by ,biodiversity ,heritage ,library47 ,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,liv ,,november1 #ahih1 ,,to ,,april1 #ahii ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahii ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,vol4 ,,liv4 ,,established ,,by ,,edward ,l4 ,,youmans4 ,,no4 #b4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,december1 #ahih4 ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,wheat-growing ,capacity of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,e4 ,,atkinson1 #ade ,,ii4 ,the ,racial ,geography of ,europe4 ,the ,jews4 ,by ,prof4 ,,william ,z4 ,,ripley4 7,illustrated471 #afc ,,iii4 ,the ,playgrounds of ,rural and ,suburban ,schools4 ,by ,i4 ,g4 ,,oakley1 #agf ,,iv4 ,up the ,skeena ,river4 ,by ,,george ,a4 ,,dorsey1 ,ph4 ,d4 7,illus471 #aha ,v4 ,light and ,vegetation4 ,by ,prof4 ,d4 ,t4 ,,macdougal1 #aic ,,vi4 ,the ,stone ,age in ,egypt4 ,by ,j4 ,,de ,,morgan1 #bjb ,,vii4 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,,december1 #ahih4 ,,the ,,wheat-,,growing ,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,by ,,edward ,,atkinson4 ,in #ahhj it happened to fall to me to make a forecast of the very great reduction in the price of wheat in ,great ,britain1 which could then be predicated on the lessening cost of transportation from ,chicago to the seaboard1 thence to ,british ports1 which was then sure to be soon followed by a large reduction in the railway charges for bringing the wheat to ,chicago from the other ,western centers of distribution4 ,i then alleged that the time was not far off when1 even if the price of wheat in ,mark ,lane were reduced from the then existing rate of fifty-two shillings per quarter to thirty-four shillings1 it would still yield as full a return to the ,western farmer as it had yielded in previous years at fifty shillings and upward4 ,this forecast attracted great attention1 and has since been made the subject of very much bitter controversy1 especially since the fall in prices was much more rapid than ,i then thought it could be1 and was carried to a much lower point than any one could have then anticipated4 ,it will be remarked that thirty-four shillings in ,mark ,lane is at the rate of one dollar and three cents per bushel of sixty pounds4 ,from time to time ,i have almost been forced to defend the position then taken1 notably when asked to appear before the ,royal ,commission on ,depression in ,agriculture at one of their sessions1 where ,i was kept upon the stand for two full days in the effort of the excellent ,english farmers and landowners to prove that the ,american farmer had been ruined by the reduction in the price of wheat1 which the majority of that commission attributed to the demonetization of silver4 ,the whole tone of that investigation and of a large part of the treatment of the wheat question in ,great ,britain has been one of complaint and of alleged wrong to ,british agriculture because the ,united ,states had succeeded in supplying the masses of the people of the ,united ,kingdom with cheap bread1 with sufficient profit to themselves to keep up the supply4 ,now comes what may be called a cry of alarm from a scientist of highest repute lest ,england may be deprived even of an adequate supply of wheat1 and lest the price should be forced to an exorbitant point4 ,this view of the case was stated at great length by ,sir ,william ,crookes when assuming the presidency of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science at the recent meeting in ,bristol4 ,this address is published in full in the ,times of ,september #hth1 the portion devoted to the wheat question filling three out of six columns of closely printed text2 the other three are devoted to a complete review of the existing conditions of science4 ,i venture to give a few extracts which will convey to the reader the aspect of the wheat question from this essentially ,british point of view4 ,sir ,william ,crookes begins with a sort of apology1 which the writer can fully appreciate4 ,he says3 ,statistics are rarely attractive to a listening audience1 but they are necessary evils1 and those of this evening are unusually doleful4444 ,i am constrained to show that our wheat-producing soil is totally unequal to the strain put upon it4 ,after wearying you with a survey of the universal dearth to be expected1 ,i hope to point a way out of the colossal dilemma4 ,it is the chemist who must come to the rescue of the threatened communities4 ,it is through the laboratory that starvation may ultimately be turned into plenty4 ,one of the singular facts which becomes quickly apparent to any one who deals with this subject in ,great ,britain is the inability of the ,english farmer to think about agriculture except in terms of wheat4 ,now we have an example of our ,english scientist of the highest repute who seems to ignore all other grain and to predict future starvation on an expected deficiency in the supply of wheat4 ,sir ,william ,crookes proceeds3 ,the consumption of wheat per head of the population 7unit consumption7 is over six bushels per annum2 and1 taking the population at #dj1jjj1jjj1 we require no less than #bdj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat1 increasing annually by #b1jjj1jjj bushels to supply the increase of population4 ,of the total amount of wheat consumed in the ,united ,kingdom we grow twenty-five and import seventy-five per cent4 ,he then deals with the impending scarcity1 saying3 ,to arrest this impending danger it has been proposed that an amount of #fd1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat should be purchased by the state and stored in national granaries1 not to be opened except to remedy deterioration of grain1 or in view of national disaster rendering starvation imminent4 ,this #fd1jjj1jjj bushels would add another fourteen weeks' life to the population4 ,after dealing with the fact that while it might be possible for the ,united ,kingdom to supply itself with its own wheat at an average of twenty-nine and a half bushels to the acre1 he goes on to say that this would require thirteen thousand square miles of ,british territory1 increasing at the rate of one hundred square miles per annum2 but he says it would be clearly impossible to assign so large a proportion of the area of the ,united ,kingdom to a single crop without suffering in other matters1 adding3 ,in any case1 owing to our cold1 damp climate and capricious weather1 the wheat crop is hazardous1 and for the present our annual deficit of #ahj1jjj1jjj bushels must be imported4 ,a permanently higher price for wheat is1 ,i fear1 a calamity that ere long must be faced4 ,i can imagine with what a relish the ,royal ,commission on the ,depression of ,agriculture would have received this prophecy of a permanently higher price for wheat4 ,sir ,william ,crookes goes on to say3 ,wheat is the most sustaining food grain of the great ,caucasian race1 which includes the peoples of ,europe1 ,united ,states1 ,british ,america1 the white inhabitants of ,south ,africa1 ,australasia1 parts of ,south ,america1 and the white population of the ,european colonies4 ,he then points out how rapidly the consumers of wheat have increased1 yet failing to attribute this increase in part to the rapid reduction in the cost4 ,he says3 ,in #ahga the bread-eaters of the world numbered #cga1jjj1jjj2 in #ahha1 #daf1jjj1jjj2 in #ahia1 #dgb1fjj1jjj2 and at the present time they number #eaf1ejj1jjj4 ,the augmentation of the world's bread-eating population in a geometrical ratio is evidenced by the fact that the yearly aggregates grow progressively larger4444 ,to supply #eaf1ejj1jjj bread-eaters1 if each bread-eating unit is to have his usual ration1 will require a total of #b1cbd1jjj1jjj bushels for seed and food4 ,according to the best authorities1 the total supplies from the #ahig-'ih harvest are #a1iba1jjj1jjj4 ,it will be observed that while the ,english average consumption is said to be six bushels1 the average employed in this computation is four and a half bushels per head4 ,he then remarks upon the large harvests for seven years1 saying3 ,bread-eaters have almost eaten up the reserves of wheat1 and the #ahig harvest being under average1 the conditions become serious4444 ,it is clear we are confronted with a colossal problem that must tax the wits of the wisest4 ,up to recent years the growth of wheat has kept pace with demands4 ,as wheat-eaters increased1 the acreage under wheat expanded4 ,we forget that the wheat-growing area is of strictly limited extent1 and that a few million acres regularly absorbed soon amount to a formidable number4 ,the present position being so gloomy1 let us consider future prospects4 ,he then deals successively with the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 ,canada1 and other countries4 ,in regard to the ,united ,states he remarks3 ,practically there remains no uncultivated prairie land in the ,united ,states suitable for wheat-growing4 ,the virgin land has been rapidly absorbed1 until at present there is no land left for wheat without reducing the area for maize1 hay1 and other necessary crops4 ,it is almost certain that within a generation the ever-increasing population of the ,united ,states will consume all the wheat grown within its borders1 and will be driven to import1 and1 like ourselves1 will scramble for a lion's share of the wheat crop of the world4 ,it is difficult for a citizen of the ,united ,states who has given any attention to the potential of our land to conceive of such views being held by an ,englishman of highest scientific intelligence4 ,when ,i was in ,england last summer ,i had a long interview with the editor of one of the papers of widest influence in all ,great ,britain4 ,i then remarked that there were forces in action in the ,united ,states in three or four different directions which would profoundly change all the conditions of ,british industry1 and render the ,english-speaking people of the ,united ,kingdom and the ,united ,states more and more interdependent4 ,it is seldom that one finds more than an occasional half a column in any great ,english paper devoted to the subject of our economic relations and to the development either of the ,american iron industry1 of its agriculture1 or of the cotton production and manufacture4 ,yet1 in all these branches of industry1 profound changes of world-wide importance1 and yet of greater importance to the people of ,great ,britain1 are now in progress4 ,i may venture to say that this address of ,sir ,william ,crookes marks even a more profound ignorance of the forces in action in this country than even ,i had ever comprehended4 ,sir ,william ,crookes next submits the following computation3 ,the rate of consumption for seed and food by the whole world of bread-eaters was #d4ae bushels per unit per annum for the eight years ending #ahgh1 and at the present time is #d4e bushels4444 ,should all the wheat-growing countries add to their area to the utmost capacity1 on the most careful calculation the yield would give us only an addition of some #ajj1jjj1jjj acres1 supplying at the average world yield of #ab4g bushels to the acre1 #a1bgj1jjj1jjj bushels1 just enough to supply the increase of population among bread-eaters till the year #aica4 ,at the present time there exists a deficit in the wheat area of thirty-one thousand square miles4444 ,when provision shall have been made if possible to feed #bcj1jjj1jjj units likely to be added to the bread-eating populations by #aica1 by the complete occupancy of the arable areas of the temperate zone now partially occupied1 where can be grown the additional #ccj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat required ten years later by a hungry world8 ,if bread fails--not only us1 but all the bread-eaters of the world--what are we to do8 ,we are born wheat-eaters4 ,other races1 vastly superior to us in numbers1 but differing widely in material and intellectual progress1 are eaters of ,indian corn1 rice1 millet1 and other grains2 but none of these grains have the food value1 the concentrated health-sustaining power of wheat1 and it is on this account that the accumulated experience of civilized mankind has set wheat apart as the fit and proper food for the development of muscle and brains4 ,sir ,william then proceeds to deal with the salvation by chemistry4 ,but before taking notes from that part of his address1 is it not singular to remark this tendency of the scientist as well as of the ,english farmer to think only in terms of wheat1 wholly ignoring other grains8 ,it may be interesting to point out the exact difference in the nutrients4 ,wheat flour is analyzed in the following statement3 ,water #aa4f ,protein #aa4a ,fats #a4a ,carbohydrates #ge4f ,mineral matters #j4f ---- ,total nutrients #hh4d ,potential energy in one pound #a1ffj calories4 ,corn or maize meal differs only as follows3 ,water #ad4e ,protein #i4a ,fats #c4h ,carbohydrates #ga4j ,mineral matters #a4f ---- ,total nutrients #he4e ,potential energy in one pound #a1fej calories4 ,oatmeal3 ,water #g4g ,protein #ae4a ,fats #g4a ,carbohydrates #fh4a ,mineral matters #b4j ---- ,total nutrients #ib4c ,potential energy in one pound #a1hde calories4 ,rye flour3 ,water #ac4a ,protein #f4g ,fats #j4h ,carbohydrates #gh4g ,mineral matters #j4g ---- ,total nutrients #hf4i ,potential energy in one pound #a1fbj calories4 ,it will be remarked that the difference between maize meal and wheat flour consists only in a slightly larger proportion of fats and a slightly less proportion of protein1 a matter very easily balanced by giving consideration to the other kinds of food which may be used by the bread-eater4 ,again1 it is hardly to be supposed that the ,scotchmen who listened to ,sir ,william ,crookes admitted in their minds that wheat flour possessed any greater potential energy in the development either of muscle or of mind than the oatmeal to which they have been habituated for so many generations4 ,i doubt if any ,new ,england ,yankee who had been brought up on the diet of corn 7maize7 bread and baked beans1 the latter supplying the protein element in abundance1 would admit any greater development of the muscle or brain by exclusive dependence on wheat for the bread of life4 ,it is not1 however1 my purpose to deal with the relative food values of wheat and other grains2 it is simply to take up this extraordinary delusion of ,sir ,william ,crookes in respect to the potential of the wheat-producing area of this country4 ,his theory is salvation by chemistry1 and he rightfully calls attention to the necessity for obtaining a cheap and abundant supply of nitrogen4 ,all the other elements for fertilizing the soil are relatively abundant at low cost1 especially in this country4 ,our enormous supply of the phosphates of lime and potash gives assurance on this matter1 and our one deficiency1 or rather the one element heretofore of high cost1 has been the necessary proportion of nitrogen required to maintain an even balance in the soil4 ,i am surprised that ,sir ,william ,crookes should attribute so little importance to the recent discovery of the influence of bacteria1 which living and dying in nodules attached to the stalks of the leguminous plants dissociate the nitrogen of the atmosphere1 where the supply is unlimited1 converting it to the nutrition of the plant1 and thence to the renovation of the soil4 ,sir ,william deals only with the renovating qualities of clover1 having apparently no comprehension of the existence of the cow-pea vine1 the soya bean1 the alfalfa1 and many other types of legumes by which the partially exhausted soil1 especially of the ,south1 is now being renovated with great rapidity at a low cost4 ,sir ,william's hopes of nitrogen seem to be based on some method being found to save the sewage of cities1 but mainly on the conversion of the water power of ,niagara and other great falls to the generation of electricity and thence to the dissociation of the nitrogen of the atmosphere4 ,the point to which ,i wish to direct attention and inquiry is this alleged nearly complete taking up of the land of the ,united ,states capable of producing wheat in paying quantities4 ,the question which ,sir ,william ,crookes puts is this3 ,he says there is a deficit in the wheat area of thirty-one thousand square miles which must be converted to wheat-growing in order to keep up with the increasing demand of the world to prevent wheat starvation in less than one generation4 ,it will be observed that the present necessities of the world are computed by ,sir ,william ,crookes at #b1cbd1jjj1jjj bushels1 of which this country will supply #fjj1jjj1jjj to #gjj1jjj1jjj bushels from an area of land devoted to wheat of #ga1jjj square miles1 a fraction over two per cent of the area of the ,united ,states1 omitting ,alaska4 ,the problem may then be stated in these terms3 ,given a demand of the wheat-consuming population of the world for this whole supply of #b1cbd1jjj1jjj bushels1 this country could supply it at the present average per acre by devoting two hundred and fifty thousand square miles to this crop1 or less than ten per cent of the area1 omitting ,alaska4 ,we could supply the world's present demand1 but of course such computations are purely speculative4 ,i venture to say that if a contract could be entered into by the bread-eaters of the world with the farmers of the ,united ,states1 giving them an assurance of a price equal to one dollar a bushel in ,london1 or a fraction under thirty-three shillings per quarter of eight bushels of sixty pounds each1 which would yield to the ,american farmer from sixty to eighty cents per bushel on the farm1 the land now under cultivation in wheat and not required for any other crop or for pasture would be opened in the ,united ,states which would be devoted to this service year by year as fast as the consumption called for it4 ,in fact1 there are now fully one hundred thousand square miles of land1 #fd1jjj1jjj acres1 fully suitable to the production of wheat at fifteen bushels to the acre1 practically unoccupied in any branch of agriculture1 which would be devoted to wheat on an assured price of one dollar a bushel in ,mark ,lane1 yielding #ifj1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,or1 to limit the question yet more3 ,sir ,william ,crookes states the needs of the people of the ,united ,kingdom at the present time to be #bdj1jjj1jjj bushels1 increasing at a rate of less than two per cent per annum1 of which twenty-five per cent is derived from her own soil4 ,if ,john ,bull1 in place of building granaries1 could offer thirty-three shillings a quarter1 or one dollar a bushel1 in ,london as a permanent price for the next thirty years1 would not ,uncle ,sam accept the offer8 and if ,uncle ,sam should then ask for bids among the ,states1 are there not several single ,states or ,territories that would take the contract each for itself8 ,having put that question1 ,i now propose to submit an inquiry in due form in order to sustain my own belief that we can supply the whole present and the increasing demand of ,great ,britain for the next thirty years with six bushels of wheat per head at a dollar a bushel from land situated wholly in the ,indian ,territory1 not yet open to private entry1 but which may soon be open when the ,indian titles have all been purchased4 ,or1 again1 ,i undertake to say that the ,state of ,texas can meet this whole demand without impairing in the slightest degree its present products of grain1 cotton1 wool1 and meats1 and without appropriating the use of more than a small fraction of the area of that single ,state which has not yet been fenced in or subjected to the plow to the production of wheat4 ,perhaps it would be better to put a more simple proposition in order to bring out what would be perfectly feasible4 ,let it be assumed that the ,british public should really become so alarmed as to be willing to put up the granaries which have been suggested for storing fourteen weeks' consumption1 or #fd1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,that would require a very large capital which would yield no income on which there would be a heavy loss of interest and a considerable risk of damage to the wheat during the period of storage4 ,in place of this a feasible plan would be to put up the capital which would be required for building these granaries1 invest it in consols1 and pledge it as collateral security for the fulfillment of a contract running for thirty years for the annual purchase of #aj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat per month1 or say #abh1jjj1jjj bushels a year1 or twice the quantity proposed to be stored4 ,there are several large dealers in grain and provisions in the ,united ,states who would be ready to take this contract and to put up a sufficient sum of capital invested in ,united ,states bonds to serve as security for prompt delivery4 ,an assured supply of #abh1jjj1jjj bushels in addition to the ordinary supply might allay the fear of scarcity and high price of bread4 ,it may here be observed that the low average crop per acre of the ,united ,states has been due to the inclusion of wheat grown on land partially exhausted by cropping or not well adapted to this grain4 ,the all-wheat as well as the all-cotton and all-tobacco methods of ignorant farming or cropping year after year are now very rapidly giving place to varied crops coupled with an increase of product per acre4 ,no agency has been of such service in this matter as the ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations1 now established in almost every ,state under the supervision of men of the highest capacity4 ,under this system wheat1 which requires a few days of machine work in the spring and autumn1 occupying very little time of the farmer himself1 is rapidly becoming the surplus or money crop of farms otherwise maintained on the alternate products4 ,under such cultivation an average crop of twenty bushels to the acre would be assured1 in many sections much more4 ,one hundred and twenty-eight million bushels at twenty bushels per acre would require #f1djj1jjj acres1 or ten thousand square miles4 ,as an alternate with other crops in a rotation of four1 this would call for only forty thousand square miles in varied farming4 ,in order to satisfy the anxieties of ,sir ,william ,crookes lest land should be taken from other necessary work1 this area might be divided among several ,states and ,territories1 say five thousand square miles among eight4 ,oklahoma 7#ch1gai square miles7 was opened to settlement only seven years since1 and has yet a great deal of unoccupied land4 ,it will this year raise #ac1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat from #hej square miles devoted to the crop4 ,give ,oklahoma five thousand square miles1 the unoccupied ,indian ,territory 7#cj1bgb square miles7 would take all the rest as soon as open2 but we may only assign five thousand square miles to that area4 ,five thousand more might be assigned to the limestone section of ,virginia1 in the valley of the ,shenandoah and its tributaries2 five thousand each to ,kentucky 7#dj1djj square miles7 and ,tennessee 7#db1jej square miles71 while the great wheat-growing ,states--,kansas 7#hb1jhj square miles71 ,nebraska 7#gg1eaj square miles71 ,minnesota 7#hc1cfe square miles71 and the two ,dakotas 7#adh1dde square miles7--would compete for the contract each to open a little patch of five thousand square miles1 not yet adjacent to railways4 ,we should thus have exhausted the area called for without regard to the instant competition which would come from ,california 7#aeh1cfj square miles71 ,oregon 7#if1jcj square miles71 and ,washington 7#fi1ahj square miles71 and probably from ,pennsylvania 7#de1bae square miles7 and other ,eastern or ,southern ,states4 ,at a dollar per bushel in ,london no difficulty would be found in placing this contract even without resort to ,texas 7#bfe1ghj square miles71 which could take the whole on but a small portion of its area not yet under the plow4 ,the only additional measure which would then be required would be one which must come in any event--namely1 the neutralization of the ports of export and import of food in the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain and in such other countries as may choose to join1 together with the neutralization of a ferry or sea way for the transportation of the food1 wherein no hostile shot should be fired and no seizure of private property permitted on the part of any nation1 the condition of this understanding being that if any other nation ventured to question or contest this dedication of a neutral way for the conveyance of food to the purposes of peace1 the navies of ,great ,britain and of the ,united ,states would be united to force its acceptance1 and to sweep from the ocean the fleet of every state or nation which ventured to contest this measure4 ,that would be a suitable measure for beginning to make a right use of navies--for the protection of commerce and for the destruction of every fleet or vessel which did not accept the principle that private property not contraband of war should be exempt from seizure upon the high seas1 coupled with a declaration limiting contraband of war so that it may never be made to include customary articles of commerce1 especially food1 not now contraband4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the foregoing text was set in type and one hundred advance proof sheets were supplied1 which have been sent by the writer to the ,secretaries of ,agriculture and the chiefs of the ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations in all the ,states to which we look for any considerable product of wheat4 ,the replies are so complete and so numerous as to make it impossible to incorporate a full digest of the whole case within the limits of the present article4 ,a supplement will be prepared for a later number of this journal1 in which this information will be tabulated4 ,for the present purpose ,i may avail myself only of a part of the data which have been sent to me4 #a4 ,the evidence suffices to prove that there is not a ,state named above which could not set apart five thousand square miles for the cultivation of wheat in a rotation of four without trenching in the slightest degree upon any other crop4 #b4 ,in previous essays1 in which ,i have dealt with the potential of the agriculture of this country1 ,i have very guardedly computed but one half our total area of three million square miles 7omitting ,alaska7 as being arable land1 suitable for the plow4 ,the returns now in my hands would render it suitable to increase that area to two thirds1 or two million square miles subject to cultivation4 #c4 ,the area now under the plow for the production of our principal crops for the year #ahig is given in the table below4 ,if miscellaneous crops be added to these principal crops1 the cultivated land of this country does not now exceed1 and in fact does not reach1 twenty per cent of the arable land1 while from the cultivated portion a progressive increase in product may be expected under the impetus of improved methods of farming on lessening areas in each farm4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,acreage4 ,yield4 ,product4 ,price4 ,value4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,per ,bushels4 ,cents4 acre4 ,maize #hj1jie1jea #bc4h #a1ijb1ifg1icc #bf4c #eja1jgb1ieb ,wheat #ci1dfe1jff #ac4d #ecj1adi1afh #hj4h #dbh1edg1aba ,oats #be1gcj1cge #bg4b #fih1gfg1hji #ba4b #adg1igd1gai ,barley #b1gai1aaf #bd4e #ff1fhe1abg #cg4g #be1adb1aci ,rye #a1gjc1efa #af4a #bg1cfc1cbd #dd4g #ab1bci1fdg ,buckwheat #gag1hcf #bj4i #ad1iig1dea #db4a #f1cai1ahh ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,all grain #aej1dca1jje #c1bdj1icj1hab #a1aba1bie1gff ,hay #db1dbf1ggj #a4dc #fj1ffd1hgf #f4fb #dja1cij1gbh ,cotton #bc1bgc1bji #h1ecb1gje #f4gh #bia1haa1efd ------------ -------------- #baf1acj1ihd #a1had1dih1jeh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,maize #abe1aej square miles2 ,wheat #fa1ffj ,oats #dj1bjj ,barley #d1bej ,rye #b1ffj ,buckwheat #a1abj ------- #bce1jdj ,hay #ff1bij ,cotton #cf1ebj ------- #ccg1hej ,the area under wheat in #ahig was a fraction under forty million acres1 or a little less than sixty-two thousand square miles4 ,the high price secured for that crop has led to an increase in land under wheat in #ahih to a fraction under seventy-one thousand square miles 7nine thousand square miles added71 on which the largest crop ever known has doubtless been raised1 variously computed at the present time from #fbj1jjj1jjj to #gjj1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,the area now under wheat is therefore less than four per cent of our arable land4 ,in order to develop our potential in wheat it will be best to limit our present consideration to three ,states only--namely1 ,minnesota1 ,north and ,south ,dakota--from which we derive the greater part of our spring wheat4 ,the area of these three ,states is two hundred and thirty-two thousand square miles1 disregarding fractions4 ,the land which is deemed to be suitable for wheat growing is estimated by the officials from whom ,i have derived reports at one hundred and sixty thousand square miles4 ,the crop of #ahih is computed at #aij1jjj1jjj bushels1 a quantity sufficient to supply ,great ,britain with all that she needs in addition to her domestic production4 ,it has been grown on an area of less than twenty thousand square miles1 or upon one eighth part of the land of these three ,states only2 the rest of the wheat land can be as surely and profitably devoted to the production of wheat as that part already under that crop4 ,the fact may be recalled that the territory which now constitutes the two ,states of ,north and ,south ,dakota began to be computed separately from other ,states only in #ahhj1 when a little under #c1jjj1jjj bushels were credited to that territory4 ,the minimum product of these two ,states this year will be #ajj1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,one of the authorities upon whom ,i rested for absolute information is ,mr4 ,l4 ,g4 ,powers1 chief of the ,bureau of ,labor of the ,state of ,minnesota1 in whose ,annual ,report for #ahif is the most exhaustive study of the grain production of the ,mississippi ,valley that has ever been made4 ,i therefore do not hesitate to incorporate in this article his comments upon the proof sheets sent to him3 ,the probable product of wheat in a ,state like ,minnesota1 at a fixed price1 such as ,mr4 ,atkinson mentions1 can be estimated1 even approximately1 only by taking account of a number of such factors as the present actual and relative profit of the wheat farmer1 and the probable changes that will be made in the next few years in the cost of cultivating wheat and of transporting it to ,london4 ,a few of the leading well-known facts relating to these subjects may with profit be noted in this connection1 and first a few words with reference to the profits of wheat raising in ,minnesota4 ,whatever may be true of wheat raising in ,europe1 or in the ,atlantic coast ,states of ,america1 it can be positively asserted that the average profit of the ,minnesota wheat grower has been steadily though irregularly increasing since the admission of this ,state to the ,union in #aheh4 ,this is evidenced by the relative number and amount of farm-mortgage foreclosures in the ,state1 as a whole1 and in its several sections at the present time and in the past4 ,properly to use those foreclosures as a measure of the increasing prosperity of the ,minnesota wheat farmer1 two facts should be kept in mind4 ,in #ahhj1 and prior to that time1 the industry of wheat growing was most fully developed in those counties which now constitute the ,first ,congressional ,district4 ,the farmers of those counties at that time depended for their income largely upon their wheat crops4 ,later they have adopted a highly diversified system of agriculture in which wheat is only an incidental cash crop4 ,the exclusive cultivation of wheat now finds its seat in the counties composing the ,seventh ,congressional ,district4 ,the lands of this district are situated about two hundred miles on an average farther from the markets of ,europe than those of the ,first ,district4 ,notwithstanding this fact and all changes in the selling price of wheat1 and all allied changes affecting the wheat industry of the ,state1 the farm-mortgage foreclosures in the ,seventh ,district in the five years ending with ,december1 #ahig1 were relatively twenty per cent less than they were in the ,first ,district in the five years #ahhj to #ahhd1 and were forty per cent less than in the five years #ahfi to #ahgc4 ,to the extent represented by these figures has the average cultivation of wheat as an exclusive crop become more profitable in ,minnesota than it was twenty1 thirty1 or forty years ago4 ,a much greater increase of farm prosperity has taken place in those counties which have adopted a diversified system of agriculture1 and made wheat an incidental cash crop4 ,the growing farm prosperity in ,minnesota above noted finds its highest development in the past five years1 during which the selling price of wheat in ,london has averaged approximately one dollar per bushel1 or the amount called for by the conditions stated by ,mr4 ,atkinson4 ,this increasing farm prosperity in ,minnesota1 which lessens the mortgage foreclosures of the exclusive wheat growers forty per cent in thirty years1 has been the main factor in the settlement of ,minnesota and the two ,dakotas4 ,it has caused the wheat grown in the territory of these three ,states to increase from #aj1jjj1jjj bushels in #ahfg to #aij1jjj1jjj bushels in #ahih4 ,with no added profit in the business1 the settlement of the vacant lands of these ,states and those of ,montana and of the ,british ,northwest will move on1 and twenty-five years from now will find in the territory tributary to ,minneapolis and ,duluth not less than #djj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat raised annually4 ,even then but a fraction of the possible wheat lands of the great ,northwest will be under the plow4 ,if a material increase should take place in the present average profits of the ,northwestern wheat grower1 the imagination of man could hardly picture the stimulus to wheat culture that would result4 ,with a fixed price of one dollar per bushel in ,london1 called for by ,mr4 ,atkinson's conditions1 the ,american farmers can find increased profit in two possible sources3 decreased cost of transportation to ,london1 and lessening cost of wheat production in ,minnesota4 ,a detailed analysis of the various charges that constitute the present cost of transporting wheat from the ,red ,river ,valley of ,minnesota1 the ,dakotas1 and of ,manitoba to ,london gives reasonable assurance of a reduction in the next few years of at least five and possibly seven cents per bushel in such cost4 ,here is an almost certain addition1 in the next few years1 of from five to seven cents a bushel to the profit of ,american-grown wheat1 providing only its average selling price in ,london remains practically unchanged4 ,a careful study of farm methods among ,minnesota farmers discloses this fact3 ,some wheat growers1 with the best farm machinery1 and employing the best methods of agriculture1 make a profit in wheat raising of from ten to fifteen cents a bushel more than do their less intelligent and less progressive neighbors4 ,now1 the tendency in the ,state and throughout the ,northwest is to bring1 by education and a general exchange of methods1 the poorer farmers up to the level of the best4 ,this change is rapidly taking place4 ,it will not require fifteen years to realize its consummation4 ,when the methods and facilities of the average farmer are brought up to the level of the best of the present time1 this change1 with the change above noted in transportation charges1 will add to the average profit of ,minnesota farmers in growing wheat a total of not less than fifteen and possibly of over twenty cents a bushel4 ,such a change would more than double the existing net profit of the wheat grower in the ,northwest4 ,could it be maintained for a series of years1 as is presupposed under ,mr4 ,atkinson's supposition of ,london prices1 it would furnish such an incentive to wheat growing in ,minnesota and the surrounding territory as has as yet never been experienced4 ,a million families of immigrants would pour into the great ,northwest within the next twenty to twenty-five years4 ,they would take up all the existing vacant lands of ,minnesota and the ,dakotas4 ,the lands suitable for irrigation in these ,states and in ,montana would be set to growing wheat4 ,the wave of humanity anxious to raise wheat for a dollar a bushel in ,london would sweep past the boundaries of the four ,states mentioned1 and carry the cultivation of that cereal all over ,manitoba1 ,assiniboia1 ,alberta1 and ,saskatchewan4 ,in these four ,british provinces and in the four ,american ,states1 dollar wheat in ,london would in twenty years open more acres of good land to wheat than are now subject to the plow within their borders4 ,even then the beginning only would have been made to the possibilities of wheat culture in the ,british ,northwest4 ,settlements would not have extended as far north as ,st4 ,petersburg in ,russia2 neither would settlers have trenched upon the lands with a climate as severe as that of the ,russian metropolis4 ,the foregoing is a brief statement of what dollar wheat in ,london would do for one section of ,north ,america in stimulating wheat cultivation4 ,if that statement is based upon a true conception1 as the writer believes it is1 of the possibilities of the ,american ,northwest1 it demonstrates how impossible it will be to maintain dollar wheat in ,london for any great length of time in the future4 ,it also shows that ,mr4 ,atkinson is wrong in not asserting a sure continuation of that decline in wheat prices which he so fully predicted in #ahhj4 ,cost of ,shipping ,wheat per ,bushel from ,moorhead1 an ,interior ,point in ,minnesota1 to ,liverpool4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,on ,may ,on ,july ,on ,august ,on ,september #bg1 #ahih4 #i1 #ahih4 #bj1 #ahih4 #ag1 #ahih4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,cts4 ,cts4 ,cts4 ,cts4 per bu4 per bu4 per bu4 per bu4 ,rate1 ,moorhead to ,duluth #i4cj #i4cj #h4gj #h4gj ,duluth elevator and inspection charges #j4hj #j4hj #j4hj #j4hj ,lake freight1 ,duluth to ,buffalo #a4dj #a4be #a4be #a4ge ,elevator charges and commission at ,buffalo #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj ,canal freight1 ,buffalo to ,new ,york #c4jj #c4jj #b4ge #b4ej ,elevator charges1 etc41 in ,new ,york #b4jj #b4jj #b4jj #b4jj ,ocean freight1 ,new ,york to ,liverpool #h4jj #c4ej #d4ej #f4jj ---------------------------------------- -- ,totals #be4ej #bj4he #ba4jj #bb4ge ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,general average1 #bb4ebe cents per bushel4 ,it will be remarked that ,mr4 ,powers says ,i am wrong in not asserting a sure continuation of the decline in the price of wheat which ,i predicted in #ahhj4 ,in setting up one dollar a bushel in ,london as the standard of this inquiry1 ,i had no thought that our farmers could be made happy for the next thirty years by any hope of securing so high a price4 ,in my predictions in #ahhj ,i said that the time was not then far off when the farmers of the ,mississippi ,valley would secure as large a remuneration from their wheat at thirty-four shillings per quarter in ,london as they had been gaining from a previous average of fifty-two shillings4 ,i might then have fixed the lessened price at twenty-eight shillings1 and at the present time ,i have a greater expectation of a reduction in the price of wheat in ,mark ,lane to less than twenty-eight shillings a quarter1 or eighty-five cents a bushel1 than ,i had in #ahhj that it would so soon reach thirty-four shillings4 ,i merely adopted a dollar a bushel as an arbitrary standard on which an abundant supply of bread at low cost would be absolutely assured to the people of ,england4 ,in fact1 as ,i stated before the ,royal ,commission on ,depression of ,agriculture1 it is not probable that a reduction in the price of wheat to forty cents a bushel on ,western farms or sixty-five to seventy cents a bushel in ,england would stop the growth of this grain1 although it might check an increase4 ,when the price went down to a very low point on the last excessive crop it is probable that #ajj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat were fed to swine and to cattle4 ,it proved to make better pork and beef than maize or ,indian corn1 and1 as the price of meat did not decline in anything like the proportion to the price of wheat1 the farmers who thus fed their excess secured a profit which the sale of the crude grain might not have given4 ,in this comment ,mr4 ,powers deals with the reduction in the number of foreclosures in ,minnesota4 ,attention should be called to the fact that the ,united ,states census investigation for which a million dollars was appropriated1 for the purpose of recording farm mortgages in #ahij1 disclosed the fact that in the ten great grain-growing ,states of the middle ,west two thirds of the farms were then free of any mortgage of any kind1 and were well stocked2 the incumbrance on the remaining third being less than forty per cent of the computed value of the mortgaged farms4 ,since that date several ,state investigations have been made1 leading to the conclusion that not exceeding twenty per cent of the farms in these ,states are now under any incumbrance of any kind4 ,in the more prosperous parts of ,minnesota and other wheat sections since the substitution of intelligent and varied agriculture for the single wheat crop1 foreclosures have almost ceased1 such as do occur being attributed to special causes2 while such is the abundance of capital accumulated in this section that the rates of interest on safe investments1 which but a few years since were nearly double those prevailing in the seaboard commercial cities1 are now about even4 ,when certain causes lately produced a short stringency in the money markets of the ,east1 remittances were made from these ,western cities for investment in ,eastern commercial paper4 ,in regard to wheat production at a fixed price in ,london1 the ,commissioner of ,agriculture and ,labor of ,north ,dakota remarks3 ,wheat at one dollar per bushel in ,london would net the ,north ,dakota farmer on the average about seventy-five cents per bushel on the railroad track4 ,at that price as a standard1 every farmer in the ,state would utilize all the land he has1 and buy up more of the land now lying idle and in the hands of speculators4 ,it would increase immigration so that nearly all the vacant ,government land would be taken up4 ,we also have over one million acres of school and ,state land1 of which at least eighty per cent is suitable for raising wheat4 ,such a price would give ,north ,dakota a boom that never had its equal4 ,a few words may be given to the report from ,texas4 ,the ,secretary of the ,board of ,agriculture states that the area of arable land of fair quality1 including pasture that might be put under the plow in this ,state1 is two hundred thousand square miles2 about one hundred thousand square miles suitable for wheat and other grains lying north of parallel #ca2 about one hundred thousand square miles lying south of that line adapted to cotton1 sugar1 fruits1 and vegetables of all kinds4 ,an unexpected reply comes from ,idaho1 as yet insignificant in wheat production1 stating that the potential of that ,state under the conditions named might reach #djj1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,again1 from ,arkansas1 to which ,state we have looked more for excellent cotton than for grain1 there are fifteen million acres of good wheat land2 wheat is fast becoming a cash crop1 displacing cotton--the capacity of a considerable part of the land at the beginning being forty bushels to the acre1 which1 being much better than five-cent cotton1 is leading the farmers to take advantage of existing prices4 ,time has not sufficed since my questions were sent out for replies to reach me from ,oregon1 ,washington1 and ,montana1 where the potential in wheat production is probably equal to that of ,minnesota1 ,north and ,south ,dakota combined4 ,sir ,william ,crookes makes reference to the future necessity of providing fertilizers1 a matter to which the closest attention is now being given by the cultivation of renovating crops4 ,but regard must be given to the fact that we have the most complete and adequate supply of phosphate of lime and phosphate of potash in the vast deposits of bone or mineral phosphates of ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 and ,florida1 while again we may look to nitrate of soda as a very inexpensive source of nitrogen1 of which the most adequate supply can be assured at very low cost4 ,known methods are also being applied to saving the enormous waste of nitrogen from our coke ovens and iron furnaces4 ,i almost feel it right to apologize to ,sir ,william ,crookes for the presentation of these facts4 ,my function is that of the practical business man who deals with these economic problems wholly from that point of view1 and not from the high standard of a complete mastery of the physical sciences4 ,as ,i have stated1 ,i happen to have dealt with this question several times at meetings of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 and in other ways in ,great ,britain as well as in this country4 ,i deem it of the utmost importance at the present time that the interdependence of the ,english-speaking people should be brought into view in the most conspicuous manner4 ,in their relative production and conditions the ,united ,kingdom of ,great ,britain and ,ireland and the ,united ,states are the complement of each other4 ,their mutual relation or interdependence is now being recognized1 and it can not be long before many of the legal obstructions to mutual service will be removed4 ,the people of this country are now passing through a stage in their economic education closely corresponding to that through which ,great ,britain passed between #ahdj and #ahef under the wise leadership of ,sir ,robert ,peel1 ,richard ,cobden1 and ,william ,e4 ,gladstone4 ,we move more quickly1 not only in acts but in ideas1 than we did fifty years ago4 ,the revolution of ideas which has followed the revolution of institutions in the ,southern ,states has made the people of this country into one homogeneous nation4 ,a revolution of ideas in regard to the conditions of international commerce will presently bring the ,english-speaking people of the world into one homogeneous body governed by the same common law1 the same common principles of action1 and the same policy in the collection of revenue4 ,when thus united1 there can be no competition in the commerce of the world on the part of the continental states of ,europe under their present burdens--the blood tax of standing armies and navies and the money tax of debts that can never be paid4 ,there have been within a few months two witnesses to the growing influence and power of the ,english-speaking people when united for the maintenance of commerce and for the conduct of the works of peace1 order1 and industry3 one is the warning of the ,chancellor of the ,austrian ,empire1 calling upon the states of middle ,europe to unite their forces in order to remain capable of maintaining government by privilege and taxation by force of arms2 the other1 the recent manifesto of the enlightened ruler of ,russia1 calling upon the states of continental ,europe to disarm1 lest they should hereafter be incapable of competition with the ,english-speaking people of the world when they become bound together by a union of mutual service and by community of interest which without any formal alliance will give to them the chief control in rendering service by the exchange of product for product to all other states and nations1 to the mutual benefit of all who are thus joined in the bonds of peace4 ,on my visit to ,russia last year1 to meet the leading economists and statisticians of ,europe1 it was stated to me by well-informed men that a plan had been considered by several continental states in the event of war to change the present international custom by making food products contraband of war1 the purpose being to cripple ,england4 ,to such desperate conditions have some of the ,european states been brought under the burden of the policy of blood and iron4 ,my comment upon this insane proposal was that ,i hoped it might become a matter of public discussion1 since nothing could so surely and quickly bring about a commercial union of the ,english-speaking people1 to the end that1 even if no other alliance were made1 their navies might at any moment be combined for the protection of their commerce1 and for the total cessation of any interference by war vessels or privateers with their traffic4 ,the prime motive of this article is to remove from the minds of our ,english friends many false impressions which ,i have constantly met in my intercourse even among men who hold important positions1 of which the address of ,sir ,william ,crookes is but an extreme expression1 and to bring into common view a comprehension of the resources of this country and of the mutual dependence of the ,united ,kingdom and the ,united ,states in the supply and consumption not only of wheat1 but of all the other necessaries of life4 ,,the ,,racial ,,geography ,,of ,,europe4 ,a ,,sociological ,,study4 7,lowell ,institute ,lectures1 #ahif47 ,,by ,,william ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,assistant ,,professor ,,of ,,sociology1 ,,massachusetts ,,institute ,,of ,,technology2 ,,lecturer ,,in ,,anthropo-,,geography ,,at ,,columbia ,,university4 ,,supplement4--,,the ,,jews4#a ,social solidarity1 the clearest expression of which to-day is nationality1 is the resultant of a multitude of factors4 ,foremost among these stand unity of language1 a common heritage of tradition and belief1 and the permanent occupation of a definite territory4 ,the first two are largely psychological in essence4 ,the third1 a material circumstance1 is necessary rather to insure the stability of the others than for its own sake2 although1 as we know1 attachment to the soil may in itself become a positive factor in patriotism4 ,two ,european peoples alone are there which1 although landless1 have succeeded1 notwithstanding1 in a maintenance of their social consciousness1 almost at the level of nationality4 ,both ,gypsies and ,jews are men without a country4 ,of these1 the latter offer perhaps the most remarkable example1 for the ,gypsies have never disbanded tribally4 ,they still wander about eastern ,europe and ,asia ,minor in organized bands1 after the fashion of the nomad peoples of the ,east4 ,the ,jews1 on the other hand1 have maintained their solidarity in all parts of the earth1 even in individual isolation one from another4 ,they wander not gregariously in tribes1 often not even in families4 ,their seed is scattered like the plant spores of which the botanists tell us2 which1 driven by wind or sea1 independently travel thousands of miles before striking root or becoming fecund4 ,true1 the ,jews bunch wherever possible4 ,this is often a necessity imposed for self-preservation2 but in their enforced migrations their associations must change kaleidoscopically from place to place4 ,not all has been said even yet of the unique achievement of this landless people4 ,that the ,jews have preserved their individuality despite all mutations of environment goes without saying4 ,they have done more4 ,they have accomplished this without absolute unity of language4 ,forced of necessity to adopt the speech of their immediate neighbors1 they have only where congregated in sufficient numbers been able either to preserve or to evolve a distinctive speech4 ,in ,spain and the ,balkan states they make use of ,spanish2 in ,russia and ,poland they speak a corrupt ,german2 and in the interior of ,morocco1 ,arabic4 ,nevertheless1 despite these discouragements of every kind1 they still constitute a distinctive social unit wherever they chance to be4 ,this social individuality of the ,jews is of a peculiar sort4 ,bereft of linguistic and geographical support1 it could not be political4 ,the nineteenth century1 says ,anatole ,leroy-,beaulieu1 is the age of nationality2 meaning obviously territorial nationality1 the product of contiguity1 not birth4 ,to this1 he says1 the ,jew is indifferent1 typifying still the ,oriental tribal idea4 ,as a result he is out of harmony with his environment4 ,an element of dislike of a political nature on the part of the ,christian is added to the irreconcilability of religious belief4 ,it has ever been the ,aryan versus the ,semite in religion throughout all history1 as ,renan has observed2 and to-day it has also become the people versus the nation1 as well as the ,jew versus the ,christian4 ,granted that this political dissonance is