,,wood-,,working ,,for ,,beginners ,a ,manual for ,amateurs ,,by ,,charles ,g4 ,,wheeler1 ,b4,s4 ,know what thou canst work at and work at it like a ,hercules4 ,,carlyle4 ,,with ,,over #gjj ,,illustrations ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york and ,london ,the ,knickerbocker ,press #aijj ,,copyright1 #ahii ,,by ,,charles ,g4 ,,wheeler ,the ,knickerbocker ,press1 ,new ,york ,,to ,,the ,,youthful ,,founders ,,of ,,totlet ,,town ,,without ,,whose ,,inspiration ,,this ,,book ,,would ,,not ,,have ,,been ,,undertaken ,,preface ,the aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things which they can profitably make of wood1 and to start them in the way to work successfully4 ,it is hoped that1 in the case of boys1 it may show them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy1 and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all-round development4 ,it is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture1 carpentry1 cabinet-making1 or boat-building4 ,although not intended primarily to impart skill in the use of tools 7something which can only be acquired from experience and observation and cannot be taught by any book71 still no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical information and experience4 ,many books which give directions for mechanical work 7particularly those addressed to boys7 have several serious faults1 and can be grouped in three classes4 ,some seem to be written by practical workmen1 who1 however well fitted to do the work themselves1 lack the pedagogical training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work with due regard to the mental and physical capacity1 experience1 and development of youth1 or to the amateur's lack of experience in the rudiments of the subject4 ,others are written by teachers or amateurs who lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and experience in serious work4 ,others 7and this last class is1 perhaps1 the worst of the three7 seem to be made by compilers who have apparently been satisfied to sweep together1 without requisite knowledge or sufficient moral purpose1 whatever they may have found that would be interesting or attractive1 without due regard to its real value4 ,all these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers4#a ,effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these evils1 to keep in line with the advanced educational ideas of the time1 and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the teacher1 the mechanic1 the boy1 and the amateur workman4 ,the treatment is neither general nor superficial1 but elementary1 and no claim is made that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects2 but it aims to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which will have to be unlearned4 ,great care 7based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs7 has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained worker of more mature years4 ,it is hoped that from the variety of subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may seek--if not in the exact form desired1 perhaps in some typical form or something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know4 ,it is hoped and confidently believed that a work so comprehensive in scope and giving such a variety of designs1 with detailed and practical directions for their execution1 will be not merely novel1 but may serve as a vade-mecum and ready-reference book for the amateur of constructive tastes4 ,,charles ,g4 ,,wheeler4 ,,boston1 ,june1 #ahii4 ,,footnote3 #a ,these criticisms are meant to apply to the class of manuals1 compendiums1 and so-called ,boys' ,books and ,amateurs' ,books1 in the popular sense of the word1 and not to the many admirable works on sloyd1 manual training1 and the various special branches of wood-working4 ,,contents ,,part ,i--,a ,,workshop ,,for ,,amateurs ,,chapter ,,page ,i--,,introductory #a ,,ii--,,tools #i ,,iii--,,wood #bi ,,iv--,,working ,,drawings1 ,,laying ,,out ,,the ,,work1 ,,and ,,estimating #di ,v--,,the ,,workshop #ef ,,part ,,ii--,,articles ,,to ,,be ,,made ,,in ,,the ,,workshop ,,vi--,,introductory #ajc ,,vii--,a ,,few ,,toys #ajf ,,viii--,,houses ,,for ,,animals #abf ,,ix--,,implements ,,for ,,outdoor ,,sports ,,and ,,athletics #da ,x--,,furniture #age ,,xi--,a ,,few ,,miscellaneous ,,operations #bah ,,part ,,iii--,,house-,,building ,,for ,,beginners ,,xii--,,some ,,elementary ,,principles #bch ,,xiii--,,simple ,,summer ,,cottages #bga ,,xiv--,a ,,few ,,simple ,,structures #bia ,,part ,,iv--,,boat-,,building ,,for ,,beginners ,,xv--,a ,,few ,,simple ,,boats #bih ,,part ,v--,,tools ,,and ,,operations ,,xvi--,,the ,,common ,,hand-,,tools1 ,,and ,,some ,,every-,,day ,,operations1 ,,alphabetically ,,arranged ,,for ,,ready ,,reference #cdd ,,appendix--,,matters ,,relating ,,to ,,wood1 ,,suggestions ,,about ,,working ,,drawings1 ,,etc4 #ejg ,,index #eci ,,introductory ,,note ,it has seemed best to address parts of this book particularly to boys1 because the majority of beginners are boys1 because boys need more suggestions than men1 and because a man can easily pick what he needs from a talk to boys 7and perhaps be interested also71 while it is usually unprofitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his degree of maturity4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the older reader also will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work 7many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as the result of much costly experience7 to be a material help to him4 ,it is not strength1 but art obtains the prize1 ,and to be swift is less than to be wise2 ',tis more by art1 than force of numerous strokes4 ,,homer1 ,iliad4 ,,wood-,,working ,,for ,,beginners ,,part ,i ,a ,,workshop ,,for ,,amateurs ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,when one has made up his mind to make something1 he usually wants to begin work at once2 so1 as ,i wish you to read this chapter1 ,i will make it quite short4 ,there is a great deal in getting started right1 and there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work1 as of course you do4 ,one thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing and pounding4 ,the old ,latin phrase1 ,festina lente 7make haste slowly71 is a capital motto for the beginner4 ,do not wait until your enthusiasm has oozed away1 of course1 but do stop long enough to think how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw4 ,the workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually turns out good work1 while the one who begins to work without any reflection 7as boys1 and even men1 have been known to do7 is apt to spend much of his time in undoing his work1 and usually does not get through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first place4#b ,if ,homer1 in the quotation at the head of this chapter1 had been writing about the way boys' work is sometimes done1 he might1 perhaps1 have reversed the positions of some of the words and made swiftness and numerous strokes the subjects of his emphasis4 ,he has expressed well enough1 however1 the way that your work should be done1 and it is one aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end4 ,do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exercises1 like joints and odd pieces that do not belong to anything in particular1 merely for practice4 ,you will be much more apt to put the right spirit into your work when you make complete and useful articles1 and you will get the same practice and experience in the end4 ,there is no need1 however1 to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in the first place4 ,begin the process of learning by experience after you have learned what you can from the experience of others4 ,begin1 so far as you can1 where others have left off4 ,before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago4 ,have you read the books by ,elijah ,kellogg8 ,the reason for speaking of these old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time1 not so very long ago1 when boys and their elders made all sorts of things which they buy to-day1 and also because of the good idea they give of how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves than they do nowadays4 ,the majority of the boys of that time1 not merely on ,casco ,bay1 where ,mr4 ,kellogg places the scenes of his stories1 but in hundreds of other places1 had to make many things themselves or go without4 ,of course there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could afford 7out of what we should call a quite limited variety71 or to get the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed4 ,but the majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time making them4 ,the life they led made them capital all-round boys4 ,they could turn their hands1 and their heads too1 to almost any kind of work1 and do it pretty well4 ,boys did a good deal of whittling then4 ,this habit1 as you doubtless know1 still clung to them after they grew up1 and opening a jack-knife and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested1 whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own firesides4 ,you can see the same habit to-day in some places4 ,the boys whittled splint-brooms of birch in ,colonial days in almost every household4#c ,among some of the minor articles made by boys and young men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts1 wooden rakes1 wooden troughs for bread and for pigs1 trays1 trenchers1 flails1 rounds for ladders1 bobbins1 reels1 cheese-boxes1 butter-spats or -paddles1 wooden traps1 and dozens of other articles1 not to speak of their handiwork in other materials than wood4 ,for that matter much of the same life can be found to-day in the remoter regions1 and ,i have known young men brought up to this kind of life1 who 7within my recollection7 have1 as a matter of course1 done all the farm work of good-sized cultivated farms with live stock1 cut and hauled wood from their wood-lots1 done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down and drying of fish1 tended and mended their fish-nets1 weirs1 and lobster-traps1 and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with their produce and back again with their supplies4 ,they also built their sheds1 barns1 and houses1 and part of their furniture1 their dories1 big scows1 and capital sailboats2 made their own oars and rigged their boats2 made many of their farm tools and implements2 built their waggons and ironed them1 their ox-sleds and small sleds1 and shod them2 made some of their tools2 did their own blacksmithing1 mason-work1 brick-laying1 and painting2 made their own shoes1 and did ,i do not know how many other odd jobs--all with but a limited supply of common hand-tools4 ,this work did not interfere with their going to school through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old1 and they still found time for the usual recreations of the period4 ,now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through all that1 even if he did not know much about ,greek or calculus or was lacking in superficial polish4 ,and it is only the truth to say that quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too1 with success made all the more assured by their development in other ways1 and many1 in addition to all this1 paid their way through college by teaching or other work4 ,how did they do so much8 ,partly1 ,i suppose1 because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours4 ,they did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to distract their minds4 ,partly because when they wanted something they knew they must make it or go without4 ,they did not draw so much as we do now1 but they did a great deal of observing4 ,they examined things like what they were to make and asked questions1 and1 knowing that where they had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and again1 they learned from their relatives and neighbours what was considered the best way to do their work1 and having thought it out carefully they went at it with great energy4 ,to-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing before some machine and doing some simple piece of work1 requiring but little thought--the same thing over and over again1 hour after hour1 day after day1 year after year1 until he seems to become almost a part of the machine itself1 and is not fitted for doing much else4 ,that is the other extreme4 ,of course we get things cheaper 7even if they do not last so long7 because of the factory2 but how about the workman8 ,which of these two types is the better-developed man8 ,first you want to be well-developed all-round boys1 so that you will not become machines or badly one-sided men4 ,after that--each to his special bent1 of course4 ,now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves1 haul them to the mill to be sawed1 or rive or saw or hew them ourselves1 leave the wood to season1 and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to make--because we no longer do that1 but go instead to a lumber-yard and a mill and have a large part of the work done for us--it is a good thing for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact that all the advantage is not with us now1 and to think what a capital gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and mind1 not to speak of his morals4 ,you could not go back to those days now if you wished to1 of course 7except1 perhaps1 when you go to some of the remoter regions in vacation71 and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you have now and for all our time-saving contrivances1 but the advantage depends partly on how you use the time saved from their laborious tasks1 does it not8 ,you can1 however1 get inspiration from the example of those older boys and from some of their methods1 and can put their self-reliant1 manly zeal1 grit1 and perseverance into your work1 and have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction afterwards for having made them4 ,this book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to proficiency in architecture1 carpentry1 cabinet-making1 boat-building1 toy-making1 or any other art or science4 ,it does not aim to cram you with facts1 but merely to start you in the right way4 ,it is for those of you who want to take off your coats1 roll up your sleeves1 and really make things1 rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can easily do--or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you can do4 ,it is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they would1 or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to know are left out4 ,it does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps leave you in the lurch at the most important points4 ,i take it for granted that if you have any mechanical bent or interest in making things1 as most boys have1 and are any kind of a real live boy1 you have the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up4 ,in fact1 ,i have even known boys1 and possibly you may have1 who1 strange as it may seem1 have had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber within reach in the effort to get started6 ,what you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way--how to make things successfully and like a workman--is it not8 ,then1 if you mean business1 as ,i feel sure you do1 and really want to make things1 read the whole book through carefully1 even if it is not bristling with interesting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your work4 ,you will not find everything in it1 but you cannot help learning something1 and ,i hope you will find that it attends strictly to the business in hand and will give you a start in the right direction1--which is half the battle4 ,man is a ,tool-using ,animal4444 ,he can use ,tools1 can devise ,tools2 with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him2 he kneads glowing iron as if it were soft paste2 seas are his smooth highway1 winds and fire his unwearying steeds4 ,nowhere do you find him without ,tools2 without ,tools he is nothing--with ,tools he is all4--,,carlyle1 ,sartor ,resartus4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,an old gentleman whose help1 on account of his accurate workmanship1 ,i once frequently obtained when rushed1 was an extreme example of this systematic way of doing work4 ,i would give him perhaps three hours' work1 which he would agree to have done at the end of that time4 ,looking in after an hour or so ,i would find the work apparently untouched1 which was a little provoking1 of course1 as the average workman would have had it perhaps one third done4 ,but instead1 this old gentleman would be apparently only puttering around1 touching up his saws1 fixing his planes1 whetting his chisels1 looking over the wood1 and not getting ahead a bit4 ,going off in disgust 7until ,i got acquainted with his ways1 ,i mean71 ,i would return at the end of the three hours1 to find that the work had been ready some time and done to perfection4 ,while he was at first apparently accomplishing nothing he was really getting everything in perfect shape to do the work and laying out in his mind every detail of the whole process1 so that when he began the actual work it almost did itself1 and he forged right ahead of the average workman1 who would either have been behind time or slighted the work in order to get it done1 and in most cases have made some mistake to be corrected in some part of the process4 ,i never knew that man to make a mistake4 ,why8 ,not because his ability was extraordinary1 but because he concentrated his mind on the work and thought it out clear through before he began4 ,now ,i know the average boy too well to expect him to have the patience to do just as this workman did4 ,it would be unreasonable4 ,but it is the true way to do good work1 so try to think it all out as far as you can and to get ready before you begin4 ,the work will go ever so much more quickly and easily4 #c ,it has been said that the snow-shoe and canoe as made by the ,indians could never be improved4 ,to these might be added the split birch broom1 or splinter broom1 also the invention of the ,indians1 but made in every country household in ,new ,england in ,colonial days4 ,the branch of a large birch tree was cut eight feet long4 ,an inch-wide band of the bark was left about eighteen inches from one end1 and the shorter and lower end was cut in fine pliable slivers up to the restraining bark band4 ,a row of slivers was cut from the upper end downward1 turned down over the band1 and tied firmly down4 ,then the remainder of the stick was smoothed into a handle4 ,these brooms were pliable1 cleanly1 and enduring1 and as broom-corn was not grown here until the latter part of the past century1 they were1 in fact1 the only brooms of those days4 ,they were made by boys on ,new ,england farms for six cents apiece1 and bought by the country storekeepers in large numbers for the cities' use4--,the ,chautauquan4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,tools ,you can do a great deal with very few tools4 ,the bearing of this observation lies in the application on it1 as ,jack ,bunsby would say4 ,look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a jack-knife by sailors1 prisoners1 and other people who have time to kill in that way6 ,have you ever seen the ,chinese artisans turning out their wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools8 ,but of course we cannot spend time so lavishly on our work as they do1 even if we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many generations4 ,we cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws towards us or do turning out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe2 carve a set of wonderful open-work hollow spheres1 each within the other1 out of one solid ball of ivory2 and the rest of the queer things the ,orientals do3 but it is merely a matter of national individuality--the training of hundreds of generations4 ,we could learn to do such things after a long time doubtless1 but with no such wonderful adaptability as the ,japanese1 for instance1 are showing1 in learning our ways in one generation4 ,examine some of the exquisite work which the ,orientals sell so cheaply and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a whole hardware-shop full of tools1 and then see with what few simple and rude tools 7like those shown in the following illustrations1 or the simple drill1 ,fig4 #a1 still in use7 the work has been done4 ,mr4 ,holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives of ,india as follows#d3 ,illustration ,,fig4 #a4 ,when any portion of household furniture has to be turned1 the wood-turner is sent for2 he comes with all his outfit and establishes himself for the occasion at the very door of his employer4 ,he commences by digging two holes in the ground at a distance suitable to the length of the work1 and in these he fixes two short wooden posts1 securing them as strongly as he can by ramming the earth and driving in wedges and stones around them4 ,the centres1 scarcely more than round nails or spikes1 are driven through the posts at about eight inches from the ground1 and a wooden rod1 for the support of the tools1 is either nailed to the posts or tied to them by a piece of coir or cocoanut rope4 ,the bar1 if long1 is additionally supported1 as represented1 by being tied to one or two vertical sticks driven into the ground4 ,during most of his mechanical operations the ,indian workman is seated on the ground1 hence the small elevation of the axes of his lathe4 ,the boy who gives motion to the work sits or kneels on the other side of it1 holding the ends of the cord wrapped around it in his hands1 pulling them alternately2 the cutting being restricted to one half of the motion1 that of the work towards the tool4 ,the turning tools of the ,indian are almost confined to the chisel and gouge1 and their handles are long enough to suit his distant position1 while he guides their cutting edges by his toes4 ,he grasps the bar or tool-rest with the smaller toes and places the tool between the large toe and its neighbour1 generally out of contact with the bar4 ,the ,indian and all other turners using the ,eastern method attain a high degree of prehensile power with the toes1 and when seated at their work not only always use them to guide the tool1 but will select indifferently the hand or the foot1 whichever may happen to be the nearer1 to pick up or replace any small tool or other object4 ,the limited supply of tools the ,indian uses for working in wood is also remarkable2 they are of the most simple kind and hardly exceed those represented in ,fig4 #b2 the most essential in constructing and setting up his lathe being the small1 single-handed adze1 the bassoolah4 ,with this he shapes his posts and digs the holes2 it serves on all occasions as a hammer and also as an anvil when the edge is for a time fixed in a block of wood4 ,the outer side of the cutting edge is perfectly flat1 and with it the workman will square or face a beam or board with almost as much precision as if it had been planed2 in using the bassoolah for this latter purpose the work is generally placed in the forked stem of a tree1 driven into the ground as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #b4 ,if we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of wood-work turned out by the average wood-worker of this country or ,england with his great variety of tools and appliances and facilities1 we might compare his work with that done by the ,orientals without our appliances4 ,read what ,professor ,morse tells us of the ,japanese carpenter#e3 ,his trade1 as well as other trades1 has been perpetuated through generations of families4 ,the little children have been brought up amidst the odour of fragrant shavings1--have with childish hands performed the duties of an adjustable vise or clamp2 and with the same tools which when children they have handed to their fathers1 they have in later days earned their daily rice4 ,when ,i see one of our carpenters' ponderous tool-chests1 made of polished woods1 inlaid with brass decorations1 and filled to repletion with several hundred dollars' worth of highly polished and elaborate machine-made implements1 and contemplate the work often done with them1--with everything binding that should go loose1 and everything rattling that should be tight1 and much work that has to be done twice over1 with an indication everywhere of a poverty of ideas1--and then recall the ,japanese carpenter with his ridiculously light and flimsy tool-box containing a meagre assortment of rude and primitive tools1--considering the carpentry of the two people1 ,i am forced to the conviction that civilisation and modern appliances count as nothing unless accompanied with a moiety of brains and some little taste and wit4444 ,after having seen the good and serviceable carpentry1 the perfect joints and complex mortises1 done by good ,japanese workmen1 one is astonished to find that they do their work without the aid of certain appliances considered indispensable by similar craftsmen in our country4 ,they have no bench1 no vise1 no spirit-level1 and no bit-stock2 and as for labour-saving machinery1 they have absolutely nothing4 ,with many places which could be utilised for water-power1 the old country sawmill has not occurred to them4 ,their tools appear to be roughly made and of primitive design1 though evidently of the best-tempered steel4 ,the only substitute for the carpenter's bench is a plank on the floor1 or on two horses2 a square1 firm1 upright post is the nearest approach to a bench and vise1 for to this beam a block of wood to be sawed into pieces is firmly held 7,fig4 #c74 ,a big wooden wedge is bound firmly to the post with a stout rope1 and this driven down with vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into the desired proportions4 ,illustration ,,fig4#c4--;,a ,,japanese ,,carpenter',s ,,vise4 ,from ,morse's ,japanese ,homes4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #d4--;,,carpenters' ,,tools ,,in ,,common ,,use4 ,from ,morse's ,japanese ,homes4 ,in using many of the tools1 the ,japanese carpenter handles them quite differently from our workman2 for instance1 he draws the plane towards him instead of pushing it from him4 ,the planes are very rude-looking implements4 ,their bodies1 instead of being thick blocks of wood1 are quite wide and thin 7,fig4 #d1 ,d1 ,e71 and the blades are inclined at a greater angle than the blade in our plane4 ,in some planes1 however1 the blade stands vertical2 this is used in lieu of the steel scrapers in giving wood a smooth finish1 and might be used with advantage by our carpenters as a substitute for the piece of glass or thin plate of steel with which they usually scrape the surface of the wood4 ,a huge plane is often seen1 five or six feet long4 ,this plane1 however1 is fixed in an inclined position1 upside down2 that is1 with the blade uppermost4 ,the board1 or piece to be planed1 is moved back and forth upon it4 ,draw-shaves are in common use4 ,the saws are of various kinds1 with teeth much longer than those of our saws1 and cut in different ways4444 ,some saws have teeth on the back as well as on the front1 one edge being used as a cross-cut saw 7,fig4 #d1 ,b1 ,c74 ,the hand-saw1 instead of having the curious loop-shaped handle made to accommodate only one hand1 as with us1 has a simple straight cylindrical handle as long as the saw itself1 and sometimes longer4 ,our carpenters engage one hand in holding the stick to be sawed while driving the saw with the other hand2 the ,japanese carpenter1 on the contrary1 holds the piece with his foot1 and stooping over1 with his two hands drives the saw by quick and rapid cuts through the wood4 ,this style of working and doing many other things could never be adopted in this country without an importation of ,japanese backs4444 ,the adze is provided with a rough handle bending considerably at the lower end1 not unlike a hockey-stick 7,fig4 #d1 ,a74444 ,for drilling holes a very long-handled awl is used4 ,the carpenter seizing the handle at the end1 between the palms of his hands1 and moving his hands rapidly back and forth1 pushing down at the same time1 the awl is made rapidly to rotate back and forth2 as his hands gradually slip down on the handle he quickly seizes it at the upper end again1 continuing the motion as before4 ,one is astonished to see how rapidly holes are drilled in this simple yet effective way4 ,for large holes1 augers similar to ours are used4 ,when you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools 7as most workmen are at times71 you will quickly realise how much you can do with very few in case of necessity1 and will more fully appreciate the skill of those ,eastern people who do so much with so little4 ,we do not need so many hand-tools for wood-work as our grandfathers and our great-grandfathers1 although we make a greater variety of things1 because machinery now does so much of the work for us4 ,wood-workers of fifty years ago had1 for instance1 dozens of planes for cutting all sorts of grooves1 mouldings1 and the like1 which are now worked by machine at the nearest mill4 ,suggestions about ,buying4--,do not start in by buying a chest of tools1 certainly not one of the small cheap sets4 ,they are not necessarily poor1 but are very apt to be4 ,get a few tools at a time as you need them4 ,in that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory way4 ,besides the fact that you can do good work with few tools there are various reasons which make it better to begin with but few4 ,you will probably take better care of a few than of many4 ,if you have thirty chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one you are using1 there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining twenty-nine that will answer your purpose1 and before you realise it have a whole rack full of dull tools4 ,if you have but few chisels1 you will be compelled to sharpen them1 and so get into the habit of taking proper care of them--not to speak of the time which is often wasted in putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily4 ,the longer you work the more you will get to rely on a small number of tools only1 however many you may have at hand for occasional use4 ,after you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your favourite tools1 and find that certain tools do better work in your hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the purpose1 and you will naturally favour the use of those particular implements1 which is another less important reason for not starting in with too great a variety4 ,i do not mean that you will imagine you can do better with one tool than another1 but that you really can do so4 ,that is where individuality comes in--the personal equation4 ,watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work4 ,see how few tools he spreads before him1 and how much he does with the one in his hand before he lays it down for another4 ,you would think it would take twenty-five tools1 perhaps1 to cut such a design1 but the carver may have only about half a dozen before him4 ,he gets right into the spirit of what he is doing1 and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept breaking off to select others4 ,this shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward the execution of good work1 which is one reason for learning to use a few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can advantageously be put4 ,in short1 if you have but few tools at first you get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself4 ,now ,i do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a large kit of tools1 or that you should not have the proper tools for the various operations1 and use them4 ,i mean that you should get your tools gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be done1 and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they seem to be fine things to have1 or because some carpenter has them in his chest4 ,do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in books and magazines--the tools necessary for beginners1 a list of tools for boys1 etc4 ,such lists are necessarily arbitrary4 ,to make a short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men or the one hundred best books4 ,when you can find half a dozen independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin your faith to them4 ,the most experienced or learned people cannot agree exactly in such matters4 ,it depends somewhat1 for one thing1 on what kind of work you begin with1 and1 of course1 somewhat upon yourself also4 ,now while1 as we have seen1 most wonderful work can be done with the most primitive tools1 the fact remains that you are neither ,chinese nor ,japanese1 but ,americans and ,english1 and you cannot work to the best advantage without certain tools4 ,well1 what are they8 ,why don't you give us a list to begin with8 ,that's what we are looking for4 ,simply because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves4 ,just as the great majority of boys would agree upon ,robinson ,crusoe1 for instance1 as belonging in the front rank of boys' books1 but would make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books1 so there are a few universal tools1 upon the importance of which all agree1 such as the saw1 hammer1 hatchet or axe1 and a few others2 but beyond these few you can have as many lists as you can find people to make them1 up to the point of including all you are likely to want4 ,so let your list make itself as you go along1 according to your own needs4 ,it is safe to say1 however1 that if your work is to be at all varied1 such as is given in this book1 for instance1 you cannot get along to good advantage for any length of time without a rule1 a try-square1 a straight-edge1 a knife1 two or three chisels1 a hatchet1 a gouge1 a smoothing-plane1 a spoke-shave1 a panel-saw1 a hammer and nail-set1 a bit-brace and three or four bits 7twist-drills are good for the smaller sizes71 a countersink1 a few bradawls and gimlets1 a screw-driver1 a rasp and half-round file for wood1 a three-cornered file for metal1 an oil-stone1 a glue-pot4 ,an excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be bought almost anywhere under the name of odd jobs4 ,of course you will need nails1 screws1 sandpaper1 glue1 oil1 and such supplies1 which you can buy as you need them4 ,a section 7#ah inches or #bj inches high7 from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block1 or any big junk of timber can be used4 ,you will1 however1 quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your work to better advantage1 and according to the kind of work you are doing you will add some of the following3 a fore-plane1 a splitting-saw1 a mallet1 a back-saw1 compasses1 one or more firmer chisels1 one or more framing-chisels1 a block-plane1 pincers1 a gauge or two1 one or more gouges1 a steel square1 a draw-knife1 a large screw-driver1 a scraper1 a few hand-screws 7or iron clamps71 a few more bits1 gimlets1 bradawls1 or drills1 cutting-pliers or nippers1 a bevel1 a jointer 7plane71 a wrench4 ,an iron mitre-box is useful but rather expensive1 and you can get along with the wooden one described further on4 ,a grindstone is1 of course1 essential when you get to the point of sharpening your tools yourself1 but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a stone without having to buy one for a long time4 ,the following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and sometimes all the work the average amateur is likely to do1 excepting the bench appliances and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file1 etc41 of some other size or shape when needed4 ,this is not a list to start with1 of course1 unless you can afford it1 for you can get along for a good while with only a part1 nor is it a complete list1 but merely one with which a great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage4 ,you can always add to it for special purposes4 ,for further remarks about these tools and others and their uses1 see ,part ,v41 where they will be found alphabetically arranged4 #a two-foot rule4 #a try-square 7metal-bound74 #a pair of wing compasses4 #a marking-gauge4 #a mortise-gauge4 #a steel square 7carpenter's framing-square74 #a bevel4 #a odd jobs4 #a chalk-line and chalk4 #a knife4 #e firmer chisels 7#a_/h1 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 #g_/h1 #a-a_/d74 #b framing-or mortising-chisels 7#a1 #a-a_/b74 #c gouges 7#a_/d1 #a_/b1 #a74 #a iron spoke-shave 7adjustable74 #a draw-knife4 #a hatchet4 #a block-plane4 #a smoothing-plane4 #a long fore-plane 7or a jointer74 #a jack-plane4 #a rabbet-plane 7#c_/d or #g_/h square74 #a cutting-off saw 7panel-saw1 #bd74 #a splitting-saw 7#bf74 #a back-saw 7#ab74 #a turning-saw 7#ad74 #a compass and keyhole saw 7combined74 #a bit-brace4 #c auger-bits 7#a_/b1 #c_/d1 #a74 #c twist-drills 7#a_/h1 #c_/af1 #a_/d74 ,a few bradawls and gimlets4 #a screw-driver for bit-brace4 #a countersink4 #a hammer and #b nail-sets4 #b screw-drivers 7different sizes74 ,files of several kinds 7flat1 three-cornered1 and round for metal1 and half-round and round for wood74 #a large half-round rasp4 #a cabinet scraper and burnisher4 #a mallet4 #a pair cutting-pliers4 #a pair of pincers4 #a wrench4 #a oil-stone and oiler4 #b or #c oil-stone slips 7different shapes74 #a glue-pot4 #b or more iron clamps4 #b or more wooden hand-screws4 #b or more cabinet clamps 7#b' to #d'74 ,an adjustable iron mitre-box will be a valuable addition to this list1 and a grindstone is of use even when you get most of your grinding done4 ,a few carver's tools are also convenient at times if you can afford them1 as a skew-chisel 7#a_/b71 a parting-tool 7#a_/d71 and a small veining-tool4 ,general supplies1 such as nails1 screws1 glue1 etc41 specified in ,part ,v41 will of course be required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are still more tools than those given above1 as you doubtless know1 but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you will know what you need4 ,ploughs1 matching-planes1 and all such implements are omitted1 because it is better and usually as cheap to get such work as they do done by machine at a mill4 ,i also assume that all your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill4 ,it is not worth while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large pieces1 the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of wood-work1 for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight expense1 and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a trifle more than the cost of the wood alone4#f ,be sure to get good tools4 ,there is a saying that a good workman is known by his tools1 and another that a poor workman is always complaining of his tools1 that is1 excusing his own incompetence by throwing the blame upon his tools4 ,there is also another saying to the effect that a good workman can work with poor tools2 but it is simply because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if necessary often do good work in spite of inferior tools1 and of course he could do the same work more easily and quickly1 if not better1 with good ones4 ,so do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way1 for a beginner should use only good tools and in good condition or he may never become a good workman at all1 so make your tools and their care a matter of pride4 ,if your tools are of good quality1 and proper care is taken of them1 they will last a lifetime and longer2 so good tools prove the cheapest in the end4#g ,there are some cases1 however1 in which it is as well not to buy the most expensive tools at first1 as a cheap rule will do as well as an expensive one1 considering how likely you are to break or lose it1 and a cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while2 but this does not affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the best tools4 ,there are also quite a number of tools1 appliances1 and makeshifts which you can make for yourselves1 some of which will be described4 ,i advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops1 auctions1 or junk shops1 except with the assistance of some competent workman4 ,care of ,tools4--,keep your tools in good order4 ,you cannot do nice1 fine1 clean work with a dull tool4 ,a sharp tool will make a clean cut1 but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut surface4 ,you can work so much more easily and quickly as well as satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones1 not to speak of the waste of strength and temper4 ,i assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves until you have had considerable experience in using them2 for sharpening tools 7particularly saws and planes7 is very hard for boys and amateurs1 and not easy to learn from a book4 ,so1 until then1 be sure to have them sharpened whenever they become dull4 ,the expense is but slight1 and it is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money for more tools and have them dull4 ,when you get to the point of sharpening your tools1 one lesson from a practical workman or even a little time spent in watching the operations 7which you can do easily7 will help you more than reading many pages from any book4 ,so ,i advise you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman1--not at first1 but after you have got quite handy with the tools4 ,you can easily do this at little or no expense4 ,for further points1 see ,sharpening1 in ,part ,v4 ,it is a good plan to soak tool handles1 mallets1 and wooden planes1 when new1 for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft rag every day or two for a while4 ,if you use wooden planes give them a good soaking4 ,they will absorb much oil and work more freely and smoothly4 ,you can save tool handles from being split by pounding1 by sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe-makers4 ,if there is any tendency to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be greased with a little fat1--tallow1 lard1 wax1 vaseline1--or some anti-rust preparation4 ,use of ,tools4--,it is very important to get started right in using tools4 ,if your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards1 but if you start with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn1 which is always hard1 and start afresh4 ,if you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn much1 and if you know a good-natured carpenter or cabinet-maker or any wood-worker of the old-fashioned kind1 cultivate his acquaintance4 ,if he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools4 ,in fact1 so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the average apprentice gets4 ,he learns by observing and by practice4 ,do not be afraid or ashamed to ask questions4 ,very few men will refuse to answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent4 ,there will be problems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have after you have learned what you can from others4 ,but the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away and the tendency nowadays is for each workman1 instead of spending years in learning the various branches and details of his trade1 to be expert in only one very limited branch--or1 as sometimes happens1 a general botch in all the branches2 so unless you find a real mechanic for a friend 7such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter1 or cabinet-maker1 or wheelwright1 or boat-builder1 or carver71 be a little guarded about believing all he tells or shows you2 and beware of relying implicitly on the teachings of the man who knows it all and whom a season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a full-fledged carpenter4 ,if you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find it a decided advantage1 as in getting out crooked work1 or particularly in carving1 where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in almost every possible direction1 but that is another story4 ,a bad habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily1 instead of laying it down where you are working4 ,edge-tools are dangerous things to carry around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid4 ,for directions for using the different tools see ,part ,v4 ,edge-,tools4--,bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on the principle of the wedge4 ,so far as the mere cutting is concerned a keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool might be as thin as a sheet of paper4 ,but of course such a tool would break1 so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible4 ,you know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade1 but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain of being pushed through4 ,soft wood cuts more easily than hard1 because it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge-shaped tool1 and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool through it4 ,you will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the cutting edge the more easily it will do its work1 provided always that the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the end of the tool2 and also that as the end of the tool encounters more resistance in hard than soft wood1 the angle should be more obtuse or blunter for the former than for the latter4 ,theoretically1 therefore1 the angle of the cutting edge1 to obtain the greatest possible advantage1 would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every kind of cut1 but practically all that can be done is to have a longer bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard4 ,experience and observation will teach these angles4 ,see ,sharpening in ,part ,v4 ,when you cut off a stout stick1 as the branch of a tree1 you do not try to force your knife straight across with one cut4 ,you cut a small notch and then widen and deepen it by cutting first on one side and then on the other 7,fig4 #e74 ,the wood yields easily to the wedge on the side towards the notch1 so that the edge can easily cut deeper1 and thus the notch is gradually cut through the stick4 ,the same principle is seen in cutting down a tree with an axe4 ,you have only to look at the structure of a piece of wood when magnified1 as roughly indicated in ,fig4 #f1 to see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #g4 ,you can often cut better with a draw-stroke1 i4e41 not merely pushing the tool straight ahead1 but drawing it across sideways at the same time 7,fig4 #g74 ,you can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor against your hand without cutting1 but draw the edge across and you will be cut at once4 ,even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge quickly through your hand1 as you doubtless know4 ,if you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood1 as you push a knife down through a lump of butter1 or as in chopping with a hatchet1 that is1 without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth1 it will not enter the wood to any extent1 but when you begin to work it back and forth it cuts 7or tears7 its way into the wood at once4 ,you know how much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the loaf4 ,you may have noticed 7and you may not7 how much better your knife will cut1 and that the cut will be cleaner1 in doing some kinds of whittling1 when you draw it through the wood from handle to point 7,fig4 #g71 instead of pushing it straight through in the common way1 and you will discover1 if you try cutting various substances1 that as a general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the draw-stroke4 ,now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope1 and you will see that the edge1 instead of being so very smooth1 is really quite ragged1--a sort of saw-like edge4 ,then look at the structure of a piece of wood as roughly indicated in ,fig4 #f1 and you will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an edge-tool4 ,you see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed1 and you also see the microscopically fine saw to cut them4 ,now if the edge of the tool is fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool straight through the wood1 but do you not see that if you can draw or slide the tool either back or forth the edge1 being saw-like1 will do its work better8 ,this stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or hatchet1 splitting kindling-wood1 or splitting a stick with the grain with a knife or chisel4 ,in these operations the main principle is that of the wedge1 pure and simple1 driven through by force1 the keen edge merely starting the cut1 after which the wedge does the rest of the work by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it forces it to split in advance of the cutting edge1 as in riving a log by the use first of an axe1 then of an iron wedge1 and finally a large wooden wedge 7,fig4 #h74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #h4 ,practical directions and suggestions about the different ,tools and their ,uses and the various ,operations will be found alphabetically arranged in ,part ,v4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,quoted1 by kind permission1 from ,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation4 #e ,quoted1 by kind permission1 from the valuable and entertaining work on ,japanese ,homes and their ,surroundings 7copyright4 #ahhe71 by ,edward ,s4 ,morse4 #f ,if you are so situated1 as possibly a few of you may be1 that you cannot get the benefit of modern methods1 but must do all the rough work that your grandfathers did1 you will require a few additional tools1 but these you can readily select from the descriptions given farther on4 #g ,there are many reliable makers of tools4 ,among them the following can be named1 and their tools can be obtained almost anywhere3 ,saws--,henry ,disston4 ,chisels and gouges--,moulson ,bros42 ,buck ,bros4 ,planes--,stanley2 ,moulson ,bros4 7plane-irons72 ,wm4 ,butcher 7do472 ,buck ,bros4 7do47 ,files--,p4 ,s4 ,stubs4 ,rules and squares1 levels1 gauges1 spoke-shaves1 etc4--,stanley ,rule ,level ,co4 ,braces--,barber4 ,bits--,jennings4 ,knives 7sloid7--,taylor4 ,carving tools--,addis2 ,buck2 ,taylor4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,wood ,before you can make anything successfully1 you must have not merely wood1 but the right kind of wood for the purpose4 ,there are1 also1 choice cuts in lumber1 as the butcher says of meat1 and judicious selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job and a poor one2 so let us examine a log and follow it through the sawmill4 ,you have1 of course1 seen the rings1 or circular lines1 on the ends of pieces of wood 7,fig4 #i74 ,these are called the annual rings1#h and each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree1 for1 as perhaps you may have learned1 the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding new layers of wood on the outside4 ,examine the ends of pieces of wood of various kinds4 ,in some pieces these rings will be very plain4 ,in others they will be quite indistinct4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #i4 ,notice that the wood nearest the bark1 known as the sapwood1 usually looks different from the inner wood1 which is called the heart 7,fig4 #i74 ,in some trees you will see rays1 or lines1 radiating from the centre1 and known as the medullary rays 7,figs4 #i and #aj71 because they spring from the pith 7,latin medulla74 ,sometimes these lines are too fine to be noticed4 ,you will see from ,fig4 #aj that the layers of wood are also shown in the lines of what we call the grain on the surface of a piece of wood cut lengthways1 and that the lines of the grain are continuations of the annual rings4 ,you will also notice at the ends of timber1 after the seasoning has begun1 cracks radiating from the centre1 showing the natural lines of cleavage or separation4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aa4 ,the way the log is sawed is important1 though you might naturally think that the only thing is to saw it any way that will give pieces of the required size and shape4 ,why is green wood heavier and softer than dry wood1 and the sapwood of green timber softer than the heart8 ,because of the sap or water contained4 ,the amount of water is sometimes even as much as fifty per cent4 of the weight of the wood1 but the quantity depends upon the kind of tree1 the season1 etc4 ,now the more water the green log contains1 the more it will shrink4 ,it begins to dry and shrink as soon as the tree has been cut down4 ,the sapwood shrinks more than the heart because it contains more water1 and faster because1 being on the outside1 it is more exposed4 ,the log shrinks most in the line of the annual rings1 that is1 around the tree4 ,it shrinks much less in the line of the medullary rays1 that is1 across the tree4 ,shrinkage lengthways is too slight to be considered#i 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the result of all this unequal shrinking is that the log tends to split1 or crack open1 at the circumference 7,fig4 #ab71 the cracks running in toward the centre1 in the line of the medullary rays4 ,if the log is halved or quartered1 so that the inner parts are exposed1 the drying goes on more uniformly throughout1 the cracking is not so bad1 and the parts of the log will shrink somewhat as shown in ,figs4 #ac and #ad4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the beams1 joists1 planks1 or boards cut from a log have the same tendency to shrink unevenly that is found in the log itself4 ,this causes them to be irregular in shape and to curl or warp more or less1 according to the part of the log from which they are taken4 ,a piece cut from the centre of a log will thus hold its shape better than if cut from one side 7,fig4 #ae74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #af4 ,when a log is sawed into boards or planks 7,fig4 #af7 the middle board shrinks but little in width and in thickness at the centre1 but becomes thinner towards the edges4 ,it does not curl1 because it is cut through the centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the other4 ,the outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width1 and all1 except the middle one1 shrink differently on one side from the other4 ,they become convex toward the pith1 or heart1 and concave toward the outside4 ,different kinds of wood shrink and warp to different degrees4 ,you can learn something about these matters by examining the stock in any lumber-yard4 ,now to come to the practical application of our brief study of the log and the sawing process3 if you merely wish to get the most that you can from a log in the form of boards or plank1 have the pieces sliced off in the simple way just shown 7,fig4 #ag74 ,this is the usual way of sawing for ordinary purposes4 ,boarding for the outside of a house1 for instance1 cut in this way answers every purpose4 ,by this process the central boards will be good and the outer ones inferior1#aj as just shown 7,fig4 #af71 but for common work all can generally be used4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ai4 ,if you wish the highly figured grain#aa often seen in oak1 ash1 chestnut1 etc41 you can get it by sawing the log as just shown in ,fig4 #ag4 ,the figure of the grain will be most marked in the outer boards 7,fig4 #ah71 because the annual rings are cut more obliquely in them than in the boards at or near the centre4 ,these boards 7,fig4 #ag7 will tend to change their shape1 as just shown 7,fig4 #ai71 but if they are to be firmly fastened in some way1 or confined 7as in a panel71 handsome grain effects can be obtained4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bb4 ,if you wish the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on the surface of the board1 as in quartered oak1 the log should be cut in the direction of the radii1 that is1 along the lines of the medullary rays 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the more exactly the side of a board is cut on the radial line the more richly the figure of the medullary rays will be shown1 as in ,fig4 #ba4 ,this method of sawing is more expensive than the first way1 of course1 as it requires more labour and wastes more of the wood4 ,the wide board shown in ,fig4 #ba and either of those in ,fig4 #bb are examples4 ,if you wish boards that will shrink the least in width and remain as true as possible1 then the log should be sawed on the radial lines as just shown1 so that all the boards will be from the middle of the log4 ,wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii1 as just shown1 and middle boards will be alike on both sides as regards heart- and sapwood1 etc41 and1 therefore1 have the least tendency to change of shape4 ,the middle board by the method of ,fig4 #ag will be a good board in these respects4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #be4 ,various methods of radial sawing1 or in which part of the boards are so cut1 are shown in ,figs4 #bj and #bf1 ,figs4 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 and #bf showing the log quartered and various ways of sawing into boards4 ,thus we see that the middle boards1 those passing through or near the centre1 are the best for most purposes4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bg4 ,split or rift stock is stronger than sawed4 ,if you wish a piece especially tough and durable1 as for an axe handle or a stout pin1 it should be split out rather than sawed1 unless the wood is very straight-grained1 because the splitting is sure to be in the line of the fibres1 thus avoiding cross-grain1 which cannot well be entirely prevented in sawing4 ,if the grain is straight1 there may be no practical difference in the result between sawing and splitting1 as in the so-called rift flooring1 which is really sawed1 but with crooked-grained pieces the difference is marked in such cases as the block shown in ,fig4 #bg1 from which four pins can be sawed1 while but one can be split out4 ,that one will be straight-grained1 however1 and stronger than the sawed ones1 which will be cross-grained4 ,try your best to get well-seasoned wood for your nice work4 ,if it is not dry before you use it1 it must of course dry afterwards1 which is likely to cause cracks1 warping1 opened joints1 and often the entire ruin of the article you have made4 ,you will have to trust the dealer1 or some friend1 until you have had enough experience to judge for yourself1 for it is no easy matter for an amateur to decide1 except in case of very green stock1 which is of course wet and soggy4 ,there are two ways of drying wood in common use4 ,one is the old-fashioned way 7commonly known as seasoning1 weather-drying1 or air-drying7 in which the wood is gradually seasoned by the natural process of exposure to the air 7but protected from the weather71 that is1 letting it dry of itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,do not believe the statements so common in books that it takes lumber some definite time1 as one year or two years1 to season4 ,it all depends on the kind of wood1 its shape and size1 the condition of the atmosphere1 and various circumstances4 ,for some rough work 7a pig-pen1 for instance7 there is no advantage in seasoning at all1 because the stock can just as well dry after the work is done as before4 ,for many kinds of common work one or two years is sufficient for some kinds and sizes of wood2 for a nicer grade of work two or three years is none too much1 while for very nice indoor work four years or more is not too long for the stock to season4 ,there is very little danger of its being kept too long4 ,it never will get perfectly dry 7see ,appendix74 ,whether it is dry enough or not depends on what you want it for4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to save time and money the artificial way 7known as kiln-drying7 of shutting it up in a room and drying it quickly by steam or other heat is now used1 and1 so far as drying the wood is concerned1 this process can do the work well and much more quickly than the old way--sometimes too quickly4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that in factories where cheap furniture and other common articles are made nowadays1 a standing tree is felled on ,monday1 the log rolled into one end of the factory1 and before ,saturday night the finished articles made from it1 all varnished and complete1 are sent out from the other end of the shop--and some articles are turned out even quicker4 ,in the natural process of air-drying the moisture gradually and slowly works out to the surface and evaporates1 until the wood is seasoned1 though never absolutely dry1 and the stock is firmer1 more elastic1 and less affected by heat and cold1 moisture and dryness1 than if kiln-dried4 ,the latter process tends to dry the outside and ends of the lumber too fast for the inside4 ,it certainly lessens the elasticity of the wood and weakens it4 ,making it so unnaturally dry 7as if baked71 as is often done1 only makes it more susceptible to the atmosphere when taken from the kiln1 and1 unless it is at once protected from the air in some way1 it will reabsorb moisture until it gets into a more natural condition2 but that will not fully restore the loss of elasticity 7see ,appendix74 ,the deterioration in the quality of the wood can be plainly seen by any wood-worker1 and is often a subject of remark in regard to oak4 ,the kiln-drying takes the life out of the wood1 as workmen express it1 but just why this is so is not easy to explain1 for the structure and properties of wood are very complex4 ,i have seen too many illustrations in my own experience and that of others to have any doubt of the fact1 however1 and lumber left for years to season naturally1 stands1 as the expression is1 better than if kiln-dried--a fact which is1 ,i think1 generally conceded by wood-workers who have had experience with both kinds4 ,the gain by kiln-drying1 in time and money1 is1 therefore1 more or less offset by impairment of the quality of the wood1 so if you can find stock that you know has been seasoning for years by the natural process1 buy it by all means for your nice work1 even if you have to pay more1 regardless of what the dealers in kiln-dried stock or the makers of articles for sale may tell you about the advantages of kiln-dried wood4 ,on the other hand1 if a dealer brags of his new patent chain-lightning dryer that will make green wood dry as a bone in two or three days1 go elsewhere to buy your stock1 for wood dried in a few days is not the kind to use for good work4 ,you will probably have to use kiln-dried stock for most1 or1 perhaps1 all of your work1 but get it from a slow-drying kiln and keep it for further seasoning as long as you can4 ,even if wood has been well seasoned1 it is best1 before putting it into nice work1 to cut it up and dress it approximately to shape and leave it in a dry place for some time for a final seasoning1 particularly in the case of thick stock4 ,do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the dry-house4 ,let it have a little time to get into harmony with the atmosphere4 ,whenever wood has been exposed to damp air1 as in a wet shed or cellar1 let it stand in the warm shop a while before using it for nice work4 ,the stock is arranged for seasoning so as to allow the air to circulate around and between the pieces4 ,a common way is simply to arrange them in piles1 each piece being separated from those above and below by strips or sticks laid across 7,fig4 #bh74 ,these sticks should be placed directly over one another1 and so that the lumber will lie straight1 else the weight of the pile1 which should tend to make the pieces dry straight1 will have the opposite effect and make them permanently crooked4 ,there are other ways of arranging wood for drying1 but this method is common and illustrates the most important principles4 ,stock is sometimes stacked upright1 and small pieces are occasionally hung up for such nice work as billiard cues and bows4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bh4 ,seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green1 dryer to the touch1 usually has a different odour1 cuts differently when you whittle it 7and the piece you whittle off breaks differently71 and it shows a difference when you saw it4 ,it is impossible to define these differences and you will have to learn them by actual work4 ,it is not always easy even for an experienced person to tell with certainty about some pieces until he has worked them1 so much do the characteristics of different pieces vary4 ,one test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer4 ,a green board and a dry one of the same kind will rap differently1--that is1 will have a different vibration and give out a different sound4 ,of course this cannot be described1 but you can judge quite well in this way4 ,it is one of the many things you can learn only by experience4 ,you can ascertain much about the character and condition of lumber by sawing or planing or whittling a piece4 ,this is a good test for dryness1 toughness1 and elasticity 7which you can tell about by breaking the shavings74 ,weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure1 but kiln-drying lightens the colour of some woods4 ,stock with a bright lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally superior to that of a lighter colour and duller appearance1 but such characteristics depend much upon the kind of wood4 ,green wood is tougher than seasoned wood1 but the latter is more elastic4 ,to subject seasoned wood to moisture and heat brings it back1 to a certain extent1 to its original condition1 and renders it for the time being tougher1 hence the process of bending wood by the application of steam or hot water 7see ,bending in ,part ,v474 ,reject wany lumber1 or that of which the edges or corners have not been squared 7,fig4 #ah71 and also boards and planks which have not been sawed to a uniform thickness4 ,it is not uncommon for a board to be considerably thinner than it should be in some part of its length1 due to irregularity in sawing4 ,for plain work avoid cross-grained stock1 as well as that having knots 7which are sometimes tight and sometimes loose71 as it is harder to work and to smooth1 is not as strong1 and does not hold its shape as well1 as a rule4 ,sometimes it is desirable1 however1 on account of the beautiful figure of the grain shown in many crooked-grained pieces1 as in mahogany for furniture 7see ,appendix74 ,bear in mind that when especial strength is required rift stock is best4 ,reject wood which smells musty1 or has rusty-looking spots1 which are signs of decay1 or of the attack of fungi1 which may spread and under favourable conditions attack other pieces which are sound 7see ,appendix74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cj4 ,reject crooked stock4 ,the worst form is winding or twisting4 ,of course no one would take such an extreme case as ,fig4 #bi1 unless for some very rough work1 but even a very slight winding may make much trouble in your nice work4 ,so look particularly for this defect1 which you can often detect at once by the eye1 but if your eye is not well trained use winding-sticks 7see ,part ,v474 ,warped or curled stock1 with the surface rounded or hollowed 7,fig4 #ai71 is also bad1 but you will need no instructions to detect this defect by the eye or any straight stick4 ,when boards are rounding on one side and hollowing on the other1 it is due either to the way the log was sawed1 as we have seen1 or to one side having been more exposed and so having dried faster and shrunk faster than the other1 causing that side to be concave1 while the other became convex4 ,stock is sometimes crooked lengthways1--either a simple bending in a curve or at an angle1 or wavy 7,fig4 #cj71 or both1--often due to careless sticking 7,fig4 #bh7 while the wood was green4 ,sighting lengthways will of course show these defects4 ,reject stock badly checked at the ends1 or cracked4 ,there is apt to be more or less of this in most lumber4 ,in seasoning1 the pieces dry faster on the outside than in the middle1 which causes checks or cracks1 usually worse at the ends of the pieces1 where the drying takes place most rapidly4 ,the ends of valuable boards and planks are sometimes painted or cleated1 which in a measure prevents this result4 ,occasionally1 when the cleat is removed a crack will suddenly extend and even split the board4 ,do not take a cracked or partly split board1 thinking that you can use the sound end from the point where the crack appears to stop4 ,possibly you can1 but oftentimes and in some kinds of wood it is impossible to tell before the stock is cut where the cracks end4 ,in mahogany1 for example1 they sometimes are found to extend1 or develop1 several feet beyond where they appear to stop4 ,sometimes you can buy wood with such defects at a discount4 ,unless you are sure1 however1 that there is enough sound1 clear wood outside of the cracks or knots1 and unless the discount is pretty large1 it will usually be better to buy clear1 sound stock for nice work1 as the waste is very apt to offset the saving1 not to speak of the extra time and labour it takes to work up such material4 7,see ,shakes in ,appendix47 ,reject sapwood as far as possible1 because it is usually inferior to the heartwood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the case of elm and young ash the sapwood is1 however1 superior to the heart4 ,the heartwood is usually harder and more durable than the sapwood1 heavier1 of better texture1 and commonly of better colour4 ,the sapwood is1 as a rule1 darker in the whitewood class than the heartwood1 whether seasoned or unseasoned1 but is paler in colour in most hardwood trees which have had time to season4 ,in some of the white1 or softer woods1 when fresh cut1 the difference is scarcely perceptible2 but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge1 due to a species of mould fungi which attack them4--,,laslett and ,,ward4 7,see also ,appendix47 99 99 99 99 99 ,when buying1 do not take boards just as they happen to come from the pile4 ,select them yourself4 ,most good-natured dealers will let you do this if you do not expect them to unstack a whole pile just for one or two boards4 ,it is better to do this for nice work even if a slight charge should be made for the privilege4 ,when you come to pick out boards you will see the application of what has been said about the ways of cutting the log1 and you can tell by the annual rings at the ends of the boards1 by the sapwood 7when visible71 the grain1 etc41 from what part of the log the pieces were sawed4 ,use good1 clear stock for everything but rough work4 ,of course in rough or temporary work you can save expense by using wood from packing-cases1 boxes1 old fence-rails1 or anything that will serve the purpose1 but as a rule avoid trying to make nice1 new things of wood taken from old work or boxes4 ,the quality of the wood used for boxes nowadays is apt to be poor and hard to work4 ,the wood taken from old cabinet-work is1 however1 often better than you are likely to buy1 but you need to be very cautious about working over old material1 for the dirt which has been ground into it is apt to dull your tools1 and1 moreover1 the presence of concealed nails1 etc4 7which it is sometimes almost impossible to detect71 will often injure your tools so much as to more than offset what you save in expense4 ,do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces 7unless necessary74 ,of course it can be sawed into thinner or smaller pieces1 but you cannot always be sure that these will be as true as the original stock4 ,suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the air in this way sometimes plays queer pranks with the shape of the pieces 7see ,appendix74 ,if you want to use boards for good work buy those which have seasoned as boards1 instead of splitting up thicker lumber2 and always try to treat both sides of a board alike so far as you can4 ,bear this in mind3 ,if you take an inch board to the mill to be planed down to three eighths of an inch1 for instance1 have it planed equally1 as nearly as may be1 from both sides4 ,ignorant hands often simply smooth off1 or surface1 one side1 and then plane the board down on the other side1 when it will sometimes warp badly at once and be useless1 perhaps1 for the purpose intended4 ,if you carefully pile and stick the stock you have bought 7,fig4 #bh71 it will tend to keep the pieces straight and true4 ,never lay good boards down flat directly upon one another unless they are thoroughly seasoned4 ,it is the best of all ways1 however1 to keep a pile of thoroughly seasoned stock1 but not the way to season it4 ,the top board will warp4 ,never lay a single board of nice stock flat on its side4 ,keep short pieces of nice stock standing on end where they will be equally exposed on both sides to heat and cold1 moisture and dryness4 ,the best way to learn about any kind of wood is from the wood itself4 ,it is a capital idea to make a collection of specimens of as many kinds as you can4#ab ,you will be surprised to see how varied1 interesting1 and handsome a collection you can make at little or no expense4 7,see ,appendix47 ,the kinds of wood which you are likely to use are commonly known as either hard or soft1 the former class from trees with broad leaves1 as the oak1 the latter from the coniferous or needle-leaved trees1 as the white pine4 ,this distinction between hard and soft wood you may find somewhat puzzling at first1 for the common whitewood of the hardwood class you will find softer and easier to work than hard pine of the softwood class1 but the distinction is based on botanical reasons4 ,the hard woods are usually more durable as well as stronger than the soft4 ,for various woods see ,appendix4 99 99 99 99 99 ,timber4--,the word timber is applied in a general way to the log and to the material itself1 and to the standing trees4 ,it is also applied more specifically to the larger squared pieces1 or dimension stock1 such as sills1 beams1 etc4 ,lumber4--,as the term is used in the ,united ,states1 lumber consists1 according to ,webster1 of timber sawed or split for use1 as beams1 joists1 boards1 planks1 staves1 hoops1 and the like4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lumber may be either undressed or dressed1 that is1 rough 7as it comes from the saw7 or planed4 ,it is usually sawed in regular thicknesses1 and for stock which is in steady demand1 such as joists1 floor timbers1 etc41 in regular widths1 as #b x #d1 #d x #f1 etc4 ,it is commonly sold in lengths varying from #aj feet to #bj feet4 ,twelve feet is a common length for boards4 ,planing 7by machine7 rough or undressed boards on both sides will usually reduce the thickness of an inch board to about seven eighths of an inch4 ,other thicknesses will of course be reduced correspondingly4 ,bear this in mind4 ,the terms #a board1 #b plank1 etc41 apply1 as a rule1 to the stock in the rough state as it comes from the saw4 ,when you buy planed or dressed lumber it will be thinner--that is1 the inch board that you wish to get for a shelf will not be one inch thick 7unless you get it unplaned71 but seven eighths of an inch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,you must make allowance for this when you figure on dressed lumber4 ,if for example the board must be one inch thick when planed1 you will have to get a thin plank and have it planed down1 or pull over the pile until you find a board which happens to be sawed as thick as one inch and one eighth4 ,you can sometimes find boards planed one inch thick1 but as a rule you will find the thickness seven eighths of an inch4 ,a similar statement will apply to the various thicknesses of planks also4 ,the sawing is often very irregular1 however1 and frequently some boards or planks will run thick enough in sawing to give the required thickness when planed1 so it is well to look for such when you need pieces a little thicker than planed stock usually runs4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ca4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for such work as you are likely to do you will chiefly need boards1 planks1 and joists4 ,other forms will be referred to farther on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boards4--,these are one inch thick or less4 ,matched-boards1 or sheathing1 have a groove on one edge and a corresponding tongue on the other 7,fig4 #ca47 ,any number of boards can thus be joined to make a wide surface4 ,the edges of these boards were formerly tongued and grooved by hand with matching-planes1 but now this is done by machine1 usually with some form of bead or moulding at one edge 7and sometimes in the middle7 to render the joint less noticeable4 ,planks4--,these are thick boards1--more than one inch in thickness4 ,both planks and boards can be of any width or length1 the distinction being merely in thickness4 ,joists4--,these are the same as narrow planks1 but of some fixed width1 as #b by #c1 which is the same as a #c strip sawed from the edge of a #b plank4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cc4 ,most of the lumber you will require is sold by the square foot1 at so much an ,m 7#ajjj feet71 or so much a foot4 ,the square foot has an area of #add square inches and is one inch thick1 or contains #add cubic inches1 regardless of the shape or size of the piece4 ,that is1 ,figs4 #cb1 #cc1 and #cd each equal one square foot by board measure4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus a board #ab' long1 #ab wide1 and #a thick1 contains #ab feet1 board measure4 ,a board #ab' long1 #f wide1 and #a thick1 contains #f feet4 ,a plank #ab' long1 #ab wide1 and #b thick1 contains #bd feet4 ,a plank #ab' long1 #f wide1 and #b thick1 contains #ab feet1 or the same as the board first mentioned4 ,you can bear in mind that in case of boards #ab' long the contents in feet is indicated by the width in inches1 as you will see from the examples just given4 ,a board #ab' long and #g wide contains #g square feet4 ,so all you have to do to measure #ab' stock is to find the width in inches4 ,if the board tapers in width1 measure at the middle4 ,the same is true of planks1 only the width in inches must be multiplied by the thickness of the plank4 ,a plank #ab' long1 #g wide1 and #c thick1 contains #ba square feet4 ,of course this principle can be quickly applied to pieces whose length is any convenient multiple or fraction of twelve4 ,thus a board #ah' long1 #h wide1 and #a thick1 contains #a-a_/b times as many square feet as one #ab' long1 or #ab feet4 ,a plank #i' long1 #f wide1 and #b thick1 contains #c_/d as many square feet as if #ab' long1 or #i square feet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of surface1 regardless of thickness--the price varying according to the thickness1 except in cases where an inch board is planed down1 when1 of course1 inch thickness is charged for4 ,there is no distinction made in measuring between a rough board #a thick and a planed board #g_/h as1 of course1 they represent the same amount of lumber4 ,the cost by the foot of the planed board is greater because of the expense of planing4 ,in cities1 and sometimes in the larger towns1 you can find thin boards 7#a_/b1 #c_/h1 #c_/af1 #a_/h thick7 already planed1 and even scraped1 for nice work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some of the rarer and less commonly used woods are often sold by the pound1 as ebony1 leopard wood1 tulip wood1 etc4 ,pieces turned out in quantities for special uses1 as strips1 mouldings1 etc41 are often sold by the running foot1 meaning simply the length1 the price varying according to the amount of lumber and labour required4 ,certain regular sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece4 ,shingles1 clapboards1 laths1 and the like1 are sold in bunches or bundles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for other matters relating to wood1 see ,appendix4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,so called because in the common trees of temperate climes one layer is added each year4 #i ,although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable as affecting the length of a board1 it shows slightly by its effect in causing the pieces to spring1 or become bowed lengthwise1 as you will see in many boards which have been left free to spring while seasoning4 #aj ,in addition to the curling1 the outer boards will be poorer because they contain a greater proportion of sapwood1 which is usually inferior to the heartwood4 #aa ,by this is not meant the figure or flashes shown by the medullary rays1 or silver grain1 seen in quartered oak and some other woods1 but the figure of the grain without the medullary rays1 as seen in plain oak1 etc4 #ab ,the forests of ,north ,america1 exclusive of ,mexico1 are now believed1 according to ,sargent1 to contain four hundred and twenty-two species of plants1 besides numerous varieties1 which can fairly be considered trees4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,working ,,drawings1 ,,laying ,,out ,,the ,,work1 ,,and ,,estimating ,working ,drawings4--,a simple drawing will often give you a better idea of an object than you can get from any description in words1 for drawing is not only a very ancient form of language but one readily understood by people of all countries and all times4 ,it is one of the chief tools of a workman in these days1 so of course the quicker you become familiar with it the better1 for the day for rule-of-thumb work and feeling one's way along step by step is fast giving way to the guidance of the working drawing1 which shows one not only exactly what is to be made but exactly how to make it4 ,when you wish to make some particular thing1 you should begin by making rough sketches to express your idea1 and from them an accurate working drawing in which every detail and measurement is clearly given4 ,make all your working drawings carefully to scale 7see ,appendix71 and whenever you can1 make them full size4 ,do not guess at the height1 width1 and length1 but measure1 and measure very carefully4 ,never mind if it takes time4 ,learn first to do it right1 and practice will soon teach you to do it more quickly4 ,the time to make changes in your plans is when you are making the drawings--particularly the rough preparatory sketches4 ,making the drawings will1 if you make them complete and accurate1 show you what you know and what you do not know about the subject4 ,the working drawing should be complete and final4 ,begin the making of sketches and detailed drawings with the first article you make1 no matter how simple it may be4 ,you can go about the work with confidence1 which goes a long way toward success1 when you know that you have thought it out to the end and have it all done on paper4 ,for practical suggestions about working drawings1 see ,appendix4 ,laying out the ,work4--,try to get the measurements and lines exact1 and do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch4 ,you cannot do good work unless it is laid out right1 and cutting exactly to a line will do no good if the line is in the wrong place4 ,it makes no difference how accurately you saw off a board if you have marked it half an inch too short1 nor how nicely you make the two parts of a joint if you have laid them out so that they can not fit together4 ,the work is spoiled in either case4 ,go over all your measurements a second time4 ,it is a good plan to check them by measuring back in the opposite direction1 just as you prove your addition of a column of figures downward by adding again upward4 ,nothing is easier than to make mistakes in measuring4 ,no amount of experience will prevent the chance of it4 ,it takes but little time to measure twice1 much less time than to correct mistakes--as you will discover when you cut off a mahogany board five inches too short and have to go half a mile to the mill and pay a dollar or two for a new piece4 ,in getting out stock for nice work it is best to make plenty of allowance for the pranks which expansion and contraction may play with the pieces 7see ,appendix74 ,how to arrange the various parts of your work with regard to this swelling and shrinking1 warping and winding1 is a matter of practical importance1 for a piece of wood can no more keep still than an active boy can1 and1 although its movements do not cause so widespread havoc as the motions of some boys1 you will have to keep a careful eye on its actions if you wish to turn out good work4 ,this applies not merely to the way green wood shrinks1 as we have already seen1 but particularly to the way seasoned wood acts4 ,many people think it is only green wood that causes trouble with wood-work1 but there is much difficulty with dry wood--that is1 what we call dry wood4 ,it never is really absolutely dry1 except when it is baked1 and kept baked 7see ,appendix74 ,the moment you take it out of the kiln or oven1 it begins to take up some of the moisture from the air1 as we have seen1 and swells4 ,if the air becomes more damp1 the wood sucks in more moisture and swells more4 ,if the air becomes dryer1 it sucks some moisture from the wood1 and the wood becomes dryer and shrinks4 ,it is thus continually swelling and shrinking1 except in situations where the amount of moisture in the air does not change1 or when the wood is completely water-logged4 ,what does such a little thing as that swelling and shrinking amount to8 ,use more nails or screws or glue and hold it so tight it cannot move4 ,well1 it amounts to a good deal sometimes when you cannot open the drawer where your ball is1 or a door or a window1 without breaking something4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the days of high-backed church pews with tall doors to every pew1 each pew door would swell in damp weather1 of course1 and in continued dampness the doors of a certain church fitted quite snugly4 ,there was usually no special trouble1 however1 for1 many of the doors being open1 the pew frames would give way a little so that the closed doors would open with a slight pull2 but if all the doors were shut the whole line would be so tightly pressed together that it would take the utmost strength of a man to start a door4 ,some boys one day catching on to this idea 7though they were not studying wood-work71 got into the church one ,sunday morning before service and by using their combined strength succeeded in closing every door4 ,they then climbed over the top into their own pew1 where they awaited developments1 as one after another sedate churchgoer1 after a protracted struggle1 finally burst open his pew door with a ripping squeak or a bang4 ,you will understand that those boys always remembered the expanding power of wood4 ,i feel sure that ,i am not putting any boys up to improper mischief in telling this story1 because pews are not so often made in that way now1 and there is slight danger of their having any chance to try it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,did you ever see stone-workers split big rocks by drilling a row of holes and driving dry wedges into them and then wetting the wedges1 when the stone will split8#ac ,do you think nails or screws or glue will stop a force which will do that8 ,you cannot prevent the swelling and the shrinking any more than you can repress a boy's animal spirits4 ,you may be able to crush the wood1 but so long as it remains a sound1 natural board it must swell and shrink4 ,what shall you do then8 ,why just the same as with the boy2 give it a reasonable amount of play1 and a proper amount of guidance1 and there will be no trouble4 ,you must put your work together so as to allow for the expansion and contraction which you cannot prevent4 ,you will find abundant examples1 in almost every house1 of work which has split or come apart or warped because proper allowance was not made for this swelling and shrinking4 ,so try to avoid these errors so common even among workmen who should know better4 ,illustration ,fig4 #ce4 ,for instance1 if you were to put cleats on one side of a drawing-board three feet wide1 and were to firmly glue the cleats for their whole length 7,fig4 #ce71--you sometimes see such things done1--you would probably not have to wait many weeks before you would hear a report like a toy pistol1 and the cleats would be loosened for at least part of their length1 because of the expansion or contraction of the board4 ,similar cases are continually occurring4 ,in such cases the cleats should be screwed1 the screws having play enough in their holes to allow for the changes in the board 7see ,appendix74 ,you must also make plenty of allowance for planing down edges and surfaces and for the wood wasted by sawing4 ,no rule can be set for these allowances4 ,if you do not leave enough spare wood1 the pieces will finally come out too small4 ,if you leave too much you will increase the amount of planing or shaping to be done1 but of the two extremes it is better to err on the side of allowing too much4 ,a rod 7any straight stick71 say six feet long1 and another ten or twelve feet long1 with feet and inches marked1 are very handy to have when laying out work roughly1 or for measuring outdoor work approximately4 ,lay out your work from only one edge or one surface of a piece of lumber unless you are sure the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel4 ,having selected the best edge for a working edge and the best surface for the face1 mark them with an ,x or other mark to avoid mistakes 7,fig4 #cf74 ,this is quite important in laying out a number of pieces1 as before the stock is accurately worked into shape you cannot usually rely on the edges being parallel4 ,one mark like a ,v as shown in ,fig4 #cf will indicate both the working edge and the face4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cf4 ,estimating4--,you must1 of course1 learn to make your estimates yourself1 often a very important preliminary4 ,prices vary1 and you cannot always rely on other people's estimates for your own work4 ,it is a matter of simple arithmetic and of making correct allowance for waste and incidentals4 ,you can always get the prices easily4 ,figure the amount of wood required1 the number of square feet 7see page #dg7 of each kind1 or running feet1 as the case may be1 and multiply by the price a foot2 but after this comes the allowance for waste1 etc41 which cannot usually be figured exactly1 but must be estimated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for instance1 if you wish to make a double-runner1 with a seat ten feet long1 the board from which to make it will very likely be twelve feet long1 in which case you must1 of course1 buy the whole board4 ,perhaps you can use the two feet left over somewhere else on the sled1 perhaps part may be checked or injured4 ,there is almost always some defective wood 7worthless1 except for fuel72 some pieces are too short or small to be of use2 and very often some quite good-sized pieces are left over1 which1 so far as the particular job is concerned1 are waste1--that is1 you must buy them in order to get enough4 ,such pieces can be used on other work1 and are not really wasted in the end4 ,just how much to add to the number of feet to cover waste varies1 of course1 with every job4 ,some people add a fixed per cent4 to their measurements or calculations1 which1 although not exactly correct for any one job1 strikes an average for a good many4 ,it would not be easy to state any such per cent4 for the varied work you will do1 but the main thing to bear in mind is that you must make a liberal allowance4 ,just so with the other materials4 ,remember to allow for waste and for unforeseen extras4 ,even with experienced people things are very apt to cost more than the estimate4 ,make a neat schedule to take to the lumber-yard or mill1 specifying the kinds and dimensions of the stock required4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,the peculiarity of the wood is that the water is not simply drawn in to fill up what we call the pores1 as in chalk or any ordinary porous inorganic substance1 but enters into the very fibre of the body1 forcing apart the minute solid particles with an extraordinary force which does not seem to be fully understood4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,workshop ,if you have a place where you can build a workshop you will find one described in ,part ,,iii4 ,if not1 try to find a well-lighted shop1 both on account of your eyes and your work2 one that is dry1 or your tools will rust and your work be injured2 and one that can be heated1 for there will be no time you will wish to use it more than on cold1 stormy days4 ,as a rule1 an outbuilding is better than a basement or attic1 other things being equal1 because a basement is liable to be damp and dark1 and an attic is bad about carrying materials and finished work up- and down-stairs4 ,noise in the top story of a house is usually more disturbing to the occupants than noise in the basement2 but all these conditions vary in different places4 ,have a lock on the door of your workshop1 partly to keep small children from getting cut if they should come in without leave1 and partly to prevent your work being interfered with in your absence and the edge-tools used for various domestic purposes by your feminine relatives1 who might1 in their innocence1 mistake your best gouge for a tack-puller or the quarter-inch chisel for a screw-driver4 ,of course you will have overalls and jumper or a work-man's apron made of denim1 ticking1 or some strong cloth4 ,if you use an apron1 have a pocket in it4 ,a small slip of a pocket on the outside seam of your overalls above the right knee is also useful for holding a rule4 ,when you have a long job of dirty work before you1 a good way is to change your clothes for any old duds that you may have4 ,this saves your clothes1 and in warm weather is more comfortable and healthful than to wear overalls4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cg4 ,your shop can be all fitted up for you by a carpenter1 but it will be better1 and better fun1 to do it yourself4 ,after the workshop itself is ready the first important thing is the work-bench4 ,the ,work-,bench4--,a very simple one 7,fig4 #cg7 will answer your purpose for a long time4 ,when you become a pretty good workman and feel the need of something better 7for a first-class bench with the best attachments is really a great help toward doing good work71 you will still find this first simple affair very useful in some part of your shop4#ad ,there is no need of a bench being made of stock of exactly the dimensions given1 so if you have a pile of boards and joists to draw from without buying1 you can1 of course1 substitute other-sized pieces1 provided you use stock heavy enough to make a firm bench4 ,heavier legs and top 7front board7 would be better1 and in fact there is little danger of making a bench too solid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning to work read carefully ,marking1 ,square1 ,rule1 ,saw1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the design is for a small bench1 #e' #aj long1 #b' wide1 and #b' #f high4 ,a larger one can be made on the same principle4#ae ,you will require for stock3 #a piece of #c ,x #d joist #aj' long4 #a board1 #g_/h thick1 planed1 #ab wide1 #ab' long4 #a #aj #ab' #a #aj #f' #a plank1 #a-a_/b or #b thick1 planed1 #e or #f wide1 #b' #i long4 #a strip1 #a_/b to #g_/h thick1 #c or #d wide1 #ae long4 ,pine is good1 and almost any cheap wood can be used4 ,hemlock is not very suitable1 unless for the legs4 ,spruce is cheaper than pine or whitewood1 and can be used for economy1 but is prone to warp and twist and should be thoroughly nailed4 ,first make the legs and fasten them together4 ,to do this1 take the joist and lay it on two boxes or old chairs 7,fig4 #ch71 which you can use temporarily for horses1 until you make a pair4 ,see whether either end is cut off squarely4 ,if neither is1 mark a line by the square a short distance 7perhaps half an inch1 according to the condition of the end of the joist7 from one end1 on one side of the joist4 ,carry this line around the joist by applying the square to each side successively1 and saw off the waste end with the cross-cutting saw4 ,having one end square1 measure from that end #b' #e and mark a line around the joist as before4 ,saw this piece off1 and using it as a measure 7but not as a square71 mark and saw off three more pieces4 ,these are for the legs4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ci4 ,next1 from the short #aj board1 mark and cut off two pieces #a' #aj-a_/d long in the same manner 7,fig4 #ci71 seeing first that the end from which you begin to measure is square4 ,you do not need to mark the under side of the boards1 but only the top and the edges4 ,now square a line #a from each end of each of these short boards1 and start three nails on each of the lines by driving them nearly through the board 7,fig4 #dj74 7,see ,nailing47 ,next1 place the end of one of these boards on the narrow side of one of the legs1 and1 holding it firmly in position1 nail it securely to the leg4 ,you must take pains to keep the leg and the cross-piece square4 ,nail only one nail first and then adjust1 testing with the try-square before driving the other nails 7,fig4 #da74 ,then nail the other end to another leg1 and repeat the process with the other board and the remaining legs4 ,this will give two frames like ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #da4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #db4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #de4 ,next1 fasten the sides to the legs4 ,take the #aj board and mark and saw off two pieces #e' #aj long in the same way as before 7,fig4 #dc74 ,at distances of #g and #ab from each end of each board1 mark lines across the side with the square and start nails between these lines 7,fig4 #dd74 ,then1 fitting these lines at the outside edges of the legs1 nail the sides securely to the legs1 as shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,but drive only one nail through into each leg at first1 until you are sure that the frame is coming together square and true throughout4 ,test the angles with the square4 ,stand the frame on as level a surface as you can find and sight across the top endways and crossways to see if either corner sticks up or down4 ,if the top is not true1 twist the frame enough to make it so1 which you can easily do if you have but one nail in each corner4 ,when the top is true and the legs at right angles1 drive in the rest of the nails 7,fig4 #de74 ,be sure to test the top for winding1 as just said 7see ,part ,v471 rather than to trust to the way the legs stand on the floor4 ,floors are often uneven1 and the legs may not be cut exactly the same length4 ,make the top true and the legs can easily be made to fit the floor afterwards4 ,the piece of #aj board left over you can fit to slip in between the sides1 as in ,fig4 #de4 ,if you nail through the sides and top into this piece1 it will stiffen the bench4 ,in making a long bench after this pattern1 it is well to insert a few pieces of plank or joist between the sides in this manner4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #df4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dh4 ,next1 put on the top4 ,cut two lengths of #e' #aj from the #ab board4 ,lay them in position1 square lines across as guides for the nails 7as before71 and nail them down to the legs and cross-boards4 ,also drive carefully a few nails at the edge down into the sides of the bench4 ,sink all the nail-heads well below the surface 7as much as #a_/h7 with the nail-set 7see ,nail-,set74 99 99 99 99 99 ,a better bench can be made by using a plank 7say a #b plank1 planed7 for the front of the top 7,figs4 #df1 #dg1 #dh74 ,this bench with plank front is much better than the common carpenter's bench just described1 and the difference in expense is but slight4 ,it is easier to do good work on1 as it is stiffer1 steadier1 and much better to pound on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of course a thicker plank can be used if available4 ,hard wood is best4 ,maple is excellent for a bench-top4 ,take particular care to select a good sound plank1 from the centre of the tree if you can 7see ,chapter ,,iii471 as straight and free from winding as possible1 and have it planed so as to be straight and true4 ,this can easily be done at any properly equipped planing-mill4 ,to make this bench with a plank in front1 you can proceed exactly as with the bench just described1 except that the front legs should be as much shorter than those at the back as the plank you have is thicker than the #g_/h board used for the top of the bench just described4 ,that is1 if your plank is #a-g_/h thick the front legs should be #a shorter than the back ones4 ,pieces must be cut out of the cross-boards in order that the top may be even 7,fig4 #df74 ,the simplest way1 however1 is to make the bench just like the preceding one until you come to the top4 ,then1 after putting on the front plank1 raise the back top-board to be flush with the plank1 instead of lowering the plank to be flush with the board4 ,you can do this by putting small pieces of board of the required thickness under the back part of the top 7,fig4 #dg74 ,some workmen prefer having the back board of the bench top lower than the front by an inch or so1 with a strip fastened on the back1 and sometimes at each end1 so as to be level with the top of the front plank1 thus forming a sort of tray 7,fig4 #dh7 where tools1 nails1 small bits of work1 etc41 can remain when in use1 keeping the front plank clear for the actual operations4 ,the work1 if large1 can be rested on the back strip as well as the front part1 both being on a level4 ,the bench can be all filled up underneath with shelves1 drawers1 cupboards1 compartments1 or in any way that you wish1 but at first1 and for a simple bench like this1 it is as well to have only one shelf1 as shown in the frontispiece4 ,you can easily put this shelf in after the bench is put together4 ,you can tell better whether you want drawers and compartments after you have worked for some time and wish to make a more complete bench4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a nice bench should1 of course1 be built independently of the shop1--that is1 be complete in itself1 so that it can be readily moved4 ,but a common bench can sometimes be best built against the wall1 using the side of the building to support the back4 ,sometimes one or both of the ends of the bench can be advantageously carried to the walls of the room1 thus requiring legs only in the middle or at one end4 ,but such arrangements are not to be advised if you are likely to wish to move the bench before you have used it enough to pay for making it4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #di4 99 99 99 99 99 ,figure #di is merely suggestive4 ,the process of construction is the same as already shown1 except that you omit some of the legs and the back side-board1 a saving sufficient to allow you to use a plank for the front of the top4 ,as the floor is likely to be uneven1 you can first saw the posts a little too long1 stand them in line1 stretch a cord or a chalk-line 7see ,chalk-,line7 along the line of the front edge of the bench at the proper height for the tops of the posts1 cut the posts off where this line crosses them1 nail on one end of the cross-boards at right angles1 and then fasten the other end to the wall-studding1 sighting and testing to have the top straight and true1 as in the case of the bench already described4 ,if instead of vertical studding the joists of the wall run horizontally 7as is often the case71 you can easily nail cleats on the wall if there is no horizontal timber at the right height to nail to4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ej4 ,bench-,vise4--,the kinds shown in ,figs4 #ej1 #ef1 #eg1 though not as good as some more improved forms1 are in common use by carpenters1 and will answer your purpose very well for ordinary work--until you get to the point of building a first-class bench4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at a distance of about #ad from the end of the bench and in the middle of the side board mark the point a 7,fig4 #de74 ,bore a hole at this point 7see ,boring7 if you have a bit a trifle larger than the screw of the vise4 ,if not1 using this point as a centre1 describe a circle 7see ,compasses7 with a diameter a trifle greater than that of the vise screw1 and remove the wood within the circle 7see ,boring and ,paring47 ,now take the piece of #a-a_/b or #b plank which is to make the movable jaw of the vise1 and mark a line lengthways along the centre of each side 7,fig4 #ea74 ,at a distance of about #h from one end mark a point upon this centre line and make a hole for the vise screw as before4 ,the nut for the screw must now be fastened in position on the inner side of the bench1 the vise screw passed through the movable jaw and the side board1 and the handle plate fastened upon the face of the jaw4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eb4 ,you can now open and close the vise by the screw1 but the movable jaw needs to be made steady and the end projects above the top of the bench4 ,screw the vise tight together and slide the movable jaw around until it is in the position shown in ,fig4 #eb1 when the centre line on the back side of the jaw will cross the edge of the leg a few inches from the floor1 according to the width of the jaw and the degree of slant given it4 ,when the jaw is in this position1 mark from the back side the lines indicated in ,fig4 #eb1 and saw off the projecting ends of the jaw by these lines1 which will give the shape shown in ,figs4 #cg and #ej4 ,next take the small strip1 and marking points upon its side as shown in ,fig4 #ec1 bore holes with a #c_/h or #a_/b bit4 ,screw the end of the strip to the edge of the movable jaw 7being careful to get it at right angles with the vertical edge of the jaw71 as shown in ,figs4 #ej and #ec 7see ,screws74 ,just above and below where this strip crosses the post of the bench nail small blocks 7a trifle thicker than the strip7 so that it will pass easily between them4 ,cover these with a longer piece1 making a slot1 as shown in ,fig4 #ec1 through which the strip can slide freely4 ,if the two blocks are no thicker than the strip1 you can put pieces of paste-board between them and the post to make the slot wide enough to let the strip slide through freely4 ,fit a pin or piece of dowel to the holes in the strip4 ,the use of these holes and the pin is to keep the face of the jaw approximately parallel to the side of the bench4 ,contrivances for this purpose can be bought4 ,after the jaw is all fitted1 bevel or round the edge on the face side at the top 7see ,bevelling71 and you can also bevel or round all the front edges if you wish4 ,the vise is now in working order4#af ,illustration ,,fig4 #ec4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ed4 ,,right4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,wrong4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ef4 ,the important point with this vise 7and in fact with any vise7 is to have the inside surface of the jaw parallel with the surface of the side of the bench1 so that the wood will be pressed equally at all points1 else it will slip just when you wish it to be securely held4 ,be sure that the vise is not open more at the top than at the bottom 7see ,figs4 #ed and #ee74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ei4 ,the holes bored in the side of the bench are to support the end of a long board 7,fig4 #ej74 ,if you cannot afford to buy a vise1 or have to work where there is none1 there are a number of makeshifts with which you can get along quite well1 though not as rapidly or conveniently4 ,carpenters often nail a piece on the side of the bench 7,fig4 #fj71 which holds boards for planing fairly well1 for common work1 but tends to bruise the ends of the boards a little against the cleat1 and requires a knife1 or something1 driven in at the other end of the boards to hold them with any degree of security4 ,another cheap substitute is shown in ,fig4 #fa4 ,this holds boards of regular sizes quite well4 ,thin pieces can be held tighter by wedging1 as shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fc4 ,another simple contrivance1 and more of a vise1 is easily made by boring a couple of holes in a board1 say #f wide and #ab long1 and screwing it loosely to the side of the bench 7,fig4 #fb71 making the holes in the board larger than the diameter of the screws so that it will be free to play4 ,by inserting the piece to be held in the end and double wedging the opposite end 7,fig4 #fc7 the piece will be held fairly well 7see ,wedges74 ,for thin boards1 blocks can be inserted to make the jaw parallel with the side of the bench4 ,an upright vise made on this principle is often used to