a plateau4 ,here1 threading your way through a labyrinth or petrified sea of jagged calcareous rocks1 you suddenly find yourself on the brink of a vast chasm which yawns at your feet4 ,this is the ,corycian cave4 ,in reality it is not a cave but an immense hollow or trough in the plateau1 of oval shape and perhaps half a mile in circumference4 ,the cliffs which enclose it vary from one hundred to over two hundred feet in depth4 ,its uneven bottom slopes throughout its whole length from north to south1 and is covered by a thick jungle of trees and shrubs--myrtles1 pomegranates1 carobs1 and many more1 kept always fresh and green by rivulets1 underground water1 and the shadow of the great cliffs4 ,a single narrow path leads down into its depths4 ,the way is long and rough1 but the deeper you descend the denser grows the vegetation1 and it is under the dappled shade of whispering leaves and with the purling of brooks in your ears that you at last reach the bottom4 ,the saffron which of old grew here among the bushes is no longer to be found1 though it still flourishes in the surrounding district4 ,this luxuriant bottom1 with its rich verdure1 its refreshing moisture1 its grateful shade1 is called ,paradise by the wandering herdsmen4 ,they tether their camels and pasture their goats in it and come hither in the late summer to gather the ripe pomegranates4 ,at the southern and deepest end of this great cliff-encircled hollow you come to the cavern proper4 ,the ruins of a ,byzantine church1 which replaced a heathen temple1 partly block the entrance4 ,inwards the cave descends with a gentle slope into the bowels of the earth4 ,the old path paved with polygonal masonry still runs through it1 but soon disappears under sand4 ,at about two hundred feet from its mouth the cave comes to an end1 and a tremendous roar of subterranean water is heard4 ,by crawling on all fours you may reach a small pool arched by a dripping stalactite-hung roof1 but the stream which makes the deafening din is invisible4 ,it was otherwise in antiquity4 ,a river of clear water burst from the rock1 but only to vanish again into a chasm4 ,such changes in the course of streams are common in countries subject to earthquakes and to the disruption caused by volcanic agency4 ,the ancients believed that this mysterious cavern was haunted ground4 ,in the rumble and roar of the waters they seemed to hear the clash of cymbals touched by hands divine47#deb7 7,m#aae7 ,if now1 quitting the cavern1 we return by the same path to the summit of the cliffs1 we shall find on the plateau the ruins of a town and of a temple at the western edge of the great ,corycian chasm4 ,the wall of the holy precinct was built within a few feet of the precipices1 and the sanctuary must have stood right over the actual cave and its subterranean waters4 ,in later times the temple was converted into a ,christian church4 ,by pulling down a portion of the sacred edifice ,mr4 ,bent had the good fortune to discover a ,greek inscription containing a long list of names1 probably those of the priests who superintended the worship4 ,one name which meets us frequently in the list is ,zas1 and it is tempting to regard this as merely a dialectical form of ,zeus4 ,if that were so1 the priests who bore the name might be supposed to personate the god47#dec7 ,but many strange and barbarous-looking names1 evidently foreign1 occur in the list1 and ,zas may be one of them4 ,however1 it is certain that ,zeus was worshipped at the ,corycian cave2 for about half a mile from it1 on the summit of a hill1 are the ruins of a larger temple1 which an inscription proves to have been dedicated to ,corycian ,zeus47#ded7 7,m#aaf7 ,but ,zeus1 or whatever native deity masqueraded under his name1 did not reign alone in the deep dell4 ,a more dreadful being haunted a still more awful abyss which opens in the ground only a hundred yards to the east of the great ,corycian chasm4 ,it is a circular cauldron1 about a quarter of a mile in circumference1 resembling the ,corycian chasm in its general character1 but smaller1 deeper1 and far more terrific in appearance4 ,its sides overhang and stalactites droop from them4 ,there is no way down into it4 ,the only mode of reaching the bottom1 which is covered with vegetation1 would be to be lowered at the end of a long rope4 ,the nomads call this chasm ,purgatory1 to distinguish it from the other which they name ,paradise4 ,they say that there is a subterranean passage between the two1 and that the smoke of a fire kindled in the ,corycian cave may be seen curling out of the other4 ,the one ancient writer who expressly mentions this second and more grisly cavern is ,mela1 who says that it was the lair of the giant ,typhon1 and that no animal let down into it could live47#dee7 ,aeschylus puts into the mouth of ,prometheus an account of 8the earth-born ,typhon1 dweller in ,cilician caves1 dread monster1 hundred-headed10 who in his pride rose up against the gods1 hissing destruction from his dreadful jaws1 while from his ,gorgon eyes the lightning flashed4 ,but him a flaming levin bolt1 crashing from heaven1 smote to the very heart1 and now he lies1 shrivelled and scorched1 under the weight of ,etna by the narrow sea4 ,yet one day he will belch a fiery hail1 a boiling angry flood1 rivers of flame1 to devastate the fat ,sicilian fields47#def7 ,this poetical description of the monster1 confirmed by a similar passage of ,pindar17#deg7 clearly proves that ,typhon was conceived as a personification of those active volcanoes which spout fire and smoke to heaven as if they would assail the celestial gods4 ,the ,corycian caverns are not volcanic1 but the ancients apparently regarded them as such1 else they would hardly have made them the den of ,typhon4 7,m#aag7 ,according to one legend ,typhon was a monster1 half man and half brute1 begotten in ,cilicia by ,tartarus upon the goddess ,earth4 ,the upper part of him was human1 but from the loins downward he was an enormous snake4 ,in the battle of the gods and giants1 which was fought out in ,egypt1 ,typhon hugged ,zeus in his snaky coils1 wrested from him his crooked sword1 and with the blade cut the sinews of the god's hands and feet4 ,then taking him on his back he conveyed the mutilated deity across the sea to ,cilicia1 and deposited him in the ,corycian cave4 ,here1 too1 he hid the severed sinews1 wrapt in a bear's skin4 ,but ,hermes and ,aegipan contrived to steal the missing thews and restore them to their divine owner4 ,thus made whole and strong again1 ,zeus pelted his beaten adversary with thunderbolts1 drove him from place to place1 and at last overwhelmed him under ,mount ,etna4 ,and the spots where the hissing bolts fell are still marked by jets of flame47#deh7 7,m#aah7 ,it is possible that the discovery of fossil bones of large extinct animals may have helped to localize the story of the giant at the ,corycian cave4 ,such bones1 as we have seen1 are often found in limestone caverns1 and the limestone gorges of ,cilicia are in fact rich in fossils4 ,the ,arcadians laid the scene of the battle of the gods and the giants in the plain of ,megalopolis1 where many bones of mammoths have come to light1 and where1 moreover1 flames have been seen to burst from the earth and even to burn for years47#dei7 ,these natural conditions would easily suggest a fable of giants who had fought the gods and had been slain by thunderbolts2 the smouldering earth or jets of flame would be regarded as the spots where the divine lightnings had struck the ground4 ,hence the ,arcadians sacrificed to thunder and lightning47#dfj7 ,in ,sicily1 too1 great quantities of bones of mammoths1 elephants1 hippopotamuses1 and other animals long extinct in the island have been found1 and have been appealed to with confidence by patriotic ,sicilians as conclusive evidence of the gigantic stature of their ancestors or predecessors47#dfa7 ,these remains of huge unwieldy creatures which once trampled through the jungle or splashed in the rivers of ,sicily may have contributed with the fires of ,etna to build up the story of giants imprisoned under the volcano and vomiting smoke and flame from its crater4 8,tales of giants and monsters1 which stand in direct connexion with the finding of great fossil bones1 are scattered broadcast over the mythology of the world4 ,huge bones1 found at ,punto ,santa ,elena1 in the north of ,guayaquil1 have served as a foundation for the story of a colony of giants who dwelt there4 ,the whole area of the ,pampas is a great sepulchre of enormous extinct animals2 no wonder that one great plain should be called the #8,field of the giants1' and that such names as #8the hill of the giant1' #8the stream of the animal1' should be guides to the geologist in his search for fossil bones407#dfb7 7,m#aai7 ,about five miles to the north-east of the ,corycian caverns1 but divided from them by many deep gorges and impassable rocks1 is another and very similar chasm4 ,it may be reached in about an hour and a quarter from the sea by an ancient paved road1 which ascends at first very steeply and then gently through bush-clad and wooded hills4 ,thus you come to a stretch of level ground covered with the well-preserved ruins of an ancient town4 ,remains of fortresses constructed of polygonal masonry1 stately churches1 and many houses1 together with numerous tombs and reliefs1 finely chiselled in the calcareous limestone of the neighbourhood1 bear witness to the extent and importance of the place4 ,yet it is mentioned by no ancient writer4 ,inscriptions prove that its name was ,kanyteldeis or ,kanytelideis1 which still survives in the modern form of ,kanidiwan4 ,the great chasm opens in the very heart of the city4 ,so crowded are the ruins that you do not perceive the abyss till you are within a few yards of it4 ,it is almost a complete circle1 about a quarter of a mile wide1 three-quarters of a mile in circumference1 and uniformly two hundred feet or more in depth4 ,the cliffs go sheer down and remind the traveller of the great quarries at ,syracuse4 ,but like the ,corycian caves1 the larger of which it closely resembles1 the huge fissure is natural2 and its bottom1 like theirs1 is overgrown with trees and vegetation4 ,two ways led down into it in antiquity1 both cut through the rock4 ,one of them was a tunnel1 which is now obstructed2 the other is still open4 ,remains of columns and hewn stones in the bottom of the chasm seem to show that a temple once stood there4 ,but there is no cave at the foot of the cliffs1 and no stream flows in the deep hollow or can be heard to rumble underground4 ,a ruined tower of polygonal masonry1 which stands on the southern edge of the chasm1 bears a ,greek inscription stating that it was dedicated to ,olbian ,zeus by the priest ,teucer1 son of ,tarkuaris4 ,the letters are beautifully cut in the style of the third century before ,christ4 ,we may infer that at the time of the dedication the town belonged to the priestly kings of ,olba1 and that the great chasm was sacred to ,olbian ,zeus47#dfc7 7,m#abj7 ,what1 then1 was the character of the god who was worshipped under the name of ,zeus at these two great natural chasms8 ,the depth of the fissures1 opening suddenly and as it were without warning in the midst of a plateau1 was well fitted to impress and awe the spectator2 and the sight of the rank evergreen vegetation at their bottom1 fed by rivulets or underground water1 must have presented a striking contrast to the grey1 barren1 rocky wilderness of the surrounding tableland4 ,such a spot must have seemed to simple folk a paradise1 a garden of ,god1 the abode of higher powers who caused the wilderness to blossom1 if not with roses1 at least with myrtles and pomegranates for man1 and with grass and underwood for his flocks4 ,so to the ,semite1 as we saw1 the ,baal of the land is he who fertilizes it by subterranean water rather than by rain from the sky1 and who therefore dwells in the depths of earth rather than in the height of heaven47#dfd7 ,in rainless countries the sky-god is deprived of one of the principal functions which he discharges in cool cloudy climates like that of ,europe4 ,he has1 in fact1 little or nothing to do with the water-supply1 and has therefore small excuse for levying a water-rate on his worshippers4 ,not1 indeed1 that ,cilicia is rainless2 but in countries bordering on the ,mediterranean the drought is almost unbroken through the long months of summer4 ,vegetation then withers3 the face of nature is scorched and brown3 most of the rivers dry up2 and only their white stony beds1 hot to the foot and dazzling to the eye1 remain to tell where they flowed4 ,it is at such seasons that a green hollow1 a shady rock1 a murmuring stream1 are welcomed by the wanderer in the ,south with a joy and wonder which the untravelled ,northerner can hardly imagine4 ,never do the broad slow rivers of ,england1 with their winding reaches1 their grassy banks1 their grey willows mirrored with the soft ,english sky in the placid stream1 appear so beautiful as when the traveller views them for the first time after leaving behind him the aridity1 the heat1 the blinding glare of the white southern landscape1 set in seas and skies of caerulean blue4 7,m#aba7 ,we may take it1 then1 as probable that the god of the ,corycian and ,olbian caverns was worshipped as a source of fertility4 ,in antiquity1 when the river1 which now roars underground1 still burst from the rock in the ,corycian cave1 the scene must have resembled ,ibreez1 where the god of the corn and the vine was adored at the source of the stream2 and we may compare the vale of ,adonis in the ,lebanon1 where the divinity who gave his name to the river was revered at its foaming cascades4 ,the three landscapes had in common the elements of luxuriant vegetation and copious streams leaping full-born from the rock4 ,we shall hardly err in supposing that these features shaped the conception of the deities who were supposed to haunt the favoured spots4 ,at the ,corycian cave the existence of a second chasm1 of a frowning and awful aspect1 might well suggest the presence of an evil being who lurked in it and sought to undo the beneficent work of the good god4 ,thus we should have a fable of a conflict between the two1 a battle of ,zeus and ,typhon4 7,m#abb7 ,on the whole we conclude that the ,olbian ,zeus1 worshipped at one of these great limestone chasms1 and clearly identical in nature with the ,corycian ,zeus1 was also identical with the ,baal of ,tarsus1 the god of the corn and the vine1 who in his turn can hardly be separated from the god of ,ibreez4 ,if my conjecture is right the native name of the ,olbian ,zeus was ,tark or ,trok1 and the priestly ,teucers of ,olba represented him in their own persons4 ,on that hypothesis the ,olbian priests who bore the name of ,ajax embodied another native deity of unknown name1 perhaps the father or the son of ,tark4 ,a comparison of the coin-types of ,tarsus with the ,hittite monuments of ,ibreez and ,boghaz-,keui led us to the conclusion that the people of ,tarsus worshipped at least two distinct gods1 a father and a son1 the father-god being known to the ,semites as ,baal and to the ,greeks as ,zeus1 while the son was called ,sandan by the natives1 but ,hercules by the ,greeks4 ,we may surmise that at ,olba the names of ,teucer and ,ajax designated two gods who corresponded in type to the two gods of ,tarsus2 and if the lesser figure at ,ibreez1 who appears in an attitude of adoration before the deity of the corn and the vine1 could be interpreted as the divine ,son in presence of the divine ,father1 we should have in all three places the same pair of deities1 represented probably in the flesh by successive generations of priestly kings4 ,but the evidence is far too slender to justify us in advancing this hypothesis as anything more than a bare conjecture4 #h4 ,cilician ,goddesses4 7,m#abc7 ,so far1 the ,cilician deities discussed have been males2 we have as yet found no trace of the great ,mother ,goddess who plays so important a part in the religion of ,cappadocia and ,phrygia1 beyond the great dividing range of the ,taurus4 ,yet we may suspect that she was not unknown in ,cilicia1 though her worship certainly seems to have been far less prominent there than in the centre of ,asia ,minor4 ,the difference may perhaps be interpreted as evidence that mother-kin and hence the predominance of ,mother ,goddesses survived1 in the bleak highlands of the interior1 long after a genial climate and teeming soil had fostered the growth of a higher civilization1 and with it the advance from female to male kinship1 in the rich lowlands of ,cilicia4 ,be that as it may1 ,cilician goddesses with or without a male partner are known to have been revered in various parts of the country4 7,m#abd7 ,thus at ,tarsus itself the goddess ',atheh was worshipped along with ,baal2 their effigies are engraved on the same coins of the city4 ,she is represented wearing a veil and seated upon a lion1 with her name in ,aramaic letters engraved beside her47#dfe7 ,hence it would seem that at ,tarsus1 as at ,boghaz-,keui1 the ,father ,god mated with a lion-goddess like the ,phrygian ,cybele or the ,syrian ,atargatis4 ,now the name ,atargatis is a ,greek rendering of the ,aramaic ',athar-'atheh1 a compound word which includes the name of the goddess of ,tarsus47#dff7 ,thus in name as well as in attributes the female partner of the ,baal of ,tarsus appears to correspond to ,atargatis1 the ,syrian ,mother ,goddess whose image1 seated on a lion or lions1 was worshipped with great pomp and splendour at ,hierapolis-,bambyce near the ,euphrates47#dfg7 ,may we go a step farther and find a correspondence between the ,baal of ,tarsus and the husband-god of ,atargatis at ,hierapolis-,bambyce8 ,that husband-god1 like the ,baal of ,tarsus1 was identified by the ,greeks with ,zeus1 and ,lucian tells us that the resemblance of his image to the images of ,zeus was in all respects unmistakable4 ,but his image1 unlike those of ,zeus1 was seated upon bulls47#dfh7 ,in point of fact he was probably ,hadad1 the chief male god of the ,syrians1 who appears to have been a god of thunder and fertility2 for at ,baalbec in the ,lebanon1 where the ruined temple of the ,sun is the most imposing monument bequeathed to the modern world by ,greek art in its decline1 his image grasped in his left hand a thunderbolt and ears of corn17#dfi7 and a colossal statue of the deity1 found near ,zenjirli in ,northern ,syria1 represents him with a bearded human head and horns1 the emblem of strength and fertility47#dgj7 ,a similar god of thunder and lightning was worshipped from early times by the ,babylonians and ,assyrians2 he bore the similar name of ,adad and his emblems appear to have been a thunderbolt and a bull4 ,on an ,assyrian relief his image is represented as that of a bearded man clad in a short tunic1 wearing a cap with two pairs of horns1 and grasping an axe in his right hand and a thunderbolt in his left4 ,his resemblance to the ,hittite god of the thundering sky was therefore very close4 ,an alternative name for this ,babylonian and ,assyrian deity was ,ramman1 an appropriate term1 derived from a verb rammu to 8scream0 or 8roar407#dga7 ,now we have seen that the god of ,ibreez1 whose attributes tally with those of the ,baal of ,tarsus1 wears a cap adorned with bull's horns27#dgb7 that the ,father ,god at ,boghaz-,keui1 meeting the ,mother ,goddess on her lioness1 is attended by an animal which according to the usual interpretation is a bull27#dgc7 and that the bull itself was worshipped1 apparently as an emblem of fertility1 at ,euyuk near ,boghaz-,keui47#dgd7 ,thus at ,tarsus and ,boghaz-,keui1 as at ,hierapolis-,bambyce1 the ,father ,god and the ,mother ,goddess would seem to have had as their sacred animals or emblems the bull and the lion respectively4 ,in later times1 under ,greek influence1 the goddess was apparently exchanged for1 or converted into1 the ,fortune of the ,city1 who appears on coins of ,tarsus as a seated woman with veiled and turreted head1 grasping ears of corn and a poppy in her hand4 ,her lion is gone1 but a trace of him perhaps remains on a coin which exhibits the throne of the goddess adorned with a lion's leg47#dge7 ,in general it would seem that the goddess ,fortune1 who figures commonly as the guardian of cities in the ,greek ,east1 especially in ,syria1 was nothing but a disguised form of ,gad1 the ,semitic god of fortune or luck1 who1 though the exigencies of grammar required him to be masculine1 is supposed to have been often merely a special aspect of the great goddess ,astarte or ,atargatis conceived as the patroness and protector of towns47#dgf7 ,in ,oriental religion such permutations or combinations need not surprise us4 ,to the gods all things are possible4 ,in ,cyprus the goddess of love wore a beard17#dgg7 and ,alexander the ,great sometimes disported himself in the costume of ,artemis1 while at other times he ransacked the divine wardrobe to figure in the garb of ,hercules1 of ,hermes1 and of ,ammon47#dgh7 ,the change of the goddess ',atheh of ,tarsus into ,gad or ,fortune would be easy if we suppose that she was known as ,gad-',atheh1 8,luck of ',atheh10 which occurs as a ,semitic personal name47#dgi7 ,in like manner the goddess of ,fortune at ,olba1 who had her small temple beside the great temple of ,zeus17#dhj7 may have been originally the consort of the native god ,tark or ,tarku4 7,m#abe7 ,another town in ,cilicia where an ,oriental god and goddess appear to have been worshipped together was ,mallus4 ,the city was built on a height in the great ,cilician plain near the mouth of the river ,pyramus47#dha7 ,its coins exhibit two winged deities1 a male and a female1 in a kneeling or running attitude4 ,on some of the coins the male deity is represented1 like ,janus1 with two heads facing opposite ways1 and with two pairs of wings1 while beneath him is the forepart of a bull with a human head4 ,the obverse of the coins which bear the female deity displays a conical stone1 sometimes flanked by two bunches of grapes47#dhb7 ,this conical stone1 like those of other ,asiatic cities17#dhc7 was probably the emblem of a ,mother ,goddess1 and the bunches of grapes indicate her fertilizing powers4 ,the god with the two heads and four wings can hardly be any other than the ,phoenician ,el1 whom the ,greeks called ,cronus2 for ,el was characterized by four eyes1 two in front and two behind1 and by three pairs of wings47#dhd7 ,a discrepancy in the number of wings can scarcely be deemed fatal to the identification4 ,the god may easily have moulted some superfluous feathers on the road from ,phoenicia to ,mallus4 ,on later coins of ,mallus these quaint ,oriental deities disappear1 and are replaced by corresponding ,greek deities1 particularly by a head of ,cronus on one side and a figure of ,demeter1 grasping ears of corn1 on the other47#dhe7 ,the change doubtless sprang from a wish to assimilate the ancient native divinities to the new and fashionable divinities of the ,greek pantheon4 ,if ,cronus and ,demeter1 the harvest god and goddess1 were chosen to supplant ,el and his female consort1 the ground of the choice must certainly have been a supposed resemblance between the two pairs of deities4 ,we may assume1 therefore1 that the discarded couple1 ,el and his wife1 had also been worshipped by the husbandman as sources of fertility1 the givers of corn and wine4 ,one of these later coins of ,mallus exhibits ,dionysus sitting on a vine laden with ripe clusters1 while on the obverse is seen a male figure guiding a yoke of oxen as if in the act of ploughing47#dhf7 ,these types of the vine-god and the ploughman probably represent another attempt to adapt the native religion to changed conditions1 to pour the old ,asiatic wine into new ,greek bottles4 ,the barbarous monster with the multiplicity of heads and wings has been reduced to a perfectly human ,dionysus4 ,the sacred but deplorable old conical stone no longer flaunts proudly on the coins2 it has retired to a decent obscurity in favour of a natural and graceful vine4 ,it is thus that a truly progressive theology keeps pace with the march of intellect4 ,but if these things were done by the apostles of culture at ,mallus1 we cannot suppose that the clergy of ,tarsus1 the capital1 lagged behind their provincial brethren in their efforts to place the ancient faith upon a sound modern basis4 ,the fruit of their labours seems to have been the more or less nominal substitution of ,zeus1 ,fortune1 and ,hercules for ,baal1 ',atheh1 and ,sandan47#dhg7 7,m#abf7 ,we may suspect that in like manner the ,sarpedonian ,artemis1 who had a sanctuary in ,south-,eastern ,cilicia1 near the ,syrian border1 was really a native goddess parading in borrowed plumes4 ,she gave oracular responses by the mouth of inspired men1 or more probably of women1 who in their moments of divine ecstasy may have been deemed incarnations of her divinity47#dhh7 ,another even more transparently ,asiatic goddess was ,perasia1 or ,artemis ,perasia1 who was worshipped at ,hieropolis-,castabala in ,eastern ,cilicia4 ,the extensive ruins of the ancient city1 now known as ,bodroum1 cover the slope of a hill about three-quarters of a mile to the north of the river ,pyramus4 ,above them towers the acropolis1 built on the summit of dark grey precipices1 and divided from the neighbouring mountain by a deep cutting in the rock4 ,a mediaeval castle1 built of hewn blocks of reddish-yellow limestone1 has replaced the ancient citadel4 ,the city possessed a large theatre1 and was traversed by two handsome colonnades1 of which some columns are still standing among the ruins4 ,a thick growth of brushwood and grass now covers most of the site1 and the place is wild and solitary4 ,only the wandering herdsmen encamp near the deserted city in winter and spring4 ,the neighbourhood is treeless2 yet in ,may magnificent fields of wheat and barley gladden the eye1 and in the valleys the clover grows as high as the horses' knees47#dhi7 ,the ambiguous nature of the goddess who presided over this ,city of the ,sanctuary 7,hieropolis77#dij7 was confessed by a puzzled worshipper1 a physician named ,lucius ,minius ,claudianus1 who confided his doubts to the deity herself in some very indifferent ,greek verses4 ,he wisely left it to the goddess to say whether she was ,artemis1 or the ,moon1 or ,hecate1 or ,aphrodite1 or ,demeter47#dia7 ,all that we know about her is that her true name was ,perasia1 and that she was in the enjoyment of certain revenues47#dib7 ,further1 we may reasonably conjecture that at the ,cilician ,castabala she was worshipped with rites like those which were held in honour of her namesake ,artemis ,perasia at another city of the same name1 ,castabala in ,cappadocia4 ,there1 as we saw1 the priestesses of the goddess walked over fire with bare feet unscathed47#dic7 ,probably the same impressive ceremony was performed before a crowd of worshippers in the ,cilician ,castabala also4 ,whatever the exact meaning of the rite may have been1 the goddess was in all probability one of those ,asiatic ,mother ,goddesses to whom the ,greeks often applied the name of ,artemis47#did7 ,the immunity enjoyed by the priestess in the furnace was attributed to her inspiration by the deity4 ,in discussing the nature of inspiration or possession by a deity1 the ,syrian philosopher ,jamblichus notes as one of its symptoms a total insensibility to pain4 ,many inspired persons1 he tells us1 8are not burned by fire1 the fire not taking hold of them by reason of the divine inspiration2 and many1 though they are burned1 perceive it not1 because at the time they do not live an animal life4 ,they pierce themselves with skewers and feel nothing4 ,they gash their backs with hatchets1 they slash their arms with daggers1 and know not what they do1 because their acts are not those of mere men4 ,for impassable places become passable to those who are filled with the spirit4 ,they rush into fire1 they pass through fire1 they cross rivers1 like the priestess at ,castabala4 ,these things prove that under the influence of inspiration men are beside themselves1 that their senses1 their will1 their life are those neither of man nor of beast1 but that they lead another and a diviner life instead1 whereby they are inspired and wholly possessed407#die7 ,thus in traversing the fiery furnace the priestesses of ,perasia were believed to be beside themselves1 to be filled with the goddess1 to be in a real sense incarnations of her divinity47#dif7 ,a similar touchstone of inspiration is still applied by some villagers in the ,himalayan districts of ,north-,western ,india4 ,once a year they worship ,airi1 a local deity1 who is represented by a trident and has his temples on lonely hills and desolate tracts4 ,at his festival the people seat themselves in a circle about a bonfire4 ,a kettle-drum is beaten1 and one by one his worshippers become possessed by the god and leap with shouts round the flames4 ,some brand themselves with heated iron spoons and sit down in the fire4 ,such as escape unhurt are believed to be truly inspired1 while those who burn themselves are despised as mere pretenders to the divine frenzy4 ,persons thus possessed by the spirit are called ,airi's horses or his slaves4 ,during the revels1 which commonly last about ten days1 they wear red scarves round their heads and receive alms from the faithful4 ,these men deem themselves so holy that they will let nobody touch them1 and they alone may touch the sacred trident1 the emblem of their god47#dig7 ,in ,western ,asia itself modern fanatics still practise the same austerities which were practised by their brethren in the days of ,jamblichus4 8,asia ,minor abounds in dervishes of different orders1 who lap red-hot iron1 calling it their #8rose1' chew coals of living fire1 strike their heads against solid walls1 stab themselves in the cheek1 the scalp1 the temple1 with sharp spikes set in heavy weights1 shouting #8,allah1 ,allah1' and always consistently avowing that during such frenzy they are entirely insensible to pain407#dih7 #i4 ,the ,burning of ,cilician ,gods4 7,m#abg7 ,on the whole1 then1 we seem to be justified in concluding that under a thin veneer of ,greek humanity the barbarous native gods of ,cilicia continued long to survive1 and that among them the great ,asiatic goddess retained a place1 though not the prominent place which she held in the highlands of the interior down at least to the beginning of our era4 ,the principle that the inspired priest or priestess represents the deity in person appears1 if ,i am right1 to have been recognized at ,castabala and at ,olba1 as well as at the sanctuary of ,sarpedonian ,artemis4 ,there can be no intrinsic improbability1 therefore1 in the view that at ,tarsus also the divine triad of ,baal1 ',atheh1 and ,sandan may also have been personated by priests and priestesses1 who1 on the analogy of ,olba and of the great sanctuaries in the interior of ,asia ,minor1 would originally be at the same time kings and queens1 princes and princesses4 ,further1 the burning of ,sandan in effigy at ,tarsus would1 on this hypothesis1 answer to the walk of the priestess of ,perasia through the furnace at ,castabala4 ,both were perhaps mitigations of a custom of putting the priestly king or queen1 or another member of the royal family1 to death by fire4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,sardanapalus and ,hercules4 #a4 ,the ,burning of ,sardanapalus4 7,m#abh7 ,the theory that kings or princes were formerly burned to death at ,tarsus in the character of gods is singularly confirmed by another and wholly independent line of argument4 ,for1 according to one account1 the city of ,tarsus was founded not by ,sandan but by ,sardanapalus1 the famous ,assyrian monarch whose death on a great pyre was one of the most famous incidents in ,oriental legend4 ,near the sea1 within a day's march of ,tarsus1 might be seen in antiquity the ruins of a great ancient city named ,anchiale1 and outside its walls stood a monument called the monument of ,sardanapalus1 on which was carved in stone the figure of the monarch4 ,he was represented snapping the fingers of his right hand1 and the gesture was explained by an accompanying inscription1 engraved in ,assyrian characters1 to the following effect3--8,sardanapalus1 son of ,anacyndaraxes1 built ,anchiale and ,tarsus in one day4 ,eat1 drink1 and play1 for everything else is not worth that10 by which was implied that all other human affairs were not worth a snap of the fingers47#dii7 ,the gesture may have been misinterpreted and the inscription mistranslated17#ejj7 but there is no reason to doubt the existence of such a monument1 though we may conjecture that it was of ,hittite rather than ,assyrian origin2 for1 not to speak of the traces of ,hittite art and religion which we have found at ,tarsus1 a group of ,hittite monuments has been discovered at ,marash1 in the upper valley of the ,pyramus47#eja7 ,the ,assyrians may have ruled over ,cilicia for a time1 but ,hittite influence was probably much deeper and more lasting47#ejb7 ,the story that ,tarsus was founded by ,sardanapalus may well be apocryphal17#ejc7 but there must have been some reason for his association with the city4 ,on the present hypothesis that reason is to be found in the traditional manner of his death4 ,to avoid falling into the hands of the rebels1 who laid siege to ,nineveh1 he built a huge pyre in his palace1 heaped it up with gold and silver and purple raiment1 and then burnt himself1 his wife1 his concubines1 and his eunuchs in the fire47#ejd7 ,the story is false of the historical ,sardanapalus1 that is1 of the great ,assyrian king ,ashurbanipal1 but it is true of his brother ,shamashshumukin4 ,being appointed king of ,babylon by ,ashurbanipal1 he revolted against his suzerain and benefactor1 and was besieged by him in his capital4 ,the siege was long and the resistance desperate1 for the ,babylonians knew that they had no mercy to expect from the ruthless ,assyrians4 ,but they were decimated by famine and pestilence1 and when the city could hold out no more1 ,king ,shamashshumukin1 determined not to fall alive into the hands of his offended brother1 shut himself up in his palace1 and there burned himself to death1 along with his wives1 his children1 his slaves1 and his treasures1 at the very moment when the conquerors were breaking in the gates47#eje7 ,not many years afterwards the same tragedy was repeated at ,nineveh itself by ,saracus or ,sinsharishkun1 the last king of ,assyria4 ,besieged by the rebel ,nabopolassar1 king of ,babylon1 and by ,cyaxares1 king of the ,medes1 he burned himself in his palace4 ,that was the end of ,nineveh and of the ,assyrian empire47#ejf7 ,thus ,greek history preserved the memory of the catastrophe1 but transferred it from the real victims to the far more famous ,ashurbanipal1 whose figure in after ages loomed vast and dim against the setting sun of ,assyrian glory4 #b4 ,the ,burning of ,croesus4 7,m#abi7 ,another ,oriental monarch who prepared at least to die in the flames was ,croesus1 king of ,lydia4 ,herodotus tells how the ,persians under ,cyrus captured ,sardes1 the ,lydian capital1 and took ,croesus alive1 and how ,cyrus caused a great pyre to be erected1 on which he placed the captive monarch in fetters1 and with him twice seven ,lydian youths4 ,fire was then applied to the pile1 but at the last moment ,cyrus relented1 a sudden shower extinguished the flames1 and ,croesus was spared47#ejg7 ,but it is most improbable that the ,persians1 with their profound reverence for the sanctity of fire1 should have thought of defiling the sacred element with the worst of all pollutions1 the contact of dead bodies47#ejh7 ,such an act would have seemed to them sacrilege of the deepest dye4 ,for to them fire was the earthly form of the heavenly light1 the eternal1 the infinite1 the divine2 death1 on the other hand1 was in their opinion the main source of corruption and uncleanness4 ,hence they took the most stringent precautions to guard the purity of fire from the defilement of death47#eji7 ,if a man or a dog died in a house where the holy fire burned1 the fire had to be removed from the house and kept away for nine nights in winter or a month in summer before it might be brought back2 and if any man broke the rule by bringing back the fire within the appointed time1 he might be punished with two hundred stripes47#eaj7 ,as for burning a corpse in the fire1 it was the most heinous of all sins1 an invention of ,ahriman1 the devil2 there was no atonement for it1 and it was punished with death47#eaa7 ,nor did the law remain a dead letter4 ,down to the beginning of our era the death penalty was inflicted on all who threw a corpse or cow-dung on the fire1 nay1 even on such as blew on the fire with their breath47#eab7 ,it is hard1 therefore1 to believe that a ,persian king should have commanded his subjects to perpetrate a deed which he and they viewed with horror as the most flagitious sacrilege conceivable4 7,m#acj7 ,another and in some respects truer version of the story of ,croesus and ,cyrus has been preserved by two older witnesses--namely1 by the ,greek poet ,bacchylides1 who was born some forty years after the event17#eac7 and by a ,greek artist who painted the scene on a red-figured vase about1 or soon after1 the time of the poet's birth4 ,bacchylides tells us that when the ,persians captured ,sardes1 ,croesus1 unable to brook the thought of slavery1 caused a pyre to be erected in front of his courtyard1 mounted it with his wife and daughters1 and bade a page apply a light to the wood4 ,a bright blaze shot up1 but ,zeus extinguished it with rain from heaven1 and ,apollo of the ,golden ,sword wafted the pious king and his daughters to the happy land beyond the ,north ,wind47#ead7 ,in like manner the vase-painter clearly represents the burning of ,croesus as a voluntary act1 not as a punishment inflicted on him by the conqueror4 ,he lets us see the king enthroned upon the pyre with a wreath of laurel on his head and a sceptre in one hand1 while with the other he is pouring a libation4 ,an attendant is in the act of applying to the pile two objects which have been variously interpreted as torches to kindle the wood or whisks to sprinkle holy water4 ,the demeanour of the king is solemn and composed3 he seems to be performing a religious rite1 not suffering an ignominious death47#eae7 ,thus we may fairly conclude with some eminent modern scholars7#eaf7 that in the extremity of his fortunes ,croesus prepared to meet death like a king or a god in the flames4 ,it was thus that ,hercules1 from whom the old kings of ,lydia claimed to be sprung17#eag7 ascended from earth to heaven3 it was thus that ,zimri1 king of ,israel1 passed beyond the reach of his enemies3 it was thus that ,shamashshumukin1 king of ,babylon1 escaped a brother's vengeance3 it was thus that the last king of ,assyria expired in the ruins of his capital2 and it was thus that1 sixty-six years after the capture of ,sardes1 the ,carthaginian king ,hamilcar sought to retrieve a lost battle by a hero's death47#eah7 7,m#aca7 ,semiramis herself1 the legendary queen of ,assyria1 is said to have burnt herself on a pyre out of grief at the death of a favourite horse47#eai7 ,since there are strong grounds for regarding the queen in her mythical aspect as a form of ,ishtar or ,astarte17#ebj7 the legend that ,semiramis died for love in the flames furnishes a remarkable parallel to the traditionary death of the love-lorn ,dido1 who herself appears to be simply an ,avatar of the same great ,asiatic goddess47#eba7 ,when we compare these stories of the burning of ,semiramis and ,dido with each other and with the historical cases of the burning of ,oriental monarchs1 we may perhaps conclude that there was a time when queens as well as kings were expected under certain circumstances1 perhaps on the death of their consort1 to perish in the fire4 ,the conclusion can hardly be deemed extravagant when we remember that the practice of burning widows to death survived in ,india under ,english rule down to a time within living memory47#ebb7 7,m#acb7 ,at ,jerusalem itself a reminiscence of the practice of burning kings1 alive or dead1 appears to have lingered as late as the time of ,isaiah1 who says3 8,for ,tophet is prepared of old2 yea1 for the king it is made ready2 he hath made it deep and large3 the pile thereof is fire and much wood2 the breath of the ,lord1 like a stream of brimstone1 doth kindle it407#ebc7 ,we know that 8great burnings0 were regularly made for dead kings of ,judah17#ebd7 and it can hardly be accidental that the place assigned by ,isaiah to the king's pyre is the very spot in the ,valley of ,hinnom where the first-born children were actually burned by their parents in honour of ,moloch 8the ,king40 ,the exact site of the ,valley of ,hinnom is disputed1 but all are agreed in identifying it with one of the ravines which encircle or intersect ,jerusalem2 and according to some eminent authorities it was the one called by ,josephus the ,tyropoeon47#ebe7 ,if this last identification is correct1 the valley where the children were burned on a pyre lay immediately beneath the royal palace and the temple4 ,perhaps the young victims died for ,god and the king47#ebf7 7,m#acc7 ,with the 8great burnings0 for dead ,jewish kings it seems worth while to compare the great burnings still annually made for dead ,jewish ,rabbis at the lofty village of ,meiron in ,galilee1 the most famous and venerated place of pilgrimage for ,jews in modern ,palestine4 ,here the tombs of the ,rabbis are hewn out of the rock1 and here on the thirtieth of ,april1 the eve of ,may ,day1 multitudes of pilgrims1 both men and women1 assemble and burn their offerings1 which consist of shawls1 scarfs1 handkerchiefs1 books1 and the like4 ,these are placed in two stone basins on the top of two low pillars1 and being drenched with oil and ignited they are consumed to ashes amid the loud applause1 shouts1 and cries of the spectators4 ,a man has been known to pay as much as two thousand piastres for the privilege of being allowed to open the ceremony by burning a costly shawl4 ,on such occasions the solemn unmoved serenity of the ,turkish officials1 who keep order1 presents a striking contrast to the intense excitement of the ,jews47#ebg7 ,this curious ceremony may be explained by the widespread practice of burning property for the use and benefit of the dead4 ,so1 to take a single instance1 the tyrant ,periander collected the finest raiment of all the women in ,corinth and burned it in a pit for his dead wife1 who had sent him word by necromancy that she was cold and naked in the other world1 because the clothes he buried with her had not been burnt47#ebh7 ,in like manner1 perhaps1 garments and other valuables may have been consumed on the pyre for the use of the dead kings of ,judah4 ,in ,siam1 the corpse of a king or queen is burned in a huge structure resembling a permanent palace1 which with its many-gabled and high-pitched roofs and multitudinous tinselled spires1 soaring to a height of over two hundred feet1 sometimes occupies an area of about an acre47#ebi7 ,the blaze of such an enormous catafalque may resemble1 even if it far surpasses1 the 8great burnings0 for the ,jewish kings4 #c4 ,purification by ,fire4 7,m#acd7 ,these events and these traditions seem to prove that under certain circumstances ,oriental monarchs deliberately chose to burn themselves to death4 ,what were these circumstances8 and what were the consequences of the act8 ,if the intention had merely been to escape from the hands of a conqueror1 an easier mode of death would naturally have been chosen4 ,there must have been a special reason for electing to die by fire4 ,the legendary death of ,hercules1 the historical death of ,hamilcar1 and the picture of ,croesus enthroned in state on the pyre and pouring a libation1 all combine to indicate that to be burnt alive was regarded as a solemn sacrifice1 nay1 more than that1 as an apotheosis which raised the victim to the rank of a god47#ecj7 ,for it is to be remembered that ,hamilcar as well as ,hercules was worshipped after death4 ,fire1 moreover1 was regarded by the ancients as a purgative so powerful that properly applied it could burn away all that was mortal of a man1 leaving only the divine and immortal spirit behind4 ,hence we read of goddesses who essayed to confer immortality on the infant sons of kings by burning them in the fire by night2 but their beneficent purpose was always frustrated by the ignorant interposition of the mother or father1 who peeping into the room saw the child in the flames and raised a cry of horror1 thus disconcerting the goddess at her magic rites4 ,this story is told of ,isis in the house of the king of ,byblus1 of ,demeter in the house of the king of ,eleusis1 and of ,thetis in the house of her mortal husband ,peleus47#eca7 ,in a slightly different way the witch ,medea professed to give back to the old their lost youth by boiling them with a hell-broth in her magic cauldron27#ecb7 and when ,pelops had been butchered and served up at a banquet of the gods by his cruel father ,tantalus1 the divine beings1 touched with pity1 plunged his mangled remains in a kettle1 from which after decoction he emerged alive and young47#ecc7 8,fire10 says ,jamblichus1 8destroys the material part of sacrifices1 it purifies all things that are brought near it1 releasing them from the bonds of matter and1 in virtue of the purity of its nature1 making them meet for communion with the gods4 ,so1 too1 it releases us from the bondage of corruption1 it likens us to the gods1 it makes us meet for their friendship1 and it converts our material nature into an immaterial407#ecd7 ,thus we can understand why kings and commoners who claimed or aspired to divinity should choose death by fire4 ,it opened to them the gates of heaven4 ,the quack ,peregrinus1 who ended his disreputable career in the flames at ,olympia1 gave out that after death he would be turned into a spirit who would guard men from the perils of the night2 and1 as ,lucian remarked1 no doubt there were plenty of fools to believe him47#ece7 ,according to one account1 the ,sicilian philosopher ,empedocles1 who set up for being a god in his lifetime1 leaped into the crater of ,etna in order to establish his claim to godhead47#ecf7 ,there is nothing incredible in the tradition4 ,the crack-brained philosopher1 with his itch for notoriety1 may well have done what ,indian fakirs7#ecg7 and the brazen-faced mountebank ,peregrinus did in antiquity1 and what ,russian peasants and ,chinese ,buddhists have done in modern times47#ech7 ,there is no extremity to which fanaticism or vanity1 or a mixture of the two1 will not impel its victims4 #d4 ,the ,divinity of ,lydian ,kings4 7,m#ace7 ,but apart from any general notions of the purificatory virtues of fire1 the kings of ,lydia seem to have had a special reason for regarding death in the flames as their appropriate end4 ,for the ancient dynasty of the ,heraclids which preceded the house of ,croesus on the throne traced their descent from a god or hero whom the ,greeks called ,hercules27#eci7 and this ,lydian ,hercules appears to have been identical in name and in substance with the ,cilician ,hercules1 whose effigy was regularly burned on a great pyre at ,tarsus4 ,the ,lydian ,hercules bore the name of ,sandon27#edj7 the ,cilician ,hercules bore the name of ,sandan1 or perhaps rather of ,sandon1 since ,sandon is known from inscriptions and other evidence to have been a ,cilician name47#eda7 ,the characteristic emblems of the ,cilician ,hercules were the lion and the double-headed axe2 and both these emblems meet us at ,sardes in connexion with the dynasty of the ,heraclids4 ,for the double-headed axe was carried as part of the sacred regalia by ,lydian kings from the time of the legendary queen ,omphale down to the reign of ,candaules1 the last of the ,heraclid kings4 ,it is said to have been given to ,omphale by ,hercules himself1 and it was apparently regarded as a palladium of the ,heraclid sovereignty2 for after the dotard ,candaules ceased to carry the axe himself1 and had handed it over to the keeping of a courtier1 a rebellion broke out1 and the ancient dynasty of the ,heraclids came to an end4 ,the new king ,gyges did not attempt to carry the old emblem of sovereignty2 he dedicated it with other spoils to ,zeus in ,caria4 ,hence the image of the ,carian ,zeus bore an axe in his hand and received the epithet of ,labrandeus1 from labrys1 the ,lydian word for 8axe407#edb7 ,such is ,plutarch's account2 but we may suspect that ,zeus1 or rather the native god whom the ,greeks identified with ,zeus1 carried the axe long before the time of ,candaules4 ,if1 as is commonly supposed1 the axe was the symbol of the ,asiatic thunder-god17#edc7 it would be an appropriate emblem in the hand of kings1 who are so often expected to make rain1 thunder1 and lightning for the good of their people4 ,whether the kings of ,lydia were bound to make thunder and rain we do not know2 but at all events1 like many early monarchs1 they seem to have been held responsible for the weather and the crops4 ,in the reign of ,meles the country suffered severely from dearth1 so the people consulted an oracle1 and the deity laid the blame on the kings1 one of whom had in former years incurred the guilt of murder4 ,the soothsayers accordingly declared that ,king ,meles1 though his own hands were clean1 must be banished for three years in order that the taint of bloodshed should be purged away4 ,the king obeyed and retired to ,babylon1 where he lived three years4 ,in his absence the kingdom was administered by a deputy1 a certain ,sadyattes1 son of ,cadys1 who traced his descent from ,tylon47#edd7 ,as to this ,tylon we shall hear more presently4 ,again1 we read that the ,lydians rejoiced greatly at the assassination of ,spermus1 another of their kings1 8for he was very wicked1 and the land suffered from drought in his reign407#ede7 ,apparently1 like the ancient ,irish and many modern ,africans1 they laid the drought at the king's door1 and thought that he only got what he deserved under the knife of the assassin4 7,m#acf7 ,with regard to the lion1 the other emblem of the ,cilician ,hercules1 we are told that the same king ,meles1 who was banished because of a dearth1 sought to make the acropolis of ,sardes impregnable by carrying round it a lion which a concubine had borne to him4 ,unfortunately at a single point1 where the precipices were such that it seemed as if no human foot could scale them1 he omitted to carry the beast1 and sure enough at that very point the ,persians afterwards clambered up into the citadel47#edf7 ,now ,meles was one of the old ,heraclid dynasty7#edg7 who boasted their descent from the lion-hero ,hercules2 hence the carrying of a lion round the acropolis was probably a form of consecration intended to place the stronghold under the guardianship of the lion-god1 the hereditary deity of the royal family4 ,and the story that the king's concubine gave birth to a lion's whelp suggests that the ,lydian kings not only claimed kinship with the beast1 but posed as lions in their own persons and passed off their sons as lion-cubs4 ,croesus dedicated at ,delphi a lion of pure gold1 perhaps as a badge of ,lydia17#edh7 and ,hercules with his lion's skin is a common type on coins of ,sardes47#edi7 7,m#acg7 ,thus the death1 or the attempted death1 of ,croesus on the pyre completes the analogy between the ,cilician and the ,lydian ,hercules4 ,at ,tarsus and at ,sardes we find the worship of a god whose symbols were the lion and the double-headed axe1 and who was burned on a great pyre1 either in effigy or in the person of a human representative4 ,the ,greeks called him ,hercules1 but his native name was ,sandan or ,sandon4 ,at ,sardes he seems to have been personated by the kings1 who carried the double-axe and perhaps wore1 like their ancestor ,hercules1 the lion's skin4 ,we may conjecture that at ,tarsus also the royal family aped the lion-god4 ,at all events we know that ,sandan1 the name of the god1 entered into the names of ,cilician kings1 and that in later times the priests of ,sandan at ,tarsus wore the royal purple47#eej7 #e4 ,hittite ,gods at ,tarsus and ,sardes4 7,m#ach7 ,now we have traced the religion of ,tarsus back by a double thread to the ,hittite religion of ,cappadocia4 ,one thread joins the ,baal of ,tarsus1 with his grapes and his corn1 to the god of ,ibreez4 ,the other thread unites the ,sandan of ,tarsus1 with his lion and his double axe1 to the similar figure at ,boghaz-,keui4 ,without being unduly fanciful1 therefore1 we may surmise that the ,sandon-,hercules of ,lydia was also a ,hittite god1 and that the ,heraclid dynasty of ,lydia were of ,hittite blood4 ,certainly the influence1 if not the rule1 of the ,hittites extended to ,lydia2 for at least two rock-carvings accompanied by ,hittite inscriptions are still to be seen in the country4 ,both of them attracted the attention of the ancient ,greeks4 ,one of them represents a god or warrior in ,hittite costume armed with a spear and bow4 ,it is carved on the face of a grey rock1 which stands out conspicuous on a bushy hillside1 where an old road runs through a glen from the valley of the ,hermus to the valley of the ,cayster4 ,the place is now called ,kara-,bel4 ,herodotus thought that the figure represented the ,egyptian king and conqueror ,sesostris47#eea7 ,the other monument is a colossal seated figure of the ,mother of the ,gods1 locally known in antiquity as ,mother ,plastene4 ,it is hewn out of the solid rock and occupies a large niche in the face of a cliff at the steep northern foot of ,mount ,sipylus47#eeb7 ,thus it would seem that at some time or other the ,hittites carried their arms to the shores of the ,aegean4 ,there is no improbability1 therefore1 in the view that a ,hittite dynasty may have reigned at ,sardes47#eec7 #f4 ,the ,resurrection of ,tylon4 7,m#aci7 ,the burning of ,sandan1 like that of ,melcarth17#eed7 was probably followed by a ceremony of his resurrection or awakening1 to indicate that the divine life was not extinct1 but had only assumed a fresher and purer form4 ,of that resurrection we have1 so far as ,i am aware1 no direct evidence4 ,in default of it1 however1 there is a tale of a local ,lydian hero called ,tylon or ,tylus1 who was killed and brought to life again4 ,the story runs thus4 ,tylon or ,tylus was a son of ,earth47#eee7 ,one day as he was walking on the banks of the ,hermus a serpent stung and killed him4 ,his distressed sister ,moire had recourse to a giant named ,damasen1 who attacked and slew the serpent4 ,but the serpent's mate culled a herb1 8the flower of ,zeus0 in the woods1 and bringing it in her mouth put it to the lips of the dead serpent1 which immediately revived4 ,in her turn ,moire took the hint and restored her brother ,tylon to life by touching him with the same plant47#eef7 ,a similar incident occurs in many folk-tales4 ,serpents are often credited with a knowledge of life-giving plants47#eeg7 ,but ,tylon seems to have been more than a mere hero of fairy-tales4 ,he was closely associated with ,sardes1 for he figures on the coins of the city along with his champion ,damasen or ,masnes1 the dead serpent1 and the life-giving branch47#eeh7 ,and he was related in various ways to the royal family of ,lydia2 for his daughter married ,cotys1 one of the earliest kings of the country17#eei7 and a descendant of his acted as regent during the banishment of ,king ,meles47#efj7 ,it has been suggested that the story of his death and resurrection was acted as a pageant to symbolize the revival of plant life in spring47#efa7 ,at all events1 a festival called the ,feast of the ,golden ,flower was celebrated in honour of ,persephone at ,sardes17#efb7 probably in one of the vernal months1 and the revival of the hero and of the goddess may well have been represented together4 ,the ,golden ,flower of the ,festival would then be the 8flower of ,zeus0 of the legend1 perhaps the yellow crocus of nature or rather her more gorgeous sister1 the ,oriental saffron4 ,for saffron grew in great abundance at the ,corycian cave of ,zeus27#efc7 and it is an elegant conjecture1 if it is nothing more1 that the very name of the place meant 8the ,crocus ,cave407#efd7 ,however1 on the coins of ,sardes the magical plant seems to be a branch rather than a blossom1 a ,golden ,bough rather than a ,golden ,flower4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,volcanic ,religion4 #a4 ,the ,burning of a ,god4 7,m#adj7 ,thus it appears that a custom of burning a god in effigy or in the person of a human representative was practised by at least two peoples of ,western ,asia1 the ,phoenicians and the ,hittites4 ,whether they both developed the custom independently1 or whether one of them adopted it from the other1 we cannot say4 ,and their reasons for celebrating a rite which to us seems strange and monstrous are also obscure4 ,in the preceding inquiry some grounds have been adduced for thinking that the practice was based on a conception of the purifying virtue of fire1 which1 by destroying the corruptible and perishable elements of man1 was supposed to fit him for union with the imperishable and the divine4 ,now to people who created their gods in their own likeness1 and imagined them subject to the same law of decadence and death1 the idea would naturally occur that fire might do for the gods what it was believed to do for men1 that it could purge them of the taint of corruption and decay1 could sift the mortal from the immortal in their composition1 and so endow them with eternal youth4 ,hence a custom might arise of subjecting the deities themselves1 or the more important of them1 to an ordeal of fire for the purpose of refreshing and renovating those creative energies on the maintenance of which so much depended4 ,to the coarse apprehension of the uninstructed and unsympathetic observer the solemn rite might easily wear a very different aspect4 ,according as he was of a pious or of a sceptical turn of mind1 he might denounce it as a sacrilege or deride it as an absurdity4 8,to burn the god whom you worship10 he might say1 8is the height of impiety and of folly4 ,if you succeed in the attempt1 you kill him and deprive yourselves of his valuable services4 ,if you fail1 you have mortally offended him1 and sooner or later he will visit you with his severe displeasure40 ,to this the worshipper1 if he was patient and polite1 might listen with a smile of indulgent pity for the ignorance and obtuseness of the critic4 8,you are much mistaken10 he might observe1 8in imagining that we expect or attempt to kill the god whom we adore4 ,the idea of such a thing is as repugnant to us as to you4 ,our intention is precisely the opposite of that which you attribute to us4 ,far from wishing to destroy the deity1 we desire to make him live for ever1 to place him beyond the reach of that process of degeneration and final dissolution to which all things here below appear by their nature to be subject4 ,he does not die in the fire4 ,oh no6 ,only the corruptible and mortal part of him perishes in the flames3 all that is incorruptible and immortal of him will survive the purer and stronger for being freed from the contagion of baser elements4 ,that little heap of ashes which you see there is not our god4 ,it is only the skin which he has sloughed1 the husk which he has cast4 ,he himself is far away1 in the clouds of heaven1 in the depths of earth1 in the running waters1 in the tree and the flower1 in the corn and the vine4 ,we do not see him face to face1 but every year he manifests his divine life afresh in the blossoms of spring and the fruits of autumn4 ,we eat of his broken body in bread4 ,we drink of his shed blood in the juice of the grape40 #b4 ,the ,volcanic ,region of ,cappadocia4 7,m#ada7 ,some such train of reasoning may suffice to explain1 though naturally not to justify1 the custom which we bluntly call the burning of a god4 ,yet it is worth while to ask whether in the development of the practice these general considerations may not have been reinforced or modified by special circumstances2 for example1 by the natural features of the country where the custom grew up4 ,for the history of religion1 like that of all other human institutions1 has been profoundly affected by local conditions1 and cannot be fully understood apart from them4 ,now ,asia ,minor1 the region where the practice in question appears to have been widely diffused1 has from time immemorial been subjected to the action of volcanic forces on a great scale4 ,it is true that1 so far as the memory of man goes back1 the craters of its volcanoes have been extinct1 but the vestiges of their dead or slumbering fires are to be seen in many places1 and the country has been shaken and rent at intervals by tremendous earthquakes4 ,these phenomena cannot fail to have impressed the imagination of the inhabitants1 and thereby to have left some mark on their religion4 7,m#adb7 ,among the extinct volcanoes of ,anatolia the greatest is ,mount ,argaeus1 in the centre of ,cappadocia1 the heart of the old ,hittite country4 ,it is indeed the highest point of ,asia ,minor1 and one of the loftiest mountains known to the ancients2 for in height it falls not very far short of ,mount ,blanc4 ,towering abruptly in a huge pyramid from the plain1 it is a conspicuous object for miles on miles4 ,its top is white with eternal snow1 and in antiquity its lower slopes were clothed with dense forests1 from which the inhabitants of the treeless ,cappadocian plains drew their supply of timber4 ,in these woods1 and in the low grounds at the foot of the mountain1 the languishing fires of the volcano manifested themselves as late as the beginning of our era4 ,the ground was treacherous4 ,under a grassy surface there lurked pits of fire1 into which stray cattle and unwary travellers often fell4 ,experienced woodmen used great caution when they went to fell trees in the forest4 ,elsewhere the soil was marshy1 and flames were seen to play over it at night47#efe7 ,superstitious fancies no doubt gathered thick around these perilous spots1 but what shape they took we cannot say4 ,nor do we know whether sacrifices were offered on the top of the mountain1 though a curious discovery may perhaps be thought to indicate that they were4 ,sharp and lofty pinnacles of red porphyry1 inaccessible to the climber1 rise in imposing grandeur from the eternal snow of the summit1 and here ,mr4 ,tozer found that the rock had been perforated in various places with human habitations4 ,one such rock-hewn dwelling winds inward for a considerable distance2 rude niches are hollowed in its sides1 and on its roof and walls may be seen the marks of tools47#eff7 ,the ancients certainly did not climb mountains for pleasure or health1 and it is difficult to imagine that any motive but superstition should have led them to provide dwellings in such a place4 ,these rock-cut chambers may have been shelters for priests charged with the performance of religious or magical rites on the summit4 #c4 ,fire-,worship in ,cappadocia4 7,m#adc7 ,under the ,persian rule ,cappadocia became1 and long continued to be1 a great seat of the ,zoroastrian fire-worship4 ,in the time of ,strabo1 about the beginning of our era1 the votaries of that faith and their temples were still numerous in the country4 ,the perpetual fire burned on an altar1 surrounded by a heap of ashes1 in the middle of the temple2 and the priests daily chanted their liturgy before it1 holding in their hands a bundle of myrtle rods and wearing on their heads tall felt caps with cheek-pieces which covered their lips1 lest they should defile the sacred flame with their breath47#efg7 ,it is reasonable to suppose that the natural fires which burned perpetually on the outskirts of ,mount ,argaeus attracted the devotion of the disciples of ,zoroaster1 for elsewhere similar fires have been the object of religious reverence down to modern times4 ,thus at ,jualamukhi1 on the lower slopes of the ,himalayas1 jets of combustible gas issue from the earth2 and a great ,hindoo temple1 the resort of many pilgrims1 is built over them4 ,the perpetual flame1 which is of a reddish hue and emits an aromatic perfume1 rises from a pit in the fore-court of the sanctuary4 ,the worshippers deliver their gifts1 consisting usually of flowers1 to the attendant fakirs1 who first hold them over the flame and then cast them into the body of the temple47#efh7 ,again1 ,hindoo pilgrims make their way with great difficulty to ,baku on the ,caspian1 in order to worship the everlasting fires which there issue from the beds of petroleum4 ,the sacred spot is about ten miles to the north-east of the city4 ,an ,english traveller1 who visited ,baku in the middle of the eighteenth century1 has thus described the place and the worship4 8,there are several ancient temples built with stone1 supposed to have been all dedicated to fire2 most of them are arched vaults1 not above ten to fifteen feet high4 ,amongst others there is a little temple1 in which the ,indians now worship2 near the altar1 about three feet high1 is a large hollow cane1 from the end of which issues a blue flame1 in colour and gentleness not unlike a lamp that burns with spirits1 but seemingly more pure4 ,these ,indians affirm that this flame has continued ever since the flood1 and they believe it will last to the end of the world2 that if it was resisted or suppressed in that place1 it would rise in some other4 ,here are generally forty or fifty of these poor devotees1 who come on a pilgrimage from their own country1 and subsist upon wild sallary1 and a kind of ,jerusalem artichoke1 which are very good food1 with other herbs and roots1 found a little to the northward4 ,their business is to make expiation1 not for their own sins only1 but for those of others2 and they continue the longer time1 in proportion to the number of persons for whom they have engaged to pray4 ,they mark their foreheads with saffron1 and have a great veneration for a red cow407#efi7 ,thus it would seem that a purifying virtue is attributed to the sacred flame1 since pilgrims come to it from far to expiate sin4 #d4 ,the ,burnt ,land of ,lydia4 7,m#add7 ,another volcanic region of ,asia ,minor is the district of ,lydia1 to which1 on account of its remarkable appearance1 the ,greeks gave the name of the ,burnt ,land4 ,it lies to the east of ,sardes in the upper valley of the ,hermus1 and covers an area of about fifty miles by forty4 ,as described by ,strabo1 the country was wholly treeless except for the vines1 which produced a wine inferior to none of the most famous vintages of antiquity4 ,the surface of the plains was like ashes2 the hills were composed of black stone1 as if they had been scorched by fire4 ,some people laid the scene of ,typhon's battle with the gods in this ,black ,country1 and supposed that it had been burnt by the thunderbolts hurled from heaven at the impious monster4 ,the philosophic ,strabo1 however1 held that the fires which had wrought this havoc were subterranean1 not celestial1 and he pointed to three craters1 at intervals of about four miles1 each in a hill of scoriae which he supposed to have been once molten matter ejected by the volcanoes47#egj7 ,his observation and his theory have both been confirmed by modern science4 ,the three extinct volcanoes to which he referred are still conspicuous features of the landscape4 ,each is a black cone of loose cinders1 scoriae1 and ashes1 with steep sides and a deep crater4 ,from each a flood of rugged black lava has flowed forth1 bursting out at the foot of the cone1 and then rushing down the dale to the bed of the ,hermus4 ,the dark streams follow all the sinuosities of the valleys1 their sombre hue contrasting with the rich verdure of the surrounding landscape4 ,their surface1 broken into a thousand fantastic forms1 resembles a sea lashed into fury by a gale1 and then suddenly hardened into stone4 ,regarded from the geological point of view1 these black cones of cinders and these black rivers of lava are of comparatively recent formation4 ,exposure to the weather for thousands of years has not yet softened their asperities and decomposed them into vegetable mould2 they are as hard and ungenial as if the volcanic stream had ceased to flow but yesterday4 ,but in the same district there are upwards of thirty other volcanic cones1 whose greater age is proved by their softened forms1 their smoother sides1 and their mantle of vegetation4 ,some of them are planted with vineyards to their summits47#ega7 ,thus the volcanic soil is still as favourable to the cultivation of the vine as it was in antiquity4 ,the relation between the two was noted by the ancients4 ,strabo compares the vines of the ,burnt ,land with the vineyards of ,catania fertilized by the ashes of ,mount ,etna2 and he tells us that some ingenious persons explained the fire-born ,dionysus as a myth of the grapes fostered by volcanic agency47#egb7 #e4 ,the ,earthquake ,god4 7,m#ade7 ,but the inhabitants of these regions were reminded of the slumbering fires by other and less agreeable tokens than the generous juice of their grapes4 ,for not the ,burnt ,land only but the country to the south1 including the whole valley of the ,maeander1 was subject to frequent and violent shocks of earthquake4 ,the soil was loose1 friable1 and full of salts1 the ground hollow1 undermined by fire and water4 ,in particular the city of ,philadelphia was a great centre of disturbance4 ,the shocks there1 we are told1 were continuous4 ,the houses rocked1 the walls cracked and gaped2 the few inhabitants were kept busy repairing the breaches or buttressing and propping the edifices which threatened to tumble about their ears4 ,most of the citizens1 indeed1 had the prudence to dwell dispersed on their farms4 ,it was a marvel1 says ,strabo1 that such a city should have any inhabitants at all1 and a still greater marvel that it should ever have been built47#egc7 ,however1 by a wise dispensation of ,providence1 the earthquakes which shook the foundations of their houses only strengthened those of their faith4 ,the people of ,apameia1 whose town was repeatedly devastated1 paid their devotions with great fervour to ,poseidon1 the earthquake god47#egd7 ,again1 the island of ,santorin1 in the ,greek ,archipelago1 has been for thousands of years a great theatre of volcanic activity4 ,on one occasion the waters of the bay boiled and flamed for four days1 and an island composed of red-hot matter rose gradually1 as if hoisted by machinery1 above the waves4 ,it happened that the sovereignty of the seas was then with the ,rhodians1 those merchant-princes whose prudent policy1 strict but benevolent oligarchy1 and beautiful island-city1 rich with accumulated treasures of native art1 rendered them in a sense the ,venetians of the ancient world4 ,so when the ebullition and heat of the eruption had subsided1 their sea-captains landed in the new island1 and founded a sanctuary of ,poseidon the ,establisher or ,securer17#ege7 a complimentary epithet often bestowed on him as a hint not to shake the earth more than he could conveniently help47#egf7 ,in many places people sacrificed to ,poseidon the ,establisher1 in the hope that he would be as good as his name and not bring down their houses on their heads47#egg7 7,m#adf7 ,another instance of a ,greek attempt to quiet the perturbed spirit underground is instructive1 because similar efforts are still made by savages in similar circumstances4 ,once when a ,spartan army under ,king ,agesipolis had taken the field1 it chanced that the ground under their feet was shaken by an earthquake4 ,it was evening1 and the king was at mess with the officers of his staff4 ,no sooner did they feel the shock than1 with great presence of mind1 they rose from their dinner and struck up a popular hymn in honour of ,poseidon4 ,the soldiers outside the tent took up the strain1 and soon the whole army joined in the sacred melody47#egh7 ,it is not said whether the flute-band1 which always played the ,spartan redcoats into action17#egi7 accompanied the deep voices of the men with its shrill music4 ,at all events1 the intention of this service of praise1 addressed to the earth-shaking god1 can only have been to prevail on him to stop4 ,i have spoken of the ,spartan redcoats because the uniform of ,spartan soldiers was red47#ehj7 ,as they fought in an extended1 not a deep1 formation1 a ,spartan line of battle must always have been1 what the ,british used to be1 a thin red line4 ,it was in this order1 and no doubt with the music playing and the sun flashing on their arms1 that they advanced to meet the ,persians at ,thermopylae4 ,like ,cromwell's ,ironsides1 these men could fight as well as sing psalms47#eha7 7,m#adg7 ,if the ,spartans imagined that they could stop an earthquake by a soldiers' chorus1 their theory and practice resembled those of many other barbarians4 ,thus the people of ,timor1 in the ,east ,indies1 think that the earth rests on the shoulder of a mighty giant1 and that when he is weary of bearing it on one shoulder he shifts it to the other1 and so causes the ground to quake4 ,at such times1 accordingly1 they all shout at the top of their voices to let him know that there are still people on the earth2 for otherwise they fear lest1 impatient of his burden1 he might tip it into the sea47#ehb7 ,the ,manichaeans held a precisely similar theory of earthquakes1 except that according to them the weary giant transferred his burden from one shoulder to the other at the end of every thirty years17#ehc7 a view which1 at all events1 points to the observation of a cycle in the recurrence of earthquake shocks4 ,but we are not told that these heretics reduced an absurd theory to an absurd practice by raising a shout in order to remind the earth-shaker of the inconvenience he was putting them to4 ,however1 both the theory and the practice are to be found in full force in various parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,when the ,balinese and the ,sundanese feel an earthquake they cry out1 8,still alive10 or 8,we still live10 to acquaint the earth-shaking god or giant with their existence47#ehd7 ,the natives of ,leti1 ,moa1 and ,lakor1 islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 imagine that earthquakes are caused by ,grandmother ,earth in order to ascertain whether her descendants are still to the fore4 ,so they make loud noises for the purpose of satisfying her grandmotherly solicitude47#ehe7 ,the ,tami of ,german ,new ,guinea ascribe earthquakes to a certain old ,panku who sits under a great rock2 when he stirs1 the earth quakes4 ,if the shock lasts a long time they beat on the ground with palm-branches1 saying1 8,you down there6 easy a little6 ,we men are still here407#ehf7 ,the ,shans of ,burma are taught by ,buddhist monks that under the world there sleeps a great fish with his tail in his mouth1 but sometimes he wakes1 bites his tail1 and quivering with pain causes the ground to quiver and shake likewise4 ,that is the cause of great earthquakes4 ,but the cause of little earthquakes is different4 ,these are produced by little men who live underground and sometimes feeling lonely knock on the roof of the world over their heads2 these knockings we perceive as slight shocks of earthquakes4 ,when ,shans feel such a shock1 they run out of their houses1 kneel down1 and answer the little men saying1 8,we are here6 ,we are here607#ehg7 ,earthquakes are common in the ,pampa del ,sacramento of ,eastern ,peru4 ,the ,conibos1 a tribe of ,indians on the left bank of the great ,ucayali ,river1 attribute these disturbances to the creator1 who usually resides in heaven1 but comes down from time to time to see whether the work of his hands still exists4 ,the result of his descent is an earthquake4 ,so when one happens1 these ,indians rush out of their huts with extravagant gestures shouting1 as if in answer to a question1 8,a moment1 a moment1 here ,i am1 father1 here ,i am60 ,their intention is1 no doubt1 to assure their heavenly father that they are still alive1 and that he may return to his mansion on high with an easy mind4 ,they never remember the creator nor pay him any heed except at an earthquake47#ehh7 ,in ,africa the ,atonga tribe of ,lake ,nyassa used to believe that an earthquake was the voice of ,god calling to inquire whether his people were all there4 ,so when the rumble was heard underground they all shouted in answer1 8,ye1 ye10 and some of them went to the mortars used for pounding corn and beat on them with pestles4 ,they thought that if any one of them did not thus answer to the divine call he would die47#ehi7 ,in ,ourwira the people think that an earthquake is caused by a dead sultan marching past underground2 so they stand up to do him honour1 and some raise their hands to the salute4 ,were they to omit these marks of respect to the deceased1 they would run the risk of being swallowed up alive47#eij7 ,the ,baganda of ,central ,africa used to attribute earthquakes to a certain god named ,musisi1 who lived underground and set the earth in a tremor when he moved about4 ,at such times persons who had fetishes to hand patted them and begged the god to be still2 women who were with child patted their bellies to keep the god from taking either their own life or that of their unborn babes2 others raised a shrill cry to induce him to remain quiet47#eia7 7,m#adh7 ,when the ,bataks of ,sumatra feel an earthquake they shout 8,the handle6 ,the handle60 ,the meaning of the cry is variously explained4 ,some say that it contains a delicate allusion to the sword which is thrust up to the hilt into the body of the demon or serpent who shakes the earth4 ,thus explained the words are a jeer or taunt levelled at that mischievous being47#eib7 ,others say that when ,batara-guru1 the creator1 was about to fashion the earth he began by building a raft1 which he commanded a certain ,naga-padoha to support4 ,while he was hard at work his chisel broke1 and at the same moment ,naga-padoha budged under his burden4 ,therefore ,batara-guru said1 8,hold hard a moment6 ,the handle of the chisel is broken off40 ,and that is why the ,bataks call out 8,the handle of the chisel0 during an earthquake4 ,they believe that the deluded ,naga-padoha will take the words for the voice of the creator1 and that he will hold hard accordingly47#eic7 7,m#adi7 ,when the earth quakes in some parts of ,celebes1 it is said that all the inhabitants of a village will rush out of their houses and grub up grass by handfuls in order to attract the attention of the earth-spirit1 who1 feeling his hair thus torn out by the roots1 will be painfully conscious that there are still people above ground47#eid7 ,so in ,samoa1 during shocks of earthquake1 the natives sometimes ran and threw themselves on the ground1 gnawed the earth1 and shouted frantically to the earthquake god ,mafuie to desist lest he should shake the earth to pieces47#eie7 ,they consoled themselves with the thought that ,mafuie has only one arm1 saying1 8,if he had two1 what a shake he would give607#eif7 ,the ,bagobos of the ,philippine ,islands believe that the earth rests on a great post1 which a large