,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,pyramids ,,of ,,ghizeh4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,for ,,beginners ,,and ,,students ,,painting--,,sculpture--,,architecture ,,with ,,complete ,,indexes ,,and ,,numerous ,,illustrations ,,by ,,clara ,,erskine ,,clement ,,author ,,of ,,handbook ,,of ,,legendary ,,and ,,mythological ,,art1 ,,painters1 ,,sculptors1 ,,engravers1 ,,architects ,,and ,,their ,,works1 ,,artists ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century1 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,mdcccxci ,,copyright1 #ahhg1 ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes1 ,,successor ,,to ,,white1 ,,stokes1 ,,allen4 ,illustration ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,ancient ,,or ,,heathen ,,architecture4 #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,,to ,a4,d4 #cbh1 #a ,,egypt1 #b ,,assyria1 #bj ,,babylon1 #bi ,,persia1 #cd ,,judea1 #dd ,,greece1 #df ,,etruria1 #ga ,,rome1 #gd ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,christian ,,architecture4 ,a4,d4 #cbh ,,to ,,about #adjj1 #hg ,,gothic ,,architecture1 #ic ,,byzantine ,,architecture1 #aag ,,saracenic ,,architecture1 #abc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,modern ,,architecture4 ,a4,d4 #adjj ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time1 #acc ,,italy1 #acd ,,spain1 #ade ,,france1 #aec ,,england1 #aff ,,germany1 #agb ,,theatres ,,and ,,music ,,halls1 #agi ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america1 #aha ,,glossary ,,of ,,technical ,,terms1 #aia ,,index1 #aie ,illustration ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,the ,pyramids of ,ghizeh1 ,frontispiece ,the ,ascent of a ,pyramid1 #d ,view of ,gallery in the ,great ,pyramid1 #e ,poulterer's ,shop1 #f ,rock-cut ,tomb 7,beni-,hassan71 #f ,the ,hall of ,columns at ,karnak1 #aj ,pillar from ,thebes 7showing the ,three ,parts71 #aa ,sculptured ,capital1 #ab ,palm ,capital1 #ab ,pillar from ,seding1 #ab ,the ,great ,sphinx1 #ac ,cleopatra's ,needles1 #ae ,pavilion at ,medinet ,habou1 #ag ,temple on the ,island of ,phil1 #ah ,gateways in ,walls of ,khorsabad1 #ba ,entrance to ,smaller ,temple 7,nimrud71 #bb ,pavement ,slab 7from ,koyunjik71 #bc ,remains of ,propylum1 or ,outer ,gateway 7,khorsabad71 #bd ,plan of ,palace 7,khorsabad71 #be ,relief from ,khorsabad4 ,a ,temple1 #bf ,restoration of an ,assyrian ,palace1 #bh ,elevation of the ,temple of the ,seven ,spheres at ,borsippa1 #ca ,birs-i-,nimrud 7near ,babylon71 #cc ,masonry of ,great ,platform 7,persepolis71 #cf ,parapet ,wall of ,staircase4 ,persepolis4 7,restored71 #cg ,ruins of the ,palace of ,darius 7,persepolis71 #ch ,gateway of ,hall of a ,hundred ,columns1 #ci ,double-horned ,lion ,capital1 #dj ,complex ,capital and ,base of ,pillars 7,persepolis71 #dj ,base of ,another ,pillar 7,persepolis71 #dj ,ground-plan 7,restored7 of ,hall of ,xerxes 7,persepolis71 #da ,part of a ,base of the ,time of ,cyrus 7,pasargad71 #db ,the ,tomb of ,cyrus1 #dc ,roof of ,one of the ,compartments of the ,gate ,huldah1 #de ,temple of ,diana 7,eleusis71 #dh ,gravestone from ,mycen 7,schliemann71 #di ,small ,temple at ,rhamnus1 #ej ,the ,parthenon4 ,athens4 7,restored71 #ea ,plan of ,temple of ,apollo 7,bass71 #eb ,from the ,parthenon 7,athens71 #ec ,ionic ,architecture1 #ee ,ionic ,base1 #ee ,attic ,base1 #ee ,base from ,temple of ,hera 7,samos71 #ef ,ionic ,capital 7front view71 #ef ,ionic ,capital 7side view71 #ef ,from ,monument of ,lysicrates 7,athens71 #eg ,corinthian ,order1 #eh ,caryatid1 #ei ,stool1 or ,chair 7,khorsabad71 #ei ,the ,acropolis4 ,athens4 7,restored71 #fc ,the ,erechtheium4 ,athens4 7,restored71 #ff ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates4 ,athens1 #fh ,the ,mausoleum at ,halicarnassus 7,restored71 #fi ,tombs at ,castel d',asso1 #ga ,principal ,chamber of the ,regulini-,galeassi ,tomb1 #gb ,arch at ,volterra1 #gc ,gateway 7,arpino71 #gc ,arch of ,cloaca ,maxima 7,rome71 #gd ,composite ,order1 from the ,arch of ,septimius ,severus 7,rome71 #ge ,doric ,arcade1 #gf ,ground-plan of ,pantheon 7,rome71 #gg ,interior of the ,pantheon1 #gh ,longitudinal ,section of ,basilica of ,maxentius1 #gi ,arch of ,constantine 7,rome71 #hb ,arch of ,trajan 7,beneventum71 #hc ,tomb of ,cecilia ,metella1 #hd ,columbarium near the ,gate of ,st4 ,sebastian 7,rome71 #he ,interior of ,basilica of ,st4 ,paul's 7,rome71 #hh ,the ,cathedral of ,chartres1 #ia ,church of ,st4 ,nicholas 7,caen71 #ie ,faade of ,cathedral of ,notre ,dame 7,paris71 #if ,clustered ,pillar1 #ig ,buttress1 #ig ,hinge1 #ig ,iron-work1 #ig ,gargoyle1 #ig ,nail-head1 #ih ,scroll1 #ih ,section of ,church 7,carcassone74 ,with ,outer ,aisles ,added in ,fourteenth ,century1 #ii ,spires of ,laon ,cathedral1 #ajj ,portal of the ,minorites' ,church 7,vienna71 #aja ,external ,elevation1 ,cathedral of ,paris1 #ajb ,wheel ,window1 from ,cathedral 7,toscanella71 #ajc ,collegiate ,church4 ,toro4 7,from ,villa ,amil71 #aje ,st4 ,paul1 ,saragossa1 #ajf ,cloister 7,tarazona71 #ajg ,rood-screen1 from the ,madeleine 7,troyes71 #ajh ,palace of ,wartburg1 #aji ,tower of ,cremona1 #aaa ,st4 ,mark's ,cathedral 7,venice71 #aac ,section of ,san ,miniato 7near ,florence71 #aae ,san ,giovanni degli ,eremiti 7,palermo71 #aaf ,church of ,st4 ,sophia4 ,constantinople4 7,exterior ,view71 #aah ,lower ,order of ,st4 ,sophia1 #aai ,upper ,order of ,st4 ,sophia1 #abj ,interior ,view of ,church of ,st4 ,sophia1 #aba ,mosque of ,kaitbey1 #abd ,the ,call to ,prayer1 #abe ,exterior of the ,sanctuary in the ,mosque of ,cordova1 #abg ,court of the ,lions 7,alhambra71 #aca ,the ,cathedral of ,florence and ,giotto's ,campanile1 #ace ,view of ,st4 ,peter's 7,rome71 #acg ,section of ,st4 ,peter's1 #aci ,east ,elevation of ,library of ,st4 ,mark1 #ada ,the ,doge's ,palace 7,venice71 #adc ,great ,court of the ,hospital of ,milan1 #add ,the ,escurial 7near ,madrid71 #adg ,faade of the ,church of ,st4 ,michael 7,dijon71 #aee ,faade of the ,dome of the ,invalides 7,paris71 #aef ,the ,pantheon 7,paris71 #aeg ,the ,madeleine 7,paris71 #aei ,pavilion de l',horloge and ,part of the ,court of the ,louvre1 #afa ,chteau of ,chambord1 #afc ,porte ,st4 ,denis 7,paris71 #afd ,arc de l'toile 7,paris71 #afe ,east ,elevation of ,st4 ,paul's 7,covent ,garden71 #afg ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london 7from the ,west71 #afh ,st4 ,george's ,hall 7,liverpool71 #afi ,windsor ,castle1 #agj ,the ,houses of ,parliament 7,london71 #aga ,the ,brandenburg ,gate 7,berlin71 #agd ,the ,basilica at ,munich1 #age ,the ,ruhmeshalle 7near ,munich71 #agf ,the ,museum 7,berlin71 #agg ,the ,walhalla1 #agh ,the ,new ,opera ,house 7,paris71 #ahj ,the ,united ,states ,capitol 7,washington71 #ahb ,state ,capitol 7,columbus1 ,ohio71 #ahc ,sir ,william ,pepperell's ,house 7,kittery ,point1 ,maine71 #ahe ,old ,morrisania 7,morrisania1 ,new ,york71 #ahg ,residence at ,irvington1 ,new ,york1 #ahi ,illustration ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,ancient ,,or ,,heathen ,,architecture4 #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,,to ,a4,d4 #cbh4 ,architecture seems to me to be the most wonderful of all the arts4 ,we may not love it as much as others1 when we are young perhaps we cannot do so1 because it is so great and so grand2 but at any time of life one can see that in ,architecture some of the most marvellous achievements of men are displayed4 ,the principal reason for saying this is that ,architecture is not an imitative art1 like ,painting and ,sculpture4 ,the first picture that was ever painted was a portrait or an imitation of something that the painter had seen4 ,so in ,sculpture1 the first statue or bas-relief was an attempt to reproduce some being or object that the sculptor had seen1 or to make a work which combined portions of several things that he had observed2 but in ,architecture this was not true4 ,no temples or tombs or palaces existed until they had first taken form in the mind and imagination of the builders1 and were created out of space and nothingness1 so to speak4 ,thus ,painting and ,sculpture are imitative arts1 but ,architecture is a constructive art2 and while one may love pictures or statues more than the work of the architect1 it seems to me that one must wonder most at the last4 ,we do not know how long the earth has existed1 and in studying the most ancient times of which we have any accurate knowledge1 we come upon facts which prove that men must have lived and died long before the dates of which we can speak exactly4 ,the earliest nations of whose ,architecture we can give an account are called heathen nations1 and their art is called ,ancient or ,heathen ,art1 and this comes down to the time when the ,roman ,emperor ,constantine was converted to ,christianity1 and changed the ,roman ,capitol from ,rome to ,constantinople in the year of our ,lord #cbh4 ,the buildings and the ruins which still remain from these ancient times are in ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,persia1 ,judea1 ,asia ,minor1 ,greece1 ,etruria1 and ,rome4 ,many of these have been excavated or uncovered1 as1 during the ages that have passed since their erection1 they had been buried away from sight by the accumulation of earth about them4 ,these excavations are always going on in various countries1 and men are ever striving to learn more about the wonders of ancient days2 and we may hope that in the future as marvellous things may be revealed to us as have been shown in the past4 ,,egypt4 ,as we consider the ,architecture of ,egypt1 the ,great ,pyramid first attracts attention on account of its antiquity and its importance4 ,this was built by ,cheops1 who is also called ,suphis1 about #cjjj years before ,christ4 ,at that distant day the ,egyptians seem to have been a nation of pyramid-builders1 for even now1 after all the years that have rolled between them and us1 we know of more than sixty of these mysterious monuments which have been opened and explored4 ,of all these the three pyramids at ,ghizeh 7,fig4 #a7 are best known1 and that of ,cheops is the most remarkable among them4 ,those of you who have studied the history of the wars of ,napoleon ,i4 will remember that it was near this spot that he fought the so-called ,battle of the ,pyramids1 and that in addressing his soldiers he reminded them that here the ages looked down upon them1 thus referring to the many years during which this great pyramid had stood on the border of the desert1 as if watching the flight of ,time and calmly waiting to see what would happen on the final day of all earthly things4 ,there have been much speculation and many opinions as to the use for which these pyramids were made1 but the most general belief is that they were intended for the tombs of the powerful kings who reigned in ,egypt and caused them to be built4 ,the pyramid of ,cheops was four hundred and eighty feet and nine inches high1 and its base was seven hundred and sixty-four feet square4 ,it is so difficult to understand the size of anything from mere figures1 that ,i shall try to make it plainer by saying that it covers more than thirteen acres of land1 which is more than twice as much as is covered by any building in the world4 ,its height is as great as that of any cathedral spire in ,europe1 and more than twice that of the monument on ,bunker ,hill1 which is but two hundred and twenty feet1 and yet looks very high4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,the ,,ascent ,,of ,a ,,pyramid4 ,when it was built it was covered with a casing of stone1 the different pieces being fitted together and polished to a surface like glass2 but this covering has been torn away and the stones used for other purposes1 which has left the pyramid in a series of two hundred and three rough and jagged steps1 some of them being two feet and a half in height1 growing less toward the top1 but not diminishing with any regularity4 ,the top is now a platform thirty-two feet and eight inches square4 ,each traveller who ascends this pyramid has from one to four ,fellahs or ,arabs1 who pull him forward or upward by his arms1 or push him and lift him from behind1 and finally drag him to the top 7,fig4 #b74 ,when he thinks of all the weary months and days of the twenty years during which it is said that those who built it worked1 cutting out the stone in the quarries1 moving it to the spot where it was required1 and then raising it to the great heights and fitting it all in place1 he regards his fatigue in its ascent as a little thing1 though at the time it is no joke to him4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,view ,,of ,,gallery ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,pyramid4 ,many of the pyramids were encased in stone taken from the ,mokattam ,mountains1 which were somewhat more than half a mile distant2 but the pyramid of ,cheops was covered with the red ,syenite granite1 which must have been quarried in the red mountain1 nearly five hundred miles away1 near to ,syene1 or the modern ,assouan4 ,the interior of the pyramid is divided into chambers and passages 7,fig4 #c71 which are lined with beautiful slabs of granite and constructed in such a way as to prove that at the remote time in which the pyramids were built ,egyptian architects and workmen were already skilled in planning and executing great works4 ,of the seventy pyramids known to have existed in those early days1 sixty-nine had the entrance on the north side1 leaving but a single exception to this rule2 all of them were situated on the western side of the ,river ,nile1 just on the edge of the desert1 beyond the strip of cultivable ground which borders the river4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,poulterer',s ,,shop4 ,near the pyramids there are numerous tombs1 which are built somewhat like low houses1 having several apartments with but one entrance from the outside4 ,the walls of these apartments are adorned with pictures similar to this one of a poulterer's shop 7,fig4 #d72 they represent the manners and customs of the ancient ,egyptians with great exactness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,rock-,,cut ,,tomb1 ,,beni-,,hassan4 ,the tombs at ,beni-,hassan are among the most ancient ruins of ,egypt1 and are very interesting 7,fig4 #e74 ,they were made between #bdff and #bbff ,b4,c4 ,they are on the eastern bank of the ,nile1 and are hewn out of the solid rock2 they are ornamented with sculptures and pictures which are full of interest2 it has been said that these tombs were built by the ,pharaoh1 or king1 of ,joseph's time1 and one of the paintings is often spoken of as being a representation of the brethren of ,joseph2 but of this there is no proof4 ,the colors of the pictures are fresh and bright1 and they show that many of the customs and amusements of that long1 long ago were similar to our own1 and in some cases quite the same4 ,the manufactures of glass and linen1 cabinet work1 gold ornaments1 and other artistic objects are pictured there2 the games of ball1 draughts1 and morra are shown1 while the animals1 birds1 and fishes of ,egypt are all accurately depicted4 ,an interesting thing to notice about these tombs is the way in which the epistyle--the part resting upon the columns--imitates squarely-hewn joists1 as if the roof were of wood supported by a row of timbers4 ,when we come to the architecture of ,greece we shall see that its most important style1 the ,doric1 arose from the imitation in stone of the details of a wooden roof1 and from a likeness between these tombs and the ,doric order1 this style has been named the ,proto-,doric4 ,the tombs near ,thebes which are called the ,tombs of the ,kings1 and many other ,egyptian tombs1 are very interesting1 and within a short time some which had not before been observed have been opened1 and proved to be rich in decorations1 and also to contain valuable ornaments and works of art1 as well as papyri1 or records of historical value4 ,the most magnificent of all the ,egyptian tombs is that of ,king ,seti ,i41 who began to reign in #acff ,b4,c4 ,he was fond of splendid buildings1 and all the architects of his time were very busy in carrying out his plans4 ,his tomb was not discovered until #ahag1 and was then found by an ,italian traveller1 whose name1 ,belzoni1 has been given to the tomb4 ,the staircase by which it is entered is twenty-four feet long1 and opens into a spacious passage1 the walls of which are beautifully ornamented with sculptures and paintings4 ,this is succeeded by other staircases1 fine halls1 and corridors1 all of which extend four hundred and five feet into the mountain in which the tomb is excavated1 making also a gradual descent of ninety feet from its entrance4 ,it is a wonderful monument to the skill and taste of the architects who lived and labored more than three thousand years ago4 ,the two principal cities of ancient ,egypt were ,memphis and ,thebes4 ,the first has been almost literally taken to pieces and carried away1 for as other more modern cities have been built up near it1 the materials which were first used in the old temples and palaces have been carried here and there1 and again utilized in erecting new edifices4 ,thebes1 on the contrary1 has stood alone during all the centuries that have passed since its decline1 and there is now no better spot in which to study the ancient ,egyptian architecture1 because its temples are still so complete that a good idea can be formed from them of what they must have been when they were perfect4 ,the ruins at ,thebes are on both banks of the ,nile1 and no description can do justice to their grandeur1 or give a full estimate of their wonders2 but ,i shall try to tell something of the palace-temple of ,karnak1 which has been called the noblest effort of architectural magnificence ever produced by the hand of man4 ,the word palace-temple has a strange sound to us because we do not now associate the ideas which the two words represent4 ,many palaces of more modern countries and times have their chapels1 but the union of a grand temple and a grand palace is extremely rare1 to say the least4 ,perhaps the ,vatican and ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome represent the idea and spirit of the ,egyptian palace-temples as nearly as any buildings that are now in existence4 ,the ,egyptian religion controlled all the affairs of the nation4 ,the ,pharaoh1 or king1 was the chief of the religion1 as well as of the ,state4 ,when a king came to the throne he became a priest also1 by being made a member of a priestly order4 ,he was instructed in sacred learning2 he regulated the service of the temple2 on great occasions he offered the sacrifices himself1 and1 in fact1 he was considered not only as a descendant of gods1 but as a veritable god4 ,in some sculptures and paintings the gods are represented as attending upon the kings1 and after the death of a king the same sort of veneration was paid to him as that given to the gods4 ,this explains the building of the palace and temple together1 and shows the reason why the gods and the kings1 and the affairs of religion and of government1 could not be separated4 ,as we study the arts of different countries we are constantly reminded that the religion of a people is the central point from which the arts spring forth4 ,from its teachings they take their tone1 and adapt their forms and uses to its requirements4 ,i refer to this fact from time to time because it is important to remember that it underlies much of the art of the world4 ,it may be said that all the art of ,egypt was devoted to the service of its religion4 ,of course this is true of that used in the decoration of the temples2 it is also true of all that did honor to the kings1 because they were regarded as sacred persons1 and all their wars and wonderful acts which are represented in sculpture and painting1 and by statues and obelisks1 are considered as deeds that were performed for the sake of the gods and by their aid4 ,it was also the religious belief in the immortality of the soul that led the ,egyptians to build their tombs with such care1 and to provide such splendid places in which to lay the body1 which was the house of the spirit4 ,in the study of ,architecture it will also be noted that a country which has no national religion--or one in which the government and the religion have no connection with each other--has no absolutely national architecture4 ,it will have certain features which depend upon the climate1 the building materials at command1 and upon the general customs of the people2 but here and there will be seen specimens of all existing orders of architecture1 and buildings in some degree representing the art of all countries and periods2 such architecture is known by the term composite1 because it is composed of portions of several different orders1 and has no absolutely distinct character4 ,this palace-temple of ,karnak is made up of a collection of courts and halls1 and it is very difficult to comprehend the size of all these parts which go to make up the enormous whole4 ,the entire space devoted to it is almost twice as large as the whole area of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and four times as great as any of the other cathedrals of ,europe2 a dozen of the largest ,american churches could be placed within its limits and there still be room for a few chapels4 ,all this enormous space is not covered by roofs1 for there were many courts and passages which were always open to the sky1 and one portion was added after another1 and by one sovereign and another1 until the completion of the whole was made long after the ,pharaoh who commenced it had been laid in one of the tombs of the kings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,columns ,,at ,,karnak4 ,the most remarkable apartment of all is called the great ,hypostyle ,hall1 which high-sounding name means simply a hall with pillars 7,fig4 #f74 ,this hall and its two pylons1 or entrances1 cover more space than the great cathedral of ,cologne1 which is one of the largest and most famous churches of all ,europe4 ,this splendid hall had originally one hundred and thirty-four magnificent columns1 of which more than one hundred still remain2 they are of colossal size1 some of them being sixty feet high without the base or capital1 which would increase them to ninety feet1 and their diameter is twelve feet4 ,this large number of columns was necessary to uphold the roof1 as the ,egyptians knew nothing of the arch1 and had no way of supporting a covering over a space wider than it was possible to cover by beams4 ,the hall was lighted by making the columns down the middle half as high again as the others1 so that the roof was lifted1 and the light came in at the sides1 which were left open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,pillar ,,from ,,thebes4 ,showing the three parts4 ,as ,i must speak often of columns1 it is well to say here that the column or pillar usually consists of three parts--the base1 the shaft1 and the capital 7,fig4 #g74 ,the base is the lowest part on which the shaft rests4 ,sometimes1 as in the ,grecian ,doric order1 the base is left out4 ,the capital is the head of the column1 and is usually the most ornamental part1 giving the most noticeable characteristics of the different kinds of pillars4 ,the shaft is the body of the pillar1 between the base and capital1 or all below the capital when the base is omitted4 ,the ,egyptian pillars seem to have grown out of the square stone piers which at first were used for support4 ,the square corners were first cut off1 making an eight-sided pier2 then some architect carried the cutting farther1 and by slicing off each corner once more gave the pillar sixteen sides4 ,the advantage of the octagonal piers over the square ones was that the cutting off of sharp corners made it easier for people to move about between them1 while the play of light on the sides was more varied and pleasant to the eye4 ,the sixteen-sided pillar did not much increase the first of these advantages1 while the face of its sides became so narrow that the variety of light and shade was less distinct and attractive4 ,it is probable that the channelling of the sides of the shaft was first done to overcome this difficulty1 by making the shadows deeper and the lights more striking2 and we then have a shaft very like that of the ,grecian ,doric shown in the picture in ,fig4 #dj1 or the ,assyrian pillars in ,figs4 #bi and #cj4 ,in the ,egyptian pillars it was usual to leave one side unchannelled and ornament it with hieroglyphics4 ,in time the forms of the ,egyptian pillars became very varied1 and the richest ornaments were used upon them4 ,the columns in the hall at ,karnak are very much decorated with painting and sculptures1 as ,fig4 #f shows4 ,the capitals represent the full-blown flowers and the buds of the sacred lotus1 or water-lily4 ,in other cases the pillars were made to represent bundles of the papyrus plant1 and the capitals were often beautifully carved with palm leaves or ornamented with a female head4 7,see ,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,sculptured ,,capital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,palm ,,capital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,pillar ,,from ,,sedinga4 ,the whole impression of grandeur made by the ,temple of ,karnak was increased by the fact that the ,temple of ,luxor1 which is not far away1 is also very impressive and beautiful1 and was formerly connected with ,karnak by an avenue bordered on each side with a row of sphinxes cut out of stone4 ,these were a kind of statue which belonged to ,egyptian art1 and originated in an ,egyptian idea1 although a resemblance to it exists in the art of other ancient countries 7,fig4 #aa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,the ,,great ,,sphinx4 ,before the ,temple of ,luxor stood ,colossi1 or enormous statues1 of ,rameses the ,great1 who built the temple1 and not far distant were two fine obelisks1 one of which is now in ,paris4 ,there was much irregularity in the lines and plan of ,egyptian palaces and temples4 ,it often happens that the side walls of an apartment or court-yard are not at right angles2 the pillars were placed so irregularly and the decorations so little governed by any rule in their arrangement1 that it seems as if the ,egyptians were intentionally regardless of symmetry and regularity4 ,the whole effect of the ancient ,thebes can scarcely be imagined2 its grandeur was much increased by the fact that its splendid buildings were on both banks of the ,nile1 which river flowed slowly and majestically by1 as if it borrowed a sort of dignity from the splendid piles which it reflected1 and which those who sailed upon its bosom regarded with awe and admiration4 ,there are many other places on the ,nile where one sees wonderful ruins of ancient edifices1 but we have not space to describe or even to name them1 and ,thebes is the most remarkable of all4 ,thebes1 hearing still the ,memnon's mystic tones1 ,where ,egypt's earliest monarchs reared their thrones1 ,favored of ,jove6 the hundred-gated queen1 ,though fallen1 grand2 though desolate1 serene2 ,the blood with awe runs coldly through our veins ,as we approach her far-spread1 vast remains4 ,forests of pillars crown old ,nilus' side1 ,obelisks to heaven high lift their sculptured pride2 ,rows of dark sphinxes1 sweeping far away1 ,lead to proud fanes and tombs august as they4 ,colossal chiefs in granite sit around1 ,as wrapped in thought1 or sunk in grief profound4 ,the mighty columns ranged in long array1 ,the statues fresh as chiselled yesterday1 ,we scarce can think two thousand years have flown ,since in proud ,thebes a ,pharaoh's grandeur shone1 ,but in yon marble court or sphinx-lined street1 ,some moving pageant half expect to meet1 ,see great ,sesostris1 come from distant war1 ,kings linked in chains to drag his ivory car2 ,or view that bright procession sweeping on1 ,to meet at ,memphis far-famed ,solomon1 ,when1 borne by ,love1 he crossed the ,syrian wild1 ,to wed the ,pharaoh's blooming child4 ,the obelisks of ancient ,egypt have a present interest which is almost personal to everybody1 since so many of them have been taken away from the banks of the ,nile and so placed that they now overlook the ,bosphorus1 the ,tiber1 the ,seine1 the ,thames1 and our own ,hudson ,river2 in truth1 there are twelve obelisks in ,rome1 which is a larger number than are now standing in all ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,cleopatra',s ,,needles4 ,the above cut 7,fig4 #ab7 shows the two obelisks known as ,cleopatra's ,needles1 as they were seen for a long time at ,alexandria4 ,they have both crossed the seas2 one was presented to the ,british nation by ,mehemet ,ali1 and the other1 which now stands in ,central ,park1 was a gift to ,america from the late ,khedive of ,egypt1 ,ismail ,pasha4 ,the obelisks were usually erected by the kings to express their worship of the gods1 and stood before the temple bearing dedications of the house to its particular deity2 they were covered with the quaint1 curious devices which served as letters to the ,egyptians1 which we call hieroglyphics1 and each sovereign thus recorded his praises1 and declared his respect for the special gods whom he wished to honor4 ,they were very striking objects1 and must have made a fine effect when the temples and statues and avenues of sphinxes1 and all the ancient grandeur of the ,egyptians was at its height2 and these grave stone watchmen looked down upon triumphal processions and gorgeous ceremonials1 and kings and queens with their trains of courtiers passed near them on their way to and from the temple-palaces4 ,it is always interesting to study the houses and homes of a people--domestic architecture1 as it is called2 but one cannot do that in ,egypt4 ,it may almost be said that but one ancient home exists1 and as that probably belonged to some royal person1 we cannot learn from it how the people lived4 ,there were many very rich ,egyptians outside of the royal families1 and they dwelt in splendor and luxury2 on the other hand1 there were multitudes of slaves and very poor people1 who had barely enough to eat to keep them alive and enable them to do the work which was set them by their task-masters4 ,the house of which we speak is at ,medinet ,habou1 on the opposite side of the ,nile from ,karnak 7,fig4 #ac74 ,it has three floors1 with three rooms on each floor1 and is very irregular in form4 ,but if we have no ancient houses to study in ,egypt1 we can learn much about them from the paintings which still exist1 and we may believe that the cities which surrounded the old temples fully displayed the wealth and taste of the inhabitants4 ,these pictures show the houses in the midst of gardens laid out with arbors1 pavilions1 artificial lakes1 and many beautiful objects1 such as we see in the fine gardens of our own day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,pavilion ,,at ,,medinet ,,habou4 ,after about #abjj ,b4,c4 there was a long period of decline in the architecture of ,egypt2 occasionally some sovereign tried to do as the older kings had done1 but no real revival of the arts occurred until the rule of the ,ptolemies was established2 this was after #ccb ,b4,c41 when ,alexander the ,great conquered the ,persians1 who had ruled in ,egypt about one hundred and ninety-five years4 ,under the ,ptolemies ,egypt was as prosperous as she had been under the ,pharaohs1 but the arts of this later time never reached such purity and greatness as was shown in the best days of ,thebes2 the buildings were rich and splendid instead of noble and grand1 or1 as we might say1 more for show than was the older style4 ,it is singular that1 though the ,egypt of the ,ptolemies was under ,greek and ,roman influence1 it still remained essentially ,egyptian4 ,it seems as if the country had a sort of converting effect upon the strangers who planned and built the temples of ,denderah1 and ,edfou1 and beautiful ,phil1 and made them try to work and build as if they were the sons of the pure old ,egyptians instead of foreign conquerors4 ,so true is this that before ,a4,d4 #agii1 when scholars began to read hieroglyphics1 the learned men of ,europe who studied art believed that these later temples were older than those of ,thebes4 ,outside of ,thebes there is no building now to be seen in ,egypt which gives so charming an impression of what ,egypt might be as does the lovely temple on the island of ,phil 7,fig4 #ad74 ,others are more sublime and imposing1 but none are so varied and beautiful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,temple ,,on ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,phil4 ,there is no more attractive spot in ,egypt than this island1 and when we know that the priests who served in the ,temple of ,isis here were never allowed to leave the island1 we do not feel as if that was a misfortune to them4 ,it was a pity1 however1 that none but priests were allowed to go there1 and in passing ,i wish to note the fact that this was the most ancient monastery of which we know2 for that it was in simple fact1 and the monks lived lives of strict devotion and suffered severe penance4 ,the buildings at ,phil1 as well as most of those of the ,ptolemaic age1 had the same irregularity of form of which we have spoken before2 their design1 as a whole1 was fine1 but the details were inferior1 and it often happens that the sculpture and painting which in the earlier times improved and beautified everything1 lost their effect and really injured the appearance of the whole structure4 ,at first thought one would expect to be able to learn much more about the manners and customs of the later than of the earlier days of ,egypt1 and to find out just how they arranged their dwellings4 ,but this is not so1 for history tells us of nothing save the superstitious religious worship of the conquerors of ,egypt4 ,there are no pictures of the houses1 or of the occupations and amusements of the people2 no warlike stories are told2 we have no tombs with their instructive inscriptions2 not even the agricultural and mechanical arts are represented in the ruins of this time4 ,the fine arts1 the early religion1 the spirit of independence and conquest had all died out2 in truth1 the wonderful civilization of the days of the pyramid-builders and their descendants was gone1 and when ,constantine came into power ,egypt had lost her place among the nations of the earth1 and her grandeur was as a tale that is told4 ,the weakness of ,egyptian architecture lay in its monotony or sameness4 ,not only did it not develop historically1 remaining very much the same as long as it lasted1 but the same forms are repeated until1 even with all their grandeur1 they become wearisome4 ,the plan of the temples varies little2 the tendency toward the shape of the pyramid appears everywhere2 while the powerful influence of the ritual of the ,egyptian religion gives a strong likeness among all the places of worship4 ,the ,greeks performed the most important parts of their service in the open air before their temples1 and almost all their care was lavished on exteriors2 the ,egyptians1 on the other hand1 elaborated the interior with great abundance of ornaments1 yet without that power of adaptation which gave so great an air of variety and grace to ,grecian art4 ,a second and even more serious fault in ,egyptian architecture is a want of proportion4 ,in natural organized objects there