,by ,,rudolf ,,eucken ,senior ,professor of ,philosophy in the ,university of ,jena ,the ,truth of ,religion ,the ,life of the ,spirit ,religion and ,life ,ethics and ,modern ,thought 99 99 99 99 99 ,ethics and ,modern ,thought ,a ,theory of ,their ,relations ,the ,deem ,lectures ,delivered in #aiac at ,new ,york ,university ,by ,rudolf ,eucken ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,university of ,jena ,translated from the ,german ,manuscript by ,margaret von ,seydewitz ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york and ,london ,the ,knickerbocker ,press #aiac ,,copyright1 #aiac ,,by ,,rudolf ,,eucken ,the ,knickerbocker ,press1 ,new ,york ,,preface ,these lectures1 delivered at ,new ,york ,university from ,february #bjth till ,march #a1 #aiac1 appeal less to students and philosophers than to the cultured public at large4 ,i take this opportunity of expressing my sincere gratitude to the ,new ,york ,university1 and especially to ,chancellor ,elmer ,e4 ,brown1 for all the kindness and interest shown to me during my stay in ,new ,york4 ,,rudolf ,,eucken4 ,,jena1 ,june1 #aiac4 ,,contents ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,ethical ,,problem ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,time #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ethical ,,principle #bc ,,iii4 ,a ,,defence ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,principle #dc ,,iv4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,principle #fc ,v4 ,,morality ,,and ,,religion #hg ,,vi4 ,,the ,,present ,,status ,,of ,,morality #ajg ,i ,,the ,,ethical ,,problem ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,time ,in former times1 nothing seemed more plausible and more certain than morality4 ,it was a tower of strength1 where men sought refuge in the midst of all the doubts and conflicts of life4 ,this was especially the case during the ,age of ,enlightenment4 ,men were beginning to believe less absolutely in the religion handed down to them1 but they clung all the more to morality4 ,metaphysical speculation and theoretical endeavours to reveal the innermost essence of things encountered growing opposition1 yet morality was welcomed as something superior to all complications1 and valuable to all4 ,it was held to be the pivot of ,archimedes1 which gives stability to the whole of life4 ,in our days morality has ceased to be a matter of such unquestionable certainty1 and has been drawn into the wave of disintegration which is passing over our minds4 ,formerly the scientific definition and accurate conception of morality were matters of contention2 but it is now the fundamental idea of morality that is questioned4 ,many of our contemporaries are of opinion that the revelations of modern science and the claims of modern life have destroyed the foundations of morality and made it untenable in the old sense4 ,morality in the old sense demands dissociation of our aspirations from our own personal interest1 and devotion to something that is esteemed higher2 whenever an action that appears good is seen to proceed from selfish motives1 it can no longer claim any moral value4 ,there is a widespread tendency in modern life1 to question the possibility of such detachment from the ,ego1 and to acknowledge the coercion exercised over man by his instinct of self-preservation4 ,emancipation from this restraint is not even considered desirable1 for constant strife and competition seem necessary to life and progress1 and a softening of this strife would inevitably reduce the energy of life4 ,morality further demands independence and spontaneity of action4 ,an action performed under the pressure of external coercion or mechanical habit1 loses immediately its moral character4 ,now such independence and spontaneity are not possible apart from some kind of free choice1 yet this would contradict the law of causality1 which in the present age is generally considered to rule the whole of reality4 ,in man's soul1 the supremacy of this law of causality is strengthened by our growing insight into the power of heredity and of social environment4 ,yet morality in the old sense stands and falls with man's power of spontaneous and independent decision4 ,it is difficult also for morality to retain in modern life the position and estimation it formerly enjoyed4 ,it used to be invested with unique significance1 and placed high above all other manifestations of the inner life4 ,this conviction found its strongest expression at times of great historical import4 ,we all remember the words of ,jesus3 ,what shall it profit a man1 if he shall gain the whole world1 and lose his own soul8 ,the same conviction is expressed in philosophical language by the greatest antique philosopher and the greatest modern philosopher3 ,plato and ,kant4 ,plato says3 ,all the gold on the earth and under the earth is less precious than virtue4 ,kant says3 ,if righteousness should perish1 it would not be worth while for men to inhabit the earth4 ,but this conviction of the absolute supremacy of the moral task requires an inner gradation of life1 for which modern conditions offer no scope4 ,for modern life subordinates all aspiration and endeavour to the aim of enhancing the process of life4 ,every action is valued as a means to this end2 and morality could only hold its own as an instrument of human welfare4 ,but such degradation of morality would mean annihilation of morality4 ,the present time is not entirely dominated by such a movement against morality1 only a few currents of thought are so absolute in their negation of ethical claims4 ,but these currents could never have attained the strength and expansion they undoubtedly exhibit1 if in our day morality were more securely established and more distinctly formulated4 ,it is the want of union in moral ideals 7never before so strongly marked7 which gives added power to the enemies of morality4 ,there are to-day no less than four kinds of morality1 often crossing and opposing each other1 which claim men's allegiance4 ,these are3 ,religious ,morality1 ,the ,morality of ,reason or of immanent idealism1 ,the ,morality of ,work1 ,social ,morality4 ,religious ,morality and the ,morality of ,reason have come down to us from past ages1 and grow out of an inner world of thought4 ,the ,morality of ,work and ,social ,morality are specific results of the present time1 growing out of work in a visible world of realities4 ,the two older forms of morality form an antithesis to the two newer forms1 as will hereafter be seen4 ,the most effectual kind of morality is still the religious one--for us1 the morality associated with ,christianity1 the religion of ethical redemption4 ,christianity1 which is founded on a holy will superior to the world1 exalts moral action far above arbitrary human choice and human aim4 ,it completely severs moral action from all natural inclination1 dissociates it from all external performance1 and gives it a purely spiritual character4 ,it supplies a most powerful impulse to action1 by connecting man's destiny with his attitude to his moral obligations4 ,the awakening and ennobling power inherent in ,christianity was not confined to individuals1 but was embodied in a large section of the human race1 creating a spiritual atmosphere which still acts powerfully on individual souls1 even if they themselves are not conscious of it4 ,religious morality still continues to influence us in this way4 ,all other kinds of morality could not be as effectual as they are1 were they not constantly supplemented and deepened by religious morality4 ,and yet we cannot ignore the fact that in our day the supremacy of religious morality is often contested4 ,the world of religion no longer encompasses man as a matter of course1 and this also weakens its moral influence4 ,at the same time many objections are raised against the nature and demands of religious morality4 ,owing to the closer connection between man's endeavour and his environment and to the accentuation of the struggle for existence1 this kind of morality appears too mild1 too soft1 too subjective1 and there is often a desire for a sterner and more virile kind4 ,religious ethics do not seem to have sufficient latitude to transform the whole of life4 ,we can therefore understand the widespread desire for something which can sufficiently supplement religious ethics4 ,at all periods of higher civilisation1 religious morality has been supplemented and completed by the morality of reason1 which was developed above all by the philosophers1 from the ,stoics down to ,kant and ,fichte4 ,here morality does not proceed from a superior and divine will1 but from man's own reasonable nature4 ,this nature seems to demand recognition of a universal law1 and voluntary submission to it2 only then does man bring his own being to perfection4 ,the morality arising herefrom is strong and manly2 it incites man to a proud independence of spirit1 and exalts him far above everyday life4 ,to this morality of reason we owe the scientific development of the moral world of thought1 and the distinct formulation of conceptions like ,duty and ,conscience4 ,by means of such conceptions1 the morality of reason also influences our own time1 without however taking the lead1 as it did during the ,age of ,enlightenment4 ,the idea of reason as the sure foundation of our spiritual life is no longer universally accepted1 and has little influence on the man of to-day4 ,he is too fully conscious of his subordination to the world of sense1 of which he is a member1 to be able to enfranchise himself completely from it1 and to assert his own superior power4 ,the rationalistic conception of life reckons with strong1 self-centred personalities1 who1 as we know1 do not abound in our time4 ,morality could not be in close touch with the movements and problems of the present day1 if--either as religious or as rational morality--it were inseparable from belief in an invisible world4 ,but the latest development of life supplies morality with valuable motives derived from the visible world1 and even creates new specific forms of morality4 ,on the one hand1 the impulse comes from modern work2 on the other hand1 from modern society4 ,in both cases1 we have forces that were always at work1 but that gain considerable significance from the conditions of modern life4 ,all really earnest work is directed towards some object which it seeks to penetrate2 it impels us to value the object for its own sake1 and to treat it according to its own requirements4 ,man is thus exalted above his own personal opinion and inclination4 ,only in modern times has work reached its full development as a factor of education and of moral culture4 ,for work has now become more and more independent of separate individuals2 it is becoming a concern common to all mankind1 and it forms its own great complexes4 ,such a complex is modern science4 ,it is no longer dependent on individuals1 but has formed a fabric of its own4 ,in accordance with the development it has attained1 science dictates to individuals the channels and methods of their work1 presents problems to be solved1 and indicates the means of their solution4 ,the individual works in vain1 if he detaches himself from the movement of the whole4 ,his enrolment in the movement of the whole imparts to life a distinctly ethical character4 ,for the individual must subordinate himself completely to the demands of the whole2 he must repress everything bearing upon his own will and desire2 he must feel that his own efforts are part of the great sum of human endeavour1 the promotion of which must be his highest satisfaction4 ,single workers come and go1 but through the work of generations the proud edifice of science is ever growing4 ,as ,bacon says3 ,multi pertransibunt et augebitur scientia4 7,many will pass by1 and science will grow47 ,what applies to science is equally true of the other provinces of life4 ,in modern times1 mighty complexes are everywhere springing up1 which encompass individuals with their superior power4 ,we see this above all in technical and industrial work1 but also in state organisation1 in education with its schools and so forth4 ,all these finally unite in the comprehensive conception of civilisation and culture1--in the idea of man's supremacy over the world by means of his work4 ,it is evident that a strong moral force is here engendered4 ,without this ethical factor1 without a constant enrolment and subordination1 modern civilisation could never have reached its present development4 ,yet we cannot deny that this morality of work has inner limitations4 ,the technical side of work does indeed repress and even destroy all individual will2 but it is an open question in what temper the work is done1 whether from love to the work or from petty and selfish motives4 ,it is quite possible for a petty and narrow frame of mind to be accompanied by the greatest technical skill4 ,further work spurs on towards achievement1 and the worker is judged by what he achieves4 ,what becomes of his inner life1 of his whole personality1 is a matter of indifference4 ,here we are only parts of a structure1 and are nothing at all in ourselves4 ,this must become so more and more in proportion as work is specialised1 and vitalises an ever smaller part of the individual's powers4 ,moreover the union of men which in this direction takes place1 is only confined to their common work4 ,however closely connected they may be through their work1 their individual principles and convictions can be very different1 if not absolutely hostile4 ,it is1 in our day1 above all1 the social problem1 which divides men into hostile factions4 ,in one special direction--that of work--there is an ethical development of life2 but we cannot base on it an inner entity of right and humanity4 ,the morality thus developed is cold and impersonal2 it lacks inner warmth1 and cannot appeal to the whole personality4 ,in this respect1 social morality is infinitely superior to the morality of work4 ,for social morality proceeds from the immediate relation of man to man4 ,here also1 something old and familiar acquires a new form and stronger influence4 ,it was an old conviction that man could only develop in connection with his fellow-men1 towards whom his activity was mainly directed4 ,but what has re-cast the idea of society in a new mould1 is the modern doctrine that men are not united by their common relation to an invisible world--ruled either by a ,divine ,being or by an all-pervading ,reason--but by their actual living together in the realm of experience4 ,this modern doctrine points out that individuals not only meet during the course of their life1 but that they are interdependent from the very