serpent is trying to remove4 ,when the serpent shakes the post1 the earth quakes4 ,at such times the ,bagobos beat their dogs to make them howl1 for the howling of the animals frightens the serpent1 and he stops shaking the post4 ,hence so long as an earthquake lasts the howls of dogs may be heard to proceed from every house in a ,bagobo village47#eig7 ,the ,tongans think that the earth is supported on the prostrate form of the god ,mooi4 ,when he is tired of lying in one posture1 he tries to turn himself about1 and that causes an earthquake4 ,then the people shout and beat the ground with sticks to make him lie still47#eih7 ,during an earthquake the ,burmese make a great uproar1 beating the walls of their houses and shouting1 to frighten away the evil genius who is shaking the earth47#eii7 ,on a like occasion and for a like purpose some natives of the ,gazelle ,peninsula in ,new ,britain beat drums and blow on shells47#fjj7 ,the ,dorasques1 an ,indian tribe of ,panama1 believed that the volcano of ,chiriqui was inhabited by a powerful spirit1 who1 in his anger1 caused an earthquake4 ,at such times the ,indians shot volleys of arrows in the direction of the volcano to terrify him and make him desist47#fja7 ,some of the ,peruvian ,indians regarded an earthquake as a sign that the gods were thirsty1 so they poured water on the ground47#fjb7 ,in ,ashantee several persons used to be put to death after an earthquake2 they were slain as a sacrifice to ,sasabonsun1 the earthquake god1 in the hope of satiating his cruelty for a time4 ,houses which had been thrown down or damaged by an earthquake were sprinkled with human blood before they were rebuilt4 ,when part of the wall of the king's house at ,coomassie was knocked down by an earthquake1 fifty young girls were slaughtered1 and the mud to be used in the repairs was kneaded with their blood47#fjc7 7,m#aej7 ,an ,english resident in ,fiji attributed a sudden access of piety in ,kantavu1 one of the islands1 to a tremendous earthquake which destroyed many of the natives4 ,the ,fijians think that their islands rest on a god1 who causes earthquakes by turning over in his sleep4 ,so they sacrifice to him things of great value in order that he may turn as gently as possible47#fjd7 ,in ,nias a violent earthquake has a salutary effect on the morals of the natives4 ,they suppose that it is brought about by a certain ,batoo ,bedano1 who intends to destroy the earth because of the iniquity of mankind4 ,so they assemble and fashion a great image out of the trunk of a tree4 ,they make offerings1 they confess their sins1 they correct the fraudulent weights and measures1 they vow to do better in the future1 they implore mercy1 and if the earth has gaped1 they throw a little gold into the fissure4 ,but when the danger is over1 all their fine vows and promises are soon forgotten47#fje7 7,m#aea7 ,we may surmise that in those ,greek lands which have suffered severely from earthquakes1 such as ,achaia and the western coasts of ,asia ,minor1 ,poseidon was worshipped not less as an earthquake god than as a sea-god47#fjf7 ,it is to be remembered that an earthquake is often accompanied by a tremendous wave which comes rolling in like a mountain from the sea1 swamping the country far and wide2 indeed on the coasts of ,chili and ,peru1 which have often been devastated by both1 the wave is said to be even more dreaded than the earthquake47#fjg7 ,the ,greeks often experienced this combination of catastrophes1 this conspiracy1 as it were1 of earth and sea against the life and works of man47#fjh7 ,it was thus that ,helice1 on the coast of ,achaia1 perished with all its inhabitants on a winter night1 overwhelmed by the billows2 and its destruction was set down to the wrath of ,poseidon47#fji7 ,nothing could be more natural than that to people familiar with the twofold calamity the dreadful god of the earthquake and of the sea should appear to be one and the same4 ,the historian ,diodorus ,siculus observes that ,peloponnese was deemed to have been in ancient days the abode of ,poseidon1 that the whole country was in a manner sacred to him1 and that every city in it worshipped him above all the gods4 ,the devotion to ,poseidon he explains partly by the earthquakes and floods by which the land has been visited1 partly by the remarkable chasms and subterranean rivers which are a conspicuous feature of its limestone mountains47#faj7 #f4 ,the ,worship of ,mephitic ,vapours4 7,m#aeb7 ,but eruptions and earthquakes1 though the most tremendous1 are not the only phenomena of volcanic regions which have affected the religion of the inhabitants4 ,poisonous mephitic vapours and hot springs1 which abound especially in volcanic regions17#faa7 have also had their devotees1 and both are1 or were formerly1 to be found in those western districts of ,asia ,minor with which we are here concerned4 ,to begin with vapours1 we may take as an illustration of their deadly effect the ,guevo ,upas1 or ,valley of ,poison1 near ,batur in ,java4 ,it is the crater of an extinct volcano1 about half a mile in circumference1 and from thirty to thirty-five feet deep4 ,neither man nor beast can descend to the bottom and live4 ,the ground is covered with the carcases of tigers1 deer1 birds1 and even the bones of men1 all killed by the abundant emanations of carbonic acid gas which exhale from the soil4 ,animals let down into it die in a few minutes4 ,the whole range of hills is volcanic4 ,two neighbouring craters constantly emit smoke47#fab7 ,in another crater of ,java1 near the volcano ,talaga ,bodas1 the sulphureous exhalations have proved fatal to tigers1 birds1 and countless insects2 and the soft parts of these creatures1 such as fibres1 muscles1 hair1 and skin1 are well preserved1 while the bones are corroded or destroyed47#fac7 7,m#aec7 ,the ancients were acquainted with such noxious vapours in their own country1 and they regarded the vents from which they were discharged as entrances to the infernal regions47#fad7 ,the ,greeks called them places of ,pluto 7,plutonia7 or places of ,charon 7,charonia747#fae7 ,in ,italy the vapours were personified as a goddess1 who bore the name of ,mefitis and was worshipped in various parts of the peninsula47#faf7 ,she had a temple in the famous valley of ,amsanctus in the land of the ,hirpini1 where the exhalations1 supposed to be the breath of ,pluto himself1 were of so deadly a character that all who set foot on the spot died47#fag7 ,the place is a glen1 partly wooded with chestnut trees1 among limestone hills1 distant about four miles from the town of ,frigento4 ,here1 under a steep shelving bank of decomposed limestone1 there is a pool of dark ash-coloured water1 which continually bubbles up with an explosion like distant thunder4 ,a rapid stream of the same blackish water rushes into the pool from under the barren rocky hill1 but the fall is not more than a few feet4 ,a little higher up are apertures in the ground1 through which warm blasts of sulphuretted hydrogen are constantly issuing with more or less noise1 according to the size of the holes4 ,these blasts are no doubt what the ancients deemed the breath of ,pluto4 ,the pool is now called ,mefite and the holes ,mefitinelle4 ,on the other side of the pool is a smaller pond called the ,coccaio1 or ,cauldron1 because it appears to be perpetually boiling4 ,thick masses of mephitic vapour1 visible a hundred yards off1 float in rapid undulations on its surface4 ,the exhalations given off by these waters are sometimes fatal1 especially when they are borne on a high wind4 ,but as the carbonic acid gas does not naturally rise more than two or three feet from the ground1 it is possible in calm weather to walk round the pools1 though to stoop is difficult and to fall would be dangerous4 ,the ancient temple of ,mefitis has been replaced by a shrine of the martyred ,santa ,felicita47#fah7 7,m#aed7 ,similar discharges of poisonous vapours took place at various points in the volcanic district of ,caria1 and were the object of superstitious veneration in antiquity4 ,thus at the village of ,thymbria there was a sacred cave which gave out deadly emanations1 and the place was deemed a sanctuary of ,charon47#fai7 ,a similar cave might be seen at the village of ,acharaca near ,nysa1 in the valley of the ,maeander4 ,here1 below the cave1 there was a fine grove with a temple dedicated to ,pluto and ,persephone4 ,the place was sacred to ,pluto1 yet sick people resorted to it for the restoration of their health4 ,they lived in the neighbouring village1 and the priests prescribed for them according to the revelations which they received from the two deities in dreams4 ,often the priests would take the patients to the cave and leave them there for days without food4 ,sometimes the sufferers themselves were favoured with revelations in dreams1 but they always acted under the spiritual direction of the priests4 ,to all but the sick the place was unapproachable and fatal4 ,once a year a festival was held in the village1 and then afflicted folk came in crowds to be rid of their ailments4 ,about the hour of noon on that day a number of athletic young men1 their naked bodies greased with oil1 used to carry a bull up to the cave and there let it go4 ,but the beast had not taken a few steps into the cavern before it fell to the ground and expired3 so deadly was the vapour47#fbj7 7,m#aee7 ,another ,plutonian sanctuary of the same sort existed at ,hierapolis1 in the upper valley of the ,maeander1 on the borders of ,lydia and ,phrygia47#fba7 ,here under a brow of the hill there was a deep cave with a narrow mouth just large enough to admit the body of a man4 ,a square space in front of the cave was railed off1 and within the railing there hung so thick a cloudy vapour that it was hardly possible to see the ground4 ,in calm weather people could step up to the railing with safety1 but to pass within it was instant death4 ,bulls driven into the enclosure fell to the earth and were dragged out lifeless2 and sparrows1 which spectators by way of experiment allowed to fly into the mist1 dropped dead at once4 ,yet the eunuch priests of the ,great ,mother ,goddess could enter the railed-off area with impunity2 nay more1 they used to go up to the very mouth of the cave1 stoop1 and creep into it for a certain distance1 holding their breath2 but there was a look on their faces as if they were being choked4 ,some people ascribed the immunity of the priests to the divine protection1 others to the use of antidotes47#fbb7 #g4 ,the ,worship of ,hot ,springs4 7,m#aef7 ,the mysterious chasm of ,hierapolis1 with its deadly mist1 has not been discovered in modern times2 indeed it would seem to have vanished even in antiquity47#fbc7 ,it may have been destroyed by an earthquake4 ,but another marvel of the ,sacred ,city remains to this day4 ,the hot springs with their calcareous deposit1 which1 like a wizard's wand1 turns all that it touches to stone1 excited the wonder of the ancients1 and the course of ages has only enhanced the fantastic splendour of the great transformation scene4 ,the stately ruins of ,hierapolis occupy a broad shelf or terrace on the mountain-side commanding distant views of extraordinary beauty and grandeur1 from the dark precipices and dazzling snows of ,mount ,cadmus away to the burnt summits of ,phrygia1 fading in rosy tints into the blue of the sky4 ,hills1 broken by wooded ravines1 rise behind the city4 ,in front the terrace falls away in cliffs three hundred feet high into the desolate treeless valley of the ,lycus4 ,over the face of these cliffs the hot streams have poured or trickled for thousands of years1 encrusting them with a pearly white substance like salt or driven snow4 ,the appearance of the whole is as if a mighty river1 some two miles broad1 had been suddenly arrested in the act of falling over a great cliff and transformed into white marble4 ,it is a petrified ,niagara4 ,the illusion is strongest in winter or in cool summer mornings when the mist from the hot springs hangs in the air1 like a veil of spray resting on the foam of the waterfall4 ,a closer inspection of the white cliff1 which attracts the traveller's attention at a distance of twenty miles1 only adds to its beauty and changes one illusion for another4 ,for now it seems to be a glacier1 its long pendent stalactites looking like icicles1 and the snowy whiteness of its smooth expanse being tinged here and there with delicate hues of blue1 rose and green1 all the colours of the rainbow4 ,these petrified cascades of ,hierapolis are among the wonders of the world4 ,indeed they have probably been without a rival in their kind ever since the famous white and pink terraces or staircases of ,rotomahana in ,new ,zealand were destroyed by a volcanic eruption4 7,m#aeg7 ,the hot springs which have wrought these miracles at ,hierapolis rise in a large deep pool among the vast and imposing ruins of the ancient city4 ,the water is of a greenish-blue tint1 but clear and transparent4 ,at the bottom may be seen the white marble columns of a beautiful ,corinthian colonnade1 which must formerly have encircled the sacred pool4 ,shimmering through the green-blue water they look like the ruins of a ,naiad's palace4 ,clumps of oleanders and pomegranate-trees overhang the little lake and add to its charm4 ,yet the enchanted spot has its dangers4 ,bubbles of carbonic acid gas rise incessantly from the bottom and mount like flickering particles of silver to the surface4 ,birds and beasts which come to drink of the water are sometimes found dead on the bank1 stifled by the noxious vapour2 and the villagers tell of bathers who have been overpowered by it and drowned1 or dragged down1 as they say1 to death by the water-spirit4 7,m#aeh7 ,the streams of hot water1 no longer regulated by the care of a religious population1 have for centuries been allowed to overflow their channels and to spread unchecked over the tableland4 ,by the deposit which they leave behind they have raised the surface of the ground many feet1 their white ridges concealing the ruins and impeding the footstep1 except where the old channels1 filled up solidly to the brim1 now form hard level footpaths1 from which the traveller may survey the strange scene without quitting the saddle4 ,in antiquity the husbandmen used purposely to lead the water in rills round their lands1 and thus in a few years their fields and vineyards were enclosed with walls of solid stone4 ,the water was also peculiarly adapted for the dyeing of woollen stuffs4 ,tinged with dyes extracted from certain roots1 it imparted to cloths dipped in it the finest shades of purple and scarlet47#fbd7 7,m#aei7 ,we cannot doubt that ,hierapolis owed its reputation as a holy city in great part to its hot springs and mephitic vapours4 ,the curative virtue of mineral and thermal springs was well known to the ancients1 and it would be interesting1 if it were possible1 to trace the causes which have gradually eliminated the superstitious element from the use of such waters1 and so converted many old seats of volcanic religion into the medicinal baths of modern times4 ,it was an article of ,greek faith that all hot springs were sacred to ,hercules47#fbe7 8,who ever heard of cold baths that were sacred to ,hercules80 asks ,injustice in ,aristophanes2 and ,justice admits that the brawny hero's patronage of hot baths was the excuse alleged by young men for sprawling all day in the steaming water when they ought to have been sweating in the gymnasium47#fbf7 ,hot springs were said to have been first produced for the refreshment of ,hercules after his labours2 some ascribed the kindly thought and deed to ,athena1 others to ,hephaestus1 and others to the nymphs47#fbg7 ,the warm water of these sources appears to have been used especially to heal diseases of the skin2 for a ,greek proverb1 8the itch of ,hercules10 was applied to persons in need of hot baths for the scab47#fbh7 ,on the strength of his connexion with medicinal springs ,hercules set up as a patron of the healing art4 ,in heaven1 if we can trust ,lucian1 he even refused to give place to ,aesculapius himself1 and the difference between the two deities led to a very unseemly brawl4 8,do you mean to say10 demanded ,hercules of his father ,zeus1 in a burst of indignation1 8that this apothecary is to sit down to table before me80 ,to this the apothecary replied with much acrimony1 recalling certain painful episodes in the private life of the burly hero4 ,finally the dispute was settled by ,zeus1 who decided in favour of ,aesculapius on the ground that he died before ,hercules1 and was therefore entitled to rank as senior god47#fbi7 7,m#afj7 ,among the hot springs sacred to ,hercules the most famous were those which rose in the pass of ,thermopylae1 and gave to the defile its name of the ,hot ,gates47#fcj7 ,the warm baths1 called by the natives 8the ,pots10 were enlarged and improved for the use of invalids by the wealthy sophist ,herodes ,atticus in the second century of our era4 ,an altar of ,hercules stood beside them47#fca7 ,according to one story1 the hot springs were here produced for his refreshment by the goddess ,athena47#fcb7 ,they exist to this day apparently unchanged1 although the recession of the sea has converted what used to be a narrow pass into a wide1 swampy flat1 through which the broad but shallow1 turbid stream of the ,sperchius creeps sluggishly seaward4 ,on the other side the rugged mountains descend in crags and precipices to the pass1 their grey rocky sides tufted with low wood or bushes wherever vegetation can find a foothold1 and their summits fringed along the sky-line with pines4 ,they remind a ,scotchman of the 8crags1 knolls1 and mounds confusedly hurled0 in which ,ben ,venue comes down to the ,silver ,strand of ,loch ,katrine4 ,the principal spring bursts from the rocks just at the foot of the steepest and loftiest part of the range4 ,after forming a small pool it flows in a rapid stream eastward1 skirting the foot of the mountains4 ,the water is so hot that it is almost painful to hold the hands in it1 at least near the source1 and steam rises thickly from its surface along the course of the brook4 ,indeed the clouds of white steam and the strong sulphurous smell acquaint the traveller with his approach to the famous spot before he comes in sight of the springs4 ,the water is clear1 but has the appearance of being of a deep sea-blue or sea-green colour4 ,this appearance it takes from the thick1 slimy deposits of blue-green sulphur which line the bed of the stream4 ,from its source the blue1 steaming1 sulphur-reeking brook rushes eastward for a few hundred yards at the foot of the mountain1 and is then joined by the water of another spring1 which rises much more tranquilly in a sort of natural bath among the rocks4 ,the sides of this bath are not so thickly coated with sulphur as the banks of the stream2 hence its water1 about two feet deep1 is not so blue4 ,just beyond it there is a second and larger bath1 which1 from its square shape and smooth sides1 would seem to be in part artificial4 ,these two baths are probably the ,pots mentioned by ancient writers4 ,they are still used by bathers1 and a few wooden dressing-rooms are provided for the accommodation of visitors4 ,some of the water is conducted in an artificial channel to turn a mill about half a mile off at the eastern end of the pass4 ,the rest crosses the flat to find its way to the sea4 ,in its passage it has coated the swampy ground with a white crust1 which sounds hollow under the tread47#fcc7 7,m#afa7 ,we may conjecture that these remarkable springs furnished the principal reason for associating ,hercules with this district1 and for laying the scene of his fiery death on the top of the neighbouring ,mount ,oeta4 ,the district is volcanic1 and has often been shaken by earthquakes47#fcd7 ,across the strait the island of ,euboea has suffered from the same cause and at the same time2 and on its southern shore sulphureous springs1 like those of ,thermopylae1 but much hotter and more powerful1 were in like manner dedicated to ,hercules47#fce7 ,the strong medicinal qualities of the waters1 which are especially adapted for the cure of skin diseases and gout1 have attracted patients in ancient and modern times4 ,sulla took the waters here for his gout27#fcf7 and in the days of ,plutarch the neighbouring town of ,aedepsus1 situated in a green valley about two miles from the springs1 was one of the most fashionable resorts of ,greece4 ,elegant and commodious buildings1 an agreeable country1 and abundance of fish and game united with the health-giving properties of the baths to draw crowds of idlers to the place1 especially in the prime of the glorious ,greek spring1 the height of the season at ,aedepsus4 ,while some watched the dancers dancing or listened to the strains of the harp1 others passed the time in discourse1 lounging in the shade of cloisters or pacing the shore of the beautiful strait with its prospect of mountains beyond mountains immortalized in story across the water47#fcg7 ,of all this ,greek elegance and luxury hardly a vestige remains4 ,yet the healing springs flow now as freely as of old4 ,in the course of time the white and yellow calcareous deposit which the water leaves behind it1 has formed a hillock at the foot of the mountains1 and the stream now falls in a steaming cascade from the face of the rock into the sea47#fch7 ,once1 after an earthquake1 the springs ceased to flow for three days1 and at the same time the hot springs of ,thermopylae dried up47#fci7 ,the incident proves the relation of these ,baths of ,hercules on both sides of the strait to each other and to volcanic agency4 ,on another occasion a cold spring suddenly burst out beside the hot springs of ,aedepsus1 and as its water was supposed to be peculiarly beneficial to health1 patients hastened from far and near to drink of it4 ,but the generals of ,king ,antigonus1 anxious to raise a revenue1 imposed a tax on the use of the water2 and the spring1 as if in disgust at being turned to so base a use1 disappeared as suddenly as it had come47#fdj7 7,m#afb7 ,the association of ,hercules with hot springs was not confined to ,greece itself4 ,greek influence extended it to ,sicily17#fda7 ,italy17#fdb7 and even to ,dacia47#fdc7 ,why the hero should have been chosen as the patron of thermal waters1 it is hard to say4 ,yet it is worth while1 perhaps1 to remember that such springs combine in a manner the twofold and seemingly discordant principles of water and fire17#fdd7 of fertility and destruction1 and that the death of ,hercules in the flames seems to connect him with the fiery element4 ,further1 the apparent conflict of the two principles is by no means as absolute as at first sight we might be tempted to suppose2 for heat is as necessary as moisture to the support of animal and vegetable life4 ,even volcanic fires have their beneficent aspect1 since their products lend a more generous flavour to the juice of the grape4 ,the ancients themselves1 as we have seen1 perceived the connexion between good wine and volcanic soil1 and proposed more or less seriously to interpret the vine-god ,dionysus as a child of the fire47#fde7 ,as a patron of hot springs ,hercules combined the genial elements of heat and moisture1 and may therefore have stood1 in one of his many aspects1 for the principle of fertility4 7,m#afc7 ,in ,syria childless women still resort to hot springs in order to procure offspring from the saint or the jinnee of the waters47#fdf7 ,this1 for example1 they do at the famous hot springs in the land of ,moab which flow through a wild gorge into the ,dead ,sea4 ,in antiquity the springs went by the ,greek name of ,callirrhoe1 the ,fair-flowing4 ,it was to them that the dying ,herod1 weighed down by a complication of disorders which the pious ,jews traced to ,god's vengeance1 repaired in the vain hope of arresting or mitigating the fatal progress of disease4 ,the healing waters brought no alleviation of his sufferings1 and he retired to ,jericho to die47#fdg7 ,the hot springs burst in various places from the sides of a deep romantic ravine to form a large and rapid stream of lukewarm water1 which rushes down the depths of the lynn1 dashing and foaming over boulders1 under the dense shade of tamarisk-trees and cane-brakes1 the rocks on either bank draped with an emerald fringe of maidenhair fern4 ,one of the springs falls from a high rocky shelf over the face of a cliff which is tinted bright yellow by the sulphurous water4 ,the lofty crags which shut in the narrow chasm are bold and imposing in outline and varied in colour1 for they range from red sandstone through white and yellow limestone to black basalt4 ,the waters issue from the line where the sandstone and limestone meet4 ,their temperature is high1 and from great clefts in the mountain-sides you may see clouds of steam rising and hear the rumbling of the running waters4 ,the bottom of the glen is clothed and half choked with rank vegetation2 for1 situated far below the level of the sea1 the hot ravine is almost ,african in climate and flora4 ,here grow dense thickets of canes with their feathery tufts that shake and nod in every passing breath of wind3 here the oleander flourishes with its dark-green glossy foliage and its beautiful pink blossoms3 here tall date-palms rear their stately heads wherever the hot springs flow4 ,gorgeous flowers1 too1 carpet the ground4 ,splendid orobanches1 some pinkish purple1 some bright yellow1 grow in large tufts1 each flower-stalk more than three feet high1 and covered with blossoms from the ground upwards4 ,an exquisite rose-coloured geranium abounds among the stones2 and where the soil is a little richer than usual it is a mass of the night-scented stock1 while the crannies of the rocks are gay with scarlet ranunculus and masses of sorrel and cyclamen4 ,over all this luxuriant vegetation flit great butterflies of brilliant hues4 ,looking down the far-stretching gorge to its mouth you see in the distance the purple hills of ,judah framed between walls of black basaltic columns on the one side and of bright red sandstone on the other47#fdh7 7,m#afd7 ,every year in the months of ,april and ,may the ,arabs resort in crowds to the glen to benefit by the waters4 ,they take up their quarters in huts made of the reeds which they cut in the thickets4 ,they bathe in the steaming water1 or allow it to splash on their bodies as it gushes in a powerful jet from a crevice in the rocks4 ,but before they indulge in these ablutions1 the visitors1 both ,moslem and ,christian1 propitiate the spirit or genius of the place by sacrificing a sheep or goat at the spring and allowing its red blood to tinge the water4 ,then they bathe in what they call the ,baths of ,solomon4 ,legend runs that ,solomon the ,wise made his bathing-place here1 and in order to keep the water always warm he commanded the jinn never to let the fire die down4 ,the jinn obey his orders to this day1 but sometimes they slacken their efforts1 and then the water runs low and cool4 ,when the bathers perceive that1 they say1 8,o ,solomon1 bring green wood1 dry wood10 and no sooner have they said so than the water begins to gurgle and steam as before4 ,sick people tell the saint or sheikh1 who lives invisible in the springs1 all about their ailments2 they point out to him the precise spot that is the seat of the malady1 it may be the back1 or the head1 or the legs2 and if the heat of the water diminishes1 they call out1 8,thy bath is cold1 ,o sheikh1 thy bath is cold60 whereupon the obliging sheikh stokes up the fire1 and out comes the water boiling4 ,but if in spite of their remonstrances the temperature of the spring continues low1 they say that the sheikh has gone on pilgrimage1 and they shout to him to hasten his return4 ,barren ,moslem women also visit these hot springs to obtain children1 and they do the same at the similar baths near ,kerak4 ,at the latter place a childless woman has been known to address the spirit of the waters saying1 8,o sheikh ,solomon1 ,i am not yet an old woman2 give me children407#fdi7 ,the respect thus paid by ,arab men and women to the sheikh ,solomon at his hot springs may help us to understand the worship which at similar spots ,greek men and women used to render to the hero ,hercules4 ,as the ideal of manly strength he may have been deemed the father of many of his worshippers1 and ,greek wives may have gone on pilgrimage to his steaming waters in order to obtain the wish of their hearts4 #h4 ,the ,worship of ,volcanoes in other ,lands4 7,m#afe7 ,how far these considerations may serve to explain the custom of burning ,hercules1 or gods identified with him1 in effigy or in the person of a human being1 is a question which deserves to be considered4 ,it might be more easily answered if we were better acquainted with analogous customs in other parts of the world1 but our information with regard to the worship of volcanic phenomena in general appears to be very scanty4 ,however1 a few facts may be noted4 7,m#aff7 ,the largest active crater in the world is ,kirauea in ,hawaii4 ,it is a huge cauldron1 several miles in circumference and hundreds of feet deep1 the bottom of which is filled with boiling lava in a state of terrific ebullition2 from the red surge rise many black cones or insulated craters belching columns of grey smoke or pyramids of brilliant flame from their roaring mouths1 while torrents of blazing lava roll down their sides to flow into the molten1 tossing sea of fire below4 ,the scene is especially impressive by night1 when flames of sulphurous blue or metallic red sweep across the heaving billows of the infernal lake1 casting a broad glare on the jagged sides of the insulated craters1 which shoot up eddying streams of fire with a continuous roar1 varied at frequent intervals by loud detonations1 as spherical masses of fusing lava or bright ignited stones are hurled into the air47#fej7 ,it is no wonder that so appalling a spectacle should have impressed the imagination of the natives and filled it with ideas of the dreadful beings who inhabit the fiery abyss4 ,they considered the great crater1 we are told1 as the primaeval abode of their volcanic deities3 the black cones that rise like islands from the burning lake appeared to them the houses where the gods often amused themselves by playing at draughts3 the roaring of the furnaces and the crackling of the flames were the music of their dance2 and the red flaming surge was the surf wherein they played1 sportively swimming on the rolling wave47#fea7 7,m#afg7 ,for these fearful divinities they had appropriate names2 one was the ,king of ,steam or ,vapour1 another the ,rain of ,night1 another the ,husband of ,thunder1 another the ,child of ,war with a ,spear of ,fire1 another the ,fiery-eyed ,canoe-breaker1 another the ,red-hot ,mountain holding or lifting ,clouds1 and so on4 ,but above them all was the great goddess ,pl4 ,all were dreaded3 they never journeyed on errands of mercy but only to receive offerings or to execute vengeance2 and their arrival in any place was announced by the convulsive trembling of the earth1 by the lurid light of volcanic eruption1 by the flash of lightning1 and the clap of thunder4 ,the whole island was bound to pay them tribute or support their temples and devotees2 and whenever the chiefs or people failed to send the proper offerings1 or incurred their displeasure by insulting them or their priests or breaking the taboos which should be observed round about the craters1 they filled the huge cauldron on the top of ,kirauea with molten lava1 and spouted the fiery liquid on the surrounding country2 or they would march to some of their other houses1 which mortals call craters1 in the neighbourhood of the sinners1 and rushing forth in a river or column of fire overwhelm the guilty4 ,if fishermen did not bring them enough fish from the sea1 they would go down1 kill all the fish1 fill the shoals with lava1 and so destroy the fishing-grounds4 ,hence1 when the volcano was in active eruption or threatened to break out1 the people used to cast vast numbers of hogs1 alive or dead1 into the craters or into the rolling torrent of lava in order to appease the gods and arrest the progress of the fiery stream47#feb7 ,to pluck certain sacred berries1 which grow on the mountain1 to dig sand on its slopes1 or to throw stones into the crater were acts particularly offensive to the deities1 who would instantly rise in volumes of smoke1 crush the offender under a shower of stones1 or so involve him in thick darkness and rain that he could never find his way home4 ,however1 it was lawful to pluck and eat of the sacred berries1 if only a portion of them were first offered to the goddess ,pl4 ,the offerer would take a branch laden with clusters of the beautiful red and yellow berries1 and standing on the edge of the abyss and looking towards the place where the smoke rose in densest volumes1 he would say1 8,pl1 here are your berries3 ,i offer some to you1 some ,i also eat40 ,with that he would throw some of the berries into the crater and eat the rest47#fec7 ,a kind of brittle volcanic glass1 of a dark-olive colour and semi-transparent1 is found on the mountain in the shape of filaments as fine as human hair2 the natives call it the hair of the goddess ,pl47#fed7 ,worshippers used to cast locks of their own hair into the crater of ,kirauea as an offering to the dreadful goddess who dwelt in it4 ,she had also a temple at the bottom of a valley1 where stood a number of rude stone idols wrapt in white and yellow cloth4 ,once a year the priests and devotees of ,pl assembled there to perform certain rites and to feast on hogs1 dogs1 and fruit1 which the pious inhabitants of ,hamakua brought to the holy place in great abundance4 ,this annual festival was intended to propitiate the volcanic goddess and thereby to secure the country from earthquakes and floods of molten lava47#fee7 ,the goddess of the volcano was supposed to inspire people1 though to the carnal eye the inspiration resembled intoxication4 ,one of these inspired priestesses solemnly affirmed to an ,english missionary that she was the goddess ,pl herself and as such immortal4 ,assuming a haughty air1 she said1 8,i am ,pl2 ,i shall never die2 and those who follow me1 when they die1 if part of their bones be taken to ,kirauea 7the name of the volcano71 will live with me in the bright fires there407#fef7 ,for 8the worshippers of ,pl threw a part of bones of their dead into the volcano1 under the impression that the spirits of the deceased would then be admitted to the society of the volcanic deities1 and that their influence would preserve the survivors from the ravages of volcanic fire407#feg7 7,m#afh7 ,this last belief may help to explain a custom1 which some peoples have observed1 of throwing human victims into volcanoes4 ,the intention of such a practice need not be simply to appease the dreadful volcanic spirits by ministering to their fiendish lust of cruelty2 it may be a notion that the souls of the men or women who have been burnt to death in the crater will join the host of demons in the fiery furnace1 mitigate their fury1 and induce them to spare the works and the life of man4 ,but1 however we may explain the custom1 it has been usual in various parts of the world to throw human beings as well as less precious offerings into the craters of active volcanoes4 ,thus the ,indians of ,nicaragua used to sacrifice men1 women1 and children to the active volcano ,massaya1 flinging them into the craters3 we are told that the victims went willingly to their fate47#feh7 ,in the island of ,siao1 to the north of ,celebes1 a child was formerly sacrificed every year in order to keep the volcano ,goowoong ,awoo quiet4 ,the poor wretch was tortured to death at a festival which lasted nine days4 ,in later times the place of the child has been taken by a wooden puppet1 which is hacked to pieces in the same way4 ,the ,galelareese of ,halmahera say that the ,sultan of ,ternate used annually to require some human victims1 who were cast into the crater of the volcano to save the island from its ravages47#fei7 ,in ,java the volcano ,bromo or ,bromok is annually worshipped by people who throw offerings of coco-nuts1 plantains1 mangoes1 rice1 chickens1 cakes1 cloth1 money1 and so forth into the crater47#ffj7 ,to the ,tenggereese1 an aboriginal heathen tribe inhabiting the mountains of which ,bromo is the central crater1 the festival of making offerings to the volcano is the greatest of the year4 ,it is held at full moon in the twelfth month1 the day being fixed by the high priest4 ,each household prepares its offerings the night before4 ,very early in the morning the people set out by moonlight for ,mount ,bromo1 men1 women1 and children all arrayed in their best4 ,before they reach the mountain they must cross a wide sandy plain1 where the spirits of the dead are supposed to dwell until by means of the ,festival of the ,dead they obtain admittance to the volcano4 ,it is a remarkable sight to see thousands of people streaming across the level sands from three different directions4 ,they have to descend into it from the neighbouring heights1 and the horses break into a gallop when1 after the steep descent1 they reach the level4 ,the gay and varied colours of the dresses1 the fantastic costumes of the priests1 the offerings borne along1 the whole lit up by the warm beams of the rising sun1 lend to the spectacle a peculiar charm4 ,all assemble at the foot of the crater1 where a market is held for offerings and refreshments4 ,the scene is a lively one1 for hundreds of people must now pay the vows which they made during the year4 ,the priests sit in a long row on mats1 and when the high priest appears the people pray1 saying1 8,bromo1 we thank thee for all thy gifts and benefits with which thou ever blessest us1 and for which we offer thee our thank-offerings to-day4 ,bless us1 our children1 and our children's children40 ,the prayers over1 the high priest gives a signal1 and the whole multitude arises and climbs the mountain4 ,on reaching the edge of the crater1 the pontiff again blesses the offerings of food1 clothes1 and money1 which are then thrown into the crater4 ,yet few of them reach the spirits for whom they are intended2 for a swarm of urchins now scrambles down into the crater1 and at more or less risk to life and limb succeeds in appropriating the greater part of the offerings4 ,the spirits1 defrauded of their dues1 must take the will for the deed47#ffa7 ,tradition says that once in a time of dearth a chief vowed to sacrifice one of his children to the volcano1 if the mountain would bless the people with plenty of food4 ,his prayer was answered1 and he paid his vow by casting his youngest son as a thank-offering into the crater47#ffb7 7,m#afi7 ,on the slope of ,mount ,smeroe1 another active volcano in ,java1 there are two small idols1 which the natives worship and pray to when they ascend the mountain4 ,they lay food before the images to obtain the favour of the god of the volcano47#ffc7 ,in antiquity people cast into the craters of ,etna vessels of gold and silver and all kinds of victims4 ,if the fire swallowed up the offerings1 the omen was good2 but if it rejected them1 some evil was sure to befall the offerer47#ffd7 7,m#agj7 ,these examples suggest that a custom of burning men or images may possibly be derived from a practice of throwing them into the craters of active volcanoes in order to appease the dreaded spirits or gods who dwell there4 ,but unless we reckon the fires of ,mount ,argaeus in ,cappadocia7#ffe7 and of ,mount ,chimaera in ,lycia17#fff7 there is apparently no record of any mountain in ,western ,asia which has been in eruption within historical times4 ,on the whole1 then1 we conclude that the ,asiatic custom of burning kings or gods was probably in no way connected with volcanic phenomena4 ,yet it was perhaps worth while to raise the question of the connexion1 even though it has received only a negative answer4 ,the whole subject of the influence which physical environment has exercised on the history of religion deserves to be studied with more attention than it has yet received47#ffg7 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,ritual of ,adonis4 7,m#aga7 ,thus far we have dealt with the myth of ,adonis and the legends which associated him with ,byblus and ,paphos4 ,a discussion of these legends led us to the conclusion that among ,semitic peoples in early times1 ,adonis1 the divine lord of the city1 was often personated by priestly kings or other members of the royal family1 and that these his human representatives were of old put to death1 whether periodically or occasionally1 in their divine character4 ,further1 we found that certain traditions and monuments of ,asia ,minor seem to preserve traces of a similar practice4 ,as time went on1 the cruel custom was apparently mitigated in various ways2 for example1 by substituting an effigy or an animal for the man1 or by allowing the destined victim to escape with a merely make-believe sacrifice4 ,the evidence of all this is drawn from a variety of scattered and often ambiguous indications3 it is fragmentary1 it is uncertain1 and the conclusions built upon it inevitably partake of the weakness of the foundation4 ,where the records are so imperfect1 as they happen to be in this branch of our subject1 the element of hypothesis must enter largely into any attempt to piece together and interpret the disjointed facts4 ,how far the interpretations here proposed are sound1 ,i leave to future inquiries to determine4 7,m#agb7 ,from dim regions of the past1 where we have had to grope our way with small help from the lamp of history1 it is a relief to pass to those later periods of classical antiquity on which contemporary ,greek writers have shed the light of their clear intelligence4 ,to them we owe almost all that we know for certain about the rites of ,adonis4 ,the ,semites who practised the worship have said little about it2 at all events little that they said has come down to us4 ,accordingly1 the following account of the ritual is derived mainly from ,greek authors who saw what they describe2 and it applies to ages in which the growth of humane feeling had softened some of the harsher features of the worship4 7,m#agc7 ,at the festivals of ,adonis1 which were held in ,western ,asia and in ,greek lands1 the death of the god was annually mourned1 with a bitter wailing1 chiefly by women2 images of him1 dressed to resemble corpses1 were carried out as to burial and then thrown into the sea or into springs27#ffh7 and in some places his revival was celebrated on the following day47#ffi7 ,but at different places the ceremonies varied somewhat in the manner and apparently also in the season of their celebration4 ,at ,alexandria images of ,aphrodite and ,adonis were displayed on two couches2 beside them were set ripe fruits of all kinds1 cakes1 plants growing in flower-pots1 and green bowers twined with anise4 ,the marriage of the lovers was celebrated one day1 and on the morrow women attired as mourners1 with streaming hair and bared breasts1 bore the image of the dead ,adonis to the sea-shore and committed it to the waves4 ,yet they sorrowed not without hope1 for they sang that the lost one would come back again47#fgj7 ,the date at which this ,alexandrian ceremony was observed is not expressly stated2 but from the mention of the ripe fruits it has been inferred that it took place in late summer47#fga7 ,in the great ,phoenician sanctuary of ,astarte at ,byblus the death of ,adonis was annually mourned1 to the shrill wailing notes of the flute1 with weeping1 lamentation1 and beating of the breast2 but next day he was believed to come to life again and ascend up to heaven in the presence of his worshippers4 ,the disconsolate believers1 left behind on earth1 shaved their heads as the ,egyptians did on the death of the divine bull ,apis2 women who could not bring themselves to sacrifice their beautiful tresses had to give themselves up to strangers on a certain day of the festival1 and to dedicate to ,astarte the wages of their shame47#fgb7 7,m#agd7 ,this ,phoenician festival appears to have been a vernal one1 for its date was determined by the discoloration of the river ,adonis1 and this has been observed by modern travellers to occur in spring4 ,at that season the red earth washed down from the mountains by the rain tinges the water of the river1 and even the sea1 for a great way with a blood-red hue1 and the crimson stain was believed to be the blood of ,adonis1 annually wounded to death by the boar on ,mount ,lebanon47#fgc7 ,again1 the scarlet anemone is said to have sprung from the blood of ,adonis1 or to have been stained by it27#fgd7 and as the anemone blooms in ,syria about ,easter1 this may be thought to show that the festival of ,adonis1 or at least one of his festivals1 was held in spring4 ,the name of the flower is probably derived from ,naaman 78darling071 which seems to have been an epithet of ,adonis4 ,the ,arabs still call the anemone 8wounds of the ,naaman407#fge7 ,the red rose also was said to owe its hue to the same sad occasion2 for ,aphrodite1 hastening to her wounded lover1 trod on a bush of white roses2 the cruel thorns tore her tender flesh1 and her sacred blood dyed the white roses for ever red47#fgf7 ,it would be idle1 perhaps1 to lay much weight on evidence drawn from the calendar of flowers1 and in particular to press an argument so fragile as the bloom of the rose4 ,yet so far as it counts at all1 the tale which links the damask rose with the death of ,adonis points to a summer rather than to a spring celebration of his passion4 ,in ,attica1 certainly1 the festival fell at the height of summer4 ,for the fleet which ,athens fitted out against ,syracuse1 and by the destruction of which her power was permanently crippled1 sailed at midsummer1 and by an ominous coincidence the sombre rites of ,adonis were being celebrated at the very time4 ,as the troops marched down to the harbour to embark1 the streets through which they passed were lined with coffins and corpse-like effigies1 and the air was rent with the noise of women wailing for the dead ,adonis4 ,the circumstance cast a gloom over the sailing of the most splendid armament that ,athens ever sent to sea47#fgg7 ,many ages afterwards1 when the ,emperor ,julian made his first entry into ,antioch1 he found in like manner the gay1 the luxurious capital of the ,east plunged in mimic grief for the annual death of ,adonis3 and if he had any presentiment of coming evil1 the voices of lamentation which struck upon his ear must have seemed to sound his knell47#fgh7 7,m#age7 ,the resemblance of these ceremonies to the ,indian and ,european ceremonies which ,i have described elsewhere is obvious4 ,in particular1 apart from the somewhat doubtful date of its celebration1 the ,alexandrian ceremony is almost identical with the ,indian47#fgi7 ,in both of them the marriage of two divine beings1 whose affinity with vegetation seems indicated by the fresh plants with which they are surrounded1 is celebrated in effigy1 and the effigies are afterwards mourned over and thrown into the water47#fhj7 ,from the similarity of these customs to each other and to the spring and midsummer customs of modern ,europe we should naturally expect that they all admit of a common explanation4 ,hence1 if the explanation which ,i have adopted of the latter is correct1 the ceremony of the death and resurrection of ,adonis must also have been a dramatic representation of the decay and revival of plant life4 ,the inference thus based on the resemblance of the customs is confirmed by the following features in the legend and ritual of ,adonis4 ,his affinity with vegetation comes out at once in the common story of his birth4 ,he was said to have been born from a myrrh-tree1 the bark of which bursting1 after a ten month' gestation1 allowed the lovely infant to come forth4 ,according to some1 a boar rent the bark with his tusk and so opened a passage for the babe4 ,a faint rationalistic colour was given to the legend by saying that his mother was a woman named ,myrrh1 who had been turned into a myrrh-tree soon after she had conceived the child47#fha7 ,the use of myrrh as incense at the festival of ,adonis may have given rise to the fable47#fhb7 ,we have seen that incense was burnt at the corresponding ,babylonian rites17#fhc7 just as it was burnt by the idolatrous ,hebrews in honour of the ,queen of ,heaven17#fhd7 who was no other than ,astarte4 ,again1 the story that ,adonis spent half1 or according to others a third1 of the year in the lower world and the rest of it in the upper world17#fhe7 is explained most simply and naturally by supposing that he represented vegetation1 especially the corn1 which lies buried in earth half the year and reappears above ground the other half4 ,certainly of the annual phenomena of nature there is none which suggests so obviously the idea of death and resurrection as the disappearance and reappearance of vegetation in autumn and spring4 ,adonis has been taken for the sun2 but there is nothing in the sun's annual course within the temperate and tropical zones to suggest that he is dead for half or a third of the year and alive for the other half or two-thirds4 ,he might1 indeed1 be conceived as weakened in winter1 but dead he could not be thought to be2 his daily reappearance contradicts the supposition47#fhf7 ,within the ,arctic ,circle1 where the sun annually disappears for a continuous period which varies from twenty-four hours to six months according to the latitude1 his yearly death and resurrection would certainly be an obvious idea2 but no one except the unfortunate astronomer ,bailly7#fhg7 has maintained that the ,adonis worship came from the ,arctic regions4 ,on the other hand1 the annual death and revival of vegetation is a conception which readily presents itself to men in every stage of savagery and civilization2 and the vastness of the scale on which this ever-recurring decay and regeneration takes place1 together with man's intimate dependence on it for subsistence1 combine to render it the most impressive annual occurrence in nature1 at least within the temperate zones4 ,it is no wonder that a phenomenon so important1 so striking1 and so universal should1 by suggesting similar ideas1 have given rise to similar rites in many lands4 ,we may1 therefore1 accept as probable an explanation of the ,adonis worship which accords so well with the facts of nature and with the analogy of similar rites in other lands4 ,moreover1 the explanation is countenanced by a considerable body of opinion amongst the ancients themselves1 who again and again interpreted the dying and reviving god as the reaped and sprouting grain47#fhh7 7,m#agf7 ,the character of ,tammuz or ,adonis as a corn-spirit comes out plainly in an account of his festival given by an ,arabic writer of the tenth century4 ,in describing the rites and sacrifices observed at the different seasons of the year by the heathen ,syrians of ,harran1 he says3 8,tammuz 7,july74 ,in the middle of this month is the festival of el-,bgt1 that is1 of the weeping women1 and this is the ,t-uz festival1 which is celebrated in honour of the god ,t-uz4 ,the women bewail him1 because his lord slew him so cruelly1 ground his bones in a mill1 and then scattered them to the wind4 ,the women 7during this festival7 eat nothing which has been ground in a mill1 but limit their diet to steeped wheat1 sweet vetches1 dates1 raisins1 and the like407#fhi7 ,t-uz1 who is no other than ,tammuz1 is here like ,burns's ,john ,barleycorn-- 8,they wasted o'er a scorching flame ,the marrow of his bones2 ,but a miller us'd him worst of all-- ,for he crush'd him between two stones40 ,this concentration1 so to say1 of the nature of ,adonis upon the cereal crops is characteristic of the stage of culture reached by his worshippers in historical times4 ,they had left the nomadic life of the wandering hunter and herdsman far behind them2 for ages they had been settled on the land1 and had depended for their subsistence mainly on the products of tillage4 ,the berries and roots of the wilderness1 the grass of the pastures1 which had been matters of vital importance to their ruder forefathers1 were now of little moment to them3 more and more their thoughts and energies were engrossed by the staple of their life1 the corn2 more and more accordingly the propitiation of the deities of fertility in general and of the corn-spirit in particular tended to become the central feature of their religion4 ,the aim they set before themselves in celebrating the rites was thoroughly practical4 ,it was no vague poetical sentiment which prompted them to hail with joy the rebirth of vegetation and to mourn its decline4 ,hunger1 felt or feared1 was the mainspring of the worship of ,adonis4 7,m#agg7 ,it has been suggested by ,father ,lagrange that the mourning for ,adonis was essentially a harvest rite designed to propitiate the corn-god1 who was then either perishing under the sickles of the reapers1 or being trodden to death under the hoofs of the oxen on the threshing-floor4 ,while the men slew him1 the women wept crocodile tears at home to appease his natural indignation by a show of grief for his death47#fij7 ,the theory fits in well with the dates of the festivals1 which fell in spring or summer2 for spring and summer1 not autumn1 are the seasons of the barley and wheat harvests in the lands which1 worshipped ,adonis47#fia7 ,further1 the hypothesis is confirmed by the practice of the ,egyptian reapers1 who lamented1 calling upon ,isis1 when they cut the first corn27#fib7 and it is recommended by the analogous customs of many hunting tribes1 who testify great respect for the animals which they kill and eat47#fic7 7,m#agh7 ,thus interpreted the death of ,adonis is not the natural decay of vegetation in general under the summer heat or the winter cold2 it is the violent destruction of the corn by man1 who cuts it down on the field1 stamps it to pieces on the threshing-floor1 and grinds it to powder in the mill4 ,that this was indeed the principal aspect in which ,adonis presented himself in later times to the agricultural peoples of the ,levant1 may be admitted2 but whether from the beginning he had been the corn and nothing but the corn1 may be doubted4 ,at an earlier period he may have been to the herdsman1 above all1 the tender herbage which sprouts after rain1 offering rich pasture to the lean and hungry cattle4 ,earlier still he may have embodied the spirit of the nuts and berries which the autumn woods yield to the savage hunter and his squaw4 ,and just as the husbandman must propitiate the spirit of the corn which he consumes1 so the herdsman must appease the spirit of the grass and leaves which his cattle munch1 and the hunter must soothe the spirit of the roots which he digs1 and of the fruits which he gathers from the bough4 ,in all cases the propitiation of the injured and angry sprite would naturally comprise elaborate excuses and apologies1 accompanied by loud lamentations at his decease whenever1 through some deplorable accident or necessity1 he happened to be murdered as well as robbed4 ,only we must bear in mind that the savage hunter and herdsman of those early days had probably not yet attained to the abstract idea of vegetation in general2 and that accordingly1 so far as ,adonis existed for them at all1 he must have been the ,adon or lord of each individual tree and plant rather than a personification of vegetable life as a whole4 ,thus there would be as many ,adonises as there were trees and shrubs1 and each of them might expect to receive satisfaction for any damage done to his person or property4 ,and year by year1 when the trees were deciduous1 every ,adonis would seem to bleed to death with the red leaves of autumn and to come to life again with the fresh green of spring4 7,m#agi7 ,we have seen reason to think that in early times ,adonis was sometimes personated by a living man who died a violent death in the character of the god4 ,further1 there is evidence which goes to show that among the agricultural peoples of the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 the corn-spirit1 by whatever name he was known1 was often represented1 year by year1 by human victims slain on the harvest-field47#fid7 ,if that was so1 it seems likely that the propitiation of the corn-spirit would tend to fuse to some extent with the worship of the dead4 ,for the spirits of these victims might be thought to return to life in the ears which they had fattened with their blood1 and to die a second death at the reaping of the corn4 ,now the ghosts of those who have perished by violence are surly and apt to wreak their vengeance on their slayers whenever an opportunity offers4 ,hence the attempt to appease the souls of the slaughtered victims would naturally blend1 at least in the popular conception1 with the attempt to pacify the slain corn-spirit4 ,and as the dead came back in the sprouting corn1 so they might be thought to return in the spring flowers1 waked from their long sleep by the soft vernal airs4 ,they had been laid to their rest under the sod4 ,what more natural than to imagine that the violets and the hyacinths1 the roses and the anemones1 sprang from their dust1 were empurpled or incarnadined by their blood1 and contained some portion of their spirit8 8,i sometimes think that never blows so red ,the ,rose as where some buried ,caesar bled2 ,that every ,hyacinth the ,garden wears ,dropt in her ,lap from some once lovely ,head4 8,and this reviving ,herb whose tender ,green ,fledges the ,river-,lip on which we lean-- ,ah1 lean upon it lightly1 for who knows ,from what once lovely ,lip it springs unseen80 7,m#ahj7 ,in the summer after the battle of ,landen1 the most sanguinary battle of the seventeenth century in ,europe1 the earth1 saturated with the blood of twenty thousand slain1 broke forth into millions of poppies1 and the traveller who passed that vast sheet of scarlet might well fancy that the earth had indeed given up her dead47#fie7 ,at ,athens the great ,commemoration of the ,dead fell in spring about the middle of ,march1 when the early flowers are in bloom4 ,then the dead were believed to rise from their graves and go about the streets1 vainly endeavoring to enter the temples and the dwellings1 which were barred against these perturbed spirits with ropes1 buckthorn1 and pitch4 ,the name of the festival1 according to the most obvious and natural interpretation1 means the ,festival of ,flowers1 and the title would fit well with the substance of the ceremonies if at that season the poor ghosts were indeed thought to creep from the narrow house with the opening flowers47#fif7 ,there may therefore be a measure of truth in the theory of ,renan1 who saw in the ,adonis worship a dreamy voluptuous cult of death1 conceived not as the ,king of ,terrors1 but as an insidious enchanter who lures his victims to himself and lulls them into an eternal sleep4 ,the infinite charm of nature in the ,lebanon1 he thought1 lends itself to religious emotions of this sensuous1 visionary sort1 hovering vaguely between pain and pleasure1 between slumber and tears47#fig7 ,it would doubtless be a mistake to attribute to ,syrian peasants the worship of a conception so purely abstract as that of death in general4 ,yet it may be true that in their simple minds the thought of the reviving spirit of vegetation was blent with the very concrete notion of the ghosts of the dead1 who come to life again in spring days with the early flowers1 with the tender green of the corn and the many-tinted blossoms of the trees4 ,thus their views of the death and resurrection of nature would be coloured by their views of the death and resurrection of man1 by their personal sorrows and hopes and fears4 ,in like manner we cannot doubt that ,renan's theory of ,adonis was itself deeply tinged by passionate memories1 memories of the slumber akin to death which sealed his own eyes on the slopes of the ,lebanon1 memories of the sister who sleeps in the land of ,adonis never again to wake with the anemones and the roses4 ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,gardens of ,adonis4 7,m#aha7 ,perhaps the best proof that ,adonis was a deity of vegetation1 and especially of the corn1 is furnished by the gardens of ,adonis1 as they were called4 ,these were baskets or pots filled with earth1 in which wheat1 barley1 lettuces1 fennel1 and various kinds of flowers were sown and tended for eight days1 chiefly or exclusively by women4 ,fostered by the sun's heat1 the plants shot up rapidly1 but having no root they withered as rapidly away1 and at the end of eight days were carried out with the images of the dead ,adonis1 and flung with them into the sea or into springs47#fih7 7,m#ahb7 ,these gardens of ,adonis are most naturally interpreted as representatives of ,adonis or manifestations of his power2 they represented him1 true to his original nature1 in vegetable form1 while the images of him1 with which they were carried out and cast into the water1 portrayed him in his later human shape4 ,all these ,adonis ceremonies1 if ,i am right1 were originally intended as charms to promote the growth or revival of vegetation2 and the principle by which they were supposed to produce this effect was homoeopathic or imitative magic4 ,for ignorant people suppose that by mimicking the effect which they desire to produce they actually help to produce it2 thus by sprinkling water they make rain1 by lighting a fire they make sunshine1 and so on4 ,similarly1 by mimicking the growth of crops they hope to ensure a good harvest4 ,the rapid growth of the wheat and barley in the gardens of ,adonis was intended to make the corn shoot up2 and the throwing of the gardens and of the images into the water was a charm to secure a due supply of fertilizing rain47#fii7 ,the same1 ,i take it1 was the object of throwing the effigies of ,death and the ,carnival into water in the corresponding ceremonies of modern ,europe47#gjj7 ,certainly the custom of drenching with water a leaf-clad person1 who undoubtedly personifies vegetation1 is still resorted to in ,europe for the express purpose of producing rain47#gja7 ,similarly the custom of throwing water on the last corn cut at harvest1 or on the person who brings it home 7a custom observed in ,germany and ,france1 and till quite lately in ,england and ,scotland71 is in some places practised with the avowed intent to procure rain for the next year's crops4 ,thus in ,wallachia and amongst the ,roumanians in ,transylvania1 when a girl is bringing home a crown made of the last ears of corn cut at harvest1 all who meet her hasten to throw water on her1 and two farm-servants are placed at the door for the purpose2 for they believe that if this were not done1 the crops next year would perish from drought47#gjb7 ,so amongst the ,saxons of ,transylvania1 the person who wears the wreath made of the last corn cut is drenched with water to the skin2 for the wetter he is1 the better will be next year's harvest1 and the more grain there will be threashed out4 ,sometimes the wearer of the wreath is the reaper who cut the last corn47#gjc7 ,in ,northern ,euboea1 when the corn-sheaves have been piled in a stack1 the farmer's wife brings a pitcher of water and offers it to each of the labourers that he may wash his hands4 ,every man1 after he has washed his hands1 sprinkles water on the corn and on the threshing-floor1 expressing at the same time a wish that the corn may last long4 ,lastly1 the farmer's wife holds the pitcher slantingly and runs at full speed round the stack without spilling a drop1 while she utters a wish that the stack may endure as long as the circle she has just described47#gjd7 ,at the spring ploughing in ,prussia1 when the ploughmen and sowers returned in the evening from their work in the fields1 the farmer's wife and the servants used to splash water over them4 ,the ploughmen and sowers retorted by seizing every one1 throwing them into the pond1 and ducking them under the water4 ,the farmer's wife might claim exemption on payment of a forfeit1 but every one else had to be ducked4 ,by observing this custom they hoped to ensure a due supply of rain for the seed47#gje7 ,also after harvest in ,prussia1 the person who wore a wreath made of the last corn cut was drenched with water1 while a prayer was uttered that 8as the corn had sprung up and multiplied through the water1 so it might spring up and multiply in the barn and granary407#gjf7 ,at ,schlanow1 in ,brandenburg1 when the sowers return home from the first sowing they are drenched with water 8in order that the corn may grow407#gjg7 ,in ,anhalt on the same occasion the farmer is still often sprinkled with water by his family2 and his men and horses1 and even the plough1 receive the same treatment4 ,the object of the custom1 as people at ,arensdorf explained it1 is 8to wish fertility to the fields for the whole year407#gjh7 ,so in ,hesse1 when the ploughmen return with the plough from the field for the first time1 the women and girls lie in wait for them and slyly drench them with water47#gji7 ,near ,naaburg1 in ,bavaria1 the man who first comes back from sowing or ploughing has a vessel of water thrown over him by some one in hiding47#gaj7 ,at ,hettingen in ,baden the farmer who is about to begin the sowing of oats is sprinkled with water1 in order that the oats may not shrivel up47#gaa7 ,before the ,tusayan ,indians of ,north ,america go out to plant their fields1 the women sometimes pour water on them2 the reason for doing so is that 8as the water is poured on the men1 so may water fall on the planted fields407#gab7 ,the ,indians of ,santiago ,tepehuacan steep the seed of the maize in water before they sow it1 in order that the god of the waters may bestow on the fields the needed moisture47#gac7 7,m#ahc7 ,the opinion that the gardens of ,adonis are essentially charms to promote the growth of vegetation1 especially of the crops1 and that they belong to the same class of customs as those spring and midsummer folk-customs of modern ,europe which ,i have described elsewhere17#gad7 does not rest for its evidence merely on the intrinsic probability of the case4 ,fortunately we are able to show that gardens of ,adonis 7if we may use the expression in a general sense7 are still planted1 first1 by a primitive race at their sowing season1 and1 second1 by ,european peasants at midsummer4 ,amongst the ,oraons and ,mundas of ,bengal1 when the time comes for planting out the rice which has been grown in seed-beds1 a party of young people of both sexes go to the forest and cut a young ,karma-tree1 or the branch of one4 ,bearing it in triumph they return dancing1 singing1 and beating drums1 and plant it in the middle of the village dancing-ground4 ,a sacrifice is offered to the tree2 and next morning the youth of both sexes1 linked arm-in-arm1 dance in a great circle round the ,karma-tree1 which is decked with strips of coloured cloth and sham bracelets and necklets of plaited straw4 ,as a preparation for the festival1 the daughters of the headman of the village cultivate blades of barley in a peculiar way4 ,the seed is sown in moist1 sandy soil1 mixed with turmeric1 and the blades sprout and unfold of a pale-yellow or primrose colour4 ,on the day of the festival the girls take up these blades and carry them in baskets to the dancing-ground1 where1 prostrating themselves reverentially1 they place some of the plants before the ,karma-tree4 ,finally1 the ,karma-tree is taken away and thrown into a stream or tank47#gae7 ,the meaning of planting these barley blades and then presenting them to the ,karma-tree is hardly open to question4 ,trees are supposed to exercise a quickening influence upon the growth of crops1 and amongst the very people in question--the ,mundas or ,mundaris--8the grove deities are held responsible for the crops407#gaf7 ,therefore1 when at the season for planting out the rice the ,mundas bring in a tree and treat it with so much respect1 their object can only be to foster thereby the growth of the rice which is about to be planted out2 and the custom of causing barley blades to sprout rapidly and then presenting them to the tree must be intended to subserve the same purpose1 perhaps by reminding the tree-spirit of his duty towards the crops1 and stimulating his activity by this visible example of rapid vegetable growth4 ,the throwing of the ,karma-tree into the water is to be interpreted as a rain-charm4 ,whether the barley blades are also thrown into the water is not said2 but if my interpretation of the custom is right1 probably they are so4 ,a distinction between this ,bengal custom and the ,greek rites of ,adonis is that in the former the tree-spirit appears in his original form as a tree2 whereas in the ,adonis worship he appears in human form1 represented as a dead man1 though his vegetable nature is indicated by the gardens of ,adonis1 which are1 so to say1 a secondary manifestation of his original power as a tree-spirit4 7,m#ahd7 ,gardens of ,adonis are cultivated also by the ,hindoos1 with the intention apparently of ensuring the fertility both of the earth and of mankind4 ,thus at ,oodeypoor in ,rajputana a festival is held 8in honour of ,gouri1 or ,isani1 the goddess of abundance1 the ,isis of ,egypt1 the ,ceres of ,greece4 ,like the ,rajpoot ,saturnalia1 which it follows1 it belongs to the vernal equinox1 when nature in these regions proximate to the tropic is in the full expanse of her charms1 and the matronly ,gouri casts her golden mantle over the verdant ,vassanti1 personification of spring4 ,then the fruits exhibit their promise to the eye2 the kohil fills the ear with melody2 the air is impregnated with aroma1 and the crimson poppy contrasts with the spikes of golden grain to form a wreath for the beneficent ,gouri4 ,gouri is one of the names of ,isa or ,parvati1 wife of the greatest of the gods1 ,mahadeva or ,iswara1 who is conjoined with her in these rites1 which almost exclusively appertain to the women4 ,the meaning of gouri is #8yellow1' emblematic of the ripened harvest1 when the votaries of the goddess adore her effigies1 which are those of a matron painted the colour of ripe corn40 ,the rites begin when the sun enters the sign of the ,ram1 the opening of the ,hindoo year4 ,an image of the goddess ,gouri is made of earth1 and a smaller one of her husband ,iswara1 and the two are placed together4 ,a small trench is next dug1 barley is sown in it1 and the ground watered and heated artificially till the grain sprouts1 when the women dance round it hand in hand1 invoking the blessing of ,gouri on their husbands4 ,after that the young corn is taken up and distributed by the women to the men1 who wear it in their turbans4 ,every wealthy family1 or at least every subdivision of the city1 has its own image4 ,these and other rites1 known only to the initiated1 occupy several days1 and are performed within doors4 ,then the images of the goddess and her husband are decorated and borne in procession to a beautiful lake1 whose deep blue waters mirror the cloudless ,indian sky1 marble palaces1 and orange groves4 ,here the women1 their hair decked with roses and jessamine carry the image of ,gouri down a marble staircase to the water's edge1 and dance round it singing hymns and love-songs4 ,meantime the goddess is supposed to bathe in the water4 ,no men take part in the ceremony2 even the image of ,iswara1 the husband-god1 attracts little attention47#gag7 ,in these rites the distribution of the barley shoots to the men1 and the invocation of a blessing on their husbands by the wives1 point clearly to the desire of offspring as one motive for observing the custom4 ,the same motive probably explains the use of gardens of ,adonis at the marriage of ,brahmans in the ,madras ,presidency4 ,seeds of five or nine sorts are mixed and sown in earthen pots1 which are made specially for the purpose and are filled with earth4 ,bride and bridegroom water the seeds both morning and evening for four days2 and on the fifth day the seedlings are thrown1 like the real gardens of ,adonis1 into a tank or river47#gah7 7,m#ahe7 ,in the ,himalayan districts of ,north-,western ,india the cultivators sow barley1 maize1 pulse1 or mustard in a basket of earth on the twenty-fourth day of the fourth month 7,asrh71 which falls about the middle of ,july4 ,then on the last day of the month they place amidst the new sprouts small clay images of ,mahadeo and ,parvati and worship them in remembrance of the marriage of those deities4 ,next day they cut down the green stalks and wear them in their head-dress47#gai7 ,similar is the barley feast known as ,jy or ,jawra in ,upper ,india and as ,bhujariya in the ,central ,provinces4 ,on the seventh day of the light half of the month ,swan grains of barley are sown in a pot of manure1 and spring up so quickly that by the end of the month the vessel is full of long1 yellowish-green stalks4 ,on the first day of the next month1 ,bhdon1 the women and girls take the stalks out1 throw the earth and manure into water1 and distribute the plants among their male friends1 who bind them in their turbans and about their dress47#gbj7 ,at ,sargal in the ,central ,provinces of ,india this ceremony is observed about the middle of ,september4 ,none but women may take part in it1 though crowds of men come to look on4 ,some little time before the festival wheat or other grain has been sown in pots ingeniously constructed of large leaves1 which are held together by the thorns of a species of acacia4 ,having grown up in the dark1 the stalks are of a pale colour4 ,on the day appointed these gardens of ,adonis1 as we may call them1 are carried towards a lake which abuts on the native city4 ,the women of every family or circle of friends bring their own pots1 and having laid them on the ground they dance round them4 ,then taking the pots of sprouting corn they descend to the edge of the water1 wash the soil away from the pots1 and distribute the young plants among their friends47#gba7 ,at the temple of the goddess ,padmavati1 near ,pandharpur in the ,bombay ,presidency1 a ,nine ,nights' festival is held in the bright half of the month ,ashvin 7,september-,october74 ,at this time a bamboo frame is hung in front of the image1 and from it depend garlands of flowers and strings of wheaten cakes4 ,under the frame the floor in front of the pedestal is strewn with a layer of earth in which wheat is sown and allowed to sprout47#gbb7 ,a similar rite is observed in the same month before the images of two other goddesses1 ,ambabai and ,lakhubai1 who also have temples at ,pandharpur47#gbc7 7,m#ahf7 ,in some parts of ,bavaria it is customary to sow flax in a pot on the last three days of the ,carnival2 from the seed which grows best an omen is drawn as to whether the early1 the middle1 or the late sowing will produce the best crop47#gbd7 ,in ,sardinia the gardens of ,adonis are still planted in connexion with the great ,midsummer festival which bears the name of ,st4 ,john4 ,at the end of ,march or on the first of ,april a young man of the village presents himself to a girl1 and asks her to be his comare 7gossip or sweetheart71 offering to be her compare4 ,the invitation is considered as an honour by the girl's family1 and is gladly accepted4 ,at the end of ,may the girl makes a pot of the bark of the cork-tree1 fills it with earth1 and sows a handful of wheat and barley in it4 ,the pot being placed in the sun and often watered1 the corn sprouts rapidly and has a good head by ,midsummer ,eve 7,st4 ,john's ,eve1 the twenty-third of ,june74 ,the pot is then called ,erme or ,nenneri4 ,on ,st4 ,john's ,day the young man and the girl1 dressed in their best1 accompanied by a long retinue and preceded by children gambolling and frolicking1 move in procession to a church outside the village4 ,here they break the pot by throwing it against the door of the church4 ,then they sit down in a ring on the grass and eat eggs and herbs to the music of flutes4 ,wine is mixed in a cup and passed round1 each one drinking as it passes4 ,then they join hands and sing 8,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john0 7,compare e comare di ,san ,giovanni7 over and over again1 the flutes playing the while4 ,when they tire of singing they stand up and dance gaily in a ring till evening4 ,this is the general ,sardinian custom4 ,as practised at ,ozieri it has some special features4 ,in ,may the pots are made of cork-bark and planted with corn1 as already described4 ,then on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john the window-sills are draped with rich cloths1 on which the pots are placed1 adorned with crimson and blue silk and ribbons of various colours4 ,on each of the pots they used formerly to place a statuette or cloth doll dressed as a woman1 or a ,priapus-like figure made of paste2 but this custom1 rigorously forbidden by the ,church1 has fallen into disuse4 ,the village swains go about in a troop to look at the pots and their decorations and to wait for the girls1 who assemble on the public square to celebrate the festival4 ,here a great bonfire is kindled1 round which they dance and make merry4 ,those who wish to be 8,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john0 act as follows4 ,the young man stands on one side of the bonfire and the girl on the other1 and they1 in a manner1 join hands by each grasping one end of a long stick1 which they pass three times backwards and forwards across the fire1 thus thrusting their hands thrice rapidly into the flames4 ,this seals their relationship to each other4 ,dancing and music go on till late at night47#gbe7 ,the correspondence of these ,sardinian pots of grain to the gardens of ,adonis seems complete1 and the images formerly placed in them answer to the images of ,adonis which accompanied his gardens4 7,m#ahg7 ,customs of the same sort are observed at the same season in ,sicily4 ,pairs of boys and girls become gossips of ,st4 ,john on ,st4 ,john's ,day by drawing each a hair from his or her head and performing various ceremonies over them4 ,thus they tie the hairs together and throw them up in the air1 or exchange them over a potsherd1 which they afterwards break in two1 preserving each a fragment with pious care4 ,the tie formed in the latter way is supposed to last for life4 ,in some parts of ,sicily the gossips of ,st4 ,john present each other with plates of sprouting corn1 lentils1 and canary seed1 which have been planted forty days before the festival4 ,the one who receives the plate pulls a stalk of the young plants1 binds it with a ribbon1 and preserves it among his or her greatest treasures1 restoring the platter to the giver4 ,at ,catania the gossips exchange pots of basil and great cucumbers2 the girls tend the basil1 and the thicker it grows the more it is prized47#gbf7 7,m#ahh7 ,in these midsummer customs of ,sardinia and ,sicily it is possible that1 as ,mr4 ,r4 ,wnsch supposes17#gbg7 ,st4 ,john has replaced ,adonis4 ,we have seen that the rites of ,tammuz or ,adonis were commonly celebrated about midsummer2 according to ,jerome1 their date was ,june47#gbh7 ,and besides their date and their similarity in respect of the pots of herbs and corn1 there is another point