,every attempt has been made to replicate the original book as printed4 ,the footnotes have been located at the end of the etext4 ,some typographical errors have been corrected4 ,a list follows the etext4 ,no attempt has been made to correct or normalize printed botanical names4 ,the footnotes have all been moved to the end of the etext4 ,some illustrations have been moved from within paragraphs for ease of reading4 7etext transcriber's note7 ,,the ,,desert ,,world4 ,for ,i have learned ,to look on ,nature1 not as in the hour ,of thoughtless youth2 but hearing oftentimes ,the still sad music of humanity4 ,,wordsworth ,,the ,,desert ,,world4 ,,from ,,the ,,french ,,of ,,arthur ,,mangin4 ,edited and ,enlarged ,,by ,,the ,,translator ,,of ,,the ,,bird1 ,,by ,,michelet4 ,,with #afj ,,illustrations ,,by ,w4 ,,freeman1 ,,foulquier1 ,,and ,,yan ,,dargent4 ,,london3 ,t4 ,,nelson ,,and ,,sons1 ,,paternoster ,,row2 ,,edinburgh2 ,,and ,,new ,,york4 #ahfi4 ,preface4 ,the area of our present work would be very limited if we understood the word ,desert in its more rigorous signification2 for we should then have only to consider those desolate wildernesses which an inclement sky and a sterile soil seem to exclude for ever from man's dominion4 ,but1 by a license which usage authorizes1 we are able to attribute to this term a much more extended sense2 and to call ,deserts not only the sandy seas of ,africa and ,asia1 the icy wastes of the ,poles1 and the inaccessible crests of the great mountain-chains2 but all the regions where man has not planted his regular communities or permanent abodes2 where earth has never been appropriated1 tilled1 and subjected to cultivation2 where ,nature has maintained her inviolability against the encroachments of human industry4 ,thus understood1 the picture we are about to trace assumes not only vast proportions1 but an infinite variety of aspects4 ,here and there1 it is true1 our eyes will rest on the gloomy spectacle of rugged solitudes1 where the soil churlishly refuses almost every kind of product1 where the boldest traveller cannot penetrate without a shudder1 and where the very beast of prey is rather a visitor than an inhabitant3 lugubrious regions1 on whose threshold one might write the legend written1 according to ,dante1 on the gates of hell-- ,lasciate ogni speranza1 voi ch'entrate4 7,all hope abandon1 ye who enter here47 ,but1 on the whole1 these true ,deserts offer ample material for the admiration of the artist1 the meditations of the thinker1 the researches of the naturalist and the physician4 ,theirs is that kind of beauty which borders on the sublime1 and which impresses us so powerfully in the ,ocean4 ,and1 like the ,ocean1 they awake in the soul the feeling of infinity4 ,they render it forgetful of the tumultuous regions which are perturbed by petty passions1 and vexed by the contentions of ephemeral interests1 and transport it to the boundless space and the eternal spheres1 or allow it to draw back within itself and muse upon its future destiny4 ,finally1 what grave problems does the ,desert place before the man of science6 ,and first1 why do life and fertility prevail elsewhere1--here1 sterility and death8 ,why does an irrevocable curse seem to weigh upon certain parts of the world1 while others rejoice in ,nature's fairest gifts8 ,it is by examining the constitution of the soil and the character of the climate that we discover the key to this enigma1 and recognize in this apparent anomaly a necessary effect of the harmonious laws of the universe4 ,then the ,desert has a geology and a meteorology of its own2 is the theatre of special phenomena1 which we do not observe in more favoured regions4 ,life itself is not completely absent from it2 specimens of the organic kingdoms are rare1 no doubt1 but for this very reason are the more interesting4 ,and if1 from the ,desert properly so called1 we pass to those countries where the genial air and the abundant waters favour the action of the productive forces1 the interest increases with the increasing development of life4 ,the picture changes every moment1 and every moment grows more animated4 ,the scenes of the savage world unfold before our eyes like a moving panorama2 unexpected incidents and dramatic episodes multiply one upon another4 ,every region appears before us with its primitive aspect1 its grand and picturesque landscapes1 its characteristic fauna and flora--frequently1 also1 with its tribes of white1 or tawny1 or black1 or copper-coloured men1 whose singular manners1 brutal instincts1 fierce passions1 and wretched condition offer1 in all its mournful reality1 the spectacle of that state of nature celebrated by a great writer as the ideal of virtue and happiness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to conclude3 the task which ,i here pursue is the same which ,i recently commenced by the publication of my ,mysteries of the ,ocean2#a to invite and prepare the general reader and the young for the study of the physical and natural sciences1 by bringing before them the most interesting results of the discoveries and the observations with which these sciences have been enriched4 ,only1 this new essay is entirely descriptive1 and has no didactic pretensions4 ,i have contented myself with sketching the physiognomy of the great regions not yet conquered by civilization1 with indicating the more remarkable features they present1 the peoples by whom they are inhabited1 and the important plants and animals they nourish4 ,,the ,,author4 ,the ,,translator has only to add1 that he has made copious additions to the original work1 with the view of rendering its scope more comprehensive and complete1 and of adapting it specially to the requirements of the ,english reader4 ,he has also corrected and confirmed ,m4 ,mangin's statements by reference to the best and most recent authorities1 without1 he would hope1 any injury to the original scheme1 or any detriment to the value of ,m4 ,mangin's agreeable and highly interesting chapters4 ,a4 ,contents4 ,,book ,i4 ,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,asia3--,,the ,,landes1 ,,the ,,dunes1 ,,and ,,the ,,steppes4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,desert ,,in ,,france3--,,the ,,landes ,,of ,,brittany1 #ac ,,ii4 ,,the ,,landes ,,of ,,gascony1 #bd ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dunes1 ,,or ,,sand-,,hills1 #cb ,,iv4 ,,wild ,,scenes ,,of ,,england3--,,dartmoor ,,and ,,the ,,fen ,,country1 #ci ,v4 ,,the ,,steppes3--,,the ,,desert ,,in ,,russia1 ,,siberia1 ,,and ,,tartary1 #df ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,steppes3--,,the ,,wild ,,horse ,,and ,,the ,,camel1 #ea ,,vii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,steppes3--,,wild ,,ruminating ,,animals1 ,,rodents1 ,,carnivora1 ,,birds1 #fd ,,viii4 ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,steppes3--,,tartars1 ,,cossacks1 ,,kalmucks1 ,,kirghiz1 ,,mongols1 #gh ,,book ,,ii4 ,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,sand3--,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,africa4 ,i4 ,,the ,,rainless ,,desert--,,the ,,bed ,,of ,a ,,sea--,,the ,,dead ,,sea1 #ie ,,ii4 ,,arabia ,,deserta ,,and ,,arabia ,,petr,a1 #ajf ,,iii4 ,,the ,,nubian ,,desert--,,the ,,great ,,sahara--,,deserts ,,of ,,africa1 #aah ,,iv4 ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,desert1 #acd ,v4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,desert--,,the ,,oases1 #adh ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,desert1 #afb ,,vii4 ,,the ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,desert1 #agd ,,book ,,iii4 ,,prairies1 ,,savannahs1 ,,pampas1 ,,and ,,llanos4 ,i4 ,,wild ,,plains ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world3--,,the ,,african ,,interior1 #ahf ,,ii4 ,,deserts ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world3--,,prairies1 ,,pampas1 ,,llanos1 #bjg ,,iii4 ,,the ,,australian ,,interior1 #bca ,,iv4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,african ,,plains1 #bdj ,v4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies1 ,,pampas1 ,,and ,,llanos ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world1 #beh ,,vi4 ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,australian ,,plains1 #bgc ,,vii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world3--,,herbivorous ,,animals1 #bha ,,viii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world--,,continued3--,,the ,,carnivora1 #cjj ,,ix4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world--,,continued3--,,birds ,,and ,,reptiles1 #cag ,x4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world3--,,herbivora1 ,,insectivora1 ,,and ,,carnivora1 #cbh ,,xi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world--,,continued3--,,birds ,,and ,,reptiles1 #cec ,,xii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,australian ,,prairies1 #cff ,,book ,,iv4 ,,the ,,forests4 ,i4 ,,the ,,virgin ,,forests1 #cgi ,,ii4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world1 #cig ,,iii4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,islands1 #dab ,,iv4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world1 #dbh ,v4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,tropical ,,forests3--,,the ,,elephant--,,the ,,rhinoceros1 #ddg ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,virgin ,,forests3--,,the ,,great ,,apes1 #dfc ,,vii4 ,,the ,,anthropomorphic ,,apes3--,,orangs--,,gibbons--,,chimpanz ees--,,gorillas1 #dgb ,,viii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests3--,,the ,,cebid1 ,,or ,,monkeys ,,of ,,america--,,the ,,lemurs--,,the ,,sloths--,,the ,,squirrels1 #dhg ,,ix4 ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,savannahs ,,and ,,the ,,forests3--,,anthropophagy1 #ejb ,x4 ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,savannahs ,,and ,,the ,,forests3--,,the ,,savage ,,races--,,the ,,negroes1 #ead ,,xi4 ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,savannahs ,,and ,,the ,,forests3--,,the ,,malays--,,polynesians--,,the ,,north ,,american ,,indians1 #ebf ,,book ,v4 ,,the ,,polar ,,deserts--,,the ,,mountains4 ,i4 ,,the ,,polar ,,deserts1 #edc ,,ii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,and ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,deserts1 #eee ,,iii4 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,arctic ,,wildernesses3--,,the ,,laplanders1 ,,samoiedes1 ,,ostiaks1 ,,kamtschatdales1 ,,eskimos 7,,or ,,esquimaux71 #efi ,,iv4 ,,the ,,mountains1 #egi ,v4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,and ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,mountains1 #eih ,illustration ,,the ,,desert ,,world4 ,,book ,i4 ,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,asia3 ,,the ,,landes1 ,,the ,,dunes1 ,,and ,,the ,,steppes4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,desert ,,in ,,france3--,,the ,,landes ,,of ,,brittany4 ,to those whose imaginations have been kindled by glowing pictures of the ,african ,sahara and the ,arabian wilderness1 it will be1 perhaps1 a matter of surprise to learn that even fertile and civilized ,europe includes within her boundaries regions which are scarcely less cheerless or desolate1 though1 happily1 of far inferior extent4 ,thus1 it would be possible for a ,frenchman whom the engagements of business1 the pressure of limited means1 or the ties of home1 prevented from undertaking any distant voyages1 to obtain a vivid conception of the great ,deserts of the ,world without crossing the confines of his own country4 ,in ,france1 so richly cultivated1 so laborious1 and so blessed by genial ,nature1 there are1 nevertheless1 a few districts where her sons may wholly forget--may almost disbelieve in the existence of--her cities stirring with the hum of men1 her vineyards and her gardens1 her grassy pastures1 her prolific meadows1 her well-ordered highways1 and those iron roads which are the incessant channels of such restless energy1 movement1 and vigorous life4 ,bare and desolate enough1 and as yet unconquered by advancing civilization1 are the mountains of ,france3 among its gigantic ranges of the ,jura1 the ,vosges1 and the ,cevennes1#b the traveller may still ascend precipitous rocks1 may hearken to the deafening roar of foamy torrents1 may contemplate with astonished gaze the masses of stone upheaved in some convulsion of the ancient world1 may listen to the hoarse cry of the eagle1 a s ,close to the sun in lonely lands1 ,ringed with the azure world he stands4 ,in the ,alps1 profaned as they now-a-days are by noisy tourists2 in the ,pyrenees1 whither ,alpine clubs have not yet extended their encroachments1 he who ascends some #hjjj or #ijjj feet may still wander among ice and snow which the sun's rays never loosen1 and gather in his mind's eye a picture of the colossal peaks of ,asia and the ,new ,world1 of the virgin summits of the ,himalaya and the ,cordilleras4 ,there you may follow with entranced vision the swooping wing of the lammergeyer2 or trace the nimble feet of the shy chamois2 or1 like ,manfred1 muse and wonder1 while ,the sunbow's rays still arch ,the torrent with the many hues of heaven1 ,and roll the sheeted silver's waving column ,o'er the crag's headlong perpendicular4 ,mayhap1 if favoured by ,fortune1 you may even find yourself face to face1 in the abrupt bend of some obscure ravine1 with a bear1 which1 calm and unsuspicious1 looks on as you pass by1 as if he were ignorant of men1 and had never heard the ringing echoes of the hunter's rifle4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pyrenean ,,landscape4 ,it is less easy--in ,france1 at least--to discover the old shadowy1 leafy1 almost impervious forest4 ,the most celebrated--that of ,fontainebleau--despite its enormous trees1 its rudely broken surface1 its stags and roebucks reserved for imperial sport1 despite its few adders and problematical vipers1 is now little better than a rendezvous for amateur artists and listless idlers4 ,its well-kept avenues resound with rapid wheels1 and you can scarcely stir a step without finding the associations of the place interrupted by the stalls of vendors of cakes or the apparatus of itinerant gamblers4 ,this profanation is surely to be regretted1 for the ,forest exhibits many landscapes of surpassing interest1 as the rocks of ,franchart1 the glens of ,apremont1 and1 above all1 that ,sahara in miniature1 the sands of ,arbonne4 ,nor would one willingly forget the historical memories which immortalize the famous palace where ,francis ,i4 received his after-time conqueror1 ,charles ,v42 where the wayward and half-insane ,christina of ,sweden listened with cruel delight to the groans of the murdered ,monaldeschi2 where ,madame ,du ,barry lavished her shameless graces2 where ,pope ,pius ,,vii4 lingered through two years of gilded captivity2 and where ,napoleon bade farewell to his dreams of universal empire4#c ,among the uncultivated regions of ,france we may mention the marshes of the ,bresse1 of ,forez1 of the ,sologne1 of ,upper ,brittany1 and of ,picardy4 ,the greater portion of these marshes1 owing to the peat which forms their bed1 is vigorously and not unsuccessfully worked4 ,they are traversed by trenches dug at right angles1 and on whose border are placed the turf-cutter's little hut1 and the furnace in which the peat is baked4 ,their lagoons1 and the canals which connect them1 swarm with flat-bottomed boats4 ,man1 in a word1 has taken possession of them2 braving the unhealthy vapours which enfeeble his frame and shorten his life1 he builds his squalid abode on the rising ground left uncovered by the waters4 ,the largest of these peat-bogs are those of ,montoir and the ,grand ,brire1 near ,savenay1 in the department of the ,loire ,infrieure4 ,they occupy a considerable area of a vast desolate plain1 where a few lean sheep crop an insufficient food from the scanty herbage1 and whose sole product is turf4 ,this country1 says ,jules ,janin1#d has no other harvest1 no other wealth than its peat2 neither fruit1 nor flowers1 nor corn1 nor pastures1 nor repose1 nor well-being2 the earth is wild1 the sky one of iron4 ,it is a region of stagnant waters1 pestiferous exhalations1 decrepit men1 famished animals4 ,the swampy levels of ,montoir form the natural vestibule to the ,armorican ,peninsula1 which of all the ,french provinces has the longest and the most vigorously withstood the advance of civilization1 its ideas1 and its modern institutions1 and has the most rigidly preserved its primitive character4 ,there are many nooks and corners in ,brittany scarcely changed in outward aspect or inner life since the remote days when it was a valued appanage of the ,english crown4 ,they seem to have been plunged in a sleep of centuries1 from which the shrill whistle of the steam-engine is only just awakening them4 ,the country is undulating and broken2 in the central districts it assumes quite a mountainous character4 ,it is true that its heights are only of moderate elevation1 the loftiest not exceeding #bjjj feet2 but they are barren1 rude1 and sombre in appearance4 ,the coast is picturesque enough to delight the most zealous artist1 bordered with high and abrupt cliffs1 and lined1 as it were1 with a beach where the waters of the ,channel ever break in floods of spray and foam1 and where masses of rock lie scattered of immense size and the most fantastic forms4 ,geologically speaking1 ,brittany may be regarded as a prolongation of our ,english mountains1 to which1 like all the north-west coast of ,france1 they were anciently united4 ,in some remote era a vast convulsion opened in the solid land a chasm through which the oceans poured their meeting waters1 and separated our beloved island from the ,european continent2 the sole condition under which1 perhaps1 it was possible for the ,english people to have accomplished their destiny4 ,anchored amid the protecting seas1 we are able to regard from afar1 like a watchman from a tower1 the convulsions that sweep across the face of ,europe4 ,like the watchman1 we cannot refuse to be moved by the spectacle1 by the stir and the tumult2 but it is only considerations of duty that can induce us to descend from our security1 and mingle in the fray4 ,brittany belongs to what geologists call the primitive and intermediary formations4 ,it is divided into three belts or longitudinal trenches3 those of the north and south consist of primitive rocks1 granite and porphyry2 the central appertains to a more recent formation1 to the group of intermediary or secondary rocks1 composed in the main of schists and mica-schists1 quartz1 and gneiss4 ,schist prevails over a considerable area1 and is prolonged to the very extremity of the peninsula4 ,these hard1 compact1 impervious rocks1 are entirely bare in many places2 elsewhere1 and over a great extent1 they are covered but by a thin layer of clayey and sandy earth1 where the sudden slopes of the soil do not allow the rains to settle4 ,here are the plains1 often of considerable dimensions1 which1 bristling with rocks1 and broken up by ravines1 water-courses1 and marshes1 constitute the ,landes of ,brittany4 ,true deserts these1 relieved at distant points by an isolated hut1 or by a wandering herd of swine1 lean cows1 and meagre-looking horses1 which obtain a scanty subsistence from the heathery soil1 sown here and there with tufts of furze1 broom1 and fern4 ,under a sky of almost continual sombreness1 like that which impends over the pottery districts of ,england1 these landes present a sufficiently sinister and uninviting aspect4 ,the traveller1 as he crosses their sepulchral wastes1 will hardly marvel that they were anciently a chosen seat of ,druidical worship4 ,like ,dartmoor1 they would seem to have offered a peculiarly fitting arena for the rites and ceremonies of a creed which we know to have been mysterious in character and sanguinary in spirit4 ,they are covered with its gray memorials3 the masses of granite of different shapes known as ,maen hirs1 or long stones1 and peulvens1 which appear to have been employed as sepulchral monuments2 dolmens1 or table-stones2 and cromlechs 7crom1 bowed or bending1 and lech1 a stone71 which antiquaries are now agreed to regard as the remains of the ancient cemeteries or burial places4 ,at ,camae1 near ,quiberon ,bay1 may be seen a truly remarkable example of the ,parallelitha1 or avenues of upright stones1 forming five parallel rows1 which extend for miles over the dreary moorland4 ,what were their uses it is impossible to determine1 for there seems little ground to believe1 as some writers would have us believe1 that they were serpent temples1 where the old ,ophite worship was celebrated4 ,we can only gaze at them in wonder3 mile upon mile of gray lichen-stained stones1 some twenty feet high1 laboriously fashioned and raised in their present places by the hand of man some twenty centuries agone4#e ,on these very dolmens1 where the priests of the ,tentates were wont to immolate their human victims to their unknown god1 the medival sorcerers and sorceresses celebrated the ,black ,mass1 or ,mass of ,satan1 in terrible burlesque of the ,roman ,catholic sacrament1 concocted their abominable philtres1 and performed their dreary incantations4 ,alas for human nature6 ,in every age it is a prey to the wildest credulity4 ,even in the present day more than one superstition hovers around the monuments of the ,celtic epoch4 ,the ,bretons believe them haunted by demons called poulpiquets1 who love to make sport of the passing stranger1 but will sometimes give both counsel and encouragement to those who know how to address them in the prescribed formulas2 who1 like the ,ladye in the ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel1 at their bidding can bow ,the viewless forms of air4 ,for1 in the ,breton mind1 the superstitions of ,druidism have not been wholly uprooted by the teachings of ,christianity1 still less by those of science and reason4 ,many a dark and dismal legend flourishes in the lonely recesses of the landes4#f ,illustration3 ,,celtic ,,memorials ,,in ,,brittany4 ,brittany1 like ,england1 has its ,cornouaille1 or ,cornwall1 and it is here1 particularly in ,north ,cornwall1 that we see it under its most desolate aspect1 with its chains of black treeless hills covered with heath and furze2 with its deserts of broom and fern1 its ruins scattered along the winding roads1 its attenuated herds wandering at their will across the moors1 and its savage1 ignorant1 and scanty population4 ,the ,bretons of ,cornwall1 according to a ,french writer1 are elevated but a little above the true savage life4 ,those who dwell upon the coast live on the products of their fishing1 except when the fortunate occurrence of a wreck provides them with temporary abundance4 ,at bottom1 they possess the qualities and defects of characters strongly tempered1 but absolutely uncultivated4 ,they are as hard and bare as their own granite rocks4 ,persevering1 courageous1 resolute1 they make excellent sailors1 the best which ,france can find2 the sea is for them a second country4 ,progress1 which they do not understand1 inspires them with a sort of terror1 a gloomy mistrust4 ,when the railway surveyors first intruded upon their solitudes1 these rigid conservatives assailed them with volleys of stones1 and when the railroads were laid down flung beams across the lines to overthrow the hissing1 whirring trains which threatened to disturb their prescriptive barbarism4 ,they asked but to be let alone--to be suffered to live as their forefathers lived--to be spared the ingenuities1 successes1 vices1 and virtues of the ,new ,world4 ,but modern civilization1 like ,thor's hammer1 or ,siegfried's magic sword ,balmung1 will break down the last barriers raised by ignorance and superstition4 ,it will shed its light upon the wilds and wastes of ,brittany1 and compel their inhabitants in the course of years to acknowledge its value and accept its benefits4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,landes ,,of ,,gascony4 ,the ,breton ,cornwall has been called by a popular ,french writer1 the ,arabia ,petrea of ,brittany4 ,but we might1 perhaps1 with greater justice apply to this sombre region1 peopled as it is with fantastic visions1 the name of ,land of ,fear1 which the ,arabs bestow on the ,great ,desert4 ,less vivid1 it may be1 but graver and more profound is the impression produced by the ,landes and ,dunes of ,gascony4 ,these deserts of the south1 which ,michelet terms the vestibule and threshold of the ,ocean1 appeal less powerfully to the imagination4 ,they are haunted by no historical memories1 no traditions or marvellous legends in which man has rudely embodied his dim conceptions of the mysteries of nature2 they are crowded with no monuments of antiquity to revive the shadows of the heroes and priests of ancient ,gaul2 and when these are wanting1 what shall supply their place8 ,but ample scope exists for the assiduous labours of the naturalist1 who here may see at work those unresting forces which have inspired every revolution of the globe's surface2 who may contemplate here the phenomena that occur with the same regularity as in the days when man had not been fashioned after his ,maker's image-- ,him framing like himself1 all shining bright2 ,a little living sun1 son of the living light4#g ,these despoiled plains1 these inhospitable wilds1 alternately dry and marshy2 these sullen pools1 these mountains of shifting sand1 speak forcibly to his mind of their past history1 which is not one of the least curious episodes of the history of the physical world4 ,the department which borrows its name from the ,landes of ,gascony is divided by the ,adour into two wholly dissimilar parts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,shepherds ,,of ,,the ,,landes4 ,to the south of the river lies a rich1 undulating1 vine-bearing country1 rich in pasturage and harvest1 sown with pleasant villages and smiling country houses1 and watered by full streams and little rivers4 ,to the north1 the appearance of the country changes abruptly4 ,when the traveller has crossed the alluvial zone of the ,adour he sees before him a thin1 dry1 sandy level of a comparatively recent marine formation4 ,its only products are rye1 millet1 and maize2 its only vegetation1 forests of pines and scattered coppices of oaks2 beyond these1 and they do not extend far1 all cultivation ceases1 and the soil is stripped of verdure2 you enter upon the ,landes--seemingly vast as a sea--occupied by permanent or periodical swamps2 and where1 over a space of several square leagues1 in an horizon apparently boundless1 you perceive nothing but heaths1 sheepfolds or steadings for the flocks of sheep that traverse these deserts1 and shepherds keeping mute watch over their animals1 living wholly among them1 and having no intercourse with the rest of humanity1 except when once a week they seek their masters' houses to procure their supply of provisions4 ,it is these shepherds only 7,landescots and ,aouillys71 and not1 as is generally supposed1 all the peasants of the ,landes1 who are perched upon stilts1 so as to survey from afar their wandering flocks1 and to traverse more safely the marshes which frequently lie across their path4 ,wild and uncouth are the figures which these stilt-walkers present1 as they move rapidly over the country1 often at the rate of six or seven miles an hour2 occasionally indulging in an interval of rest1 by the aid of a third wooden support at the back 7curved at the top1 so as to fit the hollow of the body71 while they pursue their favourite pastime of knitting4 ,the dress of the ,landescot is singularly rude4 ,his coat or palett is a fleece2 cuisses and greaves of the same material protect his legs and thighs2 his feet are thrust into sabots and coarse woollen socks1 which cover only the heels and instep4 ,over his shoulder hangs the gourd which contains his week's store of provisions3 some mouldy rye-bread1 a few sardines1 some onions and cloves of garlic1 and a flask of thin sour wine4 ,from sunrise to sunset he lives upon the stilts1 never touching the ground4 ,sometimes he drives his flock home at eventide2 sometimes he bivouacs sub jove frigido1 under the cold heaven of night4 ,unbuckling his stilts1 and producing his flint and steel1 he soon kindles a cheery fire of fir-branches1 and gathering his sheepskins round him1 composes himself to sleep2 his only annoyances being the musquitoes1 and his fears of the evil tricks of wizard or witch1 who may peradventure catch a glimpse of him in the moonlight1 as they ride past on their besom to some unholy gathering or demon-dance4 ,an ,english traveller has sketched in vivid colours the landscape of the ,landes4 ,over all its gloom and barrenness1 he remarks1 over all its blasted heaths1 its monotonous pine-woods1 its sudden morasses1 its glaring sand-heaps1 prevails a strong sense of loneliness1 a grandeur and intensity of desolation1 which invests the scene with a sad1 solemn poetry peculiar to itself4 ,emerging from the black shadows of the forest1 the pilgrim treads a plain1 flat as a billiard-table1 apparently boundless as the ocean1 clad in one unvaried1 unbroken garb of dusky heath4 ,sometimes stripes and ridges1 or great ragged patches of sand1 glisten in the fervid sunshine2 sometimes belts of scraggy young fir trees appear rising from the horizon on the right1 and sinking into it again on the left4 ,occasionally a brighter shade of green1 with jungles of willows and water weeds1 giant rushes1 and clustered marish mosses1 will tell of the blackened waters beneath-- ,hard by a poplar shook alway1 ,all silver-green with gnarld bark2 ,for leagues no other tree doth mark ,the level waste1 the rounding gray4#h ,the dwellings which stud this dreary1 yet not wholly unpoetic landscape1 are generally mere isolated huts1 separated oftentimes by many miles4 ,round them spreads a miserable field or two1 planted with such crops as might be expected on a poor soil and from deficient cultivation4 ,the cottages are mouldering heaps of sod and unhewn and unmortared stones1 clustered round with ragged sheds composed of masses of tangled bushes1 pine-stakes and broad-leaved reeds1 beneath which the meagrest looking cattle conceivable find a precarious shelter4#i ,the ,landes are divided into the ,little ,landes1 near ,mont-de-,marsan2 and the ,great ,landes1 stretching to the north and west of the department of which that town is the capital1 and uniting uninterruptedly with those that occupy the vast country situated south of the ,gironde4 ,the total superficial area of these plains is estimated at upwards of #b1djj1jjj acres1 of which two-thirds belong to the department of the ,landes1 and the remainder to that of the ,gironde4 ,yet the reader must not believe this country to be a desert in the popular acceptation of the word2 it has its forests of pines1 where the extraction and preparation of resinous matter are carried on with considerable activity4 ,it has its small towns1 its pretty villages1 its factories1 and even its handsome villas4 ,finally1 modern industry has cut the ,landes in two by the ,bordeaux railway1 which traverses them from north to south1 and bifurcates at ,morans to throw off a line to ,bayonne1 and another to ,tarbes4 ,in shape1 the ,great ,landes may be compared to an immense rectangular triangle1 having for its base the coast1 which1 from the mouth of the ,gironde to ,bayonne1 or for a length of more than sixty leagues1 is almost rectilineal4 ,but they are separated from the sea by a long parallel chain of lakes and water-courses--a waste of shallow pools--a labyrinth of gulfs and morasses1 and then by the continuous chain of the ,dunes1 of which we shall speak in the following chapter4 ,that which is commonly called the ,great ,lande is bounded on the north by the tang1 or lake1 of ,cazau4 ,it is a sandy1 treeless plain1 and upon which1 for a traject of several leagues from east to west1 not one habitation worthy of the name is perceptible until the traveller arrives at ,mimizan1 near the southern point of the lake of ,aureilhan4 ,this lake on the south-west pours its waters into the sea4 ,to the north it communicates1 through the canal of ,st4 ,eulalie1 with the lake of ,biscarosse1 which is itself connected with that of ,cazau4 ,east of this chain of lakes lies the ,lande2 west of it stretches the range of ,dunes1 or sand-hills4 ,the lake or pool of ,cazau is a small sea of fresh water1 perfectly clear1 profoundly deep1 and fourteen to fifteen thousand acres in extent4 ,it has its whirlwinds and its tempests1 so that in certain seasons it is perilous to embark on its surface4 ,and were its banks clothed with rich woods1 or raised aloft in irregular or precipitous cliffs1 it would surely attract as great a throng of tourists as the mountain-tarns and lochs of ,scotland or ,cumberland1 or the ,arcadian waters of ,northern ,italy4 ,the lake of ,biscarosse1 in form a triangle1 with one side formed by the ,dunes1 covers about twelve thousand acres4 ,it derives its name from a village situated at its northern angle1 on the bank of the canal which connects it with the lake of ,cazau4 ,the lake of ,aureilhan is the smallest of the three2 the ,st4 ,eulalie canal1 which links it to the preceding1 traverses a series of peat-bogs bounded eastward by gloomy pine-forests1 and westward by the interminable ,dunes1 which1 by arresting the flow of the rain-waters1 have really created these so-called lakes and extensive swamps4 ,enormous quantities of rain fall every year in the ,landes1--which district the ,romans would certainly have dedicated to ,jupiter ,pluvius1--and find beneath the thin superficial stratum or crust of sand and earth1 a sub-soil of tufa and allios--in other words1 of compact chalk and sand agglutinated by a ferruginous sediment4 ,frequently this tufa possesses all the hardness of stone1 and its imperviousness is its fundamental property4 ,hence it follows1 that a portion of the heavy annual rainfall remains in the receptacles provided by the hollows and depressions of the soil1 and in due time accumulates into marshes and lagoons1 until gradually evaporated by the heat of spring4 ,when of old the scared peasants beheld the irresistible advance of these strange ministers of destruction1 they had no other resource than to fell their woods1 abandon their dwellings1 and surrender their little all to the pitiless sand and devouring sea4 ,what could avail against such a scourge8 ,efforts were made to repel it4 ,it is said that ,charlemagne1 during a brief residence in the ,landes1 on his return from his expedition against the ,saracens1 employed his veterans1 and expended large sums of money in preserving the cities of the coast from imminent ruin2 but whether the means employed were insufficient1 or whether the imperial resources failed1 and other urgent needs diverted the population and their leaders from this struggle against nature1 the works were wholly abandoned4 ,of late years they have been resumed1 and with greater success1 by a skilful agriculturist1 ,m4 ,desbiey1 of ,bordeaux1 and an able engineer1 ,m4 ,bremontier1 who have called in nature herself to assist man in his war against nature4 ,their system consists of sowing in the driest sand the seeds of the sea-pine1 mixed with those of the broom 7genista scoparia71 and the psamma arenaria4 ,the spaces thus sown are then closely covered with branches to protect them from the action of the winds4 ,these seeds germinate spontaneously4 ,the brooms1 which spring up rapidly1 restrain the sand1 while sheltering the young pines1 and thenceforth the ,dune ceases to move1 because the wind can no longer unsettle its substance1 and the grains are held together by the roots of the young plants4 ,the work is always begun on the inland side1 in order to protect the farmer and the peasant1 and to withdraw the infant forest from the unwholesome influence of the ocean-winds4 ,and1 in order that the sown spaces shall not themselves be buried under the sands blown up from the shore1 a palisade of wicker-work is raised at a suitable distance1 which1 reinforced by young plants of sandwort 7psamma arenaria71 check the moving sands for a sufficiently long time to favour the development of the seeds4 ,finally1 the work is completed by the construction of a substantial wall1 or rather an artificial cliff1 which effectually prevents the further progress of the flood1 or directs it seaward1 to be arrested on its course by the barrier of the sand-hills4 ,unable to force a passage through these natural ramparts1 they have excavated certain basins1 more or less extensive1 more or less deep1 which have formed into inland seas1 communicating with the ,atlantic by one narrow issue4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that1 owing to the encroachment of the ,dunes1 these lakes have been constantly forced back upon the inland country4 ,fortunately1 this menacing invasion of the sands has been checked by the great engineering works executed a few years ago2 which1 on the one hand1 have fixed1 and1 as it were1 solidified the ,dunes1 and1 on the other1 have provided for the regular outflow of the waters4 ,the ,landes have thus been opened to the persevering labours of the cultivator4 ,the culture of the pine1 and the manufacture of resinous substances1 have largely extended1 and the time1 perhaps1 is not far distant when these deserts will almost completely disappear2 when these desolate and unproductive plains will pleasantly bloom1 transformed into shadowy woods or verdurous meadows4#aj ,to so fortunate a result nothing will more powerfully contribute than the embankment of the ,dunes4 ,these have been1 in reality1 the true scourge of this country2 these were the moving desert1 the constantly ascending sea1 which had already engulfed forests1 villages1 even towns1 under its billows of sand1 and driven before it the terrified inhabitants of the coast4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dunes1 ,,or ,,sand-,,hills4 ,the ,dunes form the extreme line of the ,brittany coast for nearly two hundred miles1 from the ,adour to the ,garonne4 ,they are hills of white sand1 as fine and soft as if it had been sifted through an hour-glass4 ,their outline1 therefore1 changes every hour4 ,when the wind blows from the land1 millions of tons of sand are hourly driven into the sea1 to be washed up again on the beach and blown inland by the first ,biscay gale4 ,a water hurricane from the west will fill up with sand square miles of shallow lake1 driving the displaced waters into the interior1 dispersing them in shining pools among the murmurous pines1 flooding and frequently destroying the scattered hamlets of the people1 and inundating their fields of rye and millet4#aa ,illustration3 ,a ,,flood ,,in ,,brittany4 ,their origin is due to the prevalence of the sea-winds on those points of the coast which are not protected by rock and cliff1 and whose slopes of sand descend very gradually to the margin of the waves4 ,their formation is easily explained4 ,the sand of which they are composed is a silicious material1 reduced to minute grains1 generally rounded1 by trituration4 ,these grains1 nevertheless1 are often too big and too heavy for the wind to take them up and scatter them afar1 like the dust of the highways or the ashes of volcanoes4 ,but at low tide the sand1 dried by the sun's rays and the action of the wind1 offers to the latter a sufficient holdfast to be dragged up the slopes which descend seaward1 and deposited at a certain distance4 ,this process being constantly repeated1 the heaps are daily increasing in dimensions4 ,it will easily be understood that this accumulation along the shore cannot have taken place where the force and direction of the sands experience periodical or capricious changes2 for then the sands cast upon the beach by the winds of the north and west would be driven back into the sea by the winds of the south and east4 ,this is noticeable in many places where the nature of the coast is favourable for the production of such a phenomenon4 ,but on other shores--as on the ,atlantic littoral of ,france--the winds which blow most frequently and most violently are from the west and south-west4 ,and it is there we encounter the ,dunes4 ,those of ,gascony are by far the most remarkable4 ,northward1 they extend as far as the ,point de ,grave1 which shuts in the mouth of the ,gironde2 southward1 to the bank of the ,adour1 and even further1 to the cliffs of ,barn4 ,here the basin of ,arcachon constitutes one vast hollow2 and some openings exist1 moreover1 in the department of ,landes1 between that basin and the ,adour1 for the overflow of the waters which descend from the interior4 ,to the north and south of the ,teste de ,buch the chain of sand-hills measures from #ddjj to #ffjj feet in width4 ,at other points it is still wider2 but it narrows towards its extremities1 and both at the ,point de ,grave and near ,bayonne does not exceed #dej yards4 ,owing to their extreme shiftiness of soil1 the ,dunes can attain no considerable elevation4 ,the sand deposited by the wind on the summit of the hill is always in a state of precarious equilibrium4 ,it has a constant tendency to be precipitated down the other side2 and the higher the summit the greater is this tendency1 so that there comes at last a moment when no further accumulation in height is possible4 ,the ,dune may then extend its basis1 may even increase twofold in dimensions1 but it no longer rises4 ,let us note1 moreover1 that owing to its density the sand cannot be carried even by the most violent winds into the higher regions of the atmosphere2 and that the ,dunes1 when they have reached a certain elevation1 oppose to them an insuperable obstacle4 ,this circumstance would consequently have a salutary effect1 and the accumulation of sand would be determined by a law of its own1 if the ,dunes1 once formed1 had time to cohere4 ,but this is not the case4 ,incessantly does the wind undo or modify its work2 and the loftiest hills being the most exposed to its violence1 are quickly reduced to the common level4 ,in general1 the greatest elevation of the ,dunes corresponds to their greatest breadth4 ,thus the culminating point of those of ,gascony is found in the belt situated between the lakes of ,cazau and ,biscarosse1 where the chain is from #gejj to #ijjj yards across4 ,their average height is #ahj feet to #bjj feet above the sea-level2 but some of the hills in the forest of ,biscarosse attain an altitude of #cbj feet4 ,in the neighbourhood of the mouths of the ,gironde and the ,adour1 where the chain is considerably narrowed1 the height of the ,dunes is only thirty to forty-five feet4 ,the reader must not suppose that the ,dunes consist of a single series of sand-hills ranged along the shore4 ,he will1 however1 have conjectured1 from our statements respecting their width1 that they really compose a chain of several more or less regular ridges4 ,the hills are separated from one another by valleys1 locally named laites or lettes4 ,these valleys1 where the pluvial waters flow and accumulate1 exhibit a striking contrast1 in their freshly-blooming verdure1 to the naked1 barren ,dunes4 ,the general aspect of the landscape may1 therefore1 be compared to that of the ocean4 ,there is the same broken surface1 the same extent of undulation1 the billows of sand being upheaved by the wind like the billows of the sea1 and sharing in their mobility4 ,you must see1 says a writer1 in order to form an idea of those colossal masses of fine sand1 which the wind incessantly skims1 and which travel in this way towards the inland country3 you must see their contours so softened that they look like mountains of plaster of ,paris polished by the workman's hand1 and their surface so mobile that a little insect leaves upon it a conspicuous track2 their slopes1 at every degree of inclination2 their everlasting sterility--not a blade of grass1 not an atom of vegetation2 their solitude1 less imposing than that of the mountains1 but still of a truly savage character4 ,you must see1 from the summit of one of these ridges1 the ocean on your right hand1 and on your left the extensive lakes which border the littoral2 and1 in the midst of this tumultuous sea of tawny sand1 green grassy valleys1 rich and fertile pastures1 smiling oases of verdure1 where herds of horses graze1 and cows half-wild1 guarded by shepherds scarcely less wild than they4#ab ,the marked characteristic of the ,dunes1 as we have already said1 is their mobility1 which renders them a constant menace for the neighbouring populations4 ,to the wind which creates them they owe their frequent changes and their inland movement4 ,while the sea eats into the coast1 assisted by the breezes which gradually sweep clear the ground before it1 the ,dunes extend1 and drive before them the shallow lakes3 these in their turn encroach upon the ,landes1 and until now man has been constrained to recoil1 step by step1 before his threefold enemy4 ,it is in this phenomenon1 rather than in the ungrateful soil of the ,landes1 that we must seek the cause of the curse which has seemed so long to rest upon this country-side4 ,you must go back some twenty centuries to trace the origin of the ,dunes of ,gascony4 ,fourteen or fifteen hundred years ago the coast north of the ,adour was inhabited1 and comparatively flourishing4 ,mimizan was then a town and a sea-port1 from which were exported the resinous products of the neighbouring forests4 ,the ,normans disembarked there on several occasions4 ,under its walls1 in #ejf1 was fought a great battle between the allied ,goths and ,ostrogoths on the one side1 and the ,barnais1 commanded by a bishop of ,lescar1 on the other4 ,both town and port to-day are buried under the sands4 ,full fathom five lie church and convent1 and the busy street1 the noisy mart1 and the once peaceful home4 ,the present village has nearly perished3 the ,dune was not three yards from the church when its progress was recently arrested4 ,other cities1 laid down in old charts of the country1 but of which not a trace remains1 have in this manner disappeared1 and entire forests have been ingulfed1 now under the sands of the ,dunes1 now under the sands and waves of the sea4 ,some parts of the chain have been rendered to a great extent immovable by the vegetation which has gradually covered them1 and these have opposed a formidable obstacle to the encroachments of the sands4 ,yet here and there the barrier has been defied4 ,for example1 in the forest of ,biscarosse the movable ,dunes1 actually sweeping over the ancient hills1 have not only filled up the valleys1 but ingulfed a great number of pines1 and raised themselves several yards above the crest of the oldest trees1 planted on the summit of the highest hills4 ,in whose favour1 in this struggle of science against the elements1 will the victory eventually be decided8 ,the question is one which the future alone can resolve4#ac ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,wild ,,scenes ,,of ,,england3--,,dartmoor ,,and ,,the ,,fen ,,country4 ,crossing the ,channel1 and surveying the limited expanse of our own beloved ,england1 we become aware of certain districts which belong to the ,desert ,world4 ,through the ceaseless energy of our race1 and the introduction of mechanical inventions which economize time and labour and treble the reproductive power of capital1 almost all ,england has been transformed into a rich and radiant garden1 where the waste places are few and far between1 where the solitude of desolation is scarcely known2 yet1 as already observed1 there are districts which retain much of their ancient wildness of character4 ,such a region is ,dartmoor1 the extensive and romantic table-land of granite which occupies the south-western part of the county of ,devon4 ,in its recesses still linger the eagle1 the bustard1 and the crane2 its solitudes are broken by the hoarse cries of the sparrow-hawk1 the hobby1 and the goshawk2 and the ,cyclopean memorials of ,druidism which cover its surface--cromlechs and kistvaens1 tolmns and stone-avenues--invest it with a peculiar air of mysterious awe4 ,it extends in length about twenty-two miles 7from north to south71 and in breadth twenty miles 7from east to west74 ,its total area exceeds #acj1jjj acres4 ,it rises above the surrounding country like the long1 rolling waves of a tempestuous ocean1 fixed into solidity by some instantaneous and powerful impulse4 ,a natural rampart is cast around it4 ,deep ravines1 watered by murmuring streams1 diversify its aspect1 and lofty hills of granite1 locally called tors1 of which the principal1 ,yes ,tor1 has an elevation of #bjej feet above the sea4 ,its soil is composed of peat1 in some places twenty-five feet deep2 underneath which lies a solid mass of granite1 occasionally relieved by trap 7a volcanic rock71 and traversed by veins of tin1 copper1 and manganese4#ad ,nearly in the centre of this dismal wilderness lies an immense morass1 whose surface is in many places incapable of supporting the lightest animal1 and whose inexhaustible reservoirs supply the fountains of many a river and stream--the ,dart1 the ,teign1 the ,taw1 the ,tavy--all clear as crystal in the summer months1 but after heavy rains running redly through the stony vales4 ,the roaring of these torrents1 when angry and swollen1 is sublime to a degree inconceivable by those who have never heard the wild impressive music of untamed ,nature4 ,the tors are remarkable for their quaint fantastic outlines1 which1 like the clouds1 suggest all manner of strange similitudes--to dragons1 and griffins1 and hoary ruins1 and even to human forms of gigantic size1 apparently confronting the traveller as the lords and natural denizens of the rugged waste4 ,the principal summits are ,yes ,tor1 ,cawsand ,beacon1 ,fur ,tor1 ,lynx ,tor1 ,rough ,tor1 ,holne ,ridge1 ,brent ,tor1 ,rippen ,tor1 ,hound ,tor1 ,sheep's ,tor1 ,crockern ,tor1 and ,great ,mis ,tor4 ,not only must their variety of form delight the artist1 but his eye rests well pleased on their manifold changes of colour2 purple1 and green1 and gray1 and blue--now softened by a delicate vaporous shadow1 now glowing with intense fulness in the sun's unclouded light4 ,dartmoor is traditionally reputed to have been anciently clothed with forest4 ,the sole relic now existing is the lonely ,wistman's ,wood1 which occupies a sombre valley1 bounded on the one side by ,crockern ,tor1 on the other by ,little and ,great ,bairdown2 the slopes being strewn with gray blocks of granite in admired disorder1 as if the ,titans had been at their cumbrous play4 ,starting from this chaos of rocks1 appears a wood or grove of dwarf weird-looking oaks1 interspersed with the mountain-ash1 and everywhere festooned about and garlanded with ferns and parasitical plants4 ,none of these trees exceed twelve feet in height1 but at the top they spread far and wide1 and branch and twist in so fantastic and tortuous a manner as to remind one of those strange things called mandrakes4 ,their branches are literally covered with ivy and creeping plants1 and their trunks so thickly embedded in a coating of moss that at first sight1 says ,mrs4 ,bray1 you would imagine them to be of enormous thickness in proportion to their height4 ,their whole appearance conveys to you the idea of hoary age in the vegetable world of creation2 and on visiting ,wistman's ,wood it is impossible to do other than think of those 'groves in stony places' so often mentioned in ,scripture as being dedicated to ,baal and ,astaroth4#ae ,that heathen rites were celebrated here in the pre-historic era seems very probable1 the best etymologists agreeing that the name is a corruption of ,wise-man1 or ,wish-man2 that is1 of the old ,norse god ,woden1 who is still supposed to drive his spectral hounds across the silent wastes of ,dartmoor4 ,celtic or ,cymric memorials1 as we have previously hinted1 are very abundant and very various4 ,there are cromlechs1 where the ,britons buried their dead2 stone pillars1 with which they commemorated their priests and heroes2 avenues of upright stones leading up to the circles1 where1 perhaps1 their priests celebrated their religious rites2 kistvaens1 or stone-chests1 containing the body unburned2 tolmns1 or holed stones1 whose meaning cannot be determined1 but which may probably have had some astronomical uses2 bridges1 huts1 and walled villages1 all bearing traces of the handiwork of our rude forefathers4 ,there is no spot in ,england so thronged as this with the shadows of a remote1 a mysterious1 and an irrecoverable past4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,dartmoor our wanderings take us to the eastern coast1 and the district of ,,the ,,fens1 now so rapidly yielding to the labour of the agriculturist as to exhibit but rare glimpses of their ancient savagery4 ,it extends inland1 around an arm of the ,north ,sea called the ,wash1 into the six counties of ,cambridge1 ,huntingdon1 ,lincoln1 ,norfolk1 ,northampton1 and ,suffolk1 with an area of upwards of #dbj1jjj acres4 ,inland it is bounded by an amphitheatral barrier of high lands1 and touches the towns of ,bolingbroke1 ,brandon1 ,earith1 ,milton1 and ,peterborough4 ,into this great basin flow the waters of the greater part of the drainage of nine counties1 which gather into the rivers ,cam1 ,glen1 ,lark1 ,nene1 ,great and ,little ,ouse1 ,stoke1 and ,welland1 these being linked together by a network of natural and artificial canals4 ,anciently1 the ,fens were pleasant to the eye of the lover of the picturesque2 for they contained shining meres and golden reed-beds1 haunted by countless water-fowl1 and strange1 gaudy insects4 ,dark-green alders1 says ,kingsley1#af and pale-green reeds stretched for miles round the broad lagoon1 where the coot clanked and the bittern boomed1 and the sedge-bird1 not content with its own sweet song1 mocked the notes of all the birds around2 while high overhead hung hawk beyond hawk1 buzzard beyond buzzard1 kite beyond kite1 as far as eye could see4 ,what strange transformations must this wild region have undergone6 ,there was a time1 in all probability1 when a great part of the ,german ,ocean was dry land1 through which1 into a vast estuary between ,north ,britain and ,norway1 flowed together all the rivers of ,north-eastern ,europe--,elbe1 ,weser1 ,rhine1 ,scheldt1 ,seine1 ,thames1 and all the rivers of east ,england1 as far north as the ,humber4 ,meanwhile1 the valleys of the ,cam1 the ,ouse1 the ,nene1 the ,welland1 the ,glen1 and the ,witham1 were slowly sawing themselves out by the quiet action of rain and rivers4 ,then came an age when the lowland was swept away by the biting1 corroding sea-wash still so powerfully destructive on the east coast of ,england1 as far as ,flamborough ,head4 ,wave and tide by sea1 rain and river by land2 these are ,god's mighty mills in which he makes the old world new4 ,and as ,longfellow says of moral things1 so may we of physical1-- ',though the mills of ,god grind slowly1 yet they grind exceeding small2 ,though he sit and wait with patience1 with exactness grinds he all4' ,these ever-active causes have converted the dry land into the fens4 ,the mud brought down by the rivers cannot get away to sea2 and1 with the dbris of the coast1 is constantly swept southward by tide and current1 and deposited within the great curving basin of the ,wash1 between ,lincolnshire and ,norfolk4 ,there it is kept by the strong barrier of shifting sands coming inwards from the sea2 a barrier which also confines the very water of the fens1 and spreads it inland into a labyrinth of streams1 shallow meres1 and bogs4 ,the rainfall1 over the whole vast area of dull level1 has found no adequate channels of escape for centuries2 and hence we may understand how peat--the certain product of standing water--has slowly overwhelmed the rich alluvium1 and swallowed up gradually the stately forests of fir and oak1 ash and poplar1 hazel and yew1 which once spread far and wide over the blooming country4 ,many a green isle needs must be ,in the deep wide sea of misery1 sings ,shelley2 and this dreary outcome of mudbank and bog and mere had its wooded isles1 very fair and lovely to behold1 redeeming the desolation of the landscape4 ,such were ,ramsey1 ,lindsey1 ,whittlesea1 whose names remind us of their whilome characteristics 7ea1 ey1 an island74 ,in these green places the old monks loved to build their quiet abbeys1 rearing their herds in rich pastures1 feeding fat fish in their tranquil streams1 and dreaming in the shadow of green alder and stately ash4 ,but these ,eden-isles were few1 and the surrounding marsh was black and dismal enough to scare the boldest spirit1 and pestilential enough to sap and undermine the strongest frame4 ,the ,romans had attempted to drain and embank it1 and their vallum may still be tracked along the surface of the marsh-lands1 marked to this day by the names of ,walsoken1 ,walton1 and ,walpoole4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 however1 it returned to its primeval desolateness--a waste and wilderness1 haunted by the foul legends of an unwholesome superstition4 ,in the immediate neighbourhood of the great monasteries of ,crowland and ,ely1 and of the thriving towns1 the good work of drainage went on slowly2 but elsewhere the land was given up to the bittern and the heron4 ,no comprehensive scheme was adopted1 however1 until ,russel1 ,earl of ,bedford1 cut the great ,bedford ,river1 twenty-one miles long1 and rescued from the desert the rich tract known by his name--the ,bedford ,level4 ,erst ,a dreary pathless waste1 the coughing flock ,was wont with hairy fleeces to deform2 ,and1 smiling with its lure of summer flowers1 ,the heavy ox1 vain struggling1 to ingulf2 ,till one1 of that high-honoured patriot name1 ,russel1 arose1 who drained the rushy fen1 ,confined the waves1 bade groves and gardens bloom1 ,and through his new creation led the ,ouse ,and gentle ,camus1 silver-winding streams4#ag ,the work was continued by ,william ,earl of ,bedford1 who added1 in #afdi1 to his father's old ,bedford ,river that noble parallel river the ,hundred ,foot1 both rising high above the land to allow for flood water4 ,it was carried on at a later period under the direction of ,government surveyors4 ,then came ,rennie1 the great engineer1 whose operations effectually shut out the desert1 and handed over to the agriculturist nearly the whole level of the ,fens1 some seventy miles in length4 ,works are now in progress for rescuing a further portion of the basin of the ,wash1 to be formed into a new county1 and named after the ,queen4 ,so that now1 in tracts once covered by the sea1 or knee-deep in reedy1 slushy1 pestilential slime1 the grass grows luxuriantly1 the crops wave in golden abundance1 or the breeze takes up and carries afar-- ,the livelong bleat ,of the thick-fleecd sheep from wattled folds4 ,but the dominion of labour has not yet been established over the whole ,fen-district4 ,there are still dreary nooks1 and gloomy corners1 and unproductive wastes2 wild scenes there are1 which few ,englishmen have any conception of as contained within the boundaries of their own inviolate isle4 ,romantic scenery1 remarks ,mr4 ,walter ,white1 must not be looked for on the ,lincolnshire coast4 ,in all the journey from the ,wash till you see the land of ,yorkshire1 beyond the ,humber1 not an inch of cliff will your eyes discover4 ,monotonous is the prospect of-- ,a level waste1 a rounding gray of sand-hills1 which vary but slightly in height1 and bristle with marum4 ,but tame though it be1 continues our authority1#ah the scene derives interest from its peculiarity4 ,strange perspective effects appear in those irregular hills3 yonder they run out and form a low dark1 purple headland1 against which the pale green and yellow of a nearer tongue look bright by contrast4 ,here for a few furlongs the range rises gray1 cold1 and monotonous2 there it has a warmth of colour relieved by deep shadows1 that change their tint during the hours that accompany the sun while he begins and ends his day4 ,sitting on the summit of those dry hills1 you will remark the contrasted landscape3 on the one side1 the level pasture land1 league after league of grassy green1 sprinkled with villages1 farms1 churches1 and schools1 where work and worship will find exercise through ages yet to come2 on the other1 league after league of tawny sand1 sloping gently outwards to meet the great sea that ever foams or ripples thereupon4 ,on the one hand1 a living scene bounded by the distant wolds2 on the other1 a desert1 sea and shore alike solitary1 bounded only by the overarching sky4 ,more thoughts come crowding into the mind in presence of such a scene than are easy to express4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,steppes3--,,the ,,desert ,,in ,,russia1 ,,siberia1 ,,and ,,tartary4 ,hitherto we have only been speaking of miniature deserts1 of the more limited of the world's wildernesses1 where some degree of victory seems to reward man's arduous struggle with nature4 ,those which we have hitherto described are open to the breath of civilization4 ,the pilgrim who visits them incurs no danger2 he has nothing to dread from beasts of prey2 the men he meets with obey the same general laws as himself2 he is carried into their furthest recesses by the all-embracing railroad4 ,he sees on every hand the efforts of science to confine the desert within ever narrower boundaries2 to reclaim the moor1 and the fen1 and the sandy waste2 to reap from the once barren soil an abundant harvest4 ,but if he pass from ,england or ,france to ,germany1 and thence across the provinces of unhappy ,poland1 he will find himself daily advancing into a country of more and more savage aspect4 ,he will observe that vegetation loses its happy variety2 that the cultivated fields become scarcer2 the morass and forest more frequent1 and of greater extent2 the population poorer1 more squalid1 and less numerous4 ,wide and dreary intervals separate the different towns2 here and there1 surrounded by gloomy woods1 are scattered the melancholy-looking villages4 ,travelling becomes difficult1 for the roads are ill-kept2 he has left behind him the modern magician1 the engineer2 wild wolves haunt his path2 and he has good cause to fear the robber's knife4 ,civilization here has left barbarism for centuries to itself2 we are approaching the great ,deserts1 the ,steppes of ,northern ,asia4 ,the ,steppes commence near the thirty-fifth degree of longitude1 east of the ,dnieper1 as soon as we quit the fertile plains of the ,ukraine to enter the country of the ,don ,cossacks4 ,they are the characteristic feature of the immense zone which starts from the north-eastern shore of the ,sea of ,azov1 stretches to the foot of ,caucasus1 between the ,black and ,caspian ,seas1 and is thence prolonged beyond the ,ural range1 to the north and south of the metaliferous ,alta2 but mainly between the latter and the ,thian-,shian mountains1 to the seas of ,okhotsk and ,jesso4 ,the word ,steppe1 supposed to be of ,tartar origin1 primarily signifies an uncultivated plain1 a prairie4 ,the ,steppes1 in short1 are ordinarily plains of very considerable extent interrupted at intervals by chains of hills or mountains2 but1 on the whole1 of a level1 monotonous character1 and with a considerable part below the level of the ocean4 ,their area may be roughly computed at #d1bjj1jjj square miles4 ,occasionally1 in traversing them1 we meet with lakes or brackish ponds1 with forests of pines1 even with patches of cultivated ground4 ,sometimes they form lofty and extensive plateaux1 as in the case of the plateau of ,gobi1 also called1 but most inappropriately1 ,scha-mo1 or the ,sandy ,desert1 and ,scha-ho1 or the ,sandy ,river4 ,the ,gobi begins upon the confines of ,chinese ,tartary1 and thence extends over thousands of leagues in a vast expanse of sterile wilderness towards the coast of the ,pacific4 ,it chiefly consists of bare rock1 shingle1 and loose sand1 alternating with firm sand1 sparsely clothed with vegetation4 ,but a large portion of the country1 though not less leafless and monotonous1 assumes in the spring season the appearance of an undulating ocean of grass1 supplying pasturage to the flocks and herds of the ,mongolian nomades1 who wander at will over its vast prairie grounds1 and encamp wherever they find a stream of water or sheltering crag4 ,the general elevation above the sea is probably not less than #cejj feet4 ,the ,gobi was crossed by ,mr4 ,grant1 in #ahfc1 and1 soon afterwards1 by ,mr4 ,bishop1 a correspondent of the ,times4 ,though their general aspect is chill and dreary1 the ,steppes are not without their romantic landscapes1 and their vegetation is more varied as well as more abundant than is generally believed4 ,you may find among them wide meads with a soil of sufficient fertility to produce corn in great quantities1 although too thin to permit the development of plants which have need of a certain depth4 ,the most agreeable portion of these plains1 says ,humboldt1 is adorned with small shrubs of the family ,rosace1 tulips1 and the cypripedium4 ,just as the ,torrid ,zone is distinguished by the tendency of all its plants to become trees1 so some of the ,asiatic ,steppes in the ,temperate ,zones have the peculiar characteristic that all their flowering herbaceous plants attain to a remarkable height1 such as the ,saussurea and other synantherace1 the leguminous shrubs1 and1 above all1 an infinite variety of astragals4 ,if the traveller attempts to go forward1 in the small ,tartar chariots1 across these pathless1 trackless prairies1 he must keep standing1 to ascertain his direction1 and he will see the plants1 interlaced as in a dense forest1 bend before his wheels4 ,some of these ,steppes are grassy plains2 others are covered with saline plants1 fleshy1 articulated1 and always green4 ,often1 too1 one sees afar the glitter of saline efflorescence1 like lichens1 spreading unevenly over the glassy soil1 like newly-fallen snow4#ai ,comparing the ,asiatic ,steppes with the ,pampas of ,south ,america1 ,humboldt does not hesitate to declare that the former are far the richer4 ,in that part of the ,steppes1 inhabited by the ,kirghiz and the ,kalmucks1 which ,i have traversed1 he says1 that is to say1 from the ,don1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and the ,oural 7,jak71 to the ,obi and the ,upper ,irtysh1 near ,lake ,dsaisang1 over a space of forty degrees of longitude1 one can never discover1 even at the most distant limit1 a phenomenon frequent in the ,llanos1 the ,pampas1 and the ,prairies of ,america2 that horizon vague and boundless as the sea1 which seems to support the vault of heaven4 ,seldom in ,asia was the spectacle offered me of even a single side of the horizon4 ,the ,steppes are traversed by numerous chains of hills1 or covered with forests of conifers4 ,the vegetation of ,asia1 even in the richest pasturage1 is nowhere confined to the families of the ,cyperace4 ,a great variety prevails there of herbaceous or frutescent plants4 ,in the spring season1 small rosace and amygdalace1 with rosy or snow-white blossoms--,spira1 cratgus1 prunus spinosa1 amygdalus nana--present a graceful appearance4 ,i have elsewhere spoken1 he adds1 of the vigorous growth of ,synanthers1 such as ,suassurea amara and salsa1 the artemisias and blue centaureas1 which grow profusely in these deserts1 and the leguminos1 which are there represented by different species of astragal1 cytisus1 and caragana4 ,the fritillaria ruthenica1 meleagroides1 cypripedium1 and tulip1 delight the eye with the brilliance of their colours4#bj ,this almost exclusively herbaceous1 but abundant and various1 vegetation of which ,humboldt speaks1 is conspicuous in the spring1 in the least favoured ,steppes1 after the rainy season4 ,but it is there of a brief life4 ,in the month of ,june the heat grows intense1 and the dryness excessive4 ,then every herb perishes1 cut down by the sun's keen-smiting rays1 like the ,greeks before ,troy by the arrows of ,apollo4 ,bent was his bow1 the ,grecian hearts to wound2 ,fierce as he moved1 his silver shafts resound4#ba ,the dust is whirled off the ground by the wind1 and swept about in revolving tornados4 ,the ,steppes situated in a comparatively low latitude thus alternately assume the most discordant aspects4 ,in winter the heavy rains inundate them1 and transform them into impracticable marshes2 spring clothes them with a thick carpet of grasses and other herbaceous plants1 so that they reveal to the eye leagues upon leagues of delightful sward cropped by numerous flocks4 ,in summer they undergo a third metamorphosis1 and are converted into parched and sun-scathed deserts like those of ,nubia or ,arabia4 ,these periodical transformations are especially remarkable in the ,steppes of the ,black ,sea1 the ,sea of ,azov1 and the ,caspian ,sea2 where winter comes attended with abundant snows and terrific tempests4 ,no obstacle can arrest the fury of the gale1 which accumulates the driven snow in fearful avalanches1 and like the demon in the old ,german legend1 drives before it the wild horses in an access of violence4 ,half frozen by the cold1 and exhausted with hunger1 they fly in a complete panic4 ,oftentimes their giddy headlong course carries them forward upon the crust of ice which gathers over the waters close to the shore2 it cracks1 it breaks1 and hundreds perish6 ,the melting snow and heavy rains at the end of winter drown the plains under vast sheets of water1 which1 however1 quickly evaporate in the first rays of the sun4 ,rain1 in summer1 is extremely rare1 and as there are neither brooks nor springs to refresh the thin layer of earth in which the herbs and shrubs take root1 all these plants enjoy only a butterfly existence2 they bloom1 they fade1 they die1 with startling rapidity4 ,the hurricanes are neither less numerous nor less furious in the hot than in the cold season2 dust1 however1 takes the place of snow1 when1 as is sometimes the case1 no tremendous deluge of rain follows in the track of the mighty wind4 ,to sum up3 the spring and summer of the ,steppes are compressed 7so to speak7 into two months2 all the rest of the year seems given over to desolation4 ,two months in the year of bloom1 and sunshine1 and colour1 and beauty1 are all that ,nature grants the wandering ,mongolian4 ,such being the general configuration of the ,steppes1 one may easily imagine how stern and gloomy is the aspect of these immense plains1 with no other interruptions of the soil than their tumuli1 no other boundary than the sea4 ,he who has not been habituated from youth to their monotony finds himself wholly unable to struggle against its depressing influence4 ,their dismal solitudes are in truth an immeasurable prison1 where he wanders to and fro without hope of escape4 ,in vain does he interrogate the north and south1 the east and the west2 in vain does he turn from one side to the other2 it is always the same uniformity1 the same immovability1 the same solitude4#bb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,steppes3--,,the ,,wild ,,horse--,,the ,,camel4 ,reference has been made to the numerous troops of wild horse which haunt the ,steppes on this side of the ,oural4 ,similar troops of these animals wander over the whole extent of the ,steppes of ,central ,asia1 which the most accredited modern naturalists repute to be the original cradle of their race4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tarpan1 ,,or ,,wild ,,horse4 ,these horses are called tarpans1 a word undoubtedly derived from the ,tartar4 ,shall we look upon them as the representatives of the primitive breed1 whence have sprung all the varieties known at the present day2 or shall we see in them1 as well as in the wandering horses of the prairies and pampas of the ,new ,world1 the descendants of individuals which had escaped from the thraldom of man8 ,this latter hypothesis seems to be the most probable4 ,but there is good ground for believing that1 living a wild life1 these animals are gradually returning to the primitive type4 ,they have lost the harmonious graces of form1 the beauty1 and the vigour which we admire in the high-bred steed1 perfected by the assiduous care of man4 ,there seems as great a difference between the ,arabian horse and the wild horse of the ,steppes as between the accomplished ,european gentleman and a ,malagasy savage4 ,they are of small stature2 their limbs are lank2 their coat is coarse1 woolly1 rude1 and rough4 ,with the tarpans of the northern ,steppes it is thick1 flaky1 and frizzled4 ,their mouth and nostrils are garnished with long hair1 not unlike a goat4 ,their colour is generally brown1 of the shade called ,isabelle1 after a certain ,queen of ,france who1 in fulfilment of a vow1 wore her linen unchanged for a considerable period4 ,a few are black or white4 ,they have a large head1 with the forehead projecting above the eyes2 a straight chamfer2 and long ears1 customarily laid back close to the head4 ,the troops of the tarpans are subdivided into groups of twenty to thirty individuals1 each group usually living apart1 and only uniting in a compact phalanx when a common danger threatens1 or a necessity arises of migrating from one region to another4 ,the gaunt grim wolves1 which hunger drives from their neighbouring forests2 and man1 who hunts them hotly1 either to reduce them into subjection1 or kill them for their flesh1 are almost the only enemies they have any reason to dread4 ,the warlike nomade tribes of the ,black and ,caspian coasts1 and of ,central ,asia1 have no other breeding-grounds than the steppe which they inhabit4 ,thither come ,cossack1 and ,mongol1 and ,kirghis1 and ,kalmuck1 to choose their chargers4 ,they catch them by means of a lasso1 which they throw with surprising dexterity1 and in a few days train them into a suitable docility4 ,when in want of their hide or flesh1 the nomades hunt them with gun1 arrow1 or spear2 for hippophagy1 which a few zealous amateurs are now endeavouring to popularize in ,france and ,england1 has been practised from time immemorial by the inhabitants of the ,steppes4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,horses ,,terrified ,,by ,a ,,storm4 ,these barbarians1 however1 respect the life of their domestic animals1 or sacrifice them only in cases of pressing need4 ,they treat them also with a gentleness unknown to our ,european grooms and horse-dealers4 ,with them1 as with the ,arabs1 the horse is a friend rather than a slave2 he is1 in truth1 one of the family2 and it is with great difficulty that his master consents to part with him4 ,our travellers describe the ,tartar1 ,mongol1 and ,kirghiz horsemen as realizing the celebrated fable of the ,centaurs1--as becoming1 so to speak1 one with their horses4 ,the exigencies of their wandering life require that they should be constantly on horseback2 it is almost their home1 their abode1 their dwelling-place2 there they are mounted day and night2 there they sleep1 prepare their food1 and take their repasts4 ,true that their cooking is of the rudest and simplest1 and their taste not so fastidious as that of an ,european epicure6 ,if1 for example1 they would make ready a piece of meat1 they insert it between the saddle and the horse's skin1 and in this impromptu oven leave it for a few hours1 while it undergoes the processes of heat1 pressure1 and frequent friction1 serving in some degree to cook it2 then a pinch of salt for seasoning2 and lo6 a dainty titbit which our cavalier devours with the best appetite in the world4 ,but it is to the inhabitants of the ,steppes of the ,black and ,caspian ,seas that the horse renders the most estimable services4 ,to make use of a phrase of ,buffon's1 ,he shares with them the fatigue of war and the glory of battle2 he provides them with the best and swiftest means of transit2 he nourishes them with his flesh1 and the mare quenches their thirst with her milk4 ,in their dairies mares take the place of our ,european milch-cows1 and are regularly milked once or twice a-day4 ,the milk1 warm1 is employed as a medicine4 ,it is thicker and more saccharine than that of ruminating animals1 and this1 undoubtedly1 is the reason that the ,cossacks1 ,tartars1 and ,kalmucks have succeeded1 by fermentation1 in distilling alcohol from it1 and procuring vinegar by acetifying it4 ,they prepare with it an intoxicating liquor 7koumis71 to which they are very partial1 and with which the wealthiest among them consider it an honour to be largely provided4 ,by the side of the horse1 we naturally place his humble congener and compatriot1 the ,ass4 ,nor need we be ashamed to devote a few lines to this useful animal1 though civilization has appointed to it a very different lot from that of the horse4 ,while man has devoted his utmost efforts to ennoble1 as it were1 and aggrandize the latter1 to perfect his capabilities1 develop his qualities1 embellish and vary his form1 for the former he has had nothing but contempt and harsh treatment4 ,he has made the horse the companion of his campaigns1 the minister to his sumptuous pleasures1 the instrument of his grandest labours4 ,he has dismissed the poor ass to the fields to carry the heaviest burdens1 to share in the toil and privation of the peasant4 ,in these different conditions1 who will wonder that while the horse has become a strong1 graceful1 and proud-spirited animal1 the ass1 on the other hand1 remains bowed and bent1 with a rough coarse hide1 lanky limbs1 a heavy head1--always drooping1 as if under the weight of continual lassitude and unconquerable melancholy1--and long ungraceful ears1 which give his physiognomy an air of ridicule4 ,everything in him bears the impress of degradation4 ,how has he merited so obscure a destiny8 ,alas1 he is the victim of an iniquitous caprice of man4 ,for see him in his natural condition2 contrast with the well-worn servant of civilization the ,onagra1#bc the free wild ass of the ,steppes1 with the ,tarpan1 and the parallel will be wholly to the advantage of the former4 ,the onagra is at least of the same size2 his ears are short2 he carries aloft a well-proportioned head2 his skin1 of a handsome gray or yellowish-brown1 is sleek and shining2 his limbs are long1 delicate1 and nervous4 ,he lives in very numerous troops1 and migrates from north to south1 and south to north1 according to the season4 ,the ,tartars employ him as a beast of transport and the saddle rather than as a beast of burden4 ,they eat his flesh1 preferring it to that of the wild horse4 ,even the domestic ass of the ,east differs notably from the slow1 dogged1 ill-used animal of ,european notoriety4 ,under a more favourable climate1 and in the free life of the desert1 he has preserved his tall stature1 his vigour1 and the haughtiness of his bearing4 ,the wealthiest and most distinguished personages do not disdain to mount him or harness him to their carriage4 ,he has a keen eye1 a quick scent1 a sure foot1 a mild and resolute aspect4 ,he accomplishes with ease from six to eight miles an hour2 and1 lastly--a fact worthy of notice--his life1 which with us seldom exceeds fifteen years1 in ,asia is frequently prolonged to thirty or thirty-five4 ,he is less subject to sickness than the horse1 and he almost equals the camel in sobriety1 docility1 and endurance of hunger and fatigue4 ,illustration3 ,,onagra1 ,,or ,,wild ,,ass4 ,whether the ,tartars and ,kalmucks1 who use mares' milk as a medicine1 attribute1 as we do1 certain therapeutical virtues to the milk of the ass1 we are unable to say2 but it is certain that this milk forms a portion of their daily food4 ,on account of the strong proportion of saccharine serum which it contains1 it is well adapted for the preparation of the fermented drink already spoken of1 known to the ,tartars under the name of ,koumis or ,kamuis4 ,mr4 ,atkinson speaks of the large leathern koumis sack or bottle1 as an important piece of ,mongolian furniture4 ,one which he saw was five feet eight inches long1 and four feet five inches wide1 with a leathern tube at the corner about four inches in diameter1 through which the milk is poured into the bag1 and the koumis drawn out4 ,a wooden instrument is introduced into this bag1 its handle passing through the tube1 not unlike a churning staff2 with this the koumis is frequently agitated4 ,the ,kirghiz begin making it in ,april1 and its due agitation and fermentation occupy about fourteen days4#bd 99 99 99 99 99 ,the horse1 and a few flocks of sheep and herds of horned cattle1 amply suffice for the wants of the warlike tribes in the south of ,asiatic ,russia4 ,these tribes have almost entirely abandoned the use of the camel4 ,but as we advance eastward1 we find these gigantic and mis-shapen ruminants in great numbers1 the faithful companions and indispensable auxiliaries of the nomades of the ,east4 ,they wander freely about the ,steppes1 in troops of several hundreds1 browzing indifferently on the grass of the wide pastures or the foliage of the bushes4 ,they are without fierceness1 and the traveller who intrudes upon their immense domains seems only to inspire in them a benevolent curiosity4 ,it is impossible to describe1 says ,madame ,hommaire de ,hell1 the astonishment they exhibited as we passed them4 ,as soon as they caught sight of us1 they ran with all speed towards us1 and then stood motionless1 with heads turned towards our cavalcade1 until we had got to such a distance as to be no longer distinguishable4 ,gold and silk1 says ,buffon1 are not the true wealth of ,asia4 ,the camel is the treasure of the ,east4 ,it is a fact that this animal is wonderfully adapted to supply the wants of the desert races4 ,it may be said to supply them with every object of primary necessity2 food1 clothing1 and even habitation1 fire1 and the means of transport4 ,the flesh of the young camel1 though inferior to beef or mutton1 is savoury and easy of digestion2 the she-camel yields an abundance of milk as substantial and agreeable to the taste as that of the cow4 ,the camel's skin is1 it is true1 a coarse wool1 but long1 tenacious1 and readily wrought4 ,the ,mongols make it into tissues and cord4 ,out of the tissues they weave their clothing1 coverings1 and tents2 with the cord1 which is of various thicknesses1 they fabricate the harness of their horses and other objects of equipment4 ,camel-leather is not inferior in suppleness and solidity to that which we make use of in ,europe4 ,the dung of these animals1 dried in the sun1 serves as fuel not only for cooking food1 but even for working metals4 ,finally1 as a beast of burden1 the camel surpasses every other in strength1 swiftness1 endurance of fatigue1 and1 above all1 in that proverbial sobriety which enables him to accomplish a journey of several successive days without taking either food or drink4 ,from nature he has received a special organization1 which well justifies his ,arab name of the ship of the desert4 ,it consists essentially in the structure of his feet1 in that of his stomach1 and in the species of hunch or hump which he carries on his back4 ,we know1 in the first place1 that the camel's foot does not resemble that of other ruminants2 it is bifurcated1 but the two toes1 very strong and much elongated1 are furnished not with a hoof1 but with a short nail1 adhering only to the final phalange2 they are1 moreover1 palmated2 that is to say1 reunited near the extremity by a carneous membrane1 which is supplied underneath with a veritable thick and horny sole4 ,the foot can thus plant itself on a wide surface1 and seems expressly adapted to the shifting sandy soil which the camel usually traverses4 ,as for the stomach1 beside the four compartments into which the stomach of all ruminants is divided1 we notice1 on the sides of the paunch1 a mass of cubic cells1 or partitions1 always containing a quantity of tolerably pure water1 very drinkable1 and kept as a kind of reserve supply2 so that more than one traveller1 when crossing the desert1 and perceiving neither fountain1 well1 nor stream in which to quench his devouring thirst1 has preserved his life at the expense of that of his camel1 by killing the poor animal1 and opening his reservoir to drink its contents4 ,illustration3 ,,bactrian ,,camel4 ,the hump1 of which the ,arabian camel1 or dromedary1 has but one1 while the ,bactrian1 or camel properly so called1 has two1 is1 in truth1 a storehouse of solid nutriment1 on which he can draw for supplies long after every digestible part has been extracted from the contents of the stomach3 this storehouse consists of one or two large collections of fat stored up in ligamentous cells supported by the spines of the dorsal vertebr4 ,when the camel is in a region of fertility1 the hump becomes plump and expanded2 but after a protracted journey in the wilderness it becomes shrivelled and reduced to its ligamentous constituent1 in consequence of the absorption of the fat4#be ,to be deprived of drink for from eight to ten days is no hardship to the camel4 ,accredited authorities testify that without any serious inconvenience he can go without drink for twenty-three and even twenty-five days4 ,in the way of solid food1 a ball of cake weighing from a pound to a pound and a quarter1 will suffice him for a whole day4 ,often when he has set out on his journey fasting1 he contents himself with browsing on the way a few green or dry bushes1 and in the evening sups on a handful of dried beans4 ,but this singular abstemiousness is not his sole good quality2 his vigour1 his docility1 his swiftness render him equally valuable4 ,the ordinary burden of a small camel is from #fjj to #hjj lbs42 a large camel will carry #ajjj lbs4 or upwards1 from thirty to thirty-five miles a-day2 but the maharis1 or those which are used for speed alone1 will travel daily from twenty to thirty leagues4 ,the camel of the ,steppes1 in ,eastern ,europe and ,central ,asia1 is1 as ,i have already hinted1 the ,bactrian or camel strictly so called4 ,this animal differs from his ,african congener in several very important physical characteristics1 and perhaps also in some moral peculiarities4 ,his two humps are smaller than the one hump of the dromedary4 ,he is a little larger than the latter2 his average stature is from six feet and a half to seven feet4 ,his hair1 of a deep chestnut brown1 almost woolly on the humps1 the head1 and the upper part of the neck1 is short and smooth on the body1 and hangs in long fringes below the neck and around the fore-legs4 ,he endures without inconvenience the most opposite temperatures1 great heat and extreme cold1 so that his habitat naturally ranges over an immense extent of country4 ,he is found throughout the zone of the ,steppes1 even to the confines of ,siberia1 on the borders of ,lake ,bakal2 he was formerly still more common in ,hindostan1 but has now almost disappeared1 owing to the great consumption entailed by the military expeditions of our ,east ,indian ,government4 ,the camel is an excellent traveller1 but his gait is rough and awkward1 and almost insupportable by those who have not been long habituated to it4 ,in this relation we may borrow an anecdote from ,madame ,hommaire de ,hell3#bf ,her dragoman1 a ,frenchman1 named ,antoine1 curious to essay this new species of equestrian practice1 begged a ,kalmuck in the escort to lend him his camel4 ,the request being readily granted1 he perched himself on the extremity of the saddle1 in measureless contentment with his lofty post1 and by no means mindful of the malicious smiles exchanged between the ,cossacks and the camel-drivers4 ,scarcely had the beast advanced four paces1 however1 before his face turned pale1 and he clung to the saddle1 with a most pitiful countenance1 and imploring help in the most agonizing tones4 ,one need be a ,kalmuck1 says ,madame de ,hell1 to be capable of enduring the trot of a camel4 ,his jerky gait shakes the body so severely1 that a long journey is a positive punishment1 even for the ,cossacks4 ,the unfortunate ,antonio1 left some distance behind by the escort1 made a vain effort to overtake us2 he was compelled1 willy-nilly1 to retain his steed as far as the ,caspian ,sea1 where he arrived about two hours after ourselves4 ,i have never seen a man more demoralized4 ,his groans1 when he was lifted off the camel1 were so lamentable1 that we really hardly knew what to think of his condition4 ,as for the camel's moral qualities1 the same lively writer furnishes a very different estimate to what we gather from the majority of travellers4 ,she represents him as idle1 pettish1 and very vindictive4 ,all that we had read1 says she1 of the rapidity of these ships of the desert2 their insensibility to fatigue1 to hunger1 to thirst2 their tractability to the will of man exceeding the obedience of the leaf to the wind1 was completely contradicted by the conduct of these quadrupeds1 little careful to maintain their reputation for agility4 ,despite of a stout cord passed through one of the nostrils1 and which caused them a sharp pain every time they became refractory1 they would not march more than two successive hours without flinging themselves on the ground4 ,we had to battle with them incessantly to rouse them from their torpor1 and prevent them from biting one another4 ,whenever a camel-driver pulled a little roughly his animal's guiding-string1 we heard a succession of cries1 all the more frightful from their resemblance to the human voice4 ,in a word1 these camels behaved so ill during their short journey1 that we entirely lost the good opinion our great naturalist 7,buffon7 had given us of their species1 in descriptions more poetical than true4 ,notwithstanding ,antoine's discouraging experience of camel-riding1 ,madame de ,hell1 a few days afterwards1 essayed the same experiment1 with the result that1 like her poor dragoman1 she made a vow never to repeat it4 ,somewhat later1 she had an opportunity of witnessing a very curious illustration--and one very amusing to the lookers-on--of the natural vindictiveness of these rough steeds4 ,we give the adventure in her own words3-- ,everybody knows that the camel possesses the faculty of ruminating the food already stored in one of his stomachs1 and that he willingly enough grants himself this pleasure when he has nothing to eat2 but it is not generally known1 perhaps1 that he possesses sufficient malice to make1 when an opportunity arises1 this prerogative a means of vengeance4 ,i had noticed in the morning that one of our camel-drivers appeared on bad terms with his beast4 ,he vainly tried to master him by punishment1 pulling with all his might the cord which passed through the animal's nostril2 the latter was obstinate1 and threw himself every moment on the ground1 a proof of rebellion4 ,the ,kalmuck1 irritated by the struggle1 profited by a halt to dismount1 and inflict severe chastisement on the recalcitrant2 but the camel1 disdainfully raising his long neck1 followed with so malicious an eye all his tyrant's movements1 that without doubt he was revolving some project of revenge in his head4 ,and so it happened that he quietly waited until the ,kalmuck stood opposite to him2 then1 opening his great mouth1 he ejected full in the camel-driver's face a double volley of masticated herbs1 mixed with slaver and all sorts of filthiness4 ,it would be impossible to describe the air of satisfied vengeance with which the camel raised his neck1 and moved his head from one side to another1 as if in quest of applause4 ,what astonished me most in this affair was his master's moderation after undergoing such an outrage4 ,he wiped himself coolly1 remounted his saddle1 and caressed the neck of the ill-bred animal1 as if he had received the most flattering compliment4 ,a good understanding being thus strangely re-established1 they went on their way peaceably1 without giving another thought to what had taken place4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,animal ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,steppes3--,,wild ,,ruminating ,,animals--,,rodents--,,carnivora--,,bir ds4 ,besides those species of which we have just spoken1 and which man has subjugated to his service1 the ,steppes nourish a host of other animals which seem for ever destined to a savage life4 ,some are spread through the entire zone of the ,steppes1 and include representatives of the genera or species belonging to the temperate latitudes of ,europe4 ,but most of them are circumscribed in more or less limited habitats1 out of which they would not meet with the conditions of climate or provision that are essential to their existence4 ,the mammalia which are found in the plains of ,eastern ,europe and ,central ,asia belong principally to the orders of ,ruminants1#bg ,rodents1 and ,carnaria4 ,cuvier divides the ruminants into two great sections3 one comprising the ruminants without horns 7genera1 camel1 lama1 and chevrotain72 and the other1 those with horns4 ,the latter he again divides into ruminants with decaying or wooden horns 7these are the cervid of the new nomenclature71 ruminants with membraneous horns 7as the giraffes71 and ruminants with hollow horns 7oxen1 goats1 antelopes1 sheep74 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eland 7,antilope oreas74 ,the section of ,ruminants without horns is represented in the ,steppes by the camel4 ,of the three groups of horned ruminants1 one only is wanting in this region of the ,old ,continent--namely1 that of the ruminants with membranous horns2 but we meet there with varieties of all the species included among the cervid1 except the reindeer1 which is confined to the glacial countries of both continents4 ,the common ,european stag is found on this side of the ,oural1 in the ,steppes bordering on the forests1 where he prefers to seek an asylum4 ,the ahu1 or roebuck of ,tartary1 inhabits the valleys and plains which stretch to the north of the ,himalaya and along the chain of the ,thian-,chan4 ,deer wander in troops1 or in isolated couples1 in all the temperate and fertile portions of the zone of the ,steppes1 and the eland is spread over all ,asia between the #deth and #dast degree of latitude4 ,the latter is the largest of all the cervid4 ,it ordinarily attains1 and sometimes exceeds1 the stature of the horse4 ,his antlers1 spread out perpendicularly to the axis of his head1 take at first a nearly horizontal direction1 then spring upwards in an abrupt curve4 ,at their extremity they terminate in a broad palm1 set with sharp snags around its outer edge4 ,their weight1 for adults1 averages from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds4 ,the eland has a short robust neck1 which is necessary to enable him to support the burden of his branching honours2 but which1 joined to the projection of his shoulders1 and the disproportionate length of his fore-legs1 gives him a very ungraceful aspect4 ,nor can he browse the herbage without making a great digression or falling on his knees4 ,the male1 moreover1 under the throat has a sort of gotre1 or swelling1 garnished with a rude pointed beard4 ,the female wears a beard1 but has no gotre4 ,the neck is surmounted with a short1 stiff1 blackish mane4 ,the rest of the hair is of a pronounced gray4 ,the eland inhabits the marshy plains and banks of rivers2 he dreads the heat1 and to escape it will often remain during the long summer days plunged up to his neck in the cool waters4 ,he lives with his comrades in tolerably numerous herds4 ,the first birth of the female is only one2 afterwards she produces two at a time4 ,frequently the eland attains a prodigious stature4 ,an individual killed in the ,alta measured four feet and a half in height to the shoulder1 and four feet and a third in length4 ,his flesh is said to be light and nourishing2 his hide excellent for making shoulder-belts2 and his antlers are converted to the same uses as the horns of the stag4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the hollow-horned ruminants ,i may mention the ,saiga1 a kind of antelope which inhabits the ,asiatic ,steppes1 and is met with even in ,poland4 ,in figure he takes the poetical elegance of the gazelle2 his horns are of a clear yellow colour1 and of a transparency which rivals that of tortoise-shell4 ,his forehead is covered with transversal folds2 he has no muzzle1 properly speaking1 but a kind of snout like that of a hog4 ,it is said that he drinks through his nostrils4 ,the saigas travel in herds of about two thousand each1 of whom a certain number keep always some distance in advance1 in the rear1 and on the flanks of the main host1 so as to watch over their security4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another kind of gazelle1 the ,dseren1 is peculiar to the ,mongolian ,deserts1 and named by the inhabitants the yellow stag4 ,his stature is little inferior to that of the deer4 ,the female is without horns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,moufflon1#bh the original of our domestic sheep1 sometimes strays into the plains of ,central ,asia1 but prefers the solitude of the mountains4 ,his general size is that of a small fallow deer1 but though clothed with hair instead of wool1 he bears a closer resemblance to the ram than to any other animal4 ,in summer his hair is close1 but in winter it becomes rough1 wavy1 and slightly curled4 ,on the upper part of the body it is brown1 but the under part and insides of the limbs are whitish4 ,the hair is considerably longer under the throat1 and about the neck and shoulders1 than elsewhere4 ,we may refer1 in this connection1 to the ,egagra1 or wild goat1 which ,cuvier considers to have been the original stock of the numerous races of goats spread over various regions of the globe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,steppes nourish two species of ,rodents3 the ,varying ,hare 7,lepus variabilis71 so called because he changes from tawny gray in summer to white in winter2 and a gray squirrel1 which is probably only a variety of our common ,european squirrel4 ,he is not a climber and a haunter of the woods1 like his congener4 ,he abounds in the ,mongolian ,steppes1 where he lives in holes excavated under the earth1 like the rats and rabbits4 ,he is1 however1 much more ingenious than the other troglodyte-rodents2 he shelters the entrance to his abode under a domed roof1 skilfully constructed of dry herbs woven together1 and covered with clay4 ,these works closely resemble the mounds upheaved by moles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,carnaria of the ,felid1 or feline family1 are wanting1 or nearly so1 in the immense zone which we are considering4 ,except a species of lynx1 the ,chilason or ,chulon1 whose existence has been recognized in the north of ,tartary2 and a few tigers which adventure into ,mongolia1 we may say that the ,asiatic ,steppes1 and1 therefore1 also those of ,europe1 are exempt from these inconvenient guests4 ,the most dangerous1 and almost the only enemy which man and the herbivora have reason to dread1 is the ,wolf4 ,this animal1 now very rare in ,western ,europe1 where his race will soon disappear1 is still found in great numbers in the wild ,lithuanian forests1 in ,russia1 and all ,northern and ,central ,asia4 ,to him1 as to other animals of the ,canid1 cold appears more favourable than heat1 and it is in countries where the average temperature seldom rises high he attains his greatest dimensions4 ,in ,lithuania wolves are often met with which measure three feet and a half in length1 without the tail4 ,those of ,northern ,asia are also of a great size and nerve1 of terrible strength and audacity2 they have been seen to pounce on a sheep1 and carry it off at full speed4 ,they intrude in quest of victims into the towns1 the villages1 and the encampments2 combat to the last with their enemies2 and when vanquished die without a groan4 ,generally they lurk in the woods and forests2 but hunger1 according to the proverb1 drives them forth from their lairs4 ,then they assemble in vast hordes2 they pursue1 they assail1 they defend1 with ingenious tactic1 skilfully availing themselves of the disposition and accidents of the ground4 ,their manoeuvres vary according to the nature of the game or the enemy4 ,in general1 if a man preserve an upright bearing and a bold countenance1 they will not attack him2 they follow him stealthily1 however1 prepared to pounce upon him if1 unhappily1 he should stumble or falter4 ,but the wolves of ,tartary1 far from sharing in this deference towards the lord of creation1 display a singular bitterness against him4 ,it is remarked1 says the ,jesuit missionary ,huc1 that the ,mongolian wolves attack man more willingly than any animals2 one sees them sometimes galloping through innumerable flocks of sheep1 without inflicting any injury1 in order to dash upon the shepherd4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,great ,wall they frequently descend upon the ,tartar-,chinese villages1 enter the farms1 turn aside with contempt from the domestic animals which they encounter1 and penetrate even into the interior of the houses to select their victims1 seizing them invariably by the throat and strangling them4 ,not a village in ,tartary but has every year to deplore some calamity of this kind4 ,one might say that the wolves of this country sought specially to avenge themselves on men for the blood-thirsty war the ,tartars wage against them4 ,and it is true that in their pursuit of these animals the inhabitants of the ,steppes display not only an ardour which would be legitimate1 but a fierce and uncontrollable cruelty4 ,illustration3 ,,capture ,,of ,a ,,wolf ,,by ,a ,,kirghiz ,,horseman4 ,they pursue them everywhere outrance1 remarks ,m4 ,huc2 they regard them as their chief enemy1 on account of the terrible losses they inflict upon their flocks4 ,the news that a wolf has made his appearance in the neighbourhood is for everybody a signal to 'mount and ride away4' ,and as each cavalier has always two or three saddled horses in waiting near his tent1 the plain is speedily covered1 as if by enchantment1 with a cloud of eager horsemen4 ,their weapon is a long rod4#bi ,thus1 in whatever direction the wolf may seek to escape1 he encounters a band of determined adversaries1 whose cry1 as they precipitate themselves upon their traditional foe1 is ',no quarter6' ,there are no mountain-sides so rugged or so difficult1 that the nimble horses of the ,tartars cannot pursue him thither4 ,the cavalier who finally overtakes the beast1 flings a lasso round his neck as he passes at full gallop1 and drags him in his rapid track to the nearest tent4 ,there they firmly bind up his muzzle1 that they may proceed to torture him with impunity1 closing up the tragic scene by flaying him alive1 and then setting him free4 ,in the summer the miserable animal will live in this condition for several days2 but in winter1 exposed without his furry coat to the rigour of the season1 he dies almost immediately1 frozen to death4#cj ,it is generally considered that the wolf is an animal as cowardly as he is fierce1 because he flies before man when man does not retreat before him1 and because he kills unoffending animals4 ,but we forget that man acts in a precisely similar manner4 ,numerous experiments1 and especially those of ,cuvier1 have clearly proved that the wolf is fully capable of being domesticated1 is very sensible of kindly treatment1 and will as readily grow familiar with1 and attached to1 his master1 as the best of dogs4 ,we must1 therefore1 refer his ferocity to the instinct of self-preservation and of a vengeance too frequently excited2 just as at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the unfortunate ,bosjesmen1 formerly treated like beasts by the ,dutch colonists1 though naturally of a peaceable disposition1 became active and cruel aggressors1 and daring assailants1 against the enemies who had exhausted their patience4 99 99 99 99 99 ,two other wild beasts of the dog genus1 the ,korsak and the ,karogun1 are eagerly hunted by the ,tartars1 especially by the ,kirghiz4 ,but the chase1 in this instance1 is carried on for industrial purposes4 ,the fur of these animals is very valuable1 and the ,kirghiz hunters carry thousands every year to the great market of ,orenburg4 ,the korsak is a species of fox4 ,in colour he closely resembles the jackal2 but he has a long tail1 with a black tuft at the tip1 and on each side of the head a brown stripe extends from the eye to the muzzle4 ,he ranges over all the ,steppes of ,tartary1 and lives in burrows like the foxes4 ,the natives pretend that he never drinks4 ,he is a very handsome animal1 and when1 towards the close of the sixteenth century1 several individuals were brought to ,europe1 he became quite the fashion4 ,all the great ladies of the court were desirous of possessing one1 which they tended in their chambers1 and when promenading in the parks1 often led about like a spaniel4 ,the mania was of brief duration1 but it clearly showed how easily the animal could be tamed and reared4 ,buffon has confounded the karogun with the isatis or polar fox1 and other animals with the korsak4 ,he is equally distinct from the one as from the other1 and the ,kirghiz never make a mistake1 though they hunt for both in the same districts4 ,his skin is of an ashen gray on the back1 and a pale yellow under the belly4 ,his fur is not less precious than that of the korsak4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the wild ,ornithology of the ,steppes comprises some migratory palmipedes1 a few gallinace1 and some predatory birds of the falcon family4 ,gulls1 wild ducks1 herons1 curlews1 and especially pelicans1 people the shores of the ,black ,sea1 the ,sea of ,azov1 and the ,caspian1 with the banks of the rivers that flow into them1 and the neighbouring pools4 ,the ,cossack and ,kalmk chiefs1 who now ardently cherish the love of falconry that was so marked a trait in the character of the medival nobles1 hunt these birds with much enthusiasm1 save1 indeed1 the pelican1 whose flesh is not edible4 ,the herons form1 in the order ,grallatores and the tribe ,cultirostres 7knife-like beak71 a family 7,ardeid7 composed of numerous species1 several of which inhabit or frequent the marshes1 lakes1 and streams of the region of the ,steppes4 ,o'er yonder lake the while1 ,what bird about that wooded isle1 ,with pendant feet and pinions slow1 ,is seen his ponderous length to row8 ',tis the tall heron's awkward flight1 ,his crest of black1 and neck of white1 ,far sunk his gray-blue wings between1 ,and giant legs of murky green4#ca ,the most remarkable species is the great white heron 7,ardea alba71 or yellow-billed white egret1 clothed in plumage of snowy white1 with a long yellow bill1 long lank limbs1 and black feet2 length about forty inches4 ,on the nape and the croup his feathers are long and flexible1 wavy1 and with tapering ends2 they are eagerly sought after for purposes of adornment4 ,we may also mention the great bittern1 the bird of desolation 7,botauris stellaris7--which the ,french expressively name eau-mre1 or water-mother1 and which derives its zoological appellation from the ,latin words bos and taureau1 in allusion to the booming1 bellowing sound of his hoarse voice4 ,his plumage is of a pale yellow1 marked with brown and nest-coloured zig-zag patches and shades4 ,from the fulness of the feathers about his neck1 he presents a very quaint1 and even ridiculous appearance2 but he is a bird of courage1 and even of ferocity1 striking with keen bill at the eyes of his antagonist4 ,when attacked by dogs or other carnivora1 he will throw himself upon the ground1 and fight with both claws and bill unto the very last4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,great ,bittern4 #b4 ,white ,heron or ,egret4 #c4 ,curlew4 ,the curlew is allied to the ibis1 differing from it only in secondary particulars1 and notably in the form of his bill1 which is thinner1 and rounded in its whole length4 ,his tail resembles the hen's2 the plumage of the head1 neck1 and fore part of the back1 is light reddish-gray1 streaked with dark-brown2 the hind part of the back is white1 with dark narrow longitudinal markings2 the tail1 breast1 and abdomen are white1 the former crossed with black bars1 and the latter with dark marks and spots of a similar shape to those on the back4 ,the female lays four excessively large pyriform eggs1 about three inches long4 ,the cry of the curlew is loud1 wild1 and plaintive4 ,these birds assemble in numerous flocks1 and live on the sea-coast and the marsh-border1 feeding on worms and molluscs4 ,at breeding-time they separate into pairs1 and haunt the wild hills and dreary moorlands1-- ,remote from human sight1 ,in lonely pairs their vernal flight ,they speed o'er heathy mountain rude1 ,on some waste marsh's solitude1 ,to the tall grass or bristling reed ,their wild unnestled young to breed4 ,the species of ,pelican which inhabits the shores of the ,black and ,caspian ,seas is the ,common 7,pelicanus ,onocrotalus74 ,we must not pass unnoticed this well-known wader1 which has for ages been invested with an atmosphere of song and fable1 and which is specially remarkable for the bright yellow membranous pouch attached to the lower mandible of his long robust bill4 ,this pouch1 says ,broderip1 will hold a considerable number of fish1 and thus enables the bird to dispose of the superfluous quantity which may be taken during fishing excursions1 either for his own consumption or for the nourishment of his young4 ,in feeding the nestlings--and the male is said to supply the wants of the female1 when sitting1 in the same manner--the under mandible is pressed against the neck and breast1 to assist the bird in disgorging the contents of the capacious pouch2 and during this action the red nail of the upper mandible would appear to come in contact with the breast1 thus laying the foundation1 in all probability1 for the fable that the pelican nourishes her young with her blood1 and for the attitude in which the imagination of painters has placed the bird in books of emblems1 with the blood spirting from the wounds made by the terminating nail of the upper mandible into the gaping mouths of her offspring4 ,it is usually in the evening or the morning that these birds gather about the lonely shores to fish in company1 like a party of sociable ,izaak ,waltons1 and proceeding1 as ,nordmann remarks1 upon a systematic plan1 which is apparently the result of a kind of concerted agreement4 ,they select a suitable station--a shallow bay with a smooth bottom4 ,there they arrange themselves in a half-circle1 the bill turned towards the ground1 and keeping at a distance of from ten to twelve feet4 ,with their wings they beat the water hurriedly1 and sometimes plunge in up to their middle1 gradually wading towards the beach1 and driving the fish before them into a very narrow channel4 ,now the feast commences1 and other birds never fail to profit by the ingenious labours of the pelican4 ,nordmann counted1 on one occasion1 forty-nine pelicans fishing together in this fashion on the shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,besides these forty-nine1 he adds1 there were assembled on the heaps of alg1 conferv1 and shells cast ashore by the sea1 hundreds of sea-mews1 sea-swallows1 sea-daws1 preparing to snatch the fish out of the water1 and to divide amongst themselves the remains of the banquet4 ,finally1 several grebes swimming in the area circumscribed by the semicircle of fishers1 while this space was still sufficiently broad1 played their part at the welcome feast1 frequently plunging after the scared and terrified fish4 ,the bustard and the grouse1 or heather-cock1 are common enough in the prairies of ,central ,asia4 ,crows and numerous birds of prey also flock thither in search of their dead or living prey4 ,travellers speak of a black eagle of ,mongolia which the ,mongols and ,kalkas train to hunt the moufflon1 the yellow goat1 and the saiga4 ,we cannot find the bird described under this name by any naturalist1 nor can we determine whether he is an eagle properly so called1 or whether he is not rather the cosmopolitan black kite 7milvus ater71 which rises so fiercely on his plumed wings1 ,and hunts the air for plunder4 ,we may mention1 as also proper to ,central ,asia1 the ,aquila bifasciata of ,dr4 ,gray1 and several species of buzzards1 hawks1 and falcons4 ,these ,raptores live very peacefully in the desert solitudes1 where none disturb them2 and so little do they fear man1 that they venture into the ,mongol encampments and carry off the provisions destined for the travellers' refreshment4 ,an incident of this nature is recorded by the ,abb ,huc1 who1 with his companions1 was at the time preparing to sup on a quarter of a kid skilfully dished up by their ,tartar neophyte1 ,samdadchiemba4 ,we had just seated ourselves1 says ,m4 ,huc1 in a triangle on the grassy sward1 having in our midst the lid of the pot which served instead of a dish1 when suddenly a noise like thunder broke over our heads4 ,a great eagle fell like an arrow on our supper1 and rose again with the same rapidity1 carrying off in his claws some slices of kid4 ,when we had recovered from our surprise1 we had nothing better to do than laugh at the adventure4 ,however1 ,samdadchiemba could not laugh1 not he2 he was exceedingly wroth1 not on account of the stolen kid1 but because the eagle1 in flying off1 had insolently buffeted him with the tip of his wing4444 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eagle ,,of ,,the ,,steppes1 ,,and ,,the ,,antelope ,,saiga4 ,the eagle1 adds our author1 is found almost everywhere in the deserts of ,tartary4 ,you see him sometimes hovering and wheeling round and round in the air2 sometimes1 perched upon a hillock in the middle of the plain1 he remains there for a long time as motionless as a sentinel4 ,often we encounter him on the ground1 apparently larger than an ordinary sheep2 when we draw near1 he is compelled1 before he can rise into the air1 to make a long detour1 agitating his heavy wings2 after which1 succeeding in lifting himself a little above the ground1 he soars aloft at pleasure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,erpetological fauna of the ,steppes is little known1 and is probably very scanty4 ,unfortunately1 this region has not been explored by scientific naturalists1 and the unprofessional travellers who have visited it do not appear to have met with any reptiles which seemed to them worthy of detailed notice4 ,atkinson1 however1 speaks of the stony ridges of the plain as swarming with serpents4--,i observed1 he says1#cb four varieties3 ,a black one1 three feet eight inches long1 and about one inch and an eighth in diameter4 ,another was of slaty-gray colour1 from two to three feet long1 and smaller in diameter than the black snake4 ,this breed was numerous1 and often difficult to see1 they so nearly resembled the colour of some of the rocks4 ,we also found some of an ashy-green and black1 with deep crimson specks on the sides2 as they moved along in the sun the colours were most brilliant4 ,another1 which ,mr4 ,atkinson's companions killed1 was of a dark-brown1 with greenish and red marks on the sides1 and evidently very venomous4 ,he measured five feet two inches and a half without his head1 and four inches and a quarter round his body4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,steppes3--,,tartars1 ,,cossacks1 ,,kalm,,ks1 ,,kirghiz1 ,,mongols4 ,the ,steppes of ,tartary and ,mongolia1 interrupted1 says ,humboldt1#cc by chains of mountains of various aspects1 separate the ruder peoples of ,northern ,asia from the primitive races1 which have been for ages civilized1 of ,hindostan and ,thibet4 ,their existence has influenced the destinies of mankind in various important ways4 ,they have rolled back the populations towards the south1 and more than the ,himlaya1 more than the snow-crowned peaks of ,serinagur and ,goorkha1 have raised an obstacle to the alliances of peoples1 while opposing1 in the north of ,asia1 insuperable barriers to the refinement of manners and the genius of the arts4 ,but it is not only as barriers that ,history should regard the plains of ,central ,asia2 they have several times let loose on earth a torrent of calamity and devastation4 ,the pastoral races of the ,steppes--,mongols1 ,get1 ,alans1 and ,huns--have convulsed the world4 ,if1 in the course of ages1 intellectual culture has directed its course from east to west1 like the vivifying light of the sun1 ,barbarism at a later period has followed in the same track1 when threatening to plunge all ,europe into darkness4 ,a people of tawny shepherds1 ,tou-,kin 7that is to say1 ,turkish7 in origin1 the ,hioung-,nou1 inhabited1 under tents of skin1 the elevated ,steppe of the ,gobi4 ,long formidable to the ,chinese power1 a horde of the ,hioung-,nou was driven back towards the south into ,central ,asia4 ,the impulse which they gave spread uninterruptedly even into the native country of the ,fins1 on the borders of the ,oural1 and thence the ,huns1 the ,avars1 the ,chasurs1 and various mixtures of ,asiatic races1 poured forth in furious violence4 ,the ,hunnish hosts first appeared on the banks of the ,volga1 then in ,pannonia1 and finally on the banks of the ,marne1 and on those of the ,po1 ravaging the beautiful fields where1 from the days of ,antenor1 the genius of man had accumulated its glorious monuments4 ,thus from the ,mongolian deserts blew a pestiferous wind1 which choked even in the ,cisalpine plains the delicate blossom of art1 the object of such tender and continual cares4 ,our ,english traveller1 ,atkinson1 has called the ,steppes the cradle of invasions2 and this not only because from their solitudes issued the hordes which devastated ,europe in the first centuries of the ,middle ,ages1 but because ,russia and ,austria have found therein those truculent soldiers of repulsive aspect who1 in their hands1 have become1 even in our own day1 the scourge of the free and civilized nations they would fain have subjugated4 ,in the present day the ,steppes of ,eastern ,europe and of ,asia are still the asylum of savagery1 if not of barbarism4 ,the tribes scattered over them are more or less closely allied to that fraction of the human family which ethnographists designate under the name of the ,turanian4 ,those of the ,east belong exclusively to the ,mongolian branch1 and those of the ,west partly to the ,mongolian and partly to the ,turkish1 more or less modified by their mixture with the ,slave branch of the great ,caucasian family4 ,to all these peoples we commonly apply the term ,tartaro1 or ,tartars1 which originally was a name of the ,mongolic races1 but through their political ascendancy in ,asia after ,chingis-,khan 7,a4,d4 #abbg71 it became usual to call all the tribes which were under ,mongolian sway by the name of ,tartar4#cd ,it now really belongs to the small tribe of ,turkic origin which1 after occupying ,turkistan1 has spread even into the ,crimea4 ,we must distinguish from it1 however1 the ,cossacks1 or ,kosaks1 who inhabit the ,ukraine1 the banks of the ,don and the ,dnieper1 and who are more closely related to the ,slave family than the ,mongolian race4 ,we shall pass in rapid review the principal hordes which inhabit the ,steppes1 from the western border to the eastern extremity of these deserts4 ,the first tribe which we encounter on the shores of the ,sea of ,azov and the ,black ,sea is that of the ,tartar-,nogis1 who formerly lived north-east of the ,caspian4 ,pressed by the ,kalmks1 or ,mongolic tribe1 the ,nogis advanced westward as far as ,astrachan4 ,peter ,i4 transferred them thence to the north of the ,caucasian mountains1 where they still graze their flocks on the shores of the ,kuban and the ,kuma4 ,of late years1 however1 they have begun to settle themselves in permanent habitations1 owing to the exertions of a ,french emigr1 ,count ,maison1 who was appointed their governor in #ahjh4 ,they now occupy 7according to ,madame ,hommaire de ,hell7 all the territory comprised between the ,sea of ,azov and the river of ,malochnia-,vodi4 ,they number about #cb1jjj souls1 spread over seventy villages4 ,their huts are small1 with a roof constructed of beams of timber1 covered with reeds1 which are afterwards loaded with clay and ashes4 ,they occupy themselves wholly in rearing horses and cattle4 ,the horses of the ,kalmk-,kirghiz breed are of moderate stature1 but nimble and robust4 ,all the year round they roam across the plains1 and in winter seek their provender beneath the snow4 ,the horned cattle are small and puny1 the cows yield but a poor supply of milk1 and are of scarcely any value4 ,the aged ,nogis shave the hair entirely off2 the young people preserve a single tuft on the top of the head4 ,this custom compels them to wear constantly a bonnet of wool or lamb's skin4 ,a short caftan over a shirt of cotton or woollen1 bound round the waist by a leather belt2 loose1 wide trousers2 in winter a pelisse of sheep's skin and a kind of hood enveloping the head and shoulders1 compose the dress of the males4 ,as for the women1 they wear above the chemise a caftan of cloth1 girded about the form by a large belt ornamented with great metal buckles2 they likewise figure in ,turkish trousers and slippers1 with a long white veil fastened round the head1 and allowed to fall upon the shoulders2 small silver rings adorn the fingers and the nose2 heavy ear-drops hang from their ears1 the two being frequently linked together by a chain passing under the chin4 ,the young girls dress their hair in a multiplicity of curls1 and instead of the veil wear a small red fez1 garnished with pieces of metal and all kinds of trinkets4 ,the ,nogis are ,mohammedans1 of the sect called ,sunnites 7or believers in the ,sunna1 the sayings and aphorisms traditionally attributed to the ,prophet74 ,their name is derived from that of their first chief1 the grandson of ,chingis-,khn1 who1 about #abfj1 declared himself independent of the ,kapchakian empire1 and established himself with his warriors on the borders of the ,black ,sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,kosaks 7or ,cossacks7 are1 as we have said1 ,slaves rather than ,tartars4 ,they have blue eyes1 red hair1 thick lips1 a flat nose4 ,nimble1 robust1 indefatigable1 skilful horsemen1 they furnish the ,russian army with a formidable host of irregulars4 ,some have fixed their homes in the towns1 but the majority inhabit the villages or stanitzas scattered over the ,steppes4 ,very few are agriculturists4 ,either they devote themselves to breeding horses and cattle1 or live on the small pension allowed them for their military services4 ,nearly all the young and hardy of the males have no other trade but that of arms4 ,the ,cossack chieftains1 their ,hetmans1 or ,attamans1 derive their authority directly from the ,czar4 ,their religion is that of the ,russian ,greek ,church2 and they are1 we believe1 the only ,christians in the entire zone of the ,steppes4 ,bold and resolute robbers in time of war1 the ,cossacks at home are peaceable1 kindly-natured1 and more honest than the ,russian ,mongiks4 ,the erroneous ideas which still prevail respecting their character are mainly due to ,french prejudices1 excited by the disastrous events of #ahad and #ahae1 when the jingle of their arms resounded in the streets of ,paris4 ,but they are not really so black as they have been painted4 ,the traveller passes through the country which they inhabit with the utmost security1 and is received in their stanitzas with a hospitable welcome4 ,these stanitzas1 if we may credit ,madame ,hommaire de ,hell1 present a far more agreeable appearance than the ,russian villages4 ,they consist of small wooden houses1 gaily painted4 ,there is but one story1 which is surrounded by a miniature gallery1 and seems expressly constructed to please the eye4 ,the interior is exceedingly neat and pretty1 indicating an intelligence and an idea of comfort which the ,russians never exhibit4 ,you will find it enriched with towels1 dishes of delft ware1 forks1 and all the most necessary utensils4 ,usually two huts are built in one block2 the first1 which we have just described1 is occupied for a summer residence2 it contains1 generally1 one room hung with paper of a lively design1 and adorned with images1 flowers1 and trophies of arms1 which is reserved for state occasions and the entertainment of strangers4 ,the second hut1 built of dried clay1 resembles the ,russian kates1 consisting of a single chamber1 where all the household huddle together during the winter to shelter themselves from the cold4 ,the traveller seldom sees in these stanitzas any but women and children4 ,with the exception of a few gray veterans1 who have purchased by forty years of service the right of dying under the home-roof1 the entire male population is under arms4 ,thus all the work falls upon the shoulders of the women1 who must repair the houses1 cleanse and dry the furs1 take care of the children1 and watch the cattle4 ,the ,cossack soldiers1 regulars and irregulars1 are the guardians of the ,steppes4 ,to them is intrusted the security of the traveller1 who is much exposed to the attacks of nomadic ,turkomen1 whose only occupation is robbery4 ,the surveillance of these immense plains is not so difficult1 however1 nor does it necessitate so large a force as you might suppose4 ,small watch-posts1 or platforms1 of extreme simplicity of design1 are raised at intervals on the higher grounds2 they consist of four long stout poles planted in the earth1 and supporting a timber floor1 which is sometimes sheltered by a roof of timber4 ,these are the observatories1 the prospect-towers of the ,cossacks1 who can thus obtain a survey over an immense sweep of country1 and exchange signals with one another4 ,the horsemen always remain stationed under the platform1 ready to leap into the saddle and to gallop wherever their presence may be required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,cossack ,,horsemen ,,in ,,the ,,steppes4 ,in the ,steppes of the ,caspian ,sea the ,cossacks give place to the ,kalmks1 or ,olts1 a people of the ,mongolic race1 who originally inhabited ,turkistan1 but abandoned that country1 in #aggh1 for the banks of the ,volga4 ,their life is wholly nomadic4 ,they encamp under tents called kibitkas1 formed of a trellis-work of wood covered with thick felt4 ,in stature they do not often exceed the middle height2 they are thin and ugly1 with a swarthy skin1 a large flat countenance1 little eyes1 broad nose1 thick lips1 and frizzled beard4 ,they are inoffensive1 hospitable like all ,eastern people1 but idle and cunning4 ,their costume differs but little from that of the ,tartars-,nogis4 ,they profess the ,lamaii religion1 and obey the chiefs whom they themselves elect1 and who bear the title of khans4 ,the ,russian ,government levies among the ,kalmk tribes encamped on its territory a body of irregular troops1 whom it employs in the defence of its eastern and southern frontiers4 ,according to ,madame de ,hell1 the ,kalmks are as friendly as the ,cossacks in their reception of a stranger4 ,the last encampment1 she says1 where we passed the night1 appeared to us one of the most considerable which we had hitherto met with4 ,the country1 almost transformed1 was no longer saddened by the great sandy plains of the ,caspian ,sea and the ,manitch4444 ,herds of horses1 camels1 and oxen furrowed the surface of the ,steppe1 announcing the wealth of the hordes to which they belonged4 ,no hostile manifestation on the part of the latter occurred to disturb our security4 ,happy in receiving us in the very midst of their tents1 these good ,kalmks never attempted to rob us even of the most trifling article4 ,their desires and their wants are so limited6 ,to tame a wild horse1 to roam from one ,steppe to another on their camels1 to smoke1 and to drink koumis1 to shut out the cold airs of winter with smoke and ashes1 and to observe devoutly the superstitious practices of a religion which they cannot understand--such is their whole life4 ,at intervals1 the traveller who crosses the ,steppes of the ,caspian encounters with astonishment1 in the most dreary localities1 far from every ,cossack village and ,kalmk kibitka1 a group of men1 women1 and children with bronzed complexions1 with features strongly defined1 covered with squalid and grotesque rags1 dragging their naked feet over the damp and burning soil1 and leading small vehicles loaded with implements and utensils of every kind4 ,he easily recognizes in these beings of sinister mien1 audacious mendicants1 skilful thieves1 musicians1 blacksmiths1 conjurers--what shall ,i say8--the dbris1 in a word1 of that once great1 and perhaps powerful race1 now so degraded and corrupt1 whose problematical history is the despair of the scholar4 ,the scorn and mistrust of every nation--impatient of all discipline1 all education--without law1 without religion1 without country--these men speak a language which none can understand4 ,of their real name they are themselves ignorant1 and they accept with indifference that