hold saws for filing4 ,if you can find an old wooden hand-screw1 you can use one jaw 7sawing off the ends if necessary7 for the nut to go inside of the bench1 leaving the other for the movable jaw1 using one screw to tighten or loosen the vise and the other to keep the jaw parallel with the side of the bench4 ,you will require no description to contrive something of this sort4 ,vises on somewhat this principle can be bought1 attachable and detachable at will4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fe4 ,the jaw in ,fig4 #fd can be hinged upon the strip at the bottom and the latter fastened to the side of the bench4 ,the jaw can then be tightened or loosened by the screw4 ,this gives a square grip only when the jaw is vertical 7,fig4 #fe74 ,you can put in blocks1 however4 ,the longer the jaw the less objectionable the slanting grip becomes1 of course4 ,always try to devise some such expedients1 which you can think up for yourself1 when you are without the regular appliances1 for even a poor vise is better than to hold pieces in the hand or to push them against chairs or tables or the wall4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for nice work by far the best vise of moderate cost is that shown in ,fig4 #adc1 which has been in use for a long time by wood-workers of the better class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are a number of excellent iron vises 7some with jaws of wood1 and also with an instantaneous grip74 ,some of them are admirable1 but quite costly compared with the common screw4 ,you can work quite well with a good-sized common iron vise by fitting wooden blocks or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws1 to save marring your wood-work1 though a regular vise for wood is much to be preferred4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bear in mind when doing work that requires to be held at unusual angles1 or in fashioning odd-shaped pieces1 that you can usually get the angle or position required by a combination of hand-screws or clamps with the bench-vise as suggested in ,figs4 #ff and #fg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ff4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gj4 ,bench-,stop4--,you must have something on the forward end of the bench-top to push your work against for planing and other operations4 ,a simple and good way is to use one or two stout screws 7,fig4 #fh74 ,these can be screwed in so as to project about a quarter of an inch1 which will answer for the greater part of your work1 and the height can be changed when necessary with the screw-driver4 ,the heads of the screws will be sharp enough to hold the work1 and a stop of this kind will answer your purpose very well for common work4 ,the wooden stop 7,fig4 #fi7 has the advantage of not making any nicks in the end of the wood1 which is important in nice work1 such as furniture1 but for common work screws are just as good1 except that1 as they are left permanently sticking from the bench1 you may dull your tools against them or scar your work4 ,this applies to a common bench4 ,of course for a really nice bench with a tail-screw the regular stops should be used 7,fig4 #adc74 99 99 99 99 99 ,carpenters sometimes nail a small piece of board1 with a ,v-shaped notch at one end1 to the top of the bench to hold boards or joist for planing on the edge 7,fig4 #gj74 ,simply nailing a strip across the end of the bench 7,fig4 #ga71 and setting the nails well in1 will do to push boards against for planing for common work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gc4 ,iron contrivances 7which can be raised or lowered7 can be bought for a small sum and are convenient for common work1 especially for thin pieces4 ,sink them deeply enough in the bench-top so that when lowered nothing will project to injure the tools or the work4 ,the old-fashioned bench-stop shown in ,fig4 #fi consists merely of a square stick of hard wood1 one or two inches square1 fitted quite tightly to a hole in the top of the bench1 so that it will slide up or down by a blow from the mallet or hammer4 ,this stop will not damage the work or the tools4 ,to make the mortise for this bench-stop1 see ,mortising4 ,take care to keep within the lines1 so as not to make the hole too big4 ,you can easily make it larger if too small4 ,the stop should fit tightly and should be set with a very slight slant toward the work 7,fig4 #gb71--that is1 the mortise should be cut slightly slanting4 ,the stop should be of hard wood1 such as maple4 ,if the top of the bench is only of board thickness1 screw cleats of hard wood on the under side to give more bearing surface 7,fig4 #gc71 or the continued pushing against the stop will be liable to get the hole out of shape so that the stop will slant the wrong way1 when the work will be apt to slip or1 in case of a thin board1 jump over the stop 7,fig4 #gd74 ,if the stop wears loose in the hole1 a saw kerf is sometimes made lengthways in one side and a bent piece of springy wire inserted1 or a flat spring fastened on the side 7,fig4 #ge74 ,a loose stop can easily be wedged 7preferably from underneath71 and it is sometimes made loose on purpose1 the wedging tightening the stop and at the same time giving the required slant 7,fig4 #gb74 ,an iron plate with teeth can be screwed on top of a wooden stop 7,fig4 #gf71 or a screw can be inserted 7,fig4 #gg74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ge4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gg4 ,two strips1 like ,fig4 #gh1 can be nailed or screwed on the top of the bench so as to separate ,v-fashion 7,fig4 #gi74 ,two wedges1 like ,fig4 #hj1 can then be made of such a taper that when fitted between the strips their inner faces will be parallel4 ,by tapping in the wedges on each side of the work to be held 7,fig4 #gi71 it will be securely fastened without injury4 ,if the inside edges of the strips and the outside edges of the wedges are slightly bevelled1 which you can do with a plane or a knife1 the wedges cannot jump out of place4 ,the best way to fit this contrivance is to make the wedges first1 place them in position on the bench with the square sides inside 7facing each other71 and then fasten the fixed strips outside of them4 ,pushing the work tends to tighten this vise4 ,this is much better for permanent use than the notched board shown in ,fig4 #gj4 ,if you have a good vise you will not often have occasion to use such contrivances1 but they are sometimes useful as makeshifts4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the top of a good bench should be as true and as smooth as possible 7see ,plane and ,scraper74 ,rub it with linseed oil1 wipe it off with a rag1 and after a few days give it a couple of coats of shellac 7see ,finishing74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hj4 ,you should place your bench so that when you stand at it you will face the light and not have it come from behind you4 ,if it can come from the forward end of the bench and also from behind the bench1 as shown in the frontispiece1 it will be best1 for a cross-light is often very useful1 not merely that you may have light enough1 but also that when testing your work with the try-square1 straight-edge1 and the like1 any inaccuracy may be detected by the light passing through the crack between the testing tool and the work1 and also when sighting by the eye alone4 ,fasten the bench firmly to the floor 7and wall if you can7 with screws1 cleats1 or ,l irons4#ag ,avoid chopping on the bench top or whittling it or boring holes or marring it by saw-cuts or chisel-marks4 ,do not use paint1 varnish1 or glue at the bench if you can help it4 ,if necessary to do so1 clean the bench-top carefully when you get through4 ,lumps of hardened glue will hinder you and deface your work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ha4 ,filing-,bench4--,you cannot do much of such varied wood-work as you will undertake without having to do a good deal of metal work4 ,it is a poor plan to do such work at the vise you use for your wood-work1 or even at the same bench4 ,it scars and defaces the wooden vise and the bench1 and the particles of metal are bad for your wood-work and for the tools4 ,it is much better to have another bench--if nothing more than a wide shelf or a box--for such work 7,fig4 #ha74 ,you will find suggestions in the illustrations4 ,an iron vise is the proper thing for holding metal4 ,there are many different kinds at various prices1 but one of the simple patterns will probably answer every purpose4 ,if you have room for only one bench this vise can be put at the back part of one end4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hd4 ,a small vise can be made of a hand-screw1 the hand-screw itself being held in any desired position in the large bench-vise1 but metal jaws are better for working on metal4 ,you can make a rough sort of vise for metal-work with a piece of stout board or plank 7,fig4 #hb74 ,find a couple of pieces of iron with screw holes1 as you can probably do in a pile of waste iron junk1 and screw them on the board and the bench to form metal jaws4 ,the vise can be tightened or loosened by means of a big screw or bolt2 or the board can be loosely fastened in the middle and tightened by wedging below 7,fig4 #hc74 ,a screw with a handle to turn it by and a nut for the thread is better1 of course4 ,another form1 such as you will find in use by leather-workers1 can be easily made 7,fig4 #hd71 and works with the foot1 the connection between the jaw and the treadle being made by a strap or rope4 ,you can make a vise in some of these ways that will answer quite well for most of the metal-work you will have to do for some time1 although such contrivances are less reliable and less convenient than a regular iron vise4 ,an anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise4 ,it should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering rounded 7conical7 point4 ,an old flat-iron does quite well4 ,you can easily find some way to keep it in position on the filing-bench4 ,you should have some sort of anvil1 even if nothing better than a junk of old iron 7which you can of course find somewhere71 for you will be continually wanting to straighten nails1 bend wire1 and pound pieces of metal4 ,try to find a flat plate of thick sheet iron--#a_/d thick if you can--to fasten on the top of the filing-bench 7,fig4 #ha74 ,it is very handy for many anvil uses1 straightening metal and nails1 and for much pounding4 ,finishing-,bench4--,have also a finishing-bench 7,fig4 #ia7 if possible1--if nothing more than a shelf or box1--to keep the regular work-bench neat and clean for its proper uses1 for even a skilful workman can hardly avoid making a mess when it comes to using paint and varnish4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now1 while there are many of you who can afford either singly or by two or three clubbing together to fix up a shop in first-rate style1 there are also many who cannot afford even so cheap a bench as that just described4 ,what can you do in such a case8 ,only one thing--patch up a bench out of whatever old stuff you can find4 ,patched-up makeshifts are not to be recommended1 except in case of necessity1 but when it comes to the pinch1 and a matter of having a bench made of whatever old materials you can find or having no bench at all1 by all means make one of boxes and anything that can be worked in4 ,for of course the boats1 skis1 squirrel-houses1 and so on1 must be made6 ,but1 whatever you patch up1 make it solid and strong4 ,do not try to work at a rickety1 shackly apology for a bench that shakes and jumps and sidles all over the room every time you saw or pound or plane4 ,you can probably get all you need in the way of boxes1 packing-cases1 and such material1 at very little or no expense4 ,the illustrations 7,figs4 #he and #hf7 are merely suggestions1 for you must use your own ingenuity1 according to the materials you can find4 ,most experienced workmen have often been obliged to work at much worse benches than these1 frequently with no bench at all4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #he4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,those of the boxes which you do not use whole you should take apart carefully 7see ,withdrawing ,nails74 ,this will add to your supply of nails4 ,use nails freely in fastening the boxes and boards together and to the wall or floor wherever allowable4 ,a few screws will add much strength4 ,the bench shown in ,fig4 #hf calls for one good board for the front of the top4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some of you live in the crowded parts of the city1 in flats or small houses where there is no possible chance for a shop of any kind4 ,whatever wood-work you can do must be carried on in the kitchen1 or some other living-room1 where even a small bench may be out of the question4 ,still you would like to make such small work--model boats1 for instance--as can be carried on in such limited quarters4 ,if you are forced to use the kitchen table for a bench1 try1 for the first thing1 to brace or block or screw it to make it steady1 for unsteadiness is the greatest hindrance to doing good work at such a bench4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,you can fit a good board to the table-top with cleats1 and a stop to hold the work 7,fig4 #hg74 ,if you can now get a common iron vise1 you can get along quite well for small work1 and the board and attachments can be quickly taken off and put away when the table is needed for domestic purposes4 ,you can easily contrive some way to attach wooden pieces or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws of the vise1 to save marring your wood-work4 ,a fairly good bench can often be made from an old table 7as a kitchen table7 by screwing a plank on top and a board on the front side1 and bracing the legs 7,fig4 #hh74 ,the plank should be screwed on from underneath4 ,if you can get hold of an old bureau or chest of drawers you can arrange a serviceable and compact little parlour shop for small work4 ,if you cannot fasten permanent attachments to the bureau1 you can fit a removable board 7,fig4 #hg71 and you will be equipped for such work as can be suitably done under such circumstances--and that includes quite a long list of small things4 ,the drawers can be fitted with compartments and trays1 according to what you have to keep in them and your own ingenuity1 but make the arrangement simple4 ,figs4 #hi and #ij are merely suggestions4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #hi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ij4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the best way to arrange your tools and supplies depends somewhat upon the circumstances1 but the main point is to have the most convenient place for each thing and always to keep it in that place when not in use4 ,the first part of this proposition is almost as important as the last4 ,it is nearly as bad as being disorderly to keep the glue-pot in one corner of the shop1 the glue in another corner1 the glue-brush in the third corner1 and the water in the fourth1--which is no exaggeration of the way some very orderly people stow away things1 and is about equal to the arrangement of the person1 of whom you may have heard1 who always kept everything in its place and that place the floor6 ,the workshop interior shown in the frontispiece and in ,figs4 #ia and #ib1 and the various other illustrations1 furnish suggestions which may help you in the arrangement of your shop4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ia4 ,have everything where you can lay your hand on it in the least possible time1 the tools used the most the nearest to you1 tools that go together1 as bit-brace and bits1 kept near together4 ,have all the common tools right within reach1 and not put away in chests and out-of-the-way drawers1 just because you have seen somebody pack away his tools in a highly polished chest1 inlaid with forty kinds of wood1 and containing ninety-three separate compartments and trays and seven secret drawers1 the whole cornered and strapped and decorated with shining nickel plate6 ,do not be dazzled by that sort of thing1 which is not an evidence of true system and orderliness1 but merely shows poor taste and a great lack of appreciation of the value and importance of time4 ,time may not be exactly money in your case1 but it may be even more valuable1 and can be spent much better than in running around after tools and supplies1 and making ingenious tool-chests4 ,to be practical1 five minutes a day saved by having things convenient and in place means about twenty-five hours in a year--which means a boat1 a sled1 or a lot of ,christmas presents4 ,so study out the best arrangement for your particular shop and then keep things in order4 ,when working keep only the tools in actual use lying around on the bench4 ,as soon as you are done with a tool for the operations actually in hand1 put it back in place1 and so avoid the confused litter seen in so many shops4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ib4 ,hang saws against the wall on pegs1 or nails1 or at the end of the bench4 ,hang all tools which you put on the wall well above the bench1 to be out of the way4 ,lay planes on their sides or ends1 for obvious reasons1 or arrange a little block to raise one end of the plane slightly from the surface of the bench or shelf4 ,the last way is usually more convenient than to lay the plane on its side or end4 ,keep planes either at the back of the bench or against the wall1 or on a shelf under the front of the bench4 ,such tools as squares1 bit-braces1 and the like are usually most accessible on the wall1 in some such arrangement as shown in the frontispiece4 ,a convenient way to arrange such tools as chisels1 gouges1 and the like1 is to keep them in racks either against the wall or fastened to the back edge of the bench1 according to circumstances4 ,keep each tool in a particular place in the rack and you will soon learn to reach for it instinctively without any waste of time4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ic4 ,bits can be kept in a drawer or box1 care being taken to arrange them in racks or between partitions1 or they can be stuck on end in the racks at the back of the bench4 ,a good way is to stick each bit point downwards in a hole bored by itself4 ,various forms of tool-racks1 which you can easily arrange for yourself1 are suggested in ,fig4 #ic4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #id4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fig4 #id shows a rack to fit on the back of the bench1 an excellent way1 in common use with movable benches4 ,get a board1 say #c or #d wide and the length of the bench1 a strip from #a_/d to #a_/b thick1 perhaps #a wide1 and the length of the bench1 and a strip #a_/b thick1 perhaps #a wide1 and perhaps two thirds of the length of the bench4 ,saw from this last strip a number of blocks from #a to #b long4 ,arrange these along the top edge of the board1 according to the kinds and sizes of the tools1 as shown in ,fig4 #ie4 ,then lay the long strip on them 7,fig4 #if7 and nail it through each block with wire nails long enough to reach perhaps two thirds through the large strip4 ,you can put this rack together by first nailing at each end4 ,then all the intermediate blocks can easily be fitted in place and nailed one at a time4 ,the whole can then be screwed to the back of the bench so that the tools will be at the back 7,fig4 #id74 ,you can make part of this rack solid and bore small holes of various sizes for bits1 gimlets1 nail-sets1 and such tools1 which would drop through the larger spaces4 ,good metal tool-racks and holders can be bought1 but the home-made ones answer every purpose4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ie4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #if4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ig4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ih4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the large steel square can be hung very well with nails or small blocks of wood bevelled toward the wall 7,fig4 #ig74 ,for the try-square nail a rectangular block against the wall 7,fig4 #ih74 ,a smaller block nailed in front will hold another smaller square4 ,slanting saw-kerfs in another block will hold scrapers 7,fig4 #ii74 ,always keep your oil-stones in shallow boxes for protection from dirt4 ,you can easily make one1 or cut a depression in a block to fit the stone1 with another for a cover4 ,fasten one end of your strop to a strip of thin board 7,fig4 #ajj7 with a hole by which to hang it4 ,you can then use the strop lying flat on the board or loose in your hand for curved edges4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ii4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,do not keep nails and screws after the usual domestic fashion1--all sizes1 shapes1 and kinds mixed up promiscuously with a lot of metal rubbish and carpet tacks in some old box or pail4 ,you will waste twice as much time trying to find what you want as it takes to keep them in separate boxes1 or trays with divisions4 ,a good way is to use either small open boxes or flat open boxes with divisions1 so that they can be reached as conveniently as possible4 ,tin boxes or canisters or pails 7of various sizes71 such as cocoa1 coffee1 lard1 and such substances come in1 are good4 ,put labels on them and arrange them neatly in some accessible place1 as on a shelf over or at the end of your bench1 or in a cupboard or a drawer4 ,keep scrap boxes for old pieces of metal 7iron1 brass1 etc41 in separate boxes71 so that you will know just where to look for what you want4 ,keep a brush for cleaning off the bench and the work1 a broom for the floor1 and a box for shavings1 sawdust1 and chips4 ,any workman is liable to cut or pound his fingers1 so have a small box in a handy place with some neatly rolled bandages of cloth1 some surgeon's plaster1 and a bottle of witch-hazel 7hamamelis7 or some other preparation for cuts or bruises4 ,in case of a bruise1 or if you pound your nail1 put your finger at once in as hot water as you can bear4 ,do not1 as is often done1 put glue on a cut1 because of danger of infection1 for the glue is made1 as you know1 from animal refuse and is not always in a pure state4 ,do not leave oily rags lying around in your shop to get wadded into a pile in some corner and catch fire by spontaneous combustion4 ,either put them in the stove at once1 or1 if you want to keep a few1 put them in a stone jar or covered tin box4 ,matches should always be kept in a covered metal box in a wood-working shop4 ,lay in a supply of strips1 waste junks1 and odd pieces of wood1 which you can usually get at any shop at little or no expense4 ,they will be very useful until you accumulate a stock from your own work4 ,chopping-,block4--,a good solid chopping-block is a great convenience1 so watch for a chance to get a section of a tree1 which you can often do when one is felled4 ,straight-,edge4--,you should have at least one2 two are very useful--one two or three feet long and another five or six feet long4 ,making them is simply a matter of skill in planing4 ,when you can plane well enough make some yourself of well seasoned1 straight-grained white pine or mahogany1 or other wood which holds its shape well4 ,until you can do it accurately1 however1 get some good workman to make one1 for a straight-edge that cannot be relied on is really worse than none at all4 7,see ,straight-edge47 ,bench-,hook4--,the bench-hook 7,fig4 #aja7 is very useful to hold work firmly for sawing1 planing1 etc41 and also saves some marring of the bench-top4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 and ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aja4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,take a board1 say #ae long x #f wide1 of some good wood like white pine1 making both ends square4 ,the surface should be planed true 7see ,truing ,surfaces74 ,with the square mark the line a b 7,fig4 #ajb7 accurately1 say #b 7or the width of any blocks you may already have for the end cleats7 from each end1 but on opposite sides4 ,the cleats c 7,fig4 #aja7 must be true and the edges square4 ,bore the holes in the cleats with a bit a little larger than the screws 7see ,boring74 ,hold the cleats exactly in place at the cross-line a b and start holes in the board with a gimlet or bit a little smaller than the screws4 ,countersink the holes 7see ,countersink74 ,use screws long enough to get a good hold on the board but not long enough to go through it4 ,if board and cleat are each #g_/h thick1 #a-a_/b screws will be suitable4 ,screw one of the middle screws in each cleat firmly to a bearing 7see ,screws71 keeping the cleat as nearly on the line as possible4 ,adjust each cleat exactly in place1 in case it has slipped1 hold it firmly1 and drive the remaining screws4 ,before screwing on one of the cleats mark a line around it in the middle with the square1 as shown in ,fig4 #ajc1 marking first across the edge o 7against which the work is to be pressed71 from that line squaring across the top1 and then across the outer edge4 ,after this cleat is screwed on1 carefully saw it in two exactly on the line4 ,by letting the saw run in the kerf thus made1 you can cut pieces off square4 ,sometimes one cleat is made shorter1 so that you can saw clear through a piece without damage to the bench 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,see ,mitre-board1 page #ib4 ,two bench-hooks are useful for long work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,horses or ,trestles4--,these are to lay stock on for marking and sawing1 to put large work together on1 and are convenient for various uses 7,fig4 #aje74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aje4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 and ,saw1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the proper height for your horses1 as for the bench1 depends somewhat on your own height1 and may be anywhere from #ah to #b' #c4 ,experiment with boxes to find the most convenient height4 ,if too low1 you will have to stoop over too much4 ,if too high1 it will be awkward to rest your knee on a board1 to saw1 and to fit work together4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,if you have a piece of fairly good joist1 from #a-a_/b #c to #c #f1 you can use it for the tops of your horses4 ,saw off two pieces from #b' to #c' long4 ,mark the best sides for the top4 ,mark each end like ,fig4 #ajf 7showing top and bottom7 with the pencil1 measuring carefully so that the bevel or slant will be the same for both legs 7see ,bevel74 ,holding the work in the vise1 with saw alone or saw and chisel remove the pieces marked1 so that the end will have the shape shown in ,fig4 #ajg4 ,if you use the chisel1 look out for the direction of the grain at each corner and cut well outside of the line1 until you find which way to push the tool in each case 7see ,paring1 etc474 ,trim these cuts as accurately to the lines as you can4 ,get out eight pieces for legs1 of such a length that the horses will be of the height decided on4 ,first make them all of a width1 then saw one piece off the right length and mark the others by it--not each new piece by the one last marked4 ,nail or screw these legs in place with #b nails or #a-c_/d screws1 keeping the inner edges of the tops of the legs even with the tops of the horses 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,see ,nailing and ,screws1 and look out for splitting4 ,get out the cross-braces of board and saw the ends at a bevel to correspond with the slant intended for the legs4 ,see that the ends of these cross-braces are cut at the same bevel4 ,use the bevel if you have one4 ,if not1 first square each end with the square and pencil1 and then measure carefully equal distances on one edge before drawing the slanting lines 7,fig4 #aji74 ,nail or screw these on 7,fig4 #aaj71 adjusting the legs to the bevels just cut4 ,saw or plane off the projecting ends of the legs on top4 ,if you plane1 do so both ways to avoid splintering 7see ,plane74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aji4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,now stand the horses on their legs 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,if they should happen to stand firmly and evenly1 see first if it is not due to unevenness of the floor4 ,if the floor is true1 and they stand steadily in different positions1 you can throw up your caps1 for you will have beaten the average workman4 ,to make them stand evenly1 see ,scribing1 ,winding-sticks1 etc41 in ,part ,v4 ,make the tops of the horses as smooth as you can4 ,scrape them and keep them scraped 7see ,scraper71 for you will be continually dropping glue or varnish on them1 to harden and deface your nice1 smooth work4 ,wipe them off as carefully as the bench-top4 ,these easily made horses will answer your purpose for a long time4#ah ,illustration ,,fig4 #aab4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aac4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aad4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aae4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mitre-,box4--,great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden mitre-box 7,fig4 #aaf71 although the process is simple4 ,do not make it of spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist4 ,pine or mahogany is good4 ,use stock from a middle board if you can 7see ,chapter ,,iii474 ,a mitre-box can be of any desired size4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 and ,plane1 and look up any other references4 ,a good size is from #a' to #b' long and from #c to #f square 7inside71 according to the work for which it is to be used1 and of stock #g_/h thick4 ,the pieces must be prepared with care1 so that the edges shall be square and the surfaces true1 particularly on the inside1 for when the box is put together the sides must be parallel and square throughout with the bottom1 on the inside4 ,test each piece with the square4 ,use care in screwing the sides to the bottom to keep them exactly in place 7see ,screws74 ,nails can be used1 but screws are better4 ,lay out the lines for the sawing from the inside1 with the steel square if you have one1 or with the end of the tongue of the try-square4 ,mark the line a on the inside of the side x 7,fig4 #aag71 squaring from the bottom4 ,mark the point b at a distance from a just equal to the distance between the sides4 ,square a line at this point from the bottom1 on the inside as before4 ,carry this line across to the side y1 squaring from the inner surface of the side x1 and mark the point c on the inner side of the side y4 ,also from the point c draw a vertical line on the inside of y corresponding to the line a4 ,carefully mark the line g h1 which will give the mitre4 ,the lines should be laid out from the inside1 because it is against the inside surfaces that the pieces to be cut in the mitre-box will bear4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aag4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aah4 ,another way is to square a line m n 7,fig4 #aah7 across the top side of the bottom piece1 before putting together1 and to lay off from one end of this line a point o on the edge1 at a distance equal to the width of the bottom1 thus fixing the points m1 n1 and o4 ,next fasten on the sides1 square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point m and on the inside of the other side from the point o4 ,the diagonal line pq 7,fig4 #aai7 will represent the mitre4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aai4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abj4 ,the cuts for the saw to run in should be made with a back-saw or a panel-saw4 ,in a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines opposite each other1 draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet these lines 7squaring from the inside as before71 and make a saw-cut1 as shown by the middle line in ,fig4 #aaf4 ,this will be very useful to saw strips squarely across4 ,you can put buttons on the outside near the lower edge to catch against the front edge of the bench-top if you wish1 or use the mitre-box on the bench-hooks when necessary to hold it firmly4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aba4 ,a very useful mitre-board for sawing strips1 mouldings1 and the like1 can be made with two short boards1 one wider than the other1 being sure that the surfaces and edges are true and square 7,fig4 #abj74 ,this can be of any size4 ,a good size is from #a' to #b' long1 #f wide 7in all71 and of stock #g_/h thick1 but it is better to make the narrow piece thicker1 perhaps #a-a_/d or #a-c_/d4 ,mark the lines first on the bottom of the narrow piece1 then on the edges1 and lastly on the top1 as with the mitre-box just shown1 to ensure the lines being at the correct angles with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest4 ,an excellent plan is to make saw-kerfs for mitres in the cleat of a bench-hook 7,fig4 #aba71 in the way just shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,shooting-,board4--,this is useful for squaring edges and small surfaces and ends with the plane1 and for jointing edges1 the plane being pushed forward on its side 7see ,shooting-board1 in ,part ,v474 ,it can be of any wood which holds its shape well4 ,clear white pine or mahogany is good4 ,if carelessly made it will be of but little use4 ,the stock must be planed free from winding4 ,several forms are shown in ,figs4 #abb1 #abc1 and #abd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the construction is plain 7,fig4 #abb74 ,approximate dimensions are given1 ,fig4 #abb being made of #g_/h stock1 ,fig4 #abc of #a_/b and #a_/d stock1 and ,fig4 #abd of #g_/h stock4 ,screw the pieces together from the under side 7see ,screws74 ,see that the stop or cleat a is put on at right angles to the edge b4 ,mark the lines for this accurately with knife or chisel4 ,a groove is sometimes cut for this stop1 but this is a refinement that is not at all necessary if you do your work well4 ,this board must have a rabbet or groove cut out of the upper piece1 as shown1 to give room for shavings4 ,in ,fig4 #abc the top board overlaps the ends of the cleats a trifle1 which 7with the spaces between the cleats7 allows the escape of the shavings4 ,arrange some way to hold the board firmly on the bench4 ,care is necessary in using the shooting-board not to plane slices from your left hand4 ,guides1 to attach to the plane to ensure square edges1 can be bought and used instead of the shooting-board4 ,some of them are serviceable1 particularly those adjustable at various angles4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abe4 ,a mitre shooting-board 7,fig4 #abe7 is also useful4 ,it requires to be made with even more care than the board just given1 but on the same principle4 ,the angular stop or stops must be fitted to make the angles exactly #de4 ,a sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre1 but sawed mitres often require trimming with the plane to get a perfect fit4 ,form for ,rounding ,sticks4--,you will be continually wanting to make sticks eight-sided or round4 ,a form to hold the pieces for planing is a great convenience4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,gauge1 ,plane1 and ,nailing1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #abi4 ,take two strips and plane off 7or even chisel or whittle7 one corner of each1 first gauging lines equidistant from the corner for a guide4 ,then nail the two strips together1 with the bevels facing each other1 to make a trough as shown in ,fig4 #abf4 ,put a screw in one end to push the work against1 push the form against the bench-stop or screw it in the vise1 put the piece to be cornered or rounded in the ,v-shaped trough1 and it will be firmly held with the angle upward4 ,two or three of these for larger and smaller pieces will be very useful4 ,they are quickly made of waste strips4 ,if you think #b' the right length for one of these forms1 for instance1 make it a foot or so longer1 and after it is made saw off the extra length in one or two pieces1 which will serve as an extension for holding a long stick 7,fig4 #abg74 ,if your bench has wooden bench-stops you can make some stops with notches in the top 7,fig4 #abh7 for this purpose4 ,for making pieces tapering1 as well as eight-sided or rounding1 you have only to modify this idea by planing off the corners in a tapering way 7,fig4 #abi74 ,see ,rounding ,sticks4 ,level and ,plumb4--,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,gauge1 ,saw1 and ,plane1 in ,part ,v4 ,to make a plumb like ,fig4 #acj1 take a piece of straight wood from #c to #e wide and #d' or #e' long with the edges straight and parallel4 ,gauge a line down the middle of the side1 exactly parallel to the edges1 and cut the notch shown at the bottom4 ,make a saw-kerf at the upper end of the line and another beside it in which to catch the end of the line1 or fasten the line around a nail4 7,see ,plumb47 ,illustration ,,fig4 #acj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aca4 ,to make the level shown in ,fig4 #aca1 it is essential that the bottom board c d be straight on the lower edge4 ,the two braces a c and a d should be of the same length4 ,the strut a b should be nailed across at the middle of c d and at right angles to it4 ,the essential thing is to have the line a b exactly at right angles to c d1 the object of the braces a c and a d being to stiffen the board c d1 and to keep the lines a b and c d at right angles to each other4 ,the plumb-line is hung and used as in the case just given1 the board c d being used for horizontal work4 7,see ,level47 ,cabinets1 etc41 for ,tools and ,supplies4--,a tool-chest1 though a very convenient 7and in fact necessary7 thing for a workman who is moving around from place to place or who needs a safe receptacle in which to lock his tools in a factory1 is not at all necessary in a private shop1 nor half as convenient as to have the tools where they can be more readily reached4 ,it is quite a piece of work to make a good one1 and it will be better to defer such a job until you feel the need4 ,an old case of drawers1 or bureau1 or cupboard1 or some such receptacle1 if you can find one1 will be useful in your shop4 ,a bureau1 in fact1 makes a good tool-cabinet or substitute for a tool-chest1 but if you keep tools in drawers make compartments1 trays1 or divisions1 else the edge-tools may be damaged1 not to speak of the inevitable confusion4 ,you do not need a tool-cabinet for half a dozen tools1 but when they begin to accumulate it is a good thing to have and a good thing to make1 if there is occasion to keep your tools locked up or if you have limited room4 ,otherwise it is just as well to keep the common tools as already shown4 ,a cabinet is fully as useful for miscellaneous articles like brads1 hinges1 etc41 as for tools4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 and ,screws1 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #acb4 ,perhaps you can find a good box1 wide and shallow1 all made1 or if deep you can saw off part to make it shallow 7,fig4 #acb74 ,this will answer perfectly for a shop4 ,for the house you would of course make a cupboard of new wood4 ,the size must depend on circumstances4 ,get two boards for doors that will just cover the open side of the box1 unless the box cover will do1 which is unlikely4 ,if the edges are not good you must allow extra width for jointing4 ,lay these boards in position and mark the lengths 7on the side next the box7 by the box itself1 not with the square1 for the box may not be square4 ,from the lines just made mark the edges with the square1 and1 with the straight-edge1 connect these edge marks by lines on the face sides4 ,saw off by these lines4 ,mark the box and each door in some way 7,fig4 #acc71 as top1 and ,r 7for right7 and ,l 7for left71 or by marks1 as ,x1 ,o1 1 etc41 to prevent finally putting them on wrong side out or wrong end up1 as is very likely to happen if you neglect to mark them4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #acc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #acd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ace4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #acf4 ,now for hinges4 ,the best thing1 on account of the weight to be hung on the doors and the poor quality of the wood generally used for boxes1 will be iron strap-hinges made for work of this sort1 screwed on the outside 7,fig4 #acd74 ,two will do for each door4 ,next to this come the common iron hinges4 ,if the sides of the box are thick and firm1 three of the common long and narrow kind 7,fig4 #ace7 will do for each door4 ,if the sides are thin and flimsy1 nail or screw a strip inside of each edge and use wider and shorter hinges 7,fig4 #acf74 ,to fit the hinges1 see ,hinges4 ,the doors being hung1 take them off while fitting up the case4 ,gauge a pencil line around the outer edge and each end of the inside surface of each door1 where it fits against the edge of the box1 as a limit beyond which racks or tools must not project or the door will not shut 7,fig4 #acg74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #acg4 ,the fitting up of the cupboard must depend on its size and what and how many tools or supplies are to be kept in it4 ,shelves you can simply make of the right size and nail into place from the outside1 using the rule and square to get them in the right positions4 ,the illustrations are merely suggestions which you can alter or improve upon to suit your particular case4 ,fig4 #ach shows another form1 and ,fig4 #aci a small cabinet with one door1 with suggestions for the arrangement of the tools1 but the matter of fitting up you must1 of course1 contrive for yourselves1 according to the circumstances4 ,do not attempt to put full-width drawers into these wide1 shallow cabinets1 as is often done4 ,it takes an expert to fit drawers that are wide and short 7from front to back7 and they are not always satisfactory even then4 ,if you wish drawers1 either put in a row of narrow ones1 or use the simple device described below 7,figs4 #ada and #adb71 and shown in ,fig4 #aci4 7,see ,drawers in ,part ,v47 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aci4 ,to fasten the doors you can hook one on the inside and put a button 7which you can whittle out7 on the outside to hold the other4 ,if you wish to lock1 hook one door inside and lock the other to it 7see ,locks74 ,a padlock with staples and iron strap is easier to put on4 ,to make a cupboard of boards instead of using a box1 you simply make a box yourself 7see ,box-making in ,part ,,ii47 and then proceed as above4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adj4 ,fig4 #adj shows a good form of cabinet4 ,make a tight box1 perhaps #b' #c' #f to #i1 the sides and ends of #g_/h stock1 and the top and bottom 7i4e41 the front and back of the cabinet7 of #a_/b stock4 ,saw it open carefully on the line a b c about #b or #c from the top or face1 according to the thickness of the box1 first marking the ends or the sides so that you can finally put them together again in the same positions4 ,when nailing the box together omit all nails which could interfere with the sawing4 ,they can easily be put in afterwards4 7,see ,box-making1 in ,part ,,ii47 ,carefully smooth the edges after the saw4 ,reckless and hasty planing will spoil the joint4 ,fit two strap-hinges1 or three of the common kind4 ,fit up inside as you wish1 and fasten with hasp1 padlock1 or a lock working on the principle of a chest lock4 ,all these cabinets must be firmly fastened to the wall1 for they will be very heavy when filled4 ,do not trust to a couple of nails or screws1 the way amateurs so often put up shelves and cabinets in the house4 ,a ledge of some sort below is a great help 7,fig4 #adj7 to relieve the screws or nails of the weight4 ,if the back is not very strong1 do not trust wholly to it1 but add cleats outside or inside4 ,if in the house1 stout screw-eyes of heavy wire in the sides of the cabinet1 through which you can screw to the wall1 are good 7,fig4 #adj74 ,good shelves can be made by arranging empty boxes one on top of another1 or by taking a wide1 thin 7flat7 box and fitting shelves across it1 like a bookcase1 and then fastening the whole to the wall4 ,a small drawer can be fixed under a shelf1 anywhere in your shop1 on the principle often used in sewing-machine tables and the like1 by taking a small box of suitable shape1 strengthening one corner if necessary 7,fig4 #ada71 and pivoting it with a screw at that corner 7,fig4 #adb74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ada4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,first-class ,bench4--,you can do all the work you will be equal to for a long time on such a bench as has been shown1 but some day you will want a first-class bench1 such as ,fig4 #adc4 ,do not attempt anything of the sort at first1 however1 though if you can afford it1 such a bench is good to begin with4 ,a few details are given in the ,appendix4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adc4 ,other ,appliances4--,a number of other appliances and contrivances will be found1 under their respective headings1 in ,part ,v4 ,a ,,few ,,essentials ,,to ,,successful ,,work ,do one thing at a time4 ,finish one job before you start two or three others4 ,first learn to work well1 then ability to work quickly will come of itself4 ,plan your work to the end before beginning to use your tools4 ,make drawings carefully to scale before beginning any but the simplest work4 ,lay out the work carefully on the wood with sharp1 accurate lines1 according to the drawings1 measuring everything with exactness at least twice4 ,cut the work accurately with sharp tools to the lines you have laid out4 ,keep testing the accuracy of the work with the square1 straight-edge1 rule1 level1 or plumb4 ,keep your tools sharp and in good order4 ,have the most convenient place for each tool and always keep it in that place when not in use4 ,do your work thoroughly and strongly4 ,do not half make it4 ,do not half fasten it together4 ,the only time you will regret thorough work is when you have to take it apart again4 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,if you can afford to buy one ready made1 you cannot do better than to begin with such as are sold for sloyd or manual-training schools1 but do not get a very small one unless you are only going to do very small work4 ,get one as large as you can afford4 ,a second-hand bench can often be bought for a small sum1 but be sure that it is firm and steady4 #ae ,the reason for making this bench #e' #aj long1 instead of cutting a #ab' board into two lengths of #f' each1 is that it is hard to get boards sound and square at the ends1 and so it is best to allow a few inches for waste4 ,of course your bench can be of any desired length4 ,six or eight feet is suitable for ordinary work1 but there is no objection to making it as much longer as your space and material will admit4 ,the height should bear a proper relation to the height of the workman4 ,no definite height can be given4 ,try moving a plane back and forth4 ,if your right elbow1 when holding the plane1 is slightly bent and your back about straight1 the height will be not far from right4 ,do a little simple work at a table1 trying different heights1 and you can soon tell what will be satisfactory4 ,if the bench is too low1 you cannot manage your work well and your back will get tired from bending over1 not to speak of becoming round-shouldered4 ,if the bench is too high1 it will be hard to manage your work1 you cannot plane well1 and your arms will be tired from holding them up unnaturally high4 ,a bench for heavy work like carpentry is usually rather lower than one for cabinet- or pattern-making1 while a carver's bench is usually higher4 #af ,this vise is fitted slanting1 so that the slide at the bottom comes on the outside of the leg and at the same time in the centre line of the movable jaw in line with the screw4 ,a common form has the movable jaw upright1 the sliding bar being mortised into it and sliding through a mortise cut in the leg1 as shown in ,figs4 #ef and #eg4 ,if you wish to make this kind1 study ,mortising1 in ,part ,v41 and lay out and cut the mortise in the leg before nailing the cross-board to it 7,figs4 #da and #db74 ,this is the most difficult part of the bench to make nicely1 and you can spend a good deal of pains upon it4 ,if you have not yet the proper tools to make this mortise you can mark it out and have it cut for a very small sum at a wood-working mill or shop4 ,when nailing the cross-board upon the legs1 bear in mind to put this leg in the right place4 ,fig4 #eh shows a simple arrangement with an additional post1 or two posts can be put together and one half the notching done in each 7,fig4 #ei74 #ag ,in case your bench is in the house and you wish to deaden the sound and vibration from your work you can put rubber cushions under the legs4 #ah ,fig4 #aab shows a nicer pair of horses4 ,take two pieces of pine1 or any wood not likely to warp1 #b #c 7or #d7 #b-a_/b' or #c'1 mark with rule1 square1 and gauge 7see ,gauge71 and cut with saw and chisel the shallow gains 7,fig4 #aac7 for the legs4 ,make them the same depth at the top as at the bottom 7,fig4 #aad71 and clean them out as accurately to the lines as you can4 ,get out eight legs1 and regulate their length as before4 ,saw the upper ends on a bevel 7,fig4 #aad7 corresponding to the slant they are to have4 ,nail or screw them in place4 ,you can glue the joints for additional strength4 ,fit on cross-pieces and finish the work as described above4 ,if you ever need horses for very heavy work you can make the legs of plank or joist with the tops cut like ,fig4 #aae4 ,the labor is small1 the pastime is great4--,,goethe4 ,,part ,,ii ,,chapter ,,vi ,,articles ,,to ,,be ,,made ,,in ,,the ,,workshop ,even if you are able to use tools quite well1 you may still not know how to go to work to make some particular thing1 so it is quite important to know how to lay out1 put together1 and finish different kinds of work4 ,the number of things you can make is legion4 ,the number it is worth while for you to make is much smaller4 ,amateurs often say that the work they do themselves costs more 7even counting their own labour as nothing7 than to hire the work done1 and it is one aim of this book to prevent that undesirable result1 in some cases at least4 ,the number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy grows smaller every year4 ,many things can now be bought ready-made for less than you would have to pay for the materials4 ,it is foolish to take the time and money to make many of the games and toys1 for instance1 sold so cheaply nowadays4 ,a wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to make1 but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make one4 ,it is true that some of these things you can make better1 although not cheaper1 than you can easily buy 7a sled perhaps72 but1 as a rule1 your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects1 and you will find but few such given here4 ,things like whistles1 pea-shooters1 and clappers1 which are so familiar to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down and around from boy to boy1 are not given here1 as a rule4 ,a few other things which you might perhaps look for1 such as tennis rackets and snow-shoes1 are omitted1 because they require more special knowledge and skill than most beginners can be expected to have4 ,it is easy enough to see how to make a tennis racket1 for instance1 so far as the general idea is concerned2 but simply bending a loop1 fastening it to a stick1 and lacing the loop1 does not make a tennis racket4 ,the holes for the stringing must be made in a particular way1 the stringing must be done properly1 and the whole affair must balance or hang right1 or be of little use4 ,it is better to buy such things4 ,you boys1 and many of your elders1 like to try all the new-fangled ideas as fast as they come out1 and it is well that you do1 but you 7as a class7 accept them for keeps only after they have stood the test of many trials4 ,a large book could be filled with descriptions of the novelties which have appeared within my remembrance1 but out of this number ,i can count on my fingers all that have come to stay4 ,you will find all the novelties you can attend to 7and more7 in the magazines1 etc41 so ,i have been rather conservative in my selection1 knowing that you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back in the end1 year after year1 to the same old things1 with only such additions as have stood the test of actual use4 ,the objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a basis of experience and practice1 in different kinds of work and in various details1 from which you can launch out into any of these new plans1 or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try1 and thus supply for yourselves the information lacking in many of the popular descriptions4 ,before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see that you can get it out after you have made it4 ,this may seem a superfluous caution1 but there have been many cases where people have spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing4 ,even ,robinson ,crusoe1 you know1 built a boat so far from the water that he could not launch her4 ,do not be deceived by all the complicated1 new-fangled variations of familiar things which abound in the popular publications4 ,try to make everything as simple as you can4 ,look askance on contrivances that are all tangled up with springs1 and levers1 and complicated mechanism1 and study them well before you begin to make them4 ,first figure the cost of the object you intend to make4 ,this book is not to do your work for you1 but to put you on the right track to do it yourselves1 so read ,estimating1 page #ed1 and the whole of ,part ,i had best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,a ,,few ,,toys ,illustration ,,fig4 #add4 ,wooden ,swords1 ,knives1 and ,daggers4--,before beginning work1 read ,marking1 ,knife1 ,whittling1 ,paring1 ,rounding ,sticks1 ,rasp1 ,file1 and ,sandpaper1 and look upany other references4 ,the construction of those shown in ,fig4 #add is too obvious to require special description4 ,first cut the general outline as shown1 then round or pare or shave to the thickness required4 ,if you have a bow-saw or scroll-saw1 it will save much time in shaping the outlines1 or you can have them sawed at the mill4 ,if you stain these weapons with various colours1 as red1 black1 yellow1 etc41 and in various patterns1 and shellac them neatly 7see ,finishing71 you can turn out quite a formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons4 ,they should be made of some straight-grained and easily whittled wood4 ,nothing is better than white pine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ade4 ,to make a sword like that shown in ,fig4 #ade1 first select a piece of straight-grained wood 7ash or any strong wood7 about #b-a_/b' in length1 #c_/af thick1 and #a wide4 ,about #d from one end make a mark4 ,from this mark taper the edges to the other end4 ,do not taper the stick too gradually4 ,then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from this centre line to the edges1 leaving the edges about #a_/af thick4 ,next get out two pieces of wood #a_/h thick and #d long 7some dark-coloured wood can be used for contrast74 ,nail one of these pieces with brads on each side of the #d space left for the handle4 ,next get a piece #d long1 #a_/d thick1 and #c_/d wide 7see ,fig4 #ade74 ,mark it as shown1 making the marks for the holes 7#c_/af7 so the outside edge of one will be just #a from the outside edge of the other4 ,then bore these holes carefully 7see ,boring7 and cut out the wood between them with a knife or chisel 7being careful about splitting7 and shape the outside as marked4 ,slip the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the handle and nail the guard to the blade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wooden ,snake4--,this imitation reptile 7,fig4 #adf7 if well made will 7when grasped at the middle7 by a slight movement of the hand undulate and writhe in a very lifelike manner1 as you may know1 so do not be eager to terrify your feminine relatives1 or those of other boys1 too much4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adg4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,knife1 ,saw1 and ,rounding ,sticks4 ,the snake can be of any size--say from #b' to #f' long and from #a to #b in diam4 ,select a piece of straight-grained wood1--white pine or any wood easy to work4 ,first see that the stick is square1 then make it hexagonal 7six-sided71 then taper it to the general shape of the snake1 and finally round and smooth it 7,fig4 #adg74 ,remember not to use sandpaper in the smoothing1 as the grit will dull the tools yet to be used4 ,the head you must whittle or carve according to your ingenuity and skill4 ,the mouth can be cut with a fine saw4 ,the snake having been shaped1 mark pencil lines lengthways along the middle of the top and bottom 7except at the head71 and cut with a knife a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord 7like fish-line74 ,this can be done with a fine saw 7as a back-saw71 using the teeth only at one end of the saw blade1 but much care is required and the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise4 ,you will probably do it more easily with the knife4 ,mark equal spaces 7,fig4 #adh7 of #a_/b to #b1 according to the diameter of the snake1 from the neck to within a short distance of the end of the tail4 ,if you make these marks as near together as #c_/d1 the snake will look more natural1 as the notches will not have to be so wide1 but you will have to cut more of them4 ,number these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the right order4 ,with the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each side at each of the marks1 or use the saw and knife or chisel1 until the body of the snake is cut into sections 7,fig4 #adh74 ,put the sections together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves in the top and bottom4 ,set the cord in place with glue 7see ,gluing71 and fasten with little staples 7which you can make of bent pins71 or something of the sort1 at the end of each section4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adh4 ,set beads in the head for eyes4 ,sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper74 ,paint in imitation of whatever kind of snake you prefer 7see ,painting71 using red for the inside of the mouth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,windmills4--,these are made in a great variety of forms4 ,a few patterns which can be readily constructed of wood are given below4 ,bear in mind to make them strong1 as they are under very great strain in a violent wind1 and1 also1 that the larger they are the stronger they must be2 for little models1 you know1 are much stronger in proportion than large structures made after the same designs4 ,dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the principles of construction4 ,the windmills will work just as well if made larger or smaller1 within any reasonable limits4 ,they should be made of straight-grained white pine1 whitewood1 or some wood easy to work4#ai 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #adi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aej4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,knife1 and ,paring1 and look up any other references4 ,in case of using heavy stock1 see also ,draw-knife1 ,spokeshave1 and ,plane4 ,to make a very simple form 7,fig4 #adi71 take two sticks1 say #h x #a x #a1 and halve or notch 7see ,halving7 each piece at the centre 7,fig4 #aej71 so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal length4 ,bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the pin upon which the vanes are to turn 7see ,boring74 ,upon the ends of each stick mark diagonal lines 7,fig4 #aej7 slanting in opposite directions1 or so that1 if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in turn upon each of the four ends1 the lines will all slant the same way4 ,this is essential1 for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks down towards these lines until perhaps #a_/h thick 7,fig4 #aej71 and you can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the windmill will not revolve4 ,when this shaping is done fasten the sticks together with brads 7see ,nailing74 ,the remaining part is very simple 7,fig4 #aea71 perhaps #a' long and #a_/b thick1 with the broad vane made thin1 as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the windmill headed toward the wind1 and if made thick and heavy the whole affair will not balance well4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aea4 ,the revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end of the part last made 7,fig4 #aea7 so that it will revolve freely4 ,find the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a stick1 and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this point4 ,through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end of a stick1 slightly rounded to prevent friction 7,fig4 #aea74 ,sandpaper the whole with rather fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper74 ,you can paint in one or more colours1 if you wish 7see ,painting74 ,the vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways1 causing an appearance1 when revolving1 of concentric rings 7like a target74 ,by having two axles or spindles 7,fig4 #aeb7 two sets of vanes can revolve at once1 and1 by slanting the vanes of the two sets in opposite ways1 the two will revolve in contrary directions4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aec4 ,the weather-vane can be made of two pieces 7,fig4 #aec74 ,a more elaborate affair 7,fig4 #aed7 is made on similar principles1 but requires more care4 ,the construction is obvious4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,knife1 ,spokeshave1 ,drawshave1 ,rounding ,sticks1 and look up any other references4 ,the general dimensions of the one illustrated are3 length of main frame 7in which spindle turns7 #i1 height of one end #d-a_/b1 height of the other end #b-a_/b2 length of weather-vane 7from main frame7 #aj1 width at end #d-a_/b2 length of revolving fans #a'1 width at ends #b4 ,the spindle is held in the main frame on a slant 7,fig4 #aee7 to lessen any tendency to slip out1 so the hole through which it passes should have a corresponding slant 7see ,boring74 ,the revolving fans or vanes are reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into holes bored in the head of the spindle1 all the vanes being turned to have the same slant4 ,care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes will be equidistant and revolve in the same line4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aed4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aee4 ,the weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut in the bottom of the main frame 7,fig4 #aee71 and fastened with a couple of nails or screws4 ,you can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood between with a chisel4 ,the bent nail or wire shown on the top of the spindle in ,fig4 #aed is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame from a sudden change of wind4 ,the vanes should all be shaved down until they are quite thin at the ends4 ,set up and finish this windmill like the one just described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aef4 ,a form which is good practice in whittling1 and upon which you can also exercise your artistic faculties1 is the ,happy ,jack shown in ,fig4 #aef4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,knife1 ,rasp1 and ,file1 and look up any other references4 ,fourteen inches is a good height for the figure itself4 ,the outline of body and head can be sawed from a #c_/d board and the edges trimmed and rounded and the details cut with a knife1 or rasp and file can be used for the edges4 ,the arms are made of separate pieces4 ,bore holes in the outer ends of the arms to hold the paddles 7see ,boring74 ,also bore holes lengthways into the arms1 from the ends next the body1 and into these holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also pass through the body at the shoulders 7,fig4 #aef74 ,before actually driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body4 ,the holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod1 so that it may drive in tightly without danger of getting loose1 but the hole in the body must be larger than the rod1 that the latter may revolve easily in it4 ,bore in from the centre of each shoulder as carefully as you can1 until the holes meet1 rather than attempt to bore clear through from one side4 ,put in the rod and drive on the arms1 but not quite up to the shoulders4 ,in driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the paddles in the right positions1 so that the paddles will be in line as shown--that is1 so that when one points directly upwards the other will point directly downwards4 ,also bore a hole upwards between the legs for the rod upon which the figure turns1 and screw or nail a piece of metal 7,fig4 #aeg71 with a hole for this rod1 on the bottom of the legs 7,fig4 #aef74 ,fig4 #aeh shows a way to put on the hat4 ,the paddles can be made from a shingle1 which will save the labour of tapering the thickness towards the ends4 ,the paddles must be set obliquely1 or turned part way around1 as in the case of any windmill4 ,when set at the proper angles the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving4 ,sandpaper the whole 7see ,sandpaper71 and paint in various colours 7see ,painting74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,a set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make 7,fig4 #aei74 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 and look up any other references4 ,take two sticks from #b' to #d' in length1 and from #c_/d to #a-a_/d square1 of any fairly strong wood4 ,halve these sticks at the middle 7see ,halving7 and fasten them together in the form of a cross1 strengthening the joint 7weakened by the halving7 by nailing or screwing on a piece of board above or below1 as shown in ,fig4 #aei4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aei4 ,the boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to the ends of the sticks by halving 7,fig4 #afj71 as well as nails or screws1 or they can simply be flat pieces of board shaped as in ,fig4 #afa and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks4 ,in the first case the halving had best be done before the sticks are fastened together4 ,one mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail will answer for each boat4 ,a little experimenting will show you how much to haul in the sheet4 ,each boat must1 of course1 come about and jibe once in every rotation of the apparatus4 ,sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper71 and paint as you wish 7see ,painting74 ,the whole affair is balanced and pivoted on top of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just described1 which see4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afa4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afd4 ,a steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on edge1 shaped as shown in ,fig4 #afb1 a small windmill with short and broad fans 7,fig4 #afc71 serving for the screw4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,knife1 ,spokeshave1 and look up any other references4 ,this boat must be made of a board so as to give a thin section 7,fig4 #afd71 in order that the screw may not be shielded from the wind1 for this vessel must always head to windward or the screw will not revolve4 ,to ensure this the fore and aft sail must always be kept set and the sheet close-hauled4 ,this sail answers the purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described4 ,it can be made of tin or any sheet metal1 or even of thin wood4 ,the rest of the rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish4 ,the bottom of the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the keel4 ,for the other details of the work1 see the windmills already described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,water-wheels4--,an undershot wheel1 turned by the water passing beneath 7,fig4 #afe71 can be easily made4 ,it can be of any desired size1 and of any wood readily worked4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afe4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aff4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afg4 ,one like ,fig4 #aff can be made by simply nailing a set of small boards or paddles in a radial arrangement between two disks of wood4 ,a dowel or broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the hole bored through the wheel 7see ,boring71 but should turn freely in the bearings at the side4 ,it will make a rather neater job to shape the paddles as in ,fig4 #afg1 so that when put together the wheel will look like ,fig4 #aff1 but this is not at all necessary1 and it will work just as well to make plain rectangular paddles and simply nail the disks on the outside edges 7see ,nailing74 ,if you have no saw with which to get out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill1 or you can work them out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon outside of the line with a common saw1 when the circle can be finished with shave1 hatchet1 chisel1 or knife 7see ,paring74 ,divide the circumference of each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the side to the centre1 by which to nail the paddles in the right position4 ,start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before placing the paddles in position4 ,then nail one disk to the paddles1 turn the wheel over and nail on the other disk4 ,it is essential to a neat job that the paddles should all be of the same width4 ,first make one edge straight4 ,from this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces 7see ,gauge7 and saw or plane or trim1 with knife1 chisel1 or shave1 exactly to the line4 ,if you make the paddles as shown in the cut1 first square lines across at equal distances from one end 7,fig4 #afg71 and with a gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines parallel to each edge1 and with the saw or saw and chisel1 or even a knife1 remove the pieces marked 7see ,paring74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #afi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the overshot wheel 7,fig4 #afh7 is harder to make1 but is a livelier wheel4 ,it is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just shown1 except that the paddles1 which do not project beyond the circumference of the disks1 are not placed radially1 but so that1 with the addition of another set inserted to connect them1 they form buckets4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to lay off the lines for the buckets1 divide the circumference of each disk as before1 and from the centre describe a small circle1 as shown in ,fig4 #afi4 ,from the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the small circle4 ,these lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the buckets4 ,to complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal distances on these lines1 and from these last points draw lines as ab to the next points on the circumference4 ,first1 nail together with only the bottoms of the buckets 7on the lines ca74 ,then fit in the other pieces1 to complete the buckets1 on the lines ab4 ,the ends of these last pieces should properly be bevelled 7see ,bevelling7 to make a fairly tight joint4 ,the rest of the work is the same as for the undershot wheel4 ,a larger form 7but harder to make7 is suggested in ,fig4 #agj4 ,see note under ,windmills1 above4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,totlet ,,town4 ,play ,village4--,it is capital fun for several young people to design and build a miniature village1 and it is certainly an instructive and quite inexpensive pastime4 ,such a village1 planned and made recently by a family group of half a dozen youngsters1 and facetiously named ,totlet ,town1 was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of all sizes up to three feet long1 waste pieces of board1 shingles1 etc42 but when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn1 with dirt roads1 and paths1 small evergreen shade trees and hedges1 well-sweeps1 miniature fences1 and other accessories1 it made so pretty a picture as to be the admiration of all who saw it4 ,if you have as good a time in making such a village as these young people did1 the experiment will be a success4 ,you can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aga4 ,the buildings were made by selecting boxes of the desired proportions1 sawing out spaces for the doors1 adding the roofs and any other alterations4 ,the chimneys were made of blocks painted red4 ,the doors were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather4 ,bay-windows and the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes4 ,the windows and blinds were represented by painting4 ,some of the roofs were shingled with pieces of shingles4 ,a suggestion for a light-house is shown in ,fig4 #aga4 ,considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these buildings neatly4 ,much of the effect depends1 also1 upon the care with which the painting is done 7see ,painting71 and the taste used in the selection of the colours4 ,brighter colours are suitable for a little village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses4 ,white with green blinds is good1 of course2 or yellow can be used4 ,the roofs should be painted4 ,red roofs are very effective4 ,before beginning work1 read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,withdrawing ,nails1 etc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agb4 ,dolls' ,house4--,the house shown in ,fig4 #agb is quite easily made1 and a shallow affair like this has the advantage of being more convenient than a deep one about arranging the contents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 and look up any other references4 ,pine and whitewood are suitable1 or any wood can be used that is not hard to work4 ,it can be made of any desired size4 ,three or four feet wide and a little higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases1 and twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth 7from front to back74 ,the construction is plain4 ,the roof and sides are to be cut from dressed stock of uniform width1 and from #a_/b to #g_/h in thickness4 ,carefully true one edge1 if it is not already true1 and get out the bottom board1 then the upright sides1 and then the roof4 ,the bevels at the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you must mark with the bevel 7taking the slant from your drawing71 or you can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and marking the bevel by them 7see ,bevelling74 ,to saw these bevels requires much care4 ,draw lines by the square on both sides1 as well as the angle on the edge1 and putting each board in the vise saw carefully and steadily4 ,the three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back1 and rectangular openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another4 ,if the sides of the house are #ad wide1 make these floors #ac-a_/b wide1 and use #a_/b or #c_/h stock for the back4 ,also mark and saw out the windows4 ,to do this1 first bore a series of holes inside of the line 7see ,boring7 and cut out whatever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in which to start the saw4 ,any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed with knife1 chisel1 or file 7see ,paring74 ,nail these parts together1 just as in making a box1 carefully sighting across the face to see that the front and back do not wind1 or use winding-sticks 7q4 v474 ,also test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the bottom4 ,get out stock for the back carefully 7with the boards running up and down7 so that the boards will be square at the bottom1 and when these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the house being square4 ,the slant by which to cut the top of the back can be laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof4 ,when fitted1 nail the back securely in place1 first cutting the windows as before4 ,then fit in the upright partitions1 first cutting the doorways4 ,the staircase can be made easily if you have1 or can saw from the corner of a larger piece1 a triangular strip which can be cut in short sections to use for the steps4 ,nail these to a thin strip of board 7from the under side7 and fasten the whole in position 7,fig4 #agc74 ,the chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof1 or it can be made of four pieces1 box-fashion4 ,glass for the windows can be held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges1 or thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads4 ,thin strips can be nailed around the window openings on the outside1 if you wish4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agc4 ,all the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting together1 and1 when entirely put together1 the whole should be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper4 ,the parts coming on the inside had best be sandpapered before putting together1 however1 but be sure not to do this until all cutting with the tools has been done4 ,set all the nails carefully 7see ,nail-set74 ,the whole can be painted in one or more colours 7see ,painting71 and portieres1 window drapery1 etc41 can be added according to your taste and the materials at command4 ,the inside can be papered1 if preferred4 ,a more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the sides1 the upright partitions into the floor boards1 and to cut rabbets around on the back edge of the sides1 roof1 and bottom1 into which to set the backboards4 ,this involves a good deal more work and care in laying out the work 7see ,grooving74 ,if you have the pieces got out at a mill it can be easily done1 however4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agd4 ,it may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom4 ,a door 7with a door-bell or knocker7 can be added to the front of the hall1 if thought best4 ,a house which can be closed is shown in ,fig4 #agd4 ,the construction is quite similar to the preceding4 ,a strip must be fastened above and below the large doors1 as shown1 that they may open without striking either the roof or the floor on which the house stands4 ,the little door1 representing the entrance to the house when closed and shown in the closed half1 can be made to open independently and can have a bell or knocker4 ,if this house is made quite deep 7from front to back7 it can easily be divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house1 the back side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,you can attach your windmill to a building or set it up on a pole1 or you can easily make a small trestle-work tower1 built of small sticks1 on the top of which you can place the windmill1 with a small keg 7to represent a hogshead or tank71 and thus have a very good imitation of the large mills used for pumping water4 ,small windmills1 if you wish to go further into the subject than comes within the scope of this book1 can be used to do any light or play work by having them turn a bent shaft 7or any eccentric movement71 connecting with a piston-rod or revolving drum2 or various other attachments can be applied1 according to your ingenuity4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,houses ,,for ,,animals ,the sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will depend upon the animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them4 ,frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a building1 or a fence1 or in a corner1 and boxes can be utilised in various ways4 ,make the houses1 cages1 and runways as large as you can afford1 for there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of their having too much room4 ,wire netting or wire cloth 7held in place by staples7 should be freely used1 as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the animals4 ,special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the doors1 for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such structures4 ,the floors of the larger houses should always slant or have holes provided for drainage4 ,covering the floors with sheets of zinc will promote cleanliness4 ,in the smaller cages removable pans or trays can often be used 7,fig4 #aij74 ,houses and cages with wooden floors should always be raised from the ground on posts1 blocks1 or stones1 to avoid dampness4 ,clean sand scattered over the floor and frequently renewed will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages4 ,the bedding should also be changed frequently4 ,in the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing1 the corners and angles can be protected by tacking on strips of wire cloth1 tin1 or zinc1 but there is no need to do this over the flat surfaces4 ,in the case of cages or houses 7and the runways7 which have the ground for the floor and are to be inhabited by animals that will burrow or dig their way out1 the wire netting should be continued underground to a considerable depth1 or it can be carried down a little way and then bent to lie horizontally1 forming a sort of wire floor1 over which the dirt can be replaced1 and the animals will be unable to tunnel their way out2 but in all such cases care must be taken to proportion the mesh of the netting and the size of the wire to the strength and escaping powers of the animals4 ,houses for animals often look pretty when made in imitation of real houses1 but when you do this choose simple types of good proportions1 and do not try to copy all the little details of the large houses4 ,avoid gingerbread work1 and do not cover your houses with meaningless jig-sawed scroll work and rows of towers and pinnacles1 and do not use all the colours of the rainbow in painting them4 ,for houses1 hutches1 boxes1 cages1 etc41 which are to be kept out of doors or in some outbuilding1 ordinary machine-planed stock of fair quality is sufficiently good1 and planing and smoothing by hand is usually a waste of labour2 but if you wish to make a small cage or box to be kept in the house1 and to be nicely finished or painted1 good clear stock should be used1 and the final smoothing done by hand4 ,in case you wish to make several cages or boxes of the same pattern1 as1 for example1 like ,fig4 #agh1 it is much less work to go through the process with two or more at a time than to make each separately4 ,a house for pets should not be built1 as is sometimes done1 on a platform or base projecting beyond the base of the house1 as this tends to collect and retain moisture and dampness1 but should be clear of any platform1 like an ordinary dwelling-house1 so that the rain will be shed directly upon the ground4 ,when two or more boards are required for each side of the roof it is usually better to lay them up and down1 as in ,fig4 #ahg1 rather than horizontally or lengthways1 because a roof laid in this way is better about shedding the water1 which tends to collect in the cracks if the boards are laid horizontally4 ,for the rougher structures the hinges can be screwed flat upon the outside 7as shown in ,fig4 #agi71 but for nice work they should be fitted in the usual way4 7,see ,hinges47 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work upon these cages and houses1 read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #age4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agf4 ,cheap and serviceable cages and houses can be built by simply driving posts or stakes into the ground and fastening wire cloth or netting to them1 much as you would build a fence4 ,this wire-fenced enclosure can be covered with a wooden roof if desired4 ,a runway and playground can easily be made in this way4 ,a more portable arrangement can be made by putting together wooden frames covered with wire4 ,very simple forms are shown in ,fig4 #age4 ,by putting together four or more of such frames a cage can readily be made which can be covered with a wooden roof or with wire 7,fig4 #agf74 ,if these frames are fastened with screws or screw-eyes and hooks1 the whole can quickly be taken apart if desired4 ,a very simple cage can be easily made1 on the principle of the common chicken coop1 with a few boards or slats and a little wire netting 7,fig4 #agg71 but a house of this sort is not especially desirable except for economy of materials and labour4 ,the construction is too simple to require description4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #agi4 ,a much better form is that with upright sides1 or with one slanting side4 ,figs4 #agh and #agi show an excellent arrangement1 easily made4 ,it can be made any desired size or proportions and is suitable for quite a variety of animals4 ,if small1 #a_/b stock will be thick enough1 but if large1 #g_/h stock should be used4 ,the construction is similar to that of a common box 7see ,box-making1 page #bai74 ,one corner of each end should be sawed off slantingly 7,fig4 #agh71 and a rectangular piece cut from the opposite corner1 as shown1 before the box is nailed together4 ,the bevelling of the edges of the top and front boards can be done after the box is put together 7see ,bevelling74 ,for making the door1 see ,doors1 in ,part ,v4 ,the hinged board at the bottom gives access for cleaning4 ,if for indoors1 and to be finished or painted1 clear stock should be selected and the outside carefully smoothed4 7,see ,plane1 ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 ,finishing1 and ,painting47 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,for something more like a house1 the design shown in ,fig4 #ahj is good and of simple construction4 ,this can be made of any size from that of a small box to a small house4 ,for the latter1 see ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners74 ,to make a little house of this pattern first get out the bottom of the required dimensions1 and then the ends1 which are alike and to be nailed to the ends of the bottom4 ,take pains to be accurate in getting out the pieces1 or the house will be askew when put together4 ,the construction of the sides is plain4 ,the door can be made as in ,fig4 #ahj 7see ,doors71 or the sides can be entirely of wire and the door placed at the end 7,fig4 #aha74 ,the roof is simply nailed down in place1 one side being got out as much wider than the other as the thickness of the stock1 so that one will lap over the edge of the other at the ridge4 ,if the angle formed at the top is not a right angle1 however1 the edge of the narrower roof-board must be bevelled according to the angle 7see ,bevelling74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aha4 ,a house of this sort can be made with one end closed1 while the other remains open 7,fig4 #ahb74 ,this is a good arrangement for many animals4 ,first get out the floor1 then the pieces for the closed end1 cutting out the doorway and a window1 if one is desired4 ,these openings can be cut as shown on page #abb4 ,next get out the framework for the open end and fasten it in position4 ,a door can be fitted wherever desired and the roof put on1 as just shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,a house or cage1 chiefly open-work1 with two sleeping-boxes or nests 7,fig4 #ahc7 is similar in general construction4 ,this is suitable for indoors 7as in an outbuilding74 ,if to be left exposed to the weather1 a solid roof can be added1 or it can be covered with canvas or something of the sort when necessary4 ,the construction is similar to that of those already described4 ,this cage can be used for pigeons and other pets1 and can be made of any size1 according to circumstances4 ,for the door1 see ,doors and ,hinges1 in ,part ,v4 ,the box attachments can best be made at the same time1 just alike 7see ,box-making1 page #bai71 and fastened to the sides of the house1 the doorways having been cut in the sides before the house was put together4 ,if these boxes or nests cannot be readily reached for cleaning1 they should be hinged to the main house1 or have special openings with lids or doors1 so that they can be kept clean4 ,the ridge-pole is simply a strip of board placed horizontally between the upper ends of the rafters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,rabbit ,hutch4--,a simple rabbit-house1 or hutch1 can be made by putting together a good-sized box1 partitioning off one end1 to be closed by a door1 and leaving the rest open1 except for the necessary wire sides 7,fig4 #ahd74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is made just like a box 7see ,box-making1 page #bai71 the other details being similar to those already shown4 ,a sliding-door 7,fig4 #ahe7 can be inserted1 if desired1 to cover the hole between the closed and open parts4 ,the hutch should be raised from the ground to avoid dampness1 and proper arrangements for cleanliness made1 as referred to above4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a more elaborate hutch 7,fig4 #ahf7 can be constructed in a similar manner to the houses already shown4 ,access to the open part can be had by means of the doors or lids on top4 ,for the doors1 see ,doors and ,hinges4 ,the slides for the door at the end can be made by cutting a rabbet at the edge of a square stick1 as shown1 or the rabbet can be formed by using strips of different widths1 letting the wider lap over the narrower so as to form the rabbet4 ,both doors can be made to swing in the usual way1 of course1 if preferred4 ,where the two sides of the roof meet at the top1 the edges must be bevelled 7see ,bevelling74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kennel4--,there are many kinds of dog-houses1 and the style and size must1 of course1 depend upon the dog and the situation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,a good kennel 7,fig4 #ahg7 for a small dog can be made very much as you would make a box 7see ,box-making1 page #bai74 ,if for a very small dog the ends1 sides1 floor1 and sides of the roof can each be made of one piece1 but ordinarily these parts will each be made of two or more pieces4 ,matched boards are suitable4 ,first get out the bottom1 then the sides and ends4 ,if you use boards with square edges you must of course use pieces of different widths1 so that the cracks between them will not meet at the corners1 or put posts at the corners4 ,this is the best way to do with matched boards1 if the house is at all large4 ,nail these parts together4 ,it will be easiest to cut the slant at the top of each end--the gable--so that the sides of the roof will meet in a right angle4 ,this looks well and saves the need of bevelling the edges of the roof-boards4 ,an opening for the doorway should be cut in one of the ends before the roof is nailed on4 ,if you do not use matched boards1 a strip should be nailed on the inside at each side of the doorway1 to keep the boards together4 ,the roof-boards for one side should be as much longer than those for the other as the thickness of the stock4 ,the same applies to the width of the saddle-boards which cover the extreme top4 ,if the roof is not made of matched boards1 battens should be nailed over the cracks as shown in ,part ,,iii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for a large dog a kennel should be built more like a real house and not so much like a box4 ,a structure with a frame 7,fig4 #ahh7 can be built of any size suitable for a kennel1 and will be more durable than the preceding form4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the frame1 small joists1 or strips of plank of any size from #a-a_/b #b to #b #c can be used4 ,first get out the sills or bottom pieces of the framework1 nailing them together at the corners to form a rectangular frame1 as shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,then get out the corner posts and fasten them in place1 and on top of them fasten the plates 7a second horizontal frame like that at the bottom72 and see that all this framework is rectangular and free from winding4 ,the sills and plates can be halved at the corners 7see ,halving71 but this is not really necessary in so small a house1 as the boarding adds strength to the joints4 ,the frame can be temporarily held in place until the boarding is put on by nailing on as many diagonal strips 7,fig4 #ahi7 as may be required4 ,two rafters at each end should next be put in place1 their ends having been cut at an angle of #de 7see ,mitreing7 and the upper ends being nailed to a strip of board which serves for a ridge-pole4 ,an intermediate rafter on each side will add stiffness to the roof4 ,the floor should next be laid1 as it will be inconvenient in so small a house to do this after the sides are put on4 ,the sides and ends should be boarded with sheathing or matched boards laid vertically1 cutting out the doorway and a small window in the back gable for ventilation4 ,the roof can next be laid with the boards running horizontally1 or lengthwise1 as this house is to be shingled4 ,the shingles can be dipped in creosote stain or paint to good advantage before laying4 ,after the roof has been shingled the saddle-boards can be put on and the house will be ready for painting 7see ,painting74 ,another form of doorway is shown in ,fig4 #ahi;a4 ,for the various details of a framed structure of this sort1 see ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,illustration ,fig4 #ahi;a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the author of ,house and ,pet ,dogs gives the following suggestion3 ,the best device is an ordinary single kennel forty-eight inches by thirty-three inches1 with an ,a roof1 but with a detached bottom of the same size as the outside ground measurement of the kennel4 ,this bottom is hinged by two stout strap-iron hinges to the side of the kennel1 and is provided with two wooden axles1 to which are fitted four wooden wheels1 say four inches in diameter4 ,when closed it looks like any other kennel on wheels4 ,it can be easily moved by one person from damp spots1 etc42 and by turning the kennel back upon its hinges the bedding can be daily sunned and aired and the kennel washed and purified without trouble4 ,the wheels also serve to keep the bottom clear of the ground1 and allow of a free circulation of air beneath4 ,squirrel ,house4--,the small squirrel house1 or cage1 shown in ,fig4 #aij1 is made like a box 7see ,box-making1 page #bai71 with the exception of the roof4 ,the construction is similar to that of the houses already described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aij4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it can be made of #g_/h or #c_/d stock4 ,the dimensions of the bottom can be made to agree with those of any baking-pan you may have1 as shown4 ,the slide in the roof can be made of zinc or tin4 ,that in the side can be of either zinc or wood4 ,after the wire cloth has been nailed on a strip of wood can be nailed around the front edge as a moulding4 ,the little sleeping-box in the upper corner can be readily reached from the slide in the roof and connects with the floor of the house by a little door and a flight of steps 7,fig4 #aia74 ,the latter can be made as shown in ,fig4 #agc4 ,the most difficult part of this house to make nicely is the joining of the roof-boards4 ,these must be bevelled at the ridge and the tops of the ends must also be bevelled where they join the roof 7see ,bevelling74 ,for other details1 see the houses already described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a more elaborate affair1 shown below1 can be made quite large and will give room for a whole family of squirrels4 ,this house is1 however1 considerably more difficult to make than the others shown in this chapter1 and if you have not already acquired some skill as a workman you had best be content with a simpler design4 99 99 99 99 99 ,four or five feet by about three feet will not be too large for the ground dimensions of the main part of the house4 ,regular sills can first be nailed together for the bottom of the main house and ell in the way shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,these sills can be from #a-a_/b #b to #b #c4 ,perhaps an easier way is that shown in ,fig4 #aib1 in which three cross cleats or sills are laid and the floor nailed directly to these4 ,when the lengthways boards shown in ,fig4 #aib are nailed to the floor boards and the sills the bottom will be sufficiently stiff for a squirrel house4 ,the sides and ends of the ell can be made of boards nailed together like a box1 the openings for the doors1 windows1 etc41 being first cut out2 but the main part of the house should have posts at the corners to which the boarding at the ends is to be nailed4 ,rafters should also be put in at each gable4 ,plain sheathing will look better for the outside of this house than that with beads4 ,after the outside has been boarded and the upper floors put in1 the roofs and the cupola can be added4 ,if the cupola is too difficult it can be omitted1 as it is a luxury to which the average squirrel is unaccustomed4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aib4 ,the stairs1 the openings in the floors1 the doorways1 the sleeping-box1 the revolving wire cage1 the tree1 and the swing in the cupola1 are shown in ,fig4 #aib4 ,the stairs can be made as shown in ,fig4 #aib2 strips nailed vertically at the outside corners of the house1 as in a real house1 will give a more finished appearance4 ,the window casings can be made by nailing strips on the outside4 ,the glass can be held in place by strips1 or small rabbets can be cut as in a window sash4 ,for the shingling of the roof1 see ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners74 ,each door can be made of a single piece of board1 cleated 7see ,doors74 ,for any other details1 see the houses just described and also ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners71 and ,painting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aic4 ,several cages of various sizes can readily be built together1 as shown in ,fig4 #aic1 which is merely a suggestion1 for1 of course1 the shape1 size1 arrangement1 and number of compartments must depend on the number and kinds of animals and the situation4 ,various combinations will suggest themselves as occasion calls for them4 ,if you have such creatures as frogs1 turtles1 lizards1 etc41 a water-tank should be provided4 ,this can easily be made by taking a tightly made flat box and caulking the cracks1 or pouring hot tar or pitch into them and also tarring or painting the whole surface of the outside4 ,a board can be fitted slantingly from the bottom to the edge1 at one or both ends1 to form an incline by which the users of this miniature pond can crawl in and out of the water4 ,the box must1 of course1 be sunk in the ground inside of the cage4 ,for larger houses1 as for hens1 etc41 see1 also1 the principles of construction of somewhat larger structures in ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners74 99 99 99 99 99 ,travelling ,cage4--,a small box 7,fig4 #aid7 in which to carry a kitten1 a squirrel1 a bird1 or any small animal1 when travelling1 is often very useful and much better than the bags and baskets so often used for the purpose4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all that is necessary is to make a small box of #a_/b stock 7see ,box-making1 page #bai71 with one side open 7to be covered with wire cloth or netting71 and the opposite side made in two parts1 the upper of which is hinged to serve as a door or lid4 ,strips of moulding can be nailed on with brads along the edges where the wire is fastened1 the door can be fastened with hook and screw-eye or catch1 and a handle fastened upon the top4 ,it is a good plan to round the edges of a box which is to be carried around4 ,if this box is neatly got out and put together and carefully smoothed and finished it will look well and serve for many years4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,implements ,,for ,,outdoor ,,sports ,,and ,,athletics ,stilts4--,there is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts4 ,the construction is obvious 7,figs4 #aie and #aif71 the size and arrangement depending on your own size and skill4 ,the handles can either be long1 or reach up as high as the hand1 or short and strapped to the legs4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aie4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aif4 ,tilt or ,see-,saw4--,one of small size is shown in ,fig4 #aig4 ,the exact proportions given are not necessary1 provided you make it strong and so that it will not tip over4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aig4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aih4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,nailing1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #aii4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,first make the standard 7,fig4 #aih7 of any sound plank #a-a_/d to #b thick and #ab or more in width4 ,get out the pieces to the dimensions before beginning to put together1 the ends of the braces ,h being cut at a mitre 7see ,mitring74 ,square the line ,,ef across the plank ,b at the middle 7,fig4 #aii74 ,drive three or four stout wire nails 7#c to #d long1 according to the thickness of the plank7 nearly through the plank on this line4 ,stand the piece ,a on end under these nails and drive them through firmly into it 7,fig4 #bjj71 keeping the two boards at right angles4 ,bore holes with a #a_/d bit 7see ,boring7 in each end of the pieces ,h1 as shown1 taking pains not to get them too near the edge4 ,screw these braces in place with screws from #b-a_/d to #c-a_/d long 7according to the thickness of the plank71 keeping the piece ,a at right angles with the plank ,b 7see ,screws74 ,screw this frame on the cross-pieces ,c and ,d1 as shown4 ,nails can be used throughout1 but screws are better4 ,with plane1 draw-knife1 or spoke-shave 7see ,part ,v4 for these tools71 round the top edge of ,a4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bja4 ,the tilting-plank should be of spruce1 ash1 hard pine1 or any strong wood1 and had best be from #a-a_/b to #b thick1 according to the length1 which can be #ab' or #ad'4 ,it should of course be planed4 ,next get out a few cleats #g_/h square1 or thicker1 and screw them on the under side of the tilting-plank at the middle 7,fig4 #bja1 which shows the under side of the plank71 so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than the thickness of the upright piece ,a--just enough to allow the plank to tilt freely4 ,nail strips on the edge1 to keep the plank from slipping off sideways1 shaving a little from the edges of ,a at the top if necessary4 ,finally run over the edges with a plane 7see ,plane71 and sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers4 ,simply paint or oil and varnish 7see ,painting or ,finishing74 ,a larger and more elaborate affair1 adjustable to different heights1 is shown in ,fig4 #bjb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,first get out the main pieces to the dimensions 7,figs4 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje74 ,the upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest 7,fig4 #bjf7 7see ,mortising74 ,gauge a line lengthways along the centre of each side of the uprights 7see ,gauge7 and mark points 7say #f apart7 on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the tilting-plank rests1 taking pains to place them alike on the two uprights4 ,then bore #c_/d or #a_/b holes 7see ,boring71 according to the size of rod you can get4 ,next fit the cross bar at the top4 ,this can simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights 7,fig4 #bjg71 or made with a shoulder 7,fig4 #bjh71 which will add to the stiffness of the frame4 ,the rest of the construction of the standard is plain1 and similar to that just described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bje4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,iron rods can be used for braces1 if you wish 7,fig4 #bji74 ,the tilting-plank should be #af' or #ah' long1 and of #b plank4 ,a thread with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep the rod from slipping out of place4 ,the plank can be fastened to the rod by iron straps or even staples1 or a box-like bearing can be quickly made 7,fig4 #baj74 ,washers can be placed between the plank and the uprights if necessary4 ,smooth the edges with a plane 7see ,plane7 and sandpaper the plank4 ,simply paint or oil and varnish 7see ,painting and ,finishing74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bji4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #baj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,skis4--,to make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift stock1 that is1 split out instead of sawed2 but this may seldom be practicable for you and is not really necessary4 ,good straight-grained sawed stock will answer1 but be sure that you get clear1 strong stock--air-dried if possible4 ,always avoid kiln-dried stock for anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain1 if you can get that which has been naturally seasoned 7see ,chapter ,,iii474 ,ash is very good 7white ash the best72 spruce1 light and strong2 oak1 strong but heavy4 ,any strong and elastic wood will do1 if not too heavy4 ,if you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward and is satisfactory in other respects1 take it1 for a convex curve upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body4 ,this curve is not necessary1 but the better ones are purposely so made4 ,skis are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle4 ,small ones can even be made of staves from barrels1 but these are very unsatisfactory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,draw-knife1 ,plane1 ,spokeshave1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #baa4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bab4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bac4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bad4 ,first get out the pieces of the required size4 ,the length for a man is usually about #h' and the width about #d1 though they are used even as long as #ab' or #ac'4 ,from #e' to #h' long and from #c-a_/b to #d wide will probably be right for you1 but the dimensions depend on your size1 of course4 ,next taper the forward ends1 as shown in ,fig4 #baa4 ,you can mark both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline 7see ,spline7 on a piece of stiff paper1 from which you can cut out a pattern for drawing the curve on the wood4 ,next make the pieces thinner towards the ends 7,fig4 #bab71 noticing that the forward end is thinner than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may be thin where the toe bends up4 ,this requires great care unless the grain is very straight1 for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a cut 7see ,paring1 etc474 ,good forms are shown in ,figs4 #bac and #bad1 the former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends1 but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in bending4 ,this shaping can best be done by the draw-knife1 spoke-shave1 or plane4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bae4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #baf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bag4 ,bend the points of the toes upwards about #f above the horizontal line to ensure their riding clear of obstructions1 but there is no gain in curling them up a foot4 ,for the process of bending1 see ,bending ,wood4 ,then turning the skis over1 gauge 7see ,gauge7 parallel lines for the grooves on the bottom4 ,work the grooves out with the gouge or with the saw and chisel 7see ,gouge and ,grooving7 unless you chance to have the plane designed for this purpose4#bj ,make these grooves shallower as they approach the toe1 leaving no groove where the toe bends up4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bah4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bai4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bba4 ,balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout leather straps just forward of the balancing point4 ,these can be riveted or even screwed to the edges of the skis 7,fig4 #bae71 but a better way is to put them through slots cut in the wood 7,fig4 #baf74 ,gauge accurately for the slots1 marking on both edges1 and bore in from both sides 7see ,boring74 ,the slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file 7see ,mortising74 ,an easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves 7,fig4 #bag7 with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely screwed on 7,fig4 #bah74 ,some use a second lighter strap to go above the heel4 ,this can be screwed to the edges if you use it4 ,strips screwed across under the instep 7,figs4 #bai and #bbj71 or behind the heel 7,fig4 #bba71 to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used4#ba ,for racing the ,norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,the pole1 like the skis1 must be of light1 strong stuff1 and can be round or eight-sided 7see ,rounding ,sticks74 ,to shape the tapering end make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then plane each side down at the end to get the taper4 ,the hole in the disk must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole1 so that it cannot slip up farther than the tapering part 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,many dispense with the disk4 ,finally smooth skis and pole with scraper 7see ,scraper7 or glass1 and sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper71 and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil or with oil1 shellac1 and varnish1 in successive coats 7see ,finishing74 ,if open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in 7see ,finishing71 and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow1 if you wish4 99 99 99 99 99 ,toboggan4--,this is now commonly made of narrow strips1 in principle much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than the older pattern1 formed of one or two wide pieces1 as originally made by the ,indians4 ,white oak and hickory are probably the best woods4 ,ash1 maple1 birch1 basswood1 or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be used4 ,as in the case of the ski1 to make the best possible the pieces should be rift1 or split out1 rather than sawed1 to ensure straight grain2 but1 as this may be out of the question for you1 be sure to select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find1 for1 besides the bending of the ends1 there is great strain put upon it in coasting4 ,for the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if possible4 ,probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a toboggan together is the old way adopted by the ,indians of binding or lashing with thongs4 ,this gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use4 ,you can try this way instead of that given below1 if you prefer1 but be sure to cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in1 or they will be quickly worn through4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,the size can vary from #c' long by #a' wide to #aj' or #ab' long by #bj to #bb wide2 #d' long by #ae or #af wide is good for a single toboggan2 #h' long by #ah is a good size for three or more persons4 ,you will probably find the stock most readily in the form of #ab' boards4 ,one-half inch in the rough will be thick enough1 though you may have to take inch 7rough7 or #g_/h 7planed7 boards4 ,let us make an #h' toboggan 7,fig4 #bbc74 ,have the stock planed and sawed in strips about #aj' long1 #b-a_/b wide1 and not less than #a_/d nor more than #c_/h in thickness4 ,if they are tapered a little in thickness for #ab or #ae at the forward end they can be bent more easily1 but do not shave them down too much 7see ,plane and ,drawshave74 ,smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and scraper 7see ,scraper74 ,it is hardly necessary to plane the upper surfaces by hand1 as the planer will leave them fairly smooth1 though they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand4 ,plane the edges4 ,next get out eight cross-bars or cleats #ah long #c_/h thick and from #a-a_/b to #c wide4 ,if wide they can be tapered at the edges1 and if narrow1 the edges should be rounded 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,get out also two or three cleats #ah long1 #a_/d thick1 and #a-a_/d wide1 and one piece #ah long and about #c_/d #g_/h 7half of a hardwood broomstick will do74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,the long strips must now be bent at the forward end 7see ,bending ,wood74 ,after they are bent take the eight cleats and1 laying one across the strips as it is to go1 mark points for three holes at each strip 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,bore #c_/af or #a_/d holes in the cross strips and countersink them very carefully 7see ,boring and ,countersink71 so that the heads of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface4 ,take great care not to countersink too deeply1 for the long strips are so thin that the screws may come through on the under side4 ,mark and bore the other seven cleats by this first one4 ,now take one cleat1 to be put on at the rear end #h' from the beginning of the curve4 ,screw one end of this cleat in place 7see ,screws71 test with the square1 and screw the other end4 ,then put in the intermediate screws1 driving them all firmly home1 and saw off the ends of the long strips just beyond this cleat4 ,square lines across every foot to the curve at the front1 and screw on the other cleats4 ,the length of the screws 7which can be quite stout7 should be such that they will almost1 but not quite1 go through to the under side of the toboggan4 ,be careful about this or the points will have to be filed off4 ,then screw the smaller cleats on the inside of the curve4 ,screw the remaining 7stouter7 cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to end1 and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat4 ,by thongs1 belt-lacing1 or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put on fasten the curve 7which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat7 in the required position to the cleat beneath 7,fig4 #bbe74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats 7,fig4 #bbc74 ,a common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker 7say #g_/h7 and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes1 or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before they are screwed on1 and by passing thongs or cord through these notches the side-bars can be lashed in place4 ,the side bars you can plane round or eight-sided 7see ,rounding ,sticks7 out of strips of any strong wood4 ,sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil1 or with oil1 shellac1 and varnish1 in successive coats 7see ,finishing74 ,if open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in 7see ,finishing71 and the bottom can be waxed or rubbed with tallow1 if you wish4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,if you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one side of each of the long strips 7except the two outer ones7 so as to leave the strip thickest in the middle 7,fig4 #bbf74 ,unless you are willing to take pains enough to do it nicely 7which will take some time71 it will be best not to attempt it at all1 or to have it done at a mill4 ,if you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring fractions of a second against time4 ,another way is to curve the cross-cleats slightly 7,fig4 #bbf71 leaving the long strips flat4 ,some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,you can1 as you may know1 patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves1 with which1 though not a very workmanlike arrangement1 you can have a lot of fun at no expense4 ,you can get a high speed with this simple contrivance 7,fig4 #bbg7 on a steep hill4 ,it is not good1 however1 unless the pitch is steep4 ,you can even get a good deal of sport from this apparatus in the summer on a very steep grassy knoll4 ,wooden ,guns and ,pistols4--,a gun on the principle of that shown in ,fig4 #bbh1 the projectile power being furnished by elastic 7rubber7 cord1 is easily made4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square11 ,saw1 ,spokeshave1 ,knife1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,first saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or whitewood board4 ,this can be quickly and cheaply done at any wood-working mill4 ,the gun can then be finally shaped with the spoke-shave and knife4 ,the rasp and file can be used 7see ,rasp and ,file474 ,much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife 7see ,draw-knife71 and1 in fact1 the whole can be whittled out with a knife if other tools are wanting4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,the most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and the arrangement of the trigger4 ,much care is needed to cut an accurate groove with a gouge 7see ,gouge71 and1 unless you are skilled1 you can get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill4 ,a mortise 7see ,mortising7 must be cut for the trigger long enough to allow it sufficient play 7,fig4 #bbi74 ,the arrangement of the trigger is shown in ,fig4 #bbi4 ,the elastic underneath the barrel 7at the lower end of the trigger7 must be sufficiently powerful 7combined with its additional leverage7 to balance the elastic which propels the arrow1 so that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic drawn1 until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bca4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,the barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces 7,fig4 #bcj1 showing section7 of thinner stock1 which obviates the grooving but makes more work otherwise4 ,the groove can be left open on top 7,fig4 #bcj7 or covered with a thin strip 7,figs4 #bca and #bcb74 ,in the latter case a depression must be made in the barrel1 so that when the strip is put on there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth 7,fig4 #bcb74 ,with this arrangement you can make a notch 7,fig4 #bcc7 to hold the cord when drawn4 ,the trigger can be of wood or wire1 pivoted on a screw or nail1 so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and released 7,fig4 #bcc74 ,a tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel1 as in a real gun1 and a plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows1 or bullets in case they are used 7,fig4 #bcd74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bce4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,the ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the muzzle4 ,a piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point4 ,another form of trigger is shown in ,fig4 #bce1 which can also be made of stiff wire 7,fig4 #bcf74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,to finish the gun nicely1 it should be scraped 7see ,scraper7 and sandpapered with fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper74 ,it can then be finished with oil and shellac or varnish 7see ,shellac1 ,varnish1 ,finishing74 ,these same methods of construction can1 of course1 be applied to a pistol4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bch4 ,a bow-gun or crossbow 7,fig4 #bcg7 can be made on the same principle1 using a bow instead of the elastic1 and inserting it in a hole made through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel 7,fig4 #bch74 ,sleds4--,common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while1 as a rule1 to make them4 ,many are so poorly made1 however1 and will stand so little rough usage1 that a few suggestions may be of value if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself4 ,take the dimensions from any sled which suits you4 ,avoid making your sled too high1 however1 as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no better than a low sled1 and requires much more bracing to be strong4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bci4 ,the runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak1 maple1 ash1 or other strong wood2 #g_/h stock will do4 ,mark the runners carefully on the wood1 according to your working-drawing 7,fig4 #bci71 and before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope 7see ,boring74 ,saw out the runners1 or have them sawed by machine1 and see that the curves are the same on each4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,get out three cross-pieces 7,fig4 #bdj7 about #b wide1 and from #g_/h to #a-a_/d thick1 with a shoulder at each end as shown4 ,mark and cut the mortises 7see ,mortising7 in the runners 7,fig4 #bci74 ,put these parts together1 forming the frame of the sled 7,fig4 #bda71 driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the ,l irons shown in ,figs4 #bda and #bdb4 ,the seat may be thinner than the runners1 and is to be fitted between them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces 7see ,screws74 ,the thickness of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the mortises in the runners4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bda4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,machine-planed stock is1 of course1 as smooth as is necessary for a sled1 but smoothing by hand 7see ,plane1 ,scraper1 and ,sandpaper7 will give a nicer surface4 ,the runners can be shod at the blacksmith's with half-round irons1 or round steel can be used with iron at the ends4 ,in case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the edge1 so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place4 ,the irons can be #a_/b to #e_/h in diameter4 ,finish with paint 7see ,painting7 or with oil1 shellac1 and varnish 7see ,finishing74 99 99 99 99 99 ,a double-runner1 bob1 or traverse sled can be built to good advantage4 ,the sleds can be made as just described1 or ready-made ones can be used4 ,see that they are well put together1 of the same width1 and securely braced1 as the strain upon them is great4 ,the length of the double-runner is a matter of choice1 of course4 ,as to the height and width1 however1 if the coasting is straight1 smooth1 and comparatively safe there is no objection to a high seat1 with a comfortable foot-board on each side for the passengers' feet1 if you wish4 ,but if you are going to coast on long1 rough hills1 with sudden curves and pitches to be taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners frequently seen4 ,make the sleds rather broad 7#ah is not too wide for the track of a #af' sled2 which is a very long sled1 however71 and keep the height of the top-board down to about #aj or less4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdc4 ,the seat-board can be from #h' to #af' long1 and about #ab to #ad wide4 ,board thickness is sufficient for a short seat1 but if long a #a-a_/d plank should be used4 ,if you have in mind to make a very long sled you should consider1 before beginning1 that you must either use a quite thick plank to get the necessary stiffness1 which will add to the weight of the double-runner1 or the plank must be stiffened or trussed with rods beneath like a bridge1 which will add to the expense and labour4 ,it should be of strong1 elastic1 straight-grained wood1 free from bad knots or defects1 as the strain upon it is great4 ,it should not be too yielding and springy1 however1 or it may sag inconveniently4 ,clear hard ,southern pine or ash is good4 ,a plank of stiff spruce of good quality will do4 ,the rear end can be rounded1 as shown 7,fig4 #bdc74 ,machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank1 but the edges should be planed carefully 7see ,plane71 and the angles slightly rounded off with the plane1 spoke-shave1 or rasp and file 7see ,spokeshave1 ,rasp1 and ,file7 to prevent splinters4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bde4 ,to enable the front sled to turn properly1 get out two pieces of #b plank1 as shown in ,fig4 #bdd1 about #c wide and as long as the width of the sled1 one being tapered toward the ends on the under side4 ,the tapering is important1 as it diminishes the friction when the front sled is turned4 ,screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board 7see ,screws71 a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece 7as well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled7 for the king-bolt upon which the front sled turns4 ,find these centres accurately and bore carefully with a bit #a_/af larger than the king-bolt 7see ,boring74 ,the front sled should turn very freely and easily1 and have plenty of play1 but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the double-runner rickety4 ,a washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces4 ,sometimes a thick rubber washer is used to lessen the shock 7,fig4 #bde74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdf4 ,to give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down 7without turning sideways7 in passing over the inequities of the surface the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #bdc 7and enlarged in ,fig4 #bdf7 is good4 ,do not make this of #g_/h stock4 ,pieces of plank should be used1 the dimensions being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the front and rear sleds4 ,the pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be not less than #a in diameter 7#a-a_/d is better7 and should be carefully cut 7see ,paring and ,rounding ,sticks74 ,the best way is to have them turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces4 ,the latter should be long enough 7about #a'7 to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,another way1 sometimes adopted1 is to use two cross-cleats with two bolts 7queen-bolts7 and thick rubber washers 7,fig4 #bdg71 the bolts being loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play4 ,ropes or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board1 to prevent too much dropping of the former4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdh4 ,many arrangements for steering have been invented4 ,a cleat at the forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against1 the sled being guided by the ropes held in the hand 7,fig4 #bdh71 is a simple way1 though requiring more strength and steadiness of arm1 when the coast is rough or dangerous1 than is possessed by many steersmen4 ,the brace for the feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above and beneath4 ,another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the feet upon the forward sled 7,fig4 #bdc71 cutting a shallow gain in the tops of the runners to hold it more securely4 ,in this way of steering the arms can reinforce the legs1 or the steering can be done by the legs alone4 ,it is a very effective method1 which gives a high degree of control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the seat-board free of obstructions4#bb ,illustration ,,fig4 #beb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bec4 ,in case of a high double-runner1 running foot-boards along each side can be added4 ,a simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of strap-iron bent as shown in ,fig4 #beb and screwed to the under side of the seat-board1 with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms 7,fig4 #bec74 ,the dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon the height and size of the double-runner1 but you should take pains that the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such that the feet cannot become caught4 ,the problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a double-runner has not yet been solved4 ,like all other apparatus for emergencies it should be as simple as possible4 ,unless it is sure to work it will be worse than not to have one1 as you will come to rely on it4 ,the steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of braking1 and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally devolves4 ,if he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against a lever as shown below1 but if he steers with the feet it is pretty risky business trying to brake also with the foot and1 unless you can contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand 7not an easy thing to do71 the brake had best be worked by the rider at the rear4 ,this has some obvious disadvantages4 ,a few ideas are given below1 but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bed4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bee4 ,the simple and primitive way1 so often used in the country by drivers of heavily loaded sleds1 of dropping a chain under the runner is an effective method of braking1 provided you have some sure method of dropping the chain under the runners4 ,fig4 #bed shows a method which can be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner4 ,in the plan1 or top view 7,fig4 #bed71 the details of the arrangement 7being beneath the seat7 would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines1 but in this case1 on account of the small size of the drawing1 they are shown by full lines1 as they would look if the seat-board were transparent4 ,a way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in ,fig4 #bee4 ,a small block a1 perhaps #c long1 is screwed to the under side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar b 7which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by the spring71 and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed at one end1 which prevents the chain from dropping4 ,the end of the bar b is connected by a wire with the lever in front4 ,when the lever is pushed by the steersman's foot the bar b is pulled away from the block a and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear sled1 which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill4 ,fig4 #bef shows the bar held in position by the spring4 ,fig4 #beg shows the position of the bar after the lever has been pressed1 with the open space which allows the chain to drop4 ,the same apparatus can be worked from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be pulled led back 7,fig4 #beh71 where it can be worked directly by the hand or you can contrive a lever to be raised4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bef4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #beg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #beh4 ,a method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed from an iron rod1 one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop the sled4 ,fig4 #bei shows a form sometimes used1 and ,fig4 #bfj a top view showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use4 ,any blacksmith can arrange this apparatus1 which is attached to the rear sled4 ,a similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's foot if desired4 ,one prong1 attached to the under side of the seat-board1 can be arranged as suggested 7side view7 in ,fig4 #bfj;a4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bei4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfj4 ,the double-runner should be thoroughly oiled1 and a coat of shellac1 followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish1 will add much to its durability as well as to its appearance4 ,lubricate the working parts with soap or tallow4 ,if you have a gong1 it should be worked by someone other than the steersman4 ,the rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to be steered by a second steersman1 somewhat after the fashion of a long hook-and-ladder truck4 ,this gives good command of the double-runner on curves4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfj;a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,gymnastic ,apparatus4--,it will1 in most cases1 be out of the question for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a gym1 but sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate expense4 ,some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism of a modern college gymnasium1 but will answer the purpose so far as getting up muscle is concerned4 ,most of you can find a place for one or more pieces of apparatus1 either indoors or out4 ,much outdoor apparatus can be supported on posts driven into the ground1 or even by fastening to trees4 ,the outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make1 but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or winter1 to any great extent1 and will not last so long on account of exposure to the weather4 ,if1 however1 you fix things the right way and take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather1 such a gym will last until it is outgrown1 or until the next generation grows up to build a new one4 ,if indoors have the room well ventilated4 ,often the second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium4 ,the few simple pieces of apparatus given here will be treated independently1 as it is of course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them4 ,you can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances4 ,white ash1 hickory1 oak1 hard pine1 and for some purposes fir1 spruce1 and white pine1 are suitable for gymnastic apparatus4 ,for everything which is to stand violent strain or wrenching1 as the horizontal bars1 vaulting poles1 and such things1 use air-dried stock1 if possible1 avoiding kiln-dried1 as the latter is more brittle and inelastic1 and often utterly unfit for such uses 7see ,chapter ,,iii474 ,of course for such parts only the toughest woods should be used1 as white ash1 hickory1 oak1 spruce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,parallel ,bars4--,a useful form 7and not beyond the skill of an amateur7 is shown in ,fig4 #bfa4 ,the height must1 of course1 depend upon the gymnast1 and can range from #c' #f to #e' #f1 the width inside 7between the bars7 from #ad to #ai1 and the length from #f' to #h'4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfa4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the base of the apparatus can be simply made of #b #f planks1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfa1 and fastened by screws 7see ,screws71 or1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfb1 the pieces can be halved at their intersections 7see ,halving71 in which case thicker stock may be used4 ,for a small pair of bars the planks for the base can be somewhat lighter4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfb4 ,the upright posts should be of strong wood not less than #b #d 7unless for a very small pair of bars7 and should be mortised at top and bottom1 as shown in ,figs4 #bfc and #bfd 7see ,mortising74 ,these joints should be pinned4 ,the bars themselves should be of the best white ash 7hickory1 oak1 hard pine can be used71 not less than #b #c 7unless for a small pair of bars74 ,the arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfd4 ,after the apparatus is all fitted together1 take off the bars and carefully round the top edges for the entire length 7see ,rounding ,sticks74 ,the ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on the under side 7i4e41 made elliptical in section1 as shown71 if desired4 ,machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus1 except for the bars themselves1 which should be carefully smoothed by hand 7see ,plane1 ,scraper1 ,sandpaper71 although1 of course1 the whole will appear more nicely finished if smoothed by hand4 ,the square edges should be broken 7i4e41 slightly bevelled or rounded7 so as not to be too sharp in case of contact with them4 ,the whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly1 or can be given in addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish 7see ,finishing71 but a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves1 as they will be polished by use4 ,this arrangement has the advantage of being portable1 but of course the base can be omitted1 if desired1 and the posts fastened directly to the floor4 ,if mortises cannot be cut in the floor1 blocks can be screwed to the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which the post will fit4 ,parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four upright posts 7not less than #c #d7 firmly in the ground1 at the same distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above1 and fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon1 as already shown 7,fig4 #bfc74 ,the posts should reach #c' or more below ground1 both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness1 and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a sharp-pointed bar or stick4 ,this apparatus should be thoroughly oiled and can be varnished 7see ,finishing74 ,the posts should be of good thickness at the ground1 but can be tapered toward the top1 on the outside1 to the thickness of the bars4 99 99 99 99 99 ,horizontal ,bar4--,a design suitable for the amateur wood-worker is shown in ,fig4 #bfe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,first make the upright posts or guides4 ,these are somewhat like a trough in shape1 side boards about #f wide being screwed 7see ,screws7 on the sides of a #b #c joist4 ,fig4 #bff shows sections in the middle and at each end1 blocks being inserted at the ends for strength4 ,the joist can be of any strong wood4 ,the side boards1 which serve as guides for the bar1 had best be of hard wood4 ,hard pine1 oak1 maple1 ash1 or any strong wood can be used4 ,you will require two of the joists and four side boards1 all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room4#bc ,the usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and1 after they are fastened together1 to saw off the ends so as to give the required length4 ,gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces 7see ,gauge7 and intersect these lines at regular distances by others squared across and around three sides of the uprights1 thus determining the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position4 ,these can be bored from each side with a #c_/h bit 7see ,boring74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfe4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bff4 ,another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats of plank to the inner side of each timber1 thus forming the groove for the bar1 as shown in section in ,fig4 #bfg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfg4 ,the uprights can now be fastened in place1 taking care to have them exactly vertical and in line with each other4 ,the distance apart will depend on the length of the bar4 ,the uprights can of course be mortised into the floor1 or the wood-work above1 if the conditions admit1 but it will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling4 ,it is usually simpler to have these uprights extend to the ceiling1 but this is not necessary1 and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only1 by wooden or iron braces1 in some of the ways already shown1 or they can be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles4 ,the bar you had best have made or buy already made1 in which case you can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar4 ,it can be from #e' in length to perhaps #f' #i 7#f' is a good length71 and should be not less than #a-c_/d in diameter1 nor over #b4 ,it should be of the best clear1 straight-grained white ash or hickory 7air-dried1 not kiln-dried74 ,one having a steel rod for a core is the best4 ,the ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves of the upright guides 7,fig4 #bfh74 ,any blacksmith can arrange this1 as well as the pins to hold the bar4 ,this apparatus can be finished in the same way as the parallel bars just described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bfi4 ,a suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in ,fig4 #bfi4 ,the post should be set in the ground at least #c' and the earth well tamped down around it with a pointed bar or stick4 ,the lower ends of the braces can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in the ground4 ,this apparatus should be protected from the weather as in the cases described above4 ,vaulting ,apparatus4--,you can buy iron standards or bases1 and of course the whole apparatus1 for high jumping and pole vaulting1 but it is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the purpose satisfactorily 7,fig4 #bgj74 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,take two straight sticks #aj' or #ab' long and about #b-a_/b square4 ,taper each piece with the plane until about #a-a_/b square at one end4 ,make each base of two pieces of board about #d wide and perhaps #c' long1 as shown in ,fig4 #bgj1 or halve two pieces of plank 7see ,halving74 ,mortise the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in ,fig4 #bga 7see ,mortising74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bga4 ,before fastening the posts to the standards1 mark a line along the middle of one side of each post4 ,on this line lay off feet and inches from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts at each of these points 7except1 of course1 those near the ground7 for the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord 7see ,boring74 ,then fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each4 ,the ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place1 or the blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum 7,fig4 #bga74 ,finish like the other apparatus already described4 ,vaulting poles should be round1 very straight-grained1 from air-dried 7not kiln-dried7 stock of light1 strong wood1 as spruce1 free from knots or any cross-grained1 weak spots4 ,the thickness should of course depend on the length1 but should not be less than #a-a_/d for an #h' pole 7which is quite short71 and the pole should taper toward each end 7see ,rounding ,sticks74 99 99 99 99 99 ,spring-,board4--,a form not difficult to make is shown in ,fig4 #bgb4 ,the framework can be made of any strong wood1 but the spring-board itself should be of the best quality of clear1 straight-grained white ash4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,first make the base or framework4 ,get out two pieces of #b #c plank for the outside pieces 7to stand on edge7 and screw blocks of the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown4 ,place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward end 7,fig4 #bgb71 being about #bb apart at the rear end4 ,fit a cross-tie to connect these stringers at about #b' from the forward end4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgb4 ,another cross-bar1 resting on the stringers1 is placed nearer the rear end1 and about #a' from the rear end a piece of #c #d joist is fitted between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and the stringers4 ,this should be loose enough to allow the block to turn4 ,the spring-board can be made of five strips of #g_/h stock1 #d wide and #f' long1 screwed to a cleat at the forward end1 and securely bolted to the block at the rear end4 ,this apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vaulting-,horse4--,a simple affair 7,fig4 #bgc7 can be easily arranged by making a box1 perhaps #e' long and #h or #aj square1 which can be supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgd4 ,first make the box 7see ,box-making1 in ,part ,,ii474 ,the corners and edges should be rounded 7,fig4 #bgd71 and the whole padded and covered with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the purpose4 ,laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is the hardest part of the job4 ,transfer the bevels carefully from your working drawing to the wood1 and saw as exactly to the lines as you can4 ,see also ,scribing4 ,unless you have had much experience some paring will probably be required to make all the legs fit4 ,to make the horse stand evenly see ,scribing1 ,winding-sticks1 etc4 ,the other general directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this horse4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bge4 ,a horse for outdoors 7,fig4 #bge7 can be simply made of a log1 perhaps #a' in diameter1 smoothed and with the ends rounded1 and mounted 7by mortising7 upon posts set in the ground 7see ,mortising74 ,the top can be covered with rubber1 as indicated in the illustration4 ,the posts should be set at least #c' in the ground1 and the earth well tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick4 ,the apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above4 99 99 99 99 99 ,giant ,swing4--,this piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors1 and affords considerable sport 7,fig4 #bgf74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgh4 ,you must have a pole or mast from #ae' to #be' long and from #f to #aj in diameter at the lower end4 ,at the smaller end there should be an iron ring or ferrule4 ,this can be heated and driven on1 when it will shrink so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting4 ,the upper end of the pole should first be squarely sawed off 7see ,saw74 ,the swing ropes1 of which you can have two or four 7as you wish71 can be fastened by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post 7see ,boring71 the latter being firmly set up in the ground4 ,the blacksmith can quickly fix a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer1 to which you can fasten the ropes 7,fig4 #bgg74 ,the lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the proper height to sticks for handles4 ,loops can also be made in which to rest one leg if you wish4 ,of course you must have plenty of room for swinging around4 ,in setting up the pole dig a hole #c' or #d' deep and after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a pointed bar or stick4 ,a cheaper way1 but hardly as good1 is to drive a #a or #c_/d rod in the top of the pole1 and get out a stout piece of hard wood1 #c or #d square and #a-a_/b' or #b' long1 with a hole in the middle to fit the rod1 and smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot 7,fig4 #bgh74 ,a washer can be put under the wooden bar1 or the top of the pole may be slightly rounded4 99 99 99 99 99 ,other ,apparatus4--,there are1 of course1 other useful forms of apparatus involving more or less wood-work1 such as hanging poles1 fixed upright and slanting poles or bars1 and various contrivances which you can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been given4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ladders are of course good1 but it is usually as well for the amateur to buy these4 ,a suggestion for a framework for hanging rings1 trapeze1 poles1 rope ladders1 and the like1 with fixed ladders and horizontal bar1 is given in ,fig4 #bgi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bgi4 ,do not make such framework too light4 ,fasten the joints with bolts rather than screws or nails1 and suspend the hanging apparatus from eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts4 ,the dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances4 ,the suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to suit the circumstances4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,all of this work can be done cheaply at any mill1 leaving the rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you to do yourself1 and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be done by machine4 #ba ,mrs4 ,alec ,tweedie says of the way skis are worn in ,norway3 ,the toes are fastened by a leather strap4 ,another strap goes round the heel in a sort of loop fashion1 securing the foot1 but at the same time giving the heel full play4 ,a special ski boot is worn over enormously thick horsehair stockings4 ,this boot has no hard sole at all1 and1 instead of being sewn at the sides1 the large piece of thick leather which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue4 ,at the back of the boot is a small strap1 which is used to fasten the ski securely to the boot4 ,once fixed on the ski1 the boot is so secure no fall can loosen it1 and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps4 #bb ,various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are sometimes used4 ,these work well if properly attached1 and for reasonably safe coasting can be recommended1 but where a spill is likely to occur1 it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these obstructions in front of the steersman4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bdi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bej4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bea4 ,fig4 #bdi shows the king-post squared at the lower end 7and tapering7 to be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end4 ,a wheel is attached to the upper end4 ,any blacksmith can make an arrangement like this1 or the bottom of the king-post can be split 7,fig4 #bej7 and screwed to the front sled1 and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel 7,fig4 #bea74 #bc ,you can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length is somewhat greater than the height of the room4 ,by letting the ends lap over one another in the middle1 the sticks can be slipped along on each other until they just reach from floor to ceiling4 ,hold them tightly together 7or fasten them with a clamp7 when in this position and you will have the exact length required4 ,,chapter ,x ,,furniture ,some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon which the beginner 7particularly the amateur of mature years7 tries his hand2 and boys1 as well as their elders1 sometimes confidently undertake pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an experienced cabinet-maker1 only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory result4 ,do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone1 at an expense of perhaps only #b4ih1 easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out of packing-cases1 old bedsteads1 barrels1 soap-boxes1 broomsticks1 and the like1 with only the household hammer1 saw1 and screw-driver1 and a liberal supply of putty1 coloured varnish1 and the occasional help of the village carpenter4 ,that sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save the expense of furniture made in the usual way4 ,you can very well help them in such work1 or do it for them1 and some very neat1 cheap1 and serviceable things can be made of such materials 7particularly with the use of cloth7--but that is not the way for you to begin your cabinet-making4 ,learn to do good1 plain1 simple1 useful work in the simplest1 most straightforward1 practical1 workmanlike way4 ,when you can do that1 if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly4 ,be sure to begin with simple articles1 avoiding attempts at elaborate decoration4 ,do not spend your time in making a useless object merely because you think it is pretty4 ,think first whether your design is suited for the purpose intended4 ,if you start to make a case for your books1 select or make your design accordingly1 and do not be misled1 by the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is flooded1 into making a parlour bric--brac cabinet1 all built up of turning1 and jig-sawing1 and machine-made carvings1 too complicated and fragile for practical use1 with the result that the books continue to be stored on a closet shelf or on the floor4 ,next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object4 ,the importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average amateur1--sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the details pretty1--but it is essential in making a handsome piece of furniture4 ,no amount of exquisite carving1 inlaying1 or decoration of any kind 7however beautiful in itself7 will make an ill-shaped1 badly proportioned article a thing of beauty2 while a well-shaped and well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from decoration of any kind4 ,of course1 no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture1 but when you have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have done as well as you can1 there is one thing it is well to bear in mind--that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than by leaving the work too plain4 ,when you become proficient enough to add carving1 or other form of decoration1 to your work1 by all means use any skill you may have in such ways1 but even then remember not to use such ornamentation too freely4 ,avoid gingerbread work1 meaningless jig-sawed decorations1 and machine-made carvings1 turned out by the gross4 ,look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture 7if you are fortunate enough to be able to do so7 and think how long it has lasted1 and compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in use for a few years4 ,how much of the latter would be in existence now if it had been made when the ancestral articles were8 ,the durability of the old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning4 ,the use of whole pieces 7instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued up with cheap glue71 the way the articles were put together1 and the generally honest work put into them had much to do with it4 ,bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail1 in order to produce a really satisfactory result1 than is necessary for much of the other work often done by amateurs4 ,many slight inaccuracies1 which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work1 become such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles4 ,remember1 then1 that while it is easy to make your furniture strong1 it is by no means easy to produce close1 accurate joints1 smooth1 true surfaces1 square1 clean-cut edges1 and a good1 smooth finish4 ,choose1 therefore1 simple forms1 easily put together1 for your early attempts2 for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well than to make an elaborate one badly4 ,first and foremost1 when you come to the actual work1 use thoroughly seasoned wood4 ,this is essential to making permanently satisfactory furniture1 as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an article out of half-seasoned stock1 only to see the ruin of your carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry1 or even before4 ,although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly seasoned stock1 you will doubtless sometimes be deceived1 however1 as it is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine2 but you can at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition1 for it will be time well spent4 7,read the remarks on seasoning in ,chapter ,,iii47 ,be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts4 ,do not buy highly figured1 heavy1 and hard ,san ,domingo mahogany 7no matter how beautiful7 for your first table or bookcase--nor even quartered oak1 nor mottled walnut burl1 nor wavy maple--but begin with plain1 straight-grained material1 easy to work4 ,white pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance1 but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture4 ,it is one of the best woods to stand1 or hold its shape1 and if not desired of the natural colour 7which1 is1 however1 suitable and attractive for some objects7 it can be painted4 ,it can also be stained1 but is not to be compared with whitewood in this respect4 ,whitewood is1 like pine1 easy to work1 durable1 can be obtained in wide boards1 can be painted1 and takes a stain exceedingly well4 ,black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture1 though its sombre hue is not always desirable4 ,cherry1 when soft and straight-grained1 is easy to work and is often 7when highly figured or wavy7 one of the most beautiful woods4 ,it is easy to finish4 ,mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability1 and holds its shape exceedingly well1 but the beginner should confine himself at first to the lighter1 softer1 straight-grained varieties1 which can be easily obtained4 ,you can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds1 which will tax your skill in smoothing them4 ,oak in its softer1 straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of the beginner4 ,it is durable1 and an article made of oak will stand more abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for furniture4 ,when quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain1 straight-grained oak1 but as you acquire skill you will find quartered oak one of the most satisfactory woods4 ,oak can be stained if desired4 ,many other kinds of wood are sometimes used1 as sycamore1 ash1 birch1 beech1 maple1 rosewood1 butternut1 ebony1 etc41 but these woods you can try for yourself1 if you wish1 as you progress in skill1 and thus learn their peculiar characteristics4 ,an important point1 not always realised by the amateur1 is that the stock for good furniture should be planed true1 that is1 free from winding4 ,buy stock that is as true as you can find 7see ,chapter ,,iii47 and have it planed to be as true as possible4 ,have as much of this truing done by machine as you can afford1 for it is not worth while to spend an hour in working down a surface by hand 7see ,truing ,surfaces1 in ,part ,v47 when a machine will do it in five minutes4 ,there are1 of course1 cases in which this accuracy is not essential1--and judgment must be used1 as in all intelligent work1--but1 as a rule1 it is highly important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do your work as it should be done4 ,the pieces1 when fitted1 should come together easily and naturally1 and not require to be sprung or twisted or bent in order to be able to put the article together4 ,your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped1 for1 though the slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be noticeable while the wood is in its natural state1 as soon as the surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities become conspicuous4 ,this applies to any small irregularities of the surface4 ,you cannot get the surface too smooth4 ,you will be surprised at first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the finished work4 ,curved edges occur often in furniture4 ,many of these curves can be cut with a turning-saw or a keyhole- and compass-saw1 but the easiest way 7and the most accurate1 until you have acquired considerable skill with the saw7 is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but slight expense4 ,have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr1 or ragged edge1 left by the sawing4 ,these curves can be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone1 or spoke-shave and file1 or file alone1 according to the conditions1 as you will soon learn by experience1 the final finishing of the surface being given with fine sandpaper4 ,put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together once 7without glue or nails7 to see that everything fits right1 that the joints close properly1 and that the whole job is as it should be1 before putting together permanently4 ,this often seems to the amateur a needless precaution 7and it occasionally is71 but1 although it takes some time1 it is the practice with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be neglected by the beginner4 ,you will discover the importance of this when you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk1 for instance1 will come together properly1 or that you can easily correct errors as you go along1 only to find1 when you have the work nearly put together that something is wrong4 ,in the effort to mend the trouble you will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened1 or will have to take the whole apart1 which1 when glue or nails are used1 is particularly discouraging1 and apt to damage the quality of the work4 ,be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps 7see ,clamps and ,gluing74 ,care should be taken in putting your work together to get it square1 that is1 to prove the accuracy of the right angles4 ,in some cases this is of course essential to having the work come together at all4 ,in others1 the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one side or is slanting or twisted4 ,in all cases it is essential to the proper closing up of the joints4 ,it will not do to assume1 as the beginner often naturally does1 that because the parts of the work seem to be accurately made that the whole1 when put together1 will1 therefore1 be square4 ,it must be tested4 ,you will be surprised to see how much out of square and how winding the result of your most careful work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts together4 ,in addition to the obvious way of applying the square 7see ,square7 to the angles1 using the large steel square when you can3 there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test1 altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are equal1 when the work will1 of course1 be rectangular4 ,this is a good way for large case work1 using a stick1 or fitting two adjustable sticks1 after the manner described on page #afg1 between the angles1 when the latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal4 ,at the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look out for winding1 by sighting across the front or back1 using winding-sticks1 if necessary4 ,when your work has a back fitted in1 as in the case of a bookcase or cabinet1 this will help you much in the final adjustment4 ,do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position1 but upon horses horizontally1 or flat upon its back or face4 ,it is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture1 in places where they will not show 7see ,corner-blocks1 in ,part ,v474 ,after you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work1 a little beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage1 but it is well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation4 ,wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back4 ,these should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth4 ,your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone1 or with shellac or varnish1 as described in ,part ,v4 ,in the case of articles to be hung against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed1 it is well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used1 for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper4 ,for the work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac4 ,when your work is made of parts which can be readily separated1 such parts as are joined without glue or nails1 it is best to take the work apart before finishing4 ,unhinge doors and take off locks1 escutcheons1 mirror-plates1 handles1 and the like4 ,take out removable shelves1 backs1 and all detachable parts4 ,finish all these parts separately and then put the work together again4 ,you can finish the separate parts better and more easily1 but of course this can only be done with such parts as are readily separable4 ,in some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture1 but as a rule you cannot improve on the natural colouring1 which deepens and mellows with age4 ,if you wish mahogany-coloured furniture1 use mahogany1 or1 if you cannot afford that1 simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the desired colour1 but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany4 ,there are two objections to these attempts at imitation4 ,first1 they are not honest2 and1 in the second place1 the deception is usually a failure4 ,finally1 be simple and honest in all your designing1 your construction 7which above all things should be strong and durable71 and your finishing4 ,do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table1 but which on closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise4 ,there are1 as you know1 hundreds of articles of household utility1 other than those here given1 which are suitable for the amateur to make1 but it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhj4 ,book-,rack4--,a simple rack for books 7,fig4 #bhj7 can be of any length desired1 about six inches wide1 and of half-inch stock 7or slightly thinner71 but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut4 ,the other edges can be rounded if you wish 7see ,spokeshave and ,file74 ,the hinges should be sunk in the wood1 so that they will not injure the books 7see ,hinges74 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,desk-,rack4--,an easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table or desk is shown in ,fig4 #bha1 and can be made of stock of from #a_/b to #g_/h thickness1 according to the size of the rack4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bha4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,first make the two boxes 7see ,box-making1 page #bai71 and then the shelf above them4 ,this can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by screws from underneath4 ,the edge can be slightly rounded4 ,the rail or guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently4 ,the back and ends can be joined as shown in ,fig4 #bhb1 and the whole then fastened to the shelf by screws 7see ,boring and ,screws7 from underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes1 or it can be dowelled on1 as shown in ,fig4 #bhb;a 7see ,dowelling74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhb;,a4 ,partitions can be fitted in the boxes1 forming pigeon-holes or compartments1 if desired4 ,these partitions can be nailed in place or1 to be more workmanlike1 can be fitted in grooves 7see ,grooving and ,shelves74 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hanging ,book-,shelf4--,a wall-shelf 7,fig4 #bhc7 is useful and good practice for the amateur4 ,it should not be made too deep 7from front to back74 ,half-inch stock is heavy enough1 if the shelf is not more than two feet long4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this shelf can be simply put together by nailing1 setting the nails carefully 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set74 ,carefully mark lines 7using the square7 by which to nail the pieces in their proper places4 ,it is not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way4 ,a stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the sides and the sides into the upper shelf 7see ,grooving74 ,in this case glue should be used and the work tightly clamped 7see ,gluing and ,clamps74 ,it will be much stronger to fit a back between the two shelves and the sides4 ,this should properly be set in a rabbet cut around the space1 as shown in ,fig4 #bhd 7see ,rabbet74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhd4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wall-,cabinet4--,an open cabinet or hanging case for books1 magazines1 or other small articles 7,fig4 #bhe7 can be of any desired proportions1 but should not be very large4 ,half-inch stock is sufficiently thick4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this case should have a back4 ,rabbets should be cut to receive the back1 as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown 7see ,rabbet71 the top and middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of the back4 ,this case can simply be nailed together 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set71 but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides 7see ,grooving74 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hanging ,bookcase4--,a simple and useful case for the wall 7,fig4 #bhf7 can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown4 ,it is well not to make such cases very large1 and1 unless quite small1 stock from #c_/d to #g_/h in thickness will be suitable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,instead of a back1 strips can be screwed on vertically 7,fig4 #bhf71 being sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case 7,fig4 #bhg74 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhg4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wall-,shelves4--,an easily made arrangement is suggested in ,fig4 #bhh4 ,the design can easily be varied if you wish4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the construction is extremely simple1 the shelves being merely screwed on from the back4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhh4 ,get out the back and the shelves1 and smooth them4 ,mark lines across the face of the former at the places for the shelves1 bore holes through the back from the face for the screws 7see ,boring71 and countersink the holes on the back 7see ,countersink74 ,screw the shelves in place 7see ,screws7 to see that everything is right1 then take apart and finish4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pipe-,rack4--,a modification of the shelf arrangement just described makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking 7,fig4 #bhi74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bhi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this differs from the article just described only in the shape of the shelves1 which have openings in the edge for holding pipes4 ,these openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and cutting in to them from the edge 7,fig4 #bij74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bij4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wall-,shelves4--,a quite simple form is shown in ,fig4 #bia1 having a small box with lid4 ,a combination of this form with the design for a pipe-rack can easily be made if desired4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the construction is plain from the cases already described4 ,the hinges should be sunk in the edge of the lid 7see ,hinges74 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wall-,cabinet4--,the cabinet shown in ,fig4 #bib should be rather small1 for if large it will look clumsy4 ,it can be made of half-inch stock4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bib4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the construction is quite similar to the preceding cases4 ,if you have no board wide enough for the back1 two can be joined 7see ,jointing and ,gluing74 ,the cupboard is simply a box without front or back 7see ,box-making1 page #bai7 screwed to the back from behind 7see ,boring and ,screws74 ,the shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet1 as in the preceding cases4 ,the door 7see ,doors7 can be fitted and hung 7see ,hinges7 after the whole has been put together4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,corner-,shelves or ,cabinets4--,a simple form of hanging corner-shelves is shown in ,fig4 #bic4 ,this can be of any size1 of course1 but such articles look clumsy if made very large4 ,half-inch stock is heavy enough unless the case is quite large1 when #c_/d or #g_/h thickness can be used4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bid4 ,one of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of the stock1 so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the back4 ,the top board 7with rounding front7 can simply be nailed down on the sides 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set71 or1 to be more workmanlike1 a rabbet 7,fig4 #bid7 can be cut around the edge of the top on the under side into which to fit the sides1 which can be screwed in place 7see ,rabbet1 ,boring1 ,countersink1 and ,screws74 ,this rabbet should not come quite to the front edge of the top4 ,the shelves can be screwed in place from the back 7see ,screws71 carefully marking lines with the square1 for boring the holes1 before putting the case together1 and countersinking the holes upon the back4 ,this case 7being fastened by screws7 can be taken apart for finishing4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bie4 ,a standing cabinet like ,fig4 #bie can be made in the same manner as the hanging cabinet just shown1 but can1 of course1 be larger4 ,stock from #c_/d to #g_/h in thickness can be used4 ,the rail at the top can be made and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in ,figs4 #bha and #bhb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,medicine-,cabinet4--,any small cabinet can be used for medicines by simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner4 ,a simple way is to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side1 into which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart4 ,a design for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in ,figs4 #bif and #big4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bif4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,a good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part1 the cabinet proper1 about #ae wide1 #bj high1 and #g deep4 ,it can be made of #a_/b stock4 ,the construction is like that of the other cases already shown4 ,the joints should properly be grooved 7see ,grooving and ,gluing71 but the whole case can be nailed together1 although the result will be inferior 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set74 ,the back should be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown4 ,the arrangement of the hinges is shown in the illustration 7see ,hinges74 ,the partitions can be of thin stock 7#a_/d or #e_/af74 ,the doors can have thick cleats1 shaped as shown in ,fig4 #big 7enlarged in ,fig4 #big;a71 with holes bored down from the top for homoeopathic phials4 ,care must be taken not to bore the holes through 7see ,boring74 ,stop boring before the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a gouge4 ,a small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments1 as in ,fig4 #big 7see ,drawers74 ,if the edges of the doors are made to lap slightly where they come together1 rabbets being cut on opposite sides of the edges 7,fig4 #bih71 the joint will be tighter1 but a little space must be allowed or the doors may bind4 ,the rest of the details are like those of the cases already described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #big4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part4 ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #big;a4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bih4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bookcases4--,a plain case 7,fig4 #bii7 can be made of any desired size4 ,if quite small #c_/d stock can be used1 but ordinarily #g_/h thickness will be best4 ,the method of construction is practically the same as in the cases already described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the shelves can all be fastened in1 if desired1 but a good way is to groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between movable 7see ,shelves1 in ,part ,v474 ,illustration ,,fig4 #bii4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjj4 ,the back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of each side for the entire length 7see ,rabbet71 and making the shelves of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet4 ,a narrow piece can be screwed from the back lengthways1 above the upper shelf1 as shown in ,fig4 #cjj4 ,the rest of the back can then be screwed in place 7see ,boring and ,screws74 ,the back1 being too wide to be made of one board1 can very well 7for a plain case of this sort7 be of matched boards or sheathing4#bd ,do not force the back too tightly into place1--that is1 crossways of the boards4 ,allow a little play for the expansion and contraction4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a knock-down method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins 7,fig4 #cja7 is not very difficult1 but requires care and accuracy4 ,in the case of the bookcase just shown1 the upper and lower shelves can be pinned through the sides1 which will hold the case firmly1 and the other shelves can be movable 7see ,shelves74 ,a case fastened in this way can be readily taken apart4 ,this method can be applied to other designs for bookcases and cabinets4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cja4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the general principle is that of the mortise and tenon 7see ,mortising74 ,if you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of splitting the tenons4 ,the pins should taper and the angles of the pins and tenons be very slightly bevelled1 that is1 the sharp edge taken off4 ,the ends of these shelves can be slightly cut under or bevelled inwards 7see ,fig4 #cjb1 which is exaggerated71 on the same principle that the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled1 to ensure a closely fitting joint4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjb4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is shown in ,fig4 #cjc4 ,this design is suitable for a low1 or dwarf1 bookcase of whatever length may be desired4 ,if of quite small size it can be made of #g_/h stock throughout1 but in most cases a thin plank 7perhaps #a-a_/d to #a-a_/b thick7 had best be used for the ends4 ,a curtain can be added if desired4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the curves of the ends can be sawed by hand 7see ,turning-saw and ,keyhole and ,compass ,saw71 or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill1 and smoothed with spoke-shave and file 7see ,spokeshave and ,file74 ,the shelves 7at least the upper and lower ones7 should be grooved into the sides and glued 7see ,grooving and ,gluing71 although1 as in the other cases already described1 nails can be used1 but the result will be inferior 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set74 ,the plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a little beading 7,fig4 #cje71 which you can do yourself or have moulded at the mill 7see ,beading74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjc4 ,little brackets1 screwed under the lower shelf at each end1 as shown in ,fig4 #cjf1 add to the stiffness of the case4 ,a back can be fitted into rabbets as described above1 but in this case it had best not come above the top shelf1 a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as well as in the sides4 ,the bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and without a rabbet4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the bookcase shown in ,fig4 #cjd can be of any desired size and proportions4 ,it can be of #g_/h stock1 although the upright ends can well be of thin plank4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this case can simply be nailed together 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set71 but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the bottom shelf into the sides 7see ,grooving74 ,the second shelf from the top can be grooved into the sides1 and the upright partition forming the cupboard can also be grooved in place4 ,this process involves careful laying out and accurate cutting4 ,the other shelves can be removable4 ,the base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge 7or moulded by machine7 and can be mitred at the corners4 ,it can be fastened with fine nails 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set74 ,the front piece can be glued as well as the mitred joints4 ,a moulding can be nailed around the top as shown1 being mitred at the corners4#be ,the other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases just given1 except in the matter of making and fitting the door1 for which see ,doors in ,part ,v4 ,a common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side itself of board thickness1 and to face the front edge with a strip 7which can be glued on7 from #a-a_/d to #b wide1 according to the size of the case1 in the way shown in ,fig4 #cje 7see ,gluing74 ,this gives a wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip4 ,beading can be worked on this strip1 as shown 7see ,beading74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cje4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,desk and ,bookcase4--,various combinations of book-shelves with a desk can be arranged4 ,a useful form for a small one is shown in ,fig4 #cjf4 ,the height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid when dropped4 ,the general principles of the construction are the same as those of the cases already shown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the wing1 or attachment at the side1 can be grooved into the side of the main part4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjf4 ,the back should reach across from one part to the other1 which will give stiffness to the whole4 ,the desk-lid1 which should be set in perhaps #c_/h from the front edge of the case1 can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened inside to the lid and the sides of the case4 ,various other arrangements can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place4 ,the inside of the lid must of course be smooth4 ,if panelled as in ,fig4 #cjf the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the inside 7see ,doors74 ,there will be more or less of a crack around this panel1 but this is unavoidable4 ,lids of this sort are sometimes made with a smooth surface 7without frame or panelling71 but this requires some form of cleating to prevent warping 7see ,cleats74 ,the small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case4 ,a few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment4 ,if you wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments1 a good way for the amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and compartments1 without front or back1 of thin wood 7perhaps #a_/d71 and of such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space4 ,this open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads4 ,the best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves1 but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected of the ordinary amateur4 ,the grooving can be done by machine4 ,a convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of any desired size4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,music-,case4--,the construction of the form shown in ,fig4 #cjg is like that of the examples already shown4 ,the sides1 top1 and bottom should be of #c_/d or #g_/h stock1 but the shelves can be thinner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this case can be simply nailed together 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set71 but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the sides and the sides into the top1 as in the cases already shown 7see ,grooving74 ,a moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in ,fig4 #cjd4 ,for various ways of putting in the shelves1 see ,shelves1 in ,part ,v4 ,the back can be thinner 7#a_/d7 and should be fitted in a rabbet cut around1 as already shown in the illustrations4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,plant-,stands4--,the form shown in ,fig4 #cjh is of quite simple construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot4 ,it should be made of #g_/h stock4 ,the top can be from #h to #ab square4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cjh4 ,simply make a box 7see ,box-making1 page #bai71 without top and bottom1 with the grain of the four sides running up and down4 ,before putting together saw the curves at the bottom4 ,as the grain of the four pieces all runs up and down1 these sides can be glued together without nailing 7see ,gluing74 ,screw four cleats around the inside of the top 7,fig4 #cji7 with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top from underneath 7see ,boring and ,screws74 ,round the top edge as shown 7see ,spokeshave and ,file71 and smooth the surfaces4 ,then1 having shaped the edge of the top as shown in ,fig4 #cjh1 fasten it in place and the stand is ready to finish4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cji4 ,the form shown in ,fig4 #caj is made upon a similar principle1 and can be of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern4 99 99 99 99 99 ,much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the sides that the pieces will come together accurately4 ,after the top has been fastened on1 a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath the edge of the top as shown1 provided you have the skill to do it neatly4 ,the corners must be mitred1 and the moulding fastened on with fine brads1 which must be set 7see ,nailing and ,nail-set74#bf ,illustration ,,fig4 #caj4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,tables4--,a plain table1 which although not especially ornamental is serviceable for many purposes1 is shown in ,fig4 #caa4 ,it can be made of any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #caa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the construction is too simple to require special description4 ,the legs and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness1 the rest of #g_/h stock4 ,the legs can be halved where they cross 7see ,halving71 or for a rough job can be simply nailed 7see ,nailing74 ,the cleats at the top of the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs1 and will act as cleats to the top1 which is fastened to them4 ,the boards forming the top can be simply laid with the edges touching1 for a rough job2 but where a good surface is required the joints should be glued 7see ,jointing and ,gluing7 and the surface smoothed afterwards4 ,extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness1 and additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part of the legs4 ,the whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or painted4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects already shown4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a table of simple construction and neat appearance 7,fig4 #cab7 can be of any desired size and proportions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cab4 ,the legs can be from #a-a_/b to #b-a_/b square1 according to the size of the table4 ,after being squared and cut to a length they should be tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then the other two4 ,the tapering1 however1 should not extend to the tops of the legs1 but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails1 or cross-bars1 which connect the legs4 ,on the two inner sides of the legs mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which connect the legs1 as shown in ,fig4 #cac 7see ,mortising74 ,these rails can be of #g_/h stock1 the curves on the lower edge being cut with the turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw1 and finished with spoke-shave and chisel or file4 ,the curves can be omitted1 of course1 if preferred4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cac4 ,do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation4 ,first put together two legs and the connecting piece1 then the other two legs and the connecting piece1 and finally join these two sides by the remaining rails4 ,glue the joints 7see ,gluing7 and the parts should be securely clamped 7see ,clamps7 until dry4 ,corner-blocks can be put in at the angles 7see ,corner-blocks74 ,holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top4 ,if the rails are not too deep1 vertical holes can be bored1 countersinking deeply if necessary4 ,deep countersinking can be done by first boring a hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required1 when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit4 ,if the depth of the rail is too great for this process1 the hole can be made by a species of counterboring1 making first a larger hole in the side of the rail 7on the inside71 an inch or so from the top1 and boring down into this hole from the top4 ,a slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to allow the screw to be slipped into the hole 7,fig4 #cad74 ,another way is to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through which the top can be screwed on 7,fig4 #cae74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cad4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cae4 ,the top1 if too wide for one board1 should be glued up before being dressed off 7see ,jointing and ,gluing71 and the edge shaped and smoothed4 ,then1 laying the top face downward on the horses or bench1 place the frame upside down upon the top4 ,when in the exact position mark a line around the inside of the frame1 continue the holes in the frame a little way into the top1 using a bit a trifle smaller than the screws1 and then screw the frame securely to the top 7see ,boring and ,screws71 measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not protrude through the top of the table4 ,depend entirely on the screws to hold the top on4 ,do not fasten a table-top on with glue 7see ,laying out the work1 in ,chapter ,,iv474 ,if the table does not stand even1 see ,scribing and ,winding-sticks4 ,the final scraping 7see ,scraper7 of the top can well be left until the table is put together1 when the whole1 after being scraped1 can be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper74 ,the remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already shown4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an excellent centre-table for the amateur to make 7,fig4 #caf7 is useful for many purposes4 ,about three feet square on top is a convenient size4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v4 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #caf4 ,get out four legs1 from #a-a_/b to #b in diameter1 according to the size of the table4 ,they can be tapered slightly1 as in the preceding case4 ,groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition shown in the cut 7see ,grooving74 ,these partitions can be #a_/b to #c_/d thick4 ,one of them can extend across 7diagonally7 from post to post4 ,the other can be in two parts1 reaching to the centre2 or the partitions can be in four parts1 meeting in the centre4 ,this framework of legs and cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on top 7,fig4 #cag71 holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn be screwed to the top of the table4 ,the lower shelf1 or shelves 7being made in four parts71 can be fastened up from underneath1 cleats1 also1 being used if necessary4 ,the shelves can be of #a_/b stock4 ,the upper shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon cleats underneath1 to which they can be fastened4 ,the shape of the top is shown in ,fig4 #cag;a4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cag4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cag;a4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,small ,stand4--,a simple arrangement shown in ,fig4 #cah involves more difficulties than many of the other articles shown1 but is not beyond the skill of the careful amateur4 ,a good size is about #ac or #ad across the top and #ag or #ah high4 ,such a stand is useful to hold a flower-pot4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v4 and look up any other references4 ,the top can be of #a_/b or #e_/h stock and the legs of #g_/h stock1 the lower part tapering in thickness to #e_/h at the bottom4 ,the curves can all be sawed at a mill for a small sum1 and smoothed with spoke-shave and file 7see ,spokeshave and ,file74 ,the underside of the top can be bevelled at the edge 7,fig4 #cai74 ,this can be done with the spoke-shave4 ,the file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme edge1 finishing with sandpaper1 but not until after the top surface has been finally smoothed 7see ,spokeshave1 ,file1 and ,sandpaper74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cai4 ,the curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in four pieces1 the legs being fitted between them 7,fig4 #cbj74 ,these curved pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed to make a tight joint with the legs4 ,be sure that all these parts fit accurately before you finally put them together4 ,screw them together1 toeing screws into the legs4 ,use glue at the joints of the curved frame and the legs1 but do not glue the frame to the top4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbj4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,small ,table4--,fig4 #cba shows a good form for a small stand suitable for various purposes1 which1 although not as easy to make as it looks1 is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with his tools4 ,it can be made of any desired height or proportions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,get out the top as in the small stand last shown4 ,the thickness can vary from #a_/b to #g_/h according to the size of the table4 ,the legs should not be fastened directly to the top1 but to a cleat framework to be screwed to the top 7,fig4 #cbb74 ,this helps prevent the top from warping4 ,the legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered 7see ,rounding-sticks74 ,a tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cba4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbc4 ,the hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of #a_/b stock and should be notched or grooved into the legs1 the extreme angles of the shelf being cut off 7,fig4 #cbc74 ,a fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf into the leg 7,fig4 #cbd7 will strengthen the joint1 and after the whole is fastened together1 little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in the angle between the lower shelf and the leg4 ,all the joints should be glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top1 in which case screws alone should be used4 ,much care is required to make all these joints accurately1 and to put the whole table together properly4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbd4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footstool or ,cricket4--,a common low seat or cricket 7,fig4 #cbe7 can be made of #e_/h or #g_/h stock and of any desired size4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbe4 ,the hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides 7see ,bevelling74 ,you will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the ends of the sides before they are tapered4 ,the edges of the top can be slightly rounded4 ,after the parts are nailed together 7see ,nailing7 set the nails 7see ,nail-set74 ,the remaining details do not differ from those of the cases already described4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,out-,door ,seat4--,the construction of the plain chair shown in ,fig4 #cbf is too obvious to require special description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this seat can be made of thin plank4 ,the most difficult part is the bevelling of the joints 7see ,bevelling74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbf4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases4 ,for the painting see ,painting1 in ,part ,v4 ,bookcase and ,lounge4--,combination articles of furniture are1 as a rule1 frequently undesirable on the ground of taste1 and often are not as convenient as to have the parts made separately4 ,but the amateur may sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit some particular spot or for some special reason4 ,examples are given in the bookcase and desk 7,fig4 #cjf71 in the combination for a corner 7,fig4 #cbh71 and in ,fig4 #cbg4 ,these are given as suggestive of the kind of combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur1 and many simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the new principles involved in this design are merely in the combination4 ,the bookcase and the cupboard 7which can be open if desired7 are similar to those already shown1 and the lounge is simply a shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two4 ,the back of the lounge is merely a board fastened by screws4 ,the appearance of the article depends much upon the upholstering4 ,this should not be done until after the finishing of the wood-work4 ,the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbh4 ,another combination1 suitable for a corner1 is shown in ,fig4 #cbh4 ,the principles involved are the same as for the other articles already described and the construction is obvious4 99 99 99 99 99 ,table and ,settle1 or ,chair-,table4--,this is an excellent form of table for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes 7,figs4 #cbi and #ccj74 ,if of moderate size1 it can be made of #g_/h stock1 but if large1 and to be subjected to rough usage1 thin plank will be more suitable for the ends and top4 ,another good form of chair-table can be made on the same principle by making a narrower seat1 or a heavy chair1 and attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box4 ,get out the upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them together as shown in ,fig4 #cca1 a rabbet 7see ,rabbet7 or groove being cut to receive the bottom4 ,the lid1 which forms the seat1 can be arranged as shown 7see ,hinges74 ,the top1 made like any table-top and fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown 7see ,screws71 is pivoted to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired4 ,when you wish to use the table and the top is lowered1 it can be held in place by inserting pins in the other two holes also4 ,the pins should not be less than #a_/b or #c_/d in diameter4 ,care must be used in laying off the points for making these holes 7see ,boring74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cbi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ccj4 ,the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cca4 ,cabinet for ,guns1 ,fishing-,rods1 ,etc4--,a convenient form is shown in ,fig4 #ccb4 ,the construction is similar to that of the bookcases and cabinets already shown4 ,the stock for the case itself can be #g_/h in thickness1 for the larger divisions #c_/d1 and for the small partitions #a_/b4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ccb4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,if you make the doors with glass panels1 as shown1 these can be set in rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips of quarter-round moulding4 ,the doors can be fitted between the sides or can lap over the edges of the sides1 as you prefer 7see ,doors74 ,the drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well 7see ,drawers71 and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as a substitute4 ,the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 99 99 99 99 99 ,picture ,frames4--,these are often undertaken by the amateur1 but making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,if you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use1 they will1 in most cases1 have to be mitred at the corners1 which is an operation by no means easy for the beginner1 particularly when the moulding is sprung or twisted1 as is often the case4 ,those joints which do not close properly must be trimmed with the plane1 for which purpose the mitre shooting-board is useful 7see page #id71 and all four joints should fit accurately before finally putting together1 so that none will have to be sprung or twisted in order to close up4 ,at the same time you must guard against winding by sighting across the face1 and the angles must be tested with the square4 ,the clamping together is important in such work4 ,this can be done by laying the frame flat1 nailing strips a short distance outside of each of the four corners1 and driving in wedges between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held 7,fig4 #ccc74 ,this can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and passing a doubled cord around1 which1 by inserting a stick1 can be twisted until the frame is held tightly4 ,but making mitred frames of moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred until you have had some experience 7see ,mitring74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ccc4 ,for a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon 7,fig4 #ccd71 the rabbet 7see ,rabbet7 at the back being cut through to the ends of the shorter pieces 7those having the tenons71 but being stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces 7those having the mortises71 as shown4 ,the latter should be got out too long1 so as to overlap a little at the ends 7,fig4 #ccd74 ,this enables you to take the frame apart more readily when fitting1 and with less danger of injury to the work4 ,the projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been glued together 7see ,mortising1 ,gluing1 and ,clamps74 ,the final planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done after the frame is glued together1 careful attention being paid to the direction of the grain 7see ,plane1 ,scraper1 and ,sandpaper74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ccd4 ,after a frame of this kind is all done1 an inner moulding with a row of beads1 or some other simple form1 can easily be fitted to the rabbet1 if desired4 ,see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing1 putting together1 and finishing4 ,see also ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,,footnotes3 #bd ,this method of putting in a back answers very well for the beginner1 and is often used in cheap work1 but1 unless quite small1 the really workmanlike way is to make a panelled frame1 which is screwed in place as one piece4 ,the degree to which the panelling is carried depends upon the size and shape of the back4 ,when you become able to make your work more neatly and accurately than can be expected of the beginner1 you will do well to construct the backs in this way1 but it involves much more labour and is hardly worth while for such simple work as you will do at first4 #be ,a more workmanlike way is to work all such mouldings on the edge of the top1 making it as much thicker as may be required1 thus avoiding putting on the moulding across the grain of the piece to which it is fastened1 which is not a scientific form of construction2 and for that matter it is a more thoroughly workmanlike way to work all mouldings on the solid wood4 ,the top can be made of two thicknesses1 the moulding being worked on the edge of the under piece before the two are glued together4 ,various forms of moulding can be worked on the edge by a moulding machine at almost any wood-working mill4 #bf ,see footnote on page #aih4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,a ,,few ,,miscellaneous ,,operations ,wooden ,chain4--,white pine or any other easily whittled1 straight-grained wood can be used4 ,take a stick of any length and from #a to #b square4 ,if very small the whittling is more difficult4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cce4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ccf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ccg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,knife1 in ,part ,v4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cch4 ,mark as shown 7,fig4 #cce71 and remove the wood at the corners1 forming four rabbets1 giving a section of the piece the shape of a ,greek cross 7,fig4 #ccf74 ,next lay out the links1 alternating as shown in ,fig4 #ccg1 and allowing space enough so that they can have some play when cut4 ,by notching in from the outside and finally cutting away the wood within the links1 they can be separated4 ,the whittling must be done carefully1 of course1 and wholly by cutting with a sharp knife4 ,if you try to do it by prying or twisting with the blade1 you will be likely to split the wood4 ,finally1 round and smooth the links 7,fig4 #cch71 doing as much of this as you can before the links are separated4 ,use fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper74 ,leave the chain in the natural wood or oil and shellac 7see ,finishing74 99 99 99 99 99 ,ball and ,block4--,white pine or any other easily whittled1 straight-grained wood will do for this whittling exercise 7,fig4 #cci74 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,knife1 in ,part ,v4 ,first get out a cubical block1 each edge of which may be1 perhaps1 #a-a_/b or #b long4 ,gauge a line around each side parallel to the edge and about #a_/d from it 7see ,gauge74 ,cut straight in on these lines and then make slanting cuts to meet those first made4 ,remove the wood on the same general principle as in cutting a notch1 gradually shaping the middle part into spherical form2 while the cuts which are parallel with the sides finally meet and form four posts between the top and bottom4 ,the wood must be removed by cuts1 not by prying4 ,trim the ball to be as nearly spherical as you can4 ,if you wish to make the ring or handle shown on top1 additional length must be allowed in getting out the original block4 ,the whole can be sandpapered with fine sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper7 and finished with oil or shellac 7see ,finishing74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cci4 99 99 99 99 99 ,box-making4--,in laying out common boxes1 bear in mind that the sides1 top1 and bottom usually lap over the ends1--the sides over the ends1 and the top and bottom over the sides and ends 7,fig4 #cdj74 ,sometimes1 however1 to avoid joints showing on the front1 the front and back are made to lap over the top 7,fig4 #cda71 occasionally the ends lap over the back 7,fig4 #cdb71 and other arrangements are sometimes made4 ,do not rely on glue for these common square joints in box-work1 but place your dependence on nails or screws4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cda4 ,either lid or bottom or both can sometimes project slightly to good advantage 7,fig4 #cdc74 ,in nice work1 however1 the bottom is more often set in so as not to show1 either simply fitting in between the sides and ends or into a rabbet 7see ,rabbet7 cut in the lower edge 7,fig4 #cdd1 showing box bottom up74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdc4 ,the lid or cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box1 or a narrower lid can be used and hinged to a strip fastened at the back of the box 7,fig4 #cde74 ,plain lids of this sort1 for everything but rough or temporary work1 should be cleated1 either by end cleats1 by framing1 or simply by cleats on the under side 7see ,cleats and ,doors74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cde4 ,remember that the joints will be held more tightly 7for a permanent box7 if you toe the nails 7see ,nailing74 ,mitring is a common way of making box-joints4 ,it is1 however1 one of the poorest of all ways in point of strength1 and unless done with much skill1--more skill than the average amateur usually acquires1--the joints are very liable to come apart1 or at least gape open1 and be weaker and look worse than the common1 squarely fitted joint first shown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,glue can be used and is a help4 ,mitred joints can1 however1 be strengthened by splines or keys or pieces let into saw-kerfs 7see ,mitring74 ,a mitred box is hard for an amateur to put together1 particularly when it is to be glued4 ,the whole process should be rehearsed before gluing4 ,everything must fit exactly before you begin to finally put the box together4 ,if you get one corner out of place1 all four will probably be thrown out of position before you get through puttering with them1 and the glue become cold and the operation be spoiled4 ,only a skilful amateur can make a box with nicely fitted mitred joints that will hold permanently4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are various other ways of making joints by machine 7see ,joints74 ,the rabbeted joint shown in ,fig4 #cdf can be made by hand very well1 but so much quicker with a circular saw that you will save much time by having it done at a mill4 ,it is a good1 strong1 neat joint and shows less wood at the end than the common way4 ,when it is allowable to round what little end wood there is 7,fig4 #cde7 it makes the joint quite inconspicuous4 ,glue can also be used to advantage with this joint on account of the shoulder4 ,dowelling the corners is a method sometimes used4 ,it is easier than mitring1 but by no means a strong joint1 unless skilfully made4 ,the principal advantage of dowelling is in cases where it is objectionable to have nails show4 ,but1 as a rule1 there is not much gain in trying to conceal joints4 ,certainly not unless you can do the work in the best of style4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdf4 ,learn first to make the common1 plain joints accurately1 and you can then attempt the more difficult ones with some chance of success4 ,the joints can sometimes be reinforced to good advantage by triangular corner-pieces or posts1 glued and screwed in place4 ,there is no better or more workmanlike way of putting boxes together than by some form of dovetailing 7see ,dovetailing71 but this process is hardly one for the beginner to undertake1 and should be postponed until he has acquired considerable skill1 for1 though the principle of laying out and cutting dovetails is easy to understand1 much exactness is required in the execution4 ,where the box does not open at the top but lower down1 as in ,fig4 #cdg1 the best way is not to make the two parts separately1 but simply to put together a tight box and then saw it apart wherever you wish to have it open4 ,be careful to gauge accurately the line by which to saw it open 7see ,gauge71 and not to drive any nails too near this line4 ,any which you omit can easily be added after the sawing4 ,saw the box open very carefully on the line4 ,smooth the edges after the saw1 but take pains not to plane away the wood too hastily1 for a very little carelessness will spoil the joint and necessitate a general truing of the edges4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdh4 ,a good form for a plain chest is shown in ,fig4 #cdh4 ,the construction is the same as in the other cases4 ,the bottom can be fitted to a groove cut around on the inside and can be inserted when the box is put together1 or for a rougher job can be simply nailed in place4 ,a simple form of tool-chest is shown in ,fig4 #cdi4 ,this can be made of any size desired and of any wood4 ,it is usually as well to make a good-sized chest1 for the cost is but little more than to make a small one4 ,hard wood will be much more durable than soft4 ,stock from #c_/d to #g_/h in thickness will be suitable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,unless you have had considerable experience you had best be content with the simpler joints rather than to attempt dovetailing the corners1 as shown in the cut4 ,it is not necessary to cut a rabbet for the bottom1 because of the base-board or moulding which is to be nailed around the bottom1 and the latter can be nailed or screwed directly to the edge1 before the moulding is put around4 ,the rest of the construction of the chest is obvious and like the cases already shown4 ,if the moulding around the lid is to be arranged as shown1 it will be best to fit the lock first1 as it will be easier to attach the hasp of the lock before the moulding has been added 7see ,locks and ,hinges74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cdi4 ,at about two or three inches from the top1 fasten a ledge on the inside of the front and back4 ,this can be about #a_/d thick by #a_/b deep and is for the sliding-tray1 shown in the cut1 to rest upon4 ,this tray can be of soft wood1 from #a_/d to #c_/h in thickness1 and can be divided as you wish4 ,it will often be advantageous to arrange the lid and the top tray so that tools can be fastened on the inside of the lid4 ,saws and various flat tools are often thus disposed of1 being held in place by straps1 blocks1 and buttons4 ,you can also arrange a rack around the inside of your chest for such tools as chisels1 gouges1 etc4 ,when kept in trays1 such tools should be separated by divisions4 ,the various details of making such a chest do not differ from those of the articles just described in the preceding chapter on ,furniture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in nailing together rough boxes for packing or some temporary purpose1 you do not need to devote much thought to the arrangement of the pieces with reference to the direction of the grain1 so long as you put them together in a way that your common-sense tells you will be strong4 ,examination of a few packing-cases will show you all you need to know for such work4 ,but when you make a better grade of box1 to be glued1 regard must be paid to the direction of the grain and the matter of expansion and contraction4 ,in the majority of boxes and chests the grain of the sides and ends should run in the same way--horizontally or around the box1 as shown in the illustrations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this gives a strong edge all around at the top of the box and permits the use of glue 7with some joints7 where the sides and ends meet1 as the parts glued will thus naturally tend to expand and contract alike4 ,when the grain goes in opposite directions 7i4e41 at right angles71 such joints1 unless short1 should not be glued4 ,where the top board is fastened to the sides and ends of the box1 as in ,fig4 #cdg1 it should not be glued1 except in the case of a small box1 and the grain should run lengthways1 so that there will be as little change as possible due to the expansion and contraction 7see ,chapter ,,iv4 on ,laying ,out the ,work1 and ,appendix74 ,when several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a box1 if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling and shrinking across the grain as much as you can1 lay the boards lengthways of the box1 but if you merely wish for strength1 lay them crossways4 99 99 99 99 99 ,care must be taken about testing the angles with the square1 and guarding against winding 7see ,winding-sticks71 in making nice boxes1 as with all framed work4 ,if the bottom and top are got out accurately they will1 of course1 assist in the matter of getting the box square1 and for common work carefully fitting the bottom 7or bottom and top7 in place will be all the squaring required4 ,in nice work where the joints are glued1 waste pieces should be placed over the joints 7across the grain of the sides7 before applying the clamps1 not merely to prevent the work being marred by the clamps1 but also to distribute the pressure and ensure as close a joint as possible 7see ,clamps74 ,the final smoothing of the outside of a box should be done after it is permanently put together1 allowing plenty of time1 if glue is used in the joints1 for it to dry before dressing off the surfaces4 ,the inside must1 of course1 be smoothed before putting together4 ,the variety of forms in which boxes are made is too great for all to be specified1 but the same general principles apply to nearly all forms of box-work4 ,in the case of chests or large boxes1 you will often see them with the sides and ends panelled1 but this is rather an elaborate form for the beginner to attempt and had best be avoided by the inexperienced worker4 ,a form which is not too hard for the amateur is shown1 however1 in ,fig4 #cej1 the sides and ends being fitted to grooves or rabbets cut in posts at each corner4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cej4 ,the work of getting out the stock for boxes and making the joints can be done so quickly and accurately 7and usually cheaply7 by a circular saw or other machine that much time is saved1 when making nice boxes1 by having the parts sawed at a mill4 ,the remarks made at the end of the introduction to ,chapter ,x4 7on ,furniture71 in regard to getting out your work1 putting together1 smoothing1 and finishing1 apply equally to making the better class of boxes and chests1 and the general details of the work do not differ from those of the articles shown in that chapter4 ,see also1 ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,nail-set1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,locks1 ,scraper1 ,sandpaper1 and ,finishing1 in ,part ,v4 ,toy ,boats4--,a few suggestions about the wood-work of the hulls of toy boats may be useful to the beginner4 ,the details of rigging and discussion of the merits of the various types and designs are matters which do not come within the scope of this book1 and you can easily find information upon these points4 ,making your boats yourself is half the fun1 of course1 and capital practice with tools as well as a valuable introduction to the building of model yachts1 which you may undertake later1 and to the general subject of boat-building and sailing4 ,making different types and sailing them is both interesting and instructive4 ,you will quite often see little boats fitted up as exact copies in miniature of real vessels1 with all the complexity of fittings1 rigging1 and minor details found in the larger boats4 ,these models are often interesting specimens of skill1--as pieces of handiwork1--but the time can usually be spent to better advantage in some other way4 ,if you wish actually to sail your boats1 leave out everything which is not essential to successful sailing4 ,very little skill1 and no instruction1 is required to make the simpler forms of toy boats familiar to the small boy who lives near the water4 ,almost any scrap of shingle or piece of wood upon which a little mast can be raised will sail1 as the small boy well knows4 ,the difficulties begin when something more like a boat is attempted1 and the first and greatest of all difficulties is that of the design1 as you will discover later if you attempt scientific model yacht-building4 ,but advanced model yacht-work requires much skill--more than can be expected of a beginner4 ,at first1 in beginning to make toy boats1 copy any successful boat as nearly as you can4 ,after you get beyond making boats of shingles and scraps of board1 you may very likely make something like ,fig4 #cea1 which is too simple to require special description2 but when you begin to build regular boats you will find enough to tax your wood-working skill to the utmost4 ,you had best begin with simple forms and not make your first attempts too