which includes the original more than #bej illustrations4 ,see #dcegd-;h4htm or #dcegd-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#dcegd_/pg#dcegd-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dc egd_/dcegd-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see http3_/_/archive4org_/details_/carpentry woodwor#jj;fost ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 sqrt represents the square root symbol4 ,,carpentry ,,and ,,woodwork 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,children',s ,,library ,,of ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,carpentry ,,and ,,woodwork ,by ,edwin ,w4 ,foster ,,electricity ,,and ,,its ,,everyday ,,uses ,by ,john ,f4 ,woodhull1 ,ph4,d4 ,,gardening ,,and ,,farming ,by ,ellen ,eddy ,shaw ,,home ,,decoration ,by ,charles ,franklin ,warner1 ,sc4,d4 ,,housekeeping ,by ,elizabeth ,hale ,gilman ,,mechanics1 ,,indoors ,,and ,,out ,by ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson ,,needlecraft ,by ,effie ,archer ,archer ,,outdoor ,,sports1 ,,and ,,games ,by ,claude ,h4 ,miller1 ,ph4,b4 ,,outdoor ,,work ,by ,mary ,rogers ,miller ,,working ,,in ,,metals ,by ,charles ,conrad ,sleffel 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,helen ,w4 ,cooke4 ,the ,shop--the ,most ,interesting ,place in the ,world on a ,stormy ,day ,the ,library of ,work and ,play ,,carpentry ,,and ,,woodwork by ,,edwin ,w4 ,,foster ,illustration ,garden ,city ,new ,york ,doubleday1 ,page ,company #aiaa ,all ,rights ,reserved1 ,including ,that of ,translation into ,foreign ,languages1 ,including the ,scandinavian ,copyright1 #aiaa1 by ,doubleday1 ,page ,company ,,preface ,there is a period in a boy's life1 roughly speaking between the ages of ten and sixteen1 when his interests and energy turn in the direction of making things4 ,it may be called the creative period1 and with many of us it ends nearer sixty than sixteen4 ,at one time it will take the form of a mania for building boats2 again it may be automobiles or aeroplanes4 ,the boy is very susceptible to suggestion4 ,a great automobile race occurs1 and for weeks the building and racing of toy automobiles goes on apace4 ,the papers are filled with accounts of an aero meet4 ,immediately the boy's energy turns to the study and manufacture of aeroplanes4 ,this abounding interest in the real things of life is perfectly normal and should be encouraged rather than discouraged2 but the boy needs guidance1 if this energy is to be properly directed4 ,he needs strengthening in his weak points1 otherwise he may become superficial and scattering in his work1 and fail to stick to a thing until1 overcoming all obstacles1 he succeeds in doing the one thing he set out to do4 ,he may acquire the bad habit of never finishing anything1 though continually starting new schemes4 ,the ability of the average boy is far beyond the general estimate1 but intelligent supervision is needed4 ,the pocket knife is his natural tool1 yet not one boy out of a thousand realizes its possibilities4 ,an attempt has been made in this volume to suggest some of these1 especially for boys living in the city1 where a little work shop for himself1 unfortunately1 is too often a luxury4 ,the two boys here depicted form a composite picture of several thousand ,american boys whom it has been the pleasure of the author to guide4 ,the ability to design new things1 and to adapt general rules to personal requirements1 is to be encouraged at all times1 and this idea has been exemplified in the following pages4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,introductory #c ,,ii4 ,the ,knife and ,its ,possibilities--,first ,experiments #f ,,iii4 ,mechanical ,drawing #bc ,,iv4 ,mechanical ,drawing 7,continued7 #ca ,v4 ,toys #dj ,,vi4 ,moving ,toys #ej ,,vii4 ,designing ,moving ,toys #eh ,,viii4 ,the ,model ,aeroplane #fh ,,ix4 ,the ,monoplane #ge ,x4 ,kites #hd ,,xi4 ,chip ,carving and ,knife ,work #ig ,,xii4 ,chip ,carving 7,continued7 #aji ,,xiii4 ,chip ,carving 7,continued7 #abj ,,xiv4 ,the ,shop #acc ,,xv4 ,the ,equipment for a ,shop #adc ,,xvi4 ,building a ,lumber ,rack #aej ,,xvii4 ,mills and ,weather ,vanes #aeg ,,xviii4 ,tools--,saws #afi ,,xix4 ,tools--,planes #agf ,,xx4 ,squaring up ,stock #ahe ,,xxi4 ,boring ,tools #aic ,,xxii4 ,miscellaneous ,tools #aii ,,xxiii4 ,making ,nail ,boxes #bjf ,,xxiv4 ,bird ,houses #bac ,,xxv4 ,simple ,articles for ,household ,use #bba ,,xxvi4 ,the ,mitre ,box and ,picture ,frame #bbh ,,xxvii4 ,making ,toilet ,boxes #bce ,,xxviii4 ,brackets and ,book ,racks #bdb ,,xxix4 ,construction #bej ,,xxx4 ,the ,use of the ,gouge #beh ,,xxxi4 ,coat ,hanger and ,towel ,rollers #bff ,,xxxii4 ,clock ,cases #bgf ,,xxxiii4 ,foot ,stools #bia ,,xxxiv4 ,the ,tabourette #cja ,,xxxv4 ,the ,dovetail ,joint #cac ,,xxxvi4 ,inlaying #cai ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,checkerboard #ccb ,,xxxviii4 ,tool ,cases and ,chests #cci ,,xxxix4 ,book ,cases and ,magazine ,racks #cdg ,,xl4 ,the ,medicine ,cabinet #ced ,,xli4 ,mission ,furniture #cfa ,,xlii4 ,the ,chest #cgg ,,xliii4 ,the ,drawing ,outfit #cha ,,xliv4 ,woodwork for ,outdoor ,sports--,the ,tennis ,court1 ,tennis ,court ,accessories #cii ,,xlv4 ,the ,pergola #dbf ,,xlvi4 ,poultry ,houses #dda ,,xlvii4 ,housing of ,outdoor ,pets #dea ,,xlviii4 ,outdoor ,carpentry #deg ,,xlix4 ,staining1 ,polishing1 and ,finishing #dha ,l4 ,durability3 ,decay and ,preservation of ,wood #dib ,,li4 ,mathematics of ,woodwork #dih ,,lii4 ,lumber ,no4 #a #eaj ,,liii4 ,lumber ,no4 #b #eag ,,liv4 ,lumber ,no4 #c #ebd ,,lv4 ,lumber ,no4 #d #ecb ,,lvi4 ,broad-leaved ,trees #edc ,,lvii4 ,trees with ,simple ,leaves #eef ,,illustrations ,the ,shop--,the ,most ,interesting ,place in the ,world on a ,stormy ,day ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,the ,boy and his ,jack ,knife #h ,using the ,veining ,tool #aah ,using the ,jack ,plane #adf ,learning to ,use the ,crosscut ,saw #agj ,tools of the ,seventeenth ,century #agh ,the ,correct ,way to ,hold the ,chisel #bjh ,assembling and ,finishing #cgd ,staining and ,polishing #dhd ,,carpentry ,,and ,,woodwork ,i ,,introductory ,two boys sat on a log whittling4 ,conversation had ceased and they both seemed absorbed in their work4 ,presently the younger one became aware of the silence and glanced at the older boy4 ,he gave an exclamation and jumped to his feet4 ,why1 he cried1 you are making a knife out of wood4 ,isn't it a beauty6 ,is it a dagger8 ,no replied the other1 it is a paper-knife for opening letters and cutting the pages of magazines4 ,it is for father's desk1 for his birthday4 ,it's a dandy6 continued the youngster4 ,how can you make such fine things8 ,why can't ,i do that kind of work8 ,you can do it1 replied ,ralph1 but just now there are several reasons why you don't4 ,what are they8 ,well1 in the first place you start to whittle without having any clear idea of what you are at work on4 ,it's for all the world like setting out to walk without knowing where you are going4 ,if you start that way1 the probabilities are that you will get nowhere1 and when you get back and father asks where you have been1 you say1 ',oh1 nowhere2 just took a walk4' ,that's the way with your knife work4 ,you just whittle and make a lot of chips1 and when you get through you have nothing to show for your time and labour4 ,if you want to know a secret--,i never start to cut without first making a careful sketch of just what ,i want to make1 with all the important dimensions on it4 ,another reason you don't get any results is that you don't know how to hold your knife1 and still another is that you work with a dull tool4 ,why1 that knife of yours is hardly sharp enough to cut butter4 ,will you show me how to do that kind of work8 asked the youngster humbly4 ,yes2 on certain conditions4 ,what are they8 ,that you will do just as ,i tell you4 ,will you show me how to make a paper-cutter now8 ,there you go1 right off the handle6 ,you are like a young man learning carpentry2 you want to start right in to build a house instead of first learning how to use your tools4 ,why1 it has taken me two years in the manual training school to learn how to do this work4 ,no1 indeed1 if you want to learn how to do woodwork like this you must begin on something simple1 learn how to handle wood1 and how to keep your tools sharp4 ,all right1 sighed the younger boy2 ,i am willing to take lessons and begin at the beginning4 ,what shall we do first8 ,the first thing to do is to throw away your folding penknife4 ,that kind is of very little use4 ,the steel is so poor it won't hold a cutting edge for any time at all1 and the knife has a treacherous habit of closing up on your fingers4 ,i will give you a good ,swedish whittling knife like mine1 and we will start by putting a good cutting edge on it4 ,so the boys began the first lesson4 ,the fun they had and the things they made1 their many experiences1 the patience required1 and the great skill developed with tools are described in the following pages4 ,what they accomplished1 any other boy may do if he will but apply himself with all his energy4 ,,ii ,,first ,,experiments--,,the ,,knife ,,and ,,its ,,possibilities ,the older boy1 after a search through his treasure chest1 selected a knife with a blade about two and a half inches long4 ,incidentally1 the smaller boy caught a glimpse of the inside of that chest and it made his eyes bulge--but that is another story4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,the whittling knife ,this knife1 explained ,ralph1 is one ,i used for over a year in school and it's the most perfectly shaped tool for whittling that ,i have ever seen4 ,of course knives come in hundreds of shapes for different purposes1 and later on1 when you have become skilled in using this one1 we will try some others1 but our first motto must be 'one thing at a time4' ,a knife with either blade or handle too long or too short is awkward1 but this one seems to fit my hand1 and undoubtedly will fit yours4 ,try it4 ,harry took it and went through the motions of whittling an imaginary stick4 ,now1 said ,ralph1 we will go out to the wood pile and see what we can find4 ,white pine makes the best wood to start on1 because it is usually straight grained1 soft1 and free from sap2 but it is getting scarce and expensive1 so we must be economical1 as it is a very easy matter to waste lots of lumber4 ,after some searching1 they found part of a pine board1 about a foot long and an inch thick4 ,ralph chopped out a piece with a hatchet and deftly split it to about an inch and a half wide4 ,his skill was a revelation to ,harry1 who saw that even a hatchet could be used with precision4 ,now1 said ,ralph1 ,i want you to cut this piece of rough pine to a smooth1 straight piece1 just an inch square4 ,oh1 that's easy1 replied ,harry eagerly4 ,just watch me4 ,take care1 said ,ralph4 ,i said an inch square2 anything less than an inch will be wrong4 ,just imagine that this is a problem in arithmetic and you are trying to find the answer4 ,if you succeed in making it just an inch square the answer will be correct2 anything larger or smaller than the exact size will be wrong4 ,in the first place1 hold your knife so that it makes a slant or oblique angle with the wood1 like this 7,fig4 #b71 he said1 taking the wood in his left hand and the knife in his right4 ,that gives what we call a paring action1 and is much easier 7,fig4 #c7 than the stiff way you were holding it1 at right angles with the stick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,correct way to hold the knife ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,incorrect method of holding knife ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,helen ,w4 ,cooke4 ,the ,boy and ,his ,jack ,knife ,now remember that the trouble with beginners is that they usually take off too much material4 ,make light1 easy cuts and try to get one side of the wood perfectly straight first4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,testing with the try square ,this was a harder job than ,harry had expected1 but after much testing and sighting 7,fig4 #d7 ,ralph said it would do for the first attempt4 ,now1 he said1 you may consider this first side the foundation of your house4 ,make a pencil mark on it near one of the edges1 what the woodworker would call his witness mark4 ,it means that this side or face is finished and the edge nearest the pencil mark is to be trued up next4 ,this proved even a harder job than the first1 because after whittling and testing until he had the second side straight and true1 ,ralph tested it with a square and found that the second edge was not at right angles with the first1 or working face4 ,it was finally straightened1 however1 to stand the try square test fairly well4 ,an inch was next marked off at each end on face number one1 and a sharp pencil line drawn from end to end4 ,harry then whittled this third side down to the line1 and tested again with the try square4 ,it seemed easier to do now1 and the thickness was obtained in the same way4 ,it looked as if they never would get that piece of pine exactly square1 and even when ,ralph said it would do1 they measured it with a rule and found it an eighth of an inch too small each way4 ,harry was disgusted4 ,the answer is wrong after all1 he exclaimed1 but ,i'll learn to do that if it takes me a month4 ,that's the right sporting spirit1 said ,ralph4 ,keep at it till you get it4 ,it's the hardest thing you will ever have to do with a knife1 and it's unfortunate that you have to tackle it the first thing2 but it's like learning to play the piano1 you must learn the notes and scales and how to use your fingers before you can play a real piece4 ,every time you try this1 you are gaining skill and the control of your hands4 ,after a while you will be able to do it easily and think nothing of it4 ,several days later ,harry brought in a piece that he had been working on and ,ralph tested it carefully with rule and try square4 ,he gave ,harry a pat on the back4 ,good for you1 boy2 you are coming along splendidly1 he said4 ,how many of these have you tried8 ,twenty1 said ,harry meekly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the notched trophy stick ,well1 now1 ,i'll show you how the ,indians used to record their exploits4 ,we'll put a notch on this stick for every one you've tried to make1 and you can keep it as a souvenir of your first attempts at whittling4 ,so with great care they measured off six two-inch spaces on each edge1 carefully drew notches with a pencil and rule1 and as carefully cut each notch to the line4 7,fig4 #e47 ,harry was delighted with the result4 ,they then hunted up a small screw eye1 found the exact centre of the end of the stick by drawing two diagonals1 fastened the screw eye in the centre and tied to it a piece of red1 white and blue ribbon4 ,a quarter-inch bevel was made around each end as a finishing touch4 ,this piece of white pine1 with its twenty notches1 hangs to-day in ,harry's room1 and every once in awhile he counts the notches to make sure they are all there1 and recalls the trial that each one represents4 ,harry was so much pleased with his notched trophy stick that he wanted to begin something else at once1 and he was immediately started on a key rack4 ,too many homes1 said ,ralph1 sagely1 have no definite place to keep keys4 ,those that have no tags are always a nuisance4 ,every key or bunch of keys should have a tag attached and should be hung on a certain hook where it can be found without searching4 ,now we'll make a sketch of a key rack before doing anything else1 to find out just how large a piece of stick we shall need4 ,the drawing they produced is shown in ,fig4 #f and called for a piece of wood seven inches long1 an inch wide1 and half an inch thick4 ,as the key rack was to be a permanent household article1 they decided on gum wood as more suitable than pine1 it being easy to work and having a satisfactory appearance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,the various steps in making a key rack ,the different stages in the process of cutting out are shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,at a is shown the stock squared up with the knife to the extreme outside dimensions4 ,the ends were then whittled down to the form shown at b and the blank piece was ready for notching4 ,the notches were carefully drawn with a sharp hard pencil and cut as shown at c4 ,the ends were bevelled by whittling to the lines1 and the inner edges of the notches in the centre were whittled back to the middle of each edge4 ,then the knife work was finished4 ,three brass screw hooks were placed in the centre of the large blank spaces1 and two small screw eyes fastened into the upper edge for hanging the key rack on the wall4 ,each stage of the work had been worked out so carefully that the boys hardly realized what a satisfactory result they were getting4 ,when it was finally hung in the boys' room1 of course some keys must be put on it1 and as they had no tags1 the making of some followed as a matter of course4 ,a search through their small stock of woods disclosed a few little pieces of holly1 the remains of fret saw work1 about an eighth of an inch thick4 ,this proved to be ideal material1 and half a dozen key tags were made of the size and shape shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,the holes were made with a brad awl1 the tags fastened to the rings by small pieces of wire1 and the names of the keys printed on the different tags with black drawing ink4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,the key tag ,the boys1 from this time on1 seemed possessed with a mania for making articles to be used about the house4 ,one thing to be manufactured without delay was a winder for their fishing lines4 ,the form they finally decided on is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,ralph insisted on the design being carefully drawn on a piece of thin wood1 a quarter of an inch thick4 ,harry found whittling to curved lines somewhat harder than notching1 but he produced a fairly satisfactory result4 ,ralph was a very exacting teacher1 always having in mind his own training in school4 ,he showed ,harry how to cut out the curves at the ends without cutting his thumb 7,fig4 #i47 and gave him much advice about whittling away from himself1 whenever possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fish line winder ,when the knife work was finished1 ,ralph explained that where curved edges were cut it was allowable to smooth with a piece of fine sand-paper1 although as a rule it was to be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,cutting concave curves ,harry wanted to know why1 and ,ralph explained that1 generally speaking1 sand-paper was the hallmark of a poor workman1 one who could not do good work with his tools4 ,sand-paper leaves a scratched surface1 for the grit becomes embedded in the wood to a certain extent1 and it will immediately ruin the cutting edge of a sharp tool in case one has to be used after the sand-papering4 ,so1 he summed up1 keep your sand-paper and knife as far apart as possible4 ,about this time the ladies of the household thought that a winder for worsted would come in very handy1 and the boys evolved a new form1 shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,this was made only an eighth of an inch thick1 and proved so easy of construction that each of the boys made two and allowed that they ought to satisfy the sewing department for some time to come4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the worsted winder ,do you know1 exclaimed ,harry one day1 we could make lots of things for ,christmas and birthday presents6 ,why1 certainly1 said ,ralph1 and people appreciate things that you have made yourself much more than things you buy4 ,anybody can go to the store and buy ready-made presents1 but those you make yourself mean more4 ,in what way8 said ,harry4 ,why1 they represent much more of your time and labour1 and thought2 and1 by the way1 if we are going to make many ,christmas presents1 we must start right away1 because we only have a few weeks and you know how little time we have outside of school hours after getting our lessons4 ,the result of this talk was that the little building in the yard which they called their shop became a perfect beehive of industry for several weeks4 ,with what money they had saved they purchased a supply of lumber and a few tools the use of which ,ralph said he would explain later4 ,he suggested that ,harry begin by making some calendar backs1 as suitable ,new ,year's presents1 because they were easy2 and the more complicated articles could be made after ,harry had developed a little more skill with the knife4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,first calendar back ,the drawing he made is shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,this called for a small calendar about two inches long1 an inch and three quarters high1 and a space this size was drawn on the centre of the calendar back1 while the calendar was glued to the wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,second calendar back ,after two or three of these had been made1 ,harry decided that they were too small to suit him1 and a new design somewhat larger was worked out on paper4 ,it was a little more difficult to follow1 because the outline had two reversed curves1 but the boys were too busy and interested to be daunted by a trifle like that4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,ralph suggested simple picture frames1 and this brought the new problem of cutting out an opening for the picture4 ,the first design they tried is shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,ralph had to show ,harry how to make the ellipse with compasses by first constructing two squares or rectangles touching1 and with both diagonal lines in each square4 ,by taking for a centre the point where the squares touch1 as a and b1 and using the length of a diagonal line as a radius1 two arcs were drawn at x and y4 ,the ellipse was finished by taking c as a centre1 and the distance c d as a radius1 to draw arc z1 and the other end was finished in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,picture frame with elliptical opening ,ralph explained that this was not a perfect ellipse1 but would answer for a small picture frame4 ,the drawing was easy compared to the question of how to cut out the wood to this curved line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,using the coping saw ,one of the new tools was brought out1 and ,harry was introduced to the mysteries of the coping saw4 7,fig4 #ad74 ,a thin saw blade was produced and fastened in one end of the frame1 the other end being left free4 ,a hole was made inside of the ellipse with a brad awl1 the free end of the blade passed through the opening and fastened in the frame of the saw4 ,resting the picture frame on the edge of a bench1 the ellipse was sawed out roughly about #a_/af of an inch inside of the drawing4 ,this remaining sixteenth of an inch was then whittled to the line with a knife and finished with sand-paper4 ,harry found some difficulty in getting this elliptical opening smooth enough to suit him1 so they tried designing for half an hour1 and produced a new form 7,fig4 #ae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,picture frame in straight lines ,this was easier1 as there were no curved lines1 and it could be sawed close to the outside as well as the inside lines1 to save time in whittling4 ,while ,harry was finishing this frame1 ,ralph was busy on a new design and finally passed over the drawing shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,do you know there is as much fun in getting up new designs as there is in making them in wood8 said ,ralph4 ,yes1 but you have to know how to draw1 replied the younger boy4 ,can't you teach me8 ,yes4 ,i first make a rough sketch of my idea1 and then a careful drawing of its actual size1 with the drawing instruments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,third picture frame ,that's the part that ,i want to learn3 how to use the instruments4 ,a lesson in mechanical drawing followed1 and as it is a very important subject to young woodworkers1 it will be given in full in the next chapter4 ,,iii ,,mechanical ,,drawing ,in taking up mechanical drawing1 said ,ralph1 always remember that accurate and neat work1 containing all necessary dimensions1 is half the battle4 ,you will probably feel1 as ,i did at first1 that it is a waste of time1 but you can always consider that when your drawing is finished the work is half done4 ,you can judge from it the number of pieces of stock required1 and their over-all dimensions ,this saves much time at the wood pile1 and tells at a glance to just what size you must square up each piece of stock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,the outfit for mechanical drawing ,the drawing board is an absolute necessity4 ,it need not be perfectly square1 but the surface must be flat and true1 and at least one of the edges absolutely straight4 7,fig4 #ag47 ,the ,t square must have a thin blade--about #a_/af of an inch1 and be made of hard wood4 ,it should form a right angle with the head1 which slides along the left-hand edge of the drawing board1 and that must be the straight edge4 ,the ,t square is used as a guide for the pencil in drawing horizontal lines1 and it should always be kept on the same side of the drawing board4 ,when drawing a vertical line1 one of the wooden triangles should be placed on the ,t square and the line drawn along the left-hand edge of the triangle4 ,circles or arcs of circles are drawn with the compasses held at the extreme top4 ,with this introduction1 the boys proceeded to fasten with four thumb-tacks a piece of drawing paper to the upper part of the drawing board4 ,why don't you put the paper in the centre8 asked ,harry4 ,because1 if one worked on the lower part of the drawing board1 the ,t square head would extend below the edge of the board1 and touch the table4 ,you would have to watch it constantly4 ,the head of the ,t square should always be tight against the board1 for when you slide it too far down1 it sometimes strikes the table without your knowing it1 and you find your horizontal lines are not horizontal2 so ,i always like to have the drawing paper as high up on the board as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,blocking out the crosses of ,st4 ,andrew and ,st4 ,george ,the boys agreed that while the younger was learning to make drawings1 each one should represent something to be made later in wood4 ,drawing number one was a square1 #c inches on a side4 ,ralph showed how this was made with only two measurements4 ,drawing one horizontal and one vertical line1 #c inches were marked off on each1 the other two lines drawn through these new points1 and the square was finished4 ,ralph insisted that all lines be very light1 as they could be darkened up later1 if necessary1 and were easy to erase in case of a mistake4 7,fig4 #ah47 ,harry was then told to divide the upper and left-hand sides into even inches1 and to draw across the square vertical and horizontal lines from the four points obtained4 ,thus the large square was subdivided into nine #a-;inch squares1 and by darkening the lines shown in the figure at a the cross of ,st4 ,george was produced4 ,another #c-;inch square was drawn1 and marked off1 as shown at b4 ,the points were connected by oblique lines by means of the #de-;degree triangle1 and by darkening the lines shown at c the cross of ,st4 ,andrew was formed4 ,after explaining that the ,british flag was a combination of these two figures ,ralph said1 ,while we are drawing crosses1 we may as well make a ,maltese one4 ,starting with a #c-;inch square again1 it was measured off as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the lines were connected and darkened1 as shown at b4 ,now1 said ,ralph1 you can cut that out of wood1 tie a ribbon on it and wear it as a medal4 ,huh1 grunted ,harry4 ,pretty big medal--three inches across6 ,well1 make it any size1 an inch or even less4 ,that's not a bad idea4 ,i'll make it out of white holly1 and put a red1 white1 and blue bow on it4 ,and print on it ',american ,order of ,junior ,woodworkers'4 ,not a bad idea either2 we can find lots of boys who would be glad to join and come here ,saturdays to work in the shop4 ,there would be no trouble to get candidates2 the trouble would be to take care of them4 ,they would fill the yard and overflow into the street1 said ,ralph4 ,but why couldn't we---- ,come now1 let's do one thing at a time2 you are supposed to be learning mechanical drawing4 ,we'll leave the organization of the ,a4 ,o4 ,j4 ,w4 till another time4 ,i'm going to show you how to use the compasses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,the ,maltese cross ,while they were drawing the circle1 quarterfoil1 heart1 and oval1 shown in ,fig4 #bj1 ,ralph reviewed his pupil on the meaning of diameter1 radius1 circumference1 etc4 ,if you want to cut hearts out of paper or wood1 ,i would advise you to wait until ,st4 ,valentine's ,day1 and reserve the oval or egg until ,easter4 ,the circle is a wonderful figure4 ,by marking the radius off on the circumference1 with the compasses1 we find that the former divides the latter into exactly six equal parts1 and by connecting the points1 we have a perfect hexagon4 ,by connecting the alternate points we obtain a perfect equilateral triangle1 and by connecting the remaining points we get another triangle of the same size4 ,the two triangles form a six-pointed star4 7,fig4 #ba47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj ,now1 said ,ralph1 ,i am going to give you a problem by dictation2 all you have to do is to obey orders4 ,first draw a circle #c-a_/b inches in diameter4 ,what's the radius8 asked ,harry4 ,that's for you to find out4 ,harry thought a moment1 divided three and a half by two1 and setting his compasses at #a-c_/d1 drew the circle4 ,now divide the circumference into three equal parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,triangle1 hexagon and star ,the boy puzzled over this for a moment1 then marked off the radius1 cutting the circumference into six parts1 as if for a hexagon1 and erased every other point1 leaving three4 ,draw radial lines from these points to the centre4 ,easy1 remarked ,harry1 and drew a line from each point to the centre with the edge of one of his triangles4 ,find the centre of each of those lines4 ,easy again1 said the boy1 as he set his compasses at #g_/h of an inch1 and from the centre of the circle cut each of the straight lines with an arc4 7,fig4 #bb47 ,draw a semicircle from each of these points with a radius of #e_/h of an inch4 ,easier still1 quoth ,harry1 as he drew the semicircles4 ,the drawing then looked like a 7,fig4 #bb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,pulley design ,now1 said the teacher1 let me show you something4 ,he made a few strokes with the compasses1 and the drawing as shown at b was finished4 ,that is enough for to-day4 ,the compasses are about the easiest of all instruments to use1 provided you keep in mind that the pencil point needs to be sharpened to a chisel1 or flat shape1 the same as any other drawing pencil4 ,the number of designs which may be made with it are simply endless1 as you will learn later on4 ,,iv ,,mechanical ,,drawing3 ,,continued ,the next day1 as they were about to resume their study1 ,ralph said3 ,there is so much to drawing that ,i hardly know where to begin1 or what to leave out2 but in shop drawing1 a picture will not do2 imagine an architect trying to build a skyscraper from a picture4 ,the shop drawing must tell the mechanic everything he needs to know about the object he is making4 ,he cannot keep running to the office asking questions2 the drawing must answer them all4 ,that is the reason why the draughting-room is such an important part of every manufacturing plant4 ,drawing is the language the designer uses to tell the workmen what he wants made4 ,it is doubly important when the designer is hundreds or thousands of miles away from the workman4 ,a battle-ship can be designed in ,australia and built in ,england1 so this language of the shop has grown to be a very interesting and important art4 ,every one who works with tools must learn it sooner or later1 the sooner the better4 ,usually it is necessary to represent even the simplest object by at least two views4 ,for example1 suppose ,i hand you this sketch a 7,fig4 #bc71 and tell you to make two out of wood4 ,you wouldn't know what to do because no thickness is shown1 but if ,i give you this sketch b1 you would see immediately that it has practically no thickness and might be a sheet of paper4 ,you learn that from the top view looking down on it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,front and top views ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,showing necessity for top view ,the first view is called the front view4 ,now1 suppose ,i change the top view to this c2 thickness is shown here1 and if ,i say1 make two of these out of white pine1 you would know all that would be necessary to go ahead4 ,again1 suppose ,i give you this sketch a 7,fig4 #bd71 and ask you to make two out of gum wood4 ,you would be completely at sea1 because that front view might have any one of these top views shown at b1 c1 d1 e 7,fig4 #bd74 ,in other words1 it might be a triangle without thickness1 a wedge1 cone1 or pyramid4 ,so you see1 two views are absolutely necessary1 and very often a third1 taken from the right or left side4 ,the three views of a book would look like ,fig4 #be4 ,the side view is not necessary in this case1 but that is the way it would be drawn if a third were needed4 ,you will have plenty of opportunities for practising this as we get along with our tool work1 because in order to understand drawings you must be able to make them4 ,suppose you try your hand now1 by drawing the two views of a cylinder1 two inches in diameter and three inches high4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,three views of a book ,ralph rolled a sheet of paper up until the ends met1 to illustrate a cylinder1 and the drawing produced by ,harry looked like a4 7,fig4 #bf47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,mechanical drawings of cylinder and cone ,now1 said ,ralph1 no shop drawing is complete unless it shows all the necessary dimensions2 so ,i will put them on to show you how it is done1 but after this you must dimension every drawing you make4 ,the finished drawing of the cylinder is shown at b4 ,harry was told to make the mechanical drawing of a cone1 #b inches in diameter1 and #c inches high4 ,while he was working at this problem1 ,ralph disappeared1 and when he returned ,harry asked where he had been4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,making a tip cat ,never mind4 ,let me see your drawing1 c 7,fig4 #bf74 ,all right4 ,then he laid a little wooden object on the table4 ,why1 it's a cat1 said ,harry4 ,yes1 a tip cat1 and as soon as you make a working drawing of it1 you are going to manufacture one with your knife4 ,please notice that the tip cat is a cylinder with a cone at each end1 and two views will show everything about it4 ,the drawing took longer to make than ,harry imagined it would2 or it seemed longer because he was so impatient to get to work with his knife4 ,his finished drawing is shown at a 7,fig4 #bh74 ,the different stages in the making of the tip cat are shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,second tip cat ,first came the squaring up1 shown at a4 ,then the two ends were whittled down to wedges as shown at b1 and these two ends reduced to square pyramids1 as at c4 ,lines a quarter of an inch from each edge were drawn on the four sides of the square part and continued out to the points of the pyramids1 as at d4 ,cutting to this line changed the square to an octagon1 and the square pyramids to octagonal ones4 ,the edges were again whittled off until there were no more to be seen2 the cat was smoothed with sand-paper1 and called finished4 ,harry was delighted1 but ,ralph said3 ,that is not the best form for a tip cat1 because it will roll4 ,we will make a bat for it now1 and after we have played with it awhile1 we'll make a better one2 just the same except that the centre part will be left square and only the ends rounded4 7,fig4 #bh1 b47 ,the bat they made is shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,its handle was cut out with the coping saw and whittled to the lines4 ,ralph explained that anything to be held should be rounded1 or it would be hard on the hand1 so all the edges were curved with the knife and finished with sand-paper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,bat for tip cat ,they had so much fun with the cat and bat that woodwork was forgotten for two afternoons4 ,the third day it rained1 so the boys were glad to get at work again in the shop4 ,ralph suggested that1 as they were doing so much drawing1 it might be well to make a pencil sharpener4 ,the drawing they produced is shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,this was easily worked out in #a_/h-;inch wood with a piece of sand-paper glued in the oblong space4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,pencil sharpener ,the sand-paper suggested match scratchers1 and as they are useful articles1 several designs were worked up for ,christmas gifts4 ,three of these are shown in ,fig4 #ca1 but after a good deal of discussion it was decided that for scratching matches a longer space for sand-paper was necessary1 and three other designs 7,fig4 #cb7 were the result of several hours' work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,first match scratchers ,i'm getting tired of match scratchers1 exclaimed ,harry2 let's make some toys6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,later designs in match scratchers ,very well1 we'll get ready for ,santa ,claus1 and provide a stock of things for our numerous young cousins1 replied ,ralph4 ,this will give us a chance to use our coping saw1 and ,i have been wanting to do that for a long time4 ,v ,,toys ,in making presents for little children1 said ,ralph1 we must always remember that the toys will be played with and receive a great deal of rough handling4 ,so to begin with1 they must be strong and of simple construction4 ,the youngsters don't care so much for finely finished articles as older people do1 and they tire very quickly of things that are so complicated that they get out of order easily4 ,suppose we first make some neat boxes4 ,they can be filled with candy1 and after that is gone they will be used for a long time to keep treasures in4 ,fig4 #cc shows the drawing of the first box the boys made4 ,the two oblong pieces form the top and bottom4 ,the latter was nailed on with #c_/h-;inch brads4 ,the two cleats were nailed to the under side of the top to hold it in place1 while the sides and ends were fastened with a little glue1 and one brad in the centre4 ,this made a very serviceable box1 the material being basswood #c_/af of an inch thick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,toy box ,the sled shown in ,fig4 #cd came next1 made of the same material as the box4 ,ralph was delighted with its strength and graceful lines4 ,two cleats were glued into the grooves in the sides1 and the top nailed on with #c_/h-;inch brads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,the toy sled ,in each case the drawing was made directly on the wood1 which was sawed close to the lines with the coping saw1 and finished to the lines with the knife4 ,the dog house 7,fig4 #ce7 brought out some new features of construction4 ,the opening in front was cut out with the saw and finished as usual4 ,sides and ends were then put together with glue4 ,the two pieces forming the roof were nailed together with #c_/h-;inch brads1 to make a right angle and were then placed in position and nailed to the front and back pieces4 ,ralph explained that it was a saving of time and trouble to draw a light pencil line to mark the location of the brads4 ,if this is not done1 the brads are apt to come out in the wrong place and will then have to be withdrawn and placed again4 ,this is a waste of time and it very often spoils the looks of the work1 so that the drawing of the pencil lines really saves time in the end1 and the lines can be erased4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,the dog house ,we can make any amount of this dolls' furniture1 said ,ralph4 ,in fact we could build a doll's house and equip it with chairs1 tables1 and beds1 but what the youngsters really like best is something that works1 something that moves1 so ,i move--no pun intended--that we design a toy that has some life to it4 ,we can cut it out with the coping saw and there need not be a great deal of knife work to it4 ,suppose we make an ,indian paddling a canoe6 ,this was more of a problem than they had bargained for1 as it was necessary to look through an encyclopdia to find pictures of canoes1 ,indians1 tomahawks1 etc4 ,harry traced the figure of an ,indian chief1 transferred it to the surface of a piece of #a_/h-;inch basswood1 and on sawing it out found that he had a very good silhouette of an ,indian1 but it did not move 7,fig4 #cf74 ,the problem was still unsolved1 and experiments along that line used up several afternoons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,indian chief ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,indian paddlers ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,indian paddlers4 ,separate parts cut out and assembled ,what was finally worked out is shown in ,fig4 #cg4 ,the arms were made separate from the body1 and were fastened to both the paddles and the bodies by brads1 which acted as pivots4 ,the bodies were then fastened to the canoe in the same way1 but a little glue was used as well as brads1 as they were to be immovable4 ,how to make the paddlers move in unison was a hard problem1 finally solved by fastening a narrow strip of wood to the lower part of each paddle4 ,it was found that by moving this strip back and forth the two figures moved with the precision of a machine4 ,in each case where a pivot was required it seemed only necessary to drive in a #c_/h-;inch brad4 7,fig4 #ch47 ,the success of this moving toy was so great that the boys went rushing into the house to show it to the family4 ,soon they came rushing back again1 determined to try their skill on something else4 ,ralph had to remind ,harry that the ,indian paddlers were not yet finished1 as the toy would not stand up1 so the standards shown at b were sawed out1 smoothed with the knife1 and one fastened at each end1 as a support1 by means of brads and glue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the fencers ,after much boyish arguing1 it was decided next to try two swordsmen fencing4 ,this called for some posing1 and looking in books to get the correct position of a man fencing4 ,the drawing shown in ,fig4 #ci was finally copied from a book on athletic sports4 ,the different parts of the figures are shown clearly in the illustration4 ,it was found1 by experimenting with paper figures1 that by making one leg of each figure in two parts1 the body1 arms1 and other leg could be sawed out of one piece4 ,the work of cutting out and assembling this combination1 seemed much easier now that the boys had gotten into the swing of it1 and they were so anxious to see it work that they almost spoiled it in their haste4 ,the swords1 or foils1 were made of two pieces of soft iron wire4 ,ralph insisted on filing these out flat near the ends to make them look realistic1 and they were fastened by drilling a hole in each hand1 passing the wire through and clinching it with a pair of pliers4 ,it was much safer to drill these holes1 as a brad awl sometimes splits wood that is very thin4 ,this combination worked to perfection1 and while they were trying it ,harry caught a glimpse of its shadow on the table4 ,the silhouette in black looked even more realistic than the toy itself1 and it gave the boys an idea4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,these toys could be used for moving shadow pictures1 and immediately their imagination began to conjure up the programme of a show4 ,our first selection1 ladies and gentlemen1 will be a shadow picture1 entitled ',before the ,coming of the ,white ,men'1 exclaimed ,harry1 moving the ,indian paddlers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,the fencers4 ,pieces assembled ,and our next will be entitled ',the ,duel'1 said ,ralph4 ,not a very good historical show1 said ,harry4 ,we ought to have the ',landing of the ,mayflower'4 ,not a bad idea1 either1 said ,ralph4 ,i think we could rig up a ship in a storm4 ,let's try that next4 ,,vi ,,moving ,,toys ,the problem of making a ship roll proved somewhat of a strain on the engineering corner of ,ralph's brain1 and after awhile ,harry grew restless4 ,can't you give me something to do while you are designing that ocean8 he said4 ,ralph1 pausing a moment1 replied1 ,yes1 try two men sawing a log4 ,harry began to draw1 but found that he knew very little about saws1 so had to go out and look at one1 measured it1 and after awhile produced the sketch shown in ,fig4 #da4 ,ralph criticised it rather severely1 suggesting the addition of a log and saw buck1 and advised that the arms of the men and saw be cut out of one piece4 ,the drawing shows the separated pieces1 two bodies1 four legs1 a saw and arms in one piece1 two straight pieces for the saw buck1 the log1 and a little triangular piece to go between log and saw buck4 ,the object of this triangle is to leave a space between the log and saw buck for the passage of the saw back and forth1 as shown in the sectional view4 ,the two pieces forming the buck were halved together1 and the log1 triangle1 and buck are fastened with glue and two brads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,the sawyers ,after all the pieces had been cut out1 the men were first put together by fastening both legs to the body with one #c_/h-;inch brad4 ,the feet were next fastened to the straight piece1 #aj inches long1 representing the ground1 by one brad through each foot1 the bodies standing upright1 and the feet two inches apart4 ,the arms came next1 with one brad through each man's shoulder1 and lastly1 the saw buck1 with the log already fastened rigidly to it1 was nailed on the back of the ground piece with the log in front of the saw4 ,to make this toy stand up1 two standards were fastened to the ends of the ground piece1 the same size as those attached to the fencers in ,fig4 #dj4 ,it took ,harry two hours to make this figure in wood1 after he had the drawing finished4 ,in the meantime ,ralph had worked out a scheme for giving a boat a rolling motion4 ,we'll be mechanical engineers by the time we finish this1 he told ,harry4 ,this piece of mechanism calls for a crank1 a shaft1 two bearings1 and a cam1 not to mention a ship1 an ocean1 and a few miscellaneous articles too trivial to mention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,boat in storm ,the various parts of the ship in a heavy sea are shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,at a is the cam1 at b the crank and handle1 and at c the shaft4 ,the boat was sketched free hand and cut out with the coping saw in one piece by sawing exactly on the lines4 ,the ocean was represented by two pieces corresponding to the ground piece in the sawyers1 and the wavy outline was not made until everything had been cut out and the combination was ready for assembling4 ,the most difficult part--the shaft--was made first1 and entirely with the knife3 ,a piece of basswood was cut exactly a quarter of an inch square1 a section was marked in the centre of this #c_/af inch wide1 and notches were made on each corner4 ,the two ends were then whittled to an octagonal shape and rounded4 ,the square section in the centre was reduced to #a_/h inch wide and the rounded ends sand-papered smooth4 ,next1 the cam was cut out1 and the square hole made4 ,this was accomplished1 after spoiling one1 by drilling a quarter of an inch hole in the square and cutting the opening square with the point of the knife4 ,the object of the square opening was to prevent the cam from slipping when in operation4 ,the cam was then placed over the round part of the shaft and glued to the square section1 over which it fitted snugly4 ,next came the crank4 ,this was made the same shape as the cam1 but the #a_/d inch hole drilled in one end was left round1 while the other was cut square as in the cam4 ,the shaft fitted into the round hole and was glued in after the assembling4 ,for the handle on the crank1 a piece #a_/d inch square was fitted into the square hole1 and the rest of it whittled round and sand-papered4 ,two cleats1 #b inch #a_/d #c_/af inch1 were cut out with the saw and everything was ready for assembling4 ,the two sides of the ocean were held together and the #a_/d-;inch hole at d drilled through both pieces at once4 ,the two notches at e were cut after the assembling was finished4 ,after the holes were drilled1 the wavy line was sawed1 and the two ends of the shaft inserted in the holes with the cam inside4 ,the two cleats were inserted in the ends of the ocean and fastened with brads and glue4 ,next1 the boat was slipped in between the two sides1 with the sloping stern just touching the cam1 and a #c_/h-;inch brad was driven through the three thicknesses1 sides and boat4 ,the crank was next slipped over the shaft and glued in position4 ,the crank handle was inserted into the square hole and fastened with glue1 and lastly a light rubber band was slipped over the notch on the stern of the boat and the two corresponding notches on the bottom of the ocean4 ,this was to hold the boat against the cam1 which gives the motion4 ,to make this toy more realistic1 the boys got out a box of water colors1 painted the body of the boat black1 the ocean green1 and left the basswood sails their natural color--white4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,turkey and executioner ,there1 said ,ralph when it was finished1 the youngsters can raise a storm at any time they like by simply turning the crank4 ,this toy ought to be very serviceable1 as it can't very well get out of order and is almost unbreakable4 ,the subject of moving toys is almost endless1 being limited only by the imagination of the designer4 ,thanksgiving suggested the turkey and the axe1 and in the toy these boys worked out the turkey evades the axe every time4 ,the parts are shown in ,fig4 #dc4 ,the legs of the turkey are stuck rigidly to the body by brads and a little glue1 and they are fastened to the ground piece by one brad1 which acts as a pivot4 ,the axeman's body and right leg are in one piece1 the left leg being in two pieces4 ,the arms adhere rigidly to the body1 and the axe to the hands1 by means of brads4 ,the operating strip is #a_/d inch wide and #i inches long4 ,it is fastened between the legs of the turkey1 and to the rigid leg of the man1 by one brad for pivot in each case4 ,the stump is nailed to the ground strip from the front4 ,,vii ,,designing ,,moving ,,toys ,the boys found this making of toys so fascinating that one was barely finished before another was suggested4 ,so absorbed did they become that even meals were forgotten1 and they regarded it as a hardship to be called in to supper1 while to be told that it was bedtime was absolute cruelty4 ,they found that it saved time to be systematic1 and the usual method of procedure was about as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,the boxers ,first1 to decide on the practicability of the idea4 ,second1 to sketch out a skeleton figure1 as in a 7,fig4 #dd71 the boxers4 ,when the proper action was secured in these skeleton figures1 the bodies were sketched roughly around them as shown at b4 ,third1 the movement of the figures was thought out1 and separate drawings traced from the assembled drawing on tracing paper4 ,fourth1 these separate pieces were traced on #a_/h-;inch basswood with the grain of the wood running the long way of the piece1 wherever it was possible4 ,fifth1 the pieces were sawed out1 and the edges smoothed with knife and sand-paper4 ,very often1 through anxiety to see how it worked1 the smoothing of the edges was neglected4 ,sixth1 the parts were put together with brads1 and where the points came through they were bent over or clinched on the further side4 ,seventh1 after experiments to discover the best position for it1 the moving strip was fastened to the legs by #c_/h-;inch brads1 and last of all the feet were pivoted to the ground piece in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,the boxers assembled ,the boys learned many things not to do3 for example1 all the finer details of the face and hands must be omitted1 as they are very apt to be broken off in sawing4 ,it was found best to make the feet nearly round or the brads would split the wood4 ,for that reason wherever a brad has to be driven through1 the arm or leg should be made larger than the proportionate size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,the racing automobile ,the most surprising feature about the figures was the fact that the shadow they cast on a white wall or sheet was more realistic than the figures themselves1 and our boys never tired of exercising these toys in order to watch the shadow pictures4 ,of all combinations1 perhaps the design and construction of a racing automobile1 that would actually go1 gave them the greatest amount of amusement as well as the largest number of problems to solve4 ,the history of trials and failures need not be given1 but the machine1 as finished1 is shown in ,fig4 #df4 ,the body and hood are comparatively simple4 ,the principal trouble1 as with larger machines1 was with the motive power1 and the boys finally compromised by using a rubber band4 ,the four wheels were sawed out of #c_/af-;inch basswood1 and smoothed with sand-paper1 the two driving wheels for the rear having a #a_/d-;inch hole drilled to receive the ends of the axle4 ,the rear axle was #a_/d inch square at the centre for half an inch1 and the rest of it #a_/d inch in diameter1 rounded with the knife and sand-paper4 ,the total length of the axle was four inches1 and the wheel base seven and one-half inches4 ,for the driving gear1 three disks shown at a 7,fig4 #dg7 were sawed out1 the two large ones1 #a-a_/d inches in diameter1 from #a_/h-;inch basswood4 ,the edges of these two were rounded with knife and sand-paper4 ,the small disk1 #c_/d inch in diameter1 was cut from #a_/d-;inch wood or two #a_/h-;inch pieces placed together and glued4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,pieces of racing automobile ,a square hole was cut through the centre of each of these disks with a knife1 and they were then put together with glue and brads1 making a very serviceable grooved pulley1 which was slipped over the shaft and fitted over the square part in the centre4 ,as it was a snug fit no glue was necessary1 and the square part prevented the pulley from slipping on the shaft4 ,the forward axle was made #c-c_/d inches long1 #a_/d of an inch square1 except at the ends1 where for a distance of #e_/af inch it was rounded1 #a_/d inch in diameter4 ,this completed the wheels1 axles1 and transmission pulley4 ,the chassis1 or frame1 which supports the body1 consists of two pieces of #c_/af-;inch basswood #h inches long and #a_/b inch wide1 with a #a_/d-;inch hole drilled #a_/d inch from each end4 ,the floor of the auto1 on which the body rests1 is #a_/h-;inch basswood #f #c-a_/b inches1 and it binds the whole machine together1 giving it strength and rigidity1 but it must not be fastened in place until the structure is ready for assembling4 ,the hood is simply a box #c-a_/d inches long1 #b-a_/b inches wide1 and #a-a_/d inches high without a bottom4 ,the top piece may be left unfastened1 if desired1 with two cleats on the under side to hold it in position4 ,the hood then becomes an available place to keep small articles1 tools1 etc4 ,the body of the automobile is composed of five pieces3 the two sides of the shape shown at b1 the dash-board1 to which they are fastened with brads1 the seat1 and the back4 ,this body can be taken off and replaced by other bodies1 made to represent roadsters1 touring cars1 limousines1 etc4 ,a block of #a_/d-;inch basswood #c_/d inch square is fastened to the dash-board4 ,this block has a #c_/af-;inch hole drilled through it at an angle of forty-five degrees1 and into this hole is glued the steering-gear1 consisting of a basswood stick1 whittled to #c_/af inch diameter1 with a #a_/h-;inch wheel #a-a_/d inches in diameter fastened at the top1 d4 ,the method of assembling is important4 ,first1 insert the front and rear axles through the holes or bearings in the chassis1 or frame2 then nail the floor to the frame with #c_/h-;inch brads4 ,this gives a rigid structure to work on1 the front edge of the floor being even with the forward ends of the frame4 ,now screw into the under side of the floor1 #a-a_/d inches from the front end1 a #a_/b-;inch screw eye or screw hook1 or even a flat-head nail4 ,this is to hold one end of the rubber band which is to supply the motive power4 ,the hood may now be put together and fastened even with the front of the machine by nailing it from the bottom with brads4 ,the body is put on by nailing the two sides to the dash-board1 and the dash-board to the hood4 ,the seat and seat-back are afterward put in place with brads and the steering-gear glued in position against the dash-board4 ,the wheels should be put on last of all4 ,before placing them in position1 slip two or three new rubber bands over the screw hook under the car1 and tie the free end to the driving pulley so tightly that the cord will not slip on the pulley4 ,the front wheels are fastened to the axles by #a_/b-;inch flat-head wire nails1 and worked until they revolve freely on these pivots2 the flat head holds the wheel on4 ,the rear wheels are the drivers1 and must be fastened rigidly to the axle by glue4 ,when the glue has hardened--this takes several hours--the machine may be sent across the room on the floor by winding the rear axle backward as much as the rubber bands will permit without breaking1 and setting the machine on the floor4 ,the first time the boys tried it1 the rubber band uncoiled so quickly that the auto shot across the room and nearly wrecked itself against the wall4 ,this was too realistic1 especially as it broke one of the forward wheels1 and a new one had to be made4 ,when such an automobile is to be presented to little children who want to draw it around with a string1 it is necessary to remove the rubber band2 otherwise the rear wheels will drag4 ,when our boys had finished their machine1 the question came up to whom it should be given for ,christmas1 and ,harry blurted out1 ,i want it myself4 ,this was the greatest of all their difficulties4 ,when they had finished a piece of work they hated to part with it1 but ,ralph was older1 and he knew that as ,harry became interested in new things he would gradually lose interest in the old ones4 ,so they played with this machine1 made another with a roadster body1 and auto races became the rage for awhile4 ,after several afternoons of racing1 they decided1 just as their elders had done before them1 that what their machines needed was improved motive power4 ,the accomplishment of this would take them out of the realm of woodwork1 so ,ralph suggested that they stick to their motto of one thing at a time4 ,and our business just now is woodwork4 ,,viii ,,the ,,model ,,aeroplane ,the automobile experiment naturally suggested the aeroplane1 and after much reading of magazines and animated discussions as to the relative advantages of biplanes1 monoplanes1 gliders1 etc41 the boys decided to try their skill on a biplane of their own design1 a combination of the features and proportions of the ,curtiss and ,wright machines4 ,the automobile was child's play compared with the problems confronting the young aviators in designing and working out a flying machine1 and1 as in the former case1 the question of motive power was the most difficult4 ,we might add it has not yet been satisfactorily solved4 ,fig4 #dh shows the general appearance of the boys' model1 which was eighteen inches long from front to back1 and the planes1 made of light card-board1 were #ad inches long and #c-a_/b inches wide4 ,the frame1 braces1 rudder1 and tilting plane were made of #a_/h-;inch basswood1 put together with #a_/b-;inch brads clinched wherever the points came through4 ,the parts composing the frame were made first1 and all small details1 such as rudder1 propeller1 tilting plane1 etc41 cut out later4 ,the separate parts are shown in the drawing4 ,four straight pieces like a were required to support the tilting plane in front1 and two pieces each b and c for the rudder in the rear4 ,two pieces a1 one of b and c were fastened together by means of two uprights d1 forming one complete side of the machine4 ,this was completed1 and the second side made identical with it4 ,these two sides were then fastened parallel with each other1 rigidly1 by means of the two rudder posts e e and the cross pieces f f1 by brads4 ,the rudder posts bound the two sides rigidly at the rear1 the cross pieces at the centre1 and at the forward end the tilting plane was held in position by the brads1 which also acted as pivots4 ,this made a remarkably light and yet strong framework4 ,the card-board planes were not placed in position until everything else was finished1 as they could be attached easily and quickly1 but were very much in the way when experiments were being made on the propelling apparatus4 ,of course there had to be a propeller1 and the problem of making it required some practice4 ,ralph introduced the subject by showing ,harry how to make an old-fashioned toy1 shown in the detail drawing1 of two pieces1 one the propeller1 the other a balancing stick4 ,the propeller was made of a piece of #c_/h-;inch basswood1 #d inches long and #a_/b inch wide4 ,a #c_/af-;inch hole was first drilled at the exact centre4 ,the two ends were then whittled down to the shape shown at k4 ,the balancing stick was next whittled down until one end fitted tightly into the hole drilled in the propeller1 and the rest of the stick then rounded until it was of uniform diameter4 ,this stick was glued into the hole1 and allowed to dry4 ,there was plenty of work to do while the glue was hardening1 as the cross pieces g g had to be fastened to the frame to prepare for the installation of the power plant4 ,when the glue was dry1 ,ralph took the balancing stick between the palms of his hands1 drew his right hand toward him with a quick motion1 at the same time releasing the stick4 ,to ,harry's amazement1 the whole thing flew up and struck the ceiling1 and for a few minutes aeroplanes were forgotten while the two played with this interesting but ancient toy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the toy biplane ,ralph explained that the propeller was simply part of a screw thread1 and had actually worked its way through the air just as a screw works its way into a piece of wood4 ,its lifting power had been shown by the way it carried the balancing stick with it up to the ceiling4 ,now1 he continued1 when we place a propeller horizontal it will worm its way forward through the air in the same way and carry the aeroplane with it1 for the simple reason that it is so placed in the frame it can't get out4 ,as the free space it has to revolve in is only #c inches1 we shall have to cut the blades down to about #b-c_/d inches to give it clearance4 ,they whittled out a shaft #a-a_/b inches long and fastened the two notched pieces h h to it after placing the propeller in position between the two cross pieces g g which had been previously drilled with #a_/d-;inch holes to act as bearings4 ,new rubber bands were then passed over the notches1 stretched out to the front and rear of the frame1 and tied to cross pieces4 ,by winding up the propeller1 these bands were twisted tightly1 and when the propeller was released1 the bands unwound1 causing it to revolve rapidly4 ,the rudder was now pivoted in position by brads1 and the two planes fastened by the same method4 ,the power derived from the bands was not sufficient to propel the aeroplane fast enough to support it in the air1 so it was necessary to experiment with strong thread until the centre of gravity was found4 ,it proved to be near the centre of the planes4 ,small holes were made with an awl at this point1 the thread passed through them and tied4 ,by suspending the aeroplane from a chandelier it took up a horizontal position4 ,then the forward tilting plane was elevated slightly and the propeller wound up4 ,on being released the aeroplane slowly and majestically sailed through the air in a great circle1 limited by the length of the suspending thread4 ,the boys never tired of this toy and all it lacked was the ability to fly in the open air1 which would require a more powerful motor4 ,this would more than double the weight of the machine1 and therefore call for larger planes to support it4 ,there you have the great problem of the aviator4 ,ralph wisely suggested that as they had not yet reached the stage of designing gasolene motors they had better leave the aeroplane as it was1 or it would be necessary to abandon their woodwork1 which neither of them had any intention of doing4 ,,ix ,,the ,,monoplane ,a very satisfactory monoplane can be made from the plans shown in ,fig4 #di4 ,the material for the frame should be quarter-inch white pine or spruce4 ,the six long strips are #cj inches in length1 and for fastening1 holes should be drilled and the connection made by passing fine