which is imposed upon them in different countries3 in the ,east1 ,romany2 in ,moldavia1 ,tsiganes2 in ,italy1 ,zingari2 in ,spain1 ,gilanos2 in ,france1 ,bohemians2 in ,england1 ,gipsies4#ce ,the ,germans call them ,zigeuner2 the ,dutch1 expressively but intolerantly1 ,heathens2 the ,persians1 ,sisech2 the ,hindus1 ,kavachee2 the ,danes and ,swedes1 ,tatars2 and the ,arabs1 ,haram4 ,their origin has been a theme of speculation for centuries1 and all that seems certain1 after a vast amount of research and discussion1 is1 that the cradle of the race was ,india4 ,to what ,indian people they should be affiliated is still doubtful2 whether to the ,zuts or ,djalts of the north2 the ,tshingani1 who dwelt near the mouth of the ,indus2 or the ,tshandalas1 chronicled by name in the laws of ,menou4 ,we know that their first immigration into ,europe occurred about the close of the tenth century1 for we find them referred to in a paraphrase of the book of ,genesis1 written by an ,austrian monk1 about #aabb4 ,they are there spoken of as ,ishmaelites and braziers1 who go peddling through the wide world1 having neither house nor home1 cheating the people with their tricks1 and secretly deceiving mankind4 ,in the fourteenth century a considerable body settled in ,wallachia1 ,hungary1 and the island of ,cyprus4 ,next1 they invaded ,germany1 broke into ,switzerland1 and appeared in ,bologna and other ,italian cities4 ,like a besieging army they set down before ,paris in #adbg1 but were not suffered to enter its precincts4 ,a few years later they crossed into ,england1 and gradually they overspread the whole of ,europe4 ,their own account of themselves represented that they came from ,little ,egypt2 that about four thousand of their number had been compulsorily baptized by the king1 and condemned to seven years' wanderings1 while the remainder had been slain4 ,at first1 their wealth1 their pomp1 and their supposed penitence secured them a favourable reception2 but when their wealth was dissipated1 their pomp decayed1 and their penitence discovered to be a sham1 a storm of obloquy broke over their heads4 ,every ,european government levelled the most arbitrary decrees against them1 which continued in force down to the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,various attempts have since been made to civilize and incorporate them with the general body of the population1 but these have obtained a very limited success4 ,they still remain a race apart1 with their own language 7,romany ,tschib71 their own traditions1 their own customs1 their distinct personal characteristics4 ,they still remain a race cursed with the curse of perpetual restlessness2 a mysterious impulse constrains them to wander2 they live secluded from all other peoples2 an atmosphere of secrecy enshrouds their inner life1 their language1 and their creed4 ,they are gifted with a remarkable love of and capacity for music1 and a strange wild charm invests their own gipsy-melodies4 ,their character is a grotesque combination of the most opposite qualities2 for they are brave and yet cowardly2 revengeful1 yet loyal2 treacherous1 yet capable of the most passionate attachment2 indolent1 yet energetic2 chaste1 yet fond of licentious songs and dances4 ,in a word1 they are a problem to the ethnologist1 the moralist1 and the historical student2 and fence themselves about with so impenetrable a reserve1 that we may well doubt whether the full truth respecting them will ever be ascertained4#cf ,the ,tsiganes or ,romany are very numerous in ,southern ,russia4 ,they pass from town to town1 from village to village1 sometimes begging or stealing1 sometimes exercising their peculiar trades and industries1 and providing for their wants more honestly4 ,they never establish themselves permanently in any place4 ,they halt wherever the evening shades may chance to overtake them1 stretch a few fragments of woollen stuff across the poles of their vehicles to serve for tents1 kindle a fire with herbs1 twigs1 and dry branches1 partly to cook their food1 and partly to scare away the wild beasts1 and fling themselves down pell-mell to sleep on mats or the naked earth4 ,when morning dawns1 they resume their life-long march--giving no thought to the future1 no dream to the past--without object1 hope1 or purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,night ,,encampment ,,of ,,gipsies ,,in ,,the ,,steppe4 ,the ,steppes of the interior of ,asia1 from the ,aral river to the ,ala-,tau mountains1 are occupied by the great nation of the ,kirghiz1 who have1 from time immemorial1 been divided into the ,great1 ,middle1 and ,little ,hordes4 ,to the former belongs the territory north of the ,ala-,tau1 with portions of ,china and ,tartary4 ,they are subject to the sovereigns of the countries in which they dwell4 ,the ,middle ,horde inhabits the district between the ,ishim1 ,irtish1 ,lake ,balkhush1 and ,khokan4 ,the ,little 7and far most numerous7 ,horde wanders over the grassy plains bounded by the ,yamba and the ,ural1 ,turkistan 7now a ,russian province71 and the country of the ,middle ,horde 7or ,siberian ,kirghizes74 ,altogether1 the ,kirghizes number upwards of one and a quarter million of souls4 ,they are of ,turco-,tartaric origin1 and ,southern ,siberia is their mother country4#cg ,though owing a nominal allegiance to the ,russian ,czar and the ,chinese ,emperor1 they are virtually independent1 and obey only their sultans or chiefs4 ,they are frequently at war4 ,many live wholly by brigandage2 suddenly descending1 under cover of night1 upon the richest aouls1 or villages1 slaying all who resist1 and carrying off horses1 cattle1 and all objects of value1 and men1 women and children1 whom they sell as slaves4 ,these nocturnal razzias are designated1 in the ,kirghiz language1 barantas4 ,the yourt1 or tent of these nomades1 resembles the kibitka of the ,kalmks4 ,we borrow a description of one belonging to a ,kirghiz chief from ,mr4 ,atkinson's entertaining pages4 ,it was formed1 he says1#ch of willow trellis-work1 put together with untanned strips of skin1 made into compartments which fold up4 ,it was a circle of thirty-four feet in diameter1 five feet high to the springing of the dome1 and twelve feet in the centre4 ,this dome is formed of bent rods of willow1 one and a quarter inch diameter1 put into the mortice-hole of a ring about four feet across1 which secures the top of the dome1 admits light1 and lets out the smoke4 ,the lower ends of the willow-rods are tied with leathern thongs to the top of the trellis-work at the sides1 which renders it quite strong and secure4 ,the whole is then covered with large sheets of voilock1 made of wool and camel's hair1 fitting close1 making it water-tight and warm4 ,a small aperture in the trellis-work forms a doorway1 over which a piece of voilock hangs down and closes it2 but in the daytime this is rolled up and secured on the top of the yourt4 ,the furniture and fittings of these dwellings are exceedingly simple2 the fire being made on the ground in the centre of the yourt1 directly opposite to the door voilocks are spread3 on these stand sundry boxes1 which contain the different articles of clothing1 pieces of ,chinese silk1 tea1 dried fruits1 ambas of silver 7small squares1 about two and a half inches long1 one inch and a half wide1 and about three-tenths of an inch thick74 ,some of the ,kirghiz possess large quantities of these ambas1 which are carefully hoarded up4 ,above these boxes are bales of ,bokharian and ,persian carpets1 some of great beauty and value4 ,in another part of the yourt is the large koumis sack1 completely covered up with voilock to keep it warm and aid the fermentation4 ,and near this bag stands a large leathern bottle1 sometimes holding four gallons1 often much ornamented2 so are the small bottles made to carry on the saddle4 ,in another place stands the large iron caldron1 and the trivet on which it is placed when used for cooking in the yourt4 ,there are usually half-a-dozen ,chinese wooden bowls1 often beautifully painted and japanned4 ,these are used to drink the koumis from2 some of them hold three pints1 others more4 ,on entering a ,kirghiz yourt in summer1 one of the ,chinese bowls full of koumis is presented to each guest4 ,it is considered impolite to return the vessel before emptying it1 and a good ,kirghiz is never guilty of this impropriety4 ,the saddles are placed on the bales of carpets4 ,rich horse-trappings being highly prized by the wealthy ,kirghiz1 many of their saddles are beautiful and costly4 ,if of ,kirghiz workmanship1 they are decorated with silver inlaid on iron1 in chaste ornamental designs1 and have velvet cushions2 the bridles and other trappings covered with small iron plates inlaid in the same manner4 ,leathern thongs and ropes made of camel's hair are hung up on the trellis-work1 common saddles1 saddle-cloths1 and leathern tchimbar4 ,this part of a ,kirghiz costume is frequently made of black velvet1 splendidly embroidered with silk1 more especially the back elevation4 ,such is the dwelling of a ,kirghiz chief in the ,steppe4 ,illustration3 ,,kirghiz ,,aoul ,,or ,,villager4 ,the national garment of the ,kirghiz is the khalat1 a kind of pelisse1 very long and very full1 with large sleeves1 in silk or cashmere1 and of the most dazzling colours2 but the poorer warriors substitute for this state dress a horse-skin jacket4 ,breeches fastened below the hips by a girdle of wool or cashmere1 high-heeled madder-coloured boots1 and a fox-skin cap1 rising into a cone on the top1 and lined inside with crimson cloth1 complete his costume4 ,his weapons are the spear1 the gun1 the axe1 and the cutlass4 ,the women wear a long and copious robe1 and a veil of numerous folds1 surmounted by a lofty calico head-dress1 a part of which falls over the shoulders and covers up the neck4 ,the ,kirghiz are fierce1 cunning1 and often cruel1 but the life of a guest is esteemed sacred4 ,they have not so much respect1 however1 for his property1 and do not always resist the temptation of plundering him of any article which suits their fancy4 ,equestrian exercises and falconry are their favourite amusements4 ,they love the chase1 indeed1 with a true sportsman's passion2 they love it for itself rather than for the game it secures1 for they have no greater dainty than a dish of mutton4 ,their mode of preparing this viand is exquisitely simple4 ,they content themselves with skinning the animal1 cutting it into quarters1 and plunging it into a pot1 where they keep it boiling in a great quantity of water for a couple of hours4 ,generally1 to prevent the loss of any portion1 they cook with the meat the animal's intestines1 without even taking the trouble of cleaning them4 ,the guests arrange themselves in a circle on carpets of felt2 the men in the foremost rank1 the women and children behind them4 ,the smoking quarters of mutton are removed from the pot2 each man draws his knife1 slashes off a slice1 eats a portion1 and passes the remainder to his wife and children1 who speedily finish it4 ,the dogs come in for the bones4 ,afterwards1 bowls of the liquor in which the meat has been boiled are handed round1 and not a ,kirghiz but swallows the greasy broth with delight4 ,this broth1 koumis1 and tea are his customary drink2 the tea is not made in the ,european fashion1 but becomes a veritable soup1 prepared with milk1 flour1 butter1 and salt4 ,in every well-to-do aoul the women keep constantly upon the fire a vessel full of this beverage1 which they offer to visitors1 just as the ,turks serve up coffee1 the ,spaniards1 chocolate1 and the ,french1 wine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the north of the ,great ,horde1 in the government of ,irkutsk 7,siberia71 we meet with the ,agro-,mongolian people of the ,burits1 numbering about #ce1jjj families4 ,they are given to ,chamanism1 an idolatrous worship widely spread through ,eastern ,siberia4 ,their supreme divinity inhabits the sun1 and reigns over a host of lesser gods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,finally1 between ,lake ,bakal and the ,alta ,mountains to the north1 the ,ala-,tau mountains west1 the ,great ,wall of ,china south1 and the sea east1 stretches the immense territory commonly known as ,mongolia1 and inhabited in part by the tribes which represent the ,mongol type in all its primitive purity4 ,this great desert1 where grassy lands alternate with dry and sandy or saline plains1 was formerly the seat of a flourishing empire1 established by ,chingis-,khn in #abbg1 which gave birth to the three ,mongol kingdoms of ,krim1 ,kasan1 and ,astrachan4 ,mongolic empires1 at a later period1 arose in ,china1 ,turkistan1 ,siberia1 ,southern ,russia1 and ,persia4 ,the ,mongolian dynasty lost its hold on ,china in #acfj1 and a century later was driven out of ,russia4 ,in ,central ,asia it was rehabilitated in #acfi1 by the illustrious ,timur2 but a hundred years afterwards the empire was again crushed by its own weight4 ,baber1 a descendant of ,timur1 conquered ,india1 and erected there a ,mongolian throne1 which endured until the soldiers of ,great ,britain defeated ,tippoo ,saib and captured ,delhi4 ,most ,mongolic tribes are now under the rule of the nations whom they once had conquered1 the ,tungusic sovereigns of ,china1 the ,russian ,czars1 and the ,turkish ,sultans4#ci ,the ruins of ,mongolian grandeur are still visible in those solitary cities1 which the traveller in the desert discovers half overwhelmed in sand4 ,we met1 says the ,abb ,huc1 with an imposing and majestic memorial of antiquity4 ,it was a great city1 desolate and abandoned4 ,the crenellated ramparts1 the watch-towers1 the four great gates1 situated at the four cardinal points1 were all in perfect preservation2 but all was buried three-fourths deep in the ground1 and covered with a thick sward4 ,we entered its vast precinct with a profound emotion of awe and melancholy4 ,we saw neither dbris nor ruins1 but only the outline of a beautiful and spacious city1 wrapped in grass and weeds as in a funeral shroud4 ,similar relics of the past are scattered over the deserts of ,mongolia1 but everything connected with their origin is enveloped in shadow4 ,the ,mongolian family includes several branches1 each subdivided into tribes1 obeying chiefs of unequal rank4 ,the most numerous people are the ,kalkas1 who occupy all the northern districts4 ,the ,mongols of the south1 dwelling near the ,great ,wall1 have been affected in their habits and manners by the neighbourhood of the ,chinese2 they have become industrious1 and engage eagerly in commercial affairs4 ,but the ,kalkas1 and the other tribes of the ,great ,gobi1 are still nomadic1 reckless1 and indolent4 ,their religion is ,buddhism2 they profess for its head1 the living ,buddha or ,great ,lama 7,dalai-lama1 or ,ocean-priest--i4e41 wide as the ocean71 a reverence and a blind obedience1 which they also pay to the inferior lamas4 ,under an external aspect of savagery1 says ,huc1 the ,mongol hides a character full of mildness and kindly feeling2 he passes suddenly from the wildest and most extravagant gaiety to a sadness which has nothing forbidding4 ,timid to excess in his ordinary life1 when impelled by fanaticism or revenge1 he displays an irresistible impetuosity of courage4 ,he is simple and credulous as a child1 and passionately loves stories and legends of the marvellous4 ,the ,mongols are ugly in feature1 of the middle height1 agile and robust2 their sight is wonderfully keen1 their hearing of an extraordinary acuteness4#dj ,their wants are restricted to the indispensable necessities of life2 of luxury they have no conception2 their few pleasures are easily enjoyed2 their instincts lead them rather in the path of good than of evil1 and their defects1 to use an expression of ,m4 ,huc's1 are those of ill-trained children4 ,they need1 perhaps1 but a well-directed impulse to develop their intellect1 and guide them onward to a far higher civilization4 ,in the great human family1 it is true that as yet they do but fill the children's place1 and it is impossible to say whether their national genius is capable of any great or lasting work4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,book ,,ii4 ,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,sand3--,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,africa4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,rainless ,,desert--,,the ,,bed ,,of ,a ,,sea--,,the ,,dead ,,sea4 ,the ,sandy ,deserts may with equal1 nay1 with greater accuracy1 be entitled ,salt ,deserts1 ,rainless ,deserts1 ,seas of ,sand2 for they present at one and the same time all these characters1 and the three last1 though less generally known than the first1 are the most essential4 ,the soil is generally covered with a thick stratum of sand2 but in several places it also exhibits great walls of rock1 and in others masses of rolled or shattered pebbles4 ,the subsoil is nearly always of a gypseous or calcareous nature1 rarely clayey2 wherever it is porous and permeable1 it is impregnated with salt1 which rises to the surface1 or is held in solution in the subterranean basins of water1 the thermal springs1 the ponds1 and the lakes4 ,the saline efflorescences of the deserts of ,persia and ,oriental ,asia not only suffice for the wants of the inhabitants1 but supply the great ,asiatic caravans with their principal article of exportation4 ,the atmosphere of the ,deserts is not less dry than their sands and rocks4 ,the sky wears a perennial azure1 more or less veiled in haze1 or rather spotted with a few clouds4 ,johnstone represents them1 in his admirable ,physical ,atlas1 by two white unequal bands1 characterised as ,rainless ,districts4 ,of these the larger occupies all the northern region of ,africa1 and the greater portion of ,arabia1 ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,beloochistan1 embracing an area of #hj of longitude over #ag of latitude4 ,the other extends over the table-lands of ,thibet and the ,gobi4 ,it is in form an irregular ellipsis1 obliquely inclined from south-west to north-east4 ,its length is about #aajj leagues2 its width1 #dej4 ,from the former it is only separated by a narrow belt4 ,in the region marked by these two species rain is an extraordinary phenomenon2 several years will pass without the clouds shedding a single drop of water4 ,this permanent1 and nearly absolute1 aridity1 establishes a very marked difference between the ,deserts properly so called1 and the ,landes1 ,steppes1 and ,prairies1 condemned as these are during the hot season to a deadly dryness1 but in winter inundated with rain or covered with snow2 and in spring converted into immense marshes1 where an exuberant vegetation makes its appearance1 frequently capable of resisting the action of the summer sun and the withering winds4 ,in the ,rainless ,districts vegetation is a nullity2 it becomes reduced to a very small number of saline plants and dwarf bushes1 nourished by the brackish waters which1 the soil conceals4 ,finally1 the desert region may not only be compared to a sea in its aspect and immensity1 but it is a true sea1 or at least the bed of an ancient sea1 which formerly communicated1 and1 perhaps1 was confounded with the ,mediterranean1 and whose drying up1 though still incomplete1 took place at a recent geological epoch4 ,we may reasonably conclude that1 owing to a series of gradual upheavals1 this sea was at first broken up into vast lagoons2 that most of these successively disappeared1 but not without leaving some certain evidences of the primitive submersion of the continent4 ,if we might hazard a conjecture1 says a recent writer1#da it would be that the same convulsions and upheavals which at the close of the tertiary epoch indented the southern coasts of ,europe1 at the same time drained the ocean which hitherto had rolled over the plains of the ,sahara1 and submerged the low-lying lands1 which probably united the ,canaries and ,madeira to the mainland4 ,to a similar cause must be attributed the existence of the subterranean waters1 springs1 ponds1 and salt lakes1 of which ,i have already spoken1 and of the inland seas--the ,caspian1 the ,sea of ,aral1 and the ,dead ,sea2 while the ,black ,sea and its offshoots1 the ,sea of ,azov and the ,sea of ,marmora1 must have had the same origin4 ,i shall discuss this subject further when describing the ,great ,sahara4 ,in ,eastern and ,central ,asia1 the ,sandy or ,salt ,deserts alternate with the ,steppes1 and with lands susceptible of a certain amount of cultivation4 ,the vast region which geographers designate the ,great ,gobi1 or the ,shamo1 is intersected by many grassy ,steppes and even by fertile fields1 where the sedentary ,mongols1 and especially the ,artons1 yearly sow and gather hemp1 millet1 and buckwheat4 ,the sombre picture of a barren plain of shifting sand blown into high ridges where the summer sun is scorching1 no rain falls1 and when thick fog occurs it is only the precursor of fierce winds1#db is true only of special districts1 such as the ,han-hai1 or ,dry ,sea1 or the ,desert of ,sarkha4 ,there1 for instance1 we meet with no other vegetable than the salsol1 or salt-worts1 which flourish around the small saline pools4 ,of these pools1 when seen from a distance1 ,mr4 ,atkinson notices a remarkable characteristic3 the salt crystals which accrete upon their banks frequently reflect the orange or crimson hues of flowers1 and resemble glowing rubies set in a rich mounting4 ,as we advance in a south-easterly direction1 we find the features of the desert region more prominently marked4 ,immense plains of sand1 with a bare and brackish surface1 called ,bejaban1 traverse the whole of ,persia1 from the ,caspian ,sea to the ,indus4 ,they comprise the ,deserts of ,kerusan1 ,seistan1 ,beloochistan1 and ,mekran1 rich in salts with a basis of soda4 ,the coasts of the ,persian ,gulf1 as ,mrs4 ,somerville remarks1 are burning hot sandy solitudes1 so completely barren1 that the country from ,bassora to the ,indus1 a distance of #abjj miles1 is nearly a sterile waste4 ,three-tenths of ,persia is a desert1 and the tableland is nearly a wide scene of desolation4 ,a great salt-desert occupies #bg1jjj square miles between ,irak and ,khorasan1 of which the soil is a stiff clay1 covered with efflorescence of common salt and nitre1 often an inch thick1 varied only by a few saline plants and patches of verdure in the hollows4 ,this dreary waste joins the large sandy and equally dreary desert of ,kerman4 ,khelat1 the capital of ,beloochistan1 is #gjjj feet above the level of the sea2 round it there is cultivation1 but the greater part of that country is a lifeless plain1 over which the brick-red sand is drifted by the north wind into ridges like the waves of the sea1 often twelve feet high1 without a vestige of vegetation4 ,the blast of the desert1 whose hot and pestilential breath is fatal to man and animals1 renders these dismal sands impassable at certain seasons4 ,the ,desert of ,mekran is separated from that of ,moultan by the ,indus4 ,that which lies to the east of ,kom1 in the centre of ,persia1 is more than sixty leagues in extent4 ,of ,persia1 ,m4 ,forgues observes that the actual reality differs strangely from those glowing eastern landscapes which poets and romancists love to paint4 ,even in those provinces where the winter rains encourage the growth of vegetation1 the scene would hardly remind the traveller of ,that delightful province of the ,sun4 ,the first of ,persian lands he shines upon1 ,where all the loveliest children of his beam4 ,flowerets and fruits1 blush over every stream4#dc ,to bare1 dry mountain-ridges1 says ,m4 ,forgues1 succeed plains1 sometimes incrusted with hard clay1 sometimes clothed with thick sand4 ,at the outset of spring1 in the months of ,april and ,may1 the country is coloured with some softer tints1 the grass breaks here and there through the granite and the gravel2 but in the first summer heats everything grows dry1 and the soil resumes its monotonously brown or gray livery4 ,water fails for cultivation1 which in the best districts is confined to a few scattered oases4 ,in these vast spaces1 when the eye surveys them from some mountain-crest1 there occurs nothing to arrest the gaze2 and when once the spring has past1 the cultured fields become blended with those which the plough has suffered to lie fallow1 the clay-built villages with the earth of which their walls are constructed4 ,in these confused landscapes even a considerable town scarcely traces its blurred outline among the accumulated ruins in whose centre it persists in living1 and whose extent attests its decadence4 ,it is a marvel if1 on arriving at the limit of these monotonous plains1 the traveller distinguishes them from the deserts to whose threshold they have generally conducted him4 ,he only recognizes the latter by the dazzling gleam of their saline efflorescence1 which stretches far out of sight1 and where at intervals abruptly projects some mass of ebon-black rock1 transformed by the solar refraction1 and assuming in quick succession the most fantastic aspects4 ,i have spoken of the inland seas and salt lakes which testify to the primitive submersion of the whole region of the ,great ,deserts4 ,let us pursue our route towards the west1 and we shall encounter the most remarkable of these vestiges of a remote past4 ,first1 ,i shall speak of the ,dead ,sea1 the ,lake ,asphaltes1 which ,dean ,stanley justly designates one of the most remarkable spots in the world1 and which1 as the reader knows1 is situated in the south of ,palestine1 at a short distance from ,jerusalem4 ,it is true that a great mass of legend and exaggeration1 partly the effect1 partly the cause1 of the old belief that the cities of ,sodom and ,gomorrah were buried under the ,dead ,sea1 has been gradually removed in recent years4 ,the glittering surface of the lake1 with the thin mist of its own evaporations floating over its surface1 will now no more be taken for a gloomy sea1 sending forth sulphurous exhalations4 ,the birds which pass over it without injury have long ago destroyed the belief that no living creature could survive the baneful atmosphere which hung upon its waters4 ,but still1 for the scientific no less than for the historical student1 it possesses an absorbing interest4 ,it is the most depressed sheet of water in the world1 lying fully thirteen hundred feet below the level of the ,mediterranean3 as the ,lake ,sir-i-,kol1 where the ,oxus rises ,in his high mountain-cradle in ,pamere1 is the most elevated4#dd ,its basin1 to quote ,dean ,stanley's graphic description1 is a steaming caldron--a bowl which1 from the peculiar temperature and deep cavity in which it is situated1 can never be filled to overflowing4 ,the river ,jordan1 itself exposed to the same withering influences1 is not copious enough to furnish a supply equal to the demand made by the rapid evaporation4 ,its excessive saltness is even more remarkable than its deep depression4 ,this peculiarity is1 it is believed1 mainly occasioned by the huge barrier of fossil-salt at its south-west corner1 and heightened by the rapid evaporation of the fresh water poured into it4 ,other like phenomena1 though in a less striking form1 exist elsewhere4 ,but1 without entering into its wider relations1 this aspect is important1 as that which most forcibly impressed the sacred writers4 ,to them it was 'the salt sea1' and nothing more4 ,they exhibit hardly a trace of the exaggerations of later times4 ,and so it is in fact4 ,it is not gloom1 but desolation1 which is the prevailing characteristic of the ,sea of ,death4 ,follow the course of the ,jordan to its end4 ,how different from the first burst of its waters in ,mount ,hermon1 amongst the groves of ,dan and ,paneas6 ,how different from the 'riotous prodigality of life' which has marked its downward course1 almost to the very termination of its existence6 ,gradually1 within the last mile from the ,dead ,sea1 its verdure dies away1 and the river melts into its grave in a tame and sluggish stream2 still1 however1 of sufficient force to carry its brown waters far into the bright green sea4 ,along the desert shore the white crust of salt indicates the cause of sterility4 ,thus the few living creatures which the ,jordan washes down into the waters of the sea are destroyed4 ,hence arises the unnatural buoyancy and the intolerable nausea to taste and touch1 which raise to the highest pitch the contrast between its clear1 bitter waves1 and the soft1 fresh1 turbid stream of its parent river4 ,strewn along its desolate margin lie the most striking memorials of this last conflict of life and death3 trunks and branches of trees1 torn down from the thickets of the river-jungle by the violence of the ,jordan1 thrust out into the sea1 and thrown up again by its waves1 dead and barren as itself4 ,the dead beach shelves gradually into the calm waters4 ,a deep haze--that which to earlier ages gave the appearance of the 'smoke going up for ever and ever'--veils its southern extremity1 and almost gives it the dim horizon of a real sea4 ,in the nearer view rises the low island close to its northern end1 and the long promontory projecting from the eastern side1 which divides it into its two unequal parts4 ,this is all that ,i saw1 and all that most pilgrims and travellers have seen1 of the ,dead ,sea4#de ,the sinister aspect of the valley of the ,jordan1 especially at the embouchure of the river1 impresses itself on the mind of every spectator4 ,there the traveller finds the path narrowed between two abrupt gigantic walls4 ,on the right rises the ,arabian chain1 black and perpendicular2 on the left1 the ,judan range1 less elevated1 more irregular1 and resembling a dismantled ruin4 ,the valley comprised between these two chains1 says the ,pre ,laorty-,hadji1 exhibits a soil closely resembling the bed of a sea which has long been dry4 ,you can discern but a few stunted trees4 ,ruined towns and castles appear in the distance4 ,at the moment of flinging itself into the ,dead ,sea1 the ,jordan itself1 traversing a muddy soil1 changes its physiognomy and colour4 ,it seems to drag reluctantly1 towards the motionless lake1 a burden of slow and tawny waters4 ,the shores of the ,dead ,sea are low on the east and west2 to the north and south high mountains enclose it4 ,these mountains1 separated by a formidable cleft1 exhibit their beds of red sandstone1 overlain by a thick stratum of compact chalk1 interrupted by silicious fragments4 ,one is surprised not to see a volcanic crater1 when all about1 in this convulsed site1 the action of fire is visible--the violent1 bitter struggle of the two ,neptunian and ,plutonian principles1 which1 during the geological eras1 contended for the empire of the world4 ,one might say that here the two antagonistic forces exhausted themselves1 that they have equally lost their potency2 so much so1 that at the close of the combat all has sunk into the silence and immobility of death4 ,and who knows if the volcanic crater1 whose absence at first astonishes the observer1 is not the ,dead ,sea itself8 ,is it unreasonable to admit that after the upheaval of the mountains which inclose it1 and which a terrible explosion of subterranean fire will have separated1 the neighbouring waters were precipitated into and swallowed up in the yawning gulf which they still fill to-day8444 ,this hypothesis is so much the more probable1 because in this fire-scathed region the lake affords manifest indications of an igneous travail even now accomplishing itself sullenly in the bowels of the globe4 ,we know that its name of ,lake ,asphaltites is due to the semi-fluid bituminous matter which constantly rises to its surface and accumulates on its shores4 ,with the vapours exhaled by this bitumen under the influence of heat1 mingle sulphurous and ammoniacal exhalations1 which render the atmosphere of the ,dead ,sea dangerous to breathe4#df ,before #ahce no one had ventured upon its waters4 ,an ,irish traveller1 named ,cottingham1 was their first navigator2 but after a five days' voyage he returned to ,jerusalem1 and died of exhaustion4 ,two years later ,messrs4 ,moore and ,beke made a new attempt4 ,for several days they withstood the pestilential exhalations of the lake1 and succeeded in proving the deep depression of its basin2 but at length1 both of them being taken ill1 they were compelled to cut short their explorations4 ,in #ahdg the enterprise was undertaken by a ,frenchman--,lieutenant ,molyneux--who sounded it in many places1 but was speedily carried off by fever4 ,the following year ,lieutenant ,lynch1 of the ,american navy1 embarked on the lake in iron boats1 with competent crews4 ,he navigated its waters for three weeks2 but all who composed the expedition were more or less severely attacked1 and one of them1 ,lieutenant ,deane1 succumbed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dead ,,sea4 ,though1 as we have said1 geographical research has dissipated most of the wild stories formerly accepted in reference to the peculiarly fatal concomitants of the ,dead ,sea1 it well deserves its expressive name4 ,it is a dead sea3 it has neither the ocean's living movement nor deep-sounding roar2 the surf and the spray never sparkle on its rocks2 that multitudinous laughter which ,homer ascribes to the sea is wholly wanting2 the wind never wakes a smile on its passive and sombre countenance4 ,by its shores one might realize ,shelley's mournful wish1 and feel ,in the warm air ,his cheek grow cold1 and hear the sea ,breathe o'er his dying brain its last monotony4#dg ,it is lifeless1 untenanted2 the fish found there1 and brought down by the ,jordan1 are dead4 ,unlike the ,caspian1 it is never stirred by the whirr of wings--by the flight of gulls1 or pelicans1 or sea-mews4 ,the migratory birds sweep across it without even a pause1 without seeking the prey which they could not find4 ,its waters are denser than those of other seas3 their constituents are different1 and mingled in different proportions4 ,laorty-,hadji is mistaken in his idea that they repose on a bed of rock salt4 ,rock salt is the chloride of sodium in a nearly pure condition4 ,but the ,dead ,sea holds in solution a comparatively small portion of this salt1 mixed with large proportions of other salts4 ,its water was analyzed for the first time in #aggh by ,lavoiser1 ,macquer1 and ,sage4 ,experiments have also been made by ,arcet1 ,klaproth1 ,gmelin1 ,gay-,lussac1 and1 more recently1 by ,boussingault4 ,according to the latter1 it contains3-- ,chloride of magnesium1 #aj4gbhh ,chloride of sodium1 #f4difd ,chloride of calcium1 #c4eeib ,chloride of potassium1 #a4faaj ,bromide of magnesium1 #j4ccjf ,sulphate of lime1 #j4jdbd ,sal-ammoniac1 4#jjac ,water1 #gg4bcjc -------- #ajj4jjjj ,it will be seen that it possesses neither chloride of manganese nor chloride of aluminium1 no nitrates1 and no iodines2 that it is1 therefore1 not sea water1 properly so called1 but a mineral water sui generis4 ,the enormous proportion of saline matter accounts for its exceptional density1 and justifies the assertion of travellers that a man floats upon its surface like a log of wood2 though we can hardly credit the statement of ,pococke that it is impossible to sink to the bottom4 ,its gravity undoubtedly endows it with extraordinary buoyancy1 and to dive to any considerable depth is a matter of difficulty2 but in the ,dead ,sea1 as in other seas1 man must employ his strength and skill to keep his body afloat4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,arabia ,,deserta ,,and ,,arabia ,,petr,a4 ,the traveller who starts from the southern extremity of the ,dead ,sea encounters a succession of deserts4 ,to the east extend wide plains1 covered with ruins1 where upwards of thirty cities are to be traced in their decay1 like ,palmyra1 by the trunks of shattered columns and the wrecks of desecrated temples4 ,this is the once flourishing country of the ,nabatheans1 now haunted by some tribes of ,idumean ,arabs4 ,one might not inappropriately call it the vestibule of ,arabia ,deserta2 a name applicable to all the central and southern districts--that is to say1 to nearly three-fourths of the ,arabian peninsula4 ,there the sea of sand reveals itself in all its nakedness1 in all its horrors2 with its implacable sky and fiery atmosphere1 its sandy billows1 its masses of salt1 and1 in certain places1 with its hidden quicksands capable of devouring entire armies4 ,the ,desert of ,akhaf1 situated towards the extremity of the peninsula1 conceals1 it is said1 several of these abysses1 where the hapless traveller1 if he set his foot upon them1 would be instantly swallowed up4 ,thus even the ,arabs regard it with an unconquerable dread4 ,it owes its name to a ,saffite king who would fain have traversed it with his troops1 and who saw them perish therein even to the last man4 ,the tradition does not inform us how he himself escaped this immense disaster4 ,illustration3 ,,caravan ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 ,a ,european traveller1 ,baron de ,wrede1 undertook nevertheless1 some twenty-five years ago1 to penetrate into this soul-appalling desert1 and attempted to measure the extent and depth of one of these abysses4 ,starting in the morning from ,saba1 under the guidance of a few ,bedouins1 he reached1 after six hours' marching1 the threshold of the desert of ,akhaf4 ,a sandy plain1 extending as far as the eye could reach1 he says1 and upon which arose innumerable hills in the semblance of waves1--such was the scene presented to my gaze4 ,not the least trace of vegetation was perceptible2 not a bird interrupted with its song the tomb-like silence which prevailed around the graves of the ,sabean army4 ,i remarked three tracts distinguished by a dazzling whiteness4 ',yonder are the abysses1' said the ,bedouins2 'they are inhabited by the spirits who have covered with this deceitful sand the treasures intrusted to their charge4 ,he who dares approach them will assuredly be dragged down under the sand6 ,do not venture there6' ,naturally1 ,i paid no attention to this counsel2 on the contrary1 ,i demanded to be guided towards them1 according to agreement4 ,two hours were consumed by our camels in reaching the bottom of the plateau1 where we arrived at sunset1 taking up our quarters for the night on the lee side of two enormous rocks4 ,on the following day ,i insisted that the ,bedouins should guide me over these tracts4 ,my trouble was in vain2 fear rendered them unable to utter a word4 ,furnished with a plumb-lead weighing about a pound and a quarter1 to which was attached a rope nearly #cej yards in length1 ,i accomplished this dangerous enterprise4 ,i occupied thirty-six minutes in reaching the first abyss2 it was thirty-six feet long by twenty-six feet broad1 and formed an inclined plain towards the centre1 about six feet deep1 which ,i attributed to the action of the wind4 ,i approached at first with the utmost precaution1 in order to examine the sand1 and found it to be almost impalpable4 ,i cast my plumb-lead as far as ,i could2 it disappeared immediately2 however1 the rapidity with which the rope shortened gradually diminished2 in five minutes1 it had wholly disappeared4 ,baron de ,wrede has made no attempt to account for this strange phenomenon1 which is not1 ,i may add1 peculiar to ,arabia4 ,the late ,doctor ,cloquet1 who for many years acted as chief physician to the ,shah of ,persia1 relates that he had seen similar gulfs in the great ,salt ,desert1 which he considered to occupy the place of lakes suddenly vanished4 ,this hypothesis is certainly admissible1 and perhaps very probable2 but while in some degree explaining the existence of these abysses of sand1 it raises fresh questions which are by no means easily answered2 for instance1 why have these lakes disappeared1 and why have they been replaced by this impalpable and incoherent dust in which heavy bodies sink as in a void8 ,consider1 moreover1 the remarks made by ,doctor ,cloquet in a letter addressed in #ahea to the ,academy of ,medicine at ,paris3-- ,at fifteen parasangs from ,teheran1#dh commences the ,salt ,desert1 which1 from east to west1 extends to the very frontiers of ,india4 ,this immense basin1 eastward1 has no other limits than the horizon2 to the west1 to the north1 to the south1 it is bounded by hills of sand which completely represent the ,dunes of ,france4 ,the soil1 of a fawn-coloured yellow1 is composed of clay and sand1 exactly resembling the mud which occupies the bottom of a dried-up basin4 ,it is said that at many points a man on horseback will disappear without his body being ever again discovered4#di ,i have seen one of these places1 near ,sivas2 the soil is everywhere impregnated with salt mingled with nitre1 which crystallizes on the surface4 ,for the rest1 if you dig two or three inches deep1 you find water1 though very brackish in quality4 ,the general opinion is that the desert was once occupied by a sea1 which suddenly disappeared on the night that ,mohammed was born4 ,and it seems to me that there is no reason to doubt this sudden disappearance1 since even in our own days1 and only a few years ago1 the salt lake of ,ourmiah 7,urumiyeh71 in the province of ,azerbadjan1 vanished completely for twenty-four hours2 it is true that the waters emerged again from their subterranean basin4 ,i think it almost absolutely demonstrated1 from inspection of these localities1 that at a remote epoch this sea communicated with the ,caspian1 and formed one united basin of water4 ,i am not sure but that in the south it also communicated with the ,indian ,sea1 for ,i have not travelled in that direction4 ,the apparition of the ,elburz chain has cloven the two basins1 and the sea1 receiving only inconsiderable streams1 insensibly receded1 until the day when it was wholly dried up1 leaving only two lakes3 one1 the lake of ,sivas1 which disappeared in the seventh century2 the other1 the lake of ,seistan1 which is still extant1 and receives several of the important rivers of ,afghanistan4 ,at all events1 the great sea itself had disappeared some generations prior to the epoch of ,alexander4 ,the great humidity of the soil1 adds ,doctor ,cloquet1 struck me vividly4 ,does not this humidity appear to indicate the presence of vast subterranean sheets of water1 which sweat1 so to speak 7transsuderaient71 through the porosities of the earth8 ,the desert table-land of ,nadjed1 which fills all the central part of ,asia1 is bounded on the west and south by the more fertile and fortunate countries of the ,hedjaz and the ,hadramant1 which skirt the ,indian ,ocean4 ,to the north-east lies the desert of the ,tih1 whose deep sand-drifts lie between ,palestine and the ,isthmus of ,suez1 and which the ,mediterranean washes on the north1 on the south-west the ,gulf of ,suez1 and on the south-east the ,gulf of ,akaba4 ,this is the small triangular peninsula which was known to ancient geographers as ,arabia the ,stony4 ,a group of ever-famous mountains1 hallowed by the sublimest associations1 ,sina1 ,horeb1 ,jebel ,msa1 ,jebel ,bestn 7,st4 ,epistme71 raise their granitic summits on the southern point of this peninsula4 ,they are 'the ,alps' of ,arabia2 but the ,alps planted in the desert1 and therefore stripped of all the clothing which goes to make up our notions of ,swiss or ,english mountains2 stripped of the variegated drapery of oak1 and birch1 and pine and fir1 of moss1 and grass1 and fern2 which to landscapes of ,european hills are almost as essential as the rocks and peaks themselves4 ,sina1 or ,st4 ,catherine1 the loftiest peak in the range1 reaches an elevation of #hafj feet4 ,it is so closely connected with ,mount ,horeb1 to the north1 that the two mountains really seem but one4 ,ravines1 and narrow valleys planted with palm-trees1 thorny acacias1 tamarisks1 and some other shrubs1 wind between the abrupt trunks of this grand chain4 ,in one of these valleys stands the ,monastery of the ,transfiguration1 and on ,mount ,horeb rises the ,church of ,st4 ,catherine1 a shrine held in great esteem by devout ,greeks4 ,the pilgrims ascend on their knees a large staircase laboriously constructed by the monks4 ,i have no space to recapitulate the sublime historic memories which invest these solemn heights with an interest of their own4 ,the presence of the ,almighty has clothed their summits with a glory that might not be borne2 the thunders of the ,most ,high have echoed through their deep dark valleys4 ,at their base the people of ,israel watched and waited while ,moses received from ,heaven the code which thenceforth determined their religious and civil polity4 ,down the side of yonder mighty peak came their ,prophet and ,leader1 his face bright with a radiance such as was never before on the face of mortal man4 ,they were the scene of a singularly unique history2 by which1 as ,dean ,stanley remarks1 the fate of the three surrounding nations--,egypt1 ,arabia1 ,palestine--and through them the fate of the whole world1 has been determined4 ,illustration3 ,,mount ,,sinai4 ,the locality1 consecrated by such glorious associations1 is also rich in geological interest4 ,it exhibits indubitable traces of the great volcanic convulsions which have so profoundly shaken the shores of the ,dead ,sea1 and which still growl sullenly under the accumulated rocks4 ,in the time of ,procopius1 the legend runs that men fled from ,sina on account of the gruesome noises which haunted it2 and modern travellers1 notably ,stutzen and ,gray1 declare that they have heard at intervals a sound comparable to the dull heavy throbbing of a ,cyclops' pulse4 ,it might be said that one of the vast arteries which provide for the circulation of the ever boiling and seething flood of lava of our globe passes in this direction at an insignificant depth below the surface4 ,the springs of thermal waters which well out at the mountain-base1 the masses of bitumen and lava scattered over the soil1 the gigantic rocks which bristle over the whole desert of ,el-,th1 and whose hue1 to adopt the expression of a modern traveller1 is that of calcined and fire-scathed matter1 are sufficient evidence that this country has been the theatre of dreadful volcanic phenomena4 ,messrs4 ,bida and ,hachette describe a place named ,wdy-,nassoub1 situated a short distance from ,sarabit-el-,kadim1 on the road from ,sina to ,suez4 ,it is gained after traversing ,ramleh 7the sandy71 a sandy ravine which serves as a retreat for horrible black serpents1 both big and little1 and for enormous lizards1 and which is followed by a narrow valley4 ,wdy-,nassoub1 according to these travellers1 is one of the most magnificent spectacles we have ever seen4 ,it is a circus of twenty to twenty-five leagues in extent1 surrounded by huge rocks arranged in successive terraces1 and of incomparable beauty of form and colour4 ,its arena is an immense sheet of black basalt1 furrowed here and there by torrents of yellow sand4 ,a dazzling sun kindles up this landscape1 which is one of incredible splendour4 ,illustration3 ,,lake ,,baudouin 7,a ,,salt ,,lake74 ,as you approach the ,isthmus of ,suez--which will soon be annihilated1 so to speak1 by ,m4 de ,lesseps' great ship-canal--the desert resumes the character which we have seen it bear in ,persia and ,central ,arabia4 ,the rocks1 much rarer and less lofty1 gradually give place to mountains of sand4 ,salt lakes and fields of salt re-appear4 ,near the shores of the ,mediterranean lies a pool of salt1 still known by that name of ,lake ,baudouin 7,baldwin71 which the ,crusaders imposed upon it4 ,there the salt forms a firm and tenacious crust1 on which the camel safely plants its foot4 ,sometimes the iron hoof of a horse breaks through1 but beneath this first frail stratum it meets with another of astonishing hardness4 ,you might think yourself1 says a traveller1 on the ,mer de ,glace of ,mont ,blanc4 ,our camel-drivers collected some large pieces from the surface4 ,nothing can be more brilliant or more transparent than these crystals4 ,it is by tasting them only that you can distinguish them from rock crystal4 ,as we advance1 the impression grows overpowering4 ,a plain of dazzling whiteness surrounds us1 and is prolonged far beyond our ken4 ,dimly on the left may be perceived1 like an indigo-coloured ribbon1 the line of the distant sea4 ,the sky itself appears jet black4 ,the reverberation of sound is unendurable4 ,still further1 between ,suez and ,cairo1 the same traveller speaks admiringly of a natural amphitheatre1 enclosed between two mountain-spurs1 and strewn with dbris of rock1 and especially with petrified wood4 ,it might be compared to a forest-clearing which the woodmen had just quitted4 ,the splinters are quite fresh1 the cloven fragments still expose the notches made by the axe4 ,great trees1 divided into beams1 resemble long serpents which have been slain by blows from a hatchet4 ,the division is so clear that each gash reveals the concentric tissues perfectly preserved by this mineral embalming1 this natural silification4 ,similar petrifactions may be seen in abundance on the plateaux of the ,makattam1 and the amphitheatre now described is not far from the hill1 visited by every tourist1 which has received the name of the ,petrified ,forest4 ,thus it appears that the ,land ,deserts1 despite the proverbial monotony of their aspect1 do not fail to offer to the artist as well as the savant1 the philosopher no less than the historian1 objects worthy of patient study4 ,everywhere the handiwork of ,god and the evidences of ,almighty design awaken the admiration of the thoughtful4 ,whether the picture be sombre or beautiful1 grand or appalling1 we see that it was conceived and filled up by superhuman power4 ,but we are now in ,egypt1 on the threshold of the world's vast deserts4 ,egypt1 kept alive by the fertilizing and genial ,nile1 is but an island in the great ocean of sand which encircles it1 and which1 far more truly than the ,red ,sea or the ,mediterranean1 isolates it from the rest of the globe4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,nubian ,,desert--,,the ,,great ,,sahara--,,deserts ,,of ,,africa4 ,as soon as we pass beyond the narrow borders of the ,nile valley we encounter the ,desert4 ,egypt is1 in fact1 the ,nile2 the ,nile makes1 recreates1 preserves1 fecundates ,egypt1 which1 without this grand and ever-famous river1 would immediately cease to be4 ,everything in ,egypt1 says ,miss ,martineau1#ej with equal truth and eloquence1 life itself1 and all that it includes1 depends on the state of the unintermitting conflict between the ,nile and the ,desert4 ,the world has seen many straggles2 but no other so pertinacious1 so perdurable1 and so sublime as the conflict of these two great powers4 ,the ,nile1 ever young1 because perpetually renewing its youth1 appears to the inexperienced eye to have no chance1 with its stripling force1 against the great old ,goliath1 the ,desert1 whose might has never relaxed from the earliest days till now2 but the giant has not conquered it4 ,now and then he has prevailed for a season1 and the tremblers whose destiny hung on the event have cried out that all was over2 but he has once more been driven back1 and ,nilus has risen up again to do what we see him doing in the sculptures--bind up his water-plants about the throne of ,egypt4 ,the traveller1 ascending the famous river which has so long been mixed up with an apparently insoluble geographical problem1 sees the ,desert everywhere present2 its yellow boundary-line is vividly traced against the rich emerald-green of the fertile valley1 and1 as he advances1 that line seems to draw nearer and nearer1 until the cultivated soil appears reduced to a narrow strip on the river-bank4 ,it has encroached upon many once prosperous and busy sites1 and buried deeply the memorials of the old ,egyptian civilization4 ,round the decay ,of that colossal wreck1 boundless and bare1 ,the lone and level sands stretch far away4 ,everywhere outside the valley of the ,nile1 ,i repeat1 lies the ,desert4 ,west of the ,arabian chain of heights stretch the vast sandy plains frequented by the ,arab tribes of the ,beni-,wassel and the ,arabd4 ,beyond the eastern chain spread the ,libyan ,deserts1 which1 in the remote distance1 merge into the ,great ,sahara1 and those of the ,thebad1 where the early ,christian anchorites found a dismal asylum4 ,lower1 to the south of ,egypt1 extend the ,deserts of ,lower ,nubia4 ,let us ascend the ,nile as far as ,korosko1 on the right bank of the river1 and cross the huge chain of rocky hills which separates the cultivated zone from the ,desert to which the village just spoken of gives name4 ,these hills1 all of equal elevation1 assume the form of truncated cones4 ,they are layers of granite superimposed horizontally1 and with a depth of colour which makes them resemble at the first glance masses of basalt4 ,they are absolutely bare1 and separated from each other by abrupt sinuous gorges1 whose bottom is covered deep in sand of golden lights1 brought from the desert on the wings of the south-west4 ,long streams of the same brilliant sand descend the slopes opposed to the direction of the wind with graceful undulations1 which subside imperceptibly in the blown sand that carpets the floor of these mysterious valleys4 ,the crests of the hills can only be distinguished by their different colours2 some are lightly shaded with gray1 others with blue or green1 and others again with rose or crimson4 ,the reflets of the setting sun on these uniform and many-coloured summits have a marvellous splendour1 lighting up the scene until it assumes a fairy aspect1 ,and all puts on a gentle hue1 ,hanging in the shadowy air1 ,like a picture rich and rare4 ,at certain times it would rather remind the spectator of another of ,coleridge's conceptions3 ,a savage place6 as holy and enchanted ,as e'er beneath a waning moon was haunted ,by woman wailing for her demon-lover6#ea ,yet the spectacle is generally one of a rare and peculiar loveliness4 ,if nature1 says ,m4 ,trmaux1#eb had invested with this kind of beauty our verdurous fields of the ,west1 they would have been veritable ,edens2 but to produce1 blend1 and harmonize these inimitable hues1 it requires1 under the last beams of the sun1 the emanations from the heated sands and those which the day has called into existence from the burning surfaces of the denuded rocks4 ,it is by the side of her greatest horrors nature places her grandest beauties4 ,the horror of the ,desert does not lie only in its aridity1 in its vacuity--this vacuity is not absolute2 in default of life1 ,death peoples its solitudes4 ,the glens or gorges frequented by the caravans are lined with stones1 symmetrically disposed at certain intervals4 ,these stones mark the places where rest the remains of the hapless pilgrims who have attempted to cross the wilderness1 and perished in the attempt4 ,round and about each rugged tomb lie the skeletons of animals which none have troubled themselves to bury in the sand4 ,frequently you may see1 on the sandy wastes of ,africa1 or the desolate plains of ,asia and the ,new ,world1 these carcasses laid out in two interminable rows2 indicating the gloomy track which should be followed by the traveller1 and never failing to remind him of the tribute ,death levies upon mankind in these accursed regions4 ,thus does the ,desert show itself more relentless than even the hungry ocean1 which at least devours its victims whole1 and affronts the eye with no traces of its murders4 ,but the ,moloch of the ,desert has no shame2 it cynically exposes the hideous remains of those whom it has killed2 it strews the earth with their bones2 it has its museums of skeletons1 or rather of preserved animals4 ,m4 ,trmaux observed this curious phenomenon in the ravines of ,korosko1 but it probably occurs elsewhere under similar conditions4 ,on closely examining the carcasses which he met at every step1 he was astonished to find them covered with their skin1 and presenting still their natural forms1 as if the animals had been stuffed or embalmed4 ,he readily distinguished horses1 oxen1 asses1 camels4 ,he observed with no less surprise that these corpses exhaled no odour4 ,they had been dried by the heat before decomposition could commence its frightful work4 ,the skin had hardened2 the muscles and internal organs had been reduced into dust and gradually blown away by the wind through the yawning apertures at the two extremities of the body4 ,there remained nothing more1 literally1 but skin and bone4 ,this skin had such a consistency1 says our author1 such a degree of solidity1 that all my efforts to split it were without result4 ,the heaviest stones which ,i could raise rebounded upon their carcasses with a loud noise1 but did not pierce them4 ,if a man dies while a caravan is on its march1 he is buried in the sand4 ,i have had no opportunity of examining whether the desert-heat produces the same effect upon his body as upon the corpses of the animals just mentioned2 but it ought not to be so1 since the human skin has not the same consistency4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on issuing from these gorges1 we enter upon the ,desert proper by a sandy plain which the ,djellahs have named the ,river without ,water1 and which1 very low at first1 slowly rises into a plateau of very slight elevation1 intersected by some veins of a sandstone similar to that of the conical mountains4 ,then the plain declines anew1 and we emerge upon the ,sea of ,sand1 where the pulverized sandstone alternates with fields of rotted or broken pebbles1 and mounds of porphyry and granite4 ,at the foot of one of these mounds1 the ,tallat-el-,guind1 flourish a few wretched vegetables1 among others some gum-trees and doum-palms4 ,the latter trees are also found in solitary mournfulness scattered about the plain4 ,otherwise the ,desert of ,korosko is wholly deprived of vegetable life1 of ,the glory in the grass1 and the splendour in the flower4 ,as for water1 it must needs be content with that of a few brackish wells1 grouped1 about twelve in number1 at a spot called ,el-,mourath4 ,it is there only that the caravans can fill their ill-tanned leather-bottles1 in which the already nauseating liquid grows hot1 and quickly becomes putrid4 ,its stench and its taste are then so disgustful that the very camels reject it several times before they can constrain themselves to drink of it4 ,illustration3 ,,ravines ,,of ,,korosko4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,desert of ,bahiouda1 situated in about the same latitude as that of ,korosko1 but on the other bank of the ,nile1 is of a less absolute aridity and nakedness4 ,water is more abundant and less brackish2 vegetation is less scanty2 and one meets on every side with giraffes1 gazelles1 wild cattle1 and even1 it is said1 with lions and elephants4 ,great numbers of reptiles1 lizards1 serpents1 and tortoises inhabit the sand and the crevices of the rocks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,south of the above-named ,deserts1 towards #ag ,n4 lat41 is placed the limit of the ,rainless ,district4 ,under the #ahth parallel the rains do not last above one or two months in the year1 and in some years are absolutely wanting2 but when they do fall1 it is generally in impetuous torrents4 ,as we advance towards the ,equator they become more regular1 and last for longer periods4 ,according to ,humboldt1 the average yearly rainfall in #ai ,n4 lat4 measures #hj inches2 under the equator1 #if inches4 ,in these tropical climes the year is divided into two seasons--one of excessive drought1 and one of excessive rain4 ,during the former1 the sky is ever cloudless2 during the latter1 completely overcast4 ,there are1 in fact1 two rainless belts or districts1 one on each side of the ,equator4 ,in the old world1 the northern belt commences on the west side of ,africa2 includes the ,sahara between #af and #bh of latitude2 and narrowing as it extends easterly1 comprises on the banks of the ,nile from #ai to #bg4 ,it also embraces the low coast2 and portions of the interior of ,arabia2 passes through ,beloochistan to the base of the ,himalayas1 and terminates with the rainless tableland of ,thibet4 ,the southern district occurs north of the ,gareep or ,orange ,river in ,south ,africa1 and includes wide tracts in ,australia1 and a narrow belt in ,south ,america4 ,where the earth is blessed with copious showers1 vegetation will abound2 grass1 and herb1 flower1 bush1 and tree2 ,fields of grain ,will bend their tops ,to the numberless beating drops4 ,to meet with the true ,desert we must1 therefore1 direct our steps in a north-westerly course1 and penetrate into ,the ,sahara4 ,m4 ,charles ,martins1 in his elaborate monograph on this remarkable region1 divides it into three distinct sub-regions3 the ,desert of the ,table-lands1 the ,desert of ,erosion1 and the ,sandy ,desert4#ec ,in ,algeria1 and in ,barbary generally1 the ,mediterranean littoral does not come into immediate contact with the ,sahara2 but is separated from it by the ,atlas chain4 ,but the ,atlas does not rise abruptly from the plain3 on either side it ascends by a succession of rocky steps or terraces1 which form the sub-region of the elevated ,table-lands4 ,vast denuded surfaces1 sprinkled with chotts1 or salt lakes1 deprived of all arborescent vegetation1 traversed in summer by immense herds which feed on the plants even to their very roots1 bare mountains starting abruptly from these horizontal surfaces2 such is the general aspect of the landscape4 ,the richly-varied culture of the ,mediterranean littoral has disappeared1 and barley is the only cereal which the husbandman relies upon for his harvest4 ,at many points1 however1 the purple vine and golden olive succeed admirably1 and are destined one day to clothe the nakedness of these plateaux which the free-pasturing herds and the careless ,arab have stripped of their blooming verdure4 ,descending these rocky terraces of gray old ,atlas1 we enter the desert region in its first phase3 the ,desert of the ,table-lands1 or ,saharan ,steppe4 ,illustration3 ,,landscape ,,in ,,the ,,atlas 7,,region ,,of ,,table-,,lands74 ,here1 horizontal strata of mud and gypsum1 or sulphate of lime1 are deposited upon the shores1 as it were1 of the great ,sandy ,sea4 ,the gypsum reposing on the mud is composed of plates in such close juxtaposition as to resemble an artificial pavement4 ,it covers the surface of vast plateaux which have not been encroached upon by the waters2 whether those waters were marine currents at the epoch when the ,sahara was a vast sea1 or diluvian torrents which descended from the mountains after their elevation1 little matters2 the gypsum1 produced by the violent evaporation of the ,saharan sea1 has withstood their operation1 and composes the plateaux of which we are speaking4 ,their surface is so smooth1 that vehicles might roll for leagues upon this natural pavement1 which echoes like a vault under the horses' hoofs4 ,a plateau of this kind1 the small ,desert of ,mourad1 extends from ,biskra to the banks of the great salt lake called ,chott ,mebrir by the ,arabs4 ,the gypseous surface is not everywhere exposed3 most frequently it is covered by a layer of small rounded pebbles1 nearly all quartzose1 exhibiting the greatest variety of tints1 from the purest white to the most vivid red2 they are mixed with black calcareous stones split on the surface4 ,whence came these pebbles1 which have evidently been 'rolled' by the waters8 ,we know not4 ,they are the mysterious witnesses of those grand diluvian torrents which have left the traces of their passage over the surface of the whole earth1 though the geologist cannot always discover the mountains or rocks that furnished the materials of this diluvium4#ed ,from the ,desert of the ,table-lands we must needs make another descent4 ,the town of ,batna is situated at the extremity of the lowest of the ,atlantean terraces1 whose elevation is still some #ccjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,to the north-west rise the lofty spires of the colossal chain1 with their diadems of cedars sharply defined in black upon the azure of the sky4 ,loftiest of all soars the ,jebel-,tougour1 or ,peak of ,cedars1 reminding the spectator of the ,pyrenean crests4 ,towards the south-east stretch the rounded shoulders of the mountains of the ,aurs1 clad with dense dark forest of oak and pine4 ,in a fold of the mountains lurk the ancient ,lambessa and the mouldering ruins of a ,roman camp4 ,four miles to the south of ,batna is a large depressed hill1 whose base mingles with the table-land1 above which it rises only three hundred and thirty feet4 ,this ridge marks the watershed2 all the streams on the north flowing towards the ,mediterranean1 and1 on the south1 gradually disappearing in the arid bed of the ancient ,saharan sea4 ,on the frontier line1 like a ,cyclopean landmark1 is planted the ,peak of ,cedars1 while from its loins a torrent issues1 and through a deep ravine whirls and leaps and flows towards the desert4 ,springs1 abundant and warm1 bubble up through the chalky marls1 and take the same direction4 ,beyond the ,french military post1 called ,les ,tamarins1 the road descends the ravine-cloven mountain-slopes1 and passes over the torrent which bifurcates at the foot of the majestic ,metlili4 ,on the left is seen a steep wall of rock1 the ,jebel-,gaouss1 cleft midway by a chasm1 or breach1 which the ,arabs expressively designate ,the ,mouth of the ,desert1 and which1 gradually enlarging1 opens upon the first oasis of the ,sahara1 ,el ,kantara 7the bridge1 from a ,roman arch which spans the torrent71 the most northerly limit of the palm-tree4 ,a magnificent1 semi-alpine1 semi-tropical scene4 ,below1 a tumultuous foaming stream1 its banks on either side clad with palms bending their feathery foliage towards the river1 and sheltering fig1 apricot1 peach1 almond1 and pomegranate trees4#ee ,above1 a range of snowy heights1 wreathed in ever ascending and descending clouds4 ,we now enter the ,desert of ,erosion1 a mass of mountainous highlands2 of ridges1 peaks1 and cols1 intersected and1 as it were1 gashed by ravines where roll the winter torrents and the rivers which the heats of summer dry up1 and which1 hollowing and gnawing into the stony soil1 spread themselves over the valleys and awake a transitory vegetation4 ,the erosive action of the waters is1 then1 the special characteristic of this part of the desert1 which the ,arabs call ,kifar1 or the abandoned country4 ,most of the streams which water it have their sources in ,mounts ,aurs and ,zibans1 which form its northern boundary4 ,they have excavated wide intermingling furrows1 whose intervening spaces are occupied by gypseous plateaux4 ,the formations of less resisting power1 the marls1 clays1 and sands1 have been washed away4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sahara 7,,desert ,,of ,,erosion74 ,the waters1 whether proceeding from rain1 or the melting of the snows on the loftiest peaks1 are very pure at first1 and roll in deep beds with vertical sides2 when they reach the plains1 their channels grow wider and shallower4 ,in the wet season1 the floods burst the banks1 and overflowing1 carry down immense quantities of rolled pebbles1 which are distributed over an extensive area2 in ordinary weather they are reduced to thin threads of silver1 which1 on arriving in the desert1 vanish completely4 ,you must excavate the soil to obtain a supply of water1 and when found1 it is brackish4 ,frequently the beds unite1 forming basins of greater or less extent and depth1 which fill themselves at the close of the winter floods1 and a few of which preserve1 even in the winter season1 a certain quantity of water4 ,elsewhere1 the soil is only humid1 thanks to the abundance of salt1 which retains the moisture4 ,in such places numerous slimy marshes occur1 where the traveller may not adventure without peril4 ,but in general the surface is dry1 cracked1 cloven1 and completely parched4 ,the ,desert of ,erosion is not completely inhabited4 ,at intervals you meet with a few squalid villages1 and a multitude of camel's-skin tents are scattered like black spots over the yellow or grayish plains1 on the borders of the chotts or scanty water-courses4 ,herds of goats and flocks of sheep wander in the valleys1 browsing on the rare short grass4 ,columns of smoke arise from the ,arab bivouacs1 and the women of the ,sahara group themselves around the wells and springs to fill the water-bags with which they load their asses4 ,when1 from the summit of the rocks which fence round and bristle over the ,desert of ,erosion1 we perceive for the first time the ,desert of ,sand1 the impression is very similar to that which we derive from the sight of ocean4 ,m4 ,martins had already become sensible of this peculiar effect when1 from the ,col de ,sfa1 he had gazed down upon the ,desert of the ,plateaux4 ,a grand circular arch1 he says1 extended before us1 bounding a violet surface1 smooth as the sea1 and blending at the horizon with the azure of heaven2 it was the ,sahara4 ,the arc eastward rested against the chain of the ,aurs2 westward1 against that of the ,zibans1 some of whose offshoots1 in the neighbourhood of ,biskra1 arose like reefs upon that sea which seemed to have been frozen suddenly into immobility4 ,the actual sea ever trembles and shivers on the surface2 a light wavering1 imperceptible to the eye1 propels towards the shore the expiring wave1 fringed with a border of foam4 ,here1 nothing like this may be seen2 it is a motionless1 a congealed sea1 or1 rather1 it is the smooth bed of a sea whose waters have disappeared4 ,science teaches us that such is the fact2 and now as ever the expression of the reality is more picturesque1 more eloquent than all the comparisons created by the imagination4#ef ,an eminent ,french artist1 ,m4 ,fromentin1 whose skill with the pen equals his talent with the brush1 has also painted this congealed sea in grand and poetic language4 ,the first impression1 he says1 produced by this glowing lifeless picture1 composed of the sun1 space1 and solitude1 is keen1 and cannot be compared to any other4 ,little by little1 however1 the eye grows accustomed to the grandeur of the lines1 to the emptiness of space1 to the denudation of the earth2 and if anything can still astonish1 it is that one becomes sensible to effects which change so little1 and is so powerfully affected by spectacles in reality of the simplest character4#eh ,i must also enumerate among the artists in words who have painted the wonders of the ,sahara1 ,general ,daumas1 not one of the least distinguished of the ,franco-,algerine warriors4 ,he describes it in the following language3--,it is a naked and barren immensity1--this sea of sand1 whose eternal waves1 agitated to-day by the choub1 will to-morrow be heaped up immovable1 and which are slowly furrowed by those fleets called caravans4 ,general ,daumas1 it is evident1 confines himself to the scientific realism1 which ,m4 ,martins prefers to the glowing and inexact imagery of the poets1 and conveys in a few words an accurate yet very picturesque idea of that arid sea1 where the wind stirs up rolling waves of sand instead of foaming billows1 and which the ,arabs call ,falat4 ,i shall place before the reader1 however1 the description given by ,m4 ,martins himself1 for it represents both the ensemble and the details of the picture4 ,if the ,desert of the ,plateaux1 he says1#eg be the image of a sea suddenly fixed during a level calm1 the ,desert of ,sand represents to us a sea which may have been solidified during a violent tempest4 ,the ,dunes1 or sand-hills1 like waves1 rise one behind another even to the limits of the horizon1 separated by narrow valleys which represent the depressions of the great billows of the ocean1 all whose various aspects they simulate4 ,sometimes they narrow themselves into keen-edged crests1 or shoot upwards in pyramids1 or swell into cylindrical domes4 ,seen from a distance1 these ,dunes also remind us at times of the appearances of the nv 7or granulated snow7 in the amphitheatres and on the ridges which lie contiguous to the loftiest ,alpine summits4 ,their colours still further enhance the illusion4 ,moulded by the winds1 the burning sands of the desert assume the same forms as the nvs of the glaciers4 ,whoever has seen the ,dunes on the coast of ,norfolk1 or more particularly in ,gascony1 may gain a very accurate conception of the ,desert4 ,the only notable differences are in the extent1 which here seems infinite1 like that of ocean2 the purity of the heaven1 which is seldom sullied by a cloud2 and the colour1 which is of a soft1 intense blue4 ,the nature of the soil is the same2 it is a very fine1 shifting1 silicious sand1 white sometimes1 like that of ,fontainebleau1 and sometimes reddened by the presence of oxide of iron4 ,in the ,sahara this sand gathers in veritable ,dunes1 hillocks which the wind upheaves1 displaces1 and transforms from one day to another4 ,only the lettes1 or valleys1 which in our ,dunes receive the pluvial waters and preserve a sufficient amount of fertility1 are here just moistened by rare saline infiltrations1 and almost always remain in a condition of absolute sterility4 ,nevertheless1 in some localities1 the presence of gypsum gives the sand a certain fixity1 which permits a small number of plants to germinate and develop themselves4 ,this gypsum is never found but in the valleys1 and never in tabular masses1 as on the plateaux1 but only in crystals of various forms1 penetrated by silica4 ,you pick up a pebble1 says ,m4 ,martins1 and find it to be a crystal4 ,the villages are surrounded by crenellated ramparts built of crystals2 the houses which compose these villages are constructed of the same materials2 and very weird and splendid is the scene presented by these edifices with their sun-illuminated walls4 ,notwithstanding their small dimensions and mean architecture1 when thus lit up in glorious radiance1 they seem to realize the wonders told in fairy tales of the enchanted palaces of the genii6 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,desert4 ,the desert has its own meteorology2 it is the theatre of peculiar phenomena1 which one observes in no other part of the globe4 ,its climate1 at least in the sandy region1 is remarkably uniform2 it varies only1 according to latitude1 in a greater or less elevated thermometrical mean4 ,hippocrates1 the ancient philosopher1 rightly called the ,father of ,medicine1 states the three elements of climate to be1 the atmosphere1 the soil1 and the waters4 ,throughout the desert these are identically similar1 and consequently originate identically similar phenomena4 ,the atmosphere1 in fact1 is everywhere of an almost unchanging purity4 ,it is only in the neighbourhood of mountains that clouds accumulate1 to spend themselves at periodical seasons in more or less abundant rains4 ,in the plains it never rains1 and during the day no veil is interposed between the earth and the sun's burning glare1 nor during the night do any refreshing dews weaken the force of the terrestrial radiation4 ,there result constant alternations of devouring heat while the sun is above the horizon1 and of rapid and frequently intense cooling when he has disappeared4 ,the soil is everywhere as smooth as the liquid main4 ,this uniformity contributes1 in addition to its silicious1 argillaceous1 or calcareous character1 to render more abrupt the changes of temperature which occur from morning to evening and from evening to morning4 ,in truth1 the earth reflects the sun's heat in proportion as it receives it2 it absorbs but insignificant quantities1 which it loses in a few minutes when the calorific source begins to fail4 ,on the other hand1 in these immense plains where no inequality of surface can oppose the atmospheric movements1 the wind acquires an increasing force and swiftness1 vires acquirit eundo1 and soon assumes all the characteristics of a tempest4 ,hence arise those terrible typhoons1 those appalling hurricanes1 of whose destructive effects history records so many instances1 and of which ,i shall presently be called upon to speak4 ,as for water1 we have seen that its entire absence is a characteristic feature of the ,sandy ,desert4 ,to sum up1 an overpowering degree of heat during the day1--a freshness1 often even an excessive cold1 during the night 7in the ,sahara the thermometer frequently rises above #abj ,f4 at noon1 and not infrequently sinks below #cb about two or three o'clock ,a4,m472 an ever transparent and azure sky1 ,darkly1 deeply1 beautifully blue2 the absence of rains and dews1 of gales and thunder2 but a frequent recurrence of terrible hurricanes3 such is the meteorological constitution of the arid zone1 which embraces all the northern districts of ,africa1 except the ,mediterranean region--that is1 from the snowy heights of ,atlas to the fertile pastures of ,soudan--and which extends in ,asia from the west to the north-east1 for all but one narrow belt1 as far as the #aaith meridian of longitude4 99 99 99 99 99 ,foremost among the phenomena peculiar to this zone we must place those famous tempests which1 in default of humid clouds1 traverse with startling swiftness the changing surface of the ,desert1 driving before them whirlwinds of burning sand1 and striking the traveller's heart with a sense of unconquerable awe4 ,the wind of the ,desert is called by the ,arabs the choum or khamsin2 but is more generally known in ,european books as the ,simoun1 ,simoom1 or ,samoun4 ,it is the ,samiel of the ,turks2 and1 under a somewhat milder form1 the ,scirocco of the ,mediterranean4 ,wherever1 or however it blows1 it is a pernicious and hateful wind2 the blast1 in all probability1 which destroyed the hosts of ,sennacherib at the bidding of the ,divine ,word1-- ,the angel of ,death spread his wings on the blast1 ,and breathed in the face of the foe as he passed4 ,and the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill1 ,and their hearts but once heaved1 and for ever grew still4 ,torrents of burning sand sweep before it1 a thick veil of darkness envelopes the firmament1 and the sun assumes a blood-red hue4 ,that crimson haze ,by which the prostrate caravan is awed ,in the red desert when the wind's abroad4#eh ,when the ,simoom rises1 says ,m4 ,martins1#ei the air is filled with dust of such extreme fineness that it makes its way through objects hermetically sealed1 penetrates into the eyes1 the ears1 and the organs of respiration4 ,a burning heat1 like that which breathes from the mouth of a furnace1 possesses the air1 and paralyzes the strength of men and animals4 ,seated on the sand1 with their backs turned to windward1 the ,arabs1 wrapped in their burnous1 wait with fatalistic resignation the end of the torment2 their camels crouching1 exhausted1 panting1 stretch their long necks upon the scorching soil4 ,seen through this powdery haze1 the sun's disc1 shorn of its beams1 shows pale and ghastly as that of the moon4 ,fortunately1 the phenomenon never prevails over any very considerable area1 and beyond its limits the atmosphere remains serene and calm2 so that travellers who have watched it approaching in the form of a reddish cloud1 without being able to calculate on its direction1 have often escaped with no worse result than a panic1 and have only witnessed its terrible effects at a distance4 ,it must not1 however1 be confounded with the sand-storms which the pilgrim encounters in the ,arabian ,desert1 and which seem confined to that region4 ,dean ,stanley1 on his route from ,suez to ,sinai1 met with one which prevailed the whole day4 ,imagine1 he says1 the caravan toiling against this1--the ,bedouins each with his shawl thrown completely over his head1 half of the riders sitting backwards1--the camels1 meantime thus virtually left without guidance1 though from time to time throwing their long necks sideways to avoid the blast1 yet moving straight onwards with a painful sense of duty truly edifying to behold4 ,through the tempest1 this roaring and driving tempest1 which sometimes made me think that this must be the real meaning of 'a howling wilderness1' we rode on the whole day4#fj ,a ,french cavalier1 ,m4 ,trmaux1 while crossing the ,desert of ,korosko1 had the good fortune to witness the course of a ,simoom1 while himself in a position of safety4 ,it was the #hth of ,february #ahdh4 ,the horizon in the south-west wore a hue of the evillest augury4 ,gusts of wind1 which seemed to have issued from some red-hot brazier1 beat in the face of the travellers4 ,the camel-drivers1 accustomed to interpret these sinister signs1 and assured that a tempest was at hand1 felt themselves called upon to give ,m4 ,trmaux a few counsels1 which were by no means reassuring4 ,as soon as the storm darkens the air1 said one of them1 by surrounding us with a cloud of sand1 we must throw ourselves prone on the ground1 wrap our heads in our finest stuffs1 to protect our respiration from this sand1 which burns the throat4 ,it will be useless to trouble ourselves about the camels2 they will lie down of their own accord1 bend their head against their burden1 and never stir so long as the tempest lasts4 ,if the sand accumulates by our side1 we must move in such a manner as to prevent it from covering us1 making it roll under itself1 but without exposing our heads4 ,remember these things carefully2 and the will of ,god be done6 ,that is not all1 added another2 when the water-bags are partly shrunken1 as are ours at this moment1 and the ,khamsin blows for some time1 it finishes by completely drying them up4 ,thus warned1 ,m4 ,trmaux was compelled to face1 with all the resignation he was capable of1 the melancholy alternative of perishing suffocated by the sand1 or1 a little later1 of succumbing to the tortures of thirst4 ,he continued to journey1 or rather to drag himself towards the centre of the choking atmosphere1 and to watch the scourge which rapidly drew near4 ,this lasted a couple of hours1 after which the travellers had the satisfaction of seeing the ,simoom glide by on their right1 and depart with the same rapidity4 ,a column of the ,french army1 commanded by the ,dukes of ,aumale and of ,montpensier1 had met with a less happy chance on the #gth of ,march #ahdd1 in the ,souf1 or ,algerine ,sahara2 it was attacked by a ,simoom1 which prolonged its furious assaults during fourteen hours4 ,on the day following1 ,m4 ,fournel1 a mining engineer who accompanied the expedition1 ascertained that the meteor had swept but a narrow zone parallel to the ,aurs range1 and that at the mountain base the tranquillity of the atmosphere had been undisturbed4 ,the ,simoom1 or ,khamsin1 is1 however1 more troublesome and painful than really dangerous4 ,m4 ,martins speaks of the annihilated army of ,cambyses1 the ,persian king1 which perished in the ,libyan ,desert 7,b4,c4 #ebd71fa and of whole caravans engulfed in the sepulchral sands4 ,the numerous skeletons of camels1 he adds1 which we met with on our way prove that these catastrophes are still of frequent occurrence4 ,it is more probable1 however1 that they died from dearth of water and want of food4 ,as for the ,persian host1 it was probably swallowed up in one of those quicksands1 those hidden treacherous gulfs1 which are found in the deserts of ,libya1 as well as in those of ,persia and ,arabia4 ,the evil effects of the ,simoom have1 in fact1 been exaggerated by the ,arabs1 whose highly-coloured narratives have been too easily adopted by credulous travellers4 ,it heats the blood1 it dries the skin1 it renders respiration troublesome2 but it does not kill4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,french ,,column ,,in ,,algiers ,,surprised ,,by ,,the ,,simoom4 ,illustration3 ,,whirlwinds ,,of ,,sand 7,,sand-,,spouts74 ,it is not always a single wind which blows in the ,deserts2 but sometimes two or three currents1 from opposite directions1 cross and clash and drive against one another with increasing fury4 ,then is produced the singular phenomenon of the sand-spout1 often witnessed on a magnificent scale in the sandy plains of ,eastern ,asia and ,southern ,america4 ,the sand is not now driven in voluminous masses in a rectilineal direction2 but raised aloft in the form of long tortuous columns1 which whirl to and fro like gigantic spectres in the mazes of a wild demon-dance4 ,at the same time1 the azure of the sky grows pale and troubled1 the sun's light obscured1 the boundaries of the horizon seem to meet together2 the burning dust held in suspension in the air renders it irrespirable1 and if one of these whirlwinds encounters any object which offers a resistance1 it carries it upward and hurls it a considerable distance4 ,fortunately the phenomenon is one of brief duration4 ,the atmospheric equilibrium is speedily restored2 the heavens recover their serenity2 the atmosphere grows clear1 and the sand columns1 falling in upon themselves1 form a number of little hills or cones1 apparently constructed with great care1 like those mimic edifices of sand or snow built up by children in their pastimes4 ,it is said that these furious whirlwinds have occasionally engulfed whole caravans in their tremendous vortex1-- ,man mounts on man1 on camels camels rush1 ,hosts march on hosts1 and nations nations crush2 ,wheeling in air the wingd islands fall1 ,and one great sandy ocean covers all4 ,whether this be true or not1 there can be no doubt that the spectacle is one of great magnificence1 and calculated to inspire the traveller with emotions of awe and dread4 ,mr4 ,atkinson describes it as seen by him1 on one occasion1 when traversing the ,mongolian ,desert3-- ,as we passed1 he says1#fb in the middle of a space sown with innumerable hillocks of sands1 we saw about thirty of them suddenly raise themselves around us1 lengthen into long elliptical columns1 and glide with many a whirl and sweep over the surface of the ,desert with the hissings and contortions of gigantic serpents which had awakened at our approach4 ,these spouts1 for the phenomenon was no other1 varied in diameter2 the smallest measured between twenty and thirty feet2 a few attained to a hundred2 and one1 which absorbed in its vortex all that it approached1 rose to nearly two hundred4 ,one might have said1 on seeing them bending1 rising again and crossing one another in space amidst an atmosphere of dust1 that they were antediluvian monsters emerging from their geological bed1 and returning into the feverish activity of existence4 ,but soon1 the atmospheric forces which had raised them beginning to fail1 we saw these sand-spouts fall away one after another1 and form on the surface of the ,desert a number of moving hillocks similar to those from which we had just emerged4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the poet1 invoking the judgment of ,heaven on the traitor1 would fain doom him to the misery of cherishing hopes that shall never be realized4 ,may he1 cries the minstrel-- ,may he1 at last1 with lips of flame1 ,on the parched desert thirsting die1 ,while lakes that shone in mockery nigh ,are fading oft1 untouched1 untasted4#fc ,the image here is borrowed from that most singular phenomenon of the ,desert1 the ,mirage2 an atmospheric illusion due to the refraction of the sun's rays upon the sand1 and the intense expansion of the lower strata of the air1--in other words1 it arises from the total reflection of the rays of light from the lower surface of a stratum of air4 ,this occurs when1 from any cause1 such a stratum of air possesses a higher refractive power than the one immediately below it4 ,such a condition of the atmosphere causes remote objects to be seen as if reflected in a mirror1 or to appear as if suspended in the air4 ,when the effect is confined to apparent elevation1 the ,english sailors call it looming2 when inverted images are formed1 the ,italians give it the name of ,fata ,morgana4 ,the ,arabs call it ,serab1 or ,suhrab1 the ',water of the ,desert2' and the ,hindus1 ,tchittram1 or 'the ,picture4' ,the effects of the illusion are extraordinary1 but undoubtedly they are heightened by the imagination of observers1 generally over-excited by fatigue1 by privations1 or sometimes by fever4 ,these causes contribute to vary the nature of the phenomenon as seen by different eyes4 ,thus some gaze enraptured on verdurous islands bright as ,armida's enchanted garden1 with feathery palms and blooming flowers1 and delicious sparkling lakes2 others see1 in that dim far-off which is never reached1 the laughing waves of ocean1 with ships resting calmly at anchor1 or ,veering up and down1 they know not why1 and camels browsing quietly upon its shores2 others1 again1 see before them the rolling river1 its banks studded with groves and palaces2 and all this1 while there is not a solitary real object on the horizon whose presence might serve in some degree as a foundation for their visions4 ,it is the very phantasmagoria of nature2 her wildest1 most wayward1 and most fantastic sport4 ,the reflection of the sky1 modified by the inequalities of the soil and the vibratory movements of the air1 can alone account for the singular deception4 ,imagination shows its victim1 in the reflected image of the cloudless sky1 a sheet of water1 which is variously taken for a sea1 a lake1 or a river2 it invests the slightest objects on the earth's surface with forms1 colours1 and dimensions1 which are easily metamorphosed into houses1 ships1 men1 animals2 and it seems certain that those which in ,nubia our fancy converts into camels would1 in the ,soudan1 be transformed into elephants1 and at ,venice into gondolas4 ,imagination makes us its dupes1 and gives to airy nothings ,a local habitation and a name4 ,it becomes absolutely necessary1 therefore1 to distinguish these wholly personal illusions born of a heated brain1 from those which are really due to a definite physical cause4 ,the latter necessarily suppose the existence of actual objects1 below or very little above the horizon4 ,under such conditions1 the most frequent illusion is that which shows the sky or rocks reflected in the expanse of rarified air superincumbent on the earth's surface1 and which through this cause alone resembles water4 ,it is then that the ignorant or inexperienced traveller1 overwhelmed with fatigue and devoured by thirst1 hastens his eager steps to reach more quickly that limpid water1 where he hopes to refresh and reinvigorate himself1 but which flies before his advance1 and speedily vanishes altogether4 ,sometimes it is an inverted representation of terrestrial objects which appears in the air2 or rather1 these same objects1 several times reflected1 appear to multiply themselves4 ,m4 ,trmaux relates that he saw the latter form of mirage in ,nubia4 ,he observed a row of doum-palms1 which were about two thousand yards distant1 repeated in several similar rows1 each with a like number of trees1 so as to produce the effect of a quincunx2 among these trees floated several seeming sheets of water4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mirage ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 ,we must remember1 moreover1 that the immensity1 uniformity1 and vacuity of the ,desert1 singularly contribute to render optical illusions frequent4 ,the very serenity of the air assists in destroying the perspective to which we are accustomed in temperate climates1 which are always more or less misty4 ,objects appear much nearer than they are in reality1 because they are more distinctly visible1 and also because nothing intervenes between them and the observer4 ,their dimensions1 too1 become arbitrary1 for want of standards of comparison by which to measure them4 ,so the trees and the mountains where the weary traveller hopes to obtain a temporary repose and a passing shelter from the ,pythian's fiery arrows1 seem constantly to recede before him1 like the rainbow when pursued by the ignorant peasant2 and1 until experience has taught him to rectify the apparent testimony of his senses1 he is doomed1 like ,tantalus1 to be the victim of continual deceptions1-- ,ev'n in the circling floods refreshment craves1 ,and pines with thirst amidst a sea of waves2 ,when to the water he his lip applies1 ,back from his lip the treacherous water flies4#fd ,nor is this all2 hunger1 thirst1 weariness1 and especially the action of the solar heat upon the brain1 determine a peculiar pathological condition1 a species of mental intoxication or delirium which powerfully predisposes the victim to hallucinations1 and deprives the mind of that self-control which would enable it to chase away the phantoms that haunt it4 ,to this affection1 whose symptoms are frequently but erroneously confounded with those of the mirage1 the ,arabs have given a specific name4 ,they call it ,ragle4 ,a distinguished ,french traveller has described it with exhaustive fulness1#fe and he attributes it to fatigue1 excessive heat1 and want of sleep4 ,it shows itself most commonly at night1 and in dreams1 attacks of nightmare1 and a somnambulism of which the sufferer is perfectly conscious1 without being able to throw it off4 ,by day strange hallucinations affect the sight1 the hearing1 and even1 though less powerfully1 the senses of taste and smell4 ,the aberration extends1 as far as the sight is concerned1 to the objects which we are in the habit of seeing2 a small stone1 for instance1 expands into a rock2 the rut of a carriage-wheel enlarges into the furrow of a freshly ploughed field2 a tuft of grass or a bush will assume the grand proportions of a forest2 and1 what is remarkable1 these objects seem always close at hand4 ,another frequent error is the elevation of horizontal surfaces2 the horizon becomes a wall or a mountain4 ,it has happened to myself1 says ,m4 d',escayrac1 to meet with walls constantly reappearing before me4 ,my extended arm has plunged into the masonry1 but my body never encountered any obstacle2 the rampart opened to give me a free passage4 ,hearing is1 in its turn1 affected4 ,then1 any sound whatsoever1 such as a footfall1 the blow of a stone1 the whisper of the wind1 is changed into melodious sounds1 keen cries of distress1 the murmur of woods1 the harmony of familiar songs4 ,one day1 says ,m4 d',escayrac1 ,i heard the click-clack of a village mill4 ,endeavouring to collect my senses1 and to obtain an explanation of the sound1 ,i perceived that it arose from the clink of my sword-belt against the pommel of my saddle1 to which ,i had buckled my sabre4 ,jomard1 the savant1 who experienced the effects of the ragle during his travels in ,egypt1 confirms in every respect the foregoing description4 ,on his way from ,rosetta to ,alexandria1 he kept along the border of the sea1 and found his feet painfully staggering in the thick fine sand4 ,such a journey is necessarily one of extreme fatigue4 ,after the first night1 this fatigue grew overwhelming2 the traveller lost all accurate perception of objects1 or of the form of places4 ,the surface of the lake ,medeah appeared not so much a sheet of water as a monotonous plain4 ,constantly pressing forward1 he maintained a hard fight against the overpowering sense of slumber4 ,half-asleep1 half-awake1 his brain was dazzled with the most fantastic phantoms1 and the hallucination was so great that he plunged into the lake before him1 without perceiving it1 though the water was very deep4 ,but the freshness caused by the evaporation of the water warned him of his error1 and the vision suddenly passed away4 ,such being the phenomena of the ,desert1 one can understand the dreary picture which ,dante paints in his ,inferno1 of-- ,the plain ,which from its bed rejecteth every plant2 whose soil is-- ,of an arid and thick sand2 and where-- ,with a gradual fall ,are raining down dilated flakes of fire4 ,as of the snow on ,alp1 without a wind4#ff ,,chapter ,v4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,desert3--,,the ,,oases4 ,the ,flora of a region where nature provides no genial fertilizing rains1 and whose soil is simply a shifting sand1 moistened only in certain places by a brackish water1 must necessarily be one of extreme poverty4 ,it is reduced very nearly1 as we have seen1 to a few plants of the genus ,salsola 7salt-wort71 flourishing on the borders of the salt pools and lakes4 ,nevertheless1 at a few points1 where a certain degree of fixity obtains in the sand1 we meet with the thornless bushes or shrubs1 the ,ephedra alata and the retama ,durioei2 some pistachios 7pistacia lentiscus and p4 terebinthus72 the drin 7aristida pungens71 a tall grass1 with linear leaves1 some seven feet high1 to which the camel is very partial2 and the zel1 a member of the family of ,polygonace1 which botanists class with the allied buckwheat and knot-grasses1 and which attains the stature of three to four feet4 ,the latter plant throws out roots1 which are generally uncovered1 to a distance of twenty to twenty-five feet2 its woody stem spreads in its upper portion into gnarled branches1 terminated each by a cluster of green1 cylindrical and leafless twigs1 which fall during winter4 ,elsewhere rise the tall trunks of the doum-palms1 either isolated or assembled in scanty clumps1 under which the traveller obtains with difficulty a modicum of shade1 but which are otherwise of no value to him4 ,in districts where the surface is more broken up1 notably in ,palestine1 on the banks of the ,jordan and the ,dead ,sea2 in the ,sinaitic ,peninsula of ,arabia2 in the ,nubian deserts of ,naga1 ,aredah1 and ,bahiouda2 finally1 even in the ,sahara1 in the ,desert of ,erosion1 and the table-land region1 vegetable life becomes more abundant and more varied1 though still but of mediocre interest4 ,however1 a curious arbustus1 the ,limioniastrum ,guyonianum1 shows itself very frequently in these damp localities1 where it attains sometimes the dimensions of a tree4 ,its attenuated leaves are covered with saline efflorescence1 and its particles of rosy flowers relieve the monotony of the wilderness4 ,in the permanent salt marshes1 or chotts1 some of the plants are analagous to those formed in the bogs of ,languedoc4 ,among the plants of the ,desert ,i must not forget the rose of ,jericho 7,anastatica hierochuntica71#fg an annual which contracts itself into a ball1 and1 blown about by the breeze1 seems a dead and withered mass of twigs4 ,but plunge it into water1 and it expands1 regains the bloom of life1 affording a remarkable example of what is called revivification4 ,the fable respecting it is1 that the first time it ever bloomed was on the eve of the ,nativity1 and that its flower remained open until ,easter4 ,several other vegetable species grow on the table-lands of the ,algerine ,sahara1 which are found elsewhere under similar conditions of soil and climate4 ,they are thorny shrubs and underwood1 almost wholly belonging to the family of ,salsolace1 or littoral plants1 which only thrive on ground impregnated with salt2 there are also sub-frutescent plants1 partly dried up by the sun4 ,in some places the nakedness of the earth is concealed by the bloom of geraniums and heliotropes4 ,further1 you may notice in the region of the table-lands1 the ,melantha punctuata1 a member of the ,colchicum tribe1 which bears a bouquet of very white flowers grown upon the sand1 and surrounded by a crown of ensheathed leaves4 ,not unworthy of rejoicing the eyes of the most fastidious connoisseurs1 it lives and dies unknown in the solitudes of the ,sahara4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 #a4 ,jujube ,tree4 #b4 ,lentiscus4 #c4 ,tamarisk4 ,in the hollows1 where the earth preserves some degree of humidity1 a fine soft sward prevails1 of the most delicious emerald green2 two herbs1 the ,alfa 7stipa tenacissima7 and the ,white ,wormwood 7artemisia alba71#fh often cover extended areas2 the jujube trees clothe themselves in profuse foliage2 the coloquinta stretches over the ground its branches loaded with spherical fruit2 and the tamarisk1 developed into a tree1 waves in the wind its tufts of snowy and rose-hued flowers4 ,it is in these meadows that the ,arab rears his tent and pastures his flocks under a winter sky4 ,the industrious and sedentary tribes seek in the oases a more benignant nature1-- ,the yellow down ,bordered with palm1 and many a winding vale ,and meadow2 and a soil which will repay their toil with liberal harvests4 ,and it is there only1 in truth1 that vegetation presents a development1 a continuity1 and sometimes even a variety1 which recalls the fortunate countries of the ,mediterranean region4 ,the old geographer1 ,ptolemus1 compared the ,sahara to a panther's skin1 sprinkled with black spots on a tawny ground4 ,these spots which1 by an effect of contrast1 are set off in black on the yellowish tint of the desert1 are the far-famed oases1 which have furnished our poets and romancists with so many an appropriate image4 ,ptolemy's comparison is the more accurate because these islands of verdure scattered over the sandy ocean1 ,like precious stones set in a silver sea1 have1 in general1 a circular form4 ,we must except1 however1 the grandest and most beautiful of all1 ,egypt4 ,that immemorial land of mystery and power is enchased in the ,desert region like any other oasis1 and only differs in its greater extent and more elongated figure4 ,it stretches along the ,nile like a ribbon-- ,and ,egypt joys beneath the spreading wave4 ,its length1 from ,cairo to ,assouan1 is #dej miles4 ,its breadth does not exceed nine to twelve miles1 except at ,cairo1 where it measures about eighty miles along the sea-coast1 which forms the base of a triangular district known as the ,delta 7,greek3 delta7 of the ,nile4 ,the two other angles are marked by the cities of ,pelusium and ,alexandria4 ,this long strip of fertility is narrowly shut in between deserts of almost incredible sterility4 ,a peculiarity worthy of attention1 because it is the unique cause of the fertility of ,egypt1 is1 that the valley of the ,nile1 instead of sloping down on either side to the river-bank1 assumes a gently convex form4 ,it is owing to this slight convexity that1 at the epoch of the inundation--beginning in ,june and ending in ,october--the ,nile waters overflow to the right and to the left1 rest upon the soil1 and there deposit their precious mud4 ,how different the aspects of the country at different seasons of the year6 ,first1 the bright sparkling sheets of far-spreading and fertilising water2 then the emerald green of the growing crops2 lastly1 the ripe warm yellow hues of the full harvest4 ,well might ,amrou1 the ,arab conqueror of ,egypt1 remark to the ,caliph ,omar1 that1 according to the vicissitudes of the seasons1 the face of the country is adorned with a silver wave1 a verdant emerald1 and the deep gold of an abundant harvest4 ,the soil of ,egypt is1 then1 simply an alluvium mixed with the sand which the winds bring from the ,desert4 ,its aspect is that of a rich1 well-cultivated land1 but bears the impress of a wearisome monotony4 ,you see there neither the dark dense forest1 the rolling prairie1 nor the undulating woodland2 from the shore of the ,mediterranean to the tropics you meet everywhere with the same cultivation2 the same mud-built villages1 with their dirty and winding streets2 and ever the same clumps of palms1 which would end by becoming tedious if it were not that their elegance of form invests them with an eternal beauty--if a glorious radiance did not gild with refined gold everything it touches--if1 finally1 an after-glow of wondrous loveliness1 of which the eye and soul can never weary1 which whenever seen suggests some new and subtle emotions1 did not terminate every day by a crepuscular pomp of indescribable magnificence4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 #a4 ,doum-,palm4 #b4 ,date-,palm4 #c4 ,alfa 7,stipa tenacissima74 ,the ,palm-tree is1 in ,egypt1 as in all the oases1 the principal element of the arborescent vegetation4 ,but you also meet there with the banana1 the gum-tree1 the orange1 the jujube1 the mulberry1 the sycamore1 and other tall trees1 which were planted by command of ,mehemet ,ali1 and have perfectly succeeded4 ,the green banks of the river are diversified by coppices of acacias and tamarisks4 ,in the ,fayoum district bloom impervious hedges of cactus1 and plantations of roses for the production of rosewater4 ,cereals yield four crops a-year2 flax1 hemp1 indigo1 cotton1 the sugar-cane1 prosper admirably2 and under a climate where ice1 snow1 and hail are unknown1 not a month but has its burden of flowers and fruits4 ,abundant crops of vegetables are raised1 even as in those days when the ,israelites in the wilderness bewailed the cucumbers and the melons1 the leeks1 the onions1 and the garlics of ,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,charles ,martins classes the ,oases of the ,sahara under three heads1 corresponding to his three sub-regions4#fi ,the oasis of the ,table ,lands is watered by a stream or a copious spring4 ,that of the valleys of ,erosion1 by natural or artificial ,artesian wells4 ,that of the ,sandy ,desert wants water4 ,in the latter the palm-trees are planted in conical cavities hollowed by the hand of man1 that their roots may strike down to the subterranean reservoir which is to nourish them4 ,every oasis is composed1 in the main1 of date-palms1 which seem to form a continuous forest2 but in reality they are planted in rows1 and in gardens separated from one another by walls of earth1 which are pierced with an aperture to admit of the entrance of the irrigating rill into the enclosed square4 ,the soil employed in the construction of the walls is removed from the paths1 which are consequently below the surface1 and can be employed for a double purpose2 they facilitate circulation in the oases1 and the waters1 after having refreshed the gardens and revived the soil1 discharge themselves into these hollow ways1 whence they flow towards the chotts1 or stagnate in swamps1 which the lethargic ,moslem never thinks of draining4 ,from such hotbeds of infection issues the monster ,fever every year1 and slays its hundreds4 ,in case of need1 every oasis becomes a fortress4 ,each square of flowery ground is a redoubt2 the assailant's bullet lodges in the earth wall1 or if it pierces through1 forms a new loophole in which the ,arab plants his gun to aim at his enemy4 ,the villages themselves are encircled with walls1 flanked by towers1 which remind the spectator of the picturesque fortifications of medival times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,date-,palm 7,phoenix dactylifera7 is the tree of the ,desert2 there only will its fruits ripen2 without it1 the ,desert would be uninhabitable and uninhabited4 ,arab poesy represents it as a living being1 created by ,god on the sixth day1 at the same time as man4 ,to express under what conditions it prospers1 the imagination of the ,saharan exaggerates the true1 to render it the more palpable4 ,this king of the oasis1 he says1 must plunge his feet in the water and raise his head in the fire of heaven4 ,science1 to a certain extent1 confirms this seeming hyperbole2 for it needs #eajj of heat accumulated during eight months for the date to ripen its fruit perfectly4 ,if the sum of heat be less1 the fruits set1 but they do not grow to their full dimensions1 remain bitter to the taste1 and fail in the sugar and farina1 which form their nutritive properties4 ,these conditions are realized in the climate of the ,sahara4 ,the mean temperature of the year averages from sixty-eight to seventy-six degrees1 according to the locality4 ,the heat commences in ,april1 and does not cease until ,october4 ,the thermometer seldom sinks in the cold season more than two degrees below zero1 and the date can endure six degrees below zero4 ,rain1 as already stated1 is rare in the ,sahara2 it falls in winter1 and stimulates into a newly awakened life the vegetation which has been drained of vigour by a summer sun4 ,sometimes they descend in torrents1 but these torrents1 like our summer showers1 are of briefest duration4 ,at ,tongourt and ,ouraegla whole years pass by without a drop of rain4 ,does not the reader understand1 then1 the gratefulness of the ,arabs towards a tree which can derive its nourishment from the burning sand1 the scarcely less burning airs of heaven1 and the brackish waters beneath the soil which are fatal to all other kinds of vegetation--which retains its verdure fresh in the glare of a pitiless sun--which resists successfully the winds that bow to the ground its flexible stem--which provides him with beams and coverings for his tent1 cordage for the harness of his horses and camels1 fruit to satisfy his hunger and wine to quench his thirst--which is1 moreover1 a thing of beauty1 and gladsome to the eye8 ,those groups of lovely date-trees bending ,languidly their leaf-crowned heads1 ,like youthful maids1 when sleep descending1 ,warns them to their silken beds4#gj ,what the vine is to the ,italian1 the oak to the ,englishman1 the cocoa-nut tree to the ,polynesian1 is the date-palm to the ,arab4 ,and more--far more4 ,this single tree has peopled the ,desert4 ,a civilization1 rudimentary compared with that of the ,west1 sufficiently advanced if you contrast it with that of the ,malay or the ,south ,sea ,islander1 finds in it its standing-point1 its centre1 its support4 ,and without it the tribes of the ,sahara would cease to be4#ga ,the wealth of an oasis is computed by the number of its palm trees4 ,all of them1 however1 are not fruitful2 for the date is dioecious4 ,it has its males and its females4 ,the males have flowers furnished with stamens only1 and form a closed-up1 folded1 grape-like ball1 previous to the ripening of the pollen in an envelope called the spathe4 ,the females1 on the contrary1 bear clusters of fruit also wrapped up in a spathe1 but incapable of development until fecundated by the pollen or dust of the stamens4 ,to multiply the date-trees1 the ,arabs do not sow the kernels of the fruits1 though they germinate with extreme facility1 for it is impossible to tell beforehand of what sex the tree will be2 they prefer1 therefore1 to detach a slip from the trunk of a female tree1 and this becomes fruitful at the expiry of eight years4 ,the male trees blossom1 says ,mr4 ,tristram1#gb in the month of ,march1 and about the same time the case containing the female buds begins to open4 ,to impregnate these1 a bunch of male flowers is carefully inserted and fastened in the calyx4 ,towards the beginning of ,july1 when the fruit begins to swell1 the bunches are tied to the neighbouring branches4 ,the dates are ripe in ,october1 at which time any premature rain is fatal to the crop1 though the roots require a daily watering4 ,not less injurious are east winds in ,march and ,april4 ,the tree when it begins to bear is about seven feet high4 ,each year the lowest ring of leaves falls off1 so that the age of a palm may be roughly computed from the notches on its stem4 ,its fruit begins to decline after a century1 and the tree is then cut down for building purposes2 but it will live for at least a couple of hundred years4 ,some trees produce as many as twenty bunches1 but the average in a favourable season is from eight to ten bunches1 each weighing from twelve to twenty pounds4 ,before the dates ripen1 each proprietor is bound to set apart one tree in his garden1 whose fruit is consecrated for the service of the mosque and the use of the poor4 ,from the juice of the date the ,arab obtains a sweet fermented liquor1 called laguni1 of which he is inordinately fond4 ,he makes an incision in the top of the tree1 taking care to strike home to the centre4 ,a funnel is attached1 by which the sap flows into a vessel at the rate of about three quarts every morning for ten to sixteen days4 ,the incision requires to be opened afresh daily4 ,the cabbage1 or soft pith and young unfolded leaves at the summit of the stem1 in taste approaching the chestnut1 is also eaten1 but only when the tree has fallen or been felled1 as the loss of its crown invariably destroys it4 ,there are fifteen varieties of dates1 of which the dghetnour is considered the best for keeping1 and three other kinds are preferred fresh4 ,the crest of the full-grown trees rises about fifty feet above the ground4 ,the air circulates freely under the leafy canopy formed by their interlacing branches1 but the sun's rays do not penetrate4 ,shade1 air1 and water--these three elements permit the most varied cultivation in the palm-gardens1 despite the scorching heats of summer4 ,the fruit trees which flourish are the fig1 the pomegranate1 the apricot2 less frequently1 the vine and the olive2 still more rarely1 the peach1 the pear1 and the orange4 ,vegetables are commonly cultivated during winter2 such as turnips1 cabbages1 onions1 carrots1 beans1 and pimento 7,capsicum annuum71 an indispensable condiment for those ,arab sauces 7merga7 destined to stimulate the digestive energies of a people who abstain from alcoholic liquors4 ,you may also remark pumpkins1 gourds1 and water-melons2 small squares of lucerne1 which yield as many as eight crops yearly2 the henna 7,lawsonia inermis71 which tints with yellow the nails of the ,arab women2 and tobacco 7,nicotiana rustica71 cultivated most largely in the ,souf4 ,in winter you may refresh your eyes in the clearings of the oasis with verdurous fields1 green with barleys and early wheats springing vigorously from the earth4 ,the cultivation of cotton1 though considerably stimulated by the failure of the usual supply from the ,southern ,states of ,america1 is still in its infancy4 ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that with improved methods of irrigation it will be considerably and successfully developed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the oases of the table-land region1 fertilized1 as we have already seen1 by the streams of fresh water which flow down from the mountains and spread abroad in natural or artificial channels1 are much the most fertile1 and also the most healthy4 ,they possess1 moreover1 the inestimable advantage of being but a short distance from the ,mediterranean region1 in a country less arid and less desolate than the remainder of the ,desert4 ,i may name1 among these oases1 those of ,el-,kantara1 ,biskra1 and ,el-,outaa1 which form a sort of chaplet1 and are watered by the same river4 ,the oasis of ,el-,kantara is the first we encounter on quitting the ,mediterranean region to penetrate into the ,sahara through the gloomy and precipitous ravine entitled ,the ,mouth of the ,desert4 ,it is situated #ahjj feet above the sea-level4 ,its length is #ejjj yards4 ,fournel1 the first geologist who examined it 7in #ahfd71 christened it the ,hyres of the ,sahara4 ,its temperature is cool and equable1 and does but just suffice to enable the dates to ripen4 ,it possesses upwards of #gf1jjj palm-trees1 sheltering under their leafy shadow legions of apricots1 pomegranates1 and fig-trees4 ,in the centre of this pleasant and fruitful shade houses of brick1 with flat roofs and narrow loop-holed windows1 surround a square tower4 ,the ancient watch-towers have fallen into decay4 ,before ,france took under its protection the peaceful ,berbers who cultivate the oasis1 these towers were useful as posts of observation whence to descry the approach of the wandering ,arabs1 who resort in summer to the pastures of the mountains1 and in winter to those of the ,sahara4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as a type of the oasis of the ,desert of ,erosion1 let us take that of ,ouargla1 the last which submitted to the ,french in ,south ,algeria4 ,illustration3 ,a ,street in ,ouargla4 ,it is situated in a profound hollow4 ,in form it is elliptical1 with its major axis measuring about five thousand yards1 and its minor about three thousand4 ,the palms are planted at the rate of ten to eleven hundred a hectare 7two acres72 they attain to extraordinary dimensions1 and their dense foliage over-arches a small world of fruit trees4 ,outside the gardens grow some wild date-palms1 which yield a smaller crop1 but whose fruit is much more savoury4 ,two avenues1 or clearings1 bisecting the forest from north to south1 lead to the q'sour1 or village1 of ,ouargla4 ,this q'sour1 like every other1 is built of sun-dried earth1 and surrounded by a circular rampart in very bad condition1 six to thirteen feet in height1 and four and a-half feet thick at the base4 ,it is flanked with loop-holed towers1 and encircled externally by a muddy moat1 crossed by six causeways leading to as many gates4 ,before some of these gates are planted the small entrenched camps1 wherein the ,arab shepherds of the neighbourhood take refuge with their flocks what time the oasis is menaced by an enemy4 ,the q'sour of ,ouargla is divided into three quarters1 inhabited by three tribes1 who do not live always on the most friendly terms4 ,in appearance it resembles the ,saharan q'sours1 which have all a strong family likeness2 there are the mosque1 and the governor's residence1 and the open market-place1 and the narrow squalid streets1 often obstructed by heaps of unclean and unsavoury rubbish2 and the low dull houses1 pierced with holes instead of windows1 which have seldom any shutters2 so that the traveller1 when he penetrates into these dismal quarters1 is startled by the contrast which they present to the picture of enchanted palaces full of shade1 perfume1 and freshness1 drawn by his eager imagination4 ,our poets and romancists have much to answer for4 ,their ideal ,east is very different from that actual ,east1 in all its heat1 and noisomeness1 and glare1 which the voyager finds around him1 and which seems to have lost much of its beauty along with its grandeur and its power4 ,pleasant to the fancy is the palm-grove1 pleasant the garden with its golden and purple fruitage1 but the warm 7and often mineral7 waters which irrigate1 or rather inundate the soil1 exhale the most deleterious emanations1 so that the unfortunate inhabitants are constantly decimated by fever1 blinded by ophthalmic disease1 and devoured by insects6 ,we have already seen that the ,desert of ,erosion is watered by means of artesian wells1 natural or artificial4 ,the latter have been known to the peoples of the ,sahara from the remotest antiquity2 but the implements and the methods employed to bore or preserve them were1 as the reader will suppose1 very rude and unsatisfactory4 ,the sides of the well are only supported by a framework of palm-wood1 which decays very quickly2 the well gets choked2 divers descend with baskets to clear away the sand2 but after awhile the evil exceeds their power of remedying it4 ,then1 for want of water1 says ,m4 ,martins1 the palms grow sick and perish2 the villages are emptied of their population2 the oasis contracts its boundaries1 and gradually disappears4 ,the ,desert resumes possession of the demesne which the labour of man had temporarily won for it4 ,fortunately1 in the track of the ,french army have trodden the ,french engineers1 with all the wonderful apparatus that ,science places at their disposal1 and in numerous places they have excavated true artesian wells1 similar to those which supply some of our great towns4 ,and thus many oases which were on the point of perishing have been saved1 others have been created1 and the conquest of the ,desert by modern industry is henceforth no more than a question of time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the oases of the ,sandy ,desert1 as ,i have said1 are not watered4 ,they only possess such wells as suffice1 more or less1 for the needs of the poor cultivators4 ,as for the palms1 and other nutritive vegetables1 they are planted at the bottom of conical excavations some eighteen1 twenty-five1 or thirty feet in depth2 so that at a short distance you only see their crests rising above the sandy soil like large tufts of herbage4 ,the slopes around these hollow gardens are stayed indifferently well by a matting of palm leaves4 ,the well itself is placed in the centre1 and its depth does not exceed five-and-twenty feet4 ,nothing can be more precarious than these oases1 which a gust of wind may bury under an avalanche of sand4 ,yet the men are cleaner in their person1 neater in attire1 and livelier in spirit--the women are less wretched and less oppressed--and the houses better built and better provided than in the great q'sours of the upper regions4 ,in the ,souf1 the sandy region of the ,eastern ,sahara1 the industrious inhabitants of these oases remain at peace in the midst of the tumults and insurrections of their turbulent neighbours1 and appear fully sensible of the advantages they undoubtedly derive from the firm and impartial rule of the ,french ,government4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 ,the artist who wishes to represent the broad expanse of ,ocean's liquid plain1 does not fail to animate it with the white canvas of the labouring ships4 ,if he paints the ,desert1 his picture would be divided by a horizontal line into two parts--the blue heaven1 the yellow sand2 the latter1 an undulating sea1 with a few clumps of palms in the background1 and in the foreground1 to enliven the too monotonous scene1 a group or so of camels4 ,the camel is1 in fact1 the indispensable accessory of every view of the ,desert1 as the ship of every marine painting2 which justifies once more the ,arab designation of ship of the ,desert or terrestrial ship 7gouareb el beurr74 ,in ,book the ,first ,i have spoken of the ,camel properly so-called1 or camel with two humps1 which is peculiar to ,central and ,eastern ,asia4 ,the camel of ,arabia and ,africa is the dromedary4 ,the latter is employed conjointly with the two-humped camel in the westernmost countries of ,asia3 in ,egypt1 and in ,nubia1 he is much more widely spread than his congener1 which is nearly unknown in the rest of ,africa4 ,the dromedary has but one hump4 ,his hair is soft1 woolly1 moderately long about the body1 longer and much thicker on the hump1 the head1 the neck1 and the shoulders4 ,its colour varies from a reddish-brown to a clear yellow4 ,zoologists recognize three varieties of this species3--,the ,brown dromedary1 also called1 but improperly1 the ,caucasian dromedary--he is brown1 like the ,bactrian camel1 and his short squat limbs indicate strength rather than agility2 the ,white dromedary1 of a very transparent colour1 and of slender figure2 and the ,egyptian dromedary1 larger than either of the preceding1 and with body and limbs uniformly clothed in short gray hair4 ,but the ,arabs distinguish only two races3 the ,djemel1 or camel of burden1 which is no other1 probably1 than the ,caucasian dromedary2 and the ,mahari1 or camel for the saddle and war1 whose name seems to apply equally to the two other varieties4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,the ,mahari4 #b4 ,the ,djemel4 ,the mahari is to the djemel what our chargers are to our carthorses1 or1 as the ,arabs say1 what the djend 7noble7 is to the kheddim 7the servant74 ,he has a very sure foot1 a free1 sustained1 and rapid trot2 he is sober1 enduring1 and courageous2 a true courser1 and the nomade's inseparable friend and companion4 ,his training is a matter of the highest importance1 and skilfully adapted to develop all his best qualities and highest faculties4 ,the ,arabs of the ,tell assert that the maharis accomplish in one day ten times the march of a caravan1 or a hundred leagues2 but the best in blood and breeding do not generally exceed a daily journey of from thirty-five to forty leagues4 ,the young mahari has his place in the ,arab's tent4 ,the children play with him2 he is a recognized member of the family2 custom and gratitude attach him to his masters1 whom he divines to be his friends4 ,if the djemel be not as noble as the mahari1 he is not less useful4 ,without him1 all relations would be suspended between the peoples of the ,sahara2 the ,soudan1 wide1 populous1 and fertile as it is1 would be a terra incognita2 he is the sole means of intercommunication possible in the arid wastes of the ,desert4 ,alike living and dead1 he is the fortune of his master4 ,living1 he carries the tents and the provisions2 he makes war1 he carries on commerce2 that he might be patient1 ,god 7say the ,arabs7 created him without gall2 he fears neither hunger nor thirst1 fatigue nor heat2 his hair is woven into the burnous and the tent-stuff2 the milk of the female nourishes rich and poor1 and fattens the horses2 it is a spring which does not dry up4#gc ,dead1 all his flesh is excellent eating2 his hump 7deroua7 forms the daintiest dish at the banquet2 in the bottles made of his skin1 the water is neither consumed by wind nor sun2 the shoes fashioned from it may tread unhurt upon the viper1 and will save the traveller's feet from burning wounds 7haffa72 denuded of its hair1 afterwards soaked in water1 and simply applied to a wooden saddle1 without nails or pegs1 it adheres to it1 like the bark to the tree1 and communicates to the whole a solidity which will defy war1 the chase1 and the foray4 ,the superiority of the mahari consists in this1 that to all his own peculiar qualities he adds those of the djemel4 ,his inferiority arises from the difficulty of his training1 which consumes for more than a year all his master's time without compensation1 and from the fact that animals of his race are few in number4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,striped ,,hy,,nas ,,of ,,the ,,sahara4 ,if we turn to the poet or the artist for a picture of the ,desert1 we find it peopled with animals of a very unsatisfactory character3 the lion1 the leopard1 the panther1 in quest of prey1 seeking whom they may devour1 or troops of hynas and jackals1 tearing with keen teeth the corpses of men and animals4 ,with these1 lean dogs in herds obscene repair1 ,and every kind that snuffs the tainted air4--7,lucan47 ,illustration3 ,,jackals ,,disintering ,,dead ,,bodies4 ,others diversify the scene with the graceful form of the gazelle1 with the ungainly body1 immensely long neck1 and spotted hide of the giraffe2 or with the ostrich1 the camel of the bird-world1 spreading his plumes to the wind1 and flying with swift feet from the hunter or the wild beast that pursues him4 ,but1 in truth1 these are bold fancies1 artistic or poetic licenses1 rather than exact representations of what one really sees in the ,desert2 and most of the animals with which we people1 at our pleasure1 the immense solitudes of ,africa and ,asia actually belong to neighbouring regions of a less arid character4 ,and1 in the first place1 the lion of the ,desert is a myth1 or nearly so4 ,when you speak1 says ,carrette1 to the inhabitants of the ,desert of these ferocious beasts which ,europeans give them as companions1 they reply with imperturbable coolness1 ',you have1 then1 in your own country1 lions which drink air and browse on leaves8 ,but1 among us1 lions must have running water and live flesh4 ,therefore they only appear in those parts of the ,sahara where are wooded hills and an abundance of water4 ,we dread nothing but the viper 7lefa7 and the innumerable swarms of mosquitoes2 the latter being found wherever any humidity prevails4'#gd ,illustration3 #a4 ,gypatos1 or ,bearded ,vulture4 #b4 ,sociable ,vulture4 #c4 ,cathartes ,percnopterus4 ,what ,carrette relates of the lion is also true of the other carnivora1 of the panther and the leopard1 as well as of the hyna and the jackal4 ,it is surely easy to understand that these animals greatly prefer to sojourn in fertile and well-watered countries1 where they enjoy freshness1 shelter1 copious supplies of water1 and abundant prey1 than in hot glaring plains of sand1 which offer them no asylum1 and where they run the risk of perishing of hunger and thirst4 ,it is1 then1 only on exceptional occasions that the lions and other large felid of ,africa issue from their caverns or their lairs1 and wander into the ,desert 7properly so called7 in pursuit of prey4 ,the hyna and the jackal venture there more willingly4 ,we know that these carnivora only attack living animals at the last extremity2 their food is the dead and even putrid flesh2 it is a nutriment which costs them less trouble to obtain1 and probably1 also1 most pleases their taste4 ,thus1 it is by no means an uncommon occurrence to see them in the towns and q'sours1 devouring the carrion1 or in the cemeteries disinterring the corpses2 they follow also in the ,desert the caravans and detachments of troops on the march1 and at night prowl around their encampments1 in the hope of some windfall1 which they seldom expect in vain1 but which the dogs1 the vultures 7,cathartes percnopterus and vultur fulvus71 the gypatos1 and the crows rarely fail to dispute with them4 ,the region of the table-lands1 or ,saharan ,steppes1 the valleys of ,erosion1 and certain parts of the ,gobi--,persia1 ,syria1 and ,arabia--which are not absolutely deprived of rain1 or which are refreshed by mountain-streams1 nourish several species of mammifers3 gazelles1 hedgehogs1 porcupines1 hares1 offering