of affinity between the two festivals1 the heathen and the ,christian4 ,in both of them water plays a prominent part4 ,at his midsummer festival in ,babylon the image of ,tammuz1 whose name is said to mean 8true son of the deep water10 was bathed with pure water3 at his summer festival in ,alexandria the image of ,adonis1 with that of his divine mistress ,aphrodite1 was committed to the waves2 and at the midsummer celebration in ,greece the gardens of ,adonis were thrown into the sea or into springs4 ,now a great feature of the midsummer festival associated with the name of ,st4 ,john is1 or used to be1 the custom of bathing in the sea1 springs1 rivers1 or the dew on ,midsummer ,eve or the morning of ,midsummer ,day4 ,thus1 for example1 at ,naples there is a church dedicated to ,st4 ,john the ,baptist under the name of ,st4 ,john of the ,sea 7,s4 ,giovan a mare72 and it was an old practice for men and women to bathe in the sea on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 that is1 on ,midsummer ,eve1 believing that thus all their sins were washed away47#gbi7 ,in the ,abruzzi water is still supposed to acquire certain marvellous and beneficent properties on ,st4 ,john's ,night4 ,they say that on that night the sun and moon bathe in the water4 ,hence many people take a bath in the sea or in a river at that season1 especially at the moment of sunrise4 ,at ,castiglione a ,casauria they go before sunrise to the ,pescara ,river or to springs1 wash their faces and hands1 then gird themselves with twigs of bryony 7vitalba7 and twine the plant round their brows1 in order that they may be free from pains4 ,at ,pescina boys and girls wash each other's faces in a river or a spring1 then exchange kisses1 and become gossips4 ,the dew1 also1 that falls on ,st4 ,john's ,night is supposed in the ,abruzzi to benefit whatever it touches1 whether it be water1 flowers1 or the human body4 ,for that reason people put out vessels of water on the window-sills or the terraces1 and wash themselves with the water in the morning in order to purify themselves and escape headaches and colds4 ,a still more efficacious mode of accomplishing the same end is to rise at the peep of dawn1 to wet the hands in the dewy grass1 and then to rub the moisture on the eyelids1 the brow1 and the temples1 because the dew is believed to cure maladies of the head and eyes4 ,it is also a remedy for diseases of the skin4 ,persons who are thus afflicted should roll on the dewy grass4 ,when patients are prevented by their infirmity or any other cause from quitting the house1 their friends will gather the dew in sheets or tablecloths and so apply it to the suffering part47#gcj7 ,at ,marsala in ,sicily there is a spring of water in a subterranean grotto called the ,grotto of the ,sibyl4 ,beside it stands a church of ,st4 ,john1 which has been supposed to occupy the site of a temple of ,apollo4 ,on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 the twenty-third of ,june1 women and girls visit the grotto1 and by drinking of the prophetic water learn whether their husbands have been faithful to them in the year that is past1 or whether they themselves will wed in the year that is to come4 ,sick people1 too1 imagine that by bathing in the water1 drinking of it1 or ducking thrice in it in the name of the ,trinity1 they will be made whole47#gca7 ,at ,chiaramonte in ,sicily the following custom is observed on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,the men repair to one fountain and the women to another1 and dip their heads thrice in the water1 repeating at each ablution certain verses in honour of ,st4 ,john4 ,they believe that this is a cure or preventive of the scald47#gcb7 ,when ,petrarch visited ,cologne1 he chanced to arrive in the town on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,the sun was nearly setting1 and his host at once led him to the ,rhine4 ,a strange sight there met his eyes1 for the banks of the river were covered with pretty women4 ,the crowd was great but good-humoured4 ,from a rising ground on which he stood the poet saw many of the women1 girt with fragrant herbs1 kneel down on the water's edge1 roll their sleeves up above their elbows1 and wash their white arms and hands in the river1 murmuring softly some words which the ,italian did not understand4 ,he was told that the custom was a very old one1 much honoured in the observance2 for the common folk1 especially the women1 believed that to wash in the river on ,st4 ,john's ,eve would avert every misfortune in the coming year47#gcc7 ,on ,st4 ,john's ,eve the people of ,copenhagen used to go on pilgrimage to a neighbouring spring1 there to heal and strengthen themselves in the water47#gcd7 ,in ,spain people still bathe in the sea or roll naked in the dew of the meadows on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 believing that this is a sovereign preservative against diseases of the skin47#gce7 ,to roll in the dew on the morning of ,st4 ,john's ,day is also esteemed a cure for diseases of the skin in ,normandy and ,perigord4 ,in ,perigord a field of hemp is especially recommended for the purpose1 and the patient should rub himself with the plants on which he has rolled47#gcf7 ,at ,ciotat in ,provence1 while the midsummer bonfire blazed1 young people used to plunge into the sea and splash each other vigorously4 ,at ,vitrolles they bathed in a pond in order that they might not suffer from fever during the year1 and at ,saint-,maries they watered the horses to protect them from the itch47#gcg7 ,a custom of drenching people on this occasion with water formerly prevailed in ,toulon1 ,marseilles1 and other towns of the south of ,france4 ,the water was squirted from syringes1 poured on the heads of passers-by from windows1 and so forth47#gch7 ,from ,europe the practice of bathing in rivers and springs on ,st4 ,john's ,day appears to have passed with the ,spaniards to the ,new ,world47#gci7 7,m#ahi7 ,it may perhaps be suggested that this wide-spread custom of bathing in water or dew on ,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer ,day is purely ,christian in origin1 having been adopted as an appropriate mode of celebrating the day dedicated to the ,baptist4 ,but in point of fact the custom is older than ,christianity1 for it was denounced and forbidden as a heathen practice by ,augustine17#gdj7 and to this day it is practised at midsummer by the ,mohammedan peoples of ,north ,africa47#gda7 ,we may conjecture that the ,church1 unable to put down this relic of paganism1 followed its usual policy of accommodation by bestowing on the rite of a ,christian name and acquiescing1 with a sigh1 in its observance4 ,and casting about for a saint to supplant a heathen patron of bathing1 the ,christian doctors could hardly have hit upon a more appropriate successor than ,st4 ,john the ,baptist4 7,m#aij7 ,but into whose shoes did the ,baptist step8 ,was the displaced deity really ,adonis1 as the foregoing evidence seems to suggest8 ,in ,sardinia and ,sicily it may have been so1 for in these islands ,semitic influence was certainly deep and probably lasting4 ,the midsummer pastimes of ,sardinian and ,sicilian children may therefore be a direct continuation of the ,carthaginian rites of ,tammuz4 ,yet the midsummer festival seems too widely spread and too deeply rooted in ,central and ,northern ,europe to allow us to trace it everywhere to an ,oriental origin in general and to the cult of ,adonis in particular4 ,it has the air of a native of the soil rather than of an exotic imported from the ,east4 ,we shall do better1 therefore1 to suppose that at a remote period similar modes of thought1 based on similar needs1 led men independently in many distant lands1 from the ,north ,sea to the ,euphrates1 to celebrate the summer solstice with rites which1 while they differed in some things1 yet agreed closely in others2 that in historical times a wave of ,oriental influence1 starting perhaps from ,babylonia1 carried the ,tammuz or ,adonis form of the festival westward till it met with native forms of a similar festival2 and that under pressure of the ,roman civilization these different yet kindred festivals fused with each other and crystallized into a variety of shapes1 which subsisted more or less separately side by side1 till the ,church1 unable to suppress them altogether1 stripped them so far as it could of their grosser features1 and dexterously changing the names allowed them to pass muster as ,christian4 ,and what has just been said of the midsummer festivals probably applies1 with the necessary modifications1 to the spring festivals also4 ,they1 too1 seem to have originated independently in ,europe and the ,east1 and after ages of separation to have amalgamated under the sway of the ,roman ,empire and the ,christian ,church4 ,in ,syria1 as we have seen1 there appears to have been a vernal celebration of ,adonis2 and we shall presently meet with an undoubted instance of an ,oriental festival of spring in the rites of ,attis4 ,meantime we must return for a little to the midsummer festival which goes by the name of ,st4 ,john4 7,m#aia7 ,the ,sardinian practice of making merry round a great bonfire on ,st4 ,john's ,eve is an instance of a custom which has been practised at the midsummer festival from time immemorial in many parts of ,europe4 ,that custom has been more fully dealt with by me elsewhere47#gdb7 ,the instances which ,i have cited in other parts of this work seem to indicate a connexion of the midsummer bonfire with vegetation4 ,for example1 both in ,sweden and ,bohemia an essential part of the festival is the raising of a ,may-pole or ,midsummer-tree1 which in ,bohemia is burned in the bonfire47#gdc7 ,again1 in a ,russian midsummer ceremony a straw figure of ,kupalo1 the representative of vegetation1 is placed beside a ,may-pole or ,midsummer-tree and then carried to and fro across a bonfire47#gdd7 ,kupalo is here represented in duplicate1 in tree-form by the ,midsummer-tree1 and in human form by the straw effigy1 just as ,adonis was represented both by an image and a garden of ,adonis2 and the duplicate representatives of ,kupalo1 like those of ,adonis1 are finally cast into water4 ,in the ,sardinian and ,sicilian customs the ,gossips or ,sweethearts of ,st4 ,john probably answer1 on the one hand to ,adonis and ,astarte1 on the other to the ,king and ,queen of ,may4 ,in the ,swedish province of ,blekinge part of the midsummer festival is the election of a ,midsummer ,bride1 who chooses her bridegroom2 a collection is made for the pair1 who for the time being are looked upon as man and wife47#gde7 ,such ,midsummer pairs may be supposed1 like the ,may pairs1 to stand for the powers of vegetation or of fertility in general3 they represent in flesh and blood what the images of ,siva or ,mahadeo and ,parvati in the ,indian ceremonies1 and the images of ,adonis and ,aphrodite in the ,alexandrian ceremony1 set forth in effigy4 7,m#aib7 ,the reason why ceremonies whose aim is to foster the growth of vegetation should thus be associated with bonfires2 why in particular the representative of vegetation should be burned in the likeness of a tree1 or passed across the fire in effigy or in the form of a living couple1 has been discussed by me elsewhere47#gdf7 ,here it is enough to have adduced evidence of such association1 and therefore to have obviated the objection which might have been raised to my theory of the ,sardinian custom1 on the ground that the bonfires have nothing to do with vegetation4 ,one more piece of evidence may here be given to prove the contrary4 ,in some parts of ,germany and ,austria young men and girls leap over midsummer bonfires for the express purpose of making the hemp or flax grow tall47#gdg7 ,we may1 therefore1 assume that in the ,sardinian custom the blades of wheat and barley which are forced on in pots for the midsummer festival1 and which correspond so closely to the gardens of ,adonis1 form one of those widely-spread midsummer ceremonies1 the original object of which was to promote the growth of vegetation1 and especially of the crops4 ,but as1 by an easy extension of ideas1 the spirit of vegetation was believed to exercise a beneficent and fertilizing influence on human as well as animal life1 the gardens of ,adonis would be supposed1 like the ,may-trees or ,may-boughs1 to bring good luck1 and more particularly perhaps offspring17#gdh7 to the family or to the person who planted them2 and even after the idea had been abandoned that they operated actively to confer prosperity1 they might still be used to furnish omens of good or evil4 ,it is thus that magic dwindles into divination4 ,accordingly we find modes of divination practised at midsummer which resemble more or less closely the gardens of ,adonis4 ,thus an anonymous ,italian writer of the sixteenth century has recorded that it was customary to sow barley and wheat a few days before the festival of ,st4 ,john 7,midsummer ,day7 and also before that of ,st4 ,vitus2 and it was believed that the person for whom they were sown would be fortunate1 and get a good husband or a good wife1 if the grain sprouted well2 but if it sprouted ill1 he or she would be unlucky47#gdi7 ,in various parts of ,italy and all over ,sicily it is still customary to put plants in water or in earth on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john1 and from the manner in which they are found to be blooming or fading on ,st4 ,john's ,day omens are drawn1 especially as to fortune in love4 ,amongst the plants used for this purpose are ,ciuri di ,s4 ,giuvanni 7,st4 ,john's wort87 and nettles47#gej7 ,in ,prussia two hundred years ago the farmers used to send out their servants1 especially their maids1 to gather ,st4 ,john's wort on ,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer ,day 7,st4 ,john's ,day74 ,when they had fetched it1 the farmer took as many plants as there were persons and stuck them in the wall or between the beams2 and it was thought that he or she whose plant did not bloom would soon fall sick or die4 ,the rest of the plants were tied in a bundle1 fastened to the end of a pole1 and set up at the gate or wherever the corn would be brought in at the next harvest4 ,the bundle was called ,kupole3 the ceremony was known as ,kupole's festival2 and at it the farmer prayed for a good crop of hay1 and so forth47#gea7 ,this ,prussian custom is particularly notable1 inasmuch as it strongly confirms the opinion that ,kupalo 7doubtless identical with ,kupole7 was originally a deity of vegetation47#geb7 ,for here ,kupalo is represented by a bundle of plants specially associated with midsummer in folk-custom2 and her influence over vegetation is plainly signified by placing her vegetable emblem over the place where the harvest is brought in1 as well as by the prayers for a good crop which are uttered on the occasion4 ,this furnishes a fresh argument in support of the view that the ,death1 whose analogy to ,kupalo1 ,yarilo1 and the rest ,i have shown elsewhere1 originally personified vegetation1 more especially the dying or dead vegetation of winter47#gec7 ,further1 my interpretation of the gardens of ,adonis is confirmed by finding that in this ,prussian custom the very same kind of plants is used to form the gardens of ,adonis 7as we may call them7 and the image of the deity4 ,nothing could set in a stronger light the truth of the theory that the gardens of ,adonis are merely another manifestation of the god himself4 7,m#aic7 ,in ,sicily gardens of ,adonis are still sown in spring as well as in summer1 from which we may perhaps infer that ,sicily as well as ,syria celebrated of old a vernal festival of the dead and risen god4 ,at the approach of ,easter1 ,sicilian women sow wheat1 lentils1 and canary-seed in plates1 which they keep in the dark and water every two days4 ,the plants soon shoot up2 the stalks are tied together with red ribbons1 and the plates containing them are placed on the sepulchres which1 with the effigies of the dead ,christ1 are made up in ,catholic and ,greek churches on ,good ,friday17#ged7 just as the gardens of ,adonis were placed on the grave of the dead ,adonis47#gee7 ,the practice is not confined to ,sicily1 for it is observed also at ,cosenza in ,calabria17#gef7 and perhaps in other places4 ,the whole custom--sepulchres as well as plates of sprouting grain--may be nothing but a continuation1 under a different name1 of the worship of ,adonis4 7,m#aid7 ,nor are these ,sicilian and ,calabrian customs the only ,easter ceremonies which resemble the rites of ,adonis4 8,during the whole of ,good ,friday a waxen effigy of the dead ,christ is exposed to view in the middle of the ,greek churches and is covered with fervent kisses by the thronging crowd1 while the whole church rings with melancholy1 monotonous dirges4 ,late in the evening1 when it has grown quite dark1 this waxen image is carried by the priests into the street on a bier adorned with lemons1 roses1 jessamine1 and other flowers1 and there begins a grand procession of the multitude1 who move in serried ranks1 with slow and solemn step1 through the whole town4 ,every man carries his taper and breaks out into doleful lamentation4 ,at all the houses which the procession passes there are seated women with censers to fumigate the marching host4 ,thus the community solemnly buries its ,christ as if he had just died4 ,at last the waxen image is again deposited in the church1 and the same lugubrious chants echo anew4 ,these lamentations1 accompanied by a strict fast1 continue till midnight on ,saturday4 ,as the clock strikes twelve1 the bishop appears and announces the glad tidings that #8,christ is risen1' to which the crowd replies1 #8,he is risen indeed1' and at once the whole city bursts into an uproar of joy1 which finds vent in shrieks and shouts1 in the endless discharge of carronades and muskets1 and the explosion of fire-works of every sort4 ,in the very same hour people plunge from the extremity of the fast into the enjoyment of the ,easter lamb and neat wine407#geg7 7,m#aie7 ,in like manner the ,catholic ,church has been accustomed to bring before its followers in a visible form the death and resurrection of the ,redeemer4 ,such sacred dramas are well fitted to impress the lively imagination and to stir the warm feelings of a susceptible southern race1 to whom the pomp and pageantry of ,catholicism are more congenial than to the colder temperament of the ,teutonic peoples4 ,the solemnities observed in ,sicily on ,good ,friday1 the official anniversary of the ,crucifixion1 are thus described by a native ,sicilian writer4 8,a truly moving ceremony is the procession which always takes place in the evening in every commune of ,sicily1 and further the ,deposition from the ,cross4 ,the brotherhoods took part in the procession1 and the rear was brought up by a great many boys and girls representing saints1 both male and female1 and carrying the emblems of ,christ's ,passion4 ,the ,deposition from the ,cross was managed by the priests4 ,the coffin with the dead ,christ in it was flanked by ,jews armed with swords1 an object of horror and aversion in the midst of the profound pity excited by the sight not only of ,christ but of the ,mater ,dolorosa1 who followed behind him4 ,now and then the #8mysteries' or symbols of the ,crucifixion went in front4 ,sometimes the procession followed the #8three hours of agony' and the #8,deposition from the ,cross4' ,the #8three hours' commemorated those which ,jesus ,christ passed upon the ,cross4 ,beginning at the eighteenth and ending at the twenty-first hour of ,italian time two priests preached alternately on the ,passion4 ,anciently the sermons were delivered in the open air on the place called the ,calvary3 at last1 when the third hour was about to strike1 at the words emisit spiritum ,christ died1 bowing his head amid the sobs and tears of the bystanders4 ,immediately afterwards in some places1 three hours afterwards in others1 the sacred body was unnailed and deposited in the coffin4 ,in ,castronuovo1 at the ,ave ,maria1 two priests clad as ,jews1 representing ,joseph of ,arimathea and ,nicodemus1 with their servants in costume1 repaired to the ,calvary1 preceded by the ,company of the ,whites4 ,there1 with doleful verses and chants appropriate to the occasion1 they performed the various operations of the ,deposition1 after which the procession took its way to the larger church4444 ,in ,salaparuta the ,calvary is erected in the church4 ,at the preaching of the death1 the ,crucified is made to bow his head by means of machinery1 while guns are fired1 trumpets sound1 and amid the silence of the people1 impressed by the death of the ,redeemer1 the strains of a melancholy funeral march are heard4 ,christ is removed from the ,cross and deposited in the coffin by three priests4 ,after the procession of the dead ,christ the burial is performed1 that is1 two priests lay ,christ in a fictitious sepulchre1 from which at the mass of ,easter ,saturday the image of the risen ,christ issues and is elevated upon the altar by means of machinery407#geh7 ,scenic representations of the same sort1 with variations of detail1 are exhibited at ,easter in the ,abruzzi17#gei7 and probably in many other parts of the ,catholic world47#gfj7 7,m#aif7 ,when we reflect how often the ,church has skilfully contrived to plant the seeds of the new faith on the old stock of paganism1 we may surmise that the ,easter celebration of the dead and risen ,christ was grafted upon a similar celebration of the dead and risen ,adonis1 which1 as we have seen reason to believe1 was celebrated in ,syria at the same season4 ,the type1 created by ,greek artists1 of the sorrowful goddess with her dying lover in her arms1 resembles and may have been the model of the ,piet of ,christian art1 the ,virgin with the dead body of her divine ,son in her lap1 of which the most celebrated example is the one by ,michael ,angelo in ,st4 ,peter's4 ,that noble group1 in which the living sorrow of the mother contrasts so wonderfully with the languor of death in the son1 is one of the finest compositions in marble4 ,ancient ,greek art has bequeathed to us few works so beautiful1 and none so pathetic47#gfa7 7,m#aig7 ,in this connexion a well-known statement of ,jerome may not be without significance4 ,he tells us that ,bethlehem1 the traditionary birthplace of the ,lord1 was shaded by a grove of that still older ,syrian ,lord1 ,adonis1 and that where the infant ,jesus had wept1 the lover of ,venus was bewailed47#gfb7 ,though he does not expressly say so1 ,jerome seems to have thought that the grove of ,adonis had been planted by the heathen after the birth of ,christ for the purpose of defiling the sacred spot4 ,in this he may have been mistaken4 ,if ,adonis was indeed1 as ,i have argued1 the spirit of the corn1 a more suitable name for his dwelling-place could hardly be found than ,bethlehem1 8the ,house of ,bread107#gfc7 and he may well have been worshipped there at his ,house of ,bread long ages before the birth of ,him who said1 8,i am the bread of life407#gfd7 ,even on the hypothesis that ,adonis followed rather than preceded ,christ at ,bethlehem1 the choice of his sad figure to divert the allegiance of ,christians from their ,lord cannot but strike us as eminently appropriate when we remember the similarity of the rites which commemorated the death and resurrection of the two4 ,one of the earliest seats of the worship of the new god was ,antioch1 and at ,antioch1 as we have seen17#gfe7 the death of the old god was annually celebrated with great solemnity4 ,a circumstance which attended the entrance of ,julian into the city at the time of the ,adonis festival may perhaps throw some light on the date of its celebration4 ,when the emperor drew near to the city he was received with public prayers as if he had been a god1 and he marvelled at the voices of a great multitude who cried that the ,star of ,salvation had dawned upon them in the ,east47#gff7 ,this may doubtless have been no more than a fulsome compliment paid by an obsequious ,oriental crowd to the ,roman emperor4 ,but it is also possible that the rising of a bright star regularly gave the signal for the festival1 and that as chance would have it the star emerged above the rim of the eastern horizon at the very moment of the emperor's approach4 ,the coincidence1 if it happened1 could hardly fail to strike the imagination of a superstitious and excited multitude1 who might thereupon hail the great man as the deity whose coming was announced by the sign in the heavens4 ,or the emperor may have mistaken for a greeting to himself the shouts which were addressed to the star4 ,now ,astarte1 the divine mistress of ,adonis1 was identified with the planet ,venus1 and her changes from a morning to an evening star were carefully noted by the ,babylonian astronomers1 who drew omens from her alternate appearance and disappearance47#gfg7 ,hence we may conjecture that the festival of ,adonis was regularly timed to coincide with the appearance of ,venus as the ,morning or ,evening ,star4 ,but the star which the people of ,antioch saluted at the festival was seen in the ,east2 therefore1 if it was indeed ,venus1 it can only have been the ,morning ,star4 ,at ,aphaca in ,syria1 where there was a famous temple of ,astarte1 the signal for the celebration of the rites was apparently given by the flashing of a meteor1 which on a certain day fell like a star from the top of ,mount ,lebanon into the river ,adonis4 ,the meteor was thought to be ,astarte herself17#gfh7 and its flight through the air might naturally be interpreted as the descent of the amorous goddess to the arms of her lover4 ,at ,antioch and elsewhere the appearance of the ,morning ,star on the day of the festival may in like manner have been hailed as the coming of the goddess of love to wake her dead leman from his earthy bed4 ,if that were so1 we may surmise that it was the ,morning ,star which guided the wise men of the ,east to ,bethlehem17#gfi7 the hallowed spot which heard1 in the language of ,jerome1 the weeping of the infant ,christ and the lament for ,adonis4 ,,book ,,second4 ,,attis4 ,chapter ,i4 ,the ,myth and ,ritual of ,attis4 7,m#aih7 ,another of those gods whose supposed death and resurrection struck such deep roots into the faith and ritual of ,western ,asia is ,attis4 ,he was to ,phrygia what ,adonis was to ,syria4 ,like ,adonis1 he appears to have been a god of vegetation1 and his death and resurrection were annually mourned and rejoiced over at a festival in spring47#ggj7 ,the legends and rites of the two gods were so much alike that the ancients themselves sometimes identified them47#gga7 ,attis was said to have been a fair young shepherd or herdsman beloved by ,cybele1 the ,mother of the ,gods1 a great ,asiatic goddess of fertility1 who had her chief home in ,phrygia47#ggb7 ,some held that ,attis was her son47#ggc7 ,his birth1 like that of many other heroes1 is said to have been miraculous4 ,his mother1 ,nana1 was a virgin1 who conceived by putting a ripe almond or a pomegranate in her bosom4 ,indeed in the ,phrygian cosmogony an almond figured as the father of all things17#ggd7 perhaps because its delicate lilac blossom is one of the first heralds of the spring1 appearing on the bare boughs before the leaves have opened4 ,such tales of virgin mothers are relics of an age of childish ignorance when men had not yet recognized the intercourse of the sexes as the true cause of offspring4 ,that ignorance1 still shared by the lowest of existing savages1 the aboriginal tribes of central ,australia17#gge7 was doubtless at one time universal among mankind4 ,even in later times1 when people are better acquainted with the laws of nature1 they sometimes imagine that these laws may be subject to exceptions1 and that miraculous beings may be born in miraculous ways by women who have never known a man4 ,in ,palestine to this day it is believed that a woman may conceive by a jinnee or by the spirit of her dead husband4 ,there is1 or was lately1 a man at ,nebk who is currently supposed to be the offspring of such a union1 and the simple folk have never suspected his mother's virtue47#ggf7 ,two different accounts of the death of ,attis were current4 ,according to the one he was killed by a boar1 like ,adonis4 ,according to the other he unmanned himself under a pine-tree1 and bled to death on the spot4 ,the latter is said to have been the local story told by the people of ,pessinus1 a great seat of the worship of ,cybele1 and the whole legend of which the story forms a part is stamped with a character of rudeness and savagery that speaks strongly for its antiquity47#ggg7 ,both tales might claim the support of custom1 or rather both were probably invented to explain certain customs observed by the worshippers4 ,the story of the self-mutilation of ,attis is clearly an attempt to account for the self-mutilation of his priests1 who regularly castrated themselves on entering the service of the goddess4 ,the story of his death by the boar may have been told to explain why his worshippers1 especially the people of ,pessinus1 abstained from eating swine47#ggh7 ,in like manner the worshippers of ,adonis abstained from pork1 because a boar had killed their god47#ggi7 ,after his death ,attis is said to have been changed into a pine-tree47#ghj7 7,m#aii7 ,the worship of the ,phrygian ,mother of the ,gods was adopted by the ,romans in #bjd ,b4,c4 towards the close of their long struggle with ,hannibal4 ,for their drooping spirits had been opportunely cheered by a prophecy1 alleged to be drawn from that convenient farrago of nonsense1 the ,sibylline ,books1 that the foreign invader would be driven from ,italy if the great ,oriental goddess were brought to ,rome4 ,accordingly ambassadors were despatched to her sacred city ,pessinus in ,phrygia4 ,the small black stone which embodied the mighty divinity was entrusted to them and conveyed to ,rome1 where it was received with great respect and installed in the temple of ,victory on the ,palatine ,hill4 ,it was the middle of ,april when the goddess arrived17#gha7 and she went to work at once4 ,for the harvest that year was such as had not been seen for many a long day17#ghb7 and in the very next year ,hannibal and his veterans embarked for ,africa4 ,as he looked his last on the coast of ,italy1 fading behind him in the distance1 he could not foresee that ,europe1 which had repelled the arms1 would yet yield to the gods1 of the ,orient4 ,the vanguard of the conquerors had already encamped in the heart of ,italy before the rearguard of the beaten army fell sullenly back from its shores4 7,m#bjj7 ,we may conjecture1 though we are not told1 that the ,mother of the ,gods brought with her the worship of her youthful lover or son to her new home in the ,west4 ,certainly the ,romans were familiar with the ,galli1 the emasculated priests of ,attis1 before the close of the ,republic4 ,these unsexed beings1 in their ,oriental costume1 with little images suspended on their breasts1 appear to have been a familiar sight in the streets of ,rome1 which they traversed in procession1 carrying the image of the goddess and chanting their hymns to the music of cymbals and tambourines1 flutes and horns1 while the people1 impressed by the fantastic show and moved by the wild strains1 flung alms to them in abundance1 and buried the image and its bearers under showers of roses47#ghc7 ,a further step was taken by the ,emperor ,claudius when he incorporated the ,phrygian worship of the sacred tree1 and with it probably the orgiastic rites of ,attis1 in the established religion of ,rome47#ghd7 ,the great spring festival of ,cybele and ,attis is best known to us in the form in which it was celebrated at ,rome2 but as we are informed that the ,roman ceremonies were also ,phrygian17#ghe7 we may assume that they differed hardly1 if at all1 from their ,asiatic original4 ,the order of the festival seems to have been as follows47#ghf7 7,m#bja7 ,on the twenty-second day of ,march1 a pine-tree was cut in the woods and brought into the sanctuary of ,cybele1 where it was treated as a great1 divinity4 ,the duty of carrying the sacred tree was entrusted to a guild of ,tree-bearers4 ,the trunk was swathed like a corpse with woollen bands and decked with wreaths1 of violets1 for violets were said to have sprung from the blood of ,attis1 as roses and anemones from the blood of ,adonis2 and the effigy of a young man1 doubtless ,attis himself1 was tied to the middle of the stem47#ghg7 ,on the second day of the festival1 the twenty-third of ,march1 the chief ceremony seems to have been a blowing of trumpets47#ghh7 ,the third day1 the twenty-fourth of ,march1 was known as the ,day of ,blood3 the ,archigallus or high-priest drew blood from his arms and presented it as an offering47#ghi7 ,nor was he alone in making this bloody sacrifice4 ,stirred by the wild barbaric music of clashing cymbals1 rumbling drums1 droning horns1 and screaming flutes1 the inferior clergy whirled about in the dance with waggling heads and streaming hair1 until1 rapt into a frenzy of excitement and insensible to pain1 they gashed their bodies with potsherds or slashed them with knives in order to bespatter the altar and the sacred tree with their flowing blood47#gij7 ,the ghastly rite probably formed part of the mourning for ,attis and may have been intended to strengthen him for the resurrection4 ,the ,australian aborigines cut themselves in like manner over the graves of their friends for the purpose1 perhaps1 of enabling them to be born again47#gia7 ,further1 we may conjecture1 though we are not expressly told1 that it was on the same ,day of ,blood and for the same purpose that the novices sacrificed their virility4 ,wrought up to the highest pitch of religious excitement they dashed the severed portions of themselves against the image of the cruel goddess4 ,these broken instruments of fertility were afterwards reverently wrapt up and buried in the earth or in subterranean chambers sacred to ,cybele17#gib7 where1 like the offering of blood1 they may have been deemed instrumental in recalling ,attis to life and hastening the general resurrection of nature1 which was then bursting into leaf and blossom in the vernal sunshine4 ,some confirmation of this conjecture is furnished by the savage story that the mother of ,attis conceived by putting in her bosom a pomegranate sprung from the severed genitals of a man-monster named ,agdestis1 a sort of double of ,attis47#gic7 7,m#bjb7 ,if there is any truth in this conjectural explanation of the custom1 we can readily understand why other ,asiatic goddesses of fertility were served in like manner by eunuch priests4 ,these feminine deities required to receive from their male ministers1 who personated the divine lovers1 the means of discharging their beneficent functions3 they had themselves to be impregnated by the life-giving energy before they could transmit it to the world4 ,goddesses thus ministered to by eunuch priests were the great ,artemis of ,ephesus7#gid7 and the great ,syrian ,astarte of ,hierapolis17#gie7 whose sanctuary1 frequented by swarms of pilgrims and enriched by the offerings of ,assyria and ,babylonia1 of ,arabia and ,phoenicia1 was perhaps in the days of its glory the most popular in the ,east47#gif7 ,now the unsexed priests of this ,syrian goddess resembled those of ,cybele so closely that some people took them to be the same47#gig7 ,and the mode in which they dedicated themselves to the religious life was similar4 ,the greatest festival of the year at ,hierapolis fell at the beginning of spring1 when multitudes thronged to the sanctuary from ,syria and the regions round about4 ,while the flutes played1 the drums beat1 and the eunuch priests slashed themselves with knives1 the religious excitement gradually spread like a wave among the crowd of onlookers1 and many a one did that which he little thought to do when he came as a holiday spectator to the festival4 ,for man after man1 his veins throbbing with the music1 his eyes fascinated by the sight of the streaming blood1 flung his garments from him1 leaped forth with a shout1 and seizing one of the swords which stood ready for the purpose1 castrated himself on the spot4 ,then he ran through the city1 holding the bloody pieces in his hand1 till he threw them into one of the houses which he passed in his mad career4 ,the household thus honoured had to furnish him with a suit of female attire and female ornaments1 which he wore for the rest of his life47#gih7 ,when the tumult of emotion had subsided1 and the man had come to himself again1 the irrevocable sacrifice must often have been followed by passionate sorrow and lifelong regret4 ,this revulsion of natural human feeling after the frenzies of a fanatical religion is powerfully depicted by ,catullus in a celebrated poem47#gii7 7,m#bjc7 ,the parallel of these ,syrian devotees confirms the view that in the similar worship of ,cybele the sacrifice of virility took place on the ,day of ,blood at the vernal rites of the goddess1 when the violets1 supposed to spring from the red drops of her wounded lover1 were in bloom among the pines4 ,indeed the story that ,attis unmanned himself under a pine-tree7#hjj7 was clearly devised to explain why his priests did the same beside the sacred violet-wreathed tree at his festival4 ,at all events1 we can hardly doubt that the ,day of ,blood witnessed the mourning for ,attis over an effigy of him which was afterwards buried47#hja7 ,the image thus laid in the sepulchre was probably the same which had hung upon the tree47#hjb7 ,throughout the period of mourning the worshippers fasted from bread1 nominally because ,cybele had done so in her grief for the death of ,attis17#hjc7 but really perhaps for the same reason which induced the women of ,harran to abstain from eating anything ground in a mill while they wept for ,tammuz47#hjd7 ,to partake of bread or flour at such a season might have been deemed a wanton profanation of the bruised and broken body of the god4 ,or the fast may possibly have been a preparation for a sacramental meal47#hje7 7,m#bjd7 ,but when night had fallen1 the sorrow of the worshippers was turned to joy4 ,for suddenly a light shone in the darkness3 the tomb was opened3 the god had risen from the dead2 and as the priest touched the lips of the weeping mourners with balm1 he softly whispered in their ears the glad tidings of salvation4 ,the resurrection of the god was hailed by his disciples as a promise that they too would issue triumphant from the corruption of the grave47#hjf7 ,on the morrow1 the twenty-fifth day of ,march1 which was reckoned the vernal equinox1 the divine resurrection was celebrated with a wild outburst of glee4 ,at ,rome1 and probably elsewhere1 the celebration took the form of a carnival4 ,it was the ,festival of ,joy 7,hilaria74 ,a universal licence prevailed4 ,every man might say and do what he pleased4 ,people went about the streets in disguise4 ,no dignity was too high or too sacred for the humblest citizen to assume with impunity4 ,in the reign of ,commodus a band of conspirators thought to take advantage of the masquerade by dressing in the uniform of the ,imperial ,guard1 and so1 mingling with the crowd of merrymakers1 to get within stabbing distance of the emperor4 ,but the plot miscarried47#hjg7 ,even the stern ,alexander ,severus used to relax so far on the joyous day as to admit a pheasant to his frugal board47#hjh7 ,the next day1 the twenty-sixth of ,march1 was given to repose1 which must have been much needed after the varied excitements and fatigues of the preceding days47#hji7 ,finally1 the ,roman festival closed on the twenty-seventh of ,march with a procession to the brook ,almo4 ,the silver image of the goddess1 with its face of jagged black stone1 sat in a wagon drawn by oxen4 ,preceded by the nobles walking barefoot1 it moved slowly1 to the loud music of pipes and tambourines1 out by the ,porta ,capena1 and so down to the banks of the ,almo1 which flows into the ,tiber just below the walls of ,rome4 ,there the high-priest1 robed in purple1 washed the wagon1 the image1 and the other sacred objects in the water of the stream4 ,on returning from their bath1 the wain and the oxen were strewn with fresh spring flowers4 ,all was mirth and gaiety4 ,no one thought of the blood that had flowed so lately4 ,even the eunuch priests forgot their wounds47#haj7 7,m#bje7 ,such1 then1 appears to have been the annual solemnization of the death and resurrection of ,attis in spring4 ,but besides these public rites1 his worship is known to have comprised certain secret or mystic ceremonies1 which probably aimed at bringing the worshipper1 and especially the novice1 into closer communication with his god4 ,our information as to the nature of these mysteries and the date of their celebration is unfortunately very scanty1 but they seem to have included a sacramental meal and a baptism of blood4 ,in the sacrament the novice became a partaker of the mysteries by eating out of a drum and drinking out of a cymbal1 two instruments of music which figured prominently in the thrilling orchestra of ,attis47#haa7 ,the fast which accompanied the mourning for the dead god7#hab7 may perhaps have been designed to prepare the body of the communicant for the reception of the blessed sacrament by purging it of all that could defile by contact the sacred elements47#hac7 ,in the baptism the devotee1 crowned with gold and wreathed with fillets1 descended into a pit1 the mouth of which was covered with a wooden grating4 ,a bull1 adorned with garlands of flowers1 its forehead glittering with gold leaf1 was then driven on to the grating and there stabbed to death with a consecrated spear4 ,its hot reeking blood poured in torrents through the apertures1 and was received with devout eagerness by the worshipper on every part of his person and garments1 till he emerged from the pit1 drenched1 dripping1 and scarlet from head to foot1 to receive the homage1 nay the adoration1 of his fellows as one who had been born again to eternal life and had washed away his sins in the blood of the bull47#had7 ,for some time afterwards the fiction of a new birth was kept up by dieting him on milk like a new-born babe47#hae7 ,the regeneration of the worshipper took place at the same time as the regeneration of his god1 namely at the vernal equinox47#haf7 ,at ,rome the new birth and the remission of sins by the shedding of bull's blood appear to have been carried out above all at the sanctuary of the ,phrygian goddess on the ,vatican ,hill1 at or near the spot where the great basilica of ,st4 ,peter's now stands2 for many inscriptions relating to the rites were found when the church was being enlarged in #afjh or #afji47hag7 ,from the ,vatican as a centre this barbarous system of superstition seems to have spread to other parts of the ,roman empire4 ,inscriptions found in ,gaul and ,germany prove that provincial sanctuaries modelled their ritual on that of the ,vatican47#hah7 ,from the same source we learn that the testicles as well as the blood of the bull played an important part in the ceremonies47#hai7 ,probably they were regarded as a powerful charm to promote fertility and hasten the new birth4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,attis ,as a ,god of ,vegetation4 7,m#bjf7 ,the original character of ,attis as a tree-spirit is brought out plainly by the part which the pine-tree plays in his legend1 his ritual1 and his monuments47#hbj7 ,the story that he was a human being transformed into a pine-tree is only one of those transparent attempts at rationalizing old beliefs which meet us so frequently in mythology4 ,the bringing in of the pine-tree from the woods1 decked with violets and woollen bands1 is like bringing in the ,may-tree or ,summer-tree in modern folk-custom2 and the effigy which was attached to the pine-tree was only a duplicate representative of the tree-spirit ,attis4 ,after being fastened to the tree1 the effigy was kept for a year and then burned47#hba7 ,the same thing appears to have been sometimes done with the ,may-pole2 and in like manner the effigy of the corn-spirit1 made at harvest1 is often preserved till it is replaced by a new effigy at next year's harvest47#hbb7 ,the original intention of such customs was no doubt to maintain the spirit of vegetation in life throughout the year4 ,why the ,phrygians should have worshipped the pine above other trees we can only guess4 ,perhaps the sight of its changeless1 though sombre1 green cresting the ridges of the high hills above the fading splendour of the autumn woods in the valleys may have seemed to their eyes to mark it out as the seat of a diviner life1 of something exempt from the sad vicissitudes of the seasons1 constant and eternal as the sky which stooped to meet it4 ,for the same reason1 perhaps1 ivy was sacred to ,attis2 at all events1 we read that his eunuch priests were tattooed with a pattern of ivy leaves47#hbc7 ,another reason for the sanctity of the pine may have been its usefulness4 ,the cones of the stone-pine contain edible nut-like seeds1 which have been used as food since antiquity1 and are still eaten1 for example1 by the poorer classes in ,rome47#hbd7 ,moreover1 a wine was brewed from these seeds17#hbe7 and this may partly account for the orgiastic nature of the rites of ,cybele1 which the ancients compared to those of ,dionysus47#hbf7 ,further1 pine-cones were regarded as symbols or rather instruments of fertility4 ,hence at the festival of the ,thesmophoria they were thrown1 along with pigs and other agents or emblems of fecundity1 into the sacred vaults of ,demeter for the purpose of quickening the ground and the wombs of women47#hbg7 7,m#bjg7 ,like tree-spirits in general1 ,attis was apparently thought to wield power over the fruits of the earth or even to be identical with the corn4 ,one of his epithets was 8very fruitful03 he was addressed as the 8reaped green 7or yellow7 ear of corn02 and the story of his sufferings1 death1 and resurrection was interpreted as the ripe grain wounded by the reaper1 buried in the granary1 and coming to life again when it is sown in the ground47#hbh7 ,a statue of him in the ,lateran ,museum at ,rome clearly indicates his relation to the fruits of the earth1 and particularly to the corn2 for it represents him with a bunch of ears of corn and fruit in his hand1 and a wreath of pine-cones1 pomegranates1 and other fruits on his head1 while from the top of his ,phrygian cap ears of corn are sprouting47#hbi7 ,on a stone urn1 which contained the ashes of an ,archigallus or high-priest of ,attis1 the same idea is expressed in a slightly different way4 ,the top of the urn is adorned with ears of corn carved in relief1 and it is surmounted by the figure of a cock1 whose tail consists of ears of corn47#hcj7 ,cybele in like manner was conceived as a goddess of fertility who could make or mar the fruits of the earth2 for the people of ,augustodunum 7,autun7 in ,gaul used to cart her image about in a wagon for the good of the fields and vineyards1 while they danced and sang before it17#hca7 and we have seen that in ,italy an unusually fine harvest was attributed to the recent arrival of the ,great ,mother47#hcb7 ,the bathing of the image of the goddess in a river may well have been a rain-charm to ensure an abundant supply of moisture for the crops4 ,or perhaps1 as ,mr4 ,hepding has suggested1 the union of ,cybele and ,attis1 like that of ,aphrodite and ,adonis1 was dramatically represented at the festival1 and the subsequent bath of the goddess was a ceremonial purification of the bride1 such as is often observed at human marriages47#hcc7 ,in like manner ,aphrodite is said to have bathed after her union with ,adonis17#hcd7 and so did ,demeter after her intercourse with ,poseidon47#hce7 ,hera washed in the springs of the river ,burrha after her marriage with ,zeus27#hcf7 and every year she recovered her virginity by bathing in the spring of ,canathus47#hcg7 ,however that may be1 the rules of diet observed by the worshippers of ,cybele and ,attis at their solemn fasts are clearly dictated by a belief that the divine life of these deities manifested itself in the fruits of the earth1 and especially in such of them as are actually hidden by the soil4 ,for while the devotees were allowed to partake of flesh1 though not of pork or fish1 they were forbidden to eat seeds and the roots of vegetables1 but they might eat the stalks and upper parts of the plants47#hch7 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,attis ,as ,the ,father ,god4 7,m#bjh7 ,the name ,attis appears to mean simply 8father407#hci7 ,this explanation1 suggested by etymology1 is confirmed by the observation that another name for ,attis was ,papas27#hdj7 for ,papas has all the appearance of being a common form of that word for 8father0 which occurs independently in many distinct families of speech all the world over4 ,similarly the mother of ,attis was named ,nana17#hda7 which is itself a form of the world-wide word for 8mother40 8,the immense list of such words collected by ,buschmann shows that the types pa and ta1 with the similar forms ap and at1 preponderate in the world as names for #8father1' while ma and na1 am and an1 preponderate as names for #8mother4' 07#hdb7 7,m#bji7 ,thus the mother of ,attis is only another form of his divine mistress the great ,mother ,goddess17#hdc7 and we are brought back to the myth that the lovers were mother and son4 ,the story that ,nana conceived miraculously without commerce with the other sex shows that the ,mother ,goddess of ,phrygia herself was viewed1 like other goddesses of the same primitive type1 as a ,virgin ,mother47#hdd7 ,that view of her character does not rest on a perverse and mischievous theory that virginity is more honourable than matrimony4 ,it is derived1 as ,i have already indicated1 from a state of savagery in which the mere fact of paternity was unknown4 ,that explains why in later times1 long after the true nature of paternity had been ascertained1 the ,father ,god was often a much less important personage in mythology than his divine partner the ,mother ,goddess4 ,with regard to ,attis in his paternal character it deserves to be noticed that the ,bithynians used to ascend to the tops of the mountains and there call upon him under the name of ,papas4 ,the custom is attested by ,arrian17#hde7 who as a native of ,bithynia must have had good opportunities of observing it4 ,we may perhaps infer from it that the ,bithynians conceived ,attis as a sky-god or heavenly father1 like ,zeus1 with whom indeed ,arrian identifies him4 ,if that were so1 the story of the loves of ,attis and ,cybele1 the ,father ,god and the ,mother ,goddess1 might be in one of its aspects a particular version of the widespread myth which represents ,mother ,earth fertilized by ,father ,sky27#hdf7 and1 further1 the story of the emasculation of ,attis would be parallel to the ,greek legend that ,cronus castrated his father1 the old sky-god ,uranus17#hdg7 and was himself in turn castrated by his own son1 the younger sky-god ,zeus47#hdh7 ,the tale of the mutilation of the sky-god by his son has been plausibly explained as a myth of the violent separation of the earth and sky1 which some races1 for example the ,polynesians1 suppose to have originally clasped each other in a close embrace47#hdi7 ,yet it seems unlikely that an order of eunuch priests like the ,galli should have been based on a purely cosmogonic myth3 why should they continue for all time to be mutilated because the sky-god was so in the beginning8 ,the custom of castration must surely have been designed to meet a constantly recurring need1 not merely to reflect a mythical event which happened at the creation of the world4 ,such a need is the maintenance of the fruitfulness of the earth1 annually imperilled by the changes of the seasons4 ,yet the theory that the mutilation of the priests of ,attis and the burial of the severed parts were designed to fertilize the ground may perhaps be reconciled with the cosmogonic myth if we remember the old opinion1 held apparently by many peoples1 that the creation of the world is year by year repeated in that great transformation which depends ultimately on the annual increase of the sun's heat47#hej7 ,however1 the evidence for the celestial aspect of ,attis is too slight to allow us to speak with any confidence on this subject4 ,a trace of that aspect appears to survive in the star-spangled cap which he is said to have received from ,cybele17#hea7 and which is figured on some monuments supposed to represent him47#heb7 ,his identification with the ,phrygian moon-god ,men ,tyrannus7#hec7 points in the same direction1 but is probably due rather to the religious speculation of a later age than to genuine popular tradition47#hed7 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,human ,representatives of ,attis4 7,m#baj7 ,from inscriptions it appears that both at ,pessinus and ,rome the high-priest of ,cybele regularly bore the name of ,attis47#hee7 ,it is therefore a reasonable conjecture that he played the part of his namesake1 the legendary ,attis1 at the annual festival47#hef7 ,we have seen that on the ,day of ,blood he drew blood from his arms1 and this may have been an imitation of the self-inflicted death of ,attis under the pine-tree4 ,it is not inconsistent with this supposition that ,attis was also represented at these ceremonies by an effigy2 for instances can be shown in which the divine being is first represented by a living person and afterwards by an effigy1 which is then burned or otherwise destroyed47#heg7 ,perhaps we may go a step farther and conjecture that this mimic killing of the priest1 accompanied by a real effusion of his blood1 was in ,phrygia1 as it has been elsewhere1 a substitute for a human sacrifice which in earlier times was actually offered4 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 whose authority on all questions relating to ,phrygia no one will dispute1 is of opinion that at these ,phrygian ceremonies 8the representative of the god was probably slain each year by a cruel death1 just as the god himself died407#heh7 ,we know from ,strabo7#hei7 that the priests of ,pessinus were at one time potentates as well as priests2 they may1 therefore1 have belonged to that class of divine kings or popes whose duty it was to die each year for their people and the world4 ,the name of ,attis1 it is true1 does not occur among the names of the old kings of ,phrygia1 who seem to have borne the names of ,midas and ,gordias in alternate generations2 but a very ancient inscription carved in the rock above a famous ,phrygian monument1 which is known as the ,tomb of ,midas1 records that the monument was made for1 or dedicated to1 ,king ,midas by a certain ,ates1 whose name is doubtless identical with ,attis1 and who1 if not a king himself1 may have been one of the royal family47#hfj7 ,it is worthy of note also that the name ,atys1 which1 again1 appears to be only another form of ,attis1 is recorded as that of an early king of ,lydia27#hfa7 and that a son of ,croesus1 king of ,lydia1 not only bore the name ,atys but was said to have been killed1 while he was hunting a boar1 by a member of the royal ,phrygian family1 who traced his lineage to ,king ,midas and had fled to the court of ,croesus because he had unwittingly slain his own brother47#hfb7 ,scholars have recognized in this story of the death of ,atys1 son of ,croesus1 a mere double of the myth of ,attis27#hfc7 and in view of the facts which have come before us in the present inquiry7#hfd7 it is a remarkable circumstance that the myth of a slain god should be told of a king's son4 ,may we conjecture that the ,phrygian priests who bore the name of ,attis and represented the god of that name were themselves members1 perhaps the eldest sons1 of the royal house1 to whom their fathers1 uncles1 brothers1 or other kinsmen deputed the honour of dying a violent death in the character of gods1 while they reserved to themselves the duty of living1 as long as nature allowed them1 in the humbler character of kings8 ,if this were so1 the ,phrygian dynasty of ,midas may have presented a close parallel to the ,greek dynasty of ,athamas1 in which the eldest sons seem to have been regularly destined to the altar47#hfe7 ,but it is also possible that the divine priests who bore the name of ,attis may have belonged to that indigenous race which the ,phrygians1 on their irruption into ,asia from ,europe1 appear to have found and conquered in the land afterwards known as ,phrygia47#hff7 ,on the latter hypothesis the priests may have represented an older and higher civilization than that of their barbarous conquerors4 ,be that as it may1 the god they personated was a deity of vegetation whose divine life manifested itself especially in the pine-tree and the violets of spring2 and if they died in the character of that divinity1 they corresponded to the mummers who are still slain in mimicry by ,european peasants in spring1 and to the priest who was slain long ago in grim earnest on the wooded shore of the ,lake of ,nemi4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,hanged ,god4 7,m#baa7 ,a reminiscence of the manner in which these old representatives of the deity were put to death is perhaps preserved in the famous story of ,marsyas4 ,he was said to be a ,phrygian satyr or ,silenus1 according to others a shepherd or herdsman1 who played sweetly on the flute4 ,a friend of ,cybele1 he roamed the country with the disconsolate goddess to soothe her grief for the death of ,attis47#hfg7 ,the composition of the ,mother's ,air1 a tune played on the flute in honour of the ,great ,mother ,goddess1 was attributed to him by the people of ,celaenae in ,phrygia47#hfh7 ,vain of his skill1 he challenged ,apollo to a musical contest1 he to play on the flute and ,apollo on the lyre4 ,being vanquished1 ,marsyas was tied up to a pine-tree and flayed or cut limb from limb either by the victorious ,apollo or by a ,scythian slave47#hfi7 ,his skin was shown at ,celaenae in historical times4 ,it hung at the foot of the citadel in a cave from which the river ,marsyas rushed with an impetuous and noisy tide to join the ,maeander47#hgj7 ,so the ,adonis bursts full-born from the precipices of the ,lebanon2 so the blue river of ,ibreez leaps in a crystal jet from the red rocks of the ,taurus2 so the stream1 which now rumbles deep underground1 used to gleam for a moment on its passage from darkness to darkness in the dim light of the ,corycian cave4 ,in all these copious fountains1 with their glad promise of fertility and life1 men of old saw the hand of ,god and worshipped him beside the rushing river with the music of its tumbling waters in their ears4 ,at ,celaenae1 if we can trust tradition1 the piper ,marsyas1 hanging in his cave1 had a soul for harmony even in death2 for it is said that at the sound of his native ,phrygian melodies the skin of the dead satyr used to thrill1 but that if the musician struck up an air in praise of ,apollo it remained deaf and motionless47#hga7 7,m#bab7 ,in this ,phrygian satyr1 shepherd1 or herdsman who enjoyed the friendship of ,cybele1 practised the music so characteristic of her rites17#hgb7 and died a violent death on her sacred tree1 the pine1 may we not detect a close resemblance to ,attis1 the favourite shepherd or herdsman of the goddess1 who is himself described as a piper17#hgc7 is said to have perished under a pine-tree1 and was annually represented by an effigy hung1 like ,marsyas1 upon a pine8 ,we may conjecture that in old days the priest who bore the name and played the part of ,attis at the spring festival of ,cybele was regularly hanged or otherwise slain upon the sacred tree1 and that this barbarous custom was afterwards mitigated into the form in which it is known to us in later times1 when the priest merely drew blood from his body under the tree and attached an effigy instead of himself to its trunk4 ,in the holy grove at ,upsala men and animals were sacrificed by being hanged upon the sacred trees47#hgd7 ,the human victims dedicated to ,odin were regularly put to death by hanging or by a combination of hanging and stabbing1 the man being strung up to a tree or a gallows and then wounded with a spear4 ,hence ,odin was called the ,lord of the ,gallows or the ,god of the ,hanged1 and he is represented sitting under a gallows tree47#hge7 ,indeed he is said to have been sacrificed to himself in the ordinary way1 as we learn from the weird verses of the ,havamal1 in which the god describes how he acquired his divine power by learning the magic runes3 8,i know that ,i hung on the windy tree ,for nine whole nights1 ,wounded with the spear1 dedicated to ,odin1 ,myself to myself407#hgf7 ,the ,bagobos of ,mindanao1 one of the ,philippine ,islands1 used annually to sacrifice human victims for the good of the crops in a similar way4 ,early in ,december1 when the constellation ,orion appeared at seven o'clock in the evening1 the people knew that the time had come to clear their fields for sowing and to sacrifice a slave4 ,the sacrifice was presented to certain powerful spirits as payment for the good year which the people had enjoyed1 and to ensure the favour of the spirits for the coming season4 ,the victim was led to a great tree in the forest2 there he was tied with his back to the tree and his arms stretched high above his head1 in the attitude in which ancient artists portrayed ,marsyas hanging on the fatal tree4 ,while he thus hung by the arms1 he was slain by a spear thrust through his body at the level of the armpits4 ,afterwards the body was cut clean through the middle at the waist1 and the upper part was apparently allowed to dangle for a little from the tree1 while the under part wallowed in blood on the ground4 ,the two portions were finally cast into a shallow trench beside the tree4 ,before this was done1 anybody who wished might cut off a piece of flesh or a lock of hair from the corpse and carry it to the grave of some relation whose body was being consumed by a ghoul4 ,attracted by the fresh corpse1 the ghoul would leave the mouldering old body in peace4 ,these sacrifices have been offered by men now living47#hgg7 7,m#bac7 ,in ,greece the great goddess ,artemis herself appears to have been annually hanged in effigy in her sacred grove of ,condylea among the ,arcadian hills1 and there accordingly she went by the name of the ,hanged ,one47#hgh7 ,indeed a trace of a similar rite may perhaps be detected even at ,ephesus1 the most famous of her sanctuaries1 in the legend of a woman who hanged herself and was thereupon dressed by the compassionate goddess in her own divine garb and called by the name of ,hecate47#hgi7 ,similarly1 at ,melite in ,phthia1 a story was told of a girl named ,aspalis who hanged herself1 but who appears to have been merely a form of ,artemis4 ,for after her death her body could not be found1 but an image of her was discovered standing beside the image of ,artemis1 and the people bestowed on it the title of ,hecaerge or ,far-shooter1 one of the regular epithets of the goddess4 ,every year the virgins sacrificed a young goat to the image by hanging it1 because ,astypalis was said to have hanged herself47#hhj7 ,the sacrifice may have been a substitute for hanging an image or a human representative of ,artemis4 ,again1 in ,rhodes the fair ,helen was worshipped under the title of ,helen of the ,tree1 because the queen of the island had caused her handmaids1 disguised as ,furies1 to string her up to a bough47#hha7 ,that the ,asiatic ,greeks sacrificed animals in this fashion is proved by coins of ,ilium1 which represent an ox or cow hanging on a tree and stabbed with a knife by a man1 who sits among the branches or on the animal's back47#hhb7 ,at ,hierapolis also the victims were hung on trees before they were burnt47#hhc7 ,with these ,greek and ,scandinavian parallels before us we can hardly dismiss as wholly improbable the conjecture that in ,phrygia a man-god may have hung year by year on the sacred but fatal tree4 7,m#bad7 ,the tradition that ,marsyas was flayed and that his skin was exhibited at ,celaenae down to historical times may well reflect a ritual practice of flaying the dead god and hanging his skin upon the pine as a means of effecting his resurrection1 and with it the revival of vegetation in spring4 ,similarly1 in ancient ,mexico the human victims who personated gods were often flayed and their bloody skins worn by men who appear to have represented the dead deities come to life again47#hhd7 ,when a ,scythian king died1 he was buried in a grave along with one of his concubines1 his cup-bearer1 cook1 groom1 lacquey1 and messenger1 who were all killed for the purpose1 and a great barrow was heaped up over the grave4 ,a year afterwards fifty of his servants and fifty of his best horses were strangled2 and their bodies1 having been disembowelled and cleaned out1 were stuffed with chaff1 sewn up1 and set on scaffolds round about the barrow1 every dead man bestriding a dead horse1 which was bitted and bridled as in life47#hhe7 ,these strange horsemen were no doubt supposed to mount guard over the king4 ,the setting up of their stuffed skins might be thought to ensure their ghostly resurrection4 7,m#bae7 ,that some such notion was entertained by the ,scythians is made probable by the account which the mediaeval traveller de ,plano ,carpini gives of the funeral customs of the ,mongols4 ,the traveller tells us that when a noble ,mongol died1 the custom was to bury him seated in the middle of a tent1 along with a horse saddled and bridled1 and a mare and her foal4 ,also they used to eat another horse1 stuff the carcase with straw1 and set it up on poles4 ,all this they did in order that in the other world the dead man might have a tent to live in1 a mare to yield milk1 and a steed to ride1 and that he might be able to breed horses4 ,moreover1 the bones of the horse which they ate were burned for the good of his soul47#hhf7 ,when the ,arab traveller ,ibn ,batuta visited ,peking in the fourteenth century1 he witnessed the funeral of an emperor of ,china who had been killed in battle4 ,the dead sovereign was buried along with four young female slaves and six guards in a vault1 and an immense mound like a hill was piled over him4 ,four horses were then made to run round the hillock till they could run no longer1 after which they were killed1 impaled1 and set up beside the tomb47#hhg7 ,when an ,indian of ,patagonia dies1 he is buried in a pit along with some of his property4 ,afterwards his favourite horse1 having been killed1 skinned1 and stuffed1 is propped up on sticks with its head turned towards the grave4 ,at the funeral of a chief four horses are sacrificed1 and one is set up at each corner of the burial-place4 ,the clothes and other effects of the deceased are burned2 and to conclude all1 a feast is made of the horses' flesh47#hhh7 ,the ,scythians certainly believed in the existence of the soul after death and in the possibility of turning it to account4 ,this is proved by the practice of one of their tribes1 the ,taurians of the ,crimea1 who used to cut off the heads of their prisoners and set them on poles over their houses1 especially over the chimneys1 in order that the spirits of the slain men might guard the dwellings47#hhi7 ,some of the savages of ,borneo allege a similar reason for their favourite custom of taking human heads4 8,the custom10 said a ,kayan chief1 8is not horrible4 ,it is an ancient custom1 a good1 beneficent custom1 bequeathed to us by our fathers and our fathers' fathers2 it brings us blessings1 plentiful harvests1 and keeps off sickness and pains4 ,those who were once our enemies1 hereby become our guardians1 our friends1 our benefactors407#hij7 ,thus to convert dead foes into friends and allies all that is necessary is to feed and otherwise propitiate their skulls at a festival when they are brought into the village4 8,an offering of food is made to the heads1 and their spirits1 being thus appeased1 cease to entertain malice against1 or to seek to inflict injury upon1 those who have got possession of the skull which formerly adorned the now forsaken body407#hia7 ,when the ,sea ,dyaks of ,sarawak return home successful from a head-hunting expedition1 they bring the head ashore with much ceremony1 wrapt in palm leaves4 8,on shore and in the village1 the head1 for months after its arrival1 is treated with the greatest consideration1 and all the names and terms of endearment of which their language is capable are abundantly lavished on it2 the most dainty morsels1 culled from their abundant though inelegant repast1 are thrust into its mouth1 and it is instructed to hate its former friends1 and that1 having been now adopted into the tribe of its captors1 its spirit must be always with them2 sirih leaves and betel-nut are given to it1 and finally a cigar is frequently placed between its ghastly and pallid lips4 ,none of this disgusting mockery is performed with the intention of ridicule1 but all to propitiate the spirit by kindness1 and to procure its good wishes for the tribe1 of whom it is now supposed to have become a member407#hib7 ,amongst these ,dyaks the 8,head-,feast10 which has been just described1 is supposed to be the most beneficial in its influence of all their feasts and ceremonies4 8,the object of them all is to make their rice grow well1 to cause the forest to abound with wild animals1 to enable their dogs and snares to be successful in securing game1 to have the streams swarm with fish1 to give health and activity to the people themselves1 and to ensure fertility to their women4 ,all these blessings1 the possessing and feasting of a fresh head are supposed to be the most efficient means of securing4 ,the very ground itself is believed to be benefited and rendered fertile1 more fertile even than when the water in which fragments of gold presented by the ,rajah have been washed1 has been sprinkled over it407#hic7 7,m#baf7 ,in like manner1 if my conjecture is right1 the man who represented the father-god of ,phrygia used to be slain and his stuffed skin hung on the sacred pine in order that his spirit might work for the growth of the crops1 the multiplication of animals1 and the fertility of women4 ,so at ,athens an ox1 which appears to have embodied the corn-spirit1 was killed at an annual sacrifice1 and its hide1 stuffed with straw and sewn up1 was afterwards set on its feet and yoked to a plough as if it were ploughing1 apparently in order to represent1 or rather to promote1 the resurrection of the slain corn-spirit at the end of the threshing47#hid7 ,this employment of the skins of divine animals for the purpose of ensuring the revival of the slaughtered divinity might be illustrated by other examples47#hie7 ,perhaps the hide of the bull which was killed to furnish the regenerating bath of blood in the rites of ,attis may have been put to a similar use4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,oriental ,religions in the ,west4 7,m#bag7 ,the worship of the ,great ,mother of the ,gods and her lover or son was very popular under the ,roman ,empire4 ,inscriptions prove that the two received divine honours1 separately or conjointly1 not only in ,italy1 and especially at ,rome1 but also in the provinces1 particularly in ,africa1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,bulgaria47#hif7 ,their worship survived the establishment of ,christianity by ,constantine2 for ,symmachus records the recurrence of the festival of the ,great ,mother17#hig7 and in the days of ,augustine her effeminate priests still paraded the streets and squares of ,carthage with whitened faces1 scented hair1 and mincing gait1 while1 like the mendicant friars of the ,middle ,ages1 they begged alms from the passers-by47#hih7 ,in ,greece1 on the other hand1 the bloody orgies of the ,asiatic goddess and her consort appear to have found little favour47#hii7 ,the barbarous and cruel character of the worship1 with its frantic excesses1 was doubtless repugnant to the good taste and humanity of the ,greeks1 who seem to have preferred the kindred but gentler rites of ,adonis4 ,yet the same features which shocked and repelled the ,greeks may have positively attracted the less refined ,romans and barbarians of the ,west4 ,the ecstatic frenzies1 which were mistaken for divine inspiration17#ijj7 the mangling of the body1 the theory of a new birth and the remission of sins through the shedding of blood1 have all their origin in savagery17#ija7 and they naturally appealed to peoples in whom the savage instincts were still strong4 ,their true character was indeed often disguised under a decent veil of allegorical or philosophical interpretation17#ijb7 which probably sufficed to impose upon the rapt and enthusiastic worshippers1 reconciling even the more cultivated of them to things which otherwise must have filled them with horror and disgust4 7,m#bah7 ,the religion of the ,great ,mother1 with its curious blending of crude savagery with spiritual aspirations1 was only one of a multitude of similar ,oriental faiths which in the later days of paganism spread over the ,roman ,empire1 and by saturating the ,european peoples with alien ideals of life gradually undermined the whole fabric of ancient civilization47#ijc7 ,greek and ,roman society was built on the conception of the subordination of the individual to the community1 of the citizen to the state2 it set the safety of the commonwealth1 as the supreme aim of conduct1 above the safety of the individual whether in this world or in a world to come4 ,trained from infancy in this unselfish ideal1 the citizens devoted their lives to the public service and were ready to lay them down for the common good2 or if they shrank from the supreme sacrifice1 it never occurred to them that they acted otherwise than basely in preferring their personal existence to the interests of their country4 ,all this was changed by the spread of ,oriental religions which inculcated the communion of the soul with ,god and its eternal salvation as the only objects worth living for1 objects in comparison with which the prosperity and even the existence of the state sank into insignificance4 ,the inevitable result of this selfish and immoral doctrine was to withdraw the devotee more and more from the public service1 to concentrate his thoughts on his own spiritual emotions1 and to breed in him a contempt for the present life which he regarded merely as a probation for a better and an eternal4 ,the saint and the recluse1 disdainful of earth and rapt in ecstatic contemplation of heaven1 became in popular opinion the highest ideal of humanity1 displacing the old ideal of the patriot and hero who1 forgetful of self1 lives and is ready to die for the good of his country4 ,the earthly city seemed poor and contemptible to men whose eyes beheld the ,city of ,god coming in the clouds of heaven4 ,thus the centre of gravity1 so to say1 was shifted from the present to a future life1 and however much the other world may have gained1 there can be little doubt that this one lost heavily by the change4 ,a general disintegration of the body politic set in4 ,the ties of the state and the family were loosened3 the structure of society tended to resolve itself into its individual elements and thereby to relapse into barbarism2 for civilization is only possible through the active co-operation of the citizens and their willingness to subordinate their private interests to the common good4 ,men refused to defend their country and even to continue their kind47#ijd7 ,in their anxiety to save their own souls and the souls of others1 they were content to leave the material world1 which they identified with the principle of evil1 to perish around them4 ,this obsession lasted for a thousand years4 ,the revival of ,roman law1 of the ,aristotelian philosophy1 of ancient art and literature at the close of the ,middle ,ages1 marked the return of ,europe to native ideals of life and conduct1 to saner1 manlier views of the world4 ,the long halt in the march of civilization was over4 ,the tide of ,oriental invasion had turned at last4 ,it is ebbing still47#ije7 7,m#bai7 ,among the gods of eastern origin who in the decline of the ancient world competed against each other for the allegiance of the ,west was the old ,persian deity ,mithra4 ,the immense popularity of his worship is attested by the monuments illustrative of it which have been found scattered in profusion all over the ,roman ,empire47#ijf7 ,in respect both of doctrines and of rites the cult of ,mithra appears to have presented many points of resemblance not only to the religion of the ,mother of the ,gods7#ijg7 but also to ,christianity47#ijh7 ,the similarity struck the ,christian doctors themselves and was explained by them as a work of the devil1 who sought to seduce the souls of men from the true faith by a false and insidious imitation of it47#iji7 ,so to the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico and ,peru many of the native heathen rites appeared to be diabolical counterfeits of the ,christian sacraments47#iaj7 ,with more probability the modern student of comparative religion traces such resemblances to the similar and independent workings of the mind of man in his sincere1 if crude1 attempts to fathom the secret of the universe1 and to adjust his little life to its awful mysteries4 ,however that may be1 there can be no doubt that the ,mithraic religion proved a formidable rival to ,christianity1 combining as it did a solemn ritual with aspirations after moral purity and a hope of immortality47#iaa7 ,indeed the issue of the conflict between the two faiths appears for a time to have hung in the balance47#iab7 ,an instructive relic of the long struggle is preserved in our festival of ,christmas1 which the ,church seems to have borrowed directly from its heathen rival4 ,in the ,julian calendar the twenty-fifth of ,december was reckoned the winter solstice17#iac7 and it was regarded as the ,nativity of the ,sun1 because the day begins to lengthen and the power of the sun to increase from that turning-point of the year47#iad7 ,the ritual of the nativity1 as it appears to have been celebrated in ,syria and ,egypt1 was remarkable4 ,the celebrants retired into certain inner shrines1 from which at midnight they issued with a loud cry1 8,the ,virgin has brought forth6 ,the light is waxing607#iae7 ,the ,egyptians even represented the new-born sun by the image of an infant which on his birthday1 the winter solstice1 they brought forth and exhibited to his worshippers47#iaf7 ,no doubt the ,virgin who thus conceived and bore a son on the twenty-fifth of ,december was the great ,oriental goddess whom the ,semites called the ,heavenly ,virgin or simply the ,heavenly ,goddess2 in ,semitic lands she was a form of ,astarte47#iag7 ,now ,mithra was regularly identified by his worshippers with the ,sun1 the ,unconquered ,sun1 as they called him27#iah7 hence his nativity also fell on the twenty-fifth of ,december47#iai7 ,the ,gospels say nothing as to the day of ,christ's birth1 and accordingly the early ,church did not celebrate it4 ,in time1 however1 the ,christians of ,egypt came to regard the sixth of ,january as the date of the ,nativity1 and the custom