soft wire through them and binding fast4 ,the top frame1 formed of four of these long strips1 should be made first1 with particular attention to the measurements1 so that both sides shall be exactly the same size and weight4 ,at the rear end the two long strips may be wired together temporarily4 ,the propeller shown in the drawing can be made at any time from a piece of white pine #g_/h inch thick and #ab inches long by #a-c_/d inches wide4 ,it is a good piece of whittling work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di 7a74 ,the toy monoplane4 ,the #c_/h-;inch hole for the shaft should be bored first1 and the propeller blades reduced to a thickness of #a_/h inch at the centre of the blade1 and #a_/af inch or less at the edges4 ,the shaft needs to be strong1 and should be made of a piece of #c_/h-;inch dowel rod4 ,make a saw cut with back saw in the end1 which is to be fastened in the propeller4 ,when ready to assemble1 push this end into the #c_/h-;inch hole in the propeller1 drive in a soft pine wedge with a little glue1 and a rigid fastening will result4 ,the groove in the rear end of the shaft is to take the thrust of the propeller1 and hold it in the machine4 ,this groove may be readily cut out with the knife1 and smoothed with sand-paper4 ,two bearings are necessary to hold the shaft in alignment4 ,the forward one is a strip of pine #a_/d by #c_/d1 with a #c_/h-;inch hole bored at the centre4 ,this hole should be sand-papered until the shaft turns in it freely4 ,the rear bearing is a strip #e_/h by #c_/h inch1 laid out as shown at a4 ,the quarter-inch hole must be bored first4 ,next1 drill two small holes with a fine drill on either side of the hole for the wires which are to hold the two pieces together4 ,next saw on the pencil line shown1 removing the small piece x4 ,test the bearing by placing the small grooved section of the shaft in the quarter-inch hole to see if it turns freely4 ,when this has been accomplished1 the propeller and its bearings are ready for the monoplane4 ,looking at the front view1 the two uprights are #i #c_/d #a_/d inches4 ,at the top ends they are rabbeted as shown1 and wired to the top frame4 ,at the bottom they are wired to the long strips which form the long sides of the bottom frame4 ,before putting these uprights on1 a #a_/d-;inch hole should be drilled #a-a_/b inches from the bottom of each4 ,these are to receive the #a_/d-;inch dowel rod which acts as the axle for the spool s4 ,this rod should be #aj inches or more in length1 so that brads or wire may be passed through the ends outside the uprights to keep the axle in place4 ,the small spool which acts as a pulley must be perfectly free to turn on this rod1 and be kept in place by two brads driven through drilled holes on either side of it4 ,the front and lower parts of the frame are now ready to be assembled4 ,the four long strips constituting the body of the frame are all wired together at the back1 temporarily4 ,to finish the forward part1 saw out a strip #c_/h #a_/d inch1 and form on each end a rounded bearing1 as in the automobile1 for two wheels #a-c_/d inches in diameter4 ,saw the wheels out of #c_/af-;inch basswood1 drill a hole at each centre1 place on the bearing1 and fasten in place with a flat-head wire nail and a small washer next to the wheel4 ,sand-paper the wheels smooth1 and see that they turn freely4 ,tack the strip1 or wire it to the uprights1 as low down as possible4 ,the rear end of the monoplane is a nice little problem4 ,cut out a block of pine from #a inch to #a-a_/h inches square4 ,in the side facing the front place a screw eye for fastening the spring or rubber bands4 ,the rudder is shown in the drawing4 ,drill two holes1 as shown1 and drive in brads or flat-head wire nails1 as large as the hole1 so that the rudder may be turned by hand1 but not free enough to turn with the wind4 ,next drill a hole clear through the block for the axle of the tilting planes4 ,it is not necessary that the axle be at the exact centre of the cube4 ,it should extend quite through both planes as well as the cube1 and be bent around the edges1 so as to make them rigid4 ,they should be snug enough to turn by hand1 but not loose enough for the wind to shift4 ,the four sides of the frame are now whittled down to fit the block1 and wired to it4 ,last comes the question of motive power4 ,this is the great problem4 ,the writer is opposed to encouraging boys to believe that these toy aeroplanes can be made to fly great distances4 ,the propeller would have to be made to revolve at high speed for several minutes in order to accomplish this1 and the tension of rubber bands is not equal to it4 ,the machines can be made to fly short distances only4 ,the problem of aviation is now a question of motors1 and the smallest gasolene motor1 with its tank1 etc41 requires a fairly large aeroplane to lift it4 ,no doubt1 the problem will be solved within a short time1 but it has not been done at the time of writing4 ,for this size of toy monoplane several large rubber bands may be tied together1 fastened at the screw eye on one end and to a piece of strong linen kite cord at the other4 ,pass this cord forward under the spool and up to the propeller shaft4 ,drill a small hole in the shaft1 draw the cord taut1 and fasten it through this hole4 ,while the model has no planes as yet1 it is wise to get the propeller working before putting them on1 as the space for working is freer4 ,wind up the propeller until the bands have been stretched to their limit1 then let go4 ,it may be necessary to place wheels at the rear1 the same as in front4 ,on a smooth floor1 the machine should be drawn forward several feet by the action of the propeller4 ,it is entirely practicable1 on a plane of this size1 to use the works of an ordinary alarm clock in place of rubber bands4 ,remove the outer casing of an old clock2 loosen the four brass nuts that hold the frame together1 and take out all the wheels1 except the axle on which the mainspring is fastened4 ,put the frame together again with the four nuts4 ,the axle for the mainspring extends outside of the frame1 and is threaded to receive the handle for winding4 ,take this handle off4 ,drill a hole in the end of the propeller shaft1 slightly smaller than the mainspring axle1 and screw the latter into the propeller shaft4 ,you now have the clock-works on the end of your shaft1 and it is necessary to fasten a strip of pine #a_/b in4 by #a_/d in4 to the upper sticks of the frame in order to wire the works fast1 as they must not be allowed to turn4 ,by turning the propeller you wind up the clock1 and as soon as you release it1 as there is no escapement now to regulate the spring1 it tries to unwind at once1 and the propeller starts at terrific speed4 ,look out for your hands1 as the propeller blades have no conscience4 ,this action1 although strenuous1 is short lived1 but much more powerful than rubber bands4 ,the spring of an ordinary alarm clock is powerful enough to drive a wooden two-bladed propeller #ab inches in diameter with blades two inches wide at the outside4 ,it will draw a monoplane of this size along the floor several feet4 ,having finally decided the question of power1 it remains to attach the planes4 ,the remaining long strip is wired to the top pieces1 #ab inches from the front1 and the plane1 made of silk1 oiled paper1 or very thin card-board1 attached4 ,in many toy aeroplanes the bands of rubber are not stretched1 but twisted4 ,the shaft in this case is a wire which1 after being fastened to the propeller1 passes through a glass bead and then the frame1 ending in a hook to which the rubber bands are attached4 ,there must be a perfectly clear space from front to back of the frame4 ,the glass bead between the propeller and frame is to relieve the friction4 ,x ,,kites ,making and experimenting with aeroplanes calls for much patience and often ends in disappointment--the lot of inventors generally4 ,this is no reason why work should stop1 as all progress is made by attempting the supposedly impossible1 but it will be restful after a while to turn to the ancient and gentle art of kite making4 ,incidentally1 something may be learned about the effect of wind on plane surfaces that will prove helpful in aeroplane work4 ,the aeroplane kite shown in ,fig4 #ej is simple and effective4 ,it may be given the appearance of a ,blriot monoplane by modifying some of its features1 as shown at b1 the planes having a slight upward slant4 ,the arrangement of the frames is clearly shown in the drawing4 ,spruce or white pine may be used1 as lightness is an essential4 ,the method of fastening the sticks is important4 ,it is not wise to halve them1 as their strength will be reduced below the safety point1 and nails are likely to split them4 ,bind them securely with strong linen kite cord or fine soft wire4 ,kite a is open to criticism on account of the single stick connecting front and back4 ,the second form is better1 and the two long sticks may be correspondingly lighter without reducing the ultimate strength of the frame4 ,the method of joining three sticks1 as at the forward end1 is shown in detail in ,fig4 #ej4 ,wherever a butt joint occurs1 join the two pieces by means of small strips of tin cut to size with a pair of tinsmith snips4 ,drill holes through tin and sticks1 pass fine soft wire through the hole1 and twist tightly with a pair of pliers4 ,the planes or sails may be of light1 strong paper1 or some light fabric1 such as lawn or cheap silk4 ,the fabric should be cut to size1 allowing two inches each way for the hem4 ,pieces of cord are fastened to the hem1 and tied to the ends of the sticks through small holes drilled for the purpose1 or tied to notches cut with the knife4 ,the advantage of this method is that the sails1 or planes1 may be drawn tightly or removed without loss of time4 ,in this way a number of fabrics can be used for experimental purposes4 ,paper1 on the other hand1 must be lapped over sticks and wires1 and glued4 ,propellers may be fastened to front1 rear1 or both1 to create the appearance of a real aeroplane4 ,the restraining action of the cord holding one of these kites up against the wind brings into action the same force that supports the glider or aeroplane1 and the sails1 especially fabrics1 assume the curve of a boat sail1 when close-hauled and sailing into the wind4 ,the forms that are possible are infinite1 and limited only by the imagination of the designer4 ,it is well to begin with one of the standard types1 and leave experimental forms until some experience has been gained4 ,the ,americanized ,malay1 ,eddy1 or parakite is shown in ,fig4 #ej4 ,the two sticks are of equal length1 bound together with twine or soft wire4 ,distance c e should be from #ad to #ah per cent4 of the total length c d4 ,the vertical stick remains straight1 but cross stick a b is bent back like a bow1 the distance e f being #aj per cent4 of the total length of either stick1 and maintained by a string from a to b4 ,the four points a c b d are joined by a cord drawn taut1 to make sure that the sticks are at right angles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,the material should be cut as shown1 the amount lapped being uniform all around4 ,this is important1 as a slight difference in weight between the two sides would result in erratic flying4 ,for ,eddy kites up to three feet in height a light-weight wrapping paper will answer very well4 ,larger sizes require nainsook1 lawn1 or ,china silk4 ,like all the kites described here1 this is a tailless one1 and the method of fastening the bridle is shown4 ,make a small hole in the covering1 pass a cord through1 and tie it to cross the stick at its centre4 ,fasten the other end about half an inch from lower end of upright1 and make a loop at o for attaching the line4 ,the kite line should be the light and strong linen twine made especially for this purpose1 and sold by toy and sporting goods dealers4 ,a ball containing #fjj yards of cord1 strong enough to hold any three-foot kite1 will cost about fifty cents4 ,for larger sizes1 it pays to make a reel1 to save time drawing in and to avoid bad tangles4 ,a simple form of reel is shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,the frame has a generous-sized hole bored as shown at h4 ,cut a small branch in the form shown1 i1 and use this as a stake4 ,drive it into the ground through h1 and use it as a pivot to shift the reel as the wind changes4 ,with this arrangement the kite cannot drag the reel1 and it is possible to leave the apparatus with the kite in the air4 ,the writer was driven to using this device after seeing his reel go tearing across the fields until stopped by a four-foot fence4 ,the pull exerted at the reel by a train of three or four kites is sometimes sufficient to give a boy all he can do to hold it4 ,the height to which a kite will go is illustrated by the diagram4 ,s is the starting point1 and s t the direction of the string at the start1 when but little cord has been played out4 ,the position of the kite at various times is indicated by letters a b c d e1 the actual path being shown by dotted line4 ,the solid1 curved lines from s to these points show the position of the cord as it is played out4 ,this is a mathematical curve resulting from the weight of cord and kite1 wind pressure on cord1 and lifting power of the plane4 ,it will be seen that the kite finally moves along horizontally1 no matter how much cord is played out4 ,this occurs when the lifting power equals the force of gravity and wind pressure4 ,in other words1 the kite can do no more without an increase of wind4 ,to make it go higher1 we must raise point s by tandem flying1 attaching another kite and cord to the first one1 as shown at x4 ,three or four ,eddy kites may be flown in this way1 the lines of equal or unequal length joined at a common point to the main line2 and1 strange as it may seem1 if they are well balanced kites they will not interfere with each other4 ,in fact1 there seems to be an electrical repulsion among the lines1 so that they spread out like a broom4 ,this is one of the most interesting discoveries in kite flying1 though badly upset in actual practice1 when one member of the team becomes erratic and proceeds to make a braid of the four cords by diving under and over the others to bring about a general demoralization4 ,for this reason1 it is wise to test each kite separately1 first1 to discover any possible tendency to freakishness4 ,a weird experience may be enjoyed by leaving the tandem out after dark4 ,run the main line down by slipping it under your arm1 and walk out until you reach the junction of the four lines1 where a light-weight lantern can be attached4 ,let go1 and see the lantern apparently drawn up into the air by noiseless1 invisible hands4 ,flags and other devices may be attached as indicated in the drawing2 a light stick at a b will keep the flag from blowing up into a heap1 and loops at a and c are tied in the main line to avoid sliding4 ,,the ,,box ,,kite ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,kite details ,the cellular kite is made in several forms4 ,the rectangular box variety is perhaps the most common1 and with the bridle attached is shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,the standard dimensions are3 length a b #gi inches1 width a c #gh inches1 depth of cell c d #cb inches1 and width of cloth covering c e #be inches4 ,a very convenient size is obtained by dividing approximately by two1 making length and width #dj inches each1 and depth #af inches4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,clayton1 of the ,blue ,hill ,observatory1 has patented one form of this kite known as the ,blue ,hill ,naval ,box ,kite1 so the amateur must confine his use of it to experimenting4 ,other forms of cells which have been used are shown at #b #c #d #e4 ,these all possess the advantage--that each plane is a lifting surface1 whereas in the rectangular form the vertical planes have only a rudder action1 tending to hold the kite parallel with the wind4 ,when launching a box kite1 the assistant stands in front of and under it1 while with the ,malay he stands behind it and lets go at a given word4 ,about a hundred yards of line should be run out before launching1 and only a few steps backward by the boy at the string should be necessary4 ,running is only required when the line out is insufficient4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,the tetrahedral kite ,the tetrahedral form invented by ,dr4 ,graham ,bell is unique and interesting4 ,based on the geometrical figure1 it has a remarkable strength of frame1 and possesses a surprising lifting power4 ,the principal difficulty in the construction is in fastening the sticks1 as three of them meet at every point4 ,the frame consists of six pieces of equal length4 ,drill a #a_/cb-;inch hole in each end of all the pieces1 about #a_/d inch from the end4 ,place the pieces on the floor as shown at #a4 ,pass a piece of soft iron or brass wire through the three holes at a and bind lightly4 ,do the same at angles b and c4 ,now raise loose ends d e f until they meet over the centre1 as at #b4 ,join with wire and tighten all the joints with a pair of pliers4 7,fig4 #eb47 ,each face of the frame is an equilateral triangle1 and the covering is to be on only two sides1 as shown at #c4 ,the shape of the piece to be cut is shown at #d4 ,this forms a single cell1 and the large sizes are broken up into many small tetrahedral cells4 ,the line may be tied at c or d4 ,the designing of fancy figure kites is a fascinating occupation1 but unless certain fixed principles are kept in mind may end in much experimenting and many disappointments4 ,the question of steadiness or stability seems to be summed up in the mathematical expression--dihedral angle4 ,a kite having a stiff1 flat surface presented to the wind will often cut up queer antics1 while the same frame covered with a more flexible covering will fly beautifully4 ,the reason is that the flexible covering will be bowed back by the wind1 forming an approximate dihedral angle4 ,in the triangular box and tetrahedral kites this bowing back is not so necessary1 because the dihedral angle is provided in the construction4 ,in these kites1 when a sudden gust of wind presses harder on one side than on the other1 the first side is pressed back1 reducing the resistance1 and the other side is brought forward until both sides receive equal pressure1 or the kite is in equilibrium1 facing the wind2 and the shifting of the breeze is constantly provided for4 ,the bowing back of the covering of an ,eddy kite takes care of sudden changes in the same way4 ,double ,malay kites or two tetrahedral kites1 fastened together1 tandem fashion1 will be found stable1 especially if the rear one be slightly smaller than the forward one4 7,fig4 #ec47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,double kites ,geometrical forms like the hexagon1 six-pointed star1 and even the circle are used1 but these generally require a tail4 ,a butterfly design may be used1 provided the body is designed as a keel and the two wings are tilted backward to provide the required angle4 ,in some of the ,chinese kites1 in the form of insects1 the wings have split bamboo frames1 flexible enough to bend backward and provide the necessary stability4 ,a flexible lower end on the frame also has a good balancing effect4 ,,xi ,,chip ,,carving ,,and ,,knife ,,work ,making moving toys is a form of dissipation1 said ,ralph4 ,it is very fascinating and interesting1 but the making of many toys will never make one an expert woodworker4 ,the accuracy and skill required can be developed only by actual constructive work4 ,i suggest that we take up a form of decoration which can be done with the knife4 ,there are two ways of making an article in wood pleasing to the eye4 ,one is by varying the outline1 as we did in our match scratchers1 and the other is by some kind of surface ornamentation4 ,there are many ways of decorating surfaces--carving1 pyrography1 staining1 polishing1 etc41 and very often several of these methods are combined4 ,as we have started to learn the possibilities of knife work1 ,i propose to teach you a form of carving which can be done with the knife alone4 ,very elaborate work is done with the regular carving tools4 ,this requires a great deal of time and skill1 but with the knife alone a wonderful variety of beautiful work can be done even by small boys4 ,it is very important to approach it properly1 so ,i am going to give you a few simple exercises and the elaborate designs will come along naturally4 ,the work is not new1 and evidently grew out of the still older art of notching4 ,primitive peoples probably saw in it a way to improve the appearance of their various wooden implements4 ,not only could the edges be notched1 but the cutting could be done on flat surfaces as well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,first cuts in carving ,fig4 #ed at a shows one of the earliest designs4 ,it is simply a border of triangular cuts1 and while this may be done with the whittling knife1 ,fig4 #ee shows two knives which are better fitted to do accurate work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,two good types of knife for carving ,the positions for carving are shown in ,fig4 #ef4 ,hold the knife in an upright position1 with the cutting edge away from you1 and the point on the apex of the triangle4 ,press the knife down and then away from you along one of the sides of the triangle4 ,place it in position again1 and repeat the motion along the other side of the triangle1 always directly on the line4 ,this brings the deep part of the cut at the apex of the triangle1 and it remains to take out the triangular chip4 ,this can be done in either of the two ways shown in ,fig4 #ef1 by cutting away from you or toward you4 ,it is well to practise both ways1 as in complicated designs the direction of the grain makes it necessary to cut sometimes in one direction1 sometimes in another4 ,the rest of this border is a repetition of the same stroke1 and the more elaborate designs are simply different arrangements of triangular cuts4 ,in ,fig #ed1 b shows two rows of these same shaped cuts1 one row inverted1 to produce a diamond-shaped border2 c shows a border in which the drawing is similar to b1 but vertical triangles are cut instead of horizontal ones1 as this gives a cut across the grain of the wood instead of parallel to it1 and is a trifle harder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,positions for holding carving knife ,our boys practised on these simple borders for awhile1 using knife a and #a_/d-;inch basswood4 ,the work proved fully as fascinating to ,harry as the making of toys1 and it was decided that from that time onward the outlines of their woodwork should be simpler1 and the decoration should be in the form of chip carving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,a simple picture frame with carving ,while ,harry was practising on these simple borders ,ralph made the basswood photograph frame shown in ,fig4 #eg1 and drew the carving design1 as shown1 with an ,h pencil4 ,to carve this was simply to repeat border b4 ,this was so satisfactory that ,ralph decided to try his pupil on finer work1 and the design shown in ,fig4 #eh was tried4 ,in each case ,harry found that he was making triangular cuts1 and removing triangular chips1 just as in the first border1 only the triangles were in different positions4 ,ralph suggested that they begin to decorate some of the things they had already made1 and the little basswood box shown in ,fig4 #cc was brought out1 and the design shown in ,fig4 #ei drawn and carved upon it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,a more elaborate picture frame ,there followed a number of backs1 which ,ralph explained could be used as thermometer backs1 match scratchers1 calendars1 key racks1 and in other ways4 ,in each case1 the design was drawn carefully on paper1 and thence transferred to the surface of the wood with the same care that it had been done on paper4 ,the designing required considerable thought4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ei and #fj4 ,designs for box covers ,where a border continued around four sides1 the corner became the most difficult and interesting part of the design1 and was worked out first4 7,fig4 #fa47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,straight line designs for thermometer backs ,very soon the boys found that it was necessary to draw only half the design on paper1 and in many cases a corner or quarter sufficed4 ,the next step was to initiate ,harry into the mysteries of curved cutting1 a departure from triangular cutting4 ,he was informed that the cuts were still three-sided1 one or two of the sides being but slightly curved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,curved cuts4 ,fig4 #fb1 used as an enrichment of a back in #c_/h-;inch gum wood1 was ,harry's first effort in curved chip carving4 ,the edges of the blank piece were bevelled with a plane and ,ralph showed his pupil how to do this by holding the blank against a bench hook4 ,the long sides were bevelled first1 the ends last1 to avoid breaking off the corners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,key rack ,the key rack 7,fig4 #fc7 gave an opportunity to use centre pieces inside a border1 diamonds of the flat surface being left uncarved for the placing of the screw hooks4 ,a pencil box for school followed1 the various pieces being shown in ,fig4 #fd4 ,the two sides and ends were made in one strip #a-a_/d inches wide1 and afterward cut to length4 ,to secure this strip of uniform width1 the shooting board shown in ,fig4 #fe was used1 the plane being laid on its side1 giving the #a_/d-;inch piece of gum wood a perfectly square edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,the pencil box ,ralph was having his own troubles as a teacher about this time1 for he wanted to reserve ,harry's education in the use of bench tools until later on1 when he should have exhausted the possibilities of the knife2 but this method of using the plane was necessary if ,harry was to produce blank forms fit for decoration4 ,the six pieces being squared up1 a #a_/d-;inch margin was left on all sides of the pieces to be carved--the top1 front1 and two ends4 ,this #a_/d-;inch space was for the brads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,use of shooting board ,the assembling was not done until the carving had been finished1 and it consisted of fastening the long sides to the ends with #e_/h-;inch brads1 with a little glue on the end grain of the end pieces4 ,the bottom was put on with brads1 and the top hinged to the back by two small nickel-plated hinges4 ,a little hook and eye from the hardware store were put at the front to hold the cover on1 and two small cleats were glued to the under side of the cover to keep it from warping4 ,the time spent on this pencil box was several hours1 but the result was a box the like of which could not be bought4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,carving designs for pencil box ,pencil boxes became the rage with our boys1 and although they made several of the same size1 in each case the design was different4 7,fig4 #ff47 ,,xii ,,chip ,,carving3 ,,continued ,among the many useful articles which can be made with the knife in thin wood1 with carving as enrichment1 are the numerous desk accessories1 such as envelope holders1 letter racks1 stamp and pen boxes1 pen trays1 blotting pads1 etc4 ,the boys1 after exhausting the subject of pencil boxes for school use1 took up the design and construction of letter racks4 ,these1 they decided1 should be in two compartments for answered and unanswered letters4 ,this called for three uprights1 or partitions1 and a base4 ,they decided to make them of about uniform dimensions1 as shown in the blank form 7,fig4 #fg74 ,the problem of the outline was somewhat affected by the fact that the front was to be carved4 ,this called for a simpler outline than would have been the case had they expected to leave the surface plain4 ,some of the designs they worked out are shown in ,fig4 #fh4 ,the form marked a was selected as a beginning1 the three partitions cut out exactly alike1 and the front piece carved as shown in ,fig4 #fi4 ,the middle partition and back piece were left with plain surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,parts of letter rack ,the cutting of the grooves in the base was a new problem1 and ,harry was allowed to try his skill with a chisel4 ,the method used was first to make the drawing shown at a1 ,fig4 #fg4 ,the long side lines of each groove were scored with the point of the knife1 going over each line several times1 to make the cut as deep as possible4 ,an under cut was then made1 as shown in the figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,boys' designs for letter racks ,the wood in the centre was removed with a #a_/d-;inch chisel1 and the process continued until a uniform depth of #a_/d inch was reached4 ,after all three grooves had been cut1 the edges of the base were bevelled with the plane4 ,this bevelling could have been done readily with the knife1 but much time was saved by using the plane1 always doing the long sides first4 ,in all the letter racks shown in the illustrations the construction was the same4 ,first1 the three blank partitions were made1 then finished in their outlines with knife and sand-paper4 ,the carving was always drawn carefully on the surface of the front piece4 ,third1 came the making of the base1 and last1 the gluing of the partitions into the grooves4 ,to increase the strength of a letter rack1 #c_/d-;inch brads can be driven from the bottom into the partitions1 but where this is done it is safer to draw pencil lines on the bottom directly under the centre of each partition4 ,place the point of the brad exactly on the line before hammering4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,form ,a ,although the forms of the letter rack are endless1 the one which our boys found most interesting was based on the ellipse4 ,it called forth a very instructive drawing lesson4 ,ralph showed ,harry first how the figure could be drawn by a string1 with two pins to represent the foci of the ellipse4 ,the figure has two dimensions called the major axis and minor axis4 7,fig4 #gj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,the combined length of the two lines drawn from any point on the ellipse to the two foci must always be the same and equal to the length of the major axis4 ,this is readily seen with the two pins and string4 7,fig4 #ga47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,drawing the ellipse with string and pins ,the pencil point as it traverses the ellipse represents any point1 and the string remains the same length4 ,where it is required to draw an ellipse of definite size1 say two by three1 it becomes necessary to find the foci before the string can be used1 and as it requires considerable skill to get the string the exact length1 ,ralph showed the boy another way1 called the trammel method4 7,fig4 #gb47 ,suppose the problem is to construct an ellipse #f inches #b-a_/b inches4 ,first draw the two lines a b and c d at right angles1 intersecting at the exact centre4 ,take a straight piece of paper1 lay it along a b with one end at a4 ,make a dot on the edge of the paper where the lines cross1 and mark it x4 ,next1 lay the same strip of paper along c d1 with the original end at c1 and again mark a point where the lines cross4 ,mark this point y4 ,at any position of this strip of paper when the points x and y touch the two axes a b and c d1 the end of the paper strip will be on the ellipse4 ,by shifting this paper trammel and keeping the two points on the axes a series of points may be made at the end of the paper4 ,connecting this by a pencil line will complete the ellipse4 ,this is a very simple method and a very accurate one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,the trammel method ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,the ellipse used in carving designs ,our boys drew this figure1 #f #b-a_/b inches1 with a trammel and then worked out the design from it shown in ,fig4 #gc4 ,it made a very satisfactory form for the letter rack1 and gave an elliptical space for carving1 a new problem in chip carving design4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,two more of these elliptical designs are shown in ,fig4 #gd4 ,another feature of this rack was a change in the middle partition2 the form is shown at ,fig4 #ge4 ,the making of the base and gluing into the grooves were similar to the earlier designs4 ,the next design was characterized by an outline composed largely of straight lines4 ,the middle partition was lower than the front and back pieces1 as shown in ,fig4 #ge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,a neat design for a letter rack ,the boys found a great deal of pleasure in working out a decorative scheme for the carving4 ,having discovered how easy it is to carve the long flowing curves1 they introduced them wherever possible4 ,the general shape of the carved section must of course conform to the outline of the wood1 but while filling in these flowing curves they soon learned to sketch them in free-hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,a letter rack decorated with the veining tool ,to a person who has not tried this work or who has not begun with simple cuts it appears very difficult1 but when it is remembered that only one cut can be made at a time and that each chip is a triangle1 even if its sides are slightly curved1 it actually proves very easy1 and within the power of any normal boy to accomplish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,the pen-holder ,harry was introduced at this time to the use of the veining tool1 a fine gouge with a cross section almost ,v-shaped4 ,this was used to emphasize the outlines of the designs by simply pushing ahead directly on the lines4 ,when veining straight lines1 it may be guided by a ruler or other straight edge1 but for curves1 a free-hand movement is necessary4 ,a very good practice piece is the design shown at ,fig4 #gf4 ,this may be applied to the front of the letter rack design4 7,fig4 #fi47 ,the pen-holder shown at ,fig4 #gg is one of a large number which were made by the boys4 ,the pieces were cut out with a knife to the blank forms shown4 ,on all pieces like these1 afterward to be assembled1 the edges were made straight and square on the shooting board1 and the carving done before assembling4 ,this pen-holder was put together with #c_/d-;inch brads with the exception of the front1 which was glued1 as it was thought best not to have nails showing on this important side4 7,fig4 #gh47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,pieces composing pen-holder ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,arthur ,g4 ,eldredge4 ,using the ,veining ,tool ,,xiii ,,chip ,,carving ,,and ,,knife ,,work 7,see #ca1 #aji7 ,i like this new work better than anything we have ever done1 said ,harry one day when he and ,ralph were up to their ears in carving1 whittling1 and designing4 ,ralph smiled as he remembered ,harry's intense interest in making moving toys4 ,as ,i told you once before1 he replied1 this is not new but old4 ,the people of northern ,europe have done it for centuries1 and the reason is not hard to find4 ,in ,norway during the long winter it gets dark very early1 in some places at three o'clock in the afternoon1 and does not become light again until nine o'clock in the morning4 ,the result is very1 very long evenings1 when it is much more comfortable to work indoors4 ,at an early era the people developed this beautiful art of carving1 and spent their long evenings in working at it4 ,they became very skilful and as most of the household utensils were of wood1 it was not at all unusual to see the household furniture1 even to their bread boards1 beautifully carved4 ,by the way1 said ,harry1 can't ,i make a paper knife now8 ,you know you said ,i could after ,i had learned to use the knife6 ,yes1 ,i think you might try your skill on something of that character now4 ,it will be quite a change from this flat work we have been doing4 ,it will require a harder wood1 however1 than you have been using1 as a paper knife must be thin and strong at the same time4 ,the ,swedish carvers use apple wood a great deal for their paper knives1 but as this is rare with us1 suppose we try rock maple4 ,it is white in colour1 close grained1 and hard4 ,as usual1 they worked up their design on paper first and sketched in the carving shown in ,fig4 #gi4 ,a piece of rock or sugar maple was first squared up and laid out in pencil as shown at ,b4 ,in order to get the outline to conform exactly to the drawing1 the form was cut out of paper and traced on the face of the wood4 ,the blank form was then whittled out to the pencil line1 and sand-papered smooth as shown at c4 ,maple proved to be a hard wood to whittle4 ,notches were cut at d d after drawing the edge view on front and back edges4 ,the blade and handle were then whittled down to lines e and f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,two designs for paper knives ,whew6 exclaimed ,harry1 don't ever give me any maple to whittle again4 ,well1 you wanted to make a paper knife1 didn't you8 ,a paper knife that would break when it fell on the floor wouldn't be of much use1 and you are not through yet4 ,the blade must be cut down to a fairly sharp edge on both sides now4 ,this was done by bevelling the edges as shown in h and the bevel gradually cut back to the centre line1 as shown at i and j4 ,harry concluded that this was the hardest work that he had ever done4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,key rack designs ,now you understand1 said ,ralph1 why ,i couldn't allow you to make a knife at first4 ,all the training ,i have given you was necessary before you had the requisite skill and control of your hands4 ,the carving will be easy for you because of all this practice4 ,skill is something which comes that way4 ,why1 if ,i should give you the problem of making that first key rack over again1 you would do it in about one third of the time1 and very much better than at your first attempt4 ,you have been gaining skill without knowing it4 ,just to show you how much you have advanced1 ,i will give you one or two key rack designs to be decorated with chip carving4 ,when they are finished1 take them into the house and compare them with the first you made4 ,i think you will be amused at the difference4 ,that original piece of which you were so proud will seem a very crude affair now4 ,all right1 said ,harry1 but ,i should like to make one more paper knife first if you don't mind4 ,very well2 make up a new design1 because no artist ever duplicates his work1 said ,ralph with a mischievous smile4 ,the smile was premature1 however4 ,the boy had not been designing woodwork for nothing4 ,the design is shown at ,no4 #b1 ,fig4 #gi1 and even ,ralph1 severe critic though he was1 had to admit that it was pretty fair4 ,looks like a table knife1 he said seriously4 ,however1 it is your own design1 so go ahead and make it4 ,try a piece of cherry this time4 ,it makes a good wood for carving1 and is not quite so hard to whittle as maple4 ,the different steps in the process of cutting this out were the same as in ,no4 #a1 ,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,the blotter pad ,the key rack shown in ,fig4 #hj was comparatively easy after making paper knives4 ,the bevelling of the curves at the ends was the only new feature of the knife work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,method of using the spokeshave ,the making of presents went rapidly onward from this time4 ,the next article to engage our woodworkers' attention was the blotting pad1 made of two pieces of black walnut fastened together with the screw handle4 7,fig4 #ha47 ,the blotter is bent around the curved face of the lower part1 and the ends gripped between the two parts by tightening the screw4 ,these handles with screw attached are of brass1 and can be obtained at any hardware store4 ,the upper piece was bevelled1 and a circular space in the centre left plain to provide for the handle1 the rest of the space being carved4 ,the making of the curved face on the bottom was too difficult for the knife1 so the boy worked it out with the plane and spokeshave shown in 7,fig4 #hb74 ,when these blotter pads are finished with the brass handle1 coloured blotter and hand-carved top1 they are very attractive1 and make acceptable presents4 ,toilet boxes were next in order1 and there seemed no end to them2 glove boxes1 collar boxes1 handkerchief boxes1 boxes for storing away photographs1 etc4 ,those for collars were square1 viewed from the top1 while glove boxes were made long and narrow4 ,the construction of these called for the use of carpenters' tools1 and ,ralph was not ready to start his pupil on this branch of woodwork yet1 for several reasons4 ,in the first place1 it meant a halt in the fascinating work of carving1 and they had not yet exhausted the possibilities of knife work4 ,so they tried the plan of buying ready-made boxes from the stores4 ,this was not entirely satisfactory1 as most of them were of basswood1 soft1 and easily carved1 but so white that it became soiled too readily4 ,this difficulty finally led to a unique scheme4 ,they stained the wood a dull ebony1 and found that the design showed very clearly in gray pencil lines1 easily carved4 ,the carving came out white on a black background1 and proved quite satisfactory for the coarser designs4 ,the finer work1 however1 did not show to advantage1 and the method was adopted of leaving certain portions of the surface plain4 ,one of the glove box designs is shown in ,fig4 #hc4 ,the lines made in this black and white carving by the veining tool are very effective4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,design for glove box ,the boys had just gotten nicely at work one afternoon when ,harry remarked very seriously3 ,on what subject shall our lecture be this afternoon1 professor8 ,a block of white pine hurtled across the shop1 but ,harry ducked and no one was hurt4 ,no1 said ,ralph1 you can't start a discussion to-day4 ,i've been thinking that you will have to take up the use of bench tools pretty soon1 because you are really doing this work backward4 ,what do you mean8 ,why1 you should never decorate anything which you haven't actually made4 ,well1 haven't ,i made everything we have carved so far8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,double photo frame ,all except the boxes4 ,when we bought those boxes1 that was a signal that it was time for you to begin constructive work4 ,it has been a big problem to give you carving to do on articles in the flat that you could make with the knife4 ,we will make a few picture frames1 carve them1 and then leave our carving until you can construct anything in wood4 ,you will always be able now to design carved work for any given space2 one of these picture frames1 however1 is going to be a rather severe test of your skill4 ,fig4 #hd shows the first photograph frame they took up1 a simple design in one piece4 ,the openings for the pictures were cut out with coping saw and knife and bevelled4 ,the bevels on the outer edges of the frame were planed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,carved picture frame ,fig4 #he shows a problem in designing for irregular spaces1 and the design is a typical ,swedish form4 ,in both of these frames it was necessary to provide a method of holding the photo on the back4 ,this was accomplished by tacking on two strips of #a_/h-;inch basswood on each side1 and the bottom as shown in ,fig4 #he1 the narrow strip being #a_/d inch wide1 and the top one #a_/b inch wide1 making a groove #a_/h inch deep to receive the picture4 ,if it is designed to have glass in front of the photo1 the narrow strip must be #a_/d inch thick in place of #a_/h inch4 ,the problem of polishing carved work is rather a difficult one4 ,ordinary varnish or shellac cannot be used to advantage1 as on flat surfaces1 because it fills up the spaces and ruins the effect4 ,perhaps the best method is to dissolve a small quantity of beeswax in turpentine1 and rub in with an old tooth or nail brush1 which is comparatively soft4 ,this will not injure the carving1 and will protect it from dampness and dust1 as the wax hardens4 ,it should be put on when about the consistency of soft putty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,palette photograph frame ,the photo frame shown 7,fig4 #hf7 was the last form our boys attempted in the flat4 ,it has the advantage of simplicity1 only one kind of cut being used2 but the long flowing lines1 which must be first drawn on the wood free-hand1 require all the patience and skill one can command4 ,the form in outline is the artist's palette1 and the opening for the picture an ellipse4 ,all the lines in the carving converge to a point to the left of the centre of the opening4 ,,xiv ,,the ,,shop ,the man who is most successful is the one who is best prepared for his work4 ,in beginning to learn how to use woodworking tools1 the average boy is very often hampered by the lack of facilities4 ,the place he is to use for his shop should at least have good light4 ,many of the lines he uses are knife lines1 which are harder to see than pencil lines1 so that light at least is an essential4 ,the tools should be as good as he can obtain4 ,this does not mean that it is necessary to have elaborate sets of chisels1 gouges1 etc41 but the cutting tools should be of well tempered steel4 ,it is far better to have a few very good tools than an elaborate equipment of poor ones1 such as the boy's ready-made tool chest often contains4 ,a good workman is one who can do a large variety of good work with a few well-selected tools4 ,one reason for our having given so much space to knife work was to illustrate this very fact4 ,very often the carved pieces described in previous chapters are salable at good figures1 and from the money thus obtained a supply of bench or carpenters' tools can be bought4 ,next to a well lighted place in which to work1 a fairly good bench is essential4 ,this can be made by the boy himself1 if he cannot secure one already built1 but as the construction of a bench presupposes some previous practice with tools1 we will assume that our readers receive their first tool practice on a bench already built1 just as ,harry did4 ,several forms of benches on the market are shown in ,fig4 #hg4 ,the bench to be of any use must have a vise of some description1 as very often both hands are required to guide the tool1 and the wood must be held rigid4 ,the old-fashioned screw vise is cheap1 and a cheap vise may be made at a cost of half a dollar1 by purchasing the screw and nut and making the jaw and guides by hand1 but this again calls for the use of a bench4 ,so taken all in all it will pay the young woodworker to save his money and buy a good vise even if the bench is home-made4 ,this is just where our boys had their first argument2 ,harry wanted to begin by building a work bench4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,types of work bench ,that is where you are wrong1 said ,ralph4 ,perhaps you remember that you wanted to begin knife work by making a paper cutter1 and as a matter of fact it was very nearly the last thing ,i gave you to do4 ,it required all your skill and previous practice to accomplish it4 ,it will be just the same with the bench and vise4 ,you will be able to construct them1 but only after considerable experience with tools4 ,you might as well insist on making all your tools before starting to use them or you might insist on going into the woods1 cutting down trees and ripping out your own planks for stock4 ,just wait a minute4 ,he went into the house and came out with a pamphlet on lumbering1 which he opened at the picture shown in ,fig #hh4 ,it represents the old style of sawing out planks by hand before the coming of the saw-mill4 ,the man in the pit is called a pit man1 the one on the log1 the sawyer4 ,this method of cutting lumber was in vogue up to about fifty years ago4 ,this1 said ,ralph1 is what your line of reasoning would lead us back to1 so if ,i am to be your instructor you must leave these things to my judgment1 and my advice is to start work with a good bench having on it a good vise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,the old way of getting out lumber ,to let you into a family secret1 the boys' work in carving had been admired by several friends and they had worked up quite a trade in making and selling their carvings4 ,from the money they had saved they purchased the bench shown in ,fig4 #hi4 ,it was very well built1 having a heavy top of #c-;inch maple and a modern quick action vise4 ,the seven drawers underneath were not really necessary1 but the boys found them very handy for storing tools1 nails1 screws1 unfinished work1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,bench with quick action vise ,the space under a bench is very apt to become a catch-all and a nuisance1 so as time went on they concluded that the extra cost of this bench was justified1 although at the time the price seemed very high4 ,some of the cheaper benches they looked at are shown in ,fig4 #hg4 ,the quick action vise was a great time saver1 as it could be pulled wide open or pushed back without turning the handle1 as in the old screw vises4 ,a dozen of these quick action vises are on the market1 and may be had at hardware stores for from four dollars upward4 ,this flat topped bench had no tool rack1 and could consequently be worked on from any side4 ,at first1 the owners kept most of their tools in the large drawer at the top1 but later on they made a good sized tool cabinet1 which was fastened to the wall and will be described later4 ,the iron bench stop also proved a valuable feature1 as it could be fastened at any desired height by a set screw1 or dropped down out of the way below the level of the bench top4 ,when planing thin wood1 one end of the board is braced against the bench stop4 ,ralph found that starting with a new bench had another advantage4 ,it helped his pupil to take good care of the bench4 ,harry was very careful not to saw or cut it as he might have done with an old bench1 and to foster this spirit of carefulness1 ,ralph gave him for his first problem the making of a bench hook4 7,fig4 #ij47 ,the tools used in its construction were3 #bd-;inch rip saw ,brace and #a_/d-;inch bit #bj-;inch cross cut saw ,countersink bit ,marking gauge #a-a_/b-;inch flat head screws ,try square #f inches ,piece of maple1 planed to #g_/h-;inch #ae-;inch jack-plane thick1 #ab inches long1 #aj inches wide ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,the bench hook ,the maple board was first laid out as shown at a1 a pencil line being drawn #b inches from one edge4 ,the piece was placed in the vise horizontally1 and both long edges planed straight and true and tested with the try square4 ,the block was then placed upright in the vise1 and the ends planed square with the block plane4 ,this required much explaining and practise1 as the block plane has a bad habit of breaking off the farther corner4 ,ralph showed ,harry how to use this tool safely by planing only part way across the end and then finishing from the other side4 ,both ends were tested with the try square4 ,the piece was now sawed in two by using a rip saw on the pencil line1 the wood being held in the vise in an upright position4 ,this made two pieces of stock #ab inches long1 one #b inches wide1 the other #h inches nearly1 as the saw cut had removed some of the wood4 ,the #b-;inch piece was laid out as shown at b4 ,the marking gauge was set at #a-c_/d inches and from the joint edge--that already planed--a line was gauged on each flat face1 and the sawed edge planed to these lines as at b4 ,it was then laid out as shown at c1 two knife lines being squared around the four sides #a_/h inch apart4 ,the piece was then sawed apart carefully between these two knife lines1 and the ends block planed and tested4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,method of using the bench hook and back saw ,two #a_/d-;inch holes were bored1 as shown at d1 in each piece1 and countersunk with the countersink bit4 ,this makes a place for the screw heads1 so they will be below the surface where they cannot be in the way of tools or scratch the bench4 ,the wide piece was next planed on its sawed edge1 and the blocks screwed on4 ,that the bench hook might always be handy and have a definite place of its own1 a half-inch hole was bored as shown in the illustration1 and it was hung on a nail1 set in the end of the bench4 ,the bench hook is designed to protect the bench from saw marks and the cuts of chisels1 gouges1 etc4 ,the method of using it with the saw is shown in ,fig4 #ia4 ,wherever possible1 it should be made of hard wood4 ,,xv ,,the ,,equipment ,,for ,a ,,shop ,nothing is so necessary to the saving of time and energy as an orderly shop4 ,our boys had bought a quantity of white pine to begin operations and it was lying in a pile on the floor where it was always in the way4 ,to cut a piece of stock from one of these #ab-;foot boards it was necessary to use two kitchen chairs for trestles1 so it was decided to construct two saw horses1 and as soon as they were finished1 to build a lumber rack against the wall where their little supply could be stored out of the way4 ,we will carry out our regular practice by first making a drawing1 said ,ralph4 ,we know from experience that it saves time4 ,fig4 #ib shows the proportions of the trestle at a1 and the mechanical drawing with all dimensions at b4 ,the body of the trestle was built up of four pieces1 two long and two short ones4 ,the open space in the centre1 ,ralph explained1 would make a convenient tool rack where hammers1 chisels1 etc41 could be placed while they were working1 especially at outdoor work1 instead of being dropped on the ground4 ,the body then called for two pieces #c feet long by #d inches wide1 and two pieces #aj inches long by #d wide4 ,these were sawed from a rough plank with the rip saw by using the chairs as trestles4 ,a pencil line was laid out #c-a_/d inches from one edge1 and the saw cut made directly on the line1 #h feet long4 ,the cross cut saw was used to cut the strip off and this strip was then sawed with the same saw into four pieces of equal length for the legs4 ,another strip #d-a_/d inches wide1 #g feet #h inches long1 was ripped out and taken off with the cross cut saw1 for the body1 and divided into two pieces #c feet #aj inches long1 for convenience in planing4 ,harry now had his first real experience in planing4 ,all the pieces were of #a-;inch rough lumber1 with sawed edges1 and had to be planed down to #g_/h inch in thickness4 ,to plane six pieces of stock straight and true1 with squared edges and of definite size1 was no easy task4 ,how do you like manual labour8 asked ,ralph1 mischievously4 ,i like it all right1 replied the perspiring boy1 but we won't need any gymnasium work for exercise while we are doing this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,the trestle or saw horse4 ,by permission of ,carpentry and ,building ,wouldn't you like to make a bench in hard wood right away8 asked ,ralph4 ,no1 ,i guess you were right after all4 ,ralph showed him the proper way to stand1 and how to hold the jack-plane so as to get the best results4 ,he promised to show him how to sharpen and adjust the plane as soon as the lumber was stored away on the lumber rack4 ,harry's business was to dress down one of the flat faces of each piece till it was smooth1 straight and true both with the grain and across it4 ,he tested it by his eye and the edge of his plane and when he thought it was about right1 passed it over to ,ralph for criticism4 ,ralph was a very exacting instructor1 but made allowance for the boy's inexperience4 ,he was making the second trestle at the same time and it was exasperating to ,harry to see the ease with which he turned out his work4 ,never mind1 said ,ralph1 you can do as good carving now as ,i1 and in a few weeks you will be able to do just as good joinery or carpentry4 ,the first day is always the hardest4 ,you are all impatience and want to get through right away4 ,after a while you will learn by experience that you can only do one thing at a time1 and will not rush so4 ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,helen ,w4 ,cooke4 ,using the ,jack ,plane ,finally1 one face on each of the six pieces was pronounced finished1 and the next step was to joint or dress down one edge straight1 smooth and square with the working face--the first planed surface4 ,this seemed easier after the experience of making the bench hook1 and ,harry knew how to test for squareness with the try square4 ,working on the two long pieces for the body1 both edges of each were squared up1 a #aj-;inch piece was marked off on one end of each with pencil and try square1 and sawed off with cross cut saw4 ,it was decided to leave the inner faces rough1 as they would be inside the trestle1 and out of sight4 ,these four pieces forming the body were now nailed together with #b-a_/b-;inch wire nails1 as shown in a4 ,the four pieces for the legs were dressed on all four sides1 and it only remained to cut the angle at top and bottom4 ,this brought into use a new tool1 the bevel4 ,the angle x was found by laying the bevel on the mechanical drawing1 and fixing it at the angle by tightening the set screw provided for the purpose4 ,the line was carried across the face by means of the try square1 and the bevel used on the farther edge4 ,when this laying out was finished1 the piece looked like c1 the triangular piece y being removed by sawing directly on the pencil lines4 ,after the four legs were laid out in this manner and cut1 they were nailed to the body with #c-;inch wire nails4 ,the saw horse was now complete with the exception of the two braces1 and the final truing up4 ,the braces were made by holding a piece of stock #d inches #g_/h inch in position and marking the slope with a pencil1 sawing to pencil lines and nailing in position d4 ,the final process of truing up was an interesting one to ,harry1 and he used it many times afterward in finishing pieces of furniture1 such as tables1 tabourettes1 etc4 ,the horse was placed on the bench1 and a pair of dividers set as shown at e4 ,a line was scribed on each leg wherever the compasses point touched it1 holding the latter upright and going around all four sides of each leg4 ,by sawing to the lines made in this way1 the trestle was found to stand on the floor perfectly true4 ,this is a method much used in truing up articles that rest on three or more legs1 and it overcomes any inaccuracies that may have arisen in the process of assembling2 but it is very important that the surface on which this truing up is done shall itself be perfectly true4 ,the bench used in this case was new and had not yet warped at all1 but an old bench might not have been suitable4 ,this can be ascertained by testing the surface in several directions with a long straight edge4 ,the facts of warping and shrinkage in wood must always be taken into consideration4 ,the saw horse is an important part of every shop equipment1 and the boys now relegated the clumsy chairs to the kitchen1 where they belonged1 and were prepared to saw out stock from their longest boards4 ,,xvi ,,building ,a ,,lumber ,,rack ,ralph had painted two signs and fastened them in prominent places on the wall4 ,one read3 ,one thing at a time2 the other1 ,a place for everything1 and everything in its place4 ,those are very old-fashioned1 he said1 but they are none the less absolutely true4 ,many boys fail to accomplish anything in tool work because they do not heed the first1 and more time is wasted than we ever realize1 particularly among mechanics1 by failing to observe the second4 ,it often seems a waste of time to put a tool or piece of stock away in a definite place1 but1 on the other hand1 one often spends ten times as many minutes in looking for a thing as he would putting it in its place where it could be found instantly4 ,what's the answer8 said ,harry absent-mindedly4 ,the answer is that we will make a rack for our lumber before we do anything else4 ,it need not be very fine work1 but it will make our shop much neater1 if the surfaces of the wood are planed instead of being left rough1 and to give you practice in planing and to develop your muscles1 ,i am going to let you do most of the planing1 while ,i lay out the work4 ,the rack as finally constructed is shown in ,fig4 #ic4 ,the shop was not sheathed on the inside1 the framework or studding being exposed4 ,the short cross pieces were nailed to the studding with ten-penny wire nails1 but where they joined the uprights they were let into the latter to a depth of #a_/b inch before being nailed4 ,harry wanted to know what this was for1 and ,ralph explained that if the cross pieces were simply nailed to the uprights1 all the weight would be carried by the nails4 ,by letting or gaining them part way into the uprights1 the weight was carried by the latter without so much strain on the nails4 ,then why don't you let them into the wall studs too8 asked ,harry4 ,because the studs are in position and we couldn't saw them out without breaking through the outside of the building2 therefore we are obliged simply to nail them on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,the lumber rack ,four of the uprights were spaced three feet apart1 and held in place at top and bottom by blocks nailed to the ceiling and floor4 ,a carpenter would have simply toe-nailed them by driving nails at an angle through the ends of the uprights into the floor1 but the boys were not yet skilled in carpenters' methods4 ,an ideal lumber rack is made of galvanized iron pipe4 ,it is indestructible1 fire-proof1 rather expensive1 and the joints are regular pipe fitter's joints1 elbows1 tees1 crosses1 and floor plates4 ,this was beyond our boys' pocket-book1 as it would have required the services of a pipe fitter4 ,one of the uprights laid out and partly cut is shown at a1 the openings having been taken out with cross cut saw and chisel4 ,on one of the upper tiers the cross pieces were made eight inches longer than the others1 and where they extended beyond the front of the rack pieces of pine #f #b #g_/h inches were nailed to the ends1 making a convenient hook for hanging hand screws1 which are always in the way on the floor4 ,it also made a very convenient shelf for storing narrow waste strips of lumber1 which should not be destroyed1 as one can never tell when they will be needed4 ,in the case of a rack made of iron pipe1 the ends of these long cross pieces need be only ordinary pipe elbows4 ,the labour of building a lumber rack was much heavier than anything the boys had done before1 but it brought the larger muscles into play1 seemed like real carpenter work1 and was an excellent preparation for the finer tool work to follow4 ,a boy who has never carried out a piece of large work successfully cannot realize the satisfaction of looking at a really good piece of construction and being able to say1 ,i made that all myself6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,first wind vane ,ralph suggested that one or two things more were needed to make their equipment ship-shape--one was a tool cabinet1 and another was some arrangement for storing small pieces of stock2 but as both of these required considerable tool practice1 they were recorded in a notebook as among the things to be done later on4 ,it was agreed that the shop needed a vane to show the direction of the wind1 and the boys' design for this is shown at ,fig4 #id4 ,it included a weather vane and windmill4 ,the whole combination required five pieces of wood4 ,the two short pieces1 #g inches long by #a inch square1 were first dressed to size1 cut out and halved together as shown4 ,they were then taken apart and cut to the lines shown1 with a knife1 making propeller blades similar to those made for the aeroplane4 ,when both were finished1 they were again put together1 and a hole drilled through the centre a trifle larger than a flat-head wire nail #b-a_/b inches long4 ,this nail is to hold the mill to the horizontal piece4 ,the nail is to be tight in this horizontal piece1 but the windmill must revolve freely about the nail4 ,it is for this reason that the hole in the mill must be slightly larger than the diameter of the nail4 ,the horizontal piece is bevelled on one end with the knife and has a #a_/d-;inch slot sawed out at the other4 ,the slot is to receive the wind vane4 ,the vane was sawed out of #a_/d-;inch wood1 fitted into the slot and nailed with brads4 ,when all these parts were assembled1 it was necessary to find the centre of gravity of the whole combination1 as it is important that it be perfectly balanced4 ,to find the correct point1 a light string was slipped under the horizontal piece and moved back and forth until the vane hung horizontally4 ,the spot where the string touched the wood was marked with a pencil and a #a_/d-;inch hole drilled at this point for the pivot4 ,a corresponding hole was drilled #c inches deep into the bevelled end of the standard4 ,a piece of #a_/d-;inch maple dowel was used as a pivot1 the upper end being sand-papered until the vane swung freely4 ,the boys found that by placing a metal washer between the vane and its standard1 much of the friction was removed4 ,a wire nail driven into the standard through a hole drilled in the horizontal piece would have answered the same purpose as the dowel4 ,when the centre of gravity is not found for the pivot1 the vane is apt to tilt