,transcrib]'s note3 ,spell+ & punctuation inconsi/5cies be5 h>moniz$4 ,obvi\s pr9t] errors h be5 repair$4 ,italic text has be5 m>k$ ) und]scores4 ,bold text has be5 m>k$ ) equal signs4 ,subscript numb]s h be5 r5d]$1 z = example = subscript #b1 z #b4 ,,lea!r ,common ,commodities & ,indu/ries ,s]ies ,ea* book 9 cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 ) _m illu/rations1 *>ts1 etc4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,tea3 ,f ,gr[] to ,consum]4 ,by ,a4 ,ibbetson4 ,c(fee3 ,f ,gr[] to ,consum]4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,keable4 ,sug>3 ,cane & ,beet4 ,by ,geo4 ,m>t9eau1 ,c4,b4 ,cotton3 ,f ! ,raw ,mat]ial to ! ,f9i%$ ,product4 ,by ,r4 ,j4 ,peake4 ,rubb]3 ,production & ,utilisation ( ! ,raw ,product4 ,by ,c4 ,beadle & ,h4 ,p4 ,/ev5s1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,iron & ,/eel3 ,_! ,production & ,manufacture4 ,by ,c4 ,hood4 ,silk3 ,its ,production & ,manufacture4 ,by ,lu!r ,hoop]4 ,tobacco3 ,f ,gr[] to ,smok]4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,tann]4 ,wool3 ,f ! ,raw ,mat]ial to ! ,f9i%$ ,product4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,hunt]4 ,coal3 ,its ,orig91 ,me?od ( ,work+1 & ,prep>ation = ! ,m>ket4 ,by ,francis ,h4 ,wilson1 ,m4 ,in/4 ,m4,e4 ,l953 ,f ! ,field to ! ,f9i%$ ,product4 ,by ,alfr$ ,s4 ,moore4 ,timb]3 ,f ! ,=e/ to its ,use 9 ,comm]ce4 ,by ,william ,bullock4 ,clays & ,clay ,products4 ,by ,a4 ,b4 ,se>le4 ,lea!r3 ,f ! ,raw ,mat]ial to ! ,f9i%$ ,product4 ,by ,k4 ,j4 ,adcock4 ,oils3 ,animal1 ,vegetable1 ,ess5tial1 & ,m9]al4 ,by ,c4 ,a9swor? ,mit*ell1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,:eat & its ,products4 ,by ,a4 ,mill>4 ,copp]3 ,f ! ,ore to ! ,metal4 ,by ,h4 ,k4 ,pic>d1 ,assoc4 ,royal ,s*ool ( ,m9es1 ,mem4 ,in/4 ( ,m94 & ,met4 ,pap]3 ,its ,hi/ory1 ,s\rces1 & ,production4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,maddox4 ,glass & ,glass ,manufacture4 ,by ,p]cival ,m>son4 ,soap3 ,its ,composition1 ,manufacture1 & ,prop]ties4 ,by ,william ,h4 ,simmons4 ,! ,motor ,indu/ry4 ,by ,horace ,wyatt1 ,b4,a4 ,! ,boot & ,%oe ,indu/ry4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,h>d+4 ,gums & ,res9s4 ,by ,erne/ ,j4 ,p>ry4 ,furniture4 ,by ,h4 ,e4 ,b9/ead4 ,o!r ,volumes 9 prep>ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,blea*+ ,,oil-,,tann$ ,,lea!r ,,by ,,exposure ,,to ,,! ,,sun ,! ,ros>y ,lea!r ,mills4 ,a%tead ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,& ,,indu/ries ,,lea!r ,,f ,,! ,,raw ,,mat]ial ,,to ,,! ,,f9i%$ ,,product ,,by ,k4 ,j4 ,,adcock ,,london ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 #a ,,am5 ,,corn]1 ,e4,c4#d ,,ba?1 ,,melb\rne ,,& ,,new ,,york ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,london1 ,,ba?1 ,,melb\rne ,,& ,,new ,,york ,,cont5ts ,,*ap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,evolution ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture #a ,,ii4 ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s #e ,,iii4 ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials #cb ,,iv4 ,,ma*9]y #eb ,v4 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s ,,= ,,tann+ #fb ,,vi4 ,,tann+ ,,processes #ia ,,vii4 ,,dress+1 ,,dye+1 ,,& ,,f9i%+ ,,( ,,lea!r #aab ,,index #aei ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,page ,,blea*+ ,,oil-,,tann$ ,,lea!r ,frontispiece ,,me*anical ,,flay+ #bc ,,pim',s ,,sy/em ,,( ,,flay+ #bd ,,w>ble ,,fly #bh ,,w>bl$ ,,kip 7#ehd ,,holes7 #bi ,,w>bl$ ,,hide 7,,magnifi$7 #cj ,,tann+ ,,extract ,,plant #dh ,,%av+ ,,cyl9d] #ec ,,blad$ ,,cyl9d] ,,= ,,buff+ #ed ,,b&-,,knife ,,splitt+ ,,ma*9e #ed ,,%av+ ,,knife #ee ,,%av+ ,,ma*9e bet4 pp4 #ef #eg ,,%av+1 ,,old ,,me?od #ef ,,%av+ ,,ma*9e1 ,,knife ,,gu>d #ei ,,%av+ ,,ma*9e #fa ,,drum ,,tumbl] #fg ,,fall] ,,/ocks #fg ,,tann]',s ,,beam #fh ,,lime ,,y>d #gc ,,dehair+ ,,knife #hj ,,dehair+ ,,& ,,fle%+ ,,ma*9e #ha ,,fle%+ ,,knife #hc ,,scudd+ ,,knife #hf ,,b>k ,,mill #ic ,,tan-,,y>d #id ,,r\nd+ ,,( ,,hides #ie ,,b>komet] #ig ,,paddle ,,vat #ajc ,,p9n+ ,,sole ,,butts #aba ,,roll+ ,,ma*9e #abb ,,roll+ ,,sole ,,lea!r #abc ,,fan ,,= ,,dry+ #abd ,,fan ,,fix$ ,,9 ,,*amb] #abe ,,sutcliffe ,,sy/em ,,( ,,dry+ #abf ,,sleek] #abh ,,fluff+ ,,ma*9e #abi ,,/rik+-,,out ,,& ,,sc\r+ ,,ma*9e #acj ,,lea!r-,,/uff+ ,,drum #ace ,,/ak+ ,,& ,,glaz+ ,,ma*9e #adc ,,lea!r ,,*apt] ,i ,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture ,be=e describ+ ! mak+ ( lea!r by up-to-date me?ods1 x may be useful to attempt to outl9e ! evolution ( ! anci5t art ( tann+ & dye+ sk9s4 ,z ev]yone kn[s1 lea!r is ! pres]v$ sk9 ( v>i\s animals1 b ! orig9 ( ! conv]sion ( raw sk9s into an imputrescible mat]ial w probably nev] be trac$1 & x c only be assum$ t ! processes necess>y to produce lea!r f sk9s 7 gradually &1 9 mo/ cases1 accid5tally discov]$4 ,long be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 ! anci5t ,egyptians _h succe$$ 9 br++ ! manufacture ( lea!r to rem>kable p]fection1 &1 _h !y at _! s]vice ! wond]ful ma*9]y n[ available to ! lea!r indu/ry1 x is c]ta9 t _! productions w\ld h lo/ little or no?+ by comp>ison ) mod]n lea!r4 ,happily1 specim5s ( anci5t ,egyptian lea!r h be5 pres]v$ 9 "o national museum1 &1 al?\gh !y are said to h be5 made at lea/ #c1jjj ye>s ago1 ! col\r & natural /r5g? ( ! lea!r are unimpair$4 ,judg+ by ! advanc$ /ate ( ! art ( lea!r manufacture 9 ! e>ly ,egyptian p]iod1 x is obvi\s t ! orig9 ( its manufacture mu/ h consid]ably ant$at$ t p]iod1 &1 inde$1 x w\ld be necess>y to g back almo/ to ! creation ( man to f9d ! orig9 ( ! use ( pres]v$ animal sk9s = clo?+4 ,! primitive me?od w\ld naturally consi/ ( simply dry+ ! sk91 9 :i* condition x w\ld keep = _m ye>s unless x came into contact ) moi/ure1 ?\gh its horn9ess w\ld no d\bt cause ! we>] mu* discom=t4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! we>+ ( dri$ raw sk9s ) ! hair left on 0 impracticable1 = ev5 to-day "s ( ! sk9s ( fur-be>+ animals us$ = p]sonal adornm5t are cur$ 9 ?is primitive way1 ) ! additional treatm5t ) nap?al5e = dis9fect+ purposes & keep+ away injuri\s insects & mo?s1 ! object ( ! limit$ am\nt ( dress+ be+ to pres]ve ! natural /r5g? & coloration ( ! fur4 ,9 su* a condition1 h[ev]1 ! sk9s are liable to acquire an unpleasant od\r1 & = hygi5ic reasons x is advisable t all sk9s 9 ! hair us$ = clo?+ or rugs %\ld be prop]ly dress$1 s t no decay sets 9 to loos5 ! hair or fur4 ,ev5 n[1 ! process ( simply dry+ hides & sk9s to pres]ve !m be=e s5d+ !m to ! tann] is l>gely practis$1 especially 9 hot climates & 9 ^? c\ntries :]e salt is n readily available4 ,?is process ( cur+ re/s on ! *emical !ory ( dehydration1 :i*1 9 a modifi$ =m1 has rec5tly be5 successfully appli$ to "s exp]im5ts 9 mak+ lea!r4 ,f9d+ t ! simple dry+ ( sk9s w\ld n prop]ly prep>e !m = clo?+1 primeval man w\ld naturally look = "s means ( treat+ !m to cons]ve _! orig9al s(tness & pliability1 & ! ne>e/ sub/ances at h& w\ld be animal fats & bra9s4 ,x is almo/ safe to assume t ?is process 0 ! fir/ by :i* hides 7 pres]v$ 9 a /ate diff]+ f _! orig9al condition1 ! oxidation ( ! fatty matt]s naturally produc+ a p>tial tannage4 ,! effect ( smoke may also h be5 discov]$ 9 ! e>lie/ days ( sk9-cur+1 & x is report$ t ev5 n[ "o or two tribes use smoke to pres]ve sk9s4 ,! some:at imp]fect pres]vation ( ! hides by ?is me?od w\ld lead to fur!r exp]im5ts be+ made1 :i* evid5tly result$ 9 ! discov]y ( ! tann+ effect ( leaves1 twigs1 & b>ks ( trees :5 soak$ 9 wat]4 ,x may be t ! pres]vative effect ( alum 0 discov]$ ev5 be=e ! vegetable tann+ process1 = ! orig9al ,japanese :ite lea!r 0 made simply by /eep+ ! raw hides 9 c]ta9 riv]s :i* conta9$ a b$-rock ( alum4 ,?is primitive process is ev5 foll[$ to-day 9 "o or two places 9 ,japan1 b ! lea!r is aft]w>ds treat$ ) oil to imp>t t5sile /r5g? & increas$ suppl5ess4 ,/rictly speak+1 ^! hides are n lea!r :5 f9i%$1 & !y are q unsuitable = boots2 b1 be+ ! t\ghe/ mat]ial kn[n 9 ! lea!r trade1 ) ! possible exception ( raw hide1 x is p>ticul>ly suitable & *iefly us$ = brace ends1 & occasionally = ladies' belts4 ,x mu/ n be inf]r$ f ref]5ce to ?is process t ! ,japanese only use ?is e>lie/ me?od ( mak+ lea!r2 on ! contr>y1 !y are produc+ all classes ( lea!r1 & especially belt+ & sole1 by mod]n ,european me?ods1 & x may n be long be=e _! competition ) ,am]ican & ,european productions becomes an accompli%$ fact4 ,! available in=mation seems to %[ t1 until ab\t ?irty ye>s ago1 ! developm5t ( ! indu/ry 0 ma9ly ! result ( accid5tal discov]ies1 & t ! !ory ( tann+ & lea!r-dress+ 0 imp]fectly und]/ood until )9 q rec5t times4 ,records ( ! lea!r trade #cjj ye>s ago prove t ! me?ods !n 9 vogue 7 ( ! rude/ k9d2 fur!r1 !y %[ t ! practice ( skimp+ ! tann+ process 0 n unkn[n 9 ^? days1 = a contemporane\s au?or describes ! horny condition ( "s ( ! lea!r :i*1 despite ! ,gov]nm5t inspection1 appe>$ to h pass$ into ! old ,lead5hall m>ket = sale by ! simple op]ation ( greas+ ! fi/ ( ! sell]4 ,spa9 & ,hung>y _h by t "t e/abli%$ ! manufacture ( morocco & curri$ lea!r on a fairly s\nd basis1 :ile a few ye>s lat] ,france began to develop ! indu/ry ( lea!r manufacture4 ,until ab\t tw5ty ye>s ago1 wax$ calf1 crup1 calf kid1 & alum-tann$ kid 7 /aple upp] lea!rs1 toge!r ) ! old ,spani% cordovan lea!r4 ,! sole lea!r us$ 9 ,engl& 0 *iefly ! output ( tann]ies 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,ab\t tw5ty ye>s ago1 h[ev]1 ! successful application ( ! *rome tann+ process caus$ q a revolution 9 ! lea!r trade1 ) ! result t ab\t n9e-t5?s ( ! _w's production ( boot upp] lea!r is *rome-tann$4 ,! introduction ( ?is process on a practical scale gave a great impetus to ! "w ( *emi/s1 :o h s9ce made "s rem>kable discov]ies & h plac$ ! art ( lea!r manufacture on a sci5tific basis4 ,! old me?ods1 h[ev]1 are by no means obsolete1 & x is some:at rem>kable to f9d t a ,briti% pat5t 0 tak5 out la/ ye> 7#aiad7 = conv]t+ hides & sk9s into lea!r by treat+ !m ) bra9s & smoke4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s ,! hides & sk9s ( animals =m ! pr9cipal raw mat]ial ( ! tann]4 ,te*nically1 ! t]m hides is appli$ to ! sk9s ( ! l>g] animals1 :ile ! ^w sk9s is us$ 9 ! case ( ! small] animals4 ,?us1 ! tann] speaks ( ox1 c[1 bull & horse hides1 & ( calf1 %eep1 & goat sk9s4 ,!re is an int]m$iate size betwe5 a full-gr[n calf sk9 & a small hide1 & ?is is kn[n z a kip1 b ! l9e ( dem>cation is n v cle>4 ,buy]s (t5 settle ! difficulty by exam9+ ! gr[? m>ks & ! irregul> sub/ance ( ! sk91 &1 if ^! are m>k$ features1 x is classifi$ z a kip4 ,! condition ( ! hides ( cattle is usually inf]ior dur+ ! six mon?s aft] ! animal has become a ye>l+4 ,ea/ ,india tann$ hides1 :i* are l>gely import$ into ,engl&1 are frequ5tly describ$ z ,e4,i4 kips 9 ! trade4 ,?is is h>dly accurate1 b ! mi/ake is probably due to ! small size ( full-gr[n ,indian hides1 :i* are v little l>g] ?an ! av]age ,european kips4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t furri]s always ref] to bo? _! raw mat]ial & ! f9i%$ product z sk9s1 irrespective ( ! size ( ! fur-be>+ animals4 ,mo/ ( ! sk9s ( wild animals are dress$ )\t remov+ ! hair or fur1 & ?is is q a di/9ct trade f lea!r manufacture1 ! only exception be+ ! dress+ ( closely cut & f9e-hair$ calf sk9s = slipp]s & fancy articles4 ,practically e c\ntry 9 ! _w contributes to ! supply ( hides & sk9s1 b !re are a few c\ntries :i* are f> 9 advance ( ! o!rs 9 ! indu/ries ( cattle & %eep-rais+4 ,! s\rces ( tann]s' raw mat]ial h und]gone great *anges s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( freez+ & *ill+ /ores = ! prep>ation ( meat = export1 & ! m>ket prices ( hides are to a l>ge ext5t controll$ by ! supply 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,au/ralia4 ,:e!r or n ! conc5tration ( ^! huge meat works into two or ?ree c5tres is likely to b5efit ! lea!r trade is a debatable po9t4 ,! flay+1 trimm+1 & cur+ ( hides 9 ^! e/abli%m5ts are c]ta9ly sup]ior to ! "w done by ! av]age but*]1 :ile1 ow+ to ! l>ge numb]s ( cattle slaught]$1 ! hides c be closely select$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! value ( hides & sk9s has ris5 enorm\sly 9 ! la/ decade1 ! p]iod co9cid5t ) ! rapid gr[? ( ! *ill$ & froz5 meat indu/ry1 b ! increas$ use ( lea!r 9 _m directions may be ma9ly responsible = ! high] co/ ( ! raw mat]ial1 al?