largely the fault of the ,gentile1 its existence must be acknowledged1 nevertheless4 ,illustration3 ,,geographical ,,distribution of ,,jews4 ,how has this remarkable result been achieved8 ,how1 bereft of two out of three of the essentials of nationality1 has the ,jew been enabled to perpetuate his social consciousness8 ,is the superior force of religion1 perhaps abnormally developed1 alone able to account for it all8 ,is it a case of compensatory development1 analogous in the body to a loss of eyesight remedied through greater delicacy of finger touch8 ,or is there some hidden1 some unsuspected factor1 which has contributed to this result8 ,we have elsewhere shown that a fourth element of social solidarity is sometimes1 though rarely1 found1 in a community of physical descent4 ,that1 in other words1 to the cementing bonds of speech1 tradition1 belief1 and contiguity1 is added the element of physical brotherhood--that is to say1 of race4 ,can it be that herein is a partial explanation of the social individuality of the ,jewish people8 ,it is a question for the scientist alone4 ,race1 as we constantly maintain1 despite the abuses of the word1 really is to be measured only by physical characteristics4 ,the task before us is to apply the criteria of anthropological science1 therefore1 to the problems of ,jewish derivation and descent4 ,only incidentally and as matters of contributory interest shall we consider the views of the linguists1 the archologists1 and the students of religious traditions4 ,our testimony is derived from facts of shape of head1 color of hair and eye1 of stature1 and the like4 ,these alone are the data indicative of racial descent4 ,to these the geographer may add the probabilities derived from present distribution in ,europe4 ,no more do we need to settle the primary racial facts4 ,further speculations concerning matters rather than men belong to the historian and the philologist4 ,the number and geographical distribution of the chosen people of ,israel is of great significance in its bearing upon the question of their origin4#b ,while1 owing to their fluid ubiquitousness1 it is exceedingly difficult to enumerate them exactly1 probability indicates that there are to-day1 the world over1 between eight and nine million ,jews4 ,of these1 six or seven million are inhabitants of ,europe1 the remainder being sparsely scattered over the whole earth1 from one end to the other4 ,their distribution in ,europe1 as our map opposite shows1 is exceedingly uneven4 ,fully one half of these descendants of ,jacob reside in ,russia1 there being four or five million ,jews in that country alone4 ,austria-,hungary stands next in order1 with two million odd souls4 ,after these two there is a wide gap4 ,no other ,european country is comparable with them except it be ,germany and ,roumania with their six or seven hundred thousand each4 ,the ,british ,isles contain relatively few1 possibly one hundred thousand1 these being principally in ,london4 ,they are very rare in ,scotland and ,ireland--only a thousand or fifteen hundred apiece4 ,holland contains also about a hundred thousand1 half of them in the celebrated ,ghetto at ,amsterdam4 ,then follow ,france with eighty thousand more or less1 and ,italy with perhaps two thirds as many4 ,from ,scandinavia they have always been rigidly excluded1 from ,sweden till the beginning and from ,norway until nearly the middle of this century4 ,spain1 although we hear much of the ,spanish ,jew1 contains practically no indigenous ,israelites4 ,it is estimated that there were once about a million there settled1 but the persecutions of the fifteenth century drove them forth all over ,europe1 largely to the ,balkan states and ,africa4 ,there are a good many along these ,mediterranean shores of ,africa1 principally in ,morocco and ,tripoli4 ,the number decreases as we approach ,egypt and ,palestine1 the ancient center of ,jewish dispersion4 ,as to ,america1 it is estimated1 although we know nothing certainly1 that there are about a half million ,jews scattered through our cities in the ,united ,states4 ,new ,york city1 according to the last census1 contained about eighty thousand ,poles and ,russians1 most of whom1 it may be assumed1 were ,jews4 ,but they have come since in ever-increasing numbers1 with the great exodus from ,russia1 at the rate of scores of thousands annually4 ,a recent writer places their present number in ,new ,york city at a quarter of a million4 ,the ,british provinces1 on the other hand1 do not seem to offer great attractions2 as late as #ahgj1 for example1 the census in ,nova ,scotia could not discover a solitary ,jew4 ,a more suggestive index of the problems of ,jewish distribution1 however1 is offered in the ratio of the number of ,jews to the entire population4 ,this is directly illustrated by our map4 ,to be sure1 this represents the situation twenty years ago1 but no great change in relativity is to be suspected since that time4 ,even the wholesale exodus from ,russia of recent years has not yet drawn off any large proportion of its vast body of population4 ,inspection of our map shows that the relative frequency of ,jews increases in proportion to the progressive darkening of the tints4 ,this brings out with startling clearness the reason for the recent anti-,semitic uprisings in both ,russia1 ,austria1 and the ,german ,empire4 ,a specific center of gravity of the ,jewish people1 as ,leroy-,beaulieu puts it1 is at once indicated in western ,russia4 ,the highest proportion1 fifteen per cent1 more or less1 appears1 moreover1 to be entirely restricted to the ,polish provinces1 with the sole exception of the government of ,grodno4 ,about this core lies a second zone1 including the other west ,russian governments1 as well as the province of ,galicia in the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire4 ,germany1 as it appears1 is sharply divided from its eastern neighbors1 all along the political frontier4 ,not even its former ,polish territory1 ,posen1 is to-day relatively thickly settled with ,jews4 ,hostile legislation it is1 beyond a doubt1 which so rigidly holds back the ,jew from immigration along this line4 ,anti-,semitismus is not1 therefore1 to-day to any great extent an uprising against an existing evil2 rather does it appear to be a protest against a future possibility4 ,germany shudders at the dark and threatening cloud of population of the most ignorant and wretched description which overhangs her eastern frontier4 ,berlin must not1 they say1 be allowed to become a new ,jerusalem for the horde of ,russian exiles4 ,that also is our ,american problem4 ,this great ,polish swamp of miserable human beings1 terrific in its proportions1 threatens to drain itself off into our country as well1 unless we restrict its ingress4 ,as along the ,german frontier1 so also toward the east1 it is curious to note how rapidly the percentage of ,jews decreases as we pass over into ,great ,russia4 ,the governments of ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,novgorod1 and ,moscow have no greater ,jewish contingent of population than has ,france or ,italy2 their ,jewish problem is far less difficult than that of our own country is bound to be in the future4 ,this clearly defined eastern boundary of ,judenthum is also the product of prohibitive legislation4 ,the ,jews are by law confined within certain provinces4 ,a rigid law of settlement1 intended to circumscribe their area of density closely1 yields only to the persuasion of bribery4 ,not ,russia1 then1 but southwestern ,russia alone1 is deeply concerned over the actual presence of this alien population4 ,and it is the ,jewish element in this small section of the country which constitutes such an industrial and social menace to the neighboring empires of ,germany and ,austria4 ,in the latter country the ,jews seem to be increasing in numbers almost four times as rapidly as the native population4 ,the more elastic boundaries of ,jewish density on the southeast1 on the other hand1 are indicative of the legislative tolerance which the ,israelites there enjoy4 ,wherever the bars are lowered1 there does this migratory human element at once expand4 ,the peculiar problems of ,jewish distribution are only half realized until it is understood that1 always and everywhere1 the ,israelites constitute pre-eminently the town populations4#c ,they are not widely disseminated among the agricultural districts1 but congregate in the commercial centers4 ,it is an unalterable characteristic of this peculiar people4 ,the ,jew betrays an inherent dislike for hard manual or outdoor labor1 as for physical exercise or exertion in any form4 ,he prefers to live by brain1 not brawn4 ,leroy-,beaulieu seems to consider this as an acquired characteristic due to medival prohibition of land ownership or to confinement within the ,ghetto4 ,to us it appears to be too constant a trait the world over to justify such a hypothesis4 ,fully to appreciate1 therefore1 what the ,jewish question is in ,polish ,russia1 we must always bear this fact in mind4 ,the result is that in many parts of ,poland the ,jews form an actual majority of the population in the towns4 ,this is the danger for ,germany also4 ,thus it is ,berlin1 not ,prussia at large1 which is threatened with an overload of ,jews from the country on the east4 ,this aggregation in urban centers becomes the more marked as the relative frequency for the whole country lessens4 ,thus in ,saxony1 which1 being industrial1 is not a favorite ,jewish center1 four fifths of all the ,jewish residents are found in ,dresden and ,leipsic alone4#d ,this is probably also the reason for the lessened frequency of ,jews all through the ,alpine highlands1 especially in the ,tyrol4 ,these districts are so essentially agricultural that few footholds for the ,jew are to be found4 ,a small secondary center of ,jewish aggregation appears upon our map to be manifested about ,frankfort4 ,it has a peculiar significance4 ,the ,hebrew settlers in the ,rhenish cities date from the third century at least1 having come there over the early trade routes from the ,mediterranean4 ,germany being divided politically1 and ,russia interdicting them from #aaaj1 a specific center was established1 especially in ,franconia1 ,frankfort being the focus of attraction4 ,then came the fearful persecutions all over ,europe1 attendant upon the religious fervor of the ,crusades4 ,the ,polish kings1 desiring to encourage the growth of their city populations1 offered the rights of citizenship to all who would come1 and an exodus in mass took place4 ,they seem to have been welcomed1 till the proportions of the movement became so great as to excite alarm4 ,its results appear upon our map4 ,thus we know that many of the ,jews of ,poland came to ,russia as a troublesome legacy on the division of that kingdom4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century but three ,german cities remained open to them--namely1 ,frankfort1 ,worms1 and ,furth4#e ,yet it was obviously impossible to uproot them entirely4 ,to their persistence in this part of ,germany is probably due the small secondary center of ,jewish distribution1 which we have mentioned1 indicated by the darker tint about ,frankfort1 and including ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,here is a relative frequency1 not even exceeded by ,posen1 although we generally conceive of this former ,polish province as especially saturated with ,jews4 ,it is the only vestige remaining to indicate what was at one time the main focus of ,jewish population in ,europe4 ,it affords us a striking example of what legislation may accomplish ethnically1 when supplemented1 or rather aggravated1 by religious and economic motives4 ,does it accord with geographical probability to derive our large dark area of present ,jewish aggregation entirely from the small secondary one about ,frankfort1 which1 as we have just said1 is the relic of a medival center of gravity8 ,the question is a crucial one for the alleged purity of the ,russian ,jew2 for the longer his migrations over the face of the map1 the greater his chance of ethnic intermixture4 ,a moot point among ,jewish scholars is1 as to the extent of this exodus from ,germany into ,poland4 ,bershadski has done much to show its real proportions in history4 ,talko-,hryncewicz#f and ,weissenberg1#g among anthropologists1 seem to be inclined to derive this great body of ,polish ,jews from ,palestine by way of the ,rhone-,rhine-,frankfort route4 ,they are1 no doubt1 partially in the right2 but the mere geographer would rather be inclined to side with ,jacques4#h ,he doubts whether entirely artificial causes1 even medival persecutions1 would be quite competent for so large a contract4 ,there is certainly some truth in ,harkavy's theory1 so ably championed by ,ikof 7#ahhd71 that a goodly proportion of these ,jews came into ,poland by a direct route from the ,east4 ,most ,jewish scholars had placed their first appearance in southern and eastern ,russia1 coming around the ,black ,sea1 as early as the eighth century4 ,ikof1 however1 finds them in the ,caucasus and ,armenia one or two centuries before ,christ4 ,then he follows them around1 reaching ,ruthenia in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 arriving in ,poland from the twelfth to the fourteenth4 ,the only difficulty with this theory is1 of course1 that it leaves the language of the ,polish ,jews out of consideration4 ,this is1 in both ,poland and ,galicia1 a corrupted form of ,german1 which in itself would seem to indicate a western origin4 ,on the other hand1 the probabilities1 judging from our graphic representation1 would certainly emphasize the theory of a more general eastern immigration directly from ,palestine north of the ,black and ,caspian ,seas4 ,the only remaining mode of accounting for the large center of gravity in ,russia is to trace it to widespread conversions1 as the historic one of the ,khozars4 ,whichever one of these theories be correct--and there is probability of an equal division of truth among them all--enough has been said to lead us geographically to suspect the alleged purity of descent of the ,ashkenazim ,jew4 ,let us apply the tests of physical anthropology4 ,,stature4--,a noted writer1 speaking of the sons of ,judah1 observes3 ,it is the ,ghetto which has produced the ,jew and the ,jewish race2 the ,jew is a creation of the ,european middle ages2 he is the artificial product of hostile legislation4 ,this statement is fully authenticated by a peculiarity of the ,israelites which is everywhere noticeable4 ,the ,european ,jews are all undersized2 not only this1 they are more often absolutely stunted4 ,in ,london they are about three inches shorter than the average for the city4 ,whether they were always so1 as in the days when the ,book of ,numbers 7xiii1 #cc7 described them as grasshoppers in their own sight1 as compared with the ,amorites1 sons of ,anak1 we leave an open question4 ,we are certain1 however1 as to the modern ,jew4 ,he betrays a marked constancy in ,europe at the bodily height of about five feet four inches 7#a4fc metre7 for adult men4 ,this1 according to the data afforded by measurements of our recruits during the civil war1 is about the average of ,american youth between the ages of fifteen and sixteen1 who have still three1 almost four1 inches more to grow4 ,in ,bosnia1 for example1 where the natives range at about the ,american level--that is to say1 among the very tallest in the world 7#a4gb metre7--the ,jews are nearly three inches and a half shorter on the average4#i ,if we turn to northern ,italy1 where ,lombroso has recently investigated the matter1 we apparently find the ,jew somewhat better favored by comparison4 ,he is in ,turin less than an inch inferior to his ,italian neighbors4 ,but why8 ,not because taller than in the case of ,bosnia1 for his stature in both places is the same4 ,the difference decreases1 not because the ,jew in ,piedmont is taller1 but solely because the north ,italians are only of moderate height4 ,so it goes all over ,austria and ,russia3 the diminutiveness is plainly apparent4#aj ,there is in all ,europe only a single exception to the rule we have cited4 ,anutchin finds them in ,odessa and ,riga slightly to exceed the ,christians4 ,in order to emphasize this point it will repay us to consider the adopted fatherland of the ,jews a bit more in detail4 ,illustration3 ,,stature ,,poland4 ,our map herewith shows a general average of stature for ,poland by districts4 ,this unhappy country appears to be populated by the shortest human beings north of the ,alps2 it is almost the most stunted in all ,europe4 ,the great majority of the districts1 as our map shows1 are characterized by a population whose adult men scarcely average five feet four inches 7#a4fb metre7 in height4 ,this is more than half a head shorter than the type of the ,british ,isles or northern ,germany4 ,what is the meaning of this8 ,is it entirely the fault of the native ,poles8 ,we know that the northern ,slavs are all merely mediocre in stature4 ,but this depression is too serious to be accounted for in this way2 and further analysis shows that the defect is largely due to the presence of the vast horde of ,jews1 whose physical peculiarity drags down the average for the entire population4#aa ,this has been proved directly4 ,perhaps the deepest pit in this great misery spot1 as we have termed such areas of dwarfed population elsewhere1 is in the capital city of ,warsaw1 where ,elkind found the average stature of two hundred male ,jews to be less than five feet three inches and a half 7#a4fa metre74#ab ,the women were only four feet eleven inches tall on the average4 ,compare the little series of maps given on pages #agb and #agc if further proof of this national peculiarity be needed4 ,two of these1 it will be observed1 give the average height of ,jews and ,poles respectively1 dividing the city into districts4 ,the social status of these districts is shown upon our third map4 ,comparison of these three brings out a very interesting sociological fact1 to which we have already called attention in our earlier papers4#ac ,the stature of men depends in a goodly measure upon their environment4 ,in the wards of the city where prosperity resides1 the material well-being tends to produce a stature distinctly above that of the slums4 ,in both cases1 ,poles and ,jews are shortest in the poorer sections of the city1 dark tinted on the maps4 ,the correspondence is not exact1 for the number of observations is relatively small2 but it indicates beyond a doubt a tendency commonly noticeable in great cities4 ,but to return to our direct comparison of ,poles and ,jews2 the deficiency of the latter1 as a people1 is perfectly apparent4 ,the most highly favored ,jewish population socially1 in the whole city of ,warsaw in fact1 can not produce an average stature equal to that of the very poorest ,poles2 and this1 too1 in the most miserable section of the capital city of one of the most stunted countries in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,average ,,stature of ,,poles1 ,,warsaw4 ,illustration3 ,,average ,,stature of ,,jews1 ,,warsaw4 ,we may assume it as proved1 therefore1 that the ,jew is to-day a very defective type in stature4 ,he seems to be susceptible to favorable influences1 however2 for in ,london1 the ,west ,end prosperous ,jews almost equal the ,english in height1 while they at the same time surpass their ,east ,end brethren by more than three inches4#ad ,in ,russia also they become taller as a class wherever the life conditions become less rigorously oppressive4 ,they are taller in the fertile ,ukraine than in sterile ,lithuania2 they sometimes boast of a few relatively tall men4#ae ,these facts all go to show that the ,jew is short1 not by heredity1 but by force of circumstances2 and that where he is given an even chance1 he speedily recovers a part at least of the ground lost during many ages of social persecution4 ,jacobs mentions an interesting fact in this connection about his upper-class ,english ,jews4 ,close analysis of the data seems to show that1 for the present at least1 their physical development has been stretched nearly to the upper limit2 for even in individual cases the ,west ,end ,jews of ,london manifest an inability to surpass the height of five feet nine inches4 ,so many have been blessed by prosperity that the average has nearly reached that of the ,english2 but it is a mean stature of which the very tall form no component part4 ,thus perhaps does the influence of heredity obstruct the temporary action of environment4 ,whether this short stature of the ,jew is a case of an acquired characteristic which has become hereditary1 we are content to leave an open question4 ,all we can say is1 that the modern ,semites in ,arabia and ,africa are all of goodly size1 far above the ,jewish average4#af ,this would tend to make us think that the harsh experiences of the past have subtracted several cubits from the stature of the people of ,israel4 ,in self-defense it must be said that the ,christian is not entirely to blame for the physical disability4 ,it is largely to be ascribed to the custom of early marriages among them4 ,this has probably been an efficient cause of their present degeneracy in ,russia1 where ,tschubinsky describes its alarming prevalence4 ,leroy-,beaulieu says that it is not at all uncommon to find the combined age of husband and wife1 or even of father and mother1 to be under thirty years4 ,the ,shadchan1 or marriage broker1 has undoubtedly been an enemy to the ,jewish people within their own lines4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where they are1 on the other hand1 on the up grade socially1 there are indications that this age of marriage is being postponed1 perhaps even unduly4#ag ,illustration3 ,,social ,,status ,,warsaw4 ,a second indication in the case of the ,jew of uncommonly hard usage in the past remains to be mentioned4 ,these people are1 anthropologically as well as proverbially1 narrow-chested and deficient in lung capacity4 ,normally the chest girth of a well-developed man ought to equal or exceed one half his stature1 yet in the case of the ,jews as a class this is almost never the case4 ,majer and ,kopernicki#ah first established this in the case of the ,galician ,jews4 ,stieda#ai gives additional testimony to the same effect4 ,jacobs#bj shows the ,english ,jews distinctly inferior to ,christians in lung capacity1 which is generally an indication of vitality4 ,in ,bosnia1 ,glck#ba again refers to it as characteristic4 ,granted1 with ,weissenberg1#bb that it is an acquired characteristic1 the effect of long-continued subjection to unfavorable sanitary and social environment1 it has none the less become a hereditary trait2 for not even the perhaps relatively recent prosperity of ,jacobs's ,west ,end ,jews has sufficed to bring them up to the level of their ,english brethren in capacity of the lungs4 ,at this point a surprising fact confronts us4 ,despite the appearances of physical degeneracy which we have noted1 the ,jew betrays an absolutely unprecedented tenacity of life4 ,it far exceeds1 especially in the ,united ,states1 that of any other known people4#bc ,this we may illustrate by the following example3 ,suppose two groups of one hundred infants each1 one ,jewish1 one of average ,american parentage 7,massachusetts71 to be born on the same day4 ,in spite of all the disparity of social conditions in favor of the latter1 the chances1 determined by statistical means1 are that one half of the ,americans will die within forty-seven years2 while the first half of the ,jews will not succumb to disease or accident before the expiration of seventy-one years4 ,the death rate is really but little over half that of the average ,american population4 ,this holds good in infancy as in middle age4 ,lombroso has put it in another way4 ,of one thousand ,jews born1 two hundred and seventeen die before the age of seven years2 while four hundred and fifty-three ,christians--more than twice as many--are likely to die within the same period4 ,this remarkable tenacity of life is well illustrated by the following table from a most suggestive article by ,hoffmann4#bd ,we can not forbear from reproducing it in this place4 ,death ,rates per #a1jjj ,population in the ,seventh1 ,tenth1 and ,thirteenth ,wards of ,new ,york ,city1 #ahij1 by ,place of ,birth4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,united ,states ,russia and ,,ages4 ,total4 7includes ,ireland4,germany4 ,poland colored74 7mostly ,jews74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total #bf4be #de4ah #cf4jd #bb4ad #af4ga ,under #ae years #da4bh #fb4be #dj4ga #cj4ch #cb4ca #ae to #be years #g4ee #i4dc #ae4ae #g4ad #b4ec #be to #fe years #ba4fd #be4ib #ci4ea #ba4bj #g4ii #fe and under #ajd4gb #aje4if #abj4ib #hh4ea #hd4ea ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,from this table it appears1 despite the extreme poverty of the ,russian and ,polish ,jews in the most densely crowded portions of ,new ,york2 despite the unsanitary tenements1 the overcrowding1 the long hours in sweat shops2 that nevertheless1 a viability is manifested which is simply unprecedented4 ,tailoring is one of the most deadly occupations known2 the ,jews of ,new ,york are principally engaged in this employment2 and yet they contrive to live nearly twice as long on the average as their neighbors1 even those engaged in the outdoor occupations4 ,is this tenacity of life despite every possible antagonistic influence1 an ethnic trait2 or is it a result of peculiar customs and habits of life8 ,there is much which points to the latter conclusion as the correct one4 ,for example1 analysis of the causes of mortality shows an abnormally small proportion of deaths from consumption and pneumonia1 the dread diseases which1 as we know1 are responsible for the largest proportion of deaths in our ,american population4 ,this immunity can best be ascribed to the excellent system of meat inspection prescribed by the ,mosaic laws4 ,it is certainly not a result of physical development1 as we have just seen4 ,hoffmann cites authority showing that in ,london often as much as a third of the meats offered for sale are rejected as unfit for consumption by ,jews4 ,is not this a cogent argument in favor of a more rigid enforcement of our laws providing for the food inspection of the poor8 ,a second cause conducive to longevity is the sobriety of the ,jew1 and his disinclination toward excessive indulgence in alcoholic liquors4 ,drunkenness among ,jews is very rare4 ,temperate habits1 a frugal diet1 with a very moderate use of spirits1 render the proportion of ,bright's disease and affections of the liver comparatively very small4 ,in the infectious diseases1 on the other hand1 diphtheria and the fevers1 no such immunity is betrayed4 ,the long-current opinion that the ,jews were immune from cholera and the other pestilences of the middle ages is not to-day accepted4 ,a third notable reason for this low death rate is also1 as ,hoffmann observes1 the nature of the employment customary among ,jews1 which renders the proportion of deaths from accidental causes exceedingly small4 ,in conclusion1 it may be said that these people are prone to nervous and mental disorders2 insanity1 in fact1 is fearfully prevalent among them4 ,lombroso asserts it to be four times as frequent among ,italian ,jews as among ,christians4 ,this may possibly be a result of close inbreeding in a country like ,italy1 where the ,jewish communities are small4 ,it does not1 however1 seem to lead to suicide1 for this is extraordinarily rare among ,jews1 either from cowardice1 as ,lombroso suggests2 or more probably for the reason cited by ,morselli--namely1 the greater force of religion and other steadying moral factors4 ,to be continued4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in the preparation of this article ,i have to acknowledge the courtesy of ,mr4 ,joseph ,jacobs1 of ,london1 whose works in this line are accepted as an authority4 ,in its illustration ,i have derived invaluable assistance from ,dr4 ,s4 ,weissenberg1 of ,elizabethgrad1 ,russia1 and ,dr4 ,l4 ,bertholon1 of ,tunis4 ,both these gentlemen have loaned me a large number of original photographs of types from their respective countries4 ,dr4 ,bertholon has also taken several especially for use in this way4 ,the more general works upon which we have relied are3 ,r4 ,andree1 ,zur ,volkskunde der ,juden1 ,bielefeld1 #ahha2 ,a4 ,leroy-,beaulieu1 ,les ,juifs et l'antismitisme1 ,paris1 #c;e d4 #ahic2 and ,c4 ,lombroso1 ,gli ,antisemitismo1 ,torino1 #ahid4 ,for all other authorities to whom reference is made by name and year1 consult our comprehensive ,bibliography of the ,anthropology and ,ethnology of ,europe1 in a forthcoming ,special ,bulletin of the ,boston ,public ,library4 ,in its index under ,jews and ,semites will be found an exhaustive list of authorities given chronologically4 #b ,andree1 #ahha1 pp4 #aid et seq41 with tables appended2 ,jacobs1 #ahhf a1 p4 #bd2 and quite recently ,a4 ,leroy-,beaulieu1 #ahic1 chapter i1 are best on this4 ,tschubinsky1 #ahgg1 gives much detail at first hand on western ,russia4 ,in the ,seventeenth ,annual ,report of the ,anglo-,jewish ,association1 ,london1 #ahhh1 is a convenient census1 together with a map of distribution for ,europe4 ,on ,america1 no official data of any kind exist4 ,the censuses have never attempted an enumeration of the ,jews4 ,schimmer's results from the census of #ahhj in ,austria-,hungary are given in ,statistische ,monatsschrift1 vii1 p4 #dhi et seq4 #c ,this is clearly shown by ,schimmer in ,statistische ,monatsschrift1 vii1 pp4 #dhi et seq4 #d ,see also map in ,kettler1 #ahhj4 #e ,j4 ,c4 ,majer 7#ahfb7 ascribes the shortness of stature in ,furth to this ,jewish influence4 #f #ahib4 #g #ahie1 p4 #egg4 #h #ahia4 #i ,glck1 #ahif2 and ,weisbach1 #ahgg and #ahie a4 #aj ,majer and ,kopernicki1 #ahgg1 p4 #cf1 for ,ruthenia2 ,stieda1 #ahhc1 p4 #gj2 ,anutchin1 #ahhi1 p4 #aad1 etc4 #aa ,zakrezewski1 #ahia1 p4 #ch4 ,in the ,october ,monthly our stature map of all ,russia brings out the contrast very strongly4 #ab ,centralblatt fr ,anthropologie1 iii1 p4 #ff4 ,uke1 cited by ,andree1 #ahha1 p4 #cb1 agrees4 #ac ,popular ,science ,monthly1 vol4 li1 p4 #bj et seq4 7,may1 #ahig71 and vol4 lii1 p4 #fjb 7,march1 #ahih74 #ad ,jacobs1 #ahhi1 p4 #ha4 #ae ,talko-,hryncewicz1 #ahib1 pp4 #g and #eh4 #af ,collignon1 #ahhg a1 pp4 #baa and #cbf2 and ,bertholon1 #ahib1 p4 #da4 #ag ,jacobs1 #ahia1 p4 #ej1 shows it to be less common in other parts of ,europe4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,dr4 ,billings finds the marriage rate to be only #g4d per #a1jjj--;about one third that of the ,northeastern ,states4 #ah #ahgg1 p4 #ei4 #ai #ahhc1 p4 #ga4 #bj #ahhi1 p4 #hd4 #ba #ahif1 p4 #eia4 #bb #ahie1 p4 #cgd4 #bc ,on ,jewish demography1 consult the special appendix in ,lombroso1 #ahgd2 ,andree1 #ahha1 p4 #gj2 ,jacobs1 #ahia1 p4 #di4 ,dr4 ,billings1 in ,eleventh ,united ,states ,census1 #ahij1 ,bulletin ,no4 #ai1 gives data for our country4 ,on pathology1 see ,buschan1 #ahie4 #bd ,the ,jew as a ,life ,risk4 ,the ,spectator 7an actuarial journal7 #ahie1 pp4 #bbb-bbd1 and #bcc1 #bcd4 ,lagneau1 #ahfa1 p4 #daa1 speaks of a viability in ,algeria even lower than that of the natives4 ,,the ,,playgrounds ,,of ,,rural ,,and ,,suburban ,,schools4 ,,by ,,isabella ,g4 ,,oakley4 ,while the officers and friends of education in large cities are exerting themselves to provide open-air playgrounds for the schools1 the villages and smaller towns all over the ,east are reversing the case4 ,except in the small district schools1 the children's playground has almost ceased to exist4 ,this is an evil which has crept in with the tendency to centralize the schools4 ,when in any place the schools begin to overflow1 a movement to put up a larger building takes place1 accompanied by an effort to create a high-school department2 not so much the need of the community as the ambitious dream of some principal who would be superintendent1 or some sort of central sun to a group of satellites4 ,this dream is too easily realized1 because it flatters the people4 ,then there rises a preposterous structure of stone and brick2 a house of many gables1 out of keeping with everything1 either public or private1 in the place2 a temple of vanity4 ,now is rung the knell of the school playground1 for the new high school1 although it will house all the children from five to fifteen1 must needs be surrounded by a fine lawn1 studded with shrubbery1 and threaded by bluestone roads4 ,the janitor has to employ an assistant to keep the grounds in order4 ,a shut-in1 penitentiarylike place has been evolved by the architect and school committee1 gratifying to their pride and a deep wrong to the children4 ,there are many wrongs about it2 the one insisted upon here is the abolishing of the recess1 that time-honored joy of the ,american schoolboy and schoolgirl4 ,the cheerful sounds of play no more re-echo2 the little ones march in lock step from the doors to the very curb of this immaculate ornate inclosure4 ,if1 on this beautiful lawn1 any impulsive youngster is caught running1 or performing an instinctive hopscotch or leapfrog1 he is sure to be seen by a watching and powerful janitor and reported4 ,leapfrog and profanity1 in the true ,draconian spirit1 are alike visited with the extreme penalty of a visit to the principal's office4 ,however1 in default of a playground1 the new schoolhouse provides a gymnasium for physical culture4 ,i speak now of a particular school1 the pride of a simple village1 and a type of many4 ,this gymnasium is a costly room filled with elaborate apparatus1 most of which is suited only to the high-school pupils1 and never touched by the majority1 who leave school at twelve or thirteen2 their physical exercises have been chiefly provided for by a box of dumb-bells and wands4 ,in many schools the gymnasium is a cavernous and ugly basement1 a place full of shadows cast by the gloomy arches on which the building rests1 with walls of brick and floors of asphalt4 ,little troops of silent1 pale children arrive and depart all day for their physical culture1 a dreary repetition of silent dumb-bell exercises4 ,there is no speech nor language among them1 no sound is heard but the jingle of the piano and the sharp tones of the monitor's counting4 ,i have never heard the children count aloud or accompany the calisthenics by singing except in a private school4 ,what an alternative for a free recess6 ,no penitentiary drill could be more perfunctory1 spiritless1 dead4 ,it must be said of the public schools that the thing they most seem to dread is the sound of a child's voice4 ,the rude1 untrained intonations1 the slovenly speech1 the slouching attitude remain rude1 slovenly1 and slouching1 for all the school attempts to do for their improvement is infinitely little4 ,even the blessed relief of shaking the arm and hand to attract the teacher's attention has been reduced in some schools to lifting two fingers4 ,the pupils generally hate their calisthenics1 or1 in the new phrase1 physical culture exercises4 ,and they would hate just as sincerely regulated games superintended by some impossible master of sports4 ,what they want is spontaneity in play4 ,public money is wasted in providing these abhorrent alternatives4 ,poor little ,carthusians as young as six and seven years are kept in their rooms1 and principally in their seats1 above two hours at each session1 and often after that to atone for some delinquency1 most likely for speaking4 ,in many schools they do not leave the room for any kind of exercise4 ,if they were capable of demanding their rights they would call for both the abolition of the school lawn and calisthenic basement1 and the restoration of their playground and recess4 ,from the cruelty of this repression nature finds a little way out2 the children require of the neighbors what they have been deprived of by the school committee4 ,all around the precincts of the temple of learning the trodden borders of the sidewalk1 churned to mire in winter and trampled to rock in summer1 speak of the victory of the boys4 ,there are towns1 perhaps1 where they all go straight home1 but in our town1 they gather four times a day in knots of twenties and fifties for some kind of fun4 ,the patient neighbors go on removing coats and dinner pails from the pickets1 clearing away papers and missiles from their inclosures1 yet ,i discover that even they would vote to keep the school lawn2 it improves the town4 ,very true4 ,but ingenuity could well contrive some way of uniting the playground and the school park4 ,spaces of grass to rest the eye and decorate the square could be interspersed with inclosures of asphalt1 furnished with a few parallel bars and swings1 without sacrifice of appearances4 ,often the school property is so large that it could include half a dozen such special playgrounds4 ,we have but to begin it to find some feasible plan4 ,if the palatial school and its park is reaction against the ragged beggar of ,whittier's lovely poem1 sunning in the midst of the blackberry vines of ,hardscrabble ,hill1 it is a reaction that has gone too far to suit a generation which loves to read ,hosea ,bigelow3 ,so the old school'us is a place ,i choose ,afore all others1 ef ,i want to muse2 ,i set down where ,i used to set1 an' git ,my boyhood back1 an' better things with it-- ,faith1 ,hope1 an' sunthin'1 ef it isn't ,cherrity1 ,it's want o' guile1 an' thet's ez gret a rarity4 ,if it may be replied1 that is not the generation for whom schoolhouses are now built1 it is one which may interpret the wants of its children by just such recollections4 ,another evil has grown out of the centralization of the schools4 ,the smaller schoolhouses formerly stood within convenient reach1 and by abandoning them we have forced many little children to walk farther than they are able to walk4 ,in the absence of street cars and sidewalks this becomes a great hardship in extreme weather4 ,in one village in ,new ,york1 out of an enrollment of fourteen hundred1 there was one month last year an average attendance of four hundred4 ,the new school building1 which had cost seventy-five thousand dollars1 was more than two miles from some part of the district1 and there were no sidewalks2 neither were there paved streets or street lamps4 ,in such circumstances a number of children are unable to get home to the noon meal1 usually dinner1 and most important4 ,where do they eat their luncheon8 ,in their seats1 watched by teachers1 who are compelled unwillingly to take turns at this duty1 and who have also to eat a cold1 unpalatable lunch in bad air for a week at a time4 ,after lunch there is an hour to be disposed of by the children1 but there is no place to play in except the basement or the streets of the neighborhood4 ,the teachers frequently read them a story1 that they may stretch their minds a little if not their bodies4 ,it is a painful sight--few more painful to me--to see a crowd of young children having their recreation in one of these basements4 ,running and loud talking are forbidden2 a police of teachers armed with symbols of authority and punishment keep the restless little prisoners within bounds4 ,another objection to the central school is the rainy-day half-session4 ,though the daily instruction may be managed so that the pupils do not miss anything1 it is still a fact that the majority of parents expect the school to take charge of their children1 and are often much dissatisfied to have them thrown back upon their own hands on rainy days4 ,how has it come about that the playground and school recess have been so generally given up8 ,is it altogether on account of appearances8 ,teachers plead that the children ought to be preserved from association with objectionable playmates4 ,this may do for the touch-me-not1 only child1 but in ,american society it is never a strong plea4 ,that small fraction which seeks to educate its children as a class can do so in a few schools limited to church1 plutocracy1 ,quakerism1 or some such narrow basis4 ,but the schools of a free ,state are1 above everything1 founded on the essential equality of individuals in the ,state1 and the possibility of every one to rise to a successful and honorable manhood4 ,if there is one conviction above another strengthened by experience1 it is that1 in their choice of companions and susceptibility to influence1 children are governed by their innate qualities1 and these qualities are fixed by heredity and home influences long before the school age4 ,in so large a community as a public school there is companionship for all1 for it certainly represents the town itself4 ,let no one be afraid of the democratic instincts of childhood4 ,i believe the playground is abolished because it interferes with that deadly order and craze for supervision which is sought for as the prime condition both inside and outside the schools4 ,order of a wholesome sort is not inconsistent with the free recess of a big school4 ,i watched in ,los ,angeles a great school as it was marshaled out to play and back again at the sound of a drum4 ,after a quarter of an hour of unrestrained sport1 several hundreds were gathered in lines at the tap of the drum1 facing the cheerful schoolhouse in the mild bright sun1 their faces radiating contentment and good will while they straightened up at the mere hint of the teachers on duty4 ,in ,san ,francisco ,i once found a certain primary school keeping doll's day1 when every girl brought her doll to school and exhibited her at recess4 ,the school yard was a barren inclosure within a high board fence1 but a joyful place to that young company4 ,to what purpose are teachers urged to study psychology8 ,the children in their seats are emptied of everything that pertains to their souls4 ,not to study1 because the teacher will explain everything1 and to behave just well enough to get safe out of school1 is the simple code which covers the conduct of average children4 ,to extend this code to ideas of social duty--the highest--is not possible while they do not form a society4 ,cultivation of friendship is just as much out of the case2 awakening of ideals1 an impossibility4 ,but thrown together half an hour or more each day1 the dead machinery that pulls the bells and adds the marks within the school walls gives way to life2 and here a man who sympathizes with childhood has all the opportunity he needs1 and probably much more than he can use1 in providing for that life where a code of reciprocity and honor must be established4 ,it is not as the magistrate he will successfully rule1 but as the sympathetic general in the field1 whose very name is a talisman and an inspiration to every man4 ,in the school yard1 the bully1 who comes to the front in about every tenth child1 needs to be repressed2 the foul mouth must be cleansed2 against these prevailing evils the playground has a protection the street can not possess4 ,the boy's world is a peculiar world1 certainly1 making laws for itself as rigorous and about as barbarous as those of a gang of pirates2 but it is through his esprit du corps he can be uplifted and educated2 the individual may be a selfish animal2 as one of a body he is capable of heroism and devotion to a noble idea4 ,he can be a friend2 the playground is the field for the natural growth of friendships1 and youth the generous time of their birth4 ,i recall another scene in a schoolroom in a ,western city long ago4 ,a gentle girl1 magnetic1 deep-hearted1 large-eyed1 sat after school at her table in tears4 ,on a seat in front of her platform were piles of slates which she had been correcting1 for she instructed all day a succession of arithmetic classes coming to her from the different grades4 ,at the same time she was in charge1 for all particular purposes of their order and conduct1 of about forty boys in their early teens4 ,her tears were in consequence of a quarrel at recess between two of her boys4 ,they had settled their quarrel by a fight2 not unlikely it was a wholesome fight1 for they were not boys of the mean sort1 and were friends4 ,it is an affair of long ago1 but of a time when1 in a large city1 a teacher shed her influence upon the school playground1 and took account of its moral standards1 its friendships and breaches of friendship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although white men1 if they take due precautions1 may live and do certain kinds of work in tropical ,africa1 it will never be possible1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ,keltie concludes from the results of past experience and study1 to colonize that part of the world with people from the temperate zone4 ,even in such favorable situations as ,blantyre1 a lofty region south of ,lake ,nyassa1 children can not be reared beyond a certain age1 but must be sent home to ,england2 otherwise they will degenerate physically and morally4 ,a plan has been proposed of bringing ,europeans down into the tropical regions by degrees1 and acclimatizing them by successive generations to more and more torrid conditions till they are finally settled in the heart of the continent4 ,but the experiment would be a very long one1 if tried2 and the ultimate result would probably be a race deprived of all those characteristics which have made ,europe what it is4 ,,up ,,the ,,skeena ,,river ,,to ,,the ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,tsimshians4#be ,,by ,,george ,a4 ,,dorsey1 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,field ,,columbian ,,museum1 ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,in a recent number of the ,monthly ,i described some of the incidents of a visit to the ,haida and ,tlingit villages about ,dixon's ,entrance2 now ,i am to speak of the ,tsimshian villages on the ,skeena ,river4 ,the ,tsimshian ,indians are one of the five great stocks which make up the aboriginal population of the coast of ,british ,columbia and southern ,alaska4 ,they are shut in by the ,tlingits on the north and by the ,kwakiutls on the south1 while on the head waters of the ,nass and ,skeena ,rivers they come in contact with the great ,tinneh or ,athabascan stock4 ,the ,tsimshians are probably the most progressive of all the coast ,indians1 and are one of a few stocks on the ,american continent which are holding their own in point of numbers4 ,desiring to visit those villages which are least contaminated by modern influence1 we ascended the ,skeena ,river to the village of ,kitanmaksh or ,hazelton4 ,the ,skeena is the historic river of ,british ,columbia2 its name signifies the ,water of ,terrors4 ,nearly every rock1 every bend1 every caon is the scene of some mythical tale4 ,the scene of the birth of the ,tsimshian nation lies in its valley2 the rock is still revered upon which rested the ,tsimshian ark after the flood1 and the ,dum-lak-an1 the new home and place of dispersal1 is still a ,mecca to which pilgrimages are made4 ,in the modern development of the ,omenica and ,cariboo gold fields the ,skeena has been the highway to the sea4 ,for hundreds of years canoes have been paddled up and down its waters2 it has been the highway for intertribal trade from time immemorial1 and when the ,hudson ,bay ,company's post was established at ,hazelton1 and merchandise began to pour into the upper country in a steady stream1 the ,tsimshians with their canoes enjoyed for a long time a monopoly of the carrying trade4 ,gradually1 as they learned the ways and methods of the white man1 the price per ton of freight from the coast to ,hazelton began steadily to rise1 until in #ahia the tariff of sixty dollars a ton was declared ruinous by the company1 and they decided to build their own steamer with which to carry their freight up the river4 ,port ,essington is the chief port of the mouth of the ,skeena1 and in ,essington we found ourselves on the twenty-third day of ,july4 ,the ,caledonia was up the river on her third trip1 but was expected back any hour1 but so delightfully uncertain is the river voyage that1 as we were informed1 there was no telling when she would be down--in fact1 she might be caught above the caon and wouldn't be down for weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,on ,,the ,,upper ,,skeena ,,river2 ,,peak ,,of ,,the ,,five ,,virgins ,,mountain4 ,the town of ,essington dates back to #ahce1 when the ,hudson ,bay ,company established a post there4 ,its only rival for preeminence on the coast is ,port ,simpson4 ,the town in summer is completely given over to fishing1 the salmon cannery of ,cunningham ,son being one of the largest on the coast1 and the river for twenty miles is dotted with canneries4 ,in one day1 while we were in ,essington1 the catch of salmon on the river was ninety-two thousand fish4 ,in addition to the cannery the town boasts of a good hotel and a ,salvation ,army4 ,an ,indian ,salvation ,army is worth going miles to see1 for the ,indian is a natural-born salvationist2 the army permits him to make all the noise he chooses1 sing as loudly as he pleases1 and1 best of all1 he is entitled to make a speech every time it comes his turn4 ,in the afternoon1 about four o'clock1 on the day after our arrival1 a long1 shrill blast of the whistle aroused the entire town1 for the ,caledonia was in sight4 ,down we went to the wharf1 and the entire town followed4 ,what a motley crowd you will find on one of these ,british ,columbia wharves6 ,what coloring1 what a ,babel of tongues--,tlingits from ,alaska1 ,haidas from the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 ,tsimshians from the ,skeena1 ,kwakiutls from ,vancouver1 ,chinamen1 ,japanese1 ,greeks1 ,scandinavians1 ,englishmen1 and ,yankees2 men1 women1 children1 dogs1 and from two to six woolly bear cubs4 ,the ,caledonia is the exclusive property of the ,hudson ,bay ,company2 she is not a common carrier1 and does not encourage either passengers or freight1 as the tariff rates prove4 ,there is a feverish haste and hustle about the movements of the steamer which are fairly contagious4 ,she makes her first trip early in the spring1 as soon as the ice has left the rivers1 on the ,stickene2 then it is a wild1 eager ambition of the company to have her make four trips up the ,skeena before the river closes up in the fall4 ,we had as passengers two prospectors from ,spokane1 a mining expert from ,victoria1 a native evangelist from ,essington1 and about fifty ,indians1 mostly women and children1 each one with a varied assortment of boxes1 bales1 bundles1 and dogs2 the crew numbered twenty1 and we had about one hundred tons of freight on board4 ,from ,essington to ,hazelton is one hundred and fifty-two miles1 a panorama of unending and unbroken beauty2 never monotonous1 always interesting1 it presents a river voyage which is probably not equaled1 certainly not excelled1 by any other river voyage of the same length on the ,american continent or in the world4 ,we began the voyage on ,sunday morning1 we tied up in front of ,hazelton on ,saturday night4 ,to recount in detail the haps and mishaps of each day's progress would take more time than ,i can command4 ,in one day we made forty-eight miles1 on another day we made one hundred yards1 on another day we didn't make a foot4 ,with plenty of water under her keel the ,caledonia could run twenty miles an hour2 she could cut her way through a sand bar at the rate of a yard or so an hour2 and at either rate of progress she burned each hour from one and a half to two cords of wood4 ,for the first ten miles the scenery does not differ materially from that which we are accustomed to in the inland sea from ,victoria to ,alaska4 ,then we enter fresh water and for the next forty miles steam through one long mountain gorge1 for here the river has cut completely through the ,cascade ,range4 ,the mountains begin at the water's edge and rise almost perpendicularly to heights of from three to four thousand feet4 ,their lower limits are covered with dense green forests1 which seem to grow out of the solid rock4 ,the summits are smooth and glistening1 and often covered with snow and ice4 ,here and there we can trace some tiny rivulet issuing from an ice bed high up among the clouds1 and every portion of its course can be traced down the steep mountain wall until it gives one final and headlong plunge into the river4 ,at times these streams1 taking their rise in some extensive glacier1 are of considerable magnitude1 and fairly roar as they leap and hurl themselves downward from their dizzy height4 ,and here we learned a curious fact about the river3 in summer it falls when it rains1 and rises when the sun shines1 so rapidly do the pent-up snows of winter disappear and rush down the mountain sides under the heat of the spring sun4 ,until noon of the second day we had been making good time1 but now the fun began1 for we had left deep water and had arrived at the first flight of the eight-hundred-foot stairway which the ,caledonia had to climb ere ,hazelton could be reached4 ,the river had been gradually widening as one island after another had been passed1 until now it was nearly half a mile wide and flowed through four channels4 ,the captain attempted one