forward or backward and not only look badly1 but bring considerable friction on one end1 so that it will not revolve freely with the wind4 ,,xvii ,,mills ,,and ,,weather ,,vanes ,the subject of windmills and weather vanes opened up a field that seemed inexhaustible1 and for a while there was a perfect furore of designing and experimenting4 ,as usual1 ,harry wanted to try great schemes that ,ralph knew were impracticable1 and it required all his diplomacy to keep the boy down to earth1 on something simple and within his power to do successfully4 ,one of his earliest attempts was a scheme to make a windmill on the principle of a water-wheel1 placed horizontally to catch the wind4 ,ralph knew that it would not work1 but after arguing for some time1 he decided to let the youngster learn by experience4 ,while ,harry was working at his project1 ,ralph sketched out and made a vane which he considered an improvement on the first one4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #ie2 and it was made without a mill and composed of four pieces4 ,the horizontal piece had an arrow head at the forward end4 ,at the rear end1 two pieces of #a_/d-;inch pine were fastened with two small bolts4 ,from the point where they were bolted they curved outward as shown in the top view1 and were held in that position by two small strips nailed on with brads1 one on the upper and one on the lower side4 ,the centre of gravity was found as before1 and the vane pivoted to its standard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,second wind vane ,in the meantime1 ,harry had found out to his own satisfaction that his water-wheel windmill would not work4 ,what have you curved those ends out for8 he exclaimed on catching a sight of ,ralph's vane4 ,why1 to make it more sensitive to the slightest breeze4 ,those curves catch the wind quicker than flat surfaces2 have you never noticed that on the weather bureau vanes they are always curved out like that8 ,no1 said ,harry4 ,by the way1 do you know why my mill doesn't work8 ,i have told you about six times that a water-wheel receives the water on one side only1 while your mill receives the same pressure on both sides of the centre4 ,the two forces balance1 so your mill can't very well turn4 ,if you could cut off the wind from one side1 it would go all right4 ,well1 why can't ,i box in one side8 ,you can1 but then you will have to shift it every time the wind changes4 ,you could construct a combination mill and vane1 and arrange it so that the box would be shifted by the vane1 but honestly1 ,i don't think it worth the trouble4 ,it would be clumsy1 top-heavy1 and hard to balance4 ,i have a scheme for a horizontal mill1 but we will take it up later4 ,in the meantime1 let's make a happy jack windmill6 ,happy jack8 ,that's what they call them1 but we will try to be original and ,i propose an ,indian with war clubs4 ,whew6 ,that sounds interesting6 ,ralph's sketch of the ,indian is shown in ,fig4 #if4 ,the figure was sawed out of #a_/b-;inch pine1 a #c_/h-;inch hole bored for the arms1 and a #a_/d-;inch hole bored for the dowel pivot at the feet4 ,the arms were made of a piece of dowel1 six inches long1 with #c_/af-;inch holes bored near the ends to receive the clubs4 ,these were whittled out of pine1 each club being a propeller blade4 ,when fastened into the dowel they formed a complete two-bladed propeller1 but this was not done until the dowel had been inserted through the ,indian's shoulders1 and a brad driven through on each side of the body to keep the arms in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,happy jack ,harry was so anxious to see it work that he came near spoiling it1 and had to be restrained by the older boy1 as in making these toys a well balanced figure is very important4 ,when it was finally finished1 and placed out in the wind1 the antics of the ,indian made ,harry laugh till the tears ran down his cheeks4 ,that's the finest thing we ever made1 he said4 ,ralph smiled4 ,it seemed that he had heard something like that several times before4 ,an athlete was suggested1 and a bold figure with outstretched arms was sketched1 as shown in ,fig4 #ig4 ,the ,indian clubs he is supposed to be swinging were propeller blades1 and to give them more uniform motion than in the case of the ,indian1 the hands were drilled and a piece of #a_/d-;inch dowel inserted4 ,at each end of the dowel was fastened a blade which had been drilled to fit4 ,brads were driven through the dowel on each side of the hand to keep the clubs swinging freely4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,an athletic happy jack ,the body and arms were cut from a piece of #a_/b-;inch pine and halved together across the chest1 and after the joint was made the form of the body and the arms whittled out with a knife4 ,the two parts were then fastened together with brads4 ,it was important that this figure face the wind1 so into the space between the ankles was fitted the small end of a wind vane and the figure securely fastened to it with brads4 ,the centre of gravity was then found and the whole combination pivoted on a generous piece of #a_/d-;inch dowel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,the anemometer ,this athletic weather vane is painted in bright colours1 the clubs being gilded to make them realistic ,indian clubs4 ,what was that scheme of yours for a horizontal windmill8 asked ,harry after he had watched the athletic club swinger until he was satisfied4 ,why1 to make one on the principle of the anemometer1 replied ,ralph4 ,how do you spell it8 ,never mind the spelling1 it's like this1 and ,ralph rapidly sketched out ,fig4 #ih4 ,this is the wind gauge of the weather bureau1 he explained1 and ,i figure we can use ordinary tin cups for the buckets4 ,you go down to the hardware store and buy four small round bottomed tin cups while ,i start the woodwork4 ,having secured the cups for five cents each1 they cut the handles with a pair of tinners' snips4 ,the cut was made next to the cup at the lowest point and the handle straightened out even with the top of the cup4 ,two pieces of pine1 #af inches long1 #g_/h-;inch wide1 and #e_/h-;inch thick1 were halved together at the centre1 where a #a_/d-;inch hole was bored straight through the joint4 ,a block of wood cut to the shape a was fitted over the joint1 and fastened to the four arms with #a-;inch brads4 ,the #a_/d-;inch hole was now continued almost through this cap to give a long bearing for the pivot--a ten-penny wire nail with the head filed off4 ,two #c_/af-;inch holes were drilled through the handle of each cup and corresponding holes through the wooden arms4 ,the cups were made fast by passing #c_/af-;inch bolts through cup handles and arms and tightening the nuts4 ,this made a very strong and rigid construction and on testing it by holding the pivot in the hand out in the breeze the instrument revolved rapidly4 ,altogether it was one of the most substantial and satisfactory things that they had made1 but ,ralph was not yet satisfied4 ,we might as well have a ,coney ,island of our own as not1 he said4 ,you whittle out four propellers1 #d inches long and #a_/b inch across1 and ,i'll show you something1 he said4 ,while ,harry was doing this1 ,ralph sawed out four wooden dirigibles shown at b1 #h inches long1 #c inches across at the widest part1 and #a_/d inch thick4 ,a hole was drilled through the centre of each propeller and another in the flat stern of each air-ship4 ,the pivots for the propellers were flat-head wire nails small enough for the blades to revolve freely1 but driven securely into the air-ships4 ,these were now fastened at the ends of the arms of the anemometer by attaching two strips of basswood to each ship by wires4 ,the strips were to hold the ships in the proper position facing in the direction of motion1 which was always the same1 no matter in which direction the wind was blowing4 ,the upper ends of these strips were brought together1 and securely fastened under one of the bolts by wires4 ,as the anemometer revolved1 centrifugal force sent the air-ships out as far as the basswood strips would allow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,the ,zeppelin wind vane ,it was a very interesting fair weather toy1 but the first gale1 while having no effect on the anemometer other than to make it spin around at terrific speed1 nearly wrecked the ships by slamming them against the standard4 ,so the boys always took the ships off at night1 and put them on again when they wanted to give an exhibition4 ,the propellers were gilded and the ships painted in bright colours4 ,a very simple vane may be made to represent a ,zeppelin air-ship 7,fig4 #ii7 by cutting out a piece of white pine #b feet long and #b-a_/b inches wide with the ends pointed to the shape of a ,gothic arch4 ,the hole for the pivot should be bored #b inches deep and be placed well forward of the centre4 ,to make the vane balance1 the rear portion from the pivot to the stern should be planed thin and rounded with the spokeshave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,a six-bladed mill ,at the stern should be a small two-bladed propeller1 pivoted on a flat-head wire nail4 ,if the stern is still too heavy1 the balance can be restored by driving into the forward point a round-headed screw1 or by attaching another small propeller4 ,in fact1 if the hole in this propeller is made large enough1 the screw can be used as the pivot2 in any event1 the vane must be balanced by adding some kind of weight at the bow4 ,these typical forms of wind vanes will suggest others and the young woodworker should try to be original1 to design new forms1 ships1 submarines1 air-ships1 etc4 ,one form which the boys made was especially substantial and reliable4 ,a six-bladed mill was constructed as follows3 ,first3 a piece of #g_/h-;inch pine was cut to the form of a hexagon #b inches across the points4 ,second3 a #a_/d-;inch hole was bored in the centre of each of the six edges and a #c_/af-;inch hole through the centre of the hexagon4 7,fig4 #ajj47 ,third3 six blades were formed from #a_/b-;inch pine #h inches long1 #b inches wide1 tapering down to #a inch at one end4 ,fourth3 in the small end a #a_/d-;inch hole was bored at the centre1 about an inch deep4 ,fifth3 the blades were tapered in thickness from #a_/b-;inch at the small end to #c_/af-;inch at the wide end1 the tapering being done on one side only1 that away from the wind1 the side facing the wind being perfectly flat4 ,sixth3 dowel pins were glued securely into the holes in the hexagonal block and into the blades1 the latter being turned on the dowels at an angle of about #cj degrees--#a_/c a right angle--from the front face4 ,seventh3 after the glue had hardened over night1 the whole mill was painted1 special attention being given to covering the joint where the glue held1 to prevent the rain from loosening it4 ,eighth3 two pieces of #a_/d-;inch white wood were cut out to the form shown at b4 ,these were fastened to the square piece c by two small bolts4 ,the wide ends of the vanes were spread and fastened by two small strips of white wood1 by brads as shown4 ,ninth3 last came the locating of the centre of gravity1 after the mill had been attached by a ten-penny flat-head wire nail4 ,the pivot was made of a similar nail into the standard1 as on previous wind vanes4 ,,xviii ,,tools3 ,,saws ,the boys now took up the systematic study of tools1 as ,ralph suggested that they had spent time enough on toys and curiosities4 ,a cutting tool must be constructed with reference to the material it is to cut4 ,in the machine shop1 we find the angle of the cutting edge large--often #hj degrees--while a razor has a cutting edge of about #e degrees4 ,all cutting tools are wedges1 whether saws1 chisels1 planes1 axes1 or knives1 and the angle depends on the hardness of the material in which it is to work4 ,the action of the tool may be a chisel action1 a knife action1 or both4 ,in the rip saw1 the teeth are really a series of chisel edges cut in one piece of steel1 while in a cross cut saw we have a knife action for cutting the fibres1 followed by a chisel action for removing the wood4 ,the side view of a rip saw is shown at a 7,fig4 #aja71 the end view at b4 ,the chisel-like edges are bent outward to right and left alternately4 ,this is called the set of the teeth and its purpose is to make the cut wider than the body of the saw1 to prevent friction4 ,as the saw teeth pass through the wood1 the fibres spring back against the saw blade or body1 and the friction makes the work almost impossible without set to the teeth4 ,all woodworking saws must be set1 and special tools called saw sets are sold for the purpose of bending out the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,teeth of rip saw ,the rip or slitting saw should only be used for cutting with the grain4 ,when used across the grain1 the action is exactly like that of a narrow chisel1 and it will tear the fibres instead of cutting them4 ,the teeth of a cross cut saw are shown in ,fig4 #ajb4 ,at a is the side view1 and at b the end view4 ,the teeth are set and filed to a knife edge4 ,this gives two parallel lines of knife-like teeth which cut the fibres in two parallel lines1 while the body of the tooth cuts out the wood in the form of sawdust4 ,all woodworking saws belong to one of these two classes1 and the cutting angles of the teeth are shown in ,fig4 #ajc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,teeth of cross cut saw ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,helen ,w4 ,cooke4 ,learning to ,use the ,cross ,cut ,saw ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc ,we are very apt to regard the saw not only as a very commonplace article1 but as a fixed quantity which has always been the same and always will be4 ,as a matter of fact1 the saw has gone through a process of evolution the same as the electric motor1 automobile1 and aeroplane4 ,new methods of its manufacture are constantly being invented and improvements made in its construction4 ,some of the steps in the process of making a hand saw are3 rolling the steel plate of which the body is made1 hardening1 tempering1 hammering or smithing1 grinding1 polishing1 filing1 setting1 etching1 handling1 and blocking4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd ,the handling refers to the placing of the wooden handle and some idea of what it means is illustrated in ,fig4 #ajd1 showing two methods of attaching the apple wood handle4 ,some idea of what the grinding means is shown by the tapers1 or difference in the thickness of the steel1 as shown at ,fig4 #aje1 the thickness in one thousandths of an inch being given at the different points4 ,it will be noticed that not only does the blade decrease in width from the handle out to the end of the saw1 but the thickness decreases from the teeth to the top and also from the handle out to the end4 ,this represents ideal saw construction1 and it is found only in the good makes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,thickness of saw blade ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,the back saw ,the back saw1 being strengthened by a heavy piece of steel along the top1 is made of thinner material1 and the tapers are not necessary1 for the back piece gives rigidity4 ,it removes less wood1 but is limited in its action by the back4 ,it is used chiefly by pattern makers1 and for finer bench work1 such as cabinet making1 but should be part of every boy's outfit4 ,the compass-saw shown at ,fig4 #ajg is used for general purposes1 but is not so necessary as the back saw4 ,it is useful for cutting out small openings1 though it is not as valuable for this purpose as the turning saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,the compass saw ,one end of the turning saw can be released from the frame by removing a pin1 passed through a small hole4 ,this is fastened in the frame again and made to follow a curved line like a fret or coping saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,the turning saw ,the number of teeth to the inch varies1 and saws are rated as four-point1 five-point1 etc41 according to the number of points or spaces to the inch4 ,for very hard woods1 a saw with small teeth1 i4 e41 with more points than ordinary to the inch1 should be used2 but a boy who possesses one saw of each kind--a rip1 a cross cut1 a back saw1 and a turning saw--has all that will be required for ordinary woodwork4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,using the rip saw and trestles ,in working with the board on trestles1 the saw should be held at an angle of about #de degrees to the surface4 ,when sawing a board held in the bench vise1 this is not so easily done1 but the cut should at least be started with the tool in the correct position4 7,fig4 #aji74 ,the hack saw is used for cutting metal1 and while not essential for woodwork1 is often valuable for cutting pieces of pipe1 rivets1 bolts1 screws1 and nails and should be added to the outfit when the finances will allow4 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,the hack saw for cutting metal ,in fact1 there is no such thing as a set of tools4 ,good tools only should be bought1 and the outfit at first should be simple2 new ones can be added from time to time1 as they are needed4 ,in this way one learns the possibilities of his kit much better than by starting with an elaborate collection4 ,,xix ,,tools3 ,,planes ,a boy buying his tool outfit is often bewildered by the array in the hardware store4 ,he is further confused by the advice of the salesman1 and his own little store of money4 ,in selecting planes1 only three are really necessary for ordinary work1 and this number may even be reduced to two4 ,wooden planes are still the favourite tools of some woodworkers1 but iron planes have largely superseded them4 ,a #ae-;inch iron jack plane1 a #i-;inch smoothing plane1 and a block plane make a very good combination for a beginning4 ,special planes can be added later1 as the finances will allow4 ,the iron plane with its various parts is shown in ,fig4 #aaa4 ,these refer to either the jack or the smooth plane4 ,in the block plane there is no cap iron1 the cutter or plane iron being placed with the bevelled side up4 ,there is frequently found on this tool an adjustment for changing the amount of opening in the mouth for hard or soft woods4 ,the plane iron and cap are fastened together with a set screw1 and the cap is removed when it is being ground or sharpened on an oilstone4 ,this set screw1 which is loosened with a screw-driver1 or the edge of the clamp used as a screw-driver1 also allows the distance from the cutting edge to the cap to be changed for soft or hard woods4 ,these two irons are fastened into the throat of the plane by the clamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,the smoothing plane ,the lever 7#a7 is for straightening the plane iron1 and the screw s is for adjusting the depth of the cut4 ,the difference between the jack and smooth planes1 aside from the size1 is in the shape of the cutter or bit4 ,in the jack plane1 the bit is ground with a slightly curved cutting edge4 ,this enables the tool to remove coarse shavings1 but leaves a slightly corrugated surface which must be smoothed with the smoothing plane4 ,the jack plane also tends to straighten the work1 owing to its greater length4 ,the greater the length1 the more does it straighten4 ,the old-fashioned jointers were made several feet long for this very purpose4 ,if a boy can afford only one plane1 it should be a jack plane1 but the cutter should be ground straight to act as a smooth plane4 ,the block plane can be dispensed with better than any of the others1 because the smooth plane can be used on a shooting board for truing up end grain1 the original purpose of the block plane4 ,the latter plane has no cap1 as it works on the ends of the wood fibres with a shearing or paring action4 ,this is helped by holding the tool at an angle with the wood1 a position not advisable with the other two tools4 ,illustration3 ,by the ,courtesy of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art4 ,,tools ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century ,showing how little progress has been made in tool construction4 ,in this collection is a jointer plane1 a smooth plane1 rabbit plane1 straight edge1 dividers or compasses1 a bench vise1 hand vise1 wrench1 hacksaw and combination tool4 ,the proper position for planing is with the right side to the bench1 the plane held flat on the work4 ,each stroke should1 wherever possible1 be the full length of the board1 unless one part is higher than the rest of the surface4 ,this may be ascertained by using the edge of the plane as a straight edge4 ,high spots should be marked with a pencil1 and then planed off1 till the full length strokes can be made1 and the edge planed straight and true4 ,in surface planing1 if the surface be warped1 the amount of wind may be determined by placing two winding sticks--two straight pieces of the same size at the two ends--and sighting with the eye along their top edges4 ,to take out wind1 it may be necessary to plane diagonally across the grain from corner to corner4 ,this defect is common in lumber not properly piled or seasoned1 and is more noticeable in such woods as gum or chestnut4 ,the sharpening of plane irons is a very important part of one's knowledge of tool work1 and of course applies to chisels1 gouges1 and all cutting tools4 ,remember that the cutting edge or bevel is a wedge1 the angle of a plane-iron bevel being from #be to #ce degrees1 the smaller angle for soft wood1 the larger for hard4 ,this angle is not measured by the woodworker often1 but is a matter of experience4 ,if the young mechanic will keep his tools ground to the same angle as he finds them at the time of purchase1 he will not go far astray4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,the cutting angle ,this angle should be a clean-cut one1 however4 ,fig4 #aab shows some correct and some incorrect ways of grinding4 ,at a is shown the right way1 b is not an angle at all1 and c is a waste of time and material4 ,at d is shown the worst fault of all--a back bevel4 ,this occurs when the tool is carelessly turned over and ground on both sides1 which renders it useless until all the steel in front of the dotted line has been removed2 in other words1 until the tool is reground4 ,this mistake is sometimes made in using the oilstone1 by rubbing the tool on both sides instead of on one only4 ,all the grinding and sharpening must be done on the bevelled side4 ,as the plane iron is only a thin chisel1 the sharpening of the latter tool is performed as in the case of the plane iron1 and the same care should be taken to keep the bevel clean cut4 ,a good grindstone is a shop necessity1 and1 one might add1 a household necessity1 because every household uses knives1 and the dull knife is an altogether too common nuisance4 ,our boys hung up another sign at this stage1 and it read1 ,keep your tools sharp4 ,this ought to go without saying1 but it is a fact that many people make failures of their work and become disgusted with it because they do not keep their tools in order4 ,the satisfaction of using fine1 sharp tools cannot be explained2 it must be experienced4 ,like other things about the shop1 there are many kinds of grindstones on the market4 ,the old-fashioned stone with a wooden frame 7,fig4 #aac7 worked by hand or a treadle may be good--it depends on the stone--and the new one with a small stone1 iron1 or pressed steel frame is handy4 ,the last stone is provided with a bicycle seat1 and is worked by both feet1 so that the hands are free to hold the tool4 ,this stone has ball bearings1 is noiseless1 and occupies less space than the other4 ,a stone that is soft and gritty1 rather than one that is hard like a piece of granite1 should be selected4 ,in holding the tool against the stone1 some common sense is necessary4 ,the harder one presses1 the quicker the grinding1 but if there is not plenty of water on the stone1 the tool may be burned4 ,when a black place appears1 you have destroyed the temper1 showing that there has been too much pressure1 or too little water1 or both4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,two types of grindstone ,the tool may be moved back and forth across the stone to keep its face true1 but never up and down4 ,this up and down motion is careless and gives the defective edge shown at b 7,fig4 #aab7--very bad grinding4 ,it is an easy matter to test your grinding by occasionally placing the blade of a try square on the bevel4 ,if it is not straight1 your grinding needs more care4 ,too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of this subject of grinding4 ,it is the key-note of success4 ,if you are careless in this particular1 your work at the bench cannot be a success4 ,a good workman is known by his tools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,the oilstone ,a teacher of drawing once said1 ,i don't care to see your drawing2 all ,i want is to see your pencil4 ,i can tell just what kind of work you are doing by observing the care you give your pencil4 ,this is peculiarly true of the worker with tools4 ,find a man very particular about them1 and you may be sure he is a careful workman4 ,after grinding comes sharpening4 ,this is done by rubbing the bevelled side back and forth a few times on an oilstone1 lubricated with a few drops of sperm or light machine oil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,the action of the cap iron ,the stone should be wiped off1 afterward1 and should never be saturated with the oil4 ,if this is allowed to happen1 the surface becomes gummed 7,fig4 #aad7 and loses its cutting edge4 ,this rubbing will sometimes turn over a thin wire edge1 which is removed by laying the tool with the flat side on the oilstone and drawing it toward you4 ,the wire edge can be further removed if necessary by stropping on a piece of leather4 ,before replacing the cutter in the plane1 the cap iron is fastened on the flat side about #a_/af-;inch from the cutting edge2 but this distance may be varied for different woods4 ,the object of the cap iron is to prevent a splitting action by bending the shaving forward1 as shown in ,fig4 #aae4 ,at a is shown the effect when there is no cap1 and at b the splinter bent over giving a shaving4 ,,xx ,,squaring ,,up ,,stock ,having prepared ,harry for the serious work to come by his explanation of the plane and its operation1 ,ralph prepared to start his pupil on the most important and difficult problem in shopwork--squaring up stock4 ,anybody1 he said can hack away at a piece of wood with tools1 and get some kind of result1 but if this work is worth doing at all1 it is worth doing well1 and to be able to square up stock is perhaps the most important operation you will ever do4 ,it is like mathematics1 the answer is either right or wrong4 ,when you finish1 the stock is either square or not square4 ,to square up stock means to reduce it to three definite dimensions1 length1 breadth1 and thickness1 with all adjoining edges or surfaces at right angles4 ,it sounds easy4 ,suppose we want a piece #ab inches #b inches #g_/h inch4 ,first1 saw out your stock about #ab-a_/d inches #b-a_/d inches #a inch4 ,this allows something each way for the tools to remove in the process--for sawdust and shavings4 ,it is considerably more than necessary1 but on the first trial you waste more than later1 when you have become skilled in this work4 ,second4 ,dress down one of the flat faces with the jack plane2 follow with the smoothing plane and test1 with straight edge1 with the grain1 across it1 and diagonally across corners4 ,when this face is finished it constitutes the foundation of the process1 and is called the 'working face4' ,third4 ,make a pencil mark on the working face near one of the edges4 ,this is called a witness mark1 and it indicates that the edge it touches is to be the next face dressed4 ,fourth4 ,dress down the edge1 making it square with the working face1 and testing its whole length with the try square4 ,this is the 'joint edge' 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,fifth4 ,set the marking gauge1 as shown in ,fig4 #aag1 holding it in the left hand and the rule in the right1 to two inches1 the width of the finished piece4 ,the reason for this is that the scale on the gauge stick is sometimes inaccurate4 ,with the gauge block against the joint edge1 gauge a line the entire length of the working face4 ,in doing this1 the gauge may be used in either hand1 and in fact it is well to practise so as to be able to use either at will4 ,the tool should always be pushed from you1 and at the same time tilted from you1 until the steel point makes only a fine line4 ,if it is held upright1 the point will try to follow the grain1 which is very seldom parallel with the edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,steps in the process of squaring up stock ,you have now laid out on the working face your first dimension--the width4 ,sixth4 ,plane down the edge opposite to the joint edge1 almost to the gauge line just drawn4 ,remember that the tendency is always to take off too much1 and when a piece is too small there is no way of making it larger1 but if it is left a little too large1 it is a simple matter to take off one more shaving4 ,in other words1 always be on the safe side1 and take off too little rather than too much4 ,test this edge to see that it is square with working face before reaching the gauge line4 ,get into the habit of marking all high spots with a pencil1 and planing out the marks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,setting the marking gauge ,seventh4 ,set the gauge at the required thickness1 in this case #g_/h inch--and with gauge block against working face1 make a line full length on both of the squared edges4 ,eighth4 ,dress down the remaining rough face to or near both gauge lines just drawn1 and test with straight edge1 as in the working face4 ,the stock is now to the second dimension--thickness4 ,ninth4 ,secure the last dimension--length4 ,as near one end as possible make a line across the working face with a knife and try square1 and continue it around the four sides back to the starting place4 ,if it does not come out exactly at this point1 the stock is not square4 ,from this knife line1 measure off the length on the working face1 and square a knife line on the four sides1 as on the first end4 ,block-plane both ends to the knife lines1 and test4 ,if these nine successive steps are carried out accurately1 the answer is correct1 as ,ralph remarked after ,harry had worked faithfully throughout the whole explanation4 ,the boys realized that they needed a shooting board as a necessary part of their equipment1 and after ,ralph had worked out the drawing shown in ,fig4 #aah1 ,harry was told to square up the four pieces of stock to be used in its construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,the shooting board ,now let me show you a new trick1 said ,ralph4 ,it is always a good plan after making a drawing to write out a bill of material something like this3 #a pc4 pine #ad #h #a_/b #a pc4 pine #f #b #a_/b #a pc4 maple #ad #f #a_/b #d #a-a_/d-;inch f4 h4 screws #a pc4 pine #h #a-a_/b #g_/h #e #c_/d-;inch f4 h4 screws ,there you have in a nutshell all the items needed for the shooting board1 and you can proceed to square all your pieces to these dimensions without consulting the drawing until you are ready to assemble the parts4 ,the five #c_/d-;inch screws are for fastening the maple pieces to the flat piece of pine1 and the #a-a_/d screws to fasten the cleats4 ,all the holes for screws are to be bored and countersunk4 ,what's countersunk8 asked ,harry4 ,this led to a talk on screws and boring tools1 and as it is valuable to the young worker in wood1 we will give it as fully as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,the use of screws ,there are several kinds of screws1 began ,ralph1 but the two most commonly used are flat heads and round heads4 7,fig4 #aai74 ,flat-head screws are those we generally think of1 but unless the hole which has been bored or drilled is reamed out at the top1 countersunk as we call it1 the screw head will stand out from the surface ready to tear your clothes and to scratch anything it may come in contact with1 so you can readily see the importance of sinking them below the surface4 ,on the other hand1 there are often cases where we have no desire to hide the screw4 ,the round heads are used for such cases1 and because of their shape they do not catch hold of things4 ,these screws are usually blued--treated with acid to give them a dull1 more artistic colour4 ,screws treated in this way do not rust as readily as the bright ones4 ,you can buy brass screws in both flat and round head forms2 in fact you can get tinned1 ,japanned1 lacquered1 bronzed1 copper1 nickel1 and even silver plated screws--if you have the money4 ,in buying them1 you must always give two numbers--the length1 in inches1 and the diameter4 ,this is the diameter of the wire forming the body and runs from #j to #cj1 number #j being about #a_/af inch4 ,a one-inch screw ,no4 #h would be fatter or larger in diameter than a one-inch ,no4 #f1 which is of comparatively slight or thin proportions4 ,they are sold in boxes containing a gross4 ,in fastening two pieces of wood together1 they should be prepared as shown at a 7,fig4 #aai7 for a flat head and as at b for a round head4 ,the screw slips through the first board1 and the screw threads engage only in the second in each case4 ,,xxi ,,boring ,,tools ,boring tools are very interesting1 said ,ralph4 ,the brace and bit for soft woods have practically taken the place of the old fashioned augers1 gimlets1 etc4 ,the reason is not hard to find4 ,an auger or gimlet could bore but one size of hole1 while with a brace and set of bits almost any diameter can be secured4 ,a little later on1 ,i'll tell you about a ,yankee invention along this line4 ,the brace is a sort of universal tool holder1 and any tool designed to fit into it is known as a bit1 as for example a countersink bit1 or a screw driver bit1 and several varieties of drills4 ,the shank1 or part that fits into the brace1 is usually square and tapering1 and the part of the brace which engages this shank is called the 'chuck4' 7,fig4 #abj47 ,the centre bit1 an old-fashioned form1 had all the necessary features of a good boring tool but one4 ,it had a sharp centre for accurately locating the hole1 a knife edge for cutting the fibres1 and a chisel for removing the wood1 but it lacked the spiral screw thread of the modern tool1 and had to be forced through the wood by main strength4 ,on a modern auger bit1 this spiral screw relieves the worker of a large part of the labour2 all he has to do is to turn the brace and keep it straight1 supposing of course that the bit is sharp4 7,fig4 #aba47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,gimlet bit and centre bit ,the auger bit is most commonly used by woodworkers4 ,it has two knife edges and two chisels besides the spiral spur in the centre4 ,a short form of this tool1 called the dowel bit1 has the advantage of bending less readily than the ordinary auger bit4 ,the size in sixteenths of an inch is stamped into the metal shank1 but if this number is not distinct or for any reason is missing1 the diameter may be measured by holding the rule across the knife edges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,the auger bit ,what's the ,yankee invention you were going to tell me about8 interrupted ,harry4 ,well1 suppose you wanted to bore a large hole1 say #b-a_/b inches in diameter1 the probabilities are that you wouldn't have a bit that size4 ,in fact1 to have a full set of bits from #c_/af inch up to #c inches would mean a very expensive lot of tools4 ,this difficulty has been overcome by a very clever invention called the extension or expansive bit4 7,fig4 #abb74 ,on this tool the knife edge and chisel are part of a moving lip1 which may be fastened at any desired point by means of a set screw4 ,besides being adjustable in diameter1 the lip of the bit has a scale1 and the body a single line engraved on it4 ,by bringing this line to the various measurements on the scale1 you can set it to a definite size without the trouble of measuring it4 ,the tool has certain limitations1 of course4 ,it is made in two sizes2 one will bore holes of any size from #a_/b inch up to #a-a_/b inches1 and the other any size from #g_/h inch to #c inches1 while extra lips or cutters are made to bore as large as #d inches1 but if you ever try to bore a hole of this size you will want all your muscle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,the expansive bit ,the screw-driver bit is simply a screw-driver with a bit shank instead of a wood handle1 and the countersink has a cone-shaped end with enough grooves cut in it to give one or more cutting edges4 ,its use was illustrated in making the bench hook and shooting board4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,the ,forstner bit ,the gimlet bit may be used for boring holes for screws4 ,it is made from #b_/cb inch up to #ab_/cb inch1 and is valuable for preparing articles for the smaller-sized screws where the auger bit would be too large4 ,we find for sale drill bits for electricians1 warranted to go through a nail if necessary1 and dozens of special bits4 ,in working with thin wood1 the auger bit is very apt to split it1 especially brittle woods1 like red gum4 ,even this contingency is provided for in the ,forstner bit1 which will bore a hole in a sheet of paper 7,fig4 #abc71 and is therefore very valuable for work in veneering or other very thin material4 ,the brace is represented by several styles and makers1 but the beginner must look for the same qualities in the brace as he would in any other tool--good workmanship and material1 simplicity and durability4 ,the old-fashioned ,spofford brace was strong1 simple1 and reliable4 ,for working in corners or any place where a full revolution of the tool is not possible1 a ratchet attachment is necessary4 ,this is found on most of the modern tools1 and may be obtained at any hardware store4 7,fig4 #abd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,common types of the brace ,the hand drill 7,fig4 #abe7 is one of the most useful tools any one can have about the shop or the house4 ,to be able to make holes in soft or hard wood1 tin1 zinc1 brass1 copper1 or iron is certainly a great advantage1 and some form of the tool should be in every establishment4 ,our boys found it useful in making moving toys1 wind vanes1 anemometers1 and dozens of other pieces1 and never regretted its cost4 ,it may be bought for fifty cents and upward1 a very good one costing about #a4ej4 ,the drills designed to be used with this tool vary by #a_/fd inch1 beginning with #e_/fd inch up to #c_/h inch4 ,above this a larger chuck is required4 ,they have round shanks instead of the ordinary square bit shank4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,the hand drill ,,xxii ,,miscellaneous ,,tools ,,the ,,screw-,,driver ,the need of a screw-driver is too obvious to require special mention4 ,they are made with blades from two inches up to thirty inches long1 and have round1 flat1 or corrugated handles4 ,the best grip is obtained on either a flat or corrugated one1 and two sizes are desirable1 a small one with about a three-inch blade1 the other with an eight or ten4 7,fig4 #abf47 ,some of the magazine brad awls containing a dozen awls and screw-driver are very convenient1 but the combinations supposed to contain a whole tool outfit1 including saws1 are poor investments4 ,ratchet screw-drivers1 from which the hand is not removed during the operation of driving or withdrawing a screw1 are on the market1 but they are luxuries rather than necessities4 ,pliers with wire-cutting attachments are convenient1 and should be added to the kit when possible2 some of them are powerful enough to cut a heavy wire nail4 7,fig4 #abg47 ,the ,mallet4 ,this simple tool is made in a dozen different forms for various trades4 ,the round-headed kind is perhaps the cheapest4 ,it is made of hickory or lignum vit4 7,fig4 #abh47 ,the best form for woodwork has an oblong or square head of lignum vit4 ,the handle should pass clear through the head and be fastened with a wedge4 ,a blow from this tool does not shatter the tool handle as would a blow from a hammer4 ,a comparison of the two blows might be likened to the action of gun powder and dynamite4 ,the slow burning powder represents the action of the mallet4 ,the hammer should never be used on a chisel or gouge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,screw-drivers ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,pliers ,hand screws for holding glued-up work together1 sometimes for holding special work on the bench top1 are made of wood1 with either wood or metal spindles4 ,for ordinary work1 the jaws should be parallel1 but special forms are on the market which will hold irregular forms1 as shown in ,fig4 #abi4 ,they are made in several sizes1 from little ones with #d-;inch jaws up to #bb-;inch jaws4 ,for large and heavy work1 clamps of wood or metal may be had as large as eight feet in length4 ,they are useful in the making of drawing boards1 doors1 etc41 but are not a real necessity for boys' ordinary woodwork4 ,clamps in the form of trestles for specially important large work are made as large as twelve feet in length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,the mallet ,for ordinary purposes1 a pair of #f-;inch and a pair of #ab or #ad inch wood hand screws will answer4 ,the ingenuity of the young woodworker will suggest other ways of holding glued-up work in the absence of hand screws1 such as winding with heavy twine or rope1 and twisting a stick through the strands1 after the old method of tightening a buck saw or turning saw4 ,in building up a drawing board and gluing the strips together1 the requisite pressure may be obtained by laying it on the floor between blocks temporarily nailed there1 and wedges driven in1 after the method described for picture frames4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,clamp and hand screws ,a large part of the value derived from woodwork is in the exercise of ingenuity required to meet unexpected contingencies4 ,just so the owner of an automobile learns more about mechanics and the construction of his machine by being obliged to make repairs on the road1 miles from any repair shop1 and with a limited number of tools and appliances4 ,,the ,,hammer ,this common tool is made in at least thirty different forms1 and some styles in nine or ten different weights4 ,for woodwork1 the adze-eye claw hammer1 weight sixteen ounces1 will answer all requirements4 ,for use with brads as small as #c_/h inch1 a brad hammer of three or four ounces is desirable4 ,both of these forms are provided with claws for withdrawing nails4 7,fig4 #acj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,hammers ,claw hammers are comparatively modern inventions1 and there are men now living who1 when serving their apprenticeship1 were obliged to withdraw their nails with a pair of pinchers4 ,at that period all nails were wrought by hand1 and houses are standing to-day on which the clapboards are still held in place by nails forged on an anvil by hand4 ,,the ,,file ,a volume might be written about the various shapes1 sizes1 and methods of cutting of this tool4 ,its place in woodwork is limited1 and it should never be used where another tool will do the work4 ,like sand-paper1 it has a tendency to lead to bad habits and slovenly work4 ,on certain pieces of curved work in hard wood it may be used to remove the sharp edges left by chisel or gouge1 especially the latter1 but its action even there is apt to tear away the fibres4 ,an eight-inch1 half-round1 cabinet wood file and an eight-inch1 round1 slim ,no4 #j cut ,swiss pattern file are sufficient4 ,for sharpening bits1 a special auger bit file is made1 and this may be used for sharpening the marking gauge point and such small work4 ,for sharpening saw teeth1 triangular saw files are sold at all hardware stores4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,level ,this is necessary on outdoor structures which are to be placed on foundations1 in securing level or horizontal timbers1 and in plumbing the uprights4 ,the human eye is not equal to the task4 ,masons and builders make use of wooden plumb rods1 but as the level is necessary to secure the horizontals1 it will be at hand for the uprights1 the two glass tubes being at right angles4 7,fig4 #aca47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,the spirit level ,,rule ,a two-foot1 four-fold1 boxwood rule1 graduated to eighths outside and sixteenths inside1 will answer all ordinary requirements4 7,fig4 #acb47 ,,the ,,steel ,,square ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,steel square and rule ,this simple but valuable tool1 about which volumes have been written1 is necessary for building construction1 but is not needed in the making of furniture or cabinet work4 ,,xxiii ,,making ,,nail ,,boxes ,the boys now became very busy completing their shop equipment1 and the first project was a box for holding different sizes of nails4 ,this was to be kept on the bench where it could be reached conveniently1 and it is shown in ,fig4 #acc4 ,after studying the sketch1 ,harry made out the bill of material3 #b pcs4 pine #ae #a-c_/d #a_/b #b pcs4 pine #c #a-c_/d #a_/b #b pcs4 pine #c-a_/b #a-c_/d #c_/h ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,the nail box ,these six pieces were squared up1 and the joints for the two partitions laid out by placing them edge to edge in the vise4 ,pencil lines were drawn across the faces at random1 a4 ,ralph explained that by fitting these pencil lines they could at any time bring the two pieces together in the original position4 ,the four knife lines representing the edges of the grooves were next drawn1 and squared half-way down on each edge1 using the face with the pencil lines as a working face4 ,the bottom of the groove was laid off with the marking gauge set at #a_/d inch4 ,the wood inside the lines was removed by making a saw cut just inside the knife lines1 and cutting out with a #c_/h-;inch chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,socket chisels ,this led to a talk on chisels4 ,ralph explained that for fine work a firmer chisel was used1 having a comparatively thin body4 ,there are two kinds of handles1 known as socket and tang4 ,the chisels having tangs should never be hammered1 as the tang acts as a wedge and splits the handle4 ,where blows are to be struck with the mallet1 a socket handle should be used4 7,fig4 #acd47 ,for heavy work1 where hard blows are to be struck1 as in house-framing1 and out-of-door work generally1 the heavy framing tool should be used4 ,the handle of this chisel has a heavy iron ring near the top to keep it from going to pieces4 ,our boys' equipment at this time consisted of one half-inch and a one-inch firmer chisel with tang handles1 a #a_/h-;inch and #c_/h-;inch socket firmer1 and one #a_/b-;inch framing chisel4 ,later on they added a #a_/d-;inch firmer with tang handle4 ,the grooves for the nail box were cut with the #c_/h-;inch chisel without the aid of the mallet4 ,ralph showed how1 by inclining the tool at a slight angle1 a paring action could be obtained1 and by working from both ends of the groove no corners were destroyed4 ,when the four grooves were finished1 the box was ready for assembling4 ,this called for hammer and nails4 ,wire nails are so cheap now that the old-fashioned cut nails have been largely driven from the market4 ,the nails used on the box were one-inch brads4 ,the holding power of flat-head nails is of course much greater than bung head1 but in this case the box was to be squared up after nailing1 exactly as if it were a solid block of wood4 ,this meant planing the sides and ends1 and as the nails would ruin the plane iron1 they were all sunk below the surface with a nail set or punch4 7,fig4 #ace74 ,this is a useful tool1 but not absolutely necessary1 as for light work a wire nail1 with the point ground flat on the grindstone1 will answer the same purpose4 ,a carpenter frequently uses the edge of a flat-head nail instead of the punch4 ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,arthur ,g4 ,eldredge4 ,the ,correct ,way to ,hold the ,chisel ,the box was assembled by nailing together the sides and ends4 ,the bottom was next put on1 holding the try square along one side and end to make sure everything was square1 and last of all the two partitions were pushed down into their grooves1 and tied in place by one brad from each side4 ,next1 all nails were set1 and the outside tested with the try square and trued up with the plane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,wire nails and nail sets ,the cabinet of drawers shown in ,fig #acf was next designed to keep the assortment of screws and nails1 which the boys knew would soon accumulate4 ,as far as possible1 they were kept in their original paper boxes1 on which the sizes were plainly printed4 ,the twelve drawers were simply boxes without covers or partitions1 and ,ralph suggested that it was not necessary to make them all at once1 but that they could often fill in spare time that way1 and gradually complete the dozen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,cabinet for nails and screws ,after making the nail box with partitions1 this was a simple job1 it being only important that they all be of the same size4 ,the construction of the cabinet1 however1 brought new problems4 ,the shelves1 being short1 did not require any vertical support except at the ends1 where they were gained into the sides1 and to give ,harry practice the top and bottom were to be rabbeted into the sides4 ,the sides then were the most important parts4 ,all six pieces were first squared up to the dimensions called for in the drawing4 ,the list of material was as follows3 #d pcs4 #bd-e_/h #ab #a_/b shelves #b pcs4 #ad #ab #a_/b ends #a pcs4 #be-a_/h #ad #a_/d back ,the grain must run the long way1 said ,ralph1 so the grooves will be across the grain4 ,the four grooves were laid out with knife and try square1 and the lines scored as deeply with the knife as possible4 ,then another cut was made with the knife inside of the first1 and with the knife held at about #de degrees1 cutting out a ,v-shaped groove1 as shown at a4 ,in each of these grooves a cut with the buck saw was made down to the line1 and the wood removed with the #c_/h-;inch chisel4 ,there are special planes1 called rabbet planes1 and plows for doing this kind of work1 but it is good practice for beginners to use the chisel4 ,the grooves finished1 the cabinet was put together with #a-a_/b-;inch brads1 except the back4 ,this being of thin material1 and having no special strain on it1 was nailed on with #a-;inch brads4 ,the total width of the drawers in each tier was #a_/h inch less than the space4 ,this gave clearance1 so that they could be moved in or out easily4 ,later1 when all twelve drawers were finished1 the boys bought a dozen simple drawer pulls1 and screwed one in the centre of each box4 ,the centre was found by drawing the diagonals in light pencil lines4 ,the front and ends were sand-papered1 and given two coats of dark-green stain1 and the cabinet was placed on a shelf against the wall4 ,,xxiv ,,bird ,,houses ,the boys felt that they were ready for business1 and ,ralph suggested that they had provided enough weather vanes and windmills1 but had made no provisions for the birds4 ,the cat1 that arch enemy of the native birds1 had driven the robins1 martins1 and wrens all away4 ,each year some of these brave little birds started homes in the trees near the house only to have their families devoured as soon as they were hatched4 ,a bird house to be attractive need not be very pretentious1 but it must absolutely be cat-proof1 or the birds will inspect it carefully from all points of view and leave it severely alone4 ,a nest well hidden in the tree foliage or shrubbery is not nearly so conspicuous as a brightly painted house fastened to the limbs of a tree4 ,the side of a barn or outhouse1 far enough down from the roof so that the cat cannot reach it1 or a tall pole covered on the upper part with tin1 so that the feline bird hunter cannot gain a foothold1 are about the only safe places for a house which the birds will actually adopt4 ,the first house our woodworkers manufactured is shown in ,fig4 #acg4 ,this was a single or one-family house1 and its construction was very simple4 ,the list of material follows3 ,one pc4 #a_/b-;inch pine or white wood #aj #f-a_/b ins4 ,two pcs4 #a_/b-;inch pine or white wood #g-a_/b #c ins4 ,one pc4 #a_/b-;inch pine or white wood #i-a_/b #e ins4 ,one pc4 #a_/b-;inch pine or white wood #i-a_/b #d-a_/b ins4 ,two pcs4 #a_/b-;inch pine or white wood #e-a_/d #d-a_/b ins4 ,the first piece1 #aj #f-a_/b inches1 was simply squared up for the bottom4 ,the two pieces for the sides1 #g-a_/b #c inches1 were squared up1 and one edge of each planed to a #de-;degree bevel1 to engage with the roof boards4 ,the latter were squared up1 and nailed together at right angles with #a-a_/d-;inch brads4 ,the two ends1 #e-a_/b #d-a_/b inches1 were carefully laid out as shown in the drawing1 sawed1 and planed to the lines with square edges4 ,in the end which was to contain the circular door a hole #a-c_/d inches in diameter was bored with its centre two inches from the bottom line4 ,this required the services of the extension bit1 and1 to avoid splitting the wood1 as soon as the spur of the bit showed on the further side1 the wood was turned about1 and the hole finished from the other side4 ,the house was next turned upside down1 and fastened in the bench vise4 ,holes were drilled along the sides of the bottom piece #c_/d inch in from the edge--three on each side--countersunk1 and the piece fastened to the sides with #a-;inch ,no4 #h screws4 ,the top pieces already nailed together were now nailed in position on the sides and ends with #a-;inch brads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,one family bird house1 and house for high-hole ,the pole they used was #ac feet long and about #c inches in diameter at the small end4 ,it was rounded at this end by using a draw knife4 7,fig4 #ach74 ,a block of #g_/h-;inch pine was bored out1 and fitted snugly over the end of the pole4 ,this block was then removed1 and four holes bored through it for screws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,the draw knife ,before replacing the block on the top of the pole a cut was made across the end of the pole about two inches deep1 by means of the rip saw4 ,the block was replaced1 and wooden wedges driven into the saw cut4 ,this fastened the block securely on the end of the pole1 and after making sure that it was level1 the bird house was fastened to the block by four #a-a_/d-;inch screws from the under side4 ,a piece of sheet tin was wound around just under the house to discourage pussy1 and the pole set into the ground about three feet1 bringing the under side of the house ten feet above the ground4 ,a double or two-family house of similar proportions was built next1 as shown in ,fig4 #aci4 ,the list of material called for3 ,one pc4 #a_/b-;inch wood #ah-a_/b #f-a_/b 7bottom7 ,one pc4 #a_/b-;inch wood #ah-a_/b #e-a_/b 7roof7 ,one pc4 #a_/b-;inch wood #ah-a_/b #d-a_/b 7roof7 ,two pcs4 #a_/b-;inch wood #ae-a_/b #c 7sides7 ,three pcs4 #a_/b-;inch wood #e-a_/d #d-a_/b 7ends and partition7 ,the construction was the same as before1 each end having a door1 and the partition of course being solid4 ,the block for supporting the house on the pole was larger1 being #h #e #a-a_/d inches1 and called for six #a-a_/b-;inch ,no4 #aj screws1 to secure it to the under side of the floor4 ,harry wanted to make it more complete by adding a small wind vane1 but ,ralph said it might frighten the birds1 so it was omitted4 ,of course larger and more ornamental houses may be built1 but where there are too many families in such close proximity there is apt to be trouble1 while houses that are too conspicuous do not appeal to the beautiful ,american wild birds that we want to attract4 ,with the ,english sparrow it does not matter so much4 ,for these birds1 a tenement house against the side of a barn may be built easily1 in the form shown in ,fig4 #aci4 ,this may be made any length1 each door leading to a compartment separated from the others by partitions4 ,make as many pieces plus one as there are to be compartments1 apartments1 or flats2 have the bottom project as shown in side view for a perch and walk1 and have the roof also project to shed rain4 ,if not fastened from the inside of the barn by stout screws1 this house must be secured to a shelf1 or by brackets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,two family house and tenement ,the side view shows a simple shelf made of a back piece secured to the side of the barn by screws or nails1 a plain shelf nailed to this back piece1 and two wooden brackets4 ,if iron brackets are used1 both the shelf and back piece may be omitted1 the brackets being fastened to the under side of the bird house and to the siding of the barn by screws4 ,for birds like the high-hole1 or flicker1 a piece of hollow log1 or an elongated box fastened securely to the side of a pole1 made cat proof1 is very acceptable4 ,this should not be painted1 but should be provided with a door on the side and a perch4 7,fig4 #acg47 ,the opening should be about three inches for these large birds1 and the location should be as secluded as possible4 ,any number of devices will suggest themselves1 but always remember the cat1 and study the location from the bird point of view4 ,the martins and swallows are especially to be encouraged1 as they are wonderful destroyers of insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,the bird bath ,one device1 especially grateful to these feathered friends in hot weather1 is a pan of water1 in a place where they can drink and bathe without being eternally on the watch for that crouching enemy1 who is always stalking them--,tabby4 ,a pedestal with a platform about four feet above the ground will do nicely1 and it can be placed so close to the house that you can watch them1 and enjoy their ablutions almost as much as they do4 7,fig4 #adj47 ,the construction is too simple to require an explanation4 ,,xxv ,,simple ,,articles ,,for ,,household ,,use ,the boys thought it was about time to pay some attention to the wants of the family1 who had been clamouring for weeks to have this article or that for the kitchen1 dining room1 and in fact for every part of the house4 ,ralph was a wise teacher1 however4 ,he knew that the cause of ninety out of every hundred failures was due to the young mechanic's trying some problem too far advanced4 ,it seems strange that people cannot learn this lesson4 ,we have seen hundreds of boys led along1 say in carving1 from one simple lesson to another1 until at the end of five or six carefully graded exercises1 these boys could carve beautifully any design given them4 ,on the other hand1 we have seen boys start in on their own hook1 without any direction from older people1 and ruining everything they tried1 simply because they wanted to do the most difficult thing first1 before they had developed any skill4 ,ralph was determined that his boy should be an expert and successful user of tools1 so he paid no attention to the clamours of the family1 and allowed ,harry to make only those things which were within his power to do well4 ,each time a piece of work was finished1 and inspected by the family1 the universal chorus was something like this3 ,well1 if he can make such a fine bird house1 ,i don't see why he can't make half a dozen picture frames for these water colors1 or1 ,if he can make such a fine pen tray1 ,i don't see why he can't make a new stool for the piano6 ,in vain ,ralph explained that these things could be made in due time1 that a picture frame required much more skill than a bird house1 etc4 ,their household articles commenced with a bread board for the kitchen4 7,fig4 #ada74 ,this gave ,harry his first experience in planing a broad surface4 ,he used jack and smoothing planes for the working face1 and squared the rest of the board as he had smaller pieces4 ,this required some time4 ,the wood about the semi-circular top was removed with saw and chisel1 the board held for the chiselling flat on the bench hook4 ,after getting this curve as true as possible with the chisel1 it was finished with a sand-paper block4 ,a #a_/b-;inch hole was bored at the centre of the semi-circle to hang it up by1 and the two lower corners were rounded with chisel and sand-paper4 ,no sand-paper was used on the flat surface1 as ,ralph explained this was a board for cutting bread1 and the grit from the sand-paper would become more or less embedded in the wood1 and it would spoil the bread knife4 ,sand-paper is made of ground quartz1 and it soon dulls the edge of a cutting tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,the bread board ,the knife and fork box 7,fig4 #adb7 brought new problems4 ,the list of material was3 #a pc4 #aa-a_/b #c-a_/d x #a_/b #b pcs4 #g #a-a_/b #a_/b #b pcs4 #ad #a-a_/b #a_/b #a pc4 #ab #f-a_/b #a_/d ,it was made of white wood1 and1 after being assembled1 was stained a rich brown by receiving two coats of bichromate of potash4 ,this is a chemical1 which may be bought at a paint or drug store in the form of crystals4 ,these are dissolved in water1 until the solution looks like pink lemonade4 ,it can be applied with a brush1 but each coat must be allowed to dry completely before the whole is sand-papered smooth with ,no4 #j sand-paper4 ,a deeper brown can be obtained by adding one or two extra coats of stain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,method of using hand screws in the construction of a knife box ,the middle partition containing the handle was made first4 ,the drawing was laid out on the wood after it had been squared up1 and two holes #a inch in diameter were bored out at a a4 ,the wood between was taken out with a key-hole saw1 and finished to the line with chisel and knife4 ,a turning saw can be used to advantage on this handle1 but it is not absolutely necessary4 ,spaces b b were removed in the same way1 but a knife was used in the concave part of the curve4 ,if it is handy1 a small spokeshave can be employed on the whole upper line of this handle4 ,anything in the nature of a handle should be rounded to fit the hand4 ,edges c c were therefore rounded with the knife1 and finished with coarse1 followed by fine1 sand-paper4 ,the two sides were laid out together as in the nail box1 and the groove cut with back saw and #a_/h-;inch chisel4 ,the end pieces were made in a similar manner1 and the bottom piece squared to #a_/af-;inch of finished size4 ,the assembling consisted of first gluing together the sides and ends4 ,two hand screws were used to hold them4 ,this was ,harry's first attempt at using hand screws1 and ,ralph showed him the importance of keeping the jaws parallel4 ,the box remained in the hand screws over night1 and the next day it was found to be securely fastened4 ,the most convenient kind of glue for boys is the liquid sold in cans4 ,it is always ready for use1 and very handy where only a moderate quantity is needed4 ,dry glue in the form of flakes1 or granulated1 must be soaked over night1 and then heated in a pot having a double bottom with water in the lower part4 ,it should be put on hot with a brush or a small flat stick4 ,the best glue is none too good1 yet a good quality has wonderful holding power and should last indefinitely4 ,after removing the hand screws1 the unfinished box was placed in the vise1 tested with the edge of the plane1 and made perfectly true1 top and bottom4 ,the #a_/d-;inch bottom piece was now put on with one-inch brads1 the sides and ends made square1 the handle partition slipped into the grooves1 and fastened with two brads at each end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,tool box ,this knife box was so satisfactory that our young carpenters resolved to have a large one for tools4 ,whenever they had a job to do in the house1 they were constantly running out to the shop for something1 so that a tool box became a necessity4 ,the construction was similar to the knife box2 but this was larger and heavier1 and the dado joints at the ends were replaced by a butt joint fastened with flat-head screws4 7,fig4 #adc74 ,the bottom and partition were also put on with screws1 on account of the weight to be carried4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,another tool box ,these tool boxes are frequently made in the shape shown in ,fig4 #add1 with sloping sides and ends called the hopper joint2 but aside from the tool practice it affords1 it is doubtful if the shape has advantage enough over the other form to warrant the extra time it takes4 ,man is an imitative creature1 however1 and what one carpenter has1 the others copy4 ,the principal features about this useful article should be size and strength1 especially in the handle1 which should be of about #e_/h or #c_/d inch stock4 ,,xxvi ,,the ,,mitre ,,box ,,and ,,picture ,,frames ,it seemed to ,harry that the shop was fairly well equipped1 but ,ralph insisted that they must have a mitre box before making anything else for the house4 ,the mitre box is1 or should be1 an instrument of precision1 and although simple in construction1 must be perfectly accurate1 or it is useless4 7,fig4 #ade47 ,the illustration shows the common form1 but elaborate affairs of iron and wood can be bought ready made4 ,every boy should make his own1 for the practice1 if for