both to man and the carnivora an abundant variety of game4 ,of all these animals1 the most interesting are the gazelles1 several species of which inhabit the desert region4 ,i shall refer in the first place to the gazelle properly so called1 or ,antilope dorcas1 so remarkable for the grace of his movements1 his slender limbs1 and the expressive gentleness of his eyes4 ,this beautiful species is common in ,central ,sahara1 ,nubia1 and ,asia4 ,he lives in numerous troops1 is of small stature1 with a yellowish or yellow-brown skin on the back1 and a white belly1 a brown or blackish belt marking the sides4 ,the horns1 larger and stronger in the male than in the female1 have a double curve1 are lyrated1 and without projections4 ,the ,ariel ,gazelle is about twenty inches high at the shoulder4 ,the ,gazella ,soemmeringii belongs to ,abyssinia and ,sennaar4 ,the gazelle nanguer is found as far as ,morocco1 ,nubia1 and in the ,cordofou2 some varieties occur at the ,senegal4 ,finally1 the oryx-leucoryx inhabits ,tropical ,africa1 and rarely makes his appearance in the ,deserts2 he differs from the gazelle in his arched horns1 but his skin is nearly the same4 ,although the gazelles are generally considered extremely timid animals1 which1 moreover1 their weakness would fully justify1 they display on emergency a surprising courage4 ,when they cannot escape from danger through agility1 they bravely confront the enemy which attacks them4 ,menaced by a panther or a leopard1 they form themselves into a circle1 which1 bristling everywhere with keen-pointed horns1 compels the antagonist to retreat4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,gazelle4 #b4 ,antelope 7,oryx-leucoryx74 #c4 ,gazelle 7of ,soemmering74 #d4 ,nanguer4 ,in the deserts of ,africa and ,arabia the traveller frequently meets with small rodents1 which excavate their burrows in the sandy soil1 and only issue from them at night in quest of food4 ,these are the jerboas and jerbilles4 ,the jerboas are easily recognized by the length of their hind-legs and the disposition of their toes--three to each hind-foot1 the middle larger than the rest2 five to each fore-foot2 and all furnished with sharp1 strong1 crooked claws2 their structure resembling that of the raptores among birds4 ,these animals leap with great celerity1 and to an extraordinary distance4 ,the tail1 which is a fifth longer than the body1 and terminated by a tuft of black hair1 forms at one and the same time a sort of balance1 a rudder1 and a lever4 ,it enables the jerboa to preserve his equilibrium1 and to direct himself when he has taken his spring2 or1 in a state of repose1 furnishes him with a substantial support4 ,illustration3 ,,gazelles ,,of ,,arabia ,,opposing ,a ,,panther4 ,the jerboas constitute1 in the family of dipodid1 a tribe composed of several species1 which are found in eastern and central ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,the jerbilles1 owing to the similarity of name1 are often confounded with the jerboas2 but the only things they have in common are a certain conformity of habits1 and a nearly equal aptitude for leaping4 ,otherwise1 their organization rather resembles that of the rat1 along with which it is classed by zoologists4 ,their hind-legs are much shorter than those of the jerboa1 and their tail is garnished with but a few short1 stiff hairs4 ,like the jerboas1 they inhabit the sandy wildernesses of ,africa1 ,asia1 and eastern ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,jerboas ,,attacked ,,by ,a ,,horned ,,viper4 ,these small animals1 exclusively frugivorous and graminivorous1 seem able1 in the solitary places where they make their retreats1 to multiply themselves ad infinitum2 but1 while a great number perish through famine1 they are also decimated by a host of enemies in the reptiles of the ,desert1 and especially by the terrible horned viper1 or cerastes1 and a great saurian1 intermediate between the lizard and crocodile--the varan of the ,desert4 ,the horned viper 7vipera cerastes7 is thus named on account of the two horns or protuberances on its forehead1 which give it a physiognomy more hideous1 perhaps1 than that of any of its congeners4 ,it attains the length of two to three feet4 ,its head is depressed1 very obtuse1 swollen behind the eyes1 and1 so to speak1 truncated in front4 ,its body1 cased in shells of a tawny-like yellow1 marked with brown spots1 blends curiously with the sand1 half-buried in which it lurks to surprise its prey or escape from its enemies4 ,the cerastes frequents the deserts of ,lybia1 ,arabia1 the ,sahara1 and the valley of the ,nile4 ,its bite is exceedingly dangerous4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,varan of the ,nile4 #b4 ,varan of the ,desert4 ,the varans1 or monitors1 called also tupinambis by the ancient naturalists1 form a genus represented in tropical climes by several species of great size4 ,english writers commonly designate them monitors1 the ,french sauvegardes1 because they frequent the haunts of crocodiles and alligators1 and give warning of their approach by a whistling sound4 ,two species belong to ,africa3 one1 aquatic1 the varan of the ,nile 7varanus dracna72 the other1 sand-burrowing1 the varan of the ,desert 7varanus sunius1 or arenarius71 called by the ,arabs onaran-el-ard4 ,their usual size is from three feet to three feet four inches4 ,the varan of the ,nile wears an armour of alternately green and black scales4 ,its congener exhibits a mixture of brown and yellow1 more suitable to its sandy lairs4 ,it is rare in the ,sahara1 but common enough in the deserts of ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,nubia4 ,poor as may be the ,fauna of the ,desert1 there is yet cause enough for astonishment that the species which compose it1 especially the herbivora1 should be able to find subsistence in these seas of sand1 where they can find but a few saline plants scattered at rare intervals1 and where fresh water is almost wholly wanting4 ,it is1 however1 well known now-a-days that the wilderness provides its denizens with an aliment1 which is sometimes very abundant1 suitable for man1 the camel1 and the beasts1 and is considered identical by many authorities with the manna of the ,bible4#ge ,this substance is a cryptogamous vegetable1 variously christened lichen esculentus 7,acharius71 lecanora esculenta 7,pallas71 luttarut 7by the ,arabs71 and vasseh-el-ard1 or earth-dung 7by the ,algerines74 ,it sometimes forms on the sand1 in the morning1 a layer one or two inches in thickness1 and appears to have dropped from heaven1 or to have sprung spontaneously from the soil1 during the night4 ,it is probable that its spores1 transported by the wind1 are developed by the humidity which is condensed through the nocturnal coldness4 ,a shower of this lichen was observed1 in ,april #ahdf1 in the ,russian government of ,wilna4 ,it covered the soil for three or four inches in depth1 and the inhabitants lived upon it for several days4 ,its form is that of a small1 anfractuous1 rounded grain1 about the size of a pea1 externally of a gray colour1 but white and farinaceous within4 ,its taste is weak1 amygdalaceous1 with a faint1 mushroom-like aroma4 ,boiled in water1 it swells1 becomes gelatinous1 and may be served up in various ways4 ,in the ,sahara1 as well as in ,arabia1 it adheres to any foreign body4 ,cattle feed upon it eagerly4 ,it certainly facilitates digestion1 and contains all the assimilating principles which form the constituents of the wholesomest vegetable food4 ,such as it is1 the lichen esculentus is an inestimable boon to the wandering tribes of the ,desert1 who would perish of hunger in years of famine but for its heaven-sent nutriment4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,desert4 ,when ,i use the terms ,men of the ,desert1 ,populations of the ,desert1 evidently ,i must not be understood to employ them in their absolute sense4 ,man1 no more than that other so-called lord of animals--the lion1 makes a voluntary sojourn in countries where game1 verdure1 and fresh water are wanting4 ,the peoples whom we entitle ,inhabitants of the ,desert are then1 in reality1 those who dwell upon its borders or in its oases1 but whom the necessity of traversing and frequently abiding in it has familiarized with its gloom and its peril1 as a similar necessity has familiarized the mariner with the ocean4 ,we have seen1 however1 that some pastoral tribes pitch their tents and pasture their flocks in those districts where vegetation is favoured and cherished by a supply of rain or subterranean waters1 and which should more accurately be designated as ,steppes than ,deserts4 ,some authorities have1 indeed1 affixed the name of the ,saharan ,steppe to the region of high table-lands which lies at the base of the ,atlas range4 ,other groups1 who are partly shepherds and partly hunters1 inhabit1 in the ,southern and ,western ,sahara1 those plateaux where ostriches1 gazelles1 and hares abound4 ,the more peaceful and industrious tribes occupy the oases4 ,as for those who encamp or habitually wander in the ,sandy ,desert--where all cultivation is impossible1 where the herds can obtain but an insufficient pasture1 where game very seldom shows itself-the reader will suppose that they can only subsist by plundering or ransoming the caravans4 ,these are the rovers1 the pirates of the ,sea of ,sand4 ,there are land-rats1 ,shakspeare tells us1 as well as water-rats4 ,others1 again1 there are who seem convinced that honesty is the best policy1 who give themselves up exclusively to commercial transactions1 and act as agents and intermediaries between nations separated from one another by leagues of rock and sand1 for the exchange of their respective products4 ,it might be said of these that they discharged a useful and honourable function1 if the purchase and sale of slaves were not the most ordinary1 and unfortunately the most lucrative1 of their operations4 ,in our previous examination of the peoples of the ,steppes1 we discovered that all were more or less directly sprung from the same sources2--the yellow or ,mongolian race1 which blends in the north with the ,hyperborean race1 and in the west with the ,japhetic or ,indo-,germanic4 ,we have now to note a not less remarkable fact--that the whole ,desert zone is likewise occupied by one family1 the ,semitic1 modified in certain parts of ,africa by commixture with the ,negro race4 ,soon we shall see the latter peopling of itself the plains of ,central and ,southern ,africa2 the ,malayo-,polynesian and ,papuan1 but slightly distinguished from the preceding1 in possession of the islands of the ,indian ,ocean1 those of ,oceania1 and the ,australian continent2 the ,hyperborean race1 scattered through the ,arctic solitudes2 and1 finally1 the ,red ,man1 gradually dying away among the prairies and forests of the two ,americas3 so that1 to each of the great divisions of the ,savage or ,desert ,world corresponds one of the great fractions of the human species4 ,the ,shemites--so named because the ,bible attributes their origin to ,shem1 the eldest son of ,noah--are now-a-days represented only by the ,jews and the ,arabs1 though they formerly included also the ,assyrians1 the ,chaldans or ,babylonians1 the ,syrians1 ,phoenicians1 and ,ethiopians4 ,of their modern representatives1 the ,jews alone have displayed any real aptitude for civilization4 ,the ,arabs1 whose name is derived from the word ,arba1 which signifies desert1 seem almost exclusively adapted for a nomadic life2 and it is to them can most correctly be applied the characteristics which ,renan too broadly attributes to the entire ,shemitic race4 ,as far as concerns the civil and political life1 says that distinguished orientalist1 the ,shemites are distinguished by the same character of simplicity4 ,they have never understood civilization in the sense which we apply to the word4 ,we do not find among them any great organized empires1 or commerce1 or public spirit--nothing which recalls the absolute monarchy of ,egypt and ,persia4 ,the true ,shemitic society is that of the tent and the tribe3 it owns no political or judiciary institution2 its principle is1 man free1 without any controlling authority1 and without any other security than that of the family tie4 ,the questions of aristocracy1 democracy1 feudality1 which sum up all the history of the ,aryan peoples1 have no meaning for the ,shemites4 ,aristocracy1 not having among them a military origin1 is accepted without protest and without repugnance4 ,the ,shemitic nobility is purely patriarchal3 it owes nothing to conquest2 it has its origin in blood4 ,as far as their physique is concerned1 the ,arabs are in general tall1 thin1 nimble1 not very strong4 ,their face is pale and long1 their forehead low1 their nose aquiline1 their mouth large1 their chin receding4 ,the complexion is brown1 as becomes those who live for months under a glaring sun2 the eyes are keen and glowing2 the port is free and even haughty4 ,they have black hair and beard4 ,of their history1 prior to the day when ,mohammed's genius knit them into a great proselytizing military people1 little certain is known4 ,a ,shemitic tribe1 descended from ,joktan1 grandson of ,shem1 settled in ,arabia at a remote period of antiquity1 and ,joktan's great-grandson1 ,himzar or ,homin1 founded a dynasty which ruled in ,yemen for upwards of two thousand years4 ,even the ,romans could not utterly subdue them1 but gradually the different tribes fell apart from one another1 and for centuries waged against each other the most desperate wars1 until ,mohammed supplied them with a rallying-point in the creed of ,islam4 ,thenceforth their mission was to propagate the new faith by fire and sword1 and bursting from their rocky highlands like a torrent1 they poured along the shores of the ,mediterranean to ,gibraltar on the north1 and ,tangier on the south4 ,in ,northern ,africa they gradually mingled with the ,berbers1 the ,numidians1 and the ,getulians1 and from the fusion sprang the ,kabyles1 the ,tibbous1 and the ,touaregs1 while the ,shemites themselves lost a portion of their original character4 ,all the tribes of the desert are ,moslems4 ,the precepts of the ,koran1 and certain traditional usages1 are almost the only laws which they recognize4 ,the ,koran authorizes polygamy1 and the ,arab women1 therefore1 are less the wives than the slaves of their husbands1 who enforce upon them the strictest seclusion1 and impose upon them the most arduous labours4 ,the tyranny which weighs upon the women is1 however1 in inverse proportion to the degree of welfare and civilization of the various tribes4 ,among the poor and almost barbarous peoples of the desert1 these unfortunate creatures are reduced to a condition of degradation and brutishness which inspires in the ,european almost as much disgust as pity4 ,the instinct of rapine which most writers have signalized as one of the leading features of the ,arab character1 appears to have been greatly exaggerated1 or1 at least1 too much generalized4 ,this vice is a special result of their position1 and1 we must own1 of the very antiquated views they hold upon the rights of man1 which1 indeed1 they sum up in much the same manner as ,wordsworth's ,rob ,roy3--#gf ,the creatures see of flood and field1 ,and those that travel on the wind6 ,with them no strife can last2 they live ,in peace1 and peace of mind4 ,for why8--because the good old rule ,sufficeth them1 the simple plan1 ,that they should take who have the power1 ,and they should keep who can4 ,we must also take into account the spirit of hostility which their religion fosters against the infidel--against1 that is1 all who do not accept the laws of the ,prophet4 ,the sword1 says ,mohammed1 is the key of heaven and of hell2 a drop of blood shed in the cause of ,god1 a night spent in arms1 is of more avail than two months of fasting or prayer3 whosoever falls in battle1 his sins are forgiven3 at the day of judgment his wounds shall be resplendent as vermilion and odoriferous as musk2 and the loss of his limbs shall be supplied by the wings of angels and cherubim4 ,such a declaration could not but fire the enthusiasm of the ,arab1 and whet their swords against the enemies of ,islam4 ,the leading features of his character have been discriminated by ,gibbon with his usual sagacity1 and described with his wonted stateliness of language4 ,in private life1 he says1#gg every man1 at least every family1 is the judge and avenger of his own cause4 ,the nice sensibility of honour1 which weighs the insult rather than the injury1 sheds its deadly venom on the quarrels of the ,arabs2 the honour of their women1 and their beards1 is most easily wounded2 an indecent action1 a contemptuous word1 can be expiated only by the blood of the offender2 and such is their patient inveteracy1 that they expect whole months and years the opportunity of revenge4 ,a fine or compensation for murder is familiar to the barbarians of every age2 but with the ,arabs the kinsmen of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement1 or to exercise with their own hands the law of retaliation4 ,their refined malice refuses even the head of the murderer1 substitutes an innocent for the guilty person1 and transfers the penalty to the best and most considerable of the race by whom they have been injured4 ,if he falls by their hands1 they are exposed in their turn to the danger of reprisals1 the interest and principal of the bloody debt are accumulated2 the individuals of either family lead a life of malice and suspicion1 and fifty years may sometimes elapse before the account of vengeance be finally settled4 ,this sanguinary spirit1 ignorant of pity or forgiveness1 has been moderated1 however1 by the maxims of honour1 which require in every private encounter some decent equality of age and strength1 of numbers and weapons4444 ,according to the remark of ,pliny1 the ,arabian tribes are equally addicted to theft and merchandize2 the caravans that traverse the desert are ransomed or pillaged2 and their neighbours1 since the remote times of ,job and ,sesostris1 have been the victims of their rapacious spirit4 ,if a ,bedouin discovers from afar a solitary traveller1 he rides furiously against him1 crying1 with a loud voice1 ',undress thyself1 thy aunt 7my wife7 is without a garment4' ,a ready submission entitles him to mercy2 resistance will provoke the aggressor1 and his own blood must expiate the blood which he presumes to shed in legitimate defence4 ,a single robber1 or a few associates1 are branded with their genuine name2 but the exploits of a numerous band assume the character of lawful and honourable war4 ,the temper of a people thus armed against mankind1 was doubly inflamed by the domestic license of rapine1 murder1 and revenge4 ,the name of ,bedouins 7from bedaou1 man of the ,desert7 has been bestowed on the nomades of ,arabia1 ,egypt1 and the ,northern ,sahara4 ,the majority of them are shepherds2 a few add to this industry the much less honourable occupation of plundering trade-caravans2 some prefer to devote themselves wholly to this pursuit4 ,all the ,bedouins are children of the sword4 ,they exult in strife and the clash of arms4 ,it is their acm of happiness to mount the war-steed and ride against the foe4 ,the theme of the ,arab and his horse1 of the attachment which subsists between them1 of the services which the latter renders to his master1 of his physical and moral qualities1 his courage1 his swiftness1 his fidelity1 has been worn so threadbare that ,i need not here insist upon it4 ,i must state1 however1 that as there are two varieties of ,arab camels1 so are there of ,arab horses3 the noble and the common1 the beast of blood and the beast of burden4 ,the former seem to be growing scarcer every year4 ,he is named kolel4 ,the nobility of a horse depends entirely upon that of his mother1 so that an authentic certificate of birth is always delivered to the purchaser of a high-bred steed4 ,this certificate is enclosed in a small bag1 which also contains a mysterious writing1 and suspended to the animal's neck will be an omen of good fortune1 it is hoped1 to him and his owner4 ,illustration3 ,,bedouin ,,shepherds ,,and ,,bedouin ,,nomades4 ,the arms of the ,bedouins are the curved sword1 the yataghan1 and the long musket4 ,pistols are sometimes added1 and the lance4 ,they fight hand to hand1 and without any strategical method4 ,they never venture upon night attacks4 ,they seek to surprise the enemy by rapid marches and unexpected diversions1 by ensnaring him in ambuscades1 and harassing him when he is the strongest in numbers4 ,the most trifling fortification1 however1 arrests them--a wall of brick1 a simple ditch1 a hedge of the fig-tree1 will suffice to protect a village from their depredations4 ,illustration3 ,,touaregs4 ,illustration3 ,,attack ,,upon ,a ,q',,sour4 ,the nomades of the ,southern ,sahara have not1 like the ,bedouins1 preserved in its purity the ,shemitic type1 but they have fostered and developed the spirit of adventure and rapine which characterizes the ,arab of the desert1 and they have added something of the ferocity of the still barbarous tribes of ,ham1 with whom they have intermarried4 ,these nomades form two principal groups--the ,tibboos on the east1 and ,touaregs 7,touarick1 ,touereug1 or ,tawarik7 on the west4 ,the former1 according to ,humboldt1 are called birds1 on account of their agility2 they are still imperfectly known to ,europeans1 despite of the labours of ,richardson1 ,clapperton1 and ,barth4 ,the second are divided into the ,touaregs of ,aghadez and the ,touaregs of ,tagazi4 ,it was not until #ahfb that the ,french army1 crossing the ,sahara from north to south1 entered into direct relations with these fierce children of the desert4 ,in the same year their ambassadors attracted the curiosity of ever-curious ,paris4 ,they are the despots1 the tyrants of the southern ,sahara4 ,the charge of their lean flocks is their least occupation4 ,they are1 it is true1 skilful and enthusiastic hunters2 but their veritable industry is the exploration of the desert3 an exploration which changes in form according to circumstances4 ,for a proper remuneration they undertake the guidance and protection of the caravans2 but whoever has not purchased their safeguard they treat as an enemy1 and if not adequately ransomed sell into slavery4 ,the ,berbers of the oasis not unjustly regard these marauders with alarm4 ,for they pitilessly exact from the peaceful cultivator a share of his harvest1 which is always the lion's share2 the right of the strongest being the only right they recognize1 and each man for himself the only principle they respect4 ,a troop of ,touaregs1 for instance1 descends upon an oasis1 and summons its inhabitants to deliver up immediately a certain number of bags of dates4 ,in case of refusal they withdraw1 but the people of the oasis may prepare to defend themselves with arms1 for the dreaded blow will very shortly be delivered4 ,the ,touaregs1 leaving their maharis and their baggage at a convenient distance1 penetrate at night into the palm-gardens1 scale the walls1 and1 unless very energetically repelled1 seize upon the tribute they had demanded4 ,nothing is there to be remarked in the ,arabs of the q'sours but their misery and degradation4 ,a ,french officer1 ,m4 ,tremblet1 has described with exactness and force their physiognomy1 manners1 character1 ideas1 and history4#gh ,one rises from the perusal of his book with a painful impression4 ,in the narrow and pestilential streets of the q'sours1 where vermin are as numerous as men and women1 in those mud palaces where the sultans are enthroned in rags1 the same passions1 the same ambitions1 the same all-potent appetites1 the same struggles1 intrigues1 and crimes prevail1 as occupy so large a place in the history of the great states of ,europe and ,asia4 ,among the inhabitants of the ,desert ,i would include the possessors of the great ,egyptian oasis1--that ancient cradle of civilization--that strange and mysterious land which1 after throbbing with so full and brilliant a life in the days of the ,pharaohs and the ,ptolemies1 slumbered for centuries under the leaden domination of the ,moslem4 ,let us note only that the ,egyptian people have undergone no special modification2 the features of the fellahs of to-day are exactly those which we trace in the pictures that cover the walls of palace and tomb1 the monuments that carry us back in imagination to the erection of the ,pyramids or the glories of hundred-gated ,thebes4 ,it is the old ,egypto-,berber race1 wherein we recognize the mixture of the black and ,shemitic blood1 or perhaps the still incomplete result of the influences which have transformed into negroes the whites who emigrated1 some thousands of years ago1 from ,western ,asia into ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,,nubian ,,women4 ,the ,egyptians establish1 very clearly1 the transition between the ,shemites and the population of ,nubia and ,ethiopia4 ,with the latter the skin is black or of a deep bronze2 but the form1 the features1 the hair1 approach much more nearly the ,caucasian than the ,negro type4 ,the ,nubian women especially exhibit a grace and dignity of movement which reveal the nobleness of their origin4 ,it is in these far lands1 says ,trmaux1 we meet with the modern ,rebecca1 attired with the antique ,biblical simplicity1 and carrying the water vessel on her head4 ,their air1 at once easy and reserved1 their black modest eyes1 recall those images of the holy history which every one has seen2 only1 instead of a cotton stuff gaily coloured1 imagine a piece very dirty and often in tatters1 and you will have the portrait of the ,nubian woman2 this garment is otherwise so naturally draped and so proudly worn1 that it yields in nothing to the ancient models4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,book ,,iii4 ,,prairies1 ,,savannahs1 ,,pampas1 ,,and ,,llanos4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,wild ,,plains ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world3--,,the ,,african ,,interior4 ,when we have crossed the #ahth parallel 7or nearly so7 of north latitude in ,africa and the #cjth in ,asia--the southern boundary of the ,rainless ,district--countries of extreme fertility and exuberant product succeed to the dreary solitudes we have hitherto traversed4 ,at intervals1 indeed1 the traveller encounters some vast blighted and accursed area1 where1 for a part of each year1 a deadly aridity prevails2 but ever there comes a happy moment1 even in these desolate wastes1 when genial ,nature resumes her rights1 abundant rains nourish vegetable and animal life1 and the glowing scene constrains us to exclaim with thankful heart1 ,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fulness thereof4 ,the ,asiatic plains in the south1 are1 however1 preserved from such abrupt alternations2 numerous water-courses1 leaping downward from the snowy fountains of the ,himalayan chain1 refresh and fertilize these countries1 which are almost everywhere subject to the dominion of man4 ,analagous causes1 in the grand rich islands of the warm ,indian seas1 produce similar effects2 there1 also1 the very deserts are humid regions1 and tall grasses1 bushes1 shrubs1 reeds1 and climbing plants grow in a rank and luxuriant chaos which we designate by the name of jungles1 in whose dense obscurity the tiger makes his lair1 and the serpent conceals his deadly venom6 ,in the immense triangle defined by that portion of the ,african continent which extends from the ,mountains of the ,moon to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 nature has maintained almost intact her savage independence2 but she displays there her most varied forms1 from the snow-crested ice-bound mountain to the lowest and most monotonous plain1 from the impenetrable forest to the nakedest and barrenest steppe4 ,to enable the reader to comprehend these widely different aspects1 and to describe the peculiar characteristics of each region of this immense continent1 it will be necessary for us to recapitulate its most important geographical features4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a vast plateau1 of comparatively slight elevation1 occupies all ,southern ,africa1 extending eastward as far as the fifth or sixth degree north of the equator4 ,to the north-west1 it is bounded by the mountains of ,senegambia2 to the north-east1 by those of ,abyssinia4 ,on the east and west1 the mountains descend to the very shore in secondary chains2 to the south the table-land is brought down to the sea in a series of terraces which separate the mountain-ranges4 ,at its southern extremity1 the ,african continent is from #eej to #fjj miles broad4 ,it is occupied by the ,british colony of the ,cape1 which is bounded on the north by the ,orange ,river4 ,the most striking features of the physical geography of this part of ,africa1 and which determine in the main its climate and natural productions1 are three chains of mountains disposed parallel to one another and to the southern coast4 ,these are separated by terraces or upland plains1 each range forming the boundary of the lower and the abutment of the higher terrace4 ,the communication is maintained by transverse valleys1 which are often of a highly romantic character4 ,the loftiest and most inland chain is christened in different parts of its course the ,roggeveld ,bergen1 the ,nieuveld ,bergen1 and the ,sneeu ,bergen1 or ,snowy ,mountains4 ,of these the loftiest summit is the ,compass ,berg1 #aj1jjj feet in altitude4 ,the second chain1 the ,black ,mountains1 though not so lofty are more massive1 and1 in truth1 composed of two or three chains in close juxtaposition4 ,the third1 or last chain1 in proceeding from south to north1 varies from eighteen to fifty-four miles1 enlarging towards the west4 ,the plain or terrace between the ,black and the ,snowy ,mountains is much loftier than the two other steps by which we descend to the southern extremity of the continent4 ,the lowest terrace1 bordering on the sea1 is well-watered and fertile4 ,the second1 or central terrace1 consists of fertile districts1 equally well watered1 but intersected by vast dry deserts1 called 7from a ,hottentot word7 ,karroos4 ,the third terrace1 commonly designated the ,great ,karroo1 at the base of the ,roggeveld and ,nieuveld chain1 is #cjj miles in length1 #hj miles in breadth1 and #bjjj feet above the sea-level4 ,its soil1 says a writer in the ,quarterly ,review1 presents throughout its whole extent1 for the greater portion of the year1 not a trace of vegetation4 ,these gloomy solitudes assume a character of picturesque grandeur through their very wildness of desolation4 ,the scene might convey to a fanciful mind the dreary image of a ruined world1 where the witches and demons of ,goethe's ,walpurgis-,night might fitly celebrate their revels4 ,and through the cliffs with ruin strewn1 ,the wild winds whizz1 and howl1 and moan4#gi ,during the long dry summer months1 the smallest birds would not find wherewithal to sustain their existence in these sombre deserts1 whose solemn silence not even the murmur of an insect interrupts4 ,illustration3 ,,night-,,scene ,,in ,,the ,,african ,,interior4 ,yet these regions1 deprived of springs and running waters1 are not always sterile deserts1 are not always desolate plains4 ,in the dry season1 the soil1 a yellow ferruginous clay1 acquires the hardness of brick1 just as if it had been exposed to the fire of a furnace2 but the roots and bulbs1 protected by a ligneous covering1 resist the devouring heat4 ,the first rains revive them2 they put forth their stems and branches2 a myriad flowers reveal their sparkling colours2 and the country which1 a day or two before1 had shown to the eye a bare and dreary surface1 shines out in a panoply of splendour1 as if a magician's spell had suddenly transformed it into a terrestrial paradise6 ,but as the days lengthen1 and the sun's power increases1 the bloom and the beauty vanish1 and the curse of fire once more descends upon the gloomy scene4 ,in several districts north of the ,cape ,colony whole years pass by without the sight or sound of running water rejoicing the wistful wanderer4 ,dr4 ,livingstone1 while residing among the ,bakouans1 in the ,bechuana country1 saw the natives excavating the bed of the ,kolobeng to extract a few drops of water4 ,a centigrade thermometer1 sunk two and a half inches in the earth1 at noon1 marked #ef4 ,insects placed on the surface of the ground died in a few seconds4 ,the grass was so dry that it crumbled into powder when plucked4 ,the coast of ,natal is rich in trees and herbage4 ,the ,zambesi1 and other rivers which descend from the central plateau1 refresh the plains of ,mozambique and ,zanzibar4 ,but from the #dth parallel of north latitude to ,cape ,guardafui extends an almost continuous desert4 ,the southern extremity of the ,lupata chain also presents a vast naked country1 where the presence of gold has encouraged the ,portuguese to found some establishments4 ,the neighbouring zone of ,kaffraria consists of great far-spreading1 gently-undulating plains1 characterized by extreme aridity4 ,the western districts are much less broken than the central1 and exhibit no undulations except in the vicinity of the ocean4 ,there an immense level territory exists under the name of the ,kalihari ,desert1 whose southern boundary is marked by the ,gariep or ,orange ,river1 which drains rather than waters it4 ,to the north this awful wilderness stretches as far as the ,lake ,ngami1 thus covering the area comprised between the #bith and #cjth parallels of south latitude4 ,the pastoral country of ,namaqua and ,damaras bounds it on the west4 ,eastward it extends to the #bdth meridian of west longitude4 ,moisture is not wholly wanting in this vast region4 ,the ,kalihari has been called a desert1 says ,livingstone1#hj because it contains no running water1 and very little in wells4 ,far from being destitute of vegetation1 it is covered with grass and creeping plants1 and there are large patches of bushes1 and even trees4 ,it is remarkably flat2 and prodigious herds of antelopes roam over its trackless plains4 ,the soil is composed in general of a fine soft sand1 lightly coloured--that is1 of a nearly pure silica4 ,in the ancient beds of dried-up rivers lie immense patches of alluvial soil1 which1 hardened by the sun1 form great reservoirs1 retaining the rain-water for several months of the year4 ,the quantity of grass flourishing in this region is remarkable4 ,it grows generally in thick tufts1 occasionally intermingled with spaces where the earth is naked or closely overgrown with creeping plants4 ,these1 deeply rooted in the soil1 suffer but little from the effects of the excessive heat4 ,most of them have tubercular roots1 and are so organized as to furnish both food and liquid during the long droughts--an epoch when one vainly seeks elsewhere anything which can appease one's hunger or one's thirst4 ,the rich vegetation of the ,kalihari is due to its geological constitution4 ,it consists of a great valley1 or rather of a vast basin1 whose bottom is formed of a diluvial earth1 and which is encircled by a belt of rocks1 cloven at several places4 ,it follows that where the rain is abundant1 the slope of the hills directs it towards the centre of the basin1 and this rain filters and deposits itself beneath the surface of the soil4 ,and it appears to be a proof of this statement1 that on digging in the sand cisterns are formed1 or sucking-places1 which are filled with water supplied by subterraneous conduits4 ,this so-called ,desert is not without its utility4 ,not only does it nourish innumerable multitudes of animals of every kind1 but it has become the asylum of fugitive tribes4 ,here at first the ,bakalabaris found a refuge2 and then1 in their turn1 other peoples of the ,bechuana1 whose territories had been invaded by the ,kaffirs4 ,the ,kalihari has its mirage and its sirocco4 ,during the excessive drought which precedes the rainy season1 a burning wind traverses this desert from north to south1 and during its three or four days' duration it withers and dries up everything in its path4 ,it is so loaded with electricity that a bundle of ostrich feathers1 which remained exposed to it for a few seconds1 was itself charged as if it had been in contact with a powerful electrical machine1 and produced a lively disturbance1 accompanied by cracking noises1 when taken in the hand4 ,as often as this wind prevails1 the electricity of the atmosphere is so abundant that every movement of the natives causes sparks to be given off their karosses1 or cloaks made of the skin of beasts4 ,the contrast is striking between the well-watered east coast of ,south ,africa and the arid western coast4 ,after the scarped mountains of the ,cape1 which ascend northward to the ocean1 come the less lofty chains--the hills of sand which separate the interior sandy desert from the equally sandy district of the littoral4 ,with the exception of the ,walvish ,bay1 the coast for eight hundred miles--from the great ,orange ,river to ,cape ,negro--has not a stream of water4 ,at ,cape ,negro commences a series of terraces1 separated from one another by long bands of sunken ground4 ,this ensemble describes a curve towards the interior1 and leaves on the coast a level plain of about #aaj miles in breadth4 ,in ,benguela the plains are healthy and cultivated4 ,more to the north1 one encounters nothing but monotonous savannahs and forests with gigantic trees4 ,the soil1 at a great number of points1 is saturated with water1 and1 so to speak1 enveloped in a shroud of pestilential vapour1 which the breeze never scatters4 ,the low plains of ,biafra and ,benin1 and especially the ,delta of the ,niger1 are unwholesome1 rank1 and foul-smelling marshes4 ,in their mangrove swamps lurks fever1 and a legion of deadly diseases4 ,macies et nova febrium ,terris incubuit cohors4--7,horace47 ,until the early years of the present century very little was known of the interior of ,southern ,africa4 ,at this epoch some native merchants traversed the country from one sea to another--from ,st4 ,paul de ,loanda to the coast of ,mozambique and ,zanzibar4 ,this exploit was repeated and outstripped by ,dr4 ,livingstone1 who1 from #ahej to #ahef1 accomplished a marvellous journey of six thousand miles1 through regions never before trodden by the white man's foot4 ,setting out from ,kolobeng1 the most advanced of the ,english missionary stations1 he arrived1 after having crossed some three hundred miles of a region without water1 at the beautiful river ,zouga1 which issues from the western extremity of ,lake ,ngami4 ,a region of drought1 where no river glides1 ,nor rippling brook with osiered sides1 ,nor sedgy pool1 nor bubbling fount1 ,nor tree1 nor cloud1 nor misty mount ,appears1 to refresh the aching eye2 ,but barren earth1 and the burning sky1 ,and the blank horizon round and round4#ha ,lake ,ngami is from #de to #fj miles long1 and from #ef to #aaj in circumference4 ,its direction is ,n4,n4,e4 to ,s4,s4,w4 ,its southern portion curves westward1 and it receives from the north-west the ,teough4 ,the water1 very fresh when the lake is full1 grows brackish during the dry season4 ,at the latter period it is very shallow1 and at eighteen or twenty miles from the shore canoes can be manoeuvred with the help of a pole4 ,the banks are everywhere low4 ,at the west a considerable space1 utterly bare of trees1 proves that the lake was formerly larger4 ,during the months which precede the arrival of the northern waters1 cattle1 to quench their thirst1 make their way with difficulty through the belt of reeds dried up by the sun4 ,the natives1 says ,livingstone1 who reside on the shores of the lake1 tell us that trees and antelopes are carried down by the waters during the annual inundation4 ,the same traveller informs us that the vast regions lying to the north of the lake at such great distances--regions copiously watered1 and deluged every year by the heavy tropical rains--pour towards the south the excess of the waters which saturate their soil2 and a certain quantity of these waters1 encountering the lake on their way1 flow into it4 ,it is in ,march and ,april that the inundation begins4 ,the waters1 on descending1 find the rivers dried up1 and the lake itself exceedingly shallow4 ,the rivers in this part of ,africa flow in channels capable of containing a far greater volume of water than they generally hold4 ,when looking at them1 you might believe yourself in some desolated ,oriental garden where all the irrigating canals still exist1 but where the dams permit only a mere thread of water to take its course4 ,the water1 adds ,livingstone1#hb is less absorbed by the earth than lost between banks too wide apart1 where the air and the sun evaporate them4 ,i am persuaded that there is not in the whole of this country a river which loses itself amid the sands4 ,the country situated to the north is exceedingly level for some hundreds of miles1 and abundantly provided with lakes and rivers1 which the slightest undulations of the soil divert into innumerable windings4 ,the plain is alternately covered with sombre thickets1 lofty forests1 and dense herbage4 ,on the banks of some rivers this herbage assumes gigantic proportions1 and by its tenacity opposes an effectual barrier to animals4 ,in many places the wide green pastures are enlivened by large herds of cattle1 which the natives breed4 ,the land of the ,barotses possess immense prairies of this description1 the home of numerous herds of elephants4 ,but this richness of the soil is counterbalanced by the insalubrity of the climate4 ,these vast1 periodically flooded surfaces become1 when the waters recede1 the nurseries of deadly fevers1 and other formidable maladies1 whose destructive influence extends to a great distance4 ,the magnificent river ,zambesi1 known in its upper course by the local appellation of ,leambye--both words having the same signification in the native tongue1 the ,river--fertilizes and brightens these productive regions4 ,flowing at first from north to south1 it makes a sharp bend westward1 to march with stately step from south to north1 and from west to east1 until1 with a south-eastern inclination1 it moves onward to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,it was at a point nearly midway between the two oceans--the ,indian and the ,atlantic--that the intrepid ,livingstone first descried the ,zambesi1 regarding its fertile banks and noble stream with much the same emotions of delight and surprise as thrilled to the heart of ,balboa1 when ,with eagle eyes ,he stared at the ,pacific--and all his men ,looked at each other with a wild surmise-- ,silent1upon a peak in ,darien4#hc ,he arrived there near the close of the dry season1 and yet a grand volume of water still sparkled in the river's bed1 which varied from #iej to #aijj feet in breadth4 ,at the epoch of the great floods1 the ,zambesi rises perpendicularly more than eighteen feet1 and at certain points extends more than forty miles from its bank4 ,from the borders of the ,chob to those of the ,zambesi spreads a low1 level country1 whose uniform expanse is only broken by the gigantic hillocks of the termites4 ,at intervals the traveller lights upon spots where the waters have formerly settled1 then on great morasses and deep rivers1 winding their slow way through an almost impervious jungle4 ,there is a certain fatal beauty about the whole region1 like that of a ,circe or a ,lucrezia ,borgia2 but its atmosphere breathes disease and death4 ,a general depression and flatness of surface seems to be the physical characteristic of this part of ,central ,africa4 ,thus1 on the route adopted by ,livingstone1 in a ,n4,n4,e4 direction1 from the chain of ,bamunguatos to the ,zambesi1 all is level4 ,mount ,n'goua1 an isolated mass in #ah #bg' #bj south latitude1 and #bd #ac' #fc east longitude1 is a wholly exceptional accident4 ,the ,kandehy ,valley1 which deploys on the northern slope of this narrow colossus1 is one of the most picturesque scenes that greeted the eyes of ,livingstone during his adventurous pilgrimage4 ,fruit trees1 loaded with emerald foliage1 adorn its sides2 a crystal brook ripples in the centre4 ,under the shade of an enormous baobab the graceful antelopes browse undisturbed1 until alarmed by the footfall of the approaching traveller4 ,gnus and zebras contemplate the strange intruder with an air of surprise4 ,a few continue to crop the grass indifferent2 others pause in the banquet1 uncertain whether to stay or take to flight4 ,the huge hulk of a white rhinoceros drags labouring up the shady valley4 ,buffaloes1 and condors1 and giraffes stray far into its pleasant depths as peaceful and almost as trustful as those of their race which1 in days remote1 wandered among the beauties of ,eden1 in ,that delicious grove1 ,that garden1 planted with the trees of ,god4 ,further to the north1 even to the river ,sanshureh1 the country increases in richness and beauty1 the water-courses multiply1 and the herbage aspires to such a height that vehicles and animals are lost amongst it4 ,an exceeding gentleness1 an almost ,arcadian calm1 characterizes the landscape on the banks of the ,leeba1 a great affluent of the ,leambye4 ,this river drags its slow and ever-winding waters through a delightful meadow-land1 which is probably flooded every year1 for there is no wood except where the ground rises four or five feet above the general level of the plain4 ,the soil of these tree-crowned plateaux1 or knolls1 is sandy1 while that of the prairies consists of an alluvial earth1 gray and black1 and mixed with numerous river-shells4 ,ascending the ,leeba1 we enter on a plain more than eighteen miles in breadth1 where the water rises to the traveller's ankles4 ,this water1 says ,livingstone1 does not proceed from the overflow of the river2 but the level of the ground is so horizontal that the rain-water cannot pass away1 and abides there for months4 ,still more humid are the adjacent plains of ,lobala4 ,this vast submerged area forms a watershed between the rivers of the north and those of the south4 ,up to this point all the rivers wend their way southward2 but from this point they adopt a northerly course1 to empty their tribute into the ,kasa or ,lok4 ,the interior table-land1 especially towards the mid-course of the ,zambesi1 is intersected by lofty mountain-chains4 ,it is in this region1 and at the southernmost point of the river's great ,delta1 which is #bgj miles in length1 that the famous ,falls occur1 named by the natives ,mosioatounya1 or ,smoke-resounding1 re-christened by ,livingstone1 the ,victoria4 ,their vast columns of vapour are visible at a distance of five or six miles1 and might suggest to an ,american traveller the rolling clouds that ascend from a burning prairie4 ,the banks and islands of the river are here enriched with sylvan vegetation of every variety of form and colour3 the mighty baobab1 each of whose enormous arms would form the trunk of a large tree2 the graceful palm1 with its crest of plume-like foliage2 the silvery mohonams1 whose leaves sparkle in the sunshine like ,achilles' shield2 and the nutsouri1 abounding in clusters of pleasant scarlet fruit4 ,the ,falls are bounded on three sides by densely-wooded ridges #cjj or #djj feet in height1 and may be likened to a flood of water a thousand yards broad1 suddenly hurled over a basaltic precipice #ajj feet in depth1 and then as suddenly compressed into a narrow gully not more than fifteen or twenty yards across4 ,if one imagines1 says ,dr4 ,livingstone1#hd the ,thames filled with low tree-covered hills immediately below the ,tunnel1 extending as far as ,gravesend1 the bed of black basaltic rock instead of ,london mud1 and a fissure made therein from one end of the ,tunnel to the other1 down through the keystones of the arch1 and prolonged from the left end of the ,tunnel through thirty miles of hills2 then fancy the ,thames leaping bodily into the gulf1 and forced there to change its direction and flow from the right to the left bank1 and then rush boiling and roaring through the hills1 he may have some idea of what takes place at this the most wonderful sight ,i have witnessed in ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,falls1 ,,river ,,zambesi4 ,in descending into the narrow abyss already spoken of1 the cataract breaks into five separate streams1 which send up1 to an elevation of #bjj or #cjj feet1 as many columns of luminous vapour--pillars of shivering spray1 and foam1 and diamond sparkle1 which in the sunlight are gloriously wreathed with the rare hues of ,iris4 ,how profound ,the gulf6 and how the giant element ,from rock to rock leaps with delirious bound1 ,crushing the cliffs1 which1 downward worn and rent ,with his fierce footsteps1 yield in chasms a vent ,to the broad column which rolls on4--7,byron47 ,in descending the ,zambesi1 we encounter the great river ,kafue1 which flows from the north4 ,beyond the point of confluence the country becomes opener1 freer1 and healthier1 and we arrive at the ,portuguese town of ,tt4 ,about #bjj miles to the north-west of ,tt lies the great lake of fresh water1 ,niyanyizi-,nyassa1 or ,lake of ,stars1 which stretches far away to the north-west across ,unyamuezi1 or ,the ,land of the ,moon4 ,it is rather shallow1 sprinkled with numerous fairy islands1 and seems to be the remains of an ancient lake of much greater extent4 ,to the south-west a belt of fertile country separates it from another lake called ,shirwa1 whence issues a beautiful river1 tributary to the ,zambesi1 impeded in its course by numerous rapids1 but traversing a level and unwholesome country4 ,at the same time 7#ahef-eh7 that ,livingstone accomplished these great discoveries1 ,equatorial ,africa was penetrated from the coast of ,zambesi by ,captains ,burton and ,speke4 ,these undaunted and indefatigable travellers1 after having ascended the river ,pangany for a hundred and thirty miles1 through a rich and cultivated but pestiferous plain1 arrived in ,february #aheh at ,lake ,tanganyika1 of which the natives had spoken to ,livingstone1 describing the country lying to the westward of that mass of water as bare of wood1 and solely covered with marshy plains4 ,lake ,tanganyika lies #bjj miles ,s4,w4 of the ,victoria ,n'yanza1 between lat4 #c and #g #de' ,s41 at an elevation of #ahdd feet above the sea4 ,the #cjth meridian of east longitude strikes it in the centre4 ,its length is #cbj miles2 but its breadth seldom exceeds #ae or #bj1 and never #fj miles1 so that it has been compared to a beach inclining its head towards the north4 ,to the north-east its shores are bold and elevated2 the water is fresh and deep4 ,the country around it is rich in pasture1 where a thriving population breed numerous flocks and herds4 ,about two hundred miles to the north-east of this lake1 and #cgdj feet above the sea-level1 lies the vast basin of the ,victoria ,n'yanza1 discovered by ,captain ,speke in #ahei1 and more fully explored by ,speke and ,grant in #ahfb4 ,its northern shore runs nearly parallel to the ,equator1 at a distance of about twenty miles from it2 its southern is in lat4 #b #df' ,s41 and long4 #cc ,e4 ,it would seem at some remote period to have occupied a much larger area than it does at present1 though even now it is supposed to measure #bbj miles in length and fully as much in breadth4 ,speke describes it as very shallow4 ,fleets of canoes cover its surface2 but the natives on the one shore never venture across to the other1 and no intercommunication has ever existed between them4 ,the surrounding landscapes are of a pastoral character1 genial and fertile1 with quiet breadths of rich meadow land1 dotted by hundreds of white hornless cattle1 and scarcely distinguishable from our midland ,english scenery1 were they not interspersed with groves of the banana1 the coffee-tree1 and the date-palm4 ,at its north-eastern extremity1 and probably connected with it1 lies a long narrow basin which the natives call ,lake ,baringo4 ,on the west it receives the tributary waters of the ,kitangul1 and from the north throws off the various streams which unite in one channel to form the famous ,nile4 ,north-west from the ,n'yanza lies the little ,lta ,n'zig1 or ,albert ,lake1 discovered by ,sir ,samuel ,baker in #ahfd2 a long1 narrow1 and shallow basin1 surrounded by mountains #gjjj feet high1 about #bcj miles in length1 and #bdhh feet above the sea-level1 which apparently serves as the great reservoir of the ,nile4#he ,the discoveries of ,livingstone1 ,burton1 ,speke1 ,grant1 and ,baker1 seem to confirm the theory put forward by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 that the central portion of ,south ,africa is a large and elevated basin1 abounding in immense plains1 in fertile lands1 besprinkled with numerous lakes fed by a thousand currents descending from the lofty mountains that surrounded it4 ,the rains1 says ,morin1 cause these lakes to overflow1 and their waters1 prevailing over every obstacle1 break through the barrier of the high lands1 and descend into the lower levels in a series of cataracts1 to make their way eventually towards the ocean4 ,livingstone has proved the truth of this felicitous induction as far as the ,zambesi is concerned4 ,the ,nile also issues from the lofty table-lands through deep and rocky ravines4 ,the great reservoir of the mysterious ,egyptian river1 the ,n'yanza ,spekii1 may be accepted as the final confirmation of ,sir ,roderick's theory1 and the conspicuous feature of the ,african people4 ,the southern extremity of this lake stretches as far as the watershed between ,north and ,south ,africa4 ,starting from the same viewpoint1 ,speke concludes that another great lake will be found under the ,equator1 to the west of the ,tanganyika and the ,n'yanza ,victoria4 ,this will be the reservoir of the ,congo4 ,to establish this fact will be to solve the last problem of the hydrographic system of ,africa4#hf ,the western region of the ,african equatorial zone has been but superficially explored1 and in this direction numerous hypotheses remain to be verified4 ,lake ,tchad1 situated in ,central ,nigritia1 between ,bornou on the west and the south-west1 and the ,kanem to the north and east1 was discovered in #ahbc by ,major ,denham1 and explored by ,dr4 ,barth in #aheb4 ,the latter traveller grows eloquent in his description of the delicious perspective which he had supposed it would offer to the gaze4 ,he met with numerous slaves on their way to cut grass for the horses4 ,but instead of a lake1 an immense treeless plain stretched as far as the eye could reach4 ,the herbage became fresher and greener1 thicker and taller2 a marshy bottom1 describing a curve which projected here and receded there1 embarrassed his progress more and more2 and after a useless and prolonged struggle to escape from the quagmire1 seeking in vain on the horizon some mirror-like surface1 he retraced his steps1 dabbling in the slimy water1 and consoling himself with the reflection that at least he had seen some traces of the liquid element4 ,but the scene was strangely different when1 in the winter of #ahed-ee1 more than one-half of the ,ngornou was destroyed by the inundation2 and to the south of that town lay a deep sea1 swallowing up the whole plain even to the village of ,koukiya6 ,the lower stratum of the soil1 composed of limestone1 appeared to have given way in the preceding year1 and had lowered the shore of the lake several yards2 hence the inundation4 ,but apart from this evidently exceptional geological catastrophe1 the character of the ,tchad is clearly that of an immense lagoon whose borders change every month1 and of which it is consequently impossible to lay down any strictly accurate map4#hg ,lake ,tchad lies between lat4 #ab #cj' and #ad #cj' ,n41 long4 #ac and #ae #cj' ,s4 ,its length varies from two hundred to three hundred miles1 according to the amount of rainfall and similar circumstances2 at its broadest it measures one hundred and seventy miles2 and it has an elevation of eight hundred feet above the sea-level4 ,the actual margin of its waters is lined by a deep fence of papyrus and tall reeds1 from ten to fourteen feet high4 ,its islands are densely peopled4 ,fish and water-fowl abound1 and not less do crocodiles and hippopotami4 ,the lake has no outlet1 but receives several rivers1 of which the ,waube and the ,shari are the most notable4 ,the country watered by the ,niger is also broken up by vast plains which1 fertile and glowing in the rainy season1 are scorched and withered by the summer heats4 ,the famous port of ,kabara1 not far from ,timbukt1 is several miles from the river1 and only accessible for five months in the year at the epoch of the great rains4 ,beyond this belt of vegetation1 this girdle of fertility1 ,nature wears a sombre aspect--the stony look of a corpse2 for the immense ,desert of the ,sahara begins4 ,the transition from the one region to the other1 from the land of plenty to the land of want and famine1 from the land of bright lakes1 and copious streams1 and green pastures1 to the land of rocky heights and barren sandy wastes1 is as startling as the change which sometimes occurs in human life--the change of a moment1 from bustling and exuberant happiness to profound sorrow4 ,it is such contrasts1 however1 that enable us fully to appreciate the beauty and wealth of ,nature4 ,the scorching winds from arid deserts borne1 teach us to prize the balmy breath of the sweet south that wanders o'er a bank of violets4 ,fresh from the dreary ,sahara plain1 burnt and scathed by a ,tropic sun1 we can feel all the loveliness of the woodland and the leafy vale1 of each ,melodious plot ,of beechen green1 and shadows numberless4 ,thus1 in the material world as in the moral and intellectual1 the law of compensation prevails1 and the wayfarer in the ,desert of ,life may cheer himself with the recollection that in due time the silence will be succeeded by music1 the desolation by beauty1 and the wilderness by ,verdurous glooms1 and winding mossy ways4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,deserts ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world3--,,prairies1 ,,pampas1 ,,llanos4 ,they who study the philosophy of history1 of which men talk so much1 and know so little2 they who seek in the general laws of nature and the physical economy of the globe an explanation of its ethnological phenomena1 may find1 it seems to me1 a curious subject for investigation in the singular destiny of the ,new ,world4 ,they will have to ascertain by what concurrence of circumstances the two ,americas1 separated from us by an immensity of waters1 and revealed to the world of the ,east but some four centuries ago1 shall have traversed in so brief a period the successive phases of conquest1 colonization1 and emancipation2 why ,european emigration was directed thitherward at the very beginning2 and thitherward continues still to flow from every quarter2 finally1 by what tacit and unanimous agreement this ,new ,world has become the adopted country of all the proscribed and disinherited of the ,old2 while almost the entire area of the ,african continent1 which is so much more readily accessible1 is scarcely less favoured in its climatic conditions1 and upon which the white race has rested1 from the remotest antiquity1 its political institutions1 its arts1 and its industry1 has remained uninfluenced by the advancing tide of civilization4 ,illustration3 ,,prairies ,,of ,,north ,,america--,,stampedo ,,of ,,wild ,,bisons4 ,i limit myself to indicating this problem1 which1 however1 it is not within my present province to examine1 but which naturally suggests itself when we think of the swift development undergone by the ,european societies planted on the ,american continent--when we remember how rapidly they are narrowing the area of the desert and the wilderness4 ,at the epoch of the discovery of the ,new ,world it was one vast desolation1 with the exception of ,mexico and ,peru2 and these were but the seats of a civilization which seemed to have passed without transition from infancy to old age1 from vigour to decrepitude1 and which crumbled into dust under the pitiless blows of the ,spanish conquerors4 ,neither ,cortez nor ,pizarro would have overthrown a great empire with a handful of foot-soldiers and men-at-arms1 a squadron or two of horse1 and a few unwieldy guns1 had not the ,colossus already nodded to its fall1 had not the ,column been hollow at the base4 ,but soon the ,european nations shared among themselves this immense country and the neighbouring islands4 ,the ,slave race1 whose destiny it seemed to be to reign among the polar ice and snow1 long contented itself with the inclement and inhospitable region of the extreme north-west1 which it has but recently surrendered to the ,united ,states ,government4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon race1 in the northern continent1 has seized the lion's share4 ,it now holds between the two oceans1 from the fifty-fifth to the thirtieth parallels of north latitude1 a fertile and life-breathing territory1 well fitted to be the cradle of great empires2 the flourishing ,confederation of ,canada1 the colony of ,british ,columbia1 and the mighty republic of the ,united ,states4 ,virgin forests have fallen before the restless axe of the hardy pioneer2 hundreds of populous cities have risen as if by enchantment in districts haunted within the memory of men by the bear and the wild buffalo2 a network of railways spreads from the ,atlantic almost to the base of the ,rocky ,mountains2 crops of waving corn bloom over wide prairies that a few years ago yielded only the tall grass and waving reed2 the aboriginal tribes of the ,red ,indians have melted away before the impetuous tide of an ever-advancing civilization2 and the exhaustless energies of our race have already raised in less than a century two mighty empires on the ,mississippi and the ,st4 ,lawrence1 destined to a marvellous1 a changeful1 and doubtlessly a glorious history4 ,and both these empires have sprung from the loins of ,england1 are governed in the main by the same laws1 hold the same religion1 are animated by the same aspiring and unwearied genius1 and ,speak the tongue ,that ,shakspeare spoke2 the faith and morals hold ,which ,milton held2 in everything1 as we believe1 ,are sprung ,of ,earth's first blood1 have titles manifold4#hh ,southward from the thirtieth parallel stretches the domain of the ,latin races1 already mingled with and being absorbed by the ,anglo-,saxon1 in ,canada1 ,california1 and the ,southern ,states of the ,union4 ,vast as this region is1 for it comprehends all ,central ,america and all the ,southern ,continent1 it is infinitely less prosperous1 less powerful1 less peopled1 than what we may call ,saxon ,america4 ,mexico is a byword and a reproach for savage anarchy and murderous license4 ,neither ,chili1 nor ,peru1 nor even ,brazil approaches ,canada in solid power and the auspicious promise of future greatness4 ,the ,latin race seems dwarfed and cowed by the neighbourhood of the energetic ,anglo-,saxon1 is swiftly retiring before it in ,north ,america1 and in the course of centuries will probably be subjugated by it1 even in the southern division of the great ,continent4 ,a considerable portion of ,south ,america1 however1 is uncultivated1 unpeopled1 and but imperfectly explored4 ,there the ,desert re-appears with-- ,the pale1 cold aspect of a wearied friend1#hi under its most sharply defined forms and most impressive conditions4 ,the supremacy of the whites over the indigenous tribes is almost nominal2 and if the latter are gradually dying out1 the catastrophe1 in this instance1 is due rather to their own lack of vigour1 energy1 and capacity1 than to the pressure of civilization4 ,however rapid may be the growth of population in ,north ,america1 however great the rapidity--shall we say the avidity8--of the ,american squatters in their conquest and appropriation of the soil1 the ,desert still occupies1 principally in the far ,west and the ,north--that is to say1 in the angle comprised between the line of the great lakes and the ,rocky ,mountains--an area almost equal to the whole of ,continental ,europe4 ,there we find1 as ,mr4 ,johnstone points out1 the largest plains in the world4 ,one such1 for example1 is that immense basin which extends from the mouths of the ,mackenzie1 in the icy ,arctic ,sea1 even to the remote ,delta of the ,mississippi1 and from the huge chain of the ,rocky ,mountains1 with their piny recesses and snowy peaks1 to the less rugged and more pastoral range of the ,alleghanies2 a total area of #d1djj1jjj1jjj square yards 7#c1bde1jjj square miles74 ,a table-land of gentle elevation1 nowhere above #aejj feet1 and rarely more than #gjj feet high1 separates this territory into two secondary basins4 ,the north-east1 which pours its waters into the ,arctic ,ocean1 ,hudson's ,bay1 and through the ,canadian lakes and ,river ,st4 ,lawrence1 into the ,atlantic2 and1 ,the south basin1 of the ,missouri-,mississippi1 whose mighty waters flow into the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it is in the latter that the traveller encounters the great grassy plains of the ,prairies or ,savannahs which are so remarkable a feature of ,north ,america1 and which chiefly lie along the western bank of the ,mississippi4 ,there are no prairies1 says ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 to the north of ,peace ,river1 and the level lands which border the ,rocky ,mountains do not extend beyond the ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,under so wide a range of latitude the plain necessarily embraces a great variety of soil1 climate1 and productions2 but being almost in a state of nature1 it is characterized in its central and southern parts by interminable grassy savannahs and enormous forests1 and in the far north by deserts not less dreary than those of ,siberia4#ij ,southward1 a bare sandy waste1 #djj or #ejj miles wide1 skirts the base of the ,rocky ,mountains to the forty-first parallel of north latitude4 ,the dry plains of ,texas and the upper region of the ,arkansas have all the features of ,asiatic table-lands2 further to the north1 the lifeless1 treeless steppes on the high grounds of the far ,west are burnt up in summer1 and frozen in winter by biting blasts from the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,towards the ,mississippi the soil improves1 but its delta is a labyrinth of streams1 and lakes1 and dense brushwood1 and the rank marshes at its mouth cover an area of #ce1jjj square miles4 ,there are also1 says ,mrs4 ,somerville1 large tracts or forest and saline ground1 especially the ,grand ,saline between the rivers ,arkansas and ,neseikelongo1 which is often covered two or three inches deep with salt1 like a fall of snow4 ,all the cultivation on the right bank of the river is along the ,gulf of ,mexico and in the adjacent provinces1 and is entirely tropical1 consisting of sugar-cane1 cotton1 and indigo4 ,the prairies1 so characteristic of ,north ,america1 then begin4 ,and what are these prairies8 ,leagues upon leagues of rolling meadow-land1 sometimes as level as an ,english pasture1 always as boundless1 apparently1 as the sea2 richly covered with long rank grass of tender green1 and lighted up by flowers of the liliaceous kind which scent the air with fragrance4 ,here and there1 in the north1 occur clumps of oak and black walnut2 in the south1 groups of tulip1 and cotton1 and magnolia trees4 ,occasionally the monotonous scene is relieved by a lazy brook1 whose banks bloom with a brilliant mass of azaleas1 kalmias1 rhododendrons1 and andromedas2 the low howl of the cayeute1 or prairie dog1 breaks the silence2 and life is given to the landscape by the frequent appearance of herds of bison1 deer1 and wild horses4 ,at times1 in the remote districts1 the prairie wolves will be seen in some leafy covert awaiting the approach of a victim2 or flights of birds darken the air1 and tempt the traveller with the promise of an abundant provision4 ,on the right bank of the ,missouri1 and on the borders of the ,white ,river1 in the territory of ,nebraska1 lies a dreary desert valley1 some #cj feet deep1 which the ,french expressively designate les ,mauvaises-,terres4 ,it may be doubted whether the whole world offers a stranger or a more impressive landscape4 ,here geology recognizes the vestiges of an astonishing diluvian labour1 and it is impossible to venture a step without striking one's foot against the fossil relics of vanished animals4 ,it is a kind of world apart1 says an ,american writer2 a large valley which seems to have been excavated1 in the first place1 by an immense vertical out-throw1 and then modelled by the prolonged and incessant action of denudating agents4 ,with a mean breadth of #bh1 and a total length of #ij miles1 it develops itself in a westerly direction1 at the foot of the sombre mountain-chain known as the ,black ,hills4 ,on issuing from the immense1 uniform1 and monotonous prairie1 the traveller finds himself suddenly transported1 after a descent of #ajj to #bjj feet1 into a depression of the soil where rise a myriad of abrupt rocks1 irregular or prismatic1 or like columns dressed with enormous pyramids1 and from #aaj to #bbj feet in height4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,mauvaises-,,terres1 ,,nebraska1 ,u4,s4 ,these natural towers are so multiplied over the surface of this extraordinary region1 that the roads wind through them in narrow passages1 and the labyrinth may be likened to the irregular streets and narrow alleys of some medival ,european city4 ,seen from afar1 the interminable succession of rocks resembles the massive monuments of antiquity2 nor are turrets wanting1 nor flying buttresses1 nor graceful arches1 nor vaulted portals1 groups of columns1 faades1 and taper spires4 ,if at one place the eye lights upon the ruins of a feudal fortress1 at another it surveys the graceful ensemble of a ,saracenic mosque4 ,or you might almost say1 in the distance1 that it is a fantastic city of the dead which looms before you2 or the gigantic palace of a race of unseen beings1 fashioned by the power of spell and enchantment4 ,and if the illusion vanishes when1 descending from the heights1 you penetrate into the mazes of this ,ddalian marvel1 the reality is not less calculated to inspire you with astonishment1 and the imagination remains confused before this wild1 this grand1 yet ominous freak of ,nature--ominous1 for the place seems like a colossal ,golgotha1 and the rocks may be the monuments consecrated by invisible hands to the things and creatures1 the life and majesty1 of a forgotten ,past6 ,a spectacle unexpected by the ,european traveller comes at intervals to heighten and confirm the illusion4 ,here and there are reared constructions of manifest human work1 but of a truly primitive character4 ,they consist of four poles1 supporting a rude platform of wicker4 ,mount any adjacent hillock1 and you will see corpses and human skeletons outstretched upon the platform4 ,these constructions are1 in truth1 the burial-places of the ,sioux ,indians1 who wander still in the neighbouring districts4 ,the whole coast of the ,mexican ,gulf1 from the ,pearl ,river eastward1 through ,alabama and a great part of ,florida1 is occupied by the so-called pine barrens1 which extend far into the interior4 ,these vast monotonous tracts of sand1 covered with forests of gigantic pine trees1 are not less a characteristic feature of ,north ,america than the rolling prairies4 ,they are not limited to this part of the ,united ,states1 but occur to a great extent in ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and elsewhere4 ,tennessee and ,kentucky1 though the plough has passed over extensive areas1 still possess large forests1 and the ,ohio flows for hundreds of miles among patriarchal trees1 with a rich undergrowth of azaleas1 rhododendrons1 and other beautiful shrubs1 bound together in chains of flowers by creeping plants4 ,when ,america was discovered1 one mass of unbroken forest spread over the mainland1 from the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,canadian ,lakes to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,atlantic ,ocean it crossed the ,alleghany ,mountains1 and spread in gloom and grandeur over the valley of the ,mississippi--an ocean of vegetation swelling and sinking for upwards of one million of square miles4 ,then all the broad and boundless mainland lay1 ,cooled by the interminable wood1 that frowned ,o'er mound and vale1 where never summer ray ,glanced1 till the strong tornado broke his way ,through the gray giants of the sylvan wild2 ,yet many a sheltered glade1 with blossoms gay1 ,beneath the showery sky and sunshine mild1 ,within the shaggy arms of that dark forest smiled4#ia ,prairies which1 in their general aspect1 resemble those of the ,missouri and the ,mississippi1 are found to the east and west of the ,american ,desert1 in ,arrisona1 in ,texas1 in ,california1 and various provinces of ,mexico4 ,vegetation1 however1 nevertheless differs according to the conditions of each region1 and the alternatives of deluging rains and extreme dryness become more and more conspicuous as we approach the ,equator4 ,nevertheless--and this1 perhaps1 is the feature most distinctive of the ,prairies1 or ,savannahs1 from the ,pampas and ,llanos--the dryness is never sufficiently severe in the former to destroy vegetation1 as is the case in the latter4 ,but the herbs and grasses often grow so dry in summer that the most trivial accident--such as a lighted match flung carelessly away1 or the ashes dropped from a hunter's pipe--will kindle the most awful conflagrations1 and the flames will spread devouringly over leagues of open ground1 consuming trees and shrubs1 and burning to death the cattle or wild animals which haply fall within their range4 ,with the crackling1 hissing1 seething noises of the fire mingle the groans of the perishing beasts1 while huge clouds of smoke roll before the wind1 like the billows of a wind-swept ocean1 and live tongues of flame ever and anon light up the terrible scene with lurid splendour4 ,these ,prairie-fires are sometimes kindled in revenge by the ,indians1 and occasionally the settlers resort to this dangerous but summary method of clearing the encumbered ground4 ,however caused1 the spectacle is one of infinite grandeur1 which might have furnished ,dante with a fresh image of horror for his ,inferno4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,prairie ,,on ,,fire ,,in ,,central ,,america4 ,from the fortieth to the thirty-fifth parallels of north latitude the ,desert appears in ,north ,america under a form more like the seas of sand of ,africa and ,arabia2 the vast areas of the ,llanos and the ,pampas4 ,these two words are nearly synonymous4 ,they are used to designate wide level plains1 inundated and fertile in the rainy season1 but in the hot season stripped by the sun's rays of every apparent trace of vegetation4 ,between the ,californian ,alps and the ,rio-,colorado withers a grand1 sandy1 and utterly barren plain1 which touches the northern borders of ,la ,sonora4 ,somewhat further to the east extends the ,llano-,estacado1 which eventually merges into the ,american ,desert4 ,but the most considerable ,pampas and ,llanos belong to ,south ,america4 ,of these1 the most arid and the most desolate--which most vividly recall the rainless deserts of the ,old ,world--are the ,pampa of ,atacama1 between the ,andes and the ,pacific1 with ,taracapa on the north1 and ,copiapo on the south2 that of ,sechura1 which forms a great portion of the littoral of the ,peruvian department of ,truxillo2 and that of ,pernambuco1 which forms the major part of the plateau north-east of ,brazil4 ,these ,deserts1 no less than those of ,africa and ,arabia1 merit the name of the ,land of ,fear4 ,their surface is as smooth as that of the calm sea1 and bounded only by the circular line of the horizon2 the eye frequently ranges over a space of twenty-five square miles without meeting a clump of trees on which to rest2 nor is the monotony relieved by the slightest undulation of the soil4 ,everywhere is nothingness1 silence1 desolation1 death4 ,more than one wayfarer has never escaped from their mazy solitudes4 ,fatigue1 hunger1 thirst1 decimate the caravans which undertake to traverse them1 and the track is marked by whitened skeletons1 whose flesh has been devoured by vultures1 and which unknown hands have piled up and arranged with a ghastly symmetry of order4 ,however1 since the discovery of ,america1 certain portions of the ,llanos have become habitable4 ,towns have risen at intervals on the banks of the rivers which water them4 ,these centres of population are connected with each other by huts of reeds1 covered with ox-hides1 and separated by about a day's march4 ,here reside the ,llaneros1 to whose charge are intrusted the innumerable herds of cattle1 horses1 and mules1 which subsist on the pasturage of the ,steppes4 ,the inhabitants of the ,llanos possess characteristics as marked as those of their plains4 ,the hatos wherein they assemble are situated at long distances apart2 but the true home of the llanero1 a bold and skilful horseman1 is his saddle4 ,firmly seated on his rapid steed1 he gallops at will across the trackless plain1 and combining the two extremes of solitude and activity1 confines his half-savage existence to the custody or the ownership of his herds of horses and cattle4 ,thus1 born in the ,llanos like his father1 a descendant of the first ,spanish settlers1 he has no idea of any other country than his southern pastures1 of any other career than his dreamy pastoral life4 ,clothed in a picturesque costume1 half ,spanish1 half ,indian2 his machete 7or cutlass7 thrust through a belt of leather1 his poncho 7a chequered mantle7 over his shoulder1 and the redoubtable lasso suspended in a coil to his saddle-bow2 armed with the clumsy lance1 which serves to drive his herd before him1 and1 at need1 to vindicate its owner's courage in some partisan affray2 the llanero1 never thinking of the past1 never dreaming of the future1 on the alert in every danger1 and accustomed to the severest privations1 enjoys with intoxication the rude happiness of his wild freedom4 ,illustration3 ,,pampas ,,of ,,south ,,america4 ,the ,llanos of ,venezuela occupy a superficial area1 estimated1 according to ,humboldt1 at #aec1jjj square miles1 between the deltas of the ,orinoco and the river ,coqueta4 ,they are as flat as the surface of the sea1 and covered with long rank grass4 ,you might travel over the dreary level for #aajj miles from the delta of the ,orinoco to the foot of the ,andes of ,pasto1 and frequently not encounter an eminence a foot high in #bgj square miles4 ,their length is twice that of their breadth2 and as the wind blows constantly from the east1 the climate is the more ardent the further west4 ,these ,steppes1 for the most part1 says ,mrs4 ,somerville1#ib are destitute of trees or bushes1 yet in some places they are dotted with the mauritia and other palms4 ,flat as they are1 two kinds of inequalities will sometimes occur3 one consists of banks or shoals of grit or compact limestone1 five or six feet high1 perfectly level for several leagues1 and imperceptible except on their edges2 the other inequality can only be detected by the barometer or levelling instruments2 it is called a ,mesa1 and is a gentle knoll swelling very gradually to an elevation of a few fathoms4 ,yet slight as is this altitude1 a ,mesa forms the watershed from south-west to north-east1 between the affluents of the ,orinoco and the streams flowing to the northern coast of ,terra ,firma4 ,in the wet season1 from ,april to the end of ,october1 the tropical rains pour down in torrents1 and hundreds of square miles of the ,llanos are inundated by the overflow of the rivers4 ,in the hollows the water is sometimes twelve feet deep1 and such numbers of horses and other animals perish1 that the ground smells strongly of musk1 an odour peculiar to many quadrupeds4 ,from the flatness of the country1 too1 the waters of some affluents of the ,orinoco are driven backwards by the floods of that river1 especially when aided by the wind1 and form temporary lakes4 ,when the waters subside1 these ,steppes1 manured by the sediment1 are mantled with verdure1 and produce ananas1 while occasional groups of fan palm-trees and mimosas skirt the rivers4 ,when the dry weather returns1 the grass is burnt to powder2 the air is filled with dust raised by currents occasioned by difference of temperature1 even when there is no wind4 ,if by any accident a spark of fire falls on the scorched plains1 a conflagration spreads from river to river1 destroying every animal1 and leaves the clayey soil sterile for years1 till vicissitudes of weather crumble the brick-like surface into earth4 ,when this takes place1 the rending of the indurated soil is sudden and violent1 as if from the shock of an earthquake4 ,if at such a time two opposing currents of air1 whose conflict produces a rotatory motion1 come in contact with the surface of the earth1 the ,llanos assume a strange and singular aspect4 ,like cone-shaped clouds1 whose extremities seem to touch the ground1 the sand rises through the rarefied air in the electrically-charged centre of the whirling current2 like the sand-spouts of the ,saharan ,desert1 or the waterspouts which formerly were the awe and dread of the mariner4 ,then does the lowering sky cast a dim uncertain light1 like a ,november fog in ,london1 on the desolate plain4 ,the horizon draws suddenly nearer2 the ,steppe seems to contract1 and a nameless terror seizes the heart of the wanderer4 ,the hot dusty air increases in suffocating heat2 and the east wind1 blowing over the long-heated soil1 yields no refreshment1 but rather oppresses with its burning glow4 ,the pools1 hitherto protected from evaporation by the yellow fading branches of the fan palm1 begin to disappear4 ,as in the north the animals grow torpid with the mortal cold1 so under the influence of the parching drought the boa and the crocodile fall asleep1 buried deeply in the dry mud4 ,everywhere the drought prevails1 and yet everywhere the refracted rays of light delude the traveller with the image of gleaming lakes and rushing rivers4 ,the distant palm bush hovers above the ground like a spectre1 apparently raised by the influence of the contact of unequally heated1 and1 therefore1 unequally dense strata of air4 ,half hidden by the rolling clouds of dust1 restless with the pangs of thirst and hunger1 the horses and cattle roam around1 the cattle dismally lowing1 and the horses stretching out their long necks and snuffing the wind1 in the hope some moister current may betray the neighbourhood of a not wholly failing pool4 ,more sagacious and astute1 the wary mule seeks a different mode of alleviating his thirst4 ,under its prickly envelope the melon-cactus conceals a watery pith4 ,the mule first strikes the prickles aside with his fore-feet1 and then cautiously approaches his lips to the plant and drinks the cool juice4 ,but the experiment is not always without danger1 and many animals are lamed by the spines of the cactus4 ,when the overpowering heat of the day is followed by the cooler temperature of the night1 which is always of the same length in these latitudes1 even then the cattle can obtain no repose4 ,enormous bats suck their blood like the fabled vampires during their sleep1 or attach themselves to their backs1 causing festering wounds in which mosquitoes1 horse-flies1 and a host of stinging insects1 niche themselves4 ,thus the animals lead a weary life during the hot season4 ,but at length1 after the long drought and the parching glow1 comes the welcome rain6 ,then takes place a transformation such as the fancy of the poet never surpassed or equalled4 ,the deep blue of the hitherto unclouded sky grows lighter2 the dark space in the constellation of the ,southern ,cross is hardly distinguishable at night2 the soft phosphorescent lustre of the so-called ,magellanic clouds fades1 fades1 and falls away2 even the stars in ,aquila and ,ophiucus in the zenith beam with a tremulous and less planetary radiance4 ,and lo1 yonder in the south1 a single cloud1 like the peak of some remote mountain1 soars perpendicularly from the horizon4 ,gradually the gathering vapours fold over the sky4 ,hark6 ,the thunder is pealing in the distance1 and louder and nearer come its awful reverberation4 ,it heralds the life-restoring rain6 ,scarcely has the genial moisture refreshened earth1 before a blessed fragrance breathes from the previously barren ,steppe1 and its nakedness is clothed upon with the bloom and beauty of a thousand grasses4 ,the herbaceous mimosas1 with renewed sensibility to the influence of light1 open their drooping leaves to greet the rising sun2 and the rosy-fingered morn is saluted with a glad chorus of birds1 and by the opening blossoms of the water-plants4 ,now the horse bounds over the plain in keen ecstasy of spirit1 and the cattle grazes plentifully on the fresh green herbage4 ,yet the new life is not without its peril4 ,anguis latet in herb4 ,among the tall thick grass lurks the spotted jaguar1 the tiger of the ,new ,world1 and measures carefully the distance that separates him from his unsuspecting victim4 ,sometimes 7so say the natives7 the moistened clay on the margin of the swamps will blister and swell slowly into a kind of mound until1 with a violent noise1 like the outbreak of a small mud volcano1 the accumulated earth is cast high into the air4 ,the spectator who comprehends the purport of this strange scene immediately retreats1 for he knows that the birth of the portentous travail will be a gigantic water-snake or huge crocodile roused from its torpidity4 ,the rivers which bound the plain to the south--the ,arauca1 the ,apure1 and the ,pajara--gradually swell1 and now ,nature compels the same animals1 which in the first half of the year panted with thirst on the dry and dusty soil1 to adopt an amphibious life4 ,a portion of the ,steppe now assumes the aspect of a vast inland sea4#ic ,the brood mares retire with their foals to the more elevated banks1 which rise like islands above the watery expanse4 ,every day the dry space grows smaller4 ,it is a miniature reproduction of the ,noachian ,deluge4 ,the animals1 crowded together1 swim about for hours in quest of other pasture1 and feed sparingly on the tops of the flowering grasses that spring above the seething surface of the turbid waters4 ,many foals are drowned1 and many are surprised by the crocodiles1 killed by a blow from their powerful tails1 and devoured4 ,it is no uncommon thing to see the marks of these monsters' cruel teeth on the legs of horses and cattle which have narrowly escaped from their blood-thirsty jaws4 ,such a sight reminds the thoughtful observer of that capability of adaptation to the most varied circumstances with which the all-powerful ,creator has endowed certain animals and plants4#id ,the ,pampas of ,pernambuco and ,buenos ,ayres have three times the superficial area of the ,llanos of ,venezuela4 ,so great is their extent1 that while forests of palms border them on the north1 they are covered with snow in the south1 during a great part of the year1 like the northern ,steppes of ,tartary4 ,according to the climatic divisions generally adopted1 these regions belong to the ,temperate ,zone2 but in truth they comprehend a great variety of climates4 ,their character is not less grand or original than that of the ,llanos which precede them4 ,the ,pampas1 says an ,american writer1 surpass in majesty all the marvels of the new continent1 and yet they astonish the traveller by the air of abandonment and sadness which is impressed upon them1 especially in the low country watered by the ,plata4 ,traces of life are there infrequent2 still rarer are the objects which attract attention4 ,here1 at the bottom of a crevasse1 a cactus conceals its head bristling with spines2 there1 a solitary tree rises majestically toward heaven4 ,sometimes1 upon the plain1 the eye discovers the monstrous skeleton of an animal which flourished in those remote times when the ,alps still slept in the depths of ocean1 and dreamed not of blending their snow-burdened peaks with the clouds4 ,the ,pampas serve as the burial-place for races of gigantic men1 now extinct1 who seem to issue from their silent graves in testimony to the former being of vanished generations1 and to bear witness to the ,creator of all things4 ,above your head1 and far away in the azure of heaven1 you perceive a black point2 it is a condor describing slowly its sinister circles4 ,in the distance passes and disappears the ungainly figure of an ostrich4 ,the inexpressible charm of these solitudes is their absolute freedom4 ,and while traversing them the wayfarer comprehends the love with which they inspire the ,indian1 whose hope it is to meet beyond this world with yet vaster horizons for the indulgence of his wandering tastes4 ,at the southern extremity of ,south ,america spreads a sterile plain1 sown with pebbles and blocks of porphyry3 it is ,patagonia4 ,as we retrace our steps towards the north1 the soil rises before us in terrace after terrace1 till it reaches the base of the ,cordilleras4 ,in the northern districts the pebbly soil gives place to verdant meadows1 where the ,patagonians breed numerous herds of horses and cattle4 ,water is wanting in this country4 ,the rains are rare1 and the dry seasons very prolonged4 ,the summer heat is overwhelming2 in winter violent winds sweep the ,savannahs1 which are covered with nocturnal frosts4 ,under such climatic influences the soil produces only a dry coarse grass4 ,in the interior a few beeches and cacti are met with1 and then broad swamps1 fringed with reeds and rushes4 ,in the spring a mantle of clover spreads over the earth1 but only to be withered up by the first heats of summer4 ,along the banks of the ,rio ,negro the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres stretch from the coast of the ,atlantic to the foot of the ,andes4 ,on a considerable portion of this vast area marshes of salt water encroach--a phenomenon all the more curious because the salt lies only on the surface1 and all the wells artificially excavated yield fresh water4 ,during the rains the low grounds are flooded2 but as soon as the sun has dried up the plain1 it is clothed in rich pasturage1 while the elevated table-lands are dry and withered4 ,there1 too1 the dryness is often attended with disastrous results4 ,from #ahbg to #ahcj1 as ,mr4 ,darwin records1 not a drop of water fell2 all traces of vegetation disappeared2 the rivers ran dry1 and the herds perished in incalculable numbers2 in the single province of ,buenos ,ayres1 the loss was estimated at more than a million head of cattle4 ,to the north of the ,rio ,salado1 at the portals of the ,andes1 the country assumes a look of implacable desolation2 no winds ever agitate the lower strata of the atmosphere4 ,the water-courses which descend from the mountains lose themselves in the sand2 salt marshes1 whence the very birds hold aloof1 alone alternate with a soil everywhere intersected by crevices4 ,the district of the ,pampas which stretches northward to the spurs of the ,andes consists of a sandy soil1 free from salt1 but wholly unproductive4 ,these solitudes1 however1 are ploughed by running streams1 none of which communicate with the sea4 ,they descend from the ,andes1 traverse the ,pampas from east to west1 and empty themselves into the saline lakes4 ,somewhat further to the north1 and nearer the ,equator1 lies an almost unknown region of salt--a region of indescribable gloom1 where neither tree1 nor bush1 nor blade of emerald grass1 delights the eye4 ,eighteen months frequently elapse in this land of desolation1 worthy of being one of the circles in ,dante's ,inferno1 without the cheering sound of a shower of rain1 and when at length it arrives1 it splits the rocks of salt and melts them into wide pools of brackish mud4 ,as soon as the sun has absorbed the excessive humidity of the soil1 myriads of salt crystals glitter on the surface1 and convert the ,desert into one immense mirror4 ,to the north-west of ,la ,plata extends a desert of very different character--the ,despoblado1 or uninhabited land1 a plateau of the ,andes1 rising some #dbjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,this desert is cloven into two portions by a deep valley1 bordered with sharp rocks1 which affords the only practicable route from ,bolivia to ,buenos ,ayres4 ,winter1 in this sombre world within a world1 is a time of horror1 when the spirit of ,desolation goes to and fro in wrath unchained4 ,yet even here humanity drags about the fetters of existence4 ,the traveller occasionally alights upon the wretched huts where the unfortunate descendants of the ancient ,peruvians linger through life4 ,their wealth consists in a few llamas4 ,their occupation1 in hunting the alpaca1 the guanaco1 and the chinchilla2 in filtering the river sands for scanty grains of gold2 in collecting salt1 and disposing of it to the inhabitants of the nearest towns4 ,the aspect of the ,puna1 or ,despoblado1 says ,von ,tschudi1#ie is singularly monotonous and dreary4 ,the expansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brown hue1 and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure4 ,here and there1 at distant intervals1 may be seen a few stunted ,quenera trees1#if or large patches of ground covered with the ,ratanbia shrub4#ig ,both are used by the ,indians as fuel1 and for roofing their huts4 ,the cold climate and sterile soil are formidable impediments to agriculture4 ,only one plant is cultivated in these regions with any degree of success4 ,it is the maca1 a tuberous root grown like the potato1 and1 like it1 used as an article of food4 ,in many of the ,puna districts it constitutes the principal sustenance of the inhabitants4 ,it has an agreeable and somewhat sweetish flavour1 and when boiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut4 ,the most imposing spectacle presented by the ,deserts of ,south ,america is that of their frequent hurricanes4 ,as the ,simoom to the ,sahara1 so is the ,pampero to the ,pampas4 ,its approach is foretold by signs which the native's experienced eye readily recognizes4 ,all at once the air seems stricken motionless1 and over the solitude broods a solemn silence4 ,a cloud white and light as snow--a cloud no bigger than a man's hand--rises in the south-west4 ,it advances1 and as it advances enlarges its proportions4 ,other clouds appear1 and all gather into one imposing mass4 ,the dust rises and whirls round in thick columns suspended between heaven and earth4 ,lower and lower descend the congregated vapours1 until they envelop the earth in a funeral shroud1 whose folds the hurricane incessantly agitates1 and which the forked lightnings seem to rend in fragments4 ,suffocating gusts of a fiery wind traverse space4 ,and now the sudden tempest stoops down from the summit of the ,andes1 and sweeps the ,savannah with resistless fury4 ,enormous masses of sand1 upgathered by the rafale1 obscure the clearness of day2 at noon the earth is covered with a darkness that may be felt4 ,the thunder mingles its roar with the strident voices of the storm4 ,all that lives1 all that breathes1 is at the mercy of the unchained elements1 which are as pitiless in their wrath as a roused people4 ,thousands of animals perish in the ,savannahs2 and prostrate1 with his face to the earth1 man tremblingly awaits the expiring breath of the grand convulsion6 ,the horses and cattle of ,europe are replaced in the ,pampas of ,south ,america by the herds of guanacos and llamas which covered them at the epoch of the ,spanish conquest4 ,their owners1 descendants of the ,spaniards intermingled with the native races1 possess many of the characteristics of the ,arab4 ,like the llanero of ,venezuela1 the guacho of the ,pampas realizes the idea of the ancient centaur2 and from the throne of his saddle1 to which hangs the inseparable lasso1 he surveys the plains where he is lord and king with the fiery glance of a free and independent spirit4 ,he owes scant allegiance to any established authority1 and under the blue sky of heaven enjoys the blessings of uncontrolled freedom4 ,and what to him the fever and turmoil of civilization1 when1 mounted on his noble steed1 he can roam at will1 with none to say him nay1 over leagues and leagues of grassy prairies6 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,australian ,,interior4 ,geographers have given the name of the fifth division of the globe to that immense archipelago1 or rather1 that mass of archipelagoes which remote geological convulsions have elevated in the ,pacific ,ocean1 between the three continents1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 and whose existence was first revealed to the ,western ,world by the maritime explorations of the ,portuguese and the ,dutch1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,from the epoch when these enterprises commenced1 the spherical figure of the earth was established beyond dispute2 and after the discovery of ,america1 it became only reasonable to suppose that1 in virtue of a law without which our planet could not have maintained its equilibrium in space1 there must exist a continent intended to balance those of the ,northern ,hemisphere4 ,but for many years all the researches of intrepid navigators only led them to the shores of small islands and islets1 not a few of which were barren1 uninhabited1 and swept by the winds of ocean2 while others1 girdled with palms1 enriched with vegetation1 and blessed by bland and genial airs1 seemed to realize the poetical idea of the ,fortunate ,islands1 ,summer isles of ,eden lying in dark purple spheres of sea4 ,at length1 however1 by directing their investigations towards the less submerged region of the ,indian ,ocean1 and by sailing beyond the great eastern islands which seem to have been formerly connected with the ,indian ,peninsula1 the ,portuguese mariners were the first to descry a long line of coast which they did not doubt was that of an ,austral ,continent1 whose satellites1 so to speak1 were the previously discovered islands4 ,this supposed continent is still represented in the old maps published at the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries1 by a mass of ill-defined contours1 with this indication3 ,terra ,australis incognita4 ,the succeeding voyages of ,carpenter1 ,nuyts1 ,tasman1 and the illustrious ,cook1 proved that this ,austral or ,southern ,land was in effect a continent1 or1 at least1 an island of extraordinary dimensions1 whose coasts alone--and these but a small extent inland--were inhabited by miserable tribes1 with black skin1 and hideous features1 placed at the extreme limit which separates man from the brute4 ,the ,dutch navigators1 who had first determined the principal outlines of this continent1 named it ,new ,holland1 but after it passed into the hands of ,england1 it received1 as it still preserves1 the appellation of ,australia4 ,take away from this ,australian ,continent its fertile districts in the south-east1 where have sprung up and developed with amazing rapidity the flourishing colonies of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 and ,queensland1 and what remains8 ,a country entirely wild1 and1 one might almost venture to say1 an immense ,desert4 ,the gloomy aspect and the barrenness of its northern shores1 with few exceptions1 had repulsed the early ,portuguese and ,dutch navigators1 who little suspected what splendid treasures were hidden among its auriferous sands and rocks4 ,they saw but insufficient rivers and scanty vegetation1 and went no further4 ,none of the rivers of ,new ,holland are navigable to any great distance from their mouths4 ,the want of water is severely felt in the interior1 where a treeless desert of sand1 swamps1 and jungle is intersected by streams called creeks1 which are dry for the greater portion of the year2 yet a belief long prevailed that a large sea or fresh-water lake occupied the centre--a belief founded partly on the nature of the soil1 and partly on the circumstance that all the rivers that flow into the sea on the northern coast1 between the ,gulf of ,van ,diemen and ,carpentaria1 converge towards their sources1 as if they served for drains to some large body of water4 ,illustration3 ,,australian ,,landscape4 ,the eastern side of the country is traversed by a great range of thinly timbered down1 clothed with grasses and herbage1 and rising to an elevation of #cejj feet4 ,these are known as the ,blue ,mountains1 and stretch from north to south over nearly thirty degrees of latitude1 from ,cape ,york to ,cape ,wilson4 ,all their western slopes descend gradually towards the interior1 until they are lost in the vast desert plain of the interior4 ,the streams which flow in this direction either pour their waters into the great rivers1 such as the ,darling and the ,murray1 which has an internal navigation of #ahjj miles1 or lose themselves in the marshes and lakes1 which the great summer heats periodically dry up4 ,another chain of mountains stretches from south to north along the western coast of ,australia1 from ,point d',entrecasteaux to ,murchison ,river4 ,a third chain1 in the northern region1 runs from east to west1 between ,camden ,harbour and the ,gulf of ,carpentaria4 ,the interior of the country is1 as ,i have already indicated1 in all probability an immense plain1 thinly sown with trees of the two families of ,acaci and ,eucalypti1 and tenanted by the wombat and the kangaroo4 ,over this vast portion of ,australia1 which still remains a blank upon the map1 numerous expeditions of discovery have been attempted since the earliest days of ,european colonization4 ,hardy pioneers--those men who are the real1 but obscure1 and speedily forgotten founders of empires--have sacrificed their lives in the endeavour to lay down a track across the great island-continent from north to south4 ,anglo-,saxon enterprise no sooner found itself securely planted on the sea-coast1 than it felt that behind it lay a continent to acquire1 and the indomitable instinct of the race bade it continue its mission of colonization4 ,during the last quarter of a century1 the colonial governments have liberally encouraged these explorations1 and the annals of ,australian discovery have been illuminated by the names of ,eyre 7#ahdj71 ,sturt 7#ahde71 ,leichardt 7#ahdf-dh71 ,kennedy 7#ahdh71 and ,m',douall ,stuart 7#aheh-fb71 second to none among our ,english discoverers in patience1 resolution1 and heroic daring4 ,the problem remained3 to cross the central wilderness of ,australia1 and prove the possibility of a passage from the southern shores to the northern1 from ,melbourne to the ,gulf of ,carpentaria4 ,this problem was finally solved1 at no light cost1 by the intrepid ,burke and energetic ,wills4 ,on the #bjth of ,april #ahfj1 there set out from ,melbourne1 under the auspices of the ,government of ,victoria1 a small troop of gallant explorers1 under the immediate direction of ,robert ,o',hara ,burke1 a man well-fitted for his post3 born in the county of ,galway in #ahba1 after having served as captain in a ,hungarian regiment1 he had discharged for several years the duties of inspector of a body of the colonial police4 ,the second in command was a brave young ,englishman1 ,william ,john ,wills1 twenty-six years of age1 an assistant in the ,observatory at ,melbourne4 ,the expedition consisted of eighteen persons1 and was provided with horses1 camels which had been expressly imported from ,arabia1 waggons1 all kinds of scientific instruments1 and the necessary amount of stores and provisions for a protracted journey4 ,cooper's ,creek1 which marked about a third of the whole distance1 was fixed upon as place of rendezvous and as the final starting-point4 ,thither1 to save time1 ,burke and ,wills1 with six men1 six camels1 five horses1 and some months' provisions1 proceeded in advance of the main body2 and arriving there on the #acth of ,december1 ,burke established a dept1 left it in charge of ,brah1 a petty officer1 and three assistants1 and with ,wills1 a couple of men 7,king and ,gray71 the camels1 and one horse1 plunged on the #afth into the trackless ,australian wilds4#ih ,keeping nearly due north1 and near or upon the meridian of #adj ,e41 they traversed1 day after day1 well-watered plains1 with numerous clumps of wood1 and tolerable indications of a good grazing country4 ,on the #abth of ,february #ahfa1 the four travellers had conquered every obstacle1 and struck the marshes on the ,albert ,river1 which flows into the ,gulf of ,carpentaria4 ,their goal was reached1 and the problem of a connecting route between north and south successfully solved4 ,the vast ,australian solitudes hitherto traversed had presented every variety of aspect1 from the stony plateaux and the watery sands where the rivers can keep no regular channel1 and where wide spaces of dry bare ground separate great shallows of brackish water1 to finely irrigated plains1 clothed with herbs or bushes1 and promising abundant resources for future colonists4 ,meteorological phenomena present in these regions the greatest uncertainties3 either the dry season is so protracted as to ruin all vegetation1 or the rains so thoroughly deluge the soil as by a contrary cause to ensure the same result4 ,these climatic contradictions explain the variations observable in the narratives of the different travellers who have visited the interior4 ,one point1 however1 is beyond all doubt2 the hopeless sterility of ,nuyts ,land1--that immense sandy tract which1 over an extent as yet unknown1 is regarded as impassable1 and stretches along the southern coast between ,spencer ,gulf and ,king ,george ,harbour4 ,as before said1 the primary cause of the barrenness of ,central ,australia is the lack of water--running water and rain water4 ,yet the most sterile portions lie far nearer the coast than was formerly credited2 and monotonous as may be the descriptions of explorers1 so far as the landscapes of ,central ,australia are concerned1 we may from to-day consider that1 with the exception of certain points1 no obstacles exist sufficiently powerful to arrest the expansion of ,european colonization1 in a country especially where cattle-breeding is the principal industry1 and the one which takes precedence of all others4 ,the chief difficulty encountered by each exploring party has been the penury of natural products of the soil adapted for human food4 ,the traveller is compelled to carry with him a sufficiency of provisions to last him from his departure until his return4 ,it was this insufficiency of rations which wrought the fatal dnouement of the glorious enterprise of ,burke and ,wills4 ,after reaching the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 there remained nothing more for ,burke and his three companions but to retrace their steps to their dept at ,cooper's ,creek4 ,but their energies were exhausted1 and from the beginning of ,april their provisions failed them4 ,at the close of ten or twelve days' march1 they were constrained to kill a horse4 ,in the following week1 ,gray succumbed to the excessive fatigue4 ,the three survivors dragged themselves on to the dept1 where they arrived on the morning of the #bast of ,april4 ,but the men whom they had left in charge had taken their departure that very morning1 after waiting long beyond the time originally fixed for their return4 ,you may imagine our consternation1 says ,wills in his ,journal1 under the date of ,april #bast2 four months of harassing marches and privations of every kind had completely exhausted our strength4 ,it was an extremely difficult task for either of us to accomplish a distance of only a few yards4 ,the effort necessary to ascend the smallest elevation of the ground1 even without a burden1 induces an indescribable sensation of pain and helplessness1 and the general lassitude makes one unfit for anything4 ,there was no resource now but to rejoin ,brah and his men1 if possible4 ,before quitting the dept1 the latter had left a small supply of provisions1 which proved eminently serviceable4 ,on the #bcrd ,burke1 ,wills1 and ,king resumed their march1 at the rate of four or five miles a-day1 in the direction of ,mount ,despair1 which was about sixty miles distant1 and where were placed the most advanced posts1 northward1 of ,south ,australia4 ,a terrible fatality1 however1 seemed to pursue them2 one of their camels1 ,landa1 perished in a bog2 the other1 ,rajah1 they were soon forced to kill for food2 then they themselves were compelled by sheer exhaustion to return to the dept1 which1 meanwhile1 had been revisited by ,brah without his discovering a trace of their brief sojourn4 ,thus abandoned to perish in the ,desert1 they existed upon the bounty of such natives as they met with1 and who occasionally supplied them with a few fish and a little nardoo1 an aquatic plant whose pounded seeds the aborigines make into bread4 ,such a regimen was insufficient to restore their exhausted strength4 ,illustration3 ,,burke1 ,,wills1 ,,and ,,king ,,in ,,the ,,deserts ,,of ,,central ,,australia4 ,early in ,june their afflictions were aggravated by a deplorable catastrophe4 ,the flames of their bivouac fire1 driven by a strong wind1 reduced to ashes their hut and all that they possessed4 ,there was nothing for them now but to live with the friendly natives who had succoured them4 ,unfortunately1 they had disappeared4 ,it was in vain they attempted to seek them out2 ,burke and ,wills never saw them again4 ,on ,saturday the #bith of ,june1 the latter1 utterly exhausted1 insisted that his companions should leave him in the wilderness1 while they continued their search after the natives4 ,unwillingly they consented1 and taking a solemn farewell of their unfortunate comrade1 they dragged themselves away with aching hearts4 ,four or five days afterwards1 ,king returned with some birds he had contrived to kill1 but found ,wills asleep in the arms of death4 ,king was now alone1 for the intrepid ,burke had also fallen a victim to the cruel spirit of the wilderness1 resting on the barren ground1 with his face upturned to the southern stars4 ,the sole survivor was fortunate enough to fall in with the natives1 who welcomed him cordially1 and carried him with them from camp to camp4 ,after two months and a half of this strange existence1 he was discovered by a relief party sent out from ,melbourne1 under the command of ,mr4 ,howitt 7,september #ae1 #ahfa71 who also gathered the remains of the two gallant but ill-fated leaders1 and reverently consigned them to a decent grave4 ,they had not died in vain4 ,from the shores of ,port ,philip to those of the ,gulf of ,carpentaria they had discovered and marked out a practicable route2 and when the great ,australian colonies shall have pushed forward into the interior1 and have occupied the borders of the northern gulf1 they will remember with gratitude the brave explorers who sacrificed their lives to effect the passage from one sea to the other4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,african ,,plains4 ,the facts actually ascertained in reference to the ,flora of the plains of ,central ,africa1 although as yet of a limited character1 form as a whole too comprehensive a subject to be fully discussed in these pages4 ,i must1 therefore1 confine myself to a rapid survey of the principal botanical features of the countries whose general features and physical aspect ,i have sketched in the preceding chapters4 ,senegambia and ,upper ,guinea1 on the west coast of ,africa1 form a low table-land1 situated upwards of #cjjj feet above the sea-level1 and furrowed by deep gorges1 in whose rocky beds the rivers roll and foam1 fed by the waters of numerous streams4 ,grassy savannahs and wide cultivated areas are here inhabited by a numerous population4 ,several travellers have explored these regions2 but all have specially applied themselves to make known the colossal plants which flourish therein1 and those1 first and foremost1 which have a particular interest1 either from their ,anak-like stature or the manifold uses of their products4 ,i shall have occasion to speak of the arborescent species which1 in this part of the ,old ,continent1 blend in immense and impenetrable forests4 ,but owing to this very circumstance we possess few details respecting the plants which clothe the vast plains of ,senegambia and ,upper ,guinea4 ,we only know that there1 as everywhere1 the great family of the ,gramine is largely represented4 ,in general these species far exceed in height the plants which make the wealth and glory of our ,english meads2 and they chiefly belong to the tribe of ,panice4 ,a legion of ,cassias inhabit the low fresh hills of the ,senegambian lands2 and some are held in high estimation for their fruit1 as the ,cassia1 or ,senna1 which is considered one of the most active purgatives4 ,the species generally recognized as best adapted for medicinal purposes are those with oboval and those with obtuse leaves--,cassia obovata and ,cassia obtusifolia4 ,the former is a perennial herbaceous plant1 from one to two feet high1 with smooth egg-shaped leaves and racemes of yellow flowers2 the latter differs only in the form of its leaves1 which are short and broad1 or obtuse4 ,many of the cereals are cultivated in ,senegambia on a very large scale2 but they differ wholly from those which engage the attention of the ,european agriculturist4 ,barley will not grow even on the most elevated plateaux1 on account of the constant and excessive heat4 ,it is true that it will germinate2 but it develops so rapidly that it passes through all the phases of its vegetation in the space of a few weeks1 and yields but impoverished ears empty of grains2 it is useless to the people of ,senegambia except as forage4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there are numerous ,gramine adapted to hot regions1 which the natives cultivate for their uses4 ,among others ,i may name the ,tocussa and the ,coracan 7,eleasine ,tocussa and ,e4 ,corocana71 with their curved digitate spikes and productive seeds2 the ,pennicellaria spicata1 or ,guinea ,corn1 a very tall grass1 somewhat resembling maize1 whose long cylindrical culms or blades bear each a multitude of white round grains1 which1 ground into meal1 form very savoury cakes1 as you may read in ,mungo ,park's ,travels2 and the ,durra1 ,doura1 ,indian ,millet1 or ,sorgho ,grass 7,sorghum71 a coarse1 strong1 broad-leaved grass1 four to eight feet high1 with a round grain a little larger than mustard seed2 it is the principal corn-plant of ,africa1 and exceedingly nutritious1 the natives employing it in the preparation of a favourite dish named ,kouskoussou4 ,the cereals most widely cultivated in ,senegal include the ,colonial ,millet 7,oplismenus colonus72 the ,abyssinian ,meadow ,grass 7,poa ,abyssinica71 called ,teff in ,abyssinia1 whose seeds are used for making bread1 and whose blades yield an abundant herbage2 ,rice 7,oryza sativa71 and different varieties of maize4 ,leguminous plants appear wanting in ,senegal4 ,their absence is probably due to the same causes as those which we have indicated as affecting the growth of barley4 ,cabbages and the different salads grow1 in fact1 with a rapidity which prevents them from maturing2 they flower in two or three weeks after being sown4 ,the inhabitants consequently resort to those alimentary species which belong to hot countries1 and which can only be obtained in ,europe at an enormous expense and by artificial means4 ,among the plants with edible roots are various kinds of ,yams 7such as the ,dioscorea alata72 ,batatas 7,convolvulus ,batatas72 and the ,manioc or ,manihot 7,jatropha ,manihot71#ii better known as ,cassava1 which1 although in itself a deadly poison1 is easily deprived by heat of its noxious properties1 and when roasted or boiled becomes a nutritious and highly savoury food4 ,it yields the valuable farinaceous material of ,tapioca4 ,its leaves are cooling and healing2 from its seeds an excellent oil is procured2 and the juice which drops from its root serves for empoisoning arrows4 ,good and evil are both strangely mixed in this important plant4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,african ,,plains4 #a4 ,guinea ,corn 7,pennicillaria spicata74 #b4 ,sorgho ,grass 7,sorghum cernuum74 #c4 ,manihot 7,jatropha ,manihot74 #d4 ,yam 7,dioscorea alata74 #e4 ,screw ,pine 7,pandanus candelabrum74 #f4 ,black ,pepper 7,piper nigrum74 ,the ,corchorus olitorius1#ajj an annual cultivated in ,egypt as a potherb1 is largely grown in ,senegal for the tenacious fibres of its root and the oily juices of its seeds4 ,the ,black ,pepper 7,piper nigrum7 of ,india and the ,sunda ,isles we find perfectly acclimatized in this part of ,africa1 and it flourishes even in a wild state4 ,finally1 the ,coffee-tree 7,coffea ,arabica71 the ,cocoa 7,theobroma ,cacao71 ,indigo 7,indigofera tinctoria71 and the ,cocos oleracea1 are among the cultivated plants of ,senegambia4 ,in northern ,guinea and the ,gaboon1 recently made famous by ,du ,chaillu's discovery of the gorilla1 ,savannahs and cultivated districts are intermingled1 though their flora is still imperfectly known4 ,a great number of grasses adorn the fresh and humid prairies1 and sedges and reeds abound1 while1 on the river-banks1 in shady nooks1 flourish some of the ,screw-pine tribe1#aja notably the ,pandanus ,candelabrum1 a highly curious plant1 which attracts one's attention by its mode of vegetation1 its graceful ribbon-like foliage1 and its small fragrant flowers4 ,thatching and cordage are obtained from the fibrous leaves2 the fruit resembles a richly-coloured pine-apple1 but is insipid to the taste4 ,the ,savannahs of the neighbouring provinces1 and especially those of the ,gold ,coast1 are in general sparsely inhabited1 nor are those on the banks of the ,niger an exception2 man shrinks from a region which the deadly malaria seems to claim as its own4 ,the flora is very poor1 consisting chiefly of aquatic grasses1 with blades of moderate height1 and leaves of comparatively little succulence4 ,the herbaceous plants1 suitable for food or industrial uses1 which are most frequently met with in ,guinea and the ,gaboon1 resemble those already described as belonging also to ,senegambia4 ,but there are many different ,arums1 such as the ,caladium segmium and ,colocasia mucronatum1 properly known as ,taro1 ,tara1 or ,tayo1 and employed in making granulate sugar from the stem of the former1 and in boiling or roasting for food the rhizom of the latter2 ,tobacco2 the ox-heart ,annona1 a plant sometimes cultivated in ,europe1 where it never fructifies1 though its aromatic fruits are its most valuable product1 and are highly esteemed by the ,africans1--these ,custard ,apples resembling thick cream1 and being eaten1 like cream1 with a spoon2 the ,banana1#ajb with its gigantic foliage--precious ,musa ,sapientum --valuable not only to wise men1 but foolish men1 as a substitute for wheat or the breadfruit tree1 and gratifying the savage with a succulent and nutritious food4 ,forty or fifty banana plants will flourish in a square space of one thousand feet1 and an acre of ground will yield sufficient provision for fifty men4 ,that area of land which1 sown with wheat1 would feed only one man1 will nourish five-and-twenty if planted with bananas4 ,i must not forget the ,pistachios1#ajc which flourish spontaneously in the vast plains of ,central ,africa1 and the highly valuable ,sugar ,cane 7,saccharum officinarum71 which1 like the ,cotton ,plant1 has rendered inestimable services to man1 and yet has been the origin of unutterable crime and misery1 promoting by its cultivation the accursed slave-trade4 ,the ,vine 7,vitis vinifera7 is cultivated in a few districts4 ,among the herbaceous or sub-frutescent plants peculiar to this region1 and which enjoy a certain reputation on account of the utility of their products1 ,i may name the following3-- ,the ,calebash ,nutmeg 7,monodora myristica71 one of the ,annonace1 remarkable for its withered fruits1 which1 when rasped like its seeds1 furnish a condiment deservedly esteemed by the natives2 ,guinea ,pepper 7,uvaria thiopica71 whose properties are well known and appreciated in this part of ,western ,africa2 and finally1 one of the ,cucurbitace1 the ,telfairia pedata1 whose seeds enclose a very oleaginous substance4 ,to the east1 in ,nigritia or the ,soudan1 the country is nearly level1 although situated at an elevation of #abjj to #acjj feet above the sea4 ,the vegetation here is very scanty2 yet the copious tropical rains favour the growth of plants suitable for the provender of cattle2 pastures are abundant1 and formed by the principal ,grasses 7,panicum ,setaria1 and the like71 the ,sedges1 ,rushes1 c4 ,these meads are clothed with verdure for three or four months of the year1 and much frequented by the shepherds who dwell in the vicinity of ,lake ,tchad4 ,still further eastward1 if we continue our wanderings1 we plunge into the warm regions of ,darfour and ,kordofan4 ,here the country is cast in bold outlines2 numerous lofty mountain-chains are intersected by narrow valleys and smooth expanses of meadow-land4 ,all that portion of ,kordofan which lies west of the ,white ,nile is a ,prairie some thirty-five miles long by twenty-eight broad1 stretching towards the rising sun1 and relieved by small patches of shrubs of the family ,leguminos1 especially the ,mimosa1 with its graceful shrinking foliage1 which shudders at the lightest touch1 and its spherical rose-hued or snow-white blossoms4 ,these meadow-lands suffer from excessive aridity2 it is only with an arduous struggle that a few grasses resist the dryness which almost constantly prevails2 and frequently1 as is the case in other parts of ,western ,africa1 the inhabitants can only procure water for their needs by sinking wells of extraordinary depth4 ,less arid1 the southern part of ,kordofan is better clothed with vegetation2 the country is more broken1 and increases in picturesqueness of aspect as we approach the neighbourhood of ,mount ,tegeler4 ,sennaar1 which is traversed by the ,blue ,nile1 is far from offering an equally luxuriant vegetation3 along the river extends a vast belt of meadow1 generally barren1 or only blessed with a few herbaceous plants1 a few ,leguminos1 with deeply-buried roots2 and its aspect1 therefore1 is one of great gloom4 ,the landscape wants ,the glory in the grass1 and the splendour in the flower which appeal so potently to the sensibilities of the poet4 ,nor does the scenery improve as we ascend the ,sennaar to the ,lake of ,zana1 situated to the south-east1 for though the rich black soil of the ,kulla valley nourishes a profuse vegetation1 it is the vegetation peculiar to the marsh and the swamp2 the wind rushes through thick sedges1 and whispering reeds1 and waving grasses4 ,on the northern borders of the lake the pasturages are fresh and green1 and a man might easily lurk unseen among their gigantic ,gramine1 the ,panicas and the ,setarias4 ,still keeping our faces eastward1 like the ,ghebirs of ancient ,iran1 we perceive that ,abyssinia is divided into two parts by the ,river ,tacazze1 an affluent of the ,nile2 the western being called ,amhora1 and the eastern ,tigr4 ,owing to its peculiar geographical configuration and the elevation of its mountains1 ,abyssinia rejoices in a wholly special ,flora4 ,in the ,semen1 west of the ,tacazze1 there is a mountain lifting its crest above the limit of perpetual snow1 or to an altitude of #ad1jjj feet4 ,up to a height of #fejj feet its slopes are thickly carpeted with fresh and fragrant sward1 and the air throbs with the music of a hundred streams which flow from the perennial fountains of ice and snow4 ,in the ,tigr the country is not fertile1 nor is it well populated4 ,its geological features are interesting1 for we meet everywhere with isolated masses of limestone1 arranged generally in horizontal strata of various extent1 and bearing indisputable traces of a vast volcanic labour4 ,on the coast of the ,red ,sea1 the oriental slopes only present at their base a few scattered thickets chiefly composed of thorny shrubs and the ,leguminos4 ,we meet also with various kinds of ,aloes and ,euphorbiace 7,spurge-,worts71 as the ,euphorbia neriifolia1 ,euphorbia grandidens1 and ,euphorbia ,abyssinica4 ,it is said that ,king ,juba ,,ii41 of ,mauritania1 discovered the plant growing on ,mount ,atlas1 wrote a short treatise on its virtues1 and named it after his physician ,euphorbos 7about the end of the first century ,b4,c47 ,the root1 generally speaking1 is aperient1 and the milky juice useful in cases of rheumatism and cramp4 ,the plains of ,tigr present a beautiful appearance with the variety of flowers that bloom among the grass2 including a kind of scarlet aloe1 which is to be met with almost everywhere in ,tigr1 and appears1 like our gorse1 to flower at all seasons1 forming a graceful object in the foreground4 ,the many varieties of mimosas1 too1 with their different-coloured blossoms--pink1 yellow1 and white--appear to be spread over the whole face of the country1 whether rock or plain1 hill or valley4 ,when in blossom1 says an ,english traveller1#ajd many of them emit a fragrance so powerful as to render the whole neighbourhood more odorous than a perfumer's shop4 ,the jessamine is seen in profusion in many parts1 but principally on the hills2 and there is also a beautiful parasitical creeper 7an schynanthus71 which grows1 like the mistletoe1 from the bark of other trees4 ,it has a bright dark-green fleshy leaf1 with brilliant scarlet flowers4 ,the same traveller describes a tree called the dima1#aje which1 though not very solid as food1 adds much to the flavour of the cuisine4 ,it has a large greenish shell1 some nine inches long2 inside of it lie a number of seeds1 and attached to them by fibres a quantity of yellowish-white cakey powder1 having a sweetish acid taste1 and when mixed with water forming an agreeable beverage1 somewhat resembling lemonade4 ,the ,abyssinians mix with it red pepper and salt1 and eat it as a relish with their bread4 ,when the tree reaches a certain size1 its trunk almost always becomes hollow2 and then it frequently contains a store of wild honey1 which may easily be obtained by means of a small axe and fire4 ,more to the south1 in the ,shoa1 we meet with an almost analogous vegetation3 the ,socotrine ,aloes 7,aloe socotrina71 which supplies our ,pharmacopoeia with an active cathartic1 is particularly abundant4 ,the ,celastrus edulis1#ajf a small branching shrub whose leaves possess very similar properties to those of the ,tea-plant1 and are employed for the same purpose by the ,abyssinians1 is widely cultivated4 ,the ,arabs distil from them a stimulating drink called ,kat4 ,nor should ,i forget the ,cousso1 or ,casso1 named after its discoverer ,brayera anthelmintica1#ajg an infusion of whose bark or leaves forms one of the most powerful vermifuges in the world2 and the ,musa ensete1 a magnificent banana1 with gigantic leaves and nerves of a vivid red1 which now flourishes in our ,european plantations4 ,among the cultivated plants may be included most of those which ,i have noticed under the head of ,senegambia2 while1 owing to the considerable elevation of the mountains1 we find many others which belong to cool and temperate climates--such1 for example1 as rye and barley4 ,the ,sugar ,cane1 the ,pomegranate1 and numerous ,aurantiace1 as1 for example1 the ,citron and the ,orange1 have been likewise introduced into this part of ,southern ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,south ,,africa4 #a4 ,mesembryanthemum inflexum4 #b4 ,hottentot's ,fig 7,mes4 edule74 #c4 ,euphorbia neriifolia4 #d4 ,euphorbia grandidens4 #e4 ,stapelia hirsuta4 ,from the coast of ,aden1 where almost complete sterility prevails prior to the rainy season--from the coast of ,aden to ,cape ,guardafui1 situated at the easternmost point of ,africa1 the traveller encounters a constant succession of mountains or elevated table-lands1 haunted by the shepherds of the ,somali tribes1--a people notorious for their brigandage4 ,respecting the coast of ,ajan we know but little1 except that its arid and sandy soil supports a scanty vegetation of stunted plants4 ,the ,zanguebar coast is not more familiar to the botanist1 and is mainly covered with marshes4 ,but the littoral of ,western ,africa is gifted with a flora as luxuriant as it is varied4 ,according to ,dr4 ,welwitsch1 who has explored this region1 previously almost a terra incognita to ,europeans1 the special feature in the neighbourhood of ,benguela is the abundance of parasitical ,lorunthace1 or mistletoe1 on the thickets of the thorny ,mimosa1 to which are attached those ,roccell 7or ,archils71 the ,roccella tinctoria and ,r4 fuciformis1 that yield so brilliant a lilac dye4 ,in the gardens of ,benguela the vegetables of ,europe are most successfully cultivated1 as well as a great number of fruit trees belonging both to tropical and temperate climes3 citron and orange1 the olive1 the cashew-nut1 the anana1 the fig1 the vine1 the pomegranate1 the elais-palm1 the banana1 the anona1 and the corrossol4 ,the vine bears grapes twice every year1 and the crop on each occasion is abundant and of fine flavour4 ,the gardens in the vicinity of ,mossamdes1 between the fifteenth and sixteenth parallels of south latitude1 exhibit a curious medley of vegetables on every side1 where you may see flourishing side by side the banana and the potato1 manioc and wheat1 sugar-cane and flax1 barley1 and every kind of ,spanish potato4 ,a few miles from ,cape ,negro the coast rises for from #cjj to #cej feet above the sea-level1 forming a continuous plateau1 where the flora1 though meagre when compared with that a little further to the north1 offers nevertheless to the traveller some objects of the highest interest4 ,it was here that ,dr4 ,welwitsch met with the strange plant which1 in commemoration of its intrepid discoverer1 ,sir ,william ,hooker named ,welwitschia1#ajh but which the natives call ,tumboa4 ,in its youth its two original cotyledonary leaves appear to grow considerably1 and extend horizontally in opposite directions1 raised but little above the surface of the sand1 whilst the intervening stock thickens and hardens1 assuming an obconical shape1 flat at the top1 and rapidly tapering below into the descending root4 ,as years go on1 the original pair of leaves1 having attained their full size1 and a hard1 tough1 fibrous consistence1 do not die away1 but gradually split up into shreds2 the woody mass which bears them rises very little higher1 but increases horizontally both above and below the insertion of the leaves1 so as to clasp their base in a deep marginal slit or cavity2 and from the upper side1 at the base of the leaf1 several short flowering stalks are annually developed4 ,these are erect1 dichotomously branched jointed stems1 rising from six inches to a foot in height1 and bearing a pair of small opposite scales at each fork or joint1 each branch being terminated by an oblong cone1 under the scales of which are the flowers and seeds4 ,the result is1 that the country is studded with these misshapen table-like or anvil-like masses of wood1 whose flat tops1 pitted with the scars of old flowering stems1 never rise above a foot from the ground1 but vary1 according to age1 in a horizontal diameter of from a few inches to five or six feet--those of about eighteen inches diameter being supposed to be already above a hundred years old4#aji ,these fantastic monstrous shapes were found by ,dr4 ,welwitsch1 with their deeply-embedded roots1 on the dry plateau of the ,benguela coast1 in #ae #dj south latitude4 ,herr ,montein met with it in a perfectly similar situation on quartzose soil1 in the neighbourhood of the ,nicolas ,river1 #ad #bj south latitude2 and ,mr4 ,baines and ,mr4 ,anderson1 in ,dawaraland1 between #bb and #bc south latitude1 in the neighbourhood of ,whalefish ,bay1 and in a district where never a drop of rain falls4 ,we may therefore place the habitat of this remarkable plant between the #adth and #bcrd parallels of south latitude4 ,the crown1 when divested of its leaves1 bears a close resemblance to a fungus4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,of ,,cape ,,colony4 #a4 ,aloe verrucosa4 #b4 ,aloe soccotrina4 #c4 ,aloe ciliaris4 #d4 ,aloe arborescens4 #e4 ,aloe plicatilis4 #f4 ,gladiolus blandus4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,of ,,cape ,,colony4 #a4 ,helichrysum fruticosum4 #b4 ,erica ,cavendishiana4 #c4 ,protea longifolia4 #d4 ,todea ,africana4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,of ,,cape ,,colony4 #a4 ,pelargonium hederfolium 7,ivy-leaved ,geranium74 #b4 ,oxalis rosacea 7,wood-,sorrel74 #c4 ,pelargonium glaucum4 #d4 ,pelargonium zonale 7,zone-leaved ,geranium74 #e4 ,pelargonium tricuspidatum4 ,if we now approach the ,cape of ,good ,hope--the ,cabo del ,tormentoso1 or ,cape of ,storms1 of the early navigators--we shall observe a characteristic vegetation peculiar to a solid or stony soil1 sometimes hilly1 but generally dry4 ,it is in the desolate and barren steppes situated within the confines of ,caffraria that those splendid herbaceous bulbous plants display their beauties1 which are now familiar to our ,english gardens under the names of ,gladiolus1 ,oxalis1 ,ixia1 and ,tulbaya4 ,to those magnificent ornaments of the floral world we must add some less known plants1 remarkable in other respects2 such as the ,mollugo cerviana1 which1 with a few ,ficoide1 form the almost exclusive nourishment of the herbivorous animals belonging to these countries4 ,the ,gramine are rare in the plains of ,cape ,colony1 but1 on the other hand1 they contain a number of oleaginous plants included in divers families4 ,here1 for instance1 are those singular ,composit1 whose stems so closely resemble waxen tapers2 several ,ficoide1 of which some species--as1 notably1 the ,mesembryanthemum edule1 or ,hottentot's ,fig1 distributed over the interior of ,southern ,africa1 and the ,mesembryanthemum tuberosum--are eagerly sought by the ,hottentots1 ,caffres1 and natives generally1 who eat the fruits of the former and the roots of the latter2 the ,stapelia hirsuta1 or ,carrion ,plant1 and several others of the same genus1 whose carrion-smelling flowers are singularly handsome1 though their odour is most offensive2 a great number of aloes1 particularly the ,aloe verrucosa1 ,a4 ciliaris1 ,a4 plicatilis1 and ,a4 arborescens1 each distinguished by a strange wayward boldness of form and figure2 and1 finally1 those larger ,euphorbias of which ,i have already spoken1 and which yield a white milky juice that hardens on exposure to the air4 ,it is mainly on the slopes or stony hills of the ,cape that we meet with numerous and remarkable species of the ,immortelles1 with their white1 yellow1 or lilac1 and satin-smooth flowers4 ,the woody ,immortelle 7,helichrysum fruticosum7 is one of those peculiar to the ,cape districts4 ,it is in analogous but more sandy localities that those graceful little shrubs1 with varied corollas1 flourish1 which are so popular in ,england under the name of ,ericas1 and which frequently exhibit the highest beauty of form and colour4 ,in the engraving is figured the exquisite ,erica ,cavendishiana1 a deservedly great favourite in our ,english conservatories4 ,there1 too1 the traveller delightedly examines the almost interminable succession of ,pelargoniums1 or ,geraniums1 rich in clusters of delicate bloom1 and in exquisitely green foliage4 ,what a blank would their absence leave in our blossomy parterres6 ,here and there he notes dense coppices of the ,arduinia spinosa1 the ,lycium ,afrum1 the ,eucla ondulata1 whose berries are eaten by the ,hottentots2 several species of ,rhus1#aaj among others the ,rhus lucidum2 and1 finally1 a great number of the strange fantastic ,proteace1 with their hard dry evergreen leaves and curiously beautiful flowers4 ,at the foot of the mountains1 in the countries bordering on ,caffraria1 different ,cycadace are found1 especially the ,zamia and ,encephalartus1 an elegant plant with a short spherical trunk1 surmounted by a crown of long rigid palmated leaves4 ,the natives prepare with their pith a species of cake which they eat instead of bread4 ,ferns are not numerous at the ,cape2 the most remarkable1 undoubtedly1 is the ,todea ,africana4 ,the hills and meadows of this part of ,south ,africa do not always exhibit so marked an aridity2 rivers and streams refresh the soil1 and there1 where the current is not too swift nor the depth too great1 grows the beautiful ,calla of ,ethiopia1 a species of ,aroidea1 whose snow-white fragrant flowers resemble a large horn in shape2 the ,aponogeton distachyum1 another aquatic plant1 with white flowers and floating leaves1 is not less common in similar positions2 then on the banks1 in fresh and shady nooks of greenery1 thrives the ,strelitzia regin1 a gorgeous-flowered genus of ,musace1 named after ,charlotte of ,mecklenburg-,strelitz1 queen of ,george ,,iii4 ,the foliage of this magnificent plant consists of long-stalked leaves sheathing at the base1 arising from a contracted stem1 the flower stalk encircled below by the sheath of the leaf-stalk2 while from its upper portion springs a large bract or spathe placed obliquely1 within which lie the flowers1 resplendent in orange and purple4 ,in the ,desert of ,kalahari exists an abundant and varied vegetation4 ,according to ,dr4 ,livingstone1 it is an immense plain which nourishes a prodigious quantity of herbaceous plants1 generally of very small elevation1 and besprinkled at intervals with thickets of bushy shrubs4 ,the herbs which are enabled to withstand the prolonged droughts of these arid localities are species with tuberous roots1 creeping or spindle-like1 and deeply buried in the ground4 ,the ,citrullus vulgaris and ,c4 amarus are found in enormous quantities4 ,dr4 ,livingstone speaks of another individual of the gourd tribe1 probably a kind of ,cucumis1 whose fruits colour red when ripe1 and which has sometimes a sweet and sometimes a bitter flavour4 ,in these vast regions1 where a desolating aridity prevails1 the rivers and streams dry up for a great portion of the year1 and the soil of their bed1 generally black and loamy1 is rapidly covered with a profuse vegetation1 composed in great part of grasses and rush-plants4 ,the banks of the rivers ,mokolo and ,zouga1 and the shores of ,lake ,ngami1 are covered with herbs and small thorny stunted bushes1 including the ,acacia detinens4 ,in the south of ,africa the soil is so dry that only plants of a fleshy consistency can endure the heat2 elsewhere1 in more temperate climes1 these latter plants are also very abundant1 but the surrounding herbage destroys them4 ,among those which grow there in great numbers ,i may name the ,ficoide1 and particularly the ,mesembryanthemum inflexum1 which is very widely spread1 and whose stems and leaves are eaten by herbivorous animals4 ,this plant1 says ,dr4 ,livingstone1 is so useful that it is cultivated by the ,dutch ,boers on an extensive scale4 ,on his northward route towards ,linianty1 this illustrious traveller fell in with meadows of such rank fertility that its herbage frequently rose above his vehicles4 ,the natives1 designated ,makalatos1 show some agricultural taste and skill1 and cultivate durra1 maize1 two kinds of beans1 arachides1 pumpkins1 and the like4 ,everywhere1 along the banks of the ,gambye and the ,liba1 he met with exceptionally fertile land1 where the grasses attained an unusual development4 ,on the ,liba bloomed wide verdurous plains1 consisting of plants with dazzling corollas and gramine of tall stature4 ,owing to the burning heats which blight these districts1 herbaceous plants are developed with extraordinary rapidity4 ,in the rainy season the ,liba meadows are covered1 like our own1 with an immense variety of mushrooms1 some nutritious1 others poisonous4 ,the former are much relished by the natives4 ,one of the most common1 and one of the finest flavour1 is found1 says ,dr4 ,livingstone1 on all the ant-hills2 it is completely white1 very good even when eaten raw1 and about eight inches in diameter4 ,there is another of a brilliant red or superb blue1 but it is poisonous4 ,the banks of the ,quilo1 like those of the ,quango1 are endowed with a most luxurious vegetation2 the same is the case with the banks of the ,zambesi4 ,everywhere spreads a gigantic and abundant herbage4 ,in the environs of the small town of ,cassanga1 the natives cultivate manioc1 potatoes1 haricots1 tomatoes1 c4 ,there are found also bananas and guava plants1 and probably all the legumes and fruit trees recognized by ,dr4 ,welwitsch at ,benguela1 which lies nearly under the same latitude4 ,from the table-land of ,cassanga you may survey nearly the whole of the valley watered by the ,quango4 ,it is a gently undulating plain1 covered with herbs1 and sown with great woods4 ,the coffee-tree was formerly cultivated in the province of ,tt1 but has been abandoned2 cassias1 however1 flourish1 and indigo4 ,among the cultivated plants of ,tt ,livingstone1 moreover1 mentions some species which are not yet botanically distinguished--such as the ,loatsa 7,pennisetum typhoideum71 and several of the bean tribe1 one of which grows underground like the arachides4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies1 ,,pampas1 ,,and ,,llanos ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world4 ,of all the provinces1 as yet uninhabited or only scantily peopled1 which compose the northern regions of the ,new ,world1 none offer so vast an extent of prairies as that which is situated in the vicinity of the ,neosho and the ,vert-de-,gris1 between the ,missouri frontier and the ,river ,arkansas4 ,woods of small extent--or1 more generally1 limited patches of copse and thicket--are met with at intervals in these plains4 ,the ,smilax rotundifolia1 a species of sarsaparilla1 with round leaves and sarmentous stems2 the ,rhus toxicodendrum1 a shrub with a very poisonous juice2 and the ,asimina triloba1 a plant bearing nutritious fruit1 are1 with a few other subfrutescent species1 the denizens of these lonely localities4 ,annual or perennial plants abound in the prairies1 and attain there a considerable development1 especially in the more humid districts4 ,the plains bordering on the ,swan's ,marsh1 situated upon the upper course of the ,river ,osage1 nourish a great number of species1 as elegant as they are varied4 ,as in our own meadows1 the ,gramine1 the ,cyperace 7or ,sedges71 the ,leguminos1 and the ,composit--the latter especially--are very extensively diffused4 ,but1 in contrast to the majority of our species1 their representatives are in general of remarkable dimensions1 with flowers of extraordinary splendour1 and most of them have been naturalized in our ,british gardens4 ,the ,american prairies1 again1 like the meadow-lands of ,europe1 are alternated with dry1 gravelly spaces1 marshes1 swampy angles1 and wooded tracts4 ,it is curious to trace a certain likeness between the genera which inhabit these localities in both continents4 ,thus1 ,m4 ,trcul1 who explored1 in #ahdh and #ahdi1 nearly the whole of the ,state of ,missouri to the foot of the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,louisiana1 ,texas1 and a part of ,northern ,mexico1 discovered in the vicinity of the ,swan's ,marsh1 ,water-,plantains 7,alisma71 ,sagittarias1 and ,nymphas1 in the inundated districts2 ,charace--their tubular branches incrusted with carbonate of lime--bladder-plants1 and the beautiful floating ,naiadace1 in deeper pools and stagnant waters2 and the ,lythrace 7or ,loose-,strife tribe7 on the banks of the brooklets4 ,but the commonest aquatic plant in these morasses1 and that which conceals1 so to speak1 all the other plants proper to such localities1 is the ,nelumbium calophyllum1 with its rose-coloured blossoms2 its seeds and rhizomes are eaten by the natives4 ,the vast plains of ,missouri are sufficiently fertile4 ,among the plants most abundant in somewhat damp places we must notice several ,composit2 the ,liatris1 with their violet flowers and long spiky bunches1 the ,calliopsis tinctoria of the dyers1 the ,gaura of ,lindheimer1 and the ,tripsacum dactyloides4 ,asters1 ,erigerons1 ,gaillardies1 ,helianthi 7sun-flowers71 ,solidagos1 the ,rudbeckia hirta1 and the ,coreopsis1 are found almost as far south as ,texas4 ,by the side of these ,composit flourish several ,desmodiums and ,cassias1 some graceful ,baptisias--with blue flowers and light green foliage1 the ,melanthum ,virginicum1 the ,euphorbia marginata1 the ,asclepias ,cornuti--now naturalised in the neighbourhood of ,paris--the ,hibiscus palustris and ,h4 moscheutos1 gigantic ,malvace1 whose splendidly-beautiful flowers are often three or four inches in diameter4 ,as plants widely spread in the stonier ,prairies1 we may note the ,gauras1 different varieties of ,o,enothera1 and especially the ,silphium laciniatum 7vulgarly called the ,magnetic ,plant1 or ,compass of the ,prairies74 ,its leaves are said to turn their faces uniformly east and west1 so that their edges are consequently directed due north and south4 ,the plant is also known as ,pilot-weed1 ,polar-plant1 ,rosin-weed1 and ,turpentine-weed2 the latter name derived from the copious resin exuded by its stems1 which grow to a height of three to six feet1 as well as by the leaves1 which are deeply pinnatified4 ,in the small woods which skirt the ,prairies is found in abundance1 twining round the bushes1 the ,apios tuberosa1 a leguminous plant formerly recommended to ,european cultivation on account of the rounded tubercles which grow upon its subterranean stems4 ,the ,arabians collect them in the spring1 and carefully dry them to eat for food4 ,the ,apios belongs to the family of ,umbellifer1 and is consequently allied to celery1 parsnip1 and carrot4 ,in ,missouri1 and as far as the confines of ,mississippi1 we also fall in with very productive sandy plains alternating with wooded uplands4 ,this country recalls1 on the whole1 the aspect of that which we have just described1 and the plants which thrive therein are almost the same4 ,on the hills and woody slopes in the neighbourhood of the ,iron ,mountain1 we likewise meet with sufficiently verdurous prairies4 ,m4 ,trcul collected there numerous ,gramine1 some species of ,carex1 ,plantains1 ,euphorbias1 ,polygalas1 and ,vervains2 many genera1 in fact1 which in ,france1 and similar soils elsewhere1 have numerous representatives4 ,it is in the grassy tracts of the wooded districts that the larger species of ,phlox flourish1 while the smaller varieties of the same genus vegetate upon the hills4 ,the low humid meadows enchant us with their gorgeous scarlet ,actas1#aaa their yellow ,balsams their ,echinacea purpureas1 and their superb ,lilies2 those which are dry and rather stony are covered with the broad golden flowers of the gay ,o,enothera macrocarpa4#aab ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,american ,,prairies4 #a4 ,liatris squarrosa4 #c4 ,asclepias ,cornuti4 #b4 ,calliopsis tinctoria4 #d4 ,tripsacum dactyloides4 #e4 ,gaura ,lindheimeri4 ,among the shrubs which people the marshy tracts of this same region1 ,i must point out the ,sassafras1 a kind of laurel with deciduous leaves1 yellow flowers1 which precede the foliage1 and small dark-blue fruit4 ,it is found from ,canada to ,florida2 a mere bush in the north1 but a tree fifty feet high in the south4 ,the wood is soft1 light1 of a coarse fibre1 with a pungent aromatic taste1 and a strong agreeable odour4 ,the wood is brought to market in the shape of chips1 but for medicinal purposes the thick spongy bark of the root is prepared1 and it is found extremely valuable as a powerful stimulant1 sodorific1 and diuretic4 ,the mucilaginous leaves are employed in thickening soup4 ,an infusion of the bark or wood makes a pleasant beverage1 formerly known as ,saloop2 and the wood also yields an oil which is used medicinally4 ,but it is in the state of ,texas1 and especially near ,san ,antonio de ,bejar1 that those immense desert spaces commence which occupy all the northern region of ,mexico4 ,the southern districts of ,texas offer in their prevailing landscapes a mixture of beautiful prairies and shady woods4 ,among the plants peculiar to humid and turfy localities1 ,i may particularize the ,sarracenias1 a group of remarkable exogens1 whose leaves are hollowed out into tubes or pitchers1 open at the upper end1 and streaked with bands of different colours2 the ,eriocaulons1 a kind of rush1 carrying their small flowers in spherical capitals on the summits of their tall branching stems2 and the ,nelumbios 7,nelumbium calophyllum71 aquatic plants of unusual beauty1 ,american congeners of the celebrated ,lotus1 the insane root which takes the reason prisoner4 ,the nuts are wholesome and edible1 and the root-stocks are also occasionally eaten4 ,these plants are likewise found1 in analogous habitats1 in ,mississippi and ,louisiana1 accompanied by the light-green ,magnolia1 the ,dog-berry tree of ,florida1 several ,wax-berries1 and the ,sassafras laurel1 now acclimatized in ,europe1 and whose bark is employed as ,i have said1 medicinally1 while its wood and roots are made use of by turners and toy-manufacturers4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,texas4 #a4 ,nelumbium calophyllum4 #c4 ,eriocaulon flavidulum4 #b4 ,sarracenia purpurea4 #d4 ,laurus sassafras4 ,prairies abound in ,texas1 wide rolling sweeps of grassy sward1 with an apparently interminable horizon1 unbroken by rock1 or wood1 or river--leagues upon leagues of rank thick grass where countless herds are depastured1 and where the hunter still finds game worthy of his deadly rifle4 ,among those which skirt the ,bay of ,matagorda1 and extend in the vicinity of ,victoria1 ,gonzals1 and ,seguin1 ,m4 ,trcul discovered an ample variety of ,composit2 of ,gramine1 more especially those belonging to the gener ,poa1 ,spartina1 ,dactyloctenium2 ,cyperace1 ,euphorbias1 ,cucumbers1 and ,gourds4 ,from the ,texan ,prairies our ,european gardeners have of late years received a ,graminea of the genus ,panicum1 the ,black ,mosquito ,grass1 which by its long creeping rhizomes may be employed with undoubted success to arrest the inland movement of the ,dunes and shifting sandy shores4 ,the yellow water-lily 7,nuphar lutea7 spreads its fine leaves on the surface of the ,texan streams1 in beautiful companionship with the ,nuphar advena and the ,nympha odorata4 ,in the same localities vegetates a weak variety of our ,european ,sagittaria1 and the ,pistia spatulata spreads itself upon the water1 like our ,english ,duckweed1 both being members of the family ,pistace4 ,as far as ,new ,braunfels1 the ,prairies are occasionally relieved by clumps of fine old trees2 but below that point the traveller only encounters1 and that at rare intervals1 a few scarce coppices and scanty thickets4 ,growing more common at ,san ,antonio de ,bejar1 they abound in the region of ,castroville1 and spread over nearly the entire country to the very borders of ,mexico4 ,these bushes or coppices mainly consist of the ,prosapis glandulosa1 the ,guaiacum angustifolium1 the ,xanthoxylum inerme and a few ,acacias4 ,the ,guaiacum#aac is noticeable for its hard and heavy wood1 generally known as ,lignum ,vit1 sometimes as ,guaiacum wood1 and occasionally as ,brazil wood4 ,it also yields a peculiar resinous product1 which is medicinally employed1 in powder1 pill1 and tincture1 for the relief of chronic rheumatism and chronic skin diseases4 ,it is of a greenish-brown colour1 and though it has scarcely any taste1 leaves a hot arid sensation in the mouth4 ,the ,xantoxyton type1 of the order ,xanthoxylace1 derives its name from the yellowness of its timber4 ,its fruits have a pungent aromatic taste1 like pepper4 ,the popular name of toothache tree is applied to some of the ,american species1 from the relief their bark and fruits are supposed to give in cases of that distressing affliction4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,castroville1 ,trcul found1 profusely scattered among the thickets1 a species of ,ephedra1 closely resembling the ,ephedra altissima1 whose feeble reed-like branches were literally covered with small red fruits1 producing a novel and attractive effect4 ,as a plant curious from its mode of vegetation1 and which is spread in ,texas as well as in ,louisiana1 ,i may mention the ,tillandria usneoides1 so named after ,professor ,tillands1 of ,abo4 ,this is a genus of ,bromeliace1 growing on the boughs of trees1 and notably on those of the evergreen oak4 ,it hangs down like a tuft of long gray hair1 in somewhat the same fashion as certain lichens 7usnea7 in ,european pine-forests1 communicating to the trees a strange and positively weird aspect4 ,the plant is collected1 and the outer cellular portion being removed by soaking in water1 the fibrous residuum is then employed to stuff cushions1 mattresses1 and pillows2 whence it is sometimes called ,vegetable horse-hair4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,texan ,,prairies4 #a4 ,yucca ,trculeana4 #d4 ,echinocactus robustus4 #b4 ,silphium terebinthinaceum4 #e4 ,cereus ,peruvianus4 #c4 ,mamillaria rodantha4 #f4 ,opuntia microdasys4 ,in the thickets that dot the central ,prairies commonly flourish the ,lantana ,camara1 and the curious ,ungnandia speciosa1 a species of chestnut tree on a very reduced scale4 ,it was in ,texas1 and in the rocky1 arid1 and hilly plains1 that the ,french botanist ,trcul discovered several notable varieties of ,yuccas1 to one of which1 a new1 and certainly the most beautiful species1 his name has very justly been affixed3 the ,yucca ,trculeana4 ,it raises its tall panicle of gorgeous flowers from the centre of a crown of glossy1 rigid1 spear-like leaves1 like a victorious trophy4 ,in ,eastern ,texas we note the first appearance1 in the drier and stonier portions of the ,prairies1 of a representation of the family ,cactace1 the ,opuntia frutescens1 frequently growing side by side with the ,silphium terebinthinaceum4 ,the ,opuntia is more generally known as the ,indian ,fig or ,prickly ,pear1 from the large purple juicy fruits which it yields4 ,the ,silphium belongs to the family of ,composit4 ,but ,western ,texas is the true birth-place of these oleaginous plants1 some of which1 such as the ,echinocactus robusta1 the ,mamillaria rodantha1 and the ,opuntia microdasys 7small-thorny ,opuntia71 are cultivated in our apartments1 where they require but very little attention4 ,m4 ,trcul has discovered in this region a new and rare variety of ,echinocactus 7,e4 ,trculeanus71 some kinds of ,cereus1 and1 especially1 the ,cereus ,peruvianus1 a beautiful plant with large showy flowers4 ,such are the principal plants which1 in ,north ,america1 characterize the vegetation of the ,prairies and the ,savannahs4 ,this rapid and condensed description will show the reader that the species most extensively spread belong to the genera in which are grouped the more common inhabitants of our own ,old ,world meadows and grassy plains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we now transport ourselves1 on the poet's winged ,pegasus1 that takes no account of distance or of natural obstacles1 to the ,equatorial zone of the ,new ,world--into ,guatemala1 for example--we shall find the undulating and verdurous prairies giving place to high table-lands furrowed by deep and romantic ravines4 ,their botanical interest1 however1 is trivial1 and their vegetation of a meagre and stunted kind4 ,but between ,guatemala1 ,nicaragua1 and ,honduras1 lies an extensive valley1 locally named ,llanora1 sown with numerous beautiful varieties of plants4 ,among them the ,gramine family predominates1 and1 without attaining the proportions and the quality of the herbs which we shall meet with in the interior1 form breadths of meadow very charming in their rare fresh greenness4 ,from the summit of the ,cordilleras1 in the neighbourhood of ,bogota1 at an altitude of about #cbjj feet1 the eye surveys almost the entire extent of those vast level plains which stretch from the base of the mountain-chain to remote ,brazil1 ,guiana1 and ,venezuela4 ,the ,steppes comprised between ,bogota and the river ,meta are formed1 in general1 of ,gramine with crawling stems1 and with nearly always very tall culms1 especially in the cooler localities4 ,herbage is so abundant that the traveller who penetrates into these immense pastures experiences almost insurmountable difficulties4 ,he himself and his horse are nearly hidden by the tall grasses1 which frequently attain a stature of five to seven feet4 ,and such is their vigour1 that after having been burnt to the ground by one of the terrible conflagrations so frequent in these countries1 they spring up again with wondrous swiftness2 if the plants had not flowered prior to the passage of the destructive flames1 they do so afterwards1 and even when their leaves have been wholly destroyed4 ,the lofty table-lands of ,bogota and ,tukerres1 in ,new ,grenada1 present a succession of rich pasturages1 perfumed by some species of ,labiat1 and notably by the ,micromeria ,browniana1 which thrives among the ,gramine1 their fodder is highly esteemed4 ,the barren and sandy plains of ,peru1 fertilized by the numerous water-courses which furrow them1 are covered with thick bloom and verdure in the rainy season4 ,with the ,gramine and ,juncace--the grasses and rushes common in these ,steppes--mingle different members of the ,liliace family1 and especially several kinds of ,lily4 ,the higher region of the eastern face of the ,peruvian ,cordillera1 situated between #aj1jjj and #ac1jjj feet of elevation1 forms an immense undulating plateau watered by the upper course of the ,maranon4 ,everywhere1 over a considerable area1 the plains are clothed with a meagre vegetation1 or alternate with wide morasses1 lakes1 and brooks4 ,among the plants which people them is a species of the ,gramine1 ,stipa itchu2 and there are also several ,alpine varieties1 ,composit1 ,leguminos1 and one of the ,cyperace family1 the ,cyperus articulatus4 ,the ,llanos of ,caraccas1 and of the ,rio ,apure and the ,meta1 over which roam immense herds of cattle1 are1 in the strictest sense of the term1 says ,humboldt1#aad grassy plains4 ,their prevalent vegetation1 belonging to the two families of ,cyperace and ,gramine1 consists of various species of ,paspalum1 ,p4 leptostachyum and ,p4 linticulare2 of ,kyllingia1 of ,panicum1 ,anthephora1 ,aristida1 ,vilfa1 and ,anthistiria4 ,only here and there are found1 interspersed among the ,gramine1 a few herbaceous dicotyledonous plants1 consisting of two very low-growing species of ,mimosa 7,sensitive ,plant7--,mimosa intermedia and ,mimosa dormiens--which are great favourites with the wild horses and cattle4 ,the natives give to this group of plants1 which close their delicate feathery leaves on being touched1 the expressive name of ,dormideras--sleepy plants4 ,nota tree is visible for miles2 but where solitary individuals occur1 they are1 in moist places1 the ,mauritia ,palm2 in arid districts1 a ,protacea--namely1 the ,rhopula complicata2 also the highly useful ,palma da ,corija1 or de ,sombrero2 and our ,corypha inermis1 an umbrella palm1 whose leaves are used to thatch the roofs of huts4 ,the ,mauritia palm1 ,palm ,moriche1 ,mauritia flexuosa1 ,quiteve1 or ,ita palm--for by any or all of these names it is known--belongs to the family of ,lepidocarye4 ,the trunk grows as high as #bf feet1 but it probably requires from #abj to #aej years to reach this height4 ,it extends high up on the declivity of the ,duida ,mountains1 and forms in moist places beautiful groups of a shining emerald verdure1 like that of our ,european alder groves4 ,the trees preserve the humidity of the ground by their shade1 and hence the ,indians say that the ,mauritia draws the water round its roots by a mysterious attraction4 ,from its tops the ,indians frequently suspend their hammocks to escape the attacks of the mosquitoes4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh was the first who brought to ,england this fruit of the ,mauritia palm1 which he very justly likened1 on account of its scales1 to a fir cone4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,plains ,,of ,,the ,,meta4 #a4 ,anthephora elegans4 #c4 ,anthistiria ciliata4 #b4 ,panicum ,cajennense4 #d4 ,aristida capillacea4 #e4 ,cyperus articulatus4 ,the plains of the ,rio ,negro and the ,amazons are the home and habitat of the most remarkable of all aquatic plants1 the ,victoria regia1#aae truly deserving its royal rank on account of its curious conformation and splendid beauty4 ,it is said to have been first observed by ,huke1 about #ahja1 and afterwards to have been noticed by ,bonpland1 ,d',orbigny1 and others2 but the first person who accurately described it was ,pppig1 in #ahcb1 who saw it in the river ,amazons4 ,sir ,richard ,schomburgk1 who discovered it in the rivers of ,guiana1 was1 ,i believe1 the first to introduce it in ,england1 where a splendid specimen may be seen at ,kew1 another at ,chatsworth1 and a third in the ,botanic ,garden of ,glasgow4 ,its thick fleshy root-stocks send up a number of long cylindrical leaf-stalks1 traversed by air canals1 and armed with stout conical prickles4 ,the blade of the leaf is circular1 and floats on the surface of the water2 when fully developed1 it measures from six to twelve feet in diameter1 and its margin being uniformly turned upwards to the depth of two or three inches1 it assumes the appearance of a large shallow tray4 ,the lower surface is traversed by a number of very prominent veins1 radiating from the centre to the margin1 and connected with one another by smaller transverse nerves2 so that the whole under-side1 which is of a purplish colour1 is divided into a network of irregular quadrangular compartments or open cells1 admirably fitting the leaf for floating on the water4 ,the flowers rise upon prickly stalks4 ,they are more than a foot in diameter1 with the white outer petals inclined downwards2 while the central rose-coloured ones1 with the stamens1 remain erect3 the whole presenting the fanciful appearance of a central rose-coloured crown resting on a circular range of snowy and most gracefully curved petals4 ,the fruit is a sort of globular capsule1 about the size of a child's head1 and formidably beset with prickles4 ,the interior is fleshy1 and divided into numerous cells1 full of round farinaceous seeds1 which are eaten roasted by the ,spaniards4 ,hence1 in some parts of ,south ,america1 it is called ,mas del ,agua1 or ,water ,maize4 ,the pools and lagoons of this region nourish numerous other aquatic plants1 among which it will suffice to particularize the ,scyndapsus fragrans and the ,raphia tdigera4 ,turning now to the vast area of the ,brazilian empire1 we find it divided into matos 7or woods7 and campos 7or open plains74 ,when the inhabitants would convert into cultivable land a district occupied by forest1 they set fire to it during the dry season1 and soon a vegetation of frutescent but dwarf species succeeds the primitive vegetation4 ,by renewing this purifying process a second and a third time1 the soil finally becomes covered with a species of fern closely resembling our large ,pteris1 ,pteris caudata2 and if the spot be once more abandoned1 it is speedily taken possession of by a viscous1 grayish1 and foetid species of ,gramine1 well known locally by the name of ,capim gordura1 to botanists by that of ,tristegis glutinosa4 ,so boundless a voracity has this plant1 that it wholly expels from certain regions another and less tenacious variety of the ,gramine1 the ,saccharum1 or ,sapa4 ,the ,capim gordura constitutes in itself almost the entire flora of the artificial campos4 ,it is but an indifferent fodder1 and cattle derive from it little vigour4 ,illustration3 ,,aquatic ,,plants ,,of ,,guiana4 #a4 ,victoria regia4 #b4 ,raphia tdigera4 #c4 ,scyndapsus fragrans4 ,in general1 the natural campos bear a certain resemblance to our meadows2 grass1 however1 is less abundant2 they consist1 especially in the colder localities1 of ,gramine which do not1 perhaps1 exceed our ,british species in dimensions1 but differ greatly in the size of their leaves1 and often also in their spreading inflorescence4 ,by their side1 as is the case with us1 grow other plants of a more graceful floral character4 ,among these are ,myrtace1 ,melastomace1 with their capsular fruits1 and a species of ,composit1 called ,veronia4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,pampas4 ,pampas ,grass 7,gynerium argenteum74 ,the wayfarer who traverses the sterile campos is astonished to discover1 on the tortuous and stunted trees that grow there at rare intervals1 some flowers of a singular loveliness4 ,yet who can refuse his admiration from the gorgeous ,vochyace2 the ,malpighiace1 richly and handsomely flowered2 the ,leguminos1 with their long hanging clusters of sparkling blossoms2 the trumpet-shaped flowers of the ,bignonias1 and the superb ,oochnus8 ,nor will he forget a rare ,salvertia1 fragrant as the lily of the valley1 and with its blossoms disposed in thyrses which outvie in beauty those of the chestnut4 ,in the genial smiling country which extends from ,monte ,video to the mouth of the ,rio ,negro1 the vegetation is almost wholly confined to ,gramine4 ,it is in this region that the feathery ,pampas ,grass 7,gynerium argenteum7 flourishes luxuriantly1 covering leagues upon leagues with its silvery panicles and drooping leaves1 which1 when stirred by a gentle wind1 ripple like the slow-moving1 spray-gleaming waters of a sunny sea4 ,it has become of late years a favourite ornament of our ,british gardens1 and may justly be taken as a type of tender loveliness4#aaf ,beyond the ,rio ,negro the country puts on a wilder aspect1 and it is with difficulty the most adventurous botanist can penetrate into its recesses4 ,nearly all the southern districts of ,patagonia form1 as we have already seen1 an immense and almost level plain1 whose soil is generally dry1 arid1 and impeded with large pebbles2 the northern districts1 on the other hand1 offer a less monotonous landscape1 are broken up with rocks and ravines1 interspersed among tolerably fertile pastures1 whose flora has not yet been fully investigated4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,australian ,,plains4 ,the ,deserts of the ,australian interior have been laboriously traversed1 not1 as we have seen1 without much suffering1 and even sacrifice1 by a handful of intrepid travellers1 who have proposed to themselves simply the solution of certain geographical problems4 ,it will therefore be understood that we owe to them only a few incidental notices of their botanical features4 ,for an accurate examination of these the pioneers of commerce have neither the means1 the opportunities1 nor the requisite scientific knowledge4 ,as far as its flora is concerned1 the ,australian interior is wholly virgin soil1 a new botanical world1 perhaps1 awaiting the advent of a ,columbus4 ,only the littoral districts have been satisfactorily explored2 and here1 in the south1 we meet with the names of ,labillardire1 ,robert ,brown1 ,gaudichaud1 ,d',urville1 ,sieber1 ,lesson1 ,cunningham1 and other eminent botanists4 ,to these celebrated names we must also add those of ,dr4 ,mueller1 ,director of the ,botanical ,gardens at ,melbourne1 ,sir ,william ,hooker1 and ,mr4 ,bentham4 ,their united labours have provided the public with a vast amount of curious and authentic information1 and have established the fact that the botany of ,new ,holland1 like its zoology1 has a physiognomy peculiarly its own1 and that many1 nay1 most of its vegetable species1 are not less characteristic than its strange and astonishing animal types4 ,one is almost tempted to adopt in sober earnest what ,sydney ,smith said in humorous exaggeration1 that1 in this remote part of the earth1 ,nature 7having made horses1 oxen1 ducks1 geese1 oaks1 elms1 and all regular and useful productions for the rest of the world7 seems determined to have a bit of play1 and to amuse herself as she pleases4#aag ,undoubtedly she has indulged in the most wayward and eccentric forms4 ,if there exist any relations between the vegetation of ,australia and that of any other part of the globe1 it is certainly with the districts of ,southern ,africa which lie near the ,cape of ,good ,hope that ,australia exhibits the greatest affinity4 ,it would seem as if these two continents in some remote age had not been separated1 as they now are1 by leagues of salt water1 but that their vegetable species had been able to propagate themselves freely from the one to the other4 ,according to ,richard1 the approximative number of species distinguished by botanists amounts to about five thousand2 but so many discoveries have been made of later years1 that we may raise the estimate to seven thousand4 ,while the ,australian plants are distributed among numerous families1 each of the latter comprises but a very limited number of individuals4 ,the predominant plants belong1 in the main1 to these families or orders3--,leguminos1 ,composit1 ,myrtace1 ,gramine1 ,cyperace1 ,filices1 ,proteace1 ,epacrid1 ,orchidace1 in a proportion which varies1 moreover1 according to the various districts explored4 ,the fertility of the soil1 and the climatic conditions of the southern shores of the ,australian continent1 are highly favourable to the introduction of new species4 ,our ,english settlers have availed themselves to the utmost of this circumstance1 and have cultivated on a large scale all the most useful fruit trees and vegetables of ,europe1 and others imported from tropical climes2 so that mingled in the same prolific gardens may be seen the fig-tree and the banana1 the guava1 the orange-tree1 the olive1 and the apple--cabbages1 potatoes1 turnips1 peas4 ,even the vine has been successfully naturalized1 and its manufactured products are not inferior in excellence to the famous ,rhenish wines4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,victoria4 #a4 ,rosea gracilis 7,arundo conspicua74 #c4 ,hectia ,pitcairnifolia4 #b4 ,astelia ,banksii4 #d4 ,xanthorrhoea arborea4 ,in indicating the most curious indigenous plants of ,new ,holland1 we shall more particularly confine ourselves to those of ,victoria1 one of the best known districts1 and perhaps also one of the most extensive1 most diversified1 and most picturesque4 ,the plains are1 in general1 sufficiently grassy and fertile1 especially in those parts which border on the brooks and rivers4 ,the plants most extensively distributed belong to the ,gramine and ,cyperace2 we find1 among the former1 the ,pennisetum fasciculare1 a great number of ,poace1 and the ,arundo conspicua2 in foliage and general appearance the latter presents some striking analogies with the ,pampas ,grass2 among the ,poace predominates the ,cyperus vaginatus1 a common object on the banks of the river ,murray in those parts which are subject to frequent inundations4 ,a strong tenacious netting is made from the fibres of its leaves4 ,to these herbs we have to add some flowering plants1 such as the star-like ,lobelias2 numerous species of mint 7as ,mentha ,australis1 ,m4 satureioides1 ,m4 grandiflora1 and ,m4 gracilis71 from which an essential oil is extracted for use in the manufacture of perfumes2 the ,sida pulchella and ,lavatera plebeia1 of which stout fibre or solid thread is made1 the fibres of ,australian flax 7,linum marginale7 being adapted to the same purpose4 ,the ,restias1 a curious rush-like order of endogens1 also inhabit these moist places3 as do the ,kingias1 very common grasses2 the ,astelia ,banksii1 a species of ,liliace1 with grass-formed leaves and a strong tenacious stem2 and the ,xerotes longifolia4 ,the ,nardoo 7,narsilia macropus1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 ,n4 salvatrix71 whose spores and spore-cases are pounded by the native ,australians and made into bread or porridge1 is a kind of cryptogamous plant1 with leaves formed of four folioles1 like those of a truffle4 ,it abounds in the low grounds and inundated districts1 especially on the banks of the ,murray4 ,finally1 the ,stag-horn 7,acrostichon grande71 a gigantic mushroom1 clings to the branches of the great trees4 ,small bushy clumps are scattered over the plains1 and flourish with peculiar vigour along the water-courses4 ,they consist of various shrubs4 ,the traveller will not fail to notice a whole series of ,leguminos--,chlorozoma1 ,pultena1 ,viminaria1 ,mirbelia1 ,podolobium 7all are shrubs of exceeding elegance1 and now form the rare ornaments of our ,english gardens72 of ,epacrid--,epacris stiphelia1 ,e4 leucophogon1 and others1 which have also been imported into our home-parterres2 a great number of ,euribias1 a genus of subfrutescent ,composit1 of which a few are rendered interesting by their heathlike foliage2 the ,pimelea axiflora1 whose supple and tenacious bark is fashioned into bands and straps2 the ,myrsine variabilis1 with its woody stems and drupaceous fruit2 the ,aralia crassifolia1 a singular shrub1 with long1 narrow1 and very rigid leaves2 the ,callistemon salignum 7vulgarly called stonewood71 employed for xylographic purposes2 the ,casuarina equisetifolia1#aah or ,swamp ,oak--also called ,cassowary ,tree--a lofty tree1 with very durable wood1 long1 slender1 drooping1 emerald-green branches1 and conical fruit1 inclosing small winged nuts2 various species of ,melaleuca1 yielding the green aromatic oil called cajaputi or cajeput oil1 valuable as a stimulant or antispasmodic2 finally1 some ,cordylines1 or ,tis1 plants of the natural order ,liliace1 and nearly allied to the ,dragon's ,blood ,tree1 attaining a height of ten to fifteen feet1 with a berry-like fruit1 and lanceolate leaves of a reddish hue1 which afford a nutriment for cattle1 thatch for houses1 and whose fibres are frequently made into cloth4 ,the root1 when baked1 is much used as an article of food1 and the fermented juice yields an intoxicating beverage4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,on ,,the ,,australian ,,plains4 #a4 ,doryanthes excelsa4 #b4 ,aralia crassifolia4 #c4 ,dryandra repens4 #d4 ,cordyline congesta4 ,the dry1 rocky1 arid1 and sandy districts1 which may be compared to the ,landes of ,brittany1 are clothed with a peculiar vegetation4 ,the strangest plant1 which is also the most widely distributed1 is undoubtedly the ,xanthorrhoea arborea1#aai forming a conspicuous feature in the dreary landscape1 and when stripped of its leaves resembling a black man holding a spear4 ,the leaves afford good fodder for cattle1 while the natives eat the soft white centre of the top of the stem4 ,they yield two kinds of fragrant resin--one of a yellow colour1 balsamic and inodorous1 called ,botany ,bay2 and the other red1 called ,black ,boy ,gum4 ,the tree--which the settlers have christened ,black ,boy and ,grass ,gum--has a thick trunk1 encrusted in a thick coating of the persistent basis of old leaves1 glued together by the yellow or red resin with which the plant abounds1 and usually burned and blackened outside by bush-fires4 ,the leaves are long1 wiry1 and grass-like1 and are borne in a dense tuft at the top of the stem1 hanging gracefully all around it4 ,their long flower-stalks aspire from its centre1 sometimes growing as high as fifteen or twenty feet1 and carrying aloft a thick cylindrical flower spike4 ,among the lowlier plants are found a few ,hectias1 such as the ,hectia ,pitcairnifolia1 one of the ,bromelias1 very curious from its mode of vegetation2 and the ,stipa crinita1 a very common grass4 ,the leaves of the latter have been manufactured into paper of tolerable consistency4 ,the sandy and colder tracts are the habitat of the annual or perennial ,composit1 distinguished by their smooth and shining flowers4 ,on the other hand1 the dry rocky surfaces are besprinkled with inconsiderable woods1 or rather thickets1 formed in part of the ,santalum acuminatum1 whose nutritious fruit are called peaches by the colonists2 the ,santalum persicarium1 or sandal wood2 several ,nitrarias1#abj with edible fruits2 a great number of ,acacias1 notably the ,acacia verticillata1 ,a4 sophora1 and ,a4 doratoxylon1 whose very hard wood is employed in the fabrication of javelins2 a considerable series of ,proteace1 particularly the ,banksia ,australis1 ,b4 serrata1 and ,b4 integrifolia1 so characteristic in aspect and foliage2 and a few ,eucalypti1#aba or ,gum ,trees1 of small stature--among others1 the ,traveller's ,tree1 or ,eucalyptus oleosa4#abb ,its roots extend horizontally1 and retain a quantity of water sufficient to quench the wayfarer's thirst in the hour of need4 ,all the ,eucalypti are curious trees1 with entire and leathery leaves1 affording an unusual amount of aromatic oil4 ,many of the species abound in resinous secretions2 some attain a great size1 with trunks of from #h to #af feet in diameter1 and #aej or #afj in length4 ,the ,eucalyptus resinifera--,red ,gum or ,iron ,bark ,tree--reaches to an elevation of #aej to #bjj feet4 ,when wounded1 a red juice flows from it very freely1 hardening into irregular1 inodorous1 and transparent masses in the air1 and furnishing as much as sixty gallons from a single tree4 ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,on ,,the ,,australian ,,plains4 #a4 ,acacia verticillata4 #b4 ,casuarina equisetifolia1 or ,black ,boy ,tree4 #c4 ,corypha ,australis1 or ,australian ,palm4 ,finally1 ,i may refer to the ,dryandra1 whose foliage is very graceful1 and its conformation very varied4 ,sometimes it is found as a bush1 three to seven feet high2 and sometimes1 as in the ,dryandra repens1 creeping along the ground4 ,on the more temperate heights the traveller encounters some plants of a fantastic character3 as1 for instance1 the ,doryanthes excelsa1 with its upright gigantic leaves1 more than #f feet long1 and from #b to #c inches broad2 from their centre rises a strong stalk1 #ae or #ah feet high1 terminated by a compact and voluminous cluster of great deep-red flowers4 ,there1 too1 are found the magnificent arborescent ferns1 ,alsophila ,australis and ,dicksonia ,antarctica4 ,the trunk of the former aspires to a stature of #be to #ij feet2 that of the second1 to #ab to #bh feet2 and in both the stems are terminated by a cluster of immense flowers1 which give to these plants a quite distinctive character4 ,nor must we quit the ,australian ,flora and its marvels without alluding to the ,corypha ,australis1 which begins to make its appearance at the mouth of the ,snowy ,river4 ,it is a gigantic palm1 growing solitarily1 or in thin groups1 in low1 cool1 and even moist places4 ,its trunk probably attains to #adj feet in height2 and the top of its stem is crowned by a gorgeous crest of fan-shaped leaves1 which are employed in the manufacture of straw hats4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world3--,,herbivorous ,,animals4 ,to the prodigal ,flora of the ,tropics1 which we shall soon see displaying in the virgin forests its exuberant fecundity1 corresponds a ,fauna no less rich1 and marked by a singular variety4 ,this ,fauna offers1 especially in the ,old ,world1 an impressive character of power1 strength1 superior force--,i had almost said1 majesty4 ,in truth1 if we do calmly compare the mammals and the birds of tropical ,america with those which roam the wild plains of ,africa1 ,hindostan1 the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 and the great islands of the ,indian ,ocean1 we cannot but recognize the evident superiority of the latter4 ,the anthropoid ,ape1 the enormous ,pachyderms1 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,hippopotamus1 ,giraffe1 and1 among animals of the same order1 the ,antelopes1 many of which attain the dimensions of the ,horse1 belong exclusively to the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,the genus ,camel1 represented in ,asia by the ,bactrian ,camel1 in ,africa by the ,dromedary1 is but weakly typified in ,south ,america by the ,lama1 the ,vicua1 and the ,alpaca1 not inelegant in form1 but of a markedly inferior stature4 ,and what equality is there between the lordly ,tiger of the rank ,indian jungles1 and the sleek1 stealthy ,jaguar of the ,american wilderness8 ,or who will venture to compare the so-called ,lion of ,america1 the ,puma or ,cougouar1 with the regal quadruped which makes the hot ,libyan wastes re-echo with his terrible roar8 ,among the ,birds1 the ,phenicoptera1 with its disproportionate legs and neck1 distributed over all the ancient continent below #dj of latitude1 and the ,ostrich1 properly so called1 are much superior in dimensions to their analogues on the other side of the ,atlantic1 the ,american ,flamingo and the ,nandou4 ,so do the ,eagles and ,vultures of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa prevail in numbers and force over those of the ,new ,world4 ,and the ancient continent can likewise claim as its own the gigantic ,epiornis1 the wonderful ,roc ,bird of the well-known ,oriental legend1 whose petrified eggs and some of whose fossil bones have been discovered in ,madagascar4 ,it is true1 however1 that the greatest of living ,raptores1 the ,condor1 inhabits exclusively the ,cordillera of the ,andes3-- ,stands solitary1 stands immovable ,upon some highest cliff1 and rolls his eye1 ,clear1 constant1 unobservant1 unabashed1 ,in the cold light1 above the dews of morn4--7,w4 ,s4 ,landor47 ,but the balance is re-established by the ,erpetological and ,entomological ,fauna of the ,new ,world1 which can oppose its huge ,boas1 its ,camans and ,pythons1 to the ,crocodiles and ,gavials of ,africa and ,asia2 its ,crotali and ,trigonocephali to the ,najas of ,india1 the ,echidnas of the ,cape1 and the ,cerastes of ,egypt and the ,sahara2 while the ,bull ,frog of the ,united ,states and the ,pipa of ,guiana are only found on the banks of the vast lonesome swamps of the new continent4 ,as far as the ,desert ,world is concerned1 in both hemispheres the legions are innumerable1 and their energies commensurate to the greatness of the continual work of destruction and purification which they seem destined to accomplish in all tropical countries4 ,it is unnecessary to carry any further the parallel between the two hemispheres4 ,we shall more clearly detect their analogies and differences by pursuing the study1 already opened up in the ,steppes and ,seas of ,sand1 of the principal species proper to the various forms of the ,desert1 the different regions and divisions of the ,savage ,world4 ,yet ,i must confess that the difficulties of the study increase with the extent of the field we are called upon to explore4 ,the ,steppes and ,wildernesses of ,sand constitute1 both in ,africa and ,asia1 regions which are clearly defined1 and the poverty both of their fauna and their flora fixes a definite limit to the researches of the naturalist4 ,such is not the case in the immense countries which now lie before us4 ,instead of sighing1 like ,alexander1 for more worlds to conquer1 the student of science is ever deploring the impossibility of exhausting even a single division of the grand work before him4 ,art is long2 life is short4 ,the most industrious among us can never rise to the full height of his glorious task2 must always remain like a child on the shore of the ocean of truth1 and be content with the few shells his nerveless hand contrives to gather4 ,in the wide regions we are about to traverse we feel at every step the colossal character of the enterprise4 ,every instant their aspect changes2 ,nature never repeats herself2 their products vary with the latitude1 the climate1 and the soil4 ,to pass in review all the trees and plants and flowers which flourish there1 all the animals and peoples which dwell among them1 would be nothing less than to embrace in a vast encyclopdia the description and history of two organic kingdoms4 ,but such is not the design of the present volume4 ,i have not undertaken to give an exact picture of nature1 which would task to the uttermost the powers of men of such diverse genius as ,humboldt1 ,owen1 ,lyell1 ,darwin1 ,tyndall1 ,hooker1 and ,ruskin1 but to sketch the bold outlines and more prominent features of the physiognomy of the ,desert ,world1 and not to reproduce its more minute details4 ,my embarrassment1 then1 arises less from the multitude and infinite variety of the objects we have to examine1 than from the difficulty of harmonizing the study with the divisions of this work4 ,how1 in fact1 can ,i establish a positive distinction between the animals of the ,prairies or the ,savannahs and those of the ,forests1 between those of the latter and the animals proper to the ,mountains8 ,for such a purpose it is needful that each of these forms of the ,desert ,world should possess its peculiar fauna2 which is true only within very narrow limits4 ,in reality1 most animals inhabit or frequent1 according to circumstances1 sometimes one district1 sometimes another1 without its being possible to assign with any amount of precision their habitual1 or simply their occasional1 abode4 ,i shall avail myself1 therefore1 of the liberty allowed to every writer who does not design a purely didactical work1 by not unnecessarily troubling myself whether the animals whose organization or characteristics attract our notice1 particularly affect a low or elevated locality1 the shady wood or open plain1 the pestilential swamp or the river-watered valley1 and by permitting myself1 except in the case of some evident and constant partiality1 to place them where the most eminent observers assure us they are really1 if not exclusively1 met with4 ,on this account1 the plains1 more or less densely wooded and broken up1 which occupy the greater portion of the ,african ,continent1 will readily furnish us with the opportunity of studying the majority of animals indigenous to that continent1 and1 in general1 to the entire ,tropical zone of the ,old ,world4 ,in fact1 nearly all the genera of ,mammals1 ,birds1 and ,reptiles1 are there represented by their most characteristic types4 ,clothed with a luxuriant vegetation2 watered by periodical rains and numerous streams2 intersected by thick masses of forests1 groves1 and thickets2 relieved from monotonous uniformity by mountain and ravine1 by marshes and lakes of vast extent1--these fields ever exhibit that aspect of busy life under which we love to represent to ourselves the earth when she first emerged from the boiling seas of ,chaos1 when the forces which had seethed within her bowels for so many thousands of centuries had been tranquillized by the ,divine will1 and she was despatched on her mysterious course to be the theatre of man's glorious destiny4 99 99 99 99 99 ,during the daytime silence and solitude prevail over the open plains4 ,it is the hour when most animals seek1 under the foliage of the trees1 among the tall rank grasses1 in the bosom of the waters or under the surface of the earth1 a shelter against the swift burning arrows of the sun1 and repose immovable in their different lairs4 ,but when the great orb of day sinks towards the horizon1 all ,nature seems to awake4 ,more imperious needs succeed to those of rest and slumber2 hunger and thirst stimulate the most sluggish into exertion4 ,then the reptile begins to stir in the mud where he lay embedded2 the herbivora return to their fresh pastures1 and move towards the rivers and ponds in whose waters they may slake their thirst2 the carnaria take the same road2 they know that in the open plain they will find victims for their murderous jaws4 ,the ,desert is astir with strange sounds and mysterious voices2 the air re-echoes the thousand discordant cries which ring from the mountains and the rocks2 black shadows pass1 re-pass1 and flit to and fro1 in every direction2 terror1 rage1 agony1 voracity1 all these instincts obtain expression in the dreadful concert2 it is the orgie of the appetites1 the grand ,witches' ,sabbath of ,nature1 whose furious animation slackens towards the middle of the night1 until1 at sunrise1 the lively accents and joyous melodies of the birds1 and the peaceful pastimes of the other animals of the day1 succeed to the lamentations and sinister invocations of the prowlers of the darkness4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus ,,and ,,crocodile ,,of ,,the ,,river ,,nile4 ,in the foremost rank of the great animals to which the fauna of ,asia and ,africa owes its superiority1 ,i have named the huge ,pachyderms1#abc those mighty colossi which may be regarded as the analogues1 in the terrestrial creation1 of the ,cetacean giants of the marine creation4 ,the ,pachyderms formed in ,cuvier's system a sufficiently natural order1 which modern systematists have dismembered1 and1 as ,i believe1 a little arbitrarily4 ,this order comprised1 besides the elephants1 the hippopotami1 the rhinoceroses1 and the tapirs1 all the ,porcid family1 and even the ,solidungulates1 such as the horse and ass4 ,in the present work ,i shall adopt ,cuvier's division4 ,the elephant is the denizen of the forests where1 in a succeeding chapter1 we shall encounter both him and the rhinoceros4 ,but the hippopotamus belongs incontestably to the fauna of the plain4 ,his name 7from the ,greek7 signifies ,river ,horse4 ,and1 indeed1 he lives in the rivers1 the pools1 the deep marshes2 his manners are essentially amphibious4 ,he dives and swims with a surprising ease and agility1 considering the enormous bulk of his body1 and the shortness of his heavy1 unwieldy legs4 ,he is able to remain a long time under water4 ,his colour is a brownish-black1 and his proportions1 ten to twelve feet in length1 and eight to ten in height4 ,his head is immensely large2 the mouth cavernous in its prodigious width2 the teeth immensely strong1 the incisors and canines of the lower jaw being long1 and curved forwards2 these canines or tusks sometimes measure more than two feet in length1 and weigh upwards of six pounds each4 ,those in the upper jaw are much smaller1 and the front teeth are of a moderate size4 ,the broad thick lips are beset with scattered tufts of short bristles2 the small quick eyes are placed very near the top of the head2 the small ears are slightly pointed1 and lined with short thick hair4 ,his food mainly consists of the coarse herbage that flourishes on the banks of lakes and rivers2 but ,milne ,edwards speaks of three or four of them standing knee-deep in the water1 forming an irregular line1 and pouncing upon the fish brought within their reach by the rapid currents4 ,at night time they abandon their watery haunts to prowl among the sugar-cane plantations1 the fields of millet and rice1 which they devour with eagerness4 ,their march is so impetuous1 that they break down every barrier2 nothing can resist them4 ,the hippopotamus is spread over all eastern and southern ,africa2 is found in ,nubia1 ,ethiopia1 ,abyssinia2 at the ,cape1 the ,senegal and the ,congo4 ,both the settlers and the natives of these countries hunt them with ardour for the sake of the ivory they yield1 nor is their flesh despised by a keen appetite and vigorous stomach4 ,sometimes they excavate1 in the animal's ordinary route1 a tolerably deep pit1 beset with sharp pointed poles1 and concealed by a covering of leafy branches3 sometimes1 in the shade of the evening1 they lie in ambuscade among the bushes1 and aim at his huge bulk the deadly bullet1 as he comes up from the water1 labouring and bellowing4 ,it is necessary to aim well at his head2 for the rest of his body is almost as invulnerable as that of ,achilles4 ,here is a lively picture from ,sir ,samuel ,baker's valuable volumes1 in which the hippopotamus is a foremost figure4 ,we were towing through high reeds1 he says1#abd the men invisible1 and the rope mowing over the high tops of the grass1 when the noise disturbed a hippopotamus from his slumber1 and he was immediately perceived close to the boat4 ,he was about half-grown1 and in an instant about twenty men jumped into the water in search of him1 thinking him a mere baby2 but as he suddenly appeared1 and was about three times as large as they had expected1 they were not very eager to close4 ,however the reis pluckily led the way1 and seized him by the hind leg1 when the crowd of men rushed in1 and we had a grand tussle4 ,ropes were thrown from the vessel1 and nooses were quickly slipped over his head2 but he had the best of the struggle1 and was dragging the people into the open river2 ,i was therefore obliged to end the sport by putting a ball through his head4 ,he was scored all over by the tusks of some other hippopotamus that had been bullying him4 ,after conquering your enemy1 kill him and eat him3 such is the maxim of savage life4 ,it was carried out by ,sir ,samuel ,baker and his men1 much to the satisfaction of the conquerors4 ,a new dish6 exclaims our traveller2 there is no longer mock-turtle soup2 real turtle is mock hippopotamus4 ,i tried boiling the fat1 flesh1 and skin together1 the result being that the skin assumes the appearance of the green fat of the turtle1 but is far superior4 ,a piece of the head thus boiled1 and then soused in vinegar1 with chopped onions1 cayenne pepper1 and salt1 throws brawn completely in the shade4 ,the same traveller relates that the natives on the shores of the ,albert ,n'yanza1 previous to embarking on a voyage1 cast a handful of beads into the lake1 to propitiate the hippopotamus1 that their canoe may not be upset4 ,the genus ,tapir is wanting in ,africa2 but we find a species1 ,tapirus ,indicus1 in ,india and the ,indian ,archipelago1 where it was first noticed by ,diard and ,duvaucel4 ,these naturalists saw an individual of this species at ,barrackpore1 near ,calcutta1 whither he had been imported from the island of ,sumatra4 ,i was much surprised1 says ,diard1 that so large an animal had not hitherto been discovered2 but ,i was much more so1 on seeing in the ,asiatic ,society's ,museum the head of a similar animal1 a native of ,malacca1 which had been sent to the ,society1 on the #bith of ,april #ahjf1 by ,m4 ,faghuarie1 governor of that province4 ,this tapir is as common at ,malacca as the rhinoceros and elephant4 ,in size he closely approaches the common ass4 ,he is black all over1 except the ears1 which are fringed with white1 and on the back1 which is of a pale gray4 ,his habits are identical with those of the ,american tapirs1 to be described hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,,rhinoceros4 ,african ,phacocoerus 7,choeripotamus ,africanus74 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,african plains1 from ,nubia and ,senegal to the ,cape1 we meet with a ,pachyderm intermediate between the hippopotamus and the wild boar3 this is the ,phacocoerus1 which was known to the ancients1 and designated by credulous lian the ,sus tetrakeros1 or ,boar with ,four ,horns4 ,he has no horns1 however1 but only1 beneath each ear1 a horny protuberance1 which greatly disfigures his head1 and procures him the popular appellation of the ,warty ,hog--the ,bush ,vark1 or ,bush ,hog of ,south ,africa 7,choeripotamus ,africanus74 ,he has four projecting tusks1 and long sharp tufted ears4 ,his stature1 his feet1 his tail1 the mane of stiff bristles which garnishes his neck1 identify him with the wild boar2 but his body1 almost naked on the flanks and hinder part1 likens him to an hippopotamus4 ,he is gregarious1 of fierce and brutal habits1 and lives chiefly in the bushes or tall herbage4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,daw ,,and ,,the ,,quagga4 ,the ,solidungul 7or ,solid-hoofed71 which roam among the wide pasturages of the ,tropical regions of the ,ancient ,world1 contrast1 by the elegance of their forms and the beauty of their clothing1 with the unwieldy ,pachyderms1 of rugged and swarthy hide1 placed by ,cuvier under the same classification4 ,the ,wild ,horse does not exist in these latitudes1 though we may find there the most beautiful species of the genus3 the ,hmione1 the ,onagra1 the ,zebra1 the ,daw1 and the ,quagga4 ,the ,hemionus 7half-ass71 which we are endeavouring to acclimatize in ,europe1 and numerous specimens of which may be seen in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london and ,paris1 is of a clear brown colour all over the body1 except the belly and legs1 which are white4 ,his mane is short1 and his tail garnished only with a tuft of hairs at the extremity4 ,the species is ,asiatic1 and appears to have originated in ,india1 whence it spread westward into ,asia ,minor1 and northward into the ,steppes which stretch to the base of the ,himalayas4 ,the modern names are ,koulem1 ,kiang1 and ,dziggethai 7or ,mountain ,ass74 ,he roams in great troops across the dreary ,asiatic deserts1 and is fond of bitter and saline herbage1 and brackish water4 ,now1 as of old1 he has the range of the mountains for his pasture1 and the salt places for his dwelling4 ,his swiftness and wariness render his chase an exciting pastime1 and in ,persia he is considered the noblest of game4 ,the ,hemippus 7half horse71 a species closely allied to the ,hemionus1 is a native of the fertile districts of ,syria and ,arabia4 ,another species1 the ,tarpan1 roams the ,steppes of ,tartary1 and is with great difficulty tamed to the use of man4 ,he is of a reddish colour1 but the mane and tail are black1 and along the back runs a black stripe4 ,the ,onagra1 ,onager1 or ,wild ,ass of ,tartary1 is represented in ,abyssinia by a smaller variety1 of very graceful form1 whose hide exhibits already1 upon the legs1 some of those well-defined stripes which so magnificently adorn the outer vestment of the ,quagga1 the ,daw1 and1 especially1 the ,zebra4 ,all these ,solidungul are identical in habits and character3 social among themselves1 they are fierce and mistrustful towards other animals4 ,when in peril1 they seek safety at first by rapid flight2 but if driven to bay1 they assume a courageous bearing1 assail their enemies intrepidly1 and frequently compel them to retreat4 ,it is even asserted that the ,quagga 7,asinus ,quagga7 will mingle with herds of domestic animals1 and defend them against the attacks of beasts of prey4 ,according to ,dr4 ,gray1 this animal derives his name from his voice1 which resembles the barking of a dog1 or a sound like ,couagg1 or ,quag4 ,pennant calls him the ,quacha4 ,he resembles the horse in his haughty bearing and rapid movements4 ,his head1 neck1 mane1 and shoulders are blackish-brown1 banded with white2 the stomach1 hind parts1 and legs are whitish2 the dorsal line is black2 the ears have two irregular black bands and a white tip4 ,in the ,daw1 the blackish-brown tint extends over all the upper parts of the body1 as well as the stripes1 which are alternately black and light brown4 ,the ,quagga and the ,daw belong to ,southern ,africa1 and especially to ,caffraria4 ,the habitat of the ,zebra appears to be more extended in range4 ,he is found even as far north as ,abyssinia4 ,he was known to the ,romans under the name of the ,hippotigres1 and figured in the sanguinary sports of the ,amphitheatre4 ,assuredly he is the handsomest species of the genus ,equus 7,horse74 ,he is as tall as the ,hemionus2 his legs are shapely1 his mien and bearing full of spirit2 he has a well-proportioned head1 and a coat of incomparable richness of design1 with the skin lustrous1 and large black stripes symmetrically arranged over the whole body1 on a ground of pure white4 ,illustration3 ,,zebras 7,equus ,zebra74 99 99 99 99 99 ,africa1 as ,i have said above1 is the native country of the large ,ruminants4 ,not less remarkable than the ,camel in the fantastic originality of his form1 which matches the exquisite richness of his skin1 the gigantic ,giraffe 7,camelopardalis ,giraffa7 is distributed over nearly the whole continent south of the ,sahara4 ,sometimes he even ventures into the ,desert2 but most frequently his long neck and tall legs are seen in the fertile plains of ,negroland1 the ,soudan1 the ,senegal1 and ,nubia4 ,his head1 says a popular zoologist1 resembles that of the camel in the absence of a naked muzzle1 and in the shape and organization of the nostrils1 which are oblique and narrow apertures1 defended by the hair which grows from their margins1 and surrounded by cutaneous muscular fibres1 by which the animal can close them at will4 ,this is a beautiful provision for the defence of the air passages1 and the irritable membrane lining the olfactory cavities1 against the fine particles of sand which the storms of the ,desert raise in almost suffocating clouds4 ,the large1 dark1 and lustrous eyes of the giraffe1 which beam with a peculiarly mild but fearless expression1 are so placed as to take in a wider range of the horizon than is subject to the vision of any other quadruped4 ,while browsing on his favourite acacia1 the giraffe1 by means of his laterally-projecting orbits1 can direct his sight so as to anticipate a threatened attack in the rear from the stealthy lion1 or any other foe of the ,desert4 ,to an open attack he sometimes makes a successful defence by striking out his powerful and well-armed feet2 and the king of beasts is said to be frequently repelled and disabled by the wounds which the giraffe has thus inflicted with his hoofs4 ,the lion1 however1 seldom attacks him unless he can surprise him in a state of repose1 when he will leap upon his victim's back and tear him to pieces4 ,le ,vaillant has justly observed that if precedency among animals were determined by their height1 the giraffe would hold the first rank4 ,the most careless observer must be impressed by the enormous length of his fore-legs1 and his long tapering neck1 which enables him to browse upon the fresh foliage and green young shoots of the loftiest trees2 nor can he fail to admire his small and elevated head1 his brilliant beaming eyes1 and his mildness of aspect4 ,unusual as are the animal's proportions1 they are not inharmonious1 and his appearance is eminently picturesque4 ,when full grown1 he measures seventeen feet from the top of the head to the fore-feet4 ,this1 however1 is a maximum4 ,it should be added that his fore-legs are not so much longer than the hind1 but the shoulders are extraordinarily high4 ,the animal's colour is a light fawn1 marked with numerous darker spots4 ,his horns consist of two porous bony substances1 about three inches long1 which form1 as it were1 a part of the skull4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,lion ,,rending ,a ,,giraffe4 ,several species of antelopes and wild oxen traverse in numerous herds the wide prairies of ,africa and ,asia4 ,among the ,african species1 ,i may name the ,bubalus1 which lives principally in the north-west1 and whose keen stout horns1 disposed like the prongs of a pitchfork1 render him exceedingly formidable2 the ,gnu1 or ,connochet 7,catoblepus ,gnu71 which inhabits the wild karoos and hilly districts of ,south ,africa1 in migratory herds1 and is distinguished by the weird ugliness of his head1 with its curved horns1 and its beautiful flowing mane1 white at the base1 and black at the tips2 the ,oreas ,lanna1 improperly called the ,cape ,eland 7,antilope ,oreas71 a graceful animal1 as large as the horse1 and five feet high at the shoulder1 with straight pointed horns1 whose great strength is augmented by a spiral wreath2 and the ,oryx 7,oryx gazella71 ,egyptian ,antelope1 or ,pasom1 somewhat superior in size to a deer1 with horns three feet long1 black hoofs and horns1 a white head1 and neck and upper part of the body of a pale bluish-gray4 ,tropical ,asia presents but a very small number of ,antelopes1 properly so called1 of which the ,nylghau1 or ,white-footed ,antelope 7,partux picta7 is the largest4 ,its face is long and narrow2 its black1 round1 and pointed horns1 though only about seven inches long1 are slightly curved forwards2 the broad ears are fringed with white hairs2 along the top of the deep narrow neck runs a slight mane of black hair1 which is continued to some distance down the back2 a long hanging tuft of a similar colour adorns the breast4 ,this animal is said to have abounded in the forests between ,delhi and ,lahore in the days of ,aurungzebe1 and formed one of the objects of the chase with that king of kings during his expedition to ,cashmere4 ,the ,hindoo name1 ,nyl-ghau1 signifies blue ox1 which is true of the male1 but the female is a pale brown4 ,he is a courageous animal1 very difficult to tame2 travellers affirm that when attacked he throws himself on his knees1 and in this position moves forward1 until1 suddenly leaping to his feet1 he rushes impetuously upon his enemy1 and smites him vigorously with his sharp horns4 ,i must not omit to particularize1 among the great ,ruminants of the ,tropical regions of the ,old ,world1 the ,buffaloes1 or ,wild ,oxen1 which feed in immense troops in the fertile and well-watered prairies4 ,the two ,african species or varieties which are best known are1 the ,buffalo of ,caffraria1 and the ,short-horned ,buffalo4 ,the former is not confined to the ,caffre country1 as his name would lead one to suppose2 but ranges as far as ,abyssinia4 ,his horns1 very wide1 and close together at the base1 form1 above the eyes1 a kind of helmet very useful to the animal in pushing aside the bushes that impede his progress4 ,his hair is rough and black over the whole body4 ,the short-horned buffalo has a smooth brown skin1 muzzle nearly black1 ears large1 horns arched and of moderate dimensions4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,antelope ,gnu4 #b4 ,oreas ,lanna 7or ,eland74 #c4 ,striped or ,banded ,gnu4 ,these buffaloes1 despite of their ferocious aspect and savage habits1 are wholly inoffensive1 and in all cases of danger are tempted at first to take to flight2 but should they be pressed too closely1 or wounded1 their irascible and vindictive disposition speedily displays itself4 ,when the negroes hunt the buffalo1 says ,paul ,gervais1 they are very careful to attack isolated individuals only1 because1 in the herds of these animals some will always be found disposed to avenge the death of their companions1 and pursue the hunters to the uttermost4 ,in their excesses of fury they strike the ground with their horns2 dash their bodies against the trees in which their enemies have taken refuge2 sometimes they will spend their rage upon one another1 or upon the bodies of those of their kind which have been brought low4 ,asia is the home of the ,common ,buffalo 7,bos bubalus71 and from thence he has migrated into several islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,eastern ,europe1 and even into ,italy4 ,in ,france and ,great ,britain he has long been domesticated4 ,but there also exist in several ,indian provinces some savage species of the ,arnee ,buffalo 7,bos ,arni of ,dr4 ,shaw71 easily recognized by his horns of prodigious size and length1 which frequently measure six feet in length1 and eighteen inches in circumference at the base4 ,travellers have asserted that nearly all the herbivora1 and in particular the more feeble and timorous1 evince a marked preference for open and level places2 to such an extent1 that the herds of antelopes1 gazelles1 and zebras may be seen abandoning their pastures when the herbage is unusually luxuriant4 ,it is in the thickets1 the matted and almost impenetrable jungles1 and among the tall rank grasses1 that the beast of prey glides stealthily and unseen upon his intended victim4 ,where the surface of the ground is smooth and bare1 the herbivora can descry an approaching enemy1 and take to flight or make ready for defence4 ,it is not1 however1 the carnaria that they have most cause to dread1 but man2 not less cruel he than the stealthy lion or the prowling tiger1 and far more formidable since ,european commerce has furnished the savage with firearms4 ,he quickly learns to make use of these2 but prior to their introduction into wilderness1 prairie1 and forest1 he had devised against his prey various more or less successful means of destruction4 ,in ,central ,africa1 for instance1 the ,bakouain ,negroes1 to capture en masse buffaloes1 zebras1 giraffes1 antelopes1 and even rhinoceroses1 which gather in crowds around the grateful waters1 construct a colossal and all-devouring snare1 which they call a ,hopo4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,african ,,hopo1 ,,or ,,snare ,,for ,,herbivorous ,,animals4 ,this snare1 says ,dr4 ,livingstone1#abe consists of two very stout and very high fences1 approaching each other so as to assume the shape of a ,v2 at the apex of the angle1 instead of completely joining them1 they are prolonged in a straight line1 forming an alley about fifty paces in length1 abutting on a ditch which may measure from four to five yards square1 and be from six to eight feet deep4 ,trunks of trees are arranged cross-wise on the borders of this trench1 chiefly on the side from which the animals will arrive1 and upon the opposite one1 by which they will endeavour to escape4 ,these trees form an advanced border above the ditch1 rendering flight impossible1 and the whole is carefully covered over with reeds1 which hide the snare1 and make it resemble a trap placed among the herbage4 ,as the two fences are often a mile in length1 while the base of the triangle which they define is nearly of the same dimensions1 a company who form around the hopo a circle of three to four miles in circumference1 by gradually drawing it closer1 are certain to collect a great quantity of game4 ,the hunters direct by their cries the animals which they surround1 and cause them to reach the summit of the hopo4 ,men concealed at this point then fling their javelins into the midst of the affrighted herd1 which1 dashing headlong through the solitary opening it can find1 involves itself in the narrow alley leading to the ditch4 ,the animals fall in pell-mell1 until the snare is filled with a living mass1 which enables the others to escape by passing over the bodies of the victims4 ,the spectacle is horrifying2 the hunters1 intoxicated by the pursuit1 and no longer controlling themselves1 strike these graceful animals with a delirious joy1 while the poor creatures1 crushed to the bottom of the abyss beneath the weight of the dead and dying1 raise from time to time the pile of carcasses1 by struggling1 in the midst of their agony1 against the burden which suffocates them4 ,of the corral in which the ,cingalese entraps the elephant1 and of the ingenious snares laid by the ,malay or the ,indian for the murderous tiger1 ,i shall speak hereafter4 ,between man and the carnivora it was natural that a deadly war should be incessantly waged2 but humanity would seem to dictate towards the inoffensive herbivora a less sanguinary hostility4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world1 ,,continued3--,,the ,,carnivora4 ,next to man1 the most dangerous enemies of the peaceful herbivora are the great ,carnivora of the ,felid genus1 in whose first rank zoologists and poets were formerly wont to place the lion4 ,the so-called king of animals1 however1 has of late years lost much of his prestige4 ,observant travellers have watched him with a jealous and suspicious eye2 intrepid hunters have dared to measure themselves against him1 and to beard him in his retreats4 ,our popular heroes suffer greatly by this close examination4 ,achilles to his ,myrmidons1 ,i suspect1 was less godlike than he appeared to the warriors of ,troy1 who saw him only in the rush and tumult of the battle4 ,certain it is that the researches of modern science have stripped the lion of most of the splendid attributes with which romance had invested him4 ,here is a glowing picture3-- ,the lion1 ,who long has reign'd the terror of the woods1 ,and dared the boldest huntsman to the combat1 ,when caught at length within some hidden snare1 ,with foaming jaws he bites the toils that hold him1 ,and roars1 and rolls his fiery eyes in vain1 ,while the surrounding swains wound him at pleasure4--7,nathaniel ,rowe47 ,but the fact is1 that with all his prodigious strength1 his terrible teeth and claws1 his imposing physiognomy and attitudes1 he is an animal more prudent than courageous1 and very unlike the highly-coloured portrait which ,buffon painted4 ,there have not been wanting well-accredited authorities to accuse him of cowardice2 as our own countryman ,livingstone1 and the ,frenchman ,delegorgue4 ,according to the latter1 he is but a nocturnal robber1 whom a ray of light disconcerts1 or the barking of dogs1 and the shouts of men1 women1 and children1 or a blow from a well-applied whip1 will frequently put to flight4 ,even if provoked1 or wounded by man1 he will often refuse to fight to the last extremity2 or if he accept the challenge1 and succeed in harassing his antagonist1 he contents himself by breaking a limb or two1 by marking his chest with his teeth and nails1 after which he leaves him and goes his way4 ,i have known1 says ,delegorgue1 an intrepid hunter who1 twice in seven years1 had been treated in this fashion by a wounded lion2 the first encounter cost him two broken limbs2 the second1 six fractures1 without counting the deep scars left by his claws on several parts of the body4 ,another1 named ,vermas1 in his daring1 was held for more than a minute by a lion1 and got quit with four deep marks of his canine teeth2 glorious scars1 which he showed to me with an air of lively satisfaction4 ,livingstone records a similar adventure which befell himself with a lion at which he had aimed a couple of shots4 ,the wounded animal turned upon his aggressor1 harried him1 severely injured an arm1 and then directed his wrath against one of the doctor's companions1 whom he seized by the shoulder4 ,he intended1 in all probability1 to administer a similar correction to this individual1 when suddenly the two bullets he had received produced their effect1 and he fell dead4 ,these facts prove1 at least1 that if the lion is not brave he is not malicious1 and that the reputation for generosity which he has borne from remote times was not undeserved4 ,it is only in his old age that the lion willingly enters upon a regimen of human flesh1 from sheer want of power to obtain any other easily4 ,when a lion is too old1 says ,livingstone1 to provide himself with game by hunting1 he frequently enters into the very villages and kills the goats2 if1 then1 a woman or a child go out at night1 he makes them equally his prey2 and as thenceforth he has no other means of subsistence1 he continues to feed himself in this manner4 ,hence has arisen the saying1 that if a lion once tastes human flesh he prefers it to all other kinds4 ,the beasts which attack man are invariably aged lions4 ,when one of them conquers the fear inspired by man so far as to approach a village and seize the goats1 the inhabitants invariably say1 ,his teeth are worn out1 and he will soon kill somebody2 and feeling the necessity of defending themselves1 they hunt him immediately4 ,it is generally believed1 on the authority of ,buffon1 that the lion lives in retirement with his mate1 that he hunts in solitary dignity1 and will suffer no other carnaria1 not even one of his own race1 to hunt in his own domain4 ,this is an error4 ,lions1 on the contrary1 often assemble in a hunting-party1 four or five in number1 when they fly at high game1 such as a buffalo or a giraffe4 ,m4 ,vardon saw three lions throw themselves at once on a buffalo which he had just wounded with a musket-shot4 ,during the day-time1 in winter1 says ,delegorgue1 you may frequently see troops of lions1 which assemble together for the purpose of marking off and driving the game towards the ravines1 or wooded glens difficult of access1 where some of their companions are posted2 these are strict battues1 conducted without any noise1 the odours of the lions being sufficient to enforce the retreat of the herbivora which they pursue4 ,the lion himself may1 in his turn1 be chased and tracked with dogs1 like a wild boar1 a wolf1 or a stag2 but most frequently the hunters pursue and shoot him on foot1 and this is but a pleasure-jaunt for a man of sang-froid1 if a good shot1 and well acquainted with the animal's habits4 ,we know that the roar of the lion--that is1 of the hungry lion--is considered the most terrible of cries1 which inspires all the animals1 and even man1 with unconquerable dread4 ,it appears1 however1 that man--to say nothing of his dogs--speedily grows accustomed to it1 and that the lion1 in his turn1 cannot be frightened by the barking of the latter4 ,a very curious fact1 remarked by ,livingstone1 is the singular resemblance of the lion's roar to the cry of the ostrich4 ,i have carefully inquired1 says the great ,african traveller1 the opinion of ,europeans who have heard both4 ,i have asked them if they could discover the least difference between the roar of the one and the cry of the other4 ,they have all informed me that they could not perceive any1 at whatever distance the animal might be placed4 ,the voice of the lion1 generally1 is deeper than the ostrich's2 but up to the present time ,i have only been able to distinguish it with certainty because it is heard during the day1 and the ostrich's during the night4 ,lions were formerly common enough in all ,southern ,asia1 ,persia1 ,asia ,minor1 and even ,greece4 ,they long ago disappeared from these countries1 and are rarely met with now-a-days in ,hindostan4 ,the ,indian lion is smaller than his ,african congener2 his mane is shorter and less abundant1 and several naturalists signalize him as a distinct species1 intermediary between the true ,african lion and the ,american puma4 ,there are three varieties of ,asiatic lions3 the ,bengal1 the ,persian or ,arabian1 and the maneless lion of ,goojerat--the latter confined to a very narrow district4 ,the ,african king of beasts is spread over the entire continent from the ,mediterranean to the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 but the species includes three kinds3 the ,barbary lion1 with a deep yellowish-brown fur and a full flowing mane2 the ,senegal1 whose fur is of a brighter yellow1 and whose mane thinner2 and the ,cape1 of which there are two varieties1 one brown1 the other yellowish2 the former being the fiercer and more powerful animal4 ,a lion of the largest size measures about eight feet from the nose to the tail1 and the tail itself about four feet4 ,the male has usually a thick shaggy mane2 the head is large1 with rounded ears1 and the face covered with short close hair2 great strength and muscular force distinguish his conformation2 and the tail terminates in a tuft of hair1 which is not fully developed until he is six or seven years old4 ,in ,africa the lion has for his fellows the ,leopard and the ,panther4 ,many writers at one time confounded these two ,felid1 and even classified them with the ,indian tiger4 ,for the vulgar1 every great cat with a spotted skin is a tiger4 ,but scientific naturalists neither apply this name to the ,american jaguar nor to other spotted ,felid of the ,old or ,new ,world2 and it is with difficulty they now agree to recognize in the ,leopard and the ,panther two ill-defined varieties of the same species4 ,assuredly they exhibit very marked differences4 ,the ,leopard is nearly as large as the lion2 his limbs are robust1 his head is strong4 ,from nose to tail he measures four feet1 his tail is two feet and a half long1 and his body so flexible that he accomplishes the most surprising leaps1 and swims1 and climbs trees1 or crawls along the ground1 serpent-like1 with admirable ease4 ,compared with the jaguar and panther of naturalists1 he is uniformly of a paler and more yellowish colour1 and rather smaller1 while the spots on his skin are rose-formed1 or consist of several dots partially united into a circular figure in some instances1 and in others into a quadrangular1 triangular1 or other less determinate forms4 ,the lower part of the neck and inner parts of the limbs are white2 the spots are continued upon the tail1 which is long1 and black at the extremity4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,african ,,leopard4 ,the ,panther is larger than the leopard1 measuring about six feet and a half from nose to tail1 which is itself about three feet long4 ,on his sleek hide the spots are disposed in circles of four or five1 with1 usually1 a central spot in each circle1 in which1 as well as in his deeper colour1 he differs from the leopard4 ,both are handsome1 stealthy1 and ferocious animals2 supple1 agile1 and muscular4 ,the leopard 7,felis leopardus7 is a native of ,africa1 principally ranging along its western coast and on the confines of the ,sahara4 ,the panther 7,felis pardus7 is also an ,african denizen1 though likewise found in ,arabia1 ,persia1 and ,hindostan4 ,during the day he lurks in the thickets and among the tall grasses1 but when the shades of night descend he issues from his lair1 and haunts the brooks and pools whither the herbivora resort to quench their thirst4 ,there1 upon some rock1 he lies in ambuscade1 commanding the track pursued by innocent victims1 and darting with unerring precision upon the first which presents itself4 ,neither leopard nor panther often ventures to assail man4 ,when attacked by him1 they seek at first to make their escape1 and only turn at bay when escape is impossible4 ,in ,java1 and some other of the great ,indian islands1 there exists a black panther1 which has gained1 it is difficult to say how1 the reputation of extraordinary ferocity and daring4 ,sometimes1 in the world of man1 great reputations are built upon equally slight foundations4 ,he owes his fame to the imagination of the natives1 and differs from his congeners in no single respect but the blackish colour of his skin4 ,a skilful naturalist1 who was for some years a resident in ,java1 relates that1 while botanizing in the fields and jungles early in the day1 he frequently roused the black panthers in their lairs4 ,at first he was somewhat startled by the apparition of an animal of such terrible renown1 but seeing him turn tail very quickly on his approach1 he soon grew re-assured1 and troubled himself no more at these rencontres than if he had met a dog or a cat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to the most formidable of all the ,carnaria3 the ,tiger1 properly so called1 or ,royal ,tiger1 whose portrait ,buffon has been pleased to paint with his boldest brush and most glowing colours1 without any other motive apparently than a love of antithesis1 or the artist's desire to give force and effect to a striking picture4 ,he had endowed the king of animals with all the regal qualities his imagination could suggest1 and by way of contrast he ascribed to the tiger the lowest and cruellest instincts4 ,he painted him as the ,moloch of the brute creation2 the ,domitian1 ,caligula1 or ,nero of the jungles4 ,he was blood-thirsty1 treacherous1 cowardly1 and hideous4 ,his limbs were too short1 his head was too large1 he was ill-proportioned2 in a word1 on the unfortunate beast he poured out all the vials of his satiric wrath4 ,with this pice de fantaisie it would be curious to contrast the graver and more authentic description of the impartial ,daubenton4 ,he asserted that the tiger was very little known to ,europeans1 and that in ,france there existed but a single specimen1 and that a very badly prepared one1 in the ,cabinet du ,roi4 ,but we are now better informed1 and the tiger1 perhaps1 up to a certain point1 is rehabilitated4 ,let us take him first in his physical aspect4 ,all travellers agree in describing him as the handsomest of animals4 ,he has not the grave countenance1 the majestic attitudes of the lion2 but he has all the grace1 all the suppleness1 all the lively and undulatory movements of the domestic cat4 ,he does not stand so high upon his legs as the lion1 and he lacks that full flowing mane which invests the physiognomy of the latter with a human and truly noble air2 but all the parts of his head and body1 despite of ,buffon1 are admirably proportioned4 ,not quite so tall as the lion1 and less robust in appearance1 he is endowed with a surprising vigour4 ,he can carry off1 while in full career1 and making the most rapid leaps1 the heaviest prey--a kid1 for instance1 an antelope of full size1 even a bull1 it is said1 and1 necessarily1 a man4 ,finally1 his skin1 symmetrically striped1 like a zebra's1 with wavy bands of brown and black1 on a reddish ground1 with the contour of the face1 the chin and belly of the purest white1 defies all comparison4 ,the stripes of his head1 legs1 and tail are disposed with irreproachable symmetry in curves of the most graceful character4 ,so much for his physical character2 let us pass to his moral4 ,his appetites1 and consequently his manners and instincts1 differ but little from those of the other ,felid1 and1 in particular1 of the lion4 ,while he has a keen love of living flesh and warm blood1 he does not scorn to return1 under the pressure of hunger1 to a dead prey already partially devoured4 ,like all the carnaria1 a sagacious instinct prompts him to kill in provision for coming as well as for present hunger4 ,this is the reason that ,buffon has stigmatized him as unnecessarily cruel4 ,the bound with which he throws himself upon his prey1 says an ,english naturalist1 is as wonderful in its extent as it is terrible in its effects4 ,pennant justly observes that the distance which it clears in this deadly leap is scarcely credible4 ,man is a mere puppet in his gripe2 and the ,indian buffalo is not only borne down by the ferocious beast1 but carried off by his enormous strength4 ,if he fails in his spring1 it has been said that he will take to flight4 ,this may be true in certain instances2 but1 in general1 far from slinking away1 he pursues the affrighted prey with a speedy activity which is seldom exerted in vain4 ,hence we are led to the observation of ,pliny celebrating his swiftness1 for which the ,roman zoologist has been censured1 and apparently most unjustly2 nor is he the only author among the ancients who notices his speed4 ,appian speaks of the swift tiger as the offspring of the zephyr4 ,pliny1 says ,pennant1 has been frequently taken to task by the moderns for calling the tiger animal tremend velocitatis2 they allow it great agility in its bounds1 but deny it swiftness in pursuit4 ,two travellers of authority1 both eye-witnesses1 confirm what ,pliny says3 the one1 indeed1 only mentions in general his vast fleetness2 the other saw a trial between one and a swift horse1 whose rider escaped merely by getting in time amidst a circle of armed men4 ,the chase of this animal was a favourite diversion with the great ,cam-,hi1 the ,chinese monarch1 in whose company our countryman1 ,mr4 ,bell1 that faithful traveller1 and the ,per ,gerbillon1 saw these proofs of the tiger's speed4 ,the ,latin tigris is from a ,persian word signifying swift as an arrow1 which we find incorporated in the name of the river ,tigris4 ,the tiger's habits are essentially nocturnal1 and almost aquatic4 ,his favourite haunts are the banks of rivers and lakes1 not only because he may there pounce upon the herbivora which come to drink1 but because he can there satisfy himself with a banquet of fish4 ,to this he is as partial as any ,european epicure1 and in angling his skill and dexterity are not unworthy of an ,izaak ,walton4 ,he is the complete angler of the carnivorous world6 ,he swims admirably1 and in pursuit of his prey never hesitates at the most tremendous header1 so that the ,arnee ,buffaloes1 which traverse immense distances by yielding themselves to the swift river-currents1 have more cause to dread his attacks than those of the crocodiles4 ,buffon has calumniated the tiger by accusing him of cowardice1 while1 as we have seen1 he has not less grossly flattered the lion by representing him as the perfect type of intrepidity4 ,during the day the tiger1 after having supped freely1 sleeps in his den2 he avoids man1 and when aroused by the hunters1 his first movement is one of flight4 ,but by night or day1 if he be an hungered1 no obstacle arrests1 no peril daunts him2 and he pounces upon man as he would upon any other prey4 ,he penetrates into isolated habitations2 breaks into the villages1 and sometimes even into the towns2 seizes the domestic animals in their very stables2 men even within the shelter of their own houses2 and sometimes devours his spoil upon the spot2 sometimes1 if he fears pursuit1 drags it off to his secret lair4 ,at ,goa1 in a butcher's stall1 was slain a tiger which had fallen asleep there after gorging himself with food2 and in the vicinity of that once famous1 but now degraded city1 a cross marks the spot where a ,portuguese officer1 marching at the head of his men1 was seized before their eyes by a tiger1 and carried off before they could make the slightest effort to save him4 ,tigers are found in ,india1 in the ,indo-,chinese ,peninsula1 at ,borneo1 at ,java1 and at ,sumatra4 ,civilization has hunted them out of the ,celestial ,empire1 but they are met with in ,tartary1 even in extremely cold latitudes4 ,the tigers of the ,north a beneficent ,nature has furnished with much longer hair than their congeners of the ,tropical zone1 and they seem to form a distinct variety of the species4 ,wherever the tiger exists1 war l'outrance is declared between man and him6 ,it is a vendetta which has been handed down from the remotest antiquity1 and is as bitter now as in any past generation4 ,every year hundreds of persons fall victims to his appetite and his prowess2 every year hundreds of his race are shot down by the relentless sportsman1 or ensnared and killed by the peasants1 whose cattle and whose lives he threatens4 ,by the ,malays and the half-savage ,indians who dwell among the ,indo-,chinese jungles1 he is hunted in the same way that the ,african negroes hunt the lion and the leopard4 ,when the presence of one of these scourges becomes known in a district1 they place some dainty bait on the bank of the river where he drinks and plants himself every night1 and they form an ambush among the thickets1 taking care to mark the direction of the wind4 ,it is not long before the tiger directs his steps towards the enticing booty1 and the hunters' arrows or musket-balls stretch him dead1 in most cases1 before he can seize it4 ,a vast amount of pompous preparation attaches to the tiger-hunt of ,india4 ,it is a sumptuous expedition1 commanded by some distinguished chief--an ,european officer1 a native prince1 or a stranger of rank--in which each person has his allotted station and particular duties4 ,usually the hunters are mounted on elephants1 so that the tiger cannot reach them on the back of the colossus1 without being arrested by the trunk of the latter or his formidable tusks4 ,each sportsman provides himself with three or four rifles1 besides revolvers and cutlasses4 ,formerly the ,hindu rajahs made use in this chase of arrows and lances1 but now they greatly prefer the ,european weapons4 ,the expedition is never an impromptu affair4 ,it is always organized against an enemy whose presence has been discovered in the district1 and whose den is pretty well known4 ,the march commences at sunrise1 that the beast may be surprised while enjoying his siesta1 after the fatigues and the plunder of the night4 ,suddenly awaking1 says ,mr4 ,stocqueler1#abf he bounds out of the jungle1 and is saluted by a discharge which often proves sufficient2 but sometimes the animal is safe and sound1 or only wounded2 then he furiously springs upon the first elephant within his reach4 ,if the hunter has not time to plant a ball in his chest or head1 the position of the mahout1 or driver1 is very critical2 for1 placed on the elephant's neck1 he has no other defence than the sharp iron-pointed stick which he uses to guide his colossal steed4 ,fortunately the hunters are arrayed in a compact mass1 and a few well-directed shots terminate the struggle4 ,the most favourable districts for tiger-hunting1 continues ,mr4 ,stocqueler1 are those of ,goruckpore1 on the frontiers of ,nepaul4 ,sir ,roger ,martin relates that in this quarter once reigned a tiger of such ferocity1 and so greedy of human blood1 that he was the terror of all the country-side4 ,once he broke open1 in full day-light1 the cabin-door of a ,taroo2 but the native dealt him such a lusty blow on the head with his hatchet that he took to flight1 and ever afterwards preserved the mark of the wound1 which caused him to be easily recognized1 and dreaded all the more4 ,sir ,roger resolved to free the country from this plague2 he took the field like a gallant soldier1 but slew eight-and-forty tigers before he fell in with the ,balafr of ill renown1 who defended himself gallantly1 and proved no easy victim4 ,abbye-,singh1 rajah of ,omorah1 one of the oldest hunters of the country1 slew1 it is said1 to his own hand more than five hundred tigers2 a fact which illustrates their numerousness in the ,terac1 ,nepaul1 and ,goruckpore4 ,despite the activity and address of the hunters1 they would never succeed in purging the country2 but civilization and clearances of the ground are driving the wild beasts inch by inch towards the north1 where the hardy amateurs of sport must now go in quest of them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,tiger-,,hunting ,,in ,,the ,,indo-,,chinese ,,peninsula4 ,among the ,felid of the ,old ,world peculiar to ,tropical ,asia1 ,i must cite the ,reinaoudahan1 distinguished by his woolly and tufted tail1 from whence he has received the name of the ,fox-tailed ,tiger1 and the ,gupard1 or ,maned ,leopard1 ,hunting ,leopard1 and ,cheetah4 ,i am inclined to believe that these two varieties really signify one animal2 the ,gueparda jubata of naturalists4 ,intermediate in size and shape between the leopard and the hound1 says ,burnett1 he is slenderer in his body1 more elevated on his legs1 and less flattened on the fore part of his head than the former1 while he is deficient in the peculiarly graceful form1 both of head and body1 which characterizes the latter4 ,his tail is entirely that of a rat2 and his limbs1 although more elongated than in any other species of that group1 seem to be better fitted for strong muscular exertion than for active and long-continued speed4 ,his anatomical structure and general habits are those of the ,felid1 but the fur is crisper4 ,the general ground-colour is a bright yellowish-brown above1 lighter on the sides1 and nearly white beneath4 ,on the back1 sides1 and limbs he is marked with numerous black spots1 which on the tail are so closely set together that they appear like rings4 ,the cheetah is easily tamed1 and trained to the chase2 for which purpose1 like our staghounds1 he is bred and employed in ,persia and ,india4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the other families of digitigrade ,carnivora1 ,dogs1 ,hynas1 ,viverras 7,viverra1 ,civet71 ,mustelid 7,mustela1 ,weasel71 are largely represented in the prairies and jungles of the tropical regions of the ,old ,world4 ,wild dogs1 with straight ears1 a pendant tail1 scanty bristling hair1 thin flanks1 wander in numerous troops over the plains of ,southern ,africa1 living1 like the wolf or the hyna1 by hunting the small quadrupeds and devouring the remains of carcasses abandoned by the greater ,carnivora4 ,the jackals1 and even the hynas1 range far beyond the limits of the ,desert4 ,at the ,cape exists a larger and more ferocious species of hyna than that of the ,sahara1 from which it differs externally1 its skin being marked with spots instead of stripes4 ,moreover1 the disproportion in the height of the fore and hind legs is more marked in this animal than in his ,north ,african congener4 ,at the ,cape1 also1 and in a great part of ,south ,africa1 we find another species1 the ,hyna villosa1 or ,sea-,shore ,wolf2 distinguished from the preceding by having stripes on the legs1 while the rest of the body is of a dark grayish-brown4 ,allied to the ,hynas is the ,proteles1 or ,aard-,wolf 7,proteles ,lalandii71 an animal nearly as large as a jackal1 inhabiting the southern parts of the ,african ,continent4 ,he has the teeth and pointed head of the civits2 the striped fur and stiff bristly hair of the hynas4 ,the general colour is a yellowish-gray1 radiated with transverse stripes of dusky black2 the tail is short and bushy4 ,the fore-feet are provided with five toes2 the hinder ones with four2 all the claws being strong and large4 ,he burrows like a fox1 and prowls abroad at night in search of food1 which consists chiefly of carrion and small vermin4 ,but it is said that he particularly affects the enormous fatty tail of the ,african sheep1 devouring with avidity the semi-fluid mass1 which requires no mastication4 ,illustration3 ,,spotted ,,hy,,nas 7,hyna crocuta74 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the most curious and most graceful of the ,south ,african carnaria is the ,fennec1 or ,zorda 7,megatolis71 a genus of ,canid1 resembling the ,european fox in form and stature1 but his hair of a light brown colour2 his muzzle is of extreme fineness1 and his eye lively and intelligent2 his enormous ears gift him with an extraordinary delicacy of hearing4 ,every animal has its particular taste1 and that of the ,fennec is for ostrich eggs1 which1 as he cannot open them with his teeth on account of their size1 he breaks by dashing them against hard angular stones4 ,he is not only met with at the ,cape1 but in ,dongola1 ,nubia1 and the ,sahara south of ,tunis and ,constantina4 ,illustration3 ,,zibeth1 ,,and ,,indian ,,genet4 ,i cannot conclude this chapter without alluding to a few of the ,carnivora with elongated snout and non-retractile claws1 which inhabit the plains of ,southern ,asia and the great adjacent islands4 ,the first place ,i give to the ,cuon ,bansu1 or ,pariah ,dog of ,india1 which seems allied to both the ,wild ,dog1 the ,wolf1 and the ,jackal4 ,his eyes are prominent1 his skin is of a reddish-yellow1 brightest about the head1 spotted with black upon the tail4 ,he is a gregarious animal1 hunting in large troops1 and waging war against hares1 gazelles1 antelopes4 ,he will even venture to attack the buffaloes4 ,some varieties of this species range high up on the mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,striped ,,parodoxure ,,of ,,java ,,devouring ,a ,,crested ,,goura4 ,from the order of ,carnivora ,i might also select1 in the wild plains in the ,old ,world1 more than one curious species for our investigation1 if my space permitted me to pass in review the two families of the ,viverrid and the ,mustelid4 ,to the former belong the famous ,ichneumon1 that assiduous reptile-destroyer which the ancient ,egyptians included in their religious cultus2 the ,genets 7,viverra genetta7 with their sleek1 soft fur1 natives of the western parts of ,asia1 ,india1 and ,java2 the ,civets 7,viverra civetta71 which furnish the commerce of ,europe and the ,east with a once popular scent1 to which important medical virtues were attributed2 the ,zibeth 7,viverra zibetha71 a maneless civet1 peculiar to ,asia as the latter is to ,africa1 and met with in ,sumatra1 ,borneo1 ,amboyna1 the ,celebes1 and ,hindostan2 and1 finally1 the ,paradoxures 7animals with a fantastic or paradoxical tail71 so named by ,cuvier because the individual studied by that great naturalist kept his tail constantly coiled up and inclined on the same side4 ,all these ,carnivora are of small stature2 their short paws are furnished with demi-retractile claws2 their body is excessively elongated1 and of a worm-like shape2 their tail is long and flexible1 the muzzle tapering1 the fur soft1 and of a tawny or reddish colour1 with spots or bands of black or brown4 ,the ,mustelid are allied to the ,viverrid in their general conformation4 ,their skin is equally soft1 and capable of furnishing a beautiful fur2 but its colour is generally uniform4 ,the head is more rounded1 the muzzle more obtuse1 the tail shorter1 than in members of the preceding family4 ,finally1 a great number are plantigrades4 ,these animals are more commonly distributed over the cold regions of the ,northern hemisphere than in countries bordering on the ,tropics4 ,the genus ,ratel 7,ratellus mellivorus71 however1 is represented both in ,india and ,south ,africa4 ,the ,cape species is celebrated for the havoc it makes among the nests of the wild bees1 of whose honey it is singularly fond1 and to whose discovery it is assisted by the voice and movements of a bird called the ,honey-,guide4 ,it has a rough tongue1 short legs1 with very long claws1 a blunt1 black nose1 no external ears1 a remarkably tough and loose skin1 with thick hair4 ,its colours are ashen gray on the upper parts1 and black on the inferior1 and its length from the nose to the tip of the tail is forty inches1 the tail measuring twelve4 ,the ,indian species1 differing but little from the ,african1 inhabits ,bengal4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world3--,,birds ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,the savannahs and marshes of the ancient continent are frequented by birds of great stature3 ,cursores1 ,raptores1 and ,palmipeds4 ,the colossus of the feathered world1 the ,ostrich1 which has been aptly surnamed the ,camel-,bird 7,struthio camelus71 inhabits the arid plains of the ,african interior1 and frequently penetrates into the ,sahara4 ,the male is of a glossy black1 with white on the wings and tail2 the female wears an uniformly dusky livery4 ,it is the loose flexible plumes of the male which are so prized for a lady's toilette1 and which figure in the crest of the prince of ,wales4 ,the female's feathers are of inferior value1 and improperly designated in commerce1 vulture-feathers4 ,the ,ostrich lives with his fellows in flocks of some number4 ,he feeds voraciously on grass1 grain1 young twigs1 and will swallow pieces of wood1 leather1 metal1 or any hard substance4 ,in his apparent want of taste he is probably guided by instinct1 for these objects are probably useful in promoting the work of digestion4 ,some travellers have represented him as a stupid animal2 but this is an error1 for he displays both vigilance and shrewdness in avoiding the attacks of his enemies4 ,the chase of this bird is exceedingly laborious1 for though he does not fly he skims the ground1 and his wings impel him forward with a velocity which distances the swiftest horse4 ,but neither his speed nor his strength avails against the stratagems of man4 ,the ,arab horsemen surround the flock in a circle1 which they gradually contract as they advance1 until the poor birds are confined in a very narrow area1 and dashing madly against one another1 fall exhausted with fatigue4 ,they are then slain by a few blows from a stick4 ,the female lays from ten to twelve eggs in a hole in the sand2 she broods over them during the night1 occasionally leaving them in the hottest part of the day4 ,in procuring the eggs1 which weigh about three pounds each1 and are reputed a great delicacy1 the natives are very careful not to touch any with their hands1 as the parent birds would be sure to discover it on their return1 and not only discontinue laying any more in the same place1 but trample to pieces all those which have not been removed4 ,a long stick is accordingly made use of to push them from the nest4 ,another gigantic bird1 whose wings are but partially developed1 and whose legs are long and robust1 the galeated or helmeted ,cassowary 7,casuarius71 is a native of ,java and the adjacent islands of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,his head is surmounted by a sort of osseous crest or horny helmet4 ,in size he is much inferior to the ostrich1 not exceeding five feet when erect2 but he is robustly built1 and of exceeding strength4 ,his plumage is very poorly supplied with feathers1 so as to resemble at a little distance1 it is said1 a coat of coarse or hanging hair4 ,he is a swift runner1 like the ostrich2 is equally voracious1 and not more dainty in his food4 ,illustration3 ,,ostriches 7,struthio camelus74 ,at that season of the year when the coming winter in our ,northern hemisphere already casts its shadows before1 legions of migratory birds swarm towards the tropical regions of ,africa and ,asia4 ,storks and cranes1 and aquatic birds1 descend upon those vast and genial southern prairies1 where they obtain in abundance the precious food denied them in less favoured climes4 ,a beautiful crane1 of ashen plumage1 with a shapely ebon-black neck1 and her head adorned with two white tufts of plumes1 the ,lady of ,numidia1 selects for her dwelling-place the eastern and western shores of the ,african ,continent4 ,the ,stork 7,ciconia7 is a cosmopolitan bird which alternately favours with his presence the ,north of ,europe and the ,torrid ,zone1 everywhere discharging with fidelity his useful sanitary mission by destroying myriads of noxious vermin4 ,to kill them was considered by the ancients a foul crime1 which could only be fitly punished by death1 and the ,egyptians included the ,stork with the ,ibis in their allegorical and mysterious worship4 ,in his migrations he avoids the two extremes of heat and cold1 never going farther north than ,russia1 nor1 in winter1 further south than the land of the ,nile4 ,the ,white ,stork 7,ciconia alba7 is upwards of three feet six inches long4 ,one species1 popularly known as the ,marabout1 never quits ,africa and the ,indies4 ,the name is also applied to the light silken feathers which embellish the wings of the species--one of the ugliest1 let me add1 created by ,nature1 with his bald head and neck1 his huge beak1 and absurdly meditative postures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the chief of the birds of the shore and river-bank1 the ,flamingo 7,phoenicopterus71 may merit admiration on account of his dazzling scarlet plumage and handsome bearing4 ,owing to the great length of his legs and neck he stands nearly five feet high1 and measures six feet from the point of the beak to the tip of the claws4 ,the small round head is furnished with a bill nearly seven inches long1 which is higher than it is wide1 light and hollow1 having a membrane at the base1 and suddenly curving downwards from the middle4 ,the legs and thighs are singularly delicate and slender4 ,the ,flamingoes are timid and suspicious birds2 they keep together when feeding1 drawn up in artificial array like the lines of a battalion of ,british infantry1 with some of their number planted as sentinels to give notice of the approach of danger4 ,their voice has a peculiarly deep trumpet-like sound4 ,at the note of alarm they all take to flight1 swooping through the air in the form of a triangle4 ,they are skilful fishers4 ,they wade deep into the water1 where their long necks enable them to seize their prey with ease4 ,their food consists of spawn1 insects1 and molluscous animals4 ,owing to their peculiar structure they are both waders and swimmers4 ,illustration3 ,,rose ,,flamingoes 7,phoenicopterus antiquorum74 ,several of the ,african ,grallatores wage a murderous war against reptiles in the marshes and the meads2 a war which claims the gratitude of man1 who could never defend himself against their prolific increase and pertinacious attacks4 ,i have already referred to the ,stork2 it is needful ,i should also mention the ,ibis1 once an object of worship on the banks of the ,nile2 the ,jacana1 his long claws armed with sharpened nails that transfix his prey2 the formidable-billed ,balniceps1 which devours the young crocodiles2 and the famous ,serpent-,bird of the ,cape1 belonging to the ,grallatores by his legs1 to the ,raptores by the talons and crooked beak with which he is provided1 as well as by the structure of his internal organs4 ,these birds are the allies and protectors of man1 as ,michelet has shown with characteristic eloquence in his rhapsodical prose poem1 ,l',oiseau2 yet even these1 in their combined efforts1 are insufficient against the prolific races of aquatic and terrestrial reptiles1 some formidable by their size and strength1 some by their subtlety and venom4 ,the narratives of the adventurous men who have not feared to incur ,the moving accidents of flood and field1 in traversing the wild regions of the ,ancient ,world1 are full of striking accounts of encounters with these monsters1 and of the miseries they inflict upon the countries cursed with their presence4 ,in ,afric's sunny clime1 flood1 and river1 and lake are haunted by the loathsome and dangerous ,crocodile 7,lacerta crocodilus71 one of the most powerful species of the ,saurian race4 ,though he preys chiefly on fish1 his capacious jaws will devour any animal that comes within their reach2 and when one reflects that he often attains the length of twenty to thirty feet1 that the upper part of his body is clothed with an almost impenetrable scaly armour1 that his long1 oar-like tail is of immense strength1 one can readily comprehend the vast amount of destruction such a monster can effect4 ,happily his movements on land are impeded by the unwieldiness of his body1 which prevents him from turning except with great difficulty1 and enables his intended victims to effect their escape4 ,in the water1 however1 he glides along with great rapidity4 ,the female deposits her eggs1 which are not much larger than those of a goose1 in the sand or mud near the banks of the rivers or streams which she frequents4 ,by a beneficent provision of ,nature1 the young are largely devoured by birds1 ichneumons1 and other animals1 preventing their otherwise rapid increase4 ,the colour of a full-grown crocodile is a blackish-brown above and yellowish-white beneath1 the upper parts of the legs and sides being relieved by shades of deep yellow1 and in some places tinged with green4 ,the mouth is of vast width1 and both jaws bristle with a terrible array of sharp-pointed teeth4 ,the ,african species all belong to the same genus1 of which the ,crocodile of the ,nile is the type4 ,at the ,gaboon1 the negroes hunt their enemies either with muskets or a kind of harpoon4 ,their vulnerable points are the attachment of the anterior limbs1 and1 of course1 the eyes4 ,it is here that their assailants endeavour to mark them4 ,they are killed every day without their number appearing to be sensibly diminished1 and1 what is singular enough1 without their seeming to grow mistrustful4 ,during the heat of the noon1 they retire among the reeds and rushes for repose1 but never remain long in any one place4 ,at evening and at morning they sally forth in quest of prey4 ,they swim without making any noise1 scarcely disturbing the water1 which they cleave like dogs2 they will also remain motionless on its surface1 glancing around them with cruel1 dull1 sinister eyes4 ,the negro does not feel towards them so great an horror as ,europeans experience1 who are powerfully affected by their exceeding hideousness4 ,they eat their flesh1 with which their huge bony skeleton is scantily furnished1 and1 according to ,du ,chaillu1 can never obtain enough of the much-prized delicacy4#abg ,the ,indian ,crocodile1 the ,gavial or ,garial 7,crocodilus ,gangeticus71 is of the same size as his ,african congener1 but easily distinguished by the peculiar conformation of his mouth2 the jaws being remarkably straight1 long1 and narrow4 ,the sides of the head are straight and perpendicular1 the upper surface quadrilateral2 and the mandible1 instead of sloping gradually from the forehead1 sinks suddenly to follow a straight and almost horizontal direction4 ,the teeth are nearly double in number those of the ,nilotic monster1 but he is far less dangerous1 and feeds only on fish4 ,there are two species3 the ,gavial of the ,ganges1 found in all the great rivers of ,southern ,asia2 and the ,gavial of ,schlegel1 belonging exclusively to the island of ,borneo4 ,serpents of every size1 venomous and non-venomous1 multiply in the jungles1 marshes1 and woods of all tropical countries4 ,africa and ,asia are abundantly provided with them4 ,in ,senegal they are all1 or mostly all1 inoffensive1 and the objects of devout worship on the part of the negroes of ,dahomey2 but naturalists have not yet determined their respective genera4 ,it is certain1 however1 that they do not all belong to the same species4 ,in size1 says the ,french traveller1 ,dr4 ,rpin1 they vary from three to ten feet4 ,their head is large1 flattened1 and triangular2 the neck not quite so large as the remainder of the body2 in these respects resembling the entire host of ,ophidia4 ,they vary in colour from a bright yellow to a yellowish-green1 according perhaps to their age4 ,most of them are marked upon the back1 for their whole length1 with two brown lines1 while a few are irregularly spotted4 ,the long and prehensile tail1 and the facility with which some of them climb1 would refer them probably to the genus ,leptophis of ,dumril and ,bibron4 ,at ,whydah1 these divinities are lodged in a temple shaded by lofty and beautiful trees4 ,this curious edifice is described as a kind of rotunda1 from thirty to forty feet in diameter1 and from twenty-two to twenty-five feet high4 ,its walls1 constructed of sunburnt clay1 are pierced1 like those of the ,dahomean houses1 by two opposite gates1 affording free ingress and egress to the deities of the place4 ,the roof1 formed of branches curiously interlaced and covered with a layer of dried grass1 is constantly tapestried with a myriad serpents4 ,some climb or descend by writhing round the trunks of trees arranged for this purpose along the walls2 others1 suspended by the tail1 balance themselves indifferently in the air2 others1 again1 lie coiled up in spiral folds on the ground or among the grasses of the temple roof4 ,they never want for nourishment2 the devout supply them with constant renewals of food1 and in such abundance1 that the priests1 who1 moreover1 exercise the double profession of sorcerers and doctors1 are in no greater peril of starvation than their gods6 ,the spotted serpents of which ,dr4 ,rpin speaks may possibly be no other than ,pythons1 those gigantic ,ophidians of the tropical regions of the ,old ,world which are found in ,africa1 in ,india1 in the ,indian ,archipelago1 and even in ,australia4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that their size generally exceeds that of the largest serpents which ,dr4 ,rpin saw at ,whydah4 ,their length is from fifteen to twenty-five feet--specimens have been met with measuring thirty--and their maximum diameter ranges from ten to twelve inches4 ,their back is variegated with large spots1 whose form1 colour1 and disposition differ according to their species4 ,the tail is short1 and not prehensile4 ,their favourite haunt is the low marshy ground1 rank with moist herbage1 where they prey upon birds and small animals1 swallowing them whole--swallowing them even alive--after having seized them in the invincible folds of their long sinuous bodies1 and always commencing with their hinder parts4 ,so greedy a repast must necessarily be followed by a slow and difficult digestion1 and cannot be renewed at any very brief interval4 ,they eat in effect but once a month1 or once in two months4 ,during the lethargic and semi-somnolent condition which invariably follows their debauch1 they fall easy victims to the attacks of their enemies4 ,the principal ,african species of this genus are1 the ,python of ,seba1 of ,central ,africa1 and the ,royal ,python of ,senegambia4 ,the species peculiar to ,asiatic climes is the ,python ,molure1 a native of the ,indian ,peninsula1 and of the islands of ,java and ,sumatra4 ,the ,python of the ,sunda ,islands1 called by the natives ,ular-,sawa1 attains the length of fully thirty feet4 ,it has a large flat head1 of a bluish-gray colour1 a thick yellowish muzzle1 and cylindrical neck4 ,its body is marked with deep-blue spots1 with a yellow or tawny border2 its yellow tail with blue rings4 ,its ordinary habitat is the rivers2 it feeds on rats and birds1 but also pursues1 when ashore1 the largest animals4 ,we are indebted to ,dr4 ,livingstone for much curious information respecting the serpents of ,south ,africa1 and especially in reference to the ,striking ,echidna1 a singularly formidable viper1 which the negroes designate ,picakolou4 ,he tells us that he killed one day a reptile of this species1 which was of a deep brown colour1 verging on black1 and measured seven feet and a half in length4#abh ,these reptiles possess so abundant and deadly a venom1 that when one of them is attacked by a band of dogs1 the first dog bitten dies immediately2 the second1 five minutes afterwards2 the third1 at the end of an hour2 and the fourth1 after a more or less lengthened agony4 ,a great number of beasts is annually destroyed by the ,picakolous2 the fangs of an individual killed at ,kolobeng distilled poison for several hours after its head had been severed from its body4 ,it is probably this plentiful secretion which the natives call the serpent's spittle1 and which leads them to suppose that the ,picakolou is endowed with a power of injecting it into its enemies' eyes when the wind is favourable4 ,illustration3 ,python ,molure4 ,echidna1 or ,picakolou4 ,fennec 7,megalotis74 ,other venomous species exist in this part of ,africa1 of which several are vipers1 and among others the ,puff-,adder 7,vipera inflata74 ,the natives have named it ,noga-,poutsane1 or the ,goats' ,serpent1 because it makes at night a bleating exactly resembling that animal4 ,there were certainly no goats1 says ,livingstone1 in the place where ,i happened to hear it4 ,the natives suppose that by this bleating it hopes to deceive the traveller1 and draw him within its reach4 ,some species emit1 when they are frightened1 a peculiar odour1 strong enough to indicate their presence when they have found