is always a fixed proportion between the parts1 so that if a naturalist is given a single bone of an animal he can reproduce with considerable exactness the entire beast4 ,in art it is necessary to follow this principle of adapting one part to another1 and without this both grace and refinement are wanting4 ,the ,egyptian temples are often too massive1 so that they impress by their size simply1 and not by any beauty of plan or arrangement4 ,yet for grandeur and impressiveness no nation has ever excelled the ,egyptians as builders4 ,one may prefer the style and the ornamentation of the ,greeks1 or the forms and arrangement of the ,gothic order2 but1 taken as a whole1 the combination of architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and hieroglyphics which goes to make up an ,egyptian temple1 with the addition of the obelisks1 the avenues of sphinxes and the ,colossi1 which all seemed to belong together--these1 one and all1 result in a whole that has never been surpassed in effect during the thirty centuries that have rolled over the earth since ,cheops built his magnificent tomb on the great desert of ,egypt4 ,,assyria4 ,our knowledge of ,egyptian history is more exact than that of some other ancient nations1 because scholars have been able to read ,egyptian hieroglyphics for a much longer time than they have read the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions which are found in ,assyria1 ,babylon1 and ,persia4 ,but we know a great deal about the ruins of ,assyria1 and especially of the cities of ,nineveh and ,khorsabad1 where there are wonderful architectural remains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,gateways ,,in ,,walls ,,of ,,khorsabad4 ,the walls which surrounded ,nineveh are an important part of its ruins4 ,it is said that in the days of the earliest sovereign these walls were one hundred feet high1 and so broad that three chariots could drive abreast on their top4 ,this story does not seem unreasonable1 for all the years that have passed1 and all the dust and deposit of these ages that are collected about the foot of the walls1 still leave some places where they are forty-six feet high and from one to two hundred feet wide4 ,the lower portion was of limestone1 and the upper of sun-dried bricks2 the blocks of stone were neatly hewn out and smoothly polished4 ,the walls surrounded the city1 which was so large that one hundred and seventy-five thousand people could live there1 and we know that its inhabitants were very numerous4 ,the gates which opened through the walls were surmounted by lofty towers1 and it is supposed that shorter towers were built upon the walls between the gateways 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the above plans show the arrangement of gateways which have been excavated4 ,it seems that there were four separate gates1 and between them large chambers which may have been used by soldiers or guards4 ,the two outer gates were ornamented by sculptured figures of colossal bulls with human heads and other strange designs2 but the inner gates had a plain finish of alabaster slabs4 ,it is thought that arches covered these gateways like some representations of gates which are seen on ,assyrian bas-reliefs4 ,within the gates there is a pavement of large slabs1 in which the marks worn by chariot wheels are still plainly seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,entrance ,,to ,,smaller ,,temple1 ,,nimrud4 ,we learn that the ,assyrians made their religion a prominent part of their lives4 ,the inscriptions of the kings begin and end with praises and prayers to their gods1 and on all occasions religious worship is spoken of as a principal duty4 ,we know that the monarchs devoted much care to the temples1 and built new ones continually2 but it also appears from the excavations that have been made that they devoted the best of their art and the greatest sum of their riches to the palaces of their kings4 ,the temple was far less splendid than the palace to which it was attached as a sort of appendage4 ,this was undoubtedly due to the fact that the ,assyrian kings received more than the monarchs of any other ancient people divine honors while still living2 so that the palace was regarded as the actual dwelling of a god4 ,the inner ornamentation of the temples was confined to religious subjects represented on sculptured slabs upon the walls1 but no large proportion of the wall was decorated1 and the rest was merely plastered and painted in set figures4 ,the gateways and entrances were guarded by sacred figures of colossal bulls1 or lions 7,fig4 #af71 and covered with inscriptions2 there was a similarity between the palace entrances and those of the temples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,pavement ,,slab ,,from ,,koyunjik4 ,the palaces were always built on artificial platforms1 which were made of solid brick or stone1 or else the outside walls of the platforms were built of these substances and the middle part filled in with dirt and rubbish4 ,sometimes the platforms1 which were from twenty to thirty feet high1 were in terraces and flights of steps led up and down from one to another4 ,it also happened that more than one palace was erected on the same platform2 thus the size and form of the platforms was much varied1 and when palaces were enlarged the platforms were changed also1 and their shape was often very irregular4 ,the tops of the platforms were paved with stone slabs or bricks1 the last being sometimes as much as two feet square2 the pavements were frequently ornamented with artistic designs 7,fig4 #ag71 and inscriptions are also found upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,remains ,,of ,,propyl,,um1 ,,or ,,outer ,,gateway1 ,,khorsabad4 ,at the lower part of the platform there was a terrace on which several small buildings were usually placed1 and near by was an important gateway1 or1 more properly1 a propylum1 through which every one must pass who entered the palace from the city4 ,the next cut 7,fig4 #ah7 shows one of these grand entrances decorated with the human-headed bulls and the figure of what is believed to be the ,assyrian ,hercules1 who is most frequently represented in the act of strangling a lion4 ,much rich ornament was lavished on these portals1 and the entrance space was probably protected by an arch4 ,below these portals1 quite down on a level with the city1 there were outer gateways1 through which one entered a court in front of the ascent to the lower terrace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,plan ,,of ,,palace1 ,,khorsabad4 ,the principal apartments of the palaces were the courts1 the grand halls1 and the small1 private chambers4 ,the fine palaces had several courts each2 they varied from one hundred and twenty by ninety feet1 to two hundred and fifty by one hundred and fifty feet in size1 and were paved in the same way as the platforms outside 7,fig4 #ai74 ,the grand halls were the finest portions of these splendid edifices2 here was the richest ornament1 and the walls were lined with sculptured slabs1 while colossal bulls1 winged genii1 and other figures were placed at the entrances4 ,upon the slabs the principal events in the lives of the monarchs were represented1 as well as their portraits1 and religious ceremonies1 battles1 and many incidents of interest to the nation 7,fig4 #bj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,relief ,,from ,,khorsabad4 ,a ,,temple4 ,the slabs rested on the paved floors of the halls and reached a height of ten or twelve feet2 above them the walls were of burnt brick1 sometimes in brilliant colors2 the whole height of the walls was from fifteen to twenty feet4 ,the smaller chambers surrounded these grand halls1 and the number of rooms was very large2 in one palace which has been but partially explored there are sixty-eight apartments1 and it is not probable that any ,assyrian palace had less than forty or fifty rooms on its ground floor4 ,of all the palaces which have been examined that of ,khorsabad is best known and can be most exactly described4 ,it is believed that ,sargon1 a son of ,sennacherib1 built it1 and it is very splendid4 ,after entering at the great portal one passes through various courts and corridors2 these are all adorned with sculptures such as have been described above2 at length one reaches the great inner court of the palace1 which was a square of about one hundred and fifty feet in size4 ,this court had buildings on two sides1 and the other sides extended to the edge of the terrace of the platform on which the palace was built1 and commanded broad views of the open country4 ,on one side the buildings contained the less important apartments of the officers of the court2 the grand state apartments were on the other side4 ,there were ten of these at ,khorsabad2 five were large halls1 four were smaller chambers1 and one a long and narrow room4 ,three of the large halls were connected with one another1 and their decorations were by far the most splendid of any in the palace4 ,in one of them the sculptures represented the king superintending the reception and chastisement of prisoners1 and is called the ,hall of ,punishment4 ,the middle hall has no distinguishing feature1 but the third opened into the ,temple ,court1 on one side of which the small temple was situated4 ,the lower sculptures of the middle and third halls represented the military history of ,sargon1 who is seen in all sorts of soldier-like positions and occupations2 some of the upper sculptures represent religious ceremonies4 ,on one side of the ,temple ,court there were several chambers called ,priests' ,rooms1 but the temple itself and the portions of the palace connected with it are not as well preserved as the other parts1 and have nothing about them to interest us in their study4 ,the palaces of ,nineveh are much less perfect than the palace-temples of ,thebes1 and cannot be described with as much exactness4 ,there is no wall of them still standing more than sixteen feet above the ground1 and we do not even know whether they had upper stories or not1 or how they were lighted--in a word1 nothing is positively known about them above the ground floors1 and it is very strange that the sculptures nowhere represent a royal residence4 ,but what we do know of the ,assyrians proves that they equalled and perhaps excelled all other ,oriental nations as architects and designers1 as well as in other departments of art and industry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,restoration ,,of ,,an ,,assyrian ,,palace4 ,this representation of an ,assyrian palace 7,fig4 #ba7 is a restoration1 as it is called1 being made up by a careful study of the remains and such facts as can be learned from bas-reliefs1 and cannot be wholly unlike the dwellings of the king-gods4 ,it is pleasing in general appearance1 and for lightness and elegance is even to be preferred to ,egyptian architecture1 though it is far inferior in dignity and impressiveness4 ,the ,assyrians knew the use of both column and arch1 but never developed either to any extent4 ,they also employed the obelisk1 and it is noticeable that instead of terminating it with a pyramid1 as was the case in ,egypt1 they capped it with the diminishing terraces1 which is the fundamental form which underlies all the architecture of the country1 as the smooth pyramid is the most prominent element in the architecture of ,egypt4 ,,babylon4 ,it is probable that ,babylon was the largest and finest of all the ancient cities4 ,the walls which surrounded it1 together with its hanging gardens1 were reckoned among the seven wonders of the world by the ancients4 ,its walls were pierced by a hundred gates and surmounted by two hundred and fifty towers2 these towers added much to the grand appearance of the city2 they were not very high above the walls1 and were probably used as guard-rooms by soldiers4 ,the ,river ,euphrates ran through the city4 ,brick walls were built upon its banks1 and every street which led to the river had a gateway in these walls which opened to a sloping landing which extended down to the water's edge2 boats were kept at these landings for those who wished to cross the stream4 ,there was also a foot-bridge across the river that could be used only by day1 and one writer1 ,diodorus1 declares that a tunnel also existed which joined the two sides of the river1 and was fifteen feet wide and twelve feet high in the inside4 ,the accounts of the ,hanging ,gardens make it seem that they resembled an artificial terraced mountain built upon arches of masonry and covered with earth1 in which grew trees1 shrubs1 and flowers4 ,it is said by some writers that this mountain was at least seventy-five feet high1 and occupied a square of four acres2 others say that in its highest part it reached three hundred feet2 but all agree that it was a wonderful work and very beautiful4 ,in the interior of the structure machinery was concealed which raised water from the ,euphrates and filled a reservoir at the summit1 from which it was taken to moisten the earth and nourish the plants4 ,flights of steps led up to the top1 and on the way there were entrances to fine apartments where one could rest4 ,these rooms1 built in the walls which supported the structure1 were cool and pleasant1 and afforded fine views of the city and its surroundings4 ,the whole effect of the gardens when seen from a distance was that of a wooded pyramid4 ,it seems a pity that it should have been called a ,hanging ,garden1 since1 when one knows how it was built1 this name is strangely unsuitable1 and carries a certain disappointment with it4 ,the accounts of the origin of this garden are interesting4 ,one of them says that it was made by ,semiramis1 a queen who was famous for her prowess as a warrior1 for having conquered some cities and built others1 for having dammed up the ,river ,euphrates1 and performed many marvellous and heroic deeds4 ,it is not probable that any woman ever did all the wonders which are attributed to ,semiramis1 but we love to read these tales of the old1 old time1 and it is important for us to know them since they are often referred to in books and in conversation4 ,another account relates that the gardens were made by ,nebuchadnezzar to please his ,median queen1 ,amytis1 because the country round about ,babylon seemed so barren and desolate to her1 and she longed for the lovely scenery of her native land4 ,what we have said will show that the ,babylonians were advanced in the science of such works as come more properly under the head of engineering2 their palaces were also fine1 and their dwelling-houses lofty2 they had three or four stories1 and were covered by vaulted roofs4 ,but the ,babylonians1 like the ,egyptians1 lavished their best art upon their temples4 ,the temple was built in the most prominent position and magnificently adorned4 ,it was usually within a walled inclosure1 and the most important temple at ,babylon1 called that of ,belus1 is said to have had an area of thirty acres devoted to it4 ,the chief distinguishing feature of a ,babylonish temple was a tower built in stages 7,fig4 #bb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,elevation ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,the ,,seven ,,spheres ,,at ,,borsippa4 ,the number of the stages varied1 eight being the largest4 ,at the summit of the tower there was a chapel or an altar1 and the ascent was by steps or an inclined plane which wound around the sides of the tower4 ,the ,babylonians were famous astronomers1 and it is believed that these towers were used as observatories as well as for places of worship4 ,at the base of the tower there was a chapel for the use of those who could not ascend the height1 and near by1 in the open air1 different altars were placed1 for the worship of the ,babylonians included the offering of sacrifices4 ,very ancient writers describe the riches of the shrines at ,babylon as being of a value beyond our belief4 ,they tell of colossal images of the gods of solid gold2 of enormous lions in the same precious metal2 of serpents of silver1 each of thirty talents' weight 7a talent equalled about two thousand dollars of our money71 and of golden tables1 bowls1 and drinking-cups1 besides magnificent offerings of many kinds which faithful worshippers had devoted to the gods4 ,these great treasures fell into the hands of the ,persians when they conquered ,babylon4 ,the ,birs-i-,nimrud has been more fully examined than any other ,babylonish ruin1 and a description of it can be given with a good degree of correctness4 ,as it now stands1 every brick in it bears the name of ,nebuchadnezzar2 it is believed that he repaired or rebuilt it1 but there is no reason to think that he changed its plan4 ,be this as it may1 it is a very interesting ruin 7,fig4 #bc74 ,it was a temple raised on a platform and built in seven stages2 these stages represented the seven spheres in which the seven planets moved 7according to the ancient astronomy71 and a particular color was assigned to each planet1 and the stages colored according to this idea4 ,that of the sun was golden2 the moon1 silver2 ,saturn1 black2 ,jupiter1 orange2 ,mars1 red2 ,venus1 pale yellow1 and ,mercury1 deep blue4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,birs-,i-,,nimrud1 ,,near ,,babylon4 ,it is curious to know how the various colors were obtained4 ,the lower stage1 representing ,saturn1 was covered with bitumen2 that of ,jupiter was faced with bricks burned to an orange color2 that of ,mars was made of bricks from a bright red clay and half burned1 so that they had a blood-red tint2 the stage dedicated to the sun was probably covered with thin plates of gold2 that of ,venus had pale yellow bricks2 that of ,mercury was subjected to intense heat after it was erected1 and this produced vitrification and gave it a blue color2 and the stage of the moon was coated in shining white metals4 ,thus the tower rose up1 all glowing in colors and tints as cunningly arranged as if produced by ,nature herself4 ,the silvery1 shining band was probably the highest1 and had the effect of mingling with the bright sky above4 ,we can scarcely understand how glorious the effect must have been1 and when we try to imagine it1 and then think of the present wretched condition of these ruins1 it gives great force to the prophecies concerning ,babylon which foretold that her broad walls should be utterly broken down1 her gates burned with fire1 and the golden city swept with the besom of destruction4 ,we know so little of the arrangement of the palaces of ,babylon that we cannot speak of them in detail4 ,they differed from those of ,assyria in two important points3 they are of burnt bricks instead of those dried in the sun which the ,assyrians used1 and at ,babylon in the decoration of the walls colored pictures upon the brick-work took the place of the alabaster bas-reliefs which were found in the palaces of ,nineveh4 ,these paintings represented hunting scenes1 battles1 and other important events1 and were alternated with portions of the wall upon which were inscriptions painted in white on a blue ground1 or spaces with a regular pattern of rosettes or some fixed design in geometrical figures4 ,a sufficient number of these decorations have been found in the ruins of ,babylon to prove beyond a doubt that this was the customary finish of the walls4 ,we also know that the houses of ,babylon were three or four stories in height1 but were rudely constructed and indicate an inferior style of domestic architecture4 ,,persia4 ,the ,persians were the pupils of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians in ,art1 ,learning1 and ,science1 and they learned their lessons so well that they built magnificent palaces and tombs4 ,temples seem to have been unimportant to them1 and we know nothing of any ,persian temple remains that would attract the attention of travellers or scholars4 ,the four most important ,persian palaces of which we have any good degree of knowledge are that of ,ecbatana1 the ruins of which are very imperfect2 a second at ,susa1 of which the arrangement is known2 a third at ,persepolis1 which is not well enough preserved for any exact description to be given2 and a fourth1 the so-called ,great ,palace1 near ,persepolis1 in which the latest ,persian sovereigns lived4 ,this magnificent palace was burned by ,alexander the ,great before he or his soldiers had seen its splendor4 ,the story is that he made a feast at which ,thais1 a beautiful and wicked woman1 appeared1 and by her arts gained such power over ,alexander that he consented to her proposal to fire the palace1 and the king1 wearing a crown of flowers upon his head1 seized a torch and himself executed the dreadful deed1 while all the company followed him with acclamations1 singing1 and wild shouts4 ,at last they surrounded and danced about the dreadful conflagration4 ,the poet ,dryden wrote an ode upon ,alexander's ,feast in #afig which has a world-wide reputation4 ,i quote a few lines from it3 ',twas at the royal feast for ,persia won ,by ,philip's warlike son3 ,aloft1 in awful state1 ,the godlike hero sate ,on his imperial throne2 ,his valiant peers were placed around1 ,their brows with roses and with myrtles bound 7,so should desert in arms be crowned72 ,the lovely ,thais by his side ,sate1 like a blooming ,eastern bride1 ,in flower of youth and beauty's pride4 ,happy1 happy1 happy pair6 ,none but the brave1 ,none but the brave1 ,none but the brave deserves the fair4 ,behold how they toss their torches on high1 ,how they point to the ,persian abodes1 ,and glittering temples of their hostile gods6 ,the princes applaud with a furious joy1 ,and the king seized a flambeau with zeal to destroy2 ,thais led the way ,to light him to his prey1 ,and1 like another ,helen1 fired another ,troy4 ,much study and time has been given to the examination of the ruins of ,persepolis1 and the whole arrangement of the city has been discovered and is made plain to the student of these matters by means of the many charts1 plans1 and photographs of it which now exist4 ,i shall try to tell you something of the ,great ,palace of ,persepolis1 and the other palaces near it and on the platform with it1 for the ,persians1 like the ,assyrians and ,babylonians1 built their palaces upon platforms4 ,this one of which we speak was distinct from the city1 but quite near it1 and is in almost perfect condition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,masonry ,,of ,,great ,,platform1 ,,persepolis4 ,it is composed of large masses of hewn stone held together by clamps of iron or lead4 ,many of the blocks in this platform wall are so large as to make their removal from the quarries and their elevation to the required height a difficult mechanical task1 which could only have been performed by skilled laborers with good means for carrying on their work4 ,the wall was not laid in regular blocks1 but was like this plate 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the platform was not of the same height in all its parts1 and seems to have been in several terraces1 three of which can still be seen4 ,the buildings were on the upper terrace1 which is about forty-five feet above the plain and very large2 it is seven hundred and seventy feet long and four hundred feet wide4 ,the staircases are an important feature of these ruins1 and when all the palaces were in perfection these broad steps1 with their landings and splendid decorations1 must have made a noble and magnificent effect4 ,the ascent of the staircases was so gradual and easy that men went up and down on horseback1 and travellers now ascend and descend in this way4 ,there is little doubt that the staircases of ,persepolis were the finest that were ever built in any part of the world1 and on some of them ten horsemen could ride abreast4 ,the broadest1 or platform staircase1 is entirely without ornament2 another which leads from the platform up to the central or upper terrace is so elaborately decorated that it appears to be covered with sculptures4 ,there are colossal representations of lions1 bulls1 ,persian guardsmen1 rows of trees1 and continuous processions of smaller figures4 ,in some parts the sculptures represent various nations bringing tributes to the ,persian monarch2 in other parts all the different officers of the court and those of the army are seen1 and the latter appear to be guarding the stairs4 7,see ,fig4 #be47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,parapet ,,wall ,,of ,,staircase1 ,,persepolis 7,,restored74 ,in a conspicuous position on this ornamental staircase there are three slabs2 on two there is no design of any sort2 on the third an inscription says that this was the work of ,xerxes1 the ,great ,king1 the ,king of ,kings1 the son of ,king ,darius1 the ,achmenian4 ,this inscription is in the ,persian tongue1 and it is probable that it was the intention to repeat it on the slabs which are left plain in some other languages1 so that it could easily be read by those of different nations2 it was customary with the ancients to repeat inscriptions in this way4 ,the other staircases of this great platform are all more or less decorated with sculptures and resemble that described2 they lead to the different palaces1 of which there are three4 ,the palaces are those of ,darius1 ,xerxes1 and ,artaxerxes ,ochus1 and besides these there are two great pillared halls2 one of these is called the ,hall of ,one ,hundred ,columns1 and the other ,chehl ,minar1 or the ,great ,hall of ,audience4 ,this view of the palace of ,darius gives an idea of the appearance of all these buildings4 ,a description of them would be only a wordy repetition of the characteristics of one apartment and hall after another1 and ,i shall leave them to speak of the magnificent halls which are the glory of the ruins of ,persepolis1 and the wonders of the world to those who are acquainted with the architectural monuments of the ,turkish1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,moorish1 and ,christian nations4 7,see ,fig4 #bf47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,darius1 ,,persepolis4 ,the ,hall of a ,hundred ,columns was very splendid1 as one may judge from this picture of its gateway 7,fig4 #bg72 but the ,chehl ,minar1 or ,great ,hall of ,audience1 which is also called the ,hall of ,xerxes1 was the most remarkable of all these edifices4 ,its ruins occupy a space of almost three hundred and fifty feet in length and two hundred and forty-six feet in width1 and consist principally of four different kinds of columns4 ,one portion of this hall was arranged in a square1 in which there were six rows of six pillars each1 and on three sides of this square there were magnificent porches1 in each of which there were twelve columns2 so that the number of pillars in the square was thirty-six1 and that of those in the three porches was the same4 ,these porches stood out boldly from the main building and were grand in their effect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,gateway ,,of ,,hall ,,of ,a ,,hundred ,,columns4 ,the columns which remain in various parts of this hall are so high that it is thought that they must originally have measured sixty-four feet throughout the whole building4 ,the capitals of the pillars were of three kinds3 the double ,horned ,lion capital 7,fig4 #bh7 was used in the eastern porch1 and was very simple2 in the western porch was the double ,bull capital1 which corresponded to the first in size and general form1 the difference being only in the shape of the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,double ,,horned ,,lion ,,capital4 ,the north porch faced the great sculptured staircase1 and was the real front of the hall4 ,on this side the columns were much ornamented4 ,the following plates show the entire design of them1 and it will be seen that the bases were very beautiful 7,figs4 #bi and #cj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,complex ,,capital ,,and ,,base ,,of ,,pillars1 ,,persepolis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,base ,,of ,,another ,,pillar1 ,,persepolis4 ,the capitals have three distinct parts2 at the bottom is a sort of bed of lotus leaves1 part of which are turned down1 and the others standing up form a kind of cup on which the next section above rests4 ,the middle section is fluted and has spiral scrolls or volutes1 such as are seen in ,ionic capitals1 only here they are in a perpendicular position instead of the customary horizontal one4 ,the upper portion had the same double figures of bulls as were on the columns of the western colonnade4 ,the decoration on the bases was made of two or three rows of hanging lotus leaves1 some round and others pointed in form4 ,the shafts of these pillars were formed of different blocks of stone joined by iron cramps2 they were cut in exact and regular flutings1 numbering from forty-eight to fifty-two on each pillar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,ground ,,plan 7,,restored7 ,,of ,,hall ,,of ,,xerxes1 ,,persepolis4 ,this plan of the ,hall of ,audience will help you to understand its arrangement more clearly 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the square with the thirty-six columns1 and the three porches with twelve columns each1 are distinctly marked4 ,the most ornamental pillars were on the side with the entrance or gateway4 ,the two small rooms on the ends of the main portico may have been guard-rooms4 ,we can only regret that1 while we know certain things about this hall1 there is still much of which we know nothing4 ,however1 there are many theories concerning it4 ,some authorities believe that it was roofed1 while others think that it was open and protected only by curtains and hangings1 of which the ,persians made much use4 ,as we cannot know positively about it1 and ,persepolis was the spring residence of the ,persian kings1 it is pleasant to fancy that this splendid pillared hall was a summer throne-room1 having beautiful hangings that could be drawn aside at will1 admitting all the spicy breezes of that sunny land1 and realizing the description of the palace of ,shushan in the ,book of ,esther1 which says1 ,in the court of the garden of the king's palace2 where were white1 green1 and blue hangings1 fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble2 the beds were of gold and silver1 upon a pavement of red1 and blue1 and white1 and black marble4 ,here the king could receive all those who sought him2 the glorious view of the plains of ,susa and ,persepolis1 the breezes which came to him laden with the odors of the choicest flowers would soothe him to content1 and realize his full desire for that deep breath from open air which gives a sense of freedom and power4 ,we know that no ,oriental1 be he monarch or slave1 desires to live beneath a roof or within closed doors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,part ,,of ,a ,,base ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,cyrus1 ,,pasargad4 ,the column was in ,persia developed with a good deal of originality and much artistic feeling2 and one fine base of the time of ,cyrus is especially interesting for its close resemblance to the base of certain ,ionic pillars afterward made in ,greece 7,fig4 #cb74 ,the tombs of the royal ,persians were usually hewn out of the solid rock2 the tomb of ,cyrus1 only1 resembles a little house2 this plate gives a representation of it 7,fig4 #cc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,cyrus4 ,the one apartment in this tomb is about eleven feet long1 seven feet broad1 and seven feet high2 it has no window1 and a low1 narrow doorway in one of the end walls is the only entrance to it4 ,ancient writers say that the body of ,cyrus in a golden coffin was deposited in this tomb4 ,seven other tombs have been explored2 they are excavations in the sides of the mountains high enough to be prominent objects to the sight1 and yet difficult of approach4 ,the fronts of these tombs are much ornamented1 and the internal chambers are large2 there are recesses for the burial-cases1 and these vary in number1 some having only space for three bodies4 ,the tomb of ,darius had three recesses1 in each of which there were three burial-cases2 but this was an unusually large number4 ,the tombs near ,persepolis are the finest which have yet been examined4 ,the most noticeable characteristic of ,persian architecture is its regularity4 ,the plans used are simple1 and only straight lines occur in them2 thus1 all the angles are right angles4 ,the columns are regularly placed1 and the two sides of an apartment or building correspond to each other4 ,the magnificent staircases1 and the abundance of elegant columns which have been called groves of pillars by some writers1 produced a grand and dignified effect4 ,the huge size of the blocks of stone used by ,persian builders gives an impression of great power in those who planned their use1 and demands for them the respect of all thoughtful students of these edifices4 ,the faults of this architecture lay in the narrow doorways1 the small number of passages1 and the clumsy thickness of the walls4 ,but these faults are insignificant in comparison with its beauties1 and it is all the more to be admired that it was invented by the ,persians1 not copied from other nations1 and there is little doubt that the ,greeks profited by its study to improve their own style1 and through this study substituted lightness and elegance for the clumsy and heavy effect of the earliest ,grecian architecture4 ,,judea4 ,there is so much of religious1 historical1 romantic1 and poetical association with the land of ,judea1 that it is a disappointment to know that there are no remains of ,judean architecture from which to study the early art-history of that country2 it is literally true that nothing remains4 ,the ruins of ,jerusalem1 ,baalbec1 ,palmyra1 ,petra1 and places beyond the ,jordan are not ,jewish1 but ,roman remains4 ,the most interesting remnant is a passage and gateway which belonged to the great temple at ,jerusalem4 ,this passage is situated beneath the platform of the temple2 it is called ,the ,gateway ,huldah4 ,the width of it is forty-one feet1 and at one point there is a magnificent pillar1 called a monolith1 because it is cut from a single stone4 ,this pillar supports four arches1 which divide the passage into as many compartments1 each one of which has a flat dome4 ,on these domes or roofs there were formerly beautiful ornamental designs1 one of which remains1 and is like this picture 7,fig4 #cd74 ,its combination of ,oriental and ,roman design proves that it cannot be very old1 but must have been made after the influence of the ,romans had been felt in ,judea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,roof ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,compartments ,,of ,,the ,,gate ,,huldah4 ,since the excavations in ,assyria1 and through the use of the knowledge obtained there and in other ancient countries1 and by comparing this with the descriptions of the ,bible and the works of ,josephus1 some antiquarians have made plans and drawings of what they believe that the temple at ,jerusalem must have been at the time of the ,crucifixion4 ,the result of this work has little interest1 for two reasons3 first1 because we do not know that it is correct2 second1 because even at the time to which it is ascribed1 it was not the ancient temple of ,solomon4 ,that had been destroyed1 and after the return of the ,jews from