\gh x is obvi\s t ! conc5tration ( ! *ief supplies ( hides 9 a few l&s mu/ t5d to increase ! sev]ity ( ! competition among buy]s4 ,ap>t f ! high prices ( ! hides1 ! conc5tration ( ! meat indu/ry 9 l>ge *ill+ & freez+ works has _h ! effect ( increas+ ! prices ( beef & mutton1 :i* are n[ high] 9 price ?an fre%ly-kill$ ,engli% meat 0 a few ye>s ago4 ,x appe>s to h be5 a grave error on ! "p ( ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t :5 !y /opp$ ! imports ( live cattle ow+ to ! fe> ( foot-&-m\? disease be+ communicat$ to dome/ic h]ds4 ,! disease has brok5 out 9 sev]al places s9ce ! emb>go 0 impos$1 s t ! !ory t ! infection 0 only c>ri$ by import$ live cattle has be5 cle>ly disprov$4 ,! but*]+ ( cattle provides a l>ge am\nt ( "w 9 subsidi>y indu/ries1 & ! ,gov]nm5t emb>go on ! importation ( live cattle has caus$ a great deal ( di/ress 9 ,dept=d & ,birk5head1 :]e l>ge abattoirs 7 erect$ = ! reception ( live cattle1 :i* us$ to be import$ 9 fairly l>ge numb]s4 ,!re is no dang] ( foot-&-m\? disease gett+ beyond ! abattoirs or ( ! slaught] ( diseas$ cattle = food1 & bo? tann]s & but*]s hope to see ! removal ( ! emb>go4 ,s f> z possible1 ea* c\ntry %\ld raise its own cattle to provide its own meat supply1 & ?is pr9ciple is recognis$ by _m c\ntries :i* prohibit ! import ( =eign meat3 b1 ow+ to ! rapid gr[? ( populations 9 indu/rial c\ntries1 ) ! consequ5t increase 9 ! value ( l&1 x has become impracticable to raise en\gh cattle to supply dome/ic ne$s4 ,ev5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 :i* =m]ly _h a great cattle-rais+ indu/ry1 has lately be5 oblig$ to import live cattle to meet ! requirem5ts ( its inhabitants4 ,simil> conditions prevail almo/ ?r\gh\t ,europe1 & tann]s h to look to ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & ,africa = l>ge supplies ( raw hides1 al?\gh !re are /ill "s tann]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom :o use only ! hides produc$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! bulk ( ! production ( hides & sk9s 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom is dispos$ ( at weekly public auctions 9 ! pr9cipal t[ns3 ,london1 ,man*e/]1 ,liv]pool1 ,le$s1 ,birm+ham1 ,newca/le1 & ,glasg[ be+ ! l>ge/ c5tres ( di/ribution4 ,h[ev]1 !re is /ill a l>ge quantity b\ght by private treaty1 & op9ions are divid$ z to :i* is ! bett] me?od ( buy+4 ,be=e ! e/abli%m5t ( public auctions1 hides 7 v *eap1 b tann]s 7 unable to get a good selection1 al?\gh1 = sole lea!r1 t 0 n a v important matt]4 ,public auctions h become s firmly e/abli%$ t x w\ld be impossible = tann]s to rev]t to ! old sy/em ev5 if !y desir$ x4 ,! competition ( private buy]s ) ! auction m>kets has c]ta9ly b5efit$ ! but*] at ! exp5se ( ! tann]1 & ! weigh+ & classification ( hides ultimately became s irregul> 9 _m m>kets t ! ,tann]s' ,f$]ation ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom _h to take /rong action n long ago to protect _! int]e/s4 ,!y dem&$ ! appo9tm5t ( an indep5d5t inspector at ea* m>ket to *eck ! weigh+ & sort+ ( ! hides1 b ?is 0 successfully resi/$ by ! m>ket proprietors1 :o ev5tually agre$ to ! tann]s appo9t+ travell+ inspectors to visit ! m>kets p]iodically4 ,! sy/em is said to h improv$ matt]s4 ,! ,engli% m>kets d n collect en\gh hides to p]mit _! close sort+1 s t1 :ile ! hides are grad$ accord+ to weight & quality & ! sex ( ! animal1 ! "q ( v>y+ sub/ances is g5]ally ignor$4 ,!re is usually a diff]5ce ( #aj lb4 9 ea* class :]e ! hides are sort$ by weight ,ox1 c[1 heif]1 & bull hides are sold sep>ately1 z ea* sort has a diff]5t value4 ,bull hides are comp>atively poor 9 quality1 ow+ to _! irregul> sub/ance & /rong gr[? m>ks 9 ! neck4 ,ox hides are ! mo/ suitable = sole lea!r & belt+1 :ile c[s' & heif]s' are us$ ma9ly = dress+ hides1 :i* are f9i%$ into bag1 case1 /rap1 & boot lea!rs4 ,! hides kn[n z ,scot* & ,h]e=d runts are ! be/ ( ^? produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 z !y are well-gr[n1 compact1 & well-suit$ to ! mak+ ( sole lea!r & belt+4 ,! grad+ ( ! weight ( ^! hides at ! auction m>kets is g5]ally z foll[s3 #ajj lb4 & above1 #ij-ii lb41 #hj-hi lb41 #gj-gi lb41 #fj-fi lb41 #ei lb4 & less4 ,?is does n give an ideal classification1 z hides v>y s mu* 9 texture & sub/ance1 & x is q possible to f9d spready hides ( poor sub/ance & quality :i* w\ld be heavi] ?an a small b compact & well-gr[n hide4 ,x w\ld be bett] f ! tann]'s po9t ( view if ! hides 7 select$ accord+ to sub/ance & quality4 ,!re are n _m bull hides gr[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 & 9 _m m>kets !y are n class$ by weight b simply into be/ & second>y qualities4 ,horse hides are ( ev5 less value ?an ^? ( bulls1 ow+ to _! weak] texture & irregul> sub/ance4 ,t "p ( ! sk9 "u ! mane is almo/ wor?less1 :ile ! flanks & sides are only useful = a second>y class ( boot upp] lea!r1 al?\gh "s fairly good pat5t sides h lately be5 produc$ f horse hide1 :i* is suitable = t purpose ow+ to its s(t gra9 & pliable texture :5 tann$4 ,! mo/ valuable "p ( a horse hide is ! butt1 :i* consi/s ( ! "p kn[n z ! %ell4 ,?is %ell is cov]$ ) an extremely f9e gra9 :i* is n f\nd 9 any o!r "p ( ! hide4 ,! well-kn[n crup lea!r is made f ! %ell ( ! horse hide4 ,9 addition to hides1 !re are fairly l>ge quantities ( calf & %eep sk9s sold at ! weekly auctions1 b veal is n su* an important article ( food 9 ,engl& z x is on ! ,cont95t4 ,%eep sk9s are f> m num]\s1 z ,great ,brita9 is a big mutton-consum+ c\ntry4 ,home supplies ( bo? hides & sk9s h be5 greatly r$uc$1 h[ev]1 by ! imm5se import ( froz5 & *ill$ meat4 ,al?\gh ! dome/ic supply ( hides & sk9s is q inadequate to meet ! ne$s ( ,briti% tann]s1 a l>ge proportion is export$4 ,am]ican tann]s buy l>ge quantities ( ! be/ hides & pickl$ %eep sk9s4 ,! latt] are dewooll$ & pres]v$ by a process ( pickl+ ) =mic or sulphuric acid & salt be=e exportation4 ,^? prelim9>y op]ations are ! "w ( ! fellmong]4 ,ne>ly all ( ! horse hides produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom are1 or 7 be=e ! ,w>1 s5t to ,g]many1 & ,briti% lea!r-dress]s appe> to h lo/ ! art ( f9i%+ horse hide1 or are unable to conv]t x into lea!r pr(itably4 ,! int]*ange ( raw hides betwe5 v>i\s c\ntries1 & ev5 betwe5 ^? :]e lea!r manufacture is an important indu/ry1 is some:at rem>kable1 & only goes to prove t ! conc5tration ( a p>ticul> indu/ry 9 "o or two c5tres ( ! _w gives ^! places a great advantage 9 reg>d to lab\r1 organisation1 & te*nical skill1 ev5 ov] ^? c\ntries :]e ! raw mat]ial is pl5tiful4 ,!oretically & economically x %\ld be advantage\s to e/abli% tann]ies close to ! supply ( raw hides1 s9ce ! latt]1 "u pres5t conditions ( pres]vation1 /eadily det]iorate f ! "t !y are remov$ f ! c>case until !y rea* ! tann]y4 ,9 "s c\ntries ! me?ods ( pres]v+ hides are actually s bad t ! hides h (t5 lo/ half ( _! value be=e ! tann] gets !m4 ,two or ?ree ( ! l>ge/ ,am]ican meat-pack+ e/abli%m5ts h erect$ or tak5 ov] tann]ies to deal ) raw hides1 "o ( _! by-products4 ,tann]ies h also be5 erect$ ne> "s ( ! l>ge meat works 9 ! ,arg5t9e1 b ! developm5t ( ! lea!r trade !re is by no means rapid1 & at pres5t ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica is ! l>ge/ lea!r-produc+ c\ntry 9 ! _w4 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ! ,unit$ ,k+dom come next 9 ! ord] nam$4 ,s\? ,africa is an important s\rce ( supply ( raw mat]ial1 & l>ge quantities ( ,cape hides are s5t to ,engl&4 ,! production ( raw hides !re is likely to be on a v l>ge scale 9 a few ye>s' "t1 z ! rais+ ( ,afrik&] & o!r bre$s ( cattle is sure to become an important indu/ry n[ t ! ravages ( ! t]rible disease1 kn[n z tick1 h be5 *eck$4 ,*9a is ano!r l>ge hide-export+ c\ntry2 mo/ ( ! hides f ?is s\rce are dri$ 9 ! op5 air & are g5]ally ars5icat$ to prev5t ! ravages ( insects4 ,imm5se quantities are also provid$ 9 all o!r popul\s c\ntries1 b ! dem& = lea!r is g5]ally great] ?an ! production ( raw mat]ial 9 ^? c\ntries4 ,india is a notewor?y exception to ?is g5]al rule2 ! production ( ,indian hides is enorm\s1 &1 al?\gh ! lea!r trade is be+ develop$1 !re is a l>ge surplus ( raw hides & sk9s = export4 ,l>ge quantities are r\ghly tann$1 h[ev]1 & export$ to ,engl&1 ,g]many1 ,france1 & o!r ,european c\ntries to be dress$ & f9i%$4 ,! great] proportion ( ^! hides & sk9s is us$ = ! mak+ ( %oe lea!r1 :ile a good quantity is us$ = bag 7hide7 & imitation morocco 7goat7 lea!rs4 ,naturally1 !re is 9 ! aggregate a consid]able supply ( raw hides & sk9s f o!r p>ts ( ! _w 9 addition to t f ! c\ntries specially nam$1 & new s\rces are be+ frequ5tly f\nd4 ,x w\ld be impossible to describe ! *>act]i/ics ( ! num]\s v>ieties ( hides & sk9s except 9 a full-siz$ text-book1 b a brief description ( ! pr9cipal sorts may be giv54 ,"s ( ! v>ieties produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom h already be5 describ$4 ,9 ! ma91 !re is n a great deal ( diff]5ce 9 ! hides ( v>i\s bre$s1 b !re is a type ( well-gr[n & /\t hides specially suitable = sole & belt+ lea!r2 ?is class is kn[n z runts1 & ^! hides are obta9$ f ! ,scot* & ,h]e=d bre$s ( cattle4 ,! ,scot* runts f ! ,highl& cattle are m valuable ?an any o!r class ( hide f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom2 un=tunately1 ! production is small4 ,iri% cattle also yield good hides1 b 9 ,engl& ! int]e/s ( ! cattle own]1 or fe$]1 are 9 conflict ) ^? ( ! tann]1 = ! sy/em ( artificially fatt5+ cattle ) oil cakes t5ds to make ! hides v greasy & weak] 9 ! fibres ?an ^? hides f animals :i* are re>$ on natural food-/uffs4 ,?is grease is v difficult to remove & r$uces ! sell+ value ( sole lea!r by ab\t #b;d4 p] lb4 ,! use ( a borax solution = soak+ p>tially removes ! grease1 :ile x has be5 propos$ t ! pelts %\ld be treat$ ) a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda j be=e plac+ !m 9 ! tan liquors4 ,a drawback ( ! latt] process is t a little weight is lo/ 9 ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,! tr\ble caus$ by ! pres5ce ( a l>ge quantity ( natural grease is ev5 m pron\nc$ 9 %eep sk9s ?an 9 cattle hides4 ,naturally1 a %eep arrives at maturity 9 ab\t two ye>s2 b by ! mod]n sy/em ( int5sive fe$+ ) oily food-/uffs x c be fatt5$ 9 ab\t t5 mon?s4 ,?is is obvi\sly a great advantage to ! %eep-bre$]2 9 o!r respects x is an unsatisfactory me?od1 = ! mutton is n s well matur$1 &1 !re=e1 is n s n\ri%+2 x conta9s too l>ge a proportion ( fat1 & ! sk9s are v greasy & weak 9 fibre4 ,! excess ( grease does n detract f ! value ( ! wool1 & may ev5 be b5eficial4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties ( %eep 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ) widely diff]5t *>act]i/ics4 ,a fellmong] %\ld h a good k ( ! sk9s ( v>i\s bre$s 9 ord] to buy ! p>ticul> sorts t w meet ! requirem5ts ( 8 cu/om]s1 z 8 bus9ess is to sep>ate ! wool f ! sk9s & to supply ! =m] to ! wooll5 factories & ! latt] to ! lea!r-dress]s4 ,he has1 !re=e1 to /udy c>efully bo? ! wool & pelt m>kets4 ,:ile "s bre$s ( %eep yield f9e long wool ( bright lu/re1 o!rs h comp>atively %ort-/apl$1 & kempy wool4 ,betwe5 ^! two classes1 !re are num]\s grades1 & ! task ( sort+ ! v>i\s qualities ( wool 9 ^? fellmong]ies :]e sev]al classes ( sk9s are work$ is by no means easy4 ,x is a g5]ally accept$ axiom t ! pelt 7i4e41 ! sk9 d5ud$ ( wool7 is weak] 9 fibre 9 ^? sk9s :i* yield ! f9e/ & be/ wool4 ,9 support ( ?is1 ! ,wel% m\nta9 %eep may be cit$4 ,?is %eep has %ort1 curly wool1 b its sk9 is t\gh & /rong on ! gra94 ,9 fact1 x is ab\t ! only bre$ suitable = roll] lea!r1 :i* is us$ 9 ! cotton indu/ry = cov]+ ! draw+ roll]s ( sp9n+-ma*9es4 ,mo/ ( ?is lea!r is made 9 ,nor? ,wales1 :5ce x is export$ to e c\ntry :]e ! cotton indu/ry is c>ri$ on4 ,notable exceptions ( ! g5]al rule reg>d+ ! relative qualities ( wool & pelts are f\nd 9 two or ?ree ,engli% v>ieties1 namely3 ! ,l9colns1 ,leice/]s & black-fac$ ,suffolks1 :i* produce bo? f9e wool & l>ge pelts ( good quality4 ,o!r useful ,briti% bre$s are ! ,s\?d[ns1 ,devons1 ,%rop%ires1 ,w5sleydales1 ,scot* black-fac$1 ,cotswolds1 & ,k]rys4 ,( ! import$ v>ieties1 ! ,new ,zeal& & ,cape %eep sk9s are ! be/4 ,! =m]1 pr9cipally m]9o /ock1 n only provide v f9e wool1 b also pelts ( *oice quality & l>ge patt]n4 ,al?\gh ! quality ( ! wool ( ,au/ralian m]9o %eep is little1 if any1 inf]ior to t ( ! ,new ,zeal& type1 ! sk9s are n s good 9 quality1 due1 no d\bt1 to ! hott] climate1 :i* is fav\rable to ! bre$+ ( insects & o!r pe/s :i* damage ! sk9s4 ,! ,cape %eep provide a sk9 :i* is q diff]5t 9 texture f t ( any o!r bre$4 ,x has a c]ta9 loos5ess ( texture & s(tness ( gra9 :i* make x p>ticul>ly suitable = ! manufacture ( glove lea!r4 ,s\? ,am]ica is ano!r l>ge %eep-bre$+ c\ntry2 b ! sk9s ( ?is v>iety are n l>gely import$ into ,engl&1 mo/ ( !m be+ s5t to ,mazamet1 ! great c5tre ( ! fellmong]+ indu/ry 9 ,france4 ,bu5os ,aires sk9s are ! mo/ fav\r$ ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican sk9s1 ow+ to _! l>ge size & good sub/ance4 ,monte ,videos are also v f9e sk9s4 ,smyrnas & ,bagdads are o!r well-kn[n v>ieties1 b !y are g5]ally import$ 9 a r\gh-tann$ condition1 or1 z x is kn[n te*nically1 9 ! cru/4 ,lea!r-dress]s f9i% !m = v>i\s purposes1 b ma9ly = boot & %oe l9+ lea!r4 ,:5 prop]ly tann$ by ! natives1 ^! sk9s produce a supple f9i%1 especially ^? ( ! ,smyrna v>iety4 ,un=tunately1 _m lots are m]ely col\r$ on ! surface ) ! tan liquor1 ) ! result t !y dry h>d & t9ny2 su* p>tially-tann$ lea!r is v difficult to f9i% & is r>ely satisfactory4 ,ev5 :5 ! tannage is complet$ else:]e be=e f9i%+ !m1 !y nev] produce su* good lea!r z sk9s prop]ly tann$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,russia is ano!r important c\ntry = ! production ( all k9ds ( raw hides & sk9s suitable = lea!r manufacture4 ,am]ican tann]s buy v l>gely f ?is m>ket1 & a few ent]pris+ firms ev5 s5d _! own repres5tatives to ! great annual fair held at ,ni%ni ,novgorod1 :]e l>ge quantities ( dri$ hides & sk9s1 besides _m o!r k9ds ( produce1 are (f]$ = sale4 ,briti% tann]s take comp>atively little int]e/ 9 ?is important supply1 b1 z a result ( ! great ,european ,w>1 an increase ( trade betwe5 ,russia & ! ,unit$ ,k+dom is anticipat$1 al?\gh ! ,russian lea!r trade is develop+ rapidly & w absorb increas+ quantities ( native raw mat]ial4 ,except+ a few 9 ,irel&1 raw goat sk9s are n produc$ 9 ,great ,brita94 ,! *ief drawback to goat bre$+ !re is a some:at inexplicable av]sion on ! "p ( ! public to ! fle% ( goats2 al?\gh ano!r reason may be ! de/ructive nature ( ! animals !mselves1 = !y dev\r & uproot any?+ edible t comes 9 _! way4 ,x is1 p]haps1 un=tunate t "s ( ! l>ge areas ( uncultivat$ l& 9 ,great ,brita9 are n giv5 up to ! bre$+ ( goats on a l>ge scale1 s9ce ^! h>dy animals w ?rive on r\gh1 hilly l&s4 ,ap>t f ! value ( ! meat1 x might be a pay+ proposition to re> l>ge h]ds ( goats = ! supply ( milk 7:i* is m n\ri%+ ?an c[s'7 & sk9s4 ,lea!r-dress]s are1 !re=e1 dep5d5t on import$ supplies1 ( :i* ! pr9cipal s\rces are ,india 7,nor?-,we/]n ,di/rict71 ,mexico1 ,arabia1 ,africa1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & sev]al ,european c\ntries4 ,goat sk9s f ! ma9 s\rces ( supply v>y v mu* 9 quality--ev5 ^? produc$ 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,9 ,india1 = example1 sk9s may be obta9$ 9 "s di/ricts :i* c be made into lea!r to sell at ab\t #e;d4 p] squ>e foot2 f ano!r di/rict1 :5 f9i%$ into ! same k9d ( lea!r1 say glaz$ kid1 !y may be wor? #as4 #d;d4#a p] foot4 ,f95ess & cle>ness ( gra9 & good sub/ance are ! ma9 ess5tials ( a fir/-class goat-sk9 lea!r2 un=tunately ^! qualities are r>ely comb9$ 9 "o class ( sk91 & !re is a decid$ surplus ( light ?9 sk9s :i* are h>dly saleable1 ev5 = ladies' %oes4 ,"s ,am]ican %oemak]s ov]come ?is difficulty by pa/+ a piece ( clo? on ! back ( ! sk94 ,9 fairness to ! buy]1 ! boots made ( su* lea!r %\ld be specially m>k$1 z ! we>+ quality ( a back$ ?9 lea!r is n to be comp>$ ) "o naturally /\t4 #a ,x mu/ be und]/ood t1 ow+ to ! w>1 ^! prices h be5 greatly increas$4 ,! sk9s ( goats are us$ = _m purposes besides ! manufacture ( ! fam\s glac kid lea!r2 gloves1 moroccos = bookb9d+1 uphol/]y = furniture1 fancy articles su* z purses1 pocket-books1 bags1 & ladies' belts all require l>ge quantities ( goat & kid sk9s4 ,x may be po9t$ out "h1 h[ev]1 t q n9e-t5?s ( ! s-call$ kid gloves are made ( lamb & %eep sk9s4 ,9 appe>ance1 !re is v little diff]5ce betwe5 ! real kid & ! lamb sk9 gloves1 b ! =m] are m durable & w>m] 9 we> ?an ! latt]4 ,) an enorm\s range ( qualities1 x is a difficult task = ! goat-sk9 dress] to f9d ! mo/ suitable sorts = 8 trade4 ,! sk9s us$ 9 ! glove indu/ry are l>gely obta9$ f ! ,ne> ,ea/]n c\ntries1 ,arabia1 ,au/ria1 ,spa91 & ! ,cape4 ,! selections be/ suit$ to ! mak+ ( glaz$ & pat5t 7japann$7 kid are f\nd 9 ! ,nor?-,we/]n prov9ces ( ,india1 ,brazil1 ,*9a1 ,russia 7especially ! ,asiatic prov9ces71 ,mexico1 ! ,cape1 & ,arabia4 ,! ,indian goats kn[n z ! ,patnas1 :i* are collect$ 9 ! di/rict ( ,beh>1 are commonly suppos$ to be ! be/ 9 ! _w1 *iefly because ( _! f9e gra9 & /\t sub/ance2 b ! be/ ,brazilian & ,mexican sk9s are equally good 9 quality4 ,! be/ moroccos = fancy articles are made f ,cont95tal sk9s1 & 9 ?is respect ,g]many has ! great advantage ( a good supply ( native sk9s4 ,norway & ,spa9 also provide sk9s suitable = real morocco lea!r4 ,a v l>ge quantity ( ,indian-tann$ goat sk9s are import$ into ,european c\ntries & dress$ = morocco lea!r4 ,!re %\ld be a di/9ctive "n = ?is class ( lea!r1 z1 al?\gh x is simil> 9 appe>ance1 x is n ne>ly s good 9 quality z ! real morocco4 ,9 addition to cattle hides1 %eep1 & goat sk9s1 :i* are ! ma9 supply ( raw mat]ial = lea!r1 o!r k9ds ( hides & sk9s are utilis$4 ,horse hides1 :i*1 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 are grad$ accord+ to size & quality 9 f\r or five selections & sold by ! piece1 are l>gely us$ on ! ,cont95t1 & especially 9 ,g]many2 ne>ly all ( ! ,briti% production be+ sold to t c\ntry4 ,:5 *rome tann$1 ^! hides produce q a s]viceable upp] lea!r ( good we>+ quality1 b1 ow+ to _! some:at loose texture1 ! *>act]i/ic gra9 ( box calf _c be reproduc$ naturally1 & ! surface ( ! lea!r has1 !re=e1 to be pr9t$4 ,?is /yle ( f9i%$ lea!r does n meet ) ! fav\r ( ,briti% boot manufactur]s1 & ! indu/ry has n be5 greatly develop$ 9 consequ5ce4 ,9 view ( ! increas+ co/ ( o!r k9ds ( lea!r1 h[ev]1 m att5tion may be paid to t made f horse hide1 b ! supply ( ?is raw mat]ial is v small comp>$ to ! production on ! ,cont95t1 :]e horse fle% is consum$ freely4 ,russia produces l>ge quantities ( horse hides & colt sk9s1 mo/ ( :i* are export$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 :]e !y are made *iefly into japann$1 or s-call$ pat5t1 lea!r1 :i* comm&s a v high price 9 relation to ! co/ ( ! raw mat]ial4 ,next 9 importance to horse hides is ! pig sk91 :i* produces a wond]fully t\gh lea!r4 ,! pig sk9 lea!r indu/ry is *iefly conf9$ to ,scotl& & ,g]many1 ! reason be+ t ! sk9s are left on ! c>cases 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,on ! av]age1 a pig sk9 is wor? ab\t #fs41 yet x is seldom remov$ f ! c>case4 ,"o reason is ! great difficulty ( flay+ ! animal2 x appe>s to be almo/ impossible by pres5t me?ods to remove ! sk9 )\t cutt+ away a l>ge quantity ( fat1 & ! value ( ! sk9 comp>$ to ! loss ( weight ( ! meat (f]s v little inducem5t to remove ! sk91 9 addition to :i*1 ! cu/om ( leav+ ! r9d on bacon & pork effectually prev5ts any attempt at pres5t to increase ! supply ( pig sk9s4 ,?is is a great loss to ! lea!r trade1 = ! pig sk9 is p>ticul>ly suitable = saddles & v>i\s k9ds ( /rong lea!r goods4 ,imitation pig-sk9 lea!r is made f hides1 %\ld]s1 bellies1 or p]sians1 b real pig sk9 is di/+ui%$ f ! imitation by its peculi>ly m>k$ gra91 =m$ ( gr\ps ( ?ree small holes :i* p5etrate well into ! sk9 & =m "p ( ! %ea?s ( ! pig's bri/les4 ,among o!r sk9s useful = lea!r are ^? ( ! wallaby1 kang>oo1 dog1 liz>d1 crocodile1 alligator1 i*neumon1 frog 7,japanese71 de]1 antelope1 & *amois1 :ile x is said t ev5 rabbit sk9s h be5 press$ into s]vice 9 ,g]many1 ?\gh !y _c h mu* value ow+ to _! small size & ?9 sub/ance4 ,dog-sk9 lea!r we>s well1 ma9ly on acc\nt ( ! l>ge am\nt ( natural grease pres5t 9 ! sk91 b ! supplies are naturally small4 ,! hides ( ! walrus1 elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 & o!r wild animals are also tann$ 9 small quantities1 walrus lea!r be+ well adapt$ = knife & sword poli%+4 ,! mammals also contribute _! quota to ! supply ( raw mat]ial ( ! lea!r trade1 ! seal p]haps1 be+ ! mo/ important4 ,?is ref]s to ! hairy seal hunt$ (f ! ,nor? ,am]ican coa/4 ,! raw sk9s are %ipp$ *iefly f ,newf\ndl&1 :]e ! indu/ry ( seal fi%+ is well organis$ & provides employm5t = ab\t #f1jjj m54 ,! seal caught 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean is hairy & q di/9ct f ! fur seal captur$ 9 ! ,arctic ,ocean (f ,alaska4 ,! sk9 ( ! hair seal is only suitable = mak+ into lea!r1 b !re is a lay] ( fat und]nea? x :i* furni%es a valuable raw mat]ial = ! manufacture ( oils & soap4 ,! sk9s are salt$ & %ipp$ to ,am]ica & ,engl&4 ,!y are easily di/+ui%$ f o!r k9ds ( comm]cial hides & sk9s by ! oily appe>ance ( ! fle% side4 ,accord+ to an ,am]ican ,consul> ,report1 ! results ( ! fi%+ dur+ ! season #aiac 7 satisfactory4 ,! total numb] ( seals captur$ 0 #bgb1ife1 :i* 7 valu$ at #ih1hjj4 ,! numb] ( sk9s export$ 0 #bab1bhe1 valu$ at #fd1cjj1 ( :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica b\ght #aea1cee1 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom #fj1ged1 & ,canada #agf4 ,! porpoise1 or sea hog1 has a v useful hide :i*1 :5 dress$1 makes a t\gh lea!r suitable = laces4 ,! hides ( o!r cetace\s mammals1 su* z ! :ale & n>:al1 are conv]tible into useful lea!r4 ,! ,briti% porpoise laces are g5]ally made f ! sk9 ( ! :ite :ale 7beluga74 ,,defects ,,( ,,raw ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s ,a rem>kable feature ( ! lea!r trade is ! great wa/e due to ! c>eless prep>ation ( a l>ge numb] ( hides & sk9s4 ,naturally1 ow+ to _! greatly increas$ value 9 rec5t ye>s1 !re has be5 a decid$ improvem5t1 b mu* loss occurs e day f damage to hides :i* ought to be avoid$4 ,! *ief faults are 9 flay+ & cur+1 b !re are o!r important defects due to natural causes4 ,bad flay+ may be due 7#a7 to cutt+ holes 9 ! hides or sk9s2 7#b7 to scor+ or sid+ 7i4e41 cutt+ into ! hide )\t go+ completely ?r\gh71 ?is g5]ally occurr+ 9 ! flanks or sides :i* are ! mo/ difficult p>ts ( ! hide to remove f ! c>case2 & 7#c7 to mis-%ap+ ! hide1 :i* ought to be left squ>e4 ,any or all ( ^! defects may be f\nd 9 a s+le hide4 ,despite ! active "w ( sev]al proprietors ( hide m>kets & ! tann]s' f$]ations ! proportion ( badly-flay$ hides 9 ,engl& con/itutes a s]i\s loss1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may n fall directly on ei!r ! but*] or ! tann]1 = ! =m] may save 9 wages by employ+ an inexp]i5c$ slaught]man1 :ile ! tann] pays a r$uc$ price = ! hide4 ,! losses due to bad flay+ & cur+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom are ma9ly attributable to ! but*]s' pref]5ce to kill ^! bea/s 9 _! own back-y>d r ?an 9 a public abattoir4 ,_m ( ^! small private slaught]h\ses ought to be condemn$ by ! au?orities2 b v few p outside ^? imm$iately int]e/$ h tak5 ! tr\ble to inspect a mod]n public abattoir :]e ev]y?