channel1 but we couldn't gain an inch1 and in drifting back again down the rapids the current carried the boat against the rocks and1 with a crash and a lurch1 but minus some woodwork1 she was in the stream again4 ,then two other channels were tried1 but without avail1 although the wheel was throwing water and gravel over the pilot house4 ,the fourth channel was next tried1 but the current was too strong4 ,then we lined her out1 and this novel method of getting a huge steamboat up a stream soon became only too commonplace4 ,the method of procedure is this3 ,the boat is forced against a sand bar and allowed to rest while men go forward in a skiff with a long four-inch cable1 which is made fast to a tree on the bank or to a dead man1 a long spar buried deep in the earth of a sand bar and heaped over with bowlders4 ,when all is ready1 the boat is attached to the capstan and the wheel begins to revolve4 ,it is tedious work and often provoking1 as when the cable parts1 or the dead man gives up his hold1 and the whole work must be done over again4 ,the boat quivers from stem to stern1 and the wheel1 with all possible steam on1 is simply one revolving ball of water4 ,we fairly hold our breath as we listen to the dull vibration of the boat1 the rumbling of the capstan1 and the grating sound of the keel of the steamer as she is being dragged through the rapids over the bar2 but above all can be heard the voice of ,captain ,bonser as he shouts to his ,indian pilot1 ,go 'head capstan1 ,stop steamboat1 ,stop capstan1 ,go 'head steamboat1 ,go 'head capstan6 ,in four hours we have made about fifty yards1 but we are in open water again and the boat settles down to its regular chug1 chug1 chug4 ,eighty miles from ,essington the ,skeena in its flight to the sea makes its first plunge into the ,cascade ,mountains1 and its entrance is indescribably grand4 ,no pen or brush can do justice to the beauties of the ,kitselas ,caon4 ,at its mouth we are in a broad1 deep basin1 as if the river had felt depressed as it passed through the quarter-mile narrow gorge and had here spread itself out to breathe and rest before it started anew its downward journey to the sea4 ,it was late in the afternoon1 and the western sun threw long shadows of the lofty sky-crowned perpendicular walls of the left-hand side of the caon over against the rocky islets and ragged1 rock-bound eastern shore4 ,once we have entered1 there is no faltering2 lining it out is impossible here1 and on and on the boat labors and climbs1 twisting and turning through the narrow1 tortuous channel4 ,a quick eye and a steady nerve must command the wheel now1 for a turn too much or too little would be fatal4 ,one instinctively feels that the ,water of ,terrors is the proper name for this river1 and with that feeling comes the other--that it was never intended for navigation4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,skeena ,,river ,,salmon ,,cannery4 ,after four days' grinding over sand bars and pounding against rocks we tie up for repairs4 ,one of the boilers had sprung a leak which could be neglected no longer4 ,the delay of thirty-six hours was not without compensation1 for the country about was open1 and proved a relief after the long ride through the high-walled river from the sea to the caon4 ,the banks were low or moderately high and of gravel or sand bluffs1 and we could look off over a landscape broken here and there by solitary peaks or clustered mountains1 their summits always covered with ice and snow4 ,to the far east were the pure white peaks of the ,five ,virgins1 their summits glistening under the bright sun4 ,even the character of the vegetation had changed1 and the dense forests of somber firs1 spruces1 and cedars of the lower river had given way to great cottonwoods and underbrush of hazel and alder4 ,in the afternoon we climbed a bluff near the river1 from which we could look off over a country that was wild and extremely picturesque4 ,to one side of us could be seen a great mountain1 its summit covered by a mighty glacier whose blue-white ice gleamed and glistened in the sun4 ,and there was no mistaking the power of the sun that day2 its warm rays being especially welcome after some weeks of the cold1 depressing gloom and fog of the coast4 ,we were now really in the country of the ,tsimshians1 and every few hours we drew up in front of some quiet1 peaceful village1 its almost deserted cottages guarded by the totem poles of former days4 ,in succession we pass ,meamskinesht1 ,kitwangah1 and ,kitzegukla1 with now and then a small salmon-fishing station4 ,the villages proved disappointing both in their smallness and modernness1 and none of them seemed worthy of any extended visit4 ,from time to time we passed great black patches in the forest1 the result of extensive fires1 sure signs that the rainy coast was far away4 ,on ,friday night we tied up to the bank within five miles of our destination1 but we had yet to pass ,macintosh's ,bar4 ,that was accomplished on the following day1 after eleven hours' hard work1 and by five o'clock we had reached ,the ,forks1 or the junction of the ,skeena and ,bulkley ,rivers4 ,our course was to the left1 up the ,skeena for half a mile1 and in a few moments more we tied up in front of the stockaded post of the ,hudson ,bay ,company2 we had reached ,hazelton4 ,the region about us was ,dum-lak-an1 what will be a good place1 the home of the ,tsimshians4 ,before #ahgj the town was farther down the river1 on the flat at the junction of the ,bulkley and ,skeena ,rivers4 ,it has had additions to its population from ,kis-pi-yeoux1 and from villages down the river4 ,there are also to be numbered among the inhabitants the ,indian agent1 ,mr4 ,loring1 the ,hudson ,bay representative1 ,mr4 ,sargent1 and his assistants1 and ,mr4 ,fields1 the missionary4 ,the ,indian population numbers about two hundred and seventy-five4 ,the town occupies a low1 uneven plain1 which1 beginning at the water's edge1 extends back for a quarter of a mile1 where it is hemmed in by a high bluff on the face of the second river terrace4 ,there are but few of the old houses left and still fewer totem poles1 and they are without particular interest4 ,most prominent in the village is the warlike stockade of the company's post1 with its two bastions at opposite corners1 and the blockhouse in the center of the inclosure1 but now hidden by the store which stands in front of it4 ,the stockade was put up in #ahia1 when an ,indian uprising was feared throughout the length of the river4 ,wherever you find a trading post and a missionary you can not hope to find people who retain much of their native life or who are of great value to anthropology4 ,but still ,hazelton was sufficiently primitive to be of interest in many respects4 ,in matters of dress the ,indians are almost on a footing with the whites1 but they still make a curious garment for winter's use which is worn by nearly all of the interior tribes4 ,this is a blanket made out of long1 narrow strips of rabbit hide1 and is warm1 heavy1 and extremely durable4 ,we were fortunate enough to find a woman who was engaged in making one of these curious garments on a most rude and primitive loom4 ,other garments are still occasionally made of ,indian hemp1 which grows wild and in abundance4 ,this is beaten and pounded and then spun into fine thread1 and woven into the desired form4 ,illustration3 ,,tsimshian ,,shaman',s ,,ceremonial ,,bow ,,and ,,arrow4 ,in former days the ,indians used large quantities of the wool of the mountain sheep in making the beautiful chilcat blankets that formed an important part of the chief's costume1 but now the ,indians buy most of their wool4 ,its chief uses are for sashes and belts1 which are still worn and made after the fashion of former days4 ,of other garments of daily use1 except moccasins1 there is nothing remaining4 ,there are a few remnants of ceremonial costumes still in existence1 and by a bit of good fortune we were enabled to secure the complete paraphernalia of a shaman1 or ,indian doctor1 who had only recently renounced his native practices and joined ,mr4 ,fields's band of ,christians4 ,in the outfit thus acquired were rattles1 charms1 blankets1 masks1 and headdresses of various kinds4 ,from another individual we secured the complete costume of a member of the fraternity1 or secret society1 of ,dog ,eaters4 ,the ,tsimshians have four such societies1 and the ,dog ,eaters stand third in rank1 being surpassed only by the ,man ,eaters or ,cannibal ,society4 ,the chief object of this outfit1 apart from the white and red cedar bark rings1 was a long club1 one side of which was ornamented by a fringe of red cedar tassels4 ,of interest also was the curious cap made of plaited bands of red cedar bark1 and so ornamented as to represent the head of the owl4 ,another object secured from a shaman was a peculiar bow and arrow4 ,these were purely ceremonials1 and were only used in the dances of the secret societies4 ,by an ingenious device the point of the arrow could be opened out1 and in this position represented the open jaws of a serpent4 ,on the bow were two fins1 that could be lowered or raised at will by means of cords1 which represented the fin-back whale4 ,the bow itself is of light soft wood1 and is bent by means of a string passing around the operator's body1 the two ends of the bow being fastened to the body of the bow by leather hinges4 ,in all the ceremonies1 both religious and civil1 an important part of the costume is the mask4 ,these are generally of wood1 and portray all manner of real and fanciful personages4 ,some of them are wonders of ingenuity1 being so constructed that the eyes1 mouth1 and often the ears can be moved at the will of the wearer4 ,some of them are even double1 and so arranged that by drawing open the outer mask1 an inner one of an entirely different character can be revealed4 ,one of the rarest masks which was ever brought out of the ,tsimshian country is one in the possession of the museum1 which was acquired some time ago4 ,it is of bone and finely carved1 while the teeth and tusks are those of animals4 ,hazelton is of much interest to the observer of the human countenance1 for1 while the residents of the town are ,tsimshians1 there is a village near by on the ,bulkley ,river1 the people of which belong to the great ,tinneh or ,athabascan stock1 which extends from the ,arctic ,circle on the north to the ,territories of ,arizona and ,new ,mexico on the south1 where it is represented by the ,apaches4 ,in some respects the differences between the ,tsimshians and ,tinnehs1 or ,howgelgaits1 as this branch is called1 are quite marked1 and these differences stand out in greater relief because more or less of the population of ,howgelgait spend a part of their time in ,hazelton1 and so one sees representatives of the two stocks in close contact4 ,the ,tsimshians1 like the ,haidas1 are great canoe people1 and are rather short-legged1 with great development of the chest and shoulders4 ,like the ,haidas1 also1 they have strong1 long arms1 which bespeak familiarity with the paddle4 ,the ,howgelgaits1 on the other hand1 are a pure mountaineer people1 and are tall1 robust1 and finely proportioned4 ,their hair is black1 coarse1 and abundant4 ,the eyebrows are thick and remarkably wide at the outer side4 ,this same peculiarity may be observed in the masks of this tribe4 ,the beard is sparse1 but it must be remembered that the hair is generally pulled out as it appears1 particularly on the cheeks1 while the mustache and the chin tuft are allowed to grow4 ,among the ,tsimshians the face is wide and the cheek bones are prominent4 ,the nose is narrow1 with a depressed root4 ,neither the ,tsimshians nor ,tinneh practice artificial deformation of the head4 ,with the ,tinneh1 or more exactly the ,howgelgaits1 the forehead is broad and less receding than is usual with the ,american aborigines4 ,the face is full and broad and the cheek bones prominent1 but the nose1 unlike that of the ,tsimshians1 is well formed and generally aquiline1 although occasionally it is thick and flattish4 ,their lips are also thick and the chin is more prominent than is usual among the ,tsimshians4 ,the eyes are large and of a deep black color2 the jaws are generally very heavy and massive4 ,of traces of the ancient prevalent fashion in deformity we saw very little4 ,one old woman still retained the labret1 but it was only a shadow of the former labrets in size4 ,although the long1 finely polished bone ornament which the men formerly wore in a hole through the septum of the nose has entirely disappeared1 we saw a few old men in whom the pierced septum was still plainly visible4 ,with the ,howgelgaits it was formerly the custom to load down the ears with highly polished bits of abalone shells1 which were suspended by means of brass rings inserted into holes one above the other on the outer margin of the ear1 extending from the lobe around the entire helix4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,street ,,in ,,the ,,tsimshian ,,cemetery ,,at ,,hazelton1 ,b4 ,c4 ,hazelton's ,city of the ,dead stands on a high bluff overlooking the town and valley1 and commands a view off over the broken forest-clad country which is as beautiful as well could be4 ,a trail winds along the face of the bluff until the crest of the plateau is reached1 where it divides into a right and left path leading through the main street of the silent city4 ,the sight is strangely odd and picturesque4 ,over each grave has been erected a neat little frame house1 often of considerable dimensions4 ,all are painted with bright colors1 and the effect is decidedly mixed4 ,in one of the houses1 which was substantially built and neatly carpeted1 ,i saw through a glass window two chairs1 a washstand with full assortment of toilet articles1 and an umbrella1 while at the rear of the house stood a table on which was spread a neat cloth1 and on the table was a lamp4 ,on the floor was a new pair of shoes4 ,over the table hung a large crayon portrait of the departed occupant of the grave beneath4 ,in another house ,i saw chests of clothing1 and suspended from a cord were garments of various kinds1 including a complete costume of the fraternity of the ,dog ,eaters4 ,these five-feet-deep graves covered by little houses are not the usual manner of burial with the ,tsimshians1 for until within a very few years the dead were cremated ,even to-day in the neighboring village of ,kispiyeoux the dead are buried in shallow graves just in front of the house4 ,of the many charming spots about ,hazelton which are well worthy of a visit1 we had time for only one--a horseback ride to the ,howgelgait ,caon4 ,the ride was most enjoyable in every respect4 ,the road leads from the town up over the plateau through the burying ground1 and then on through a partly cleared forest of cottonwoods and maples4 ,then we plunge into a two-mile-long lane1 the trail scarcely wide enough to admit of the passing of a horse1 through a dense grove of hazel bushes1 laden to their tips with unripe nuts still protected by their green fuzzy envelopes2 and now we knew whence came the name ,hazelton4 ,suddenly the grove terminates1 and after dismounting and walking forward a few steps we came to the face of the caon4 ,what a sight6 ,on the opposite cliff1 but on a higher level1 stands the old deserted village of ,howgelgait1 with its great empty houses and skeleton totem poles4 ,at our feet1 down a sheer precipice almost a thousand feet below1 the ,bulkley ,river1 set on edge1 rushes and roars and foams through the rocky gorge to join the ,skeena a mile away4 ,just by the mouth of the caon1 at the edge of the great whirlpool1 and on a gravelly beach1 stands the present town of ,howgelgait4 ,hearing shouts1 we looked closer1 and far down we saw men moving about1 their forms dwarfed to almost spiderlike dimensions4 ,they were building a swinging bridge over the river1 and the timbers already in place looked like the meshes of a spider's web4 ,looking up the caon1 we could see from the opposite wall near the water's edge1 and far below us1 a rude scaffolding suspended by bark ropes over the river1 and from this ,indians were lowering their nets and drawing up salmon4 ,one man after another would leave for his home1 his back bending under the weight of many fish1 his place to be taken by another1 who begins casting his nets4 ,and so these rude scaffoldings here and all along the rivers are occupied by busy fishermen throughout the summer1 for salmon is chief of the winter's food supply of these people4 ,in one house we saw over a thousand salmon hung up to dry for use during the winter months4 ,we left the caon for the ride back to ,hazelton with keen regret1 for no more fascinating spot did we find on our entire journey than right here4 ,on the way we encountered a woman of the ,carrier tribe of the ,tinnehs from ,frazer's ,lake1 who was returning from ,hazelton laden with provisions and cheap calicoes4 ,we had scarcely entered ,hazelton when the tinkling of the bell of the lead horse announced the arrival of the pack train4 ,second only in importance to the arrival of the ,caledonia to the people of ,hazelton is the arrival of the pack train1 for it brings the news of the far interior4 ,but of much greater importance and value is the cargo of furs which are brought out on every trip in exchange for supplies which are taken in4 ,on that day there were fifty-seven mules1 each laden with two bales of furs weighing two hundred and fifty pounds1 and including beaver1 mink1 otter1 sable1 and bear1 all destined for the ,hudson ,bay ,company's house in ,london1 there to be auctioned off in lots to the highest bidder1 and then to be distributed to all parts of the civilized world4 ,illustration3 ,,hagivilgait ,,ca,,on1 ,,with ,,indian ,,fish ,,weirs ,,at ,,bottom4 ,within less than an hour's time the precious furs were aboard1 and we bade farewell to ,hazelton4 ,the ,caledonia drops back1 is slowly turned around by the current1 and with its steady chug1 chug1 we began our journey down the river1 the power of the boat aided by the swiftly flowing water carrying us along at a rapid rate4 ,if the slow1 labored up journey was a revelation with its worries and anxieties1 what can be said of the down journey with its kaleidoscopic panorama of sand bars1 ,indian villages1 far-away snowy mountains1 dense forests of mighty cottonwoods1 lofty heights which tower above us clad to their very summits with eternal green1 mountain streams1 and innumerable waterfalls and cascades6 ,and what shall one say of that memorable ride through the caon1 the wheel reversed and throwing water over the pilot house1 the boat rocking and swaying to and fro6 ,before we were fairly aware of the fact we were out into that great1 deep1 silent basin again and off on the home stretch4 ,apart from taking on wood and stopping at one or two ,indian villages1 a delay of a few hours was made to permit some mining engineers to examine a mine4 ,they had just come up from the coast and brought with them news of the gold excitement in the ,yukon ,valley1 and now for the first time we heard that magic word ,klondike1 which was soon to electrify the world and put the gold fields of ,california1 ,south ,africa1 and ,australia to shame4 ,at nine o'clock we were in ,essington once more4 ,klondike1 ,klondike6 on every side4 ,the whole country seemed to have gone daft4 ,one steamer after another went racing by the mouth of the ,skeena on the way to ,dyea and the ,skagway ,trail4 ,but our fortunes lay in the other direction1 and that night we were aboard the ,islander1 bound for ,victoria and the south4 ,,footnote3 #be ,from a lecture delivered at the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,november #ac1 #ahig4 ,,light ,,and ,,vegetation4 ,,by ,d4 ,t4 ,,macdougal1 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,professor ,,in ,,charge ,,of ,,plant ,,physiology1 ,,university ,,of ,,minnesota4 ,light is the most important of all the external agencies which influence the vegetal organism1 and the sun's rays have been the most potent force in shaping the development of existent plant forms4 ,the sunbeam stands in a manifold relation to the plant4 ,first and foremost1 light is the universal source of energy1 by the aid of which the chlorophyll apparatus in green leaves builds up complex food substances from simple compounds obtained from the soil and air1 a process necessary for the nutrition of the entire living world4 ,some obscure organisms1 such as the nitrosomonas1 soil bacteria1 are able to accomplish the construction of complex substances1 by means of energy derived from other chemical compounds1 which were1 however1 formed originally by green plants4 ,these food-building processes are designated as photosynthesis1 chemosynthesis1 electrosynthesis1 thermosynthesis1 etc41 according to the source of energy used4 ,by photosynthesis1 carbon dioxide from the air and water from the cell are combined in the green cells of leaves1 forming sugar and possibly other substances4 ,during this process an amount of oxygen approximately equal to that of the carbon dioxide taken up is exhaled4 ,it will be of interest to note the relation of the living world to the atmosphere4 ,eight hundred to nine hundred grammes of carbon dioxide are produced in the respiration of a single person for a day1 and the entire product of the human race for this period is twelve hundred million kilogrammes4 ,in addition1 large quantities of the gas result from the combustion of the four hundred and sixty millions of kilogrammes of coal and wood burned yearly4 ,the lower animals1 fungi1 and green plants themselves contribute an amount which must bring the total to twice the immense sum named above4 ,the atmosphere contains three or four hundredths of one per cent of carbon dioxide1 or an amount of about two to three thousand billions of kilogrammes4 ,no especial variation in this proportion has been detected since observations upon this point were first made4 ,the fact that no increase takes place is partly due to the absorption of the gas by plants1 and its replacement by oxygen1 and also to certain geological processes in constant operation4 ,absorption takes place at the rate of about two and a half grammes for every square metre of leaf surface per hour1 or about twenty-five to thirty grammes daily1 since the process goes on only in daylight4 ,it is to be seen that a single human being exhales as much carbon dioxide as may be removed from the air by thirty or forty square metres of leaf surface4 ,according to ,ebermayer1 a hectare 7#b4dg acres7 of forest would use eleven thousand kilogrammes of carbon dioxide yearly1 and the amount used by plants is generally much in excess of that furnished by the activity of the inhabitants of any given area4 ,plants thrive and show increasing vigor as the amount of carbon dioxide in the air rises until two hundred times the present proportion is reached4 ,an increase of the gas in the atmosphere would therefore be partly corrected by the absorption and by the stronger vegetation induced4 ,nothing short of a comprehensive cataclysm could work such disturbance to the composition of the air as to endanger the well-being of the animal inhabitants of the earth4 ,the activity of a square metre of leaf surface results in the formation of one and a half to two grammes of solid substance per hour in sunlight4 ,a vigorous sunflower with one hundred and forty-five leaves constructed thirty-six grammes of solid matter in a day1 and a squash with one hundred and sixteen leaves one hundred and sixteen grammes in the same length of time4 ,the amounts formed by such trees as the beech1 maple1 oak1 poplar1 elm1 and horse-chestnut1 with leaf surfaces aggregating three hundred to one thousand square metres1 must be correspondingly large4 ,a comparison of plants grown in strong sunlight1 diffuse light1 and darkness will reveal many differences in stature and internal structure4 ,these differences are for the most part due to the formative and tonic effect of light4 ,otherwise expressed1 the influence of variations of light upon plants causes adaptive reactions1 and disturbances of the nutritive processes and growth4 ,in consequence of these facts the reaction of any given organ to changes in the intensity of the illumination will depend upon its specific functions and relation to the remainder of the organism4 ,the stems formed by seedlings and awakening underground organs are usually surrounded by plants or other objects which cut off more or less sunlight4 ,the developing shoot can not spread its leaves to the light advantageously until it has outstripped or grown beyond the objects intervening between it and the light4 ,this necessity is one of the most important conditions in the struggle for existence4 ,to meet it1 a very great majority of seed-forming plants have acquired the power of accelerated elongation of the stems when deprived of their normal amount of light4 ,very striking examples of this reaction are offered by the awakening corms of the ,jack-in-the-pulpit 7,arisma triphyllum74 ,the corms usually lie at a distance of five or six centimetres below the surface of the soil1 and when the growth of the large bud begins in the spring the heavy sheathing scales elongate and pierce the soil1 opening when the surface is reached at the distance of a few centimetres4 ,if the corm should have been buried deeper in the substratum by floods or drifts of leaves1 the growth of the bud scales will continue until the light is reached1 though it may be a distance of twenty centimetres4 ,such growth may be seen if the corms are grown in a deep layer of sphagnum moss1 or in a dark room4 ,after the stems emerge from the drawn buds they show a similar attenuation1 attaining a length of twice the normal4 ,the excessive elongation of stems is accompanied by variations in the structure and contents of the tissues4 ,the cells are generally longer1 while the walls are thinner4 ,in consequence1 organs grown in darkness are very weak and easily bent or broken4 ,growth in darkness is attended by the non-formation of chlorophyll4 ,this is replaced by etiolin1 giving the plant a pale1 waxy1 yellow appearance4 ,the adaptive elongation is not shown by all species1 however4 ,it has been found that stems of beet1 hop1 dioscorea1 and a few others show no adaptations to diminished light4 ,the adaptive modification of stems elongating in darkness is developed from the retarding influence exercised by light upon growth4 ,thus it is a well-known fact that the action of certain portions of the sun's rays actually impedes or checks the increase in volume known as growth1 though it does not influence actual division of the cells to any great extent4 ,when this retarding action is eliminated excessive elongation ensues4 ,the behavior of leaves in illuminations below the normal depends upon the relation of these organs to the storage structures of the plant as well as upon other factors1 and many types are dependent upon their own activity for plastic material necessary for growth4 ,it is to be said in general that leaves of dicotyledonous plants are incapable of full development in darkness1 though to this rule there are many exceptions4 ,thus the leaves of the beet develop normally1 or nearly so1 in darkness4 ,on the other hand1 leaves of monocotyledonous plants attain normal size in darkness1 especially those with straight or curved parallel venation4 ,some1 as the iris1 swamp marigold1 and onion1 attain a greater length in darkness than in light4 ,here1 as in stems1 cell division is not modified1 but the growth of the individual cell is increased4 ,the growth of leaves in darkness may be easily observed if the underground perennial stems of common mandrake are placed in a dark chamber before the growth of the leaf buds has begun4 ,the leaves are peltate1 and in the bud are folded about the end of the petiole after the manner of an umbrella4 ,usually this umbrella expands as soon as it has pushed upward and become free from the soil1 attaining a diameter of twenty-five to forty centimetres when outspread4 ,in darkness1 however1 it refuses to unfold1 the lamin are pale yellow and retain the crumpled form of the bud1 and as the petiole shows an exaggerated elongation the organ takes on the appearance of a very small parasol on a very long handle4 ,the imperfect development of leaves and the rapid decay of arial organs deprived of sunlight leads to the conclusion that the action of light is necessary to the health and normal activity of these organs1 and the light therefore exercises a tonic influence upon vegetation4 ,many species of plants are so plastic and capable of such ready response to variations in external conditions that they undergo distinct morphological changes in response to variations in the intensity of the light4 ,the common potato is an example of this fact4 ,the edible tubers are simply thickened stems1 and the plant has the habit of storing starch in any stems not acted upon by the light4 ,the branches arising from the base of the main stem are generally underneath the surface of the soil1 and afford the proper conditions for tuber formation4 ,sugar is constructed in the leaves1 carried down the length of the stem1 and deposited in the underground branches as starch4 ,space is made for the accumulating store by the multiplication of the thin-walled cells of the pith4 ,if any of the upper branches should become shaded1 they become at once the focus of converging streams of sugar1 and similar enlargement ensues1 resulting in the formation of tubers4 ,such structures are occasionally observed in plants grown thickly together4 ,vchting1 by a number of most ingenious experiments1 has succeeded in producing tubers on any branch of a potato plant by simply inclosing the branch in a small dark chamber4 ,as the result of one experiment the entire main stem springing from a sprouting tuber was converted into a new tuber nearly as large as the first4 ,the entire plant at the close of the experiment had the form of a dumb-bell1 with the old tuber as one ball and the new tuber as the other4 ,the same writer has described important results obtained from a study of the action of light upon the stems of cactus1 consisting of a number of flattened internodes4 ,when the growing tips of such plants were allowed to develop in a dark chamber the new internodes grown were cylindrical in form4 ,such behavior suggests that these plants were originally furnished with cylindrical stems and foliar leaves4 ,the leaves at some time in the history of the plant were found unsuitable1 and gradually atrophied1 while the stems were flattened and extended to take up their functions4 ,some very striking adaptations of form of organs to the intensity of the light have been analyzed by ,goebel4 ,the common harebell 7,campanula rotundifolia7 has an upright stem twenty to sixty centimetres in height4 ,the upper part of the stem bears sessile lanceolate leaves1 decreasing in size from the base to the summit4 ,the first leaves formed by the stem on its emergence from the soil are entirely different in construction1 showing a heart-shaped lamina with a distinct petiole4 ,these leaves are formed at the actual surface of the soil1 are generally more or less shaded or covered by fallen leaves1 and in fact are not known or seen by many collectors or observers of the plant4 ,goebel found that similar leaves might be formed on any part of the plant if it were shaded from the full glare of the sun's rays4 ,the cordate leaves at the base of the stem were always produced1 however1 no matter to what intensity of illumination that part of the plant was subjected4 ,it is therefore safe to conclude that the cordate leaves are inherited forms1 and that the lanceolate organs are adaptations to light which may be shown by any individual of the species4 ,in general it is to be said that the leaves of sun-loving species have a thick epidermis1 entirely free from chlorophyll1 with stomata on the lower side only1 a firm consistence due to the formation of woody tissues1 and are often provided with a coating of hairs4 ,the leaves of shade-loving plants1 on the other hand1 have a thin-walled epidermis often containing chlorophyll1 stomata on both sides1 and are not so plentifully provided with hairs as those in exposed situations4 ,the variations in external form described above are due to the intensity of the illumination4 ,at the same time the structure and arrangement of the cells depend on the direction from which the light rays come4 ,thus1 an organ receiving light from one side only will exhibit a structure different from an organ of the same kind receiving direct rays from two or more sides4 ,light1 then1 is a cause of dorsiventrality--that is1 of the fact that the upper and lower sides of organs are not alike in structure4 ,the leaf affords a splendid example of dorsiventrality as a result of the exposure of one side only to direct light4 ,the upper side of a horizontal leaf1 such as the oak1 beech1 or maple1 contains one or two layers of cylindrical cells with their long axes perpendicular to the surface4 ,in vertical leaves1 such as the iris1 these palisade cells1 as they are termed1 are not so well defined1 and in all leaves grown in darkness this tissue is very much reduced4 ,if a young leaf not yet unfolded from the bud is fastened in such a position that the under side is uppermost1 palisade cells will be formed on the side exposed to the direct rays of the sun4 ,the influence of light upon the sporophylls1 or reproductive organs of the seed-forming plants1 is quite as well defined as upon the vegetative organs4 ,in general it is to be said that stamens and pistils may reach functional maturity in darkness or diffuse light1 and if pollination is provided for1 seed and fruit formation may ensue4 ,the diminution of light has the effect of transforming inflorescences into leafy shoots in some instances1 however4 ,the more common reaction consists of alterations in the size1 form1 and color of the perianth1 and greater changes are induced in the petals than in the sepals4 ,the corolla shows greater decrease in size in ,melandryum and ,silene1 in diffuse light1 though the relative form is maintained4 ,the writer has obtained most striking results from growing flowers of ,salvia 7sage7 in a dark chamber1 inclosing the inflorescence only4 ,in the normal flower the irregular scarlet corolla attains three times the length of the calyx1 and two stamens extrude from under the upper lip4 ,when grown in darkness1 the corolla with the adherent stamens measure about three millimetres in length1 or one twelfth the normal1 and are scarcely more than half the size of the calyx1 which is but two thirds the size of similar organs grown in the light4 ,the color is entirely lacking from the corolla1 and is found only along the veins of the calyx4 ,in other instances in which the corolla is composed of separate members1 an unequal reaction is exhibited4 ,the corolla of nasturtium 7,tropolum majus7 consists of five approximately equal petals4 ,flowers of this species grown in darkness show one of nearly normal stature1 two of reduced size1 while the remaining two take the form of club-shaped bracts4 ,the diminished size of the perianth of cleistogamous flowers of such types as the violet is due directly to the action of diminished light upon the hidden or inclosed flower4 ,the influence of light upon the structure1 reproductive processes1 and distribution of the lower forms brings about the most widely divergent reactions1 which can not be described here4 ,the distribution and color of marine alg depend upon the depth of the water and the consequent intensity of the light4 ,this gives rise to distinct zones of aquatic vegetation4 ,thus in one series of surveys the littoral zone1 the beach area covered at high water and exposed at low water1 was found to furnish proper conditions for green1 brown1 and red alg4 ,the sublittoral zone1 extending to a depth of forty metres1 is furnished with red alg1 increasing in number with the depth1 and the brown alg disappear2 while the elittoral zone1 from forty to one hundred and ten metres1 is inhabited by red alg alone4 ,the number of species of vegetal organisms below this depth is extremely small4 ,an alga 7,halosphria viridis7 has been brought up from depths of one thousand to two thousand metres4 ,a very great number of bacteria are unfavorably affected by light1 and find proper conditions at some depth in the soil or water4 ,it is on account of this fact that the water of frozen streams becomes more thickly inhabited by certain organisms than in the summer time1 and exposure to sunlight is adopted as a hygienic measure in freeing clothing and household effects from infection4 ,bacteria occur abundantly in sea water at depths of two hundred to four hundred metres1 and quite a number of species are to be found at eight hundred to eleven hundred metres4 ,the distribution of fungi follows the general habit of bacteria in that they thrive best in darkness4 ,it is to be noticed in this connection that light is also a determining factor in the distribution of the higher land plants4 ,thus the amount of light received in polar latitudes is quite insufficient for the needs of many species1 entirely irrespective of temperature4 ,the retarding influence of light upon growth is even more marked in the lower forms than in the higher4 ,such action is the result of the disintegrating effect of the blue-violet rays upon ferments and nitrogenous plastic substances4 ,the greater massiveness of the bodies of the higher plants enables them to carry on the chemical activities in which these substances are concerned in the interior1 where the intense rays may not penetrate4 ,the attenuated and undifferentiated fungi must seek the shade1 to escape the dangers of strong light1 against which they have no shield4 ,the reproductive processes are particularly sensitive to illumination4 ,the formation of zospores by green felt 7,vaucheria7 may occur only in darkness1 at night1 or in diffuse light1 and these examples might be multiplied indefinitely4 ,many features of the germination of spores and the growth of protonem or prothallia among the mosses1 liverworts1 and ferns are determined by light4 ,perhaps the most striking reactions of plants to light are to be seen in locomotor and orientation movements4 ,locomotor movements are chiefly confined to lower forms1 and are most noticeable in the swarm spores1 or zospores of the alg1 though exhibited by spermatozoids as well4 ,zospores may be seen collected against the side of the vessel receiving direct sunlight1 while the opposite side of the vessel will be free from them4 ,the chlorophyll bodies of green cells arrange themselves similarly4 ,the latter bodies may move away from the exposed side of the cell if the light exceeds a certain intensity4 ,the typical plant may not move its body toward or away from the source of light1 but it may secure the same end by dispositions of its surfaces to vary the angle at which the rays are received4 ,this form of irritability is one of the most highly developed properties of the plant4 ,wiesner has found that a seedling of the vetch is sensitive to an amount of light represented by one ten-millionth of a unit represented by a ,roscoe-,bunsen flame4 ,the sensitiveness to light may take one of three forms3 ,the organ may place its axis parallel and pointing toward the source of the rays1 as in stems1 when it is said to be proheliotropic2 the axis of the organ may assume a position perpendicular to the rays1 which is designated as diaheliotropism2 or it may place its axis parallel to the rays and pointing away from the light1 when it is said to be apheliotropic4 ,upright stems are proheliotropic1 horizontal leaves and creeping stems are diaheliotropic1 and roots and such stems as those of ivy are apheliotropic4 ,sunlight varies from zero to the full blaze of the noonday sun1 and assumes its greatest intensity in the equatorial regions4 ,the intensity in latitudes #dj to #de north would be represented by #a4e units1 and at the equator by #a4f units4 ,near the equator the intensity is so great that an ordinary leaf may not receive the full force of the noonday sun without damage4 ,the injury would not result from the luminous rays1 but from the temperatures1 #dj to #ej ,c41 arising from the conversion of light into heat4 ,as an adaptation to this condition nearly all leaves have either a pendent or a vertical position1 or the power of assuming this position by motor or impassive wilting movements4 ,among the plants of the temperate zone the so-called compass plants are examples of similar adaptations4 ,the compass plants include1 among others1 the wild lettuce 7,lactuca scariola7 and rosin weed 7,silphium laciniatum74 ,these plants place the leaves in a vertical position with the tips pointing north and south in such manner that the direct rays of the morning and evening sun only may strike the surfaces at right angles1 while the edges are presented to the fierce rays at noonday4 ,that this arrangement is an adaptation against the intense light is evident when it is seen that specimens growing in shaded locations or in diffuse light place the leaves in the typical horizontal position4 ,to meet the functional conditions1 both sides of the compass leaves are almost equally provided with palisade cells for food formation and stomata for transpiration4 ,the estimation of the light striking a compass leaf shows that it receives approximately the same amount of light as a horizontal leaf during the course of a day1 but the two maxima of intensity1 morning and evening1 are much below that of the noon of horizontal leaves4 ,the influence of light upon plants may be briefly summed as follows3 ,light is necessary for the formation of food substances by green plants1 and it is an important factor in distribution in land and marine forms4 ,growth and reproduction are generally retarded by the action of the blue-violet rays4 ,light is fatal to certain bacteria and other low forms of vegetable life4 ,many plants have the power of accelerated growth of stems in diminished light as an adaptation for lifting the leaves above shading objects4 ,the growth of many leaves and of the perianth of flowers is hindered in diminished light4 ,the outward form of many organs1 particularly leaves1 is dependent upon the intensity of the light received4 ,the internal structure of bilateral or dorsiventral organs is largely determined by the direction of the rays4 ,plants have the power of movement to adjust their surfaces to a proper angle with impinging light rays1 as a protective adaptation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,matches which do not contain any phosphorus and which take fire by friction on any surface--a match that has been long sought--have been prepared by ,mr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,rosenthal and ,dr4 ,s4 ,j4 von ,kornocki4 ,it is represented that they can be manufactured as cheaply as ordinary matches4 ,,the ,,stone ,,age ,,in ,,egypt4 ,,by ,j4 ,,de ,,morgan4 ,the investigation of the origin of man in ,egypt is a very complex problem1 belonging as much to geology as to archology4 ,the earliest evidences we have of human industry1 in fact1 go back to so remote a period that they should be regarded rather as fossils than as archological documents4 ,they are very coarsely worked flints1 which are found near the surface of the ground among the pebbles of the ,quaternary or ,pleistocene epoch1 and similar to those which occur abundantly in ,europe1 ,america1 and ,asia2 but the study and collection of them have been pursued with less method than in those countries4 ,the more recent monuments1 so much more conspicuous and more easily accessible1 have attracted most attention1 while these have been left in the background4 ,no region in the world presents a clearer and more distinct individual character than ,egypt4 ,each village is a special world1 each valley a universe that has developed its own life2 and man has felt the special local impressions2 and even in modern times1 while all the ,egyptian villages present a similar aspect1 and although the fellah appears to be the same sort of a man everywhere1 each locality has its special individual characteristics4 ,one who knows how to observe men and things critically will find considerable differences4 ,these dissimilarities are as old as ,egypt itself4 ,they have always existed1 and are as much more intense as the communications between district and district were formerly more difficult4 ,they are due to physical conditions special to each village1 to the prevailing winds1 the form and character of the mountains1 the extent of cultivable lands1 and the supply of water4 ,a study of the detail of the country is a very important preliminary to the examination of ,egyptian history4 ,every village and every nome had formerly its special divinity and its particular usages4 ,are we sure that the gods and customs were not imposed by local conditions8 ,at ,ombos two hostile gods were adored in the same temple4 ,may we not see in this fact a recollection of the hostility which has always prevailed between the inhabitants of the two banks of the river1 and still continues8 ,previous1 however1 to investigating these details which have been so influential on ,egyptian civilization1 we ought to dispel the darkness which hides from us the earliest traces of man in the valley of the ,nile1 and examine how man lived in his beginning1 to study the geology of the country and its condition when it issued from the seas4 ,as one of the results of this study we find that palolithic man1 known to us only through the rough-cut flints we find in the alluvions1 made his first appearance4 ,after this period of excavation came that of filling up with silt1 which still continues4 ,new evidences of man appear in his burial places and the ruins of his villages1 the kitchen middens which he has left in his habitations of unburned brick and in his camps4 ,this time he is more civilized2 he chips his flints with a skill that is not surpassed in ,european neolithic implements2 he makes vessels of stone and clay1 covers them with rude paintings1 sculptures animal forms of schist1 and wears necklaces of the shells and the stones of the country4 ,then comes a foreign people to take possession of ,egypt1 bringing knowledge of metals1 writing1 hieroglyphics1 painting1 sculpture1 new industries and arts that have nothing in common with the arts of the people it has overcome4 ,the ancient ,pharaonic empire begins1 or perhaps the reign of the divine dynasties4 ,the men with stone implements are the aborigines2 the others are the conquering civilized ,egyptians4 ,nothing can be more interesting than a comparison of the arts of the aborigines and those of the ,egyptians of the earlier dynasties4 ,nearly all their characteristics are different1 and it is impossible to regard them as of common origin4 ,yet some of the native forms persisted till the last days of the empire of the ,pharaohs4 ,these aborigines belonged to a race that is now extinct1 they having been absorbed into the mass of the ,egyptians and ,nubians among whom they lived1 and from this mixture the fellah of ancient times is derived4 ,the origin of the conquering race--of the ,egyptians as we know them--has not been precisely determined4 ,the weight of evidence1 so far as it has been obtained1 and the balance of opinion1 are in favor of an ,asiatic origin and of primary relationship with the ,shemites of ,chaldea4 ,in ,egypt more than in any other country it is necessary to proceed with the most scrupulous circumspection in the examination of remote antiquities4 ,the relics of thousands of years of human life have been piled one upon another and often intermixed4 ,the questions they raise can not be answered in the cabinet or by the study of texts2 but the inquiry must be prosecuted on the ground1 by comparison of the deposits where they are found and in the deposits from which they are recovered4 ,from my first arrival in ,egypt1 in #ahib1 my attention has been greatly occupied with the question of the origin of the relics of the stone age that have been found from time to time in that country4 ,i have gathered up the scattered documents1 explored a large number of sites1 and have bought such flint implements as ,i have found on sale4 ,i have gradually been led to believe that while some of these cut stones may possibly belong to the historical epoch1 we shall have to attribute a much more remote antiquity to the most of them1 and that evidences of a neolithic age in the valley of the ,nile are more abundant than has generally been supposed4 ,in many minds the historical antiquity of ,egypt1 the almost fabulous ages to which its civilization ascends1 seem to challenge the history of other countries1 and the land of the ,pharaohs1 rejecting all chronological comparison1 to have appeared in the midst of the world as a single example of a land which savage life had never trodden4 ,yet what are the centuries since ,menes ruled over the reclaimed valleys1 the few thousand years of which we can calculate the duration1 by the side of the incalculable lapse of time since man1 struggling with the glaciers and the prehistoric beasts1 began his conquest of the earth8 ,the antiquity of ,egypt1 the eight thousand years 7if it be as many7 since the first ,pharaoh1 are only as an atom in the presence of these ages4 ,we can assert some vague knowledge of these pre-,pharaonic inhabitants1 for two hatchets of the ,chellean pattern were found some time ago in the desert1 one at ,esnet1 the other near the pyramids of ,gizeh2 and we can now affirm in the most positive manner that ,quaternary man lived in the country which is now ,egypt1 and was then only preparing to be4 ,four palolithic stations have been more recently discovered--at ,thebes1 ,tukh1 ,abydos1 and ,daschur4 ,join these sites to the other two where isolated pieces were found1 and we have the geography of what we know at present of ,chellean man in the valley of the ,nile4 ,doubtless continuous researches would result in similar discoveries at other points1 for ,i have met these relics wherever ,i have been able to make a short sojourn4 ,the ,chellean implements are found in the gravels of the diluvium on the pebbly surface4 ,they have been disturbed and probably scattered1 but some places yield them more numerously than others--points possibly corresponding to the ancient workshops4 ,i have found a considerable number of specimens at ,deir-el-,medinet2 ,m4 ,daressy1 of the ,bureau of ,antiquities1 found a perfectly characteristic ,chellean hammer stone in the ,yalley of the ,queens at ,gurneh1 as perfectly worked as the best specimens found at ,chelles1 ,st4 ,acheul1 and ,moulin-,quignon4 ,the finds are not very numerous at ,tukh1 but one may in a few hours make a collection there of hatchets 7or hammer stones71 scrapers1 points1 simple blades1 and a large number of stones bearing indisputable marks of having been worked1 but not presenting precise forms4 ,the deposit at ,abydos is in the bottom of a circle behind the ruins surrounding the ,pharaonic necropolis4 ,the specimens seem sufficient to prove the existence of ,quaternary man in ,egypt1 while the search for them has hardly yet begun4 ,in view of them it is extremely improbable that man did not also exist there during the long period that intervened between this primitive age and that of the earliest ,egyptians who had metals4 ,he did exist there then1 and the evidences of it are found in neolithic remains between ,cairo and ,thebes1 a distance of about eight hundred kilometres along the valley of the ,nile1 in the ,fayum1 and in ,upper ,egypt4 ,among these are the remarkable tombs at ,abydos which have been explored by ,m4 ,e4 ,amlineau1 and of which he has published descriptions4 ,they belong to a category which ,i have characterized as tombs of transition and as signalizing the passage from the use of polished stone to that of metals4 ,their archaic character can not be disputed1 and their royal origin is probably certain4 ,they may belong to aboriginal kings or to the earliest dynasties4 ,they reveal a knowledge of brass and of the use of gold for ornament4 ,at the necropolis of ,el-',amrah1 a few miles south of ,abydos1 are some archaic tombs1 all of the same model1 composed of an oval trench from five to six and a half feet deep4 ,the body is laid on the left side1 and the legs are doubled up till the knees are even with the sternum2 the forearms are drawn out in front and the hands placed one upon the other before the face1 while the head is slightly bent forward4 ,around the skeleton are vases1 and large1 rudely made urns1 often filled with ashes or the bones of animals1 and nearer to them are painted or red vessels with black or brown edges1 vessels roughly shaped out of stone1 and figurines in schist representing fishes or quadrupeds1 cut flints1 alabaster clubs1 and necklaces and bracelets of shells4 ,bronze is rare1 and found always in shape of small implements4 ,both purely neolithic tombs