of commemorating the birth of the ,saviour on that day gradually spread until by the fourth century it was universally established in the ,east4 ,but at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century the ,western ,church1 which had never recognized the sixth of ,january as the day of the ,nativity1 adopted the twenty-fifth of ,december as the true date1 and in time its decision was accepted also by the ,eastern ,church4 ,at ,antioch the change was not introduced till about the year #cge ,a4,d47#ibj7 7,m#bbj7 ,what considerations led the ecclesiastical authorities to institute the festival of ,christmas8 ,the motives for the innovation are stated with great frankness by a ,syrian writer1 himself a ,christian4 8,the reason10 he tells us1 8why the fathers transferred the celebration of the sixth of ,january to the twenty-fifth of ,december was this4 ,it was a custom of the heathen to celebrate on the same twenty-fifth of ,december the birthday of the ,sun1 at which they kindled lights in token of festivity4 ,in these solemnities and festivities the ,christians also took part4 ,accordingly when the doctors of the ,church perceived that the ,christians had a leaning to this festival1 they took counsel and resolved that the true ,nativity should be solemnized on that day and the festival of the ,epiphany on the sixth of ,january4 ,accordingly1 along with this custom1 the practice has prevailed of kindling fires till the sixth407#iba7 ,the heathen origin of ,christmas is plainly hinted at1 if not tacitly admitted1 by ,augustine when he exhorts his ,christian brethren not to celebrate that solemn day like the heathen on account of the sun1 but on account of him who made the sun47#ibb7 ,in like manner ,leo the ,great rebuked the pestilent belief that ,christmas was solemnized because of the birth of the new sun1 as it was called1 and not because of the nativity of ,christ47#ibc7 7,m#bba7 ,thus it appears that the ,christian ,church chose to celebrate the birthday of its ,founder on the twenty-fifth of ,december in order to transfer the devotion of the heathen from the ,sun to him who was called the ,sun of ,righteousness47#ibd7 ,if that was so1 there can be no intrinsic improbability in the conjecture that motives of the same sort may have led the ecclesiastical authorities to assimilate the ,easter festival of the death and resurrection of their ,lord to the festival of the death and resurrection of another ,asiatic god which fell at the same season4 ,now the ,easter rites still observed in ,greece1 ,sicily1 and ,southern ,italy bear in some respects a striking resemblance to the rites of ,adonis1 and ,i have suggested that the ,church may have consciously adapted the new festival to its heathen predecessor for the sake of winning souls to ,christ47#ibe7 ,but this adaptation probably took place in the ,greek-speaking rather than in the ,latin-speaking parts of the ancient world2 for the worship of ,adonis1 while it flourished among the ,greeks1 appears to have made little impression on ,rome and the ,west47#ibf7 ,certainly it never formed part of the official ,roman religion4 ,the place which it might have taken in the affections of the vulgar was already occupied by the similar but more barbarous worship of ,attis and the ,great ,mother4 ,now the death and resurrection of ,attis were officially celebrated at ,rome on the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth of ,march17#ibg7 the latter being regarded as the spring equinox17#ibh7 and therefore as the most appropriate day for the revival of a god of vegetation who had been dead or sleeping throughout the winter4 ,but according to an ancient and widespread tradition ,christ suffered on the twenty-fifth of ,march1 and accordingly some ,christians regularly celebrated the ,crucifixion on that day without any regard to the state of the moon4 ,this custom was certainly observed in ,phrygia1 ,cappadocia1 and ,gaul1 and there seem to be grounds for thinking that at one time it was followed also in ,rome47#ibi7 ,thus the tradition which placed the death of ,christ on the twenty-fifth of ,march was ancient and deeply rooted4 ,it is all the more remarkable because astronomical considerations prove that it can have had no historical foundation47#icj7 ,the inference appears to be inevitable that the passion of ,christ must have been arbitrarily referred to that date in order to harmonize with an older festival of the spring equinox4 ,this is the view of the learned ecclesiastical historian ,mgr4 ,duchesne1 who points out that the death of the ,saviour was thus made to fall upon the very day on which1 according to a widespread belief1 the world had been created47#ica7 ,but the resurrection of ,attis1 who combined in himself the characters of the divine ,father and the divine ,son17#icb7 was officially celebrated at ,rome on the same day4 ,when we remember that the festival of ,st4 ,george in ,april has replaced the ancient pagan festival of the ,parilia27#icc7 that the festival of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist in ,june has succeeded to a heathen ,midsummer festival of water27#icd7 that the festival of the ,assumption of the ,virgin in ,august has ousted the festival of ,diana27#ice7 that the feast of ,all ,souls in ,november is a continuation of an old heathen feast of the dead27#icf7 and that the ,nativity of ,christ himself was assigned to the winter solstice in ,december because that day was deemed the ,nativity of the ,sun27#icg7 we can hardly be thought rash or unreasonable in conjecturing that the other cardinal festival of the ,christian church--the solemnization of ,easter--may have been in like manner1 and from like motives of edification1 adapted to a similar celebration of the ,phrygian god ,attis at the vernal equinox47#ich7 7,m#bbb7 ,at least it is a remarkable coincidence1 if it is nothing more1 that the ,christian and the heathen festivals of the divine death and resurrection should have been solemnized at the same season and in the same places4 ,for the places which celebrated the death of ,christ at the spring equinox were ,phrygia1 ,gaul1 and apparently ,rome1 that is1 the very regions in which the worship of ,attis either originated or struck deepest root4 ,it is difficult to regard the coincidence as purely accidental4 ,if the vernal equinox1 the season at which in the temperate regions the whole face of nature testifies to a fresh outburst of vital energy1 had been viewed from of old as the time when the world was annually created afresh in the resurrection of a god1 nothing could be more natural than to place the resurrection of the new deity at the same cardinal point of the year4 ,only it is to be observed that if the death of ,christ was dated on the twenty-fifth of ,march1 his resurrection1 according to ,christian tradition1 must have happened on the twenty-seventh of ,march1 which is just two days later than the vernal equinox of the ,julian calendar and the resurrection of ,attis4 ,a similar displacement of two days in the adjustment of ,christian to heathen celebrations occurs in the festivals of ,st4 ,george and the ,assumption of the ,virgin4 ,however1 another ,christian tradition1 followed by ,lactantius and perhaps by the practice of the ,church in ,gaul1 placed the death of ,christ on the twenty-third and his resurrection on the twenty-fifth of ,march47#ici7 ,if that was so1 his resurrection coincided exactly with the resurrection of ,attis4 7,m#bbc7 ,in point of fact it appears from the testimony of an anonymous ,christian1 who wrote in the fourth century of our era1 that ,christians and pagans alike were struck by the remarkable coincidence between the death and resurrection of their respective deities1 and that the coincidence formed a theme of bitter controversy between the adherents of the rival religions1 the pagans contending that the resurrection of ,christ was a spurious imitation of the resurrection of ,attis1 and the ,christians asserting with equal warmth that the resurrection of ,attis was a diabolical counterfeit of the resurrection of ,christ4 ,in these unseemly bickerings the heathen took what to a superficial observer might seem strong ground by arguing that their god was the older and therefore presumably the original1 not the counterfeit1 since as a general rule an original is older than its copy4 ,this feeble argument the ,christians easily rebutted4 ,they admitted1 indeed1 that in point of time ,christ was the junior deity1 but they triumphantly demonstrated his real seniority by falling back on the subtlety of ,satan1 who on so important an occasion had surpassed himself by inverting the usual order of nature47#idj7 7,m#bbd7 ,taken altogether1 the coincidences of the ,christian with the heathen festivals are too close and too numerous to be accidental4 ,they mark the compromise which the ,church in the hour of its triumph was compelled to make with its vanquished yet still dangerous rivals4 ,the inflexible ,protestantism of the primitive missionaries1 with their fiery denunciations of heathendom1 had been exchanged for the supple policy1 the easy tolerance1 the comprehensive charity of shrewd ecclesiastics1 who clearly perceived that if ,christianity was to conquer the world it could do so only by relaxing the too rigid principles of its ,founder1 by widening a little the narrow gate which leads to salvation4 ,in this respect an instructive parallel might be drawn between the history of ,christianity and the history of ,buddhism47#ida7 ,both systems were in their origin essentially ethical reforms born of the generous ardour1 the lofty aspirations1 the tender compassion of their noble ,founders1 two of those beautiful spirits who appear at rare intervals on earth like beings come from a better world to support and guide our weak and erring nature47#idb7 ,both preached moral virtue as the means of accomplishing what they regarded as the supreme object of life1 the eternal salvation of the individual soul1 though by a curious antithesis the one sought that salvation in a blissful eternity1 the other in a final release from suffering1 in annihilation4 ,but the austere ideals of sanctity which they inculcated were too deeply opposed not only to the frailties but to the natural instincts of humanity ever to be carried out in practice by more than a small number of disciples1 who consistently renounced the ties of the family and the state in order to work out their own salvation in the still seclusion of the cloister4 ,if such faiths were to be nominally accepted by whole nations or even by the world1 it was essential that they should first be modified or transformed so as to accord in some measure with the prejudices1 the passions1 the superstitions of the vulgar4 ,this process of accommodation was carried out in after ages by followers who1 made of less ethereal stuff than their masters1 were for that reason the better fitted to mediate between them and the common herd4 ,thus as time went on1 the two religions1 in exact proportion to their growing popularity1 absorbed more and more of those baser elements which they had been instituted for the very purpose of suppressing4 ,such spiritual decadences are inevitable4 ,the world cannot live at the level of its great men4 ,yet it would be unfair to the generality of our kind to ascribe wholly to their intellectual and moral weakness the gradual divergence of ,buddhism and ,christianity from their primitive patterns4 ,for it should never be forgotten that by their glorification of poverty and celibacy both these religions struck straight at the root not merely of civil society but of human existence4 ,the blow was parried by the wisdom or the folly of the vast majority of mankind1 who refused to purchase a chance of saving their souls with the certainty of extinguishing the species4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,hyacinth4 7,m#bbe7 ,another mythical being who has been supposed to belong to the class of gods here discussed is ,hyacinth4 ,he too has been interpreted as the vegetation which blooms in spring and withers under the scorching heat of the summer sun47#idc7 ,though he belongs to ,greek1 not to ,oriental mythology1 some account of him may not be out of place in the present discussion4 ,according to the legend1 ,hyacinth was the youngest and handsomest son of the ancient king ,amyclas1 who had his capital at ,amyclae in the beautiful vale of ,sparta4 ,one day playing at quoits with ,apollo1 he was accidentally killed by a blow of the god's quoit4 ,bitterly the god lamented the death of his friend4 ,the hyacinth--8that sanguine flower inscribed with woe0--sprang from the blood of the hapless youth1 as anemones and roses from the blood of ,adonis1 and violets from the blood of ,attis37#idd7 like these vernal flowers it heralded the advent of another spring and gladdened the hearts of men with the promise of a joyful resurrection4 ,the flower is usually supposed to be not what we call a hyacinth1 but a little purple iris with the letters of lamentation 7,,ai1 which in ,greek means 8alas07 clearly inscribed in black on its petals4 ,in ,greece it blooms in spring after the early violets but before the roses47#ide7 ,one spring1 when the hyacinths were in bloom1 it happened that the red-coated ,spartan regiments lay encamped under the walls of ,corinth4 ,their commander gave the ,amyclean battalion leave to go home and celebrate as usual the festival of ,hyacinth in their native town4 ,but the sad flower was to be to these men an omen of death2 for they had not gone far before they were enveloped by clouds of light-armed foes and cut to pieces47#idf7 7,m#bbf7 ,the tomb of ,hyacinth was at ,amyclae under a massive altar-like pedestal1 which supported an archaic bronze image of ,apollo4 ,in the left side of the pedestal was a bronze door1 and through it offerings were passed to ,hyacinth1 as to a hero or a dead man1 not as to a god1 before sacrifices were offered to ,apollo at the annual ,hyacinthian festival4 ,bas-reliefs carved on the pedestal represented ,hyacinth and his maiden sister ,polyboea caught up to heaven by a company of goddesses47#idg7 ,the annual festival of the ,hyacinthia was held in the month of ,hecatombeus1 which seems to have corresponded to ,may47#idh7 ,the ceremonies occupied three days4 ,on the first the people mourned for ,hyacinth1 wearing no wreaths1 singing no paeans1 eating no bread1 and behaving with great gravity4 ,it was on this day probably that the offerings were made at ,hyacinth's tomb4 ,next day the scene was changed4 ,all was joy and bustle4 ,the capital was emptied of its inhabitants1 who poured out in their thousands to witness and share the festivities at ,amyclae4 ,boys in high-girt tunics sang hymns in honour of the god to the accompaniment of flutes and lyres4 ,others1 splendidly attired1 paraded on horseback in the theatre3 choirs of youths chanted their native ditties3 dancers danced3 maidens rode in wicker carriages or went in procession to witness the chariot races3 sacrifices were offered in profusion3 the citizens feasted their friends and even their slaves47#idi7 ,this outburst of gaiety may be supposed to have celebrated the resurrection of ,hyacinth and perhaps also his ascension to heaven1 which1 as we have seen1 was represented on his tomb4 ,however1 it may be that the ascension took place on the third day of the festival2 but as to that we know nothing4 ,the sister who went to heaven with him was by some identified with ,artemis or ,persephone47#iej7 7,m#bbg7 ,it is highly probable1 as ,erwin ,rohde perceived17#iea7 that ,hyacinth was an old aboriginal deity of the underworld who had been worshipped at ,amyclae long before the ,dorians invaded and conquered the country4 ,if that was so1 the story of his relation to ,apollo must have been a comparatively late invention1 an attempt of the newcomers to fit the ancient god of the land into their own mythical system1 in order that he might extend his protection to them4 ,on this theory it may not be without significance that sacrifices at the festival were offered to ,hyacinth1 as to a hero1 before they were offered to ,apollo47#ieb7 ,further1 on the analogy of similar deities elsewhere1 we should expect to find ,hyacinth coupled1 not with a male friend1 but with a female consort4 ,that consort may perhaps be detected in his sister ,polyboea1 who ascended to heaven with him4 ,the new myth1 if new it was1 of the love of ,apollo for ,hyacinth would involve a changed conception of the aboriginal god1 which in its turn must have affected that of his spouse4 ,for when ,hyacinth came to be thought of as young and unmarried there was no longer room in his story for a wife1 and she would have to be disposed of in some other way4 ,what was easier for the myth-maker than to turn her into his unmarried sister8 ,however we may explain it1 a change seems certainly to have come over the popular idea of ,hyacinth2 for whereas on his tomb he was portrayed as a bearded man1 later art represented him as the pink of youthful beauty47#iec7 ,but it is perhaps needless to suppose that the sisterly relation of ,polyboea to him was a late modification of the myth4 ,the stories of ,cronus and ,rhea1 of ,zeus and ,hera1 of ,osiris and ,isis1 remind us that in old days gods1 like kings1 often married their sisters1 and probably for the same reason1 namely1 to ensure their own title to the throne under a rule of female kinship which treated women and not men as the channel in which the blood royal flowed47#ied7 ,it is not impossible that ,hyacinth may have been a divine king who actually reigned in his lifetime at ,amyclae and was afterwards worshipped at his tomb4 ,the representation of his triumphal ascent to heaven in company with his sister suggests that1 like ,adonis and ,persephone1 he may have been supposed to spend one part of the year in the under-world of darkness and death1 and another part in the upper-world of light and life4 ,and as the anemones and the sprouting corn marked the return of ,adonis and ,persephone1 so the flowers to which he gave his name may have heralded the ascension of ,hyacinth4 ,end ,of ,vol4 #a4 ,,footnotes ,m#a ,the changes of the seasons explained by the life and death of gods4 ,m#b ,magical ceremonies to revive the failing energies of the gods4 #a ,as in the present volume ,i am concerned with the beliefs and practices of ,orientals ,i may quote the following passage from one who has lived long in the ,east and knows it well3 8,the ,oriental mind is free from the trammels of logic4 ,it is a literal fact that the ,oriental mind can accept and believe two opposite things at the same time4 ,we find fully qualified and even learned ,indian doctors practising ,greek medicine1 as well as ,english medicine1 and enforcing sanitary restrictions to which their own houses and families are entirely strangers4 ,we find astronomers who can predict eclipses1 and yet who believe that eclipses are caused by a dragon swallowing the sun4 ,we find holy men who are credited with miraculous powers and with close communion with the ,deity1 who live in drunkenness and immorality1 and who are capable of elaborate frauds on others4 ,to the ,oriental mind1 a thing must be incredible to command a ready belief0 78,riots and ,unrest in the ,punjab1 from a correspondent10 ,the ,times ,weekly ,edition1 ,may #bd1 #aijg1 p4 #cbf74 ,again1 speaking of the people of the ,lower ,congo1 an experienced missionary describes their religious ideas as 8chaotic in the extreme and impossible to reduce to any systematic order4 ,the same person will tell you at different times that the departed spirit goes to the nether regions1 or to a dark forest1 or to the moon1 or to the sun4 ,there is no coherence in their beliefs1 and their ideas about cosmogony and the future are very nebulous4 ,although they believe in punishment after death their faith is so hazy that it has lost all its deterrent force4 ,if in the following pages a lack of logical unity is observed1 it must be put to the debit of the native mind1 as that lack of logical unity really represents the mistiness of their views40 ,see ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 8,notes on some ,customs of the ,lower ,congo ,people10 ,folk-lore1 xx4 7#aiji7 pp4 #ed sq4 ,unless we allow for this innate capacity of the human mind to entertain contradictory beliefs at the same time1 we shall in vain attempt to understand the history of thought in general and of religion in particular4 ,m#c ,the principles of animal and of vegetable life confused in these ceremonies4 ,m#d ,prevalence of these rites in ,western ,asia and ,egypt4 #b ,the equivalence of ,tammuz and ,adonis has been doubted or denied by some scholars1 as by ,renan 7,mission de ,phnicie1 ,paris1 #ahfd1 pp4 #baf1 #bce7 and by ,chwolsohn 7,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahef1 ii4 #eaj74 ,but the two gods are identified by ,origen 7,selecta in ,ezechielem1 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xiii4 #gig71 ,jerome 7,epist4 lviii4 #c and ,commentar4 in ,ezechielem1 viii4 #ac1 #ad1 ,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xxii4 #eha1 xxv4 #hb71 ,cyril of ,alexandria 7,in ,isaiam1 lib4 ii4 tomus4 iii41 and ,comment4 on ,hosea1 iv4 #ae1 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 lxx4 #dda1 lxxi4 #acf71 ,theodoretus 7,in ,ezechielis cap4 viii41 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 lxxxi4 #hhe71 the author of the ,paschal ,chronicle 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xcii4 #cbi7 and ,melito 7in ,w4 ,cureton's ,spicilegium ,syriacum1 ,london1 #ahee1 p4 #dd72 and accordingly we may fairly conclude that1 whatever their remote origin may have been1 ,tammuz and ,adonis were in the later period of antiquity practically equivalent to each other4 ,compare ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,studien zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte 7,leipsic1 #ahgf-ahgh71 i4 #bii2 id41 in ,realencyclopdie fr protestantische ,theologie und ,kirchengeschichte1#c s4v4 8,tammuz02 id41 ,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 pp4 #id sqq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 pp4 #bgc sqq42 ,ch4 ,vellay1 8,le dieu ,thammuz10 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 xlix4 7#aijd7 pp4 #aed-afb4 ,baudissin holds that ,tammuz and ,adonis were two different gods sprung from a common root 7,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #cfh74 ,an ,assyrian origin of the cult of ,adonis was long ago affirmed by ,macrobius 7,sat4 i4 #ba4 #a74 ,on ,adonis and his worship in general see also ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 7,bonn1 #ahda7 pp4 #aia sqq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,engel1 ,kypros 7,berlin1 #ahda71 ii4 #ecf sqq42 ,ch4 ,vellay1 ,le culte et les ftes d' ,adonis-,thammouz dans l',orient antique 7,paris1 #aijd74 ,m#e ,tammuz or ,adonis in ,babylonia4 ,his worship seems to have originated with the ,sumerians4 #c ,the mourning for ,adonis is mentioned by ,sappho1 who flourished about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,see ,th4 ,bergk's ,poetae ,lyrici ,graeci1#c iii4 7,leipsic1 #ahfg7 p4 #hig2 ,pausanias1 ix4 #bi4 #h4 #d ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b 7,berlin1 #aiji71 pp4 #cid sq42 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #fe sqq4 #e ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 ed4 ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne and ,j4 ,s4 ,black1 iii4 #ccbg4 ,in the ,old ,testament the title ,adoni1 8my lord10 is frequently given to men4 ,see1 for example1 ,genesis xxxiii4 #h1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 xlii4 #aj1 xliii4 #bj1 xliv4 #e1 #g1 #i1 #af1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd4 #f ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum 7,gotha1 #ahif-aijc71 i4 #acd sqq42 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 les ,origines 7,paris1 #ahie71 pp4 #eej sq42 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #a sqq42 id41 ,a ,history of ,sumer and ,akkad 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #a sqq41 #dj sqq42 ,h4 ,winckler1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und das alte ,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #aj sq41 #cdi2 ,fr4 ,hommel1 ,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients 7,munich1 #aijd71 pp4 #ah sqq42 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b 7,berlin1 #aiji71 pp4 #dja sqq4 ,as to the hypothesis that the ,sumerians were immigrants from ,central ,asia1 see ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,history of ,sumer and ,akkad1 pp4 #cea sqq4 ,the gradual desiccation of ,central ,asia1 which is conjectured to have caused the ,sumerian migration1 has been similarly invoked to explain the downfall of the ,roman empire2 for by rendering great regions uninhabitable it is supposed to have driven hordes of fierce barbarians to find new homes in ,europe4 ,see ,professor ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory's lecture 8,is the earth drying up80 delivered before the ,royal ,geographical ,society and reported in ,the ,times1 ,december #ith1 #aiac4 ,it is held by ,prof4 ,hommel 7op4 cit4 pp4 #ai sqq47 that the ,sumerian language belongs to the ,ural-altaic family1 but the better opinion seems to be that its linguistic affinities are unknown4 ,the view1 once ardently advocated1 that ,sumerian was not a language but merely a cabalistic mode of writing ,semitic1 is now generally exploded4 #g ,h4 ,zimmern1 8,der babylonische ,gott ,tamz10 ,abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen ,klasse der ,knigl4 ,schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 xxvii4 ,no4 xx4 7,leipsic1 #aiji7 pp4 #gja1 #gbb4 #h ,dumu-zi1 or in fuller form ,dumuzi-abzu4 ,see ,p4 ,jensen1 ,assyrisch-,babylonische ,mythen und ,epen 7,berlin1 #aijj71 p4 #efj2 ,h4 ,zimmern1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gjc sqq42 id41 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament#c 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #cig2 ,p4 ,dhorme1 ,la ,religion ,assyro-,babylonienne 7,paris1 #aiaj71 p4 #aje2 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 p4 #ajd4 #i ,h4 ,zimmern1 8,der babylonische ,gott ,tamz10 ,abhandl4 d4 ,kn4 ,schs4 ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 xxvii4 ,no4 xx4 7,leipsic1 #aiji7 p1 #gbc4 ,for the text and translation of the hymns1 see ,h4 ,zimmern1 8,sumerisch-babylonische ,tamzlieder10 ,berichte ber die ,verhandlungen der ,kniglich ,schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu ,leipzig1 ,philologisch-historische ,klasse1 lix4 7#aijg7 pp4 #bja-beb4 ,compare ,h4 ,gressmann1 ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder 7,tbingen1 #aiji71 i4 #ic sqq42 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ii sq42 ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament 7,oxford1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #agi-ahe4 ,m#f ,tammuz the lover of ,ishtar4 ,descent of ,ishtar to the nether world to recover ,tammuz4 ,m#g ,laments for ,tammuz4 #aj ,a4 ,jeremias1 ,die babylonisch-assyrischen ,vorstellungen vom ,leben nach dem ,tode 7,leipsic1 #ahhg71 pp4 #d sqq42 id41 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #hjh1 iii4 #beh sqq42 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7,boston1 #ahih71 pp4 #efe-egf1 #ehd1 #fhb sq42 ,w4 ,l4 ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology1 pp4 #agh-ahc2 ,p4 ,jensen1 ,assyrisch-babylonische ,mythen und ,epen1 pp4 #ha sqq41 #ie sqq41 #afi2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature 7,new ,york1 #aija71 pp4 #caf sq41 #cch1 #djh sqq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1#c pp4 #cig sqq41 #efa sqq42 id41 8,sumerisch-babylonische ,tamzlieder10 ,berichte ber die ,verhandlungen der ,kniglich ,schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu ,leipzig1 ,philologisch-historische ,klasse1 lix4 7#aijg7 pp4 #bbj1 #bcb1 #bcf sq42 id41 8,der babylonische ,gott ,tamz10 ,abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen ,klasse der ,knigl4 ,schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 xxvii4 ,no4 xx4 7,leipsic1 #aiji7 pp4 #gbe sq41 #gbi-gce2 ,h4 ,gressmann1 ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder zum ,alten ,testamente 7,tbingen1 #aiji71 i4 #fe-fi2 ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament 7,oxford1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #aba-aca2 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ii sqq41 #cec sqq4 ,according to ,jerome 7on ,ezekiel viii4 #ad7 the month of ,tammuz was ,june2 but according to modern scholars it corresponded rather to ,july1 or to part of ,june and part of ,july4 ,see ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #baj2 ,f4 ,lenormant1 8,il mito di ,adone-,tammuz nei documenti cuneiformi10 ,atti del ,,iv4 ,congresso ,internazionale degli ,orientalisti 7,florence1 #ahhj71 i4 #add sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bge2 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,months10 iii4 #caid4 ,my friend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith informed me that owing to the variations of the local ,syrian calendars the month of ,tammuz fell in different places at different times1 from midsummer to autumn1 or from ,june to ,september4 ,according to ,prof4 ,m4 ,jastrow1 the festival of ,tammuz was celebrated just before the summer solstice 7,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #edg1 #fhb74 ,he observes that 8the calendar of the ,jewish ,church still marks the #agth day of ,tammuz as a fast1 and ,houtsma has shown that the association of the day with the capture of ,jerusalem by the ,romans represents merely the attempt to give an ancient festival a worthier interpretation40 ,m#h ,adonis in ,greek mythology merely a reflection of the ,oriental ,tammuz4 #aa ,ezekiel viii4 #ad4 #ab ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ad4 #d2 ,bion1 ,idyl1 i41 ,j4 ,tzetzes4 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #hca2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #ejc sqq42 ,aristides1 ,apology1 edited by ,j4 ,rendel ,harris 7,cambridge1 #ahia71 pp4 #dd1 #ajf sq4 ,in ,babylonian texts relating to ,tammuz no reference has yet been found to death by a boar4 ,see ,h4 ,zimmern1 8,sumerisch-babylonische ,tamzlieder10 p4 #dea2 id41 8,der babylonische ,gott ,tamz10 p4 #gca4 ,baudissin inclines to think that the incident of the boar is a late importation into the myth of ,adonis4 ,see his ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #adb sqq4 ,as to the relation of the boar to the kindred gods ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris see ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #bb sqq41 where ,i have suggested that the idea of the boar as the foe of the god may be based on the terrible ravages which wild pigs notoriously commit in fields of corn4 #ac ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 pp4 #aeb sq41 with plate iv4 ,as to the representation of the myth of ,adonis on ,etruscan mirrors and late works of ,roman art1 especially sarcophaguses and wall-paintings1 see ,otto ,jahn1 ,archologische ,beitrge 7,berlin1 #ahdg71 pp4 #de-ea4 ,m#i ,worship of ,adonis and ,astarte at ,byblus1 the kingdom of ,cinyras4 ,the kings of ,byblus4 #ad ,the ancients were aware that the ,syrian and ,cyprian ,aphrodite1 the mistress of ,adonis1 was no other than ,astarte4 ,see ,cicero1 ,de natura deorum1 iii4 #bc4 #ei2 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #dd4 ,on ,adonis in ,phoenicia see ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ga sqq4 #ae ,as to ,cinyras1 see ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #bch sqq41 ii4 #b4 #bbf-bca2 ,w4 ,h4 ,engel1 ,kypros 7,berlin1 #ahda71 i4 #afh-agc1 ii4 #id-acf2 ,stoll1 s4v4 8,kinyras10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #aahi sqq4 ,melito calls the father of ,adonis by the name of ,cuthar1 and represents him as king of the ,phoenicians with his capital at ,gebal 7,byblus74 ,see ,melito1 8,oration to ,antoninus ,caesar10 in ,w4 ,cureton's ,spicilegium ,syriacum 7,london1 #ahee71 p4 #dd4 #af ,philo of ,byblus1 quoted by ,eusebius1 ,praeparatio ,evangelii1 i4 #aj2 ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #efh2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 4 ,byblus is a ,greek corruption of the ,semitic ,gebal 771 the name which the place still retains4 ,see ,e4 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie 7,paris1 #ahfd71 p4 #aee4 #ag ,r4 ,pietschmann1 ,geschichte der ,phoenizier 7,berlin1 #ahhi71 p4 #aci4 ,on the coins it is designated 8,holy ,byblus40 #ah ,strabo1 xvi4 #a4 #ah1 p4 #gee4 #ai ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #f4 #bj ,the sanctuary and image are figured on coins of ,byblus4 ,see ,t4 ,l4 ,donaldson1 ,architectura ,numismatica 7,london1 #ahei71 pp4 #aje sq42 ,e4 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie1 p4 #agg2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iii4 7,paris1 #ahhe7 p4 #fj2 ,r4 ,pietschmann1 ,geschichte der ,phoenizier1 p4 #bjb2 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 7,paris1 #ahig7 p4 #agc4 ,renan excavated a massive square pedestal built of colossal stones1 which he thought may have supported the sacred obelisk 7op4 cit4 pp4 #agd-agh74 #ba ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #f4 #bb ,strabo1 xvi4 #a4 #ah1 p4 #gee4 #bc ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #h2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 v4 #gh2 ,e4 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie1 pp4 #bhb sqq4 #bd ,eustathius1 ,commentary on ,dionysius ,periegetes1 #iab 7,geographi ,graeci ,minores1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 ii4 #cgf72 ,melito1 in ,w4 ,cureton's ,spicilegium ,syriacum1 p4 #dd4 #be ,ezekiel xxvii4 #i4 ,as to the name ,gebal see above1 p4 #ac1 note #a4 #bf ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 ,the ,early ,history of ,syria and ,palestine 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #afi-aga4 ,see below1 pp4 #ge sq4 #bg ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 op4 cit4 p4 #bce2 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1 p4 #eg 7the ,nimrud inscription of ,tiglath-pileser ,,iii474 #bh ,the inscription was discovered by ,renan4 ,see ,ch4 ,vellay1 ,le culte et les ftes d',adonis-,thammouz dans l',orient antique 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #ch sq42 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions 7,oxford #aijc71 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #ah sq4 ,in the time of ,alexander the ,great the king of ,byblus was a certain ,enylus 7,arrian1 ,anabasis1 ii4 #bj71 whose name appears on a coin of the city 7,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 ii4 #a1 p4 #ajc1 note #ha74 ,m#aj ,divinity of ,semitic kings4 #bi ,on the divinity of ,semitic kings and the kingship of ,semitic gods see ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites#b 7,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #dd sq41 #ff sqq4 #cj ,h4 ,radau1 ,early ,babylonian ,history 7,new ,york and ,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #cjg-cag2 ,p4 ,dhorme1 ,la ,religion ,assyro-,babylonienne 7,paris1 #aiaj71 pp4 #afh sqq4 #ca ,the evidence for this is the ,moabite stone1 but the reading of the inscription is doubtful4 ,see ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,mesha10 vol4 iii4 #cjda sqq42 id41 ,notes on the ,hebrew ,text and the ,topography of the ,books of ,samuel1 ,second ,edition 7,oxford1 #aiac71 pp4 lxxxv41 lxxxvi41 lxxxviii4 sq42 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #a sq41 #f4 #cb #b ,kings viii4 #g1 #i1 xiii4 #bd sq42 ,jeremiah xlix4 #bg4 ,as to the god ,hadad see ,macrobius1 ,saturn1 i4 #bc4 #ag-ai 7where1 as so often in late writers1 the ,syrians are called ,assyrians72 ,philo of ,byblus1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #efi2 ,f4 ,baethgen1 ,beitrge zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 pp4 #ff-fh2 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,nos4 #fa1 #fb1 pp4 #afa sq41 #afd1 #agc1 #age2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques#b 7,paris1 #aije71 pp4 #ic1 #dic1 #dif sq4 ,the prophet ,zechariah speaks 7xii4 #aa7 of a great mourning of or for ,hadadrimmon in the plain of ,megiddon4 ,this has been taken to refer to a lament for ,hadad-,rimmon1 the ,syrian god of rain1 storm1 and thunder1 like the lament for ,adonis4 ,see ,s4 ,r4 ,driver's note on the passage 7,the ,minor ,prophets1 pp4 #bff sq41 ,century ,bible72 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #ib4 #cc ,josephus1 ,antiquit4 ,jud4 ix4 #d4 #f4 #cd ,genesis xxxvi4 #ce sq42 #a ,kings xi4 #ad-bb2 #a ,chronicles i4 #ej sq4 ,of the eight kings of ,edom mentioned in ,genesis 7xxxvi4 #ca-ci7 and in #a ,chronicles 7i4 #dc-ej7 not one was the son of his predecessor4 ,this seems to indicate that in ,edom1 as elsewhere1 the blood royal was traced in the female line1 and that the kings were men of other families1 or even foreigners1 who succeeded to the throne by marrying the hereditary princesses4 ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bfh sqq4 ,the ,israelites were forbidden to have a foreigner for a king 7,deuteronomy xvii4 #ae with ,s4 ,r4 ,driver's note71 which seems to imply that the custom was known among their neighbours4 ,it is significant that some of the names of the kings of ,edom seem to be those of divinities1 as ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce observed long ago 7,lectures on the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians1 ,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhg1 p4 #ed74 #ce ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 op4 cit4 ,nos4 #fb1 #fc1 pp4 #afc1 #afe1 #agc sqq41 #aha sqq42 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dif sqq4 ,the god ,rekub-el is mentioned along with the gods ,hadad1 ,el1 ,reshef1 and ,shamash in an inscription of ,king ,bar-rekub's mortal father1 ,king ,panammu 7,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #fa1 p4 #afa74 #cf ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 #gbi sq41 with ,servius's note2 ,silius ,italicus1 ,punica1 i4 #hf sqq4 #cg ,ezekiel xxviii4 #b1 #i4 #ch ,menander of ,ephesus1 quoted by ,josephus1 ,contra ,apionem1 i4 #ah and #ba2 ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iv4 #ddf sq4 ,according to the text of ,josephus1 as edited by ,b4 ,niese1 the names of the kings in question were ,abibal1 ,balbazer1 ,abdastart1 ,methusastart1 son of ,leastart1 ,ithobal1 ,balezor1 ,baal1 ,balator1 ,merbal4 ,the passage of ,menander is quoted also by ,eusebius1 ,chronic4 i4 pp4 #aah1 #abj1 ed4 ,a4 ,schoene4 #ci ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #cf1 p4 #ajb4 ,as to ,melcarth1 the ,tyrian ,hercules1 see ,ed4 ,meyer1 s4v4 8,melqart10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #bfej sqq4 ,one of the ,tyrian kings seems to have been called ,abi-milk 7,abi-melech71 that is1 8father of a king0 or 8father of ,moloch10 that is1 of ,melcarth4 ,a letter of his to the king of ,egypt is preserved in the ,tel-el-,amarna correspondence4 ,see ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1 p4 #bcg4 ,as to a title which implies that the bearer of it was the father of a god1 see below1 pp4 #ea sq4 ,m#aa ,divinity of the ,phoenician kings of ,byblus and the ,canaanite kings of ,jerusalem4 ,the 8sacred men0 at ,jerusalem4 #dj ,e4 ,renan1 quoted by ,ch4 ,vellay1 ,le culte et les ftes d',adonis-,thammouz1 p4 #ci4 ,mr4 ,cooke reads 7,uri-milk7 instead of 7,adon-milk7 7,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #ah74 #da ,judges i4 #d-g2 ,joshua x4 #a sqq4 #db ,genesis xiv4 #ah-bj1 with ,prof4 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver's commentary2 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4vv4 8,adoni-bezek10 8,adoni-zedek10 8,melchizedek40 ,it is to be observed that names compounded with ,adoni- were occasionally borne by private persons4 ,such names are ,adoni-kam 7,ezra ii4 #ac7 and ,adoni-ram 7#a ,kings iv4 #f71 not to mention ,adoni-jah 7#a ,kings i4 #e sqq471 who was a prince and aspired to the throne of his father ,david4 ,these names are commonly interpreted as sentences expressive of the nature of the god whom the bearer of the name worshipped4 ,see ,prof4 ,th4 ,nldeke1 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,names10 iii4 #cbhf4 ,it is quite possible that names which once implied divinity were afterwards degraded by application to common men4 #dc ,ezekiel viii4 #ad4 #dd ,they were banished from the temple by ,king ,josiah1 who came to the throne in #fcg ,b4,c4 ,jerusalem fell just fifty-one years later4 ,see #b ,kings xxiii4 #g4 ,as to these 8sacred men0 7edshm71 see below1 pp4 #gb sqq4 #de #b ,kings xxiii4 #g1 where1 following the ,septuagint1 we must apparently read for the of the ,massoretic ,text4 ,so ,r4 ,kittel and ,j4 ,skinner4 #df ,the ashrah 7singular of ashrm7 was certainly of wood 7,judges vi4 #bf73 it seems to have been a tree stripped of its branches and planted in the ground beside an altar1 whether of ,jehovah or of other gods 7,deuteronomy xvi4 #ba2 ,jeremiah xvii4 #b74 ,that the asherah was regarded as a goddess1 the female partner of ,baal1 appears from #a ,kings xviii4 #ai2 #b ,kings xxi4 #c1 xxiii4 #d2 and that this goddess was identified with ,ashtoreth 7,astarte7 may be inferred from a comparison of ,judges ii4 #ac with ,judges iii4 #g4 ,yet on the other hand the pole or tree seems by others to have been viewed as a male power 7,jeremiah ii4 #bg2 see below1 pp4 #ajg sqq471 and the identification of the asherah with ,astarte has been doubted or disputed by some eminent modern scholars4 ,see on this subject ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #ahg sqq42 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 on ,deuteronomy xvi4 #ba2 ,j4 ,skinner1 on #a ,kings xiv4 #bc2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les religions ,smitiques1#b pp4 #agc sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 vol4 i4 #ccj sqq41 s4v4 8,asherah40 #dg ,deuteronomy xxiii4 #ag sq4 7in ,hebrew #ah sq474 ,the code of ,deuteronomy was published in #fba ,b4,c4 in the reign of ,king ,josiah1 whose reforms1 including the ejection of the edeshim from the temple1 were based upon it4 ,see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,old ,testament in the ,jewish ,church#b 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahib71 pp4 #bef sqq41 #cec sqq42 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,critical and ,exegetical ,commentary on ,deuteronomy#c 7,edinburgh1 #aijb71 pp4 xliv4 sqq42 ,k4 ,budde1 ,geschichte der althebrischen ,litteratur 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #aje sqq4 ,m#ab ,david as heir of the old sacred kings of ,jerusalem4 #dh ,he reigned seven years in ,hebron and thirty-three in ,jerusalem 7#b ,samuel v4 #e2 #a ,kings ii4 #aa2 #a ,chronicles xxix4 #bg74 #di ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce has argued that ,david's original name was ,elhanan 7#b ,samuel xxi4 #ai compared with xxiii4 #bd71 and that the name ,david1 which he took at a later time1 should be written ,dod or ,dodo1 8the ,beloved ,one10 which according to ,prof4 ,sayce was a name for ,tammuz 7,adonis7 in ,southern ,canaan1 and was in particular bestowed by the ,jebusites of ,jerusalem on their supreme deity4 ,see ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhg71 pp4 #eb-eg4 ,if he is right1 his conclusions would accord perfectly with those which ,i had reached independently1 and it would become probable that ,david only assumed the name of ,david 7,dod1 ,dodo7 after the conquest of ,jerusalem1 and for the purpose of identifying himself with the god of the city1 who had borne the same title from time immemorial4 ,but on the whole it seems more likely1 as ,professor ,kennett points out to me1 that in the original story ,elhanah1 a totally different person from ,david1 was the slayer of ,goliath1 and that the part of the giant-killer was thrust on ,david at a later time when the brightness of his fame had eclipsed that of many lesser heroes4 #ej #b ,samuel xii4 #bf-ca2 #a ,chronicles xx4 #a-c4 ,critics seem generally to agree that in these passages the word must be pointed ,milcom1 not malcham 8their king10 as the ,massoretic text1 followed by the ,english version1 has it4 ,the reading ,milcom1 which involves no change of the original ,hebrew text1 is supported by the reading of the ,septuagint 1 where the three last words are probably a gloss on 4 ,see ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,notes on the ,hebrew ,text and the ,topography of the ,books of ,samuel1 ,second ,edition 7,oxford1 #aiac71 p4 #bid2 ,dean ,kirkpatrick1 in his note on #b ,samuel xii4 #cj 7,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges72 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4 #cjhe2 ,r4 ,kittel1 ,biblia ,hebraica1 i4 #dcc2 ,brown1 ,driver1 and ,briggs1 ,hebrew and ,english ,lexicon of the ,old ,testament 7,oxford1 #aijf71 pp4 #ege sq4 ,david's son and successor adopted the worship of ,milcom and made a high place for him outside ,jerusalem4 ,see #a ,kings xi4 #e2 #b ,kings xxiii4 #ac4 #ea #b ,samuel v4 #f-aj2 #a ,chronicles xi4 #d-i4 ,m#ac ,traces of the divinity of ,hebrew kings4 #eb ,see for example #a ,samuel xxiv4 #h2 #b ,samuel xiv4 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 xv4 #ae1 #ba1 xvi4 #d1 #i1 xviii4 #bh1 #ca1 #cb2 #a ,kings i4 #b1 #ac1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #bg2 #a ,chronicles xxi4 #c1 #bc4 #ec ,jeremiah xxii4 #ah1 xxxiv4 #e4 ,in the former passage1 according to the ,massoretic text1 the full formula of mourning was1 8,alas my brother6 alas sister6 alas lord6 alas his glory60 ,who was the lamented sister8 ,professor ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne supposes that she was ,astarte1 and by a very slight change 7 for 7 he would read 8,dodah0 for 8his glory10 thus restoring the balance between the clauses2 for 8,dodah0 would then answer to 8,adon0 7lord7 as 8sister0 answers to 8brother40 ,i have to thank ,professor ,cheyne for kindly communicating this conjecture to me by letter4 ,he writes that ,dodah 8is a title of ,ishtar1 just as ,dd is a title of ,tamz10 and for evidence he refers me to the ,dodah of the ,moabite ,stone1 where1 however1 the reading ,dodah is not free from doubt4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #a1 #c1 #aa2 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 ii4 #cjde2 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,notes on the ,hebrew ,text and the ,topography of the ,books of ,samuel1 ,second ,edition 7,oxford1 #aiac71 pp4 lxxxv41 lxxxvi41 xc42 ,f4 ,baethgen1 ,beitrge zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 p4 #bcd2 ,h4 ,winckler1 ,geschichte ,israels 7,leipsic1 #ahie-aijj71 ii4 #beh4 ,as to ,hebrew names formed from the root dd in the sense of 8beloved10 see ,brown1 ,driver1 and ,briggs1 ,hebrew and ,english ,lexicon of the ,old ,testament1 pp4 #ahg sq42 ,g4 ,b4 ,gray1 ,studies in ,hebrew ,proper ,names 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #fj sqq4 #ed ,this was perceived by ,renan 7,histoire du peuple d',israel1 iii4 #bgc71 and ,prof4 ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne writes to me3 8,the formulae of public mourning were derived from the ceremonies of the ,adonia2 this ,lenormant saw long ago40 #ee #a ,chronicles xxix4 #bc2 #b ,chronicles ix4 #h4 #ef #a ,samuel xvi4 #ac1 #ad1 compare id41 x4 #a and #bj4 ,the oil was poured on the king's head 7#a ,samuel x4 #a2 #b ,kings ix4 #c1 #f74 ,for the conveyance of the divine spirit by means of oil1 see also ,isaiah lx4 #a4 ,the kings of ,egypt appear to have consecrated their vassal ,syrian kings by pouring oil on their heads4 ,see the ,tell-el-,amarna letters1 ,no4 #cg 7,h4 ,winckler1 ,die ,thontafeln von ,tell-el-,amarna1 p4 #ii74 ,some ,west ,african priests are consecrated by a similar ceremony4 ,see below1 p4 #fh4 ,the natives of ,buru1 an ,east ,indian island1 imagine that they can keep off demons by smearing their bodies with coco-nut oil1 but the oil must be prepared by young unmarried girls4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,bijdrage tot de kennis der ,alfoeren van het eiland ,boeroe10 ,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxxviii4 7,batavia1 #ahge7 p4 #cj2 id41 ,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 #aiab71 i4 #fa4 ,in some tribes of ,north-,west ,america hunters habitually anointed their hair with decoctions of certain plants and deer's brains before they set out to hunt4 ,the practice was probably a charm to secure success in the hunt4 ,see ,c4 ,hill-,tout1 ,the ,home of the ,salish and ,dn 7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #gb4 #eg #a ,samuel xxiv4 #f4 ,messiah in ,hebrew is ,mashiah 774 ,the ,english form ,messiah is derived from the ,aramaic through the ,greek4 ,see ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne1 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,messiah10 vol4 iii4 #cjeg sqq4 ,why hair oil should be considered a vehicle of inspiration is by no means clear4 ,it would have been intelligible if the olive had been with the ,hebrews1 as it was with the ,athenians1 a sacred tree under the immediate protection of a deity2 for then a portion of the divine essence might be thought to reside in the oil4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith supposed that the unction was originally performed with the fat of a sacrificial victim1 for which vegetable oil was a later substitute 7,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #chc sq474 ,on the whole subject see ,j4 ,wellhausen1 8,zwei ,rechtsriten bei den ,hebrern10 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 vii4 7#aijd7 pp4 #cc-ci2 ,h4 ,weinel1 8 und seine ,derivate10 ,zeitschrift fr die alttestamentliche ,wissenschaft1 xviii4 7#ahih7 pp4 #a-hb4 ,m#ad ,the ,hebrew kings seem to have been held responsible for drought and famine4 #eh #b ,samuel xxi4 #a-ad1 with ,dean ,kirkpatrick's notes on #a and #aj4 #ei ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bhd sq4 #fj #a ,samuel xii4 #ag sq4 ,similarly1 ,moses stretched forth his rod toward heaven and the ,lord sent thunder and rain 7,exodus ix4 #bc74 ,the word for thunder in both these passages is 8voices0 774 ,the ,hebrews heard in the clap of thunder the voice of ,jehovah1 just as the ,greeks heard in it the voice of ,zeus and the ,romans the voice of ,jupiter4 ,m#ae ,excessive rain set down to the wrath of the deity4 #fa ,ezekiel xiii4 #aa1 #ac1 xxxviii4 #bb2 ,jeremiah iii4 #b sq4 ,the ,hebrews looked to ,jehovah for rain 7,leviticus xxvi4 #c-e2 ,jeremiah v4 #bd7 just as the ,greeks looked to ,zeus and the ,romans to ,jupiter4 #fb ,ezra x4 #i-ad4 ,the special sin which they laid to heart on this occasion was their marriage with ,gentile women4 ,it is implied1 though not expressly said1 that they traced the inclemency of the weather to these unfortunate alliances4 ,similarly1 8during the rainy season1 when the sun is hidden behind great masses of dark clouds1 the ,indians set up a wailing for their sins1 believing that the sun is angry and may never shine on them again40 ,see ,francis ,c4 ,nicholas1 8,the ,aborigines of ,santa ,maria1 ,colombia10 ,american ,anthropologist1 ,n4,s41 iii4 7,new ,york1 #aija7 p4 #fda4 ,the ,indians in question are the ,aurohuacas of ,colombia1 in ,south ,america4 #fc ,psalm cxxxvii4 ,the willows beside the rivers of ,babylon are mentioned in the laments for ,tammuz4 ,see above1 pp4 #i1 #aj4 #fd ,the line of the ,dead ,sea1 lying in its deep trough1 is visible from the ,mount of ,olives2 indeed1 so clear is the atmosphere that the blue water seems quite near the eye1 though in fact it is more than fifteen miles off and nearly four thousand feet below the spectator4 ,see ,k4 ,baedeker1 ,palestine and ,syria#d 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 p4 #gg4 ,when the sun shines on it1 the lake is of a brilliant blue 7,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land1 ,london1 #ahid1 pp4 #eja sq472 but its brilliancy is naturally dimmed under clouded skies4 ,m#af ,hebrew kings apparently supposed to heal disease and stop epidemics4 #fe #b ,kings v4 #e-g4 #ff #b ,samuel xxiv42 #a ,chronicles xxi4 ,in this passage1 contrary to his usual practice1 the ,chronicler has enlivened the dull tenor of his history with some picturesque touches which we miss in the corresponding passage of ,kings4 ,it is to him that we owe the vision of the ,angel of the ,plague first stretching out his sword over ,jerusalem and then returning it to the scabbard4 ,from him ,defoe seems to have taken a hint in his account of the prodigies1 real or imaginary1 which heralded the outbreak of the ,great ,plague in ,london4 8,one time before the plague was begun1 otherwise than as ,i have said in ,st4 ,giles's1 ,i think it was in ,march1 seeing a crowd of people in the street1 ,i joined with them to satisfy my curiosity1 and found them all staring up into the air to see what a woman told them appeared plain to her1 which was an angel clothed in white with a fiery sword in his hand1 waving it or brandishing it over his head4444 ,one saw one thing and one another4 ,i looked as earnestly as the rest1 but1 perhaps1 not with so much willingness to be imposed upon2 and ,i said1 indeed1 that ,i could see nothing but a white cloud1 bright on one side1 by the shining of the sun upon the other part40 ,see ,daniel ,defoe1 ,history of the ,plague in ,london 7,edinburgh1 #ahaj1 pp4 #cc sq474 ,it is the more likely that ,defoe had here the ,chronicler in mind1 because a few pages earlier he introduces the prophet ,jonah and a man out of ,josephus with very good effect4 ,m#ag ,the rarity of references to the divinity of ,hebrew kings in the historical books may be explained by the circumstances in which these works were composed or edited4 #fg #b ,kings xvii4 #e sq41 xviii4 #i sq4 #fh #b ,kings xix4 #cb-cf4 #fi ,we owe to ,ezekiel 7xxiii4 #e sq41 #ab7 the picture of the handsome ,assyrian cavalrymen in their blue uniforms and gorgeous trappings4 ,the prophet writes as if in his exile by the waters of ,babylon he had seen the blue regiments filing past1 in all the pomp of war1 on their way to the front4 ,m#ah ,the historical books were composed or edited under the influence of the prophetic reformation4 #gj ,samaria fell in #gbb ,b4,c41 during or just before the reign of ,hezekiah3 the ,book of ,deuteronomy1 the cornerstone of king ,josiah's reformation1 was produced in #fba ,b4,c42 and ,jerusalem fell in #ehf ,b4,c4 ,the date of ,hezekiah's accession is a much-disputed point in the chronology of ,judah4 ,see the ,introduction to ,kings and ,isaiah i4-xxxix4 by ,j4 ,skinner and ,o4 ,c4 ,whitehouse respectively1 in ,the ,century ,bible4 #ga ,or the ,deuteronomic redactor1 as the critics call him4 ,see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,old ,testament in the ,jewish ,church#b 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahib71 pp4 #cie sq41 #dbe2 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 ii4 #bjgh sqq41 #bfcc sqq41 iv4 #dbgc sqq42 ,k4 ,budde1 ,geschichte der althebrischen ,litteratur 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #ii1 #aba sqq41 #abg sqq41 #acb2 ,principal ,j4 ,skinner1 in his introduction to ,kings 7in ,the ,century ,bible71 pp4 #aj sqq4 ,m#ai ,the ,baal and his female ,baalath the sources of all fertility4 #gb ,menander of ,ephesus1 quoted by ,josephus1 ,contra ,apionem1 i4 #ah 7,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iv4 #ddf72 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #bf4 ,according to ,justin1 however1 the priest of ,hercules1 that is1 of ,melcarth1 at ,tyre1 was distinct from the king and second to him in dignity4 ,see ,justin1 xviii4 #d1 #e4 #gc ,hosea ii4 #e sqq42 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites#b 7,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #ie-ajg4 #gd ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #ajg sq4 ,m#bj ,personation of the ,baal by the king4 #ge ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #abj sqq41 #cgf sqq4 ,m#ba ,cinyras1 king of ,byblus4 ,aphaca and the vale of the ,adonis4 ,monuments of ,adonis4 #gf ,strabo1 xvi4 #a4 #ah1 p4 #gee4 #gg ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #i4 #gh ,eusebius1 ,vita ,constantini1 iii4 #ee2 ,sozomenus1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 ii4 #e2 ,socrates1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 i4 #ah2 ,zosimus1 i4 #eh4 #gi ,on the valley of the ,nahr ,ibrahim1 its scenery and monuments1 see ,edward ,robinson1 ,biblical ,researches in ,palestine#c 7,london1 #ahfg71 iii4 #fjc-fji2 ,w4 ,m4 ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book1 ,lebanon1 ,damascus1 and beyond ,jordan 7,london1 #ahhf71 pp4 #bci-bdf2 ,e4 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie1 pp4 #bhb sqq42 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 7,paris1 #ahig7 pp4 #age-agi2 ,sir ,charles ,wilson1 ,picturesque ,palestine 7,london1 ,n4,d471 iii4 #af1 #ag1 #bg4 ,among the trees which line the valley are oak1 sycamore1 bay1 plane1 orange1 and mulberry 7,w4 ,m4 ,thomson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bde74 ,travellers are unanimous in testifying to the extraordinary beauty of the vale of the ,adonis4 ,thus ,robinson writes3 8,there is no spot in all my wanderings on which memory lingers with greater delight than on the sequestered retreat and exceeding loveliness of ,afka40 ,renan says that the landscape is one of the most beautiful in the world4 ,my friend the late ,sir ,francis ,galton wrote to me 7#bjth ,september #aijf73 8,i have no good map of ,palestine1 but strongly suspect that my wanderings there1 quite sixty years ago1 took me to the place you mention1 above the gorge of the river ,adonis4 ,be that as it may1 ,i have constantly asserted that the view ,i then had of a deep ravine and blue sea seen through the cliffs that bounded it1 was the most beautiful ,i had ever set eyes on40 #hj ,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 1 p4 #age4 #ha ,melito1 8,oration to ,antoninus ,caesar10 in ,w4 ,cureton's ,spicilegium ,syriacum 7,london1 #ahee71 p4 #dd4 #hb ,e4 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie1 pp4 #bib-bid4 ,the writer seems to have no doubt that the beast attacking ,adonis is a bear1 not a boar4 ,views of the monument are given by ,a4 ,jeremias1 ,das ,alte ,testament im ,lichte des ,alten ,orients#b 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 p4 #ij1 and by ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 plates i4 and ii41 with his discussion1 pp4 #gh sqq4 #hc ,macrobius1 ,saturn1 i4 #ba4 #e4 #hd ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #h4 ,m#bb ,phoenician colonies in ,cyprus4 #he ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 ii4 #b1 p4 #bbd2 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 #aii2 ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land 7,london1 #ahid71 p4 #ace4 #hf ,on the natural wealth of ,cyprus see ,strabo1 xiv4 #f4 #e2 ,w4 ,h4 ,engel1 ,kypros1 i4 #dj-ga2 ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 ii4 #b1 pp4 #bbd sq42 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 #bjj sq42 ,e4 ,oberhummer1 ,die ,insel ,cypern1 i4 7,munich1 #aijc7 pp4 #age sqq41 #bdc sqq4 ,as to the firs and cedars of ,cyprus see ,theophrastus1 ,historia ,plantarum1 v4 #g4 #a1 v4 #i4 #a4 ,the ,cyprians boasted that they could build and rig a ship complete1 from her keel to her topsails1 with the native products of their island 7,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xiv4 #h4 #ad74 #hg ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-,book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,nos4 #ab-be1 pp4 #ee-gf1 #cdg-cdi2 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,new ,chapters in ,greek ,history 7,london1 #ahib71 pp4 #agi1 #ahe4 ,it has been held that the name of ,citium is etymologically identical with ,hittite4 ,if that was so1 it would seem that the town was built and inhabited by a non-,semitic people before the arrival of the ,phoenicians4 ,see ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,kittim40 ,other traces of this older race1 akin to the primitive stock of ,asia ,minor1 have been detected in ,cyprus2 amongst them the most obvious is the ,cyprian syllabary1 the characters of which are neither ,phoenician nor ,greek in origin4 ,see ,p4 ,gardner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aed1 #agc-age1 #agh sq4 #hh ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-,book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #aa1 p4 #eb4 #hi ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 2 ,pausanias1 ix4 #da4 #b sq4 ,according to ,pausanias1 there was a remarkable necklace of green stones and gold in the sanctuary of ,adonis and ,aphrodite at ,amathus4 ,the ,greeks commonly identified it with the necklace of ,harmonia or ,eriphyle4 ,a terra-cotta statuette of ,astarte1 found at ,amathus 7871 represents her wearing a necklace which she touches with one hand4 ,see ,l4 ,p4 di ,cesnola1 ,cyprus 7,london1 #ahgg71 p4 #bge4 ,the scanty ruins of ,amathus occupy an isolated hill beside the sea4 ,among them is an enormous stone jar1 half buried in the earth1 of which the four handles are adorned with figures of bulls4 ,it is probably of ,phoenician manufacture4 ,see ,l4 ,ross1 ,reisen nach ,kos1 ,halikarnassos1 ,rhodes und der ,insel ,cypern 7,halle1 #aheb71 pp4 #afh sqq4 #ij ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 4 ,for the relation of ,adonis to ,osiris at ,byblus see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #i sq41 #bb sq41 #abg4 #ia ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 #ib ,l4 ,p4 di ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 pp4 #bed-bhc2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iii4 7,paris1 #ahhe7 pp4 #baf-bbb4 ,m#bc ,kingdom of ,paphos4 ,sanctuary of ,aphrodite at ,paphos4 #ic ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,devia ,cypria 7,london1 #ahhi71 pp4 #a-c2 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1#i vi4 #gdg2 lise ,reclus1 ,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle 7,paris1 #ahgi-ahid71 ix4 #ffh4 #id ,t4 ,l4 ,donaldson1 ,architectura ,numismatica 7,london1 #ahei71 pp4 #ajg-aji1 with fig4 #ca2 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #baj-bac2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,cyprus 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 cxxvii-cxxxiv1 with plates xiv4 #b1 #c1 #f-h1 xv4 #a-d1 #g1 xvi4 #b1 #d1 #f-i1 xvii4 #d-f1 #h1 #i1 xxvi4 #c1 #f-af2 ,george ,macdonald1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins in the ,hunterian ,collection 7,glasgow1 #ahii-aije71 ii4 #eff1 with pl4 lxi4 #ai4 ,as to the existing remains of the temple1 which were excavated by an ,english expedition in #ahhg-ahhh1 see 8,excavations in ,cyprus1 #ahhg-ahhh10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #aic sqq4 ,previous accounts of the temple are inaccurate and untrustworthy4 #ie ,c4 ,schuchhardt1 ,schliemann's ,ausgrabungen#b 7,leipsic1 #ahia71 pp4 #bca-bcc2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 vi4 7,paris1 #ahid7 pp4 #ccf sq41 #feb-fed2 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #bac sq42 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,new ,chapters in ,greek ,history1 p4 #aha4 #if ,j4 ,selden1 ,de dis ,syris 7,leipsic1 #affh71 pp4 #bgd sqq42 ,s4 ,bochart1 ,hierozoicon1 ,editio ,tertia 7,leyden1 #afib71 ii4 #d sqq4 ,compare the statue of a priest with a dove in his hand1 which was found in ,cyprus 7,perrot et ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iii4 ,paris1 #ahhe1 p4 #eaj71 with fig4 #cdi4 #ig ,a4 ,j4 ,evans1 8,mycenaean ,tree and ,pillar ,cult10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xxi4 7#aija7 pp4 #ii sqq4 ,m#bd ,the ,aphrodite of ,paphos a ,phoenician or aboriginal deity4 ,her conical image4 #ih ,tacitus1 ,annals1 iii4 #fb4 #ii ,herodotus1 i4 #aje2 compare ,pausanias1 i4 #ad4 #g4 ,herodotus only speaks of the sanctuary of ,aphrodite in ,cyprus1 but he must refer to the great one at ,paphos4 ,at ,ascalon a goddess was worshipped in mermaid-shape under the name of ,derceto1 and fish and doves were sacred to her 7,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #d2 compare ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ad74 ,the name ,derceto1 like the much more correct ,atargatis1 is a ,greek corruption of ',attr1 the ,aramaic form of ,astarte1 but the two goddesses ,atargatis and ,astarte1 in spite of the affinity of their names1 appear to have been historically distinct4 ,see ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #aiji71 pp4 #fje1 #fej sq42 ,f4 ,baethgen1 ,beitrge zur ,semitischen ,religionsgeschichte 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 pp4 #fh sqq42 ,f4 ,cumont1 s4vv4 8,atargatis0 and 8,dea ,syria10 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft2 ,ren ,dussaud1 ,notes de ,mythologie ,syrienne 7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 #hb sqq42 ,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister1 ,the ,philistines1 their ,history and ,civilization 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #id sqq4 #ajj ,it is described by ancient writers and figured on coins4 ,see ,tacitus1 ,hist4 ii4 #c2 ,maximus ,tyrius1 ,dissert4 viii4 #h2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 #gbj2 ,t4 ,l4 ,donaldson1 ,architectura ,numismatica1 p4 #ajg1 with fig4 #ca2 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #baj-bab4 ,according to ,maximus ,tyrius1 the material of the pyramid was unknown4 ,probably it was a stone4 ,the ,english archaeologists found several fragments of white cones on the site of the temple at ,paphos3 one which still remains in its original position in the central chamber was of limestone and of somewhat larger size 7,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 p4 #ahj74 #aja ,see above1 p4 #ad4 #ajb ,on coins of ,perga the sacred cone is represented as richly decorated and standing in a temple between sphinxes4 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #ehe2 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,types of ,greek ,coins 7,cambridge1 #ahhc71 pl4 xv4 ,no4 #c2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycia1 ,pamphylia1 and ,pisidia 7,london1 #ahig71 pl4 xxiv4 #ab1 #ae1 #af4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill writes to me3 8,is the stone at ,perga really a cone8 ,i have always thought it was a cube or something of that kind4 ,on the coins the upper1 sloping portion is apparently an elaborate veil or head-dress4 ,the head attached to the stone is seen in the middle of this1 surmounted by a tall kalathos40 ,the sanctuary stood on a height1 and a festival was held there annually 7,strabo1 xiv4 #d4 #b1 p4 #ffg74 ,the native title of the goddess was ,anassa1 that is1 8,queen40 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 l4c42 ,wernicke1 s4v4 8,artemis10 in ,pauly-,wissowa1 ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ii4 #a1 col4 #acig4 ,aphrodite at ,paphos bore the same title4 ,see below1 p4 #db1 note #f4 ,the worship of ,pergaean ,artemis at ,halicarnassus was cared for by a priestess1 who held office for life and had to make intercession for the city at every new moon4 ,see ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum#b 7,leipsic1 #ahih-aija71 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgc1 ,no4 #fja4 #ajc ,herodian1 v4 #c4 #e4 ,this cone was of black stone1 with some small knobs on it1 like the stone of ,cybele at ,pessinus4 ,it is figured on coins of ,emesa4 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #fei2 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,types of ,greek ,coins1 pl4 xv4 ,no4 #a4 ,the sacred stone of ,cybele1 which the ,romans brought from ,pessinus to ,rome during the ,second ,punic ,war1 was small1 black1 and rugged1 but we are not told that it was of conical shape4 ,see ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 vii4 #di2 ,livy1 xxix4 #aa4 #g4 ,according to one reading1 ,servius 7on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #ahh7 speaks of the stone of ,cybele as a needle 7acus71 which would point to a conical shape4 ,but the reading appears to be without manuscript authority1 and other emendations have been suggested4 #ajd ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iii4 #bgc1 #bih sq41 #cjd sq4 ,the sanctuary of ,aphrodite1 or rather ,astarte1 at ,golgi is said to have been even more ancient than her sanctuary at ,paphos 7,pausanias1 viii4 #e4 #b74 #aje ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,researches in ,sinai 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #ace sq41 #ahi4 ,votive cones made of clay have been found in large numbers in ,babylonia1 particularly at ,lagash and ,nippur4 ,see ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahih71 pp4 #fgb-fgd4 #ajf ,tacitus1 ,hist4 ii4 #c4 #ajg ,we learn this from an inscription found at ,paphos4 ,see ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #ahh1 #bca4 #ajh ,pausanias1 x4 #bd4 #f1 with my note4 #aji ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,a ,wandering ,scholar in the ,levant 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #agi sq4 ,women used to creep through a holed stone to obtain children at a place on the ,dee in ,aberdeenshire4 ,see ,balder the ,beautiful1 ii4 #ahg4 #aaj ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iii4 #fbh4 ,m#be ,sacred prostitution in the worship of the ,paphian ,aphrodite and of other ,asiatic goddesses4 #aaa ,herodotus1 i4 #aii2 ,athenaeus1 xii4 #aa1 p4 #eaf ,a2 ,justin1 xviii4 #e4 #d2 ,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,inst4 i4 #ag2 ,w4 ,h4 ,engel1 ,kypros1 ii4 #adb sqq4 ,asiatic customs of this sort have been rightly explained by ,w4 ,mannhardt 7,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 pp4 #bhc sqq474 #aab ,herodotus1 i4 #aii2 ,strabo1 xvi4 #a4 #bj1 p4 #gde4 ,as to the identity of ,mylitta with ,astarte see ,h4 ,zimmern in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und das alte ,testament1#c pp4 #dbc1 note #g1 #dbh1 note #d4 ,according to him1 the name ,mylitta comes from ,mu'allidtu1 8she who helps women in travail40 ,in this character ,ishtar would answer to the ,greek ,artemis and the ,latin ,diana4 ,as to sacred prostitution in the worship of ,ishtar see ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #dge sq41 #dhd sq42 ,p4 ,dhorme1 ,la ,religion ,assyro-,babylonienne 7,paris1 #aiaj71 pp4 #hf1 #cjj sq4 #aac ,eusebius1 ,vita ,constantini1 iii4 #eh2 ,socrates1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 i4 #ah4 #g-i2 ,sozomenus1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 v4 #aj4 #g4 ,socrates says that at ,heliopolis local custom obliged the women to be held in common1 so that paternity was unknown1 8for there was no distinction of parents and children1 and the people prostituted their daughters to the strangers who visited them0 7 74 ,the prostitution of matrons as well as of maids is mentioned by ,eusebius4 ,as he was born and spent his life in ,syria1 and was a contemporary of the practices he describes1 the bishop of ,caesarea had the best opportunity of informing himself as to them1 and we ought not1 as ,prof4 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson does 7,griechische ,feste1 ,leipsic1 #aijf1 p4 #cff n4#b71 to allow his positive testimony on this point to be outweighed by the silence of the later historian ,sozomenus1 who wrote long after the custom had been abolished4 ,eusebius had good reason to know the heathenish customs which were kept up in his diocese2 for he was sharply taken to task by ,constantine for allowing sacrifices to be offered on altars under the sacred oak or terebinth at ,mamre2 and in obedience to the imperial commands he caused the altars to be destroyed and an oratory to be built instead under the tree4 ,so in ,ireland the ancient heathen sanctuaries under the sacred oaks were converted by ,christian missionaries into churches and monasteries4 ,see ,socrates1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 i4 #ah2 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bdb sq4 #aad ,athanasius1 ,oratio contra ,gentes1 #bf 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xxv4 #eb71 1 1 4 ,the account of the ,phoenician custom which is given by ,h4 ,ploss 7,das ,weib1#b i4 #cjb7 and repeated after him by ,fr4 ,schwally 7,semitische ,kriegsaltertmer1 ,leipsic1 #aija1 pp4 #gf sq47 may rest only on a misapprehension of this passage of ,athanasius4 ,but if it is correct1 we may conjecture that the slaves who deflowered the virgins were the sacred slaves of the temples1 the edeshim1 and that they discharged this office as the living representatives of the god4 ,as to these edeshim1 or 8sacred men10 see above1 pp4 #ag sq41 and below1 pp4 #gb sqq4 #aae ,the ,testaments of the ,twelve ,patriarchs1 translated and edited by ,r4 ,h4 ,charles 7,london1 #aijh71 chapter xii4 p4 #ha4 #aaf ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #f4 ,the writer is careful to indicate that none but strangers were allowed to enjoy the women 7 74 #aag ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cj sq4 #aah ,herodotus1 i4 #ic sq42 ,athenaeus1 xii4 #aa1 pp4 #eae sq4 #aai ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 8,unedited ,inscriptions of ,asia ,minor10 ,bulletin de ,correspondance ,hellnique1 vii4 7#ahhc7 p4 #bgf2 id41 ,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 i4 7,oxford1 #ahie7 pp4 #id sq41 #aae4 #abj ,strabo1 xi4 #ad4 #af1 p4 #ecb4 #aba ,strabo1 xii4 #c4 #cb1 #cd and #cf1 pp4 #eeg-eei2 compare xii4 #b4 #c1 p4 #ece4 ,other sanctuaries in ,pontus1 ,cappadocia1 and ,phrygia swarmed with sacred slaves1 and we may conjecture1 though we are not told1 that many of these slaves were prostitutes4 ,see ,strabo1 xi4 #h4 #d1 xii4 #b4 #c and #f1 xii4 #c4 #ca and #cg1 xii4 #h4 #ad4 ,m#bf ,the ,asiatic ,mother ,goddess a personification of all the reproductive energies of nature4 ,her worship perhaps reflects a period of sexual communism4 #abb ,on this great ,asiatic goddess and her lovers see especially ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 i4 #hg sqq4 #abc ,compare ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 pp4 #bhd sq42 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,prophets of ,israel1 ,new ,edition 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #aga-agd4 ,similarly in ,camul1 formerly a province of the ,chinese ,empire1 the men used to place their wives at the disposal of any foreigners who came to lodge with them1 and deemed it an honour if the guests made use of their opportunities4 ,the emperor1 hearing of the custom1 forbade the people to observe it4 ,for three years they obeyed1 then1 finding that their lands were no longer fruitful and that many mishaps befell them1 they prayed the emperor to allow them to retain the custom1 8for it was by reason of this usage that their gods bestowed upon them all the good things that they possessed1 and without it they saw not how they could continue to exist40 ,see ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 translated and edited by ,colonel ,henry ,yule1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahge71 i4 #bab sq4 ,here apparently the fertility of the soil was deemed to depend on the intercourse of the women with strangers1 not with their husbands4 ,similarly1 among the ,oulad ,abdi1 an ,arab tribe of ,morocco1 8the women often seek a divorce and engage in prostitution in the intervals between their marriages2 during that time they continue to dwell in their families1 and their relations regard their conduct as very natural4 ,the administrative authority having bestirred itself and attempted to regulate this prostitution1 the whole population opposed the attempt1 alleging that such a measure would impair the abundance of the crops40 ,see ,edmond ,doutt1 ,magie et ,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord 7,algiers1 #aijh71 pp4 #efj sq4 #abd ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ad1 p4 #ac1 ed4 ,potter2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #ai2 compare ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #aj4 #abe ,in ,hebrew a temple harlot was regularly called 8a sacred woman0 7kdsha74 ,see ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,harlot02 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 on ,genesis xxxviii4 #ba4 ,as to such 8sacred women0 see below1 pp4 #gj sqq4 ,m#bg ,the daughters of ,cinyras4 #abf ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ac1 p4 #ab1 ed4 ,potter2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #ai2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #aj4 #abg ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ad4 #c4 ,m#bh ,the ,paphian dynasty of the ,cinyrads4 #abh ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ad4 #c4 ,i follow the text of ,r4 ,wagner's edition in reading 4 ,as to ,hyria in ,isauria see ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 4 ,the city of ,celenderis1 on the south coast of ,cilicia1 possessed a small harbour protected by a fortified peninsula4 ,many ancient tombs survived till recent times1 but have now mostly disappeared4 ,it was the port from which the ,turkish couriers from ,constantinople used to embark for ,cyprus4 ,as to the situation and remains see ,f4 ,beaufort1 ,karmania 7,london1 #ahag71 p4 #bja2 ,w4 ,m4 ,leake1 ,journal of a ,tour in ,asia ,minor 7,london1 #ahbd71 pp4 #aad-aah2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kais4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosoph4-historische ,classe1 xliv4 7#ahif7 ,no4 vi4 p4 #id4 ,the statement that the sanctuary of ,aphrodite at ,paphos was founded by the ,arcadian ,agapenor1 who planted a colony in ,cyprus after the ,trojan war 7,pausanias1 viii4 #e4 #b71 may safely be disregarded4 #abi ,tacitus1 ,hist4 ii4 #c2 ,annals1 iii4 #fb4 #acj ,tacitus1 ,hist4 ii4 #c2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 #aca ,pindar1 ,pyth4 ii4 #ac-ag4 #acb ,tyrtaeus1 xii4 #f 7,poetae ,lyrici ,graeci1 ed4 ,th4 ,bergk1#c ,leipsic1 #ahff-ahfg1 ii4 #djd72 ,pindar1 ,pyth4 viii4 #ah2 ,plato1 ,laws1 ii4 #f1 p4 #ffj ,e2 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,paedag4 iii4 #f1 p4 #bgd1 ed4 ,potter2 ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,orat4 viii4 7vol4 i4 p4 #adi1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf72 ,julian1 ,epist4 lix4 p4 #egd1 ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein2 ,diogenianus1 viii4 #ec2 ,suidas1 s4v4 4 #acc ,schol4 on ,pindar1 ,pyth4 ii4 #ae 7#bg72 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 iii4 #de1 p4 #dj1 ed4 ,potter2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 vi4 #f4 ,that the kings of ,paphos were also priests of the goddess is proved1 apart from the testimony of ancient writers1 by inscriptions found on the spot4 ,see ,h4 ,collitz1 ,sammlung der griechischen ,dialektinschriften1 i4 