+ is provid$ to c>ry on ! "w exp$iti\sly & hygi5ically4 ,on ! ,cont95t1 :]e ! cons]vatism ( trad]s is n p]mitt$ to int]f]e ) ! public welf>e to su* an ext5t z x is 9 ,engl&1 public abattoirs h become q a feature 9 _m cities1 & "o ( ! pr9cipal results ( ! sy/em has be5 a rem>kable improvem5t 9 ! prep>ation ( raw hides & sk9s = ! tann]4 ,9 fact1 a me*anical me?od ( flay+ has be5 inv5t$ 9 ,p>is1 & is us$ ext5sively at ! public abattoirs1 by :i* hides are remov$ f cattle )\t a s+le m>k or scrat*4 ,! me?od is kn[n z dp\ille mcanique 7me*anical flay+7 & consi/s 9 =cibly remov+1 by means ( a w9dlass work$ by electric p[]1 ! portions ( hide :i* adh]e firmly to ! c>case & :i* are f\nd ov] ! ribs1 ! buttocks1 & ! tail4 ,! rema9+ "p ( ! hide c be easily remov$ ) ! ord9>y but*]s' flay+ knife or ) a heavy hamm] ( special design4 ,! app>atus requir$ to c>ry out ! me*anical me?od ( flay+1 beyond ! fixtures 9 ! abattoirs :]e ! process is adopt$1 consi/ ( two l5g?s ( *a9 to hold ! c>case firmly1 two special hamm]s1 & "o pair ( /rong p9c]s2 ! co/ ( "o set is ab\t #d4 ,mr4 ,ga/on ,ta9turi]1 ( ,p>is1 is ! inv5tor ( ?is sy/em1 :i* has add$ ?\s&s ( p\nds to ! incomes ( ,p>isian but*]s4 ,figure #a is f a photograph tak5 at ! ,isl+ton 7,london7 ,abattoir1 :]e a demon/ration ( ! process 0 giv5 by ,mr4 ,ta9turi] 9 ,febru>y1 #aiac4 ,naturally1 ?is me?od _c be adopt$ 9 small slaught]h\ses 9 back-y>ds1 b is readily adaptable to public abattoirs1 :]e practically all ( ! heavy "w is done by electrical p[]4 ,?is exemplifies only "o ( sev]al advantages ( mod]n abattoirs ov] private slaught]h\ses4 ,al?\gh x _c be expect$ t ! ,engli% but*]s w readily *ange _! prejudice aga9/ mod]n abattoirs1 !y are sl[ly b gradually improv+ ! flay+ process 9 view ( ! high prices paid = p]fect hides4 ,! mo/ progressive ( ! proprietors ( ! ,engli% hide m>kets are (f]+ money prizes to slaught]m5 = ! be/ flay$ hides4 ,/rictly speak+1 ?is enc\ragem5t %\ld come f ! but*]1 :o receives ! b5efit ( increas$ prices = hides remov$ )\t a scrat*4 ,! ,ta9turi] sy/em1 h[ev]1 gives bett] results1 no matt] h[ well ! hides are remov$ ) ! knife4 ,! me?od is n pat5t$1 & x is op5 to anyone to adopt x m]ely = ! co/ ( ! app>atus1 yet1 despite ?is ga91 no but*] outside ,france & ,belgium has yet adopt$ ! me?od1 al?\gh ! trade is los+ hundr$s ( p\nds e week ?r\gh bad flay+4 ,sev]al o!r sy/ems ( improv$ flay+ h be5 devis$1 & "s ( !m pat5t$1 b v few h be5 adopt$ on a practical scale4 ,"o ( ! mo/ useful consi/s ( fix+ a safegu>d ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* f ! edge ( ! knife2 ?is prev5ts ! possibility ( cutt+ holes into ! hide1 al?\gh x does n1 ( c\rse1 prev5t scor+1 :i* is a s]i\s defect 9 hides made into sole lea!r4 ,a safe me?od is to use a %>p knife ( h>d wood1 su* z hickory1 :i* has be5 successfully tri$ 9 "o ( ! l>ge ,am]ican meat-pack+ e/abli%m5ts4 ,! hides f ^! abattoirs are g5]ally well-flay$1 prop]ly cur$1 & closely trimm$1 ) ! result t !y comm& high] prices ?an any o!r class ( salt$ hides4 ,! quotations = pack] hides are foll[$ ) ke5 int]e/ by tann]s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a ,,me*anical ,,flay+ 7dp\ille mcanique7 ,ano!r useful me?od ( prev5t+ damage to ! hides by cuts ) a knife is t inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,e4 ,pim1 a ,liv]pool hide factor4 ,! app>atus us$ is kn[n z ! tail extractor4 ,x is ( simple con/ruction1 consi/+ ( f\r pieces ( iron rivet$ toge!r loosely 9 ! %ape ( a diamond ) a clamp atta*$ to secure ! tail4 ,! hide is !n =cibly remov$ f ! tail & ! buttocks by pull+ x d[nw>d 7,fig4 #b74 ,! importance ( ?is op]ation c be gaug$ f ! fact t by ! use ( ! but*]'s knife bo? ( ^! p>ts ( ! hide are (t5 cut v badly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,pim',s ,,sy/em ,,( ,,flay+ ,ev5 ! app>5tly trivial matt] ( remov+ ! hide f ! *eeks & face is economically important1 =1 unless ^? p>ts are remov$ s z to get ! maximum surface1 !y are only fit to be cut (f & ?r[n 9 a pit ) o!r pieces & r\nd+s :i* are made into glue4 ,imp]fect pres]vation is ano!r s]i\s =m ( damage to hides & "o t _c be easily rem$i$ 9 "s ( ! hot climates4 ,hides & sk9s may be simply dri$1 salt$ & dri$1 wet-salt$1 treat$ ) ars5ic solution & dri$1 br9$ or pickl$ ) acid & salt2 ( ^! me?ods ! la/-nam$ is ! mo/ effective1 b is n practicable1 or1 at lea/1 has n yet be5 appli$ practically to ! cure ( hides & calf sk9s4 ,salt is n available1 or is too co/ly 9 mo/ tropical c\ntries2 h5ce1 ,*9ese1 ,indian1 ,mexican1 ,colombian1 & ,arabian hides & sk9s are g5]ally export$ 9 a dry condition4 ,ev5 :5 ! hides are dri$ "u ! be/ conditions 9 a cool & %ady place1 !y are ( less value ?an a fre% or a wet-salt$ hide1 ow+ to a c]ta9 loss ( gelat9\s matt] 9 s(t5+ !m be=e !y c be plac$ 9 ! lime liquors4 ,b x n infrequ5tly happ5s t hides are dri$ by exposure to ! hot sun1 or p]haps 9 a /rong curr5t ( air4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! hide is mu* r$uc$ 9 value & may be irrep>ably ru9$4 ,! effect ( submitt+ hides to ^! conditions is t ! ext]ior surface becomes rapidly dry &1 naturally1 contract$1 s t ! air or heat _c rea* ! int]ior1 :i* reta9s moi/ure4 ,?is moi/ inn] lay] may be q ?91 b x conta9s suffici5t nutri5t to develop putrefactive organisms1 s t :5 ! hide is soak$ 9 wat] x practically falls to pieces4 ,! effect ( hot sun or heat ( any k9d is1 ( c\rse1 disa/r\s to raw hides & sk9s1 & !re h be5 n a few claims on %ipp+ companies z ! result ( /or+ hides ne> ! boil]s ( %ips4 ,salt is almo/ inv>iably us$ = cur+ bo? hides & calf sk9s1 b ?\gh x is a good pres]vative x has "o or two m9or defects4 ,x conta9s too mu* wat]1 & is liable to conta9 traces ( iron :i* is inimical to bo? raw hides & lea!r 9 process ( manufacture4 ,common salt is also liable to cause /a9s :i* _c be remov$ 9 lat] processes1 & :i* are ev5 acc5tuat$ 9 ! tan liquors4 ,"o trade *emi/ attributes ^! /a9s to ! pres5ce ( calcium sulphate 7,ca4 ,,s#d7 or gypsum 9 ! salt1 :i* is conv]t$ into calcium phosphate by ! action ( ! phosphoric acid 9 ! nuclei ( ! hide on ! sulphate ( calcium4 ,ano!r well-kn[n te*nical *emi/ is c]ta9 t /a9s are produc$ by ! gr[? ( bact]ia1 & to prove 8 ass]tion prep>$ 9 gelat9e sev]al cultures f salt-/a9$ sk9s4 ,practical m5 g5]ally attribute ! /a9s to ! pres5ce ( blood on ! hides or sk9s at ! "t ( cur+1 & ! majority ( ! /a9s are probably due to ?is cause1 al?\gh ! pres5ce ( calcium sulphate z an impurity ( ! salt w\ld und\bt$ly contribute to ?is defect4 ,blood conta9s a p]c5tage ( iron1 &1 ) o!r extrane\s matt]s1 %\ld be wa%$ f ! hides be=e salt+ !m4 ,=tunately1 *emi/s h lately paid att5tion to ! advantages ( ! use ( pure salt 9 v>i\s indu/ries1 ) ! result t at lea/ two *emically pure products are n[ available4 ,! use ( ^! salts %\ld be g5]al = ! cure ( hides & sk9s1 z !y are q dry1 &1 !re=e1 easily spread4 ,z a cur+ ag5t1 !y are mu* m effective & la/+ ?an common salt4 ,! use ( glaub] salts 7,na#b ,,s#d7 is recomm5d$ by ! ,int]national ,commission = ! ,pres]vation1 ,cure1 & ,dis9fection ( ,hides & ,sk9s in/ead ( ord9>y salt1 :]e ! latt] is unobta9able4 ,! prep>ation ( a /]ilis$ salt1 h[ev]1 r5d]s its export a practical proposition to almo/ any "p ( ! _w4 ,al?\gh ! loss due to bad cur+ & flay+ is v great1 x is q small comp>$ ) ! damage caus$ by natural defects4 ,! ravages ( disease cause a great wa/age ( hides & sk9s1 z animals infect$ ) an?rax are imm$iately de/roy$ & cremat$ 9 all civilis$ c\ntries1 :ile1 9 ,great ,brita91 foot-&-m\? disease is kept 9 *eck by ! same dra/ic me?od4 ,9 _m o!r c\ntries1 ! infect$ cattle are isolat$1 treat$ ) an antiseptic ho(-&-m\? wa% & g5]ally cur$1 z x is a mild fev] :i* soon runs its c\rse1 al?\gh x is v contagi\s4 ,! g]m ( foot-&-m\? disease has n yet be5 discov]$1 = ! mo/ p[]ful microscope fails to reveal its pres5ce1 b cattle readily %[ ! compla9t1 z _! ho(s & m\?s become cov]$ ) swoll5 lesions4 ,ano!r k9d ( fev]1 kn[n z tick1 0 preval5t 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ?is disease 0 ev5tually elim9at$ by sy/ematically dipp+ ! cattle ?ree or f\r times a ye>4 ,! cattle dip us$ effectually prev5t$ ! ravages ( ! fly :i* caus$ ! disease4 ,a simil> me?od has ( late ye>s be5 adopt$ 9 ,s\? ,africa1 ) ! result t cattle-rais+ 9 t c\ntry is develop+ rapidly4 ,an?rax is due to ! pres5ce ( bacillus an?racis1 a vegetable organism ( ,sib]ian orig94 ,dry ,*9ese & ,russian hides are specially liable to conta9 ! spores ( an?rax1 &1 z ! disease proves fatal to workm5 infect$ by x unless treatm5t ) anti-an?rax s]um be giv5 9 ! e>ly /ages1 hides & sk9s f infect$ areas %\ld be dis9fect$ be=e %ipm5t4 ,! me?od propos$ by ,mr4 ,a4 ,seym\r-,jones1 :i* consi/s 9 treat+ hides ) v dilute =mic acid & "o "p ( bi*loride ( m]cury 9 #a1jjj ( wat]1 & aft]w>ds ) a saturat$ solution ( salt solution 74#jb p] c5t47 ( bi*loride ( m]cury1 seems to be ! mo/ effective )\t damag+ ! hides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,w>ble ,,fly 7#a7 ,egg1 7#b7 ,l>va1 7#c & #d7 ,*rysalides1 7#e7 ,natural =m ( fly1 7#f7 ,magnifi$ fly4 ,a peculi> natural defect is f\nd 9 _m ,s\? ,am]ican goat sk9s1 especially ! ,brazilian1 :i* are (t5 badly scrat*$ by ! animals rubb+ !mselves aga9/ cactus plants4 ,al?