beginning1--that union and life with others is a fundamental necessity for every human being4 ,in developing this idea1 modern sociology shows1 by means of innumerable statistics1 how the nature and welfare of the individual depends upon the condition of the whole4 ,it tries to prove that all progress--even for the individual--is inseparable from the amelioration of the community at large2 such amelioration therefore becomes the main object of endeavour4 ,modern sociology at the same time advocates the idea of a common responsibility1 a solidarity of all human life and action4 ,strong motives are thus offered to the individual to direct his activity1 beyond his own personal interest1 towards the welfare of all1 and to find in work for the welfare of others--in altruistic action--the highest value of life4 ,the social ethics thus developed are further enhanced by the growing conviction that the traditional form of life in the community is capable--nay needful--of fundamental changes4 ,formerly the structure of society was above all aristocratic in character4 ,the conduct of life was in the hands of a small minority4 ,they alone acquired full development of all their powers and full possession of earthly goods1 which the rest could only enjoy in part and through the agency of the favoured few4 ,this division of mankind appeared to be too firmly established by the divine will or by a mysterious destiny for human endeavour to try and alter it4 ,the modern man1 in the consciousness of his power1 by no means considers these things incapable of change4 ,for him1 it is a sublime task to suppress such distinctions1 and to let all that bears human features 7,fichte7 participate in the work and enjoyment of life4 ,we can here discuss neither the possibility of solving this problem in all its bearings1 nor the complications resulting therefrom4 ,but we cannot deny the strong ethical stimulus of such a movement4 ,it has resulted in an eager desire to strengthen the weak1 to raise aspiring spirits1 to oppose injustice1 to eradicate suffering as far as possible1 and to increase the enjoyment of life4 ,in all this1 there is much warmth and vigour1 a strong feeling of responsibility1 and recognition of the rights of others4 ,no other ethical force so strongly influences the men of to-day1 as the social idea2 we see this in legislation1 in education1 in every relation of man to man4 ,this idea counteracts egoism1 and produces such a wealth of humane action1 as was hardly ever witnessed at any period of the world's history4 ,but even here1 in spite of so much that is admirable1 inner limitations are evident4 ,life and morality are concentrated on activity for others4 ,but this activity is more for man's external welfare than for that of his soul1--more for the conditions of life than for life itself4 ,inner problems find too often only a secondary consideration and the personality as a whole is apt to be neglected4 ,this morality of social activity believes in the existence of goodwill and its growth by means of external activity1 and takes human virtue for granted4 ,but it has nothing to offer that could allay the inner conflicts1 or could overcome the dark1 wild1 and passionate element in man's soul4 ,nor does this kind of morality sufficiently realise what complications and passions are inseparable from life in the community3 the strife for power and supremacy1 the vanity and unreality which arise and rapidly spread among its members4 ,social morality shows a very optimistic conception of man1 which is often contradicted by experience4 ,however great therefore the merits of social morality may be in one special direction1 it takes up the problem too superficially1 and offers no firm foundation for morality1 which it presupposes rather than creates4 ,morality to-day thus appears to be accompanied by much confusion and many complications4 ,there is no lack of separate developments1 but these cross and oppose each other4 ,what one kind of morality takes to be its chief source of strength1 appears to another to be mere weakness4 ,the inner and spiritual character of the older forms is condemned by the younger forms as a subjective illusion1 while the unremitting activity of the latter seem to their opponents to be an exclusive concentration on external work4 ,life as a whole has become uncertain to us in its deepest aspects2 and we are no longer satisfied with the moral impulses coming from the life around us4 ,we hesitate between absolutely different kinds of morality1 which can only fully develop their individual characteristics by injuring one another2 this must inevitably weaken the influence of morality on the whole of life4 ,at the same time1 movements hostile to morality encounter less opposition1 and gain ground in spite of their inherent superficiality4 ,morality1 once an undoubted possession of mankind1 has thus come to be a difficult problem2 instead of ruling over man from the height of its superiority1 it seems now to depend on his opinion and choice4 ,the condition of things resulting herefrom is becoming more and more unendurable4 ,if morality is weakened1 then life is robbed of a strong impulse1 an ennobling power1 and a dominant aim2 it is in danger of inner insignificance and disintegration4 ,the salt of life is then lacking1 which alone can keep it fresh and healthy1 and with all its outer brilliancy1 it is threatened with inner decay4 ,if we are to resist this danger with all our might1 then science must help to overcome the uncertainty and want of concentration so characteristic of our time1 and to gain full recognition of morality as a whole4 ,to do this1 it is above all necessary to find some point of view whence we can successfully combat this disintegration4 ,we shall therefore have to consider first of all how such a point of view may be attained4 ,,ii ,,the ,,ethical ,,principle ,the intricate situation of to-day necessarily incites us to reflection4 ,we must consider our life as a whole2 we must ask ourselves whether human existence comprises various kinds and gradations of life1 and whether a task thus arises which embraces all man's endeavour4 ,there can be no doubt that human life is not confined to one single plane1--that all variety of endeavour does not easily unite to form a definite entity1 but that heterogeneous elements meet and mingle in man4 ,man at first appears to be part of nature1 of the world of sense1 subject to its laws and impulses4 ,dim and unreasonable instincts pervade man's soul with compelling force4 ,our conceptions grow out of sense impressions1 and form at first the purely mechanical concatenation which we term association1 while all our efforts are directed towards individual self-preservation4 ,in all this1 man is entirely within the limitations of nature4 ,yet though this natural life at first predominates1 it does not represent the whole of our life4 ,we become aware of new features1 which we characterise as spiritual4 ,we see how man grows independent of his environment1 and strives to subdue it from without and within4 ,by thought he frees himself from the shackles of his environment1 and asserts himself against the whole world2 at the same time he is driven back to the world1 and feels impelled to fathom it and to make it his own by personal experience4 ,his actions do not always remain a mere part of nature's concatenations4 ,he can detach himself from all cohesion4 ,in unbridled egoism he can subordinate every event and action to his own well-being2 or he can absorb into himself all that at first existed beside him and apart from him1 and that often appeared hostile1 and can thus manifest boundless love and sympathy4 ,his natural instinct of self-preservation will then appear too small and insignificant2 he can even come to feel its narrow restrictions as intolerable4 ,if we pass from the individual to the whole of mankind1 we see in civilisation and culture a new form of life opposed to mere nature4 ,for man is no longer swayed and ruled by what assails him from without1 but he confronts it with new aims and ideals4 ,he judges and weighs2 he approves and rejects2 he forms new complexes1 like those of state organisation and of science4 ,in all this1 man is the representative of a new and specific kind of life2 he manifests an independence unknown to nature4 ,this new life differs from nature and from what may be attained on the basis of nature1 not only in single characteristics1 but in all its manifestations and even in its fundamental essence4 ,nature forms a tissue of separate elements1 which come into reciprocal action but lack all inner cohesion4 ,great complexes are thus formed1 but no combination amounts to real cohesion3 there is no inner whole1 and no life proceeding from such an inner entity4 ,all life grows out of contact with the environment2 therefore intellectual participation is indissolubly bound to the world of sense4 ,in this life of nature1 the intellect can create no conceptions independent of sense impressions1 and action cannot free itself from the power of natural impulse4 ,all inner values can here be nothing more than an accessory and reminiscence of what reaches us from without4 ,we see something essentially different1 wherever spiritual life develops4 ,here life is not decomposed into a multitude of separate particles1 but inner cohesions are formed1 which embrace and dominate all achievement of individual beings4 ,this is especially the case when human thought aspires towards ,truth4 ,every individual has his own sum of conceptions and his own special associations2 but he does not possess a truth of his own4 ,all search for truth is based on the conviction that something must be acquired which is common to all men1 and which embraces and governs them all4 ,aspiration thus extends far beyond separate individuals4 ,we have here not a disconnected mass of assertion and dogma2 all is gathered into a well ordered cohesion1 and all separate efforts result in progression to the whole4 ,every kind of intellectual endeavour presents a similar situation4 ,thus the ,good and the ,beautiful are not values confined to single individuals2 every man striving after them1 only contributes towards the sum of common endeavour1 and what he wins for himself is at the same time a gain for all4 ,aspiration is not confined to a limited number of separate results1 but the manifestation of a great whole is sought for3 a comprehensive realm of the good and the beautiful4 ,once the mind is thus concentrated on the whole1 greater spiritual independence inevitably ensues4 ,for it is necessary to rise above the sense impression and constantly to assert the autonomy of the soul1 if aspiration from the whole and to the whole is to be successfully developed4 ,from being a mere accessory1 the soul now becomes in all respects a source of independent life4 ,in science ideas gain a significance of their own1 apart from the impressions of sense2 they develop their own laws1 and react with transforming power on what they have absorbed1 as we see in the case of mathematics4 ,our own mind supplies the forms in which we shape our world4 ,feeling also frees itself from sense impressions4 ,sense enjoyment no longer suffices for man's happiness4 ,his relation to other human beings does not remain confined to external contact2 pity and love can embrace the whole of mankind1 as is proved by the great religions4 ,we can no longer doubt man's capacity of aspiring to values far beyond external possessions2 and his inner life1 the development of his own individual personality may become a matter of paramount importance to him4 ,but this inner life1 with all its distinct manifestations1 can cope successfully with the outer world and its forcible inroads1 only by developing an inner realm which it extends to an independent world of its own4 ,this does in reality take place4 ,what was at first beside us and apart from us1 can be transferred to the soul without merging into it4 ,the antithesis between internal and external values1 which at first seemed to disintegrate life1 can be overcome1 if spiritual endeavour absorbs the object and brings it into reciprocal action with spiritual forces4 ,where spiritual development is at its highest1 life does not fluctuate between the subjective and objective1 but unites both in itself1 brings them into reciprocal action1 and develops one by means of the other4 ,such a triumph over antitheses is to be seen most clearly in the province of art4 ,art is not merely capable of copying external objects as exactly as possible1 or of rendering with the greatest possible truth the feeling of the individual3 really great art must embrace both factors and blend them to a perfect unity4 ,this is how a real work of art is created1 which then gives to life an inner expansion and a new reality4 ,as in art1 so also in the other provinces human life4 ,in the mutual relation of man to man1 the spiritual phase by no means does away with all distinctions1 but it exalts us above them1 and embraces them all from a higher point of view4 ,individuals are not to be merged in a hazy and colourless whole1 but in rising towards a higher life an inner communion becomes possible1 within which even what is alien becomes to a certain extent our own4 ,this enables men to understand each other1 to put themselves in the place of one another1 to find themselves in others4 ,man acquires in such communion a vaster self1 which is not dependent on one tiny atom1 but has a whole world of its own4 ,if scientific research is not to degenerate into barren scepticism1 it must also overcome the antithesis of the subjective and the objective4 ,to do this1 it assimilates external objects by means of thought1 and strives to embrace at the same time both the inner man and the outer world1 developing one by means of the other4 ,we observe everywhere this tendency to subject everything to the operation of spiritual forces--to create and develop an inner world4 ,here all problems are confined to life itself1 which is no longer concerned with extraneous matters1 but with itself alone4 ,in this inner world1 life develops in its own way2 it finds its aims and ideals in itself1 in its own perfection1 in its complete triumph over the antitheses it embraces4 ,how are we to interpret this new life and its origin8 ,it cannot have proceeded from that nature inferior to man1 from which it differs even in its most elementary fundamental forms4 ,it cannot be a creation of man alone1 in whom--as experience proves--it is far too weak1 too much alloyed with lower and sensual elements1 for a new gradation of life to originate in him4 ,nothing therefore remains but to recognise in this inward tendency a movement of the