7,gttingen1 #ahhd7 p4 #bb1 ,nos4 #ch1 #ci1 #dj4 ,the title of the goddess in these inscriptions is ,queen or ,mistress 77774 ,it is perhaps a translation of the ,semitic ,baalath4 #acd ,plutarch1 ,de ,alexandri ,magni fortuna aut virtute1 ii4 #h4 ,the name of the gardener-king was ,alynomus4 ,that the ,cinyrads existed as a family down to ,macedonian times is further proved by a ,greek inscription found at ,old ,paphos1 which records that a certain ,democrates1 son of ,ptolemy1 head of the ,cinyrads1 and his wife ,eunice1 dedicated a statue of their daughter to the ,paphian ,aphrodite4 ,see ,l4 ,ross1 8,inschriften von ,cypern10 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,n4,f4 vii4 7#ahej7 pp4 #ebj sq4 ,it seems to have been a common practice of parents to dedicate statues of their sons or daughters to the goddess at ,paphos4 ,the inscribed pedestals of many such statues were found by the ,english archaeologists4 ,see ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #bbh1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bee4 #ace ,tacitus1 ,hist4 ii4 #d2 ,pausanias1 viii4 #bd4 #f4 #acf ,plutarch1 ,cato the ,younger1 #ce4 ,m#bi ,incest of ,cinyras with his daughter ,myrrha1 and birth of ,adonis4 ,legends of royal incest--a suggested explanation4 #acg ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #bih sqq42 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #eh1 #fd2 ,fulgentius1 ,mytholog4 iii4 #h2 ,lactantius ,placidius1 ,narrat4 ,fabul4 x4 #i2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,ecl4 x4 #ah1 and ,aen4 v4 #gb2 ,plutarch1 ,parallela1 #bb2 ,schol4 on ,theocritus1 i4 #ajg4 ,it is ,ovid who describes 7,metam4 x4 #dca sqq47 the festival of ,ceres1 at which the incest was committed4 ,his source was probably the ,metamorphoses of the ,greek writer ,theodorus1 which ,plutarch 7l4c47 refers to as his authority for the story4 ,the festival in question was perhaps the ,thesmophoria1 at which women were bound to remain chaste 7,schol4 on ,theocritus1 iv4 #be2 ,schol4 on ,nicander1 ,ther4 #gj sq42 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxiv4 #ei2 ,dioscorides1 ,de ,materia ,medica1 i4 #acd 7#ace72 compare ,aelian1 ,de natura animalium1 ix4 #bf74 ,compare ,e4 ,fehrle1 ,die kultische ,keuschheit im ,altertum 7,giessen1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ajc sqq41 #aba sq41 #aea sqq4 ,the corn and bread of ,cyprus were famous in antiquity4 ,see ,aeschylus1 ,suppliants1 #edi 7#eee72 ,hipponax1 cited by ,strabo1 viii4 #c4 #h1 p4 #cdj2 ,eubulus1 cited by ,athenaeus1 iii4 #gh1 p4 #aab ,f2 ,e4 ,oberhummer1 ,die ,insel4 ,cypern1 i4 7,munich1 #aijc7 pp4 #bgd sqq4 ,according to another account1 ,adonis was the fruit of the incestuous intercourse of ,theias1 a ,syrian king1 with his daughter ,myrrha4 ,see ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ad4 #d 7who cites ,panyasis as his authority72 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #hbi2 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #cd 7who lays the scene of the story on ,mount ,lebanon74 ,with the corn-wreaths mentioned in the text we may compare the wreaths which the ,roman ,arval ,brethren wore at their sacred functions1 and with which they seem to have crowned the images of the goddesses4 ,see ,g4 ,henzen1 ,acta ,fratrum ,arvalium 7,berlin1 #ahgd71 pp4 #bd-bg1 #cc sq4 ,compare ,pausanias1 vii4 #bj4 #a4 sq4 #ach ,a list of these cases is given by ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bec4 ,it includes the incest of ,clymenus1 king of ,arcadia1 with his daughter ,harpalyce 7compare ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bjf72 that of ,oenomaus1 king of ,pisa1 with his daughter ,hippodamia 7compare ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #aef2 ,lucian1 ,charidemus1 #ai72 that of ,erechtheus1 king of ,athens1 with his daughter ,procris2 and that of ,epopeus1 king of ,lesbos1 with his daughter ,nyctimene 7compare ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bjd74 #aci ,the custom of brother and sister marriage seems to have been especially common in royal families4 ,see my note on ,pausanias1 i4 #g4 #a 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #hd sq472 as to the case of ,egypt see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bac sqq4 ,the true explanation of the custom was first1 so far as ,i know1 indicated by ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan 7,the ,patriarchal ,theory1 ,london1 #ahhe1 p4 #ie74 ,m#cj ,the ,flamen ,dialis and his ,flaminica at ,rome4 #adj ,aulus ,gellius1 x4 #ae4 #bb2 ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b 7,leipsic1 #ahhe7 p4 #cbh4 #ada ,priestesses are said to have preceded priests in some ,egyptian cities4 ,see ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #gd4 #adb ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #agi1 #aij sqq4 #adc ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bfh sqq4 #add ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ab note #a4 ,m#ca ,priestesses among the ,khasis of ,assam4 #ade ,major ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #aji-aab1 #abj sq4 ,m#cb ,sacred marriage of a priest and priestess as representatives of the ,sun-god and the ,earth-goddess4 ,marriage of the ,sun-god and ,earth-goddess acted by a priest and his wife4 #adf ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #aia sqq4 #adg ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #adh4 #adh ,the late ,rev4 ,p4 ,dehon1 ,s4,j41 8,religion and ,customs of the ,uraons10 ,memoirs of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 vol4 i4 ,no4 #i 7,calcutta1 #aijf71 pp4 #add-adf4 #adi ,for more evidence see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ig sqq4 ,m#cc ,cinyras beloved by ,aphrodite4 ,pygmalion and ,aphrodite4 ,the ,phoenician kings of ,cyprus or their sons appear to have been hereditary lovers of the goddess4 ,sacred marriage of the kings of ,paphos4 ,sons and daughters1 fathers and mothers of a god4 #aej ,lucian1 ,rhetorum praeceptor1 #aa2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bgj4 #aea ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #cc1 p4 #bi1 ed4 ,potter4 #aeb ,w4 ,h4 ,engel1 ,kypros1 ii4 #ehe1 #fab2 ,a4 ,maury1 ,histoire des ,religions de la ,grce ,antique 7,paris1 #aheg-ahei71 iii4 #aig1 note #c4 #aec ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 vi4 #bb2 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 iv4 #eg1 p4 #ea1 ed4 ,potter2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #bdc-big4 ,the authority for the story is the ,greek history of ,cyprus by ,philostephanus1 cited both by ,arnobius and ,clement4 ,in ,ovid's poetical version of the legend ,pygmalion is a sculptor1 and the image with which he falls in love is that of a lovely woman1 which at his prayer ,venus endows with life4 ,that ,king ,pygmalion was a ,phoenician is mentioned by ,porphyry 7,de abstinentia1 iv4 #ae7 on the authority of ,asclepiades1 a ,cyprian4 #aed ,see above1 p4 #db4 #aee ,probus1 on ,virgil1 ,ecl4 x4 #ah4 ,i owe this reference to my friend ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook4 #aef ,in his treatise on the political institutions of ,cyprus1 ,aristotle reported that the sons and brothers of the kings were called 8lords0 771 and their sisters and wives 8ladies0 774 ,see ,harpocration and ,suidas1 s4v4 4 ,compare ,isocrates1 ix4 #gb2 ,clearchus of ,soli1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 vi4 #fh1 p4 #bef ,a4 ,now in the bilingual inscription of ,idalium1 which furnished the clue to the ,cypriote syllabary1 the ,greek version gives the title as the equivalent of the ,phoenician ,adon 774 ,see ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,semiticarum1 i4 ,no4 #hi2 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 p4 #gd1 note #a4 #aeg ,josephus1 ,contra ,apionem1 i4 #ah1 ed4 ,b4 ,niese2 ,appian1 ,punica1 i2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 i4 #cdf sq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #egd2 ,justin1 xviii4 #d2 ,eustathius on ,dionysius ,periegetes1 #aie 7,geographi ,graeci ,minores1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller ,paris1 #ahhb1 ii4 #bej sq474 #aeh ,pumi-yathon1 son of ,milk-yathon1 is known from ,phoenician inscriptions found at ,idalium4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,nos4 #ab and #ac1 pp4 #ee sq41 #eg sq4 ,coins inscribed with the name of ,king ,pumi-yathon are also in existence4 ,see ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,cyprus 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 xl4 sq41 #ba sq41 pl4 iv4 #bj-bd4 ,he was deposed by ,ptolemy 7,diodorus ,siculus1 xix4 #gi4 #d74 ,most probably he is the ,pymaton of ,citium who purchased the kingdom from a dissolute monarch named ,pasicyprus some time before the conquests of ,alexander 7,athenaeus1 iv4 #fc1 p4 #afg74 ,in this passage of ,athenaeus the name ,pymaton1 which is found in the ,,mss4 and agrees closely with the ,phoenician ,pumi-yathon1 ought not to be changed into ,pygmalion1 as the latest editor 7,g4 ,kaibel7 has done4 #aei ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 op4 cit4 p4 #ee1 note #a4 ,mr4 ,cooke remarks that the form of the name 7 instead of 7 must be due to ,greek influence4 #afj ,see above1 p4 #da4 #afa ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ac1 p4 #ab2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #i2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #aj4 #afb ,that the king was not necessarily succeeded by his eldest son is proved by the case of ,solomon1 who on his accession executed his elder brother ,adoni-jah 7#a ,kings ii4 #bb-bd74 ,similarly1 when ,abimelech became king of ,shechem1 he put his seventy brothers in ruthless oriental fashion to death4 ,see ,judges viii4 #bi-ca1 ix4 #e sq41 #ah4 ,so on his accession ,jehoram1 ,king of ,judah1 put all his brothers to the sword 7#b ,chronicles xxi4 #d74 ,king ,rehoboam had eighty-eight children 7#b ,chronicles xi4 #ba7 and ,king ,abi-jah had thirty-eight 7#b ,chronicles xiii4 #ba74 ,these examples illustrate the possible size of the family of a polygamous king4 #afc ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #afj sqq4 #afd ,the names which imply that a man was the father of a god have proved particularly puzzling to some eminent ,semitic scholars4 ,see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1#b p4 #de1 note #b2 ,th4 ,nldeke1 s4v4 8,names10 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4 #cbhg sqq42 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #ci sq41 #dc sqq4 ,such names are ,abi-baal 78father of ,baal071 ,abi-el 78father of ,el071 ,abi-jah 78father of ,jehovah071 and ,abi-melech 78father of a king0 or 8father of ,moloch074 ,on the hypothesis put forward in the text the father of a god and the son of a god stood precisely on the same footing1 and the same person would often be both one and the other4 ,where the common practice prevailed of naming a father after his son 7,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #cca sqq471 a divine king in later life might often be called 8father of such-and-such a god40 #afe ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #dah sq4 #aff ,a4 ,erman1 ,aegypten und aegyptisches ,leben im ,altertum 7,tbingen1 ,n4,d471 p4 #aac4 #afg ,l4 ,borchardt1 8,der gyptische ,titel #8,vater des ,gottes' als ,bezeichnung fr #8,vater oder ,schwiegervater des ,knigs1' 0 ,berichte ber die ,verhandlungen der ,kniglich ,schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften zu ,leipzig1 ,philolog4-histor4 ,klasse1 lvii4 7#aije7 pp4 #bed-bgj4 ,m#cd ,cinyras1 like ,king ,david1 a harper4 ,the use of music as a means of prophetic inspiration among the ,hebrews4 #afh ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #bdc2 ,stoll1 s4v4 8,kinyras10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #aaia2 #a ,samuel xvi4 #bc4 #afi #a ,chronicles xxv4 #a-c2 compare #b ,samuel vi4 #e4 #agj ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,prophets of ,israel#b 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #cia sq42 ,e4 ,renan1 ,histoire du peuple d',israel 7,paris1 #ahic71 ii4 #bhj4 #aga #a ,samuel x4 #e4 #agb #b ,kings iii4 #d-bd4 ,and for the explanation of the supposed miracle1 see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,old ,testament in the ,jewish ,church#b 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahib71 pp4 #adf sq4 ,i have to thank ,professor ,kennett for the suggestion that the ,moabites took the ruddy light on the water for an omen of blood rather than for actual gore4 ,m#ce ,the influence of music on religion4 #agc #a ,samuel xvi4 #ad-bc4 #agd ,j4 ,h4 ,newman1 ,sermons preached before the ,university of ,oxford1 ,no4 xv4 pp4 #cdf sq4 7third edition74 #age ,it would be interesting to pursue a similar line of inquiry in regard to the other arts4 ,what was the influence of ,phidias on ,greek religion8 ,how much does ,catholicism owe to ,fra ,angelico8 ,m#cf ,the function of string music in ,greek and ,semitic ritual4 #agf ,pindar1 ,pyth4 ii4 #ae sq4 #agg ,on the lyre and the flute in ,greek religion and ,greek thought1 see ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7,oxford1 #ahif-aiji71 iv4 #bdc sqq4 #agh ,pindar1 ,pyth4 i4 #ac sqq4 #agi ,this seems to be the view also of ,dr4 ,farnell1 who rightly connects the musical with the prophetic side of ,apollo's character 7op4 cit4 iv4 #bde74 ,m#cg ,traditions as to the death of ,cinyras4 #ahj ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bdb4 ,so in the version of the story which made ,adonis the son of ,theias1 the father is said to have killed himself when he learned what he had done 7,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #cd74 #aha ,scholiast and ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,iliad1 xi4 #bj4 ,compare ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #bdc sq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,engel1 ,kypros1 ii4 #aji-aaf2 ,stoll1 s4v4 8,kinyras10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #aaia4 #ahb ,anacreon1 cited by ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 vii4 #aed4 ,nonnus also refers to the long life of ,cinyras 7,dionys4 xxxii4 #bab sq474 #ahc ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1#i xiv4 #heh4 ,m#ch ,sacred prostitution of ,western ,asia4 ,m#ci ,theory of its secular origin4 #ahd ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 8,sociological hypotheses concerning the position of women in ancient religion10 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 vii4 7#aijd7 p4 #hh2 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1 ,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #cff sq42 ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,les religions orientales dans le paganisme ,romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4 #cfa sq4 ,a different and1 in my judgment1 a truer view of these customs was formerly taken by ,prof4 ,nilsson4 ,see his ,studia de ,dionysiis ,atticis 7,lund1 #aijj71 pp4 #aai-aba4 ,for a large collection of facts bearing on this subject and a judicious discussion of them1 see ,w4 ,hertz1 8,die ,sage vom ,giftmdchen10 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #aije71 pp4 #aie-bai4 ,my attention was drawn to this last work by ,prof4 ,g4 ,l4 ,hamilton of the ,university of ,michigan after my manuscript had been sent to the printer4 ,with ,hertz's treatment of the subject ,i am in general agreement1 and ,i have derived from his learned treatise several references to authorities which ,i had overlooked4 ,m#dj ,the theory does not account for the religious character of the custom1 #ahe ,above1 p4 #cg4 #ahf ,above1 p4 #ch4 ,prof4 ,nilsson is mistaken in affirming 7op4 cit4 p4 #cfg7 that the ,lydian practice was purely secular3 the inscription which ,i have cited proves the contrary4 ,both he and ,dr4 ,farnell fully recognize the religious aspect of most of these customs in antiquity1 and ,prof4 ,nilsson attempts1 as it seems to me1 unsuccessfully1 to indicate how a practice supposed to be purely secular in origin should have come to contract a religious character4 ,m#da ,nor for the prostitution of married women4 #ahg ,above1 p4 #cg4 #ahh ,above1 pp4 #cf sq41 #ch4 #ahi ,hosea iv4 #ac sq4 ,m#db ,nor for the repeated prostitution of the same women4 #aij ,above1 pp4 #cg sqq4 ,m#dc ,nor for the 8sacred men0 beside the 8sacred women04 #aia ,see above1 pp4 #ag sq4 ,m#dd ,and is irreconcilable with the payment of the women4 #aib ,l4 di ,varthema1 ,travels 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfc71 pp4 #ada1 #bjb-bjd 7,malabar72 ,j4 ,a4 de ,mandlesloe1 in ,j4 ,harris's ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 7,london1 #agdd71 p4 #gfg 7,malabar72 ,richard1 8,history of ,tonquin10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 ix4 #gfj sq4 7,aracan72 ,a4 de ,morga1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,moluccas1 ,siam1 ,cambodia1 ,japan1 and ,china 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfh71 pp4 #cjd sq4 7the ,philippines72 ,j4 ,mallat1 ,les ,philippines 7,paris1 #ahdf71 i4 #fa 7the ,philippines72 ,l4 ,moncelon1 in ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie de ,paris1 #cme ,srie1 ix4 7#ahhf7 p4 #cfh 7,new ,caledonia72 ,h4 ,crawford ,angas1 in ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte1 #ahih1 p4 #dha 7,azimba1 ,central ,africa72 ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #daj 7the ,wa-,yao of ,central ,africa74 ,see further1 ,w4 ,hertz1 8,die ,sage vom ,giftmdchen10 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 pp4 #aih-bjd4 #aic ,herodotus1 i4 #ic2 ,justin1 xviii4 #e4 #d4 ,part of the wages thus earned was probably paid into the local temple4 ,see above1 pp4 #cg1 #ch4 ,however1 according to ,strabo 7xi4 #ad4 #af1 p4 #ecb7 the ,armenian girls of rich families often gave their lovers more than they received from them4 #aid ,this fatal objection to the theory under discussion has been clearly stated by ,w4 ,hertz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bag4 ,i am glad to find myself in agreement with so judicious and learned an inquirer4 ,m#de ,the practice of destroying virginity has sometimes had a religious character4 #aie ,l4 di ,varthema1 ,travels 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfc71 p4 #ada2 ,j4 ,a4 de ,mandlesloe1 in ,j4 ,harris's ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 7,london1 #agdd7 p4 #gfg2 ,a4 ,hamilton1 8,new ,account of the ,east ,indies10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 viii4 #cgd2 ,ch4 ,lassen1 ,indische ,alterthumskunde1 iv4 7,leipsic1 #ahfa71 p4 #djh2 ,a4 de ,herrera1 ,the ,general ,history of the ,vast ,continent and ,islands of ,america1 translated by ,captain ,j4 ,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 iii4 #caj1 #cdj2 ,fr4 ,coreal1 ,voyages aux ,indes ,occidentales 7,amsterdam1 #agbb71 i4 #aj sq41 #aci sq42 ,c4 ,f4 ,ph4 v4 ,martius1 ,beitrge zur ,ethnographie und ,sprachenkunde ,amerika's1 i4 7,leipsic1 #ahfg7 pp4 #aac sq4 ,the first three of these authorities refer to ,malabar2 the fourth refers to ,cambodia2 the last three refer to the ,indians of ,central and ,south ,america4 ,see further ,w4 ,hertz1 8,die ,sage vom ,giftmdchen10 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 pp4 #bjd-bjg4 ,for a criticism of the ,malabar evidence see ,k4 ,schmidt1 ,jus primae noctis 7,freiburg im ,breisgau1 #ahha71 pp4 #cab-cbj4 #aif ,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,institut4 i4 #bj2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 iv4 #g2 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vi4 #i1 vii4 #bd2 ,d4 ,barbosa1 ,description of the ,coasts of ,east ,africa and ,malabar 7,hakluyt ,society1 #ahff71 p4 #if2 ,sonnerat1 ,voyage aux ,indes ,orientales et la ,chine 7,paris1 #aghb71 i4 #fh2 ,f4 ,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde 7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 pp4 #cif sq41 #eaa2 ,w4 ,hertz1 8,die ,sage vom ,giftmdchen10 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 pp4 #bgj-bgb4 ,according to ,arnobius1 it was matrons1 not maidens1 who resorted to the image4 ,this suggests that the custom was a charm to procure offspring4 #aig ,r4 ,schomburgk1 in ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte1 #ahgi1 pp4 #bce sq42 ,miklucho-,maclay1 ibid4 #ahhj1 p4 #hi2 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,studies among the ,north-,west-,central ,queensland ,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig71 pp4 #agd sq41 #ahj2 ,b4 ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #ib-ie2 id41 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #acc-acf4 ,in ,australia the observance of the custom is regularly followed by the exercise of what seem to be old communal rights of the men over the women4 ,m#df ,sacred women in the ,tamil temples of ,southern ,india4 ,such women are sometimes married to the god and possessed by him4 #aih ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ,murs1 ,institutions et ,crmonies des ,peuples de l',inde 7,paris1 #ahbe71 ii4 #cec sqq42 ,j4 ,shortt1 8,the ,bayadre or dancing-girls of ,southern ,india10 ,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 iii4 7#ahfg-fi7 pp4 #ahb-aid2 ,edward ,balfour1 ,cyclopaedia of ,india#c 7,london1 #ahhe71 i4 #ibb sqq42 ,w4 ,francis1 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xv41 ,madras1 ,part ,i4 7,madras1 #aijb7 pp4 #aea sq42 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 pp4 #cf sq41 #dj sq4 ,the office of these sacred women has in recent years been abolished1 on the ground of immorality1 by the native ,government of ,mysore4 ,see ,homeward ,mail1 #fth ,june #aiji 7extract kindly sent me by ,general ,begbie74 #aii ,edgar ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aiji71 iii4 #cg-ci4 ,compare id41 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 pp4 #bi sq4 ,in ,southern ,india the maternal uncle often takes a prominent part in the marriage ceremony to the exclusion of the girl's father4 ,see1 for example1 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india1 ii4 #dig1 iv4 #adg4 ,the custom is derived from the old system of mother-kin1 under which a man's heirs are not his own children but his sister's children4 ,as to this system see below1 ,chapter ,,xii41 8,mother-kin and ,mother ,goddesses40 #bjj ,e4 ,balfour1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ajab4 #bja ,francis ,buchanan1 8,a ,journey from ,madras through the countries of ,mysore1 ,canara1 and ,malabar10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 viii4 7,london1 #ahaa71 p4 #gdi4 ,m#dg ,in ,travancore the dancing-girls are regularly married to the god4 #bjb ,n4 ,subramhanya ,aiyar1 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xxvi41 ,travancore1 ,part i4 7,trivandrum1 #aijc71 pp4 #bgf sq4 ,i have to thank my friend ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke for referring me to this and other passages on the sacred dancing-girls of ,india4 ,m#dh ,among the ,ewe peoples of ,west ,africa the sacred prostitutes are regarded as the wives of the god4 #bjc ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #adj sq4 #bjd ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 p4 #adb4 ,m#di ,the human wives of the python-god4 #bje ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adh sq4 ,compare ,des ,marchais1 ,voyage en ,guine et ,cayenne 7,amsterdam1 #agca71 ii4 #add-aea2 ,p4 ,bouche1 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves 7,paris1 #ahhe71 p4 #abh4 ,the ,abb ,bouche calls these women danws4 #bjf ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 p4 #fj2 ,des ,marchais1 op4 cit4 ii4 #adi sq4 ,m#ej ,supposed connexion between the fertility of the soil and the marriage of women to the serpent4 #bjg ,des ,marchais1 ,voyage en ,guine et ,cayenne 7,amsterdam1 #agca71 ii4 #adf sq4 #bjh ,w4 ,bosman1 8,description of the ,coast of ,guinea10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 xvi4 7,london1 #ahad71 p4 #did4 #bji ,w4 ,bosman1 l4c4 ,the name of ,whydah is spelt by ,bosman as ,fida1 and by ,des ,marchais as ,juda4 ,m#ea ,human wives of a snake-god among the ,akikuyu4 #baj ,,ms4 notes1 kindly sent to me by the author1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 #bast ,may1 #aijh4 ,m#eb ,sacred men as well as women in ,west ,africa3 they are thought to be possessed by the deity4 #baa ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 pp4 #adb-add2 ,le ,r4 ,p4 ,baudin1 8,fticheurs ou ministres religieux des ,ngres de la ,guine10 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 ,no4 #ghg 7#d juillet #ahhd71 p4 #cbb4 #bab ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aej sq4 #bac ,la ,cte des ,esclaves1 pp4 #abg sq4 #bad ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 p4 #adg4 ,m#ec ,similarly among the ,tshi peoples of the ,gold ,coast there are sacred men and women1 who are supposed to be inspired by the deity4 #bae ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast of ,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahhg71 pp4 #abj-ach4 #baf ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 p4 #aba4 #bag ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abj sq41 #abi-ach4 ,the slaves1 male and female1 dedicated to a god from childhood are often mentioned by the ,german missionary ,mr4 ,j4 ,spieth in his elaborate work on the ,ewe people 7,die ,ee-,stmme3 ,material zur ,kunde des ,ee-,volkes in ,deutsch-,togo1 ,berlin1 #aijf1 pp4 #bbh1 #bbi1 #cji1 #dej1 #dgd1 #gib1 #gig1 etc474 ,but his information does not illustrate the principal points to which ,i have called attention in the text4 ,m#ed ,in like manner the sacred prostitutes of ,western ,asia may have been viewed as possessed by the deity and married to the god4 #bah ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #abi-ace4 #bai ,herodotus1 i4 #aha sq4 ,it is not clear whether the same or a different woman slept every night in the temple4 #bbj ,h4 ,winckler1 ,die ,gesetze ,hammurabi#b 7,leipsic1 #aijc71 p4 #ca1 #ahb2 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 ,babylonian and ,assyrian ,laws1 ,contracts1 and ,letters 7,edinburgh1 #aijd71 pp4 #ed1 #ee1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa 7 #acg1 #add1 #ade1 #adf1 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aib1 #aic1 of the ,code of ,hammurabi74 ,as to these female votaries see especially ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 8,notes on the ,code of ,hammurabi10 ,american ,journal of ,semitic ,languages and ,literatures1 xix4 7,january #aijc7 pp4 #ih-ajg4 ,compare ,s4 ,a4 ,cook1 ,the ,laws of ,moses and the ,code of ,hammurabi 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #adg-aej4 #bba ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 8,notes on the ,code of ,hammurabi10 l4c41 where we read 7p4 #ajd7 of a female votary of ,shamash who had a daughter4 #bbb ,code of ,hammurabi1 #aha2 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 8,notes on the ,code of ,hammurabi10 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajj sq42 ,s4 ,a4 ,cook1 op4 cit4 p4 #adh4 ,dr4 ,johns translates the name by 8temple maid0 7,babylonian and ,assyrian ,laws1 ,contracts1 and ,letters1 p4 #fa74 ,he is scrupulously polite to these ladies1 but ,i gather from him that a far less charitable view of their religious vocation is taken by ,father ,scheil1 the first editor and translator of the code4 #bbc ,any man proved to have pointed the finger of scorn at a votary was liable to be branded on the forehead 7,code of ,hammurabi1 #abg74 #bbd ,see above1 pp4 #ff1 #fi4 #bbe ,herodotus1 i4 #ahb4 #bbf ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,herodots ,zweites ,buch 7,leipsic1 #ahij71 pp4 #bfh sq4 ,see further ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #acj sqq4 #bbg ,strabo1 xvii4 #a4 #df1 p4 #haf4 ,the title 8concubines of ,zeus 7,ammon70 is mentioned by ,diodorus ,siculus 7i4 #dg74 #bbh ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #dg4 ,m#ee ,similarly the sacred men 7edeshim7 of ,western ,asia may have been regarded as possessed by the deity and as acting and speaking in his name4 #bbi ,the 1 as the ,greeks called them4 #bcj ,i have to thank the ,rev4 ,professor ,r4 ,h4 ,kennett for this important suggestion as to the true nature of the edeshim4 ,the passages of the ,bible in which mention is made of these men are ,deuteronomy xxiii4 #ag 7in ,hebrew #ah72 #a ,kings xiv4 #bd1 xv4 #ab1 xxii4 #df 7in ,hebrew #dg72 #b ,kings xxiii4 #g2 ,job xxxvi4 #ad 7where edeshim is translated 8the unclean0 in the ,english version74 ,the usual rendering of edeshim in the ,english ,bible is not justified by any of these passages2 but it may perhaps derive support from a reference which ,eusebius makes to the profligate rites observed at ,aphaca 7,vita ,constantini1 iii4 #ee2 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xx4 #aabj72 1 1 4 ,but probably ,eusebius is here speaking of the men who castrated themselves in honour of the goddess1 and thereafter wore female attire4 ,see ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ea2 and below1 pp4 #bfi sq4 #bca ,strabo1 xi4 #d4 #g1 p4 #ejc4 #bcb ,drexler1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 s4v4 8,men10 ii4 #bfhg sqq4 #bcc ,it is true that ,strabo 7l4c47 speaks of the ,albanian deity as a goddess1 but this may be only an accommodation to the usage of the ,greek language1 in which the moon is feminine4 #bcd ,florus1 ,epitoma1 ii4 #g2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,frag4 xxxiv4 #b 7vol4 v4 pp4 #hg sq41 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf1 in the ,teubner series74 ,m#ef ,resemblance of the ,hebrew prophets to the sacred men of ,western ,africa4 #bce ,above1 pp4 #eb sq4 #bcf #a ,kings xix4 #af2 ,isaiah lx4 #a4 #bcg #a ,kings xx4 #da4 ,so in ,africa 8priests and priestesses are readily distinguishable from the rest of the community4 ,they wear their hair long and unkempt1 while other people1 except the women in the towns on the seaboard1 have it cut close to the head4444 ,frequently both appear with white circles painted round their eyes1 or with various white devices1 marks1 or lines painted on the face1 neck1 shoulders1 or arms0 7,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast1 p4 #abc74 8,besides the ordinary tribal tattoo-marks borne by all natives1 the priesthood in ,dahomi bear a variety of such marks1 some very elaborate1 and an expert can tell by the marks on a priest to what god he is vowed1 and what rank he holds in the order4 ,these hierarchical marks consist of lines1 scrolls1 diamonds1 and other patterns1 with sometimes a figure1 such as that of the crocodile or chameleon4 ,the shoulders are frequently seen covered with an infinite number of small marks like dots1 set close together4 ,all these marks are considered sacred1 and the laity are forbidden to touch them0 7,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 p4 #adf74 ,the reason why the prophet's shoulders are especially marked is perhaps given by the statement of a ,zulu that 8the sensitive part with a doctor medicine-man is his shoulders4 ,everything he feels is in the situation of his shoulders4 ,that is the place where black men feel the ,amatongo0 7ancestral spirits74 ,see ,h4 ,callaway1 ,the ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 part ii4 p4 #aei4 ,these ,african analogies suggest that the 8wounds between the arms0 7literally1 8between the hands07 which the prophet ,zechariah mentions 7xiii4 #f7 as the badge of a ,hebrew prophet were marks tattooed on his shoulders in token of his holy office4 ,the suggestion is confirmed by the prophet's own statement 7l4c47 that he had received the wounds in the house of his lovers 7 72 for the same word lovers is repeatedly applied by the prophet ,hosea to the ,baalim 7,hosea1 ii4 #e1 #g1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 verses #g1 #i1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae in ,hebrew74 #bch #a ,samuel ix4 #a-bj4 #bci ,h4 ,callaway1 ,the ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 part iii4 pp4 #cjj sqq4 #bdj ,see above1 pp4 #eb sq4 #bda #a ,samuel ix4 #i4 ,in the ,wiimbaio tribe of ,south-,eastern ,australia a medicine-man used to be called 8mekigar1 from meki1 #8eye' or #8to see1' otherwise #8one who sees1' that is1 sees the causes of maladies in people1 and who could extract them from the sufferer1 usually in the form of quartz crystals0 7,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 ,london1 #aijd1 p4 #chj74 #bdb ,that the prophet's office in ,canaan was developed out of the widespread respect for insanity is duly recognized by ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 p4 #chc4 ,m#eg ,inspired prophets at ,byblus4 #bdc ,w4 ,max ,mller1 in ,mitteilungen der ,vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijj1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ag2 ,a4 ,erman1 8,eine ,reise nach ,phnizien im #aa ,jahrhundert v4 ,chr40 ,zeitschrift fr gyptische ,sprache und ,altertumskunde1 xxxviii4 7#aijj7 pp4 #f sq42 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,les contes populaires de l'gypte ,ancienne1#c p4 #aib2 ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,altgyptische ,sagen und ,mrchen 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #ii sq42 ,h4 ,gressmann1 ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder zum ,alten ,testamente 7,tbingen1 #aiji71 p4 #bbf4 ,scholars differ as to whether ,wen-,ammon's narrative is to be regarded as history or romance2 but even if it were proved to be a fiction1 we might safely assume that the incident of the prophetic frenzy at ,byblus was based upon familiar facts4 ,prof4 ,wiedemann thinks that the god who inspired the page was the ,egyptian ,ammon1 not the ,phoenician ,adonis1 but this view seems to me less probable4 #bdd #a ,samuel ix4 #f-h1 #aj2 #a ,kings xiii4 #a1 #d-h1 #aa1 etc4 #bde #a ,samuel ii4 #bb4 ,totally different from their ,asiatic namesakes were the 8sacred men0 and 8sacred women0 who were charged with the superintendence of the mysteries at ,andania in ,messenia4 ,they were chosen by lot and held office for a year4 ,the sacred women might be either married or single2 the married women had to swear that they had been true to their husbands4 ,see ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum#b 7,leipsic1 #ahih-aija71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dfa sqq41 ,no4 #fec2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques 7,brussels1 #aijj71 pp4 #eif sqq41 ,no4 #fid2 ,leges ,graecorum ,sacrae1 ed4 ,j4 de ,prott1 ,l4 ,ziehen1 ,pars ,altera1 ,fasciculus i4 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 ,no4 #eh1 pp4 #aff sqq4 ,m#eh 8,holy men0 in modern ,syria4 #bdf ,hosea ix4 #g4 #bdg ,jeremiah xxix4 #bf4 #bdh ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day 7,chicago1 ,new ,york1 ,toronto1 #aijb71 pp4 #aej sq4 #bdi ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 op4 cit4 p4 #aeb4 ,as to these 8holy men10 see further ,c4 ,r4 ,conder1 ,tent-work in ,palestine 7,london1 #ahgh71 ii4 #bca sq43 8,the most peculiar class of men in the country is that of the ,derwshes1 or sacred personages1 who wander from village to village1 performing tricks1 living on alms1 and enjoying certain social and domestic privileges1 which very often lead to scandalous scenes4 ,some of these men are mad1 some are fanatics1 but the majority are1 ,i imagine1 rogues4 ,they are reverenced not only by the peasantry1 but also sometimes by the governing class4 ,i have seen the ,kady of ,nazareth ostentatiously preparing food for a miserable and filthy beggar1 who sat in the justice-hall1 and was consulted as if he had been inspired4 ,a ,derwsh of peculiar eminence is often dressed in good clothes1 with a spotless turban1 and is preceded by a banner-bearer1 and followed by a band1 with drum1 cymbal1 and tambourine4444 ,it is natural to reflect whether the social position of the ,prophets among the ,jews may not have resembled that of the ,derwshes40 ,m#ei ,the licence accorded to such 8holy men0 may be explained by the desire of women for offspring4 #bej ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aaf sq4 #bea ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aah1 #aai4 ,in ,india also some ,mohammedan saints are noted as givers of children4 ,thus at ,fatepur-,sikri1 near ,agra1 is the grave of ,salim ,chishti1 and childless women tie rags to the delicate tracery of the tomb1 8thus bringing them into direct communion with the spirit of the holy man0 7,w4 ,crooke1 ,natives of ,northern ,india1 ,london1 #aijg1 p4 #bjc74 ,m#fj ,belief that men and women may be the offspring of a god4 #beb #a ,samuel i4 #bec ,genesis vi4 #a-c4 ,in this passage 8the sons of ,god 7or rather of the gods70 probably means1 in accordance with a common ,hebrew idiom1 no more than 8the gods10 just as the phrase 8sons of the prophets0 means the prophets themselves4 ,for more examples of this idiom1 see ,brown1 ,driver1 and ,briggs1 ,hebrew and ,english ,lexicon1 p4 #aba4 #bed ,for example1 all ,hebrew names ending in -el or -iah are compounds of ,el or ,yahwe1 two names of the divinity4 ,see ,g4 ,b4 ,gray1 ,studies in ,hebrew ,proper ,names 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #adi sqq4 #bee ,brown1 ,driver1 and ,briggs1 ,hebrew and ,english ,lexicon1 p4 #ajbh4 ,but compare ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4 #cbhe1 iv4 #ddeb4 #bef ,a trace of a similar belief perhaps survives in the narratives of ,genesis xxxi4 and ,judges xiii41 where barren women are represented as conceiving children after the visit of ,god1 or of an angel of ,god1 in the likeness of a man4 #beg ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #ddf1 #ddh-dej4 ,m#fa ,the saints in modern ,syria are the equivalents of the ancient ,baal or ,adonis4 ,m#fb ,belief in the physical fatherhood of ,god not confined to ,syria4 ,sons of the serpent-god4 #beh ,for more instances see ,h4 ,usener1 ,das ,weihnachtsfest#b 7,bonn1 #aiaa71 i4 #ga sqq4 #bei ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b vol4 ii4 pp4 #ffb1 #ffc1 ,no4 #hjc1 lines #aag sqq41 #abi sqq4 #bfj ,pausanias1 ii4 #aj4 #c 7with my note71 iii4 #bc4 #g2 ,livy1 xi4 ,epitome2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxix4 #gb2 ,valerius ,maximus1 i4 #h4 #b2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 xv4 #fbf-gdd2 ,aurelius ,victor1 ,de viris illustr4 #bb2 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,rom4 #id4 #bfa ,aristophanes1 ,plutus1 #gcc2 ,pausanias1 ii4 #aa4 #h2 ,herodas1 ,mimiambi1 iv4 #ij sq42 ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b vol4 ii4 p4 #fee1 ,no4 #hjb1 lines #aaf sqq42 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 p4 #hbf1 ,no4 #ajfi4 #bfb ,pausanias1 ii4 #aj4 #c1 iv4 #ad4 #g sq4 #bfc ,pausanias1 ii4 #aj4 #d4 #bfd ,pausanias1 ii4 #aa4 #e-h4 #bfe ,suetonius1 ,divus ,augustus1 #id2 ,dio ,cassius1 xlv4 #a4 #b4 ,tame serpents were kept in a sacred grove of ,apollo in ,epirus4 ,a virgin priestess fed them1 and omens of plenty and health or the opposites were drawn from the way in which the reptiles took their food from her4 ,see ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xi4 #b4 #bff ,pausanias1 iv4 #ad4 #g2 ,livy1 xxvi4 #ai2 ,aulus ,gellius1 vi4 #a2 ,plutarch1 ,alexander1 #b4 ,all these cases have been already cited in this connexion by ,l4 ,deubner1 ,de incubatione 7,leipsic1 #aijj71 p4 #cc note4 #bfg ,aelian1 ,de natura animalium1 vi4 #ag4 ,m#fc ,women fertilized by stone serpents in ,india4 #bfh ,h4 ,v4 ,nanjundayya1 ,the ,ethnographical ,survey of ,mysore1 vi4 ,komati ,caste 7,bangalore1 #aijf71 p4 #bi4 ,m#fd ,belief that the dead come to life in the form of serpents4 #bfi ,t4 ,arbousset et ,f4 ,daumas1 ,voyage d',exploration au ,nord-,est de la ,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esprance 7,paris1 #ahdb71 p4 #bgg2 ,h4 ,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 part ii4 pp4 #adj-add1 #aif-bjj1 #bjh-bab2 ,j4 ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal 7,london1 #aheg71 p4 #afb2 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #bdf2 8,words about ,spirits10 7,south ,african7 ,folk-lore ,journal1 ii4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #aja-ajc2 ,a4 ,kranz1 ,natur- und ,kulturleben der ,zulus 7,wiesbaden1 #ahhj71 p4 #aab2 ,f4 ,speckmann1 ,die ,hermannsburger ,mission in ,afrika 7,hermannsburg1 #ahgf71 pp4 #afe-afg2 ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #he-hg2 ,henri ,a4 ,junod1 ,the ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchatel1 #aiab-aiac71 ii4 #ceh sq4 #bgj ,w4 ,a4 ,elmslie1 ,among the ,wild ,ngoni 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #ga sq4 #bga ,o4 ,baumann1 ,usambara und seine ,nachbargebiete 7,berlin1 #ahia71 pp4 #ada sq4 #bgb ,s4 ,l4 ,hinde and ,h4 ,hinde1 ,the ,last of the ,masai 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 #aja sq42 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai 7,oxford1 #aije71 pp4 #cjg sq42 ,sir ,h4 ,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate 7,london1 #aijd71 ii4 #hcb4 #bgc ,m4 ,w4 ,h4 ,beech1 ,the ,suk 7,oxford1 #aiaa71 p4 #bj4 #bgd ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #ij4 #bge ,h4 ,r4 ,tate1 8,the ,native ,law of the ,southern ,gikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 xxxv4 ,april #aiaj1 p4 #bdc4 #bgf ,e4 de ,pruyssenaere1 ,reisen und ,forschungen im ,gebiete des ,weissen und ,blauen ,nil 7,gotha1 #ahgg71 p4 #bg 7,petermann's ,mittheilungen1 ,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #ej74 ,compare ,g4 ,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of ,africa#c 7,london1 #ahgh71 i4 #ee4 ,among the ,bahima of ,ankole dead chiefs turn into serpents1 but dead kings into lions4 ,see ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,the ,bahima1 a ,cow ,tribe of ,enkole in the ,uganda ,protectorate10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvii4 7#aijg71 pp4 #aja sq42 ,major ,j4 ,a4 ,meldon1 8,notes on the ,bahima of ,ankole10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 xxii4 7,january #aijg71 p4 #aea4 ,major ,leonard holds that the pythons worshipped in ,southern ,nigeria are regarded as reincarnations of the dead2 but this seems very doubtful4 ,see ,a4 ,g4 ,leonard1 ,the ,lower ,niger and its ,tribes 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #cbg sqq4 ,pythons are worshipped by the ,ewe-speaking peoples of the ,slave ,coast1 but apparently not from a belief that the souls of the dead are lodged in them4 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave ,coast of ,west ,africa1 pp4 #ed sqq4 #bgg ,g4 ,a4 ,shaw1 8,the ,betsileo10 ,the ,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1 ,reprint of the ,first ,four ,numbers 7,antananarivo1 #ahhe71 p4 #daa2 ,h4 ,w4 ,little1 ,madagascar1 its ,history and ,people 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #hf sq42 ,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totmisme ,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #bgb sqq4 #bgh 8,religious ,rites and ,customs of the ,iban or ,dyaks of ,sarawak10 by ,leo ,nyuak1 translated from the ,dyak by the ,very ,rev4 ,edm4 ,dunn1 ,anthropos1 i4 7#aijf7 p4 #ahb4 ,as to the ,sea ,dyak reverence for snakes and their belief that spirits 7antus7 are incarnate in the reptiles1 see further ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4 #aj 7,december1 #ahhb71 pp4 #bbb-bbd2 ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo 7,london1 #ahif71 i4 #ahg sq4 ,but from this latter account it does not appear that the spirits 7antus7 which possess the snakes are supposed to be those of human ancestors4 #bgi ,george ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bch sq4 ,m#fe ,serpents which are viewed as ancestors come to life are treated with respect and often fed with milk4 #bhj ,rev4 ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #bdf4 ,compare ,a4 ,kranz1 ,natur- und ,kulturleben der ,zulus 7,wiesbaden1 #ahhj71 p4 #aab4 #bha ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai 7,oxford1 #aije71 p4 #cjg4 #bhb ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #ij4 #bhc ,mervyn ,w4 ,h4 ,beech1 ,the ,suk1 their ,language and ,folklore 7,oxford1 #aiaa71 p4 #bj4 #bhd ,h4 ,r4 ,tate 7,district ,commissioner1 ,east ,africa ,protectorate71 8,the ,native ,law of the ,southern ,gikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa10 ,journal of the ,african ,society1 ,no4 xxxv41 ,april #aiaj1 p4 #bdc4 ,see further ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 8,further ,researches into ,kikuyu and ,kamba ,religious ,beliefs and ,customs10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xli4 7#aiaa7 p4 #djh4 ,according to ,mr4 ,hobley it is only one particular sort of snake1 called nyamuyathi1 which is thought to be the abode of a spirit and is treated with ceremonious respect by the ,akikuyu4 ,compare ,p4 ,cayzac1 8,la ,religion des ,kikuyu10 ,anthropos1 v4 7#aiaj7 p4 #cab2 and for more evidence of milk offered to serpents as embodiments of the dead see ,e4 de ,pruyssenaere and ,h4 ,w4 ,little1 cited above1 p4 #hc1 notes #a and #b4 #bhe ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cbj sq4 ,my friend ,mr4 ,roscoe tells me that serpents are revered and fed with milk by the ,banyoro to the north of ,uganda2 but he cannot say whether the creatures are supposed to be incarnations of the dead4 ,some of the ,gallas also regard serpents as sacred and offer milk to them1 but it is not said that they believe the reptiles to embody the souls of the departed4 ,see ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,krapf1 ,travels1 ,researches and ,missionary ,labours in ,eastern ,africa 7,london1 #ahfj71 pp4 #gg sq4 ,the negroes of ,whydah in ,guinea likewise feed with milk the serpents which they worship4 ,see ,thomas ,astley's ,new ,general ,collection of ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4 7,london1 #agdf7 p4 #bi4 ,m#ff ,the ,greeks and ,romans seem to have shared the belief that the souls of the dead can be reincarnated in serpents4 #bhf ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie#c 7,berlin1 #ahha-ahhc71 ii4 #aif sq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer#b 7,munich1 #aiab71 pp4 #agf sq4 ,the worship of the genius was very popular in the ,roman ,empire4 ,see ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ,premire ,partie1 i4 7,paris1 #aijg7 pp4 #dci sqq4 #bhg ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxix4 #gb4 ,compare ,seneca1 ,de ,ira1 iv4 #ca4 #f4 #bhh ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #e4 #d2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #f2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 iv4 #efc-fjc4 #bhi ,plutarch1 ,cleomenes1 #ci4 #bij ,porphyry1 ,de vita ,plotini1 p4 #ajc1 ,didot edition 7appended to the lives of ,diogenes ,laertius74 #bia ,plutarch1 ,cleomenes1 #ci2 ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,plutus1 #gcc4 #bib ,herodotus1 viii4 #da2 ,plutarch1 ,themistocles1 #aj2 ,aristophanes1 ,lysistra1 #geh sq41 with the ,scholium2 ,philostratus1 ,imag4 ii4 #ag4 #f4 ,see further my note on ,pausanias1 i1 #ah1 #b 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #afh sqq474 #bic ,sophocles1 ,electra1 #hic sqq42 ,euripides1 ,orestes1 #aab sqq4 #bid ,mittheilungen des ,deutsch4 ,archo log4 ,institutes in ,athen1 iv4 7#ahgi7 pl4 viii4 ,compare ib4 pp4 #ace sq41 #afb sq4 #bie ,above1 pp4 #hd sq4 #bif ,e4 de ,pruyssenaere1 l4c4 7above1 p4 #hc1 note #a74 #big ,see ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,denkmler der alten ,kunst#b 7,gttingen1 #ahed71 pl4 lxi4 with the corresponding text in vol4 i4 7where the eccentric system of paging adopted renders references to it practically useless74 ,in these groups the female figure is commonly1 and perhaps correctly1 interpreted as the ,goddess of ,health 7,hygieia74 ,it is to be remembered that ,hygieia was deemed a daughter of the serpent-god ,aesculapius 7,pausanias i4 #bc4 #d71 and was constantly associated with him in ritual and art4 ,see1 for example1 ,pausanias1 i4 #dj4 #f1 ii4 #d4 #e1 ii4 #aa4 #f1 ii4 #bc4 #d1 ii4 #bg4 #f1 iii4 #bb4 #ac1 v4 #bj4 #c1 v4 #bf4 #b1 vii4 #bc4 #g1 viii4 #bh4 #a1 viii4 #ca4 #a1 viii4 #cb4 #d1 viii4 #dg4 #a4 ,the snake-entwined goddess whose image was found in a prehistoric shrine at ,gournia in ,crete may have been a predecessor of the serpent-feeding ,hygieia4 ,see ,r4 ,m4 ,burrows1 ,the ,discoveries in ,crete 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #acg sq4 ,the snakes1 which were the regular symbol of the ,furies1 may have been originally nothing but the emblems or rather embodiments of the dead2 and the ,furies themselves may1 like ,aesculapius1 have been developed out of the reptiles1 sloughing off their serpent skins through the anthropomorphic tendency of ,greek thought4 ,m#fg ,the serpents fed at the ,thesmophoria may have been deemed incarnations of the dead4 ,reluctance to disturb the ,earth ,goddess or the spirits of the earth by the operations of digging and ploughing4 ,hence agricultural operations are sometimes forbidden4 #bih ,scholia on ,lucian1 ,dial4 ,meretr4 ii4 7,scholia in ,lucianum1 ed4 ,h4 ,rabe1 ,leipsic1 #aijf1 pp4 #bge sq474 ,as to the ,thesmophoria1 see my article1 8,thesmophoria10 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1#i xxiii4 #bie sqq42 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #ag sqq4 #bii ,a4 ,s4 ,gatschet1 ,the ,klamath ,indians of ,south-,western ,oregon 7,washington1 #ahij71 p4 xcii4 #cjj ,washington ,matthews1 8,myths of ,gestation and ,parturition10 ,american ,anthropologist1 ,new ,series1 iv4 7,new ,york1 #aijb7 p4 #gch4 #cja ,central ,provinces1 ,ethnographic ,survey1 iii4 ,draft ,articles on ,forest ,tribes 7,allahabad1 #aijg71 p4 #bc4 #cjb ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china1 v4 7,leyden1 #aijg7 pp4 #ecf sq4 #cjc ,w4 ,crooke1 ,natives of ,northern ,india 7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #bcb4 #cjd ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 p4 #gif4 #cje ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 pp4 #bde sq4 ,m#fh ,graves as places of conception for women4 #cjf ,persons initiated into the mysteries of ,sabazius had a serpent drawn through the bosom of their robes1 and the reptile was identified with the god 7 1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #af1 p4 #ad1 ed4 ,potter74 ,this may be a trace of the belief that women can be impregnated by serpents1 though it does not appear that the ceremony was performed only on women4 #cjg ,see above1 p4 #gh4 ,among the ,south ,slavs women go to graves to get children4 ,see below1 p4 #if4 #cjh ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day1 pp4 #aae sqq4 #cji ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,het ,animisme in den ,indischen ,archipel 7,the ,hague1 #aijf71 ,p4 #cih4 ,m#fi ,reincarnation of the dead in ,america and ,africa4 #caj ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #acj 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1 #aheh74 ,a similar custom was practised for a similar reason by the ,musquakie ,indians4 ,see ,miss ,mary ,alicia ,owen1 ,folk-lore of the ,musquakie ,indians of ,north ,america 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bb sq41 #hf4 ,some of the instances here given have been already cited by ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,king1 who suggests1 with much probability1 that the special modes of burial adopted for infants in various parts of the world may often have been intended to ensure their rebirth4 ,see ,j4 ,e4 ,king1 8,infant ,burial10 ,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #hc sq4 ,for a large collection of evidence as to the belief in the reincarnation of the dead1 see ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland1 ,primitive ,paternity 7,london1 #aiji-aiaj71 i4 #aef sqq4 #caa ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #dgh4 #cab ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,weeks1 8,notes on some ,customs of the ,lower ,congo ,people10 ,folk-lore1 xix4 7#aijh7 p4 #dbb4 #cac ,th4 ,masui1 ,guide de la ,section de l'tat ,indpendant du ,congo l',exposition de ,bruxelles-,tervueren en #ahig 7,brussels1 #ahig71 pp4 #aac sq4 #cad ,j4 ,b4 ,purvis1 ,through ,uganda to ,mount ,elgon 7,london1 #aiji71 pp4 #cjb sq4 ,as to the ,bagishu or ,bageshu and their practice of throwing out the dead1 see ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,notes on the ,bageshu10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4 7#aiji7 pp4 #aha sqq4 ,m#gj ,measures taken to prevent the rebirth of undesirable spirits4 ,belief of the ,baganda that a woman can be impregnated by the flower of the banana4 #cae ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #df sq4 ,women adopted a like precaution at the grave of twins to prevent the ghosts of the twins from entering into them and being born again 7id41 pp4 #abd sq474 ,the ,baganda always strangled children that were born feet first and buried their bodies at cross-roads4 ,the heaps of sticks or grass thrown on these graves by passing women and girls rose in time into mounds large enough to deflect the path and to attract the notice of travellers4 ,see ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abf sq41 #bhi4 #caf ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abf sq4 ,in the ,senegal and ,niger region of ,western ,africa it is said to be commonly believed by women that they can conceive without any carnal knowledge of a man4 ,see ,maurice ,delafosse1 ,haut-,sngal-,niger1 ,le ,pays1 les ,peuples1 les ,langues1 l',histoire1 les ,civilisations 7,paris1 #aiab71 iii4 #aga4 #cag ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda1 pp4 #dg sq42 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #ejf sq4 ,as to the custom of depositing the afterbirths of children at the foot of banana 7plantain7 trees1 see ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eb1 #ed sq4 ,m#ga ,reincarnation of the dead in ,india4 ,means taken to facilitate the rebirth of dead children4 #cah ,w4 ,crooke1 ,natives of ,northern ,india 7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #bjb4 ,as to the ,hindoo custom of burying infants but burning older persons1 see ,the ,belief in ,immortality and the ,worship of the ,dead1 i4 #afb sq4 #cai ,census of ,india1 #aiaa1 vol4 xiv4 ,punjab1 ,part i41 ,report1 by ,pandit ,harikishan ,kaul 7,lahore1 #aiab71 p4 #bii4 #cbj ,e4 ,m4 ,gordon1 ,indian ,folk ,tales 7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #di4 ,other explanations of the custom are reported by the writer1 but the original motive was probably a desire to secure the reincarnation of the dead child in the mother4 #cba ,e4 ,m4 ,gordon1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ej sq4 #cbb ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 p4 #aee2 id41 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aiji71 iv4 #eb4 #cbc ,w4 ,crooke1 ,natives of ,northern ,india1 p4 #bjb2 ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xvii4 ,punjab1 ,part i41 ,report1 by ,h4 ,a4 ,rose 7,simla1 #aijb71 pp4 #bac sq4 ,m#gb ,bringing back the soul of the dead in a fish or insect4 ,stories of the ,virgin ,birth4 ,reincarnation of the dead among the ,south ,slavs4 #cbd ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xiii4 ,central ,provinces1 ,part i41 ,report1 by ,r4 ,v4 ,russell 7,nagpur1 #aijb71 p4 #ic4 #cbe ,for stories of such virgin births see ,comte ,h4 de ,charency1 ,le folklore dans les deux ,mondes 7,paris1 #ahid71 pp4 #aba-bef2 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahid7 pp4 #ga sqq42 and my note on ,pausanias vii4 #ag4 #aa 7vol4 iv4 pp4 #ach-adj74 ,to the instances there cited by me add3 ,a4 ,thevet1 ,cosmographie ,universelle 7,paris1 #aege71 ii4 #iah wrongly numbered #ieb2 ,k4 von den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens 7,berlin1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cgj1 #cgc2 ,h4 ,a4 ,coudreau1 ,la ,france ,equinoxiale1 ii4 7,paris1 #ahhg7 pp4 #ahd sq42 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcg1 pp4 #abc sq4 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1 #aheh72 ,franz ,boas1 ,indianische ,sagen von der ,nord-,pacifischen ,kste ,amerikas 7,berlin1 #ahie71 pp4 #caa sq42 ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1 ,au pays de l',ours ,noir 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahig71 p4 #aec2 ,a4 ,raffray1 8,voyage la cte nord de la ,nouvelle ,guine10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ,v,ie ,srie1 xv4 7#ahgh7 pp4 #cib sq42 ,j4 ,l4 van der ,toorn1 8,het animisme bij den ,minangkabauer der ,padangsche ,bovenlanden10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xxxix4 7#ahij7 p4 #gh2 ,e4 ,aymonier1 8,les ,tchames et leurs religions10 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 xxiv4 7#aija7 pp4 #bae sq42 ,major ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 p4 #aie4 ,in some stories the conception is brought about not by eating food but by drinking water4 ,but the principle is the same4 #cbf ,f4 ,s4 ,krauss1 ,sitte und ,brauch der ,sd-,slaven 7,vienna1 #ahhe71 p4 #eca4 ,m#gc ,belief of the ,kai that women may be impregnated without sexual intercourse4 ,belief in the island of ,mota that a woman can conceive through the entrance into her of a spirit animal or fruit4 #cbg ,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus dem ,leben der ,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4 #bf4 ,m#gd ,similar belief in the island of ,motlav4 #cbh ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 8,totemism in ,polynesia and ,melanesia10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4 7#aiji7 pp4 #agc-age4 ,compare ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ii4 #hi sqq4 ,as to this ,melanesian belief that animals can enter into women and be born from them as human children with animal characteristics1 ,dr4 ,rivers observes 7p4 #agd73 8,it was clear that this belief was not accompanied by any ignorance of the physical rle of the human father1 and that the father played the same part in conception as in cases of birth unaccompanied by an animal appearance4 ,we found it impossible to get definitely the belief as to the nature of the influence exerted by the animal on the woman1 but it must be remembered that any belief of this kind can hardly have escaped the many years of ,european influence and ,christian teaching which the people of this group have received4 ,it is doubtful whether even a prolonged investigation of this point could now elicit the original belief of the people about the nature of the influence40 ,to me it seems that the belief described by ,dr4 ,rivers in the text is incompatible with the recognition of human fatherhood as a necessary condition for the birth of children1 and that though the people may now recognize that necessity1 perhaps as a result of intercourse with ,europeans1 they certainly cannot have recognized it at the time when the belief in question originated4 ,m#ge ,australian beliefs as to the birth of children4 ,reincarnation of the dead in ,central ,australia4 #cbi ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #ccj1 compare id4 ibid4 pp4 xi1 #ade1 #adg-aea1 #aee sq41 #afa sq41 #afi sq41 #agc sq41 #agd-agf1 #fjf2 id41 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #eb1 #abc-abe1 #abf1 #acb sq41 #bfe1 #cce-cch4 #ccj ,b4 ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #afb1 #ccj sq4 #cca ,b4 ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 pp4 #ccg sq4 ,m#gf ,reincarnation of the dead in ,northern ,australia4 #ccb ,w4 ,baldwin ,spencer1 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,certain ,native ,tribes of the ,northern ,territory 7,melbourne1 #aiab71 p4 #f3 8,the two fundamental beliefs of reincarnation and of children not being of necessity the result of sexual intercourse1 are firmly held by the tribes in their normal wild state4 ,there is no doubt whatever of this1 and we now know that these two beliefs extend through all the tribes northwards to ,katherine ,creek and eastwards to the ,gulf of ,carpentaria40 ,in a letter 7dated ,melbourne1 ,july #bgth1 #aiac7 ,professor ,baldwin ,spencer writes to me that the natives on the ,alligator ,river in the ,northern ,territory 8have detailed traditions--as also have all the tribes--of how great ancestors wandered over the country leaving numbers of spirit children behind them who have been reincarnated time after time4 ,they know who everyone is a reincarnation of1 as the names are perpetuated40 #ccc ,w4 ,baldwin ,spencer1 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,certain ,native ,tribes of the ,northern ,territory 7,melbourne1 #aiab71 pp4 #da-de4 ,m#gg ,theories as to the birth of children among the tribes of ,queensland4 #ccd ,walter ,e4 ,roth1 ,north ,queensland ,ethnography1 ,bulletin ,no4 #e1 ,superstition1 ,magic1 and ,medicine 7,brisbane1 #aijc71 pp4 #bb1 #ha4 #cce ,walter ,e4 ,roth1 op4 cit4 p4 #bc1 #hb4 #ccf ,walter ,e4 ,roth1 op4 cit4 p4 #bc1 #hc4 ,mr4 ,roth adds1 very justly3 8,when it is remembered that as a rule in all these ,northern tribes1 a little girl may be given to and will live with her spouse as wife long before she reaches the stage of puberty--the relationship of which to fecundity is not recognised--the idea of conception not being necessarily due to sexual connection becomes partly intelligible40 #ccg ,the ,bishop of ,north ,queensland 7,dr4 ,frodsham7 in a letter to me1 dated ,bishop's ,lodge1 ,townsville1 ,queensland1 ,july #ith1 #aiji4 ,the ,bishop's authority for the statement is the ,rev4 ,c4 ,w4 ,morrison1 ,m4,a41 acting head of the ,yarrubah ,mission4 ,in the same letter ,dr4 ,frodsham1 speaking from personal observation1 refers to 8the belief1 practically universal among the northern tribes1 that copulation is not the cause of conception40 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 8,beliefs and ,customs of the ,australian ,aborigines10 ,folk-lore1 xx4 7#aiji7 pp4 #cej-ceb2 ,man1 ix4 7#aiji7 pp4 #ade-adg2 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #egg sq4 ,m#gh ,theories as to the birth of children in ,northern and ,western ,australia4 ,belief that conception in women is caused by the food they eat4 #cch ,herbert ,basedow1 ,anthropological ,notes on the ,western ,coastal ,tribes of the ,northern ,territory of ,south ,australia1 pp4 #d sq4 7separate reprint from the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,south ,australia1 vol4 xxxi4 #aijg74 ,m#gi ,conception supposed to be caused by a man who is not the father4 #cci ,a4 ,r4 ,brown1 8,beliefs concerning ,childbirth in some ,australian ,tribes10 ,man1 xii4 7#aiab7 pp4 #ahj sq4 ,compare id41 8,three ,tribes of ,western ,australia10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xliii4 7#aiac7 p4 #afh4 ,m#hj ,some rude races still ignorant as to the cause of procreation4 #cdj ,those who desire to pursue this subject further may consult with advantage ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland's learned treatise ,primitive ,paternity 7,london1 #aiji-aiaj71 which contains an ample collection of facts and a careful discussion of them4 ,elsewhere ,i have argued that the primitive ignorance of paternity furnishes the key to the origin of totemism4 ,see ,totemism and ,exogamy1 i4 #aee sqq41 iv4 #dj sqq4 ,m#ha ,legends of virgin mothers4 ,m#hb ,procreative virtue apparently ascribed to the sacred stocks and stones at ,semitic sanctuaries4 #cda ,jeremiah ii4 #bg4 ,the ancient ,greeks seem also to have had a notion that men were sprung from trees or rocks4 ,see ,homer1 ,od4 xix4 #afc2 ,f4 ,g4 ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre 7,gttingen1 #aheg-ahfb71 i4 #ggg sqq42 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,oak and ,rock10 ,classical ,review1 xv4 7#aija7 pp4 #cbb sqq4 #cdb ,the ashera and the masseba4 ,see #a ,kings xiv4 #bc2 #b ,kings xviii4 #d1 xxiii4 #ad2 ,micah v4 #ac sq4 7in ,hebrew1 #ab sq472 ,deuteronomy xvi4 #ba sq42 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #ahg sqq41 #bjc sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 svv41 8,asherah0 and 8,massebah40 ,in the early religion of ,crete also the two principal objects of worship seem to have been a sacred tree and a sacred pillar4 ,see ,a4 ,j4 ,evans1 8,mycenaean ,tree and ,pillar ,cult10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xxi4 7#aija7 pp4 #ii sqq4 #cdc ,as to conical images of ,semitic goddesses1 see above1 pp4 #cd sqq4 ,the sacred pole 7asherah7 appears also to have been by some people regarded as the embodiment of a goddess 7,astarte71 not of a god4 ,see above1 p4 #ah1 note #b4 ,among the ,khasis of ,assam the sacred upright stones1 which resemble the ,semitic masseboth1 are regarded as males1 and the flat table-stones as female4 ,see ,p4 ,r4 ,t4 ,gurdon1 ,the ,khasis 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #aab sq41 #aej sqq4 ,so in ,nikunau1 one of the ,gilbert ,islands in the ,south ,pacific1 the natives had sandstone slabs or pillars which represented gods and goddesses4 8,if the stone slab represented a goddess it was not placed erect1 but laid down on the ground4 ,being a lady they thought it would be cruel to make her stand so long40 ,see ,g4 ,turner1 ,,ll4,d41 ,samoa 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #bif4 ,m#hc ,these conclusions confirmed by the excavation of a sanctuary at the ,canaanitish city of ,gezer4 ,the infants buried in the sanctuary may have been expected to be born again4 #cdd ,see above1 pp4 #ia sqq4 #cde ,as to the excavations at ,gezer1 see ,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister1 ,reports on the ,excavation of ,gezer 7,london1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #gf-hi 7reprinted from the ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund72 id41 ,bible ,side-lights from the ,mound of ,gezer 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #eg-fg1 #gc-ge4 ,professor ,macalister now inclines to regard the socketed stone as a laver rather than as the base of the sacred pole4 ,he supposes that the buried infants were first-born children sacrificed in accordance with the ancient law of the dedication of the first-born4 ,the explanation which ,i have adopted in the text agrees better with the uninjured state of the bodies1 and it is further confirmed by the result of the ,austrian excavations at ,tell ,ta'annek 7,taanach7 in ,palestine1 which seem to prove that there children up to the age of two years were not buried in the family graves but interred separately in jars4 ,some of these sepulchral jars were deposited under or beside the houses1 but many were grouped round a rock-hewn altar in a different part of the hill4 ,there is nothing to indicate that any of the children were sacrificed3 the size of some of the skeletons precludes the idea that they were slain at birth4 ,probably they all died natural deaths1 and the custom of burying them in or near the house or beside an altar was intended to ensure their rebirth in the family4 ,see ,dr4 ,e4 ,sellin1 8,tell ,ta'annek10 ,denkschriften der ,kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosophisch-historische ,klasse1 l4 7,vienna1 #aijd71 ,no4 iv4 pp4 #cb-cg1 #if sq4 ,compare ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #ei n4#c4 ,i have to thank ,professor ,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister for kindly directing my attention to the excavations at ,tell ,ta'annek 7,taanach74 ,it deserves to be mentioned that in an enclosure close to the standing stones at ,gezer1 there was found a bronze model of a cobra 7,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister1 ,bible ,side-lights1 p4 #gf74 ,perhaps the reptile was the deity of the shrine1 or an embodiment of an ancestral spirit4 ,m#hd ,semitic custom of sacrificing a member of the royal family4 ,the burning of ,melcarth at ,tyre4 ,festival of 8the awakening of ,hercules0 at ,tyre4 #cdf ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aff sqq4 ,see ,note ,i41 8,moloch the ,king10 at the end of this volume4 #cdg ,philo of ,byblus1 quoted by ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 i4 #aj4 #bi sq42 #b ,kings iii4 #bg4 #cdh ,see above1 p4 #ae4 #cdi ,philo of ,byblus1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 pp4 #efi1 #egj1 #ega4 ,see above1 p4 #ac4 #cej ,see above1 p4 #af4 #cea ,sophocles1 ,trachiniae1 #aaia sqq42 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 ii4 #g4 #g2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #ch2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #cf4 #ceb ,s4 ,clementis ,romani1 ,recognitiones1 x4 #bd1 p4 #bcc1 ed4 ,e4 ,g4 ,gersdorf 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 i4 #adcd74 #cec ,josephus1 ,antiquit4 ,jud4 viii4 #e4 #c1 ,contra ,apionem1 i4 #ah4 ,whether the quadriennial festival of ,hercules at ,tyre 7#b ,maccabees iv4 #ah-bj7 was a different celebration1 or only 8the awakening of ,melcarth10 celebrated with unusual pomp once in four years1 we do not know4 #ced ,eudoxus of ,cnidus1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 ix4 #dg1 p4 #cib ,d1 ,e4 ,that the death and resurrection of ,melcarth were celebrated in an annual festival at ,tyre has been recognised by scholars4 ,see ,raoul-,rochette1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 pp4 #be sqq42 ,h4 ,hubert et ,m4 ,mauss1 8,essai sur le sacrifice10 ,l',anne ,sociologique1 ii4 7#ahii7 pp4 #abb1 #abd2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques1#b pp4 #cjh-caa4 ,iolaus is identified by some modern scholars with ,eshmun1 a ,phoenician and ,carthaginian deity about whom little is known4 ,see ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 7,bonn1 #ahda7 pp4 #ecf sqq42 ,f4 ,baethgen1 ,beitrge zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 pp4 #dd sqq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum 7,gotha1 #ahif-aijc71 i4 #bfh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #bhb sqq4 #cee ,zenobius1 ,centur4 v4 #ef 7,paroemiographi ,graeci1 ed4 ,e4 ,l4 ,leutsch et ,f4 ,g4 ,schneidewin1 ,gttingen1 #ahci-ahea1 vol4 i4 p4 #adc74 #cef ,quails were perhaps burnt in honour of the ,cilician ,hercules or ,sandan at ,tarsus4 ,see below1 p4 #abf1 note #b4 #ceg ,alfred ,newton1 ,dictionary of ,birds 7,london1 #ahic-if71 p4 #gee4 #ceh ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,fauna and ,flora of ,palestine 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #abd4 ,for more evidence as to the migration of quails see ,aug4 ,dillmann's commentary on ,exodus xvi4 #ac1 pp4 #afi sqq4 7,leipsic1 #ahhj74 #cei ,the ,tyrian ,hercules was said to be a son of ,zeus and ,asteria 7,eudoxus of ,cnidus1 quoted by ,athenaeus1 ix4 #dg1 p4 #cib ,d2 ,cicero1 ,de natura deorum1 iii4 #af4 #db74 ,as to the transformation of ,asteria into a quail see ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #d4 #a2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #dja2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #ec2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iii4 #gc4 ,the name ,asteria may be a ,greek form of ,astarte4 ,see ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #cjg4 #cfj ,quintus ,curtius1 iv4 #b4 #aj2 ,arrian1 ,anabasis1 ii4 #bd4 #e4 ,m#he ,worship of ,melcarth at ,gades1 and trace of a custom of burning him there in effigy4 #cfa ,strabo1 iii4 #e4 #e1 pp4 #afi sq42 ,mela1 iii4 #df2 ,scymnus ,chius1 ,orbis ,descriptio1 #aei-afa 7,geographi ,graeci ,minores1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 i4 #bjj sq474 #cfb ,silius ,italicus1 iii4 #ad-cb2 ,mela1 iii4 #df2 ,strabo1 iii4 #e4 #c1 #e1 #g1 pp4 #afi1 #agj1 #agb2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #bj4 #b2 ,philostratus1 ,vita ,apollonii1 v4 #d sq42 ,appian1 ,hispanica1 #fe4 ,compare ,arrian1 ,anabasis1 ii4 #af4 #d4 ,that the bones of ,hercules were buried at ,gades is mentioned by ,mela 7l4c474 ,compare ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 i4 #cf4 ,in ,italy women were not allowed to participate in sacrifices offered to ,hercules 7,aulus ,gellius1 xi4 #f4 #b2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ab4 #bh2 ,sextus ,aurelius ,victor1 ,de origine gentis ,romanae1 vi4 #f2 ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones ,romanae1 #fj74 ,whether the priests of ,melcarth at ,gades were celibate1 or had only to observe continence at certain seasons1 does not appear4 ,at ,tyre the priest of ,melcarth might be married 7,justin1 xviii4 #d4 #e74 ,the worship of ,melcarth under the name of ,hercules continued to flourish in the south of ,spain down to the time of the ,roman ,empire4 ,see ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ,premire ,partie1 i4 7,paris1 #aijg7 pp4 #djj sqq4 #cfc ,livy1 xxi4 #ba4 #i1 #bb4 #e-i2 ,cicero1 ,de ,divinatione1 i4 #bd4 #di2 ,silius ,italicus1 iii4 #a sqq41 #aeh sqq4 #cfd ,pausanias1 x4 #d4 #e4 #cfe ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #fgd2 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-,book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 p4 #cea4 #cff ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer and ,p4 ,gardner1 ,numismatic ,commentary on ,pausanias1 pp4 #aj-ab1 with pl4 ,a2 ,stoll1 s4v4 8,melikertes10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #bfcd4 ,m#hf ,evidence of a custom of burning a god or goddess at ,carthage4 ,the fire-walk at ,tyre4 ,the fire-walk at ,castabala4 ,the ,carthaginian king ,hamilcar sacrifices himself in the fire4 #cfg ,justin1 xviii4 #f4 #a-g2 ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #dgc sqq41 v4 i4 sqq42 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iii4 #ede sqq42 ,timaeus1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 i4 #aig4 ,compare ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #cgc sqq4 ,the name of ,dido has been plausibly derived by ,gesenius1 ,movers1 ,e4 ,meyer1 and ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce from the ,semitic dd1 8beloved40 ,see ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #faf2 ,meltzer1 s4v4 8,dido10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #ajag sq42 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians 7,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhg71 pp4 #ef sqq4 ,if they are right1 the divine character of ,dido becomes more probable than ever1 since 8the ,beloved0 7,dodah7 seems to have been a title of a ,semitic goddess1 perhaps ,astarte4 ,see above1 p4 #bj1 note #b4 ,according to ,varro it was not ,dido but her sister ,anna who slew herself on a pyre for love of ,aeneas 7,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 iv4 #fhb74 #cfh ,justin1 xviii4 #f4 #h4 #cfi ,silius ,italicus1 i4 #ha sqq4 #cgj ,see above1 pp4 #af1 #aaj sqq4 #cga ,ezekiel xxviii4 #ad1 compare #af4 #cgb ,balder the ,beautiful1 ii4 #a sqq4 ,but1 as ,i have there pointed out1 there are grounds for thinking that the custom of walking over fire is not a substitute for human sacrifice1 but merely a stringent form of purification4 ,on fire as a purificatory agent see below1 pp4 #agi sqq41 #ahh sq4 #cgc ,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #g1 p4 #ecg4 ,in ,greece itself accused persons used to prove their innocence by walking through fire 7,sophocles1 ,antigone1 #bfd sq41 with ,jebb's note74 ,possibly the fire-walk of the priestesses at ,castabala was designed to test their chastity4 ,for this purpose the priests and priestesses of the ,tshi-speaking people of the ,gold ,coast submit to an ordeal1 standing one by one in a narrow circle of fire4 ,this 8is supposed to show whether they have remained pure1 and refrained from sexual intercourse1 during the period of retirement1 and so are worthy of inspiration by the gods4 ,if they are pure they will receive no injury and suffer no pain from the fire0 7,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast1 ,london1 #ahhg1 p4 #ach74 ,these cases favour the purificatory explanation of the fire-walk4 #cgd ,euripides1 ,iphigenia in ,tauris1 #fba-fbf4 ,compare ,diodorus ,siculus1 xx4 #ad4 #f4 #cge ,herodotus1 vii4 #afg4 ,this was the ,carthaginian version of the story4 ,according to another account1 ,hamilcar was killed by the ,greek cavalry 7,diodorus ,siculus1 xi4 #bb4 #a74 ,his worship at ,carthage is mentioned by ,athenagoras 7,supplicatio pro ,christianis1 p4 #fd1 ed4 ,j4 ,c4 ,t4 ,otto1 ,jena1 #aheg47 ,i have called ,hamilcar a king in accordance with the usage of ,greek writers 7,herodotus1 vii4 #afe sq42 ,aristotle1 ,politics1 ii4 #aa2 ,polybius1 vi4 #ea2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 xiv4 #ed4 #e74 ,but the suffetes1 or supreme magistrates1 of ,carthage were two in number2 whether they were elected for a year or for life seems to be doubtful4 ,cornelius ,nepos1 who calls them kings1 says that they were elected annually 7,hannibal1 vii4 #d71 and ,livy 7xxx4 #g4 #e7 compares them to the consuls2 but ,cicero 7,de re publica1 ii4 #bc4 #db sq47 seems to imply that they held office for life4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 pp4 #aae sq4 ,m#hg ,the death of ,hercules a ,greek version of the burning of ,melcarth4 #cgf ,lucian1 ,amores1 #a and #ed4 ,m#hh ,the ,tyrian ,melcarth in ,cyprus4 ,the lion-slaying god4 #cgg ,see above1 p4 #cb4 #cgh ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,nos4 #bc and #bi1 ,,pp4 #gc1 #hc sq41 with the notes on pp4 #ha1 #hd4 #cgi ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iii4 #eff-egh4 ,the colossal statue found at ,amathus may be related1 directly or indirectly1 to the ,egyptian god ,bes1 who is represented as a sturdy misshapen dwarf1 wearing round his body the skin of a beast of the panther tribe1 with its tail hanging down4 ,see ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,gods of the ,egyptians 7,london1 #aijd71 ii4 #bhd sqq42 ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,religion of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahig71 pp4 #aei sqq42 ,a4 ,furtwngler1 s4v4 8,herakles10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #badc sq4 #chj ,however1 human victims were burned at ,salamis in ,cyprus4 ,see below1 p4 #ade4 ,m#hi ,the ,baal of ,tarsus1 an ,oriental god of corn and grapes4 #cha ,see above1 p4 #da4 #chb ,for traces of ,phoenician influence in ,cilicia see ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 ii4 #b1 pp4 #afg-agd1 #bjg sqq4 ,herodotus says 7vii4 #ia7 that the ,cilicians were named after ,cilix1 a son of the ,phoenician ,agenor4 #chc ,as to the fertility and the climate of the plain of ,tarsus1 which is now very malarious1 see ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 ,life in ,asiatic ,turkey 7,london1 #ahgi71 chaps4 i4-vii4 ,the gardens for miles round the city are very lovely1 but wild and neglected1 full of magnificent trees1 especially fine oak1 ash1 orange1 and lemon-trees4 ,the vines run to the top of the highest branches1 and almost every garden resounds with the song of the nightingale 7,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 op4 cit4 p4 #ce74 #chd ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #ac1 pp4 #fgc sq4 #che ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,or4 