\gh1 p]haps1 m ( an artificial ?an a natural defect1 ! scrat*es caus$ by cattle rubb+ _! hides aga9/ b>b$ wire con/itute a s]i\s1 b easily avoidable1 loss4 ,su* a b>b>\s sy/em ( f5c+ ought nev] to be us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,kip ,,conta9+ #ehd ,,holes ,,caus$ ,,by ,,! ,,w>ble ,,fly 7,! sk9 belongs to ,w4 ,d4 ,m>k ,sons1 ,hide ,factors1 ,newca/le47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c ,,hole ,,9 ,,c[ ,,hide1 ,,made ,,by ,,! ,,grub ,,( ,,! ,,w>ble ,,fly 7,magnifi$ fifte5 times7 ,! mo/ s]i\s loss 9 connection ) hides & sk9s1 h[ev]1 is caus$ by ! w>ble flies1 hypod]ma bovis & hypod]ma l9eatum1 :i* lay _! eggs on ! hides ( cattle4 ,x has be5 a debatable po9t = "s ye>s z to :e!r ^! eggs hat*$ & burr[$ _! way into ! hides f ! ext]ior or 7 lick$ & swall[$ by ! cattle &1 aft] trav]s+ ! dige/ive tract1 pi]c$ ! hide f ! int]ior4 ,pr(essor ,c>p5t]1 :o has be5 exp]im5t+ a numb] ( ye>s = ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture = ,irel&1 has succe$$ 9 tak+ a rem>kable photograph 7,fig4 #c7 :i* proves t ! l>vae p5etrate ! hide f ! ext]ior4 ,^! develop )9 ! hide & (t5 p5etrate to ! fle% be=e !y fall out to ! gr\nd & *ange into ! fly4 ,! mo/ effective way ( gett+ rid ( ! pe/ is to de/roy ! l>vae1 ei!r by cutt+ !m out & cru%+ !m "u foot1 or by pi]c+ !m ) a hot ne$le4 ,no satisfactory dress+ has yet be5 f\nd1 b ,pr(4 ,c>p5t] /ates t sulphur dioxide is effectual1 if a good me?od ( apply+ x c be devis$4 ,:ile %eep sk9s are immune f ! attacks ( ! w>ble fly1 !y are (t5 damag$ by ! bl[-fly1 lice1 k$s1 & ticks2 by scab caus$ by ! action ( a mite or ac>us2 & by cockle1 :i* causes a wr9kl$ gra94 ,! orig9 ( cockle is n def9itely kn[n1 b x is a seasonal defect :i* beg9s to %[ on a l>ge numb] ( sk9s 9 ,decemb] & does n disappe> until ! %eep are %orn 9 ! foll[+ spr+4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials ,tann+ mat]ials are d]iv$ f ! vegetable1 m9]al1 & animal k+doms4 ,! vegetable mat]ials us$ are woods1 b>ks1 %rubs1 leaves1 & fruits1 ei!r 9 _! natural /ate or 9 ! =m ( extracts4 ,! majority ( ! m9]als h a m or less tann+ effect on animal fibres1 b ! pr9cipal are basic *rome salts1 =maldehyde1 alum & salt4 ,titanium1 iron1 c]ium & potassium salts also conv]t sk9s into lea!r1 b are n yet us$ comm]cially4 ,! animal matt]s t w conv]t sk9s into lea!r consi/ ( oxidis$ oils 7*amois lea!r71 fats1 & bra9s 7cr[n1 ,helvetia1 or ,prell]'s lea!r74 ,ea* ( ^! classes ( tann+ mat]ials has *>act]i/ic effects :i* r5d] !m easily di/+ui%able4 ,! use ( comb9ations ( vegetable & m9]al tann9s has lately increas$1 & x is possible t ! bl5d+ ( ! two classes ( mat]ials may produce an ideal tannage = c]ta9 classes ( lea!r4 ,9 fact1 ?is result is already claim$ = a *emically comb9$ tann+ mat]ial :i*1 accord+ to ! ,am]ican pat5t1 is prep>$ by ! foll[+ me?od3 #abe lb4 ( solid quebra*o extract is dissolv$ 9 ! same weight ( hot wat] & all[$ to cool2 #af lb4 ( comm]cial cau/ic soda dissolv$ 9 two or ?ree times its weight ( wat] is add$1 & ! mixture agitat$ ab\t half an h\r2 #aej lb4 ( *romium sulphate is !n add$4 ,9 ?is way an insoluble tannate ( *rome is produc$1 b1 on boil+ & agitat+1 x *anges to a gre5i% br[n col\r & =ms a sulphotannate ( *rome4 ,! comb9ation ( ! alum tannage & gambi] 7a vegetable extract7 has be5 us$ successfully = ye>s pa/4 ,ano!r comb9ation :i* has giv5 good practical results is ! tannage ) alum & *rome salts 9 ! manufacture ( glove lea!r4 ,! vegetable mat]ials conta9+ tann9 %\ld be arrang$ botanically1 b ! foll[+ classification is simpl] = practical purposes4 ,,natural ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials #a4 ,b>ks4--,oak1 ,hemlock1 ,p9e1 ,fir1 ,ald]1 ,khaki1 ,will[1 ,cork1 ,mimosa or ,wattle1 ,babool1 ,l>*1 ,mangrove1 ,spruce1 ,elm1 ,bir*1 ,pomegranate1 ,cebil4 #b4 ,leaves1 ,twigs1 etc4--,suma*1 ,mangrove1 ,mango1 ,eucalyptus1 ,pi/acia1 ,l5tiscus4 #c4 ,roots4--,canaigre1 ,palmetto4 #d4 ,fruits4--,myrobalans1 ,valonia1 ,divi-,divi1 ,cascalote1 ,mango/e51 ,pomegranate1 ,celav9ia1 ,bablah1 ,alg>obilla4 #e4 ,excresc5ces4--,gall ,nuts1 ,*9ese ,galls1 ,pi/acia ,galls1 ,tam>isk ,galls4 ,,tann+ ,,extracts #a4 ,woods4--,oak1 ,quebra*o1 ,hemlock1 ,*e/nut1 ,mimosa1 ,mangrove1 ,spruce4 #b4 ,b>ks4--,oak1 ,wattle or ,mimosa1 ,l>*4 #c4 ,%rubs1 ,leaves1 etc4--,gambi]1 ,cut*1 ,cate*u1 ,k9o1 ,suma*4 #d4 ,fruits4--,myrobalans1 ,valonia4 #e4 ,roots4--,palmetto4 ,( ^! mat]ials1 only ab\t tw5ty are ( mu* importance comm]cially1 ! pr9cipal be+ oak1 *e/nut1 quebra*o1 hemlock1 valonia1 gambi]1 myrobalans1 mimosa or wattle1 suma*1 mangrove1 divi-divi1 spruce1 l>*1 & babool4 ,,oak ,,b>k 7qu]cus robur7 is /ill an important mat]ial1 b is r>ely us$ alone4 ,! b>k f ,engli% oaks conta9s f #h-ad p] c5t4 ( tann9 7qu]citannic acid7 z e/imat$ by ! impregnation ( a /&>dis$ hide p[d] 9 a giv5 quantity ( ! tann+ mat]ial 9 solution4 ,ow+ to its weakness 9 tann9 comp>$ ) o!r mat]ials1 oak b>k tans v sl[ly4 ,us$ = sole lea!r1 x w\ld n produce ! ess5tial quality ( firmness & solidity1 & x is n[ cu/om>y to use a /rong] tann+ mat]ial1 su* z valonia1 or valonia extract1 or gambi] 9 ! latt] /ages ( ! process4 ,?is is ! ne>e/ approa* to ! pure oak b>k tannage ( =m] days1 &1 if c>efully regulat$1 is a great improvem5t on ! old me?od4 ,if dress+ hides & calf sk9s requir$ = boot upp] lea!r are b>k-tann$1 ! tannage is (t5 complet$ 9 a suma* liquor1 ! object 9 ?is case be+ to light5 ! col\r s t ! lea!r c be dy$ ev5ly4 ,9 ,engl&1 oak b>k is h>ve/$ 9 ,april & ,may1 :5 ! sap rises 9 ! tree4 ,r+s are cut r\nd ! tree soon aft] x is fell$ & ! b>k is peel$ f ! tree ) a special tool :i* is =c$ betwe5 ! b>k & ! wood4 ,x is peel$ 9 n>r[ /rips ab\t #c ft4 9 l5g?1 & on deliv]y to ! tann]y is /ack$ 9 huge ricks4 ,if h>ve/$ 9 a good1 dry condition1 ! b>k is said to improve ) age1 al?\gh analytical te/s h %[n t !re is always a c]ta9 loss ( tann94 ,an old rick is mu* d>k] 9 col\r ?an a new "o1 ow+ to exposure to ! air4 ,coppice b>k f "y trees is pref]r$ by tann]s1 z x is free f ross & g5]ally conta9s m tann9 ?an ! r\gh b>k4 ,9 view ( ! mod]n dem& = mat]ials 9 extract =m1 ,engli% oak b>k w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly be pref]r$ 9 ! =m ( a conc5trat$ liquid1 if ! supply ( ! raw mat]ial 0 pl5tiful )9 a limit$ area4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s x has n met ) a ready sale1 ow+ to ! l>ge supply ( o!r mat]ials1 b x w\ld d\btless rega9 "s ( its =m] popul>ity if x 7 prep>$ 9 ! =m ( an extract conta9+ ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! only oak b>k extract on ! m>ket is ! ,am]ican *e/nut oak 7qu]cus pr9us74 ,,oak ,,wood is v l>gely us$ = ! manufacture ( tann+ extract1 especially 9 ,hung>y & ,canada4 ,! extract conta9s f #bd-bh p] c5t4 ( tann91 & is ext5sively us$ 9 ! tannage ( heavy lea!rs1 z x /r5g!ns ! liquors & ha/5s ! process1 :ile keep+ ! quality ( ! lea!r at a high /&>d4 ,,valonia 7qu]cus aegilops7 is ! acorn cups ( an oak tree :i* gr[s abundantly 9 ,asia ,m9or & ! ,greek ,ar*ipelago4 ,no o!r "p b ! acorn cups is export$4 ,! h>ve/ 9 ,asia ,m9or takes place 9 ,augu/1 :5 ! fruit rip5s & ! cups c be easily beat5 f ! trees4 ,!y are left to dry on ! gr\nd & are !n s5t to /ores 9 seaport t[ns1 & pr9cipally to ,smyrna4 ,! dry+ is /ill fur!r complet$ 9 spaci\s w>eh\ses1 :]e ! cups are spread out & turn$ ov] until f]m5tation ceases4 ,dur+ ?is process ! acorns %r9k & are reject$4 ,! cups %\ld be p]fectly dri$ & v h>d be=e export4 ,! ,turki% valonia conta9s f #cj to #ce p] c5t4 ( tann91 & is ( mu* bett] quality ?an ! ,greek1 :i* is usually h>ve/$ be=e x is ripe1 &1 !re=e1 conta9s ! acorn4 ,z ! acorn has practically no tann9 value1 ! ,greek valonia conta9s only #be to #bh p] c5t4 tann94 ,!re are sev]al grades ( valonia1 ! be/ go+ to ,russia1 ,au/ria1 & ,italy4 ,engli% tann]s seem to pref] ! l[] qualities at pres5t1 probably because ! price is mu* less ?an t ( ! be/ grade4 ,! be>d ( ! valonia cup is mu* ri*] 9 tann9 ?an ! %ell1 &1 z sev]al ( ! sp9es become deta*$ dur+ ! /orage ( ! mat]ial1 !re is always a c]ta9 quantity ( be>d 7trillo7 on (f]4 ,?is may conta9 up to #db p] c5t4 ( tann91 b its price is usually ! same z t ( ord9>y valonia4 ,( late ye>s1 v l>ge quantities ( valonia h be5 made into extract at two works 9 ,smyrna4 ,! production ( extract w no d\bt increase1 ) a correspond+ r$uction 9 ! export ( ! raw mat]ial4 ,! great advantages ( ! extract ov] ! natural cup are its sup]ior /r5g? ( tann9 7#fj to #fe p] c5t471 easi] solubility1 uni=mity ( quality1 l[] co/ p] unit ( tan1 & gu>ante$ purity4 ,valonia is well adapt$ = ! tannage ( sole lea!r 9 conjunction ) oak b>k1 = x deposits a heavy bloom 7ellagic acid71 imp>ts weight & solidity1 & increases ! resi/ance ( ! lea!r to moi/ure4 ,,! ,,*e/nut ,,tree 7ca/anea vesca7 probably provides ! next tann+ mat]ial ( importance4 ,?is mu/ n be confus$ ) ! *e/nut oak1 an ,am]ican tree :i* also yields a v useful tann94 ,! *e/nut is indig5\s to ! ,s\? ( ,france & ,italy1 :]e ! =e/s h be5 consid]ably r$uc$ 9 size to meet ! great dem& = ?is popul> tann+ mat]ial4 ,! great] "p ( ! d5ud$ =e/s h n be5 replant$ ) ! *e/nut1 z ! l& has be5 put "u cultivation :5ev] possible4 ,a fur!r depletion has be5 caus$ by ! ravages ( an insect1 :i* turns ! int]ior ( ! wood q black & r5d]s x unfit = tann+ purposes4 ,x w1 naturally1 be sev]al ye>s be=e ! supply is exhau/$1 ev5 if no reaf=e/ation is und]tak54 ,z x is ! mo/ important tann+ mat]ial gr[n 9 ,france1 & ! *e/nuts are us$ z a food1 /eps may be tak5 to cultivate ! trees on areas unsuitable = agriculture4 ,liquid *e/nut extract conta9s f #cj to #cb p] c5t4 ( tann91 &1 :5 decoloris$1 gives a light br[n col\r to ! lea!r4 ,x is r>ely1 if ev]1 us$ alone1 b g5]ally 9 conjunction ) quebra*o1 valonia or myrobalan extracts4 ,,! ,,*e/nut ,,oak ,,tree is indig5\s to ,am]ica & ! wood yields a v good tann+ extract1 conta9+ up to #cj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,?is mat]ial is ! pr9cipal tann+ ag5t us$ 9 ,am]ica1 :]e ! tannages are r\ghly classifi$ 9 ?ree sections3 7#a7 oak1 7#b7 hemlock1 & 7#c7 ! union 7i4e41 a mixture ( hemlock & oak74 ,am]ican tann]s also use o!r mat]ials to a small] ext5t1 *iefly = bl5d+ ) ! pr9cipal tann9s4 ,quebra*o & spruce extracts are specially fav\r$4 ,,quebra*o ,,colorado is a tree indig5\s to ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! be/ wood = tann+ purposes be+ f\nd 9 ! ,gran ,*aco di/rict 9 ! nor? ( ,arg5t9a1 & 9 ,uruguay4 ,! wood conta9s f #ag to #bb p] c5t4 ( tann91 & is s h>d & heavy t x s9ks 9 wat]4 ,9 fact1 its "n is d]iv$ f two ,portuguese words mean+ axe-break]4 ,aft] fell+ ! trees1 !y are cut up into logs ab\t #d ft4 9 l5g? & ei!r export$ 9 ?is /ate to ,hamburg1 ,havre1 & ,liv]pool1 or s5t to ! num]\s factories 9 close proximity to ! =e/s to be made into extract1 9 :i* an enorm\s trade has ( late ye>s be5 develop$4 ,v little ( ! natural mat]ial is n[ us$1 z1 ev5 aft] cutt+ ! wood into *ips1 ! tann9 is extract$ only ) great difficulty1 :]eas ! extract c be treat$ ) sulphites1 alkalies1 or n]adol 7! artificial tann97 to r5d] x easily soluble1 besides :i* ! conc5tration ( ! mat]ial raises ! p]c5tage ( its tann9 to #fe or ev5 #gj p] c5t4 ,ow+1 p]haps1 to faulty prep>ation1 ?is tann+ extract 0 n well receiv$ at fir/1 b x is n[ among ! pr9cipal tann9s & increases 9 importance e ye>4 ,,myrobalans is ! unripe fruit ( an ,indian tree 7t]m9alia *ebula7 & conta9s f #ce to #dj p] c5t4 ( tann9 :i* gives a light col\r to lea!r4 ,?is mat]ial is useful bo? = light & heavy lea!rs1 b is g5]ally us$ 9 admixture ) o!r tann9s4 ,x deposits mu* bloom 7ellagic acid7 & is l>gely us$ = bright5+ ! d>k col\r produc$ by o!r tann9s4 ,a l>ge quantity ( ?is mat]ial is n[ made into extracts1 :i* are m conv5i5t to h&le & m uni=m 9 /r5g? ( tann94 ,natural myrobalans h ! appe>ance ( %rivell$ nutmegs1 except t !y are yell[i% 9 col\r2 !y are v h>d & require a special mill+ ma*9e to r$uce !m to p[d]4 ,! quality ( myrobalan nuts v>ies 9 diff]5t di/ricts1 ! be/ be+ ,bhimlies & ,jubbalpores4 ,,suma* is a valuable tann+ mat]ial1 & is us$ = a l>ge proportion ( ! light & fancy lea!rs4 ,x is a small bu% plant :i* gr[s 9 ,italy1 ,spa91 ,s\!rn ,france1 ,am]ica1 & ,alg]ia1 b ( ! num]\s v>ieties ! ,sicilian 7rhus cori>ia7 is by f> ! mo/ important4 ,suma* is "o ( ! few mat]ials cultivat$ on an ext5sive scale2 mo/ tann+ mat]ials are d]iv$ f natural s\rces &1 *iefly ow+ to ! l5g? ( "t be=e trees rea* maturity1 x w\ld n be a pay+ proposition to cultivate !m4 ,! suma* %rubs are propagat$ f small cutt+s & ! leaves c be pick$ at ! end ( ! fir/ ye>1 b x is bett] to all[ ! %rubs to become m firmly e/abli%$ be=e /ripp+ !m4 ,! leaves are dri$ & sometimes export$ :ole1 especially = ! use ( ! silk manufactur]s 9 ,lyons2 b !y are m (t5 gr\nd to a f9e p[d]4 ,all suma*s %\ld be v5tilat$ to remove =eign matt]s & all traces ( iron1 :i* w\ld cause d>k blui% /a9s on ! lea!r4 ,v5tilation is effect$ by pass+ curr5ts ( air1 pref]ably ) a fan1 ?r\gh a n>r[ room1 :5 ! pure suma* is s5t =w>d1 :ile ! heavi] p>ticles ( dirt & small pieces ( wood rema9 beh9d4 ,sometimes ! process is repeat$1 & ! be/ br&s ( suma* are g5]ally describ$ z pure1 extra v5tilat$4 ,z f> z possible1 ! male plants 7mascol9o sommacco7 are cultivat$ 9 ,sicily1 :]e ! be/ suma* is gr[n4 ,female suma* 7femm9ello sommacco71 gr[n 9 p>ts ( ,italy1 is weak] 9 tann9 ?an ! male1 b is r>ely sold sep>ately4 ,! s]i\s am\nt ( adult]ation =m]ly practis$ by ! admixture ( inf]ior plants1 & p>ticul>ly ( l5tisco 7pi/acia l5tisco7 l$ to ! ,italian ,gov]nm5t tak+ /rong action a few ye>s ago1 & x is n[ possible1 = a v small sum1 to h any consignm5t inspect$ & analys$ by ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,l5tisco is n[ sold sep>ately & is us$ = common "w4 ,suma* has be5 successfully introduc$ into ,au/ralia1 b its developm5t is ret>d$ ow+ to difficulties ( lab\r1 :i* r5d] competition ) ! ,european product almo/ impossible4 ,an inf]ior suma* 7rhus glabra7 is gr[n 9 ,am]ica1 *iefly 9 ! ,/ate ( ,virg9ia4 ,x conta9s f #ae to #bj p] c5t4 ( tann91 & produces a d>k] col\r$ lea!r ?an ,sicilian1 ! be/ qualities ( :i* conta9 #bg to #cj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,a useful te/ = f9d+ out if a suma* has be5 adult]at$ is to treat a small quantity ) /rong nitric acid1 :i* de/roys ! /ructure ( ! leaves4 ,! mass is wa%$ & neutralis$ ) an alkali1 :5 ! appe>ance ( ! midrib & ve9s ( ! leaves ( ! common adult]ants are easily recognis$4 ,suma* is n s mu* us$ = %oe upp] lea!r z x =m]ly 01 b x is ! be/ tann+ ag5t = _m k9ds ( fancy light lea!rs1 su* z bookb9d+1 calf1 & skiv]s 7! gra9 ( split %eep sk9s71 moroccos1 furniture lea!r1 etc4 ,x is also less subject to ! action ( ! air & gaslight ?an any o!r tann+ mat]ial1 & is /rongly recomm5d$ = tann+ purposes by a special committee appo9t$ by ! ,society ( ,arts to enquire into causes ( ! rapid decay ( lea!r b9d+s4 ,suma* is v useful = bright5+ up ! col\r ( lea!r tann$ ) d>k] tann9s1 & is frequ5tly us$ = improv+ ! col\r ( bo? dress+ & sole lea!r4 ,by itself1 x yields an almo/ :ite lea!r :i* af=ds a good f\ndation = ! mo/ delicate %ades4 ,,gambi] or ,,t]ra ,,japonica 7unc>ia gambir7 is a crude extract ( a %rub indig5\s to ! ,malay ,p59sula4 ,ne>ly ! :ole ( ! production is %ipp$ f ,s+apore4 ,! leaves & twigs are boil$ 9 an iron vessel1 & :5 ! mass has become syrupy x is /ra9$ ?r\gh a r\gh sieve into a %all[ tub1 :]e x is cool$4 ,! liquor is /irr$ :ile cool+ & rapidly ?ick5s4 ,be=e x sets1 x is cut into #a 94 cubes & ?or\ghly dri$4 ,good qualities conta9 f #ej-fe p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,an inf]ior product1 call$ block gambi]1 is made by all[+ ! syrupy mass to set 9 l>ge blocks weigh+ ab\t #b cwt4 ea*4 ,^! are pack$ 9 co>se matt+4 ,! /r5g? ( tann9 v>ies f #cj to #dj p] c5t4 ,gambi] is a good tann+ mat]ial1 b its use has be5 decl9+ = "s ye>s pa/ ow+ to its be+ frequ5tly adult]at$ ) sago & o!r f>9ace\s plants4 ,h[ev]1 a pure gambi] extract1 manufactur$ on ! late/ sci5tific pr9ciples1 has be5 plac$ on ! m>ket1 & !re w und\bt$ly be a revival ( ! use ( ?is valuable tann94 ,?is pure gambi] is prep>$ at ,asahan1 9 ,sumatra1 & is gu>ante$ to conta9 a m9imum ( #ch p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,gambi] c be us$ to advantage 9 keep+ up ! /r5g? ( b>k liquors 9 ! tannage ( sole lea!r & ha/5+ ! process1 :ile x may be us$ alone = ! tannage ( boot upp] lea!r & dress+ hides4 ,x produces an exceptionally mell[ & plump lea!r4 ,x is pref]able1 h[ev]1 to complete a gambi] tannage ) a little oak wood or quebra*o extract1 9 ord] to fix ! tann9 pr9ciple ( gambi]1 :i*1 p]haps on acc\nt ( its viscosity1 does n readily comb9e ) ! fibres ( ! sk94 ,,mangrove or ,,mangle1 a tree f\nd on ! coa/s ( sev]al tropical c\ntries1 yields a useful b>k = tann+ purposes4 ,at l[ tide1 ^! trees %[ _! great ar*$ roots /&+ high above ! gr\nd4 ,! be/ v>ieties1 ! c]iops species1 are f\nd 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies & ,b5gal1 & ! b>k ( ^! is said to conta9 sometimes ne>ly #dj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,o!r v>ieties conta9 f #ae to #be p] c5t4 ,! b>k is g5]ally made into a solid extract1 or cut*1 9 :i* =m x conta9s m ?an #fj p] c5t4 ( tann91 ,x is useful to bl5d ) o!r mat]ials1 su* z oak wood1 *e/nut1 & quebra*o extracts1 b us$ by itself x imp>ts a /rong r$di% col\r to ! lea!r4 ,"s ( ! ,indian v>ieties are us$ z dye+ mat]ials1 & act z a satisfactory mordant 9 dye+ lea!r a d>k %ade4 ,,mimosa or ,,wattle trees1 :i* belong to ! acacia species1 yield b>k ri* 9 tann94 ,au/ralia is ! native c\ntry ( sev]al v>ieties1 includ+ ! ,black ,wattle 7acacia pycnan?a71 ! ,gold5 ,wattle 7,a4 longifolia71 & ! ,gre5 ,wattle 7,a4 decurr5s74 ,! b>k conta9s f #bj to #de p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! cultivation ( wattle 9 ,au/ralia seems to h decl9$1 ow+ to ! high co/ ( lab\r & inability to compete ) ! mimosa b>k import$ f ,s\? ,africa1 :]e x is cultivat$ on a v l>ge scale & :]e lab\r conditions are m fav\rable = ! gr[]s1 z is cle>ly %[n by ! fact t ! wattle gr[]s 9 ,au/ralia successfully petition$ ! ,gov]nm5t a %ort "t ago to place a duty ( #a #ajs4 p] ton on ! import$ b>k4 ,! introduction ( ! indu/ry into ,s\? ,africa 0 q an int]e/+ adv5ture4 ,a ,mr4 ,v&]plank br\ght ! se$s f ,au/ralia to ,engl& ab\t sev5ty ye>s ago1 & aft]w>ds took !m to ,s\? ,africa1 :]e1 9 recognition ( c]ta9 s]vices a few mon?s aft] 8 arrival1 he 0 grant$ a f>m by ! ,dut* ,gov]nm5t4 ,he !n plant$ ! se$s ( ! black wattle1 :i* grew s well t x 0 only a "q ( develop+ ! indu/ry4 ,x 0 "s ye>s be=e any ,african b>k 0 export$1 & only #aa wor? 0 %ipp$ 9 #ahhf4 ,9 #aiaa1 ! exports _h ris5 to #bhh1jjj4 ,wattle trees c be gr[n on soil t is unsuitable = agriculture1 & !re is e prospect ( ! indu/ry exp&+ 9 ,s\? ,africa1 :]e a factory has lately be5 e/abli%$ = ! purpose ( conv]t+ ! b>k into an extract1 :i*1 x is said1 w conta9 betwe5 #ej & #fj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,by f> ! great] proportion ( wattle b>k is /ill export$ 9 ! natural =m1 gr\nd or *opp$1 & pack$ into bags weigh+ ab\t #a cwt4 ea*4 ,be=e ! ,european ,w> ne>ly ! :ole ( ! b>k 0 %ipp$ to ,hamburg1 ,engli% tann]s tak+ v little int]e/ 9 x1 al?\gh x 0 l>gely us$ by ,g]man tann]s4 ,b s9ce ! supplies ( ! mat]ials fav\r$ by ,briti% tann]s h become some:at re/rict$1 att5tion has be5 drawn to ! value ( mimosa b>k4 ,,divi-,,divi 7caesalp9ia cori>ia7 is ! dri$ pods ( a ,c5tral ,am]ican tree4 ,x has also be5 successfully cultivat$ 9 ,india4 ,! pods are ri* 9 tann91 conta9+ any?+ f #dj-ej p] c5t41 b its value is disc\nt$ by its liability to f]m5tation1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may be *eck$ to "s ext5t by ! use ( antiseptics1 su* z c>bolic acid1 =maldehyde1 or by ! addition ( syn!tic tann91 n]adol4 ,if ?is t5d5cy to f]m5tation & oxidation ( ! col\r+ matt] c\ld be *eck$ completely1 divi-divi w\ld be a valuable mat]ial1 z x makes a firm lea!r ( good col\r4 ,:5 dri$1 ! pods curl up 9 ! %ape ( ! lett]s ,s & ,c4 ,! tann9 is f\nd 9 ! husks ( ! pod4 ,! se$s1 :i* conta9 no tann91 are s h>d t x has n yet be5 f\nd pr(itable to extract ! oil f !m4 ,v simil> tann+ mat]ials to divi-divi are cascalote1 indig5\s to ,mexico1 & alg>obilla 7caesalp9ia brevifolia7 :i* gr[s 9 ,*ili4 ,cascalote is *iefly us$ by ,mexican tann]s & is r>ely export$4 ,alg>obilla is n available 9 l>ge quantities1 o!rwise x w\ld be l>gely us$ 9 ,great ,brita91 z x does n f]m5t s readily z divi-divi1 & is ev5 ri*] 9 tann94 ,,celav9ia 7also spelt celav9a & ceval9a7 has be5 on ! ,engli% m>ket s9ce #aije1 b has only lately be5 sold 9 l>ge quantities4 ,! sc>city ( "s ( ! popul> tann+ mat]ials s9ce ! outbreak ( ! ,european ,w> result$ 9 enquiries = mat]ials t 7 v little kn[n1 & celav9ia has prov$ wor?y ( att5tion4 ,x consi/s ( ! se$ pods ( ! tree caesalp9ia t9ctoria1 :i* gr[s abundantly 9 c]ta9 di/ricts ( ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! pod is f #d to #f 94 long & is flaky :5 dri$4 ,x conta9s #cj to #cb p] c5t1 ( tann9 ( ! pyrogallol class1 & gives a v light-col\r$ & almo/ :ite lea!r4 ,x is ! only pyrogallol tann9 :i* does n deposit bloom1 or ellagic acid1 on ! lea!r4 ,x may be us$ z a sub/itute = suma* 9 tann+1 b has n ! same blea*+ effect 9 ! retann+ process4 ,a tann+ extract ( celav9ia w\ld be useful = "s classes ( light lea!rs1 :]e pal5ess ( t9t is important4 ,x is difficult to make a second extraction ( tann9 9 ! case ( ! natural mat]ial1 z1 aft] ! fir/ extraction1 x =ms a s(t pulp1 ?r\gh :i* wat] w n easily p]colate4 ,,hemlock 7abies canadi5sis7 is an important tann+ mat]ial1 bo? ! b>k & ! wood be+ ext5sively us$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,! wood is n[ g5]ally conv]t$ into extracts 9 factories built ne> ! pr9cipal =e/s4 ,( late ye>s1 ?is extract has be5 import$ into ! ,unit$ ,k+dom 9 fairly l>ge quantities1 9 ord] to produce a *eap r$ sole lea!r to compete ) ! ,am]ican hemlock-tann$ lea!r4 ,x conta9s only ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( tann91 b its value is increas$ by its cont5ts ( insoluble non-tann9s1 :i* give weight & solidity to ! lea!r4 ,hemlock really gives a /rong1 durable lea!r1 b 9 ,am]ica ! practice ( us+ artificial weigh+ mat]ials1 su* z glucose & ,epsom salts1 ) a r$uc$ quantity ( tann+ mat]ial1 has consid]ably l[]$ ! value ( ?is lea!r4 ,9 addition to ! mat]ials describ$1 !re are sev]al ( m9or importance :i* c only be briefly m5tion$4 ,,l>* ,,b>k is obta9$ f ! tree l>ix ,europea1 :i* is f\nd 9 ,scotl& & ,nor? ,europe4 ,x conta9s #aj-ab p] c5t4 ( tann91 :i* gives a light col\r & pleasant od\r to lea!r4 ,scot* basils 7%eep sk9s7 are tann$ ) ?is b>k4 ,,bir* ,,b>k1 f ! :ite bir*1 betula alba1 is ano!r aromatic tann+ mat]ial4 ,x conta9s only ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( tann91 & is1 !re=e1 g5]ally us$ ) o!r tann+ mat]ials4 ,x conta9s a t> :i* imp>ts an agreeable sc5t to ! lea!r t protects x f ! ravages ( insects4 ,9 conjunction ) will[ b>k 7salix ar5>ia7 x is us$ 9 ! tann+ process = ! real ,russia lea!r4 ,an oil conta9+ ! sc5t c be extract$ f ! bir* b>k by dry di/illation1 & ?is extract is sometimes us$ dur+ ! dye+ process1 9 ! manufacture ( imitation ,russia lea!r1 :i*1 h[ev]1 only reta9s ! sc5t = a few mon?s1 :]eas ! real ,russia lea!r has a p]man5t od\r4 ,,canaigre 7rumex hym5osepalum7 is ! tub]\s root ( a dock plant indig5\s to ,mexico & ! ,s\!rn ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,x is fairly ri* 9 tann9 7#be-cj p] c5t47 & yields a mod]ately firm lea!r4 ,x conta9s too l>ge a proportion ( />*1 h[ev]1 & _c be describ$ z a really satisfactory tann94 ,moreov]1 x is n h>ve/$ economically & ! only way to make a satisfactory tann9 ( x is to conv]t x into extract & remove ! />*y matt]s ne> ! s\rce ( supply1 if anyone d>e take ! risk ( e/abli%+ a factory 9 ,mexico4 ,,bablah or ,,babool 7acacia arabica or acacia v]a7 gr[s 9 ,india1 ,egypt1 & ! ,sudan4 ,! b>k ( ! babool tree is "o ( ! pr9cipal tann+ mat]ials us$ 9 ,india = hides1 calf1 & %eep sk9s1 :i* are s5t 9 l>ge quantities to ,great ,brita9 9 a r\gh-tann$ /ate & dress$ !re4 ,x conta9s #ae-bj p] c5t4 ( tann91 :i* readily oxidises 9 ! lea!r 9 contact ) light1 turn+ into a bright p9k col\r4 ,x also seems to weak5 ! fibres ( animal tissues1 &1 = t reason1 babool-tann$ lea!r 0 condemn$ by ! ,society ( ,arts ,commission on ,bookb9d+4 ,! pods conta9 f #bj-cj p] c5t4 ( tann9 & give a mell[ & plump lea!r simil> to t produc$ by gambi]4 ,! blea*+ ( ! mat]ial is tr\blesome1 & x is probable t its use w\ld be increas$ if ! tann9 7 prep>$ 9 ! =m ( extract4 ,,cut* is a crude extract made f ! ,indian tree acacia cate*u4 ,?is is ! real cut*1 z di/+ui%$ f ! mangrove cut*4 ,x is v ri* 9 tann9 7#ej-fj p] c5t471 b conta9s a l>ge proportion ( insoluble matt] & is1 !re=e1 v little us$ = tann+4 ,x is well adapt$ = ! dye+ ( d>k col\rs or black ) m9]al /rik]s1 su* z *rome & iron salts2 b its *ief use is = tann+ fi%]m5's nets1 :i* x r5d]s wat]pro(4 ,comm]cial tannic acid1 us$ = m$ic9al purposes1 is prep>$ f galls or excresc5ces on oak trees gr[+ 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,^! galls are caus$ by an insect 7cynips7 punctur+ ! small bran*es & produc+ abnormal gr[? 9 ! p]=at$ p>ts4 ,! acid is gallotannic1 :i*1 if us$ = mak+ lea!r1 w\ld produce a s(t1 spongy1 & ne>ly :ite lea!r4 ,?is tann+ mat]ial is us$ a little by ,ne> ,ea/]n tann]s1 b ! result is unsatisfactory4 ,,classification ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials ,tann+ mat]ials are divid$ into two ma9 classes3 7#a7 ,pyrogallol1 7#b7 ,cate*ol4 ,! pyrogallol tann9s give a blui%-black col\r1 & ! cate*ol tann9s a gre5i%-black1 ) iron salts4 ,brom9e wat] does n precipitate pyrogallols1 b causes a precipitate ) cate*ols4 ,pyrogallols yield ellagic acid 7call$ bloom 9 ! trade71 :i* improves ! wat]pro( qualities ( lea!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 cate*ols conta9 a l>ge proportion ( insoluble r$s1 or phlobaph5es1 :i* are deposit$ betwe5 ! fibres & ?us give solidity to ! lea!r4 ,pyrogallol tann9s give a light col\r$1 s(t lea!r1 & c be us$ alone satisfactorily2 b heavy lea!rs1 su* z sole & belt+1 ne$ a bl5d ( bo? k9ds ( tann94 ,! pyrogallol tann9s include suma*1 *e/nut1 myrobalans1 divi-divi1 oakwood1 alg>obilla1 *e/nut oak1 will[1 & galls4 ,! cate*ols include quebra*o1 gambi]1 hemlock1 mimosa or wattle1 mangrove1 l>*1 bir*1 canaigre1 & cut*4 ,oak b>k & valonia conta9 "s ( ! prop]ties ( bo? classes ( tann9s4 ,!re are sub-divisions ( ^! two classes1 arrang$ accord+ to *emical te/s1 by :i* "o tann+ mat]ial c be di/+ui%$ f ano!r4 ,,tann+ ,,extracts ,! manufacture ( extracts f vegetable tann+ mat]ials has increas$ s rapidly ( late ye>s t ! process ( tann+ has und]gone radical *anges2 &1 :]eas ! tann] 0 limit$ to ?ree or f\r mat]ials ?irty ye>s ago1 he n[ has ! *oice ( ab\t tw5ty good mat]ials4 ,^! tann9s c be suitably bl5d$ to produce fir/-class lea!r4 ,! processes 9 extract manufacture are few4 ,! wood1 b>k1 or fruit is brok5 up into small pieces & mac]at$ 9 hot or cold wat]4 ,! conc5tration ( ! liquid is done 9 vacuum1 or 9 an evaporator4 ,! late/ me?od is to treat ! tan liquor 9 a triple-effect evaporator 7,fig4 #d71 ! object ( us+ ?ree comp>tm5ts be+ to economise 9 /eam4 ,?is app>atus makes liquid extracts2 :]e a p[d]$ or cry/al extract is requir$1 ! liquid is aft]w>ds treat$ 9 a vacuum dry+ app>atus4 ,"s extracts conta9 a lot ( col\r+ matt] & insoluble sub/ances4 ,to ov]come ?is defect1 !y are cl>ifi$ ) blood album51 sulphites1 case91 or acetate ( lead4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,triple-,,effect ,,evaporator 7,blair1 ,campbell ,mc,lean1 ,ltd47 ,,syn!tic ,,tann9s ,! discov]y ( a syn!tic tann91 9 #aiaa1 by ,dr4 ,/iasny1 :o 0 !n an assi/ant 9 ! ,lea!r ,indu/ries ,dep>tm5t ( ,le$s ,univ]sity1 creat$ a great deal ( int]e/ 9 ! lea!r trade1 & c c]ta9ly be reg>d$ z a triumph ( ! application ( *emi/ry to indu/ry4 ,x 0 ?\ght at fir/ t ^! tann9s might play z important a "p 9 ! lea!r trade z ! syn!tic dye-/uffs h1 b x is n[ g5]ally believ$ t ?is w n be ! case4 ,_! use is likely to be z an aid to tann+1 r ?an z a complete tann+ ag5t1 al?\gh x has be5 f\nd practicable to use !m = "o or two classes ( light sk9s1 :]e x is ess5tial t ! col\r ( ! lea!r %\ld be ne>ly :ite4 ,! orig9al pat5t 0 tak5 out 9 ,septemb]1 #aiaa1 9 ,au/ria1 ! native c\ntry ( ! inv5tor1 b ! pat5t rights h also be5 protect$ 9 o!r c\ntries1 :ile ! manufacture & sale ( ! product pass$ into ! h&s ( a l>ge ,g]man dye firm1 :o h s9ce tak5 out sev]al pat5ts = o!r syn!tic tann9s4 ,! orig9al tann9 is produc$ by treat+ a sulphonat$ ph5ol ) =maldehyde4 ,a pat5t _h be5 tak5 out sev]al ye>s be=e = ! use ( =maldehyde 9 tann+1 b ?is expir$ e>ly 9 #aiaa2 _m pat5ts _h also be5 grant$ = sulphonat$ ph5ol prep>ations1 *iefly z dis9fectants1 b x 0 left to ,dr4 ,/iasny to discov] ! value ( comb9+ ! two *emicals by ! process ( cond5sation4 ,! prep>ation1 fir/ kn[n z n]adol1 is n[ made 9 ,engl& "u lic5ce1 b1 s9ce ! w>1 its co/ has be5 m ?an d\bl$1 s t x is unlikely to replace natural tann+ mat]ials to any great ext5t4 ,=maldehyde itself has c]ta9 prop]ties :i* are h>mful to lea!r1 & x mu/ be us$ ) extreme caution & 9 small quantities to avoid ^! defects4 ,x is us$ 9 ! lea!r trade *iefly = keep+ up ! sub/ance ( hides dur+ ! tann+ process1 & ?us caus+ a rapid absorption ( tann94 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! tann+ process1 ! liquors are acidifi$1 pref]ably ) a weak organic acid1 :i* causes ! fibres ( ! hides to di/5d4 ,x is at ?is /age t ! =maldehyde is us$4 ,?is me?od1 :i* _c improve1 b may easily damage1 ! lea!r1 is almo/ entirely conf9$ to ! ,cont95t4 ,=maldehyde has a h>d5+ & tann+ effect on animal tissues1 & lea!r treat$ by ?is process (t5 has inf]ior we>+ qualities4 ,9 ! case ( ! artificial tann91 ?is prop]ty ( =maldehyde is to a l>ge ext5t modifi$ by ! *emical reaction ) a sulphonat$ ph5ol1 ! addition ( :i* also increases its tann+ effect2 b1 :ile ! tannage is v rapid1 especially 9 ! case ( light sk9s1 lea!r produc$ solely by means ( artificial tann9 has a slight t5d5cy to dryness aft] be+ 9 /ock = "s "t4 ,no d\bt1 h[ev]1 me?ods w be f\nd to ov]come initial difficulties1 & v>i\s liquors w be prep>$ to meet diff]5t requirem5ts4 ,! "q ( price rema9s ! decid+ factor z to its use on an ext5sive scale1 =1 :ile x is s high1 natural tann+ mat]ials w be pref]r$1 except 9 a few special cases4 ,accord+ to ! hide-p[d] me?od ( tann9 analysis1 ,n]adol conta9s ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( tann91 b !re are _m natural tann9 extracts conta9+ ne>ly d\ble ! am\nt ( tann9 at ne>ly half ! price ( ! artificial tann92 ! latt]1 h[ev]1 has a m rapid action & also produces a ne>ly :ite lea!r4 ,ano!r advantage ( ,n]adol is t x prev5ts drawn gra91 s t1 if raw hides be treat$ ) a small quantity be=e tann+1 /rong] vegetable tan liquors may be safely us$ to ha/5 ! process4 ,9 ! manufacture ( sole lea!r1 = example1 lim$ hides1 aft] wa%+ 9 wat]1 may be susp5d$ 9 a solution ( ,n]adol conta9+ #c to #e lb4 p] #ajj gal4 ( wat] = twelve to tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,?is quantity produces a slight tann+ effect1 ! hides are ?or\ghly delim$1 & /rong vegetable tan liquors may !n be us$ to complete ! tannage )\t ! gra9 ( ! hide be+ drawn or d>k 9 col\r1 z w\ld be ! case if ! hides 7 n fir/ treat$ ) ! artificial tann94 ,n]adol is also said to be an effective blea*+ ag5t = tann$ lea!r 9 a #e p] c5t4 solution = a few h\rs1 )\t any loss ( weight4 ,?is prop]ty may also be utilis$ 9 ! production ( *rome lea!r1 :]e a :it] col\r is requir$ ?an t produc$ by ! ord9>y *rome tannage4 ,= ?is purpose x may be us$ 9 a pickl+ liquor be=e ! "o-ba? process1 or 9 ! second ba? ( ! two-ba? tannage4 ,= dress+ wool & fur sk9s1 ! syn!tic tann9s are mu* sup]ior to ! alum & salt process4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,lea!r ,,work+ ,,ma*9]y ,:5 x is consid]$ t ! con/ruction ( ma*9]y = ! lea!r trade _h b>ely />t$ ?irty ye>s ago1 ! wond]ful v>iety & utility ( mod]n ma*9es are rem>kable1 & x is a moot po9t :e!r eng9e]+ sci5ce has n play$ z great a "p z1 or ev5 great] ?an1 appli$ *emi/ry4 ,except+ ! b>k mill1 v>i\s k9ds ( tumbl]s1 ! full+ /ocks1 glaz+ & roll+ ma*9es1 !re 7 practically no effici5t me*anical aids to light5 ! exce$+ly labori\s op]ations incid5tal to lea!r manufacture two decades ago2 b s _m improvem5ts h lately be5 made 9 ! con/ruction ( ma*9]y = practically e op]ation 9 ! trade t mo/ ( ! ma*9es require v little skill to "w !m1 & c be op]at$ by intellig5t y\?s aft] a few weeks' exp]i5ce4 ,! *ange has be5 ( great b5efit to ! heal? ( ! work]s1 = ! cont9ual /oop+ ov] beams & slop+ tables1 comb9$ ) ! ardu\s nature ( ! "w1 0 v injuri\s4 ,! reputation t tann+ _h z a heal?y occupation 0 due m to ! "w ( ! lab\r]s ?an t ( ! sk9 work]s4 7,! old-fa%ion$ lime-y>ds & tan-y>ds 7 g5]ally 9 ! op51 :]eas mod]n tann]ies are ro($47 ,lea!r trades ma*9]y 0 n a success at fir/1 probably because x 0 v difficult to get ! necess>y in=mation f lea!r manufactur]s4 ,h[ev]1 z ! eng9e]s ga9$ m exp]i5ce ( ! me?ods ( lea!r-mak+1 ! defects 7 gradually rem$i$ until x may be truly said t ! ma*9es n[ rea* a high /ate ( p]fection4 ,x 0 no uncommon ?+ = workm5 to lose a f+] or two 9 a ma*9e1 b su* accid5ts are n[ r>e1 ow+ to improvem5ts 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ma*9es4 ,mo/ ( ! ma*9es us$ 9 ! lea!r trade are ( ! cyl9d] type1 ! raw sk9s or lea!r pass+ betwe5 two roll]s1 ( :i* ! upp] "o p]=ms ! op]ation :ile ! l[] "o helps to draw ! mat]ial ?r\gh ! ma*9e4 ,to prev5t accid5ts & control ! work+ ( ma*9es1 a ?ird roll] is (t5 us$1 :i* s]ves to fe$ ! lea!r or sk9s to ! work+ cyl9d]s4 ,( ?is type ( safety roll]1 ! ,seym\r-,jones atta*m5t to ! %av+ & buff+ ma*9e is ( great importance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e ,,%av+ ,,cyl9d] ,! op]ations ( ! tann]y1 :i* are p]=m$ by cyl9drical ma*9es1 are dehair+1 fle%+1 scudd+1 samm+1 %av+1 sc\r+1 /rik+-out1 sett+1 bo>d+1 buff+1 gra9+1 pr9t+1 emboss+1 & black+ or col\r+4 ,! work+ cyl9d]s usually v>y accord+ to ! "* ( ! op]ation1 al?