universe--a movement in which man is privileged to participate1 but which he could never engender from out of his own nature4 ,the recognition of such a movement completely changes the aspect of reality4 ,the universe now seems to embrace two planes1 and to be rising--at least as far as humanity is concerned--from one plane to the other4 ,a new light is cast on reality1 which ceases to be a collection of separate and non-cohesive elements1 and becomes capable of comprehensive operation and of self-concentration4 ,we realise that what at first appeared to be the whole of reality was only its outer aspect1 which is supplemented by the new depth revealed to us4 ,it is only the development of these depths that gives life its real significance2 values come into existence which lie beyond the natural instinct of self-preservation--such values as the good1 the true1 and the beautiful4 ,let us now see how this order of things strikes and influences man4 ,the new phase of life at first appears--in man--only in a few individual operations1 while his life and aspiration are still mainly determined by nature and natural self-preservation4 ,a certain spirituality does indeed appear wherever there is human life1 yet only as something subordinate1 as an accessory to another kind of life1 but without the autonomy necessary to a comprehensive and self-centred whole1 which could develop its own specific character4 ,if man is to participate in the movement of the universe and bring the spiritual into full operation in himself1 this autonomy of the spiritual life is of paramount importance4 ,it can only develop where a movement reaches man from the universe1 embraces him1 and determines his further course4 ,but1 at the same time1 man must recognise and seize this impulse1 thus taking possession of this new life4 ,we have seen that what used to be considered of secondary importance1 is now of paramount value4 ,this requires a reversion of the original order of things1 a readjustment of the values of life4 ,we have not to realise any new achievement within a given sphere of activity1 or to further develop existing conditions2 we have to acquire an essentially new life4 ,the requirements thus formulated lead to a system of ethics4 ,its fundamental doctrine is man's power to rise by free action to the higher plane of cosmic life1 and to develop it with all the strength of his soul4 ,we have shown that the new object of our endeavour is not something unfamiliar that suddenly invades our consciousness4 ,for it is the working within us of some spiritual force1 that exalts us above the animal world to the status of human beings4 ,but the spiritual life undergoes an essential change1 as soon as it acquires autonomy within us4 ,as long as it was held to be of secondary importance1 it was chiefly appreciated as a means towards human ends3 spiritual forces were to give us more power over external realities1 and fuller enjoyment of life1 but we did not penetrate into the life of the spirit and there find a new world4 ,if we do this in accordance with the transformation of life we have been considering1 great results will soon appear4 ,in science and art1 as well as in law and morality1 our efforts will be accompanied by such strength1 devotion1 and gladness as we never before experienced4 ,we shall operate with the laws and powers inherent in the things themselves2 we shall become indifferent to outer profit and success1 and shall find full satisfaction in the manifestation of genuine spiritual life1 in spite of the trials and difficulties it may offer4 ,if the spiritual life can thus grow towards perfection1 undisturbed by human aims1 it will manifest all its values in rich and pure abundance2 it will reveal a new world1 and will open up a new depth of reality4 ,we thus take possession of a world which exalts us far above all petty human considerations1 yet which is not alien and unfamiliar to us1 but is essentially our own life and being4 ,with autonomy1 the spiritual life also gains more unity4 ,as at first manifested in human life1 it is divided into a variety of separate branches--such as art1 science1 law1 technical knowledge--which lack all inner cohesion and mutual understanding4 ,if the autonomy of the spiritual life reveals a new phase of reality1 it must also form a comprehensive whole1 of which all the separate provinces are but the various manifestations4 ,they themselves now appear in a new light1 and every province must determine its position and significance in the whole1 and must submit to the operation of the forces proceeding from the whole4 ,this will give more depth and more soul to the activity in each separate province1 while all will seek to come into closer touch and to supplement one another4 ,all this implies a great task for man4 ,he is an imperfect and unfinished being1 full of contradictions4 ,he has to seek and achieve genuine life2 he must penetrate from the sphere of effects to that of their causes2 he must recognise the great cosmic movement as a personal concern of his own1 and must thus give meaning and value to his life and aspiration4 ,we have here a matter of vast import4 ,not only must the new world be recognised and taken possession of by the individual1 but a new order of things1 valid for all humanity1 must be created and triumphantly asserted against an entirely different order of things4 ,instead of the mere juxtaposition which the world of sense at first presents to us1 we must establish inner cohesion in society and history4 ,the efforts of all humanity must supplement the visible world1 to which we remain bound1 by an invisible one1 and must make of this invisible world the chief seat of human life4 ,while time is forever flowing onward1 permanent truths and values of life must be found1 which can sustain from within all aspiration and endeavour4 ,we human beings must realise a higher life within given natural conditions2 and to do this1 we have first to create and establish a new order of things within our own sphere of existence4 ,this transforms our life into a never ending task1 but also imparts to it an incomparable greatness4 ,while thus striving forward1 the individual must first of all submerge himself in the new world as a whole1 until he finds there his true life1 his real and higher self4 ,a complete negation of the little ,ego and emancipation from it are requisite4 ,this does not mean that the individual is to disappear and be absorbed by the infinite4 ,the infinite becomes a living present at this special point1 and the individual must take possession of it and assert it4 ,he must also promote the forward movement of life1 and must enrich reality by the culture of a spiritual individuality1 very different from the one nature has given him4 ,this spiritual individuality can only develop on the basis of the spiritual life1 from which it takes its aims and standards2 and it must always be in harmony with the movement of the whole4 ,it is evident that all these factors have laid the foundations for a system of ethics4 ,as we have seen1 life as a whole challenges man to a great change1 to a decision1 an action1 but also to unremitting work for the establishment of a new order of things4 ,that which gives us human beings our pre-eminence and constitutes our innermost essence is not to be gained without our own efforts1 and pervades our life as a continuous task4 ,we may call the morality arising thence the ,ethics of the ,spiritual ,life1 for the centre of life and its ruling motive lie in man's relation to a superior spiritual life1 which is at the root of his own being and yet has to be acquired by his own action and effort4 ,morality represents the principles underlying this great change4 ,morality grasps the question as a whole4 ,morality elucidates the fact that all the variety of work is dominated by strife for a spiritual self1 a strife which can only be successful if the original situation is reversed4 ,we must now try to determine more closely what form these ethics are to take1 and whether they are able to overcome the objections which confront every kind of morality4 ,,iii ,a ,,defence ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,principle ,before we proceed further in the direction indicated1 we must see whether our own convictions are capable of overcoming the opposition and impediments to morality1 presented by widespread currents of contemporary thought4 ,were we unable to overcome them1 then all further advance would be stamped by inner uncertainty4 ,the first objection was1 that all human action must tend to the preservation and advancement of the performer1 so that action apart from self-interest1 as required by morality1 is impossible4 ,we are told that man cannot be inspired and moved to action by any aim outside his own personality1 and that even where this appears to be the case1 closer examination reveals some hidden motive of self-interest4 ,this was the doctrine of ,spinoza and is now a widespread conviction4 ,there is undoubtedly some truth in the fundamental idea1 but it is by no means certain that this truth is rightly applied4 ,it is true that all endeavour must start from the life and being of a man and reflect back on him4 ,something absolutely alien would necessarily leave us cold and indifferent2 by his action man must in some way grow and gain and assert his own inner self4 ,but we must ask ourselves whether the natural ,ego1 to which the opponent of morality binds all human action1 represents the whole of man's life1 and whether all endeavour is obliged to serve the interests of natural self-preservation4 ,if a man recognises any kind of spiritual activity in its specific working1 he will reject such limitation2 and the more he sees in the spiritual life a new and independent phase of reality1 the more decisively will he declare that a real self is not contained in the natural ,ego1 but must first be acquired by means of the spiritual life4 ,in spite of all the subjective force and passion displayed in the self-preservation of the natural ,ego1 this ,ego and its life are without inner significance3 it plans and acts1 without being absorbed and illuminated by an inner force2 it remains alien and dense4 ,on the spiritual plane1 on the other hand1 man acquires an individuality1 and is able to embrace a whole of reality1 into the life of which he submerges himself2 and in developing this life1 he is able to find full satisfaction and joy4 ,the spiritual life does indeed demand repression1 subjection1 and even sacrifice of the little ,ego2 yet the experience of humanity clearly proves that life thereby suffers neither degradation nor disintegration1 but rather1 that it is thus strengthened and regenerated4 ,life is certainly not weakened or extinguished in the efforts to gain truth and beauty1 in the activity of the scholar and the artist1 in social and philanthropic work4 ,by enfranchisement from the little ,ego1 life has gained in expansion and strength4 ,man is conscious of finding his real self and of developing his innermost being in such work1 not of promoting ends outside himself4 ,all deeper religions and systems of philosophy have in common this requirement that man should give up his little ,ego1 and they promise that from this renunciation a new life shall be born1 which is of infinitely greater meaning and value than the old life4 ,the movement towards spirituality is not a mere negation1 but leads to an assertion founded on the basis of negation4 ,once man has found the right plane of life1 and has acquired a new individuality1 the gulf between man and the universe is bridged over4 ,man can then come into inner relation with reality1 and can take possession of the infinite4 ,this is the meaning of ,goethe's lines3 ,und so lang du dies nicht hast1 ,dieses ,stirb und ,werde6 ,bist du nur ein trber ,gast ,auf der dunklen ,erde4 7,till thou hearest the behest ,saying3 ,death is ,birth6 ,thou art but a dreary guest ,on the gloomy earth47 ,if this is the case1 then all spiritual work contributes to the development of a new1 real self2 then no blame can be attached to morality for advocating the absolute necessity of this change1 and for recognising1 in all ramifications of work1 the one great task of developing a new human individuality4 ,morality will not thereby weaken and suppress the impulse of life1 but will direct it into the right channel and ennoble it4 ,by treating man's task as a harmonious whole--which at the same time forms part of the one great entity--it will act as a stimulus on all the separate provinces of life4 ,the gravity of this ethical task is heightened by the fact1 that we must pass through a negative stage in order to reach one of positive affirmation1 and that all action which denies or obscures such negation1 remains one-sided and imperfect4 ,closely allied to this first objection to morality is the second3 the assertion of the ,determinists that human action is but part of an immutable concatenation1 and that the decision of the moment arises1 with inevitable necessity1 from what is and what has been4 ,this is an old assertion1 reaching back to the latter days of antiquity4 ,it has frequently aroused men to passion in the domain of religion4 ,it permeates modern philosophy1 and has found classical expression in the doctrine of ,spinoza4 ,in our day1 it is often confirmed by a more careful study of the universe4 ,favourable to ,determinism is also our modern insight into such forces as heredity and social environment1 and our greater knowledge of psychology4 ,everywhere the single atom appears as the result of some cohesion1 of which it at the same time forms part4 ,closer observation only accentuates such dependence2 we can no longer consider a separate atom or moment as something absolutely self-centred1 nor can we interpret any action as really taking place suddenly4 ,there exists1 without doubt1 more cohesion and more subordination than was formerly believed1 or is often accepted even now4 ,however legitimate these considerations may be1 it does not follow that they exhaust all the possibilities offered by reality4 ,if we declare that man is completely absorbed in such concatenation1 we must assume what is by no means unassailable3 that man is simply part of a given order of things1 of a natural mechanism1 of a network of causality4 ,were he in reality no more than this1 there would be no possibility of his own decision1 no freedom of action1 and consequently no morality4 ,this would destroy1 not morality alone1 but much that its opponents could not well give up4 ,if our life were merely part of a natural mechanism1 it would necessarily cease to be our own life2 it would be only a process realised in us