and burials of the transition period to metals occur at ,el-',amrah4 ,the most remarkable feature of the burials is the position of the corpse1 totally unlike anything that is found of the ,pharaonic ages4 ,the ,egyptian finds of stone implements present the peculiarity as compared with those of ,europe1 that types are found associated together belonging to what would be regarded in other countries as very different epochs4 ,the time may come when subdivisions can be made of the ,egyptian stone age1 but the study has not yet been pursued far enough to make this practicable at present4 ,among these articles are hatchets showing the transitions1 examples of which are wanting in ,europe1 from the rudest stone hammer to the polished neolithic implement2 knives of various shape and some of handsome workmanship2 scrapers1 lance heads1 arrowheads1 saws1 pins1 bodkins1 maces1 beads1 bracelets1 and combs4 ,the large number of instruments with toothed blades found at some of the stations may be regarded as pointing to a very extensive cultivation of cereals at the time they were in use4 ,the deposits of ,tukh1 ,zarradah1 ,khattarah1 ,abydos1 etc41 situated in regions suitable for growing grain1 yield thousands of them1 while they are very rare at the fishing station of ,dimeh4 ,that the use of sickles tipped with flint very probably lasted long after the introduction of metals seems to be proved by the hieroglyphics2 but very few evidences of the existence of such tools are found after the middle empire4 ,no traces of articles related to the religion of the ,pharaohs are found in the burial places of the aborigines4 ,in place of the statuettes and funerary divinities of later times are found rude figurines of animals cut in green schists4 ,they represent fishes1 tortoises with eyes adorned with hard stone or nacre1 and numerous signs the origin of which is unknown1 and were apparently regarded as fetiches or divinities4 ,articles of pottery are very numerous1 very crude1 and of a great variety of forms4 ,it is not necessary to suppose that the people who have left these relics were savages or barbarians4 ,history and even the present age afford instances of many peoples who have obtained considerable degrees of civilization while backward in some of the arts4 ,it is hardly possible to achieve delicacy of design and finish without the use of metals4 ,i believe ,i have shown that an age of stone once existed in ,egypt1 and that it furthermore played an important part1 even in ,pharaonic civilization4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,author's ,recherches sur les ,origines de l',egypte4 ,,superstition ,,and ,,crime4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,e4 ,p4 ,,evans4 ,in ,january1 #ahih1 an elderly woman came in great anxiety to a priest of the ,church of ,st4 ,ursula1 in ,munich1 ,bavaria1 and complained that the devil haunted her house at night and frightened her by making a great noise4 ,in explanation of this unseasonable and undesirable visit from the lower world she stated that a joint-stock company had been formed in ,berlin1 with a branch in ,munich1 for the purpose of discovering hidden treasures1 and that in order to attain this object a human sacrifice must be made to the devil1 and that she had been selected as the victim4 ,a woman1 whose husband was a stockholder in the aforesaid company1 had kindly communicated to her this information1 so that she might be prepared and have time to set her house in order4 ,satan1 however1 grew impatient of the promised sacrifice1 and began to look after her4 ,the priest sent one of his younger assistants at the altar to read appropriate prayers in the haunted house1 and thus exorcise the evil spirit4 ,we can hardly suppose that his reverence believed in the reality of the reported apparition1 and yet he could not assert its impossibility by calling in question the existence of the devil or the actuality of diabolical agencies in human affairs without undermining the foundations of the ecclesiastical system1 of which he was an acknowledged supporter4 ,such a declaration would take away our hope1 as the ,scotchman said of the denial of a literal hell-fire and the doctrine of eternal punishment4 ,it was for the same reason that the great body of the ,catholic clergy1 from ,pope ,leo ,,xiii and the highest dignitaries of the church down to the humblest country vicar1 so easily fell into the snares laid by ,leo ,taxil and accepted the signature of the devil ,bitru as genuine1 and his revelations concerning the pact of the freemasons with ,satan as authentic4 ,it is certainly somewhat startling to meet with such a case of gross superstition as the above-mentioned in one of the seats of modern science and centers of ,european civilization4 ,in rural districts1 remote from the influences of intellectual culture1 however1 instances of this kind are of quite frequent occurrence1 and often result in the commission of crime4 ,human sacrifices to ,satan are still by no means uncommon in many parts of ,russia1 and are supposed to be effective in warding off famine and in staying the ravages of pestilence4 ,even in ,germany and other countries of western ,europe the belief in their prophylactic virtue is remarkably prevalent1 and would be often put into practice were it not for the stricter administration of justice and the greater terror of the law4 ,in ,october1 #ahhi1 the criminal court in the governmental province of ,archangelsk1 in northern ,russia1 sentenced a ,samoyede1 ,jefrern ,pyrerka1 to fifteen years' imprisonment with hard labor for the murder of a maiden named ,ssavaney4 ,his sole defense was that an unusually severe winter with a heavy fall of snow had produced a famine followed by scurvy1 of which all his children had died4 ,he therefore made an image of the devil out of wood1 smeared its lips with fat1 and set it up on a hillock4 ,he then attempted to lasso one of his companions1 ,andrey ,tabarey1 and had already thrown the noose round his neck1 when the energetic wife of the intended victim intervened and rescued her husband4 ,shortly afterward he succeeded in strangling the girl and offering her as a sacrifice to his idol4 ,in the province of ,novgorod1 known as the darkest ,russia1 it is a general custom among the country people to sacrifice some animal1 usually a black cat1 a black cock1 or a black dog1 by burying it alive1 in order to check the spread of cholera4 ,in the village of ,kamenka1 a peasant1 whose son had died of this disease1 interred with the body eight live tomcats4 ,the immolation of dumb animals1 however1 is deemed less efficacious than that of human beings4 ,on one occasion1 when the cholera was raging severely1 a deputation of peasants waited upon their parson1 stating that they had determined to bury him alive in order to appease the demon of the plague4 ,he escaped this horrible death only by apparently acceding to their wishes and craving a few days' respite in order to prepare for such a solemn ceremony2 meanwhile he took the measures necessary to secure his safety and thwarted the purpose of his loving parishioners4 ,in ,okopovitchi1 a village of the same province1 the peasants succeeded in enticing an aged woman1 ,lucia ,manjkov1 into the cemetery1 where they thrust her alive into the grave containing the bodies of those who had died of the epidemic1 and quickly covered her up4 ,when brought to trial they proved that they had acted on the advice of a military surgeon1 ,kosakovitch1 who was therefore regarded as the chief culprit1 and sentenced to be knouted by the hangman1 and then to undergo twelve years' penal servitude in ,siberia4 ,we are indebted for these instances of barbarous superstition to the researches of ,augustus ,lwenstimm1 associate jurisconsult in the department of justice at ,st4 ,petersburg1 who has derived them from thoroughly authentic and mostly official sources4 ,he reports several occurrences of a similar kind during the epidemics of cholera in #ahca1 #ahee1 and #ahgb4 ,indeed1 it is very difficult to abolish such pagan practices so long as the clergy foster the notion that animal sacrifices are expiatory and propitiatory in their effects4 ,in some parts of the province of ,vologda it is still customary on the day dedicated to the prophet ,elias 7,july #bjth in the ,greek calendar7 to offer up bullocks1 he-goats1 or other quadrupeds within the precincts of the church4 ,the animal is driven into the courtyard surrounding the sacred edifice and there slaughtered2 the flesh is boiled in a large kettle1 one half of it being kept by the peasants who provide the sacrifice1 while the other half is distributed among the priests and sacristans4#bf ,the belief that the walls of dams1 bridges1 aqueducts1 and buildings are rendered preternaturally strong by immuring a living human being within them still prevails in many countries of ,christendom1 and there is hardly an old castle in ,europe that has not a legend of this sort connected with it4 ,usually a child is supposed to be selected for this purpose1 and the roving bands of gypsies are popularly accused of furnishing the infant victims4 ,the custom of depositing gold coins or other precious objects in the foundation stones of important public edifices is doubtless a survival of the ancient superstition4#bg ,lwenstimm mentions a curious superstition of pagan origin still practiced in portions of ,russia1 and known as korovya smertj 7cow-death7 and opachivaniye 7plowing roundabout74 ,if pestilence or murrain prevails in a village1 an old woman of repute as a seeress or fortune-teller enters the confines of the village at midnight and beats a pan4 ,thereupon all the women of the place assemble in haste1 armed with divers domestic utensils--frying-pans1 pokers1 tongs1 shovels1 scythes1 and cudgels4 ,after shutting the cattle in their stalls1 and warning the men not to leave their houses1 a procession is formed4 ,the seeress takes off her dress and pronounces a curse upon ,death4 ,she is then hitched to a plow1 together with a bevy of virgins and a misshapen woman1 if such a one can be found1 and a continuous and closed furrow is drawn round the village three times4 ,when the procession starts1 the image of some saint suitable to the occasion1 that of ,st4 ,blasius1 for example1 in the case of murrain1 is borne in front of it2 this is followed by the seeress1 clad only in a shift1 with disheveled hair and riding on a broomstick2 after her come women and maidens drawing the plow1 and behind them the rest of the crowd1 shrieking and making a fearful din4 ,they kill every animal they meet1 and if a man is so unfortunate as to fall in with them he is mercilessly beaten1 and usually put to death4 ,in the eyes of these raging women he is not a human being1 but ,death himself in the form of a were-wolf1 who seeks to cross their path and thus break the charm and destroy the healing virtue of the furrow4 ,the ceremony varies in different places1 and generally ends by burying alive a cat1 cock1 or dog4 ,in some districts the whole population of the village1 both men and women1 take part in the procession1 and are often attended by the clergy with sacred images and consecrated banners4 ,during the prevalence of the pest in the province of ,podolia1 in #agch1 the inhabitants of the village of ,gummenez1 while marching in procession through the fields1 met ,michael ,matkovskij1 a nobleman of a neighboring village1 who was looking for his stray horses4 ,the strange man1 wandering about with an eager look and a bridle in his hand1 was regarded as the incarnate pestilence1 and was therefore seized and most brutally beaten and left lying half naked and half dead on the ground4 ,at length he recovered his senses and succeeded with great difficulty in reaching his home4 ,no sooner was it known that he was still alive than the peasants rushed into his house1 dragged him to their village1 subjected him to terrible tortures1 and finally burned him4 ,a curious feature of these remedial rites is the mixture of paganism and ,christianity which characterizes them2 and it is an unquestionable though almost incredible fact that their atoning efficacy is often quite as firmly believed in by the village priests of the ,russian ,church as by the most ignorant members of their flock4 ,in the autumn of #ahid some ,russian peasants in the district of ,kazan slew one of their own number as a sacrifice to the gods of the ,votiaks1 a ,finnish race dwelling on the ,volga1 ,viatka1 and ,kama ,rivers4 ,even orthodox ,christians of the ,greek ,church1 although regarding these gods as devils1 fear and seek to propitiate them1 especially in times of public distress4 ,still more widely diffused is the practice of infanticide as the sequence of superstition4 ,the belief that dwarfs or gnomes1 dwelling in the inner parts of the earth1 carry off beautiful newborn babes and leave their own deformed offspring in their stead is not confined to any one people1 but is current alike in ,germanic1 ,celtic1 ,romanic1 and ,slavic countries1 and causes a misshapen child to be looked upon with suspicion and subjected to cruel tortures and even killed4 ,the supposed changeling is often severely beaten with juniper rods and the scourging attended with incantations1 so as to compel the wicked fairies to reclaim their deformed bantling and restore the stolen child4 ,if the castigation proves ineffective1 more summary measures are frequently taken1 and the supposititious suckling is thrown out of the window on a dunghill or immersed in boiling water4 ,in #ahgg1 in the city of ,new ,york1 an ,irish immigrant and his wife burned their child to death under the delusion that they were ridding themselves of a changeling4 ,cases of this kind are quite common in ,ireland1 where the victims are sometimes adults4#bh ,not long since ,magoney1 an ,irish peasant1 had a sickly child1 which the most careful nurture failed to restore to health and strength4 ,the parents1 therefore1 became convinced that a changeling had been imposed upon them1 and when the boy was four years old they resolved to have recourse to boiling water1 in which he was kept1 notwithstanding his shrieks and protestations that he was not an elf1 but their own ,johnny ,magoney1 until death released him from his torments4 ,wilhelm ,mannhardt1 the celebrated writer on folklore1 states that when1 in #ahej1 he was in ,lblau1 a village of ,west ,prussia1 he saw a man brutally maltreating a boy on the street4 ,on inquiry he found that the lad had done nothing worthy of blame1 but that his only fault was an exceptionally large head4 ,this cranial peculiarity1 offensively conspicuous in what seems to have been a narrow-headed family1 was reason enough for the parents to disown their offspring1 and to treat him as the counterfeit of a child foisted in by the fairies4 ,at ,hadersleben1 a considerable market town of ,north ,silesia1 the wife of a farmer1 in #ahhc1 gave birth to a puny infant1 which the parents at once assumed to be a changeling4 ,in order to defeat the evil designs of the elves and to compel the restoration of their own child1 they held the newborn over a bed of live coals on the hearth until it was covered with blisters and died in intense agony4 ,in ,east ,prussia1 the ,mazurs1 a ,polish race1 whose only notable contribution to modern civilization and the gayety of nations is the mazurka1 take precautionary measures by placing a book 7usually the ,bible1 although any book will do7 under the head of the newborn babe1 so as to prevent the devil from spiriting it away and substituting for it one of his own hellish brood1 thus unwittingly furnishing a marvelous illustration of the beneficent influence of the printing press and the magic power of literature4 ,the ,estonian inhabitants of the island of ,oesel in ,livonia refrain from kindling a fire in the house while the rite of baptism is being celebrated1 lest the light of the flames should render it easier for ,satan surreptitiously to exchange an imp for the infant4 ,after the sacred ceremony has been performed there is supposed to be no danger of such a substitution4 ,one of the most incredible instances of this extremely silly and surprisingly persistent superstition occurred in #ahga at ,biskunizy1 a village of ,prussian ,posen1 where a laborer1 named ,bekker1 had by industry and frugality gradually acquired a competence and been able to buy a house of his own1 in which he led a happy domestic life with his wife and five children1 of whom he was very fond4 ,after fourteen years of unbroken felicity the wife's elder sister1 ,marianne ,chernyak1 came from ,poland to pay them a visit4 ,this woman was a crackbrained devotee1 who spent half her time in going to mass and the other half in backbiting her neighbors4 ,she also claimed that she could detect at once whether a person is in league with ,satan1 and could cast out devils4 ,the villagers came to look upon her as a witch1 and avoided all association with her1 especially as her aberrations manifested themselves in exceedingly malevolent and mischievous forms4 ,unfortunately1 she acquired complete ascendency over her younger sister1 who accepted her absurd pretensions as real4 ,on ,november #ai1 #ahga1 ,marianne1 after returning from confession1 went to bed1 but at midnight ,mrs4 ,bekker1 who slept with her youngest child1 a boy about a year old1 was awakened by a fearful shriek and lit the lamp4 ,thereupon the sister rushed into the room1 crying3 ,the demons have stolen your child and put a changeling in your bed3 beat him1 beat him1 if you wish to have your child again6 ,under the influence of this suggestion1 which seemed to be almost hypnotic in its character1 the bewildered mother began to beat the boy4 ,the aunt now seized him and swung him to and fro1 as if she would fling him out of the window1 at the same time calling out to ,satan3 ,there6 you have him2 take your brat6 ,she then gave him back to his mother with the words3 ,throw him to the ground1 drub him1 beat him to death2 otherwise you will never recover your child4 ,this advice was followed1 and the boy severely strapped with a heavy girdle as he lay on the floor4 ,meanwhile ,bekker1 hearing the noise1 got up and at first tried to intervene for the protection of his son1 but was easily convinced by his wife that she was doing the right thing1 and persuaded to aid her in discomfiting the devil by beating the boy with a juniper stick4 ,the process of exorcism1 thus renewed with increased vigor1 soon proved fatal4 ,at this juncture1 as the son of the aunt1 a lad of five years1 threw himself down with loud lamentations beside the dead body of his little cousin1 his mother cried out3 ,beat him2 he is not my child6 ,why should we spare him8 ,we shall get other children6 ,thereupon he1 too1 was maltreated in the same manner until he expired4 ,the aunt then declared that the devil had crept into the stovepipe1 and went to work to demolish the stove1 but1 when she was prevented from doing so1 fled into the garden1 where she was found the next morning by the school-teacher4 ,by this time ,bekker and his wife seem to have come to their senses1 and were sitting by the corpses of the murdered children1 weeping and praying1 as the neighbors entered the house4 ,the trial1 which took place at ,ostrov in ,january1 #ahgb1 led to the introduction of conflicting expert testimony concerning the mental soundness of the accused1 and the matter was finally referred to a commission of psychiaters in ,berlin1 who decided that ,bekker and his wife were not suffering from mental disease1 and therefore not irresponsible1 but that the aunt was subject to periodical insanity to such a degree as not to be accountable for her actions4 ,curiously enough1 the jurors remained uninfluenced by this testimony1 and pronounced her guilty of the crime laid to her charge1 and in accordance with this verdict the court sentenced her to three years' imprisonment with hard labor4 ,the jurors even went so far as to declare that she herself did not believe in the existence of elf children or satanic changelings1 but made use of this popular superstition for her own selfish purposes1 and that she guilefully denounced her own boy as an imp in order to get rid of him4 ,in this verdict1 or rather in the considerations urged in support of it1 it is easy to perceive the effects of strong local prejudice against the accused1 who had the reputation of being a lazy1 malicious1 and crafty person1 and was therefore denied the extenuation of honest self-deception4 ,indeed1 in such cases it is always more or less difficult to determine where sincere delusion ceases and conscious swindling begins4 ,just at this point the annals of superstition present many puzzling problems1 the solution of which is of special interest as well as of great practical importance not only to the psychologist and psychiater1 but also to the legislator and jurisprudent1 who have to do with the enactment and administration of criminal laws4 ,in the penal codes of the most civilized nations the agency of superstition as a factor in the promotion of crime is almost wholly ignored1 and1 as this was not the case in former times1 the omission would seem to assume that the general diffusion of knowledge in our enlightened age had rendered all such specifications obsolete and superfluous4 ,only in the ,russian penal code1 especially in the sections ,ulosheniye and ,ustav on felonies and frauds1 as cited by ,lwenstimm1 do we find a distinct recognition and designation of various forms of superstition as incentives to crime4 ,thus1 in paragraph #adfi of the first of these sections1 the murder of monstrous births or misshapen sucklings as changelings is expressly mentioned1 and the penalty prescribed2 and in other clauses of the code punishments are imposed for the desecration of graves and mutilation of corpses1 in order to procure talismans or to prevent the dead from revisiting the earth as vampires1 and for various offenses emanating from the belief in sorcery and diabolical possession4 ,the practice of opening graves and mutilating dead bodies is quite common1 and arises in general from the notion that persons who die impenitent and without extreme unction1 including suicides and victims to delirium tremens1 apoplexy1 and other forms of sudden death1 as well as schismatics1 sorcerers1 and witches1 come forth from their graves and wander about as vampires1 sucking the blood of individuals during sleep and inflicting misery upon entire communities by producing drought1 famine1 and pestilence4 ,the means employed to prevent this dangerous metamorphosis1 or at least to compel the vampire to remain in the grave1 differ in different countries4 ,in ,russia the deceased is buried with his face downward1 and an ashen stake driven through his back1 while in ,poland and ,east ,prussia the corpse is wrapped up in a fish net and covered with poppies1 owing1 doubtless1 to the soporific qualities of this plant4 ,preventive measures of this kind are often taken with the consent and co-operation of the clergy and local authorities4 ,thus1 in #ahdi1 at ,mariensee1 near ,dantzig1 in ,west ,prussia1 a peasant's wife came to the ,catholic priest of the parish and complained that an old woman named ,welm1 recently deceased1 appeared in her house and beat and otherwise tormented her child4 ,the priest seems to have accepted the truth of her statement1 since he ordered the corpse to be disinterred1 decapitated1 reburied at a cross-road1 and covered with poppies4 ,in #ahea1 during the prevalence of cholera in ,ukraine1 in the governmental province of ,kiev1 the peasants of ,possady attributed the epidemic to a deceased sacristan and his wife1 who were supposed to roam about at night as vampires and kill people by sucking their blood4 ,in order to stay the ravages of the scourge the corpses of this couple were exhumed1 their heads cut off and burned1 and ashen stakes driven through their backs into the ground4 ,in #ahib a peasant woman in the ,russian province of ,kovno hanged herself in a wood near the village of ,somenishki4 ,the priest refused her ,christian burial because she had committed suicide1 and was therefore given over to the devil4 ,in order that she might rest quietly in her grave and not be changed into a vampire1 her sons severed her head from her body and laid it at her feet4 ,in thus refusing to perform religious funeral rites the priest obeyed the canons of the church and also the laws of the ,russian ,empire4 ,until quite recently a corner of unconsecrated ground next to the wall of the ,russian cemetery was reserved as a sort of carrion pit for the corpses of self-murderers1 and it is expressly prescribed in the ,svod ,sakonov#bi that they shall be dragged to such place of infamy by the knacker1 and there covered with earth4 ,this treatment of a felo-de-se by the ecclesiastical and civil authorities directly fosters popular superstition by tending to confirm the notion that there is something uncanny1 eldritch1 demoniacal1 and preternaturally malignant inherent in his mortal remains1 a notion still further strengthened by a most unjust paragraph 7#adgb7 in the ,russian code1 which declares the last will and testament of a suicide to have no legal validity4 ,drought1 too1 as well as pestilence1 is ascribed to the evil agency of vampires1 which milk the clouds1 and hinder the falling of the dew4 ,in #ahhg the ,south ,russian province of ,cherson began to suffer from drought soon after a peasant had hanged himself in the village of ,ivanovka1 the inhabitants of which1 assuming a causative connection between the aridity and the self-homicide1 poured water on the grave while uttering the following words3 ,i sprinkle1 ,i pour2 may ,god send a shower1 bring on a little rainfall1 and relieve us from misery6 ,as this invocation failed to produce the desired effect1 the body was taken up and inhumed again in a gorge outside of the village4 ,in some districts the corpse is disinterred1 beaten on the head1 and drenched with water poured through a sieve2 in others it is burned4 ,the records of the criminal courts in ,west ,prussia during the last half century contain numerous instances of the violation of graves from superstitious motives4 ,thus in ,march1 #ahif1 a peasant died in the village of ,penkuhl2 soon afterward his son was taken ill of a lingering disease1 which the remedies prescribed by the country doctor failed to relieve4 ,it did not take long for the wise women of the village to convince him that his father was a nine-killer1 and would soon draw after him into the grave nine of his next of kin4 ,the sole means of depriving him of this fatal power would be to disinter him and sever his head from his body4 ,in accordance with this advice the young man dug up the corpse by night and decapitated it with a spade4 ,in this case the accused1 if tried in court1 might honestly declare that he acted in self-defense2 indeed1 he might plead in justification of his conduct that he thereby preserved not only his own life1 but also the lives of eight of his nearest and dearest relations1 and that he should be commended rather than condemned for what he had done4 ,it is the possibility and sincerity of this plea that render it so difficult to deal with such offenses judicially and justly4 ,here is needed what ,tennyson calls ,the intuitive decision of a bright ,and thorough-edged intellect1 to part ,error from crime4 ,quite different1 however1 from a moral point of view1 is the opening of graves in quest of medicaments1 and especially of talismans1 which are supposed to bring good luck to the possessor or to enable him to practice sorcery and to commit crime with impunity4 ,in ancient times1 and even in the middle ages1 physicians sometimes prescribed parts of the human body as medicine1 and in ,franconia1 ,north ,bavaria1 a peasant now occasionally enters an apothecary's shop and asks for ,armensnderfett1 poor sinner's fat1 obtained from the bodies of executed malefactors and prized as a powerful specific4 ,the culprit was tried first for murder and then for lard1 and thus made doubly conducive to the safety and sanitation of the community4 ,formerly many persons went diligently to public executions for the purpose of procuring a piece of the criminal as a healing salve1 but since the hangman or headsman has generally ceased to perform his fearful functions in the presence of a promiscuous crowd1 such loathsome remedies for disease are sought in churchyards4 ,in ,may1 #ahfe1 a ,polish peasant in ,wyssokopiz1 near ,warsaw1 discovered that the grave of his recently deceased wife had been opened and the corpse mutilated4 ,information was given to the police1 and a shepherd's pipe1 found in the churchyard1 led to the detection of the culprit in the person of the communal shepherd1 a man twenty-six years old1 who on examination confessed that he1 with the aid of two accomplices1 had committed the disgustful deed4 ,his object1 he said1 was to procure a tooth and the liver of a dead person4 ,he intended to pulverize the tooth and after mixing it with snuff to give it to his brother-in-law in order to poison him4 ,on perceiving1 however1 that the body was that of a woman1 he did not take the tooth1 because it would have no power to kill a man2 but he cut out the liver for the purpose of burying it in a field where the sheep were pastured1 and thus causing the death of the entire flock in case he should be superseded by another shepherd1 which he feared might happen4 ,all three were condemned to hard labor in ,siberia4 ,it is a quite prevalent notion that if any part of a corpse is concealed in a house1 the inmates will have the corresponding bodily organs affected by disease and gradually paralyzed4 ,a drastic example of this superstition occurred in ,may1 #ahge1 at ,schwetz1 a provincial town of ,west ,prussia1 where a woman named ,albertine ,mayevski became the mother of a male child1 which died soon after its birth4 ,the father1 to whom she was betrothed1 refused to marry her1 and to punish him for this breach of promise she disinterred the body of her babe1 cut off its right hand at the wrist and the genitals1 and hid them in the chimney of the house of her faithless lover1 hoping thereby to cause the hand1 with which he had pledged his vow1 to wither away1 and to render him impotent4 ,all this she freely confessed when brought to trial1 and was sentenced to two months' imprisonment4 ,but such relics of the tomb are used1 on the principle of similia similibus1 not only for inflicting injury1 but also for bringing luck4 ,thus members of the light-fingered craft carry with them the finger of a corpse in order to enhance their skill1 success1 and safety in thievery2 if the finger belonged to an adroit thief or a condemned criminal its talismanic virtue is all the greater4 ,it is also believed that a purse in which a finger joint is kept will contain an inexhaustible supply of money4 ,the finger of a murdered man is greatly prized by burglars because it is supposed to possess a magic power in opening locks4 ,the records of criminal courts prove that these absurd notions are generally entertained by common malefactors in ,east ,prussia1 ,thuringia1 ,silesia1 ,bohemia1 and ,poland4 ,a candle made of fat obtained from the human body is very frequently used by thieves on account of its supposed soporific power1 since with such a taper1 known in ,germany as ,diebslicht or ,schlummerlicht 7sloom-light in provincial ,english71 they are confident of being able to throw all the inmates of the house into a deep sleep1 and thus rummage the rooms at will and with perfect impunity4 ,the danger of detection is also forestalled by laying a dead man's hand on a window sill2 and in order to make assurance doubly sure1 both preservatives are usually employed4 ,hence the proverbial saying1 ,he sleeps as though a dead hand had been carried round him4 ,the desire to procure material for such candles often leads to the commission of crime4 ,an ,austrian jurist1 ,dr4 ,gross1 in his manual for inquisitorial judges 7,handbuch fr ,untersuchungsrichter71 and the folklorists ,mannhardt and ,jakushkin1 give numerous instances of this kind1 and there is no doubt that the many mysterious murders and ghastly mutilations1 especially of women and children1 so horrifying to the public and puzzling to the police1 are due to the same cause4 ,in most cases the prosecuting attorneys and judges are unable to discover the real motives of such bloody and brutal deeds because they are ignorant of the popular superstitions in which they have their origin1 and1 for lack of any better explanation1 attribute them to mere brutishness1 wantonness1 homicidal mania1 and other vague and unintelligible impulses1 whereas in reality they spring from a supremely selfish but exceedingly definite purpose1 are perpetrated deliberately1 and with the normal exercise of the mental faculties1 and can not be mitigated even by the extenuating plea of sudden passion4 ,crimes of this sort are of common occurrence not only in the semi-barbarous provinces of ,russia1 but also in ,austria and ,germany1 justly reckoned among the most civilized countries of ,christendom4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahfe1 the house of a man named ,peck1 near ,elbing in ,west ,prussia1 was entered during the absence of the family by a burglar1 ,gottfried ,dallian1 who killed the maid-servant1 ,catharina ,zernickel1 and ransacked the premises in search of money and other objects of value4 ,before carrying off his spoils he cut a large piece of flesh out of the body of the murdered girl in order to make candles for his protection on future occasions of this sort4 ,the talismanic light1 which he kept in a tin tube1 did not prevent him from being caught in the act of committing another burglary about six weeks later4 ,during the trial1 which resulted in his condemnation to death1 he confessed that he had eaten some of the maid-servant's flesh in order to appease his conscience4 ,this disgusting method of alleviating the compunctious visitings of ,nature would seem to confirm the suggestion of a writer in the ,russkiya ,wjedomosti 7,russian ,news1 #ahhh1 ,no4 #cei7 that the thieves' candle is a survival of primitive cannibalism1 distinct traces of which he also discovers in a ,russian folk song which runs as follows3 ,i bake a cake out of the hands and feet1 out of the silly head ,i form a goblet1 out of the eyes ,i cast drinking glasses1 out of the blood ,i brew an intoxicating beer1 and out of the fat ,i mold a candle4 ,it is certainly very queer to find such stuff constituting the theme of popular song within the confines of ,christian civilization at the present day1 a grewsome stuff more suitable as the staple of ,othello's tales --of the cannibals that each other eat1 ,the anthropophagi1 and men whose heads ,do grow beneath their shoulders4 ,in the burglary just mentioned the murder and mutilation of the maid were incidental to the robbery1 and probably an afterthought1 but there are on record numerous instances of persons being waylaid and killed for the sole purpose of making candles out of their adipose tissue4 ,no longer ago than ,november #ae1 #ahif1 two peasants were convicted of this crime in ,korotoyak1 a city on the ,don in ,south ,russia4 ,their victim was a boy twelve years of age1 whom they strangled and eviscerated in order to make candles from the fat of the caul and entrails4 ,it would be superfluous and tedious to cite additional examples of this outrageous offense against humanity and common sense1 for1 like the devils that entered into the ,gadarene swine1 their name is ,legion4 ,a still more disgusting and dangerous superstition is the notion that supernatural powers are acquired by eating the heart of an unborn babe of the male sex1 just as a savage imagines that by eating the heart of a brave foe he can become indued with his valor4 ,the modern ,european cannibal believes that by eating nine hearts1 or parts of them1 he can make himself invisible and even fly through the air4 ,he can thus commit crime without detection1 and defy all efforts to arrest or imprison him1 releasing himself with ease from fetters1 and passing through stone walls4 ,this horrible practice has been known for ages1 and is still by no means uncommon4 ,in the first half of the fifteenth century the notorious marshal of ,france1 ,gilles de ,laval1 ,baron of ,rayz1 is said to have murdered in his castle near ,nantes one hundred and fifty women in order to get possession of unborn babes4 ,he was then supposed to have committed these atrocities from lewd motives1 and was also accused of worshiping ,satan4 ,a mixed commission of civilians and ecclesiastics1 appointed to examine into the matter1 found him guilty and condemned him to be strangled and burned on ,october #be1 #addj4 ,in #adbi1 when he was thirty-three years of age1 he had fought the ,english at ,orleans by the side of ,joan of ,arc1 and it was probably the desire to acquire supernatural powers in emulation of the maid that led him to perpetrate a succession of inhuman butcheries extending over a period of fourteen years1 the real object of which seems to have been imperfectly understood by the tribunal which sentenced him to death4#cj ,lwenstimm cites several instances of this crime4 ,thus1 in #aegg a man was put to the rack in ,bamberg1 ,north ,bavaria1 for murdering and disemboweling three pregnant women4 ,in the seventeenth century a band of robbers1 whose chief was known as ,king ,daniel1 created intense consternation among the inhabitants of ,ermeland in ,east ,prussia4 ,for a long time these freebooters roved and spoiled with impunity1 but were finally arrested and executed4 ,they confessed that they had killed fourteen women1 but1 as the unborn infants proved to be female1 their hearts were devoid of talismanic virtue4 ,indeed1 they attributed their capture to this unfortunate and unforseeable circumstance1 and posed as persons worthy of commiseration on account of their ill luck4 ,one of the strangest features of this cruel and incredible superstition is its persistency in an age of superior enlightenment4 ,dr4 ,gross records two cases of comparatively recent occurrence in the very centers of modern civilization3 one in #ahgi1 near ,hamburg1 where a woman1 great with child1 was killed and cut open by a ,swede named ,andersen1 and another of like character ten years later in ,simmering1 near ,vienna4 ,an ordeal very commonly practiced in the middle ages to determine the guilt or innocence of any one accused of theft was to give him a piece of consecrated cheese1 which1 if he were guilty1 it would be impossible for him to swallow4 ,hence arose the popular phrase1 ,it sticks in his throat4 ,thus ,macbeth says1 after he had done the deed3 ,but wherefore could not ,i pronounce amen8 ,i had most need of blessing1 and amen ,stuck in my throat4 ,wuttke states that this custom still prevails in the ,prussian province of ,brandenburg1 where a person suspected of larceny is made to swallow a piece of ,dutch cheese on which certain magical letters and signs are scratched4 ,his failure to do so is regarded as conclusive evidence of his guilt4 ,various other means of making inquest for the detection of crime are in vogue1 some of them merely silly1 and others mercilessly savage4 ,thus a mirror is laid for three successive nights in the grave of a dead man4 ,it is placed there in the name of ,god1 and taken out in the name of ,satan4 ,it is believed that by looking into such a mirror the person of the thief can be clearly seen4 ,a bull belonging to a peasant not far from ,perm1 on the ,kama1 died suddenly4 ,the owner declared that the death of the animal was due to witchcraft1 and demanded that all the women of the village should be made to creep through a horse collar in order to discover the hag who had wrought the mischief4 ,this plan was approved by his neighbors1 and1 although their wives protested against being subjected to the degrading and for corpulent women extremely difficult and even dangerous test1 they finally submitted to it rather than remain under the suspicion of practicing the black art4 ,this performance1 which is unquestionably a relic of ,uralian-,finnish paganism1 took place on ,march #af1 #ahif4 ,the following instance may serve as an example of the ruthless barbarity to which such delusions often lead3 ,in ,december1 #ahgd1 a ,south ,russian peasant in the vicinity of ,cherson missed one hundred rubles and went to a weird woman in order to learn what had become of them4 ,she consulted her cards and declared that the money had been stolen by a certain ,marfa ,artynov4 ,the man was greatly astonished at this response1 because the accused was a highly respected teacher of young children1 and had the reputation of being thoroughly honest4 ,nevertheless1 his credulity got the better of his common sense1 and with the aid of his neighbors he seized ,marfa and carried her to the churchyard1 where he bound her to a cross and began to torture her1 beating her with a knout1 suspending her by her hands1 and twisting and tearing her neck and tongue with a pincers4 ,to her cries and entreaties her tormentors coolly replied1 ,if you are really innocent1 what we are doing can cause you no pain6 ,many of the persons who offer their services as clairvoyants and seers to a credulous and confiding public1 and whose utterances are accepted as oracles1 are professional swindlers4 ,thus a young lady moving in the higher circles of society in ,vienna had a valuable set of diamonds stolen4 ,by the advice of a trusted lackey she consulted a woman1 who was reputed to have the power of divination1 and who informed her1 contrary to the strong suspicions of the police1 that the theft had been committed1 not by any member of the household1 but by a stranger4 ,the young lady was so firmly persuaded of the truth of this statement that1 although urged by the court to prosecute the lackey1 she refused to do so4 ,the evidence against him1 however1 was so strong that he was finally tried and condemned4 ,the pythoness1 who had endeavored to exculpate him1 proved to be his aunt and accomplice4 ,a queer phase of superstition1 which in many parts of ,europe seriously interferes with the administration of justice1 manifests itself in the various means of avoiding the evil consequences of perjury1 at least so far as to soothe the pangs of conscience and to avert the divine anger4 ,this immunity is secured in some provinces of ,austria by carrying on one's person a bit of consecrated wafer1 a piece of bone from the skeleton of a child1 or the eyes of a hoopoe1 holding a ducat or seven small pebbles in the mouth1 pressing the left hand firmly against the side1 crooking the second finger1 or pulling off a button from the trousers while in the act of swearing1 or spitting immediately after taking an oath4 ,the ,russian province of ,viatka is settled by a people of ,finnish origin1 the majority of whom have been baptized and call themselves orthodox ,christians1 while the remainder are still nominally as well as really heathen4 ,when they take an oath it is administered by a pope or priest1 and a ,russian jurist1 ,j4 ,w4 ,mjeshtshaninov1 describes the method employed by them to forswear themselves with safety4 ,when called upon to take an oath1 the witness raises the right hand with the index finger extended2 he then lays the left hand in the palm of the right hand with the index finger pointing downward1 and by a crisscross combination of the other fingers1 which probably works as a charm1 the whole body is converted into a conductor1 so that the oath entering through the index finger of the right hand passes through the index finger of the left hand into the earth like an electric current4 ,the witness thus feels himself discharged of the binding influence of the oath1 and may give false testimony without laying perjury upon his soul4 ,the superstitions which encourage ignorant people to commit crime are handed down from generation to generation1 and have in most cases a purely local character4 ,in other words1 the charms and sorceries and other magical arts employed to produce the same results differ in different places1 and unless the judges are familiar with these various forms of superstition they will be unable to understand the exact nature of the offenses with which they have to deal1 and their efforts to detect and punish violations of the law will be greatly hampered and sometimes completely thwarted4 ,the subject here discussed has not only a speculative interest for ethnographers and students of folklore1 but also1 as already indicated1 a practical importance for criminal lawyers and courts of justice in the ,old ,world and even in the ,united ,states4 ,the tide of immigration that has recently set in from the east and south of ,europe has brought to our shores an immense number of persons strongly infected with the delusions which we have attempted to describe4 ,acts which would seem at first sight to have their origin in impulses of cruelty and brutality are found on closer investigation to be due to crass ignorance and credulity1 and1 although the ultimate motives are usually utterly selfish1 there are rare instances in which the perpetrators of such deeds are thoroughly disinterested and altruistic1 and do the most revolting things1 not from greed of gain1 but solely for the public good4 ,in cases of this kind the most effective preventive of wrongdoing is not judicial punishment but intellectual enlightenment4 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,lwenstimm's studies1 printed originally in the ,journal of the ,ministry of ,justice in ,st4 ,petersburg1 have been made accessible to a larger class of readers by being collected and translated into ,german in a volume entitled ,aberglaube und ,strafrecht 7,berlin3 ,rde1 #ahig71 with an introduction by ,prof4 ,joseph ,kohler1 of the ,university of ,berlin4 #bg ,as the ,siberian ,railway approached the northern boundaries of the ,chinese ,empire and surveys were made for its extension through ,manchuria to the sea1 great excitement was produced in ,pekin by the rumor that the ,russian minister had applied to the ,empress of ,china for two thousand children to be buried in the roadbed under the rails in order to strengthen it4 ,some years ago1 in rebuilding a large bridge1 which had been swept away several times by inundations in the ,yarkand1 eight children1 purchased from poor people at a high price1 were immured alive in the foundations4 ,as the new bridge was firmly constructed out of excellent materials1 it has hitherto withstood the force of the strongest floods1 a result which the ,chinese attribute1 not to the solid masonry1 but to the propitiation of the river god by an offering of infants4 #bh ,see the case of ,bridget ,cleary1 reported in ,appletons' ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,november1 #ahie1 p4 #hf4 ,we may add that her husband1 ,michael ,cleary1 was tried for murder and sentenced to twenty years' penal servitude4 #bi ,general ,code1 vol4 xiii1 edition of #ahib1 cited by ,lwenstimm4 #cj ,a full account of the trial is given in a ,latin manuscript preserved in the city archives of ,nantes4 ,a ,,geological ,,romance4 ,,by ,j4 ,a4 ,,udden4 ,a western naturalist once said that the geology of ,kansas was monotonous4 ,in one sense this remark is certainly justifiable1 and the same may be said about the geology of some of the other ,states on the ,western plains4 ,the ,american continent is built on a comprehensive plan1 and many of its formations can be followed for hundreds of miles without presenting much variation in general appearance4 ,occasionally1 however1 some feature of special interest crops out from the serene uniformity1 and the very nature of its surroundings then makes it appear all the more striking4 ,minor accidents in the development of our extensive terranes sometimes stand out in bold relief1 as it were1 from the monotonous background4 ,in their isolation from other details such features occasionally display past events with unusual clearness4 ,such is the case with a deposit of volcanic ash which has been discovered in the superficial strata on the plains4#ca ,it lies scattered in great quantities in a number of localities in ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 ,south ,dakota1 and ,colorado1 having been found in no less than twenty counties in the first-mentioned ,state4 ,it measures from two to fourteen feet in thickness in different localities1 and is mostly found imbedded in yellow marl and clay1 and has a somewhat striking appearance in the field1 due to its snowy whiteness and to the sharpness of the plane which separates it from the underlying darker materials4 ,many years before its real nature was known it had been noticed and described by ,western geologists4 ,prof4 ,o4 ,t4 ,st4 ,john saw it many years ago in ,kansas1 where it appeared as an exceedingly fine1 pure white siliceous material1 forming a separate layer of several feet1 and set off by a sharp line from the buff clay-marl below4 ,his words describe its usual appearance in other places 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,stratified ,,volcanic ,,ash ,,near ,,meade1 ,,kansas4 7,from the ,university ,geological ,survey of ,kansas1 vol4 ii47 ,this ash occurs in several outcrops in ,mc,pherson ,county in the central part of ,kansas1 where the writer had an opportunity to study it somewhat in detail a few years ago4 ,some of the features of the dust at this place reveal the conditions under which it was formed with considerable distinctness1 and the volcanic episode which produced it appears strikingly different from the dull monotony of the ordinary geological work recorded in the terranes of the plains4 ,it may be said to consist of angular flakes of pumice1 averaging one sixteenth of a millimetre in diameter1 and having a thickness of about one three-hundredth of a millimetre4 ,the most common shape of the flakes is that of a triangle1 or rather of a spherical triangle1 since the flakes are apt to be concave on one side and convex on the other4 ,in the microscope they sometimes appear like splinters of tiny bubbles of glass1 and this is really what they are 7,fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,flakes ,,of ,,volcanic ,,ash4 ,magnified about #ajj diameters4 ,a1 flake with a branching rib2 ,b1 fragment of a broken hollow sphere of glass2 ,c1 fragment with drawn-out tubular vesicles2 ,d and ,e1 plain fragments of broken pumice bubbles4 7,from ,american ,geologist1 ,april1 #ahic47 ,the explosive eruptions which give rise to showers of this kind of ash1 or dust1 are due to fusion and superheating of subterranean masses of rocks charged with more or less moisture4 ,a part of this moisture escapes in the form of steam at the time of an eruption4 ,but the viscidity of the ejected material prevents much of the steam from passing off1 and such of the lava as cools most rapidly retains a certain quantity in solution1 as it were4 ,obsidian is a rock which has been made in this way4 ,it often contains much of the original water1 which will cause it to swell up into a stony froth when fused4 ,this volcanic dust has the same property4 ,if one small particle of it be heated on a piece of platinum foil it is seen to swell up into a compound bubble of glass 7,fig4 #c74 ,it is evident that this is due to the expansive force of the heated included moisture1 to which the viscid half-molten glass readily yields4 ,at the time of the eruption which produced this dust1 subterranean heat was applied to the moisture-bearing rock until this was superheated to such an extent that the weight of the overlying material was insufficient to hold the water from expanding into steam4 ,then there was a tremendous explosion1 and the molten magma was thrown up with such a force that it was shattered into minute droplets1 in the same way as water does when it is thrown forcibly into the air4 ,being thus released from pressure1 the steam inside of each little particle of the heated glass caused it to swell out into a tiny bubble4 ,as this kept on expanding it was cooled1 the thin glass wall of the bubble congealed1 and finally burst from the pressure of the steam within4 ,this is the reason why the little dust particles are thin1 mostly triangular1 and often slightly concave flakes with sharp angles4 ,sometimes the angles appear rounded1 as if the fragments had been viscid enough to creep a little after the bubble burst4 ,the study of one single little grain of dust1 barely visible to the naked eye1 thus makes clear the nature of a catastrophe which must have shaken a whole mountain1 and which left its traces over a quarter of a continent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a ,,particle ,,of ,,volcanic ,,ash ,,swelled ,,up ,,by ,,fusion4 ,magnified #ajj diameters4 ,that the dust was produced in this way is quite evident from other circumstances4 ,if a handful from the dust of this place be thrown into water and gently stirred1 it nearly all will settle after a while4 ,but some rather large particles remain floating on the surface4 ,if these are removed and examined under the microscope1 they are seen