the ,captivity1 was rebuilt2 again1 it had been changed and restored by the ,romans under ,herod1 so that it had little in reality1 or by way of association1 to give it the sacred and intense interest for us which would belong to the true1 ancient temple at ,jerusalem4 ,lost ,salem of the ,jews1 great sepulchre4 ,of all profane and of all holy things1 ,where ,jew and ,turk and ,gentile yet concur ,to make thee what thou art1 thy history brings ,thoughts mixed of joy and woe4 ,the whole earth rings ,with the sad truth which ,he has prophesied1 ,who would have sheltered with his holy wings ,thee and thy children4 ,you his power defied2 ,you scourged him while he lived1 and mocked him as he died6 ,there is a star in the untroubled sky1 ,that caught the first light which its ,maker made1-- ,it led the hymn of other orbs on high2 ',twill shine when all the fires of heaven shall fade4 ,pilgrims at ,salem's porch1 be that your aid6 ,for it has kept its watch on ,palestine6 ,look to its holy light1 nor be dismayed1 ,though broken is each consecrated shrine1 ,though crushed and ruined all which men have called divine4 ,,greece4 ,the earliest history of ,greece is lost in what we may call the ,age of ,legend4 ,from that period have come to us such marvellous stories of gods and goddesses1 and all sorts of wonderful happenings and doings1 that even the most serious and wise scholars can learn little about it1 and it remains to all alike a kind of delightful fairy-land4 ,back to that remote age one can send his fancy and imagination to feast upon the tales of wondrous bravery1 passionate love1 dire revenge1 and supernatural occurrences of every sort until he is weary of it all4 ,then he is glad to come back to his actual life1 in which cause and effect are so much more clearly seen1 and which1 if more matter-of-fact1 is more comfortable than the hap-hazard existence of those remarkable beings who were liable to be changed into beasts1 or trees1 or almost anything else at a moment's notice1 or to be whisked away from the midst of their families and friends and set down to starve in some desolate place where there was nothing to eat1 and no one to listen to complaints of sorrow or hunger4 ,this legendary time in ,grecian history begins nobody knows when1 and ends about one thousand years before the birth of ,christ4 ,our only knowledge of it comes from the mythology which we have inherited from the past1 and the two poems of ,homer1 called the ,iliad and the ,odyssey4 ,the ,iliad recounts the anger of ,achilles and all that happened in the ,trojan ,war2 the ,odyssey relates the wonderful adventures of ,ulysses4 ,probably ,homer never thought of such a thing as being an historian--he was a poet--much less did he dream of being the only historian of any certain time or age2 but since1 in the course of his poems1 he refers to the manners and customs of the years that had preceded him1 and gives accounts of certain past events1 he is1 in truth1 the prime source from which we learn the little that we know of the prehistoric days in ,greece4 ,it is believed that ,homer wrote about #hej ,b4,c41 and after that date we have nothing complete in ,greek literature until the time of ,herodotus1 who is called the ,father of ,history and was born in #dhd ,b4,c4 ,thus four centuries between ,homer and ,herodotus are left with no authoritative writings4 ,the legendary or first period of ,greek history was followed by five hundred years more of which we have no continuous history2 but facts have been gathered here and there from the works of various authors which make it possible to give a reliable account of the ,greece of that time4 ,for our purpose in this book we go on to a still later time1 or a third period1 which began about #ejj ,b4,c41 in which the architecture and art which we have in mind1 when we use the general term ,greek ,art1 originated4 ,it is true that before this temples had been erected of which we have some knowledge1 and the elegant and ornate articles which ,dr4 ,schliemann has found in his excavations at ,troy and ,mycen prove that the art of that remote time reached a high point of excellence4 ,the temples and other buildings of which we know anything1 and which belonged to the second period1 were clumsy and rude when compared with the perfection of the time which we propose to study4 ,before we speak of any one edifice it is best to understand something of the various orders of ,greek architecture1 more especially as the terms which belong to it and had their origin in it are now used in speaking of architecture the world over1 and from being first applied to ,greek art have grown to be general in their application4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,gravestone ,,from ,,mycen 7,,schliemann74 ,in the most ancient days of ,greece the royal fortresses were the finest structures1 but in later days the temple became the supreme object upon which thought and labor were lavished4 ,the public buildings which served the uses of the whole people were second in consideration1 while the private dwellings were of the least importance of all4 ,the ,greek temple was built upon a raised structure like those of ,assyria and other ,oriental nations1 but the ,greek temple was much smaller1 and by a dignified and simple elegance in detail1 and a harmony in all its parts1 it expressed a more noble religious sentiment than could be conveyed by all the vast piles of massive confusion that had abounded in more ,eastern lands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,temple ,,of ,,diana1 ,,eleusis4 ,the earliest and simplest ,greek temples were merely small1 square chambers made to contain an image of a god1 and in later times1 when the temples came to be splendid and grand1 the apartment containing the sacred image was still called the cella or cell1 as it had been named from the first4 ,the simplest form of temple was like the little cut 7,fig4 #cf71 and had two pillars in the centre of the front and two square pilasters at the front end of the side walls4 ,these pilasters are called ant1 and the whole style of the building is called distyle in antis2 the word distyle denotes the two pillars1 and the expression means two pillars with ant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,,small ,,temple ,,at ,,rhamnus4 ,the above picture shows the next advance that was made in form 7,fig4 #cg74 ,a porch was added to the cell1 the two parts being separated by a wall with a doorway in it4 ,after a time the number of pillars in front was increased to six1 and the two outer ones were the first of a row which extended along the entire length of the sides of the temple1 thus forming a peristyle1 or a row of columns entirely around the cell2 the cell itself remained1 according to the original plan1 in the centre of the building4 ,the ground plan of such a temple is given in the next wood-cut 7,fig4 #ch74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch--,,plan ,,of ,,temple ,,of ,,apollo1 ,,bass4 ,a large proportion of the ,greek temples were built in this manner1 and were called hexastyle from the six columns on the front4 ,the different orders of ancient ,greek architecture are called the ,doric1 the ,ionic1 and the ,corinthian4 ,the ,greeks were very fond of the ,doric order1 and used it so extensively as to make it almost exclusively their own4 ,the picture of the ,parthenon will help you to understand the explanations of the characteristics of the ,doric order 7,fig4 #ci74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci--,,the ,,parthenon4 ,athens4 7,,restored47 ,as you see1 the pillars had no base1 but rested directly on the upper plinth of the foundation of the building4 ,the shaft of the column is cut in flutings1 and the number of them varies from sixteen to twenty2 the latter number being most frequently used4 ,the capital of the column is divided into two portions2 the lower one is called the echinus1 and projects beyond the shaft and supports a square tile or block which is called the abacus1 and this is the architectural name for the upper member of all capitals to columns4 ,the architrave or principal beam above these columns rests directly on the capitals and runs around the building4 ,this architrave is made of separate blocks of marble or stone1 and is finished at the top by a small strip of the same materials1 which is called a tenia4 ,this cut1 which gives a section of the ,parthenon on a larger scale than the last picture1 will enable you to find the different portions more easily 7,fig4 #dj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,from ,,the ,,parthenon1 ,,athens4 ,above the architrave and resting on it is the frieze2 this is ornamented with fluted spaces called triglyphs1 because they are cut in three flutings4 ,the spaces between the triglyphs are called metopes1 and sometimes left plain1 and sometimes ornamented with sculptures1 as is the case in the frieze of the ,parthenon4 ,under the triglyphs six little blocks1 or drops1 are placed so that they lay over the architrave4 ,above the frieze there is another narrow strip1 or tenia1 like that upon the architrave4 ,above all this rests the cornice1 and underneath the cornice are one or more rows of the small1 drop-like blocks such as make the lower finish of the triglyphs2 in the lower band of the cornice separate blocks are placed over each triglyph and each metope1 with a small space between4 ,it is important to know that the architrave1 frieze1 and cornice1 all taken together1 form what is called the entablature2 and the entablature occupies the whole of the broad space between the top of the capitals of the pillars and the lower edge of the roof4 ,the triangular space formed by the sloping of the roof upon the ends of a building is called the pediment1 and1 as you will see in the picture of the ,parthenon1 its pediment was ornamented with elaborate sculptures which are spoken of in the volume of this series which is devoted to that art4 ,it was customary to thus ornament the pediment and to paint the walls of the cella and other portions of the building1 so that while the pure ,doric style seems at first sight to be stiff and straight in its effect1 it becomes rich and ornamental by the use of sculpture and painting1 and yet remains solid and stable4 ,the ,doric style may be regarded as a native growth in ,greece1 as almost every detail of its construction and its ornaments may be traced back to the early wooden buildings of the people1 as the architecture of the tombs of ,beni-,hassan had been4 ,the triglyphs1 for instance1 represent the ends of the beams upon which the rafters rested1 while the bas-reliefs between took the place of the votive offerings which in the primitive temples were placed in the open spaces between the beams4 ,it is not necessary here to go into all the particulars of this resemblance1 which perhaps learned men have sometimes carried too far1 and which are rather difficult to understand2 it is enough to say that there are excellent reasons for regarding the theory as1 upon the whole1 sound1 although1 of course1 the ,grecian architects modified and enriched the forms which the simple timber work had suggested4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,ionic ,,architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,ionic ,,base1 ,,from ,,priene4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,,attic ,,base4 ,the next great order was called the ,ionic1 and has a close relation with certain forms found in ,asia ,minor4 ,this picture of an ,ionic capital and entablature is taken from the ,temple of ,athena at ,priene 7,fig4 #da74 ,its scroll-like capital recalls those of the pillars in the ,great ,hall of ,xerxes at ,persepolis1 shown in ,figs4 #bh and #bi1 and many examples of even closer resemblance might be given4 ,the order differed from the ,doric principally in the ornamentation of its capitals and in the fact that the columns have bases4 ,these cuts show different kinds of bases belonging to the ,ionic order4 ,the first is from the temple at ,priene 7,fig4 #db71 and the second is the form known as the ,attic base 7,fig4 #dc74 ,the third is especially interesting from its close resemblance to the ancient ,persian base shown in ,fig4 #cb1 and is another illustration of the ,eastern origin of this order 7,fig4 #dd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,,base ,,from ,,temple ,,of ,,hera1 ,,samos4 ,the ,ionic capital is very easily recognized by its spiral projections1 or scrolls1 which are called volutes 7,fig4 #de74 ,these are so placed that they present a flat surface on the opposite sides of the capital1 like the picture below 7,fig4 #df72 sometimes the volutes are finished by a rosette in the centre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,ionic ,,capital 7,,front ,,view74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,ionic ,,capital 7,,side ,,view74 ,the shaft of the ,ionic column is sometimes plain and sometimes fluted2 the flutings number twenty-four1 and are separated by a narrow1 plain band or fillet4 ,in some ancient examples of the ,ionic order the entire entablature is left plain1 but in many instances there are bands of carvings1 as in the first ,ionic example given above2 in some modern ,italian architecture even more ornament has been added4 ,the three1 or sometimes two1 layers or bands of stone which form the ,ionic architrave project a little1 each one more than the other1 and the ornamented band above it serves to separate it from the frieze so as to make these two portions of the entablature quite distinct from each other4 ,the frieze is never divided into set spaces as in the ,doric order1 but when ornamented has a continuous design in relief4 ,the lower part of the cornice is frequently cut in little pieces or dentals which form what is called the tooth-like ornament2 these have the effect of hanging from underneath the cornice4 ,there is a certain pleasing effect in ,ionic architecture which1 perhaps1 appeals to our taste at first sight more forcibly than does the severe elegance of the ,doric order4 ,nevertheless1 the latter is a higher type of art1 and it is not probable that it can ever be superseded by any new invention or lose the prestige which it has held so long4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,from ,,monument ,,of ,,lysicrates1 ,,athens4 ,that which is called the ,corinthian order differs very little from the ,ionic except in the capital1 but as this was so prominent a member of the ,ionic style1 the difference seems greater than it really is4 ,it is therefore not necessary to speak of its parts in detail4 ,the ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates at ,athens is as good a specimen of the order as remains at this time1 and of this we give an illustration 7,fig4 #dg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,corinthian ,,order4 ,the ,corinthian order of architecture does not belong to the early period of art in ,greece4 ,it came after the influence of ,oriental architecture had been shown in the ,ionic style2 and perhaps the beautiful ,corinthian capital may have been suggested by the palm-leaf and lotus capitals of ,egypt4 ,what has been said of other orders will help you in understanding this2 but ,i shall tell you especially about its capital1 as that is its distinguishing feature4 ,the form of the capital may be called bell-shaped1 and it is set round with two rows of leaves1 eight in each row2 above these is a third row of leaves1 or of a sort of small twisted husks1 which supports eight small volutes4 ,the abacus or top portion of the capital is cut out at the corners so that sharp projections are made1 called horns1 and one volute comes directly under each horn of the abacus4 ,this cut 7,fig4 #dh7 gives a more distinct idea of the capital than does that above1 and you will see that four of the volutes really form the upper corners of the capital4 ,the four other volutes meet on two opposite sides of the capital2 sometimes they are interwoven1 and a flower1 or rosette1 or some other ornament is placed above them and lays up over the abacus4 ,different kinds of leaves are used in making this capital2 olive1 water plant1 and acanthus are all thus employed2 there is a very pretty legend as to its origin which makes the acanthus seem to be the only one which belongs to it1 and is as follows3 ,it was the custom in ,greece to place a basket upon the new-made graves in which were the viands which those there buried had preferred when in life4 ,about #eej ,b4,c4 a lovely virgin died at ,corinth1 and her nurse arranged the basket with care and covered it with a tile4 ,it happened that the basket was set directly over a young acanthus plant1 and the leaves grew up about it in such a manner that the sculptor ,callimachus was attracted by its grace and beauty1 and conceived the idea of using it as a model for a new capital in architecture4 ,i have always been sorry that it was not named for the beautiful maiden rather than for the city in which she was buried4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,,caryatid4 ,another feature of ,greek architecture is the use of the ,caryatid1 or a human figure standing upon a base and supporting the capital of a column upon the head1 or1 to put it more plainly1 a human figure serving as the shaft to a column4 ,these figures are usually females1 and this picture of one from the ,erechtheium at ,athens shows how they are placed 7,fig4 #di74 ,sometimes the figures of giants1 called ,telamones1 were used in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,stool1 ,,or ,,chair1 ,,khorsabad4 ,in ,oriental art such figures are numerous2 they are used to support platforms and the thrones of kings2 their position is sometimes varied by making the uplifted hands bear the weight instead of the head 7,fig4 #ej74 ,in any case this feature in architecture is tiresome1 and its use is certainly questionable as a matter of good taste4 ,having given a general outline of the characteristics of ,greek architecture1 ,i will speak of some remarkable edifices which are beautiful in themselves and have an interest for us on account of their associations with the history of the world1 as well as with that of art4 ,the ,temple of ,diana at ,ephesus1 of which nothing now remains1 was the largest and most splendid of all the ,greek temples4 ,it was four hundred and twenty-five feet long by two hundred and twenty wide4 ,the ancients counted this temple as one of the ,seven ,wonders of the ,world1 and when we know that its pillars were sixty feet high1 and that the beams of the architrave which had to be lifted up above the pillars to be put in place were each thirty feet long1 we can readily understand that the building of it was a wonderful work4 ,this was not the first temple that had stood on the same spot1 for we know that one had been burned on the night in which ,alexander the ,great was born1 #cef ,b4,c4 ,it was set on fire by ,herostratus2 he was tried for this crime and was put to the torture to make him declare his motive for doing such a dreadful deed2 he gave as his only reason his desire to have his name handed down through all ages1 and he believed that by burning the temple he should accomplish his object--as1 indeed1 he did1 for every historian repeats the story of his crime1 and his name stands as a synonym for wicked ambition4 ,after this destruction the temple was rebuilt on a most magnificent scale1 and was not finished until two hundred and twenty years had passed4 ,diana was a great and powerful goddess1 and all the nations of ,asia united in gifts for the adornment of her shrine2 the women even gave their personal ornaments to be sold to increase the fund to be spent upon it4 ,this temple was four times as large as the ,parthenon at ,athens1 and had one hundred and twenty-seven splendid columns1 thirty-six of which were finely carved and were the gifts of various sovereigns4 ,the grand staircase was made from the wood of a single ,cyprian vine4 ,but great as was the temple itself1 its adornments of statues by the sculptor ,praxiteles1 and the vast treasures of ornaments and rare objects by which it was enriched made it even more famous4 ,the ,temple of ,diana was robbed by ,nero and burned by the ,goths1 but its final destruction probably occurred after ,a4,d4 #cha1 when the ,emperor ,theodosius ,i4 issued an edict forbidding all the ceremonies of the pagan worship4 ,many beautiful objects were taken away to adorn the medival churches of other religions than that of the ,ephesians4 ,some of its green jasper columns were used to support the dome of ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople1 and other parts of it are seen in the cathedrals of ,italy4 ,there is scarcely a more desolate spot in the world than is the ,ephesus of to-day4 ,no remaining ruins are so preserved as to afford the visitor any satisfaction4 ,the marbles and stone have been used to build other towns1 which in their turn have been destroyed4 ,the inhabitants are a handful of poor ,greek peasants2 wolves and jackals from the neighboring mountains roam about2 and though an abundance of myrtle and some lovely groves relieve the gloominess of the scene1 it is impossible when there to re-create in imagination the splendid ,ephesian city1 with its wharves and docks1 its temples1 theatres1 and palaces1 which were so famous as to cause it to be spoken of with wonder throughout the ancient world4 ,we often hear of the glory of the ,periclean age at ,athens1 and it is true that under the leadership of ,pericles ,athens reached its greatest prosperity4 ,this picture shows the ,acropolis as it appeared at that time 7,fig4 #ea74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,the ,,acropolis4 ,athens4 7,,restored47 ,in these best days of ,athens the whole ,acropolis was consecrated to religious worship and ceremonials1 and its entire extent was occupied by temples and statues of the gods4 ,the fact that ,i have before mentioned1 that the religion of a country moulds its art1 is especially true of the art of ,greece2 figures of the gods and bas-reliefs of the ceremonies of the ,grecian worship form a large and most important part of the work of the ,greek artists1 and the splendid temples were raised to be the sacred homes of the statues of the great gods1 to which the people could come with offerings and prayers4 ,the ,acropolis was also a sort of fortress1 because it was an eminence1 and its sides of craggy rock allowed of but one ascent2 thus it could be easily defended4 ,then1 when all the wonders and riches of art had been collected there1 the pure white marble1 the sculpture and painting1 and the ornaments of shining metals which glistened in the sun1 while brilliant colors added their rich effect1 it might be called a gorgeous museum1 such as has never since been equalled in the history of the world4 ,it is important to know that the ,athenians worshipped three different goddesses1 all called by the one name of ,athene or ,athena4 ,the most ancient and most sacred of these was ,athena ,polias1 whose statue1 made of olive-wood1 was believed to have fallen from heaven4 ,the ,erechtheium was dedicated to this goddess1 and there this holy1 heaven-sent figure was kept1 with other sacred objects of which ,i shall speak in their place4 ,the ,athena next in importance was the goddess of the ,parthenon1 or the ,house of the ,virgin1 as the word signifies1 for this ,athena ,parthenos is the same as the goddess ,minerva1 who is said never to have married or known the sentiment of love2 she was the goddess of war1 prudence1 and wisdom4 ,the third ,athena was called ,promachos1 which means the champion4 ,phidias made of her one of his splendid statues1 standing erect1 with helmet1 spear1 and shield4 ,in describing the ,acropolis we shall begin with the ,propyla1 or the entrances1 which occupy the centre of our picture and to which the steps lead1 showing the passage between the pillars1 three being left on each side4 ,this magnificent series of entrances--as the whole ascent from the outer gate in the wall1 up the steps1 and through the passage between the pillars may be called--was erected about #dcg ,b4,c41 and cost two thousand talents of gold1 which is equal to about two millions of our dollars4 ,the fame of the ,propyla was world-wide1 and together with the ,parthenon it was considered the architectural glory of the ,periclean age4 ,the style in which they are built is a splendid example of the combination of the ,doric and the ,ionic orders1 for while the exterior is almost pure ,doric1 the interior is made more cheerful by the use of the ,ionic columns and ornamentation4 ,high up at the right of the picture stands the ,parthenon4 ,its architecture1 which is ,doric1 has been described4 ,we do not know when this temple was begun1 but it is probably on the site of an older one4 ,it was finished #dch ,b4,c41 and the general care of its erection was given to ,phidias1 the most famous of all sculptors4 ,the marble of which the ,parthenon was built was pure ,pentelic1 and as it rested on a rude basement of limestone the contrast between the two made the marble of the temple seem all the finer4 ,within and without this temple abounded in magnificent sculptures executed by ,phidias himself or under his orders4 ,the ,erechtheium1 which is only partly visible at the back on the left of the picture1 was the most sacred temple of ,athens4 ,it was the burial-place of ,erechtheus1 who was regarded not only as the founder of this temple1 but also of the religion of ,athena in ,athens4 ,beside the heaven-descended statue of ,athena ,polias which was kept here1 there was the sacred olive-tree which ,athena had called forth from the earth when she was contending for the possession of ,attica2 here1 too1 was the well of salt water which ,poseidon 7or ,neptune7 made by striking the spot with his trident1 and several other sacred objects 7,fig4 #eb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,the ,,erechtheium4 ,athens4 7,,restored47 ,this beautiful temple was built in the ,ionic style1 and is very interesting because it is so different in form from every other ,greek temple of which we know4 ,this is partly due to the fact that it was built where the ground was not level1 one portion of it being eight feet higher than another4 ,a second reason for its irregularity may be that it required to be divided into more cells or apartments than other ,greek temples in order to arrange the different sacred objects within its walls4 ,a very considerable portion of this temple is still standing4 ,the frieze1 of which but little remains1 was of black marble1 upon which there were figures in white marble4 ,the ,erechtheium is certainly a splendid example of the ,attic-,ionic style1 and the eye rests upon it with admiration2 but its half-pillars and caryatides1 its various porches and luxuriant detail of form and ornament1 are less effective as a whole than is the ,parthenon in its pure ,doric architecture4 ,an interesting fact about ,greek architecture is that the marbles used were painted in high colors4 ,there is a theory1 which may or may not be true1 that the custom first arose in the same way as the shape of the ,doric entablature1 from the imitation of wooden buildings4 ,the wood was painted to preserve it1 and when stone began to be substituted1 the architects1 accustomed to bright effects1 colored the marbles to look like wood4 ,whether this is the true origin of the custom or not1 it is certain that the custom prevailed4 ,the lower parts of the pillars of a ,doric temple were usually stained a light golden-brown tint2 the triglyphs and the mutules1 or brackets beneath the cornices1 were a rich blue2 the trunnels1 or wooden pins1 were red or gilded2 the metopes had a dark red background1 against which the bas-reliefs with which they were ornamented stood out in strong contrast1 while the frieze and cornice were richly painted with garlands and leaves4 ,so highly colored a building would seem less out of place amid the varied landscape of ,greece than under our colder skies1 and it is difficult for us to form any just idea of the splendid appearance it must have presented4 ,one of the most wonderful things about ,greek architecture is the way in which allowance was made for the deception of the eye by certain forms and lines4 ,it is not easy to explain this fully1 but it is too remarkable to be wholly passed over4 ,if a column were cut so as to diminish regularly from the bottom to the top it would seem to the eye to hollow in1 and to correct this the clever ,greek architect made his columns swell out a little at the middle4 ,this is called entasis1 and is the best known of the means taken to make forms look as they should4 ,another case is that of long horizontal lines4 ,if they are really level they appear to sag at the centre1 therefore in ,greek temples they are delicately rounded up a little1 and so have the effect of being perfectly straight4 ,these two examples may serve to show what ,i mean by saying that architectural forms were made one way so as to look another1 and in nothing did the ,greek architecture show more marvellous skill and taste than in this4 ,in other ,grecian cities the architecture differed but little from that of ,athens1 and1 indeed1 the influence of ,athenian art and artists was felt all over the ,eastern world2 it is therefore not necessary for our purpose to speak further of ,greek temples4 ,next in importance were the municipal buildings1 of which we find but few traces at ,athens4 ,the monument of ,lysicrates is so beautiful that it gives us a most exalted idea of what the taste in such edifices must have been 7,fig4 #ec74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,choragic ,,monument ,,of ,,lysicrates4 ,athens4 ,this monument was erected in the year #ccd ,b4,c4 when ,lysicrates was choragus2 this officer provided the chorus for the plays represented at ,athens for the year4 ,it was expensive to hold this position1 and its duties were arduous2 the choragus had to find the men for the chorus1 bring them together1 and have them instructed in the music1 and also provide proper food for them while they studied4 ,it was customary to present a tripod to the choragus who provided the finest musical entertainment1 and also to build a monument upon which the tripod was placed as a lasting honor to him who had received it4 ,there was a street at ,athens called the ,street of the ,tripods because it passed a line of choragic monuments4 ,these monuments were dedicated to different gods2 this of ,lysicrates was devoted to ,bacchus1 and was decorated with sculptures representing scenes in the story of that god1 who was regarded as the patron of plays and theatres2 indeed1 the ,greek drama originated in the choruses which were sung at his festivals4 ,the ,greek theatres were very large and fine2 the seats were ranged in a half circle1 but as none remain in a sufficient state of preservation to afford a satisfactory picture1 it would be impossible to give a clear description of them here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,the ,,mausoleum ,,at ,,halicarnassus 7,,restored74 ,the ancient ,greeks were not tomb-builders1 and we know little of their burial-places4 ,however1 the ,mausoleum built at ,halicarnassus by ,artemisia1 in memory of her husband1 ,mausolus1 was so important as to be numbered among the seven wonders of the world 7,fig4 #ed74 ,mausolus was the ,king of ,caria1 of which country ,halicarnassus was the chief city4 ,he died about #cec ,b4,c41 and his wife1 ,artemisia1 gradually faded away with sorrow at his death1 and survived him but two years4 ,but during this time she had commenced the erection of the ,mausoleum1 and the artists to whom she intrusted the work were as faithful in completing it as though she had lived1 for the sake of their own fame as artists4 ,this magnificent tomb may be described as an example of architecture as a fine art exclusively1 for it cannot be said to have been useful1 since the body of ,mausolus was burned according to custom1 and certainly a much smaller tomb would have been sufficient for the remaining ashes4 ,the whole height of the ,mausoleum was one hundred and forty feet2 the north and south aisles were sixty-three feet long1 and the others a little less4 ,the burial vault was at the base1 and the whole mass above it was ornamented with magnificent designs splendidly executed4 ,above the whole was a quadriga1 or four-horse chariot1 in which it is said that a figure of ,mausolus was placed so that from land or sea it could be seen at a great distance4 ,it is not strange that this tomb was called a wonder in its day1 and from it we still take our word mausoleum for all burial-places which merit so distinguished a name4 ,writers of the twelfth century speak of the beauty of this tomb1 but in ,a4,d4 #adjb1 when the ,knights of ,st4 ,john took possession of ,halicarnassus1 it no longer remained1 and a castle was built upon its site4 ,the tomb had been buried1 probably by an earthquake1 and the name of the place was then changed to ,boodroom4 ,in the year #aebb some sculptures were found there1 but it was not until #ahef that ,mr4 ,newton1 an ,englishman1 discovered that these remains had belonged to the ,mausoleum4 ,a large collection of reliefs1 statues1 and other objects1 more or less imperfect1 was taken to ,london and placed in the ,british ,museum1 where they are known as the ,halicarnassus ,sculptures4 ,as other temples were influenced by the example of the ,athenian builders1 so many other tombs resembled that of ,mausolus in greater or less degree1 although none approached it in grandeur and magnificence4 ,of the domestic architecture of the ,greeks we know very little4 ,almost all that is said of it is chiefly speculation1 as even the descriptions of ,grecian palaces and houses which are given by the classic writers are imperfect4 ,the life of the ,greek was passed largely in public1 at the temple1 the theatre1 or the baths1 or at least in the open air1 and comparatively little attention was given to the building of the private houses2 but in the ruins of the temples and other monuments which still exist we have sufficient proof that no art has surpassed that of ancient ,greece in purity1 elegance1 and grandeur of style4 ,,etruria4 ,since the ,etruscans were an earlier ,italian nation than the ,romans1 and ,rome1 in her primal days1 was ruled by ,etruscan kings1 it is here fitting to speak of this remarkable old people4 ,as ,rome increased the ,etruscans disappeared1 and the younger power came to have so mighty an influence in the world that it absorbed the consideration of all nations as much as if no other had ever ruled in ,italy4 ,no ,etruscan temple now remains1 but we know that they were not splendid like those of ,greece4 ,they were of two forms1 one being circular and dedicated to a single deity1 while others were devoted to three gods and had three cells2 their walls were built at right angles1 thus making their shape regular4 ,the theatres and amphitheatres of the ,etruscans were nearly circular and much like those of the later ,italians1 but not one remains except that at ,sutri1 which1 being cut in the rock1 does not afford a good example of the usual arrangement of these edifices4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,tombs ,,at ,,castel ,d',,asso4 ,in fact1 the only important remains of ,etruscan architecture are the tombs1 of