without our co-operation1 and our attitude to it would resemble our attitude to our bodily functions4 ,it is difficult to see how we could then be made responsible by society1 or how we could ourselves feel any responsibility1--how such conceptions as those of good and evil could come into existence and engross our attention4 ,neither would there be any real present1 for if there is no demand for decision1 and no room for original action1 all action would1 with inevitable necessity1 grow out of the past1 like a flower out of its bud1 without our co-operation4 ,we might be able to endure such determination of our life for all time1 if the various movements could easily meet and mingle in our soul1 without any complications4 ,but if our life contains great problems1 grave conflicts1 various and often opposed planes1 then we human beings1 did we submit passively and unresistingly1 would be chained like ,prometheus to a pitiless rock4 ,determinism1 if followed to its logical conclusion1 is nothing less than inner annihilation of life4 ,such recognition necessarily brings us to the question whether the hypothesis held by the ,determinists is unassailable4 ,do we really appertain absolutely to a given and distinctly limited existence8 ,from the point of view of a new plane of reality manifested by the spiritual life1 our reply must be a decided negative4 ,as we have seen1 this new phase does not embrace us from the beginning1 but must be grasped1 appropriated1 and developed by us2 our own decision and action are here indispensable4 ,our life must indeed reckon with certain given factors2 we must recognise the powerful influence of heredity and environment4 ,our individuality is determined for us by nature2 we cannot in all things remould ourselves as we would wish to do2 we are on all sides encompassed by fate4 ,but man is not entirely at the mercy of this fate4 ,the spiritual life which can grow up in him gives him a new1 spontaneous source of life2 he can originate something new1 something entirely his own1 and can oppose his own action to fate4 ,our life thus becomes a struggle between freedom and fate2 and to this struggle it chiefly owes its expansion and greatness4 ,the idea of development is therefore not applicable to the progression of human life4 ,there is no inevitable sequence on a well established basis and in one definite direction2 later results are not simply determined by what has gone before2 one thing does not follow another naturally and easily1 but various elements meet and clash4 ,time after time1 we are in danger of losing what we seemed to have won2 over and over again1 we must climb to the summit of life4 ,but this struggle constantly calls forth new powers4 ,we see that there is much more in us than appeared at first sight1 or than we ourselves were wont to believe4 ,great shocks and strong emotions often produce new convictions or set free new forces within us4 ,it is1 above all1 suffering which rouses and regenerates1 which teaches us to see and cultivate the deepest that is in us4 ,what hitherto seemed to constitute our whole being1 now proves to be but a single stratum1 which it is quite possible to transcend4 ,the real man is only a part1 a section of the possible man4 ,the possibilities dormant in us are an integral part of our being2 and these possibilities enable us to attain something higher and greater4 ,on this power of inner growth rests the confidence of those who1 while recognising the evils of this life1 fight bravely and hopefully on the side of progress4 ,the statesman wishing to raise his people from within1 builds on such a capacity for inner growth1 and believes in the realisation of new possibilities2 so does the educator in his efforts to cultivate and ennoble men's souls4 ,art and religion are ever at work1 in order to discover new possibilities and bring them home to man4 ,were it not for such new possibilities and the regenerative power of man1 his life could retain nothing of its youthful vigour1 and would lapse into stagnation and senility4 ,the same would apply to human civilisation3 it would drift away from simplicity and truth1 and would become more and more artificial4 ,it is in our own power to maintain our vitality1 and to oppose increasing inner strength to all alien and hostile forces4 ,it is by no means certain that we shall always be victorious2 it is one of the tragedies of life that a man's soul is filled with longing for something better1 yet is held captive by circumstance1 and is finally driven back to that from which he would fain escape4 ,and yet it is this struggle which gives to life its vitality and its greatness2 and wherever there is religious conviction1 there also dwells the hope that what could not gain full victory in our life1 will not be lost before ,god4 ,to quote ,browning3 ,what ,i aspired to be1 ,and was not1 comforts me4444 ,all instincts immature1 ,all purposes unsure4444 ,all ,i could never be1 ,all1 men ignored in me3 ,this1 ,i was worth to ,god4#a ,if all this helps to prove the autonomy of man and his independent power of decision1 it does not mean the dissociation of man from all inner cohesion4 ,this freedom only becomes possible by the revelation within him of a new world4 ,there could be no spontaneity of action in single cases1 if a world of independent and spontaneous life did not exist and embrace us from within4 ,thus the individual appertains to the whole1 even in the exercise of freedom4 ,that of which he is capable by himself alone1 is only his ability to bring his own will into accordance with higher laws4 ,all deep thinkers have seen1 in the grasp of the essence of life and the development of its possibilities by means of this individual capacity1 not an achievement of man alone1 but the manifestation of a higher power1 a gift of grace4 ,life did not seem to them to be so divided between grace and freedom1 that one of these factors could only be enriched by what was taken from the other2 they considered both to be so indissolubly united1 that freedom and the power of inner growth appeared to them to be the highest sign of grace4 ,the most energetic natures1 if possessed of any spirituality1 have generally felt themselves to be instruments of a higher power and compelled by an inner necessity4 ,this feeling gave them the strength and self-confidence indispensable for their work4 ,in the case of achievement for the visible world1 this higher power was mostly looked upon as a dark fate1 which protects man as long as it needs him1 and abandons him as soon as he ceases to be useful4 ,but in the case of inner change and regeneration1 this fate was superseded by a power of love and mercy1 which sustains man even in the midst of the greatest dangers4 ,in religion especially1 the consciousness of complete dependence on a superior power has not led to a suspension or restriction of activity4 ,this is clearly proved by such men as ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and ,calvin4 ,they were not the soulless vessels of a truth committed to them2 they grasped1 by their own recognition and decision1 what seemed to them to be the truth4 ,yet in their own consciousness1 achievement was of small value compared to what they revered as a gift of grace4 ,quid habemus quod non accepimus8 7,st4 ,augustine74 ,what have we that we have not received8 ,hitherto we have been concerned with refuting widespread objections to the possibility of morality4 ,we must now consider the violent opposition against the appreciation which morality demands--and must demand4 ,it seems impossible for morality to be unquestionably superior to everything else in life1 and to demand absolute obedience to its requirements1 since it does not fill the whole of life1 but must share men's allegiance with other obligations1 and must seek some compromise with them4 ,this objection could only be valid1 if our whole life were a homogeneous structure1--if one single aim dominated all activity1 and achievement in this direction could alone determine the value of our action4 ,but the case is very different4 ,even the one fact that two planes unite in our life makes it impossible to apply the same standard to all the variety we encounter4 ,the various values determined by these two planes are too different to be compared with one another4 ,how could we judge sensuous enjoyment and outer success in the same way as we judge values like truth and honour8 ,further1 morality is not concerned merely with single values appertaining to the higher plane1 but with the recognition and appropriation of this higher plane itself3 it is a movement from a whole and to a whole4 ,once the conviction obtains that the spiritual phase of life is something entirely different to nature1 the acquisition of it becomes the chief problem of life1 and the claim of morality--which upholds the principle of such acquisition--can assert its supremacy over all other claims4 ,wherever this was contested1 the new world revealed by the spiritual life was not fully recognised4 ,the experience of history shows that no artistic or intellectual achievement could prevent a rapid abatement and deterioration of the spiritual life1 if the ethical task was not fully recognised4 ,morality is like religion3 neither can take a secondary or even a co-ordinate place2 they must be valued more than everything else in life1 or else they will inevitably come to mean less4 ,we have now seen that the doubts assailing morality generally proceed from a particular conception of the universe and of man's position in it4 ,this more or less naturalistic conception1 in spite of all it claims to be1 by no means exhausts the resources of human life4 ,as soon as we recognise the limitations of this conception of life and free ourselves from its tyranny1 we are able to acknowledge fully the claims of morality4 ,nay1 more3 these claims must then appeal to us as being both legitimate and imperative2 and what might at first appear to be unintelligible1 will become absolutely clear and certain4 ,,footnote3 #a ,from ,rabbi ,ben ,ezra4 ,,iv ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,principle ,having removed the obstructions which oppose the development of morality1 we can now inquire into the special characteristics of the morality based on the spiritual life4 ,since morality recognises the principle of the spiritual life1 which it absorbs into its own volition and being1 therefore the nature of the spiritual life will also determine the nature of morality itself4 ,we have already seen that the life of the spirit constitutes a new world as compared to the life which originally encompasses us in nature and society1 and which1 though it contains certain processes of a spiritual character1 is yet mainly and fundamentally bound to the senses4 ,the spiritual element is here disintegrated into separate manifestations1 and is never free from the alloy of sense4 ,in the new life1 the spiritual gains autonomy1 becomes a comprehensive whole1 and is able to cultivate its own individuality4 ,it reveals a plane of life essentially superior to that of nature4 ,on man devolves the great task of attaining and developing this plane1 on which life first acquires self-concentration and inner significance1 and becomes real1 genuine life4 ,let us see how this affects morality4 ,it is not confined to individual provinces of life1 but extends over its whole expansion and into every ramification1 demanding a change and an uplifting4 ,this refutes a conception of morality which limits it to the relation of man to man1 and makes it synonymous with altruism4 ,morality undoubtedly has much to do in relation to our fellow-men2 but does it not also find great tasks in the culture of the soul1--in spiritual work for the world1 as expressed in science and art8 ,the quintessence of the ,stoical teaching was the development of personality1 the proclamation of man's inner autonomy and superiority to the world around him4 ,we can hardly refuse to acknowledge the moral character of this teaching1 as also of the ,christian teaching1 which found expression in men like ,augustine1 who brought all moral action into immediate connection with ,god1 and derived it from love to ,him4 ,let us now turn to science and art4 ,we see how1 in spite of all inner and outer difficulties1 a man like ,kant devotes himself in unremitting activity to the lifelong task of finding pure and adequate expression for the perception of truth struggling into consciousness within him4 ,we see how1 in the same spirit1 an artist scorns all external advantage1 and strives only after a pure cultivation and assertion of the creative power within his soul4 ,must not such fidelity to oneself and to one's own work strike us as being in the highest degree moral8 ,the ethical obligation consequently extends to all ramifications of life4 ,everywhere we must take possession of the spiritual life for its own sake1 transpose ourselves into its inner movement1 and exalt it above all concerns of the individual or even of mankind4 ,therefore we must not seek the highest aim of our actions in the welfare of society1 of the community to which we belong4 ,the welfare of society is a conception capable of very different interpretations4 ,it may mean the mere subjective well-being of people living together4 ,in that case1 a new plane of life is not attained2 a social utilitarianism develops1 which destroys all inner values1 and the sole aim of life is to provide the means of life4 ,but the condition of society can also be our chief aim because the new plane1 with its essentially new values1 is best attained through life in the community4 ,then we do not place ourselves merely in the service of humanity1 but we labour for the development of a spiritual world within the life of man4 ,then humanity as a whole is uplifted1 and acknowledges a great task1 while social utilitarianism limits life to the human sphere1 and takes from it all possibility of inner uplifting4 ,utilitarianism is the most dangerous opponent of spiritual productive power1 for it degrades to a means what should be valued for its own sake and as the highest aim4 ,utilitarianism does not change its character by becoming social utilitarianism4 ,inner progress of life is only possible if the spiritual values1 as the true1 the good1 and the beautiful1 are striven after and appreciated for their own sake1 and not as a means for promoting human welfare1--if creative production is not actuated by any consideration of results1 but is an inner necessity of a man's own soul4 ,we have seen that the attainment of autonomy in the spiritual life implies a reversion of the original order of things1 and that the whole of life is thus seen in a new