large4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cea4 ,one way of making the hull 7as of course you know7 is to cut it from a solid block of wood of the required size4 ,another way is to build it up of layers of board laid on one another horizontally 7,fig4 #ceb74bg ,illustration ,,fig4 #ceb4 ,the greatest care must be taken in the selection of the wood4 ,it should be free from knots1 checks1 and bad grain1 and above all things must be thoroughly seasoned4 ,nothing is better than the best quality of clear white pine4 ,mahogany is excellent1 but is more costly and harder to work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,take a simple model of the fin-keel type 7,fig4 #cec74 ,first you must have the design or drawing giving the different plans or views4 ,if the drawing is smaller than the actual size you wish to make the boat1 it must1 of course1 be enlarged and a full-sized working drawing made4#bh ,illustration ,,fig4 #cec4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,chisel1 ,gouge1 ,spokeshave1 ,paring1 etc41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ced4 ,to cut the hull from a solid block1 first prepare the block of the right dimensions1 and plane it1 making sure that the sides are true and square with one another4 ,the sheer plan must now be transferred to the sides of the block1 either by copying it on the wood by the use of transfer paper placed between the drawing and the wood1 by cutting out a pattern1 or by fastening the drawing itself on one side of the wood and a reversed duplicate on the other side4 ,in the same way transfer the half-breadth plan twice to the top of the block1 on each side of a line drawn along the centre1 reversing the pattern for one side1 of course4 ,also continue the centre line down each end and along the bottom4 ,if the top and side outlines can be sawed to the lines marked with a band-saw or jig-saw1 the expense will be but slight and considerable labour will be saved4 ,saw down on the lines #a--a1 #b--b1 #c--c1 etc4 7,fig4 #ced71 nearly to the sheer line shown in ,fig4 #cee4 ,in your first attempts at making small boats it may be well to omit the deck sheer1 leaving the top flat 7,fig4 #ced71 as this simplifies matters in the beginning4 ,also1 saw off the superfluous wood shown by the shaded parts of ,fig4 #cee4 ,now clamp or wedge the block1 bottom up1 firmly on the bench1 in case you have no vise arrangement by which it can be properly held1 and rough it out approximately to shape with a wide chisel 7see ,paring7 or the draw-knife 7see ,draw-knife74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cee4 ,the operation of shaping and hollowing out is slow work and requires much care4 ,a little haste may spoil the work of hours4 ,as the bottom begins to approach the desired shape you must have something more than the eye by which to gauge your cutting1 for a very little deviation from the true curve may spoil your boat4 ,it is very important to get both sides of the boat alike4 ,on card-board or stiff paper1 mark a series of patterns of the different sections shown on the body plan4 ,cut out each of these patterns so as to save the part which is the reverse of the shape of the section of the boat1 thus forming a series of templates1 which you can apply to the hull at each section to test your cutting1 until the templates just fit the wood at their respective sections1 when the shape of the hull will1 of course1 agree with the plan4 ,the spoke-shave1 and sometimes the plane1 can be used to good advantage in the final shaping 7see ,spokeshave74 ,especial care is required not to slice off too much1 and you will1 of course1 work1 as a rule1 from the centre 7or amidships7 towards the ends4 ,the block can be held in the lap or between the knees for this shaping1 but it is better for all kinds of crooked work to have the material firmly held by a vise or some other contrivance1 so that not merely the hands of the worker are free1 but the whole body as well4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cef4 ,this form of hull is simple to make1 in that the curves of the outside are all convex4 ,there are no concave surfaces and reversed curves4 ,the surface can be finally shaped by the use of the rasp1 followed by a file1 and finally smoothed with scraper or glass 7see ,scraper74 ,do not use sandpaper until the hull is finished4 ,the inside must next be hollowed4 ,gauge a line around the upper side1 #a_/b from the edge1 except at the bow and stern1 where a greater distance should be allowed 7,fig4 #cef74 ,the hull must now be held firmly in some way4 ,if you cannot contrive to clamp it firmly without bruising the outside1 you should arrange some blocks 7padding them with cloth or leather7 in such a way that it can be held securely4 ,it is better to spend an hour in fastening the block firmly than to attempt to steady it with one hand and to cut with the other4 ,in all the shaping of the boat1 both hands should be free if possible4 ,grasp the blade of the tool with the left hand1 or lay the hand across it1 so as to exert a back-pressure on the tool4 ,this gives great control of the tool 7see ,paring74 ,bore one or more holes 7according to the size of the boat7 downward from the top 7,fig4 #cef71 being very careful not to bore too deeply1 but to leave at least half an inch of wood below the hole 7see ,boring74 ,now run a groove with the gouge around the deck1 inside of the line marked1 and hollow out the inside with the gouge1 cutting towards the middle4 ,the holes bored will help in this process4 ,cut down straight from the line marked on the upper side until the thickness of the sides of the hull is reduced to perhaps #a_/d of an inch 7,fig4 #ceg74 ,the object of the increased thickness at the gunwale is to stiffen the sides and give a better bearing for nailing down the deck4 ,below this point make the thickness as uniform as you can1 except for a narrow space at the very bottom where the keel is to be fastened1 where it is often well to leave a thicker ridge 7,fig4 #ceg74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ceg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ceh4 ,extreme care is required in hollowing the inside4 ,it is best not to attempt to make the sides thinner than one fourth of an inch1 unless you are a pretty good workman with a fair degree of patience1 for it is hard to repair the damage if you cut too deeply4 ,templates can be made for the inside4 ,you can tell quite well whether you are making the thickness uniform by the sense of feeling1 gauging the thickness between the thumb and finger4 ,do not try to cut away too much at the bow and stern1 as it will weaken the boat1 but leave a sufficient body of solid wood4 ,smooth the inside neatly with a flatter gouge 7if you have it7 than that with which you removed the bulk of the wood4 ,next1 with a thin strip or batten1 mark the line for the sheer of the deck by the saw-kerfs already made and remove the wood carefully to this sheer line4 ,the outside can now be thoroughly sandpapered1 first with1 perhaps1 ,no4 #a-a_/b1 and finally with ,no4 #jj4 ,get the surface as smooth as possible 7see ,sandpaper74 ,next paint the outside and inside with two coats of white lead and oil 7see ,painting74 ,it is a good plan to apply a coat of hot oil first4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cei4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfa4 ,now to make this same simple model by the method of layers you will readily see that if you take a piece of board of a thickness equal to the distance between the water lines in the sheer plan 7,fig4 #cec71 and cut from it pieces of the shape of the water lines as shown in the half-breadth plan 7,fig4 #cec71 and also cut out the centres of the two upper pieces as shown in ,figs4 #ceh1 #cei1 #cfj1 and then fasten these pieces one upon another as shown in ,fig4 #cfa--you will see that you have built up the general form of the boat1 and saved much of the labour of shaping and hollowing4 ,before cutting out these layers1 a centre line must be accurately marked along both sides and at the rounded ends1 so that the layers can be put together in the correct positions4 ,also1 for the same reason1 mark the midship lines across each side and on the edges1 as shown4 ,in drawing the inside lines 7for the part to be cut out71 care must be taken to leave sufficient thickness at the sides to allow for the final shaping4 ,the sawing of the layers had best be done at a mill with a band-saw and jig- or scroll-saw1 but can be done by hand1 of course4 ,the boards or planks must be accurately dressed so as to make as perfect joints as possible when put together4 ,if not convenient to make the thickness of the boards agree with the water lines of the plan1 you can easily draw in new water lines to agree with the thickness of the board you may have--say1 #c_/d or #g_/h apart4 ,glue must now be applied to the joints1 and the pieces firmly clamped together between boards1 or laid flat 7bottom side upwards7 and weights applied4 ,it is best not to cut out and glue up more than two or three layers at a time1 lest they become bent or sprung4 ,care must be used in applying the pressure to make it uniform and not cause the somewhat flexible sides to be sprung or twisted out of shape 7see ,gluing and ,clamps74 ,do not delay this building-up operation needlessly4 ,do not leave the pieces lying around for a fortnight4 ,keep them all clamped up in the proper position1 or under pressure1 if you can1 until the whole form is glued together1 as such pieces spring out of shape very easily4 ,after the glue is thoroughly dry1 complete the shaping of the outside and inside as in the case of the solid block1 care being taken to pare off the projecting angles on the outside gradually1 so as not to cut within the curve marked on the plan4 ,the fin 7when flaring at the top and not too thin7 can also be made of wood1 glued and screwed on1 the lead being screwed to the bottom with brass screws4#bi ,be sure that the fin is in line with the centre line of the boat4 ,unless the boat is quite small it is best to fit in two or three deck beams to connect the sides and support the deck 7,fig4 #ceg74 ,these should be of thin stuff 7perhaps #c_/af thick and #a_/b wide71 set on edge and very slightly arched1 the ends being fitted into gains cut in the sides1 and nailed with fine brads4 ,they can also be glued4 ,the deck should be of thin stuff 7perhaps #a_/h planed74 ,mark carefully on the piece the deck outline and cut it approximately to shape1 but well outside of the line4 ,fasten small blocks of wood to the under side of the deck wherever any attachments for the rigging are to be fastened4 ,paint the lower side1 and when dry bore a row of holes with a very small brad-awl 7see ,awl7 all around the edge1 #a_/h inside of the line4 ,smear the top edge of the hull with thick white lead1 or white lead putty1 and nail the deck in place with very fine wire brads1 perhaps #a_/b in length4 ,care must be used not to split the deck or drive the nails through the sides of the hull4 ,fine brass screws can be used if necessary4 ,the overhanging edge of the deck can be trimmed down carefully with chisel1 plane1 or knife4 ,the outside of the deck can now be painted4 ,the rudder can be fixed in a brass tube1 the ends of which can be set in lead4 ,the mast can also be stepped in a brass tube1 or simply pass through the deck to the bottom1 where it can be stepped in a smaller hole1 which must be bored with care lest it go through4 ,when you come to making models of less simple form--those having hollows and reversed curves in their outside form1 as the majority of boats do--the difficulty of shaping accurately is much increased and more care is required1 but the principle of construction remains the same4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfb4 ,suppose1 for example1 you are ambitious enough to undertake such forms as those which compete for the ,america's ,cup1 for instance1 you will find it difficult to carry the process of building by horizontal layers below a certain point 7,fig4 #cfb7 but the keel and lower part can be added by gluing 7or gluing and screwing7 a piece of board or plank on edge 7or two pieces1 if necessary7 to the bottom4 ,the lead can1 in turn1 be fastened to the lower edge of the keel by screws4 ,models of such yachts are not always the best forms for toy boats1 however desirous you may be to reproduce in miniature these famous boats4 ,,footnotes3 #bg ,still another way sometimes used for model yachts is to build the hull much in the same way that a real vessel is built--making a framework or skeleton and covering it with little planks1 but this method 7though a good one in some respects7 requires more skill than can be expected of the average amateur1 and this mode of construction should not be attempted until you become a skilful workman and accomplished in the building of regular model yachts4 ,if your boat is quite small it will probably be easier and better in most cases to cut the hull from a solid block2 but if much more than two feet in length it is usually better to build it in layers4 ,either of these methods can be used in any case1 but for a small boat the building in layers is more difficult1 while for a large one it is hard to find a block that will be sufficiently free from defects4 #bh ,in making the plans for a boat1 three views are usually drawn1 known as the sheer plan1 the body plan1 and the half-breadth plan4 ,these correspond to the front or side elevation1 end elevation1 and plan in ordinary drawings1 and give side1 end1 and top views of the boat1--or of one-half of it1 which is all that is needed1 as the sides are of course alike4 ,several equidistant horizontal lines are drawn across the plans4 ,one of these represents the line of the water when the boat has its proper load4 ,it is called the load water-line4 ,the other lines being parallel to it represent other imaginary levels1 at equal distances apart--like the lines which would be made by the water if the boat sunk deeper or floated higher4 ,other lines are also added to show vertical and horizontal1 longitudinal and cross-sections1 at regular intervals1 and also other longitudinal sections1 but these details you will find fully described in works on yacht-7and model yacht-7 building4 #bi ,the fin can be cut from sheet metal 7brass or sheet-iron7 and inserted in a thin saw-kerf cut exactly in the centre of the bottom1 being set in thick white lead1 or it can be riveted to thin plates screwed to the bottom of the boat1 or lips can be bent over alternately on either side of the upper edge of the fin and screwed to the bottom4 ,the amount of lead required for the bulb at the bottom of the fin can be determined by loading the hull with weights until it is sunk to the water line4 ,the weights will1 of course1 represent the weight of lead required4 ,this can be cast in a mould and riveted to the bottom of the fin4 ,,part ,,iii ,,house-,,building ,,for ,,beginners ,,chapter ,,xii ,house-building in its simple forms1 and on a small scale1 is very suitable work for the beginner in wood-working4 ,one of the most important things to bear in mind is not to be too ambitious in your early attempts4 ,content yourself with the simplest forms until you have attained sufficient skill to undertake more difficult buildings4 ,all the work of such structures as are here shown can1 in case of necessity1 be done by one person alone2 but--unless1 perhaps1 in the case of the smallest and simplest houses--it is much better for two or more persons to join forces1 as much time will thereby be saved1 for the lumber can be handled much more easily and quickly by two than by one4 ,this will be the best way if the building is to be done by boys1 in which case by all means have some system for carrying on the work4 ,you know men usually work under the direction of a head man1 or foreman1 and1 when there is no head man1 they defer as a matter of course to the one of their number who is the best fitted to take charge of the work4 ,choose one boy master-builder1 foreman1 or boss1 letting him assign to each his part of the work and leaving to him the decision of questions that arise in regard to the details4 ,if one of you is clearly more of a mechanic than the others1 choose him foreman2 otherwise it will be a good plan to have the office filled by each in turn for perhaps one day apiece4 ,let the foreman divide the work as fairly as possible4 ,that is1 instead of having one boy saw off all the boards while another drives all the nails1 arrange regular shifts at short intervals1 letting the two change places and work perhaps every hour4 ,this plan will prevent much confusion and perhaps disagreement1 which might even cause the work to be given up--an unfortunate result which sometimes happens to boys' undertakings4 ,it is not simply starting in with an understanding that you are to take turns when one may think he is tired of what he happens to be doing1 but it is the regular rotation of work and responsibility at fixed intervals that will ensure harmony and a successful completion of the work4 ,the situation is a very important matter which will be spoken of in treating of the larger structures farther on1 but there is one thing which should be borne in mind for even the smallest play-house in the back yard of a town lot1 and that is not to build it in a hollow where the water will collect to make it damp or uninhabitable4 ,a flat roof should also be avoided1 as it is much harder to keep tight than one which has sufficient pitch to shed the water freely4 ,you can determine the kind of a house to build and its general dimensions according to the requirements of the case1 but you will1 of course1 wish it to be attractive in appearance1 however small it may be2 and therefore1 in making the drawings1 it is essential to have in view the block-form1 or general shape and proportions4 ,if these are not pleasing and agreeable to the eye1 your house will be unattractive1 for nothing you can do in the way of ornamentation or elaborate details will make up for poor shape and proportions4 ,to design a building 7however small7 with a pleasing and attractive exterior is1 however1 no easy task4 ,if you can make a perspective sketch of your proposed house with reasonable accuracy1 it will be a great help1 as the regular working drawings 7the plan1 elevations1 etc471 however well made1 often fail to give one a clear mental picture of how the structure as a whole will look4 ,a little model will be of the greatest service in determining whether the shape and proportions of your house are good4 ,a model is easily made of paste-board with sufficient accuracy for this purpose4 ,it is quite remarkable how different many objects appear when actually made1 from the way one thinks they will appear1 in spite of the most careful drawings2 therefore do not despise this simple precaution of making a model in cases where attractive appearance is an element1 for it may save you from putting up a structure which will be a continual eyesore4 ,the amateur 7like many professional builders7 is much more liable to make his work too elaborate and with too many attempts at ornamentation than to make it too plain4 ,so give your first attention to the block-form1 and then to the details4 ,do not cover your house with an embroidery of jig-sawing1 fanciful turning1 superfluous brackets1 and the like1 in the effort to make it pretty or to imitate the vulgar details of inferior summer cottages4 ,the amateur is also liable in the case of very small buildings to make them too tall in proportion to their ground dimensions4 ,a tall1 narrow house is seldom homelike or attractive1 whether it be six feet square or sixty4 ,finally1 be simple and modest in your designing1 avoid meaningless gingerbread work1 do not set your house up on stilts1 as it were1 but hospitably near to the ground2 have generous doors and windows1 avoid flashy and gaudy colours in painting1 cultivate plants and vines to run over the outside1 and keep the surroundings neat and tidy4 ,the variety of small structures from which to select for your early attempts is almost endless4 ,you can find many ideas for your designing and the construction in every town and in various publications4 ,only simple types will be treated here1 involving merely such principles of construction as you can readily apply to such other designs as you may wish to carry out4 ,as it is impracticable to repeat all the suggestions and details under each structure treated here1 the prospective builder who should begin with any of the later examples had best read these chapters through from the beginning before starting on the actual work4 ,one of the simplest and most easily built small structures that you can make is that with a single-pitched or shed or lean-to roof2 that is1 with the roof slanting only one way4 ,this style of construction1 though commonly applied to a rather humble class of buildings1 is by no means to be despised1 the ease with which it can be built by boys or amateurs being one of its marked advantages4 ,you will find this simple form of building capitally suited to many purposes1 and a good type with which to begin4 ,a ,play-house or ,play-store4--,you know that an ordinary wooden building has a framework of timbers1--a kind of skeleton upon which the boarding is nailed4 ,this will be shown in the following chapters1 but a very small house or cabin1 like that shown in ,fig4 #cfc1 suitable for a play-house for boys and girls1 can be built very well in a simpler way by making the four sides separately and then nailing them together as you would do if making a box4 ,there is no floor 7except the ground71 and the roof is to be nailed down on top of the four sides as you would nail the cover on the box4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfc4 ,a little house1 with trees a-row1 ,and1 like its master1 very low6--,pope4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,nailing1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,fig4 #cfe shows one of the sides 7inside view74 ,it is made of boards running horizontally1 with an upright cleat at each edge1 and another cleat at the top4 ,fig4 #cff shows the back 7inside view71 made in the same way as the sides1 except that each cleat is set back from the edge #a-c_/d1 thus forming a rabbet in which to fit either side when the house is put together4 ,the third1 fourth1 fifth1 and sixth boards from the top are not nailed to the cleats1 but are omitted1 to leave space for a large open window4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfd4 ,,elevation4 ,,side ,,elevation4 ,,plan4 ,,rear ,,elevation4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfe4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cff4 ,fig4 #cfg shows the front 7inside view71 four upright cleats being used and a large opening left for the doorway4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfg4 ,first estimate the stock you will require 7see ,chapter ,,iv471#cj and try to get dry wood without too many large knots4 ,you can get along very well for such work as this on the floor1 or even the ground1 with a couple of boxes for horses1 but a bench and horses are a great convenience4 ,make the sides first1 disregarding the slant for the roof4 ,take a matched-board and square off one end of it1 if it is not already square4 ,then measure #e' #ajca from that end1 mark across by the square1 and saw the piece off4 ,use this piece 7#e' #aj long7 as a measure to mark the lengths of enough pieces to make the two sides4 ,if you saw them off as you measure them1 one by one1 be sure to mark all the lengths by the first piece1 and not by the one last sawed1 or they will probably1 vary in length4 ,when you put the boards together to form the sides1 be sure that the ends are in line4 ,use the edge of a straight board for a straight-edge to get them in line1 or drive them against the side of the room1 if that is straight1 or temporarily nail a straight-edged board to the floor and keep them driven up squarely against it4 ,make sure1 also1 by testing with the square or by measuring1 that each side of the house when made is a rectangle and not a rhomboid1 or the whole house will be askew when put together4 ,when you fit the matched edges be sure to make the joints as tight as you can1 but do not pound directly on the tongued and grooved edges with the hammer4 ,take a short piece of waste boarding1 fit it to the tongue or groove wherever you wish to strike1 and hit this waste piece with the hammer4 ,you will see that there is no need of sawing out a square hole for the window1 as you can put in short pieces at each side of the window-space4 ,nail the upright cleats at the edges with #a-a_/b nails1 driving two into each board in the way shown in the cut1 bearing in mind that the cleats must all be on the inside of the house1 and also to have the tongues of the boards uppermost when the house is put together4 ,mark the front edge of each side in some way to prevent any mistake4 ,the reason for putting the tongues upward and the grooves downward is because the joints will shed the water better1 as otherwise each groove would be a little trough into which the rain could soak4 ,measure #e' #f from the bottom on the front edge of each side and #d' #f on the back edge4 ,draw a straight line on the outside between these points and it will give the slant for the roof4 ,saw the boards and cleats by this line and then fit and nail the top cleats as in ,fig4 #cfe1 or nail the top cleats first and saw the boards off by them4 ,next make the back in the same way1 setting the cleats #a-c_/d away from the edges4 ,leave out the boards at the window-space4 ,make the shutter1 and trim off its tongued and grooved edges 7see ,paring1 etc47 before nailing the back of the house together1 as you can thus determine more easily the space to be left open4 ,also trim off the tongued edge of the board coming next below the shutter4 ,leave the open space a little wider than the shutter 7say #a_/d wider7 to allow for possible swelling of the boards4 ,when you nail the cleats on the drop-shutter1 be sure to use nails long enough to clinch 7see ,nailing71 or use screws 7see ,screws74 ,the front is to be made in the same way1 the width of the door-space being #bg-a_/b1 and of the boarding at each side1 #ba-a_/d4 ,have the two inner cleats project about an inch inside the edge of the doorway for the door to hit against when shut 7,fig4 #cfg71 and toe or clinch the nails for these cleats1 or use a few screws1 so that the slamming of the door will not loosen them4 ,now the four sides are ready to put together4 ,find a spot as nearly level as you can for your house4 ,do not1 however1 put it in a hollow where the floor will be flooded with water when it rains4 ,hold up the front and one side in the right position1 press them closely together at the corner1 and drive in a couple of nails to hold them until you can get the other parts in place4 ,then fit on the other side and the back in the same way4 ,try the four corners with the steel square1 and when you have them right nail all the corners strongly with #b-a_/b nails4 ,if you have no large square1 measure the diagonals with a stick1 altering the angles at the corners until the diagonals are equal4 ,toe the nails at the corners1 and1 in fact1 if you can do it neatly1 it will be stronger to toe the nails throughout the work4 ,now get out boards #f' long for the roof1 to run from side to side4 ,when you nail them on have them project #a all around4 ,cover the roof with roofing- or sheathing-paper4 ,lay it in strips from side to side1 beginning at the back and letting the second strip overlap the first1 as shingles are laid4 ,three strips will cover the roof once4 ,of course you can cover it with as many layers as you wish to pay for4 ,fasten the paper with roofing nails or tacks4 ,drive them close together1 but only where the strips lap and at the edges of the roof4 ,you can bend the edges of the paper down over the edge of the roof to cover the joint underneath and nail neat strips of wood outside to cover the edges of the paper1 or you can simply nail the paper around the edge of the roof4 ,in making the door 7,fig4 #cfh7 clinch the nails which fasten the cleats1 or use screws1 and trim off the tongued and grooved edges1 as with the drop-shutter4 ,now hang the door and drop-shutter with two strap-hinges each4 ,place the door and shutter exactly in position 7shut71 and tack them temporarily in place with a few nails1 or wedge them4 ,then carefully placing each hinge so that the pin on which it turns is just in line with the crack between the door and the door-frame1 mark points for the screws4 ,bore holes for the screws and fasten the hinges in place 7see ,screws74 ,put a latch1 a catch1 or a hasp and padlock on the door1 and a hasp or screw-eye and hook on the inside for the shutter4 ,also fix a brace to hold the shutter when lifted1 or you can arrange a rope to pass up from the outside of the shutter and around a pulley to the inside of the house1 where it can hang down and be used to hold the shutter up by fastening it round a cleat or a couple of nails4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfh4 ,you can fix a shelf inside under the open window at the back 7,fig4 #cfd1 ,plan71 resting on cleats nailed to the sides of the house1 and also put in a seat at one or both sides1 supporting the middle by a short post or a short piece of board on edge4 ,a few strips will serve to hold the lights of window-glass in place4 ,the house is now ready to occupy4 ,of course you can save a good deal of labour 7and lose some experience7 at slight expense by having the boards sawed off squarely of the given lengths at a mill1--often where you buy the wood4 ,in this case1 remember to make a list of the number of boards of each length to take to the mill4 ,if you would like to be able to move your house or to take it apart and store it during the winter1 you can fasten the four sides and roof together with screws1 or hook them together on the inside with stout screw-eyes and hooks4 ,you will find this way in very common use by builders and contractors in the little portable tool-houses1 offices1 and shops which they take apart and move from place to place4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cfi4 ,play-store or ,booth4--,a good form for a simple play-store or booth 7,fig4 #cfi7 can1 if small1 be constructed on the same box-like principle as the little building just shown1 and the details of construction are so similar that special directions for this design are unnecessary4 ,if large1 it should1 however1 have a frame1 which you can readily pattern after that shown in ,fig4 #cga4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,by using heavier cleats1 as #b #b or #b #d1 on the ends1 those on the front and back can be omitted1 and the boards nailed directly to the sides4 ,an arrangement for one end 7that with the door7 is suggested in ,fig4 #cgj1 #b #b or #b #d joist being used4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgj4 ,a shelf or counter can be fitted inside the drop-window for the display of your wares4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this general shape can often be advantageously used for a quite good-sized building--a little cottage1 for instance--and when an addition to a larger structure is desired1 it is sometimes the best form for the purpose1 for its shape renders it more easily attached than any other form of ell 7,fig4 #cia74 ,a building of this style1 however suitable as an attachment to a larger structure1 will not be an attractive object in some situations4 ,it will not stand alone1 regardless of the surroundings1 as well as some other forms4 ,therefore it is well to consider1 before deciding to build anything of this kind larger than the play-houses and stores just shown1 whether your house will have a building1 a fence1 or a wall for a background2 or a steep bluff or ledge under which it will nestle1 or trees or shrubbery behind or around it4 ,in such cases it will often be attractive in appearance4 ,if1 however1 it is to be put in a prominent place where it can be viewed from all positions1 it may be better to select some other type4 ,frame for ,larger ,building with ,lean-to ,roof4--,while the simple box-like arrangement described above is suitable for a very small structure1 it must be discarded for a frame of some sort when you undertake a larger and more permanent building4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,this frame can be put together as shown for the framed structures described farther on1 the only difference being at the top4 ,a simple method of framing is shown in ,fig4 #cga4 ,fig4 #chb shows a simple way of fitting boards around the edge of the roof where it overhangs1 and other arrangements for this detail can be found in the various illustrations4 ,it is not necessary to have roofs overhang1 even for a large building1 but it is usually desirable on the ground of appearance and for shedding the water away from the walls4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cga4 ,for matters relating to the foundation1 see pages #bei-bfd4 ,play-house or ,cabin4--,the house shown in ,fig4 #cgb can be put together in the way already shown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the ground dimensions can be #e' or #f' #g' or #h'4 ,the ends must be made higher than the sides1 as shown1 to allow for the slant of the roof4 ,mark lines1 using a straight-edge1 to give the slant for both sides of the roof1 and saw the boards off by these lines4 ,a short cleat can be added at the top in the middle to stiffen these top boards4 ,after the sides and ends are put together1 get out two boards1 of the shape shown in ,fig4 #cgc1 to rest in four rectangular notches cut in the front and back sides of the house4 ,these pieces are to support the roof-boards1 and their upper edges are to be cut at the same angle as the top of either end of the house4 ,nail these pieces firmly in place at each end 7,fig4 #cgd74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgb4 ,now get out boards for the roof1 to run from end to end and about #d longer than the house4 ,begin to nail them on at the top1 and have the roof overhang the sides and ends #b all around4 ,you can easily put in the window-sash1 either by hinging it so as to swing open1 or by having it slide to the right or left on strips nailed above and below it1 as shown in ,fig4 #cfi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgc4 ,the roof-boards can also be laid the other way by putting in a ridge-piece in the form of a piece of studding or joist of any size not less than #b #b 7,fig4 #cgg71 or even a board on edge1 to which the upper ends of the roof-boards can be nailed4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgd4 ,another form of roof1 but arranged in the same way1 is shown in ,fig4 #cge4 ,you will require a compass-saw for the curves1 or you can have them sawed by a band-saw1 or the wood can be trimmed to the line with the hatchet and draw-knife or chisel 7see ,paring74 ,another way to put any such little structure as this together is to have the sheathing run up and down and the cleats horizontally4 ,this makes a neater structure than the way just given4 ,the general principle of the construction is the same1 the four sides being made separately and then fastened together4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cge4 ,play-house1 ,store1 or ,cabin4--,the design shown in ,fig4 #cgf can be carried out in the manner already described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the ground dimensions can be #f' or #g' #h' or #i'4 ,in making the ends where they are cut off at the top to give the slant for the roof1 inside cleats should be used4 ,mark lines1 using a straight-edge1 for the slant for both sides of the roof1 and saw the boards off by these lines4 ,it will be convenient and will look well to make the angle at the top a right angle4 ,at the top saw out a notch in which to rest the ridge-pole1 as shown in ,fig4 #cgg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgf4 ,after the sides and ends are fastened together1 nail the ridge-pole in place and get out short boards for the roof4 ,cut these for one side of the roof so as to be about #b longer than the slant of the end of the house1 and make those for the other side of the roof as much longer as the thickness of the boards1 so that they will lap over at the top1 as shown in ,fig4 #cgg4 ,nail them on1 beginning at one end1 so that the roof will overlap the ends and sides #b all around4 ,nailing upright strips at the corners1 as is commonly done on wooden houses1 and as is shown in the picture1 will give the house a more finished appearance4 ,the other details are similar to those already shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cgi4 ,this house can have a floor1 which can be made of #b #d studding simply nailed together and floored over 7,fig4 #cgh71 forming a sort of platform to which the sides and ends can be nailed when the house is put together2 and the best way to make the whole structure is that shown in ,fig4 #cgg1 the boards running vertically and cleats horizontally4 ,in case of using a platform floor with this last method of construction1 the lower cleats can be raised from the bottom so as to rest on the floor1 as shown in ,fig4 #cgh4 ,this makes the putting together of the house quite simple1 as the fitting of the sides and ends and floor in their proper places obviates the need of testing with square or measuring diagonals4 ,the lower cleats on the sides and ends are not really necessary1 however1 except for convenience in putting together and taking apart1 as the vertical sheathing can be nailed directly to the floor-frame or sills1 as shown in ,fig4 #cgg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cha4 ,the whole can then be levelled 7see ,level and ,plumb71 being blocked up underneath as may be required4 ,the design is also suitable for a larger structure1 in which case a frame should be made as shown in ,fig4 #chi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another very1 similar design is shown in ,fig4 #cgi1 and can be put together according to the principles already shown4 ,the boarding runs vertically and the cleats horizontally1 as shown in ,fig4 #cgg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chb4 ,figs4 #chj and #cha show other simple arrangements1 the ground dimensions of which can be1 perhaps1 #h' #ab'1 and which can be put together in the same way as the preceding cases1 with or without a floor1 and with the boarding running vertically or horizontally4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #che4 ,if a stove is to be used1 the smoke-pipe can be arranged to pass through the side of the house1 as in ,figs4 #chb1 #chc1 etc4 ,if to pass through the roof1 it should be soldered or riveted to a sheet of metal1 as galvanized iron1 the upper edge of the latter being slipped under the roof covering while the lower edge laps over it 7,fig4 #chd71 on just the same principle that shingles are laid1 the idea being1 of course1 that the water will run down over the metal without leaking through1 just as it runs down over the shingles4 ,this simple principle must always be observed whenever metal is used to prevent joints leaking4 ,with such small houses as these it is usually easier and safer about leakage to have the pipe run through the side of the house4 ,if to go through the roof 7particularly when there is no special roof covering but boards71 it is a good plan to have the pipe pass through the roof near the ridge1 so that the upper edges of the metal sheet can be slipped under one of the saddle-boards 7,fig4 #che74 ,in any case1 an air space must be allowed between the smoke-pipe and the wood1 and it is always well to have a collar an inch or two outside of the pipe4 ,any tinsmith or metal-worker can arrange these details4 ,round drain-pipe set in cement is often used for a cheap pipe or chimney1 and answers the purpose very well4 ,fig4 #chc also shows the way to lay sheathing- or roofing-paper in case you wish to use it for a temporary structure4 ,it also gives a suggestion for a window-shutter to be raised by a cord passing through to the inside1 where it can be fastened to a cleat4 ,a ,workshop4--,a small building1 like that shown in ,fig4 #chf1 from #h' to #ab' wide by #ab' to #ah' long1 will be suitable for a workshop or for various other purposes4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chf4 ,while it will do for a little play-house without a floor1 like those described at first1 to rest directly upon the ground1 a better structure like this should have some sort of underpinning4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is not customary to lay a stone or brick and cement foundation for such a structure as this1 because the building is not usually worth it4 ,it can very well be rested upon stones at the corners and middle of the sides or upon posts set in the ground4 ,if the soil is sandy and large stones abundant1 it can be rested upon piers of stones4 ,so far as supporting the building for one season is concerned1 simply resting it upon stones laid on top of the ground is sufficient1 but the action of the frost will move the stones and heave the building more or less out of place1 which will require it to be occasionally levelled and blocked up4 ,a hole can be dug to a depth of about three feet1 so as to be below the action of the frost1 and a pier of flat stones built up4 ,if the soil is of clear1 well-packed sand1 a pier of this sort will last for some time before being thrown out of shape by the frost1 although1 of course1 if laid in cement 7or if bricks laid in cement are used71 it will be much more permanent4 ,if the soil is clayey1 the foundation1 of whatever kind1 should be carried to a depth of three feet or more and cemented1 and even then it will be liable to be heaved by the action of the frost4 ,this involves considerable labour and perhaps expense1 and for such a small building it will usually be better to rest it upon flat stones laid on the surface1 or to block it up in some way so as to be clear of the ground1 and then level it whenever necessary1 which is not difficult with so small a structure4#cb 99 99 99 99 99 ,while brick piers built upon a foundation of stone laid in cement and carried to a depth of three feet or more is doubtless the best underpinning you can have 7next to a regular foundation wall71 it is not always advisable to incur the necessary expense and labour1 and a common and usually satisfactory way for a building of this sort is to rest it upon posts set in the ground4 ,but before placing the posts the exact position of the building must be determined4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having fixed upon the position of the building1 proceed to stake it out4 ,first measure off with the tape1 or rod1 or even a string1 the length of one of the sides of the building1 and drive a stake at each end of the line4 ,stretch a line between these stakes and measure off the length of the end of the building from each stake1 as nearly as possible at right angles with the first line4 ,you can do this approximately with the help of a mason's square1 or large triangle1 which you can make yourself of thin strips of wood nailed together in the form of a right-angled triangle with sides #f'1 #h'1 and #aj' long1 or the sides can be #c'1 #d'1 and #e' long4#cc ,whatever method you use1 be sure that the figure is rectangular1 and move one or two of the stakes1 if necessary1 until the diagonals are of equal length4 ,if the ground is uneven1 keep the tape horizontal when measuring1 and to determine the points required drop a plumb-line from the end of the tape which is raised from the ground4 ,having in this way accurately fixed upon the lines for the four sides of the house1 continue these lines a few feet 7perhaps #d or #e feet7 beyond the corners to the points marked ,e 7,fig4 #chh71 and drive a stake at each of these points4 ,you can easily get these eight stakes in line by sighting from the four first driven4 ,next drive in one of these outside stakes 7the one where the ground is the highest in case the surface is uneven7 until it sticks out of the ground a few inches1 and then drive the other seven until their tops are level with the top of the first4 ,this you can determine by applying the level to a line stretched taut from the top of one post to the top of another4 ,drive a nail into the top of each stake to hold the string1 or cut a notch for the same purpose4 ,now if strings are tightly stretched between these stakes1 they will intersect over the four stakes first driven at the corners of the house4 ,these four stakes you can now remove when you dig the holes for the posts1 and the exact position of each post and its height above the surface will be determined by the intersection of the strings from the outside stakes4 ,the strings can be taken off while you are digging and replaced when you are getting the posts in position4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chh4 ,next dig a hole at one corner1 about #ah in diameter and about #b-a_/b' or #c' in depth4 ,in this hole set a post about #f in diameter1 sawed off squarely at the upper end1 and of such a length that when pounded down to a firm and upright bearing the top of it will reach the string stretched between the levelling stakes4 ,when you fill up the hole put in only a little earth at a time1 tamping each layer compactly around the post with an iron bar or stick before adding more earth4 ,contrary to what one might naturally think1 the earth can be tamped more compactly with a bar or stick than with a heavy joist4 ,set another post in the same way at the next corner1 fixing it accurately in position by means of the strings1 as in the case of the first post1 and seeing that the distance from the outside of this post to the outside of the first one is that required by the plan4 ,set the other corner-posts in the same way1 testing all the distances 7including the diagonals7 as before4 ,you can try the height of each post now and then as you dig1 and thus avoid making too deep a hole4 ,if you prefer1 you can set all the posts in the right positions at first1 but without trying to level the tops1 merely seeing that the tops all stick up above the line4 ,you can then strike a horizontal line all around with a cord1 and saw all the posts off by this line--a process which you very likely have seen when watching the work on a pile-bridge or wharf4 ,sawing off the posts squarely will be much easier1 however1 before they are set in the ground4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the posts may be of locust1 cedar1 cypress1 or chestnut4 ,locust is considered very durable1 but is the most expensive4 ,cedar is excellent1 and will be perfectly satisfactory4 ,chestnut will do very well for a house of this sort1 and is comparatively cheap4 ,if you do not mind the slight increase in cost1 cedar is better4 ,if you wish to be as economical as possible1 chestnut will answer4#cd ,the reason for selecting wood of greater natural durability for the posts than for the rest of the house is to withstand the greater exposure of the posts to alternate moisture and dryness4 ,timber will last for centuries if placed in a sheltered position and exposed to a free circulation of air4 ,it will also last for a long period when immersed in fresh water or sunk underground1 so as to be beyond the influence of atmospheric changes4 ,but the alternate exposure to dryness and moisture1 as in the case of posts partly above and partly below ground1 or piles for a wharf or bridge1 causes decay in a comparatively short time 7see ,appendix74 ,if your site is too rocky for posts1 you will be saved some digging1 but must provide a level and stable foundation in some other way4 ,it rarely happens that the surface will be quite level1 and you must use stone or timbers for underpinning4 ,if there are one or two corners that must be raised1 owing to inequality of the surface1 and you cannot find large stones that will be sure to stay in place1 you can rest the raised parts of the house upon posts securely braced4 ,rock is not the most desirable foundation for a building with a regular underpinning and cellar--the biblical parable to the contrary notwithstanding--and there is no foundation superior to sand or gravel 7only the sand or gravel must be confined and not free to slide or move74 ,but as your house merely rests on the surface1 and has no cellar to be dug or drained1 there is no disadvantage in putting it on a rock1 provided you support it properly4 ,do not rest one end of it on a pile of loose cobble-stones1 five feet high1 only to have the stones slip some wet1 stormy night and let the building down4 ,having the foundation set1 the next thing is the frame1 which for a small building of this kind can be made of almost any kind of wood which you can readily obtain1 provided1 of course1 that it is dry enough and not weakened by large knots or other defects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chi4 ,the sills1 or the lower timbers of the frame which rest upon the foundation1 should be got out first1 and can be of #d #d stock1 and halved at the ends 7see ,halving7 7,fig4 #chi74 ,upon these sills is to be set up a #d #d post of the desired length at each corner4#ce ,on top of these are placed the plates1 which can be of #b #d studding laid flat and halved at the ends4 ,be sure to get out these pieces before beginning to put them together4 ,toe-nail the posts to the sills and nail the plates directly down on top of the posts1 keeping the latter in a vertical position by temporarily nailing on strips of board diagonally1 adjusting these until the posts are vertical and at right angles to the sills 7see ,plumb and ,square74 ,next put in vertical studding 7#b #d7 at each side of the door-space1 and at the sides of the window-spaces1 allowing a little more space than the exact widths of the door and window-frames4 ,in the same way horizontal studding should be fitted in above the door-space and above and below the window-spaces1 and in any places where it will be a help in stiffening the frame or for nailing on the boarding4 ,another way is to first fit in pieces of joist horizontally1 either midway between the sills and plates 7except at the window and door-spaces71 or running the entire length above and below the windows4 ,just where and how many of these pieces are to be put in depends upon the arrangement of the doors and windows1 and pieces of vertical studding can be fitted in at each side of the door and window-spaces and wherever advisable4 ,short braces1 with their ends sawed at an angle of #de1 can also be fitted at the corners1 where the corner-posts meet the sills and plates1 and be nailed in place to help stiffen the frame4 ,it will be a convenience in working to lay the floor next4 ,for this you will require a number of floor-joists4 ,if the building is only #h' or #aj' wide1 #b #d studding will do2 but if the width is as great as #ab'1 #b #f will be better4 ,these are to be placed on edge on top of the sills1 as shown4 ,place one at each end against the corner-posts 7to which it can be nailed71 sawing off each end so that it will be flush with the outside of the sill4 ,distribute these floor-joists so that they will be about #ah apart1 and hold them in position by toeing a nail through them at each end into the sill beneath1 or nailing them to the studding when practicable4 ,before laying any of these floor-joists trim them off on the under edge1 which will rest upon the sills1 if necessary to ensure a level surface on top for the floor4 ,do not neglect this1 as such joists frequently vary in width4 ,now measure the diagonals again1 before laying the floor-boards1 to be sure that the base of the house is rectangular4 ,if one diagonal is longer than the other1 push those corners towards each other until the diagonals are of equal length4 ,next lay the floor-boards1 lengthways of the building1 driving them together tightly by pounding on a waste piece1 and nailing them firmly to each floor-joist with two nails4 ,if your floor-boards are not long enough to reach the entire length of the house1 you will take pains1 of course1 to saw them of such a length that the ends of the boards will meet over the middle of one of the floor-joists1 arranging the joints so that they will alternate or come at different points of the floor4 ,saw off neatly all projecting ends of the floor-boards4 ,you will frequently wish to use more force in driving the floor-boards to a tight joint at the edges than you can easily apply with the hammer4 ,you can easily apply all the pressure required by using two short boards on the principle of the toggle-joint4 ,arrange these as shown in ,fig4 #cij1 one end resting against a temporary cleat or any firm object and the other against the edge of the floor-board4 ,by stepping upon this toggle-joint at its apex1 the floor-board will be forced into place4 ,a common way is to pry the board into place with a chisel driven down at the edge4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cij4 ,if the building is to be used in cold weather1 by all means lay double flooring4 ,the under floor can be of cheaper stock and laid less carefully4 ,between the two lay sheathing- or roofing-paper1 and you will have accomplished much towards keeping the room warm4 ,the frame is now ready for the roof-timbers4 ,these can be of #b #d studding1 except the ridge-board1 which can be any common board about #f wide4 ,to obtain the length of the rafters and the angle at which the ends are to be cut1 you can easily make a full-sized pattern on the floor by simply laying off a right-angled triangle of the required height and base1 which will give the length of the rafters and the angle at each end1 after cutting off a little piece at the upper end to represent one half the thickness of the ridge-board2 or two pieces of the rafter stock can simply be laid on the floor in the right relative positions for the roof1 when their points of crossing can be marked on each edge and the bevel marked on the sides of the pieces4 ,the bevel at the lower end can be found in a similar manner4 ,take off enough at the upper end to allow for one half the thickness of the ridge-board1 and saw off one rafter as marked4 ,this will serve for a pattern by which to mark the others4 ,the end rafters and the ridge-board 7which should first be sawed the length of the house7 can easily be nailed in position by two persons1 one at each end1 being temporarily stayed in place by a board nailed outside 7,fig4 #chi74 ,the roof-boards can be nailed either lengthways1 or up and down4 ,if the former way1 the rafters must be put quite near together to give sufficient support to the boards4 ,if the latter1 purlins1 or lengthways stringers1 should be added between the ridge-board and the side-plates1 as shown4 ,if the roof is to be shingled1 the boards can as well be laid lengthways--otherwise they should be laid up and down4 ,if not to be covered in any way1 matched-boards 7or battened joints7 should be used4 ,if well painted1 such a roof will last for some time1 but shingling is much better4 ,saddle-boards should be put along the ridge1 as they add much to the tightness and durability of the roof4 ,the sides require to be sheathed before covering the roof1 leaving open spaces for the door and windows4 ,shorter pieces can be used above and below these spaces4 ,the boarding can be put on vertically and battens 7narrow boards #b or #c wide1 or strips of half-round moulding7 nailed over the cracks1 as shown in ,fig4 #cia1 or1 of course1 the sides can be clapboarded or shingled if preferred1 in which case the boarding can be put on horizontally4 ,the door can be made of boards1 cleated1 as already shown1 or one can be bought ready-made4 ,a casing should be nailed around the door-space1 previously putting at the bottom a threshold upon which the lower ends of the casing can fit4 ,this you will at once understand by examining the arrangement of these details in almost any dwelling-house4 ,the arrangement of the windows 7which you can buy ready-made of almost any desired shape and size7 does not differ from the cases already shown4 ,the smoke-pipe can be arranged as shown on page #beh4 ,a few floor-beams put across on top of the plates and wholly or partly floored over will provide a loft useful for storage4 ,if the building is for a shop1 this will be a good place to keep lumber4 ,the roof can be covered according to the methods already shown1 but shingling will be much better4 ,if a building is worth shingling at all1 it is usually best to use a good quality of shingles4 ,the cheapest ones are apt to be unsatisfactory for a permanent building1 but1 on the other hand1 for such structures as these it is not necessary to get an extra quality1 for some knots or defects at the thin ends where they will be covered by two or three layers may do no harm4 ,cedar shingles are better than spruce4 ,it is a good plan to lay roofing-paper over the roof before shingling4 ,begin the shingling at the eaves and work upward4 ,lay a row the length of the roof1 letting the butts slightly overhang the edge4 ,directly on top of this row lay another1 breaking joints with those underneath2 that is1 lay the first row double1 taking pains that the spaces between the shingles of the lower layer are covered by the shingles of the upper layer4 ,leave a slight space 7perhaps #a_/h to #c_/h7 between the shingles in laying them4 ,this gives room for swelling1 and allows the water to run off freely4 ,if the edges are close together at the lower end1 the tendency is to dam up these water-courses and retain the moisture1 which is injurious4 ,some people pare off the edges to make the butt-ends narrower1 in order to obviate this2 but simply laying the shingles slightly apart answers the purpose4 ,fasten each shingle with two shingle nails 7one near each edge1 within perhaps #a71 far enough up from the butt to be covered by the next row of shingles4 ,common shingles can be laid about #d-a_/b to the weather1 that is1 with that portion of the length exposed at the butt4 ,if shingles of extra length are used this distance can be varied accordingly4 ,lay the butts of each row by a chalk-line or against the edge of a narrow board1 which can be adjusted and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to the board and to the ridge of the roof4 ,the upper ends of the top row of shingles can be trimmed off and saddle-boards can be put on at the top1 letting the edge of one overlap the other4 ,it is doubtful economy to paint shingles after they are laid4 ,the paint tends to clog the spaces between them4 ,it is better to dip them in paint before laying4 ,a much better way is to dip them in some one of the prepared creosote stains1 which can be had in a great variety of colours4 ,these are excellent1 although1 except to obtain some desired colour effect1 it is hardly worth while to use any preparation on the roofs of such buildings as these4 ,cut nails are considered better than wire nails for shingling1 on the ground of durability4 ,take pains to keep the lines of the rows straight and at equal distances apart4 ,for the painting1 see ,painting1 in ,part ,v4 ,if this building is for a workshop1 various suggestions about the interior arrangement will be found in ,part ,i4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,to find the number of square feet in the cleats1 first find the number of running feet1 that is1 the total length of the cleats if they were stretched out in a long line1 like one of the rails of a railroad track4 ,then1 as the cleats are #c wide 7or one fourth of a foot71 it will take four running feet to make one square foot4 ,therefore divide the number of running feet by four and the quotient will be the number of square feet4 #ca ,boards twelve feet long will be the best to buy for this house1 because you can get two lengths from each board without waste4 ,you could not be sure1 however1 of getting two lengths of exactly six feet from each twelve-foot board1 because the ends are frequently checked or damaged in some way2 so it will be safest to make the length #e' #aj1 as given above4 #cb ,if you have only small stones or blocks upon which to rest it1 the building can be put together directly upon the ground1 the sills being rested temporarily upon any material at hand1 and then the supports adjusted underneath4 #cc ,you can mark a point on one string #c' from one stake and a point on the other string #d' from the same stake1 and then increase or decrease the angle made by the two strings until another string exactly #e' long will just reach from the marked point on one string to that on the other4 ,this process is based on the principle of mathematics that if the two sides of a right-angled triangle are respectively #c units and #d units in length1 the length of the hypothenuse will be #e units4 ,another way1 if you are fond of mathematics1 is to find the length of the diagonals of the plan of the house by extracting the square root of the sum of the squares of the two sides4 7,the square described on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described on the other two sides47 ,you can measure the diagonal directly from a plan if you understand mechanical drawing well enough to make an accurate plan on a scale of perhaps #a_/b or #a to a foot4 ,then take one tape1 or string1 measuring the width of the building1 with one end held on the stake ,c 7,fig4 #chg71 and another tape measuring the length of the diagonal1 with the end held on the stake ,d4 ,drive the stake ,a at the point where the two tapes meet when brought together4 ,reversing the positions of the tapes will give in the same way the fourth corner ,b4 ,the distance ,a ,b should equal ,c ,d4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #chg4 #cd ,the part of the post which is embedded in the ground is sometimes charred or painted to preserve it from decay4 ,this can be easily done1 but the process is advisable only with thoroughly seasoned wood4 ,it is highly injurious to green timber1 as by closing the pores and obstructing evaporation from the surface it prevents the seasoning of the wood and causes fermentation and decay within 7see ,appendix74 #ce ,these posts1 and even the sills1 can be built up if necessary of #b #d studding1 two pieces being placed side by side and nailed together1 but this is not so desirable as regards strength1 its only advantage consisting in the readiness with which the joints can be made by simply cutting one of the two pieces shorter than the other4 ,the cottage is one of the embellishments of natural scenery which deserves attentive consideration4 ,it is beautiful always1 and everywhere2 whether looking out of the woody dingle with its eye-like window1 and sending up the motion of azure smoke between the silver trunks of aged trees2 or grouped among the bright cornfields of the fruitful plain2 or forming grey clusters along the slope of the mountain side1 the cottage always gives the idea of a thing to be beloved3 a quiet life-giving voice1 that is as peaceful as silence itself4--,,ruskin1 ,the ,poetry of ,architecture4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,simple ,,summer ,,cottages ,cottage ,row4--,the little houses shown in the accompanying illustrations#cf afford excellent examples of what can be done by the beginner4 ,these were built by boys1 and form1 with others1 a most interesting little village or street1 known as ,cottage ,row4 ,they are small1 but have many of the details of larger houses4 ,they are shingled and clapboarded1 have regular doors and windows1 and are very attractively fitted up inside with curtains1 cupboards1 shelves1 tables1 chairs1 lounges1 bookcases1 and other articles of furniture4 ,the walls are hung or covered with prettily figured cretonne or calico4 ,these little structures are good models for boys' first attempts at house-building1 in that they are simple1 modest1 and unpretentious1 and have a homelike air which does not pertain to many more elaborate and pretentious houses4 ,the visitor is attracted by their neat1 trim1 inviting appearance1 and wishes to enter4 ,houses of this character can easily be made by two or more boys working together2 and by the united forces of a number of boys a very attractive little village can be built 7and much simple carpentry be learned at the same time71 in which many pleasant hours can be spent4 ,such houses as these can be framed and put together without difficulty by the methods already shown4 ,it will not add very much to the expense to have the parts of the frame which show on the inside of the house planed by machine1 and this will much improve the appearance of the interior4 ,shingling the roofs1 putting casing around the windows and doors and at the corners of the houses1 and clapboarding or shingling the sides1 adds much to the attractiveness of such small structures1 as you can see from the illustrations4 ,illustration ,the windows and casings you can buy ready-made1 or the latter you can make yourself4 ,the doors and casings you can also buy1 or make4 ,the door-casings and window-casings should be nailed in place before the sides are clapboarded4 ,the tops of these casings should always be protected by strips of sheet lead1 the upper edges of which are slipped up under the clapboarding 7,fig4 #cij;a71 thus covering the crack where the casing joins the side of the building and shedding the water--on the same principle as shown in ,figs4 #chd and #che4 ,this is important1 as the rain will drive through such cracks1 even though they seem very tight4 ,tonguing and grooving can be used in such cases1 but flashing with lead is a simpler process4 ,the same precaution should always be taken where roofs or attachments join a building in such a way as to expose a crack through which the water can leak4 ,zinc1 or even tin1 can be used1 but are inferior to lead4 ,the corner-boards and the water-table 7the horizontal board at the bottom of the house7 should also be nailed in place4 ,the latter should have the top edge slightly bevelled1 to shed the water4 ,all these pieces having been carefully nailed in place1 the clapboarding or shingling of the sides can be done4 ,illustration #cij;a4 ,it will cost but little to sheath the outside with sheathing-paper1 and the house will be much tighter and dryer4 ,this should be put on under the casings1 corner-boards1 etc41 so as to avoid a crack where these boards and the clapboards or shingles meet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,laying clapboards1 unlike shingling1 is begun at the top4 ,lay the upper row by a line1 as in shingling1 keeping the clapboards in place by a few nails in the upper part only4 ,then slip the clapboards for the next row up from underneath under the first row until only the desired amount of the clapboards is exposed4 ,the first row can then be firmly nailed near the lower edge with clapboard nails4 ,this will hold the next row in position while the third row is put in place1 and so on4 ,the thin edge of the upper row can be finally covered with a strip of board or moulding4 ,the clapboarding can be continued to the very bottom of the house4 ,if1 however1 a water-table is used at the bottom1 the lower edge of the bottom row of clapboards should be slightly bevelled to fit closely down on the slanting upper edge of the water-table4 ,be careful to lay the clapboards in line and at equal distances apart1 as variations in the alignment are quite noticeable4 ,examine the clapboards of any house on which they are used4 ,in arranging them break joints at the ends1 that is1 do not have the joints of one row directly under1 or very near1 those of the rows above and below4 ,do not saw the ends by eye4 ,mark them accurately with the try-square and knife and saw them carefully with a fine saw1 trying to make as close joints as possible4 ,illustration ,a fair quality of clapboards should be used1 but a few defects near the thin edges which are to be covered may do no serious harm for such structures as these4 ,when you begin to attempt more ambitious structures1 such as modest summer cottages for camping in vacations1 for hunting- or fishing-lodges1 or for family use1--such houses as are often undertaken by older boys or men with a taste for amateur carpentry1--there are a number of things to be considered before beginning to do any actual work4 ,illustration ,do not begin a house you cannot pay for4 ,if you find that the more elaborate plans suggested will exceed your means1 do not let them tempt you to run in debt1 but content yourself with the simplest plan4#cg ,you will find it perfectly comfortable1 and whenever you can afford the expense you can easily add to it and improve it4 ,that is the best principle to go on1 morally as well as financially4 ,in addition to points already spoken of in the preceding pages1 bear in mind1 in making your plans1 to use only simple forms for your first efforts4 ,avoid dormer windows and complicated roofs 7especially combinations producing valleys7 and bay-windows1 and the like1 at first4 ,such arrangements add many difficulties for the beginner4 ,when you can make a plain1 simple building1 with everything snug and tight1 and can lay a plain roof that will not leak1 you can then attempt such variations of form with a fair chance of success1 but do not be too ambitious in your first attempts4 ,a simple piazza can often be added to good advantage1 if desired4 ,illustration ,it is well to ascertain the sizes of the ready-made doors and windows which you can buy in the place where your house is to be built1 before drawing your plans4 ,if there is a choice of situations in which to place your house1 a few suggestions about the selection of a site may be of value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if you are going to build in the mountains1 or the pine woods1 or on rocky islands or promontories in the ocean1--in places where there are almost no unsanitary conditions1 where the climate is so invigourating1 the air so purifying1--there is no need to think of many precautions important in a cleared and settled country4 ,as much sunlight and circulation of air as you can get1 pure drinking water1 and the simple precaution of not building in a hollow or on the edge of a swamp1 are about all the sanitary points you need consider in such places4 ,in selecting a site in any ordinary country or seashore region1 first make sure above all things of dryness1 sunlight1 pure air1 and pure water4 ,avoid building a cottage for regular occupancy in a dense thicket1 not merely on account of the mosquitoes and other insects1 but because the thicket shuts out the sun and cuts off the free circulation of air which there should always be in summer around and through a house4 ,of course1 for shooting or fishing1 a lodge1 camp1 or cabin must be built wherever required by the circumstances4 ,sunshine is very important in securing dryness and in purifying the air4 ,you will naturally reject wet land4 ,avoid also soil that retains moisture1#ch even though it may not be actually wet to step upon1 for land saturated with moisture may be the unsuspected source of serious diseases4 ,there is air in the ground1 which may be the means of spreading dampness and foul gases4 ,do not place your house in a depression or in the bottom of a valley where dampness is likely to settle4 ,at the seashore there will1 of course1 be fogs from the ocean at certain times and places1 but they are not harmful1 except to navigation2 and at the mountains more or less dampness at night is very common4 ,do not try to find a place where there is no dampness at all1 but except at the seashore or mountains reject situations where there are mists at night1 avoiding particularly the vicinity of wet marshes and swamps1 stagnant pools of fresh water1 boggy ponds1 sluggish rivers and brooks1 on account of the malarious vapours which are liable to hang over them4 ,do not try to keep cool by hiding your house where the sun will not shine upon it4 ,the southern or south-eastern slope of a hill usually affords a most desirable site as regards both coolness and sunlight4 ,if you can also find a site on the top of a little mound or knoll1 so as to secure the free drainage of the water in every direction1 it will be advantageous4 ,the main points in regard to water are to have it pure and to have plenty of it4 ,in regard to pure water1 and pure air also1 if you are planning to build in a little settlement or near other cottages the question of drainage 7sewerage7 from the neighbouring houses becomes of the utmost importance4 ,a breeze from the sea1 the mountains1 or the pine woods is pure in itself and to a certain degree a scavenger1 but do not throw upon it the work of purifying a naturally unhealthful situation4 ,this matter of drainage you can arrange for yourself on your own land1 but the arrangements of your neighbours you will have to take as you find them2 therefore guard carefully against contamination of your drinking water and of the air through proximity to the cesspools1 privies1 or sink drains of the neighbouring cottages4 ,exactly how far a well or spring should be from such sources of pollution it is impossible to state without knowledge of the particular spot1 for it depends upon the slope of the ground1 the kind of soil1 the direction of the underlying strata1 and other circumstances4 ,in some cases a distance of twenty feet might be perfectly safe1 while in others two hundred would be highly dangerous4 ,one hundred feet or more is near enough under ordinary conditions4 ,there is no greater danger than that from defective sewerage1 and the danger usually begins before the senses are aware that there is any trouble4 ,this subject is better understood now than formerly1 but still1 until the subject forces itself upon their attention1 the majority of people pay but little regard to it4 ,it is a fact well established among medical men that some of the worst forms of sickness are nothing but filth diseases1 to which the dwellers in summer cottages are sometimes even more exposed than those in town houses4 ,remember that air as well as water is an active agent for spreading the germs of disease4 ,as to the position in which to place the house itself after the spot has been chosen much will depend on circumstances4 ,consider the sun1 the prevailing winds1 and the views in relation to the rooms1 the windows1 and the piazza4 ,an unsheltered piazza facing the west is apt to be very hot at the time of day you are likely to use it the most1 though1 of course1 the wind or other considerations may make such a position desirable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the subject of the necessary underpinning for such simple structures as are here shown has been already treated in the preceding chapter4 ,in most cases you will find posts set in the ground1 as there described1 an excellent way 7except1 of course1 upon rocky ground71 but brick or stone piers are almost always more desirable1 if you can afford the cost of the materials 7which can be obtained almost anywhere71 and the work of laying piers for such a purpose is not very difficult2 but whether to use posts or piers should1 of course1 depend upon the character and permanence of the building4 ,having fixed upon the position of the building1 proceed to stake it out 7including the piazza if there is to be one71 as shown in the chapter immediately preceding4 ,the foundation being ready1 the frame is next to be considered4 ,you have probably noticed in the old houses built by our forefathers their massive construction1--the great size of the timbers and the way in which they are heavily braced and mortised and pinned together4 ,with the modern facilities for cutting wood into small pieces by machinery has sprung up a style of building of which you will see examples on every hand1 and which when carried to its extreme in the cheapest houses makes a structure so flimsy that it is literally held together by nothing but nails4 ,a scientific modification 7adapted to modern conditions7 of the old-fashioned braced structure1 retaining its advantages and remedying its defects1 is undoubtedly superior 7expense being no object7 to a balloon frame that will only hold together by having the outside boarding nailed on to it as fast as it is put up4 ,if the more cheaply built balloon structures of to-day had been put up in the days of our ,pilgrim or ,puritan ancestors not a stick of them would now be standing4 ,a lighter arrangement than the old-fashioned frame and one more easily built is1 however1 in our day probably better adapted for the construction of a large class of buildings of moderate size and moderate cost4 ,this is said about braced and framed structures that you may not be led to think that the light construction advocated here for you would be the best for all wooden structures4 ,your house will be so small1 and the construction of a braced and mortised frame is so difficult for amateurs1 that a lighter and easier arrangement will be best for you to use1 however ill-suited it might be for a large mansion or ware-house4 ,this system of construction will be perfectly satisfactory and sufficiently durable for a little summer cottage4 ,a little house well suited for summer use1 or for a winter camp1 is shown in ,fig4 #cia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cia4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the main house 7which contains the general living-room7 can be framed as shown in ,fig4 #chi4 ,the lean-to addition 7which contains the kitchen7 can be framed as shown in ,fig4 #cga4 ,if both parts are built at one time1 only four sills should be used for the entire structure1 and the corner-posts and upright studding of the lean-to on the side next the main house should be omitted4 ,the sides of this house are battened1 i4e41 the joints of the vertical sheathing are covered with strips nailed over them--in this case with strips of half-round moulding4 ,this is an easy and quite inexpensive way to finish the outside1 and while hardly equal to clapboarding or shingling in some respects is a very good way for structures of this kind4 ,as you will see from the illustration1 the rafters of both the house and the ell project or overhang at the eaves4 ,this is not really a necessity for any structure1 and you will sometimes see quite large buildings without any overhang of the roof whatever1 but1 as a rule1 it improves the appearance of the house1 and is a help in shedding the water farther from the walls4 ,it is only necessary to let the rafters project at their lower ends1 making all project equally1 and to nail a board to their ends1 as shown4 ,the overhang at the ends of the house can be arranged in the same way1 short pieces of studding being nailed in the outside angle of the roof and ends1 with strips nailed upon these4 ,if the ground slopes1 as in this case1 lattice-work is good to cover the space below the sills4 ,the remaining details have been treated in the preceding cases4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the simple structure shown in ,fig4 #cib is suitable for various uses1 and can be constructed in the way already described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the piazza is1 however1 a new problem1 but not a very difficult one after the processes already described4 ,a simple way1 suited for rustic structures or rough cabins1 is to set the piazza posts in the ground to a depth of two or three feet1 sawing the tops off at the height of the piazza roof1 and simply nailing a system of floor-timbers for the piazza floor to these posts and the side of the house and flooring it with boards1 while the roof of the piazza is supported on the tops of the posts4 ,this is not a good way1 however1 for a carefully built house4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cib4 ,a strip of joist or plank can be spiked to the side of the house at the proper height1 and to this can be nailed a system of floor-timbers for the piazza floor 7see page #bhg71 the outer corners and middle resting upon stones or posts in the same way as the rest of the building4 ,this is then floored crossways1 the whole having a slight slant outwards to shed the water4 ,upon this platform are raised the piazza posts1 and at the top of these is nailed a roof system1 which is covered with boards in the same way as the floor beneath4 ,enough slant should be given the roof to enable it to shed the water freely4 ,the other details do not differ from those already described4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an excellent form for a small structure is that shown in ,fig4 #cic4 ,this has a hip-roof1 which is the only essential difference between it and the types already shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cic4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cic;a4 ,this roof is somewhat more difficult to make well than the simple kinds1 but is not beyond the skill of the amateur4 ,up to the plates the construction is the same as that already shown4 ,in this roof1 however1 the ridge-board is short and the end rafters 7called hip-rafters7 incline towards it 7,fig4 #cic;a74 ,laying out the upper bevels of these rafters will require careful planning4 ,after you have succeeded in laying them out1 cutting the bevels at the ends1 and fitting them in place1 the shorter jack rafters can readily be put in place4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cid4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cie4 ,the shingling is more difficult at the corners than in the other roofs shown1 as the shingles must be cut4 ,it is well to cover each hip with a line of shingles1 laid parallel to the hip and along each side of it4 ,boards can be used to cover the hips1 as shown in one of the illustrations of ,cottage ,row4 ,another form1 embodying the same roof construction1 but larger and correspondingly more difficult1 is shown in ,fig4 #cid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a small cottage for summer use 7,fig4 #cie7 is not more difficult than the cases already shown1 except in the matter of size4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cif4 ,,end ,,elevation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the process of staking out and setting the foundation has been already described under ,a ,workshop1 pages #bei-bfd4 ,the frame can be built upon the same general principle as shown in ,fig4 #chi1 the dimensions of the stock depending upon the size of the house2 but the directions given in these chapters are intended only for small structures4 ,the sills should be #d #f or #f #f1 the corner-posts can be #d #d or #d #f1 the floor-timbers and rafters #b #f1 although1 if the house is quite small1 #b #d will do for the rafters1 which can be braced by collar beams1 or simply horizontal pieces of board nailed across in the upper part of the roof4 ,arrange the studding according to the doors and windows4 ,as this house is not to be lathed and plastered1 it is not essential that the studding should be at any exact distance apart4 ,the essential difference between the frame of this house and that shown in ,fig4 #chi consists in the projection of the second-story floor-timbers over the piazza1 the ends resting upon an outer plate on top of the piazza posts 7,fig4 #cif74 ,the arrangement of the attic floor-beams1 the rafters1 and the side-plates is shown in ,fig4 #cig4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cig4 ,the frame for the piazza floor can be arranged as follows3 ,fasten a strip of #b #d joist along the side1 spiking it through into the sill4 ,on this fasten an arrangement of floor-timbers1 such as is shown in ,fig4 #cih1 the inner cross-beam and lengthways stringers resting in gains1 as shown in ,fig4 #cii4 ,the details of the arrangement can be varied according to the height you wish the piazza floor to be relatively to the floor inside4 ,for a quite small structure1 or for a temporary one1 it will answer to make this piazza-floor system of #b #f stock simply sawed square and spiked together1 on the principle shown in ,fig4 #cgh1 but for a good house which you wish to be permanent1 it is better to put a little more labour into the piazza4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cih4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #cii4 ,another way is to have the main sills extend under the piazza as well as under the house proper4 ,this is a more thorough way as regards stiffness1 but extra pains must be taken to prevent the water working down on the sills where the house and piazza join1 as this will tend to rot this portion of the sills4 ,with this arrangement of sills an extra sill1 or cross-sill1 should be added under the juncture of the body of the house and the piazza4 ,the ends of this sill can rest in gains cut in the end-sills1 and the middle can be supported by one or more posts4 ,for the stairs1 which can be put wherever you wish1 take two pieces of plank1 #b #i or #aj1 and of sufficient length4 ,having determined the points for the top and the bottom of the stairs 7by laying off on the floor in the same way as for the rafters1 page #bfh71 lay one of the planks on the floor in the proper position and mark the notches for the steps and the bevels for the ends4 ,after these notch-boards or string pieces have been cut and put in place1 you can easily get out and nail on the risers and treads4 ,examination of any common stairs will show you how to arrange these details without difficulty4 ,you can mark on a stick the height from the top of the lower floor to the top of the upper4 ,divide this distance1 on the stick1 into as many parts as you wish to have steps1 and you can use the stick as a gauge by which to determine the points for sawing the notches for the steps4#ci ,it is best to have the treads not less than #i wide1 and #aj is better1 while #g-a_/b or #h will do for the risers4 ,a header1 or cross-piece1 must be securely fastened between the second-story floor-beams where they are cut off to make the opening at the head of the stairs4 ,the partitions inside require no directions1 being simply made of studding to which sheathing is nailed4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those of the preceding cases1 and the interior fittings you can arrange without further instructions4 ,a regular brick chimney will1 of course1 be a desirable feature if you can afford it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by the slight modification of having the roof overhang on each side1 two piazzas will be provided and space given for larger chambers 7,fig4 #djj74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the construction differs from that of the design just shown only in the arrangement of the framing for the second story4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djj4 ,the floor-beams of the second story will overlap at each end and the rafters be correspondingly longer1 and the end-plates can be omitted and the end-studding continued up to the rafters1 except where interrupted by the window-spaces4 ,this house1 like the others1 can be clapboarded1 shingled1 battened1 or sheathed1 as you may prefer4 ,,footnotes3 #cf ,obtained through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,charles ,h4 ,bradley1 ,superintendent of the admirable ,farm ,school on ,thompson's ,island1 in ,boston ,harbour1 where this little village was built4 #cg ,if that is too expensive1 some of those given in the preceding pages will probably answer your purpose4 #ch ,soils which are naturally porous1 from which rain rapidly disappears1 are known to be the healthiest for the sites of houses4 ,in this the action of the soil oxidizes all organic impurities1 the resulting product is washed away by the rain1 and the soil remains sweet and wholesome4--,,latham4 #ci ,to find the number of steps for a given situation1 find the height1 as just shown1 from floor to floor1 #ajb for example4 ,assume1 for trial1 a satisfactory height for each step1 as #g4 ,divide #ajb by #g1 which gives #ad-d_/g for the number of steps4 ,to make the number even1 call it #ad1 and you have only to divide #ajb by #ad to get the exact height of each step4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,a ,,few ,,simple ,,structures ,summer-houses4--,a form which is quite easy to build1 and which is attractive when overrun with vines1 is shown in front elevation 7,fig4 #dja7 and in side elevation 7,fig4 #djb74 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the construction is simple4 ,the frame can be of #b #c stock 7planed71 except the sills1 which had best not be smaller than #b #d 7on edge74 ,cross floor-beams can be inserted1 as in the floors of the little houses first shown4 ,the upright members can1 however1 rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with4 ,where the parts of the frame cross they can be halved 7see ,halving74 ,the square joints can be nailed together4 ,the roof can be solid or made of slats several inches apart1 resting upon rafters4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dja4 ,the strips for the lattice-work can be about #c_/h thick1 and from #g_/h to #a-a_/d wide4 ,these can be got out at any mill in long or short strips1 which you can cut off as you put them on4 ,do not lay them too closely together4 ,put one strip on at the desired angle4 ,then cut off one or more short pieces by which to gauge the distance for laying the next strip1 or get out a piece of light thin boarding of the width of the space between the lattice strips and hold it beside each strip as a guide by which to lay the next one4 ,this lattice-work1 although each strip is so slight1 will give the frame great stiffness and strength4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djb4 ,the joints of such framework as this should properly be painted before being put together 7see ,painting71 and it also is a more thorough and neater way to lay the lattice-work strips on supports of some kind and paint them before putting on4 ,they will then only require touching up with paint after the house is done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rustic summer-house1 or arbour1 made of sticks in their natural form1 shown in ,fig4 #djc1 is in some respects more difficult to build than the preceding1 because the ends of so many of the pieces have to be cut at an oblique angle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,first make a platform1 as for the other floors1 or the upright posts can rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with4 ,plates can be placed on top of the posts1 and rafters extend from the plates at the top of each post to the apex of the roof4 ,these plates and rafters will make a framework on which to nail the sticks which form the roof covering4 ,the remaining details are apparent4 ,much care is required1 however1 to put this house together properly1 not merely in cutting the angles at the joints1 but in sighting1 measuring1 and testing to ensure its coming together without twisting or winding4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,instead of making this house six-sided1 it can1 if desired1 be made rectangular like the preceding one1 but keeping the same arrangement of the details4 ,this makes a very pretty design1 and in respect to joining the pieces is much easier to make4 ,another pretty plan is to build a hexagonal1 octagonal1 or circular house of this sort around a tree trunk4 ,if the roof is fitted too snugly to the tree trunk1 the growth of the latter may split the roof apart before the rest of the house is past its usefulness1 so you should arrange this part to allow for the growth of the tree4 ,bath-house4--,a plain bath-house 7,fig4 #djd7 can well be made with a lean-to roof and put together on the same simple principles already shown2 so that additional instructions for this design are unnecessary4 ,a good way for such a building is to sheath it vertically as shown1 but any of the other methods can1 of course1 be adopted4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dje4 ,boat-houses4--,by using the same simple system of framework shown in ,fig4 #chi you can make an inexpensive boat-house 7,fig4 #dje74 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the inclined slip or platform upon which you haul the boats up from the water requires simply two or three timbers for stringers1 running down towards the water1 with #b planks nailed across1 as shown4 ,the simplest way to square the ends of these planks is to nail them in place1 allowing a little extra length1 and then saw the ends all off at once by a line4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djf4 ,a house of this kind can be built to extend over the water 7for boats which are to be kept in the water7 by arranging a foundation of stone or piles in the water1 or by digging a little dock into the shore under the house4 ,in these cases there must1 of course1 be an additional door of the ordinary kind for entrance on the shore end of the house1 and it will be convenient1 if the house is long enough1 to floor over this end4 ,a narrow floor or platform can also be extended along one or both sides to facilitate handling the boats and getting in or out of them4 ,the sill at the water end will have to be omitted1 of course1 a piece of studding being fitted in at each side of the door-space1 but these details you will have no difficulty in arranging if you have studied the preceding examples4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a larger and more elaborate boat-house1 or club-house 7,fig4 #djf71 having a loft for storage as well as a balcony1 can be constructed on the same general principles already explained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,screws1 ,hinges1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djg4 ,the end-plate for the end shown in the illustration cannot run across from side to side1 because of the doorway opening on the balcony1 but can be made in two parts to extend from the sides to upright studs at each side of the doorway4 ,a simple way of arranging the frame at the floor of the second story is shown in ,fig4 #djg4 ,unless this building is very small 7in which case it can only be used for the storage of oars1 rigging1 etc471 the sills should be of #d #f 7on edge7 or #f #f stock1 and the floor-beams of #b #f stock4 #d #d or #d #f will do for the corner-posts1 and #b #d for the studding and rafters for such a small structure as is advisable for the beginner to attempt4 ,if you should1 however1 build anything large1 the posts1 the lower floor-beams1 if unsupported in the middle1 the plates1 and the rafters should be heavier4 ,if your house is to be used by many people and heavy boats are to be hauled in and out1 it is much better to err on the side of having these timbers too heavy rather than too light4 ,but these designs are only intended for comparatively small structures4 ,the outer floor-timbers for the balcony had best be mortised into the posts 7see ,mortising74 ,the top rail around the balcony can be of #b #d studding1 laid flatways1 and with the upper angles bevelled 7see ,bevelling74 ,the balusters can be simply square pieces nailed into place4 ,the rail and balusters can1 however1 be obtained in a great variety of forms at a wood-working mill1 if you prefer to buy them4 ,the braces under the balcony can be of #b #d stock4 ,all these outside parts should be planed by machine4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those of the houses already described4 ,,part ,,iv ,,boat-,,building ,,for ,,beginners ,,chapter ,,xv ,boat-building1 like many other kinds of work1 can be done 7even in its simplest stages7 more quickly1 more easily1 and1 of course1 more cheaply1 by two persons than by one1 so it will be economy of money1 time1 and labour to find someone to join forces with you4 ,do not1 however1 give up your plans for lack of a fellow-workman1 for nothing is given here which cannot be done by one person with1 perhaps1 a little help once in a while about holding or lifting something4 ,if these boats seem rather simple compared with many which you have seen1 and you fail to find here some form you have in mind to build1 it is to be remembered that boat-building is by no means easy1 and that many an attractive design would prove too difficult for the average beginner to finish successfully4 ,the experience gained in building such boats as these will help you in more difficult boat-building4 ,these simple models are not offered as being in themselves the best there are1 nor are the ways shown for building them in every case such as would always be used by a regular boat-builder2 but boat-building involves a variety of difficulties1 not merely in the designing1 but also in the execution4 ,it takes a good workman to turn out a really successful round-bottomed boat 7except by the use of canvas71 therefore a few simple types of flat-bottomed boats are all that are treated here4 ,when you have become skilful enough to attempt the more advanced forms1 you can easily find a number of excellent books on boat-building from which to gain the needed information4 ,the intention here is to show wood-working processes which you can use in making these simple craft1 but not to go into the details of designing or of rigging1 subjects which are far too complex to be satisfactorily treated1 even for the beginner1 in a hand-book on wood-working4 ,while it is practicable to make a good punt1 or flat-bottomed rowboat1 entirely by rule of thumb1 or cutting and trying as you go along1 still you should accustom yourself1 even in the simplest forms1 to lay the work out on paper correctly first1 as this is really essential1 in order to work to good advantage when you come to the more advanced forms4 ,scows and ,punts4--,a flat-bottomed boat1 if made with care1 may be not merely good-looking1 but light1 strong1 and useful1 and sometimes superior for some purposes to a round-bottomed boat4 ,boats of this class are easily and cheaply built and by no means to be despised4 ,they are safe1 capacious1 and comfortable1 and the flat bottom permits much freedom of movement by the occupants1 making them good boats for fishing and general use on ponds and rivers1 as well as for transporting loads4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,the process is to first get out the sides1 then the ends1 next to fasten the sides and ends together as in making a box1 then to nail on the bottom1 and finally to put in the seats and any other fittings4 ,almost any kind of soft wood can be used for a boat of this kind4 ,pine is excellent4 ,care should be taken to select clear1 straight-grained stock1 free from knots1 checks1 and other defects1 and thoroughly dry4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #djh4 ,for the sides1 take two boards1 for example1 #ad' long1 #ad wide1 and #g_/h thick1 planed on both sides4 ,both edges should be jointed and the ends squared and sawed accurately4 ,mark1 saw1 and plane the slant at each end of these boards as shown in ,fig4 #djh4 ,the ends must next be got out4 ,in this case they can be #d' long and #d-a_/d wide4 ,nail together the sides and ends just as in making a flat box4 ,use three nails 7#c or #c-a_/b long7 at each corner4 ,it is safest to bore holes for the nails 7see ,boring74 ,copper nails are best for boats1 but galvanized iron answers very well for common boats of this kind4 ,next place this frame1 bottom up1 on horses or boxes or a flat floor and plane down the projecting edges of the end pieces to agree with the slant of the sides4 ,pieces for the bottom are now to be sawed from boards about #f to #h wide4 ,mark and saw one piece and use it for a pattern by which to mark the lengths of the remaining pieces4 ,you can take the length directly from either end1 allowing a trifle 7say #a_/h7 to spare1 for planing the ends after they are nailed4 ,having sawed the required number of pieces1 which will depend on the width of the boards1 nail them on carefully4 ,before nailing1 thoroughly paint the bottom edge to which they are to be nailed with thick white-lead paint4 ,see that the edges of each board are straight1 paint the edges as you lay them1 and nail thoroughly with #b-a_/b nails4 ,do not put the nails so close to the edge as to cause splitting4 ,the edges of the pieces which come together at the angles of the bottom must be fitted carefully with the plane 7see ,bevelling71 to make as tight joints as possible4 ,the boards should be pressed closely together as they are nailed4 ,they will assist in keeping the sides and ends of the boat at right angles1 but it would be well to test the angles with the large square1 or by measuring the diagonals1 when you nail on the first two boards4 ,a quicker way is to nail on all the boards 7not sawing them accurately to a length7 and then to saw the ends all off by a line4 ,a good way is to use1 for the bottom1 plain sheathing or matched boards1 if obtainable without the bead or moulding commonly worked on the surface1 which would be apt to cause leakage4 ,the sheathing can be planed down on both sides to a thickness of #e_/h1 which will remove the moulding1 but this is rather thin for the bottom of a boat as large as this1 though an excellent way for a narrower boat4 ,when the bottom is all nailed on1 turn the boat on each side and plane off any irregularity in the ends of the bottom boards1 so that they will be flush with the sides4 ,a cleat from #d to #f wide should be laid along the middle of the bottom to stiffen it1 as shown4 ,the nails should be driven through the boards and clinched4 ,wrought nails1 or some kind that will bend over and not break1 must of course be used for this4 ,this cleat is often nailed on the outside instead of the inside4 ,nail a seat at each end directly on top of the sides and ends as shown4 ,from #ab to #ah in width will do4 ,the seat for rowing 7about #h or #i wide7 can rest on cleats1 as shown4 ,next screw a cleat1 about #b deep1 #g_/h thick1 and #aj long1 to the insides of the gunwales at the places for the rowlocks 7see ,screws74 ,common iron rowlocks can be bought almost anywhere1 and the way to put them on is obvious 7see ,boring74 ,a substitute for them can be arranged easily by simply boring two holes1 #c-a_/b apart1 for the insertion of round thole pins of hard wood4 ,another simple way 7,fig4 #dji7 is to make two mortises or slots1 #c-a_/b apart and #a-a_/b long #e_/h wide1 to hold thole pins 7,fig4 #daj74 ,the cutting can be done wholly in the cleats by sawing and paring4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dji4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #daj4 ,insert a ring-bolt at the end by which to fasten the boat1 or a staple can be driven in1 or a hole bored at the end of the seat4 ,if care has been taken to make close joints1 the wood will swell on being put in the water and in a short time the boat should be tight4 ,unless made for some temporary purpose1 however1 a boat that is worth making at all is worth painting4 ,it should be painted carefully with lead paint1 both inside and out1 two or three coats1 being careful to work the paint well into the wood and the cracks 7see ,painting74 ,instead of laying the bottom boards tightly together1 as directed above1 they can be laid slightly apart1 so that the cracks between them will be about #a_/h wide4 ,these can then be caulked with oakum1 cotton-batting1 or wicking1 or something of that nature4 ,roll or twist the material into a loose cord1 unless already in that form1 and force it into the cracks with a putty-knife1 screw-driver1 case-knife1 or anything of the sort4 ,a regular caulking-iron is not at all necessary for a small boat4 ,a piece of hard wood will do4 ,be sure to fill the seams thoroughly and tightly with the oakum or other caulking material4 ,then apply white lead plentifully to the caulked seams4 ,but the method first given is usually satisfactory if you do your work with care4 ,pitch or tar can be used in making the bottom of a boat of this kind tight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a form which is a decided improvement on the preceding is shown in ,fig4 #daa4 ,the process of making this punt will be first to get out the cross-board which goes in the middle1 and next the sides and ends4 ,these pieces having been put together1 the bottom is nailed on1 and finally the seats and other fittings are added4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #daa4 ,the one here described is small1 but large enough for two good-sized boys4 ,the dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the process4 ,as much larger boat as may be desired can1 of course1 be made upon the same principles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,care should always be taken to select clear1 straight-grained stock1 free from knots1 checks1 and other defects1 and thoroughly dry4 ,pine is excellent1 but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort4 ,first get out carefully a board1 perhaps #c' long1 or the width of the boat 7at the middle71 and of the shape shown in ,fig4 #dab1 removing a small piece at each lower corner1 to allow for the passage of any water which may leak in4 ,get out each side of the boat1 #aj' #d long1 of #c_/d stock1 carefully squaring the ends4 ,after these are cut1 mark a distance of #c' from each end towards the centre on the edge of one of the boards and a distance of #c on the ends1 measuring from the other edge1 and mark the curves shown in ,fig4 #dac1 which should sweep easily from the edge of the board without any abrupt turn4 ,if you cannot draw a good curve free-hand1 take a spline or thin strip of wood1 bend it on the side of the board towards one end till you get a good curve1 hold it in position1 and using it as a ruler mark the line with a pencil4 ,you can cut this curve and use it for a pattern by which to mark the other curves4 ,these curves can be band-sawed or cut with the draw-knife or hatchet and plane 7see ,paring74 ,whatever method you adopt1 the curves should finally be run over with the plane to remove irregularities1 and care must be taken to keep as accurately to the line marked as possible4 ,the top edges must also be jointed1 although it is not material that they should be absolutely straight4 ,mark a line with the square across each board at the centre4 ,next get out the end pieces1 #b' long1 #c-c_/d wide1 and of #g_/h stock 7,fig4 #dad74 ,bevel the ends of these pieces at the same angle as the centre board already sawed1 from which you can mark the angle4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dab4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dac4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dad4 ,an easy way to put this boat together will be to put the sides and ends together1 and then1 by spreading the sides apart1 to put the middle board in its proper place4 ,bore holes for #b-a_/b screws at each end of the sides 7see ,boring7 and screw the sides and ends together loosely 7see ,screws71 not driving the screws home1 but leaving their heads sticking beyond the sides perhaps an eighth of an inch4 ,now lay the boat 7so far as made7 bottom side up on the horses or boxes1 or even with one end on the floor and the other raised by a box1 and1 spreading the sides in the middle as much as may be necessary1 push the middle board up into place1 getting it exactly opposite centre lines previously marked on the sides and so that the bottom edge of the board is just even with the inner edge of the bottom of the sides4 ,this piece can now be nailed in place by three nails at each end4 ,now1 on looking at the ends where the sides are screwed1 you will see that spreading the sides has caused the joints 7purposely left loose7 to open slightly at the inside1 and that the ends require to be slightly bevelled or trimmed to make a close joint4 ,unscrew one end1 do the necessary trimming with the plane1 replace the piece1 and screw it into position again1 driving the screws home and adding one or two nails4 ,do the same with the other end and the boat will be ready for the bottom4 ,but before the bottom is nailed on1 the lower edges of the sides must be bevelled with the plane1 owing to the sides flaring outwards4 ,the degree of bevelling required can be determined by laying a board across 7,fig4 #dae74 ,at first it will only touch the outer angles of the edges1 and the planing must be continued until it bears flat on the entire edge4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dae4 ,now get out of #g_/h stock the bottom boards1 the edges of which should be carefully jointed to fit together as tightly as possible4 ,these boards should be thoroughly nailed to the sides of the boat with #b-a_/d or #b-a_/b nails1 care being taken not to nail too near the