their way into the huts4 ,there are also several varieties of ,cobras 7the ,naja-,haje of ,dr4 ,smith74 ,when they are attacked1 they raise their head a foot from the ground1 extend their neck in a threatening manner1 dart their tongue to and fro with extreme rapidity1 while rage glares in their fixed and glassy eyes4 ,different serpents of the genus ,dendrophis1 as1 for example1 the ,green ,climber 7,bucephalus viridis71 scale the trees in search of birds and their eggs1 to which they are curiously partial4 ,the ,bucephalus is armed with fangs2 nevertheless it is not venomous1 and these fangs1 which turn inwards1 are only of use in preventing the retrogression of their prey1 only one part of which is enclosed between its jaws4 ,the ,cobra or ,naja 7,vipera naja71 the ,hooded ,snake and ,spectacle ,snake of the ,english1 the ,cobra de ,capella of the ,portuguese1 must be classed among those serpents which are the most dangerous through their violence1 and the subtle character of their venom4 ,it is easily recognized by its faculty of dilating the back and sides of the neck1 under the influence of fear or rage1 to which it owes its popular appellation2 the elevated skin of the back of the neck presenting much the appearance of a hood 7capella74 ,it is usually three or four feet in length2 of a pale reddish-brown colour above1 and bluish or yellowish-white below2 with a characteristic mark on the back of the neck closely resembling the figure of an old-fashioned pair of spectacles4 ,it is a sluggish creature1 and easily killed1 but its poison is of the most fatal quality1 causing death within two hours4 ,it frequents the purlieus of human residences in ,india1 and occasionally penetrates into the very houses1 attracted apparently by the domestic poultry1 and by the humidity of the wells and drainage4 ,in ,ceylon1 the natives1 if journeying abroad by night1 carry a small stick with a loose iron ring1 whose strange metallic sound1 as they strike it on the earth1 frightens the cobra from their path4 ,the poison is harmless if taken internally4 ,it is secreted in a large gland in the serpent's head1 and flows1 when the animal compresses its mouth on any object1 through a cavity of the tooth into the wound4#abi ,the ,indian species plays a conspicuous part in the displays of the ,hindu jugglers1 who exercise a strange power over them by the tones of their voice and the sounds of various musical instruments1 compelling them to rise partially from the ground and go through a succession of fantastic movements4 ,something of this power is also due to the fascination of the juggler's eye4 ,serpent-charming is of remote antiquity in ,egypt and in most ,oriental nations1 where the profession would seem to be hereditary4 ,several allusions to it occur in ,holy ,writ4#acj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world3--,,herbivora1 ,,insectivora1 ,,and ,,carnivora4 ,we have seen that the order of ,pachydermata1 which furnished the ,ancient ,world with the most gigantic species of the terrestrial creation1 is represented in the ,new ,world by comparatively insignificant types3 the ,tapir and the ,peccary4 ,the first1 although far inferior in stature to the elephant1 the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus1 is1 nevertheless1 one of the largest ,american ,herbivora2 the bison1 llama1 and stag alone exceeding it in size4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,tapir 7,tapirus ,americanus74 ,two species are distinguished1 which both inhabit ,south ,america1--the ,american ,tapir and the ,tapir ,pinchaca4 ,the former is about as large as a mule or an ass4 ,his skin is black1 covered with rough brown hair4 ,he has a long bowed neck1 legs and feet resembling those of the hog1 and a nose prolonged into a kind of trumpet4 ,he feeds on leaves and many kinds of fruit1 and sometimes does much injury in the mandioca fields of the ,indians4 ,his flesh is very good eating1 and considered exceedingly wholesome4 ,it is even reputed to be a remedy for the ague4 ,a very shy and timid animal1 he wanders about principally at night4 ,when the ,indian discovers a feeding-place1 says ,mr4 ,wallace1#aca he builds a stage between two trees1 about eight feet above the ground1 and there stations himself soon after dusk1 armed with a gun1 or with his bow and arrow4 ,though such a heavy animal1 the tapir steps as lightly as a cat1 and can only be heard approaching by the gentle rustling of the bushes2 the slightest sound or smell will alarm him1 and the ,indian lies still as death for hours1 till the animal approaches sufficiently near to be shot1 or until1 scenting his enemy1 he makes off in another direction4 ,when compelled to stand at bay1 however1 he defends himself with extraordinary vigour4 ,d',azara assures us that if the jaguar flings himself upon the tapir1 the latter will drag him onward and onward through the densest bushes1 until1 torn cruelly by the thorns and brambles1 he is constrained to let his would-be victim escape4 ,the ,tapir ,pinchaca appears to be confined to the region of the ,cordilleran table-lands4 ,the name ,pinchaca1 bestowed on the species by ,m4 ,roulin1 is that of a fabulous animal mentioned in the traditions of ,new ,grenada4 ,it is distinguished from the former species by the absence of those lateral folds on the snout and occipital ridge to be remarked in the ,american ,tapir1 by its long thick hair--which1 however1 does not form a mane on the neck--and by a white mark at the extremity of the lower jaw4 ,the ,peccaries are the wild boars of ,tropical ,america4 ,they are smaller than those of the ,old ,world2 have fewer teeth1 and their tail is rudimentary4 ,they live in numerous herds1 and not only defend themselves energetically against aggressors1 but when the latter have grown fatigued1 assume the offensive1 and pursue them with incredible fury4 ,hunting them1 therefore1 is for man1 no less than for the jaguar1 a dangerous adventure4 ,when one of them has been seized by the latter1 or slain by the former1 the herd combine in pursuit of the murderer1 and if he does not succeed in escaping them by a rapid retreat1 or by opposing some insurmountable obstacle to their headlong career1 he is infallibly torn to pieces4 ,the genus ,horse1 or1 to adopt the new nomenclature1 the family of ,equid1 are altogether wanting in the ,american ,fauna2 that is1 in the native indigenous ,fauna of the ,new ,world4 ,previous to the era of ,spanish ,conquest1 ,america did not possess a single species analagous to the horse1 the onagra1 the hemionus1 the zebra1 or the quagga2 and the reader of the animated pages of ,prescott or ,arthur ,helps will remember with what terror the ,peruvians as well as the ,mexicans regarded the mounted cavaliers of ,pizarro and ,cortez4 ,the horse1 however1 when introduced by ,europeans1 multiplied rapidly in the ,savannahs1 where he soon became wild1 and breeding with the ass1 produced the mule1 which1 in the ,spanish-,american ,states1 as in the mother-country1 is now the most useful auxiliary of man4 ,the ,european ox is likewise acclimatized over the entire extent of the new continent2 and immense herds of the latter species1 together with troops of horses and mules1 people the ,llanos and ,pampas of ,south ,america1 where the first conquerors had only met with herds of stags 7,cervus ,mexicanus71 llamas1 and cobiais4 ,illustration3 ,,hunter ,,pursued ,,by ,,peccaries4 ,the ,llama1 or ,guanaco 7,auchenia llama71 and his congeners1 the ,vicuna and the ,alpaca 7,auchenia71 are now only found among the recesses of the ,andes1 their native country1 to which they have retreated before the restless advance of man4 ,in describing them ,i shall freely avail myself of ,dr4 ,von ,tschudi's interesting notices4#acb ,the ,llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head1 four feet six to eight inches2 from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders1 from two feet eleven inches to three feet4 ,the female is usually smaller and less strong than the male1 but her wool is finer and better4 ,a great variety of colour prevails2 the more general is brown1 with shades of yellow or black2 frequently speckled1 but very rarely quite white or black4 ,the speckled brown llama is1 in some districts1 called the moromoro4 ,the burden carried by this useful animal1 the camel of the ,new ,world1 should not exceed from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five pounds4 ,if the load be too heavy1 he lies down1 and no force or persuasion will induce him to resume his journey until the excess be removed4 ,in the silver mines his utility is very great1 as he frequently carries the metal from the mines in places where the declivities are so steep that neither asses nor mules can keep their footing4 ,his abstemiousness is remarkable1 and he will not feed during the night4 ,a flock of llamas journeying over the table-lands1 says ,dr4 ,von ,tschudi1 is a beautiful sight4 ,they proceed at a slow and measured pace1 gazing eagerly around on every side4 ,when any strange object scares them1 the flock separates1 and disperses in various directions1 and the arrieros have no little difficulty in re-assembling them4 ,the ,indians are very fond of these animals4 ,they adorn them by tying bows of ribbons to their ears1 and hanging bells round their necks2 and before loading1 they always fondle and caress them affectionately4 ,if1 during a journey1 one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down1 the arriero kneels beside the animal1 and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearing expressions4 ,but notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed on them1 many llamas perish on every journey to the coast1 as they are not able to bear the warm climate4 ,when resting they make a peculiar humming noise1 which1 if it proceed from a numerous flock and is heard at some distance1 resembles a concert of olian harps4 ,the flesh of the llama is spongy1 and not agreeable in flavour3 ,its wool is used in manufacturing coarse cloths4 ,the ,alpaca 7,auchenia71 or ,paco1 is smaller than the llama4 ,it measures only three feet three inches from the lower part of the hoof to the top of the head1 and to the shoulders two feet and a half4 ,in form it resembles the sheep1 but has a longer neck and a more graceful head4 ,its fleece is very long1 in some parts four or five inches1 and exquisitely soft4 ,its colour is usually either white or black1 but in some few instances is speckled4 ,of its wool the ,indians weave their blankets4 ,it is also exported to ,europe1 and especially to ,england1 in large quantities1 though since the alpaca was naturalized in ,australia1 through the patriotic exertions of ,mr4 ,ledger1 ,england has begun to obtain a supply from her great and thriving colony4#acc ,the alpacas are kept in large flocks1 which graze1 throughout the year1 on the green and level heights1 and are driven to the huts only at shearing-time4 ,their shyness is very great1 and at the approach of a stranger they take to rapid flight4 ,their obstinacy is remarkable4 ,if one of these animals should be separated from the flock he will throw himself on the ground1 and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise2 he will frequently suffer the severest punishment rather than go the way his driver wishes4 ,few animals seem to stand in such urgent need of the companionship of their species1 and it is only when brought to the ,indian huts very young that they can be separated from their flocks4 ,the largest animal of this tribe is the ,huanacu or ,guanaco4 ,he measures five feet from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head1 and three feet three inches to the shoulders4 ,so nearly does he resemble the llama in form that1 until very recently1 zoologists supposed the latter to be an improved species of the huanacu1 and that the huanacu was neither more nor less than a wild llama4 ,but there are specific differences between them4 ,the huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown colour on the neck1 back1 and thighs4 ,the under part of the body1 the middle line of the breast1 and the inner side of the limbs are of a dingy white4 ,the wool is shorter and coarser than that of the llama1 and of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body4 ,the huanacus assemble in small herds of five or seven1 and if taken very young may be tamed1 but can with difficulty be trained as beasts of burden4 ,the ,vicua is a more beautiful animal than either of the preceding4 ,his size is a medium between that of the llama and alpaca4 ,he measures four feet one inch to the top of the head1 and two feet six inches to the top of the shoulders4 ,he is distinguished by his longer and shapelier neck1 by the superior fineness of his short curly wool4 ,the crown of the head1 the upper part of the neck1 the back1 and thighs are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue1 which the natives call color de vicua4 ,the lower part of the neck and the inner parts of the limbs are of a bright ochreous colour1 and the breast and lower part of the body white4 ,during the wet season the vicua browses on the scanty vegetation of the ,cordilleran ridges4 ,he never ventures up to the bare rocky summits1 for his hoofs1 being accustomed only to the yielding sward1 are very soft and tender4 ,he lives in herds1 consisting of from six to fifteen females1 and one male1 who is the protector and leader of the herd1 and who1 while the females graze1 stands a few paces apart1 carefully watching over their safety4 ,at the approach of danger he gives a signal1 consisting of a kind of whistling sound and a quick movement of the foot4 ,immediately the herd draws close together1 each animal stretching out his head in the direction of the impending alarm4 ,then they take to flight2 first moving leisurely and cautiously1 but quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed2 whilst the male vicua1 who covers the retreat1 occasionally halts to observe the motions of the enemy4 ,the females reward his devotion by the warmest affection and fidelity1 and will suffer themselves to be killed or captured rather than desert him4 ,the mode in which the ,indians hunt the vicua is sufficiently curious4 ,in the ,chacu1 as it is termed1 the whole company1 seventy or eighty in number1 proceed to the ,attos--the most secluded districts of the ,peruvian mountains--which are the animal's favourite haunts1 with an abundant supply of rope and cord1 and numerous stakes4 ,selecting a spacious open area1 they drive the stakes into the ground in a circle1 at intervals of from twelve to fifteen feet apart1 and connect them together by ropes fastened at the height of two or two and a half feet from the ground4 ,the circular space within this enclosure measures about half a league in circumference2 an opening of about two hundred paces in width is left for entrance4 ,on the ropes which are carried round the stakes1 the ,indian women hang pieces of coloured rag that flutter gaily in the wind4 ,the chacu being thus made ready1 the ,indians1 who are mounted on horseback1 range over the country within a circuit of several miles1 driving before them all the herds of vicuas they encounter1 and forcing them into the chacu4 ,when a sufficient number is collected1 they close the entrance4 ,the timid animals do not attempt to leap over the ropes1 being affrighted by the fluttering rags1 and when thus secured1 the ,indians easily kill them with their bolas4 ,these bolas consist of three balls1 composed either of lead or stone2 two of them heavier than the third4 ,they are fastened to long elastic strings1 made of twisted sinews of the vicua1 and the opposite ends of the strings are all tied together4 ,the ,indian holds the lightest of the three balls in his hand1 and swings the two others in a wide circle above his head2 then1 taking his aim at the distance of about fifteen or twenty paces1 he lets go the hand-ball1 whereupon all three whirl in a circle1 and cling round the object aimed at4 ,the aim is usually directed at the animal's hind legs1 and the cords twisting round them1 he is unable to move4 ,great skill and long practice are required to throw the bolas dexterously2 a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting either himself or his horse1 by not giving the balls the proper swing1 or by letting go the hand-ball too soon4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,guanaco4 #b4 ,llama4 #c4 ,vicua4 ,the vicuas1 after being secured by the bolas1 are killed2 their skins belong to the ,church1 and their flesh1 which is tenderer and better flavoured than that of the llama1 is distributed in equal portions among the hunters4 ,under the dynasty of the ,incas1 the ,peruvians rendered almost divine worship to the llama and his congeners1 adorning the temples with large figures of these animals fashioned in gold and silver4#acd ,if the natives of the ,south ,american continent possess neither the ,ox nor the ,sheep1 they have at least a precious resource in the ,bison1 and the ,musk ,ox1 or ,ovibos4 ,of the latter ,i shall speak when my survey brings me to the colder regions of ,north ,america4 ,the ,bison is wholly confined to the great prairies of this continent1 which he traverses from north to south1 and reciprocally1 in his periodical migrations4 ,according to some naturalists1 he is a variety of the ,aurochs1 the fierce wild bull that formerly tenanted the forests of ,gaul1 ,germany1 and ,sarmatia1 and is still found in the densely-wooded districts of ,moldavia1 ,wallachia1 ,lithuania1 and ,caucasia4 ,herds of ,aurochs 7,bos ,bison71 under the special protection of the ,russian ,emperor1 and believed to number fully eight hundred animals1 still roam in the depths of the great ,lithuanian forest of ,bialowieza4 ,the ,american genus commonly called ,buffalo1 but not to be confounded with the buffaloes of the ,old ,world1 occurs as far north as the ,great ,martin ,lake1 in latitude #fc1 and congregates in countless thousands on the wide undulating prairies between the ,mississippi and the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,their flesh is supposed to supply with provision some #cjj1jjj ,indians1 who pursue them on horseback1 and kill them with bow and arrow1 spear or rifle4 ,the chase is exciting1 and has proved a great attraction to the more adventurous spirits of the ,new ,world4 ,it is exciting because it is perilous1 for the hunted animal will often turn upon his adversary1 and in speed he can outstrip the swiftest horse4 ,he finds a formidable enemy in the white wolf4 ,hunting in packs of one or two hundred1 the latter fling themselves upon two or three solitary bisons1 and1 surrounding them1 worry the huge brutes to death4 ,never have they courage enough1 however1 to attack a herd1 though the latter1 when they catch sight of wolves1 manifest the greatest alarm1 form into battle array1 and are only prevented by excess of terror from taking to flight4 ,this panic-stricken feeling the ,indian often turns to his advantage4 ,he clothes himself in the skin of a white wolf1 and with bow and arrows in his hands1 boldly faces a herd1 crawling towards them on his hands and knees2 the affrighted buffaloes press closely together to receive the supposed wolf1 who1 on arriving at a convenient proximity1 suddenly springs to his feet1 and utters an unearthly yell4 ,they fall into a frenzy of terror which enables him to select several victims4 ,the ,indians also capture great numbers by setting fire to the grass of the prairies2 the flames compel them to retire to the centre1 where they are easily slain4 ,or they endeavour to throw them into a panic of alarm1 in which case they seem possessed with a sudden madness1 and1 if driven towards a precipice1 will dash themselves headlong over it1 falling crushed and bleeding into the chasm beneath4 ,the ,american bison is similar to the ,european1 but his tail and limbs are shorter2 the horns are shorter and more blunt2 the tail has fewer vertebr2 and the mane is fuller and shaggier4 ,his flesh is excellent eating1 having a flavour like that of venison4 ,the tallow forms an important article of trade1 one bull sometimes yielding #aej pounds4 ,the skins are much used by the ,indians for blankets1 and when tanned they employ them as coverings for their beds and wigwams4 ,spread upon frames of wicker-work1 they make admirable canoes4 ,the long hair or fleece1 of which a male bison yields six to eight pounds1 is spun and woven into cloth4 ,the favourite nourishment of the bison1 says ,humboldt1 is the ,tripsacum dactyloides1 called ,buffalo-,grass in ,north ,carolina1 and a species of trefoil1 resembling ,trifolium repens1 which ,burton has named ,trifolium bisonicum4 ,it is remarkable1 he continues1 that the ,buffalo1 or ,bison of the ,north1 has exercised an influence upon geographical discovery in the mountainous regions where no road is laid down4 ,assembled in herds of several thousands1 and seeking a milder climate1 they migrate at the approach of winter into the countries situated south of ,arkansas4 ,their massive form and size render it difficult for them to cross the mountains2 and1 consequently1 wherever the traveller finds a track beaten out by numerous hoofs--a buffalo-path1 in fact--he may confidently adopt it as the most convenient route for himself and his steed4 ,in this manner have been discovered the best passes in the ,cumberland ,mountains1 the ,rocky ,mountains1 from the sources of the ,yellow-,stone to the ,river ,la ,plata2 and1 finally1 from the southern branch of the ,river ,columbia to the ,rio ,colorado of ,california4 ,the animals which we most frequently meet with in the ,steppes of ,south ,america are the small spotted ,stag 7,cervus ,mexicanus72 the mailed ,armadillos2 some species of ,tatous1 which glide like rats into the burrows of the hares2 troops of indolent ,cobiais2 of ,civets agreeably striped1 but infecting the air with their emanations2 and the great maneless ,lion1 the ,jaguar or ,american ,tiger1 whose strength is sufficient to slay the young bulls and carry them off to the summits of the hills4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,agouti4 #b4 ,capybara4 ,the ,cervus ,mexicanus wanders in numerous troops in the grassy ,llanos of the ,caraccas4 ,he is only spotted while young2 and varieties completely white have been discovered4 ,on the slopes of the ,andes he is never found at a greater elevation than #afjj to #aijj feet4 ,at #cjjj feet he is replaced by a much larger variety1 slightly differing from the ,european stag4 ,the ,rodents of the genera ,capybara1 ,agouti1 and ,paca1 are widely diffused over the plains of ,tropical ,america4 ,of the three1 the ,capybara 7,hydrochrus capybara7 is the largest4 ,he attains the size of a sheep1 has a voluminous head1 small round ears1 eyes large and black1 a thick divided nose flanked by formidable whiskers1 a short neck1 a thick body covered with short1 coarse1 russet hair1 and short legs2 altogether1 not a thing of beauty4 ,like the peccary1 he is tailless1 and in a manner web-footed1 being thus adapted for a semi-aquatic life4 ,these great ,rodents1 says the illustrious author of ,the ,origin of ,species1 in one of his earlier works1#ace are generally called ,carpinchos2 they occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the ,plata1 where the water is quite salt1 but are more abundant on the borders of fresh-water lakes and rivers4 ,in the day-time they either lie among the aquatic plants1 or openly feed on the turf plain4 ,when viewed at a distance1 from their manner of walking and colour1 they resemble pigs2 but when seated on their haunches1 and attentively watching any object with one eye1 they re-assume the appearance of their congeners1 the ,caries4 ,both the front and side view of their head wears quite a ludicrous aspect1 from the great depth of their jaw4 ,the ,capybara leads no joyous life apparently1 for in the water he is perseveringly pursued by the crocodile1 and in the plain by the jaguar4 ,he runs so awkwardly as to be easily caught by hand1 and the ,south ,americans profess to relish his flesh4 ,the ,paca 7,coelogenys7 differs from the ,capybara in the complex structure of his molar teeth4 ,he inhabits the woody regions of ,south ,america1 where he is generally found in the vicinity of water1 concealing himself in burrows so near the surface1 that the pedestrian's foot often intrudes within them4 ,his form is thick and clumsy1 spotted with white on the sides1 and intermediate in size and appearance between a hog and a hare4#acf ,he is about a foot in height and two feet in length1 with hind limbs much longer than the fore1 but considerably bent4 ,the claws are thick1 strong1 and conical2 the eyes large1 prominent1 and of a brownish hue2 the ears nearly naked1 and whiskers rigid4 ,the paca is heavy and corpulent1 but swims and dives with remarkable agility4 ,as he feeds only on fruits and tender plants1 his flesh is exceedingly savoury1 and a staple dish in many parts of ,america4 ,his burrow is provided with three apertures1 and his capture is managed by closing up two of these1 and digging up the third4 ,the ,agouti 7,dasyprocta ,agouti7 is another ,south ,american ,rodent1 about one-third the size of the ,paca2 he swims1 but does not dive4 ,he has sometimes been named the rabbit of the ,south ,american continent1 but differs from it in many essential points1 and really belongs to the ,cavid1 or guinea-pig tribe4 ,he possesses the voracious appetite of the hog1 and devours indiscriminately everything that comes in his way4 ,he conveys his food to his mouth with his fore-paws1 like a squirrel1 and as he has long hind legs1 runs1 or rather leaps1 with considerable swiftness4 ,he is hunted very perseveringly on account of the devastation he causes among the sugar-canes4 ,there is a larger species called the ,mara1 or ,pampas ,hare 7,dasyprocta ,patachonica71 which will wander for miles away from its home4 ,among the most interesting ,rodents of the ,new ,world must be classed the ,vizcacha and the ,chinchilla1 whose furs are so highly valued4 ,the ,vizcacha1 or ,bizcacha 7,calomys bizcacha71 somewhat resembles a rabbit1 but his teeth are larger1 and he has a long tail4 ,he lives1 it is said1 on roots1 and never wanders far from his burrow4 ,his flesh1 when cooked1 is very white and savoury4 ,the ,chinchilla 7,c4 lanigera7 inhabits the cold mountain-valleys1 where his close1 fine gray fur is an invaluable protection4 ,he is a pretty animal1 much like the rabbit1 but with a squirrel's tail2 of a mild and sociable disposition2 and living with his kind on the most amicable terms4 ,nor must the ,beaver be forgotten1 the most industrial animal of the ,rodentia1 which has wholly disappeared from ,europe1 and is yearly growing scarcer in ,america4 ,the ,beaver 7,castor fiber7 is specially recognizable by his broad horizontally-flattened tail1 which is of a nearly oval form1 but slightly convex on its upper surface1 and covered with scales4 ,his hind feet are webbed1 and together with the tail1 which acts as a rudder1 propel him through the water with ease and swiftness4 ,his length1 exclusive of his tail1 which measures one foot1 is about three feet2 colour1 a deep chestnut2 hair1 very fine1 glossy1 and smooth4 ,the incisor teeth are large1 and so hard1 that the ,north ,american ,indians used them in fabricating their horn-tipped spears and cutting bone1 until iron tools were introduced from ,europe4 ,the sagacity with which he constructs his habitation has long been a theme of eulogy1 and has furnished moralists with many an apt image and pregnant illustration4 ,water is the necessity of his life4 ,it is indispensably necessary that the stream near which the animal lives should never run dry2 and to prevent so dire a misfortune1 he is gifted with an instinct which teaches him to keep the water at or about the same mark1 by building a dam across the channel4 ,in order to comprehend the art with which this dam is constructed1 we must watch the beaver at his patient toil4#acg ,when the animal has fixed upon a tree which he believes suitable for his purpose1 he sits upright1 and with his chisel-like teeth cuts a bold groove completely round the trunk4 ,he then widens the groove in exact proportion to its depth1 so that when the tree is nearly cut through1 it somewhat resembles the contracted portion of an hour-glass4 ,when this stage has been reached1 he looks anxiously at the tree1 and views it on every side1 as if to measure the direction in which it should fall4 ,having settled this question1 he goes to the opposite side1 and with two or three powerful bites cuts away the wood1 so that the overbalanced tree comes to the ground4 ,the beaver next proceeds to cut it up into lengths of about a yard or so1 employing a similar method of severing the wood4 ,the next part of the task is to make these rounded and pointed logs into a dam4 ,for this purpose the logs are laid horizontally1 and covered with stones and earth until they can resist the force of the water4 ,vast numbers are thus laid2 and as fast as the water rises1 fresh materials are added1 being obtained mostly from the trunks and branches of trees which have been stripped of their bark by the beavers4 ,in those places where the stream runs slowly the dam is carried straight across the river2 but where the current is strong1 a convex shape is given to it1 so as to resist the force of the rushing water4 ,the dam is frequently of great size1 measuring two or three hundred yards in length1 and ten or twelve feet in thickness4 ,in many localities the streams have been diverted by these erections into entirely different channels4 ,it is in this manner that the beavers keep the water to the required level2 we must next see how they make use of it4 ,they build their houses close to the water1 and communicating with it by means of subterranean passages1 one entrance of which passes into the house1 or lodge1 as it is technically named1 and the other into the water1 so far below the surface that it cannot be closed by ice4 ,it is1 therefore1 always possible for the beaver to gain access to the provision stores1 and to return to its house1 without being perceived from the land4 ,the lodges1 says ,mr4 ,wood1 are nearly circular in form1 and much resemble the well-known snow-houses of the ,esquimaux1 being domed1 and about half as high as they are wide--the average height being three feet1 and the diameter six or seven feet4 ,these are the interior dominions1 the exterior measurement being much greater1 on account of the great thickness of the walls1 which are continually strengthened with mud and branches1 so that during the severe frosts they are nearly as hard as solid stone4 ,each lodge will accommodate several inhabitants1 whose beds are arranged round the walls4 ,there is no animal1 however1 whose sagacity can foil human ingenuity4 ,the trappers1 who hunt the beaver for the sake of his fur1 and the peculiar odoriferous secretion called castor1 are more than a match for all his artifices4 ,not even in winter-time is he safe from their pursuit4 ,striking the ice smartly1 they judge from the sound whether they are near an aperture2 and as soon as they are satisfied1 cut away the ice and stop up the opening1 so that the beavers1 if alarmed1 may not escape into the water4 ,they then proceed to the shore1 and by repeated soundings trace the course of the beavers' subterranean passage1 which is sometimes eight or ten yards long1 and by closely watching the different apertures invariably catch the inhabitants4 ,while thus engaged1 they must be careful not to spill any blood1 as in case of such a mishap the rest of the beavers take alarm1 retreat to the water1 and cannot be captured4 ,the trappers entertain a superstitious notion1 which leads them to remove a kneecap from each beaver and throw it into the fire4 ,the beavers generally quit their huts in the summer-time1 though one or two of the houses may be tenanted by a mother and her young family4 ,those old beavers which are free from domestic ties take to the water1 and swim up and down the stream in bachelor-like liberty until the month of ,august1 when they return to a settled life4 ,there are1 also1 certain individuals called by the trappers les paresseux1 or the idlers1 which do not live in houses1 and construct no dam1 but dwell in subterranean tunnels like those of our common water-rat4 ,they are always males2 gay young bachelors1 with no incentives1 we will suppose1 to an industrious career4 ,neither in the beaver nor in the human world1 however1 does idleness prosper1 for the capture of les paresseux is a comparatively easy task4 99 99 99 99 99 ,south ,america is the home of those singular ,edentate ,mammals1 with scaly shields1 which the natives call ,tatous1 but which are better known to ,europeans by the name of ,armadillos 7,priodonta gigas74 ,cuvier has divided the whole genus into five groups1 distinguished from one another by the number and form of their teeth and claws3--,cachecames1 ,apars1 ,encouberts1 ,cabassous1 and ,priodontes4 ,their general characteristics1 however1 are the same1 and to describe one is virtually to describe all4 ,the body of the ,armadillo has been invested by nature with a complete suit of armour3 thus the head is protected by an oval or triangular plate1 the shoulders by a large buckler1 and the haunches by a similar buckler2 while between these solid portions intervenes a series of transverse bands1 or zones of shell1 which accommodate this coat of mail to the various postures of the body2 the tail also is covered by a series of calcareous rings1 so that the animal exhibits a peculiar and somewhat ungainly appearance4 ,like the hedgehog1 he can roll himself up into a ball1 and present a solid impervious substance to the attacks of any adversary4 ,the interior surface of the body1 not covered by the shell1 is clothed with coarse scattered hairs1 some of which also emerge between the joints of the coat of mail4 ,this strange quadruped1 like a medival knight1-- ,in armour sheathed from top to toe1-- has a rather pointed snout1 long ears1 short and thick limbs1 and stout claws4 ,nature has thus fitted him by a peculiarly admirable organization for those habits of burrowing1 which he performs with such astonishing rapidity that it is almost impossible to capture him by digging4 ,his hunters therefore smoke him out of his subterraneous lair2 as soon as he reaches the surface he rolls himself up1 and is easily taken prisoner4 ,he is then roasted in his shell1 and devoured with avidity1 his flesh being as great a dainty to a ,south ,american ,indian as turtle to a ,london alderman4 ,by the side of the armadillos we may place another individual of the ,edentata1 not less strange in form3 this is the ,tamanoir1 or ,great ,ant-,eater 7,myrmecophaga jubata71 which feeds exclusively on ants1 digging open their hills with his powerful crooked claws1 and drawing his long flexible tongue1 covered with viscous saliva1 lightly over the myriad insects that immediately sally forth to defend their homes4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,armadillo ,loricata4 #b4 ,ant-,eater4 ,the habits of the ,myrmecophaga jubata are now pretty well known4 ,it is not uncommon in the drier forests of the ,amazons valley4 ,the ,brazilians call the species the ,tamandu bandeira1 or the ,banner ,ant-,eater2 the term banner1 says ,mr4 ,bates1#ach being applied in allusion to the curious coloration of the animal1 each side of the body having a broad oblique stripe1 half gray and half black1 which gives it some resemblance to a heraldic banner4 ,it has an excessively long1 slender muzzle1 and a warm-like extensile tongue4 ,its jaws are destitute of teeth4 ,the claws are much elongated1 and its gait is very awkward4 ,it lives on the ground1 but all the other species of this singular genus are arboreal4 ,i met with four species altogether4 ,one was the ,myrmecophaga tetradactyla1 or ,little ,ant-,eater2 the two others1 more curious and less known1 were very small kinds1 called ,tamandu-i 7,myrmecophaga tamandua74 ,both are similar in size--ten inches in length1 exclusive of the tail--and in the number of the claws1 having two of unequal length to the anterior feet1 and four to the hind feet4 ,one species is clothed with grayish-yellow silky hair2 this is of rare occurrence4 ,the other has a fur of a dingy brown colour1 without silky lustre4 ,one was brought to me alive1 having been caught by an ,indian clinging motionless inside a hollow tree4 ,i kept it in the house about twenty-four hours4 ,it had a moderately long snout1 curved downwards1 and extremely small eyes4 ,it remained nearly all the time without motion1 except when irritated1 in which case it reared itself on its hind-legs from the back of a chair to which it clung1 and clawed out with its fore-paws like a cat4 ,its manner of clinging with its claws1 and the sluggishness of its motions1 gave it a great resemblance to a sloth4 ,it uttered no sound1 and remained all night on the spot where ,i had placed it in the morning4 ,the next day ,i put it on a tree in the open air1 and at night it escaped4 ,these small ,tamandus are nocturnal in their habits1 and feed on those species of termites which construct earthy nests1 that look like ugly excrescences on the trunks and branches of trees4 ,the different kinds of ant-eaters are thus adapted to various modes of life1 terrestrial and arboreal4 ,in ,tropical ,america the most remarkable representatives of the ,carnivora are two great species of ,felid3 the ,puma1 or ,cougouar 7,felis concolor71 also called the ,lion of ,america2 and the ,jaguar1 or ,ounce 7,felis onca71 sometimes distinguished as the ,american ,tiger4 ,the ,puma measures about five feet from nose to tail2 the tail alone measuring two feet and a half4 ,his colour is a brownish-red1 with small patches of deeper tint1 only shown up by certain lights2 the breast1 belly1 and inner flanks are of a reddish ash2 the lower jaw and throat entirely white2 the tail of a dusky ferruginous tinge1 tipped with black4 ,as he grows older1 however1 his general colour becomes a silvery fawn4 ,he has no mane4 ,his manners--that is1 his habits and disposition--are rather those of the panther than the lion4 ,he climbs trees with cat-like expertness1 whether in chase of birds1 or to secure a vantage-point from which he may pounce upon some unsuspecting victim4 ,he never attacks the larger quadrupeds1 confining himself to such small deer as young calves1 colts1 and sheep4 ,men1 children1 dogs--these he suffers to pass by unmolested4 ,his depredations are nocturnal4 ,when domesticated1 he may well be likened to the common cat1 and he shows his pleasure at being caressed by the same kind of gentle purring4 ,but he is a ferocious animal1 and will kill fifty sheep or more in order to drink their blood4 ,illustration3 ,,cougouars1 ,,or ,,pumas4 ,a much more formidable animal is the ,jaguar4 ,in size and strength he is but little inferior to the tiger4 ,he has a large and rounded head2 his pliant body is marked on the back with long uninterrupted stripes1 on the legs and thighs with full black spots2 his ground colour is a pale brownish-yellow2 his legs are short1 thick1 and robust4 ,he extends his ravages over all ,central and ,south ,america1 and over a considerable range of the northern continent4 ,like the tiger1 he loves the shade of hot swampy jungles1 the neighbourhood of the river and the lake4 ,he generally preys on animals of domestic origin1 which have grown wild in the prairies and the pampas1 but he will also attack the bisons1 and the other herbivora4 ,fish1 too1 he does not disdain to eat2 and in default of other food1 will even seize upon the camans4 ,it is rare that he attacks man2 but if attacked by him1 he defends himself courageously1 and his muscular strength renders him exceedingly formidable4 ,not even an ,ajax could maintain a combat with him as ,fitz-,james fought with ,roderick ,dhu1 when-- ,foot1 and point1 and eye opposed1 ,in dubious strife they darkly closed2 if man would win1 he must arm himself with bow and arrow1 keen spear1 or unerring rifle4 ,the hunter1 thus provided1 pursues him with restless animosity to obtain his fur1 which is much esteemed in commerce1 where it is improperly designated by the names of ,great ,panther1 and ,american ,tiger4 ,illustration3 ,,bison ,,attacked ,,by ,a ,,jaguar4 ,according to ,humboldt1 the ,pampas are colonized with dogs grown wild1 which gather in great numbers in subterranean caverns1 and oftentimes1 when stimulated by hunger1 fling themselves upon man1 in whose defence they originally displayed their courage4 ,illustration3 ,,prairie ,,wolves 7,arctomys ,ludoricianus74 ,in ,north ,america there exists a very curious species of ,rodents1 belonging to the sub-genus ,spermophilus1 or ,spermatophilus--that is1 grain-eaters4 ,they are better known by the hunter's name1 ,prairie ,dogs4 ,mr4 ,murray remarks that it is difficult to say why they obtained such an absurd appellation1 for they do not bear the slightest resemblance to the canine species1 either in formation or habits4#aci ,in size1 he says1 they vary extremely1 but in general they are not larger than a squirrel1 and not unlike one in appearance1 except that they want his bushy tail2 the head is also somewhat rounder4 ,they burrow under the light soil1 and throw it up round the entrance to their dwelling like the ,english rabbit2 on this little mound they generally sit1 chirping and chattering to one another1 like two neighbour gossips in a village4 ,their number is incredible1 and their cities 7for they deserve no less a name7 full of activity and bustle4 ,i do not know what their occupations are2 but ,i have seen them constantly running from one hole to another1 although they do not ever pay any distant visits4 ,they seem on the approach of danger always to retire to their own homes2 but their great delight apparently consists in braving it1 with the usual insolence of cowardice when secure from punishment2 for1 as you approach1 they wag their little tails1 elevate their heads1 and chatter at you like a monkey1 louder and louder the nearer you come2 but no sooner is the hand raised to any missile1 whether gun1 arrow1 stick1 or stone1 than they pop into the hole with a rapidity only equalled by that sudden disappearance of ,punch1 with which1 when a child1 ,i have been so much delighted in the streets and squares of ,london4 ,captain ,murray observes that as there is generally neither rain nor dew on the plains which they inhabit1 during the summer1 while1 on the other hand1 these little creatures never wander far from their towns1 it seems reasonable to conclude they need no other liquid than they can extract from the grass they eat4 ,it is certain that they pass the winter in a complete state of lethargy and torpor1 for they accumulate no supply of provisions against that season2 while the herbage which thrives about their habitat dries up in autumn1 and soon afterwards the frosts render it impossible for them to procure their ordinary food4 ,when the prairie dog feels the approach of his time of somnolence--generally about the end of ,october--he closes all the passages of his dormitory to protect him from the cold1 and wholly resigns himself to the pleasures of repose4 ,he remains thus immured and inert until awakened by the first warm airs of spring1 when he throws wide his gates and reappears on the surface of the refreshened earth1 in all his whilome liveliness and gaiety4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,prairies ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world3--,,birds ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,we have seen in a preceding chapter that the great terrestrial and aquatic birds 7,waders7 of the wild plains of the ,ancient ,world have few analogues in ,america1 and that the small number of genera which are represented therein are represented by much smaller species4 ,i have cited the ,ostrich and the ,phenicopterus4 ,the ,american ,ostrich1 or ,nandou 7,rhea71 is not above half the size of his ,african congener1 from which he differs in having the feet three-toed1 and each toe armed with a claw4 ,moreover1 his head and neck are more fully clothed with plumage2 the wings are plumed1 and more perfectly developed2 and he is tailless4 ,the neck has sixteen vertebr4 ,though endowed with more perfect wings than the ,ostrich of ,africa1 he is nevertheless incapable of flight1 representing another grade in ,nature's slow ascent from the wingless bird to the bird possessed of full powers of flight4 ,he inhabits the wide grassy plains of ,south ,america below the ,equator1 and as far south as latitude #db4 ,he is never seen across the ,cordilleras1 but roams in great numbers the banks of ,la ,plata and its tributaries4 ,he is generally seen in small troops4 ,there are at least three species3 the ,rhea ,americana1 about five feet high2 the ,rhea macrorhyncha1 distinguished by its large bill2 and the ,rhea ,darwinii1 the smallest1 which inhabits ,patagonia4 ,the ,flamingoes proper to the ,new ,world are3 the ,red ,flamingo1 all whose plumage glows with a more or less vivid red2 and the ,fiery ,flamingo1 probably only a variety of the preceding4 ,both are natives of the dreary ,patagonian desert1 of ,chili1 and some other southern districts4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,cathartes-,urubu4 #b4 ,king of the ,vultures4 ,the order of ,waders1 and that of ,palmipeds1 include1 in the low marshy levels of this continent1 some characteristic species3 notably1 the ,jacanas and the ,kamichis2 the ,agami or ,trumpet-,bird1 remarkable for its pastoral instinct1 its domestic aptitudes1 and the ringing sound of its voice2 the ,savacou1 which1 in the structure of its enormous beak and its general habits1 is allied to the ,african ,balniceps4 ,here1 as in ,africa1 a species of rapacious ,grallator flourishes1 the ,cariama1 delivering a war to the knife against the reptile legions4 ,raptores more accurately defined--such1 for example1 as the ,falco cachinnans1 or ,laughing ,vulture--share in the destructive campaign against frogs1 toads1 lizards1 and small serpents4 ,and in the ,new1 as in the ,old ,world1 ,nature does not neglect the work of purification1 intrusting it in the savannahs and the pampas to various kinds of ,vulturid1 which devour the putrid carcasses that would otherwise pollute the atmosphere4 ,the ,cathartes-,urubu and the ,aura are the most common species2 the ,mexicans call them ,zopilotes4 ,they are found in all ,central and ,southern ,america1 and frequently range to very high latitudes4 ,they are of small size1 very social1 easy familiarized with man1 and may be seen in great numbers1 not alone in the deserts and plains1 but in the great towns1 where they efficiently play the part of great sanitary reformers4 ,they are gifted with extraordinary delicacy of scent2 they detect the existence of carrion at great distances1 and flock from the four quarters of heaven to banquet upon it4 ,the ,sarcoramphus ,papa1 or ,king of the ,vultures1 a species closely allied to the great ,condor of the ,andes1 is likewise encountered very frequently in the plains of ,tropical ,america1 but only where the herbage has been set on fire2 which is a common enough occurrence1 either through lightning1 or by accident or design on the part of the ,indians4 ,then he arrives on rapid pinion to prey upon the lizards1 and frogs1 and serpents which are destroyed by the scathing and consuming flames4 ,his attire is more elegant than his mission in creation would seem to render necessary4 ,the plumage on the upper part of the body is of a reddish hue1 the neck and head of a delicate bluish-violet1 the beak red1 the crest orange1 the eyebrows white1 and the wings black4 ,he is about the size of the domestic ,turkey4 ,the tawny ,caracara1 a bird of the genus ,polyborus1 as large as the common ,kite1 and with a tail nine inches long2 and the ,harpy ,eagle 7,thrasatus71 distinguished by its formidable beak and legs1 its erect crest and flashing eyes--both widely distributed in all the hot regions of the ,new ,world--belong to the ,falconid family 7in the latest classification71 as well as the great white-headed ,fishing ,eagle1 or ,pygargue 7,haliatus ,leucocephalus71 which inhabits the northern continent4 ,the latter has been eloquently described by the ,paisley ornithologist1 the celebrated ,wilson3#adj--;,elevated on the high dead branch of some gigantic tree that commands a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean1 he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below2 all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of ,nature4 ,high over all these hovers one whose action instantly arrests his attention4 ,by his wide curvature of wing and sudden suspension in the air1 he knows him to be the ,fish ,hawk1 settling over some devoted victim of the deep4 ,his eye kindles at the sight1 and1 balancing himself with half-opened wings on the branch1 he watches the result4 ,down1 rapid as an arrow from heaven1 descends the distant object of his attention1 the roar of his wings reaching the ear as he disappears in the deep1 making the surges foam around6 ,at this moment1 the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour1 and1 levelling his neck for flight1 he sees the fish hawk emerge struggling with his prey1 and mounting in the air with screams of exultation4 ,these are the signals for our hero1 who1 launching into the air1 instantly gives chase1 and soon gains on the hawk2 each exerts his utmost to mount above the other1 displaying in these rencounters the most elegant and sublime arial evolutions4 ,the unencumbered eagle rapidly advances1 and is just on the point of reaching his opponent1 when1 with a sudden scream1 probably of despair and honest execration1 the latter drops the fish2 the eagle1 poising himself for a moment1 as if to take a more certain aim1 descends like a whirlwind1 snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the water1 and bears his ill-gotten booty silently away to the woods4 ,a similar picture1 let me add1 has been painted by the poet ,spenser1 though he refers1 of course1 to the ,british ,eagle3-- ,like to an eagle1 in his kingly pride1 ,soaring through his wide empire of the air ,to weather his broad sails1 by chance has spied ,a goshawk1 which hath seizd for her share ,upon some fowl that should her feast prepare4 ,with dreadful force he flies at her again1 ,that with his voice which none endure or dare ,her from the quarry he away doth drive1 ,and from her griping pounce the greedy prey doth rive4 ,the ,reptilia are represented in ,america by a very great number of species1 many being remarkable for their great size or the terrible venom with which they are provided4 ,the crocodiles of the ,american continent form a distinct genus1 sometimes designated ,alligator1 and sometimes ,caiman4 ,the ,alligators1 or ,caimans 7,alligator lucius71 are ,saurians of huge bulk2 with a long flat head1 thick neck and body1 a cavernous mouth suggestive of infinite voracity1 dull cruel eyes1 and a long taper tail1 which1 strongly compressed on the sides1 is surmounted with a double series of strong plates1 that unite about the middle1 and form a single row to the extremity4 ,it is this tail that gives them most of their progressive power in the water1 and though it obstructs their movements on land1 it is useful even then as a powerful weapon of defence4 ,transverse rows of square bony plates1 rising in the centre into keel-shaped ridges1 protect the body1 and render the hideous animal exceedingly formidable as an antagonist4 ,it frequently attains the length of eighteen1 and is seldom less than fifteen feet4 ,its teeth are numerous1 sharp1 and strong2 its claws long and tenacious4 ,it feeds generally on fish1 turtle1 fowl1 or whatever other prey may fall within its reach2 and woe to the unfortunate animal that comes to the river-bank in quest of water within the range of this ferocious saurian4 ,illustration3 ,,alligators1 ,,or ,,caimans4 ,the caiman never attacks man if his intended victim is on his guard1 but he is cunning enough to know when this may be done with impunity4 ,mr4 ,bates records an affecting instance4 ,the river ,amazons at ,caiara had sunk one season to a very low point1 so that the port and bathing-place of the village now lay at the foot of a long sloping bank1 and a large caiman made his appearance in the shallow and muddy water4 ,we were all obliged1 says our traveller1#ada to be very careful in taking our bath2 most of the people simply using a calabash1 pouring the water over themselves while standing on the brink4 ,a large trading canoe1 belonging to a ,barra merchant1 arrived at this time1 and the ,indian crew1 as usual1 spent the first day or two after their coming into port in drunkenness and debauchery ashore4 ,one of the men1 during the greatest heat of the day1 when almost every one was enjoying his afternoon's nap1 took it into his head whilst in a tipsy state to go down and bathe4 ,he was seen only by the ,suiz de ,paz 7,justice of ,peace71 a feeble old man who was lying in his hammock1 in the open verandah at the rear of his house on the top of the bank1 and who shouted to the besotted ,indian to beware of the alligator4 ,before he could repeat his warning the man stumbled1 and a pair of gaping jaws1 appearing suddenly above the surface1 seized him round the waist and drew him under the water4 ,a cry of agony was the last sign made by the wretched victim4 ,the village was aroused2 the young men1 with praiseworthy readiness1 seized their harpoons and hurried down to the bank2 but of course it was too late1 a winding track of blood on the surface of the water was all that could be seen4 ,they embarked1 however1 in light boats1 determined on vengeance2 the monster was traced1 and when1 after a short lapse of time1 he came up to breathe1 one leg sticking out from his jaws1 was dispatched with bitter curses4 ,in the temperate regions of ,north ,america1 where crocodiles still exist1 these animals pass the entire winter in lethargic torpor4 ,in the ,pampas of tropical ,america1 on the contrary1 it is during the hot season that they remain inert in the mud of the dried-up marshes4 ,according to the statements of the natives1 says ,humboldt1 you may sometimes see1 on the return of the rainy season1 the humid clay slowly uplifted and loosened in great clods4 ,a violent detonation soon makes itself heard1 and the earth is flung up into the air to a great height1 as in eruptions of small mud volcanoes4 ,if you understand the cause of this phenomenon you will quickly take to flight1 for from this retreat immediately emerges a monstrous water-serpent or a plated crocodile1 which the first shower has awakened from his lethargy4 ,the great water-serpent here spoken of is1 in all probability1 the gigantic ,boa-,constrictor1 one of the most dangerous denizens of the marshy plains of equatorial ,america4 ,travellers of unimpeachable authority assert that this frightful reptile often attains the length of thirty-six to forty-five feet4 ,day and night he lurks among the tall rank herbage2 in the morning and the evening he places himself in ambush on the border of some lake or water-course to surprise the quadrupeds which flock thither to quench their thirst4 ,by means of his prehensile tail he suspends himself to a tree on the shore1 and patiently awaits the coming prey4 ,when an animal passes within his reach1 he swiftly seizes it1 enfolds it in his spiral coils1 crushes it against the tree which serves for his point d'appui1 compresses its bleeding mass into a convenient form1 covers it with a glutinous saliva1 and swallows it4 ,in this fashion the boa will devour a stag or even an ox entire1 nor does he fear to attack the puma and the jaguar4 ,whether he is dangerous to man may reasonably be doubted2 his immense size1 at all events1 renders it easy to avoid him4 ,he preys upon fish in default of other provision1 and to catch his victims often remains for a considerable time with his head and a portion of his body plunged under water4 ,the true scourges of tropical ,america and the ,antilles are the ,rattlesnake and the lance-headed ,viper4 ,the ,rattlesnake 7,crotalus horridus7 is one of the deadliest of venomous serpents1 is frequently six feet in length1 and as thick as a man's leg4 ,but ,providence has furnished it with an antidote against its own poison1 or1 at least1 with an instrument which makes it its own betrayer1 and warns man involuntarily against its formidable presence4 ,this is the rattle to which it owes its vulgar appellation4 ,the rattle is situated at the end of the tail1 and consists of several hard1 dry1 bony processes4 ,imagine a string of hollow1 dry1 semi-transparent bones1 nearly of the same size and figure1 and resembling to some extent the shape of the human os sacrum3 imagine these so placed that the tip of every uppermost bone runs within two of the bones below it2 imagine these constantly clattering against each other1 as the reptile moves1 with a hoarse1 dull1 echoing sound1 and you will be able to form some idea of the permanent warning of its approach which the ,crotalus carries about with it4 ,the rattle is placed with the broad part perpendicular to the body1 and not horizontal2 and the first joint is attached to the last vertebra of the tail by means of a thick muscle beneath it1 no less than by the membranes which unite it to the skin4 ,the bony rings increase in number with the reptile's age1 and it gains an additional one1 it is said1 at each casting of the skin4 ,illustration3 ,,crotalus1 ,,and ,,boa-,,constrictor4 ,the ,crotalus horridus is of a yellowish-brown colour1 varied with patches of a deeper hue1 and from the head to some distance down the neck run two or three longitudinal stripes of the same4 ,its habits are sluggish2 it moves slowly1 and only bites when angered1 or for the purpose of killing its prey4 ,it is provided with two kinds of teeth--viz41 the smaller1 which1 planted in each jaw1 serve to catch and retain the food2 and secondly1 the fangs or poisonous teeth1 which kill the prey1 and are placed outside the upper jaw4 ,it feeds principally upon the smaller mammals and upon birds1 which it seems certain it possesses a peculiar power of fascinating--the effect1 it may be1 of intense fear4 ,when the piercing eye of the rattlesnake is fixed on them1 says ,mr4 ,murray1 terror and amazement render them incapable of escaping2 and1 while involuntarily keeping their eyes fixed on those of the reptile1 birds have been seen to drop into its mouth1 as if paralyzed1 squirrels descend from their trees1 and leverets run into the jaws of the expecting devourer4 ,hogs and peccaries1 however1 are unaffected by this panic1 and feed greedily upon the reptile which causes it1 whose venomous fangs cannot penetrate their formidable hide4 ,its poison1 once imbibed1 is very fatal1 acting upon man and the larger mammals1 such as the horse or ass1 in a few hours4 ,illustration3 ,,trigonocephalus ,,pursued ,,by ,,birds4 ,the lance-headed ,viper or ,trigonocephalus 7,bothrops lanceolatus71 is most common in the ,west ,indian ,islands1 where it is justly dreaded4 ,it has been computed that1 at ,martinique1 fifty persons out of a population of #abe1jjj souls die annually from the bite of these odious reptiles4 ,their fecundity is frightful4 ,every female bears sixty young1 which on their very advent into the world are completely formed and able to wound4 ,this viper1 moreover1 carries no warning rattle2 nothing indicates its presence2 and in the countries which it inhabits1 the wayfarer1 if prudent1 will beat the herbs and bushes as he advances with a switch4 ,then the ,trigonocephalus1 if there be one in the way1 will take flight and reveal itself1 for it is too large to glide away unseen4 ,therefore1 the negroes of ,martinique1 who1 of necessity1 are assiduous reptile hunters1 state as an incontrovertible axiom1 confirmed by immemorial experience1 that a serpent seen is a serpent dead4 ,in truth1 the serpent is only formidable to man when not perceived1 and when one treads upon it accidentally4 ,in the open field its defeat and death are inevitable1 however little coolness or skill its assailant may possess4 ,and to warn us of the presence of the ,trigonocephalus1 ,nature has supplied us with numerous watchful sentinels in the small birds1 whose not unreasonable hate against this serpent is a remarkable proof of their intelligence4 ,if ever your destiny conduct you to the ,antilles1 says a naturalist1 cold-blooded sportsman as you may be1 do not slay the little bird which the grateful negroes1 though he sings but little1 have wished to name the nightingale2 for if you do so1 they will regard you with suspicion and dislike4 ,he is their protector1 and he watches also over you4 ,no sooner does he see1 from his arial station1 the scales of the reptile gliding into the herbage or glittering among the large leaves1 than he can no longer control himself4 ,he flies to and fro1 he leaps from branch to branch1 summoning with a lamentable cry all the feathered tribe from the neighbouring trees4 ,from far and near the cry widens and is repeated2 from all directions flock nightingales1 and thrushes1 grosbeaks1 and humming-birds1 and hovering above the assassin1 furiously denounce it1 and indicate its lurking-place to man4 ,irritated by such a concert of maledictions1 the serpent elevates its crest1 but1 lo6 they are far beyond its reach6 ,and the cries1 the murmurs1 the insults are redoubled6 ,it seeks to conceal itself1 but these cries persistently accompany it4 ,wherever it drags its slimy shining bulk1 they follow1 they harass1 and they denounce it4 ,either night comes on1 or it succeeds in completely hiding itself from their watchful gaze1 before they reluctantly leave it to its own devices4 ,great the consternation if their enemy escape them6 ,but what joy1 what triumphal sounds1 if man appears upon the scene and slays it6 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have previously alluded to the enormous toads found in ,south ,america1 and to the gigantic frog which belongs to the northern continent4 ,among the former ,i may particularize as one of the largest known species1 the ,agua2 and1 as remarkable for its mode of gestation1 the ,pipa4 ,the ,surinam ,toad1 or ,pipa ,surinamensis 7the ,bufo ,pipa of ,linn71 is distinguished by its large triangular head1 and horizontally flattened body1 with a granulated back4 ,it is now ascertained that the female deposits her spawn at the brink of some shallow or stagnant pool2 the male then collects the heap and cautiously places it on the back of the female1 where1 after impregnation1 they are pressed into cellules produced by the tumefaction of the skin4 ,in rather less than three months the eggs are hatched1 and the young emerge in a complete state4 ,the ,bull-,frog 7,rana pipilus71 of ,north ,america1 is from six to eight inches long and from three to four inches broad4 ,when his limbs are fully extended he measures about eighteen inches in length4 ,its back is of a sombre green colour1 varied with black2 the under-parts being of a whitish hue1 tinged with green1 and thickly spotted4 ,the fore-feet have only four toes1 and are unwebbed2 the hind-feet are large1 long1 and widely webbed4 ,its voice may be compared to the distant lowing of a bull1 and a chorus of them at night is sufficient to arouse the soundest sleeper4 ,they prey upon ducklings1 goslings1 and small birds1 drowning before devouring them4 ,spite of its size and ungainliness1 it is very nimble1 and can accomplish a leap of upwards of six feet in height4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,bufo ,agua4 #b4 ,pipa ,surinamensis4 ,incomplete as is this rapid survey of the ,fauna of the ,new ,world ,deserts1 ,i cannot terminate it without referring to the strange and formidable fish which haunt the pools1 lakes1 and marshes of ,south ,america--those ,gymnoti1 or ,electrical ,eels1 sometimes five1 six1 and even eight feet long1 which emit electrical discharges of sufficient violence to strike down a man1 a horse1 or an ox4 ,it is by this singular property the gymnotus supports its existence2 its shocks stupify the smaller fishes and other animals that come within its range1 so that they fall an easy prey to its voracity4 ,the electrical organs consist of four bundles of parallel membranaceous lamin arranged along the inner side of the tail1 and constituting a remarkably powerful battery4 ,illustration3 ,,fishing ,,for ,,gymnoti4 ,in hunting the gymnoti the ,indians adopt a cruel expedient4 ,they drive a herd of horses and mules into the ponds which these eels inhabit1 and harpoon them when they have spent their electrical force on the unhappy quadrupeds4 ,the fish swim on the surface of the water like serpents1 and skilfully glide beneath the animal's body1 discharging the whole length of their electrical battery1 and attacking simultaneously the digestive viscera1 and1 above all1 the gastric plexus of nerves4 ,fain would the horses escape their enemies' attacks1 but the ,indians drive them back into the water with stout canes of bamboo and long whips4 ,after awhile the eels grow exhausted2 the animals show less alarm2 and the ,indians begin to ply their harpoons with equal agility and success4 ,there are several species of this remarkable fish1 and most1 if not all1 are valued as wholesome food4 ,the ,gymnotus ,electricus1 however1 is the only one which possesses any electrical powers4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,australian ,,prairies4 ,the first naturalists who explored the littoral of the ,australian continent and its adjacent islands were struck with astonishment at the sight of the strange and almost monstrous animals they discovered there4 ,far more certainly than ,columbus had they fallen in with a ,new ,world2 a new world of zoology and botany2 a world apart1 peopled by beings wholly different from those they had elsewhere studied1 and some of which exhibited a complexity and originality of organization and structure wholly antagonistic to the received theories of fundamental characteristics belonging to the various classes of the animal kingdom4 ,the ,australian ,fauna1 in this respect1 can only be compared to that of ,madagascar1 which equally bears an impress peculiarly its own1 and presents but a few features of kinship with the ,indian ,fauna4 ,it is the latter also that the ,australian ,fauna most closely approaches1 or1 to speak more correctly1 from which it least widely diverges4 ,the great ,herbivora--,pachyderms1 ,ruminants1 and ,solidungulates--are absolutely wanting in ,australia1 as well as the ,carnivora properly so called--,apes and ,lemurid4 ,the class of ,mammals is only represented by a small number of ,cheiroptera and ,rodents2 by some ,amphibia1 ,phoc1 and ,otid 7,seals and ,bustards71 which inhabit the bays carved out of its long line of coast2 by the ,marsupials and a very limited order of ,monotremata4 ,the two latter groups are pre-eminently characteristic of the ,australian ,fauna2 the second belongs exclusively to it4 ,little1 indeed1 is wanting to make it identical with the sub-class of the ,marsupials1 represented only in ,south ,america by the genera ,opossum didelphis1 ,hemiurus1 and ,chironectes1 and elsewhere limited to ,new ,holland1 ,tasmania1 ,new ,guinea1 ,new ,zealand1 and some other less important islands of ,oceania4 ,the ,marsupials 7from the ,greek ,greek3 marsypos1 a purse7 owe their distinctive name to a very curious peculiarity in the organization of the females4 ,the latter bring their young into the world while still very feeble1 and of themselves fix them to their breasts1 where they remain attached until they have acquired that degree of development which all other mammals possess at their birth4 ,generally the breasts are covered with a loose skin1 forming a sort of pouch or purse1 in which the young are concealed1 which protects them against climatic changes1 and enables the mother conveniently to carry them everywhere about with her4 ,two particular bones1 called the marsupial bones1 attached to the pubis1 and placed amidst the abdominal muscles1 support this pouch4 ,they assist1 says ,professor ,owen1 in producing a compression of the mammary gland1 necessary for the alimentation of a peculiarly feeble offspring1 and they defend the abdominal viscera from the pressure of the young as they increase in size1 during their mammary or marsupial existence1 and still more when they return to the pouch for temporary shelter4 ,the marsupials present1 moreover1 in the different families composing the order1 a great diversity of organization4 ,most of them are herbivorous or frugivorous2 but there are some which prefer animal nourishment1 and which1 in their habits as well as in the structure of their jaws and their digestive apparatus1 closely approach the carnivora4 ,the order of which ,i am speaking includes some animals of great size4 ,such is the ,great ,kangaroo 7,macropus giganteus71 which generally measures about seven and a half feet in length from the nose to the tip of the tail1 the tail being rather more than three feet in length1 and fully twelve inches in circumference at the base4 ,in its erect sitting posture1 when it rests on its hind-legs and the root of its tail as on a tripod1 its height amounts to about fifty inches2 but when it rises on its toes to look around1 its stature exceeds that of a man4 ,the great length of its hind-legs is a notable peculiarity2 their feet are provided with only four toes1 the central being very long1 of great strength1 and terminated in a large and powerful hoof-like nail or claw4 ,the fore-legs1 on the contrary1 are very short1 and the feet divided into five toes1 each furnished with a short and somewhat hooked claw4 ,the animal's head is small1 with rather pointed ears1 and large but placid eyes2 it has a thin and gracefully proportioned neck2 so that a startling discrepancy is observable between the fore and the posterior parts of the animal1 though the general effect is neither ungraceful nor unpleasing4 ,it should be noticed that the kangaroo never folds his tail between his legs1 which1 ,i may add1 are extraordinarily strong4 ,the thighs are thick1 the tarsi long and robust4 ,he only walks on all fours when hotly pressed1 and then his appearance is decidedly ungainly4 ,in escaping from an enemy he rears himself upright1 skims the plain with bounding leaps1 and in a few minutes leaves behind him the swiftest horse or dog4 ,but if all avenues of retreat be closed to him1 he plants himself firmly against a tree or a rock and fights with obstinate courage1 ripping up his assailants with his potent hind-feet1 like a stag with his horns or a wild boar with his tusks4 ,the diet of the kangaroo is essentially vegetarian2 he lives upon leaves1 herbs1 and roots1 and employs his fore-paws1 like the ,rodents1 to carry his food to his mouth4 ,the animal's habits are mild and inoffensive4 ,they roamed very peacefully about the ,australian prairies before the new continent was opened up to ,european enterprise2 having no other enemies to fear than the natives1 who were scattered in small tribes over a few points of an immense territory4 ,their chase is now one of the favourite amusements of the colonists1 who destroy them in great numbers4 ,they are easily domesticated1 and may be regarded as already acclimatized in ,europe1 where1 it is hoped1 they may prove of great utility4 ,the flesh of the tame ,kangaroo is very good1 but that of the wild animal is still better4 ,their skin1 covered with a thick hair of an uniformly gray colour1 may be adapted to various purposes4 ,the genus comprehends several species of very different dimensions3 as1 the ,great ,kangaroo1 already mentioned2 the ,woolly or ,red ,kangaroo 7,m4 laniger71 which rather exceeds it in size2 and the ,potoroo1 which is larger than a rat4 ,illustration3 ,,large-,,browed ,,wombat 7,phascolomys latifrons74 ,i must cite1 besides the ,kangaroos1 as the most remarkable types of the ,australian ,marsupials1 the ,phascolomys1 the ,phascolarctos1 the ,phalangas1 and the ,thylacynas4 ,the ,phascolomys1 like the kangaroo1 has been introduced into ,europe1 where he seems to be perfectly acclimatized1 and specimens may be seen both in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens and the ,jardin ,zoologique of ,paris4 ,he is better known by his native name of the ,wombat 7,phascolomys ,wombat71 and was first discovered by ,bass1 the gallant explorer and surgeon1 whose name is indissolubly connected with the bright deeds of ,australian discovery4 ,the large-browed wombat might1 at first sight1 be mistaken for a small bear4 ,his loins are thick1 his limbs short1 his hair coarse--thickly set on the loins1 back1 and head1 thinly scattered about the belly--and of a light1 shining sandy-brown4 ,it is difficult to say why he is surnamed latifrons1 for his forehead is no larger than that of other animals of his family2 and1 at all events1 he exhibits1 by way of compensation1 an extraordinary extent of surface in the hinder parts1 which1 as they are utterly deficient in tail1 present a very grotesque appearance4 ,he burrows like the badger1 and on the ,australian continent never quits his retreat until night sets in4 ,he lives on herbs and roots4 ,the natives roast his flesh1 and esteem it a viand of no ordinary excellence4 ,the ,phascolarctos1 or ,koala 7,phascolarctos cinereus71 is closely allied to the wombat4 ,he is strongly but clumsily made1 with robust limbs and powerful claws1 which he employs in clinging to the branches of the trees where he chiefly makes his home4 ,however1 he frequently visits terra firma1 and burrows with great ease2 concealing himself in a torpid state in his subterranean retreat during the cold season4 ,his fore-feet have each five toes1 of which two are opposed to the other three--a circumstance noted in no other mammal4 ,he has no tail1 like the wombat4 ,his coat is a bluish-gray fur1 very thick and extremely soft1 darkest on the back1 and very pale under the throat and belly4 ,an elongated nose looks as if it were tipped with black leather4 ,the eyes are round and dark2 the ears almost hidden in the plenitude of fur4 ,by day he is a drowsy and1 sooth to say1 a stupid animal2 but at night he wakes up into a more active state4 ,he feeds upon the fresh young tops of trees1 selecting their blossoms and young shoots2 and though in appearance resembling the ,phalanga1 in habits seems closely allied to the ,sloth4 ,the ,phalangas form the typical genus of the tribe of ,phalangistins1 which comprehends1 in addition1 the genera ,trichosura1 ,pseudochira1 and ,dromicia4 ,several species are met with in ,malaysia1 but they chiefly belong to the ,australian ,fauna4 ,they live chiefly in trees1 feeding on various kinds of small animals1 insects1 eggs1 and fruits1 which they grasp between their fore-paws1 and so bring to their mouth4 ,their appearance may be imagined by putting together a rather short head with short ears and short woolly fur2 a squirrel-like body and long prehensile tail1 sometimes completely covered with hair3 the body measures about twenty-six inches1 and the tail about fifteen inches4 ,the two principal species are the ,sooty ,phalanga 7,phalangista fuliginosa71 found in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 and named in reference to its smoky black fur2 and the ,vulpine ,phalanga1 or ,vulpine ,opossum 7,p4 vulpina71 widely distributed over ,australia1 and having a fox-like character about his head4 ,the ,flying ,phalangas are also allied to this genus4 ,the ,thylacyni are distinguished from the ,opossums by the hind-feet having no thumb1 by a hairy and non-prehensile tail1 and by having two incisors less to each jaw4 ,only one species is known to exist in ,australia1#adb where it is called the ,tasmanian ,wolf1 and sometimes ,tiger and ,hyna4 ,it resembles a wolf in many respects1 but its hinder parts are sensibly higher than its fore2 its elongated muzzle is almost cylindrical in shape1 and very thick2 and his tail1 broad at the base1 tapers away to a fine point4 ,the colour is gray1 striped with black across the hinder limbs4 ,of the ,thylacynus cynocephalus ,m4 ,paul ,gervais furnishes the following description3#adc-- ,there exists in ,tasmania an animal of carnivorous habits almost as large as a wolf1 and whose external forms at the first glance do not differ sufficiently from those of the latter to prevent one from including him in the family ,canid2 but this member of the ,carnivora1 though he has also the wolf's appetite1 and commits havoc in the same manner among the flocks of the colonists1 belongs1 like most of the ,australian ,mammals1 to the sub-class of ,marsupials4 ,there is also much analogy1 in many of its osteological characteristics1 with the extinct genera of the ,hyenodons and ,ptrodons2 but the latter are in reality ,monodelphia1 and should be ranged among the ,carnivora properly so called4 ,the ,english settlers in ,van ,diemen's ,land give the thylacynus the name of ,zebra ,wolf1 because it has1 in effect1 the greater portion of the dorsal region and the base of the tail marked with transversal brown lines1 like zebra stripes4 ,this carnivorous animal is also their ,dog-headed ,opossum4 ,illustration3 ,,thylacynus ,,cynocephalus4 ,allied to other ,marsupials by the totality of its anatomical characteristics1 it is nevertheless easy to distinguish generically2 in the first place1 it is of great size1 and its exterior recalls that of the ,wolf1 though it has a longer head and a tail garnished with very short hair2 the latter is1 at the same time1 a little depressed4 ,moreover1 it numbers forty-six teeth1 with wide intervals between each4 ,it is digitigrade3 it has five toes on the fore1 and four toes on its hinder feet2 its marsupial bones are simply rudimental4 ,if there be one group of animals more than another whose unforeseen discovery has succeeded in astonishing and embarrassing zoologists1 it is assuredly that which has been designated by the name of ,monotremata4 ,it is the lowest order of vertebrated animals1 the very bottom of the scale1 approximating in many characteristic points to the family of ,birds4 ,the pelvis1 it is true1 is furnished with marsupial bones1 but these animals possess no pouch4 ,the skull is smooth1 the brain-case proportionately very small1 the snout much prolonged1 while the jaws have neither teeth nor soft movable lips4 ,the shoulder-bones do not resemble those of a mammal1 but in some respects the scapular joint of the bird2 in other respects1 that of the reptiles4 ,the feet have five toes1 each armed with a long nail2 and1 in addition1 the hind-feet are provided with a perforated spur-like weapon1 which is connected with a gland4 ,the genus derives its distinctive name from the circumstance that the orifices of the urinary canals1 the intestinal and the generative canals1 open1 as in birds1 into a common vent4 ,the mammary glands1 of which only one exists on each side1 are not furnished with nipples1 but open by simple slits on each side of the abdomen4 ,this order includes two families3 the ,ornithorhynchid and the ,echidnid1 both belonging to ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,the former are aquatic in their habits1 the latter terrestrial4 ,the ,echidna 7,echidna ,hystrix71 or ,porcupine ,ant-,eater1 resembles the ,porcupine in his general appearance and coat of spines1 the ,ant-,eater in his snout1 mouth1 and long lubricated tongue4 ,his legs are very short and thick1 and each is furnished with five broad rounded toes2 the four toes are armed with a long blunt claw1 but on the hind-feet one toe is without a claw1 two are short and blunt1 and one is of great length1 rather curved1 and sharp pointed4 ,he measures about twelve inches1 and all over the upper-parts of the body and tail is thickly beset with formidable spines1 very sharp and strong2 over the head1 legs1 and under-parts with bristly hair of a deep brown colour4 ,his short tail is covered with perpendicular spines4 ,digging up the ground with his keen claws he disburies a host of insects1 which he rolls over his long red cylindrical tongue4 ,he is very timid1 and when any one approaches him1 coils himself up in a ball1 like a hedgehog4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,ornithorhynchus4 #b4 ,echidna4 ,the ,ornithorhynchus 7,bird-beaked71 or ,duck-,billed ,platypus1 is another extraordinary animal1 which seems to serve as the connecting link between the aquatic birds and the mammalia4 ,his length is about twenty inches2 his body1 long and flattened like an otter's1 is covered with a thick soft fur1 moderately dark brown above and whitish beneath2 his tail is flat and obtuse2 his feet are furnished with a membrane that unites the toes2 and he has an elongated1 enlarged1 and flattened muzzle like a duck's beak4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that he can live only on soft food1 and that his habits must be aquatic2 and hence we find him burrowing in the banks of the streams1 and groping for his food1 like a duck1 among the mud and water4 ,the settlers term him characteristically the ,river-,mole4 ,a word of allusion must now be permitted to the ,petrogale1 a genus of the ,kangaroo family1 described by ,dr4 ,gray4 ,the ,brush-tailed ,rock ,wallaby 7,p4 penicillata7 has a rough long fur1 of a dusky brown hue1 tinged with red and gray2 a white streak passes down the middle of the throat2 his tail is very black1 like a raven's plumage1 long1 and furnished with thick hairs forming a brush4 ,the male is about three feet and a half long4 ,another species is called the ,short-,eared ,rock ,kangaroo 7,p4 brachiotis74 ,both are excessively wild and shy in their habits1 frequenting in the day-time the most inaccessible rocks and the loftiest mountain-peaks1 and descending1 at the approach of twilight1 to feed in the retired and grassy valleys4 ,they flock together in such numbers as to form well-beaten paths along the mountain-sides1 and leap from crag to crag with all the agility of the chamois4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,ornithological ,fauna of ,australia and the islands of ,oceania is incomparably richer than the ,mammalogical ,fauna1 and includes several species of the most dazzling plumage2 but nearly all these species inhabit the forests which cover a part of the littoral and probably of the interior4 ,however we must signalize1 as peculiar to the ,prairies1 a great number of the ,brevipennes 7i4e41 ,short-wings71 the ,emu or ,emeu 7,dromaius ,nov ,hollandi72 two ,palmipeds1 the ,black ,swan and the ,cereopsis2 and1 finally1 a bird1 the only one of its order1 almost as much of a paradox among bipeds as is the ornithorhynchus among quadrupeds1 the ,apteryx4 ,the ,emu is allied to the cassowary2 he is nearly equal to the ostrich in bulk1 but has a thicker body1 shorter legs1 and a shorter neck4 ,he measures more than seven feet in length2 his plumage exhibits a mixture of brown and gray2 his beak is black1 his head covered with feathers2 he has real wings1 though they are of so small a size as to be useless for flight2 they are covered with feathers like the rest of the body1 from which1 when the bird is not in motion1 they can hardly be discerned4 ,internally1 the emu differs1 it is said1 from all other species1 particularly in having no gizzard1 and in the extremely small size of his liver4 ,emus are killed1 according to ,captain 7now ,sir ,george7 ,grey1 in precisely the same manner as kangaroos1 but as they are more prized by the natives1 a greater degree of excitement prevails when an emu is slain2 shout succeeds shout1 and the distant natives take up the cry until it is sometimes re-echoed for miles4 ,the feast which follows the death1 however1 is a very exclusive one1 for the flesh is much too delicious to be made a common article of food4 ,heavy penalties are accordingly pronounced against young men1 and unauthorized persons1 who venture to touch it2 and these1 invariably1 are rigidly enforced4#add ,every schoolboy knows the famous quotation in his ,latin grammar which tells of a ,rara avis1 simillimaque nigro cygno4 ,a ,black ,swan is no longer a rara avis4 ,the species 7,cygnus atratus7 belongs to ,new ,holland and ,tasmania1 and is of the same size as the common swan4 ,his plumage is wholly black1 with the exception of the primary pens1 which are white2 his beak is red1 and so is the featherless skin surrounding it at the base4 ,he has been successfully acclimatized in ,europe1 and ornaments the lakes and streams of many ,english parks4 ,the ,cereopsis1 or ,cerefaced ,goose1 of ,new ,holland1 is a ,palmiped genus1 about the size of a common goose1 which1 in general appearance1 he resembles1 except that his legs are longer1 averaging from two and a half to three feet4 ,the plumage is of a dingy gray4 ,a large patch of dull white occupies the top of the head2 the quill-feathers1 both of the wings and tail1 are of a dusty black4 ,his voice has a hoarse deep clang1 like that of a storm-bell4 ,he usually weighs from seven to ten pounds1 and makes an excellent dish for an ,australian ,christmas table4 ,specimens may be seen both in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london and ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,,apteryx ,,australis4 ,the ,apteryx ,australis1 or ,wingless ,emu--the ,kiwi of the ,new ,zealanders--somewhat resembles a penguin in form1 and stands about two feet in height4 ,the only living specimen in ,europe lives1 ,i believe1 in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens4 ,as it does not appear to rank1 in scientific classification1 with any other family or genus1 naturalists have erected it into a distinct order--the ,nullipennes1 or ,wingless4 ,the wings of the apteryx are literally rudiments2 a mere stump1 terminated by a hook4 ,none of his bones are hollow2 he has no abdominal air-cells2 his feathers have no accessory plume2 his feet have a short and elevated hind-toe2 his eyes are small2 he feeds on insects2 and his habits are nocturnal4 ,he is a bird of great physical power1 and runs with ostrich-like swiftness2 taking refuge1 when pursued1 in burrows1 hollow trees1 and the clefts of the rocks4 ,his cry resembles a loud whistle1 and the natives entrap the bird by imitating it4 ,when the female has been taken1 the male is easily caught1 owing to his reluctance to leave her4 ,he will1 however1 defend himself vigorously with his spurs4 ,the ,erpetological ,fauna of ,australia1 and1 in general1 of ,oceania1 is very poor1 and comprehends no great species4 ,i may notice a genus of lizards1 the ,chlamydosaurus1 discovered by ,allan ,cunningham1 the naturalist attached to ,captain ,king's expedition1 about #ahbj4 ,it measures about seventeen inches in length1 of which twelve inches are apportioned to the tail2 is of a yellowish-brown colour2 has a large head1 with prominent eyes2 and a membraneous ruff or tippet round its neck1 covering its shoulders1 and when expanded spreading about five inches in the form of an open umbrella4 ,if attacked or terrified1 it elevates the frill or ruff and makes for a tree2 where1 if overtaken1 it throws itself upon a stem1 raising its head and chest as high as it can upon the fore-legs1 then doubling its tail underneath the body1 and displaying a very formidable set of teeth from the concavity of its large frill1 it boldly faces any opponent1 biting fiercely whatever is presented to it1 and even venturing so far in its rage as to fairly make a fierce charge at its enemy4 ,venomous serpents are numerous3 particularly the ,hydrophis1 or ,water-,snake1 very common in the neighbouring seas1 where it feeds on fishes4 ,the back part of the body and tail being much compressed1 and vertically raised1 endows it with the capacity of swimming4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,book ,,iv4 ,,the ,,forests4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,virgin ,,forests4 ,the noonday sun ,now shone upon the ,forest1 one vast mass ,of mingling shade4444 ,like restless serpents1 clothed ,in rainbow and in fire1 the parasites1 ,starred with ten thousand blossoms1 flow around ,the gray trunks1 and1 as gamesome infants' eyes4 ,with gentle meanings1 and most innocent wiles1 ,fold their beams round the hearts of those that love1 ,these twine their tendrils with the wedded boughs ,uniting their close union2 the woven leaves ,make net-work of the dark blue light of day1 ,and the night's noontide clearness1 mutable ,as shapes in the weird clouds4 ,,shelley4 ,in all parts of the world some regions exist where1 owing to a concourse of favourable circumstances1 the productive forces of ,nature have been able to manifest themselves with an exceptional energy--where vegetable life1 in particular1 has acquired an extraordinary development4 ,the rich soil is covered1 over more or less extensive areas1 with vivacious plants1 robust and of great stature1 which closely rooted1 one against another1 with intertwining and overarching boughs1 sustaining by their bulk and shading with their foliage other and weaker plants1 have formed in the course of innumerable ages those masses of umbrageous gloom called ,forests4 ,these1 undoubtedly1 are one of the grandest and most impressive monuments of the ,creative ,power2 one1 ,i may add1 of the most eloquent1 for there is nothing in all ,nature whose study better repays the student1 or which more largely abounds in important lessons4 ,the virgin forest1 moreover1 is one of the sanctuaries of ,nature1 where her mysteries are seldom profaned by man4 ,there life reveals itself1 and moves at liberty1 under an infinite variety of forms4 ,it is the asylum of a multitude of animals of all classes1 which find therein1 united1 the two essential conditions of existence--shelter and nourishment4 ,without the difficult approaches1 the obscurity and the profound depth of the forests1 says a naturalist1 what would become of the species of mammals1 birds1 and reptiles1 against which man wages incessant war8 ,nature1 then1 seems to have provided these immense reservoirs to prevent their species from being totally annihilated4 ,independently of the trees which constitute the forests1 a host of other plants make them their exclusive habitat2 thence the specific and eminently characteristic names--such as ,sylvestris1 ,sylvaticus1 ,nemorosus--imposed upon a great number among them4 ,such plants are distinguished from their congeners by the great dimensions of their stems2 but1 on the other hand1 they do not possess the brilliantly-coloured flowers which adorn the plants of the mountains and the plains always exposed to the action of the solar light4 ,the forests1 moreover1 offer for the botanist this remarkable and singularly precious circumstance1 that they form natural collections of trees of the same species1 or of several species of the same genus1 or at least of the same family2 so that their limits circumscribe the habitat of these grand vegetables1 and permit us to determine with ease their geographical distribution4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,virgin ,,forest ,,of ,,the ,,gaboon4 ,the forests fill an important function in the general economy of the globe1 by the influence which they exercise upon the mean temperature and the other meteorological conditions of the regions they shelter4 ,all other things being equal1 the temperature of well-wooded countries is perceptibly less elevated and more uniform than that of dry and open districts4 ,the amount of humidity which is retained on the surface of the soil by wide-spread woods is considerable2 it results from the lesser evaporation of the waters1 the abundant transpiration of the leaves1 and the heavy rains which inundate the forests during the tropical summer4 ,forests1 like mountains1 seem to attract the clouds4 ,so the plains which lie on their borders are ever better watered and fertile than those whose horizon no obstacle encumbers4 ,thus1 then1 in the forests1 in this bright and beautiful world of vegetation1 most of the pleasures which man can derive from external nature are garnered up1 and most of the lessons he requires are written4 ,all kinds of precious grace and teaching1 says ,mr4 ,ruskin1#ade are united in this link between the ,earth and the ,stars3 wonderful in universal adaptation to his need1 desire1 and discipline2 ,god's daily preparation of the earth for him1 with beautiful means of life4 ,first1 a carpet to make it soft for him2 then1 a coloured fantasy of embroidery thereon2 then1 tall spreading of foliage to shade him from sun heat1 and shade also the fallen rain1 that it may not dry quickly back into the clouds1 but stay to nourish the springs among the moss4 ,stout wood to bear this leafage3 easily to be cut1 yet tough and light1 to make houses for him1 or instruments 7lance-shaft1 or plough handle1 according to his temper72 useless it had been1 if harder2 useless1 if less fibrous2 useless1 if less elastic4 ,winter comes1 and the shade of leafage falls away1 to let the sun warm the earth2 the strong boughs remain1 breaking the strength of winter winds4 ,the seeds which are to prolong the race1 innumerable according to the need1 are made beautiful and palatable1 varied into infinitude of appeal to the fancy of man1 or provision for his service3 cold juice1 or glowing spice1 or balm1 or incense1 softening oil1 preserving resin1 medicine of styptic1 febrifuge1 or lulling charm--and all these presented in forms of endless change4 ,fragility and force1 softness and strength1 in all degrees of aspects2 unerring uprightness1 as of temple pillars1 or undivided wandering of feeble tendrils on the ground2 mighty resistances of rigid arm and limb to the storms of ages1 or wavings to and fro with faintest pulse of summer streamlet4 ,roots cleaving the strength of rock1 or binding the transience of the sand2 crests basking in sunshine of the desert1 or hiding by dripping spring and lightless cave2 foliage for tossing in entangled fields beneath every wave of ocean--clothing with variegated1 everlasting fibres1 the peaks of the trackless mountains1 or ministering at cottage doors to every gentlest passion and simplest joy of humanity4 ,considered in their physiological aspect1 it is evident that the forests have played1 from the remotest ages of our planet1 a pre-eminently useful part1 by absorbing the carbonic acid with which the atmosphere was surcharged1 fixing the carbon1 and restoring to the air a quantity of oxygen sufficient for the support of animal life1 impossible or rudimentary previous to their creation4 ,and they still serve to maintain the chemical equilibrium of the atmosphere1 by incessantly refeeding it with the oxygen which the respiration of animals and the phenomena of combustion have transformed into carbonic acid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,forests formerly abounded in ,europe4 ,in ,gallia1 ,germania1 ,illyria1 ,sarmatia1 whole provinces were covered with immense woods of ancient and patriarchal trees4 ,civilization has destroyed them in great part1 and often without discernment4 ,at the present day few forests in ,europe remain untouched4 ,they are rare in ,western ,asia1 in ,central ,asia1 and in ,northern ,asia2 rarer still in the ,chinese empire1 where the population is denser than in any other country of the world1 and where it is the great object of the policy of the ,state that not a rood of land shall be lost for the culture of plants valuable as food or for industrial purposes4 ,it is only to the south of the ,himalaya ,mountains1 in the still savage and scantily peopled regions of ,india and ,indo-,china1 that one sees the great vegetables of the ,tropical ,zone agglomerated in compact masses of considerable extent4 ,in ,africa1 forests of any size or density only exist in the mountainous countries and towards the western littoral2 as1 notably1 in the ,soudan1 the ,senegal1 in ,guinea1 at the ,gaboon1 and on the coasts of ,angola and ,benguela4 ,in ,north ,america1 civilization has accomplished1 in less than three centuries1 the work which in ,europe occupied a much longer period4 ,the magnificent forests which spread their awful shades--their vast luxuriance of gloom--over the surface of this continent have fallen before the axe of the pioneer4 ,only at a few points is realized the fine picture of the poet2 only in a few untrodden recesses still flourishes the primeval forest1 where-- ,the murmuring pines and the hemlocks1 ,bearded with moss1 and in garments green1 indistinct in the twilight1 ,stand like ,druids of eld1 with voices sad and prophetic1 ,stand like harpers hoar1 with beards that rest on their bosoms4#adf ,when ,captain ,palliser's expedition attempted to reach the head waters of the ,north ,thompson from the sources of the ,north ,saskatchewan ,river1 the leader encountered a forest-growth so dense1 and so encumbered with fallen timber1 that it proved an insurmountable obstacle4 ,viscount ,milton and ,mr4 ,cheadle1 in their adventurous journey across the ,rocky ,mountains to ,british ,columbia1 were involved in one of these wildernesses1 and with difficulty effected a passage4 ,no one1 they remark1#adg who has not seen a primeval forest1 where trees of gigantic size have grown and fallen undisturbed for ages1 can form any idea of the collection of timber1 or the impenetrable character of such a region4 ,there were pines and thujas of every size--the patriarch of #cjj feet in height standing alone1 or thickly-clustering groups of young ones struggling for the vacant place of some prostrate giant4 ,the fallen trees lay piled around1 forming barriers often six or eight feet high on every side3 trunks of huge cedars1 moss-grown and decayed1 lay half-buried in the ground on which others as mighty had recently fallen2 trees still green and living1 recently blown down1 blocking the view with the walls of earth held in their matted roots2 living trunks1 dead trunks1 rotten trunks2 dry1 barkless trunks1 and trunks moist and green with moss2 bare trunks1 and trunks with branches--prostrate1 reclining1 horizontal1 propped up at different angles2 timber of every size1 in every stage of growth and decay1 in every possible position1 entangled in every possible combination4 ,the swampy ground was densely covered with ,american dog-wood1 and elsewhere with thickets of the aralea1 a tough-stemmed trailer1 with leaves as large as those of the rhubarb-plant1 and growing in many places as high as a man's shoulders4 ,both stem and leaves are covered with sharp spines1 which pierce your clothes as you force your way through the tangled growth1 and make the legs and hands of the pioneers scarlet from the inflammation of myriads of punctures4 ,far grander the scene1 however--far richer in form and colour--which meets our gaze in the stupendous forest growth still covering the basins of the ,amazon and the ,orinoco4 ,as a companion to the foregoing picture1 we borrow one of this brighter and more wonderful region as painted with equal truth and vigour by ,mr4 ,bates3--#adh ,the ground was thickly carpeted with ,lycopodiums1#adi but it was also encumbered with masses of vegetable dbris and a thick coating of dead leaves4 ,fruits of many kinds were scattered about1 amongst which were numerous species of beans1 some of the pods a foot long1 flat and leathery in texture1 others hard as stone4 ,in one place might be seen a quantity of large empty wooden vessels2 such they appeared to be1 but in reality they had fallen from the ,sapucaya tree4 ,they are called ,monkey's ,drinking-cups 7,cuyas de ,macaco71 and are the capsules of the nuts sold under this appellation in ,covent ,garden ,market4 ,the top of the vessel is pierced with a circular hole1 in which a natural lid fits easily4 ,when the nuts ripen this lid becomes loosened1 and down falls the heavy shell with a crash1 scattering the nuts over the ground4 ,the tree#aej which bears this extraordinary burthen is of immense height4 ,it is closely allied to the ,brazil-nut tree1#aea whose seeds are likewise enclosed in large wooden vessels1 but these are without lids1 and fall entire to the ground4 ,it is at least #abj feet high1 and rises to the noble stature of #ajj feet before it throws off any branches4 ,from twelve to twenty of these sweet edible nuts lie in a pod4 ,the monkeys are very partial to them1 and will patiently sit for hours hammering at a capsule with a stone1 in order to open it2 and as soon as they have succeeded1 the on-lookers rush to the spot1 to purloin as many as they can4 ,the natives assail the quarreling party with stones1 a proceeding which incites the monkeys to revenge themselves by a discharge of nuts4 ,by this means the ,indians load their boats without trouble1 and the monkeys are left to make a fresh foray4 ,in his forest wanderings1 ,mr4 ,bates was especially attracted by the colossal trees4 ,he says that1 on the whole1 they had not remarkably thick stems2 the great and uniform height to which they grow without throwing off a branch is a much more noticeable feature than their thickness2 but at intervals he paused before a veritable giant4 ,only one of these huge patriarchs of the woods can flourish within a given space2 it monopolizes the domain1 and none but humble individuals can nestle within its shadow4 ,the cylindrical trunks of these larger trees were generally about twenty to twenty-five feet in circumference4 ,von ,martius1 another ,brazilian traveller1 mentions having measured trees in the ,par district1 belonging to various species 7,symphonia coccinea1 ,lecythis spirula1 and ,cratva ,tapia71 which were fifty to sixty feet in girth at the point where they become cylindrical6 ,the height of the vast column-like stems could not be less than #ajj feet from the ground to their lowest branch4 ,the total height of the ,pao d',ano#aeb and the ,massaranduba1 stem and crown together1 may be computed at from #ahj to #bjj feet4 ,where one of them stands1 the vast canopy of leafiness rises above the other forest trees like a domed cathedral above the minor buildings of a city4 ,a very curious feature in these trees is the growth of buttress-shaped projections around the lower part of their stems4 ,the spaces between these buttresses1 which may be compared to thin walls of wood1 form spacious chambers1 like stalls in a stable2 some of them large enough to hold half-a-dozen persons4 ,the purpose of these structures1 says ,mr4 ,bates1 is as obvious at the first glance1 as that of the similar props of brickwork which support a high wall4 ,they are not peculiar to one species1 but are common to most of the larger forest trees4 ,their nature and manner of growth are explained when a series of young trees of different ages is examined4 ,it is then seen that they are the roots1 which have raised themselves ridge-like out of the earth2 growing gradually upwards as the increasing height of the tree required augmented support4 ,thus they are plainly intended to sustain the massive crown and trunk in these crowded forests1 where lateral growth of the roots in the earth is rendered difficult by the number of competitors4 ,among other remarkable inhabitants of the ,brazilian wilderness1 we may name the lofty ,moira-tingu1#aec the ,samama1#aed and the ,massaranduba or ,cow tree4#aee ,the ,eriodendron ,samama1 or ,silk-cotton tree1 holds in the ,new ,world the same position as the ,bombax in the ,old4 ,it rises to an enormous stature without branches1 and then spreads out a glorious mass of foliage4 ,the bark is light in colour2 and the capsule pod contains a large quantity of down1 of a brown tint1 and exquisite silky softness4 ,the ,massaranduba is also called the ,palo de ,vacca1 the ,arbor de ,lacte1 the ,galactodendron utile1 or the ,cow tree4 ,its bark furnishes an abundant supply of milk as pleasant to drink as that of the cow4 ,if exposed to the air it thickens into a glue1 which is excessively tenacious1 and often employed to cement broken crockery4 ,the tree has a wild1 strange appearance1 owing to its deeply scored1 reddish1 and rugged bark1 a decoction of which is used as a red dye for cloth4 ,did our readers ever hear of the ,pashiba1 or bulging-stemmed palm8#aef ,it is not one of the tallest kinds1 for its height1 when full grown1 seldom exceeds forty feet2 the leaves are somewhat less drooping1 and the leaflets broader1 than in other species2 but if less beautiful1 it is1 perhaps1 far more remarkable4 ,its roots grow above ground1 radiating from the trunk at an elevation of ten or twelve feet1 so that the tree seems to be supported on stilts2 and when it is old1 a person can stand upright amongst the roots with the perpendicular stem wholly above his head6 ,about midway1 this stem bulges out in a circular swelling1 which gives it its distinctive name4 ,the roots closely resemble straight rods1 but they are studded with stout thorns1 whilst the trunk of the ,pashiba is perfectly smooth4 ,it is in the vast primeval forests of ,central and ,southern ,america1 and in the leafy wildernesses of the great ,east ,indian islands--,borneo1 ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,madagascar--that man may still contemplate in all its savage majesty the prodigious ,flora of the ,tropics4 ,these1 too1 are the haunts of many remarkable animals--mammals1 and birds1 and reptiles--which are there comparatively safe from the pitiless persecution of the hunter and the trapper4 ,to obtain an idea--which1 however1 can only be very vague and imperfect--of the strange and imposing spectacle and the unexpected scenes which at every step astonish the traveller in the great ,tropical woodlands1 we must study the descriptions of those few but richly endowed adventurers who1 after exploring them with the enlightened curiosity of science1 have been able to embody the results in language worthy of the subject4 ,in the foremost rank of those who have possessed the twofold qualification of scientific knowledge and descriptive power1 we must place the illustrious ,humboldt4 ,his works are a rich storehouse from which later writers have freely borrowed the materials of their essays4 ,in reference to the phrases ,virgin ,forest1 ,primeval ,forest1 he has some judicious observations3--,ought we to call1 he says1 by either of these appellations every kind of wild thick wood1 encumbered with vigorous trees1 upon which man has never laid his destructive hand8 ,in that case they would be appropriate in a number of very different countries1 under the ,temperate1 ay1 and even under the ,frigid ,zone4 ,but if we intend them to designate the impenetrability of an almost boundless forest1 the impossibility of clearing a path with the pioneer's axe between serried ranks of trees1 not one of which is less than from eight to ten feet in diameter1 such virgin forests belong exclusively to tropical regions4 ,we must not believe1 however1 according to the ordinary story in ,europe1 in the creeping parasitical lianas which1 by the interlacement and entanglement of their branches1 render the equatorial forests impenetrable4 ,the lianas form but a comparatively insignificant portion of the underwood4 ,the principal obstacle is found in the arborescent plants1 which leave not a space uncovered1 and this1 too1 in a country where all vegetables spreading over the soil become ligneous4 ,if a traveller1 as soon as he arrives in a tropical clime1 whether in the continent or the islands1 believes1 even before he has penetrated inland1 that he is transported to the heart of the virgin forests1 his error simply originates in his impatience to realize a long-cherished desire4 ,all ,tropical forests are not virgin forests4 ,the true virgin forests1 notwithstanding the recent explorations of ,wallace1 ,bates1 and ,agassiz1 are very imperfectly known2 because it is1 in truth1 perfectly impossible to survey them in every direction1 on account of their vast extent and astonishing impenetrability4 ,when we are told by the traveller that he opened for himself a path with his trusty hatchet1 we readily understand that he achieved his boasted victory in places where the obstacles were reduced to feeble lianas and brushwood of no great density1 and that he turned aside from the massive barriers formed by the closely-planted trunks of colossal trees4 ,than these mighty vegetable ,anakim1 nothing1 says a naturalist1 is more imperfectly known in botany4 ,the stems of most being bare and branchless up to a considerable height1 their fructification is frequently beyond the reach of man4 ,in vain would he level them by their base3 their summits remain suspended by the inter-tanglement of the neighbouring summits1 and like so many ,tantaluses1 our travellers see themselves shunned by the fruits which their eyes devour4 ,the rivers1 those tracks which march through the leafy1 woody depths1 and the tortuous paths trodden down by generations of wild beasts in their quest after new pastures1 after fresh hunting-grounds1 or fountains to slake their thirst1 are the only roads which can be pursued by the explorer4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,virgin ,,forest ,,in ,,brazil4 ,as far as concerns their botanical composition1 the virgin forests of the ,tropics are distinguished from those of cold and temperate regions by general characters which it will1 perhaps1 be useful to indicate4 ,if1 for example1 we adopt as our standard of comparison the ,european forest1 we there remark1 in the first place1 the complete absence of trees belonging to the important groups of ,acotyledons and ,monocotyledons1 and1 in consequence1 of the superb palms and elegant arboreal ferns of tropical countries4 ,or1 considering only the ,dicotyledonous plants1 we see again that1 in lands bordering on the ,equator1 there is scarcely a family of this class which does not furnish its contingent of woody plants1 offering most frequently1 with forms of infinite variety1 clearly displayed and brilliant flowers1 remarkable either for their beauty or their fragrance1-- ,sweet as ,saban odours from the shores ,of ,araby the ,blest2 while our trees are comprised in a small number of natural groups1 and present in general very opposite features2 as1 for instance1 an almost uniform character or aspect1 and flowers scarcely visible and of little elegance4 ,it suffices to name the families of the ,conifer and the ,amentace1 which compose the greater portion of the ,flora of our forests4 ,moreover1 as ,humboldt observes1 in the ,temperate ,zone1 particularly in ,europe and the north of ,asia1 certain species of trees 7plant sociales7 grow together1 and form of themselves forests which we may designate by their specific name4 ,in the forests of oaks1 firs1 and birches which cover the countries of the ,north1 in the forests of limes of the ,east1 one unique species of ,amentace1 ,conifer1 or ,tiliace generally prevails4 ,this uniform society is foreign to the ,tropical forests4 ,the infinite variety of flowers which expand in these ,hyl do not permit us to ask of what the virgin forests are composed4 ,an innumerable quantity of different families stand side by side2 even in the most confined spaces it is rare to see trees of the same nature re-united4 ,every day1 as the traveller advances1 he discovers new forms2 oftentimes the outline of the leaf and the ramification of a tree attract his attention1 without his being able to distinguish the flowers4 ,there is yet another feature1 more striking still1 and more general than those previously mentioned1 which broadly distinguishes the arborescent vegetation of the ,tropics from that of northern climates4 ,here the plants1 exposed annually to an often intense degree of cold which lasts for several months1 experience a kind of suspension of their vital activity1 cease to flower and to fructify1 and entirely shed their foliage2 the resinous species are the only exceptions to this rule4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,equator1 on the contrary1 it is during the hottest1 driest season that vegetation suffers2 then the herbaceous plants and bushes of the plains die down2 but the great trees of the virgin forests are hardly affected2 their foliage incessantly renews itself2 their branches are at all times loaded with fruits and flowers1 and to the wayfarer's eyes they present the glorious spectacle of an eternal freshness1 of a life which never wanes4 ,compared with these great points of difference1 common to all the virgin forests of the ,tropics1 the peculiar features resulting from the botanical constitution which distinguishes more or less exactly one region from another1 have1 as the reader will understand1 but a secondary importance4 ,with the exception of a few countries which possess a ,flora sui generis--such1 for example1 as ,madagascar and ,australia--the same aspects1 the same general forms are almost everywhere reproduced4 ,more distinctive differences may be remarked1 at the first glance1 in the animal life which peoples the forests of the different quarters of the world2 but yet these animals everywhere display the same habits4 ,the great majority of the insects and the birds1 the apes1 the squirrels1 and1 in general1 all the arboreal animals1 awake and put themselves in motion at the first glimpse of day1 and animate the forest with their murmurs1 their songs1 their utterances1 their lively sports and frolicsome gambols4 ,i borrow from the entertaining pages of an ,english traveller the following description of the diurnal cycle of phenomena which revolves in the depths of a virgin forest4#aeg ,in the early dawn the sky is invariably cloudless2 the heavy dew or the previous night's rain1 which lay on the moist foliage1 becoming quickly dissipated by the glowing sun1 which1 rising straight out of the east1 mounts rapidly towards the zenith4 ,all nature is fresh1 new leaves and flower-buds expanding rapidly4 ,some mornings a single tree will appear in flower amidst what was the preceding evening a uniform green mass of forest--a dome of blossom suddenly created as if by magic4 ,the birds are all active2 from the wild fruit trees1 not far off1 we hear the shrill yelping of the ,tucano 7,ramphastos vitellinus74 ,small flocks of parrots flow over on most mornings at a great height1 appearing in distinct relief against the blue sky1 always two by two chattering to each other1 the pairs being separated by regular intervals4 ,their bright colours1 however1 are not discernible at such a height4 ,towards two o'clock the heat rapidly increases1 and every voice of bird or mammal grows hushed2 only in the trees sounds at intervals the harsh whirr of a cicada4 ,the leaves1 so moist and fresh in early morning1 now become lax and drooping2 the flowers shed their petals4 ,on most days in ,june or ,july a heavy shower will fall some time in the afternoon1 producing a most welcome coolness4 ,the approach of the rain clouds takes place after a uniform fashion very interesting to observe4 ,first1 the cool sea-breeze1 which commenced to blow about ten o'clock1 and which increases in force with the increasing power of the sun1 flags1 and finally dies away4 ,the heat and electric tension of the atmosphere then grows almost insupportable4 ,languor and uneasiness seize on every one2 even the denizens of the forest betraying it by their motions4 ,white clouds rising in the east gather into cumuli1 with an increasing blackness along their lower portions4 ,the whole eastern horizon becomes almost suddenly black1 and this darkness spreads upwards1 obscuring the orb of day4 ,then through the forest hurtles a mighty wind1 swaying the lofty tree-tops2 a vivid flash of lightning bursts forth1 then breaks a crash of thunder1 and down streams the deluging rain4 ,such storms soon cease1 leaving bluish-black motionless clouds in the sky until night4 ,meantime all nature is refreshed2 but heaps of flower-leaves and fallen petals lie under the trees4 ,towards evening life revives again1 and the ringing uproar is resumed from bush and tree4 ,the following morning the sun again rises in a cloudless sky1 and so the cycle is completed2 spring1 summer1 and autumn1 as it were1 in one tropical day4 ,the days are more or less like this throughout the year in this country4 ,a little difference exists between the dry and wet seasons2 but generally the dry season1 which lasts from ,july to ,december1 is varied with showers2 and the wet1 from ,january to ,june1 with sunny days4 ,it results from this1 says ,mr4 ,bates1 that the periodical phenomena of plants and animals do not take place at about the same time in all species1 or in the individuals of any given species1 as they do in temperate countries4 ,of course there is no hybernation1 nor1 as the dry season is not excessive1 is there any summer torpidity as in some tropical countries4 ,plants do not flower or shed their leaves1 nor do birds moult1 pair1 or breed simultaneously4 ,in ,europe1 a woodland scene has its spring1 its summer1 its autumnal1 and its winter aspects4 ,in the equatorial forests the aspect is the same1 or nearly so1 every day in the year--budding1 flowering1 fruiting1 and leaf-shedding are always going on in one species or other4 ,the activity of birds and insects proceeds without interruption1 each species having its own separate times4 ,the colonies of wasps1 for instance1 do not die off annually1 leaving only the queens1 as in cold climates2 but the succession of generations and colonies goes on incessantly4 ,it is never either spring1 summer1 or autumn1 but each day is a combination of all three4 ,with the day and night always of equal length1 the atmospheric disturbances of each day neutralizing themselves before each succeeding morn2 with the sun in its course proceeding mid-way across the sky1 and the daily temperature the same within two or three degrees throughout the year1 how grand in its perfect equilibrium and simplicity is the march of ,nature under the equator6 ,now night comes on1 not1 as in temperate climes1 with a hush and a silence that are almost breathless1 but with a thousand strange and formidable sounds4 ,in ,asia1 in ,africa1 in ,america1 as well as in the great islands of the ,pacific ,ocean1 the forests and the savannahs re-echo all night with discordant cries4 ,the branches are torn down with a crash as the beasts of prey sweep past1 and earth resounds beneath their headlong steps4 ,it is no longer the gay1 fresh movement of happy life which in the golden noon of day converts the forest into a veritable ,eden2 it is the rush to and fro of scattered animals1 pressed by hunger and thirst1 either in flight or pursuit2 it is the roar of rage or the wail of agony2 it is1 in a word1 the mle of sharpened appetites2 it is the ,witches' ,sabbath of the savage world1 at which no ,european1 however hardened by the perils of an adventurous career1 can be present for the first time without experiencing a deep emotion of melancholy and apprehension4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world4 ,i do not think that in all ,europe1 nor1 indeed1 in the entire ,temperate ,zone of the ,old ,world1 exists such an agglomeration of plants and trees as may merit the appellation of primeval or virgin forest4 ,at all events1 this forest1 if it really exists1 will assuredly be composed of the very trees which we see every day in our own woods1 our fields1 our parks1 and even in our towns1 and which have long ceased to awaken in us the idea of wild nature4 ,with the woods of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 or ,spain we are all familiar3-- ,the beam ,of noon is broken there by chestnut boughs ,down the steep verdant sides2 the air ,so freshened by the leaping stream1 which throws ,eternal showers of spray on the mossed roots ,of trees1 and veins of turf1 and long dark shoots ,of ivy-plants1 and fragrant hanging bells ,of hyacinths1 and on late anemones ,that muffle its wet banks4#aeh ,our poets have sung of the murmurous groves of pines1 and the deep dark beech-woods that clothe with shadows the rounded forms of the chalk-hills1 and the long alleys of blossoming chestnut1 fragrant lime1 or sombre yew4 ,therefore1 without losing valuable time in these familiar shades1 without pausing before the oak which the history of a thousand years has made immortal1 let us rapidly traverse the ,corsican forests1 where among the twisted leaves of the elms flourishes the gigantic ,larician pine2 those of ,greece1 where thrive the pines of ,cephalonia and ,apollo1 and the oaks sacred also to the divinity of ,delphi and ,dodona--those oaks1 dumb to-day1 which formerly gave utterance to oracles not less reverend than those of the ,pythoness4 ,we will not even suffer ourselves to be delayed among the forests of ,eastern ,europe1 of ,asia ,minor1 and of ,persia1 where dominate such species as the pine1 the beech1 and the chestnut4 ,it is not until we have crossed the ,indus--that mighty river on whose banks halted the legions of ,alexander--that the exuberant vegetation of the ,tropical world breaks upon us in all its glorious verdure and prodigious richness1 though confined to a comparatively limited area4 ,the wooded region of the western ,ghauts1 from ,goa to ,cape ,camorin1 exhibits the greatest abundance of plants peculiar to ,southern ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,tropical ,,vegetation4 #a4 ,calamus ,rotang4 #b4 ,bamboos4 #c4 ,borassus flabelliformis4 #d4 ,diospyros ebenum4 ,to form an idea of the variety and potency of the ,flora of this region1 says ,m4 ,lanoye1#aei we must contemplate the specimens immured in our ,european gardens1 and augment tenfold their etiolated proportions2 we must bring together1 in the dazzling confusion of ,nature1 the ,mimosas1 the ,musas1 the odorous ,screw-pines1 the ,mangoes1 and the ,orange trees2 twine around their trunks the many-branched stems of the ,bignonias1 the ,nagatelly1 the ,dictantes-,sambas1 and the ,lianas which furnish pepper and the betel-nut2 group under their shade the most beautiful varieties of ,azaleas1 ,jasmines1 and ,gardenias2 unite those ,laurels whence we extract camphor1 cassia1 and cinnamon1 with the red ,santul1 the ,nopals1 and the ,dragon trees which supply the costly gum-lacs2 the ,shrubs which give us spikenard1 cardamoms1 and amome1 with those ,canes which secrete sugar4 ,above these masses of flowers1 above these sources of honey and perfume1 we must next display the immense leaves of the ,talipot and the ,bourbon-palm1 must spread in undulations the arial palm-crests of the ,cocoa-nut and the gigantic ,bamboo2 must accumulate the sombre verdure of the ,teaks and the ,tamarinds1 and the impenetrable branches of the consecrated ,pines4 ,then1 all this being accomplished1 we shall still have but a vague and colourless perception of the ,indian ,flora1 and notably of that which clothes the base of the ,western ,ghauts to the east and to the south of the city of ,goa4 ,the difficulty of picturing to ourselves the entirety of so glorious and rich a scene reveals the impossibility of seizing all its details1 of studying one by one all its elements4 ,our attention1 however1 will be arrested by a small number of species remarkable above all others by their extraordinary dimensions1 the elegance of their bearing1 the beauty of their flowers and foliage1 or by some peculiar and destructive property4 ,we notice in the first place several trees whose close relationship cannot be mistaken to the date trees which we have already met with in the open ,desert1 and which1 we may remember1 constituted the entire wealth of the inhabitants of the oases4 ,we find representatives of the immense family of palms in every tropical country1 and even in the coral islands of the great ocean4 ,india possesses several species4 ,i shall refer only to the ,borassus flabelliformis1 whose trunk1 #ij to #abj feet in height1 is surmounted by a crown of great fan-shaped leaves1 folded longitudinally in their first half1 cut in the other1 and sustained by prickly supports4 ,the other half is made use of by the ,hindus in the shape of paper1 or rather tablets1 on which they write with the point of a stylet4 ,the spadices 7clustered flowers71 if incised before reaching maturity1 yield a liquid which1 after fermentation1 forms the favourite ,indian beverage of palm wine4 ,the ,bamboo1 the most gigantic of the tropical ,gramine1 is plentifully distributed over ,india1 ,indo-,china1 and ,china1 where it frequently flourishes in considerable masses4 ,in height it equals the loftiest palms4 ,its culm is smooth1 glittering1 straight1 and flexible1 of a beautiful yellow colour1 and regularly intersected by annular rings marked by so many brown streaks4 ,it wavers gently to and fro with the impulse of the wind1 as if to refresh with its breath the light undulating foliage4 ,almost innumerable are the services which this heaven-sent plant renders to the inhabitants of the countries where it flourishes4 ,in hedges or plantations it forms around their abodes a formidable defence4 ,with its stems sawn either in accordance with their diameter1 or split longitudinally1 the natives not only fabricate a host of utensils and articles of furniture1 but build their barks and construct their houses4 ,they extract from the spaces between the joints of the young plant a feculent substance which supplies them with an agreeable nutriment1 analogous to sago4 ,a saccharine juice flows spontaneously from the joints formed by the knots2 when fermented it becomes alcoholic and heady like hydromel4 ,the bamboo also proves serviceable in the manufacture of mats and cordage4 ,the slender stems are split into thin strips1 which are probably softened in water4 ,these strips1 woven together1 form mats or carpets of extreme solidity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,banana1#afj like the ,bamboo and most of the palms1 is a cosmopolitan plant throughout the tropic world4 ,its native habitat is supposed to be ,asia4 ,the ,oriental ,christians have a tradition that this tree1 which they call the ,lignum ,vit1 was that whose fruit was forbidden to our first parents4 ,hence the name of ,musa paradisiaca1 given by botanists to one of the two species of the genus2 the other is the ,banana of the wise men1 ,musa sapientum4 ,however this may be1 it is certain that if the use of the banana was at any time interdicted to man1 the prohibition has been annulled for many generations2 and its fruits form one of the most wholesome and most general articles of food in tropical countries4 ,although the wild banana maintains its place honourably in the forests of these regions1 it is not a tree1 but an herbaceous plant4 ,it propagates itself through its suckers1 and its stem perishes immediately after fructification4 ,its mode of vegetation is analogous to that of the ,liliace4 ,from a bulbous and fleshy platform issue1 beneath1 its fibrous roots2 above1 enormous leaves1 often nearly a yard wide and two to three yards long4 ,the petioles of these leaves are adhesive4 ,by folding themselves one over another1 and successively drying up1 they grow into a stem which sometimes attains the dimensions of the trunk of an ordinary tree 7about seven feet7 and the stature of twelve to sixteen feet1 and which is traversed throughout its centre by a stalk springing from the bulb4 ,this stalk rises again several inches above the terminal leaf1 then bends1 sinks towards the ground1 and terminates in a stem which carries at its extremity the male flowers1 and at its base the female flowers1 then the fruit4 ,the latter1 collected in clusters of twelve to fourteen1 are elongated1 of a prismatic triangular form1 enveloped in a rind1 green at first1 then yellow1 and internally consist of a soft1 feculent1 sugary pulp1 very nutritious1 and agreeable to the taste4 ,in its native clime the banana is born1 grows1 flourishes1 fructifies1 and dies in the space of twelve or eighteen months4 ,in the climates most akin to ours1 and in our ,european gardens1 its development is not only on a smaller scale1 but occupies a longer period1 and it has been known to reach the age of ten or a dozen years4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,banyan ,,tree 7,ficus ,indica74 ,by the side of these weak-stemmed plants1 with their soft and spongy contexture1 grow hosts of robust trees1 whose timber is compact and sometimes exceedingly hard1 and whose branches are of immense span4 ,my readers will probably remember the lines in which ,southey so admirably describes one of the most majestic and most singular of these3 the ,banyan1 or ,indian ,fig-tree 7,ficus ,indica71#afa also designated the ,multiplying ,fig-tree1 the ,admirable ,fig-tree1 and ,tree of ,life4 ,the passage will bear transcription3#afb-- ,it was a goodly sight to see ,that venerable tree1 ,for o'er the lawn1 irregularly spread1 ,fifty straight columns propped its lofty head2 ,and many a long depending