light4 ,it follows that no real morality can be engendered merely by developing existing conditions1 or heightening natural forces4 ,wherever this was attempted1 closer investigation will always show the presence of both the lower and the higher phase1 and the consequent weakening of morality4 ,here ,christianity has achieved something of world-wide historical importance3 it clearly demonstrated the gulf between all merely natural development and real moral action2 it has also shown us that something essentially new appears in morality1 something unattainable by merely ennobling nature4 ,this was not only the case with religion1 for the deepest thinkers of all times have seen in morality not a mere intensification1 but a complete transformation4 ,plato made real virtue dependent on aspiration to the world of ideas4 ,he distinguished this virtue from all that men call virtue1 though to him it was little more than physical ability4 ,kant advocated something similar1 by forbidding man to base action on inclination alone4 ,he even went so far as to make action against natural inclination a sign of good principle4 ,the requirement thus formulated does not preclude fruitful moral germs and impulses in the existing order of things2 but their full development is only possible when a distinct reversion has taken place1 and when an independent spiritual life purifies1 unites1 and exalts all beginnings4 ,these alone can never1 by a slow process of evolution1 raise life to the plane of genuine spirituality4 ,as we have seen1 the morality of the spiritual life rejects a merely natural origin4 ,but because it represents something essentially new1 its main object cannot consist in the denial and suppression of mere nature4 ,this was the aim of asceticism1 especially in its development as a reaction against the antique over-estimation of nature4 ,in the latter days of antiquity1 life was swamped and enfeebled by a refined form of sensuality4 ,life could only develop if this sensuality was resisted and full supremacy was advocated for the spiritual4 ,we can understand that those engaged in this struggle went so far as to see the highest morality in the complete suppression of sensual life4 ,this bears witness to admirable personal feeling2 and yet it was a dangerous error1 for it diverted men from the great task of giving inner significance to life1 and of filling it with strong and healthy love4 ,the strictest asceticism can be united to inner hollowness1 to spiritual pride1 and to want of love4 ,an ascetic element is inseparable from all morality1 but only an element subject to higher aims4 ,we feel it to have been one of the great merits of the ,reformation1 that it set aside the medival appreciation of asceticism4 ,if it is true that autonomy of the spiritual life results in progression towards a new plane1 then only such forms of morality can satisfy us as fully acknowledge such progression and the consequent affirmation of life1--as establish the value of man1 and stimulate him to strenuous effort4 ,all systems which base morality on pity alone must therefore appear inadequate4 ,pity does much to free man from narrow egoism1 and to inspire him with sympathy for others1 even for all mankind2 but pity alone shows only one side of life--only limitations and difficulties1 suffering and gloom4 ,it restricts man's outlook to this one side of life1 so that he can acquire neither glad courage nor any impulse tending to the uplifting of his existence4 ,pity reveals no new possibilities as love does it2 complete resignation here forms the highest pinnacle of the philosophy of life and not the creating of a new world4 ,neither can a system of morality satisfy us which only draws up laws and regulations1--which indicates definite channels of action1 without vitalising action or giving it any progressive impulse4 ,this might suffice if man only had to take his place in a given order of things4 ,but it is quite inadequate if the whole soul is to be gained for a new plane1 and if a new order of things is to be built up within the human sphere4 ,there is1 besides1 the danger of interpreting morality above all as a narrowing1 a police system of life1 and of thus forfeiting man's sympathy4 ,we do not deny that the uplifting1 inseparable from spiritual life1 demands many struggles and renunciations4 ,we can only rise to an affirmative by means of a decided negation--a negation rendered necessary by the brutality of mere nature and the pettiness of mere man4 ,in the history of mankind1 morality at first operated chiefly through prohibition3 it was necessary to restrain the wild natural impulses and destructive passions of man1 in order to prepare the way for spiritual activity4 ,we have but to think of the frequent recurrence of prohibitive laws in the older legislation of all nations4 ,but there is a great distinction1 even in this primitive form of morality4 ,the lower kind may remain permanently on the grade of negation1 while higher forms will work their way through the negation to affirmation1 and will retain consciousness of this affirmation even in presence of negation4 ,morality must consequently be productive in character1 not merely regulative4 ,productive morality will press forward1 not waiting till man is brought face to face with a new requirement or an opportunity of action1 but taking the initiative1 seeking new points of attack1 bringing everything into movement1 and promoting the growth of the spiritual life4 ,even then1 morality cannot limit its task to the ordering of private life1 but must extend its activity to general conditions and human society4 ,life in the community must be exalted1 and fitted to become the representative of spiritual life4 ,it is one of the chief demands of modern times1 that not only private life1 but the whole of human society1 should be subject to moral judgment and moral operation4 ,hegel condemned as paltriness of faith1 7,kleinkrmerei des ,glaubens7 men's belief in the guidance of their personal destiny by divine might and wisdom1 while at the same time they believed the fate of mankind1 as manifested in the history of the world1 to be governed by blind unreasonable chance4 ,we must also combat a paltriness of morality which concerns itself with the private affairs of individuals1 but shows no interest and recognises no obligation with regard to what concerns humanity at large4 ,in former times1 when man was conscious of his weakness with regard to his environment1 the most hopeless situation could be accepted as the will of ,god or as a decree of fate4 ,but the modern man1 with his consciousness of power and of his obligations towards the community1 cannot reject the idea of the moral solidarity of all4 ,he must therefore concern himself with the general conditions of mankind1 and must display active interest in this direction4 ,let us further consider what has been achieved by the autonomy of the spiritual life4 ,we must first of all return to the new depth of life which we have already recognised as one of its most important results4 ,this means that we must cultivate in ourselves a firm basis1 a continuous activity which determines1 vitalises1 and permeates each individual action4 ,we must develop a distinct nucleus1 an essential character which is not a mere background to our activity1 but an integral part of it4 ,this being the case1 morality cannot be satisfied with stimulating man to certain achievements1 and setting free the forces within him2 it demands of him a new life1 in which he must strive to make the deepening of activity we have been considering1 an essential part of all his action4 ,this is the ideal we try to realise in the development of personality and moral character4 ,we want not merely to act but to be something1 to make something out of ourselves1 to put our own personal self into our action1 and to so act that we ourselves thereby grow and advance4 ,only then life is so concentrated on itself and becomes self-conscious and self-centred--only then can it gain significance2 it will otherwise be empty and hollow inwardly1 in spite of unremitting activity4 ,this is what justifies the estimation in which the ideas of personality and character are held4 ,why indeed should we value it so highly1 were it but an accumulation of natural forces and impulses1 and not the representative and starting-point of a new life8 ,not only in individuals must such a depth of being1 such a spiritual individuality be developed2 but in every community1 in every nation1 in all mankind4 ,everywhere must a spiritual character be formed1 and this spiritual character must inspire and permeate all action4 ,only thus can a spiritual atmosphere be created1--can a really civilised nation be differentiated from other nations2 only thus1 and not by means of outer victories and conquests1 can any nation gain lasting significance for all humanity4 ,so1 for instance1 ,greek culture is a possession forever4 ,in all this1 it is evident that in striving for morality1 we are not seeking something alien1 but rather our own essential being4 ,yet this being does not already exist in us1 but has first to be acquired2 it lies not behind us1 but in front of us2 we cannot take for granted a firm basis and positive continuity1 which we see before us as high tasks and ideals4 ,from the imperfect and incomplete life we generally lead1 we must resolutely advance towards real and genuine life4 ,while striving after morality1 we are at the same time battling for our own spiritual self2 we cannot but feel morality as a living inner presence1 a source of strength and of joyous impulse to action4 ,thus understood1 morality needs no reward from without2 indeed1 it sustains grave injury1 if action is dominated by the thought of reward4 ,for then the autonomy and independence which are above all aimed at1 must be given up2 and we force under an alien yoke that life which should be based on itself alone4 ,such accentuation of autonomy in life and morality1 might seem to exalt man unduly1 and to inspire him with self-conscious pride4 ,but we have already guarded ourselves against such misapprehension4 ,we have seen that every undertaking possible to the individual lies within a sustaining and impelling movement of the whole4 ,the recognition of morality is therefore not a matter of personal option or caprice4 ,the life of the whole operates in the individual2 but1 on the other hand1 his decision influences the whole of reality in the direction of progress or retrogression4 ,in this way the conception of duty arises1 in which the whole of life1 the whole of the cosmic movement formulates a claim on us4 ,kant rightly pointed out that duty cannot come to us from without1 but must proceed from our own being4 ,this can only be the case if our being experiences an inner gradation4 ,a spiritual world speaks within us1 not as something alien1 but in union with our own innermost being1 as the depth of our own soul4 ,the idea of duty is necessary in proportion to the consciousness and recognition of the difference between man as he is1 and the inner world which corresponds to his innermost being4 ,wherever this consciousness grows dim1 there morality speedily experiences an inner weakening4 ,duty is the salt of life4 ,where it is lacking1 life1 however brilliant externally1 becomes inwardly tame and insipid1 while on the other hand1 duty can impart inner greatness and dignity to what appears small and insignificant4 ,but as we do not wish the presence of salt to be everywhere perceptible1 so also the idea of duty must not always force itself on our consciousness1 but must be a latent power in our soul and life1 lifting us above all that is arbitrary and capricious4 ,we must take duty up into our inner being1 and not place it there as something alien or hostile4 ,moral life can quite well unite earnestness and joy1 reverence and love--earnestness and reverence towards the superior majesty of a higher power operative to us1 joy and love arising from the mighty presence of this higher power within us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus constituted1 morality can fully acknowledge the various moral impulses at work in the present day2 it can1 at the same time1 oppose their disintegration1 and help them as far as possible to promote each others best interests4 ,we have seen how1 in our day1 invisible and visible impulses are in operation1 which easily come into mutual opposition4 ,the morality of the spiritual life can in such cases acknowledge both aspects1 even if it cannot value them equally4 ,for this morality must take up a position in an invisible world1 since the progression from a visible to an invisible world goes through the whole of the spiritual life4 ,at the same time work in the visible world is most important for man1 if not indispensable4 ,he is driven to it not only by the necessity of natural self-preservation1 but also by the real interests of the invisible world4 ,he does not find this invisible world ready for him1 or waiting to develop steadily from within1 but he must acquire and strengthen it by battling against the visible world and its resistance4 ,the spiritual movement is sure to become subjective and uncertain1 as soon as it severs all connection with the visible world1 in relation to which our work gains strength and confidence4 ,love1 strength1 and continuity are thus acquired1 which must then be transformed into activity for our fellow-men4 ,this applies both to individuals and to all mankind4 ,such valuation of activity for the visible world does not mean that we constitute life out of the visible and the invisible as out of two factors of equal value1 for wherever spiritual life develops1 the invisible is of paramount importance1 and everything else must be brought into relation with it4 ,the visible is valuable only as a means for the development or manifestation of the invisible4 ,but as such1 it is of considerable value4 ,thus the morality of the spiritual life is quite able to recognise--and to benefit by--the great civilising work of the modern age and its untiring social activity1 even while insisting on their assimilation by a vaster cohesion which is to vitalise them4 ,we shall see1 later on1 that the invisible world cannot hold its own against doubts and obstacles1 unless it is aided by religion4 ,but although the morality of the spiritual life must seek to be in close touch with religion1 it must do its best to counteract the dangers arising from an exclusively religious system of ethics4 ,religious morality in former times often directed man's endeavour too much towards a world of faith and hope beyond our world1 and was inclined to neglect earthly matters as being of secondary