xxxiii4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ad sq41 #ag1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf 7,leipsic1 #aheg74 #chf ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 ii4 #b1 pp4 #aga sq42 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,types of ,greek ,coins 7,cambridge1 #ahhc71 pl4 x4 ,nos4 #bi1 #cj2 ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #fad2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #afg-agf1 pl4 xxix4-xxxii42 ,g4 ,macdonald1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins in the ,hunterian ,collection 7,glasgow1 #ahii-aije71 ii4 #edg2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #gbg4 ,in later times1 from about #age ,b4,c4 onward1 the ,baal of ,tarsus was completely assimilated to ,zeus on the coins4 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 op4 cit4 p4 #fag2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agg1 #aha4 ,m#ij ,the ,baal of ,tarsus has his counterpart at ,ibreez in ,cappadocia4 ,the pass of the ,cilician ,gates4 #chg ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,luke the ,physician1 and other ,studies in the ,history of ,religion 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #aab sqq4 ,m#ia ,the rock-sculptures at ,ibreez represent a god of corn and grapes adored by his worshipper1 a priest or king4 #chh ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 8,on a ,new ,hamathite ,inscription at ,ibreez10 ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archaeology1 iv4 7#ahgf7 pp4 #ccf-cdf2 id41 ,life in ,asiatic ,turkey 7,london1 #ahgi71 pp4 #bde-bfj2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #gbc-gbi2 ,ramsay and ,hogarth1 8,prehellenic ,monuments of ,cappadocia10 ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et ,assyriennes1 xiv4 7#aijc7 pp4 #gg-ha1 #he sq41 with plates iii4 and iv42 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,hettiticarum 7,berlin1 #aijj71 ,tafel xxxiv42 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,luke the ,physician 7,london1 #aijh71 pp4 #aga sqq42 ,john ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #aia-aie1 #cgh sq4 ,of this sculptured group ,messrs4 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay and ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth say that 8it yields to no rock-relief in the world in impressive character0 7,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 vi4 7#ahij7 p4 #cdg74 ,professor ,garstang would date the sculptures in the tenth or ninth century ,b4,c4 ,another inscribed ,hittite monument found at ,bor1 near the site of the ancient ,tyana1 exhibits a very similar figure of a priest or king in an attitude of adoration4 ,the resemblance extends even to the patterns embroidered on the robe and shawl1 which include the well-known swastika carved on the lower border of the long robe4 ,the figure is sculptured in high relief on a slab of stone and would seem to have been surrounded by inscriptions1 though a portion of them has perished4 ,see ,j4 ,garstang1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahe-ahh1 with plate lvi4 ,for the route from ,tarsus to ,ibreez 7,ivriz7 see ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 ,life in ,asiatic ,turkey1 pp4 #aih-bdd2 ,j4 ,garstang1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dd sqq4 ,m#ib ,the fertility of ,ibreez contrasted with the desolation of the surrounding country4 #chi ,see above1 pp4 #bh sq4 #cij ,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #g1 p4 #ecg4 ,when ,cicero was proconsul of ,cilicia 7#ea-ej ,b4,c47 he encamped with his army for some days at ,cybistra1 from which two of his letters to ,atticus are dated4 ,but hearing that the ,parthians1 who had invaded ,syria1 were threatening ,cilicia1 he hurried by forced marches through the pass of the ,cilician ,gates to ,tarsus4 ,see ,cicero1 ,ad ,atticum1 v4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj2 ,ad ,familiares1 xv4 #b1 #d4 #cia ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 in ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archaeology1 iv4 7#ahgf7 pp4 #ccf sq41 #cdf2 id41 ,life in ,asiatic ,turkey1 pp4 #bcb sq41 #bcf sq41 #bfd sq41 #bgj-bgb4 ,compare ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia 7,london1 #ahdb71 ii4 #cjd-cjg4 ,m#ic ,the horned god4 #cib ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #di sq4 ,on an ,assyrian cylinder1 now in the ,british ,museum1 we see a warlike deity with bow and arrows standing on a lion1 and wearing a similar bonnet decorated with horns and surmounted by a star or sun4 ,see ,de ,vog1 ,mlanges d',archologie ,orientale 7,paris1 #ahfh71 p4 #df1 who interprets the deity as the great ,asiatic goddess4 ,as to the horned god of ,ibreez 8it is a plausible theory that the horns may1 in this case1 be analogous to the ,assyrian emblem of divinity4 ,the sculpture is late and its style rather suggests ,semitic influence0 7,professor ,j4 ,garstang1 in some ,,ms4 notes with which he has kindly furnished me74 #cic ,see below1 p4 #acb4 #cid ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 i4 #af sq41 ii4 #c sqq4 ,m#id ,the god of ,ibreez a ,hittite deity4 #cie ,the identification is accepted by ,e4 ,meyer 7,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 p4 #fda71 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez 7,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #gbg71 and ,p4 ,jensen 7,hittiter und ,armenier1 ,strasburg1 #ahih1 p4 #ade74 #cif ,ramsay and ,hogarth1 8,pre-,hellenic ,monuments of ,cappadocia10 ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et ,assyriennes1 xiv4 7#ahic7 p4 #gi4 #cig ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 #cfj-cfb2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #egb sqq41 #ehf sq4 #cih ,that the cradle of the ,hittites was in the interior of ,asia ,minor1 particularly in ,cappadocia1 and that they spread from there south1 east1 and west1 is the view of ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 and ,l4 ,messerschmidt4 ,see ,palestine ,exploration ,fund ,quarterly ,statement for #ahhd1 p4 #di2 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,the ,hittites#c 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #hj sqq42 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,asien und ,europa 7,leipsic1 #ahic71 pp4 #cai sqq42 ,ramsay and ,hogarth1 8,pre-,hellenic ,monuments of ,cappadocia10 ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et ,assyriennes1 xv4 7#ahic7 p4 #id2 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients 7,munich1 #aijd71 pp4 #db1 #dh1 #ed2 ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 ,the ,early ,history of ,syria and ,palestine 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #aje sqq42 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #ab1 #ac1 #ai1 #bj2 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 8,recent ,hittite ,research10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4 7#aiji7 pp4 #djh sqq4 ,compare ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1 #aiji7 pp4 #fag sqq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #cae sqq4 ,the native ,hittite writing is a system of hieroglyphics which has not yet been read1 but in their intercourse with foreign nations the ,hittites used the ,babylonian cuneiform script4 ,clay tablets bearing inscriptions both in the ,babylonian and in the ,hittite language have been found by ,dr4 ,h4 ,winckler at ,boghaz-,keui1 the great ,hittite capital in ,cappadocia2 so that the sounds of the ,hittite words1 though not their meanings1 are now known4 ,according to ,professor ,ed4 ,meyer1 it seems certain that the ,hittite language was neither ,semitic nor ,indo-,european4 ,as to the inscribed tablets of ,boghaz-,keui1 see ,h4 ,winckler1 8,vorlufige ,nachrichten ber die ,ausgrabungen in ,boghaz-ki im ,sommer #aijg1 #a4 ,die ,tontafelfunde10 ,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft zu ,berlin1 ,no4 #ce1 ,december #aijg1 pp4 #a-ei2 8,hittite ,archives from ,boghaz-,keui10 translated from the ,german transcripts of ,dr4 ,winckler by ,meta ,e4 ,williams1 ,annals of ,archaeology and ,anthropology1 iv4 7,liverpool1 #aiab71 pp4 #ij-ih4 #cii ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 #cea1 note #c1 with his references2 ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 op4 cit4 p4 #aji2 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites1 p4 #aj2 ,f4 ,hommel1 op4 cit4 p4 #db2 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,asien und ,europa1 p4 #ccb4 ,see the preceding note4 ,m#ie ,the burning of ,sandan or ,hercules at ,tarsus4 #djj ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 8,the ,hittite ,inscriptions10 ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et ,assyriennes1 xiv4 7#ahic7 pp4 #dh sq42 ,p4 ,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier 7,strasburg1 #ahih71 pp4 #db sq4 #dja ,georgius ,syncellus1 ,chronographia1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij1 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf 7,bonn1 #ahbi73 1 4 ,in this passage is a correction of ,f4 ,c4 ,movers's 7,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #dfj7 for the ,,ms4 reading 1 the having apparently arisen by dittography from the preceding 2 and is a correction of ,e4 ,meyer's 78ber einige semitische ,gtter10 ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 xxxi4 #gcg7 for the ,,ms4 reading 4 ,compare ,jerome 7quoted by ,movers and ,meyer1 ll4cc473 8,hercules cognomento ,desanaus in ,syria ,phoenice clarus habetur4 ,inde ad nostram usque memoriam a ,cappadocibus et ,eliensibus 7al4 ,deliis7 ,desanaus adhuc dicitur40 ,if the text of ,jerome is here sound1 he would seem to have had before him a ,greek original which was corrupt like the text of ,syncellus or of ,syncellus's authority4 ,the ,cilician ,hercules is called ,sandes by ,nonnus 7,dionys41 xxxiv4 #ahc sq474 ,compare ,raoul-,rochette in ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 pp4 #aei sqq4 #djb ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xiv4 #h4 #c2 ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,or4 xxxiii4 vol4 ii4 p4 #af1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf 7,leipsic1 #aheg74 ,the pyre is mentioned only by ,dio ,chrysostom1 whose words clearly imply that its erection was a custom observed periodically4 ,on ,sandan or ,sandon see ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 8,sandon und ,sardanapal10 ,kunstarchaeologische ,werke1 iii4 #f sqq42 ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #deh sqq42 ,raoul-,rochette1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 pp4 #agh sqq42 ,e4 ,meyer1 8ber einige ,semitische ,gtter10 ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 xxxi4 7#ahgg7 pp4 #gcf-gdj3 id41 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fda sqq4 #dhd4 #djc ,p4 ,gardner1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins1 the ,seleucid ,kings of ,syria 7,london1 #ahgh71 pp4 #gb1 #gh1 #hi1 #aab1 pl4 xxi4 #f1 xxiv4 #c1 xxviii4 #h2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahc1 #aij1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bbe1 pl4 xxxiii4 #b1 #c1 xxxiv4 #aj1 xxxvii4 #i2 ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 8,coin-types of some ,kilikian ,cities10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xviii4 7#ahih7 p4 #afi1 pl4 xiii4 #a1 #b4 ,the structure represented on the coins is sometimes called not the pyre but the monument of ,sandan or ,sardanapalus4 ,certainly the cone resting on the square base reminds us of the similar structure on the coins of ,byblus as well as of the conical image of ,aphrodite at ,paphos 7see above1 pp4 #ad1 #cd72 but the words of ,dio ,chrysostom make it probable that the design on the coins of ,tarsus represents the pyre4 ,at the same time1 the burning of the god may well have been sculptured on a permanent monument of stone4 ,the legend 1 literally 8quail-hunt10 which appears on some coins of ,tarsus 7,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 op4 cit4 pp4 lxxxvi4 sq471 may refer to a custom of catching quails and burning them on the pyre4 ,we have seen 7above1 pp4 #aaa sq47 that quails were apparently burnt in sacrifice at ,byblus4 ,this explanation of the legend on the coins of ,tarsus was suggested by ,raoul-,rochette 7op4 cit4 pp4 #bja-bje74 ,however1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill writes to me that 8the interpretation of as anything but a personal name is rendered very unlikely by the analogy of all the other inscriptions on coins of the same class40 ,doves were burnt on a pyre in honour of ,adonis 7below1 p4 #adg74 ,similarly birds were burnt on a pyre in honour of ,laphrian ,artemis at ,patrae 7,pausanias1 vii4 #ah4 #ab74 #djd ,herodian1 iv4 #b4 #dje ,see ,franz ,cumont1 8,l',aigle funraire des ,syriens et l',apothose des ,empereurs10 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 lxii1 7#aiaj7 pp4 #aai-afc4 ,m#if ,sandan of ,tarsus an ,asiatic god with the symbols of the lion and the double axe4 #djf ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 ,monnaies ,grecques 7,amsterdam1 #ahhc71 pp4 #cff sq41 #dcc1 #dce1 with plates ,f4 #bd1 #be1 ,h4 #ad 7,verhandelingen der ,konink4 ,akademie von ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 xiv472 ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer und ,o4 ,keller1 ,tier- und ,pflanzenbilder auf ,mnzen und ,gemmen des klassischen ,altertums 7,leipsic1 #ahhi71 pp4 #gj sq41 with pl4 xii4 #g1 #h1 #i2 ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 8,coin-types of some ,kilikian ,cities10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xviii4 7#ahih7 pp4 #afi-aga2 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,types of ,greek ,coins1 pl4 xiii4 #bj2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia1 pp4 #agh1 #agi1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #bjf1 #bac1 with plates xxxii4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 xxxiv4 #b1 xxxvi4 #i2 ,g4 ,macdonald1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins in the ,hunterian ,collection1 ii4 #edh1 with pl4 lx4 #aa4 ,the booted ,sandan is figured by ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 op4 cit4 pl4 xxxvi4 #i4 ,m#ig ,boghaz-,keui the ancient capital of a ,hittite kingdom in ,cappadocia4 #djg ,herodotus1 i4 #gf2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 4 ,as to the situation of ,boghaz-,keui and the ruins of ,pteria see ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia 7,london1 #ahdb71 i4 #cia sqq42 ,h4 ,barth1 8,reise von ,trapezunt durch die nrdliche ,hlfte ,klein-,asiens10 ,ergnzungsheft zu ,petermann's ,geographischen ,mittheilungen1 ,no4 #b 7#ahfj71 pp4 #dd-eb2 ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer1 ,turkish ,armenia and ,eastern ,asia ,minor 7,london1 #ahha71 pp4 #fd1 #ga sqq42 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 8,historical ,relations of ,phrygia and ,cappadocia10 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s41 xv4 7#ahhc7 p4 #ajc2 id41 ,historical ,geography of ,asia ,minor 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #bh sq41 #cc sq42 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #eif sqq42 ,k4 ,humann und ,o4 ,puchstein1 ,reisen in ,kleinasien und ,nordsyrien 7,berlin1 #ahij71 pp4 #ga-hj1 with ,atlas1 plates xi4-xiv42 ,e4 ,chantre1 ,mission en ,cappadoce 7,paris1 #ahih71 pp4 #ac sqq42 ,o4 ,puchstein1 8,die ,bauten von ,boghaz-,ki10 ,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft zu ,berlin1 ,no4 #ce1 ,december #aijg1 pp4 #fb sqq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #aif sqq4 ,m#ih ,the sanctuary in the rocks4 ,the rock-sculptures in the outer sanctuary at ,boghaz-,keui represent two processions meeting4 ,the central figures4 #djh ,this procession of men is broken 7a7 by two women clad in long plaited robes like the women on the opposite wall2 7b7 by two winged monsters2 and 7c7 by the figure of a priest or king as to which see below1 pp4 #aca sq4 ,m#ii ,the rock-sculptures in the inner sanctuary at ,boghaz-,keui4 ,the lion-god4 ,the god protecting his priest4 ,other representations of the priest at ,boghaz-,keui and ,euyuk4 #dji ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia 7,london1 #ahdb71 i4 #cic-cie2 ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer1 ,turkish ,armenia and ,eastern ,asia ,minor1 pp4 #ei sq41 #ff-gh2 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 8,historical ,relations of ,phrygia and ,asia ,minor10 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s4 xv4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #aac-abj2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #fbc-fef1 #fff-fgb2 ,k4 ,humann und ,o4 ,puchstein1 ,reisen in ,kleinasien und ,nordsyrien1 pp4 #ee-gj1 with ,atlas1 plates vii4-x42 ,e4 ,chantre1 ,mission en ,cappadoce1 pp4 #c-e1 #af-bf2 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites1 pp4 #db-ej2 ,th4 ,macridy-,bey1 ,la ,porte des ,sphinx ,eyuk1 pp4 #ac sq4 7,mitteilungen der ,vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijh1 ,no4 #c1 ,berlin72 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fca sq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #aif sqq4 7,boghaz-,keui7 #bef sqq4 7,eyuk74 ,compare ,p4 ,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier1 pp4 #afe sqq4 ,in some notes with which my colleague ,professor ,j4 ,garstang has kindly furnished me he tells me that the two animals wearing ,hittite hats1 which appear between the great god and goddess in the outer sanctuary1 are not bulls but certainly goats2 and he inclines to think that the two heaps on which the priest stands in the outer sanctuary are fir-cones4 ,professor ,ed4 ,meyer holds that the costume which the priestly king wears is that of the ,sun-goddess1 and that the corresponding figure in the procession of males on the left-hand side of the outer sanctuary does not represent the priestly king but the ,sun-goddess in person4 8,the attributes of the ,king10 he says 7op4 cit4 p4 #fcb71 8are to be explained by the circumstance that he1 as the ,hittite inscriptions prove1 passed for an incarnation of the ,sun1 who with the ,hittites was a female divinity2 the temple of the ,sun is therefore his emblem40 ,as to the title of 8the ,sun0 bestowed on ,hittite kings in inscriptions1 see ,h4 ,winckler1 8,vorlufige ,nachrichten ber die ,ausgrabungen in ,boghaz-ki im ,sommer #aijg10 ,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft zu ,berlin1 ,no4 #ce1 ,december #aijg1 pp4 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #dd1 #de1 #ec4 ,the correct form of the national name appears to be ,chatti or ,hatti rather than ,hittites1 which is the ,hebrew form 77 of the name4 ,compare ,m4 ,jastrow1 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 ii4 coll4 #bjid sqq41 s4v4 8,hittites40 ,an interesting ,hittite symbol which occurs both in the sanctuary at ,boghaz-,keui and at the palace of ,euyuk is the double-headed eagle4 ,in both places it serves as the support of divine or priestly personages4 ,after being adopted as a badge by the ,seljuk ,sultans in the ,middle ,ages1 it passed into ,europe with the ,crusaders and became in time the escutcheon of the ,austrian and ,russian empires4 ,see ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 op4 cit4 i4 #chc2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 op4 cit4 iv4 #fha-fhc1 pl4 viii4 ,e2 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites1 p4 #ej4 ,m#ajj ,the two deities at the head of the processions at ,boghaz-,keui appear to be the great ,asiatic goddess and her consort4 ,the ,hittite god of the thundering sky4 ,jupiter ,dolichenus4 #daj ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia1 i4 #cid sq42 ,h4 ,barth1 in ,monatsberichte der knigl4 ,preuss4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 #ahei1 pp4 #abh sqq42 id41 8,reise von ,trapezunt10 ,ergnzungsheft zu ,petermann's ,geograph4 ,mittheilungen1 ,no4 #b 7,gotha1 #ahfj71 pp4 #de sq42 ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer1 ,turkish ,armenia and ,eastern ,asia ,minor1 p4 #fi2 ,e4 ,chantre1 ,mission en ,cappadoce1 pp4 #bj sqq4 ,according to ,barth1 the scene represented is the marriage of ,aryenis1 daughter of ,alyattes1 king of ,lydia1 to ,astyages1 son of ,cyaxares1 king of the ,medes 7,herodotus1 i4 #gd74 ,for a discussion of various interpretations which have been proposed see ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #fcj sqq4 #daa ,this is in substance the view of ,raoul-,rochette1 ,lajard1 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,g4 ,perrot1 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,ed4 ,meyer1 and ,j4 ,garstang4 ,see ,raoul-,rochette1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 p4 #ahj note #a2 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 8,on the ,early ,historical ,relations between ,phrygia and ,cappadocia10 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s4 xv4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #aac-abj2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #fcj sqq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #bee-beg2 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fcc sq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #bce-bcg2 id41 ,the ,syrian ,goddess 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #e sqq4 #dab ,k4 ,humann und ,o4 ,puchstein1 ,reisen in ,kleinasien und ,nordsyrien 7,berlin1 #aijb71 ,atlas1 pl4 xlv4 #c2 ,ausgrabungen zu ,sendschirli1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aijb7 pl4 xli42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 p4 #bia1 with plate lxxvii42 ,r4 ,koldewey1 ,die ,hettitische ,inschrift gefunden in der ,knigsburg von ,babylon 7,leipsic1 #aijj71 plates #a and #b 7,wissenschaftliche ,verffentlichungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft1 ,heft #a72 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,hettiticarum1 pl4 i4 #e and #f2 id41 ,the ,hittites 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #dj-db1 with fig4 #f on p4 #da2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques#b 7,paris1 #aije71 p4 #ic4 ,the name of the god is thought to have been ,teshub or ,teshup2 for a god of that name is known from the ,tel-el-,amarna letters to have been the chief deity of the ,mitani1 a people of ,northern ,mesopotamia akin in speech and religion to the ,hittites1 but ruled by an ,aryan dynasty4 ,see ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #egh1 #eia sq41 #fcf sq42 ,r4 ,f4 ,harper1 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1 pp4 #bbb1 #bbc 7where the god's name is spelt ,tishub74 ,the god is also mentioned repeatedly in the ,hittite archives which ,dr4 ,h4 ,winckler found inscribed on clay tablets at ,boghaz-,keui4 ,see ,h4 ,winckler1 8,vorlufige ,nachrichten ber die ,ausgrabungen in ,boghaz-ki im ,sommer #aijg10 ,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft zu ,berlin1 ,no4 #ce1 ,december #aijg1 pp4 #ac sq41 #cb1 #cd1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci1 #dc1 #dd1 #ea sq41 #ec2 8,hittite ,archives from ,boghaz-,keui10 translated from the ,german transcripts of ,dr4 ,winckler1 ,annals of ,archaeology and ,anthropology1 iv4 7,liverpool and ,london1 #aiab7 pp4 #ij sqq4 ,as to the ,mitani1 their language and their gods1 see ,h4 ,winckler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cj sqq41 #df sqq4 ,in thus interpreting the ,hittite god who heads the procession at ,boghaz-,keui ,i follow my colleague ,prof4 ,j4 ,garstang 7,the ,land of the ,hittites1 p4 #bcg2 ,the ,syrian ,goddess1 pp4 #e sqq471 who has kindly furnished me with some notes on the subject4 ,i formerly interpreted the deity as the ,hittite equivalent of ,tammuz1 ,adonis1 and ,attis4 ,but against that view it may be urged that 7#a7 the god is bearded and therefore of mature age1 whereas ,tammuz and his fellows were regularly conceived as youthful2 7#b7 the thunderbolt which he seems to carry would be quite inappropriate to ,tammuz1 who was not a god of thunder but of vegetation2 and 7#c7 the ,hittite ,tammuz is appropriately represented in the procession of women immediately behind the ,mother ,goddess 7see below1 pp4 #acg sq471 and it is extremely improbable that he should be represented twice over with different attributes in the same scene4 ,these considerations seem to me conclusive against the interpretation of the bearded god as a ,tammuz and decisive in favour of ,professor ,garstang's view of him4 #dac ,j4 ,garstang1 8,notes of a ,journey through ,asia ,minor10 ,annals of ,archaeology and ,anthropology1 i4 7,liverpool and ,london1 #aijh7 pp4 #c sq41 with plate iv42 id41 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #ach1 #cei1 with plate xliv4 ,in this sculpture the god on the bull holds in his right hand what is described as a triangular bow instead of a mace1 an axe1 or a hammer4 #dad ,a4 ,wiedemann1 gyptische ,geschichte 7,gotha1 #ahhd71 ii4 #dch-ddj2 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 7,paris1 #ahig7 pp4 #dja sq42 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,der ,bndnisvortrag ,ramses' ,,ii4 und des ,chetitirknigs1 pp4 #ag-ai1 #ba sq41 #ch-dd 7,mitteilungen der ,vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijb1 ,no4 #e1 ,berlin72 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites1 pp4 #ad-ai2 ,j4 ,h4 ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records of ,egypt 7,chicago1 #aijf-aijg71 iii4 #afc-agd2 id41 ,a ,history of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #caa2 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fca1 #fce sqq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #cdg-cdi4 ,the ,hittite copy of the treaty was discovered by ,dr4 ,h4 ,winckler at ,boghaz-,keui in #aijf4 ,the identification of ,arenna or ,arinna is uncertain4 ,in a forthcoming article1 8,the ,sun ,goddess of ,arenna10 to be published in the ,liverpool ,annals of ,archaeology and ,anthropology1 ,professor ,j4 ,garstang argues that ,arenna is to be identified with the ,cappadocian ,comana4 #dae ,ed4 ,meyer1 8,dolichenus10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #aaia-aaid2 ,a4 von ,domaszewski1 ,die ,religion des rmischen ,heeres 7,treves1 #ahie71 pp4 #ei sq41 with plate iiii4 fig4 #a and #b2 ,franz ,cumont1 s4v4 8,dolichenus10 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 v4 i4 coll4 #abgf sqq42 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ii4 7,paris1 #aiaa7 pp4 #ce-dc4 ,for examples of the inscriptions which relate to his worship see ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 ,pars i4 7,berlin1 #aijb7 pp4 #afg-agb1 ,nos4 #dbif-dcbd4 ,m#aja ,the ,mother ,goddess4 #daf ,as to the lions and mural crown of ,cybele see ,lucretius1 ii4 #fjj sqq42 ,catullus1 lxiii4 #gf sqq42 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #bc4 #bj2 ,rapp1 s4v4 8,kybele10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #afdd sqq4 #dag ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ca2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #bc4 #ai4 ,lucian's description of her image is confirmed by coins of ,hierapolis1 on which the goddess is represented wearing a high head-dress and seated on a lion4 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #fed2 ,g4 ,macdonald1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins in the ,hunterian ,collection 7,glasgow1 #ahii-aije71 iii4 #aci sq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,syrian ,goddess1 pp4 #ba sqq41 #gj1 with fig4 #g4 ,that the name of the ,syrian goddess of ,hierapolis-,bambyce was ,atargatis is mentioned by ,strabo 7xvi4 #a4 #bg1 p4 #gdh74 ,on ,egyptian monuments the ,semitic goddess ,kadesh is represented standing on a lion4 ,see ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,asien und ,europa1 pp4 #cad sq4 ,it is to be remembered that ,hierapolis-,bambyce was the direct successor of ,carchemish1 the great ,hittite capital on the ,euphrates1 and may have inherited many features of ,hittite religion4 ,see ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,the ,hittites1#c pp4 #id sqq41 #aje sqq42 and as to the ,hittite monuments at ,carchemish1 see ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #abb sqq4 #dah ,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #i4 #e4 ,m#ajb ,the youth on the lioness1 bearing the double axe1 at ,boghaz-,keui may be the divine son and lover of the goddess4 #dai ,in thus interpreting the youth with the double axe ,i agree with ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay 78,on the ,early ,historical ,relations between ,phrygia and ,cappadocia10 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s4 xv4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #aah1 #abj71 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele 7,geschichte der ,religion im ,alterturm1 i4 #bdf1 #bee71 and ,prof4 ,j4 ,garstang 7,the ,land of the ,hittites1 p4 #bce2 ,the ,syrian ,goddess1 p4 #h74 ,that the youthful figure on the lioness or panther represents the lover of the great goddess is the view also of ,professors ,jensen and ,hommel4 ,see ,p4 ,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier1 pp4 #agc-age1 #ahj2 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients1 p4 #ea4 ,prof4 ,perrot holds that the youth in question is a double of the bearded god who stands at the head of the male procession1 their costume being the same1 though their attributes differ 7,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #fea74 ,but1 as ,i have already remarked1 it is unlikely that the same god should be represented twice over with different attributes in the same scene4 ,the resemblance between the two figures is better explained on the supposition that they are ,father and ,son4 ,the same two deities1 ,father and ,son1 appear to be carved on a rock at ,giaour-,kalesi1 a place on the road which in antiquity may have led from ,ancyra by ,gordium to ,pessinus4 ,here on the face of the rock are cut in relief two gigantic figures in the usual ,hittite costume of pointed cap1 short tunic1 and shoes turned up at the toes4 ,each wears a crescent-hilted sword at his side1 each is marching to the spectator's left with raised right hand2 and the resemblance between them is nearly complete except that the figure in front is beardless and the figure behind is bearded4 ,see ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #gad sqq41 with fig4 #ceb2 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #afb-afd4 ,a similar1 but solitary1 figure is carved in a niche of the rock at ,kara-,bel1 but there the deity1 or the man1 carries a triangular bow over his right shoulder4 ,see below1 p4 #ahe4 ,with regard to the lionesses or panthers1 a bas-relief found at ,carchemish1 the capital of a ,hittite kingdom on the ,euphrates1 shows two male figures in ,hittite costume1 with pointed caps and turned-up shoes1 standing on a crouching lion4 ,the foremost of the two figures is winged and carries a short curved truncheon in his right hand4 ,according to ,prof4 ,perrot1 the two figures represent a god followed by a priest or a king4 ,see ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #edi sq42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #abc sqq4 ,again1 on a sculptured slab found at ,amrit in ,phoenicia we see a god standing on a lion and holding a lion's whelp in his left hand1 while in his right hand he brandishes a club or sword4 ,see ,perrot et ,chipiez1 op4 cit4 iii4 #dab-dad4 ,the type of a god or goddess standing or sitting on a lion occurs also in ,assyrian art1 from which the ,phoenicians and ,hittites may have borrowed it4 ,see ,perrot et ,chipiez1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fdb-fdd4 ,much evidence as to the representation of ,asiatic deities with lions has been collected by ,raoul-,rochette1 in his learned dissertation 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 pp4 #ajf sqq4 ,compare ,de ,vog1 ,mlanges d',archologie ,orientale1 pp4 #dd sqq4 ,m#ajc ,the mystery of the lion-god4 #dbj ,similarly in ,yam1 one of the ,torres ,straits ,islands1 two brothers named ,sigai and ,maiau were worshipped in a shrine under the form of a hammer-headed shark and a crocodile respectively1 and were represented by effigies made of turtle-shell in the likeness of these animals4 ,but 8the shrines were so sacred that no uninitiated persons might visit them1 nor did they know what they contained2 they were aware of ,sigai and ,maiau1 but they did not know that the former was a hammer-headed shark and the latter a crocodile2 this mystery was too sacred to be imparted to uninitiates4 ,when the heroes were addressed it was always by their human names1 and not by their animal or totem names40 ,see ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 8,the ,religion of the ,torres ,straits ,islanders10 ,anthropological ,essays presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor 7,oxford1 #aijg71 p4 #ahe4 ,m#ajd ,the processions at ,boghaz-,keui appear to represent the ,sacred ,marriage of the god and goddess4 ,traces of mother-kin among the ,hittites4 #dba 8,there can be no doubt that there is here represented a ,sacred ,marriage1 the meeting of two deities worshipped in different places1 like the ,horus of ,edfu and the ,hathor of ,denderah0 7,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #bee74 ,this view seems to differ from1 though it approaches1 the one suggested in the text4 ,that the scene represents a ,sacred ,marriage between a great god and goddess is the opinion also of ,prof4 ,ed4 ,meyer 7,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fcc sq471 and ,prof4 ,j4 ,garstang 7,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #bch sq42 ,the ,syrian ,goddess1 p4 #g74 #dbb ,see above1 p4 #acc4 #dbc ,see below1 p4 #bhe4 ,compare the remarks of ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay 78,pre-,hellenic ,monuments of ,cappadocia10 ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et ,assyriennes1 xiii4 7#ahij7 p4 #gh73 8,similar priest-dynasts are a widespread feature of the primitive social system of ,asia ,minor2 their existence is known with certainty or inferred with probability at the two towns ,komana2 at ,venasa not far north of ,tyana1 at ,olba1 at ,pessinous1 at ,aizanoi1 and many other places4 ,now there are two characteristics which can be regarded as probable in regard to most of these priests1 and as proved in regard to some of them3 7#a7 they wore the dress and represented the person of the god1 whose priests they were2 7#b7 they were 1 losing their individual name at their succession to the office1 and assuming a sacred name1 often that of the god himself or some figure connected with the cultus of the god4 ,the priest of ,cybele at ,pessinous was called ,attis1 the priests of ,sabazios were ,saboi1 the worshippers of ,bacchos ,bacchoi40 ,as to the priestly rulers of ,olba1 see below1 pp4 #add sqq4 #dbd ,see above1 p4 #acb4 ,however1 ,prof4 ,ed4 ,meyer may be right in thinking that the priest-like figure in the procession is not really that of the priest but that of the god or goddess whom he personated4 ,see above1 p4 #acc note4 #dbe ,see above1 pp4 #cf sqq4 #dbf ,h4 ,winckler1 8,vorlufige ,nachrichten ber die ,ausgrabungen in ,boghaz-ki im ,sommer #aijg10 ,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft1 ,no4 #ce1 ,december1 #aijg1 pp4 #bg sq41 #bi2 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #ceb sq42 8,hittite ,archives from ,boghaz-,keui10 translated from the ,german transcripts of ,dr4 ,winckler by ,meta ,e4 ,williams1 ,annals of ,archaeology and ,anthropology1 iv4 7,liverpool and ,london1 #aiab7 p4 #ih4 ,we have seen 7above1 p4 #acf7 that in the seals of the ,hittite treaty with ,egypt the ,queen appears along with the ,king4 ,if ,dr4 ,h4 ,winckler is right in thinking 7op4 cit4 p4 #bi7 that one of the ,hittite queens was at the same time sister to her husband the ,king1 we should have in this relationship a further proof that mother-kin regulated the descent of the kingship among the ,hittites as well as among the ancient ,egyptians4 ,see above1 p4 #dd1 and below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bac sqq4 #dbg ,compare ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fbi-fcc4 ,m#aje ,sandan at ,tarsus appears to be a son of ,baal1 as ,hercules was a son of ,zeus4 #dbh ,the figure exhibits a few minor variations on the coins of ,tarsus4 ,see the works cited above1 p4 #abg4 #dbi ,above1 p4 #aai4 #dcj ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ceh sqq4 #dca ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aff sqq4 ,m#ajf ,priests of ,sandan-,hercules at ,tarsus4 ,kings of ,cilicia related to ,sandan4 #dcb ,athenaeus1 v4 #ed1 p4 #bae ,b1 ,c4 ,the high-priest of the ,syrian goddess at ,hierapolis held office for a year1 and wore a purple robe and a golden tiara 7,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #db74 ,we may conjecture that the priesthood of ,hercules at ,tarsus was in later times at least an annual office4 #dcc ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd7 #chi1 p4 #dge2 ,h4 ,winckler1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1#c p4 #hh4 ,kuinda was the name of a ,cilician fortress a little way inland from ,anchiale 7,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #aj1 p4 #fgb74 #dcd ,e4 ,meyer1 op4 cit4 i4 #cic1 p4 #dhj2 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,babylonisch-assyrische ,geschichte1 p4 #cfj4 ,sandon and ,sandas occur repeatedly as names of ,cilician men4 ,they are probably identical with1 or modified forms of1 the divine name4 ,see ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #ad1 p4 #fgd2 ,plutarch1 ,poplicola1 #ag2 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 ed4 ,august ,boeckh1 etc4 7,berlin1 #ahbh-ahgg7 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjj1 ,no4 #ddja2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques 7,brussels1 #aijj71 p4 #gah1 ,no4 #hgh2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der ,kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosoph4-histor4 ,classe1 xliv4 7,vienna1 #ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #df1 #aca sq41 #adj 7,inscriptions #aae1 #bah1 #bcb74 ,m#ajg ,priestly kings of ,olba who bore the names of ,teucer and ,ajax4 ,the ,teucrids of ,salamis in ,cyprus4 ,burnt sacrifices of human victims at ,salamis and traces of a similar custom elsewhere4 ,burnt sacrifice of doves to ,adonis4 #dce ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #aj1 p4 #fgb4 ,the name of the high-priest ,ajax1 son of ,teucer1 occurs on coins of ,olba1 dating from about the beginning of our era 7,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum1 ,oxford1 #ahhg1 p4 #fji72 and the name of ,teucer is also known from inscriptions4 ,see below1 pp4 #ade1 #aea1 #aei4 #dcf ,e4 ,l4 ,hicks1 8,inscriptions from ,western ,cilicia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #bbf1 #bfc2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der ,kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 xliv4 7#ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #ec1 #hh4 #dcg ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 pp4 #gah sqq41 ,no4 #hgh4 ,tarkondimotos was the name of two kings of ,eastern ,cilicia in the first century ,b4,c4 ,one of them corresponded with ,cicero and fell at the battle of ,actium4 ,see ,cicero1 ,epist4 ad ,familiares1 xv4 #a4 #b2 ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #ah1 p4 #fgf2 ,dio ,cassius1 xli4 #fc4 #a1 xlvii4 #bf4 #b1 l4 #ad4 #b1 li4 #b4 #b1 li4 #g4 #d1 liv4 #i4 #b2 ,plutarch1 ,antoninus1 #fa2 ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #fah2 ,w4 ,dittenberger1 ,orientis ,graeci ,inscriptiones ,selectae 7,leipsic1 #aijc-aije71 ii4 pp4 #did sq41 ,nos4 #geb1 #gec4 ,moreover1 ,tarkudimme or ,tarkuwassimi occurs as the name of a king of ,erme 787 or ,urmi 787 in a bilingual ,hittite and cuneiform inscription engraved on a silver seal4 ,see ,w4 ,wright1 ,the ,empire of the ,hittites#b 7,london1 #ahhf71 pp4 #afc sqq42 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,hettiticarum1 pp4 #db sq41 pl4 xlii4 #i2 id41 ,the ,hittites1 pp4 #bi sq42 ,p4 ,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier 7,strasburg1 #ahih71 pp4 #bb1 #ej sq4 ,in this inscription ,prof4 ,jensen suggests ,tarbibi- as an alternative reading for ,tarku-4 ,compare ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache 7,gttingen1 #ahif71 pp4 #cfb-cfd4 #dch ,isocrates1 ,or4 ix4 #ad and #ah sq42 ,pausanias1 ii4 #bi4 #b and #d2 ,w4 ,e4 ,engel1 ,kypros1 i4 #bab sqq4 ,as to the names ,teucer and ,teucrian see ,p4 ,kretschmer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahi-aia4 ,prof4 ,kretschmer believes that the native population of ,cyprus belonged to the non-,aryan stock of ,asia ,minor4 #dci ,w4 ,e4 ,engel1 ,kypros1 i4 #baf4 #ddj ,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #ed sq42 ,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,inst4 i4 #ba4 ,as to the date when the custom was abolished1 ,lactantius says that it was done 8recently in the reign of ,hadrian40 ,porphyry says that the practice was put down by ,diphilus1 king of ,cyprus1 8in the time of ,seleucus the ,theologian40 ,as nothing seems to be known as to the date of ,king ,diphilus and ,seleucus the ,theologian1 ,i have ventured to assume1 on the strength of ,lactantius's statement1 that they were contemporaries of ,hadrian4 ,but it is curious to find kings of ,cyprus reigning so late4 ,beside the power of the ,roman governors1 their authority can have been little more than nominal1 like that of native rajahs in ,british ,india4 ,seleucus the ,theologian may be1 as ,j4 ,a4 ,fabricius supposed 7,bibliotheca ,graeca1#d ,hamburg1 #aghj-ahji1 vol4 i4 p4 #hf1 compare p4 #ebb71 the ,alexandrian grammarian who composed a voluminous work on the gods 7,suidas1 s4v4 74 ,suetonius tells an anecdote 7,tiberius1 #ef7 about a grammarian named ,seleucus who flourished1 and faded prematurely1 at the court of ,tiberius4 #dda ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #di4 #ddb ,diogenianus1 ,praefatio1 in ,paroemiographi ,graeci1 ed4 ,e4 ,l4 ,leutsch et ,f4 ,g4 ,schneidewin 7,gttingen1 #ahci-ahea71 i4 #ahj4 ,raoul-,rochette regarded the custom as part of the ritual of the divine death and resurrection4 ,he compared it with the burning of ,melcarth at ,tyre4 ,see his memoir1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7#ahdh71 p4 #cb4 #ddc ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ed4 ,m#ajh ,the priestly ,teucers of ,olba perhaps personated a native god ,tark4 #ddd ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 in ,w4 ,wright's ,empire of the ,hittites1#b p4 #ahf2 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 8,pre-,hellenic ,monuments of ,cappadocia10 ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et ,assyriennes1 xiv4 7#aijc7 pp4 #ha sq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #bea2 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 ,asien und ,europa1 p4 #ccc2 ,p4 ,jensen1 ,hittiter und ,armenier1 pp4 #gj1 #aej sqq41 #aee sqq42 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients1 pp4 #dd1 #ea sq42 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites1 p4 #dj4 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay thinks 7l4c47 that ,tark was the native name of the god who had his sanctuary at ,dastarkon in ,cappadocia and who was called by the ,greeks the ,cataonian ,apollo3 his sanctuary was revered all over ,cappadocia 7,strabo1 xiv4 #b4 #e1 p4 #ecg74 ,prof4 ,hommel holds that ,tarku or ,tarchu was the chief ,hittite deity1 worshipped all over the south of ,asia ,minor4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,max ,mller is of opinion that ,targh or ,tarkh did not designate any particular deity1 but was the general ,hittite name for 8god40 ,there are grounds for holding that the proper name of the ,hittite thunder-god was ,teshub or ,teshup4 ,see above1 p4 #ace note4 #dde ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 8,explorations in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 p4 #deh2 id41 8,a ,journey in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahia7 p4 #bbb2 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,historical ,geography of ,asia ,minor 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #bb1 #cfd4 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay had shown grounds for thinking that ,olba was a ,grecized form of a native name ,ourba 7pronounced ,ourwa7 before ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,bent discovered the site and the name4 ,m#aji ,western or ,rugged ,cilicia4 ,m#aaj ,the ,cilician pirates4 ,m#aaa ,the deep gorges of ,rugged ,cilicia4 #ddf ,j4 ,theodore ,bent1 8,explorations in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #dde1 #dej-dec2 id41 8,a ,journal in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #bjh1 #baj-bab1 #bag-bai2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosoph4-historische ,classe1 xliv4 7,vienna1 #ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #di1 #gj2 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth and ,j4 ,a4 ,r4 ,munro1 8,modern and ,ancient ,roads in ,eastern ,asia ,minor10 ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,supplementary ,papers1 vol4 iii4 part #e 7,london1 #ahic71 pp4 #fec sq4 ,as to the ,cilician pirates see ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #b1 pp4 #ffh sq42 ,plutarch1 ,pompeius1 #bd2 ,appian1 ,bellum ,mithridat4 #ib sq42 ,dio ,cassius1 xxxvi4 #bj-bd #c-f1 ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf2 ,cicero1 ,de imperio ,cn4 ,pompeii1 #aa sq42 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,roman ,history 7,london1 #ahfh71 iii4 #fh-gj1 iv4 #dj-de1 #aah-abj4 ,as to the crests carved on their towns see ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 8,cilician ,symbols10 ,classical ,review1 iv4 7#ahij7 pp4 #cba sq4 ,among these crests are a club 7the badge of ,olba71 a bunch of grapes1 the caps of the ,dioscuri1 the three-legged symbol1 and so on4 ,as to the cedars and ship-building timber of ,cilicia in antiquity see ,theophrastus1 ,historia ,plantarum1 iii4 #b4 #f1 iv4 #e4 #e4 ,the cedars and firs have now retreated to the higher slopes of the ,taurus4 ,great destruction is wrought in the forests by the roving ,yuruks with their flocks2 for they light their fires under the trees1 tap the firs for turpentine1 bark the cedars for their huts and bee-hives1 and lay bare whole tracts of country that the grass may grow for their sheep and goats4 ,see ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #dec-deh4 ,m#aab ,the site and ruins of ,olba4 ,the temple of ,olbian ,zeus4 #ddg ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,a ,wandering ,scholar in the ,levant 7,london1 #ahif71 pp4 #eg sq4 #ddh ,j4 ,theodore ,bent1 8,explorations in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #dde sq41 #deh-dfj2 id41 8,a ,journey in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #bbj-bbb2 ,e4 ,l4 ,hicks1 8,inscriptions from ,western ,cilicia10 ib4 pp4 #bfb-bgj2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philos4-histor4 ,classe1 xliv4 7,vienna1 #ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #hc-ia2 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay and ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 in ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 vi4 7#ahij7 p4 #cde2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 p4 #heh1 ,no4 #abca4 ,in one place 7,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 #bbb7 ,bent gives the height of ,olba as #chjj feet2 but this is a misprint1 for elsewhere 7,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 #ddf1 #deh7 he gives the height as exactly #ehej or roughly #fjjj feet4 ,the misprint has unfortunately been repeated by ,messrs4 ,heberdey and ,wilhelm 7op4 cit4 p4 #hd note #a74 ,the tall tower of ,olba is figured on the coins of the city4 ,see ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia 7,london1 #aijj71 pl4 xxii4 #h4 ,m#aac ,limestone caverns of ,western ,cilicia4 #ddi ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology#ab 7,london1 #ahge71 ii4 #eah sqq42 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth ,edition1 s4v4 8,caves10 v4 #bfe sqq4 ,compare my notes on ,pausanias1 i4 #ce4 #g1 viii4 #bi4 #a4 #dej ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 p4 #ddg4 ,m#aad ,the city of ,corycus4 ,the ,corycian cave4 #dea ,fr4 ,beaufort1 ,karmania 7,london1 #ahag71 pp4 #bdj sq4 #deb ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #e1 pp4 #fgj sq42 ,mela1 i4 #gb-ge1 ed4 ,g4 ,parthey2 ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 8,explorations in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #ddf-ddh2 id41 8,a ,journey in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #bab-bad2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philos4-histor4 ,classe1 xliv4 7#ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #gj-gi4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth was so good as to furnish me with some notes embodying his recollections of the ,corycian cave4 ,all these modern writers confirm the general accuracy of the descriptions of the cave given by ,strabo and ,mela4 ,mr4 ,hogarth indeed speaks of exaggeration in ,mela's account1 but this is not admitted by ,mr4 ,a4 ,wilhelm4 ,as to the ruins of the city of ,corycus on the coast1 distant about three miles from the cave1 see ,fr4 ,beaufort1 ,karmania 7,london1 #ahag71 pp4 #bcb-bch2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fg-gj4 ,m#aae ,priests of ,corycian ,zeus4 #dec ,the suggestion is ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook's4 ,see his article1 8,the ,european ,sky-god10 ,classical ,review1 xvii4 7#aijc7 p4 #dah1 note #b4 #ded ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 p4 #ddh2 id41 in ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #bad-baf4 ,for the inscription containing the names of the priests see ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ga-gi2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 pp4 #gah sqq41 ,no4 #hgh2 above1 p4 #ade4 ,m#aaf ,the cave of the giant ,typhon4 #dee ,mela1 i4 #gf1 ed4 ,g4 ,parthey 7,berlin1 #ahfg74 ,the cave of ,typhon is described by ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 ll4cc4 #def ,aeschylus1 ,prometheus ,vinctus1 #cea-cgb4 #deg ,pindar1 ,pyth4 i4 #cj sqq41 who speaks of the giant as 8bred in the many-named ,cilician cave40 ,m#aag ,battle of ,zeus and ,typhon4 #deh ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #f4 #c4 ,m#aah ,fossil bones of extinct animals give rise to stories of giants4 #dei ,pausanias1 viii4 #bi4 #a1 with my notes4 ,pausanias mentions 7viii4 #cb4 #e7 bones of superhuman size which were preserved at ,megalopolis1 and which popular superstition identified as the bones of the giant ,hopladamus4 #dfj ,pausanias1 viii4 #bi4 #a4 #dfa ,a4 ,holm1 ,geschichte ,siciliens im ,alterthum 7,leipsic1 #ahgj-ahgd71 i4 #eg1 #cef4 #dfb 7,sir7 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor1 ,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind#c 7,london1 #ahgh71 p4 #cbb1 who adduces much more evidence of the same sort4 ,m#aai ,chasm of ,olbian ,zeus at ,kanytelideis4 #dfc ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 8,explorations in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s4 xii4 7#ahij7 pp4 #ddh sq42 id41 8,a ,journey in ,cilicia ,tracheia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xii4 7#ahia7 pp4 #bjh-baj2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kaiserlichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosophisch-historische ,classe1 xliv4 7,vienna1 #ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #ea-fa4 ,m#abj ,the deity of these great chasms was called ,zeus by the ,greeks1 but he was probably a god of fertility embodied in vegetation and water4 #dfd ,see above1 pp4 #bf sq4 ,m#aba ,analogy of the ,corycian and ,olbian caverns to ,ibreez and the vale of the ,adonis4 ,m#abb ,two gods at ,olba1 perhaps a father and a son1 corresponding to the ,baal and ,sandan of ,tarsus4 ,m#abc ,goddesses less prominent than gods in ,cilician religion4 ,m#abd ,the goddess ',atheh1 partner of ,baal at ,tarsus1 seems to have been a form of ,atargatis4 ,the lion-goddess and the bull-god4 ,in later times the old goddess became the ,fortune of the ,city4 #dfe ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #faf4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill writes to me3 8,the attribution to ,tarsus of the ',atheh coins is unfounded4 ,head himself only gives it as doubtful4 ,i should think they belong further ,east40 ,in the uncertainty which prevails on this point ,i have left the text unchanged4 ,note to ,second ,edition4 #dff ,the name ',athar-'atheh occurs in a ,palmyrene inscription4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #aab1 pp4 #bfg-bgj4 ,in analysing ,atargatis into ',athar-'atheh 7',atar-'ata7 ,i follow ,e4 ,meyer 7,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #fje1 #fej sq471 ,f4 ,baethgen 7,beitrge zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte1 pp4 #fh-ge71 ,fr4 ,cumont 7s4v4 8,atargatis10 ,pauly-,wissowa1 ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ii4 #ahif71 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke 7l4c471 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele 7,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #bde71 ,f4 ,hommel 7,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients1 pp4 #dc sq471 ,father ,lagrange 7tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques1#b p4 #acj71 and ,l4 ,b4 ,paton 7s4v4 8,atargatis10 ,j4 ,hastings's ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ii4 #afd sq474 ,in the great temple at ,hierapolis-,bambyce a mysterious golden image stood between the images of ,atargatis and her male partner4 ,it resembled neither of them1 yet combined the attributes of other gods4 ,some interpreted it as ,dionysus1 others as ,deucalion1 and others as ,semiramis2 for a golden dove1 traditionally associated with ,semiramis1 was perched on the head of the figure4 ,the ,syrians called the image by a name which ,lucian translates 8sign0 774 ,see ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #cc4 ,it has been plausibly conjectured by ,f4 ,baethgen that the name which ,lucian translates 8sign0 was really ',atheh 771 which could easily be confused with the ,syriac word for 8sign0 774 ,see ,f4 ,baethgen1 op4 cit4 p4 #gc4 ,a coin of ,hierapolis1 dating from the third century ,a4,d41 exhibits the images of the god and goddess seated on bulls and lions respectively1 with the mysterious object between them enclosed in a shrine1 which is surmounted by a bird1 probably a dove4 ,see ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,syrian ,goddess 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #bb sqq41 #gj sq41 with fig4 #g4 ,the modern writers cited at the beginning of this note have interpreted the ,syrian ',atheh as a male god1 the lover of ,atargatis1 and identical in name and character with the ,phrygian ,attis4 ,they may be right2 but none of them seems to have noticed that the same name ',atheh 77 is applied to a goddess at ,tarsus4 #dfg ,as to the image1 see above1 p4 #acg4 #dfh ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ca4 #dfi ,macrobius1 ,saturn1 i4 #bc4 #ab and #ag-ai4 ,the ,greek name of ,baalbec was ,heliopolis1 8the ,city of the ,sun40 #dgj ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 pp4 #afc1 #afd4 ,the statue bears a long inscription1 which in the style of its writing belongs to the archaic type represented by the ,moabite ,stone4 ,the contents of the inscription show that it is earlier than the time of ,tiglath-,pileser ,,iii4 7#gde-gbg ,b4,c474 ,on ,hadad1 the ,syrian thunder-god1 see ,f4 ,baethgen1 ,beitrge zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte1 pp4 #ff-fh2 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #bdh sq42 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques1#b pp4 #ib sq4 ,that ,hadad was the consort of ,atargatis at ,hierapolis-,bambyce is the opinion of ,p4 ,jensen 7,hittiter und ,armenier1 p4 #aga71 who also indicates his character as a god both of thunder and of fertility 7ib41 p4 #afg74 ,the view of ,prof4 ,j4 ,garstang is similar 7,the ,syrian ,goddess1 pp4 #be sqq474 ,that the name of the chief male god of ,hierapolis-,bambyce was ,hadad is rendered almost certain by coins of the city which were struck in the time of ,alexander the ,great by a priestly king ,abd-,hadad1 whose name means 8,servant of ,hadad40 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #fed2 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,syrian ,goddess1 p4 #bg1 with fig4 #e4 #dga ,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1#c pp4 #ddb-ddi2 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,die ,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens 7,giessen1 #aije-aiab71 i4 #adf-aej1 with ,bildermappe1 plate #cb1 fig4 #ig4 ,the ,assyrian relief is also figured in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 s4v4 8,marduk10 ii4 #bcej4 ,the ,babylonian rammu 8to scream1 roar0 has its equivalent in the ,hebrew ra'am 77 8to thunder40 ,the two names ,adad 7,hadad7 and ,ramman occur together in the form ,hadadrimmon in ,zechariah1 xii4 #aa 7with ,s4 ,r4 ,driver's note1 ,century ,bible74 #dgb ,see above1 pp4 #aba1 #abc4 #dgc ,see above1 p4 #acj4 ,however1 the animal seems to be rather a goat4 ,see above1 p4 #acc note4 #dgd ,see above1 p4 #acb4 #dge ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia1 pp4 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bbh4 #dgf ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd7 pp4 #bdf sq42 ,f4 ,baethgen1 ,beitrge zur semitischen ,religionsgeschichte1 pp4 #gf sqq4 ,the idolatrous ,hebrews spread tables for ,gad1 that is1 for ,fortune 7,isaiah lxv4 #aa1 ,revised ,version74 #dgg ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 iii4 #h4 #b2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #fcb4 #dgh ,ephippus1 cited by ,athenaeus1 xii4 #ec1 p4 #ecg4 #dgi ,f4 ,baethgen1 op4 cit4 p4 #gg2 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,text-book of ,north-,semitic ,inscriptions1 p4 #bfi4 #dhj ,see above1 p4 #aea4 ,m#abe ,the ,phoenician god ,el and his wife at ,mallus in ,cilicia4 ,assimilation of native ,oriental deities to ,greek divinities4 #dha ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #af1 p4 #fge4 #dhb ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 pp4 #fje sq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia1 pp4 cxvii4 sqq41 #ie-ih1 plates xv4 xvi4 xl4 #i2 ,g4 ,macdonald1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins in the ,hunterian ,collection1 ii4 #ecf sq41 pl4 lix4 #aa-ad4 ,the male and female figures appear on separate coins4 ,the attribution to ,mallus of the coins with the female figure and conical stone has been questioned by ,messrs4 ,j4 ,p4 ,six and ,g4 ,f4 ,hill4 ,i follow the view of ,messrs4 ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer and ,b4 ,v4 ,head4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill writes to me that the attribution of these coins to ,mallus is no longer maintained by any one4 ,imhoof-,blumer himself now conjecturally assigns them to ,aphrodisias in ,cilicia1 and ,mr4 ,hill regards this conjecture as very plausible4 ,see ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 ,kleinasiatische ,mnzen 7,vienna1 #aija-aijb71 ii4 #dce sq4 ,in the uncertainty which still prevails on the subject ,i have left the text unchanged4 ,for my purpose it matters little whether this ,cilician goddess was worshipped at ,mallus or at ,aphrodisias4 ,note to ,second ,edition4 #dhc ,see above1 pp4 #cd sq4 #dhd ,philo of ,byblus1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #efi4 ,el is figured with three pairs of wings on coins of ,byblus4 ,see ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 ii4 #agd2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques1#b p4 #gb4 #dhe ,imhoof-,blumer1 s4v4 8,kronos10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #aegb2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia1 pp4 cxxii4 #ii1 pl4 xvii4 #b4 #dhf ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 op4 cit4 pp4 cxxi4 sq41 #ih1 pl4 xvii4 #a4 #dhg ,another native ,cilician deity who masqueraded in ,greek dress was probably the ,olybrian ,zeus of ,anazarba or ,anazarbus1 but of his true nature and worship we know nothing4 ,see ,w4 ,dittenberger1 ,orientis ,graeci ,inscriptiones ,selectae 7,leipsic1 #aijc-aije71 ii4 p4 #bfg1 ,no4 #egg2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 7where the ,,ms4 reading was wrongly changed by ,salmasius into 74 ,m#abf ,sarpedonian ,artemis4 ,the goddess ,perasia at ,hieropolis-,castabala4 ,the fire-walk in the worship of ,perasia4 ,insensibility to pain regarded as a mark of inspiration4 #dhh ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #ai1 p4 #fgf4 ,the expression of ,strabo leaves it doubtful whether the ministers of the goddess were men or women4 ,there was a headland called ,sarpedon near the mouth of the ,calycadnus ,river in ,western ,cilicia 7,strabo1 xiii4 #d4 #f1 p4 #fbg1 xiv4 #e4 #d1 p4 #fgj71 where ,sarpedon or ,sarpedonian ,apollo had a temple and an oracle4 ,the temple was hewn in the rock1 and contained an image of the god4 ,see ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosoph4-histor4 ,classe1 xliv4 7,vienna1 #ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #ajj1 #ajg4 ,probably this ,sarpedonian ,apollo was a native deity akin to ,sarpedonian ,artemis4 #dhi ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 ,life in ,asiatic ,turkey1 pp4 #abh-acd2 ,j4 ,t4 ,bent1 8,recent ,discoveries in ,eastern ,cilicia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xi4 7#ahij7 pp4 #bcd sq42 ,e4 ,l4 ,hicks1 8,inscriptions from ,eastern ,cilicia10 ibid4 pp4 #bdc sqq42 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 op4 cit4 pp4 #be sqq4 ,the site of ,hieropolis-,castabala was first identified by ,j4 ,t4 ,bent by means of inscriptions4 ,as to the coins of the city1 see ,fr4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 8,zur ,mnzkunde ,kilikiens10 ,zeitschrift fr ,numismatik1 x4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #bfg-bij2 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lycaonia1 ,isauria1 and ,cilicia1 pp4 c4-cii4 #hb-hd1 pl4 xiv4 #a-f2 ,g4 ,macdonald1 ,catalogue of ,greek ,coins in the ,hunterian ,collection1 ii4 #ecd sq4 #dij ,on the difference between ,hieropolis and ,hierapolis see 7,sir7 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,historical ,geography of ,asia ,minor1 pp4 #hd sq4 ,according to him1 the cities designated by such names grew up gradually round a sanctuary2 where ,greek influence prevailed the city in time eclipsed the sanctuary and became known as ,hierapolis1 or the ,sacred ,city1 but where the native element retained its predominance the city continued to be known as ,hieropolis1 or the ,city of the ,sanctuary4 #dia ,e4 ,l4 ,hicks1 8,inscriptions from ,eastern ,cilicia10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xi4 7#ahij7 pp4 #bea-bec2 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 op4 cit4 p4 #bf4 ,these writers differ somewhat in their reading and restoration of the verses1 which are engraved on a limestone basis among the ruins4 ,i follow the version of ,messrs4 ,heberdey and ,wilhelm4 #dib ,j4 ,t4 ,bent and ,e4 ,l4 ,hicks1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bce1 #bdf sq42 ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 op4 cit4 p4 #bg4 #dic ,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #g1 p4 #ecg4 ,see above1 p4 #aae4 ,the ,cilician ,castabala1 the situation of which is identified by inscriptions1 is not mentioned by ,strabo4 ,it is very unlikely that1 with his intimate knowledge of ,asia ,minor1 he should have erred so far as to place the city in ,cappadocia1 to the north of the ,taurus mountains1 instead of in ,cilicia1 to the south of them4 ,it is more probable that there were two cities of the same name1 and that ,strabo has omitted to mention one of them4 ,similarly1 there were two cities called ,comana1 one in ,cappadocia and one in ,pontus2 at both places the same goddess was worshipped with similar rites4 ,see ,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #c1 p4 #ece1 xii4 #c4 #cb1 p4 #eeg4 ,the situation of the various ,castabalas mentioned by ancient writers is discussed by ,f4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 8,zur ,mnzkunde ,kilikiens10 ,zeitschrift fr ,numismatik1 x4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #bhe-bhh4 #did ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cg sq4 #die ,jamblichus1 ,de mysteriis1 iii4 #d4 #dif ,another ,cilician goddess was ,athena of ,magarsus1 to whom ,alexander the ,great sacrificed before the battle of ,issus4 ,see ,arrian1 ,anabasis1 ii4 #e4 #i2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #ddd4 ,the name of the city seems to be ,oriental1 perhaps derived from the ,semitic word for 8cave0 774 ,as to the importance of caves in ,semitic religion1 see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #aig sqq4 ,the site of ,magarsus appears to be at ,karatash1 a hill rising from the sea at the southern extremity of the ,cilician plain1 about forty-five miles due south of ,adana4 ,the walls of the city1 built of great limestone blocks1 are standing to a height of several courses1 and an inscription which mentions the priests of ,magarsian ,athena has been found on the spot4 ,see ,r4 ,heberdey und ,a4 ,wilhelm1 8,reisen in ,kilikien10 ,denkschriften der kaiser4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,philosoph4-histor4 ,classe1 xliv4 7#ahif7 ,no4 vi4 pp4 #f-aj4 #dig ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the ,himalayan ,districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd7 pp4 #hbf sq4 #dih ,the ,rev4 ,g4 ,e4 ,white 7,missionary at ,marsovan1 in the ancient ,pontus71 in a letter to me dated #ai ,southmoor ,road1 ,oxford1 ,february #aa1 #aijg4 ,m#abg ,the divine triad1 ,baal1 ',atheh1 and ,sandan1 at ,tarsus may have been personated by priests and priestesses4 ,m#abh ,tarsus said to have been founded by the ,assyrian king ,sardanapalus1 who burned himself on a pyre4 ,deaths of ,babylonian and ,assyrian kings on the pyre4 #dii ,strabo1 xiv4 #e4 #i1 pp4 #fga sq42 ,arrian1 ,anabasis1 ii4 #e2 ,athenaeus1 xii4 #ci1 p4 #ecj ,a1 ,b4 ,compare ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 2 ,georgius ,syncellus1 ,chronographia1 vol4 i4 p4 #cab1 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf 7,bonn1 #ahbi74 ,the site of ,anchiale has not yet been discovered4 ,at ,tarsus itself the ruins of a vast quadrangular structure have sometimes been identified with the monument of ,sardanapalus4 ,see ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 ,life in ,asiatic ,turkey1 pp4 #cg-ci2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #ecf sqq4 ,but ,mr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth tells me that the ruins in question seem to be the concrete foundations of a ,roman temple4 ,the mistake had already been pointed out by ,mr4 ,r4 ,koldewey4 ,see his article1 8,das sogenannte ,grab des ,sardanapal zu ,tarsus10 ,aus der ,anomia 7,berlin1 #ahij71 pp4 #agh-ahe4 #ejj ,see ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #edb sq4 ,they think that the figure probably represented the king in a common attitude of adoration1 his right arm raised and his thumb resting on his forefinger4 #eja ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,hettiticarum1 pp4 #ag-ai1 plates xxi4-xxv42 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #dib1 #did sq41 #ebh-ecj1 #edg2 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #ajg-abb4 #ejb ,prof4 ,w4 ,max ,mller is of opinion that the ,hittite civilization and the ,hittite system of writing were developed in ,cilicia rather than in ,cappadocia 7,asien und ,europa1 p4 #cej74 #ejc ,according to ,berosus and ,abydenus it was not ,sardanapalus 7,ashurbanipal7 but ,sennacherib who built or rebuilt ,tarsus after the fashion of ,babylon1 causing the river ,cydnus to flow through the midst of the city4 ,see ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 ii4 #ejd1 iv4 #bhb2 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,babylonisch-assyrische ,geschichte1 pp4 #big sq4 #ejd ,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #bg2 ,athenaeus1 xii4 #ch1 p4 #ebi2 ,justin1 i4 #c4 #eje ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 iii4 #dbb sq4 ,for the inscriptions referring to him and a full discussion of them1 see ,c4 ,f4 ,lehmann 7-,haupt71 ama-umukn1 ,knig von ,babylonien1 #ffh-fdh v4 ,chr4 7,leipsic1 #ahib74 #ejf ,abydenus1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iv4 #bhb2 ,georgius ,syncellus1 ,chronographia1 i4 p4 #cif1 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf2 ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd7 pp4 #egf sq42 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 iii4 #dhb-dhe4 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele thought that the story of the death of ,saracus might be a popular but mistaken duplicate of the death of ,shamash-shumukin 7,babylonisch-assyrische ,geschichte1 pp4 #daj sq474 ,zimri1 king of ,israel1 also burned himself in his palace to escape falling into the hands of his enemies 7#a ,kings xvi4 #ah74 ,m#abi ,story that ,cyrus intended to burn ,croesus alive4 ,it is unlikely that the ,persians would thus have polluted the sacred element of fire4 #ejg ,herodotus1 i4 #hf sq4 #ejh ,raoul-,rochette1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 p4 #bgd4 #eji ,j4 ,darmesteter1 ,the ,zend-,avesta1 vol4 i4 7,oxford1 #ahhj7 pp4 lxxxvi41 lxxxviii-xc4 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 iv474 #eaj ,zend-,avesta1 ,venddd1 ,fargard1 v4 #g4 #ci-dd 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 iv4 #fj sq474 #eaa ,zend-,avesta1 translated by ,j4 ,darmesteter1 i4 pp4 xc4 #i1 #aaj sq4 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 iv474 #eab ,strabo1 xv4 #c4 #ad1 p4 #gcb4 ,even gold1 on account of its resemblance to fire1 might not be brought near a corpse 7id4 xv4 #c4 #ah1 p4 #gcd74 ,m#acj ,the older and truer tradition was that in the extremity of his fortunes ,croesus attempted to burn himself4 #eac ,sardes fell in the autumn of #edf ,b4,c4 7,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd71 p4 #fjd74 ,bacchylides was probably born between #eab and #eje ,b4,c4 ,see ,r4 ,c4 ,jebb1 ,bacchylides1 the ,poems and ,fragments 7,cambridge1 #aije71 pp4 #a sq4 #ead ,bacchylides1 iii4 #bd-fb4 #eae ,f4 ,g4 ,welcker1 ,alte ,denkmler 7,gttingen1 #ahdi-ahfd71 iii4 pl4 xxxiii42 ,a4 ,baumeister1 ,denkmler des klassischen ,altertums 7,munich and ,leipsic1 #ahhe-ahhh71 ii4 #gif1 fig4 #hfj2 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith1 8,illustrations to ,bacchylides10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xviii4 7#ahih7 pp4 #bfg-bfi2 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 iii4 #fah sq4 ,it is true that ,cambyses caused the dead body of the ,egyptian king ,amasis to be dragged from the tomb1 mangled1 and burned2 but the deed is expressly branded by the ancient historian as an outrage on ,persian religion 7,herodotus1 iii4 #af74 #eaf ,raoul-,rochette1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 pp4 #bgg sq42 ,m4 ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 iv4#e #ccj-ccb2 ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd7 p4 #fjd2 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient ,classique1 iii4 #fah4 #eag ,herodotus1 i4 #g4 #eah ,see above1 pp4 #aae sq41 #agc sq4 ,m#aca ,legend that ,semiramis burnt herself on a pyre4 #eai ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bdc2 ,pliny1 viii4 #aee4 #ebj ,see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 8,ctesias and the ,semiramis ,legend10 ,english ,historical ,review1 ii4 7#ahhg7 pp4 #cjc-cag4 ,but the legend of ,semiramis appears to have gathered round the person of a real ,assyrian queen1 by name ,shammuramat1 who lived towards the end of the ninth century ,b4,c4 and is known to us from historical inscriptions4 ,see ,c4 ,f4 ,lehmann-,haupt1 ,die historische ,semiramis und ihre ,zeit 7,tbingen1 #aiaj71 pp4 #a sqq42 id41 s4v4 8,semiramis10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iv4 #fgh sqq42 ,the ,scapegoat1 pp4 #cfi sqq4 #eba ,see above1 p4 #aad4 #ebb ,in ancient ,greece we seem to have a reminiscence of widow-burning in the legend that when the corpse of ,capaneus was being consumed on the pyre1 his wife ,evadne threw herself into the flames and perished4 ,see ,euripides1 ,supplices1 #ihj sqq42 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #g4 #a2 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 i4 #cj2 ,ovid1 ,tristia1 v4 #ad4 #ch4 ,m#acb ,the 8great burnings0 for ,jewish kings4 #ebc ,isaiah xxx4 #cc4 ,the ,revised ,version has 8a ,topheth0 instead of 8,tophet40 ,but ,hebrew does not possess an indefinite article 7the few passages of the ,bible in which the ,aramaic is so used are no exception to the rule71 and there is no evidence that ,tophet 7,topheth7 was ever employed in a general sense4 ,the passage of ,isaiah has been rightly interpreted by ,w4 ,robertson ,smith in the sense indicated in the text1 though he denies that it contains any reference to the sacrifice of the children4 ,see his ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4 #cgb sq4 ,he observes 7p4 #cgb1 note #c73 8,saul's body was burned 7#a ,sam4 xxxi4 #ab71 possibly to save it from the risk of exhumation by the ,philistines1 but perhaps rather with a religious intention1 and almost as an act of worship1 since his bones were buried under the sacred tamarisk at ,jabesh40 ,in #a ,chronicles x4 #ab the tree under which the bones of ,saul were buried is not a tamarisk but a terebinth or an oak4 #ebd #b ,chronicles xvi4 #ad1 xxi4 #ai2 ,jeremiah xxxiv4 #e4 ,there is no ground for assuming1 as the ,authorized version does in ,jeremiah xxxiv4 #e1 that only spices were burned on these occasions2 indeed the burning of spices is not mentioned at all in any of the three passages4 ,the 8sweet odours and divers kinds of spices prepared by the apothecaries' art10 which were laid in the dead king's bed 7#b ,chronicles xvi4 #ad71 were probably used to embalm him1 not to be burned at his funeral4 ,for though 8great burnings0 were regularly made for the dead kings of ,judah1 there is no evidence 7apart from the doubtful case of ,saul7 that their bodies were cremated4 ,they are regularly said to have been buried1 not burnt4 ,the passage of ,isaiah seems to show that what was burned at a royal funeral was a great1 but empty1 pyre4 ,that the burnings for the kings formed part of a heathen custom was rightly perceived by ,renan 7,histoire du peuple d',israel1 iii4 #aba1 note74 #ebe ,josephus1 ,bell4 ,jud4 v4 #d4 #a4 ,see ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 s4v4 8,jerusalem10 vol4 ii4 #bdbc sq4 #ebf ,as to the ,moloch worship1 see ,note ,i4 at the end of the volume4 ,i have to thank the ,rev4 ,professor ,r4 ,h4 ,kennett for indicating to me the inference which may be drawn from the identification of the ,valley of ,hinnom with the ,tyropoeon4 ,m#acc ,the great burnings for ,jewish ,rabbis at ,meiron in ,galilee4 #ebg ,w4 ,m4 ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book1 ,central ,palestine and ,phoenicia 7,london1 #ahhc71 pp4 #ege-egi2 ,ed4 ,robinson1 ,biblical ,researches in ,palestine#c 7,london1 #ahfg71 ii4 #dcj4 sq42 ,k4 ,baedeker1 ,palestine and ,syria#d 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 p4 #bee4 #ebh ,herodotus1 v4 #ib4 #g4 #ebi ,c4 ,bock1 ,temples and ,elephants 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #gc-gf4 ,m#acd ,death by fire regarded by the ancients as a kind of apotheosis4 ,fire was supposed to purge away the mortal parts of men1 leaving the immortal4 #ecj ,this view was maintained long ago by ,raoul-,rochette in regard to the deaths both of ,sardanapalus and of ,croesus4 ,he supposed that 8the ,assyrian monarch1 reduced to the last extremity1 wished1 by the mode of death which he chose1 to give to his sacrifice the form of an apotheosis and to identify himself with the national god of his country by allowing himself to be consumed1 like him1 on a pyre4444 ,thus mythology and history would be combined in a legend in which the god and the monarch would finally be confused4 ,there is nothing in this which is not conformable to the ideas and habits of ,asiatic civilization40 ,see his memoir1 8,sur l',hercule ,assyrien et ,phnicien10 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 xvii4 ,deuxime ,partie 7,paris1 #ahdh71 pp4 #bdg sq41 #bga sqq4 ,the notion of regeneration by fire was fully recognized by ,raoul-,rochette 7op4 cit4 pp4 #cj sq474 ,it deserves to be noted that ,croesus burned on a huge pyre the great and costly offerings which he dedicated to ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,he thought1 says ,herodotus 7i4 #ej71 that in this way the god would get possession of the offerings4 #eca ,as to ,isis see ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #af4 ,as to ,demeter see ,homer1 ,hymn to ,demeter1 #bca-bfb2 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #e4 #a2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #edg-efj4 ,as to ,thetis see ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argon1 iv4 #hfe-hgi2 ,apollodorus1 ,bibl4 iii4 #ac4 #f4 ,most of these writers express clearly the thought that the fire consumed the mortal element1 leaving the immortal4 ,thus ,plutarch says1 4 ,apollodorus says 7i4 #e4 #a71 1 and again 7iii4 #ac4 #f71 4 ,apollonius ,rhodius says1 4 ,and ,ovid has1 8,inque foco pueri corpus vivente favilla ,obruit1 humanum purget ut ignis onus40 ,on the custom of passing children over a fire as a purification1 see my note1 8,the ,youth of ,achilles10 ,classical ,review1 vii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #bic sq4 ,on the purificatory virtue which the ,greeks ascribed to fire see also ,erwin ,rohde1 ,psyche#c 7,tbingen and ,leipsic1 #aijc71 ii4 #aja1 note #b4 ,the ,warramunga of ,central ,australia have a tradition of a great man who 8used to burn children in the fire so as to make them grow strong0 7,b4 ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,the ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 ,london1 #aijd1 p4 #dbi74 #ecb ,she is said to have thus restored the youth of her husband ,jason1 her father-in-law ,aeson1 the nurses of ,dionysus1 and all their husbands 7,euripides1 ,medea1 ,argum42 ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,knights1 #acba2 compare ,plautus1 ,pseudolus1 #hgi sqq472 and she applied the same process with success to an old ram 7,apollodorus1 ,bibl4 i4 #i4 #bg2 ,pausanias1 viii4 #aa4 #b2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bd74 #ecc ,pindar1 ,olymp4 i4 #dj sqq41 with the ,scholiast2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #aeb4 #ecd ,jamblichus1 ,de mysteriis1 