edges of the boards1 lest they split4 ,as the sides are only #c_/d thick you will have to be careful in driving the nails or they will split the sides4 ,before you finish nailing the first bottom boards1 test the symmetry of the frame by measuring the diagonals4 ,these should be equal4 ,if not1 you can easily make them so with your hands1 and tack a couple of strips diagonally across the gunwales to keep the frame in position until the bottom is nailed on4 ,also sight across the gunwales to see that the frame is true4 ,if it winds1 correct the error by blocking it up where needed4 ,sheathing can well be used for the bottom of this boat1 as for the one just described1 if you can get it without the moulding4 ,the bottom can also be caulked 7see page #cjb71 but if you cannot get the sheathing the way first described will answer every purpose4 ,after the bottom is nailed on1 turn the boat on each edge and plane off any irregularities at the ends of the bottom boards1 so that they will be flush with the sides4 ,next nail a strip1 about #c or #d wide and #c_/d thick1 lengthways on the middle of the bottom1 on the inside4 ,fasten this to each board with a couple of nails driven through and clinched on the outside4 ,this will serve to stiffen the bottom4 ,next deck over each end with a seat #ab wide nailed directly on top of the sides4 ,put in a seat1 or thwart1 #i wide and #g_/h thick1 next to the middle brace1 as shown4 ,cleats can be nailed to the sides under this seat4 ,this should be a fixed seat1 nailed to the cross brace and to the sides of the boat1 which will assist in stiffening the sides4 ,you can nail a gunwale strip1 #b wide by #g_/h or #c_/d thick1 on top of the sides and reaching from one end seat to the other1 or you can put a somewhat smaller strip around the outer edge of the gunwale1 which is quite as good a way4 ,it is not really necessary to put any gunwale strip on so small a boat1 but if omitted a cleat must be screwed on for the rowlocks 7,fig4 #dji74 ,if you put the gunwale strip on top1 it will make a more workmanlike job to first plane the edges of the gunwale so that they will be horizontal across the boat1 in the same way that you planed the bottom edges to receive the bottom boards4 ,put the centre of the rowlocks about #ab aft of the centre of the boat1 raising them an inch or so above the gunwale by means of a cleat 7,fig4 #daf71 as shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #daf4 ,at a distance of about #bh from the bow1 you can1 if desired1 put in a #f thwart between the gunwales or a little lower1 and in the middle of this thwart bore a hole for a small mast1 putting below and slightly forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole4 ,sailing does not amount to very much in a boat of this sort1 but a small sail is often very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun4 ,this makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or pond work4 ,if you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after studying the process given above4 ,the only difference need be in the dimensions4 ,for one #ab' long you could make the beam at the gunwale 7outside7 #c' #f and at the bottom #b' #aj1 the beam at the bottom of the ends 7outside7 #b' #aj 7same as amidships7--the ends to flare upward at the same angle as at the centre1 the boards for the sides being #ad wide4 ,for one #ad' long1 you could make the beam #d' at the gunwale1 #c' #d at the bottom1 the same at the ends1 and the sides could be made of boards #ae wide4 ,stock #c_/d thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat #ad' long4 ,the seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest as shown in ,fig4 #dag1 and an extra mould or cross-board not far from each end can be used1 as shown4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dag4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dah4 ,a piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end1 if desired1 as shown in ,fig4 #dah4 ,this will assist in rowing straight4 ,fit a piece of #g_/h board to the curve of the bottom1 keeping the straight edge parallel with the top4 ,square off the end in line with the stern1 nail the skag firmly to the bottom1 and nail a stern-post1 #g_/h #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b1 securely to the stern and the skag4 ,a rudder can be hung to the stern-post if desired4 ,a centre-board is sometimes added to a punt1 being arranged in the way shown on page #ccj4 ,a lee-board is often used on punts and scows4 ,it is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the boat instead of in the centre4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dai4 ,small ,rowboat4--,a simple form of skiff1 or common flat-bottomed rowboat 7,fig4 #dai71 called by various names1 is similar to the punt at the stern1 and the mode of construction is similar4 ,the boards for the sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow1 as in the punt1 but are left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow4 ,the ends are usually1 but not always1 cut off with a slight slant at the bow1 which gives a rake to the stem 7,fig4 #dbj74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,care should be taken to select clear1 straight-grained stock1 free from knots1 checks1 and other defects1 and thoroughly dry4 ,pine is excellent4 ,any good wood can1 however1 be used4 ,make a middle mould 7,fig4 #dba71 as in the case of the punt just described1 and proceed with the construction in a similar manner1 until you come to the bow4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dba4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbb4 ,screw the sides to the stern-piece 7,fig4 #dbb7 without driving the screws completely in1 but leaving a little play to the joint 7see ,screws74 ,next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across each side4 ,nail the middle mould in position4 ,then1 letting someone draw the bow ends of the sides together 7or if you are alone1 binding them together temporarily71 release the stern-piece and plane its ends to make close joints with the side pieces1 as in the case of the punt already described4 ,when these joints are fitted1 paint them with white lead and screw or nail the sides securely 7and permanently7 to the stern board4 ,draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at the bow as shown in ,fig4 #dbc4 ,you can cut this piece approximately to shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an accurate fit4 ,when you have made it fit1 paint it and also the sides where they bear against it4 ,afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to this stem-piece1 letting each end of the stem project a little4 ,screws are best 7brass screws if for salt water71 but nails can be used4 ,do not drive them all in line1 but add a second row farther from the edge and alternately arranged4 ,if a piece of hard wood is not available1 a block of soft wood can be used1 but it should be somewhat larger4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbc4 ,another pattern of stem-piece can be used 7,fig4 #dbd74 ,much pains should be taken in making this post4 ,the rabbets on each side should be cut with care1 trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the lines marked4 ,when the cutting is nearly done1 put the piece in place and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight joints4 ,when you finally have a good fit1 paint and fasten in place as described above4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbe4 ,still another form of stem-piece is shown in ,fig4 #dbe4 ,one side of the boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over at the bow1 the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and then trimmed if necessary1 until the side which laps over fits accurately4 ,when the boat is fastened together to this extent1 it will frequently be found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways1 according to the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends4 ,this you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle1 first carefully marking the desired line4 ,measure accurately1 in doing this1 to be sure that the two sides will be alike4 ,in removing the superfluous wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife1 for wood often splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the grain appears to run 7see ,paring74 ,it is sometimes best to remove the wood with the splitting-saw1 but stop all such processes some distance outside of the line1 and rely upon the plane for the final shaping4 ,the lower edges must be bevelled off accurately1 ready for the bottom boards1 the same as in the case of the punt 7,fig4 #dae74 ,next nail on the bottom1 using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt just described1 and put in the stiffening strip of board along the middle of the floor4 ,if the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way if left in place permanently1 you can simply tack it into position with a couple of nails at each end1 leaving the heads protruding enough to draw them out easily4 ,when you have put in the seats and any other braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position1 you can draw the nails and take out the centre mould4 ,fit seats at bow and stern1 putting them two or three inches below the gunwale and resting them on cleats4 ,in case you use the stem-piece shown in ,fig4 #dbc1 saw or plane off the projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw 7or nail7 on a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge4 ,fasten strips along the gunwale1--wale strips1--as already shown4 ,a skag can be put on at the stern1 if desired1 as described on page #cjg4 ,such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board 7see page #ccj7 or by bolting on a keel several inches in depth4 ,a small sail-boat can be made in this way by making the stern narrower1 proportionately1 the sides higher1 and decking over the bow and stern4 ,the decking can extend over all the top1 if desired1 except a well-hole around which can be fitted a coaming or wash board4 ,the keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the shape of the bottom1 its lower edge being horizontal towards the after part1 which will make it quite deep at the stern4 ,a rudder should be added for sailing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbf4 ,skiff or ,flat-bottomed ,canoe4--,a double-ended skiff1 batteau1 or flat-bottomed canoe 7,fig4 #dbf71 known by various names1 can be easily made by simply carrying the process already described a little further1 and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow1 thus forming a boat sharp at both ends4 ,this is an excellent type for the amateur1 whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat for rowing1 or even light sailing4 ,such a boat is light1 easily propelled1 buoyant1 does not pound the waves when meeting them so much as the punt1 and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,care must be taken to select clear1 straight-grained stock1 free from knots1 checks1 and other defects1 and thoroughly dry4 ,pine is excellent1 but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort4 ,the sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and brought together at both ends and two end-posts fitted4 ,in other respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete description is needless4 ,the two stem-pieces1 which you can fit in the manner already shown1 will1 theoretically1 be alike4 ,practically1 there should not be more than a very trifling difference required in their shape4 ,having found the shape for one1 get the other out just like it4 ,if it does not fit perfectly1 it can be trimmed until it does fit2 but if the first one fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree1 you had best look the boat over and verify your work1 and you may find that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in the wrong place4 ,paint the ends of these sides where they will be in contact with the stem and stern with white lead4 ,the sides and ends can be put together as follows3 ,take either side1 screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end4 ,dip the screw points in white-lead paint4 ,next screw either end of the other side to the corresponding stem-piece1 which will leave the sides separated at an acute angle1 with one end of one side not yet fastened to its corresponding bow- or stern-post4 ,the ends being alike it does not matter which is called the bow or stern4 ,to fasten this remaining joint1 it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides4 ,if you have someone to help you1 you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct position against the stem-piece1 to which it can be held and screwed firmly4 ,if you can get no help1 you can hold the sides in position by using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the rope can be twisted and shortened 7see ,clamps74 ,another way is to put a box or joist1 perhaps a couple of feet long1 between the sides1 to prevent making too much strain on the end fastenings1 and1 having secured the unfastened end1 the frames can then be laid flat1 the sides drawn farther apart1 and the midship frame forced into position4 ,the latter will be in position when it agrees with the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides4 ,nail the sides to it with #a-c_/d or #b nails1 or it can finally be removed if not needed for stiffness4 ,the remaining details do not differ from those previously described4 ,the rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described1 but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement1 they can be fastened to outriggers1 which the blacksmith can easily contrive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle1 the only difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles instead of oars4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a very successful small canoe1 suitable for quiet waters1 can be made of quite thin wood 7perhaps #c_/h to #a_/b in thickness71 the outside being covered with canvas4 ,in case of building so light a craft as this1 however1 it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot to give the necessary stiffness1 and to lay the bottom boards lengthways4 ,the ribs can be bought in any large town on the water1 or you can fashion them yourself4 ,natural bends are always preferable1 but you can make knees 7on the general principle shown in ,fig4 #dcc7 of straight-grained stock1 which1 though clumsier and not so strong1 will serve the purpose4 ,care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to split either the bottom or the sides4 ,but the canvas will be the main reliance in keeping the boat tight4 ,the canvas can be put on in three pieces1 first the sides1 and then the bottom4 ,cover the sides down to the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three inches and the edges be turned under4 ,stiffen the gunwale by a strip4 ,a light1 removable board1 or grating of slats1 should be laid inside along the bottom1 on the cross-frames4 ,if well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear at the exposed points1 a light canoe of this sort will last many years and be a very useful boat4 ,it must be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe 7,figs4 #dbg and #dbh71 but not canvas-covered1 is not difficult to make by the process already described4 ,first make the frames and the stem- and stern-posts1 then get out the sides4 ,these parts are put together and then the bottom is put on1 the well-hole coaming fitted1 the boat decked1 and finally the minor fittings added4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,first make the centre frame like ,fig4 #dbi1 the bottom strip being of #g_/h stock1 #a-a_/d deep1 and the side pieces of #c_/d board4 ,screw the pieces together with two screws at each angle4 ,care must be taken to make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided4 ,you can draw the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper1 drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy4 ,lay this pattern on the bench top1 or on a smooth floor1 and place the pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just coincide with the outline of the drawing4 ,hold them firmly in position and screw the angles securely together4 ,tack a waste piece across near the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position4 ,next get out two frames like ,fig4 #dcj1 taking the dimensions from your plan1 two more like ,fig4 #dca1 and two like ,fig4 #dcb4 ,to make the stem- and stern-posts1 take two pieces of joist1 about #b #d and of sufficient length1 and with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece1 on the principle shown in ,fig4 #dbd4 ,give these rabbets a good coat of white-lead paint4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dbi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dcj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dca4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dcb4 ,the sides are got out in the way already shown4 ,on them mark the position for the centre mould4 ,insert and nail into place the two next largest frames1 at the proper places1 and so on until all are in position4 ,all1 except the centre one1 will require to have their edges slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides4 ,you can do this best as you put them in place4 ,paint the edges of the frames with white lead before nailing them in position4 ,next fit pieces of #a_/b board to form the coaming around the well-hole1 and fasten them to the three middle frames4 ,the details of this you can easily arrange for yourself4 ,the general idea is expressed in ,figs4 #dbg and #dcd4 ,before proceeding further with the deck1 thoroughly paint the whole of the inside of the boat with white lead1 working it well into all the joints and cracks4 ,after giving it a few days to dry1 look the inside over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped4 ,after filling any there may be1 give the entire inside another coat1 working it well into all crevices as before4 ,do not neglect this part of the work1 as it will not be easy to get at the inside 7except in the middle7 after the deck is put on4 ,on the middle of the deck stretch strips of #a_/b wood about #d wide from the coaming of the well to the stem- and stern-posts1 tapering the pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the frames1 to which they should be firmly nailed4 ,if you wish to sail1 a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast1 with a block for a step4 ,one or more strips1 #a #a_/b1 can now be placed longitudinally on each side of the deck and nailed to the frames4 ,additional deck-beams1 running from gunwale to gunwale1 and having the requisite arch or convexity1 can be put in if needed4 ,a few brackets can also be put under the deck1 reaching from the sides to the coaming1 if needed4 ,a keel about one inch square1 or deeper at the centre1 if desired1 can be fitted along the entire length of the bottom4 ,it had best be fastened on with screws4 ,if your boat is to be used in deep water only1 you can make the keel #c or #d deep in the middle1 rockering it up towards the ends1 and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board4 ,cover the deck with canvas1 fastened with small tacks to the coaming and to the sides4 ,the edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale for about half an inch1 the edge being finally covered by a gunwale strip screwed from stem- to stern-post4 ,a piece of half-round #g_/h moulding is good1 although any small strip will do4 ,dampen the canvas and then give it at least two coats of paint4 ,a wooden deck can be put on if preferred4 99 99 99 99 99 ,canvas-covered ,canoes4--,to make a really good canoe wholly of wood requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the beginner1 or than is attained by the average amateur4 ,any boy or amateur can1 however1 with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at slight expense1 make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose satisfactorily4 ,the canoe is sharp at both ends1 requires only a paddle1 and is light enough to be easily handled ashore4 ,if carefully made1 a canvas canoe will be strong1 durable1 and not difficult to mend1 though repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken4 ,if canvas of good quality is used1 it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might think1 but will stand an amount of banging around1 running into snags1 dragging over obstacles1 and abuse generally1 that would badly injure any but the best of wooden canoes4 ,the variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless1 and the number of types from which to choose is confusing4 ,the purpose for which the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the type--whether for paddling only1 or sailing1 or for cruising and general use1 and whether for a river or small pond1 or for the deep and rough water of a lake or bay4 ,all these matters must be considered in determining the beam1 depth1 shape of the midship section1 the draught1 degree of sheer1 whether to have keel1 centre-board1 or neither1 and other points4 ,this is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book on wood-working1 and you can easily obtain the desired information1 as well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans1 from some good book on the subject4 ,a caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient stiffness may not be out of place4 ,one frequently sees canoes1 made by young boys1 of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond1 which is really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when properly made4 ,a certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable features of these boats1 but they should always have sufficient stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all waters to which a canoe is suited2 therefore be sure to make a frame which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to hold it together4 ,it is quite common to see these boats which 7otherwise well built7 lack stiffness lengthways--that is1 in the longitudinal vertical section4 ,such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle1 or hog-backed4 ,this is entirely unnecessary4 ,be sure1 before putting on the canvas1 that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape permanently4 ,if by any fault in your planning you find that it is not so1 be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the canvas1 or your boat will probably be a failure4#dj ,canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use1 as long-continued exposure to the water will be injurious4 ,an easily constructed paddling canoe1 #ad' or #ae' long1 and with beam about #cj1 will first be described4 ,it should be understood by the novice that this first form of construction here given is not that adopted by the professional boat-builder4 ,it is given simply as a process by which one untrained in the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and serviceable canoe1 and at the same time acquire experience which will be of use if he should later attempt the more scientific1 but also more difficult1 details of construction used by regular boat-builders4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 ,painting1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 99 99 99 99 99 ,care should be taken to select clear1 straight-grained stock1 free from knots1 checks1 and other defects1 and thoroughly dry4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dcc4 ,having made your working drawings for a canoe of the size and proportions which you may think best to adopt1 begin the actual work by getting out moulds 7,fig4 #dcc7 upon exactly the same principle as in the case of the flat-bottomed canoe just described1 except that they will be of curved outline1 as this is to be a round-bottomed boat4 ,get out also a bottom strip or keelson with stem- and stern-pieces1 which can be alike4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dcd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dce4 ,the arrangement and method of fitting these parts is evident from the illustrations4 ,the keelson can be laid along the edge of a plank or some flat surface and blocked up towards the ends to give the desired degree of curvature or rocker4 ,first fit in place the centre mould and then the two at the ends of the well-hole 7,fig4 #dcd71 with the stem- and stern-posts 7,fig4 #dce74 ,these can be temporarily tacked or stayed in place until you are sure the positions are right4 ,the coaming frame or wash board around the well-hole can now be put on1 which will hold the three middle frames securely1 and the two deck-strips running lengthways from the well-coaming to the tops of the stem- and stern-posts can be attached 7,fig4 #dce74 ,next fit the two gunwale-strips1 putting in also the remaining moulds or frames4 ,after this the lengthways ribbands are to be fitted around the moulds from bow to stern 7,figs4 #dce and #dce;a1 showing section at end of well74 ,this will complete the shape of the boat4 ,great care must be taken with all this adjusting of the framework1 measuring1 sighting1 and testing in every way you can think of1 to see that all the curves are fair1 without sharp or irregular turns1 and also to see that both sides of the boat are alike4 ,this is very important4 ,the pieces may be all of the correct lengths1 but still the boat may be one-sided1 or twisted1 or have a list4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dce;a4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dcf4 ,a glance at ,fig4 #dcf will show 7as an exaggerated example7 that pieces of the right dimensions can easily be put together in such a way that the boat may be ill-shaped1--an unfortunate result which is sometimes seen in home-made boats1 due to lack of care in testing the angles and curves when putting the work together4 ,the ends of these strips will be more securely fastened to the stem- and stern-posts if depressions or gains are cut in the posts to receive them 7,fig4 #dcg71 but this is not absolutely necessary if the ends are properly bevelled and carefully screwed to the stem- and stern-posts4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dcg4 ,for additional stiffness1 insert a series of ribs 7,fig4 #dce71 from #c to #f apart1 according to their size and stiffness1 from bow to stern4 ,barrel-hooping can be used and if sound is excellent1 or strips of ash1 oak1 or elm1 about #g_/h #a_/d1 can be used4 ,it will not be necessary to bend these around a form4 ,those near the middle can be at once bent into place4 ,as the ends of the boat are approached1 the ribs will require to be rendered more pliable before being put in place 7see ,bending ,wood74 ,the ribs can be nailed or screwed to the keel and finally be fastened to the ribbands1 at their intersection1 with copper nails clinched or riveted4 ,cheaper fastenings can be used1 however1 but copper is the best4 ,to hold such pieces in place temporarily1 clamps can be easily made which will be sufficiently strong for the purpose 7see ,fig4 #edh74 ,when all these parts are fastened together1 the frame will be complete4 ,to make a first-class job1 the entire frame should be thoroughly painted1 or at least given a soaking coat of oil1 or it can be varnished4 ,for the canvas1 get firm1 closely-woven duck or sail-cloth of good quality and of sufficient width to reach from gunwale to gunwale4 ,it is not necessary or advantageous to get the heaviest-weight grade1 but beware of covering your boat with light drilling or the like1 which1 although you can make it water-tight1 will not be sufficiently durable for anything but a boat for temporary use4 ,find the middle of the canvas1 lengthways1 and stretch it on this line directly along the keel1 the frame of the boat being placed bottom up4 ,tack at each end1 and then1 starting at the middle1 strain the canvas around the boat1 working along a little way at a time towards each end alternately and tacking to the top or inside of the gunwale as you proceed4 ,do not try to cover the top with the same piece as the bottom4 ,if you can get a large needle and some stout cord1 you can pull the canvas into place by lacing the edges across the top or deck of the boat1 working from the middle towards the ends4 ,in lieu of a needle use an awl or a nail4 ,by lacing in this way and by manipulating the canvas with the hands you can1 if you are careful1 stretch it to fit the frame so that it will be smooth to a point considerably above the water-line4 ,at the upper part1 as you approach the deck line or gunwale1 you may be unable to prevent some fulness1 which you can dispose of by pleating if necessary4 ,at the ends some little folding under may also be required1 but you need have no great difficulty in adjusting the canvas neatly and so as to make tight joints4 ,it is a good plan to cut a shallow rabbet on each side of the stem- and stern-posts1 just deep enough so that when the edge of the canvas is folded under and tacked1 the surface of the canvas will be flush with the side of the post 7,fig4 #dcg74 ,small tacks should be used--not large carpet-tacks4 ,copper are best1 but galvanized ones can be used4 ,in all parts where leakage could occur1 the tacks should be driven closely together1 so that their heads touch1 seeing that a good coat of lead is laid on the wood underneath4 ,after the bottom of the canoe has been covered1 the deck can be treated in the same way4 ,when the canvas is all on1 dampen it slightly and paint thoroughly1 painting1 also1 the coaming around the well-hole and the exposed parts of the stem- and stern-posts 7see ,painting74 ,the dampening is supposed to cause the first coat of paint to penetrate the canvas more thoroughly than if the canvas is quite dry4 ,oil is sometimes applied before painting4 ,after it has dried thoroughly1 apply another coat4 ,do not spare the paint1 for though the canvas absorbs a great deal1 which adds to the weight of the boat as well as to the cost1 it is really essential in making a good canvas-covered boat that it be well painted4 ,a light removable flooring1 or grating of slats1 should be placed on the bottom of the well1 resting on the frames4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to make a canvas canoe with a keel1 you have only to make the keel of a piece of #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b stock 7with a depth of1 perhaps1 #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b71 thinning it somewhat towards the ends so that it will join smoothly with the stem- and stern-posts4 ,it can be fitted to these posts as shown in ,fig4 #dch1 and screwed directly to the keelson4 ,illustration ,fig4 #dch4 ,particular care must be taken that the keel be got out straight and that it be fitted exactly on the centre line4 ,in this case the canvas may be put on in two parts1 being nailed to the keelson on each side of the keel2 or the canoe can be made as previously described and the keel simply screwed on outside of the canvas1 the latter being first thoroughly painted4 ,oak is excellent for a keel1 but is rather heavy for a light canoe4 ,ash will do4 ,pine can be used4 ,the keel will wear better if got out so that the concentric rings 7annual rings7 of the wood will be horizontal or parallel with the bottom of the boat and at right angles to the screws with which the keel is fastened on4 ,if these layers incline slightly upward at the bow the keel will wear better4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dci4 ,a more advanced form of construction1 and one more in line with the methods of a regular boat-builder1 is shown in ,fig4 #dci1 the essential difference between this and the form previously described being that regular bent ribs are substituted for the frames made of board1 and the latter1 after serving as moulds around which to build the boat1 are taken out1 the bent ribs being sufficiently stout to ensure strength and stiffness4 ,if you attempt this method the ribs must be carefully bent 7see ,bending ,wood74 ,oak1 ash1 or elm is suitable for ribs4 ,if a cooper's shop is within reach you can get the material there4 ,it must1 of course1 be of good grain and free from flaws4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the process of construction is similar to that already shown4 ,a suggestion for the arrangement of deck timbers 7which can be of oak1 ash1 spruce1 or any strong wood7 is shown in ,figs4 #dci and #ddj1 and for putting in a curved wash board or coaming in ,fig4 #ddj4 ,for the latter a thin piece of straight-grained oak1 elm1 or ash can be used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dda4 ,an excellent way to make a canvas-covered canoe is shown in ,fig4 #dda4 ,the essential principle of this consists in having a stiff gunwale1 stiff keelson 7inside the ribs71 and ribs stout and numerous enough to ensure a permanently strong and stiff framework without the assistance of the lengthways ribbands4 ,the outside is then sheathed with very thin strips of basswood1 pine1 or any reasonably strong and light wood 7perhaps #c_/af thick and #b or #c wide71 fitting them carefully to the shape1 but without any attempt to make water-tight joints4 ,if this boat1 which is complete in all respects except that of being water-tight1 is then covered with canvas as already described1 the result will be a strong1 smooth boat1 without the irregularities of surface which are a necessary feature of the unsheathed form4 ,this method is adopted in making canvas-covered canoes after the model of the birch-bark canoe1 and the result is an admirable boat1 which1 while perhaps hardly equal to a genuine birch of ,indian manufacture1 is certainly the next thing to it for an open paddling canoe4 ,of course1 if you can work up your design after the model of a real birch1 you will have accomplished as much as you could wish in this line--but to design and construct a good canoe upon the birch model is not an easy thing for the beginner to do1 and had best not be attempted until after considerable experience in simpler and less graceful forms4 ,this mode of construction can well be applied1 however1 to a canoe of almost any type4 ,the sheathing can be painted and the canvas laid on the fresh paint4 ,another form of construction is to omit the keelson and fasten the frames and ribs directly to the top of the keel1 having previously cut a rabbet for the canvas 7as in case of the stem- and stern-posts7 on each side of the keel at the top2 the canvas by this arrangement being put on in two parts1 one on each side of the keel4 ,it is1 of course1 possible to construct a canoe with nothing but two gunwale-strips1 stem- and stern-posts1 a strip for a keelson1 and a number of barrel-hoops for ribs2 and such affairs are quite often put together by boys1 but they are apt to be of light and flimsy construction and to lack sufficient stiffness to keep their shape after being used for a while4 ,a certain degree of flexibility and lack of rigidity is desirable in a canvas-covered boat1 and1 in fact1 it is to this quality that it owes much of its merit2 but it should have enough stiffness to hold its general shape permanently4 ,an extremely simple method is to omit the stem-pieces and simply bend the keelson up at each end to meet the gunwales at bow and stern1 where all the lengthways pieces can be fastened to a block1 canvas being stretched over the whole as already described4 ,a canoe which turns up so excessively on the bottom at bow and stern has some disadvantages1 but still a useful and cheap boat can readily be made in this way4 ,it should have a quite flat cross-section in the middle4 ,most canoes can be sailed on the wind1 often very successfully1 by having a deep keel--which can be rockered or increased in depth towards the middle--or by adding a centre-board4 ,but the latter is quite a nice operation1 particularly so in case of making your first boat 7see page #ccj74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the holes and the steps for the masts should be arranged before the canvas is put on1 fitting extra thwarts across if needed1 and it is a good plan to fit tubes for the masts4 ,in case of sailing1 the steering can be done with the paddle1 or a rudder can be used 7in which case a straight stern-post should be put in1 for which a knee is good7 and lines be led forward to the well-hole from a yoke at the top of the rudder4 ,many arrangements have been devised for steering sailing-canoes1 but these details1 as well as those for the rigging1 can be found in any good book on the subject4 ,if you are a novice1 begin with a simple leg-of-mutton sail 7,fig4 #ddh74 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is better to buy oars than to try to make them4 ,you may1 however1 have occasion to make a paddle4 ,a good shape is shown in ,fig4 #ddb1 but you can choose from a variety of forms4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the length can readily be determined from some paddle which suits you or you can experiment with a strip of wood4 ,five inches is a good width1 and #e' to #e-a_/b' a good length1 but these are matters of individual preference4 ,spruce is a good wood for your first attempt at paddle-making4 ,it makes a good paddle and is easier to work than birch1 beech1 or maple1 or any of the harder woods4 ,pine can be used4 ,use a centre line in making your pattern4 ,after the pattern is marked on the wood have the outline sawed at a mill or do it yourself with the turning-saw1 or make a series of saw-kerfs to the line with the hand-saw and remove the superfluous wood with the draw-knife1 spoke-shave1 or chisel 7see ,paring74 ,having the outline correct1 mark a line along the middle of the edge of the blade1 and gradually and carefully shave the surfaces down towards this middle line1 also tapering the thickness towards the ends4 ,the draw-knife1 spoke-shave1 plane1 rasp1 file1 scraper1 and sandpaper can be used 7see all of these tools in ,part ,v4 and also ,paring and ,rounding ,sticks74 ,great care is needed to trim a paddle nicely to shape4 ,a little hasty cutting may ruin the work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddc4 ,the double-bladed paddle can be made of a single piece1 or two pieces can be joined by a ferrule 7,fig4 #ddc74 ,the double-bladed paddle can be from about #g' to #h' or #i' long and the blades are made broader and shorter than that of the single paddle4 ,a couple of round rubber rings on each end of the handle will stop some of the dripping of water from the blades as they are raised4 ,small ,sail-boat4--,the boat shown in ,fig4 #ddd is a good form for the amateur to attempt1 and makes a serviceable craft for sheltered waters4 ,from twelve to sixteen feet is a good length1 and the beam should be wide1 as shown4 ,the depth can be from twelve to sixteen inches4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,care should be taken to select clear1 straight-grained stock1 free from knots1 checks1 and other defects1 and thoroughly dry4 ,pine is excellent4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddd4 ,the general principle of construction does not differ from that of the flat-bottomed boats already described1 and detailed directions are therefore omitted4 ,the sides should each be of one #c_/d or #g_/h board4 ,the arrangement of the details is obvious4 ,knees can be used to good advantage4 ,the deck should be of wood1 the boards 7#a_/b7 resting on cross-beams or carlins1 reaching from gunwale to gunwale 7as already shown7 and slightly arched4 ,around the well-hole1 brackets can be used 7,fig4 #dde74 ,the deck can be covered with canvas4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dde4 ,this boat1 as shown in the illustration1 is planked across the bottom like the other flat-bottomed boats already described1 but the bottom boards can run lengthways instead1 if preferred4 ,in this case knees should be inserted1 or cross-frames of some kind1 to reach across the bottom and to which the bottom boards can be nailed4 ,the bottom boards should be not less than #c_/d thick and the edges must be carefully jointed 7see ,jointing74 ,they can be laid slightly apart and the seams caulked 7see page #cjb74 ,strips of flannel laid in thick white-lead paint can be placed between the edges of the sides and stern and the bottom boards1 or the edges can simply be painted4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddg4 ,the construction of the case or trunk for the centre-board can be understood from ,figs4 #ddf and #ddg4 ,by either method of construction the trunk consists of two upright posts1 or headledges1 cut with shoulders at the lower end1 and sides of board screwed to these posts4 ,a slot is sawed through the bottom of the boat of sufficient width and length to give the centre-board free passage--that is1 of the dimensions of the opening at the bottom of the trunk4 ,to cut this slot several holes can be bored close together until an opening is made sufficiently large to start the saw4 ,by the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #ddf1 a plank is taken and a slot is cut in it enough longer than that in the bottom of the boat to include the lower ends of the headledges1 which should fit snugly4 ,the sides of the trunk are screwed to this plank from underneath1 and the plank is in turn screwed to the bottom of the boat4 ,the headledges can be additionally fastened from the edge of the plank1 horizontally4 ,unless the bottom of the boat is straight1 the plank must be accurately fitted to the curve on the under side1--not an easy task 7see ,scribing and ,paring74 ,all the joints should be laid in thick white-lead paint1 and at the bottom flannel can be laid in the seam1 with lead1 or caulking can be resorted to4 ,by the method shown in ,fig4 #ddg1 the headledges and sides are fitted to a board on the bottom1 or to the keelson1 and1 after being put in place1 strips of plank are fitted lengthways on each side at the bottom and bolted or screwed to the bottom and to the sides of the trunk4 ,the lower edges of these strips must be fitted to the curve of the bottom and the whole made tight1 as just shown4 ,much care must be taken with this work to make tight joints4 ,the inside of the trunk should be painted before putting together1 and holes be bored carefully for all the screws 7see ,boring and ,screws74 ,the centre-board itself can be of wood or of galvanized plate iron and is pivoted at the forward lower corner1 and can be raised and lowered by a rod attached to the after corner4 ,remember to paint the inside of the boat carefully with at least two coats before putting on the deck1 and also that copper nails and brass fittings are better than those of galvanized iron 7particularly for salt water7 if you can afford them4 ,the coaming or wash board can be of #a_/b oak1 ash1 or elm4 ,the deck can first be laid1 lapping slightly over the space to be left open4 ,the line for the coaming can then be marked on the deck1 and the projecting wood sawed or trimmed to the line1 when the coaming can be bent into place and fastened4 ,the gunwale-strip1 like the stern-post1 the rudder1 and the tiller1 should be of hard wood1 as oak4 ,hackmatack is good for the stem4 ,the mast should be of spruce4 ,a strong thwart1 with a hole in it1 can be fitted across between the sides1 just under the deck1 and a block with another hole fastened to the bottom4 ,the place at which to step the mast must depend upon the style of rig you adopt4 ,one who is used to sailing a boat will not seek for information on this subject in a manual on wood-working1 but for the novice it may be well to state that a leg-of-mutton sail 7,fig4 #ddh7 is undoubtedly the simplest1 easiest1 and safest rig for the beginner1 and it will be wise to learn to manage this rig first4 ,the spritsail 7,fig4 #ddi71 with or without the boom1 is an easily managed sail1 which works well with this boat4 ,either of these rigs can be unshipped in a moment1 the mast1 sail and all being lifted out when desired4 ,for other styles of rigging you should consult someone used to sailing or some book on the subject4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ddi4 ,for the painting1 see ,painting1 in ,part ,v4 ,small ,ice-,boat4--,the main framework of even the most elaborate ice-boat consists merely of a lengthways centre timber or backbone and a cross-piece or runner-board 7,fig4 #dej71 the whole resting on three runners1 one of which acts as a rudder4 ,before beginning work read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dej4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dea4 ,a small boat can be made as shown in ,fig4 #dea4 ,the dimensions can easily be altered4 ,the particular rig given is merely for illustration1 for this is not a book on sailing1 and you can find all the facts you need about rigging in any good book on the subject4 ,if you are a novice you had best be content with a simple leg-of-mutton sail 7,fig4 #ddh71 which is1 for the beginner1 the safest and most easily managed4 ,a spritsail 7,fig4 #ddi7 or some other simple form can be used if desired4 ,if you know how to sail a boat1 you can adopt such rig as you think best4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #deb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dec4 ,first get out the backbone4 ,get a piece of clear spruce1 or pine1 perhaps #ab' #c #d4 ,a round spar may be used4 ,be careful to select good lumber1 as great strain is put upon it4 ,a piece which has naturally sprung lengthways should be placed with the convex edge upwards4 ,next get out the runner-board1 perhaps #f-a_/b' #b #i1 of spruce4 ,pine is also good1 or any strong wood will do4 ,choose a clear1 sound plank4 ,if naturally sprung in a bow-like curve1 put the convex side upwards4 ,smooth the pieces sufficiently to avoid splinters and roughness4 ,thin the runner-plank on top each way from the centre down to about an inch in thickness at each end1 if you can have it sawed at the mill4 ,it is hardly worth while to do this by hand4 ,fasten the runner-board1 at exactly the middle of its length1 across the backbone1 at a point perhaps #f-a_/b' from the stern end1 with a strap-hanger 7,fig4 #deb7 screwed up with nuts and broad washers on the under side4 ,if you cannot afford this1 put a bolt through both pieces 7see ,boring71 tightening underneath with nut and washer1 and putting cleats on the runner-board 7,fig4 #dec74 ,be sure that one edge of the runner-board is straight and at right angles to the backbone4 ,nail a piece of board1 #ah long and #c wide1 across the stern end of the centre timber4 ,add the two side pieces a b and c d 7,fig4 #dej71 of #b spruce joist1 nailing them firmly in place1 thus forming the sides of an irregular box 7see ,nailing74 ,turn the frame over and nail a bottom on this box1 laying the boards crosswise and nailing to the backbone as well as to the sides and end4 ,next1 to make the runners1 get out six pieces of oak1 or other hard1 strong wood1 #i #c #d4 ,mark with the square from the straightened edge of the runner-board the positions for the inner blocks1 equally distant from the backbone1 screwing them in place 7,fig4 #ded71 with one screw in each4 ,measure across with a stick from one to the other at each end to see that they are just parallel1 and also test their being at right angles to the runner-plank1 which in turn must be at right angles to the backbone1 in order that the runners may be parallel and not slewed sideways4 ,having tightly screwed these inner blocks1 brace them with angle blocks1 as shown4 ,the outer blocks can next be fitted1 leaving just space enough for the runners to play freely1 but not loosely1 between the blocks4 ,the holes for the pins for the runners can be bored in the outer pieces before they are screwed on4 ,then1 using these holes as a guide1 those in the inner blocks can be bored in line4 ,the runners themselves should be carefully made and fitted1 for they are a very vital part of the boat4 ,on the large boats they have usually been made of oak1 with a shoe of cast iron at the bottom attached by bolts1 but this is quite a piece of work for a small boat and you can get the blacksmith to work out the whole runner1 with a hole bored for the pin-bolt4 ,make a pattern about #ah or #bj long1 rocking very slightly in the middle and more quickly near the ends4 ,the hole for the pin should be back of the middle1 so that more of the shoe will be in front of than behind the pin4 ,this is to lessen the shock when the runner strikes an obstruction4 ,the cutting edge may have an angle of about #de for trial 7,fig4 #dee74 ,if too blunt or too sharp you can alter it4 ,it will take considerable filing to get the edge true1 straight1 and uniform 7see ,filing74 ,finish with an oil-stone4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ded4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dee4 ,the rudder-runner can be a little shorter4 ,screw a piece of #b oak plank on top of the rudder-blocks and on top of this fasten a plate or socket to which is attached a piece of gas-pipe about a foot long1 for a rudder-post4 ,at the top of the rudder-post screw an elbow and a short piece of pipe for a tiller 7,fig4 #def74 ,if suitable gas-pipe cannot be found1 the blacksmith can fix an arrangement that will answer1 but it must be strongly fastened to the rudder-blocks1 and there should be some kind of metal bearing between the wooden top of the rudder and the under side of the backbone1 if nothing more than a washer4 ,the two surfaces of wood should not rub against each other4 ,wind the handle of the tiller with cord1 cloth1 or bicycle tape4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #def4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #deg4 ,stay the bowsprit 7or forward end of the backbone7 by stout wires to the runner-plank4 ,these can best be of wire rope passed through eye-bolts or attached to iron straps and tightened with turnbuckles1 but to save that expense strong wire can be used4 ,notches can be cut at the edges of the runner-plank and the backbone1 and wire be wound around to hold rings to which the wire guys can be fastened1 but it is hard to make such an arrangement taut and to keep it so4 ,next fasten a mast step with square hole to the backbone 7,fig4 #deg71 forward of the front edge of the runner-plank4 ,put in eye-bolts at ends of the runner-plank and at the bow for shrouds and a few inches from the stern of the backbone for the main sheet4 ,wire rope is best for the shrouds1 but common wire or rope can be used4 ,for the mast and spars use natural sticks of spruce4 ,the sides of the box can be built up higher at the stern with boards1 if you wish1 to prevent being thrown off by the sudden movements of the boat4 ,a rubber washer under the backbone where the rudder-post passes through is sometimes used to lessen the jar when passing over obstructions4 ,a curved piece of wood fastened on the under side of the backbone just in front of the rudder will act as a fender for the rudder1 in case of slight obstructions4 ,the whole boat can be oiled1 painted1 or varnished if desired 7see ,finishing and ,painting74 ,if you use a cat-rig1 spritsail1 or other rig without any head-sail before the mast1 it would be well to place the runner-plank further forward4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #deh4 ,the latest and best way to brace the frame of an ice-boat is to strain guys of wire rope 7,fig4 #deh71 tightened with turnbuckles1 omitting the side pieces1 and fastening a car or box to the backbone1 but this arrangement1 though lighter and more elastic1 is more expensive and not so easy to make for a small boat as the one just described4 ,a somewhat simpler way to arrange the framework is shown in ,figs4 #dei1 #dfj1 and #dfa4 ,in place of the runners already described a cheaper arrangement can be made by the blacksmith of #e_/h bar iron1 steeled1 and bent up at the ends1 as shown in ,fig4 #dfa4 ,a much smaller affair can be made by simply arranging two pieces of joist or plank in the form of a cross 7bracing them so far as may be necessary71 putting cleats under each end of the shorter cross-piece or runner-board and fastening common skates to the cleats1 using another pivoted skate at the stern for a rudder4 ,the runners of the skates should be ground1 or filed1 as shown above4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dei4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfa4 ,the details of such a small ice-boat you can work out for yourself by modifying and simplifying according to your ingenuity the suggestions for a larger boat given above4 ,the hardest part to fix is the rudder-post and tiller4 ,some iron arrangement is best1 but something can be contrived in the following manner1 which is not1 however1 recommended as very satisfactory4 ,fasten the rudder skate upon a piece of board in which is cut a mortise4 ,into this mortise a short piece of hard wood1 like a large broomstick with squared end1 is fitted for a rudder-post4 ,the upper end of the rudder-post1 squared just like the lower end1 is fitted into a mortise cut in the tiller piece4 ,a washer should be placed between the skate-block and the backbone1 and the rudder-post should turn freely in the hole in the backbone1 but not loosely enough to wobble around4 ,cut the mortise in the tiller and fit to the post before cutting off and shaping the tiller1 to avoid danger of splitting4 ,an extra block may have to be put under the backbone at the rudder to level the boat so that the skates will bear properly on the ice1 for if the stern is much lower1 so that they drag by the heels1 the boat will not sail properly4 ,wooden arrangements of this sort are1 however1 only justifiable as makeshifts1 and require good workmanship to be strong and effective4 ,illustration ,house-,boat4--,a house-boat consists of two parts1 one of which 7the boat7 is essentially like the scow or flat boat already described1 and the other 7the house7 is usually much the same as some of the little structures described in ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners71 however expensively and elaborately it may be arranged and fitted up4 ,the advantages of the house-boat for camping1 shooting1 fishing1 and for some kinds of excursions are too well known to require explanation4 ,it is an excellent thing for two or more to build together4 ,it may not be out of place to suggest that1 in the desire to have the house sufficiently large and convenient1 you should not be misled into making plans which will necessitate building a large boat4 ,dimensions 7on paper7 for such things are quite deceptive1 and to build a large boat1 even of such a simple type as the scow or flatboat1 is quite a serious undertaking for the beginner--as regards both labour and expense4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if you can find a scow or flatboat already built1 of suitable dimensions and which is sufficiently tight1 or can be made so by caulking1 you have only to proceed to build the house upon it4 ,if1 however1 the boat as well as the house is to be built1 you can proceed to build the boat in the way already described 7page #bii74 ,additional suggestions may be found in ,figs4 #dfb and #dfc4 ,before beginning read carefully ,marking1 ,rule1 ,square1 ,saw1 ,plane1 ,nailing1 in ,part ,v41 and look up any other references4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfb4 ,two-inch plank should be used for these boats1 which are intended to be from #ad' to #bj' long4 ,after putting together the sides1 ends1 and bottom1 as already described1 #b #d joists can be laid lengthways on the bottom1 as shown1 which will afford an underpinning for the house1 will distribute the weight over the bottom1 keep the floor raised above the water which may leak in or collect from the rain1 and also stiffen the structure of the boat4 ,before laying these joists1 notches should be cut on the under edges with the saw or hatchet1 in several places1 to allow the water to pass through1 as in the case of the boats already described4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfc4 ,the illustrations show a general system of construction for the house1 which can be followed1 or you can make such alterations as you think desirable4 ,in addition to the suggestions in the accompanying illustrations1 further details and suggestions will be found in ,part ,,iii4 7,house-building for ,beginners74 ,most of the details are matters of personal preference1 and can readily be arranged without more detailed description4 ,the roof had best be covered with canvas1 put on as one piece 7being sewed previously if necessary74 ,if laid in paint and then given two or three coats of paint1 much as in the case of the canvas-sheathed canoes already described1 a tight and durable roof will be the result4 ,after the edges of the canvas are tacked under the edge of the roof1 strips of moulding can be nailed around under the edge4 ,an even simpler way to make the roof is to have it flat1 but slanting slightly towards either bow or stern4 ,an inclination of #c is enough1 with tight canvas roof1 to shed the water4 ,the remaining details of the construction of the house have already been treated4 ,the interior arrangements you can contrive as desired4 ,either1 or both1 of the ends can be decked over1 or the whole can first be decked over and the house built on the deck4 ,in this case1 access to the hull1 for stowage1 can be had by hatches1 or trap-doors inside the house4 ,if both the ends are to be decked1 the hull can very well have one or two lengthways divisions of plank1 for stiffness and strength1--that is1 insert between the ends one or two pieces of the size and shape of the sides1 in which case the lengthways joist already spoken of will be omitted4 ,this is a good way4 ,in case of decking1 nail a strip of moulding on the outside along the juncture of the house and the deck1 so as to make a tight joint1 which should be well painted4 ,if one or both ends are undecked1 a removable grating of slats 7a part of which is shown in ,fig4 #dfb7 will be useful4 ,it is well to have at least one window at the bow end of the house1 for the boat will of course lie with bow towards the wind and it will be a good thing when housed in a storm to be able to see to windward1 as you cannot well keep the door at that end open1 while the after door will usually be sufficiently sheltered to be left open4 ,many modifications of these simple plans can be made4 ,the roof can be extended over either end1 which is easily done without altering the system of construction4 ,this is very convenient under some circumstances1 and will add but little to the expense4 ,the frame can even be covered with canvas1 but this will be inferior to wood1 except in point of lightness4 ,a solid roof is best1 however1 in any case4 ,sweeps must1 of course1 be provided for rowing1 sculling1 or steering1 and a mast can easily be added1 on which sufficient sail can be hoisted to be quite a help in going before the wind4 ,if a mast is used1 the door at the bow end of the house can be at one side of the end so that the mast can be close to the house1 to which it can be fastened4 ,a rudder can be added1 if desired1 with a skag4 ,the whole craft should be thoroughly painted 7see ,painting74 ,houses are sometimes built on rafts4 ,this will do very well if the raft is a good one1 like a float4 ,a float can be easily made1 if you have the materials1 by laying a thick flooring on logs or heavy timbers and providing greater buoyancy than such a platform naturally has by fastening under it1 between the timbers1 as many empty and sealed barrels or casks 7oil-barrels are good7 as may be necessary4 ,when the float is stationary and under ordinary circumstances1 there is1 of course1 no need to fasten the casks in any way except to fence them around so that they cannot roll or slide out1 as their buoyancy will prevent their escaping1 but it is easy to fasten them by chains or otherwise if needed4 ,this makes an excellent foundation on which to build a house1 and has some advantages over a boat for a stationary arrangement1 but is obviously not as well suited for moving around as a scow or flatboat4 ,,footnotes3 #dj ,unless too heavily loaded1 a canvas-covered canoe will float in case of a capsize1 but some form of air-chambers is desirable and a safe precaution in any small boat4 ,it is hardly safe to rely upon your ability to build water-tight compartments in the ends of canvas 7or wooden7 boats1 as is sometimes recommended--that is1 as a part of the regular construction of the boat4 ,it is not easy for an amateur to do this4 ,it is better to have the air-tight compartments made separately and independent of the boat itself4 ,copper boxes or air-tanks fitted to the space at the ends are the best and the only really reliable expedient1 but they are expensive4 ,light wooden boxes covered with canvas and thoroughly painted can be used1 as well as galvanised boxes or even varnish cans sealed and painted4 ,any such contrivance can be made tight at first1 but is always liable to become leaky 7except by the use of copper tanks71 particularly as it is usually concealed from examination4 ,,part ,v ,,common ,,tools ,,and ,,their ,,use1 ,,with ,,some ,,every-,,day ,,operations ,,chapter ,,xvi ,anvil4--,an anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise4 ,it should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering1 rounded 7conical7 point4 ,an old flat-iron does quite well4 ,auger-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfd4 ,awl4--,the ,brad-awl is the simplest boring tool you will use4 ,unlike gimlets and bits1 it does not take out any wood1 but merely presses it aside out of the way1 which is good for nail and screw holes1 because the elasticity of the woody fibres tends to make them spring back and close around the nail or screw1 thus helping to keep it in place4 ,the awl should always be a trifle smaller than the nail4 ,bore with the cutting edge across the grain of the wood1 on the same principle as in driving nails 7,fig4 #dfd71 lest the wedge shape of the tool cause the wood to split 7see ,nailing74 ,press the awl straight down in this position until the point is well into the wood1 when you can twist it a little1 at the same time pushing it further into the wood4 ,there is always risk of splitting thin wood near an edge1 unless you use great care4 ,the brad-awl can be sharpened easily4 ,see ,sharpening and also ,boring4 ,do not buy combination awls with tool-chest handles1 filled with an assortment of awls and little chisels1 gouges1 screw-drivers1 saws1 etc4 ,such affairs are sometimes useful1 but the loose tools are apt to become lost or broken1 and the money can be used to better advantage in other ways4 ,it is well to have a variety of sizes of awls1 fitted into hardwood handles4 ,an awl handle into which awls of various sizes can be fitted1 somewhat as a brace holds bits1 answers very well1 if you have to carry your tools from place to place1 but for shop-work it is more convenient to have each awl in a separate handle4 ,the ,marking-awl or ,scratch-awl is simply an awl with a round1 sharp point used for marking in carpentry1 but for very close work a knife or chisel is better4 ,see ,marking4 ,axe4--,this is such a common tool that it needs no description1 and is1 moreover1 seldom required for amateur work4 ,back-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfe4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dff4 ,beading4--,a tool for scraping beading1 reeds1 and the like1 can be made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece of saw-blade steel1 taken from a broken saw or scraper1 and inserting this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood 7,fig4 #dfe74 ,to change the position of the blade1 one or both of the screws can be loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted4 ,this tool is pushed forward with both hands1 much like a scraper1 the shoulder of the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge 7,fig4 #dff74 ,tools for this purpose can be bought4 ,it usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the extreme ends of an edge1 but to stop a short distance from the ends and with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end 7,fig4 #cje74 ,see ,plane4 ,bending ,wood4--,to bend a piece 7without steaming or boiling7 which is to be fastened so that but one side will show1 make a series of saw-cuts of equal depth 7,fig4 #dfg7 across the piece1 and partly through it1 on the back side 7the side which will not show71 first running a gauge line along the edge 7see ,gauge71 that the cuts may be of equal depth4 ,this will practically1 so far as bending is concerned1 make the piece thinner1 and it can readily be bent and fastened in position4 ,the nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be bent--that is1 up to the breaking-point4 ,hot water can be used on the face side4 ,such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges1 with glue1 into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired curve 7,fig4 #dfh74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfh4 ,to make a small piece of wood pliable1 so that it will bend to any reasonable extent 7which1 however1 depends much upon the kind of wood71 soak it for some time in boiling water1 when it can usually be bent into the desired shape4 ,it must be securely held in position until the moisture has entirely left it1 or it will spring back to 7or towards7 its original shape4 ,this drying will take from several hours to several days1 according to the size of the piece and the condition of the atmosphere4 ,there is almost always a tendency to spring back a little towards the original shape1 so it is well to bend a piece a little more than you wish it to remain1 except where it is to be fastened so that it cannot spring back4 ,wood which naturally bends easily 7particularly thin pieces7 can often be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water1 but hot water is usually more effective4 ,anything which you cannot manage with the hot water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a regular steam-chest1 which is really nothing1 in principle1 but a big wooden or iron box1 with a steam-pipe running into it1 in which the pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable4 ,wood is now bent for many purposes by end pressure1 but this is impracticable for the amateur4 ,to bend the ends of pieces like skis1 hockies1 etc41 a big kettle or common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used4 ,an apparatus for long sticks1 as ribs for a canoe1 can be made with a piece of iron pipe of suitable size4 ,plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the ground1 so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction4 ,put water in the pipe1 build a fire underneath1 put the sticks in the pipe1 stuff a rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order 7,fig4 #dfi74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dfi4 ,you must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and for holding it while drying4 ,for some kinds of bending1 where there is no occasion to be accurate1 you can often bend a piece around some corner or common object1 as a barrel1 log1 etc41 and tie it in place until dry1 or fasten it with cleats1 but for nice work you should make a form or mould4 ,if you wish to bend ribs1 for instance1 which should be accurate in shape1 you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the concave side of the desired curve4 ,fasten this piece upon any flat surface1 as an old plank1 and bore holes for wooden pins around the curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece to be bent can be firmly wedged against it1 as shown in ,fig4 #dgj2 or you can attach blocks instead of pins--any arrangement by which the bent piece can be wedged in place4 ,a strap of hoop iron or other metal or even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent1 to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside1 as it is liable to do if bent much1 unless of good quality and straight grain1 but there is no need of doing this in many cases4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dga4 ,another way is to have the mould or form in two parts1 as the two parts of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed 7,fig4 #dga74 ,the piece to be bent is put between the two forms1 which are then pressed together by clamps1 wedges1 or a lever4 ,this is a good way for short pieces which cannot easily be bent1 or which do not readily cling to the required curve4 ,another form of bending-mould is shown 7an inverted view7 in ,fig4 #dgb4 ,in this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made clamps4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgc4 ,a simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out of a piece of plank1 or boards nailed together 7,fig4 #dgc74 ,the end of the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the curve4 ,if it tends to spring off the curve1 you must contrive some way to clamp1 wedge1 or even tie it in place4 ,as a piece must be left on the form until dry and set1 if you have a number to bend1 it may be better to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once4 ,take any boards1 or build a curved addition on the end of a box1 and contrive a wider form on the same principle 7,fig4 #dgd74 ,for ribs1 and the like1 the stock should be got out so that the annual layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which the pieces are to be fastened1 or parallel with the curved sides of the pieces4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgd4 ,bevel4--,this is similar to the square1 but with a movable blade which can be set at any angle4 ,when permanently fixed at an angle of #de1 it is called a mitre-square4 ,the bevel is useful1 not merely to mark any desired angle1 but to repeat some angle already formed1 to which you apply it1 moving the blade until it fits the angle1 when the tool can be applied to another piece and the angle repeated4 ,the directions about holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use of the bevel 7see ,square74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dge4 ,to obtain an angle of #de with the bevel1 place it against the inside edge of the large steel square 7,fig4 #dge71 setting the blade at such an angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square4 ,on this same principle1 for other angles1 observe the figures intercepted by the blade1 as shown in ,fig4 #dgf4 ,note that for this angle the figures are #b and #d1 and you can get the angle again at any time by setting the bevel at those figures4 ,you can also set the bevel by laying off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board1 to which the bevel can be applied4 ,the angle should be so laid out on the board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the compasses exactly at the edge1 which is of course impossible4 ,see ,bevelling4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgf4 ,bevelling4--,to bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel1 draw-knife1 spoke-shave1 plane1 or even knife1 first mark parallel lines to work to with a pencil-gauge 7see ,gauge7 rather than a spur-gauge1 so as not to leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut 7,figs4 #dgg and #dhe74 ,then pare the edge down gradually to these lines1 or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts 7,fig4 #fae71 being sure to trim off in the direction of the grain2 but in bevelling both end and side1 as in ,fig4 #dgh1 first cut the end1 because of possible chipping at the corner1 and in cutting the end you can work from each corner towards the centre4 ,in paring a bevel across the grain1 push the chisel as shown in ,fig4 #dgi1 as it is the easiest and cleanest way to cut1 and prevents splintering4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dgh4 ,illustration ,,right4 ,,wrong4 ,,fig4 #dgi4 ,a simple bevel 7,figs4 #dgg and #dgh7 is usually best made with the plane1 whenever there is room to use it4 ,plane bevels in end wood from both edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the chisel in ,fig4 #dgi4 ,see also ,chamfering4 ,bit-,brace or ,bit-,stock4--,this tool requires no description4 ,the ratchet brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is difficult to use a common bit-stock4 ,there is also a contrivance for extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the common brace alone1 but this you will seldom require4 ,an angular bit-stock1 with a universal angle adjustment1 is useful4 ,by this the bit can be pointed in different directions1 while the bit-stock is turned continuously in the ordinary way1 thus enabling a hole to be conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner4 ,see ,boring4 ,bits4--,the auger-bit 7the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths of an inch7 so commonly used with the bit-brace1 consists1 at the cutting end1 of a spur1 two scoring-nibs1 and two cutting-lips4 ,you will see from ,fig4 #dhj that the spur a1 acting like a gimlet point or a screw 7which it is71 starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that the scoring-nibs b make a circular cut around the circumference4 ,as this cut deepens1 the cutting-lips c slice away the wood to be removed in the form of shavings1 which are brought to the surface as the boring proceeds4 ,this bit can be sharpened with a file1 the scoring-nibs being sharpened from the inside1 lest they be made to score a circle too small for the rest of the bit1 while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dha4 ,the centre-bit is a useful tool1 particularly for very thin stock4 ,the spear-like point a 7,fig4 #dha71 acting as a centre1 the point b cuts a deep ring1 and the edge c1 which is bent so as to form a flat chisel1 scoops out the pieces of wood1 and so a round and smooth hole is made4 ,this bit does not cut very well with the grain4 ,it can be sharpened with a small oil-stone4 ,it is well to bore a trial hole with this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required1 because the spur is not exactly in the centre1 so that the hole cut is a trifle wider than the diameter of the bit4 ,the expansion-bit has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to bore holes of various sizes1 but such tools are hardly necessary for beginners1 though very convenient and often used by carpenters4 ,the gimlet-bit is a common form1 but is easily dulled and bent and is likely to split delicate work4 ,the quill-bit is excellent1 except for end grain4 ,shell-bit1 gouge-bit1 pod-bit1 spoon-bit1 duck's-bill-bit1 etc41 are names applied to simple tools good for boring small holes4 ,they are easily sharpened with a stone1 work quickly and leave a smooth hole1 but do not cut so well in end grain4 ,they are not as much in use as formerly1 the twist-drill taking their place for many purposes4 ,reamers1 or tapering bits 7half-round1 square1 octagonal1 conical71 are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical4 ,reamers for metal are also useful4 ,for other forms of boring implements1 see ,awls and ,twist-drill4 ,see also ,boring and ,countersink4 ,block-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,boards or ,planks1 ,laying ,exposed4--,in laying boards or planks to be exposed to the weather1 place them 7unless they are from the middle of the tree7 so as to have the outer side exposed--that is1 the side farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost4 ,if put the other way the action of the atmosphere1 water1 etc41 will tend to separate and loosen the layers and fibres 7,fig4 #dhb74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhb4 ,boring4--,in boring with the bit-brace1 after the bit has gone a short distance into the wood1 stop and1 keeping the brace in position1 test carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at right angles to the surface4 ,repeat this test and alter the position of the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the bit is going through at the right angle4 ,a common way to do this is to stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit is at right angles with the work1 and then to stand at either side at right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again4 ,the direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the square4 ,few people can bore accurately without some such test4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhc4 ,some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the brace1 to steady it 7,fig4 #dhc71 and to increase the pressure1 and sometimes the shoulder is applied4 ,to remove a bit from the wood1 give the brace a turn or two backward1 which will loosen the spur1 and then either pull the bit straight out1 if it can be done easily without turning the brace1 or1 as you pull it out1 keep turning the brace as if boring1 thus bringing out the chips1 which1 if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward1 will be left in the hole4 ,in boring through a board or timber1 watch to see when the spur of the bit begins to come through on the other side2 when it does1 turn the piece over and bore in from that side1 or clamp a piece of waste wood on the other side and bore right through into it4 ,either way will prevent splintering or a ragged or burred edge1 where the bit leaves the wood4 ,in boring a hole of any depth with the grain1 i4e41 in the end of a piece of wood1 withdraw the bit1 after it has entered the wood a short distance1 to clear the chips from the hole1 reinsert1 bore1 and withdraw again1 and continue in this way until you reach the required depth4 ,this will save injuring the bit1 and will make the boring easier4 ,in boring with small bits1 particularly when there is danger of splitting1 as with the gimlet-bit1 draw out the bit and chips once in a while4 ,when the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each side until the holes meet4 ,frequently holes must not be bored through a piece1 but must stop at a certain depth4 ,suppose you have to make a dozen holes #b deep4 ,take a wooden tube if you have one1 or bore a hole through a block of wood of such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block 7,fig4 #dhd74 ,then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood1 when the hole will1 of course1 be #b deep4 ,metal attachments can be bought for this purpose4 ,see ,awl1 ,bits1 ,twist-drill4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhd4 ,to cut a hole larger than any bit you have1 bore a series of smaller holes just within the circumference of the desired circle1 and trim to the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw4 ,bow-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,brad-awl4--,see ,awl4 ,bruises1 ,to ,take ,out4--,small bruises in wood can be taken out by wetting the place with warm water1 or even with cold water1 and rubbing down the grain with sandpaper if necessary4 ,if that is not sufficient1 a hot iron1 as a flat-iron1 held near the bruise1 the latter being covered with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper1 will often remove a quite large dent4 ,the operation can be repeated until it has no further effect4 ,brushes4--,it is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off work1 the bench1 etc4 ,a sash brush is good4 ,for most of your painting1 shellacing1 etc41 you will usually get along better with small flat brushes than with large round ones1 except for very coarse work4 ,those with flattened handles are convenient4 ,from one to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough1 unless for such work as painting the outside of a house1 when something larger will save time4 ,for painting small or narrow surfaces1 the brushes used for drawing sashes are good1 and for drawing lines pencil brushes will be required4 ,a good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part1 when the fibres will separate1 making a stiff brush4 ,bull-,nosed ,plane--,see ,plane4 ,calipers4--,calipers1 which are inside or outside1 according to whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter of an object1 are very important in some work1 as turning1 but1 though very useful at times1 are not nearly as important for the work of the beginner as compasses4 ,carving-,chisel4--,see ,carving ,tools4 ,carving ,tools4--,a few carving tools are often very useful for general wood-work4 ,it is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in handles of a different pattern from your other tools4 ,an octagonal shape is good4 ,a carving-chisel is very useful in working on odd-shaped pieces1 because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides4 ,a carver's skew chisel will be1 perhaps1 more generally useful for your work than one ground squarely across4 ,a parting-tool1 sometimes called a ,v tool1 is occasionally convenient1 though hardly a necessity for most plain work4 ,a small veining-tool 7like a very small gouge7 is often useful4 ,centre-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,chalk-,line4--,see ,marking4 ,chamfering4--,a chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle made by two faces of a piece of wood4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhe4 ,in cutting the ends of a stop-chamfer 7,fig4 #dhe71 take care not to cut quite down to the line at first1 as you will be very apt to cut a little too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed4 ,in the case of long stop-chamfers1 use the plane whenever you can1 so far as it can be used without hitting the wood at the ends4 ,the draw-knife can often be used to remove the wood1 being followed by the plane4 ,the plane can be used slantingly1 so as to cut nearer the ends1 and a bull-nosed plane will cut nearer still1 but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to shape with the chisel or other tool4 ,see also ,bevelling and ,paring4 ,chisel4--,the firmer-chisel is meant for light hand-work1 for paring off wood and trimming to shape1 and can be used for light mortising1 though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose4 ,it is often an advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same side as the cutting basil1 as it can be used more conveniently in some places4 ,taking off the corner of the basil when grinding1 often answers the purpose4 ,the framing-chisel is stouter than the firmer1 has a stronger handle to stand heavy blows of the mallet1 and is meant1 as the name indicates1 for framing1 mortising1 and other heavy work4#da ,see ,mortising4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhg4 ,the straight-bent chisel is shaped as shown in ,fig4 #dhg1 and is very useful for cleaning out corners1 grooves1 and other places where the common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage4 ,a skew-chisel is simply ground slanting1 instead of squarely across1 and is useful for corners and odd work4 ,see ,carving ,tools4 ,there are other forms1 seldom needed by the amateur1 as the corner-chisel1 which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners4 ,those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at the upper end of the iron1 instead of the iron being stuck into the handle1 and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the mallet are1 of course1 the strongest for heavy work1 although the lighter handles are just as good for light work4 ,do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while working1 for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut1 and in most cases the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help control it1 which is not easily done with one hand4 ,in some cases1 as in paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench1 it may be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with the right2 but as a rule1 particularly for beginners1 first see that the work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise1 clamp1 or other expedient1 and then keep the left hand on the chisel1 which will steady and guide the tool1 and1 incidentally1 prevent the hand from being cut4 ,see ,paring and ,sharpening4 ,circular-plane4--,see ,plane4 ,clamps4--,long clamps 7cabinet-clamps71 shown in the accompanying illustrations1 are extremely useful in making glued joints and in various clamping operations4 ,many1 of different lengths1 are to be found in wood-working shops4 ,although much work can be accomplished without them1 if you can afford a pair or more of medium length1 or longer1 they will be very useful4 ,wooden clamps will answer every purpose1 although steel ones are better1 but more expensive4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhh4 ,to clamp two or more flat pieces together1 as in making a glue-joint1 or in clamping framework1 as a door or picture-frame1 lay the work across the horses1 which should be so placed that their tops will be as nearly level1 or in the same plane1 as possible1 and apply the clamps as shown in ,fig4 #dhh1 always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges of the work and the clamps4 ,place the clamps so that either the flat side of the bar or the corner1 as shown1 will lie against the surface of the work1 thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is tightened4 ,the number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of the work1 but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work being clamped too securely4#db ,if you have to glue a flexible strip1 put a stiff piece outside between it and the clamp to distribute the pressure4 ,you will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you tighten the clamps1 particularly in the case of door-frames1 picture-frames1 and the like1 that the surface is winding4 ,when this happens1 move one or more corners of the work up or down1 as the case may be1 in the clamps1 and thus take out the winding4 ,a little experimenting will show how to do this4 ,in the case of framed work1 such as doors or picture-frames1 test the angles with the square as soon as the joints are brought to a bearing4 ,if the angles are not right1 as will often be the case1 move one end of either one or both of the clamps to the right or left1 as the case may be1 and you can easily change the angle until the square shows it to be right1 when the screws can be tightened and the joints should close accurately4 ,in clamping nearly all kinds of case work1 such as bookcases1 cabinets1 boxes1 and the like1 these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct and the work free from winding are applicable4 ,in such cases as that shown in ,fig4 #dhh1 waste no time in trying to get the surfaces exactly flush with each other at the joint before partially tightening the clamps1 lest the glue become set4 ,any slight alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the joint1 whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered1 putting a block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing 7see ,gluing74 ,the clamps can then be screwed tighter4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dhi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dij4 ,in such cases as gluing the joints of a box1 put stout blocks or cleats over the joints before tightening the clamps 7,fig4 #dhi71 to distribute the pressure4 ,this applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the pressure of the clamps1 and pieces of waste wood are almost always required in any case to prevent bruising of the work4 ,you can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of suitable length1 by nailing or screwing a block at each end 7,fig4 #dij71 when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home the double wedge shown1 using1 if necessary1 one or more blocks1 ,b1 when you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made4 ,by keeping such clamps for future use1 you will soon have enough to answer very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps4 ,on the same principle1 a simple clamp1 derived from the ,orient1 can be made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips--just as the holes are bored in the sides of a ladder1 but nearer together4 ,the work to be glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in ,fig4 #dij4 ,the other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put through corresponding holes outside of the work1 which can then be wedged against the pins in the way just shown4 ,another way1 which can be applied to many cases1 is to put a stout cord1 doubled1 around the work1 and inserting a stick between the two parts of the string1 turn it around until1 the doubled cord thus becoming shortened1 the parts of the work are drawn together4 ,this can only be done where there is room to swing the stick around1 as1 for example1 to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together 7,fig4 #dia74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dia4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dib4 ,you can often apply pressure1 when no more convenient means are at hand1 by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole4 ,suppose1 for example1 you need to press two blocks tightly together1 as shown in ,fig4 #dib4 ,place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above1 as shown4 ,of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach between the two points1 as it must be sprung into place bent1 when in the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the blocks4 ,pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the surface is to be avoided4 ,the pressure can be applied in any direction1 always supposing that you have something firm to press against4 ,pressure can often be obtained by a lever1 and many applications of the wedge will suggest themselves in your work4 ,even if you have a shopful of clamps and hand-screws and vises1 these applications of the simple mechanical powers often come into play 7see ,fig4 #cij74 ,see also page #ga4 ,adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in position on the bench1 and are useful1 but by no means necessary1 as common clamps1 or various devices1 can be used4 ,the small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very useful4 ,for other suggestions about clamping1 see ,hand-screws4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dic4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #did4 ,cleating4--,a simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank to make a wider piece is to cleat them4 ,if short1 they can be cleated across the ends4 ,this can also be done to keep a single board from warping 7,fig4 #dic74 ,such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is very slight1 on account of the expansion and contraction across the board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat 7see pages #ej-ec74 ,screws 7which are best71 nails1 or dowels should be used1 as they will give some play to the pieces4 ,a groove can also be made in the cleat1 into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted4 ,grooves can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted 7,fig4 #did74 ,these are operations best done by machinery4 ,this end-cleating does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too great4 ,for heavier work1 as doors1 cleats on the side are better1 but they are sometimes in the way1 and not always desirable on the ground of looks4 ,this is a strong way4 ,side cleats should be fastened with screws 7see ,screws7 or clinched nails 7see ,nailing71 but not with glue1 for the same reason as in the case of end cleats4 ,if the cleat is wide enough1 do not put the screws in a straight line1 but alternate them 7,fig4 #cfh74 ,see ,jointing and ,doors and ,panels4 ,clinching-,nails4--,see ,nailing4 ,compasses4--,wing compasses1 or those with arc and set-screw1 are easy to adjust accurately and will not slip1 but1 whatever kind you get1 be sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or wobble around4 ,the chief uses of this tool are to strike circles1 to lay off angles and arcs1 to take off measurements from a rule or some object1 to lay off measurements1 and to scribe in places where a gauge can not be used 7see ,scribing74 ,in using compasses1 particularly those which are not set by a screw1 hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged joint1 rather than grasp them near the points1 which may cause them to move or slip4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #die4 ,circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly1 as you doubtless know1 with a string and a nail at the centre1 the string being loose around the nail4 ,this method is not very accurate1 for obvious reasons1 and is only suitable for rough work4 ,a more accurate way is to drive two nails through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of the required circle1 one nail being driven into the wood to act as the centre1 the other doing the marking 7,fig4 #die74 ,instead of the marking nail a hole can be bored for a pencil4 ,you can use a stick of this sort repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail1 or of the marking point4 ,the same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a pencil1 using stiff paper1 card-board1 or zinc instead of a stick4 ,by such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying compasses4 ,compass-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dif4 ,corner-,blocks4--,these are merely small pieces of pine1 or other wood which holds glue well1 with two adjacent surfaces at right angles4 ,hot glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of cabinet-work1 to strengthen and stiffen the work 7,fig4 #dif71 and are very useful for this purpose4 ,they are got out in short pieces1 lengthways of the grain1 and can be freely used in places where they will not show1 as inside of the base-board in ,fig4 #cjd4 ,the shape can be varied according to the conditions of the joint4 ,apply hot glue plentifully1 place the block where it is to go1 and rub it back and forth several times1 when it can be left for the glue to dry4 ,corner-,chisel4--,see ,chisel4 ,countersink4--,this tool1 to be used with the bit-brace1 for enlarging the outer part of a hole1 thus forming a cavity or depression for receiving the head of a screw 7,fig4 #dig71 is quite important1 as being much more convenient than to use gouge1 chisel1 or knife for the purpose4 ,see page #bje4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dig4 ,the rose form of countersink is common and good4 ,the ,clark double-cut countersink 7for wood only7 cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened4 ,a countersink for metal is useful4 ,cracks1 ,to ,stop4--,see ,holes1 ,to ,stop4 ,cross-,cut ,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,cutting-,pliers4--,a pair of these will often be useful in connection with wood-working operations4 ,dents1 ,to ,take ,out4--,see ,bruises4 ,dividers4--,see ,compasses4 ,doors and ,panels4--,it is important to have some understanding of the theory of framing panels1 doors1 and the like4 ,the simplest form of door is1 of course1 a piece of board4 ,this will do for some cases1 but it is liable to warp or wind1--if a large door1 sometimes to such a degree as to be useless4 ,it is also1 if large1 liable to swell or shrink so as to be either too loose or too tight1 and to break4 ,cleating can be resorted to 7see ,cleating71 but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking1 nor is a cleated door especially ornamental4 ,besides1 there are limits to the width of ordinary boards4 ,several boards can1 however1 be joined1 edge to edge1 and cleated on one side1 in which way a large door can be made 7,fig4 #dje71 and1 if the boards are not fitted too closely together1 there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking4 ,another way to make a very strong door is to make it of two thicknesses1 or layers1 one running up and down and the other crossways1 or diagonally1 the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dih4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #dii4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ejj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eja4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ejb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ejc4 ,all such arrangements are1 however1 suited for the rougher class of work4 ,when we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific1 that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look better4 ,so1 instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all running one way1 we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by framing the pieces together4 ,suppose1 for a theoretical case1 that you make a door like ,fig4 #dih4 ,it will not warp or curl because of the cleats at the top and bottom1 but it will swell and shrink in width because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the atmosphere1 etc41 and it may become winding4 ,to lessen these objections the middle part of the board can be removed--all but a strip at each edge 7,fig4 #dii74 ,it will not now swell and shrink much in width because most of the board has been removed4 ,this frame will hold its shape quite well1 but it is only a frame1 not a door4 ,how can you fill up this open frame to make a door1 so as to avoid the trouble about warping1 winding1 swelling1 and shrinking8 ,first1 however1 as this frame is considerably taller than it is wide1 you will readily see that it will be a better arrangement to make it as shown in ,fig4 #ejj1 with the cross-pieces between the uprights1 according to the usual custom in such cases4 ,suppose1 now1 that you fill up the open space with a thin board1 fastened on one side 7,fig4 #eja71 instead of the thick wood which occupied the space at first4 ,the thin board will tend to warp and twist1 but1 being thin1 it will not exert force enough to change the shape of the thick frame4 ,that will prevent the warping and winding from doing much harm4 ,if the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose1 they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without putting any strain on the frame4 ,this arrangement does not1 however1 look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed1 though it can be used in some situations4 ,suppose1 finally1 that you cut a groove around the inside edge of the frame of the door 7,fig4 #ejb7 into which this thin board can be fitted loosely1 making the groove deep enough to give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or pushing against the frame4 ,you now have a complete door 7,fig4 #ejc71 and the warping1 winding1 swelling1 and shrinking will do as little harm as possible4 ,that is all there is to the theory of framing doors1 panels1 and the like4 ,illustration ,,right4 ,,wrong4 ,,fig4 #ejd4 ,the panel should fit closely into the groove1 but at the same time be loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts1 and should not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves1 but room be left for all possible change in width1 as shown in ,fig4 #ejd1 which shows sections on the line ,,ab4 ,all this is important and has many applications to other things than doors4 ,it is not very uncommon for amateurs1 ignorant of these simple principles1 to make a door-frame properly1 but in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite1 and also to make it such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight1 all with the idea of making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often seen1 but really taking the very course to ruin the work4 ,so important is it that the panel should have play1 that it is quite common in nice work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel1 lest some of the glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the frame is glued up4 ,if the panel is badly fitted or stuck1 it may buckle or split1 or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints4 ,there are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of door-framing and panelling 7too numerous to be described here1 as they will not often be required by the beginner72 but if you understand the general principles upon which this simple door is put together1 you will understand the principles upon which all panelling is based2 and1 though you may never do much of it1 it is quite important to have a clear understanding of the theory1 which is really quite simple--for it has many applications which may save you much trouble1 labour1 and expense4 ,the best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and tenon 7see ,mortising74 ,this method is almost invariably adopted for house doors4 ,dowelling is often used for smaller doors1 but is inferior to the mortise and tenon4 ,a common way nowadays to make light doors1 and such as are not to be subjected to much strain1 is to run the grooves in the stiles through to the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit these grooves1 as shown in ,figs4 #ejh and #eji4 ,the whole door1 panel and all1 can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular saw at any wood-working mill1 without any hand-work being required1 except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together4 ,in this way you can have a door made for a small sum1 smoothing and putting it together yourself4 ,such a door is not fitted1 however1 to stand great strain4 ,a house door made in that way would last but a short time4 ,any heavy door1 or one to have much strain1 or liable to be slammed1 should be framed with mortise and tenon4 ,you can have grooving for a door-frame done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself1 or you can have the mortising done by machine at slight expense4 ,sometimes the grooving and mortising are combined1--an excellent way 7,fig4 #eib74 ,in using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for the face and lay out all the work from that side only4 ,if the job is to be taken to a mill1 see that the work is all gauged from the face side4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eje4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ejf4 ,in laying out such work never cut off the stiles 7,fig4 #eje7 to length at first4 ,leave them too long 7,fig4 #ejg74 ,the projecting ends will be useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing1 after first putting it together to see if everything fits4 ,besides1 the extra length makes the ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out4 ,the rails in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles4 ,in laying out a door or panelled frame1 place the stiles together1 with the inside edges uppermost1 and square lines across the edges to mark the positions for the rails 7,fig4 #ejf74 ,carry these lines across the faces of the stiles1 and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to indicate the way they are to be fitted together 7,fig4 #ejg74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ejg4 ,the whole should be put together once to see that everything is right before beginning to glue4 ,before putting together permanently1 the panel and the inside edges of the frame 7the edges which come next the panel7 must first be planed and smoothed1 as this cannot well be done afterwards4 ,then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails 7,fig4 #ejh71 glue the tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the corresponding stile 7see ,gluing71 taking care not to put any glue where it may cause the panel to stick1 and fit these parts into place 7,fig4 #eji74 ,drive the rails home4 ,then glue and fit the other side of the frame in the same way 7,fig4 #eaj7--;all being done as quickly as possible4 ,finally clamp the frame securely 7see ,clamps74 ,the tongued and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not as good as a mortise and tenon1 as already stated1 but is shown as a simple way for making a light door4 ,leave the work to dry1 and when dry remove the clamps4 ,saw off the ends of the stiles1 and dress off the surface of the frame with the plane 7see ,plane71 after which you can smooth with scraper 7see ,scraper7 and sandpaper 7see ,sandpaper71 and the door or panel will be done4 ,when there is objection to the end of a tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile1 and a blind mortise is not desired 7see ,mortising71 the end of the tenon can be cut a little short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood1 with the grain running the same way as that of the stile4 ,fit the piece with a very trifling bevel on the edges1 glue1 drive tightly into place1 and when dry smooth off 7,fig4 #eaa74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ejh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eji4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eaj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eaa4 ,it is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by machinery4 ,if obliged to do it by hand1 you should have the proper plane for the purpose1 as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise4 ,a panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame1 by having a deep rabbet on that side1 as in the case of a desk lid1 for instance1 but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner4 ,dovetailing4--,this is an operation requiring considerable skill to do well and1 with the exception of an occasional single dovetail1 is not frequently required in the work of the beginner4 ,it is1 however1 a valuable1 workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method1 of which the amateur should have some understanding1 even if he should never use it4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eab4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eac4 ,the common form1 such as is used in joining the sides of a box 7,fig4 #eab71 can be done as follows3 ,mark the lines ab 7,fig4 #eac7 completely around each piece1 at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the stock4 ,lay off the lines cd on the end of the piece ,a4 ,lay off the oblique lines ec on both sides of the piece4 ,with the back-saw cut by these oblique lines 7ec7 to the lines ab4 ,fasten the piece in the vise1 end upward1 for the sawing4 ,with the chisel1 cut out the parts to be removed 7marked m71 as in cutting a mortise 7see ,mortising71 undercutting very slightly at the end 7,fig4 #cjb74 ,when this cutting has been cleanly done1 lay the piece ,a on the end of the piece ,b in the way it is finally to go1 so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in position across the end of the piece ,b4 ,mark around the pins1 forming the oblique lines fg1 from the ends of which square the lines gh on both sides of the piece4 ,remove the wood as before1 taking care not to cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins1 or the dovetailing may come together too loosely4 ,when exactly fitted1 apply glue1 fit together1 and when dry smooth off with plane1 scraper1 and sandpaper1 as may be required4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ead4 ,lap or drawer dovetailing 7,fig4 #ead7 is similar to the preceding form1 but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the side of the drawer are shortened1 and the recesses in the front piece which are to receive them are not cut through4 ,first the side piece ,a 7,fig4 #eae7 is marked and cut on the principle just shown1 the pins being shorter2 then the piece ,b is marked and cut to fit4 ,practised workmen in dovetailing usually 7unless symmetry of the pins is required7 determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye1 but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eae4 ,mitre dovetailing 7blind or secret dovetailing7 is used in cases where it is desired to conceal the dovetails1 the result looking like an ordinary mitred joint1 but this is difficult work for the beginner4 ,dovetail ,saw4--,see ,saw 7,back-,saw74 ,dowelling4--,dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and usually of hard wood4 ,they can be bought ready made and can be used instead of nails or screws1 or instead of mortising1 dovetailing1 etc4 ,they can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and wedged1 though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much thickness are to be used 7,fig4 #eaf74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eaf4 ,a common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables1 chairs1 bedsteads1 and various domestic articles4 ,the use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended1 however1 although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap in price4 ,the mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred4 ,dowelling1 to be really good1 has to be skilfully done1 while it is a very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look right on the outside4 ,a