importance4 ,it often transferred to human affairs the humility and pliability born of its relation to ,god2 and it consequently lacked strength and vigour when dealing with the evils of human life4 ,these perils can be counteracted by a morality of the spiritual life1 which sees the operation of the ,divine ,being above all in man1 even while acknowledging its superiority to man4 ,such morality will urge man to seek and appropriate eternal values1 not only in a future state1 but in this our earthly life4 ,such morality will teach man not to accept the unreasonable conditions as he finds them1 but to struggle against them with all his might1 striving to impart reality to the reasonable and reason to reality4 ,the morality of reason and immanent idealism contains a virile strength and educational power that the morality of the spiritual life is bound to acknowledge4 ,yet spiritual morality must counteract certain undesirable results frequently brought about by mere rational morality1 which is prone to overrate intellect and abstract ideas1 to overvalue the strength of the individual1 and thus to encourage undue pride and self-consciousness4 ,thus great tasks are evident in all directions4 ,from the standpoint of the spiritual life it is possible to take them up hopefully1 and to counteract antitheses which would otherwise disintegrate human life4 ,in all these tasks1 taken together1 we see how life may be quickened and strengthened by the ethics of the spiritual life4 ,everywhere it is necessary to proceed beyond a given order of things1--to rise above merely human aims and conditions1--to develop the consciousness of a marvellous depth of reality1 in which man is privileged to participate4 ,we discover a great cosmic movement1 and we see our own greatness in our co-operation in this movement1 by which we contribute something to the growth of the spiritual world4 ,to speak with ,leibnitz3 ,man is not a part1 but an image of the divine1 a presentation of the universe1 a denizen of the ,city of ,god4 ,v ,,morality ,,and ,,religion ,we have hitherto confined ourselves to the inner development of morality1 without considering the attitude of the world around us and within us to those claims which morality1 from its very nature1 is bound to assert4 ,at all times1 this question has presented grave complications1 which are magnified rather than diminished by the philosophy of the spiritual life4 ,if morality is the first condition and an essential factor of all independent spiritual life1--if this spiritual life is the central point of reality1 and dominates all its manifestations3 then we might expect to see1 throughout the visible world1 the triumph of good1 the repression of evil1 and the rule of a moral order of things1 moulding reality to its requirements4 ,man's desire for such an order of things does not rise from petty motives1 but from an imperative desire for the unquestioned supremacy of the good3 what is in itself of such absolute value1 must be strong enough to enforce its dominion over reality1 otherwise it might come to be considered merely as a subjective illusion4 ,the world1 as we see it1 does not come up to this requirement4 ,it evinces--as every impartial observer must acknowledge--absolute indifference1 not only to the weal and woe of man1 but also to his moral conduct4 ,how often1 in the destiny of nations as of individuals1 does good succumb and evil triumph6 ,it may be that we often judge too exclusively from external impressions1 and that there is more justice in the world than appears at first sight4 ,but this is no more than a possibility1 and we cannot assert that it is in any way realised4 ,much remains dark1 and has not been explained away1 in spite of the efforts made by religion and philosophy during thousands of years4 ,these efforts have made the darkness less evident1 but have not brought light into it4 ,we can deny neither the indifference of nature to our moral action1 nor the incapacity of man to enforce1 in his own sphere1 the triumph and supremacy of the moral idea4 ,and this gulf between what we must demand and what we find in the world1 receives further accentuation by the recognition of an independent spiritual life closely allied to morality4 ,for the impotence of morality now appears as the impotence of the whole spiritual life4 ,at the same time1 the human sphere seems to lose all its own special significance1 since it cannot enforce universal recognition of the power to which it owes its privileged position4 ,distressing as is this contradiction between the inner requirement and external experience1 it does not necessarily lead to a weakening of the moral obligation4 ,this is plainly shown by religion1 more especially by early ,christianity4 ,the early ,christians were fully conscious of the sorrow and gloom of human life2 they realised the unreasonableness of the world we live in1 quite as fully as the pessimists of our day4 ,yet their faith and courage remained unshaken4 ,the contradiction of experience only intensified their inner conviction1 and gave it an almost defiant superiority4 ,this was only possible1 because the possession of a new life and the certainty of a new world made it easy to bear all the contradictions in the existing order of things4 ,from their certainty of a new world1 arose the conviction that the good could only be impotent in a certain phase and for a certain time4 ,the early ,christians were so sure of the ultimate triumph of good1 that they found strength to persevere in the battle of life4 ,the present time lacks this joyous certainty of a higher world and a new life4 ,therefore the contradiction between the course of the world and the requirements of morality1 is felt in all its rigour1 and doubt is intensified by the unsatisfactory moral condition of human life1 by the inner weakness of morality in our day4 ,single individuals are not without good intentions1 but they lack the power of achievement4 ,spiritual activity is generally treated as of secondary importance2 infinitely greater value is attached to the natural self-preservation of individuals and of society4 ,life in the community ought to give greater prominence to moral claims1 and be governed as far as possible by moral law4 ,but on the one hand there is not enough power of volition1 and on the other hand there is1 here also1 a wide gulf between volition and achievement4 ,social life also displays so much self-interest1 selfishness1 and passion1 so much unreality and hypocrisy1 that morality cannot reach any adequate development4 ,the spiritual powers which should raise man to a higher plane are mostly withdrawn into the service of the lower plane1 and life is thus diverted into wrong channels4 ,this contradiction between human conditions and the requirements of morality has been expressed in various ways by the great thinkers4 ,plato lamented1 above all1 the evanescence and unreality of everyday life2 ,augustine the overweening conceit of man2 ,kant the insincerity and injustice everywhere apparent4 ,but to one and all1 the moral condition of mankind appeared most unsatisfactory4 ,all these contradictions1 obstructions1 and distortions are so deep-rooted1 that we can hardly expect any essential progress to result from a gradual amelioration4 ,in other directions--such as science and technical knowledge--humanity may make steady progress2 but it is not so easy to prove that humanity will also experience moral improvement4 ,the progress of civilisation brings with it the development of much that is good1 but also of much that is evil1 for civilisation develops great power1 without providing for its moral guidance4 ,history shows us how mankind has always seemed to alternate between periods of moral growth and periods of moral decay2 but it is doubtful whether1 on the whole1 much has been gained4 ,how often have the nations longed to return to simpler and more innocent beginnings6 ,all these impressions might seem to prove that morality has no power in the life of man4 ,a doubt easily arises as to whether1 if morality is so powerless1 we ought to acknowledge it as the guide of our life1 or whether we should not rather expel it as a mere illusion4 ,but the experience of history shows us unmistakably that the roots of morality lie deeper1 and are not so easily removed4 ,even if morality is not the ruling power1 it is unquestionably efficacious as man's lawgiver and judge4 ,again and again1 the nations may resist the claims of morality1 and the conceptions of morality itself may be widely divergent2 yet wherever human life develops1 moral judgment develops with it4 ,certain actions are highly esteemed1 others are decidedly condemned4 ,something operates in man which is not confined to his own interest1 and which forces him to judge his actions4 ,such judgment must inevitably influence both the action and the spiritual condition of man2 in one direction it promotes1 in another it represses4 ,history gives us an indirect proof of the power of morality over man4 ,there are times in the history of mankind when the moral idea1 with its decree of duty1 recedes into the background1 and is even scoffed at as an irksome instrument of control4 ,but such times1 however brilliant on the surface1 cannot resist inner decay and hollowness1 till at last they become unendurable4 ,then1 if there is a return to morality1 it is superior to1 and triumphant over all other interests4 ,it was moral earnestness and moral strength that were above all instrumental in causing early ,christianity to overcome the pagan world that was1 in all outer respects1 superior and more powerful4 ,it was moral energy that gave the ,reformation its power to advance and conquer1 while the soft and beautiful ,renaissance perished because it lacked morality4 ,look where we will1 we see that the moral task1 if fully and clearly grasped1 is stronger than anything else4 ,it is therefore impossible for mankind to renounce morality4 ,but we have seen that morality1 as a rule1 has little power over external life or man's soul1 and is forced into a subordinate position4 ,this produces inner discord in human life4 ,man acquires inner insincerity by not recognising and developing the depths of his own being4 ,this inner contradiction can be fully appreciated by a system of philosophy which attaches special importance to the idea of the spiritual life4 ,for in the light of such philosophy1 we see one great contradiction pervading the whole of life3 the spiritual activity--which ought to lead man to an independent inner life1 thus making his existence one of joyous creative work--is used by average life as a mere means and instrument for human ends4 ,spiritual activity is thus degraded1 for the good has mostly to give way to utilitarian considerations4 ,this is the case1 when the motive of scientific research is its utility1 and not a desire for truth4 ,this is the case1 when art does not reveal a new world to man by means of genuine beauty1 but appeals only to his senses4 ,this is the case1 whenever the subjective welfare of man--either of the individual or of society--is the highest aim1--whenever man is not led to a higher life by spiritual activity1 but is only confirmed by it in the lower life4 ,such conflicts1 such inner discord1 such stagnation of life impel morality to seek close contact with religion4 ,we see that man has in himself an ideal1 on which depends all the greatness and dignity of his life2 but he cannot reach it unaided4 ,something strives to assert itself within him1 without his being able to accomplish it4 ,he remains chained to a lower level1 above which his innermost soul longs to rise4 ,doubt and uncertainty proceed from the fact that what is of the very highest inner value should have so little power in the world and in the sphere of human life4 ,for deep and earnest natures as ,st4 ,augustine and as ,luther1 such uncertainty has often become unbearable2 from inner conflicts was born the sure and triumphant conviction of a higher power in the movement towards morality1--a power which not only imposes moral obligations on man1 but which1 by the revelation of a new life1 gives him strength to fulfil them4 ,morality here appears as something infinitely superior to the uncertainty of human conditions1 and completely independent of man's attitude towards it4 ,if morality does not attain the power due to it in man's life1 this is now attributed to the weakness1 not of morality1 but of man4 ,the majesty of morality is by no means prejudiced by man's line of conduct4 ,kant could therefore declare that it is most reprehensible to derive either the origin or any restriction of the laws telling me what ,i should do1 from that which is done by others4 ,it is the essence of all deep religions1 especially of ,christianity1 that a new life is created in man by a revelation of the ,divine by means of a direct union of the soul with ,god4 ,this new life is held to be superior to the complexity of existing conditions1 and is sure to triumph1 because it is founded in ,god4 ,a source of life is thus opened up1 which imparts new activity to the life hitherto stagnant4 ,man regains courage and confidence1 because he feels himself sustained by divine strength and love4 ,no contradiction in the world of external realities is now able to weaken man's inner certainty4 ,a powerful impulse towards work and creative activity will be born of the gladness within him4 ,this explains the unquestioning confidence and joyous energy manifested by all the leaders of religious life2 the consciousness of their deliverance from dire distress filled them with unbounded gratitude1 which sought expression in unremitting work for their fellow-men4 ,luther says3 ,from faith flow love and joy in the ,lord1 and from love a free and joyous spirit of voluntary service of our neighbour1 quite irrespective of gratitude or ingratitude1 praise or blame1 gain or loss4 ,further development of life by means of religion is sure to stamp morality with characteristic features4 ,the consciousness of deliverance by a higher power will arouse not only gratitude1 but humility and childlike confidence4 ,if everything man has is but a gift1 then he will see1 in his highest achievement1 less his own work than that of ,god4 ,gentleness and toleration will gain ground2 arrogance and harshness will disappear2 all decisive action will have an inner rather than an outer significance4 ,the value of an action depends on loyalty to principle1 and not on the greatness of what is achieved4 ,this is shown by ,jesus in the parable of the talents4 ,but this accentuation of softer elements and inner values by no means paralyses activity4 ,for the new life must be energetically