v4 #ab4 #ece ,lucian1 ,de morte ,peregrini1 #bg sq4 #ecf ,diogenes ,laertius1 viii4 #b4 #fi sq4 #ecg ,lucian1 ,de morte ,peregrini1 #be2 ,strabo1 xv4 #a4 #fd and #fh1 pp4 #gae1 #gag2 ,arrian1 ,anabasis1 vii4 #c4 #ech ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #db sqq4 ,m#ace ,the ,lydian kings seem to have claimed divinity on the ground of their descent from ,hercules1 the god of the double-axe and of the lion2 and this ,lydian ,hercules or ,sandon appears to have been the same with the ,cilician ,sandan4 ,lydian kings held responsible for the weather and the crops4 #eci ,herodotus1 i4 #g4 #edj ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de magistratibus1 iii4 #fd4 #eda ,see above1 p4 #add1 note #b4 #edb ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones ,graecae1 #de4 ,zeus ,labrandeus was worshipped at the village of ,labraunda1 situated in a pass over the mountains1 near ,mylasa in ,caria4 ,the temple was ancient4 ,a road called the ,sacred ,way led downhill for ten miles to ,mylasa1 a city of white marble temples and colonnades which stood in a fertile plain at the foot of a precipitous mountain1 where the marble was quarried4 ,processions bearing the holy emblems went to and fro along the ,sacred ,way from ,mylasa to ,labraunda4 ,see ,strabo1 xiv4 #b4 #bc1 pp4 #feh sq4 ,the double-headed axe figures on the ruins and coins of ,mylasa 7,ch4 ,fellows1 ,an ,account of ,discoveries in ,lycia1 ,london1 #ahda1 p4 #ge2 ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum1 ,oxford1 #ahhg1 pp4 #ebh sq474 ,a horseman carrying a double-headed axe is a type which occurs on the coins of many towns in ,lydia and ,phrygia4 ,at ,thyatira this axe-bearing hero was called ,tyrimnus1 and games were held in his honour4 ,he was identified with ,apollo and the sun4 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lydia 7,london1 #aija71 p4 cxxviii4 ,on a coin of ,mostene in ,lydia the double-headed axe is represented between a bunch of grapes and ears of corn1 as if it were an emblem of fertility 7,b4 ,v4 ,head1 op4 cit4 p4 #afb1 pl4 xvii4 #aa74 #edc ,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 i4#d 7,berlin1 #ahid7 pp4 #ada sq4 ,as to the ,hittite thunder-god and his axe see above1 pp4 #acd sqq4 #edd ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #chb sq4 #ede ,ibid4 iii4 #cha4 ,m#acf ,the lion-god of ,lydia4 #edf ,herodotus1 i4 #hd4 #edg ,eusebius1 ,chronic4 i4 #fi1 ed4 ,a4 ,schoene 7,berlin1 #ahff-ahge74 #edh ,herodotus1 i4 #ej4 ,at ,thebes there was a stone lion which was said to have been dedicated by ,hercules 7,pausanias1 ix4 #ag4 #b74 #edi ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,historia ,numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 p4 #eec2 id41 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lydia 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 xcviii1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bdg1 #bec1 #bed1 #bfd1 with plates xxiv4 #i-aa1 #ac1 ,,xxv4 #b1 #ab1 xxvii4 #h4 ,m#acg ,identity of the ,lydian and ,cilician ,hercules4 #eej ,see above1 p4 #adc4 ,m#ach ,the ,cilician and ,lydian ,hercules 7,sandan or ,sandon7 seems to have been a ,hittite deity4 #eea ,herodotus1 ii4 #ajf2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 iv4 #gdb-geb2 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,hettiticarum1 pp4 #cc-cg1 with plates xxxvii41 xxxviii42 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #agj-agc1 with plate liv4 #eeb ,pausanias1 iii4 #bd4 #b1 v4 #ac4 #g with my note2 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 op4 cit4 iv4 #geb-gei2 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cg sq41 pl4 xxxix4 #a2 ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #afg-agj1 with plate liii4 ,unlike most ,hittite sculptures the figure of ,mother ,plastene is carved almost in the round4 ,the inscriptions which accompany both these ,lydian monuments are much defaced4 #eec ,the suggestion that the ,heraclid kings of ,lydia were ,hittites1 or under ,hittite influence1 is not novel4 ,see ,w4 ,wright1 ,empire of the ,hittites1 p4 #ei2 ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd7 p4 #cjg1 #beg2 ,fr4 ,hommel1 ,grundriss der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients1 p4 #ed1 note #b2 ,l4 ,messerschmidt1 ,the ,hittites1 p4 #bb4 ,m#aci ,death and resurrection of the ,lydian hero ,tylon4 ,feast of the ,golden ,flower at ,sardes4 #eed ,see above1 pp4 #aaj sqq4 #eee ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,roman4 i4 #bg4 #a4 #eef ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 xxv4 #dea-eea2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxv4 #ad4 ,the story1 as we learn from ,pliny1 was told by ,xanthus1 an early historian of ,lydia4 #eeg ,thus ,glaucus1 son of ,minos1 was restored to life by the seer ,polyidus1 who learned the trick from a serpent4 ,see ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #c4 #a4 ,for references to other tales of the same sort see my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #aj4 #c 7vol4 iii4 pp4 #fe sq474 ,the serpent's acquaintance with the tree of life in the garden of ,eden perhaps belongs to the same cycle of stories4 #eeh ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lydia1 pp4 cxi-cxiii1 with pl4 xxvii4 #ab4 ,on the coins the champion's name appears as ,masnes or ,masanes1 but the reading is doubtful4 ,the name ,masnes occurred in ,xanthus's history of ,lydia 7,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iv4 #fbi74 ,it is probably the same with ,manes1 the name of a son of ,zeus and ,earth1 who is said to have been the first king of ,lydia 7,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,ant4 ,rom4 i4 #bg4 #a74 ,manes was the father of ,king ,atys 7,herodotus1 i4 #id74 ,thus ,tylon was connected with the royal family of ,lydia through his champion as well as in the ways mentioned in the text4 #eei ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 l4c4 #efj ,see above1 p4 #ahc4 #efa ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lydia1 p4 cxiii4 #efb ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lydia1 pp4 cx1 cxiii4 ,the festival seems to be mentioned only on coins4 #efc ,see above1 p4 #aed4 #efd ,v4 ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen und ,haustiere#g 7,berlin1 #aijb71 p4 #bfa4 ,he would derive the name from the ,semitic1 or at all events the ,cilician language4 ,the ,hebrew word for saffron is karkm4 ,as to the spring flowers of ,north-,western ,asia ,minor1 ,w4 ,m4 ,leake remarks 7,april #a1 #ahjj7 that 8primroses1 violets1 and crocuses1 are the only flowers to be seen0 7,journal of a ,tour in ,asia ,minor1 ,london1 #ahbd1 p4 #adc74 ,near ,mylasa in ,caria1 ,fellows saw 7,march #bj1 #ahdj7 the broom covered with yellow blossoms and a great variety of anemones1 like 8a rich ,turkey carpet1 in which the green grass did not form a prominent colour amidst the crimson1 lilac1 blue1 scarlet1 white1 and yellow flowers0 7,ch4 ,fellows1 ,an ,account of ,discoveries in ,lycia1 ,london1 #ahda1 pp4 #fe1 #ff74 ,in ,february the yellow stars of ,gagea arvensis cover the rocky and grassy grounds of ,lycia1 and the field-marigold often meets the eye4 ,at the same season in ,lycia the shrub ,colutea arborescens opens its yellow flowers4 ,see ,t4 ,a4 ,b4 ,spratt and ,e4 ,forbes1 ,travels in ,lycia 7,london1 #ahdg71 ii4 #acc4 ,i must leave it to others to identify the ,golden ,flower of ,sardes4 ,m#adj ,the custom of burning a god may have been intended to recruit his divine energies4 ,m#ada ,the custom of burning a god may have stood in some relation to volcanic phenomena4 ,m#adb ,the great extinct volcano ,mount ,argaeus in ,cappadocia4 #efe ,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #g1 p4 #ech4 ,mount ,argaeus still retains its ancient name in slightly altered forms 7,ardjeh1 ,erdjich1 ,erjus74 ,its height is about #ac1jjj feet4 ,in the nineteenth century it was ascended by at least two ,english travellers1 ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton and ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer4 ,see ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia1 ii4 #bfi-bha2 ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer1 ,turkish ,armenia and ,eastern ,asia ,minor1 pp4 #id1 #aac-aca2 lise ,reclus1 ,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle 7,paris1 #ahgi-ahid71 ix4 #dgf-dgh4 ,a ,hittite inscription is carved at a place called ,tope ,nefezi1 near ,asarjik1 on the slope of ,mount ,argaeus4 ,see ,j4 ,garstang1 ,the ,land of the ,hittites1 pp4 #aeb sq4 #eff ,h4 ,f4 ,tozer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abe-abg4 ,m#adc ,persian fire-worship in ,cappadocia4 ,worship of natural fires which burn perpetually4 ,the perpetual fires of ,baku4 #efg ,strabo1 xv4 #c4 #ad sq41 pp4 #gcb sq4 ,a bundle of twigs1 called the ,barsom 7,beresma in the ,avesta71 is still used by the ,parsee priests in chanting their liturgy4 ,see ,m4 ,haug1 ,essays on the ,sacred ,language1 ,writings and ,religion of the ,parsis#c 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #d1 note #a1 #bhc4 ,when a potter in ,southern ,india is making a pot which is to be worshipped as a household deity1 he 8should close his mouth with a bandage1 so that his breath may not defile the pot40 ,see ,e4 ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aiji71 iv4 #aea4 #efh ,baron ,charles ,hgel1 ,travels in ,kashmir and the ,panjab 7,london1 #ahde71 pp4 #db-df2 ,w4 ,crooke1 ,things ,indian 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #bai4 #efi ,jonas ,hanway1 ,an ,historical ,account of the ,british ,trade over the ,caspian ,sea3 with the ,author's ,journal of ,travels1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #aged71 i4 #bfc4 ,for later descriptions of the fires and fire-worshippers of ,baku1 see ,j4 ,reinegg1 ,beschreibung des ,kaukasus 7,gotha1 ,hildesheim1 and ,st4 ,petersburg1 #agif-agig71 i4 #aea-aei2 ,a4 von ,haxthausen1 ,transkaukasia 7,leipsic1 #ahef71 ii4 #hj-he4 ,compare ,w4 ,crooke1 ,things ,indian1 p4 #bai4 ,m#add ,the ,burnt ,land of ,lydia4 #egj ,strabo1 xii4 #h4 #ah sq41 p4 #egi2 xiii4 #d4 #aa1 p4 #fbh4 ,the wine of the district is mentioned by ,vitruvius 7viii4 #c4 #ab7 and ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4 xiv4 #ge74 #ega ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia1 i4 #acf-adj1 ii4 #aca-ach4 ,one of the three recent cones described by ,strabo is now called the ,kara ,devlit1 or ,black ,inkstand4 ,its top is about #bejj feet above the sea1 but only #ejj feet above the surrounding plain4 ,the adjoining town of ,koula1 built of the black lava on which it stands1 has a sombre and dismal look4 ,another of the cones1 almost equally high1 has a crater of about half a mile in circumference and three or four hundred feet deep4 #egb ,strabo1 xiii4 #d4 #aa1 p4 #fbh4 ,compare his account of the ,catanian vineyards 7vi4 #b4 #c1 p4 #bfi74 ,m#ade ,earthquakes in ,asia ,minor4 ,worship of ,poseidon1 the earthquake god4 #egc ,strabo1 xii4 #h4 #af-ah1 pp4 #egh sq42 xiii4 #d4 #aj sq41 p4 #fbh4 #egd ,strabo1 xii4 #h4 #ah1 p4 #egi4 ,compare ,tacitus1 ,annals1 xii4 #eh4 #ege ,strabo1 i4 #c4 #af1 p4 #eg4 ,compare ,plutarch1 ,de ,pythiae oraculis1 #aa2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bjb2 ,justin1 xxx4 #d4 ,the event seems to have happened in #aig ,b4,c4 ,several other islands are known to have appeared in the same bay both in ancient and modern times4 ,so far as antiquity is concerned1 the dates of their appearance are given by ,pliny1 but some confusion on the subject has crept into his mind1 or rather1 perhaps1 into his text4 ,see the discussion of the subject in ,w4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography 7,london1 #ahgc71 ii4 #aaeh-aafj4 ,as to the eruptions in the bay of ,santorin1 the last of which occurred in #ahff and produced a new island1 see ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology#ab 7,london1 #ahge71 i4 #ea1 ii4 #fe sqq42 ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland 7,breslau1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bgb sqq4 ,there is a monograph on ,santorin and its eruptions 7,f4 ,fouqu1 ,santorin et ses ruptions1 ,paris1 #ahgi74 ,strabo has given a brief but striking account of ,rhodes1 its architecture1 its art-treasures1 and its constitution 7xiv4 #b4 #e1 pp4 #feb sq474 ,as to the ,rhodian schools of art see ,h4 ,brunn1 ,geschichte der griechischen ,knstler 7,stuttgart1 #aheg-ahei71 i4 #dei sqq41 ii4 #bcc sqq41 #bhf sq4 #egf ,aristophanes1 ,acharn4 #fhb2 ,pausanias1 iii4 #aa4 #i1 vii4 #ba4 #g2 ,plutarch1 ,theseus1 #cf2 ,aristides1 ,isthmic4 vol4 i4 p4 #bi1 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf 7,leipsic1 #ahbi72 ,appian1 ,bell4 ,civ4 v4 #ih2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ag4 #bb2 ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum#b 7,leipsic1 #ahih-aija71 ii4 p4 #bcj1 ,no4 #edc4 #egg ,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #bb4 ,m#adf ,spartan propitiation of ,poseidon during an earthquake4 #egh ,xenophon1 ,hellenica1 iv4 #g4 #d4 ,as to the ,spartan headquarters staff 7 71 see id4 iv4 #e4 #h1 vi4 #d4 #ad2 ,xenophon1 ,respublica ,lacedaem4 xiii4 #a1 xv4 #d4 ,usually the ,spartans desisted from any enterprise they had in hand when an earthquake happened 7,thucydides1 iii4 #ei4 #a1 v4 #ej4 #e1 vi4 #ie4 #a74 #egi ,thucydides1 v4 #gj4 #a4 ,the use of the music1 ,thucydides tells us1 was not to inspire the men1 but to enable them to keep step1 and so to march in close order4 ,without music a long line of battle was apt to straggle in advancing to the charge4 ,as missiles were little used in ,greek warfare1 there was no need to hurry the advance over the intervening ground2 so it was made deliberately and with the bands playing4 ,the air to which the ,spartans charged was called ,castor's tune4 ,it was the king in person who gave the word for the flutes to strike up4 ,see ,plutarch1 ,lycurgus1 #bb4 #ehj ,xenophon1 ,respublica ,lacedaem4 xi4 #c2 ,aristophanes1 ,lysistrata1 #aadj2 ,aristotle1 cited by a scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,acharn4 #cbj2 ,plutarch1 ,instituta ,laconica1 #bd4 ,when a great earthquake had destroyed the city of ,sparta and the ,messenians were in revolt1 the ,spartans sent a messenger to ,athens asking for help4 ,aristophanes 7,lysistrata1 #aach sqq47 describes the man as if he had seen him1 sitting as a suppliant on the altar with his pale face and his red coat4 #eha ,i have assumed that the sun shone on the ,spartans at ,thermopylae4 ,for the battle was fought in the height of summer1 when the ,greek sky is generally cloudless1 and on that particular morning the weather was very still4 ,the evening before1 the ,persians had sent round a body of troops by a difficult pass to take the ,spartans in the rear2 day was breaking when they neared the summit1 and the first intimation of their approach which reached the ears of the ,phocian guards posted on the mountain was the loud crackling of leaves under their feet in the oak forest4 ,moreover1 the famous ,spartan saying about fighting in the shade of the ,persian arrows1 which obscured the sun1 points to bright1 hot weather4 ,it was at high noon1 and therefore probably in the full blaze of the mid-day sun1 that the last march-out took place4 ,see ,herodotus1 vii4 #bae-bbf2 and as to the date of the battle 7about the time of the ,olympic games7 see ,herodotus1 vii4 #bjf1 viii4 #ab and #bf2 ,g4 ,busolt1 ,griechische ,geschichte1 ii4#b 7,gotha1 #ahie7 p4 #fgc1 note #i4 ,m#adg ,modes of stopping an earthquake by informing the god or giant that there are still men on the earth4 #ehb ,s4 ,mller1 ,reizen en ,onderzoekingen in den ,indischen ,archipel 7,amsterdam1 #aheg71 ii4 #bfd sq4 ,compare ,a4 ,bastian1 ,indonesien 7,berlin1 #ahhd-ahhi71 ii4 #c4 ,the beliefs and customs of the ,east ,indian peoples in regard to earthquakes have been described by ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,het animisme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel1 ,tweede ,stuk 7,leyden1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bdg-bed2 id41 ,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 #aiab71 iii4 #bgd-bha4 ,compare id41 ,handleiding voor de vergelijkende ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi 7,leyden1 #ahic71 pp4 #fjd sq42 and on primitive conceptions of earthquakes in general1 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture#b 7,london1 #ahgc71 i4 #cfd-cff2 ,r4 ,lasch1 8,die ,ursache und ,bedeutung der ,erdbeben im ,volksglauben und ,volksbrauch10 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 v4 7#aijb7 pp4 #bcf-beg1 #cfi-chc4 #ehc ,epiphanius1 ,adversus ,haereses1 ii4 #b4 #bc 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xlii4 #fh74 #ehd ,h4 ,n4 van der ,tuuk1 8,notes on the ,kawi ,language and ,literature10 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s4 xiii4 7#ahha7 p4 #ej4 #ehe ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en ,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #cih2 compare id4 pp4 #ccj1 #dbh4 #ehf ,g4 ,bamler1 8,tami10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4 #dib4 #ehg ,mrs4 ,leslie ,milne1 ,shans at ,home 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #ed4 #ehh ,de ,st4 ,cricq1 8,voyage du ,prou au ,brsil par les fleuves ,ucayali et ,amazone1 ,indiens ,conibos10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ive ,srie1 vi4 7#ahec7 p4 #bib4 #ehi ,miss ,alice ,werner1 ,the ,natives of ,british ,central ,africa 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #ef4 #eij ,mgr4 ,lechaptois1 ,aux ,rives du ,tanganika 7,algiers1 #aiac71 p4 #bag4 #eia ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cac sq4 ,m#adh ,conduct of the ,bataks during an earthquake4 #eib ,w4 ,kdding1 8,die batakschen ,gtter und ihr ,verhltniss zum ,brahmanismus10 ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #dje4 #eic ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,het ,animisme bij de volken van den ,indischen ,archipel10 ,verspreide ,geschriften1 ii4 #bgi2 ,h4 ,n4 van der ,tuuk1 op4 cit4 pp4 #di sq4 ,m#adi ,various modes of prevailing upon the earthquake god to stop4 #eid ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 8,de ,topantunuasu of oorspronkelijke ,volkstammen van ,central ,selebes10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xxxv4 7#ahhf7 p4 #ie4 #eie ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands 7,london1 #ahch71 p4 #cgi4 #eif ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #baa2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 ii4 #aca4 #eig ,a4 ,schadenburg1 8,die ,bewohner von ,sd-,mindanao und der ,insel ,samal10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xvii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #cb4 #eih ,w4 ,mariner1 ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 ii4 #aab sq4 #eii ,sangermano1 ,description of the ,burmese ,empire 7,rangoon1 #ahhe71 p4 #acj4 #fjj ,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die ,kstenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel 7,hiltrup bei ,mnster1 ,n4,d471 p4 #ccf4 #fja ,a4 ,pinart1 8,les ,indiens de l'tat de ,panama10 ,revue d',ethnographie1 vi4 7#ahhg7 p4 #aai4 #fjb ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1 ,history of the ,new ,world called ,america1 i4 7,oxford1 #ahib7 p4 #dfi4 #fjc ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast 7,london1 #ahhg71 pp4 #ce sq4 ,m#aej ,religious and moral effects of earthquakes4 #fjd ,j4 ,jackson1 in ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine's ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #dgc4 ,my friend1 the late ,mr4 ,lorimer ,fison1 wrote to me 7,december #ae1 #aijf7 that the name of the ,fijian earthquake god is ,maui1 not ,a ,dage1 as ,jackson says4 ,mr4 ,fison adds1 8,i have seen ,fijians stamping and smiting the ground and yelling at the top of their voices in order to rouse him40 #fje ,j4 ,t4 ,nieuwenhuisen en ,h4 ,c4 ,b4 von ,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het eiland ,nias10 ,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4 7,batavia1 #ahfc7 p4 #aah2 ,th4 ,c4 ,rappard1 8,het eiland ,nias en zijne bewoners10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxii4 7#aiji7 p4 #ehb4 ,in ,soerakarta1 a district of ,java1 when an earthquake takes place the people lie flat on their stomachs on the ground1 and lick it with their tongues so long as the earthquake lasts4 ,this they do in order that they may not lose their teeth prematurely4 ,see ,j4 ,w4 ,winter1 8,beknopte ,beschrijving van het hof ,soerokarta in #ahbd10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 liv4 7#aijb7 p4 #he4 ,the connexion of ideas in this custom is not clear4 ,m#aea ,the god of the sea and of the earthquake naturally conceived as one4 #fjf ,on this question see ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland 7,breslau1 #ahhe71 pp4 #ccb-ccf4 ,as to the frequency of earthquakes in ,achaia and ,asia ,minor see ,seneca1 ,epist4 xiv4 #c4 #i2 and as to ,achaia in particular see ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cbd-cbf4 ,on the coast of ,achaia there was a chain of sanctuaries of ,poseidon 7,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 i4#d #ege74 #fjg ,see ,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1#ab ii4 #adg sqq42 ,j4 ,milne1 ,earthquakes 7,london1 #ahhf71 pp4 #afe sqq4 #fjh ,see1 for example1 ,thucydides1 iii4 #hi4 #fji ,strabo1 viii4 #g4 #a sq41 pp4 #chd sq42 ,diodorus ,siculus1 xv4 #di2 ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 xi4 #ai2 ,pausanias1 vii4 #bd4 #e sq4 and #ab1 vii4 #be4 #a and #d4 #faj ,diodorus ,siculus1 xv4 #di4 #d sq4 ,among the most famous seats of the worship of ,poseidon in ,peloponnese were ,taenarum in ,laconia1 ,helice in ,achaia1 ,mantinea in ,arcadia1 and the island of ,calauria1 off the coast of ,troezen4 ,see ,pausanias1 ii4 #cc4 #b1 iii4 #be4 #d-h1 vii4 #bd4 #e sq41 viii4 #aj4 #b-d4 ,laconia as well as ,achaia has suffered much from earthquakes1 and it contained many sanctuaries of ,poseidon4 ,we may suppose that the deity was worshipped here chiefly as the earthquake god1 since the rugged coasts of ,laconia are ill adapted to maritime enterprise1 and the ,lacedaemonians were never a seafaring folk4 ,see ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland1 pp4 #ccj sq41 #cce sq4 ,for ,laconian sanctuaries of ,poseidon see ,pausanias1 iii4 #aa4 #i1 iii4 #ab4 #e1 iii4 #ad4 #b and #g1 iii4 #ae4 #aj1 iii4 #bj4 #b1 iii4 #ba4 #e1 iii4 #be4 #d4 ,m#aeb ,poisonous mephitic vapours4 #faa ,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1#ab i4 #cia sqq41 #eij4 #fab 8,extract from a ,letter of ,mr4 ,alexander ,loudon10 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ii4 7#ahcb7 pp4 #fj-fb2 ,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1#ab i4 #eij4 #fac ,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 l4c4 ,m#aec ,places of ,pluto or ,charon4 ,the valley of ,amsanctus4 #fad ,lucretius1 vi4 #gch sqq4 #fae ,strabo1 v4 #d4 #e1 p4 #bdd1 xii4 #h4 #ag1 p4 #egi1 xiii4 #d4 #ad1 p4 #fbi1 xiv4 #a4 #aa and #dd1 pp4 #fcf1 #fdi2 ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 i4 #cf4 #gi2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bjh4 ,compare ,aristotle1 ,de mundo1 #d1 p4 #cie ,b1 ed4 ,bekker4 #faf ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #hd1 who says that some people looked on ,mefitis as a god1 the male partner of ,leucotho1 to whom he stood as ,adonis to ,venus or as ,virbius to ,diana4 ,as to ,mefitis see ,l4 ,preller1 ,rmische ,mythologie#c 7,berlin1 #ahha-ahhc71 ii4 #add sq42 ,r4 ,peter1 s4v4 8,mefitis0 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #beai sqq4 #fag ,virgil1 ,aen4 vii4 #efc-ega1 with the commentary of ,servius2 ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 i4 #cf4 #gi2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bjh4 #fah ,letter of ,mr4 ,hamilton 7,british ,envoy at the ,court of ,naples71 in ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ii4 7#ahcb7 pp4 #fb-fe2 ,w4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography1 i4 #abg2 ,h4 ,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde 7,berlin1 #ahhc-aijb71 i4 #bdb1 #bga1 ii4 #hai sq4 ,another place in ,italy infested by poisonous exhalations is the grotto called dei cani at ,naples4 ,it is described by ,addison in his 8,remarks on ,several ,parts of ,italy0 7,works1 ,london1 #ahaa1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hi-ia74 ,m#aed ,sanctuaries of ,charon or ,pluto in ,caria4 #fai ,strabo1 xiv4 #a4 #aa1 p4 #fcf4 #fbj ,strabo1 xiv4 #a4 #dd1 pp4 #fdi sq4 ,a coin of ,nysa shows the bull carried to the sacrifice by six naked youths and preceded by a naked flute-player4 ,see ,b4 ,v4 ,head1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,lydia1 pp4 lxxxiii4 #aha1 pl4 xx4 #aj4 ,strabo was familiar with this neighbourhood1 for he tells us 7xiv4 #a4 #dh1 p4 #fej7 that in his youth he studied at ,nysa under the philosopher ,aristodemus4 ,m#aee ,sanctuary of ,pluto at the ,lydian or ,phrygian ,hierapolis4 #fba ,some of the ancients assigned ,hierapolis to ,lydia1 and others to ,phrygia 7,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 i4 7,oxford1 #ahie7 pp4 #hd sq4 #fbb ,strabo1 xiii4 #d4 #ad1 pp4 #fbi sq42 ,dio ,cassius1 lxviii4 #bg4 #c2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bjh2 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #f4 #ah4 ,m#aef ,the hot springs and petrified cascades of ,hierapolis4 #fbc ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7l4c47 speaks as if the cave no longer existed in his time4 ,m#aeg ,the hot pool of ,hierapolis with its deadly exhalations4 ,m#aeh ,deposits left by the waters of ,hierapolis4 #fbd ,strabo1 xiii4 #d4 #ad1 pp4 #fbi1 #fcj2 ,vitruvius1 viii4 #c4 #aj4 ,for modern descriptions of ,hierapolis see ,r4 ,chandler1 ,travels in ,asia ,minor#b 7,london1 #aggf71 pp4 #bbh-bce2 ,ch4 ,fellows1 ,journal written during an ,excursion in ,asia ,minor 7,london1 #ahci71 pp4 #bhc-bhe2 ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 ,researches in ,asia ,minor1 ,pontus1 and ,armenia1 i4 #eag-eba2 ,e4 ,renan1 ,saint ,paul1 pp4 #ceg sq42 ,e4 ,j4 ,davis1 ,anatolica 7,london1 #ahgd71 pp4 #ig-aab2 4 ,reclus1 ,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle1 ix4 #eaj-eab2 ,w4 ,cochran1 ,pen and ,pencil ,sketches in ,asia ,minor 7,london1 #ahhg71 pp4 #chg-cij2 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 i4 #hd sqq4 ,the temperature of the hot pool varies from #he to #ij degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the volcanic district of ,tuscany which skirts the ,apennines abounds in hot calcareous springs which have produced phenomena like those of ,hierapolis4 ,indeed the whole ground is in some places coated over with tufa and travertine1 which have been deposited by the water1 and1 like the ground at ,hierapolis1 it sounds hollow under the foot4 ,see ,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1#ab i4 #cig sqq4 ,as to the terraces of ,rotomahana in ,new ,zealand1 which were destroyed by an eruption of ,mount ,taravera in #ahhf1 see ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants#b 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #dfd-dfi4 ,m#aei ,hercules the patron of hot springs4 #fbe ,athenaeus1 xii4 #f4 p4 #eab4 #fbf ,aristophanes1 ,clouds1 #ajdd-ajed4 #fbg ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,clouds1 #ajej2 ,scholiast on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 xii4 #be2 ,suidas and ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,apostolius1 viii4 #ff2 ,zenobius1 vi4 #di2 ,diogenianus1 v4 #g2 ,plutarch1 ,proverbia ,alexandrinorum1 #ba2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #bc4 #a1 v4 #c4 #d4 ,another story was that ,hercules1 like ,moses1 produced the water by smiting the rock with his club 7,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #d74 #fbh ,apostolius1 viii4 #fh2 ,zenobius1 vi4 #di2 ,diogenianus1 v4 #g2 ,plutarch1 ,proverbia ,alexandrinorum1 #ba4 #fbi ,lucian1 ,dialogi ,deorum1 #ac4 ,m#afj ,hot springs of ,hercules at ,thermopylae4 #fcj ,strabo1 ix4 #d4 #ac1 p4 #dbh4 #fca ,herodotus1 vii4 #agf2 ,pausanias1 iv4 #ce4 #i2 ,philostratus1 ,vit4 ,sophist4 ii4 #a4 #i4 #fcb ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,clouds1 #ajej4 #fcc ,i have described ,thermopylae as ,i saw it in ,november #ahie4 ,compare ,w4 ,m4 ,leake1 ,travels in ,northern ,greece 7,london1 #ahce71 ii4 #cc sqq42 ,e4 ,dodwell1 ,classical and ,topographical ,tour through ,greece 7,london1 #ahai71 ii4 #ff sqq42 ,k4 ,g4 ,fiedler1 ,reise durch alle ,theile des ,knigreichs ,griechenland 7,leipsic1 #ahdj-ahda71 i4 #bjg sqq42 ,l4 ,ross1 ,wanderungen in ,griechenland 7,halle1 #ahea71 i4 #ij sqq42 ,c4 ,bursian1 ,geographie von ,griechenland 7,leipsic1 #ahfb-ahgb71 i4 #ib sqq4 ,m#afa ,hot springs of ,hercules at ,aedepsus4 #fcd ,thucydides1 iii4 #hg and #hi2 ,strabo1 i4 #c4 #bj1 pp4 #fj sq42 ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland1 pp4 #cba-cbc4 #fce ,aristotle1 ,meteora1 ii4 #h1 p4 #cff ,a1 ed4 ,bekker2 ,strabo1 ix4 #d4 #b1 p4 #dbe4 ,aristotle expressly recognized the connexion of the springs with earthquakes1 which he tells us were very common in this district4 ,as to the earthquakes of ,euboea see also ,thucydides1 iii4 #hg1 #hi2 ,strabo1 i4 #c4 #af and #bj1 pp4 #eh1 #fj sq4 #fcf ,plutarch1 ,sulla1 #bf4 #fcg ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviviales1 iv4 #d4 #a2 id41 ,de fraterno ,amore1 #ag4 #fch ,as to the hot springs of ,aedepsus 7the modern ,lipso7 see ,k4 ,g4 ,fiedler1 ,reise durch alle ,theile des ,knigreichs ,griechenland1 i4 #dhg-dib2 ,h4 ,n4 ,ulrichs1 ,reisen und ,forschungen in ,griechenland 7,bremen1 #ahdj--;,berlin1 #ahfc71 ii4 #bcc-bce2 ,c4 ,bursian1 ,geographie von ,griechenland1 ii4 #dji2 ,c4 ,neumann und ,j4 ,partsch1 ,physikalische ,geographie von ,griechenland1 pp4 #cdb-cdd4 #fci ,strabo1 i4 #c4 #bj1 p4 #fj4 #fdj ,athenaeus1 iii4 #d1 p4 #gc ,e1 ,d4 ,m#afb ,reasons for the association of ,hercules with hot springs4 #fda ,the hot springs of ,himera 7the modern ,termini7 were said to have been produced for the refreshment of the weary ,hercules4 ,see ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #bc4 #a1 v4 #c4 #d2 ,scholiast on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 xii4 #be4 ,the hero is said to have taught the ,syracusans to sacrifice a bull annually to ,persephone at the ,blue ,spring 7,cyane7 near ,syracuse2 the beasts were drowned in the water of the pool4 ,see ,diodorus ,siculus1 iv4 #bc4 #d1 v4 #d4 #a sq4 ,as to the spring1 which is now thickly surrounded by tall papyrus-plants introduced by the ,arabs1 see ,k4 ,baedeker1 ,southern ,italy#g 7,leipsic1 #ahhj71 pp4 #cef1 #ceg4 #fdb ,the splendid baths of ,allifae in ,samnium1 of which there are considerable remains1 were sacred to ,hercules4 ,see ,g4 ,wilmanns1 ,exempla ,inscriptionum ,latinarum 7,berlin1 #ahgc71 vol4 i4 p4 #bbg1 ,no4 #gce ,c2 ,h4 ,nissen1 ,italische ,landeskunde1 ii4 #gih4 ,it is characteristic of the volcanic nature of the springs that the same inscription which mentions these baths of ,hercules records their destruction by an earthquake4 #fdc ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 ,pars i4 7,berlin1 #aijb7 p4 #aac1 ,no4 #chia4 #fdd ,speaking of thermal springs ,lyell observes that the description of them 8might almost with equal propriety have been given under the head of #8igneous causes1' as they are agents of a mixed nature1 being at once igneous and aqueous0 7,principles of ,geology1#ab i4 #cib74 #fde ,see above1 p4 #aid4 ,m#afc ,the hot springs of ,callirrhoe in ,moab4 #fdf ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day 7,chicago1 ,new ,york1 and ,toronto1 #aijb71 pp4 #aaf sq42 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,h4 ,spoer1 8,the ,powers of ,evil in ,jerusalem10 ,folk-lore1 xviii4 7#aijg7 p4 #ee4 ,see above1 p4 #gh4 #fdg ,josephus1 ,antiquit4 ,jud4 xvii4 #f4 #e4 ,the medical properties of the spring are mentioned by ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4 v4 #gb74 #fdh ,c4 ,l4 ,irby and ,j4 ,mangles1 ,travels in ,egypt and ,nubia1 ,syria and the ,holy ,land 7,london1 #ahdd71 pp4 #add sq42 ,w4 ,smith1 ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography 7,london1 #ahgc71 i4 #dhb1 s4v4 8,callirrho02 ,k4 ,baedeker1 ,syria and ,palestine#d 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 p4 #adh2 ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,land of ,moab 7,london1 #ahgc71 pp4 #bcc-bej1 #bhe sqq42 ,jacob ,e4 ,spafford1 8,around the ,dead ,sea by ,motor ,boat10 ,the ,geographical ,journal1 xxxix4 7#aiab7 pp4 #ci sq4 ,the river formed by the springs is now called the ,zerka4 ,m#afd ,prayers and sacrifices offered to the hot springs of ,callirrhoe4 #fdi ,antonin ,jaussen1 ,coutumes des ,arabes au pays de ,moab 7,paris1 #aijh71 pp4 #cei sq4 ,the ,arabs think that the evil spirits let the hot water out of hell1 lest its healing properties should assuage the pains of the damned4 ,see ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,land of ,moab 7,london1 #ahgc71 p4 #bdg4 ,m#afe ,worship of volcanic phenomena in other lands4 ,m#aff ,the great volcano of ,kirauea in ,hawaii4 #fej ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahcb-ahcf71 iv4 #bce sqq4 ,mr4 ,ellis was the first ,european to visit and describe the tremendous volcano4 ,his visit was paid in the year #ahbc4 ,compare ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1#i xi4 #eca4 #fea ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bdf sq4 ,m#afg ,the divinities of the volcano4 ,offerings to the volcano4 ,priestess impersonating the goddess of the volcano4 #feb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bdh-bej4 #fec ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bjg1 #bcd-bcf4 ,the berries resemble currants in shape and size and grow on low bushes4 8,the branches small and clear1 leaves alternate1 obtuse with a point1 and serrated2 the flower was monopetalous1 and1 on being examined1 determined the plant to belong to the class decandria and order monogynia4 ,the native name of the plant is ohelo0 7,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bcd74 #fed ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bfc4 #fee ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cej4 #fef ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cji-caa4 #feg ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cfa4 ,m#afh ,sacrifices to volcanoes4 ,human victims thrown into volcanoes4 ,annual sacrifices to the volcano ,bromo in ,java4 #feh ,fernandez de ,oviedo y ,valds1 ,historia ,general y ,natural de las ,indias 7,madrid1 #ahea-ahee71 iv4 #gd4 #fei ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 ,het ,animisme in den ,indischen ,archipel 7,the ,hague1 #aijf71 pp4 #dig sq4 #ffj ,w4 ,b4 d',almeida1 ,life in ,java 7,london1 #ahfd71 i4 #aff-agc4 #ffa ,j4 ,h4 ,f4 ,kohlbrugge1 8,die ,tnggresen1 ein alter ,javanischer ,volksstamm10 ,bijdragentot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 liii4 7#aija7 pp4 #hd1 #add-adg4 #ffb ,j4 ,h4 ,f4 ,kohlbrugge1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajj sq4 ,m#afi ,other sacrifices to volcanoes4 #ffc ,i4 ,a4 ,stigand1 8,the ,volcano of ,smeroe1 ,java10 ,the ,geographical ,journal1 xxviii4 7#aijf7 pp4 #fba1 #fbd4 #ffd ,pausanias1 iii4 #bc4 #i4 ,some have thought that ,pausanias confused the crater of ,etna with the ,lago di ,naftia1 a pool near ,palagonia in the interior of ,sicily1 of which the water1 impregnated with naphtha and sulphur1 is thrown into violent ebullition by jets of volcanic gas4 ,see ,aristotle1 ,mirab4 ,auscult4 #eg2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 v4 #ai4 #bf sqq42 ,diodorus ,siculus1 xi4 #hi2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 2 ,e4 ,h4 ,bunbury1 s4v4 8,palicorum ,iacus10 in ,w4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,geography1 ii4 #ecc sq4 ,the author of the ancient ,latin poem ,aetna says 7vv4 #cdj sq47 that people offered incense to the celestial deities on the top of ,etna4 ,m#agj ,no evidence that the ,asiatic custom of burning kings or gods was connected with volcanic phenomena4 #ffe ,see above1 pp4 #aij sq4 #fff ,on ,mount ,chimaera in ,lycia a flame burned perpetually which neither earth nor water could extinguish4 ,see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #bcf1 v4 #ajj2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 vi4 #bhh2 ,seneca1 ,epist4 x4 #c4 #c2 ,diodorus1 quoted by ,photius1 ,bibliotheca1 p4 #bab ,b1 #aj sqq41 ed4 ,im4 ,bekker 7,berlin1 #ahbd74 ,this perpetual flame was rediscovered by ,captain ,beaufort near ,porto ,genovese on the coast of ,lycia4 ,it issues from the side of a hill of crumbly serpentine rock1 giving out an intense heat1 but no smoke4 8,trees1 brushwood1 and weeds grow close round this little crater1 a small stream trickles down the hill hard bye1 and the ground does not appear to feel the effect of its heat at more than a few feet distance40 ,the fire is not accompanied by earthquakes or noises2 it ejects no stones and emits no noxious vapours4 ,there is nothing but a brilliant and perpetual flame1 at which the shepherds often cook their food4 ,see ,fr4 ,beaufort1 ,karmania 7,london1 #ahag71 p4 #df2 compare ,t4 ,a4 ,b4 ,spratt and ,e4 ,forbes1 ,travels in ,lycia 7,london1 #ahdg71 ii4 #aha sq4 #ffg ,in the foregoing discussion ,i have confined myself1 so far as concerns ,asia1 to the volcanic regions of ,cappadocia1 ,lydia1 and ,caria4 ,but ,syria and ,palestine1 the home of ,adonis and ,melcarth1 8abound in volcanic appearances1 and very extensive areas have been shaken1 at different periods1 with great destruction of cities and loss of lives4 ,continual mention is made in history of the ravages committed by earthquakes in ,sidon1 ,tyre1 ,berytus1 ,laodicea1 and ,antioch1 and in the island of ,cyprus4 ,the country around the ,dead ,sea exhibits in some spots layers of sulphur and bitumen1 forming a superficial deposit1 supposed by ,mr4 ,tristram to be of volcanic origin0 7,sir ,ch4 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1#ab i4 #eib sq474 ,as to the earthquakes of ,syria and ,phoenicia see ,strabo1 i4 #c4 #af1 p4 #eh2 ,lucretius1 vi4 #ehe2 ,josephus1 ,antiquit4 ,jud4 xv4 #e4 #b2 id41 ,bell4 ,jud4 i4 #ai4 #c2 ,w4 ,m4 ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book1 ,central ,palestine and ,phoenicia1 pp4 #efh-egd2 ,ed4 ,robinson1 ,biblical ,researches in ,palestine1#c ii4 #dbb-dbd2 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 on ,amos iv4 #aa 7,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges74 ,it is said that in the reign of the ,emperor ,justin the city of ,antioch was totally destroyed by a dreadful earthquake1 in which three hundred thousand people perished 7,procopius1 ,de ,bello ,persico1 ii4 #ad74 ,the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah 7,genesis xix4 #bd-bh7 has been plausibly explained as the effect of an earthquake liberating large quantities of petroleum and inflammable gases4 ,see ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,land of ,israel1 ,fourth ,edition 7,london1 #ahhb71 pp4 #cej-ced2 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,the ,book of ,genesis#d 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #bjb sq4 ,m#aga ,results of the preceding inquiry4 ,m#agb ,our knowledge of the rites of ,adonis derived chiefly from ,greek writers4 ,m#agc ,festivals of the death and resurrection of ,adonis4 ,the festival at ,alexandria4 ,the festival at ,byblus4 #ffh ,plutarch1 ,alcibiades1 #ah2 id41 ,nicias1 #ac2 ,zenobius1 ,centur4 i4 #di2 ,theocritus1 xv4 #acb sqq42 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xi4 #eij4 #ffi ,besides ,lucian 7cited below7 see ,origen1 ,selecta in ,ezechielem 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xiii4 #hjj71 scil4 1 4 ,jerome1 ,commentar4 in ,ezechielem1 viii4 #ac1 #ad 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xxv4 #hb1 #hc73 8,quem nos ,adonidem interpretati sumus1 et ,hebraeus et ,syrus sermo ,,thamuz 77 vocat3 unde quia juxta gentilem fabulam1 in mense ,junis amasius ,veneris et pulcherrimus juvenis occisus1 et deinceps revixisse narratur1 eundem ,junium mensem eodem appellant nomine1 et anniversariam ei celebrant solemnitatem1 in qua plangitur a mulieribus quasi mortuus1 et postea reviviscens canitur atque laudatur 444 interfectionem et resurrectionem ,adonidis planctu et gaudio prosequens40 ,cyril of ,alexandria1 ,in ,isaiam1 lib4 ii4 tomus iii4 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 lxx4 #dda71 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 4 ,from this testimony of ,cyril we learn that the festival of the death and resurrection of ,adonis was celebrated at ,alexandria down to his time1 that is1 down to the fourth or even the fifth century1 long after the official establishment of ,christianity4 #fgj ,theocritus1 xv4 #fga ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 p4 #bgg4 #fgb ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #f4 ,see above1 p4 #ch4 ,the flutes used by the ,phoenicians in the lament for ,adonis are mentioned by ,athenaeus 7iv4 #gf1 p4 #agd ,f71 and by ,pollux 7iv4 #gf71 who say that the same name gingras was applied by the ,phoenicians both to the flute and to ,adonis himself4 ,compare ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1 i4 #bdc sq4 ,we have seen that flutes were also played in the ,babylonian rites of ,tammuz 7above1 p4 #i74 ,lucian's words1 1 imply that the ascension of the god was supposed to take place in the presence1 if not before the eyes1 of the worshipping crowds4 ,the devotion of ,byblus to ,adonis is noticed also by ,strabo 7xvi4 #b4 #ah1 p4 #gee74 ,m#agd ,date of the festival at ,byblus4 ,the anemone and the red rose the flowers of ,adonis4 ,festivals of ,adonis at ,athens and ,antioch4 #fgc ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #h4 ,the discoloration of the river and the sea was observed by ,h4 ,maundrell on #ag_/bg ,march #afif_/afig4 ,see his ,journey from ,aleppo to ,jerusalem1 at ,easter1 ,a4,d4 #afig1 ,fourth ,edition 7,perth1 #ahjj71 pp4 #ei sq42 id41 in ,bohn's ,early ,travels in ,palestine1 edited by ,thomas ,wright 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4 #daa sq4 ,renan remarked the discoloration at the beginning of ,february 7,mission de ,phnicie1 p4 #bhc74 ,in his well-known lines on the subject ,milton has laid the mourning in summer3-- 8,thammuz came next behind1 ,whose annual wound in ,lebanon allur'd ,the ,syrian damsels to lament his fate ,in amorous ditties all a summer's day40 #fgd ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #gce2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 v4 #gb2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #hca4 ,bion1 on the other hand1 represents the anemone as sprung from the tears of ,aphrodite 7,idyl4 i4 #ff74 #fge ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 8,ctesias and the ,semiramis ,legend10 ,english ,historical ,review1 ii4 7#ahhg7 p4 #cjg1 following ,lagarde4 ,compare ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #hh sq4 #fgf ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #hca2 ,geoponica1 xi4 #ag2 ,mythographi ,graeci1 ed4 ,a4 ,westermann1 p4 #cei4 ,compare ,bion1 ,idyl4 i4 #ff2 ,pausanias1 vi4 #bd4 #g2 ,philostratus1 ,epist4 i4 and iii4 #fgg ,plutarch1 ,alcibiades1 #ah2 id41 ,nicias1 #ac4 ,the date of the sailing of the fleet is given by ,thucydides 7vi4 #cj1 71 who1 with his habitual contempt for the superstition of his countrymen1 disdains to notice the coincidence4 ,adonis was also bewailed by the ,argive women 7,pausanias1 ii4 #bj4 #f71 but we do not know at what season of the year the lamentation took place4 ,inscriptions prove that processions in honour of ,adonis were held in the ,piraeus1 and that a society of his worshippers existed at ,loryma in ,caria4 ,see ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,nos4 #gbf1 #gda 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #efd1 #fjd74 #fgh ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxii4 #i4 #ae4 ,m#age ,resemblance of these rites to ,indian and ,european ceremonies4 ,the death and resurrection of ,adonis a mythical expression for the annual decay and revival of plant life4 ,adonis sometimes taken for the sun4 #fgi ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #bfa-bff4 #fhj ,in the ,alexandrian ceremony1 however1 it appears to have been the image of ,adonis only which was thrown into the sea4 #fha ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ad4 #d2 ,scholiast on ,theocritus1 i4 #aji2 ,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #cd2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,scholia on ,lycophron1 #hbi2 ,ovid1 ,metamorph4 x4 #dhi sqq42 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 v4 #gb1 and on ,bucol4 x4 #ah2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #eh1 #afd2 ,fulgentius1 iii4 #h4 ,the word ,myrrha or ,smyrna is borrowed from the ,phoenician 7,liddell and ,scott1 ,greek ,lexicon1 s4v4 74 ,hence the mother's name1 as well as the son's1 was taken directly from the ,semites4 #fhb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #chc1 note #b4 #fhc ,above1 p4 #i4 #fhd ,jeremiah xliv4 #ag-ai4 #fhe ,scholiast on ,theocritus1 iii4 #dh2 ,hyginus1 ,astronom4 ii4 #g2 ,lucian1 ,dialog4 deor4 xi4 #a2 ,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #bh1 p4 #ed1 ed4 ,c4 ,lang 7,leipsic1 #ahha72 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ad4 #d4 #fhf ,the arguments which tell against the solar interpretation of ,adonis are stated more fully by the learned and candid scholar ,graf ,baudissin 7,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #afi sqq471 who himself formerly accepted the solar theory but afterwards rightly rejected it in favour of the view 8dass ,adonis die ,frhlingsvegetation darstellt1 die im ,sommer abstirbt0 7op4 cit4 p4 #afi74 #fhg ,bailly1 ,lettres sur l',origine des ,sciences 7,london and ,paris1 #aggg71 pp4 #bee sq42 id41 ,lettres sur l',atlantide de ,platon 7,london and ,paris1 #aggi71 pp4 #aad-abe4 ,carlyle has described how through the sleety drizzle of a dreary ,november day poor innocent ,bailly was dragged to the scaffold amid the howls and curses of the ,parisian mob 7,french ,revolution1 bk4 v4 ch4 #b74 ,my friend the late ,professor ,c4 ,bendall showed me a book by a ,hindoo gentleman in which it is seriously maintained that the primitive home of the ,aryans was within the ,arctic regions4 ,see ,bl ,gangdhar ,tilak1 ,the ,arctic ,home in the ,vedas 7,poona and ,bombay1 #aijc74 #fhh ,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #bh1 pp4 #ed sq41 ed4 ,c4 ,lang 7,leipsic1 #ahha71 1 4 1 4 ,scholiast on ,theocritus1 iii4 #dh1 1 1 1 4 4 ,origen1 ,selecta in ,ezechielem 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xiii4 #hjj71 1 1 1 1 4 ,jerome1 ,commentar4 in ,ezechielem1 viii4 #ac1 #ad 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xxv4 #hc71 8,eadem gentilitas hujuscemodi fabulas poetarum1 quae habent turpitudinem1 interpretatur subtiliter1 interfectionem et resurrectionem ,adonidis planctu et gaudio prosequens3 quorum alterum in seminibus1 quae moriuntur in terra1 alterum in segetibus1 quibus mortua semina renascuntur1 ostendi putat40 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xix4 #a4 #aa1 8in sollemnibus ,adonidis sacris1 quod simulacrum aliquod esse frugum adultarum religiones mysticae docent40 ,id4 xxii4 #i4 #ae1 8amato ,veneris1 ut fabulae fingunt1 apri dente ferali deleto1 quod in adulto flore sectarum est indicium frugum40 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,hom4 #f4 #aa 7quoted by ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antique ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bha71 4 ,etymologieum ,magnum s4v4 2 2 1 4 ,eusebius1 ,praepar4 ,evang4 iii4 ,,ii4 #i1 4 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 iv4 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cb1 444 444 444 4 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #d1 1 444 1 1 1 4 ,the view that ,tammuz or ,adonis is a personification of the dying and reviving vegetation is now accepted by many scholars4 ,see ,p4 ,jensen1 ,kosmologie der ,babylonier 7,strasburg1 #ahij71 p4 #dhj2 id41 ,assyrisch-babylonische ,mythen und ,epen1 pp4 #daa1 #efj2 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1#c p4 #cig2 ,a4 ,jeremias1 s4v4 8,nergal10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iii4 #bfe2 ,r4 ,wnsch1 ,das ,frhlingsfest der ,insel ,malta 7,leipsic1 #aijb71 p4 #ba2 ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques1#b pp4 #cjf sqq42 ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 8,tammuz10 ,realencyclopdie fr protestantische ,theologie und ,kirchengeschichte2 id41 ,esmun und ,adonis1 pp4 #ha1 #ada1 #afi1 etc42 and ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4 #b4 pp4 #cid1 #dbg4 ,prof4 ,jastrow regards ,tammuz as a god both of the sun and of vegetation 7,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #edg1 #efd1 #egd1 #ehh74 ,but such a combination of disparate qualities seems artificial and unlikely4 ,m#agf ,tammuz or ,adonis as a corn-spirit bruised and ground in a mill4 #fhi ,d4 ,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahef71 ii4 #bg2 id41 ,ueber ,tammz und die ,menschenverehrung bei den alten ,babylioniern 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfj71 p4 #ch4 ,compare ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #aaa sqq4 ,m#agg ,the mourning for ,adonis interpreted as a harvest rite4 #fij ,m4 ,j4 ,lagrange1 tudes sur les ,religions ,smitiques#b 7,paris1 #aije71 pp4 #cjg sq4 #fia ,hence ,philo of ,alexandria dates the corn-reaping in the middle of spring 7 1 ,de special4 legibus1 i4 #ahc1 vol4 v4 p4 #dd1 ed4 ,l4 ,cohn74 ,on this subject ,professor ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie writes to me3 8,the ,coptic calendar puts on ,april #b beginning of wheat harvest in ,upper ,egypt1 ,may #b wheat harvest1 ,lower ,egypt4 ,barley is two or three weeks earlier than wheat in ,palestine1 but probably less in ,egypt4 ,the ,palestine harvest is about the time of that in ,north ,egypt40 ,with regard to ,palestine we are told that 8the harvest begins with the barley in ,april2 in the valley of the ,jordan it begins at the end of ,march4 ,between the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest an interval of two or three weeks elapses4 ,thus as a rule the business of harvest lasts about seven weeks0 7,j4 ,benzinger1 ,hebrische ,archologie1 ,freiburg i4 ,b4 and ,leipsic1 #ahid1 p4 #bji74 8,the principal grain crops of ,palestine are barley1 wheat1 lentils1 maize1 and millet4 ,of the latter there is very little1 and it is all gathered in by the end of ,may4 ,the maize is then only just beginning to shoot4 ,in the hotter parts of the ,jordan valley the barley harvest is over by the end of ,march1 and throughout the country the wheat harvest is at its height at the end of ,may1 excepting in the highlands of ,galilee1 where it is about a fortnight later0 7,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,land of ,israel1 ,fourth ,edition1 ,london1 #ahhb1 pp4 #ehc sq474 ,as to ,greece1 ,professor ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner tells me that harvest is from ,april to ,may in the plains and about a month later in the mountains4 ,he adds that 8barley may1 then1 be assigned to the latter part of ,april1 wheat to ,may in the lower ground1 but you know the great difference of climate between different parts2 there is the same difference of a month in the vintage40 ,mrs4 ,hawes 7,miss ,boyd71 who excavated at ,gournia1 tells me that in ,crete the barley is cut in ,april and the beginning of ,may1 and that the wheat is cut and threshed from about the twentieth of ,june1 though the dates naturally vary somewhat with the height of the place above the sea4 ,june is also the season when the wheat is threshed in ,euboea 7,r4 ,a4 ,arnold1 ,from the ,levant1 ,london1 #ahfh1 i4 #bej74 ,thus it seems possible that the spring festival of ,adonis coincided with the cutting of the first barley in ,march1 and his summer festival with the threshing of the last wheat in ,june4 ,father ,lagrange 7op4 cit4 pp4 #cje sq47 argues that the rites of ,adonis were always celebrated in summer at the solstice of ,june or soon afterwards4 ,baudissin also holds that the summer celebration is the only one which is clearly attested1 and that if there was a celebration in spring it must have had a different signification than the death of the god4 ,see his ,adonis und ,esmun1 pp4 #acb sq4 #fib ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #ad4 #b4 ,see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #de sq4 #fic ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #ahj sqq41 #bjd sqq4 ,m#agh ,but probably ,adonis was a spirit of fruits1 edible roots1 and grass before he became a spirit of the cultivated corn4 ,m#agi ,the propitiation of the corn-spirit may have fused with the worship of the dead4 #fid ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen 7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 pp4 #a sqq42 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 i4 #baf sqq4 ,m#ahj ,the festival of the dead a festival of flowers4 #fie ,t4 ,b4 ,macaulay1 ,history of ,england1 chapter xx4 vol4 iv4 7,london1 #ahee7 p4 #daj4 #fif ,this explanation of the name ,anthesteria1 as applied to a festival of the dead1 is due to ,mr4 ,r4 ,wnsch 7,das ,frhlingsfest der ,insel ,malta1 ,leipsic1 #aijb1 pp4 #dc sqq474 ,i cannot accept the late ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,verrall's ingenious derivation of the word from a verb in the sense of 8to conjure up0 78,the ,name ,anthesteria10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xx4 7#aijj7 pp4 #aae-aag74 ,as to the festival see ,e4 ,rohde1 ,psyche#c 7,tbingen and ,leipsic1 #aijc71 i4 #bcf sqq42 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion#b 7,cambridge1 #aijh71 pp4 #cb sqq4 ,in ,annam people offer food to their dead on the graves when the earth begins to grow green in spring4 ,the ceremony takes place on the third day of the third month1 the sun then entering the sign of ,taurus4 ,see ,paul ,giran1 ,magie et ,religion ,annamites 7,paris1 #aiab71 pp4 #dbc sq4 #fig ,e4 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phnicie 7,paris1 #ahfd71 p4 #baf4 ,m#aha ,pots of corn1 herbs1 and flowers1 called the gardens of ,adonis4 #fih ,for the authorities see ,raoul ,rochette1 8,mmoire sur les jardins d',adonis10 ,revue ,archologique1 viii4 7#ahea7 pp4 #ig-abc2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #bgi1 note #b1 and p4 #bhj1 note #b4 ,to the authorities cited by ,mannhardt add ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant4 vi4 #g4 #c2 id41 ,de ,causis ,plant4 i4 #ab4 #b2 ,gregorius ,cyprius1 i4 #g2 ,macarius1 i4 #fc2 ,apostolius1 i4 #cd2 ,diogenianus1 i4 #ad2 ,plutarch1 ,de sera num4 vind4 #ag4 ,women only are mentioned as planting the gardens of ,adonis by ,plutarch1 l4c42 ,julian1 ,convivium1 p4 #cbi ed4 ,spanheim 7p4 #dbc ed4 ,hertlein72 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xi4 #eij4 ,on the other hand1 ,apostolius and ,diogenianus 7ll4cc47 say 4 ,the earliest extant ,greek writer who mentions the gardens of ,adonis is ,plato 7,phaedrus1 p4 #bgf ,b74 ,the procession at the festival of ,adonis is mentioned in an ,attic inscription of #cjb or #cja ,b4,c4 7,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b vol4 ii4 p4 #efd1 ,no4 #gbf74 ,gardens of ,adonis are perhaps alluded to by ,isaiah 7xvii4 #aj1 with the commentators74 ,m#ahb ,these gardens of ,adonis were charms to promote the growth of vegetation4 ,the throwing of the 8gardens0 into water was a rain-charm4 ,parallel ,european customs of drenching the corn with water at harvest or sowing4 ,use of water as a rain-charm at harvest and sowing4 #fii ,in hot southern countries like ,egypt and the ,semitic regions of ,western ,asia1 where vegetation depends chiefly or entirely upon irrigation1 the purpose of the charm is doubtless to secure a plentiful flow of water in the streams4 ,but as the ultimate object and the charms for securing it are the same in both cases1 ,i have not thought it necessary always to point out the distinction4 #gjj ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #bcb1 #bcc sqq4 #gja ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bgb sqq4 #gjb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der ,baumkultus der ,germanen und ihrer ,nachbarstmme 7,berlin1 #ahge71 p4 #bad2 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,das ,jahr und seine ,tage in ,meinung und ,branch der ,romnen ,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1 #ahff71 pp4 #ah sq4 ,the custom of throwing water on the last wagon-load of corn returning from the harvest-field has been practised within living memory in ,wigtownshire1 and at ,orwell in ,cambridgeshire4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 8,notes on ,harvest ,customs10 ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #ej1 #ea4 7,in the first of these passages the ,orwell at which the custom used to be observed is said to be in ,kent2 this was a mistake of mine1 which my informant1 the ,rev4 ,e4 ,b4 ,birks1 formerly ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 afterwards corrected47 ,mr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,davis writes to me 7,march #d1 #aijf7 from ,campbell ,college1 ,belfast3 8,between #cj and #dj years ago ,i was staying1 as a very small boy1 at a ,nottinghamshire farmhouse at harvest-time1 and was allowed--as a great privilege--to ride home on the top of the last load4 ,all the harvesters followed the waggon1 and on reaching the farmyard we found the maids of the farm gathered near the gate1 with bowls and buckets of water1 which they proceeded to throw on the men1 who got thoroughly drenched40 #gjc ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen ,siebenbrgens 7,hermanstadt1 #ahhj71 p4 #bd2 ,h4 von ,wlislocki1 ,sitten und ,brauch der ,siebenbrger ,sachsen 7,hamburg1 #ahhh71 p4 #cb4 #gjd ,g4 ,drosinis1 ,land und ,leute in ,nord-,euba 7,leipsic1 #ahhd71 p4 #ec4 #gje ,matthus ,prtorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae 7,berlin1 #ahga71 p4 #ee2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #bad sq41 note4 #gjf ,m4 ,prtorius1 op4 cit4 p4 #fj2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #bae1 note4 #gjg ,h4 ,prahn1 8,glaube und ,brauch in der ,mark ,brandenburg10 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 i4 7#ahia7 p4 #ahf4 #gjh ,o4 ,hartung1 8,zur ,volkskunde aus ,anhalt10 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4 #aej4 #gji ,w4 ,kolbe1 ,hessische ,volks-,sitten und ,gebruche 7,marburg1 #ahhh71 p4 #ea4 #gaj ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern1 ii4 7,munich1 #ahfc7 p4 #big4 #gaa ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,badisches ,volksleben 7,strasburg1 #aijj71 p4 #dbj4 #gab ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes1 8,the ,tusayan ,new ,fire ,ceremony10 ,proceedings of the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history1 xxvi4 7#ahie7 p4 #ddf4 #gac 8,lettre du cur de ,santiago ,tepehuacan son vque10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ,deuxime ,srie1 ii4 7#ahcd7 pp4 #aha sq4 ,m#ahc ,gardens of ,adonis among the ,oraons and ,mundas of ,bengal4 #gad ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ei sqq4 #gae ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal 7,calcutta1 #ahgb71 p4 #bei4 #gaf ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahh4 ,as to the influence which trees are supposed to exercise on the crops1 see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #dg sqq4 ,m#ahd ,gardens of ,adonis in ,rajputana4 #gag ,lieut4-,col4 ,james ,tod1 ,annals and ,antiquities of ,rajast'han1 i4 7,london1 #ahbi7 pp4 #egj-egb4 #gah ,g4 ,f4 ,d',penha1 8,a ,collection of ,notes on ,marriage ,customs in the ,madras ,presidency10 ,indian ,antiquary1 xxv4 7#ahif7 p4 #add2 ,e4 ,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes in ,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 p4 #b4 ,m#ahe ,gardens of ,adonis in ,north-,western and ,central ,india4 #gai ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the ,himalayan ,districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces of ,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1 #ahhd7 p4 #hgj4 #gbj ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #bic sq4 ,compare ,baboo ,ishuree ,dass1 ,domestic ,manners and ,customs of the ,hindoos of ,northern ,india 7,benares1 #ahfj71 pp4 #aaa sq4 ,according to the latter writer1 the festival of ,salono not ,salonan takes place in ,august1 and the barley is planted by women and girls in baskets a few days before the festival1 to be thrown by them into a river or tank when the grain has sprouted to the height of a few inches4 #gba ,mrs4 ,j4 ,c4 ,murray-,aynsley1 8,secular and ,religious ,dances10 ,folk-lore ,journal1 v4 7#ahhg7 pp4 #bec sq4 ,the writer thinks that the ceremony 8probably fixes the season for sowing some particular crop40 #gbb ,gazetteer of the ,bombay ,presidency1 xx4 7,bombay1 #ahhd7 p4 #ded4 ,this passage was pointed out to me by my friend ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke4 #gbc ,gazetteer of the ,bombay ,presidency1 xx4 #ddc1 #dfj4 ,m#ahf ,gardens of ,adonis in ,bavaria4 ,gardens of ,adonis on ,st4 ,john's ,day in ,sardinia4 #gbd ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs ,bayern 7,munich1 #ahfj-ahfg71 ii4 #bih4 #gbe ,antonio ,bresciani1 ,dei costumi dell' isola di ,sardegna comparati cogli antichissimi popoli orientali 7,rome and ,turin1 #ahff71 pp4 #dbg sq42 ,r4 ,tennant1 ,sardinia and its ,resources 7,rome and ,london1 #ahhe71 p4 #ahg2 ,s4 ,gabriele1 8,usi dei contadini della ,sardegna10 ,archivio per lo ,studio delle ,tradizioni ,popolari1 vii4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #dfi sq4 ,tennant says that the pots are kept in a dark warm place1 and that the children leap across the fire4 ,m#ahg ,gardens of ,adonis on ,st4 ,john's ,day in ,sicily4 #gbf ,g4 ,pitr1 ,usi e ,costumi1 ,credenze e ,pregiudizi del ,popolo ,siciliano 7,palermo1 #ahhi71 ii4 #bga-bgh4 ,compare id41 ,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari ,siciliane 7,palermo1 #ahha71 pp4 #big sq4 ,in the ,abruzzi also young men and young women become gossips by exchanging nosegays on ,st4 ,john's ,day1 and the tie thus formed is regarded as sacred4 ,see ,g4 ,finamore1 ,credenze1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi 7,palermo1 #ahij71 pp4 #afe sq4 ,m#ahh ,in these ,sardinian and ,sicilian ceremonies ,st4 ,john may have taken the place of ,adonis4 ,custom of bathing in water or washing in dew on the ,eve or ,day of ,st4 ,john 7,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer ,day74 ,petrarch at ,cologne on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 #gbg ,r4 ,wnsch1 ,das ,frhlingsfest der ,insel ,malta1 pp4 #dg-eg4 #gbh ,see above1 pp4 #aj1 note #a1 #bbd sq41 #bbf4 #gbi ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #dij4 #gcj ,g4 ,finamore1 ,credenze1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi1 pp4 #aef-afj4 ,a passage in ,isaiah 7xxvi4 #ai7 seems to imply that dew possessed the magical virtue of restoring the dead to life4 ,in this passage of ,isaiah the customs which ,i have cited in the text perhaps favour the ordinary interpretation of as 8dew of herbs0 7compare #b ,kings iv4 #ci7 against the interpretation 8dew of lights10 which some modern commentators 7,dillmann1 ,skinner1 ,whitehouse71 following ,jerome1 have adopted4 #gca ,g4 ,pitr1 ,feste patronali in ,sicilia 7,turin and ,palermo1 #aijj71 pp4 #dhh1 #dia-dic4 #gcb ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari ,siciliane1 p4 #cjg4 #gcc ,petrarch1 ,epistolae de rebus familiaribus1 i4 #d 7vol4 i4 pp4 #dd-df ed4 ,j4 ,fracassetti1 ,florence1 #ahei-ahfb74 ,the passage is quoted by ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #dhi sq4 #gcd ,j4 ,grimm1 op4 cit4 i4 #dhi4 #gce ,letter of ,dr4 ,otero ,acevado1 of ,madrid1 ,le ,temps1 ,september #ahih4 #gcf ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage ,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1 #ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #h2 ,a4 de ,nore1 ,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions des provinces de ,france 7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahdf71 p4 #aej4 #gcg ,a4 de ,nore1 op4 cit4 p4 #bj2 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,rminiscences populaires de la ,provence 7,paris1 #ahhe71 pp4 #ace-ada4 #gch ,a4 ,breuil1 8,du ,culte de ,st4 ,jean ,baptiste10 ,mmoires de la ,socit des ,antiquaires de ,picardie1 viii4 7#ahde7 pp4 #bcg sq4 ,compare ,balder the ,beautiful1 i4 #aic sq4 #gci ,diego ,duran1 ,historia de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espaa1 edited by ,j4 ,f4 ,ramirez 7,mexico1 #ahfg-ahhj71 ii4 #bic4 ,m#ahi ,the custom of bathing at midsummer is pagan1 not ,christian1 in its origin4 #gdj ,augustine1 ,opera1 v4 7,paris1 #afhc7 col4 #ijc2 id41 ,pars ,secunda1 coll4 #dfa sq4 ,the second of these passages occurs in a sermon of doubtful authenticity4 ,both have been quoted by ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1#d i4 #dij4 #gda ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et ,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord 7,algiers1 #aijh71 pp4 #efg sq42 ,e4 ,westermarck1 8,midsummer ,customs in ,morocco10 ,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 pp4 #ca sq42 id41 ,ceremonies and ,beliefs connected with ,agriculture1 ,certain ,dates of the ,solar ,year1 and the ,weather 7,helsingfors1 #aiac71 pp4 #hd-hf4 ,see ,balder the ,beautiful1 i4 #baf4 ,m#aij ,old heathen festival of midsummer in ,europe and the ,east4 ,m#aia ,midsummer fires and midsummer couples in relation to vegetation4 #gdb ,balder the ,beautiful1 i4 #afj sqq4 #gdc ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #fe sq4 #gdd ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #bfb4 #gde ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #beg4 ,m#aib ,gardens of ,adonis intended to foster the growth of vegetation1 and especially of the crops4 ,modes of divination at midsummer like the gardens of ,adonis4 #gdf ,balder the ,beautiful1 i4 #cbh sqq41 ii4 #ba sqq4 #gdg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dfd2 ,k4 von ,leoprechting1 ,aus dem ,lechrain 7,munich1 #ahee71 p4 #ahc4 ,for more evidence see ,balder the ,beautiful1 i4 #afe1 #aff1 #aff sq41 #afh1 #agc1 #agd4 #gdh ,the use of gardens of ,adonis to fertilize the human sexes appears plainly in the corresponding ,indian practices4 ,see above1 pp4 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc4 #gdi ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari ,siciliane1 pp4 #bif sq4 #gej ,g4 ,pitr1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cjb sq42 ,antonio de ,nino1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi 7,florence1 #ahgi-ahhc71 i4 #ee sq42 ,a4 de ,gubernatis1 ,usi ,nuziali in ,italia e presso gli altri ,popoli ,indo-,europei 7,milan1 #ahgh71 pp4 #ci sq4 ,compare ,l4 ,passarini1 8,il ,comparatico e la ,festa di ,s4 ,giovanni nelle ,marche e in ,roma10 ,archivio per lo ,studio delle ,tradizioni ,popolari1 i4 7#ahhb7 p4 #ace4 ,at ,smyrna a blossom of the ,agnus castus is used on ,st4 ,john's ,day for a similar purpose1 but the mode in which the omens are drawn is somewhat different4 ,see ,teofilo1 8,la notte di ,san ,giovanni in ,oriente10 ,archivio per lo ,studio delle ,tradizioni ,popolari1 vii4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #abh-acj4 #gea ,matthus ,prtorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae 7,berlin1 #ahga71 p4 #ef4 #geb ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #bfa sq4 #gec ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #bcc sqq41 #bfa sqq4 ,m#aic ,sicilian gardens of ,adonis in spring4 #ged ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari ,siciliane1 p4 #baa4 #gee 1 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xi4 #eij4 #gef ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la tradizione ,greco-,latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della ,calabria ,citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 p4 #ej4 ,m#aid ,resemblance of the ,easter ceremonies in the ,greek ,church to the rites of ,adonis4 #geg ,c4 ,wachsmuth1 ,das alte ,griechenland im neuen 7,bonn1 #ahfd71 pp4 #bf4 sq4 ,the writer compares these ceremonies with the ,eleusinian rites4 ,but ,i agree with ,mr4 ,r4 ,wnsch 7,das ,frhlingsfest der ,insel ,malta1 pp4 #di sq47 that the resemblance to the ,adonis festival is still closer4 ,compare ,v4 ,dorsa1 ,la tradizione ,greco-,latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della ,calabria ,citeriore1 pp4 #di sq4 ,prof4 ,wachsmuth's description seems to apply to ,athens4 ,in the country districts the ritual is apparently similar4 ,see ,r4 ,a4 ,arnold1 ,from the ,levant 7,london1 #ahfh71 pp4 #bea sq41 #bei sq4 ,so in the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem the death and burial of ,christ are acted over a life-like effigy4 ,see ,henry ,maundrell1 ,journey from ,aleppo to ,jerusalem at ,easter1 ,a4,d4 #afig1 ,fourth ,edition 7,perth1 #ahjj71 pp4 #aaj sqq42 id41 in ,th4 ,wright's ,early ,travels in ,palestine 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4 #ddc-dde4 ,m#aie ,resemblance of the ,easter ceremonies in the ,catholic ,church to the rites of ,adonis4 #geh ,g4 ,pitr1 ,spettacoli e ,feste ,popolari ,siciliane1 pp4 #bag sq4 #gei ,g4 ,finamore1 ,credenze1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi1 pp4 #aah-abj2 ,a4 de ,nino1 ,usi e ,costumi ,abruzzesi1 i4 #fd sq41 ii4 #baj-bab4 ,at ,roccacaramanico part of the ,easter spectacle is the death of ,judas1 who1 personated by a living man1 pretends to hang himself upon a tree or a great branch1 which has been brought into the church and planted near the high altar for the purpose 7,a4 de ,nino1 op4 cit4 ii4 #baa74 #gfj ,the drama of the death and resurrection of ,christ was formerly celebrated at ,easter in ,england4 ,see ,abbot ,gasquet1 ,parish ,life in ,mediaeval ,england1 pp4 #agg sqq41 #ahb sq4 ,m#aif ,the ,christian festival of ,easter perhaps grafted on a festival of ,adonis4 #gfa ,the comparison has already been made by ,a4 ,maury1 who also compares the ,easter ceremonies of the ,catholic ,church with the rites of ,adonis 7,histoire des ,religions de la ,grce ,antique1 ,paris1 #aheg-ahei1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bba74 ,m#aig ,the worship of ,adonis at ,bethlehem4 ,the ,morning ,star1 identified with ,venus1 may have been the signal for the festival of ,adonis4 ,the ,star of ,bethlehem4 #gfb ,jerome1 ,epist4 lviii4 #c 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xxii4 #eha74 #gfc ,bethlehem is -1 literally 8,house of ,bread40 ,the name is appropriate1 for 8the immediate neighbourhood is very fertile1 bearing1 besides wheat and barley1 groves of olive and almond1 and vineyards4 ,the wine of ,bethlehem 7#8,talham'7 is among the best of ,palestine4 ,so great fertility must mean that the site was occupied1 in spite of the want of springs1 from the earliest times0 7,george ,adam ,smith1 s4v4 8,bethlehem10 ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 i4 #efj74 ,it was in the harvest-fields of ,bethlehem that ,ruth1 at least in the poet's fancy1 listened to the nightingale 8amid the alien corn40 #gfd ,john vi4 #ce4 #gfe ,above1 p4 #bbg4 #gff ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxii4 #i4 #ad1 8,urbique propinquans in speciem alicujus numinis votis excipitur publicis1 miratus voces multitudinis magnae1 salutare sidus inluxisse eois partibus adclamantis40 ,we may compare the greeting which a tribe of ,south ,american ,indians used to give to a worshipful star after its temporary disappearance4 8,the ,abipones think that the ,pleiades1 composed of seven stars1 is an image of their ancestor4 ,as the constellation is invisible for some months in the sky of ,south ,america1 they believe that their ancestor is ill1 and every year they are mortally afraid that he will die4 ,but when the said stars reappear in the month of ,may1 they imagine that their ancestor is recovered from his sickness and has returned2 so they hail him with joyous shouts and the glad music of pipes and war-horns4 ,they congratulate him on his recovery4 #8,how we thank you6 ,at last you have come back8 ,oh1 have you happily recovered8' ,with such cries they fill the air1 attesting at once their gladness and their folly40 ,see ,m4 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,historia de ,abiponibus 7,vienna1 #aghd71 ii4 #gg4 #gfg ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #cgj sqq42 ,h4 ,zimmern1 in ,e4 ,schrader's ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1#c p4 #dbd4 #gfh ,sozomenus1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 ii4 #e 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 lxvii4 #idh74 ,the connexion of the meteor with the festival of ,adonis is not mentioned by ,sozomenus1 but is confirmed by ,zosimus1 who says 7,hist4 i4 #eh7 that a light like a torch or a globe of fire was seen on the sanctuary at the seasons when the people assembled to worship the goddess and to cast their offerings of gold1 silver1 and fine raiment into a lake beside the temple4 ,as to ,aphaca and the grave of ,adonis see above1 pp4 #bh sq4 #gfi ,matthew ii4 #a-ab4 ,m#aih ,attis the ,phrygian counterpart of ,adonis4 ,his relation to ,cybele4 ,his miraculous birth4 ,the death of ,attis4 #ggj ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #ei4 #g2 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 iv41 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc2 ,scholiast on ,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #h2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #c and #bb4 ,the ancient evidence1 literary and inscriptional1 as to the myth and ritual of ,attis has been collected and discussed by ,mr4 ,h4 ,hepding in his monograph1 ,attis1 seine ,mythen und sein ,kult 7,giessen1 #aijc74 #gga ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 v4 #i1 p4 #afh ed4 ,l4 ,duncker and ,f4 ,g4 ,schneidewin 7,gttingen1 #ahei72 ,socrates1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 iii4 #bc4 #ea sqq4 #ggb ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #bbc sqq42 ,tertullian1 ,apologeticus1 #ae2 id41 ,ad ,nationes1 i4 #aj2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 iv4 #ce4 ,as to ,cybele1 the ,great ,mother1 the ,mother of the ,gods1 conceived as the source of all life1 both animal and vegetable1 see ,rapp1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 s4v4 8,kybele10 ii4 #afch sqq4 #ggc ,scholiast on ,lucian1 ,jupiter ,tragoedus1 #h1 p4 #fj ed4 ,h4 ,rabe 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 7vol4 iv4 p4 #agc ed4 ,c4 ,jacobitz72 ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 v4 #i1 pp4 #afh1 #agj ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin4 #ggd ,pausanias1 vii4 #ag4 #aa2 ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 v4 #i1 pp4 #aff1 #afh ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #f4 #gge ,see above1 pp4 #ii sqq4 #ggf ,s4 ,i4 ,curtiss1 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,to-day1 pp4 #aae sq4 ,see above1 pp4 #gh1 #bac sqq4 #ggg ,that ,attis was killed by a boar was stated by ,hermesianax1 an elegiac poet of the fourth century ,b4,c4 7,pausanias1 vii4 #ag72 compare ,scholiast on ,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #h4 ,the other story is told by ,arnobius 7,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #e sqq47 on the authority of ,timotheus1 who professed to derive it from recondite antiquarian works and from the very heart of the mysteries4 ,it is obviously identical with the account which ,pausanias 7l4c47 mentions as the story current in ,pessinus4 ,according to ,servius 7on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ix4 #aae71 ,attis was found bleeding to death under a pine-tree1 but the wound which robbed him of his virility and his life was not inflicted by himself4 ,the ,timotheus cited by ,pausanias may be the ,timotheus who was consulted by ,ptolemy ,soter on religious matters and helped to establish the worship of ,serapis4 ,see ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #bh2 ,franz ,cumont1 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4 #gg1 #aac1 #cce4 #ggh ,pausanias1 vii4 #ag4 #aj2 ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #agg ,b1 p4 #bbi1 ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein 7,leipsic1 #ahge-ahgf74 ,similarly at ,comana in ,pontus1 the seat of the worship of the goddess ,ma1 pork was not eaten1 and swine might not even be brought into the city 7,strabo1 xii4 #h4 #i1 p4 #ege74 ,as to ,comana see above1 p4 #ci4 #ggi ,s4 ,sophronius1 8,,ss4 ,cyri et ,joannis ,miracula10 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 lxxxvii4 ,pars ,tertia1 col4 #cfbd1 scil4 4 #ghj ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #ajc sqq4 ,m#aii ,worship of ,cybele introduced into ,rome in #bjd ,b4,c4 #gha ,livy1 xxix4 chs4 #aj1 #aa1 and #ad2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #bei sqq42 ,herodian1 ii4 #aa4 ,as to the stone which represented the goddess see ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 vii4 #di4 #ghb ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #af4 ,m#bjj ,attis and his eunuch priests the ,galli at ,rome4 #ghc ,lucretius1 ii4 #eih sqq42 ,catullus1 lxiii42 ,varro1 ,satir4 ,menipp41 ed4 ,f4 ,bcheler 7,berlin1 #ahhb71 pp4 #agf1 #agh2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #aha sqq41 #bbc sqq41 #cfa sqq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 ,rom4 ii4 #ai1 compare ,polybius1 xxii4 #ah ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf 7,leipsic1 #ahff-ahfh74 #ghd ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #da4 ,see ,robinson ,ellis1 ,commentary on ,catullus 7,oxford1 #ahgf71 pp4 #bjf sq42 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #adb sqq42 ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4 #hc sq4 ,it is held by ,prof4 ,a4 von ,domaszewski that the ,claudius who incorporated the ,phrygian worship of the sacred tree in the ,roman ritual was not the emperor of the first century but the emperor of the third century1 ,claudius ,gothicus1 who came to the throne in #bfh ,a4,d4 ,see ,a4 von ,domaszewski1 8,magna ,mater in ,latin ,inscriptions10 ,the ,journal of ,roman ,studies1 i4 7#aiaa7 p4 #ef4 ,the later date1 it is said1 fits better with the slow development of the worship4 ,but on the other hand this view is open to certain objections4 7#a7 ,joannes ,lydus1 our only authority on the point1 appears to identify the ,claudius in question with the emperor of the first century4 7#b7 ,the great and widespread popularity of the ,phrygian worship in the ,roman empire long before #bfh ,a4,d4 is amply attested by an array of ancient writers and inscriptions1 especially by a great series of inscriptions referring to the colleges