dowelled joint is not1 as a rule1 as scientific a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon1--a statement which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time1 and which is still strong1 with some modern dowelled chair1 which is in so many cases all to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service4 ,the gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on every hand4 ,there are some cases1 however1 where the use of dowels is scientific and just what is required4 ,for example1 split dowels1 wedged dovetail fashion like wedged tenons1 are often very useful 7see ,mortising74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eag4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eah4 ,to find the centres for boring1 so that the holes bored in the two pieces shall be in line1 you can cut off the heads of some small wire brads so that they will be pointed at both ends4 ,stick the brads into one piece where the centres of the holes should be4 ,then press this piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece exactly corresponding to those in the first piece 7,fig4 #eag74 ,instead of brads1 small shot can be used in a similar manner4 ,it is well to take a round-pointed awl1 or some such tool1 and carefully prick a small hole with it at each of the points marked4 ,this is to start the spur of the bit exactly at the point1 as the spur sometimes has a way of working off to one side1 so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place4 ,the hardest part1 however1 is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to the surface1 as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad angle where the two holes meet4 ,you can sometimes lay the pieces flat on the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight4 ,the dowels must be thoroughly dry4 ,it is better to have them a trifle too large1 rather than too small1 for you can easily trim them down to a snug fit4 ,scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane1 or with the edge of a file4 ,countersink a little hollow around the opening of each hole 7see ,countersink71 to catch the surplus glue which would otherwise form a rim around the dowel 7,fig4 #eag74 ,before gluing you should fit the work together once1 as it is very awkward to make changes after the gluing is begun4 ,when the parts fit accurately1 take the joint apart for gluing4 ,brush a little glue around the inside of one of the holes1 dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place4 ,wipe off the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in that half of the joint4 ,leave this to dry a day1 or more if you can4 ,then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them1 as before1 into the other piece1 this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which are to come together4 ,the whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry 7see ,gluing and ,clamps74 ,dowels are sometimes used in joining the edges of pieces1 as in ,fig4 #eah1 and in many other joints too numerous to be specified 7see ,joints and ,jointing74 ,dowelling looks very easy1 but it is usually hard for the beginner to bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately4 ,dowel-,plate4--,a steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the holes made by the corresponding bits4 ,this is useful in fitting dowels4 ,drawers4--,the making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is an operation requiring much skill--more skill than can be expected of the beginner1 or1 in fact1 than is attained by the average workman4 ,the beginner should1 however1 have some understanding of the work1 even if he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution4 ,bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and long 7from front to back7 run smoothly than one which is wide across the front1 but shallow from front to back4 ,the more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made1 the easier it is to make smoothly running drawers4 ,in good work having more than one drawer1 a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to run on4 ,these frames1 as well as the whole case1 should be free from winding1 and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should be true4 ,the front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very snugly in their places4 ,the piece for the back is narrower than the front piece1 to allow for the bottom 7,fig4 #eba71 and is often cut off at the top also4 ,the front1 sides1 and back can be put together with any suitable form of joint4 ,dovetailing is by far the best way1 but it is difficult for the beginner 7see ,dovetailing74 ,the joints shown in ,fig4 #eai can very well be used for ordinary work4 ,these can be quickly made by machinery 7see ,joints74 ,see also ,gluing and ,clamps4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eai4 ,a groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of the sides 7,fig4 #ebj74 ,the insides of the pieces must be smoothed before putting the drawer together4 ,when these parts are fitted1 slip the bottom 7previously fitted7 into place4 ,it should be got out with the grain running across the drawer1 or parallel with the front 7,fig4 #eba71 and should be glued at the front edge only1 the rest being free to swell and shrink1 which saves the drawer from injury4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eba4 ,be sure that the drawer is rectangular 7putting in the bottom will assist in this7 and free from winding4 ,when put together and dry1 carefully smooth the front and the sides4 ,a little trimming with the plane may be required to make the drawer run freely1 but care should be taken not to plane away too much4 ,a drawer which is a trifle larger at the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front1 as it will be less likely to bind or catch4 ,small slides1 between which the drawer runs1 are fastened at each side outside the drawer1 at the bottom1 and must be adjusted carefully4 ,thin blocks or stops can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has been pushed in as far as it should go1 or the drawer can be stopped at the back4 ,a simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf1 bench1 or table is shown in ,fig4 #adc4 ,the contrivance shown in ,figs4 #ada and #adb can sometimes be used in place of small drawers4 ,bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebc4 ,draw-,knife or ,draw-,shave4--,the draw-knife or draw-shave is very useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd shapes4 ,it can be obtained with folding handles1 adjustable at different angles1 for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the old-fashioned draw-knife2 but the latter is good enough for all ordinary purposes4 ,choose a medium-sized or large one4 ,it is in principle simply a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end1 and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the character of the work may require4 ,having but a short bearing surface to guide its course1 it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper than you wish1 so you must take special pains to cut with the grain1 stopping and cutting the other way1 whenever necessary4 ,attachments can be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases4 ,the draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke--either drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it towards you 7,fig4 #ebb71 or holding it obliquely across the work and pulling it straight towards you 7,fig4 #ebc74 ,it is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around1 and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children4 ,see ,paring1 ,bevelling1 and ,chamfering4 ,draw-,shave4--,see ,draw-knife4 ,drill4--,drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker1 but the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill4 ,see ,twist-drill4 ,drill-,stock4--,there are various patterns of drill-stocks1 some of them automatic1 for holding drills of different sizes for small holes4 ,hand drills with revolving handle1 like an egg-beater1 can be used for small drills4 ,see ,bit-brace4 ,duck's-bill-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,expansion-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,file4--,the file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth cut obliquely on the surface4 ,when cut in one direction only it is called single-cut1 but when there are two oblique rows of teeth crossing each other it is called double-cut4 ,these ridges incline towards the end or point of the tool1 so that the file1 like the saw1 plane1 and scraper1 cuts when pushed forward4 ,files for wood have wider teeth than those for metal1 so do not use a wood file on metal or a metal file for wood4 ,the slab-sided shape 7,fig4 #ebd7 is perhaps the most useful1 if you can have but one file4 ,a round rat-tailed file is also useful1 and various other shapes if you can have a variety4 ,for metal1 the triangular1 flat1 the half-round1 shown in ,fig4 #ebe1 and the rat-tail are best4 ,files are very important for smoothing or rounding edges and curving surfaces4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebe4 ,before beginning to file1 be sure that the wood is firmly secured so that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands4 ,hold the tool with the right hand1 thumb uppermost1 and steady the end with the left hand1 thumb uppermost 7,fig4 #ebf71 or with the fingers or palm4 ,to file squarely across1 push the tool steadily and evenly straight forward1 without rocking up and down1 and pressing only on the forward stroke4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebf4 ,in filing rounded surfaces1 a rocking motion is often helpful and the way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the shape of the work and the grain of the wood1 as you will quickly learn4 ,see ,rounding-sticks4 ,press lightly the first time you use a new file1 until the fine edges of the teeth have been worn a little1 as a violent filing on the first strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth4 ,when a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances1 soak it in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush4 ,a file-card is useful4 ,a piece of dog-fish skin1 if you can obtain it1 cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper1 and is useful for curved surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing4 ,filing4--,see ,file4 ,filing 7of ,saws74--,see ,sharpening4 ,finishing4--,to acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing indoor wood-work requires long training and practice1 but the simpler processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner4 ,there are a number of ways from which to choose4 ,simply rubbing thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good1 soft1 permanent finish1 which some prefer to anything else1 but you should be sure that all superfluous oil is rubbed off4 ,do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room1 for fear of defacing it4 ,an oil finish1 unless rubbed a good deal1 has the disadvantage of getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt1 but it is easily sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse1 shiny1 cheap varnish4 ,an old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and beeswax1 rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow4 ,melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and1 when melted and taken from the stove1 pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of paste4 ,then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the excess with a stiff brush or cloth1 scrubbing the work as you would a stove4 ,this makes a beautiful finish1 soft and lustrous4 ,it shows spots1 however1 and1 though it is so easily applied1 it requires continual renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition4 ,to make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind of varnish is required4 ,there is nothing better than shellac for the purpose of the amateur4 ,it is not very hard to use1 and there is certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality4 ,the surface dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of varnish4 ,for some cases1 as a boat1 it is well to shellac first and finish with good varnish4#dc ,shellac is cut 7dissolved7 in alcohol1 and can be bought prepared1 but it is better to cut it yourself1 to diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances4 ,orange shellac will do for most of your work4 ,into an open-mouthed bottle put some of the shellac 7which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue7 and pour over it enough grain alcohol 7#ie per cent4 grade7 to somewhat more than cover the shellac4 ,cork the bottle and leave in a warm place until the shellac is cut4 ,shaking will hasten the process4 ,wood alcohol can be used and is cheaper1 but work done with it is not so good4 ,it is a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best not to use it for a long time in a close room4 ,if the tawny tint of the orange shellac is objectionable1 white 7bleached7 shellac can be used1 but this it is well to buy already prepared4 ,it is a little harder to use than the coloured kind4 ,use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush1 unless for the last coat4 ,one from one inch to two inches wide will be probably suitable for most of your work4 ,for large surfaces1 however1 a larger brush is better4 ,after using1 always clean the brush thoroughly with alcohol4 ,always shellac in a warm1 dry place1 free from dust--never where it is cold and damp2 but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a hot stove or it may blister4 ,the shellac should be quite thin4 ,it should flow very freely from the brush4 ,of the two extremes1 it is better to have it too thin rather than too thick4 ,three or four thin coats give a much better result than two coats of thick1 gummy shellac4 ,never try to thin it with anything but alcohol4 ,keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol and to keep out the dust4 ,before beginning to shellac1 see that the work is free from dust4 ,pour a small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware1 not of tin4 ,before applying to the wood1 wipe the surplus shellac from the brush on the edge of the dish1 so that it will not drip1 and then lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible1 working from the top or from one end or side1 and with the grain1 so far as possible4#dd ,do not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface1 lest the shellac collect too thickly at the edge1 but apply the brush first a little way on the surface and then work from the edge4 ,work quickly and lightly4 ,begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually--lighten them at the end--so as to avoid a lap when the strokes begin again4 ,do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up spots4 ,simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that4 ,if it is not right you will know how to do better next time4 ,give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying another--twenty-four hours is none too long4 ,do not put on five or six coats in a day as is sometimes done4 ,the outer coat hinders the drying of the shellac underneath1 by keeping the air from it1--just as with paints1--and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard4 ,shellac dries very quickly so that you can touch it1 but does not get really hard throughout for some time1 so do not be in haste to put on a second coat4#de ,if there are holes1 cracks1 or defects of any kind to be filled up1 this is the time to do it--after the first coat is hard4 ,one way to do this is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the hole1 which will be filled with the melted shellac4 ,the surplus can be carefully pared off after it is hard4 ,another way is to use wax coloured to match the wood4 ,the wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding a small quantity of whatever dry colour--burnt umber1 for instance--may be required4 ,do not use putty in such cases4 ,when the first coat is hard1 skim over the surface with very fine sandpaper 7#jj71 to remove any roughnesses1 and apply the second coat4 ,this is sometimes sufficient4 ,if not1 sandpaper and shellac again1 and a fourth time if necessary4 ,when you have a sufficient body of shellac on the wood1 you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil1 which will remove the shiny effect and leave a softer and finer surface4 ,to do this1 take a bit of felt or haircloth1 and wet it with thin oil 7kerosene will do1 or petroleum1 or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine1 but the latter is dangerous to have around71 take up a little of the pumice1 and carefully and evenly rub over the surface1 with the grain1 renewing the oil and pumice as may be needed1 or they can be sprinkled on the work4 ,but be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot1 for it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the wood4 ,wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth4 ,this process will be sufficient for most amateur work4 ,for some work simply rubbing down with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough4 ,in using sandpaper for rubbing down nice work1 split it--that is1 remove the outer layer of paper1 which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less likely to scratch or rub through the finish4 ,a handful of tightly squeezed curled hair can be used4 ,if varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat1 simply sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil4 ,with fine-grained wood1 such as cherry1 the process given above is all that will be required1 but with coarse1 open-grained wood1 like oak1 a good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth surface4 ,therefore a filler is often used to fill the pores of the grain4 ,this is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste 7either light or dark71 which you can apply according to the directions on the can4 ,rub it into the wood thoroughly1 let it stand until it begins to set1 or stiffen1 then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse material1 across the grain 7lest you wipe it out of the pores74 ,after it has become hard enough1 sandpaper1 and clean off any that may remain on the surface4 ,then shellac as described4 ,the filler can have the shade of the wood1 or sometimes1 as in oak1 the figure of the grain can be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of the wood4 ,be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly1 using a tool to clean out the angles and corners1 or the finished surface will have a cloudy or muddy appearance4 ,the general directions given for shellacing apply also to the use of varnish1 but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do well4 ,consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand4 ,the final coat of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water4 ,rotten-stone used with oil 7petroleum is good7 is excellent for giving a soft polish4 ,french polishing is often attempted by the amateur1 but it should be learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher1 and not from a book4 ,the general idea of the process is as follows3 ,a wad or pad of wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac1 adding whatever alcohol may be necessary4 ,this wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen1 a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking1 and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion1 or with longer strokes in the form of the figure #h1 or in some cases simply back and forth4 ,after doing this for a while a very thin coat will have been deposited4 ,this is allowed to dry for a short time1 when the process is repeated1 again and again1 until a sufficient body of the polished finish has been formed4 ,the details of the process vary with different finishers4 ,it is quite easy to polish a small flat surface or such an object as the arm of a chair1 but it is much harder for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface1 like a table-top1 except after much practice4 ,a first coating of shellac applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour in the polishing process4 ,before refinishing old work it should1 if the surface is in bad condition1 be scraped down to the wood1 using the scraper and finishing with sandpaper4 ,a chisel 7used like the scraper7 is sometimes convenient to remove a thick body of old varnish4 ,if the surface does not need scraping1 it should be cleaned1 either by washing with soapsuds or it can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper1 split1 using oil or water as the case may be1 but seeing that the work is wiped off perfectly dry before applying a new coat4 ,pumice can be used1 as already described1 and a stiff brush1 like a nail-or tooth-brush1 is excellent for cleaning out corners and carved work4 ,for simply brightening and cleaning furniture1 a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is excellent4 ,it should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off4 ,this will make scratches and bruises less conspicuous1 and will make the article look fresher for a time1 but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute for refinishing4 ,firmer-,chisel4--,see ,chisel4 ,fore-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,framing-,chisel4--,see ,chisel4 ,gauge4--,there are many kinds of gauges in the market1 but they all depend on the same principle1 having a block1 head1 stock1 or fence1 to slide along against the edge of the wood1 and a bar1 beam1 or stem1 which slides through the block1 can be set to project from it at any required distance1 and which has near its end a spur or marking point 7,fig4 #ecc74 ,the stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it1 so that the spur can be readily set at the required distance4 ,in some gauges the spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head1 rather than to a point1 as it is more certain to make a clear1 sharp line1 and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head 7,fig4 #ebg74 ,this gives the spur a tendency to run the line away from and not toward the edge where the head is1 thus helping to keep the head close up to the edge4 ,sometimes a round point is used1 and occasionally a knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips2 and sometimes a wheel with sharpened edge4 ,a form of gauge adapted for gauging from curved as well as straight edges is also made4 ,do not trust the accuracy of the scale marked on a common gauge1 for if the spur is at all out of place1 as is sometimes the case1 you cannot rely upon the scale4 ,test by measuring from the head to the spur with the rule4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebg4 ,the mortise-gauge has two spurs1 one of which is movable and can be set at any required distance from the other1 so that two lines can be marked at once1 as for a mortise4 ,this is a time-saving tool1 and very convenient1 but not a necessity for amateur work4 ,there are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for gauging across wide spaces1 but when you need anything of the sort you can easily make it and use with it either pencil1 awl1 or knife1 as may best suit the case in hand4 ,if you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board1 for example1 you can mark off two or more points at the required distance and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points4 ,if you were to make the points so near together as to touch1 you would have the line without needing the ruler4 ,this is what the gauge does4 ,it makes a continuous measurement and a continuous mark1 which is of course the line required4 ,the only gauge you need for rough work is a rule 7or even a stick7 and a pencil4 ,to draw a line1 for example1 two inches from the edge of a board1 take the rule in one hand1 and lay the end flat on the surface of the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge 7,fig4 #ebh74 ,place the forefinger underneath1 against the edge1 so that the end of the rule will remain two inches from the edge1 and simply slide rule and finger along the edge1 holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the other hand to make the mark4 ,the finger must be kept evenly pressed against the edge4 ,this is only suited for rough work1 or for getting out stock approximately to shape1 and of course cannot be depended upon for accurate measurement4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ebi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ecj4 ,something more accurate1 with which you cannot get splinters in your finger1 can easily be made1 when needed1 in this way4 ,to run a line two inches from an edge1 for example1 and parallel to it1 simply take any short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches1 as shown in ,fig4 #ebi4 ,apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same principle as the rule and finger1 being careful to keep the shoulder pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the end4 ,instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another 7,fig4 #ecj74 ,the latter is better for straight work because the head or fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge4 ,an objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every measurement1 but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement it is particularly convenient and quickly made4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eca4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ecb4 ,for another home-made gauge 7,fig4 #eca7 cut a recess in one side of a block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the block4 ,on this side of the block fasten a small strip1 with a screw1 so that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held fast at the point to which it is adjusted4 ,this is more accurate than to use the hand alone4 ,you can readily contrive such arrangements1 which will be quite accurate if carefully used1 but it is not worth while to spend much time over such makeshifts 7except in case of necessity71 for a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ecc4 ,the gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use4 ,he finds it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it along1 and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood--the spur tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the edge the result is often as shown in ,fig4 #ecb1 the stock being pushed from the edge4 ,the stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process continued4 ,to avoid these errors1 the gauge1 held well in front of you in one hand1 should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will be drawn along the surface 7,fig4 #ecc7 and will make but a slight scratch4 ,then1 keeping the stock or head firmly pressed against the edge1 push the gauge steadily from you1 watching carefully to see 7#ast7 that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly scratching it1 and 7#b;d7 that the head does not slip away from the edge4 ,this will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good mark1 which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time if necessary4 ,it is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge than when it is run out to some distance4 ,the guiding power of the fence or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a distance1 from which you can readily see that1 conversely1 the longer the head or fence1 the easier the gauging becomes--that is1 for straight lines1 which is much the most common use of the gauge4 ,in gauging from a curved edge1 a long fence1 unless curved1 would be impracticable4 ,where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show 7as when the work is to be finished with shellac or varnish71 be careful not to carry them farther than necessary1 as very slight scratches show plainly after finishing4 ,otherwise1 in cases where the marks will not show or do no harm1 as in rough framing1 it is as well to run them past the required points1 as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross is more distinct4 ,gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood1 or at a fixed distance from one edge1 else if the edges are not exactly parallel 7as is often the case7 the markings will differ4 ,see also ,scribing4 ,gimlet4--,the gimlet is useful1 cheap1 and good for boring where the hole does not come near the edge1 but near the edge or in thin wood great care must be taken to prevent splitting4 ,if necessary to use it in such a case1 keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not try to force it through the wood4 ,it is better1 however1 to use some other tool if you can 7see ,bits and ,twist-drill71 for the tapering form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like1 prying action upon the woody fibres4 ,gimlet-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,glazing4--,an old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before setting glass4 ,on new work1 see that the rabbet or shoulder where the putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty 7see ,painting74 ,you can buy glazier's points1 to hold the glass in position under the putty1 for a trifle1 or very small brads can be used4 ,no special directions are necessary for using the putty4 ,to set common glass in furniture1 as in bookcase doors1 it is better to fasten it in place with small strips1 not pressed too tightly against it4 ,strips of plain moulding are good4 ,to set plate glass in furniture1 the same means can be used for small pieces1 but large plates1 as for a mirror1 should be held in place by little strips of soft pine1 one or two inches long1 bevelled on one side4 ,the other side being glued1 these strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass4 ,these short pieces1 glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side wedging the glass into place1 hold the latter securely1 but1 owing to the softness of the wood1 not too rigidly4 ,glue4--,see ,gluing4 ,gluing4--,glue is made from refuse animal matter1 and also from parts of fishes1 the latter being known as fish glue4 ,it comes in sheets or cakes or flakes1 to be dissolved and used hot1 or already prepared in liquid form4 ,the majority of practical mechanics prefer the former 7i4e41 hot glue7 for nice work1 although the use of liquid glue has increased much of late years4 ,hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are just as they should be1 but if not so1 liquid or cold glue may be better4 ,buy the best grade4 ,it is the cheapest for good work1 and you will not use enough to make the price much of an obstacle4 ,the only sure test by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds4 ,a good way to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night1 or as long as may be necessary1 in whatever quantity of water you think it will absorb4 ,the more it will swell without dissolving1 the better the quality4 ,poor glue will dissolve4 ,you cannot positively tell good glue by the colour1 for there are many kinds 7and for more than one purpose7 and many makers1 but whatever the colour1 the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy4 ,do not use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell or a bad taste4 ,to prepare hot glue1 break the glue into small pieces1 and soak it in all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours1 when it will have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like jelly4 ,then put it in the inner glue-pot 7see ,glue-pot7 and cause the water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours4 ,it is quicker to dissolve the glue at once without soaking1 but the result does not seem to be quite as good as by the former method4 ,the glue to be right for use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream1 without collecting in drops like water1 and you can tell something about its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers4 ,do not weaken its strength1 however1 by diluting with more water than is necessary4 ,it is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean1 and if the odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the glue-pot and make fresh4 ,glue loses strength by repeated meltings1 so do not dissolve too much at a time1 and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that is left in the glue-pot1 cleaning the latter thoroughly4 ,on work which you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time4#df ,you can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan4 ,soften the end in hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate4 ,for corners1 cracks1 holes1 and the like use sticks1 which you can whittle to any required shape4 ,although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation1 and often ignored in books on wood-work1 as if anyone could of course glue two pieces together1 the operation1 to be really successful1 calls for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs usually possess4 ,do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the pieces1 and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich1 after the usual domestic fashion4 ,done in this way the pieces often stick for a while1 but there is nothing certain about it4 ,we have seen that wood is full of little holes 7pores1 as they are commonly called71 or spaces between the fibres 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,the glue becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a firm hold on the wood1 somewhat as plastering is forced 7purposely7 into the cracks between the laths4 ,so you must have the glue thin1 that it may fill these little cavities and get a grip on the wood2 you must have it hot1 that it may the more easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled2 you must have the wood warm1 that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood2 and you must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from between them1 forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will not go in1 to be wiped or scraped off afterward4 ,for what you want is not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between them1 lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in proportion to the thickness of the layer2 but to have the two surfaces as close together as possible1 held so by the tenacity of the glue reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other4 ,the closer the surfaces are forced together the better1 as the glue will be less exposed to the atmosphere4 ,you will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of an even temperature4 ,while with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of the pieces after putting together1 you can have considerable time to get them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used4 ,where several places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same time1 it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before that first applied has begun to set1 unless you have help4 ,in such cases1 cold glue is a great convenience4 ,if your shop is not warm or if you cannot have your glue hot1 you had better use the liquid glue4 ,it takes much longer to set than the other4 ,in cold weather it should be slightly warmed4 ,it can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid1 or what you wish to use at once may be thinned with water4 ,do not pour water into the can of glue1 as it will not keep so well4 ,you will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued joints in soft wood than in hard1 for the former is more readily squeezed to a fit by the clamping1 while with the latter it is quite essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before clamping 7see note under ,clamps74 ,before beginning to glue have everything laid out1 fit the pieces together1 clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue1 and see that everything comes together right--i4e41 rehearse the gluing process before using the glue itself4 ,this is a very important point1 particularly when there are several pieces to be glued1 for you will have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue4 ,do not spread the glue on too thick4 ,take the dirt off both pieces1 then1 while putting the glue on one1 have the other warming slightly at the fire4 ,the moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins to cool4 ,if it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces together1 your joint will not be good4 ,you will have to take it apart1 scrape off all the old glue1 and begin over again4 ,so you will see there is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work4 ,good workmen always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing4 ,do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint 7unless for some special reason7 nor wash it off with water4 ,let it harden1 and clean it off after the joint has set4 ,it helps protect the joint4 ,do not be in haste to unclamp your work4 ,when to release it depends on the kind of wood1 the kind of work1 and the circumstances under which the gluing is done1 and no exact time can be set4 ,if for some temporary and unimportant purpose and in soft pine1 for instance1 you can unclamp in a few hours or even less1 but for important work1 which is to hold permanently1 twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and hot glue1 and twenty-four hours is none too long1 for though the glue dries quickly to the touch1 it takes considerable time to get thoroughly hard4 ,it is safer to allow more time for hard wood4 ,the thickness of the stock makes a difference also4 ,large junks and blocks and boards glued flatways require more time than #a_/d stock1 thin strips1 or little splinters4 ,you can tell something by the condition of the glue that is squeezed from the joint4 ,liquid glue sets much more slowly1 and twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average conditions4 ,the warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of difference4 ,under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours may be required4 ,if for any reason you cannot clamp a joint1 after applying the glue rub one piece back and forth upon the other a few times4 ,rub wax1 soap1 or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus glue which may exude from a joint1 as in the case of a panel which may become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame 7see ,doors and ,panels74 ,to glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the joint1 do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed1 but glue them first1 and plane or trim them afterwards1 taking care to have the grain of the pieces run in the same direction 7see ,jointing74 ,to glue pieces end to end1 or as in a mitre1--that is1 end wood1--first size with thin glue to stop the pores1 else the glue will be quickly soaked up4 ,then1 after allowing this coat to stand1 glue in the ordinary way4 ,but glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are to be avoided4 ,a great deal of glued work comes apart1 and a great many mistakes in putting work together are caused by not understanding1 or not bearing in mind1 the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat and cold1 dryness and moisture4 ,this is an important matter if you wish to do good gluing4 ,do not think that all that is necessary is to have your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any relative positions4 ,veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles1 as seen in chair seats1 but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the grain running at right angles4 ,see ,laying out the ,work1 in ,chapter ,,iv42 also ,jointing4 ,glue-,pot4--,this can be bought of copper1 iron1 or tin4 ,a medium-sized one is more useful than a very small one4 ,have a cover to keep out dust and loose particles4 ,if obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot1 always use two dishes like a regular glue-pot1 with water in the outer one1 on the principle of the double boiler used for cooking1 else the glue will be sure to burn and be spoiled4 ,two cans1 such as are used for tomatoes or other vegetables1 can be used on a pinch1 one being larger than the other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller can from moving around too much2 but a regular glue-pot is much better4 ,see ,gluing4 ,gouge4--,this tool is similar to the chisel1 except for the curvature across the blade4 ,the common gouge has the bevel on the convex or outer side and is known as an outside gouge4 ,this is the more useful for ordinary work4 ,the inside gouge has the bevel on the inner or concave side4 ,although very useful for many purposes1 it is less important for general work and is harder to sharpen4 ,gouges are of various degrees of curvature1 ,fig4 #ecd showing a flat and a quick curve4 ,those of moderate depth and curvature will be more useful for your work than very deep or very flat ones4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ecd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ece4 ,in using the common or outside gouge1 light1 short strokes should usually be made1 for only the bevel of the tool bears on the wood1 which makes this gouge quite hard to control4 ,you can often apply the principle of the sliding or sideways cut in using the gouge1 as with the chisel1 to good advantage4 ,you can roll the gouge around with your hand from side to side so as to make it cut slantingly4 ,this is particularly useful to give a clean cut when gouging across the grain 7,fig4 #ece74 ,in some cases1 in working out a moulding1 for instance1 you can hold the tool at an angle with the work and get a better result than to push it straight forward lengthways 7,fig4 #ecf74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ecf4 ,be careful not to scoop out little hollows below the required depth of the cut1 and keep the direction of the grain in mind the same as with the chisel4 ,the little inequalities left by the gouge can be reduced easily by the file1 curved scraper1 or glass and sandpaper4 ,see ,sharpening4 ,gouge-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,grindstone4--,when you get to the point of having a grindstone1 get one which is somewhat soft and fine1 for if too coarse it will produce a rougher edge than is desirable for your tools4 ,do not allow your grindstone to become softened in spots by being left partially immersed in a trough of water1 as it will wear away irregularly4 ,with the best of care a stone will1 however1 become untrue after continued use1 not merely in its circular outline1 but the face will become hollowed and uneven4 ,it must then be trued1 either by some one of the contrivances now made for the purpose1 or by simply turning the stone into the correct shape by holding the end of a piece of soft iron1 as a piece of pipe1 against the surface1 without water1 moving the iron as occasion requires1 until the stone becomes true4 ,grooving4--,grooves of different dimensions are often required for various purposes in wood-working4 ,by far the best way1 as a practical matter1 is to take the work to a mill and have the grooving done by machine1 which is not expensive4 ,it can be done by hand with the planes devised for the purpose 7as the plough71 but though these are valuable tools1 they are largely superseded1 or becoming so1 by machine-work1 and it is usually fully as well for the amateur to take such work to the mill as to buy the tools4 ,in some cases the sides of the groove can be sawed by the hand-saws and the material removed by the chisel1 but this is not easy if the groove is long4 ,pieces are sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw and sometimes even attached to the saw itself1 or to a piece of saw-blade4 ,the lines for the groove can be scored with the knife or chisel and the wood between removed by the chisel1 much as in cutting a mortise4 ,in nice work1 as fitting a shelf in a bookcase1 it makes a better joint not to fit the entire end of the shelf into a groove1 but to cut a tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf1 with a shoulder at each side and the front edge1 to fit into a corresponding groove1 as shown in ,fig4 #bhd4 ,half-,round ,file4--,see ,file4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ecg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ech4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eci4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eda4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edb4 ,halving4--,this joint shown in ,fig4 #ecg is a common1 simple1 and good way of joining two sticks when they cross at right angles or obliquely4 ,place the sticks in position and mark the width of each upon the surface of the other1 using a knife or chisel for scribing4 ,with small sticks the wood can be removed with the knife1 first cutting a notch at each side and then paring off the wood between 7,fig4 #ech74 ,with large pieces the lines should be marked by the square1 the depth 7one-half the thickness of either piece7 by the gauge4 ,the lines at the outside of the space can then be sawed down to the gauge line1 taking care to keep just on the inside edge of the line4 ,the wood between can be pared out with the chisel down to the gauge lines4 ,when the halving is at the ends of the pieces or at the end of one piece 7,fig4 #eci71 the process is the same1 except that the wood can be entirely removed by the saw4 ,other forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in ,figs4 #edj1 #eda1 and #edb4 ,this principle of the lap joint is often carried a little further and we have the open mortise and tenon 7,fig4 #edc71 which can successfully be applied to a mitred joint and can also be dovetailed1 and boxes are now made by machine with the corners entirely made up of a continuous series of these joints 7,fig4 #edd74 ,see ,joints4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edd4 ,hammer4--,the hammer is made in many forms1 but the common kind used by carpenters will usually answer your purpose1 and is too familiar to require description4 ,for general use select one of medium size and weight4 ,remember that the face of the hammer-head1 although harder than the nails it is meant to drive1 is not intended to pound every piece of hardened steel you may run across1 nor to break up boulders when you are after minerals4 ,for the use of the hammer see ,nailing4 ,hand-,screws4--,hand-screws are of great use in clamping work that has been glued and for holding pieces in any required position4 ,wooden hand-screws are probably the most generally useful1 but a couple 7or more7 of the simple iron clamps will be of great service at times1 as they can be used more advantageously than the wooden ones in some kinds of work4 ,get medium-sized hand-screws rather than small ones if you can1 as they will be generally more serviceable4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ede4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edg4 ,to open or close a hand-screw1 hold it at arm's-length in front of you with a handle in each hand1 and with a twirling motion revolve it toward or from you1 as may be required1 to increase or decrease the opening between the jaws4 ,the screws should be greased or rubbed over with black-lead1 soap1 or bayberry tallow4 ,to hold two pieces together with uniform pressure is of course necessary for gluing and various other operations1 but a little practice will show you how to adjust the hand-screws so that the jaws will bear on the wood evenly4 ,the main point to remember is to keep the jaws parallel4 ,the final tightening is given entirely by the outer screw1 so1 in adjusting the screws1 leave the jaws open a little at the tip as in ,fig4 #ede1 that when the final pressure is put upon the outer screw the jaws will bear on the wood with an even pressure 7,fig4 #edf74 ,if the jaws were adjusted to bear evenly before tightening the outer screw1 the final result would be as shown in ,fig4 #edg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edh4 ,in clamping together finished work or pieces which could be injured by the pressure1 always put pieces of waste wood between the work and the hand-screws4 ,in case of delicate work1 like carving or mouldings1 a piece of soft pine placed between the surface and the hand-screws or clamps will enable considerable pressure to be applied without injury to the work4 ,a simple home-made clamp1 suitable for such work as temporarily holding in place parts of the frame of a boat1 for instance1 is shown in ,fig4 #edh4 ,see ,clamps and also ,figs4 #ff and #fdg4 ,hatchet4--,the hatchet is too familiar to need description4 ,a common1 medium-sized hatchet1 that can easily be swung with one hand1 is all that the beginner will ordinarily require1 although there is quite a variety of hatchets and axes for various purposes4 ,the main thing in the use of the hatchet1 besides keeping your fingers out of the way1 is to look sharply after the direction of the grain of the wood1 as it is not easy to stop a blow in the wrong place1 for the hatchet is not so easily controlled as some other tools4 ,experience is the best teacher in the use of a hatchet4 ,for removing superfluous wood with the hatchet1 see ,paring4 ,hinges4--,there are many varieties of hinges for various purposes4 ,the common kind1 like that shown in ,fig4 #ace1 had best1 for neatness' sake1 on moderately heavy work1 be narrower than the thickness of the stock1 so as not to extend across the edge4 ,the hinge should be sunk in the wood of one or both of the parts to be hinged--in the case of many boxes1 for instance1 one half of the hinge when shut is usually sunk in each part1 but in some kinds of work the whole thickness may be sunk in one part4 ,the hinge can be held in position on the edge 7in the case of the box7 so that the centre of the pin on which it turns is in line with the back of the box1 or sometimes a little outside4 ,marks can be made with the knife or chisel at the ends of the hinge1 and the recess in which it is to fit marked with the square and gauge4 ,this wood should be removed with the chisel1 first making cross cuts to break up the grain1 as in ,fig4 #fad4 ,fit the other hinge or hinges in the same way4 ,next lay the lid exactly in position on top of the hinges and mark by them and cut the recesses in the top in the same way4 ,hold the hinges in place with two or three screws each and see whether the cover opens and shuts as it should4 ,make any needed alterations1 and finally screw the hinges firmly in place4 ,another way is to place the lid exactly in position 7shut7 and mark directly from the hinges1 on both box and cover at the same time1 the points from which to lay out the recesses4 ,it will be well to look at a properly fitted hinge for a similar purpose before beginning your work1 since one rule cannot be laid down for all cases4 ,for strap-hinges1 ,t-hinges1 and the like1 see page #bdg4 ,holes and ,cracks1 ,to ,fill4--,the simplest way to stop holes1 cracks1 checks1 and the like1 in painted work1 is with putty1 always applying it after the first coat of paint and never before 7see ,painting71 but this method should not be used for other than painted work1 and the nicer the work1 the less desirable the use of putty becomes4 ,for nice work1 as furniture1 which has not been finished1 small holes or cracks are often stopped by putting a daub of hot glue on the smooth end of a piece of wood of the same kind as the article1 and with a sharp chisel1 held nearly at right angles with the surface1 scraping off fine wood-dust1 which1 mixing with the glue1 forms a paste with which the crack can be more than filled4 ,when hard1 the surplus can be pared and scraped off4 ,plaster of ,paris 7calcined plaster71 mixed with very thin hot glue1 is excellent for stopping cracks and holes of considerable size4 ,it can be mixed with water only1 but this is not as good4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #edi4 ,fitting in a plug of wood is a good way when the hole is of such shape that you can do so1 making the grain of the plug run the same way as that of the piece to be plugged4 ,taper the plug slightly1 so that when driven in it will fit tightly and not be flush with the surface1 but project above it 7,fig4 #edi74 ,dip in hot glue1 and drive well in4 ,when dry smooth off4 ,if the hole is irregular1 trim to some shape to which you can fit a plug4 ,in nice work take pains to have the plug a good match for the rest of the wood4 ,slight cracks at the end of a piece can often be plugged and at the same time secured against further splitting by sawing directly down the crack1 so as to remove it and substitute a straight saw-kerf4 ,in this kerf a slip of wood can be fitted and glued4 ,wax1 and also melted shellac1 can be used to stop holes and cracks in finished work4 ,for this1 see under ,finishing4 ,jack-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,jointer4--,see ,plane4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eej4 ,jointing4--,this term is applied to the act of straightening and making true the edges of two boards or planks which are to be joined to make a tight joint1 with glue or otherwise4 ,it is1 also1 popularly applied to straightening the edge of one piece only1 as to joint the edge of a board4 ,this you will often have to do1 and for jointing two edges which are to be glued particular care will be required4 ,assuming that the edges have been got out nearly straight1 the only plane you will require is the fore-plane1--or better1 the jointer1 or even the long jointer if the piece is long and you are fortunate enough to have these tools1--and it should be set fine1 although if the edge is very crooked and you have to work off much superfluous stock1 the iron can be set to make a coarse shaving at first4 ,in shooting or jointing edges it is customary to hold the finger under the sole of the plane as a guide 7,fig4 #eej74 ,this helps in regard to the common fault of tipping the plane sideways so as to plane off more on one side than on the other 7,fig4 #eea74 ,this trouble may be aggravated by a wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of the plane in case you use a wooden plane 7see ,fig4 #fbd for correct position74 ,keep testing across the edge with the square 7,fig4 #fdj74 ,the shooting-board can be used to advantage for short pieces 7see ,shooting-board71 and attachable guides can also be obtained4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eea4 ,the jointing should be done with long1 deliberate1 steady strokes4 ,any hasty1 hit-or-miss slashing away with the plane will be sure to result in a bad joint1 and you can easily get the edge into such shape by three or four careless strokes that it will take you a good while to get it straight4 ,try also to avoid planing the edge rounding1 from end to end 7see ,plane1 ,figs4 #fce-fcg74 ,sight along the edge4 ,also test with straight-edge1 looking toward the light4 ,if any shines through1 the edge is not yet accurate and the process must be resumed4 ,if you are jointing two edges1 as for a glue-joint1 first examine the pieces to see which edges will best go together1 according to the purpose for which they are intended4 ,look at the end grain so as to arrange it in different ways if you are building up a piece of selected parts 7,fig4 #eei74 ,if merely joining two or more boards to make a wider one1 notice the way the grain runs lengthways1 and the way it crops up to the surface1 for you will have1 for everything but the roughest work1 to plane the surface over after the joint is glued1 and if the grain runs in two or three different ways it will be harder to make the surface smooth4 ,there are cases1 however1 in handsomely figured wood1 as quartered oak or mahogany1 where you will arrange the grain in the way that will look the best1 but in such cases you expect to go through extra labour for the sake of having the article as handsome as possible4 ,with soft1 straight-grained white pine or whitewood1 these matters are of less importance4 ,when you have the pieces laid together in the best way1 mark on the surface right across the joints 7,fig4 #eeb7 so that you will know how to put the pieces together1 for you will forget how they were arranged after you have moved them around a few times4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eeb4 ,illustration ,,wrong4 ,,right4 ,,fig4 #eec4 ,joint each edge separately4 ,for nice work it is well to joint the edges of the successive pieces alternately from opposite sides1--that is1 if in planing the edge of the first piece the marked 7or face7 side of the board is towards you1 plane the edge of the next piece with the face side of the board against the bench1 or away from you4 ,this helps to counteract the result of any tendency to tip the plane to one side or any inaccuracy in setting the plane-iron4 ,see ,shooting-board4 ,then1 putting one piece in the vice with the jointed edge upwards1 lay the other edge upon it in the proper position and see if the two edges touch throughout4 ,if not1 one or both must be planed with thin1 careful strokes until they do fit1 for the joint will not be good unless the edges coincide4 ,remember1 however1 that it takes more than merely touching to make a good joint4 ,the surfaces of the boards must be in line 7in the same plane74 ,of course this really depends upon the edges being square4 ,test by holding a straight-edge1 the square1 the edge of the plane1 or anything straight1 against the surface of the boards 7,fig4 #eec74dg ,do not be misled by the directions you may see in amateur books and magazine articles which tell you1 for cases like this1--when you wish to glue up the lid of a desk1 for instance1--to plane and sandpaper your boards carefully on the sides and then fit the edges together1 after which you have only to glue the edges and the job is done4 ,that is not the right way to make a glued joint1 as you will find out for yourself after you have planed a few dozen boards the second time4 ,the skilled workman seldom attempts to do this except in repairing or some case where the surface of the pieces must be preserved4 ,the practical work-man's way 7which is the way for you71 is to glue first and plane afterwards4 ,the best way1 practically1 is to glue up the rough boards before they have been planed at all1 and then have the whole planed down as one piece by machine to the required thickness4 ,of course you should get the surfaces as nearly in line as you can1 to avoid needless planing afterwards1 but give your special attention to making the joint hold 7see note under ,clamps74 ,sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are purposely planed1 hollowing lengthways1 so that the two pieces touch at the ends1 but do not quite come together in the middle1 the idea being that a clamp at the middle will force the joint together for its whole length and will give a stronger result than to attempt to make both edges exactly straight4 ,if there is to be any open place in the joint before gluing1 it is better to have it at the middle than at the ends1 but there is a difference of opinion as to whether there is any advantage in springing boards to fit in this way4 ,before gluing hardwood edges1 it is well to tooth them over with the toothed-plane1 if you have one4 7,see ,plane47 ,see ,plane1 ,gluing1 ,joints1 ,cleating1 ,dowelling1 etc4 ,joints and ,splices4--,there are many kinds of splices and joints used in the different branches of wood-work1 a few of which are here given4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eed4 ,the common square butt-joint 7,fig4 #eed7 is the simplest way to join two pieces at right angles1 as in making a box or frame1 and is used for all common work4 ,glue is of but little use with this joint4 ,rely wholly on nails or screws4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eee4 ,to make a better joint1 cut a rabbet at the end of one piece and you have a joint 7,fig4 #eee7 which shows less end wood1 and can be helped a good deal by gluing1 on account of the shoulder4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eef4 ,another way is shown in ,fig4 #eef4 ,some strength and stiffness is gained by the tongue and groove1 but a groove near the end introduces an element of weakness4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eeg4 ,a much stronger way and a tighter joint 7,fig4 #eeg7 is often used for cisterns1 water-tanks1 and horse troughs1 but the projecting ends are objectionable for most purposes4 ,see ,halving1 ,mitring1 ,dovetailing1 and also ,box-making1 page #bai4 ,in nailing any such joints as those just shown1 remember to always bore holes for the nails wherever there is danger of splitting4 ,see ,awl1 ,bits1 ,boring1 ,nailing4 ,there are many ways1 besides those just mentioned1 for joining sticks and timbers at right angles1 which is something you will often have to do1 whether for a kite or some small framework or for the timbers of a building4 ,to join two or more boards or planks to make a wider surface1 several methods can be used4 ,cleating1 though strong and suitable for all such work as drawing-boards1 rough doors1 and the like1 is often undesirable1 both on account of the looks and because the cleats may be in the way 7see ,cleating74 ,the simplest way1 without cleats1 is to glue the jointed edges 7see ,jointing and ,gluing74 ,dowels can be used with this joint 7see ,dowelling71 or grooves can be cut and a strip or spline or tongue inserted 7,fig4 #eeh74 ,this last way can be done at the mill quicker and better than by hand4 ,the edges can also be halved1 or a rabbet cut in each edge from opposite sides4 ,the boards can also be matched 7see page #df71 in which case it is not usual to glue them4 ,all of these joints can best be made by machine4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eeh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eei4 ,to avoid the warping and change of shape to which wide pieces are subject1 particularly when they are not middle boards 7see ,chapter ,,iii71 they are often built up of selected narrower pieces 7,fig4 #eei74 ,this is done for many things1--the frames of machines1 the tops of sewing-tables1 drawing-boards1 chopping-blocks1 etc4 ,masts1 bows1 fishing-rods1 and the like are sometimes built up of selected pieces1 the idea being that a better result can be obtained by combining selected smaller pieces1 that flaws and defects 7which are apt to occur in larger pieces7 can be avoided1 and that sometimes the grain can be arranged to better advantage4 ,this is doubtless true1 but there is always the objection that glued joints may give way4 ,if you can get a piece which is practically perfect1 it is probably in most cases better than a glued-up combination1 for it is not easy to improve on ,nature when you can get her best specimens2 but unless you can get first-class stock of the dimensions required1 it is better to build up with smaller pieces of selected stock4 ,where the ends of two pieces come together and you wish to make a close joint1 you will1 of course1 saw the pieces off as squarely as possible1 using the square or perhaps the mitre-box4 ,if you mark and saw them with exactness1 and if everything about their arrangement is straight and square and true1 the ends will come together exactly and make a close joint1 but as a practical matter this frequently will not happen1 however careful you may be4 ,for nice work1 the workmanlike way in such cases is to plane or pare the ends until they fit1 but for rougher work the expedient of sawing the ends to fit can be resorted to4 ,to do this1 put the ends together as they are to go 7,fig4 #efj71 keep them from moving1 and saw straight down through the joint4 ,as the saw will leave a kerf of uniform thickness1 the pieces can now be pushed together and the ends will fit1 unless the joint was very much open1 in which case you have only to saw again1 and if necessary repeat the operation until the ends fit4 ,this is a very useful expedient in case of need1 but should not be relied on as a regular way to make joints1 lest it engender a careless and inaccurate method of work4 ,this applies also to joints which meet at any angle4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efa4 ,in some cases1 where only one side of each piece shows1 as in laying floor-boards1 it is usual to undercut the ends slightly--that is1 to make the joint a little open at the bottom1 which gives a tight and neat joint on the side which shows 7,fig4 #efa1 which is exaggerated74 ,another way to make an end joint is by bevelled scarfing or splaying 7,fig4 #efb74 ,you will see the ends of the clapboards on old houses joined in this way1 and it doubtless makes a better joint in many cases than the common square or butt-joint1 but it is more work4 ,strips of moulding are often cut in this way4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efd4 ,there are many ways of splicing two or more pieces so as to get greater length1 many of them1 such as are used in bridge-building and roof-framing1 being quite complicated4 ,you will rarely1 however1 in such work as you will do at first1 have occasion to do more than nail strips 7fish-plates7 on the sides of the pieces or make a halved splice or scarfed joint 7,fig4 #efc74 ,the latter is often made longer than that shown and fastened in various ways4 ,a joint for a brace is shown in ,fig4 #efd4 ,see ,cleats1 ,doors1 ,dovetailing1 ,dowelling1 ,gluing1 ,halving1 ,mitring1 ,mortising1 ,nailing1 etc4 ,keyhole ,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,knife4--,an excellent knife for shop work is a sloyd knife4 ,a good shoe-knife will do very well4 ,this is better for shop work than a jack-knife4 ,it will not close on your fingers for one thing4 ,for general purposes1 however1 a pocket-knife is the best thing1 as you cannot carry a sloyd knife around with you4 ,in buying it get a good plain knife with not more than two or three blades and of the best steel you can afford4 ,do not waste money in trying to get your whole kit of tools into the compass of one jack-knife handle4 ,in selecting a knife1 open the blades and sight along the back to see that each blade is accurately in line with the handle1 as they are sometimes fastened at a slight angle1 which weakens the knife4 ,an immense variety of work can be done with a common pocket- or jack-knife1 which is the best emergency tool for either the beginner or the skilled workman4 ,one great thing about whittling is that you cannot rely on squares1 rules1 or compasses to get your work right1 but must be independent1 think quickly1 look sharply1 and rely on your own faculties4 ,a knife is so easy to sharpen that there is not much excuse for using a dull one4 ,see ,sharpening4 ,in cutting1 always keep your left hand behind the blade1 and as a general rule cut from you1 for the tool may slip and cut you instead of the wood4 ,there are cases where you have to cut towards you1 but there is never any need of getting your left hand in front of the cutting-edge4 ,level4--,a spirit-level is important for some work1 but not often necessary for the beginner1 as a substitute can easily be made4 ,a horizontal or level line being at right angles with a vertical line1 a home-made level can be made by using the principle of the plumb-line1 as shown on page #if4 ,when the plumb-line hangs freely on the line ab1 which is at right angles to cd1 the latter line 7cd7 must of course be level4 ,the frame should be several feet long for levelling large work1 as it can be adjusted more accurately than if small4 ,linseed ,oil4--,see ,finishing and ,painting4 ,locks4--,use locks of good quality or none at all4 ,never put very cheap locks on good work4 ,there are many varieties of locks1 some to be screwed on the outside of the wood1 others to be sunk in recesses cut in the side of the wood1 others still to be let into mortises--chest-locks1 door-locks1 cupboard-locks1 drawer-locks1 etc4 ,to fit a chest- or box-lock 7not a mortise-lock71 place the lock in the right position1 mark around the part required to be sunk in the wood1 which can be cut away with gouge and chisel1 the keyhole having been bored quite through the wood and trimmed to a neat outline which will conform to the shape of the key4 ,when the lock has been screwed in its recess1 put the hasp1 or part which is to be on the lid1 into its place in the lock1 just where it will be when the chest is locked4 ,then close the lid1 and by slightly pressing you can make a mark on it to show where to put the hasp4 ,sometimes you can mark the place with a pencil1 or by putting transfer-paper between the hasp and the wood1 or by rubbing blackened grease on the plate of the hasp4 ,the plate of the hasp should be sunk in the lid to be flush with the surface1 and may then be screwed on1 bearing in mind the thickness of the lid when selecting the screws4 ,a mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way1 but let into a mortise 7see ,mortising74 ,to fit a common drawer-lock1 determine the place for the keyhole and place the lock in position on the inside as before4 ,with a pencil mark the outline of the box-part of the lock1 which bears against the wood4 ,cut away the wood within this line1 making a recess slightly deeper than the thickness of the box-part of the lock4 ,the hole must be bored for the key1 as before4 ,put the lock into place and mark the outline of the outer plate1 not merely on the inside of the drawer front but also on the top edge4 ,cut away the wood with the chisel to let the plate sink flush with the wood4 ,when the keyhole is shaped1 try the lock and if it works1 screw it on4 ,close the drawer and turn the key hard to raise the bolts 7the tops of which have been previously rubbed with blackened grease1 such as can be scraped from an oil-stone1 or using transfer paper71 which1 pressing against the wood1 will mark the places for the mortises into which they are to slide4 ,cut these mortises and the drawer can be locked4 ,the variety of locks and their arrangement in regard to fitting is so great that it will be best for you to examine a well-fitted lock for the same purpose that the lock you have to fit is intended1 for one rule cannot be given for all cases4 ,mallet4--,the mallet1 which is merely a hammer with a wooden head1 is made in various forms and sizes1 from the big beetle of the wood-chopper to the ladies' carving mallet4 ,it is used to strike the wooden tool-handles4 ,for heavy work a mallet with the handle put through the head from the outside1 like the handle of a pickaxe1 is good because the head cannot come off4 ,a rounded head with the handle on the end 7like a potato-masher7 saves having to notice how you hold it1 as it is equally effective in any position4 ,a mallet of this type can be turned all in one piece4 ,hickory or lignum-vit or any dense1 hard wood is good for a mallet4 ,you do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer1 but the softer and more yielding blow of the mallet saves the tool-handle4 ,marking4--,for all rough work the ordinary carpenter's pencil1 sharpened flatways1 like a screw-driver1 is the most convenient and durable instrument4 ,for nicer work1 where you need more accurate lines1 the common round pencil 7medium hard or rather soft7 is all you need1 but for nice1 close work 7such as marking accurate joints71 a knife1 the corner of a chisel1 a marking-awl1 or a scriber of some sort is necessary4 ,there is no need to buy any tool for this1 although they are to be had--nothing is better than a common pocket-knife or a chisel4 ,keep your pencils sharp by rubbing them on a piece of fine sandpaper1 or an old file4 ,illustration ,fig4 #efe4 ,in scribing with the chisel1 the edge is drawn along with one corner slightly raised and the flat side next the straight-edge1 holding the tool either like a pencil or for deeper scoring as in ,fig4 #efe4 ,in all marking and scribing1 whether with pencil1 awl1 knife1 chisel1 or other tool1 be sure that the marking edge is kept close up to the rule1 straight-edge1 or square1 as it will often tend to follow the grain of the wood and run off the line1 and will sometimes force the straight-edge or square out of position if the latter is not held firmly4 ,do not try to stop lines which meet at a given point1 but let them cross one another when they will not show in the finished work1 as it is quicker to do so and the crossing of two lines marks a point more accurately than a dot4 ,for work to be finished1 however1 scoring the surface with lines should be avoided wherever they will show1 as they will become conspicuous after the work is finished4 ,illustration ,,thin ,,rule--,,fine ,,work4 ,,fig4 #eff4 ,illustration ,,thick ,,rule--,,rough ,,work4 ,,fig4 #efg4 ,in marking lines with a straight-edge or ruler you must be careful that it does not slip4 ,if it is long you can put weights on it4 ,to mark a line accurately through given points1 the ruler should not quite touch the points1 but be pushed almost up to them and equally distant from each 7,fig4 #eff74 ,this will give you a clear view of both points so that you can be sure that the pencil or whatever you mark with will go as nearly as possible through the centre of each4 ,bearing the pencil against the edge of the ruler1 you can slant it a trifle till the pencil-point will just coincide with the given point on the wood1 and1 keeping the same inclination1 move the pencil along the ruler1 and it should also go through the second given point4 ,this applies to a regular ruler with a comparatively thin edge1 and to fine work only4 ,in marking by a thick edge1 or where extreme nicety is not required1 you will of course put the straight-edge right up to the points and run the pencil-point along in the angle 7,fig4 #efg74 ,besides marking lines1 the straight-edge 7in some form71 is used to determine whether a surface is true4 ,see ,straight-edge4 ,for rough1 off-hand marking1 particularly on undressed stock1 chalk is often best4 ,sticks1 shaped like school-crayons1 of graphite or some black composition1 are good for rough marking4 ,the chalk-line is used for distances too great to be covered conveniently by a straight-edge and in places where the latter could not so well be used4 ,the chalk-line is a chalked cord drawn taut between the two points to be connected4 ,it is better to use a small cord than a large one1 and blue chalk is often preferred to white4 ,fasten one end of the cord with a loop around an awl or nail at one end of the desired line1 and from this point chalk the cord1 holding it between the thumb and the chalk so that the cord will bear on the flat side of the chalk in such a way as to wear it away evenly without cutting it in two4 ,then draw the chalked cord tight to the other end of the desired line and1 holding the end down with one hand1 lift the cord from as near the middle as practicable with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand and let it snap back on to the surface4 ,the cord should be raised squarely from the work and not pulled slantingly to one side or the line will not be straight4 ,marking-,awl4--,see ,awl4 ,marking-,gauge4--,see ,gauge4 ,matching-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,measurements and ,measuring4--,for various suggestions1 see ,rule1 and also pages #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #afg 7footnote71 #bdd1 and #bfa4 ,mirror-,plates4--,a good way to fasten such articles as mirrors1 cabinets1 etc41 to the wall is by mirror-plates1 which you can buy or make yourself of brass4 ,these should be sunk in the wood so as to be flush with the back side of the shelves4 ,after being fitted1 they should be taken off during the process of finishing the work4 ,mitre4--,see ,mitring4 ,mitre-,board4--,see ,mitring and also page #ib4 ,mitre-,box4--,if you can afford it1 an iron mitre-box which will cut at various angles will be very useful4 ,you can make one yourself of wood4 ,you can get a carpenter to make you one for a small sum1 but the iron ones are better4 ,see page #ij4 ,mitre ,shooting-,board4--,see page #id4 ,mitring4--,a common joint is the mitre 7,fig4 #efh74 ,its only advantage is that it shows nothing but a line at the angle and the end wood is entirely concealed4 ,it is a weak joint at best1 even when made by a skilled workman1 and is particularly hard for an amateur to make well4 ,the slightest variation in one of the corners of a frame or box throws the whole structure out of shape and in attempting to correct the error the other joints are apt to be opened1 and if the whole is finally got together in a fashion it is often after bother enough to have accomplished much good work in some other way4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #efi4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egj4 ,the mitre is particularly unscientific for wide pieces used flatways 7,fig4 #efi71 as the inevitable expansion and contraction of the pieces is very apt to cause an open joint4 ,if the wood is not quite dry1 so that it shrinks1 the joint may open permanently toward the inside corner1 for when the wood shrinks in width the pieces will become narrower and so separate at the joint1 leaving a crack1 tapering from the inner to the outer corner4 ,even if the wood is thoroughly seasoned it will expand and contract more or less4 ,when it expands1 the joint will tend to open at the outer corner 7,fig4 #egj74 ,when it contracts it will tend to open1 as just shown 7,fig4 #ega71 at the inner corner4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ega4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egc4 ,of course there are some cases1 as in making a picture frame of prepared mouldings1 when mitring is the only way in which the frame can be put together1 and there are some other cases in which it is the most proper and suitable joint1 but as a general rule1 for amateur work1 particularly in framing where strength is a consideration1 avoid the mitre4 ,other and better forms for anything like a box are shown in ,figs4 #eed1 #eee1 #eef1 #eeg4 ,the mitre is sometimes strengthened for box work and the like by fitting a spline or tongue with the grain running across and not lengthways of the joint 7,fig4 #egb47 ,this1 properly glued under pressure1 makes a good joint and one much superior to the plain mitre4 ,but1 though easy to do with machinery1 it is a slow and careful job to make such a joint by hand1 and if a case arises where you wish it done you had best take the work to a factory1 where a circular saw is all that is needed4 ,the principle of halving shown in ,figs4 #eci and #edc1 can also be applied to a mitred joint4 ,saw-kerfs are often made 7,figs4 #egc and #egd7 into which small strips are tightly fitted and glued4 ,this is a good way and easily done1 once having got the mitre properly put together4 ,a combination of the mitre with the joint shown in ,fig4 #eee is shown in ,fig4 #ege4 ,see also ,dovetailing and ,joints4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ege4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egf4 ,to lay off a mitre1 or the lines by which to cut the intersection of any two pieces at any angle1 a simple way is that shown in ,fig4 #egf4 ,the pieces are laid one above the other at the desired angle4 ,then the points of intersection are marked on each edge4 ,lines connecting these points will give the desired angles for sawing4 ,the square can be used to help in determining the points accurately and to project them to the upper side of the top piece4 ,mortise and ,tenon4--,see ,mortising4 ,mortise-,chisel4--,see ,chisel4 ,mortise-,gauge4--,see ,gauge4 ,mortising 7,mortise and ,tenon74--,if you can get out two pieces and fit them together accurately with a mortise-and-tenon joint1 and do the work well1 you will be competent to handle a great many of the difficulties of ordinary wood-work4 ,you will often have occasion to use this joint4 ,the mortise is the hole in one of the two pieces to be joined4 ,the tenon is the pin or projection in the other piece1 shaped to fit the mortise4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #egi4 ,to lay out a mortise and tenon 7,fig4 #egg71 select and mark the working faces for each piece4 ,first take the piece in which the mortise is to be cut 7,fig4 #egh74 ,square two lines1 ab and cd1 across the face and the same distance apart as the width of the piece on which the tenon is to be cut4 ,carry these lines across the side ,x 7ae and cf7 and also across the side opposite to ,x 7that is1 the side where the tenon will come through74 ,next take the tenon-piece 7,fig4 #egi7 and measure from the end a distance a little greater than the width of the face of the mortise-piece1 and at this point square a line1 gh1 across the face of the tenon-piece4 ,continue this line1 gi1 around the piece1 with the square4 ,now take the gauge and1 setting it at the distance from the face settled upon for the mortise1 scribe the line jk on the side ,x and also on the side opposite ,x4 ,also from the face of the tenon-piece1 without changing the gauge1 mark the line lm on the side ,x1 on the opposite side1 and on the end4 ,set the gauge to measure from the face to the other side of the mortise1--that is1 add the width of the mortise to the figure at which the gauge was set1--and scribe another set of lines1 op and rs1 in the same manner as before1 remembering to gauge all the time from the same face4 ,in the coarser kinds of work1 where marks on the surface do no harm1 the gauge marks can be run across the other lines1 as being easier and more distinct1 but in fine work1 especially that which is to be finished1 care should be taken not to make scratches that will be seen when the work is finished4 ,the parts to be cut away are indicated by cross marks 7,fig4 #ehj7 and it will be seen at once that the tenon and mortise are laid out correctly4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehj4 ,to cut1 take first the mortise-piece and fasten it securely by vise or clamp in a convenient position4 ,the simplest way to remove the wood is to bore a series of holes with a bit of a diameter as nearly the width of the mortise as you have 7,fig4 #ehj71 but a trifle smaller4 ,this removes a large part of the wood with but slight danger of splitting4 ,the rest can easily be trimmed away to the lines with the chisel1 taking care not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the mortise when the latter is blocked with chips or firm wood1 or the wood may split off at the side of the mortise4 ,to cut out the wood with the chisel only 7or to trim the ends of the mortise after using the bit71 bear in mind the way the chisel acts when you drive it into the wood4 ,if both sides of the chisel were bevelled 7as is the case with carving chisels71 it would tend to go straight down into the wood1 and if held vertically would make a vertical cut 7,fig4 #eha71 but the chisels you use for mortising are flat on one side and bevelled on the other4 ,being one-sided in this way1 the edge of the tool is forced by the inclined bevel to slide off1 so to speak1 more or less1 in the direction of the side which is flat4 ,you can prove this easily by holding a chisel across the grain of a board and driving it in4 ,if you hold the tool lightly1 you will see that as you drive it in it will incline to cut under1 always on the side which is flat 7,fig4 #eha74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eha4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehb4 ,this shows how to go to work to cut a mortise so as to keep the sides square and true4 ,if you put the chisel at the end1 flat side outward1 the cut will tend to run under and make the hole too large below the surface4 ,if you turn the tool the other way1 it tends to slip in towards the middle of the mortise4 ,so1 to cut out the wood1 take a chisel just a trifle less in width than the mortise1 and1 beginning near the middle of the mortise1 hold the chisel as in ,fig4 #ehb and make successive cuts1 working toward the end1 first in one direction and then in the other1 giving the chisel handle a slight pull toward the centre of the mortise each time you move it1 to loosen the chips 7,fig4 #ehc74 ,you can thus work safely toward the ends1 which will be left slanting 7,fig4 #ehd74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehe4 ,after cutting about half through the piece in this way1 turn it over and repeat the process from the other side1 the result being a hole like that shown in ,fig4 #ehe4 ,now turn the chisel around with the flat side toward either end of the hole1 and you can pare down the ends to the line without danger of undercutting 7,fig4 #ehe74 ,care must be taken not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the grain until the hole is practically cleared of wood1 or the side of the mortise may be split off4 ,use the chisel lengthways of the grain only at the end of the process1 to pare the sides of the mortise evenly1 with light strokes1 down to the line4 ,in all the use of the chisel1 take pains to hold it vertically as regards the sides of the mortise--that is1 do not tip it over sideways1 or the mortise will be slanting or too wide at the bottom4 ,the common firmer- or paring-chisel can be used for all light mortising1 but for heavy work the regular mortising-chisel should be used 7see ,chisel74 ,to cut the tenon1 simply saw carefully on the line gh and its opposite 7,fig4 #egi7 and then on the lines lm and rs4 ,be careful not to cut beyond the line1 so as to make the tenon too small4 ,it is easy to trim it a little with the chisel if it is too large4 ,cut a little bevel around the end of the tenon1 so that it will drive through smoothly without catching and tearing the sides or ends of the mortise4 ,when it goes through properly and the tenon and shoulder fit snugly1 the projecting end of the tenon can be sawed off after the whole job is done4 ,the tenon should be just large enough to drive through with a slight pressure and fit snugly without any wobbling around4 ,it should not be so tight as to require much force to drive it home1 or there will be danger of splitting out the sides of the mortise4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehh4 ,there is no absolute rule as to how wide to make the mortise and tenon in proportion to the width of the pieces4 ,it depends on the kind of work1 the kinds of wood1 the kind of strain to be put on the joint1 and various circumstances too complex to be gone into here4 ,if the tenon is very thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise 7,fig4 #ehf74 ,if very thick1 the sides of the mortise will be too thin and will be weaker than the tenon 7,fig4 #ehg74 ,one third of the width is as thin as a tenon is often made4 ,it will then sometimes be weaker than the sides of the mortise1 as you can see from ,fig4 #ehh4 ,but it all depends on what the joint is for4 ,if it is to stand violent wrenching1 the tenon in this case might break before the mortise-cheeks1 and had best be made a little thicker1 with the sides of the mortise a little thinner2 but1 on the other hand1 if the joint is merely to hold the tenon-piece in position1 as in case of a post resting on a sill1 one third is plenty wide enough for the tenon1 as it will be best not to weaken the sill by cutting any larger mortise than is necessary4 ,sometimes the tenon-piece is simply let in to the other piece for its full width4 ,this is called housing 7,fig4 #ehi74 ,two thirds of the width of the piece is thicker than you will be likely to have occasion to make a tenon1 as this leaves the cheeks of the mortise very thin4 ,it is wholly a matter of judgment 7between1 say1 one third and two thirds of the width71 according to the conditions of each job4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ehi4 ,the length to which a mortise can safely be cut is also a matter of judgment according to circumstances4 ,if the tenon is thin1 the mortise can be longer than if the tenon is thick1 as the cheeks will be thicker and stronger1 but1 as a rule1 avoid trying to make very long mortises1 unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong1 as there will not be strength enough left in the cheeks of the mortise 7,fig4 #eij74 ,six times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to make a mortise under ordinary circumstances1 though1 as just said1 it all depends on the conditions of the particular piece of work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eij4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eia4 ,when a wide piece is to be mortised into another piece1 two or more tenons are sometimes cut1 thus avoiding too long a mortise1 but this will not do for very wide pieces1 unless some of the tenons are fitted loosely1 for the expansion and contraction of the wide piece may cause it to buckle or split if all the mortises fit snugly 7,fig4 #eia74 ,in such cases as a door-frame or when the end of a board is to be fitted into the side of a post1 a tongue and groove is often used in addition to the tenon1 and this 7known as relishing7 is a good way to do 7,fig4 #eib74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eib4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eic4 ,the mortise and tenon given above is a very simple form4 ,sometimes the tenon is short and does not go through 7,fig4 #eic74 ,this is a common form1 and is used a great deal in the best work4 ,it is sometimes called blind mortising1 the tenon being known as a stub tenon4 ,mortise and tenon joints are sometimes merely fitted together1 but can also be glued 7see ,gluing71 pinned1 wedged1 or dovetailed and fastened with a key4 ,to pin a mortise and tenon1 simply mark a point with square and gauge upon each side of the piece containing the mortise 7,fig4 #eic71 fit the tenon in place1 and bore in from each side 7or in rough work bore right through from one side until the spur appears on the opposite surface7 7see ,boring74 ,then drive through a snugly fitting pin and trim off the projecting ends4 ,the pin should be slightly pointed before driving1 on the same principle that the end of the tenon is bevelled4 ,it is not necessary to round the pin4 ,an eight-sided one is just as good4 ,do not use too large pins4 ,in ship-building1 bridge-building1 and old-fashioned house-framing pins and treenails from #a to #a-c_/d or more in diameter1 are used4 ,dowels of various sizes will usually answer for such framing as you may have to do 7though a rift-pin is stronger74 ,for such work as pinning a joint in a chair1 you will not need anything larger than a #a_/d hardwood pin4 ,you must use judgment as to how near the edge to place the pin4 ,if you put it too far from the edge1 its hold on the tenon will be weak and the end of the tenon may break out 7shear74 ,if you put it too near the edge1 the sides of the mortise may tear or split out4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eid4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eie4 ,sometimes1 particularly in timber work1 to insure a snug fit at the joint1 draw-boring is resorted to 7,fig4 #eid74 ,the hole for the pin is not bored through the tenon as just shown1 but is bored a trifle nearer the shoulder of the tenon than the other holes 7in the mortise-piece74 ,the result is that when the pin is driven through it draws the tenon-piece down to a snug fit at the shoulder4 ,but this has to be done with judgment4 ,if the hole in the tenon is too much out of line1 driving the pin through tends to split 7strictly speaking to shear7 the end of the tenon1 and too much strain is put on the pin4 ,in the mortising just shown1 there are only two shoulders where the tenon begins--that is1 the tenon is made by only four cuts4 ,this is good for all common or rough work4 ,in nice work a shoulder is also cut at each edge of the tenon 7,fig4 #eie74 ,this makes a neater-looking joint1 as these shoulders cover the ends of the mortise completely4 ,when the joint comes at the end of the mortise-piece1 the tenon can extend to the edge on the outside and the mortise be cut clear out to the end1 forming an open mortise-and-tenon joint 7,fig4 #edc71 or a wide shoulder can be left on the outside of the tenon--the tenon itself being made narrower 7,fig4 #eif74 ,this course is adopted in doors and frames of various kinds 7see ,fig4 #ccd74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eif4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eig4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eih4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #eii4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjj4 ,a good way to fasten tenons is to wedge them4 ,this can be done whether the tenon goes through the mortise-piece or only part way1 as in a blind joint4 ,the wedges can be driven between the tenon and the ends of the mortise 7,fig4 #eig71 or1 as is often better1 driven into cuts made in the tenon itself1 thus spreading the tenon toward the end1 dovetail fashion1 making it extremely difficult1 or impossible1 to pull it out of the mortise4 ,before wedging1 the mortise should be cut under or enlarged toward the side on which the tenon comes through 7,fig4 #eih74 ,the wedges can then be dipped in glue and driven as in ,fig4 #eii4 ,to spread the tenons themselves1 one or two or even three saw-cuts should be made in the tenon1 lengthways and farther than the wedges will extend 7,fig4 #fjj74 ,the tenon and mortise having been properly glued1 the tenon is fitted in place1 and the wedges1 previously prepared of some strong wood and tapering quite gradually1 are dipped in the glue and driven down into the saw-cuts1 thus spreading the end of the tenon into a dovetail until it fills the mortise 7,fig4 #fja74 ,it is often best to drive the outer wedges nearer the edge of the tenon than is shown in ,fig4 #fjj1 lest the tenon-piece be split4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fja4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjb4 ,the process is much the same when the tenon does not go through the mortise-piece 7,fig4 #fjb74 ,the mortise is undercut as before1 and saw-cuts are made in the end of the tenon4 ,the wedges are carefully planned and cut so that1 when the tenon is finally in place1 they will be of the right size to spread it so as to fit the mortise4 ,the wedges must not be too long1 so as to interfere with the tenon being driven home or to break off4 ,when you are sure the whole will go into place and fit snugly1 glue everything1 start the wedges in the cracks1 and drive the tenon quickly to place4 ,this will of course drive in the wedges1 which will spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly4 ,in fact1 if well done1 you cannot get it out again4 ,there are other forms of mortise and tenon1 but they will be seldom required by the amateur4 ,see ,joints4 ,nailing4--,to drive nails1 hold the hammer near the end of the handle4 ,do not1 as is often done by boys and amateurs1 grasp it close to the head4 ,the nearer the end of the handle you take hold1 the harder blow you can strike1 just as the longer the handle1 the harder the blow4 ,use light strokes--mere taps--in starting the nail4 ,after you are sure it is going straight you can then use more force to drive it home4 ,do not try to sink the nail-head quite flush with the wood4 ,leave that for the nail-set4 ,you may think that any slight depression you may make if the hammer strikes the wood will be too slight to be seen1 but that is not so1 as the slightest dent or depression will probably show in finished work4 ,the head of the hammer should be swung back and forth through an arc of a circle of which the wrist is the centre4 ,do this carefully and steadily and you will send the nail in quicker and straighter than when you flourish the hammer wildly around in the air and bring it down with a ferocious bang somewhere in the vicinity of the nail1 as boys of all ages have been known to do4 ,now1 remembering that the hammer-head will 7and should7 swing around in an arc of which your wrist is the centre1 you must see that your wrist is in such a position that the hammer-head can strike the nail squarely--that is1 the hammer-handle1 when the head rests squarely on the nail-head1 must be in a line parallel with the flat surface of the top of the nail 7,fig4 #fjc74 ,if the wrist is much above or below this line1 the nail will be struck slantingly1 and either be driven crooked or bent 7,fig4 #fjd74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjd4 ,first place the hammer in the correct driving position1 and then swing it back and forth as nearly in the same curve as you can4 ,practise this motion a little on a soft piece of board to see how squarely you can dent the board and how nearly you can hit the same dent with successive strokes4 ,frequently a nail does not drive straight1 but becomes bent and goes in the wrong direction4 ,if you withdraw it do not1 as a rule1 try to drive another in the same hole1 but start it in another place4 ,sometimes a nail will be bent because the face of the hammer-head has glue or grease on it4 ,in such a case rub it on a piece of fine sandpaper or in the ashes or the ground4 ,holes should always be bored when there is any chance of splitting1 or when slender nails are driven into hard wood 7lest they bend71 but remember that the hole1 particularly in the inner piece1 should not be quite as large as the nail4 ,with nails having large heads it does not matter in hard wood if the holes in the outer piece are about as large as the nails1 provided the latter drive tightly into the inner piece4 ,illustration ,,right4 ,,wrong4 ,,fig4 #fje4 ,the hole made by a brad-awl is better1 when it does not split the wood1 than one made by a bit or drill1 because it does not remove the wood but merely presses it aside1 so that when the nail is driven the fibres tend to spring back to their original position and close in around the nail1 helping to hold it in place4 ,in driving the old-fashioned nails1 which have two sides parallel1 while the other two incline toward the point or taper1 they should be used on the same principle on which you use the brad-awl4 ,if placed the other way1 the wedge shape of the nail will tend to separate the fibres and split the wood 7,fig4 #fje74 ,with nails having two sides smooth and two rough1 as you pick them up you can tell by the fingers which way to hold them1 the rough sides going across the grain and the smooth sides with it4 ,nails will drive into hard wood easier if you touch the points to grease1 tallow1 lard1 or soap4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fjh4 ,toe ,nailing4--,if you wish nails to hold as much as possible1 toe them--that is1 slant them 7,fig4 #fjf74 ,you can see at a glance that the board will be held much tighter than if the nails were driven straight up and down4 ,of course you cannot always drive nails this way1 and there are many cases in which you would gain nothing1 but it takes only a moment longer to toe nails1 and it is often very useful where you wish to be sure that the work will hold together4 ,there are many cases where you cannot nail any other way1 as when you fasten a stud to the top of a sill 7,fig4 #fjg71 and you can see at once that it is advantageous4 ,of course this is not a good method for work which you may wish to take apart again4 ,slanting the nails helps to draw one piece tightly up to another1 as is often desirable for a tight box or a floor 7,fig4 #fjh74 ,you can increase this effect1 after you have driven the nail part way in1 by drawing the hammer towards you as you strike1 or in the direction towards which the nail points1 thus bending the upper part of it toward the other piece1 which tends to make a tight joint4 ,clinching ,nails4--,the way to clinch nails is simply to drive them through against a heavy hammer1 or any solid metal object1 held on the other side4 ,as the point comes through it is gradually turned over or hooked around into the wood and when the head is driven home the point will be firmly embedded in the wood4 ,another way is to simply strike the projecting ends with light1 slanting blows4 ,this will gradually bend or curl the point over to one side1 and as it bends over you can pound more directly downward until the hooked end of the nail is buried in the wood4 ,clinching is very useful for many purposes1 as in nailing cleats on a shed door4 ,it is usually best to bend the nails over in the direction of the grain1 rather than across it4 ,whether to clinch or toe the nails must depend on the work4 ,clinching is better for anything that is to be slammed or subjected to violent treatment1 while in many cases toeing is better1 and frequently you cannot reach the points of the nails to clinch them4 ,blind nailing is resorted to in order to have a clear1 smooth surface1 as in floors laid with matched-boards4 ,each board is nailed just above the tongue1 with the nails slanting through the solid part of the board 7,fig4 #fji74 ,this holds the board down and tends to force it closer to the adjoining board4 ,the grooved edge of the next board entirely conceals the nailing and leaves an unbroken surface4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fji4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #faj4 ,another form of concealed nailing1 known as sliver nailing1 is sometimes practised in inside work 7sometimes in putting up inside finish74 ,a little shaving is raised with the gouge 7an inside gouge is best7 or a narrow chisel1 where the nail is to go1 and curled away sufficiently to drive and set the nail 7,fig4 #faj74 ,hot glue is then dabbed into the groove1 the shaving 7which is only raised at one end and not detached from the wood7 is pressed back into place1 and the spot rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat block until the shaving is firmly glued where it belongs4 ,this takes but a moment or two1 and when the work is finally smoothed and finished the place cannot be detected1 if the operation has been properly done4 ,this is convenient to know in case you have to drive a nail where there is objection to its being seen4 ,see ,withdrawing ,nails4 ,nails4--,there are many kinds of nails1 many more than is worth while to specify here1 as you will probably use those of wire for most of your work4 ,when another kind would be preferable 7as is the case for some purposes7 it will be specified4 ,the nails in common use before the introduction of those of wire were known as cut1 being stamped from a sheet of metal1 and wrought1 the latter kind being much older and originally forged by hand into shape1 one by one 7hence the name71 but now commonly made by machine4 ,the expressions three-penny1 eight-penny1 ten-penny1 etc41 indicate the length1 and come from an old custom of so designating the lengths1 but you need only to call for them by the length1 as #b inch or #b-c_/d inch1 in order to get what you want1 and you can easily select whatever degree of stoutness you need4 ,copper or galvanised nails and tacks will be needed for your boat-building1 copper being preferable1 particularly for salt water4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #faa4 ,nail-,set1 or ,punch4--,the nail-set1 for sinking nail-heads below the surface1 is quite important1 and it is well to have a large one and a fine one4 ,the end of the set or punch must not be allowed to become rounding or it will be all the time slipping off the nail-head and punching holes in the surrounding wood4 ,a slight conical depression in the end of the set is good4 ,do not use a file for a nail-set1 for the end is too hard and will dent the face of the hammer-head4 ,when setting nails1 hold the nail-set firmly against the little finger1 placing the latter on the wood close to the head of the nail1 as shown in ,fig4 #faa4 ,this will keep the set from slipping off the nail-head and damaging the work4 ,nippers4--,a pair of these will often be of use in wood-working operations4 ,odd-,jobs4--,a very simple combined tool known as ,odd-jobs can be used as a marking-gauge1 mortise-gauge1 scratch-awl1 try-square1 ,t-square1 depth-gauge1 mitre-square1 spirit-level and plumb1 inside-square1 and beam-compass4 ,it is well suited to much amateur work1 and is cheap4 ,oil4--,sperm oil is good to use with your oil-stones4 ,kerosene is good4 ,lard oil can be used4 ,all thick and gummy oils should be avoided4 ,never use linseed oil or any similar vegetable oil1 as it is not a good lubricator1 and gums the stone4 ,glycerine thinned with turpentine or alcohol is sometimes used1 and even turpentine alone4 ,for oil for finishing and painting1 see ,finishing and ,painting4 ,oil-stone4--,it is very essential to have a good oil-stone4 ,they can be found of many degrees of fineness4 ,those of very fine and hard grain1 which give a keen edge but cut very slowly1 will not be found so well adapted to your use as those of moderate coarseness and softness1 which cut faster4 ,the stone known as ,red ,washita is good to use for wood-working tools1 as it cuts rapidly4 ,it should be free from hard spots4 ,the ,arkansas stone produces a very fine edge1 but is of so fine texture that it is not so well adapted for your tools as a coarser stone1 unless you happen to find a quick-cutting one4 ,the ,turkey stone will produce a keen edge1 but is not so good for your use4 ,some stones 7and excellent ones7 cut best with water4 ,when first trying a new stone use water1 and if the surface does not become at all glazed or polished it will not be necessary for you to use oil4 ,the stone should always be kept covered when not in use1 to protect it from the dust and dirt4 ,set it in a block with a cover or make a box for it4 ,always wipe it clean after using1 to remove the paste of ground stone1 steel1 and oil left on the surface4 ,when an oil-stone becomes unevenly worn1 it can be trued by rubbing it around on a sheet of sandpaper fastened on a flat surface1 like the side of a board4 ,water can be used in this operation4 ,in addition to the ordinary flat oil-stone1 slips of stone of various shapes are useful1 a common and useful form being that shown in ,fig4 #fab1 wedge-shaped on one edge and convex on the other4 ,if you have ,v-tools1 carving gouges1 or other tools sharpened on the inside1 you must have slips of stone of various shapes with which to sharpen them4 ,see ,oil and ,sharpening4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fab4 ,painting4--,you can paint your work very satisfactorily--perhaps not quite as well or quickly as a skilled painter by trade1 but well enough for all practical purposes if you observe carefully a few simple principles4 ,if you disregard them and think1 like many amateurs1 that anyone can paint right off the first time without any knowledge or thought1 your painting will be botch-work4 ,keep your work well painted4 ,it is cheaper in the end to paint frequently and keep the work protected from the decay and damage due to exposure--not to speak of the better appearance4 ,do not use cheap paint1 unless1 of course1 for some cheap or temporary purpose1 and it is most important that the first or priming coat should be of good quality4 ,if you are obliged to use inferior paint at all1 use the best for the first coat and the poorer quality outside rather than the reverse1 but it is economy of money and time to use good paint throughout4 ,prepared liquid paints are the simplest1 handiest1 and cleanest for amateur work1 and 7if you do not try to economise on the quality7 the best for you to use for many purposes1 but for outside work 7work exposed to the weather7 you can probably do no better than to use the best quality of white lead and oil1#dh coloured if desired1 which costs less1 is more durable1 and which you can easily mix yourself1 or buy already mixed of a painter4 ,if you need but a little1 you can get a pot of paint with suitable brush at a paint shop1 returning what you do not use and paying by weight4 ,but if you have much painting to do1 it is better and cheaper to have your own brushes and paint4 ,the prepared paints of any colour you can also buy in the form of paste1 to be thinned when used1 which is usually cheaper than the prepared paint in liquid form4 ,the white lead you can buy by the pound1 ground and already thinned with oil1 or1 what is perhaps more reliable1 ground in the form of paste ready to be thinned with oil or1 if for inside work1 with turpentine4 ,white lead1 which is also the basis or an ingredient of the prepared paints1 is a poisonous and unhealthful substance4 ,there is1 however1 but slight danger 7practically none7 from such painting as you will do4 ,but it is well to wear old clothes when you paint1 and carefully wash the hands and face as soon as the work is done1 and in case of continued indoor painting to see that the room is well ventilated4 ,the mere odour from a can of paint is enough to make some people feel ill1 as you may know1 while it can be used for a long time by others apparently without