to be hollow spheres 7,fig4 #b1 b74 ,these are some of the original bubbles that never burst1 either because they contained too little steam or else because the steam was cooled before it had time to break the walls open4 ,it is evident that not every droplet of the molten magma would form a single sphere1 but that many also would swell up into a compound frothlike mass of pumice4 ,a few such pieces may sometimes be observed in the deposit at this place1 and that many more were made and broken is evident from the great number of glass fragments which have riblike edges on their flat sides 7,fig4 #c1 a74 ,the nature of the force which caused the eruption may thus be understood from the study of one little grain of the dust1 but much more extended observations are needed in order to make out the place where the great convulsion took place4 ,it will1 perhaps1 never be known what particular volcanic vent was the source of this ash4 ,different deposits may have come from different places4 ,but it seems possible that it all came from the same eruption4 ,there can be no doubt that the volcanic disturbances occurred to the west of the ,great ,plains4 ,no recent extinct volcanoes are found in any other direction4 ,this conclusion is corroborated by the fact that the dust is finer in eastern localities and coarser nearer the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,in a bed near ,golden1 in ,colorado1 seventy-three per cent1 by weight1 of the dust consists of particles measuring from one fourth to one thirty-second of a millimetre1 while some from ,orleans1 in ,nebraska1 contains seventy-four per cent of particles measuring from one sixteenth to one sixty-fourth of a millimetre in diameter4 ,still finer material comes from the bluffs of the ,missouri ,river near ,omaha4 ,evidently the coarser particles would settle first1 and if the dust is finer toward the east1 it must be because the wind which brought it blew from the west4 ,most likely the eruption occurred somewhere in ,colorado or in ,new ,mexico4 ,it may be asked how it can be known that the dust was carried this long distance by the wind4 ,may it not as well have been transported by water8 ,the answer must be1 in the first place1 that showers of the same kind of material have been observed in connection with volcanic outbursts in other parts of the world4 ,one such shower is known to have strewn the same kind of dust on the snow in ,norway after a volcanic eruption in ,iceland1 and after the great explosion on ,krakatoa1 in #ahhc1 such dust was carried by the wind several hundred miles1 and scattered over the ocean4 ,if this ash had been transported by water1 it would not be found in such a pure state1 but it would be mixed with other sediments4 ,there would1 no doubt1 also be found coarser fragments of the volcanic products4 ,on the contrary1 it appears uniformly fine4 ,no particles have been found which measure more than one millimetre in diameter1 and less than one per cent of its weight consists of particles exceeding one eighth of a millimetre in diameter4 ,in seven samples taken from different places the proportions of the different sizes of the grains were about as follows3 ,a ,diameter of grains in millimetres ,b ,percentage of weight of each size ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,a #a_/b-a_/da_/d-a_/ha_/h-a_/afa_/af-a_/cb a_/cb-a_/fda_/fd-a_/abha_/abh-a_/bef ,b #j4a #j4a #ai #cg #cb #i #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,flaky particles of this size are easily carried along by a moderate wind4 ,in some places it appears as if the dust were resting on an old land surface where no water could have been standing when it fell4 ,there is really no room for doubt that it was carried several hundred miles by the wind4 ,it must have darkened the sky at the time1 and it must have settled slowly and quietly over the wide plains1 covering extensive tracts with a white1 snowlike mantle several feet in thickness4 ,what a desolate landscape after such a shower6 ,what a calamity for the brute inhabitants of the land6 ,right here in ,mc,pherson ,county there was either a river or a lake at the time of the catastrophe4 ,this is plainly indicated in several ways4 ,in one place the dust rests on sand and clay1 with imbedded shells of fresh-water clams4 ,it is assorted in coarse and fine layers like a water sediment4 ,lowermost is a seam of very coarse grains4 ,these must have settled promptly through the water1 while the finer material was delayed4 ,in another place it lies on higher ground1 and here marks of sedges and other vegetation are seen extending up about a foot into the base of the deposit1 from an underlying mucky clay4 ,bog manganese impregnates a thin layer just above the clay1 indicating a marshy condition4 ,here also the material is somewhat sorted1 but in a different way4 ,it is ripple-bedded4 ,the water was evidently shallow1 if there was any water at all4 ,a burrow like that of a crawfish extended down into the old clay bottom4 ,on a slab of the volcanic ash itself some tracks appeared 7,fig4 #d74 ,these were probably made by an individual of the same race in an effort to escape from the awful fate of being buried alive like the inhabitants of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,tracks ,,in ,,the ,,volcanic ,,dust1 ,,probably ,,made ,,by ,a ,,crawfish4 ,reduced to #b_/h diameter4 ,the shower must have lasted for a time of two or three days4 ,i infer this from the nature of the wind changes1 which are indicated by the ripples in the dust4 ,these still lie in perfect preservation 7,fig4 #e71 and may be studied by removing1 inch by inch1 the successive layers from above downward1 for it is evident that as the direction of the wind changed1 the ripples were also turned4 ,the deciphering of this record must be made backward4 ,the bottom layers were deposited first1 and the excavation must begin on top4 ,otherwise the record is as perfect as if it had been taken down by an instrument when the shower occurred4 ,it may be only local in its significance1 for it shows the direction of the wind at this particular place alone4 ,the wind may have been somewhat deflected from the general direction by local topographic peculiarities1 though these appear to have been of small importance4 ,in any case1 the old legend is quite interesting to read1 being1 ,i believe1 the only geological record ever found of the passing of a cyclone over the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,ripple ,,marks ,,in ,,the ,,volcanic ,,dust4 ,reduced to #a_/d diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,peculiar ,,elevations ,,caused ,,by ,a ,,current ,,from ,,the ,,southwest ,,to ,,the ,,northeast4 ,reduced to #a_/b diameter4 ,in the lowermost foot of the deposit no ripple marks can be seen4 ,but there appear some marks of sedges and other vegetation1 and these are inclined to the west1 as if the plants had been bent by an east wind4 ,just above the height to which the imprints of the vegetation extend1 ripple marks begin to appear1 running on a northeast-southwest course4 ,they were made by a southeast wind1 for their northwest slopes are the steeper4 ,a little above this height some peculiar small elevations appear on one of the bedding planes1 and slightly raised ridges run for a short distance to the northeast from each elevation1 vanishing in the same direction 7,fig4 #f74 ,a southwesterly current was unmistakably obstructed by the little elevations1 and left the small trails of dust in their lee4 ,six inches higher up the wind comes more from the south1 and for the next foot the ripples continue to gradually turn still more in the same direction so as to at last record a due south wind4 ,at this point it suddenly changed and set in squarely from the west1 for the ripples are turned north and south1 with the steeper slopes to the east4 ,this direction seems to have prevailed as long as the dust kept on falling4 ,it appears to me that these successive changes are best explained as attendant upon the passage of a cyclone1 or of what our daily weather maps call a low area4 ,going by from west to east1 on the north1 it would at first cause an east wind4 ,this would then gradually be turned to the south and then to the west4 ,one such rotation of the wind generally lasts a day or two4 ,the shower must then have kept on at least for the same length of time1 if not longer 7,fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,wind ,,as ,,recorded ,,by ,,the ,,ripple ,,marks4 ,there is reason to believe that this catastrophe occurred in summer4 ,no crayfish would be out making tracks during the cold months1 and the fossil vegetation could hardly have left such plain marks if it had been buried by the dust during the winter4 ,the most conspicuous of these marks are some triangular and ,y-shaped molds of the stems and leaves of sedges4 ,siliceous skeletons of chara and filamentous alg were also found upon a close examination in some of these molds4 ,it is really difficult to appreciate the change such a shower must have produced in the appearance of the landscape1 and the effect it must have had on animal and plant life4 ,so far away from the volcanic source1 the wind can not have laid down a layer of this dust several feet in thickness without scattering it far and wide all around4 ,it must have covered tens of thousands of square miles4 ,just imagine1 if you can1 a whole ,state1 clad in the verdure of summer1 suddenly1 in two or three days1 covered over by a blanket of white volcanic ash6 ,many species of plants must have found it impossible to grow in such a soil4 ,and what disaster it must have caused in the animal world6 ,grazing herds had their sustenance buried from their sight1 and could save their lives only by traveling long distances in this loose dust4 ,many a creature must have had its lungs or its gills clogged with the glassy flakes floating in the water and in the air4 ,the sudden disappearance of several mammal species near the beginning of the ,quaternary age has been noted by paleontologists4 ,does it seem unlikely that an event like this1 especially if repeated1 may have hastened the extermination of some species of land animals8 ,that many individuals must have perished there can be no doubt4 ,not very far away from that outcrop of the dust which ,i have described1 one of the early settlers in this part of the ,state once made a deep well that penetrated the ash4 ,above the deposit1 and some sixty feet below the surface of the prairie1 he found what he described as an old bone yard4 ,in digging other wells in this vicinity mammal bones have been taken up by the settlers from about the same horizon4 ,it is to be regretted that1 with one exception1 none of these fossils have been preserved for study1 for it is likely that they were the remains of animals which were killed in the dust shower4 ,in the absence of fossils definitely known to be connected with the ash1 its exact age seems yet uncertain4 ,in ,mc,pherson ,county it is underlaid by clay1 gravel1 and sand1 which contain remains of the horse1 of a megalonyx1 and of bivalve mollusks of modern aspect4 ,in the bluffs of the ,missouri ,river near ,omaha pockets of a similar ash rest on glacial clay under the loess4 ,at the latter place it must belong to the ,pleistocene age1 and at the former it can not be older than the late ,pleiocene4 ,these two deposits may not belong to the same shower1 but it appears1 at any rate1 that the volcanic disturbances which produced them occurred near the beginning of the ,pleistocene age4 ,in comparison with the slow and even tenor of the routine of geological history1 the event here sketched appears so unique and so striking that it may well be called a geological romance4 ,modern science has taught us that the geological forces are slow and largely uniform in their work1 and that most of the earth's features must be explained without taking recourse to theories involving any violent revolutions or general terrestrial cataclysms4 ,while the making of this dust is not any real exception to the law of uniformity1 we are here reminded that ,nature is quite independent in her ways1 and that even in her sameness there is room for considerable diversity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,william ,ogilvie1 of the ,topographical ,survey of ,canada1 estimates that there are more than #c1bjj miles of fair navigation in the system of the ,yukon ,river1 of which ,canada owns nearly forty-two per cent4 ,a remarkable feature of the river1 with its ,lewes branch1 is that it drains the ,peninsula of ,alaska and nearly cuts it in two1 starting as it does less than fourteen miles1 as the crow flies1 from the waters of the ,pacific ,ocean1 at the extreme head of the ,lewes branch1 whence it flows #b1ajj miles into the same ocean1 or ,bering ,sea1 which is a part of it4 ,the drainage basin of the river occupies about #chh1jjj square miles1 of which ,canada owns #adi1jjj square miles1 or nearly half1 but that half is claimed to be the most important4 ,as for the origin of the name ,yukon1 the ,indians along the middle stretches of the river all speak the same language1 and call the river the ,yukonah2 in ,english1 the great river or the river4 ,the ,canadian ,indians in the vicinity of ,forty ,mile call it ,thetuh1 a name of which ,mr4 ,ogilvie could not learn the meaning4 ,the correct ,indian name of the ,klondike is ,troandik1 meaning ,hammer ,creek1 and refers to the barriers the ,indians used to erect across the mouth of the stream to catch salmon1 by hammering sticks into the ground4 ,,footnote3 #ca ,dr4 ,samuel ,aughey1 ,physical ,geography of ,nebraska1 #ahhj4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,e4 ,todd1 ,science1 ,april #bc1 #ahhf1 and ,january #h1 #ahig4 ,e4 ,h4 ,barbour1 ,publication ,no4 ,v1 ,nebraska ,academy of ,sciences4 ,j4 ,a4 ,udden1 ,the ,american ,geologist1 ,june1 #ahia1 and ,april1 #ahic4 ,r4 ,d4 ,salisbury1 ,science1 ,december #d1 #ahif4 ,g4 ,p4 ,merril1 ,proceedings of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 #ahhe4 ,,the ,,season ,,of ,,the ,,year4 ,,by ,,grant ,,allen4 ,a year is1 roughly speaking1 the period which it takes the earth to perform one complete revolution round the sun4 ,i say roughly speaking with due humility1 having the fear of the expert ever before my eyes1 because ,i know that if ,i do not sing small1 that inconvenient person1 the astronomical critic1 will come down upon me at once like a wolf on the fold1 with minute distinctions about the mean1 the tropical1 and the sidereal year2 matters of immense importance at ,greenwich ,observatory1 no doubt1 but elsewhere of very little interest indeed1 seeing that they differ from one another by so many minutes only4 ,let us leave the astronomers their own problems4 ,the year with which ,i am going to deal humbly here is a much more commonplace1 ordinary1 and comprehensible year--the visible year of vegetation1 of plant and animal life1 of the four seasons2 the year as roughly known to children and savages1 and to the weeds1 the flowers1 the bees1 and the squirrels4 ,it has often struck me as curious that people took this complex concept of the year so much for granted--inquired so little into its origin and discovery4 ,yet it is by no means everywhere obvious4 ,how did men first come to notice1 in the tropics especially1 that there was such a thing as the year at all8 ,how did they first observe1 save in our frozen north1 any fixed sequence or order in the succession of ,nature8 ,how did they learn1 even here1 that spring would infallibly follow winter1 and summer be succeeded in due course by autumn8 ,and1 to go a step farther back1 how did the plants and animals1 in all parts of the world alike1 come originally to discover and adapt themselves to all these things8 ,how did the bee know that she must gather honey all the day from every opening flower1 the summer through1 in order to use it up as bodily fuel in winter8 ,how did the plants learn when to blossom and produce seed8 ,in one word1 how did the seasons come to be automatically recognized8 ,that they are automatically recognized1 even by plants1 quite apart from the stimulus of heat or cold1 drought or rain1 a single fact 7out of many like it7 will sufficiently prove4 ,trees brought from ,australia to ,england1 where the seasons are reversed1 try for two or three years to put forth leaves and flowers in ,october or ,november--the southern spring4 ,it takes them several autumns before they learn that the year has been turned upside down--that ,june is now summer and ,december winter4 ,this shows that life moves in regular cycles1 adapted to the seasons1 but not directly dependent upon them4 ,the rhythm of the world has set up an organic rhythm which now spontaneously and automatically follows it4 ,at first sight1 to the dweller in the temperate zone at the present day1 the questions ,i have put above may seem needless1 not to say childish4 ,but that is perhaps because we have all too much the habit of taking it for granted that what is true here and now has also been true everywhere and always4 ,a first visit to the tropics often enough rudely disturbs this uninquiring attitude of mind4 ,for in the tropics1 and especially in the equatorial region1 there is no winter and no summer1 no spring and no autumn4 ,the world wags wearily through an unending display of monotonous greenery4 ,as far as temperature goes1 the year is pretty much alike in all its months4 ,yet not only do equatorial men recognize the existence of the year as a natural epoch quite as much as other men--not only do equatorial savages celebrate annual feasts1 count ages by years1 and perform certain rites in certain months only--but also animal and vegetable nature recognizes the year2 trees have their month for blossoming and fruiting1 birds their month for assuming the plumage of courtship1 for nesting and hatching1 almost as markedly as elsewhere4 ,the recognition of the year both by man and by ,nature is not therefore entirely dependent upon the difference of summer and winter1 as such4 ,we must go deeper1 and ,i think1 when we come to consider geological time1 much deeper1 if we wish to understand the true character of yearliness--a word which ,i venture here to coin to express this meaning4 ,have you ever quite realized what the tropical year is like8 ,suppose you are living on or near the equator1 then in ,december the sun is south of you and at its greatest distance away2 you have1 so to speak1 a relative winter4 ,but in ,march the sun is overhead2 it is now full midsummer4 ,by the end of ,june the sun has gone north1 and is once more on a tropic2 you have a second winter2 not much of a winter1 ,i admit1 but still1 a relative winter4 ,by ,september he has returned overhead again1 and you are enduring a second summer4 ,in ,december he has once more retreated to the southern tropic 7,capricorn71 and it is comparative winter4 ,thus the equatorial year consists of four distinct seasons1 in two of which the sun stands directly overhead1 while in two he is at his northern or southern limit4 ,i may add that the effect is always curious when1 as you face the sun1 you see that he is moving in his diurnal path1 not from left to right 7the way of the sun1 as we say71 but from right to left 7or widdershins74 ,you are never till then aware how natural and inevitable has seemed the opposite direction3 when you find it reversed the effect is surprising4 ,now1 the distance to which the sun travels north or south of you1 if you live on the equator--,i use ordinary terms instead of astronomical ones for simplicity's sake--is so comparatively small that within the tropics themselves you never notice much difference as to the amount of heat between one period of the year and another4 ,in equatorial countries the day and night temperature is much the same all the year round3 if the country be plain1 it is always hot2 if mountainous1 like the district about ,bogot1 it is a perpetual spring2 one day is always much the same as the one that went before and the one that comes after it4 ,even on the actual tropics1 again1 the difference is too slight to make any marked change in the temperature2 people living on the northern tropic 7,cancer71 for example1 have the sun vertical to them on ,june #bast1 and some forty-three degrees south of them on ,december #bast4 ,nevertheless1 the sun is still as near them and as powerful as he is at ,milan or ,venice in the height of summer2 and the consequence is that1 as a matter of fact1 the thermometer within the tropics and at sea level seldom descends below #ge or #hj1 even at midnight in the relative winters4 ,for the heating power of the sun depends1 of course1 upon the directness of his rays1 and lessens with their obliquity2 in ,venice and ,milan they are strong enough to make the ground very hot in ,july and ,august1 though it has been cooled before by a northern winter2 much more than in ,jamaica or ,madagascar1 which have never been cooled1 does the accumulated heat keep everything warm even when the sun is most oblique--and he never reaches the same obliquity as in an ,english summer4 ,the ground is hot1 the houses are hot1 wood and stone are hot1 and they have all been hot from time immemorial4 ,yet tropical and equatorial trees and plants have their definite seasons to flower and fruit1 just the same as elsewhere4 ,this seems surprising at first when one visits the tropics4 ,you can not see why everything should not flower and fruit the whole year round4 ,and yet1 at one time pineapples are in1 at another mangoes4 ,and these seasons differ in the northern and southern hemispheres2 what is mango winter in the one being mango summer in the other4 ,i do not say the seasons anywhere in the tropics differ markedly2 still1 they do differ2 the tropical year is divided into times and months for agriculture just as much as any other4 ,thus there are regular dates in each hemisphere for planting1 tending1 and cutting the sugar cane4 ,now1 what is the reason of these changes in vegetation1 when temperature remains so constant8 ,why do not trees and shrubs of each kind flower up and down throughout the year irregularly--now one individual and now another8 ,why are there seasons for things at all in the tropics8 ,the answer is1 because the same causes which produce summer and winter in temperate climate produce other changes of other sorts in the tropical region4 ,the temperature1 it is true1 remains the same1 or approximately the same2 but the meteorological conditions vary4 ,even with ourselves1 summer is not only hotter but also drier than winter2 winter is marked by rain and snow as well as by lowered temperature4 ,in the tropics1 on the other hand1 it is rather the summer or summers that are wet1 for there is a certain moving zone of equatorial calms in which it practically keeps on raining always4 ,but this zone is not fixed2 it flits with the sun4 ,when the sun goes northward for the northern summer the rainy zone goes with him2 when he turns southward again the zone shifts after him4 ,thus places on or near the two tropics have one rainy season a year1 while places on the equator have usually two4 ,the intervening dry seasons are often very dry and parched1 indeed2 and where this is markedly the case1 the rainy season acts just as spring does in the north1 or as the inundation does in ,egypt2 it is the beginning of vegetation4 ,the plants that were dry and dormant during the arid months wake up into fresh life2 the branches put forth new leaves2 the brown seeds germinate2 the flowers appear2 and in due time the fruit ripens4 ,everything in these cases depends upon the recurrence of the rainy season1 just as everything in ,india depends upon the bursting of the monsoons1 and everything in ,egypt on the rising of the ,nile4 ,i have seen a dry plain in ,jamaica bare and brown one day1 and covered six or eight inches high with fresh green waving guinea-grass the day but one after4 ,the rains had come meanwhile1 and ,nature had awaked with more than springlike awakening4 ,in those hot climates everything grows by magic as soon as it gets the needed water4 ,indeed1 we may say that in half the world the seasons1 organically speaking--,i mean1 the seasons of plant and animal life--depend upon heat and cold1 summer and winter1 snow or sunshine2 but in the other half they depend almost entirely upon drought and rainfall4 ,even as near home and as far north as ,algeria1 the summer is far too dry and dusty for agriculture2 the autumn rains set in about ,october or ,november2 they are immediately followed by the plowing2 and the winter becomes for most purposes the practical summer4 ,fruits and vegetables are at their best in ,january and ,february2 the fields are full of flowers up to ,march or ,april2 in ,june1 ,july1 and ,august the country is an arid and weary desert4 ,but the seasons for dates are almost reversed2 they ripen in autumn4 ,in ,egypt again1 where everything depends upon the inundation1 the seasons are still more complicated2 the inundation begins to subside in ,october2 in ,upper ,egypt the winter season which follows is far the most important for agriculture1 and crops sown as the water subsides are reaped from four to seven months after4 ,but in the ,delta1 rice1 cotton1 and indigo are sown in the spring 7,march or ,april7 and harvested in ,october1 ,november1 and ,december4 ,here1 irrigation and temperature come in as disturbing elements1 for the ,delta feels something of the cold of winter4 ,i could give many other instances1 but these will suffice4 ,as a general rule1 we may say that in the temperate and frigid zones the seasons for plants and animals are ruled by heat and cold1 but that in tropical and even in subtropical climates1 rainfall and drought1 themselves largely due to the same circumstances1 are the ruling factors4 ,again1 everybody knows that winter and summer1 and the other phenomena which simulate or accompany them1 such as wet and dry seasons1 depend upon the fact that the earth's axis is not perpendicular to the plane in which the earth moves round the sun1 but slightly inclined to it4 ,now1 a year in itself1 viewed as a measure of time1 is merely the period which it takes the earth to perform one such complete revolution4 ,during one half of each such revolution the north pole is turned at a considerable angle toward the sun1 and during the other half1 the south pole4 ,when the north pole is so turned we call it summer in the northern hemisphere2 when the south pole is being favored1 and the north is receiving less light and heat1 we call it winter4 ,let us suppose for a moment that the earth had not got this twist or kink in its axis2 that the equator was always presented exactly toward the sun2 what then would happen8 ,obviously1 there would be no change of seasons4 ,the day and night would have fixed lengths which never varied2 climate would in each place be uniform and1 barring accidents of elevation or distribution of land and water1 the climate of each place would also depend entirely the whole year round on its distance from the equator4 ,roughly speaking1 the temperature of a district would be the temperature it now possesses in ,march and ,september1 only not quite so cold as ,march nor so warm as ,september1 owing to the absence of accumulated heat from summer or of reserves of ice and snow from winter4 ,in one word1 under such conditions there would have been climates--marked belts of climate2 but there would not have been seasons4 ,seasons1 however1 depend in great part1 as ,mr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace has ingeniously shown1 on a great many things besides this mere inclination of one end or the other of the earth toward the sun in ,june and ,january4 ,much must be laid to the count of accumulated stores of heat or cold2 and though accumulated cold is physically a misnomer1 still for all practical purposes we may apply the words fairly enough to the ice caps of the pole and the glaciers of mountain systems4 ,and here we come face to face with the very core of our problem3 for the odd part of it is that seasons 7at least as we know them7 seem to be quite a recent and exceptional phenomenon in the history of our planet4 ,so far as we can judge1 geologically speaking1 the earth during all its earlier life enjoyed1 over all its surface1 what we should now consider tropical or subtropical conditions4 ,england--or rather the land that occupied the part of the earth's crust where ,england now stands--had a vegetation of huge tree ferns and palms and cycads during the ,primary period2 as late even as the middle ,tertiaries it had a vegetation like that of ,south ,carolina or ,upper ,india4 ,greenland itself1 in quite recent times1 flourished like a green bay tree1 and did not belie its odd modern name4 ,the world as a whole enjoyed perpetual summer4 ,in one word1 except in something like the equatorial sense1 there were practically no seasons4 ,the sun went north and south1 no doubt1 as now1 but the temperature1 even in the relative winter1 seems to have remained perennially mild and genial4 ,it is true1 occasional slight traces of glacial epochs1 earlier than the great and well-known ,glacial epoch1 break here and there the almost continuous geological record of palmy and balmy world-wide summers2 yet1 taking the geological monuments as a whole1 they show us few or no signs of anything worth calling a serious winter till quite recent periods4 ,large-leaved evergreens are still1 in the day-before-yesterday of geology1 the order of the day2 magnolias and liquidambars1 cinnamons and holly oaks1 vines and rotang palms formed the forests even of ,miocene ,britain4 ,the animals during all the ,tertiary period were of what we now regard as tropical or subtropical types--lions1 rhinoceroses1 hippopotamuses1 monkeys1 or more antique races1 equally southern in aspect4 ,there could have been little change of winter and summer during this long warm spell2 the variations can have been scarcely more than those of dry and rainy seasons4 ,the trees never lost their leaves2 the fruits and flowers never ceased to follow one another2 no interruption of the food supply drove insects to hibernate in their silken cocoons1 or squirrels and bears to lay by stores of food or fat for the cold and hungry winter4 ,nevertheless1 taking the world round as it stands1 we must believe that the distinction of seasons grew up1 both for plants and animals1 and for man or his ancestors1 during this age of relatively unmarked summers and winters4 ,for the tropics more than anywhere else preserve for us to-day the general features and aspect of this earlier time2 they have never had the continuity of their stream of life rudely interrupted by the enormous changes of the ,glacial epoch4 ,yet1 even in the tropics1 things1 as we saw1 have seasons4 ,there are annuals and perennials there1 as elsewhere4 ,each kind has its month for sprouting1 for flowering1 for fruiting1 for shedding its seed2 and men in the tropics1 some of them long isolated in oceanic islands1 or in great insulated regions like ,australia or ,new ,guinea1 from the rest of their kind in the temperate regions1 nevertheless know and observe the year1 and perform all their functions1 agricultural or religious1 by yearly cycles4 ,for example1 there is among them all an annual feast for the dead1 and widows mourn their husbands for one year from their burial4 ,observation of the year1 therefore1 both automatically by organisms at large and consciously by man1 antedates and is independent of observation of the existence of summer or winter4 ,i do not think1 however1 that man would have noted the merely astronomical year--the year of the sun's position--at least till a relatively late stage in culture1 if he had not first noticed the organic year--the regular recurrence of plant and animal seasons4 ,so many yams--that is to say1 so many yam harvests--in other words1 so many years1 is a common savage way of reckoning times and ages4 ,but they call it yams1 not summers or winters4 ,and when ,i say yams1 ,i give that merely as a single instance1 for elsewhere the seedtime and harvest are reckoned indifferently in maize or millet1 rice or barley1 according to the agriculture of the particular people4 ,even hunting races know that at certain times of year certain foods abound2 and this is true of equatorial savages and equatorial plants or animals1 as well as of others4 ,moons are more obvious measures of time than suns1 in the tropics at least--probably everywhere2 for the waxing and waning of the moon mean much to people who live largely out of doors2 and the month is1 perhaps1 the earliest fixed mode of reckoning time beyond a day or two4 ,most savages count time mainly by so many moons4 ,but they must also have noticed early that after a certain number of moons 7usually about thirteen71 certain fruits or seeds were ripe again2 especially must they have noticed it when this recurrence coincided with the return of the rainy season1 or of some other annual meteorological phenomenon1 like the bursting of the monsoon or the ,nile inundation4 ,thus1 even in the tropics1 and before the coming on of the ,glacial epoch1 men or the ancestors of men 7one can not draw precise lines here7 must probably have observed a certain rough relation between the months and the vegetative cycles2 after so many moons1 about say thirteen1 the yam1 or the mangoes1 or the grains are ripe again4 ,these organic years1 ,i take it1 must have been noticed before the astronomical ones4 ,for it is now beginning to be more and more believed that man is of preglacial origin2 and even if something worth calling a man were not1 then at least man's pre-human ancestors go back far into the ,tertiary period4 ,only later would men begin to note that some thirteen moons1 and the recurrence of a food stuff1 concurred with a particular solar season4 ,indeed1 if one comes to think of it1 how much even now do any of us1 save the most scientific1 mean by the year1 beyond the visible change of summer and winter8 ,what we are thinking of is the leafless trees1 the ice and snow1 the green grass in spring1 the flowers and warm days in summer1 not the abstract astronomical fact of the earth's revolution round the sun1 or the due succession of the signs of the zodiac4 ,it is that visible organic year that must have counted most with man from the first2 though no doubt its meaning and reality are much more vividly present since the coming on of the ,glacial epoch1 and the more so in proportion as we live nearer to the north or south pole2 while at the equator the year is to the last a much more inconspicuous period--a largely artificial mode of reckoning4 ,still1 from the very first1 there was one element of diversity in the year which must have struck all men1 in the temperate and frigid zones at least1 perhaps even in a certain way in the tropics4 ,i mean1 the varying length of the day1 always perceptible in the frigid and temperate zones2 for as soon as men in these regions began to think and to observe at all1 they must have noticed that the days increased in their summer and lessened in their winter2 and they must have learned to correlate this waxing and waning of the day with the appearance or abundance of certain fruits1 seeds1 birds1 fishes1 game1 roots and other food stuffs4 ,it is at least certain that all the world over men do now celebrate the solstices and the equinoxes as special feasts2 and the close similarity in most such celebrations leads one to suspect that the custom has been handed down from the very remote time when the human family was still a single continuous body4 ,in the tropics1 it is true1 the days vary so little that this difference in itself is not likely to have struck primval man4 ,but there1 another point would come in--the annual movement of the sun overhead from south to north and vice versa2 and though this would be less directly important to human life than in temperate regions1 it would still be indirectly important4 ,it would bring the rain with it4 ,in ,europe1 of course1 and in temperate ,america1 we can see at once that the return of the sun northward must always have meant spring1 the increase of food stuffs1 the promise of corn or maize1 the suggestion of harvest2 and we can therefore understand why the midwinter feast1 when the sun after his long journey south begins to move visibly north again1 should have been both in pagan and ,christian times the great festival of rejoicing for the men of the north temperate region4 ,day by day they saw the sun recede and the cold deepen2 at last1 one evening1 he sets a little nearer1 and they know that he has not deserted them forever4 ,similarly1 the promise made at ,yule begins to be realized at that other great feast of the spring equinox1 which we still call in ,england by its ancient heathen title of ,easter2 the day by that time has got the better of the night1 and the sun dances on ,easter ,sunday in commemoration of his completed victory over the combined powers of winter and darkness4 ,in the tropics1 on the other hand1 the connection is less clear2 but even here the shifting of the sun's apparent place is closely correlated with the shifting of the rain zone2 and therefore it would not be long 7after man was man7 before tropical savages began to perceive a constant relation between the movements of the sun to north or south1 and the occurrence of the fertilizing rainy season4 ,we must remember that savages1 with their improvident habits1 are much more dependent upon rain than we are1 and that magical ceremonies for breaking up a drought are among their commonest and most universally diffused superstitions4 ,on the whole1 then1 before the coming on of the ,glacial epoch1 we may be pretty sure that plants and animals on the one hand had learned organically and automatically to recognize the existence of the year and to adapt themselves to it2 and that men or the progenitors of men on the other hand had also learned to correlate the recurrent seasons of food supply with the movements of the sun1 though nothing equivalent to winter and summer as we know them to-day existed as yet on any part of our planet4 ,i say advisedly on any part of our planet1 because even near the pole itself remains of a subtropical vegetation in ,tertiary times have been amply indicated4 ,nevertheless1 in all parts of the world then1 as in the tropics now1 we may gather that plants and animals ran through annual cycles--that the year1 as ,i have put it1 was organically recognized4 ,trees had their time to sprout1 to bud1 to flower1 to fruit1 to seed1 to shed their leaves 7in the evergreen way72 birds had their time to nest and hatch out their young2 insects had their fixed periods for laying1 for larval life1 for assuming the chrysalis form1 for becoming winged beetles or bees or butterflies4 ,in one word1 the year is a terrestrial reality1 not merely an astronomical fact1 in the tropics now2 it was a terrestrial reality over the whole planet in the ,tertiary period4 ,but it was hardly more marked1 apparently1 into distinct seasons than it is marked to-day in the equatorial region4 ,rainfall and drought must have had more to do in determining the annual cycles than winter and summer4 ,from all this it must result that the conception of the year as an epoch at all 7save for advanced astronomy7 is almost or entirely due to that tilt of the earth's axis which causes the seasons--dry or wet1 cold or hot4 ,without the seasons1 in one form or other1 we might have been ages longer in discovering the fact that the earth moved round the sun1 and that some three hundred and sixty-five days 7,i omit those important fractions7 were needed for its revolution4 ,certainly1 without the seasons1 at least to the extent that they occur in the tropics1 plant and animal life could hardly have assumed its fixed annual cycles1 nor could early men have caught at the idea of the year at all as a period of time1 a unit of measurement4 ,before the ,glacial epoch1 in particular1 the discovery of the year1 organically or consciously1 must have been much more difficult than it is now in high latitudes4 ,it must have been almost as difficult in what are now the temperate zones as it is to-day in the tropics4 ,far north or south1 of course1 the length of the day would tell2 and within the ,arctic and ,antarctic ,circles the long night would form an unmistakable feature4 ,but if the plane of the equator had always found itself vertical to the sun1 there could have been no recognition of the year at all1 either organic or conscious4 ,in other words1 from the point of view of organic life1 the year does not mean the revolution of the earth round the sun3 it means the apparent northward and southward movement of the sun on either side of the equator2 it means the seasons1 whether recognized as winter and summer1 or as dry and wet periods4 ,that is really the year as man knows it1 as plants and animals have always known it4 ,with the coming on of the great cold spell1 however1 the importance of the seasons in the temperate and frigid zones1 perhaps also even in the tropics1 became much more marked4 ,i will not go here into the suggested reasons for that vast revolution1 perhaps the greatest our planet has ever suffered4 ,most physicists now accept more or less the theory put forward with great ingenuity by ,mr4 ,croll1 which sets it down to a period of extreme eccentricity in the earth's orbit2 but some weight must also be allowed1 as ,mr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace has clearly shown1 to the local arrangement of land and water on the globe at the time of its origin1 as well as to the occurrence of mountain ranges just then at the poles1 and to other purely terrestrial causes4 ,never before1 in all probability1 had the poles been occupied by great glacier-clad mountains4 ,it seems most likely1 indeed1 that we are now practically at the end of the ,glacial epoch1 and that if only we could once get rid of the polar ice caps1 which keep a stock of chilliness always laid on 7,i speak the quite comprehensible language of everyday life71 we might recur forthwith to the warm and almost imperceptible winters of the preglacial period4 ,but1 as things stand1 the stock of ice at the poles never gets melted away in the existing northern or southern summer2 fresh ice accumulates on top of the old mass with each winter2 prevailing winds1 blowing over this ice1 chill regions lying much farther toward the tropics2 icebergs detach themselves and float off1 thus lowering the temperature of the sea in the middle zones2 arctic or antarctic currents spread round the coasts and absorb the solar heat in enormous quantities4 ,we have only to remember the trenchant difference in ,england between a parching cold east wind and a mild sou'wester to realize what an immense part these polar ice caps and frozen highlands play in the production of our existing winter4 ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 ,himalayas1 ,rocky ,mountains1 further assist in the same direction4 ,on the other hand1 currents in the sea may cut either way2 the ,gulf ,stream makes ,england warm1 while the arctic current makes ,labrador1 much farther south1 practically uninhabitable4 ,ever since the ,glacial epoch1 therefore1 it has been quite easy for man in the temperate and frigid zones to recognize the year as a natural reality4 ,the annual cycles of heat and cold are far too marked to be overlooked by anybody4 ,organically1 they made themselves felt at once by extraordinary changes induced in the fauna and flora4 ,before the steady advance of the annual cold wave1 vegetation had perforce to alter its ways4 ,the large-leaved evergreens went out altogether in frigid and high temperate regions2 deciduous trees1 or needle-leaved types like the pines and firs1 took the place of the luxuriant ,miocene foliage in ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,every autumn the larger number of trees and shrubs learned to shed their leaves all together2 every spring they came out anew in fresh green and in masses of blossom4 ,similarly with animals4 ,birds learned to migrate1 or to accommodate themselves to the winter2 insects learned to hibernate in the egg or the cocoon2 pigs fattened themselves on mast against the frozen time2 moles slept over winter2 squirrels hoarded nuts for a store to bridge over heavy frosts2 frogs retired to the warmer mud in the depths of ponds2 adders coiled themselves in holes and dozed away the cold season4 ,innumerable adaptations sprang up at once1 those species or individuals which failed to meet the new conditions perishing in the struggle4 ,in proportion as we recede from the tropics1 the more marked do the annual cycles of life thus induced become1 many species practically ceasing to exist as such for several months of the year1 and being only potentially represented by eggs1 germs1 or seeds1 and sometimes by dormant pregnant females4 ,at the same time1 while the cause of the seasons as a whole is the obliquity of the earth's axis1 with the resulting inclination of either pole toward the sun alternately1 we must not forget that the seasons and the climate in each particular country depend in part upon many minor contributory causes4 ,it is not merely nearness to or distance from the equator that counts2 we have to consider also relative distribution of land and water1 elevation1 prevalent winds1 exposure1 condensation1 and many other elements of a complex problem4 ,in ,ecuador1 for example1 whose very name means the equator1 the plain is always in scorching summer1 the mountains are always in perpetual spring4 ,the monsoons1 again1 produce in other countries some curious results3 they depend themselves on the change of relative temperature in sea and land at different seasons2 and they break upon the ,himalayas with this odd and unexpected effect1 that the snow line on the southern side of that vast range goes very far down1 owing to the immense rainfall 7or rather snowfall7 and the consequent spread of snow fields and glaciers2 while on the northern side it descends but a very little way1 owing to the extreme desert drought and the great summer heat of the central ,asiatic table-land4 ,we have thus the apparent paradox that millions of ,tibetans occupy towns and cultivate farms to the north at a height from three to four thousand feet above the snow line on the southern slope of the same mountains4 ,looking at the matter broadly1 then1 and taking for granted the now generally accepted modern view that the great oceans and great continents have been relatively fixed 7though liable to minor fluctuations and variations of outline7 throughout all geological time1 and that the earth's crust has not shifted from pole to equator or vice versa1 we arrive at last at the following probable conclusions3 ,there have always been seasons more or less marked1 and these have been more or less organically answered by corresponding changes or cycles of change in plants and animals4 ,rain and drought have in many cases more to do with such changes than variations of temperature4 ,the seasons1 again1 are less marked in the tropics than in temperate and circumpolar climates4 ,nevertheless1 even near the equator1 they exert and have always exerted certain organic influences-have resulted in annual cycles in the life of species4 ,even before the coming on of the ,glacial epoch1 the seasons were probably somewhat more marked in the temperate and polar regions than in the tropics1 the longer day in summer and the greater directness of impact of the rays making the summer months always warmer4 ,but for various reasons1 among which we may presumably rank the absence in early ages of high land at the poles and of an accumulated polar ice cap1 together with the existence of warm sea currents from the tropics to the poles1 the winters of preglacial ages seem to have been relatively mild1 perhaps 7if we may judge by the types of plant life7 milder than those of ,south ,carolina and ,georgia in our own period4 ,no cold winds of importance seem then to have blown with blighting effect from glaciated or snow-clad districts4 7,mars in our own time appears to enjoy winters somewhat of this character1 though a little colder1 with a temporary snow cap47 ,the seasons as we know them in temperate and arctic climates1 however1 seem to be largely the result of the glacial epoch1 and its persistent legacy the arctic and antarctic ice caps4 ,if we could once manage to get rid of those1 it is possible that our planet might again enjoy in all its zones the mild and genial preglacial winters4 ,these are rough notes1 ,i know2 mere adumbrations of a probable truth3 but adequately to develop the subject would require a very big volume4 ,my object here is simply to suggest that in many inquiries1 both into human and animal or vegetable life1 we must never take the existence of seasons as we know them for granted1 except in very recent times4 ,the year1 for organic beings1 means essentially the seasons2 and the seasons may mean and have meant many separate things1 as time and place vary--heat and cold1 food and scarcity1 foliage and leaflessness1 drought and wet2 longer or shorter days1 the midnight sun and the winter darkness2 hibernation and wakefulness2 the egg1 the cocoon1 the seed1 the plant1 the flower1 the fruit2 dormancy or vitality4 ,according as human life started at the poles or the equator1 for instance1 it would view in the beginning many things differently4 ,all ,i wish to point out now is merely this1 that we must bear such possibilities ever in mind2 and that we must never take it for granted in any problem1 human or biological1 that the seasons were always just what we know them1 or that the year to any organic being meant anything more than the seasonal cycle then and there prevalent4--,longman's ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the excavations of the ancient cemetery of ,antinoe1 near ,lyons1 ,france1 a party dress of the time of the ,emperor ,adrian1 very fine silks1 jewels1 etc41 have been discovered4 ,one sarcophagus held the remains of a woman musician with a rose chemise1 a cythara1 pearls1 castanets1 etc42 in another was a child's costume with its little laced shoes1 its vest ornamented with flowers appliqus1 and its robe of gauffered crape4 ,it appears that the women of sixteen hundred years ago dyed their hair with henna1 and twisted ribbons round their heads4 ,nothing changes4 ,m4 ,a4 ,thieullen1 publishing the results of fifteen years' studies among the flint implements of the ,french beds1 draws the conclusions that the elaborate palolithic flint axe and hammer and the typical neolithic implements were luxuries used by the more distinguished members or for the more important purposes of the flint-implement-using community1 while the ruder implements which are found in enormous numbers were the objects of general and daily use throughout all the flint-using ages1 whether palolithic or neolithic4 ,,brain ,,weights ,,and ,,intellectual ,,capacity4 ,,by ,,joseph ,,simms1 ,m4 ,d4 ,having been for thirty years a lecturer on man and his character as evinced by his form1 features1 head1 and gestures1 and having made observations on the subject in all parts of ,north ,america1 in continental ,europe and ,great ,britain1 and parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,australia1 ,i should not be deemed presumptuous when ,i present a few facts regarding the relations of mind and the size and forms of heads and weights of brains4 ,it has been observed by many persons versed in the branches relating to the subject that men with the largest brains are not those of most talent1 power1 or intellect2 but many such have been only ordinary or inferior men1 or even idiots2 while some men of most powerful and comprehensive minds have had unusually small brains4 ,esquirol's assertion that no size or form of head or brain is incident to idiocy or to superior talent is borne out by my observations4 ,after long and careful research in the great libraries and museums of the world1 ,i have collected a table of brain weights of eminent men1 along with which are entered1 in my original document1 the occupation of the subject1 age at the time of determination1 and the source whence the item is derived4 ,these can not be given within the limits of this article1 and only the briefest and most generalized summary of the main features can be indicated4 ,the largest weight of brain in the whole list is that of the ,russian novelist ,turgenieff1 whose brain weighed1 at the time of his death1 at sixty-five years of age1 #ga ounces4#cb ,it is a considerable step from him to the next in order1 the ,english mechanician and author1 ,knight1 whose brain weight at the age of fifty-eight was #fd ounces4 ,then follow the ,scottish physician ,abercrombie1 #fc ounces2 ,general ,b4 ,f4 ,butler1 #fb ounces2 and the ,scottish general ,abercromby1 #fb ounces4 ,another group of nine1 including weights from #eh4f ounces to #ed ounces1 includes ,jeffrey1 ,scottish judge and author1 ,thackeray1 ,cuvier1 ,george ,combe1 ,united ,states ,senator ,atherton1 ,spurzheim1 and the ,scottish