nothing else4 ,the sides should be made of oak #g_/h inch thick1 #ah inches long1 and #c-a_/b inches high1 the bottom of #g_/h-;inch pine or other soft wood1 the same size4 ,when squared up1 the two sides must be tested by standing them side by side2 then reverse one end for end1 to see if they are alike4 ,if not1 find where the trouble is1 and correct it4 ,it is especially important that the edges of the bottom piece be square and the sides perfectly parallel4 ,this test can be made with the marking gauge4 ,sides are fastened on by boring and countersinking for three screws on each4 ,after assembling1 the whole thing must be tested as if it were a solid block4 ,top edges must be true and parallel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,the #de mitre box and test pieces ,near one end--about two inches in--lay out across the top with try square a line #ij degrees with the sides4 ,carry the line down each side1 square with the top edges4 ,for #de-;degree angles1 lay out a square by drawing two pencil lines across the top1 as far apart as the finished mitre box is wide4 ,draw the two diagonals and square lines from their ends down both sides1 taking care that their position is not over the screw in the bottom2 because as the saw cuts deeper it may reach this screw and ruin its teeth4 ,make the three saw cuts directly on the lines laid out with a cross cut or back saw1 with the utmost care4 ,if this is not done accurately1 all the labour of preparation is wasted4 ,the blank end of the mitre box may have an additional #ij-;degree cut1 or be left for new cuts in the future1 as a mitre box of this description wears out and becomes inaccurate4 ,other angles may be used1 as #fj degrees or #cj degrees1 but it is better to have these on another box as they are used less1 and for special purposes4 7,fig4 #adf47 ,the mitre box is not ready to use until it has been thoroughly tested4 ,prepare a strip of soft wood--pine or white wood--#a-a_/b inches wide and #a_/b inch thick4 ,cut four pieces from it on the mitre box1 using the back saw as shown at a1 with only one of the slits4 ,place these four triangular pieces together to form a square4 ,all the four mitre joints of this square must fit perfectly4 ,if they do not1 mark the slit ,n4 ,g41 and test the other slit in the same way4 ,if all right1 mark ,o4 ,k4 ,it often happens that one may be perfect and the other inaccurate4 ,if they are both ,o4 ,k41 the box is ready for use4 ,if one slit is useless1 lay out and cut another on the blank end of the mitre box in the same direction1 and test again4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 #cj-fj-ij mitre box ,in testing a #cj-;degree cut three pieces of the strip should be sawed out1 and when placed together they should form a perfect equilateral triangle1 while from a #fj-;degree cut1 six pieces are needed to form a hexagon4 ,these angles are valuable in inlaid work1 and for getting out geometrical designs4 ,the #de-;degree cut is indispensable in making the mitred corners of picture frames and in cabinet work4 ,in making picture frames of simple cross section1 it is first necessary to cut the rabbet 7,fig4 #adg7 with a rabbet plane4 ,if this moulding is made by hand1 the size of the picture should be measured1 the length of all four sides added1 and a liberal allowance made for waste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,making picture frames ,in the figure1 the triangles a a are waste1 the rabbet being indicated by the dotted line4 ,after the four pieces have been sawed out on the mitre box1 they should be placed together on a flat surface1 such as the bench top or floor1 to see if the mitres fit perfectly4 ,if they do not1 one of them can be block planed to make a perfect fit1 and the other three laid close together1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the assembling is the hardest part of the operation1 and many devices have been tried and some patented to hold the parts together while the glue is drying4 ,perhaps the surest way is to drill a hole in one piece of each joint large enough for the passage of a wire bung-head nail4 ,the undrilled piece is placed vertically in the vise4 ,the drilled piece1 after receiving a thin coat of glue1 is brought into position horizontally1 and the nail driven home4 ,theoretically1 the nail should catch at the first blow1 but the horizontal piece will sometimes slip1 even with the best of care4 ,it is wiser to place this piece about #a_/af inch above its final position1 to allow for this slip4 ,a method sometimes used is to glue near the ends of each piece a triangular block of wood1 as shown at d4 ,these must be left over night to harden4 ,the next day the whole four pieces can be glued and held together by four hand screws1 as shown1 until the glue is thoroughly hard4 ,this method1 of course1 can only be used with plain moulding or that which is square on the outside4 ,our boys tried another way that is commonly practised4 ,they nailed oblong blocks to an old drawing board1 as shown at e e1 and then placed the picture frame in the centre1 after gluing the joints1 and driving wedges in between the blocks and the frame4 ,paper placed under each joint prevented the frame from being stuck to the drawing board by the glue forced out by the pressure4 ,this paper plan was learned by experience1 as the first frame the boys tried had to be pried up from the board1 and in so doing they broke it at two of the joints1 so that it had to be made again4 ,it is well to remember in gluing mitre joints that end grain absorbs more glue than a flat surface4 ,a priming coat should be applied first1 and allowed to remain a few moments to fill up the pores4 ,the second coat should hold fast and make a strong joint1 but an excess of glue should always be avoided1 as it must be removed after hardening1 and glue soon takes the edge from the best of tools4 ,very fancy frames should be avoided4 ,a bevel on the outside or inside1 or both1 is about all the young woodworker should attempt in the way of ornamentation4 ,depend on the natural beauty of the wood1 as a fancy frame draws the attention from the picture1 which after all is the main thing4 ,we should admire the man1 not his clothes1 the picture not its frame1 although the latter should be neat and well made4 ,the finishing and polishing of frames is taken up in ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,xxvii ,,making ,,toilet ,,boxes ,to make a wooden box sounds like a simple proposition2 but in making the drawing1 the questions of size1 proportion1 joints1 hinges1 etc41 immediately come up4 ,the size of course depends on the purpose of the box4 ,if it is for ladies' gloves1 it should be long and narrow2 if for collars or handkerchiefs1 square or nearly so4 ,the height is nearly always made too great4 ,in fact1 the whole question of proportion is one which can hardly be taught2 it must be felt1 and different people have different ideas as to what constitutes good proportion4 ,some hints1 however1 may be given3 ,a box perfectly square does not look well4 ,again1 dimensions that are multiples do not look well4 ,a box #d #h #ab inches would not be nearly so pleasing as one #c #e-a_/b #ab inches4 ,the proportions are also affected by the constructive details4 ,is the box to be flat on the sides and ends or is the top to project8 etc4 ,our boys argued and sketched and finally drew the design shown at ,fig4 #adh4 ,this was to hold ties4 ,the top was to project and have a bevel1 or chamfer1 also the bottom4 ,no hinges were to be used1 but the cover was to have cleats fastened on the under side to keep it in place1 and to prevent warping4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,dado joint used in box design ,the next question was the manner of fastening the sides and ends4 ,on unimportant work1 a butt joint with glue and brads can be used1 but for a toilet article1 the holes made by the brads1 even if they are filled with putty1 are not satisfactory4 ,so it was decided to use the dado joint as shown at a4 ,this meant more fine work1 but1 as ,ralph suggested1 it was to last a lifetime1 and should be made right4 ,sides and ends were squared up1 and the grooves on the side pieces laid out as in the nail box4 ,the rabbets on the end pieces were cut out with the back saw and chisel4 ,after the joints had been carefully fitted1 the four pieces were glued together and placed in hand screws over night4 ,while the glue was hardening1 the two pieces for the top and bottom were squared up and bevelled with the smoothing plane on the long sides1 the block plane on the ends4 ,the cleats for the top were next made1 drilled and countersunk for the screws as at b4 ,a careful full-sized drawing of half of the top was made1 and a chip carving design drawn for it4 ,the cleats were not put on until the carving was finished and short screws had to be used so they would not come through and spoil the surface4 ,the next day the body of the box was removed from the hand screws and squared with a smoothing plane4 ,the top and bottom were put on with #a-;inch brads4 ,these were set with a nail punch to prevent any possible scratching and the whole box was rubbed down with wax dissolved in turpentine4 ,for fine cabinet work1 the dovetail joint makes the most satisfactory method of fastening1 but ,harry was not yet skilled enough to do the fine work it demanded4 ,the second box was for handkerchiefs1 dimensions #h #g #c inches outside1 and no overhang at either top or bottom4 ,the construction brought in several new features4 ,sides and ends were dadoed together as in the first box4 ,the top and bottom1 after being squared1 were rabbeted on all four sides until they fitted snugly into the opening top and bottom4 ,they were glued in these positions and placed in hand screws over night4 7,fig4 #adi47 ,how are you going to get into that box8 asked ,harry4 ,you've closed it up solid and glued the top on4 ,wait and see1 was all the satisfaction he got4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,the handkerchief box ,the next day the hand screws were removed and the box squared up exactly as if it had been a solid piece of wood4 ,ralph then made two gauge lines around the four sides1 #c_/d inch from the top and #a_/h inch apart4 ,then he cut the box in two between these two lines with a rip saw1 after slightly rounding all corners except the bottom ones with a plane and sand-paper4 ,by this method1 the box and cover must be exactly alike in outline1 and by planing to the gauge lines1 they will fit perfectly4 ,it only remained to hinge the two parts together1 but this operation proved to be no slight task4 ,the body was placed in the vise and the cover laid upside down on the bench top4 ,the two parts were brought together as shown at c1 and the four knife lines laid out as shown with knife and try square4 ,the distance between the lines at a and b must be equal to the width of the hinge1 and the wood between these lines removed to a depth equal to half the thickness of the hinge at its joint when closed4 ,if too much is removed1 the box will be hinge bound and will not close in front4 ,if too little is taken out1 it will close in front and have an open joint at the back4 ,in the former case1 a thickness or two of paper placed under the hinge will often be enough to make it close in front4 ,in the latter case1 of course more material must be cut out4 ,it is a delicate operation1 as the depth of these cuts for #a-;inch hinges is only about #a_/af inch4 ,it is a question of accuracy1 pure and simple4 ,holes for the screws can be made with a brad awl4 ,the boys made several boxes of various sizes and styles1 some plain1 some decorated with carving4 ,pyrography1 or burnt work1 is frequently used for decoration1 and the best wood for this purpose is basswood1 because of its white color1 softness1 and freedom from pitch4 ,other woods may be burnt1 but pine1 which has veins of pitchy sap1 is not suitable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,a box for drawing instruments ,a box for drawing instruments is shown in ,fig4 #aej4 ,its outside dimensions are #i #e-a_/d #b-a_/b inches4 ,our boys made theirs of gum wood because of the beauty of its colouring and its suitability for carving4 ,the joints used and the method of construction were the same as in the handkerchief box1 but it was provided with a tray for the instruments4 ,this was one inch deep over all1 and rested on two thin strips fastened to the ends inside4 ,these strips were #d-a_/d #a #a_/d inches1 and1 by raising the tray one inch from the bottom1 left a space convenient for holding triangles1 protractors1 pencils1 etc4 ,the cover was decorated with a border and centre piece in chip carving4 ,the making of dovetailed boxes is taken up in ,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,xxviii ,,brackets ,,and ,,book ,,racks ,brackets are often required about the house for many purposes1 and their size1 shape1 and decoration are infinite4 ,there is even more fun in designing them than in making them4 ,tastes differ in this respect1 as in everything else1 and1 given the problem1 no two people will bring out the same design unless they simply copy something they have seen1 which is not designing4 ,when our boys started to make brackets in response to urgent demands from the family1 ,ralph blocked out the sketch shown in ,fig4 #aea at a4 ,there is a bracket1 he said2 it consists of three pieces1 and properly put together it will hold what it is designed to hold4 ,it is not a thing of beauty1 and we must improve it4 ,how8 ,by changing its outline without impairing its strength4 ,in other words1 we must 'design' a bracket constructed of three pieces of wood put together at right angles4 ,there's your problem2 now take paper and pencil and let us see what you can do4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,designs for wall brackets ,what size8 asked ,harry4 ,oh1 in this case1 ,i'll leave it to your judgment4 ,for fully an hour1 no sound was heard in the shop but that of two lead pencils4 ,harry was getting experience4 ,let me give you a pointer1 said ,ralph4 ,don't try to draw both sides alike1 as it is very difficult where you have free-hand lines4 ,draw a vertical line representing the centre4 ,sketch one half of the design1 and when you have it about right1 fold the paper on this centre line and trace the other half4 ,harry went to work again and at the end of another hour produced the sketches shown in ,fig4 #aea4 ,ralph criticised them all rather severely1 and as ,harry was tired1 this treatment made him sulky4 ,don't get mad1 said ,ralph kindly2 you know designing is hard work and the only way you can learn is to have me help you by pointing out your weak spots4 ,artists are obliged to pay for criticism2 you know ,i'm not finding fault4 ,all right1 said ,harry1 brightening up1 which one shall ,i make8 ,i think the one marked x is the best4 ,work it up more carefully1 design the shelf and bracket and put on all the dimensions4 ,the bracket8 ,why1 what is this ,i have drawn8 ,that's the back piece that goes against the wall2 the bracket piece supports the shelf1 and remember when you make it in wood1 the grain must always run the long way of each piece4 ,why8 ,i'll show you1 said ,ralph4 ,he cut out two pieces of wood about #h #a #a_/b inches1 one with the grain running lengthwise and on the other the grain running the one-inch way4 ,handing the first piece to ,harry1 he said1 ,let me see you break it with your hands4 ,the boy tried and failed4 ,handing him the second piece he said1 ,now try this4 ,it broke so readily that ,harry was astonished4 ,that's why1 said ,ralph1 and that's all4 ,the three pieces as finally drawn are shown in ,fig4 #aea at x4 ,they were all cut out of gum wood with a coping saw1 finished to the lines with chisel1 spokeshave and sand-paper block1 and put together with #c_/d-;inch brads4 ,the nails were driven through the back into the bracket1 the latter piece being held in the vise in a horizontal position4 ,it was then shifted to a vertical position with the back piece to the left of the vise and the shelf nailed to the bracket4 ,two brads were also driven through the back into the shelf4 ,brackets may be ornamented in many ways2 by chip carving1 pyrography1 or by staining1 but the decoration should be put on before assembling4 ,another form is shown at b in which the back piece is not carried above the shelf1 the latter piece resting on the top of the back4 ,from a constructive standpoint this is a stronger form than the other1 as part of the weight is carried by the back instead of by the brads alone4 ,corner brackets are sometimes used and may be made in the form shown at c4 ,here we have two wall pieces and a ,v-shaped shelf1 the ,v being a right angle4 ,again1 the form may be so long as to require two brackets and it may then be considered a shelf4 ,in fastening any of these forms to a plastered wall1 considerable care must be taken in placing the nails or screws so that they will engage in a stud instead of just in the plaster4 ,the location of the studs can be found by tapping on the wall with the knuckle or lightly with a hammer4 ,a surer way1 however1 is to find the nails in the picture moulding or base board and plumb from either of these places with a small weight--such as a nail--on a string4 ,the designing and making of book racks offer an almost endless field for the imagination4 ,the rack may have a fixed length or be adjustable and either of these forms may have fixed or folding ends1 and again the shapes of the ends may be varied in form and decorated in several ways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,types of book racks ,perhaps one of the simplest forms of folding book rack is shown in ,fig4 #aeb1 at a4 ,the ends are sawed out of the bottom piece1 pivoted with two #a_/d-;inch dowels and when stood upright the lower part strikes against a cleat1 which acts as a rest for the rack and a stop for the end piece4 ,the weakness of most book racks lies in the gradual weakening of the ends at the joint so that the weight of the books makes them lean outward4 ,this should be considered carefully in working up the design4 ,one of the weakest forms perhaps is shown at b4 ,theoretically1 this is all right1 but in practice the ends soon bend or lean out4 ,a skeleton form1 making use of the halved joint1 is shown at c4 ,the two long sides and two short ends are squared up and halved as shown4 ,all the ends are bevelled4 ,holes are bored for the pivots--#a_/d-;inch dowels--a distance from the cross pieces equal to half the thickness of the folding ends4 ,this is to insure the ends standing perfectly upright against cross pieces4 ,if this distance is greater than half the thickness1 the ends will lean out1 and if less than half1 the ends cannot be gotten in place4 ,the bottom of the ends must be rounded1 or they will not fold over4 ,the construction is very simple1 and requires little material4 ,another very ordinary method is shown at d4 ,it is as common and simple as it is weak and unsatisfactory4 ,the ends are placed on the bottom piece and hinged4 ,if a cheap and quick method is desired1 it would be better to place the hinges as shown at e1 because then the tendency to tilt out is prevented by the pressure against the bottom piece as long as the screws hold4 ,a far better method is to mortise the shelf through the end pieces and fasten it with a good1 healthy pin or wedge1 as shown at f2 and a still better plan is to have two mortises and two wedges1 as shown at g4 ,in constructive design1 nothing is lost by honesty4 ,the ends in this case are held in place by pins1 so instead of hiding the fact1 emphasize it by making these pins big and strong enough to do their work4 ,the rack may be further strengthened by adding corner brackets at h4 ,having decided on the construction1 the form of the ends may be taken up4 ,this is affected somewhat by the construction1 but some of the outlines tried by our boys and suggestive to other boys are shown at #a1 #b1 #c4 ,they used two distinct kinds4 ,one was characterized by straight lines4 ,these they decorated with chip carving4 ,the other style was distinguished by curved outlines1 and decorated by outlines made with the veining tool1 and by staining the figures in various colours4 ,the stains they used were oil colours thinned with turpentine so as to bring out the grain of the wood1 rather than to hide it1 as in painting1 and care was taken to tone down these colours to dull reds1 browns1 greens1 and grays4 ,for staining and polishing1 turn to ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,xxix ,,construction ,the study of construction includes many items such as strength1 proportion1 joints1 etc4 ,if we look at the roof timbers shown in outline at a 7,fig4 #aec71 the interesting parts of the construction are the three spaces enclosed by circles4 ,the straight lines between these circles do not interest us very much1 but the parts enclosed do4 ,immediately the question arises1 how are the timbers fastened at these places8 ,in other words1 what kind of joint is used8 ,the joint then is the critical part1 or we might say the cream of the construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec ,a very large number of joints are in use1 but many of them are rare4 ,our grandfathers1 who built their houses and barns from oak timbers hewn out with the axe1 commonly used the mortise and tenon1 fastened with a generous hard wood pin1 and many of them are still standing after a century or two of hard usage4 ,the fact that the beams were rough hewn1 instead of sawed1 did not in any way affect their strength1 because they made good1 strong joints4 ,some of the more common joints are shown in the accompanying illustrations1 and may be used for reference4 ,no4 #a4 ,a butt joint in which the two pieces are fastened together1 end to end1 by means of glue and dowels4 ,it should be used only in cases where there is little strain in the direction of the two pieces4 ,no4 #b4 ,a dowel joint joining two pieces at right angles4 ,one form of it is shown at ,no4 #c applied to the leg of a table4 ,no4 #d4 ,shows two pieces fastened edge to edge by dowels4 ,this joint is often made without the dowels2 the two strips1 after jointing or fitting1 being glued and rubbed together--sometimes called a rubbed joint4 ,no4 #e4 ,a butt joint fastened by nails1 brads1 or screws1 common in box construction4 ,no4 #f4 ,a butt joint where the pieces are not at right angles1 owing to the slant4 ,this is called the hopper joint and it is fastened with nails or brads4 ,no4 #g4 ,end lap4 ,a joint much used in house framing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,joints used in construction ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,joints used in construction 7continued7 ,no4 #h4 ,shows the lap joint used for splicing two pieces lengthwise4 ,it needs to be nailed or bolted to prevent pulling apart4 ,no4 #i4 ,a middle lap joint4 ,no4 #aj4 ,dovetail lap or lap dovetail4 ,this form resists pulling apart and is a combination of lap and dovetail joints4 ,no4 #aa4 ,shows a modification of the same1 only one side being dovetailed4 ,no4 #ab4 ,halved joint4 ,both pieces are cut out to half their thickness1 and a width equal to that of the other piece4 ,the pieces may be at right angles or some other angle1 as shown at ,no4 #ac4 ,no4 #ac4 ,halved joint at #de degrees4 ,no4 #ad4 ,lock joint4 ,this is a form of lap joint rarely used4 ,it resists pulling apart1 but should be glued on account of shrinkage4 ,no4 #ae4 ,notched joint2 used where two pieces cross1 and where full halving is not desirable1 as in the sketch of pergola4 ,no4 #af4 ,rabbeted or gained joint4 ,no4 #ag4 ,dado joint4 ,no4 #ah4 ,gained or housed joint4 ,no4 #ai4 ,through mortise and tenon1 used in furniture construction and building4 ,note--#af1 #ag1 #ah are often confused1 and are named differently by mechanics4 ,they are used in boxes1 and cabinet work4 ,no4 #bj4 ,blind mortise and tenon1 same as ,no4 #ai1 except that the tenon does not go through and is invisible4 ,these two joints may be fastened with glue1 and are often strengthened by passing a dowel through at right angles to the tenon4 ,another method is to make two or more saw cuts in the tenon1 and drive wedges into the cuts4 ,in door construction1 where the rails meet the stiles1 the tenon is often divided1 as shown by the dotted line4 ,the two parts fitted into separate mortises give the appearance of two distinct tenons on the edge of the door4 ,no4 #ba4 ,relished mortise and tenon or door joint1 a form used at the corners of doors4 ,no4 #bb4 ,end mortise and tenon4 ,the tenon is seen on two sides4 ,used for frames of various kinds4 ,no4 #bc4 ,the mitre joint1 used in picture frames1 picture moulding1 interior finish of houses1 etc4 ,no4 #bd4 ,lap mitre joint2 a combination of end lap and mitre2 rarely used4 ,no4 #be4 ,stretcher joint2 a combination of end lap1 mitre1 and end mortise and tenon2 used by artists for frames on which their canvas is fastened4 ,the stretching is done by driving wedges from the inside4 ,no4 #bf4 ,dovetail2 used as a splice4 ,no4 #bg4 ,single open dovetail for two pieces at right angles4 ,when two or more are cut in the same place1 we have the open or box dovetail4 ,no4 #bh4 ,box dovetail2 used in cabinet work and boxes4 ,no4 #bi4 ,half-blind dovetail4 ,the dovetails are seen from only one side2 used in cabinet work1 especially in drawer construction4 ,no4 #cj4 ,blind dovetail4 ,when the two pieces are together1 the dovetails are invisible4 ,this joint calls for very accurate work4 ,it is used in special cases1 where strength is required1 and yet it is desirable to hide the form of construction4 ,no4 #ca4 ,trick dovetail2 not used in construction1 and only of interest as a curiosity4 ,the four sides of this trick combination are apparently exactly alike4 ,it seems impossible for them to have been put together1 and to bring out the effect it is well to have one piece in light-coloured wood1 the other dark4 ,the method of laying out and cutting is shown in the illustration4 ,the dovetails that appear on the surface are only oblique sections of dovetailed-shaped tongues and grooves running diagonally from face to face4 ,no4 #cb4 ,another trick4 ,this at first sight appears like a lap dovetail1 but the end view shows another dovetail1 making it apparently impossible to put together4 ,the construction is shown clearly in the drawing4 ,it is of no value in constructive work4 ,no4 #cc4 ,splice or scarf joint2 used in framing1 occasionally2 of little value to boys4 ,no4 #cd4 ,tongue and groove joint2 used in flooring and for sheathing4 ,scores of other joints might be shown1 but they are seldom used1 and are of no value to amateur mechanics4 ,,xxx ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,gouge ,there is one tool you have not learned to use1 said ,ralph1 one day1 and ,i think that it is about time you tried it4 ,what tool is that8 asked ,harry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,the gouge ,the gouge ground or bevelled on the outside4 7,fig4 #aee47 ,what is it used for8 ,for cutting concave curves1 especially those below the surface4 ,suppose you practise on a piece of white wood4 ,a piece of white wood was squared up1 a foot long and #a-a_/b inches square4 ,the lines shown in the figure were laid out with the pencil4 ,the marking gauge is not suitable for this work1 as it makes a sharp cut in the surface just where the edge is to come1 so that after the gouge work is finished1 it would show this edge split by the gauge mark4 7,fig4 #aef47 ,the two grooves from end to end were first cut1 removing a quarter circle1 the curve being drawn on the ends by a pair of compasses or dividers4 ,this gave excellent practice in freehand work1 calling for good control over the hands1 and a constant watching of the grain to prevent splitting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,practise cuts with the gouge ,the other two grooves or coves were next tried4 ,extra care had to be exercised here to prevent taking off the ends4 ,to give the boy further practice1 the simple pen tray shown in ,fig4 #aeg was sketched out1 and the stock squared up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,an example of gouge work ,the gouge work in this exercise was entirely beneath the surface1 and to make the tool work true to the drawing1 a depth gauge was made as shown at a4 ,this was simply a straight piece of waste wood with a brad driven into it1 carefully1 until the head was the same distance above the surface as the depth of the groove called for in the drawing4 ,by inverting the gauge and running the brad head along the bottom of the groove1 the depth could be gauged accurately4 ,the wooden strip must rest on the surface at both sides of the groove1 and the brad head just touches the bottom at the same time4 ,after the gouge work had been carried as far as possible1 the groove was finished by sand-papering1 first with ,no4 #a-a_/b and then with ,no4 #j sand-paper4 ,in laying out bevelled edges on a piece of this character1 the same objection to the marking gauge holds as for gouged grooves4 ,ralph showed the boy a simple method of making a gauge for pencil lines to overcome this difficulty4 ,he cut out a piece of white pine shaped as shown at b4 ,the distance from the shoulder to the point of the ,v was equal to the width of the desired bevel or chamfer4 ,the stock must be held in the vise1 as both hands are required in the drawing of the lines4 ,to make the width of the bevel greater1 simply cut the shoulder further back with a knife1 and to reduce the size1 cut the ,v further in toward the shoulder4 ,this is a very convenient and inexpensive device1 quickly made4 ,a more pretentious project was tried next 7,fig4 #aeh1 a71 which provides for a round ink bottle1 and demands some nice chisel work4 ,in the first pen tray the bevels had been all planed4 ,on this second one1 only three could be cut that way1 as the one on the back had to be chiselled4 ,the successive steps in the construction were as follows3 #a4 ,square up stock4 #b4 ,lay out the drawing on the wood4 #c4 ,bore the hole for ink well half way through the wood with extension bit4 #d4 ,smooth the bottom of the hole with chisel1 holding it bevel down4 #e4 ,gouge out the groove and gauge the depth4 #f4 ,sand-paper the groove4 #g4 ,cut out the outline of the back with the back saw and chisel4 #h4 ,cut all the bevels1 doing the back part--the most difficult--first4 #i4 ,draw chip carving design4 #aj4 ,do the carving4 #aa4 ,rub down with wax dissolved in turpentine4 #ab4 ,insert ink well4 ,design ,no4 #c1 shown at b 7,fig4 #aeh71 called for molded edges1 places for two square ink wells1 and a simple carved design in the flat space between them4 ,the process in this case was as follows3 #a4 ,square up4 #b4 ,lay out the work from drawing4 #c4 ,cut out squares #a_/d inch deep with socket chisel and mallet4 #d4 ,gouge groove4 #e4 ,make moulded edges by first gouging the quarter circle shown in detail drawing1 and doing the long sides with the grain first4 ,next remove the rest of the wood outside the curved outline with smoothing plane on long sides1 block plane on ends4 ,sand-paper the groove and moulded edges4 #f4 ,lay out and execute carving4 #g4 ,rub down with wax or raw linseed oil4 #h4 ,insert ink wells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,pen and ink trays ,in place of carving this inkstand1 an inlaid design could have been used1 and the whole piece highly polished1 but our boy had not yet had any practice in inlaying or polishing1 so he used sweet gum wood and a chip carving design4 ,later on he made others out of black walnut and mahogany1 and gave them a high polish4 ,see ,chapter ,,xxxv for inlaying and ,,xlix for polishing4 ,a very nice little problem in gouge work is shown in ,fig4 #aei1 a pen tray pure and simple1 with no provision for ink wells4 ,the only new feature is the under cutting of the outside4 ,the steps for this are3 #a4 ,square up4 #b4 ,lay out from a centre line1 drawn completely around the block lengthwise1 and draw with compasses and rule both top and bottom4 #c4 ,gouge groove4 #d4 ,plane the long sides to outline of top and bottom lines4 #e4 ,cut ends with back saw and chisel to semicircles on top and bottom4 #f4 ,round upper edge with spokeshave1 chisel and knife4 #g4 ,sand-paper with coarse1 followed by fine1 sand-paper4 #h4 ,polish or wax finish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,the pen trap ,perhaps the most severe test for gouge work is the pin tray shown at ,fig4 #afj4 ,this is something which could be made more cheaply and in less time from metal1 but a skilful and careful boy can do it successfully in a hard wood1 such as maple4 ,the process is similar to the pen tray4 ,the drawing is laid out on the squared stock1 and the bowl cut out with the gouge4 ,the outside is best executed with a template1 or better1 two--one for the lengthwise section and one for the width4 ,a template is a form cut out of thin wood or metal2 in this case #a_/h-;inch wood should be used4 ,by frequently holding these templates to the work1 it may be quickly seen where the material is to be removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,the pin tray4 ,a fine test of gouge work ,when the outside of the tray fits the templates1 it is ready for sand-papering1 and not before4 ,to make the tray perfect1 an inside template can be used4 ,this template method is used in forming boat models4 ,,xxxi ,,coat ,,hanger ,,and ,,towel ,,rollers ,the coat hanger is a convenient thing in every household1 and also a good example of spokeshave work4 ,a soft wood1 like pine1 or white wood1 is suitable1 and after squaring up two faces and one edge1 the design may be drawn on one or both of the faces with a sharp pencil4 ,cut close to the lines with a turning saw1 and finish to lines with spokeshave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,the coat hanger ,the upper edge is next rounded with the spokeshave 7,fig4 #afa71 and finished with sand-paper to the cross section shown in the drawing4 ,bore a hole for the hook with a gimlet bit1 and make the hook from strong brass wire1 shaped by bending with a pair of pliers4 ,for finishing1 two coats of shellac can be used4 ,the first coat after hardening is sand-papered flat with ,no4 #jj sand-paper2 the second may be treated in the same way1 or rubbed down with ground pumice stone and linseed oil4 7,see polishing chapter47 ,for the kitchen1 the towel roller is still used to some extent1 especially in the country and suburbs4 ,it consists of four pieces1 a back1 two brackets1 and the roller4 ,these essential parts are shown in ,fig4 #afb and the back and brackets may be modified and improved as shown at b and c4 ,carving can be used in a simple form on the ends1 as shown at c4 ,the back and ends are cut out with the usual tools1 but it is wise1 in cutting the outline of the ends1 to glue them together with a piece of paper between1 cutting both at the same time4 ,this insures their being exactly alike1 and when finished they may be easily separated by inserting the blade of a knife between them4 ,the paper will split1 half coming off on each piece4 ,after the paper and glue have been planed off1 a hole is bored half way through each end from the inside4 ,on one end it is necessary to cut a groove of the same width and depth as the hole1 clear up to the top1 so that the roller can be inserted after assembling1 and a towel be put over it4 ,the ends are fastened with two flat-head screws each1 by boring through the back1 and countersinking4 ,two holes should also be bored through the back for fastening it to the wall4 ,the roller may be turned on a lathe or made at the bench by the following method3 #a4 ,square up the stock to the diameter of the roller called for in the drawing4 #b4 ,find the exact centre of each end by drawing the diagonals with a pencil4 #c4 ,draw a circle on each end from these centres of full diameter4 #d4 ,bore a hole at each of these centres #c_/h-;inch diameter1 and about an inch deep4 #e4 ,plane off the four corners down to the circle to produce an octagonal form4 #f4 ,plane off the eight corners1 using as a stop a small piece of wood fastened in the vise4 ,hold the roller against this stop1 and allow the stock to rest over the open space in the vise4 ,continue to plane off the edges as long as they are large enough to see or feel4 #g4 ,sand-paper with coarse1 followed by fine1 sand-paper4 #h4 ,glue into the holes in the ends pieces of dowel long enough to project out about half an inch4 #i4 ,allow the glue to harden over night1 and saw off the dowels next day to the proper length4 ,cut a slight bevel on the end of each dowel with the knife4 ,if any carving is to be done on the ends1 it must be cut before they are screwed to the back piece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,the towel roller ,this method of producing a cylinder without a turning lathe can be used in a number of ways4 ,for example1 boys living in the city1 where a pull-up bar has to be located in the house1 can easily make one in this way1 and fasten it between the door jambs at a convenient height4 ,the blocks for supporting it can be made1 as shown in ,fig4 #afc1 three inches each way and #a_/b inch thick4 ,oak is the best wood for this purpose4 ,it is strong enough1 and can be stained to match the door frame4 ,bore and countersink four holes for #a-a_/d-;inch flat-head screws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,the pull-up bar ,to prevent the bar turning1 after it has been planed round and about #a_/h inch shorter than the space between the jambs1 lay out a one-inch square on each end4 ,cut out with a back saw1 and chisel until it just fits the square opening in the blocks4 ,this bar can be taken out and stored in a closet1 when not in use1 and the blocks will never be in the way4 ,if the bar is so loose in the blocks that it has a tendency to spring out when you jump for it1 a flat piece of oak can be screwed across the top1 as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,the hatchet handle4 ,an example of spokeshave work ,this is an excellent1 if limited1 gymnasium for those who get little exercise and whose time and space are limited4 ,every boy ought to be able to chin the bar at least six or seven times without letting go4 ,round objects with a taper1 such as pointers and musicians' batons1 can be made by this method1 always getting the taper in the square form first1 then planing off corners1 etc4 ,it is really work for a turning lathe1 but one must work with such tools as he can afford to purchase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,the hammer handle ,many useful articles of oval or elliptical cross section can be made at a bench which could not be made on an ordinary lathe4 ,the hatchet handle shown in ,fig4 #afd is a good example4 ,the wood used should be strong and tough1 such as hickory or maple4 ,after squaring up the stock to the over all dimensions1 the outline is drawn on both flat faces1 and sawed close to the lines with turning saw1 finished with drawing knife and spokeshave4 ,the oval or elliptical forms are then drawn on the ends1 the corners rounded with spokeshave to these curves1 and the whole finished with sand-paper4 ,the hammer handle 7,fig4 #afe7 is made in the same manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,sugar scoop ,the woodworkers of ,northern ,europe make many household utensils in this way4 ,the sugar scoop and the wooden ladle1 shown in ,figs4 #aff and #aff a1 are familiar examples4 ,in these two cases1 the bowl is work for the gouge1 while in rounding1 some of the surfaces are done with the file4 ,on general principles1 it is not wise to get into the habit of using a file on wood1 except in rare cases where the material is very hard1 such as maple1 beech1 and similar woods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff a4 ,wooden ladle ,the towel rack shown in ,fig4 #afg is suitable for the bath or bed room1 and can readily be made by any boy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,the towel rack ,the back piece is made with plane and chisel4 ,the straight bevels are cut with the smoothing plane1 and the curves with the chisel4 ,the two openings or mortises should be laid out and cut before the ends are rounded4 ,the wood is removed by boring several small holes within the lines1 and finishing to line with a chisel and mallet4 ,the two supports1 or brackets1 involve nothing new1 and after being finished are glued into mortises4 ,the towel sticks may be ten inches or more in length1 squared up to #g_/h inch #a_/b inch4 ,the taper begins two inches from the bored end1 and from this point is planed in a straight line to #c_/h inch square at the small end4 ,the rounding is done in the same manner as in the towel roller1 the tips rounded with a knife1 and the whole piece sand-papered smooth4 ,the three sticks are held between the two supports and a #c_/h-;inch dowel passed through the five holes1 which should of course be in line4 ,the ends of this dowel can be split before they are placed1 and then in the final position small thin wedges can be driven in with a little glue4 ,,xxxii ,,clock ,,cases ,among small articles for household use the clock case is a popular model1 and the designs range from the mission style1 characterized by straight lines and plain surfaces1 up to elaborate attempts at imitating in miniature the old-fashioned tall grandfather's clock4 ,while an ordinary alarm clock may be used for the clock proper1 the small size nickeled clock1 #b-a_/d inches outside diameter1 is more satisfactory and very reliable4 ,it costs about seventy-five cents4 ,in designing the frame1 or case1 structural items must be considered first4 ,the clock needs a platform to stand on1 there must be a circular opening just large enough for the face to fit1 and the structure requires an opening in the back1 so that the clock may be wound or removed4 ,with these facts as a basis1 the form can be sketched out4 ,fig4 #afh shows1 perhaps1 the simplest style1 on the mission order4 ,the design of the front becomes a matter of proportion1 and the dimensions given are only suggestions which the young designer can modify to meet his own ideas1 keeping in mind that on horizontal members1 if there is any difference in size1 the upper ones should be the smaller4 ,simple as this design appears1 if put together by mortise and tenon1 with provision made for the panelled front and sides1 it will call for fine work4 ,as there is no great question of strength involved1 the following method will do for making this case4 ,it will be called heretical by expert woodworkers1 but is practicable and easy from the boy's point of view4 ,square up a piece of #a_/d-;inch stock #d inches wide and #ac inches long4 ,saw out two pieces for the panels #b-a_/b inches long4 ,clamp the front piece to a strip of scrap wood as a backing1 and bore a hole for the clock face with an expansive bit4 ,fasten the front to the end pieces by #c_/d-;inch brads1 as shown in a4 ,in the same manner nail the top and bottom pieces to the front and ends1 making a box of #a_/d-;inch wood1 with the back open4 ,the legs1 made #c_/d inch square with a #a_/d-;inch rabbet cut out as shown at a1 may now be glued on and fastened with two #a-;inch brads driven in from the ends4 ,the horizontal rails are cut and fitted to the front and ends and glued in position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,mission style clock case ,if brads are used1 they must be set1 and the holes filled with putty1 coloured to correspond with the wood used4 ,if the legs of the clock are too short to rest on the bottom1 add a shelf1 or glue on a block of pine thick enough to bring the clock to the proper level4 ,if the case is made of hard wood1 polish it to a dead flat finish4 ,this design1 however1 gives a splendid opportunity to ornament ends and front with chip carving1 for which gum wood will be suitable4 ,a clock case which can be easily upset is to be avoided1 and therefore these long low designs are to be recommended1 when the clock is to stand on a mantel1 shelf1 or bureau4 ,if the clock is to hang on the wall the designs immediately change4 ,the cuckoo clock is a familiar example4 ,our boys wrestled with the problem of a wall clock1 and their efforts to create something new brought forth considerable mental perspiration4 ,it is always an easy matter to copy something one has seen1 but that is not designing4 ,the result of ,harry's efforts is shown in ,fig4 #afi4 ,after drawing the circles with a pair of compasses1 the rest of the figure was sketched out free-hand about a centre line4 ,when it was fairly satisfactory1 the two sides of the lower half were equalized and traced for the upper half4 ,it was then measured1 and the main dimensions added to the drawing4 ,this drawing represented only the front4 ,the back1 or wall piece1 had to be a duplicate of it as far as outline was concerned1 and a plain box of #a_/d-;inch wood1 to hold the clock1 joined these two parts1 as in previous models4 ,this is the order of construction3 ,saw out stock for front and back pieces #ae #d-c_/d #a_/d inches4 ,draw two centre lines1 one the #d-;inch way1 the other the #ae-;inch way4 ,at the point where they cross1 bore the hole for the clock face1 after drawing all the circles with the compasses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,the boys' first design for a clock case ,draw outline1 or trace it from original drawing1 upon the surface of the wood4 ,saw out close to outside lines1 and finish to lines with spokeshave1 chisel and sand-paper block4 ,bevel the clock opening #a_/h inch with knife1 and smooth with sand-paper4 ,the curved lines inside of the outer edge are worked out with a veining tool4 ,the back piece is made in the same way1 but the central opening is bored larger than the front one1 to allow the clock to be withdrawn or wound4 ,the square box1 joined to these two main pieces by means of cleats1 completes the structure4 ,on account of the long overhang of the front beyond the box1 two cylindrical supports of the same material as the case can be glued between front and back1 to add strength4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,pendulum form of clock case ,owing to the symmetry of the design1 this case can be hung horizontally or vertically according to the wall space it is to occupy4 ,the method of fastening should be a screw eye at the top of the case and screw hook or nail in the wall1 as it will be necessary to remove the clock each time it is wound4 ,if placed horizontally two hooks and eyes will be needed1 one at each end4 ,fig4 #agj shows another wall design in which the clock forms the centre of the pendulum and rests in a box of hexagon shape4 ,this is made from a strip two inches wide1 the pieces cut on a #fj-;degree mitre box with back saw1 each piece #a-a_/d inches long on the short side4 ,it will just hold a clock #b-a_/h inches in its largest diameter4 ,when the face of this clock frame is bored1 and the outline finished in the usual way1 it is fastened to the hexagonal box by cleats4 ,in order to do this accurately1 turn the face upside down on the bench1 place the box in position1 and mark with a pencil all around the hexagon4 ,the cleats must be fastened on the back1 close up to the pencil line1 with glue and brads1 so carefully that the brads shall not be long enough to come through to the surface in front4 ,when dry1 insert the box between the cleats1 and make fast with glue and brads4 ,the long part of the pendulum can be either carved or polished plain4 ,the #c_/h-;inch hole bored in the upper part fits over a screw hook1 which should project at least an inch from the wall4 ,to have the clock hang perfectly plumb1 this hook should project #b-c_/h inches4 ,another form of mantel clock is suggested in ,fig4 #aga4 ,it is radically different from the others1 and is characterized by a long1 low1 and massive base cut from a solid piece of wood #a-c_/d inches thick or built up of two #g_/h-;inch pieces of red gum1 black walnut1 or mahogany4 ,the outline having been drawn on the planed surface1 one must saw as close to the line as possible1 and finish the line with chisel1 gouge1 file1 and sand-paper4 ,the circular piece1 which is to enclose the clock1 is cut from a block of the same material1 two inches thick4 ,draw the two circles1 and bore the inner one with an extension bit1 unless a turning lathe is available4 ,in that case the circular block can be turned with great accuracy4 ,the outline can be cut with the chisel after being sawed close to the line1 and finished in the same way as the base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,mantel clock ,glue this block in position1 resting it in the semicircular opening provided in the base1 and making it project #a_/h or #a_/d of an inch beyond the front surface of the base4 ,polish to a dead1 flat finish4 ,as the clock is to fit snugly into the opening1 the legs1 and the handle at the top1 must be removed4 ,,the ,,grandfathers' ,,clock ,one of the most interesting problems in clock case designing is a miniature of the tall clock of colonial times1 commonly known as the grandfathers' clock4 ,it is a simple and satisfactory form1 but it is very important to have good proportions4 ,the dimensions used by our boys are given in the drawing4 7,fig4 #agb74 ,as in all the other designs1 it is based or built up around the ordinary nickel-plated clock1 whose outside diameter is #b-a_/d inches4 ,with a circle of this diameter as a starter1 the other sizes work out as given in the drawing4 ,about the only fault likely to be found with this form is top heaviness1 as the clock is some fifteen inches above its base4 ,this can be counteracted by boring a hole in the back1 two or three inches above the bottom1 and pouring in about a pound of shot or other heavy material4 ,the method of construction is as follows3 ,all the material is #a_/d inch thick1 except the base and mouldings1 which require #a_/b-;inch wood4 ,red gum is very satisfactory1 but more expensive woods1 such as mahogany1 can be used1 especially if the front panel1 which in full-sized clocks is a door1 is to be inlaid4 ,if gum wood is used1 this panel can be decorated with chip carving or simply outlined with a veining tool4 ,if an especially elaborate result is desired1 it can be accomplished by a raised panel with moulded edges made of #a_/d-;inch wood1 fastened to the front with glue and small brads4 ,bill of material3 ,base #h-a_/b #d #a_/b ,moulding #ah #c_/h #c_/h ,box #b sides #ag-a_/b #a-c_/d #a_/d ,face #d-c_/d #d #a_/d #a front #ad-a_/b #c #a_/d ,sides of top1 #b pcs4 #a back #ad-a_/b #b-a_/b #a_/d #c-a_/b #b-a_/d #a_/d ,partitions #b--b-a_/b #b-a_/d #a_/d #a--b-a_/b #a-a_/b #a_/d ,after getting out the material construct the long box which makes the body of the design4 ,this will be #ag-a_/b inches long1 #c inches wide by #b inches deep1 and the method of putting together is shown at a4 ,this allows only one joint to show on each side1 and the back piece may be of cheap material1 such as white wood4 ,the smallest partition1 #b-a_/b #a-a_/b #a_/d1 of white wood1 is inserted in the bottom1 pushed up #a_/h inch1 and fastened with #c_/d-;inch brads from the outside4 ,this size of brad will not split #a_/d-;inch gum wood1 unless driven in nearer the edge than #a_/h inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,grandfathers' clock ,one of the remaining partitions is placed in the upper end1 as in a box1 one edge flush with the back4 ,the entire back of the case must be in a straight line4 ,the end just inserted will project out in front a quarter of an inch4 ,place the remaining partition #c-a_/h inches down from the extreme top of the box4 ,this will bring it to rest against the front1 which is only #ad-a_/b inches high4 ,the compartment for holding the clock is now complete1 open front and back4 ,the base may next be prepared1 taking care to have the grain running up and down4 ,the front piece of the base is #d #d #a_/b inches4 ,side pieces of base are #d #b #a_/b4 ,these three pieces are to be put together with a butt joint1 as shown in the bottom view1 and fastened with one-inch brads and a little glue4 ,four #c_/d-;inch brads can be used on each of the three sides to hold the base to the box4 ,it is very important that the bottom be perfectly square4 ,it should be tested and1 if necessary1 squared with a block plane4 ,the cove moulding for upper and lower parts may now be prepared4 ,square up one piece of stock #ah inches or #bj #c_/h inches square4 ,draw a quarter circle with a radius of #e_/af-;inch on each end1 and remove the wood in this space with a gouge4 ,finish with sand-paper4 ,this moulding is fitted around the three sides at top of base with a back saw and mitre box4 ,put it in place with #c_/d-;inch brads and glue1 and carefully remove any trace of glue that may appear1 before it hardens4 ,the moulding for the upper part cannot be placed until the top is finished4 ,after squaring up the face1 draw the outline directly on the wood4 ,the curves at the top should be first laid out carefully on stiff paper1 cut out with scissors1 and traced on the wood4 ,the opening for the clock1 #b-a_/d inches diameter1 must be bored first4 ,either a sharp centre bit or an extension bit should be used4 ,if the latter1 an #a_/h-;inch hole must be bored at the centre1 otherwise the tapering spur of the extension bit will surely split the thin wood4 ,this is the most delicate operation in the whole process1 and the circular opening will need smoothing with a sand-paper block4 ,having succeeded in getting a satisfactory opening1 the outline is sawed close to the lines with a coping saw and finished with sand-paper4 ,the supplementary pieces s s1 #c-a_/b #b-a_/d #a_/d inches1 are next fastened to the sides at the top4 ,they are flush with the top of the box and with the bottom of the face piece just described4 ,it is to these that the front is mainly fastened4 ,test the bottom edges of these pieces across both the front and back with a try square4 ,fasten the front to these and to the top of the box with brads1 and add the moulding1 as shown in drawing4 ,if the front panel is to be carved1 that should be done before either the base or the top is put on2 and if it is to be inlaid1 the front should be increased in thickness to #c_/h inches1 reducing the sides to #a-e_/h inches in place of #a-c_/d inches4 ,after the assembling is finished1 set all the brads1 and fill the holes with putty1 coloured to match the wood4 ,either an oil or wax finish can be used1 but a high polish is not advisable4 ,all lines on the front1 which are not edges1 can be cut with a veining tool4 ,several modifications of this method can be adopted4 ,the front panel may be made a real door1 put on with small ornamental hinges4 ,this will increase the work1 make it more realistic1 but result in little real gain4 ,the door in large clocks was necessary for getting at the weights and pendulum1 but as these parts are missing in our model1 the door is not necessary1 except possibly for hiding things from burglars4 ,it is the last spot they would be likely to think of as a hiding place for treasures4 ,as in previous designs1 the ring at the top of the clock can be removed1 if it prevents fitting into the opening provided4 ,the drawing shows a curve in the front of the base4 ,it is not essential1 but may be cut at any convenient stage of the construction with the coping saw1 and sand-papered4 ,by comparing this design with some real old six-foot clocks1 the young designer will see that we have taken some liberties for the purpose of simplifying the work4 ,highly ornamental tops were sometimes used1 with metal and carved ornaments4 ,it is never difficult to make elaborate designs1 and the young woodworker can go as far as he likes in that direction4 ,it is1 however1 sometimes difficult to simplify designs1 and this we believe is at present highly desirable4 ,,xxxiii ,,footstools ,the making of household furniture is a fascinating employment1 and as there are varying styles and fashions in nearly all things which pertain to our homes1 it will always be an interesting study4 ,the savage knows nothing of furniture1 for the ground is his chair1 bed1 and table4 ,as we go up in the scale of civilization1 we find the characteristics of a people reflected in the details of their home life4 ,in ,japan1 the house and its equipment are characterized by directness1 simplicity1 and subtle beauty4 ,in ,america1 we find a bewildering display of ever-changing devices1 styles1 forms1 and schemes of decoration1 in keeping with our rapidly changing and1 we believe1 rapidly improving taste in the intimate things of life4 ,this condition is reflected in our furniture as much as in our clothes and in the pictures we buy4 ,the black walnut furniture1 with its hard horsehair upholstering1 has been followed by antique oak1 fumed oak1 golden oak1 forest green oak1 mahogany1 bird's-eye maple1 ,french walnut1 etc41 and in a very few years we shall probably be using some of the beautiful but almost unknown woods of the ,philippines1 because fashions in woods are very materially affected by the lumber supply4 ,gilt chairs--not made to sit on--have been followed by the more sensible mission style1 bringing a much needed simplicity1 directness1 and strength1 together with an unfortunate addition of weight for the housewife to move around when cleaning4 ,there seems to be no great gain without some loss4 ,modern office furniture1 with its simple and strong chairs1 tables1 and desks1 can hardly be improved upon1 and it is almost a pity that some of these excellencies cannot be introduced into the home1 which is often overloaded1 overdecorated1 and encumbered with unnecessary articles4 ,miss ,louise ,brigham gives us a fragrant breath of fresh air along this line in her interesting book on furniture made from boxes4 ,what is needed is clear thinking4 ,never design nor make a piece of furniture without asking1 ,what is this to be used for8 ,what will be required of it8 etc4 ,this is the gist of what ,ralph said to ,harry one day when they were about to launch out into the making of footstools1 tabourettes and other small pieces of furniture4 ,harry would have liked very much to start with a dining-room table1 but ,ralph suggested diplomatically that it might be a good scheme to try several smaller pieces first4 ,they decided on a footstool1 and this is the catechism ,ralph put ,harry through as they worked out their drawing3 ,what is a footstool for8 ,to rest your feet on4 ,is that all8 ,what else could it be used for8 ,never answer a question by asking another6 ,i should say that a footstool might have to stand hard usage4 ,for instance1 suppose you wanted to reach a shelf high up in a closet4 ,if the stool was handy1 you would probably stand on it4 ,others would do the same1 and it is easily possible that somebody weighing over two hundred pounds might some day stand on it4 ,so ,i should say1 that the first requisite of a footstool was strength1 and the second that it should not be easily upset4 ,when designing furniture1 just ask yourself such questions1 and you will find that your designs will be affected by them4 ,now ,i believe that most footstools are too high and too easily upset4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,first foot stool ,the first design tried is shown in ,fig4 #agc4 ,the material used was #a_/b-;inch chestnut4 ,after squaring up the top1 the two grooves were cut to receive the upper ends of the legs4 ,for grooves of this character1 after cutting the lines as deep as possible with the knife1 followed by the chisel1 the router may be used4 ,the cutter can be adjusted by means of the set screw1 and a more uniform depth secured than with the chisel4 ,there was considerable work on the legs because of the mortise for the shelf1 and the two openings above4 ,these were cut out close to the line with the turning saw after a hole had been bored in each space1 as in scroll saw work4 ,the outline of the legs was obtained with the same tool1 and finished with the gouge1 spokeshave1 and sand-paper4 ,where hard wood1 such as oak1 is used1 the wood file may be applied to curved edges4 ,to overcome the tendency to spread1 the legs were made rigid by cutting the tenons shown on the drawing of the shelf4 ,in each tenon was cut the square hole for the wedges4 ,this shelf1 when securely wedged1 bound the whole structure rigidly4 ,when the question of securing the legs to the top came up1 the boys were inclined to use round-head blue screws from the top1 but after considering that they would be in end grain1 it looked as if this would be the weakest part of the stool4 ,the solution was an heroic one4 ,four angle irons were made out of strap iron taken from a packing case1 and cut with a cold chisel into pieces #b-a_/b inches long4 ,each had two holes drilled in it to receive the screws1 and was then bent into shape in an iron vise4 ,a monkey wrench can be used as a vise for work as light as this4 ,the screws used were #c_/h inch long1 one fastened in the top1 the other in the leg1 for each of the four angle irons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,second design for footstool ,chestnut has a very open grain1 and takes a stain very well4 ,our boys bought a small can of paste filler1 coloured it with burnt umber1 thinned it with turpentine to the consistency of cream1 and put it on with a brush4 ,the surfaces were rubbed down with cotton waste1 and then it was left over night1 to be ready for polishing in the morning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,third footstool design ,after this stool was finished1 the boys looked it over critically1 and decided that it could be improved on1 that it was too high and not heavy enough4 ,footstool number two is shown in ,fig4 #agd4 ,in this design1 the shelf is dispensed with1 and two stretchers or side pieces substituted2 stock #g_/h and #c_/d inch thick took the place of #a_/b inch4 ,the two ends were glued together with paper between1 cut out as one piece1 afterward separated1 and the paper and glue planed off4 ,the curved outline was drawn on paper1 traced on the wood1 sawed out with turning saw1 and finished to line as in previous work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,fourth footstool design ,the joint for fastening the side piece to the legs is shown in the drawing4 ,it makes a strong and rigid combination1 calling for a good fit4 ,in putting on the top piece1 angle irons can be used1 but the boys tried a new method4 ,after gluing the joint1 they bored holes and countersunk them through the sides1 forcing flat-head screws #b-a_/d inches long up into the top4 ,being below the level of the eye1 these were invisible1 and they saved the time and labour of making angle irons4 ,two screws on each side are enough to make a solid piece of work4 ,the material was quartered oak with antique finish4 ,to produce this effect1 lampblack dissolved in turpentine was added to the filler1 and after drying was polished to a dead flat finish4 7,see polishing chapter47 ,design number three is shown in ,fig4 #age4 ,the legs run the long way of the stool2 joints the same as number two2 top fastened by screws through cross piece4 ,the height1 being much less than in the first designs1 gives it a very massive and substantial appearance4 ,all eight edges of the top have been slightly rounded with plane and sand-paper4 ,this stool is non-upsetable in the direction of its length4 ,stand on the extreme end of the top and lean backward2 the stool will not tilt up in the slightest degree4 ,harry tried this several times1 but it remained on the floor with all four feet4 ,this does not apply to the width1 so the boys designed number four 7,fig4 #agf71 which would not upset from the side1 where the feet are usually placed4 ,it is even lower than number three1 and as the other dimensions are practically the same1 it appears even more massive4 ,the construction is similar to number three1 but the legs are again at the ends1 and the whole being made of oak1 or ash1 it is practically indestructible4 ,a very beautiful golden-brown finish may be given these stools by first coating them with bichromate of potash4 ,this chemical comes in crystals1 which readily dissolve in water4 ,put it on with a one-inch varnish brush and1 when dry1 sand-paper down flat with ,no4 #j sand-paper4 ,two or three coats of shellac1 each allowed to harden and dry thoroughly before being rubbed down with sand-paper1 will give a satisfactory polish4 ,finish by a rub down with raw linseed oil1 and wipe dry4 ,,xxxiv ,,the ,,tabourette ,this is a favourite problem in woodwork for boys1 because the tabourette can be put to many uses4 ,it may hold books or magazines1 serve as a pedestal for a jardinire1 for vases of flowers1 for smokers' sets1 etc4 ,its forms are many1 and the methods of finishing and decorating infinite4 ,the five styles shown in ,figs4 #agg and #agh are perhaps the most common ones1 and they are arranged according to the difficulty of construction4 ,no4 #a4 ,has a circular top supported by square legs1 bound to a lower shelf4 ,no #b4 ,has an octagonal top supported by flat legs1 which are held together by two strips halved together at the centre1 and mortised through the legs4 ,it is stronger than ,no4 #a4 ,no #c4 ,is the familiar hexagonal form1 with only three legs1 made rigid by fastening to an hexagonal shelf4 ,no4 #d4 ,is the standard square form in mission style1 mortised together4 ,no #e4 ,one of the simplest in appearance1 is the most difficult to construct1 because of the six long joints mitred at #abj degrees1 