shoot ,seeking to strike its root1 ,straight1 like a plummet1 grew towards the ground4 ,some on the lower boughs1 which crossed their way1 ,fixing their bearded fibres1 round and round1 ,with many a ring and wild contortion wound2 ,some to the passing wind1 at times with sway ,of gentle motion swung2 ,others of younger growth1 unmoved1 were hung ,like stone-drops from the cavern's fretted height4 ,beneath was smooth and fair to sight1 ,nor weeds nor briars deformed the natural floor2 ,and through the leafy cope which bowered it o'er1 ,came gleams of chequered light4 ,the ,banyan surpasses in diameter the finest oaks of ,europe1 and throws off numerous branches1 of which several redescend towards the earth1 force their way into it1 take root therein1 and in their turn develop into new trunks1 whence spring other boughs that go through the same process of fructification2 so that a single stem spreads in time into a kind of forest1 and the canopy formed by the outgrowth of a solitary tree will frequently overshadow an area of #agjj square yards4 ,the evergreen foliage of this beautiful tree forms an immense vault1 which has justly been compared to the domed roof of a stately edifice supported by a host of columns4 ,here a myriad birds raise their songs of joy2 underneath1 the weary pilgrim finds a delightful asylum2 from branch to branch leap the mocking ape and the nimble squirrel4 ,the ,hindus hold their ,pagod tree in great veneration4 ,it is to them one of the emblems of their god ,siva1 and in its dense deep shade they assemble to celebrate their sacrificial rites1 whether in honour of this potent deity1 or whether in honour of ,ganesha1 a rural divinity1 analogous in his attributes to the ,pan of the ,greeks and ,latins4 ,several other tropical trees possess1 like the banyan1 the property of producing adventitious roots which spring from the trunk or branches which implant themselves in the soil2 but not one enjoys an equal power of reproduction and multiplication4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the greatest trees of southern ,asia1 and possibly one of the greatest in the world1 is the ,teak or ,indian ,oak 7,tectona grandis71 which covers vast areas of ground in ,hindostan4 ,it flourishes also in ,pegu1 ,ava1 ,siam1 ,java1 and the ,burman ,empire4 ,it works easily1 and though porous1 is permanent and strong2 is readily seasoned1 and shrinks but little2 is of an oleaginous character1 and therefore does not corrode iron4 ,it is as strong as oak1 and more buoyant4 ,its durability is more uniform and decided2 and to insure that durability it needs less care and preparation2 for it may be taken into use almost green from the forest1 without danger of dry or wet rot4 ,it will endure all climates and all alternations of climate4#afc ,the teak of ,malabar1 grown on the high table-lands in the south of ,india1 is esteemed the best1 because it is the heaviest1 the most durable1 contains the most oil1 and is the closest in its fibre4 ,next in quality ranks that of ,java1 and inferior to these in some respects is the teak of ,burmah1 ,rangoon1 and ,siam2 which1 however1 is the most buoyant1 and the best fitted for masts and spars4 ,african teak1 let me note1 is not teak properly so called1 but the timber of the ,oldfieldia ,africana4 ,it is largely imported from the west coast of ,africa1 and though an useful wood1 lacks the most valuable properties of the genuine teak4 ,the teak is a handsome and even stately tree1 often attaining the noble stature of #acj to #aej feet1 with a trunk of proportionate diameter1 upright1 well-shaped1 and surmounted by wide-spread branches4 ,its large leaves are oval1 of a velvety under-surface1 and besprinkled on the upper with whitish spots4 ,its flowers cluster at the extremity of the branch in an ample and beautiful panicle4 ,the poisonous properties of its wood preserve it from the attacks of vermin1 but render it dangerous to work1 for men who are but lightly wounded by its splinters die after a very brief interval4 ,a less useful timber than the teak1 but much esteemed for the manufacture of articles of luxury1 is furnished by the ,diospyros ebenum and the ,santalum album4 ,in the ,flora of tropical ,asia a very important position is occupied by the ,laurel family4 ,several species of this family deserve to be particularized on account of their commercial value3 thus1 from the ,laurus camphora comes the camphor most esteemed by ,british physicians1 while the aromatic rinds of the ,laurus cinnamomum1 ,culilawan1 ,malabathrum1 and ,cassia1 constitute the various kinds of cinnamon4 ,the ,laurus cassia is not to be confounded with another ,indian tree1 one of the ,leguminos1 the ,cassia fistula1 whose enormous cods formerly played an important rle under the name of ,cassia in therapeutic science4 ,while speaking of trees which produce aromatic substances1 ,i must not forget to mention the ,styrax benzon1 and the ,boswellia serrata4 ,the former is a member of the family ,styracace1 whose trees or shrubs1 chiefly tropical1 are known by their monopetalous flowers1 their epipetalous stamens1 their long radicle1 leafy cotyledons1 and by a part at least of the ovules being suspended4 ,the ,styrax benzon1 a native of the ,indian islands1 yields the resin called benzoin4 ,the juice exudes from incisions made in the bark1 and when dried1 is removed by a knife or chisel4 ,each tree yields about three pounds' weight annually1 the gum formed during the first three years being superior in quality to that which subsequently exudes4 ,it is largely employed by perfumers1 and in medicine is esteemed a remedy for chronic pulmonary disorders4 ,styrax officinale1 a native of the ,levant1 furnishes the balsamic resinous substance known as storax1 which is also one of the materials manipulated by perfumers1 and in medicine is used as a stimulating expectorant4 ,the ,boswellia serrata supplies the fragrant incense whose vapours were anciently supposed to be peculiarly agreeable to the gods made by man's hands or conceived by his imagination4 ,india is also the native country and home-land of the ,indigo plants 7,indigofera tinctoria1 and ,indigofera anil1 of the ,leguminos family71 and the ,gossypiums1 from whose expanded fruits is obtained the all-powerful cotton2 and in ,cochin-,china we meet with the ,croton sebiferum or ,stillingia sebifera 7family of the ,euphorbiace71 whose berries contain a rich concrete substance called tree-tallow1 employed1 in the far ,east1 in the manufacture of tapers4 ,the latter tree1 popularly known as the ,tallow ,tree1 has rhomboid leaves1 with two prominent glands at the point of attachment between the stalk and the leaf2 and its flower catkins are from two to four inches long4 ,its fruits contain three seeds thickly coated with a fatty substance which yields the tallow4 ,this is obtained by steaming the seeds in large caldrons1 and then bruising them sufficiently to loosen the fat without breaking the seeds1 which are removed by sifting4 ,the fat is afterwards made into flat circular cakes1 and pressed in a wedge-press1 when the pure tallow exudes in a liquid state1 and soon hardens into a white brittle mass4 ,this tallow is very extensively used for candle-making in ,china2 but as the candles made of it become soft in hot weather1 they generally receive a coating of insect wax4 ,a liquid oil is obtained from the seeds by pressing4 ,the tree yields a hard wood used by the ,chinese for printing blocks1 and its leaves are employed for dyeing black4#afd ,climbing and epiphytous#afe plants are very numerous in ,india2 but there are none1 perhaps1 which in vegetative force and tenacity can be compared to those of the ,calamus1 and particularly of the ,calamus rotang 7family of the ,palmace74 ,these ,lianas are all remarkable for their flexible stem1 which attaches itself to the trees1 and frequently attains the prodigious length of #bjj1 #bej1 #cjj1 and even #cej yards4 ,this stem is formed of a series of internodes1 or jointed pieces1 more or less wide apart1 each of which bears a leathery flower1 with elongated sheath4 ,the ,calami frequently render the forests which they inhabit virtually impenetrable1 through their long1 flexible1 and tenacious arms1 stretching across from tree to tree1 or crawling over the ground1 and bristling with formidable thorns4 ,it is these stems which are imported into ,europe as bamboos1 cut into different lengths1 and there employed for various industrial purposes4 ,but it is time we took our leave of ,india1 and allowed observation with extensive view to survey the far-spreading ,african forests4 ,there1 in the first place1 we are called upon to salute the patriarch of the tropical ,flora1 the ,baobab 7,adansonia digitata71 a gigantic genus of the family ,bombace4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,baobab4 #b4 ,elis ,guinensis1 or ,guinea ,palm4 #c4 ,acacia verek4 ,this colossus of the vegetable world was discovered in ,senegal by the ,french botanist ,adanson1 in #agdi4 ,he measured the trunks of several individuals1 and found them from #fe to #gh feet in circumference1 with mighty branches1 each of which was equal to a great oak or magnificent chestnut4 ,one baobab he computed at #ij feet in girth1 and its rounded crest extended over an area of upwards of #agj yards in circuit4 ,a root which was exposed to view1 through the washing away of the superjacent soil1 measured #aaj feet in length4 ,adanson estimated the age of some of these ,anakim of trees at #aejj years4 ,they were just shooting above the ground1 if this reckoning be true1 at the time that ,constantine1 the first ,christian emperor1 removed the seat of empire from ,rome to ,constantinople4 ,there are other gigantic trees in the forests of ,senegambia1 as1 for instance1 the ,khaya ,senegalensis1 which rears its crest to a height of #ej or #fj yards1 whose hard reddish-coloured timber belongs to the species known in commerce under the name of ,mahogany4 ,another kind of mahogany1 but less valuable1 called ,senegal ,mahogany1 is furnished by the ,swietenia ,senegalensis 7family of ,meliace1 tribe of ,cedrelace71 named after ,baron von ,swieten1 a ,dutch botanist4 ,it forms a stately tree1 some #fj or #hj feet high4 ,swietenia ,mahogani1 a native of the warmer regions of ,america and the ,west ,indies1 yields the mahogany of commerce4 ,the first discovery of the existence of this kind of wood is ascribed to the carpenter on board ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's vessel1 when lying off ,trinidad in #aeie4 ,it is not considered to reach perfection under the venerable age of two hundred years4 ,the seeds prepared with oil are used by the modern ,mexicans1 as they were by the ancient ,aztecs1 for cosmetic purposes2 and the bark is considered a febrifuge4 ,among the most curious trees of the ,senegal1 whose ,flora has quite a character of its own1 travellers have singled out the ,butter ,tree 7,bassia butyracea1 family of the ,sapotace71 whose fruits contain an edible fatty substance1 used by the natives as a substitute for butter2 and the ,henna 7,lawsonia inermis71 which also flourishes on the eastern coast and in ,upper ,egypt4 ,the henna is a shrub from six to seven feet high4 ,its flowers exhale a goat-like odour1 which seems much affected by the ,orientals and the natives of ,africa4 ,its roots1 of a deep red hue1 are distinguished by a bitter taste and astringent properties4 ,finally1 its leaves supply an orange-red colouring matter1 with which the ,arabs and negroes tint their hair1 beard1 and nails4 ,let us not pass over without the tribute of our respectful notice the numerous tribe of ,acacias1 which form vast forests in the districts north of the ,senegal1 and yield the gum-arabic of commerce4 ,the best known species of this important and useful group are the ,acacia ,arabica1 or ,red ,gum-tree1 the ,acacia ,adansoni1 the ,acacia vera1 and the ,acacia verek4 ,we also meet at ,senegal with a tree which ,i ought1 perhaps1 to have ranked of right among those of ,india1 and which1 like many others1 belong rather to the whole zone of the ,tropics than to any particular country2 ,i refer to the ,tamarind 7,tamarindus ,indica71#aff whose well-known name is supposed to be derived from the ,arabic ,tamar1 signifying dates1 and ,indus1 in allusion to its original habitat4 ,there is only one species of the genus1 but the ,east ,indian variety has long pods1 with six to twelve seeds1 while the ,west ,indian has much shorter pods1 containing one to four seeds4 ,it is a tree of graceful appearance1 with elegant pinnated foliage and numerous racemes of fragrant flowers4 ,the pods are slightly curved1 and consist of a brittle brown shell1 enclosing a soft1 acid1 brown pulp1 traversed by strong woody fibres2 a thin membranous covering wraps up the seeds4 ,the pulp has a savour at once acid and sugary1 and acts as a gentle laxative4 ,the timber is useful for building purposes1 and furnishes excellent charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,the ,sterculiace have numerous representatives at the ,senegal4 ,these tall and handsome trees remind the traveller in their appearance of our ,english oaks4 ,the seeds of the ,sterculia acuminata and tomentosa are masticated by the negroes until reduced to a fluid paste1 in which form they employ it to dye their cotton-stuffs yellow4 ,the dye is very bright1 and1 it is said1 extremely durable4 ,we know that a great part of the ,gaboon is occupied by virgin forests1 where ,fig-trees are predominant1 and in marshy soils the ,mangle or ,mangrove trees 7,rhizophora mangle71 which must not be confounded with the savoury-fruited ,mangoes of ,eastern ,india4 ,the ,mangroves form1 in the family of the ,rhizophoras1 a genus distributed in the moist localities of the ,tropics1 and we shall hereafter meet with them in ,south ,america4 ,equatorial ,africa possesses several species of ,palm-trees peculiar to it4 ,such are the ,thorny ,date-tree1 the ,borassus of ,ethiopia1 the ,raphia vinifera of ,congo1 which1 as its name wine-bearing indicates1 furnishes a wine analogous to that extracted in other regions from other trees of the same family2 the ,elis ,guinensis1 or ,guinea ,palm1 whence we obtain the well-known product of palm oil4 ,this oil1 or palm-tree butter1 forms an important article of food among the ,guinea negroes4 ,it is imported into ,europe in large quantities1 and employed in the manufacture of soap4 ,the forests of the ,hottentot and ,bechuana countries1 and in general of all those regions bordering on the ,cape ,colony1 are frequently of great extent1 but mainly composed of trees of small stature1 or even of shrubs1 such as the ,cape ,olive1 a few ,acacias1 some ,composit and ,conifers4 ,forests1 as ,i have said1 are rare in the explored portions of the west ,african coast2 they become denser and more numerous as we leave the great ocean in our rear1 and penetrate into that vast interior which for ages has been haunted by so many mysteries4 ,their ,flora1 however1 offers no special character1 and does not materially differ from that of ,guinea and ,senegambia4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,islands4 ,i have said that under the same parallels of latitude1 or under neighbouring parallels1 the physiognomy of the virgin forests was everywhere nearly the same1 and hence we must study from a point close at hand the species which compose them1 to determine the distinctive characters of the great agglomerations of vegetables peculiar to different countries4 ,and yet the traveller who1 after having explored the primeval forests of ,africa and ,asia1 should be transported to the wild and wooded regions of the great ,indian ,archipelago and the ,pacific ,ocean1 could not fail to be struck with the novel spectacle presented to his gaze4 ,undoubtedly he would meet1 at first1 with a great number of plants not unknown to him2 but he would not fail to discover many others which he had not hitherto observed1 and especially would he contemplate with astonishment--perhaps with admiration--the chaos of this rich1 various1 dense1 but disordered vegetation4 ,it seems1 in truth1 as if within these summer isles of ,eden ,nature had hastened to accumulate her choicest products1 and feeling herself restricted within narrow limits1 had carefully laboured not to lose the smallest particle of space--not even of the arial territory1 if ,i may so speak--allotted to her4 ,not only are the trees set in the closest possible array1 but they struggle with wonderful effort to develop the exuberance of their strength4 ,nearly all display an abundant and persistent foliage2 their branches are1 in general1 thick and spongy1 and begin to shoot at the base of the trunk2 in such wise that the lower boughs extend close to the ground1 and by interlacing with those of neighbouring trees1 form impenetrable thickets4 ,many send forth1 from their trunk and their branches1 frail flexible roots like the lianas1 which descend to the earth1 plant themselves in the soil1 and contribute to render the forests absolutely impervious4 ,nor is this all2 the plants grow there1 literally1 one upon another4 ,nowhere1 under the ,tropics1 does one see a similar profusion of epiphytous plants2 not a single tree but is invaded by the close-clinging roots and flexible ramifications of these parasites1 mingled with brightly-blossoming lianas1 whose multifold stems are of immeasurable length4 ,species worthy of note1 either on account of their beauty1 their various uses1 or formidable poisonous properties1 and belonging to widely-differing families1 abound1 moreover1 in these perennial forests4 ,ceylon1 which has justly been named by the ,orientals a pearl detached from ,hindostan1 so admirable is its situation1 so marvellous is its fertility1 so exhaustless its mineral wealth1 is the native country of the ,laurus cinnamomum--which was early transplanted to the neighbouring continent--and of the ,artocarpus1 or ,bread-fruit tree1 one of the most curious and most useful plants of this region4 ,illustration3 ,,bread-,,fruit ,,tree ,,of ,,ceylon 7,artocarpus incisa74 ,the ,bread-fruit ,tree 7,artocarpus incisa7 is a tree of the family ,muriace1 some #de to #ee feet high4 ,make an incision in its bark1 wherever you will1 and it exudes a white lacteal fluid1 which hardens on exposure to the air4 ,its branches are very numerous1 and those nearest its base attain a considerable length4 ,its leaves are large1 consistent1 and somewhat deeply cut4 ,it owes its name of ,bread-fruit tree to its ovoid or rounded fruit1 about the size of an ostrich's egg1 which forms the staple food of the ,cingalese4 ,when fully ripe1 the pulp or flesh is white1 firm1 farinaceous1 and very agreeable to the taste4 ,the natives boil it whole1 or cut it into slices for roasting1 and prepare it for the table in numerous other modes4 ,two or three trees1 it is said1 suffice for the provisioning of one man4 ,my readers will remember that its introduction in the ,west ,indian ,islands was signalized by the famous ,mutiny of the ,bounty1 and led indirectly to the settlement of ,pitcairn's ,island2 thus originating a strange and sufficiently poetical romance4 ,in the forests of ,ceylon also flourish the ,cambogia ,guttu1 the ,stalagmites ,cambogioides1 and the ,garcinia morella 7family ,guttifer71 whence camboge is extracted4 ,this substance1 at once medicinal and tinctorial1 exudes in a liquid state from wounds made in the bark of the trees2 it solidifies spontaneously in the vessels wherein it is collected4 ,immense forests overspread the humid plains of ,sumatra4 ,they are constituted in the main of numerous species of ,fig-trees 7,ficoid71 whose abundant and persistent leaves form an obscure vault1 impenetrable by the sun's golden arrows4 ,above this leafy dome shoot the rigid trunks of trees of lofty stature4 ,of these1 the most remarkable1 perhaps1 is the ,ipo-antiar 7,antiaris toxicaria71 whose juice1 after having undergone certain preparations1 becomes one of the deadliest known poisons4 ,it was for a long time unknown with what substance the ,malays envenomed their arrows and their famous kris1 or crease2 nor was it until the beginning of the present century that the traveller ,leschenault ascertained1 not without difficulty1 that it had for its basis the juice of a very tall tree1 with decaying leaves1 to which he gave the name of ,antiaris toxicaria4 ,this is the celebrated ,upas1 whose deadly properties were formerly exaggerated in so many wonderful fables4 ,the poison is prepared in an earthen vessel1 and mixed up with certain quantities of the seed of the pimento and the pepper tree1 and the roots of various kinds of ginger4 ,these are mixed together slowly1 except the pimento-grains1 which are precipitated one by one to the bottom of the vessel by means of a small stick4 ,each grain produces a slight fermentation1 and rises to the surface4 ,it is then extracted1 to be plunged anew into the mixture1 and this process is eight or nine times repeated2 after which the mixture is complete4 ,it appears that the ,upas-antiar1 taken internally1 acts at first as a purgative1 but afterwards its influence extends to the brain1 and produces death with frightful tetanic convulsions4 ,introduced into the blood through a wound1 it kills small animals in a few moments1 and men in a few hours4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,nipa fruticans4 #b4 ,sugar ,palm 7,areca saccharifera74 #c4 ,ipo-,antiar 7,antiaris toxicaria74 ,marvel-loving writers formerly asserted that this deadly poison was employed in the execution of criminals1 who1 however1 received a pardon if they contrived to reach a tree1 and bring back a supply of its venom4 ,birds1 it was said1 dropped dead while flying over it--as was formerly told of the pestilential waters of the ,dead ,sea--and the whole country around was desolated by its noxious effluvia4 ,but the fact is1 the upas tree is merely a tree with poisonous secretions1 and in no way affects the atmosphere of the locality where it lives4 ,a not less terrible poison is furnished by the ,liana ,tieut 7,strychnos tieut71 a member of the family ,loganiace4 ,it has an exceedingly long stem1 but does not yield1 like the upas1 a whitish milky juice4 ,its voluminous roots are covered with a thin reddish bark1 of a peculiarly bitter taste4 ,by boiling these roots the ,javanese obtain the poisonous resin called in ,malaysia ,upas tieut1 and which was at one time supposed to be identical with the essential element introduced by the ,indians of ,south ,america into their famous ,ourari or ,wourali4 ,sir ,richard ,schomburgk1 however1 has shown that the latter is obtained from the ,strychnos toxifera1 a native of ,guiana4 ,there are several other species of ,strychnos2 all with flattened1 disc-like1 and silky seeds1 surrounded by pulp4 ,s4 nux vomica1 a moderate-sized tree1 with fruit much like an orange in appearance1 furnishes the valuable medicine and fatal poison--for it is both--called ,nux vomica4 ,the seeds have an intensely bitter taste1 owing to the presence of two most virulent poisons1 ,strychnia and ,brucia2 but the pulp is innocuous1 and greedily devoured by birds4 ,strychnos ,colubrina1 a native of ,malabar1 furnished a variety of ,snakewood1 which in cases of bites by serpents is esteemed an infallible remedy4 ,s4 ,pseudo-quina1 which flourishes in ,brazil1 yields a bark scarcely inferior in value as a tonic and a febrifuge to quinine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have spoken of the abundance and variety of the epiphytous plants which grow profusely in the islands of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,in ,sumatra and in ,borneo1 the more venerable trees are clothed in a rich garment of lycopodiums and ferns1 and these often glow with dazzling orchidaceous flowers1 while by their side flourish strange aroidace1 with climbing crawling stems1 and arial suckers4 ,but of all these brilliant parasites1 the most extraordinary1 without doubt1 is the ,rafflesia ,arnoldi--a plant without any stem1 which grows along the surface of the ground upon the roots of the lianas1 and principally of the lissus1 a species of vine peculiar to tropical countries4 ,it was discovered by ,dr4 ,arnold1 while in attendance upon ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1 ,governor of ,java4 ,it produces only a fleshy flower1 of a wine-like colour1 with an intolerably disgusting odour2 but it acquires extraordinary1 and one might say monstrous dimensions1 for it seldom measures less than a yard in diameter1 and its weight frequently exceeds four pounds4 ,upon the humid coasts of ,borneo and ,sumatra1 the ,casuarinas mingle their weeping branches with those of the mangroves and fig-trees4 ,palms are common in these two great islands1 as well as at ,ceylon and at ,java4 ,i may mention among the most useful the ,nipa fruticans and the ,sugar ,palm 7,areca saccharifera74 ,the transformed leaves which accompany the inflorescence of the ,nipa are brimful of a sugared and effervescent liquid1 which is extracted by pressure1 and converted into a palm wine of indifferent quality1 consumed in great quantities in the ,sunda ,archipelago4 ,a very sweet liquid1 a species of syrup fit for the confection of dainty sweetmeats1 escapes from incisions made into the floral envelopes of the ,areca saccharifera4 ,a tree-wax1 analogous to that of the ,croton sebiferum1 is furnished by the tree which the natives of ,borneo designate ,pallagrar-,minjok 7,dipterocarpus trinervis74 ,and1 finally1 it is at ,borneo and at ,sumatra we meet with the ,dryobabanops camphora1 whence is procured a species of camphor preferred by the ,chinese to that of the ,laurus camphora2 the ,urceola elastica1 whose milky sap indurates into a kind of caoutchouc1 called ,suitawan2 and the ,isonandra-,percha 7genus ,bassia butyracea1 family of the ,sapotace71 which of recent years has become the staple of an extensive commerce4 ,it is from this tree we obtain the valuable product of gutta-percha1 which has received such various and ingenious applications1 and is scarcely less useful in the arts than in the sciences4 ,illustration3 ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,indian ,,islands3-- #a4 ,rafflesia ,arnoldia4 #b4 ,niphobolus pubescens4 #c4 ,phalnopsis amabilis4 #d4 rides suaveolens4 #e4 ,cycas circinnalis4 #f4 ,nepenthes distillatoria4 #g4 ,scindapsus pertusus4 ,java is perhaps the most fertile of the ,sunda ,islands4 ,immense forests extend over its plains1 and climb up its mountain-slopes to an elevation of upwards of #fejj feet4 ,the damp localities are peopled with ,clusiace1 and with other trees of thick soft trunks and branches4 ,mangroves and ,avicennias thrive upon the littoral4 ,the latter are specially noticeable on account of their roots1 which climb to a great distance above the muddy soil1 and throw off a number of suckers1 not unlike gigantic water-pipes 7asperges74 ,among the palms most abundant at ,java1 ,i confine myself to naming the ,borrassus1 the ,corypha1 and the ,areca4 ,the ,vaquois 7a species of ,pandanus71 which in stature and appearance resemble the palms1 are also widely diffused in that rich and fertile island4 ,in the forests of its interior swarm such splendid ,ferns as the ,niphobolus pubescens1 and such graceful ,archids as the ,aerides suaveolens1 with its far-shooting fronds and flowers1 and the ,phalnopsis amabilis4 ,there1 too1 the traveller pauses before the ,cycas circinnalis1 whose trunk1 upright and cylindrical as a ,grecian column1 is surmounted by a crest of feathery leaves1 each six to seven feet in length1 stiff1 and cut into numerous strips1 somewhat like our native bracken2 or he refreshes himself with the pure liquid which the winding ,nepenthes distillatoria1 or ,pitcher plant1 collects in its horn-shaped leaves1 as a constant source of nutriment for its active life2 or1 finally1 he gazes wonderingly at the ,scindapsus pertusus1 an epiphytous plant1 whose cartilaginous leaves are perforated with an infinity of small circular holes1 and which twines itself round the tallest forest-trees in an embrace as close as love's6 ,the forest-flora of the ,moluccas differs but little from that of the ,sunda ,islands4 ,it presents1 however1 a few plants particularly calculated to excite our interest4 ,thus1 at ,amboyna1 the ,sago-,palms1 with other trees of the same family1 accumulate in immense woods1 spreading over hundreds of acres4 ,everybody knows that the pith of this palm is a white farinaceous substance1 called sago1 which not only enters largely into the daily food of the natives1 but forms an important item in the ,european bill of fare1 at least for children and invalids4 ,amboyna1 moreover1 is the classic land of spices4 ,the air is thick with ,saban odours4 ,every breeze comes laden with perfumes4 ,the ,nutmeg 7,myristica aromatica71 the ,clove 7,caryophyllus aromaticus71 and the ,pepper-plants grow there in a wild state4 ,in the ,philippines vegetation is singularly favoured by the humidity of the climate and the elevation of the temperature1 so that the ,flora of these richly-endowed islands displays a prodigious variety4 ,not a single family of tropical plants but is here represented by several species4 ,hill and valley and plain alike are characterized by the exuberant growth of leaf and fruit and flower2 the graceful forms might have enchanted an ancient ,greek1 the wealth of glowing and intense colour would have fired the imagination of ,turner1 and defied the palette of ,titian or ,tintoretto4 ,there are landscapes of such beauty and fertility as the fancy of artist or poet never conceived4 ,ferns and ,orchids are1 perhaps1 even more abundant here than in the forests of ,java1 ,borneo1 or ,sumatra4 ,the ,bamboo attains to unusual proportions2 the ,areca 7,areca catechu7 raises to the sky its tall shapely stem1 crested with plume-like leaves2 and the ,betel-nut tree supplies in profusion the grains which1 mixed with the fruits of the gigantic palm1 constitute the ,pinangue2 a kind of quid1 which the ,orientals chew delightedly1 and to which they attribute very valuable stomachic and digestive properties4 ,under the dense shade of the great forests we are amazed by untold numbers of various kinds of plants1 all adorned by richly coloured leaves1 which invest the scene with a singular charm1 nay1 with something of a fairy character2 and amongst these we single out the ,dracna terminalis1 with its blood-empurpled foliage1 which1 recently introduced into ,europe1 has already become one of the greatest ornaments of our parks and gardens4 ,i have previously had occasion to remark the singularity of character which in ,australia distinguishes almost every member either of the vegetable or the animal kingdom4 ,i have already said that this immense island-continent seems to have been the chosen theatre for a distinct creative display1 where every type differs from the representatives of our scientific classifications in other parts of the globe4 ,the reader has been able to form some idea of the fancifulness of the vegetable forms peculiar to the ,australian savannahs4 ,nor are those which constitute the so-called forests less strangely fantastic4 ,on the southern coast1 which is the coolest1 the forests are of very moderate extent4 ,in fact1 they may be more correctly described as enormous thickets scattered in tolerably sheltered localities4 ,most of the trees which compose them have trunks of great feebleness compared with their height1 which is often prodigious1 and they do not begin to ramify until near their summits4 ,their bark is smooth1 and usually of a grayish-white4 ,of all their species it can only be said that two--the ,stadmannia austral and the ,alectryon--bear fruit which men can eat even under the pressure of hunger4 ,finally--and this without doubt is the most singular feature of a truly exceptional vegetation--while all the trees and herbaceous plants of the ,old and ,new ,worlds develop their leaves horizontally1 or on a plane tangent to the cylindrical surface of the trunk or stem1 in ,australia the leaves of the trees are disposed vertically2 in such wise that they give scarcely any shade1 and yet are themselves exposed in the very slightest degree to the action of the solar rays4 ,it is owing to this latter circumstance they are always weakly coloured2 and thus they give to the densest forests and the most robust trees a sickly tint1 a sort of pallor of disease1 which saddens the gaze accustomed to the varied tones and vivid hues of the verdure of tropical forests1 or to the bold contrasts of light and shade exhibited by the woods of ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,the ,australian species are comprised in a small number of families1 notably in those of the ,conifer and ,myrtace4 ,certain forests are wholly composed of ,casuarinas2 others1 of ,acacias2 others again1 of ,eucalypti4 ,some of the latter trees may be ranged among the greatest with which botanists are acquainted4 ,the ,blue ,gum 7,eucalyptus globulus7 attains1 for instance1 the extraordinary stature of upwards of #cjj feet1 and does not send out a single branch until half this distance from the ground4 ,its upright cylindrical trunk furnishes a timber much appreciated by ship-wrights1 and especially makes admirable masts4 ,the ,eucalypti secrete in abundance a white1 sugary1 and aromatic substance2 whence they derive their popular name of gum trees--a name which is also bestowed very frequently upon the gum-bearing ,acacias4 ,the family of ,conifer exhibit themselves in ,australia1 like every other group of plants1 under strange and novel forms4 ,the shape of those trees is generally fusiform and pyramidal2 their leaves are sometimes extraordinarily small1 sometimes large and flattened4 ,many are of great size2 none1 however1 attaining the gigantic proportions of the celebrated columnar ,pine of ,new ,caledonia1 which ,cook's companions mistook for a colossal mass of basaltic pillars1 and which ,moore1 like a true son of industrious ,albion1 compared to an enormous factory-chimney4 ,this tree exceeds #afj feet in height1 and its ramifications1 all of the same height1 radiate regularly around its trunk1 from the base even to the summit4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,ravenala ,madagascariensis4 #b4 ,heritiera argentea4 #c4 ,tanghin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,a ,,forest ,,in ,,madagascar4 ,i have now to ask the reader's companionship on an excursion into the forests of the great ,african island of ,madagascar4 ,the insalubrity of the climate and the jealous inhospitality of the inhabitants will not permit us to penetrate far into their luxuriant depths2 but the most superficial glance will satisfy us upon their wild magnificence and the original variety of their superb flora4#afg ,we should seek in vain among their leafy1 blossoming glades1 for the famous ,manchineal1 a member of the ,american ,euphorbiace1 which holds a high place in the records of vegetable poisons2 but the toxicological amateur will find ample compensation in examining the formidable ,tanghin1#afh whose deadly juice1 mixed with some other substances1 plays an important part in the judicial ordeals popular among the ,malagasy4 ,the ,tanghin1 or ,tanguen 7,t4 venenifera71 is the only plant of its genus1 and is confined to ,madagascar4 ,it is described as a tree with smooth alternate leaves of moderate thickness1 clustered towards the points of the branches1 with large terminal cymes of flowers1 having a salver-shaped corolla1 with rose-coloured lobes4 ,the ovary is twofold1 with a long style and thick stigma2 but usually only one attains to perfection1 and forms an ellipsoid fruit1 somewhat pointed at the ends1 invested in a smooth purplish-green skin1 and containing a hard stone surrounded by a thick fibrous pulp4 ,the poisonous seed of the ,tanghin is esteemed by the natives an infallible criterion of guilt or innocence4 ,after being pounded1 a small piece is swallowed by the supposed criminal4 ,if he be cursed with a strong stomach1 which retains the poison1 he speedily dies1 and is held guilty2 if his feeble digestion rejects it1 he necessarily escapes1 and his innocence is considered proven4 ,beneficent ,nature has planted by the side of this fatal tree a species of infinite value1 the ,ravenala ,madagascariensis1 or ,traveller's-,tree1 which derives the latter designation from the base of the petiole of its large leaves1 expanded and hollowed out into a kind of gutter1 being constantly filled with fresh water1 and serving as a reservoir for the thirsty wayfarer4 ,the ,vacquois1 or ,vacoa 7,pandanus utilis71 one of the ,screw-,pines1 is of much utility to the natives1 who fabricate sacks and bags out of its tenacious leaves4 ,the manufacture of these bags is a source of comparative wealth for the poorer inhabitants of ,madagascar1 and to a still greater extent for those of ,runion and the ,mauritius1 whence they are exported annually by millions4 ,the ,malagasy forests also include several resinous species2 among others1 the ,copal-,tree1 which furnishes the well-known gum used in ,europe as a varnish2 and the ,vahea1 a genus of ,apocynace1 yielding caoutchouc1 which will hereafter figure largely in the exports from this magnificent island4 ,there are two species1 namely1 ,vahea ,madagascariensis--the ,voua ,hri of the natives--and ,vahea gummifera4 ,numerous lianas1 and a multitude of epiphytous plants1 ferns1 and orchids1 envelop and intertangle the trunks of the great trees4 ,i shall specify only the ,beaded ,liana 7,abrus precatorius71 whose small hard fruits1 rounded and of a scarlet red1 make graceful wreaths and necklaces2 the ,angrcum sesquipedale 7an orchid71 with bright irregular flowers2 and the ,angrcum fragrans1 whose perfumed leaves supply a wholesome and savoury infusion4 ,finally1 the ,heritiera argentea1 a tree about as large as our lindens1 which certain botanists place among the ,byttneriace1 and others among the ,sterculiace1 is noticeable on account of its abundant foliage glittering silver-white4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world4 ,nature1 said ,linn1 is admirable above all in the smallest things3 ,natura maxime miranda in minimis4 ,he might1 perhaps1 have more justly said1 ,natura non minus miranda in minimis quam in maximis3 ,nature is not less wonderful in the least than in the greatest4 ,whether any created thing occupies a more or less considerable space1 or contains a greater or lesser quantity of matter1 is of no importance to the naturalist1 who only studies the structure of the organs1 the springs of life1 and the different forces which set them in motion2 and considered from this point of view1 a vibrio#afi and an elephant1 a penicillium and a baobab1 possess for him the same importance1 the same amount of interest4 ,it would1 however1 be unjust not to recognize the fact that there is something very legitimate in the kind of reverential admiration which every man is conscious of in the presence of those things that symbolize1 to a certain extent1 power1 strength1 majesty1 endurance--of those that possess in a high degree the two valuable qualities of force and greatness4 ,coleridge tells us that we admire the cataract because it is the type of power4 ,probably our feelings for the oak are connected with its emblematic properties of permanency1 vigour1 and durability4 ,all the logic of logicians1 and all the sentiment of natural philosophers1 will never induce the mass of men to regard with the same interest an ant and a lion1 a tuft of moss and a forest of oaks1 a grain of sand and an ,alpine peak4 ,i do not think1 therefore1 that ,i am stooping to a merely vulgar prejudice in signalling out to the reader1 among the vegetables of the forests1 those whose exceptional dimensions and venerable antiquity are for every traveller an object of astonishment and curiosity4 ,the truth is1 that from their contemplation we derive a more vivid conception of ,almighty ,power than from the examination of even the most wonderful microscopical mechanism4 ,to the still small voice of ,nature our ears are deafened by the clash and clang of an ever-active world2 but we cannot refuse to listen to the roar of the ocean or the reverberation of the thunder4 ,as we move swiftly onward in the press of the crowd and the race of life1 we ignore the tiny blade and the delicate organism beneath our feet2 but our eyes must perforce be opened to the splendours of the sea1 the undulating summits of snow-crowned mountains1 the sapphire vault of the starry heavens4 ,those things realize to us1 at once and with impressive force1 the ubiquitous majesty of the ,divine ,builder4 ,and it is well that they should lift us for a while above the materialism of our daily lives into a purer atmosphere of thought and feeling--should bid us1 while still lingering in the dusty track1 expand our souls to hear ,the mighty waters rolling evermore4 ,it is not only in tropical regions that we meet with the giants of the vegetable world4 ,europe possesses a few of them2 isolated1 it is true1 but comparable in their stature to the most robust denizens of the ,torrid ,zone3 such are the chestnut-tree of ,etna1 and the plane of ,boudjoukdr1 near ,constantinople1 of which so many travellers have spoken4 ,the remains of the virgin forests of ,north ,america also abound in species analogous to our own1 and capable of attaining1 with an almost incalculable longevity1 truly extraordinary proportions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the lofty table-lands of ,california 7the ,rocky ,mountains7 nourish an entire tribe of gigantic ,conifer1 frequently assembled in immense forests4 ,the ,pinus ,lambertiana1 the ,pinus ,sabiniana1 and the ,pinus insignis1 are not less than #afj to #ahj feet in height2 the ,douglas ,fir boasts of an almost equal stature1 with a circumference which varies from #ah to #cf feet4 ,yet these colossal trees are surpassed by the ,sequoia sempervirens1 which is #bdj to #bfj feet high1 and by the ,titan of ,titans1 the huge ,wellingtonia gigantea1 which is also a ,sequoia4 ,i shall mention a few individuals of the latter species1 whose dimensions may defy all comparison with the greatest trees of the ,tropics4 ,according to ,mller1 about ninety-four of these ,conifer flourish on a plateau of the ,sierra ,nevada1 at an altitude of #edjj feet4 ,they are distributed in small groups over a fertile soil4 ,the gold-seekers have named one of them the ,miner's ,cabin4 ,its trunk1 #cbj feet in height1 presents an excavation #af feet in width4 ,the ,three ,sisters are individuals springing from one root2 the ,old ,bachelor1 stripped of its branches by successive hurricanes1 stands in solitary desolation2 the ,family consists of two aged trees around which four-and-twenty scions have sprung up4 ,the ,riding-,school is an enormous hollow trunk1 prostrate on the ground1 into which a man on horseback may enter as far as thirty yards4 ,another hollow trunk has been exhibited at ,san ,francisco1 where they have constructed out of it a saloon1 adorned with tapestry and furniture1 capable of accommodating forty persons4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,large-leaved ,magnolia4 #b4 ,virginian ,catalpa4 #c4 ,pinus ,sabiniana4 ,other resinous trees of smaller dimensions grow in the more or less humid localities of ,north ,america2 such are the ,chamoecyparis ,chamcyparis sphroidea1 which does not exceed #hj feet in height1 and the ,western ,thuya of pyramidal outline4 ,nor must ,i forget to name1 among the ,conifers of this continent1 the ,cypress of ,louisiana1 a tree of handsome appearance1 about #ajj feet high and #ab to #ae feet in circumference1 which lives1 it is said1 #eejj to #fjjj years4 ,its leaves are shrunken like those of the larch2 and from its roots1 somewhat deeply buried1 spring several protuberances1 or rounded conical exostoses1 which sometimes grow to the height of three feet without bourgeoning4 ,the forests of the ,west and of the ,south which have hitherto escaped the torch and the axe of the pioneer present to the traveller's admiring gaze those magnificent species described so eloquently by ,chateaubriand and ,cooper1 and which are even less remarkable for their gigantic stature than for the majestic elegance of their port1 the beauty of their foliage1 and the dazzling splendour of their flowers4 ,some of these forests are partly formed of ,oaks whose leaves assume in autumn a purple tint1 like the pupureum lumen of the ,latin poet4 ,in others the dominant trees are the ,plane of the ,west1 the ,maple1 the round-crested ,tulip1 the large-leaved ,catalpa1 the ,magnolia with white and scented blossoms4 ,to their trunks clings a whole world of climbing1 creeping1 and parasitic plants2 as the ,virgin ,vine1 the ,sumach1 and the ,virginian ,jasmine4 ,mexico1 as far as relates to its climate and productions1 has been divided into three distinctly marked regions1 defined not by latitude1 but by the elevation of various portions of its territory4 ,the upper region1 or ,cold ,lands1 is that of the lofty mountains2 the mean region1 or ,temperate ,lands1 that of the intermediate plateaus2 the inferior region1 or ,hot ,lands1 is that of the low plains1 sometimes arid1 sometimes marshy or wooded4 ,the arborescent ,flora of the first two regions very nearly approximates to that of our northern countries2 it principally consists of ,pines1 ,firs1 ,oaks1 and ,arbute ,trees4 ,but in the ,hot ,lands the vegetation generally assumes1 as we descend towards the south1 all the characteristics of the tropical ,flora4 ,the feathery and graceful ,palm trees re-appear1 mingled with ,coryphas1 ,oreodoxas1 ,malpighiace1 and ,bignoniace4 ,there also grows the ,crescentia cujete1 or ,calabash-tree1 which is likewise found in the ,antilles2 it has a tortuous trunk1 long branches extended horizontally1 and ovoid fruits1 clothed with a hard woody bark1 which the ,indians fabricate into vessels of divers forms1 painting them in the liveliest colours4 ,mexico is the country of the ,morus tinctoria and the ,hmatoxylon ,campechianum4 ,these two trees furnish the dye-wood which forms so important an article of commerce3 the first1 under the name of the yellow wood of ,tampico or ,tuspan2 the second1 under that of ,campeachy wood4 ,it is in the hottest and most humid parts of the southern provinces of this ,republic that we meet1 for the first time1 with one of the most precious trees of the ,equinoctial ,zone1 the ,cacao-tree 7,theobroma cacao71 whose bruised and roasted seeds1 mixed with variable amounts of sugar and starch1 form the different kinds of ,cocoa2 or1 sweetened and flavoured with vanilla or other substances1 the article known as ,chocolate4 ,it is but a small tree1 with large entire leaves1 and clustered flowers growing from the sides of the old stems and branches4 ,its large pentagonal fruits vary from six to ten inches in length and three to five in breadth1 and contain between fifty and a hundred seeds4 ,the ,vanilla planifolia1 another ,mexican native1 famous for its succulent fruit1 is a plant of the ,orchidaceous order1 which climbs about other trees in the manner of ivy4 ,it is the only genus of the family which possesses any economical value4 ,the delicate perfume of its fruit is due to the presence of benzoic acid1 which forms in crystals upon the pod1 if left undisturbed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,already1 in ,central ,america1 we encounter the first ranks1 the vanguard1 as it were1 of those vast impenetrable forests which spread over the whole northern region of ,south ,america to the banks of the ,amazon1 and cover with dense foliage immense areas in ,guiana and ,brazil4 ,if we would pause again to wonder at the ,giants of the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 we shall find many well worthy of our consideration4 ,such1 for example1 is the ,bertholletia excelsa1 a colossal ,lecythidacean on the borders of the ,orinoco1 whose large fruits are known in ,europe as ,brazil nuts1 the seeds being enclosed in large woody vessels4 ,the ,sapucaya 7,lecythis ollaria7 is scarcely less abundant1 and of immense height4 ,its fruit1 popularly called ,monkey's ,drinking-cups 7,cuyas de ,macaco71 consists of a cup-like vessel1 with a circular hole at the top1 in which a natural lid fits neatly4 ,when the nuts are ripe this lid becomes loosened1 and the heavy cup falls with a crash1 scattering the nuts over the ground4 ,what attracted us chiefly1 says a traveller in the virgin forests1#agj were the colossal trees4 ,the general run had not remarkably thick stems2 the great and uniform height to which they grow without emitting a branch1 was a much more noticeable feature than their thickness2 but at intervals of a furlong or so a veritable giant towered up4 ,only one of these monstrous trees can grow within a given space2 it monopolises the domain1 and none but individuals of much inferior size can find a footing near it4 ,the cylindrical trunks of these larger trees were generally #bj to #be feet in circumference4 ,von ,martius mentions having measured trees in the ,par district belonging to various species 7,symphonia coccinea1 ,lecythis spirula1 and ,cratva ,tagia71 which were #ej to #fj feet in girth at the point where they become cylindrical4 ,the height of the vast column-like stems could not be less than #ajj feet from the ground to their lowest branch4 ,mr4 ,leavens1 at the saw-mills1 told me they frequently squared logs for sawing #ajj feet long1 of the ,pas d',arco and the ,massaranduba4 ,the total height of these trees1 stem and crown together1 may be estimated at from #ahj to #bjj feet3 where one of them stands1 the vast dome of foliage rises above the other forest trees as a domed cathedral does above the other buildings in a city4 ,a very remarkable feature in these trees1 says ,mr4 ,bates1 is the growth of buttressed-shaped projections around the lower part of their stems4 ,the spaces between these buttresses1 which are generally thin walls of wood1 form spacious chambers1 and may be compared to stalls in a stable3 some of them are large enough to hold half-a-dozen persons4 ,the purpose of these structures is as obvious1 at the first glance1 as that of the similar props of brickwork which support a high wall4 ,they are not peculiar to one species1 but are common to most of the larger forest trees4 ,their nature and manner of growth are explained when a series of young trees of different ages is examined4 ,it is then seen that they are the roots which have raised themselves ridge-like out of the earth2 growing gradually upwards as the increasing height of the tree required augmented support4 ,thus they are plainly intended to sustain the massive crown and trunk in these crowded forests1 whose lateral growth of the roots in the earth is rendered difficult by the multitude of competitors4 ,scarcely less remarkable1 and certainly not less useful1 than the ,traveller's ,tree of ,madagascar is the ,massaranduba1 or ,cow ,tree1 of these grand ,brazilian wildernesses4 ,it is one of the largest of the forest monarchs1 but rather reminds you of monarchy in its decay than of regal pomp1 owing to its deeply-scored reddish and ragged back4 ,a decoction of this bark is used as a red dye for cloth4 ,the copious milk-like fluid which the tree supplies1 and which may even be drawn from dry logs that have stood for days in the sun1 is wholesome and nutritious1 if taken in moderate quantities4 ,on exposure to the air it soon thickens into an excessively tenacious glue4 ,but1 apart from these monstrous trees1 the virgin forest possesses an abundance of interest for even the least observant traveller1 while in its various phases it is adapted to astonish1 to impress1 and to awe a thoughtful mind4 ,it is true that it does not boast of that profusion of floral ornament1 of those gay and exquisite buds and blossoms1 which make the charm of our ,english woods2 but in its infinite variety of foliage the grace of colour and beauty of form are ever present4 ,what most seizes upon the soul1 however1 is its intense silence--which the occasional scream of some wild animal1 or the infrequent song of some pensive bird1 or the sudden crash of some over-toppling tree1 does but render the more significant and appalling4 ,the hush is like that which prevails on a battle-field before the dread voices of the cannon speak of death and carnage1 but1 unlike that hush1 it is never interrupted4 ,morning comes with its cold gray lights1 noon with its warmth and radiance and splendour1 night with its orbed moon and pearly dews1 but the hush still reigns undisturbed1 and it seems to the traveller as if it would never be broken but by the sounds which shall proclaim the end of all things6 ,illustration3 #a4 ,blechnum ,brasiliense4 #b4 ,alsophila horrida4 #c4 ,panicum plicatum4 #d4 ,marauta4 #e4 ,caladium violaceum4 ,it is rather by the varied characteristics of the species which compose it1 by their fantastic structures and useful properties1 than by its gigantic outcomes1 that the wild flora of these forest-regions appeals to our admiration4 ,we are struck at first by the infinite variety1 richness1 and elegance of the vegetable forms4 ,especially do we pause in wonder before those glorious ,tree-,ferns which ,i take to be the finest growth of the tropical wilderness4 ,these ,ferns1 from #cf to #ej feet in height1 are not unlike ,palms in their physiognomy2 their stem is only less upright1 shorter1 and more scaly2 their foliage1 slightly dentated on the edges1 is more delicate1 of a looser and more transparent texture4 ,to this family belong the ,blechnum ,brasiliense and the ,alsophila horrida4 ,not less attractive in appearance are the ,clusia rosea or the ,carolinea insignis4 ,the former of these trees belong to a family 7that of the ,clusiace7 nearly all whose representatives throw off from every point of their branches long aerial roots4 ,the traveller reposes with a feeling of ,sybaritic delight under its thick and evergreen foliage1 enriched with brilliant flowers4 ,the second1 with its shrunken leaves1 owes the specific epithet 7insignis1 remarkable7 which botanists have imposed upon it1 to the peculiar structure of its flowers4 ,the latter bear in the centre of their chalice a great number of stamens1 which form a silken tuft of the most graceful design4 ,the ,gramine1 like the ,ferns1--to use an expression of ,humboldt's1--ennoble themselves under the ,tropics3 witness the ,bamboo1 the ,sugar-,cane1 the ,sorgho1 and the great ,panicums4 ,of the latter genus we have already seen in ,africa numerous species4 ,america in its turn offers to our attention the ,panicum maximum and plicatum1 wood-inhabiting ,gramine1 which without attaining to the dimensions of the bamboo1 or even to that of the cane1 far surpass that of their ,european congener1 the millet4 ,the graceful palms abound in ,south ,america4 ,the greatest of all1 the ,cocoa-tree1 seems there to have discovered its true home1 for it nowhere else acquires a greater development4 ,there1 too1 the ,banana flourishes marvellously1 no less than the ,cocoa-tree1 in a wild state1 and1 like the latter1 is carefully cultivated on account of its nourishing and savoury fruits4 ,a multitude of lianas and epiphytous plants twine round the trunks and branches of the trees1 and frequently choke up their failing life4 ,some are indigenous to all tropical countries3 the ,calamus ,rotang1 for example2 others are more particularly1 or even exclusively1 proper to the ,new ,world4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,banana4 #b4 ,carolinea insignis4 #c4 ,clusia rosea4 ,the family of ,aroide is there represented by the ,pothos1 whose fleshy and herbaceous stems are surmounted by leaves sometimes arrow-headed1 sometimes digitate or elongated1 and always divided by thick cord-like nerves4 ,we know that the ,aroide alone possess1 in the vegetable kingdom1 the property of disengaging1 while flowering1 a heat appreciable by the thermometer4 ,to this family belong the ,caladiums1 a genus closely allied to the ,pothos4 ,with these lianas mingle the branching stems of the ,passiflor1 or ,passion-,flowers1 so named because ,pierre de ,ceza1 in his ,histoire du ,prou1 asserted that he had recognized in the fantastic flowers of this genus of plants all the instruments of our ,saviour's ,passion--an idea which could only have been conceived by an imaginative and credulous ,spaniard4 ,elsewhere the ,bignonias open by hundreds their large and richly-coloured flowers2 the ,bauhinias stretch along the trees their long leafless branches1 often #dj to #de feet in length1 which sometimes hang vertically from the lofty summits of the ,swietenias1 or ,mahogany trees1 and sometimes extend obliquely from one huge trunk to another1 like the ropes of a ship4 ,the ,tiger-,cats1 says ,humboldt1 display a wonderful agility in mounting or descending these graceful vegetable shrouds4 ,upon the umbrageous banks of the ,rio ,magdalena grows a creeping ,aristolochus1 whose flowers in their extraordinary development surpass those of the ,rafflesia ,arnoldi1 measuring often three feet and a half in circumference4 ,the forests of which we are now speaking also nourish numerous species of ,convolvulus2 ,i may particularize the ,convolvulus batatas1 a climbing plant1 whose roots produce the feculent and saccharine tubercules known over the wide world by the name of ,patates1 and frequently but erroneously confounded with that most useful vegetable1 the ,potato4 ,the root of another ,convolvulus1 a native of ,mexico1 constitutes the ,jalap officinalis1 which figures in the veterinary pharmacopoeia as an important purgative4 ,certain lianas1 common enough in the ,south ,american forests1 belong to the family of ,sapindace1 which1 like the orders ,loganice and ,euphorbiace1 owe their reputation chiefly to the medicinal or poisonous substances extracted from them4 ,among the ,sapindace ,i shall mention only the genus ,paullinia1 which includes several species endowed with narcotic properties4 ,these properties appear especially developed in the ,paullinia pinnata4 ,its bark1 leaves1 and fruit contain an abundant acrid principle with which the ,indians of ,brazil prepare a slow but certain poison4 ,the ,indians of ,guiana extract from the ,paullinia cururu another substance with which they envenom their arrows1 and which was long supposed to be the veritable ,wourali4 ,but ,sir ,richard ,schomburgk has shown that the latter formidable poison is really extracted1 as ,i have already recorded1 from the ,strychnos toxifera1 a shrub of the family ,loganiace1 which flourishes in ,guiana and ,brazil4 ,to the same family and the same countries belong the ,ignatia amara1 whose seeds are known by the name of ,st4 ,ignatius' ,beans4 ,these beans contain two alkaloids1 ,strychnine and ,brucine1 which we also extract from the ,nux vomica1 and which must be classed among the most violent poisons known to the toxicologist4 ,while speaking of the poisonous plants of ,south ,america1 a few words in reference to the ,manchineal 7,hippomane ,mancenilla7 will not be inappropriate4 ,this tree thrives best1 it is said1 on the sea-shore4 ,it bears a profusion of very pretty fruit1 resembling in colour and form the ,red ,apple 7the ,spanish ,manzanilla71 and exhaling an agreeable1 lemon-like odour4 ,they are1 therefore1 scarcely less beguiling than ,dead ,sea fruits2 but they are also very poisonous1 yet less deadly than the milky juice which flows from the slightest incision made in the tree's thick and grayish bark4 ,this juice1 received into the stomach1 or introduced into the blood through a wound1 slays the victim with awful quickness4 ,if it do but touch the skin1 it excites a violent irritation1 and raises swellings or boils of the worst description4 ,the very vapour which it emits causes a painful itching in the eyes1 the lips1 and the nostrils4 ,it was formerly asserted that to sleep under the shade of a ,manchineal tree was certain death2 but the naturalist ,jacquin1 in the interests of science1 courageously made the experiment1 and proved the falsity of the story4 ,the ,manchineal is not unfrequently confounded with other poisonous ,euphorbiace1 as the ,sapium aucuparium and the ,excoecaria agallochia1 which flourish in very nearly the same regions4 ,the ,excoecaria1 it is said1 is not less dangerous than the ,manchineal4 ,it owes its name 7ex1 and coecus1 blind7 to the circumstance 7or the fable7 that some ,european sailors1 while felling wood in the forest1 having accidentally struck with their axe a tree of this species1 were blinded by the milky juice which sprang into their eyes4 ,by a kind of compensation1 the ,tropical ,forests1 which contain so many poisonous plants1 produce also a great number of the highest utility to man4 ,some offer him efficient remedies against the diseases which beset his frame2 others nourish him with the fecula of their roots or the delicious substance of their fruits2 others again supply him with textile fibres1 dyeing or resinous materials1 and woods which the artist and the artisan convert to numerous uses4 ,this vegetable wealth has been widely distributed over ,south ,america4 ,it will suffice to indicate a few of its more notable sources4 ,if we direct our attention to medicinal plants1 we shall probably find none more precious than the ,quinquina1 whose bark is the most effective of all febrifuges1 and which is endowed1 moreover1 with very valuable tonic and depuratory properties4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 in his recent address to the ,british ,association at ,dundee1 pronounced it the traveller's best friend1 the powerful weapon with which he could securely enter the ,african wilderness1 and successfully contend against its demon-host of fevers and agues4 ,the ,quinquinas 7genus1 ,cinchona2 family1 ,rubiace7 are trees or evergreen shrubs with large and handsome leaves1 and flowers whose form and fragrance remind one of the lilac4 ,they are diffused over the two slopes1 but chiefly along the eastern slope1 of the ,andean ,cordilleras1 in the republics of ,venezuela1 ,new ,granada1 ,ecuador1 ,peru1 and ,bolivia4 ,the traveller meets them occasionally in picturesque groups or thickets which the ,peruvians call ,manchas 7spots72 but they are more frequently scattered in immense forests4 ,what of the lactiferous and resinous plants8 ,south ,america is the native land of the trees whence we extract the resinous gums called ,anim d',amrique1 ,white ,amber1 and ,soft ,brazilian ,copal1 and the ,hevea ,guyanensis1 which furnishes the greater portion of the caoutchouc imported into ,europe4 ,caoutchouc was described for the first time in #agcf1 by the scientific travellers ,bouguer and ,la ,condamine1 members of a ,commission despatched to ,peru by the ,parisian ,acadmie des ,sciences1 to measure an arc of the meridian4 ,a few years later1 the engineer ,fresneau1 who resided for a long time in ,guiana1 collected1 with the assistance of a native1 ample information in reference to caoutchouc and the tree which produced it4 ,finally1 in #agfh1 was found in a work by the traveller ,aublet on the ,flora of ,guiana1 the description and figure of the ,hevea4 ,this tree attains a height of #ej to #gj feet4 ,the almond enclosed in the kernels of its fruits is white1 of a very agreeable taste1 and much esteemed by the ,indians1 who also extract from it an oil for seasoning their food4 ,the ,banana1 the ,american ,agave1 the ,bamboo1 and divers ,palm-trees supply the inhabitants of ,south ,america with suitable materials for the fabrication of various tissues1 from the finest and most brilliant linen cloth to the rude mats which ornament the cabin of the savage4 ,trees bearing fruits or edible roots are innumerable4 ,to the ,bananas and ,cocoa-trees which ,i have already mentioned1 we may add1 as the most useful1 the ,maranteas or ,canneas1 especially the ,maranta arundinacea1 ,m4 alloya1 and ,m4 nobilis1 whose roots1 rasped and washed1 constitute the popular and valuable farina so widely known as ,arrow-root2 the ,guavas 7,psidium pyriferum1 and ,p4 pomiferum71 whose gilded fruits contain a succulent and perfumed pulp2 the ,papaw tree 7,carica papaya71 resembling the ,palm in its port and aspect1 and also loaded with large yellowish fruit1 whose flesh is exceedingly savoury and aromatic4 ,the ,papaw1 moreover1 enjoys some extremely remarkable properties2 thus1 its milky juice exhales1 when burnt1 an ammoniacal odour1 and chemical analysis has recognized therein the presence of fibrine4 ,mix some of this juice in water1 plunge into the mixture fresh hard meat1 and in a few moments it will become exquisitely tender4 ,the very exhalations of the tree operate in the same manner1 and the inhabitants of the regions where it flourishes suspend to its branches such meat and poultry as they wish to soften4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world4 #a4 ,papaw ,tree 7,papaya ,sativa7 #b4 ,great ,american ,cocoa-,nut ,tree4 #c4 ,mangrove 7,rhizophora mangle74 ,the immense forests of ,brazil and ,guiana are for the whole world an inexhaustible storehouse of woods for dyeing and cabinet work4 ,they spread their dense masses of foliage along the borders of the sea1 where the ,mangroves 7,rhizophora mangle7 plunge their adventitious roots into the mud inundated by the surging tides of those regions1 and form a kind of impenetrable palisade1 behind which grow in infinite variety trees of the costliest timber4 ,such are the ,swieteni1 or ,mahogany trees2 the ,ferolia ,guyanensis1 which supplies the well-known rose or satin wood2 the ,jacaranda ,brasiliensis1 and the ,dalbergia1 which yield the violet ebony2 the ,sterculia acuminata1 whose flowers exhale a foetid odour1 and whose timber1 called stinkwood1 is nevertheless held in high esteem on account of its durability1 the fineness of its texture1 and the excellent polish of which it is susceptible4 ,nor must we forget the ,csalpine1 whose woods are impregnated with a red colouring matter which varies in tint according to the species1 and which are largely employed by the dyer under the names of ,brazil wood and ,pernambuco wood4 ,a great number of other woods which we procure from these countries1 and which are in daily use in cabinet work1 toys1 marquetry1 and dyeing1 belong to vegetable species as yet undetermined4 ,we might1 however1 almost venture to assert that whatever tree you accidentally and at haphazard struck down in these forests1 either its timber1 bark1 or roots would be found capable of being utilized4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have not mentioned1 among the species proper to the ,forests of the ,new ,world1 those which are common with our own1 and which abound upon elevated lands4 ,the extraordinary height to which not only isolated mountains1 but whole districts rise1 in the vicinity of the ,equator1 and the low temperature which is the consequence of this elevation1 provide the inhabitant of the ,torrid ,zone with a remarkable spectacle4 ,for while1 as ,humboldt remarks1 he may look around him upon groves of palms and bananas1 he also sees those vegetable forms which are regarded as more particularly belonging to the countries of the ,north4 ,cypresses1 firs1 and oaks1 barberries and alders1 closely resembling our own1 cover the table-lands of ,southern ,mexico and that part of the ,andes which the ,equator traverses4 ,thus ,nature allows the denizen of the ,torrid ,zone to see1 without quitting his native land1 all the vegetable forms of the earth1 at the same time that from one pole to the other the entire vault of heaven reveals to his gaze its luminous worlds4 ,i conclude my account of the ,south ,american ,forests with a picture taken from the interesting volume of ,mr4 ,bates1 and drawn on the bank of a forest stream flowing into the ,murncup4 ,a glorious vegetation1 he says1 piled up to an immense height1 clothes the banks of the creek1 which traverses a broad tract of semi-cultivated ground1 and the varied masses of greenery are lighted up with the sunny glow4 ,open palm-thatched huts peep forth at intervals from amidst groves of banana1 mango1 cotton1 and papaw trees and palms4 ,both banks are masked by lofty walls of green drapery1 here and there a break occurring4 ,the projecting boughs of the trees are hung with natural garlands and festoons1 and an endless variety of creeping plants clothe the water frontage1 some of which1 especially the ,bignonias1 are ornamented with large1 gaily-coloured flowers4 ,art could not have assorted together beautiful vegetable forms so harmoniously as is here done by ,nature4 ,palms1 as usual1 form a large proportion of the lower trees2 some of them1 however1 shoot up their slim stems to a height of sixty feet or more1 and wave their branches of nodding plumes between you and the sky4 ,one kind of palm1 the ,pashiba 7,iriartea ,exorhiza71 which grows here in greater abundance than elsewhere1 is especially attractive4 ,it is not one of the tallest kinds1 for when full-grown its height is not more1 perhaps1 than forty feet2 the leaves are somewhat less drooping1 and the leaflets much broader than in other species1 so that they have not that feathery appearance which those of some palms have1 but still they possess their own peculiar beauty4 ,probably there is no richer field on earth for the naturalist1 the poet1 or the artist than the virgin forest2-- ,to mark the structure of a plant or tree1 ,and all fair things of earth1 how fair they be6 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,tropical ,,forests3--,,the ,,elephant--,,the ,,rhinoceros4 ,some thousands of years ago--no long period in the history of creation1 though so far outstripping the written records of man--gigantic animals1 with huge trunks and ivory tusks1 forming the family of ,proboscide1 were distributed throughout all the northern regions of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,of this family the most ancient and colossal representative is the ,dinotherium1 which appears to have flourished in the ,miocene period of the ,tertiary epoch1 and a skull of which was disinterred at ,eppelsheim1 in ,hesse ,darmstadt1 in #ahcf1 measuring about four feet in length and three in breadth2 whence ,cuvier inferred that the total length of the animal was probably eighteen feet4 ,this pachyderm1 which far surpassed in size the largest living elephant1 had a comparatively short trunk1 and tusks inserted in front of the lower jaw4 ,such a lower jaw could hardly have been otherwise than cumbrous and inconvenient to the quadruped if he lived on land4 ,no such disadvantage1 as ,dr4 ,buckland remarks1#aga would have attended this structure in a large animal destined to live in water2 and the aquatic habits of the family of ,tapirs1 to which the ,dinotherium was most nearly allied1 render it probable that1 like them1 it was an inhabitant of fresh-water lakes and rivers4 ,two other kinds of ,proboscidians1 the ,mastodon and the ,mammoth1 belong to the ,pleiocene period1 the last of the ,tertiary epoch1 and to the ,intermediate or ,glacial deposits1 which immediately preceded the modern epoch4 ,the ,mastodon only differed essentially from the ,elephant in his dental apparatus4 ,his molar teeth were covered with conical projections1 whence his name2 he had two small tusks1 planted in the lower jaw like those of the ,dinotherium1 but bent forward1 and two others in the upper jaw1 having the same direction1 but being of a prodigious length4 ,buffon named it the ,animal of the ,ohio1 because its fossil remains were discovered on the banks of that great river4 ,they have also been found in other parts of ,north ,america1 and particularly in the saline morass known as ,big-bone ,lick1 in the northern districts of ,kentucky4 ,several skeletons1 almost perfect1 have been excavated at a moderate depth1 and some of them in a vertical position1 as if the animals had been stricken with death while standing1 and suddenly engulfed in the mud4 ,many curious fables are told by the ,indians in reference to this extinct quadruped4 ,the ,shawnee ,indians believe that contemporary with them lived a race of men of proportionate dimensions1 and that the ,great ,being destroyed both the one and the other with thunderbolts4 ,those of ,virginia state that the ,great ,man on ,high slew this colossal genus1 because it was exterminating the animals created for the use of man1 and that none escaped but the hugest bull1 who1 having been wounded by the celestial bolts1 fled towards the great lakes1 in whose solitudes he wanders to this very day4 ,the ,indians of ,canada and ,louisiana designate the ,mastodon by the name of ,father of the ,bulls1 probably on account of the bones of cattle disinterred with his own4 ,the ,mammoth 7,elephas primigenius7 is known to us only by the fossil remains which have been discovered embedded in the glacial deposits of the ,intermediate epoch4 ,the first discovery took place in #agii1 under circumstances which are thus recorded in the ,zoologist4 ,in #agii1 a ,tungusian fisherman observed1 in a bank on the shore of the ,frozen ,ocean1 at the mouth of the river ,lena1 a shapeless mass almost enveloped in ice1 and he was quite unable to determine what it might be4 ,in the following year a larger portion of this mass became visible1 but the fisherman was still unable to discover its nature4 ,towards the end of the following summer1 however1 one of the tusks and an entire side of a fossilized animal were exposed4 ,but it was not until the fifth year from its discovery1 when the ice had melted sooner than usual1 that the enormous animal became entirely detached from the bank or cliff in which it was first observed1 and came thundering down upon a sand-bank below4 ,in the month of ,march #ahjd1 the fisherman extracted the tusks1 which were nine feet six inches long1 and together weighed #cfj pounds1 and sold them at ,yakoutsk for fifty roubles4 ,two years afterwards1 ,mr4 ,adams1 a traveller1 visited the animal1 and found it much mutilated4 ,the ,yakoutes residing in the neighbourhood had cut away the flesh to feed their dogs2 wild beasts had also eaten a great quantity of it4 ,nevertheless1 with the exception of a fore-leg1 the skeleton was entire2 the other bones being still held together by ligaments and portions of skin4 ,the head was covered with dried skin2 one of the ears was entire1 and furnished with a tuft of hairs2 the pupil of the eye was still to be distinguished2 the brain was in the skull1 but somewhat dried2 the lower lip had been gnawed by animals1 the upper one was entirely gone1 and the teeth were consequently exposed2 the neck was furnished with a long mane2 the skin was covered with long hair and a reddish wool2 the portion of skin still remaining was so heavy that two men could scarcely carry it2 according to ,mr4 ,adams1 more than thirty pounds' weight of hair and wool was collected from the wet sand into which it had been trodden by the white bears while devouring the flesh4 ,this skeleton is now preserved in the ,museum of the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the height of the creature is about nine feet1 and its extreme length to the tip of the tail about sixteen feet4 ,a second carcass was afterwards discovered on the bank of the ,asalea1 which empties its waters into the ,frozen ,sea1 by the traveller ,sarytcheff4 ,it was standing upright1 and wholly covered with its skin and fur4 ,finally1 a third has been recently found in the same region1 and the ,museum at ,paris possesses a portion of its skin1 with a tuft of wool1 and some relics of the mane4 ,the ,mammoth1 therefore1 would seem to be a link connecting the past and the present worlds1 a being whose body has outlived its destination4 ,evidently it was adapted to brave the winters of a boreal clime2 its long1 warm1 and woolly coat forming an admirable defence against the severest cold4 ,it probably inhabited the icy plains1 and the banks of the lakes and rivers2 its food consisting of lichens1 reeds1 and the young shoots of the willows and other trees which thrive in moist situations4 ,the ,mammoth naturally leads us to an examination of his descendant and congener1 the ,elephant2 the largest and strongest1 the most sagacious and docile of all living animals4 ,elephants1 of which only two species at present exist1 the ,asiatic and ,african1 are natives of tropical regions1 where they prefer to inhabit the depths of the forests1 quitting their umbrageous recesses only at night1 in search of food1 or to quench their thirst in the nearest stream4 ,the whole form of the animal suggests the idea of unwieldy strength4 ,his head is large1 with extremely small eyes1 and very large and pendulous ears2 he has an arched back1 and a huge thick body1 which rests upon clumsy and shapeless legs2 his feet are slightly divided into five rounded heaps2 the upper jaw is armed with two enormous projecting tusks1 which measure in many instances six or seven feet2 and he is endowed with an extraordinary proboscis or trunk1 of such strength that it can uproot trees1 and of such delicacy that it can gather grass4 ,this organ1 nearly eight feet in length1 conveys the food to the mouth1 and pumps up the enormous draughts of water1 which by its recurvature are turned into and driven down the capacious throat1 or showered over the body4 ,its length supplies the place of a long neck1 which would have been incompatible with the support of the large head and weighty tusks4 ,a glance at the head will show the thickness and strength of the trunk at its insertion2 and the massy arched bones of the face and thick masculine neck1 are wonderfully adapted for supporting and working this powerful and marvellous instrument4 ,the ,asiatic ,elephant 7,elephas maximus of ,linn1 ,elephas ,indicus of ,cuvier7 has small ears and tusks4 ,a head elongated in height1 and terminating in a kind of double pyramid4 ,his hide is a clear brown colour4 ,this species includes several varieties2 that of ,indo-,china is remarkable for its prodigious height1 which sometimes attains fifteen feet1 and for a skin marked with brown spots upon a clear gray ground4 ,the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago likewise contain several varieties of elephants1 which experts can easily distinguish from one another4 ,in every species are found the albinos1 or white elephants1 which receive the marked veneration of every ,indian race1 and particularly of those of ,siam and ,pegu4 ,the ,african ,elephant 7,elephas ,africanus7 differs from the preceding in the structure of his grinder teeth1 in the length of his tusks1 which are enormous1 and in his ears1 whose trumpet is also of great dimensions4 ,he was formerly met with throughout all the ,african continent1 and was much employed in war by the ,carthaginians and ,egyptians4 ,from the northern regions of ,africa he has now disappeared1 but large herds still haunt the whole southern division1 from the ,senegal to the ,cape1 and the eastern districts1 as far north as ,abyssinia4 ,he is also found in all the ,african interior1 whose inhabitants deal in ivory as the staple of their commerce4 ,his height is equal to that of the ,asiatic elephant1 and the habits of the two species are identical4 ,elephants live in the forests1 gathering in troops of from thirty to about one hundred individuals1 and as they require a very extensive area of pasturage1 it is said that they pitilessly expel from their domains all other animals which trespass therein to share the product4 ,each herd marches under the guidance of an acknowledged chief4 ,when they sally forth from their retreats to devastate a field1 or to wander in quest of fresh pastures1 they observe a very regular order of march2 the young and the females occupying the centre1 the males assemble round them in a circle4 ,if danger threatens1 the little ones take refuge under the breast of their mothers1 who fold their trunks about them4 ,the young elephant is suckled for two years1 and during that period attains the stature of four feet and a half4 ,at the end of the third year he is nearly six feet high4 ,he continues to grow1 but less rapidly1 until twenty-two or twenty-four years old4 ,the female adults measure generally from seven to nine feet in height1 and the males from ten feet and a half to twelve4 ,as may be inferred from the tardiness of his growth1 the elephant enjoys the privilege of longevity4 ,he has been known to live in captivity to the age of #abj or #acj years2 but ,cuvier was of opinion that in his free and wild condition he might well number nearly a couple of centuries4 ,the ,africans hunt the elephant for the sake of his ivory and flesh2 in ,india1 and the isles of the ,indian ,ocean1 to reduce them to subjection4 ,in ,africa1 for many negro populations1 ivory and ebony wood 7an euphuism by which the slave-dealers designate their black slaves7 are the sole articles of commerce1 and the majority of the ,english1 ,dutch1 and ,french colonists carry on a considerable traffic in elephants' teeth4 ,the negroes excavate wide pits which they cover over with branches2 and the elephants falling into them are precipitated headlong upon sharpened stakes2 or they kill them either with arrows1 assegays1 or musketry4 ,hunting them with spears is truly a ferocious pastime4 ,the poor elephant only succumbs after receiving so great a number of projectiles that his body resembles an enormous porcupine4 ,he rarely turns upon his aggressors2 he seeks to fly2 he fills the air with plaintive wailings2 the female throws her huge bulk between her young ones and the enemy2 the male sometimes rushes furiously upon his assailants1 and woe to the latter if he overtake them2 he crushes them under his hoofs1 he pierces them with his tusks1 or seizes them with his trunk1 and dashes them upon the earth a shapeless and bleeding mass4 ,but nimble and experienced hunters easily elude his charge1 whose onset he is prevented from moderating by his weight1 or from rapidly changing its direction4 ,illustration3 ,,hunting ,,the ,,elephant ,,in ,,africa4 ,but firearms1 and especially the recently perfected rifles1 are assuredly the best weapons to employ against the leviathan4 ,with a ,westley-,richards1 for instance1 a good marksman1 aiming at the shoulder-joint or the ear1 is certain to bring down his game2 he may post himself at a distance1 and avoid exposure1 while the victim is saved from a cruel agony4 ,ivory is not the only valuable product which the elephant yields2 his hide1 very thick and very tenacious1 can be utilized for many purposes4 ,the bucklers made of it by the negroes are scarcely less precious than the shield of ,ajax1 which was formed of a bull's hide sevenfold4 ,the animal's flesh is also eaten1 although too tough and too strongly flavoured for an ,european palate4 ,in ,india and the ,indian islands the chase is carried on to make prisoners1 and not victims4 ,its most remarkable feature is the important and almost indispensable assistance which the tame elephants render man against their wild brethren1 zealously aiding to reduce them into slavery2 now serving as baits to beguile and attract1 and now as gendarmes1 or rather as convict-warders1 to compel their obedience4 ,in ,ceylon1 elephant-hunting is almost an affair of ,state2 it is like a national war1 in which the ,government appeals to the goodwill of the population generally1 both ,europeans and natives4 ,as soon as it is known that a troop or horde of elephants has assembled in a forest1 the natives set to work1 and with trunks of trees fixed in the ground and supported by transversal bars and buttresses1 construct a vast palisaded enclosure1 or corral1 whose entrance forms a kind of gullet so narrow that the animals can only enter one by one1 and once drawn into it are unable to return4 ,this being accomplished1 a thousand men1 ,europeans or ,cingalese1 surround the forest2 they enclose the herd in a circle which incessantly contracts1 and drive them before them by waving their torches1 and keeping up a grand tintamarre of tamtams1 trumpets1 and musket-shots4 ,the frightened animals can find no other avenue of escape than the entrance to the corral1 where are placed1 moreover1 as an attraction1 some females trained to act as decoys4 ,when all1 or nearly all the herd1 has been driven into the enclosure1 the entrance is strongly and firmly closed with ropes and beams4 ,the elephants1 perceiving themselves caught in a trap1 naturally endeavour to effect their escape by the way they entered4 ,a sufficient number of hunters then place themselves along each side of the avenue1 and a few1 mounted on the decoys1 are stationed at its extremity4 ,the moment that one of the captives has got entangled in it1 his retreat is cut off by means of thick planks piled across the palisade1 and he is allowed to make his way towards the entrance1 which is also blocked up4 ,there he encounters the decoys1 which force him1 by striking him with their trunks1 to fall back against a neighbouring tree1 to which he is speedily bound with ropes4 ,this first operation accomplished1 the females are led back to the corral1 and the game is renewed1 until all the animals have undergone the same fate1 and each of them is thralled to a tree in the forest4 ,nothing now remains but to accustom them to a life of servitude2 and this is done by depriving them of food for a short time1 then administering it in small quantities1 and proceeding from the articles they like the least to those they prize the most4 ,the privation at first enfeebles them1 and consequently calms their irritation1 while they feel the greater gratitude afterwards for the alleviation which is so readily afforded them4 ,this gratitude1 and1 still more1 the dependance in which they find themselves upon man1 who at his supreme pleasure grants or refuses their food1 renders them in a few days docile and tractable4 ,thus their docility1 and the important services which they render1 mainly arise in the overmastering fear which man inspires in them4 ,it is remarkable1 says ,boitard1 that the elephant is not and never has been a domestic animal1 but a captive who only obeys through terror4 ,however tame he may be1 he never fails to escape into the woods to resume his savage life if an opportunity arises4 ,the need1 therefore1 arises that on a long march he shall have his driver1 or mahoud1 on his back1 to guide him1 threaten him1 and prevent him from taking to flight4 ,his love of liberty is as great as that of the wildest animals1 and in the female elephants it even overpowers maternal love2 therefore1 when suckling their young1 they are never released from their chains1 for experience has proved that they will abandon them without regret if circumstances should enable them to effect their escape4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,corral ,,in ,,ceylon4 ,the moral and intellectual qualities of the elephant have been greatly exaggerated4 ,as far as his morality is concerned1 we must pronounce him a cowardly1 pettish1 and rancorous animal1 which retains a much livelier recollection of every injury done him than of the benefits he may have received4 ,in an intellectual point of view he is certainly inferior to the ape and the dog1 but he is superior to the ,carnaria1 as well as to most of the ,herbivora4 ,his faculties1 perhaps1 may be most justly compared to those of the horse1 which would certainly have exhibited as much intelligence if ,nature had gifted him with a trunk2 for we must never forget that the development of an animal's faculties greatly depends upon the perfection of his organs4 ,again1 the horse is susceptible of a complete domestication1 while the elephant1 as ,boitard has remarked1 is a captive1 ever dreading1 never loving his master1 and eagerly awaiting a favourable moment to escape from him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the ,elephant1 the chief of the animals inhabiting the forests is the ,rhinoceros1 ranged with him by ,linn in the order of ,bellu 7or enormous beasts71 by ,cuvier in that of ,pachyderms1 and by ,de ,blainville in that of ,gravigrades4 ,the name ,rhinoceros 7,greek3 rhin1 nose1 and ,greek3 keras1 horn7 indicates at once the peculiarity which at the first glance distinguishes him from the other ,pachyderms4 ,he carries1 in fact1 upon the arch formed by his nasal bones one or two solid1 curved1 and sharp-pointed horns1 which serve him as very formidable weapons4 ,his ears are upright1 pointed1 and moderately large2 the eyes small and half closed4 ,the coarse thick skin1 knotty or granulated on its surface1 is of such tenacity and impenetrability about the short thick legs and ungainly body1 that it resists the claws of the lion or the tiger1 the sword or the shot of the hunter4 ,it hangs about the neck in several large plaits or folds2 another fold passes from the shoulders to the fore-legs1 and another from the hind part of the back to the thighs4 ,he has a moderately large and long head1 a protruding upper lip1 and a depressed skull4 ,his manners are fierce1 but not aggressive2 he leads a lethargic life1 and wallows on the marshy banks of lakes and rivers1 where grows the vegetable food on which he exclusively feeds4 ,he usually measures about twelve feet in length from the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail2 his height is about seven feet2 and the girth of his body is nearly equal to its length6 ,the appearance of the ,rhinoceros upon the globe was probably contemporaneous with that of the ,proboscide4 ,fossil remains of the animal have been discovered in the temperate1 and even the cold countries of ,asia and ,europe4 ,in #aggb an entire rhinoceros1 admirably preserved1 was found embedded on the banks of a ,siberian river1 in the ancient frozen soil4 ,now-a-days he is exclusively confined to the tropical regions of the ,old ,world4 ,he lives a solitary life in the dense jungles of ,india1 the ,sunda ,islands1 ,central and ,austral ,africa4 ,naturalists distinguish six varieties--the ,rhinoceros of ,india1 the one-horned ,rhinoceros of ,java1 the two-horned ,rhinoceros of ,sumatra1 the unarmed ,rhinoceros1 the two-horned ,rhinoceros of ,africa1 and the ,rhinoceros of ,bruce4 ,the ,indian ,rhinoceros attains the height of five to six feet1 and the length of seven to nine feet4 ,he confines his wanderings in the main to the ,trans-,gangetic peninsula4 ,he has but one horn1 and some dim tradition of this animal may probably have suggested the long popular fable of the mysterious ,unicorn4 ,his skin1 of a dusky brown1 is so singularly thick that it would have rendered all movement impossible on the part of the quadruped1 if ,nature had not disposed it in deep folds corresponding to the principal articulations4 ,thus he seems to the eye caparisoned in a body-armour of thick leather1 formed in several pieces2 and in truth his impervious hide constitutes a cuirass against which even musket-balls strike innocuously4 ,hence he dreads not the attacks of any of the ,carnivora4 ,the ,rhinoceros of ,java is undoubtedly but a variety of the ,indian species4 ,that of ,sumatra differs from the preceding in the possession of two horns--one1 the anterior1 of great length2 the other1 much shorter4 ,his skin is moderately thick1 very much wrinkled1 in deep folds1 and garnished with a quantity of long hair4 ,the unarmed ,rhinoceros1 who inhabits the islands of the ,ganges1 has but one rudimentary horn4 ,illustration3 ,,kaffir ,,hunter ,,carried ,,off ,,by ,a ,,rhinoceros4 ,the ,african ,rhinoceros is the king of his race4 ,he wears a naked1 smooth1 and tenacious skin4 ,two horns are mounted on his upper jaw2 the front one measures more than eighteen inches in length4 ,in all ,southern and ,western ,africa this huge ungainly quadruped is found4 ,the ,rhinoceros of ,bruce inhabits ,abyssinia4 ,his supreme idea of happiness1 of the summum bonum1 as viewed from a ,proboscidean point of view1 is to wallow luxuriously in the mud and slime1 and while abandoning himself to this anti-,sybaritic indulgence1 he heaves a hoarse groan of satisfaction1 which conducts the hunter to his retreat4 ,the ,abyssinians pursue him on horseback4 ,some attack him with arrows or with musketry2 others1 and these are the boldest1 leap from their steeds at the moment the rhinoceros leaps upon him1 and hamstring him with their sabres4 ,the huge quadruped falls immediately1 and becomes an easy prey to his aggressors4#agb ,in ,south ,africa the ,kaffirs and the ,hottentots display an equal audacity in attacking this formidable foe4 ,they dare to confront him with their sharp knives alone1 and generally with success1 though a weak thrust or a wrong aim would entail upon them a sudden1 swift1 and terrible death4 ,mr4 ,cooper ,rose1 in his ,sketch of ,south ,africa1 celebrates an aged chief who had won a well-deserved renown by the most extraordinary instance of courage and presence of mind4 ,he was out a-hunting4 ,a rhinoceros broke abruptly from the covert of a dense thicket1 and so near to him1 that the ,kaffir easily leaped upon his back4 ,the furious animal immediately dashed through the jungle1 beat the earth with his horn1 roared with rage1 and used his utmost exertions to dismount his unwelcome rider4 ,in this he would have undoubtedly succeeded1 and the negro must have perished1 if happily the kross1 or sheepskin mantle of the latter1 had not been caught in the bushes4 ,mad with fury1 the rhinoceros threw himself upon it1 and while he was busy rending it in fragments the ,kaffir leaped lightly to the ground1 and saved himself in the deep recesses of the forest4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,virgin ,,forests3--,,the ,,great ,,apes4 ,it is of their own free choice1 to shelter themselves from the burning arrows of the sun1 to enjoy the dense shadows and delicious coolness of the great trees1 and1 without doubt1 to avoid the attacks of men1 that the elephant and the rhinoceros are denizens of the forest4 ,but a certain number of ,mammals ,nature seems to have specially designed to people the forests1 and for whom their general organization1 and1 above all1 the structure of their locomotive organs1 appear to have left the selection of no other abode4 ,such are1 in the first place1 the genera1 so numerous and so diverse1 which compose the great order of ,quadrumana 7four-handed71 indistinctly comprehended1 in popular phraseology1 under the denomination of ,apes2 such1 too1 are the curious arboreal animals called ,sloths2 and such1 finally1 in the order ,rodentia1 are the ,squirrels4 ,in occupying ourselves1 primarily1 with the ,apes1 we do but conform to the scientific classifications1 all of which place these ,mammals immediately next to ,man in the zoological series4 ,linn originally proposed to designate1 under the name of ,primates--that is1 the first1 or chief of animals--,man1 in the first place2 next1 the ,apes2 then the ,galeopitheci 7or ,lemurs72 and1 finally1 the ,cheiroptera 7or ,bats74 ,this order of ,primates1 established by the great ,swedish naturalist1 has been admitted by the majority of contemporary authors1 who1 however1 have separated the ,cheiroptera from it4 ,many have also separated ,man1 and1 as ,i think1 have more correctly placed him as a distinct genus in the order ,bimana 7or two-handed74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,apes1 or ,quadrumana1 are divided into two families--that of ,apes1 properly so called1 and that of the ,lemurid1 or ,lemurs4 ,both belong exclusively to the hottest regions of the globe4 ,the latter are found only in ,india1 ,africa1 and ,madagascar4 ,the ,apes1 on the other hand1 are also spread through ,south ,america2 but it is in the ,old ,world we encounter the most numerous1 the most varied1 and the most remarkable species4 ,those writers who are so much addicted to tracing analogies between ,man and the ,ape1 should explain how and why it is the latter attains his greatest development precisely in those regions where ,man's intellect is dwarfed1 cribbed1 cabined1 and confined4 ,to the ancient continent especially belong the great apes without tail1 or with very short and rudimentary tail--,anthropomorphes1 ,baboons1 ,macaucos1 and the ,cynocephali4 ,apes1 as well as the other ,primates1 are all inhabitants of tropical countries4 ,they do not exist in ,europe1 in ,upper ,asia1 or in ,north ,america4 ,a single genus seems able to adapt itself to the climate and conditions of the ,temperate ,zone1 and still reigns in the ,mediterranean region--in ,africa1 to the north of the ,atlas2 in ,spain1 on the rock and in the neighbourhood of ,gibraltar--this is the genus ,baboon 7the ,pithecus of the classical writers71 included in the family ,macaucos4 ,it differs from other genera of the same family in being tailless4 ,this organ is rudimentary in some species of ,macaucos1 properly so called--as in the ,red-faced ,macauco of ,japan2 in others1 its length never exceeds that of the animal's body4 ,it is the same with the genus ,mangabey4 ,among the ,cynocephali1 the tail is usually short4 ,these apes are remarkable1 as their name indicates1 for their prominent muzzle1 which resembles that of a dog2 and1 moreover1 for the naked callosities1 more or less extensive and of a bluish or vivid red colour1 which exist on the upper part of their thighs1 immediately beneath the tail4 ,the ,macaucos and the ,cynocephali are1 in general1 of tall stature4 ,when standing upright1 they will be about two and a half to three feet in height1 but this posture is not natural to them1 and they rarely adopt it unless constrained4 ,for their hinder limbs being of nearly the same length as the fore1 the quadrupedal mode of progression is easy and habitual1 either when they move on the ground or traverse the horizontal branches of the trees among which they live4 ,these apes are endowed with surprising strength1 and several1 especially among the ,cynocephali1 render themselves formidable by their ferocity and their aggressive audacity4 ,in captivity they show1 while young1 a mildness of disposition which1 joined to their keen intelligence1 would seem to render them capable of being greatly improved by careful training4 ,but these good inclinations do not long endure3 arrived at the adult age1 the ,macaucos and ,cynocephali soon allow all their malignity1 mischievousness1 brutality1 and vicious instincts to peep out1 and as they grow older become completely intractable4 ,in the time of ,desfontaines baboons were so common in the forests of the ,atlas1 that in the environs of ,stora the trees were frequently covered with them4 ,they feed1 says that author1 on pine apples1 sweet nuts1 ,indian figs1 melons1 water-melons1 and the vegetables which they pilfer from the gardens of the ,arabs1 whatever cares the latter may exercise to keep these ill-doing animals at a distance4 ,while engaged in their thieving operations1 two or three mount to the top of the tallest trees and loftiest rocks to keep watch1 and when they perceive any person approaching1 or hear any noise1 they give a cry of alarm2 whereupon the whole troop immediately take flight1 carrying with them all they have been able to seize4 ,despite of these predatory habits1 the baboons at ,gibraltar have been fortunate enough to find powerful protectors in the officers of the ,british garrison1 without whom they would have been destroyed4 ,a prohibition against hunting them exists throughout the territory under ,british rule4 ,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and at other points of ,southern ,africa1 ,europeans are far from displaying the same amount of goodwill towards the ,cynocephali4 ,it is true that they are formidable enemies to man through their malignity1 their strength1 and the dangers incurred from their bite4 ,their mouth is armed1 in fact1 with canine teeth comparable to those of the most powerful ,carnivora4 ,the wounds1 therefore1 says ,m4 ,paul ,gervais1 which they inflict1 either in defence1 or1 as is more customary with them1 in attack1 are deep1 and consequently very dangerous4 ,these apes are fiercer in disposition than the ,macaucos1 and inspire so much fear when grown up that one of their species is popularly known by the expressive name of the ,man-,tiger4 ,illustration3 ,,baboons ,,plundering ,a ,,garden4 ,we must not confound the ,cynocephali with the ,cynopitheci1 an intermediate genus between the ,apes and the ,macaucos1 which connects both the former and the latter with the ,anthropomorphes4 ,the ,cynopitheci have no tail2 their face is moderately elongated2 their ears are round and rimmed4 ,the type-species of this genus is the ,negro ,cynopithecus1 who is wholly black1 and a little smaller than the ,baboon4 ,his head is crowned with a kind of head-dress raised to a point on the forehead2 and his face surrounded with a fringe of long hair4 ,his habitat is the ,celebes1 and some other islands situated between ,borneo and ,mindanaos4 ,he possesses a mild and lively disposition4 ,quoy and ,gaymard1 naturalists on board the ,french exploring-ship ,l',astrolabe1 obtained an individual who was readily tamed1 and played in the gayest and best-tempered manner possible with the first person he encountered4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,black ,,cynopithecus4 ,i may here pause to indicate a few of the more remarkable varieties of the ,baboon and the ,monkey3 premising that by a recent classification the ,apes1 or ,simi1 are divided into four sections--viz43 ,apes1 or such as are tailless2 ,baboons1 with elongated muzzles and short tails2 ,monkeys1 generally with long tails2 and ,sapajous1 or ,monkeys with prehensile tails4 ,for the present1 ,i limit my remarks to members of the second and third sections4 ,among the ,monkeys of the ,old ,continent a prominent place should be given to the ,proboscis ,monkey 7,nasalis larvatus71 who is endowed--,i may not say1 ornamented--with a nose of the most grotesque character and formidable dimensions4 ,this species measures two feet from the tip of the nose to the tail1 which is longer than the body4 ,his colour is a dark chestnut1 but the face is marked with blue and red4 ,he belongs to ,borneo and ,cochin-,china1 where he assembles in large troops1 and feeds wholly on fruit4 ,to ,cochin-,china also belongs the ,douc1 a very large species1 remarkable for their coat of many colours4 ,back1 belly1 and sides are of a yellowish-gray2 feet black2 lower part of the arms and tail1 white2 a collar of brownish-purple encircles the neck2 long yellowish hairs fringe the sides of the face1 which is rather flat and of a yellowish bay hue4 ,he measures1 when standing upright1 three feet and a half to four feet4 ,in ,south ,america are found the ,howling ,monkeys4 ,mr4 ,bates describes one species1 the ,mycetes strumineus1 which measures sixteen inches in length1 exclusive of the tail2 the whole body is covered with rather long and shining dingy-white hair1 the whiskers and beard only being of a tawny hue4 ,the one of which ,i am speaking1 says ,mr4 ,bates1#agc was not quite full grown4 ,when it first arrived1 it occasionally made a gruff subdued howling noise early in the morning4 ,the deep volume of sound in the voice of the howling monkeys1 as is well known1 is produced by a drum-shaped expansion of the larynx4 ,it was curious to watch the animal whilst venting its hollow cavernous roar1 and observe how small was the muscular exertion employed4 ,when ,howlers are seen in the forest1 there are generally three or four of them mounted on the topmost branches of a tree4 ,it does not appear that their harrowing roar is emitted from sudden alarm2 at least1 it was not so in captive individuals4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the noise serves to intimidate their enemies4 ,another species of ,howlers is the ,preacher ,monkey 7,mycetes ,beelzebub71 an animal about the size of a fox1 with long black glossy hair1 a round beard beneath the chin and throat1 black glistening eyes1 short round ears1 and a long tail4 ,a native of ,brazil and ,guiana1 he derives his name from the following circumstance3 one of these creatures will climb to the summit of a lofty tree1 while numbers gather about the lower branches4 ,the monkey perched above the rest then raises a loud howl--a howl so shrill and keen that it is audible at a very great distance2 after a while he pauses1 and gives a signal with his hand1 whereupon the entire assembly join in chorus2 another signal1 and the discord ceases1 while the preacher or singer concludes his inharmonious exercitation4#agd ,it is said that this howling faculty is due to the peculiar conformation of the os hyoides1 or throat-bone1 which1 communicating with the larynx1 increases the resonance of the voice4 ,the ,paters1 or ,red ,monkey 7,cercopithecus ruber71 so called from the bright bay colour of his upper parts1 is a native of ,senegal4 ,in ,congo and ,guinea is found the frolicsome ,spotted or ,diana ,monkey 7,cercopithecus ,diana71 the upper parts of whose body are of a reddish colour1 besprinkled with white spots4 ,the ,mandrill1 or ,variegated ,baboon 7,cynocephalus maimon71 is1 undoubtedly1 the most notable of his genus1 for various and brilliant colours4 ,when standing upright he measures fully five feet4 ,his body is thick and robust1 his limbs are firm and muscular2 scarcely any forehead relieves the flatness of his long face2 the eyes are small and deeply sunken in the large head2 the projecting cheek-bones are marked with several deep furrows of purple1 scarlet1 and violet blue2 both the abrupt muzzle and the lips are large and protuberant4 ,the hair of the forehead and temples rises in a kind of pyramid1 which gives to the head a triangular appearance2 and from the chin hangs a small pointed orange-yellow beard4 ,his strength1 moroseness1 and ferocity1 render him a formidable opponent2 and as he prowls about in large bands1 it is dangerous for the natives to penetrate into the woods1 unless well-armed1 and in numerous companies4 ,the ,derrias 7,cynocephalus hamadryas71 a native of the mountains of ,arabia and ,abyssinia1 measures upwards of four feet when standing erect1 and about two feet and a half in a sitting posture4 ,the hair of the head and neck gathers in a long mane1 which falls back over the shoulders2 the broad whiskers incline backwards so as to cover the ears4 ,the long face is of a dirty flesh-colour2 long1 shaggy1 brownish hair covers the head1 neck1 shoulders1 and all the fore-part of the body4 ,the tail terminates in a long tuft of brown hair4 ,equal in size to1 but much stronger than1 an ,english mastiff is the ,chacma1 or ,pig-faced ,baboon 7,cynocephalus porcarius71 of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where he inhabits the mountains1 and makes frequent forays in the gardens and plantations around ,cape ,town4 ,his yells and screams make night hideous4 ,he wears a sober livery of an uniform dark brown colour1 with long shaggy mane-like hair about his neck and shoulders4 ,his skull is contracted and flattened1 his muzzle extremely prolonged1 and the cheeks of both sexes are ornamented with small grayish whiskers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must now direct our attention to the ,anthropomorphes1 or ,apes with a semi-human form1 which1 of all the ,quadrumana1 approach nearest to man in form1 stature1 internal and external conformation1 manners1 instinct1 and development of intelligence4 ,they have no tail1 and the ,gibbons 7,pithecus lar71 which occupy the lowest rank among them1 possess only the rudiments of ischiatic callosities4 ,nor are they provided with those dilatable pouches worn by a great number of other ,primates on each side of the mouth1 and named by ,french naturalists abajoues4 ,their position1 when they move along the ground1 is bent rather than erect1 and they assist themselves by their extraordinarily long anterior arms4 ,these arms1 in fact1 are much longer than their legs2 their thumbs1 at the four extremities1 are opposed to the other fingers2 the palm of their hands and the sole of their feet are naked1 as well as their face4 ,the sternum is large and flat2 the clavicles are short and well articulated4 ,the analogies between the ,apes and ,man are so striking and so numerous1 and their intelligence1 at least in the largest genera1 is so superior to that of other animals1 that1 without admitting the opinion of the ancient naturalists who considered them to be degraded or degenerate men1 nor that of certain modern writers1 who look upon ,man as an improved ,ape1 one cannot fail to recognize between them and us a species of kinship--though it may be very difficult to distinguish the character and the degree--which imposes itself upon the understanding and the sentiment of every impartial and attentive observer4 ,the most impassive hunters who have killed ,orangs1 ,gibbons1 ,chimpanzees1 and ,gorillas1 acknowledge that they have never been able to conquer a painful impression--almost1 as it were1 a feeling of remorse--when contemplating the semi-human agony of their victims4 ,this impression1 though they may have succeeded in persuading themselves to the contrary1 is not the effect of an empty or ridiculous sensibility4 ,everything in nature has its raison d'tre--its motive of existence2 the relations between the organism and the faculties are constant and undeniable2 and ,i find it difficult to believe that the ,creator can have formed without object or purpose beings so extraordinarily similar to man1 unless this physical resemblance corresponds to a more or less definite moral analogy4 ,the illustrious and devout ,linn1 whom no one will suspect either of materialism1 or of forgetfulness of the dignity of man1 has ranked the ,anthropomorphes in his genus ,homo1 with ,,man1 whom he specifically distinguishes by his wholly exceptional faculties1 and whom he denominates ,homo sapiens1 that is1 the wise1 or more correctly speaking1 the thinking man4 ,i must add that ,linn at a later period renounced this quasi-assimilation1 and that modern zoologists have unanimously rejected it4#age ,in the age of ,linn1 the apes of which we speak were but imperfectly known4 ,even now-a-days our information upon the subjects of their intelligence1 manners1 and habits1 is defective and fragmentary4 ,the individuals whom we have retained in captivity have died while very young1 and it is impossible to say whether their early mildness and intelligence would have proved as transitory in them as in the ,macaucos and the ,cynocephali1 who1 as they advance in years1 display the most brutal instincts4 ,in their adult state1 the ,anthropomorphic ,apes have not been really studied4 ,travellers have penetrated into their forests only to attack them with rifle-balls1 and have told us but little of the manner in which they comport themselves4 ,as for the details collected from natives inhabiting their vicinity1 they are so contradictory1 and mixed up with so much which is fabulous1 that it is impossible to draw any conclusions from them in reference to the habits of these animals4 ,four distinct genera of the ,anthropomorphic ,apes are now recognized by naturalists3 two belonging to ,southern ,asia1 or rather the great ,indian ,archipelago--viz41 the ,orang and the ,gibbon2 two to ,tropical ,africa--viz41 the ,chimpanzee and the ,gorilla4 ,i shall describe their peculiarities in my next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,anthropomorphic ,,apes3--,,orangs1 ,,gibbons1 ,,chimpanzees1 ,,and ,,gorillas4 ,the genus ,orang-,outang 7,simia ,satyrus71 or ,wild ,man of the ,woods1 is a native of the islands of ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 and ,java1 and of a limited portion of the ,malayan peninsula4 ,we must dismiss as travellers' fables the exaggerated recitals which attribute to this ,ape a gigantic stature 7six to seven feet74 ,the tallest specimens which have reached ,europe have not exceeded four feet in height4 ,the ,orang has short and feeble lower limbs2 but his arms1 on the contrary1 are very robust1 and of such a length that he can touch the ground while standing upright--a posture1 however1 which is neither natural nor convenient for him4 ,his ordinary mode of locomotion consists in passing from one tree to another by swinging himself from branch to branch1 his progress being as rapid as that of a swift horse1 and his agility not less wonderful than that of our ,leotards and ,blondins4 ,his body is covered with coarse reddish hair1 whose shade varies according to his age4 ,it is thick on the head1 shoulders1 and body1 but thin about the fore-parts4 ,the face has a bluish cast1 and is partly naked2 but the eyes sink under bushy1 prominent eye-brows1 and the upper lip1 chin1 and cheeks are garnished with a sort of longish beard4 ,naked are the exterior face and palm of the hands4 ,where the skin is deprived of hair1 its colour is of a hodden gray4 ,the ,orang-,outang has a large protuberant belly1 a flat nose1 small ears1 projecting muzzle1 long1 thin1 and very extensible lips4 ,in youth the forehead projects2 but as the creature grows older1 it becomes depressed at the same time that the face lengthens2 the face assumes a more decided bestial type2 and the intelligence1 lively and quick at first1 declines into obtuseness and atrophy4 ,the head inclines forward2 the neck is short1 thick1 and seemingly afflicted with gitre1 which is due to the presence of the pouch called thyrodian4 ,this pouch1 placed above the sternum1 extends beneath the arm-holes1 and communicates with the larynx4 ,when expanded1 it is capable of receiving a great quantity of air1 which1 being afterwards expelled very slowly1 and passing anew through the vocal organ1 produces a dull and prolonged murmur4 ,the ,orangs have now disappeared from ,continental ,india1 and even1 we are assured1 from ,java1 so that their chief habitats at present are ,borneo and ,sumatra2 and here too they are few in number4 ,the genus is rapidly dying out4 ,those which remain seek in the dense and marshy forests an asylum from the attacks of man1 and a shelter against the climate4 ,during the day1 they traverse the summits of the trees in quest of food1 for they subsist exclusively upon leaves1 young shoots1 tender bark1 and fruits4 ,at nightfall they conceal themselves amid the foliage of some moderately tall tree1 or in the great tufts of orchids which flourish about the arboreal giants4 ,there they make for themselves a couch like an even floor or platform1 garnish it with leaves and interwoven branches1 and stretch themselves upon it1 or sit crouching1 to enjoy their slumbers4 ,it is said that when the necessity arises they spread over themselves a similarly-fashioned canopy as a shelter from the rain4 ,the ,orang-,outang is timid and inoffensive2 he rarely engages in a combat with his enemies4 ,at times1 however1 when driven to extremities1 he resorts to his great muscular strength in self-defence1 and if he can succeed in grappling with his antagonist1 he rends him to pieces with his tenacious hands2 never using his teeth1 although his jaws are very powerful1 and armed with canine teeth capable of inflicting dangerous wounds4 ,in general1 when he feels himself sorely stricken1 he hurriedly climbs to the summit of the loftiest tree within his reach1 and if he finds himself still pursued1 he passes on to another4 ,meanwhile he utters the most dolorous cries1 and vents his impotent rage upon the tree which serves him for a refuge4 ,one after another he breaks the greatest branches2 but they immediately escape from his grasp1 and fall to the ground4 ,it is this circumstance which has originated the assertions of many travellers1 that the ,orang defends himself by hurling boughs at his aggressors1 and even by striking them heavy blows with a stick4 ,the truth is1 that far from protracting his defence by the expedient his fury prompts him to adopt1 he does but expose himself the more fully to the projectiles directed at him4 ,the stripped tree is no longer available as a shelter4 ,the ,malay hunters1 therefore1 take no heed of all this fracas1 but patiently wait until the ,orang has exposed himself1 to aim their arrows or rifle-balls with the greater certainty4 ,illustration3 ,,death ,,of ,,an ,,orang-,,outang4 ,several tribes of ,borneo manifest a strange partiality for the flesh of the ,orangs1 and eat it as a great dainty1 either roasting it over a fire1 or cutting it into steaks and drying it in the sun4 ,the ,indians make use of his skin for helmets and caps of fantastic device1 which they don upon festival days1 or to give themselves1 when necessary1 a formidable air4 ,the habitat of the ,gibbons 7,hylobates7 is more extensive in range than that of the ,orangs4 ,they are found not only in ,sumatra1 in ,borneo1 in the ,celebes and ,philippine ,islands1 but in considerable portions of the two peninsulas within and beyond the ,ganges4 ,in size they are inferior to the ,anthropomorphes1 their stature not exceeding three feet4 ,their head is small and rounded1 their muzzle does but slightly project1 and their face wears a pleasanter expression than that of the great apes of the same group4 ,a sort of thick black or very dark fur1 with occasionally patches of white1 enwraps their entire body4 ,they have arms and hands of extraordinary length1 but a slightly developed belly4 ,they live upon the forest-trees1 which they traverse without ever descending to the ground1 exhibiting a marvellous agility and suppleness4 ,they are completely frugivorous2 their manners are gentle2 their intelligence they retain1 and even develop1 after they have attained maturity4 ,although they should be captured after they have passed their youth1 they easily become domesticated1 and display a loyal affection towards their masters4 ,unfortunately the climate of ,europe1 and perhaps1 in particular1 the atmosphere of menageries1 proves fatal to them1 and those individuals placed in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london and ,paris succumb1 after a brief residence1 to dysentery or pulmonary disease4 ,the genus ,gibbon comprises several species3 the ,gibbon-,siamang 7,hylobates syndactylus7 is the greatest of which we have any knowledge4 ,black is he as ebony1 both in face and hair4 ,his thyrodian pouch is very large1 and of great expansive powers4 ,by means of this ungainly organ he utters the most horrible1 deafening1 and prolonged cries1 which1 it is said1 can be heard for several leagues around4 ,he is common enough in ,sumatra1 inhabiting the dense wild woods which lie to the north of ,bencoolen4 ,he owes his characteristic epithet of syndactylus to the fact that the index and middle finger of his hind-feet 7or shall ,i say1 hands87 are united 7,greek3 syn7 by a narrow membrane1 which extends even to the base of the ungueal phalange4 ,the ,gibbon-,lar 7,hylobates or ,pythecus ,lar7 is smaller than the preceding4 ,his skin is of a blackish-brown1 with the four extremities and the framing of the face white4 ,he ranges over the peninsula of ,malacca1 and1 according to some travellers1 the kingdom of ,siam4 ,illustration3 ,,gibbon-,,siamang ,,and ,,mourning ,,gibbon4 ,the ,wou-,wou1 or ,silvery ,gibbon 7,hylobates leuciscus71 another ,malayan species1 commends himself to our notice by the silvery gray of his skin on the upper parts of the body and the outer sides of the anus and legs4 ,his name of ,wou-,wou is intended to describe his peculiar utterance--a kind of clucking totally unlike the howlings of the other gibbons4 ,ashen-gray is the colour of the skin of the ,mourning ,gibbon 7,hylobates funereus7 on the external sides of his limbs1 while the belly and contour of the face1 and the inner parts1 are of a blackish hue4 ,the ,hylobates cinereus is of an uniform cindery-gray4 ,he inhabits the ,sunda ,islands1 and principally ,java1 and numerous individuals of his species have been imported into ,europe4 ,his disposition is gentle and affectionate2 he quickly familiarizes himself with the persons who approach him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the genus ,chimpanzee 7,pithecus troglodytes7 is by some later naturalists preferred to that foremost place among the ,quadrumana in which ,cuvier had installed the orang-outang4 ,he certainly approaches the nearest--though longo intervallo--to man1 of all his race4 ,he was long confounded with other ,anthropomorphous genera1 under the vague name of ,man of the ,woods 7,homo sylvestris74 ,it would appear to have been the ,chimpanzee that ,buffon had in his mind's eye when describing his ,jocko2 although that ideal variety of shaggy men1 with flat1 oval visage1 long legs1 tall and erect figure1 which stands before us in the great naturalist's pages1 bears but little resemblance to the animal we have seen in the ,zoological ,gardens1 or the more faithful and judicious portrait drawn by modern travellers4 ,but the name of ,jocko is evidently a corruption of that of ,enge-eko1 which the negroes of the ,gaboon bestow upon the ,chimpanzee1 just as the latter appellation is an imperfect reproduction of that of ,quimpez1 in use among the negroes of ,angola4 ,putting aside these speculations1 we see that the only well-defined species of this genus is the black ,chimpanzee 7,troglodytes niger of the present nomenclature1 ,pygmea of ,tyson74 ,his home is the forests of the ,gaboon1 the coast of ,angola1 and ,guinea4 ,his face is larger and flatter than that of the orang4 ,he has large ears1 but shaped like those of men4 ,on the head1 shoulders1 and back1 he wears a coat of long black hair2 his legs are short1 and his arms very long2 yet he is better able to walk like a biped than the macaucos1 or even the orangs and the gibbons4 ,of all the ,simid1 he alone has calves to his legs4 ,he has neither tail1 ischiatic callosities1 abajoues1 nor thyrodian pouch4 ,the hair of his head is parted on the summit1 and falls down on either side1 surrounding the ear and jaws1 and mingling with that of the neck4 ,his bare1 wrinkled face is of a light copper colour2 so are the palms of his hands1 and his fingers1 but his nails are generally black4 ,the highest stature to which the ,chimpanzee can attain is about four and a half feet2 but as he never stands absolutely erect1 he appears much shorter4 ,his small eyes1 deep sunken in their orbits1 are of a dark hazel colour4 ,the cranium1 even in young specimens1 is depressed1 and presents1 in advance of a low receding forehead1 a projecting superciliary ridge4 ,as the animal advances in years1 his muzzle lengthens1 his jaws develop1 his skull grows more depressed2 at the same time his intelligence gradually disappears1 his manners become fiercer1 and his disposition less tractable2 in a word1 the instincts of the brute regain their supremacy4 ,such1 at least1 is the statement of the best accredited authorities2 as for the individuals imported into ,europe1 they invariably die at too early an age for any one to study their habits and character in maturity4 ,the ,chimpanzees live1 it is said1 in troops in the forests1 or at least they congregate for the purpose of repelling the attacks made upon them by the carnaria1 and to drive from their domains such other animals as may attempt to install themselves therein to their disadvantage4 ,their weapons are ready to their hand--stones and the branches of trees4 ,their diet is essentially a frugivorous one2 yet they will occasionally indulge in a lizard or two1 or any other reptile4 ,like the orangs1 they construct rude beds or couches1 of interwoven boughs stripped of their greenery4 ,the negroes of ,guinea1 scarcely much higher in the scale of intelligence than themselves1 look upon them as a nation1 and believe that if these ,men of the ,woods do not speak1 it is because they fear to be condemned to work or carried off into slavery1 and not from incapacity4 ,a recent traveller1 whose adventures have been the subject of much discussion1 and who for a considerable period enjoyed the reputation of a ,mendez ,pinto or a ,munchausen1 asserts that he discovered at the ,gaboon two new species of ,chimpanzees4 ,one1 called by the natives ,nshigo-,mbouv1 and to which he gave the scientific name of ,troglodytes calvus1 builds for himself some leafy screens of quite artistic construction upon isolated trees4 ,he is smaller than the ordinary ,chimpanzee1 and bald4 ,the other species distinguished by ,m4 ,du ,chaillu#agf is the ,kooloo-,kamba4 ,he is distinguished from all his congeners by a very peculiar cry4 ,while offering a general resemblance to man1 he approaches him more nearly in certain respects than all the other known apes4 ,his head is very remarkable1 and presents a curious analogy to that of an ,esquimaux or a ,chinese4 ,his face is hairless1 and wholly black4 ,the forehead is loftier than that of any of his congeners1 and the capacity of his skull is also greater in proportion to his height4 ,a wider space occurs between his eyes than is customary with the great ,simiad4 ,he has a flattened nose1 high projecting cheek-bones1 hollow cheeks1 and a well-marked orbitary arch4 ,the muzzle is less prominent1 and larger in proportion than that of other apes4 ,both sides of his face are ornamented with straight tufts of hair1 which1 joining below the chin like whiskers1 communicate a strange human character to the whole countenance4 ,his arms descend below his knees4 ,all the body is hairy4 ,the shoulders are broad1 the hands long and narrow1 and well adapted for climbing trees4 ,both arm and hand are exceedingly muscular2 the abdomen is very prominent4 ,the ample ears rather resemble those of a man than the ears of any other ape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our peregrinations now bring us to the giant of the ,quadrumana1 the true king of the forests of ,equatorial ,africa2 in a word1 to the ,gorilla1 whom ,buffon has described under the name of ,pongo1 almost as exactly as he pictured the ,chimpanzee under that of ,jacko4 ,we cannot be said to have known the ,gorilla for more than a quarter of a century4 ,it was in #ahdg that ,dr4 ,savage1 an ,american missionary1 recognized the ,pongo as a species of the genus ,troglodytes1 distinct from the ,chimpanzee1 and named him ,troglodytes ,gorilla1 in allusion to the celebrated narrative of the ,carthaginian ,hanno relative to the pretended female ,gorillas which that navigator professed to have seen in an island of the ,gulf of ,guinea4 ,since that period the ,gorilla has been carefully studied by the eminent naturalist ,professor ,owen4 ,messieurs ,gautier and ,franquet1 ,french naval surgeons1 collected some important information upon the habits and physiology of this great ape1 and ,m4 ,franquet procured for the ,paris ,museum the skeleton of an adult ,gorilla4 ,other dead and preserved specimens have since been imported into ,england and ,france1 and the anatomy of this ,african ,troglodytes is accurately known4 ,and1 finally1 ,m4 ,du ,chaillu1 in the work already quoted1 has supplied numerous strange and interesting details1 which1 if at first discredited and contested1 are now very generally accepted as strictly accurate4 ,the name of ,pongo1 applied to the ,gorilla by ,battel and ,buffon1 is clearly a modification or corruption of that of the tribe of ,mpongwss1 who dwell on the banks of the ,gaboon1 not far from the forests tenanted by this mysterious ,quadrumane4 ,the ,mpongwss negroes call the ,chimpanzee ,enge-eko1 and the ,gorilla ,enge-ena2 whence the surname of ,gina1 linked to the zoological appellation of ,gorilla--,gorilla-,gina4 ,the ,gorilla appears to be confined in the dense wooded regions of ,lower ,guinea1 where he shuns1 and1 if needs be1 repels the approach of man and that of the carnivorous animals1 as well as of all those who attempt to penetrate into his retreats4 ,fierce and savage is he in his every custom2 but it has never been satisfactorily demonstrated that he acts on the aggressive4 ,he is not the less an object of extreme terror to his negro neighbours1 on account of his extraordinary strength2 and much more1 perhaps1 owing to the fantastic legends that have grown up about his name4 ,his stature exceeds four1 and sometimes attains1 it is said1 to upwards of six feet4 ,the most salient characteristics of his head are the great width and elongation of the face1 the development of the lower jaw1 and the smallness of the osseous framework1 which surrounded by a very elevated orbitary arch1 whence proceeds a second ridge dominating over all the upper part of the skull4 ,the nose is flat1 the eye deep-sunken in its orbit1 the ear small1 the mouth very large4 ,the lips1 especially the lower one1 are long and very extensible4 ,the expression of the face is terrible1 reminding one of ,coleridge's painful picture of a man-monster2 and especially terrible when the animal raises the shaggy skin1 and reveals the enormous fangs which bristle in his jaws4 ,his neck is thick1 and so short1 that the head seems grafted directly upon the shoulders4 ,the latter are of formidable