which there are many4 ,these are of two kinds2 the first are cut in the rocks and resemble the ,egyptian tombs at ,beni-,hassan1 reminding one of little houses 7,fig4 #ee74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,principal ,,chamber ,,in ,,regulini-,,galeassi ,,tomb4 ,the second and most numerous class are mounds of earth raised above a wall at the base4 ,these were called ,tumuli1 and some of them had fine1 well-furnished apartments in their midst4 ,the next cut shows such a room as it appeared when first opened2 in it were found bedsteads1 biers1 shields1 arrows1 a variety of vessels1 and several kinds of useful utensils 7,fig4 #ef74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,,arch ,,at ,,volterra4 ,these tombs are in truth more connected with other arts than with architecture1 and many beautiful articles have been found in them4 ,the most interesting feature of ,etruscan architecture is the arch1 which was first brought into general use by the ,romans1 but is found in ,etruscan remains 7,fig4 #eg71 both in the semi-circular and pointed forms4 ,the principle of the arch had been known to several ,oriental nations1 but it had been applied only to short spaces and comparatively unimportant uses1 such as windows and doorways 7,fig4 #eh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,,gateway4 ,arpino4 ,there is no doubt that many of the earliest works of the ,romans were executed under the direction of ,etruscan architects4 ,among these was the great ,cloaca ,maxima1 or principal drain of ancient ,rome4 ,this was a wonderful achievement2 it is probable that the oldest arch in ,europe is that of this sewer1 and the fact of its still remaining proves how well it must have been built in order to last so long 7,fig4 #ei74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,arch ,,of ,,cloaca ,,maxima4 ,rome4 ,,rome4 ,the early works of ,rome1 which were largely executed by the ,etruscans1 were principally those useful1 semi-architectural objects necessary in the making of a city1 such as aqueducts and bridges4 ,these belong quite as much to civil engineering as to architecture1 and we shall not speak of them4 ,in studying ,roman architecture one is surprised at the number of uses to which it was applied1 for not only do the temples1 tombs1 theatres1 and monuments such as we have found in other countries exist in ,rome1 but there are also basilicas1 baths1 palaces1 triumphal arches1 pillars of victory1 fountains1 and various other objects suited to the wants of a great people4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,composite ,,order1 ,,from ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,septimius ,,severus4 ,rome4 ,no truly pure1 national order of architecture existed at ,rome4 ,the union of the arch of the ,etruscans with the columns of the ,greeks enabled the ,romans to change the forms of their edifices and to produce a great variety in them4 ,they employed the ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian orders1 but they rarely used one of these alone2 they united them in endless combinations1 and introduced a capital of the order which is called the ,composite 7,fig4 #fj74 ,it consists of the lower part of the ,corinthian and the upper part of the ,ionic capital2 this was very rich in ornament1 but the line where the two orders were joined was always a defect1 and it never came into general favor4 ,the ,romans also introduced what is called the ,tuscan order1 which is usually mentioned with the ,doric1 ,ionic1 ,corinthian1 and ,composite1 as being one of the five classic orders of architecture1 although it is really little more than a variety of the ,doric1 as the ,composite is of the ,corinthian order4 ,it differed from the ,doric in having a base1 while its frieze was simple and unadorned1 the cornice also being very plain4 ,the shaft of the ,tuscan column was never fluted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,doric ,,arcade4 ,the ,romans also used an arcade which was a combination of ,greek and ,etruscan art1 like this cut 7,fig4 #fa72 thus showing a power of adapting forms which already existed in new combinations and for new purposes1 rather than an originative genius4 ,a very important advance made by the ,romans was the improvement of interior architecture4 ,the halls and portions of edifices to be used were more cared for than ever before2 this was sometimes done at the expense of the exteriors1 to which the ,greeks had devoted all their thought4 ,in fact1 many ancient ,roman temples were inferior to other edifices which they built4 ,the ,pantheon is the only one existing in such a state as to be spoken of with satisfaction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,ground-,,plan ,,of ,,pantheon4 ,rome4 ,this ground-plan 7,fig4 #fb7 shows that the ,pantheon is circular with a porch4 ,taken separately1 the rotunda and the porch are each fine in their own way1 but the joining of the circular and angular forms has an effect of unfitness which one cannot forget even when looking at that which we regard with reverent interest4 ,the central portion was at first a part of the ,baths of ,agrippa1 but on account of its great beauty it was changed by ,agrippa himself into a temple1 by the addition of a row of ,corinthian columns around the interior4 7,see ,fig4 #fc47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,pantheon4 ,taken all in all1 the effect of the ,pantheon is that of grandeur and simplicity4 ,when we remember that sixteen hundred and eighty-eight years have passed since it was repaired by ,septimius ,severus1 we wonder at its good preservation1 though we know that it has been robbed of its bronze covering and other fine ornaments4 ,an inscription still remaining on its portico states that ,marcus ,aurelius and ,septimius ,severus repaired this temple2 history says that ,hadrian restored it after a fire1 probably about the year #aag1 and it is even said that ,agrippa1 who died ,a4,d4 #ac1 added the portico to a rotunda which existed before his time4 ,the objects now in the interior of the ,pantheon are so largely modern that they do not belong to this portion of our subject1 but there is much interest associated with this spot1 and it is dear to all the world as the burial-place of ,raphael1 ,annibale ,caracci1 and other great artists4 ,next to the temples of ,rome came the ,basilicas1 of which there were many before the time of ,constantine4 ,the word basilica means the royal house1 and these edifices were first intended for a court-room in which the king administered his laws2 later they became markets1 or places of exchange1 where men met for business transactions4 ,the ruins of the ,basilicas of ,trajan and ,maxentius1 two of the finest of these edifices1 are in such condition that their plans can be understood 7,fig4 #fd74 ,they were large1 and divided into aisles by rows of columns2 at one end there was a semi-circular recess or apse1 in which was a raised platform1 approached by steps1 also semi-circular in form4 ,upon this platform the king or other exalted officer had his place1 while those of lesser rank were on the steps below1 on either side4 ,fronting the apse was an altar upon which sacrifices were offered before commencing any important business4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,basilica ,,of ,,maxentius4 ,the principal reason for speaking of basilicas is that by the above cut you may see the great change made in architecture about this time by the use of columns1 only half the height of the building1 which were united by arches4 ,this was a very important step1 and is1 in truth1 one of the principal features that mark the progress of the change from ancient to ,gothic architecture--a change not fully developed until the twelfth century4 ,i shall not say much of the theatres1 amphitheatres1 and baths of ancient ,rome1 because it is not easy to treat them in the simple manner suited to this book2 they were magnificent and costly1 and made an important part of ,roman architecture2 they were probably copied from the public buildings of the ,etruscans4 ,marcus ,scaurus built a theatre in #eh ,b4,c4 which held eighty thousand spectators2 it had rich columns and statues1 and was decorated with gold1 silver1 and ivory4 ,the first stone theatre in ,rome was built in #ee ,b4,c41 and was only half the size of that of ,marcus ,scaurus4 ,parts of the theatre of ,marcellus still remain in the present ,orsini ,palace in ,rome1 and serve to give an idea of the architecture of the period immediately before the birth of ,christ4 ,the ,emperor ,augustus boasted that he had found a city of brick and had changed it to one of marble1 but after his time architecture suffered a decline1 and its second flourishing period may be dated from ,a4,d4 #fi4 ,to this time belongs the ,colosseum1 also called the ,flavian ,amphitheatre2 it covers about five acres of ground1 and is sufficiently well preserved for a good idea to be formed of what it must have been when in its best estate4 ,the enormous size of these ancient ,roman edifices is almost too much for us to imagine1 and the most extensive of them all were the ,therm1 or public baths4 ,the ,baths of ,diocletian1 built ,a4,d4 #cjc1 were the largest of all2 they had seats for twenty-four hundred bathers4 ,these baths were in reality a group of spacious halls of varied forms1 but all magnificent in size4 ,the great hall of the ,baths of ,diocletian was three hundred and fifty feet long by eighty feet in width and ninety-six feet high2 it was converted into a church by ,michael ,angelo and is called ,s4 ,maria ,degli ,angeli1 or ,holy ,mary of the ,angels4 ,many splendid pictures which were once in ,st4 ,peter's are now in this church1 and copies of them made in mosaic fill the places where they were originally hung4 ,the ,baths of ,caracalla were built in ,a4,d4 #bag1 and though they had seats for but sixteen hundred bathers1 they were much more splendid than the ,baths of ,diocletian4 ,they were surrounded by pleasure gardens1 porticoes1 and a stadium or race-course1 where all sorts of games were held4 ,some beautiful mosaic pavements have been taken from these baths1 and are now in the ,lateran and the ,villa ,borghese palaces2 there was a ,pinacotica1 or ,fine ,art ,gallery here1 in which were some of the greatest art treasures of the world1 such as the ,farnese ,hercules1 the ,farnese ,bull1 the two ,gladiators1 and other famous statues1 besides cameos1 bronzes1 and sculptures1 almost without end4 ,the granite basins in the ,piazza ,farnese1 and some green basalt urns now in the ,vatican ,museum1 were taken from the ,baths of ,caracalla1 and1 indeed1 all over ,rome there are objects of more or less beauty which were found here4 ,formerly the site of these baths was like a beautiful ,eden where ,nature made herself happy in luxuriant growths of all lovely things4 ,the poet ,shelley was very fond of going there1 and wrote of it1 ,among the flowery glades and thickets of odoriferous blossoming trees1 which are extended in ever-winding labyrinths upon its immense platforms and dizzy arches suspended in the air1 by which we know that the ruins were covered with a soil which was fruitful in flowers1 vines1 and trees2 but all these have been torn away in order to make the excavations which were necessary for the exploration of these wonderful baths1 and now the parts which remain stand fully exposed to the view of the curious traveller4 ,the ,roman ,triumphal ,arches were one of the characteristic outgrowths of the ,imperial period4 ,these splendid works were designed to perpetuate the fame of the emperors and to recall to the people the important acts of their lives4 ,the arch of ,constantine given below is one of the most famous arches in ,rome 7,fig4 #fe74 ,it is believed that parts of it were in an arch of ,trajan's time1 and some even go so far as to say that it was originally dedicated to the earlier emperor and adopted by ,constantine as his own4 ,it is remarkably well preserved1 and this is undoubtedly due to the fact of its being dedicated to the first ,christian sovereign of ,rome4 ,the other most famous arches in the city are that of ,titus1 which dates from ,a4,d4 #ha1 and that of ,septimius ,severus1 which was erected in honor of him and of his wife1 ,julia1 by the silversmiths and merchants of the ,forum ,boarium1 in which spot the arch was raised4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,,arch ,,of ,,constantine4 ,rome4 ,these triumphal arches existed in all the countries where ,rome held sway1 and1 indeed1 this is true of all kinds of ,roman architectural works4 ,this ,arch of ,beneventum was erected in the second century after ,christ1 by ,trajan1 when he repaired the ,appian ,way4 ,it is one of the most graceful and best preserved of all the arches of ,italy 7,fig4 #ff74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,arch ,,of ,,trajan4 ,beneventum4 ,all these arches had originally groups of statuary upon them1 for which they served merely as the pedestals4 ,their taking the form of an arch was due to their being placed in the public way1 where it was necessary to leave a passage for the street4 ,sometimes they were placed where two roads met1 and a double arch was then made4 ,elaborate as the arches often were1 you must keep in mind that they are only a part of the entire design1 and that the least important part2 the statuary1 which has been destroyed by time1 being really the more striking feature of the whole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,tomb ,,of ,,cecilia ,,metella4 ,the tombs of ,rome were very numerous1 and were an important element in ,roman architecture4 ,the tomb of ,cecilia ,metella is of importance because it is the oldest remaining building of ,imperial ,rome and the finest tomb which has been preserved 7,fig4 #fg74 ,as you see1 the tomb is a round tower4 ,in the thirteenth century it was turned into a fortress1 and so much dust has been deposited on its summit in the passing of time that bushes and ivy now grow there4 ,many writers describe it1 and ,byron in his ,childe ,harold spoke of it in some verses1 of which the following is the beginning3 ,there is a stern round tower of other days1 ,firm as a fortress1 with its fence of stone1 ,such as an army's baffled strength delays1 ,standing with half its battlements alone1 ,and with two thousand years of ivy grown1 ,the garland of eternity1 where wave ,the green leaves over all by time o'erthrown2-- ,what was this tower of strength8 within its cave ,what treasure lay so lock'd1 so hid8--a woman's grave4 ,the tomb of ,hadrian1 now known as the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 is very interesting1 and is one of the most prominent and familiar objects in ,rome at the present day4 ,but the tombs called ,columbaria were much in use in ancient ,rome1 and differed essentially from those of which we have spoken1 inasmuch as they were usually below the ground1 and externally had no architecture4 ,they consisted of oblong or square apartments1 the sides of which were filled with small apertures of the proper size to hold an urn which contained the ashes that remained after a body had been burned1 according to the ,roman custom4 ,some of these apartments1 especially when they belonged to private families1 were adorned with pilasters and decorated with colors4 7,see ,fig4 #fh47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,columbarium ,,near ,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,st4 ,,sebastian4 ,rome4 ,the sepulchres of ,rome were gradually enlarged1 until1 in the days of ,constantine1 they were frequently built like small temples above the ground1 with crypts or vaults beneath them4 ,so little now remains of the ancient domestic architecture of ,rome that one is forced to study this subject from written descriptions collected from the works of various historians1 poets1 and other writers4 ,but from what we know we may conclude that the villas and country-houses were so constructed as to be full of comfort1 and suited to the uses for which they were built1 without too much regard to the symmetry of the exteriors4 ,the interior convenience was the chief thing to be considered1 and when finished they must have often resembled a collection of buildings all joined together1 of various heights and shapes2 but within they were adapted to the different seasons1 as some rooms were made for being warm1 while others were arranged for coolness2 the views from the windows were also an important feature1 and1 in short1 the pleasure of the people living in them was made the first point to be gained1 rather than the impression upon the eye of those who saw them from without4 ,there was great luxury and elegance in the palaces of the noble classes in ancient ,rome4 ,the home of ,diocletian at ,spalatro was one of the most famous ,roman palaces1 and its ruins show that it was once magnificent4 ,this palace was divided by four streets which ran through it at right angles with each other and met in its centre4 ,its entrances were called the ,golden1 ,iron1 and ,brazen ,gates4 ,its exterior architecture was simple and massive1 as it was necessary that it should serve as a fortress in case of an attack4 ,its principal gallery overlooked the sea2 it was five hundred and fifteen feet long and twenty-four feet wide1 and was famous for its architectural beauty and for the views which it commanded4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,christian ,,architecture4 ,a4,d4 #cbh ,,to ,,about #adjj4 ,i have written more in detail concerning ,ancient architecture than ,i shall do of that of later times1 because it is best to be thorough in studying the beginnings of things2 then we can make an application of our knowledge which helps us to understand the results of what has gone before1 just as we are prepared for the full-blown rose after we have seen the bud4 ,or1 to be more practical1 just as we use the simplest principles of arithmetic to help us to understand the more difficult ones2 sometimes we scarcely remember that in the last lessons of the book we unconsciously apply the first tables and rules which were so difficult to us in the beginning4 ,i shall not try1 because ,i have not space1 to give a connected account of ,christian architecture1 but ,i shall endeavor to give such an outline of its rise and progress in various countries as will make a good foundation for the knowledge you will gain from books which you will read in future4 ,the architecture of ,italy in the period which followed the conversion of the ,emperor ,constantine is called the ,romanesque order4 ,as the ,christians were encouraged under ,constantine and became bold in their worship1 many basilicas were given up for their use4 ,the bishops held the principal place upon the platform formerly occupied by the king and his highest officers1 and the priests of the lower orders were ranged around them4 ,the same altars which had served for the heathen sacrifices were used for the worship of the true ,god1 and from this cause the word basilica has come to signify a large1 grand church1 in the speech of our time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,interior ,,of ,,basilica ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s4 ,rome4 ,among the early basilicas of ,rome which still remain none are more distinguished than that of ,san ,paolo fuori della ,mura1 or ,st4 ,paul's without the ,walls4 ,it was ancient1 and splendid in design and ornament4 ,in #ahbc it was burned1 and has been rebuilt with great magnificence1 but the picture above shows it as it was before the fire 7,fig4 #fi74 ,it was built about #chf ,a4,d4 under the ,emperors ,valentinian ,,ii4 and ,theodosius4 ,this basilica had four rows of ,corinthian columns1 twenty in each row2 many of these pillars were taken from more ancient edifices1 and were composed of very beautiful marbles1 forming by far the finest collection of columns in the world4 ,the bronze gates were cast at ,constantinople2 the fine paintings and magnificent mosaics with which it was decorated added much to its splendor4 ,tradition taught that the body of ,st4 ,paul was buried beneath the high altar4 ,before the ,reformation the sovereigns of ,england were protectors of this basilica just as those of ,france were of ,st4 ,john ,lateran2 this gives it a peculiar interest for ,british people1 and the symbol of the ,order of the ,garter is still seen among its decorations4 ,on account of its associations1 ,san ,paolo was the most interesting1 if not the most beautiful1 of the oldest ,christian edifices in ,rome4 ,in the early days there were many circular churches throughout ,italy2 some of these had been built at first for tombs4 ,the ,christians used churches of this form for baptisms1 for the sacrament for the dying1 burials1 and sometimes for marriage4 ,the circular temple of ,vesta is very beautiful4 ,it had originally twenty ,corinthian columns2 nineteen of which still remain4 ,this temple is not older than the time of ,vespasian1 and is not the famous one mentioned by ,horace and other ancient writers1 in which the ,palladium was preserved--that temple no longer exists4 ,it is probable that many of the earliest churches built by ,christians in ,italy were circular in form1 and numbers of these still remain in various ,italian cities2 but they differed from the ancient temples of this form in their want of exterior decoration4 ,the ancient ,romans had used columns1 peristyles1 and porticoes2 the ,christians used the latter only in a few instances1 but even these were soon abandoned4 ,the beautiful ,baptistery at ,florence was originally the cathedral of the city4 ,it is octagonal1 or eight-sided1 and this form is not infrequent in buildings of the fourth and following centuries4 ,it is said that this ,baptistery was built by ,theodolinda1 who married ,autharis1 ,king of the ,lombards in #ehi4 ,this king had proposed to ,garibald1 ,king of ,bavaria1 for the hand of his daughter1 and had been accepted4 ,autharis grew impatient at the ceremonies of the wooing1 and escaping from his palace joined the embassy to the ,king of ,bavaria4 ,when they reached the court of ,garibald and were received by that monarch1 ,autharis advanced to the throne and told the old king that the ambassador before him was indeed the ,minister of ,state at the ,lombard ,court1 but that he was the only real friend of ,autharis1 and to him had been given a charge to report to the ,italian king concerning the charms of ,theodolinda4 ,garibald summoned his daughter1 and after an admiring gaze the stranger hailed her ,queen of ,italy and respectfully asked that she should1 according to custom1 give a glass of wine to the first of her future subjects who had tendered her his duty4 ,her father commanded her to give the cup1 and as ,autharis returned it to her he secretly touched her hand and then put his finger on his own lips4 ,at evening ,theodolinda told this incident to her nurse1 who assured her that this handsome and bold stranger could have been none other than her future husband1 since no subject would venture on such conduct4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,chartres4 ,the ambassadors were dismissed1 and some ,bavarians accompanied the ,lombards to the ,italian frontier4 ,before they separated ,autharis raised himself in his stirrups and threw his battle-axe against a tree with great skill1 exclaiming1 ,such are the strokes of the ,king of the ,lombards6 ,then all knew the rank of this gallant stranger4 ,the approach of a ,french army compelled ,garibald to leave his capital2 he took refuge in ,italy1 and ,autharis celebrated his marriage in the palace of ,verona2 he lived but one year1 but in that time ,theodolinda had so endeared herself to the people that she was allowed to bestow the ,italian sceptre with her hand4 ,she had converted her husband to the ,catholic faith4 ,she also founded the cathedral of ,monza and other churches in ,lombardy and ,tuscany1 all of which she dedicated to ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 who was her patron saint4 ,the cathedral of ,monza is very interesting from its historical associations4 ,here is deposited the famous iron crown which was presented to ,theodolinda by ,pope ,gregory ,i4 ,this crown is made of a broad band of gold set with jewels1 and the iron from which it is named is a narrow circlet inside1 said to have been made from one of the nails used in the crucifixion of ,christ1 and brought from ,jerusalem by the ,empress ,helena4 ,this crown is kept in a casket which forms the centre of the cross above the high altar in the cathedral of ,monza2 it was carried away in #ahei by the ,austrians2 at the close of the ,italo-,prussian war1 in #ahff1 the ,emperor of ,austria gave it to ,victor ,emmanuel1 then ,king of ,italy4 ,this crown has been used at the coronation of thirty-four sovereigns2 among them were ,charlemagne1 ,charles ,v41 and ,napoleon ,i4 ,the latter wore it at his second coronation as ,king of the ,lombards in #ahje4 ,he placed it on his head himself1 saying1 ,god has given it to me1 woe to him who touches it6 ,there are few secular buildings of this period remaining in ,italy1 and ,romanesque architecture endured but a short time1 for it was almost abandoned at the time of the death of ,gregory the ,great1 in #fjd4 ,during the next four and a half centuries the old styles were dying out and the ,gothic order was developing1 but cannot be said to have reached any high degree of perfection before the close of the eleventh century4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4 ,it is difficult to speak concisely of ,gothic architecture because there is so much that can be said of its origin1 and then it has so extended itself to all parts of the world as to render it in a sense universal4 ,perhaps ,fergusson makes it as simple as it can be made when he divides ,europe by a line from ,memel on the shores of the ,baltic ,sea to ,spalatro on the ,adriatic1 and then carries the line westward to ,fermo and divides ,italy almost as the forty-third parallel of latitude divides it4 ,he then says that during the ,middle ,ages1 or from about the seventh to the fifteenth centuries1 the architecture north and west of these lines was ,gothic2 south and east it was ,byzantine1 with the exception of ,rome1 which always remained individual1 and a rule unto herself4 ,there was a very general belief in all ,christian lands that the world would end in the year #ajjj ,a4,d41 and when this dreaded period had passed without that event happening1 men seem everywhere to have been seized with a passion for erecting stone buildings4 ,an old chronicler named ,rodulphe ,glaber1 who died in #ajde ,a4,d41 relates that as early as the year #ajjc ,a4,d4 so many churches and monasteries of marble were being erected1 especially in ,france and ,italy1 that the world appeared to be putting off its old dingy attire and putting on a new white robe4 ,then nearly all the bishops' seats1 the churches1 the monasteries1 and even the oratories of the villages were changed for better ones4 ,such a movement could not fail to have a great influence upon architecture1 and it was at this time that the ,gothic style began to be rapidly developed2 and1 indeed1 so far as any particular time may be fixed for the beginning of the ,gothic order1 it would fall in the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,the classic forms1 with their horizontal cornices and severe regularity1 were then laid aside1 and a greater freedom and variety than had ever obtained before began to make itself felt in all architectural designs4 ,we must first try to understand what are the distinguishing features of ,gothic architecture4 ,perhaps the principal one may be called constructiveness2 which is to say1 that in ,gothic architecture there is far greater variety of form1 and the power to make larger and more complicated buildings than had been possible with the orders which preceded it4 ,during the ,middle ,ages the aim was to produce large edifices1 and to build and ornament them in a way that would make them appear to be even larger than they were4 ,the early ,gothic buildings are so massive as to have a clumsy effect1 because the architects had not yet learned how to make these enormous masses strong and enduring1 and yet so arranged as to be light and graceful in their appearance4 ,a second striking difference between the ancient orders and the ,gothic1 is that in the former enormous blocks of stone or marble were used and great importance was attached to this4 ,many ancient works are called ,cyclopean for this reason4 ,it does not make a building more beautiful to have it massive1 but it does make it grand4 ,even in a less colossal mode of building a column is more effective when it is a monolith1 and an architrave more beautiful when its beams are not joined too frequently4 ,but in the ,gothic order the use of massive blocks is largely given up1 and the endeavor is to so arrange smaller materials as to display remarkable constructive skill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,nicholas4 ,caen4 ,a third and a very important feature of the ,gothic order is the use of the arch4 ,the much-increased constructive power of which we have spoken depended very largely upon this4 ,the ancients knew the use of the arch1 but did not like it because they thought that it took away from the repose of a building4 ,even now the ,hindoos will not use it2 they say1 ,an arch never sleeps1 and though the ,mohammedan builders have used it in their country1 the ,hindoos cannot overcome their dislike of it4 ,in the ,gothic order1 however1 the use of arches1 both round and pointed1 is unending4 ,the results are very much varied1 and range all the way from a grand and impressive effect to a sort of toy-like lightness which seems more suited to the block-houses made by children than to the works of architects4 ,the earlier ,gothic arches were round1 although pointed arches are occasionally found in very ancient buildings4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #ga71 however1 gives a just idea of the form of arch most used until the introduction of the pointed arch1 which occurred in ,france during the twelfth century4 ,of this form the doorways of the next cut present a fine example 7,fig4 #gb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,cathedral ,,of ,,notre ,,dame4 ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,clustered ,,pillar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,buttress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,hinge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,iron-,,work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,,gargoyle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,nail-,,head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,scroll4 ,an important characteristic of ,gothic architecture was the fact that every part of the building was so made as to show its use4 ,instead of hiding the supports they were made prominent4 ,if a pier or buttress was to stand a perpendicular strain1 even the lines of decoration were generally made to run in that direction2 if extra supports were needed1 they were not concealed1 but built in so as to show1 and even to be prominent4 ,in the details the same feeling was often shown in a very marked degree2 the hinges and nails and locks of ,gothic buildings were made to be seen1 and whatever was needed for use was treated as if it were of value as an ornament4 ,the spouts by which the water was carried over the eaves were made bold and comparatively large1 and carved into those curious shapes of animals and monsters called gargoyles1 which are seen on so many medival edifices4 ,many of these details of ,gothic buildings are very elegant1 and serve to-day as models for modern workmen4 7,see ,figs4 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi47 ,among the inventions of ,gothic architects the division of the interior into three aisles1 with the centre one much the highest1 was very important4 ,by this arrangement the space was made to appear longer and higher than it really was1 and what was lost in the effect of width was more than made up in a certain elegance of form which is very pleasing4 ,the three central aisles of the next cut illustrate this arrangement 7,fig4 #hj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,section ,,of ,,church4 ,carcassone4 ,,with ,,outer ,,aisles ,,added ,,in ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,the ,gothic builders gave loftiness to their edifices by the use of spires and towers4 ,they became very skilful in constructing them with buttresses below and pinnacles above1 so that the spires should not detract from the apparent size of the buildings to which they were attached 7,fig4 #ha74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,spires ,,of ,,laon ,,cathedral4 ,in the matter of design in ornament the ,gothic order had no fixed method1 except so far as its forms were symbolic4 ,every form of vegetable design was employed2 vines and leaves were abundant4 ,as a rule the use of human forms or animals as supports to columns or other weights was avoided4 ,if they were introduced the animals were not reproductions of such as exist1 but the imaginary griffin or other monster1 and at times dwarfs or grotesque human beings1 were represented as if for caricatures4 ,sculptured figures were usually placed upon a pedestal either with or without niches for them1 and were not made to appear to be a part of the building itself4 ,the deep recesses of ,gothic portals1 the pinnacles and niches gave opportunities to display exterior sculpture to great advantage 7,fig4 #hb74 ,the interiors were also appropriate for any amount of artistic ornament in bas-reliefs or figures that could be lavished upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,portal ,,of ,,the ,,minorites' ,,church4 ,vienna4 ,the most original and effective feature of ornament1 however1 which was introduced by ,gothic architects is that of painted glass4 ,to this they devoted their best talent4 ,it is not necessary to say how beautiful and decorative it is2 we all know this1 and our only wonder is that it was left for the ,gothic architects to apply it to architectural uses4 ,we do not know precisely when stained or painted glass was invented1 but we know that it existed as early as #hjj1 and came into very general use in the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc--;,,external ,,elevation1 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,paris4 ,before painted glass was used windows were made very small1 and it was some time before the large1 rich style was adopted4 ,the following cut from ,notre ,dame1 at ,paris1 gives the three stages of the change1 and it is interesting to see them thus in one church 7,fig4 #hc74 ,on the left are the undivided windows without mullions or dividing supports2 next1 at the right1 the upper window shows the form with one perpendicular mullion and a circular or rose window above the centre2 lastly1 on the right of the lower story we see a full traceried window4 ,the window became one of the most important and characteristic features of ,gothic buildings4 ,these large open spaces gave opportunity for elegant shapes and splendid colors1 both the form of the opening and the dividing ribs1 or tracery1 as it was called1 being made with the utmost beauty and grace4 ,the round windows1 called rose