the well-known ,moorish style4 ,as it is easily possible for any boy to make any of these tabourettes with ordinary tools and ordinary patience1 they will be taken up in detail4 ,,tabourette ,,number ,,one ,stock4--,four pieces for the legs1 #a-a_/b inches square4 ,the height varies1 usually being between fourteen and eighteen inches4 ,it is purely a matter of proportion4 ,sixteen has been adopted in the drawing as a good average4 ,the top1 a circle thirteen inches in diameter1 is cut from a piece thirteen inches square and #g_/h inch thick4 ,the shelf may be an exact duplicate of the top1 but it appears much better1 as shown in the drawing1 as a square with corners cut off to fit against the legs4 ,the method of getting this form is shown by dotted lines on the circular top4 ,the method of construction is very simple4 ,the top piece being laid out1 is cut close to the line with turning saw1 and finished to line with chisel and spokeshave4 ,the square openings for legs are sawed out and the wood removed with a chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,three styles of tabourettes ,all chisel work should be done on a bench hook or on a piece of scrap board1 as a cutting block4 ,in preparing to assemble1 lay the four legs side by side on the bench top or fasten in the vise4 ,make sure they are equal in length4 ,four and a half inches from one end draw a pencil line with try square across all four4 ,half an inch from the other end draw a similar line2 this end is to be the top4 ,these pencil lines are for locating the holes for the screws1 so that they will all be on the same level4 ,bore a hole on each line with a bit or drill1 large enough so that the body of a round-head blue screw either #b-a_/d or #b-a_/b inches long will just slide through4 ,before assembling1 bevel or round the top of each leg about #a_/h inch4 ,fasten the four legs to the top with the screws1 slip the shelf into position1 and make fast in the same manner4 ,stand the tabourette on a level surface1 and if it needs levelling1 proceed as explained in the making of saw horse4 ,,tabourette ,,number ,,two ,tabourette number two may be modified by designing legs with slight curves4 ,before cutting these1 lay out the four mortises just as the centres for screw holes were located in previous model so that all four will be equally distant from the floor4 ,cut out mortises by boring several holes within the space to be cut and finish to line with chisel4 ,these mortises should be laid out on both sides of the leg by squaring lines around the four sides4 ,the top needs no description1 as it is just a plain octagon4 ,the principal work in this model is on the cross pieces4 ,they should be laid out carefully1 side by side1 to make sure that the distance across from shoulder to shoulder is exactly alike on both4 ,the tenon may have two shoulders1 as shown at b1 or only one1 as at a1 but in either case the mortises cut in the legs must exactly fit the tenon4 ,the halved joint in the centre must also be carefully fitted4 ,when all the parts are ready to assemble1 drill two holes near the top of each leg for the round-head screws4 ,insert all the tenons into their mortises and fasten the legs to the top4 ,a little glue may be used in the mortise and tenon joints and one brad should then be driven from the side or edge of each leg through the tenon4 ,sink the brad below the surface with nail set4 ,,tabourette ,,number ,,three ,see chapter on mechanical drawing for laying out hexagon4 ,this form will appear crude unless the legs are modified1 and two or three suggestions for this are shown4 ,the construction consists in fastening to the under side of the top piece a hexagon of #g_/h-;inch pine eight inches in diameter1 making sides four inches long4 ,every alternate side of this under piece should be made with a sloping edge to conform to the slant of the legs1 of which there are only three4 ,drill or bore four holes in each leg1 two #g_/af inch from the upper edge1 and two to hold the hexagonal shelf4 ,the top edge of the legs should be bevelled with a block plane to fit snugly against the under side of the top4 ,three sides of the shelf--every alternate one--should be bevelled in the same way to fit against the inside of the legs4 ,when ready to assemble1 fasten pine hexagon to the under side of the top with six #a-a_/d-;inch screws4 ,attach the legs to the three sloping edges of this under hexagon lightly with round-head screws4 ,leave the screw heads projecting about #a_/d inch until the shelf has been fastened in position1 then drive them home with the screw-driver4 ,this is one of the simplest of tabourettes to make1 but it is open to criticism4 ,the sloping legs give it a wide base so that it is less easily upset than the other forms2 but the pressure from above tends to spread them and pull the structure apart4 ,this tendency must be counteracted by a tie piece1 which in this case is only a shelf held by screws1 some of which are in end grain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,two styles of tabourettes ,of course any form may be criticised4 ,the most beautiful of all1 the ,turkish or ,moorish1 on account of its overhanging top and small base1 is the most easily upset1 and in designing new forms all these points must be considered4 ,,tabourette ,,number ,,four ,this is an ideal example of the mission type taken from ,mr4 ,fred ,d4 ,cranshaw's book1 ,problems in ,furniture ,making4 ,it calls for forty mortise and tenon joints1 and as it is usually made in oak1 it requires considerable time for laying out as well as for cutting4 ,twenty-four of these joints can be dispensed with by panelling the sides in place of the lattice work4 ,by hinging the top and putting in a bottom1 the tabourette becomes a ladies' work box1 a shoe box1 etc4 ,in a project of this kind it is absolutely necessary to work systematically4 ,letter or number each part4 ,mark the legs a b c d1 and proceed to work in pairs4 ,after squaring up all the pieces1 take side a b4 ,lay out the four joints on a and b which are to face each other1 finish these ready for assembling1 lay aside a1 and lay out b c1 etc4 ,when you have finished all four sides around to the starting point1 stand the four legs up in the position they are to occupy and check up the work to see if any mistake has been made4 ,treat the cross bars in the same way1 marking the tenons a#a1 a#b1 b#a1 b#b1 etc4 ,when you have gotten around the second time1 assemble the whole thing and look again for errors4 ,take apart and lay out mortises in cross pieces by pairs4 ,fasten #a and #b together in the vise with the edges which are to face each other up as shown in ,fig4 #agg4 ,square the lines across both pieces1 remove from vise and gauge the horizontal edges of mortises with marking gauge4 ,to avoid confusion and for change of work1 cut out these mortises before laying out the next set1 and so for the third time work around to the starting point4 ,a fourth trip around1 making and fitting the upright slats1 and the tabourette is ready to assemble4 ,by using liquid glue1 which hardens slowly1 the whole structure can be put together1 fastened with large hand screws or clamps1 and left over night to dry4 ,while the glue is setting1 measure carefully for the top1 to see if there is any variation from dimensions on drawing1 and cut out the top piece4 ,by this time1 the amateur woodworker will have more respect for the mission style than ever1 and will appreciate the difficulty of reaching simplicity4 ,the best method of securing the top is with small angle irons fastened to it and cross pieces on the inside4 ,invert the tabourette1 after screwing the angles to the cross pieces1 and with the top on the floor1 drive home the last four screws4 ,no2 it is not finished6 ,there remains the polishing4 ,see ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,tabourette ,,number ,,five ,this is so radically different in construction from the previous forms that it requires special consideration4 ,twelve edges must be planed to a #fj-;degree mitre throughout their entire length and the fit must be perfect4 ,to accomplish this1 first cut out two hexagons from #a_/b-;inch pine1 #h inches in diameter1 and exactly alike4 ,construct a special shooting board1 at least three inches longer than the legs4 ,plane a strip of white pine to the shape of a wedge whose angle is #cj degrees4 ,nail it to the top of shooting board1 as shown in ,fig4 #agh at a4 ,by laying the piece to be mitred on this1 the edge can be planed to #fj degrees4 ,lay this on the two pine hexagons as shown at b1 and with the knife make a mark at the angle a on both ends4 ,connect these two points by a sharp line drawn with a straight edge4 ,plane this edge on the shooting board to point a1 giving angle a c4 ,tack this leg by brads to the two hexagons1 at each extreme end1 driving brads only partly in1 so that they can be easily withdrawn4 ,fit the second leg to the first1 and so on around to the starting point4 ,number or letter the legs1 and the corresponding faces of the hexagons1 so that they may be easily replaced4 ,next take off the legs1 lay out and cut the openings with the usual tools4 ,these may be plain ,gothic arches or simple modifications4 ,when the legs are finished1 make the hexagonal top and prepare to assemble4 ,use the best glue4 ,fasten the first leg in its original position on the pine hexagons1 using #a-a_/d-;inch brads at the top1 driving them all the way into the original holes4 ,put a coating of glue on one edge throughout its whole length1 and rub the next leg up close into position4 ,the brads in the lower hexagon must be driven in only part way1 as they are to be removed again4 ,put all six legs into position in this manner4 ,to bind the legs together while the glue is drying1 heavy cord should be wound around them1 using strips of wood to prevent marring the angles4 ,let the whole stand over night4 ,next day1 plane off any glue that may show1 removing the two brads at the bottom1 dressing down one side at a time until you have reached the last leg4 ,the pine hexagon at the bottom may be taken out1 if it doesn't fall out4 ,sand-paper the sides with ,no4 #j sand-paper1 wrapped around a block4 ,the top only remains to be adjusted4 ,drill six holes in the pine hexagon at the top1 and pass six #c_/d or #g_/h inch screws through from the under side into the top piece by inverting1 with top on the floor4 ,there is so much careful work on this tabourette that it is worthy of good material4 ,mahogany is very suitable1 the light coloured bay wood being the cheapest variety2 but of course other woods will do4 ,in case bay wood is used1 it can be given the appearance of old mahogany by first coating it with a wash of potassium bichromate4 ,polish4 ,,xxxv ,,the ,,dovetail ,,joint ,while most mission furniture is put together with the mortise and tenon joint1 cabinet work calls for the dovetail4 ,all the skill and accuracy possible are needed in dovetailing1 and when well put together with this style of joinery1 a piece of furniture should last indefinitely4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi ,the making of joints just for practice may not be very interesting1 but in the case of the dovetail it is decidedly advisable4 ,this is what ,ralph decided in ,harry's case1 and he was required to make first a single open joint as shown in ,fig4 #agi4 ,the piece marked a was laid out first1 after squaring up the stock1 and the shaded portion removed with back saw and chisel1 sawing so close to the oblique lines that no chiselling was required on these two sides4 ,piece b was next fastened upright in the vise1 piece a being laid over b in a horizontal position1 and the form of the dovetail scribed with a knife point4 ,in other words1 the first piece cut out was used as a template for laying out the second4 ,the form of the dovetail appeared in knife lines on the end of piece b4 ,the laying out of b was then completed as shown at d4 ,the darkened portions were removed with back saw and chisel1 and the two parts carefully fitted and glued together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj ,this method of laying out dovetails is much surer than that of laying out each piece separately according to the dimensions1 as any variation from the figures is duplicated on the second piece1 so that they must fit4 ,this single dovetail was followed by a box dovetail joint comprising three dovetails on one piece1 as shown in ,fig4 #ahj4 ,the method was the same as before1 the three spaces being laid out1 sawed1 and chiselled4 ,after testing to see that the bottoms of the cuts were square1 piece f was laid out1 cut1 and fitted4 ,seven-eighths pine is good for this practice work1 but white wood gives better practice1 in that it is harder1 and the dovetails cannot be forced together without breaking1 unless the fit is good4 ,the harder the stock used1 of course the more true this is4 ,after successfully making these two practice joints1 the boy was ready to try his skill at cabinet work4 ,he began with a toilet box in black walnut1 to be inlaid later and polished4 ,the over-all dimensions were #aa #g #c-a_/b inches1 the height1 exclusive of top and bottom pieces1 being three inches4 ,the bill of material read3 #b pcs4 walnut #aa #c #a_/b #b pcs4 walnut #g #c #a_/b #b pcs4 walnut #aa #g #a_/b ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,the dovetail joint used in box design ,the process was as follows3 ,sides squared up and tested4 ,ends squared up and tested4 ,sides and ends compared to see if all were exactly the same height4 ,dovetail joints laid out on side pieces4 7,the two sides can be glued together with paper between1 and cut at the same time1 but on this first box the boys laid out each side separately47 ,joints cut and chiselled to line and lettered a b c d4 ,this was to avoid confusion in laying out the ends from the sides4 ,ends laid out from sides with knife4 ,ends cut and fitted to sides4 ,this short description meant the fitting of four box dovetails1 or twelve individual dovetail joints1 and it took considerable time4 ,the four pieces were glued and fastened in hand screws over night4 ,particular care was taken to see that the pressure was evenly distributed1 so as not to throw the box out of square4 ,while the glue was hardening1 the top and bottom were squared up half an inch shorter and half an inch narrower than the finished box was to be4 ,a quarter-inch rabbet was cut on the four edges of both top and bottom4 ,when the box was taken out of the hand screws next day the rabbet allowed top and bottom to fit sides and ends as shown in g 7,fig4 #aha74 ,they were glued into position1 and again placed in hand screws4 ,this construction left a quarter-inch rabbet all around the top and bottom of the box4 ,this space was to be filled with square pieces of white holly as an ornamental feature4 ,while the glue was hardening a second time1 these little square strips were prepared4 ,the boys found that it would not be necessary to square up the four sides1 for if one corner were made perfectly square1 the other sides could be planed off after the strips were glued on4 ,when the hand screws were removed again1 all traces of glue in the rabbet were carefully taken off with a sharp chisel4 ,the strips of holly were sawed in the mitre box1 and fitted around the four sides of top and bottom4 ,the construction at this stage is shown at h1 with the holly strips projecting beyond the walnut sides1 ends and top4 ,the strips were fitted and glued in position1 and then held in place during the drying process by winding the box in all directions with stout twine4 ,when thoroughly hard and dry1 the whole thing was squared up1 as if it were a solid block1 and scraped with a steel scraper4 ,gauge lines were then made for the cover1 as described in the chapter on toilet boxes1 sawed1 fitted1 hinged1 and polished4 ,when a box like this is to be inlaid1 the inlaying should be done after the squaring up1 but before the cover is sawed off4 ,the method of ornamenting the edges by strips of different coloured woods may be omitted1 and the work considerably simplified by gluing the top and bottom on1 as shown in ,fig4 #aha at i1 and if this seems too crude1 a bevel #a_/d inch on the sides and ends and #a_/b inch on the top can be made with the plane4 ,still another method is to round the edges as shown at j4 ,where the top is to be inlaid1 either j or k is preferable1 as ornamented corners combined with a decorated top is rather too much ornamentation for good taste4 ,,xxxvi ,,inlaying ,in our search for the simple life with its mission furniture1 etc41 inlaying has become almost a lost art1 but it is so easily done1 and if used in moderation so pleasing to the eye1 that every boy ought to try it at least4 ,if simple designs are adhered to1 the results are bound to be satisfactory4 ,the materials required are a few pieces of veneering of different thicknesses and two or more kinds of wood4 ,veneering can be obtained from #a_/h inch thick down to #a_/fd inch1 but for ordinary work the thickness should be #a_/h inch1 #a_/af inch1 and #a_/cb inch1 and the woods1 ebony1 holly1 walnut1 mahogany4 ,a good collection for simple designs is3 #a_/h-;inch ebony1 holly1 mahogany #a_/af-;inch holly1 rosewood1 walnut #a_/cb-;inch holly1 mahogany ,the tools required are a mitre box1 back saw1 socket chisel1 and mallet4 ,the process consists of building up the design1 cutting out the opening1 gluing the design in the opening1 and dressing down4 ,,building ,,up ,,the ,,design ,it pays to make a full-sized drawing of the design1 as the relation of the inlaid work to the space it is to occupy is important4 ,for a box proportioned like the one just described1 #aa #g inches1 the inlaid design should be in about the same general proportion4 ,a square centre piece in such an oblong space would not look well2 it should be about one and a half times as long as the width4 ,the best plan is to draw the box top full size and then carefully work up the design4 ,this sort of designing will be a new experience1 as the veneering is all cut in a mitre box1 no tool but a saw being used1 and this fact limits the designs4 ,several pieces of the veneer are glued together and placed in hand screws over night4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,inlaid designs cut in a #de-;degree mitre box ,suppose the combination shown at ,fig4 #ahb is used4 ,five thicknesses composed of two #a_/af-;inch walnut1 next two of #a_/af-;inch holly1 and in the centre one #a_/h-;inch ebony1 will make a strong combination #c_/h inch thick4 ,the dimensions should be about #ah inches long by #c inches wide4 ,these five pieces when glued together make a solid piece #ah #c #c_/h inches4 ,this built up board is sawed into strips #a_/h inch thick1 and these strips #c_/h #a_/h inch form the basis of the design4 ,in drawing the centre piece1 border1 or whatever form the inlay is to take1 it must be constantly kept in mind that #c_/h inch is the width of the pieces4 ,fig4 #ahb shows the shapes possible on a #de-;degree mitre box4 ,four pieces like a make a square4 ,to make an oblong design from this shape1 ten pieces will give b4 ,four pieces like d will give a hollow square1 in which may be fitted a piece of fancy wood such as rosewood1 snake wood1 satinwood1 or some other ,south ,american wood4 ,the ,greek cross is a favourite figure1 and it is composed of twelve pieces1 eight like f1 and four like a4 ,some of its variations are shown in c c4 ,this design can be elaborated as shown at e4 ,some of the most pleasing combinations are extremely simple4 ,an oblong piece of beautiful wood such as bird's-eye maple1 with a simple mitred frame1 is far more satisfying than the more complicated figures4 ,the ,swastika is a favourite among boys1 and it is shown at ,fig4 #ahc applied to an oblong box design4 ,in such a figure the border strips are not put on until all the pieces for the ,swastika are cut out1 fitted1 and glued4 ,in many of these designs two1 three1 and sometimes four gluings are necessary4 ,the pieces1 having been cut and fitted1 are all brought together on a piece of paper and glued with liquid glue4 ,the hot glue dries too quickly4 ,the paper holding the design is laid on a piece of pine #g_/h inch thick1 and wire brads driven into the pine up close to the inlay to hold the design together while it dries4 ,two nails should be used against each piece of the outside border4 ,these nails may be used to exert pressure by bending them with the fingers over the design to force the pieces together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,the ,swastika used as an inlay ,when each piece has been pressed into place1 allow it to stand over night4 ,next day bend the nails back1 and lift the design1 paper and all1 out of its nail fence1 tear off the paper and cut away any glue that projects beyond the edges with a knife or chisel4 ,you now have a solid inlaid design #a_/h inch thick ready for use4 ,find by measurement the exact place where you want this figure1 lay it on the surface and with a sharp knife scribe a line around the design4 ,place the inlay to one side1 and cut out to a depth of #a_/h inch the whole space inside the knife lines4 ,this can be done with socket chisel and mallet1 or with a router4 ,the final cut should be made with the chisel1 bevel side in and straight down4 ,you now have a space cut in the surface the exact size of the design1 except possibly the depth4 ,coat the bottom of this space with glue1 press the design down into the space and hammer it tight with the mallet and block of soft wood4 ,allow the glue to harden thoroughly1 plane the design down to the surface1 scrape1 and sand-paper4 ,this is one of the things much more easily done than described on paper4 ,instead of the solid designs just described1 an inlaid border is sometimes preferable4 ,fig4 #ahb at g gives a good idea of a very neat one4 ,in this case1 the groove to receive the inlay is drawn directly on the surface of the box1 and cut out to the usual depth1 #a_/h inch4 ,the pieces of inlay are sawed out in the mitre box and fitted into the groove individually1 but not glued until the entire border has been fitted4 ,they are done all at one time1 and then a piece of board is laid over the whole top1 and it is placed in hand screws over night4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,built up borders for inlaying ,the number of combinations which can be obtained from three or four veneers of different thicknesses is astonishing1 but perhaps the most interesting form is called built up work4 ,fig4 #ahd shows several forms of built up borders4 ,the method of making a is as follows3 ,ebony and holly #a_/h inch thick are required and two separate combinations are glued up1 one containing two pieces of holly with one ebony1 and the second two of ebony with one holly4 ,when dry1 saw out of each combination a strip an inch or an inch and a quarter wide4 ,from strip ,no4 #a saw a dozen or more pieces an inch or so long4 ,to make these pieces exactly alike1 drive a nail into the bottom of the mitre box an inch from the #ij-;degree saw cut4 ,by pushing the strip up to this nail each time a cut is made the pieces must be the same length4 ,for combination ,no4 #b1 shift the nail to #c_/h inch from the saw cut1 and saw out an equal number of pieces as from ,no4 #a4 ,by gluing these pieces together alternately1 border a will result4 ,it is necessary on these built up combinations to add an outside retaining strip of thin veneer to hold the pieces rigidly together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,method of making an ,inlaid checker-board ,when the final gluing has dried1 the usual #a_/h-;inch strip should be sawed out4 ,this is best done on a power1 band1 or circular saw1 but it can be done by hand if the rip saw is good and sharp4 ,other built up combinations may be handled in the same way4 ,for square spaces1 the checker-board is a great favourite4 ,it calls for a dark and light veneer of #a_/h inch thickness4 ,glue up four light and four dark pieces in alternation as shown in ,fig4 #ahe4 ,when hard1 saw out eight strips as wide as the veneer is thick4 ,glue these eight strips together1 reversing four of them1 so that the black and white squares come together4 ,the result will be a solid piece one inch square1 and by sawing off #a_/h-;inch slices1 each slice will be a checker-board composed of #a_/h-;inch cubes4 ,the very best glue obtainable is needed for this work1 especially if the woods are ebony and holly1 as these are so hard that the glue cannot penetrate4 ,when a #cj-fj-ij-;degree mitre box is used to cut the strips1 an entirely different class of designs is obtained4 ,fig4 #ahf shows some of the endless possibilities of these combinations4 ,they are suitable for the top and shelf of an hexagonal tabourette1 and the oblong figures are suitable for the top of an oblong box or the space between the wells of an inkstand4 ,some of the simplest yet most effective forms give the impression of overlapping shown at a1 ,fig4 #ahc1 this being an oblong piece of fancy wood with a narrow mitred frame around the four sides2 b b are pieces of the same kind of wood but different from a1 with a narrow frame on three sides2 a appears to be laid over b1 and c c1 still another kind of wood1 both cut from the same piece4 ,it looks more uniform and harmonious if the frames of the five pieces representing three distinct kinds of wood are the same4 ,it is important in choosing these borders to see that the outside veneer be in marked contrast to the surface into which the design is to be set4 ,a very simple centre piece may be made interesting by surrounding a plain oblong or rectangle of rare wood with an interlaced border4 ,inlaying of curved designs means some difficulty in accurately cutting out the opening to fit the design2 but this is overcome by reverting to the ancient art called marquetry work4 ,three or more veneers #a_/af inch thick are glued together at the corners and the design drawn or glued on the top layer4 ,suppose the figure is that of a butterfly4 ,assume that the veneers are holly1 mahogany1 and rosewood4 ,with a fine fret saw cut or saw directly on the lines4 ,the three thicknesses being sawed at one time1 the pieces must exactly fit4 ,the rosewood may be used for the outer edge of the wings1 the holly for the main part of the wings1 and the mahogany for the body4 ,as all these parts fit accurately1 they may be glued to a #a_/d-;inch backing piece and dried under the pressure of hand screws4 ,flowers1 birds1 etc41 in infinite variety1 and even landscapes1 can be cut out and used in this way4 ,veneers coloured green are on the market and may be used for leaves or foliage effects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,designs cut on #cj-fj-ij-;degree mitre box ,a great deal might be written about this old style of ornamental woodwork1 but it would deal almost entirely with questions of design1 as the method would be practically the same in every case4 ,one form of this interesting art is called buhl work1 in which sheet brass1 ,german silver1 or even the precious metals are used4 ,brass and ebony were a favourite combination at one time1 the two layers being glued together with paper between4 ,the design was sawed out1 and then a sharp knife blade inserted into the joint to separate the brass from the ebony4 ,that gave two distinct designs4 ,in one case it was a brass background with ebony inlay4 ,in the other1 an ebony background with brass inlay4 ,there will always be as many resulting combinations as there are original layers of material4 ,a backing of cheap material is always necessary to support the finished work to which it must be securely glued4 ,in polishing the finished surface1 a steel scraper must first be used1 followed by fine sand-paper2 then polish4 ,some of the newer forms of decoration1 while lacking the richness of inlaid work1 admit of greater freedom4 ,pyrography1 for example1 is closely akin to drawing1 and in the hands of a careful worker may be made to produce very artistic effects4 ,like all arts1 it also has its limitations4 ,in woods of the pine family1 it will not do at all1 on account of the pitchy sap4 ,in dark-coloured or very hard woods1 it is equally unsatisfactory1 so that it is used almost exclusively on basswood1 because of the white colour1 softness1 even grain1 and freedom from pitch4 ,outfits for pyrography may be purchased quite reasonably4 ,they consist of a glass bottle containing benzine2 the vapour from this is forced through a rubber tube by means of a bulb held in the left hand out to a platinum point4 ,this point is first heated in the flame of an alcohol lamp sufficiently to ignite the benzine vapour as it comes out through openings in the point4 ,while the left hand keeps pumping the vapour1 the right hand guides the point along the lines of the design1 which has been drawn or traced on the wood4 ,many articles made and stamped with designs are to be had at the art stores2 but the joy and satisfaction in achievement come from making the articles and originating the designs4 ,basswood is very easily soiled by handling and a coat of white shellac should be applied after the burning is finished4 ,sometimes staining is used on certain parts of the design1 as for flowers or fruit1 and in that case the staining must be done before the shellac is applied4 ,,xxxvii ,,the ,,checker-,,board ,a favourite project among young woodworkers is the checker-board4 ,while it is closely akin to inlaying1 the method of making it to avoid unnecessary labour is here suggested4 ,as the checker-board consists of sixty-four squares of equal size and divided equally between two kinds of wood1 one dark and the other light1 some way must be devised to insure their being exactly alike to make the board a success4 ,considerable care should be used in the selection of the woods1 for while they must present a strong contrast in colour1 they should be as nearly as possible of the same degree of hardness1 to make the working uniform4 ,if soft woods are used1 red gum and basswood make an agreeable contrast in colour4 ,basswood is not a very satisfactory wood to polish in its natural colour1 however4 ,among the hard woods1 a combination of black walnut and rock maple1 or mahogany and maple1 or even cherry and maple1 can be used4 ,any one of these combinations will be more satisfactory in the finished work than the soft woods mentioned4 ,the work will be harder of course1 but in woodwork as in other things1 nothing really good is obtained without effort4 ,assuming that the woods have been selected1 four strips of dark and the same number in light coloured wood should be squared up to a width of #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b inches according to the size of the squares to be made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,method of making a checker-board ,as in other woodworking problems1 have a full-sized or half-sized mechanical drawing ready before using a tool4 ,a checker-board built up of #a-a_/d-;inch squares will be ten inches square without the frame4 7,see ,fig4 #ahg47 ,with #a-a_/b-;inch squares1 it will be twelve inches on each side4 ,this is amply large and a satisfactory working size4 ,the material should be either #a_/d inch or #c_/h inch thick4 ,plane the strips about sixteen inches long by one inch and a half wide4 ,lay the four strips of dark wood on edge on the bench top and carefully fasten the four in the vise4 ,remove a light shaving to insure their width being all alike4 ,treat the light strips the same way4 ,next place all eight strips together and examine for inequalities4 ,too much care cannot be exercised at this point1 as the success of the problem depends on it4 ,to make doubly sure1 reverse every alternate strip end for end1 and if inequalities appear place all eight strips in the vise and remove a light shaving4 ,one of the best methods for making these strips of equal size and with perfectly square edges is to construct a shooting board1 or arrange one already made1 as shown at a4 ,the strip s is set to a gauge line made #a-a_/b inches from the edge4 ,the strips are laid in this space and planed in the usual way1 until the plane touches the stop4 ,this makes the width of all pieces the same and gives true edges4 ,these eight strips placed alternately light and dark are now glued upon a backing of soft wood1 #a_/d inch or less in thickness4 ,gluing must be done thoroughly1 each strip being rubbed back and forth until a good joint is made with its neighbour4 ,a piece of newspaper is spread over the top1 heavy pieces of flat stock placed top and bottom1 and the pressure from several hand screws applied while the glue is drying4 ,the best liquid glue obtainable should be used1 and the paper on top prevents the hand screws being glued to the wood4 ,this combination must stand until the glue is thoroughly hard1 if it takes forty-eight hours1 which it does sometimes in damp weather4 ,when dry1 remove hand screws and tear off paper4 ,square outside edges if backing projects or glue adheres4 ,with a large try square or steel square lay out parallel lines across the combination #a-c_/d inches apart4 ,saw on the lines with cross cut saw1 unless a mill is handy1 when it can be done more accurately with a circular or band saw4 ,the new strips will be #a-c_/d inches wide1 less the amount removed by the saw4 ,dress them down to a width of #a-a_/b inches on the shooting board4 ,this should bring the eight pieces on each strip to squares #a-a_/b inches on a side4 ,eight of these strips make the checker-board4 ,the original pieces1 being sixteen inches long1 allow for two or three extra strips in case any are spoiled in sawing or planing4 ,these finished strips are now to be glued together on the permanent backing1 which should be #a_/d or #c_/h inch in thickness1 of the same material as the frame is to be and about eight inches each way longer and wider than the checker-board proper4 ,this should be placed carefully in the centre of the backing1 joints rubbed and fastened by cleats #a #a_/b inch tacked to the backing on all four sides4 ,while this is drying under pressure of the hand screws as in the first gluing1 square up the moulding which is to act as a frame3 d shows two styles4 ,in both mouldings1 a rabbet #a_/b inch or so wide and #a_/h inch deep should be made with rabbet plane4 ,the outer edges may be square1 rounded1 or bevelled4 ,when the checker-board is removed from its final gluing1 this moulding is to be mitred and fitted about it as in making a picture frame4 ,before doing this1 remove all glue from edges with a chisel so that the frame will fit snugly to the checker-board4 ,the frame is to be glued to both backing and checker-board and again placed in hand screws4 ,while this is drying1 an inlaid border strip as wide as the rabbet1 either plain or built up1 should be prepared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,checker-board tables ,this strip1 as well as the rabbet1 may be omitted entirely1 but should the frame be of the same material as one of the woods used in the checker-board it is necessary1 and in any case it adds a finish to the work that is very pleasing4 ,inlaid designs may be set into the frame and a very elaborate result obtained1 if desired4 ,after this last gluing1 set in the inlay1 and when dry1 plane1 scrape1 and sand-paper the whole surface flat1 and square the edges of the frame4 ,this makes a very substantial and heavy board1 worthy of any woodworker and worthy of being used as a table top4 ,such a table may be constructed as shown in ,fig4 #ahh4 ,it calls for mortise and tenon joints cut at an angle1 and if this style of work is considered too difficult vertical legs can be used4 ,this under structure should be of the same kind of wood as the frame of the checker-board1 and if oak is used the stain should be applied before placing the inlaid border4 ,bay wood is preferable to oak for inlaying but is more expensive4 ,on a small table of this size1 where vertical legs are used1 the base is so small that the structure is top-heavy and easily upset1 so that the problem becomes a very interesting study in design4 ,when the entire table has been put together1 polish it4 ,if mahogany1 finish in natural colour2 if oak1 any of the styles described in the chapter on staining may be used1 with care taken to keep the checker-board itself in the natural colours4 ,,xxxviii ,,tool ,,cases ,,and ,,chests ,after our boys had made several dovetailed and inlaid boxes1 ,ralph announced that his pupil was ready to attack the construction of a tool cabinet4 ,it was to be fastened to the wall over the bench1 designed to hold most of the small tools1 and to be in such a position that it could be reached from the front of the bench4 ,the cabinet designed was really a dovetailed box #cj #bj #f inches over all4 ,it was made of #a_/b-;inch quartered oak except the back1 which was #a_/b-;inch pine4 ,the bill of material was3 #a piece pine #cj #bj #a_/b #a piece oak #cj #bj #a_/b #b pieces oak #bj #e-a_/b #b pieces oak #cj #e-a_/b ,the front and back1 each #cj x #bj inches1 were made of two pieces #cj x #aj inches1 jointed and glued1 placed in clamps over night and the joints planed down to take off the excess glue which had oozed out under pressure of the clamps4 ,while these two parts were gluing1 the sides and ends were dovetailed as in previous boxes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,a tool cabinet ,when the front and back pieces were glued in place on the box1 they were further fastened by #a-;inch brads1 set below the surface1 and the holes filled with putty1 coloured to correspond with the stain4 ,the colour of the finish was a dark1 handsome green4 ,the box was sawed in two along a line #b-a_/b inches from the front4 ,this divided the cabinet into two parts1 the door or front section having a clear depth of #b inches1 and the back or wall section a depth of #c inches4 ,after hinging the door section in position1 the cabinet was stained inside and out1 the outside polished and a hook for fastening the door shut was placed in position4 ,the cabinet was fastened to the studding of the shop by four strong screws #a-a_/b inches long4 ,the various nails1 hooks1 and tool racks were next added and the cabinet was ready to use4 ,patent racks for holding chisels1 gouges1 etc41 are sold in hardware stores1 but our boys preferred to make their own4 ,their chisel rack is shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,after squaring up and cutting out the recesses at the ends1 holes were bored1 the opening from the front cut with back saw1 and the sharp edges rounded with chisel and sand-paper4 ,holes for the screws at the ends were bored and countersunk4 ,in locating a tool cabinet of this kind1 while it should be very easily reached1 and is usually open during work hours1 it should be placed high enough so as to be easily opened or closed without striking tools and work on the bench4 ,in other words1 it should not be necessary to clear the bench top in order to open the cabinet4 ,about #f inches between under side of tool cabinet and bench top is about right4 ,an old-fashioned tool chest1 suitable for shipping a whole kit of tools any distance1 is shown in ,fig4 #aij4 ,these chests were usually fitted with trays divided into compartments for small tools and hardware4 ,such a chest may be made of either hard or soft wood and its construction is as follows3 ,after making out a list of material1 square up sides and ends exactly as in making any box4 ,lay out1 cut and fit the dovetails4 ,the bottom1 on account of its width1 will have to be made of two pieces4 ,these may be jointed1 glued and placed in clamps or put together with a tongue and groove joint4 ,the latter plan calls for a special plane4 ,having prepared the bottom by either of these methods1 bore and countersink holes about #f inches apart in the bottom and secure rigidly to sides and ends by #a-a_/b or #a-c_/d inch flat-head screws4 ,for the top1 make a frame from #e_/h to #c_/d inch thick and #c or #d inches wide1 putting the ends together with end lap or mortise and tenon joints4 ,secure this frame to top of box by screws4 ,these may be round-heads1 or if it is desirable to hide them1 the method shown in ,fig4 #aij can be used4 ,this is accomplished by boring a #c_/af-;inch hole through the top frame4 ,at the same centre a #a_/b-;inch hole is bored partly through4 ,the screw is driven home and a round wooden plug glued into the #a_/b-;inch hole4 ,when dry1 this plug is sawed off and planed smooth4 ,the top frame having been secured1 two gauge lines are made for sawing the cover1 as in previous boxes1 and the two parts dressed to gauge lines1 ready for hinging4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,the old-fashioned tool chest ,before putting on the hinges1 the top is to be finished with a raised panel4 ,square up a piece of stock two inches longer and wider than the open space in the top frame4 ,round upper edges1 and secure to frame by flat-head screws from the under side through holes bored and countersunk4 ,next put on hinges1 which should be large and strong1 the variety known as strap hinges4 ,cut out space for lock1 and fit4 ,the holes for key are bored with a gimlet bit and cut out enough to allow the key to enter freely2 or hasp1 staple and padlock may be used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,suit case tool chest ,the bevelled base is mitred at corners1 and brass corner plates to protect these lower corners are added4 ,the strip at the top corresponding to the base may be mitred and protected with corner plates1 or the ordinary butt joint can be used4 ,the bevel on this strip may be omitted4 ,a chest of this variety1 made of pine and painted1 will stand a great deal of rough usage4 ,iron or brass handles at the ends are recommended for convenience in carrying4 ,our boys were not satisfied with this form of tool chest1 as it required two people to carry it1 and after some experimenting they evolved one in the form of a dress suit case1 long1 narrow1 and high1 that could be easily carried4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #aia4 ,they first made a solid box #cj #ae #g inches over all4 ,it was put together with butt joints securely nailed1 using #a_/b-;inch white wood4 ,one quarter of the box was sawed out1 as shown on the end view1 and hinged to the body by ornamental brass hinges4 ,this quarter was fitted for two saws by making two blocks as shown in the drawing4 ,the rip and cross cut saws were fitted into the saw kerfs cut in these two blocks1 placed securely in the cover1 and were held in place by a small piece of leather strap taken from a school book strap and nailed to inside of cover4 ,a tray for small tools was made of #a_/d-;inch stock the full length and width of the inside of the chest #a-a_/b inches deep and made to rest flush with the top of lower section on little corner strips glued in the four corners4 ,for handle1 two pieces of leather strap were secured1 one to each top section1 by screws4 ,when the box was closed1 these two straps came together and made a good handle4 ,the objection to a solid handle is that it must be entirely on one section and that takes it out of the centre1 so that the weight is not evenly distributed4 ,this is one of the most satisfactory styles of tool carrier devised4 ,it will hold practically the whole kit and may be picked up like a dress suit case and transported just as readily4 ,a hook and eye or hasp1 staple and padlock should be used to hold the case securely closed4 ,for carrying bits of various kinds and sizes1 a roll of ticking or denim divided into separate spaces is very desirable4 ,these rolls with straps are sold in tool houses1 but may be made at home by the sewing department4 ,besides protecting the cutting edges1 they help to keep out dampness and rust4 ,,xxxix ,,bookcases ,,and ,,magazine ,,racks ,,the ,,wall ,,rack ,in the modern home1 the orderly arrangement of books and magazines calls for ample shelf space and the book shelf becomes a favourite piece of furniture among amateur woodworkers4 ,the book rack for the books of the day has been taken up in ,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,the book shelf for hanging on the wall is blocked out in ,fig4 #aib4 ,the questions to be considered in the design are3 ,no4 #a4 ,methods of fastening shelves to ends4 ,no4 #b4 ,the design of the ends4 ,no4 #c4 ,the back3 is it necessary1 and if so shall it be solid8 ,outline of back4 ,no4 #d4 ,method of fastening to wall4 ,no4 #a4 ,the method of bringing shelves and ends together with plain butt joint and fastening with a round-head screw from the outside is the easiest and poorest4 ,the whole weight on the shelves is carried by the screws4 ,this method is shown at a4 ,at b1 a better method is indicated1 the shelf being gained into the end and held in position by the screws4 ,the weight in this case is carried by the ends4 ,to hide the joint1 the shelf may be slightly narrower than the end piece as shown in the top view at c1 or the two parts may be of the same width as at d1 the gained joint stopping half an inch or so short of the full width4 ,these details apply to bookcases that stand on the floor as well as to smaller ones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,the problem of designing a wall book rack ,no4 #b4 ,the design of the ends is largely a matter of artistic taste1 and where curves are used1 the lower part is usually formed in such a way as to suggest a bracket4 ,no4 #c4 ,a back is only necessary to give the rack rigidity and to protect the wall4 ,if made solid--i4 e41 to cover the whole space between ends--it uses a good deal of wood and adds considerable weight4 ,e shows a method of using only top and bottom strips4 ,they will make the rack sufficiently rigid and the strip should be gained into the ends1 bringing them flush with the back of end pieces4 ,no4 #d4 ,find the location of wall studs by dropping a line with weight on it 7plumb7 from the nails on picture moulding1 or by bringing the weight in front of nails on base board4 ,make fine pencil marks on the wall where the studs have been located4 ,find the horizontal distance between the marks and at this distance drill holes in back of book rack and secure to the studs by screws4 ,this brings all the strain on the back strips4 ,if the rack has no back1 square up two hard wood strips about #c_/d inch square and as long as the shelves4 ,drill screw holes in these strips and fasten to studs4 ,drill vertical holes at the back of each shelf #c_/h inch in from edge1 fit the shelves over cleats and screw down into them from upper side of shelves4 ,the cleats should be finished in the same colour as the book rack4 ,this method makes a very solid and permanent fastening4 ,the length of a wall rack should be limited ordinarily to three feet1 as the weight of three feet of books will give considerable sag to the shelves1 and a greater length will call for a vertical partition and corresponding bracket underneath for its support4 ,,the ,,bookcase ,this piece of furniture is seen in so many forms that a volume would be necessary simply to catalogue them4 ,the essential features are strong ends or sides1 usually a solid back1 a base1 shelves1 often adjustable as to spacing1 a top more or less ornamental1 and often glass doors4 ,perhaps the most important point in the construction is strength4 ,a wobbly bookcase is an abomination1 and the weight to be carried is frequently enormous4 ,a typical case without doors will be taken up and this may be modified1 used as a unit and doubled or trebled at the will of the young carpenter4 7,fig4 #aic47 ,if it is made to occupy a certain space in a permanent home1 it may be built in and made solid with the wall1 but this is not often desirable1 particularly in ,america1 where people move frequently4 ,as a general rule1 two small bookcases are better than one large one4 ,they may be easily shifted1 changed from room to room1 and are more apt to fit between windows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,the bookcase ,the uprights #d feet #d inches long1 #h inches wide and #g_/h inch thick1 are rabbeted at the back so that the joint will not show from the side4 ,the back is to be of #a_/b-;inch white wood stained the same colour as the sides4 ,the under top piece and bottom are gained into the sides1 both joints being hidden by the later construction4 ,the #c-;inch bevelled base is mitred at the corners and cut off square at the back1 covering only three sides1 as the back is to be flush from top to bottom4 ,the top is to have a moulded edge on three sides1 and to be fastened to under top piece by flat-head screws from the under side through countersunk holes4 ,the four solid shelves are made adjustable in their spacing by the old-fashioned method of sawtoothed strips in each corner4 ,strips #g_/h #a_/b inch are made to fit in the toothed spaces1 and the shelves rest on these strips1 of which two must be provided for each shelf4 ,the four toothed strips should be laid out and cut together to insure the shelves being level4 ,the dimensions for all these pieces are given in the detailed drawings4 ,the front edges are covered by #a_/b-;inch strips1 beaded if desired1 mitred at the top and cut to fit the bevelled base below4 ,nailed on with brads1 these are set and the holes filled with putty1 coloured to match the finish4 ,in the mission style1 the shelves are frequently mortised through the sides and secured by pins or wedges4 ,in this type of bookcase1 a solid back is rarely used1 and base and top are omitted4 ,in a design of this kind1 the top shelf becomes a book rack with ornamental ends4 ,often only the upper and lower shelves are mortised1 the others being gained into the sides as described under wall racks4 ,the lower part of the side is frequently modified to give a wider base and to make the case more stable4 ,one objection to this is the amount of material wasted in cutting out1 as the stock for the sides must be the full width of the base4 ,,xl ,,the ,,medicine ,,cabinet ,the wall cabinet for drugs and toilet articles1 where the various household remedies may be found quickly1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #aid4 ,it calls for a panelled door1 the construction and details of which are given in the drawing4 ,after squaring up the four pieces for styles and rails1 plough a #a_/d-;inch groove #c_/h of an inch deep on the inner edge of all the pieces4 ,this groove is to receive the panel which is planed down to fit4 ,the two uprights are to be mortised at each end1 as shown by dotted lines and edge view4 ,the tenons on the ends of the rails are cut with a shoulder4 ,this closes the space made by the plough on the uprights1 as shown in the top view4 ,the panel is squared up #c_/d inch larger each way than the open space between rails and styles and a long bevel is planed on each of the four sides1 leaving the thickness of the edges just great enough to fit the bottom of the grooves of rails and styles4 ,another method of making a panel is to use thin wood which will just fit the grooves1 and to fill the joints with a simple moulding mitred at the corners4 ,the raised panel is not difficult to make1 however1 and there is little difference in the time consumed by the two methods4 ,when the five parts are ready for assembling1 the mortise joints are glued1 the panel slipped into place and left free to shrink in the grooves4 ,the door is placed in hand screws or clamps over night4 ,as it is to fit a definite space1 always make a door slightly larger than its finished dimensions1 to allow for planing off and fitting4 ,while it is drying1 proceed with the building of the cabinet4 ,the back inner edges of the sides are to be rabbeted to receive the back1 which may be made of #a_/d or #c_/h inch white wood4 ,material for the cabinet proper may be any hard wood1 or even white wood4 ,the shelves may be #a_/b inch thick4 ,heavier material is not necessary1 on account of the short span4 ,they are to be gained into the sides to the depth of #c_/h or #a_/b inch4 ,the spacing of the shelves should be adapted to the sizes of bottles to be accommodated1 and the dimensions given in the drawing are merely suggestive4 ,the overhanging top may be made either with moulded edges on front and sides or be left square4 ,it is secured by screws from the under side of the false top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,the medicine cabinet ,the sides are shown modified at the bottom to give a pleasing effect1 and the back piece may either be brought down and cut to a curved outline1 as indicated in the drawing1 or stopped at the first shelf4 ,in assembling1 first put the false top in place and nail it to the sides2 next put the top on with screws1 slip the shelves into their respective grooves1 and glue4 ,put on the back1 nailing securely to sides and shelves4 ,to make the cabinet more rigid1 drive #a-;inch brads into the shelves from the outside set and fill the holes4 ,last of all1 fit the door1 and fasten it with hinges and a catch4 ,a lock may be used1 but that is hardly advisable1 as in case of an emergency the key may be lost at the critical moment4 ,stain and polish4 ,the method of fastening is by screws through the back into the wall studs4 ,cabinets for various purposes can be designed along the lines just described1 but in each case the method of construction is similar4 ,a stronger cabinet would result if the top and bottom shelves were mortised through the sides in the mission style4 ,the only objection to this is that if the horizontal space be limited1 the projecting tenon may be in the way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,a filing cabinet ,the filing cabinet for papers shown in ,fig4 #aie is of radically different construction4 ,as it is designed to stand on a desk1 or independent shelf1 the base may be very simple or omitted entirely1 as in the drawing4 ,it is divided into twelve compartments1 with a clear space in each of #ab-a_/b #e-a_/b #c-a_/b inches1 these being the outside dimensions of the drawers4 ,it is important in building up these compartments to use lumber that is well seasoned and free from warp4 ,gain the shelves into outside uprights1 stopping the groove half an inch from the front4 ,before sliding the shelves into the grooves1 lay out on the four pieces the grooves for the three vertical partitions4 ,it will be much easier to cut these grooves clear through from front to back1 but a better appearance from the front can be obtained by stopping the grooves half an inch back1 as on the sides4 ,each vertical partition will then consist of three separate pieces slipped in from the back4 ,a cross section of the cabinet will appear1 as a4 ,the quarter-inch back is to be gained into the sides as shown in the top view4 ,the construction of the drawer is shown at c1 the sides being cut away toward the back4 ,otherwise the drawer is simply an open box made of #c_/h-;inch pine or white wood1 with #a_/d-;inch bottom put together with brads4 ,the false front1 made of the same material as top and sides1 gives a suitable finish1 and practically covers all joints2 it is secured by flat-head screws from the inside4 ,in assembling the drawer1 it should be made about #a_/af inch smaller than the compartment it is to fit1 to prevent binding in damp weather4 ,bay wood1 a light-coloured mahogany1 is very appropriate for this piece of office furniture1 the edges of partitions being stained to match4 ,a brass drawer-pull1 with a space left for a printed label1 is to be put on after the polishing is done4 ,filing cabinets made by this method may1 of course1 be made with drawers of different proportions and with any number of compartments1 but this size is designed to hold long envelopes1 letters1 bills1 etc4 ,,xli ,,mission ,,furniture ,the library table 7,fig4 #aif7 is a good example of solid and permanent furniture construction4 ,it represents the main principles of the mission style--solidity1 strength1 simplicity1 straight lines1 mortise and tenon joints1 etc4 ,to a boy who has worked carefully up to this point it is entirely possible4 ,as the top is the only part to be glued up1 this should be done first4 ,three boards of #g_/h-;inch quartered oak #aj inches wide1 or an equivalent that will aggregate a trifle over #cj inches1 and #d feet long1 should be jointed and prepared for dowelling4 ,the method of doing this is shown at a1 where two jointed pieces are clamped together4 ,the distance between dowels lengthwise should be measured1 and lines squared across the edges with knife and try square4 ,two pencil lines1 as at b1 should be made across the joint4 ,set the marking gauge at #g_/af inch4 ,remove the boards from vise or clamp1 and from the faces touched by pencil lines1 gauge lines cutting across the three knife lines on each edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,a mission library table ,where these lines cross1 bore #c_/h-;inch holes with a dowel bit to the depth of at least #a inch4 ,lay out the other dowelled joint in the same manner4 ,saw six pieces of #c_/h-;inch dowel #b inches long1 and glue ends of each dowel in the holes prepared in the middle board1 as shown at c4 ,put a thin layer of glue on the joints with a brush and clamp the three pieces together4 ,while the glue is hardening1 proceed with the frame4 ,this consists of four legs1 four top rails1 the lower cross rails1 a shelf1 and four wedges4 ,the sizes are as follows3 ,top rails #b #db #c #g_/h ,top rails #b #bd #c #g_/h ,cross rails #b #bf-a_/b #c #g_/h ,shelf #a #dd-c_/d #ab #c_/d or #g_/h ,wedges #d #b-a_/b #g_/h #c_/d ,the construction of the top rails is shown at d in the detail drawing4 ,the only point calling for special attention is to see that the tenons are flush with outside of rail1 being cut on only three sides1 and the mitre at the end of each4 ,the necessity for this mitre is shown in the drawing of the top of leg at e1 where the two tenons are shown meeting in the blind mortises4 ,the short rails are identical with those shown at d1 except in length4 ,the detailed drawing of the legs is shown at f1 and to make sure that the four are uniform1 they should be laid out in pairs1 the two at one end together1 then the second pair2 and finally the two pairs must be compared to discover any possible inaccuracies4 ,the cutting of the mortises may be hastened by boring several holes inside the lines from each side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,a mission library table 7continued7 ,the drawing at g shows the layout of the lower rails1 with tenons at the ends1 and mortises on flat sides to receive the tenons on ends of the shelf4 ,as in previous cases1 these two pieces should be laid out together4 ,the most difficult work up to this point is the cutting of the two blind mortises at the top of each leg to receive the mitred tenons4 ,this operation could be simplified1 by replacing the mortise and tenon at that point by a dowel joint1 but it would no longer be genuine mission furniture1 and a much weaker form of construction4 ,the drawing of the long shelf explains itself1 two tenons being cut at each end and a rectangular hole cut through each tenon for the wedge4 ,the tenons are shown with a slight bevel1 which is cut with a chisel when all other work is finished4 ,before proceeding further1 it will be wise to try and fit all the joints4 ,number or letter the two parts of each joint1 as it is finished1 to assist in the final assembling4 ,this process of fitting should take some time1 for it cannot be hurried safely4 ,when it is finished1 the way to fasten the top to the frame should be considered4 ,several methods are in use1 and two are shown at h and i4 ,at h a hole is bored at an angle in the rail4 ,as it goes only part way through1 it provides a shoulder for the screw head1 and the screw is driven through a hole drilled for the purpose into the solid top4 ,if this method is used1 at least ten screws would be needed for a table of this size1 three on each side and two on each end4 ,the method shown at i is probably the better of the two4 ,blocks of wood of the shape and size given in the drawing are made and fitted into a groove ploughed in the rails4 ,this groove may be ploughed the full length of rail1 or cut out for an inch or two with a chisel4 ,the tongue and groove should fit snugly1 and the block be securely fastened to the top with screws4 ,two blocks on each side and one on each end will be sufficient4 ,a simple method is to fasten top and frame by angle irons #b inches long1 on the inside4 ,this question having been decided1 take the glued-up top from clamps and dress down to size4 ,the under side should be trued up enough to fit neatly over tops of legs and rails1 and the upper side should be planed1 scraped1 and sand-papered4 ,the final assembling should be done in this order3 ,assemble the two ends separately4 ,each end consists of two legs1 a top and a bottom rail4 ,the mortise and tenon joints should be glued1 and a clamp used at top and bottom4 ,test for squareness4 ,when dry1 remove clamps1 insert shelf tenons and those of top rails in their mortises1 and clamp lengthwise4 ,drive a wire brad through each tenon1 from the side of leg least conspicuous1 and set with nail punch4 ,put on the top1 and level bottom of legs where necessary4 ,remove all traces of glue1 and fill brad holes with putty1 coloured same as stain to be used4 ,place wedges in mortises provided1 and fasten each one with a small brad driven through the side of shelf tenons4 ,stain and polish4 ,,the ,,tea ,,table ,this table is made low purposely1 the legs being exactly two feet in length4 ,the construction consists of four legs1 two sets of cross rails1 and a circular top two feet in diameter4 ,as this top is too wide to be cut from one board1 joint two pieces of #g_/h-;inch stock1 glue together1 and place in clamp4 ,the joint may be strengthened with dowels1 as in previous cases4 7,fig4 #aig47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,a mission tea table ,by proceeding in this order--gluing up first--no time need be lost in waiting4 ,square up the four legs and lay out the eight mortises1 placing the four pieces in a vise or clamp to insure uniformity4 ,cut the mortises and lay the legs one side4 ,the two sets of cross rails are to be halved at the centre1 and may be straight or slightly curved1 as shown4 ,the curve improves the appearance without reducing the strength seriously1 but if this form is decided on1 the curve must be cut before laying out the halved joint4 ,after finishing the joint1 the two rails of each set are clamped together and tenons laid out4 ,remove from clamp or vise and cut tenons4 ,test each set to make sure the halved joint at centre is satisfactory1 and insert tenons in the mortises4 ,draw bore and fasten with round pins of the same material as the legs4 ,before fastening the top rails in position1 drill and countersink two holes in each piece for the screws1 in the position shown in drawing4 ,the bevels on end of tenons should be cut with the chisel before the final fastening4 ,the two boards composing the top when removed from clamps should be dressed flat on both sides1 tested with a straight edge1 and circle laid out with steel dividers set at a radius of twelve inches4 ,saw close to this line with turning saw1 chisel to line1 and smooth with spokeshave and sand-paper block--a piece of pine #c #b #g_/h inches1 with the sand-paper tacked on the #g_/h-;inch edge4 ,scrape and sand-paper top4 ,to fasten this top to the frame1 lay the top upside down on the floor1 and set the frame1 inverted1 on it4 ,measure carefully to locate the frame in proper position1 and fasten with four #b-a_/b or #b-c_/d inch flat head screws4 ,assuming that all parts of the frame have been scraped and sand-papered before assembling1 the table is ready for polishing4 ,oak is the wood commonly used for this piece of furniture1 but if well seasoned1 chestnut is lighter in weight and just as satisfactory as to grain and finish4 7,see staining and polishing47 ,sometimes in mission furniture the legs of the table are allowed to come up through the top4 ,this design is shown at ,fig4 #aih4 ,the diameter of the top is #bd inches1 but the height is increased1 as this is designed as a centre or reading table4 ,on account of the support furnished by the shoulder at the top of legs1 the top set of rails is omitted1 and the fastening made by four angle irons securely screwed to the top and legs4 ,this table1 on account of the greater span between the legs1 is as stable as the previous design4 ,the cross rails are halved1 and may be straight or curved on under side4 ,if desired1 a commodious shelf may be had by fastening a circular piece #ai inches or less in diameter to the top of cross rails4 ,this will need to be glued up and cut like top piece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,a mission style centre table ,the square tenon at the top of legs is shown in the detailed drawing1 and care should be taken in laying out to insure the distance from the shoulder to bottom of leg being alike on all four1 if the top is to be level4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,mission plant stand ,after gluing up and dressing down the top1 lay out circle and two-inch square openings for the tenons4 ,test these squares carefully before cutting1 to make sure they are equally spaced1 saw out circle1 and finish as in previous table4 ,saw out the squares close to line and finish with chisel4 ,in putting on angle irons1 screw them to the top first and press it tightly down on the shoulders before fastening to legs4 ,a strong cleat #ah or #bj inches long