harm4 ,in regard to coloured paints1 the simplest way is to buy your colours ready mixed in oil1 to be thinned for use1 or in liquid form of any desired colour1 prepared to use upon opening the can4 ,you can1 however1 colour or tint your paint yourself with various dry colours1 which you can buy in the form of powder at the paint shops for a few cents4 ,it takes but very little of most colours4 ,do not stir these dry colours directly into your paint1 but first mix them with oil or turpentine4 ,it requires considerable knowledge of colours and their combinations to know how to mix different colours or shades to produce some particular shade1 or to match some tint1 but when the exact shade makes no difference you will have no great difficulty in producing the colour you wish4 ,test the shade of your paint on a piece of wood4 ,the way it looks in the paint-pot is often very deceptive4 ,in making a shade darker1 especially when tinting white paint1 be careful to add but a very little of the darker pigment at first and be sure that it is thoroughly mixed1 or you will be likely to find after you have begun to paint that you have a much darker shade than you intended4 ,it is surprising how small a quantity is sometimes needed to tint a whole canful of white paint--the merest dab of chrome yellow will tint a quart of white paint to a good cream shade4 ,remember that it is much easier to add a little more colour if the result is not dark enough than to lighten the shade if too dark4 ,linseed oil 7either raw or boiled7 is required with which to mix the lead and thin it to the proper consistency4 ,raw oil is best for outside work that is exposed to the weather1 as it is more penetrating and more adhesive1 although slower in drying than boiled oil4 ,boiled oil does very well for inside work where it is not exposed to the weather4 ,there is some difference of opinion1 however1 in regard to the use of the two kinds4 ,turpentine is also used for thinning paint4 ,it makes the paint flow easily and is freely used for that reason1 but it probably detracts from the durability of all paint if used lavishly and should never be used for outside work4 ,it is commonly used for inside work and causes the paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more quickly4 ,it gives the paint that dull1 soft1 or dead appearance often desired in inside work1 instead of the shiny surface which is produced when mixed with linseed oil alone4 ,it is usual to add to the paint something else1 known as a dryer1 to cause it to dry more quickly4 ,japan is one of the best of these preparations1 but be careful to use very little of any form of dryer1 as it is undoubtedly injurious to the durability of the paint and liable to cause cracking and checking4 ,avoid all kinds of chain-lightning dryers4 ,do not add a dryer to the colour until just before you use the paint and only to the amount you are to use at one time4 ,another ingredient1 which is not injurious to use1 is zinc1 but zinc paints are considered inferior4 ,red lead is commonly used to paint iron and is considered very durable for that purpose4 ,black japan varnish is often used4 ,iron must always be dry and it will be better to have it warm also4 ,be sure that your work is thoroughly dry before beginning to paint1 else the wood will be liable to decay1 or the paint to peel1 or both4 ,do not paint wood before it is thoroughly seasoned4 ,look the work over carefully and see that it is ready in all respects1 before applying the paint4 ,see that the surface is free from dust4 ,look over the work for any knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy matter and wash them with a coat or two of shellac1 to kill the turpentine and prevent its oozing through and spoiling the paint4 ,try to mix enough1 and only enough1 paint for the coat you are about to put on1 but do not mix a great quantity in advance with the idea of keeping it on hand4 ,the first coat should be thin rather than thick--with plenty of oil to saturate the wood4 ,the oil will be quickly drawn into the wood1 and you can readily see that the first coat should be thin to properly soak into the surface4 ,if thick1 the paint will not be sufficiently absorbed1 but the oil will soak in quickly1 leaving too much residue of the pigment on the outside4 ,work this first coat well into the wood4 ,take up but little paint1 and draw the brush carefully over the edge of the pail1#di or over a wire stretched across the top1 to remove any superfluity of paint1 and begin the painting at the highest part of the work1 or the part farthest from you1 to prevent spattering or dripping paint over the freshly covered surface4 ,begin1 also1 at one end or side of the surface1 working toward the other end or side1 drawing the brush back and forth both ways to distribute the paint as evenly and smoothly as possible1 and try not to leave any part of a surface untouched until another time1 or it will be likely to show a lap where you end and begin--that is1 if you cannot cover the work entirely at one time1 leave off where there is some natural line or break in the work4 ,finish the side or the end and do not leave off right in the middle of a flat surface4 ,this does not matter quite so much in the priming1 but will show plainly in the later coats4 ,after this coat has had time to dry thoroughly1 carefully putty the holes and cracks4 ,remember never to use the putty until after at least one coat of paint has been applied and dried4 ,the reason for this is that the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from the putty1 leaving it dry and crumbly1 while if a coat of paint has been put on first and dried1 the wood will be already charged1 so to speak2 the pores will be more or less choked up and the bulk of the oil will remain in the putty4 ,paint with the grain of the wood1 or the long way of the work1 using a large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners1 mouldings1 and edges with a small brush4 ,in doors or panel-work first paint the panels1 then the rails1 then the styles 7see ,fig4 #eje74 ,you will thus follow the construction of the work and the grain of the wood1 and where you daub the paint beyond the part you are painting 7as you will have to do71 the daub will be wiped out neatly when you paint the next part4 ,paint joints in outside work1 tenons and mortises1 shoulders1 etc41 before putting together1 with good white lead4 ,it is not always customary to paint the hidden parts of joints before putting together1 particularly in cheap work1 but it is well to do so in all work which you wish to have endure1 in all framework exposed to water and the weather1 and in boat-building4 ,exposed work quickly decays at the joints and seams because the water and dampness collect in such places and do not run off or evaporate as readily as from a smooth surface1 so the more you can protect these hidden parts with paint1 the better1 and the labour is but slight4 ,when you have paint left in the paint-pot which you wish to keep for use another time1 pour just enough raw linseed oil over the top to cover it completely4 ,this thin layer of oil will exclude the air and keep the paint from hardening4 ,when you wish to use it again1 pour off the oil or stir it into the paint1 according to whether the latter requires more oil or not4 ,when you get through painting1 if you are going to do more in a short time1 it will do to leave the brush in the paint1 but do not leave it standing or resting on the bottom of the can1 as that tends to bend the ends of the bristles and get the brush out of shape4 ,rig a wire hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be covered by the paint1 but without touching the bottom4 ,if you are not going to use the brush again for some time1 it should be cleaned and put away4 ,turpentine is often used1 but kerosene answers every purpose4 ,be careful to wash out all the paint1 however1 as a very little left between the bristles will stick them together so as sometimes to ruin the brush4 ,another way to keep brushes which are in use is to hang them from the handles in a can partially filled with oil1 the whole being kept covered4 ,water can be used instead of oil4 ,arrange it so that the hairs will be just covered4 ,the first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry1 for it is the foundation and basis of the whole operation and the firmness and durability of the painting depends much upon it4 ,each succeeding coat should have plenty of time to dry before applying another1 bearing in mind that applying a second coat1 before the first is fully hard1 excludes the air from the under layer of paint and causes it to dry much more slowly than if left exposed as it should be4 ,in such cases1 the outside surface may often seem to be dry and hard while the paint underneath remains comparatively soft4 ,when the first layer finally does dry1 the tendency is to crack the surface of the outside1 which has dried first4 ,you can find an extreme illustration of this point in some old paint and varnish shop where some convenient place on the wall has been taken against which to slap and work brushes4 ,you can find daubs of old paint and varnish1 sometimes an inch thick1 made up in this way of hundreds of layers slapped on before the previous ones were dry1 the inside remaining soft in some cases after twenty years4 ,paint dries1 as a rule1 more quickly in a warm temperature than where it is cold1 and more quickly where it is dry than where it is damp4 ,so1 if you are obliged to paint where it is cold or damp1 you will be justified in using more dryer than where it is warm and dry4 ,sandpaper nice inside work after the first coat and between each two successive coats4 ,pumice can be used for old inside work to be repainted4 ,steel wool can also be used4 ,keep a rag with you1 when painting1 to wipe off the spattering which you will be sure to make4 ,it is not easy to get daubs of paint off after they are hard4 ,turpentine will take the paint from your hands1 but common kerosene will clean them satisfactorily when the paint is fresh1 and is probably better for the hands4 ,panels4--,see ,doors and ,panels4 ,panel-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,paring4--,in paring or trimming a piece of wood to a line1 if there is much surplus wood to be removed1 you can sometimes chop pretty boldly with the hatchet until you get near the line1 provided you watch the direction of the grain carefully to see that the split cannot run up to the line2 sometimes you can chop safely in one direction but not in the opposite 7,fig4 #fac71 but as a rule keep well away from the line for the first cut4 ,even wood that appears to be quite straight-grained will often split differently from the way you expect4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fac4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fad4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fae4 ,to trim a piece of wood1 like the edge of a board1 down to a line1 with a hatchet1 for instance1 you can first score the piece with a series of short cuts1 stopping short of the line1 to break up the grain of the wood1 and then trim these loosened chips off down to the line with the plane1 chisel1 draw-knife1 or whatever tool may be suitable4 ,the main point is to cut in such a direction that the grain will not cause the cuts to extend farther than the line or to run into the main piece of wood 7,fig4 #fad74 ,the same principle can be applied often in trimming and removing superfluous wood with a chisel1 a draw-knife1 or a knife4 ,the cuts can often be made with the saw to better advantage 7,fig4 #fad74 ,it takes a little more time to make these cross-cuts with hatchet1 knife1 chisel1 or saw than to whack away furiously lengthways1 as if you were chopping kindling1 but after you have spoiled a few pieces by splitting beyond the line you will conclude that the former is the more workmanlike and reliable way4 ,this same principle is applicable to making chamfers or bevels with a chisel or knife 7,fig4 #fae74 ,you will find frequent occasion to apply this principle of breaking the grain into small pieces before making the final cuts in many kinds of work4 ,it is in constant use in roughing out carving4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #faf4 ,to trim to a curve as shown in ,fig4 #faf1 begin at the edge just outside of the end of the curve and work with the grain from a to b4 ,it is often a help in such cases to first remove part of the wood with the saw1 as on the lines bc and then ef4 ,finally trim the curve smoothly close to the line4 ,frequently this can be done to better advantage with the work held in the vise instead of lying horizontally on the bench4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fag4 ,,right4 ,,wrong4 ,paring off superfluous wood down to a given line or trimming off an irregular edge with the chisel is very easily done provided the grain of the wood is straight1 or runs in the same direction1 even if slanting1 as in ,fig4 #fag1 because you can then cut with the grain4 ,it is often better1 however1 to cut across the grain1 or diagonally1 with the chisel1 as the wood is less likely to be split by the tool4 ,when the grain runs in several directions1 and keeps cropping up to the surface and dipping down again as shown in ,fig4 #gja1 it becomes more difficult to pare the surface smoothly with the chisel4 ,in such a case remember the sliding or drawing stroke and traverse the surface with a diagonal crossways motion 7,fig4 #fai7 that will trim off the fibres with a slanting stroke without causing them to be torn up4 ,slant the cut so that if the wood should tend to split1 it will be in the direction of the part cut away and not towards the piece to be kept--i4e41 so that the chips will split and not the body of the wood4 ,reverse the chisel and cut in the opposite direction when a change in the direction of the grain requires it4 ,some pieces are1 however1 so extremely irregular that you cannot do this1 but must slice away the best that you can and leave the rest to other tools4 ,in cutting off a corner or rounding or bevelling an edge you can use the slanting cut 7,fig4 #fbj74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fai4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbj4 ,in using the chisel for paring1 let the left hand1 which is nearer the cutting-edge than the right1 act as a brake or countercheck or drag to check the progress of the tool4 ,it is largely by the varying balance of these two forces--the pushing forward of the tool with the right hand and the checking and controlling with the left--that correct and effective control of the tool is gained4 ,the left hand should in many cases rest upon or grasp the wood as well as the blade4 ,see ,chisel4 ,paring-,chisel4--,see ,chisel4 ,parting-,tool4--,see ,carving ,tools4 ,pencil4--,see ,marking4 ,pincers4--,there are various kinds of pincers1 pliers1 and nippers4 ,a pair of common pliers and also cutting nippers will be very useful4 ,plane4--,a plane is in principle 7roughly speaking71 as you will readily see1 nothing but a chisel stuck through a block of wood or iron4 ,small or narrow surfaces may be smoothed to a certain degree by the chisel1 the knife1 or even the hatchet1 but for large surfaces something is needed which can be more exactly controlled than the knife1 ax1 or chisel1 held in the hands4 ,so1 to hold the chisel firmly in one position and to apply force to it more advantageously1 it is firmly fixed in a block of convenient size and shape and becomes a plane4 ,a very short block will prevent the chisel cutting deeper at one point than another1 but the tool will follow the irregularities of the surface and1 though it may make the surface smooth1 it will not make it level1 or flat2 so the block is made longer1 that it may not go down into all the little hollows1 but plane off only the higher parts4 ,the two essential parts of a plane are the iron and the stock4 ,the bottom surface of the stock is called the sole or face 7ab in ,fig4 #fba71 the wedge-shaped hole where the iron goes is called the throat 7c71 and the slot at the bottom through which the edge of the iron projects is called the mouth 7d74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fba4 ,bear in mind that the shape of the cut made by the plane will be a reversed copy of the shape of the cutting-edge4 ,if the edge is rounding1 the cut will be hollowing4 ,if the edge is hollowing1 the cut will be rounding4 ,if the edge is straight1 the cut will be straight4 ,if the edge is nicked1 ridges will be left on the wood4 ,if buying new1 you will do best1 as a rule1 to get iron planes1 though very good ones can be had with wooden stocks1 but with the convenient appliances of the iron planes4 ,some workmen still prefer the old wooden planes1 but it is better to buy iron ones4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbc4 ,the jack-plane is used for coarse work and to rough off the surface with large shavings1 ready for the other planes4 ,fourteen or fifteen inches is a good length4 ,the edge of the iron is not ground squarely across1 like the chisel1 but is rounded slightly so as to cut deeper in the middle 7,fig4 #fbb74 ,heavy shavings can be cut and the rough outside of a piece of wood taken off quicker and easier than with a more squarely ground iron1 but it does not leave the surface smooth1 as the strokes of the jack-plane form a series of hollows and ridges 7,fig4 #fbc1 exaggerated74 ,after taking off the rough surface with the iron projecting considerably1 you can of course set the iron finer1 and by going over the work several times you can take off the worst of the ridges1 but without a great deal of labour you can never get a really smooth surface with a plane that cuts hollows4 ,a common use of the jack-plane is for traversing1 or planing across the grain1 which is often the quickest and easiest way to reduce a surface to the desired shape1 and for cleaning off where pieces have been glued together4 ,if you should use a jack-plane to do the work of a fore-plane1 have it ground more squarely across like the fore-plane4 ,if you use an old-fashioned wooden plane1 take the handle in your right hand1 laying your left over the top and side1 just a little in front of the iron1 with the thumb towards you and the fingers on the farther side1 as shown in ,fig4 #fbd4 ,this position allows you to bear weight on the fore part of the plane when necessary and to control the tool to the best advantage4 ,this applies to the old-fashioned wooden planes4 ,if your plane is iron1 there is a handle or knob for the left hand which you simply grasp in a natural way4 ,push the jack-plane forward steadily an arm's-length4 ,then stop and start afresh for another arm's-length stroke4 ,when drawing the plane back tip it on the farther edge4 ,the cap or break-iron can be set quite far back from the edge for rough work1 about one eighth inch1 but much nearer for finer work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbd4 ,in these days when almost everything is planed by machinery with greater or less smoothness1 you will probably not have much use for a jack-plane unless you find you have a good deal of rough planing to do yourself4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbe4 ,the fore-plane or trying-plane is longer and larger than the jack-plane4 ,eighteen to twenty-two inches is a good length4 ,it is used to straighten and level the surface after the worst roughness has been taken off4 ,the surface having been roughed off by the jack-plane1 the fore-plane is not required to take off such heavy shavings and the iron is therefore ground squarely across like a chisel1 but very slightly rounded at the corners 7,fig4 #fbe74 ,it is held in the same way as the jack-plane1 but the stroke should be long and steady1 for the fore-plane1 which is long1 will straighten the surface1 and smooth it also4 ,the iron can project more for soft and loose-grained woods than for hard1 and the cap or break-iron should be nearer the edge for hard woods4 ,the jointer 7#bb to #cj in length7 or long jointer 7from #bd to #cj71 is still longer than the fore-plane and correspondingly more accurate for making a surface level and true1 or for shooting the edges of boards4 ,twenty-four inches is a good length4 ,it is very useful for making joints to be glued1 and is used in the same way as the fore-plane1 the stroke being continued steadily the whole length of the piece if possible4 ,the smoothing-plane is used1 as its name indicates1 for the final smoothing of the surface1 so far as it can be done with a plane4 ,it is from five to ten inches long4 ,it is an invaluable plane to the amateur1 and the beginner can get along very well for a great deal of work with no other1 for stock can be bought ready planed and can easily be trued and jointed1 when necessary1 at any wood-working mill or shop at slight expense4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbf4 ,a plane with a short stock1 as the smoothing-plane1 will make your work smooth1 but it is hard to make it straight and level or true with such a tool1 because1 being short1 it will follow the larger irregularities of the surface and will only plane off the smaller inequalities4 ,it will go up and down over the hills and valleys of the wood1 so to speak1 while a longer plane cannot do this1 but will cut off the tops of the hills until the surface is made level1 as shown in ,fig4 #fbf4 ,the smoothing-plane is therefore merely to smooth the surface after it has been straightened by a longer plane1 or in cases where smoothness only is essential and it is not required that the surface should be true4 ,small pieces can1 of course1 be straightened and trued by the smoothing-plane alone4 ,a wooden smoothing-plane can be held as shown in ,fig4 #fbg4 ,an iron plane can be used by laying the hand naturally over the knob for the purpose4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbg4 ,the block-plane is small and is meant chiefly for planing across the ends of pieces 7for planing end-grain71 but it is also frequently useful in other directions4 ,the iron is usually set at a more acute angle with the face of the stock than in the other planes and with the bevel upwards1 and the width of the mouth is often adjustable1 which is a convenience4 ,a block-plane is made which can1 by means of a detachable side1 be used as a rabbet-plane4 ,the block-plane makes a quite good substitute for a smoothing-plane for amateur work and is a very useful little tool4 ,the toothed-plane is about the size of the smoothing-plane1 but the iron is corrugated or scored with grooves lengthwise1 so that one side of the cutting-edge of the iron1 instead of being smooth1 is notched into little teeth somewhat like a fine saw or the edge of a file1 and the iron is inserted in the body of the plane almost vertically4 ,this plane makes scratches all along its course instead of taking off shavings4 ,it is used in veneering and in gluing other surfaces4 ,it can frequently be used to good advantage to break up the grain where two edges or surfaces are to be glued together1 so that the glue may hold the two rough surfaces together more strongly1 upon somewhat the same principle that the plastering on a lathed wall holds its place tightly through the hold it gets on the cracks between the laths1 intentionally left for the purpose4 ,the toothed-plane is used for this purpose in veneering4 ,the idea upon which this tool is based originated with the ,orientals1 who have for ages scratched or toothed the joints of their wood-work4 ,it can also be used to subdue a refractory piece of crooked grain which you wish to get smooth1 but which may crop to the surface in such a way that you cannot plane it without chipping the grain4 ,by scratching the surface thoroughly in all directions with the toothed-plane set very fine1 the obstinate fibres can be broken so that the surface can be smoothed with the scraper1 not using the smoothing-plane4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 if you cannot smooth a piece of wood1 the trouble is usually with the edge of the plane-iron or its adjustment1 or with your manner of planing1 for a very keen edge is supposed to be able to cut the most obstinate grain1 unless1 of course1 the wood is extraordinarily hard4 ,the bull-nosed-plane has the iron close to the fore end of the stock1 to work into corners and awkward places which cannot be reached by the smoothing- or block-planes4 ,the iron is reversed4 ,a very small plane 7perhaps four inches long7 of this kind is useful4 ,the circular-plane is used for planing curved surfaces1 the sole being now made of a thin1 flexible metal plate and adjustable so that either concave or convex surfaces can be smoothed4 ,it is very useful at times1 but is not essential for an amateur4 ,the rabbet-plane1 which is used to cut rabbets1 as the name indicates1 is a useful tool1 but in most cases you can dispense with it by having rabbets cut at a mill4 ,a router1 for cleaning out and smoothing the bottoms of grooves and depressions1 is very useful at times4 ,there is a variety of other planes for special purposes1 as the plough1 matching-planes1 hollow and round planes1 beading-planes1 etc41 as well as various combination and universal planes4 ,many of these are excellent1 but1 as a rule1 are not important for the amateur in these days1 as the work they do can be so easily and cheaply done at a mill4 ,you will seldom feel the need of buying any of them1 unless you live where you cannot reach a factory4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fbi4 ,you will find it important to bear in mind the purpose of the cap or dull iron screwed upon one side of the cutting-iron1 in what are called double-ironed planes4 ,a plane with a single iron1 like a chisel1 will cut satisfactorily and easily for straight-grained1 soft wood1 and for hard wood when planing with the grain1 but many pieces of stock are difficult to plane1 because the grain does not run in the same way1 but turns and twists1 cropping up to the surface and dipping down again in all sorts of curious and perplexing ways4 ,in planing them the wood is likely to be continually chipping or tearing and breaking off below the surface1 instead of planing smoothly like a piece of straight-grained pine1 leaving dents and rough hollows over the surface4 ,the natural tendency of the plane-iron is to split the wood in front of the iron in such cases 7,fig4 #fbh74 ,to remedy this the plane has a double iron4 ,an iron or cap with a dull edge is screwed on to the face of the cutting-iron 7,fig4 #fbi7 so as to help bend and break off the shavings before the split gets fairly started 7,fig4 #fcj71 when the iron can cut it smoothly off4 ,the thickness of the shavings is greatly exaggerated in the cuts for the sake of illustration4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fcj4 ,the cutting edge is said to have lead in proportion to the distance it is in advance of the cap-iron4 ,the cap can be set some little distance from the edge for the jack-plane1 as far as an eighth of an inch1 but with the fore-plane and smoothing-plane it must be set quite close to the edge1 the distance varying according to the character of the wood4 ,the more crooked or cross-grained the wood1 the nearer the dull iron is brought down towards the edge of the sharp one4 ,the nearer the edge1 the smoother the result1 but the harder to work the plane4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fca4 ,something more than the break-iron is required1 however1 to insure breaking the shavings4 ,there must be an angle1 against which they can be broken1 close in front of the cutting edge and above the shaving4 ,this angle is the forward edge of the mouth or slot in the sole through which the iron projects 7,fig4 #fca74 ,thus the width of the mouth makes a difference in the smoothness of the surface1 for a narrow mouth is necessary to ensure the shaving being readily broken by the cap4 ,with a wide mouth1 the shaving will not be broken by the cap in time1 because there is no corner against which to break it4 ,with straight-grained wood this does not make so much difference1 but with crooked and broken grain narrowness of mouth is quite essential to a smooth surface1 provided that the opening is wide enough to allow the shaving to pass through freely4 ,rough and knotty wood requires the mouth very narrow and the iron set very fine 7i4e41 projecting but very little from the sole7 and the cap quite near the edge4 ,the modern iron planes have simple appliances for setting or adjusting the projection of the iron from the sole and thus regulating the thickness of the shaving4 ,if1 however1 you are obliged to use the old-fashioned wooden planes1 you raise the iron in the same way that you loosen it for removal1 by lightly tapping on the top of the fore end of the stock1 keeping hold of the plane with the left hand so as to prevent the iron falling through if loosened too much4 ,when the iron is raised enough1 fix it in place by tapping on top of the chip 7,fig4 #fba1 e7 or wedge which holds it in place4 ,to lower the cutting edge1 loosen as before and1 checking the edge with the finger1 let it project the required distance1 which you can tell about by looking along the sole 7,fig4 #fcb71 and fix in place by tapping the chip as before4 ,this is the process used in removing the iron for sharpening and replacing it1 the chip being removed as well as the iron4 ,any carpenter will show you the operation4 ,always hold the plane in the left hand in all these adjusting operations4 ,do not strike or tap any part of it while it rests on the bench or on anything solid4 ,to smooth a rough piece of wood1 use first the jack-plane1 to remove the rough surface and superfluous wood1 and then the fore-plane1 to straighten and smooth the surface4 ,if there is no need to have the surface true1 but only smooth1 you can omit using the fore-plane and follow the jack-plane at once by the smoothing-plane4 ,with ordinary machine-planed stock you do not usually need the jack-plane1 though it is sometimes useful in reducing a piece of wood to a given shape4 ,before beginning to plane1 see that all dirt or grit which might dull the tool is brushed from the surface4 ,turn the plane over and sight along the sole 7,fig4 #fcb71 not merely to see that the iron projects to the required degree1 but also to see that it projects equally1 lest one side or corner of the iron should cut more deeply than the other1 and thus make a groove or scratch on the wood 7,fig4 #fcc74 ,the latest iron planes have appliances to adjust any inequality of this sort1 but if your plane is not so arranged a little tapping on one side of the upper end of the iron will correct the trouble4 ,try the plane on a waste piece before beginning on nice work4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fcb4 ,plane with the grain1 as a rule1 and the fibres will be cut off cleanly where they crop up to the surface and your work will be left smooth4 ,if you plane against the grain1 some of the fibres will tend to splinter or chip off just below the surface before they are cut off 7,fig4 #fcd74 ,stand behind the work with the plane before you4 ,plane with the arms 7and from the shoulder71 not with the whole body4 ,try to shove the plane straight ahead1 also to plane as equally and evenly as possible over the surface2 for while it is comparatively easy to get a surface smooth it is quite another thing to keep it true or to make it true if warped or winding4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fcc4 ,the natural tendency1 and a common fault1 is to begin and end the stroke as shown in ,fig4 #fce4 ,rolling the body back and forth1 instead of pushing steadily with the arms from the shoulder1 aggravates this trouble4 ,the result of this way 7which is unconscious at first7 is that the surface after planing is apt to be as shown in ,fig4 #fcf4 ,to prevent this1 press down with the left hand on the forward part of the plane during the first part of the stroke1 and with the right hand on the rear part of the plane during the last part of the stroke 7,fig4 #fcg74 ,illustration ,,right4 ,,wrong4 ,,fig4 #fcd4 ,in planing wood which is dirty or rough1 it is best to lift the plane from the work when drawing it back for a fresh stroke1 or to draw it back so that only the point touches the board1 or to draw it back on edge1 but in planing small surfaces of clean wood it is not usually worth while to take this precaution4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fce4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fcf4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fcg4 ,in planing pieces with crooked grain1 turn the piece when practicable1 so as to plane as much of it with the grain as you can4 ,but many pieces are so crooked in grain that you cannot do this4 ,so at times it is well to turn your plane sideways to get a slicing cut and cross the grain at an angle 7,fig4 #fch72 but as a rule the plane should be pushed straight forward4 ,a few drops of oil rubbed over the face of the plane will make it run more smoothly1 particularly on hard wood4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fch4 ,test the accuracy of your planing of broad surfaces with a straight-edge1 the blade of a square1 or the edge of the plane itself 7if straight74 ,by applying such a straight-edge across the surface or lengthways or diagonally you can tell whether your work is straight and true 7,fig4 #fci74 ,also sight with your eye4 ,if the surface is large or long1 winding-sticks can be used 7see ,winding-sticks74 ,in planing edges test lengthways with the eye and straight-edge of some sort1 and crossways by applying the try-square 7,fig4 #fdj74 7,see ,jointing47 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fci4 ,it is1 of course1 harder to plane a broad surface1 as the side of a board1 than a narrow one1 as the edge4 ,when planing a flat surface1 as a board1 be careful not to plane off more at the edges than elsewhere 7,fig4 #fda71 as you will be quite likely to do if you allow the plane to tip sideways over the edge instead of keeping the sole parallel with the flat surface4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdj4 ,when planing across end-grain with the block-plane or smoothing-plane1 either secure a waste piece of wood at the side where the planing ends1 to prevent the edge chipping off1 as shown in ,fig4 #fdb1 or plane from both edges toward the middle 7,fig4 #fdc74 ,the use of the straight-edge will give the necessary clue to the process of making warped surfaces true4 7,see ,truing ,surfaces47 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fda4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdb4 ,whenever you make nice articles from wood planed by an ordinary cylinder planer1 the wood will seem quite smooth just as it is1 but do not neglect to smooth it carefully so as to take out all the planer-marks or those little corrugations across the grain left by the machine will often show clear across the room as soon as the work is finished4 ,see pages #dd1 #de1 and #df1 and also ,sharpening4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdc4 ,planing4--,see ,plane1 ,jointing1 ,truing ,surfaces4 ,plank1 ,laying4--,see ,boards1 ,laying4 ,plough4--,see ,plane4 ,plumb4--,you can make a plumb-line by merely hanging any weight at the end of a cord1 when the cord will of course be vertical as soon as it stops swinging 7,fig4 #fdd74 ,for convenience in using hang the cord on a board as shown in ,fig4 #acj4 ,when the cord hangs exactly on the line or at the apex of the notch the edge of the board will be vertical4 ,a long board will give a more accurate test than a short one in most cases1 just as a long plane will make a straighter edge than a short plane1 for the long board will bridge over the irregularities of the surface to be plumbed4 ,for example1 to take an exaggerated case1 the post plumbed as at a 7,fig4 #fde7 is vertical1 taken as a whole2 while the same post plumbed as at b leans over1 because the short board happens to be placed where the surface of the post is not straight4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdd4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fde4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdf4 ,when the plumb-line is used to determine a point exactly over or under another point1 as in surveying1 the bob is shaped with a point like a top 7,fig4 #fdf74 ,for making the plumb1 see page #if4 7,see also ,level47 ,pod-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,punch 7for ,nails74--,see ,nail-set4 ,putty4--,common putty is 7or should be7 a mixture of linseed oil and whiting of about the consistency of dough4 ,a mixture of white lead worked in with the whiting is1 however1 superior for some purposes1 and is better when but one coat of paint is to be put on after the puttying4 ,to colour putty1 stir the colouring matter in a little oil and then work and knead it into the putty until the whole is coloured4 ,keep putty under water4 ,do not leave it wrapped in the paper in which you may take it from the painter's1 for the oil will be absorbed by the paper and the putty will quickly become dry and hard4 ,use a square-bladed putty-knife for flat surfaces1 and do not use your fingers4 ,see also ,holes1 ,to ,stop4 ,putty-,knife4--,an old case-knife can be used 7better if reshaped squarely across or to an obtuse angle71 or1 in fact1 any knife1 but a regular putty-knife is best4 ,quill-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,rabbet4--,a rabbet is a recess or rectangular groove cut lengthways in the edge of a piece of board1 plank1 or other timber 7,fig4 #bhd74 ,it is usually better for the amateur to get such work done at a mill1 when practicable1 rather than to do it by hand4 ,the rabbet-plane is1 however1 a very useful tool to have4 ,in some cases1 as at the end of a piece1 the saw can be used1 the lines for the rabbet having been carefully marked with a knife or chisel4 ,the chisel can also be used to make a rabbet1 much as in cutting a mortise1 taking pains when driving the chisel down next the line not to cut under or jam the wood beyond the line4 ,in the final trimming to the line1 the chisel should be held with the flat side toward the line4 ,in removing the wood with the chisel1 it is often best to pare across the grain rather than with it 7see ,paring74 ,a strip of wood can be clamped across the piece exactly on the line as a guide for the saw and the sawing be done with the heel or rear corner of the saw1 keeping the latter close up to the gauge stick1 and pieces are sometimes even clamped to the saw itself to guide it1 but such arrangements1 though useful expedients under some circumstances1 are hardly the most workmanlike methods4 ,rabbet-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,rasp4--,the rasp--only used for wood--is a sort of coarse file1 but instead of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points1 which tear off the wood more quickly1 but also more roughly1 than the file4 ,it is extremely useful to remove surplus wood and to get curved objects roughly into shape4 ,one good-sized half-round 7or slab-sided7 rasp will be a great help4 ,see ,file4 ,rasping4--,see ,filing4 ,reamers4--,see ,bits4 ,repairing ,furniture4--,to repair thoroughly--to make things as strong as when new and to leave no sign of the mending--often requires more skill and ingenuity and more general knowledge of wood-working than to make new articles4 ,skill in repairing comes not merely from general knowledge of wood-working1 but from experience and ingenuity in applying your knowledge to new problems4 ,you will rarely have two jobs of repairing just alike1 even if of the same kind1 and the variety is almost endless4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible to give rules to cover all the different cases4 ,in fact1 to attempt to give complete directions for repairing would be to describe the majority of operations used in wood-working1 and the reader is referred to other parts of the book for whatever information it may contain4 ,suggestions on one or two points may1 however1 be of use4 ,suppose the arm of a chair comes off1 after having been stuck on with glue perhaps a dozen times4 ,how is it usually mended each time it comes off8 ,the family glue-pot1 containing the dregs of all the glue used since it was bought1 is put on the stove1 a little water poured in1 and as soon as the glue gets warmed into a thick paste a lot of it is daubed on to the joints1 on top of the thick coating they already have1 and the arm pushed as nearly into place as it will go4 ,it is then usually left for a few hours and sometimes even tied on with a string while the glue dries4 ,of course it sticks for a while and then the usual result follows4 ,now how should you go to work to do this properly8 ,first clean off all the old glue4 ,this is important4 ,you want to put the fresh glue on the wood1 not on top of the old glue2 but do not scrape away the wood in getting off the glue so that the parts will no longer fit4 ,next1 see whether the pieces will fit together as they should4 ,if they will1 then contrive some way to clamp them in place while the glue is drying4 ,sometimes hand-screws will do this1 sometimes clamps1 sometimes a rope twisted1 and often it will take all your ingenuity to contrive any arrangement1 but clamped they must be if you wish to be sure of a good job4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdg4 ,the pieces often make an angle with one another1 or are curved1 so that the clamps or hand-screws will not hold1 but slip as fast as you tighten them4 ,in such a case the method shown in ,fig4 #fdg can often be used4 ,screw a hand-screw firmly on each side of the joint1 rubbing chalk on the insides of the jaws to help prevent slipping1 and putting on the hand-screws so that the jaws will be parallel4 ,then1 by using two other hand-screws1 those first put on can be drawn towards one another and the joint firmly closed4 ,then proceed to glue the parts as with new work4 ,for the way to do this see ,gluing4 ,in patching old work with new wood1 pains should be taken to have the wood match as well as possible1 and1 as a rule1 pare or trim the new pieces after they are glued in place rather than before4 ,staining to match the older parts is often required 7see ,staining74 ,see also ,holes1 ,to ,stop4 ,the repaired joint may never be quite as strong as a new one1 therefore it is well to reinforce it with a block glued and screwed on the under or inner side1 in cases where this can be done without injuring the appearance1 as inside of the frame under a chair1 sofa1 or table4 ,it is not uncommon1 particularly in work which has come apart several times1 for the tenons to be too small4 ,if you can glue on thin pieces to make the tenon larger1 trimming them afterwards to fit1 it will be the best way2 but if the conditions do not admit of this1 a little muslin1 laid in glue1 can sometimes be wrapped around the tenon as the latter is fitted to place4 ,the same can sometimes be done with round pins or dowels4 ,the expedient of splitting and wedging tenons and dowels can often be applied in repairing 7see ,mortising and ,dowels74 ,sometimes you may find it necessary to use screws in places where the heads will show4 ,in such cases first make1 when possible1 a neat round or square hole with bit or chisel of sufficient diameter to admit the head of the screw and deep enough to allow a shallow plug to be inserted after the screw has been set 7see ,holes1 ,to ,stop74 ,the hardest part in finished work is to make the patch match the rest of the work4 ,see also ,gluing1 ,clamps1 and whatever other operations may be required4 ,ripping-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,rivets4--,in heading rivets hold another hammer or piece of metal1 or have someone else do so1 against the head of the rivet while upsetting the other end4 ,rounding ,sticks4--,it is often required to round sticks for poles1 masts1 spars1 arrows1 and a great many other purposes4 ,first plane the piece until it is as nearly square1 in section1 as you can make it4 ,then use the form shown on page #ie1 which will hold the squared stick firmly while you plane off the corners1 making it eight-sided4 ,be careful not to plane the corners off too much1 for the eight sides of the stick should be as nearly alike as possible4 ,next1 if the stick is large enough1 plane off each of the eight corners so that it will be sixteen-sided4 ,this is about as far as you can go in this way1 unless the stick is very large4 ,set the plane quite fine for taking off these corners or you may plane off too much before you know it4 ,the rest of the rounding you must do with light1 fine strokes1 testing by eye and by passing your hand over the work 7for you can judge a great deal by the sense of touch74 ,the rasp and file can often be used to good advantage4 ,the spoke-shave is good for the final smoothing1 followed by the scraper or glass 7both of which can be curved7 and sandpaper4 ,the latter can be used crosswise as well as lengthwise4 ,cut it in strips and pull it back and forth around the stick1 much as bootblacks put the final polish on shoes with a strip of cloth 7,fig4 #fdh74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdh4 ,to hold large sticks for this final shaping and smoothing you can put them in the vise1 but if there are several1 and large1 it is better to contrive some way to hold them after the fashion of the centres of a lathe4 ,for one centre1 drive a nail or screw through a block or stick of wood and screw the block in the vise 7,fig4 #fdi74 ,make the other centre in the same way and fasten it at such a distance from the first centre that the stick will just fit in between the two4 ,just how to fasten this second centre will depend on the length of the stick to be rounded and the arrangements of your shop1 but you can easily contrive some way to hold it4 ,the stick held between these centres will be clear of everything and can be turned around without trouble4 ,the middle can be supported1 if necessary1 by a piece of board or a strip lightly nailed to the bench-top4 ,masts and spars should be natural sticks1 if possible1 and the final shaping and smoothing will be all they will require1 for which some such apparatus as that just described will save time and trouble4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fdi4 ,to round small sticks1 as spars for model boats1 arrows1 etc41 the same process should be followed so far as the small size of the sticks will allow1 as you can of course shave more accurately with the plane1 on account of the long guiding sole1 for the same degree of effort1 than with any free-hand tool like the knife4 ,but when the stick is quite small it is hard to hold it firmly1 and it is also too much covered by the plane4 ,in such cases turn ,japanese4 ,fasten the plane bottom-up in the vise 7or even hold it in your lap if you have no vise7 and pull the stick along the sole of the plane instead of pushing the plane over the stick4 ,but look out for your fingers when you do this1 for a plane-iron in this position has a great appetite for finger-tips4 ,in filing a short1 round stick1 one end can often be rested on the bench and the stick turned around towards you as you file4 ,a good way to finish the shaping of such small sticks is to hold your knife with the edge downward close against the side of your leg just above the knee4 ,then pull the stick up steadily between your leg and the knife4 ,the leg acts as a sort of gauge to steady both the stick and the knife and with care you can cut a very even shaving in this way4 ,one very important thing to bear in mind in all these rounding operations is that you will rarely find wood with absolutely straight grain1 except in rift stock or natural sticks 7and in these there are often seemingly unaccountable twists and crooked streaks72 so you need to keep constant watch of the direction of the grain1 for even a slight turn of the stick will often bring the grain wrong with relation to your tool1 and one false cut running in too deep1 or even across the stick1 will spoil the work4 ,router4--,see ,plane4 ,rule4--,a rule with which to lay out your work and measure your stock is one of the first tools of which you can make use4 ,a two-foot rule1 folding once1 is the most convenient for shop-work1 but the more common kind1 folding to six inches in length1 is more convenient to carry around away from the shop4 ,one brass-bound 7with brass edges7 is more durable1 but hardly as convenient to use as the common cheap kind1 which will answer every purpose until it breaks4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fej4 ,to mark distances with the rule for accurate work1 lay the rule on edge so that the divisions marked on it will touch the wood and not be an eighth of an inch above it1 as they are when the rule lies flat 7,fig4 #fej74 ,you can thus mark the points more accurately4 ,sandpaper4--,the fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers--#jj 7the finest71 #j1 #a_/b1 #a1 #a-a_/b1 #b1 #b-a_/b and #c 7the coarsest74 ,you will use the fine and medium numbers more than the very coarse ones1 and will seldom require coarser than #a-a_/b4 ,test sandpaper1 when buying1 by rubbing the sand a little with your hand to see if it is securely stuck on1 and tear the paper a little to see if it is strong4 ,never use sandpaper until all the cutting with the tools is done4 ,sandpaper with the grain1 except for work which is to be painted4 ,the proper use of sandpaper1 as a rule1 for such work as you will do1 is merely to give a little extra smoothness1 to take out little scratches1 to round edges1 and the like1 but not to cut away the wood and scrub it into the shape you wish4 ,to use it much1 except to skim over your work1 is apt to get you into a slovenly style of working1 and the result will lack the sharp accuracy of good work4 ,do not rely on the sandpaper to remove the defects in your work4 ,do the work right and you will need but little sandpaper1 except in a few operations which will be specified when there is occasion4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fea4 ,for flat surfaces it is well to fold the sandpaper over a flat block of cork or wood 7,fig4 #fea71 the edges of which have been slightly rounded4 ,if the surface is curved1 the block should be curved correspondingly4 ,a piece of thick rubber or leather which can be bent to fit the surface is excellent4 ,care should be taken not to round the corners and edges of the work when sandpapering4 ,in sandpapering any very delicate piece of work1 when the edge might get rounded or the surface scratched by the stiffness of even the finest sandpaper1 as in rubbing down finished work1 split the paper1 which you can easily do by removing the outer layer of paper from the back1 when the remaining part to which the sand adheres will be much softer and more flexible4 ,saw4--,saws are used for cutting across the grain and with the grain and there are various kinds for special purposes4 ,the cross-cutting saw is used1 as the name indicates1 for cutting across the grain of wood and for ordinary work4 ,the blade is usually thicker at the teeth than at the back1 to stiffen it and to enable it to pass through the wood more freely4 ,from #ah to #bd is a good length for a cross-cutting saw 7or more commonly called panel-saw7 for your work1 with about eight to ten teeth to the inch4 ,examine the teeth 7,fig4 #feb7 and you will see that they are pointed and sharp1 somewhat like the point of your knife1 and that they cut across the fibres much the same as your knife does when you hold it upright and draw it across a board4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #feb4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fec4 ,you will notice1 also1 that the teeth are alternately bent outwards1--one tooth being bent out to one side1 the next to the other side1--this spreading of the teeth 7which is called the set7 making the saw wider at the points of the teeth than elsewhere4 ,you will also notice that the sharp cutting edge of each tooth is on the outside4 ,this set1 and the way the teeth are sharpened1 makes the cut wider than the thickness of the blade1 thus giving the saw clearance and enabling it to slip back and forth easily and without binding 7,fig4 #fec74 ,as a practical matter of fact1 however1 it is nothing uncommon for a saw to bind in the cut1 either from not sawing straight or from the wood closing on the saw 7see ,fig4 #fie74 ,the teeth not only cut or break off the fibres in parallel lines at the points of the teeth1 but also tear off and remove the bits of wood 7i4e41 the sawdust7 between these parallel cuts4 ,the degree to which the teeth are set and the number of teeth to the inch depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put and the kind of wood to be used4 ,of course the finer the teeth the smoother the cut4 ,cross-cut saws are usually sharpened differently for soft and for hard wood1 but little set being required for the latter1 while the former needs a wider set to give the blade clearance1 because the fibres of the looser-textured soft wood are bent aside by the tearing action of the saw teeth and are not so cleanly cut off as in the hard wood4 ,we have examined the teeth of the cross-cut saw and have seen that they cut across the grain of the wood very much as the point and edge of a knife1 and that the fibres1 being cut or broken or torn off in fine pieces1 are removed from the kerf by the teeth4 ,now to saw in the direction of the grain1 instead of across it1 we use a saw based on a different principle4 ,as we used little knives to cut across the grain1 so we use little chisels to cut with the grain4 ,look at the teeth of the ripping-saw and you will see that they are little chisels sharp only at the end 7,fig4 #fed71 though not as acute as chisels for obvious reasons4 ,these sharp ends1 which are square 7,fig4 #fee1 showing set7 or may be oblique1 cut or tear off the fibres1 and the front edges of the teeth push the pieces out of the cut4 ,the teeth of the cross-cut saw are filed so that the front cutting-edge is drawn across the wood in the most effective way1 much as you would draw the knife-point across1 while the teeth of the ripping-saw are pointed forward at a more acute angle so that the cutting-edge is pushed through the wood1 somewhat as you push a chisel4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fed4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fee4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fef4 ,the ripping-saw cuts only on the down stroke4 ,it is not suitable for use directly across the grain1 as it tears the fibres when pushed across them much more than the cross-cut saw4 ,the ripping-saw usually has larger teeth than the cross-cut saw4 ,from #e-a_/b to #h points to the inch will do for your work4 ,the ripping-saw usually cuts best when held slanting rather than at right angles with the board 7,fig4 #fef71 as you can easily understand when you think how a chisel works best in paring at the end of a board4 ,if the cut closes up after the saw so as to bind it1 drive a wedge 7or even a screw-driver or chisel7 into the crack so as to open it enough for the saw to work freely4 ,binding of the saw from this cause is very common in making long cuts4 ,when you come to a hard knot in splitting you can sometimes gain by taking the cross-cut saw to cut through it4 ,you will probably get most of your splitting done at a mill and will not have to depend on hand ripping-saws so much as your grandfathers did4 ,the back-saw should have1 for your use1 from #aj to #af teeth to the inch and be perhaps #ab inches long4 ,the blade is very thin to insure a finer and more accurate cut than can be made with the common saw1 and therefore requires care in using4 ,it has a back 7whence the name7 made of a thin piece of brass or iron put on so as to give the blade the necessary firmness4 ,this is an exceedingly useful tool1 with which and a common panel saw you can do a great deal of work without any other4 ,the back-saw must be used with care1 for the blade is so thin that a little wrenching will spring it out of shape in spite of the strengthening back4 ,in the compass-saw the blade is very narrow1 being about one inch at the broadest part and diminishing gradually to about a quarter of an inch at the other end4 ,it is about fifteen inches long and is employed in cutting curved forms4 ,as the blade is narrow and tapers towards the back and the teeth have a wide set it will cut a small circle4 ,notice that the teeth of the compass-saw are a sort of a compromise between those of the ripping and cross-cut saws1 which enables them to cut freely either way of the grain1 as is of course necessary in sawing curves4 ,the turning- or bow-saw is much better for any work with which the bow will not interfere1 and is a very useful tool at times4 ,get one with handles which turn so that the blade can be turned to saw at an angle with the frame4 ,you will need a few extra blades of different widths4 ,the main thing to be borne in mind is to make the cut square with the surface4 ,it is easier to follow the line than to secure a cut at right angles to the surface4 ,the keyhole-saw1 which is even smaller than the compass-saw1 is used for cutting quicker curves1 as for a keyhole4 ,it has a handle like that of a chisel1 with a slot cut through from end to end4 ,there is a screw on one side1 so that the blade may be fixed at any length1 according to the size of the hole to be cut4 ,a good kind1 which can be used for both compass- and keyhole-saws1 has a handle into which various blades can be fitted4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #feg4 ,compass- and keyhole-saws are difficult for beginners to use without bending1 twisting1 or breaking their thin and narrow blades4 ,most of your curved sawing can be done better with a turning-saw or at a mill by a band- or jig-saw4 ,if done at the mill1 have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr1 or ragged edge1 left by the sawing4 ,a common way to test saws1 when buying1 is to take the handle in one hand and bend the point of the saw around in a curve sideways and then let the blade spring back1 which it should do without being permanently bent or sprung4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #feh4 ,do not saw from one side of the line4 ,have your eyes above the line so that you can look on both sides of the saw 7,fig4 #feg74 ,this will help you to keep the saw-blade at right angles with the surface of the wood4 ,hold the saw firmly with the forefinger pressed against the side of the handle to help guide and steady it 7,fig4 #feg74 ,having placed the saw just at the outside edge of the line and on the farther side of the piece1 seize the wood with the left hand and hold the thumb against the blade 7above the teeth7 to help start the cut in the right place 7,fig4 #feh74 ,aside from the danger of the saw jumping and damaging the wood unless guided by the thumb1 it is liable to cut your left hand4 ,you can make a little notch with the knife or chisel on the outside of the line1 to help start the saw1 in the case of nice work1 if you wish4 ,cut straight in just on the line and then make a sloping cut to meet this from outside the line 7,fig4 #fei74 ,first draw the saw gently backwards1 guiding it by the thumb1 with as little pressure on the wood as possible until you see that the cut is started right1 then push it gently forward1 and after a few easy strokes in this way to get the cut started right1 keep on with long1 steady strokes1 but not long enough so that the end of the saw enters the kerf1 lest it catch and the saw buckle4 ,the saw should cut most on the downward motion1 not on the up stroke4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fei4 ,with a sharp saw1 there is nothing gained by bearing down heavily on the teeth1 which may spring the saw and make crooked work4 ,rather let the saw run of itself with an easy1 light stroke1 guiding it carefully1 and not letting it press on the wood on the up stroke4 ,the more hastily and furiously you saw the poorer the result will probably be4 ,when you begin to run off the line1 as you will be pretty sure to do1 twist the saw a little with the wrist as you go on1 which will bring it back to the line1 because of the kerf being wider than the thickness of the saw-blade4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffj4 ,beginners are apt to bend the saw over to one side4 ,you can tell whether it is cutting at right angles with the face of the board by testing with the try-square as shown in ,fig4 #ffj4 ,such a test as this is1 however1 too inconvenient for ordinary practical work and you should learn as quickly as you can to hold the saw-blade correctly4 ,at the end of the cut1 as at the beginning1 saw gently with quick1 light strokes1 and hold the piece which is being cut off with the left hand1 lest it break off and splinter one of the two pieces4 ,if the saw binds or does not work easily1 you can for your rougher work put a little tallow1 butter1 lard1 or lubricating oil on the blade1 but beware of doing this for your nice work1 or it will deface it when done4 ,if the binding is caused by the springing together of the wood 7,fig4 #fie7 the crack should be wedged open4 ,do not get into the habit of sawing a little way outside of the line and then trimming off the superfluous wood with your knife or a chisel4 ,that is not a good way to learn to saw by a line4 ,try your best to make the cut where it should be 7even if you do make mistakes for a good while7 and thus get into the habit of doing it right without having to rely on any other tool than the saw4 ,many pieces of wood can better be screwed in the vise for sawing instead of being laid on the horses1 and this position is often preferable4 ,in this case you grasp the wood with the left hand and use the saw as already described4 7,see ,sharpening74 ,saw-,filing4--,see ,sharpening4 ,sawing4--,see ,saw4 ,saw-,set4--,various contrivances can be bought for setting saw teeth4 ,when you get to the point of needing one you can easily find a variety from which to select4 ,scraper4--,the scraper is made of saw-blade steel 7frequently from an old saw7 and may be of any shape or size to suit the work required of it4 ,a common form for scraping flat surfaces is rectangular like a postal-card1 and a good size is from #b #d to #c #e4 ,a piece of glass makes a good scraper for almost every purpose except where a flat1 true surface is required4 ,it is good to smooth the handle of a paddle1 for instance1 but not good for scraping the top of a nice table4 ,for many rounded surfaces glass is fully as good as a steel scraper1 but for general use the latter is much better4 ,the following directions may be of use when you wish to break glass to use for a scraper3 ,take the back of a knife1 or the smooth1 straight edge of any piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment1 then1 taking the piece of glass in both hands1 rest its edge midway between them on the edge of the iron2 let the upper edge of the glass lean from you1 and push it gently along the iron1 so as slightly to indent the edge of the glass2 then1 reversing its position so as to make it lean towards you1 draw it smartly along the iron1 and you will find it separated by a clean fracture directly across1 forming a line more or less curved1 and leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other4 ,by a little practice1 and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other1 almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be achieved 7,lord and ,baines1 ,shifts and ,expedients of ,camp ,life74 ,the edge of the scraper is turned over so as to form a sort of hooked edge or angle 7,fig4 #ffa71 which when pushed over the surface scrapes off thin shavings4 ,to smooth a flat surface the scraper can be held with both hands1 between the fingers and thumb 7,fig4 #ffb71 and pushed along in the direction towards which it is inclined4 ,sometimes one end of the scraper is held between the thumb and fingers of the left hand and the palm of the right hand applied below to push the tool along4 ,as a rule scrape with the grain1 and it is often advantageous to hold the scraper obliquely to the grain when pushing it forward4 ,in case of some crooked and twisted grain you will find it best to scrape in any and in all directions4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffa4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffb4 ,you can make scrapers yourself by filing and grinding pieces of old saw-blades4 ,it is very convenient to have a number of them with edges of various degrees of curvature 7both convex and concave71 but these you can make as you need them4 ,a scraper is sometimes set in a stock and guided by handles like those of a spoke-shave1 and sometimes set in a stock like a plane and used in the same manner4 ,a scraper of the latter sort is often useful to assist in keeping the surface true when scraping1 as its flat sole prevents its following all the undulations of the surface as readily as the hand-scraper1 with which one is apt to make depressions by scraping too much in some particular spot4 ,but so far as smoothing the surface goes there is nothing better than the common hand-scraper or so easily taken care of4 ,for sharpening the scraper1 see ,sharpening4 ,in many large places you can get your wood for nice work scraped to a satin-like finish by a machine made for the purpose1 but this is hardly worth while for ordinary work4 ,you can also have it smoothed very nicely by sandpapering machines1 but this is not advisable if there is to be any cutting of the wood afterwards1 as the grit left in the pores of the wood will quickly take the keen edge from your tools4 ,the best test for smoothness alone is to run the fingers over the surface with a light touch4 ,great acuteness of touch can be acquired in this way4 ,any experienced wood-worker can at once detect inequalities with his fingers that he could not possibly see4 ,irregularities in curves can be detected in the same way4 ,bead cutters or scrapers and reed scrapers and fluters can be bought of various patterns4 ,you will hardly need to buy anything of the sort for some time1 as you can make one when required4 ,see ,beading4 ,scratch-,awl4--,see ,awl4 ,screw-,driver4--,the screw-driver is too familiar to need description1 but in buying one see that the end is shaped like either of those shown in ,fig4 #ffc and not as shown in ,fig4 #ffd4 ,cheap screw-drivers are often made in the latter way4 ,if ground with a short bevel 7,fig4 #ffd7 it will bear only on the top of the slot in the screw and will be all the time slipping out1 on the principle of the inclined plane1 while if the sides are parallel or concaved slightly the end will remain at the bottom of the nick of the screw4 ,this is also a help in extracting screws1 as it saves the need of pressing against the screw so hard to keep the screw-driver from slipping out of the slot4 ,it is well to have screw-drivers of different sizes1 as it is difficult and often impossible to use a screw-driver with an edge much too large or too small4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffc4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffd4 ,remember that a long screw-driver is always preferable to a short one1 except where lack of space makes a short one necessary4 ,the reason for this is in the fact that in using the screw-driver you do not1 as a practical matter1 keep it exactly in the line of the screw1 but keep wobbling it round more or less1 which gives a leverage in the form of a crank-like action as you turn the handle4 ,the longer the screw-driver the larger the circle or wobbling curve you describe with your hand and the greater the leverage 7,fig4 #ffe74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffe4 ,a screw-driver to be turned by the bit-brace is very useful for driving screws rapidly and with force1 on account of the greater leverage gained by using the brace instead of the common handle4 ,this is particularly useful where they need to be driven in very hard or when tight screws have to be loosened4 ,it also saves much time when many screws are to be used4 ,it is not advisable to buy automatic screw-drivers4 ,they work satisfactorily for light work1 but are not suitable for such wrenching and straining as your screw-drivers are liable to be subjected to4 ,you want screw-drivers to which you can apply all your strength4 ,see ,screws4 ,screws4--,there are many kinds of screws4 ,you will use the common wood-screws for most of your work4 ,these are either flat-headed or round-headed1 and of steel 7either bright or blue or bronzed or nickled7 or of brass4 ,when others are required they will be mentioned4 ,it is doubtful economy to buy second-hand or waste screws1 but a pound or two of mixed screws1 which you can get at any hardware store1 will be very useful when you want some odd screw for some special purpose4 ,many of the screws in the mixed lots1 which are sold very cheap1 are defective1 but you can often find among them just the peculiar screw you need1 and so save time and money4 ,nails are often used where it would be better to use screws1 which will1 as a rule1 hold the pieces more securely4 ,when work becomes loose1 screws can be tightened1 while nails usually have to be redriven4 ,to make a screw drive easily1 rub the point on a piece of common soap4 ,oil is objectionable for nice work on account of the spot made by it4 ,if screws are to be used in places where they may rust1 it is a good plan to warm them slightly and then dip them in melted tallow or lard4 ,they can also be inserted and removed more easily for this treatment4 ,try to keep the screw-driver from slipping from the slot of the screw 7see ,screw-driver74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fff4 ,in boring holes for screws1 considerable discretion must be used4 ,the hole in the outer piece 7the one nearer the head of the screw7 should be large enough to allow the screw to slip through freely--that is1 you should not screw it into both pieces1 but only the inner one1 the screw acting somewhat in the nature of a clamp to bind the outer piece to the inner by pinching it tight between the screw-head and the inner piece 7,fig4 #fff74 ,how much of a hole to bore in the piece into which the point of the screw enters depends on circumstances4 ,the stouter the screw the less hole required4 ,the softer and larger the piece and the farther from the edge the less hole required4 ,if the piece is small or liable to split1 the hole must be carefully made--the more carefully in proportion to the slenderness of the screw1 as a slim screw is liable to twist off in hard wood unless a sufficient hole is provided4 ,brass screws are very apt to do this1 and much care must be used1 particularly with slender ones in hard wood4 ,if the hole is a bit too large1 they will not hold4 ,if a trifle too small1 they will twist off1 which is very annoying1 especially in such cases as hinge-screws1 for instance1 where the place for the screws cannot well be changed4 ,the hole should be somewhat smaller than the diameter of the screw4 ,in good-sized pieces of soft wood there is frequently no need of any hole4 ,in rough work1 especially in soft wood1 the screws may be pounded part way with the hammer1 driving them home with the screw-driver4 ,some theoretical workman will be quite sure to tell you never to do such a thing as that1 so be sure to understand what is meant4 ,theoretically there may be some loss of holding power by that process1 but practically the screws will hold just as well for the cases in which you are advised to do that way4 ,judgment must be used about all such things and theories are only of value when used by the light of common-sense4 ,for example1 if you are screwing the top on a mahogany table or framing a nice boat never think of using a hammer to start your screws1 but if you are putting cleats on an old shed door or screwing up a packing-case do not spend an hour and a lot of strength driving screws all the way with a screw-driver when you can do the work in half an hour by driving the screws three quarters of the way in with the hammer4 ,good practical workmen are just as certain to use the hammer in such cases as they are careful not to use it for nice work or where the full holding power of the screw is needed4 ,flat-headed screws almost always should be countersunk 7see ,countersink71 for neatness if for no other reason1 and in hard wood you should cut the depression for the head of the screw with the regular countersink made for the purpose4 ,this should be done for nice work in soft wood where a good surface is required1 but for common work in soft wood there is no need1 as a rule1 for the head of the screw will sink itself easily until flush with the surface4 ,if a screw hole requires to be moved a little1 but not far enough so that a new hole can be bored without the bit slipping into the old hole1 plug the old hole with a wooden pin dipped in glue1 and when dry bore the new hole where required4 ,see ,screw-driver4 ,scribing4--,compasses are often used for scribing a line parallel to another line or surface1 whether regular or irregular1 in places where the gauge cannot be used4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you wish to cut the edge of a board to fit the undulating surface shown in ,fig4 #ffg4 ,run the compasses along with one point on the surface and the other making a mark on the board1 and the line on the board will be parallel with the surface4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffg4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #ffi4 ,another example is that of making a table1 bench1 chair1 horse1 or any four-legged object stand evenly4 ,if it stands on three legs1 which is a common fault and likely to occur in your first attempts1 do not hastily saw one leg shorter by guess1 and1 making it too short1 saw another and so on until it stands firmly1 when the top will probably be all out of level4 ,if there is any true surface on which you can stand the article 7right side up71 you can level the top by wedging under the legs until the corners of the top are equally distant from the surface on which the object stands4 ,then setting the compasses at a distance equal to that at which the end of the shortest leg is raised 7,fig4 #ffh71 scribe around the other legs1 which can then be cut off4#ej ,see also ,winding-,sticks and ,marking4 ,setting ,saws4--,see ,sharpening4 ,sharpening4--,before attempting to sharpen your tools yourself it would be well to read the advice given on page #bb under ,care of ,tools4 ,the general process of sharpening edged tools is first to grind them to as keen an edge as possible on the grindstone1 or the emery-wheel1 then to smooth down the coarse edge left by the grindstone by rubbing on a fine stone with oil or water1 and finally stropping on leather4 ,the grindstone must be kept wet while grinding or the heat caused by the friction of the tool on the dry stone will ruin the temper of the steel4 ,besides1 the water carries off the waste particles of stone and steel4 ,stand on the side towards which the top of the stone turns4 ,the tool can be ground with the stone turning from you1 and1 in fact1 this usually seems the natural way to a novice1 but it is usually more difficult to grind uniformly in that way and too thin an edge 7a wire-edge1 ragged but not sharp7 is apt to be produced1 the removal of which is difficult without further damaging the edge and delaying the final sharpening4 ,to grind the point of a knife1 it can be moved back and forth lengthways with a curving motion1 while resting flat on the grindstone1 and to grind the straight part of the blade1 it can be allowed to bear very slightly harder near the edge of the stone than elsewhere1 as it is passed back and forth4 ,to grind a chisel1 grasp the handle with the right hand1 hold the blade in the left hand with the fingers uppermost and near the cutting-edge4 ,the arms and wrists should be kept as rigid as possible1 the former at the sides of the body1 so that the tool may be held firmly against the motion of the stone4 ,lay the chisel with slight pressure quite flatly on the stone and then raise the handle until the bevel touches the stone4 ,as you grind keep moving the tool slowly back and forth across the stone1 which helps keep the edge of the tool straight and prevents the stone being worn away too much in one place4 ,use plenty of water4 ,the common way of holding the tool on the stone is the one just described1 but it can also be held at right angles to this position1 so that1 in the case of a chisel1 for instance1 the grinding action of the stone instead of being from the edge toward the handle is from side to side of the blade4 ,the tool is ground quicker and easier by this means1 and it is a good way to reduce the edge to shape1 finishing the grinding by the regular method4 ,you will see that the curvature of the stone will tend to give the bevel a slight curve1 in whatever position the tool is held1 which is advantageous in the common way of grinding4 ,when held so that the stone grinds from side to side of the blade the tool must be continually turned a little in the hand so that each part of the edge will bear in turn on the stone1 as1 the tool edge being flat1 and the surface of the stone rounding1 the tool would otherwise be ground hollowing4 ,it is harder to hold the tool in this way1 however1 without its slipping or making nicks or grooves in the stone1 and you had best learn to grind in the ordinary manner4 ,try to grind squarely across the chisel--that is1 to have the cutting-edge at right angles to the lengthways edge of the tool4 ,apply the square at intervals to test the accuracy of the grinding4 ,the angle for grinding the bevel of such tools as the chisel is about twenty-five degrees1 but when used for very hard wood the angle should be slightly greater1 or the edge may be broken4 ,do all the grinding on the bevel4 ,do not apply the flat side of the tool to the grindstone4 ,any slight burr or turning over of the edge on the flat side should be taken off by the oil-stone4 ,if the edge is badly nicked or broken1 you can first straighten or grind it down roughly on the side of the stone or by holding it nearly at right angles to the stone--but with the latter turning the other way--before grinding in the regular way4 ,to tell when the tool is ground sufficiently1 hold the edge in front of you toward the light4 ,if the edge can be seen as a bright shining line it is a sign that the tool is dull4 ,it will not be sharp until this bright line has been removed1 and the edge has become invisible1 for a really keen edge cannot be seen by the naked eye4 ,bear this in mind1 as it is the final test and the simplest way to tell when to stop grinding4 ,in grinding on a grindstone and in rubbing on an oil-stone1 the great difficulty is to keep the same angle between the tool and the stone1 as the natural tendency in moving the tool is to rock it back and forth and thus alter the angle between the blade and the stone4 ,an arrangement can be bought which preserves the desired angle without effort on the part of the grinder4 ,a little ingenuity will enable you to rig up a guide or gauge with a piece of board which will enable you to replace the tool on the grindstone at the same angle4 ,the plane-iron is sharpened in the same way as the chisel1 only1 being wider than most of the chisels you are likely to use1 it requires more care to sharpen4 ,the plane-irons can be ground to a somewhat more acute angle than the chisels1 although the jack-plane1 which is used for rough work1 may require more strength at the edge4 ,in rubbing the edge upon the oil-stone1 do not attempt to smooth down the whole bevel made by the grindstone1 but first lay the tool lightly on the stone as shown in ,fig4 #fgj;a1 then raise the handle until the upper part of the bevel is very slightly raised1--barely enough to clear the stone 7,fig4 #fgj;b71--and then proceed with the whetting1 thus making a second or little bevel at the edge 7,fig4 #fga74 ,the tool must be moved back and forth very steadily or instead of a second bevel the whole edge will be rounded 7,fig4 #fgb7 and will not have the requisite keenness4 ,the angle of this second bevel is usually about ten degrees greater than the long bevel1 or thirty-five degrees1 although the angles of sharpening should be varied slightly according to the hardness of the wood and the kind of work to be done2 but where you have only few tools and must use them for all kinds of work you cannot always1 as a practical matter1 pay much regard to such variations1 as of course you cannot keep regrinding your tools every time you begin on a new piece of wood4 ,just how acute to make the edge you must learn by experience1 according to the conditions of your work4 ,an edge suitable for delicate work in white-pine would be immediately ruined if used upon lignum-vit4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fga4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgb4 ,any little wire edge which is produced on the flat side by the process of rubbing on the oil-stone can be removed by drawing the flat side of the iron over the stone once1 but be sure that you do not raise the handle at all1 as the slightest bevel on the flat side of the edge will spoil it4 ,after the tool has been sharpened a good many times on the oil-stone this smaller bevel 7the oil-stone bevel1 so to speak7 will become so wide that it is a waste of time and strength to rub it down4 ,the chisel must then be reground and a new bevel made on the oil-stone4 ,it is a good plan to have a separate stone or slip for the outside bevel of gouges1 because it is so hard to avoid rubbing hollows in the stone1 which injures it for the other tools4 ,care must be taken also with very narrow or pointed tools lest the stone be grooved or nicked4 ,gouges can be rubbed at right angles with the stone1 rolling the tool with the left hand1 or by the use of a slip they can be rubbed as described below4 ,for rubbing gouges on the inside1 i4e41 on the concave surface1 rounded pieces of stone1 called slips1 are used4 ,these can be bought of various sizes and shapes to fit the various curves4 ,do not think1 however1 that you must try to find a slip that will fit each gouge as exactly as if it had been shaped by the gouge itself4 ,the curve of the slip may be a little quicker or sharper than that of the tool1 but must not be flatter or of course it cannot be made to bear on all parts of the curve4 ,in rubbing with the slip1 hold the tool upright in the hand and rub the slip up and down1 moving the slip and not the tool4 ,if you rest the tool against the bench1 it will steady it and also avoid any probability of your finger slipping on to the edge4 ,the more common outside gouges are not rubbed on the inside1 except the merest touch of the slip to remove any wire edge or burr4 ,the draw-knife is also rubbed with a flat slip1 in the same manner1 resting it on the bench4 ,in rubbing the knife on the oil-stone give it a circular motion rather than simply back and forth1 particularly for the point4 ,the straight part can be allowed to bear a little more heavily near the edge of the stone as it is passed back and forth4 ,it is much the best way to sharpen tools frequently1 as soon as they begin to get dull1 when they will require but little rubbing on the stone1 rather than to let them get into such condition that it is a long and hard job to whet them2 and of course the more careful you are to keep them sharp1 the better work you will do4 ,to test the sharpness of your tools1 cut across the grain of a piece of soft pine wood4 ,if the cut is clean and smooth1 the tools are sharp1 but if the cut is rough or the wood torn1 further sharpening is needed4 ,the reason for using soft wood1 which at first thought might not seem to require as keen an edge as hard wood1 is because the fibrous structure of the soft wood1 being more yielding1 offers less resistance to the tool and so is torn or crushed apart except by a very keen edge1 while the firmer structure of the hard wood can be cut smoothly by a tool which would tear the soft wood4 ,the difference is somewhat like that between cutting a fresh loaf of bread or cake and a stale one4 ,the edge left by the oil-stone can be improved by stropping on a piece of leather on which a little paste of lard and emery or some similar composition has been spread4 ,this is better than to strop knives and other tools on your boots4 ,any piece of leather such as barbers use1 or even a piece from an old boot1 will answer4 ,for flat edges see that the strop rests on a flat surface1 so as not to tend to round the edge1 as it may do if held carelessly in the hand4 ,see ,oil-stone and ,strop4 ,saw ,filing is particularly hard for boys and amateurs to do satisfactorily and you are advised not to undertake it until you have become quite familiar with the use of tools1 for it does not need to be done very often1 costs but little1 and there are very few places where you cannot get it done4 ,it is not difficult to understand the theory of setting and filing saw teeth1 but to fix a saw in really good shape is hard for an amateur1--and for that matter you will find but a small proportion of good workmen who are experts in saw filing4 ,even in very small villages there is almost always some mechanic who has the knack of putting saws in order better than anyone else and who therefore makes quite a business of such work and people bring their saws to him from all the country round1 even though they may be able to fix them tolerably well themselves1 so great is the advantage in the quality of the work and the saving of time in having a saw in perfect condition4 ,you had best do the same1 and have your saws fixed whenever they get dull4 ,the expense is but slight1 and there is nothing that will conduce more to good work1 and to your own success and satisfaction1 than to have your tools in first-rate working order4 ,when you get to the point of filing and setting your saws you are advised to take a lesson from a good saw-filer4 ,there are few persons so situated that they cannot do this1 or at least watch someone go through the process1 and thus learn much more readily than by reading about the process in a book4 ,in fact1 it is one of those things that it is so hard to learn from a book that merely a few remarks on the subject are given here4 ,the saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp1 expressly for the purpose1 so that it will not shake or rattle4 ,the teeth are jointed1 or reduced to the same level1 by lightly passing the flat side of a file over their points1 lengthways of the saw4 ,the saw can also be jointed along the sides after filing1 but this is frequently omitted4 ,for a cross-cutting saw the file 7a triangular saw-file7 is held at an angle with the blade depending upon the particular form of tooth adopted1 as you will see by examination4 ,the handle being grasped in the right hand1 the point of the file should be held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand 7,fig4 #ebf74 ,the file must be pushed across with an even1 straight stroke1 without any rocking or up and down motion1 pressure being applied only on the forward or pushing stroke1 the tool being drawn back very lightly or lifted entirely on the back stroke4 ,the filing is begun at one end of the saw1 filing only the teeth which bend away from you 7i4e41 every alternate tooth71 carefully keeping the file at the proper angle1 pressing only on the tooth you are filing1 but keeping the tool lightly touching the adjacent tooth1 and making allowance for the fact that when you file the alternate set the passing file will take off a little from the teeth first filed4 ,the saw is then turned around and the process repeated with the other teeth4 ,if you look lengthways along the edge of a panel-saw that has been properly filed and set1 an angular trough or groove will be seen along the whole length1 so that you can slide a needle along in it from one end of the saw to the other4 ,the ripping-saw is usually filed squarely across the saw 7at right-angles to the blade71 as you will see at once on examination of the teeth 7,figs4 #fed and #fee71 but sometimes at a more acute angle4 ,the teeth are set by bending every other tooth outward1 first setting those on one side and then those on the other4 ,you should do this with some one of the various adjustable tooth-setting contrivances sold for the purpose1 as it requires a skilled workman to set teeth in any other way1 and any attempt on your part to do so without some instrument adjusted to the purpose will probably result in damaging the saw4 ,for soft and loose-fibred wood more set is needed than for hard wood1 because the fibres1 which are quite cleanly cut or broken in the hard wood1 in the more yielding soft wood are bent aside by the teeth to close in upon the blade with considerable binding force2 and less set is required by fine work than for coarse4 ,the angles and points of saw teeth can be more acute for soft than for hard wood4 ,to sharpen the scraper you must have a sharpener or burnisher4 ,the edge of a chisel or any piece of very hard steel can be used after a fashion1 but it is better to have a regular tool for the purpose1 which can be made easily from an old three-cornered file1 such as is used for filing saws1 by grinding off the teeth and slightly rounding the angles on the grindstone until the whole tool is smooth4 ,two opposite edges of the scraper are ground or filed and the edge then turned over by the burnisher4 ,some workmen grind the edges with an obtuse bevel and use only one angle of each edge4 ,others grind the edges square and use both angles of each edge4 ,the bevel gives a slightly keener scraping edge than to grind the steel square1 but it requires more frequent sharpening and the squared edge turned over on both sides is likely to be more satisfactory4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgc4 ,first grind or file the two opposite edges squarely across and slightly round each corner to prevent scratching the wood4 ,if there is a burr at the edge it can be removed by rubbing the scraper lightly on the oil-stone1 but this is advisable only for final scraping of very fine work4 ,having thus got the edge at right angles and smooth1 lay the scraper flat on its side near the edge of the bench and rub the burnisher back and forth a few times in the position shown in ,fig4 #fgc1 which is almost flat on the scraper4 ,this rubbing bends a little of the steel over the edge4 ,do this on each opposite edge of the two sides1 giving four edges thus curled over4 ,next1 holding the scraper as shown in ,fig4 #fgd1 draw the burnisher with a firm1 even stroke1 once or twice1 lengthways of the edge1 as shown4 ,the scraper can be laid flat on the bench1 if preferred1 slightly projecting over the edge4 ,notice that the tool should be drawn with a slightly end to end motion1 as shown1 which helps turn the edge4 ,this turns a fine scraping edge1 which will take off shavings4 ,all four edges are treated in the same way4 ,after one edge gets dull1 use another4 ,when all four are dull1 resharpen with the burnisher as before1 without grinding or filing the edge4 ,this can be done a few times1 but soon the edges will get worn off and rounded1 and the scraper then needs refiling4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgd4 ,shellac4--,see ,finishing4 ,shell-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,shelves4--,examples of shelves fitted permanently into place are given in ,chapter ,x4 7on ,furniture74 ,removable shelves can most easily be fitted to rest on cleats screwed to the sides of the space1 but this arrangement does not always look very well and the position of the shelves cannot be changed so readily as by using screw-eyes driven into the sides under the shelves 7,fig4 #fge71 recesses of the right shape being cut on the under side of the shelves so that the screw-eyes will be sunk and not be conspicuous4 ,the position of the shelves can quickly be changed by screwing the supports higher or lower as may be required4 ,pins and other contrivances to fit in a series of holes can be bought for this purpose4 ,a common way to adjust shelves is shown in ,fig4 #fgf4 ,the construction is obvious4 ,the vertical strips can be laid on edge side by side1 clamped together1 and the notches laid out and cut as if there were but one piece4 ,where a circular saw is available the notches are cut on the side of a narrow piece of board which is then sawed into the desired strips or ratchets4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fge4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgf4 ,shooting-,board4--,the shooting-board is very useful for jointing edges1 particularly for short1 thin stock4 ,the carpenter or cabinet-maker will make you one for a moderate price1 or you can make one yourself as soon as you become a good enough workman 7see page #ic74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgg4 ,to use it1 the board to be jointed is laid flat on the raised part of the shooting-board1 where it is firmly held with the left hand1 with the end of the board pressing against the stop of the shooting-board1 and the edge to be jointed lapping over the edge of the raised part4 ,the planing is done with the plane lying on its side on the lower part of the shooting-board 7,fig4 #fgg74 ,the cutting-edge of the plane thus being at right angles with the surface of the board1 the edge will be planed squarely across4 ,the shooting-board should be fastened on the bench in some way1 to prevent it from slipping around4 ,attachments to keep the sole of the plane at right angles to the surface of the piece can be had at any hardware store1 and serve the same purpose as a shooting-board for thick stock1 but not equally well for thin pieces4 ,you can reverse the sides of two pieces to be jointed for gluing1 as described on page #djf1 giving a joint like that shown in ,fig4 #fgh 7which is exaggerated74 ,the iron of the plane is sometimes purposely set to project unevenly beyond the sole4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgh4 ,if you have many joints to make1 you can have the edges jointed at slight expense at any wood-working mill on a planer made for the purpose4 ,see ,jointing4 ,smoothing-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,smoothing ,surfaces4--,see ,plane1 ,scraper1 ,sandpaper4 ,splices4--,see ,joints and ,splices4 ,spline4--,a flexible strip1 used as a ruler1 for drawing curves4 ,see ,marking4 ,splitting-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,splitting ,wood4--,we have seen how a log in drying cracks along the radial lines 7page #ca71 thus showing the natural lines of cleavage or separation in the direction of the medullary rays1 that is1 radiating from the centre4 ,from this we see that the wood will1 of course1 split most easily and smoothly on the radial lines4 ,like all wood-choppers you can often make practical use of this fact in splitting wood with a knife or chisel1 or in splitting fuel with an axe4 ,the next easiest way to split wood is as nearly as may be on the line of the annual rings1 or tangential to the line of the medullary rays1 in the same direction as when the layers separate in forming cup shakes 7see ,appendix74 ,this way is sometimes easier than to rive a stout log through the centre4 ,spokeshave4--,the spoke-shave is very useful for smoothing small curved and irregular surfaces4 ,metal spoke-shaves of various patterns can be bought with various adjustments for different curves1 etc4 ,also a universal spoke-shave can be had1 with movable handles and detachable bottoms which can be adapted for curved or straight work1 and a width gauge by means of which it can be used for rabbeting4 ,the spoke-shave is a very useful tool and works upon the same general principle as the plane1 but lacking the long flat sole of the plane is used only for irregular surfaces1 which its short and sometimes curved face enables it to smooth with great ease4 ,it also acts on the same principle as a draw-knife with the addition of a guiding stock4 ,it bears somewhat the same relation to the draw-knife that the plane does to the chisel4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fgi4 ,grasp the tool firmly1 bearing downward with both hands and pressing forward with the thumbs1 pushing the tool from you so as to cut like a plane 7,fig4 #fgi74 ,of course it can also be drawn towards you when the circumstances of the work render it advisable4 ,see ,paring and ,sharpening4 ,spoon-,bit4--,see ,bits4 ,square4--,this tool is one of the most useful in the list1 for the importance of having your work square can hardly be over-estimated4 ,the try-square should have a metal strip on the inside edge of the wooden arm1 head1 or beam1 or the handle can be wholly of metal4 ,get a medium-sized try-square 7#i- or #aj-;inch blade is good7 rather than a very small one1 as it is much more useful2 and a graduated scale1 like a rule1 on the blade is sometimes serviceable4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhj4 ,the primary use of this tool is to test or try the accuracy of right-angled work--hence the name4 ,the one special point to bear in mind in using it for this purpose is to be sure that the head or beam is pressed firmly against the edge or side to which it is applied1 determining the accuracy of the angle by the position of the blade 7,fig4 #fhj74 ,you will also use the try-square continually for marking straight lines across boards or timbers at right angles to one side or one edge 7,fig4 #fha74 ,in using it for this purpose be sure not merely to press the head of the square firmly against the edge of the board1 but to keep it securely in the same position4 ,when the blade is placed correctly on the given point do the marking as by any straight-edge4 ,another way is to place the point of the pencil or knife directly on the given point and slide the square along until it bears on the pencil or knife4 ,then1 keeping the head of the square firmly against the edge1 the line can be drawn along the blade4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fha4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhb4 ,the try-square sometimes is made with the end of the head or beam next the blade cut on a bevel4 ,by placing this bevel against the edge a try-square of this construction can also be used as a mitre-square 7,fig4 #fhb74 ,if you buy a second-hand square1 or if a square has been wrenched1 you can test its accuracy by marking a line with it across a surface from a straight edge1 then turning the square over and repeating the operation2 the two lines should coincide4 ,but the edge from which you rule must be perfectly straight1 or the test will be of no value4 ,if1 however1 you buy new squares made by the best makers they will be as accurate as any test you can apply to them4 ,beginners1 particularly young beginners1 are very apt to be so engrossed in making the line along the blade that they forget to keep the head in position1 or let it slip1 when the blade will of course cease to be at right angles with the edge or side 7,fig4 #fhc74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhc4 ,the framing-square1 steel-square1 or large two-foot carpenter's square1 is a very useful and important tool2 not merely for framing and large1 heavy work but also for small work1 and it is of great value in many mechanical operations4 ,even an iron square is very useful1 but a nickel-plated steel-square is the best1 as the figures are more distinct and it is less likely to rust4 ,the long arm makes a good straight-edge4 ,see also page #aha4 ,staining4--,when you stain wood1 do it for the sake of the colour1 preserving the beauty of the grain1 and not to try to imitate a more expensive wood4 ,it is better1 as a rule1 to use good wood of a handsome colour and leave it as it is to mellow with age than to stain or colour it1 but there are times when you will wish to stain wood4 ,the main point to bear in mind for successful staining is to colour the wood itself1 not to put on a superficial coat of coloured varnish4 ,for instance1 the fumes of ammonia 7or the liquid itself7 will give oak in a very short time the same dark colour which the ammonia in the air will produce after years of exposure4 ,this is a natural process--merely anticipating the change caused by time4 ,there are a number of ways of staining dependent upon such chemical processes carried on in the wood itself4 ,these ways are the best1 as you can readily see4 ,having got the right colour1 the wood can be oiled1 shellacked1 varnished1 or waxed in the usual way4 ,by this method the natural grain of the wood is not obscured4 ,in fact1 the figure of the grain is sometimes made more conspicuous4 ,another way is to wash the wood with some thin stain of the desired colour1 after which you can finish in the usual way4 ,this is a good method1 for the wood itself is coloured to some distance below the surface1 and after it is finished it will take considerable bruising to expose its original colour4 ,this method also sometimes enhances the beauty of the grain4 ,the poorest way to stain1 but a very common one with amateurs and in cheap work1 is1 instead of staining the wood itself1 to cover the surface with coloured varnish or shellac4 ,this is often the cheapest and quickest way of getting a desired colour1 but it is decidedly the poorest way4 ,of course1 no coating of colour put on outside can be as durable as colour imbedded in the substance of the wood itself1 and scarring or injury to the coating exposes the original colour beneath4 ,besides this1 the grain and character of the wood are necessarily obscured by a coloured coating4 ,wood finished in this way almost always has a cheap1 artificial look1 and you can usually detect the fraud at a glance4 ,there are many cheap varnish stains or coloured varnishes1 but you will do well to avoid them1 unless for the cheapest and poorest work4 ,there are two things you will wish to do in staining4 ,one is simply to darken or enrich the natural colour of the wood1 so as to give it at once the rich1 deep1 mellow tone produced by age4 ,this is always the best way to do when it will give the colour you want4 ,but if you want to change the colour entirely--to make pine wood red or green1 or cherry black1 you must use some chemical process that will develop a new colour in the wood1 or must apply a regular stain4 ,raw linseed oil alone1 well rubbed in and allowed to stand before applying shellac or varnish1 will deepen and bring out the natural colouring in time as well as anything else1 but it takes a good while4 ,repeated applications1 each thoroughly rubbed in and the excess rubbed off1 and after standing some days or weeks1 given a light rubbing down with fine sandpaper1 then another oiling1 and so on1 will in time give a surface of beautiful colour1 as well as a soft and attractive lustre4 ,but to carry out this process may take months1 so that you will not be very likely to practise it2 but you see the result sometimes on old wooden tool-handles and plane-stocks which have been so treated4 ,if you do not care about deepening the colour greatly1 one or two applications1 allowed to stand a week or two before finishing1 will often be sufficient and will make a great difference in the looks of your work1 and take off that raw1 fresh look peculiar to recently cut wood4 ,if your work is such that you can defer the shellacing for a year or so1 as in the case of some pretty piece of furniture to remain in the house1 there is no way you can develop the richness of the wood better than to oil it and let it stand to mellow1 with occasional applications of oil and rubbing down4 ,then finally rub down with fine sandpaper and shellac in the usual way4 ,to hasten the process we must apply something stronger than oil4 ,if the work is of oak1 shut it up in a box or tight closet1 with a dish of strong ammonia on the floor4 ,do not stay in the box or closet yourself1 as it is dangerous4 ,a simpler way is to wash the work with the ammonia1 more than once if necessary4 ,have the room well ventilated when you do this1 and do not inhale more of the fumes than necessary4 ,wetting the wood is sometimes a disadvantage1 however1 in glued-up work1 and it raises the grain1 which must be rubbed down with fine sandpaper before finishing4 ,to deepen the colour of mahogany or cherry1 simply wash it with lime-water 7a simple solution of common lime in water7 as many times as may be necessary1 which is cheap and effective4 ,after this process1 thoroughly clean out all cracks and corners before sandpapering1 for particles of the lime which may be deposited will spoil the appearance of the work when finished4 ,this process preserves the natural appearance of the wood4 ,the only drawback is the necessity of getting the work so wet4 ,some days should be allowed for the water to evaporate before shellacking4 ,to get a darker shade1 apply in the same way a solution of bichromate of potash in water4 ,whitewood takes stains finely--much better than pine4 ,oak will stain almost any colour1 but the individuality of the wood--the character of its grain and structure--is so strongly marked that it is poor taste to attempt to stain it to imitate other woods4 ,if you stain it1 stain it just as you would paint it1 simply for the colour4 ,a good way for indoor work1 such as a piece of furniture or anything of the sort you may wish to colour1 is to mix dry pigments with japan and then thin the mixture with turpentine1 or turpentine alone can be used4 ,after the work is coloured in this way put on a couple of coats of varnish4 ,for outside work you can use oil4 ,this is a cheap way and wears well4 ,it applies only to the cheaper woods which you do not care to leave of the natural colour4 ,for black inside work you can use ivory-black1 ground in japan and thinned with turpentine4 ,ivory-black or bone-black are superior to lampblack1 but the latter will do very well for most purposes4 ,dragon's blood in alcohol is used to give a colour similar to mahogany4 ,alkanet root in raw linseed oil will give a warm and mellow hue to mahogany or cherry4 ,there is an almost endless number of recipes for staining1 but such others as you need you can learn from some finisher or painter1 for the limits of this book do not allow fuller treatment of so extensive a subject4 ,steel-,square4--,see ,square4 ,steel-,wool4--,long1 fine steel shavings done up in bundles can be used instead of sandpaper for some purposes4 ,there are various degrees of fineness4 ,this is good for cleaning off paint and for smoothing curved surfaces1 but should not be used until all work with the edge-tools is done1 because of the particles of the metal4 ,it can be used for rubbing down in finishing4 ,straight-,bent ,chisel4--,see ,chisel4 ,straight-,edge4--,there are no definite dimensions for a straight-edge4 ,any piece of wood that is straight and convenient to use can be so called2 the size and the length depending on the work for which it is to be used1 from a common ruler to a long board4 ,the edge of a large carpenter's square is handy for short work4 ,clear white pine or straight-grained mahogany is good for straight-edges1 but a straight-edge is not the easiest thing for a beginner to make1 and you will do well to find something straight to use for a while until you acquire the skill to make one--or get the carpenter to make you one1 which he will do for a very small sum or for nothing4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhd4 ,to test a straight-edge1 mark a line by it1 then turn the straight-edge over and see if it still coincides with the line1 or mark another line and see if it coincides with the first one4 ,try your straight-edges by this test once in a while1 as they are liable to become crooked4 ,in turning the edge over1 however1 do not reverse the ends1 as in case of an undulating curvature the curves may agree and give you the impression that the edge is straight when it is not4 ,in the first case shown in ,fig4 #fhd 7exaggerated7 this would not happen1 but in the second case 7also exaggerated7 it might4 ,see ,marking4 ,strop4--,a piece of hard1 smooth leather on which to strop your tools you can easily procure4 ,it can be fastened on a piece of wood 7see page #he74 ,spread on it a paste of sweet oil and emery1 lard oil and crocus powder1 or some similar preparation4 ,a pine board on which air-dust has accumulated can even be used4 ,see remarks under ,sharpening4 ,tacks4--,tacks are sold as one-ounce1 two-ounce1 and so on according to size4 ,do not use tacks for fastening wood to wood1 but only for fastening leather