windows and wheel windows1 were often exquisitely designed1 as the following example shows 7,fig4 #hd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,wheel ,,window1 ,,from ,,cathedral4 ,toscanella4 ,the window is illustrative of the influence which climate may have on the development of architectural style4 ,in warm countries where spaces were left open1 window forms and painted glass were1 of course1 never employed2 but in more northern lands they became one of the most marked features in important edifices4 ,a whole book might be written about these windows and be very interesting also1 but we can give no more space to them here4 ,gothic architecture gradually extended from the centre of ,italy to the most northern bounds of civilization1 and though practised by so many nations1 was as much the architectural expression of a religion as the architecture of a single ancient nation had been the outgrowth of its peculiar religious belief4 ,during the ,middle ,ages the priests and monks preserved learning in the midst of general darkness and ignorance1 and were the chief patrons of all art which survived the decline of the time4 ,they built up the ,christian faith by every means in their power4 ,the monks were missionaries4 ,they went to various countries1 and selecting favorable spots they founded abbeys2 around these abbeys a poor population settled2 gradually churches were built1 and it frequently happened that the monks not only planned the work to be done1 but also executed it with their own hands4 ,many of them were masons and builders1 and several bishops were architects4 ,st4 ,germain1 ,bishop of ,paris1 designed the church in that city now called by his name1 and was also sent to ,angers to build another church1 and to ,mans to erect a monastery4 ,the finest buildings being thus made for religious purposes and under the direction of the clergy1 they must have been as full an expression of ,christianity as were the temple-palaces of ,egypt an expression of the religion of ,osiris and ,isis1 when the kings were both priests and sovereigns1 and dwelt in these palaces4 ,and this was true as long as ,gothic art was in the hands of the clergy and used almost entirely for religious purposes4 ,later on1 when it was employed for civic edifices erected under the direction of laymen1 it became an expression of political independence also4 ,the freedom of thought which came with the decline of the feudal system inspired new aspirations and imaginations in the hearts and minds of men1 and these found expression in all the arts1 and very especially in architecture4 ,if we cannot always admire the manner in which ,gothic art was made to express these lofty desires1 we can fully sympathize with the sentiment which was behind it4 ,the ,gothic order held undisputed sway west and north of the geographical line of which we have spoken until the fifteenth century4 ,then a revival of classical literature took place1 and with this there arose also a revival of classic art and architecture2 this revival is known as the ,renaissance1 or the new birth1 and the period of time is spoken of as that of the ,renaissance4 ,the effect of this classic reaction was very great upon all the educated classes of ,europe1 and its influence may be said to have endured through about three centuries4 ,again1 during the eighteenth century1 ,gothic art was revived4 ,a reverence has grown up for the good that wrestled with the darkness of the ,middle ,ages and survived all their evils4 ,the rough1 strong manhood of that time is now justly appreciated4 ,perhaps the feeling in this direction is too much exaggerated4 ,while our regard for a rude and weather-stained monument of the spirit and architecture of the past may be natural and proper1 the imitation of it which is made in our day may easily become absurd1 and is very rarely suited to our purposes4 ,spain is one of the countries which are on the ,gothic side of the geographical line we have drawn1 and among the many splendid edifices in that country some of the finest are of the ,gothic order4 ,there is no national architecture there1 for though the ,spaniards love art and its expression passionately1 they have themselves invented almost nothing which is artistic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,collegiate ,,church1 ,,toro4 ,from ,villa ,amil4 ,but while it is true that the ,spaniards invented no styles1 they did modify those which they adopted1 and there are peculiarities in the ,spanish use and arrangement of the ,gothic order which give it new elements in the eyes of those who understand architecture scientifically4 ,to the uneducated also it appears to have a personality of its own1 something that is suited to ,spain and the ,spaniards2 so that1 while we know that ,spanish ,gothic architecture was borrowed from ,france and ,germany1 we yet feel that if the cathedrals of ,paris and ,cologne were to be put down in ,valencia or ,madrid they would look like strangers1 and not at all well-contented ones at that2 and if the churches of ,toledo or ,burgos were copied precisely in any other country1 they would have an air of being quite out of keeping with everything around them 7,fig4 #he74 ,we call the architecture of ,spain before #ajff the ,early ,spanish1 and from that time the ,gothic order prevailed during nearly three centuries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,st4 ,,paul4 ,saragossa4 ,meantime in the south of ,spain the ,moresco or ,moorish order had sprung up1 of which ,fig4 #hf gives an example4 ,it was gradually adopted to a limited extent1 until finally some specimens of it existed in almost every province of the country4 ,the ,gothic order was affected by it1 inasmuch as the richness of ornament of the ,moorish order so pleased the taste of the ,spaniards that their architects allowed themselves to indulge in a certain ,moorish manner of treating the ,gothic style4 ,we cannot describe these differences in words1 but ,figs4 #hf and #hg will make it plain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,,cloister4 ,tarazona4 ,as has been said1 the interior decoration of all ,gothic churches was very rich and abundant4 ,it is also true that all church furniture was made with great care2 the matter of symbolism was carefully considered1 and each design made to indicate the use of the article for which it was intended4 ,no altar1 preaching-desk1 stall1 chair1 or screen was made without due attention to every detail1 and the endeavor to have it in harmony with its use and its position in the church4 ,the following cut shows a rood-screen1 which was the kind of screen that was placed before the crucifixion over the high altar 7,fig4 #hh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,rood-,,screen1 ,,from ,,the ,,madeleine4 ,troyes4 ,the fantastic sculptures and wealth of ornament in ,gothic decorations produce a confusing effect on the brain and the eye if we look at the whole carelessly2 but when we remember that each separate design has its especial meaning we are interested to examine them1 and we find that the variety of forms is almost innumerable4 ,where there are trailing vines and lions1 faith is indicated2 roses and pelicans are the symbols of mercy and divine love2 dogs and ivy1 of truth2 lambs1 of gentleness1 innocence1 and submission2 fishes are an emblem of water and the rite of baptism2 the dragon1 of sin and paganism2 a serpent1 too1 typifies sin1 and when wound around a globe it indicates the power of evil over the whole world2 a hind or hart signifies solitude2 the dove1 purity2 the olive1 peace2 the palm1 martyrdom2 the lily1 purity and chastity2 the lamp1 lantern1 or taper1 piety2 fire and flames1 zeal and the sufferings of martyrdom2 a flaming heart1 fervent piety and spiritual love2 a shell1 pilgrimage2 a standard or banner1 victory2 and so on1 and on1 we find that meaning and thought were worked out in every bit of ,gothic ornament1 and that what at first appears so wild and hap-hazard is full of a method which well repays one for the study of it4 ,the ,gothic order was also used in building municipal edifices1 palaces1 and even for the purposes of domestic architecture4 ,the finest remains of this kind are in ,germany1 the most interesting of them all being the castle on the ,wartburg4 ,this castle is large1 grand1 and imposing4 ,it is also well preserved4 ,a few years ago it was discovered that many windows and arched galleries1 of very beautiful style1 had been filled up1 and that frescoes and other decorations had been covered4 ,the ,grand ,duke of ,saxe-,weimar caused its restoration1 and the ancient halls are now quite in their original state4 7,see ,fig4 #hi47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,palace ,,of ,,wartburg4 ,there are very interesting legends and historical facts connected with this castle of ,wartburg4 ,as early as #abjd to #abjh1 when ,hermann1 ,count of ,thuringia1 dwelt there with his wife1 the ,countess ,sophia1 it is related that the ,war of the ,minstrels occurred4 ,this was a contest between several of the wandering minstrels or ,minnesingers of that time as to who should excel1 and he who failed was to suffer death4 ,the penalty fell on ,henry of ,ofterdingen2 in his despair he begged the ,countess to gain him a respite so that he could go for his master1 ,klingsor4 ,her prayer was granted1 and in the end ,henry of ,ofterdingen saved his head1 though the legend says that ,satan aided him4 ,this story is without doubt founded on truth1 but has much of fancy mingled with it4 ,the next remarkable story connected with ,wartburg is the residence here of ,st4 ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 as she is called4 ,this wonderful woman was the daughter of the ,king of ,hungary1 and when four years old she was betrothed to ,prince ,louis1 son of ,count ,hermann1 mentioned above4 ,at this tender age she was given to his family4 ,her life at ,wartburg was very remarkable1 and ,i advise you to read about it1 for it is too long to be given here4 ,at last1 her husband having died in ,jerusalem1 where he had gone with the ,crusaders1 his brother ,henry drove her out with her children to seek a home where she could4 ,she suffered much1 and supported herself by spinning wool4 ,but when the knights who had gone with her husband returned1 they obliged ,henry to give the son of ,elizabeth his rights4 ,she received the city of ,marburg as her dower1 but she did not live long4 ,miraculous things are told of her1 and she is often represented by painters and sculptors4 ,again1 ,wartburg was the residence of a remarkable person2 for ,luther dwelt there after escaping from the ,diet at ,worms4 ,he was called ,ritter ,george1 and the room where he wrote and spent much of his time is shown to travellers who visit the castle4 ,we come back now to ,italy1 the country we left when we passed from the ,romanesque to ,gothic architecture4 ,in the north of ,italy where the ,gothic order had prevailed after the eleventh century1 it had been modified by the ,romanesque influences and ,roman traditions1 in some such degree as the ,moors had influenced the ,gothic order in ,spain4 ,but1 on the whole1 the medival buildings of ,northern ,italy were ,gothic in style4 ,rome1 as we said1 was individual1 and her art remained ,roman or ,romanesque up to the date of the ,renaissance4 ,in ,southern ,italy1 as we shall see1 the architecture was of the ,byzantine order4 ,among the most interesting edifices of the ,middle ,ages are the ,italian towers4 ,they were frequently quite separate from the churches and were built for various purposes4 ,some of them were bell towers1 and such a tower was called a campanile4 ,others were in some way associated with the civic power of the cities which built them2 but the largest number were for religious uses4 ,the campanile is always square at the bottom and for some distance up1 and then is frequently changed to an octagonal or circular form and finished with a slender spire or ornamental design4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,tower ,,of ,,cremona4 ,fig4 #ij shows one of the finest square towers in all ,italy4 ,it was built in #abif to commemorate a peace after a long war4 ,it is three hundred and ninety-six feet high4 ,it has little beauty in the lower two thirds2 above that it is more pleasing1 but the two parts do not look as if they belonged together4 ,the tower of ,italy1 however1 which is most beloved and most famous is that of ,giotto1 beside the cathedral of ,florence4 7,see ,fig4 #ajb47 ,another striking feature of ,gothic art in ,northern ,italy is seen in the porches attached to the churches4 ,they are commonly on the side1 and as they were usually added after the rest of the church was finished1 and frequently do not correspond to the rest in style1 they look as if they were parts of some other churches and had come on a visit to those beside which they stand4 ,in ,italy the main portion of these porches always rested on lions4 ,a porch at ,bergamo is one of the finest1 and certainly its details are exquisite1 and the whole structure is beautiful when it is considered separately2 but as a part of the church it loses its effect1 and seems to be pushed against it as a chair is placed beside the wall of a room4 ,some of the medival town-halls are still well preserved1 and a few of them are truly beautiful4 ,perhaps the ,broletto at ,como is as fine a remnant of civic architecture as exists in ,northern ,italy4 ,it is not very large and is faced with party-colored marbles4 ,the architecture of ,venice and the ,venetian ,province must be treated almost as if it were outside of ,italy1 because it differs so much from that of other portions of that country4 ,during the ,middle ,ages it was the most prosperous portion of ,italy4 ,its architecture was influenced by the ,byzantine and ,saracenic orders1 but is not like them2 neither is it like that of ,northern ,italy2 in fact1 it is ,venetian1 being ,gothic in principle1 but treated with ,eastern feeling and decorated in ,oriental taste2 and this was quite natural since the ,venetians had extensive traffic and intercourse with the nations of the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,st4 ,,mark',s ,,cathedral4 ,venice4 ,there are few places in the world1 of no greater extent1 about which so many interesting associations cluster as about the ,piazza of ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice4 ,on one side stands the great basilica1 and not far away are the campanile and the clock-tower2 the ancient ,doge's ,palace1 and the beautiful ,library of ,st4 ,mark1 of later date1 are near by1 with their treasures of art and literature to increase the value of the whole4 ,it is a spot dear to all1 and especially so to ,english-speaking people1 since the poetry of ,shakespeare has given them a reason for personal interest in it under all its varying aspects4 ,at some hours of the day ,st4 ,mark's seems as if it were the very centre of the earth1 to which men of all nations are hastening2 again this bustle dies away1 and one could fancy it to be forgotten and deserted of all mankind1 though its silence is eloquent in its power to recall the great events of the ,venice of the past4 7,see ,figs4 #ia1 #aje1 and #ajf47 ,st4 ,mark's ,basilica is called ,byzantine in its order1 and in a general way the term is applicable to it2 but on careful examination there are so many differences between it and a purely ,byzantine church that it would be more properly described by the name ,italian or ,venetian ,byzantine4 ,its five domes were added to its original form late in the ,middle ,ages1 and though there are many ,eastern mosques with this number1 they are not arranged like those of ,st4 ,mark's1 and so have quite a different appearance4 ,the portico with its five entrances is not ,european in form1 but the details of these deep recesses are more like the ,norman architecture than like anything ,byzantine4 ,it is scarcely profitable to carry this examination farther1 for1 in a word1 the whole effect of ,st4 ,mark's is very impressive from the exterior1 and the interior is so beautiful in its subdued light and shadow that one is satisfied to enjoy it without criticising it1 and many critics consider it one of the finest interiors of ,western ,europe4 ,the same difficulty which one finds in defining or classing the architecture of ,venice is met in that of ,southern ,italy1 which is ,byzantine and not ,byzantine1 but1 in fact1 is that order so changed that the name of ,byzantine-,romanesque seems better suited to it than any other term could be4 ,we shall mention but a single example of this order1 and pass to the true ,byzantine style4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,section ,,of ,,san ,,miniato4 ,near ,florence4 ,the church of ,san ,miniato1 which overlooks the city of ,florence1 was built in #ajac1 and is one of the most perfect as well as one of the earliest of the churches of the ,byzantine-,romanesque order in ,italy4 ,it is not large1 but the proportions are so good as to make it very pleasing2 the pillars are so nearly classic in design that they were probably taken from some earlier building1 and the effect of colored panelling both within and without is very satisfactory to the eye4 7,see ,fig4 #ib47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,san ,,giovanni ,,degli ,,eremiti4 ,palermo4 ,there arose in ,sicily in the eleventh century1 and after the ,norman ,conquest1 a remarkable style of architecture4 ,it belongs to ,christian art because it was used by ,christians to construct places of ,christian worship2 but1 in truth1 it was a combination of ,greek spirit with ,roman form and ,saracenic ornament4 ,it makes an interesting episode in the study of architecture4 ,i shall give one picture of a church built by ,king ,roger for ,christian use as late as #aacb1 which1 except for the tower1 might well be mistaken for a purely ,oriental edifice 7,fig4 #ic74 ,,byzantine ,,architecture4 ,this term strictly belongs to the order which arose in the ,east after ,constantinople was made the ,roman capital4 ,it is especially the order of the ,greek ,church as contrasted with the ,latin or ,roman ,church4 ,it would make all architectural writing and talking much clearer if this fact were kept in mind2 but1 unfortunately1 wherever some special bit of carving in an ,oriental design or a little colored decoration is used--as is frequently done in the modern composite styles of building--the term ,byzantine is carelessly applied1 until it is difficult for one not learned in architecture to discover what the ,byzantine order is1 or where it belongs4 ,we have spoken of its influence and partial use in ,italy4 ,now we will consider it in its home and its purity4 ,before the time of ,constantine the architecture used at ,rome was employed at ,jerusalem1 ,constantinople1 and other ,eastern cities which were under ,roman rule and influence4 ,between the time of ,constantine and the death of ,justinian1 in ,a4,d4 #efe1 the true ancient ,byzantine order was developed4 ,the church of ,st4 ,sophia1 at ,constantinople1 was the greatest and the last product of the pure old ,byzantine style4 ,from that time the order employed may be called the ,neo-,byzantine4 ,this was a decline of art as much as the history of ,greece and the ,eastern ,empire during the same period 7about #fjj to #adec7 was the history of the decline and extinction of a power that had once been as great among governments as ,st4 ,sophia 7,fig4 #id7 was among churches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia4 ,constantinople4 ,exterior ,view4 ,the chief characteristic of ,byzantine architecture is the use of the dome1 which is the most important part of its design4 ,a grand central dome rises over the principal portion of the edifice1 and just as in other orders courts and colonnades were added to the simpler basilica form in the ground plan of the churches1 so in the ,byzantine order lesser domes and cupolas were added above until almost any number of them was admissible1 and they were placed with little attention to regularity or symmetry of arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,lower ,,order ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia4 ,as domes were the chief exterior feature1 so the profuse ornamentation was most noticeable in the interior4 ,the walls were richly decorated with variegated marbles2 the vaulted ceilings of the domes and niches were lined with brilliant mosaics2 the columns1 friezes1 cornices1 door and window-frames1 and the railings to galleries were of marbles1 and entirely covered with ornamental designs 7,figs4 #ie and #if74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,upper ,,order ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia4 ,the historian ,gibbon describes the building of ,st4 ,sophia and its decorations4 ,he tells us that the emperor went daily1 clad in a linen tunic1 to oversee the work4 ,the architect was named ,anthemius2 he employed ten thousand workmen1 and they were all paid each evening4 ,when it was completed and ,justinian was present at its consecration1 he exclaimed1 ,glory be to ,god1 who hath thought me worthy to accomplish so great a work2 ,i have vanquished thee1 ,o ,solomon6 ,paul ,silentiarius was a poet2 he saw ,st4 ,sophia in all its glory and describes it with enthusiasm4 ,it was very rich in variegated marbles4 ,he mentions the following3 #a4 ,the ,carystian1 pale with iron veins4 #b4 ,the ,phrygian1 two sorts1 both of a rosy hue2 one with a white shade1 the other purple with silver flowers4 #c4 ,the ,porphyry of ,egypt1 with small stars4 #d4 ,the green marble of ,laconia4 #e4 ,the ,carian1 from ,mount ,iassis1 with oblique veins1 white and red4 #f4 ,the ,lydian1 pale1 with a red flower4 #g4 ,the ,african or ,mauritanian1 of a gold or saffron hue4 #h4 ,the ,celtic1 black1 with white veins4 #i4 ,the ,bosphoric1 white1 with black edges4 ,there were also the ,proconnesian1 which made the pavement2 and the ,thessalian and ,molossian in different parts4 ,this array of marbles was made even more effective by the beautiful columns brought from older temples4 ,the mosaics were rich in color1 and numerous1 and many parts of the church were covered with gold1 so that the effect was dazzling4 ,those objects that were most sacred were of solid gold and silver1 while such as were less important were only covered with gold-leaf4 ,in the sanctuary there was altogether forty thousand pounds of silver2 the vases and vessels used about the altar were of pure gold and studded with gems4 ,its whole cost was almost beyond belief4 ,at the close of his description ,gibbon says3 ,a magnificent temple is a laudable monument of taste and religion1 and the enthusiast who entered the dome of ,st4 ,sophia might be tempted to suppose that it was the residence or even the workmanship of the ,deity4 ,yet how dull is the artifice1 how insignificant is the labor1 if it be compared with the formation of the vilest insect that crawls upon the surface of the temple6 ,of course1 individual taste must largely influence the opinion regarding the beauty of any work of art1 but to me ,st4 ,sophia1 which is the chief example of ,byzantine architecture1 is far less beautiful and less grand than the finest ,gothic cathedrals4 ,comparatively little attention was paid to the elegance and decoration of the exterior in the ,eastern edifices1 while the interiors1 in spite of all their riches1 have a flat and unrelieved effect4 ,probably the chief reason for this is that color is substituted for relief--that is to say1 in ,gothic architecture heavy mouldings and panellings1 though of the same color as the walls themselves1 yet produce a marvellous effect of light and shadow1 and even lend an element of perspective to various parts of the building4 ,in the place of these mouldings flat bands of color are often used in the ,byzantine order1 and the whole result is much weakened1 though a certain gorgeousness comes from the color4 ,another cause of disappointment in ,st4 ,sophia is the absence of painted glass4 ,at the same time1 and in spite of these defects1 ,st4 ,sophia is grand and beautiful--but not solemn and impressive in comparison with the dim cathedral aisles of many ,gothic churches in other parts of the world4 7,see ,fig4 #ig47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,sophia4 ,the ,romanesque and ,byzantine styles came at last to be so mingled that it would be folly to attempt to separate their influence1 but the ,byzantine had much more originality1 and left a far wider mark4 ,among the most noted examples of the latter style1 beside ,st4 ,sophia and ,st4 ,mark's1 are the church of ,st4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 the cathedral at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 supposed to have been built by ,charlemagne about #hjj ,a4,d41 and the church of the ,mother of ,god at ,constantinople4 ,,saracenic ,,architecture4 ,in speaking of ,saracenic architecture ,i will first explain that it is one with the ,moresco or ,moorish order of which ,i spoke in connection with ,spain4 ,the only difference is that the earliest ,mohammedan conquerors of ,spain are said to have come from ancient ,mauri or ,mauritania and were called ,moors1 while the name of ,saraceni1 which means the ,easterns1 was also given to them4 ,thus the ,mohammedan architecture in ,spain is called both ,moresco1 or ,moorish1 and ,saracenic4 ,again1 it is also called ,arabian1 but ,i think this is the least correct1 since the ,easterns who went to ,spain were not so universally ,arabian as to warrant this name4 ,when we speak of ,moresco or ,moorish architecture we speak of ,spain2 but the term ,saracenic is used for ,mohammedan architecture in all countries where it is found1 and is a just term1 for they are ,eastern or ,oriental lands4 ,in absolute fact1 ,saracenic architecture is that of the followers of the ,prophet1 as ,mohammed is called1 and would be more suitably named if it were called ,mohammedan architecture1 or the architecture of ,islam4 ,mohammed was born at ,mecca ,a4,d4 #egj1 but it was not until #faa that he was commissioned1 as he believed1 to build up a new faith and a new church4 ,at first his followers were so few and so mingled with other sects and tribes in their outward life that they had no distinctive art4 ,it was not until ,a4,d4 #hgf1 when the ruler ,ibn-,touloun commenced his splendid mosque at ,cairo1 that the ,mohammedans could claim any architecture as their own4 ,it is very interesting to know that there were pointed arches in this mosque1 probably two centuries1 at least1 earlier than they were used in ,england1 for it is generally believed that they were first used there in the rebuilding of ,canterbury ,cathedral after it was burned in #aagd4 ,when1 however1 the ,saracenic order was fully established it was so individual and so different from all other architecture that there is no mistaking it for that of any other religion or nation than that of ,mohammed and his followers4 ,the picture of the mosque of ,kaitbey shows one of the finest and most elegant mosques of the ,east4 ,it is just outside the walls of ,cairo1 and is quite modern1 having been built in #adfc4 ,this view of it gives an excellent idea of the appearance of a fine mosque and shows the minaret or tower1 which is so important in a mosque1 to good advantage 7,fig4 #ih74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,mosque ,,of ,,kaitbey4 ,these minarets are constantly used for the many calls to prayer which are made throughout the day and night4 ,the person who makes these calls is styled the ,muezzin1 and is usually blind4 ,several times during the day he ascends the minaret and calls out in a loud and melodious tone1 ,god is most great2 there is no ,god but ,allah1 and ,i testify that ,mohammed is ,allah's prophet6 ,come to prayer6 ,come to security6 ,prayer is better than sleep6 ,this is several times repeated and is called the ,adan4 ,the form of words used for the night varies a little1 ending1 ,there is no ,god but ,allah4 ,he has no companion6 ,to ,him belongs dominion1 etc42 this is called the ,ula4 ,the call made an hour before day is the ,ebed1 and praises the perfection of ,god4 ,when one is sleeping near enough to a minaret to hear the muezzin's voice it is a pleasant sound and helps one to realize that the care of ,god is ever about him2 the clear1 ,christian bell can be heard by more people1 and this was originally intended as a call to prayer4 7,see ,fig4 #ii47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,the ,,call ,,to ,,prayer4 ,the principal homes of ,saracenic architecture are ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,mecca1 ,barbary1 ,spain1 ,sicily1 ,turkey1 ,persia1 and ,india4 ,there are many very interesting mosques and minarets that might be mentioned had we space1 but ,i can speak only of the mosque of ,cordova1 which is universally admitted to be the finest ,saracenic edifice in the world 7,fig4 #ajj71 and shall quote a part of the interesting description of it given by ,de ,amicis in his delightful book called ,spain and the ,spaniards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,in ,,the ,,mosque ,,of ,,cordova4 ,this mosque was commenced by the ,caliph ,abd-er-,rahman in #ghf1 and was completed by his son ,heshm1 who died #gif4 ,the great ,caliph declared that he would build a mosque which should exceed all others in the world and be the ,mecca of the ,west4 ,de ,amicis1 after describing the garden which surrounds the mosque1 enters1 and then goes on as follows3 ,imagine a forest1 fancy yourself in the thickest portion of it1 and that you can see nothing but the trunks of trees4 ,so1 in this mosque1 on whatever side you look1 the eye loses itself among the columns4 ,it is a forest of marble whose confines one cannot discover4 ,you follow with your eye1 one by one1 the very long rows of columns that interlace at every step with numberless other rows1 and you reach a semi-obscure background1 in which other columns still seem to be gleaming4 ,there are nineteen naves1 which extend in every direction1 traversed by thirty-three others1 supported 7among them all7 by more than nine hundred columns of porphyry1 jasper1 breccia1 and marbles of every color4 ,each column upholds a small pilaster1 and between them runs an arch 7see plate above71 and a second one extends from pilaster to pilaster1 the latter placed above the former1 and both of them in the shape of a horseshoe2 so that1 in imagining the columns to be the trunks of so many trees1 the arches represent the branches1 and the similitude of the mosque to a forest is complete4444 ,how much variety there is in that edifice which at first sight seems so uniform6 ,the proportions of the columns1 the designs of the capitals1 the forms of the arches change1 one might say1 at every step4 ,the majority of the columns are old1 and were taken from the ,arabs of ,northern ,spain1 ,gaul1 and ,roman ,africa1 and some are said to have belonged to a temple of ,janus1 on the ruins of which was built the church that the ,arabs destroyed in order to erect the mosque4 ,above several of the capitals one can still see traces of the crosses that were cut on them1 which the ,arabs broke with their chisels4444 ,i stopped for a long time to look at the ceiling and walls of the principal chapel1 the only part of the mosque that is quite intact4 ,it is a dazzling gleam of crystals of a thousand colors1 a network of arabesques1 which puzzles the mind1 and a complication of bas-reliefs1 gildings1 ornaments1 minuti of design and coloring1 of a delicacy1 grace1 and perfection sufficient to drive the most patient painter distracted4444 ,you might turn a hundred times to look at it1 and it would only seem to you1 in thinking it over1 a mingling of blue1 red1 green1 gilded and luminous points1 or a very intricate embroidery changing continually1 with the greatest rapidity1 both design and coloring4 ,only from the fiery and indefatigable imagination of the ,arabs could such a perfect miracle of art emanate4444 ,such is the mosque of to-day4 ,but what must it have been in the time of the ,arabs8 ,it was not surrounded by a wall1 but open1 so that one could catch a glimpse of the garden from every part of it2 and from the garden one could see to the end of the long naves1 and the air was full of the fragrance of oranges and flowers4 ,the columns which now number less than a thousand were then fourteen hundred2 the ceiling was of cedar-wood and larch1 sculptured and enamelled in the finest manner2 the walls were trimmed with marble2 the light of eight hundred lamps1 filled with perfumed oil1 made all the crystals in the mosaics gleam1 and produced on the pavements1 arches1 and walls a marvellous play of color and reflection4 ',a sea of splendors1' sang a poet1 'filled this mysterious recess2 the ambient air was impregnated with aromas and harmonies1 and the thoughts of the faithful wandered and lost themselves in the labyrinth of columns which gleamed like lances in the sun4' ,the famous palace of the ,alhambra is so well known that ,i cannot leave this part of our subject without one picture and one bit of description of it from the same author1 ,de ,amicis4 ,the ,alhambra was built about four centuries ago1 and the wall which inclosed it was four thousand feet long by twenty-two hundred feet wide4 ,within this there were gardens1 fountains1 kiosks1 and many beautiful1 fanciful structures1 all of which doubtless cost as much as the more necessary parts of the edifice4 ,the roofs of the different parts of the palace were supported by forty-three hundred columns of precious marbles2 eleven hundred and seventy-two of these were presented to ,abd-er-,rahman 7for he was also the founder of the ,alhambra7 by sovereigns of other countries1 or else brought by him from distant shores for the decoration of this splendid1 fairy-like place4 ,all the pavements were of beautiful marbles2 the walls1 too1 were of the same material1 with friezes arranged in splendid colors2 the ceilings were of deep blue color1 with figures in gilding and interlacing designs running over all4 ,in truth1 nothing that could be imagined or wealth buy to make this palace beautiful was left out2 and yet we are told that the palace of ,zahra which was destroyed was still finer4 ,all this leads one to almost believe that the ,arabian ,nights are no fanciful tales1 but quite as true as many more serious sounding stories4 ,the ,court of the ,lions is called the gem of ,arabian art in ,spain1 and of this our author says3 ,it is a forest of columns1 a mingling of arches and embroideries1 an indefinable elegance1 an indescribable delicacy1 a prodigious richness1 a something light1 transparent1 and undulating like a great pavilion of lace2 with almost the appearance of a building which must dissolve at a breath2 a variety of lights1 views1 mysterious darkness1 a confusion1 a capricious disorder of little things1 the majesty of a palace1 the gayety of a kiosk1 an amorous grace1 an extravagance1 a delirium1 the fancy of an imaginative child1 the dream of an angel1 a madness1 a nameless something--such is the first effect produced by the ,court of the ,lions6 7,fig4 #aja47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,,court ,,of ,,the ,,lions4 ,,alhambra4 ,this court is not large2 the ceiling is high1 and a light portico runs round it upheld by white marble columns in clusters