fastened to under side of top across the grain with four or five screws will help to prevent warping1 but is not absolutely necessary4 ,if the circular shelf is added1 it is to be fastened to cross rails by screws from the under side through drilled holes4 ,,designing ,,mission ,,furniture ,boys who have followed the preceding instructions will be able to plan and construct the following designs without detailed explanations4 ,the two drawings for plant stands are in the nature of suggestions1 and although taken from pieces actually made they show the great difference in form that is possible in meeting the same conditions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,design for a plant stand ,fig4 #aii is thoroughly representative of the so-called mission style with its mortise and tenon joints and straight square legs4 ,the shelf for holding the jardinire is indicated by dotted lines1 and it is held by cleats fastened to the sides by flat-head screws4 ,a dark finish1 antique or rich brown1 is appropriate for either design4 ,fig4 #bjj shows a radically different form4 ,the shelf is octagonal or square with the corners cut at #de degrees to fit the legs4 ,the detail view shows the arrangement of lower rails meeting the legs at the same angle4 ,the ends of rails are mitred and secured by wire nails set below the surface and holes filled4 ,the fastening between upper shelf and legs may be either round-head blue screws or dowel pins of the same material as the legs1 with the outer ends slightly rounded4 ,the shape of the legs makes this design weaker than ,fig4 #aii1 but their spread results in a more stable base and makes this stand less liable to upset4 ,the foot rest 7,fig4 #bja7 is to be provided with a cushion covered with leather nailed on with large-head craftsman nails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,foot rest ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,footstool in mission style ,the cushion may be filled with hair1 excelsior1 or even fine shavings1 securely sewed in a cover of ticking and held in place by the leather cover4 ,the leather must be brought down and nailed to the lower edge of the cross rails4 ,fasten the top to cleats screwed on inside of ends4 ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,helen ,w4 ,cooke4 ,assembling and ,finishing ,fig4 #bjb shows the same problem worked out in straight lines1 the leather being nailed to all four top rails4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bjc and #bjd4 ,mission desks4 ,a study in design ,each of these pieces of furniture suggests a new one1 and chairs1 settees1 umbrella stands1 writing desks1 etc41 may be made along the same general lines4 ,the plant stand 7,fig4 #aii7 suggests the umbrella rack4 ,the shelf is simply shifted from the top to bottom and provided with a brass tray to catch the water4 ,valuable suggestions for such furniture may be obtained by consulting catalogues of furniture1 and by constant observations of well-made pieces4 ,these designs should never be copied1 but used only as aids to the working out of original ideas4 ,the typical writing desk shown at ,fig4 #bjc illustrates this point4 ,while fairly well proportioned1 the legs could well be heavier4 ,the drawer is also faulty4 ,its position makes it necessary to move away from the desk in order to open it4 ,the lower cross rail will be a nuisance when sitting close enough to write and other features might be criticised4 ,whether your design will be a success or not depends on the clearness with which all these details are thought out4 ,fig4 #bjd shows several of the above defects corrected4 ,,xlii ,,the ,,chest ,this is one of the most convenient and substantial pieces of furniture about the house4 ,for the storage of linen1 furs1 or clothing it is invaluable4 ,it may be placed in a corner1 and with a liberal supply of sofa cushions makes an ideal cosey corner and seat4 ,the construction is purposely strong and heavy1 and calls for good material like quartered oak1 chestnut1 walnut1 or cedar4 ,the latter wood1 especially red cedar1 is light in weight1 but attractive in colour1 and has the further advantage of being moth proof4 ,fig4 #bje a shows a well-proportioned chest of quartered oak4 ,the horizontal rails are mortised into the heavy legs1 and the panels may be arranged as shown in the detail4 ,a rabbet is cut on the inner edge of the rails1 and a corresponding groove ploughed in the legs4 ,the panel may be of one piece1 set into the rabbet and grooves4 ,its large expanse may be carved1 raised1 or simply polished plain1 allowing the natural grain to furnish the ornamentation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,the linen chest ,the legs may be plain1 as shown1 or curved slightly at the bottom1 as suggested in the detail4 ,the top is too large to be made in one piece1 and it should be built up like a table top1 and hinged to upper back rail by strong iron or brass ornamental hinges4 ,if finished in a dark colour with dull surface1 the metal corner plates and escutcheon will greatly enhance its appearance4 ,these may be made out of sheet brass4 ,first lay out the design on paper4 ,cut out to the outline1 and trace upon the surface of the sheet metal4 ,a metal-cutting saw blade obtained from the hardware store can be fitted into the frame of the coping saw4 ,with this tool1 saw on the lines exactly as in thin wood1 and file the edges smooth4 ,the holes for the heavy nails are drilled4 ,if suitable big-headed nails cannot be found1 brass screws may be used1 and when in position1 the heads filed to any desired shape4 ,an ancient green effect can be produced on such brass ornaments by painting with ammonia4 ,the cover of a large chest like this will need to be reinforced by strong cleats on the under side across the grain4 ,they should be #c #g_/h inches1 just long enough to allow the cover to close readily1 and should be secured by five or six screws on each cleat4 ,the bottom may be pine or white wood1 secured by nails or screws to #g_/h-;inch square cleats screwed on the inside of ends and sides4 ,a chest of better proportion1 but slightly more complicated in construction1 is shown at b4 ,here the front is broken up into three panels1 and a better space arrangement secured4 ,the whole front in this case may be put together with mortise and tenon joints1 as in panel door construction1 or the simpler method just described may be used4 ,the mortise and tenon form is the better way1 and as usual takes more time4 ,carved panels suggest a very rich and valuable piece of furniture1 but they are not necessary1 as a good flat polish showing the natural grain of the wood is very satisfactory4 ,,xliii ,,the ,,drawing ,,outfit ,an equipment for mechanical drawing1 except the instruments1 can be easily made in the shop by any boy who has had some practice with tools4 ,the drawing board is the first thing needed1 and several makes are in use1 the object of all of them being to insure a true flat surface by overcoming the natural tendency of wood to warp4 ,shrinkage will take place in spite of all precautions1 but this is not a serious matter1 and does not affect the usefulness of the board4 ,all boards1 it is conceded1 should be built up1 rather than consist of one piece4 ,the idea is that the warping of one piece is somewhat counteracted by that of the adjoining pieces in other directions4 ,fig4 #bjf shows three forms in common use4 ,at a the ends are united to wide cleats by a tongue and groove joint4 ,in shrinking and expanding with weather changes1 the board is free to slide along the joint1 being glued only at the centre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,the drawing board ,at b two dovetail-shaped strips are inserted on the under side across the grain4 ,this is more difficult cult to make on account of the shape of the groove1 but it is otherwise satisfactory4 ,at c two strong cleats are fastened across the under side by screws4 ,this is the easiest and least satisfactory method1 as the cleats are often in the way1 making the board clumsy1 and furthermore it does not allow for shrinkage1 unless the screws are secured in grooves instead of in plain holes4 ,a good proportion for a small board is #bd #ah inches4 ,if the first method of construction is decided on1 glue up four or five strips of well seasoned white pine1 #g_/h inch thick1 of the width desired1 and four inches shorter than the final length of board4 ,place in clamps for twenty-four hours1 and when dry dress down perfectly true to a thickness of #c_/d inch4 ,test for warp and wind1 and square the ends4 ,square up two pieces of stock #b-a_/b inches wide1 with a length equal to width of board4 ,for the tongue and groove joint1 a set of tongue and grooving planes will be necessary4 ,two cutters for this purpose come with the modern universal plane1 and if available this may be used4 ,in either case1 set the depth gauge at half an inch1 and plow a groove on one edge of each strip #a_/d inch wide to the full depth1 as shown at d4 ,on both ends of the board1 plane the tongue same size as groove at e4 ,coat the tongue at each end of board with glue for a distance of six or eight inches at the centre1 fit the end strips in position1 and place in clamps over night4 ,when dry1 give the surface a final truing up1 and also the ends1 as the clamps may have made a slight change4 ,go all over the surface with a sand-paper block1 using #jj sand-paper1 and shellac the board all over4 ,when dry rub flat with the sand-paper block4 ,make a final test for any possible inaccuracy1 and the board is ready for use4 ,t square and triangles may be made1 but as rubber or celluloid triangles are better in some ways than wood1 the former are recommended4 ,the ,t square is a very pretty little problem in woodwork1 and may be made as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,t square and triangles ,the design for the head may be either a or b 7,fig4 #bjg71 a being simply a rectangular piece of hard wood1 with two rounded corners2 b is laid out as shown1 sawed near the line and curved side finished with spokeshave4 ,the straight side should be perfectly straight1 as any variation will give horizontal lines out of parallel4 ,the blade may be of one piece1 or built up4 ,a very satisfactory combination is to make the head of black walnut1 and the blade of hard maple1 with black walnut edges4 ,it will pay to make a special shooting board for this work1 and to make several ,t squares at the same time4 ,this shooting board should be slightly longer than the blade4 7,see ,fig4 #bjf47 ,gauge a line at a distance x from the edge1 equal to the width of #b inches1 and tack a straight strip of wood up to this line as a guide4 ,when the blade has been planed to its thickness of #a_/h inch1 it is to be placed in space x and planed to width4 ,to plane a piece of hard wood down to an eighth of an inch1 tack it to a pine board with three #a-;inch brads4 ,the location of these brads can be such that only one hole will be left in the blade to be filled up afterward4 ,one should be in the position of the central screw over the head1 the second at the point where hole h is to be bored1 the third at about the centre of the blade4 ,set these brads slightly below the surface1 and dress down smooth4 ,when tested and found true1 lift the blade by inserting a knife blade under it1 again fasten to the board with unfinished side up1 and again dress down4 ,before removing from the board1 lay out the curved end to correspond with the curve of the head1 and cut to line with a chisel4 ,remove from board1 finish curved end with sand-paper block4 ,bore hole h for hanging up1 locate holes for screws1 and drill just large enough to allow #a_/b-;inch round-head brass or blued screws to pass through4 ,in attaching the head1 make sure that the two parts are at right angles1 and use thin copper burrs or washers under the screw heads4 ,if the blade is to have edges of a different colour1 joint the maple on shooting board1 and glue the strips to it1 before planing to thickness4 ,this should be done on a flat board1 with paper between it and the blade4 ,glue the three pieces together1 and drive #a-a_/d-;inch brads up close to and touching the outside strips1 at intervals of four inches4 ,by bending these slightly over the blade1 considerable pressure will be obtained1 tending to keep the pieces together while glue is hardening4 ,then proceed to dress down1 and true up as before4 ,when the process is once learned1 considerable pin money may be made by disposing of the squares1 and that will help to buy material for other things4 ,triangles made from single pieces of wood are absolutely unreliable4 ,referring to ,fig4 #bjg1 the #de-;degree triangle shows the grain running up and down4 ,as shrinkage takes place m will not change1 but n will1 and this will alter the angles2 and besides a piece of thin wood this size will warp and make the triangle useless for mechanical drawing4 ,the #cj-fj triangle illustrates the usual method of constructing a wooden triangle4 ,aside from bisecting the #ij1 #fj1 and #cj degree angles to get the mitres1 these joints1 if simply glued1 will be too weak for practical use4 ,the edge view and dotted lines indicate a thin feather of wood glued into a saw cut made through the edge of each corner1 the usual method of strengthening4 ,it is a delicate operation1 and is only recommended to boys who are fond of fine work4 ,a very serviceable section liner may be made from a wooden triangle by carefully cutting out of one side a rectangular opening1 as shown in the detail4 ,make a piece of thin wood to fit this space1 but #a_/h-;inch shorter1 and fitted so as to move freely4 ,by moving this block and the triangle1 alternately1 vertical or oblique lines can be drawn for sectioning1 and they will be equally spaced4 ,other blocks varying in length will give a variety of spacings4 ,it is possibly one of the cheapest section liners1 and the most satisfactory within the means of any one4 ,irregular or ,french curves may be made in thin wood4 ,they should be drawn on the surface1 sawed out with the coping saw1 and sand-papered smooth4 ,as their thickness should be but a trifle over #a_/af inch1 they are very frail and easily broken4 ,these curves can be easily made in sheet aluminum1 and they will be much more satisfactory4 ,this metal is handled similarly to thin wood1 except that the saw must be a metal cutting blade4 ,triangles may be made of the same material4 ,lay out the form with a sharp steel point or scriber1 saw as close to lines as possible1 and with a fine file finish to line4 ,then smooth the curves with fine emery paper wrapped around a lead pencil4 ,to make straight edges1 as on triangles1 lay a sheet of emery cloth on bench1 and rub triangle back and forth4 ,,the ,,pantagraph ,for copying designs1 for reducing or enlarging1 this old-fashioned instrument may be easily constructed4 ,fig4 #bjh shows it made of four strips of thin wood of equal length4 ,either pine or white wood will answer4 ,the pieces have to be squared1 twenty-five inches long1 three quarters of an inch wide1 and a quarter inch thick4 ,bore or drill through the four pieces held in a vise1 and space the holes shown in drawing three inches apart1 #a_/h inch in size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,the pantagraph ,when put together1 a1 b and c should be in line4 ,point a is to remain fixed1 the pantagraph being free to move around it as a pivot4 ,to accomplish this1 cut out a block1 as shown at x1 with a hole drilled at the centre for pivot1 and two others for screwing to the drawing table or board4 ,the pin for this pivot may be a thick flat-head wire nail1 screw1 or even a screw eye4 ,the joints d1 e1 and f are also pivots moving with the pantagraph4 ,they may consist of thumb screws1 and nuts1 or screw eyes1 and must move freely1 yet without play4 ,points b and c are to be interchangeable1 one having a tracing point1 the other a pencil4 ,the tracing point may be a wire nail1 rivet1 or screw1 with the point filed sharp1 and then slightly rounded4 ,the pencil point should be a piece of lead pencil1 whittled down to such a size as to pass through the hole at b and c1 and make a snug fit4 ,to enlarge a design1 place tracing point at b1 and fasten original design under it to drawing board with thumb tacks4 ,under c fasten a sheet of drawing paper4 ,with the right hand at b1 trace the design by carefully sliding tracing point along the lines4 ,at the same time1 with the left hand keep pencil point at c sufficiently in contact with the paper to make a clear line4 ,to reduce a drawing1 reverse b and c1 bringing pencil point and paper to b1 and original to c4 ,pass tracer over design at c1 and the reduced design will be traced at b4 ,different proportions between original and reproduction may be obtained by shifting the position of pivots e and f4 ,fig4 #bjh shows pivot e shifted to position h4 ,as distance c e should always equal distance d f1 it now becomes necessary to move pivot f to point g4 ,by remembering this rule1 and placing pivots in various positions1 a wide range of proportions is possible4 ,,the ,,drawing ,,table ,a table to hold the drawing board should be not less than #c feet #b inches high1 as much of the work is performed standing up4 ,a stool with revolving seat should be provided for the draughtsman to sit on occasionally4 ,the table top may be made slanting1 but it is better practice to have a heavy flat top of pine1 which may be used as a large drawing board itself1 and to provide for the slant by using a triangular block under the farther end of drawing board4 ,two or three blocks may be made1 about two feet long and of different sizes1 to give different degrees of slant4 ,tables for this purpose are often made with tops1 which may be adjusted at different angles1 and the young designer may try his inventive talent in this large field1 but any arrangement which will bring an element of instability is to be studiously avoided4 ,the drawing table should be as solid and rigid as possible4 ,the design in ,fig4 #bji was made by our boys1 and has proved very satisfactory4 ,it has much of the mission style about it1 with its square legs and mortised joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,drawer for table and table for mechanical drawing ,after the description of mission furniture construction in previous chapters1 only a few points in the construction need be mentioned4 ,the board a1 used as a foot rest1 is necessary when sitting at the table on account of its height1 and it also ties the frame together in the front4 ,the cross rail b acts in the same capacity at the back4 ,the heavy pine top is built up like a drawing board of several pieces1 and supported by two cleats #c #a_/h inches across the grain underneath4 ,it may be attached to the frame by any one of the methods described under mission furniture1 and its left-hand edge should be as true as that of the drawing board4 ,if an especially accurate edge is desired1 a piece of iron #a #a_/d inch1 planed straight by a machinist1 may be let into this edge1 as shown in the drawing1 and secured by flat-head screws through holes drilled and countersunk4 ,this arrangement is seldom seen1 but it is well worth the added cost4 ,the table shown is provided with a generous-sized drawer4 ,this may be omitted1 but is a great convenience for keeping plans and sketches4 ,its construction is shown in detail4 ,the sides and front have a #a_/d-;inch groove1 ploughed to receive the bottom1 and at the back end a vertical groove is cut to hold the back piece which is dadoed to fit4 ,at the top of each side is nailed a strip #e_/af inch square4 ,these cleats are to retain the strips s4 ,make these strips s of hard wood1 preferably ash1 and about #a_/af inch longer than the width of drawer1 measured inside4 ,by placing the strips on top of drawings obliquely1 and then straightening them across the drawer1 they bind against the sides1 and keep drawings down flat4 ,the cleats at top of drawer prevent them from escaping at the top1 especially when it becomes nearly full4 ,the extra front on the drawer with rounded edges covers up the joints around front of box1 and is a purely ornamental feature4 ,if this is used1 secure to real front by flat-head screws from the inside4 ,the box which holds the drawers is to be secured to the legs by screws countersunk4 ,many modifications of this table will occur to the woodworker1 such as additional drawers1 but it must be kept in mind that comfortable knee room is essential1 and the space on under side of the top is largely to be reserved for this important purpose4 ,a box for holding instruments has been described in another chapter1 and triangles1 rules1 etc41 may be kept in it4 ,the ,t square should be hung on a hook at either end of table1 to overcome any tendency the thin blade may have to twist or warp1 the weight of the head helping to draw it out straight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,a filing cabinet ,all drawings should have a neat title1 and a number4 ,to work out a system of numbering so that any drawing may be found quickly is a good job for a rainy day4 ,a good filing cabinet for plans is suggested in ,fig4 #baj4 ,dimensions are not given1 as they will depend on the size of drawing paper used4 ,a uniform-sized sheet should be adopted at the start1 and the drawings scaled to accommodate this size of paper4 ,the shelves should be #a_/d inch thick1 and gained into sides as shown4 ,a clear space of #a-a_/b inches between the shelves will be ample1 and a semicircular curve should be cut in the front4 ,the depth of cabinet should not be over half an inch more than the width of the sheets4 ,a top and mitred base are shown1 and the space between should be closed by a panelled door to keep out dust4 ,a cabinet of this style should not be less than thirty inches high1 and if the whole space is not required for drawings1 the lower part may be changed and fitted with drawers for models1 specimens1 and other treasures4 ,for boys who are interested in collecting1 whether minerals1 butterflies1 or other things1 such a cabinet may be made entirely of drawers1 and the panelled door omitted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa ,for the safe keeping of butterflies1 moths1 and other insects1 an eminent scientist has recommended a drawer construction as shown at ,fig4 #baa4 ,this detail shows a section at the front1 with the bottom piece gained into a groove4 ,the bottom of the drawer is covered with a layer of sheet cork1 and over it oiled paper4 ,the upper part of box is not fastened1 but is slipped down inside strips s1 which have rounded tops1 and extend around the four sides4 ,the upper half is grooved to receive a sheet of glass1 which is held in place by a small cleat4 ,by this method the drawer is covered while the specimens are visible1 and dampness is kept out4 ,the cork bottom is to receive the pins1 and the specimens may be reached by simply taking out the top4 ,the dimensions recommended for the drawer are #bb #af #b inches1 outside measurements1 and if a number are to be used1 the spaces between the shelves of the cabinet should correspond with these figures4 ,a quaint conceit sometimes used by enthusiastic collectors is to make their boxes in the form of books1 as shown at a 7,fig4 #bab74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab ,the outside has the shape of a book1 the two halves being fitted by tongue and groove joint4 ,this keeps out moisture1 the great enemy of dried specimens1 and when a number of these boxes1 properly coloured and labelled1 are piled on a shelf1 they have the appearance of so many large volumes4 ,this unique idea may be used in other ways4 ,a very pretty illustration is a stamp box for the writing desk1 made up in the form of a book1 which apparently has a silk ribbon for a book mark4 ,this ribbon is the handle of a little drawer1 which pulls out1 disclosing the contents4 ,the arrangement is shown at b4 ,the idea may be carried still farther by having half a dozen of these small volumes in a book rack1 the labels reading--rubber bands1 pens1 stamps1 etc4 ,all should be stained a uniform colour1 and the illusion may be carried still farther by gilding the parts which represent the edges of the leaves4 ,,xliv ,,woodwork ,,for ,,outdoor ,,sports ,,the ,,tennis ,,court ,the young woodworker is especially well fitted for the preparation of a tennis court4 ,he has learned the value of accurate measurements1 and is accustomed to make a neat and finished job4 ,while the making of a court seems a simple proposition1 it may be a very expensive one1 if help has to be hired1 and all the equipment bought ready for use4 ,the first step is to select the exact location1 which should either be level or practically so4 ,any discussion as to the merits of dirt or sod courts must be left to the reader4 ,the court proper is #gh #cf feet1 the posts for the tennis net being three feet outside on either side1 and the space at the ends between the court and stop nets fifteen to twenty feet more1 making a total length of #aah feet4 ,the following method of laying out the court is recommended3 ,make sure that the long way is exactly north and south1 and drive in the ground a wooden stake at northeast corner ,a 7,fig4 #bac74 ,at ,b1 directly west1 drive stake #cf feet from ,a4 ,a steel tape measure is by far the best thing to use for laying out1 as cord stretches and leads to inaccuracies1 and two tapes are better than one4 ,at the centre of each stake drive a strong nail4 ,from ,b measure #gh feet south1 and place a temporary stake4 ,to insure the angle being #ij degrees1 apply this test3 ,from ,b along the line laid out last1 measure #dh feet3 slip the ring of the tape measure over the nail at ,a1 and measure to this new point4 ,if the angle is #ij degrees1 this diagonal measurement should be #fj feet4 ,if this measurement does not come right1 shift the stake ,c1 until this oblique line is exactly #fj feet1 then lines ,a-,b and ,b-,c are at right angles4 ,having fixed this angle1 again measure from ,b to ,c1 and drive stake ,c at #gh feet from ,b4 ,locate stake ,d #gh feet from ,a1 and #cf feet from ,c4 ,a final test should now be made by measuring the diagonals ,b-,d and ,a-,c4 ,they should be exactly alike4 ,these corner stakes may now be driven in flush with the surface1 and they should be allowed to remain1 to avoid the necessity of doing the work all over again later in the season when the lines become obscure4 ,measure in from each stake #d-a_/b feet for the alleys and drive stakes in flush4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,the tennis court ,next measure from stakes ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d #ah feet along outside lines1 and again drive in stakes a1 b1 c1 d4 ,by passing a cord from a to b1 and from c to d1 the service lines are laid out1 omitting alleys4 ,find centre of service lines1 and connect points e and f4 ,the net crosses the centre of court from east to west1 extending three feet beyond on each side4 ,at these two points x and y1 set the posts in the ground4 ,by this method1 the only stakes left in the ground are on the outside lines1 and they must be driven in so that under no circumstances will a player stumble over them4 ,they can always be found after a rain storm1 and new lines laid out4 ,the posts for the net should be seven feet long and four inches square4 ,plane them off smooth1 and coat the end which is to be in the ground with creosote or coal tar4 ,this coating should extend three feet six inches from the bottom1 and as the post is to be three feet in the ground1 this coating will extend six inches above4 ,decay takes place at the point of contact with the ground1 and the creosote will prolong the life of the posts for many years1 if the wood is well seasoned4 ,many posts for tennis nets are not sunk fully three feet in the ground1 and consequently require guy ropes or wires to keep them upright4 ,the time spent in digging the holes and tamping the dirt around posts is well spent1 as the pull on them is severe1 and they must stand upright4 ,six inches from the top1 bore a hole #c_/d inch in diameter1 east and west4 ,the net must be three feet high at its centre1 and three feet six inches at the posts4 ,pass the rope through these holes1 and make fast to a cleat4 ,these cleats may be of iron or wood1 a sketch of a wooden cleat being shown at ,fig4 #bae4 ,they should be of oak or other hard wood1 put on with two strong screws through holes which have been bored and countersunk4 ,on the side of post toward the net1 three strong screw eyes should be put about a foot apart1 the lower one six inches from the ground4 ,the net is to be fastened to these screw eyes to keep it in position4 ,when everything is ready1 paint the posts two coats of dark or bronze green4 ,the position of the tall poles for the back stop are shown in ,fig4 #bac4 ,fifteen feet is none too far from the court for the stop net1 and twenty would be better4 ,purchase twelve foot four by fours1 and plane smooth1 or have them dressed at the mill when ordering4 ,this will reduce them to #c-c_/d #c-c_/d inches4 ,the method of enclosing the whole court by wire netting is seldom resorted to1 unless the space available is very limited4 ,the method here suggested of bringing the ends about at an angle of #de degrees has been found very satisfactory in stopping swift service4 ,locate the post holes #ab feet apart1 and dig them three feet deep4 ,after treating the lower ends of posts for three and a half feet with creosote or tar1 place in the ground1 plumb each one while filling in1 and tamp the earth about them firmly4 ,strips #a #c inches and #ab feet long must be used to join the posts at the top1 else the pull necessary to straighten the wire will bring them out of plumb4 ,these strips are to be nailed at the extreme top by eight-penny wire nails4 ,when the structure is finished1 except for the wire1 paint with two coats of the same colour as the net posts4 ,the wire netting is chicken wire1 inch and a half mesh1 and three feet wide4 ,three of these strips will cover the space from the ground to the top4 ,it is put on with staples nailed to the posts1 stretched taut1 and the joints where the strips touch wired together at intervals of three feet with soft iron wire4 ,if arranged as shown in the drawing1 it will take six strips sixty feet long by three wide for the back stop1 or #ajhj square feet1 and will cost #i or #aj4 ,cheap cotton back stops are sold1 but they are not very satisfactory1 as they tighten in damp and sag in dry weather4 ,for a permanent court belonging to a club the galvanized wire is well worth the difference in cost4 ,the size of the mesh is important1 because although a tennis ball is #b-a_/b inches in diameter1 when driven hard it frequently goes through two-inch mesh4 ,there are many opportunities about the tennis court for the young woodworker to show his skill4 ,camp stools1 settees1 benches either plain or rustic1 a chest to keep racquets and balls1 fitted with a strong padlock1 shelters for the spectators or club members1 and even a small club house are among the possibilities4 ,permanent structures1 such as shelters and heavy benches1 should generally be on the west side of the court1 as spectators are usually present after the sun has passed the meridian1 and it will then be at their back4 ,,tennis ,,court ,,accessories ,,the ,,camp-,,stool ,use hard wood such as maple1 ash1 or oak4 ,the stock required for each stool will be four pieces #bj-a_/b #a-a_/b #a inches1 two pieces #ad #a-a_/h #a-a_/h inches1 and two pieces #aj-a_/b #e_/h #e_/h inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,the camp-stool ,the four legs are made as shown at a 7,fig4 #bad74 ,the small end is to be rounded to a diameter of #e_/h inch2 #h-a_/b inches from this end a #c_/af-;inch hole is bored for the rivet or bolt1 which is to hold the legs together4 ,seven inches from the lower or foot end a #a_/b-;inch hole is bored #c_/h or #c_/d inch deep4 ,this is to receive the cross rod or dowel4 ,the two top pieces #ad #a-a_/h #a-a_/h inches are rounded on two of their edges as shown at b4 ,on the flat side of one of these bore two holes #e_/h inch diameter and #c_/d inch deep1 #i inches apart1 to receive the small end of the leg4 ,on the other top piece1 the holes are eleven inches apart4 ,the two cross pieces may be rounded1 or pieces of #e_/h-;inch maple dowel used4 ,in either case1 the ends must be pared down to a diameter of #a_/b inch to fit the holes of this size4 ,one is to be sawed nine inches long1 the other eleven4 ,the camp-stool is composed of two frames pivoted together4 ,put together the inner frame1 first gluing the legs into holes bored in top pieces1 and at the same time gluing in the cross piece4 ,these joints may be fastened by driving a brad through from the outside1 or by wedges1 as described in previous chapters4 ,the outer frame is now put together1 and the two pivoted4 ,this is usually done with a rivet1 a thin washer having been placed between the two sets of legs to relieve the friction4 ,a small bolt and nut may be used1 but as the nut is liable to come off1 the bolt end should be riveted over the nut with the hammer4 ,canvas or even a piece of carpet may be used for the seat4 ,the size required is #ae by #ab1 the ends being tacked to the lower side of the top pieces4 ,when canvas is used1 it is usually turned under an inch on each side1 and hemmed4 ,in this case1 its width must be at least fourteen inches4 ,all articles which are to be handled much should have the edges slightly rounded2 this rule applies to the camp-stool4 ,,benches ,folding settees for outdoor use are on the market at very cheap prices1 but they are neither comfortable nor substantial4 ,fixed benches can be made of heavy but simple construction1 as well as movable ones4 ,fig4 #bae shows the simplest possible form4 ,posts of locust1 chestnut1 or cedar are set in the ground to a depth of two feet or more4 ,the diameter should be at least four inches4 ,a space one inch by three should be sawed out of each1 as a rest for the cross pieces4 ,these should be two by four stock1 ten inches long1 and must be securely nailed to the posts by eight or ten penny nails4 ,the seat should be #af inches or #ah inches above the ground1 made of heavy plank at least two inches thick and #ad inches wide4 ,bore quarter-inch holes1 countersink and fasten the top to cross pieces by three-inch flat-head screws4 ,the span between cross pieces should not be over five feet1 four would be better1 so that a bench twelve feet long would call for six posts and three cross pieces1 besides the top4 ,space the posts five feet apart between centres4 ,this will allow an overhang of one foot at each end4 ,the seat should be planed smooth1 edges slightly rounded1 and then two coats of boiled linseed oil applied4 ,painting seats is not advised1 and varnish for outside work is seldom satisfactory4 ,the wood for the top should be of some kind that is free from pitch1 as the sun will draw it out1 and a sticky seat result4 ,oak or maple will be very satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,a simple bench ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,settee for tennis court ,a movable settee of heavy construction is suggested in ,fig4 #baf4 ,the main dimensions for the standards supporting the seat and back strips are given1 but the form may be modified to suit the young designer4 ,there is considerable waste in making standards of this sort1 and it is important to have the grain run in the direction indicated in the drawing4 ,the two strips for the back1 as well as the seat1 should be put on with screws4 ,the horizontal pieces on this settee will not give the necessary rigidity lengthwise1 and it will be important to add braces under the seat4 ,these may be in the form of heavy angle irons or square blocks1 as shown at a4 ,these blocks should be two inches square1 and fastened with three-inch screws to both seat and standard4 ,everything about this settee is heavy and substantial1 as all outdoor work should be4 ,the camp-stool furnishes all the light furniture necessary4 ,the standards should never be more than four feet apart1 so that a settee in this style1 eight feet long1 would require three standards4 ,this design can be changed to a simple bench by omitting the back and sawing the standard on its back edge to the same outline as the front1 as suggested by the dotted line4 ,the trefoil opening is made by boring three holes with a large bit at the points of a triangle4 ,the covered seat shown at ,fig4 #bag is one that may be constructed as shown1 or modified in size1 proportions1 etc4 ,small as it is1 it will tax the skill of the young worker1 and give him many of the problems of outdoor construction to figure out4 ,it includes the setting and levelling of posts1 framing1 roofing1 flooring1 etc4 ,the material necessary should be first carefully estimated1 with allowance made for waste4 ,this is an item often forgotten by the amateur1 and one especially to be provided for in framing4 ,if the dimensions are to vary from those shown in our sketch1 it would be wise to make a careful drawing first4 ,in all outdoor structures1 wind1 rain1 snow1 and the effect of strong sunlight must be considered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,a covered seat ,as this shelter is primarily for a tennis court1 the timbers for the frame should be planed by hand or dressed at the mill1 when purchased4 ,the #d #d uprights should be bought #ab feet long1 as this is a standard size1 and set into the ground deep enough to bring the top nine feet above ground4 ,the temptation to place posts only a little way in the ground must be overcome4 ,the roof should be counted on to withstand a wind pressure of sixty miles an hour1 and three feet in the ground is necessary in this case1 as there are no braces to help support it4 ,having cut the mortises for the horizontal tie piece a1 place the first post in the hole dug for it1 tamp the earth around it1 and plumb with level and plumb4 ,another method would be to lay both uprights on the ground1 place the tie piece in position1 fasten with wooden pins driven through holes bored through the mortise and tenon joints1 and nail the #b #d plate on top of both posts4 ,then raise the structure1 and place both posts in their respective holes at the same time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag;a4 ,a covered seat 7continued7 ,in any work of this character1 two boys should work together1 and two trestles or saw horses will be a necessary part of their equipment4 ,in mortise and tenon joints of this character a method called draw boring is frequently used4 7,see b1 ,fig4 #bag;b47 ,the hole for the pin or dowel is first bored across the centre of the mortise4 ,the tenon is inserted snugly1 and the bit again inserted until it makes a mark on the tenon4 ,the tenon is withdrawn1 and the centre of bit placed #a_/af inch nearer the shoulder than the mark made1 and the hole bored4 ,this brings the distance y slightly less than x4 ,the three holes through which the pin is to pass are not in line when the tenon is again placed in mortise4 ,the result is to draw the tenon tight1 when the pin is driven home1 and to make the joint a very snug one1 as it should be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag;b4 ,draw boring a joint and method of levelling posts ,if this method of constructing the frame on the ground is not used1 the tie piece must be placed in position before the second post is set4 ,fasten the joints with the pins1 and level the tie piece4 ,if the two posts have been laid out together on the trestles1 their tops must now come level and true4 ,this first step in making the structure is extremely important1 as the success of the following work depends on it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,details of roof construction and forms of rafters ,after tamping the uprights solidly1 the corner posts for supporting the floor may be set in the ground4 ,they should be of locust1 cedar1 or chestnut1 and at least four inches in diameter4 ,set them in the ground not less than thirty inches1 and flush with the ground line4 ,it will be better to dig out three or four inches of top soil from the whole area1 and afterward fill in with gravel1 as this does not hold the moisture4 ,this precaution will help to prevent decay1 and1 wherever possible1 all the parts in contact with the earth should be painted with creosote4 ,the outside of posts should be five feet one way and four feet eight inches the other4 ,their tops should be sawed off level4 ,this may be done after setting4 ,saw one post at the desired height4 ,to level the others with it1 rest a straight board on first post1 and while one boy holds the level on its upper edge1 let the other make a pencil mark on the next post along under side of the board4 ,saw to this line1 and level the remaining posts in the same manner4 7,fig4 #bag;b47 ,the sill or frame for flooring must now be prepared4 ,use either #b #f or #b #d inch spruce4 ,cut two pieces five feet long1 and two pieces four feet eight inches4 ,lay out half lap joints at the ends1 and saw to the lines4 ,spike this frame to the locust posts1 and as it touches the outside of the uprights1 nail to the latter1 with ten-penny wire nails4 ,as additional support will be needed for the flooring1 cut two #b #d1 and fasten them across the frame either by half lap joint or spikes4 ,if this frame is planed on the outside1 no finishing strip will be needed1 but if it is rough sawed stock1 a facing strip of #a #d inch material should be placed on the outside1 flush with the top of the frame4 ,the flooring may now be laid1 using tongue and groove stock1 and allowing it to project an inch beyond the frame on all four sides4 ,the edges of this projection should be rounded with the plane4 ,the flooring should be neatly fitted around the uprights1 so that the latter may appear to come up through a solid floor #e feet #d inches by #e feet #j inches4 ,the roof should be made next1 leaving the construction of the seat to the last4 ,the roof timbers consist of six rafters four feet long1 and six braces two feet one and a half inches long4 ,two methods are shown1 and several combinations may be used4 ,the rafters may have square ends1 or some simple curved design may be sawed out1 as suggested in the detailed drawing4 7,fig4 #bah47 ,the braces may meet the rafters in a plain butt joint1 and be nailed1 or they may be gained into the rafters1 as shown in side view4 ,this latter method makes a neat job1 but it is not necessary1 as far as strength is concerned4 ,nails are used in either case4 ,the straight rafter is of course the simpler and easier way1 but the ,japanese effect produced by a slight curve at the ends on the upper side is worth the little additional labour that it requires4 ,to secure this curve1 saw out a template in white pine about fifteen inches long and #a-a_/b inches wide1 at one end1 as shown in detail4 ,the curve may be first drawn in pencil1 and then sawed on the line4 ,from this template lay out six pieces of scrap1 #b #d1 and saw them all out the same size and shape4 ,nail them to the lower ends of the rafters on their top side4 ,the upper ends of the rafters are to be mitred1 and the ,v-shaped notch cut as shown in detail drawing4 7,fig4 #bai47 ,the braces are square at one end1 and mitred at the other4 ,nail two rafters together at their mitred ends1 using ten or twelve penny wire nails4 ,place in position over plate1 and nail to it4 ,nail mitred end of braces to the upright1 and then to rafter4 ,the method of fastening two joints at right angles is called toe-nailing--nailing obliquely--as shown in detail4 ,the braces for middle rafters are fastened to the tie piece1 and will need to be somewhat longer than the four fastened to the uprights4 ,their exact length should be determined by measurement1 after the end rafters are secured4 ,the end sawed off should be the square end1 measurements being made from the extreme point of the mitred corner4 ,the roof is to be shingled4 ,for this purpose1 shingle lath1 a standard commercial article1 is to be nailed to the rafters at intervals of #e-a_/b or #f inches4 ,for a steep roof like this1 #f inches will answer4 ,this lath is to project beyond the outside rafters #i inches or #a foot4 ,there must be a shingle lath at the top of each rafter1 no matter how near the next one may come1 and sometimes the whole roof is covered with boards as a support for the shingles1 instead of lath4 ,begin shingling at the lower end of the rafters1 allowing the first course to project an inch beyond the first lath4 ,to insure the end of the roof being straight1 it is best to saw the lath after it is nailed to rafters4 ,the first course of shingles should be double--i4 e41 one over the other1 joints broken4 ,on good and permanent roofs1 where the pitch is not as great as in this case1 the method shown at a 7,fig4 #bah7 is frequently used4 ,after the first course is laid1 the second is begun with a third of a shingle1 the next with two thirds1 the next with a whole one4 ,it makes a tighter roof than that in which each joint comes over the centre of the one below4 ,the carpenter marks the courses after the first with a chalk line4 ,measure up six inches from the lower edge1 at each end of the roof4 ,take a piece of mason's line or strong cord1 rub it with a piece of chalk1 hold it taut at the two pencil marks1 pull it up in the centre1 and allow it to snap back to the roof4 ,it will leave a straight chalk line from end to end1 and the lower edge of the next course of shingles is laid to this line4 ,two shingle nails are to be used on each shingle1 driven into the shingle lath high enough up to be covered by the next course4 ,on very fine work1 the edges of shingles where they touch are first planed1 but for ordinary purposes this is not necessary4 ,shingle one side of the roof clear up to the ridge1 allowing the last course to present six inches or so to the weather4 ,saw off carefully all that part which projects1 close to the ridge4 ,this will allow the shingles from the second side to project over those of the first1 and when the second side is finished it is to be sawed off at the ridge as before4 ,to protect the ridge from leaks1 saddle boards are sometimes added4 ,these are strips of pine lapped over the top and nailed1 as shown in detailed drawing4 ,if the curved rafters are used1 the pull of the nails will make the shingles conform to the curve1 unless it is excessive4 ,many methods are used by carpenters in finishing roofs1 and considerable time and material are used in constructing cornices4 ,in this simple structure1 if the timbers have been planed as suggested1 it will be well to leave it as it is1 with the rafters exposed1 especially if the ornamental curves have been sawed before erection4 ,if the roof has been made with boards1 instead of shingle laths1 the whole construction is honestly and frankly visible4 ,the old-fashioned method of putting on gingerbread work1 ornaments sawed on a hand or jig-saw1 is to be condemned4 ,let all your construction be strong1 simple1 and straightforward4 ,shingles are sometimes stained or painted4 ,staining is by far the better treatment1 but the shingles should be dipped into the stain and dried before they are put on4 ,the stains sold by most paint stores come in a variety of colours4 ,some shade of green1 red1 or brown should be selected1 according to the colour of the body of the structure4 ,a red roof on a white structure looks well1 as it is usually seen against a background of blue sky and green foliage4 ,a light gray building with white trimmings and red roof makes a pleasing combination4 ,it only remains to construct the seat4 ,this is made double1 with a back between the uprights1 and the seat cover is hinged to make a chest below for racquets1 etc4 ,this double seat is designed to give the greatest possible seating accommodation for this size of shelter4 ,it has the disadvantage of one seat facing the wrong way1 and if the structure is made longer it is suggested that the back seat be omitted4 ,construct a box without top or bottom #cd inches by #c feet #h inches4 ,the material may be the same as the floor1 but in any case it must be tongue and groove matched boards4 ,this box will just slip in between the uprights and must be securely nailed to them4 ,to fasten to the floor1 nail cleats to the latter just inside the box1 and nail the sides and ends of the box to these cleats4 ,further to strengthen the box1 square cleats should be nailed upright in each corner of the inside4 ,illustration ,the backbone of the box is a piece of #b #d spruce4 ,its length will be the distance between the uprights or the length of the box4 ,saw down through the box ends exactly #b inches1 with the saw against the uprights1 and remove the piece #d #b from each end4 ,into these two spaces slip the #b #d and toenail to uprights4 ,nail to the top of this #b #d along its centre a piece of #a #c pine1 the same length as the #b #d4 ,the box covers are to be hinged to this pine strip and will rest on the edge of the #b #d which will carry the weight4 ,seat covers are to be the same length as the box1 with just enough clearance to let them move freely between the uprights4 ,as they are #af inches wide1 it is doubtful whether a single board that width will be available4 ,they may be made of tongue and groove boards1 with cleats #c #g_/h inches screwed on the under side1 just long enough to allow the cover to close4 ,outside edges should be rounded and three strong hinges used on each cover4 ,as it has a bearing surface on front and ends of the box1 no extra support will be needed4 ,if a support for the back is desired1 two strips #c #a-a_/d with rounded edges may be fastened to the uprights1 and as the pressure may be both ways1 they should be nailed between two upright cleats at each end4 ,the cleats #g_/h #a-a_/d are nailed to uprights1 or the strips may be mortised through4 ,the sharp edges of the uprights may be bevelled or chamfered where people are likely to come in contact with them4 ,the structure is now ready for painting4 ,set all nails with nail punch1 and give the first or priming coat to the whole structure1 shingles excepted4 ,this should be done when the wood is dry1 not directly after a rain4 ,when this coat is dry1 fill all nail holes with putty and give second coat of paint4 ,if the priming coat was thin a third coat may be necessary to give the desired result4 ,use a little drier in the paint and when necessary to thin it use boiled linseed oil4 ,as white would not be suitable for the seats and floor1 a light gray for the seats and a darker shade for the floor may be used4 ,,xlv ,,the ,,pergola ,among the many structures used to beautify the grounds of a suburban or country place1 the pergola is seen less than it should be4 ,it is a luxury1 but so is a couch hammock1 and many other details of our modern life might be placed under the same heading4 ,as an arbour for the training of the vines1 the pergola adds more dignity to a place than any other structure1 always assuming that it is well built and in good proportion4 ,its length must of course depend on the local circumstances4 ,it should lead somewhere1 as from the house to the flower garden1 or from house to stable4 ,it should1 in other words1 not be placed on the grounds simply as an ornament4 ,its purpose should be to give a certain amount of privacy to a walk4 ,the oldest recognized style of architecture is known as post and beam construction1 as suggested in ,fig4 #bai1 where two vertical members support a horizontal one4 ,this style was used by the ,egyptians and ,greeks1 and was a large factor in deciding the form of the old ,greek temples4 ,the pergola consists of two parallel rows of columns connected by longitudinal beams and cross beams4 ,a very artistic one may be built by two boys with the assistance of a third person in the heavy work of lifting and placing the columns4 ,if a small-sized structure with #f-;inch columns is built1 two boys can handle the whole construction alone4 ,this small size is not recommended1 however1 as one of the first requisites of the pergola is a massive appearance of solidity and permanence4 ,the proportions for two sizes are given in the drawing1 and they may be modified to suit the size of the ground1 buildings1 etc4 7,fig4 #bbj47 ,wooden columns in many styles1 sizes1 and proportions are on the market and may be bought from any lumber dealer4 ,the bases and caps are separate and should be ordered to fit the columns4 ,the construction of the pergola brings the young carpenter in contact with several new problems4 ,the first is the subject of foundations4 ,these may be in the form of concrete1 which is permanent and solid1 and will not decay1 as any form of wooden post will do in time4 ,the ground should be as nearly level as possible1 and should be staked out with eight stakes1 as shown in the drawing4 7,fig4 #bba47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,the ,pergola ,the stakes are three feet from the centre of the columns in each case1 and angle a c d should be made square at the beginning4 ,measure distance a b equal to c d4 ,from a measure along a line stretched from a to b three feet1 and then three spaces of twelve feet each4 ,measure the same distance from c along c d1 and place stakes at each point4 ,a line stretched from e to f should pass over the centre of the stakes marking the centre of each column1 as these latter stakes will be dug out in the process of excavating for the foundation1 while stakes e and f are necessary for the proper location of the holes4 ,after digging the first two holes1 test their accuracy by again stretching a cord or masons' line from e to f4 ,proceed with the next set of holes in the same way1 placing new stakes three feet out from centres to correspond with e and f4 ,when the eight holes have been dug1 the arrangement will appear as shown at g1 twelve stakes being left in the ground4 ,should the pergola be longer or narrower1 the same method would be used1 the dimensions only being altered4 ,the size of the holes will depend on the following considerations3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,the pergola ,assuming that we are building the large pergola with eight-inch columns1 the base will be about twelve inches square4 ,measure the base and add two inches to it1 making1 say1 a fourteen-inch square1 the size of the foundation4 ,a box in the form shown at a1 #ad inches square inside1 must be made4 ,no nails are used on the box4 ,it is held together by cleats c c4 ,they must be made to fit snugly1 and are to be knocked off when the cement has hardened--i4 e41 about four days after making4 ,these boxes may be full depth of the hole1 three feet1 or1 as is sometimes done1 the hole is made just the right size and the box1 about eighteen inches in length1 wedged into the top as shown at i4 ,this method calls for considerable care in levelling the top of the box and securing the proper projection above ground1 as well as in pouring in the cement without dislodging it1 but the box is removed more easily than is the case with a full-length one4 ,the decision about this point determines the size of the hole4 ,in case the short box is used1 the hole must be fifteen inches square and just enough shaved from the sides at top to receive the box4 ,if the full length box is used1 the hole should be about twenty inches square1 to allow the cleats to be knocked off and boards withdrawn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,details of pergola construction ,this weighty question having been decided1 prepare to mix concrete4 ,make a mixing board about five or six feet square of flooring boards fastened to heavy cleats on the under side4 ,it should have two or three sides nailed on1 as shown at k4 ,also prepare eight wooden blocks1 as shown in drawing4 ,these may be fifteen to eighteen inches long1 sawed from #d #d timber1 planed smooth and with a slight taper toward the lower end4 ,the purpose of these blocks will be apparent later on4 ,the concrete is composed of four parts clean gravel to one of ,portland cement1 and the best is always the cheapest in the long run4 ,use a pail for mixing and place four pailfuls of gravel on the mixing board4 ,pour over this one pailful of dry cement and mix thoroughly1 turning the whole mass several times4 ,when thoroughly mixed1 pour on water1 half a pailful at a time1 and turn again with the shovel until the whole mass is wet4 ,shovel this into the first box4 ,it will probably take two such mixings to fill it4 ,now place in the top of the concrete one of the tapering blocks1 allowing it to project about three or four inches above the surface of the concrete4 ,the block should be rubbed with grease or oil before insertion to make it withdraw easily4 ,as soon as the block is placed1 pass the line from stakes e to f and make sure that the block is exactly at the centre4 ,in every case it is to be withdrawn in about an hour1 or as soon as the concrete has set1 but before it has gripped the block too tightly2 otherwise withdrawal will be a difficult matter4 ,the object of this performance is to leave in the centre of the foundation a hole about a foot deep and four inches across4 ,level the top of concrete with a trowel and test with the level4 ,all the foundations are made alike and no effort should be spared to see that the boxes are level and in line with each other4 ,test from end stakes a b c d and from across stakes with the masons' line4 ,this work will be easier if the four end foundations are made first4 ,to do the work thoroughly1 two boys may count on the process1 from the staking out to the finishing of foundations1 occupying about three days4 ,it is the most important and laborious part of the work and when finished represents about one third of the labour on the pergola4 ,the concrete should stand at least four days before it is touched again1 and during that time the timber may be prepared4 ,besides the eight columns1 there will be needed3 #f pcs4 #d #f ins4--#af ft4 long #ae pcs4 #c #f ins4--#ad ft4 long #add ft4 7running7 #a #b ins4 #h pcs4 of #e_/h-;in4 round iron ,the iron should be #ah inches longer than the total height of the wooden columns1 including base and cap4 ,this should be determined by actual measurement4 ,the rods can be obtained from a blacksmith4 ,have him cut a thread at each end and provide two nuts for each rod4 ,they are to extend clear through each column from the bottom of the hole in the foundation1 through the longitudinal timbers that rest on the cap1 to bolt the whole structure together securely4 ,columns come either built up or solid4 ,the solid ones have a core bored out through the centre1 so that in either case the rod can easily pass through from top to bottom4 ,a hole should be bored #c_/d inch diameter through the centre of both cap and base to allow the bolt to pass easily4 ,in ordering timbers1 have them dressed on all sides at the mill4 ,have the fifteen #c #f inch pieces sawed on both ends as shown at l1 and have one end on four of the #d #f inch pieces sawed the same shape4 ,the two remaining #d #f inch pieces are to be square on the ends4 ,a week after making the concrete foundations1 the boxes having been removed and the holes filled in with earth well tamped down1 the openings in the top may be cut out with a long cold chisel1 as shown at m4 ,this need not be a very particular job4 ,the object is to dovetail the cement1 to be used in filling up the opening to the foundation1 and it can be done roughly4 ,the setting of the columns on their foundations is performed as follows3 ,nail base and cap to each column and slip a long bolt clear through4 ,at the bottom the bolt will be allowed to project4 ,at the top pass it through a piece of wood #f inches high1 a #c_/d-;inch hole being bored for the purpose4 ,fill the opening in the foundation with clear cement mixed with enough water to bring it to the consistency of paint4 ,set the column on its foundation1 with the end of the bolt and its nut and a large washer immersed in the cement4 ,this will harden quickly1 making a strong bond with the foundation and holding the bolt rigid4 ,plumb the column1 and if it shows a tendency to lean1 place thin wedges under it until it stands true when tested by the plumb and level on all sides4 ,treat all the posts alike and when one row has been set1 run the masons' line along the bolts on top and see that they are in line4 ,everything should be ready before starting this job1 as clear cement hardens quickly and any moving of the columns that may be necessary in lining them up must be done before it sets4 ,a good method is to place the end posts first1 tie the masons' line to the bolts and line the other two posts as they are set4 ,when they are all on their foundations at last you will begin to realize for the first time the value and beauty of the task you have undertaken4 ,our boys were so excited that every member of the family1 and some of the neighbours1 were dragged out as spectators4 ,it did not seem possible that two boys could handle such a large proposition1 but there it stood as if it were intended to stand for a century4 ,harry was for putting on the superstructure at once1 but ,ralph had to warn him not to touch it until the cement had thoroughly hardened4 ,they allowed it to stand two days before they removed the #f-;inch blocks from the bolts at the top and began the work of placing the long #d #f inch timbers4 ,these members were lapped as shown in the drawing1 #c_/d-;inch holes being bored to receive the bolts4 ,when all the timbers on one side were in place1 the nuts were screwed down snug on each bolt with a monkey wrench4 ,the work1 with the cutting1 fitting1 and boring1 consumed a whole day1 and a second day was used up on the second row4 ,it was not necessary to call the family out again4 ,the boys had all the help that could be desired in lifting1 and were also blessed with a continuous audience4 ,the cross timbers were gained out to a depth of #a-a_/b inches1 and fitted over the long #d #f inch pieces1 as shown at n4 ,there was one over the centre of each column1 and an additional piece was removed to provide for the nut1 which was thereby entirely concealed4 ,the remaining cross pieces were spaced three feet apart on centres1 and all spiked securely to the #d #f's4 ,it was found advisable to bore #a_/d-;inch holes for the spikes1 and to sink their heads below the surface with a nail set4 ,it only remained to nail on to the cross pieces five rows of #a #b in the position shown4 ,all nail holes and cracks were puttied1 and the entire structure down to the cement foundation was given three coats of white paint4 ,built in this manner1 the pergola will stand for many years1 and already the boys have planted wistaria1 honeysuckles1 crimson rambler1 trumpet1 and other vines to cover it4 ,the columns themselves may be easily made of concrete4 ,the form may be made of six or eight inch iron pipe4 ,when this is bought1 have it split in half lengthwise at a machine shop4 ,six-inch pipe cut in this way will cost about a dollar a foot1 but it will last a lifetime if protected from rust1 and very often the concrete posts may be sold1 so that the form will soon pay for itself4 ,have a blacksmith make two iron bands1 as shown at o4 ,have a #e_/af-;inch hole drilled at a through both ends4 ,these bands are used to hold the two halves of the iron form together1 and are tightened by a bolt and nut at a4 ,dig a pit for the form to stand in1 so that the cement may be easily poured in4 ,this pit may be about three feet deep by two feet square1 and the sides supported by a box without a bottom4 ,to make a column1 clamp the two bands about the form1 and place in the bottom end a circular piece of wood1 with a hole in the centre to insure the iron rod being in the middle4 ,place the form upright in the pit1 and secure it firmly by nailing strips of wood across the top of the box4 ,place the iron rod in the centre1 passing it through the hole in the bottom4 ,pour in the cement quite wet1 and tamp it down occasionally until full4 ,it will settle a little1 and will need to be filled to the top4 ,a circular piece of wood1 similar to the one at the bottom1 may be used to centre the rod at the top4 ,this must be done as soon as the form is filled1 before the concrete has had a chance to set4 ,use four parts of fine1 clean sifted gravel to one of cement4 ,allow the form to stand four days4 ,remove the clamps1 and draw the form out on the ground4 ,tap it gently1 and remove one half of the iron pipe4 ,roll it over upon two pieces of board1 and remove the other half4 ,the concrete will be very heavy1 and the assistance of a full-grown man may be needed to draw the form out of the pit4 ,the inside of the form should be cleaned and thoroughly oiled4 ,this should always be done before making a column to insure its coming out easily1 as concrete forms a strong bond with iron1 and otherwise the column may be broken in trying to get it out4 ,the result will be a perfectly round but not perfectly smooth column4 ,it should be coated with a wash of clear cement and water1 using a wide brush4 ,the colour may be made white by adding a lump of lime to the cement and water1 and two coats of this solution about the consistency of milk will be necessary4 ,the last coat may be put on after the columns are on their foundations4 ,the placing of the posts on the square foundations is heavy work and the help of a labourer should be secured4 ,these plain posts are not as ornamental as wooden columns1 with their bases and capitals1 but they make a very