physician ,simpson4 ,the next group1 #ec4f to #ej1 is larger1 including twenty-one names1 among which are ,daniel ,webster1 ,agassiz1 ,napoleon ,i1 the ,scottish divine ,chalmers1 the mathematicians ,de ,morgan and ,gauss1 the anthropologist ,broca1 and the generals ,skoboleff and ,lamarque4 ,the last group1 #di4i to #dj ounces1 contains twenty-five names1 including those of the philosopher ,huber1 ,grote1 ,babbage1 the anthropologist ,bertillon1 ,whewell1#cc ,liebig1 ,gall1 ,gambetta1 and ,bishop1 the mind reader4 ,only one remove from the foot of the list is ,gambetta1 a man of indisputably high genius and ability1 with a brain weighing only #dj4i ounces4#cd ,the table goes to illustrate a general rule which ,i discovered and published several years ago1 that larger brains appertain to natives of colder climates4 ,dr4 ,john ,abercrombie1 for instance1 was born at ,aberdeen1 ,scotland1 on the ,german ,sea1 and farther north than any part of the ,united ,states4 ,sir ,ralph ,abercromby was born in the county of ,clackmannan1 ,scotland1 where it is far colder than any part of southern ,europe4 ,lord ,francis ,jeffrey first saw light in ,edinburgh4 ,general ,butler was born in ,deerfield1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,ivan ,turgenieff1 with the heaviest brain of all1 was a native of cold1 inhospitable ,russia4 ,dr4 ,franz ,joseph ,gall 7brain weight #db4b ounces7#ce was born in ,wrtemberg1 in southern ,germany1 passed most of his life in ,vienna and ,paris1 and1 being a student1 spent much of his time indoors4 ,gambetta was born at ,cahors1 ,france1 of ,italian parents4 ,this climatological view of the size of brains is confirmed by a paper1 ,crania1 of the ,philadelphia ,academy of ,sciences1 which gives as the average size1 in cubic inches1 of the cranial cavities of various nationalities1 taking the results of many measurements3 ,lapps1 #ajb2 ,swedes1 #ajj2 ,anglo-,saxons1 #if2 ,finns1 #ie2 ,anglo-,americans1 #id2 ,germans1 #ib2 ,celts1 #hh2 ,malays1 #hf2 ,chinese1 #he2 ,tombs of ,gizeh1 #hd2 embalmed ,semitic1 #hb2 ,egyptians1 #hj2 ,fellah1 #gi2 ,bengalese1 #gh4 ,a table of average brain weights of various nationalities1 compiled from ,topinard's and ,manouvrier's works and other standard anthropological publications1 illustrates the same tendency toward greater brain weights in colder countries4 ,one of its results is to show that the colder air of the ,united ,states produces larger brains in the negroes than the warm air of ,africa4 ,the table further shows1 in the comparisons of ,hindus and ,african negroes1 that the brains are smallest in the warmest countries1 irrespective of race or nation2 and that the largest average attained is in ,scotland1 where it is never extremely warm4 ,the measurement of the cranial cavity is a very uncertain gauge of the size of the brain1 for the cerebro-spinal fluid may occupy a large share of the space4 ,weighing the brain is without doubt the only scientifically certain method of determining its size and mass4 ,perhaps the most remarkable case in the table of great men's brains is that of ,gambetta1 who was behind none of his compeers in ability1 and yet had the smallest brain of all4 ,the first table of the ,average ,weight of the ,human ,body and ,mind1 compiled from ,dr4 ,boyd's researches among the sane1 which was based on more than two thousand post-mortem examinations1 gives #de4i ounces as the average brain weight of boys from seven to fourteen years of age1 and #dj4b ounces as that of boys and #dj4a ounces of girls from four to seven years of age4 ,and this little brain of #dj4i ounces appertained to a man1 a lofty1 commanding1 mental figure1 standing out in bold relief from the crowd of mediocrities which he dwarfs and shadows1 the embodiment of the ,french ,republic1 who steered it through one of its most perilous crises1 the foremost ,frenchman of his time1 who established his claim to be placed in the very front rank of ,european statesmen1 and whose untimely death was spoken of as nothing less than the sudden extinction of a powerful individual force1 one of the most powerful1 indeed1 of such forces hitherto operating in ,europe4 ,in illustration of the association of large brains with small minds1 we have compiled from various sources of recognized authority a list of one hundred and twenty-five persons of ordinary or weak minds1 idiots1 imbeciles1 and criminals1 whose brains were generally larger than those of the distinguished men subjects of the preceding notes4 ,of these1 ,rustan1 an ignorant and unknown workman1 appears with a brain weighing #gh4c ounces2#cf the dwarfed ,indian squaw who follows him1 of #gc4e ounces2#cg an illiterate and weak-minded man had a brain of #ga4c ounces2#ch and a congenitally imbecile person cited by ,dr4 ,ireland1 with one of #gj4e ounces4#ci ,another imbecile cited by ,dr4 ,ireland had a brain of #fc4b ounces1 and the brain of an idiot with a large head1 eighteen years old1 who had an idiotic sister1 weighed #fb4h ounces4 ,the brain of the idiot1 ,no4 #ef of the men in the table1 #ei4e ounces1 is exceeded in size by those of only five on the list of famous men1 while eleven persons recorded as idiots1 imbeciles1 and children had brains heavier than his4 ,an idiot boy of fourteen years1 very malicious1 who never spoke1 and who nearly killed his sister with a pick1 had a brain weight of #eg4e ounces4 ,thirty men out of three hundred and seventy-five examined in the ,west ,riding ,asylum gave brain weights of #ee ounces and upward1 showing that such weights are not so rare as some have supposed4 ,in another asylum in ,england one out of every dozen brains examined showed a weight of #ee ounces or more4 ,in ,nachrichten1 of ,gttingen1 #ahfj1 pp4 #gj-ga1 ,dr4 ,rudolph ,wagner gave a table of thirty-two persons whose brains he examined1 among whom were five distinguished men2 but the largest brain weight recorded in it1 #ee4i ounces1 has opposite to it the legend1 ,idiotic grown man4 ,to this list we might have added a large number of persons whose brains weighed less than #ec ounces4 ,yet the brains of ,daniel ,webster1 ,agassiz1 ,napoleon ,i1 ,lord ,byron1 ,baron ,dupuytren1 ,general ,skoboleff1 and other famous men concerning whose large brains much has been said1 weighed less than this2 and we might have appended hundreds of brain weights of idiots1 imbeciles1 and other insignificant persons1 from #ec ounces down to #di ounces--probably about the average weight in central ,europe4 ,in support of our contention is1 further1 an observation by ,dr4 ,rudolph ,wagner in ,nachrichten1 ,february #bi1 #ahfj1 pp4 #ga1 #gb1 that very intelligent men certainly do not differ strikingly in brain weight from less gifted men4 ,dr4 ,clendenning presents in the ,croonian ,lectures the following entries of brain weights of male subjects of different ages1 the tendency of which is to show that the male encephalon loses1 after it is grown1 more than an ounce every ten years3 #ae to #cj years #ej4ge ounces4 #cj to #ej #di4ff #ej to #gj #dg4a #gj to #ajj #da4e ,a number of other eminent anatomists have given similar evidence of decrease in brain weight as intellectual power increases4 ,the ,professor at the ,breakfast ,table1 the late ,dr4 ,o4 ,w4 ,holmes1 a learned man and experienced physician and professor of anatomy in ,harvard ,university for thirty-five years1 says3 ,the walls of the head are double1 with a great chamber of air between them1 over the smallest and most crowded organs4 ,can you tell me how much money there is in a safe1 which also has thick walls1 by kneading the knobs with your fingers8 ,so1 when a man fumbles about my forehead1 and talks about the organs of individuality1 size1 etc41 ,i trust him as much as ,i should if he felt over the outside of my strong box1 and told me that there was a five-dollar or a ten-dollar bill under this or that rivet4 ,perhaps there is1 only he doesn't know anything about it4 ,we will add that1 even if he knows the inward dimensions of the strong box1 he could not thence determine the amount of cash deposited in it4 ,the internal size of ,spurzheim's skull was in cubic inches exactly the same as that of the skull of ,joachim1 an imbecile six feet nine inches in height1 with a brain weight of #fa4b ounces1 whereas ,spurzheim's brain weighed only #ee ounces4 ,whoever has examined heads in the dissecting room of a medical college knows that1 except in rare cases of disease1 the brain does not fit the skull1 but is surrounded by three membranes and a watery fluid2 and this liquid1 it has been ascertained1 is generally sufficient to admit of its performing certain movements4 ,there can be no doubt that the brain moves in the skull1 changing its position1 according to the laws of gravitation1 in much the same way as the lungs1 heart1 and liver do in the body4 ,it has been observed many times to move1 as well as to pulsate1 when exposed to view during the life of the individual4 ,it is subject to two regular and constant motions--one produced by the arteries1 the other by respiration4 ,it has also a third motion1 discovered and described by ,dr4 ,m4 ,luys1 who stated1 in a paper read before the ,academy of ,medicine of ,paris1 that the brain is subject to certain changes of position1 dependent on the attitude of the body4 ,thus1 if a man lies on his back or side1 or stands on his head1 the brain undergoes certain changes of position in obedience to the laws of gravity2 the movements take place slowly1 and the brain is five or six minutes in returning to its previous position4 ,from these anatomical data ,m4 ,luys deduced some interesting and practical conclusions1 by which he explained1 for example1 the symptoms of vertigo which feeble persons experience when suddenly rising from a horizontal position4 ,he suggested whether the pains of meningitis may not be due to an interference with these normal movements1 and urges the value of giving the brain the change produced by a horizontal position at night4 ,the average cranial capacity is admitted to be #if cubic inches in ,england and #id in ,new ,york2 and it is to the unusual quantity of fluid of some cases1 and to the extraordinary thickness of the skull in others1 that we are to attribute the frequent discrepancy between the external dimensions and the size of the encephalon4 ,daniel ,webster's cranial capacity was #abb cubic inches1 yet his brain of #ec4e ounces was just what ,george ,combe has laid down as the average weight for an adult man4 ,water and lymph1 we are told1 filled the skull4 ,professor ,de ,morgan's head1 almost free from hair1 measured #bd4hg inches in circumference1 and the dimensions were all those of a very large head1 sufficient to contain from #fe to #gj ounces of brain1 yet his brain weighed only #eb4ge ounces1 or little1 if at all1 above the average in the cold parts of the temperate zones4 ,de ,morgan was sixty-five years of age when he died4 ,he was much emaciated1 and the brain was distinctly shrunken1 not filling the interior cavity1 where its place was supplied1 as is usual in such cases1 by serum or water4 ,there is no known method whereby any man can determine whether brain or water fills the greater part of any living skull4 ,a small orange may have a thin rind1 and contain a good amount of eatable substance1 while a large one may have so thick a skin that the fruit proves utterly disappointing4 ,another proof that the skull is formed without regard to the brain is the following3 ,the bony cabinet and its contents are developed1 to a certain extent at least1 independently4 ,this is very clearly demonstrated by a fact which was observed by ,gratiolet1 and is too frequently forgotten4 ,the subject is an infant in whom the cranium presented the normal conformation4 ,the brain was1 nevertheless1 almost entirely wanting4#dj ,dr4 ,gall was a poor arithmetician1 and his biographer says that every kind of numerical calculation fatigued him4 ,he could not go through a process of multiplication or division that was at all complicated1 and knew nothing of geometry or of the problems of mathematics4#da ,george ,combe said of himself3 ,arithmetic has always been to me a profound mystery1 and to master the multiplication table an insurmountable task4444 ,this faculty in me is1 in fact1 idiotic4 ,again he said3 ,when a boy1 ,i never could learn arithmetic4 ,at the end of five years' teaching ,i could not subtract1 divide1 or multiply any considerable number of figures with accuracy and facility1 and can not now do so4444 ,at the present day ,i can not sum a column of figures correctly4#db ,with these facts in view1 our wonder at finding the theories of these men at variance with all exact calculation is considerably diminished4 ,we propose to test some of their theories by arithmetical processes4 ,we found that the sixty famous men entered in the table of authenticated brain weights show an average of #ea4c ounces4 ,we now take all the idiots and imbeciles in the table of ,large ,brains and ,small ,minds1 and find the average #ei4d ounces2 so that the matter is left to stand thus3 ,ten idiots and five imbeciles average #ei4b ounces2 sixty famous men average #ea4ci ounces3 in favor of idiocy and imbecility1 #g4i ounces4 ,the heaviest brain in the table of small minds is that of ,rustan1 an ignorant and entirely unknown laborer4 ,he was a healthy man1 and his brain1 when it was weighed1 was in a healthy condition4 ,its weight was recorded by ,dr4 ,carl ,a4 ,rudolphi1 a ,swedish naturalist and physiologist of ,stockholm1 who became professor of anatomy and physiology at ,berlin in #ahaj4 ,it reached the unexampled figure of #gh4c ounces2 while the brain of ,turgenieff1 the heaviest among famous men1 was #ga ounces--showing a difference of #g4c ounces in behalf of the inferior mind4 ,since writing the above1 the following appeared in ,tit-,bits1 a weekly paper published in ,london1 ,england1 ,march #ai1 #ahih3 ,it must not be assumed1 however1 that intellect is in direct ratio to the weight of the brain2 for while the brains of certain intellectual men1 such as 444 ,dr4 ,abercromby1 weighed more than #fj ounces1 a certain ,strand newspaper-boy1 who was in intelligence almost an idiot1 had a brain which weighed no less than #hj ounces4 ,dr4 ,austin ,flint1 of ,new ,york1 in his ,physiology1 gives the average weight of the brains of men as #ej4b ounces4 ,dr4 ,peacock1 of ,great ,britain1 makes it #ej ounces #c drachms between twenty-five and fifty years of age4 ,dr4 ,thurman gives #di ounces as the average throughout ,europe1 while ,dr4 ,f4 ,tiedemann1 a famous naturalist of ,germany1 reckons it at #ec4b ounces4#dc ,dr4 ,krause1 a learned ,german1 places it still higher1 at #ee4d ounces4#dd ,now1 if we strike a balance between the highest and the lowest of these estimates1 the mean will be #eb4b4 ,then1 recalling the average of our sixty famous men1 which we found to be #ea4c ounces1 it is shown to be nine tenths of an ounce below the average of ordinary men4 ,our tables of national average brain weights do not quite agree1 because some of the subjects had been wasted by disease for many months before death1 whereby the brain was diminished along with other parts of the body4 ,those who1 like ,dr4 ,boyd's subjects1 died in hospital1 showed too light an average for healthy ,englishmen4 ,dr4 ,krause's subjects may have been healthy men killed in battle1 and those of ,tiedemann persons who died suddenly4 ,executed criminals show a fairly high average of brain weight1 because there has been in their case no diminution through long-continued illness4#de ,we should recollect that ,whewell1 the famous ,english philosopher and head master of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,england1 was in good health when killed by a fall from his horse2 so was ,gambetta1 when his life was ended by a pistol shot4 ,the brain1 however1 suffers less from the power of disease than the general bodily form4 ,one month under the most wasting sickness would probably not diminish the brain more than an ounce or two1 but a year or more would make a considerable difference4 ,taking1 now1 the sixty heaviest brains of persons not noted for intellectual greatness1 we find the averages to be #fc4b ounces4 ,comparing this with the average of sixty famous men1 #ea4c ounces1 we find a difference in favor of imbeciles1 idiots1 criminals1 and men of ordinary mind of #aa4i ounces4 ,george ,combe estimated that about #ec4e ounces was the average weight of the adult brain4 ,thus the average brain weight of all the eminent men whom we have brought into the comparison1 #ea4c ounces1 is below ,combe's estimate of that of mankind in general4 ,again1 the ten heaviest brains of our list of famous men give an average weight of #fa4a ounces1 while the average given by the ten heaviest of the opposite class is #gj4d ounces1 or #i4c ounces greater4 ,while our list of eminent men shows only five whose brains exceeded #eh4f ounces in weight1 those of seventy-six of the common throng--seven of them idiots or imbeciles--rise above that figure4 ,these figures augur badly for the doctrine that would attach importance to heavy brains for giving force and depth of individual character4 ,phrenologists assert that each organ of a mental faculty occupies a certain position perceptible on the outside of the brain1 with a definite area which they have mapped out4 ,they also hold that each of these organs extends to the center of the base of the brain1 tapering to it somewhat like a cone1 having its base turned toward the outer world4 ,they make no account of the fissures1 the intervening sulci and anfractuosities that must cut many of these supposed cones1 some at right and some at oblique angles4 ,then the large1 long cavities or ventricles intercept and would hinder many of them from reaching the central1 basilar part of the brain4 ,the anatomical structure of the brain thus appears fatal to this theory of the organs4 ,large and complicated convolutions of the brain with deep sulci have been regarded by some persons as inseparable from superior powers of mind4 ,the supposition is erroneous and groundless4 ,the rodents1 such as beavers1 squirrels1 rats1 mice1 etc41 have but little brain and no convolutions whatsoever2#df yet the beaver exhibits great foresight1 economy1 industry1 and mechanical skill in building his dam1 erecting his house1 and storing up bark as food for the winter4 ,moreover1 these animals live in societies and labor in union by ingenious methods for a common purpose1 with nice judgment4 ,so great a variety of labors1 says ,dr4 ,leuret1 is needed for the constructions carried on by the beaver2 they include so many instances of well-made choice1 so many accidental difficulties are surmounted by these animals1 that it is impossible not to recognize in their actions the characteristics of a rather high intelligence4#dg ,the sheep has a much larger brain than the beaver1 with numerous and complete convolutions1 yet it is one of the most stupid of domestic animals4 ,again1 though birds have convolutions in the cerebellum1 they have none in the cerebrum1 and yet they are more capable of education than any living beings except the human race4 ,the eagle is complete master of the lamb2 the magpie1 the hawk1 the raven1 and the parrot with his talking powers1 are not excelled in sagacity by the dog1 the horse1 or the elephant1 notwithstanding the latter animals have brains of superior size and elaborate convolutions4 ,squirrels manifest foresight and economy in storing nuts for the winter's use2 yet they have no brain convolutions4 ,the cetacea1 especially whales1 have much larger brains than men1 with more numerous and more complex convolutions and deeper sulci2 yet their intelligence bears no comparison with that of the human race4 ,three eminent men are known to have had very small convolutions of the brain--viz41 ,louis ,asseline1 ,dr4 ,tiedemann1 and ,baron von ,liebig4 ,we have to add to this remarkable list two1 not named1 but described by ,dr4 ,wagner as having been very intelligent1 who yet possessed very few convolutions in their very small brains4#dh ,as ,wagner's book was printed before ,liebig died1 he could not have been one of the two to whom the author referred4 ,idiots often possess as large brains as men distinguished for intellectual power1 and their brains have as deep sulci1 and convolutions as fine1 as large1 and as complex4 ,our table of the common and weak-minded contains a mention of an idiot whose brain weighed #ec ounces1 or exactly as much as ,napoleon's1 and had fine convolutions and a large frontal lobe1 but who could never learn to speak4 ,the elephant carries a far larger brain than man1 finely formed1 broad and high in front1 with much more numerous and complex convolutions and deeper anfractuosities1 and yet no intelligent person would for a moment claim that its mind excels or even equals that of man4 ,it may be well here to allow some eminent physiologists to give their views on this subject4 ,the researches of anatomists have disposed of every point advanced by ,gall4 ,curiously enough1 ,m4 ,camille ,dareste has placed beyond dispute the fact that the number and depth of the convolutions bear no direct proportion to the development of intelligence1 whereas they do bear a direct proportion to the size of the animal4444 ,it is notorious that the instinct of propagation1 the instinct of destructiveness1 the instinct of constructiveness1 and other qualities are manifested by animals having no brains1 nothing but simple ganglia4#di ,dr4 ,bastian demonstrates the convolutional theory thus3 ,in animals of the same group or order1 the number and complexity of the convolutions increase with the size of the animal4444 ,there can not1 therefore1 be among animals of the same order any simple or definite relation between the degree of intelligence of the creature and the number or disposition of its cerebral convolutions4#ej ,we have the following testimony in our favor from ,dr4 ,rudolph ,wagner1 of ,gttingen3 ,examples of highly complicated convolutions ,i have never seen1 even among eminent men whose brains ,i have examined4444 ,many convolutions and great brain weight often go together4 ,higher intelligence appears in both kinds of brains1 where there are many or where there are few convolutions4 ,it is not proved that special mental gifts go with many convolutions4#ea ,another theory of mind is based on the gray matter of the brain1 the amount of which has been supposed to be proportionate to mental capacity4 ,as this gray matter1 however1 averages only about one fifth of an inch in thickness1 it seems rather a thin foundation for the human intellect if the condition is good that size is a measure of power4 ,the late ,dr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,carpenter stated the matter thus3 ,the cortical substance or gray matter of the hemispheres essentially consists of that vesicular nerve substance which1 in the spinal cord as in the ganglionic masses generally1 is found to occupy the interior4 ,the usual thickness is about one fifth of an inch2 but considerable variations present themselves in this respect1 as also in the depth of the convolutions4#eb ,daniel ,webster's brain had gray substance to the depth only of one sixteenth of an inch4#ec ,it thus appears that his brain had a thinner layer of gray matter than the average of common-minded men--one among the many proofs that facts are against all theories that connect brain conditions with intellectual power4 ,dr4 ,ireland thus describes an idiot boy who1 though thirteen or fourteen years of age1 was only three feet eight inches in height3 ,in expression he was dull and inanimate1 with an old face and a short1 squat figure4444 ,the convolutions were broad and simple1 but not shallow4 ,the gray matter was as broad as usual4#ed ,the writer has examined many brains of persons morally or intellectually below the average--such as murderers1 negroes1 and others sunk in ignorance4 ,he has invariably found the layer of vesicular or gray matter to be thicker than that of ,daniel ,webster's brain4 ,elephants1 porpoises1 whales1 dolphins1 and the grampus all have this layer thicker than the most intellectual men4 ,another great objection to locating mind in the gray matter of the brain is that this substance is found in the interior part of the spinal cord1 and in all the nerve centers throughout the body2 so that1 if mind is situated in it1 it is not confined to the brain1 but dwells in the spine also1 and is distributed all through the human frame4 ,still another objection lies in the fact that wherever the gray matter exists near the surface of the brain1 it consists of three distinct layers1 separated by a white substance1 and the outermost layer is white1 not gray4#ee ,the septum lucidum consists of gray matter4 ,the corpus striatum1 situated at the base of the lateral ventricles1 nearly in the center of the brain1 was from three eighths to half an inch in diameter in an ox which was dissected in ,edinburgh4 ,this is about the same amount as is found in the corpus striatum of the human brain4 ,there would be lively times if it were possible for a mental faculty to occupy at once all the localities where gray matter is found6 ,none of the suppositions about certain qualities of mind inhering in particular portions of the brain have been proved1 nor have they stood the tests of science4 ,the theories which have assumed that the cultivation of the intellect gives shape and size to the brain within and consequently to the skull without1 advocates of which have not been wanting1 have been disproved by the collected facts4 ,there is no proof1 says ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,nott1 in his ,types of ,mankind1 of the theory that the cultivation of the mind or of one set of faculties can give expansion or increased size of brain4 ,the ,teutonic races1 in their barbarous state1 two thousand years ago1 possessed brains as large as now1 and so with other races4 ,the ,st4 ,louis ,globe ,democrat of ,november #ac1 #ahhe1 gives an account of some excavations on the ,mount ,ararat farm1 east of ,carrollton1 ,illinois1 where the bones of thirty-two ,indians or mound builders were unearthed4 ,they were not a diminutive race1 as some people have supposed1 some of the thigh bones being sixteen inches long1 and some of the skulls twenty-four inches in circumference4 ,a skull having a circumference of twenty-four inches means a head that measured from twenty-five to twenty-six and a half in life1 when the cranium was covered with skin and muscles4 ,the average head of white men in ,new ,york to-day is only twenty-two and a half inches round4 ,so the culture of the white race for centuries has not developed their heads to near the size of those of the uncultured mound builders who inhabited ,america many centuries ago4 ,our own opinion is that cultivation by means of a thorough classical education1 where the appetite is restrained1 as usually occurs1 tends rather to diminish the size of the head1 by reducing the temporal muscles and the adipose tissue under the scalp4 ,the ,engis skull is one of the most ancient known to exist1 and belonged to the stone age1 or about the same time as the ,neanderthal skull4 ,professor ,huxley describes it as being well formed1 and considerably larger than the average of ,european skulls to-day in the width and height of the forehead and in the cubic capacity of the whole4 ,quatrefages1 in ,the ,human ,species1 p4 #cab1 says3 ,this skull 7the ,engis or ,cro-,magnon71 so remarkable for its fine proportion1 is also remarkable for its capacity4 ,according to ,m4 ,broca1 who could only work under precautions calculated to diminish the amount1 it is equal to at least #a1eij cubic centimetres 7#if4ii cubic inches74 ,i have already remarked that this number is far higher than the mean taken from modern ,parisians2 it is equally so in comparison with other ,european nations4 ,these facts all conspire to prove that the cultivation of thousands of years has not increased the size of human skulls4 ,in #ahhf1 we measured many of the skulls unearthed at ,pompeii1 the remains of ,romans who lived nearly two thousand years ago1 and we found them on the average larger in every way1 but especially in the forehead1 than the skulls of ,romans of this century4 ,in the museums of ,switzerland we measured in #ahhg several skulls of the ancient lake dwellers of that country1 and found them larger in all respects1 but particularly in the forehead1 than those of the ,swiss people of the last fifty years4 ,the average circumference of the skulls we measured in the catacombs of ,paris was twenty-one inches and a half1 which is about an inch more than that of ,parisians who have died within the past fifty years4 ,the average internal capacity of the ,peruvian skull is only seventy-three cubic inches2 that of ,toltec skulls1 seventy-seven inches1 and that of barbarous tribes1 eighty-two inches2 so that the extraordinary anomaly is presented of a larger brain being possessed by the barbarous tribes than by the nations who achieved no mean degree of civilization in ,central ,america and ,peru4 ,the average ,european skull is ninety-three inches in bulk4#ef ,the author was informed by ,mr4 ,lucien ,carr1 of the ,ethnological ,museum of ,harvard ,university1 that the capacity of the ,peruvian skulls was about one hundred centimetres smaller than that of the skulls of any other people living in ,america at the same time4 ,yet that small-headed people was the most highly civilized of all4 ,,footnotes3 #cb ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,london1 ,england1 ,november #ag1 #ahhc4 #cc ,whewell also had the scalp and skull thick4 ,brain weighed #di ounces4 ,the ,lancet1 ,london1 ,england1 ,march #ag1 #ahff1 p4 #bhj4 #cd ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 ,london1 ,england1 ,may #ab1 #ahhc1 p4 #ebe4 #ce ,london ,medical ,gazette1 ,london1 ,england1 ,september #ac1 #ahbh1 p4 #dgh4 #cf ,brain ,weight of ,man4 ,by ,dr4 ,bischoff4 ,bonn1 ,germany1 #ahhj1 p4 #acg4 #cg ,authority for this weight is the ,medical ,army ,museum1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #ch ,this brain is kept in and its weight is recorded on the glass jar in the ,pathological ,museum at ,munich1 ,germany4 #ci ,idiocy and ,imbecility4 ,by ,dr4 ,ireland4 ,london1 #ahgg1 p4 #ge4 #dj ,the ,human ,species4 ,by ,a4 ,de ,quatrefages4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahhd1 p4 #chj4 #da ,dr4 ,gall's works1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 vol4 i1 p4 #cf4 #db ,life of ,george ,combe1 ,london1 #ahgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cha4 #dc ,medical ,news and ,gazette1 ,london1 ,june #af1 #ahhh1 p4 #eba4 #dd ,morning ,herald1 ,sydney1 ,australia1 ,february #bc1 #ahhd4 #de ,eleven ,chinamen1 found by ,dr4 ,c4 ,clapham to afford an average of #ej4d ounces1 had been killed in a typhoon1 and were therefore in no wise wasted by disease4 7,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 ,london1 ,england1 vol4 vii1 p4 #ij47 #df ,the ,nervous ,system1 ,london1 #ahcd1 p4 #ddg4 #dg ,anatomie comparative du systme nerveux1 tome i1 #ahci1 p4 #ejf4 #dh ,ueber die typischen ,verschiedenheiten der ,windungen der ,hemisphren und ber die ,lehre vom ,hirngewicht1 ,gttingen1 #ahfj4 ,also see ,pathology and ,therapeutics of ,mental ,diseases1 ,london1 #ahgj1 p4 #bc4 #di ,history of ,philosophy1 ,london1 #ahfg1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dcc4 #ej ,the ,brain as an ,organ of ,mind1 ,london1 #ahhj1 pp4 #bgf1 #bgg4 #ea ,nachrichten1 ,gttingen1 ,february #bi1 #ahfj1 p4 #ge4 #eb ,carpenter's ,principles of ,human ,physiology1 ,london1 #ahha1 p4 #fei4 #ec ,edinburgh ,medical and ,surgical ,journal1 #ahec1 vol4 lxxix1 p4 #cfj4 #ed ,idiocy and ,imbecility1 ,london1 #ahgg1 pp4 #baf-bai4 #ee ,see ,the ,brain as an ,organ of ,mind1 ,london1 #ahhj1 p4 #dfe2 also1 ,the ,human ,brain1 ,london1 #ahdg1 pp4 #bhh1 #bhi4 #ef ,eclectic ,magazine1 ,december #ad1 #ahfc1 p4 #dbh4 ,,speleology1 ,,or ,,cave ,,exploration4#eg ,,by ,m4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,martel4 ,the not very graceful word speleology was composed a few years ago by ,m4 mile ,rivire out of ,greek elements1 as a translation of the ,german ,hhlenkunde1 to signify the study of caves4 ,the study claims a place among the sciences1 and is1 ,i believe1 able to justify its claim4 ,caves have been subjects of interest and curiosity in all times and countries4 ,in the primitive ages1 when palolithic man was obliged to defend himself against the large ,quaternary wild beasts1 and did not yet know how to construct cabins1 he lived in the most inaccessible caves1 or those easiest to close1 which he could find4 ,afterward1 when man had advanced in civilization to the neolithic stage1 and had somewhat improved tools and arms1 having learned to build huts and villages1 caves became simply burial places4 ,in the historical periods of antiquity they were transformed into pagan sanctuaries or temporary hiding places in times of revolt1 civil war1 or invasion4 ,down to the middle ages and the renascence1 they shared this function with abandoned quarries4 ,through these changes they gradually became objects of popular fear and absurd legend4 ,i have nearly everywhere in ,france found legendary and profound belief in some monstrous basilisk or dragon in the depths of dark caverns1 guarding immense treasures2 and woe to the rash adventurer who tried to steal these riches6 ,in short1 caves have suffered their vicissitudes2 their use as habitations seems to be inversely proportioned to the degree of civilization4 ,the miserable aborigines of ,australia have not yet quite abandoned them2 and in ,france the present occupation of the grottoes of ,ezy1 in the ,eure1 by some outcast families1 who lead a sordid existence in them1 indifferent to all social conventions1 has recently been cited as an extremely curious anthropological phenomenon4 ,science1 too1 has laid its hold on caves only within a little more than a century2 for it was not till #aggd that ,esper recognized that the large bones taken from the caverns near ,baireuth1 in ,bavaria1 were not those of human giants1 but of extinct animals1 and he called them1 they being petrified by limestone1 zoliths1 or animal-stones2 and it was his remarks upon them that drew ,cuvier's attention to paleontology4 ,three sciences have of late years been advanced by the explorations of caves3 paleontology2 prehistory1 or research among the remains of primitive men and their industries2 and zology1 or the study of living beings4 ,the animals of caverns--crustaceans1 insects1 batrachians1 and fishes--constitute a special fauna1 which has been for fifty years a subject of study to naturalists of various nations1 and to the anatomy of which ,m4 ,armand ,vir1 of the ,natural ,history ,museum of ,paris1 has been giving special attention for five years past4 ,there are other sciences the study of which in connection with caves1 while capable of yielding valuable fruits1 has been too long neglected3 geology1 for their origin and formation2 mineralogy1 for their relations to metallic veins2 meteorology1 for thermometrical and barometrical variations and the formation of carbonic acid2 terrestrial physics1 for the experiments on gravity that might be carried on in deep vertical pits1 supplementing the observations of ,foucault in the ,pantheon at ,paris1 and ,airy in the ,english mines2 hydrology1 which has hardly yet perceived that caves are predominantly great laboratories of springs2 agriculture1 which might transform them into reservoirs for times of drought or storage basins in case of flood2 and public hygiene1 which is just beginning to discover that they may harbor in their fissures hitherto unsuspected causes of contamination of the water of the springs that issue from them4 ,the number and importance of these new problems that have arisen from the recent extension of underground investigations seem fully to justify the specialization of the science of caves--another creation of the ,speleological ,society1 now four years old4 ,this special interest in the science of caves began about fifteen years ago1 when1 in #ahhc1 three members of the ,austro-,german ,alpine ,club--,herren ,harske1 ,marinitsch1 and ,mller--resumed in the limestone plateaus of ,istria and ,carniola called the ,karst1 explorations which had been actively and profitably carried on in the middle of the century1 from #ahej to #aheg1 by ,dr4 ,adolf ,schmidt1 whose discoveries in the caves of ,adelsberg1 ,planina1 and ,st4 ,canzion won him a membership in the ,vienna ,academy of ,sciences4 ,their efforts and those of ,herr ,f4 ,kraus1 who died last year1 had the result of interesting the ,austrian ,government in the subject2 and since #ahhf various engineers have been commissioned by the ,minister of ,agriculture to make official explorations and construct economical works in the caves and underground rivers of ,istria1 ,carniola1 and ,herzegovina4 ,credits are granted every year for enterprises which prove to be more useful than would at first be thought4 ,it was at the same time1 between #ahhc and #ahhe1 that ,i made my first investigation in the ,causses of ,lozre1 ,aveyron1 and the adjoining departments of ,france1 the results of which were to reveal for the first time to the public1 and even to geographers1 the picturesque beauties1 then unknown1 and now becoming the fashion1 of the gorges of the ,tarn1 ,jenta1 and ,dourbie1 the rocks of ,montpelier le ,vieux1 etc4 ,in my excursions over the plateaus of the ,causses ,i frequently met1 at the level of the surface1 open1 dark holes1 and mouths of vertical wells--avens--the depths of which no one had ever looked into1 unsoundable1 they said1 which the peasants naturally took to be real mouths of hell4 ,recollecting what ,i had admired at ,adelsberg and in various caves of the ,pyrenees1 ,i guessed these avens might also be doorways to subterranean splendors and scientific treasures4 ,so ,i began in #ahhh the methodical exploration of the unexamined natural cavities of my own land first1 and then of other countries of ,europe2 and since then ,i have devoted several weeks every year to this work4 ,these pits are simply horizontal holes opening upon the surface of the ground1 of very different forms and dimensions4 ,herdsmen are very careful not to let their cattle go too near them1 for they sometimes fall in4 ,the diameter of these pits varies from a few inches to several hundred yards1 and they are sometimes more than six hundred feet deep4 ,it is not easy to go down into them1 especially when they are on high levels away from habitations and roads4 ,in such cases a considerable apparatus of ropes1 rope ladders1 telephone1 portable boat1 tent1 etc41 has to be taken along4 ,the first measurement with the sounding line gives the depth only of the first pit--and there are often several succeeding one another4 ,a rope ladder long enough to reach the bottom is then let down1 and the man who descends has a rope tied about him for additional security1 which is held by the people above4 ,a great many pits are narrower at the top than lower down1 forming something like a reversed speaking trumpet1 so that the explorer finds it very difficult to make himself heard at the top2 hence ,i have adopted the practice of taking a telephone along4 ,the interior shapes of the pits are very diverse4 ,the narrower ones are easiest to go down1 because they permit one partly to support himself against their walls4 ,the wider ones leave him hanging loose1 in a position which he feels to be very precarious4 ,when there is a second or third pit1 and we have not ladders enough1 we have to trust ourselves to a simple rope with a board fastened at the end of it for a seat4 ,the gouffre of ,vigne ,close1 in ,ardche1 which is about six hundred feet deep1 has five successive pits1 and its complete exploration required three days4 ,the bottom of the pit may be a simple cleft in the rock1 or an immense cathedral-like chamber2 as at ,rabanel1 near ,ganges1 and ,hrault1 the deepest abyss in ,france1 the vault of which expands into a gigantic nave1 five hundred feet high1 which is lighted by the beam of light that falls through the opening1 presenting a grand and indescribable spectacle4 ,some pits of less depth1 as the ,tin doul de la ,vayssire1 in ,aveyron1 and the ,padirac well1 in ,lot1 both leading to underground rivers1 enjoy a still more complete illumination4 ,considerable talus banks close the ends of these broad pits1 and are generally produced by the caving in of the roofs of caves4 ,lively controversies and gross errors have prevailed concerning the geological formation of abysses4 ,the abyss of ,jean ,nouveau1 ,vaucluse1 among others1 furnishes evidence against the false hypothesis that such pits are as a rule the results of cave-ins1 whereas pits of that origin are rare and exceptional4 ,these pits are for the most part fissures1 the principal feature of which is their narrowness4 ,at ,jean ,nouveau the greatest breadth is not more than about sixteen feet4 ,it is the deepest vertical pit of a single shaft without intermediate terraces that we know of1 and is about five hundred and thirty feet from the surface of the ground to its floor4 ,the mass of stone rubbish at the bottom prevented our descending into a second pit4 ,pits composed1 like ,vigne ,close1 of several successive wells1 destroy another hypothesis--that of the formation of gouffres by the emissions from thermal springs4 ,the greatest danger in descending these pits arises from the showers of stones that sometimes come down upon the head of the explorer4 ,these are often started by his friends the hunters1 or by their dogs gamboling around at will4 ,while some of the caverns ,i have explored were stopped up by obstacles of one kind or another that prevented further progress1 in others we found considerable rivers running a nearly free course4 ,we rarely found pits formed by the collapse of the roofs of the cave in cases where the distance from the subterranean river which by its work of erosion provoked the catastrophe to the surface was more than one hundred metres4 ,the pit of the ,mas ,raynal1 ,aveyron1 is one hundred and six metres deep1 and abuts upon a large subterranean river1 which supplies the ,sorgues of ,saint-,affrique1 one of the finest springs of ,france4 ,when we explored it1 in #ahhi1 we could not pass the low chambers which occur in it because the water was too high1 and we have not visited it since4 ,its exploration in a dry season might reveal many very interesting chambers4 ,in the cave of ,rabanel1 the first well1 which ends in a talus of fallen stones1 furnishes an instance of a vertical fissure grafted1 if we may use the word1 upon an interior grotto that already existed4 ,a stream runs through this grotto which falls into a second well twenty-six metres1 and is then lost in smaller passages so nearly stopped up with earth that we were not able to follow it through its course of about a mile till it comes out at the ,brissac spring4 ,the cave of ,trebiciano1 in ,istria1 near ,trieste1 the deepest known1 has a total depth of more than a thousand feet4 ,it is not1 however1 entirely natural1 but is composed of numerous vertical fissures which lead1 at about eight hundred and fifty feet below the surface1 to a large cavern1 at the bottom of which flows the subterranean river ,recca4 ,the fissures do not naturally communicate directly with one another1 but the engineer ,lindner was commissioned in #ahdj-'da by the city of ,trieste to construct for the municipality a supply of potable water from the underground streams1 and after eleven months of labor made artificial connections between the different parts of the chasm4 ,these vertical pits are formed by the wearing down1 from the top1 by the waters which become ingulfed in them4 ,this mode of their formation was demonstrated to me in #ahie1 when ,i was in ,great ,britain under a commission from the ,french ,minister of ,instruction4 ,i then explored several caves in which the rivers were still running1 and satisfied myself that the pits were simply absorbing wells4 ,such wells are not effective now in southern ,france and ,austria1 but in northern ,europe1 where rain is more abundant1 they are still operative4 ,i found the plainest evidence of this fact in ,yorkshire1 at the ,gaping ,ghyll1 ,ingleborough1 where a river precipitates itself at one leap one hundred metres under the earth4 ,english investigators and travelers had tried without success to descend into it in #ahde1 #ahgj1 and #ahid1 having conquered only about one hundred and ninety-five feet of its total depth of two hundred and twenty-nine feet4 ,it took me twenty-five minutes to go down upon a rope ladder which was suspended in the midst of the cascade4 ,fortunately1 the pit had the daylight to the very bottom--a wonderful spectacle1 compensating me for all my trouble and the long douche bath which greeted me at the end of the descent1 where stretched an immense ,roman nave nearly five hundred feet long1 eighty feet wide1 and ninety feet high1 without any sustaining pillar4 ,from the middle of the roof of this colossal cavern fell the cascade in a great nimbus of vapor and light--a wonderful fantastic scene1 such as ,gustave ,dor or ,jules ,verne could never have imagined4 ,the most pleasant feature of the whole of it1 however1 to me was the thought that ,i had succeeded where the ,english had failed1 and on their own ground4 ,the people were nevertheless very pleasant to me1 and at my instance have continued the exploration and made some new discoveries4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,revue ,scientifique4 ,,footnote3 #eg ,from an address before the ,socit des ,amis des ,sciences4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,charles ,,henry ,,hitchcock4 ,the name of ,prof4 ,charles ,h4 ,hitchcock is closely associated with the progress of ,new ,england geology1 especially with the discovery of the great terminal glacial moraine1 and1 in connection with the name of his father1 ,dr4 ,edward ,hitchcock1 with the study of the fossil bird tracks of the ,connecticut ,river ,valley4 ,,charles ,,henry ,,hitchcock was born in ,amherst1 ,massachusetts1 ,august #bc1 #ahcf1 the son of ,prof4 ,edward ,hitchcock1 the eminent geologist1 who was afterward president of ,amherst ,college4 ,the family is of ,english origin1 and was planted in ,america by two brothers who came over at nearly the same time and made homes for themselves in ,new ,haven1 removing later to towns near by4 ,luke ,hitchcock1 the ancestor of the subject of this sketch1 came in #afie1 and finally settled at ,wethersfield1 ,connecticut4 ,his descendants in the direct line lived at ,springfield1 ,granville1 ,deerfield1 and ,amherst1 ,massachusetts4 ,professor ,hitchcock is in the seventh generation from ,luke1 and is equally removed from ,elder ,john ,white1 his maternal ancestor1 who came to ,canton1 ,massachusetts1 toward the end of the seventeenth century1 and removed thence to the ,connecticut ,valley4 ,both lines of ancestry were purely ,english1 and all the progenitors were men of integrity1 regarded in their times as worthy to fill offices of trust in church and town4 ,two of them served in the ,revolutionary army4 ,the father of ,professor ,hitchcock was one of the most distinguished geologists and educators of his time1 and his services1 especially as ,state ,geologist of ,massachusetts1 have already been described in the ,popular ,science ,monthly4#eh ,his mother was the daughter of ,jacob ,white1 a well-to-do farmer of ,amherst1 who1 believing in the education of women1 had given her the best opportunities for study available at the time4 ,she could read the ,greek ,testament and calculate eclipses1 and was a gifted artist with pencil and brush4 ,she prepared with her own hands many of the numerous illustrations in her husband's reports1 and also diagrams for the lecture room4 ,she took indefatigable pains with the education of her children1 placing their moral and religious welfare first4 ,of the eight children of the family1 six of whom reached maturity1 the surviving brother is professor of physical culture1 and1 for the time being1 acting president at ,amherst ,college1 and one of the two surviving sisters1 the widow of the ,rev4 ,c4 ,m4 ,terry1 has been for several years matron of the ,hubbard ,cottage1 ,smith ,college1 ,northampton1 ,massachusetts4 ,beginning with #ahce1 the year before ,professor ,hitchcock was born1 his father1 ,professor ,edward ,hitchcock1 was largely occupied with the study of the fossil bird tracks in the ,new ,red ,sandstone of the ,connecticut ,valley1 and with the discussions to which the investigation gave rise1 the story of which has been told by ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hitchcock himself in the ,popular ,science ,monthly 7vol4 iii1 ,august1 #ahgc74 ,besides the search for the fossils and their collection and comparison1 and the examination of the literature that might throw light on the subject1 there were studies into the proper interpretation of the early chapters of ,genesis1 the debate with ,prof4 ,moses ,stewart1 of ,andover1 and the gradual approach of the ,american clergy to general acquiescence in the belief that geology is not at variance with ,scripture4 ,professor ,hitchcock's childhood was largely spent under the influence of these studies and discussions4 ,the boy seemed to be full of promise1 and because of his observing ways and proneness to speculation was called the young philosopher4 ,he used to bring his mother the very small flowers of ,spergula rubra1 which are so obscure that older eyes often fail to notice them4 ,he seemed to be fonder of his father than the other children1 and was never so happy as with him4 ,through this constant intercourse ,charles became absorbed in his father's pursuits1 and grew up into a knowledge of geology from ,nature and from verbal explanations--a more satisfactory method than that of learning from books2 and he was associated with his father in all his geological work from the time when he was first old enough to be of service4 ,thus1 before #ahef he was acquainted1 from inspection1 with the terraces and reputed beaches and drift phenomena of all western ,massachusetts2 he had handled every specimen of a foot mark in the ,appleton ,cabinet1 and by #ahfa was the principal assistant on the ,vermont ,survey1 having prepared for the press the greater part of the matter of the report4 ,he had enjoyed the best educational advantages of his day1 having completed the classical and preparatory courses of ,williston ,seminary1 and been graduated thence in #aheb1 then graduated from ,amherst ,college in #ahef1 a short time before his twentieth birthday4 ,among his early classmates and college friends were ,dr4 ,cyrus ,northrup1 president of ,minnesota ,university2 ,dr4 ,richard ,mather1 professor of ,greek at ,amherst ,college2 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,goodwin1 of ,chicago2 and ,dr4 ,william ,hayes ,ward1 editor of ,the ,independent4 ,after graduation he spent a year in special study of ,hebrew and chemistry at ,yale ,college1 two years at ,andover ,theological ,seminary1 and one year in ,europe1 studying in the ,royal ,school of ,mines under ,professor ,huxley1 and in the ,british ,museum investigating the crustacea and trilobites4 ,here he enjoyed the friendship of ,professor ,richard ,owen1 and had the guidance of ,dr4 ,h4 ,woodward4 ,in #aheg ,mr4 ,hitchcock was appointed assistant geologist to the ,geological ,survey of ,vermont4 ,he served the full term of the survey1 and had charge of the preparation of the report relating to the stratigraphical geology1 the measurement and delineation of the sections1 and the compilation of the geological map4 ,in #ahfa he received the appointment of ,state ,geologist of ,maine1 in which service he spent two summers in field work1 preparing two reports of progress1 which were published in connection with the report of the secretary of the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,besides the general reconnoissance1 he discovered the existence of large areas of ,upper ,silurian and ,devonian terranes4 ,he has embodied his views of the distribution of the formations in his general map of the ,united ,states4 ,having chosen the ministry for his profession1 ,mr4 ,hitchcock studied theology under ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,park1 of ,andover1 and the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,taylor1 of ,new ,haven4 ,questions of the relations of theology and science were attracting much attention1 and he treated of them in two papers in the ,bibliotheca ,sacra1 one of which was afterward used for the guidance of theological students in several seminaries4 ,as more opportunities were offered for scientific work1 the ministry was given up4 ,this was the time when the doctrine of natural selection came to the front for investigation1 and the early history of mankind was receiving increased attention4 ,mr4 ,hitchcock came home from ,europe in #ahfg convinced of the truth of some form of