developed and bravely asserted against an alien1 not to say a hostile1 world4 ,man finds a great task1 first of all in his own soul1 but then in the whole of his life with other men4 ,we may here apply a principle of the ,reformation1 which has thus been expressed3 ,the word of ,god comes to change and renew the world1 whenever it comes4 ,there is one thing on which a philosophy of the spiritual life must emphatically insist3 this return to religion must not be confined to the individual1 but must embrace all the conditions of human life4 ,only thus can the whole of man be won4 ,this can only be done by creating a specific religious sphere of life1 a specific religious community4 ,many of us may wish the ,church to be1 in certain respects1 different to what it is2 but that should not make us ignore the necessity of a religious community4 ,it is indispensable1 if we are to establish the new life in the human sphere1 and bring it within the reach of the individual2 it is indispensable1 if the struggle is to be maintained by great entities1 and is not to degenerate into small skirmishes4 ,at the present time1 when the state is engrossed by economic and other constantly changing problems of the day1 we need a community which attaches paramount importance to the inner problems of humanity and which directs our life towards eternal aims and values4 ,in this union with religion1 morality will be inclined to see more gloom than light in the life around us4 ,for morality will then judge by higher standards1 and will emphasise the insufficiency of human achievement1 the unsatisfactory character of the present situation4 ,but morality cannot lead to despondency1 once it is emancipated from the world of immediate environment1 and has gained a new world4 ,morality will then see1 in the world of strife and antithesis1 only a special kind of reality1 and not the whole of reality2 it will recognise in this world only one act of a great drama1 and not the whole drama4 ,much that is dark thus remains unexplained4 ,to speak with ,goethe1 we walk among mysteries4 ,even if we cannot enlighten what is dark1 the new beginnings established in us will save us from becoming cowed and despondent4 ,we are certain that great things are being accomplished in us and through us1--that a higher power is present within us throughout the struggles of our life4 ,at the same time1 we feel sure that our inner renewal is not mechanical1 but requires our own decision and action1 thus making us co-operate in the movement of the universe1 and giving to our activity a significance for the whole4 ,that must and that can be sufficient for us4 ,we can agree with ,luther1 when he thus characterises human life3 ,it is not yet done and accomplished1 but it is in working order and in full swing2 it is not the end1 but the way4 ,all does not yet glow and shine1 but all is being burnished4 ,we know that so close a connection between morality and religion is often contested nowadays4 ,but we believe that religious morality can only be attacked by those who have too low an estimate of morality or too high an estimate of the actual condition of humanity4 ,if morality is but a means of tolerable order in the social community of life1 and is only looked upon as a controlling force1 then it can dispense with religion4 ,but this means a lowering of the moral requirement1 the fulfilment of which brings but little gain or profit4 ,it is possible1 on the other hand1 to value morality more highly1 but to over-estimate man1 as experience shows him to be4 ,he is looked on as a good and noble being1 easily won for the highest aims4 ,were this a true conception of man1 then morality could attain its ends by its own strength alone4 ,but we are clearly shown that this is not the case1 both by the conviction of all great religious and philosophical teachers1 and by the general impression of human life4 ,at all times1 the pessimists--and not the optimists--were held to have the best knowledge of human nature4 ,we need only consider more closely the delineation of human life left us by the so-called optimistic philosophers 7like ,aristotle and ,leibnitz71 in order to see that even they found in it much that was dark and gloomy4 ,if we maintain a high conception of the moral task and an impartial conception of the actual condition of human life1 there remains but one dilemma3 either complete hopelessness and inner collapse of life1 or the acquisition of further cohesions1 such as that offered by an alliance with religion4 ,but religion must then mean more than a sum of doctrines and institutions4 ,it must influence the whole soul4 ,it must not only cling to the past1 but must1 above all1 be a power in the living present4 ,it must not only be a source of comfort to individuals1 but must raise the whole of mankind to a higher and purer level4 ,in all these aspects1 religion is both action and life1 not mere thinking about the world1 or subjective emotion4 ,a connection of morality with religion thus understood1 can be only a source of profit--not of loss--to morality1 which will thus be strengthened in its bearing on external reality1 and will experience a great deepening of its inner life4 ,,vi ,,the ,,present ,,status ,,of ,,morality ,we must now consider1 in conclusion1 the position of ,morality in our day4 ,let us see what profit and loss accrues to morality from the present1 and what its prospects are for the future4 ,there can be no doubt about the fact that great changes are being effected--changes not only in the world of thought1 but in the whole range of life and work4 ,these changes at first result in manifold losses to morality4 ,the pillars which used to support it began to totter1 or gave way altogether2 new ones arose1 but are as yet too weak to offer an adequate substitute for what is lost4 ,we cannot therefore look upon the present status of morality as a satisfactory one4 ,the weakening of religious conviction and practice is unfavourable to morality4 ,imperfect as the influence of religion often was on mankind at large1 and excessive as was the importance attached to the idea of reward and punishment1 men yet recognised a power superior to all human action and all arbitrary human decision4 ,this power was to be an object of reverence2 and life was raised above the care for purely material possessions4 ,it was also a gain for moral culture1 that religion established the inner solidarity of man1 and facilitated mutual understanding4 ,thus it is a loss for morality1 that religion no longer maintains its former ruling position4 ,the general condition of our intellectual life is unfavourable to morality1 inasmuch as this intellectual life lacks a uniform aim which could unite scattered aspirations1 strengthen every single undertaking1 and counteract1 as a whole1 the interests of mere individuals4 ,these interests at all times made themselves felt1 and life was always in danger of being dominated by petty human considerations4 ,but the difference between period and period depends on whether or not this danger is counteracted and man is raised above himself by some high aim4 ,in our day1 such counteraction is lacking4 ,where have we an aim embracing the whole man1 which is common to us all and binds us together to inner communion8 ,every party and faction preaches some ideal of its own1 the attainment of which will1 it believes1 unite men1 making them good and happy4 ,but these individual aims are very different in character2 they are a cause of mutual hindrance1 and they divide mankind in that which should be a means of union4 ,another disadvantage for inner culture is the rapid pace of life1 as compared to former times4 ,while we are hastening from moment to moment1 we have neither repose nor leisure for the culture of our inner man1 for the development of a character1 a personality4 ,we are more and more in danger of being absorbed by the whirlpool of life1 and robbed of all possibility of self-conscious action4 ,other perils also beset us4 ,in our thirst for achievement and success1 our moral judgment is often repressed2 the accentuation of the battle of life can even make us indifferent to the moral quality of the ways and means employed by us4 ,all this necessarily weakens morality1 and makes it appear unimportant and shadowy4 ,to these dangers arising from the general conduct of life1 we must add others1 which originate in the modern development of work in the community4 ,in former times1 the conditions of life were at once narrower and less subject to change4 ,social environment exercised a stricter and more exclusive control over the individual1 holding him within the bounds of law and custom4 ,this influence was often only an external one2 correct behaviour was frequently mistaken for moral integrity4 ,this gave rise to much unreality and pharisaical hypocrisy4 ,still1 a certain result was attained in the direction of moral culture2 certain restraints were acknowledged1 which cannot1 without impunity1 be dispensed with4 ,restraints play an important part in the life of the soul1 as well as in that of the body4 ,modern freedom of action makes the individual depend on himself alone1 and we must be very optimistic to believe him able to completely withstand1 unaided1 all the temptations of life4 ,we cannot omit one characteristic modern development3 the change of men's mutual relation from a personal to an impersonal one4 ,we have but to think of the difference between the cordial community of life established by the old arts and crafts1 and the cool1 almost hostile manner in which1 in our great labour complexes1 employers and employees nowadays associate4 ,there is no longer the slightest personal relation or personal sympathy between them4 ,if we survey all these losses1 the balance of the day will hardly appear to be in favour of morality4 ,but we must not forget that the present age has also supplied morality with new and valuable impulses4 ,this is above all the case with labour--the modern form of work to which we have just alluded4 ,there is a strong moral element in the ever increasing formation and organisation of great labour complexes1 not only in the factory1 but also in science1 state organisation1 education1 and so forth4 ,the individual is thereby obliged to work in close union with others1 and in accordance with objective requirements4 ,he must adapt his own activity to the general character of the work2 and yet he must do his own part conscientiously1 so that the mass of separate achievements may blend harmoniously and ensure the steady progress of the whole4 ,this requires such loyalty1 self-control1 and sacrifice of personal taste and opinion1 that a strong moral effect is undeniable4 ,in this respect1 man now learns more implicit obedience than at any former period4 ,another moral element in modern labour is the concentration of man's whole strength on his work1 to the exclusion of all inert repose4 ,if the impersonal element predominates in work1 the social side of modern life offers1 on the other hand1 more direct union and more reciprocal action between man and man4 ,this was1 at first1 mainly theoretical4 ,it was pointed out how much one man depends on his fellow-men4 ,people realised that the individual develops with other individuals and as part of the community1 with which his aspirations are indissolubly connected1 even when he imagines he is striking out a path for himself4 ,but such theories could only have so much influence1 because they were in harmony with the realities of life4 ,modern life1 with its technical developments1 brought individuals into close touch and created new opportunities of mutual intercourse1 uniting men both in success and in failure4 ,thus grew up the consciousness of human solidarity1 the recognition of men's interdependence1 the idea of mutual obligation4 ,the result is a wealth of humane activity1 which penetrates into all the ramifications of life1 attacking and seeking to eradicate all forms of want and misery1 instead of merely helping to relieve individual cases4 ,we encounter the earnest endeavour to impart material and spiritual possessions1 as far as possible1 to all men2 to help and strengthen the less favoured section of humanity2 to further the interests of aspiring spirits4 ,these efforts are but various aspects of one great duty1 which we feel we cannot ignore2 we can no longer look upon them as works of mercy1 which it is a virtue to perform4 ,this is at the root of the social idea4 ,and this social idea is1 in our day1 the greatest bond of union between human beings2 not only does it stir individuals1 but it also exercises a strong influence on law1 education1 and so forth4 ,in this respect our time has a right to claim undoubted superiority over all former times4 ,these moral achievements of the present1 valuable as they are1 yet have their inner limitations4 ,nearly all movement here proceeds outward1 and is directed towards distinct single achievements1 while the culture and welfare of the inner man are mostly treated as of secondary importance4 ,zeal for surface ends leads to the neglect of the central values of life4 ,yet all outer achievement only means real gain for us1 if it promotes the growth of the whole man1 of his soul1 of his personality1 making him nobler1 greater1 and happier4 ,if there is no development and strengthening of the centre of life1 achievement on the surface is apt to result in grave complications1 and all that is great in the present may thereby be driven into the wrong channels4 ,another danger grows out of the ever increasing tendency to organise work4 ,owing to the necessity of specialising and differentiating1 the amount of work is restricted which the individual can comprehend and master4 ,he is tempted to concentrate his interest on his own little province1 to be indifferent to everything outside it1 and to lose all consciousness of a leading idea and of a great whole4 ,he thus falls a prey to the narrow conceit of the specialist1 and finally pushes aside as worthless accessories all matters of general interest1 all the questions and sorrows of humanity at large4 ,by furthering a spirit of pity for human want and misery1 without giving to life an inner value and a higher aim1 we are in danger of becoming sentimental and of producing inner languor in spite of all outer activity4 ,we are often more anxious to procure for man a comfortable and pleasant life1 than to promote inner growth2 and our care for the weak1 which is quite justified1 leads us to take such weak individuals as a criterion and to lower life to their level4 ,modern life often lacks the necessary hardness and vigour2 in our care for the rights of individuals1 we are inclined to neglect