substantial structure that cannot decay and will last a century4 ,,xlvi ,,poultry ,,houses ,there are a hundred ways of raising chickens1 and ninety of them are wrong4 ,this is not a treatise on poultry raising1 for there are many elements which enter into the problem--incubation1 brooding1 feeding1 etc4 ,but assuming that one of the main points aimed at is the production of eggs in winter1 when they are scarce and expensive1 the housing of chickens is admitted by poultry raisers to be one of the first considerations4 ,the house should be sixteen feet deep1 should face south1 and no glass should be used in its construction4 ,a window nine or ten feet long by two and a half feet high placed four feet above the ground is recommended1 and it should be covered with netting or chicken wire on the outside1 but left open all day1 even in zero weather4 ,it is closed at night1 by a screen of canvas or duck fastened to a light wooden frame4 ,the frame is hinged at the top1 and hooked up to the ceiling during the day4 ,the following description is taken from the experience of several poultry men who have been successful1 and have made money by selling eggs4 ,the principle of this construction is that ventilation is a prime necessity1 and that dampness is the one thing to be avoided4 ,with these objects attained1 chickens will stand almost any amount of cold1 and with proper feeding and the strictest cleanliness1 egg production will continue throughout the winter4 ,some successful men insist on a wooden floor1 others recommend one of gravel ten inches deep4 ,the construction given here calls for the gravel floor on the ground level4 ,many recommend a litter of straw ten inches or more deep on the gravel4 ,the morning meal is thrown on this litter so that the chickens are forced to scratch for their breakfast1 getting the blood in circulation by this early morning exercise4 ,as the method of building this house is typical of many outdoor structures1 it will be taken up in detail4 ,it would make an excellent work shop or cabin1 with a few modifications1 such as a floor of boards1 and the addition of a few windows4 ,before it is finished the builders will probably regret1 as our boys did1 that it was to be used by their chickens instead of for themselves4 7,see ,fig4 #bbb47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,the poultry house ,set eight locust or chestnut posts in the ground and saw off six inches above the lowest point4 ,level in the same manner as for the sheltered seat described for the tennis court1 and see that the outsides of posts measure #ae feet #aj inches over all measurements4 ,square the corners by the #c-d-e method1 laying the #d #d inch sill pieces on top of posts while doing this4 ,the sill is put together with halved joint1 and spiked to the posts with twelve-penny wire nails4 ,the corner posts are #d #d inch spruce1 with square ends toenailed to the sill4 ,plumb these posts1 and tie in position by temporary braces1 using for this purpose shingle lath or strips of boards4 ,the plates along front and back are #b #d inches1 nailed to posts from the top4 ,the frame may now be finished by placing the #b #d-;inch studding1 toenailing to sill and plates on the ends1 and sill and rafters on the sides4 ,the frames for door and window are shown in the illustration4 ,the rafters spaced three feet apart are #b #h or #b #aj inches4 ,this large size is due to the long span of sixteen feet1 with no middle support from underneath4 ,the ends of rafters are cut to fit snugly over the plates1 as shown1 and sawed straight up and down to correspond with vertical walls front and back4 ,no overhang is provided for the roof1 as commercial roofing paper is to cover the whole outside of the house4 ,in case it is to be used for other purposes than poultry raising1 this feature should be modified1 and the rafters allowed to project both front and back4 ,with the rafters nailed in position1 permanent braces may be put in at the corners1 as shown in the drawing1 and temporary braces removed4 ,if the building is to be used as a shop1 a second door directly opposite the one shown is recommended4 ,for this purpose the position of the work bench would be on the front directly under the long window1 and the two doors would then be in the proper place to permit the planing of long boards4 ,when the frame is finished1 the question of siding must be taken up4 ,if the original purpose of the building is to be carried out1 poultry experts claim that a double wall is very desirable as a barrier against dampness1 which arises primarily from the exhalations of the birds4 ,if the walls are cold1 this dampness will condense on them1 while with a double wall this does not take place1 as the dampness escapes with the air4 ,the outside casing may be of ship-lap boards or tongued and grooved material4 ,for a cabin or shop1 novelty siding1 clapboards or even shingles may be used4 ,bring the square ends of the boards flush with the openings for door and window1 and nail to corner posts and studding with eight or ten penny wire nails4 ,finish the two sides1 sawing off the sheathing along the top of rafters4 ,cover front and back clear up to top of rafters1 and bring ends of boards flush with outside of the side sheathing4 ,several methods of finishing corners of frame buildings are shown in ,fig4 #bbc4 ,at a is shown the corner of this chicken house4 ,no corner boards are used over the outer sheathing1 as the whole structure is to be covered with roofing paper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,details of poultry house ,at b is shown the finish for a stable or cheap cottage1 with outside trim nailed over the sheathing4 ,this is the cheapest1 easiest1 and poorest method of corner finish for ordinary outhouses4 ,at c a better method is shown1 with trim nailed to the posts1 and clapboards fitted up close to it and nailed to corner posts4 ,a still better finish is shown at d1 where the trim is nailed to posts but not lapped4 ,the angles between corner trim filled with a quarter round moulding make a good joint and a neat finish4 ,if the double wall is to be used1 a second boarding is made on the inside of studding and under side of rafters1 first covering the space with building paper tacked to the inside of studding1 and nailing the boards--either ship-lap or tongue and groove--to the frame work4 ,door and window sills are made with an outward slant to provide a water table4 ,a cross section of window sill is shown in the detail drawing at e4 ,as there is no window in this building except the canvas screen1 the construction of a window frame is not necessary4 ,if the double wall is made1 a double door1 one opening in and the other out1 will be in order4 ,the outside door1 flush with outer sheathing1 and the same arrangement inside are shown at f4 ,a door sill will not be necessary1 and the construction of the doors is shown at g4 ,the material is tongue and groove boards fitted to the opening1 so as to close easily1 yet to provide for expansion in wet weather1 and held together by heavy cleats #c #g_/h inches on the inside1 as shown4 ,the inner door is fastened by a hook and eye1 and the outer one with hasp1 staple1 and padlock4 ,as the window opening is covered with wire1 the only way a thief can get in is by cutting the wire and canvas or by drawing the staple4 ,the latter method can be prevented by the use of special staples1 with threads cut on each end1 and fastened on the inside by nuts1 as shown at h4 ,these staples are sold at all hardware stores4 ,the construction of the frame for the canvas screen is shown in ,fig4 #bbb4 ,the lap joint is used throughout1 and the outside dimensions are two inches greater than the window opening4 ,tack the canvas or duck to the side of the frame next the window1 and provide two hooks and eyes to fasten it down at night4 ,strong iron butt hinges should be used on this frame1 and heavy ,t or strap hinges on the doors4 ,the outside of the house is finished1 except for a water-shed over the window1 and the cover for the entire outside of strong roofing paper4 ,this is sold usually with a special cement for making tight joints and with tin washers for the nails4 ,the water table is simply a board projecting at an angle and fastened to triangular brackets1 as shown at a 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,the roofing paper brought down over this board1 and tacked to the under side or edge1 makes a watertight joint4 ,the inside woodwork consists of roosts1 dropping platform1 and nests4 ,the dropping platform is a floor of tongue and groove boards1 placed three feet from the ground on posts1 and extending the full length of the house4 ,the roosts are fastened to a strong frame1 as shown in drawing1 and the frame--in sections--is hinged at the back4 ,each morning this frame is raised1 hooked to the ceiling1 and the dropping platform cleaned4 ,the construction of the nests is a subject on which poultry experts differ widely1 but whatever form is adopted1 the material may usually be obtained from old boxes or packing cases4 ,the outdoor runs for summer consist of wire netting fastened to chestnut1 cedar1 or locust posts4 ,if other woods are used1 the lower parts should be coated with creosote4 ,this is also a good disinfectant1 to be used for cleaning the roosts occasionally4 ,many accessories for the poultry house may be made of wood1 but opinions of specialists are so antagonistic that it is hardly safe to advocate any one type4 ,a feed trough is shown at i 7,fig4 #bbc74 ,it may be made from box material1 and consists of two boards nailed together at right angles1 supported at the ends by two horizontal pieces nailed on4 ,brooder houses1 feed1 and incubator houses1 and the many other details of poultry raising are well within the power of any careful boy1 and the designs should be selected from the expert whose system he has decided to follow4 ,,xlvii ,,housing ,,of ,,outdoor ,,pets ,the care of rabbits1 guinea pigs1 and other pets becomes of absorbing interest to every boy at some time1 and he is fortunate indeed if he has room outdoors to engage in this pastime properly4 ,the comfort of the little animals1 and their protection from their natural enemies1 the cat1 dog1 weasel1 etc41 should be well looked after4 ,fig4 #bbd shows a very simple and convenient house for animals which do not gnaw through wood1 as the rabbit and guinea pig4 ,these two animals will usually live together peaceably1 except when breeding4 ,the mothers become sensitive and jealous of all strangers when raising a family4 ,the house proper has a sloping roof1 which is hinged to provide a convenient method of reaching any part of the inside4 ,the large space covered on all sides by wire netting is the yard1 or runway4 ,the front of the house should face south1 and be covered with netting1 except the door1 which slides up in the grooves provided1 as shown in the detail4 ,the northern end of yard is boarded clear up to the top4 ,this shuts off the cold north winds1 and in that kind of a house rabbits will live the year round4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,rabbit house ,guinea pigs will thrive in such a structure until the thermometer reaches zero4 ,these interesting and harmless creatures come from ,brazil1 and when the temperature reaches that point1 it is better to take them indoors1 as they catch cold and die of pneumonia1 like human beings4 ,the runway is covered at the top with two-inch wire netting to keep out cats1 who seem to take delight in killing both pigs and rabbits4 ,the upright corner posts should be set at least two feet in the ground1 braced along the top by strips1 to which the netting is fastened with staples1 or double-pointed tacks4 ,a hemlock board should be set in the ground all around the yard1 with a projection of an inch or two for securing the netting at the ground line4 ,hemlock is cheap and will last longer in the ground than spruce4 ,if the rabbits start to burrow1 they become discouraged by finding this board in the way on every side4 ,these planks or boards may be rough-sawed lumber4 ,the inside of the house should be coated with creosote and painted outside a bronze green4 ,a dark-coloured house is warmer than a white one1 as may be easily proved by placing a thermometer1 first under a black hat1 then under a white one4 ,this is probably the reason why people in the tropics wear white clothing4 ,a door the full height of the yard should be provided at the far end1 as it is sometimes necessary to get in for cleaning or other purposes4 ,the hinged roof should be made water tight by covering with some form of commercial roofing paper1 or by using tongue and grooved boards well painted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,traps ,the door sliding in grooves1 as shown1 has a long handle1 which projects up through the top of the runway1 so that it may be opened or closed from the outside4 ,it can be made from box material4 ,a number of these houses may be placed in a row and allowed to open into a large yard1 or there may be individual runs4 ,the latter method is more satisfactory1 as a large run can easily be obtained by providing doors between the yards4 ,in the country1 where weasels1 mink or other wild enemies bother the rabbits1 they can be caught in traps4 ,the ordinary box trap at a1 ,fig4 #bbe1 is designed to catch the animals alive4 ,its construction is clearly shown in the drawing1 one end covered with wire netting1 or made solid1 and the other provided with a door1 arranged to drop easily in the groove when the trigger has been disturbed4 ,the simple construction of the trigger is shown in the detail1 while the bait is attached to a string4 ,as soon as this is disturbed the door drops4 ,a typical dead-fall trap is shown at b4 ,the weights placed on the sloping board should be heavy1 as this trap is designed to kill its victim4 ,for this reason it should never be used where there is any possibility of a pet cat or dog being caught4 ,the trigger is very sensitive1 and the slightest pull at the bait is sufficient to bring the weight down on the unfortunate animal4 ,the uprights should be mortised through the base board1 and the cross piece at top halved to the uprights4 ,the sloping board with weights fastened to it has a generous-sized hole fitted loosely over a dowel at the right-hand end of bottom board4 ,a groove cut in the latter allows the weighted board to fit tightly when it falls1 the dowel with bait dropping into the groove4 ,fig4 #bbe at c shows a snare frequently used4 ,it should be placed in front of a hollow log1 box1 or barrel1 so that the animal must put his head through the loop of wire in order to reach the bait4 ,the first pull at the end of the trigger releases the spindle1 and the bent sapling does the rest4 ,the loop of wire should be held open and in position by twigs conveniently placed4 ,the killing of our few remaining wild creatures1 however1 should never be done for sport4 ,it is excusable only when they become destructive or troublesome4 ,squirrels1 rabbits1 and chipmunks are much more interesting as friends than as caged or killed victims4 ,,xlviii ,,outdoor ,,carpentry ,outdoor construction or carpentry1 as distinguished from the indoor work of the cabinet maker1 calls for a general acquaintance with tools1 some mathematics1 an elementary knowledge of the strength of materials1 and a good supply of common sense4 ,it demands also some knowledge of the effects of frost on foundations1 and requires judgment in providing for the elements1 wind1 rain1 snow1 and sun4 ,every building may be resolved into certain parts1 such as foundations1 framing1 roof1 door1 and window frames1 outside covering or siding1 flooring1 partitions1 doors and windows1 wall covering or ceiling1 interior finish1 hardware1 etc4 ,these will be taken up in their order4 ,,foundations ,these1 like all details1 depend on the size and purpose of the building4 ,the method of setting a small building on posts has been explained under poultry house1 and sheltered seat for tennis court4 ,it should be used only for small structures1 such as camp buildings1 sea-shore cottages1 and out-buildings4 ,brick1 stone1 and concrete all have their advantages1 but for young builders1 concrete is perhaps the best and easiest to handle4 ,the woodwork necessary for concrete work is extremely important1 and its possibilities have hardly been touched1 even to-day4 ,the box or form should present the smooth side of the boards to the concrete1 and should be so constructed that the form may be readily removed after the concrete has hardened4 ,this sounds like a simple matter1 but it becomes complicated in many cases4 ,the method of fastening the wooden frame to a concrete foundation is suggested in the chapter on the making of a pergola4 ,in some houses the frame is simply laid on the concrete1 and the weight of the building is trusted to keep it in place4 ,in the case of small structures this would not be sufficient1 and a better way would be to imbed bolts in the cement before it hardens4 ,pass these bolts through holes bored in the sill1 and fasten them with nut and washer on top1 after the concrete has hardened4 ,any foundation should be sunk at least three feet in the ground1 otherwise it will be heaved by the frost4 ,where a cellar is to be built1 the foundation should be of sufficient depth to leave at least #f feet #f inches in the clear between floor of cellar and under side of floor beams1 and seven feet would be better4 ,if the foundation extends two feet above the ground1 its bottom would be #e feet #f inches below the ground level4 ,the thickness of the concrete wall must depend on the size and weight of the building1 and for a small cottage it should not be less than ten inches4 ,the columns described for the pergola make an excellent foundation for a small building to be placed on posts1 as they do not decay and are permanent4 ,they may be used to advantage for porches in place of wooden posts4 ,after a building is completed1 some of the top soil removed in digging the cellar should be graded up to the foundation at a slight slope1 to shed the rain and carry it away from the building4 ,the box for a concrete wall should be well supported and braced1 as the weight is sufficient to force the boards out of position4 ,the method shown at ,fig4 #bbf is frequently used1 the #g_/h or #a inch plank being supported by #b #d inch studs1 which in turn are braced as shown4 ,on cheap work the outside boarding is omitted1 the earth being shaved with the shovel as near the position of outer casing as possible4 ,of course1 this earth wall is only useful within a foot or so from the surface4 ,at this point the outer boarding must commence1 and be continued to top of foundation4 ,in order to have the foundation level on top1 it is best to level the wooden form all around the four sides4 ,if the concrete is brought exactly to the top1 and a straight edge is run along the edges of the form1 the resulting wall must be level1 provided the box has been made so4 ,concrete does not flow enough to level itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,concrete foundations ,,framing ,this is a subject on which volumes have been written4 ,the general arrangement with the names and sizes of the various members is shown in the drawing1 a design for a small cottage1 or bungalow4 7,fig4 #bbg47 ,the heavy timbers forming the sill are cut to the outside dimensions of foundation and halved at the corners4 ,fasten the joints with ten or twelve penny nails4 ,cut all corner posts exactly the same length1 toenail at corners to sill1 and hold in position by temporary braces4 ,plumb the posts as the braces are nailed4 ,two boys must work at this job1 one holding the plumb and the other nailing the braces4 ,cut and halve the ends of plate the same length as sill1 and nail to corner posts4 ,cut #b #d studs same length as posts1 then nail to sill and plate #af inches apart on centres4 ,the openings to be left for doors and windows will break up the even spacing of the studs1 but it should be made as uniform as possible4 ,the spaces for door and window frames are to be enclosed with double studs to give the necessary strength4 ,corner braces are very desirable and in the old-fashioned braced frame were mortised into plate and post1 and sill and post4 7,fig4 #bbg;a47 ,for a simple structure the necessary bracing may be obtained by letting into the studding #c #a inch strips1 as shown in drawing4 ,to do this hold the brace in the position it is to occupy1 and make a pencil mark on both sides of it on each timber1 sawing on the inside of these lines to a depth equal to thickness of brace4 ,remove the wood between saw cuts with a chisel4 ,test to see that brace comes flush with outside of studs1 and nail securely in position4 ,when the frame is finished up to the roof the putting on of the siding may begin at any time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,corner framing ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg;a4 ,frame of bungalow ,,siding ,the outside of the building1 siding or weather boarding1 is an important item1 as it is designed to protect the interior from sun1 cold1 and storms4 ,it should be watertight1 and may be made of various materials1 put on in several ways4 ,in a house to be used in winter1 the first layer should be of wide ship-lap boards4 ,if put on diagonally it will act as a permanent bracing1 and while this is the better way1 it takes more time than horizontal siding4 ,in either case nail to every stud and timber the board touches4 ,begin at the bottom of sill1 break joints as the work progresses upward1 and saw ends even with outside of posts4 ,at all door and window openings bring edges of siding flush with openings4 ,this inner siding is to be covered with building paper1 door and window frames set1 tin flashing nailed over doors and windows1 and outer covering put on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,plan and elevation of a bungalow ,before proceeding with outside sheathing1 however1 the roof should be framed and covered4 ,,roofing ,it is a difficult matter to say that one part of a house is more important than another1 as all parts are important1 but a building with an unstable or leaky roof is an abomination4 ,the framing of the roof must be strong enough to withstand gales1 blizzards1 drenching rains1 and the weight of tons of wet snow4 ,as the method of shingling has been described under tennis court shelter1 it is only necessary to take up the subject of the frame4 ,boys will do well to confine their early efforts to plain sloping1 or possibly hipped roofs4 ,these two styles are illustrated in ,fig4 #bbi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,roof framing ,the hip roof is the more pleasing and the more difficult to make4 ,it reduces the attic space1 if that is a consideration1 and is harder to cover1 or rather it consumes more time1 as the question of whether a piece of work is difficult or not is really a question of whether or not you know how to do it4 ,the method of fitting the rafters is shown at ,fig4 #bcj4 ,to find length of rafters1 make a drawing to scale1 in which a-b is the height above plate level and c-b half the width of the building measured on the plate or sill4 ,the angle for cutting the mitre at the ridge may be obtained from the drawing1 also the angles where the fit occurs at the plate4 ,the length should be distance a-c plus about two feet for the overhang4 ,a ridge board is usually inserted between the top ends of the rafters1 and if made from a #g_/h-;inch board1 half an inch should be deducted from the length of rafters to allow for the difference4 ,the shape of lower end of rafters will depend on the kind of finish or cornice to be used4 ,two kinds are shown1 the first and simpler being suitable for a barn or rough building4 ,on account of the high price of lumber1 most boys will be obliged to use the most inexpensive style of finish4 ,cut all the rafters the same size1 and in erecting space them as nearly two feet apart as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,building details ,the first pair should be flush with the edge of plate and temporarily held in position by braces of shingle lath4 ,it will be necessary in erecting the roof to place timbers and floor boards across the top of plate as a temporary floor to work on4 ,nail rafters to ridge board1 and plate with ten-penny wire nails4 ,two boys must work together on this job1 as every part of the work must be plumb4 ,when all the rafters are in place1 cut and fit the short studs between plate and rafters1 being careful to leave the openings for windows in the places called for on the plan4 ,the ship-lap siding may now be continued up to top edge of rafters1 and sawed off even with upper edge4 ,if novelty siding is used without any under sheathing1 it may be treated in the same way4 ,shingling may now be done as described under tennis court accessories4 ,,window ,,and ,,door ,,frames ,these may be bought at the mill ready made4 ,very few carpenters make their own1 as they are staple articles coming in standard sizes4 ,second-hand sashes and frames may often be bought at very reasonable rates1 and it never pays to make either4 ,set the frames in the openings left for them1 and nail to studs4 ,to make sure that the fit between frames and openings shall be right1 it is best to take the plans to the mill1 and explain to the mill man just what is desired4 ,,flooring ,the floor beams may be set at any time after the frame has been erected up to the plate4 ,as it will be necessary to work around inside more or less1 the sooner they are in position the better4 ,as these beams1 supposed to be #aj #b inches1 often vary in width1 the floor is liable to be uneven1 unless they are cut to fit the sill4 ,the amount cut out need not be very much1 but a certain distance1 say nine inches1 should be marked from the top edge1 and the lower corner cut out as shown at d 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,this will bring all the top edges level1 when they are in position4 ,the span of the floor beams--the distance from the sill to the next support--is important1 as a floor is called upon sometimes to support great weight1 as when a number of people are present1 or a heavy piece of furniture such as a piano rests on it4 ,for floor beams #b #h1 a span of not over twelve feet should be allowed2 for #b #aj a slightly greater span may be used2 but in either case the supporting beam in the centre of the floor should be halved into the sill with upper edge flush1 and should be supported at intervals of ten feet by posts set in the floor of cellar1 or to a depth of three feet in the ground in case there is no cellar4 ,this supporting beam should be placed when the sill is set on foundation4 ,nail floor beams to sill1 and where the two beams from opposite sides of the building lap or pass each other over the beam in centre1 nail them to each other and to the beam4 ,the flooring of tongue and groove stuff may now be laid1 cutting ends square and fitting them up close to studding1 or1 what is still better1 clear out to the sheathing4 ,the outside weather boards may now be put on1 after deciding on one of the corner finishes described under poultry house4 ,a flashing of tin--painted--must be placed over door and window frames1 before the clapboarding or siding reaches these points4 ,this siding is sawed off square1 and makes a butt joint with the outer casing of door and window frames4 ,some form of building paper is nailed to the first siding in good buildings1 and pays for itself in the long run1 by reducing the amount of fuel necessary to heat the building in winter4 ,if the house is a sea-shore cottage or camp only to be used in summer1 both the paper and inner sheathing may be omitted1 and the expense account materially reduced4 ,the finishing of the interior may be left to the last1 or done on stormy days4 ,in the meanwhile1 several important questions must be settled4 ,one is the style of flue or chimney to be provided for the stove4 ,if the building is to be permanent1 a brick chimney should be built by a mason4 ,the danger of fire originating from defective bricklaying makes it advisable to have this work done by a tradesman4 ,for summer cottages or camp buildings a simple stove pipe can be used1 but in any event it should be put up before the final roof covering is on1 and flashed1 that is protected by tin laid over the roof timbers1 and made watertight4 ,this does away with leaks around the chimney1 and the tin should be put on in such a way as to prevent the shingles from coming in direct contact with the hot chimney4 ,in these days of oil stoves1 which are often used for summer cooking1 the chimney may be omitted entirely4 ,at the same time it must be remembered that there are cold1 damp nights1 when a stove is very comfortable at the shore or in the woods4 ,in regard to interior finish1 if the walls are to be plastered1 three coats will need to be put on by a skilled plasterer4 ,thin yellow pine ceiling stuff1 often used for camp buildings1 is easily put on1 and quite satisfactory4 ,laid on diagonally it is very pleasing1 but the beads catch more dust than the vertical strips do4 ,the latter method calls for horizontal strips laid between the studs for nailing1 while a simple quarter round moulding laid in all corners gives the finish4 ,a common practice in camps is to have no interior wall covering1 but to leave the timbers exposed4 ,for a dwelling1 the frame should be of dressed lumber1 which may be stained to conform with the general colour scheme4 ,the inside trim around doors and windows may now be put on4 ,three methods of finishing around windows are shown at e1 f1 g 7,fig4 #bcj71 and one of these types should be adopted before ordering the trim from the mill4 ,this work should be simplified as much as possible1 not only to save time1 but because decoration may well be left to pictures1 artistic metal work1 trophies1 and things which are of interest from their history or association4 ,,doors ,,and ,,windows ,if second-hand material is not used it is advisable to purchase these staple articles from a mill where they are made in standard sizes4 ,when ordered for certain size spaces they come a little too large4 ,this allowance is for material to be removed in fitting4 ,inside doors are usually the last things to be hung4 ,the windows should be hung as soon as the construction will allow it1 in order to keep out rain4 ,secure the pulleys for upper and lower sash into the window frame on both sides of parting strip about four inches from top of window frame4 ,attach the sash cord and find its proper length by experiment4 ,tie securely to sash weights4 ,see that the two sashes make a good1 tight joint where they meet1 and tack the window stop to frame with brads4 ,the stop is to be ordered with the trim1 and mitred at the top4 ,the construction at the sill is shown at a 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,the arrangement of door frames is shown at b4 ,after mitring the door stop1 nail to door frame at a distance from its edge equal to thickness of door4 ,fit the door by planing to the space inside frame4 ,the hinges are put on as shown1 being sunk flush with edge of both door and door frame4 ,when hanging the door1 it is a good plan to place small wedges under it1 to allow for the sag which will result as soon as its weight is thrown on the hinges4 ,saddles are usually placed under doors to allow them to swing clear of carpet and rugs4 ,to allow for the thickness of these saddles1 #c_/d inch should be allowed between floor and bottom of door4 ,the saddles are to be fitted around edges of door frame1 making a neat finish4 ,for plastered walls a six-inch base board is necessary4 ,this may be put on with butt joints and nailed to studding with small head finishing nails1 as for all trim4 ,the base is usually topped by a base moulding mitred in the corners4 ,this style of construction is for a permanent house4 ,for rough or temporary buildings1 many modifications may be adopted4 ,batten doors1 as described for the poultry house1 may be cheaply and readily made4 ,batten blinds made by the same method are very desirable for buildings like summer camps1 which are to be vacant for long periods4 ,this does away with the temptation some people find to break windows in unoccupied houses4 ,the siding for a small building may be of tongue and groove boards put on vertically1 and now that lumber is so expensive these items are all important4 ,the lumber from packing cases may be used for making very many of the pieces of furniture in a camp1 such as stools1 benches1 tables1 shelves1 cupboards1 bookcases1 etc4 ,many of these useful articles can be made without tearing the boxes apart4 ,a very useful chest and seat combined may be made by fitting a box with a strong cover1 strengthened by cleats on its under side and hinged with strap hinges to the back4 ,a cushion of burlap filled with shavings1 straw1 seaweed1 or sweet grass will make this a very satisfactory settee1 and the storage space inside will always be available4 ,the outside of the box should be smoothed1 all nail holes filled with putty1 and the whole thing stained4 ,very interesting panelling effects may be obtained by tacking on strips of the same thickness as the outside cleats4 ,where the supply of wood is limited1 many similar articles will suggest themselves to the young carpenter4 ,the chair shown at ,fig4 #bca;a can all be made of wood from packing boxes1 except the square legs4 ,these may be obtained by sawing #b #d inch spruce in half and planing smooth4 ,the rails can be put on with mortise and tenon1 or they may be gained into the legs and fastened with nails or screws4 ,the seat is built up of several pieces fastened to cleats on under side1 with front edges rounded4 ,to make this hard bottomed chair more comfortable1 have a thin cushion of canvas or burlap fastened by a canvas cover and tacked to edges4 ,the wide strip across the back may be treated in the same way4 ,one coat of stain1 or two of ,japalac or some similarly prepared varnish will make a very serviceable finish for camp purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,chest made from packing case ,the proportions of a porch settee of the same general character are given at ,fig4 #bca;b4 ,the legs may be cut out of pieces of spruce studding1 and all but the long rails obtained from box material4 ,these long pieces may be cut from #g_/h-;inch siding left over when putting up the cabin4 ,floor boards with tongue and groove planed off will answer very well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca;a4 ,chair ,the long back strip will be more rigid if mortised into the ends1 and the upright strips will be needed to give it the necessary strength4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca;b4 ,settee made from box material ,one of the most comfortable articles for a camp in the woods is the couch hammock4 ,the materials required are3 ,a cot4 ,four yards of strong canvas a yard wide4 ,forty feet of clothesline4 ,two chains or strong pieces of rope about #d or #e feet long4 ,a grommet set and some grommets4 ,remove the legs from the cot4 ,they are usually attached by bolts or rivets4 ,if the latter1 cut with a cold chisel4 ,lay the canvas in one piece on the floor and place the cot at its centre4 ,make pencil marks at the ends to indicate where the fold begins as at ,b ,b 7,fig4 #bcb74 ,lap the canvas as shown and sew securely1 leaving a space at the fold for the clothesline to pass through4 ,the square ends are to be hemmed and folded over pieces of broomstick4 ,with the grommet punch make holes through the canvas just below the broomstick and secure with the grommets4 ,make these holes about #e inches apart4 ,they are to hold the line which is to pass from iron fitting ,c through first grommet hole and back until it has passed once through each grommet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,couch hammock made from a cot ,the fitting is found on all hammocks and can be taken from an old one1 or an iron ring may be substituted4 ,before beginning to weave the rope through the grommets1 pass its end down to ,b and make fast to a stout screw eye fastened to under side of frame of cot4 ,this brings the weight on the rope instead of on the canvas1 an important item when five or six people sit on the couch at one time4 ,treat both ends alike4 ,the canvas will be wide enough to fold up and entirely cover the edges of cot4 ,when everything has been adjusted1 fasten the chains or heavy rope to the iron rings1 and secure to the trees or veranda columns by heavy hooks4 ,a light mattress covered with blankets1 or a specially made cushion to cover the whole cot1 and several sofa pillows will add the finishing touches to a very serviceable and satisfactory article4 ,the cost will be about one third of those on sale1 and this may be reduced #ej per cent4 if a grommet set can be borrowed1 as this is the chief item of expense1 assuming that an old cot is used4 ,this hammock should not be left out in the rain1 as its steel springs will rust4 ,,xlix ,,staining1 ,,polishing1 ,,and ,,finishing ,this branch of woodwork is a trade by itself and under modern methods of specialization the men who do this work do nothing else4 ,the methods of finishing are legion and every polisher has a few little kinks of his own which he regards as trade secrets4 ,the personal equation enters very largely into the work1 and if twenty boys have a given method explained to them and they all polish1 say1 a box of the same size and material1 there will result twenty different kinds of polished surfaces4 ,this is due to difference in temperament4 ,some boys are patient and painstaking4 ,others are nervously anxious to get through and see how it looks4 ,it is a fact particularly true of finishing that it cannot be hurried without endangering the result4 ,every coat must be thoroughly dry and hard before the next one is put on4 ,different woods require different treatment1 and the elements of good taste1 colour1 and harmony all enter into the problem4 ,these statements are not made to discourage the young woodworker1 because finishing can be done well by any boy who will use reasonable care1 but to emphasize the fact that it is poor policy to make a fine piece of woodwork and then spoil it at the last moment by hurry4 ,staining is something on which opinions differ greatly4 ,some artists claim that only the natural colour of the wood should be used1 but a great deal of staining is done1 and we must leave artistic arguments to others4 ,the extent to which staining is carried may be illustrated by the following finishes used on one kind of wood--oak3 ,golden oak ,antwerp oak ,rotterdam ,english oak ,ox blood ,antique ,forest green ,weathered oak ,cathedral oak ,austrian ,flemish brown ,flemish green ,silver gray ,sumatra brown ,filipino ,mission oak ,malachite ,fumed oak ,bog oak ,the writer believes that staining to make imitations is wrong1 such as staining cherry or birch to give the impression of mahogany4 ,the list of materials for staining is very bewildering1 and it is advisable to reduce the list to a few reliable ones and learn to use them well4 ,they may be divided roughly into three classes3 oil stains1 water stains1 and stains produced from drugs or chemicals4 ,oil stains are dry colours ground in oil such as chrome yellow1 ,prussian blue1 burnt umber1 burnt sienna1 etc4 ,when preparing one of these for use1 thin with turpentine and linseed oil and apply with a brush4 ,after it has stood for a few moments rub off with a piece of cotton waste or rag4 ,water stains are colours dissolved in water4 ,after applying this kind allow it to dry4 ,sand-paper the surface flat and apply a second coat of half the strength4 ,stains produced from drugs and chemicals include such materials as logwood1 bichromate of potash1 ammonia1 iron sulphate1 acetate of iron1 etc4 ,the preparation of the surfaces to be finished is very important and means the removing of any defects1 such as scratches1 by means of plane1 scraper1 and fine sand-paper4 ,these defects always show much more prominently after polishing than before1 so that too great pains cannot be taken in preparation4 ,assuming that the surface is ready1 the first question to be considered is whether the wood is open or close grained4 ,if an open grained wood1 a coat of filler may be used2 if close grained this may be dispensed with4 ,the following list will enable the beginner to decide3 ,open grained woods requiring filler3 ,oak1 ash1 chestnut1 mahogany1 walnut1 butternut4 ,close grained woods2 no filler required3 ,white wood1 pine1 cherry1 birch1 beech1 gum1 sycamore or buttonball2 maple1 cedar1 cypress1 red wood4 ,filler may be made at home1 but it is a staple article to be found in paint stores and it is advisable to buy it ready made4 ,it comes in paste and liquid forms1 and the paste is recommended4 ,it must be thinned with turpentine to the consistency of cream and applied with a brush4 ,as soon as it begins to dry1 rub off the excess across the grain with a handful of excelsior1 waste1 burlap1 or rags and allow it to stand over night to dry4 ,when the wood is to be stained the colour is frequently mixed with the filler4 ,the object of all this is to fill up the pores of the wood to give a flat1 solid surface for the polishing4 ,sometimes even on open grained woods filler is omitted entirely4 ,suppose that the work in hand is a footstool or tabourette made of oak and we wish to give it a forest green finish4 ,the process would be as follows3 ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,helen ,w4 ,cooke4 ,staining and ,polishing ,prepare the stain by mixing a small quantity of chrome yellow and ,prussian blue on a piece of wood4 ,mix thoroughly with a putty knife or old chisel and thin with boiled linseed oil and turpentine2 add blue or yellow until a beautiful dark green is obtained4 ,add this to the filler1 using turpentine for thinning1 until the whole mass of liquid is the desired colour and as thick as cream4 ,paint the footstool all over with this filler4 ,as soon as it starts to dry1 rub off as explained4 ,the next day sand-paper smooth and give a coat of shellac4 ,when hard1 sand-paper flat and give a second coat of shellac4 ,from this point on the process depends on whether a glossy polish is desired or a dead flat surface4 ,for an article of furniture like a footstool a highly polished surface would be a mistake1 as it would soon be scratched1 and while furniture is not to be abused1 it is to be used1 and shoe nails make scratches4 ,a dead flat surface may be obtained by rubbing down the third coat of shellac with fine ground pumice stone or rotten stone and water4 ,if too flat1 rub the surface with raw linseed oil and wipe dry4 ,some boys will obtain a better finish with two coats of shellac than others will with four4 ,after the first coat of shellac1 varnish is often used for the remaining coats1 but it takes much longer to harden and requires careful handling4 ,shellac is a product obtained from certain trees in the ,orient4 ,it may be bought in the dry state at paint stores and dissolved in alcohol4 ,grain alcohol is the best and most expensive1 but wood alcohol is cheaper and will answer all ordinary purposes4 ,the shellac may be bought in cans all ready for use1 and there are two distinct kinds--orange and white4 ,white shellac is the more expensive1 but should be used on light-coloured woods1 such as maple1 to avoid spoiling the colour4 ,varnish comes in so many grades and kinds that it is best to go to a reliable dealer and tell him just for what purpose you expect to use it4 ,there are outside varnishes1 rubbing varnishes1 light flowing varnishes1 etc4 ,when by exposure it becomes thick so that the brush drags1 it should be thinned with a little turpentine4 ,there is a great difference in the methods of using shellac and varnish4 ,the former being dissolved in alcohol evaporates quickly1 so that it must be put on thinly and as rapidly as possible4 ,varnish1 on the other hand1 may take forty-eight hours or more to dry1 so that the brush can be drawn over the surface several times to remove air bubbles4 ,it is not possible to do this with shellac4 ,the brush used in shellac should never be laid on the top of the jar or can1 as it will harden in a very short time4 ,the care of brushes is an important item4 ,varnish brushes should be cleaned with turpentine1 shellac brushes with alcohol1 and when cleaned it is better to keep all brushes in a pail of water than to allow them to become dry4 ,the jar or wide mouthed bottle used for shellac should be kept covered else a great deal will be lost by evaporation4 ,a jam jar makes a convenient receptacle for this1 as it has an opening wide enough to allow the use of a flat brush4 ,evaporation may be prevented by inverting another jar of the same size over it4 ,the shellac on the rim will hold them together practically airtight with the brush inside4 ,,relative ,,advantages ,,of ,,oil ,,and ,,water ,,stains ,the merits of these two classes of stains may be stated briefly4 ,water stains enter more deeply into the pores of the wood because of their lighter body4 ,the hard parts of the surface hold practically none of the stain and constitute the high lights of the finished surface4 ,but water stains raise the grain and make sand-papering necessary to bring the surface flat again4 ,for this reason1 some polishers first give a coat of water to raise the grain and when dry sand-paper flat before staining4 ,oil stains do not raise the grain1 but owing to their heavier body do not penetrate so deeply and more of the stain is lost in rubbing off4 ,oil has a tendency to darken wood1 so that wood stained with oil colours has a tendency to become clouded or muddy with age4 ,for staining old work1 oil stains should be used rather than water stains4 ,old work has the pores already filled and water has little chance to penetrate4 ,some chemicals and aniline dyes are very satisfactory4 ,bismarck brown1 which may be bought at the chemist's as a powder1 is soluble in alcohol and gives a rich reddish brown4 ,it is very powerful and a very small quantity is necessary4 ,bichromate of potash comes in the form of lumps and crystals4 ,it is soluble in water4 ,put half a dozen crystals in a quart milk bottle of water and allow it to stand over night4 ,warm or hot water will dissolve the crystals more quickly4 ,it is to be put on with a brush and gives rich brown tints1 the shade depending on its strength1 the kind of wood and the number of coats4 ,it gives excellent results on oak and chestnut1 and is used to age bay wood to a dark mahogany1 while several coats of it will bring white wood to the colour of natural black walnut4 ,each coat must be allowed to dry and then be rubbed flat with fine sand-paper4 ,this treatment may be followed by two or three coats of orange shellac1 rubbed down4 ,for antique finish on oak or chestnut1 dissolve lampblack in turpentine1 mix with filler and proceed with polishing as explained4 ,a decoction of logwood is often used to produce dark and even black effects4 ,the logwood extract is cheap and comes in the form of gum or resin4 ,several lumps of this are boiled in a gallon of water and applied as any water stain4 ,acetate of iron1 made from iron filings and vinegar1 is used for dark browns occasionally4 ,the filings should be allowed to stand for several days in the vinegar4 ,the acid present is acetic4 ,it unites with the iron forming the acetate of iron4 ,,polishing ,the method given above is for a substantial solid finish1 but sometimes a boy will have some difficulty in obtaining the desired finish through lack of patience or some other cause4 ,a ,french polish may help to give the finishing touch4 ,for this a piece of cheese cloth about #f inches square1 a piece of cotton waste about the size of a walnut1 a little shellac and raw linseed oil are necessary4 ,dip the waste lightly in shellac2 fold the cheese cloth around it1 making a soft pad1 dip the pad in the oil and rub quickly and constantly in circles1 gradually covering the whole surface4 ,as the shellac hardens or sticks1 use a little more oil and squeeze the pad slightly to bring the shellac through the cheese cloth4 ,the oil prevents the shellac from sticking and a little experience will give the right balance between the two4 ,when the polish becomes so bright that it shows the slightest finger mark1 wipe dry with a piece of soft flannel4 ,,wax ,,polish ,this is used where a dull or flat finish is required4 ,it can be applied directly after staining or filling4 ,dissolve beeswax in turpentine to the consistency of filler4 ,heat hastens this part of the process1 but is not necessary unless time is a consideration4 ,the wax is applied with a soft rag or waste and rubbed and rubbed4 ,the turpentine evaporates1 leaving the wax4 ,several rubbings at intervals of a week will give the desired effect1 and the surface may be brightened at any time by an additional application4 ,it should be remembered in all forms of polishing that dust is the great enemy4 ,wherever possible a piece of furniture after receiving a coat of shellac or varnish should be placed in a room or closet where no dust can settle on it4 ,it should also be kept out of the sun to avoid blistering4 ,the action of some stains like bichromate of potash is affected by the sun and should be either kept out of direct sunlight entirely or so placed that all parts receive the same amount1 else the parts in shadow will be of a different shade from the rest of the surface4 ,l ,,durability1 ,,decay1 ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,wood ,it is now known that decay in wood is caused by fungi or low forms of plant life which cannot live without a certain amount of water1 food1 heat and air4 ,a fence post decays first at the place where it enters the ground1 because at that point the conditions are most favourable4 ,if wood can be kept entirely under water1 one item--air--is lacking1 so the fungous growths cannot exist and the wood will last indefinitely4 ,this has been proved in many instances4 ,one of the old ,viking ships was raised from the bottom of the ,christiania ,fjord1 ,norway1 after having been under water for a thousand years and it was found to be in a perfect state of preservation4 ,even the rudder oar or steerboard and wooden shields were intact4 ,as soon as it was brought into the air the process of decay began1 and it became necessary to coat it with preservative4 ,it stands to-day1 #ajc feet long1 in the museum at ,christiania4 ,many other instances of under-water preservation might be mentioned4 ,the other extreme is also true4 ,wood which is kept perfectly dry will last indefinitely1 as in the case of woodwork taken from the pyramids of ,egypt1 #c1jjj years old1 which is found to be perfectly preserved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,a pile ,but when wood is alternately wet and dry it decays rapidly4 ,a pile driven into the bottom of a tidal river is a good illustration4 ,if such a pile be divided into four sections 7see ,fig4 #bcc71 a is always in the ground1 b is always in the water1 c is alternately in air and water1 d is always in the air4 ,sections a and b may be considered to be under the same conditions and should last the longest2 c should decay first3 d would last indefinitely if the atmosphere were always perfectly dry2 but humidity and rain1 air and heat combined finally bring about decay1 and although this part of the pile will last longer than c it will in time decay4 ,section c should be coated with a preservative4 ,various woods under the same conditions act very differently and according to no well understood law4 ,for example1 in contact with the soil black locust is our most durable wood4 ,it is very hard1 and its life under these conditions is estimated at from ninety to a hundred years4 ,red cedar comes next1 though it is soft wood4 ,oak decays in a few years2 chestnut1 much softer1 lasts two or three times as long4 ,our approaching timber famine has induced a study of this subject1 since the preservation of wood is becoming an absolute necessity4 ,it has been found that certain materials put on the wood before it is placed in the ground prolong its life4 ,coal tar1 wood tar1 paint1 and creosote all help1 but creosote has so far proved to be the best4 ,it is one of the by-products of coal tar and is being used extensively by the railroad companies for prolonging the life of ties4 ,experiments with creosote have brought out some very interesting facts4 ,it has been found that after being treated with the hot creosote all woods resist decay alike1 regardless of their hardness or softness4 ,consequently1 a treated cheap wood will last as long as an originally valuable one4 ,this is a great gain1 as it allows us to make use of wood like the poplar which would otherwise be practically of no value4 ,the various coatings we put on wood1 such as paint1 varnish1 oil1 etc41 are intended not only to beautify but to preserve it1 which they do by filling up the pores and excluding moisture1 preventing fungous growths1 etc4 ,all of these coatings should be put only on dry wood1 else they prevent evaporation of the sap and may hasten decay4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd ,drying lumber increases its strength1 as it has been found by experiment1 even as much as #djj per cent4 if no checking occurs4 ,when this happens it counteracts much of the gain1 and if the wood absorbs moisture once more the strength will decrease4 ,the strength of the various timbers varies greatly1 and sap wood is usually weaker than heart wood4 ,the strains that may be brought to bear on timbers are illustrated in ,fig4 #bcd1 the arrows indicating the directions in which the forces operate4 ,at a the wood is under tension1 the forces at work on it tending to pull it apart4 ,at b the piece is under compression1 the forces tending to reduce its length by forcing its fibres together4 ,a pillar supporting a weight is under compression4 ,at c the weight tends to bend the beam4 ,the upper part is under tension1 the lower part under compression4 ,this is known as beam action1 and depends on whether the beam is supported at one end1 as shown1 or on both ends4 ,also it is important to know whether the beam has a uniformly distributed load or whether the weight is at one point only4 ,the problems relative to beam action are largely of an engineering character and involve considerable mathematics4 ,shearing is the sliding of one part of the timber along the grain4 ,if a piece of wood is cut to the form shown at d and a weight applied at e1 the tendency will be for this upper part to slide down as shown at f4 ,when this occurs1 shearing has taken place4 ,the strength of wood differs in resisting these various strains1 the tensile strength being greater than the crushing or compressive strength4 ,ash1 for example1 has a tensile strength of #af1jjj pounds to the square inch1 but its crushing strength is only #fhjj for the same size4 ,the tensile strength of dry white pine is #aj1jjj pounds1 its crushing strength #edjj pounds1 and its shearing strength varies from #bej pounds to #ejj pounds1 showing that its weakest point is along the grain4 ,if the young woodworker becomes ambitious enough to think of designing a bridge or large building he can find these figures in any engineers' hand-book4 ,there are so many important factors to be considered that the amateur will do well to go ahead with great caution4 ,knots and other defects reduce the proportionate strength of large beams greatly1 so that it would not be safe to assume that a beam #f inches square would be #cf times as strong as a piece #a inch square4 ,in upright posts of considerable length1 not alone the crushing strength must be considered1 but a bending action enters into the problem4 ,wherever the question of danger to life enters1 as in a bridge or a house1 it is wise to leave a large margin for safety4 ,we realize this fully when we read of a grand stand holding hundreds or thousands of people collapsing under the weight4 ,the architect has also to reckon with still other elements1 such as wind pressure and vibration4 ,,li ,,mathematics ,,of ,,woodwork ,the woodworker soon discovers that arithmetic is a very practical and necessary subject4 ,he will meet many problems both in drawing and in actual construction which test his ability and call for some knowledge even of elementary geometry4 ,it is important to be able to estimate from his drawing just how much lumber will be needed4 ,he will soon discover through intercourse with dealers in lumber that there are certain standard sizes1 and he should make his designs as far as possible conform at least to standard thicknesses4 ,common boards are sawed #a inch thick4 ,when dressed on two sides the thickness is reduced to #g_/h4 ,in planning some part of a structure to be #a inch thick it is better to make the dimension #g_/h inch1 else it will be necessary to have heavier material planed to #a inch and the cost will be that of the heavier lumber1 plus the expense of planing4 ,in buying #a_/b-;inch dressed lumber1 very often inch boards are dressed down to the required thickness1 and the purchaser pays for #a-;inch wood1 in addition to the dressing4 ,the boy is surprised to find that it costs more for #a_/b-;inch than for inch material4 ,standard lengths are #aj1 #ab1 #ad1 #af1 etc41 feet4 ,widths vary1 and as wood shrinks only across the grain--with one or two exceptions--this dimension cannot be depended on1 as the amount of shrinkage depends somewhat on the age after cutting4 ,whenever possible1 it is wise to go to the lumber yard and select your own material1 choosing boards that are free from knots1 shakes1 etc4 ,clear lumber--free from knots--costs more1 but is worth the difference4 ,,measurements ,a measurement is a comparison4 ,we measure the length of a lot by comparing it with the standard of length1 the yard or foot4 ,we measure a farm by comparing its area with the standard unit of surface measure1 the acre1 square rod1 or square yard4 ,in every measurement we must first have an accepted standard unit4 ,the history of units of measurement is a very interesting one1 and its difficulty arises from the fact that no two things in nature are the same4 ,one of the ancient units of length was the cubit1 supposed to be the length of a man's forearm1 from the elbow to the end of the middle finger4 ,this1 like other natural units1 varied and was therefore unreliable4 ,as civilization progressed it became necessary for the various governments to take up the question of units of measurements and to define just what they should be4 ,our own standards are copied from those of ,great ,britain1 and although congress is empowered to prescribe what shall be our units1 little has been changed1 so that with few exceptions we are still using ,english measurements4 ,the almost hopeless confusion and unnecessary complication of figures is shown in the following tables as compared with the metric system3 #ab inches #a foot 4#jja millimetre #c feet #a yard 7standard7 4#ja centimetre #e-a_/b yards 4#a decimetre or #a rod #af-a_/b feet #a4 metre #cbj rods #aj4 dekametre or #agfj yards #a mile #ajj4 hectometre or #ebhj feet #ajjj4 kilometre ,the original ,english definition of an inch was three barley corns with rounded ends4 ,the meter is #a_/aj1jjj1jjj 7one ten-millionth7 of a quadrant of the earth's circumference1 i4 e41 the distance from the pole to the equator measured along one of the meridians of longitude4 ,the length of three barley corns might be different from the next three1 so here was the original difficulty again4 ,the designers of the metric system went back to the earth itself as the only unchangeable thing--and--are we sure there is no change in the earth's circumference8 ,the great advantage of the metric is that it is a decimal system and includes weights as well as surfaces and solids4 ,our weights are even more distracting than our long measure4 ,we have in fact two kinds of weight measure--troy and avoirdupois4 ,,troy ,,avoirdupois ,,metric #bd gr4 #a pwt4 #af oz4 #a lb4 4#jja milligram #bj pwt4 #a oz4 #aab lb4 #a cwt4 4#ja centigram #ab oz4 #a lb4 #bj cwt4 #a ton 4#a decigram #egfj gr4 #a lb4 #bbdj lb4 #a long ton #a4 gram #bjjj lb4 #a short ton #aj4 dekigram #ajj lb4 #a short cwt4 #ajj4 hectogram #gjjj gr4 #a lb4 #ajjj4 kilogram ,in surface measurements1 the same differences are seen3 ,,american ,,or ,,english ,,metric #i sq4 ft4 #a sq4 yd4 4#jjja sq4 centimetre #cj-a_/d sq4 yds4 #a sq4 rod 4#ja sq4 decimetre #afj sq4 rods #a4 sq4 metre #dhdj sq4 yds4 #a acre #ajj4 are #fdj acres #a sq4 mile #aj1jjj4 hectare #a1jjj1jjj4 sq4 kilometre ,in measures of volumes we are as badly off3 ,,dry ,,liquid ,,metric #b pints #a quart #b pints #a quart 4#jja millilitre #h quarts #a peck #d qts4 #a gallon 4#ja centilitre #d pecks #a bushel #a gal4 #bca cu4 ins4 4#a decilitre #d quarts #bfh4h cu4 ins4 #a4 litre or cu4 decim4 #a heaped bushel #a-a_/d #aj4 dekalitre struck bushels4 #ajj4 hectolitre ,the cone in a heaped #ajjj4 cu4 metre or bushel must be not kilolitre less than #f ins4 high4 ,as if this were not enough1 when we go to sea we use another system4 ,the depth of water is measured in fathoms 7#f feet #a fathom71 the mile is #fjhf4jg feet long #a4aebffd land miles1 and #c sea miles #a league4 ,in our cubic measure3 #agbh cubic inches #a cubic foot #bg cubic feet #a cubic yard ,a cord of wood is #d ft4 #d ft4 #h ft4 #abh cubic feet4 ,a perch of masonry is #af-a_/b #a-a_/b #a #bd4ge cubic feet ,isn't it about time we used the metric system8 ,the reader will not mind one more standard unit4 ,lumber is measured by the board foot4 ,its dimensions are #ab #ab #a inches2 it contains #add cubic inches and is #a_/ab of a cubic foot4 ,a board #aj feet long1 #a foot wide and #a inch thick contains #aj board feet4 ,one of the same length and width but only #a_/b inch thick contains #e board feet4 ,the contents of any piece of timber reduced to cubic inches can be found in board feet by dividing by #add1 or from cubic feet by multiplying by #ab4 ,as simple examples3 ,how many board feet in a piece of lumber containing #b1hhj cubic inches8 #bhhj_/add #bj board feet4 ,how much wood in a joist #af feet long1 #ab inches wide and #f inches thick8 #af #a #a_/b #h cubic feet3 #h #ab #if board feet4 ,a simpler method may be used in most cases4 ,how much wood in a beam #i inches x #f inches1 #ad feet long8 ,imagine this timber built up of #a-;inch boards4 ,as there are nine of them1 and each #ad ft4 #a_/b foot #a inch and contains #g board feet 7,fig4 #bce71 #g #i #fc board feet4 ,again1 how much wood in a timber #h inches #d inches1 #ah feet long8 ,this is equivalent to #d boards #a inch thick and #h inches or #b_/c foot wide4 ,each board is #ah #b_/c #a #ab board feet1 and #ab #d #dh1 answer4 7,see b1 ,fig4 #bce74 ,to take a theoretical case3 ,how much wood in a solid circular log of uniform diameter1 #af inches in diameter1 #ac feet and #i inches long8 ,find the area of a #af-;inch circle in square inches1 multiply by length in inches and divide by #add4 #af #af 4#ghed #bja #ac ft4 #i in4 #afe inches 7#bja #afe7_/add #acj - #de_/add board feet ,it is not likely that a boy would often need to figure such an example1 but if the approximate weight of such a timber were desired1 this method could be used1 reducing the answer to cubic feet and multiplying by the weight per cubic foot4 ,a knowledge of square root is often of great value to the woodworker for estimating diagonals or squaring foundations4 ,the latter is usually based on the known relation of an hypothenuse to its base and altitude4 ,it is the carpenters' #c-d-e rule4 ,the square of the base added to the square of the altitude square of the hypothenuse4 #c #i1 #d #af2 #i #af #be4 ,the square root of #be is #e4 7,see ,fig4 #bce74 ,to square the corner of his foundation the carpenter measures #f feet one way and #h the other4 ,if his #aj-;foot pole just touches the two marks1 the corner is square4 #f #cf1 #h #fd2 #cf #fd #ajj4 sqrt#ajj #aj4 ,this method was used in laying out the tennis court1 the figures being #cf1 #dh1 #fj--c1 #d1 and #e multiplied by #ab4 ,to take a more practical case1 suppose we are called upon to estimate exactly1 without any allowance for waste1 the amount of lumber in a packing case built of one-inch stock1 whose outside dimensions are #d feet #h inches #c feet #b inches #b feet #h inches4 ,referring to the drawing 7,fig4 #bce1 d71 we draw up the following bill of material3 #b pieces 7top and bottom7 #d ft4 #h in4 #c ft4 #b in4 #b 7sides7 #d ft4 #h in4 #b ft4 #f in4 #b 7ends7 #c ft4 #j in4 #b ft4 #f in4 ,the top and bottom1 extending full length and width1 are the full dimensions of the box1 while the sides1 although full length1 are not the full height1 on account of the thickness of the top and bottom pieces--hence the dimensions1 #b feet #f inches4 ,from the ends must be deducted two inches from each dimension1 for the same reason4 ,in multiplying1 simplify as much as possible4 ,there are four pieces #b feet #f inches wide2 as their combined length is #ae feet #d inches1 we have #ae-a_/c feet #b-a_/b feet #ch-a_/c square feet4 ,the combined length of top and bottom is #i feet #d inches #i-a_/c #c-a_/f #bi-e_/i1 and #ch-a_/c #bi-e_/i #fg-h_/i or #fh board feet1 ignoring such a small amount as #a_/i of a foot4 ,this is close figuring1 too close for practical work1 but it is better to figure the exact amount1 and then make allowances for waste1 than to depend on loose methods of figuring1 such as dropping fractions1 to take care of the waste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,a