breadth1 and his vast chest resounds like a drum when he beats it with his powerful fists1 raising himself upright on his feet--an action which is with him a sign of mistrust1 hatred1 and indignation4 ,he has a large expanded belly1 like that of the orang and chimpanzee4 ,his skin is of a deep black1 naked on the face and on the palm of the hands1 but elsewhere clothed with a rough iron-gray or brown-black hair4 ,the breast of the male adult is hairless1 like that of the female4 ,with the former the hair of the back is worn off1 owing to his habit of sleeping on the ground supported against a tree4 ,this peculiarity1 according to ,m4 ,du ,chaillu1 is only seen in the female when she has attained an advanced age1 in which case it would seem to be owing to the fact that1 having no longer her infants to shelter among the branches1 she sleeps in the same fashion as the male4 ,the natural walk of the ,gorilla is not upon two feet1 but upon four paws4 ,in this posture1 owing to the length of his arms1 his head and chest are much elevated4 ,when he runs1 his hind-legs are brought up under the body4 ,the arm and the leg on the same side move simultaneously1 which gives the animal a curious and awkward gait4 ,he runs1 however1 with extreme swiftness4 ,despite the strength of his jaws1 despite his enormous canine teeth1 the ,gorilla is exclusively frugivorous2 but as he stands in need of abundant nourishment1 he is compelled to change his quarters incessantly4 ,his habits1 therefore1 are essentially nomadic4 ,he is not gregarious4 ,m4 ,du ,chaillu affirms that he has never seen but a couple of adults together1 the male and the female2 sometimes an aged male wanders about alone4 ,of the young1 as many as five will occasionally be found in company4 ,it is a difficult matter to approach them1 for their hearing is very keen1 and when alarmed they immediately take to flight1 while the nature of the ground embarrasses the hunter in his pursuit4 ,every hunter who understands his mtier will reserve his fire1 when chasing the ,gorilla1 until the last moment4 ,whether the furious beast takes the report for a threatening defiance1 or from some other unknown cause1 if the hunter fires and misses1 the ,gorilla immediately pounces upon him1 and no one can withstand the force of his attack4 ,a single blow of his enormous foot1 armed as it is with most formidable claws1 eviscerates a man1 smashes in his chest1 or batters his skull4 ,negroes in a like situation have been seen1 reduced to despair by terror1 to turn upon the ,gorilla and aim at him their discharged musket2 but they have not even the time to level an inoffensive blow2 the arm of their antagonist falls upon them with all its weight1 shattering at once both arm and gun4 ,i know of no animal whose attack is so fatal to man1 for the reason that he dares to confront him face to face1 with his arms for weapons of offence1 exactly like a boxer1 with the exception that he has the advantage of longer arms1 and a vigour far surpassing that of any athlete who has ever claimed the suffrages of the ring4 ,fortunately1 the ,gorilla dies as easily as a man4 ,a blow in the chest1 if well-directed1 immediately lays him low4 ,he falls forward on his face1 his arms widely extended1 and heaving with his last breath a frightful dying cry1 half roar1 half wail1 which though a signal of safety for the hunter1 nevertheless resounds painfully in his ear1 like the supreme utterance of human agony4#agg ,illustration3 ,a ,,gorilla ,,killing ,a ,,negro4 ,the negroes of the ,gaboon are generally very partial to the flesh of the ,gorilla1 as well as to that of the other great apes1 although it is1 in sooth1 of a leathery character4 ,this partiality need not surprise us on the part of a race which too frequently indulge in a horrible banquet off their own kind4 ,it has been observed that those tribes which are not cannibal do not share the liking of their neighbours for the flesh of the ,gorilla or the ,chimpanzee2 many even shrink from it with peculiar horror1 on account of the kinship existing1 as they believe1 between these apes and man1--and the superstitious creed which represent these animals as supernatural beings1 whose bodies are the refuge of the souls of their relatives1 or of their friends1 labouring for their crimes under an eternal curse6 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,forests3--,,the ,,cebid1 ,,or ,,monkeys ,,of ,,america--,,the ,,lemurs--,,the ,,sloths--,,the ,,squirrels4 ,the ,ancient ,continent possesses1 in addition to the great apes of which ,i have already spoken1 the ,macaucos1 the ,cynocephali1 and the ,anthropomorphes1 other apes of more erect1 and one might even say more elegant figures1 essentially climbers1 and provided with a long1 but not prehensile tail4 ,such are the ,semnopitheci and the ,monkeys of the ,african forests1 of ,india and ,indo-,china1 of ,japan and the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,these two latter groups approximate1 by their external forms1 to the apes of the ,new ,world2 divided by ,buffon into ,sagouins and ,sapajous1 but re-united in the new classification of naturalists under one single family1 named ,cebid4 ,these--one genus1 the ,brachiura1 excepted--have all a very long1 and1 generally1 a prehensile tail4 ,they differ1 moreover1 from the ,simid of the ,old ,world in the disposition of their nostrils1 which are always open laterally1 and separated by a thick depressed membrane2 in such wise1 that it might also be affirmed they were gifted with two noses6 ,by nature they are of a gentle and placable disposition1 readily domesticate themselves with man1 and do not become in their old age more impracticable or malicious than in youth4 ,the ,cebid are divided into several genera1 such as the ,howlers1 the ,atel1 the ,sajous1 the ,samris1 the ,nyctipitheci1 or ,nocturnal ,apes2 to which we may add1 perhaps1 the tribe of the ,hapalid 7,ouistitis and ,tamarins74 ,illustration3 ,,howling ,,monkeys4 ,to the ,howling ,monkeys we have found it convenient to refer in a preceding chapter1 and it is almost needless to remind the reader that they owe their distinctive name to their habit of assembling in the woods1 and startling the echoes with a chorus of unearthly noises4 ,they chiefly inhabit ,new ,grenada1 ,guiana1 ,brazil1 and ,paraguay1 where1 night and morning1 their discordant orchestra strikes terror to the soul of the unaccustomed traveller4 ,i have already said that the tail of nearly all the ,american ,cebid is long and prehensile2 that is1 endowed with a peculiar faculty of winding or clinging round any object4 ,illustration3 ,,ateles ,,crossing ,a ,,river4 ,in the genus ,ateles1 or ,spider ,monkey1 for example1 it virtually forms a fifth limb1 by whose agency the animal suspends himself in the air1 and darts from one tree to another with more than the agility of a ,leotard4 ,it amply compensates for the imperfection with which ,nature has afflicted him by leaving his fore-paws deprived of thumbs4 ,he owes his popular designation of the ,spider ,monkey to his long slender limbs and sprawling gestures4 ,in the colour of his skin1 his methodical slowness1 and the suppleness of his movements1 he resembles the gibbons4 ,of all animals he alone has the biceps of the thigh resembling that of man4 ,he is fond of the society of his kind1 and mainly subsists on insects1 small fish1 and molluscs1 which he catches with all the address of a practised angler4 ,travellers affirm that he frequently crosses the wide ,american rivers without descending to the ground4 ,he and his comrades form a living chain1 which hangs suspended from a lofty branch1 and1 by a series of more or less nimble movements1 succeeds in hooking itself on to a tree on the other side4 ,this chain serves at first as a flying bridge for the whole troop2 then it accomplishes its own passage1 by detaching itself from its point of suspension to fall back on the opposite bank4 ,the tale1 however1 has an improbable air about it1 which makes a large demand on the reader's belief4 ,it is from ,south ,america1 and notably from ,brazil and ,guiana1 that we import into ,europe the apes most valued by our itinerant mountebanks and by zoological amateurs1 on account of their gentleness1 their domesticity1 their intelligence1 and their singular instinct of imitation--almost amounting to genius--which renders them wonderfully apt in the performance of all kinds of tricks and amusing exercises4 ,nearly all these apes belong to the very numerous genus of ,sajous1 or ,sapajous4 ,thus we have the ,squirrel ,monkey 7,callithrix sciurus71 not much larger than the animal whose name he bears1 and infinitely more nimble and diverting4 ,he is of a bright golden yellow colour1 with feet and hands of a deeper yellow4 ,his head is round1 with a blackish nose1 and hairy ears4 ,his tail is very long1 and tipped with black4 ,the nails of his hands are flat1 while those of his feet resemble claws4 ,the ,ouistitis1 which are frequently imported into ,europe1 are very pretty animals1 clad in a soft kind of fur1 and with their ears ornamented by long brush-like tufts of black or white hairs4 ,they are very easily tamed1 are mild and intelligent1 and1 owing to their small size1 conveniently kept in apartments2 but they do not acclimatize in ,europe1 and1 even if they survive the voyage1 die very shortly after their arrival4 ,linn has given the name of ,lemurs1 which modern naturalists have also adopted1 to a race of quadrumanous animals approximating in many particulars to the ,monkey tribe1 but forming1 nevertheless1 a perfectly distinct zoological family4 ,it comprises five genera3 one1 that of the ,galagos1 belongs to ,africa2 two inhabit ,india and the neighbouring islands--namely1 the ,loris and the ,tarsii2 and1 finally1 two others1 the ,makis and the ,indris1 are exclusively confined to ,madagascar1 where they occupy the same position as the ,apes properly so called on the continent4 ,the ,galagos are distinguished by their great eyes1 their large membranous ears1 which double down when the animal is at rest1 their extraordinary long hind limbs1 and their long and tufted tail4 ,in size they vary from that of a rat to that of a rabbit4 ,the ,senegal ,galagos1 or ,gum animals of ,senegal 7,galago ,senegalensis71 have1 at night1 all the activity of birds1 hopping from bough to bough on their hind limbs only4 ,they watch the insects flitting among the leaves1 listen to the fluttering moth as it darts through the air1 and leap upon it with arrow-like rapidity1 seldom missing their prize1 which is caught by the hands4 ,their nests are made in the branches of the trees1 and they cover a bed for their young with grass and leaves4 ,what shall ,i say of the ,loris8 ,two species only are known1 and both are natives of the ,east ,indian world3 the ,short-limbed ,loris 7,lemur tardigradus71 and the ,slender ,loris 7,lemur gracilis71 the latter being readily recognized by the disproportionate length of his limbs1 and1 especially1 of his fore-arms4 ,they live in the trees2 feeding on insects1 or1 as a relish1 on small birds and quadrupeds2 and going forth at night in search of their prey4 ,they have a short muzzle1 slender body1 no tail1 rough tongue1 and large staring eyes1 placed very near each other4 ,their ears are short1 scarcely rising through the hair in which they are embedded2 the nostrils project beyond the mouth1 and are surrounded by a naked muzzle2 and the thumbs are widely separated from the fingers1 both on the fore and hinder hands4 ,of the ,tarsii it is enough to say that they are insectivorous1 like the loris1 and that their hind limbs are similarly disproportionate4 ,the tail is long and tufted2 the large1 fixed1 glaring eyes mark them out as addicted to nocturnal habits4 ,they leap about two feet at a spring1 and by day conceal themselves under the roots of trees4 ,two species are distinguished3 the ,tarsius fuscomanus of ,fischer1 and the ,tarsius bancanus of ,horsfield4 ,the ,makis approach the nearest of all the ,lemurid to the superior ,quadrumana4 ,they have1 however1 like their congeners1 opposite fingers on the hind feet4 ,the ,short-tailed ,indri bears even some slight resemblance to man1 in the shortness of his tail1 the length of his legs1 and his altitude4 ,the ,malagasy call him the ,man of the ,woods1 although he has a pointed muzzle and trumpet-shaped ears on the summit of the head4 ,he is the largest of the ,lemurid1 attaining1 when erect1 the height of three feet4 ,his skin is soft1 and clothed in long fine hair2 whence naturalists have named him ,indris laniger4 ,very gentle in disposition1 he is easily tamed1 although endowed with only moderate intelligence4 ,it is said that he can be trained to the chase4 ,the ,maki1 like the ,short-tailed ,indri1 has a thin elongated muzzle2 otherwise1 in form1 he approximates more closely to the ,ratans or the ,coatis than to the ,apes4 ,their ears are small and round1 lateral1 and almost entirely hidden in the hair2 they carry a tail of notable length2 their fur is thick and soft4 ,the thumb of their anterior paws is nearly as opposable as that of the posterior4 ,to sum up3 they are graceful little animals1 precisely because we do not find in them those grotesque features and that eccentric conformation which render the apes1 even the most favoured by ,nature1 offensive caricatures of man4 ,they are lively and agile2 they climb1 run1 and leap with as much grace as nimbleness4 ,their habits are nocturnal1 as the development of their eyes sufficiently indicates4 ,they subsist on fruits and insects4 ,their manners are gentle2 they accustom themselves to captivity with great readiness1 and soon grow familiar2 but they do not equal the apes in intelligence4 ,this genus comprehends several species4 ,i shall specify the ,maki-,mocoas1 which is of a cindery-gray1 with the cheeks and throat white1 and the tail marked with regular black rings2 the ,white-,mantled ,maki1 whose muzzle1 shoulders1 and tail are black1 and the rest of the body of a pure white2 the ,red ,maki1 very remarkable for the brightness of his colours1 for his body is of a lively red1 the upper part of his neck and head white1 as well as the extremities of his legs2 and1 finally1 his belly and tail are black4 ,other species have been distinguished1 as the ,red-bellied ,maki1 the ,yellow-bellied1 the ,maki with the white forehead1 and the like4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,maki-,mocoas4 #b4 ,white-,mantled ,maki4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the ,fauna of the ,madagascar forests also belongs an extremely rare animal1 few specimens of which have been brought into ,europe4 ,after some hesitation our naturalists have agreed to refer it to the order of ,primates1 although its general appearance and its system of dentition caused it at first to be taken for a kind of large squirrel2 while1 on the other hand1 the form and disposition of its thin fingers1 and the development of its nails1 liken it to the sloths4 ,this animal is the ,aye-,aye1 or ,cheiromys ,madagascariensis4 ,the characters which have determined its annexations to the order of ,primates are1 principally1 the presence of opposable thumbs on the hind-paws2 the terminal position of the nostrils2 the oblique direction of the eyes1 and the absence of a vertical fissure on the upper lip4 ,its habits are not well known2 but it is a burrowing animal1 very slothful1 and goes abroad at night4 ,it has large flat ears1 like a bat's1 and a tail like a squirrel's2 but its peculiarity is the middle toe or finger of the fore-foot1 whose two last joints are very long1 slender1 and destitute of hair4 ,from nose to tail it measures about eighteen inches1 and its general colour is a pale ferruginous brown1 mixed with gray4 ,sonnerat1 who discovered the aye-aye in his expedition to ,madagascar1 at the close of the last century1 succeeded in obtaining a couple of specimens1 which he kept alive for two months4 ,i nourished them1 he says1 upon cooked rice1 and they make use1 in eating1 of the thin fingers of their fore-feet1 just as the ,chinese do of their chopsticks4 ,they seemed always drowsy1 resting with the head placed between the fore-paws1 and it was only by shaking them several times we could get them to move4 ,this torpid condition1 however1 was it the effect of confinement or of natural apathy8 ,if due to the latter1 it would be another point of approximation between the aye-aye and the sloths1 which some naturalists have also inclined to rank among the ,primates4 ,other authors have placed those latter quadrupeds in an order apart1 under the name of ,tardigrades2 but most scientific zoologists now classify them with the ,edentata1 and form them into the family of ,bradypes or ,bradypid4 ,undoubtedly the sloth1 or a1 is an animal of curious and uncouth appearance2 in general conformation not unlike the bear1 to which he also approaches in the form of his head1 and in deficiency of tail1 while his long rough hair1 coarse and shaggy1 like dry withered grass1 recalls the fur of the ant-eater4 ,the most singular peculiarity of his organization is the structure of the feet1 whose strong crooked claws1 to the number of three or more in each limb1 are so linked together that they cannot be moved separately4 ,illustration3 ,,cheiromys1 ,,or ,,aye-,,aye ,,of ,,madagascar4 ,the name of ,sloth popularly bestowed on this animal is not so well-deserved as some writers of ,zoology made ,easy have represented4 ,it is true that his progress on the ground is made with difficulty and slowness2 but in the trees1 his customary sojourn1 he displays considerable address1 and transports himself easily from tree to tree4 ,he moves suspended from the branch1 says ,waterton1 he rests suspended from the branch1 and he sleeps suspended from the branch4 ,hence his seemingly bungled composition is at once accounted for2 and in lieu of the sloth leading a painful life1 and entailing a miserable existence upon his progeny1 it is but fair to conclude that he just enjoys life as much as any other animal1 and that his extraordinary formation and singular habits are but further proofs to engage us to admire the wonderful works of ,omnipotence4 ,dr4 ,lund says of the ,three-toed ,sloth 7,bradypus torquatus7 that he climbs with remarkable sureness and aptitude4 ,the manner in which he moves is thus3--,lying on his belly1 with all his four extremities stretched out from his body1 he first presses one of his hind-feet with all its might against the ground1 whereby the corresponding side of the body is slightly raised4 ,the fore-leg on the same side thus becomes sufficiently free for the animal to move it a little in advance4 ,he then hooks his powerful claws fast in the earth1 and so drags his body a little onwards4 ,the same manoeuvre is next repeated on the opposite side2 and thus the poor animal progresses in the slowest and most laborious manner4 ,but though his organization unfits him for terrestrial locomotion1 it is wonderfully adapted1 as ,i have said1 to climbing trees4 ,with his long arms he reaches high up1 and clings fast to the bough with crooked claws4 ,the inverted position of the soles of his hind-feet gives him a power of clutching the trunk of the tree which no other mammal possesses2 so that truly when we see him climbing a tree1 we can scarcely believe it to be the same animal that lies so helpless on the ground4 ,hence we see that the sloth's organization is wholly adapted for living in trees4 ,compared with the slowness of his motions1 he is the best climber among mammals1 while he is the worst walker2 or rather1 he is the only mammal that can neither walk nor stand4 ,the ,bradypes family is peculiar to ,south ,america4 ,it includes but two genera1 whose types are the ,chalypus-,unau and the ,bradypus-,ai4 ,the ,unau1 or ,two-toed ,sloth1 is found in the forests of ,peru1 ,guiana1 and ,columbia4 ,his length is from twenty to thirty inches4 ,he has a large head2 long and dry hair1 of a grayish-brown4 ,during the day he sees very imperfectly1 and therefore passes most of his time asleep upon a tree1 where he may be seen clinging by three of his feet to a bough1 and making use of the fourth to reach and convey to his mouth the food on which he lives4 ,the ,a is more indolent in his habits than the ,unau1 from which he differs rather in his anatomical and osteological characteristics than in his aspect and conformation4 ,he may1 however1 be recognized by his rudimentary tail1 his flattened visage1 and the long frizzled hair which covers certain parts of the body4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,a 7,two-toed ,sloth74 #b4 ,unau 7,three-toed ,sloth74 ,we have seen that the aye-aye may be considered as connecting the ,quadrumana with the ,bradypes1 on the one hand1 and the squirrels on the other4 ,these two groups1 however1 exhibit a very striking contrast between their habits and disposition2 and since to animals of the former the name has been given of ,sloths1 the latter might justly be designated the ,active4 ,if there exist1 indeed1 any animals for whom movement is a vital necessity1 these1 assuredly1 are the squirrels4 ,they climb trees with great agility1 and leap from one branch to another with a marvellous vigour and precision4 ,on the ground1 they trot rather than run4 ,they are essentially graminivorous and frugivorous2 nuts1 fruits1 seeds1 the young stems of trees1 forming their chief nourishment1 though at times they plunder birds' nests1 and regale themselves with the eggs or even the callow brood4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,european ,,squirrels4 ,the ,squirrel 7,sciurus7 belongs to the family ,sciurid1 in the order ,rodentia4 ,their special characteristics may be enumerated as a long bushy tail1 generally carried curved over the body1 whence the ,greek name ,skiouros 7,greek3 skia1 a shade1 and ,greek3 oura1 a tail71 fore-paws furnished with four toes1 which have curved claws1 and a tubercular thumb2 long hind-legs1 the feet provided with five toes2 two incisors in each jaw2 and four molar teeth on each side of each jaw1 simple1 with tuberculous crowns1 and a fifth in front of the upper jaw1 which soon falls out4 ,the squirrel's fur1 thick and soft1 is of a bright reddish-brown colour1 more or less varied with gray2 with a snow-white belly and breast1 and a tail brown1 or almost black4 ,the ears are ornamented with long tufts of hair4 ,the eyes1 directed laterally1 are black and lively1 shining with subdued mischief2 the legs are short and muscular2 and when on the ground the animal moves by a succession of leaps1 the tail being undulating and extended4 ,he lives constantly in the forest1 selecting a particular tree1 where he builds his nest1 either in a hollow of the trunk or among the branches4 ,in the latter case he builds himself a sort of cabin1 with twigs and stems1 artfully concealed beneath a covering of moss and fragments of bark4 ,there he lives by his ain fireside1 in the company of his mate and their young ones1 collecting an abundant magazine of nuts and acorns for their winter provision4 ,in the spring and summer he loves to gambol among the leafy boughs1 climbing up and down the forest trees1 and uttering a short quick stuccato cry1 like the sound which we produce by clacking the tongue against the palate4 ,if you attempt to seize him1 he bites sharply1 and scratches like a cat4 ,he is nevertheless easily tamed1 and his engaging manners1 his amusing gambols1 and constant liveliness1 make him a great favourite among our domestic pets4 ,he soon grows accustomed to his cage1 and after a brief interval of liberty returns to it of his own accord4 ,the ,common ,squirrel 7,sciurus vulgaris7 is found all over ,europe1 ,north ,america1 and the ,northern and ,temperate regions of ,asia4 ,he is about eight inches and a-half in length1 without the tail1 which measures fully six inches long4 ,in ,lapland and ,sweden his colour changes to gray in the winter season2 in the snowy wastes of ,siberia1 he is frequently seen of a pure white4 ,the only other ,european species is the ,alpine ,squirrel 7,sciurus ,alpinus71 a native of the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 of a deep brown colour1 speckled with yellowish-white4 ,to ,north ,america belongs the ,gray ,squirrel 7,sciurus ,carolinensis71 where he enjoys his free and sportive life in the great forests of hickory1 oak1 maple1 and chestnut4 ,his whole length1 including the tail1 is about two feet4 ,as he forays plentifully among the corn-fields1 the inhabitants regard him as a scourge1 and wage deadly war against him4 ,like the lemming1 he migrates about autumn1 in immense hosts2 advancing in a straight course1 which no obstacle is permitted to interrupt1 and spreading desolation1 like the course of an invading army4 ,the large species of the ,fox ,squirrel 7,sciurus vulpinus7 belongs exclusively to the murmurous pine-woods of ,south ,america4 ,the ,cat ,squirrel 7,sciurus cinereus7 is remarkable for the exquisite fineness of his fur4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,hudson's ,bay dwells the ,red or ,hudson's ,bay ,squirrel 7,sciurus ,hudsonius71 marked along the middle of the back by a ferruginous line from head to tail1 with the belly of a pale ash-colour1 mottled with black4 ,in the northern districts of ,africa we meet with the ,barbary ,squirrel 7,sciurus getulus71 which dwells among the palm-trees1 and is of a grayish-brown colour1 lightly shaded with red1 with two white longitudinal bands separated by a brown streak4 ,cross to the eastern coast1 and there we find the ,abyssinian ,squirrel1 which has a greenish-gray back1 white belly1 and tail ringed with black and white2 on the western side1 the ,ivory-eating ,squirrel1 which nibbles the tusks of elephants killed by hunters2 and the ,kendo ,squirrel1 one of the smallest known4 ,the two latter species were discovered and specified by ,m4 ,du ,chaillu1 who has named the former ,sciurus eborivorus1 and the latter ,sciurus minutus4 ,among the ,indian ,squirrels ,i may name the great ,malabar ,squirrel 7,sciurus maximus71 less remarkable for his size1 which is more than double that of the ,european ,squirrel1 than for the variety and vivacity of his colours4 ,on the upper part of the head1 the flanks1 and thighs are of a chestnut purple2 the shoulders1 hind-quarters1 and tail of a glossy black2 the belly and inner sides of the limbs1 a pale yellow4 ,zoologists have classified in two genera1 distinct from the true ,squirrels1 under the names of ,pteromys and ,sciuroptera1 the animals popularly called ,flying ,squirrels4 ,the first of these genera is proper to ,southern ,asia2 the second comprehends the species common to ,asia and ,eastern ,europe1 others which are exclusively ,asiatic1 and others which are only met with in ,north ,america4 ,these ,sciurid have no wings and no capacity of flight2 but their anterior and posterior limbs are connected on either side by a membrane1 which is really nothing but a fold of skin1 and which they extend by spreading out their paws so as to present to the air a considerable surface4 ,by means of this kind of parachute1 they can cross1 by leaping from one tree to another1 an extensive area4 ,my space only permits me to allude to the ,virginian ,flying ,squirrel 7,pteromys volucella71 and the ,common ,flying ,squirrel 7,pteromys volans74 ,the former is about five inches long1 with a tail four inches2 of a subferruginous brown colour above1 and a yellowish-white beneath2 the edges of the flying membrane are of a deeper tint than the rest of the fur1 contrasting with the white border of the under part4 ,he is naturally of a gregarious disposition1 and ten or twelve may be seen in company1 flying from tree to tree4 ,in case of need he can swim like other quadrupeds1 and yet1 on quitting the water1 can resume his arial motion4 ,he feeds on fruits1 nuts1 and young leaves and twigs2 is of an affectionate nature1 and easily domesticated4 ,the ,common ,flying ,squirrel 7,pteromys volans7 belongs to the northernmost regions1 and his favourite haunt is the pine and birch woods of ,siberia4 ,on the upper parts his colour is a pale gray1 on the under a milky white4 ,measured from the nose to the tail1 his length is six inches2 and the tail1 which is thickly furred and slightly flattened1 is somewhat shorter than the body4 ,he flies1 or rather springs1 through the agency of an expansile furry membrane1 reaching1 as ,i have stated1 from the fore-feet to the hind4 ,he builds his nest of the finest mosses in the hollows of the old forest trees2 is a solitary animal emerging from his retreat only at the approach of the gloaming2 feeds on young buds and catkins2 and springs from one tree to another with astonishing velocity4 ,the ,pteromys splendens belongs to ,java and ,borneo3 his body is clothed in fur of a warm red hue4 ,the ,sciuroptera ,polatouche1 which inhabits the north of ,europe and ,asia1 is of an ashen gray on the upper1 and of a snowy white on the inferior parts4 ,some species of ,sciurid seldom ascend trees1 but burrow on the ground1 and are further distinguished by their possession of cheek-pouches4 ,they form the genus ,tamias4 ,the best known is the ,chipping ,squirrel1 ,hacker1 or ,chipmuck 7,tamias ,lysteri71 which abounds in the ,united ,states as far north as the fiftieth parallel1 and derives his name from his peculiar chipping or cheeping cry1 like that of a young chicken4 ,he burrows near the roots of trees1 and several squirrels frequently tenant one burrow1 where they lay up stores of nuts and grain for winter supply4 ,his length is fully ten inches2 the general colour gray1 longitudinally striped with yellowish-white and black4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,savannahs ,,and ,,the ,,forests4--,,anthropophagy4 ,in the ,steppes and ,deserts of ,sand we have seen men ignorant and wild1 semi-brutalized in manner and tastes1 and miserable in condition3 some sedentary and peaceful1 cultivating with laborious care an ungrateful soil2 others1 and by far the greater number1 nomadic and pastoral in their habits2 and others1 again1 living partly on the product of their herds1 partly on the plunder obtained by a life of piracy4 ,but between these races and civilized nations there still exist some analogies of belief1 of polity1 of social economy4 ,in the sacred codes which fill1 for them1 the place of our elaborate legal and political systems1 lofty precepts of justice and charity1 salutary rules of morality and hygine1 mingle with barbarous customs and absurd or superstitious practices4 ,their religions1 founded1 like ,christianity itself1 on the idea of a ,divine unity1 a ,god of mercy and punishment1 they hold in common with peoples who have left their mark on the history of the world1 and to whom1 moreover1 they are attached by close ties of consanguinity4 ,widely different is the man of the ,prairies and the ,forests1 the ,savage1 who even to our own days has remained plunged in the lowest depths of social1 intellectual1 and moral development4 ,differing the one from the other1 according to the country which they inhabit1 the colour of the skin1 the features of the countenance1 and sometimes the forms and outlines of the body1 savages everywhere approximate very closely in the general character of their instincts1 sentiments1 and ideas1 and represent to us that early condition of humanity from which it has only been elevated by the ,divine impulse and for the ,divine purposes4 ,assuredly it is not these whom ,bonald has in view when he defines ,man as an intelligence served by organs2 for with them the respective parts of the mind and the body are inverted1 and the first is the very humble servant of the second2 its sphere of activity1 accordingly1 is very much restricted4 ,war1 the chase1 the coarse pleasures of the banquet1 the dance--and what a wild1 barbarous1 sensual dance it is6--the recital and glorification of the deeds of their ancestors1 their nation1 and themselves1 mingled with marvellous improbabilities which he readily accepts for authentic histories1 and finally1 gambling--these are the only pleasures of the savage4 ,the chase is almost his sole means of existence2 for he is no shepherd1 and still less is he a tiller of the ground4 ,he contents himself with gathering those alimentary substances which ,nature spontaneously pours out at his feet2 and as1 among these1 the flesh of animals is that which he prefers1 he exerts all his physical faculties1 and all the resources of his intelligence1 to procure it4 ,he fashions for himself arms2 he learns to handle them skilfully1 as well as to follow up the scent of the game1 to contend with the wild beast in agility or cunning2 and he displays in this exercise a courage1 a patience1 and an ardour augmented by the stimulus of vanity1 which prompts every tribe and every individual to claim the crown of superior bravery and the prize of surpassing skill4 ,from emulation to rivalry1 from the chase to the campaign1 there is but one step4 ,war1 for the savage1 is but a more dangerous and a more glorious chase2 a chase more productive and more fertile in pleasures than the ordinary chase4 ,therein his self-love1 as well as his fierce sanguinary instincts1 can be amply gratified2 and he feels a keener delight than in the pursuit of the lion or the tiger4 ,he also derives from it far greater advantages1 realizes far more considerable profits2 the likeness is moreover all the closer1 since he looks upon his vanquished enemy sometimes as a prey1 sometimes as a slave or a thing for sale or barter4 ,he may either kill him and eat him1 or constrain him to labour for him2 or finally sell him for money1 or exchange him against other goods and chattels4 ,if he does not cut him down on the battle-field1 and it should not suit him to let his captive live1 he may enjoy the pleasure of varying and multiplying his tortures before he deals the death-blow4 ,among all savage races no banquet is more eagerly enjoyed than the torture of their prisoners4 ,it is generally round the stake to which the shuddering victims are confined1 or their throbbing and bleeding remains1 just about to be devoured1 that the conquerors execute fantastic dances1 and surrender themselves to noisy manifestations of joy1 making the air re-echo with their discordant songs and the not less discordant sounds of their rude musical instruments2 then after the hideous banquet--accursed as that which ,pelops offered to the gods--seated around the glowing embers1 and in the midst of the frightful fragments of the feast1 they love to recall their achievements in the battle and the chase1 or beguile the time with some rude game of chance4 ,gambling1 like war and the chase1 seems to be an innate passion with savages2 and1 sooth to say1 it is a vice worthy of them and of their brutalized nature4 ,rightly does the poet exclaim1-- ,what meaner vice ,crawls there than that which no affections urge1 ,and no delights refine2 which from the soul ,steals mounting impulses which might inspire ,its noblest ventures1 for the arid quest ,of wealth 'mid ruin2 changes enterprise ,to squalid greediness1 makes heaven-born hope ,a shivering fever1 and in vile collapse ,leaves the exhausted heart1 without one fibre ,impelled by generous passion8#agh ,the shivering fever consumes the savage's very life-blood2 he gives himself up to it with unrestrained frenzy1 and stakes1 upon a throw of the dice1 his weapons1 his possessions1 his women1 and even his liberty4 ,scarcely less violent is the passion which plunges him into drunkenness4 ,with the fermented juices of various plants he is skilful in compounding intoxicating liquors1 though he greatly prefers to these raw preparations the subtle mixtures introduced by ,europeans4 ,there is nothing which you cannot obtain from him for a few bottles of rum1 of whisky1 or brandy4 ,and it is to the shame of our merchants that they do not scruple to stimulate1 for their own sordid benefit1 this vile passion to the utmost1 against which the efforts of all our missionaries have proved almost powerless2 so that1 in truth1 the commerce of the savage with civilized men1 far from contributing to raise the former out of their abject1 slothful1 and degraded condition1 has1 on the contrary1 proved for the majority of them a new source of embrutization and depravity4 ,savages have no other literature than the traditions1 myths1 and marvels to which ,i have already alluded4 ,they have no written language2 and here we are at once provided with a means of distinguishing the wholly savage from the partly civilized races4 ,the reduction of speech to a definite system1 the acknowledgment of certain laws and principles as affecting the formation of a language1 is the first great step out of barbarism which a barbarous people accomplishes4 ,their science is limited to some acquaintance with the properties of the plants which they make use of1 either as food1 medicine1 or poison4 ,medicine1 indeed1 as practised by medicine-men1 priests1 or sorcerers1 consists practically of superstitious formulas1 whose object is to expel the evil spirit which the savage supposes to be the cause of all his maladies4 ,the logical faculties are invariably those which in man are developed the most slowly and with the greatest difficulty4 ,but they are also those which constitute the intellectual power of great nations4 ,without ,aristotle1 ,plato1 and ,socrates1 what had been ancient ,hellas8 ,without ,bacon1 ,locke1 ,newton1 and ,stuart ,mill1 what were modern ,england8 ,or ,italy1 without ,galileo8 ,and ,france1 without ,pascal1 ,descartes1 ,diderot1 and ,montesquieu8 ,and ,germany1 without ,fichte1 ,hegel1 ,kant1 and ,schlegel8 ,the savage1 however1 possesses these faculties in a purely rudimentary condition4 ,analysis1 synthesis1 abstraction1 generalization1 are mental achievements which they cannot accomplish4 ,they show themselves incapable1 in fact1 of the simplest calculations1 of resolving easy arithmetical problems which are no mystery to the infants in our ,european infant-schools4 ,their numeration never goes beyond the safe and certain limit of their ten fingers2 often they cannot compute above five1 three1 and even two4 ,the ,guarinis employ the expression one hand and two hands to designate five and ten2 other ,american tribes say two men instead of forty1 because each man has twenty toes and fingers4 ,among most of the ,african negroes1 numeration is quinary2 it is ternary1 or even binary1 among the ,australian aborigines4 ,the savage knows nothing of art1 nor of that feeling for beauty which is the essence of art4 ,if he cultivates music1 it is of so discordant a character1 and so incongruous a medley of sounds1 that no ,european can listen to it with patience4 ,the gods which they fashion out of wood or clay1 and to which they frequently offer human sacrifices1 are of the utmost hideousness2 and it is with difficulty the spectator can recognize in their rude outlines any likeness1 however imperfect1 to the models in man or beast which the sculptor has pretended to imitate4 ,the want1 or rather the depravation of taste1 is shown in the choice of the ornaments with which they decorate their persons2 in the tatooings with which they bespatter their bodies2 in the unbecoming ornaments of every kind which they suspend to the nose1 the lips1 the ears1 and which render monstrous the visage already ugly enough by nature4 ,the savage has no industries in the sense which we attach to that comprehensive word2 the terms trade1 business1 profession1 possess no equivalents in his language4 ,he builds himself a hut1 a cabin1 or a wigwam2 and he fabricates for his use a few indispensable implements1 weapons1 and utensils4 ,the only profession recognized among savage peoples is that of the priesthood4 ,priests1 indeed1 are everywhere found as the teachers and ministers of a religion--if we are willing to bestow that sacred word on an incongruous mass of superstitious practices and beliefs1 founded upon some dim idea of the existence of a ,supreme ,being4 ,and this idea exists1 though very faintly and rudely1 and mingled with many atrocious or absurd aberrations1 among most of the red-skins of ,north ,america and the islanders of ,polynesia4 ,these races believe in the power of a superior ,god1 whom the former denominate the ,great ,spirit1 ,kitchi ,manitou1 and the latter ,taoroa or ,tangara2 as well as in another life1 a coarse and sensual immortality1 wherein they hope to enjoy the full measure of those animal delights which constitute their ideal of perfect happiness4 ,the conception which the savage forms of his ,god is1 nevertheless1 a very poor and imperfect one4 ,he never connects him with his thoughts1 his emotions1 his moral or intellectual nature2 but only with the material world--with the thunder and the lightning1 the sunshine and the cloud4 ,who is it1 says the ,indian1 that causes the rain to rise in the high mountains1 and to empty itself into the ocean8 ,who is it that causes to blow the loud winds of winter1 and that calms them again in the summer8 ,who is it that rears up the shade of those lofty forests1 and blasts them with the quick lightning at his pleasure8 ,and so the ,polynesian employs his priest to propitiate his ,god with sacrifices when the storm rages2 and the ,african1 after a prolonged drought1 engages the intercession of his rain-maker to obtain the desired showers4 ,it is not a moral and a spiritual1 but a material ,god1 of whom the savage conceives1 and before whose anger he trembles4 ,in some regions of ,south ,america1 and principally in ,peru1 man worships the sun as his supreme divinity1 and it is easy to understand the awe and wonder with which the uncultivated mind would necessarily look upon the orb of day1 the master and ruler of the year4 ,with ,southey1 ,i find myself ready to exclaim3-- ,i marvel not1 ,o ,sun1 that unto thee ,in adoration man should bow the knee1 ,and pour the prayer of mingled awe and love2 ,for like a god thou art1 and on thy way ,of glory sheddest1 with benignant ray1 ,beauty1 and life1 and joyaunce from above4 ,we know1 too1 that sun-worship has prevailed among the most highly civilized races1 and that it was the basis of ,greek1 ,egyptian1 ,celtic1 and ,oriental mythologies4 ,our northern natures1 says ,mr4 ,helps1#agi referring to the influence of this religion of the outer world1 can hardly comprehend how the sun and the moon and the stars were imaged in the heart of a ,peruvian1 and dwelt there2 how the changes in these luminaries were combined with all his feelings and his fortunes2 how the dawn was hope to him2 how the fierce mid-day brightness was power to him2 how the declining sun was death to him2 and how the new morning was a resurrection to him3 nay1 more1 how the sun and the moon and the stars were his personal friends1 as well as his deities2 how he held communion with them1 and thought that they regarded every act and word2 how1 in his solitude1 he fondly imagined that they sympathized with him2 and how1 with outstretched arms1 he appealed to them against their own unkindness1 or against the injustice of his fellow-man4 ,but such a creed as this is indicative of some degree of advancement1 of some modicum of civilization1 and may not be compared with the monstrous fetichism prevailing in ,melanesia1 ,australia1 ,africa1 and the ,polar ,deserts4 ,in these regions the savage takes for the objects of his veneration beasts and inanimate objects2 or is without any definite belief1 and shows himself refractory to all religious teaching4 ,such is the case1 according to ,sir ,john ,ross1 among the ,eskimos2 while the ,australians1 according to ,latham1 have not even succeeded in formulating the rudest elements of a mythology2 and the negroes of ,equatorial ,africa indulge in horrible superstitions which are a hundredfold worse than the absence of all belief4 ,the individuals1 therefore1 who act as priests among these ignorant and stupid savages are1 in reality1 only miserable sorcerers1 to whom they attribute the power of predicting the future1 of controlling wind and rain1 the sun and the moon1 of curing disease1 either by magic potions1 incantations1 or amulets2 but they fear without respecting them1 and never hesitate to put them to death when the effect of their juggleries or their prophecies does not respond to the hopes cherished by the worshippers4 ,among these credulous and cruel peoples we find the realization of all those terrible dreams embodied by the poet in his picture of the influences and consequences of superstition4 ,for a vivid commentary on the following lines of ,pope1 the reader should turn to the pages of ,livingstone1 ,burton1 ,speke1 ,du ,chaillu1 ,william ,ellis1 ,john ,williams1 or ,admiral ,wilkes4 ,of superstition1 the poet says3#ahj-- ,she taught the weak to bend1 the proud to pray ,to powers unseen1 and mightier far than they3 ,she1 from the rending earth and bursting skies1 ,saw gods descend1 and fiends infernal rise2 ,here fixed the dreadful1 there the blessed abodes3 ,fear made her devils1 and weak hope her gods3 ,gods partial1 changeful1 passionate1 unjust1 ,whose attributes were rage1 revenge1 or lust2 ,such as the souls of cowards might conceive1 ,and1 formed like tyrants1 tyrants would believe4 ,zeal1 then1 not charity1 became the guide2 ,and hell was built on spite1 and heaven on pride4 ,then sacred seemed the ethereal vault no more2 ,altars grew marble then1 and reeked with gore2 ,then first the flamen tasted living food2 ,next his grim idol smeared with human blood2 ,with heaven's own thunders shook the world below1 ,and played the god an engine on his foe4 ,the savage has only rudimentary notions of the justice1 the respect1 and the good-will which man owes to his fellows4 ,nevertheless1 if in some parts of the world he appears an intractable1 cruel1 and perfidious being1 in others his manners are gentle1 inoffensive1 and hospitable4 ,and nearly everywhere he seems capable of gratitude1 devotion1 and even of veritable heroism4 ,but1 in general1 the law of the strongest is the only law which he recognizes2 the fear of an immediate and corporeal chastisement is the sole restraint upon his passions2 and the material instincts are the most powerful impulses of his actions4 ,the want or narrowness of the moral sense induces as its natural consequences among the unfortunate savages every form of debauchery--the absolute and brutal tyranny of the chief over his tribe1 of man over woman1 of the father over his children1 of the conqueror over the conquered2 murder on the slightest occasion1 and with incredible refinements of cruelty2 and1 finally1 anthropophagy--that hideous custom which lowers man below the most ferocious beasts1 and which1 nevertheless is not always1 as might be supposed1 the sign of the lowest abasement4 ,anthropophagy springs from different causes1 and clothes itself in various forms4 ,sometimes it is but the expression of a sanguinary instinct1 of an atrocious sentiment of vengeance2 sometimes it is the consequence of a state of misery and of famine almost permanent2 often1 also1 it is closely connected with the usage of human sacrifices1 and those who practise it consider it as a sacred duty1 as an act of piety1 agreeable to their divinities or to the manes of the victims whose very flesh they devour4 ,unknown to the stupid ,eskimos1 and in general to all hyperborean races1 anthropophagy rages with intensity among peoples comparatively civilized4 ,the ,ghonds of ,hindostan1 peaceful and laborious cultivators1 are not exactly cannibals1 but every year they immolate to their divinities a multitude of children1 whom they flay and cut to pieces while alive1 and whose flesh they distribute in fragments over the fields they are about to sow4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cannibal ,,feast ,,among ,,the ,,battas ,,of ,,sumatra4 ,in ,sumatra there exists a tribe1 that of the ,battas1 which has not only a religion and a worship1 but a kind of constitution1 a literature1 and a penal code4 ,this code condemns certain classes of criminals to be eaten alive4 ,after the sentence has been pronounced by the competent tribunal1 two or three days are suffered to elapse in order to give the people time to assemble4 ,on the appointed day the criminal is led to the place of execution1 and bound to a stake4 ,the offended party1 or his nearest relation1 if he has been murdered1 advances and chooses the choicest morsel2 the others follow in their turn1 and with their own hands cut off such pieces as please their fancy4 ,finally1 the unfortunate wretch is relieved from his sufferings by the chief1 who strikes off his head4 ,the flesh is eaten on the spot1 raw or cooked1 according to each man's taste4 ,the natives of some of the ,polynesian ,islands consider that they render a service to their aged parents by slaying them1 and that1 by eating them1 they provide the most honourable mode of sepulture4 ,others believe that a man1 by devouring his enemy1 infiltrates into his blood all the virtues with which the latter was endowed4 ,a similar prejudice exists among certain tribes on the ,amazon4 ,it is beyond doubt that1 in a majority of cases1 anthropophagy originates in scarcity of food1 in the lack of cattle and game1 while1 in others1 many cannibals are attracted by the delicious savour of human flesh1 which they prefer to every other4 ,among the ,cobens of the ,uanps1 says ,maury1 man is considered as veritable game1 and these savages declare war against the neighbouring tribes only with the object of procuring a supply of human flesh4 ,when they have more than they require for present needs1 they dry it1 smoke it1 and store it away as provision4 ,in the ,viti ,islands1 whose natives are eulogized by ,dumont-d',urville as the most intelligent in ,melanesia1 great festivals are celebrated at different epochs of the year1 which require a certain number of victims4 ,prisoners of war are the first to be immolated2 then all those unfortunates who are without an asylum are hunted and collected2 and if this inhuman chase should not be sufficiently productive1 the purveyors eke out the supplies by adding some wretched women1 who are eaten by their own relatives4 ,dumont-d',urville speaks of a chief1 named ,tanoa1 who1 for a public banquet1 caused thirty women to be slain1 and their kin1 far from murmuring or lamenting1 took part in the hideous feast4 ,in ,africa1 ,captain ,burton saw1 on the shores of ,lake ,tanganyika1 a cannibal people1 named the ,vouabembs1 who feed upon carrion1 vermin1 larv1 and insects1 and carry their sluggishness and brutality to such an extreme as to eat raw and putrid human flesh4 ,although you may see on every countenance1 says this adventurous traveller1#aha the expression of chronic hunger1 the poor wretches1 timid1 fuliginous1 stunted1 degraded1 seem far more dangerous enemies to the dead than to the living4 ,owing to the exertions of our missionaries1 this horrible practice1 against which our better nature instinctively rebels1 is rapidly dying out in every region where their beneficial influence extends4 ,in ,polynesia and ,new ,zealand1 for instance1 cannibalism is almost extinct4 ,and if we owed no other service to the self-denying exertions of the soldiers of the ,cross1 this alone would entitle them to our gratitude1 for the extermination of anthropophagy is the first step towards teaching man to reverence man4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,savannahs ,,and ,,the ,,forests--,,the ,,savage ,,races--,,the ,,negroes4 ,when wild in woods the untutored savage ran4 ,savagery is evidently the primitive condition of man4 ,but while for certain races it has only been the first period of a more or less rapid progressive evolution1 a movement in advance more or less complete1 for others it seems to be a perpetual infancy1 an incurable atrophy of the noble faculties which are the privilege of our species4 ,it is not the province of the present writer to determine the causes1 undoubtedly very complex1 which have operated in the formation of the various races composing the human genus1 to allot to each the physiological and psychological characteristics which distinguish them1 and to explain their distribution in the different regions of the globe4 ,these are problems1 indeed1 which science has only begun to investigate1 and in whose discussion scientific men exhibit the widest discrepancies of opinion4 ,while one authority contends for man's unity of origin1 another believes that he has sprung from several independent sources4 ,all at present is hypothesis and conjecture2 nor do there apparently exist any well-approved facts on which a satisfactory theory can be erected apart from the brief and succinct details recorded in ,holy ,writ4 ,why one race has emerged from barbarism while another remains sunk in its lowest depths1 we can only explain by admitting the exercise of a superhuman power4 ,no evidence can be given that any people has achieved civilization by its own unassisted efforts4 ,but in these pages ,i am not called upon to enter into any philosophical speculations4 ,i have only to deal with facts2 and with one incontestable fact1 the superiority of those races which have acquired civilization over those which are incapable of so grand a work1 and which show little1 if any1 aptitude to profit by the examples and the lessons brought within their reach4 ,whether it is due to wholly external circumstances1 such as climate1 geographical situation1 geological constitution of the soil1 its nature and that of its productions1 that such differences should exist between different races1 that some should reign as sovereigns over the earth1 while others1 in their pretended liberty1 are given up to all the horrors of slavery1 ignorance1 misery1 and cannibalism1 ,i am not called upon to determine4 ,it seems both probable and possible4 ,to understand any people thoroughly1 says ,mr4 ,helps1 we must know something of the country in which they live1 or at least of that part inhabited by the dominant race4 ,the insects partake the colour of the trees they dwell upon1 and man is not less affected by the place of his habitation on the earth4 ,we cannot pretend to undervalue the importance of race4 ,we cannot deny that one is the ruler1 the other the ruled4 ,as ,emerson says1#ahb ,it is race1 is it not8 that puts the hundred millions of ,india under the dominion of a remote island in the north of ,europe4 ,race is a controlling influence in the ,jew1 who1 for two millenniums1 under every climate1 has preserved the same character and employments4 ,it is race that has planted the ,anglo-,saxon on every shore1 and that for ages has subjected the negro to the yoke of bondage4 ,at all events1 it is certain that1 even in the present day1 savagery is the exclusive portion of certain races1 perfectly distinct in a physiological point of view from the white and yellow races 7the ,caucasian and ,mongolian71 which1 either in antiquity or the modern age1 have arrived at more or less advanced degrees of civilization4 ,the savage races may be divided into four great groups3-- ,the ,negro1 in ,africa and ,north ,america2 ,the ,malayo-,polynesian1 in ,polynesia and the ,indian islands4 ,the ,american1 or ,red ,indians2 and ,the ,hyperborean1 chiefly represented by the ,eskimos4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,negro or ,black races are distributed over the whole of ,africa1 from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to the frontiers of the ,saharan region4 ,the name of ,negro is also given to the natives of ,australia and ,papouasia4 ,but most anthropologists agree in considering the ,australian branch wholly distinct from1 and independent of1 the ,african branch2 which1 nevertheless1 it resembles in several organic peculiarities1 and especially in the deep colour of the skin4 ,this characteristic1 which is the most conspicuous at the first glance1 is1 however of secondary importance3 it is extremely marked on the east ,african coast1 among the ,nubians and the ,abyssinians2 on the banks of the ,cuzamance1 not far from the ,sierra ,leone coast1 among the ,feloupas1 and on the ,guinea coast1 among the ,aminas4 ,all these peoples are black as ebony2 but their oval countenances1 their regular features1 the elegance of their forms and the development of their faculties1 evidently connect them1 some with the ,semites1 others with the ,aryan-,hindus4 ,on the other hand1 several varieties of ,negroes properly so-called wear but a fuliginous or reddish-brown tint4 ,it is1 therefore1 by less superficial peculiarities that we distinguish the true ,negro4 ,his skull is elongated1 and laterally compressed4 ,sometimes his jaw projects1 a characteristic scientifically designated by the name of prognathism2 sometimes it is more vertically disposed1 but then the cheek-bones 7or zygomathic arches7 are extremely prominent4 ,his teeth project2 that is1 they are inclined outward1 and always long and white4 ,the skeleton1 whiter than our own1 is also heavier and more massive4 ,the abdomen is exceedingly narrow1 and with a conical cavity2 the legs are bowed4 ,short the neck1 broad the thorax1 and convex1 and generally well made4 ,the muscles1 but slightly developed in proportion to the dimensions of the osseous framework1 have not the vivid red colour which distinguishes the flesh of the ,european2 the blood is black1 thick1 and circulates slowly4 ,the body is always deprived of hair2 there is little or no beard2 the hair of the head is black1 woolly1 and frizzled4 ,the eyes are of the deepest black1 but inexpressive4 ,the forehead is low1 the chin short1 the mouth large1 the lips are long and thick4 ,finally1 and this is the most remarkable sign of the ,negro's inferiority1 the type of the face1 in the same race1 is so uniform that it is difficult to distinguish one individual from another4 ,to this physical uniformity corresponds a moral and intellectual uniformity1 which effaces1 so to speak1 all individuality4 ,in ,africa we meet with numerous tribes more or less intelligent and capable of being educated1 many sanguinary and fierce1 others benevolent and inoffensive2 but the character and dispositions of a tribe are reproduced among all the individuals who compose it with scarcely perceptible differences4 ,the ,negroes of ,africa may be divided into three principal varieties3 the pure ,negroes1 the ,kaffirs1 and the ,hottentots4 ,the former comprehends all the populations of the east1 centre1 and west of ,africa4 ,its primitive stock is supposed to be the people called ,mandink or ,malink 7,mandingue71 formerly established at ,mend1 in the delta of the ,nile1 but who emigrated towards the western coast1 and now inhabit the mountainous countries bordering on the ,upper ,senegal4 ,between this river and the ,niger are grouped some tribes in whom the ,berber or ,semitic blood appears mingled with the ,negro blood2 such are the ,yolofs1 the ,foulahs1 and the ,peulas1 or ,fellatahs4 ,the latter are of a sooty black1 with a well-shaped head1 a square frontal development1 thick and woolly hair4 ,they have founded powerful states1 and are considered as the true civilizers of the ,soudan1 where they have introduced ,islamism4 ,further south1 at the ,gaboon1 we meet with the wholly savage nations of the ,mpongwes1 the ,shekianis1 and the ,fans4 ,the ,mpongwes inhabit the right bank of the ,gaboon1 spreading over an extent of seventy to eighty miles4 ,they are of a medium height1 and comparatively agreeable physiognomy4 ,the men are clothed in a calico shirt1 and wrap themselves in an ample piece of stuff as a mantle4 ,their head-dress is a simple straw-hat2 but the king1 as a sign of his dignity1 wears a hat of silk4 ,the women have no other garment than close-fitting drawers descending to the knee2 but they decorate their arms and legs with copper rings4 ,great amateurs are both sexes of tinsel and perfumery1 and they besprinkle themselves with all kinds of essences4 ,according to ,du ,chaillu1 their characteristic trait is their passionate ardour for trade4 ,their principal wares are ivory1 precious woods1 and slaves4 ,they display in their commercial manoeuvres great ability jointed to the most signal bad faith4 ,the ,shekianis occupy1 between the banks of the ,muni and ,la ,mondah1 and those of the ,ogobay1 a territory which stretches to within some two hundred miles of the sea4 ,their appearance is less prepossessing than that of the ,mpongwes4 ,perfidious warriors1 artful traders1 bold and astute hunters2 such are the salient traits of their character4 ,as for the ,fans1 they are cannibals of the worst species1 whose appetite for human flesh leads them even to eat individuals who have died of disease1 and to disinter the dead in order to roast or smoke them4 ,when human flesh fails amongst them1 they buy or steal it from their neighbours4 ,they are1 however1 according to ,m4 ,du ,chaillu1 the handsomest and most gallant-looking negroes of the interior1 and their horrible diet seems to fatten and strengthen them4 ,living in the mountains1 they have that bold free air which distinguishes all mountaineers4 ,illustration3 ,,negroes--,,natives ,,of ,,kidi1 ,,africa ,the ,negro type is seen in all its purity among the populations of ,congo1 ,nigritia1 the ,soudan1 ,dahomey1 and ,timbuctu1 as well as among those of the eastern coast1 below the tenth parallel of north latitude4 ,in the region of the great lakes1 between the coast of ,zanguebar and the ,lakes ,victoria-,nyanza and ,tanganyika1 lie the kingdoms of ,ugogo1 ,unyamezi1 ,unyoro1 ,kidi1 and others1 visited by ,grant and ,speke in their celebrated journey to the sources of the ,nile4 ,the inhabitants of these countries are darkly1 deeply1 beautifully black1 with prominent jaws1 thick lips1 and oblique eyes4 ,some of them1 as1 for instance1 those of ,unyoro1 show a certain amount of taste in their accoutrements1 and drape themselves in the ,romanesque manner with folds of cotton or calico4 ,those of ,kidi wear no other clothing than an apron round the loins2 they carry large rings on the arms1 legs1 and neck2 and arrange their hair in sufficiently complicated tresses4 ,illustration3 ,,kaffir ,,warriors4 ,the ,kaffir and ,hottentot races are spread over all ,southern ,africa1 below the fourteenth degree of south latitude2 the former on the east1 the latter on the west coast4 ,in the hierarchy of races1 the ,kaffirs occupy a rank superior to that of the ,negroes of ,equatorial ,africa4 ,they have neither the pronounced tint nor the broad flat nose of the blacks of ,guinea and the ,soudan4 ,they form great nations1 build towns1 cultivate the land1 and work in metals4 ,their stock throws off four branches3 the handsomest and most cultured is that of the ,zulus1 whose hue is not darker than that of the ,arabs1 and of whom the ,wanikas offer the most conspicuous type4 ,then follow the south ,kaffir branch1 including the ,amacondas and the ,ama-,hupubas2 the ,sofaloa branch1 whose type most nearly approaches the pure ,negro race2 finally1 the ,kaffir-,hottentot branch1 which comprehends the ,makololos1 the ,bakonis1 the ,basoutos1 the ,batouas1 the ,damaras1 people of a clear brown hue1 who have migrated from the north to the south1 driving before them or subjugating the ,hottentots1 with whom they have intermixed4 ,illustration3 ,,hottentots--,a ,,man ,,and ,,woman4 ,the ,hottentot race1 or ,quaiqua1 is characteristic of ,southern ,africa4 ,its origin appears of remote antiquity2 but it formerly dwelt further to the north1 and has been driven back towards the south by the progress of the more warlike ,kaffirs4 ,the ,hottentots are of low stature2 their skin is a yellowish-brown4 ,their head is long1 with projecting forehead and cheek-bones2 flat nose1 thick lips4 ,their women are hideous in face and deformed in body2 as they grow old they grow stout1 and a truly monstrous embonpoint invades the posterior part of their person4 ,morally1 they are in an abject condition1 which must be attributed rather to their sloth and wretchedness than to any lack of intelligence4 ,their sole garment is the carross1 a kind of sheepskin mantle4 ,they live in such low huts that they can only enter them by crawling4 ,some ,hottentot tribes cultivate the soil1 or depasture herds of cattle2 such are the ,bayys1 established on the banks of ,lake ,ngami2 the ,namaquas1 who are distinguished into the great and the little2 and the ,koranas1 who roam along the ,orange ,river4 ,the most miserable members of this family are the ,bosjesmans1 or ,bushmen1 who inhabit the ,kalahari ,deserts1 between the ,cape ,colony and ,kaffraria4 ,the total number of the ,hottentot race probably does not exceed #aej1jjj4 ,i have said that the ,negroes of ,australia and ,papouasia were wholly distinct from those of ,africa4 ,and1 in fact1 ,i can hardly admit that it could ever have been possible for the latter to colonize the ,australian continent and the adjacent islands4 ,what1 then1 is the origin of the ,australians and the ,papuans8 ,according to some anthropologists1 they are descended from that strange race of savages which still exists in ,hindostan1 in the ,nielgherries1 and the ,tra1 between ,palmoco1 ,sumbhulpoor1 and the sources of the ,nerbudda4 ,but whence came the latter8 ,on this subject all historical tradition is dumb1 and science knows not what to think of those black-skinned savages1 with the face of an ape1 a body covered with red hair1 disproportionably long arms1 a protuberant belly1 and who live in the trees like the orangs and the gibbons4 ,illustration3 ,,australians4 ,whatever may be its origin1 the ,pelagian ,negro race now-a-days occupies ,new ,holland1 ,tasmania1 ,new ,caledonia1 ,new ,britain1 ,new ,guinea1 the ,fiji ,islands1 and the ,andaman4 ,it comprehends the ,australians1 the ,papuans1 the ,andamanese1 the ,alfourous1 and some other secondary branches4 ,we often1 but erroneously1 confound the ,australians and ,papuans4 ,while both are black1 they differ markedly from one another1 and the latter are superior to the former4 ,the ,australians are puny and wretched in appearance4 ,they have a protuberant belly1 feeble limbs1 a long but not projecting face1 a depressed skull1 long black frizzled hair4 ,their attire is remarkable for its simplicity3 a kangaroo skin flung over the right shoulder6 ,the custom of painting and tatooing the body is generally adopted among them1 as well as among all savages1 to whatever race they belong1 and whatever part of the world they inhabit4 ,the tribes are distinguished by the colours they make use of1 and by the number and arrangement of the incisions which the warriors make on their limbs1 their chest1 and their shoulders4 ,their arms are spears pointed with heads of jagged flint1 and hatchets of the same material4 ,the indigenous population of ,australia is rapidly decreasing2 it does not exceed a total of #cjjj souls4 ,in ,tasmania the aborigines are reduced to four1 three aged women1 and a young man1 who has recently visited ,england4#ahc ,illustration3 ,,papuans4 ,the ,papuans have not woolly hair1 like the ,australians4 ,their hair grows in separate plaits1 which twine one in another1 and form1 when of some length1 a voluminous and characteristic coiffure4 ,the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea1 according to ,dumont d',urville1 are men of medium stature1 with elegant forms1 oval countenance1 and tolerably regular features4 ,their skin is of a dark brown colour4 ,they appear to be of a timid and unenterprising character4 ,their residence they have planted on the shores of the sea1 where they dwell in long wooden huts1 raised upon piles which are plunged deep in the very waters of ocean4 ,it does not seem that they acknowledge the authority of any chiefs4 ,they know only a few words of the ,malayan language1 and speak the papoua1 which differs from it essentially4 ,the ,andamanese1 or ,andamans1 are of a jet-black colour4 ,their stature rarely exceeds four and a half to five feet4 ,their head is large1 and sunken between the shoulders2 their hair woolly2 most of them are disfigured by protuberant stomach and meagre lower limbs4 ,they go about in an absolute nudeness1 for we cannot regard as any species of clothing the coat of clay or yellow ochre which they plaster over their bodies to protect them against the stings of insects2 the red ochre which the earth supplies them they make use of to powder their hair and paint their face4 ,according to the latest estimates1 the total population of the ,andaman ,islands does not exceed #bjjj individuals4 ,the ,alfourous1 or ,harfourous1 inhabit ,borneo1 the ,celebes1 the ,moluccas1 ,mindanao1 and some other isles4 ,their type has no very definite peculiarity1 and ethnologists seem agreed to consider them a mixed race1 resulting from a cross between the ,papuans and the ,malays1 and forming the transition between the two races4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,savannahs ,,and ,,the ,,forests3--,,the ,,malayo-,,polynesians--,,the ,,north ,,american ,,indians4 ,the ,malayo-,polynesian race has also been designated1 and much more felicitously1 the ,neptunian or ,pelagian1 because it peoples exclusively the peninsulas and islands of the great ,southern ,ocean4 ,it is1 to speak the truth1 an ill-defined1 heterogeneous1 and composite race1 presenting very diverse types4 ,ethnologists1 however1 divide it into two original branches--the ,malayan and the ,polynesian4 ,the ,malays have the skull flattened in the inferior portion1 the malar bones very wide apart1 a flat nose1 an exceedingly wide mouth1 thick lips1 and eyes raised in the direction of the temples2 their yellow skin embrowns by exposure to the sun1 but if sheltered from its rays1 grows almost white1 especially with the females4 ,generally speaking1 they are corrupt1 sanguinary1 and perfidious1 as our seamen wrecked upon their shores have too frequently experienced2 but they are intelligent1 and capable of a certain degree of civilization4 ,the best marked types of this race are found in ,sumatra1 among the anthropophagous ,battas already spoken of1 the ,orang-,lobous1 and the ,pagais4 ,the latter tatoo the body1 says ,maury1#ahd and like the ,nagas of ,assam1 make new marks every time they have killed a foe2 thus bearing about on their own persons the evidences and glorification of their prowess4 ,like the ,michmis of ,assam1 they expose their dead on rudely-constructed scaffolds or platforms1 where they leave them to decay2 a custom which prevails amongst nearly all the ,polynesian populations1 as well as among the ,redskins of ,north ,america4 ,we must therefore conclude that the ,malayan race was1 at the outset1 extremely barbarous4 ,it owes its civilization to the influence of the ,hindus1 and especially to that of the inhabitants of the ,malabar coast4 ,this civilization1 in all its conditions1 the ,malays appear to have transported to ,madagascar1 where they have formed1 by intermixture with the ,negroes of ,africa1 two new races--the ,hovas1 who still preserve distinctly visible affinities with the ,negroes properly so called1 and the ,sakalaves1 who approximate towards the ,kaffirs4 ,illustration3 ,,malays--,,male ,,and ,,two ,,females4 ,these two mixed races comprise in themselves several varieties1 but all bear the common denomination of ,malagasy or ,madecassy4#ahe ,illustration3 ,,hovas ,,of ,,madagascar--,,men1 ,,woman1 ,,and ,,child4 ,according to ,m4 ,maury1 the populations of ,polynesia depart the more completely from the ,malayan type as we advance in an eastward direction2 so that1 from the ,caroline ,islands to the ,marquesas1 and from the ,sandwich ,islands to ,new ,zealand1 they constitute a sufficiently homogeneous race1 the ,polynesians or ,kanaks4#ahf ,this race is represented in the ,sandwich ,islands by an almost white variety1 whose type very closely approaches the ,caucasian race2 in ,new ,zealand1 on the other hand1 by tribes of a dark brown4 ,in the island of ,omba1 situated at the extremity of that vast archipelago which seems in some remote age to have formed an isthmus connecting the ,australian with the ,asiatic continent1 the natives are of a more or less decided olive-brown4 ,their eyes are deep-set and brilliant1 their lips thick1 the mouth is large1 and the nose generally flat1 yet sometimes tolerably well made4 ,they are of medium height1 robust1 and good figures4 ,they wear a scanty beard1 if any2 but their hair is long and thick2 sometimes they suffer it to flow freely about their shoulders1 sometimes they gather it on the top of the head with pieces of vari-coloured stuffs4 ,these savages have a fierce and martial air1 are abrupt in their manners1 and rapid in their movements4 ,they display extraordinary skill in the management of the bow1 and also make use of the ,malayan kris or crease1 which they carry in their girdle4 ,in battle they protect their persons with a breast-plate and a buckler of buffalo hide2 these two pieces of armour are ornamented with shells in regular and pleasing designs4 ,the people of ,omba are anthropophagic4 ,illustration3 ,,warriors ,,of ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,ombai4 ,if now we transport ourselves to the eastern extremity of ,polynesia1 the ,marquesas ,islands1 occupied by ,france in #ahdb1 we shall find there the ,pelagian race under one of its handsomest and most amiable types4 ,the ,kanaks of this group are not exempt from cannibalism4 ,nevertheless1 before the commerce1 civilization1 and vices of ,europe intruded upon their savage ,eden1 they lived in a condition of comparative innocence2 and the corruption which has since invaded them preserves that open and simple character proper to people in whom the capacity of discerning good from evil is but imperfectly developed4 ,a traveller1 who possesses the threefold merit of being an elegant writer1 a judicious observer1 and an accurate narrator1 ,m4 ,max ,radiguet1 has embodied in an agreeable volume1 entitled ,the ,last ,savages1 some lively impressions of a sojourn of several years in the ,marquesas1 and principally at ,noukahiva4 ,it is from his pages that ,i borrow the following sketch of the islanders of this group4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if you would wish1 he says1 to see the ,noukahivian in all his purity1 in all his native elegance1 it is not among the ,tes1 it is among the ,tapis1 and in the other less frequented islands of the group1 that you must seek him4 ,of lofty stature1 well-spread shoulders1 swelling chest1 a shapely figure1 the body lightly set upon the haunches1 the ,noukahivian advances with proud and sometimes arrogant bearing1 but always with a confident mien1 a free and hardy manner4 ,he seems fitted for the race and the escalade rather than for the struggle4 ,he has more the character of the gymnast than of the athlete4 ,his features are regular and handsome1 his nose straight or aquiline1 sometimes short or slightly flattened1 never ill-sloped4 ,the mouth is neither large nor thick-lipped2 the forehead1 rather low and somewhat receding1 is shaved on the upper portion1 whence arises the common saying that the ,kanaks have a high forehead4 ,we may easily portray the physical form of an inhabitant of the ,marquesas2 but it is more difficult to define the eccentricities of his fantastic nature4 ,there is much of the child in his disposition2 he is as insensible1 or nearly so1 to the emotions of gratitude1 and has the same irascible caprice4 ,he is nervous1 restless1 impatient4 ,superstition is one of his prominent failings4 ,he is hospitable2 his first advances are warm1 earnest1 playful2 then1 at the least chill1 and from motives which a stranger cannot always appreciate1 an abrupt revolution takes place1 and he becomes wayward and moody4 ,illustration3 ,,islanders ,,of ,,noukahiva4 ,the women are of medium stature1 their contours frequently modelled with a purity which the sculptor has revealed to us almost alone in ,france4444 ,few women of fashion are more graceful1 if not in their movements1 at least in their attitudes2 and the women of the neighbouring archipelagoes1 the so much eulogized ,tahitians1#ahg appear awkward1 unwieldy1 and sunburnt peasants compared with the exquisitely elegant daughters of ,noukahiva4 ,the ,kanaks talk but little4 ,frequently they convey their thoughts to one another by a play of the physiognomy which ,europeans find it difficult to seize4 ,seated face to face1 the back supported against a stone1 the arms crossed beneath the head1 they regard each other for whole hours without exchanging a single word4 ,in direct contrast to the negro1 they are very sparing both in words and gestures1 when even their dearest interests are involved4 ,slow1 indolent1 averse to labour1 not knowing how to submit themselves to any regular work1 they pass the greatest part of their time stretched in the shadow of the trees on their mats1 sleeping1 singing1 or weaving garlands4 ,and yet1 though they are sensual1 gluttonous1 and careless of the morrow1 they are gifted with a quick wit1 a sound judgment1 and a very accurate conception of right and justice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we do not remark among the numerous tribes scattered over the immense territory of the two ,american continents1 and vaguely comprehended under the denomination of the ,red or ,american race1 differences less profound or characteristic than among the different fractions of the ,negro or ,malayo-,polynesian race4 ,just as1 in speaking of the ,new ,world1 we formerly made use of the expression the ,west ,indies1 or the ,great ,indies1 we also call by the term ,indians all the aboriginal peoples of this portion of the globe1 and the use of this term1 incorrect as it is1 writers as well as readers seem indisposed to surrender4 ,in fact1 it possesses the twofold advantage of being short1 and of not attributing to the peoples which it designates an unity of origin which is doubtful1 or a similitude of colour which does not exist4 ,illustration3 ,,indians ,,of ,,north ,,america--,,the ,,red ,,skins4 ,from the ,north ,pole even to ,tierra del ,fuego1 says ,maury1 there is scarcely a shade of human colouring which is not manifested1 from the black to the yellow4 ,the aborigines1 according to their nation1 are of a brown-olive1 a dark brown1 bronze1 pale yellow1 copper yellow1 red1 white1 brown1 c4 ,their stature does not vary less4 ,between the stature1 not gigantic but very tall1 of the ,patagonians and the dwarf-like proportions of the ,changos1 we meet with a host of intermediary 'sizes4' ,the proportions of the body present the same diversity2 some peoples have the bust very long1 like the tribes of the ,pampas2 others1 short and broad1 like the inhabitants of the ,peruvian ,andes2 the same is the case with the shape and size of the head4 ,yet we recognize between the various ,american populations an air of kinship1 certain general features which distinguish them from the races of the ,old ,world4 ,among these features must be placed1 in the front rank1 the pyramidal form of the head and the narrowness of the forehead--characteristics of great antiquity among the ,american populations1 since they belong to skulls discovered by ,mr4 ,lund in the caves of ,brazil associated with the bones of extinct animals4 ,spite of this diversity of type1 we may divide the ,indians of ,america into two races1 of which one at least1 the ,red ,skins1 is remarkable for its complete homogeneity4 ,the ,red ,skins were formerly distributed over all the upper portion of the ,american continent--that is1 over the territory of ,canada and the ,united ,states1 and the northern districts of ,mexico4 ,in the sixteenth century they numbered a million and a half of souls4 ,they are now reduced to a few thousand families4 ,a few years more1 and ,american rifles1 brandy1 and poverty1 will have completed the extermination of this indomitable race1 which has deserved at least the respect and the recognition due to honourable courage of those who have dispossessed them from the immense territories they formerly enjoyed4 ,it is true1 however1 that we must not take our estimate of the ,red ,skins from the romantic pages of ,chateaubriand or ,fenimore ,cooper4 ,we must not delude ourselves into a belief that the ,north ,american tribes are or were composed of ,deerskins1 ,hawkeyes1 and ,leatherstockings4 ,yet we cannot refuse to them a character of real grandeur and true nobility4 ,their contempt of death and suffering1 their stoical composure under the severest tortures1 their disdain of civilization1 their horror of foreign supremacy1 their haughtiness1 and even their cold and reflective ferocity1 are so many traits which place them1 in a moral sense1 far above the majority of the other savage races4 ,a hundred times in romance1 song1 and drama have been described the manners of the ,red ,skins1 their stratagems in war and the chase1 the perseverance with which they hunt down their enemy or their prey1 their cunning1 their impassiveness1 their vengeance4 ,who among us has not eagerly followed them in their long journeys across the rolling savannahs and through the primeval forests8 ,who has not listened eagerly1 when1 seated round the watch-fire1 with the calumet to their lips1 they have deliberated gravely on peace and war8 ,who has not seen them with alarm dashing to the combat on their nimble chargers1 brandishing the tomahawk and scalping their conquered victims1 whose scalps they hung up in their wigwams as trophies to their prowess8 ,who has not followed them breathlessly when on the trail of a flying foe1 or winding serpent-like through the thick brush-wood in escape from some persistent pursuer8 ,assuredly these men were well worthy of study2 and it is impossible to peruse their history or the narrative of their adventures without a breathless interest4 ,there was poetry in their faith1 in their customs1 in their language at once laconic and picturesque1 and even in the names which they bestowed on each tribe1 each chief1 each warrior4 ,one can hardly suppress a feeling of regret that so much wild romance should have been swept from the face of the earth1 unless we call to mind the shadows of the picture--the ,indian's cruelty1 perfidiousness1 and savage lust4 ,even then our humanity revolts from the treatment to which he has been subjected by the white man4 ,tracked and hunted like wild beasts1 driven back from one hunting-ground to another1 embruted by misery or drunkenness1 incapable of labour1 the poor ,indians have vainly struggled against the all-devouring influence of a civilization without bowels1 ill adapted to attract and persuade them1 and far less solicitous to assimilate than to destroy them4 ,the great nations which were formerly the valued allies or dreaded enemies of the ,european settlers1 the ,hurons1 ,algonquins1 the ,iroquois1 the ,natchez1 the ,leni-,lenapes1 have entirely disappeared4 ,the wrecks of other but less important nations still exist on the shores of the great northern lakes1 in the ,far ,west1 at the base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 in ,california1 in ,texas1 in ,arkansas1 and in the northern provinces and deserts of ,mexico4 ,such are the ,sioux1 the ,dacotahs1 the ,flatheads1 the ,big-,bellies1 the ,blackfoot1 the ,apaches1 the ,comanches4 ,the two latter people have1 above all1 preserved a certain vitality4 ,their characteristics1 it is said1 are very diverse4 ,the ,comanches are of a mild1 gentle nature1 and eager to live on peaceable terms with the ,whites4 ,the ,apaches1 on the contrary1 have vowed a relentless hatred against the ,pale ,faces2 they are the terror of the hacienderos#ahh and gold-seekers of ,upper ,mexico1 and the ,american journals frequently contain accounts of their incursions1 their acts of brigandage1 and cruelty4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,women ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,the most characteristic features of the ,red ,skin type are1 in addition to the colour of the skin and the pyramidal form of the head1 the prominency and arched outline of the nose1 the greatness of the nasal openings1 corresponding to a singular development of the olfactory nerve1 and the absence of beard4 ,several tribes subject the head of the new-born to a systematic mis-shapement by compressing it4 ,hence has arisen the nickname of ,flat-heads1 popularly bestowed on the ,choctaws4 ,the same custom existed among the ,atacapas1 the ,creeks1 the ,muskogis1 and the ,catawhas1 and is found among most tribes of the ,californian stock4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,apaches ,,attacking ,,an ,,emigrant ,,train4 ,the peoples who have alternately dominated in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 and who are now in great part destroyed--the ,chichinequas1 the ,toltequas1 and the ,aztecs--are allied to the ,red ,man by their physical peculiarities as well as by their moral characteristics4 ,the comparatively advanced civilization which the ,spanish conquerors found established in ,mexico had not effaced among the ,indians the sanguinary instincts and vindictive propensities of their savage ancestors4 ,the race1 or rather races which people ,south ,america are very far from offering the same homogeneity as the populations of ,north ,america4 ,these races are four in number1 each of which may be subdivided into several distinct branches4 ,the ,guarani1 or ,carib race1 formerly occupied the ,antilles1 and on the mainland extended as far as ,paraguay4 ,it is principally distinguished by the yellow colour of its skin1 by the rounded contour of its visage1 by the flatness of the nose1 and the oblique disposition of the eyes4 ,it comprises three branches3 that of the ,caribs properly so called1 that of the ,guaranis1 and that of the ,botocoudos4 ,illustration3 ,,guarani ,,indians 7,,south ,,america74 ,the ,caribs1 whose name has become in our common parlance a synonyme with cannibal1 formed at the epoch of the discovery of the ,new ,world the anthropophagic population of the islands of the ,mexican ,gulf4 ,to-day1 however1 it is completely annihilated2 but a few scattered offshoots of the same race inhabit the banks of the ,orinoco4 ,the ,caribs are tall and robust1 and are included among the most ferocious tribes of ,south ,america4 ,the ,guaranis1 in their physiognomy1 the colour of their skin1 and their manners1 approximate closely to the ,red ,skins4 ,they show the same love of independence and the same antipathy to the trammels of civilization4 ,they are dispersed in the ,brazilian forests1 and principally in the province of ,maranhao or ,maragnan4 ,illustration3 ,,patagonians4 ,the ,botocoudos are the least intelligent scions of the ,brazilo-,guarani branch4 ,so great is the resemblance between their features and those of the ,chinese1 that ,auguste ,st4 ,hilaire relates that the ,botocoudos1 having encountered some natives of the ,celestial ,empire in a part of ,brazil1 joyously saluted them with all kinds of amicable demonstrations1 and christened them their uncles4 ,the ,pampas ,indians form a mass of tribes dwelling east of the great ,cordillera range1 from the river ,paraguay to the extreme south of the continent4 ,most of these tribes are nomades2 but1 thanks to the persevering efforts of the ,roman ,catholic missionaries1 they have attained a certain degree of civilization4 ,their type varies according to the climate of the country which they inhabit1 and according to their mode of life4 ,in general they have a large head1 flat on the top1 with small eyes1 a big nose1 large mouth1 and thick lips4 ,they are tall in stature1 and robust-limbed4 ,to this group belong the ,patagonians1 who wander1 almost constantly on horseback1 over the grassy ,pampas of the southern extremity of the continent1 where they depasture immense herds of cattle4 ,former travellers represented the ,patagonians as giants upwards of six and seven feet high1 and wonderful accounts of them figure in the pages of ,drake1 ,cavendish1 and the early navigators4 ,but these are violent exaggerations4 ,the ,patagonians are certainly tall and athletic1 but their stature does not exceed that of most ,europeans1 and assuredly not that of the corps d'lite of the armies of ,england1 ,france1 ,prussia1 and ,austria4 ,their arms and legs are very long4 ,their forehead is exceedingly low2 the eyes are sunken2 the nose1 very thin at the root1 widens greatly at the base2 the lips are very thick2 the complexion is of a reddish-brown tint4 ,they suffer their long black rough hair to grow unchecked1 and to fall over the face in admired disorder4 ,their manners are fierce1 brutal1 and intractable4 ,the ,chiquitos1 who inhabit a wooded and well-watered country1 lead a more sedentary and social life2 they have embraced ,christianity1 and dwell on friendly terms with the ,whites4 ,the ,tohas1 nomades like the ,patagonians1 form a still numerous nation4 ,their skin is copper-hued1 but they have straight eyes1 an aquiline nose1 a free and haughty physiognomy4 ,the ,ando-,peruvian race inhabits the forests which clothe the plateau on the eastern slope of the ,andes4 ,it is characterized by an olive tint1 a medium height1 a receding forehead1 and horizontal eyes4 ,the ,aymaras and the ,quichuas are its principal representatives4 ,the latter1 according to ,orbigny1 do not the least resemble the ,caribs or the ,pampas ,indians1 and approximate much nearer to the ,mexicans4 ,their head is large1 oblong from front to back2 the forehead low and receding1 the face broad1 the nose prominent and aquiline1 the mouth large1 the chin small1 but not retreating4 ,they had attained1 at the time of the ,spanish invasion1 an elevated degree of civilization4 ,they support with difficulty the yoke of the stranger1 and the melancholy with which the remembrance of their past greatness inspires them--the recollection of their vanished independence--is reflected in their grave physiognomy and the sombre and mistrustful expression of their gaze4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fourth ,south ,american race may be considered as a more southernly expansion of the preceding4 ,ethnologists designate it the ,araucanian4 ,the region which it occupies stretches from the #cjth parallel of south latitude to the vicinity of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,the ,araucanians properly so called form three tribes--that of the ,ranquels1 the ,huilliches1 and the ,aucas4 ,they are warriors and nomades4 ,it was in ,araucania that a ,french adventurer1 some few years ago1 was declared king under the title of ,orlie ,antoine ,i4 ,overthrown and captured by the ,chilian ,government1 with whom he had embroiled himself in hostilities1 he succeeded in effecting his escape and returning to ,europe1 where his adventures became a nine days' wonder4 ,to the ,araucanian branch belong the ,pcherais1 an ichthyophagous tribe of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,the natives of these islands1 says ,admiral ,wilkes1#ahi are not more than five feet high1 of a light copper colour1 which is much concealed by smut and dirt1 particularly on their faces1 which they mark vertically with charcoal4 ,they have short faces1 narrow foreheads1 and high cheek-bones4 ,their eyes are small and usually black1 the upper lids in the inner corner overlapping the under one1 and bear a strong resemblance to those of the ,chinese4 ,the nose is broad and flat1 with wide-spread nostrils1 mouth large1 teeth white1 large1 and regular4 ,the hair is long1 lank1 and black1 hanging over the face1 and is covered with white ashes1 which give them a hideous appearance4 ,the whole face is compressed4 ,their bodies are remarkable from the great development of the chest1 shoulders1 and vertebral column2 their arms are long1 and out of proportion2 their legs small1 and ill-made4 ,there is1 in fact1 little difference between the size of the ankle and the leg2 and1 when standing1 the skin at the knee hangs in a large loose fold4 ,in some individuals the muscles of the leg appear almost wanting1 and possess very little strength4 ,this want of muscular development is owing to their constant sitting posture1 both in their huts and canoes4 ,their skin is sensibly colder than ours4 ,it is impossible to fancy anything in human nature more filthy4 ,they are an ill-shapen and ugly race4 ,the ,pecherais build their huts on the shore of boughs or small trees planted in the earth1 their tops woven together1 and roofed with grass or bark4 ,circular in form1 they have generally a diameter of seven to eight feet1 and measure four or five feet in height1 with an oval aperture to serve for an entrance4 ,the fire is built up in a central excavation in the clay floor4 ,the sole1 or at all events the principal1 food of this people is shell-fish4 ,they strike the fish1 or defend themselves1 with rudely-fashioned spears and slings4 ,the women generally paddle the canoes4 ,we also encounter1 in the southern provinces of ,america1 in the midst of the copper-coloured races of whom ,i have already spoken1 a group of ,indians1 almost black1 whom ,prichard1 the illustrious ethnologist1 has designated the ,mediterranean1 and whose features recall in a striking manner those of some of the ,californian tribes4 ,is this resemblance a sign of the close relationship existing between two peoples placed1 as it were1 at the two extremities of the world8 ,we can hardly admit the supposition4 ,it seems more probable that it results from the analogy of the climates1 and perhaps still more surely from that of the soils1 which appear to exercise a mysterious but a powerful influence upon the modification of species and races4 ,illustration ,,book ,v4 ,,the ,,polar ,,deserts--,,the ,,mountains4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,polar ,,deserts4 ,in countries which enjoy an always elevated temperature1 the excess of their fertility is not much more favourable than extreme dryness to the material and moral development of man4 ,there can be no doubt that the exuberant vegetation is a potent cause of the insalubrity of the atmosphere4 ,and thus it comes that civilization1 commerce1 industry1 labour1 have only been able to establish themselves and to make any considerable progress in temperate or even cold countries1 where man has found a climate more healthy1 but at the same time sufficiently unequal1 and often sufficiently inclement1 to compel him to defend himself by various means against the rigour of the atmosphere1 and a soil capable of furnishing him abundantly with the products necessary for his wants1 but on the condition that he gains them by intelligent and persistent toil--by the sweat of his brow4 ,when we arrive under a latitude or a thermometrical mean which exceeds by some degrees that of ,england or ,france1 we find the inhabitants giving way to sloth and indolence2 their manners are at once softer and yet fiercer1 their passions more violent and their tastes more fertile2 arts and poesy occupy them to the neglect of the exact sciences2 industry and commerce languish1 agriculture is despised4 ,but if1 on the contrary1 we proceed towards the north1 we discover a greater degree of civilization1 a warmer devotion to labour4 ,the most industrious peoples of the world1 the ,english and the ,dutch1 inherit a cold1 humid1 and even foggy atmosphere4 ,in ,canada and the northernmost ,states of the ,american ,union1 the ,anglo-,saxon race has lost nothing of its laborious habits and its enterprising audacity4 ,in ,sweden and in ,norway1 in ,russia1 even in ,siberia1 the traveller meets with towns and villages in a flourishing condition up to the #fjth parallel of north latitude and beyond1 under a climate whose mean annual temperature is inferior to the mean winter temperature of ,france1 and where the thermometer frequently descends in winter below--#dj ,r4 ,thus1 then1 we see that the warm bland tropical air enervates the mind as well as the body1 while the cold of the north seems to increase their energy4 ,it is also true that cold climates1 all things considered1 are healthier than hot countries1 where disease is more rapid and fatal in its inroads2 and that1 finally1 civilization furnishes man with the means of protecting himself against the injurious effects of a very low temperature1 while it leaves him without defence against those of excessive heat4 ,we shall see hereafter that the human organism modifies itself1 in the ,polar regions1 in such a manner as to support1 without too great suffering1 a degree of cold which at the outset it appears to us must be absolutely intolerable4 ,we may place between the isothermal lines of #e and of #j the limit where commences the territory which1 in the northern hemisphere1 merits the name of the ,region of the ,polar ,deserts4 ,already1 in effect1 under this glacial latitude1 the landscape assumes a sombre and desolate aspect1 which seems to indicate the propinquity of the funereal glaciers of the ,pole4 ,the daring traveller who beards the ,winter-king in his own realms meets no more with massive and lofty mountain-crests2 a few only of the great chains of ,europe and ,asia--here the ,scandinavian ,alps1 there the ,oural ,mountains2 still further1 at the easternmost extremity of ,asia1 some scattered summits1 which we may consider as belonging to the elevation of the ,altai1 prolong even to the ,arctic shores their cantled and snow-shrouded peaks4 ,everywhere1 also1 immense steppes1 intersected by swamps and relieved with woods of fir and birch1 spread for leagues upon leagues in the dull light of a wintry sky1 until they merge into those rent and rocky plains1 bare of all vegetation except a few lichens and mosses1 which are almost always encrusted in glittering snow and ice1 and mingle in the distance with the frost-bound waters of the ,arctic ,sea4 ,it is in ,america that these icy deserts are most extensive2 not only because that continent stretches much nearer the ,pole than does the ,old ,world1 but because1 owing to its geographical disposition and geological structure1 it is much more exposed1 even towards the south1 to that combined action of the atmosphere1 land1 and water1 whose effects constitute the ,arctic climate4#aij ,this climate1 then1 prevails over nearly the whole of ,danish ,america1 the recently-acquired possessions of the ,united ,states1 the ,hudson's ,bay ,territory1 and ,labrador1 down to that inconsiderable watershed which separates from the tributaries of ,hudson's ,bay1 the three basins of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the five great lakes1 and the ,mississippi4 ,this line of watershed undulates between the #ebnd and #dith parallel of latitude1 from ,belle-,isle ,strait to the sources of the ,saskatchewan1 in the ,rocky ,mountains1 where it inflects towards the ,pacific ,ocean1 skirting on the north the basin of the ,columbia4 ,thus circumscribed on the side of the south1 say ,messieurs ,herv and ,f4 de ,lanoye1#aia the ,arctic lands of ,america1 including the archipelagoes of the north and north-east1 cannot measure less than #efj1jjj square leagues4 ,they therefore greatly exceed in superficies the mass of the ,european lands1 estimated at about #dij1jjj square leagues4 ,the same authors divide the ,arctic lands into three regions1 of which one--they name it the ,province of the ,north-,west--belongs rather to those undulating ,prairies described in ,book ,,iii4 than to the ,polar ,deserts4 ,the two others are the ,middle or ,wooded ,region1 and the ,barren ,landes4 ,the ,wooded ,region comprehends the basins of the ,upper ,mackenzie1 the ,churchill1 the ,nelson1 and the ,severn4 ,hudson's ,bay cuts into it on the east with its deep anfractuosities4 ,the navigation of this ,mediterranean of the ,north1 open to the currents and to the drift of the ,polar ices1 begins only in the month of ,june1 to close in that of ,september2 yet in this interval the obstruction of the ices is so great that it occupies a stout vessel two months to traverse the diameter of the bay4 ,along the littoral of this sea the soil never thaws below the surface1 and it often freezes on the very surface in the middle of summer4 ,like a fierce and despotic tyrant does ,winter reign on these shores for from eight to nine months4 ,from the end of ,september the earth1 the rivers which flow into the bay1 their affluents1 and the chaplet of lakes which connect them with one another1 all disappear under a layer of hoar-frost4 ,the provinces of ,new ,wales and of ,maine do not enjoy for a longer period than three months the temperature of #aa 7centigrades71 necessary for the development of vegetation4 ,the southern shores of the ,great ,bear and ,slave ,lakes possess that temperature for only two months at the most4 ,it is not until the month of ,may that the thermometer rises ever so little above zero in the ,wooded ,region1 and that a breath of life passes into the plants4 ,then only the reddish shoots of the willows1 the poplar trees1 and the birches attire themselves in their long cottony pods2 the thickets grow green2 the dandelion1 the burdock1 and the saxifrages flourish at the foot of the rocks2 then the sweet-brier1 the gooseberry1 and the strawberry put forth their fruity burden2 and above these dwarf shrubs the pines1 the larches1 the thuyas display all the luxury of their sombre verdure4 ,but at the same time the melted snows have transformed the soil1 recently so hard and polished like marble1 into peaty bogs1 where myriads of mosquitoes swarm--an intolerable scourge1 which the traveller can only escape by surrounding himself with clouds of smoke4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,desert ,,of ,,ice 7,,arctic ,,pole74 ,the commencement of the region of ,barren ,landes is marked by a line drawn from the mouth of the ,churchill in ,hudson's ,bay to ,mount ,st4 ,elias on the ,pacific coast1 and passing by the southern shores of the ,bear and the ,slave ,lakes4 ,to the north of this region it loses itself in the eternal ices1 with the last shores of the ,parry ,archipelago2 to the east and to the north-east1 the conformity of the soil and the identity of the climate include within it the greatest part of ,labrador and all ,greenland1 from which it is only separated accidentally by the breaking up of the ices which constantly solidify ,baffin's ,bay1 and renders so difficult1 in those districts1 the distinction between land and water4 ,in these vast countries1 say the writers already quoted1 the primitive crust of the globe preserves still the chaotic character which it assumed at the moment that its fluid elements congealed4 ,except at the bottom of the ravines and hollows1 where each winter's thaw has accumulated long tracts of moss and the wrecks of dwarf willows--the embryo vegetation of the ,polar clime--the slow action of the ages has nowhere oxidized this rough rude surface to the extent of clothing with a layer of mould its abrupt nakedness4 ,there no transitionary stratum extends between the primeval granite and the erupted rocks4 ,there1 prolonged chains of trachyte1 and gigantic causeways of basalt1 display again their strata as regular1 their ridges as keen1 their rents as deep1 as on the morrow of that day when they emerged from the original chaos4 ,at a great number of points1 as at the bottom of ,repulse ,bay and in the interior of ,melville ,island1 whole skeletons of whales elevated from the depths of ocean1 with the submarine layer wherein death had ensepulchred them1 have not received in all the ages that have passed by since their exposure to the day any other shroud than the snows of successive winters1 which1 melting before the suns of successive summers1 annually uncovers their whitened bones1 irrefragable proofs of a great geological law4 ,in ,asia1 the isothermal line of #j descends even towards the #eeth parallel of latitude--that is to say1 a little lower than in ,america2 but beyond this line we meet again1 as ,i have already said1 with towns of some importance1 such as ,tobolsk1 the capital of ,siberia1 in lat4 #eh #aa' north2 ,irkutsk1 in lat4 #eh #af' north2 and ,iakutsk1 in lat4 #fb4 ,all this northern part of ,siberia is only distinguished by the greater rigour of its climate1 and by a more and more scanty vegetation from the great ,steppes1 of which it is the continuation4 ,however1 the north-eastern extremity1 comprising the peninsula of ,kamtschatka1 bristles with volcanic mountains which still exhibit some craters in activity1 notably those of ,avatcha and ,klioutchevsko1 or ,klutschew4 ,the latter belches forth its fires from one of the loftiest summits of the globe4 ,in ,continental ,europe1 the only ,polar ,lands1 properly so called1 are ,russian ,lapland and the deeply-indented coast of ,northern ,russia4 ,to the north of the most advanced point of that coast1 and separated from the continent by a narrow arm of the sea1 lie three almost contiguous islands1 which form ,nova ,zembla 7lat4 #fh #ej' to #gf north72 desert islands1 inhabited by a few fishermen1 and containing a few vegetables and animals4 ,the western side of the group is traversed by a mountain-range #bjjj feet in height4 ,finally1 almost in the centre of the ,frozen ,sea1 and at nearly equal distances from the ,old and the ,new ,world1 rises the gloomy archipelago of ,spitzbergen 7that is1 the ,peaked ,mountains71 first visited by ,barentz in #aeif1 and lying between the parallels of #gg and #ha1 and the meridians of #aj and #bd east of ,greenwich4 ,their summits1 ,i need hardly tell you1 are shrouded in eternal ice and snow1 and separated by narrow valleys1 or rather ravines1 mostly occupied with those slowly-moving ice-rivers called glaciers4 ,the surrounding seas swarm with fish1 and the frozen wastes of the islands are haunted by the ,arctic fox1 the reindeer1 and the white bear4 ,the walrus and the seal live upon their shores1 which bristle everywhere with lofty granitic rocks1 and glaciers that plunge down into the very waters4 ,their extremities are constantly throwing off huge masses of ice1 which float out to sea1 and in the shape of icebergs appal and threaten the mariner4 ,except during a brief interval of summer1 the access to ,spitzbergen is barred by a formidable barrier of ice1 and the channels between the different islands are so blocked up by the same material1 that it was long doubted whether ,spitzbergen was not one large island deeply fissured and intersected by creek and gulf4 ,it is wholly uninhabited1 but the voyager landing at certain points of the coast--in ,madeleine ,bay1 for example--treads at every step upon human bones thickly scattered over the snow1 pell-mell with the bones of bears and seals1 and upon the ghastly memorials of empty or half-open coffins4 ,these are the remains1 the last relics1 of unfortunate seamen slain by cold and hunger in these desolate regions4 ,for want of strength to dig decent graves1 on account of the thickness of the ice1 the survivors load the coffins with pieces of rock to act as a rampart against the wild beasts4 ,but the great man in a pelisse1 as the ,norwegian hunters denominate the white bear1 has stout arms1 and1 impelled by famine1 he frequently succeeds in displacing the stones1 and making a hideous banquet off the frozen bodies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the very ocean which washes this gloomy coast shows us the ,arctic ,desert under a form which is at once more imposing1 more majestic1 and more terrible4 ,on its surface float vast fields1 mountains1 and banks of ice1 far more formidable to the mariner than the typhoons and cyclones of the ,torrid ,zone4 ,these floating ice-mountains proceed1 as ,i have said1 from the terrestrial glaciers which1 in these latitudes1 descend to the margin of the sea1 frequently project a considerable distance beyond the coast1 and1 loosened by their own weight or by the incessant clash and collision of the waves1 splinter into enormous fragments4 ,hence it is that their ice1 when liquefied1 supplies a fresh1 sweet1 and wholesome water for drinking purposes4 ,their outlines are of the most fantastic1 and often of the most beautiful character2 old ruined keeps of ,norman castles1 long lines of frowning battlements1 minarets and domes of ,moorish mosques1 and the tapering spires1 arched roofs1 and flying buttresses of medival cathedrals4 ,lit up by the radiance of an ,arctic sun1 they wear a most singular and weird beauty1 and probably the time may come when the artist will gain that inspiration from their sublime or graceful shapes which he now seeks in the forest1 on the sea-shore1 or in the pine-clad mountain-glen4 ,masses of ice rise every year from the bosom1 so to speak1 of the ,polar ,sea1 and accumulating together1 and with the ruins of half-dissolved icebergs1 gradually develop into immense ice-fields1 which have often an area of several thousand square yards4 ,their thickness varies1 but is always considerably inferior to that of the icebergs4 ,it is not uncommon1 however1 for them to attain an elevation of #cjj feet1 and you can form an idea of their gigantic dimensions by recollecting that the submerged portion will be from four to eight times the height of that which rises above the waves4 ,during the winter1 mountains and fields of ice congeal together in such wise as to spread over the ocean a compact and impenetrable crust1 an immense desert of snow1 broken up by walls and columns--,i should rather say1 by monuments--of fantastic design1 whose radiant glittering surfaces reflect in changing lights of amethyst1 azure1 vermilion1 gold1 and emerald1 the wondrous fires of the northern auroras4 ,when1 after a long absence1 the sun returns to dart obliquely his rays upon the ,pole1 all this crust splits up and becomes dislocated2 the confusion spreads2 the ocean-currents carry off to sea the blocks and floes of ice which roll1 and glide1 and chase1 and cross each other1 hurtling together in an indescribable mle1 and with a fearful tempest of sounds6 ,this is not the place to speak of the dangers which beset the seaman who dares to penetrate into the silent recesses of the ,polar ,seas4 ,and1 indeed1 a tale so often told would have little interest for the ,english reader1 who cannot fail to be familiar with the adventures of the ,arctic explorers1 from ,hudson to ,m',clure1 through the long list of honoured and immortal names--,parry1 ,ross1 ,franklin1 ,scoresby1 ,davis1 ,m',clintock1 and ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert4 ,too many1 alas6 have fallen victims to their heroic courage1 and the most fortunate have not returned in safety without accomplishing prodigies of valour and energy1 without undergoing the severest privations and most terrible sufferings4 ,their efforts and their sacrifices1 let us add1 have not been barren4 ,not only has the great ,north-,west ,passage from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific been finally explored1 but the discovery of an open and comparatively warm sea around the geographical pole of our globe--the discovery1 too1 of the magnetic pole1 and of the double pole of cold--ought to be ranked with the most brilliant scientific achievements on which our age can pride itself4 ,thanks to those heroes of science1 the ,arctic ,polar region is now extensively known and very generally surveyed4 ,it is not possible to say so much of the ,antarctic ,polar region4 ,there the approach is not facilitated by any continent1 or1 indeed1 any fraction of a continent4 ,the ,land of ,fire 7,tierra del ,fuego71 which is the nearest point1 is not calculated to brighten the hopes of the explorer1 and the difficulties and perils which oppose themselves to his southward progress seem insurmountable4 ,three illustrious travellers--sons of ,england1 ,france1 and ,america respectively--,sir ,james ,ross1 ,dumont ,d',urville1 and ,rear-,admiral ,charles ,wilkes1 attempted1 however1 in the first half of the present century1 to penetrate the mystery which enshrouds this extremity of our globe4 ,after sailing for many days amongst prodigious icebergs1 which sometimes threatened to crush his ships1 and sometimes to immure them in a gloomy prison1 ,dumont ,d',urville considered himself fortunate in sighting1 on the very line of the ,antarctic ,circle1 a range of black rocky cliffs which he named ,clarie ,coast and ,adelie ,land4 ,about the same time ,rear-,admiral ,wilkes discovered1 in #fg #d' south latitude1 and #adg #cj' east longitude1 a bay which he called the ,bay of ,disappointment1 because he found himself there stopped short by impassable ice1 and deceived in his hope of reaching the ,austral ,continent4 ,the same navigator1 in #fe #ei' south latitude1 and #aje #ah' east longitude1 saw1 or thought he saw1 an extent of coast which he computed at #fe miles in length1 and #cjjj feet in elevation above the sea-level4 ,this coast appeared to him entirely covered with snow4 ,disembarking at the point mentioned1 he ascertained the presence1 under the snow1 of clay1 red granite1 and basalt1 but no sign of stratification4 ,on the beach1 frequented by the ,cachalot whale1 the seal1 and legions of sea-birds1 were found numerous zoophytes and some small crustaceans4 ,illustration3 ,,adelie ,,land 7,,antarctic ,,ocean74 ,the accuracy of the ,american navigator's observations has been1 however1 disputed by geographers1 and in #ahda ,sir ,james ,ross demonstrated that the threshold of this problematical continent was1 at least in certain places1 much more distant than ,wilkes had supposed4 ,sir ,james himself discovered1 between #gj and #gh south latitude1 an extensive tract of land which he named ,south ,victoria1 and which extends nearer the ,south ,pole than any other yet known4 ,its shores are rendered imposing by a line of lofty and snow-crowned mountains1 some of which are volcanic4 ,to two of the more majestic of these the ,english voyager gave the names of his two ships--,mount ,erebus and ,mount ,terror4 ,the former is #ab1djj feet in height4#aib ,sir ,james ,ross traced the continents of this desolate icy coast for seven hundred miles1 until his progress was arrested by a solid impenetrable barrier of lofty ice4 ,he reached1 however1 on another meridian1 the latitude of #gh #d' south1 the nearest approach yet made to the ,antarctic ,pole4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,and ,,vegetable ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,deserts4 ,the mantle which ,flora has spread over the naked body of this earth is1 says ,humboldt1 unequally woven4 ,thickest in those places where the sun soars to a great altitude in a cloudless sky1 it is of thinner texture towards the poles1 where ,nature seems benumbed and torpid1 where the precipitate return of frost leaves no time for the buds to unfold1 and surprises the fruits before they have attained maturity4 ,the number of plants capable of withstanding the prolonged and terrible ,arctic winters1 and of contenting themselves with the scanty heat and light which the pale sun of those regions pours upon them during his brief stay above the horizon1 is1 in effect1 very limited4 ,we have seen1 in the preceding chapter1 how restricted is the flora of that part of the ,american polar lands which has received the somewhat ambitious appellation of the ,wooded ,region4 ,this flora1 so poor and stunted1 is nevertheless the flora of a comparatively fortunate zone4 ,we find it1 with some variations1 to the north of ,sweden1 ,russia1 and ,siberia4 ,there we encounter those ultimate masses of foliage which have any pretensions to the title of ,forests--,pines1 ,firs1 ,elms1 and ,birches are the only species which compose them4 ,further north these trees form but small woods1 alternating with clumps of poplars and dwarf willows4 ,the ,myrtle of our sub-,alpine forests1 and a small winding ,honeysuckle1 with rounded leaves1 rosy and fragrant flowers1 cover in certain places considerable surfaces4 ,still further north the arborescent species are completely wanting2 but vivacious plants1 belonging to the families of ,ranunculace1 ,saxifragace1 ,crucifer1 and ,gramine1 spread out their flowers on the surface of the rocks4 ,to the firs and birches1 already so stinted1 succeed1 in the same localities1 a few scattered shrubs2 among others1 the thorny ,gooseberry bush1 the common ,strawberry1 the ,raspberry-pseudo-,mulberry 7,rubus ,chammorus7--exclusively indigenous to these regions--and the ,oleander of ,lapland 7,rhododendron ,laponicum74 ,still advancing northward1 we meet1 on the extreme confines of the continent1 some ,dravas 7,crucifer71 ,potentillas 7,rosace71 ,bur-weeds and ,rushes 7,cyperace71 and1 finally1 a few ,mosses and ,lichens4 ,the commonest mosses are the ,splechnum1 which resemble small umbels2 and1 in moist localities1 the ,sphagnum1 or ,bog-,moss1 whose successive accumulation1 from a very remote epoch1 has formed1 with the detritus of some ,cyperace1 extensive breadths of peat1 which might be utilized as a combustible4 ,the lichens and the mosses are the last plants which1 owing to the simplicity of their organization1 are able to develop and reproduce themselves on the ,arctic rocks and under the dense layer of snow which covers them4 ,their abundance in almost all the polar wastes1 where every other nutritious plant is wanting1 proves an inestimable benefit for the few inhabitants of those deserts4 ,it will suffice to mention1 as representatives of the singular family of ,cryptogams1 the ,iceland ,moss1 which medical science employs in the treatment of pulmonary diseases2 and the ,reindeer ,moss1 whose foliaceous expansions frequently cover vast extents of soil1 and form veritable pasture-grounds where the reindeer find almost their only nutriment4 ,but if the ,polar ,flora offers few details of interest1 it is otherwise with the ,polar ,fauna4 ,the most important orders of the ,animal ,kingdom1 and particularly of the class ,mammalia1 are there represented by species not less worthy of attention than those that people the savage countries of the torrid and temperate zones4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the ,ruminantia we may mention the ,eland and the ,stag of ,canada1 which range--the former in the ,old and ,new ,continents1 the latter in the ,new ,world only--to a very high latitude2 but1 to confine myself to the characteristic species of the ,hyperborean ,fauna1 ,i shall here speak only of the ,musk-,ox and the ,reindeer4 ,the ,musk-,ox1 or ,ovibos 7,ovibos ,moschatus71 is1 as its zoological name indicates1 an intermediate animal between the ox and the sheep4 ,smaller than the former1 larger than the latter1 he reminds us equally of both in his form and appearance4 ,he has an obtuse nose2 horns broad at the base1 covering the forehead and crown of the head1 and curving downwards between the eye and ear until about the level of the mouth1 where they turn upwards2 the tail is short1 and almost lost in the thickness of the hair1 which is generally of a dark brown1 and of two kinds1 as with all the animals of ,polar regions1--a long hair1 which on some parts of the body is thick and curled1 and1 beneath it1 a fine kind of soft1 ash-coloured wool2 the legs are short and thick1 and furnished with narrow hoofs1 resembling those of the moose4 ,the female is smaller than the male1 and has also smaller horns4 ,her general colour is black1 except that the legs are whitish2 and along the back runs an elevated ridge or mane of dusky hair4 ,the musk-ox1 as might be inferred from his name1 exhales a strong odour of musk1 with which his very flesh is impregnated1 and which communicates itself to the knife employed in cutting him up4 ,not the less is he esteemed a precious prey by the ,indians and ,eskimos1 who hunt him actively4 ,he wanders in small herds over the rocky prairies which stretch to the north of the great lakes of ,north ,america4 ,he is an irascible animal1 and will fight desperately in defence of the female4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,reindeer 7,cervus ,turandus7 is about the size of our ,english stag1 but of a squatter and less graceful form4 ,he stands about four feet six inches high4 ,his head is crowned with remarkably long and slender horns2 and they have branched1 recurved1 and round antlers1 whose summits are palmated4 ,his colour is brown above and white beneath2 but as the animal advances in age1 it changes into a grayish-white1 and is sometimes almost wholly white4 ,the nether part of the neck droops like a kind of hanging beard4 ,his hoofs are large1 long1 and black2 and so are the secondary hoofs behind4 ,the latter1 while the reindeer is running1 make by their collision a curious clattering sound1 which may be heard at a considerable distance4 ,this species formerly spread over ,europe and ,asia to a tolerably low latitude4,csar particularizes it among the animals of the ,hercynian ,forest4 ,even at the present day troops of wild reindeer traverse the wooded summits of the prolongation of the ,ural ,mountains4 ,they advance between the ,don and the ,volga to the #dfth parallel of latitude2 and they extend their wanderings even to the foot of the ,caucasus1 on the banks of the ,kouma4 ,but their true habitat is that belt of ice and snow bounded by the ,arctic polar circle1 or1 more properly1 by the isothermal line of #j centigrade4 ,both the wild and the tame reindeer1 says ,desmoulins1 change their feeding-grounds with the seasons4 ,in winter they descend into the plains and valleys2 in summer they take refuge upon the mountains1 where the wild herds gain the loftiest terraces1 the more easily to escape the attacks of gadflies and other insect enemies4 ,it is very remarkable that each species of animal has1 so to speak1 his insect parasite4 ,the oestre so terrifies the reindeer that the mere appearance of one in the air will infuriate a herd of a thousand animals4 ,as it is then the moulting season1 these insects deposit their eggs in the skin1 where the larv lodge and multiply ad infinitum1 incessantly renewing centres of suppuration4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reindeer ,,of ,,lapland4 ,to the natives of ,north ,america1 says a zoologist1 the reindeer is only known as a beast of chase1 but he is a most important one4 ,there is hardly a part of the animal which is not made available to some useful purpose4 ,clothing made of the skin is1 according to ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 so impervious to the cold1 that1 with the addition of a blanket of the same material1 any one so clothed may bivouac on the snow with safety in the most intense cold of an ,arctic winter's night4 ,the venison1 when in high condition1 has several inches of fat on the haunches1 and said to equal that of the fallow-deer in our best ,english parks3 the tongue and some of the tripe are reckoned most delicious morsels4 ,pemmican is formed by pouring one-third part of melted fat over the pounded meat1 and incorporating them well together4 ,the ,eskimos and ,greenlanders consider the stomach or paunch1 with its contents1 a great delicacy2 and ,captain ,sir ,james ,ross says that these contents form the only vegetable food which the natives of ,boothia ever taste4#aic 99 99 99 99 99 ,the order of ,rodents has no other representatives in the ,arctic ,deserts than the ,arctic ,hare and the ,alpine ,lagomys4 ,the former is a little larger than our ,european hare4 ,his abundant fur1 gray in summer1 grows white in winter1 and affords him protection1 by a merciful provision of nature1 against the carnivorous beasts of prey4 ,it becomes impossible to discern him from the snowy mantle which covers all the earth4 ,he is a native of ,labrador and ,greenland4 ,the ,lagomys are small animals1 scarcely exceeding the ,guinea-pig in size1 and measuring only nine inches in length4 ,his long head is ornamented with a pair of short1 broad1 and rounded ears4 ,he inhabits the ,alta ,mountains1 but extends even into ,kamtschatka1 seeking an asylum in the wooded tracts among the mossy rocks and flashing waterfalls1 lodging in the fissures or burrowing in the most sequestered corners4 ,during the autumn he lays up a store of winter provision by collecting the finest grass and moss and herbs4 ,these he dries in the sun1 and disposes in small heaps or hayricks1 which vary in size according to the number of animals employed1 and frequently furnish the sable-hunter with provender for his horse in the hour of direst emergency4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the group of ,arctic ,carnivora1 more numerous than the reader would at the first glance suppose1 includes those animals which furnish commerce with the costliest furs4 ,except the ,fox and the ,white ,bear1 of which ,i shall presently speak1 all these ,carnivora belong to the family which has for its type the long-spined animal--the common ,european ,weasel 7,mustela7--and which borrows from it its zoological appellation of ,mustelid4 ,in this family the most remarkable genera are undoubtedly the ,martens1 the ,polecats1 the ,gluttons1 and the ,otters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,martens of the ,north are cousins-german of the weasels1 so justly feared by our farmers and villagers on account of the extensive depredations which they commit in the poultry-yard4 ,the martens are not less ferocious2 but in the fir and birch forests which they inhabit1 it is upon the small rodents1 the birds1 and1 when necessity prompts1 upon the reptiles1 that they exercise their sanguinary tyranny4 ,they scale trees as nimbly as cats2 and their flexible body enables them to introduce themselves into the smallest openings1 where a cat could not pass1 and into the burrows and fissures of the trees or rocks which serve as an asylum for their victims4 ,they are1 moreover1 very pretty animals1 with lively manners1 a cunning physiognomy1 and a rich furry attire4 ,besides the ordinary marten1 which is found in all the north of ,europe1 zoologists distinguish in this genus several species exclusively indigenous to the coldest regions of the two continents4 ,the most renowned for the beauty of his coat is the ,zibelline1 or ,sable1 which we must look for in ,northern ,russia and ,siberia4 ,its hairs1 whose general shade is a grayish-brown1 possess this singular property1 which distinguishes them from every other kind of fur--they have no particular inclination1 and consequently may be laid down indifferently in any direction whatever4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,ermine ,,and ,,sable-,,marten4 ,the genus ,polecat 7,mustela putarius7 comprehends the smallest of all known ,carnivora--the ,weasel1 the ,ferret1 and the ,ermine4 ,the temperate countries of ,europe possess one variety of the latter species2 but the ermines of the extreme north have a much fuller and softer fur4 ,these animals1 like many others1 change their garb according to the season4 ,the ermine1 which poets have adopted as the emblem of purity1 on account of his spotless whiteness1 in reality only merits that dangerous honour in the winter2 it is then only that he assumes that immaculate robe which the proudest monarchs are content to wear4 ,in summer its colour is a clear maroon4 ,his tail alone remains at all times of a beautiful shining black4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,glutton 7,gulo ,arcticus7 is a carnivorous quadruped of a very voracious nature1 about the size of a large badger1 between which and the polecat he appears to form a link4 ,his legs are short and robust2 he has a compact body1 large head1 and unwieldy gait4 ,his ears are small2 his tail is short and tufted4 ,his skin is a black brown on the top of the head and back2 a white line extends along each flank1 from the shoulder to the root of the tail4 ,the muzzle is black2 the remainder of the body a deep brown4 ,like most of the mammals of the ,polar region1 he has two kinds of hair--the upper long and coarse1 the lower soft1 fine1 and of an uniform brown colour4 ,the glutton owes his name to his extreme voracity4 ,he does not fear to attack animals of the size of the reindeer2 he leaps upon them1 fastens his claws in them1 rends them to pieces1 until at length they fall exhausted4 ,after having gorged himself on their flesh and blood1 he hides the remainder for another repast4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the genus ,otter 7,lutra vulgaris7 comprehends several species1 distributed over nearly all the countries of the world4 ,i shall here speak only of the ,otter of ,kamtschatka1 or ,sea ,otter 7,enhydra lutris71 so named on account of his essentially aquatic habits4 ,he weighs from seventy to eighty pounds4 ,in full season his colour is perfectly black2 at other times1 of a dark brown4 ,he attains the length of three feet1 including his tail2 has hind-feet resembling those of a seal2 the upper jaw is armed with six1 and the lower with four incisors4 ,the grinders are broad1 and well adapted for crunching crustaceous animals4 ,he runs with great rapidity1 and swims with astonishing