of ,tree-bearers 7,dendrophori71 from which we learn that one of these colleges1 devoted to the worship of ,cybele and ,attis1 existed at ,rome in the age of the ,antonines1 about a century before the accession of ,claudius ,gothicus4 7#c7 ,passages of the ,augustan historians 7,aelius ,lampridius1 ,alexander ,severus1 #cg2 ,trebellius ,pollio1 ,claudius1 iv4 #b7 refer to the great spring festival of ,cybele and ,attis in a way which seems to imply that the festival was officially recognized by the ,roman government before ,claudius ,gothicus succeeded to the purple2 and we may hesitate to follow ,prof4 von ,domaszewski in simply excising these passages as the work of an 8impudent forger40 7#d7 ,the official establishment of the bloody ,phrygian superstition suits better the life and character of the superstitious1 timid1 cruel1 pedantic ,claudius of the first century than the gallant soldier his namesake in the third century4 ,the one lounged away his contemptible days in the safety of the palace1 surrounded by a hedge of lifeguards4 ,the other spent the two years of his brief but glorious reign in camps and battlefields on the frontier1 combating the barbarian enemies of the empire2 and it is probable that he had as little leisure as inclination to pander to the superstitions of the ,roman populace4 ,for these reasons it seems better with ,mr4 ,hepding and ,prof4 ,cumont to acquiesce in the traditional view that the rites of ,attis were officially celebrated at ,rome from the first century onward4 ,an intermediate view is adopted by ,prof4 ,g4 ,wissowa1 who1 brushing aside the statement of ,joannes ,lydus altogether1 would seemingly assign the public institution of the rites to the middle of the second century ,a4,d4 on the ground that the earliest extant evidence of their public celebration refers to that period 7,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1#b ,munich1 #aiab1 p4 #cbb74 ,but1 considering the extremely imperfect evidence at our disposal for the history of these centuries1 it seems rash to infer that an official cult cannot have been older than the earliest notice of it which has chanced to come down to us4 #ghe ,arrian1 ,tactica1 #cc2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 xii4 #hcf4 #ghf ,on the festival see ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b 7,leipsic1 #ahhe7 pp4 #cgj sqq42 the calendar of ,philocalus1 in ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 vol4 i4#b ,pars prior 7,berlin1 #ahic71 p4 #bfj1 with ,th4 ,mommsen's commentary 7pp4 #cac sq472 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 pp4 #bia sqq42 id41 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #egb sqq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1#b pp4 #cah sqq42 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #adg sqq42 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ii4 7,paris1 #aiaa7 pp4 #hb sqq4 ,m#bja ,the spring festival of ,cybele and ,attis at ,rome4 ,the ,day of ,blood4 #ghg ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #afh ,c1 p4 #bah ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein 7,leipsic1 #ahge-ahgf72 ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #da2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 chs4 #g1 #af1 #ci2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #bg2 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 iv41 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc4 ,as to the guild of ,tree-bearers 7,dendrophori7 see ,joannes ,lydus1 l4c42 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #daaf sq41 #daga-dagd1 #dagf2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #hf1 #ib1 #ic1 #if1 #aeb sqq42 ,f4 ,cumont1 s4v4 8,dendrophori10 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 v4 #a4 coll4 #baf-bai2 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ii4 #hb sq41 #ib sq4 #ghh ,julian1 l4c4 and #afi ,c1 p4 #bai ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein4 ,the ceremony may have been combined with the old tubilustrium or purification of trumpets1 which fell on this day4 ,see ,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1 iv4 #db2 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina1 vi4 #ad2 ,festus1 pp4 #ceb1 #cec ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of the ,republic 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #fb4 #ghi ,trebellius ,pollio1 ,claudius1 #d2 ,tertullian1 ,apologeticus1 #be4 #gij ,lucian1 ,deorum dialogi1 xii4 #a2 ,seneca1 ,agamemnon1 #fhf sqq42 ,martial1 xi4 #hd4 #c sq42 ,valerius ,flaccus1 ,argonaut4 viii4 #bci sqq42 ,statius1 ,theb4 x4 #agj sqq42 ,apuleius1 ,metam4 viii4 #bg2 ,lactantius1 ,divinarum ,institutionum ,epitome1 #bc 7#ah1 vol4 i4 p4 #fhi ed4 ,brandt and ,laubmann72 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #aeh sqq4 ,as to the music of these dancing dervishes see also ,lucretius1 ii4 #fah sqq4 #gia ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ij sq41 #aja sq4 #gib ,minucius ,felix1 ,octavius1 #bb and #bd2 ,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,instit4 i4 #ba4 #af2 id41 ,epitoma1 #h2 ,schol4 on ,lucian1 ,jupiter ,tragoedus1 #h 7p4 #fj ed4 ,h4 ,rabe72 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ix4 #aae2 ,prudentius1 ,peristephan4 x4 #ajff sqq42 8,passio ,sancti ,symphoriani10 chs4 #b and #f 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 v4 #adfc1 #adff72 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #ad2 ,scholiast on ,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #h2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #afc sq4 ,a story told by ,clement of ,alexandria 7,protrept4 ii4 #ae1 p4 #ac ed4 ,potter7 suggests that weaker brethren may have been allowed to sacrifice the virility of a ram instead of their own4 ,we know from inscriptions that rams and bulls were regularly sacrificed at the mysteries of ,attis and the ,great ,mother1 and that the testicles of the bulls were used for a special purpose1 probably as a fertility charm4 ,may not the testicles of the rams have been employed for the same purpose8 and may not those of both animals have been substitutes for the corresponding organs in men8 ,as to the sacrifices of rams and bulls see ,g4 ,zippel1 8,das ,taurobolium10 ,festschrift zum fnfzigjhrigen ,doctorjubilum ,l4 ,friedlaender 7,leipsic1 #ahie71 pp4 #dih sqq42 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #daah sqq42 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ii4 #hd sqq4 #gic ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #e sq4 ,m#bjb ,eunuch priests in the service of ,asiatic goddesses4 #gid ,strabo1 xiv4 #a4 #bc1 p4 #fda4 #gie ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ae1 #bg1 #ej-ec4 #gif ,lucian1 op4 cit4 #aj4 #gig ,lucian1 op4 cit4 #ae4 #gih ,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #di-ea4 #gii ,catullus1 ,carm4 lxiii4 ,i agree with ,mr4 ,h4 ,hepding 7,attis1 p4 #adj7 in thinking that the subject of the poem is not the mythical ,attis1 but one of his ordinary priests1 who bore the name and imitated the sufferings of his god4 ,thus interpreted the poem gains greatly in force and pathos4 ,the real sorrows of our fellow-men touch us more nearly than the imaginary pangs of the gods4 ,as the sacrifice of virility and the institution of eunuch priests appear to be rare1 ,i will add a few examples4 ,at ,stratonicea in ,caria a eunuch held a sacred office in connexion with the worship of ,zeus and ,hecate 7,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 ,no4 #bgae74 ,according to ,eustathius 7on ,homer1 ,iliad1 xix4 #bed1 p4 #aahc7 the ,egyptian priests were eunuchs who had sacrificed their virility as a first-fruit to the gods4 ,in ,corea 8during a certain night1 known as ,chu-il1 in the twelfth moon1 the palace eunuchs1 of whom there are some three hundred1 perform a ceremony supposed to ensure a bountiful crop in the ensuing year4 ,they chant in chorus prayers1 swinging burning torches around them the while4 ,this is said to be symbolical of burning the dead grass1 so as to destroy the field mice and other vermin40 ,see ,w4 ,woodville ,rockhill1 8,notes on some of the ,laws1 ,customs1 and ,superstitions of ,korea10 ,the ,american ,anthropologist1 iv4 7,washington1 #ahia7 p4 #ahe4 ,compare ,mrs4 ,bishop1 ,korea and her ,neighbours 7,london1 #ahih71 ii4 #ef sq4 ,it appears that among the ,ekoi of ,southern ,nigeria both men and women are1 or used to be1 mutilated by the excision of their genital organs at an annual festival1 which is celebrated in order to produce plentiful harvests and immunity from thunderbolts4 ,the victims apparently die from loss of blood4 ,see ,p4 ,amaury ,talbot1 ,in the ,shadow of the ,bush 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #gd sqq4 ,mr4 ,talbot writes to me3 8,a horrible case has just happened at ,idua1 where1 at the new yam planting1 a man cut off his own membrum virile0 7letter dated ,eket1 ,nr ,calabar1 ,southern ,nigeria1 ,feb4 #gth1 #aiac74 ,amongst the ,ba-sundi and ,ba-bwende of the ,congo many youths are castrated 8in order to more fittingly offer themselves to the phallic worship1 which increasingly prevails as we advance from the coast to the interior4 ,at certain villages between ,manyanga and ,isangila there are curious eunuch dances to celebrate the new moon1 in which a white cock is thrown up into the air alive1 with clipped wings1 and as it falls towards the ground it is caught and plucked by the eunuchs4 ,i was told that originally this used to be a human sacrifice1 and that a young boy or girl was thrown up into the air and torn to pieces by the eunuchs as he or she fell1 but that of late years slaves had got scarce or manners milder1 and a white cock was now substituted0 7,h4 ,h4 ,johnston1 8,on the ,races of the ,congo10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 7#ahhd7 p4 #dgc2 compare id41 ,the ,river ,congo1 ,london1 #ahhd1 p4 #dji74 ,in ,india1 men who are born eunuchs or in some way deformed are sometimes dedicated to a goddess named ,huligamma4 ,they wear female attire and might be mistaken for women4 ,also men who are or believe themselves impotent will vow to dress as women and serve the goddess in the hope of recovering their virility4 ,see ,f4 ,fawcett1 8,on ,basivis10 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1 ii4 #cdc sq4 ,in ,pegu the ,english traveller1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 witnessed a dance in honour of the gods of the earth4 8,hermaphrodites1 who are numerous in this country1 are generally chosen1 if there are enough present to make a set for the dance4 ,i saw nine dance like mad folks for above half-an-hour2 and then some of them fell in fits1 foaming at the mouth for the space of half-an-hour2 and1 when their senses are restored1 they pretend to foretell plenty or scarcity of corn for that year1 if the year will prove sickly or salutary to the people1 and several other things of moment1 and all by that half hour's conversation that the furious dancer had with the gods while she was in a trance0 7,a4 ,hamilton1 8,a ,new ,account of the ,east ,indies10 in ,j4 ,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 viii4 #dbg74 ,so in the worship of ,attis the ,archigallus or head of the eunuch priests prophesied2 perhaps he in like manner worked himself up to the pitch of inspiration by a frenzied dance4 ,see ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 ,pars i4 pp4 #adb1 #adc1 ,nos4 #dacj1 #dacf2 ,g4 ,wilmanns1 ,exempla ,inscriptionum ,latinarum 7,berlin1 #ahgc71 vol4 i4 p4 #cf1 ,nos4 #aai;a1 #abj2 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ii4 #ic sq4 ,as to the sacrifice of virility in the ,syrian religion compare ,th4 ,nldeke1 8,die ,selbstentmannung bei den ,syrern10 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 x4 7#aijg7 pp4 #aej-aeb4 ,m#bjc ,the sacrifice of virility4 ,the mourning for ,attis4 #hjj ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #g and #af2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ix4 #aae4 #hja ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #ei2 ,arrian1 ,tactica1 #cc2 ,scholiast on ,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #h2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #c and #bb2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #af2 ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ix4 #aae4 #hjb ,see above1 p4 #bfg4 #hjc ,arnobius1 l4c42 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 iv41 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc4 #hjd ,above1 p4 #bcj4 #hje ,see below1 p4 #bgd4 ,m#bjd ,the ,festival of ,joy 7,hilaria7 for the resurrection of ,attis on ,march #beth4 ,the procession to the ,almo4 #hjf ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #bb1 8,nocte quadam simulacrum in lectica supinum ponitur et per numeros digestis fletibus plangitur3 deinde cum se ficta lamentatione satiaverint1 lumen infertur3 tunc a sacerdote omnium qui flebant fauces unguentur1 quibus perunctis hoc lento murmure susurrat3 2 4 ,quid miseros hortaris gaudeant8 quid deceptos homines laetari compellis8 quam illis spem1 quam salutem funesta persuasione promittis8 ,dei tui mors nota est1 vita non paret4444 ,idolum sepelis1 idolum plangis1 idolum de sepultura proferis1 et miser cum haec feceris1 gaudes4 ,tu deum tuum liberas1 tu jacentia lapidis membra componis1 tu insensibile corrigis saxum40 ,in this passage ,firmicus does not expressly mention ,attis1 but that the reference is to his rites is made probable by a comparison with chapter #c of the same writer's work4 ,compare also ,damascius1 in ,photius's ,bibliotheca1 p4 #cde ,a1 #e sqq41 ed4 ,i4 ,bekker 7,berlin1 #ahbd71 1 2 4 ,see further ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4 #hi sq4 #hjg ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ba4 #aj2 ,flavius ,vopiscus1 ,aurelianus1 i4 #a2 ,julian1 ,or4 v4 pp4 #afh ,d1 #afi ,d2 ,damascius1 l4c42 ,herodian1 i4 #aj4 #e-g2 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc4 ,in like manner ,easter ,sunday1 the ,resurrection-day of ,christ1 was called by some ancient writers the ,sunday of ,joy 7,dominica ,gaudii74 ,the emperors used to celebrate the happy day by releasing from prison all but the worst offenders4 ,see ,j4 ,bingham1 ,the ,antiquities of the ,christian ,church1 bk4 xx4 ch4 vi4 #e sq4 7,bingham's ,works 7,oxford1 #ahee71 vii4 #cag sqq474 #hjh ,aelius ,lampridius1 ,alexander ,severus1 #cg4 #hji ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 i4#b ,pars prior 7,berlin1 #ahic71 pp4 #bfj1 #cac sq42 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #ea1 #agb4 #haj ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #ccg-cdf2 ,silius ,italicus1 ,punic4 viii4 #cfe2 ,valerius ,flaccus1 ,argonaut4 viii4 #bci sqq42 ,martial1 iii4 #dg4 #a sq42 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #c4 #g2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 vii4 #cb2 ,prudentius1 ,peristephon4 x4 #aed sqq4 ,for the description of the image of the goddess see ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 vii4 #di4 ,at ,carthage the goddess was carried to her bath in a litter1 not in a wagon 7,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 ii4 #d74 ,the bath formed part of the festival in ,phrygia1 whence the custom was borrowed by the ,romans 7,arrian1 ,tactica1 #cc74 ,at ,cyzicus the ,placianian ,mother1 a form of ,cybele1 was served by women called 8marine0 771 whose duty it probably was to wash her image in the sea 7,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 ,brussels1 #aijj1 pp4 #djc sq41 ,no4 #ecg74 ,see further ,j4 ,marquardt1 ,rmische ,staatsverwaltung1 iii4#b #cgc2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #acc sq4 ,m#bje ,the mysteries of ,attis4 ,the sacrament4 ,the baptism of blood4 ,the ,vatican a centre of the worship of ,attis4 #haa ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ae1 p4 #ac ed4 ,potter2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #ah4 #hab ,above1 p4 #bgb4 #hac ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 p4 #ahe4 #had ,prudentius1 ,peristephan4 x4 #ajjf-ajej2 compare ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #bh4 #h4 ,that the bath of bull's blood 7taurobolium7 was believed to regenerate the devotee for eternity is proved by an inscription found at ,rome1 which records that a certain ,sextilius ,agesilaus ,aedesius1 who dedicated an altar to ,attis and the ,mother of the ,gods1 was taurobolio criobolioque in aeternum renatus 7,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 vi4 ,no4 #eaj2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,no4 #daeb74 ,the phrase arcanis perfusionibus in aeternum renatus occurs in a dedication to ,mithra 7,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 vi4 ,no4 #gcf71 which1 however1 is suspected of being spurious4 ,as to the inscriptions which refer to the taurobolium see ,g4 ,zippel1 8,das ,taurobolium10 in ,festschrift zum fnfzigjhrigen ,doctorjubilum ,l4 ,friedlaender dargebracht von seinen ,schlern 7,leipsic1 #ahie71 pp4 #dih-ebj2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 ,pars i4 pp4 #adj-adg1 ,nos4 #daah-daei4 ,as to the origin of the taurobolium and the meaning of the word1 see ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments ,figurs relatifs aux ,mystres de ,mithra 7,brussels1 #ahif-ahii71 i4 #ccd sq42 id41 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain1#b pp4 #ajj sqq42 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain1 ii4 #hd sqq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1#b pp4 #cbb sqq4 ,the taurobolium seems to have formed no part of the original worship of ,cybele and to have been imported into it at a comparatively late date1 perhaps in the second century of our era4 ,its origin is obscure4 ,in the majority of the older inscriptions the name of the rite appears as tauropolium1 and it has been held that this is the true form1 being derived from the worship of the ,asiatic goddess ,artemis ,tauropolis 7,strabo1 xii4 #b4 #g1 p4 #ecg74 ,this was formerly the view of ,prof4 ,f4 ,cumont 7s4v4 8,anaitis10 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 i4 #b4 col4 #bjca72 but he now prefers the form taurobolium1 and would deduce both the name and the rite from an ancient ,anatolian hunting custom of lassoing wild bulls4 #hae ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 iv41 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc4 #haf ,sallustius philosophus1 l4c4 #hag ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 vi4 ,nos4 #dig-ejd2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #dade1 #dadg-daea1 #daec2 ,inscriptiones ,graecae ,siciliae et ,italiae1 ed4 ,g4 ,kaibel 7,berlin1 #ahij71 p4 #bgj1 ,no4 #ajbj2 ,g4 ,zippel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eji sq41 #eai2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #hc1 #hf-hh1 #agf2 ,ch4 ,huelsen1 ,topographie der ,stadt ,rom im ,alterthum1 von ,h4 ,jordan1 i4 #c 7,berlin1 #aijg71 pp4 #feh sq4 #hah ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 xiii4 ,no4 #agea2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,no4 #daca2 ,g4 ,wilmanns1 ,exempla ,inscriptionum ,latinarum 7,berlin1 #ahgc71 vol4 ii4 p4 #abe1 ,no4 #bbgh2 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1#b p4 #bfg2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #afi-aga1 #agf4 #hai ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 xiii4 ,no4 #agea2 ,g4 ,wilmanns1 ,exempla ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ce-cg1 ,nos4 #aai1 #abc1 #abd2 ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #dabg1 #dabi1 #daca1 #dadj2 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1#b pp4 #cbb sqq42 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 p4 #aia4 ,m#bjf ,the sanctity of the pine-tree in the worship of ,attis4 #hbj ,as to the monuments see ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #dadc1 #daeb1 #daec2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #hb1 #hc1 #hh1 #hi4 #hba ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #bg4 #hbb ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #dg sq41 #ga2 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 i4 #ach1 #adc1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh4 #hbc ,etymologicum ,magnum1 p4 #bbj1 line #bj1 1 2 1 4 4 ,but there seems to be some confusion here between the rites of ,dionysus and those of ,attis2 ivy was certainly sacred to ,dionysus 7,pausanias1 i4 #ca4 #f with my note74 ,compare ,c4 ,a4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus 7,knigsberg1 #ahbi71 i4 #feg1 who1 in the passage quoted1 rightly defends the readings and 4 #hbd ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1#i xix4 #aje4 ,compare ,athenaeus1 ii4 #di1 p4 #eg4 ,the nuts of the silver-pine 7,pinus edulis7 are a favourite food of the ,californian ,indians 7,s4 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california 7,washington1 #ahgg71 p4 #dba72 the ,wintun ,indians hold a pine-nut dance when the nuts are fit to be gathered 7ib4 p4 #bcg74 ,the ,shuswap ,indians of ,british ,columbia collect the cones of various sorts of pines and eat the nutlets which they extract from them4 ,see ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 8,notes on the ,shuswap ,people of ,british ,columbia10 ,proceedings and ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 ix4 7,montreal1 #ahib7 ,transactions1 section ii4 p4 #bb4 ,with regard to the ,araucanian ,indians of ,south ,america we read that 8the great staple food1 the base of all their subsistence1 save among the coast tribes1 was the pion1 the fruit of the ,araucanian pine 7,araucaria imbricata74 ,every year during the autumn months excursions are made by the whole tribe to the pine forests1 where they remain until they have collected sufficient for the following year4 ,each tribe has its own district1 inherited by custom from generation to generation and inviolate1 by unwritten law1 from other tribes1 even in time of warfare4 ,this harvest was formerly of such supreme importance1 that all inter-tribal quarrels and warfares were suspended by mutual accord during this period40 ,see ,r4 ,e4 ,latcham1 8,ethnology of the ,araucanos10 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4 7#aiji7 p4 #cda4 ,the ,gilyaks of the ,amoor valley in like manner eat the nutlets of the ,siberian stone-pine 7,l4 von ,schrenk1 ,die ,vlker des ,amur-,landes1 iii4 #ddj74 ,see also the commentators on ,herodotus1 iv4 #aji 4 #hbe ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xiv4 #ajc4 #hbf ,strabo1 x4 #c4 #ab sqq41 pp4 #dfi sqq4 ,however1 tipsy people were excluded from the sanctuary of ,attis 7,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #f74 #hbg ,scholiast on ,lucian1 ,dial4 ,meretr4 ii4 #a1 p4 #bgf ed4 ,h4 ,rabe 7,leipsic1 #aijf74 ,m#bjg ,attis as a corn-god4 ,cybele as a goddess of fertility4 ,the bathing of her image either a rain-charm or a marriage-rite4 #hbh ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 v4 #h and #i1 pp4 #afb1 #afh ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore profanarum religionum1 #c2 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc4 ,others identified him with the spring flowers4 ,see ,eusebius1 ,praeparatio ,evangelii1 iii4 #aa4 #h and #ab1 iii4 #ac4 #aj ed4 ,f4 ,a4 ,heinichen 7,leipsic1 #ahdb-ahdc72 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #be4 #hbi ,w4 ,helbig1 ,fhrer durch die ffentlichen ,sammlungen klassischer ,altertmer in ,rom#b 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 i4 #dha1 ,no4 #gba4 #hcj ,the urn is in the ,lateran ,museum at ,rome 7,no4 #ajdf74 ,it is not described by ,w4 ,helbig in his ,fhrer4#b ,the inscription on the urn 7,m4 ,modius ,maxximus archigallus coloniae ,ostiens7 is published by ,h4 ,dessau 7,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,no4 #dafb71 who does not notice the curious and interesting composition of the cock's tail4 ,the bird is chosen as an emblem of the priest with a punning reference to the word gallus1 which in ,latin means a cock as well as a priest of ,attis4 #hca ,gregory of ,tours1 ,de gloria confessorum1 #gg 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 lxxi4 #hhd74 ,that the goddess here referred to was ,cybele and not a native ,gallic deity1 as ,i formerly thought 7,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship1 p4 #agh71 seems proved by the 8,passion of ,st4 ,symphorian10 chs4 #b and #f 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 v4 #adfc1 #adff74 ,gregory and the author of the 8,passion of ,st4 ,symphorian0 call the goddess simply ,berecynthia1 the latter writer adding 8the ,mother of the ,demons10 which is plainly a ,christian version of the title 8,mother of the ,gods40 #hcb ,above1 p4 #bfe4 ,in the island of ,thera an ox1 wheat1 barley1 wine1 and 8other first-fruits of all that the seasons produce0 were offered to the ,mother of the ,gods1 plainly because she was deemed the source of fertility4 ,see ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b vol4 ii4 p4 #dbf1 ,no4 #fcj4 #hcc ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #bae-bag2 compare id4 p4 #age note #g4 #hcd ,ptolemaeus1 ,nov4 ,hist4 i4 p4 #ahc of ,a4 ,westermann's ,mythographi ,graeci 7,brunswick1 #ahdc74 #hce ,pausanias1 viii4 #be4 #e sq4 #hcf ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 xii4 #cj4 ,the place was in ,mesopotamia1 and the goddess was probably ,astarte4 ,so ,lucian 7,de dea ,syria7 calls the ,astarte of ,hierapolis 8the ,assyrian ,hera40 #hcg ,pausanias1 ii4 #ch4 #b4 #hch ,julian1 ,orat4 v4 #agc sqq4 7pp4 #bbe sqq4 ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein72 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #aee-aeg4 ,however1 apples1 pomegranates1 and dates were also forbidden4 ,the story that the mother of ,attis conceived him through contact with a pomegranate 7above1 pp4 #bfc1 #bfi7 might explain the prohibition of that fruit4 ,but the reasons for tabooing apples and dates are not apparent1 though ,julian tried to discover them4 ,he suggested that dates may have been forbidden because the date-palm does not grow in ,phrygia1 the native land of ,cybele and ,attis4 ,m#bjh ,the name ,attis seems to mean 8father40 #hci ,p4 ,kretschmer1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache 7,gttingen1 #ahif71 p4 #cee4 #hdj ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #eh4 #d2 ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 i4 #i1 p4 #afh ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin4 ,a ,latin dedication to ,atte ,papa has been found at ,aquileia 7,f4 ,cumont1 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,realencyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ii4 #bahj1 s4v4 8,attepata0 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 p4 #hf74 ,greek dedications to ,papas or to ,zeus ,papas occur in ,phrygia 7,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #gh sq474 ,compare ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,zeus1 ,jupiter1 and the ,oak10 ,classical ,review1 xviii4 7#aijd7 p4 #gi4 #hda ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #f and #ac4 #hdb 7,sir7 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture#b 7,london1 #ahgc71 i4 #bbc4 ,m#bji ,relation of ,attis to the ,mother ,goddess4 ,attis as a ,sky-god or ,heavenly ,father4 ,stories of the emasculation of the ,sky-god4 #hdc ,rapp1 s4v4 8,kybele10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #afdh4 #hdd ,she is called a 8motherless virgin0 by ,julian 7,or4 v4 #aff ,b1 p4 #bae ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein71 and there was a ,parthenon or virgin's chamber in her sanctuary at ,cyzicus 7,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 p4 #djd1 ,no4 #ech74 ,compare ,rapp1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #afdh2 ,wagner1 s4v4 8,nana10 ibid4 iii4 #d sq4 ,another great goddess of fertility who was conceived as a ,virgin ,mother was the ,egyptian ,neith or ,net4 ,she is called 8the ,great ,goddess1 the ,mother of ,all the ,gods10 and was believed to have brought forth ,ra1 the ,sun1 without the help of a male partner4 ,see ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #aaa2 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,gods of the ,egyptians 7,london1 #aijd71 i4 #deg-dfb4 ,the latter writer says 7p4 #dfb73 8,in very early times ,net was the personification of the eternal female principle of life which was self-sustaining and self-existent1 and was secret and unknown1 and all-pervading2 the more material thinkers1 whilst admitting that she brought forth her son ,r without the aid of a husband1 were unable to divorce from their minds the idea that a male germ was necessary for its production1 and finding it impossible to derive it from a being external to the goddess1 assumed that she herself provided not only the substance which was to form the body of ,r but also the male germ which fecundated it4 ,thus ,net was the type of partheno-genesis40 #hde ,quoted by ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,il4 v4 #djh2 ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,mller1 iii4 #eib1 ,frag4 #cj4 #hdf 7,sir7 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1#b i4 #cba sqq41 ii4 #bgj sqq4 ,for example1 the ,ewe people of ,togo-land1 in ,west ,africa1 think that the ,earth is the wife of the ,sky1 and that their marriage takes place in the rainy season1 when the rain causes the seeds to sprout and bear fruit4 ,these fruits they regard as the children of ,mother ,earth1 who in their opinion is the mother also of men and of gods4 ,see ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #dfd1 #edh4 ,in the regions of the ,senegal and the ,niger it is believed that the ,sky-god and the ,earth-goddess are the parents of the principal spirits who dispense life and death1 weal and woe1 among mankind4 ,the eldest son of ,sky and ,earth is represented in very various forms1 sometimes as a hermaphrodite1 sometimes in semi-animal shape1 with the head of a bull1 a crocodile1 a fish1 or a serpent4 ,his name varies in the different tribes1 but the outward form of his ceremonies is everywhere similar4 ,his rites1 which are to some extent veiled in mystery1 are forbidden to women4 ,see ,maurice ,delafosse1 ,haut-,sngal-,niger 7,paris1 #aiab71 iii4 #agc-age4 #hdg ,hesiod1 ,theogony1 #aei sqq4 #hdh ,porphyry1 ,de antro nympharum1 #af2 ,aristides1 ,or4 iii4 7vol4 i4 p4 #ce ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf1 ,leipsic1 #ahbi72 ,scholiast on ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argon4 iv4 #ihc4 #hdi ,a4 ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #de sqq42 id41 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion 7,london1 #ahhg71 i4 #bii sqq4 ,in ,egyptian mythology the separation of heaven and earth was ascribed to ,shu1 the god of light1 who insinuated himself between the bodies of ,seb 7,keb7 the earth-god and of ,nut the sky-goddess4 ,on the monuments ,shu is represented holding up the star-spangled body of ,nut on his hands1 while ,seb reclines on the ground4 ,see ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,religion of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahig71 pp4 #bcj sq42 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,gods of the ,egyptians1 ii4 #ij1 #ig sq41 #ajj1 #aje2 ,a4 ,erman1 ,die gyptische ,religion#b 7,berlin1 #aiji71 pp4 #ce sq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,tiele1 ,geschichte der ,religion im ,altertum1 i4 #cc sq4 ,thus contrary to the usual mythical conception the ,egyptians regarded the earth as male and the sky as female4 ,an allusion in the ,book of the ,dead 7ch4 #fi1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bce1 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge's translation1 ,london1 #aija7 has been interpreted as a hint that ,osiris mutilated his father ,seb at the separation of earth and heaven1 just as ,cronus mutilated his father ,uranus4 ,see ,h4 ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter 7,leipsic1 #ahhe-ahhh71 p4 #eha2 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ii sq4 ,sometimes the ,egyptians conceived the sky as a great cow standing with its legs on the earth4 ,see ,a4 ,erman1 ,die gyptische ,religion1#b pp4 #g1 #h4 #hej ,compare ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aje sqq4 #hea ,julian1 ,or4 v4 pp4 #afe ,b1 #agj ,d 7pp4 #bad1 #bba1 ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein72 ,sallustius philosophus1 8,de diis et mundo10 iv4 ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 iii4 #cc4 #heb ,drexler1 s4v4 8,men10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #bgde2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 p4 #abj1 note #h4 #hec ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 vol4 ii4 ,pars i4 pp4 #ade sq41 ,nos4 #dadf-dadi2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #hb1 #hf sq41 #hi sq4 ,as to ,men ,tyrannus1 see ,drexler1 s4v4 8,men10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,myth4 ii4 #bfhg sqq4 #hed ,on the other hand ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay holds that ,attis and ,men are deities of similar character and origin1 but differentiated from each other by development in different surroundings 7,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 i4 #afi72 but he denies that ,men was a moon-god 7op4 cit4 i4 #ajd1 note #d74 ,m#baj ,the high priest of ,attis bore the god's name and seems to have personated him4 ,the drawing of the high priest's blood may have been a substitute for putting him to death in the character of the god4 ,the name of ,attis in the royal families of ,phrygia and ,lydia4 ,the ,phrygian priests of ,attis may have been members of the royal family4 #hee ,in letters of ,eumenes and ,attalus1 preserved in inscriptions at ,sivrihissar1 the priest at ,pessinus is addressed as ,attis4 ,see ,a4 von ,domaszewski1 8,briefe der ,attaliden an den ,priester von ,pessinus10 ,archaeologische-epigraphische ,mittheilungen aus ,oesterreich-,ungarn1 viii4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #if1 #ih2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 pp4 #eg sq4 ,no4 #de2 ,w4 ,dittenberger1 ,orientis ,graeci ,inscriptiones ,selectae 7,leipsic1 #aijc-aije71 vol4 i4 pp4 #dhb sqq4 ,no4 #cae4 ,for more evidence of inscriptions see ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 p4 #gi2 ,rapp1 s4v4 8,attis10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #gbd4 ,see also ,polybius1 xxii4 #ah 7#bj71 7ed4 ,l4 ,dindorf71 who mentions a priest of the ,mother of the ,gods named ,attis at ,pessinus4 #hef ,the conjecture is that of ,henzen1 in ,annal4 d4 ,inst4 #ahef1 p4 #aaj1 referred to by ,rapp1 l4c4 #heg ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ge sq42 ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aea sq41 #bji4 #heh ,article 8,phrygia10 in ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #ith ed4 xviii4 7#ahhe7 p4 #hec4 ,elsewhere1 speaking of the religions of ,asia ,minor in general1 the same writer says3 8,the highest priests and priestesses played the parts of the great gods in the mystic ritual1 wore their dress1 and bore their names0 7,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 i4 #aja74 #hei ,strabo1 xii4 #e4 #c1 p4 #efg4 #hfj 7,sir7 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 8,a ,study of ,phrygian ,art10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #cgi sqq42 id41 8,a ,study of ,phrygian ,art10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 x4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #aef sqq42 ,g4 ,perrot et ,ch4 ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l',art dans l',antiquit1 v4 #hb sqq4 #hfa ,herodotus1 i4 #id4 ,according to ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 the conquering and ruling caste in ,lydia belonged to the ,phrygian stock 7,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 p4 #cea74 #hfb ,herodotus1 i4 #cd-de4 ,the tradition that ,croesus would allow no iron weapon to come near ,atys suggests that a similar taboo may have been imposed on the ,phrygian priests named ,attis4 ,for taboos of this sort see ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #bbe sqq4 #hfc ,h4 ,stein on ,herodotus1 i4 #dc2 ,ed4 ,meyer1 s4v4 8,atys10 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 ii4 #b col4 #bbfb4 #hfd ,see above1 pp4 #ac1 #af sq41 #dh sqq4 #hfe ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #afa sqq4 #hff ,see 7,sir7 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 s4v4 8,phrygia10 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #ith ed4 xviii4 #hdi sq42 id41 8,a ,study of ,phrygian ,art10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #cej sq4 ,prof4 ,p4 ,kretschmer holds that both ,cybele and ,attis were gods of the indigenous ,asiatic population1 not of the ,phrygian invaders 7,einleitung in die ,geschichte der griechischen ,sprache1 ,gttingen1 #ahif1 pp4 #aid sq474 ,m#baa ,the way in which the representatives of ,attis were put to death is perhaps shown by the legend of ,marsyas1 who was hung on a pine-tree and flayed by ,apollo4 #hfg ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #eh sq4 ,as to ,marsyas in the character of a shepherd or herdsman see ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #afe2 ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 i4 #da sqq4 ,he is called a ,silenus by ,pausanias 7i4 #bd4 #a74 #hfh ,pausanias1 x4 #cj4 #i4 #hfi ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #d4 #b2 ,hyginus1 ,fab4 #afe4 ,many ancient writers mention that the tree on which ,marsyas suffered death was a pine4 ,see ,apollodorus1 l4c42 ,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #cja sq41 with the ,scholiast's note2 ,lucian1 ,tragodopodagra1 #cad sq42 ,archias ,mitylenaeus1 in ,anthologia ,palatina1 vii4 #fif2 ,philostratus1 ,junior1 ,imagines1 i4 #c2 ,longus1 ,pastor4 iv4 #h2 ,zenobius1 ,cent4 iv4 #ha2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 i4 #cec sqq4 ,pliny alone declares the tree to have been a plane1 which according to him was still shown at ,aulocrene on the way from ,apamea to ,phrygia 7,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #bdj74 ,on a candelabra in the ,vatican the defeated ,marsyas is represented hanging on a pine-tree 7,w4 ,helbig1 ,fhrer1#b i4 #bbe sq472 but the monumental evidence is not consistent on this point 7,jessen1 s4v4 8,marsyas10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #bddb74 ,the position which the pine held in the myth and ritual of ,cybele supports the preponderance of ancient testimony in favour of that tree4 #hgj ,herodotus1 vii4 #bf2 ,xenophon1 ,anabasis1 i4 #b4 #h2 ,livy1 xxxviii4 #ac4 #f2 ,quintus ,curtius1 iii4 #a4 #a-e2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 v4 #ajf4 ,herodotus calls the river the ,catarrhactes4 #hga ,aelian1 ,var4 ,hist4 xiii4 #ba4 ,m#bab ,marsyas apparently a double of ,attis4 ,the hanging and spearing of ,odin and his human victims on sacred trees4 ,the hanging and spearing of human victims among the ,bagobos4 #hgb ,catullus1 lxiii4 #bb2 ,lucretius1 ii4 #fbj2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #aha sq41 #cda2 ,polyaenus1 ,stratagem4 viii4 #ec4 #d4 ,flutes or pipes often appear on her monuments4 ,see ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #dajj1 #dadc1 #dade1 #daeb1 #daec4 #hgc ,hippolytus1 ,refutatio omnium haeresium1 v4 #i1 p4 #afh1 ed4 ,duncker and ,schneidewin4 #hgd ,adam of ,bremen1 ,descriptio insularum ,aquilonis1 #bg 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 cxlvi4 #fdc74 #hge ,s4 ,bugge1 ,studien ber die ,entstehung der nrdischen ,gtter- und ,heldensagen 7,munich1 #ahhi71 pp4 #cci sqq42 ,k4 ,simrock1 ,die ,edda#h 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 p4 #chb2 ,k4 ,mllenhoff1 ,deutsche ,altertumskunde 7,berlin1 #ahgj-aijj71 iv4 #bdd sq42 ,h4 ,m4 ,chadwick1 ,the ,cult of ,othin 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #c-bj4 ,the old ,english custom of hanging and disembowelling traitors was probably derived from a practice of thus sacrificing them to ,odin2 for among many races1 including the ,teutonic and ,latin peoples1 capital punishment appears to have been originally a religious rite1 a sacrifice or consecration of the criminal to the god whom he had offended4 ,see ,f4 ,liebrecht1 ,zur ,volkskunde 7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 pp4 #h sq42 ,k4 von ,amira1 in ,h4 ,paul's ,grundriss der germanischen ,philologie1#b iii4 7,strasburg1 #aijj7 pp4 #aig sq42 ,g4 ,vigfusson and ,f4 ,york ,powell1 ,corpus ,poeticum ,boreale 7,oxford1 #ahhc71 i4 #daj2 ,w4 ,golther1 ,handbuch der germanischen ,mythologie 7,leipsic1 #ahie71 pp4 #edh sq42 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,roman ,history1 bk4 i4 ch4 #ab 7vol4 i4 p4 #aib1 ed4 #ahfh72 id41 ,rmisches ,strafrecht 7,leipsic1 #ahii71 pp4 #ijj sqq42 ,f4 ,granger1 ,the ,worship of the ,romans 7,london1 #ahie71 pp4 #bei sqq42 ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas1 i4 7,london1 #aijf7 pp4 #dci sq4 ,so1 too1 among barbarous peoples the slaughter of prisoners in war is often a sacrifice offered by the victors to the gods to whose aid they ascribe the victory4 ,see ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast 7,london1 #ahhg71 pp4 #afi sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches#b 7,london1 #ahcb-ahcf71 i4 #bhi2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 xx4 #fe2 ,strabo1 vii4 #b4 #c1 p4 #bid2 ,caesar1 ,de bello ,gallico1 vi4 #ag2 ,tacitus1 ,annals1 i4 #fa1 xiii4 #eg2 ,procopius1 ,de bello ,gothico1 ii4 #ae4 #bd1 ii4 #be4 #i2 ,jornandes1 ,getica1 vi4 #da2 ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie#d 7,berlin1 #ahge-ahgh71 i4 #cf sq42 ,fr4 ,schwally1 ,semitische ,kriegsaltertmer 7,leipsic1 #aija71 pp4 #bi sqq4 #hgf ,havamal1 #aci sqq4 7,k4 ,simrock1 ,die ,edda1#h p4 #ee2 ,k4 ,mllenhoff1 ,deutsche ,altertumskunde1 v4 #bgj sq474 #hgg ,fay-,cooper ,cole1 ,the ,wild ,tribes of ,davao ,district1 ,mindanao 7,chicago1 #aiac71 pp4 #aad sqq4 7,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,publication #agj74 ,m#bac ,the hanging of ,artemis4 ,the hanging of ,helen4 ,the hanging of animal victims4 #hgh ,pausanias1 viii4 #bc4 #f sq4 ,the story1 mentioned by ,pausanias1 that some children tied a rope round the neck of the image of ,artemis was probably invented to explain a ritual practice of the same sort1 as scholars have rightly perceived4 ,see ,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 i4#d #cje1 note #b2 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states 7,oxford1 #ahif-aiji71 ii4 #dbh sq42 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1 ,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #bcb sqq4 ,the ,arcadian worship of the ,hanged ,artemis was noticed by ,callimachus4 ,see ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ch1 p4 #cb1 ed4 ,potter4 #hgi ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,od4 xii4 #he1 p4 #agad2 ,i4 ,bekker1 ,anecdota ,graeca 7,berlin1 #ahad-ahba71 i4 #ccf sq41 s4v4 4 ,the goddess ,hecate was sometimes identified with ,artemis1 though in origin probably she was quite distinct4 ,see ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 ii4 #dii sqq4 #hhj ,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 xiii4 #hha ,pausanias1 iii4 #ai4 #i sq4 #hhb ,h4 von ,fritze1 8,zum griechischen ,opferritual10 ,jahrbuch des kaiser4 deutsch4 ,archologischen ,instituts1 xviii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #eh-fg4 ,in the ritual of ,eleusis the sacrificial oxen were sometimes lifted up by young men from the ground4 ,see ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b vol4 ii4 pp4 #aff sq4 ,no4 #eba 7 1 472 ,e4 ,s4 ,roberts and ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,introduction to ,greek ,epigraphy1 ii4 7,cambridge1 #aije7 pp4 #agf sq41 ,no4 #fe4 ,in this inscription the word is differently interpreted by ,p4 ,stengel1 who supposes that it refers merely to turning backwards and upwards the head of the victim4 ,see ,p4 ,stengel1 8,zum griechischen ,opferritual10 ,jahrbuch des kaiser4 deutsch4 ,archologischen ,instituts1 xviii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #aac-abc4 ,but it seems highly improbable that so trivial an act should be solemnly commemorated in an inscription among the exploits of the young men 7epheboi7 who performed it4 ,on the other hand1 we know that at ,nysa the young men did lift and carry the sacrificial bull1 and that the act was deemed worthy of commemoration on the coins4 ,see above1 p4 #bjf4 ,the ,wajagga of ,east ,africa dread the ghosts of suicides2 so when a man has hanged himself they take the rope from his neck and hang a goat in the fatal noose1 after which they slay the animal4 ,this is supposed to appease the ghost and prevent him from tempting human beings to follow his bad example4 ,see ,b4 ,gutmann1 8,trauer und ,begrabnissitten der ,wadschagga10 ,globus1 lxxxix4 7#aijf7 p4 #bjj4 #hhc ,see above1 p4 #adf4 ,m#bad ,use of the skins of human victims to effect their resurrection4 #hhd ,the ,scapegoat1 pp4 #bid sqq4 #hhe ,herodotus1 iv4 #ga sq4 ,m#bae ,skins of men and horses stuffed and set up at graves4 ,some tribes of ,borneo use the skulls of their enemies to ensure the fertility of the ground and of women1 the abundance of game1 and so forth4 #hhf ,jean du ,plan de ,carpin1 ,historia ,mongalorum1 ed4 ,d',avezac 7,paris1 #ahch71 cap4 iii4 iii4 #hhg ,voyages d',ibn ,batoutah1 texte ,arabe accompagn d'une traduction1 par ,c4 ,dfrmery et ,b4 ,r4 ,sanguinetti 7,paris1 #ahec-aheh71 iv4 #cjj sq4 ,for more evidence of similar customs1 observed by ,turanian peoples1 see ,k4 ,neumann1 ,die ,hellenen im ,skythenlande 7,berlin1 #ahee71 pp4 #bcg-bci4 #hhh ,captain ,r4 ,fitz-roy1 ,narrative of the ,surveying ,voyages of ,his ,majesty's ,ships 8,adventure0 and 8,beagle0 7,london1 #ahci71 ii4 #aee sq4 #hhi ,herodotus1 iv4 #ajc4 ,many ,scythians flayed their dead enemies1 and1 stretching the skin on a wooden framework1 carried it about with them on horseback 7,herodotus1 iv4 #fd74 ,the souls of the dead may have been thought to attend on and serve the man who thus bore their remains about with him4 ,it is also possible that the custom was nothing more than a barbarous mode of wreaking vengeance on the dead4 ,thus a ,persian king has been known to flay an enemy1 stuff the skin with chaff1 and hang it on a high tree 7,procopius1 ,de bello ,persico1 i4 #e4 #bh74 ,this was the treatment which the arch-heretic ,manichaeus is said to have received at the hands of the ,persian king whose son he failed to cure 7,socrates1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 i4 #bb2 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 lxvii4 #acg1 #aci74 ,still such a punishment may have been suggested by a religious rite4 ,the idea of crucifying their human victims appears to have been suggested to the negroes of ,benin by the crucifixes of the early ,portuguese missionaries4 ,see ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,great ,benin 7,halifax1 #aijc71 pp4 #ad sq4 #hij ,w4 ,h4 ,furness1 ,home-,life of ,borneo ,head-,hunters 7,philadelphia1 #aijb71 p4 #ei4 ,according to ,messrs4 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 the spirits which animate the skulls appear not to be those of the persons from whose shoulders the heads were taken4 ,however1 the spirits 7called ,toh7 reside in or about the heads1 and 8it is held that in some way their presence in the house brings prosperity to it1 especially in the form of good crops2 and so essential to the welfare of the house are the heads held to be that1 if through fire a house has lost its heads and has no occasion for war1 the people will beg a head1 or even a fragment of one1 from some friendly house1 and will instal it in their own with the usual ceremonies40 ,see ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo 7,london1 #aiab71 ii4 #bj1 #bc4 #hia ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east#b 7,london1 #ahfc71 i4 #aig4 #hib ,hugh ,low1 ,sarawak 7,london1 #ahdh71 pp4 #bjf sq4 ,in quoting this passage ,i have taken the liberty to correct a grammatical slip4 #hic ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 op4 cit4 i4 #bjd4 ,see further ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 8,iets over de schedelvereering10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 xxxviii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #hi-abi2 id41 ,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 #aiab71 iv4 #cg-ha4 ,a different view of the purpose of head-hunting is maintained by ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruyt1 in his essay1 8,het koppensnellen der ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 en zijne ,beteekenis10 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen der koninklijke ,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 ,vierde ,reeks1 iii4 #b 7,amsterdam1 #ahii71 pp4 #adg sqq4 ,the natives of ,nias1 an island to the west of ,sumatra1 think it necessary to obtain the heads of their enemies for the purpose of celebrating the final obsequies of a dead chief4 ,their notion seems to be that the ghost of the deceased ruler demands this sacrifice in his honour1 and will punish the omission of it by sending sickness or other misfortunes on the survivors4 ,thus among these people the custom of head-hunting is based on their belief in human immortality and on their conception of the exacting demands which the dead make upon the living4 ,when the skulls have been presented to a dead chief1 the priest prays to him for his blessing on the sowing and harvesting of the rice1 on the fruitfulness of women1 and so forth4 ,see ,c4 ,fries1 8,das #8,koppensnellen' auf ,nias10 ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 ,february1 #aijh1 pp4 #gc-hh4 ,from this account it would seem that it is not the spirits of the slain men1 but the ghost of the dead chief from whom the blessings of fertility and so forth are supposed to emanate4 ,compare ,th4 ,c4 ,rappard1 8,het eiland ,nias en zijne bewoners10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 lxii4 7#aiji7 pp4 #fji-faa4 ,m#baf ,the stuffed skin of the human representative of the ,phrygian god may have been used for like purposes4 #hid ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #d-g4 #hie ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 ii4 #afi sqq4 ,m#bag ,popularity of the worship of ,cybele and ,attis in the ,roman ,empire4 #hif ,h4 ,dessau1 ,inscriptiones ,latinae ,selectae1 ,nos4 #djii1 #dajj1 #dajc1 #daje1 #dajf1 #daaf1 #daag1 #daai1 #dabj1 #daba1 #dabc1 #dabd1 #dabg1 #dabh1 #daca1 #dacf1 #daci1 #dadj1 #dadb1 #daef1 #dafc1 #dafg2 ,h4 ,hepding1 ,attis1 pp4 #he1 #hf1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 ,inscr4 ,nos4 #ba-bd1 #bf1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc4 ,see further1 ,j4 ,toutain1 ,les ,cultes ,paens dans l',empire ,romain 7,paris1 #aiaa71 pp4 #gc sqq41 #ajc sqq4 #hig ,s4 ,dill1 ,roman ,society in the ,last ,century of the ,western ,empire#b 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #af4 #hih ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 #bf4 #hii ,but the two were publicly worshipped at ,dyme and ,patrae in ,achaia 7,pausanias1 vii4 #ag4 #i1 vii4 #bj4 #c71 and there was an association for their worship at ,piraeus4 ,see ,p4 ,foucart1 ,des ,associations ,religieuses chez les ,grecs 7,paris1 #ahgc71 pp4 #he sqq41 #aif2 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 p4 #ggb1 ,no4 #ihb4 #ijj ,rapp1 s4v4 8,kybele10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #afef4 #ija ,as to the savage theory of inspiration or possession by a deity see 7,sir7 ,edward ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1#b ii4 #aca sqq4 ,as to the savage theory of a new birth see ,balder the ,beautiful1 ii4 #bea sqq4 ,as to the use of blood to wash away sins see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ajg sqq42 ,psyche's ,task1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #dd sq41 #dg sqq41 #aaf sq4 ,among the ,cameroon negroes accidental homicide can be expiated by the blood of an animal4 ,the relations of the slayer and of the slain assemble4 ,an animal is killed and every person present is smeared with its blood on his face and breast4 ,they think that the guilt of manslaughter is thus atoned for1 and that no punishment will overtake the homicide4 ,see ,missionary ,autenrieth1 8,zur ,religion der ,kamerun-,neger10 in ,mitteilungen der geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #ic sq4 ,in ,car ,nicobar a man possessed by devils is cleansed of them by being rubbed all over with pig's blood and beaten with leaves4 ,the devils are thus transferred to the leaves1 which are thrown into the sea before daybreak4 ,see ,v4 ,solomon1 8,extracts from diaries kept in ,car ,nicobar10 in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #bbg4 ,similarly the ancient ,greeks purified a homicide by means of pig's blood and laurel leaves4 ,see my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h 7vol4 iii4 pp4 #bgf-bgi74 ,the original idea of thus purging a manslayer was probably to rid him of the angry ghost of his victim1 just as in ,car ,nicobar a man is rid of devils in the same manner4 ,the purgative virtue ascribed to the blood in these ceremonies may be based on the notion that the offended spirit accepts it as a substitute for the blood of the guilty person4 ,this was the view of ,c4 ,meiners 7,geschichte der ,religionen1 ,hanover1 #ahjf-ahjg1 ii4 #acg sq47 and of ,e4 ,rohde 7,psyche1#c ,tbingen and ,leipsic1 #aijc1 ii4 #gg sq474 #ijb ,a good instance of such an attempt to dress up savagery in the garb of philosophy is the fifth speech of the emperor ,julian1 8,on the ,mother of the ,gods0 7pp4 #bjf sqq4 ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein1 ,leipsic1 #ahge-ahgf74 ,m#bah ,the spread of ,oriental faiths over the ,roman ,empire contributed to undermine the fabric of ,greek and ,roman civilization by inculcating the salvation of the individual soul as the supreme aim of life4 #ijc ,as to the diffusion of ,oriental religions in the ,roman ,empire see ,g4 ,boissier1 ,la ,religion ,romaine d',auguste aux ,antonins#e 7,paris1 #aijj71 i4 #cdi sqq42 ,j4 ,reville1 ,la ,religion ,rome sous les ,svres 7,paris1 #ahhf71 pp4 #dg sqq42 ,s4 ,dill1 ,roman ,society in the ,last ,century of the ,western ,empire#b 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #gf sqq4 #ijd ,compare ,servius on ,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #fjd1 vi4 #ffa2 ,origen1 ,contra ,celsum1 viii4 #gc 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xi4 #afbh72 ,g4 ,boissier1 ,la ,religion ,romaine d',auguste aux ,antonins#e 7,paris1 #aijj71 i4 #ceg sq42 ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7,london1 #aijf-aijh71 i4 #cde sq42 ,h4 ,h4 ,milman1 ,history of ,latin ,christianity1#d i4 #aej-aec1 ii4 #ij4 ,in the passage just cited ,origen tells us that the ,christians refused to follow the ,emperor to the field of battle even when he ordered them to do so2 but he adds that they gave the emperor the benefit of their prayers and thus did him more real service than if they had fought for him with the sword4 ,on the decline of the civic virtues under the influence of ,christian asceticism see ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne#c 7,london1 #ahgg71 ii4 #aci sqq4 #ije ,to prevent misapprehension ,i will add that the spread of ,oriental religions was only one of many causes which contributed to the downfall of ancient civilization4 ,among these contributory causes a friend1 for whose judgment and learning ,i entertain the highest respect1 counts bad government and a ruinous fiscal system1 two of the most powerful agents to blast the prosperity of nations1 as may be seen in our own day by the blight which has struck the ,turkish empire4 ,it is probable1 too1 as my friend thinks1 that the rapid diffusion of alien faiths was as much an effect as a cause of widespread intellectual decay4 ,such unwholesome growths could hardly have fastened upon the ,graeco-,roman mind in the days of its full vigour4 ,we may remember the energy with which the ,roman ,government combated the first outbreak of the ,bacchic plague 7,th4 ,mommsen1 ,roman ,history1 iii4 #aae sq41 ed4 #ahid74 ,the disastrous effects of ,roman financial oppression on the industries and population of the empire1 particularly of ,greece1 are described by ,george ,finlay 7,greece under the ,romans1#b ,edinburgh and ,london1 #aheg1 pp4 #dg sqq474 ,m#bai ,popularity of the worship of ,mithra2 its resemblance to ,christianity and its rivalry with that religion4 ,the festival of ,christmas borrowed by the ,church from the religion of ,mithra4 #ijf ,see ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments figurs relatifs aux ,mystres de ,mithra 7,brussels1 #ahif-ahii72 id41 s4v4 8,mithras10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #cjbh sqq4 ,compare id41 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4 #bjg sqq4 #ijg ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments1 i4 #ccc sqq4 #ijh ,e4 ,renan1 ,marc-,aurle et la ,fin du ,monde ,antique 7,paris1 #ahhb71 pp4 #egf sqq42 ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments1 i4 #cci sqq4 #iji ,tertullian1 ,de corona1 #ae2 id41 ,de praescriptione haereticorum1 #dj2 ,justin ,martyr1 ,apologia1 i4 #ff2 id41 ,dialogus cum ,tryphone1 #gh 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 vi4 #dbi1 #ffj74 ,tertullian explained in like manner the resemblance of the fasts of ,isis and ,cybele to the fasts of ,christianity 7,de jejunio1 #af74 ,justin ,martyr thought that by listening to the words of the inspired prophets the devils discovered the divine intentions and anticipated them by a series of profane and blasphemous imitations4 ,among these travesties of ,christian truth he enumerates the death1 resurrection1 and ascension of ,dionysus1 the virgin birth of ,perseus1 and ,bellerophon mounted on ,pegasus1 whom he regards as a parody of ,christ riding on an ass4 ,see ,justin ,martyr1 ,apology1 i4 #ed4 #iaj ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies1 translated by ,e4 ,grimston 7,london1 #ahhj71 bk4 v4 chs4 #aa1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #bd-bh1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cbd sq41 #ccd sqq41 #cef sqq4 #iaa ,compare ,s4 ,dill1 ,roman ,society in the ,last ,century of the ,western ,empire#b 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #hj sqq42 id41 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #fai sqq4 #iab ,e4 ,renan1 ,marc-,aurle et la ,fin du ,monde ,antique 7,paris1 #ahhb71 pp4 #egi sq42 ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments1 i4 #cch4 #iac ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #bba2 ,columella1 ,de re rustica1 ix4 #ad4 #ab2 ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen und technischen ,chronologie 7,berlin1 #ahbe-ahbf71 ii4 #abd2 ,g4 ,f4 ,unger1 in ,iwan ,mller's ,handbuch der klassischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 i4#a 7,nrdlingen1 #ahhf7 p4 #fdi4 #iad ,in the calendar of ,philocalus the twenty-fifth of ,december is marked ,n4 ,invicti1 that is1 ,natalis ,solis ,invicti4 ,see ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 i4#b ,pars prior 7,berlin1 #ahic71 p4 #bgh1 with ,th4 ,mommsen's commentary1 pp4 #cch sq4 #iae ,cosmas ,hierosolymitanus1 ,commentarii in ,sancti ,gregorii ,nazianzeni ,carmina 7,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xxxviii4 #dfd73 ,christmas 1 1 1 3 8 1 40 1 4 ,the passage is quoted1 with some verbal variations1 by ,ch4 ,aug4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus 7,knigsberg1 #ahbi71 ii4 #abbg note #b4 ,see ,franz ,cumont1 8,le ,natalis ,invicti10 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 #aiaa 7,paris1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bib-bih1 whose learned elucidations ,i follow in the text4 ,that the festival of the ,nativity of the ,sun was similarly celebrated in ,egypt may be inferred from a ,greek calendar drawn up by the astrologer ,antiochus in ,lower ,egypt at the end of the second or the beginning of the third century ,a4,d42 for under the #beth ,december the calendar has the entry1 8,birthday of the ,sun1 the light waxes0 7 2 74 ,see ,f4 ,cumont1 op4 cit4 p4 #bid4 #iaf ,macrobius1 ,saturnalia1 i4 #ah4 #aj4 #iag ,f4 ,cumont1 s4v4 8,caelestis10 in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 v4 i4 #abdg sqq4 ,she was called the ,queen of ,heaven 7,jeremiah vii4 #ah1 xliv4 #ah71 the ,heavenly ,goddess 7,herodotus1 iii4 #h2 ,pausanias1 i4 #ad4 #g71 or the ,heavenly ,virgin 7,tertullian1 ,apologeticus1 #bc2 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 ii4 #d74 ,the ,greeks spoke of her as the ,heavenly ,aphrodite 7,herodotus1 i4 #aje2 ,pausanias1 i4 #ad4 #g74 ,a ,greek inscription found in ,delos contains a dedication to ,astarte ,aphrodite2 and another found in the same island couples ,palestinian ,astarte and ,heavenly ,aphrodite4 ,see ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecorum1#b vol4 ii4 pp4 #fai sq41 ,no4 #gfd2 ,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister1 ,the ,philistines1 their ,history and ,civilization 7,london1 #aiac71 p4 #id4 #iah ,dedications to ,mithra the ,unconquered ,sun 7,soli invicto ,mithrae7 have been found in abundance4 ,see ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments1 ii4 #ii sqq4 ,as to the worship of the ,unconquered ,sun 7,sol ,invictus7 see ,h4 ,usener1 ,das ,weihnachtsfest#b 7,bonn1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cdh sqq4 #iai ,fr4 ,cumont1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbe sq41 #cci4 #ibj ,j4 ,bingham1 ,the ,antiquities of the ,christian ,church1 bk4 xx4 ch4 iv4 7,bingham's ,works1 vol4 vii4 pp4 #bgi sqq41 ,oxford1 #ahee72 ,c4 ,a4 ,credner1 8,de natalitiorum ,christi origine10 ,zeitschrift fr die historische ,theologie1 iii4 #b 7#ahcc71 pp4 #bcf sqq42 ,mgr4 ,l4 ,duchesne1 ,origines du ,culte ,chrtien#c 7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 #beg sqq42 ,th4 ,mommsen1 in ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 i4#b ,pars prior1 p4 #cch4 ,the earliest mention of the festival of ,christmas is in the calendar of ,philocalus1 which was drawn up at ,rome in #ccf ,a4,d4 ,the words are ,,viii4 kal4 jan41 natus ,christus in ,betleem ,judee 7,l4 ,duchesne1 op4 cit4 p4 #beh74 ,m#bbj ,motives for the institution of ,christmas4 #iba ,quoted by ,c4 ,a4 ,credner1 op4 cit4 p4 #bci1 note #df2 by ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 i4#b ,pars prior1 pp4 #cch sq42 and by ,h4 ,usener1 ,das ,weihnachtsfest#b 7,bonn1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cdi sq4 #ibb ,augustine1 ,serm4 cxc4 #a 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xxxviii4 #ajjg74 #ibc ,leo the ,great1 ,serm4 xxii4 7al4 xxi47 #f 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 liv4 #aih74 ,compare ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,serm4 vi4 #a 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xvii4 #fad74 ,m#bba ,the ,easter celebration of the death and resurrection of ,christ appears to have been assimilated to the celebration of the death and resurrection of ,attis1 which was held at ,rome at the same season4 ,heathen festivals displaced by ,christian4 #ibd ,a4 ,credner1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcf sqq42 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1#b ii4 #big sq42 ,fr4 ,cumont1 ,textes et ,monuments1 i4 #cdb1 #cee sq42 ,th4 ,mommsen1 in ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 i4#b ,pars prior1 pp4 #cch sq42 ,h4 ,usener1 ,das ,weihnachtsfest#b 7,bonn1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cdh sqq4 ,a different explanation of ,christmas has been put forward by ,mgr4 ,duchesne4 ,he shows that among the early ,christians the death of ,christ was commonly supposed to have fallen on the twenty-fifth of ,march1 that day having been 8chosen arbitrarily1 or rather suggested by its coincidence with the official equinox of spring40 ,it would be natural to assume that ,christ had lived an exact number of years on earth1 and therefore that his incarnation as well as his death took place on the twenty-fifth of ,march4 ,in point of fact the ,church has placed the ,annunciation and with it the beginning of his mother's pregnancy on that very day4 ,if that were so1 his birth would in the course of nature have occurred nine months later1 that is1 on the twenty-fifth of ,december4 ,thus on ,mgr4 ,duchesne's theory the date of the ,nativity was obtained by inference from the date of the ,crucifixion1 which in its turn was chosen because it coincided with the official equinox of spring4 ,mgr4 ,duchesne does not notice the coincidence of the vernal equinox with the festival of ,attis4 ,see his work1 ,origines du ,culte ,chrtien#c 7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 #bfa-bfe1 #bgb4 ,the tradition that both the conception and the death of ,christ fell on the twenty-fifth of ,march is mentioned and apparently accepted by ,augustine 7,de ,trinitate1 iv4 #i1 ,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xlii4 #hid74 #ibe ,see above1 pp4 #bec sqq4 #ibf ,however1 the lament for ,adonis is mentioned by ,ovid 7,ars ,amat4 i4 #ge sq47 along with the ,jewish observance of the ,sabbath4 #ibg ,see above1 pp4 #bfh sqq4 #ibh ,columella1 ,de re rustica1 ix4 #ad4 #a2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #bdf2 ,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ba4 #aj2 ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen und technischen ,chronologie1 ii4 #abd4 #ibi ,mgr4 ,l4 ,duchesne1 ,origines du ,culte ,chrtien1#c pp4 #bfb sq4 ,that ,christ was crucified on the twenty-fifth of ,march in the year #bi is expressly affirmed by ,tertullian 7,adversus ,judaeos1 #h1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gai1 ed4 ,f4 ,oehler71 ,hippolytus 7,commentary on ,daniel1 iv4 #bc1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdb1 ed4 ,bonwetsch and ,achelis71 and ,augustine 7,de civitate ,dei1 xviii4 #ed2 id41 ,de ,trinitate1 iv4 #i74 ,see also ,thesaurus ,linguae ,latinae1 iv4 7,leipsic1 #aijf- #aiji7 col4 #abbb1 s4v4 8,crucimissio03 8,,pol4 ,,silv4 fast4 ,mart #be aequinoctium4 principium veris4 crucimissio gentilium4 ,christus passus hoc die40 ,from this last testimony we learn that there was a gentile as well as a ,christian crucifixion at the spring equinox4 ,the gentile crucifixion was probably the affixing of the effigy of ,attis to the tree1 though at ,rome that ceremony appears to have taken place on the twenty-second rather than on the twenty-fifth of ,march4 ,see above1 p4 #bfg4 ,the ,quartodecimans of ,phrygia celebrated the twenty-fifth of ,march as the day of ,christ's death1 quoting as their authority certain acts of ,pilate2 in ,cappadocia the adherents of this sect were divided between the twenty-fifth of ,march and the fourteenth of the moon4 ,see ,epiphanius1 ,adversus ,haeres4 l4 #a 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ddg1 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf2 ,migne's ,patrologia ,graeca1 xli4 #hhd sq474 ,in ,gaul the death and resurrection of ,christ were regularly celebrated on the twenty-fifth and twenty-seventh of ,march as late as the sixth century4 ,see ,gregory of ,tours1 ,historia ,francorum1 viii4 #ca4 #f 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 lxxi4 #eff72 ,s4 ,martinus ,dumiensis 7bishop of ,braga71 ,de ,pascha1 #a 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 lxxii4 #ej71 who says3 8,a plerisque ,gallicanis episcopis usque ante non multum tempus custoditum est1 ut semper ,,viii4 ,kal4 ,april4 diem ,paschae celebrent1 in quo facta ,christi resurrectio traditur40 ,according to this last testimony1 it was the resurrection1 not the crucifixion1 of ,christ that was celebrated on the twenty-fifth of ,march2 but ,mgr4 ,duchesne attributes the statement to a mistake of the writer4 ,with regard to the ,roman practice the twenty-fifth and twenty-seventh of ,march are marked in ancient ,martyrologies as the dates of the ,crucifixion and ,resurrection4 ,see ,vetustius ,occidentalis ,ecclesiae ,martyrologium1 ed4 ,franciscus ,maria ,florentinus 7,lucca1 #affg71 pp4 #cif sq41 #dje sq4 ,on this subject ,mgr4 ,duchesne observes3 8,hippolytus1 in his ,paschal ,table1 marks the ,passion of ,christ in a year in which the fourteenth of ,nisan falls on ,friday twenty-fifth ,march4 ,in his commentary on ,daniel he expressly indicates ,friday the twenty-fifth of ,march and the consulship of the two ,gemini4 ,the ,philocalien ,catalogue of the ,popes gives the same date as to day and year4 ,it is to be noted that the cycle of ,hippolytus and the ,philocalien ,catalogue are derived from official documents1 and may be cited as evidence of the ,roman ecclesiastical usage0 7,origines du ,culte ,chrtien1#c p4 #bfb74 #icj ,mgr4 ,l4 ,duchesne1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfc4 #ica ,mgr4 ,l4 ,duchesne1 l4c4 ,a sect of the ,montanists held that the world began and that the sun and moon were created at the spring equinox1 which1 however1 they dated on the twenty-fourth of ,march 7,sozomenus1 ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 vii4 #ah74 ,at ,henen-,su in ,egypt there was celebrated a festival of the 8hanging out of the heavens10 that is1 the supposed reconstituting of the heavens each year in the spring 7,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,gods of the ,egyptians1 ii4 #fc74 ,but the ,egyptians thought that the creation of the world took place at the rising of ,sirius 7,porphyry1 ,de antro nympharum1 #bd2 ,solinus1 xxxii4 #ac71 which in antiquity fell on the twentieth of ,july 7,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen und technischen ,chronologie1 i4 #abg sqq474 #icb ,see above1 pp4 #bfc1 #bha sqq4 #icc ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #cbd sqq4 #icd ,above1 pp4 #bdf sqq4 #ice ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ad sqq4 #icf ,see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ha sqq4 #icg ,above1 pp4 #cjb sqq4 #ich ,another instance of the substitution of a ,christian for a pagan festival may be mentioned4 ,on the first of ,august the people of ,alexandria used to commemorate the defeat of ,mark ,antony by ,augustus and the entrance of the victor into their city4 ,the heathen pomp of the festival offended ,eudoxia1 wife of ,theodosius the ,younger1 and she decreed that on that day the ,alexandrians should thenceforth celebrate the deliverance of ,st4 ,peter from prison instead of the deliverance of their city from the yoke of ,antony and ,cleopatra4 ,see ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen und technischen ,chronologie1 i4 #aed4 ,m#bbb ,coincidence between the pagan and the ,christian festivals of the divine death and resurrection4 #ici ,lactantius1 ,de mortibus persecutorum1 #b2 id41 ,divin4 ,institut4 iv4 #aj4 #ah4 ,as to the evidence of the ,gallic usage see ,s4 ,martinus ,dumiensis1 quoted above1 p4 #cjg note4 ,m#bbc ,different theories by which pagans and ,christians explained the coincidence4 #idj ,the passage occurs in the #hdth of the ,quaestiones ,veteris et ,novi ,testamenti 7,migne's ,patrologia ,latina1 xxxv4 #bbgi71 which are printed in the works of ,augustine1 though internal evidence is said to shew that they cannot be by that ,father1 and that they were written three hundred years after the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,the writer's words are as follows3 8,diabolus autem1 qui est satanas1 ut fallaciae suae auctoritatem aliquam possit adhibere1 et mendacia sua commentitia veritate colorare1 primo mense quo sacramenta dominica scit celebranda1 quia non mediocris potentiae est1 ,paganis quae observarent instituit mysteria1 ut animas eorum duabus ex causis in errore detineret3 ut quia praevenit veritatem fallacia1 melius quiddam fallacia videretur1 quasi antiquitate praejudicans veritati4 ,et quia in primo mense1 in quo aequinoctium habent ,romani1 sicut et nos1 ea ipsa observatio ab his custoditur2 ita etiam per sanguinem dicant expiationem fieri1 sicut et nos per crucem3 hac versutia ,paganos detinet in errore1 ut putent veritatem nostram imitationem potius videri quam veritatem1 quasi per aemulationem superstitione quadam inventam4 ,nec enim verum potest1 inquiunt1 aestimari quod postea est inventum4 ,sed quia apud nos pro certo veritas est1 et ab initio haec est1 virtutum atque prodigiorum signa perhibent testimonium1 ut1 teste virtute1 diaboli improbitas innotescat40 ,i have to thank my learned friend ,professor ,franz ,cumont for pointing out this passage to me4 ,he had previously indicated and discussed it 78,la ,polmique de l',ambrosiaster contre les ,paens10 ,revue d',histoire et de ,littrature religieuses1 viii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #dai sqq474 ,though the name of ,attis is not mentioned in the passage1 ,i agree with ,prof4 ,cumont in holding that the bloody expiatory rites at the spring equinox1 to which the writer refers1 can only be those of the ,day of ,blood which formed part of the great aequinoctial festival of ,attis4 ,compare ,f4 ,cumont1 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain#b 7,paris1 #aiji71 pp4 #ajf sq41 #ccc sq4 ,m#bbd ,compromise of ,christianity with paganism4 ,parallel with ,buddhism4 #ida ,on the decadence of ,buddhism and its gradual assimilation to those popular ,oriental superstitions against which it was at first directed1 see ,monier ,williams1 ,buddhism#b 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #adg sqq4 #idb ,the historical reality both of ,buddha and of ,christ has sometimes been doubted or denied4 ,it would be just as reasonable to question the historical existence of ,alexander the ,great and ,charlemagne on account of the legends which have gathered round them4 ,the great religious movements which have stirred humanity to its depths and altered the beliefs of nations spring ultimately from the conscious and deliberate efforts of extraordinary minds1 not from the blind unconscious co-operation of the multitude4 ,the attempt to explain history without the influence of great men may flatter the vanity of the vulgar1 but it will find no favour with the philosophic historian4 ,m#bbe ,the ,greek ,hyacinth interpreted as the vegetation which blooms and withers away4 #idc ,g4 ,f4 ,schmann1 ,griechische ,alterthmer#d 7,berlin1 #ahig-aijb71 ii4 #dgc2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 i4#d 7,berlin1 #ahid7 pp4 #bdh sq42 ,greve1 s4v4 8,hyakinthos10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #bgfc sq4 ,other views of ,hyacinth have been expressed by ,g4 ,f4 ,welcker 7,griechische ,gtterlehre1 ,gttingen1 #aheg-ahfb1 i4 #dgb71 ,g4 ,f4 ,unger 78,der ,isthmientag und die ,hyakinthien10 ,philologus1 xxxvii4 7#ahgg7 pp4 #bj sqq471 ,e4 ,rohde 7,psyche1#c i4 #acg sqq47 and ,s4 ,wide 7,lakonische ,kulte1 ,leipsic1 #ahic1 p4 #bij74 #idd ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #c4 #c1 iii4 #aj4 #c2 ,nicander1 ,ther4 #ija sqq41 with the ,scholiast's note2 ,lucian1 ,de saltatione1 #de2 ,pausanias1 iii4 #a4 #c1 iii4 #ai4 #e2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,chiliades1 i4 #bda sqq42 ,ovid1 ,metam4 x4 #afa-bai2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxi4 #ff4 #ide ,theophrastus1 ,histor4 ,plant4 vi4 #h4 #a sq4 ,that the hyacinth was a spring flower is plainly indicated also by ,philostratus 7,imag4 i4 #bc4 #a7 and ,ovid 7,metam4 x4 #afb-aff74 ,see further ,greve1 s4v4 8,hyakinthos10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #bgfd2 ,j4 ,murr1 ,die ,pflanzenwelt in der griechischen ,mythologie 7,innsbruck1 #ahij71 pp4 #beg sqq42 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der ,indogermanischen ,altertumskunde 7,strasburg1 #aija71 pp4 #chc sq4 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison was so kind as to present me with two specimens of the flower 7,delphinium ,ajacis7 on which the woful letters were plainly visible4 ,a flower similarly marked1 of a colour between white and red1 was associated with the death of ,ajax 7,pausanias1 i4 #ce4 #d74 ,but usually the two flowers were thought to be the same 7,ovid1 ,metam4 xiii4 #cid sqq42 ,scholiast on ,theocritus1 x4 #bh2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxi4 #ff2 ,eustathius on ,homer1 ,iliad1 ii4 #eeg1 p4 #bhe74 #idf ,xenophon1 ,hellenica1 iv4 #e4 #g-ag2 ,pausanias1 iii4 #aj4 #a4 ,m#bbf ,the tomb and the festival of ,hyacinth at ,amyclae4 #idg ,pausanias1 iii4 #a4 #c1 iii4 #ai4 #a-e4 #idh ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 ,g4 ,f4 ,unger in ,philologus1 xxxvii4 7#ahgg7 pp4 #ac-cc2 ,greve1 s4v4 8,hyakinthos10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #bgfb2 ,w4 ,smith1 ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1#c i4 #cci4 ,from ,xenophon 7,hellenica1 iv4 #e7 we learn that in #cij ,b4,c4 the ,hyacinthian followed soon after the ,isthmian festival1 which that year fell in spring4 ,others1 however1 identifying ,hecatombeus with the ,attic month ,hecatombaeon1 would place the ,hyacinthia in ,july 7,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 ,dorier1#b ,breslau1 #ahdd1 i4 #ceh74 ,in ,rhodes1 ,cos1 and other ,greek states there was a month called ,hyacinthius1 which probably took its name from the ,hyacinthian festival4 ,the month is thought to correspond to the ,athenian ,scirophorion and therefore to ,june4 ,see ,e4 ,bischof1 8,de fastis ,graecorum antiquioribus10 ,leipziger ,studien fr classische ,philologie1 vii4 7#ahhd7 pp4 #cfi sq41 #cha1 #chd1 #daj1 #dad sq42 ,g4 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b vol4 i4 pp4 #cif1 #fjg1 ,nos4 #fad1 note #c1 #gdd1 note #a4 ,if this latter identification of the month is correct1 it would furnish an argument for dating the ,spartan festival of ,hyacinth in ,june also4 ,the question is too intricate to be discussed here4 #idi ,athenaeus1 iv4 #ag1 pp4 #aci sq4 ,strabo speaks 7vi4 #c4 #b1 p4 #bgh7 of a contest at the ,hyacinthian festival4 ,it may have been the chariot races mentioned by ,athenaeus4 #iej ,hesychius1 s4v4 4 ,m#bbg ,hyacinth an aboriginal god1 perhaps a king1 who was worshipped in ,laconia before the invasion of the ,dorians4 ,his sister ,polyboea may perhaps have been his spouse4 #iea ,e4 ,rohde1 ,psyche1#c i4 #acg sqq4 #ieb ,pausanias1 iii4 #ai4 #c4 ,the ,greek word here used for sacrifice 77 properly denotes sacrifices offered to the heroic or worshipful dead2 another word 77 was employed for sacrifices offered to gods4 ,the two terms are distinguished by ,pausanias here and elsewhere 7ii4 #aj4 #a1 ii4 #aa4 #g74 ,compare ,herodotus1 ii4 #dd4 ,sacrifices to the worshipful dead were often annual4 ,see ,pausanias1 iii4 #a4 #h1 vii4 #ai4 #aj1 vii4 #bj4 #i1 viii4 #ad4 #aa1 viii4 #da4 #a1 ix4 #ch4 #e1 x4 #bd4 #f4 ,it has been observed by ,e4 ,rehde 7,psyche1#c i4 #aci1 note #b7 that sacrifices were frequently offered to a hero before a god1 and he suggests with much probability that in these cases the worship of the hero was older than that of the deity4 #iec ,pausanias1 iii4 #ai4 #ad4 #ied ,see above1 p4 #dd2 and below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bac sqq4