packing case ,as a good example of estimation1 take the hexagonal tabourette shown in ,fig4 #agh2 the five pieces1 aside from the hexagon under and supporting the top1 which may be made from scrap lumber1 are shown laid out in ,fig4 #bcf4 ,the board must be at least twelve inches wide in order to get out of it the large hexagon4 ,the legs may be laid out as shown with space left between for sawing1 yet even by this method considerable waste will result1 and it should be kept constantly in mind that as far as possible waste is to be reduced to a minimum4 ,wood butcher is the common shop name for the workman who spoils more material than he uses4 ,the great advantage of making out a bill of material before starting is that it not only makes you study your drawing1 but causes you to consider the best method of laying out the blank pieces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,laying out the pieces for a tabourette ,it is often necessary to find the areas of figures other than the square or parallelogram4 ,assume that we are to floor a room in an octagonal tower or summer house4 ,if the distance across the flat sides of the octagon is sixteen feet1 leaving out the item of waste1 how many square feet will be required8 ,the octagon may be drawn in a square and its area will be that of the square1 less the four triangles in the corners4 7,fig4 #bcg74 ,so the problem resolves itself into finding the area of one of these triangles4 ,if we knew the length of one of the sides of the octagon1 the solution would be simple1 but we only know that the eight sides are equal4 ,the following method may be worked out3 ,find the diagonal of the sixteen foot square4 ,it is #bb4f4 ,deduct the distance across the flats1 #af1 leaving #f4f feet equally divided between a and b2 a #c4c and it may be proved that c a d4 ,so in each corner we have a triangle whose base is #f4f #c4c4 ,the area of a triangle equals half its base by the altitude4 ,therefore the area of each triangle is #c4c #c4c and #c4c #c4c #d equals #dc4ef square feet1 the combined area of the four corners4 ,this deducted from the area of the square leaves the area of the octagon1 or #bef-dc4ef #bab4dd square feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,finding the area of an octagon ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,problem of the hexagon ,assume that our problem is to find the narrowest board we can use to cut out a hexagon whose diameter is fourteen inches4 ,as shown in ,chapter ,,iv1 the hexagon is drawn in a circle4 ,one of the sides is equal to the radius or half the diameter4 ,this gives us the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #bch1 in which our problem is confined to the right-angled triangle whose base is seven and hypothenuse fourteen4 ,from our knowledge of triangles1 we deduct the square of seven 7#di7 from the square of #ad 7#aif71 leaving #aif-di #adg1 which is the square of the altitude4 ,then sqrt#adg #ab4ab1 which is the narrowest board from which we can obtain a hexagon #ad inches in diameter4 ,these examples are given to show the close connection between woodwork and arithmetic4 ,,lii ,,lumber3 ,,no4 #a ,it is hardly possible for a boy to select and purchase wood for his various purposes without some knowledge of the different woods and their peculiar characteristics4 ,no two are exactly alike1 and in fact two trees of the same kind growing in different parts of the country under different conditions will produce timber of very different qualities4 ,this is specially noticeable in the tulip or white wood1 for example4 ,a tree of this species1 growing in a swamp in the ,south1 will yield a very different wood from one grown on high ground in the ,north4 ,again1 the same wood is known in different localities by different names1 so in order to have a sound knowledge of lumber1 it is really necessary to know something about the trees4 ,white wood1 just mentioned1 is called1 in many localities1 yellow poplar4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is not a poplar1 nor is it related to the poplars1 being a member of the magnolia family4 ,the following pages1 devoted to this subject1 are the cream of many talks between our boys1 boiled down to the important facts and arranged in some order4 ,it was a hobby of ,ralph's1 and ,harry became so enthusiastic over it that they frequently laid aside their work and took long walks through the country studying trees4 ,harry started a small nursery in the garden and is raising young trees from seeds and cuttings4 ,as he remarked to ,ralph one day3 ,it's astonishing how little people know about trees6 ,why they are the most interesting things that grow4 ,just think how many things we get from them besides wood2 maple sugar1 rubber1 turpentine1 wood alcohol1 tannin for making leather1 shellac1 ,canada balsam1 spruce gum1 and nuts6 ,all of our nuts except peanuts come from trees--hickory1 walnuts1 butternuts1 beechnuts1 chestnuts1 pecans1 almonds1 etc4 ,ralph noticed that as ,harry's interest in the trees grew he became less wasteful of his wood in the shop4 ,the fact that a tree had to be cut1 and in most cases killed1 in order to furnish him with lumber1 seemed to worry him4 ,one day when he was thoughtfully at work in the shop1 he blurted out1 ,it's a shame that so many trees have to be cut down for lumber6 ,yes1 said ,ralph1 it seems so2 yet if no lumber was wasted1 it would not be so bad4 ,it is estimated that #ge per cent4 of the wood cut down is wasted4 ,how8 asked the boy4 ,well1 in the first place1 many lumbermen after cutting the tree down1 take just the log or lower part and leave the top to decay4 ,it often happens that they leave the tops and branches as a great mass of litter1 which soon becomes as dry as tinder1 an invitation to the smallest spark to start a fire1 and more woodland is destroyed by fire each year than ,i care to tell you4 ,how much8 asked ,harry4 ,every year1 between twelve and fifteen million acres1 and some years three times as much4 ,how much is a million acres8 ,you can get some idea from this3 ,long ,island1 ,n4 ,y41 is a hundred miles long and about twenty across in the widest part4 ,it contains about a million acres4 ,imagine this covered by solid woods1 multiply by fifteen and you would have a good idea of the amount of woodland burned over every year4 ,gracious6 exclaimed the boy4 ,i should think every tree would have been burned years ago4 ,well1 this is a big country1 said ,ralph4 ,i figured it out once4 ,the ,united ,states is large enough to make six hundred states the size of ,connecticut1 and have room for twenty-five or thirty more4 ,the state of ,texas alone could be cut up into a hundred pieces as large as ,connecticut4 ,the forest fire is one of our worst enemies4 ,it is far worse than the lumberman1 because when he cuts down trees it gives hundreds of young seedlings which are struggling to live in the shade a chance to grow and cover the ground with a new forest2 but the fire kills these young seedlings and even burns the seeds that are lying in the leaves waiting to grow4 ,that is one of the worst things to be said against the forest fire4 ,does it kill every tree8 ,oh1 no6 ,trees like the oak sprout from the old roots1 but most evergreen trees are killed outright4 ,what happens then8 ,why1 it depends4 ,if the forest is mixed1 hard woods and conifers1 the hard woods1 or some of them1 will in time send up sprouts1 and where you formerly had a mixed stand1 you will in a few years have only hard woods1 unless some of the evergreens were not touched4 ,in that case1 their seeds will in time replace the old evergreens4 ,how long does it take8 ,from forty to a hundred years to have a large forest4 ,some evergreens1 like the spruce1 increase in diameter very slowly4 ,what happens when the forest that is burned is all evergreens1 and they are all killed8 asked the irrepressible boy4 ,the process of reforesting in that case is very slow4 ,trees of little value1 like the poplar or birch1 appear first1 because their seeds are light and are carried a considerable distance by the wind4 ,if fires pass over the same area every few years1 the forest will never come back unless seeds are planted4 ,there are large areas in this country thus denuded1 and instead of a forest we have a scrubby growth of bushes that are of little value to anybody4 ,huckleberries grow in burned-over land luxuriantly1 and in some sections it is suspected that the people who make money by gathering the berries burn the brush purposely4 ,the forest cover is valuable for other things besides timber4 ,the snow melts slowly in an evergreen forest1 because the rays of the sun cannot penetrate with full strength4 ,this allows the water to sink into the ground slowly1 and to come out lower down in the form of springs4 ,where there is no forest the snow melts much more quickly1 the water rushes down the hills in streams1 carrying with it the top soil1 which is of so much value to the farmer1 cutting the hillsides into gullies1 causing floods in the valleys1 and filling up the rivers with silt or mud4 ,this spoils the streams1 ruins the land1 and causes millions of dollars' worth of damage to property4 ,if you doubt it1 read the newspaper accounts of floods in the valleys of the ,ohio1 ,missouri1 and ,mississippi every spring4 ,but ,i should think by this time all the soil would be washed away4 ,it will be in time4 ,there are large areas in ,china where the soil is washed away to the bare rock4 ,the population has been obliged to emigrate because when the soil goes1 the population can no longer live4 ,well1 what are we going to do about it8 asked ,harry in amazement4 ,wait a minute1 said ,ralph1 warming up to his subject4 ,the ,mississippi carries into the ,gulf of ,mexico every year seven and a half billion cubic feet of soil2 enough to cover ,long ,island two inches deep every year4 ,what are we going to do8 repeated the boy4 ,we can do one of two things1 said ,ralph sagely1 ,we can follow in the footsteps of ,china and let the land go to ruin2 or we can follow the example of ,germany1 take care of our forests--or what is left of them--and plant new ones4 ,it is one of the greatest questions in this country to-day1 and you are going to hear a lot about it before you are twenty-one4 ,,liii ,,lumber3 ,,no4 #b ,the lumber business ranks fourth in the great industries of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,department of ,forestry at ,washington estimates that we are using three times as much wood yearly as the annual growth of the forest4 ,a grand total of #aej1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber for all purposes1 including firewood1 is the estimated amount1 a figure the mind can hardly grasp4 ,the railroads of our country rest on #a1bjj1jjj1jjj ties4 ,the average life of a tie is about ten years1 so that we must replace one tenth1 or #abj1jjj1jjj1 each year4 ,as the average forest produces two hundred ties to the acre1 this item alone calls for half a million acres of woods every year4 ,the tie is only one item in the great business of railroading1 immense quantities of lumber being required for trestles1 platforms1 stations1 bridges1 etc41 so that a full million of acres must be cut annually to keep our railroads operating4 ,place this item against the fifteen million burned1 and the statement may be made that we burn enough each year to supply the railroads for fifteen years4 ,to offset this loss several railroad companies are now planting trees for a future supply1 as the many attempts to supplant the wooden tie with a manufactured one have not been very successful4 ,the six thousand mines of various kinds within our border use up #e1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet every year1 and so on through the list of wood-consuming industries4 ,as our population doubles1 the consumption of lumber quadruples4 ,to-day1 five hundred feet of wood is used annually for every man1 woman1 and child1 as compared with the sixty feet used in ,europe4 ,already our many industries are beginning to feel the shortage1 and prices constantly go up4 ,turpentine1 which is made from the ,southern yellow pine1 requires a new orchard of #hjj1jjj acres yearly to keep up the demand2 and when we realize that one third of the lumber cut is yellow pine1 it is little wonder that the price of turpentine and other naval stores keeps moving upward4 ,where and when will it stop8 ,we read a great deal about the transformation of water power into electrical energy1 but the flow of streams is dependent on forests1 and the spring floods are followed by drought4 ,while the ,ohio ,river rises forty feet in the spring1 it is possible to walk over the river bed almost dry shod the following summer4 ,we hear much about irrigation1 but irrigation is dependent largely on mountain forests4 ,so a burning question has arisen in these ,united ,states1 called conservation1 or the husbanding of the great resources that have made our country what it is4 ,the forest resources are different from those of the mines4 ,there is a definite end to the supply of coal1 iron1 gold1 and silver1 but by proper care the forest may be made to yield a continuous crop of lumber4 ,forestry does not mean the fencing in of the woods1 but the handling of them in such a way that no more is cut than the annual growth4 ,this has been practised in ,germany on scientific principles with such success that the production has been increased #cjj per cent41 and where seventy-five years ago they obtained twenty cubic feet from each acre a year1 they now cut sixty1 and the forest continues to grow luxuriantly4 ,what ,germany has done we can do1 and millions of acres now useless can be made to yield large quantities of wood while continually clothed with growing forests4 ,the cutting of lumber is usually done when the sap is dormant1 preferably in the winter4 ,the logs are gotten to the mill by the cheapest method1 which usually consists in floating them down a stream or river2 but now that most of the remaining forest is remote1 it is quite common to have portable mills transported into the woods where the trees are cut and sawed into planks or the larger sizes of timber and from there loaded on the cars4 ,the old-fashioned method was more picturesque1 and the drive started with the breaking up of the ice in the spring4 ,thousands and hundreds of thousands of logs were guided down stream1 pulled off shore when they became stranded1 and the jams were broken up until the smooth water below made sorting possible4 ,as several companies might be driving down the same stream1 each log was marked by an axe with the private mark of the one to which it belonged4 ,after many vicissitudes1 the drive would reach the sorting boom1 where the lumber of the various companies would be separated and made up into rafts4 ,a boom is a chain of logs fastened together by iron chains1 and extending into the river4 ,it may reach clear across1 or one end can be anchored in the stream to allow a passage for boats4 ,in that case the river end has to be anchored up stream to catch the logs4 ,one of the most serious things encountered on a drive is the log jam4 ,it may be caused in many ways but usually by some obstruction1 as a shoal1 rocks1 a narrowing of the river1 etc4 ,the lumberman has a vocabulary of his own1 and he recognizes several kinds of jams1 such as wing jams1 solid jams1 etc4 ,no matter how caused1 it is the business of the lumber jack to break up the jam1 and sometimes before it can be done a late freeze will occur and the whole mass become solid ice and logs4 ,it is sometimes necessary to use dynamite to break it up4 ,the breaking up is a dangerous time for the driver1 who must sometimes run for his life across the moving mass of logs to the shore4 ,after they are made into rafts1 steamers are used to tow the logs to the various mills4 ,it is slow work1 but when the destination is reached1 the real process of converting the tree into lumber begins4 ,often the rafts stay in the water for months before being broken up1 and the logs guided to the endless chain which drags them up into the mill4 ,from this time on the action is very rapid4 ,the modern mill is a mass of rapidly moving machinery1 guided and controlled by comparatively few men4 ,three distinct classes of saws are used--circular1 band1 and gang saws1 and different mills in the same neighborhood use different methods4 ,band saws are continuous bands of steel1 often #dh feet long1 and as wide as #h inches1 which pass over two large wheels like a belt4 ,gang saws are straight and move up and down rapidly4 ,a number of them are fastened to horizontal pieces1 the distance apart being adjustable to the thickness of timber desired4 ,before passing through the gang saw1 the logs are usually edged1 i4 e41 a slab is cut from two opposite sides4 ,the log is then turned over on one of these flat sides1 so that as it passes through the gang saw the planks are all the same width4 ,the slabs or edgings are passed through other saws and cut to the width and length of a lath1 all the waste possible being made into lath or other by-products4 ,as we use four billions of lath a year1 this is an important item4 ,the process varies with the kind of lumber and its future purpose1 but a great deal is wasted in many mills4 ,the refuse is used for fuel1 and in some cases burned in stacks built specially for the purpose of getting rid of it4 ,this is one of the forms of waste which will undoubtedly be done away with in the future1 and already many lumbermen are at work on the problem4 ,the sawdust is conveyed directly to the furnaces under the boiler and used in the generation of steam4 ,,liv ,,lumber3 ,,no4 #c ,having finally reached the commercial stage1 the lumber is shipped away from the mill either by water or by rail to the lumber yards of the country4 ,here it should be seasoned4 ,in the past this process consisted of piling the planks in the open air in such a way that air could circulate freely through the pile1 allowing the sap to evaporate and the wood to dry evenly4 ,this was a sure but slow process1 and in the hurry of modern life quicker methods have been tried4 ,one of these is known as kiln drying1 by which the time is reduced to a few weeks4 ,it consists of piling the wood in a room like a kiln and drying it by artificial heat4 ,the result is not so satisfactory as the natural method1 because the sap near the surface hardens and prevents the inner moisture from escaping1 so that kiln-dried lumber while dry at the surface is green inside4 ,when planed till part of the surface is removed the green wood is brought near to the air again1 and warping is liable to occur4 ,other methods have been tried1 such as steaming to vaporize the sap1 and soaking in hot water for the same purpose4 ,of course these processes all add to the cost of lumber1 yet so valuable is time that it is difficult to obtain good old-fashioned seasoned wood unless it has lain for some time in a local yard4 ,in order to understand the phenomena of warping1 shrinkage1 checking1 shakes1 etc41 it is necessary to know something of how the tree grows4 ,like all living organisms1 it is made up of minute cells4 ,the new cells are formed on the outside of the tree under the bark1 and here the sap is most active4 ,the cause of the flow of sap is not very clearly understood1 but it corresponds to blood in the human body1 in that it carries the nourishment that forms the cells4 ,as a new mass or layer of soft new cells forms each season1 the layers may be distinctly seen and counted1 but the line of separation is not a sharply drawn one1 as we find by examining a cross section of wood with the microscope4 ,however1 the layers or annual rings are distinct enough to be counted1 so that the age of the tree at the time it was cut down may be readily discovered4 ,the new or sap wood1 then1 is further from the centre each year1 and while the old cells may not be dead1 they contain less and less sap1 are therefore drier1 and after a few years change colour1 becoming darker4 ,there is often a very great contrast between the colour of the heart wood and that of the sap wood1 although the latter may be represented by several years of growth4 ,these annual rings are not actually circular1 but very irregular1 and often wider in some parts than in others4 ,the study of these rings is very interesting1 and it shows that the tree usually increases in diameter more rapidly during the first few years than later4 ,very often1 after growing slowly for several years1 the tree will apparently grow rapidly again4 ,the cause of this cannot be determined without a knowledge of the tree's history4 ,it has been proved by experiment that thinning the forest increases the growth of the remaining trees #ah per cent41 and these peculiarities in the rings may have been due to some like cause4 ,the bearing of this fact on the peculiarities of warping and shrinkage is that when cut down the log is drier at the heart and more sappy at the outside1 so that evaporation occurs near the surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,warping1 wind1 and shrinkage4 ,the effect of it is shown in ,fig4 #bci4 ,the outside drawing together has opened the wood1 or checked it1 most at the outside1 diminishing toward the centre4 ,the evaporation would have occurred just the same had the log been cut into planks1 causing them to curl as shown at a4 ,this is known as warping1 and it is one of the troubles of the woodworker4 ,in construction it must be constantly guarded against1 and overcome as far as possible4 ,it cannot be entirely prevented1 but if the wood has been well seasoned before it is used a large part of the warp will be taken out in the planing mill1 or in the squaring up4 ,twisting1 winding1 and warping are also caused by the two sides of a board having been subjected to different degrees of heat1 moisture1 etc4 ,if a plank is laid on the floor1 the upper part is more exposed to the air and to changes of temperature and humidity2 therefore it curls4 ,if a board is stood on end or placed in a rack where there is a free circulation of air1 the curling will be much less4 ,even in a rack1 if several boards are piled one on another1 the top one will have different conditions from the others and be apt to curl or wind4 ,shrinkage is a term applied to the decrease in diameter of the tree1 due to sap evaporation4 ,in the case of the board it means a decrease in width1 and it varies greatly in different trees and their woods4 ,as shrinkage is always across the grain1 its effect on a common joint may be illustrated in ,fig4 #bdj4 ,at a is shown a middle lap joint just put together4 ,if the wood is not well seasoned1 shrinkage will in time change it to the form shown at b1 which is exaggerated to make the meaning clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,effect of shrinkage on lumber ,a square piece of timber1 one corner of which is the centre of the tree1 will change from c to d4 ,shrinkage as well as warping must be taken into consideration in construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,the development of the panelled door ,the development of the panelled door is a good illustration4 ,suppose we wish to close a space with a door1 knowing little about shrinkage4 ,let us construct it by the simplest method1 say four vertical boards4 ,if the width of these boards equals the opening when the door is built 7,fig4 #bda7 there will soon be an opening wide enough for the fingers to enter and lift up a latch on the inside4 ,the door is very much of a failure4 ,we notice1 however1 that there is no opening at top or bottom4 ,an idea6 ,we construct a door with planks placed horizontally4 ,now although we find after a while no opening at the sides we do find openings at top and bottom4 ,the panelled door is not constructed solely for beauty but to overcome shrinkage as far as possible4 ,fig4 #bda shows the various parts4 ,the rails maintain the width1 the only shrinkage being in the cross grain of the stiles1 and they preserve the height except for the small amount in the rails4 ,the remaining spaces are panelled1 the construction being shown at a4 ,both stiles and rails have a groove plowed out to receive the edges of the panel4 ,this should be free to shrink in the grooves1 where it is invisible1 but if the mistake is made of fastening the panel edges rigidly in these grooves the panel will shrink anyway and frequently split from top to bottom4 ,many other forms of construction which we have seen daily as long as we can remember have equally sound reasons for their form4 ,no piece of woodwork should be designed without considering how it will be affected by shrinkage and warping4 ,in selecting lumber always look out for shakes4 ,this is a defect caused by the separation of the annual rings4 ,a tree may be considered as a series of irregular cylinders of diminishing diameters4 ,the forest-grown tree is much more spindling1 tall1 and straight than the low-crowned1 heavy-branched specimen grown in the open1 where there is no crowding4 ,the swaying of the forest tree in the wind1 especially when its neighbours have been cut down1 is sometimes sufficient to make the rings separate and slide one within the other4 ,this is more noticeable in some species than others and it gives the wood a serious fault4 7,fig4 #bci74 ,winding is the result when the ends and sides are no longer parallel4 ,like all peculiar characteristics of wood1 this varies greatly in lumber of various kinds1 and may be largely avoided by exposing both sides to the same conditions1 or keeping equally distributed weight on it until used4 ,when winding becomes excessive1 the board is useless for any kind of work4 ,,lv ,,lumber3 ,,no4 #d ,the woods of the ,united ,states are classified roughly as hard and soft2 and trees as broad-leaved or deciduous1 and evergreen or coniferous4 ,in a general way1 the trees which drop their leaves in the fall--the broad-leaved--produce hard woods and the evergreens soft woods4 ,there are so many exceptions1 however1 that the rule is a very rough guide4 ,several of the coniferous trees drop their leaves or needles in the fall1 like the larch or tamarack1 and some woods from evergreens are harder than some woods from broad-leaved trees4 ,yellow pine is harder than basswood1 which1 according to the rule1 should be a hard wood4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is softer than the majority of woods cut from evergreens4 ,the only way to gain a comprehensive knowledge of this interesting subject is by experience and study4 ,making a collection of woods1 leaves1 and seeds is one of the most fascinating studies a boy can take up4 ,he will soon discover that not only is every wood different from every other wood in grain1 colour1 odour1 and hardness1 but some woods are strong and elastic1 others strong and brittle1 weak1 etc41 and that every tree has a different leaf1 bark1 flower1 and seed from its neighbour4 ,he will find groups or families1 such as the oaks1 the maples1 the pines1 spruces1 cedars1 etc41 with several members of each group1 all different1 yet having family characteristics4 ,he will be surprised at the endless extent of the subject2 the willow for instance has a hundred and fifty known varieties4 ,he will find himself1 like our boys1 dipping into botany and geology to discover perhaps1 as ,harry did1 that the oak was once an evergreen1 and that it still holds a good proportion of its leaves all winter4 ,he will learn that there are broad-leaved evergreens like the laurel and rhododendron2 that some trees are evergreen in the ,south1 and lose their leaves in the ,north2 that some shrubs of the ,northern states become trees farther south4 ,he may even wrestle with the problem ,what is a tree8 or1 ,where does the shrub leave off and the tree begin8 ,the study of the many methods nature has devised for distributing seeds has evolved whole volumes2 so has the question of how the buds on the trees are protected in winter4 ,there are definite ways in which the tiny leaves are folded up in these winter buds1 all ready to unfold in a certain way in the spring4 ,perhaps the reader wonders what all this has to do with woodwork1 but to a boy who once begins to collect specimens1 it will follow as a matter of course4 ,knowing something about woods he naturally begins to study trees1 and gradually observes the wonderful phenomena of growth1 flower1 and seed4 ,planting seeds to see how they grow is the next step1 and before long he has a young nursery in the yard2 while the reading of the work of such men as ,luther ,burbank will induce him to try his hand at grafting and budding4 ,the man who makes two apples grow where one grew before is as valuable a citizen as the man who makes two blades of grass grow in the place of one4 ,when ,mr4 ,burbank converts the prickly cactus into a thornless cactus1 valuable as a forage plant1 he is conferring a great benefit on the whole race by making millions of acres of desert land available for stock raising4 ,incidentally1 these wonders performed by the ,wizard of ,california will not die with ,mr4 ,burbank1 but will constitute the beginning of a new profession which1 combined with forestry1 will offer a tempting field for the rising generation4 ,,common ,,timber ,,trees ,,and ,,their ,,wood ,,evergreens ,,or ,,coniferous ,,trees ,white ,pine4--,one of our most beautiful evergreens4 ,growing throughout the ,north-eastern and ,lake states1 and formerly forming dense forests from the ,bay of ,fundy to ,minnesota4 ,needles grow in groups of five of a light bluish green from three to four inches long4 ,seeds are winged and grow in cones five or six inches long protected by the scales4 ,cones mature at end of second season4 ,wood soft1 light coloured1 free from sap1 easily worked and used in many trades1 for pattern making1 various parts of houses1 toys1 crates1 boxes1 etc4 ,becoming very scarce1 owing to the destruction of the great forests4 ,on the ,pacific coast its place in construction is taken by the sugar pine and other woods4 ,yellow and ,georgia ,pine4--,two trees whose wood is frequently confounded by the woodworker4 ,georgia pine is a tree with very long needles1 from twelve to fifteen inches1 and in groups of three4 ,cones from six to ten inches4 ,a southern tree found from ,texas to ,virginia4 ,the tops of the young trees1 like green fountains1 are used in many places as ,christmas decorations4 ,wood hard and resinous1 used for flooring1 interior finish1 and decks4 ,yellow ,pine4--,a southern tree with needles in groups of two1 sometimes three1 about three inches long4 ,cones small1 about two inches4 ,wood hard and used for the same purposes as ,georgia pine4 ,red ,pine1 ,norway ,pine1 ,canadian ,pine4--,three names for the same tree4 ,grows throughout the ,north1 from ,nova ,scotia to western ,minnesota4 ,cut principally in ,canada4 ,needles1 two in a group1 about five inches long4 ,cones about two inches long1 mature the second season4 ,wood reddish in colour1 hard1 and used for piles1 spars1 bridges1 etc4 ,pitch ,pine4--,a name locally given to several different trees4 ,the wood is soft1 brittle1 resinous1 and is used for fuel and for making charcoal1 rarely for rough building4 ,needles in groups of three and three to five inches long4 ,sometimes called scrub pine1 although it often reaches a height of fifty to sixty feet4 ,the cones1 two or three inches long1 often remain on the tree for years4 ,it is the tree found along the ,atlantic coast from ,maine to ,georgia1 growing in sand1 in swamps1 and among rocks4 ,to be recommended for its persistence in living under the most trying conditions1 even if its wood is not very valuable4 ,in the construction of a frame house several kinds of wood are needed4 ,first1 the framework of rough-sawed spruce4 ,second1 a better wood1 like white pine1 for door and window frames4 ,third1 the outside covering4 ,this may be clapboards1 for which nothing has ever approached white pine1 although it is necessary now to find substitutes4 ,the roof1 if shingled1 may be of cedar1 or cypress--some spruce is used to-day4 ,for interior work1 floors may be spruce1 white pine1 cypress1 yellow pine1 or hard woods4 ,for finish or trim1 many woods are used such as white wood1 oak1 yellow pine1 cypress1 cherry1 and bay wood4 ,spruce4--,this wood has been used almost exclusively in the past for framing1 but great inroads have been made in the supply1 especially by the manufacturers of paper pulp4 ,consequently the cost is increasing rapidly4 ,three varieties are recognized1 white1 black1 and red4 ,white spruce is a distinctly northern tree1 delighting in the cold climate of ,canada1 but dipping down along the ,maine coast4 ,it is a beautiful1 straight1 and tall specimen1 frequently found as high as a hundred and fifty feet4 ,the needles are only three quarters of an inch1 or less1 in length and clothe the twigs in an entire circle4 ,cones two inches long1 bearing under their scales tiny winged seeds4 ,it is used often as an ornamental evergreen for lawns1 and for this purpose probably has no equal1 as1 unlike the ,norway spruce1 it holds its foliage1 dense and green1 close to the ground4 ,the wood is weak1 knotty1 and soft1 but suitable for rough framing4 ,black ,spruce4--,another northern tree1 rarely found in forests below the ,canadian border1 except around the ,great ,lakes4 ,leaves about same size as in white spruce1 but cones smaller1 more oval in form1 and one inch and a half long4 ,spruce gum is obtained from this tree1 which has a more pleasant odour than white spruce4 ,wood used for pulp making1 framing1 and1 quartered1 for sounding-boards of musical instruments4 ,red ,spruce4--,a close relative of the black and sometimes confused with it1 but it is a distinct tree1 reaching its best development several hundred miles south of the black spruce1 in the ,appalachian ,mountains1 and extending as far south as ,north ,carolina2 while the black variety barely crosses the borders of ,canada into ,maine4 ,needles about half an inch long4 ,cones small1 sometimes barely an inch and a half4 ,they fall the first winter1 while those of the black remain on the tree often for years4 ,wood is similar to black spruce but lighter in weight4 ,used for pulp1 framing1 and sounding-boards4 ,hemlock4--,the most dainty of the eastern evergreens1 with little cones about three quarters of an inch long1 and needles half an inch4 ,found throughout the country east of the ,mississippi and in some sections used for ,christmas decorations4 ,a slow growing tree with wood of little value1 being brittle1 light1 and difficult to work1 as it has a crooked grain and is liable to splinter4 ,the tree makes up in beauty what it lacks as a timber producer and its bark is rich in tannin4 ,larch1 ,tamarack or ,hackmatack4--,local names for the same tree4 ,drops all its needles in the fall1 like a broad-leaved tree1 but the beauty of the brilliant new green needles in the spring is a sight worth going miles to see4 ,found from the ,lake states north to the ,arctic ,circle4 ,needles an inch long4 ,cones from one half to three quarters4 ,wood is heavy1 hard and strong4 ,used in ship building1 for telegraph poles1 posts1 and ties4 ,fir1 ,balsam ,fir1 ,balsam4--,on all firs the cones stand upright on the branches1 while on spruces they hang down4 ,as these two trees are often intermingled1 this is an easy way to distinguish them4 ,the needles of the firs are also blunt1 while those of the spruces are sharply pointed4 ,this is the so-called ,christmas tree and balsam pillows are made from its needles4 ,needles about three quarters of an inch long1 cones almost black in colour1 from two to four inches long4 ,wood of little value1 being soft and weak4 ,the sap in the form of gum called ,canada balsam is used in medicine1 and is obtained from blisters on the bark or by cutting the bark4 ,southern ,cypress1 ,bald ,cypress1 ,deciduous ,cypress4--,found growing naturally in the swamps of the ,south1 but will grow in drier soil1 if planted in the ,north4 ,several fine specimens in the parks of ,philadelphia1 ,new ,york1 and ,brooklyn4 ,the lower part broadens out near the ground into a conical base and in its native swamps the roots send up peculiar formations known as cypress knees4 ,leaves very delicate and feathery1 not often over half an inch long1 cones round and an inch in diameter4 ,drops its needles like the larch each fall4 ,wood very durable in damp situations1 valuable for flooring and interior finish4 ,red ,cedar4--,the common cedar of the ,united ,states1 found in all sections where trees can grow at all1 in sand1 swamp1 rocky hillside1 and abandoned farm4 ,reaches its greatest height in the ,south4 ,wood of beautiful colour and grain1 soft and not strong1 easily worked1 but inclined to brittleness4 ,used in many trades2 it furnished in the past the only wood for lead pencils4 ,owing to its scarcity1 substitutes are now being tried4 ,very durable in contact with water and soil4 ,used extensively for posts1 small boats1 cooperage1 ties1 chests1 and interior finish4 ,foliage difficult to describe1 being sharp and awl-shaped in the young trees1 changing in later years to a flat scale shape4 ,very often both forms are found on the same tree4 ,seeds are the common cedar berry1 pale green in colour1 about a quarter of an inch long1 each berry containing two or three seeds4 ,these are liked by the birds and they are dropped along fences frequently1 so that in a few years the fences become lined with young cedar trees4 ,white ,cedar4--,found in swamps along the ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts4 ,has a more delicate foliage than red cedar1 and1 growing in dense thickets1 is apt to be taller and straighter4 ,the wood is light brown in colour1 soft1 weak1 and1 like red cedar1 durable in moist situations4 ,used for making shingles1 for boat-building1 and for the same general work as the red variety4 ,arbor ,vit--called in many sections white cedar4 ,it is an entirely different tree from the real white cedar1 having decidedly flattened and very aromatic foliage4 ,used a great deal for hedges before the days of the ,california privet4 ,seed borne in a tiny cone half an inch long4 ,large quantities are cut in the ,maritime ,provinces of ,canada to be made into shingles4 ,grows sixty feet high and two feet or more in diameter4 ,arbor vit means tree of life1 and as the bark and young twigs were at one time used medicinally1 that may have been the origin of the name4 ,wood is light1 soft1 coarse-grained1 but1 like the cedars1 durable4 ,used for ties1 posts1 and shingles4 ,,lvi ,,broad-,,leaved ,,trees ,the broad-leaved trees are more numerous as to varieties than the evergreens1 and from the standpoint of leaf forms may be divided into three groups3 #a4 ,trees bearing simple leaves4 #b4 ,trees bearing compound leaves4 #c4 ,trees bearing doubly compound leaves4 ,the first group is the largest1 including as it does such large families as the maples1 oaks1 willows1 poplars4 ,the second group comes next with the well-known walnuts1 hickories1 ashes1 and buckeyes4 ,the third group is very small1 there being but three well-known trees bearing doubly compound leaves3 the honey locust1 ,kentucky coffee tree1 and ,hercules ,club4 ,the three forms are shown at ,fig4 #bdb4 ,the leaf ends at the bud growing at the end of the leaf stem4 ,all above this bud constitutes the leaf1 no matter what its shape or size1 and falls in the autumn1 with a few exceptions4 ,the small leaflets on the compound leaf are simply parts of a leaf1 not separate leaves1 as there are no buds at the point where they join the stem4 ,the arrangement of these leaflets varies4 ,in the buckeye and horse chestnut they radiate from a common point1 while in the locust they are in parallel rows on opposite sides of the stem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,three types of leaves ,in doubly compound leaves the leaflets are themselves compound1 making the whole leaf very large1 those of the ,kentucky coffee tree being three feet in length4 ,,the ,,maples ,probably the best known and most common trees1 especially in towns and cities4 ,most of them grow quickly and therefore become valuable as shade trees4 ,they do not make the most permanent trees1 however1 and should be planted in alternation with oaks1 or other long-lived trees1 for permanent shade4 ,the seeds of all maples are winged1 which helps their distribution over large areas1 in the same manner as the seeds of evergreens4 ,sugar or ,rock ,maple4--,the most valuable timber tree of the group1 its wood being heavy1 hard1 strong1 and close-grained4 ,very light in colour and valuable for flooring and interior finish1 furniture1 tool handles1 and bench tops4 ,it grows throughout the ,eastern states1 but not in all soils4 ,very rapid in growth1 so much so that in the dense forest stands1 when a portion of the woods has been cut down1 the young saplings cannot always withstand the wind pressure and are blown down4 ,reaches a height in the forest of a hundred and twenty feet1 but in the open is broader and more symmetrical4 ,too much cannot be said in praise of this tree4 ,its shade is dense and its autumn colouring superb4 ,the sap yields maple syrup and sugar1 and1 finally1 after it has done its work and is cut down1 its wood yields lumber of the highest value1 while the limbs make excellent firewood4 ,the process of making maple sugar was learned1 historians tell us1 from the ,indians4 ,this is probably why the process was for two or three centuries very crude4 ,holes are bored in the tree in the late winter1 as soon as the sap is brought to life by the sun1 usually in ,march1 but the time depends upon the weather4 ,spigots are placed in the holes and pails hung under them to catch the sap4 ,when full1 they are emptied into large kettles or boilers over a fire1 and the sap simply boiled down to the proper consistency4 ,as the lumberman is making heavy inroads into the maple groves or forests1 the price of maple sugar is likely to continue going up1 until real maple sugar will be only a memory1 unless we wake up from our dream of unlimited resources to the real facts and do something4 ,silver ,maple1 ,white ,maple1 ,soft ,maple4--,a very common shade tree in our towns and cities4 ,its natural section is along the ,mississippi1 where it becomes a great tree1 often a hundred feet high2 but it is so easily adaptable to new conditions1 grows so quickly from seed1 and will stand so much hard usage that it has been very popular4 ,there are many better trees1 but this is cheap and quick growing1 and in our hurried ,american life we build very often for the immediate future and forget the next generation4 ,its foliage1 when not blackened and spoiled by the smoke of the city1 is a beautiful dark green above1 and light silvery green below4 ,the winged seeds ripen in ,june1 may be planted before ,july #ast1 and will produce young trees nearly a foot high before frost of the same season4 ,wood not as hard as rock maple1 but strong1 close-grained and brittle4 ,used to some extent in cabinet work4 ,the winter buds are very precocious and start into life at the first sign of spring4 ,red or ,swamp ,maple4--,found in wet places naturally1 but it makes a large and satisfactory shade tree in heavy upland soil4 ,the leaf form is somewhat like that of the silver maple1 but smaller4 ,seeds ripen before summer4 ,the flowers are red1 the leaf stems are red1 and the foliage is not only the most brilliant red of all our autumn colours1 but it is the first to give notice by its change of the approach of winter4 ,it is easy to see where it got its name4 ,wood is light in colour1 similar to that of the silver maple1 hard1 strong1 and brittle4 ,sycamore ,maple4--,although frequently planted in this country as a shade tree it is1 like the ,norway1 imported from ,europe4 ,moosewood1 ,mountain ,maple1 and ,box ,elder are three small ,american maples which can hardly be placed among timber trees1 except possibly the last4 ,box elder or ash-leaved maple has the distinction of having a compound leaf4 ,its wood is soft and of more value to the pulp maker than the lumberman4 ,it is very hardy and has been used on the ,western prairies1 where more particular trees do not thrive4 ,,the ,,oaks ,perhaps as a family this group of trees is more uniformly valuable than any other found in ,north ,america4 ,they represent all that is the best among trees1 being strong1 hardy1 long-lived1 and valuable as timber4 ,there are oaks in ,europe a thousand years old1 but of course we have no records that go back so far4 ,it is a difficult tree to kill1 because1 when cut down or burned1 a large number of healthy shoots grow from the stump or roots1 and make a rapid second growth4 ,the bark of all oaks contains tannin1 and in the past our principal supply came from these trees4 ,the old-fashioned method was to fell the tree1 strip off the bark and leave the wood on the ground to decay4 ,oak lumber is now so valuable that this waste has been largely stopped4 ,white ,oak ,group4--,the oaks all bear simple leaves which vary greatly4 ,they may be divided into two groups4 ,the white oak group all bear leaves with rounded lobes1 no bristles1 and ripen their acorns the first fall after blossoming4 ,they rarely bear acorns before the age of twenty years4 ,the second group has pointed lobes1 each lobe ending in a bristle and do not ripen their acorns until the end of the second season4 ,among the first group are the white oak proper1 post or iron oak1 mossy cup1 chestnut oak1 and swamp white oak4 ,in the second group are the red1 pin1 scarlet and black oak1 black jack1 shingle1 willow1 and ,spanish oaks4 ,white ,oak4--,one of the most common and best known members of the family1 slow growing1 sturdy1 hardy1 and beautiful4 ,acorns sweet compared with others4 ,leaves six to eight inches long1 turning to beautiful shades of red in the fall1 finally to a brown1 and a large proportion remaining on all winter4 ,this tree is little affected by temporary weather changes4 ,in the latitude of ,new ,york spring may have come and the maples be in full leaf1 but the white oak shows no sign4 ,lawns are mowed1 and finally1 about ,june #ast1 out come the oak leaves1 steadily growing without regard to late cold snaps or hot days4 ,during the summer a prolonged drought occurs4 ,the leaves of the maple turn yellow and fall4 ,not so the oak2 it goes right on about its business of growing green leaves and acorns1 until the appointed time in the fall4 ,the maple leaves have all fallen and the trees are ready for winter4 ,the oak goes right on1 as steadily as a clock1 doing its work1 apparently oblivious to such insignificant things as weather changes4 ,this is the character of the tree throughout--steady1 reliable1 and strong4 ,the wood is hard1 durable1 and valued in many trades4 ,the best barrels for tight cooperage are made of it4 ,floors and interior trim1 furniture1 cabinet work1 ship building1 and the making of farming implements and wagons are all more or less dependent on it4 ,the mission style of furniture is made almost exclusively from it2 so is office furniture4 ,quartered oak is a form of lumber obtained by a special method of cutting4 ,in most trees when cut into lumber may be seen a series of lines radiating from the centre1 and running in almost straight lines to the outside4 ,they are called medullary rays1 and are much more in evidence in some woods than others4 ,they are particularly noticeable in oak4 ,these rays are plates of flattened cells1 and are usually much harder than the rest of the wood4 ,the object of quartering oak is to bring these rays to the surface of the board at as small an angle as possible1 so that they will spread over the surface and give an added beauty to the grain4 ,this is accomplished in one way by cutting the boards radially as shown in ,fig4 #bdc 7a74 ,there is much waste in this method1 and other methods less wasteful1 but not as satisfactory1 from the beauty standpoint1 are shown at b1 c and d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,four methods of quartering ,mossy ,cup or ,bur ,oak4--,so called from the form of the cup of the acorns4 ,it ends in a heavy fringe which nearly covers the acorn proper--hence the name mossy cup4 ,the leaf somewhat resembles the white oak1 having rounded lobes but a different outline4 ,wood is hard1 heavy1 and strong1 and is used for the same purposes as white oak4 ,found throughout the country east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 but reaches its greatest development in the ,ohio ,valley4 ,chestnut ,oak4--,found from ,maine to ,alabama and west to ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 tough1 close-grained and durable in contact with the soil4 ,bark is strong with tannic acid4 ,acorn1 long and oval1 sweet and a favourite with the squirrels4 ,two or three varieties of this tree are recognized4 ,post or ,iron ,oak4--,along with the black and black jack oaks found on bleak and sandy plains1 especially in ,texas1 but extends as far north as ,massachusetts4 ,leaves thick1 leathery1 and much darker in colour than the white oak4 ,wood used for ties1 fencing and fuel4 ,swamp ,white ,oak4--,eastern ,united ,states4 ,favours wet localities and swamps1 and reaches a height of a hundred feet4 ,wood about as heavy as white oak1 but inclined to check in seasoning4 ,used for same general purposes as white oak4 ,acorns sweet and white1 about an inch long4 ,the ,red ,oak ,group3 ,red ,oak4--,tree reaches a height of a hundred and forty feet4 ,found from ,maine to ,georgia and as far west as ,kansas4 ,grows more rapidly than white oak and has smoother bark4 ,acorns large with a shallow cup and very bitter4 ,wood darker than white oak1 of a reddish brown colour1 heavy1 hard1 and strong4 ,used for furniture and interior finish4 ,has a tendency to check in drying4 ,scarlet ,oak4--,leaf more deeply indented than red oak4 ,a very tall and beautiful tree with wood slightly heavier than red oak1 strong and hard4 ,acorns1 like all of this group1 remain on the tree the first winter1 ripening the second fall4 ,they are smaller than those of the red oak and the cup is not as shallow4 ,it encloses a third or more of the nut1 whose kernel is white4 ,the name is taken from the brilliant colouring of the fall foliage4 ,pin ,oak4--,leaf form similar to scarlet oak and often mistaken for it by the beginner1 but is smaller1 and other features of the tree distinguish it4 ,the acorns are small1 about half an inch long1 with a broad flat base1 light brown and striped4 ,the branching habit of the tree gives it the name4 ,the great number of small slender branches1 especially in winter1 is very noticeable4 ,sometimes called swamp ,spanish oak because of its fondness for wet places4 ,wood brown1 hard1 strong1 and heavier than red and scarlet oaks4 ,it is being planted largely now as a permanent shade tree and grows rapidly during its earlier years4 ,black ,oak1 ,yellow ,oak4--,name derived from the bark1 which is very dark4 ,yellow is the colour of the inner bark1 hence the second name4 ,foliage varies1 is thick1 leathery and shiny1 of a dark green colour4 ,acorn is smaller than the red oak and often striped4 ,has yellow and bitter kernel4 ,wood as heavy as pin oak1 forty-four pounds to the cubic foot1 strong and hard4 ,used for fuel and for a yellow dye made from the inner bark4 ,black ,jack or ,barren ,oak4--,often found in company with the black oak on wind-swept1 barren plains4 ,leaf very coarse and crude in both form and texture1 having three lobes and a tapering base4 ,these two trees frequently mix or hybridize1 and1 while not always things of beauty1 they grow where other trees cannot live and should be recommended for their hardiness4 ,wood even heavier than black oak1 but1 as the tree is small1 it is used chiefly for firewood and the making of charcoal4 ,willow ,oak4--,foliage resembles the weeping willow4 ,a southern tree1 but will grow as far north as ,new ,york4 ,acorns ripen at end of second season1 are small1 with flat1 wide base and shallow cup4 ,kernel yellow and bitter4 ,wood reddish brown1 heavy1 and strong4 ,tree is popular in the ,south as an interesting shade tree4 ,laurel ,oak4--,name derived from the leaves1 which are in shape similar to the mountain laurel1 but lack its shiny lustre4 ,a tree of the ,middle ,west or ,ohio ,valley4 ,acorns1 small and half enclosed by the cup2 ripen second season4 ,wood heavy and hard1 checks in drying4 ,used for shingles and rough construction4 ,sometimes called shingle oak4 ,,lvii ,,trees ,,with ,,simple ,,leaves ,beech is a beautiful tree with light gray bark1 handsome foliage and valuable hard wood4 ,the seed is buckwheat-shaped1 small and sweet4 ,one of our most handsome shade trees1 and although only one species is native to the ,united ,states1 nurserymen have developed special varieties known as weeping beech and purple or copper beech4 ,the ,european beech is also frequently planted on lawns and in parks4 ,its foliage is darker and has indentations so shallow that the leaf apparently has only a wavy outline4 ,wood is hard1 tough1 fine-grained and takes a high polish4 ,used for the stocks of planes1 handles1 farming implements1 and for some kinds of furniture4 ,the beech tree is supposed to be impervious to lightning1 and recent experiments show that it offers considerable resistance to an electric current4 ,birch4--,the indentations of the beech are shallow and concave1 while the birch leaf is known as double serrate1 or double toothed1 the teeth being themselves toothed4 ,five varieties are known in the ,eastern states1 black1 red1 yellow1 white1 and gray4 ,black ,birch1 ,sweet ,birch4--,the tree familiar to boys because of its aromatic bark1 which contains salicylic acid used in treating cases of rheumatism4 ,a large forest tree with handsome foliage1 a very fine-winged seed and valuable wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 fine-grained1 and takes a high polish4 ,used for wheel hubs1 and the manufacture of furniture4 ,red ,birch4--,found in swamps and along rivers1 especially in the ,south4 ,leaves smaller than black birch and wood much lighter in weight1 but close-grained and strong4 ,used for furniture and wooden ware4 ,yellow ,birch4--,a northern tree1 growing a hundred feet high in northern ,new ,york and ,canada4 ,leaves similar to black birch1 but its bark is very different4 ,the bark of the black birch is very dark1 while that of yellow birch is of a silvery1 yellowish gray1 characteristic birch bark4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 and similar to black birch4 ,used for the same general purposes4 ,white ,birch1 ,canoe ,birch1 or ,paper ,birch4--,noted for its remarkable bark4 ,white on the young trees1 darker on old ones4 ,comes off in several distinct paper-like layers4 ,well known to ancient writers and used by them for paper4 ,it contains a resinous oil which accounts for its water-resisting qualities so well known in the ,indian birch-bark canoe4 ,the inner bark contains starch and in the extreme north it is sometimes mixed with other foods4 ,the sap may be used for making sugar4 ,wood is light brown and light weight but hard1 strong1 and close-grained4 ,used for shoe-lasts1 fuel1 and spools4 ,gray ,birch1 ,aspen-,leaved ,birch4--,sometimes called white birch4 ,the bark is white but patched with black and does not come off in layers as readily nor separate so easily from the wood as white birch4 ,a smaller tree with foliage that moves as freely in the wind as the aspen4 ,leaf form very peculiar2 a long thin stem1 broad flat base1 and long tapering outline1 double serrate4 ,a persistent little tree1 very hardy and difficult to kill4 ,wood is light and soft1 close-grained but weak4 ,used for pulp1 fuel1 spools1 and hoops4 ,hop ,hornbeam1 ,ironwood4--,a little tree with delicate birch-like foliage and wood of great hardness4 ,the name hop is derived from the fruit cluster bearing the seeds1 which resembles the hop4 ,the bark is in remarkable contrast to the foliage1 being deeply furrowed and smooth1 as if a smooth skin were drawn over powerful muscles4 ,the wood weighs over fifty pounds to the cubic foot1 is tough1 close-grained1 hard and will take a high polish4 ,used for mallets1 tool handles1 and levers4 ,hornbeam or ,blue ,birch4--,a small tree with dark gray or bluish bark4 ,leaves similar to ironwood1 but narrower4 ,wood weighs forty-five pounds to the cubic foot1 hard and strong1 similar to ironwood and used for the same purposes4 ,elm1 ,white or ,american4--,the well-known shade tree of the ,north4 ,leaf is lop-sided1 one side being considerably larger than the other1 double serrate4 ,aside from being a beautiful shade tree1 the wood is very valuable in several trades1 being heavy1 hard1 strong1 and tough4 ,it does not split easily and is valued for such critical places as wheel hubs and saddles4 ,used in cooperage1 and supply nearly exhausted4 ,red ,elm1 ,slippery ,elm4--,red from the dark brown colour of its wood and slippery from the character of the inner bark4 ,the slippery elm of commerce is made from this1 which sufficiently explains its character4 ,leaves are larger1 coarser1 and rougher than white elm and wood is heavy1 hard1 close-grained and tough4 ,used for ties1 fence posts1 and agricultural implements4 ,rock ,elm1 ,cork ,elm4--,rock from the nature of the soil it is particularly fond of--rocky cliffs or hills--cork from the corky ridges which appear on the branches4 ,a valuable timber tree but found in limited quantities4 ,the wood is unlike the red and white elms in that it will take a high polish4 ,hard and tough1 close-grained but easily worked4 ,used for cabinet work1 farming implements1 ties1 and to some extent for bridge timbers4 ,basswood1 ,linden4--,a large timber tree of the ,northern states and ,canada4 ,its flowers are very sweet and attract the bees to such an extent that it is sometimes called the bee tree4 ,it has several varieties1 as the small-leaved linden of the ,south1 the silver linden1 weeping silver linden1 etc4 ,leaves are heart-shaped1 serrate1 and lop-sided4 ,a valuable shade tree4 ,wood is soft1 weak1 even-grained1 does not split easily4 ,the favourite wood for pyrography because of its white colour1 freedom from pitch1 etc4 ,used for boxes of wagons1 wooden ware1 and to some extent for furniture making4 ,holly4--,a broad-leaved evergreen4 ,leaves and berries used as ,christmas decorations4 ,a southern tree found as far north as ,long ,island4 ,wood very light in colour1 but hard and close-grained4 ,takes a high polish4 ,used in cabinet work and engraving4 ,cherry1 ,wild or ,black4--,the cabinet wood in common use is from this tree1 although several varieties are known to botanists4 ,the wild cherry of the roadside in the ,east1 but a large forest tree west of the ,mississippi1 especially from ,kansas to ,texas4 ,wood a beautiful reddish brown1 close-grained1 strong1 and will take a high polish4 ,used in cabinet work1 interior of houses1 and for car finish4 ,tulip1 ,white ,wood1 ,yellow ,poplar4--,the last name is incorrect1 as the tree is not a poplar4 ,white wood is also inaccurate1 as the only part of the wood that is white is the sap wood4 ,a member of the magnolia family found throughout the ,east but rare in ,new ,england4 ,has a peculiar leaf with four points1 smooth1 shiny1 and distinctive4 ,flowers the size and colour of a yellow or orange-coloured tulip4 ,wood greenish yellow1 light1 soft1 brittle1 free from knots1 and inclined to warp more than white pine1 for which it is now being substituted4 ,used for many purposes1 including cabinet work1 interior finish1 panels1 etc4 ,sweet ,gum1 ,red ,gum1 ,liquid ,amber4--,like the tulip1 a large1 handsome tree found throughout the ,east4 ,leaves have five fingers resembling a starfish1 seeds produced in seed balls about an inch in diameter4 ,the seed itself is very small4 ,wood a beautiful reddish brown with handsome grain1 heavy but soft1 brittle1 weak1 warps and winds badly4 ,used to some extent in interior finish and in wood turning4 ,chestnut4--,the well-known tree of the ,east4 ,wood light and open-grained1 soft1 but very durable in contact with the soil1 hence its use for ties and fence posts4 ,has beautiful grain and takes a good polish4 ,used for furniture4 ,a fungous disease is rapidly destroying this tree in the ,east4 ,sycamore1 ,buttonball1 ,buttonwood4--,sycamore is incorrect4 ,this is the ,american plane1 a near relative of the ,european plane tree4 ,buttonball is derived from the shape of the seed pods1 which are round1 an inch or more in diameter1 and stay on the tree during the winter4 ,this is the tree which sheds part of its bark each year1 giving the trunk a mottled appearance4 ,wood is hard and heavy1 has an interesting grain and takes a good polish4 ,used for interior finish of houses4 ,poplar4--,a large family of trees of which nine members are recognized in ,north ,america4 ,all have light and soft woods of little value except for making boxes1 packing cases and wood pulp4 ,their value lies in hardiness1 quick growth and ability to cover burned areas so as to give a forest cover in localities where other trees will not grow4 ,the balsam poplar1 or balm of ,gilead1 formerly planted extensively as a shade tree1 reaches well up into ,alaska1 and in the ,yukon territory reaches a height of a hundred feet4 ,immense forests cover hundreds of square miles4 ,as a shade tree it possesses one or two good qualities1 quick growth and an indifference to the smoke and grime of cities4 ,it is otherwise not very desirable4 ,dogwood4--,a small tree with brilliant flowers in the spring and bright red berries in the fall4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 tough1 and close-grained4 ,used for hubs of wheels1 tool handles1 and mallets4 ,,broad-,,leaved ,,trees ,,with ,,compound ,,leaves ,black ,walnut4--,found throughout the ,east1 most abundantly in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,leaves bear from fifteen to twenty-three leaflets4 ,nut is enclosed in a green husk rich in tannic acid4 ,wood a beautiful dark brown1 sapwood light4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong4 ,takes a high polish4 ,used in cabinet work1 for furniture1 inside finish1 and for gunstocks4 ,getting very scarce4 ,white ,walnut or ,butternut4--,a smaller tree than the black walnut1 the nuts being more elongated and pointed4 ,both nuts and leaves have an odour distinctive and different from the black walnut4 ,wood also lighter in colour1 softer but takes a good polish4 ,used for interior finish and furniture4 ,hickory4--,nine species found in the ,united ,states4 ,the pecan is a hickory1 also the pignut1 shellbark1 etc4 ,all have wood noted for its elasticity1 toughness and strength4 ,it is heavy1 hard and close-grained4 ,used for agricultural implements1 wagons1 carriages1 axe handles1 cooperage1 and automobile spokes4 ,the nuts of the various species vary greatly1 from the bitter pignut to the popular pecan4 ,ash4--,several ,american species1 all bearing wood which is hard1 strong1 and elastic4 ,coarser in grain and lighter in weight than hickory1 hence more valuable for oars and baskets4 ,the ash is a tall1 clean-cut tree with beautiful foliage and bears a winged seed4 ,the wood is valuable for carriage work1 farming implements1 furniture and is used for interior finish4 ,buckeye4--,the ,american relative of the horse chestnut1 which is a ,european tree4 ,native to the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,leaf has five or seven leaflets radiating from the end of the stem4 ,nuts are similar to the horse chestnut in colour1 but not so regular in form4 ,wood is light in colour and weight1 used in making wooden ware1 pulp1 wooden limbs1 and occasionally for buildings4 ,locust4--,a tree belonging to the same botanical family as the bean and pea4 ,this is seen in its flowers1 which resemble the sweet pea and are fragrant4 ,seeds are beans borne in pods1 varying in size and shape from the delicate light brown little seed of the honey locust1 to the coal-black1 stonelike seed of the ,kentucky coffee tree4 ,black ,locust1 ,yellow ,locust4--,found from ,new ,york south to northern ,georgia and west to ,arkansas4 ,seed pods three or four inches long4 ,wood yellow1 heavy1 hard and close-grained4 ,the most durable wood we have in contact with the soil1 used extensively for posts4 ,honey ,locust4--,native to the ,mississippi ,valley1 but hardy when transplanted4 ,doubly compound leaves of great delicacy4 ,tree has many thorns growing often in great clusters and sometimes six inches long4 ,seeds borne in long1 dark brown pods often twisted4 ,wood reddish brown1 hard1 strong1 coarse-grained and durable4 ,used for wheel hubs4 ,kentucky ,coffee ,tree4--,named from the fact that the pioneers made a coffee substitute from its black beans4 ,a southern tree1 occasionally found as far north as ,new ,york4 ,leaves doubly compound4 ,seeds borne in large pods shaped like a lima bean about ten inches long4 ,wood light brown1 heavy1 strong and coarse-grained4 ,checks considerably in drying1 but durable and takes a good polish4 ,,the ,,country ,,life ,,press1 ,,garden ,,city1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the punctuation of illustration captions was made consistent throughout4 ,obvious typographical errors were corrected without comment4 ,ambiguous spellings 7e4g41 colour and color--both in use7 and other ,,uk-,,us spellings were not changed4 ,some inconsistent hyphenation 7e4g41 toenail_/toe-nail7 was left as in the original4 ,chapter ,,xiv in the ,table of ,contents was wrongly shown as page #abc1 and this was changed to #acc4 ,likewise chapter ,,xlv in the ,table of ,contents was wrongly shown as page #dbe1 and this was changed to #dbf4