ease and swiftness4 ,of late years1 however1 he has been the object of so murderous a chase on the part of the ,russian and ,american hunters that he has almost disappeared from the ,polar shores4 ,the skins of the sea otter are much prized by the ,chinese1 who pay for them from seventy to one hundred roubles a-piece4 ,very few ever reach the ,european market4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among those ,carnivora which are able to accommodate themselves to the severest climates1 ,i may mention the ,foxes4 ,these animals attire themselves1 under the ,polar latitudes1 in a fur of sufficient thickness to endure the intense cold they are required to support2 and this fur is esteemed among the most precious varieties1 under the names of ,isatis skin1 ,white ,fox1 ,black1 ,blue1 and ,tricoloured ,foxskins4 ,the shades vary according to ,reynard's habitat1 his age1 and also the season2 they correspond in like manner to the differences of race1 but not to the differences of species4 ,the most valuable skins are obtained from those foxes which belong to very cold countries2 and it seems that as they recede from a certain latitude1 they lose their value4 ,some ,blue ,foxes were killed by our hunters1 says ,madame ,lonie d',aunet1 which were stunted and ugly4 ,the ,spitzbergen foxes do not in any respect resemble the foxes of ,iceland or ,siberia1 whose fur is so beautiful and in such high repute4 ,that they may be thoroughly protected from the cold1 they do not wear upon their bodies a fur so much as several thick folds or layers of very thick hair1 so intermingled and threaded that it is rather a mattress than a coat of fur4 ,moreover1 instead of being of a somewhat tawny colour1 like the ,iceland foxes1 they are of an ashen-gray4 ,their skin1 nevertheless1 is excellently adapted for making carpets4 ,i see no intermediaries between the small ,carnivora we have just passed in review1 and the formidable tyrant of the icy ,deserts1 the ,polar or ,marine ,bear 7,ursus marinus71 popularly known as the ,white ,bear2 an improper appellation1 as it confounds the ,bear of the ,arctic ,seas with the ,albino variety of the ,common ,bear4 ,the former constitutes a perfectly distinct species1 whose characteristics1 apart from the yellowish-white colour of his rich soft fur1 are a flattened and elongated head1 a long neck1 high legs1 and feet whose conformation is admirably adapted to the habitat and amphibious existence of the animal4 ,in fact1 the sole of each foot is garnished with a thick fleece1 which permits the ,arctic bear to walk on the ice as on a carpet1 and the toes are connected by a membrane which renders them eminently fit for natatory purposes4 ,the ,arctic bear seldom visits the land2 his favourite sojourn is the floating ice-field1 and his diet the corpses of whales and seals1 or even living ,phoc1 which he fearlessly attacks at the impulse of hunger4 ,on seeing his intended prey1 says ,captain ,lyon1 he gets quietly into the water1 and swims until to leeward of him1 from whence1 by frequent short dives1 he silently makes his approaches1 and so arranges his distances that at the last dive he comes to the spot where the seal is lying4 ,if the poor animal attempts to escape by rolling into the water1 he falls into the bear's clutches2 if1 on the contrary1 he lies still1 his destroyer makes a powerful spring1 kills him on the ice1 and devours him at leisure4 ,in cases of urgency the bear does not scruple to make a prey of man1 and he is assuredly a formidable antagonist4 ,his dimensions are enormous2 he is endowed with prodigious strength4 ,some individuals have been met with who measured nine to ten feet in length4 ,their average size is about six feet in length1 and about three in height1 to the top of the shoulder4 ,spite of their ferocity1 which with them1 as with nearly all the ,carnivora1 is a natural consequence of their appetite1 the white bears are sociable in their habits3 they frequently wander about in small troops1 and those of a family invariably flock together4 ,the male1 the mother1 and their young are united by the ties of an affection which is capable of the most intrepid devotion4 ,the female especially watches over her cubs with the most anxious solicitude1 and defends them to the last extremity4 ,of this philoprogenitiveness a voyager relates what seems to me a truly pathetic example3-- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,white ,,bear ,,and ,,her ,,cubs4 ,a vessel belonging to a small squadron commanded by ,captain ,philippe was caught in the ,polar ice4 ,one morning1 the look-out man signalled the approach of three bears1 which were advancing rapidly towards the vessel1 attracted by the odour of some seal's flesh roasted on the previous evening4 ,the three consisted of a she bear and her two cubs4 ,the seamen at a suitable moment fired at the latter1 and killed them4 ,the mother was also wounded1 but not mortally4 ,it was a spectacle which drew tears from the least susceptible to see the marks of sorrow and tenderness lavished by this poor beast upon her young4 ,she carried to them a piece of the flesh which she had taken possession of1 and divided it into two portions1 which she placed before them4 ,seeing that they did not eat1 she touched them alternately with her fore-paws1 and endeavoured to raise them1 uttering at the same time the most lamentable groans4 ,then she withdrew1 halted a few paces1 and summoned her little ones by a low sad cry4 ,as they remained insensible to her appeal1 she returned to them1 moved them anew1 smelt them on every side1 dragged them some distance1 again returned1 still moaning and bewailing1 licked their wounds1 called them2 and finally1 when assured that they had ceased to live1 and understanding what had transpired1 she stood half erect by a great effort1 turned towards the ship1 and gave vent to a roar of agony and rage1 an unmistakable imprecation against her murderers4 ,the latter replied with a discharge of musketry4 ,the poor bear fell smitten between her two little ones1 and died licking their wounds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among other ,mammiferous animals belonging to the ,polar regions1 my space only permits me a brief allusion to the ,seal and the ,walrus4 ,the ,seal 7,phoca vitulina7 seems to the eye a compound of the fish and the quadruped2 having the tail of the former1 the head1 spine1 and body of the latter4 ,its physiognomy is remarkable for its peculiarly mild and intelligent expression4 ,its elongated1 conical body tapers from the shoulders to the tail4 ,its feet are of singular construction4 ,they are covered with a membrane1 and so united to the body that they might be mistaken for fins1 but for the sharp strong claws that terminate them4 ,seals swim with great rapidity1 and can remain under water for a considerable period4 ,the species are very numerous4 ,the ,greenland or ,harp ,seal 7,phoca ,greenlandica7 measures about six feet in length4 ,the ,bearded ,seal 7,p4 barbata7 is from seven to ten feet long4 ,the largest known species is the ,elephant ,seal or ,sea-,elephant 7,macrorhinus proboscideus71 whose girth at the largest part of the body is from fifteen to eighteen feet1 and its length from twenty-five to thirty feet4 ,it is a native of the ,antarctic ,seas4 ,the ,sea-,lion 7,platyrhynchus leoninus71 so called from its long full mane1 inhabits both the northern and southern coasts of the ,pacific4 ,the ,sea-,bear 7,arctocephalus ursinus7 derives its name from the fur and shape of the head4 ,the ,walrus or ,morse 7,trichecus7 is a genus of the ,phocid1 or ,seal family1 distinguished by its widely different cranium and teeth4 ,in the adult lower jaw are neither incisors nor canines1 while the upper bristles with two enormous tusks1 which are directed downwards1 and are sometimes two feet long4 ,it chiefly feeds upon molluscs and marine vegetables1 and its flesh in its turn affords a dainty repast to the inhabitants of the ,polar ,deserts4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,arctic ,,wildernesses3--,,the ,,laplanders--,,samoiedes--,,ostiaks--,, kamtschatdales--,,eskimos1 ,,or ,,esquimaux4 ,to the various populations which occupy the ,arctic regions of both the ,old and the ,new ,world1 the general appellation of ,hyperboreans is sometimes given4 ,do these populations truly form1 as some ethnologists assert1 a distinct and homogeneous race2 or are they not rather independent offshoots of the ,japhetic race in ,europe1 of the ,mongolian in ,asia1 of the ,redskins in ,america8 ,to this question ,i can give no satisfactory reply4 ,i will only say that if the different fractions of this great group exhibit among themselves external differences of a very marked character1 they are drawn together1 on the other hand1 by no less striking resemblances4 ,in truth1 these resemblances are markedly physiological1 and should1 ,i think1 be exclusively attributed to the powerful and irresistible action of external agencies4 ,if there be1 indeed1 one region where the influence of climate on the constitution of man is manifest1 that region is assuredly the ,polar ,zone4 ,there the conditions of life differ wholly from those which prevail in all other parts of the globe1 and it necessarily results that modifications take place in the organism of the men subject to those conditions1 which ought to be regarded as wholly independent of the origin of races and of their ethnographic characters properly so called4 ,the ,hyperboreans are small1 squat1 ugly1 and deformed4 ,their legs are short and sufficiently straight1 but so thick1 says ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 that to the spectator they seem swollen and diseased4 ,their head is generally of large size4 ,they have long1 coarse1 straight hair1 a thin beard1 a broad countenance1 a great mouth1 high cheek-bones1 and half-closed eyes1 of a light colour1 as gray or yellowish1 but never blue4 ,their complexion is sometimes of a yellowish-white1 as with the ,laplanders2 sometimes of a deep yellow or reddish-brown1 as with the ,eskimos and the ,greenlanders4 ,the latter peculiarity may be invoked as a very plausible argument in support of the opinion which gives to the ,arctic peoples different origins4 ,it shows also1 once more1 that the more or less intense colouring of the skin among the ,african races is not an effect of the solar heat1 as was commonly supposed4 ,considered from a physiological point of view1 the ,hyperboreans are distinguished by a remarkable uniformity of characteristics1 which deserve to be specified4 ,the sanguine temperament predominates among them4 ,their nervous system is but slightly developed1 their sensibility blunted1 their intelligence slow1 their imagination feeble4 ,their external perspiration is almost null1 and they are accustomed to suppress it entirely by induing their bodies in oily substances4 ,on the other hand1 their organs of nutrition and respiration are endowed with an extraordinary activity2 and in this lies the secret of the extreme facility with which they support for several successive months the most rigorous cold4 ,we know1 indeed1 that man and the warm-blooded animals possess1 in their respiratory apparatus1 a positive internal furnace1 where a notable part of the carbon and the hydrogen contained in their venous blood is consumed in contact with the air4 ,but to maintain this furnace at such a degree of heat as shall always preserve the temperature of the body at its normal standard 7#ci ,c471 the inhabitants of ,arctic climes need constantly feed it with fuel1 that is1 with substances rich in carbon and hydrogen4 ,hence the keen appetite of the ,hyperboreans for oil1 fat1 and flesh2 hence1 too1 their voracity4 ,the inhabitants of torrid or temperate regions1 while sojourning among the icy wastes of the ,pole1 quickly become sensible of the same necessity1 and eagerly feed upon aliments which elsewhere would inspire them with insurmountable disgust4 ,it is a remarkable fact that most of the diseases so frequent and so murderous in civilized countries are unknown in the ,polar lands4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ophthalmia is endemic1 and the cutaneous affections1 as well as cerebral and pulmonary congestion1 are of common occurrence4 ,to sum up3 the already scattered and scanty population of the ,arctic ,zone is daily decreasing1 and will probably be extinct in a few generations4 ,the manners of all the ,hyperboreans present the same general features3 they are peaceable1 inoffensive1 and reduced1 if ,i may use the expression1 to the utmost possible minimum of physical and intellectual activity4 ,this race1 or group of races1 is represented on the two continents by several distinct peoples4 ,those most clearly defined are3-- ,in ,europe1 the ,laplanders 7or ,lapps71 and the ,samoiedes2 ,in ,asia1 the ,ostiaks1 ,yakouts1 and ,kamtschatdales2 and1 ,in ,north ,america1 the ,eskimos 7or ,esquimaux74 ,the ,laplanders inhabit the northernmost coasts of the ,scandinavian peninsula4 ,they are ignorant1 uncultivated1 and torpid1 rather than savage4 ,in spite of their frequent contact with the ,russians and the ,swedes1 they have no industrial resources1 no art1 no other commerce than that which is afforded by the products of the chase1 of their fisheries1 or their herds of reindeer4 ,christianity1 to which they were converted about two centuries ago1 has not aroused them as yet from their moral and intellectual lethargy4 ,all religion being reduced1 so far as they are concerned1 to oral tradition1 the devotion of each is in proportion to his memory4 ,education among them has attained to this standard1 that a ,laplander who knows his alphabet corresponds to a young man among us who has graduated at ,oxford or ,cambridge4 ,a ,french traveller1 ,m4 de ,saint-,blaize1 furnishes some details respecting this people3-- ,the race of ,laplanders is constantly diminishing in numbers4 ,it is of ,asiatic origin1 as may be clearly discerned in their language and the type of their physiognomy4 ,some are fishers1 and dwell upon the coast2 others are shepherds1 who traverse the mountains in every direction1 pasturing their reindeer on the white moss4 ,during the three months' summer the ,laplander leads his herd into the elevated regions1 to withdraw them from the excessive heats and the mosquito-plagues3 in winter1 he brings them near the dwellings of men1 principally for the sake of protecting them more effectually from his bitter enemies1 the wolves1 of whom he never speaks but with a sentiment of profound hatred4 ,the ,laplander's wealth is his herd1 which feeds him1 clothes him1 and procures him1 by way of barter1 brandy and tobacco1 the only objects of his desire4 ,illustration3 ,,lapland ,,fishers4 ,the independent life of this nomadic people is not without its charm4 ,accustomed from his infancy to privations and fatigues of every kind1 the ,laplander suffers little4 ,his body acquires an extraordinary vigour1 and most of our maladies are unknown to him4 ,if during a journey a ,lapland woman gives birth to a child1 she places the new-born in a piece of hollow wood1 where a hole has been cut out to receive the little one's head2 then slings this cradle on her back1 and resumes her journey4 ,when she halts1 she suspends her wooden chrysalid to a tree1 and the wire-work protects it from the teeth of ferocious beasts4 ,the reverse of this simple medal is an old age almost inevitably very unhappy4 ,it is said that when a ,laplander has no longer the strength to render himself useful1 his children abandon him by the roadside1 with just provisions enough to support him for a few days4 ,the traveller frequently encounters in the forest the skeletons of old men who have thus perished in gloomy solitude4 ,the cradle to which our authority refers is described by ,professor ,forbes as cut out of solid wood and covered with leather1 in flaps so arranged as to lace across the top with leathern thongs2 the inside and the little pillow are rendered tolerably soft with reindeer moss1 and the infant fits the space so exactly1 that it can neither stir hand nor foot4 ,the ,lapp hut1 says ,professor ,forbes1#aid is formed interiorly of wood1 by means of curved ribs uniting near the centre in a ring1 which is open1 and allows free escape for the smoke2 the fire being lighted in the centre of the floor4 ,the exterior is covered with turf4 ,the door is of wood on one side4 ,the inmates recline on skins on the floor1 with their feet towards the fire2 and behind them1 on a row of stones near the wall of the hut1 are their various utensils4 ,their clothing--chiefly of tanned skins and woollen stuffs--looked very dirty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,a ,,samoiede ,,family4 ,the ,samoiedes 7or ,samoyedes7 are scattered1 to the number of about a thousand families1 along the coasts of the ,frozen ,sea1 in the government of ,archangel1 and1 in ,siberia1 in the governments of ,tobolsk and ,tomsk4 ,ethnologists generally consider them to have a common origin with the ,finns of ,europe4 ,in stature they are somewhat taller than the ,lapps1 and their colour is more of a tawny4 ,the marked features of their countenance recall the ,hindu type4 ,the forehead is high1 the hair black1 the nose long1 the mouth well-formed2 but the sunken eye1 veiled by a heavy lid1 expresses a cruel and perfidious nature4 ,the manners of the ,samoiedes are brutal4 ,in character they are wily1 fierce1 and cunning4 ,they are shepherds1 hunters1 traders1 and1 when opportunity serves1 robbers4 ,they clothe themselves in reindeer-skins1 like the other ,hyperboreans of the old continent4 ,they shave off their hair1 except a tolerably large tuft which they allow to flourish on the top of the head1 and they pluck out the beard as fast as it grows4 ,the women adorn themselves with a belt of gilded copper1 and with a profusion of ornaments in glass beads and metal4 ,they are heathens1 worshipping the sun and moon1 the water and the trees2 in fact1 whatever object meets their eyes they convert into a deity2 and1 above all1 they adore the bear1 offering prayers and sacrifices to him before venturing on an expedition to hunt him down6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,ostiaks and the ,yakouts are established in the northernmost districts of ,siberia1 from the ,oural ,mountains to ,kamtschatka4 ,i borrow from a ,polish lady1 ,madame ,felinska1 long exiled in ,siberia1 some curious details relative to the ,ostiaks1 whom1 during her banishment1 she had numerous opportunities of studying4 ,seeking one day a pathway through a wood1 she encountered a couple of ,ostiaks on the point of performing their religious duties4 ,these consist in placing themselves before a tree--a larch in preference--in the wildest and densest part of the forest1 and there executing a series of epileptic contortions4 ,such pagan demonstrations are forbidden them1 says ,madame ,felinska2 but1 despite the ,christianity which they have professed to accept1 they are and will remain pagans4 ,nearly every ,ostiak carries about his person a rude image of the divinities which he adores under the name of ,schatan2 but this does not prevent him from wearing on his breast a small copper crucifix4 ,the ,schatan represents the human figure1 carved in wood1 or1 rather1 cut out of a small fragment of wood4 ,it is of different sizes1 according to the price and the various uses for which it is intended3 if for carrying on the person1 it is small2 images for decorating the hut are much larger2 but in every case the god is clothed in seven pearl-embroidered chemises1 and suspended to the neck by a chaplet of silver coins4 ,the wooden deity occupies the place of honour in the huts and cottages1 and before commencing a repast1 they take care to offer him the daintiest morsel1 smearing his lips with fish or raw game2 when this sacred duty is performed1 they eat in contentment4 ,the priests of the ,ostiaks are called ,scha-mans2 they enjoy immense influence1 which they employ in furtherance of the basest superstition and in promotion of their own personal interest4 ,ambition and egotism dispense with knowledge and science in order to corrupt mankind4 ,illustration3 ,,yakout ,,hunter ,,worried ,,by ,a ,,white ,,bear4 ,the ,ostiaks and the ,samoiedes are great hunters of the white bear4 ,it is the same with the ,yakouts1 a people dwelling near the ,bouriats1 and approaching1 like them1 to the ,mongol type4 ,it seems that the object of the chase is not always to kill the animal1 but to catch him alive4 ,madame ,felinska relates that she saw one day a considerable troop of bears conducted to ,brzov like a herd of tame cattle1 and apparently quite as inoffensive4 ,she neglects to inform us1 however1 by what means they had been reduced to this state of passive obedience4 ,the ,ostiaks and the ,yakouts frequently attack the white bears body to body1 without any other weapon than a hatchet or a long cutlass4 ,they need to strike the animal with extreme skill and vigour1 to slay him at the first blow1 or otherwise they incur extreme peril4 ,if he misses his stroke1 the hunter's only resource is to fling himself on the ground and lie motionless1 until the bear1 while smelling his body and turning him over1 incautiously offers himself again to his attack4 ,the ,yakouts are nearly of average height4 ,they are robust and brave1 honest and hospitable1 but addicted to idolatry and polygamy4 ,illustration3 ,,kamtschatdales4 ,the ,kamtschatdales are smaller and shorter than the ,yakouts4 ,they have a round flat face1 a broad depressed nose1 and prominent cheek-bones4 ,they are of a friendly1 mild1 and peaceable character4 ,they have a strong partiality for the song and the dance1 and their amusements frequently degenerate into orgies4 ,small-pox and excessive brandy-drinking have reduced to a few hundred families a population which numbered1 a century ago1 fully #ae1jjj souls4 ,one sole population inhabits the immense icy plains which extend into ,america even beyond the ,polar circle4 ,i refer to the ,eskimos1 who are found--encamped in summer under tents made of reindeer or seal-skin1 hidden in winter in their snow-huts--from ,behring's ,strait even to ,cape ,farewell4 ,this race has the reddish-brown tint of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,in its small stature and physical forms it does not differ from other ,hyperboreans2 but in physiognomy and the flattened skull it singularly recalls the men of lofty stature who inhabit the other extremity of the ,american continent1 the ,patagonians4 ,the physiognomy1 the character1 and the manners of the ,eskimos have been frequently described4 ,the courageous navigators who have explored the ,polar ,sea in quest of a ,north-west ,passage have held frequent intercourse with these poor people1 and all agree in eulogizing their gentleness1 their patriarchal life1 their eagerness to succour strangers4 ,an ,american1 ,captain ,hall1 the last adventurer who has set himself the task of discovering the wrecks of ,franklin's ill-fated expedition1 spent a whole year in the midst of the ,eskimos1 whose amiability and generosity he praises in no stinted terms4 ,exclusively hunters and fishers1 the ,eskimos have no other domestic animal than the dog2 they harness it to their sledges1 and also train it to chase the seal1 the walrus1 and the reindeer4 ,it is in the summer only that they hunt the latter animal4 ,in that genial season there is no lack of other game1 terrestrial and marine4 ,it is for them a season of abundance1 wherein they gorge themselves with flesh1 blood1 and fat4 ,during the winter they often fast several days at a time1 and remain immured in their huts like hybernating animals2 but at length1 driven by famine and by want of oil1 they go forth upon the ice in search of the seals which come up to breathe4 ,when they have been fortunate enough to kill one1 they divide it amongst them amicably1 and regale themselves upon it until only the bones remain1 after which they endure a new period of privation4 ,thus they live from day to day1 in continual alternations of gluttony and abstinence1 without injury to their health1 and without shortening their lives4 ,and it is worthy of notice that ,europeans who once consent to adopt this regime--to drink the warm blood and eat the raw flesh and fat of seals--soon accept of it without the slightest repugnance1 and become capable of enduring1 like true ,hyperboreans1 the terrible cold of the long ,polar winters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the inhabitants of ,sagalien1 one of the northerly ,asiatic islands1 are a race called the ,anios1 the same people who form the aboriginal population of ,jesso1 and some tribes of whom also dwell on the opposite shores of ,manchooria4 ,they are uncultured and pagan savages1 who dwell in huts built of rough logs1 and live upon the proceeds of their fishery and the chase4 ,their women are ugly and little2 the men are tall1 lithe1 straight1 and strong1 with flowing hair and unkempt beard and moustaches4 ,like the ,samoiedes they worship the bear2 feasting the living animals on the choicest dried fish1 and planting young pines round the cages in which they are kept4 ,their graves they regard with similar feelings of veneration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the other ,hyperborean races do not widely differ in character and physical appearance from those already described4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,mountains4 ,blue1 and baseless1 and beautiful1 ,did the boundless mountains bear ,their folded shadows into the golden air4 ,the comfortlessness of their chasms was full ,of orient cloud and undulating mist1 ,which1 when their silver cataracts hissed1 ,quivered with panting colour4 ,,ruskin4 ,from the ,polar deserts to the icy crests of the mountains the transition is natural4 ,there are here1 so to speak1 two varieties of a single class of deserts1 which we might call the ,deserts of ,cold1 since the coldness of the climate is the dominant cause which in both renders the soil more and more unproductive and uninhabitable4 ,in effect1 it is not only in departing from the ,tropic ,zone that we see the mean temperature gradually sinking even to the point whereat all liquids congeal and all terrestrial life becomes impossible4 ,the same phenomenon occurs in proportion as we ascend in the atmosphere4 ,it is a consequence of the properties of the gaseous medium which envelops our globe1 and takes place in obedience to certain laws which science has been able to ascertain and define4 ,we know now that the decline of the temperature is always in proportion to the elevation of places or of the atmospheric strata2 but the value of the relation which exists between the two terms may be modified by various circumstances--such as the direction of the prevailing wind1 the hygrometrical state of the atmosphere1 the hour of the day1 and particularly the climate1 or1 to speak more exactly1 the thermic latitude4 ,the warmer the climate1 the more sensible the difference between the temperature of the air at the level of the sea and that which we observe at a certain height2 greater1 nevertheless1 is the height to which we must rise to find the region where the thermometer never descends below #j1 and where1 consequently1 the snows and ices of the mountains do not melt in any season4 ,as a mean1 we estimate every #ehj feet of elevation in the ,torrid ,zone as equal to one thermometrical degree1 and in the ,temperate ,zone at one degree for every #dej feet1 the cooling of the air4 ,that is1 for every #ehj feet in the one instance1 and every #dej feet in the other1 as we ascend above the sea's level1 the temperature decreases one degree4 ,in the ,polar regions the decrease of temperature is insensible up to a certain height1 which has not yet been ascertained4 ,at ,ingloolich1 in #fi #ba' north latitude1 ,captain ,parry flew a kite to a height of #djj feet1 with an minima thermometer attached4 ,at this elevation the temperature of the air was #ca below zero1 or the same as on the ice-fields of the sea4 ,humboldt counted one degree of declination for every #eej feet on ,chimborazo4 ,de ,saussure obtained one degree for every #ddj feet on ,mont ,blanc4 ,the limit of eternal snows1 or perpetual snow-line1 which at the ,pole sinks to the very level of ocean1 rises higher and higher as it approaches the lower latitudes1 and attains its maximum elevation towards the ,equinoctial ,line4 ,it follows1 that in the countries bordering on the ,arctic ,circle1 mountains of very moderate altitude show themselves all through the year in a shroud of radiant snow2 while1 under the ,tropics1 if we would meet with masses of eternal ice1 we must mount to a height of #ac1ejj feet and more4 ,the limit of the permanent snows is1 however1 affected by a variety of local circumstances1 such as the neighbourhood of great seas or forests4 ,the subjoined table1 therefore1 which shows the height of the curve of congelation in different latitudes1 is founded upon the known law of the decrease of heat by elevation1 and must be regarded rather as approximatively correct than strictly accurate4 ,,table ,,of ,,snow-,,line4 ------------------------------------- ,,mean ,,height ,,latitude4 ,,temperature ,,of ,,the ,,at ,,the ,,level ,,snow- ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,,line4 ------------------------------------- ,degrees ,centrigrade4 ,degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,feet4 #j #bijj #hdb #ae1bjg #a #bhii #hdb #ae1bjc #b #bhif #hda #ae1ahi #d #bhhf #hci #ae1ace #e #bhgh #hch #ae1jie #f #bhfh #hcf #ae1jdg #g #bheg #hcd #ad1ihi #h #bhdd #hcb #ad1ibc #i #bhbi #hbi #ad1hdh #aj #bhac #hbf #ad1gfd #ae #bgjf #hjg #ad1bbj #bj #befa #gha #ac1dgh #be #bchb #gdi #ab1eeg #cj #bage #gaa #aa4dhd #ce #aidf #fgj #aj1bhg #dj #agjb #fbf #i1jja #de #adej #eha #g1fga #ej #aaih #ecf #f1ccd #eaaie #aabd #ebc #e1iej #ed #ajjb #ejj #e1bij #ee #ied #dib #e1jcd #ef #ijg #dhc #d1ghb #eg #hfj #dge #d1ecd #eh #had #dff #d1bia #fj #gbe #dej #c1hah #fe #eah #dac #b1gbb #gj #cci #cha #a1ggh #ge #aid #cee #a1jaf #hj #hg #ccf #deg #he #bb #cbd #aag #hf #ad #cbc #gf #hg #jh #cbb #dd #hh #jd #cba #bj #hi #ja #cbj #e #ij #jj #cbj #j ------------------------------------- ,that the foregoing table needs considerable modification in particular localities is evident from the following facts3--,in the ,scandinavian ,alps1 lat4 #fe north1 the snow-line occurs at an elevation of #ebjj feet1 instead of #bgbb2 in the ,alps of ,savoy1 lat4 #de north1 it is found at #gfej feet1 which is nearly that of the table4 ,on the southern slope of the ,himalayas the traveller ascends to an elevation of upwards of #ae1jjj feet before he enters the realms of snow and ice1 and on the northern slope to #ab1gej feet4 ,finally1 in the ,andes of ,bolivia1 according to ,pentland1 the curve of congelation lies between #ad1djj and #ad1hjj feet4 ,thus1 then1 in the mid ,torrid ,zone1 we must accomplish a weary ascent of #ac1jjj to #ae1jjj feet before we can find ourselves transported from the calcined plains whose sands scorch and blister our feet1 or the dense forests whose innermost depths teem with the most exuberant and beautiful floral life1 to the heart of icy deserts and the sublime silence of the mountains4 ,and in passing from one to the other of these extremes1 we traverse in a few hours all the climates which succeed one another from the ,equator to the ,pole4 ,nevertheless1 ,i must point out an important difference between the ,polar deserts and the snowy regions of the mountains1 which is wholly to the advantage of the former4 ,i have already shown that1 under the highest latitudes1 men find1 in the exceptional activity of their functions of nutrition1 and1 above all1 of respiration1 a powerful re-agent against the intensity of the external cold4 ,this resource fails him on the mountain summit4 ,in vain will he attempt1 as a succedaneum against the cold1 to modify his ordinary regimen1 to drink warm blood1 to eat fat and raw flesh2 his stomach will reject such aliment1 or digest it only with difficulty1 and he will not suffer less from the extreme rigour of the temperature4 ,at the ,pole air pours freely into our lungs1 and its pressure stoutly maintains the equilibrium of the fluids of our body4 ,such is not the case when we soar1 ,icarus like1 into the higher regions of the atmosphere2 in proportion as we ascend1 the air rarefies1 and its pressure diminishes4 ,consequently1 respiration becomes difficult and painful2 the quantity of oxygen designed to cherish animal heat by the combustion of the carbon and hydrogen of the blood becomes insufficient2 at the same time1 the tissues and the liquids which they enclose expand2 perspiration1 instead of diminishing1 experiences a relative augmentation2 if the atmospheric pressure is much too weak1 the blood extravasates1 and forces itself out through the nose1 the ears1 and the pores of the skin4 ,in a word1 that peculiar malady which has been named the mal des montagnes1 and which is not always unattended with danger1 attacks the hardiest traveller1 and compels him with all speed to return to lower and securer levels4 ,when1 therefore1 we speak of the pure and living air of the mountains1 of the vigour and health of their inhabitants--even as the poet says-- ,an iron race the mountain-cliffs maintain-- we are really to understand those lofty hills which are decorated in some places with the name of mountains1 or the table-lands that form the first steps of the great chains4 ,such1 indeed1 are the only inhabited and inhabitable mountains4 ,there only is the cultivation of a few plants still possible2 there only can the wild beasts find an asylum in wood or forest1 and the cattle green fields of pasture2 there may man plant his feet1 build his dwellings1 devote himself to rearing his herds1 to the chase1 or to more sedentary industries4 ,let us remember1 moreover1 that the salubrity of the air of elevated districts has been greatly exaggerated1 and that if we meet with many mountaineers agile1 robust1 and intelligent1 we also meet with a great number affected by organic diseases either wholly unknown or very rare in the plains1 such as gotre1 scrofula1 and cretinism4 ,the structure of the mountains1 their form1 and the nature of their soil1 suffice1 even without these meteorological conditions ,i have just indicated1 to render them impracticable as the dwelling-place of man and of most animals4 ,to ascend them is almost always an enterprise of the most hazardous1 frequently of the most perilous character4 ,to climb the lofty peaks of the ,himalaya1 to scale the majestic brow of ,chimborazo1 to ascend the frozen sides of the ,jungfrau or ,mont ,blanc1 is an achievement of which the boldest boast1 as if they had won a ,waterloo or an ,inkermann6 ,only a keen longing after that notoriety which for some minds fills the place of renown1 or a passion for dangerous enterprise such as stimulates the pioneer or the explorer1 or a powerful scientific and artistic interest1 can impel the ,alpine adventurer--can instigate a ,saussure1 a ,forbes1 a ,pentland1 or a ,tyndall1 to mount the scarped ramparts of primeval rocks1 to tread warily along precipices which the chamois can scarcely traverse1 to escalade the savage cliffs and frozen pinnacles1 and to breathe ,the difficult air of the iced mountain-tops4 ,the annals of mountaineering are illuminated with many stirring stories of human endurance1 patience1 and heroism2 but1 alas6 the page is too often robed in black1 and too frequently records the death of some unhappy explorer6 ,it is no part of my plan to trace the geological history of mountains4 ,we know that their formation has been attributed1 according to a satisfactory theory1 to the upheavals and expansions of the igneous matter which1 in the primitive ages1 boiled under the solid crust produced by the superficial solidification of our planet1 and whose ebullition1 though considerably decreased1 even in our own days is frequently made known in volcanic phenomena and earthquakes4 ,at divers epochs the crust of the globe will have been rent and dislocated1 giving vent to floods of fused mineral matter2 these1 solidifying in their turn1 will have produced those inequalities of the earth's surface which we call mountains2 enormous inequalities1 as they appear to us2 mole-hills or grains of sand if we compare them with the volume of the terrestrial sphere4 ,the distribution of the mountains over the surface of the continents and islands1 and the forms which they have assumed1 seem1 at the first glance1 altogether capricious and irregular4 ,yet an attentive study speedily demonstrates that some higher law than that of chance presided at the violent and tumultuous production of these majestic masses4 ,thus1 in the first place1 it is evident that every mountain not a volcano connects itself of necessity to other mountains1 and forms a chain of greater or less length1 which departs a little from the straight line1 or rather from the arc of the great circle4 ,the principal chains throw out branches1 and by mountain knots1 as they are called1 unite with other secondary chains--the whole composing a mountain system2 but the apparent irregularities of these systems may always be referred to one common direction4 ,if from the disposition of mountains we pass to their distribution1 we perceive that all chains which have sprung from the same geological convulsion are always distinctly parallel1 and the successive chains distinctly perpendicular among themselves2 so that the age of a chain is known by its direction4 ,nor is there anything to astonish us in this species of symmetry1 when we recollect that every substance previously liquefied or diluted by heat1 and which1 while cooling1 becomes contracted by the closer compression of its atoms1 splits with a certain degree of regularity1 generally following lines which intersect each other at right angles4 ,and it is through the crevices of the cooled terrestrial crust that these fused matters have escaped1 according to the hypothesis generally admitted by geologists1 which1 by solidifying in their turn1 have created the mountains4 ,i can only indicate these considerations to the reader2 their development would beguile us too far from our prescribed path4 ,if we direct our attention now to the configuration of mountains1 we shall see that this configuration depends essentially on the nature of the rocks which constitute them4 ,granite1 for example1 is one of those which offers the most varied outlines1 as the reader may see without quitting the ,united ,kingdom1 in the rugged1 fantastic1 broken masses of the ,argyllshire ,highlands1 that hem in the waters of ,loch ,goil and ,loch ,long4 ,granite abounds in the tropical zone1 and seems to prefer chains of moderate elevation4 ,granite heights are generally distinguished by abrupt and polished flanks1 pointed or dentelated summits1 scarped approaches1 deeply fissured slopes1 and narrow1 wild1 and profound valleys4 ,gneiss1 a felspathic and micaceous rock1 of schistous structure1 is found in layers sometimes horizontal or gently inclined1 sometimes undulating and complicated towards the border4 ,the contours of the gneiss mountains are less cloven than those of mountains of granite2 but numerous fissures and indentations are still discoverable4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,organ ,,mountains ,,of ,,rio ,,janeiro4 ,porphyry generally occurs in isolated peaks1 with almost vertical flanks2 seldom in continuous chains4 ,porphyritic mountains1 says ,m4 ,maury1 imprint on the landscape a peculiarly picturesque character4 ,this rock sometimes appears under the form of tall pillars set in close juxtaposition--it is then known as columnar porphyry2 and to groups of these columns have been given in some countries the name of ,orgues or ,organs1 on account of their resemblance to the organ pipes which discourse solemn music in our cathedrals4 ,thus3 in ,mexico two mountains occur distinguished by this appellation1 ,los ,organos2 one is that of ,mamanchota1 situated to the north of the ,indian village of ,actapan4 ,the portion soaring out of the rock1 says ,humboldt1 is three hundred feet in height2 but the absolute elevation of the summit of the mountain1 at the point where the ,organos begin to shoot aloft1 is #ache toises 7about #ecaj feet74 ,the other is the ,jacal1 which is nearly #ifjj feet above the sea-level1 and crowned with forests of pine and cedar4 ,but the most celebrated ,organ ,mountains are those which rear their glittering shafts at the extremity of the bay of ,rio ,janiero4 ,it is not only the aspect of these pointed summits1 says ,dr4 ,yvan1 that reminds the spectator of the sublime instrument of our churches2 the strange sounds which escape from between these cylinders of rock render the analogy still more striking1 and complete the illusion4 ,the voice of the tempest1 the lamentations of the forests bowed by the passing winds1 the doleful wails of the jaguars1 the cries of the howling monkeys passing between these sonorous peaks1 produce a harmony before which all human instrumentation loses its grandeur4 ,we feel that it is the universal soul which inspires the chords of the majestic keys4 ,the ,serra dos ,organos is clothed in virgin forest over three-fourths of its extent2 it is only at long intervals1 and in obscure valleys1 that we encounter any traces of human industry1 or that we traverse some circular treeless hollows1 in which an abundant herbage flourishes1 and feeds the troops of horses and oxen enclosed in these natural parks4 ,the ,organ ,mountains of ,epailly 7in the department of the ,haute ,loire1 in ,france7 and of ,bart 7in the ,corrze71 and the ,colonnades of ,chenavari 7in the ,ardche71 belong to the basaltic formation1 rendered so remarkable by its frequent arrangement in prismatic columns of extreme regularity4 ,basalt also gives birth to chains which resemble vast walls1 and sometimes appears in the form of pyramids1 plateaux1 or simple mamelons4 ,of the columnar arrangement the ,palisades1 on the banks of the river ,hudson1 may be particularized as a noble example2 but a still grander spectacle is presented on the river ,columbia1 west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 where the waters pour through a valley walled on either side with tier upon tier of pillars1 to the height of fully a thousand feet4 ,the ,trachytes1 massive rocks of excessive roughness1 occasionally appear in the shape of cones1 at times in that of domes or enormous balloons1 and at times as cupolas with spire-like points1 like minarets4 ,the chalks1 the sandstones1 the diorites1 have all their characteristic aspect1 and give to the mountains where they dominate1 and to the landscapes which surround them1 an easily recognizable physiognomy4 ,and1 finally1 everybody knows the particular configuration affected by the volcanic mountains4 ,the great mountain-chains are unequally distributed in different parts of the world1 and their disposition varies in a remarkable manner in the two great continents4 ,for the most part it agrees with the direction of the principal land masses in each4 ,thus1 in the ,old ,world1 the chief ranges assume an easterly and westerly course1 following the parallels of latitude2 in the ,new1 a northerly and southerly direction1 like that of the meridians of longitude4 ,in ,europe1 the mountains are numerous1 but generally of very moderate elevation4 ,in the north1 we find the ,scandinavian ,alps1 covering nearly the whole of ,norway and some part of ,sweden4 ,from the ,naze1 or ,cape ,lindesnaes1 they roll far away1 like foam-crested billows1 to the very shore of the ,frozen ,sea4 ,the central and highest part of the mass1 between latitude #fb and #fc1 is called the ,dover-feld2 the more northerly portion1 the ,koelin ,mountains2 the more southerly1 ,lang-feld and ,hardanger-feld4 ,their summits are comparatively flat--felds1 or fields1 as the name indicates2 on the eastern side they slope gradually to the plains bordering the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 their sides clothed with dense forests of pine and fir2 on the west they rise abruptly from the margin of the ocean1 and their steep1 barren1 and swarthy flanks are broken up by numerous inlets1 or fiords1 where the waters lie cradled in gloom and desolation4 ,their highest point is now known to be ,skags-tol-tind1 in the ,lang-feld range1 upwards of #hjjj feet4 ,all the loftier summits rise above the snow-line1 and wear night and day1 winter and summer1 a shroud of frost and snow4 ,the glaciers are often of great magnificence1 and equal1 if they do not transcend in sublimity1 those of the ,alps of ,switzerland and ,savoy4 ,the ,mountains of ,scotland seldom exceed #cejj feet in height2 the principal summits1 however1 ,ben ,mac-,dhui1 and ,ben ,nevis1 are respectively1 #dcij and #dcfh feet4 ,ben ,lawers1 on the west side of ,loch ,tay1 reaches #cihd feet2 ,ben ,more1 in the south-west of ,perthshire1 #chah feet2 and ,schehallion1 #cead feet4 ,ben ,lomond1 east of the famous lake of that name1 has an altitude of #caia feet4 ,the characteristics of the ,scotch mountains are their barren sides1 only relieved by patches of purple heather2 their originally fantastic and broken outlines2 their deep1 narrow1 savage glens1 which are often of the gloomiest and most desolate aspect2 and their still deep tarns1 or lakes1 mirroring each lofty height in their clear and glassy surface4 ,the most important of the ,european systems is that of the ,alps1 whose majestic and glorious landscapes have been for ages the admiration of the poet and the artist4 ,they begin1 on the west1 near the head of the ,gulf of ,savoy2 sweep round the upper portion of ,italy1 as if to shut out that historic peninsula from the ,european mainland2 bend to the south-east to approach the ,adriatic2 and throw out a spur1 or prolongation1 along the eastern shore of that sea1 and parallel with it4 ,that portion of the system which borders the ,mediterranean is distinguished as the ,maritime ,alps2 between ,italy on the one side1 and ,france and ,savoy on the other1 lie the ,cottian and ,graian ,alps2 from ,mont ,blanc to ,monte ,rosa stretch the ,pennine ,alps2 further to the eastward extend the ,lepontine1 ,rhetian1 and ,noric ,alps2 and south-easterly1 the ,carnic1 the ,julian1 and the ,dinaric ,alps4 ,the ,bernese ,alps form the northern barrier of the ,valley of the ,rhone2 their direction is parallel to that of the ,pennine4#aif ,the principal ,alpine summits are3--,mont ,blanc1 the monarch of mountains1 #ae1gej feet2 ,monte ,rosa1 #ae1aej feet2 ,finster-,aarhorn1 #ad1aji2 the ,jungfrau1 #ac1gaf2 and the ,ortler ,spits1 #ab1heb feet4 ,the scenery of the ,alps is always of the grandest character2 its more remarkable features being its huge glaciers1 or ice-rivers1 with their brilliant and ever-changing hues4 ,motionless torrents6 silent cataracts6 ,who made you glorious as the gates of heaven ,beneath the keen full moon8 ,who bade the sun ,clothe you with rainbows8 ,who1 with living flowers ,of loveliest blue1 spread garlands at your feet4#aig ,it is supposed that there are at least four hundred of the great glaciers1 varying from three to thirty miles in length1 from a hundred to six or seven hundred feet in thickness1 and from a few yards to a couple of miles in breadth4 ,the total superficial area of the glaciers in ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 ,piedmont1 and the ,tyrol1 has been estimated at #adjj square miles4 ,the ,apennines must be considered a subsidiary portion of the ,alps1 rather than as an independent system4 ,they branch off from the ,maritime ,alps1 and traverse the entire length of ,italy4 ,several peaks rise to an elevation of between #gjjj and #hjjj feet2 but the average height scarcely exceeds #cjjj feet4 ,monte ,coma1 the culminating point1 is #iebc feet4 ,the south of ,italy is occupied by a remarkable volcanic region1 where the subterranean fires still give awful signs of their intense activity4 ,mount ,vesuvius1 which raises its conical mass1 girdled with vines and chestnuts1 above the fair city of ,naples1 is #cigh feet above the sea-level4 ,its sister volcano1 ,mount ,etna1 in the island of ,sicily1 attains a far loftier elevation 7#aj1hgb feet71#aih and exhibits a charming variety of picturesque scenery4 ,the forest region on the lower slopes is rich in glowing effects of colour1 while near the summit the landscapes wear a grander aspect4 ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold has painted an ,etnean picture with marvellous force in the following beautiful passage4#aii ',tis the last ,of all the woody1 high1 well watered dells ,on ,etna2 and the beam ,of noon is broken there by chestnut boughs ,down its steep verdant sides2 the air ,is freshened by the leaping stream1 which throws ,eternal showers of spray on the mossed roots ,of trees1 and vines of turf1 and long dark shoots ,of ivy-plants1 and fragrant hanging bells ,of hyacinths1 and on late anemones1 ,that muffle its wet banks2 but glade1 ,and stream1 and sward1 and chestnut trees1 ,end here2 ,etna beyond1 in the broad glare ,of the hot noon1 without a shade1 ,slope behind slope1 up to the peak1 lies bare2 ,the peak1 round which the white clouds play4 99 99 99 99 99 ,between ,france and ,spain lies the great system of the ,pyrenees1 whose topmost peaks exceed #aa1jjj feet in altitude4 ,their entire breadth averages between forty and fifty miles2 the southern slope is exceedingly rugged and abrupt1 and the passes or defiles exhibit a character of exceeding savageness4 ,the two loftiest crests are ,mount ,maladetta1 #aa1dbf feet1 and ,mont ,perdu1 #aa1bge feet4 ,the interior of ,spain consists of an elevated table-land1 bordered by the wild mountain-ranges of the ,sierra ,nevada and the ,sierra ,morena4 ,the average height of the snowy chain of the ,nevada is #fjjj feet1 but the ,peak of ,mulharen soars to the noble elevation of #aa1fgh feet4 ,in ,france1 we meet with the chains of the ,cevennes and the ,vosges1 the former extending along the right bank of the ,rhone1 with an average altitude of #cjjj feet2 the latter stretching from north to south along the right bank of the ,rhine4 ,the vine-clad slopes of the latter offer many a romantic picture to the wayfarer in ,rhineland4 ,very curious in geological interest are the extinct volcanic mountains of ,auvergne2 so black1 charred1 scathed1 and desolate1 that one might suppose them to have been the scene of some old-world battle between the ,titans and the ,olympian gods4 ,here the ,puy de ,sancy exceeds #fjjj feet 7#fbae71 and the now silent cone of the ,puy de ,dme1 #dejj feet in height4 ,the ,hungarian ,mountains1 or ,mountains of ,germany1 occupy the country between the ,rhine and the eighteenth meridian of east longitude4 ,here we meet with the dark and densely wooded crests of the ,schwarz ,wald1 or ,black ,forest2 the ,erz-,gebirge1 on the borders of ,saxony and ,bohemia2 and the rich metalliferous masses of the legend-haunted ,harz4 ,continuing our survey to the eastward1 our glances rest on the bold and many-peaked groups of the ,carpathians1 which1 commencing near the sources of the ,oder and the ,vistula1 describe a semicircle round the fertile ,hungarian plain for between seven and eight hundred miles4 ,striking down to the ,danube1 it faces on the opposite side the lofty wall of the ,balkan1 and through the gorge thus formed1 the famous ,iron ,gates of ancient story1 the river rolls its waters with impetuous rapidity4 ,the more elevated summits of the ,carpathians possess an average height of #ejjj feet1 but ,mount ,lomnitz reaches the loftier level of #gifb feet4 ,on the borders of ,asia lies the long and narrow chain1 or rather chains1 of the ,ural ,mountains1 with an average altitude of from #bjjj to #bejj feet1 sinking in about latitude #eg to a rocky ridge of little more than #aajj feet4 ,the loftiest crest is ,mount ,yaman1 in latitude #ed #ac'1 #echg feet4 ,the ,ural ,mountains possess abundant mineral treasures1 both gold and platinum occurring in extensive abundance4 ,the chain of ,mount ,caucasus stretches for about #gjj miles between the ,black and ,caspian ,seas1 in the direction of north-west and south-east4 ,it exceeds #aej miles in breadth1 throwing out from the central mass numerous branches and parallel ridges1 and enclosing a network of valleys1 plains1 and ravines4 ,the culminating point appears to be the group or mountain-knot of ,elburz1 in the meridian of #db #be' ,e41 which attains the stupendous elevation of #ah1dic feet4 ,kasbek1 which is really in ,asia1 reaches #af1ejj feet4 ,in the ,asiatic continent the grandest mountain-system is that of the ,himalayas 7or ,snowy ,mountains71 which limit the ,thibetan table-land on the south1 and divide it from the hot plains of northern ,india4 ,they extend in an east and west direction for about #aejj miles1 with a breadth of from #bjj to #bej2 and consist of a number of parallel ranges1 divided by transverse valleys1 and rising one above another like a series of gigantic terraces4 ,the slopes are clothed with an exceedingly rich and beautiful flora1 and far up to the very snow-line extend magnificent breadths of forest foliage4#bjj ,on the southern slope this snow-line is about #ae1jjj feet high2 on the northern1 #ah1jjj feet4 ,the loftiest summit of the ,himalayas1 and probably the very apex of our globe1 is ,mount ,everest 7latitude #bg #ei'71 #bi1jjb feet in altitude4 ,kunchin-jinga is #bh1aef feet2 ,dhawalgiri1 #bh1jjj feet2 and ,javaher1 #be1gdf feet above the ocean-level4 ,as we ascend the exterior face of these mountains1#bja says ,captain ,strachey1 tropical vegetation prevails to a height of about #djjj feet1 though even from #cjjj feet a few of the forms of colder climates begin to appear2 the vegetation1 however1 is1 on the whole1 scanty on this declivity4 ,far different is it when we follow the same zone of elevation into the interior of the mountains1 along the courses of the larger rivers1 which1 owing to the great depths of their valleys1 carry a tropical flora into the very heart of the mountain region4 ,the sheltered and confined beds of these rivers1 where the two great requisites for tropical vegetation1 heat and humidity1 are at their maximum1 often afford the finest specimens of forest scenery1 varied by an admixture of the temperate forms of vegetable life1 which here descend to their lowest level4 ,thus the traveller's eye may rest on palms and acacias intermingled with pines2 on oaks or maples covered with epiphytal orchide2 while pothos and clematis1 bamboos and ivy1 fill up the strangely contrasted picture4 ,above #djjj feet oaks and rhododendrons greatly increase in number1 and these trees1 with andromeda 7,pieris71 form the great mass of the forest from #fjjj to #hjjj feet4 ,species of the deciduous trees of the temperate zone are gradually introduced as we rise1 and these again1 with the addition of other pines1 prevail in the upper regions of forest--that is1 from #hjjj to #aa1ejj feet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,himalayas--,,mount ,,gaurisankar 7#bh1jjj ,,feet74 ,glaciers abound in the loftier ,himalayas4 ,the lowest elevation to which they descend is about #aa1ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the ,altai ,mountains lie north of ,mongolia1 with an average elevation of from #ejjj to #gjjj feet4 ,eternal snow crowns their loftiest summit1 ,mount ,bielukha1 #aa1jfc feet4 ,in ,central ,asia we find the chains of the ,thian-shan1 partly volcanic1 and the ,kuen-lun1 which are little known1 but probably lift their towering heads to an altitude of fully #bj1jjj feet4 ,china is traversed from west to east by two mountain-ranges1 the ,pe-ling and ,nan-ling1 or ,northern and ,southern1 which prolong their rocky heights to the very shores of the ,pacific4 ,west of the table-land of ,pamer the eye rests upon the formidable chain of the ,beloor-tagh1 from #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj feet in elevation2 and on the borders of ,central ,asia the ,himalaya1 the ,beloor-tagh and other chains unite in the colossal knot or group of the ,hindoo-,koosh4 ,thence1 with a westerly course1 extend the ,paropamisan and ,caspian ,mountains1 the latter culminating in ,mount ,demavend1 #ad1cjj feet1 near the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the ,soleiman ,mountains border on the rugged plateau of ,afghanistan2 in ,armenia rises the fable-haunted crest of ,agri-dagh1 or ,mount ,ararat1 #ag1bfj feet2 while1 in ,asia ,minor1 the ,taurus chain1 which so often beheld the banners and glancing spears of the ,romans1 attains its loftiest in ,mount ,argus1 or ,arjish-dagh1 #ac1ajj feet2 and along the coast of ,syria rolls the undulating range of ,lebanon1 with ,mount ,hermon soaring to #ifjj feet4 ,arabia is occupied by a branch of the ,lebanon1 which runs southward into the ,sinaitic peninsula4 ,the highest of the ,sinai ,mountains is #icjj feet above the sea4 ,the average altitude of the ,ghauts1 which line the east and west coasts of ,hindostan1 is #cjjj feet2 but some of their summits aspire to #hjjj feet4 ,a range of high mountains traverses the dreary peninsula of ,kamtschatka1 and appears to be a continuation of the volcanic chain which forms the ,kurile ,islands1 and extends even to ,japan and the great islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,many of the ,kamtschatkan volcanoes are still active1 such as ,avatsha1 ,kluchevsky1 and ,assachnish1 and though shrouded in snow and ice project from their seething caldrons vast showers of ashes1 stones1 boiling water1 and lava4 ,avatsha is #ifjj feet high4 ,the ,indian islands contain many colossal mountains1 mostly1 if not all1 of a volcanic character1 and the same generalization is true of the beautiful ,polynesian archipelagos3-- ,summer-isles of ,eden lying in dark purple spheres of sea4 ,mount ,ophir1 in ,sumatra1 is #ac1hdj feet high2 ,stamat1 in ,java1 #ab1cjj feet2 ,indiapura1 in ,sumatra1 #ab1adj feet2 ,tomboro1 in the island of ,sumbawa1 #gfjj feet2 and ,kilauea1 in the ,sandwich ,islands1 #cigj feet4 ,kina-balu1 in ,borneo1 is a magnificent mass1 #ac1ifh feet in height4 ,its grand precipices1 says a traveller1#bjb its polished granite surfaces glittering under the bright tropical rays1 the dashing cascades1 which fall from so great a height as to dissolve in spray before being lost in the dark valleys below1 have a magical effect upon the imagination4 99 99 99 99 99 ,my rapid survey of the mountain-systems of the globe now brings both writer and reader to the ,african ,continent1 which contains1 however1 an unusually large proportion of plain and low level4 ,the northern mountain-ranges1 which extend from east to west parallel to the ,mediterranean1 are known to geographers under the general appellation of ,mount ,atlas1 whose culminating point occurs in the peak of ,miltoin1 #aa1djj feet1 to the south-east of the city of ,morocco4 ,in the north-eastern part of the continent lie the ,mountains of ,abyssinia1 the highest pinnacle being that of ,geesh1 which towers at an elevation of #ae1jjj feet above the sea4 ,many other summits are also crowned with snows eternal1 feeding a succession of streams which pour their waters into the ,white ,nile4 ,detached masses and mountain-groups spread along the western coast1 between the #abth and #ahth parallels of north and south latitude respectively4 ,to the north of the ,equator lie the ,kong ,mountains2 and near the coast of the ,bight of ,biafra rises the semi-extinct volcano of the ,camaroons1 #ac1abi feet high4 ,this elevation is far exceeded by that of the colossal summits1 which on the eastern coast are situated within a few degrees of the equinoctial line1 and wear a crown of snow which is indissoluble4 ,one of these1 ,kilimandjaro1 has an altitude of #bb1had feet1 while ,kenia cannot be less than #bj1jjj feet4 ,others are probably equal1 or little inferior1 to these in height4 ,in ,south ,africa are three ranges of mountains1 or rather terraces1 the northernmost of which is called the ,nieuweld1 and runs in a general course of east and west4 ,towards its eastern extremity it bears the name of the ,sneeaberg1 or ,snowy ,mountain1 and its summits are frequently #ajjj feet high4 ,the ,compassberg group is #gjjj feet in elevation4 ,immediately to the south of ,cape ,town rises the curious flat-topped ,table ,mountain1 #cehb feet in height4 ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 in the ,canary ,isles1 off the north-west coast1 is volcanic2 it rises #ab1bcf feet above the sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,asia possesses1 as we have seen1 the loftiest mountain-peaks1 but it is on the ,american continent we meet with the grandest mountain-systems4 ,we remark1 in the first place1 that they are all directed from north to south2 in the second1 that they are grouped along the western and eastern coasts in two unequal systems1 converging towards each other as they run southward4 ,in ,north ,america these two systems are the ,rocky ,mountains on the west2 and the ,apalachian1 or ,alleghany1 on the east4 ,the former consists of a mountain-region1 diversified with valleys1 terraces1 and plateaus1 varying in breadth from #dj to #ajj miles1 and raising several summits to a very conspicuous elevation1 as in ,mount ,brown1 #ae1ijj feet1 and the volcanic peak of ,mount ,elias1 in ,california1 #ag1ejj feet4 ,the ,apalachian range extends from the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence to the parallel of #cd1 a course of #aejj miles4 ,it is intersected by ,lake ,champlain and the valley of the ,hudson4 ,its average height does not exceed #cjjj feet2 but it culminates in ,mount ,washington to an altitude of #fbcd feet4 ,in ,south ,america the chain of the ,rocky ,mountains is prolonged in the magnificent system of the ,cordilleras de los ,andes1 or the ,andes1 which commences immediately to the southward of the ,isthmus of ,panama1 extends along the whole stretch of the western coast1 and finally terminates in the rocky archipelago of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,this chain is locally distinguished into the ,columbian1 ,peruvian1 ,bolivian1 ,chilian1 and ,patagonian ,andes4 ,its widest extension occurs between the #bjth and #beth parallels1 where it measures upwards of #djj miles across4 ,throughout its entire course it attains a very considerable elevation4 ,its volcanic character is very marked4 ,thus1 in the ,columbian ,andes1 ,antisana and ,cotopaxi are still active2 in the ,chilian1 ,aconcagua is the loftiest volcano on the globe2 in the ,patagonian1 four active volcanoes occur4 ,the region at the base of the ,chilian ,andes suffers more from volcanic convulsion than any other part of the world1 and its towns are repeatedly destroyed by earthquakes4 ,the principal summits are3--,aconcagua1 #bc1idd feet2 ,chimborazo1 #ba1dae feet2 ,sahama1 #bb1cej feet2 ,cotopaxi1 #ah1hfg2 ,antisana1 #ai1acf feet2 ,sorata1 #ba1bhf feet2 and ,illimanni1 #ba1adi feet4 ,on the eastern coast we meet with the ,mountains of ,guiana and the ,mountains of ,brazil1 never reaching a higher level than #ejjj feet4 ,mount ,sarmiento1 in ,tierra del ,fuego1 is #fijj feet above the sea4 ,in the ,west ,indies the loftiest point is found in the ,blue ,mountains of ,jamaica1 #gbgh feet4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,and ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,mountains4 ,the same changes that we observe in the characters of vegetable life as we advance towards the ,pole reproduce themselves1 the reader will easily understand1 as we ascend the mountain-sides4 ,only1 in the former case the gradation is slow and scarcely perceptible2 in the latter1 it displays itself rapidly2 in such wise that a distance of a few hundred yards in height is equivalent to a journey of several degrees in latitude4 ,it is scarcely necessary to add that the warmer the climate1 the higher we must rise to reach the belt or zone where flourish the species peculiar to ,arctic countries4 ,in every land the flora of the lowest region of the mountains is virtually the same as that of the adjacent plains1 and it is only at an elevation of #cjj feet that we discern a positive change of aspect4 ,in temperate ,europe1 the ,normandy fir and the ,epicea begin to form1 at that altitude1 forests of considerable extent4 ,these trees are from #abj to #aej feet in height1 with a pyramidal configuration1 sombre foliage1 and drooping boughs1 and whose bark takes to itself a clothing of various lichens 7notably ,usneas71 the long filaments1 branchy and yellowish1 clinging to the branches of the most aged individuals4 ,in the shadow of these resinous trees thrive the honeysuckle1 the rose1 the wild raspberry4 ,at the base of the senile trunks are developed the crawling or climbing stems1 ever verdurous1 of various lycopodiums4 ,in rocky localities the great yellow gentian unfolds its long spikes of golden flowers1 in company with the elegant martagon1 whose yellow-spotted red corollas are rolled up turban-wise4 ,at a higher level1 between #dejj and #fjjj feet1 the cembro pine1 rare enough in ,france and ,england1 more common in the mountains of ,central ,europe1 and the larch1 whose leaves fall every winter1 are the last representatives of the true arborescent ,flora4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,fir1 with bearded ,usnea4 #b4 ,great ,yellow ,gentian4 #c4 ,martagon1 or ,turk's ,cap ,lily4 ,still continuing our ascent1 we meet now with nothing but an herbaceous vegetation4 ,here and there only1 in turfy places and abrupt ravines1 a few birches and some dwarf willows display themselves1 scarcely taller than the herbs which surround them4 ,it is in the rocky hollows also that the oleanders or ferruginous rhododendrons vegetate1 sole representatives in ,europe of a genus which among the ,asiatic mountains numbers several species4 ,the ,flora of the ,alpine prairies is1 moreover1 extremely varied4 ,the ,gramine dominate therein1 but associated with other families which enamel with the most brilliant colours the bright green carpet of those cold regions2 the bright yellow or orange of the ,composit2 the blue of the ,phyteumas1 of the ,larkspurs1 and the ,campanulas2 the rose of the ,carnations and the ,centaureas2 the intense purple of the ,ranunculuses 7,nigritell74 ,in the most arid localities we admire the azure flowers of the little ,gentianellas and the white blossoms of the ,saxifrages2 their presence1 under such conditions1 filling our souls with wonder1 and stimulating our hearts to praise their divine ,creator4 ,and with childlike1 credulous affection1 ,we behold their tender buds expand-- ,emblems of our own great resurrection1 ,emblems of the bright and better land4#bjc ,some of the plants which enrich the lofty slopes of the ,european mountains are endowed with an agreeable aromatic odour1 and with keen stimulating properties4 ,such are the ,artemisias and the ,achille4 ,to the former of these families belongs the ,artemisia glacialis1 which the mountaineers consider an universal panacea1 and which enters into the composition of the famous liqueur of the ,chartreux4 ,on the threshold of the eternal snows1 under the influence of the icy breezes1 vegetation grows rarer and yet rarer1 until it is reduced to a few species which compensate for their insignificance by their beauty4 ,such are the ,campanula of ,allioni1 with its graceful bells of blue2 the delicate ,saxifraga1 whose rosy flowers also expose their beauties on the frost-bound shores of ,spitzbergen2 the ,soldanella of the ,alps2 the ,ranunculus of the ,glaciers2 numerous ,androsell1 some of which do not exceed a third of an inch in height2 finally1 on the extreme border1 and straggling even on the moraines of the ,glaciers1 where no other plant can live1 the little ,myosotis1 which grows in small tufts covered with white down1 and starred with delicate blue flowers4 ,at a still higher level we find only a few lichens relieving the monotonous surface of the rocks2 and sometimes1 flourishing under unknown circumstances1 the ,protococcus nivalis1 whose red globules communicate to the snow a blood-red tint4 ,the ,mountain ,flora will offer us1 in other parts of the globe1 the same series of diminution1 commencing with the groups which people the low lands of each geographical zone1 and terminating with those which1 at the level of the sea1 are met with only in the ,frozen ,zone4 ,some mountain-chains1 however1 possess genera or species exclusively belonging to them4 ,it is on the ridges of ,atlas and ,lebanon1 at an elevation of #cejj or #edjj feet1 that the majestic cedars spread their umbrageous branches4 ,the cedars of ,atlas attain a stature of #abj to #adj feet1 and their trunk measures1 at the base1 from a yard to a yard and a half in diameter4 ,when young1 says ,m4 ,charles ,martins1#bjd they have a pyramidal form2 but when they soar above their neighbours1 or above the rock which protects them1 there comes a sudden storm1 a flash of lightning1 or an insect pierces their terminal shoot1 and deprives them of their shapely spire2 the tree is discrowned2 then the branches spread horizontally in terraces or layers of verdure1 one upon another1 screening the sky from the gaze of the traveller1 who presses forward in a sort of twilight under these vaults impenetrable to the solar rays4 ,from an elevated point of the mountain still more majestic is the spectacle4 ,the horizontal surfaces resemble lawns of the deepest green1 or of a glaucous colour like that of water1 upon which are sprinkled cones of a violet hue2 the eye plunges into an abyss of greenery in whose depth mutters an invisible torrent4 ,illustration3 ,,cedar ,,of ,,lebanon4 ,the cedar of ,atlas constitutes1 if not a species1 at least a distinct variety from the cedar of ,lebanon4 ,the latter is now very rare on the mountain which is regarded as its native habitat4 ,the prophet ,ezekiel describes it in all its glory3 ,a cedar with fair branches1 and with a shadowing shroud1 and of a high stature 444 his height was exalted above all the trees of the field1 and his boughs were multiplied1 and his branches became long1 because of the multitude of waters1 when he shot forth 7,ezek4 xxxi4 #c1 #e74 ,but those immense green forests which once stood out in dark deep shadow against the radiant sky are now reduced to a single scanty grove--a grove containing1 according to ,dr4 ,hooker1 but four hundred trees1 and of these four hundred only twelve of the ancient majestic race4 ,they are situated high up on the western slope of the mountain-range1 two hours south-east from ,tripoli1 and at an elevation above the sea-level of #fagb feet4 ,most of the ,lebanon patriarchs are about #ej feet in height1 and of nearly the same girth4 ,one1 however1 measures #fc feet in circumference4 ,the cedar was introduced into ,england towards the close of the seventeenth century1 and has become permanently naturalized4 ,it is even found in a flourishing condition as far north as ,inverness4 ,it does not1 however1 attain such gigantic dimensions here as on the slopes of ,lebanon4 ,there is one at ,goodwood1 in ,sussex1 #be feet in circumference2 and another at ,peperharrow1 in ,surrey1 #ae feet4 ,in the ,jardin des ,plantes a celebrated tree1 whose terminal shoot was struck by a chance shot during the siege of the ,bastile1 boasts of the following proportions3-,ten feet girth at three feet from the ground1 and ten feet and a half on a level with the soil4 ,its horizontal branches extend fully forty-five to fifty feet in length1 and cover1 consequently1 a surface of upwards of #cjj feet in circuit4 ,illustration3 ,,rhododendrons ,,of ,,the ,,himalaya4 #a4 ,rhododendron ,pendulum4 #b4 ,rhododendron ,dalhousie4 #c4 ,rhododendron ,nivale4 ,if we would now pass in review the complete series of ,zones of ,vegetation1 it is to the north of ,hindostan1 in the ,himalaya1 or to ,south ,america and the ,cordillera of the ,andes1 that we must transport ourselves4 ,on the first steps1 or lowest terraces1 of these immense chains1 we shall see the tropical ,flora revealing all its wealth and its puissance2 there1 between #cejj and #fijj feet above the sea-level1 we meet with nearly all the plants peculiar to temperate climes1 and those which only belong to the northern lands4 ,on the ,himalayan slopes1 the pine and the cedar flourish at an elevation of #gejj feet4 ,advancing from this limit1 we soon encounter a great variety of ,rhododendrons1 a shrub now well known in our ,european gardens1 and highly prized for its ever green foliage and rich full bloom4 ,it thrives at the height of #ab1jjj feet2 a few species even battle with the elements at an altitude of #ae1jjj feet1 but they are then only stunted and crawling plants4 ,with these are associated1 at about #aj1jjj feet1 the alder1 the birch1 and the willow4 ,the plains are covered1 at the same time1 with a prodigious host of ,ranunculace1 ,composit1 ,saxifrages1 and ,pinnalace1 to which succeeds all the army of ,lichens4 ,thus1 then1 it appears that the same laws determine always and everywhere the orographic distribution of plants4 ,only the influence of elevation is counterbalanced here by that of climate2 whence it results that the arborescent species endure at a far greater height than on our ,european mountains4 ,in the same manner that the ,himalaya resumes1 so to speak1 the ,flora of all the climates of the ,old ,world1 does the ,cordillera of the ,andes1 and1 notably1 that portion of the chain situated between ,peru and ,venezuela1 present all the vegetable types of the ,new ,world1 disposed upon its plateaux and its slopes as upon a gigantic flight of steps4 ,in the lower region1 the plants of ,tropical ,america1 favoured by a marshy soil1 deck themselves out in their most gorgeous attire4 ,at an elevation of between #ahjj and #cejj feet1 the vegetation is neither so brilliant nor so varied1 but it has not yet thrown off its original character4 ,we remark here a constant abundance of ,myrtace1 ,laurenaci1 and ,bignoniace1 as well as numerous epiphytous plants--,orchidace1 ,ferns1 ,bromeliace4 ,from #cejj to #ijjj feet we mark the successive appearance of plants belonging to the colder countries of ,north ,america3 ,escallion1 ,magnoliace1 ,vacciniace1 and ,solanace4 ,here and there a few ,bromeliace and some other epiphytes display themselves4 ,we encounter also in this zone a small number of ,palmace2 among others1 the ,ceroxylon and the ,diplothenium4 ,but soon the arborescent vegetation almost wholly disappears1 and only a few stunted bushes remain1 similar to those which1 in the ,alps1 succeed the larch4 ,then come meadows almost entirely formed of ,composit1 ,umbellifer1 and ,saxifrages2 and1 finally1 the ,lichens1 the last plants-the last forms of vegetable life--lingering on the frontiers of the region of eternal snow4 ,if the law which presides over the orographic distribution of plants were applicable to the animal kingdom1 we should meet on the frozen crests of the mountains with the same species as1 or1 at least1 with analogous species to1 those we have seen in the vicinity of the ,pole4 ,but it is not so4 ,plants flourish wherever they can find1 with an endurable climate1 a soil in which their roots can develop themselves and imbibe the juices needful for their support2 but the conditions which render a country inhabitable for animals--,i mean the higher animals more particularly--are wholly different and more complex4 ,a facility for removing from place to place in search of food is one of these conditions1 and assuredly one of the most essential4 ,but the number of terrestrial animals capable of climbing the scarped flanks1 of traversing the narrow ridges1 and leaping across the precipitous chasms of the mountains1 is extremely limited4 ,however1 a few ,herbivora excel in these perilous exercises4 ,they are ,ruminants of small size1 with tiny limbs1 and small ungulated hoofs2 ,moufflons1 wild ,goats1 ,chamois1 ,kids1 which seek on inaccessible heights a refuge against the attacks of man and the ,carnaria1 and bound1 with marvellous agility and precision1 from rock to rock1 from icy crag to crag1 over the most formidable gulfs1 and up the most precipitous steeps4 ,the ,moufflons1 or ,wild ,sheep1 erroneously regarded by some naturalists as the ancestors of our domestic sheep1 form a genus whose species are distributed in ,asia1 ,america1 and ,northern ,africa1 and in the mountainous islands of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,musmon ,moufflon1 which inhabits the mountains of ,corsica1 of ,sardinia1 of ,cyprus1 and of ,candia1 is nearly the size of a sheep1 but far more robust4 ,his hair1 which is only wool properly so called1 is a reddish-brown over nearly the whole of his body1 and whitish under the belly and the legs4 ,his horns are of great size1 transversely crumpled1 with a simple curve1 and a sharp extremity4 ,among the ,asiatic species the largest is the ,masimon argali1 which inhabits the ,alta and the mountains of ,kamtschatka1 and approaches the ass in size4 ,his skin is a yellowish-brown1 with some white on the fore-feet4 ,his horns describe an almost complete circle4 ,the ,american species is the ,musimon montanus1 which we find in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,finally1 the region of the ,atlas and of the ,aurs ,mountains is the country of the ,ruffled ,moufflon 7,moufflon ,manchettes71 so named on account of his long hairs1 which fall from his shoulders upon the extremity of his anterior legs4 ,his neck is also supplied with a thick mane4 ,illustration3 ,,musk-,,deer4 ,the ,wild ,goats and ,bouquetins probably form1 as the best authorities represent1 but one and the same genus4 ,in any case the latter are much better known than the former4 ,they closely resemble our domestic goats1 from which they chiefly differ in the prodigious development of their horns1 the said horns being generally knotty1 slightly divergent1 and supported by osseous axes4 ,their name1 according to ,gervais1 comes from two words1 ,bouc-estain1 signifying the ,goat of the ,rocks4 ,they belong exclusively to the ,old ,continent4 ,these animals are very wild4 ,the precipitousness and lofty elevation of their pasture-grounds render their chase a matter of peril4 ,the same may be said of the ,chamois1 or ,isard1 which inhabits the loftiest ridges of the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 and the mountains of ,greece4 ,dogs are of no avail in hunting these animals4 ,in ,asia the falcon is employed in capturing the bouquetin4 ,in ,europe the chamois-hunters are excellent marksmen--indefatigable1 fearless1 capable of great endurance1 keen1 and vigilant4 ,it is at morn and eve that they venture forth on their hazardous enterprise4 ,the chamois wander in small troops4 ,their voice is a kind of low bleating2 but when one of them descries approaching danger1 he immediately raises a sharp cry1 which is the signal of flight4 ,driven together and closely packed1 the poor animals stand at bay1 and dash themselves upon the daring hunter with an impetuosity which often proves fatal to him4 ,the ,musk-,deer form a distinct family in the order ,ruminantia4 ,in their external conformation they resemble both the stag and the antelope1 but they have neither horns nor antlers2 their stomach is deficient in the part named the feuillet1 which exists in all the other ,ruminantia2 finally1 their upper jaw is provided with two long canines1 which among the males project from the mouth1 and which serve at one and the same time as defensive arms and as instruments to dig out of the soil the roots upon which these animals feed4 ,all the species of this genus are ,asiatic1 except one1 which is a native of ,guinea4 ,i can only particularize here the ,musk-,deer of ,thibet and ,nepaul1 which furnishes commerce with the curious product1 so useful in medicine and perfumery1 known as musk4 ,this product is an extremely odorous and unctuous substance1 contained in a special organ situated under the belly of the male4 ,the high price which it commands would make the chase of the musk-deer very profitable1 were not these animals so rare and so difficult to get at4 ,they lead a solitary life among the scarped rocks and in the thorny bushes bordering on the glaciers4 ,in winter they descend towards more temperate localities4 ,they are caught either in snares or with nooses1 or slain with arrows4 ,the ,tongusian hunters1 to attract the musk-deer1 imitate the cry of their young by applying the mouth to a fragment of bark4 ,the chase is only pursued in winter and autumn4 ,in ,thibet the hunters require a special license from the government4 ,we may pass over the species of ,rodents which burrow among the mountains1 with a word of allusion to the traditional companion of the poor wandering ,savoyard1 the ,alpine ,marmot4 ,this gentle and interesting animal is so well known to my readers that ,i need not pause to describe him4 ,in the deep gorges and dense forests which break up the monotony of the lofty table-lands1 live in fierce solitude the congeners of the ,man in the ,white ,cloak of the ,polar deserts--,bears with a thick fur and of a sombre hue4 ,while these animals seem designed by their organization to feed upon flesh1 and while their strength enables them to seize upon the largest game--which1 indeed1 they occasionally do--their diet is omnivorous1 and they even exhibit1 in general1 a marked predilection for the aliment of a vegetable nature4 ,the reader1 moreover1 will remember with what eagerness the bears of our menageries and zoological gardens devour the bread1 cakes1 or fruit which their visitors press upon them4 ,in their native mountain homes they will rather fly from man than attack him2 but if assailed and closely pressed1 they defend themselves bravely1 rearing upon their hind-feet1 and endeavouring to suffocate their aggressor with their muscular arms4 ,if caught in their youth they are easily tamed1 and display a greater intelligence than any of the other carnivora4 ,the genus ,ursid1 or ,bears1 is wholly wanting in ,africa1 but has its representatives in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,the ,european species are3 the great ,brown ,bear1 formerly distributed over all the mountains and through all the forests of ,western and ,northern ,europe1 and which is still sufficiently common in the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 and some wooded highland districts of ,russia2 and the ,bear of ,asturias1 found only in the sierras of the ,iberian peninsula4 ,the latter is of smaller dimensions than the former4 ,his hide is tawny4 ,asia possesses3 the ,syrian ,bear and ,bear of ,lebanon1 two varieties of the same species1 distinguished by ,horsfield under the name of ,ursus isabella1 in allusion to the dirty brown colour of his skin2 the ,boar of ,thibet1 which is found in the ,himalayan chain and the islands of ,japan--in size and appearance he approximates to our ,european bear1 but differs in the blacker shades of his hair2 the ,malay ,bear 7,prochilus ,malayanus71 which is jet black1 climbs trees with agility1 and lives on a vegetable diet2 and the ,juggler1 or ,jungle ,bear of ,india 7,prochilus ursinus71 originally named the ,five-fingered ,sloth1--a great favourite with the ,indian jugglers on account of his adaptability and mildness4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,black ,bear of ,canada4 #b4 ,gray ,bear of ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,condor ,,of ,,the ,,andes4 ,to ,north ,america belong the ,black ,bear 7,ursus ,americanus7 and the ,grisly ,bear 7,ursus ferox74 ,the former has a long head1 a pointed nose1 small eyes1 and short round ears2 his limbs are strong1 unwieldy1 and thick2 his tail is short2 feet large2 and the hair on the body smooth1 glossy1 and black4 ,the ,grisly ,bear is about nine feet long1 a narrow and flattened muzzle1 sunken eyes1 and formidable teeth2 he ranges over not only the entire chain of the ,rocky ,mountains1 but in the prairies and forests which occupy the centre and west of the great continent1 where his sanguinary instincts and prodigious strength render him a formidable antagonist4 ,the ,black ,bear of ,canada1 on the contrary1 is the least ferocious and least carnivorous of his genus4 ,his chief food is of a vegetable nature--grain1 fruits1 and roots--but he does not disdain an occasional regale of pork4 ,he commits great depredations on the maize-fields1 and is also exceedingly partial to honey4 ,from the nature of his food1 his flesh is exceedingly succulent1 and much relished by the ,canadian settlers4 ,ascend the wildest and most barren mountains1 even to the limit where all life ceases to exist2 or the flank of a perpendicular rock1 in a crevasse1 in some chink or fissure where the foot of man or quadruped may never rest2 and there1 were you able to approach sufficiently near1 you would see some interlaced branches and stems1 and within it a few fragments1 a few gnawed and polished bones1 while a strong odour scented the surrounding air4 ,regard it more attentively--some tiny creatures are astir upon that unclean couch4 ,yes3 your gaze now rests on the eyry of one of those arial tyrants1 ,eagles or ,vultures1 which alone can dwell on the cloud-crowned1 wind-swept heights4 ,i must confine myself here to mentioning the largest and most formidable species1 which surpasses all the others in sweep and speed and power of flight--the ,condor of the ,andes4 ,this bird possesses the habits and voracity of other vultures1 and1 as if conscious of his enormous strength1 shows himself the most audacious4 ,he frequently pounces upon living animals2 but his non-retractile talons1 blunted by their attrition upon the rocks1 do not permit him to carry off his prey2 he contents himself with fixing it against the ground with one of his claws1 while he rends it to pieces with his powerful beak4 ,gorged with food1 he becomes incapable of flight4 ,you may then approach him2 but should you attempt to seize him1 he opposes a desperate resistance1 and as he enjoys an extraordinary tenacity of life1 the victory will probably cause you a prolonged struggle and many cruel wounds4 ,a story is told of a ,chili miner1 of more than ordinary physical force1 who attacked--hand-to-hand1 as it were--a condor while digesting his greedy banquet1 and unable to make his escape4 ,the engagement was long and desperate4 ,the man was compelled to put forth all his strength4 ,at length1 exhausted1 torn1 and bleeding1 he left his enemy on the field of battle1 and carried off for a trophy a few feathers1 which he showed to his comrades1 affirming that he had never fought a harder fight4 ,the other miners went in search of the corpse of this terrible bird4 ,they found him standing erect1 and flapping his wings in order to fly away4 ,they only killed him by crushing in his head with a hatchet4 ,the condor enjoys the privilege of an exceptional longevity4 ,the ,indians of the ,andean plains assert that he lives nearly a hundred years4 ,he builds no regular nest2 the female is satisfied with a hollow in the rocky cliff of sufficient size to shelter her while hatching her eggs4 ,both parents busy themselves very attentively in bringing up their young1 disgorging in their beaks the food which they have themselves taken4 ,the young birds grow slowly2 it is not until they are six weeks old that they begin to flutter round their parents4 ,their training1 however1 lasts but a few months2 after which they separate of their own accord from the male and female birds1 and seek their own nourishment4 ,the condor has the loftiest flight of all the winged race4 ,he has been seen towering in the blue serene1 on a level with the snow-crowned summit of ,illimani1 #bc1jjj feet above the sea1 in a region where man cannot endure the excessive rarefaction of the air4 ,when1 in the fulness of time1 civilization shall have conquered to itself the ,south ,american continent1 the condor1 flying for refuge to these brain-wildering heights among the icy peaks of the ,cordillera1 shall be1 perhaps1 in that quarter of the globe1 the latest denizen of the ,desert--the last representative of ,,the ,,savage ,,world4 ,index4 ,abbye-singh1 the tiger-killer1 #caj4 ,abyssinia1 its physical features1 #bdh2 flora1 #bdh-ej2 mountains1 #eif4--,see also ,,shoa1 ,,tigre4 ,abyssinian meadow-grass1 #bdb4 ,acacia detinens1 #beg4 ,acacia doratoxylon1 #bgi4 ,acacias1 family of1 their characteristics1 #daa4 ,acrostichon grande1 #bgg4 ,actas described1 #bfa4 ,adansonia digitata 7the ,baobab71 #dji4 ,adour1 the1 valley of1 #bg4 ,africa1 interior of1 described1 #ahf1 #ahg2 southern plateau1 #ahg1 #aid1 #aie2 its general physical features1 #ahg1 #ahh2 ,karroos of ,southern ,africa1 #ahh1 #aia4--,see ,,cape ,,colony1 ,,central ,,africa1 ,,equitorial ,,africa1 ,,kaffraria1 ,,kalihari1 ,,natal1 ,,senegambia4 ,african elephant1 characteristics of1 #dea4 ,agami1 the1 described1 #ced4 ,agouti1 the1 described1 #cdb4 ,agua1 the1 described1 #cfc4 ,ahu1 the1 described1 #fe4 ,akhaf1 the desert of1 #ajf1 #aji4 ,albert ,n'yanza1 the1 discovered by ,sir ,s4 ,baker1 #bjb4 ,alfa1 the1 described1 #aej4 ,alfourous1 the1 their manners1 #ebe4 ,alleghany ,mountains1 the1 character of1 #baf4 ,alligator1 the1 its natural history1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,alligator lucius1 #ceg4 ,aloe socotrina1 #bdi4 ,aloes1 various species of1 described1 #bed4 ,alpaca1 the1 characteristics of1 #ccd1 #cce4--,see ,,huanacu4 ,alpine ,squirrel1 the1 #dii4 ,alps1 the1 referred to1 #ad2 described1 #ehi1 #eij4 ,alps1 the ,scandinavian1 described1 #ehh4 ,alta ,mountains1 the1 description of1 #eid4 ,amazon1 forests of the river1 their characteristics1 #chf1 #chg4 ,amboyna1 island of1 its species1 #dba4 ,america1 progressive civilization of1 #bje1 #bjf2 ,spanish conquests in1 #bjf1 #bji2 probable future of1 #bji2 character of its fauna1 #bha-bhc4--,see ,,north ,,america1 ,,south ,,america4 ,anastatica hierochuntica1 #adi4 ,andamanese1 the1 character of1 #ebe4 ,andes1 the1 description of1 #eig1 #eih2 ,condor of1 #fac1 #fad2 vegetation and character of the ,pampas of1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,androsell1 the1 described1 #fja4 ,annona 7ox-heart71 the1 described1 #bdf4 ,ant-eater1 habits of the great1 #cdf1 #cdg4 ,anthropomorphic apes1 natural history of1 #dgj-dhg4 ,antilope ,dorcas1 the1 account of1 #afi4 ,apache ,indians1 the1 described1 #cce4 ,apalachian ,mountains1 the1 features of1 #eig4 ,ape1 the1 natural history of1 #dfc2 habitat1 #dfd4--,see ,,baboon1 ,,chimpanzee1 ,,cynocephali1 ,,cynopitheci1 ,,gorilla1 ,,monkey1 ,,orang-,,outang4 ,apennines1 the1 their character and aspect1 #eij4 ,apios tuberosa1 #bfj4 ,aponogeton distachyum1 #bef4 ,apteryx ,australis1 its natural history1 #cgg1 #cgh4 ,aquila bifasciata1 #ge4 ,arabian ,deserts1 the1 description of1 #ajf4 ,arabs1 the1 their origin1 #agf2 physique1 #agf2 history1 #agf1 #agg2 religion1 #agg2 attachment to polygamy1 #agg2 love of rapine1 #agg2 religious zeal1 #agh2 general characteristics1 #agh1 #agi2 household wealth1 #agh1 #ahj4--,see ,,bedouins4 ,aralia crassifolia1 #bgg4 ,ararat1 ,mount1 its physical aspect1 #eie4 ,araucanians1 the1 their habits and manners1 #eda4 ,arctic discovery1 reference to1 and account of1 #eeb-eee4 ,arctic regions1 the1 described1 #edh4--,see ,,polar ,,regions4 ,ardea alba1 #gb4--,see ,,heron4 ,areca saccharifera1 #dah4 ,argus1 ,mount1 description of1 #eie4 ,ariel ,gazelle1 the1 natural history of1 #afi4 ,aristida pungens1 #adh4 ,armadillo1 the1 natural history of1 #cde1 #cdf4 ,arnee ,buffalo1 the1 description of1 #big1 #cjh4 ,,arnold1 ,,matthew1 quoted1 #cih1 #eia4 ,aroidace1 the1 family of1 #dch4 ,artemisia alba1 #aea4 ,artemisia glacialis1 #fja4 ,artesian wells1 #afa4 ,artocarpus incisa1 #dad4 ,arundo conspicua1 #bge4 ,asiatic elephant1 the1 its natural history1 #dej1 #dea4 ,asimina triloba1 #bei4 ,asinus ,quagga1 the1 natural history of1 #bia1 #bib4 ,ass1 the1 its habits and peculiarities1 #ef4 ,ass1 ,wild1 the4--,see ,,onagra4 ,astelia ,banksii1 #bgf4 ,asturias1 bear of1 described1 #fji4 ,atacania1 the ,pampas of1 #bai4 ,ateles1 the1 their natural history1 #dhi1 #dij4 ,,atkinson1 ,t4 ,w41 quoted1 #eh1 #gg1 #gi1 #hh4 ,atlas ,mountains1 the1 their situation and physical aspect1 #abd1 #eif4 ,atmosphere of mountain-regions1 #ehb1 #ehc4 ,aureilhan1 lake of1 #cj4 ,australia1 discovery of1 #bca1 #bcb2 its deserts1 #bcb2 rivers1 #bcb2 mountains1 #bce2 adventure and exploration in1 #bce1 #bcf2 wilderness of1 #bcg2 expedition by ,burke and ,wills1 #bcg-bdj2 its flora1 #bgc-bha2 its fauna1 #cff-cgh2 its characteristic vegetation1 #dbb-dbd2 its aboriginal population1 #ebb1 #ebc4 ,auvergne1 its extinct volcanoes1 #eia1 #eib4 ,avatsha1 mount1 #eie4 ,aye-,aye1 the1 its natural history1 #did4 ,baboon of the ,atlas1 the1 described1 #dfe4 ,bahiouda1 desert of1 described1 #abb1 #abc4 ,,baker1 ,sir ,s41 quoted1 #bjb1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,baleniceps1 the1 account of1 #cba4 ,balsams1 the yellow1 described1 #bfa4 ,bamboo1 the1 its physiology and uses1 #djb4 ,bamunguatos ,mountains1 the1 chain of1 #aif4 ,banana1 the1 its physiology and uses1 #bdf1 #bdi1 #djb1 #djc4 ,banyan1 the1 account of1 #djd1 #dje4 ,baobab1 the1 characteristics and discovery of1 #dji1 #daj4 ,,barth1 ,dr41 quoted1 #bjd4 ,barbary ,squirrel1 the1 account of1 #ejj4 ,barren landes1 the1 described1 #edi4 ,bassia buttyracea1 #daj4 ,batata1 the1 account of1 #bdb4 ,,bates1 ,h4 ,w41 quoted1 #cda1 #cdg1 #ceh1 #chf1 #chg1 #chh1 #cie1 #cif1 #cig1 #dcd1 #dce1 #ddf1 #dfh4 ,batna1 account of1 #abg4 ,baudouin1 lake1 description of1 #aad1 #aag4 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superstition1 #eji2 his low moral standard and cannibal tastes1 #eaj4--;,for ,,savage ,,races1 see pp4 #eaf-edb1 and #efi-fgi4 ,savannahs of ,guinea1 their features1 #bde4 ,savenay1 marshes of1 described1 #ag1 #ah4 ,saxifragas1 the1 properties and uses of1 #fja4 ,,schomburgk1 ,sir ,r41 quoted1 #dag1 #dci4 ,scindapsus pertusus1 #dba4 ,sciurus ,alpinus1 account of1 #dii2 ,carolinensis1 #dii1 #ejj2 getulus1 #ejj2 maximus1 #ejj2 vulgaris1 #dii2 vulpinus1 #ejj4 ,sea-,bear1 the1 natural history of1 #efh4 ,sea-,lion1 the1 natural history of1 #efh4 ,sea-shore ,wolf1 the1 natural history of1 #cac4 ,seal1 the1 habitats1 manners1 and physiology of1 #efh4 ,sechura1 pampa of1 described1 #bai4 ,senegal1 serpent-worship of1 #cbc2 serpents of1 described1 #cbd4 ,senegambia1 physical features of1 #bdj1 #bda2 flora of1 #bda2 cereal growth of1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,sennaar1 physical features of1 #bdg4 ,sensitive plant1 the1 described1 #bfh4 ,serpent-,bird1 the1 of the ,cape1 natural history of1 #cba4 ,serpents of the ,steppes1 the1 described1 #gg2 of ,asia and ,africa1 #cbc-cbh4--,see ,,ophidia1 ,,viper4 ,,shakspeare1 quoted1 #cbb4 ,shekanis1 the1 account of1 #eah1 #eai4 ,,shelley1 the poet1 quoted1 #dc1 #aje1 #cgi4 ,shemites1 the1 characteristics of1 #age1 #agf4--,see ,,arabs1 ,,tibboos1 ,,touraregs4 ,shepherd races of ,asia1 their history1 manners1 customs1 and character1 #gh1 #gi4 ,shirwa1 ,lake1 in ,africa1 #bja4 ,shoa1 vegetable life in1 #bdi4 ,short-eared ,rock ,kangaroo1 the1 natural history of1 #cge4 ,silk-cotton tree1 the1 properties of1 #chh4 ,silphium laciniatum1 #bfj4 ,silphium terebinthinaceum1 #bff4 ,simoom1 the1 phenomena and effects of1 #ace-ach4 ,sinai1 ,mount1 physical aspect and associations of1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #eig4 ,sioux ,indians1 cemeteries of the1 #bae4 ,sivas1 quicksands of1 described1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,skags-tol-tind1 ,mount1 referred to1 #ehh4 ,sloth1 natural history1 habits1 and manners of the1 #did-dif4--,see ,,three-,,toed ,,sloth1 ,,two-,,toed ,,sloth4 ,smilax rotundifolia1 #bei4 ,,smith1 ,,sydney1 quoted1 #bgd4 ,,smyth1 ,admiral1 quoted1 #eij4 ,sneebergen1 mountain-range so called1 #ahg1 #eig4 ,snow1 perpetual1 limit of1 #eha4 ,socotrine aloes1 value of1 #bdi4 ,solidungul1 the1 order of1 #bij1 #bia4 ,,somerville1 ,mrs41 quoted1 #ig1 #ih1 #baa1 #bbc1 #ehi4 ,,sonnerat1 ,m41 quoted1 #did4 ,sorgho grass1 properties of1 #bdb4 ,,southey1 quoted1 #djd1 #dje1 #ejh4 ,south ,america1 inferiority of1 to ,north1 #bji2 its deserts1 #baj4--,see ,,pampas1 ,,virgin ,,forests4 ,spain1 its conquests in ,america1 #bjf1 #bji4 ,,spenser1 quoted1 #cef4 ,sphagnum1 the1 properties of1 #eef4 ,spider ,monkey1 the1 described1 #dhi1 #dij4 ,spitzbergen1 description of1 #eej1 #eea4 ,spotted ,monkey1 the1 described1 #dfi4 ,squirrel1 the1 natural history1 habits1 and characteristics of1 #dig-dii4--,see ,,alpine ,,squirrel1 ,,barbary ,,squirrel1 ,,common ,,squirrel1 ,,flying ,,squirrel1 ,,gray ,,squirrel1 ,,malabar ,,squirrel4 ,squirrel ,monkey1 the1 #dij4 ,stag1 the ,spotted1 described1 #cdj2 ,yellow1 described1 #eg4 ,staghorn1 the1 described1 #bgg4 ,,stanley1 ,dean1 quoted1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja1 #acg4 ,stapelia hirsuta1 #bcd4 ,steppes1 the1 in ,europe and ,asia1 their extent1 #df1 #dg2 their plateaux1 #dg2 their vegetable life1 #dg-di2 phenomena connected with1 #di1 #ej2 animal life of1 #ea2 ornithology1 #ga-gg2 herpetology1 #gh2 inhabitants1 #gh4 ,steppes of ,south ,america1 the1 surface of1 #bbj2 vegetation1 swamps1 and conflagrations of1 #bba-bbd2 a night on1 #bbe2 inundations of1 #bbf2 solitude of1 #bbg2 ,steppes of ,patagonia1 #bbg1 #bbh2 ,buenos ,ayres and the ,andes1 #bbh1 #bbi2 of ,desplobado1 #bbi2 hurricanes of1 #bcj2 animal life of1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,sterculia acuminata1 #dde4 ,sterculiace1 the1 family of1 #daa4 ,,st4 ,,hilaire1 ,,augustus1 quoted1 #eci4 ,,st4 ,,john1 ,,spenser1 quoted1 #eif4 ,stipa crinita1 #bgi4 ,stipa tenacissima1 #aej4 ,,stocqueler1 quoted1 #cji4 ,stork1 the1 description of1 #cbj4 ,,strachey1 ,captain1 quoted1 #eic4 ,strelitza regina1 described1 #bef4 ,struthio camelus1 #cah4--,see ,,ostrich4 ,strychnine1 nature and properties of1 #dag4 ,styrace1 family of1 their characteristics1 #djf4 ,sugar cane1 history of1 #bdf4 ,sugar palm1 the1 described1 #dah4 ,sumatra1 vegetable life in1 #daf1 #dag2 cannibalism in1 #eaa1 #eac4 ,sun1 worship of1 once prevalent1 #ejh4 ,surinam toad1 the1 described1 #cfc4 ,swamp oak1 the1 qualities of1 #bgg4 ,swan's ,marsh1 the1 reference to1 #bei4 ,swietenia ,mahogani1 its uses1 #daj4 ,table ,mountains1 the1 geography of1 #eig4 ,,talfourd1 ,sir ,t4 ,n41 quoted1 #ejd1 #eje4 ,tallow tree1 the1 properties and uses of1 #djh4 ,tamanoir1 the1 described1 #cdf4 ,tamarind1 the1 characteristics of1 #daa4 ,tamias1 the1 account of1 #ejb4 ,tanganyika1 ,lake1 in ,central ,africa1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,tanguen1 or ,tanghin1 the1 properties of1 #dbg4 ,tapioca1 commercial value of1 #bdb4 ,tapir1 the1 #bhh1 #bhi2 natural history of the ,american1 #cbh2 mode of defence1 and peculiarities of1 #cbi1 #ccj4 ,tarpan1 the1 natural history of1 #ea-ee2 reference to1 #bia4 ,tartar-,nogas1 the1 their territories1 customs1 and religion1 #hj1 #ha4 ,taro1 the1 account of1 #bde4 ,tarsi1 the1 description of1 #dib4 ,,taylor1 ,,henry1 quoted1 #baj4 ,,taylor1 ,,tom1 ,professor1 quoted1 #bj4 ,tchad1 ,lake1 discovery of1 #bjc1 #bjd2 description of1 #bjd4 ,teak1 the1 properties and commercial value of1 #djf4 ,tegeter1 ,mount1 referred to1 #bdg4 ,telfaria pedata1 the1 described1 #bdf4 ,temperature1 laws affecting1 #ehj4 ,teneriffe1 peak of1 described1 #eig4 ,,tennyson1 quoted1 #ad1 #bh1 #dd1 #aea1 #bca1 #eif4 ,tt1 flora of1 #beh4 ,texas1 vegetable life of1 #bfb-bff4 ,theobroma cacao1 properties of1 #bde4 ,thibet1 bear of1 #fji4 ,,thomson1 quoted1 #aai4 ,thrasatus1 #cee4 ,three-toed ,sloth1 the1 natural history of1 #dif4 ,thylacyni1 the1 natural history of1 #cga-cgc4 ,ti1 the1 described1 #bgg4 ,tibboos1 the1 of ,africa1 their habits and character1 #aha-ahc4 ,tierra-del-,fuego1 inhabitants of1 #eda4 ,tiger1 the1 natural history of1 #cje2 described by ,buffon1 #cjf2 by ,daubenton1 #cjf2 characteristics1 habits1 swiftness of1 #cjg1 #cjh2 mode of hunting1 #cji1 #caj4 ,tiger-cats1 the1 description of1 #dbi4 ,tigr1 geological features of1 #bdh2 flora of1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,tillandra usneoides1 #bfd1 #bfe4 ,tip1 desert of1 #aaa4 ,toads4--,see ,,agua1 ,,bull-,,frog1 ,,surinam ,,toad4 ,tocusra1 the1 #bdb4 ,todea ,africana1 #bef4 ,toothache-tree1 the1 described1 #bfd4 ,topaz1 the1 account of1 #edj4 ,touaregs1 the1 of ,africa1 their manners1 habits1 and characteristics1 #aha-ahc4 ,trachytic rocks1 character of1 #ehh4 ,traveller's tree1 the1 described1 #bgi1 #dbg4 ,,trecul1 ,m41 quoted1 #bed1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bff4 ,tree-ferns1 their character1 #dcf1 #dcg4 ,trees1 colossal1 of ,peru1 #chg-chi4 ,,tremaux1 ,m41 quoted1 #abj1 #acg1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,,tremblet1 ,m41 quoted1 #ahc4 ,trichecus1 #efh4 ,trigonocephalus1 the1 description of1 #cfa4 ,tristegis gluttinosa1 #bga4 ,,tristram1 ,rev4 ,h4 ,b41 quoted1 #if1 #ig1 #abh4 ,trumpet-,bird1 the1 description of1 #ced4 ,tumboa1 the1 physiology of1 #bea1 #beb4 ,tupinambis1 the1 described1 #agb4 ,two-toed ,sloth1 the1 natural history of1 #dif1 #dig4 ,unau1 the1 described1 #dif1 #dig4 ,unghandia speciosa1 #bfe4 ,upas-tree1 the properties of1 #daf2 fables relating to1 #dag4 ,upper ,guinea4--,see ,,senegambia4 ,ural ,mountains1 the1 geology of1 #eib4 ,urceola elastica1 #dah4 ,uvaria thiopica1 #bdf4 ,vaquois1 the1 character of1 #dba1 #dbh4 ,varan of the ,nile1 the1 described1 #agc4 ,varans of the ,desert1 the1 natural history of1 #aga-agc4 ,variegated ,baboon1 the1 account of1 #dfi4 ,venezuela1 pampas of1 #bbj-bbf4 ,vesuvius1 ,mount1 description of1 #eij4 ,vibro1 the genus1 #dbi4 ,victoria ,n'yanza1 ,lake1 discovery and account of1 #bjb4 ,victoria regia1 the1 history and description of1 #bfi1 #bgj4 ,vicua1 the1 natural history of1 #cce-ccg4 ,vine1 the1 account of1 #bdf4 ,viper1 the camel-headed1 description of1 #cfa-cfc4 ,vipera cerastes1 the1 natural history of1 #aga1 #agb4 ,vipers1 the1 of the ,desert1 #aff1 #aga1 #agb2 of ,south ,africa1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,virgin ,forests1 their extent and characteristics1 #che-cib2 vegetable life in1 #cic1 #cid2 a day in1 #cie-cig4 ,vistula1 the river1 #eib4 ,vitis vinifera1 #bdf4 ,viverrid1 the1 natural history of1 #caf1 #cag4 ,vizcacha1 the1 described1 #cdb4 ,vouabembs1 the1 cannibalism among1 #ead4 ,,von ,,martins1 the traveller quoted1 #chg4 ,,von ,,tschudi1 quoted1 #bbi1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #ccg4 ,vosges1 the1 mountain-range of1 #ad1 #eia4 ,,wallace1 ,mr41 quoted1 #cbi1 #ccj4 ,walrus1 the1 natural history of1 #efh4 ,water-lily1 yellow1 the1 described1 #bfc4 ,water snake1 the1 habits of1 #cgh4 ,,waterton1 the naturalist1 quoted1 #die1 #dif4 ,wells in the ,sahara1 #afa4 ,,welwitsch1 ,dr41 quoted1 #bea4 ,welwitschia1 the1 described1 #bea1 #beb4 ,whirlwinds of sand1 description of1 #ada1 #adb4 ,,white1 ,,walter1 quoted1 #de4 ,white wormwood1 the1 properties of1 #aej1 #aea4 ,whydah1 serpents at1 #cbd4 ,,wilkes1 ,admiral1 quoted1 #eda1 #edb2 ,arctic discoveries of1 #eec1 #eed4 ,,wills1 ,w4 ,j41 quoted1 #bcf1 #bch4 ,,wilson1 ,,alexander1 quoted1 #cee1 #cef4 ,wistman's ,wood1 description of1 #dj1 #da4 ,wolf of ,tartary1 description of1 #fh2 his ravages1 #fh-gj4 ,wombat1 the1 #cgj4--,see ,,phascolomys4 ,,wood1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,g41 quoted1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,woods of ,europe1 their aspect and characteristics1 #cig1 #cih4 ,,wordsworth1 quoted1 #agg1 #bji1 #bdg4 ,wourali1 the poison1 deadly nature of1 #dci4 ,wou-wou1 the1 natural history of1 #dgh4 ,,wrede1 ,baron ,,de1 quoted1 #ajg1 #aaj4 ,xanthorroea arborea1 #bgh1 #bgi4 ,yakoutes1 the1 their habits and mode of hunting1 #egf1 #egg4 ,yucca trculeana1 #bff4 ,,yvan1 ,dr41 quoted1 #ehg4 ,zambesi1 the1 course of1 #aie1 #aif2 delta and cascades of1 #aih1 #bja2 vegetation of1 #beh4 ,zana1 ,lake1 vegetation on the shores of1 #bdg1 #bdh4 ,zebra1 the1 natural history of1 #bib4 ,zebra ,wolf1 the1 natural history of1 #cgb4 ,zibeth1 the1 described1 #caf4 ,zopelotes1 the1 described1 #ced4 ,zorga1 the1 account of1 #aid4 ,list of ,illustrations4 ,,whole ,,page ,,engravings4 #a4 ,a ,pyrenean ,landscape1 #ae #b4 ,celtic ,memorials in ,brittany1 #ba #c4 ,the ,shepherds of the ,landes1 #be #d4 ,a ,flood in ,brittany1 #cc #e4 ,wild ,horses terrified by a ,storm1 #ec #f4 ,the ,dead ,sea1 #ajc #g4 ,caravan in the ,desert1 #ajg #h4 ,lake ,baudouin 7a ,salt ,lake71 #aae #i4 ,landscape in the ,atlas 7,region of ,tablelands71 #abe #aj4 ,the ,sahara 7,desert of ,erosion71 #abi #aa4 ,french ,column surprised by the ,simoom1 #aci #ab4 ,night-,scene in the ,african ,interior1 #ahi #ac4 ,victoria ,falls1 ,river ,zambesi1 #aii #ad4 ,prairies of ,north ,america1 #bjg #ae4 ,view of the ,mauvaises-,terres1 ,nebraska1 #bac #af4 ,a ,prairie on ,fire in ,central ,america1 #bag #ag4 ,pampas of ,south ,america1 #bba #ah4 ,australian ,landscape1 #bcc #ai4 ,vegetable ,life in the ,african ,plains1 #bdc #bj4 ,tiger hunting in the ,indo-,chinese ,peninsula1 #caa #ba4 ,hunter pursued by ,peccaries1 #cca #bb4 ,the ,virgin ,forest of the ,gaboon1 #cha #bc4 ,the ,virgin ,forest in ,brazil1 #cia #bd4 ,tropical ,vegetation1 #cii #be4 ,flora of the ,east ,indian ,islands1 #dai #bf4 ,a ,forest in ,madagascar1 #dbe #bg4 ,flora of the ,new ,world1 #ddc #bh4 ,hunting the ,elephant in ,africa1 #dec #bi4 ,a ,corral in ,ceylon1 #deg #cj4 ,death of an ,orang-,outang1 #dge #ca4 ,a ,gorilla killing a ,negro1 #dhe #cb4 ,a ,cannibal ,feast among the ,battas of ,sumatra1 #eaa #cc4 ,the ,desert of ,ice 7,arctic ,pole71 #edg #cd4 ,the ,reindeer of ,lapland4 #eei #ce4 ,the ,condor of the ,andes1 #faa ,,vignettes4 #a4 ,the ,tarpan1 or ,wild ,horse1 #ea #b4 ,onagra1 or ,wild ,ass1 #eg #c4 ,bactrian ,camel1 #fj #d4 ,the ,eland1 #fe #e4 ,capture of a ,wolf by a ,kirghiz ,horseman1 #fi #f4 ,great ,bittern--,white ,heron--,curlew1 #gc #g4 ,the ,eagle of the ,steppes1 and the ,antelope ,saiga1 #gf #h4 ,cossack ,horsemen in the ,steppes1 #hc #i4 ,night ,encampment of ,gipsies in the ,steppes1 #hg #aj4 ,khirgiz ,aoul or ,village1 #ij #aa4 ,mount ,sinai1 #aac #ab4 ,ravines of ,korosko1 #abb #ac4 ,whirlwinds of ,sand1 #ada #ad4 ,a ,mirage in the ,desert1 #ade #ae4 ,jujube ,tree--,lentiscus--,tamarisk1 #aej #af4 ,doum-,palm--,date ,palm--,alfa1 #aec #ag4 ,a ,street in ,ouargla1 #aei #ah4 ,the ,mahari--,the ,djemel1 #afc #ai4 ,striped ,hynas of the ,sahara1 #afe #bj4 ,jackals disinterring ,dead ,bodies1 #aff #ba4 ,gypatos--,sociable ,vulture--,cathartes ,percnopterus1 #afg #bb4 ,gazelles--,antelope--,nanguer1 #afi #bc4 ,gazelles of ,arabia opposing a ,panther1 #agj #bd4 ,jerboas attacked by a ,horned ,viper1 #aga #be4 ,varan of the ,nile--,varan of the ,desert1 #agb #bf4 ,bedouin ,shepherds and ,bedouin ,nomades1 #ahj #bg4 ,touaregs1 #aha #bh4 ,attack upon a ,q'sour1 #ahb #bi4 ,nubian ,women1 #ahd #cj4 ,burke1 ,wills1 and ,king in the ,deserts of ,central ,australia1 #bci #ca4 ,vegetable ,life in ,south ,africa1 #bej #cb4 ,vegetable ,life of ,cape ,colony1 #bec #cc4 ,vegetable ,life of ,cape ,colony1 #bed #cd4 ,vegetable ,life of ,cape ,colony1 #bee #ce4 ,vegetable ,life in the ,american ,prairies1 #bfa #cf4 ,vegetable ,life in ,texas1 #bfc #cg4 ,vegetable ,life in the ,texan ,prairies1 #bfe #ch4 ,vegetable ,life in the ,plains of the ,meta1 #bfi #ci4 ,aquatic plants of ,guiana1 #bga #dj4 ,vegetable ,life in the ,pampas1 #bgb #da4 ,vegetable ,life in ,victoria1 #bgf #db4 ,vegetable ,life on the ,australian ,plains1 #bgh #dc4 ,vegetable ,life on the ,australian ,plains1 #bhj #dd4 ,hippopotamus and ,crocodile of the ,river ,nile1 #bhf #de4 ,rhinoceros1 #bhi #df4 ,the ,daw and the ,quagga1 #bij #dg4 ,zebras1 #bib #dh4 ,a ,lion rending a ,giraffe1 #bid #di4 ,antelope ,gnu--,oreas ,lanna--,striped or ,banded ,gnu1 #bif #ej4 ,an ,african ,hopo1 #bih #ea4 ,the ,african ,leopard1 #cjd #eb4 ,spotted ,hynas1 #cad #ec4 ,zibeth and ,indian ,genet1 #cae #ed4 ,striped ,parodoxure devouring a ,crested ,goura1 #caf #ee4 ,ostriches1 #cai #ef4 ,rose ,flamingoes1 #cba #eg4 ,python ,molure--,echidna--,fennec1 #cbf #eh4 ,american ,tapir1 #cbi #ei4 ,guanaco--,llama--,vicua1 #ccg #fj4 ,agouti--,capybara1 #cdj #fa4 ,armadillo ,loricata--,ant-,eater1 #cdg #fb4 ,cougouars1 or ,pumas1 #cdi #fc4 ,bison attacked by ,jaguar1 #cej #fd4 ,prairie ,wolves1 #cea #fe4 ,cathartes-,urubu--,king of the ,vultures1 #cee #ff4 ,alligators1 or ,caimans1 #ceg #fg4 ,crotalus1 and ,boa-,constrictor1 #cfj #fh4 ,trigonocephalus pursued by ,birds1 #cfb #fi4 ,bufo ,agua--,pipa ,surinamensis1 #cfd #gj4 ,fishing for ,gymnoti1 #cfe #ga4 ,large-,browed ,wombat1 #cfi #gb4 ,thylacynus ,cynocephalus1 #cgb #gc4 ,ornithorhynchus--,echidna1 #cgd #gd4 ,apteryx ,australis1 #cgg #ge4 ,the ,banyan ,tree1 #djd #gf4 ,baobab--,guinea ,palm--,acacia verek1 #dji #gg4 ,bread-fruit ,tree of ,ceylon1 #dad #gh4 ,nipa fruticans--,sugar ,palm--,ipo-,antiar1 #daf #gi4 ,ravenala ,madagascariensia--,heritiera argentea--,tanghin1 #dbd #hj4 ,large-leaved ,magnolia--,virginian ,catalpa--,pinas ,sabiniana1 #dca #ha4 ,blechnum ,brasiliense--,alsophila horrida--,panicum plicatum--,maranta--,caladium violaceum1 #dcf #hb4 ,banana--,carolinea insignis--,clusia rosea1 #dch #hc4 ,kaffir ,hunter carried off by a ,rhinoceros1 #dfa #hd4 ,baboons plundering a ,garden1 #dff #he4 ,the ,black ,cynopithecus1 #dfg #hf4 ,gibbon-,siamang1 and ,mourning ,gibbon1 #dgh #hg4 ,howling ,monkeys1 #dhh #hh4 ,ateles crossing a ,river1 #dhi #hi4 ,maki-,mocoas--,white-,mantled ,maki1 #dic #ij4 ,cheiromys1 or ,aye-,aye of ,madagascar1 #die #ia4 ,a-,unau1 #dig #ib4 ,common ,european ,squirrels1 #dih #ic4 ,negroes3 ,natives of ,kidi1 ,africa1 #eai #id4 ,kaffir ,warriors1 #ebj #ie4 ,hottentots3 ,a ,man and ,woman1 #eba #if4 ,australians1 #ebc #ig4 ,papuans1 #ebd #ih4 ,malays3 ,male and ,two ,females1 #ebg #ii4 ,hovas of ,madagascar3 ,men1 ,woman1 and ,child1 #ebh #ajj4 ,warriors of the ,island of ,ombai1 #ebi #aja4 ,islanders of ,noukahiva1 #eca #ajb4 ,indians of ,north ,america4 ,the ,red ,skins1 #ecc #ajc4 ,indian ,women of ,north ,america1 #ecf #ajd4 ,the ,apaches attacking an ,emigrant ,train1 #ecg #aje4 ,guarani ,indians 7,south ,america71 #ech #ajf4 ,patagonians1 #eci #ajg4 ,adelie ,land 7,antarctic ,ocean71 #eed #ajh4 ,ermine and ,sable-,marten1 #efc #aji4 ,the ,white ,bear and her ,cubs1 #efg #aaj4 ,lapland ,fishers1 #egb #aaa4 ,a ,samoiede ,family1 #egd #aab4 ,yakout ,warrior worried by a ,white ,bear1 #egf #aac4 ,kamtschatdales1 #egg #aad4 ,the ,organ ,mountains of ,rio ,janeiro1 #ehf #aae4 ,the ,himalayas3 ,mount ,guarisankar1 #eid #aaf4 ,fir1 with ,bearded ,usnea--,great ,yellow ,gentian--,martagon1 #fjj #aag4 ,cedar of ,lebanon1 #fjb #aah4 ,rhododendrons of the ,himalaya1 #fjd #aai4 ,musk ,deer1 #fjg #abj4 ,black ,bear of ,canada--,gray ,bear of ,north ,america1 #faj ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,mysteries of the ,ocean1 rendered into ,english by the ,translator of ,the ,bird and of the present volume1 is published1 as a companion work1 by ,messrs4 ,t4 ,nelson and ,sons4 #b ,the ,jura chain is an outlier of the great ,alpine system1 and situated on the border of ,switzerland2 the ,vosges separate the valley of the ,rhine from that of the ,moselle 7greatest elevation1 #dfi feet72 and the ,cevennes that of the ,loire from the basin of the ,rhone 7greatest elevation1 #egid feet74 #c ,the forest covers an area of about sixty-four square miles4 ,the chteau1 originally founded by ,robert the ,pious in #ige-iij1 was rebuilt in the twelfth century by ,louis ,,vii4 #d ,jules ,janin1 ,la ,bretagne 7ed4 ,paris1 #ahde71 c4 xvii4 #e ,deane1 ,archologia1 vol4 xxv4 #f ,see ,mr4 ,jephson's ,walking ,tour in ,brittany1 and ,tom ,taylor's recent book of ,translations of ,breton ,songs and ,ballads4 #g ,p4 ,fletcher1 ,the ,purple ,island1 canto i4 #de4 #h ,tennyson1 ,poems3 ,mariana4 #i ,angus ,reach1 ,claret and ,olives4 #aj ,the fir plantations1 which are so numerous in the ,landes1 were first formed in #aghi1 under the direction of the minister1 ,m4 ,necker 7father of ,madame de ,stael74 ,in #ahfb1 the department had a population of #cjj1hei4 ,acreage1 #b1dcd1geb4 #aa ,angus ,b4 ,reach1 ,claret and ,olives4 #ab ,m4 ,perris1 in ,mmoires de l',acadmie de ,lyon4 #ac ,dunes1 from dun1 a hill4 ,these sand-mounds also extend along the coast of the ,netherlands1 where they serve to protect the low country from tidal inundation4 ,in some places1 says a traveller1 they look like a series of irregular hills2 and when seen from the top of the steeples1 they are so huge as to shut out the view of the sea4 ,the traveller1 in visiting them from the fertile plains1 all at once ascends into a region of desert barrenness4 ,he walks on and on for miles in a wilderness such as might be expected to be seen in ,africa1 and at last emerges on the sea-shore1 where the mode of creation of this singular kind of territory is at once conspicuous4--,w4 ,chambers1 ,tour in ,holland4 #ad ,rev4 ,s4 ,rowe1 ,perambulation of the ,ancient ,forest of ,dartmoor 7ed4 by ,dr4 ,e4 ,moore2 ,london1 #ahef74 #ae ,mrs4 ,bray1 ,the ,borders of the ,tamar and the ,tavy4 #af ,rev4 ,c4 ,kingsley1 in ,good ,words1 vol4 for #ahfg1 pp4 #cjb-caj4 #ag ,dyer1 ,poetical ,works1 ,the ,fleece1 book ii4 #ah ,walter ,white1 ,eastern ,england1 ii4 #ac1 #ad4 #ai ,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 vol4 i41 ,app4 #bj ,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 vol4 i4 7,notes74 #ba ,homer1 ,iliad1 book i4 #bb ,madame ,hommaire de ,hell3 ,voyage aux ,steppes de la ,mer ,caspienne1 tome #a;er4 #bc ,the ,onagra is identical with the ,koulan 7,equus hemionus7 of the ,persian4 ,it is described in the ,book of ,job1 ch4 xxxix4 #e-h4 #bd ,t4 ,w4 ,atkinson1 ,oriental and ,western ,siberia1 pp4 #bhf1 #bhg4 #be ,brande1 ,dictionary of ,art and ,science1 art4 ,camel4 #bf ,madame de ,hell1 ,voyage aux ,steppes de la ,mer ,caspienne1 tome ,ier4 #bg ,class ,i41 ,mammalia3 ,order ,,iii41 ,carnaria2 ,order ,v41 ,rodentia2 ,order ,,ix41 ,ruminantia4 #bh ,also called the ,musmon 7,ovis ,musmon74 #bi ,this rod1 or whip1 is furnished with a long cord terminating in a slip-knot1 something like a lasso4 ,with this instrument the ,tartars seize and carry away the horses and wild asses1 and1 as we see in the ,engraving1 capture wolves alive1 and satisfy their hatred against these unfortunate beasts1 less ferocious1 assuredly1 than the ,tartars themselves4 #cj ,huc1 ,souvenirs d'un ,voyage dans la ,tartarie1 la ,thibet1 et la ,chine1 tome #a;er4 #ca ,bishop ,mant1 ,british ,months4 #cb ,atkinson1 ,oriental and ,western ,siberia1 pp4 #dfc-dfe4 #cc ,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 vol4 i4 #cd ,prof4 ,max ,mller1 ,lectures on the ,science of ,language1 #bnd ,series1 p4 #cji4 #ce ,the ,spanish gipsies call themselves ,cals 7black74 ,many interesting details of this curious people are embodied in ,george ,borrow's ,zincali2 or1 ,an ,account of the ,gipsies in ,spain4 #cf ,all that is really known about them will be found in ,professor ,pott's ,zigeunersprache 7,halle1 #ahde74 #cg ,max ,mller1 ,on the ,origin of ,language1 #bnd series1 p4 #cag4 #ch ,t4 ,w4 ,atkinson1 ,oriental and ,western ,siberia1 pp4 #bhd-bhf4 #ci ,max ,mller1 ,origin of ,language1 pp4 #caa1 #cab4 #dj ,dr4 ,latham thus describes their physical characteristics3--,the face is broad and flat1 because the cheek-bones stand out laterally1 and the nasal bones are depressed4 ,the cheek-bones stand out laterally2 are not merely projecting1 for this they might be without giving much breadth to the face1 inasmuch as they might stand forward4 ,the distance between the eyes is great1 the eyes themselves being oblique1 and their caruncul concealed4 ,the eyebrows form a low and imperfect arch1 black and scanty4 ,the iris is dark1 the cornea yellow4 ,the complexion is scanty1 the stature low4 ,the ears are large1 standing out from the head2 the lips thick and fleshy rather than thin2 the teeth somewhat oblique in their insertion1 the forehead low and flat1 and the hair lank and thin4--,descriptive ,ethnology4 #da ,rev4 ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,great ,sahara1 p4 #cfj4 #db ,mrs4 ,somerville1 ,physical ,geography1 vol4 i41 p4 #aje4 #dc ,moore1 ,lalla ,rookh--,veiled ,prophet of ,khorassan4 #dd ,lake ,sir-i-,kol is #ae1fjj feet above the sea-level2 that is1 nearly as high as ,mont ,blanc4 ,it is fourteen miles long and one mile broad4 #de ,dean ,stanley1 ,syria and ,palestine1 pp4 #bij-bid4 #df ,laorty-,hadji1 ,la ,syrie1 la ,palestine1 et la ,jude4 #dg ,shelley1 ,poetical ,works--,stanzas ,written in ,dejection1 c4 #dh ,a parasang varies in length2 in some parts of ,persia it measures thirty1 in others fifty furlongs4 #di ,such quicksands are found at some parts of the ,british coast1 and the reader will remember that in one of them occurs the catastrophe of ,scott's romance1 ,the ,bride of ,lammermoor4 #ej ,miss ,martineau1 ,eastern ,life3 ,past and ,present4 #ea ,coleridge1 ,poetical ,works--,kubla ,khan4 #eb ,trmaux1 ,egypte et ,ethiopie1 #are partie1 c4 vii4 #ec ,m4 ,charles ,martins1 ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara 7,paris1 #ahff71 pp4 #eee1 et seq4 #ed ,martins ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara1 p4 #eef4 #ee ,tristram1 ,the ,great ,sahara1 p4 #ced4 #ef ,martins4 ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara1 in loc4 #eg ,fromentin4 ,une ,et dans le ,sahara4 #eh ,moore's ,poetical ,works--,veiled ,prophet of ,khorassan #ei ,martins1 ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara1 p4 #efb4 #fj ,dean ,stanley1 ,sinai and ,palestine1 pp4 #fh1 #fi4 #fa ,philip ,smith1 ,history of the ,world1 i4 #bhf4 #fb ,t4 ,w4 ,atkinson1 ,travels on the ,russo-,chinese ,frontiers4 #fc ,moore1 ,lalla ,rookh--,the ,fire-,worshippers4 #fd ,homer1 ,odyssey1 book xi41 ,pope's ,translation4 #fe ,m4 le ,comte d',escayrac de ,lauture1 ,le ,dsert et le ,soudan 7,paris1 #ahec74 #ff ,dante1 ,l',inferno1 c4 xiv41 ,longfellow's ,translation4 #fg ,order1 ,crucifer4 #fh ,sub-order1 ,tubuliflor4 #fi ,martins1 ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara1 pp4 #efe1 et seq4 #gj ,moore1 ,lalla ,rookh--,the ,fire-,worshippers4 #ga ,martins1 ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara1 p4 #efg4 #gb ,tristram1 ,the ,great ,sahara1 pp4 #ie-ih4 #gc ,gnral ,daumas1 ,le ,grand ,desert1 pp4 #afj-afb4 #gd ,carrette1 ,exploration de l',algrie1 tome ii4 #ge ,this substance1 according to other authorities1 was more probably the saccharine exudation1 ,mount ,sinai manna1 which forms on the branches of the tamarix mannifera1 and thence falls to the ground4 #gf ,wordsworth1 ,poetical ,works--,rob ,roy's ,grave1 vol4 iii41 p4 #ba4 #gg ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 v41 p4 #dea4 #gh ,tremblet1 ,les ,franais dans le ,desert 7,paris1 #ahfc74 #gi ,goethe's ,faust1 translated by ,theodore ,martin1 p4 #bjb4 #hj ,dr4 ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,researches in ,south ,africa4 #ha ,thomas ,pringle1 ,south ,african ,sketches4 #hb ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches4 #hc ,keat's ,poetical ,works1 sonnet ix4 #hd ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches4 #he ,baker1 ,basin of the ,nile and ,equatorial ,africa1 ii4 #aja-ajc4 #hf ,morin1 ,sources du ,nil1 in ,annuaire ,scientifique for #ahfd4 #hg ,dr4 ,barth1 ,travels and ,discoveries in ,central ,africa 7,london1 #aheg-eh74 #hh ,wordsworth1 ,poetical ,works2 sonnet xvi41 vol4 iii41 p4 #fa4 #hi ,taylor1 ,isaac ,comnenus1 ,poetical ,works1 ii4 #baf4 #ij ,mrs4 ,somerville1 ,physical ,geography1 i4 #bei1 et seq4 #ia ,w4 ,c4 ,bryant1 ,poetical ,works4 #ib ,mrs4 ,somerville1 ,physical ,geography1 i4 #gi4 #ic ,these inundations are nowhere more extensive than in the network of rivers formed by the ,apure1 the ,arachuna1 the ,pajara1 the ,arauca1 and the ,cabuliare4 ,large vessels sail across the country over the ,steppe for forty or fifty miles4 #id ,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur1 i41 ,steppes and ,deserts4 #ie ,dr4 ,i4 ,von ,tschudi1 ,travels in ,peru 7,london1 #ahdg71 pp4 #cje1 #cjf4 #if ,polylepis racemosa4 #ig ,krameria triandria4 #ih ,journal of ,w4 ,j4 ,wills1 in locis4 #ii ,order1 ,euphorbiace4 #ajj ,order1 ,tiliace4 #aja ,order4 ,pandanace4 #ajb ,order1 ,musace4 #ajc ,order1 ,anacardiace4 #ajd ,mansfield ,parkyns1 ,life in ,abyssinia1 i4 #bbf1 #bbg4 #aje ,adansonia digitata1 a species of ,baobab 7,order1 ,stercubace74 #ajf ,order1 ,celastrace4 #ajg ,order1 ,rosace4 #ajh ,order1 ,gnetace4 #aji ,brande1 ,dictionary of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art1 iii4 #ajah1 #ajai4 #aaj ,order1 ,anacardiace4 #aaa ,order1 ,ranunculace2 ,sub-order1 ,actaea4 #aab ,order1 ,onagrace1 or ,evening ,primrose ,tribe4 #aac ,order1 ,zygophyllace4 #aad ,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur--,steppes and ,deserts1 note #ag4 #aae ,order1 ,nymphace4 #aaf ,the ,pampas grass is very hardy4 ,its stems are from ten to fourteen feet high1 its leaves six or eight feet long1 and its panicles of flowers silvery white1 and from eighteen inches to two feet in length4 ,another ,brazilian species of the same genus1 ,gynerium saccharoides1 yields a considerable quantity of sugar4 #aag ,sydney ,smith1 in ,edinburgh ,review1 for #ahai4 #aah ,order1 ,amentace4 #aai ,order1 ,liliace4 #abj ,order1 ,malpighiace4 #aba ,order1 ,myrtace4 #abb ,the same name1 ,traveller's ,tree1 is applied to the ,urania speciosa4 #abc ,pachydermata1 from ,greek3 pachus1 thick1 and ,greek3 derma1 skin2 an order of quadrupeds distinguished by the thickness of their hides4 #abd ,sir ,s4 ,baker1 ,the ,albert ,n'yanza1 c41 i4 #fe-fg4 #abe ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa4 #abf ,stocqueler1 ,handbook to ,india4 #abg ,du ,chaillu1 ,travels in ,equatorial ,africa4 #abh ,dr4 ,livingstone1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches4 #abi ,f4 ,buckland1 ,curiosities of ,natural ,history4 #acj ,as in ,jer4 viii4 #g2 and ,psalm lviii4 #d1 #e4 #aca ,wallace1 ,travels on the ,amazon and ,rio ,negro4 #acb ,dr4 ,von ,tschudi1 ,travels in ,peru 7,london1 #ahdg74 #acc ,it was introduced into ,england by the ,earl of ,derby in #ahcf4 ,an alpaca factory1 covering eleven acres1 was erected at ,saltaire1 near ,shipley1 ,yorkshire1 by ,mr4 ,titus ,salt1 in #aheb1 and is now the largest establishment of its kind in the world4 #acd ,dr4 ,von ,tschudi1 ,travels in ,peru4 #ace ,dr4 ,darwin1 ,journal of a ,naturalist 7,voyage of the ,beagle1 #crd vol47 #acf ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,river ,amazons4 #acg ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,homes ,without ,hands4 #ach ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1 pp4 #aab1 #aac4 #aci ,hon4 ,c4 ,a4 ,murray1 ,travels in ,north ,america4 #adj ,a4 ,wilson1 ,american ,ornithology4 #ada ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons4 #adb ,gould1 ,quadrupeds of ,australia1 in loc4 #adc ,m4 ,p4 ,gervais1 ,histoire ,naturelle des ,mammifres1 sub nom4 ,thylacynus4 #add ,sir4 ,g4 ,grey1 ,expeditions of ,discovery in ,north-,western and ,western ,australia 7#ahdj74 #ade ,ruskin1 ,modern ,painters1 vol4 v41 pt4 vi41 c4 i41 #c1 #d4 #adf ,longfellow1 ,poetical ,works--,evangeline4 #adg ,milton and ,cheadle1 ,north-,west ,passage by ,land1 chap4 xv4 #adh ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,river ,amazons4 #adi ,order1 ,lycopodiace2 club-mosses4 #aej ,lecythis ,ollaria 7order1 ,lecythidace74 #aea ,bertholletia ,excelsa 7,lecythidace74 #aeb ,order1 ,bignoniace4 #aec ,order1 ,leguminos2 tribe1 ,mimos4 #aed ,order1 ,sterculiace4 #aee ,order1 ,urticace4 #aef ,iriartea ,ventricosa4 #aeg ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1 pp4 #cc1 #ce4 #aeh ,matthew ,arnold1 ,new ,poems3 ,empedocles on ,etna1 p4 #af4 #aei ,f4 de ,lanoye1 ,l',inde ,contemporaine1 c4 #a;er4 #afj ,order1 ,musace4 #afa ,order1 ,morace4 #afb ,southey1 ,poetical ,works--,the ,curse of ,kehama4 #afc ,craufurd1 ,the ,eastern ,archipelago4 #afd ,brande1 ,dictionary of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art1 iii4 #faj4 #afe ,from the ,greek ,greek3 epi1 upon1 and ,greek3 phyton1 a plant4 #aff ,order1 ,leguminos4 #afg ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,three ,visits to ,madagascar4 #afh ,order1 ,apocynace4 #afi ,the genus ,vibris is the type of a tribe of animalcules commonly known as microscopic eels1 remarkable for their extraordinary minuteness4 ,one species is parasitic upon wheat1 and when full grown attains a quarter of an inch in length2 but the young are so microscopically small that #cj1jjj might be contained in a single grain of wheat4 #agj ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1 pp4 #cg-ci4 #aga ,dr4 ,buckland4 ,bridgewater ,treatise1 ,on ,geology and ,palontology1 c4 #agb ,mansfield ,parkyns1 ,life in ,abyssinia4 ,see some interesting details in ,major ,harris's ,sport in the ,western ,highlands of ,ethiopia4 #agc ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1 p4 #age4 #agd ,according to ,humboldt1 this is an exaggeration3 the ,howlers assemble in large numbers1 morning and evening1 and join in a chorus of discords1 but do not obey a president or leader4 #age ,in the foregoing paragraphs ,i have allowed the ,french author1 ,m4 ,mangin1 to express his opinions in his own language4 ,i must guard myself1 however1 from being supposed to endorse them as a whole4 ,between the most intelligent ,simi and ,man a wide gulf exists1 which ,i see no reason for supposing the ,ape will ever cross4 ,and ,i believe that his physical likeness to ,man may be satisfactorily referred to that general progressiveness in creation which we may trace from the lowest to the highest types4 #agf ,du ,chaillu1 ,travels and ,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa 7,london1 #ahfc74 #agg ,du ,chaillu1 ,travels and ,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa4 #agh ,t4 ,noon ,talfourd1 ,dramatic ,works4 #agi ,arthur ,helps1 ,spanish ,conquest in ,america4 #ahj ,pope1 ,poetical ,works--,essay on ,man4 #aha ,capt4 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 ,lake ,regions of ,equatorial ,africa4 #ahb ,r4 ,w4 ,emerson4 ,essays 7,collected ,works1 ,bell ,daldy1 #b vols47 #ahc ,this was written in ,september #ahfg4 #ahd ,alfred ,maury1 ,la ,terre et l',homme1 ch4 vii4 #ahe ,for information1 as entertaining as it is valuable1 respecting the history1 people1 and products of ,madagascar1 see the ,rev4 ,william ,ellis's ,three ,visits to ,madagascar1 and ,m4 ,octave ,sachot's ,madagascar et les ,madcasses 7,paris1 #ahfd74 #ahf ,in the language of the ,sandwich ,islanders4 ,kanak or ,kanaque signifies a man4 #ahg ,compare the narratives of the early voyagers1 especially those of ,de ,bougainville1 ,cook1 and ,wallis4 #ahh ,hacienda1 a farm2 haciendero1 a farm-proprietor4 #ahi ,admiral ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition4 #aij ,the isothermal line of #j1 which in ,europe scarcely touches the ,north ,cape of ,lapland 7about #gb71 descends in ,america fully #bj degrees lower1 even to the south of ,james ,bay4 #aia ,herv and ,lanoye1 ,voyages dans les ,glaces du ,ple ,arctique1 chap4 i4 7,paris1 #ahed74 #aib ,sir ,james ,c4 ,ross ,voyages of ,discovery and ,research 7,london1 #ahdg74 #aic ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 ,fauna ,boreali ,americana4 #aid ,professor ,forbes1 ,norway and its ,glaciers 7,edinburgh1 #ahec74 #aie #ea #cj' north latitude1 the parallel of ,london4 #aif ,compare ,malte ,brun1 ed4 by ,lavalle1 ,gographie ,universelle2 ,mrs4 ,somerville1 ,physical ,geography2 and ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 ,physical ,geography 7,encycl4 ,britt41 #ith edit47 #aig ,coleridge1 ,hymn in the ,valley of ,chamouni4 ,for a glowing account of these phenomena1 see ,professor ,tyndall's ,glaciers of the ,alps4 #aih ,admiral ,smyth1 ,the ,mediterranean4 #aii ,matthew ,arnold1 ,new ,poems 7#ahfg7--;,empedocles on ,etna4 #bjj ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker1 ,himalayan ,journals4 #bja ,captain ,strachey1 ,journal of ,royal ,geographical ,society 7vol4 xxi47 #bjb ,spencer ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east 7,london1 #ahfc74 #bjc ,longfellow1 ,poetical ,works4 #bjd ,charles ,martins1 ,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara4 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 ,in the ,desert of ,kahalari ,in the ,desert of ,kalahari pg #bef the evergeen oak the evergreen oak pg #bfe from ,monte ,video to the mouth of the ,rio ,nigro from ,monte ,video to the mouth of the ,rio ,negro pg #bgf salver-shaped carolla salver-shaped corolla pg #dbg incalculable longivity incalculable longevity pg #dcj with its orbed noon with its orbed moon pg #dcf communicates with the larnyx communicates with the larynx pg #dgc ,muller1 ,max1 quoted1 #gi1 #hh1 #ib4 ,mller1 ,max1 quoted1 #gi1 #hh1 #ib4 index