evolution1 of a considerable antiquity of man1 and of the probability of a plural origin of the human race4 ,finding that some of his views on these subjects were not acceptable to his associates1 he ceased to make them prominent in his class instructions1 and devoted his attention to the more technical details of geology4 ,since then general opinion has advanced so far on these subjects that the views he held at that time seem now really conservative4 ,in #ahfh he was appointed ,state ,geologist for ,new ,hampshire1 and spent ten years in the survey of that ,state4 ,the results of his work there were published in three large quarto volumes1 with a folio atlas of maps1 profiles1 and sections4 ,the rocks described consist principally of crystalline schists and marine igneous ejections4 ,the geology of ,new ,hampshire is of peculiar importance1 because the situation of the ,state is such that a correct knowledge of its rocks promotes the understanding of many obscure terranes in the adjacent regions of ,maine1 ,quebec1 ,vermont1 and ,massachusetts4 ,professor ,hitchcock's report of the survey may justly be styled his chief work4 ,the part best studied relates to the ,white ,mountains and the ,ammonoosuc mining district4 ,connected with the survey was the maintenance of a meteorological station throughout the year on the summit of ,mount ,washington4 ,daily statements of the weather conditions of this station during the winter of #ahgj-'ga were sent by telegraph to the principal newspapers1 and called out much interest--before the ,united ,states ,signal ,service began its weather predictions4 ,the catalogue of ,professor ,hitchcock's publications comprises more than one hundred and fifty titles of papers1 reports1 and books4 ,perhaps the earliest thorough study represented among them was that of the fossil footmarks4 ,the first of the published papers on this subject related to the tracks of animals in alluvial clay1 and was published in the ,american ,journal of ,science in #ahee4 ,for several years after this he assisted his father in arranging the museum and compiling tables for the ,ichnology4 ,he made a complete catalogue descriptive of the more than twenty thousand individual impressions preserved in the ,appleton ,cabinet1 which was printed1 with descriptions of a few new species of footmarks1 in the ,supplement to the ,ichnology of ,massachusetts1 edited by him after the death of his father in #ahfe4 ,although circumstances have prevented him from paying much attention to ichnology in later years1 he has prepared several papers on the subject1 the most important of which was one on the ,recent ,progress of ,ichnology1 which was read before the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history about twelve years ago4 ,in it the ichnites were carefully catalogued anew and classified in the light of our knowledge of the numerous dinosaurs of the ,west2 and the results of some studies of the slabs exhumed at ,wethersfield1 ,connecticut1 are well known4 ,the list of the ,connecticut footmarks was increased from one hundred and nineteen in the ,ichnology to one hundred and seventy2 and facts were cited to show that the ,grallator1 the three-toed animal most allied to birds1 possessed a caudal appendage of a reptilian nature4 ,the ,trias of ,new ,jersey had been found to illustrate new features in the ,otozoum1 whose tracks are often ornithic in aspect4 ,a comparison of the features of the ,triassic skeletons described by ,marsh from ,connecticut 7,anchisaurus7 shows that the creatures were rather allied to the ,plesiornis than to the ,anomoepus of the ,ichnology1 because of the great size of the fore feet4 ,notes upon footmarks have been gathered also from illustrations in ,pennsylvania1 ,nova ,scotia1 ,kansas1 ,nevada1 and ,florida4 ,professor ,hitchcock has studied the ,quaternary or glacial deposits with great success4 ,his first publication upon the terraces and allied phenomena of ,vermont appeared while the old views of a submergence1 with icebergs1 prevailed1 to account for the phenomena4 ,a study of the glaciers of ,switzerland in #ahff satisfied him of the truth of ,agassiz's theory2 and whenever the opportunity came for re-examination of the surface geology of northern ,new ,england1 the facts were found to require a different theoretical explanation4 ,he caused a thorough examination to be made of the ,connecticut ,river terranes by ,warren ,upham in the ,new ,hampshire ,survey1 and proved that all the high mountains of ,vermont1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,maine had been glaciated by a southeasterly movement4 ,the ice came from the ,laurentian highlands1 pushed in a southern direction down the ,champlain-,hudson ,valley1 with a southeasterly flow over ,new ,england and southwesterly over the ,adirondacks2 the last two courses having been subordinate to the first4 ,at present the ,laurentian hills are lower than the ,new ,england and ,new ,york mountains overridden by the ice1 and probably the same was the case in the ,glacial period4 ,the best explanation of these paths is afforded by the suggestion that a gigantic ice cap accumulated north of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 towering into the clouds so much that its overflow naturally descended over the ,white and ,adirondack ,mountains4 ,that glaciers should accumulate terminal moraines is axiomatic1 but no geologist before #ahfh had ventured to suggest where moraines might be located in the ,united ,states4 ,in that year ,professor ,hitchcock delivered a lecture before the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history in ,new ,york and the ,long ,island ,historical ,society in ,brooklyn1 in which he affirmed that the drift deposits from ,prospect ,park along the backbone of ,long ,island for its entire length constituted the terminal moraine of the great continental ice sheet4 ,this declaration inaugurated a new era in the study of the age of ice4 ,the geologists in their several ,states found the terminal moraines1 and the various phenomena began to be classified according to new laws4 ,the search for moraines has resulted in a restatement of the incident of the age of ice2 more than a dozen successive terminal moraines have been mapped between ,new ,york and ,montana1 which suggest to us the existence of several glacial periods4 ,in compiling a catalogue of observations of the course of glacial stri by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 it was found that ,professor ,hitchcock had recorded for ,new ,england as many as all other geologists had observed for the whole country4 ,eskers are another interesting class of phenomena1 and were first described as horsebacks in ,maine1 about seventy of them having been described in the report of #ahfa and #ahfb4 ,it was not till after the description of the ,swedish sar that the nature of these lines or ridges was understood2 and now they were found in every prominent valley in ,new ,england1 as attendant upon the recession of the ice sheet4 ,professor ,hitchcock gave the correct name of these ridges in his ,elementary ,geology1 #ahfj2 while for many years subsequently they were erroneously called kames1 even in the geology of ,new ,hampshire4 ,professor ,hitchcock gave the name of ,champlain to the fossiliferous clays associated with the till of the ,atlantic coast4 ,the term has come into general use as connected with the melting of the ice in the latter part of the period4 ,because of the presence of boreal species1 and of analogies with similar deposits in ,europe1 ,professor ,hitchcock has asked the question whether there may not have been a ,champlain glacial epoch posterior to those named farther in the interior of the country1 the ,kansan1 ,iowan1 and ,illinoisian epochs4 ,those who explore the geology of northern ,new ,england have to deal with crystalline rocks of various ages1 and the opinions of our best geologists have not been in agreement respecting them4 ,professor ,hitchcock was the first to make a geological map of ,new ,hampshire1 and he also demonstrated the anticlinal nature of the ,green ,mountains of ,vermont4 ,his teachers had inculcated the view that these eminences belonged to a synclinal disposition1 coupling this with theoretical assertions as to their age and metamorphism4 ,finding their main principle to be erroneous1 he naturally disparaged their theories1 though more recent studies are eliminating many of the schists from the ,archan4 ,all the later explorers in the field--,canadians and members of the ,geological ,survey--accept a pre-,cambrian anticlinal in the heart of the ,green ,mountains4 ,the distribution of the ,new ,hampshire formations was made out for the most part before any assistance was derived from the labors of ,dr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,hawes and other petrographers4 ,twenty years ago1 at the date of the final publication of the ,new ,hampshire maps1 the doctrine of an igneous origin of the crystalline schist had hardly been hinted at4 ,what seems elemental to the modern petrographer who has acquired his technical education since #ahij was unknown then1 and the classification given in the report may not agree with that now taught4 ,in the midst of the diverse views entertained1 ,professor ,hitchcock classified the rocks of northern ,new ,england according to this principle3 rocks that are identical in petrographical composition are assumed to have had the same origin1 and to be synchronous4 ,professor ,hitchcock was almost the first of ,american geologists to employ the petrographer as a help to the understanding of the crystallines--as was evident by the very valuable contributions to knowledge in ,part ,,iv of the ,new ,hampshire ,report as prepared by ,dr4 ,hawes4 ,a vexing question concerning what are now called ,cambrian terranes divided geologists for a quarter of a century after #aheg1 and had to be considered in preparing the geology of ,vermont in #ahfa4 ,this was the ,taconic controversy4 ,trilobites had been discovered in ,vermont1 which were misunderstood by most of the ,american geologists following ,hall1 ,logan1 ,dana1 and others4 ,in giving the species the technical name first of ,barrandesi and then ,olenellus1 ,prof4 ,james ,hall asserted its derivation from the ,hudson ,river group--relying upon the stratigraphical determinations of ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan4 ,as soon as ,barrandes's attention was called to these trilobites and the attendant publication1 he wrote his famous letter to ,logan in #ahfj1 declaring that there must be a mistake somewhere4 ,that error was discovered in time to be eliminated from the ,vermont report of the following year4 ,professor ,hitchcock had charge of the field work in this ,cambrian district1 and his views of the arrangement of the formations are in agreement with those of the latest workers in the field4 ,he applied the term of ,georgia to one division of the terrane in #ahfj2 and the designation has been generally adopted since that time4 ,jules ,marcou claimed priority in the suggestion of the application of the term1 but upon the publication of ,professor ,hitchcock's statement on the subject the credit of priority was awarded to him by ,director ,walcott1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,between #ahfj and #ahgj ,professor ,hitchcock was occupied largely as a mining geologist in the estimation of mineral deposits for mining companies1 with his office in ,new ,york4 ,in the prosecution of this business he traveled in ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,quebec1 ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 and ,alabama4 ,subsequently1 the study of the phosphate beds led him to the island of ,redonda in the ,west ,indies4 ,he further visited the phosphate beds of ,south ,carolina and ,florida1 the gold fields of eastern ,oregon1 the ,chalcedony ,park of ,arizona1 the ,grand ,caon of the ,colorado1 and the ,yosemite and ,yellowstone ,parks4 ,studies made in the ,hawaiian ,islands and their volcanoes in #ahhc and #ahhf resulted in the contribution of important observations respecting those regions4 ,at the present writing ,professor ,hitchcock is spending a year of further observations in those islands4 ,mr4 ,hitchcock was appointed1 in #aheh1 lecturer in zology and curator of the cabinet in ,amherst ,college2 an office which he filled for seven years1 retiring after the death of his father4 ,in #ahff he was elected professor of geology in ,lafayette ,college1 where he gave short courses of instruction to five successive classes4 ,in #ahfh he was called to the chair of geology in ,dartmouth ,college1 a position which he still occupies1 receiving a year's leave of absence for #ahih-'ii in consideration of thirty years of service4 ,he taught geology and zology as a provisional professor at ,williams ,college in #ahha1 and in the following year in the ,virginia ,college of ,agriculture and the ,mechanic ,arts1 ,blacksbury4 ,he received the degree of ,m4 ,a4 in course at ,amherst in #ahei1 the honorary degree of ,ph4 ,d4 from ,lafayette ,college in #ahgj1 and that of ,,ll4 ,d4 from ,amherst ,college in #ahif4 ,professor ,hitchcock has been connected with the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science since #ahef1 and a nearly constant attendant upon its meetings and participant in the proceedings4 ,he is a member of local scientific societies in ,portland1 ,me41 ,boston1 ,mass41 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and ,st4 ,louis1 and also of the ,imperial ,geological ,institute of ,vienna4 ,he was one of the most prominent movers in the inception and early history of the ,geological ,society of ,america1 and had much to do with the organization of the ,international ,congress of ,geologists1 and with the preparation of special reports for the several meetings between #ahgf and #ahij4 ,the handsome geological map of small scale compiled for the ,united ,states was prepared by him and published in the ,transactions of the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers 7#ahhg71 to illustrate the nomenclature and color scheme of the ,international ,congress4 ,professor ,hitchcock is best known to many by his geological maps4 ,the first efforts at mapping the geology of the ,united ,states were made independently by ,edward ,hitchcock and ,jules ,marcou in #ahhc--the work of ,mr4 ,marcou extending only to the plains4 ,prof4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rogers1 five or six years later1 prepared a map for ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,in #ahgb ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hitchcock and ,prof4 ,w4 ,p4 ,blake compiled a map for the ninth census of the ,united ,states1 and for ,r4 ,w4 ,raymond's report upon the mineral resources of the country4 ,the success of his small scale map led ,professor ,hitchcock to undertake the preparation of a map on a scale of twenty-five miles to the inch for the whole country4 ,for this he consulted every work that had been printed upon the geology of the ,united ,states1 and obtained the privilege of using many unpublished data collected by geologists of ,states and ,territories in which the work had never been carried to actual completion4 ,the map prepared by the ,general ,land ,office was used as the basis for the geological coloration1 and the work appeared in #ahha1 of a size adapted to use in the classroom4 ,its compiler has never seen any criticism of its accuracy4 ,the edition prepared for the ,mining ,institute embodies all the information acquired for the large map1 with such additional facts as had been learned since that map was published4 ,prof4 ,hitchcock's services were called into requisition in the compilation of a similar map for the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 which was published in its annual report for #ahhf1 under the editorship of ,w4 ,j4 ,mc,gee2 in fact1 the two maps were printed from the same plates1 but ,dr4 ,hitchcock's contained certain features not found in the other one--the result of different interpretations--and was more complete4 ,in the ,government edition a system of coloration devised by ,major ,j4 ,w4 ,powell1 which was afterward abandoned1 was employed4 ,professor ,hitchcock contributed extensively to the collection of ,state geological maps in the ,centennial ,exhibition of #ahgf1 when large scale sheets of ,new ,england1 and a large copy of the ,hitchcock and ,blake map of #ahgb1 were exhibited4 ,a medal was awarded for a sheet of thirteen sections illustrating the stratigraphy of ,vermont and ,new ,hampshire4 ,the beginning of the measurement of sections was made for the ,vermont ,geological ,report under the direction of ,dr4 ,edward ,hitchcock in #ahfa4 ,twelve lines of exploration across the entire ,state were determined upon1 and specimens were collected to illustrate all the varieties of rock seen upon each4 ,the specimens were arranged in the ,state ,museum at ,montpelier in geographical order4 ,a similar plan of collection and arrangement was projected for the ,new ,hampshire survey1 but it was made to extend across the two ,states1 from ,maine to ,new ,york4 ,besides the two ,state reports1 later publications were issued1 descriptive of explorations and collections for the ,bulletin of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,new ,york1 and the ,new ,hampshire ,agricultural ,report for #ahhc4 ,the work did not cease with these publications1 for after the transfer of the collection of sections from the ,new ,hampshire ,college of ,agriculture and the ,mechanic ,arts to ,dartmouth ,college in #ahid1 additional explorations were made2 the number of sections was increased to eighteen2 improved drawings of the profiles1 colored geologically1 were prepared for the cases in the new ,butterfield ,museum2 and the explanation of the details was further facilitated by the construction of a large relief map on the scale of one mile to the inch horizontally1 twice as much vertically1 and having colors corresponding to those on the profiles between the shelves4 ,about five thousand specimens have been gathered to illustrate the profiles4 ,the ,dartmouth ,college ,museum is filled with specimens accumulated by the energy of ,professor ,hitchcock4 ,they concern geology1 paleontology1 petrography1 economic botany1 and conchology4 ,,footnote3 #eh ,vol4 xlvii1 ,september1 #ahie4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,education4 ,our attention has been drawn to a lively discussion that has lately taken place in the ,st4 ,paul papers over the utterances1 on the subject of the doctrine of evolution in its relation to education1 of a certain ,mr4 ,smith1 who was appointed not long since superintendent of the public schools of that city4 ,what seems clear is that ,mr4 ,smith is a very ignorant man1 whose views in regard to education are of an altogether retrograde character4 ,how he came to be appointed to his present position is a question which is being gravely pondered by many of the citizens2 but probably the explanation is not very far to seek4 ,the dispensers of patronage in ,state and municipal affairs are not always competent to make the best nominations to offices calling for high qualifications2 and sometimes they do not even act up to their own indifferent lights4 ,the man that has the pull is very apt to be the man that gets the office1 and it is not often that the strongest pull goes with the highest professional fitness4 ,however this may be1 there ,mr4 ,smith is1 and what kind of a man he is may be judged from his utterances4 ,it is thus that he refers to ,mr4 ,spencer3 ,there is an old man in ,england who for years has spent all his time and devoted all his energies to the attempt to create a system which shall entirely ignore the name of the ,deity4 ,he will shortly die1 and it shall not be remembered that he ever performed an act or said a word that blessed or comforted or relieved his suffering fellows4 ,to further darken the picture1 he contrasts ,spencer with the late ,cardinal ,newman1 who wrote the hymn ,lead1 kindly light1 and who1 we are told1 if he had done nothing more1 would have been followed by the blessings and the prayers of those whom he had comforted and saved4 ,again1 dealing with the modern scientific view that1 in the development of the human individual all antecedent stages of human development are1 in a manner1 passed through1 he says3 ,let us discard the primitive-man theory4 ,you do not believe it4 ,rather shall we not hold with ,emerson that every child born into the world is a new ,messiah given into the arms of fallen humanity to lead them back to paradise8 ,it is no part of our purpose to defend ,mr4 ,spencer against the attacks of so negligible an assailant as ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,minnesota4 ,the words that ,mr4 ,spencer has spoken for truth1 for justice1 for humanity1 for peace1 are his sufficient commendation and vindication--were vindication needed--in the eyes of all who have any competent knowledge of contemporary thought4 ,if these words do not help to make the world better we should feel little inclined to put our trust in the most skillfully constructed sacred lyric4 ,men do not always know their benefactors2 and it is altogether possible1 nay probable1 that thousands who perhaps never heard ,mr4 ,spencer's name have benefited through the greater consideration with which they have been treated by others1 owing to his teaching4 ,it is quite possible for men1 yes1 and women too1 to sing ,lead1 kindly light with great unction1 and yet to be the ardent abettors of warlike sentiments and warlike acts--to revel in a ruthless and immoral jingoism4 ,dryden was not referring to the adherents of any evolutionist philosophy when he wrote3 ,in lusts we wallow1 and with pride we swell1 ,and injuries with injuries repel2 ,prompt to revenge1 not daring to forgive1 ,our lives unteach the doctrine we believe4 ,not daring to forgive is good1 and nearly as true in the nineteenth century as it was in the seventeenth4 ,the one ,english statesman who dared to forgive a defeat inflicted on ,english arms and to acknowledge an error1 incurred by that single act a deeper hatred and contempt than he earned by anything else1 or all else1 in his long and storm-tossed career4 ,we refer to the action taken by ,gladstone after the battle of ,majuba ,hill4 ,and we are much mistaken if the majority of those who execrated him most deeply for not crushing the ,boers under ,england's overwhelming force were not immense admirers of the cardinal's hymn4 ,what is certain is that they were not immense admirers of ,spencer1 and that ,spencer did not immensely admire them4 ,superintendent ,smith has quoted ,emerson1 but he does not occupy the standpoint that enables him to see ,emerson in true perspective1 or to feel what his philosophy lacks when confronted with the newer knowledge of the century4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,chapman1 in his recent memorable book of essays1 gives us a better view4 ,a critic in the modern sense1 ,mr4 ,chapman says1 he 7,emerson7 was not4 ,he lived too early and at too great a distance from the forum of ,european thought to absorb the ideas of evolution1 and give place to them in his philosophy4444 ,we miss in ,emerson the underlying conception of growth1 of development1 so characteristic of the thought of our own day1 and which1 for instance1 is found everywhere latent in ,browning's poetry4444 ,he is probably the last great writer to look at life from a stationary standpoint4 ,that the doctrine of evolution constitutes to-day a most important guiding principle in education no competent educationist could be found to deny4 ,it teaches us to deal with the young as in a very true sense the heirs of all the ages1 to make due allowance in childhood for instincts and habits which partake of the earlier stages of human development1 and to look forward with confidence to later and higher manifestations4 ,we have less faith than our ancestors had in the rod1 and more in the gradual unfolding of the powers and capacities of the mind1 and therewith the enlargement and improvement of the moral nature4 ,we do not believe as our forefathers did in breaking children's wills2 nor do we view their peccadilloes in the lurid light of a gloomy theological creed4 ,we recognize that veracity1 in the sense of strict accuracy of speech1 purged of all imaginative elements1 is a virtue which not all adults are able to practice1 and which is not a natural product of the child mind4 ,we can not accept ,emerson's doctrine of infant ,messiahs1 and yet we can recognize very fully the mission of the child in the home1 the demand it makes for tenderness1 for patience1 for thoughtfulness on the part of parents1 the hopes and fears and heart-searchings that it calls into play1 the aspirations that it promotes toward the realization1 if for its sake only1 of a higher life4 ,froebel grasped a large measure of truth in regard to children1 but too much of sentiment1 in our opinion1 entered into his treatment of them4 ,in the full light of the doctrine of evolution we take them as they are1 and help them to work out under favorable conditions that development of which they are capable4 ,we are not imposed upon by childish imitations of mature virtues1 and are rather disposed to repress recognized tendencies to precocity2 but we believe that the germs of good are sown in every normal human being1 and that1 unless killed by most unwise treatment1 they will fructify in due time4 ,what we may well consider seriously is whether our modern modes of life enable us to do that justice to children which evolutionary teaching requires4 ,can true health of body and mind be conciliated with social ambition or with commercial ambition8 ,are we not hampered at every turn by false schemes of education1 the object of which is to turn out certain conventional products8 ,how many of us can rise up in effective rebellion against the very fashions that in our hearts we most condemn8 ,before there can be anything like a perfect education for the young there must be a much more fully developed sense of duty than we see as yet in the older generation4 ,the doctrine of evolution is putting the key to a true system into our hands2 but to use that key aright requires courage and high purpose--qualities that are not of everyday occurrence4 ,still1 it is matter of congratulation that the truth is not far from us4 ,it is well established in our theories1 and one of these days we may hope it will gain a wide and secure footing in our practice4 ,,david ,,ames ,,wells4 ,in the death of ,david ,a4 ,wells1 which occurred at his home in ,norwich1 ,connecticut1 on the #eth of ,november1 #ahih1 ,america has lost one of her ablest and most productive men of letters and science a distinguished representative4 ,out of a life of seventy years it may fairly be said that ,mr4 ,wells gave fifty of them to intellectual pursuits1 which were mainly devoted to the advance of science and its application to practical affairs4 ,after passing the period of early study1 and particularly since he became interested in economic questions1 much of his work was in the line of original investigation1 the results of which have from time to time been given to the public either through his books or in the magazines4 ,another and more conspicuous feature of his career1 the one perhaps that made him best known at home and first gave him reputation abroad1 was the valuable service that he rendered the country at large in straightening out the financial tangle the ,government had got itself into during and after the civil war4 ,in this undertaking his great store of learning1 rare practical sagacity1 and unwavering confidence in the final result1 carried him through to a brilliant success1 earning for him in high quarters the most flattering testimonials of admiration and respect4 ,looked at in the light of what he actually achieved1 ,mr4 ,wells's preparation for his life work seems to have been almost an ideal one4 ,gifted with a strong love of ,nature and having a decidedly practical turn of mind1 he early showed a fondness for the study of science4 ,this led him1 soon after graduating from ,williams ,college in #ahdg1 to enter the ,lawrence ,scientific ,school of ,harvard ,university4 ,here he completed the course with the first class that was graduated by that institution in #aheb4 ,while studying in the scientific school young ,wells became the special pupil of ,agassiz1 and1 as the sequel shows1 caught the enthusiasm with which that great master was wont to inspire the young men who were fortunate enough to come within the range of his influence4 ,during this period ,mr4 ,wells1 in association with ,mr4 ,george ,bliss1 began the compilation and publication of the ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 which he continued for some sixteen years4 ,that he was a clever student with quite exceptional endowments is seen in the circumstance that immediately after graduation he was appointed assistant professor in the scientific school and lecturer on physics and chemistry in ,groton ,academy1 ,massachusetts4 ,he also1 between #aheg and #ahfc1 prepared a series of scientific school books embracing the subjects of physics1 chemistry1 and geology1 and a volume on the ,science of ,common ,things1 all of which attained a wide circulation4 ,thus for a period of nearly fifteen years ,mr4 ,wells had devoted himself assiduously to the cultivation of the physical sciences4 ,beginning with the practical operations of the laboratory1 where the value of experiment and observation is made apparent1 his work was continued in the strengthening and developing experiences of the teacher1 and thence led up to that wider knowledge and that clearness of exposition which a bright mind would acquire in the preparation of a number of successful scientific class books4 ,it may be presumed that by this time he was thoroughly acquainted with scientific method in its applications to the investigation and explanation of physical phenomena4 ,with the results this had yielded in building up the great body of verified knowledge composing the several sciences he must also have been familiar4 ,mentally alert and with sharpened powers of observation1 he was able to seize and classify the facts bearing upon the problem in hand1 and subject them to systematic processes of scientific reasoning4 ,such1 in brief1 was the training and such the equipment brought by ,mr4 ,wells to the study of economic questions when he first began to write upon them in #ahfd4 ,a better preparation for the work to which he was to give the next thirty years of his life can scarcely be imagined4 ,while it is quite true that in entering this new field he was to encounter a class of facts and variety of phenomena that were of a very different order from those with which he had previously been dealing1 their apparently haphazard character did not deceive him4 ,well versed in the practice of tracing effects to causes1 gifted with remarkable powers of insight1 and thoroughly believing that the methods of science would prove as available in the study of economics as in other fields1 he began his investigations without misgiving1 patiently accumulated and studied the facts1 and when conclusions were arrived at1 no matter how contrary they might be to current teaching1 fearlessly announced and defended them4 ,though half his life a firm believer in the doctrine of protection1 when ,mr4 ,wells went to ,europe for the ,government in #ahfg to investigate the subject of tariff taxation1 high and low tariff countries alike were visited1 with the determination to leave nothing undone that would aid to a better understanding of the question4 ,all the varied aspects of the problem were carefully studied in connection with the principal industries of the respective countries1 and1 finding reason in the facts thus obtained to revise his opinions1 he came home a convert to free trade4 ,for an account of what he had observed during the course of his investigations1 and of the conclusions based thereon1 the reader is referred to the fourth volume of his reports as commissioner of internal revenue1 published in #ahfi4 ,his book on ,recent ,economic ,changes1 and the papers on ,the ,principles of ,taxation1 that have appeared in this magazine during the last two years1 are records of equally painstaking research4 ,moreover1 they are both excellent examples of what a strict adherence to scientific method has done and may yet be expected to do toward clearing up the knotty problems in economics that are now engaging public attention4 ,united with his great learning1 and a rare power of generalization1 ,mr4 ,wells possessed in full measure that intellectual honesty which is the indispensable characteristic of the true man of science4 ,this enabled him to follow without doubt or hesitation wherever the facts might lead2 and with his clear perception of their real import1 joined to his habit of independent thought1 traits that are displayed throughout all his more formal writings1 they are what in our opinion constitute his title to distinction4 ,they give to his teachings1 which have already done more than any other agency that we know toward placing the subject of political economy on a sound scientific basis1 a high and enduring character4 ,a ,,borrowed ,,foundation4 ,the central idea of ,professor ,giddings's ,principles of ,sociology1 a work that has the honor of being the first independent attempt in ,english to treat of sociology as such1 is that we must postulate on the part of human beings what he calls a consciousness of kind4 ,critics of his volume have naturally told him that this is essentially a philosophical idea1 found in ,hegel and in ,british ethical writers of the eighteenth century4 ,we quote the above from an article by ,professor ,caldwell1 entitled ,philosophy and the ,newer ,sociology1 in the ,october ,contemporary4 ,we are not prepared to dispute ,professor ,caldwell's statement that the idea of the consciousness of kind may be found in the writers to whom he refers2 but it would have been very much to the point if he had mentioned that it is to be found most clearly enunciated in ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's ,principles of ,sociology4 ,in an article contributed to this magazine in ,december1 #ahif1 ,mr4 ,spencer took occasion to point out that what ,professor ,giddings seemed to regard as an aperu peculiar to himself had been distinctly formulated years before in his own writings4 ,in proof of this he quoted the following passages3 ,sociality having thus commenced1 and survival of the fittest tending ever to maintain and increase it1 it will be further strengthened by the inherited effects of habit4 ,the perception of kindred beings1 perpetually seen1 heard1 and smelt1 will come to form a predominant part of consciousness--so predominant that absence of it will inevitably cause discomfort4 ,among creatures led step by step into gregariousness1 there will little by little be established a pleasure in being together--a pleasure in the consciousness of one another's presence--a pleasure simpler than1 and quite distinct from1 those higher ones which it makes possible4 ,the fact is that there is much more in ,spencer than most recent writers have ever explored2 and the newer sociologists would do well1 before putting forward claims to originality1 to make sure that they have not been anticipated by the veteran philosopher4 ,scientific ,literature4 ,,special ,,books4 ,in ,the ,play of ,animals#ei we are offered a book upon an essentially new topic2 for1 although much has been written concerning the habits and intelligence of animals1 no special consideration has been given to their play or its psychic significance4 ,the survey of this virgin territory seems to the critical reader to have disclosed such limitless area to ,professor ,groos that he fails to indicate its legitimate boundaries4 ,he confesses himself overcome by a sense of its vastness1 stating that the versatility needed for a thorough investigation is so comprehensive that it is unattainable by an ordinary mortal4 ,play1 he finds1 is not an aimless activity carried on for its own sake2 neither is it the product of surplus physical energy1 as ,mr4 ,spencer defines it1 for in youth there is playfulness without this condition4 ,instincts useful in preserving the species appear before they are seriously needed1 and are utilized in play1 which serves as preparation for the tasks of life4 ,animals do not play because they are young1 but have a period of youth in order to play4 ,the special ends accomplished by play are control of the body1 command of the means of locomotion1 agility in pursuit of prey and in escaping danger1 and prowess in fighting4 ,the games pursued in attaining these ends are classified in nine groups1 beginning with those of experimentation and ending with those referred to curiosity4 ,they include plays of movement1 hunting1 fighting1 love1 construction1 nursing1 and imitation4 ,for all of these ,professor ,groos finds but one instinct of play responsible1 supplemented by the instinct of imitation4 ,he enters into an elaborate discussion of instinct1 giving an outline of ,weismann's theory of heredity and the views of various writers4 ,he adopts ,herbert ,spencer's definition of instinct as a complex reflex act1 referring its origin to the operation of natural selection1 acknowledging the process to be beyond our grasp4 ,in seeking to explain bird song and the love play of animals1 the theory of sexual selection is not accepted by him without qualification2 a modification of the ,darwinian principle is suggested in which the female exerts an unconscious choice4 ,the psychic characteristics of play are the pleasure following satisfaction of instinct1 energetic action and joy in the acquirement of power4 ,the animal at first masters its own bodily movements1 then seeks the conquest of other animals and inanimate objects4 ,when a certain facility in play has been gained a higher intellectual stage is entered upon1 that of make-believe1 or playing a part4 ,this state of conscious self-illusion is reached by many of the higher animals4 ,psychically1 it indicates a divided consciousness1 and occupies a place between the ordinary state and the abnormal ones of hypnosis and hysteria4 ,to this condition ,professor ,groos ascribes the genesis of artistic production1 an hypothesis that he has elaborated more fully in ,einleitung in die ,aesthetik4 ,the experimental plays of animals1 divided into those of courtship1 imitation1 and construction1 correspond to the principles of self exhibition1 imitation1 and decoration1 which are claimed to be the motives of human art4 ,the acquirement of power through play develops a feeling of freedom1 and this the artist likewise seeks to realize in the world of ideals4 ,artists will not probably acknowledge that life is earnest1 art is playful1 nor moralists agree that man is only human when he plays1 for there is no real freedom in the sphere of experience1 yet both may find food for thought in ,professor ,groos's analysis of play4 ,,footnote #ei ,the ,play of ,animals4 ,by ,karl ,groos4 ,translated by ,elizabeth ,l4 ,baldwin4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #cda4 ,price1 #a4ge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the spasm of unreasoning hostility to ,spain which has come over the people of the ,united ,states1 succeeding a period of effusive admiration1 the public are apt to forget that that nation has done anything creditable for the promotion of civilization4 ,yet1 leaving out other fields of culture for the present1 it has produced two painters who rank among the great masters1 besides numerous secondary artists1 rivals of any of that grade in the world1 and a voluminous literature which ,george ,ticknor thought it worth while to make the study of his life1 and which inspired the pens of ,irving1 ,longfellow and ,lockhart4 ,one of the works of this literature ranks among the world's greatest classics1 and has been1 perhaps1 after the ,bible and ,shakespeare more universally read than any other book2 and numerous other works--chiefly romances--have furnished patterns or themes for the poets1 novelists1 and dramatists of other nations4 ,mr4 ,fitz ,maurice ,kelly's excellent and convenient ,history of ,spanish ,literature#fj therefore comes in good time to refresh our memories concerning these facts4 ,one does not have to go very far in the history to find that of the great ,latin writers of the age of the ,csars1 the two ,senecas1 ,lucan the poet of ,pharsalia1 ,martial the epigrammatist1 and ,quintilian the rhetorician--still an authority--and many minor writers1 were ,spaniards as well as ,romans4 ,it also appears that of what ,gibbon declared to have been the happiest epoch of man's history--from the death of ,domitian to the accession of ,commodus1 seventy of the eighty years1 if we take the liberty1 as ,mr4 ,kelly does1 of counting ,marcus ,aurelius as a ,cordovan1 were passed beneath the scepter of the ,spanish ,csars4 ,prudentius1 a distinguished ,latin ,christian writer of a succeeding age1 was also a ,spaniard4 ,although there were archaic works of trovadors before that time1 traditionally preserved by juglars1 ,spanish literature proper began in the twelfth century4 ,it owed much to ,french and ,italian1 and in course of time gave much back to them4 ,among its earliest signs was the development of the romance 7ballad71 while ,arab writers 7whose work ,mr4 ,kelly considers of doubtful value7 and ,jews1 who are better spoken of1 were early contributors to it4 ,the earliest works of importance were the ,mystery of the ,magian ,kings1 one of the first plays in any modern language1 and the great heroic poem of the ,cid1 both anonymous4 ,the first ,castilian poet whose name has reached us was ,gonzalo de ,berceo1 #aaih to #abfd1 who wrote much1 and was1 if not an inventor1 the chief of a school4 ,permanent form was given to ,spanish prose by ,king ,alfonso the ,learned1 #abbf to #abhd1 who1 like ,bacon1 took all knowledge for his province1 and in every department shone pre-eminent4 ,he had numerous collaborators1 and his example in so many fields was followed--among others 7in some of them7 by his son and successor1 ,sancho ,,iv4 ,the ,infanta1 ,juan ,manuel1 nephew of ,alfonso1 in one of the stories of his ,conde ,lucanor--one of the books of the world--created the germ of the ,taming of the ,shrew4 ,passing a numerous list of writers of respectable merit1 for whose names even we have not room1 we come to the age of the ,catholic kings and ,charles ,v1 when for a hundred and fifty years literature most flourished in ,spain4 ,among the features of this period are the ,amadis de ,gaul--the best in that kind--which inspired ,cervantes2 ,columbus1 who1 though of ,italian birth1 was probably the truest ,spaniard in all the ,spains1 the poet ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 and ,bernal ,diaz and other historians whose names dot ,prescott's books4 ,passing a large number of writers of mark whose works appeared in this age1 and stopping only to mention ,alonzo de ,ercilla y ,zuiga's ,araucana as the first literary work of real merit composed in either ,american continent1 we come to the age of ,cervantes1 whose story of ,don ,quixote--the friendless people's friend1 as ,browning styles him--is not more distinguished for its satirical wit and humor than for its kindly humanity2 and ,lope de ,vega1 that most prolific of all dramatic authors1 who left no achievement unattempted1 and died lamented by a hundred and fifty-three ,spanish and fifty ,italian authors1 who sang his praises4 ,among other of the most distinguished writers of this and succeeding periods are ,mariana1 the greatest of all ,spanish historians2 ,gngora1 a famous poet in his day2 ,quevedo2 ,tirse de ,molina1 the creator of ,don ,juan2 ,calderon1 second as a dramatist among ,spaniards1 if second1 only to ,lope de ,vega1 and ,alarcn his compeer2 and ,velasquez1 great in art and not small in letters4 ,an interregnum came in during the reign of ,carlos ,,ii1 and ,french influence made itself felt4 ,the age of the ,bourbons produced among others the ,benedictine ,sarmiento1 who as a botanist won the admiration and friendship of ,linn4 ,the present century has been marked by the names of many authors of merit1 novelists known to us in translations1 by an active movement of historical composition developing brilliant monographs1 and by a marked advance of scholarship and tolerance1 led by ,marcelino ,menndez y ,pelayo2 with a tendency to produce a breed of writers of the ,german type4 ,,footnote3 #fj ,a ,history of ,spanish ,literature4 ,by ,james ,fitz ,maurice-,kelly4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 7,literature of the ,world ,series4 ,edited by ,edmund ,gosse47 ,pp4 #dcc4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,general ,,notices4 ,the great importance of the problems of forestry and all that pertains to them can not fail to be appreciated by any one who has seen the devastation wrought in many sections of this country by the wood chopper4 ,forestry is one of the subjects where natural science can step in and guide the way to economic success1 and where1 in default of scientific methods1 economically fatal results inevitably ensue4 ,the preservation of forests has been an important problem in ,europe for many years1 but until quite recently it has received little attention in the ,united ,states4 ,one of the pioneers in the field of forestry in this country was ,franklin ,b4 ,hough1 whose ,elements of ,forestry is still a used and useful manual4 ,among his many schemes for attracting attention and study to this important subject was one of making actual sections of the wood of ,american trees1 and arranging them in a compact and attractive manner for general distribution4 ,this idea he never carried out1 and it has remained for his son1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,b4 ,hough1 to finally carry out the scheme1 by publishing a complete series of such sections1 carefully prepared and compactly bound4#fa ,in ,part ,i of the series there are cuttings representing twenty-five species of ,american trees4 ,the sections are sufficiently thin to allow of their study by transmitted light4 ,there are three cuttings from each species1 transverse1 radial1 and tangential to the grain4 ,an accompanying text gives a condensed description of each tree1 including its physical properties1 uses1 and habitat4 ,these descriptions are preceded by a useful introduction to the study of general botany1 describing the methods of distinguishing and naming the various parts of plants and trees1 and giving an account of their structure and methods of growth4 ,the actual wood sections1 quite apart from their scientific value1 are worthy of attention because of their great beauty4 ,they are substantially mounted on black cardboard1 each card containing the three sections of a species1 and its common name in ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 and ,spanish4 ,the thinness of the cuttings makes it possible to use them as transparencies1 thus bringing out the texture of the wood in a very effective way4 ,prof4 ,charles ,reid ,barnes is impressed with the fact that while laboratory work has become nearly universal in botany1 and laboratory manuals are numerous1 there is still a lack of books giving an elementary account of the form and functions of plants of all groups4 ,to supply this want he offers ,plant ,life#fb as an attempt to exhibit the variety and progressive complexity of the vegetative body2 to discuss the more important functions2 to explain the unity of plan in both the structure and action of the reproductive organs2 and to give an outline of the more striking ways in which plants adapt themselves to the world about them4 ,he has made the effort to treat these subjects so that1 however much the student may still have to learn1 he will have little to unlearn4 ,the book is not intended to be memorized and recited1 but to be intelligible to pupils from thirteen to eighteen years of age who are engaged in genuine laboratory study under the direction of a live teacher who has studied far more botany than he is trying to teach4 ,it is adapted to use supplementarily to any laboratory guide or to the directions prepared by the teacher4 ,the directions are made fullest in relation to cryptogams and physiology1 because these fields are at present most unfamiliar to teachers4 ,attaching great importance to ,electro-,dynamics1 which he thinks will in the near future assume the same relation to the electric motor that the science of thermo-dynamics already bears to the steam engine1 ,mr4 ,charles ,ashley ,carus-,wilson aims in the book of that name#fc to apply the principles of that science to the direct-current motor4 ,writing for electrical engineers particularly1 he takes for granted a certain acquaintance with the use and design of motors1 but avoids unexplained technicalities as far as possible4 ,he has not deemed it necessary to deal with self-induction1 except in connection with the question of sparking4 ,the numerical accuracy attempted has been limited to that attainable with an ordinary ten-inch slide rule1 on which all the examples have been worked out4 ,importance is attached to the graphic method of solution4 ,of ,dr4 ,frank ,overton's three books on ,applied ,physiology1#fd the first or primary grade follows a natural order of treatment1 presenting in each subject elementary anatomical facts in a manner that impresses function rather than form1 and from the form described derives the function4 ,the facts and principles are then applied to everyday life4 ,the intermediate grade1 besides being an introduction to the study of anatomy and physiology1 is intended to be a complete elementary book in itself1 giving a clear picture of how each organ of the body performs its work4 ,the advanced grade book was suggested by a series of popular lectures in which the author presented the essential principles of physiology about which a physician is consulted daily4 ,his explanations of many common facts were novel to his auditors1 and it was found that the school books were silent upon many of these points1 especially with regard to the cells4 ,throughout the series the fact that the cells are the units in which life exists and acts is emphasized4 ,the author has endeavored to include all the useful points of the older text-books1 and to add such new matter as the recent progress of physiological and hygienic science demands4 ,avoiding technical terms1 he has sought to express the truths in simple language1 such as he would use in instructing a mother as to the nature of the sickness of her child4 ,the subjects of alcohol and other narcotics are made prominent in all the books1 and are discussed fully in the third of the series4 ,the relation of respiration and oxidation to the disappearance of food1 to the production of waste matters1 and to the development of heat and force1 is dwelt upon4 ,simple and easy demonstrations1 many of them new1 are provided at the ends of chapters4 ,a chapter on ,repairs of ,injuries1 or the restoration of the natural functions1 when impaired1 by the body1 is new in a school textbook4 ,in ,yetta ,sgal1#fe a slender thread of a story is used by ,mr4 ,rollin as the vehicle for a theory of type fusion or convergence which he thinks has not received sufficient attention from social or scientific students4 ,there are a pair of lovers1 one of whom is discovered at a critical period in the courtship to have negro blood in his veins1 and a philosopher who comes forward to satisfy the parties 7who hardly need it7 that this is no serious matter1 but is all according to human evolution and the destiny of the race4 ,you must be impressed1 he says1 by the fact that there are a great many people here and there1 of mixed blood1 and that the number is increasing2 444 it is well that not a few are indeed truly admirable specimens of the human race4 ,such phenomena must be interpreted in a way consistent with man's nature3 if he is developmental2 if he shall attain a higher status through struggle1 or through means that are seemingly1 or for the time1 degrading2 if he is moving from the simple to the complex1 as to organization2 if universal movement tends to unific existence--then race interchange1 with elimination of peculiar characteristics1 has probably made its appearance as a phase of infinite order1 and for the benefit of future man4444 ,it is presumptuous for the wisest to assert that the man of lower type has no element of strength peculiar to his race which the most advanced does not need in his present organization4 ,it may be needed either for present protection in the way of re-enforcement1 or as an element of strength for further advancement4 ,mr4 ,rollin does not advocate type fusion or wish to accelerate the movement1 but presents it as a fact and factor in human evolution deserving more extensive and thorough study than it has received4 ,the