of two1 three1 or more1 so arranged as to resemble trees coming up from the ground4 ,above the columns the designs almost resemble curtains1 and there are little graceful suggestions like ribbons and waving flowers4 ,from the middle of the shortest sides advance two groups of columns1 which form two species of square temples of nine arches each 7see cut7 surmounted by as many colored cupolas4 ,the walls of these little temples and the exterior of the portico are a real lace-work of stucco1 embroideries1 and hems1 cut and pierced from one side to the other1 and as transparent as net-work1 changing in design at every step4 ,sometimes they end in points1 in crimps1 in festoons1 sometimes in ribbons waving round the arches1 in kinds of stalactites1 fringes1 trinkets1 and bows which seem to move and mingle with each other at the slightest breath of air4 ,large ,arabic inscriptions run along the four walls1 over the arches1 around the capitals1 and on the walls of the little temples4 ,in the centre of the court rises a great marble basin1 upheld by twelve lions 7see cut71 and surrounded by a little paved canal4444 ,at every step one takes in the court that forest of columns seems to move and change place1 to form again in another way2 behind one column1 which seems alone1 two1 three1 or a row will spring out2 others separate1 unite1 and separate again4444 ,we remained for more than an hour in the court1 and it passed like a flash2 ,i1 too1 did what almost all people do1 be they ,spanish or strangers1 men or women1 poets or not4 ,i ran my hand along the walls1 touched all the little columns1 and passed my two hands around them1 one by one1 as around the waist of a child2 ,i hid among them1 counted them1 looked at them on a hundred sides1 crossed the court in a hundred ways1 tried if it were true that in saying a word1 sotto voce1 into the mouth of one lion1 one could hear it distinctly from the mouths of all the others2 ,i looked on the marbles for the spots of blood of poetic legends1 and wearied both brain and eye over the arabesques4444 ,in all my life ,i have never thought1 nor said1 nor shall ,i say1 so many foolish1 stupid1 pretty1 senseless things as ,i said and thought in that hour4 ,the study of ,saracenic architecture in ,turkey1 ,persia1 and ,india is very interesting1 but our space warns us that we must hasten to leave this dreamy1 fairy-like part of our subject and come down to later times and more realistic matters4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,modern ,,architecture4 #adjj ,a4,d4 ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,all ,architecture since the time of the ,renaissance is called ,modern ,architecture2 this term1 therefore1 embraces all edifices erected during nearly four centuries4 ,when ,i first spoke of ,architecture ,i said that it was a constructive art1 and not imitative like ,painting and ,sculpture4 ,in its earlier history this was true1 but the time came when it also became an imitative art and had no true or original style4 ,the ,gothic order was the last distinct order which arose1 and since its decline1 at the beginning of the ,renaissance1 all architecture has been an imitation because it is a reproduction of what existed before2 at times some one of the older orders has been in favor and closely imitated1 and again1 parts of several orders are combined in one edifice4 ,since the time of the ,reformation it has been true1 almost without exception1 that every building of any importance has been copied from something belonging to a country and a people foreign to the land in which it was erected4 ,when the revival of ,classic ,literature began1 ,rome was the first to feel its influence4 ,it was welcomed there with open arms1 just as we might receive the early history and literature of our country if it had all been lost and was found again2 for this was precisely what it meant to the ,romans1 when1 after the ,dark ,ages1 the works of ,livy1 ,tacitus1 and ,csar were in their hands1 and they read of the history1 art1 and literature of their past4 ,they were enthusiastic1 and their feeling soon spread over all ,italy4 ,france was the next to adopt the newly-revived ideas1 for that country looked to ,rome as the source of true religion1 and a model in all things4 ,spain was then in an unsettled state1 and welcomed the revival of classic art as heartily as it had already embraced the ,church of ,rome4 ,in ,germany the love of the classics was enthusiastic1 but that nation was more taken up with literature and slower in adopting the revival of the arts than were the more southern peoples1 and the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are a barren period in the history of ,german architecture4 ,in ,england1 too1 the ,renaissance made slow progress4 ,it was not until the time of ,charles ,i4 that any influence was felt in ,great ,britain from the revival of classic taste which was so well established on the ,continent4 ,as it is true that no new order of ,architecture has arisen since the time of those of which ,i have already told you1 ,i shall try to make you understand something of ,modern ,architecture by speaking of certain important edifices in one country and another1 with no attempt at any more detailed explanation of it4 ,,italy4 ,we cannot say that the art of the ,renaissance originated in one city or another1 because the movement in the revival of art was so general throughout ,italy2 but ,florence has a strong claim to our first consideration from the fact that ,filippo ,brunelleschi was a ,florentine and did his greatest work in his native city1 and on account of it has been called the father of the ,art of the ,renaissance4 ,he was born in #acgg1 and from his early boyhood was inclined to be an architect4 ,the cathedral of ,florence 7,fig4 #ajb71 which is also called the church of ,sta4 ,maria del ,fiore1 had been built long before1 but had never been finished by a roof or dome4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,florence ,,and ,,giotto',s ,,campanile4 ,brunelleschi was possessed with but one desire1 which was to complete this cathedral4 ,he went to ,rome and diligently studied the remains of classic art which he found there1 and especially the dome of the ,pantheon4 ,returning to ,florence he took measures to bring his plans before the superintendents of the cathedral works2 he was ridiculed and discouraged on every hand1 but he never gave up his hopes nor lessened his study of the ways and means by which the dome could be built4 ,thus many weary years passed by2 ,brunelleschi made drawings in secret1 and from these he constructed models in order to convince himself of what he could do4 ,at last those who had authority in the matter were ready to act1 and a convention was called1 before which the architects of different nations appeared and were requested to explain their theories of what could be done to cover the cathedral4 ,many artists were assembled and various plans were shown1 but after all had been examined the work was given to ,brunelleschi1 and he was happy in finding that the years he had devoted to the study of the dome had not been spent in vain4 ,it was on this occasion that ,brunelleschi refused to show his models1 and when the other architects blamed him for this he asked that some eggs should be brought1 and proposed that he who could make an egg stand upright on a smooth piece of marble should be the builder of the dome4 ,the others tried to do this and failed2 at last ,brunelleschi brought his egg down on the marble with a sharp tap and left it standing erect4 ,then all exclaimed1 ,oh1 we could have done that if we had known that was the way1 to which ,brunelleschi replied1 ,so you could have built a dome if ,i had shown you my models4 ,this story is often told of ,columbus1 but as ,brunelleschi was much older than ,columbus1 and the fact is related by ,florentine writers of his time1 it is probable that ,columbus had heard of it from the geographer ,toscanelli1 who was a great admirer of ,brunelleschi and a friend of ,columbus also4 ,in building the dome1 ,brunelleschi encountered great difficulties1 but he lived to be assured of his success1 for at his death1 in #addd1 it lacked but little of completion1 and all the parts essential to its perfection and durability were finished4 ,this is the largest dome in the world1 for though the cross on the top of ,st4 ,peter's is farther from the ground than that of ,florence1 the dome itself above the church is not as large as the dome of ,sta4 ,maria del ,fiore4 ,this work made ,brunelleschi's greatest fame1 but he was the architect of many other fine churches and of secular buildings also2 among the last the ,pitti ,palace1 in which is the famous ,pitti ,gallery1 is one of the most important4 ,when you go to ,florence you will see a statue of ,filippo ,brunelleschi1 which is very interesting1 on account of the way in which it is represented and the position in which it is placed4 ,it is on one side of the ,piazza of the cathedral2 he is calmly sitting there with a plan of the church spread before him on his lap1 while he lifts his head to look at the great dome as it stands out against the sky1 the realization of all his thought and labor during so many years4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,view ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter',s4 ,rome4 ,the church of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 which is the largest and most magnificent of all ,christian temples1 was begun about #adej1 and was not brought into its present form until about #affa1 or more than two centuries later 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,the history of its building is largely a story of contentions and troubles between popes1 architects1 and artists of different kinds4 ,as it now stands it is as much the work of ,michael ,angelo as of any one man1 but several other architects left their imprint upon it1 both before and after his time2 and all who aided in its construction were eminent men1 in their way4 ,michael ,angelo was in his seventy-second year when he took up the task of completing ,st4 ,peter's4 ,bramante1 ,raphael1 and ,peruzzi had preceded him as architects of the church2 ,michael ,angelo designed the dome1 and when he was ninety it was nearly finished2 the models for its completion which he made were not followed after his death2 his plan would have made the church more harmonious with the dome1 in size1 than it now is4 ,money was sent in large sums1 from all ,europe1 to carry on this work2 the finest materials were used in building it1 and the most gifted artists were employed in its decoration2 it is now the vast home of multitudes of treasures4 ,i have hung the ,pantheon in the air6 ,michael ,angelo is said to have exclaimed1 while looking at the splendid dome of ,st4 ,peter's2 and no dome in the world has a more imposing effect1 although its harmony with the rest of the building is injured by the change of the plan from that of a ,greek cross which was made after his death4,a ,a ,the interior diameter of the dome of ,st4 ,peter's is one hundred and thirty-nine feet2 that of ,st4 ,sophia1 one hundred and fifteen feet1 and that of ,sta4 ,maria del ,fiore1 at ,florence1 one hundred and thirty-eight feet1 six inches4 ,in spite of all this the critics of architecture are never weary of pointing out the defects of ,st4 ,peter's2 but to those who cannot apply to it the test of strictly scientific rules1 its interior is sublime in its effect1 and has few rivals--perhaps but one--in the world1 and that is the great ,hypostyle ,hall at ,karnak1 of which we spoke when writing of ,egyptian architecture4 ,but even here the difference is almost too great to admit of comparison2 the spirit of the two is so unlike--,st4 ,peter's is complete and ,karnak is a ruin--so1 after all1 it must be admitted that the interior of ,st4 ,peter's is superior to all other edifices of which we know 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,section ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter',s4 ,from the time of the beginning of the ,renaissance1 about #adbj1 to about #afcj1 the architecture of ,venice was going through a change1 and finally reached such perfection that during the next half century the most magnificent style of architecture prevailed which has ever been known there4 ,we mean to say that the whole effect was the grandest1 for1 while it is true that the edifices of that time are stately and striking in their appearance1 it is equally true that their form and ornamentation are not as much in keeping with their use as they had been in older edifices4 ,sansovino1 who lived from #adgi to #aegj1 was an important architect and had great influence upon modern ,venetian architecture4 ,his masterpiece was the ,library of ,st4 ,mark1 of which the preceding cut gives one end 7,fig4 #aje74 ,it is a very beautiful structure1 and is made more interesting from the fact that it stands directly opposite to the ,doge's ,palace1 and in the midst of all the interest which centres about the ,piazza of ,st4 ,mark4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,,east ,,elevation ,,of ,,library ,,of ,,st4 ,,mark4 ,venice4 ,the ,ducal ,palace at ,venice is called by ,john ,ruskin1 the great ,english critic1 the central edifice of the world4 ,it is divided into three stories1 of which the uppermost occupies rather more than half the height of the building4 ,the two lower stories are arcades of low1 pointed arches1 supported on pillars1 the one beneath being bolder and heavier in character than the second4 ,the capitals of the columns are greatly varied1 no two in the upper arcade being exactly alike4 ,above the arches of the middle story was a row of open-work spaces1 of the form called quatrefoil2 while the third story is faced with alternating blocks of rose-colored and white marble1 and is pierced with a few large pointed windows4 ,the whole front1 or faade1 is crowned by an open parapet made up of blocks of stone carved into lily-like forms alternating with lance-shaped leaves4 ,the whole effect is one of great richness and beauty1 especially since time has mellowed its color1 and softened without destroying the whiteness of its marbles 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,the ,,doge',s ,,palace4 ,venice4 ,during the time of the ,renaissance there were churches1 palaces1 museums1 hospitals1 and other large buildings erected in all the important cities of ,italy4 ,there are but few of these which have such special features as entitle them to be selected for description here4 ,the reason for this has been given already--viz43 there was nothing new in them2 they were all repetitions of what has been described in one form or another4 ,perhaps the next cut gives as good an example of secular architecture in this age as any that could be selected 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,,great ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,hospital ,,of ,,milan4 ,indeed1 it is one of the most remarkable buildings of its class in any age4 ,it was commenced by ,francesco ,sforza and his wife1 ,bianca1 in #adef4 ,they died long before its completion1 and one part and another have been changed from time to time1 but its great court1 which was designed by ,bramante1 still remains1 the finest thing of its kind in all ,italy4 ,i shall now leave ,italy with saying that the early days of the ,renaissance were the best days of ,italian ,architecture1 and1 indeed1 of ,italian ,art4 ,the period made sacred by the genius and works of ,michael ,angelo1 ,bramante1 ,sangallo1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 and ,raphael was a golden era1 and still sheds its lustre over the land of their nativity4 ,these artists followed the highest ideal of ,art1 and their errors were superior to the so-called successes of less gifted men4 ,the ,italian ,art of the fifteenth century was individual and grand2 in the sixteenth century it became formal and elegant2 in the seventeenth century it was bizarre1 over-ornamented1 and uncertain in its aim and execution2 since then it has been comparatively unimportant1 and its architecture scarcely merits censure1 and certainly cannot be praised4 ,,spain4 ,from the time of the fall of ,granada1 in #adib to #aeeh1 ,spain was the leading nation of ,europe4 ,the whole country had been united under ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 and their reign was a glorious period for their country4 ,the importance of the nation was increased by the discovery of the ,new ,world1 and so many great men were in her councils that her eminence was sure1 and almost undisputed4 ,thus it followed that during the first half of the sixteenth century the ,architecture of ,spain gave expression to the spirit by which the nation was then animated4 ,this did not long continue1 however1 for the iron1 practical rule of ,philip ,,ii4 crushed out enthusiasm and was fatal to artistic inspiration4 ,this sovereign desired only to extend his kingdom2 the priests1 who acquired almost limitless power under his reign1 aimed only to strengthen their authority1 while the people were wildly pursuing riches in the ,new ,world which opened up to them a vast and attractive field4 ,thus no place or time was left to the cultivation of ,art1 and the only noteworthy period of ,spanish ,architecture since the beginning of the ,renaissance was the sixty years which we have mentioned4 ,the ,modern ,architecture of ,spain has been divided into three eras1 each of which was distinguished by its own style4 ,the first extends from the beginning of the ,renaissance down to that of the abdication of the great ,emperor ,charles ,v4 in #aeee2 the manner of this period is called ,platerisco1 or the silversmith's style1 on account of the vast amount of fine1 filigree ornament which was used4 ,the second period is from the above date to about #afej1 and its art is called the ,grco-,roman style because it is an attempt to revive the ,classic ,art of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the third period comes from #afej to about a century later1 and the ,spaniards call its manner the ,churrigueresque1 which difficult name they take from that of ,josef de ,churriguera1 the architect who invented this style4 ,since #agej we may almost say that no such thing as ,spanish ,architecture has existed4 ,the cathedrals of ,granada1 ,jaen1 and ,valladolid1 and the churches of ,malaga and ,segovia1 with many other ecclesiastical edifices1 are among the chief monuments of ,spanish ,renaissance ,architecture1 but we shall pass on to a little later period and speak of but one great achievement1 the famous ,escurial1 which is of much historic interest4 ,this combination of basilica1 palace1 monastery1 and college was begun in #aefc by ,philip ,,ii41 in accordance with a vow which he made to ,st4 ,lawrence at the battle of ,st4 ,quentin4 ,this battle was fought in #aeeg under the walls of the ,french town of ,st4 ,quentin1 by the ,french and the ,spaniards1 and the latter were completely victorious4 ,this cut gives an idea of how grand and impressive this collection of walls1 towers1 courts1 and edifices must be1 all crowned with the dome of the basilica4 ,it is almost like a city by itself1 and all who visit it agree that it is a gloomy and depressing place in spite of its grandeur 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,the ,,escurial4 ,near ,madrid4 ,the front has three imposing entrances1 with towers at the corner angles4 ,within the inclosure are a college1 monastery1 palace with state apartments1 the church1 numerous courts1 gardens1 and fountains4 ,the front is injured by the great number of small windows1 which divide it into such numberless sections as to become very tiresome to the eye1 while they take away the noble elegance of larger spaces and the air of repose which such spaces give4 ,the angle towers are not as rich in effect as they should be1 and the side walls have been compared to those of a ,manchester cotton-mill2 thus the exterior1 which is effective from its size and general air1 has not the beauty of detail which satisfies a close observer4 ,the effect of the interior1 as one goes in by the central entrance1 is all that can be desired4 ,the court leads directly to the square before the church2 as one passes to it he has the college on one side1 the monastery on the other1 farther on the palace1 with the whole culminating in the grand state apartments and the basilica4 ,the various courts are striking in their arrangement1 and the church with its dome and towers gives a supreme glory to the whole4 ,gardens1 fountains1 and many other fine objects add their effect to the richness and beauty of the whole2 but all are insignificant beside the basilica1 which merits a place in the foremost rank of the churches of the ,renaissance4 ,indeed1 the ,escurial is a marvellous place1 and is often called the eighth wonder of the world4 ,the richest marbles1 splendid pictures1 and many magnificent objects help to make it one of the grandest works of modern architecture4 ,it is also true that it is one of the gloomiest places visited by travellers1 and ,i shall quote a few lines from ,de ,amicis to show the depressing effect which it has upon those who go there4 ,the first feeling is that of sadness2 the whole building is of dirt-colored stone1 and striped with white between the stones2 the roofs are covered with strips of lead4 ,it looks like an edifice built of earth4 ,the walls are very high and bare1 and contain a great number of loopholes4 ,one would call it a prison rather than a convent4444 ,the locality1 the forms1 the colors1 everything1 in fact1 seems to have been chosen by him who founded the edifice with the intention of offering to the eyes of men a sad and solemn spectacle4 ,before entering you have lost all your gayety2 you no longer smile1 but think4 ,you stop at the doors of the ,escurial with a sort of trepidation1 as at the gates of a deserted city2 it seems to you that1 if the terrors of the ,inquisition reigned in some corner of the world1 they ought to reign among those walls4 ,you would say that therein one might still see the last traces of it and hear its last echo4444 ,the royal palace is superb1 and it is better to see it before entering the convent and church1 in order not to confuse the separate impressions produced by each4 ,this palace occupies the northeast corner of the edifice4 ,several rooms are full of pictures1 others are covered from floor to ceiling with tapestries1 representing bull-fights1 public balls1 games1 ftes1 and ,spanish costumes1 designed by ,goya2 others are regally furnished and adorned2 the floor1 the doors1 and the windows are covered with marvellous inlaid work and stupendous gilding4 ,but among all the rooms the most noteworthy is that of ,philip ,,ii42 it is rather a cell than a room1 is bare and squalid1 with an alcove which answers to the royal oratory of the church1 so that1 from the bed1 by keeping the doors open1 one can see the priest who is saying mass4 ,philip ,,ii4 slept in that cell1 had his last illness there1 and there he died4 ,one still sees some chairs used by him1 two little stools upon which he rested the leg tormented with gout1 and a writing-desk4 ,the walls are white1 the ceiling flat and without any ornament1 and the floor of brick4444 ,in the court-yard of the kings you can form a first idea of the immense frame-work of the edifice4 ,the court is inclosed by walls2 on the side opposite the doors is the faade of the church4 ,on a spacious flight of steps there are six enormous ,doric columns1 each of which upholds a large pedestal1 and every pedestal a statue4 ,there are six colossal statues1 by ,battiste ,monegro1 representing ,jehoshaphat1 ,ezekiel1 ,david1 ,solomon1 ,joshua1 and ,manasseh4 ,the court-yard is paved1 scattered with bunches of damp turf4 ,the walls look like rocks cut in points2 everything is rigid1 massive1 and heavy1 and presents the fantastic appearance of a ,titanic edifice1 hewn out of solid stone1 and ready to defy the shocks of earth and the lightnings of heaven4 ,there one begins to understand what the ,escurial really is4 ,one ascends the steps and enters the church4 ,the interior is sad and bare4444 ,beside the high altar1 sculptured and gilded in the ,spanish style1 in the inter-columns of the two royal oratories1 one sees two groups of bronze statues kneeling1 with their hands clasped toward the altar4 ,on the right ,charles ,v4 and the ,empress ,isabella1 and several princesses2 on the left1 ,philip ,,ii4 with his wives4444 ,in a corner1 near a secret door1 is the chair which ,philip ,,ii4 occupied4 ,he received through that door letters and important messages1 without being seen by the priests who were chanting in the choir4 ,this church1 which1 in comparison with the entire building1 seems very small1 is nevertheless one of the largest in ,spain1 and although it appears so free from ornamentation1 contains immense treasures of marble1 gold1 relics1 and pictures1 which the darkness in part conceals1 and from which the sad appearance of the edifice distracts one's attention4444 ,but every feeling sinks into that of sadness4 ,the color of the stone1 the gloomy light1 and the profound silence which surrounds you1 recall your mind incessantly to the vastitude1 unknown recesses1 and solitude of the building1 and leave no room for the pleasure of admiration4 ,the aspect of the church awakens in you an inexplicable feeling of inquietude4 ,you would divine1 were you not otherwise aware of it1 that those walls are surrounded1 for a great distance1 by nothing but granite1 darkness1 and silence2 without seeing the enormous edifice1 you feel it2 you feel that you are in the midst of an uninhabited city2 you would fain quicken your pace in order to see it rapidly1 to free yourself from the weight of that mystery1 and to seek1 if they exist anywhere1 bright light1 noise1 and life4444 ,one goes to the convent1 and here human imagination loses itself2 444 you pass through a long subterranean corridor1 so narrow that you can touch the walls with your elbows1 low enough almost to hit the ceiling with your head1 and as damp as a submarine grotto2 you reach the end1 turn1 and you are in another corridor4 ,you go on1 come to doors1 look1 and other corridors stretch away before you as far as the eye can reach4 ,at the end of some you see a ray of light1 at the end of others an open door1 through which you catch a glimpse of a suite of rooms4444 ,you look through a door and start back alarmed2 at the end of that long corridor1 into which you have glanced1 you have seen a man as motionless as a spectre1 who was looking at you4 ,you proceed1 and emerge on a narrow court1 inclosed by high walls1 which is gloomy1 overgrown with weeds1 and illumined by a faint light which seems to fall from an unknown sun1 like the court of the witches described to us when we were children4444 ,you pass through other corridors1 staircases1 suites of empty rooms1 and narrow courts1 and everywhere there is granite1 a pale light1 and the silence of a tomb4 ,for a short time you think you would be able to retrace your steps2 then your memory becomes confused1 and you remember nothing more2 you seem to have walked ten miles1 to have been in that labyrinth for a month1 and not to be able to get out of it4 ,you come to a court and say1 ',i have seen it already6' but you are mistaken2 it is another4444 ,you seem to be dreaming2 catch glimpses of long frescoed walls ornamented with pictures1 crucifixes1 and inscriptions2 you see and forget2 and ask yourself1 ',where am ,i8'444 ,on you go from corridor to corridor1 court to court2 you look ahead with suspicion2 almost expect to see suddenly1 at the turning of a corner1 a row of skeleton monks1 with their hoods drawn over their eyes and their arms folded2 you think of ,philip ,,ii41 and seem to hear his retreating step through dark hallways2 you remember all that you have read of him1 of his treasures1 the ,inquisition1 and all becomes clear to your mind's eye2 you understand everything for the first time2 the ,escurial is ,philip ,,ii41 he is still there1 alive and frightful1 and with him the image of his terrible ,god4444 ,the ,escurial surrounds1 holds1 and overwhelms you2 the cold of its stones penetrates to your marrow2 the sadness of its sepulchral labyrinths invades your soul2 if you are with a friend you say1 ',let us leave2' if you were alone you would take to flight4 ,at last you mount a staircase1 enter a room1 go to the window1 and salute with a burst of gratitude the mountains1 sun1 freedom1 and the great and beneficent ,god who loves and pardons4 ,what a long breath one draws at that window6 ,an illustrious traveller said that after having passed a day in the convent of the ,escurial1 one ought to feel happy throughout one's life1 in simply thinking that one might still be among those walls1 but is no longer there4 ,this is almost true4 ,even at the present day1 after so great a lapse of time1 on rainy days1 when ,i am sad1 ,i think of the ,escurial1 then look at the walls of my room1 and rejoice6 ,during the sixteenth century there were many palaces erected in ,spain1 but nothing can be added to the impressions you will get from the descriptions we have quoted of the cheerful1 gay ,alhambra1 and the gloomy1 sad ,escurial4 ,the domestic architecture of ,spain is unattractive4 ,there are no fine chteaux1 as in ,france1 or elegant parks1 as in ,england4 ,ford compares the front of the residence of the ,duke of ,medina to ten ,baker-street houses put together1 and this is true of many so-called palaces4 ,this state of modern ,spanish architecture is fully accounted for by the following quotation from ,fergusson1 the learned writer on architecture3 ,on the whole1 perhaps1 we should not be far wrong in assuming that the ,spaniards are among the least artistic people in ,europe4 ,great things have been done in their country by foreigners1 and they themselves have done creditable things in periods of great excitement1 and under the pressure of foreign example2 but in themselves they seem to have no innate love of ,art1 no real appreciation for its beauties1 and1 when left to themselves1 they care little for the expression of beauty in any of the forms in which ,art has learned to embody itself4 ,in ,painting they have done some things that are worthy of praise2 in ,sculpture they have done very little2 and in ,architectural ,art they certainly have not achieved success4 ,notwithstanding that they have a climate inviting to architectural display in every form2 though they have the best of materials in infinite abundance2 though they had wealth and learning1 and were stimulated by the example of what had been done in their own country1 and was doing by other nations--in spite of all this1 they have fallen far short of what was effected either in ,italy or ,france1 and now seem to be utterly incapable of appreciating the excellencies of ,architectural ,art1 or of caring to enjoy them4 ,,france4 ,after the reigns of ,charles ,,viii4 and ,louis ,,xii4 the ,french people became somewhat familiar with ,italian ,art1 and at length1 during the reign of ,francis ,i41 from #aeae to #aedf1 everything ,italian was the fashion in ,france4 ,francis invited such artists as ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,benvenuto ,cellini1 ,primaticcio1 and ,andrea del ,sarto to come to ,france and aid him in his works at ,fontainebleau and elsewhere4 ,it was not long before the ,gothic architecture which had been so much used and improved in ,france was thought to be inferior in beauty to the ,italian architecture as it existed in the sixteenth century1 and very soon the latter style was adopted and considered as the only one worthy of admiration4 ,but the ,french architects had been so trained to the ,gothic order that it was not easy for them to change their habits of design1 and the result was that new edifices were largely of the ,gothic form1 but were finished and ornamented like the ,italian buildings2 by this means the effect of the whole1 when completed1 was such as is seen in this picture of the church of ,st4 ,michael at ,dijon 7,fig4 #aji74 ,in these days no one approves of this union of ,gothic design and ,italian decoration1 but when it was the fashion it was thought to be very beautiful by ,french architects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,michael4 ,dijon4 ,francis ,i41 who was so anxious to introduce ,italian art into ,france1 erected edifices of a very different sort from those which he attempted to imitate4 ,in ,italy1 the principal buildings of the ,renaissance were churches or convents1 or such as were in some way for religious uses4 ,francis ,i4 built palaces like that of ,fontainebleau1 and splendid chteaux like those of ,chambord1 or ,chenonceaux1 and the ,italian style of architecture could not be readily adapted to the lighter uses of the ,french kings4 ,the splendid massive ,pitti ,palace1 built after the design of the great ,brunelleschi1 would scarcely have harmonized with the river banks and the lovely undulating meadows around a country villa or chteau4 ,so it gradually happened that ,french ,architecture was more graceful1 light1 and elegant than the architecture of the churches1 monasteries1 and other religious edifices of ,italy1 and at the same time the ,italian feeling and influence can easily be traced in the ,french buildings of the time of which we speak4 ,in ,italy the ,pope and the ,church governed in ,art1 and considered it only as a religious means of glorifying the ,church and impressing its doctrines upon the whole people4 ,in ,france the sovereigns held the leading place1 and in the midst of their ambitions and their gayeties they found little time to consider the matter of church architecture4 ,though the church of ,st4 ,eustache was erected at ,paris1 and other churches were restored1 it was not until #afbi1 when ,cardinal ,richelieu ordered the building of the church of the ,sarbonne1 that an example was given of the full effects upon ,french church architecture of the change from the ,gothic1 or ,medival style1 to that of the ,renaissance1 or the ,classic style4 ,perhaps the church of the ,invalides is the most remarkable building of the seventeenth century in ,france4 ,it was designed and superintended by ,jules ,hardouin ,mansard1 a skilful architect1 who was born in #afdg1 and died in #agjh4 ,the erection of the dome of the ,invalides occupied him from #afhj to #agjf4 ,it is a fashion to criticise this as well as all famous buildings1 but if it is remembered that the dome was intended to be the feature of the edifice1 and that it was therefore necessary to sacrifice something to it1 in the construction of the whole1 we must admit that what its admirers claim for it is true--namely1 that it is one of the finest domical edifices in ,europe1 and a most satisfactory example of the architecture of its class 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the ,,dome ,,of ,,the ,,invalides4 ,paris4 ,directly underneath this dome is the crypt in which is the sarcophagus which contains the remains of ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,on the door which leads to the crypt are inscribed the following words1 taken from the will of the exile at ,st4 ,helena3 ,i desire that my ashes may rest on the banks of the ,seine1 in the midst of the ,french people whom ,i have