or cloth or the like to wood4 ,the pointed wedge-shape of the tack tends to split thin wood1 and is not at all suitable to fasten two pieces of wood together1 particularly in thin wood or near the edge4 ,possibly you may have seen some disastrous results from the attempt to tack pieces of wood together4 ,tape-,measure4--,this article 7preferably of steel7 is often useful1 though not nearly as important for an amateur to buy as many other things4 ,tenon4--,see ,mortising4 ,tenon-,saw4--,see ,saw 7,back-,saw74 ,tool-,racks4--,see page #hc4 ,toothed-,plane4--,see ,plane4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhe4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhf4 ,truing ,surfaces4--,to true a curved or warped surface1 as of a board1 lay it on the bench with the rounded side down and wedge it firmly underneath to make it as nearly level as possible4 ,then scribe a line with the compasses across each end of the board at the height of the lowest point of the surface 7,fig4 #fhe74 ,cut a depression or kind of rabbet at each end down to this line 7,fig4 #fhf74 ,next1 by the use of winding-sticks placed on each of these rabbets you can easily see whether they are in line 7see ,winding-sticks74 ,alter the rabbets if necessary to get them in line4 ,draw lines on each edge connecting the bottoms of the rabbets1 and plane away the superfluous wood down to these lines4 ,when this is done the top of the board will be true or in the same plane4 ,test it by placing the straight-edges in different positions on the surface and sighting as before1 correcting any errors4 ,one side of the board being made true in this way1 the other can be made parallel by gauging a line all around the edge1 measuring by the thinnest point of the board1 and planing off the superfluous wood in the same manner as the first side4 ,you can sometimes facilitate the process of planing off the superfluous wood by making cuts with the saw and removing part of it with the chisel1 or by planing across the grain 7the jack-plane is good for this purpose71 or paring across the grain with the chisel1 or any such method1 always being careful not to cut quite as deep as the intended surface1 so that all the marks and cuts can be removed by the final planing4 ,see ,plane1 and also page #agi4 ,try-,square4--,see ,square4 ,turning-,saw4--,see ,saw4 ,turpentine4--,see ,finishing and ,painting4 ,twist-,drill4--,the twist-drill is much better than the gimlet-bit4 ,it makes a good hole1 bores easily1 is not easily dulled1 can be used upon metal1 and one kind in common use can be easily kept in order by simply sharpening the ends4 ,there are various patterns4 ,a little care is necessary1 however1 particularly in hard wood1 as they are liable to be snapped by bending4 ,see ,bits4 ,varnish4--,see ,finishing4 ,veining-,tool4--,see ,carving-,tools4 ,vise4--,see page #fe4 ,for vise for metal-work1 see page #gj4 ,warping1 ,to ,remove4--,of course the simplest way to straighten a warped board is to put a weight on it1 but the difficulty here is that it usually will stay straight only while the weight is on it1 unless you leave it longer than the patience of the average amateur lasts4 ,to do this 7or to warp a straight board either7 with some chance of success1 7#a7 heat one side1 or 7#b7 wet one side1 or 7#c7 wet one side and heat the other1 or 7#d7 wet both sides and expose one to the fire 7,fig4 #fhg74 ,but do not be too sure that the result will be lasting4 ,sometimes it will and sometimes not4 ,another way is to thoroughly soak the board1 press it into shape between clamps or under a weight1 and leave it until dry2 a week or more is none too long1 and boiling water is better than cold4 ,simply laying a board down on a flat surface will often cause it to warp1 because the two sides of the board will be unequally exposed to the action of the atmosphere4 ,planing off one side only1 or planing one side more than the other1 often produces the same effect4 ,see pages #ej-ec and ,appendix4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhg4 ,wedges4--,wedges are in constant use for lifting or separating heavy bodies1 as doubtless you know1 and the principle of the wedge comes in in using the axe1 hatchet1 chisel1 knife1 and the other edge-tools 7see page #be74 ,besides this use of the wedge you will often find it valuable to tighten or clamp objects of various kinds1 or to hold them firmly in place4 ,if you wish to split objects or tear them apart1 use a single wedge1 for the increasing thickness of the wedge applied at one point tears or splits the wood apart4 ,but if you merely wish to squeeze1 or press1 or hold firmly1 or move1 without damaging the shape of the wood1 use double wedges1--that is1 two wedges having the same inclination or taper and pointing opposite ways4 ,you will see that the sides of the double wedge 7that is1 the outsides of the wedges7 will be parallel no matter how hard you drive the separate wedges1 so that the pressure will be exerted without injuring or jamming the surfaces against which the wedge bears 7see ,fig4 #ccc74 ,short1 flaring wedges do the work more quickly1 but require harder blows to drive1 and are more liable to slip4 ,long1 tapering wedges work more slowly1 more easily1 and are not liable to slip4 ,you will also use wedging to secure tenons and dowels 7see ,mortising1 etc474 ,whittling4--,see ,knife4 ,winding-,sticks4--,two straight-edges1 each of equal width throughout1 can be laid on edge1 one across each end of the surface to be tested4 ,stand back a little and look across the top edge of one to the top edge of the other1 and if these edges agree you may know at once that there is no winding where you have placed the straight-edges 7,fig4 #fhh74 ,by putting them in different positions you can finally determine whether the whole surface is true or not4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhh4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fhi4 ,it is more accurate to use winding-sticks considerably longer than the width of the piece to be tested1 as then any warping or winding will be exaggerated and more easily seen 7,fig4 #fhi74 ,if the upper edges of the sticks are thin1 or feather-edged1 it is easier to tell exactly when they are in line1 but this does not ordinarily matter1 except in work requiring extreme accuracy4 ,to find1 for example1 when the legs of a table1 chair1 or the like are cut so that the article will stand evenly1 turn it over with the legs sticking up1 put straight-edges on the ends of the legs1 sight across these 7,fig4 #fij71 and trim one or two legs until the edges are in line4 ,see ,scribing for other methods4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fij4 ,warping or winding of short pieces can be detected by simply laying one straight-edge diagonally from corner to corner 7,fig4 #fia74 ,this will show at once which parts require to be planed to make the surface true4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fia4 ,withdrawing ,nails4--,when withdrawing nails place a block under the hammer-head as shown 7,fig4 #fib71 using more blocks1 if necessary1 as the nail is withdrawn4 ,to draw the nails from boxes1 pry up a board1 together with the nails1 a short distance--perhaps #a_/d--;and then with a sharp1 quick blow of the hammer pound the board back into place1 not striking the nails but the board between them4 ,this will usually leave the nail-heads projecting a little above the surface1 so that you can draw them as shown in ,fig4 #fib1 and thus save splitting or defacing the boards and bending the nails1 as usually results from smashing or wrenching boxes apart4 ,the quick blow drives the board back before the motion has time to communicate itself to the nails1 on somewhat the same principle that a bullet makes a round hole in a window pane without smashing the glass4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fib4 ,wood-,filler4--,see ,finishing4 ,wrench4--,a strong wrench is often very serviceable in wood-working operations4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,mortise-chisels with great thickness of blade 7,fig4 #dhf7 are not likely to break1 and the width of the sides bearing against the sides of the mortise tends to make the cutting more accurate4 #db ,you may be told that perfect joints do not require much clamping1 but a perfect joint is impossible1 and as a practical matter1 only the skilled workman or the most accurate machinery can make even a good joint of much length1 so great is the difficulty of avoiding little inaccuracies4 ,besides this1 there is always the liability to more or less springing or change of shape on the part of the pieces4 ,the joint which was good when you stopped planing may not be as good by the time the glue has set1 particularly if the gluing does not immediately follow the jointing4 ,in addition to this1 the pressure from clamping at only one or two points1 or at points too far apart1 may force the joint to open elsewhere4 ,do not infer from this that even the beginner should be content with a poor joint1 with the idea that it can be squeezed and jammed to a sufficiently good fit by applying muscle to the clamps4 ,of course this jamming or mashing of the fibres to fit occurs1 to a microscopic degree1 in even the best joint1 and it can sometimes be done to a perceptible extent with soft wood1 but to do this intentionally is very unworkmanlike1 and the greatest care should be taken to make as good a joint as possible before gluing and applying the clamps4 ,do not1 however1 flatter yourself that you can make so accurate a joint that you can afford to neglect proper clamping1 unless1 in such cases as that shown in ,fig4 #dhh1 you adopt the old-fashioned way of rubbing the two edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue1 but this is not so good a process for the beginner1 except with small pieces1 such as corner-blocks 7see ,corner-blocks74 ,see ,jointing4 #dc ,shellac is1 strictly speaking1 a kind of varnish1 but it is so different from many kinds of varnish in common use that it is quite commonly spoken of as shellac1 in contradistinction from what is popularly known as varnish1 and the term is so used here4 #dd ,in shellacing doors or panel work1 first shellac the panels1 then the rails1 and finally the styles 7see ,fig4 #eje71 because daubs or runs can be wiped off and covered better when you thus follow the construction of the work4 #de ,as an extreme illustration1 it may be interesting to note the way the best lacquer work 7which is so durable7 is made by the ,japanese1 an article being given1 as ,professor ,morse tells us1 one coat a year1 the finest work having twenty-one coats and the artist rowing out to sea for miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided4 #df ,two pieces properly glued are often stronger than one solid piece--that is1 the glued joint is stronger than the wood itself1 as you will probably discover some day when you have occasion to break apart a piece of good gluing2 but after a long time the glue is apt to deteriorate in adhesive or cohesive force1 particularly if the joint has not been protected by paint or varnish1 so do the best work you can if you wish it to last4 ,nevertheless1 in important work it is usually safest to take a whole piece when you can1 rather than glue up two or more pieces1 except in cases1 perhaps1 where the matter of warping1 etc41 is concerned1 when it may be better to build up the desired shape of pieces selected for the purpose4 #dg ,it may be useful to know1 although not suitable work for the beginner1 that there is no better way to joint edges 7to make glued joints1 as in ,fig4 #eeb7 than with a first-class circular saw1 run by one who knows how to use it4 ,the minute roughnesses left by the saw assist the glue to hold1 and as inconspicuous and strong joints as possible can be quickly produced in this way by a good workman with a first-class saw1 but do not expect a satisfactory result except under these conditions4 #dh ,this seems to be the common opinion among experienced men4 ,there are1 however1 many painters of experience who prefer the prepared liquid paint for outside work1 and it certainly saves trouble4 #di ,it is not a good plan to wipe brushes on the sharp edge of a tin can1 as it injures the bristles4 #ej ,another method of doing this is to find a true surface to stand the legs on and measure the distance the free leg rises from the surface--#a for example4 ,do nothing to that leg1 of course1 or to the one diagonally opposite1 but saw #a_/b from each of the two other legs4 ,suppose1 for example1 the legs a1 b1 and c touch 7,fig4 #ffi71 and d rises #c_/d from the floor4 ,make a and c each #c_/h shorter4 ,of course you cannot hit it exactly by this method1 but a few strokes of a tool will finish the work4 ,,appendix ,collection of ,specimens of ,wood4--,waste pieces of all the common woods can easily be obtained at the wood working shops4 ,have some system about the size and shape of the specimens4 ,some kinds you may be able to get only in pieces of such shape as you can find among the odds and ends of the shops1 and many rare foreign and tropical woods you can obtain only in quite small pieces1 but even these will show the character of the wood and add value to the collection4 ,waste scraps of veneers of rare woods can be glued on blocks of pine4 ,the specimens will be most valuable if you can get them out so as to show a longitudinal section along the medullary rays 7or through the heart71 a longitudinal section at right angles to the medullary rays 7or tangential to the annual rings71 and a cross section 7,fig4 #fic74 ,it will be an advantage also to show not only the heartwood but the sapwood and bark4 ,if you cannot get such large pieces of even the common woods1 a collection of small flat blocks will be well worth making4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fic4 ,the specimens will show to best advantage if polished 7one half of each side can be polished7 or finished with a dull lustre1 and they will be good objects on which to practise finishing 7see ,finishing in ,part ,v474 ,all the information you can pick up about the strength1 durability1 toughness1 elasticity1 and uses of the various woods will be sure to come in play sooner or later4 ,the gradations of hardness1 density1 weight1 toughness1 elasticity1 etc41 are almost endless4 ,notice1 therefore1 the weight1 colour1 hardness1 density1 and characteristic odour of the specimens2 the proportion of heart to sapwood1 and the colour of each2 the size and condition of the pith2 the character of the grain1 whether coarse or fine1 close or open and porous2 the number1 arrangement1 size1 and colour of the medullary rays 7when visible72 the width and character of the annual rings 7when visible71 whether wide or narrow1 with many or few ducts or resin canals4 ,you will find many things to notice in some woods4 ,use a magnifying-glass if you can4 ,notice also about the bark4 ,hunt up all the woody stems you can1 compare the bark of the different specimens1 noting its colour1 taste1 odour1 surface1 thickness1 and the different ways it cracks and is cast off2 and notice how easily you can learn to tell the common trees by the bark alone4 ,sections of small stems or branches will often show the character of the wood well4 ,note what you can about the character and habits of the trees themselves2 the height1 diameter1 age1 and the shape and peculiarities of the leaves4 ,in this connection1 a collection of leaves will also be interesting to make4 ,you can soon learn to tell the common trees by their leaves4 ,notice how1 in some trees1 as the pines1 spruces1 firs1 the stem grows right straight up to the top1 forming a spire-shaped tree4 ,this is called an excurrent trunk 7,lat41 excurrere1 to run out74 ,notice how1 in other trees1 like the elm1 oak1 etc41 the stem branches again and again until it is lost in the branches4 ,this is called a deliquescent stem 7,lat41 deliquescere1 to melt away74 ,study the shape and arrangement of the different kinds of trees as shown in outline against the sky2 best1 perhaps1 when the leaves are off4 ,you can learn to tell the common trees by their outline4 ,do they look stout1 firm1 strong1 and rugged1 or delicate1 yielding1 and graceful8 ,to a certain extent you can thus form an idea of the character of the wood1 as in comparing the pine1 with its comparatively light top and slender leaves1 with the heavy growth which the trunk of the oak has to sustain in wind and snow4 ,preservation of ,forests4--,forests are of great value from their effect upon the climate1 making it more equable4 ,they tend to cause abundant and needed rainfall and to preserve the moisture when fallen1 releasing it to the rivers gradually1 and thus preventing abnormal freshets and extreme droughts4 ,by absorbing and parting with heat slowly they cause the changes of temperature to be less sudden than in the open country4 ,they temper the heat1 and they serve as a protection1 or wind-break1 to adjacent land4 ,trees1 with other vegetation1 are essential to the purification of the air4 ,all this is in addition to the obvious uses of supplying fuel and wood for an almost endless variety of purposes1 not to speak of the value of trees for shade and as features of the landscape4 ,the reckless rate at which the forests of the ,united ,states are being destroyed is becoming a serious matter1 not merely because of depriving wood-workers of the materials with which to work1 but because of the influence of the forests upon the climate1 the soil1 etc41 upon which so much of the welfare of mankind depends4 ,at the present rate of destruction many generations cannot pass before the supply of wood will be practically exhausted4 ,it is every year becoming more difficult to obtain native lumber of the best quality and large size4 ,one of the most serious aspects of the matter1 however1 is in regard to the washing away of the soil1 which owes not merely its origin but its preservation to the forest and other vegetable growths4 ,professor ,shaler tells us that it is in this action of the rain upon the bared surface of the ground that we find the principal danger which menaces man in his use of the earth4 ,the individual wood-worker may not have control of any forest or wood-lot1 but he can at least use his influence indirectly1 when opportunity offers1 toward needed legislation to restrict1 or at least regulate1 the improvident waste now going on1 and he can in many cases take advantage of ,arbor ,day to plant at least one tree toward preserving the balance required by nature4 ,common ,woods and ,some of their ,characteristics4--,there are many things to be considered by the beginner when choosing his wood4 ,many of these points have been treated in ,chapter ,,iii4 7to which the reader is referred71 but a few additional remarks about the various kinds may be of use4 ,one important thing1 however1 to be borne in mind before beginning1 is to select straight-grained1 plain1 rather soft1 and easily worked stock4 ,with this and with sharp tools you will have every chance of success1 while with hard1 crooked-grained wood and with dull tools you will be well started on the road to discouragement and failure4 ,it may be remarked1 incidentally1 that beginning with soft woods1 such as white pine1 calls for even keener-edged tools than can be got along with for harder woods1 like oak4 ,this1 however1 though it may seem a disadvantage1 is really a good thing1 for it compels one to keep his tools sharp4 ,you will soon find that it is impossible to do even passable work in the softer woods without sharp tools1 while with harder wood you may succeed by brute force in mauling the work into tolerable shape without being sufficiently impressed by the fact that your tools are dull and require sharpening4 ,besides the familiar fact that the heartwood is usually better than the sapwood1#ea it may be useful to remember that1 as a rule1 the wood from a young tree is tougher than that from an old one2 the best1 hardest1 and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart1 while in an old tree the heart1 having begun to deteriorate1 is softer and not as good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood4 ,if the tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout4 ,the sapwood1 as a rule1 is tougher than the heartwood1 though usually inferior in other respects2 and timber light in weight is sometimes tougher than heavy wood1 though the latter is often stronger and more durable and preferable for some purposes4 ,the application of these statements varies much according to the kind of wood and different circumstances1 for the growth and structure of trees is a very complex matter1 and the diversities almost infinite4 ,it may be well to bear in mind1 considering the great variety of purposes for which the amateur uses wood1 the distinction between the elasticity needed for such purposes as a bow or horizontal bar1 and the toughness required for the ribs of a canoe1 or the wattles of a basket4 ,in the former case the material must not merely bend without breaking1 but must spring back 7or nearly so7 to its former shape when released1 as with lancewood or white ash2 while in the latter case it must bend without breaking1 but is not required to spring back to its original form when released1 as with many green sticks which can be easily bent1 but have not much resilience4 ,these two qualities are found combined in endlessly varying degrees in all woods4 ,elastic wood must necessarily have toughness up to the breaking-point1 but tough wood may have but little elasticity4 ,earliest of all trees1 historically1 come the pines--the conifers--and then the broad-leaved trees4 ,the conifers1 or needle-leaved trees1 include the pines1 firs1 spruces1 cypresses1 larches1 and cedars4 ,as a rule they contain turpentine1 have a comparatively straight and regular fibre and simple structure1 are usually light1 flexible1 and elastic1 and the wood is more easily split or torn apart than that from the broad-leaved trees1 and is easily worked4 ,the wood of the broad-leaved trees is more complex in structure than that of the conifers and1 as a rule1 harder1 and for many purposes stronger and more durable4 ,besides the woods in general use there are many which have merely a local value where they grow1 and a long list could be made of the woods which have but very limited uses1 as well as of those which1 from their scarcity1 hardness1 small size1 or other peculiarities are practically out of the question for the beginner or the amateur1 except on rare occasions4 ,the following list makes no claim to completeness1 but may be of some use to the beginner4 ,apple4--,this wood is used for turning1 such as handles1 etc41 and for other small work4 ,it is handsome1 fine-grained1 and somewhat hard4 ,ash4--,this is a valuable wood1 of which there are a number of varieties4 ,it is used for agricultural implements1 carriage-building1 floors1 interior finish1 cabinet-work1 etc4 ,ash is flexible1 tough1 and elastic4 ,it is good to stand a quick and violent strain1 as that put on a horizontal bar in the gymnasium1 although in time it becomes brittle4 ,white ash is the variety best suited for such purposes4 ,it is good for oars and the like4 ,ash is of a rather coarse and usually straight-grained texture1 and most varieties are not difficult to work4 ,basswood4--,the wood of the ,american linden1 or basswood1 is soft and light in substance1 white or light brown in colour1 is easily bent but not easily split1 free from knots but prone to warp1 and is used for cabinet-work1 carriage-work1 and for various minor articles4 ,it can be obtained in boards of considerable width4 ,beech4--,this close-grained wood1 hard1 firm1 strong1 and taking a good polish1 is extensively used for machine-frames1 handles1 plane-stocks1 some kinds of furniture1 and a variety of minor articles1 but will not often be needed by the amateur4 ,the medullary rays are noticeable4 ,birch4--,the birch1 of which there are many species1 is widely distributed in ,north ,america1 and furnishes an important wood1 which is used for a great variety of purposes1--for furniture1 floors1 interior finish1 turning1 and a long list of minor articles4 ,it is close-grained1 and most varieties are hard and strong1 but not difficult to work1 and are susceptible of being given a smooth satiny surface and a fine finish4 ,the uses of the bark of the canoe birch are familiar to all4 ,this tree is good not merely for canoes1 but its wood is used for paddles1 skis1 and the like4 ,the black birch is especially esteemed for furniture and interior work4 ,it is of a beautiful reddish- or yellowish-brown colour1 and much of it is beautifully figured with wavy and curly grain4 ,it is frequently stained in imitation of mahogany1 a deception much assisted by the resemblance in grain1 and not easily detected if skilfully done4 ,black ,walnut4--,large black-walnut trees are practically almost as thoroughly exterminated in ,america as the bisons of the ,western prairies4 ,the wood can be obtained1 however1 though it is not abundant in very wide boards4 ,it is durable1 usually straight-grained1 moderately strong and hard1 not difficult to work1 holds glue well1 and can be given a fine finish4 ,it holds its shape well1 and is an excellent wood for many purposes in interior finishing1 cabinet-work1 and for various minor articles4 ,it has been very extensively used for gun-stocks4 ,its sombre colour is not always admired1 but it is an excellent wood for amateur work4 ,when mottled or in the form of burl it is1 of course1 harder to smooth4 ,the ,english and ,italian varieties of walnut have long been used4 ,boxwood4--,this wood is distinguished for its extremely compact and even grain4 ,it is hard and heavy1 is used in turning1 wood-engraving1 and the like1 but is not likely to be required by the amateur4 ,butternut4--,this wood1 found in ,north ,america1 has a rather coarsely marked grain1 is soft1 light1 of a yellowish-brown colour1 and when finished makes a handsome wood for furniture and interior work4 ,it is easily worked1 but is not the easiest material for the amateur to smooth satisfactorily1 because of the peculiar texture of the wood1 which tends to rough up unless the tools are very keen4 ,buttonwood4--,see ,sycamore4 ,cedar4--,this tree1 found quite abundantly in the ,united ,states1 furnishes a wood which is exceedingly durable1 particularly where exposed to the alternations of moisture and dryness1 as when inserted in the ground or in situations near the ground1 and is very valuable for fence-posts1 foundation-posts for buildings1 railroad ties1 shingles1 pails1 and the like4 ,some varieties of cedar are used for building purposes and interior fittings4 ,the varieties of white cedar are light1 of good grain and easy to work1 soft1 and not particularly strong1 but durable and admirably adapted to such purposes as boat-building1 for which it is largely used4 ,red cedar1 which is in many respects similar to the other varieties1 is distinguished by its colour and by its strong fragrance1 which1 being obnoxious to insects1 makes it excellent for chests and closets4 ,it is used for pencils4 ,cherry4--,this is a valuable wood for the amateur4 ,it is found extensively in the ,united ,states4 ,it is fine-grained1 of moderate hardness1 not difficult to work1 and of a beautiful reddish-brown or yellowish-brown colour4 ,it has a satin-like surface when smoothed1 and can be given a beautiful finish4 ,the black cherry is especially esteemed4 ,it can be obtained1 so far as it has not been exterminated1 in quite wide boards4 ,cherry mellows and grows richer in colour with age4 ,the varieties having a wavy texture are especially beautiful4 ,it is much used for cabinet-work1 interior finish1 and for many purposes4 ,the beginner should select only the softer and straight-grained varieties1 as some of the harder and denser kinds are exceedingly hard to smooth4 ,chestnut4--,the value of this wood to the amateur lies chiefly in its durability4 ,it lasts well in or near the ground or exposed to the weather4 ,it can be used for framing1 for posts for a fence or to support a building1 and for similar purposes4 ,it is soft1 coarse-grained1 not very strong1 but is not difficult to work4 ,cottonwood4--,this is a soft1 light1 close-grained wood1 used for woodenware1 boxes1 pulp1 etc4 ,cypress4--,this wood is found in ,north ,america1 ,mexico1 parts of ,asia and ,europe4 ,it is a valuable material1 yellowish or yellowish-brown in colour1 very durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil1 light1 soft1 easily worked1 and is used for general lumber purposes for which pine is used1 but to which it is superior for withstanding exposure4 ,it is used for interior finish1 doors1 clapboards1 shingles1 cabinet-work1 boat-building1 posts1 and a great variety of purposes4 ,it takes a fine finish4 ,the cypress of the ,southern ,united ,states is of large size1 and the wood is of beautiful figure and colouring4 ,valuable varieties are found upon the ,pacific coast4 ,deal4--,see ,pine and ,spruce4 ,ebony4--,the excessive hardness of ebony renders it unsuited for amateur work4 ,it is also expensive4 ,it is very hard and solid1 with black heartwood and white sapwood1 and is used for furniture1 turning1 and small articles4 ,elm4--,this useful wood1 strong1 tough1 and durable1 usually flexible1 heavy and hard1 is extensively used in some of its varieties for boat-building1 the frames of agricultural implements1 yokes1 wheel-hubs1 chairs1 cooperage1 and many other purposes4 ,some species are very good for continued exposure to wet4 ,the rock elm is a valuable variety1 esteemed for flexibility and toughness as well as durability and strength4 ,fir4--,see ,pine and ,spruce4 ,hemlock4--,this wood1 valuable for its bark1 is cheap1 coarse-grained and subject to shakes1 brittle and easily split1 and somewhat soft1 but not easy to work4 ,it is unfit for nice work1 but can be used for rough framing and rough boarding1 for which its holding nails well renders it suitable4 ,hickory4--,this wood1 found in the eastern parts of ,north ,america1 is highly esteemed for its strength and great elasticity4 ,it is hard1 tough1 heavy1 and close-grained4 ,it is largely used for carriage-work1 agricultural implements1 hoops1 axe-helves1 and the like4 ,it is hard to work4 ,the shagbark is especially valued for timber4 ,holly4--,this wood is quite hard1 close-grained1 and very white1 though it does not retain the purity of its colour4 ,it is used for small articles of cabinet-work and for turning4 ,lancewood4--,the use of this wood for bows1 fishing-rods1 and such purposes has been extensive4 ,it is distinguished for its elasticity4 ,lignum ,vit4--,the extreme hardness1 solidity1 and durability of lignum vit make it of great value for pulley-sheaves1 balls for bowling1 mallets1 small handles1 and turned objects4 ,it is too excessively hard for the beginner to use4 ,locust4--,the wood of the locust of ,north ,america is hard1 strong1 heavy1 exceedingly durable1 and of yellowish or brownish colour4 ,it is a valuable wood1 and is used extensively for posts for fences and for the support of buildings1 for ship-building1 and for other work to be subjected to exposure or to contact with the ground4 ,it is used in turning1 but not extensively for interior work4 ,mahogany4--,this highly valuable wood1 which did not come into general use until the eighteenth century1 is found in the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and some other regions4 ,it is very durable4 ,the colour is found in a great variety of shades from golden-brown to deep reddish-brown4 ,some varieties are light and quite soft1 even spongy1 while others 7the best7 are very hard and heavy1 close-grained1 and strong4 ,in some kinds the grain is quite straight1 in others curved and twisted into an endless variety of crooked shapes1 the latter being the most beautiful for ornamental work1 but more liable to change of shape than the straight-grained varieties4 ,the straight-grained varieties change their shape but little1--less than most woods1--and are therefore excellently suited for the framework or structural parts of cabinet-work1 for pattern-making1 and the like4 ,the so-called baywood holds its shape well and is easily worked1 but is not especially beautiful4 ,the better grades of mahogany grow darker and richer in colour with age1 but some varieties become bleached and lustreless with exposure4 ,it is of the greatest value for interior finishing1 for furniture1 and for cabinet-work generally1 and is also used for many other purposes4 ,the term mahogany is used in commerce in a rather comprehensive way4 ,mahogany from ,san ,domingo has long been highly esteemed1 but is now difficult or impossible to obtain4 ,the light-coloured variety known as white mahogany is much valued for its beauty4 ,mahogany is excellent for holding glue4 ,it can be obtained in wide pieces1 thus often saving the necessity of gluing4 ,it can be given a beautiful dull finish or a high polish1 as may be desired4 ,the beginner should only attempt the plain1 softer1 straight-grained kinds of mahogany at first4 ,the other varieties require much skill to smooth and1 in case of the harder pieces1 even to work at all2 and these1 however beautiful they may be1 should be deferred until considerable proficiency has been attained4 ,maple4--,the maple grows freely in the ,united ,states1 and is much used for a great variety of purposes1 the sugar or rock maple being especially esteemed4 ,it is close-grained1 hard1 strong1 heavy1 and of a light yellowish-1 reddish-1 or brownish-white colour 7sometimes almost white1 though found in varying shades71 and can be smoothed to a satin-like surface and be given a good finish4 ,it can be stained satisfactorily4 ,the curly or wavy varieties furnish wood of much beauty1 the peculiar contortion of the grain known as bird's-eye being much admired4 ,maple is extensively used for cabinet-work and interior finishing1 floors1 machine-frames1 work-benches1 turning1 and a great variety of miscellaneous articles4 ,there are a number of varieties of the maple4 ,the beginner should confine himself at first to the softer and straight-grained specimens1 as the other kinds are hard to work and to smooth4 ,oak4--,of all the broad-leaved trees the oak is probably the most valuable1 and has for ages stood as a type of strength4 ,it is widely scattered in various parts of the world1 and nearly three hundred varieties have been noted4 ,oak is distinguished for its combination of useful qualities4 ,it is hard1 tough1 elastic1 heavy1 durable1 stiff 7except after steaming1 when it readily bends71 and durable when exposed to the weather or to the soil4 ,oak is more or less subject to checking4 ,it is strongly impregnated with tannic acid1 which tends to destroy iron fastenings4 ,american white oak4 ,this important variety is found in ,north ,america1 and from it is obtained most excellent timber4 ,it is used for a variety of purposes too great to be specified1 from the construction of buildings and ships to furniture and agricultural implements1 carriages1 etc4 ,it is an invaluable wood4 ,british oak has long been held in the highest regard for its combination of valuable qualities1 and has been used for more purposes than can be here mentioned4 ,the live oak1 found in southern parts of ,north ,america1 may be mentioned as a valuable wood1 very strong1 tough1 and durable1 which1 before the introduction of iron and steel in ship-building1 was extensively used in that business2 but it is excessively hard and unsuited to amateur work4 ,varieties of red oak are extensively used1 but1 though valuable1 are of inferior quality to the white oak4 ,other varieties largely used in ,england and on the ,continent are seldom marketed in the ,united ,states4 ,pear4--,the wood of the pear tree is somewhat like that of the apple tree4 ,it can be readily carved4 ,pine4--,first and foremost among the needle-leaved trees comes the pine1 of which about seventy species are known4 ,the white pine1 known in ,england as yellow pine and also as ,weymouth pine1 is widely distributed in ,america1 and is1 or has been1 our most valuable timber tree1 but seems to be doomed to rapid extinction1 at least so far as the wide1 clear boards and planks of old-growth timber are concerned1 which are now exceedingly hard to obtain4 ,there is no better wood for the beginner than clear white pine for all purposes to which it is suited4 ,it is light1 stiff1 straight-grained and of close fibre1 easily worked1 can be easily nailed1 and takes a good finish4 ,when allowed to grow it has reached a large size 7as in the so-called pumpkin pine71 furnishing very wide1 clear boards1 of beautiful texture and with a fine1 satiny surface4 ,it is of a light yellowish-brown colour1 growing darker with time4 ,it is soft1 resinous1 and of moderate strength4 ,pine is cut into lumber of many forms1 and is used for inside finishing of houses1 for many purposes of carpentry and cabinet-making1 for masts and spars1 for clapboards1 shingles1 and laths1 doors1 sashes1 blinds1 patterns for castings1 and a long list of different purposes4 ,it holds glue exceedingly well and takes paint well4 ,other varieties1 as the sugar pine1 the ,canadian red pine1 the yellow pine1 etc41 grow in ,america4 ,white pine is also found in ,europe4 ,the ,scotch pine or ,norway pine1 known also as red1 ,scotch1 or yellow fir1 and as yellow deal and red deal1#eb is the common pine of the ,north of ,europe1 hence its name1 ,pinus sylvestris1 pine of the forest4 ,it is hard1 strong1 not very resinous1 and is extensively used4 ,southern or ,hard ,pine4 ,this very important timber is found on the ,southern ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts of the ,united ,states4 ,it is very hard1 heavy1 and resinous1 with coarse and strongly marked grain4 ,it is durable1 strong1 and not easily worked by the beginner1 and is hard to nail after seasoning4 ,it is extensively used for girders1 floor-timbers1 joists1 and many kinds of heavy timber work1 including trestles1 bridges1 and roofs1 for masts and spars1 for general carpentry1 floors1 decks1 and interior finish1 railway cars1 railway ties1 and many other purposes1 and1 in addition1 for the manufacture of turpentine4 ,other varieties of hard pine are sold and used successfully for the same purposes1 all under the common name of hard pine1 ,southern pine1 ,georgia pine1 yellow hard pine1 etc4 ,another variety of hard pitch pine 7,pinus rigida71 often confused with the ,southern pine1 is heavy1 resinous1 and durable1 but not suited for the better class of work4 ,plum4--,this is a fine-grained1 hard wood1 used for turning1 engraving1 etc4 ,redwood4--,the two varieties of the giant ,sequoia of the ,pacific coast are the ,sequoia sempervirens and the ,sequoia gigantea or ,wellingtonia4 ,the former1 the most important tree of the ,pacific coast1 is of immense size 7supposed to reach a height of even four hundred feet71 red in colour1 rather soft1 light1 and moderately strong1 easily worked and finished1 and very durable when exposed to the soil4 ,it is used for general lumber purposes1 carpentry1 interior finish1 posts1 tanks1 shingles1 and a great variety of uses4 ,the ,s4 gigantea or ,wellingtonia1 which has the largest trunk in the world1 is also red in colour1 coarse-grained1 rather weak1 soft and light in texture1 and of great durability when exposed to the soil4 ,it is used for lumber and general building purposes1 posts1 shingles1 etc4 ,these are the ,big ,trees1 thought in some instances to be even five thousand years old1 and of which the familiar stories are told about a stage-coach having been driven through a hollow tree1 and about twenty-five people having danced at one time upon a stump4 ,rosewood4--,this wood1 of handsome grain and colouring1 has been much admired and extensively used for veneering4 ,it is hard and heavy and of a peculiar texture1 which seems oily to the touch4 ,it is not well suited to amateur work1 and is expensive4 ,satinwood4--,this handsome yellowish-brown wood is hardly to be considered by the amateur except for the occasional use of a small piece4 ,spruce4--,the wood of the spruce1 of which there are a number of varieties1 is quite abundant1 is light and straight-grained1 and comparatively free from large knots4 ,it is largely used for many of the same purposes as white pine1 to which it is inferior for interior finish and fine work1 but superior in strength1 hardness1 and toughness4 ,both white and black spruce are extensively used for carpentry1 interior finish1 flooring1 fencing1 and inferior wood-work generally4 ,it has the great disadvantage of curling and twisting and springing badly1 and is not as nice to work as white pine4 ,spruce of good quality makes good paddles1 spars1 and the like1 and is valuable for such work4 ,the wood of the ,norway spruce is known in ,england as white deal4 ,sycamore4--,this handsome wood1 found in various parts of the world1 and of a light yellowish or reddish-brown colour1 is esteemed for interior work4 ,the medullary rays are noticeable4 ,it is rather hard1 but not very difficult to work4 ,it is not durable for outside work exposed to the weather4 ,known also as ,buttonwood4 ,walnut4--,see ,black ,walnut4 ,whitewood4--,like white pine1 whitewood is an excellent wood for the early attempts of the beginner4 ,whitewood1 which is by no means white1 but greenish- or brownish-yellow1 is the name applied to the wood of the tulip tree4 ,this tree attains a large size1 thus furnishing wide boards1 which are of such straight and even grain and so free from knots as to be of great use for many purposes4 ,it is brittle and soft1 but light and very easily worked4 ,it is not1 for most purposes1 as reliable a wood as white pine1 but is extensively used in the wood-working arts4 ,it is more liable to warp and twist than pine4 ,it takes a stain exceedingly well4 ,willow4--,an important use of this wood is for baskets4 ,it will not often be required by the beginner1 except for whistles4 ,yew4--,this wood1 like lancewood1 is distinguished for its elasticity1 and is highly esteemed for bows and the like4 99 99 99 99 99 ,many other woods can be alluded to1 as catalpa 7for posts and the like71 elder 7for various small articles71 dogwood 7for turning and the like71 gum 7for various common articles71 hornbeam or ironwood 7for mallets1 handles1 wheel-cogs1 etc471 poplar 7for pulp71 sassafras 7for posts1 hoops1 etc471 teak 7from the ,east1 strong and valuable71 tupelo 7hubs of wheels1 etc471 and a great variety of others which cannot be specified1 as they are but seldom required by the amateur and never needed by the beginner4 ,felling and ,seasoning4--,a tree should usually be cut for timber at or near its maturity1 as a young tree has too much sapwood and will not be as strong and dense or durable1 while an old one is likely to get brittle and inelastic and the centre of the heartwood is liable to decay1 being the oldest portion4 ,a young tree1 though softer and not so durable1 furnishes a tougher and more elastic wood1 and sometimes has a finer grain4 ,trees differ so much1 and the uses to which the wood is to be put are so various1 that no exact ages can be set for cutting--probably from fifty to one hundred years for good timber1 to make a rough statement4 ,some trees furnish excellent timber at a much greater age than one hundred years4 ,pine is thought to be ripe for cutting at about seventy-five or one hundred years of age1 oak at from sixty to one hundred years or more1 and the various other woods mature at different ages4 ,midwinter1 or the dry season in tropical regions1 is usually preferred for felling1 because the sap is quiet4 ,decay sets in more rapidly in the sapwood and between the wood and the bark during the period of active growth1 because of the perishable nature of the substances involved in the growth4 ,midsummer is considered equally good by some4 ,the various methods of cutting the log into the lumber of commerce have been treated in ,chapter ,,iii41 to which the reader is referred4 ,in this connection it will be noticed that1 although boards cut through or near the middle are1 as a rule1 the best1 when they contain the pith they are sometimes valueless in the centre1 as well as when1 in the case of an old tree1 decay has begun at that point4 ,as the water evaporates gradually from green wood exposed to the air but protected from the weather1 one might infer that in time it would evaporate entirely1 leaving the wood absolutely dry1 just as the water will entirely disappear from a tumbler or a tea-kettle4 ,this is not so1 however4 ,the drying goes on until there is only about ten to twenty per cent4 of moisture left1 but no amount of open-air seasoning will entirely remove this small per cent4 of moisture1 the amount varying with the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere4 ,it can be got rid of only by applying heat1 kiln-drying1 baking1 currents of hot air1 vacuum process1 or some artificial method of seasoning4 ,after having completely dried the wood by any of these methods1 if it is again exposed to the atmosphere1 it absorbs moisture quite rapidly until it has taken up perhaps fifteen per cent41 more or less1 of its own weight4 ,so you see that1 though you may by artificial means make wood entirely dry1 it will not stay in this unnatural condition unless in some way entirely protected from the atmosphere at once1 but will reabsorb the moisture it has lost until it reaches a condition in harmony with the atmosphere4 ,recent investigations show that the very fibre or substance of the wood itself imbibes and holds moisture tenaciously1 this being additional to the water popularly understood to be contained in the pores or cavities of the wood4 ,there are various other methods besides kiln-drying 7referred to in ,chapter ,,iii47 of seasoning and of hastening the drying process4 ,wood is sometimes soaked in water before being seasoned4 ,this assists in removing the soluble elements of the sap1 but it is doubtful whether the process improves the quality of the wood4 ,smoking and steaming are also resorted to4 ,small pieces can readily be smoked1 which hardens the wood and adds to its durability1--a method which has been known for centuries1--but care must be taken not to burn1 scorch1 or crack the wood4 ,decay and ,preservation4--,timber decays fastest when alternately wet and dry1 as in the piles of a wharf1 fence-posts1 and the like1 or when subjected to a hot1 moist1 close atmosphere1 as the sills and floor-timbers situated over some damp and unventilated cellar4 ,fig4 #fid shows the decay caused by alternate wetness and dryness1 while the parts above and below are still sound4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fid4 ,wood lasts the best when kept dry and well ventilated4 ,when kept constantly wet it is somewhat softened1 and will not resist so much1 but it does not decay4 ,recently1 upon cutting a slab from the outside of a large log taken from the bed of a river1 where it had lain for one hundred years or more1 the interior proved as sound and clear as could be found in any lumber-yard4 ,undoubtedly1 however1 such long submersion lessens the elastic strength of timber after it is dried4 ,that is not1 however1 an extreme example of durability4 ,wood has been taken from bogs and ancient lake-dwellings after being preserved for ages4 ,piles were taken from the ,old ,london ,bridge after about #fej years of service4 ,piles placed in the ,rhine about #bjjj years ago have been found quite sound during the present century2 and piles are now regularly used1 as you doubtless know1 for the support of the most massive stone buildings and piers1 but only where they are driven deep in the ground or below the low-water line4 ,many examples of the durability of wood kept dry are found in ,european structures4 ,timbers put into the roof of ,westminster ,abbey in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 are still in place1 and the roof-timbers of some of the older ,italian churches remain in good condition4 ,thorough seasoning1 protection from the sun and rain1 and the free circulation of air are the essentials to the preservation of timber4 ,many preparations and chemical processes have been tried for the preservation of wood4 ,creosote is one of the best preservatives known4 ,insects and fungi are repelled by its odour4 ,the modern so-called creosote stains are excellent1 not very expensive1 and easily applied4 ,they are only suitable for outside work1 however1 on account of the odour4 ,coal-tar and wood-tar or pitch1 applied hot in thin coats1 are also good and cheap preservatives for exposed wood-work4 ,charring the ends of fence-posts by holding them for a short time over a fire and forming a protecting coating of charcoal is another method which has been extensively used4 ,oil paint will protect wood from moisture from without1 and is the method most commonly in use4 ,in the case of any external coating1 however1 which interferes with the process of evaporation1 as tar or paint1 the wood must be thoroughly dry when it is applied1 or the moisture within will be unable to escape1 and will cause decay4 ,lumber as well as the living tree has enemies in the form of insects and worms1 but the conditions best for the preservation of the wood1 as referred to above1 are also the least favourable for the attacks of animal life and of fungi4 ,as soon as the tree has been felled and dies1 decomposition begins1 as in all organic bodies1 and sooner or later will totally destroy the wood4 ,the woody fibre itself will last for ages1 but some of the substances involved in the growth soon decay4 ,the sap is liable to fermentation1 shown by a bluish tint1 and decay sets in4 ,fungi are liable to fasten upon the wood4 ,worms and insects also attack it1 preferring that which is richest in sap4 ,thus we see that the danger of decay originates chiefly in the decomposition of the sap 7although in living trees past their prime decay begins in the heartwood while the sapwood is sound71 so the more the sap can be got rid of the better4 ,there are1 however1 some substances found in various trees1 aside from those elements especially required for their growth1 which render the wood more durable1 like tannic acid1 which abounds in oak and a number of trees1 particularly in the bark4 ,there is no advantage in getting rid of the turpentine and other volatile oils and the resinous deposits found in needle-leaved trees1 particularly in the case of those woods in which they abound4 ,care should be taken1 however1 not to use a piece of pine badly streaked or spotted with resinous deposits in a place where it will be exposed1 as the turpentine or resinous matter will be apt to ooze out and blister the paint4 ,wet rot is a decay of the unseasoned wood1 which may also be caused in seasoned wood by moisture with a temperate degree of warmth4 ,it occurs in wood alternately exposed to dryness and moisture4 ,dry rot1 which is due to fungi1 does not attack dry wood1 but is found where there is dampness and lack of free circulation of air1 as in warm1 damp1 and unventilated situations1 like cellars and the more confined parts of ships1 and in time results in the entire crumbling away of the wood4 ,there are several forms of dry rot4 ,one of the most common and worst of dry-rot fungi attacks pine and fir4 ,fungi also attack oak4 ,creosote is used as a preventive1 to the extent to which it saturates the wood4 ,effects of ,expansion and ,contraction4--,cracks1 curling1 warping1 winding1 or twisting are due to nothing but irregular and uneven swelling and shrinking4 ,some kinds of wood shrink much in drying1 others but little4 ,some1 after seasoning1 swell or shrink and curl and warp to a marked degree with every change in temperature and dryness4 ,others1 once thoroughly air-seasoned1 alter much less in shape or size under ordinary circumstances4 ,we have already seen that the heart side of a board tends to become convex in seasoning1 owing to the shrinkage of the other side1 and that if one part swells much more than another the wood becomes out of shape1--warped1 curled1 or twisted4 ,if one part shrinks much faster than another1 cracks usually result in the quicker shrinking portion4 ,if you stick one end of a green board into the hot oven of the kitchen stove1 the heated end will crack and split before the rest of the board has fairly begun to dry4 ,we have seen illustrations of this in the seasoning process1 as shown in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,exposure of one side of a seasoned piece to either dampness or heat will thus cause the piece to curl4 ,the dampness swells the side affected or the heat shrinks it so that the convexity will be on the dampened side1 or the concavity on the heated side1 as the case may be4 ,if lumber were of perfectly uniform texture1 hung up where it would be entirely unconfined and free to swell or shrink in all directions1 and equally exposed all over the surface to exactly the same degrees and changes of heat and cold1 dryness and moisture1 it would simply grow larger or smaller without changing its form or shape4 ,there would then be no curling1 warping or winding4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 wood is not uniform in texture1 but exceedingly varied1 some pieces being extremely complex in structure2 neither is it always free to expand and contract in every direction1 nor equally exposed on all sides to the alternations of heat and cold1 moisture and dryness4 ,to come to the practical application of these facts1 we have seen 7in ,chapter ,,iii47 that boards for nice work should be planed down equally1 as nearly as may be1 from both sides2 that the mere dressing off of the surface by hand will sometimes cause a board to warp badly2 and that it is better to buy stock of as nearly the required thickness as possible1 than to plane it down or split it4 ,it should also be noted that when a board is being sawed in two or split lengthwise with a saw it sometimes springs together behind the saw with so much force that the crack has to be wedged open in order to continue sawing 7,fig4 #fie74 ,sometimes the crack opens wider instead of closing 7,fig4 #fif74 ,you see from this that you cannot always be sure when you split a board that the parts will retain the shape they had in the original board4 ,in working up large pieces into smaller ones1 unexpected twists and crooks will often be found in the smaller pieces which did not exist in the original stock4 ,sometimes mahogany1 for instance1 will act in this way very markedly4 ,strips sawed off from a board1 for example1 will sometimes immediately spring into very crooked forms1 as shown in ,fig4 #fig 7which would not be exaggerated if the pieces were drawn of greater proportionate length74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fie4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fif4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fig4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fih4 ,in splitting stock flatwise1 i4e41 making two thinner boards out of a thick board or plank1 a similar result often follows4 ,the latent power set free1 so to speak1 by suddenly exposing the middle of a board1 plank1 or other timber to the atmosphere sometimes causes curious developments4 ,it being necessary one day to split for a picture frame a large mahogany board1 #a thick by #b' square1 with a circular hole already sawed from the centre1 the pieces warped and twisted as the sawing went on 7,fig4 #fih71 until1 just as they were nearly separated1 the whole thing went off with a report like a toy pistol1 breaking into a dozen pieces and scattering them around the shop4 ,in very crooked-grained wood you will frequently find uneven and undulating forms of warping and twisting that you do not find in straight-grained pieces1 but such wood is often of the most beautiful figure for indoor work4 ,where the grain is crooked1 cropping up to the surface as in ,fig4 #gja1 the cut-off ends of the fibrous structure1 so to speak1 are exposed in places to the atmosphere4 ,these open ends1 end wood1 thus brought to the surface are more susceptible to moisture and dryness than the sides of the bundles of fibrous tissue1 which tends to produce unequal swelling1 shrinking1 and warping4 ,you will see if you look at the ends of logs and stumps that the heart is frequently not in the centre1 in some cases taking such a devious course throughout the stem as to make the grain so crooked that no method of sawing will remove the tendency to warp or twist1 just shown4 ,such trees may show a beautiful grain4 ,even in straight trees the pith is not usually quite straight1 and is apt to take a somewhat zigzag course1 due to the crooked way the tree grew when young 7,fig4 #fii74 ,illustration ,,fig4 #fii4 ,imagine1 for an exaggerated illustration1 that you could see with ,x-rays the pith as crooked as ,fig4 #fii4 that shown in ,fig4 #gjj4 ,imagine that from this tree you could saw out the board indicated1 keeping with it the whole pith or heart as if it were a wire rope woven in and out of the board1 so that the appearance would be somewhat like that shown in ,fig4 #gja4 ,bear in mind that the annual rings are layers of wood1 so to speak1 which may vary in thickness1 growing around the heart4 ,you will see that these layers1 or rings1 as they dip below or rise above the surface of the board1 will cause the grain to form various patterns1 perhaps somewhat as shown in ,fig4 #gja1 which makes no claim to accurately showing the grain in this case4 ,in fact1 all such variations of grain in lumber are due to the surface of the piece being at an angle with the layers4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gjj4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gja4 ,in addition1 the knots caused by branches1 the twisting of the stems screw-fashion 7as is seen in cedar71 wounds1 and other causes1 often produce very crooked and tangled grain1 and the wood of many broad-leaved trees is sometimes extremely complicated in texture1 especially when all these irregularities occur in the same piece4 ,it is the nature of some kinds of mahogany1 from whatever cause1 to have the fibres strangely interlaced or running in very different directions in layers which are quite near each other4 ,the warping1 twisting1 and cracking is obviated in many cases where it is objectionable 7as in the wooden frames of machines1 the tops of benches7 by building up with a number of smaller pieces1 of which you will often see illustrations4 ,to do this to the best advantage1 the pieces should be selected and put together so that1 though the grain will run in the same direction lengthways1 the annual rings at the ends will not run together as in a whole beam1 but will be reversed or arranged in various combinations1 so that the tendencies of the different parts to warp or twist will counteract each other4 ,instead of a single board1 which would naturally become warped in one large curve1 a number of strips can be glued up with the grain of the strips arranged in alternate fashion 7,fig4 #eei71 so that in place of one large curve the warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line4 ,where but one side of a board is seen or used and where the full strength is not needed1 warping and twisting can be largely prevented by lengthways saw-cuts on the back or under surface1 as in a drawing-board1 the crossways strength required being secured by the cleats4 ,doors and most forms of panelled work also illustrate these matters of swelling and shrinking 7see ,doors and ,panels74 ,shakes4--,heart-shakes are cracks radiating from the centre in the line of the medullary rays1 widest at the pith and narrowing toward the outside1 and supposed to be chiefly caused by the shrinkage of the older wood due to the beginning of decay while the tree is standing 7,fig4 #gjb74 ,slight heart-shakes are common1 but if large and numerous or twisting in the length of the log1 they injure the timber seriously for cutting up4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gjb4 ,star-shakes are also radiating cracks1 but1 unlike the heart-shakes1 the cracks are widest at the outside1 narrowing toward the centre 7,fig4 #gjc71 and are often caused by the shrinkage of the outer part due to the outside of the tree drying faster than the inside1 as it naturally does from being more exposed after being felled2 but they are sometimes owing to the beginning of decay and other causes4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gjc4 ,cup-shakes are cracks between some of the annual rings1 separating the layers more or less 7,fig4 #gjd71 sometimes reaching entirely around1 separating the centre from the outer portion1 and are supposed to be caused by the swaying of the tree in the wind 7hence sometimes known as wind-shakes71 or to some shock or extreme changes of temperature1 or other causes4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gjd4 ,combinations of the various shakes may be found in the same log4 ,a ,few ,suggestions about ,working-,drawings4--,drawing is far too extensive a subject to be even briefly treated in a manual on wood-working1 but a few general remarks on matters connected with working-drawings may be of help to some4 ,while an ordinary picture gives a correct idea of how an object looks1 we cannot take accurate measurements from it4 ,when we need dimensions1 as in practical work1 we must have some drawings which will show us at once the exact shapes1 sizes1 and positions of the various parts4 ,in addition to the picture to give us the general idea1 we have for working purposes what are called elevations1 plans1 sections1 etc4 ,in such a case as that of the little house shown on page #bdb1 the picture 7,fig4 #cfc7 shows us the appearance of the building1 but for purposes of construction1 working-drawings should also be made4 ,the view of what you would see if you stood directly in front of this house1 with only the front visible1 is shown in ,fig4 #cfd1 and is called the front elevation4 ,stand opposite either side or end1 and the view seen is represented in ,fig4 #cfd as the side elevation4 ,in the same manner the rear elevation is given4 ,next imagine yourself in the air directly above the house4 ,this view is called the plan4#ec ,in this case1 as the view of the interior is desired1 the view is shown as if the roof were removed4 ,if the sides or ends are not alike1 as is sometimes the case1 two side or end views may be needed4 ,in the case illustrated1 inside elevations are also given1 to show the construction4 ,elevations1 whether one or several1 must always be taken at right angles to the plan4 ,although commonly1 in simple work1 confined to representations of each side or end1 they can be taken from any point of view that may be at right angles to the plan4 ,they may be taken from the corners or at any angles that may best show any complicated details of the object4 ,if the object is quite simple1 one elevation and the plan1 or two elevations without the plan1 may be quite sufficient1 as the elevation or plan omitted can in such cases be understood at once4 ,always make your drawings full-sized when the object to be made is not too large4 ,you are much less likely to make mistakes in taking your dimensions and measurements from a drawing the actual size of the object than where you have to take them from a smaller drawing1 and you also can get a better idea from a full-sized drawing just how the object will look4 ,it is a safe-guard1 with a drawing which is symmetrical1 to lay it out from a centre line1 measuring to the right and left4 ,if you make a drawing of which each line is one half the length of the same line in the real object1 it is called a half-size drawing1 and is said to be drawn on a scale of #f to the foot4 ,if one fourth size1 the scale is #c to the foot4 ,the scale is often expressed as an equation1 viz43 #b in4 #a ft41 or #a_/d #a'4 ,if the drawing is not made with accuracy1 it is necessary to put the dimensions upon it1 and this is often done for convenience and quickness of execution in the case of drawings which are accurate4 ,details inside of an object1 that is1 such parts as cannot be seen or properly shown in the elevations or plan1 are often shown by dotted lines1 as in ,fig4 #eig4 ,sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way to show the back of an object1 to save making extra drawings4 ,too many dotted lines1 however1 are confusing1 so if the parts that do not show on the surface are not quite simple and cannot be clearly shown by dotted lines on the plan and elevations1 it is usual to make another kind of drawing especially to show such details4 ,this is called a section 7,lat41 sectio1 from secare1 to cut71 and represents what would be shown if the object were cut apart or sawed through at the place where the view of the details is wanted4 ,the surface supposed to be cut is usually indicated by parallel lines crossing the surface1 independent parts1 as those of different pieces1 frequently being shown by changing the direction of the parallel lines1 as in ,fig4 #ejd4 ,when both sides of an object are alike1 labour and space are often saved by making a drawing of one side or one half only1 from a centre line4 ,the same way is sometimes adopted in making sections1 and an elevation and section can sometimes be combined in this way in one drawing4 ,as soon as you become used to plans and elevations1 you can by combining the plan and elevations in your mind quickly imagine the form of the object represented1 and often1 unless it is complicated1 get fully as good a conception of it as from a picture1 and a more accurate knowledge of its proportions and details1 so that in many cases there is no need of having a picture at all in order to construct the object4 ,it is often a convenience to have a picture1 however1 and frequently an assistance in forming a correct idea of something you have never seen4 ,where the appearance of the object is of consequence1 as in the case of a house or bookcase1 for instance1 the picture is of the first consequence1 for you must have a correct representation of the general appearance of the object before you begin to make the working-drawings4 ,you will soon find that merely having an idea in your mind is not always sufficient from which to make working-drawings1 although the first step in the process4 ,you will often find that when the idea in your mind is put into the form of a picture1 it does not look at all as you thought it would1 and that if you had started at once on the working-drawings without first making a sketch or picture1 the result would have been unsatisfactory and sometimes entirely impracticable4 ,even making a sketch or picture that just expresses your idea will not always result in the completed object being just what you wish4 ,strange though it may seem1 it is a fact1 practically1 that the completed object often looks quite different from what the sketch leads you to expect4 ,that result1 however1 is something which cannot be helped1 so you need not give it any attention1 only do not be surprised if once in a while you find that what you have made is not just what you thought it would be4 ,first make the best design you can1 then accurate working-drawings1 then work carefully by the drawings1 and if the result is not always exactly what you expected1 you can console yourself with the thought that your experience is only that of architects1 designers1 carpenters1 and workmen in all lines1 and that no one can foresee all the conditions by which a piece of projected work will be affected4 ,oblique or parallel projections are often used1 from which measurements can be made4 ,such projections are not true representations of the objects as they appear to the eye1 but they are often used because readily understood and easily drawn4 ,they often answer every purpose from a practical point of view4 ,figs4 #abj and #cdd are examples4 ,another way of representing objects for practical purposes is that shown in ,figs4 #aba and #djg1 and known as isometric#ed projection or isometric perspective4 ,this method is incorrect so far as giving an accurate picture is concerned1 for the object is always represented as being too large in the farther parts1 because the inclined lines are drawn parallel instead of converging2 but it is often very useful from a practical point of view1 because by it all that is required can frequently be expressed in one drawing4 ,isometric perspective will not readily give the correct dimensions except in the lines which are vertical or which slant either way at an angle of #cj with the horizontal1--i4e41 you cannot take the other dimensions right off with a rule as from a plan1 and therefore1 so far as obtaining correct dimensions is concerned1 it is practically not useful for other than rectangular objects2 but so far as merely showing the general shape or conveying the idea of the form it can often be advantageously used in representing many objects containing curved lines4 ,isometric projection has the advantage of being easy of execution1 and of being so pictorial that it is almost always easy to see what is meant4 ,a ,first-,class ,bench4--,the construction of the bench shown on page #aja is not difficult to understand1 but considerable skill is required to make a really good one4 ,the arrangement of the vise is shown in ,fig4 #gje1 which is an inverted view 7as if looking up from underneath74 ,the vise is kept parallel by the stout bars of hard wood1 parallel to the screw1 which slide through mortises cut in the front of the bench-top1 and are further guided by the cleats screwed to the under side of the top1 where it is thinner than at the front edge4 ,in case of using such a vise where the bench-top is not so thick in front1 the thickness can easily be made sufficient by screwing a stout cleat on the under side where the vise comes4 ,in this cleat can be cut the mortises for the slide-bars4 ,the end-vise or tail-screw shown in ,fig4 #adc involves rather more work1 but slides upon a similar principle4 ,perhaps the best way for the amateur is to make the end-vise in the same way as the main vise1 adding the movable stop4 ,illustration ,,fig4 #gje4 ,there is no better way to make the front of this bench-top than to build it up of narrow boards on edge1 planed true1 and thoroughly glued and bolted together4 ,the planing and truing can best be done by machine1 however4 ,if well put together1 such a bench-top will defy changes of weather and will stand a great deal of hard usage4 ,the back part of the top can be thinner1 but can very well be built up if desired4 ,an excellent way to fasten the frame of such a bench together is with bolts1 by which the parts can be drawn to a firm bearing4 ,it is impossible to make such a bench too rigid4 ,if so stiffly framed that it cannot change its shape1 and if the top is carefully trued1 you will have something which will be a great help to good work4 ,,footnotes3 #ea ,in elm1 ash1 and hickory the sapwood is sometimes considered better than the heart4 #eb ,the term deal1 though often loosely applied to the wood of the pine and fir1 properly refers to planks of these woods cut more than #g wide and #f' long--usually #c thick and #i wide4 ,the term is common in ,great ,britain but not in the ,united ,states4 #ec ,this definition of elevations and plan as being representations of what you would see if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of the object1 is merely a rough explanation of the general meaning of the terms4 ,as a matter of scientific accuracy the elevation is1 strictly speaking1 not the way the side would appear if you looked at it from one position1 but the way it would appear if you could look at it from directly opposite every point of it--as if you could have an infinite number of eyes1 one being opposite every point of the object4 ,the elevation shows the front or side or end as it really is1 not as it looks1 either in the form of an exact copy if the object is small1 or of a small copy made in the same proportion if the object is too large to be represented full size4 #ed ,gr41 equal measure4 ,,index ,adze1 ,indian1 #aa -- ,japanese1 #ae ,air-chambers1 #cah1 #cai 7footnote7 -- dried stock1 #afd4 ,see ,seasoning4 -- drying1 #cf-dj1 #ebb-ebd -- pure1 #bgg-bgi -- tanks1 #cah1 #cai 7footnote7 ,alkanet root1 #dih ,ammonia 7for staining71 #die1 #dig ,angle-blocks4 ,see ,corner-blocks1 #cfe ,angles1 determining1 with bevel1 #cej ,angular bit-brace1 #ceb ,animals1 houses for1 #abf-adj ,annual rings1 #bi ,anvil1 #gg1 #cdd ,apparatus1 athletic and gymnastic4 ,see ,gymnastic ,apparatus and ,implements for ,outdoor ,sports4 ,apple 7wood71 #eab ,apron1 #ef ,arbours1 #bia-bic ,arcs1 describing circular1 #cfd1 #cfe ,arkansas stone1 #dcd ,ash1 #eab -- sapwood1 #db1 #eaj ,auger-bit1 #ceb ,awl1 ,japanese1 #ae ,awls1 #cdd1 #cde ,axe1 #cde ,backbone1 ice-boat1 #ccd ,back-saw1 #dfi ,backs for case work1 #aid ,balcony1 #bie1 #big ,ball and block1 #bai ,balloon frame1 #bhj ,bar1 horizontal1 #aff-afh1 #agc ,bars1 parallel1 #afd-aff ,bassoolah1 #aa1 #ab ,basswood1 #eab ,bath-house1 #bic1 #bid ,batteau1 #bii-cad ,battening1 #bhb ,bayberry tallow1 #cgh ,baywood4 ,see ,mahogany4 ,beading1 #aih1 #cde1 #cdf -- -planes1 #dea ,bead-scraper1 #cde1 #cdf ,beams4 ,see ,collar-beams1 beams1 etc4 ,beech1 #eab ,bench1 filing-1 #ge-gg -- finishing-1 #gg -- hook1 #hf-hh -- stop1 #ga-ge -- top1 #fb1 #fc1 #gd1 #ecf -- vise1 #fe-ga1 #gd1 #aja1 #ecf -- work-1 #eg-fe1 #aja1 #ecf1 #ecg ,bending wood1 #dj1 #cdf-cdi ,bevel1 #cdi1 #cej ,bevelling1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceg -- edges of sides of boat1 #cje ,big trees1 #ebj ,birch1 #eab1 #eac -- model 7canoe71 #cbe1 #cbf ,bird-houses4 ,see ,houses for animals4 ,bird's-eye maple1 #eag ,bit-brace1 #cea1 #ceb -- angular1 #ceb -- maker1 #bb -- use of1 #cec-cef 7,boring7 -- where to keep1 #hc ,bits1 #ceb1 #cec -- arrangement1 #hc -- maker1 #bb ,bit-stock4 ,see ,bit-brace4 ,black birch1 #eab1 #eac -- bone-1 #dih -- cherry1 #ead -- ivory-1 #dih ,black1 lamp-1 #dih -- walnut1 #eac ,blind dovetailing1 #cgc -- nailing1 #dcb ,block-form1 #agf1 #bdj -- -plane1 #ddi ,board1 sprung1 for pressure1 #cfb -- -measure1 #dg1 #dh ,boarding1 outside1 #bfi ,boards1 definition of1 #df -- matched-1 #df1 #dg -- or planks1 laying exposed1 #cec -- splitting1 #ebg-ebi ,boat-building1 #bih-cdc -- house-1 #cci-cdc -- -houses1 #bid-big -- ice-1 #ccb-cci ,boats1 toy1 hulls of1 #bbg-bcg -- 7windmill71 #aad1 #aae ,bob-sled1 #aef-afc ,body plan1 #bbi1 #bcj 7footnote7 ,boiled oil1 #dcg 7,painting7 ,bone-black1 #dih ,bookcase and lounge1 #baa -- dwarf1 #aif -- low1 #aif -- pinned 7knock-down71 #aie -- wall1 or hanging1 #ahf1 #ahg -- with cupboard1 #aig -- with desk1 #aih-bjj ,bookcases1 #aic-bjj ,book-rack1 #ahc1 #ahd -- -shelf1 hanging1 #ahe ,booths1 play1 #bda-bdi ,boring1 #cec-cef -- ,japanese1 #ae ,bow-gun1 #aed -- -saw1 #dfi1 #dgj ,boxes1 #bai1 #bbg ,box-making1 #bai-bbg ,boxwood1 #eac ,brace for bits4 ,see ,bit-brace4 -- -joint1 #daa ,braced frame1 #bhj ,braces1 corner1 for house frames1 #bff ,brad-awl1 #cdd1 #cde -- holes made by1 #dcj ,brake for sleds1 #afj-afc ,british oak1 #eah ,broad-leaved trees1 #eaa ,bruises and cuts1 #hf ,bruises in wood1 to take out1 #cef ,brushes1 #cef -- care of1 #ddj ,buck4 ,see ,vaulting-horse4 ,built-up stock1 #dji1 #daj1 #ecj1 #eca ,bull-nosed-plane1 #dej ,burnisher for scraper1 #dhg ,butternut1 #eac ,butt-joint1 #djh ,buttonwood4 ,see ,sycamore4 ,buying lumber1 suggestions about1 #cf-de4 ,see also ,seasoning4 -- tools1 suggestions about1 #ae-bb ,cabinet-clamps4 ,see ,clamps4 -- corner-1 #aij1 #aia -- for guns1 fishing-rods1 etc41 #bae1 #baf -- for tools and supplies1 #if-aja -- medicine1 #aia1 #aic -- music1 #bjj1 #bja -- wall1 or hanging1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij -- -work4 ,see ,furniture4 ,cabins1 #bda-bei ,cages for animals1 #abf-adj ,calcined plaster1 #djc ,calipers1 #cef ,camping-houses4 ,see ,house-building for ,beginners4 ,canoe1 birch model1 #cbe1 #cbf -- canvas-covered1 #cag-cbh -- flat-bottomed1 #caa-cag -- 7canvas-covered71 #cac1 #cad ,canvas-covered canoe 7flat-bottomed71 #cac1 #cad -- canoes1 #cag-cbh ,canvas1 covering canoe with1 #cbb1 #cbc -- deck1 #cag -- painting1 #cbc ,cap 7plane-iron71 #dea1 #deb ,care of stock1 #dd -- of tools1 #bb1 #bc ,carlins1 #cbe1 #cbi ,carpentry1 ,japanese1 #ab-ae ,carving-tools1 #bj1 #ceg -- makers of1 #bb ,case1 centre-board1 #ccj1 #cca -- music1 #bjj1 #bja ,casing for doors1 #bfi -- for doors and windows1 #bgb ,catalpa1 #ebb ,caulking1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #ccj ,cedar1 #eac1 #ead ,centre-bit1 #ceb -- -board1 #ccj1 #cca -- -board trunk1 #ccj1 #cca -- -table1 #bjf1 #bjg ,chain1 wooden1 #bah1 #bai ,chair1 outdoor1 #baj -- -table1 #bab-bad ,chalk1 #daf -- -line1 #daf ,chamfering1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceg ,charring wood1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #ebe ,checking of lumber1 #ca1 #db1 #ebf ,cherry1 #ead ,chestnut1 #ead ,chests1 #bai-bbg ,chimney4 ,see ,smoke-pipe4 ,chip 7of plane71 #dec ,chisels1 #ceg-cei -- arrangement of1 #hc -- makers of1 #bb -- sharpening4 ,see ,sharpening4 -- use of1 #ceh1 #cei1 #dba-dbc1 #ddb-ddd ,chopping-block1 #hf -- wood4 ,see ,splitting ,wood4 ,circles and arcs1 describing1 #cfd1 #cfe ,circular-plane1 #dej ,clamping1 #ga1 #cei-cfc 7,clamps71 #cie1 #dfa ,clamps1 #ga1 #cei-cfc1 #cie1 #dfa4 ,see also ,hand-screws4 ,clapboarding1 #bgc1 #bgd ,clapboards1 #dh1 #bgd ,cleaner for furniture1 etc41 #chf ,cleating1 #ec1 #cfc1 #cfd ,cleats4 ,see ,cleating4 -- for rowlocks1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cjf ,clinching nails1 #dca ,club-house1 #bif1 #big ,coal-tar1 #ebe ,coaming1 #caf1 #cbj1 #cbe1 #cca ,collar-beams1 #bhg ,collection of specimens of wood1 #dd1 #ejg1 #ejh ,colour of lumber1 #dj ,combination articles 7furniture71 #aih-bjj1 #baa-bad ,combination planes1 #dea ,compartments 7pigeon-holes71 #bjj -- water-tight1 #cah1 #cai 7footnote7 ,compasses1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,see also ,scribing4 ,compass-plane4 ,see ,circular-plane4 -- -saw1 #dfi1 #dgj ,concealed nailing4 ,see ,blind- and ,sliver-nailing1 #dcb ,conifers1 #eaa ,coop1 #abi ,cord1 twisted1 for pressure1 #cfb ,corner-blocks1 #cfe -- book-shelves and seat1 #bab -- -braces for house frame1 #bff -- -chisel1 #ceh -- -posts1 #bfe1 #bff -- -seat and shelves1 #bab -- -shelves or cabinets1 #aij1 #aia ,cottage ,row1 #bga-bgf ,cottages1 simple summer1 #bga-bij ,cottonwood1 #ead ,couch with bookcase1 etc41 #baa ,countersink1 #cfe1 #dgh ,cracking of lumber1 #ca1 #db1 #ebf ,cracks and holes1 to fill1 #chd1 #djc1 #djd -- flashing1 #bgc ,creosote1 #ebe -- -stains1 #bgj1 #ebe ,cricket1 or footstool1 #baj ,crooked grain1 #ebi1 #ecj ,crossbow1 #aed ,cross-cutting-saw1 #dff1 #dfg -- -grained stock1 #dj1 #da1 #ebi1 #ecj ,cupboard4 ,see ,cabinet4 ,cup-shakes1 #eca ,curling of lumber1 #cb-cd1 #dji1 #daj1 #ejb1 #ebf-eca ,curves1 sawing1 #ahj -- trimming or paring1 #ddc ,cut-nails1 #dcc -- best for shingling1 #bgj ,cuts and bruises1 #hf ,cutting the log1 #ca-ce -- the tree4 ,see ,felling4 ,cutting-edges1 #be-bh4 ,see also ,sharpening4 -- -pliers1 #cff ,cutwater1 #cji-caa ,cypress1 #ead1 #eae ,daggers1 wooden1 #ajf1 #ajg ,deal1 #eai1 #eba ,decay and preservation1 #da1 #ebd-ebf ,deck1 #cbi -- canvas1 #cag -- for toy boats1 #bcf -- timbers1 #cbe1 #cbi ,deliquescent stem1 #ejh ,designing1 #age-agg1 #bci-bda1 #bgf1 #ecd1 #ece ,desk and bookcase1 #aih-bjj -- -rack1 #ahd1 #ahe ,dimension stock1 #de ,dividers4 ,see ,compasses4 ,dog-fish skin1 #cha ,dog-houses1 #acc-acf ,dogwood1 #ebb ,dolls' house1 #aba-abe ,door1 #bdg -- and window frames1 space for1 #bff -- -casings1 #bfi1 #bgb ,doors and panels1 #cff-cgb -- and windows1 sizes of1 #bgf -- sliding1 #acb1 #acc ,double-bladed paddle1 #cbh -- -ironed planes1 #dea -- -runner1 #aef-afc ,dovetailing1 #cgb1 #cgc ,dowelling1 #cgd-cgf ,dowel-plate1 #cgf ,dowels1 #cgd ,dragon's blood1 #dih ,drainage1 #bgh1 #bgi ,drawboring1 #dbf ,drawer1 or lap1 dovetailing1 #cgc ,drawers1 #aja1 #cgf-cgh ,drawing nails1 #ejd1 #eje ,drawings1 working1 #di1 #ej1 #ecb-ecf ,draw-knife or draw-shave1 #cgh1 #cgi -- use of1 #ddb-ddd ,draw-stroke1 #bf-bh1 #cea1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #ddc1 #ddd1 #def ,drill1 primitive1 #aj -- -stock1 #cgi ,drills1 #cgi ,driving nails4 ,see ,nailing4 ,dry rot1 #ebf -- situation1 #bgg ,dryer1 #dch 7,painting7 ,drying lumber1 methods of1 #cf-dj1 #ebc1 #ebd ,duck's-bill-bit1 #cec ,dwarf bookcase1 #aif ,ebony1 #dh1 #eae ,edges1 cutting1 #be-bh4 ,see also ,sharpening4 ,elasticity1 #dj1 #eaa -- loss of1 #cg1 #ebd ,elder1 #ebb ,elevations1 #ecb-ecd ,elm1 #eae -- sapwood1 #db1 #eaj ,end-grain1 #ebi -- planing1 #deg ,essentials to successful work1 #ajb ,estimating1 #ed1 #ee ,excurrent trunk1 #ejh ,expansion and contraction1 #cj-cc1 #ej-ec1 #bbe1 #ebf-eca -- bit1 #ceb ,face 7of plane71 #dde -- 7of stock71 #ed ,facing edges of case work1 #aih ,farm school1 #bga ,felling and seasoning1 #ebb-ebd4 ,see also ,seasoning4 ,figured stock4 ,see ,grain of ,wood4 ,file-card1 #cha ,files1 #cgi-cha -- maker of1 #bb ,filing1 #cgi-cha -- -bench1 #ge-gg -- saw-1 #dhe-dhg 7,sharpening7 ,filler1 wood1 #che 7,finishing7 ,finishing1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #cha-chf -- -bench1 #gg ,fin-keel type1 #bbi-bcf ,fir4 ,see ,pine and ,spruce4 ,firmer-chisel1 #ceg1 #cei ,fishing-lodges4 ,see ,house-building for ,beginners4 ,fish-plates1 #daa ,flashing1 #beg1 #beh1 #bgb1 #bgc ,flatboat1 #bii-cjh ,flat-bottomed boats1 #bii-cag ,floor-beams1 #bed1 #bee1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bif ,flooring for canoe1 #cbc -- rift-1 #cf ,floors1 #bed1 #bee1 #bff-bfh1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bif ,flower-pot stands1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjg ,footstool or cricket1 #baj ,fore-plane1 #ddg1 #ddh ,forests1 preservation of1 #eji ,forms for bending4 ,see ,moulds4 ,foundation1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfb-bfd1 #bgi ,frame for buildings1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bed1 #bfe-bfi1 #bgb1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bif4 ,see also ,houses for ,animals4 -- balloon1 #bhj -- braced and mortised1 #bhj -- for boat4 ,see ,moulds and ,boat-building for ,beginners4 ,frames1 door and window1 sizes of1 #bgf2 spaces for1 #bff -- picture-1 #baf1 #bag ,framing-chisels1 #ceh ,framing 7doors and panels74 ,see ,doors and ,panels4 -- 7house74 ,see ,frame for ,buildings4 -- -square1 #die ,french polishing1 #che1 #chf ,frogs1 turtles1 lizards1 etc41 tank for1 #aci1 #adj ,front elevation1 #ecb ,fungi1 #da1 #dc1 and ,decay and ,preservation1 #ebd-ebf ,furniture1 #age-bag -- repairing1 #dfj-dfb ,gain1 #bhh 7,fig4 #cii7 ,gauge1 #chf-cij -- for bevels and chamfers1 #cea -- makers1 #bb ,gauging4 ,see ,gauge4 ,georgia pine1 #ebj ,giant swing1 #agb1 #agc ,gimlet1 #cij -- -bit1 #cec ,glass for scraper1 #dgc1 #dgd -- setting1 #cia ,glazing1 #cia ,glue4 ,see ,gluing4 ,glued-joints1 #cfj 7footnote71 #cib1 #cic 7footnote74 ,see also ,gluing1 ,clamps1 ,hand-screws1 and ,repairing ,furniture4 -- clamping1 #cei-cfc -- rubbing1 #cfe 7,corner-blocks7 ,glue-pot1 #cif ,gluing1 #cia-cif4 ,see also ,clamps1 ,hand-screws1 and ,repairing ,furniture4 -- old work4 ,see ,repairing ,furniture4 ,glycerine1 #dcd ,gouge1 #cif-cih -- -bit1 #cec ,gouges1 arrangement of1 #hc -- makers of1 #bb ,grain of wood1 #cj1 #cc-cf1 #dj -- crooked or cross-grained1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj1 #ebi1 #ecj ,grinding4 ,see ,sharpening4 ,grindstone1 #cih -- use of1 #dhj-dhb ,grooving1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #cih ,gum 7wood71 #ebb ,gun-cabinet1 etc41 #bae1 #baf ,guns and pistols 7wooden71 #aeb-aed ,gunwale strip1 #cjf1 #cag1 #cbj ,gymnastic apparatus1 #afc-agd ,half-breadth plan1 #bbi1 #bcj ,half-round file1 #chj ,halving 7halved-joints71 #cii1 #djj ,hammer1 #djj -- use of4 ,see ,nailing1 #dbh-dcj1 and also #ejd1 #eje ,handles1 etc41 oiling1 #bc ,hand-screws1 #djj-djb -- use of1 #ga1 #djj-djb1 #dfa ,hanging bookcase1 #ahf1 #ahg -- book-shelf1 #ahe ,happy ,jack1 #aab-aad ,hard pine1 #eai1 #ebj -- wood1 #de ,hatchet1 #djb -- use of1 #dda1 #ddb ,headledges1 #ccj1 #cca ,heart1 crooked1 #ebi1 #ecj -- shakes1 #eca -- wood1 #bi1 #db1 #dc1 #eaj ,hemlock1 #eae ,hen-houses4 ,see ,houses for ,animals and ,house-building for ,beginners4 ,hickory1 #eae -- sapwood1 #eaj ,hinges1 #bdg1 #djb1 #djc ,hip-rafters1 #bhd ,hip-roof1 #bhd-bhf ,holes and cracks1 to fill1 #chd1 #djc1 #djd ,hollow and round planes1 #dea ,holly1 #eaf ,horizontal bar1 #aff-afh1 #agc ,hornbeam1 #ebb ,horse1 vaulting-1 #agj-agb ,horses1 or trestles1 #hh-ij ,house1 bath-1 #bic1 #bid -- -boats1 #cci-cdc -- -building for beginners1 #bch-big -- designing1 #bci-bda -- situation1 #bci4 ,see also ,houses4 ,housed joint1 #dbd and ,fig4 #eeg ,houses1 boat-1 #bid-big -- club-1 #bif1 #big -- dolls'1 #aba-abe -- for animals1 #abf-adj -- play-1 #bda-bei -- portable1 #bdg1 #bdh -- summer-1 #bia-bic4 ,see also ,house4 ,housing 7housed joint74 #dbd and ,fig4 #eeg ,hunting-lodges4 ,see ,house-building for ,beginners4 ,hutch1 rabbit1 #acb1 #acc ,ice-boat1 small1 #ccb-cci ,indian turning1 #aj1 #aa ,inside calipers1 #cef ,iron 7of plane71 #dde -- painting1 #dch ,ironwood1 #ebb ,isometric projection or perspective1 #ece ,ivory black1 #dih ,jack-knife4 ,see ,knife1 #daa1 #dab -- -plane1 #ddf1 #ddg -- -rafter1 #bhd ,japan1 #dch 7,painting7 -- varnish1 #dch ,japanese carpenter's vise1 #ac -- carpentry1 #ab-ae -- lacquer1 #chc 7footnote7 -- tools1 #ad1 #ae ,jointer1 #ddh ,jointing1 #cfj 7footnote71 #djd-djh1 #dia 7,shooting-board7 ,joints1 #bba1 #bbb ,joints and splices1 #djh-daa -- for gluing1 #cfj1 #cib1 #cic 7footnote74 ,see ,glued-joints4 -- housed1 #dbd and ,fig4 #eeg -- in exposed work1 painting1 #dci1 #ddj -- mitred4 ,see ,mitring4 -- relished1 #dbe ,joists1 definition1 #dg ,keel1 #caf1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbg -- built up1 #bcg -- 7skag71 #cjg ,keelson1 #cbj ,kennel1 #acc-acf ,kerfing4 ,see ,bending ,wood1 #cdf ,keyhole-saw1 #dgj ,kiln-drying1 #cg-dj4 ,see ,seasoning4 ,king-bolt1 #aeh ,knees1 #cad ,knife1 #daa1 #dab -- makers1 #bb -- putty1 #dei -- sharpening1 #dhj1 #dhd -- use of1 #ddb-ddd ,knives1 wooden1 #ajf1 #ajg ,knock-down construction1 #aie ,lacquer1 ,japanese1 #chc 7footnote7 ,ladders 7gymnastic71 #agc ,lampblack1 #dih ,lancewood1 #eaf ,lap or drawer dovetailing1 #cgc ,lard oil1 #dcd ,lathe1 primitive ,indian1 #aj1 #aa ,laths1 #dh ,lattice-work1 #bhb1 #bia1 #bib ,laying out the work1 #ej-ed ,lead 7of plane-iron71 #deb -- over door- and window-casings1 #bgb1 #bgc -- red1 #dch 7,painting7 -- white4 ,see ,painting4 ,lean-to1 #bda-bej -- addition1 #bha1 #bhb -- roof1 frame for1 #bej ,ledger-board1 #bif ,leg-of-mutton sail1 #ccb ,leopard wood1 #dh ,level1 #if1 #dab -- makers1 #bb ,levelling tables1 horses1 chairs1 etc41 #dgi1 #dhj1 #ejd ,lighthouse1 #abj ,lignum-vit1 #eaf ,lime-water1 #dig1 #dih ,linden4 ,see ,basswood4 ,linseed oil4 ,see ,finishing1 ,painting 7#dcg71 and ,staining4 ,lizards1 frogs1 turtles1 etc41 tank for1 #aci1 #adj ,live oak1 #eah ,load water-line1 #bcj 7footnote7 ,location of house1 #bgg-bgi ,locks1 #dab1 #dac ,locust1 #eaf ,log1 cutting the1 #ca-ce ,long jointer1 #ddh ,lounge with bookcase1 etc41 #baa ,lumber1 characteristics4 ,see ,chapter ,,iii4 7,wood71 and #eaj-ebb -- charring1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #ebe -- checking and cracking1 #ca1 #db1 #ebf -- colour of1 #dj -- cross-grained1 #dj1 #da1 #ebi1 #ecj -- curling and warping1 #cb-cd1 #da1 #dji1 #ejb1 #ebf-eca -- definition1 #de -- dressed1 #de1 #df -- rift1 #ce1 #cf -- sawing1 #ca-ce4 ,see also ,expansion and ,contraction4 -- seasoning1 #cf-dj1 #db1 #afd1 #agg1 #agh1 #ebb-ebd -- selection of1 #cc-de -- stacking1 #ci -- swelling and shrinking1 #cj-ce1 #ej-ec1 #bbe1 #ebf-eca -- undressed1 #de -- wany1 #dj -- warped1 #da4 ,see ,warping4 -- winding1 #da4 ,see ,winding4 ,m1 #dg ,mahogany1 #eaf -- cracks in1 #db ,mallet1 #dad ,maple1 #eag ,marking1 #dad-daf -- -awl4 ,see ,awl and ,marking4 -- distances4 ,see ,rule1 #dfe -- -gauge4 ,see ,gauge4 ,mason's square1 #bfa ,masts1 #cca ,matched-boards1 #df1 #dg -- striking1 #bde ,matching-planes1 #ba1 #dg1 #dea ,maxims1 #ajb ,measurements4 ,see ,rule1 and also #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #ei1 #afg7;footnote71 #bdd1 #bfa ,measuring4 ,see ,measurements4 ,measuring-rod1 #ec ,medicine-cabinet1 #aia1 #aic ,medullary rays1 #bi1 #cj ,middle-boards1 #cd1 #ce1 #ebc ,mirror-plates1 #daf ,mirrors1 setting1 #cia ,mitre4 ,see ,mitring4 -- -board1 #ib1 #ic -- -box1 #ij-ib -- dovetailing1 #cgc -- shooting-board1 #id -- -square1 #cdi ,mitring1 #bba1 #dag-dai ,models1 #bdj ,mortise and tenon4 ,see ,mortising4 ,mortise-chisels1 #ceh -- -gauge1 #chg -- open1 #djj ,mortised frame1 #bhj ,mortising1 #dai-dbh ,mouldings1 #dh1 #aig1 #aih 7footnote7 ,moulds 7for bending71 #cdh1 #cdi -- 7for boat71 #cjd1 #cjg1 #cji1 #caj1 #cae1 #caf1 #cai1 #cbj ,mouth 7of plane71 #dde1 #deb1 #dec ,music-case1 #bjj1 #bja ,nailing1 #dbh-dcc ,nails1 #dcc -- copper and galvanised1 #cjj -- for shingling1 #bgj -- how to keep1 #he -- use of1 #dcj-dcc 7,nailing7 -- withdrawing1 #ejd1 #eje ,nail-set1 #dcc1 #dcd ,needle-leaved trees1 #eaa ,nippers1 #dcd1 #dde ,norway pine1 #eai -- spruce1 #eba ,notch-boards1 #bhi ,oak1 #eag1 #eah ,oak1 quartered1 #cd ,oblique projections1 #ece ,odd-jobs1 #dcd ,oil1 #dcd -- -finish1 #cha -- linseed1 ,see ,finishing1 ,painting1 and ,staining4 ,oiling handles1 etc41 #bc ,oil-stone1 #dcd1 #dce -- box for1 #he -- use of1 ,see ,sharpening4 ,open mortise and tenon1 #djj ,operations1 some every-day1 #cdd-eje ,outdoor seat1 #baj ,outside calipers1 #cef ,overshot water-wheels1 #aag1 #aah ,packing-cases1 #bbe ,paddles1 #cbg1 #cbh ,paint1 ,see ,painting4 ,painting1 #dce-dda -- canvas1 #cbc -- shingles1 #bgj ,panels1 #cff-cgb 7,doors and ,panels7 ,panel-saw1 #dff ,parallel bars1 #afd-aff -- projection1 #ece ,paring1 #dda-ddd -- -chisel1 ,see ,chisel #ceg1 #ceh ,parting tool1 ,see ,carving ,tools4 ,patterns for bending1 ,see ,moulds4 ,pear 7wood71 #eah ,pencil1 ,see ,marking1 #dad ,perspective1 isometric1 #ece ,piazza1 #bhc1 #bhg-bhi ,picture-frames1 #baf1 #bag ,pigeon-holes1 #bjj -- -houses4 ,see ,houses for ,animals4 ,piers1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bgi ,piles1 #ebd ,pincers1 #dde ,pine1 #eah-ebj ,pinning mortise and tenon1 #dbe ,pins for mortise and tenon1 #dbf ,pipe-rack1 #ahh1 #ahi ,pistols and guns 7wooden71 #aeb-aed ,pitch1 #ebe -- pine1 #ebj ,pith1 crooked1 #ebi1 #ecj ,plan1 #ecb-ecd -- 7boat71 #bbi1 #bcj ,plane1 #dde-deh -- how to hold1 #ddf1 #ddg -- -iron1 adjusting1 #dec1 #ded -- sharpening1 ,see ,sharpening4 -- wooden jack- or fore-1 holding1 #ddf ,see ,planes4 ,planer-marks1 #deh ,planes1 ,japanese1 #ac1 #ad -- makers1 #bb -- where to keep1 #hb -- wooden1 oiling1 #bc4 ,see ,plane4 ,planing down stock1 #dd ,planks1 definition1 #dg -- laying1 ,see ,boards1 laying4 -- splitting1 ,see ,boards1 splitting4 ,plans1 ,see ,working ,drawings4 ,plant-stands1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjg ,plaster of ,paris1 #djc ,plates1 #bff ,play-houses1 -booths1 or -stores1 #bda-bei -- ,cottage ,row1 #bga1 #bgf -- -village1 #aah-aba1 #bga1 #bgf ,pliers1 #dde -- cutting-1 #cff ,plough1 #ba1 #dea4 ,see ,plane4 ,plum 7wood71 #ebj ,plumb1 #if1 #deh ,pod-bit1 #cec ,pole1 sprung1 for pressure1 #cfb -- for skis1 #adh ,poles 7for gymnastics71 #agc ,polishing1 #che1 #chf ,poplar1 #ebb ,posts1 corner-1 #bfe1 #bff -- foundation1 #bfb-bfd -- setting1 #bfb1 #bfc ,potash1 bichromate of1 #dih ,poultry-houses1 ,see ,house-building for 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,red cedar1 #ead -- deal1 #eai -- fir1 #eai -- lead1 #dch 7,painting7 -- oak1 #eah -- pine1 ,canadian1 #eai ,redwood1 #ebj ,relishing 7relished joint71 #dbe ,repairing furniture1 #dfj-dfb ,ribbands1 #cbj ,ribs1 #cad1 #cba1 #cbd1 #cbe -- bending4 ,see ,bending ,wood4 ,ridge-board1 #bfh ,rift-flooring1 #cf -- stock1 #ce1 #cf ,rings1 annual1 #bi -- swinging 7gymnastic71 #agc ,ripping-saw1 #dfh1 #dfi 7,saw7 ,risers1 #bhi ,rivets1 #dfb ,rock elm1 #eae -- maple1 #eag ,rod1 measuring1 #ec ,roof-boards1 #bfh -- -timbers1 #bfh -- durability of1 #ebe ,roofing-paper1 #bdf1 #beh ,roofs1 #abh1 #bfh-bgj -- for house-boat1 #cda1 #cdb -- hip-1 #bhd-bhf -- lean-to1 shed1 or single-pitched1 #bda1 #bej -- overhang of1 #bhb ,rope twisted for pressure1 #cfb ,rosewood1 #ebj ,rot1 wet and dry1 #ebf ,rounding sticks1 #dfb-dfe -- form for1 #ie1 #if ,router1 ,see ,plane1 #dea ,rowboat1 small1 #cjh-caa ,rowboats1 #bii-cag ,rowlocks1 #cjb1 #cjf1 #cac ,rubbing down1 #chd ,rule1 #dfe -- makers1 #bb ,ruler1 marking by1 #dae ,runner-board1 ice-boat1 #ccd ,runners1 ice-boat1 #cce-cch ,running foot1 #dh1 #bdd ,runway for animals1 #abh1 #bgf ,rust1 preventing1 #bc ,rustic summer houses and arbours1 #bib1 #bic ,saddle-boards1 #bfi ,sail-boat1 small1 #caa1 #cbh-ccb ,sail1 leg-of-mutton1 #ccb -- sprit-1 #ccb ,san ,domingo mahogany1 #eag ,sandpaper1 #dfe1 #dff -- block1 #dff ,sandpapering4 ,see ,sandpaper4 ,sanitary precautions1 #bgg-bgi ,sap1 #cj ,sapwood1 #bi1 #db1 #dc1 #eaj ,sassafras1 #ebb ,satinwood1 #eba ,saw1 #dff-dgc -- -filing1 #dhe-dhg 7,sharpening7 ,saw-set1 #dgc ,sawing4 ,see ,saw4 -- curves1 #ahj -- joints to fit1 #daj -- log1 ways of1 #cj-ce -- lumber1 #ca-ce ,saws1 ,japanese1 #ad1 #ae -- makers1 #bb -- where to keep1 #hb ,scale 7for drawings71 #ecc ,scarfing1 bevelled1 or splaying1 #daj1 #daa ,schedule of materials1 #ee ,scoring with cuts4 ,see ,paring4 ,scotch fir1 #eai -- pine1 #eai ,scows and punts1 #bii-cjh ,scrap-boxes1 #he ,scraper1 #dgc1 #dgd -- for beading1 #cde1 #cdf -- ,japanese1 #ac1 #ad -- sharpening1 #dhg1 #dhh 7,sharpening7 -- where to keep1 #he ,scraping4 ,see ,scraper4 ,scratch-awl1 #cde 7,awl7 ,screw-drivers1 #dge1 #dgf -- for bit-brace1 #dgf -- long and short1 #dgf ,screws1 and their use1 #dgf-dgi -- how to keep1 #he ,scriber4 ,see ,marking1 #dad ,scribing4 ,see ,marking1 #dad-daf and #dgi1 #dhj ,seams of boat4 ,see ,caulking4 ,seasoned stock1 #afd1 #agg1 #agh -- tests for1 #ci1 #dj4 ,see ,seasoning lumber4 ,seasoning lumber1 #cf-dj1 #db1 #afd1 #agg1 #agh1 #ebb-ebd ,seat for corner1 with shelves1 #bab -- outdoor1 #baj ,second story1 framing at1 #bif1 #big ,secret dovetailing1 #cgc -- nailing4 ,see ,blind- and ,sliver-nailing1 #dcb ,section1 #ecc1 #ecd ,see-saw1 tilt or1 #adb-ade ,sequoia1 #ebj ,set 7for nails71 #dcc1 #dcd -- 7of saw71 #dfg ,setting glass1 #cia ,setting mirrors1 #cia -- nails1 #dcc1 #dcd -- posts1 #bfb1 #bfc -- saws4 ,see ,sharpening4 ,settle1 corner1 with shelves1 #bab -- with table1 #bab-bad ,sewerage1 #bgh1 #bgi ,shacks1 #bda-bei ,shagbark 7hickory71 #eae ,shakes1 #eca ,sharpening tools1 #af1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #dhj-dhh ,sharpie 7sail-boat71 #cbh-ccb ,shave4 ,see ,draw-knife and ,spokeshave4 ,sheathing1 #df1 #dg1 #bde1 #bfi -- for canvas canoe1 #cbe1 #cbf -- outside of house with paper1 #bgc -- -paper1 #bdf -- striking1 #bde ,shed-roof4 ,see ,lean-to4 ,sheer plan1 #bbi1 #bcj ,shelf for books1 hanging1 #ahe ,shellac4 ,see ,finishing4 ,shell-bit1 #cec 7,bits7 ,shelves1 corner1 #aij1 #aia -- ends of1 #aie -- for pipes1 etc41 #ahh1 #ahi -- for wall1 #ahg-ahi -- movable1 #dhi -- or pigeon-holes1 #bjj ,shingles1 #dh1 #bfi ,shingling1 #bfi1 #bgj -- hips1 #bhe1 #bhf ,shooting-board1 #ic1 #id -- use of1 #dij1 #dia ,shrinkage1 #cj-ce -- effects of swelling and shrinking1 #ebf-eca4 ,see ,expansion and ,contraction4 ,shutter1 #bdg1 #beh ,side elevation1 #ecb -- -plates1 #bhg ,sills1 #bfe ,silver-grain or rays4 ,see ,medullary rays and ,quartered oak4 ,single-pitched roof4 ,see ,lean-to4 ,site1 selection of1 #bgg-bgi ,sizing of floor-beams1 #bfg ,skag1 #cjg ,skew-chisel1 #ceg1 #ceh ,skiffs1 #cjh-cad ,skis1 #ade-adh ,slab-sided file1 #chj ,sleds1 #aee-afc ,slips1 #dce1 #dhd ,sliver nailing1 #dcb ,sloid knife4 ,see ,knife1 #daa1 #dab -- work-bench1 #eg ,smoke-pipe1 #beg-bei ,smoking wood1 #ebd ,smoothing1 #agi1 #ahj1 #dej1 #dec1 #deg1 #deh4 ,see ,plane1 ,scraper1 ,sandpaper4 -- -plane1 #ddh1 #ddi ,snake1 wooden1 #ajh1 #aji ,sofa with bookcase1 etc41 #baa ,soft wood1 #de ,sole 7of plane71 #dde ,southern pine1 #eai1 #ebj ,specimens of wood1 #dd1 #ejg1 #ejh ,sperm oil1 #dcd ,splaying 7splice71 #daj1 #daa ,splices4 ,see ,joints and ,splices4 ,spline1 #dia ,split stock4 ,see ,rift4 ,splitting stock1 #dd1 #ebg-ebi -- wood1 #bh1 #dia ,spokeshave1 #dia1 #dib -- makers1 #bb ,spoon-bit1 #cec ,sporting-cabinet1 #bae1 #baf ,spring-board1 #agj ,spritsail1 #ccb ,spruce1 #eba ,square1 #dib-die -- -foot1 #dg1 #bdd 7note7 -- makers1 #bb -- mitre1 #cdi -- where to keep1 #hd1 #he1 and ,frontispiece ,squaring work1 #aha -- with clamps1 #cfj1 #cfa ,squirrel-house1 #acf-aci ,stacking lumber1 #ci1 #dd -- result of careless1 #db ,staining1 #die-dih -- shingles1 #bgj ,stains1 creosote-1 #bgj1 #ebe ,stairs1 #bhi -- 7for little houses71 #abc ,staking out1 #bfj-bfb ,stands1 for plants1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjg ,stands1 small1 #bjb1 #bjg-bji ,star-shakes1 #eca ,steam-chest1 #cdg ,steaming wood1 #cdg 7,bending7 ,steel square1 #die -- -wool1 #dih1 #dii ,steering 7sleds71 #aei1 #afj1 #afc ,stem-posts1 #cji1 #caj1 #cbj-cbc ,steps1 #bhi ,stern-post1 #cbg4 ,see ,stem-posts4 ,sticking lumber4 ,see ,stacking4 ,stile 7of door or panel work71 #cgj ,stilts1 #ada ,stock 7of plane71 #dde -- built up1 #dji1 #daj1 #ecj1 #eca -- care of1 #dd -- cross- or crooked-grained1 #dj1 #da1 #ebi1 #ecj -- planing down1 #dd -- splitting1 #ebg-ebi -- rift or split1 #ce1 #cf4 ,see ,lumber4 ,stop1 bench-1 #ga-ge -- -chamfer1 #ceg -- for drawers1 #cgh ,stove-pipe4 ,see ,smoke-pipe4 ,stores or houses1 play-1 #bda-bei ,straight-bent chisel1 #ceh ,straight-edge1 #hf1 #dii -- marking by1 #dae -- to detect warping or winding4 ,see ,winding-sticks4 ,striking circles and arcs1 #cfd1 #cfe ,stringers or strings 7stairs71 #bhi ,strop1 #he1 #dii1 #ejj ,stropping1 #dhe ,studding1 #bff1 #bhg -- second-story1 #bif ,sugar maple1 #eag -- pine1 #eai ,summer cottages1 simple1 #bga-bij -- -houses1 #bia-bic ,sunlight1 #bgg1 #bgh ,swelling and shrinking1 #cj-ce1 #ej-ec1 #bbe1 #ebf-eca ,swing1 giant1 #agb1 #agc ,swords1 wooden1 #ajf1 #ajg ,sycamore1 #eba ,table1 and settle1 or chair1 #bab-bad -- -top1 putting on1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bji ,tables1 #bjc-bji ,tacks1 #ejj -- for canvas canoes1 #cbc ,tallow1 bayberry1 #cgh ,tamping1 #bfc ,tank1 water-1 for frogs1 etc41 #aci1 #adj ,tannic acid1 #ebf ,tape1 #ejj ,tar1 coal- and wood-1 #ebe ,teak1 #ebb ,templates1 #bca ,tennis rackets1 #ajd ,tenon4 ,see ,mortising4 -- -saw4 ,see ,saw 7,back-saw74 ,tenons 7in repairing71 #dfb ,thole-pins1 #cjb ,thompson's ,island1 #bga ,three-cornered file4 ,see ,file4 ,throat 7of plane71 #dde ,tilt1 or see-saw1 #adb-ade ,timber1 definition1 #de -- durability of4 ,see ,lumber4 ,toboggan1 #adh-aeb ,toe-nailing1 #dca1 #dcb ,toggle-joint1 application of1 #bfg ,tool-cabinets1 #if-aja -- -chest1 #if1 #ig1 #bbc1 #bbd -- -handles1 oiling1 #bc -- -rack1 #hc1 #hd ,tools1 #i-bh -- and supplies1 arrangement1 #hj-hf1 #if -- cabinet for1 #if-aja -- care of1 #bb1 #bc -- common1 and their use1 #cdd-eje -- edge-1 #be-bh -- ,japanese1 #ad1 #ae -- lists of1 #ah-bj -- makers1 #bb -- primitive1 #i-ae -- sharpening1 #af1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #dhj-dhh -- universal1 #ah -- use of1 #bc-be ,toothed-plane1 #ddi1 #dej ,toothing1 #ddi1 #dej ,totlet ,town1 #aah-aba ,toughness1 #dj1 #eaa ,toy boats1 hulls of1 #bbg-bcg -- village1 #aah-aba ,toys1 #ajf-abe ,trapeze1 #agc ,travelling-cage1 #adj ,traverse 7sled71 #aef-afc ,traversing1 #ddf ,treads1 #bhi ,trees4 ,see ,felling and ,seasoning and ,preservation of ,forests4 -- big1 #ebj -- broad-leaved1 #eaa -- conifers or needle-leaved1 #eaa ,trestles1 #hh-ij ,triangular file1 #chj ,trigger1 #aec ,trimming4 ,see ,paring4 ,truing1 grindstone1 #cih -- oil-stone1 #dce -- stock 7surfaces71 #agi1 #ejj1 #eja ,trunk for centre-board1 #ccj1 #cca ,trying-plane1 #ddg1 #ddh 7,plane7 ,try-square4 ,see ,square 7#dib74 ,tulip wood1 #dh ,tupelo1 #ebb ,turning1 ,indian1 #aj1 #aa -- -saw1 #dfi1 #dgj ,turpentine4 ,see ,finishing and ,painting1 #dcg1 #dch1 #dih1 #ebf ,turtles1 frogs1 lizards1 etc41 tank for1 #aci1 #adj ,twist-drill1 #eja ,twister 7rope71 #cfb ,twisting4 ,see ,winding4 ,two-foot square1 #die ,undercutting1 #aie1 #daj ,underpinning1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfb-bfd1 #bgi ,undershot water-wheel1 #aaf1 #aag ,universal planes1 #dea -- tools1 #ah ,varnish4 ,see ,finishing4 -- ,japan1 #dch -- -stains1 #dif ,vaulting apparatus1 #afi -- board1 #agj -- -horse1 #agj1 #agb ,veining-tool4 ,see ,carving-tools4 ,village1 play1 ,cottage ,row1 #bga-bgf -- ,totlet ,town1 #aah-aba ,vise1 bench-1 #fe-ga1 #ecf -- for metal1 #ge1 #gf ,vise1 ,japanese carpenter's1 #ac -- parallelism of jaws1 #fg1 #fh ,v tool1 #ceg ,wale-strips4 ,see ,gunwale strips4 ,wall-cabinet1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij -- -shelves1 #ahg-ahi ,walnut4 ,see ,black ,walnut1 #eac ,warping of lumber1 #cb-cd1 #dji1 #daj1 #ejb1 #ebf-eca ,washboard4 ,see ,coaming4 ,washita stone1 #dcd ,water-line1 #bcj 7footnote7 -- pure1 #bgg-bgi -- -table1 #bgc -- -tank for frogs1 turtles1 etc41 #aci1 #adj -- -tight compartments1 #cah1 #cai 7footnote7 -- -wheels1 #aaf-aah ,wax finish1 #cha ,weather-drying1 #cf1 #dj4 ,see ,seasoning4 ,weather-vane 7steamboat71 #aae4 ,see ,windmills4 ,wedge for splitting1 #bh ,wedges1 #ejb1 #ejc ,wedging4 ,see ,wedges4 -- tenons1 #dbg1 #dbh ,wet rot1 #ebf ,weymouth pine4 ,see ,pine4 ,wheel1 steering- 7for sled71 #afj ,whetstone4 ,see ,oil-stone4 ,whetting4 ,see ,sharpening4 ,white ash1 #eab -- cedar1 #ead -- deal1 #eba -- lead4 ,see ,painting4 -- mahogany1 #eag -- oak1 #eah -- pine1 #eah1 #eai ,whitewood1 #eba ,whittling1 #d1 #bah1 #bai4 ,see ,knife4 ,willow1 #ebb ,winding1 #da1 #cfj1 #ebf-eca -- -sticks1 #ejc1 #ejd ,windmills1 #aji-aaf ,window-casings1 #bgb -- -shutter1 #beh -- sliding1 #bdh ,windows and doors1 sizes of1 #bgf ,wind-shakes1 #eca ,wing compasses1 #cfd ,wire-edge1 #dhj ,withdrawing nails1 #ejd1 #eje ,wood1 #bi-dh 7,chapter ,,iii471 #eaj-ebb4 ,see lumber4 -- charring1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #ebe -- checking and cracking1 #ca1 #db1 #ebf -- collection of specimens1 #dd1 #ejg1 #ejh -- colour of1 #dj -- cross-grained1 #dj1 #da1 #ebi1 #ecj -- curling and warping1 #cb-cd1 #dji1 #daj1 #ejb1 #ebf-eca -- durability of4 ,see ,decay and ,preservation4 -- -filler1 #che -- hard1 #de -- methods of drying1 #cf-dj1 #ebb-ebd -- quality of1 #cc-ce1 #eaj1 #eaa1 #ebb -- seasoning of1 #cf-dj1 #db1 #afd1 #agg1 #agh1 #ebb-ebd -- selection of1 #cc-de1 #eaj1 #eaa1 #ebb -- shrinkage and swelling1 #cj-ce1 #ej-ec1 #bbe1 #ebf-eca -- soft1 #de -- -tar1 #ebe -- warped1 #da4 ,see ,warping4 -- winding1 #da4 ,see ,winding4 ,wooden chain1 #bah1 #bai -- guns and pistols1 #aeb-aed ,woods and some of their characteristics1 #eaj-ebb ,work-bench1 #eg-fe -- first-class1 #aja1 #ecf1 #ecg -- makeshifts1 #gg-hj -- position and care of1 #gd1 #ge -- sloid1 #eg -- top1 #gd1 #ecf ,working drawings1 #di1 #ej1 #ecb-ecf -- edge or surface1 #ed ,workshop1 #ef-aja1 #bei-bgj ,wrench1 #eje ,wrought nails1 #dcc ,yellow deal1 #eai 7,pine7 -- fir1 #eai -- pine1 #eai ,yew1 #ebb ,zinc1 #dch 7,painting7 ,the ,boy with an ,idea ,series4 ,i4 ,the ,young ,mechanic4 ,practical ,carpentry4 ,containing directions for the use of all kinds of tools1 and for the construction of steam-engines and mechanical models1 including the art of turning in wood and metal4 ,by the author of ,the ,lathe and its ,uses1 etc4 ,authorized reprint from ,english edition1 with corrections1 etc4 ,illustrated1 small #dto1 cloth extra #a #ge ,a valuable book1 eminently useful to beginners1 and suggestive even to the experienced and skilful4--,albany ,journal4 ,,ii4 ,amongst ,machines4 ,by the author of ,the ,young ,mechanic4 ,embracing descriptions of the various mechanical appliances used in the manufacture of wood1 metal1 and other substances4 ,profusely illustrated4 #hvo1 cloth #a #ge ,a book of wondrous fascination1 written in a clear1 bright1 pointed style4 ,a volume to be commended above a dozen stories4--,boston ,traveler4 ,,iii4 ,the ,boy ,engineers4 ,what they did and how they did it4 ,by the author of ,the ,young ,mechanic4 #hvo1 with #cj plates1 cloth extra #a #ge ,an eminently useful and timely book4 ,we heartily commend this volume4--,national ,journal of ,education4 ,a book of a class that can only be praised2 the style is simple and easy1 but manly and thoughtful4--,literary ,world4 ,,iv4 ,the ,boy with an ,idea4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,eiloart4 ,a vivid narration of the feats and freaks of a boy of an active turn of mind1 who wanted to know1 and not content with knowing1 wanted always to do4 #hvo1 cloth extra1 illustrated #a #ej ,an exceptionally attractive and wholesome book1 that will fascinate all the bright boys1 and stir up the dull ones4--,boston ,journal4 ,v4 ,learning to ,draw2 or1 ,the ,story of a ,young ,designer4 ,by ,,viollet ,,le ,,duc4 ,translated by ,,virginia ,,champlin4 #hvo1 with #acj illustrations #b #jj ,a work full of practical suggestions1 not only for the student of art or of decorative designing1 but for students and teachers in other departments4 ,the author's theories of the art of teaching are both original and practical4 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons1 ,,publishers1 ,,new ,,york4 ,books for the ,country ,,our ,,insect ,,friends ,,and ,,foes4 ,how to ,collect1 ,preserve and ,study ,them4 ,by ,,belle ,s4 ,,cragin4 ,with over #bej illustrations4 #ho1 #a4ge ,miss ,cragin sets forth the pleasure to be derived from a systematic study of the habits of insects1 and gives many points which will be of practical value to the beginner4 ,she gives comprehensive descriptions of all the more important species to be found in the ,united ,states1 together with illustrations of the same4 ,,among ,,the ,,moths ,,and ,,butterflies4 ,by ,,julia ,p4 ,,ballard4 ,illustrated4 #ho1 #a4ej4 ,the book1 which is handsomely illustrated1 is designed for young readers1 relating some of the most curious facts of natural history in a singularly pleasant and instructive manner4--,n4 ,y4 ,tribune ,,bird ,,studies4 ,an account of the ,land ,birds of ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,by ,,william ,e4 ,d4 ,,scott4 ,with #aff illustrations from original photographs4 ,quarto1 leather back1 gilt top1 in a box1 net1 #e4jj4 ,a book of first class importance4444 ,mr4 ,scott has been a field naturalist for upwards of thirty years1 and few persons have a more intimate acquaintance than he with bird life4 ,his work will take high rank for scientific accuracy and we trust it may prove successful4--,london ,speaker4 ,,wild ,,flowers ,,of ,,the ,,northeastern ,,states4 ,drawn and carefully described from life1 without undue use of scientific nomenclature1 by ,,ellen ,,miller and ,,margaret ,c4 ,,whiting4 ,with #cjh illustrations the size of life4 #ho1 net1 #c4jj4 ,anybody who can read ,english can use the work and make his identifications1 and1 in the case of some of the flowers1 the drawings alone furnish all that is necessary4444 ,the descriptions are as good of their kind as the drawings are of theirs4--,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,,the ,,shrubs ,,of ,,northeastern ,,america4 ,by ,,charles ,s4 ,,newhall4 ,fully illustrated4 #ho1 #a4ge4 ,this volume is beautifully printed on beautiful paper1 and has a list of #aaf illustrations calculated to explain the text4 ,it has a mine of precious information1 such as is seldom gathered within the covers of such a volume4--,baltimore ,farmer4 ,,the ,,vines ,,of ,,northeastern ,,america4 ,by ,,charles ,s4 ,,newhall4 ,fully illustrated4 #ho1 #a4ge4 ,the work is that of the true scientist1 artistically presented in a popular form to an appreciative class of readers4--,the ,churchman4 ,,the ,,trees ,,of ,,northeastern ,,america4 ,by ,,charles ,s4 ,,newhall4 ,with illustrations made from tracings of the leaves of the various trees4 #ho1 #a4ge4 ,we believe this is the most complete and handsome volume of its kind1 and on account of its completeness and the readiness with which it imparts information that everybody needs and few possess1 it is invaluable4--,binghamton ,republican4 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons1 #bg #bi ,west #bc;d ,st41 ,new ,york 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious punctuation and spelling errors and inconsistent hyphenation have been corrected4 ,in ambiguous cases1 the text has been left as it appears in the original4 ,in this text version1 italic text is denoted by underscores1 bold text by equal signs1 and spaced 7gesperrt7 text by plus signs4 ,superscripts are represented with the caret character1 e4g4 #ho4 ,the word bassoolah is written without the diacritical marks used in the original4