increasing attention which of late years has been given to the study of comparative anatomy has finally resulted in what promises to be a complete and detailed account of the structure of a subhuman mammal4#ff ,the author1 ,dr4 ,jayne1 believes that a course in mammalian anatomy offers a valuable preliminary to the study of medicine1 and this is the purpose for which the book has been made4 ,this is to a certain extent true1 especially where1 as in the case of the cat1 there is so close a similarity to the structure of the human body4 ,but the chief scientific interest and value of such a work must lie in its broader philosophic aspects2 in the aid which it can not but give in clearing up some of the many mooted points of evolutional biology1 and in the stimulus which it will impart to the study of relationships among the lower animals4 ,the present volume1 the first of the series1 deals only with the skeleton of the cat1 each bone being first studied individually1 then in its relations to other bones and to the muscular system and the skeleton as a whole1 and finally in comparison with the corresponding portion of the human skeleton4 ,there are #faa extremely good illustrations1 and the printing of the volume is unusually clean and attractive4 ,among the articles of special value in recent numbers of the 7bimonthly7 ,bulletin of the ,department of ,labor1 under the editorial control of ,commissioner ,carroll ,d4 ,wright and ,chief ,clerk ,o4 ,d4 ,weaver1 are those on ,boarding ,houses and ,clubs for ,working ,women1 by ,mary ,s4 ,ferguson1 in the ,march number2 ,the ,alaskan ,gold ,fields and the ,opportunities they afford for ,capital and ,labor1 by ,s4 ,c4 ,durham1 in the ,may number2 ,economic ,aspects of the ,liquor ,problem2 ,brotherhood ,relief and ,insurance of ,railway ,employees1 by ,e4 ,r4 ,johnson1 ,ph4 ,d42 and ,the ,nations of ,antwerp1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,gore1 ,ph4 ,d41 in the ,july number4 ,summaries of reports of labor statistics1 of legislation and decisions of courts affecting labor1 and of recent ,government contracts constitute regular departments of the bulletin4 7,washington47 ,for delicate humor and refined art of expression few writers can excel ,jean ,paul ,friedrich ,richter1 but the sources of his rich flow of humor are so deeply hidden and his expression is so very subtle that the generality of those who attempt to read his works fail to appreciate him or even to understand him1 and give him up4 ,the pleasure of appreciating him is1 however1 worth the pains of learning to do so4 ,those who are willing to undertake this1 and who read ,german1 may find help in the ,selections from the ,works of ,jean ,paul ,friedrich ,richter1 prepared by ,george ,stuart ,collins1 and published by the ,american ,book ,company4 ,the book is intended for students of ,german who have attained a certain mastery of the language4 ,pains have been taken to avoid such passages as might from their mere difficulty discourage the reader1 and to choose such as would be complete in themselves4 ,the selections are made from the shorter writings of the author1 and each is intended to be representative of some feature of his manifold genius and style4 ,a notice of the ,stenotypy1 or system of shorthand for the typewriter1 of ,d4 ,a4 ,quinn1 was published in the ,popular ,science ,monthly in ,march1 #ahif4 ,it is really a system of phonography to be used with the typewriter whenever it is practicable to employ that instrument4 ,a second edition of ,mr4 ,quinn's manual and exercises for the practice of the system is published by the ,american ,book ,exchange1 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,a paper on ,polished-,stone ,articles used by the ,new ,york ,aborigines before and during ,european ,occupation1 published as a ,bulletin of the ,new ,york ,state ,museum1 is complementary to a previous bulletin on articles of chipped stone4 ,both papers are by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,beauchamp1 and are illustrated by figures from his large collection of original drawings1 made in nearly all parts of ,new ,york1 but mostly from the central portion4 ,while the chipped implements are more numerous and widespread than those treated of in the present bulletin1 the latter show great patience and skill in their higher forms and taste in selecting materials1 and they give hints of superstitions and ceremonies not yet thoroughly understood4 ,henry ,goldman has invented1 in the arithmachine1 what he claims is a rapid and reliable computing machine of small dimensions and large capacity1 with other advantages4 ,he now offers1 as a companion to it1 ,the ,arithmachinist1 a book intended to serve as a self-instructor in mechanical arithmetic4 ,it gives historical and technical chapters on the calculating machines of the past1 describes the principles controlling the construction and operations1 and furnishes explanations concerning the author's own device4 7,published by the ,office ,men's ,record ,company1 ,chicago1 for one dollar47 ,the ,bulletin from the ,laboratories of ,natural ,history of the ,state ,university of ,iowa1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #c1 contains two technical articles3 ,on the ,actinaria1 collected by the ,bahama ,expedition of the ,university1 in #ahia1 by ,j4 ,p4 ,mc,murrich1 and the ,brachyura of the ,biological ,expedition to the ,florida ,keys and the ,bahamas in #ahic1 by ,mary ,j4 ,rathbun2 and a list of the coleoptera of ,southern ,arizona1 by ,h4 ,f4 ,wickham4 ,mr4 ,wickham observes that the insects of northern ,arizona are widely different from those of the southern part1 a fact which he ascribes to difference of altitude1 and1 consequently1 in vegetation4 ,the ,bulletin is sold for fifty cents a copy4 ,two books in ,english--,elementary ,english and ,elements of ,grammar and ,composition--prepared by ,e4 ,oram ,lyte1 and published by the ,american ,book ,company1 are intended to include and cover a complete graded course in language lessons1 grammar1 and composition for study in the primary and grammar grades of schools4 ,the endeavor has been made to present the subject in such a way that the pupil shall become interested in the study from the first4 ,the first book1 ,elementary ,english1 is designed to furnish material for primary language work1 and to show how this material can be used to advantage1 embodying and representing the natural methods of language teaching4 ,the child is given something to do--easy and practical--at every point1 and is not troubled by formal definitions and rules to be committed to memory4 ,the second book is also based on the principle that the best way to gain a working knowledge of the ,english language is by the working or laboratory method4 ,it is therefore largely made up of exercises1 and aims to teach through practice4 ,the subject is unfolded from a psychological rather than a logical point of view4 ,what is to be memorized is reduced to a minimum1 and not presented till the pupil is ready for it4 ,the lessons in literature and composition are designed to help the pupil to appreciate worth and beauty of literature1 and lead him to fluent and accurate expression4 ,the ,bulletin of the ,geological ,institution of the ,university of ,upsala presents a series of special papers of much interest to students of that science1 on studies in geology1 largely of ,scandinavia1 but of other countries as well4 ,part #b of ,vol4 ,,iii1 now before us1 has such papers on ,silurian ,coral ,reefs in ,gothland1 by ,carl ,wiman2 the ,quaternary ,mammalia of ,sweden1 by ,rutger ,sernander2 ,some ,ore ,deposits of the ,atacama ,desert1 by ,otto ,nordenskiold2 the ,structure of some ,gothlandish ,graphites1 by ,carl ,wiman2 the ,interglacial ,submergence of ,great ,britain1 by ,h4 ,munthe2 ,mechanical ,disturbances and ,chemical ,changes in the ,ribbon ,clays of ,sweden1 by ,p4 ,j4 ,holmquist2 ,some ,mineral ,changes1 by ,a4 ,g4 ,hgborn2 and the ,proceedings of the ,geological ,section of the ,students' ,association of ,natural ,science1 ,upsala4 ,the articles are in ,german1 ,english1 and 7in previous numbers7 ,french4 ,two ,spanish-,american works of very different character have come to us from ,valparaiso1 ,chili4 ,one is entitled ,literatura ,arcaica--,estudios ,criticos1 or critical studies of old ,spanish literature1 by ,eduardo de la ,barra1 of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy1 which were communicated to the ,latin-,american ,scientific ,congress at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the author was invited to present to the congress the fruits of his extensive studies on the ,poem of the ,cid1 but afterward modified his plan and gave these1 the results of his more general investigations of the romances of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 which ,spanish critics regard as the most ancient they have1 and other romances attributed to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 with an article on the ,cid4 ,this work is published by ,k4 ,newman1 ,valparaiso4 ,the other book is a volume of ,rrimas1 or rhymes1 by ,gustabo ,adolfo ,bker1 published by ,carlos ,cabezon1 at ,valparaiso4 ,the ordinary student might think that the ,spanish language is one of those least in need of spelling reform1 but not so the author and publisher of these poems1 which are presented in the most radically reformed spelling1 and with them comes a pamphlet setting forth the character and principles of ,ortografia ,rrazional4 ,the report of a study of seventy-three ,irish and ,irish-,american criminals made at the ,kings ,county ,penitentiary1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 by ,dr4 ,h4 ,l4 ,winter1 and published as ,notes on ,criminal ,anthropology and ,bio-,sociology1 contains numerous observations bearing upon the effect of hereditary influences in criminality1 but hardly sufficient to justify the drawing of any general conclusions4 ,the late ,mr4 ,lewis ,m4 ,rutherfurd1 in developing the art of astronomical photography1 naturally gave much attention to the star #fa ,cygni--which was the first to yield its parallax1 and through which the possibility of measuring stellar distances was shown--and its neighbors4 ,a number of the plates of this series were partially studied by ,miss ,ida ,c4 ,martin more than twenty years ago1 and the study has now been carried out by ,herman ,s4 ,davis1 as part of the work of ,columbia ,university ,observatory4 ,the results of ,mr4 ,davis's labors are published by the observatory in three papers3 ,catalogue of ,sixty-five ,stars near #fa ,cygni2 ,the ,parallaxes of #faa and #fab ,cygni2 and ,catalogue of ,thirty-four ,stars near ,bradley #cjgg2 under a single cover4 ,in a small work entitled ,a ,theory of ,life deduced from the ,evolution ,philosophy a few thoughts are recorded by ,sylvan ,drey relative to the manner in which1 from central doctrines identical with the teachings of ,herbert ,spencer1 a system of religion1 an ideal society1 a theory of ethics1 and a political creed--the doctrine of social individualism--may be built up4 ,the religion is to recognize an inexplicable and inconceivable energy revealing itself in the universe1 of which the highest theistic conception possible to human beings1 free from the supposition that it represents a likeness1 is the only one that can be accepted4 ,absolute truth is beyond the grasp of human beings2 but for all practical purposes the teachings of the evolution philosophy1 relative truths though they may be1 may be regarded as final and conclusive4 ,mr4 ,drey's paper of thirty-four pages is published by ,williams ,norgate1 ,london4 ,,footnotes3 #fa ,the ,american ,woods4 ,exhibited by ,actual ,specimens4 ,part ,i1 representing ,twenty-five ,species4 ,by ,romeyn ,b4 ,hough3 ,lowville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the ,author4 #fb ,plant ,life considered with ,special ,reference to ,form and ,function4 ,by ,charles ,reid ,barnes4 ,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co4 ,pp4 #dbh4 ,price1 #a4ab4 #fc ,electro-,dynamics4 ,the ,direct-,current ,motor4 ,by ,charles ,ashley ,carus-,wilson4 ,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,pp4 #bih4 #fd ,applied ,physiology4 ,including the ,effects of ,alcohol and ,narcotics4 ,by ,frank ,overton1 ,m4 ,d4 ,primary ,grade4 ,pp4 #abh4 ,intermediate ,grade4 ,pp4 #ahh4 ,advanced ,grade4 ,pp4 #dcb4 ,american ,book ,company4 #fe ,yetta ,sgal4 ,by ,horace ,j4 ,rollin4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,w4 ,dillingham ,co4 ,pp4 #agd4 #ff ,the ,mammalian ,anatomy of the ,cat4 ,by ,horace ,jayne1 ,m4 ,d4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,company4 ,illustrated4 ,pp4 #haf4 ,price1 #e4jj4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,adams1 ,alexander4 ,mechanical ,flight on ,beating ,wings4 ,the ,solution of the ,problem4 ,pp4 #e4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,new ,york3 ,no4 #adc4 ,a ,destructive ,beetle and a ,remedy4 ,by ,p4 ,h4 ,hall and ,v4 ,h4 ,lowe2 ,no4 #add4 ,combating ,cabbage ,pests4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,hall and ,f4 ,a4 ,sirrine4 ,pp4 #h4--,ohio3 ,newspaper1 ,no4 #ahf4 ,peach ,yellows and ,prevention of ,smut in ,wheat4 ,pp4 #b2 ,no4 #bd4 ,the ,maintenance of ,fertility4 ,pp4 #db4--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture3 ,no4 #i4 ,cuckoos and ,shrikes in their ,relation to ,agriculture4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,beal and ,sylvester ,d4 ,judd4 ,pp4 #be2 ,no4 #aj4 ,life ,zones and ,crop ,zones of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,c4 ,hart ,merriam4 ,pp4 #gi2 ,no4 #aa4 ,the ,geographic ,distribution of ,cereals in ,north ,america4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,plumb4 ,pp4 #bd2 ,division of ,statistics3 ,crop ,circular for ,october1 #ahih4--,university of ,illinois3 ,no4 #ea4 ,variations in ,milk and ,milk ,production4 ,summary4 ,pp4 #dj2 ,no4 #eb4 ,orchard ,cultivation4 ,pp4 #bd2 ,no4 #ec4 ,abstract4 ,the ,chemistry of the ,corn ,kernel4 ,pp4 #d4 ,allen1 ,alfred ,h4 ,commercial ,organic ,analysis4 ,second edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,proteids and ,albuminous ,principles4 ,philadelphia3 ,p4 ,blakiston's ,son ,co4 ,pp4 #ehd4 #d4ej4 ,atkinson1 ,george ,francis4 ,elementary ,botany4 ,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co4 ,pp4 #ddd4 #a4be4 ,bulletins1 ,proceedings1 and ,reports4 ,american ,chemical ,society3 ,directory4 ,pp4 #eea4--;,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago4 ,publication #bh3 ,ruins of ,x ,kichmook1 ,yucatan4 ,by ,edward ,h4 ,thompson4 ,pp4 #af1 with #ah plates4--,lake ,mohonk ,conference on ,international ,arbitration3 ,report of the ,fourth ,annual ,meeting1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #aaf4--,maryland ,geological ,survey3 ,report on the ,survey of the ,boundary ,line between ,alleghany and ,garrett ,counties4 ,by ,l4 ,a4 ,bauer4 ,pp4 #dh1 with #f plates4--,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences3 ,annals4 ,vol4 ,x4 ,pp4 #bib1 with #e plates2 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,part ,,ii4 ,pp4 #afh1 with #bj plates4--,pennsylvania ,society for the ,prevention of ,tuberculosis3 ,report for the ,year ending ,april #ac1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #af4--,the ,philadelphia ,museums3 ,the ,philadelphia ,commercial ,museum4 ,pp4 #af4--,united ,states ,commissioner of ,labor3 ,twelfth ,annual ,report1 #ahig4 ,economical ,aspects of the ,liquor ,problem4 ,pp4 #bge4--,university of ,wisconsin3 ,bulletin ,no4 #be4 ,the ,action of ,solutions on the ,sense of ,taste4 ,by ,louis ,kahlenberg4 ,pp4 #hb4--,university of ,chicago3 ,anthropology4 ,,iii4 ,the ,mapa de ,cuauhtlantzinco or ,codice ,campos4 ,by ,frederick ,starr4 ,pp4 #ch1 with plates4--,university of ,illinois3 ,the ,new ,requirements for ,admission4 ,by ,stephen ,a4 ,forbes4 ,pp4 #bb4 ,bailey1 ,l4 ,h4 ,sketch of the ,evolution of our ,native ,fruits4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #dgb4 #b4 ,beddard1 ,frank ,e4 ,elementary ,zology4 ,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,pp4 #bjh4 ,brush1 ,george ,j41 and ,penfield1 ,samuel ,l4 ,manual of ,determinative ,mineralogy1 with an ,introduction on ,blowpipe ,analysis4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 ,fifteenth edition4 ,pp4 #cab4 ,bryant1 ,william ,m4 ,life1 ,death1 and ,immortality1 with ,kindred ,essays4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,baker ,taylor ,company4 ,pp4 #dej4 #a4ge4 ,carborundum manufactured under the ,acheson ,patents4 ,illustrated ,catalogue4 ,niagara ,falls1 ,n4 ,y43 ,the ,carborundum ,company4 ,pp4 #fa4 ,carnegie1 ,the1 ,steel ,company1 ,limited1 ,pittsburg4 ,ballistic ,tests of ,armor ,plate4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,balsinger4 ,plates and letterpress descriptions4 ,dana1 ,edward ,salisbury4 ,a ,text-,book of ,mineralogy1 with an ,extended ,treatise on ,crystallography and ,physical ,mineralogy4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 ,pp4 #eic4 #d4 ,darwin1 ,george ,howard4 ,the ,tides and ,kindred ,phenomena in the ,solar ,system4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #cgh4 #b4 ,giddings1 ,franklin ,henry4 ,the ,elements of ,sociology4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #cec4 #a4aj4 ,guerber4 ,h4 ,a4 ,the ,story of the ,english4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #cef4 ,hough1 ,romeyn ,b4 ,the ,american ,woods4 ,exhibited by ,actual ,specimens and with ,copious ,explanatory ,text4 ,part ,i4 ,representing twenty-five species4 ,second edition4 ,lowville1 ,n4 ,y43 ,the author4 ,pp4 #gh1 text4 ,james1 ,william4 ,human ,immortality4 ,two ,supposed ,objections to the ,doctrine4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #gj4 #a4 ,kunz1 ,george ,f4 ,the ,fresh-,water ,pearls and ,pearl fisheries of the ,united ,states4 ,united ,states ,fish ,commission4 ,pp4 #eb1 with #bb plates4 ,le ,bon1 ,gustave4 ,the ,psychology of ,peoples4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #bcf4 #a4ej4 ,miller1 ,adam4 ,the ,sun an ,electric ,light1 ,chicago4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,needham1 ,james ,g4 ,outdoor ,studies4 ,a ,reading ,book of ,nature ,study4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #ij4 ,newth1 ,g4 ,s4 ,a ,manual of ,chemical ,analysis1 ,qualitative and ,quantitative4 ,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,pp4 #dfb4 #a4ge4 ,nipher1 ,francis ,e4 ,an ,introduction to ,graphical ,algebra4 ,new ,york3 ,h4 ,holt ,co4 ,pp4 #fa4 #fj cents4 ,reprints4 ,gifford1 ,john4 ,forestry on the ,peninsula of ,eastern ,virginia4 ,pp4 #c2 ,forestry in ,relation to ,physical ,geography and ,engineering4 ,pp4 #ai4--;,hester1 ,c4 ,a4 ,an ,experimental ,study of the ,toxic ,properties of ,indol4 ,pp4 #bf1 with tables4--,hoffmann1 ,fred4 ,fragmentary ,notes from the ,reports of ,two ,early ,naturalists on ,north ,america4 ,pp4 #ah4--;,johnson1 ,j4 ,b4 ,a ,higher ,industrial and ,commercial ,education as an ,essential ,condition of our ,future ,material ,prosperity4 7,an address47 ,pp4 #cc4--,kain1 ,samuel ,w41 and ,others4 ,seismic and ,oceanic ,noises4 ,pp4 #f4--,mayer1 ,hermann4 ,bows and ,arrows in ,central ,brazil4 ,pp4 #cf1 with plates4--,packard1 ,alpheus ,s4 ,a ,half ,century of ,evolution1 with ,special ,reference to the ,effect of ,geological ,changes on ,animal ,life4 7,presidential address to ,american ,association47 ,pp4 #dh4--,rhees1 ,william ,j4 ,william ,bower ,taylor4 ,pp4 #ab4--,searcy1 ,j4 ,t41 ,m4 ,d4 ,how ,education fails4 ,pp4 #ha4--,shufeldt1 ,r4 ,w41 ,m4 ,d4 ,on the ,alternation of ,sex in a ,brood of ,young ,sparrow ,hawks4 ,pp4 #d4--,starr1 ,frederick4 ,notched ,bones from ,mexico4 ,a ,shell ,inscription from ,tula1 ,mexico4 ,pp4 #aj4--,woolman1 ,lewis4 ,report on ,artesian ,wells in ,new ,jersey1 etc4 ,pp4 #hd4 ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,the ,fishes of ,north and ,middle ,america4 ,by ,d4 ,s4 ,jordan and ,b4 ,w4 ,evermann4 ,part ,,ii4 ,pp4 #idb4--,the ,birds of the ,kurile ,islands4 ,by ,leonhard ,stejneger4 ,pp4 #bh4--,on the ,coleopterous ,insects of the ,galapagos ,islands4 ,by ,martin ,l4 ,linell4 ,pp4 #bj4--,on ,some ,new ,parasitic ,insects of the ,subfamily ,encystin4 ,by ,l4 ,o4 ,howard4 ,pp4 #ah4--;,descriptions of the ,species of ,cycadeoidea1 or ,fossil ,cycadean ,trunks1 thus far determined from the ,lower ,cretaceous ,rim of the ,black ,hills4 ,by ,lester ,f4 ,ward4 ,pp4 #cf4 ,socialist1 ,the1 ,almanac and ,treasury of ,facts4 ,new ,york3 ,socialistic ,co-operative ,publishing ,association4 ,prepared by ,lucien ,sanal4 ,pp4 #bcb4 7,the ,people's ,library4 ,quarterly4 #fj cents a year47 ,thompson1 ,ernest ,seton4 ,wild ,animals ,i have known1 and ,two ,hundred ,drawings4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #cei4 #b4 ,todd1 ,mabel ,loomis4 ,corona and ,coronet4 ,being a ,narrative of the ,amherst ,eclipse ,expedition to ,japan1 #ahif1 etc4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp #chc4 #b4ej4 ,trowbridge1 ,john4 ,philip's ,experiments1 or ,physical ,science at ,home4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bbh4 #a4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,bulletin ,no4 #hh4 ,the ,cretaceous ,foraminifera of ,new ,jersey4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,bagg1 ,jr4 ,pp4 #hi1 with #f plates4--,no4 #hi4 ,some ,lava ,flows from the ,western ,slope of the ,sierra ,nevada1 ,california4 ,pp4 #gd4--,no4 #adi4 ,bibliography and ,index of ,north ,american ,geology1 ,palontology1 ,petrology1 and ,mineralogy for #ahih4 ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,weeks4 ,pp4 #aeb4--,monograph4 ,vol4 ,,xxx4 ,fossil ,medus4 ,by ,charles ,doolittle ,walcott4 ,pp4 #bja1 with #dg plates4 ,universalist ,register1 ,the1 for #ahih4 ,edited by ,richard ,eddy1 ,d4 ,d4 ,boston3 ,universalist ,publishing ,house4 ,pp4 #abj4 #bj cents4 ,warman1 ,cy4 ,the ,story of the ,railroad4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 7,story of the ,west ,series47 ,pp4 #bhj4 ,waterloo1 ,stanley4 ,armageddon4 ,a ,tale of ,love1 ,war1 and ,invention4 ,pp4 #bei4 ,whiting ,paper ,company1 ,holyoke1 ,mass4 ,the ,evolution of ,paper4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,chicago and ,new ,york3 ,rand1 ,mc,nally ,co4 ,wilson1 ,j4 ,self-,control1 or ,life without a ,master4 ,new ,york3 ,lemcke ,bchner4 ,worcester1 ,dean ,c4 ,the ,philippine ,islands and their ,people4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #ebi4 #d4 ,wyckoff1 ,walter ,a4 ,the ,workers4 ,an ,experiment in ,reality4 ,the ,west4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #cgh4 #a4ej4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,tree ,planting in the ,arid ,regions4--,in planting the arid and subarid regions of the country1 where no trees are growing naturally1 ,mr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow says1 in a review of the work of the ,department of ,forestry1 different methods of cultivation from those given in the humid parts are necessary1 and the plant material has to be selected with a view to a rigorous climate characterized by extreme ranges of temperature varying from -#dj to #abj ,f4 ,the requirements of the plants for moisture must be of the slightest1 and they must be capable of responding to the demands of evaporation4 ,at first1 whatever trees will grow successfully from the start under such untoward conditions would have to be chosen1 no matter what their qualities otherwise might be4 ,the first settlers have ascertained by trials some of the species that will succeed under such conditions1 but unfortunately most of them are of but small economic value1 and some of them are only short-lived under the conditions in which they have to grow4 ,a few years ago ,mr4 ,fernow came to the conclusion that the conifers1 especially the pines1 would furnish more useful and otherwise serviceable material for the arid regions4 ,besides their superior economical value1 they require less moisture than most of the deciduous trees that have been planted1 and they would1 if once established1 persist more readily through seasons of drought and be longer lived4 ,a small trial plantation on the sand hills of ,nebraska lent countenance to this theory4 ,it being vastly more difficult to establish the young plants in the first place than in the case of deciduous trees1 much attention was given to the provision for protection of the seedlings from sun and winds2 and they were planted in mixture with nurse trees that would furnish not too much and yet enough shade4 ,it can not be said that the success in using these species has so far been very encouraging2 nevertheless1 the failure may be charged rather to our lack of knowledge and to causes that can be overcome than to any inherent incapacity in the species4 ,the experiments should therefore be continued4 ,the ,venerable ,bede's ,chair4--,in an article in a recent issue of ,architecture and ,building1 on ,ancient and ,modern ,furniture1 by ,f4 ,t4 ,hodgson1 the following interesting account of the chair of the ,venerable ,bede occurs3 ,perhaps the best-known relic1 so far as furniture is concerned of this early period1 is the chair of 'the ,venerable ,bede1' which is still preserved in the vestry of ,jassova ,church1 ,northumberland1 ,england4 ,this chair is distinctively an ecclesiastical one--a throne1 in fact1 of some dignity4 ,it is made of oak and is four feet ten inches high4 ,there are many engravings of it1 but ,i reproduce from one of the best4 ,the chair is now well on to twelve hundred years old1 and if cared for as it ought to be is good for several hundred years more4 ,there is a popular tradition concerning this chair that is worthy of notice4 ,it is said that to this ancient relic all the brides repair as soon as the marriage service is over1 in order that they may seat themselves in it4 ,this1 according to the popular belief1 will make them joyful mothers of children2 and to omit this custom the expectant mothers would not consider the marriage ceremony complete1 and in default thereof of being enthroned in 'the ,venerable ,bede's chair' barrenness and misery would surely follow4 ,like all other relics of the sort1 it is subject to attacks of the sacrilegious penknives1 together with the wanton depredations of relic hunters1 and has been so shorn of its fair proportions that very soon there will be little of it left but its attenuated form if stricter watch is not kept over it4 ,the ,physics of ,smell4--,the principal subject of ,prof4 ,w4 ,e4 ,ayrton's vice-presidential address on physics at the ,british ,association was the physics of smell1 which was presented as a subject that had been but little studied4 ,in testing the generally accepted idea that metals have smell1 based on the fact that a smell is perceived with most of the commercial metals when handled1 the author had observed that when these metals were cleaned or made outwardly pure the smell disappeared4 ,yet it is shown that these metals acquire smells when they are handled or abraded by friction1 which are characteristic and serve to distinguish them4 ,this may be ascribed to chemical action1 but not all chemical action in which metals may take part produces smell2 for when they are rubbed with soda or with sugar no smell but that of soda or of sugar is perceived2 nor is the metallic smell observed when dilute nitric acid is rubbed on certain metals1 though the chemical action is very marked with some4 ,but mere breathing on certain metals1 even when they have been rendered practically odorless by cleaning1 produces a very distinct smell1 as also does touching them with the tongue4 ,these smells have hitherto been attributed to the metals themselves1 but ,professor ,ayrton looks for their source in the evolution of hydrogen1 which carries with it impurities1 hydrocarbons1 especially paraffin1 and it is probable that no metallic particles1 even in the form of vapor1 reach the nose or even leave the metal4 ,while smells usually appear to be diffused with great velocity1 experiments prove that when the space through which they have to pass is free from draughts their progress is very slow1 and it would therefore appear that the passage of a smell is far more due to the actual motion of the air containing it than to the diffusion of the odoriferous substance through the air4 ,the power of a smell to cling to a substance does not appear to depend on its intensity or on the ease with which it travels through a closed space4 ,experiments to determine whether smells could pass through glass by transpiration either revealed flaws in the glass or ended in the breaking of the very thin bulbs and gave no answer4 ,the ,cordillera ,region of ,canada4--,a length of nearly thirteen hundred miles of the great mountainous or ,cordillera region of the ,pacific coast is included in the western part of ,canada4 ,most of this1 ,mr4 ,george ,m4 ,dawson says1 in a paper on the ,physical ,geography and ,geology of ,canada1 is embraced in the province of ,british ,columbia1 where it is about four hundred miles wide between the ,great ,plains and the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,to the north it is included in the ,yukon district of the ,northwest ,territory till it reaches1 in a less elevated and more widely spread form1 the shores of the ,arctic ,ocean on one side and on the other passes across the one hundred and forty-first meridian of west longitude into ,alaska4 ,the orographic features of this region are very complicated in detail4 ,no existing map yet properly represents even the principal physical outlines1 and the impression gained by the traveler or explorer may well be one of confusion4 ,there are1 however1 the two dominant mountain systems of the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,coast ,range4 ,as a whole1 the area of the ,cordillera in ,canada may be described as forest-clad1 but the growth of trees is more luxuriant on the western slopes of each of the dominant mountain ranges1 in correspondence with the greater precipitation occurring on these slopes4 ,this is particularly the case in the coast region and on the seaward side of the ,coast ,range1 where magnificent and dense forests of coniferous trees occupy almost the whole available surface4 ,the interior plateau1 however1 constitutes the southern part of a notably dry belt1 and includes wide stretches of open grass-covered hills and valleys1 forming excellent cattle ranges4 ,farther north1 along the same belt1 similar open country appears intermittently1 but the forest invades the greater part of the region4 ,it is only toward the arctic coast1 in relatively very high latitude1 that the barren arctic tundra country begins1 which1 sweeping in wider development to the westward1 occupies most of the interior of ,alaska4 ,with certain exceptions the farming land of ,british ,columbia is confined to the valleys and tracts below three thousand feet1 by reason of the summer frosts occurring at greater heights4 ,there is1 however1 a considerable area of such land in the aggregate1 with a soil generally of great fertility4 ,in the southern valleys of the interior irrigation is necessary for the growth of crops4 ,the ,rabies ,bacillus4--,ever since the discovery of ,pasteur that an attenuated virus made from the medulla or spinal cord of a dog affected by rabies was1 when administered in graduated doses1 a specific against the disease1 bacteriologists have been eagerly seeking to isolate the rabies bacillus4 ,a number of observers1 among them ,toll1 ,rivolta1 and ,san ,felice1 have succeeded in staining a bacillus which they claimed to be that of rabies4 ,memno1 of ,rome1 confirmed the observations of the preceding1 and proved the virulent character of the micro-organism1 which he described as a blastomycete4 ,he has quite recently succeeded in cultivating the bacillus in artificial media and producing typical rabies in dogs1 rodents1 and birds by inoculations4 ,he found that the bacillus grew better in fluid than in solid media1 the best being bouillon with glucose slightly acidulated with tartaric acid4 ,the growth did not become manifest under a week1 and was easily arrested by air infection4 ,it would thus seem that we have at last certainly established the bacterial origin of rabies4 ,the ,st4 ,kildans4--,st4 ,kilda1 the farthest out to sea of all the ,british ,isles1 is a rounded mountain with stack rocks and islets round it1 rises twelve hundred and twenty feet in height1 and contains a settlement of about seventy-five men1 women1 and children--almost the only representatives left on the ,british ,islands of man in the hunting age4 ,on one of the subsidiary islands1 ,boreray1 is gathered the main body of the sea birds for which the island is famous2 and on a third1 ,soa1 are the diminutive descendants of ,viking sheep1 left by old sea rovers4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,kearton1 who has recently visited the islands for recreation among the sea birds1 represents that in the little community of its people the ordinary and extraordinary operations of life seem inverted4 ,sport is a serious work2 sheep herding and shearing are an exciting sport4 ,a ,st4 ,kildan qualifies for marriage by proving his courage and skill as a fowler1 by standing on a dizzy precipice called ,lover's ,stone1 and goes out bird snaring with a serious face4 ,when he wants a sheep for the butcher1 he asks his friends to a sheep hunt in the island of ,soa1 in which dogs and men pursue the animals from rock to rock4 ,an offer made by a factor to supply the people with nets1 so that they might catch the sheep with more humanity and less waste of life1 was rejected by them4 ,they preferred the old methods1 which supplied plenty of danger and excitement4 ,while the sheep are hunted1 the cows are thoroughly spoiled4 ,every day the women are seen hard at work picking dock leaves and storing them in baskets for the cows at milking time1 for they will not be milked unless they are fed4 ,the sheep on ,soa ,island are plucked instead of being sheared1 at the time when the wool would naturally be shed1 and what wool will not come off in this way is cut off with a pocket knife4 ,when the steamer with ,mr4 ,kearton reached the island1 no one came down to meet it till the whistle had been blown two or three times4 ,it was not etiquette to rush down like a parcel of savages1 but the people retire to tidy themselves1 and then row out and call in proper form4 ,the ,island of ,sakhalin4--,mr4 ,benjamin ,howard1 an ,english visitor at the recent meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 presented before ,section ,e of that body an interesting account of the great but little-known island of ,sakhalin1 more generally spelled ,saghalien in our geographies4 ,mr4 ,howard1 however1 strongly urged the former spelling1 as most correctly representing the name1 which is always pronounced by the ,russians in three syllables1 with the accent on the first4 ,it is now used as a penal colony by the ,russian ,government1 and a more hopelessly remote and inaccessible spot for such a purpose can hardly be found4 ,to it are sent the hardest cases among the ,siberian prisoners2 and ,mr4 ,howard spoke of becoming accustomed1 during his stay there1 to meeting scarcely any human beings but murderers1 except1 of course1 the guards and officials4 ,the island is extremely inaccessible2 there is no commerce1 and neither inducement nor opportunity for vessels to touch there1 while much of the coast is ice-bound for a large part of the year4 ,mr4 ,howard1 who was engaged in some scientific work on the island in the service of the ,government1 is one of the very few foreigners who have traveled or resided there at all4 ,he predicts for ,sakhalin1 however1 a future of considerable importance ultimately1 though only after a long period of preliminary development and exploitation as a penal colony1 which stage has but lately been begun4 ,it has forest and mining resources--among the latter1 coal2 the deposits are near the surface1 but thus far have been very little examined4 ,he was unable to give any data as to their geological age or actual extent2 but the ,government will no doubt soon make investigations4 ,the most remarkable possibilities1 however1 are in the line of fisheries1 the coasts swarming with fish to an extent that is scarcely credible by one who has not seen them4 ,mr4 ,howard said jocosely that he would hardly dare to relate what he had personally witnessed1 in view of the usual reputation of fish stories4 ,the climate is of course rigorous1 under the influence of cold northern currents1 and markedly in contrast with that of the same latitude on the ,american side of the ,pacific1 where the ,japan current carries its modifying influence as the ,gulf ,stream does to northern ,europe4 ,some agriculture1 however1 is possible during the short summer1 and the penal colonists have made fair beginnings of self-support4 ,he referred further to a remnant of native ,aino population as very interesting from the fact that they have preserved their peculiarities of life and manners1 and their purity of stock1 much more completely through their isolation than the ,ainos of the ,japanese ,islands1 who have been modified more or less by association with the latter people4 ,technical and ,popular ,names4--,in a paper criticising the multiplication of local names in geology1 ,prof4 ,c4 ,e4 ,keyes distinguishes between names devised with a conscientious desire to better the condition of a science by clothing the new ideas with simple words and those which are the product of a name-making mania4 ,the first can not be too highly commended1 nor the second too deeply deplored4 ,every progressive science must discard the names that have served their purpose1 and must be prepared to receive all of the new ones demanded4 ,the sciences have each two phases1 for each of which a terminology is demanded1 in one of which the names must be technical and special1 established primarily for the investigator1 and in the other general1 popular1 simple1 and free from technical appearance2 but the distinction is rarely made4 ,those who object to the prevalence of technical names in other sciences seldom reflect that they have them in their own art4 ,yet if a man of science should desire to familiarize himself with the artisan's work1 he would be1 after five minutes' talk with a machinist or electrician1 confronted by so many unfamiliar terms--technical terms of everyday use--that he would at once cry out for greater simplicity of language4 ,in the geological sciences the technicalities play the same part they do in the arts and in business4 ,every new name in geology1 however1 must be properly defined before it can be noticed1 and its subsequent career will depend on its utility4 ,it may be said that no greater boon to the working geologist has been devised than the plan of designating geographically geological units irrespective of exact position or age4 ,since its adoption a vast mass of valuable information has been obtained that was previously unthought of1 and is in a shape to be always used2 the other departments of geology have been much aided1 and stratigraphical geology has been greatly helped4 ,the ,origin of a ,curious ,habit4--,the following paragraphs are taken from a recent ,nature4 ,it is well known that the kea1 or mountain parrot of ,new ,zealand1 has acquired the habit of attacking sheep1 and making holes by means of its sharp and powerful beak in the backs of these animals for the purpose of abstracting the kidney fat1 which appears to be esteemed as a luxurious diet4 ,it is supposed that this peculiar habit or instinct was developed by the bird getting the fat from the skins of sheep that had been slaughtered1 but this solution is not very satisfactory1 as there appears nothing to connect the fat on the skins of sheep with the live animals4 ,in a note published in the ,zologist 7,may #afth71 ,mr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,godfrey1 writing from ,melbourne1 offers the following solution of the mystery1 which seemed to him to be simple and satisfactory1 and more rational than the sheepskin theory3 ,in the hilly districts of the middle island of ,new ,zealand there is a great abundance of a white moss1 or lichen1 which exactly resembles a lump of white wool1 at the roots of which are found small white fatty substances1 supposed by some to be the seeds of the plant1 and by others to be a grub or maggot which infests it1 which is the favorite food of the kea4 ,probably the bird1 misled by this resemblance1 commenced an exploration in sheep1 and this proving satisfactory1 originated the new habit4 ,in a note to this suggestion the editor points out that ,mr4 ,godfrey is in agreement with another observer--,mr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,chapman--who in describing the hills of this island says3 ,a very interesting raoulia1 or vegetable sheep1 was very plentiful on steep1 rocky places4444 ,it is said that the keas tear them up with their powerful beaks1 and that these birds learned to eat mutton through mistaking dead sheep for masses of raoulia4 ,changes in ,plant ,characters4--,from experiments upon the cultural evolution of ,cyclamen latifolium1 ,w4 ,t4 ,thiselton ,dyer finds that1 when once specific stability has been broken down in a plant1 morphological changes of great variety and magnitude can be brought about in a comparatively short space of time4 ,it appears that though sudden variations do occur1 they are1 as far as we know1 slight as long as self-fertilization is adhered to4 ,the striking results obtained by cultivators have been due to the patient accumulation by selection of gradual but continuous variation in any desired direction4 ,the size which any variable organ can reach does not appear to be governed by any principle of correlation4 ,large flowers are not necessarily accompanied by large leaves4 ,the general tendency of a plant varying freely under artificial conditions seems to be atavistic--or to shed adaptive modifications which have ceased to be useful1 and to revert to a more generalized type1 or to reproduce characters which are already present in other members of the same group4 ,but this statement must be accepted with caution4 ,the most remarkable phenomenon in the cultivation of the ,cyclamen is the development of a plume or crest on the inner surface of each corolla segment4 ,this shows that the plant still possesses the power to strike out a new line and to develop characters which would even be regarded as having specific value4 ,hanging an ,elephant4--,one of the elephants in ,barnum and ,bailey's show1 having repeatedly shown signs of insubordination and bad temper1 it was finally decided to kill him4 ,from a note in ,nature we get the following account of his execution3 ,after considerable discussion it was decided to strangle him4 ,a new ,manila rope was loosely wound three times around his neck1 and his legs1 fully stridden1 were securely chained each to a post firmly driven into the ground alongside each limb4 ,the animal was intentionally not isolated from his fellows1 as it was feared that if placed by itself it would become restive and ill-tempered4 ,the rope surrounding the beast's neck had one end secured to three strong pillars in the ground1 some distance away and slightly in advance of the fore feet2 and the other1 which terminated in a loop1 was hooked to a double series of pulleys1 to the tackle of which ninety men were attached4 ,when all was ready1 the slack was gently1 quietly1 and without any apparent annoyance to the elephant--which kept on eating hay--taken in till the coils round its neck were just taut4 ,the word was then given1 ,walk away with the rope4 ,amid perfect silence the ninety men walked away1 without apparently any effort4 ,so noiselessly and easily did everything work that1 unless with foreknowledge of what was going to take place1 one might have been present without realizing what the march of these men meant4 ,the elephant gave no sign of discomfort either by trunk or tail4 ,its fellows standing close by looked on in pachydermatous unconcern1 and at the end of exactly thirty seconds it slowly collapsed and lay down as if of its own accord4 ,there was absolutely no struggle and no motion1 violent or otherwise1 in any part of the body1 nor the slightest indication of pain4 ,in a few seconds more there was no response obtained by touching the eyeball4 ,at the end of thirteen minutes after the order to walk away the eye had become rigid and dim4 ,that no more humane1 painless1 and rapid method of taking the life of a large animal could be devised was the opinion of all the experts who witnessed the execution4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,count ,gleichen relates1 in his story of the mission to ,menelek1 that besides the ,maria ,theresa #aghj dollars1 the people of ,abyssinia1 for small change1 use a bar of hard crystallized salt1 about ten inches long and two inches and a half broad and thick1 slightly tapered toward the end1 five of which go to the dollar at the capital4 ,people are very particular about the standard of fineness of the currency4 ,if it does not ring like metal when flicked with the finger nail1 or if it is cracked or chipped1 they won't take it4 ,it is a token of affection also1 when friends meet1 to give each other a lick of their respective amolis1 and in this way the material value of the bar is also decreased4 ,for still smaller change cartridges are used1 of which three go to one salt4 ,it does not matter what sort they are4 ,some sharpers use their cartridges in the ordinary way1 and then put in some dust and a dummy bullet to make up the difference1 or else they take out the powder and put the bullet in again1 so that possibly in the next action the unhappy seller will find that he has only miss-fires in his belt2 but this is such a common fraud that no one takes any notice of it1 and a bad cartridge seems to serve as readily as a good one4 ,a study of problems in the ,psychology of ,reading1 by ,j4 ,o4 ,quantz1 bore upon the questions of the factors which make a rapid reader1 the relations of rapidity to mental capacity and alertness1 quickness of visual perception1 and amount of practice2 and whether those who gain their knowledge principally through the eye or through the ear obtain and retain most from reading4 ,the author finds that colors are more easily perceived than geometrical forms1 isolated words than colors1 and words in construction than disconnected words2 that persons of visual type are slightly more rapid readers than those of the auditory type2 that rapid readers1 besides doing their work in less time1 do superior work1 retaining more of the substance of what is read and heard than do slow readers4 ,lip movement is a serious hindrance to speed1 and consequently to intelligence1 of reading4 ,the disadvantage extends to reading aloud4 ,apart from external conditions1 such as time of day1 physical fatigue1 etc41 some of the influences contributing to rapidity of reading are largely physiological1 as visual perception2 others are of mental endowment1 as alertness of mind2 still others are matters of intellectual equipment rather than intellectual ability1 as extent of reading and scholarly attainment4 ,mr4 ,merton ,l4 ,miller1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 says1 in his preliminary study of the ,pueblo of ,taos1 ,new ,mexico1 that he was hampered in his researches there by a circumstance that illustrates very well certain characteristics of the ,indian4 ,about fifteen years ago representatives of the ,government were at ,sia making investigations1 and had to ask many questions4 ,some time after they went away there was much sickness in the pueblo1 and many people died4 ,it occurred to the ,sia people that the presence of those white men1 asking so many questions1 was the cause of all their trouble2 so they sent men to the other pueblos to warn them against white men who came to find out about their customs and beliefs4 ,these messengers also came to ,taos1 and the people remembered their warning well4 ,if a ,taos ,indian is caught now teaching the language or telling any of the traditions to a white man1 he is liable to a whipping and a fine4 ,this1 ,mr4 ,miller believes1 accounts for the fact that he could rarely learn anything from his friend when they were at the pueblo1 although when away in the mountains he became much more open and communicative4 ,,notes4 ,the cigarette has found friends4 ,the ,truth about ,cigarettes embodies the substance of papers read and discussed at the ,medico-legal ,society of ,new ,york4 ,the gist of the papers is to the effect that the stories of harm done by cigarettes are fictions or gross exaggerations2 that they contain no opium1 arsenic1 or other poisons1 but are the best pure tobacco 7#a4jibf grammes each7 wrapped in pure paper 7#j4jch gramme72 that they never caused a case of insanity2 and that they are simply injurious in the same way and to a corresponding extent as other forms of tobacco4 ,these statements are supported by certificates of physicians and by reviews of special cases of insanity charged to cigarettes1 showing that the insanity had matured independently of them4 ,the average annual temperature at ,manila is given by ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,r4 ,phillips1 in a paper on the subject1 as #hj ,f4 ,april1 ,may1 and ,june are the hottest months1 ,may being the hottest of the three1 and ,december and ,january are the coolest4 ,the highest thermometer reading recorded is #ajj ,f4 in ,may1 and the lowest #gd in ,january4 ,the average annual rainfall is #ge4dc inches1 more than #hj per cent of which descends in the months from ,june to ,october1 inclusive4 ,departures from the average rainfall are sometimes excessive4 ,for example1 as much as #abj4ih inches have fallen in one year1 and as little as #ce4fe inches in another4 ,still more remarkable were the fall of #fa4dc inches in one ,september1 and that of only two inches in another ,september4 ,at the observatory of ,yale ,university1 as we learn from the annual report1 a planned series of twelve measures each has been completed for eighty-four stars of large1 proper motion1 with a view to determinations of parallax1 and it is expected shortly to bring the number up to one hundred4 ,a series of measures on highly colored red stars has been begun1 and is in progress for the purpose of testing the possibility of a systematic error due to the lesser refrangibility of their light4 ,the photographic instrument has been put into use at every suitable period of meteorological displays of consequence4 ,preparations are already making for a more complete observation of the ,leonid meteoric shower expected in #ahii4 ,the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,forestry1 in connection with ,cornell ,university1 was presented by ,professor ,fernow1 at the ,boston meeting of the ,american ,association1 as a logical sequence to the policy to which the ,state of ,new ,york was committed in #ahhe by the purchase of more than a million acres of forest land in the ,adirondack ,mountains1 to be gradually increased to three million acres4 ,a demonstration area of thirty thousand acres in the ,adirondacks has since been provided for it4 ,the courses leading to the degree of ,bachelor in ,forestry occupy four years1 of which the first two are devoted to the studies in which mathematics1 physics1 chemistry1 geology1 botany1 entomology1 political economy1 etc41 figure as fundamental and supplementary sciences1 in addition to the professional courses2 besides which two courses of a more or less popular character are contemplated4 ,the discovery is announced in a preliminary communication by ,dr4 ,issutschenko1 of ,russia1 of a microbe pathogenic to rats4 ,an epidemic having broken out among the rats kept for experimental purposes in the ,government ,agricultural ,laboratory1 a bacillus was isolated from the liver and spleen of affected animals that proved excessively fatal to rats and mice4 ,experiments in making the organism useful as a living rat poison have not yet1 however1 had an encouraging success4 ,new ,zealand has just definitely adopted a scheme of old-age pensions4 ,in future the ,new ,zealand workingman of sixty-five years of age1 who has lived a life of honest toil1 will be assured an income of one pound a week4 ,the ,wilde prize of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences has been awarded by that body to ,charles ,a4 ,schott1 chief of the ,computation ,division of the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 for his work on ,terrestrial ,magnetism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,obvious typographical errors were repaired4 ,archaic spellings retained4 ,illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the text4 ,latin-#a file3 ,p4#baa1 ,marianne ,chernyak2 original placed a macron over the a in ,chernyak4 ,latin-#a file3 ,under ,general ,notices1 ,the ,parallaxes of #faa and #fab ,cygni2 indicates a superscript of the number following4