loved so well4 ,this tomb is said to have cost nearly two millions of dollars1 and though it is beautiful1 and in good taste in its details1 yet one can but regret that all this expense should not have erected a splendid mausoleum1 such as would have dignified the monumental art of ,france4 ,the church of ,st4 ,genevieve1 or the ,pantheon1 as it is usually called1 is a very important architectural work4 ,it was twenty-six years in building1 and was not completed until after the death of its architect1 ,soufflot1 which occurred in #agha 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,the ,,pantheon4 ,paris4 ,it is said that this church was begun as the fulfilment of a vow made by ,king ,louis ,,xv4 when he was ill1 but as the ,french ,revolution was in progress when it was completed1 it was dedicated to the ,grands ,hommes1 or the great men of ,france1 and not to ,god or the sweet ,st4 ,genevieve1 who was one of the patron saints of ,paris4 ,the dome of the ,pantheon is elegant and chaste1 but not great in design or effect1 and the whole appearance of the church is weakened by the extreme width of the spaces between the front columns2 this makes the entablature appear weak1 and is altogether a serious defect4 ,another striking fault is the way in which a second column is placed outside at each end of the portico2 one cannot imagine a reason for this1 and it is confusing and unmeaning in the extreme4 ,the interior of the ,pantheon is superior to the exterior1 and many authorities name it as the most satisfactory of all modern1 classical church interiors2 when it was built it was believed to be as perfect an imitation of antique classical architecture as could be made1 and all the world may be grateful that it escaped the fate prepared for it by the ,communists4 ,this was averted by the discovery and cutting of the fuse which they had prepared for its destruction on ,may #bdth1 #ahga2 the fuse led to the crypts beneath the church1 where these reckless men had placed large quantities of powder4 ,in the beginning of the present century ,french architects believed it best to reproduce exactly ancient temples which had been destroyed4 ,according to this view the church of the ,madeleine was begun in #ahjd1 after the designs of ,vignon4 ,outwardly it is a temple of the ,corinthian order1 and is very beautiful1 though its position greatly lessens its effect4 ,if it were on a height1 or standing in a large square by itself1 it would be far more imposing 7,fig4 #aab74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,,the ,,madeleine4 ,paris4 ,the church of the ,trinity and that of the ,augustines1 at ,paris1 are important church edifices of the present day1 but though much thought and time have been lavished on them1 they are not as attractive as we could wish the works of our own time to be2 and they seem almost unworthy of attention when we remember that in the same city there are so many examples of architecture that have far more artistic beauty1 as well as the additional charms of age and the interest of historical associations4 ,we have already spoken of the sort of building in which ,francis ,i4 delighted4 ,of all his undertakings the rebuilding of the ,louvre was the most successful4 ,its whole design was fine and the ornaments beautiful2 many of these decorations were made after the drawings of ,jean ,goujon1 who was an eminent master in such sculptures4 ,the court of the ,louvre has never been excelled in any country of ,europe2 it is a wonderful work for the time in which it was built1 and satisfies the taste of the most critical observers 7,fig4 #aac74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,pavilion ,,de ,l',,horloge ,,and ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,the ,,louvre4 ,we cannot give space to descriptions of the chteaux built by ,francis ,i41 but this picture of that of ,chambord affords a good example of what these buildings were 7,fig4 #aad74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,,ch,,teau ,,of ,,chambord4 ,from the time of the reign of ,charles ,,ix4 7#aefj7 to the close of the reign of ,louis ,,xiii41 the style of architecture which was used in ,france was called the style of ,henry ,,iv42 this last-named king ruled before ,louis ,,xiii41 and during his time architecture sank to a very low plane--there was nothing in it to admire or imitate4 ,under ,louis ,,xiii4 it began to improve1 and in the days of ,louis ,,xiv41 who is called the ,grand ,monarque1 all the arts made great progress and received much patronage from the king1 and all the people of the court1 for whom the king was a model4 ,louis ,,xiv4 began a revival of ,roman classical architecture1 and there is no doubt that he believed that he equalled1 or perhaps excelled1 ,julius ,csar and all other ,roman emperors as a patron of the ,fine ,arts4 ,but we know that this great monarch was deceived by his self-love and by the flatteries of those who surrounded him and wished to obtain favors from him4 ,his architectural works had so many faults that it is very tiresome to read what is written about them1 and in any case it is pleasanter to speak of virtues than of faults4 ,the works of ,louis ,,xiv4 were certainly herculean1 and when we think of the building of the palace of ,versailles1 the completion of the ,louvre1 and the numberless htels1 chteaux1 and palaces which belong to his reign1 we feel sure that if only the vastness of the architectural works of his time is considered1 he well merits the title of the ,great ,monarch4 ,but these important edifices require more time and space if spoken of in detail than we can give1 and ,i pass to some consideration of the works of our own time4 ,the architecture of the reign of ,napoleon ,,iii4 requires the space of a volume1 at least1 were it to be clearly described1 for during that reign there was scarcely a city of ,france that did not add some important building to its public edifices4 ,first1 the city of ,paris was remodelled and rebuilt to a marvellous extent1 and as in other matters ,paris is the leader1 so its example was followed in architecture4 ,the new ,bourse in ,lyons1 the ,custom ,house at ,rouen1 and the ,exchange at ,marseilles are good specimens of what was done in this way outside the great metropolis4 ,during the reign of ,louis ,philippe1 and a little later1 ,french domestic architecture was vastly improved1 and since then much more attention has been given by ,frenchmen to the houses in which they live4 ,the appearance of the new ,boulevards and streets of ,paris is picturesque1 while the houses are rich and elegant4 ,many portions of this city are more beautiful than any other city of ,europe2 and yet it is true that the architecture of forty years or so ago was more satisfactory than that of the present time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,porte ,,st4 ,,denis4 ,paris4 ,the ,french are an enthusiastic people1 and have been very fond of erecting monuments in public places which would remind them continually of the glories of their nation1 the conquests of their armies1 and the achievements of their great men4 ,triumphal ,arches and ,columns of ,victory are almost numberless in ,france2 many of them are impressive1 and some are really very fine in their architecture4 ,since the ,porte ,st4 ,denis was 7,fig4 #aae7 erected1 in #afgb1 almost every possible design has been used for these monuments1 in one portion of ,france or another1 until1 finally1 the ,arc de l'toile 7,fig4 #aaf7 was built at the upper end of the ,champs ,elyses1 at ,paris4 ,this is the noblest of all modern triumphal arches1 as well as one of the most splendid ornaments in a city which is richly decorated with architectural works of various styles and periods--from that of the fine ,renaissance example seen in the west front of the ,louvre1 built in #aeda1 down to the ,arc de l'toile1 the ,fontaine ,st4 ,michel1 and the ,palais du ,trocadro of our own time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,arc ,,de ,l',,toile4 ,paris4 ,the ,french architecture of the present century is in truth a classic revival2 its style has been called the no-,grec1 or revived ,greek1 and the principal buildings of the reign of ,napoleon ,,iii4 all show that a study of ,greek art had influenced those who designed these edifices4 ,,england4 ,we may say that ,england has never had an architecture of its own1 since it has always imitated and reproduced the orders which have originated in other countries4 ,the ,gothic order is more than any other the order of ,england1 and1 in truth1 of ,great ,britain4 ,all ,english cathedrals1 save one1 and a very large proportion of the churches1 in city and country1 are built in this style of architecture4 ,it is also true that during the ,middle ,ages1 when the ,roman ,catholics were in power in ,england and made use of ,gothic architecture1 they built so many churches1 that1 during several later centuries1 it might be truly said that ,england had no church architecture1 because so few new churches were required or built4 ,it is so difficult to trace the origin and progress of the ,classical or ,renaissance feeling in ,english architecture that ,i shall leave it altogether1 and passing the transition style and period1 speak directly of the first great architect of the ,renaissance in ,england1 ,inigo ,jones1 who was born in #aegb and died in #afec4 ,he studied in ,italy and brought back to his native country a fondness for the ,italian architecture of that day4 ,he became the favorite court architect1 and there are many important edifices in ,england which were built from his designs4 ,his most notable work was the palace of ,whitehall1 though his design was never fully carried out in it2 had it been1 this palace would have excelled all others in ,europe1 either of earlier or later date4 ,among the churches designed by ,inigo ,jones that of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden1 is interesting because it is probably the first important ,protestant church erected in ,england which still exists4 ,it is small and simple1 being almost an exact reproduction of the early ,greek temples called distyle in antis1 such as ,i described when speaking of ,greek architecture 7,fig4 #aag74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,,east ,,elevation ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s4 ,covent ,garden4 ,inigo ,jones made many designs for villas and private residences1 and perhaps he is more famous for these works than for any others4 ,among them are ,chiswick and ,wilton ,house1 and many others of less importance4 ,after ,jones came ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 who was the architect of some of the finest buildings in ,london4 ,he was born in #afcb and died in #agbc4 ,the great fire1 in #afff1 when he was thirty-four years old1 gave him a splendid opportunity to show his talents4 ,only three days after this fire he presented to the king a plan for rebuilding the city1 which would have made it one of the most convenient as well as one of the most beautiful cities of the world4 ,sir ,christopher ,wren is most frequently mentioned as the architect of ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,this was commenced nine years after the great fire1 and was thirty-five years in building4 ,st4 ,paul's is the largest and finest ,protestant cathedral in the world1 and among all the churches of ,europe that have been erected since the revival of ,classical architecture1 ,st4 ,peter's1 at ,rome1 alone excels it 7,fig4 #aah74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,st4 ,,paul',s1 ,,london4 ,from the ,west4 ,although so many years were consumed in the building of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,sir ,christopher ,wren lived to superintend it all1 and had the gratification of placing the topmost stone in the lantern of this splendid monument to his genius4 ,the western towers of ,westminster ,abbey are said to have been built after a design by ,wren1 but of this there is a doubt4 ,among his other works in church architecture are the steeple of ,bow ,church1 ,london2 the church of ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook2 ,st4 ,bride's1 ,fleet ,street1 and ,st4 ,james's1 ,piccadilly4 ,the royal palaces of ,winchester and ,hampton were designed by ,wren1 and many other well-known edifices1 among which is ,greenwich ,hospital4 ,he made some signal failures1 but it is great praise to say1 what is undoubtedly true1 that1 though he was a pioneer in the ,renaissance architecture of ,england1 and died a century and a half ago1 no one of his countrymen has surpassed him1 and we may well question whether any other ,english architect has equalled him4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,st4 ,,george',s ,,hall4 ,liverpool4 ,churches1 palaces1 university buildings1 and fine examples of municipal and domestic architecture are so numerous in ,england and other portions of ,great ,britain that we cannot speak of them in detail4 ,the culmination of the taste for the imitation of ,classical architecture was reached about the beginning of the present century1 and among the most notable edifices in that manner are the ,british ,museum1 ,fitzwilliam ,college1 ,cambridge1 and ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool 7,fig4 #aai74 ,a revival of ,gothic ,architecture has taken place in ,england in our own time4 ,the three most prominent secular buildings in this style are ,windsor ,castle1 the ,houses of ,parliament1 and the ,new ,museum1 at ,oxford4 ,of course1 in the case of ,windsor ,castle1 the work was a remodelling1 but the reparations were so extensive as to almost equal a rebuilding4 ,sir ,jeffry ,wyatville had the superintendence of it1 and succeeded in making it appear like an ancient building refitted in the nineteenth century--that is to say1 it combines modern luxury and convenience in its interior with the exterior appearance of the castellated fortresses of a more barbarous age 7,fig4 #abj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,windsor ,,castle4 ,in the ,houses of ,parliament there was an attempt to carry out1 even to the minutest detail1 the ,gothic style as it existed in the ,tudor age1 when there was an excess of ornament1 most elaborate doorways1 and the fan-tracery vaultings were decorated with pendent ornaments which look like clusters of stalactites4 ,sir ,charles ,barry was its architect4 ,the present school of artists in ,england are never weary of abusing it2 they call it a horror and declare its style to be obsolete4 ,in fact1 it is not the success at which ,barry aimed2 but it excels the other efforts to revive the ,gothic in this day1 not only in ,england1 but in all ,europe1 and has many points to be admired in its plan and its detail1 while the beauty of its sky-line must be admitted by all 7,fig4 #aba74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,the ,,houses ,,of ,,parliament4 ,london4 ,in the ,new ,museum of ,oxford1 the ,gothic is that of ,lombardy1 rather than the ,early ,english4 ,it is an example of the result of the teaching of ,mr4 ,ruskin4 ,it does not realize the expectations of those who advocated this manner of building1 and has proved a great disappointment to the advanced theorists of a quarter of a century ago4 ,english architecture of the present day may be concisely described by saying that it is ,gothic for churches1 parsonage-houses1 school-houses1 and all edifices in which the clergy are interested or of which they have the oversight4 ,on the other hand1 palaces1 town-halls1 municipal buildings1 club-houses1 and such structures as come within the care of the laity1 are almost without exception in the ,classic style4 ,neither of these orders seems to be exactly suited to the climate of ,england or to the wants of its people2 therefore1 neither would satisfy the demands of the ancients1 who taught that the architecture of a nation should be precisely adapted to its climate and to the purposes for which the edifices are intended4 ,in fact1 the ancients carried their ideas of fitness so far that one could tell at a glance the object for which a structure had been designed2 we know that it is not possible to comply with this law in this day1 although it is doubtless in accord with the true ideal of what perfect architecture should be4 ,at the present day there is little doubt that the edifices of the ,church and clergy are far more praiseworthy and true architecturally than are those for secular and domestic uses4 ,,germany4 ,i shall not speak of the period of the ,renaissance in ,germany1 but shall go forward to the time of the ,revival of ,classic ,architecture1 which dated about #ahbe4 ,during the eighteenth century the discoveries which were made in ,greece were of great interest to all the world1 and the drawings which were made of the temples and monuments1 as well as of the lesser objects of art which existed there1 were sent all over ,europe1 and had such an effect upon the different nations1 that with one accord they began to adopt the ,greek style of architecture1 whenever any important work was to be done4 ,this effect was very marked in ,germany1 and the ,german architects tried to copy every detail of ,greek architecture with great exactness4 ,when we begin to speak of modern ,german architecture at this point1 we do not omit anything important1 for the struggles of the ,reformation1 and the results of the ,thirty ,years' ,war were such1 that no great architectural advances were attempted for a long time4 ,again1 the division of ,germany into many small principalities1 and the establishment of many little courts so divided the wealth of the ,german people into small portions1 that no one was rich enough to undertake large buildings4 ,there was no one great central city as in ,france and ,england1 and no one sovereign was rich enough to adorn his capital with splendid edifices or to be a magnificent patron of art and artists after the fashion of the ,grand ,monarque in ,france4 ,before taking up the ,revival1 however1 ,i wish1 for two reasons1 to give a picture of the ,brandenburg ,gate1 at ,berlin4 ,this gate was erected between #aghd and #agib4 ,it is important because such monuments are more rare in ,germany than in other ,european countries1 especially of the time in which this was built1 and because it is one of the best imitations of ,greek art that exists in any nation 7,fig4 #abb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,the ,,brandenburg ,,gate4 ,berlin4 ,it is interesting to remember that when ,napoleon entered ,berlin as a conqueror1 after the ,battle of ,jena1 he sent the ,car of ,victory1 which surmounts this gate1 to ,paris1 as a trophy of his prowess4 ,after his abdication it was returned to its original position4 ,the effect of the ,german revival of ,greek art is more plainly seen in ,munich than in any other city4 ,it is the capital of ,bavaria1 and one of its kings1 ,louis ,i41 while he was young and had not yet become king1 resided at ,rome2 he was a passionate lover of art1 and he resolved that when he came to the throne he would make his capital famous for beautiful things4 ,above all1 he desired to imitate all that he had most admired in the countries he had visited1 and also the art of the ancients as he knew it from models and pictures4 ,for this reason it happens that ,munich is a collection of copies of buildings which have existed in other countries and in past ages1 and as these buildings1 which were first made in marble and stone1 are mostly copied in plaster in ,munich1 much of their beauty is lost2 and since these copied buildings are not used for the same purposes for which the ancient ones were intended1 the whole effect of them is very far from pleasing or satisfactory4 ,in fact1 the result is just such as must always follow the imitation of a beautiful object1 when no proper regard is paid to the use to be made of it4 ,if1 for example1 a fine copy of a light and airy ,swiss chlet should be made in the ,united ,states of ,america1 and placed on some business street in one of our cities1 and used for a bank building1 we could not deny that it was an exact copy of a building which is good in its way2 but it would be so unsuited to its position and its uses1 that the man who built it there would be counted as insane or foolish4 ,and this is the effect of the modern architecture of ,munich2 it seems as if ,king ,louis must have been a madman to expend so much time and money in this absurd kind of imitative architecture1 and yet it is very interesting to visit this city and see these edifices4 ,of the ,munich churches erected under ,louis ,i4 that of ,st4 ,ludwig is in the ,byzantine order2 the ,aue-,kirche is in the pointed ,german ,gothic1 and the ,basilica is like a ,roman basilica of the fifth century4 ,it resembles that of ,st4 ,paul's-without-the-,walls2 it was begun in #ahce and completed in #ahej4 ,in a vault beneath this basilica ,louis and his ,queen1 ,theresa1 are buried4 ,the picture given here shows its extreme simplicity2 its whole effect is solemn and satisfactory2 still one must regret that since it is so fine up to a certain point1 it should not have been made still finer 7,fig4 #abc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,the ,,basilica ,,at ,,munich4 ,the ,ruhmeshalle1 or ,hall of ,fame1 at ,munich1 is an interesting and somewhat unique edifice4 ,it is a portico of marble with forty-eight ,doric columns1 each twenty-six feet high4 ,against the walls are brackets holding busts of celebrated ,germans who have lived since #adjj4 ,in front of the portico stands the colossal bronze statue of ,bavaria4 ,she is represented as a protectress with a lion by her side2 in the right hand she holds a sword1 and a chaplet in the left2 it is sixty-one and a half feet high1 and the pedestal raises it twenty-eight and a half feet more2 inside1 a staircase leads up into the head1 where there are seats for eight persons4 ,the view from the top of this statue is fine1 and so extensive that in a favorable atmosphere the heights of the ,alps can be discerned4 ,the hill upon which the ,ruhmeshalle is built is to the south of ,munich1 and is called the ,theresienhhe4 ,the grand statue is intended to be the principal object of interest here1 and the portico is made so low as to throw the figure out and show it off to advantage2 altogether it is one of the most successful architectural works in ,munich 7,fig4 #abd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,,the ,,ruhmeshalle4 ,near ,munich4 ,the ,glyptothek1 or ,sculpture ,gallery1 the ,pinakothek1 or ,picture ,gallery1 the ,royal ,palace1 the ,public ,library1 the ,war ,office1 the ,university1 ,blind ,school1 other palaces and secular buildings1 all belong to the time of the ,revival in ,germany4 ,the ,ludwig ,strasse1 which ,king ,louis fondly hoped to make one of the most beautiful avenues in the world1 is--with its ,roman arch at one end1 and a weak copy of the ,loggia dei ,lanzi at the other--a tiresome1 meaningless1 architectural failure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,the ,,museum4 ,berlin4 ,the ,museum of ,berlin is a striking result of the same ,revival of ,classic architecture1 and is far more splendid than anything in ,munich 7,fig4 #abe74 ,in ,dresden the most important works in this style are the ,new ,theatre and ,picture ,gallery4 ,the last is almost an exact reproduction of the ,pinakothek of ,munich4 ,all over ,germany the effects of this ,revival are more or less prominent1 but ,i shall speak of but one other edifice1 the ,walhalla 7,fig4 #abf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,the ,,walhalla4 ,this is also a ,temple of ,fame1 and is situated about six miles from ,ratisbon4 ,it overlooks the ,river ,danube from a height of more than three hundred feet4 ,it was begun in #ahcj1 and was twelve years in building1 costing eight millions of florins4 ,it is of white marble1 and on the exterior is an exact reproduction of the ,parthenon at ,athens4 ,the interior is divided into two parts by an entablature1 which supports fourteen caryatides1 made from colored marbles4 ,these figures in turn support a second entablature1 on which is a frieze in eight compartments1 on which is sculptured scenes representing the history of ,germany from its early days to the time of the introduction of ,christianity4 ,along the lower wall there are one hundred busts of illustrious ,germans who had lived from the earliest days of ,germany down to those of the poet ,goethe4 ,the grounds about the ,walhalla are laid out in walks1 and from them there are fine1 extensive views4 ,taken by itself there is much to admire in the ,walhalla4 ,the sculptures arouse an enthusiasm about ,germany1 her history1 and the men who have helped to make it1 in spite of the strange unfitness with which the artists have mingled ,grecian myths and ,german sagas4 ,but aside from this sort of interest the whole thing seems incongruous and strangely unsuited to its position2 one writer goes so far as to say of it that ,minerva1 descending in ,cheapside to separate two quarrelling cabmen1 could hardly be more out of place4 ,and yet it is true that the ,walhalla is the only worthy rival to ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool1 as an example of the possible adaptability of ,greek or ,roman ,architecture to the needs and uses of our own days4 ,,theatres ,,and ,,music ,,halls4 ,in speaking of theatres ,i will first give a list of the most important ones in ,europe1 as they are given by ,fergusson in his ,history of ,modern ,architecture4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,depth from ,curtain ,depth of to back of ,boxes4 ,stage4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- feet4 feet4 ,la ,scala1 ,milan #aje #gg ,san ,carlo1 ,naples #ajj #gd ,carlo ,felice1 ,genoa #ie #hj ,new ,opera ,house1 ,paris #ie #ih ,opera ,house1 ,london 7old7 #ie #de ,turin ,opera ,house #ij #aaj ,covent ,garden1 ,london #hi #hi ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,opera #hg #ajj ,acadmie de ,musique1 ,paris #he #hb ,parma1 ,opera #hb #gf ,fenice1 ,venice #hb #dh ,munich ,theatre #hj #hg ,madrid ,theatre #gi #ee ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,the ,opera ,house of ,la ,scala1 at ,milan1 is generally said to be the finest of all for seeing and hearing what goes on upon the stage3 it was begun in #aggf and finished two years later4 ,san ,carlo1 ,naples1 holds the second place1 and was first erected in #agcg1 but was almost destroyed by fire in #ahaf1 and was afterward thoroughly rebuilt4 ,the new ,opera ,house of ,paris is interesting to us because it has been built so recently and so much written and said of it that we are familiar with it4 ,any description that would do it justice would occupy more space than we can afford for it1 but this cut 7,fig4 #abg7 gives an excellent idea of its size and exterior appearance4 ,it is distinguished by great richness of material and profusion of ornament1 its interior decorations being especially splendid4 ,it has been criticised as lacking repose and dignity1 but its elegance and magnificence compel admiration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,the ,,new ,,opera ,,house4 ,paris4 ,music halls are only another sort of theatre1 and have come into great favor in recent days1 especially in ,england4 ,the ,albert ,hall1 ,south ,kensington1 is the finest music hall that has been erected4 ,it seats eight thousand people1 besides accommodating an orchestra of two hundred and a chorus of one thousand singers2 it is one hundred and thirty-six feet from the floor to the highest part of the ceiling4 ,this hall has some defects1 but is so far successful as to prove that a theatre or music hall could be so constructed as to seat ten thousand persons and permit them to hear the music as distinctly as it is heard in many halls where only two or three thousand can be comfortable4 ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america4 ,when we remember that we have been able to give some account of architecture as it existed thousands of years before ,christ1 and to speak of the temples and tombs of the grand old nations who laid the foundation of the arts and civilization of the world--and then1 when we remember the little time that has passed since the first roof was raised in our own land1 we may well be proud of our country as it is--and at the same time we know that its architecture may in truth be said to be a thing of the future4 ,it is but a few years1 not more than seventy1 since any building existed here that could be termed architectural in any degree4 ,to be sure1 there were many comfortable1 generous-sized homes scattered up and down the land1 but they made no claim to architectural design1 and were not such edifices as one considers when speaking or writing of architecture4 ,the first buildings to which much attention was given in the ,united ,states were the ,capitols1 both ,state and ,national1 and until recently they were in what may be called a ,classic style1 because they had porticoes with columns and certain other features of ancient orders2 but when the cella1 as is the case in ,america1 is divided into two or more stories1 with rows of prosaic windows all around1 and chimneys1 and perhaps attics also added1 the term ,classic ,architecture immediately becomes questionable1 and it is difficult to find a name exactly suited to the needs of the case2 for it is still true that from a distance1 and in answer to a general glance1 they are nearer to the ,classic orders than to anything else4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,,the ,,united ,,states ,,capitol4 ,washington4 ,the ,national ,capitol at ,washington1 which is the principal edifice in the ,united ,states1 was begun in #agic1 when ,general ,washington laid the foundation-stone2 the main portion was completed in #ahcj2 two wings and the dome have since been added1 and its present size is greater than that of any other legislative building in the world1 except the ,british ,houses of ,parliament 7,fig4 #abh74 ,the dome1 and the splendid porticoes1 with the magnificent flights of steps leading up to them1 are the fine features of the ,capitol4 ,the dome compares well with those that are famous in the world1 and taken all in all the ,washington ,capitol is more stately than the ,houses of ,parliament1 and is open to as little criticism as buildings of its class in other lands4 ,several of the ,state ,capitols illustrate the manner of building which ,i described above4 ,this cut of the ,capitol of ,ohio is an excellent example of it 7,fig4 #abi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi--,,state ,,capitol4 ,columbus1 ,ohio4 ,in domestic architecture1 while there has been no style so original and absolutely defined as to be definitely called ,american1 we may roughly classify three periods--the ,colonial1 the ,middle1 and the ,modern4 ,these terms have no close application1 and you must understand that ,i use them rather for convenience than because they accurately1 or even approximately1 indicate particular styles4 ,the mansions of the ,colonial period are1 perhaps1 most easily recognized1 and in some respects were the frankest and most independent class of houses ever built in this country4 ,the early settlers took whatever suited them from all styles1 and instead of imitating the ,english1 the ,dutch1 or the ,french manner of building1 mingled parts of all1 with especial reference to the needs of their climate and surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,,sir ,,william ,,pepperell',s ,,house4 ,kittery ,point1 ,maine4 ,this fine old house 7,fig4 #acj7 shows the plain1 homely1 yet quaint style of many of the mansions of the ,colonial period4 ,it was built near the beginning of the last century1 and occupied by ,sir ,william ,pepperell until his death4 ,its interior1 with heavy wainscoting of solid mahogany1 was more imposing by far than the exterior4 ,the ,van ,rensselaer homestead at ,albany is an excellent example of a more stately house1 possessing much dignity and impressiveness4 ,the ,middle period was a time when domestic architecture1 still without any originality and losing much of the independence of the ,colonial1 copied more closely from foreign models4 ,some fine old mansions belong to this period1 which covered the last years of the last century and the first half of this4 ,the celebrated ,cragie ,house at ,cambridge1 occupied by the poet ,longfellow2 ,elmwood1 the home of ,james ,russell ,lowell2 ,bedford ,house1 in ,westchester ,county1 ,new ,york1 the home of the ,hon4 ,john ,jay1 are to be referred to this period2 and so is the imposing ,old ,morrisania1 at ,morrisania1 ,new ,york1 the old ,morris mansion 7,fig4 #aca74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,old ,,morrisania4 ,morrisania1 ,new ,york4 ,it is modelled after a ,french chteau1 and was erected by ,general ,morris after his return from ,france in #ahjj4 ,it is one of the most striking among the mansions of its time1 and both its interior and exterior are highly interesting4 ,these views serve to illustrate the want of anything like a regular style1 of which ,i spoke above2 but they show how many different forces were at work to influence building in the ,modern period4 ,this division is meant to extend to and include the present time1 and so great is the diversity of styles now employed that in a work like this it would be idle to attempt anything like an enumeration of them1 and still less to try and determine their origin and importance4 ,i can only give you one example of the handsome and costly homes which are being built to-day1 and leave you to observe others as you now see them everywhere about the country 7,fig4 #acb74 ,a modern writer on ,american architecture claims that in private dwellings an ,american order is gradually being developed by the changes made to adapt foreign forms to our climate1 and especially to the brilliancy of the sunlight here4 ,all this is so difficult to define1 however1 that it would be impossible to show it clearly in the limits of a book like this1 even if it exists4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,residence ,,at ,,irvington1 ,,new ,,york4 ,what is called the ,queen ,anne style1 modelled upon the ,english fashion of the time of that monarch1 is very widely used in country houses at the present time1 sometimes in conjunction with the ,colonial1 which also exists as an independent style4 ,the tendency of domestic architecture is to make everything quaint and picturesque1 though this is not so far carried to extremes as was the case a few years since4 ,in public buildings many splendid edifices have been erected of late years4 ,the imitation of classic forms which was formerly the fashion1 and which is so strikingly exhibited by ,girard ,college1 ,philadelphia1 is now almost entirely laid aside4 ,a lighter1 less constrained style1 which may be called eclectic--which means selecting--because it takes freely from any and all styles whatever suits its purpose1 is arising2 and as this selecting is being every year more and more intelligently done1 and as original ideas are constantly being incorporated with those chosen1 the prospects for architecture are more promising than ever before in this country4 ,the ,casino1 at ,newport1 is a fine example of a modern building2 and the still more recent ,casino in ,new ,york shows a fine example of the adapting of