the rights and requirements of the whole and also of the spiritual life4 ,so we are in danger of losing that which according to ,goethe1 ,no one brings with him into the world1 yet which is all important if a man is to become a man in every respect3 reverence4 ,if we review the whole and consider the balance of moral profit and loss in our day1 the result cannot be a favourable one4 ,no full substitute is offered for what is lost4 ,we have gained in breadth1 but we have lost in depth and strength4 ,above all1 morality is in danger of losing its former ruling position1 and of having a subordinate one assigned to it4 ,it can therefore no longer call forth reverence1 or be treated as an independent aim and ideal4 ,we realise at once the gravity of this loss4 ,but this unfavourable aspect only holds good1 if we consider the present time as something complete and incapable of further development4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we seek to grasp all that is struggling into life1 all the requirements of our time that yet await fulfilment3 then the situation is quite different and far more favourable4 ,what mainly told against morality was the prevalent over-estimation of everything pertaining to the visible life which surrounds us in nature and in human society4 ,the invisible realms of religion and the ideal have1 as we have seen1 often grown dim and shadowy4 ,many of our contemporaries deny them altogether1 and look to the visible world for full satisfaction of all man's wants1 even of his spiritual and intellectual requirements4 ,this could only appear possible because1 in reality1 the invisible world of spiritual values continued to influence even those who denied it1 and because it supplemented and completed the achievements of the visible world4 ,it is1 however1 characteristic of our time1 that the old fusion is no longer possible1 and the irreconcilable antithesis between these two conceptions of life stands out in bold relief4 ,with increasing zeal1 the movement in favour of the visible world--that is to say1 ,naturalism--tries to eradicate everything appertaining to the invisible world1 and to fashion the whole of life in accordance with its own principles4 ,naturalism tolerates no rival1 and declares war to the death to ,idealism4 ,we now see the truth of ,bacon's words3 ,veritas potius emergit ex errore quam ex confusione 7,truth can more easily emerge from error than from confusion74 ,for if we accept naturalism as the only valid conception of life1 and develop it consistently in all its bearings1 we cannot but see its incapacity to embrace the whole of life4 ,the apparent victory of naturalism thus contains the germ of a defeat1 the beginning of a great reaction4 ,what becomes of man and of human life1 if the visible world means to him the only form of reality8 ,he is then but part of nature--dark and soulless nature4 ,the vast expansion and range of nature overwhelms him with the consciousness of his own insignificance1 while1 at the same time1 nature is absolutely indifferent to his wishes and aspirations4 ,what he makes of himself and his life has not the very slightest significance for this world of nature4 ,all aspiration which transcends his natural instinct of self-preservation must appear to be mere folly4 ,such ideals as personality and character are but held to be illusions4 ,if man turns away from the outer world and takes refuge in his own sphere1 in the social life among his fellows1 naturalism there shows him a mere juxtaposition1 but no inner community which could offer new aims or develop new values4 ,what remains is only a number of individuals inhabiting the same little corner of the universe4 ,each of these individuals strives to gain recognition of his own merits1 and to assert himself1 to the detriment of others4 ,much sordidness and hypocrisy become rampant1 and it is impossible to counteract them within so narrow a range1 or to hope for the growing up of a nobler and purer race of men4 ,the individual remains bound to the condition of society1 which also determines his own nature2 he appears to be but a product of the social environment4 ,having no deeper source of life within himself1 how should he be able to escape from the trammels of society1 to rise above it or oppose it8 ,society and environment thus become the destiny of man2 and there is no scope for freedom1 for initiative1 for independent action4 ,if we survey and appreciate all this with unbiassed minds1 this life must appear empty and meaningless and scarcely worth living4 ,at the same time1 we shall discern a development of mankind far transcending these narrow limits1 as indeed has already been pointed out in this our study of morality4 ,the degradation of life effected by naturalism might be endured in feeble and senile periods conscious of no great tasks1 but not in our time1 which teems with stupendous tasks it is earnestly striving to carry out4 ,these great tasks and problems can only be grappled with1 if we are fully conscious of concentrated energy and increased spiritual power4 ,modern life has developed in various and opposite directions4 ,its expansion is greater than its concentration1 and this threatens it with disintegration4 ,there is an increasing and imperative need of more unity and cohesion1 of some universal and harmonious character of the whole4 ,how should this be attained without a vigorous deepening of life1 without the development of invisible values8 ,we observe1 in our day1 the encounter of an older and a newer age1 of a conception of life hallowed by the traditions of history1 and a new one that is struggling into existence2 there is a sharp conflict between the past and the present4 ,we cannot but admit in the old an imperishable germ of truth1 and in the new1 an inalienable right to impress and influence us4 ,we must prove and sift1 separate and unite4 ,but how were any progress in this direction possible1 could we not find a superior point of view1 such as can be offered only by a world of thought1 not by the visible life8 ,this problem gains vastly in significance by extending to the social life of all humanity4 ,we see here a struggle between an older1 more aristocratic form of society1 and a newer1 more democratic one4 ,this struggle engenders violent passions1 especially in the province of economics4 ,we are here placed before a grave question3 shall we be able to impart the benefits of civilisation to all men alike1 and thus broaden every individual soul1 without injury to its inner depths8 ,these are problems which do not originate in ourselves1 but which are forced upon us by the movement of history4 ,their very necessity bids us hope for progression1 in spite of all impediments4 ,the power which has imposed these problems on us will enable us to solve them4 ,but we shall also need to put forth our uttermost strength1 and to quicken all our latent spiritual forces2 we must grasp our life as a whole1 must acknowledge its high aims with all our heart and soul1 and must find our real self in these ideals4 ,only thus can we gain the sense of inner necessity which alone can lead us onward4 ,in this manner1 our aspiration becomes closely linked to morality4 ,let us see wherein we have already recognised the quintessence of morality4 ,life and aspiration are detached from the little ,ego1 and take root in a spiritual world in which we find our own essential being1 so that while working for this spiritual world1 we are at the same time working for our own depth and spiritual self-preservation4 ,such a change and reaction1 such identification with the movement of the spiritual life1 means only that our aspiration has gained a moral character4 ,this moral character brings us1 at all points1 into touch with our time4 ,by means of our own aspiration1 we can now grasp1 unite1 and deepen all the goodwill1 genuine feeling1 and untiring activity of our day1 which was hitherto inadequate only because it lacked inner unity and quickening spiritual power4 ,we can thus face the future with courage and confidence4 ,humanity has by no means exhausted its vital power2 it is full of new possibilities which demand realisation2 and therefore we may expect an inner progression of life and a rejuvenation of morality4 ,what is true of mankind in general1 is especially true of ,america4 ,the multitude of grave problems cannot discourage a nation which feels in itself so much youthful vigour1 that it will not submit to a dark fate1 but is able and ready to mould its own fate1 and to aspire to yet greater heights than it has hitherto attained4 ,but to achieve this1 moral force is as necessary as unshaken confidence in the power of the spirit4 ,we believe in a bright future for this great country4 ,we believe also in the development in ,america of such moral strength as will successfully overcome all conflicts and lead to splendid results1 for the benefit not only of the ,american nation1 but of all mankind4 ,,the ,,end ,,advertisements ,works by ,dr4 ,rudolf ,eucken ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,university of ,jena ,in #aijh1 ,dr4 ,eucken was awarded the ,nobel ,prize for literature4 ,his books have been translated into many languages and their influence is widespread4 ,through his sustained and heroic appeal to what is most spiritual in man1 ,eucken has ennobled the significance and the mission of philosophy4 ,he aims at developing1 not a new category1 but a new culture1 and holds that it is the privilege of philosophy1 by penetrating to what is most inward in human nature1 to bring a religious inspiration to bear upon the problems of the world of human labor4 ,eucken's philosophy is a philosophy of life4 ,it is a philosophy of reality as well4 ,it treats of the sources of man's strength1 and the meaning and purpose of his spiritual endeavor4 ,and can there be anything more real than the activity of a life that has consciously realized the true sources of its power and the goal of its ultimate aspirations8 ,new ,york ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,london ,works by ,dr4 ,rudolf ,eucken ,in the ,crown ,theological ,library ,series ,the ,life of the ,spirit ,an ,introduction to ,philosophy ,translated by ,f4 ,l4 ,pogson1 ,m4,a4 #ab1 #a4ej net4 ,by mail1 #a4fe ,second ,edition4 ,with ,introductory ,note by ,author ,germany has again given us a great constructive philosopher1 whose influence has gone out through all the thinking world4444 ,no one can read these powerful pages without understanding that a strong thinker has arisen among us1 and without enlargement and deepening of his own thought4--,congregationalist4 ,with ,bergson of ,france1 he is the most influential personal factor in arming contemporary thinkers for the fray against materialism and irreligion4--,christian ,science ,monitor4 ,knowledge and ,life #ab4 ,no one is having more influence upon the spiritual life and religious thought of ,europe1 at the present time1 than ,prof4 ,rudolf ,eucken4 ,his books 444 are making a deep impress upon thinking people4--,christian ,work4 ,religion and ,life #af4 ,frontispiece4 #ej cts4 net4 ,by mail1 #fj cts4 ,the work is able1 as may naturally be expected of ,prof4 ,eucken4 ,but it is more4 ,the author is very much in earnest and he is anxious for men to see the great need of religion in their lives4 ,in this book we have the best of his mind and heart4 ,boston ,transcript4 ,the philosophy of ,eucken shares with that of ,bergson the keenest living interest of thoughtful men of all classes at the present day4444 ,eucken has endeavored in this book to put his constructive system into the clearest and most elaborate form4--,continent4 ,new ,york ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,london ,works by ,dr4 ,rudolf ,eucken ,in the ,theological ,translations ,series ,the ,truth of ,religion ,translated by ,w4 ,tudor ,jones1 ,ph4,d4 ,second ,english ,edition4 ,translated from the ,third and ,revised ,german ,edition with a special ,preface by the ,author #h4 #c4ej net4 ,by mail1 #c4ge ,when a book of really original thought appears it constitutes an epoch in literature4 ,such a new era is introduced by this work4 ,the ideas of ,prof4 ,eucken are startling1 and revolutionary in some respects1 but are at the same time inspiring and reassuring to all the essential features of ,christianity as the true1 the supreme and the final religion4--,watchman4 ,contest for the ,spiritual ,life #h4 ,in ,professor ,eucken1 we have the philosopher as preacher4 ,he not only handles life1 he would spread1 enrich1 and fortify it1 and he is a great force for the restoration of idealism in his own land4 ,he is a preacher equipped with philosophy and an inspired lecturer on the spiritual life and its integration in the ,whole4--,the ,nation4 ,an ,interpretation of ,rudolf ,eucken's ,philosophy ,by ,w4 ,tudor ,jones1 ,ph4,d4 7,jena7 #ab4 ,with ,portrait4 #a4ej net4 ,by mail1 #a4fe ,the main aim of the volume is to present the essentials of ,eucken's teaching1 to show its genesis and growth1 its connection with ,science1 ,philosophy1 ,sociology1 ,history and ,religion4 ,the whole volume is an attempt to present the nucleus of ,eucken's teaching1 and to show its fundamental importance in the individual life1 the society and the religion of the future4 ,new ,york ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,london ,only ,authorized ,edition ,an ,introduction to ,metaphysics ,by ,henri ,bergson ,member of the ,institute and ,professor of the ,collge de ,france ,translated by ,t4 ,e4 ,hulme ,authorized ,edition1 ,revised by the ,author1 with ,additional ,material #ab4 #ge cts4 net4 ,by mail1 #he cts4 ,i certify that the translation of my volume ,introduction to ,metaphysics1 which has been prepared by ,mr4 ,t4 ,e4 ,hulme1 is the only ,english version to which ,i have given my authorization4 ,i may add that ,mr4 ,hulme was excellently well qualified for his task by the careful study that he has made of the whole series of my writings4 ,i have examined his translation with care and am able to say that it renders with remarkable accuracy the thought and the conclusions presented in my volume4 ,,henri ,,bergson4 ,this volume forms the best introduction to ,m4 ,bergson's philosophy4 ,in it the author explains with a thoroughness not attempted in his other books the precise meaning he wishes to convey by the word intuition4 ,a reading of this book is1 therefore1 indispensable to a proper understanding of ,bergson's position4 ,german1 ,italian1 ,hungarian1 ,swedish1 and ,russian translations of it have already appeared1 testifying to its intrinsic importance and indicating the scope of its appeal4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york ,london