ideas from ,saracenic architecture to ,american uses4 ,the ,capitol at ,albany has many fine features1 but it is the work of several designers who did not harmonize4 ,memorial ,hall1 at ,cambridge1 is one of the more striking of modern ,american buildings1 but its sky-line--that is1 its outline as seen against the sky--lacks simplicity and repose4 ,the churches in this country exhibit the widest variety of style4 ,trinity ,church in ,new ,york was the first ,gothic church erected in ,america1 and ,trinity ,church in ,boston1 one of the latest churches of importance1 is also ,gothic1 though of the variety called ,norman ,gothic1 and considerably varied4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral of ,new ,york1 and many others of less magnitude1 might be cited as a proof that ,american architecture is advancing1 and that we may speak hopefully of its future4 ,railroad depots and school-houses of certain types are among the most distinctive and characteristic ,american edifices4 ,the first1 especially1 are being constructed more nearly in accordance with the ancient principle of suiting the structure to its uses than are any other buildings that are worthy to be considered architecturally4 ,art museums and public libraries1 too1 now form an important feature in both town and country1 and1 in short1 the beginning of ,american architecture1 for that is all that can be claimed for what as yet exists1 is such as would be the natural outcome of a nation such as ours--varied1 restless1 bold1 ugly1 original1 and progressive4 ,all these terms can be applied to ,american art1 but in and through it all there is a promise of something more4 ,as greater age will bring repose and dignity of bearing to our people1 so our ,fine ,arts will take on the best of our characteristics2 as we outgrow our national crudities the change will be shown in our architecture1 and we may well anticipate that in the future we shall command the consideration and assume the same importance in these regards that our excellence in the ,useful ,arts has already won for us in all the world4 ,illustration ,,glossary ,,of ,,technical ,,terms4 ,abacus4--,the uppermost portion of the capital of a column1 upon which rested the weight above4 ,aisle4--,the lateral divisions of a church2 more properly1 the side subdivisions4 ,amphitheatre4--,a round or oval theatre4 ,apse4--,the semi-circular or polygonal termination to the choir or aisles of a church4 ,arcade4--,a series of arches supported on piers or columns4 ,arch4--,a construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone or of bricks1 of curved outline1 spanning an open space4 ,architrave4--7#a7 ,the lowest division of the entablature1 in ,classic architecture resting on the abacus4 7#b7 ,the moulding used to ornament the margin of an opening4 ,base4--,the foot of a column or wall4 ,basilica4--,originally a ,roman hall of justice2 afterward an early ,christian church4 ,buttress4--,a projection built from a wall for strength4 ,byzantine4--,the ,christian architecture of the ,eastern church1 sometimes called the round arched2 named from ,byzantium 7,constantinople74 ,capital4--,the head of a column or pilaster4 ,caryatid4--,a statue of a woman used as a column4 ,cathedral4--,a church containing the seat of a bishop4 ,cella4--,that part of the temple within the walls4 ,chamfer4--,a slope or bevel formed by cutting off the edge of an angle4 ,column4--,a pillar or post1 round or polygonal2 the term includes the base1 shaft1 and capital4 ,composite ,order4--,see ,order4 ,corinthian ,order4--,see ,order4 ,cornice4--,the horizontal projection crowning a building or some portion of a building4 ,each classic order had its peculiar cornice4 ,crypt4--,a vault beneath a building4 ,dome4--,a cupola or spherical convex roof4 ,doric ,order4--,see ,order4 ,entablature4--,in classic styles all the structure above the columns except the gable4 ,the entablature had three members1 the architrave or epistyle1 the frieze1 and the cornice4 ,entasis4--,the swelling of a column near the middle to counteract the appearance of concavity caused by an optical delusion4 ,epistyle4--,see ,architrave4 ,faade4--,the exterior face of a building4 ,frieze4--,the middle member of an entablature4 ,gable4--,the triangular-shaped wall supporting the end of a roof4 ,gargoyle4--,a projecting water-spout carved in stone or metal4 ,hexastyle4--,a portico having six columns in front4 ,intercolumniation4--,the clear space between two columns4 ,ionic ,order4--,see ,order4 ,metope4--,the space between the triglyphs in the frieze of the ,doric ,order4 ,minaret4--,a slender tower with balconies from which ,mohammedan hours of prayer are called4 ,mosaic4--,ornamental work made by cementing together small pieces of glass1 stone1 or metal in given designs4 ,nave4--,the central aisle of a church2 the western part of the church occupied by the congregation4 ,obelisk4--,a quadrangular monolith terminating in a pyramid4 ,order4--,an entire column with its appropriate entablature4 ,there are usually said to be five orders3 ,tuscan1 ,doric1 ,ionic1 ,corinthian1 and ,composite2 the first and last are1 however1 only varieties of the ,doric and ,corinthian developed by the ,romans4 ,the peculiarities of the orders have been described in the body of the book4 ,when more than one order was used in a building1 the heavier and plainer1 the ,doric and ,tuscan1 are placed beneath the others4 ,pediment4--,in classic architecture what the gable 7which see7 was in later styles4 ,peristyle4--,a court surrounded by a row of columns2 also the colonnade itself surrounding such a space4 ,pier4--,a solid wall built to support a weight4 ,pilaster4--,a square column1 generally attached to the wall4 ,pillar4--,see ,column4 ,plinth4--,a square member forming the lower division of the base of a column4 ,polychrome4--,many-colored2 applied to the staining of walls or architectural ornaments4 ,quatrefoil4--,a four-leaved ornament or opening4 ,shaft4--,the middle portion of a column1 between base and capital4 ,story4--,the portion of a building between one floor and the next4 ,triglyph4--,an ornament upon the ,doric frieze consisting of three vertical1 angular channels separated by narrow1 flat spaces4 ,illustration ,,index4 ,abacus1 #eb ,abd-er-,rahman1 ,caliph1 #abf ,acropolis1 #fa1 #fb ,adan1 the1 #abf ,age of ,legend 7,greece71 #df ,agrippa1 #gf ,albert ,hall1 ,south ,kensington1 #aha ,alexander the ,great2 #ag2 and ,thais1 #cd ,alexandria1 obelisks at1 #ae ,alhambra2 #abi2 described by ,de ,amicis1 #abi1 #acj ,american architecture2 youth of1 #aha2 domestic1 #ahc1 #ahd2 periods of1 #ahd2 modern writer on1 #ahf2 promise of1 #ahh1 #aij 7and see ,united ,states7 ,amytis1 #cj ,ancient or heathen art1 #b ,ancient architecture2 #hg2 change from1 to ,gothic1 #gi2 adapted to climate and use1 #agb ,andrea del ,sarto1 #aec ,angers1 church at1 #ajc ,ant4 ,see pilasters ,arabs1 #abh ,arcades2 combined from ,greek and ,etruscan art1 #gf2 of ,ducal ,palace1 ,venice1 #adb ,arc de l'toile 7,paris71 #afe ,arch2 knowledge of principle of1 #gc2 found in ,etruscan ruins1 #gc2 oldest in ,europe 7of ,cloaca ,maxima71 #gd2 the ,roman triumphal1 #ha2 of ,titus1 #hb2 of ,septimius ,severus1 #hb2 of ,beneventum1 #hb1 #hc2 ,roman1 #hc2 7,gothic7 unending use of1 #ie2 ,french use of pointed1 #if2 early use of pointed1 #abc2 examples of1 in ,court of the ,lions1 #acj2 examples of1 in ,ducal ,palace1 #adb2 triumphal1 in ,france1 #afd ,architecture in general1 #a ,architrave1 #eb1 #ef ,art2 as effected by ,athenian influence1 #fg2 7,gothic7 religious use of1 #ajc2 7,gothic7 revival of1 #ajd2 7,gothic7 applied to civic edifices1 #ajd2 of ,renaissance1 and ,filippo ,brunelleschi1 #acd-ach2 7,italian7 #ade2 7,italian7 as a means of religion1 #aed ,artaxerxes ,ochus1 palace of1 #ch ,artemisia1 #fh1 #fi ,assouan4 ,see ,syene ,assyria2 ruins of1 #ba2 cuneiform inscriptions found in1 #ba2 religious influence in1 #bb2 bas-reliefs of1 #bb2 palaces of1 described1 #bc-bf2 ,hercules of1 #bd2 excelling in architects and designers1 #bh2 obelisk of1 #bh1 #bi ,assyrian pillars1 shaft of1 #ab ,assyrians1 ,persians taught by1 #cd ,astronomy1 and ,birs-i-,nimrud1 #cb ,athena2 ,parthenos1 #fb2 ,polias2 statue of1 #fb1 #fd2 ,promachos1 #fb 7and see ,minerva7 ,athens2 ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates at1 #eg2 ,erechtheium at1 #ei2 ,acropolis of1 #fa2 municipal buildings of1 #fg ,attic base1 #ee ,attic-,ionic style1 the ,erechtheium an example of1 #fe ,aue-,kirche 7,munich71 #age ,augustines1 church of the 7,paris71 #afj ,augustus 7,emperor71 boast of1 #hj ,autharis1 #ij ,avenue of ,sphinxes1 #ac ,babylon2 inscriptions of1 #ba2 hanging gardens of1 #bi2 temples of1 #cj2 temple of ,belus at1 #ca2 prophecies concerning1 #cc ,babylonians2 knowledge of1 as builders1 #cj2 ,persians taught by1 #cd ,bacchus1 monument of ,lysicrates dedicated to1 #fh ,baptistery at ,florence1 #ij ,barry1 ,sir ,charles1 #aga ,base2 ,grecian ,doric1 #aa2 decorations on1 at ,persepolis1 #da2 ,attic1 #ee2 ,ionic1 #ee2 ,tuscan order of1 #gf2 ,composite1 #gf ,basilica2 of ,st4 ,paul's 7,rome71 #hh2 of the ,escurial1 #adf1 #adh2 near ,st4 ,mark's1 #aad2 at ,munich1 #age ,basilicas2 of ,rome1 #gh2 of ,trajan and ,maxentius1 #gi2 columns of1 #gi2 given up to ,christians1 #hg ,bas-reliefs1 of ,assyria1 #bb ,baths2 of ,agrippa1 #gf2 of ,diocletian1 #hj2 of ,caracalla1 #hj ,battiste ,monegro1 statues of ,escurial by1 #adi ,bavaria1 bronze statue of1 #agf ,bedford ,house1 #ahd ,belus1 temple of 7,babylon71 #ca ,belzoni1 and tomb of ,seti ,i41 #g ,beneventum1 arch of1 #hb1 #hc ,beni-,hassan1 tombs at1 #e ,benvenuto ,cellini1 #aec ,bergamo1 porch at1 #aab ,berlin2 ,brandenburg ,gate at1 #agc2 ,new ,museum at1 #agg ,bianca1 wife of ,francesco ,sforza1 #add ,birs-i-,nimrud1 #cb ,bishop of ,paris1 ,st4 ,germain1 #agc ,boodroom1 name of ,halicarnassus changed to1 #gj ,boulevards 7,paris71 #afd ,bourse 7,lyons71 #afb ,bow ,church 7,london71 steeple of1 #afh ,bramante2 #adj2 great court 7,milan71 designed by1 #add ,brandenburg ,gate 7,berlin71 #agc ,british ,museum1 #afi ,broletto at ,como1 #aab ,brunelleschi1 ,filippo2 #acd2 and story of ,columbus and the egg1 #ach2 statue of 7,florence71 #ach2 architect of ,pitti ,palace1 #ach1 #aed ,byzantine order1 the2 geographical boundaries of1 #ic2 in ,southern ,italy1 #aaa1 #aae2 and ,constantinople1 #aag2 the dome the chief characteristic of1 #aag2 and the ,greek ,church1 #aag2 decline of1 #aag2 exterior and interior of1 #aai ,byzantine-,romanesque1 #aae1 #abb ,csar1 works of1 #acd ,cairo2 mosque at1 #abc2 mosque near1 #abe ,caliph ,abd-er-,rahman1 #abf ,callimachus 7sculptor71 and ,corinthian capital1 #eh1 #ei ,cambridge1 ,fitzwilliam ,college at1 #afi ,campaniles1 #aab1 #aad 7and see ,clock-tower74 ,canterbury ,cathedral1 and pointed arches1 #abd ,capital2 definition of1 #aa2 varieties of in ,great ,hall of ,karnak1 #dj2 ,grecian1 #eb2 ,ionic1 #ee2 of ,corinthian order1 #eg1 #eh2 of ,roman ,composite order1 #ge2 variety of in mosque of ,cordova1 #abh2 in ,ducal ,palace1 #adb ,capitol2 ,state and ,national1 #aha2 at ,washington1 #ahb1 #ahc2 of ,ohio1 #ahc2 at ,albany1 #ahh ,car of ,victory1 and ,napoleon1 #agc ,cardinal ,richelieu1 #aed ,caria1 ,king of1 #fi ,caryatides2 #ei2 of the ,walhalla1 #agh ,casino2 at ,newport1 #ahh2 at ,new ,york1 #ahh ,castle of ,wartburg1 #aji1 #aaj ,cathedral2 at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 #abc2 at ,florence1 #acf1 #ach2 at ,jaen1 #adf2 at ,valladolid1 #adf2 of ,st4 ,paul's ,london1 #afg2 at ,new ,york1 #ahh ,cecilia ,metella1 tomb of1 #hd ,cella1 #ea ,central ,park1 ,new ,york1 obelisk in1 #af ,chambord1 chteau of1 #aed1 #afa ,champs ,elyses1 ,arc de l'toile in 7,paris71 #afe ,charlemagne1 #abc ,charles ,i4 of ,england and classic art1 #acd ,charles ,v4 of ,spain1 abdication of1 #adf ,charles ,,ix4 of ,france1 #afa ,chehl ,minar1 #ch 7and see ,great ,hall of ,audience7 ,chenonceaux1 chteaux of1 #aed ,cheops4 ,see ,pyramids ,chiswick ,house1 ,inigo ,jones designer of1 #afg ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates 7,athens71 #eg ,choragus1 #fg ,christians2 art of1 in ,sicily1 #aaf2 under ,constantine1 #hg2 rise and progress of architecture of1 #hg2 influence of belief of1 #ic ,church2 of ,san ,miniato1 #aae2 of ,mother of ,god 7,constantinople71 #abc2 of ,st4 ,vitale 7,ravenna71 #abc2 of the ,escurial1 #aee2 of the ,sarbonne1 #aef2 of ,st4 ,genevieve1 #aeh 7and see ,pantheon72 of the ,invalides 7,paris71 #aef-aeh2 of the ,trinity 7,paris71 #afj2 of the ,madeleine 7,paris71 #afj2 of the ,augustines 7,paris71 #afj2 of ,st4 ,paul's 7,covent ,garden71 #aff2 of ,st4 ,stephen's 7,walbrook71 #afh2 of ,st4 ,ludwig 7,munich71 #age ,churches2 early forms of1 in ,italy1 #hi2 7,gothic7 interiors of1 #ih1 rood-screens of1 #ajg2 of ,burgos1 #aje2 of ,toledo1 #aje2 of ,malaga and ,segovia1 #adf ,churriguera1 ,josef de1 #adf ,churrigueresque style1 #adf ,civic order1 ,broletto at ,como1 #aab ,classic style1 revival of1 in ,germany1 #agb ,classic literature of ,rome1 influence of1 #aec ,cleopatra's ,needles1 #ae ,cloaca ,maxima 7,rome71 #gd ,clock-tower2 near ,st4 ,mark's 7,venice71 #aad 7and see ,campanile7 ,cologne1 great cathedral of1 #aj ,colonial period 7,america71 #ahd ,colosseum1 #hj ,colossi1 #ac 7and see ,rameses the ,great7 ,columbaria1 #hd1 #he ,columns2 #aa2 of ,hypostyle ,hall 7,karnak71 #aa2 ,assyrian knowledge of1 #bh2 of ,great ,hall of ,audience1 #ci1 #dj2 ,persian development of1 #db2 ,grecian1 #eb2 ,ionic1 #ef2 of temple of ,diana 7,ephesus71 #fj2 of green jasper at ,st4 ,sophia1 #fa2 ,tuscan order of1 #gf2 of basilicas1 #gi2 of ,st4 ,paul's 7,rome71 #hi2 of ,st4 ,sophia1 #abj2 of mosque of ,cordova1 #abg1 #abh2 of the ,alhambra1 #abi1 #acj2 in court-yard of the ,escurial1 #adi2 of the ,pantheon1 #aeh2 of ,victory1 in ,france1 #afd2 of portico of ,ruhmeshalle1 #agf 7and see ,groves of ,pillars and ,pillars7 ,composite order1 #ge ,constantine1 ,emperor2 #b2 ,egypt in time of1 #ai2 arch of1 #ha2 ,christians under1 #hg1 #aag ,constantinople2 ,st4 ,sophia at1 #fa2 and ,byzantine order1 #aag ,convent of ,escurial1 #aej1 #aea ,cordova1 mosque at1 #abf ,corinthian capital1 #eh1 #ei ,corinthian order2 #eb2 #eg2 capital of1 #eg1 #eh2 shown in the ,madeleine 7,paris71 #afj ,cornice1 #ec1 #gf ,count of ,thuringia1 #aaj ,court of the ,lions1 #abi1 #acj ,cragie ,house 7,cambridge71 #ahd ,crown1 iron1 of ,theodolinda1 #ib ,crypt of the ,invalides1 #aeh ,custom ,house at ,rouen1 #afb ,cyrus1 tomb of1 #db1 #dc ,darius2 palace of1 #ch2 tomb of1 #dc ,dark ,ages1 #acd ,de ,amicis2 quoted concerning the mosque of ,cordova1 #abf2 quoted concerning the ,escurial1 #adh-aeb ,diana1 #fj ,diocletian1 palace of 7,spalatro71 #hf ,distyle in ,antis1 #ea ,doge's ,palace 7,venice71 #aad 7and see ,ducal ,palace7 ,dome2 chief characteristic of ,byzantine architecture1 #aag2 #aai2 of the cathedral of ,florence1 #ach2 of ,st4 ,peter's 7,rome71 #ach2 of the ,invalides1 #aeg2 of the ,pantheon 7,paris71 #aeh2 of the ,capitol 7,washington71 #ahc ,domes of ,st4 ,mark's 7,venice71 #aad ,domestic architecture2 ,egyptian study of1 #af2 of ,greece1 #gj2 of ,rome1 #he2 ,gothic1 #aji2 of ,spain1 #aeb2 of ,france1 #afb2 examples of1 in ,great ,britain1 #afi2 of ,america1 #ahc1 #ahd ,doric order2 imitated old ,egyptian tombs1 #g2 characteristics of1 #eb-ed2 traced back1 #ed2 and ,ionic order1 compared1 #eg2 ,propyla and ,parthenon as examples of1 #fd ,dresden1 new theatre and picture gallery of1 #agg ,ducal ,palace 7,venice71 and ,john ,ruskin1 #adb 7and see ,doge's ,palace7 ,easterns1 the1 #abc 7and see ,saracens7 ,ebed1 the1 #abf ,ecbatana1 palace of1 #cd ,echinus1 #eb ,eclectic style1 #ahh ,edfou1 temple of1 #ag ',early ,spanish' architecture1 #ajf ,egypt1 tombs and ruins of1 #b-bj2 religion of1 influencing art1 #h2 pillars of1 #aa2 hieroglyphics on pillars of1 #ab2 irregular plans of palaces and temples of1 #ac2 obelisks of1 removed1 #ae2 ancient houses of1 #af2 domestic architecture of1 #af2 under the ,ptolemies1 #ag2 decline of arts of1 in later days1 #ai2 in time of ,constantine 7,emperor71 #ai2 present knowledge of history of1 #bj ,elmwood1 #ahd ,england2 imitation of other styles of architecture in1 #aff2 ,gothic order in1 #aff2 examples of various architectural styles in1 #afi2 art of1 at the present time1 #agb2 revival of ,gothic art in1 #agj ,entablature2 definition of1 #ed2 of ,walhalla1 #agh ,entasis1 #fg ,ephesus2 temple of ,diana at1 #fj2 desolation at1 #fa ,epistyle1 #g ,erechtheium 7,athens72 #ei2 and ,athena ,polias1 #fb2 burial-place of ,erechtheus1 #fd2 founded by ,erechtheus1 #fd2 example of ,attic-,ionic style1 #fe ,erechtheus1 founder of the ,erechtheium1 #fe ,escurial 7near ,madrid71 #adf-aeb2 combination forming1 #adf2 dome of basilica of1 #adf2 palace of1 #adg2 ,de ,amicis's description of1 #adh-aeb2 statues of1 by ,battiste ,monegro1 #adi2 room of ,philip ,,ii4 in1 #adi2 basilica of1 #adi2 church of1 #adi2 courtyard of the kings of1 #adi2 convent of1 #aej1 #aea ,etruscans2 #ga2 theatres and amphitheatres of1 #gb ,euphrates1 #bi ,exchange at ,marseilles1 #afb ,faade of ,ducal ,palace1 #adb ,farnese ,bull1 #ha ,farnese ,hercules1 #ha ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 reign of1 #ade ,fergusson and ,gothic architecture1 #ic ,filippo ,brunelleschi and art of ,renaissance1 #acd-ach ,fine ,art ,gallery1 near baths of ,caracalla1 #ha ,fitzwilliam ,college 7,cambridge71 #afi ,flavian ,amphitheatre1 #hj ,florence1 cathedral of1 #acd ,fontaine ,st4 ,michel1 #afe ,fontainebleau1 palace of1 #aed ,fortress1 the ,acropolis as a1 #fb ,fortresses of ancient ,greece1 #dh ,forum ,boarium1 #hb ,france2 and revival of classic art1 #acd2 and ,gothic architecture1 #aec2 sovereigns of1 as influencing architecture1 #aed2 change in style in1 from ,gothic to ,renaissance1 #aef2 style of ,henry ,,iv4 in1 #afa2 time of classic revival1 #afb2 domestic architecture of1 #afb2 ,neo-,grec style in1 #afe1 #aff2 modern1 #afe1 #aff ,francesco ,sforza1 #add ,francis ,i41 of ,france2 and introduction of ,italian art1 #aed2 ,louvre rebuilt by1 #afj ,frieze2 definition of1 #ec2 of ,ionic order1 #ef2 of ,tuscan order1 #gf2 of ,walhalla1 #agh ,gargoyle1 #ih ,garibald1 ,king of ,bavaria1 #ij ,gateway ,huldah of temple at ,jerusalem1 #dd ,gateways2 in walls of ,nineveh1 #ba2 in walls of ,babylon1 #bi2 golden1 iron1 and brazen1 of palace of ,diocletian1 #hf ,germany2 and revival of classic art1 #acd2 imitation of details of ,greek architecture in1 #agc2 modern architecture of1 #agc ,ghizeh1 pyramids of1 #c ,gibbon 7historian7 and ,st4 ,sophia1 #abb ,giotto's campanile1 #aab ,girard ,college 7,philadelphia71 #ahf ,glaber1 ,rodulphe1 #ic ,glyptothek at ,munich1 #agg ,gothic order2 ,fergusson's location of1 #ic2 extension and origin of1 #ic2 invention of interior aisles in1 #ih2 design of1 in ornament1 #ii2 painted glass applied to1 #ajj2 ,spanish variation of1 #aje2 modification of in ,northern ,italy1 #aaa2 combined with ,eastern decoration in ,venetian architecture1 #aad2 last distinct order1 #acc2 in ,france1 #aec2 union of1 with ,italian design in ,france1 #aed2 in ,england1 #aff2 in the ,tudor age1 #agj2 and ,houses of ,parliament1 #aga ,goths1 temple of ,diana burned by1 #fa ,goujon1 ,jean1 and the ,louvre1 #afj ,goya1 #adi ,grco-,roman style1 #adf ,grand ,duke of ,saxe-,weimar1 #aaj ,grand ,monarque4 ,see ,louis ,,xiv4 ,grands ,hommes1 ,pantheon dedicated to1 #aeh ,great ,hall of ,audience2 plan of1 #da2 theories concerning1 #db ,great ,hall of ,baths of ,diocletian1 #hj ,great ,palace near ,persepolis1 #cf-ch ,grecian ,doric order2 shaft of1 #ab2 domestic architecture of1 #gj ,greece2 art of1 as compared with that of ,egypt1 #bj2 prehistoric days of1 #dg2 origin of architecture of1 #dh2 coloring of marbles in1 #fe2 skill in deceiving the eye1 in architecture of1 #fg2 theatres of1 #fh2 origin of drama in1 #fh2 effect in ,germany of discoveries in1 #agc ,greenwich ,hospital1 #afi ,gregory ,i4 7,pope71 #ib ,groves of ,pillars1 #dd ,hadrian2 #gg2 tomb of 7castle of ,st4 ,angelo71 #hd ,halicarnassus2 mausoleum at1 #fh2 in possession of ,knights of ,st4 ,john1 #gj2 name of1 changed to ,boodroom1 #gj2 sculptures of1 in ,british ,museum1 #gj ,hall of ,fame1 #agf 7and see ,ruhmeshalle7 ,hall of ,one ,hundred ,columns1 #ch ,hall of ,xerxes1 #ch-da 7and see ,great ,hall of ,audience7 ,hampton1 palace of 7designed by ,wren71 #afi ,hanging ,gardens of ,babylon2 #bi2 interior structure of1 #bi1 #cj2 and ,semiramis1 #cj2 and ,nebuchadnezzar1 #cj ,henry of ,ofterdingen1 #aaj ,hercules of ,assyria1 #bd ,hermann1 ,count of ,thuringia1 #aaj ,herodotus1 ,father of ,history1 #dg ,herostratus1 #fj ,heshm1 #abf ,hexastyle1 #eb ,homer1 ,iliad and ,odyssey of1 #dg ,house of the ,virgin1 #fb 7and see ,parthenon7 ,houses of ,parliament 7,london72 #agj2 and ,gothic revision1 #aga ,hypostyle ,hall 7,karnak72 #aa2 compared with ,st4 ,peter's 7,rome71 #adj ,ibn-touloun1 mosque built by1 #abc ,iliad1 knowledge of ,grecian history from1 #dg ,inigo ,jones4 ,see ,jones1 ,inigo ,inscriptions1 ,arabic1 #acj ,invalides1 church of the1 #aef-aeh ,ionic capital1 #ee1 #ef ,ionic order2 #eb-ed2 traced back1 #ee2 capital of1 #ee1 #ef2 architrave of1 #ef2 columns of1 #ef2 compared with ,doric order1 #eg2 combined with ,doric in interior of the ,parthenon1 #fd ,isabella and ,ferdinand1 reign of1 #ade ,isis1 temple of1 #ah ,ismail ,pasha1 ,khedive of ,egypt1 #af ,italy2 architecture of2 #hg2 ,byzantine order in southern part of1 #aaa2 best days of architecture in1 #add ,jaen 7,granada72 cathedral of1 #adf ,jay1 ,hon4 ,john1 home of1 #ahd ,jerusalem1 temple of2 ,gateway ,huldah of1 #dd2 design of1 proving ,roman influence1 #de ,jones1 ,inigo 7architect72 #aff2 designer of ,chiswick ,house1 #afg2 designer of ,wilton ,house1 #afg ,jordan1 ruins beyond1 #dd ,josef de ,churriguera1 #adf ,josephus1 proving time of building temple of ,jerusalem1 #de ,judea2 art-history of1 #dd2 ruins of1 at ,jerusalem1 ,baalbec1 ,palmyra1 and ,petra1 #dd ,justinian 7,emperor71 and ,st4 ,sophia1 #aai ,kaitbey1 mosque at1 #abe ,karnak1 palace-temple of2 #h-ab2 ,hypostyle ,hall in1 #aj ,khedive of ,egypt1 ,ismail ,pasha1 #af ,khorsabad1 palace of1 #bf ,la ,scala1 ,milan1 #ahj ,lateran1 palace of1 #ha ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #aec ,library of ,st4 ,mark's 7,venice71 #adb ,liverpool1 ,st4 ,george's ,hall at1 #afi ,livy1 works of1 #acd ,longfellow1 home of1 #ahd ,louis ,i4 7,bavaria71 and revival of ,greek art1 #agc1 #age ,louis ,,xiii4 7,france71 and classic architecture1 #afa ,louis ,,xiv4 7,france71 and revival of classic architecture1 #afb ,louis ,,xv4 7,france71 #aeh ,louis ,philippe1 #afb ,louvre 7,paris71 #afj ,lowell1 ,james ,russell1 home of1 #ahd ,ludwig ,strasse 7,munich71 architectural failure1 #agg ,luther and castle of ,wartburg1 #aaa ,lyons1 new ,bourse in1 #afb ,lysicrates1 monument of1 #fg ,madeleine1 church of the1 #afj ,malaga1 churches of1 #adf ,mans1 monastery at1 #ajc ,mansard1 ,jules ,hardouin1 #aef ,marburg1 #aaj ,marcus ,scaurus1 #hj ,marseilles1 exchange at1 #afb ,mausoleum at ,halicarnassus1 #fh ,mausolus1 #fi1 #gj ,maxentius1 basilica of1 #gi ,mecca1 #abc ,medinet ,habou1 house at1 #af ,mehemet ,ali1 #ae ,memorial ,hall 7,cambridge71 #ahh ,memphis1 ruins of1 used in new buildings1 #g ,metope1 #ec ,michael ,angelo1 and church of ,s4 ,maria ,degli ,angeli1 #hj2 and ,st4 ,peter's 7,rome71 #ach-adj ,middle ,ages2 ,italian towers of1 #aaa2 prosperity of architecture of 7,venice71 #aad ,middle period in ,america1 #ahd ,milan1 ,la ,scala of1 #ahj ,minarets of mosques1 #abe ,minerva4 ,see ,athena ,modern architecture2 imitative1 #acc2 since ,renaissance1 #acc2 in ,italy1 #acd2 three eras of1 in ,spain1 #adf2 in ,germany1 #agc2 diversity of style of1 in ,united ,states1 #ahf ,mohammed1 #abc ,mokattam ,mountains1 #d ,monks of ,middle ,ages1 #ajb ,monolith of the ,gateway ,holdah1 #dd ,monuments in ,france1 #afd ,monza1 cathedral of1 #ib ,moresco or ,moorish order1 #ajf1 #abc ,morris1 ,general1 and ,old ,morrisania1 #ahd ,morrisania1 #ahd ,mosaics of ,st4 ,sophia1 #abj ,mosque2 at ,cairo1 #abc2 minarets of same1 #abe2 near ,cairo1 #abe ,mosque of ,cordova1 #abf2 ,de ,amicis1 concerning1 #abf2 naves of1 #abg2 marbles of1 #abg2 columns of1 #abg1 #abh ,mosque of ,kaitboy1 #abe ,mother of ,god1 church of 7,constantinople71 #abc ,muezzin1 the call of1 #abe1 #abf ,munich2 modern architecture of1 #agc1 #agd2 church of ,st4 ,ludwig at1 #age2 ,ruhmeshalle at1 #agf2 glyptothek of1 #agg ,museum2 of ,berlin1 #agg2 at ,oxford1 #agj1 #aga ,music halls1 #ahj ,mutules1 #fe ,mycen1 #dh ,mythology1 #dg ,napoleon ,i42 and pyramids1 #c2 tomb of1 #aeh2 inscription from will of1 #aeh2 ,car of ,victory1 trophy of1 #agc ,napoleon ,,iii41 #afb1 #aff ,nebuchadnezzar2 and ,hanging ,gardens1 #cj2 and ,birs-i-,nimrud1 #cb ,neo-,byzantine order1 #aag ,neo-,grec order1 #aff ,nero 7,emperor71 temple of ,diana robbed by1 #fa ,new museum at ,oxford1 #agj1 #aga ,new theatre1 ,dresden1 #agg ,newton1 discoverer of sculptures at ,halicarnassus1 #gj ,new ,world1 discovery of1 #ade ,new ,york1 ,trinity ,church in1 #ahh ,nile1 near ,thebes1 #ad ,nineveh2 walls of1 #ba2 gateways of1 #ba2 ornamentation of gateways of1 #bc2 palaces of1 #bg ,norman ,conquest1 #aaf ,northern ,spain1 ,arabs of1 #abh ,obelisk2 now in ,paris1 #ac2 at ,alexandria1 #ae2 ,cleopatra's ,needles1 #ae2 expressing worship1 #af2 in ,central ,park1 ,new ,york1 #af2 the ,assyrian1 #bh1 #bi ,odyssey1 knowledge of ,grecian history from1 #dg ,old ,morrisania1 #ahd ,opera ,house 7,paris71 #ahj ,order4 ,see ,gothic1 ,moresco or ,moorish1 ,civil1 ,neo-,byzantine1 ,neo-,grec1 ,romanesque1 ,byzantine1 ,saracenic ,order of the ,garter1 symbol of1 #hi ,oriental art2 characteristics of1 #ei2 and the caryatid1 #ei ,oxford1 new museum at1 #agj ,painted glass and ,gothic architecture1 #ajj ,palace2 of ,khorsabad1 #bg2 of ,ecbatana1 #cd2 of ,susa1 #cd2 of ,artaxerxes ,ochus1 #ch2 of ,darius1 #ch2 of ,xerxes1 #ch2 of ,diocletian at ,spalatro1 #hf2 of the ,escurial1 #adg1 #adi2 of ,versailles1 #afb2 of ,whitehall1 #aff2 of ,hampton1 #afi2 of ,winchester1 #afi ,palaces2 of ,assyria1 #bc-bf2 of ,nineveh1 #bg ,palace-temples1 ,egyptian1 #h ,palais du ,trocadro1 #afe ,pantheon 7,rome72 #gf-gh2 rotunda and porch of1 #gf2 preservation of1 #gg2 inscription on portico of1 #gg2 burial-place of ,raphael and ,annibale ,caracci1 #gh ,pantheon 7,paris71 #aeh2 and see church of ,st4 ,genevieve ,parapet of ,ducal ,palace1 ,venice1 #adb ,paris2 rebuilt1 #afb2 the boulevards of1 #afd2 new opera house of1 #ahj ,parthenon 7,athens72 #ec1 #ed2 built of ,pentelic marble1 #fd2 of ,doric order of architecture1 #fd2 erected under care of ,phidias1 #fd2 sculptures of1 #fd ,paul ,silentiarius and description of ,st4 ,sophia1 #abj ,pediment1 #ed ,pepperell1 ,sir ,william1 #ahd ,pericles at ,athens1 #fa ,peristyle1 #eb ,persepolis2 great palace near1 #cf-ch2 spring residence of ,persian kings1 #db ,persia2 inscriptions found in1 #ba2 palaces of1 #cd2 taught by ,assyria and ,babylonia1 #cd2 platforms of1 #cf2 regularity of architecture of1 #dc2 faults of architecture of1 #dd ,peruzzi1 #adj ,pharaoh1 and tombs at ,beni-,hassan1 #f ,phidias2 and ,athena ,promachos1 #fb2 ,parthenon erected under care of1 #fd2 sculptures executed by1 #fd ,phil2 temple on island of1 #ah2 buildings at1 #ai ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain2 and decline of ,spanish art1 #ade2 and the ,escurial1 #adf2 cell of1 in the ,escurial1 #adi2 chair of1 #aej ,piazza of ,st4 ,mark 7,venice71 #adb ,picture ,gallery1 ,dresden1 #agg ,piers1 ,egyptian1 #aa ,pilasters1 #eb2 #abg2 7and see ,ant7 ,pillar of the ,gateway ,huldah1 #dd ,pillars2 of ,great ,hall of ,audience1 #ch-da2 of ,doric order1 #eb2 of ,san ,miniato1 #aaf2 of ,ducal ,palace1 #adb2 7and see ,columns7 ,pinacotica1 near ,baths of ,caracalla1 #ha ,pinakothek 7,dresden71 #agg ,pitti ,palace1 gallery of1 #ach1 #aed ,platerisco1 #adf ,platforms1 ,persian1 #cf ,pope1 the1 and ,italian art1 #aed ,porches of ,northern ,italy1 #aab ,porte ,st4 ,denis 7,paris71 #afd ,portico2 of basilica of ,st4 ,mark's1 #aae2 of the ,court of ,lions1 #acj2 the ,ruhmeshalle1 #agf2 of ,capitol at ,washington1 #ahc ,praxiteles and temple of ,diana1 #fj1 #fa ,priene1 temple of ,athena at1 #ee ,priests1 patrons of art during ,middle ,ages1 #ajb ,primaticcio1 #aec ,prince ,louis of ,thuringia1 #aaj ,promachos 7see ,athena71 #fb ,propyla2 ,assyrian1 #bd2 of ,acropolis1 #fb1 #fd ,proto-,doric order1 #g ,ptolemies1 #ag ,public ,library of ,munich1 #agg ,pyramids of ,cheops2 #b2 size of1 #c2 interior of1 #d ,pyramids of ,ghizeh2 #c2 tombs near1 #e ,quatrefoil1 #adb ,queen ,anne style in ,america1 #ahf ,rameses the ,great4 ,see ,colossi4 ,raphael1 #adj ,ratisbon1 the ,walhalla near1 #agh ,reformation1 the1 #acc ,religion2 influencing ,egyptian art1 #h2 a factor in national architecture1 #i ,renaissance2 #ajd2 #acd2 buildings erected in ,italy during1 #adb2 and ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #ade2 and ,michael ,angelo1 #ade2 and ,raphael1 #ade2 in ,england1 #aff ,richelieu 7cardinal71 #aed ,ritter ,george1 #aaa ,roman theatre1 first1 #hj ,romanesque order1 #hg ,romanesque and ,byzantine orders mingled1 #abb ,rome2 ruled by ,etruscans1 #ga2 acqueducts and bridges of1 #gd2 earliest works of1 directed by ,etruscans1 #gd2 growth of ,composite order in1 #ge2 temples of1 #gf2 interior architecture of1 #gf2 ,pantheon of1 #gf-gh2 basilicas of1 #gh2 decline of art in1 #hj2 theatres of1 #hj2 triumphal arches of1 #ha2 tombs of1 #hc-hf2 domestic architecture of1 #he2 influence of classic literature in1 #acc2 ,st4 ,peter's at1 #ach-adj ,rood-screens1 #ajg ,rose windows1 #ajb ,rouen1 custom house at1 #afb ,royal ,palace at ,munich1 #agg ,ruhmeshalle 7,munich72 columns of1 #agf2 statue in front of1 #agf ,ruins2 ,assyrian1 #ba2 ,judean1 #dd2 of temple of ,diana1 at ,ephesus1 #fj ,ruskin1 ,john2 and ,ducal ,palace 7,venice71 #adb2 teaching of1 #aga ,st4 ,bride's 7,fleet ,street71 #afh ,st4 ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 #aaj ,st4 ,eustache1 church of 7,paris71 #aed ,st4 ,genevieve1 church of 7,paris71 #aeh ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool1 #afi ,st4 ,germain2 #ajc1 #agc ,st4 ,james's 7,piccadilly71 church of1 #afh ,st4 ,john ,lateran1 #hi ,st4 ,ludwig1 church of 7,munich71 #age ,st4 ,mark's 7,venice71 #aad2 piazza of1 #aad2 portico of1 #aae ,st4 ,mark's1 ,library of 7,venice71 #aad ,st4 ,paul's1 cathedral of 7,london71 #afg ,st4 ,paul's1 ,covent ,garden1 #aff1 #afg ,st4 ,paul's without the ,walls2 #hh2 bronze gates of1 #hi2 columns of1 #hi ,st4 ,peter's 7,rome72 as compared with palace-temple1 #h2 dome and cross of1 #ach2 and ,michael ,angelo1 #ach-adj2 begun and finished1 #ach-adj2 criticised1 #adj ,st4 ,quentin1 battle of1 #adf ,st4 ,sophia1 church of 7,constantinople72 green jasper columns of1 #fa2 #aag2 and ,justinian1 #aai2 ,gibbon's description of1 #aai2 ,paul ,silentiarius's description of1 #abj ,st4 ,vitale1 church of 7,ravenna71 #abc ,san ,carlo1 opera house of 7,naples71 #ahj ,san ,miniato1 church of 7,florence71 #aae1 #aaf ,san ,paolo fuori della ,mura4 ,see ,st4 ,paul's without the ,walls ,sansovino1 #adb ,sta4 ,maria del ,fiore4 ,see cathedral of ,florence ,sta4 ,maria ,degli ,angeli1 church of1 and ,michael ,angelo1 #hj ,saraceni4 ,see the ,easterns ,saracenic architecture1 #abc1 #abd2 principal homes of1 #abf2 study of1 #acb ,sargon1 #bf ,scaurus1 ,marcus1 #hj ,schliemann1 #dh ,sculpture ,gallery of ,munich1 #agg ,sculptures2 executed by ,phidias1 #fd2 ,gothic use of1 in decoration1 #ajg ,segovia1 churches of1 #adf ,semiramis 7,queen71 and ,hanging ,gardens1 #cj ,sennacherib1 #bf ,septimius ,severus2 and ,pantheon1 #gg2 arch of1 #hb2 wife of1 #hb ,sepulchres1 #he 7and see ,tombs7 ,seti ,i41 tomb of1 #g ,sforza1 ,francesco1 #add ,shaft of ,tuscan column1 #gf ,shrines of ,babylon1 riches of1 #ca1 #cb ,shushan1 #db ,sicilian architecture1 remarkable style of1 #aaf ,sicily1 ,christian art of1 #aaf ,soufflot 7architect71 #aeh ,spain2 and ,gothic art1 #ajd1 #aje2 and ,moorish architecture1 #abc2 and classic art1 #acd2 from time of fall of ,granada1 #ade2 modern architecture of1 #adf2 domestic architecture of1 #aeb2 people of1 as artists1 and ,fergusson1 #aeb1 #aec ,sphinx1 #ac ,spires1 #ih ,staircase of temple of ,diana 7,ephesus71 #fj ,staircases of ,persepolis1 #cf ,statue of ,bavaria1 #agf ,statues of the ,escurial1 #adi1 #aej ,street of the ,tripods1 #fh ,suphis4 ,see ,cheops ,susa1 palace of1 #cd ,sutri1 #gb ,syene1 granite of1 in pyramids1 #d ,symbol of ,order of the ,garter1 #hi ,symbolism of ,gothic ornament1 #ajg1 #ajh ,tacitus1 #acd ,tapestries of ,escurial1 #adi ,temple2 of ,karnak1 #ac2 of ,luxor1 #ac2 of ,denderah1 #ag2 of ,phil1 #ag2 influenced by ,egypt1 in building1 #ag2 of ,birs-i-,nimrud1 #cb2 of ,jerusalem1 #dd1 #de2 earliest style of1 in ,greece1 #dh2 of ,athena at ,priene1 #ee2 of ,diana at ,ephesus1 #fj1 and ,praxiteles1 #fj1 #fa1 and ,theodosius ,i4 7,emperor71 #fa1 burned by ,goths1 #fa1 robbed by ,nero1 #fa2 the ,erechtheium as a1 #fe2 of ,vesta1 #hi ,temple ,court of palace of ,khorsabad1 #bg ,temples2 of ,babylon1 #cj2 of ,rome1 #gf2 in the ,court of the ,lions1 #acj ,tenia1 #eb ,thais1 #cd ,theatres2 of ,rome1 #hj2 list of most important1 #agi ,thebes2 ,tombs of the ,kings near1 #g2 grandeur of ruins of1 #g1h ,theodolinda2 #ij2 iron crown of1 #ib ,theodosius ,i41 and temple of ,diana1 #fa2 and ,st4 ,paul's without the ,walls1 #hh ,theresa1 ,queen of ,louis ,i4 of ,bavaria1 #agf ,theresienhhe1 #agg ,therm1 #hj ,titus1 arch of1 #hb ,tomb2 of ,seti ,i41 #g2 of ,cyrus1 #db1 #dc2 of ,darius1 #dc2 of ,mausolus1 #fi1 #gj2 of ,hadrian1 #hd ,tombs2 at ,beni-,hassan1 #e2 near ,pyramids1 #e2 of the kings1 near ,thebes1 #g2 ,persian1 #db2 exploration of ,persian1 #dc2 ,etruscan1 #gc2 of ,rome1 #hc-hf ,toscanelli1 #ach ,tower2 of ,birs-i-,nimrud1 #cb2 of ,giotto1 #aab ,towers2 of ,babylonish temples1 #ca2 in ,gothic architecture1 #ih2 of ,italy1 in ,middle ,ages1 #aaa2 of ,westminster ,abbey1 #afh 7and see ,campanile7 ,trajan2 basilica of1 #gi2 and arch of ,beneventum1 #hb ,triglyphs1 #ec ,trinity ,church2 ,paris1 #afj2 ,boston1 #ahh2 ,new ,york1 #ahh ,tripod1 #fh ,trojan war1 #dg ,troy1 ,schliemann's discoveries at1 #dh ,tudor age1 ,gothic style in1 #agj ,tumuli1 #gc ,tuscan order1 #ge1 #gf ,ula1 the1 #abf ,united ,states2 capitols of1 #aha2 first buildings of1 #aha2 classic architecture and1 #ahb2 cella divided in1 #ahb2 characteristic types of edifices in1 #ahh ,university of ,munich1 #agg ,valentinian ,,ii41 #hh ,valladolid1 cathedral of1 #adf ,van ,rensselaer homestead1 #ahd ,vatican compared with palace-temple1 #h ,venice1 architecture of1 #aad ,versailles1 palace of1 #afb ,vesta1 temple of1 #hi ,vignon1 #afj ,villa ,borghese1 palace of1 #ha ,walhalla1 #agh1 #agi ,walls2 of ,nineveh1 #ba2 of ,babylon1 #bi ,war office 7,munich71 #agg ,wartburg1 castle on1 #aji ,washington 7,u4 ,s471 national capitol at1 #ahb ,washington1 ,george1 and national capital1 #ahb ,wren1 ,sir ,christopher1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi ,wyatville1 ,sir ,jeffrey1 #agj ,xerxes1 #cg1 #ch ,zahra1 #abi ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them4 ,uncaptioned illustrations are decorative ,headpieces or the publisher's logo on the ,title page4 ,most ,index entries that did not match the referenced text have been changed when the differences were hyphenation or accent marks4 ,however1 the ,index entries for ,neo-,grec have not been changed to ,no-,grec4 ,index entries were not checked for accuracy4