\gh "o or two types may be us$ = at lea/ ?ree diff]5t op]ations4 ,:]e cutt+ or p>+ is done1 ! work+ cyl9d] is fitt$ ) brass blades1 or /eel blades back$ ) iron4 ,! blades are spiral 9 "s ma*9es1 & are s arrang$ t half ( !m conv]ge to ! left1 & half to ! "r 7,fig4 #e74 ,:5 9 "w1 ?is type ( cyl9d] n only p]=ms ! op]ation = :i* x is specially int5d$1 b also /ret*es ! lea!r outw>d1 by reason ( ! arrangem5t ( ! blades or knives4 ,! blades ov]lap "o ano!r to obviate m>k+1 = if ! blades met exactly at ! c5tre !y w\ld make a l9e on ! lea!r4 ,figure #f %[s ano!r arrangem5t ( knives = ! process ( buff+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f ,,blad$ ,,cyl9d] ,,= ,,buff+ ,,lea!r ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g ,,b&-,,knife ,,splitt+ ,,ma*9e ,! mo/ important ma*9es outside ! work+ cyl9d] type are ! splitt]1 & ! glaz]4 ,!re are sev]al k9ds ( splitt+ ma*9es1 b ! b&-knife ma*9e 7,fig4 #g7 is ! mo/ l>gely us$4 ,?is is a v]itable triumph ( ! eng9e]'s art1 = x is possible to make five or six lay]s1 all ab\t ! same size1 out ( "o hide1 al?\gh lea!r is only split once or twice z a rule4 ,( c\rse1 sole1 belt+1 & o!r ?ick lea!rs are n usually split4 ,! inv5tion ( ! belt-knife splitt+ ma*9e revolutionis$ ! lea!r trade1 & !re w\ld und\bt$ly h be5 a great %ortage ( lea!r )\t x4 ,=m]ly1 all ! levell+ & r$uc+ ( sub/ance 0 done by p>+ (f q small pieces ) ! %av+ knife 7,fig4 #h71 a difficult & labori\s "w4 ,^! p>+s 7 only suitable = pulp+ & compress+ into lea!r bo>d2 b n[ ! fle% splits remov$ by ! ma*9e c be curri$1 enamell$1 pr9t$1 or roll$ to make s]viceable lea!rs1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 n ne>ly s good 9 quality z ! top or gra9 split4 ,! ma9 work+ "p ( ! splitt+ ma*9e is an endless /eel knife :i* passes r\nd two :eels plac$ at opposite ends ( ! ma*9e4 ,! lea!r is drawn to ! knife ?r\gh two roll]s1 ( :i* ! l[] "o is 9 sections to all[ v ?ick p>ts ( ! hide to pass ?r\gh ! ma*9e4 ,x w\ld ne$ a l>ge volume to describe 9 detail all ! diff]5t ma*9es us$ 9 ! lea!r trade2 ! con/ructional details ( only "o ma*9e c be giv51 &1 9 view ( its importance1 ! %av] is select$4 ,reproductions ( o!r ma*9es w appe> 9 succe$+ *apt]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h ,,%av+ ,,knife ,ne>ly e lea!r trades' eng9e] con/ructs %av+ ma*9es1 b ! ,h[>d-,smi? is describ$ "h1 n because x is ! mo/ popul> 7un=tunately !re is a decid$ pref]5ce = l[-pric$ ma*9es71 b because x is "o ( ! be/ f an eng9e]+ po9t ( view1 & because sev]al improvem5ts are embodi$ 9 its con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i ,,%av+ ,,lea!r 7,old me?od7 ,?is ma*9e consi/s ( ne>ly "o hundr$ p>ts & ea* is made ( ! be/ mat]ial available4 ,! advantage ( ?is is obvi\s :5 ! "q ( repairs is fully consid]$4 ,! fir/ ,h[>d-,smi? ma*9e made has be5 runn+ m ?an f\r ye>s1 & has n co/ ! own] a p5ny = repairs1 beyond1 ( c\rse1 ! exp5se ( replac+ ! blades ( ! work+ cyl9d]s2 :]eas x is no uncommon occurr5ce = a *eap ma*9e to be ?r[n on ! scrap heap aft] a few ye>s' we>4 ,x is always advisable1 !re=e1 to buy ma*9]y ( ! be/ grade4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,,draw+ ,,( ,,%av+ ,,ma*9e ,figure #aj repres5ts a draw+ ( ! %av+ ma*9e1 ,a be+ ! side view1 & ,b ! front4 ,! "w ( ! draughtsman g5]ally appe>s to ! un9itiat$ to bord] on ! miracul\s2 he is (t5 ! design] & ar*itect ( ! ma*9e1 & 8 "w is c]ta9ly int]e/+ & skilful4 ,_m ( ! heavy p>ts1 su* z ma9 ca/+s1 p$e/als1 etc41 are made 9 ! f\ndry1 :i* may be "p ( ! lea!r trades' eng9e]'s works if he is 9 a l>ge way ( bus9ess4 ,! f9] p>ts1 ^? :i* might be t]m$ ! fitt+s1 are made 9 ! turn]y dep>tm5t2 :ile ! ma*9e is assembl$ 9 ! fitt]s' %op4 ,figure #aj ,a %[s ! side1 & #aj ,b ! front con/ruction ( ! %av+ ma*9e4 ,! figures indicate1 by foll[+ ! arr[s1 ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! ma*9e1 :i* are %[n 9 detail 9 sectional trac+s4 ,= example1 ,t4 #fe1 ( :i* no work+ p>ts are %[n 9 ! diagram ( ! complete ma*9e1 is reproduc$ 9 detail 9 a sep>ate draw+ %[n 9 ,figure #aa4 ,ea* "p ( ! ma*9e is numb]$ & ent]$ 9 a /ock-book4 ,9 describ+ ! pr9cipal p>ts indicat$ 9 ,figure #aj1 x w give an idea ( ! assembl+ ( ! ma*9e if a beg9n+ be made ) ! ma9 iron ca/+s4 ,^! comprise ! ma9 b$ 7#fd71 two side frames 7#fb71 & ! front frame 7#eh74 ,! side frames are /r5g!n$ by ! ribs :i* =m ! edge1 & :i* are ab\t ?ree times z ?ick z ! body ( ! ca/+4 ,! object ( ! front frame is to support ! foot lev] 7#ei71 ! rock+ frame 7#eg7 c>ry+ ! rubb] roll 7#gi71 & ! wood5 ro( 7#ge7 ov] :i* ! lea!r is pass$4 ,! spr+ 7#gf7 pulls back ! rock+ frame 7#eg7 :5 reliev$ by ! op]ator remov+ 8 foot f ! lev] 7#ei74 ,! long spr+ 7#gg7 lifts up ! foot lev] 7#ei7 :5 ! latt] is releas$4 ,! pullies 7#gc7 are connect$ ) ! knife cyl9d] :i* %aves ! lea!r4 ,! cyl9d] is obscur$ by ! :eel-gu>d 7#fe7 & is1 !re=e1 %[n sep>ately4 ,?is cyl9d] is compris$ ( a %ap$ piece ( /eel 7turn$ out ( solid metal b>s ( #d-c_/d 94 diamet]7 into :i* spiral /eel blades are caulk$ ) copp] or brass4 ,:5 turn$1 ! body ( ! cyl9d] is #d-e_/h 94 9 diamet]1 b ! p>ts =m+ ! be>+s are r$uc$ to #a-a_/b 94 ,! numb] ( blades is twelve1 f\rte51 or sixte51 accord+ to ! k9d ( lea!r %av$1 & to ! *oice ( ! op]ator4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ^! blades are n[ be+ made 9 ,%effield1 al?\gh1 be=e ! w>1 !y _h to be import$4 ,! knife gu>d 7#fe71 %[n 9 detail 9 ,figure #aa1 is an +5i\s contrivance :i* prev5ts ! op]ator's h&s be+ drawn into ! ma*9e4 ,x consi/s ( an automatic %utt] work$ by a /eel *a9 f ! foot lev]4 ,figure #aa a repres5ts ! %utt] clos$ d[n on ! knife ) ! rubb] roll1 on :i* ! lea!r is c>ri$ to ! knife1 at a safe di/ance f ! %utt]s4 ,fig4 #aa b %[s ! position :5 ! ma*9e is %av+ ! lea!r1 ! gu>d be+ cle> & ! rubb] roll engag$ ) ! knife4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa b4 ,9 ord] to %>p5 ! blades ( ! cyl9d]1 a c>borundum :eel is fix$ 9 close proximity1 its position be+ indicat$ 9 ! draw+ by ! :eel cov] 7#fg74 ,a bracket = fe$+ ! :eel to ! blades :5 gr9d+ !m is %[n at #ff4 ,:5 gr9d+ ! blades1 ! saddle 7#fh7 c>ries ! :eel backw>ds & =w>ds across !m4 ,a special feature ( ! saddle 9 ?is p>ticul> ma*9e is ! d\ble-?read screw1 "o a "r h&1 & ! o!r a left h&4 ,! saddle 7#fh7 is actuat$ by a swimm]1 z ! mak]s t]m x1 :i* engages1 say1 fir/ ! "r-h& ?read2 :5 ! saddle has travell$ to ! end ( its movem5t ! swimm] automatically ent]s ! left-h& ?read1 & ! saddle is rotat$ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! swimm] c be dis5gag$ in/antane\sly4 ,a bru% 7#ee7 is fix$ ne> ! cyl9d] to remove any lea!r %av+s adh]+ to ! blades4 ,x also acts to "s ext5t z a fan1 &1 by creat+ a curr5t ( air1 c>ries ! lea!r du/ away f ! op]ator4 ,a tr\gh is fill$ ) wat] to cat* ! du/ f ! c>borundum :eel1 :ile ! knives are be+ gr\nd4 ,! tr\gh %\ld be cle>$ out & refill$ ) clean wat] f "t to "t4 ,x is ess5tial t no du/ f ! gr9d+ :eel comes into contact ) vegetable tann$ lea!r requir$ 9 a natural or col\r f9i%1 o!rwise x w cause iron /a9s1 :i* are difficult to remove )\t damag+ ! lea!r4 ,= ?is reason1 ! knives %\ld n be gr\nd :ile ?is class ( lea!r is be+ %av$4 ,an important detail ( ! ma*9e "u description is a true+ device4 ,knives are (t5 r\gh5$ ow+ to ! c>borundum :eel we>+ irregul>ly4 ,! true+ device keeps ! :eel p]fectly true by means ( a diamond held 9 ! end ( a screw 7#gh74 ,ano!r +5i\s arrangem5t 7pat5t$7 is a spr+ 7#gi;a7 plac$ at ! back ( ! rubb] roll 7#gi71 :i* enables ! roll to spr+ back :5 ! lea!r1 or any "p ( x1 is too ?ick = ! cutt+ cyl9d]4 ,a unique advantage ( ! ,h[>d-,smi? ma*9e is t x is ball-be>+ ?r\gh\t4 ,! ma9 driv+ %aft revolves on f\r massive ball-be>+s 9 case 7#ga74 ,! pullies are firmly fix$ to ! driv+ %aft ) keys or fea!rs4 ,aft]w>ds ! pullies are ma*9$1 s t ! :ole %aft ) its pullies is p]fectly balanc$1 & ! ma*9e runs smoo?ly )\t vibration4 ,! blad$ cyl9d] is likewise m\nt$ on f\r ball-be>+s4 ,! int]m$iate driv+ %aft 7#gj71 :i* is m\nt$ on two ball-be>+s1 is connect$ ) a l>ge drum %aft 7#gj;a7 :i*1 9 its turn1 sets ! c>borundum :eel 9 motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,,%av+-,,ma*9e 7,haley7 ,fig4 #ab repres5ts ano!r make ( %av+ ma*9e4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s ,,= ,,tann+ ,be=e beg9n+ a description ( manufactur+ processes1 a precise def9ition ( lea!r may be giv54 ,laym5 usually describe lea!r z hides tann$ ) b>k1 ,s9ce ! introduction ( mod]n processes1 h[ev]1 ?is is only p>tly true4 ,9 any case1 ! def9ition is v broad4 ,! prim>y objects ( treat+ raw hides & sk9s to produce lea!r is to make !m imputrescible & imp>t v>i\s degrees ( pliability4 ,^! qualities are ess5tial1 b ! simpl] ! me?ods us$ to atta9 !m1 ! great] ! /r5g? ( ! lea!r produc$4 ,! numb] ( mat]ials t w produce lea!r is legion4 ,:]eas oak b>k 0 almo/ exclusively us$ = tann+ until ! la/ c5tury1 !re are n[ at lea/ tw5ty useful vegetable tann+ mat]ials4 ,! active +r$i5t ( all ( ^! mat]ials is tann91 a colloidal or uncry/allisable sub/ance4 ,correctly speak+1 ! t]m tann+1 us$ to designate ! process ( conv]t+ hides into lea!r1 %\ld be conf9$ to ! use ( vegetable tann9s2 un=tunately1 ! trade has l>gely adopt$ ! ^w 9 _m o!r processes ( mak+ lea!r4 ,= example1 l>ge quantities ( lea!r are produc$ by ! use ( m9]als1 & especially ( *rome salts2 :]e ! latt] is us$1 ! lea!r is said to be *rome-tann$1 al?\gh *rom$ w\ld be a m accurate def9ition4 ,"o m9]al process ( mak+ lea!r1 namely1 t involv+ ! use ( alum1 or alum9a sulphate1 & salt1 is te*nically describ$ z taw+1 ,! conv]sion ( sk9s into lea!r by ! use ( oxidis$ oil is kn[n z *amois+1 imitation *amois lea!r be+ made by t process4 ,ne>ly e m9]al has ! prop]ty ( conv]t+ sk9s into lea!r1 ?\gh mo/ ( !m are ( little practical value4 ,! mo/ successful are ! *rome salts1 & alum & salt4 ,! use ( iron salts w\ld be by f> ! *eape/ process1 if means c\ld be f\nd :]eby !y c\ld be successfully us$4 ,sixty ye>s ago1 a *emi/ nam$ ,knapp exp]im5t$ ) iron salts1 b fail$ to produce satisfactory lea!r4 ,pat5ts 7 tak5 out 9 ,au/ria 9 ! e>ly "p ( #aiad = ! use ( iron salts 9 tann+1 :ile a pat5t ( m rec5t date cov]s ! use ( iron salts 9 comb9ation ) *rome salts4 ,nei!r ( ^! appe>s to be ( mu* practical value4 ,! *eape/ & mo/ /able iron salts1 ! sulphate & *loride1 h /rongly acidic prop]ties1 &1 !re=e1 h a some:at de/ructive & h>d5+ effect on animal fibres4 ,! iron salt t might conv]t sk9s into lea!r is ! c>bonate1 :i* is difficult to prep>e *eaply en\gh = comm]cial purposes1 ?\gh x is us$ m$ic9ally4 ,a basic iron salt might also be useful1 b iron tannages w\ld only be suitable = black lea!r4 ,oils & fats also h lea!r-mak+ prop]ties1 fi% oils be+ us$ = ! manufacture ( *amois & antelope lea!r4 ,!re are o!r me?ods ( produc+ lea!r :i* are n us$ on a l>ge scale1 b suffici5t examples h be5 giv5 to %[ t an exact def9ition ( lea!r _c be summ$ up 9 "o or two words4 ,!re are n[ _m k9ds ( lea!r produc$ by v>y+ me?ods1 & ea* class requires its own def9ition4 ,broadly speak+1 h[ev]1 lea!r is an imputrescible mat]ial produc$ f ! raw sk9s ( animals1 *iefly ( cattle1 %eep1 & goats1 by treat+ !m ) tann9s extract$ f ! b>ks1 wood1 fruit1 or leaves ( trees2 or ) *emicals 7*iefly *rome salts1 or alum & common salt72 or ) oils & fats4 ,! prelim9>y processes are ( great importance1 z !y det]m9e to a l>ge ext5t ! "* ( ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,mi/akes made 9 ! e>ly processes c nev] be effectually rem$i$4 ,! fir/ op]ation is te*nically kn[n z soak+1 & its object is to cleanse ! hides or sk9s ?or\ghly4 ,?is is q simple 9 ! case ( raw hides receiv$ direct f ! slaught]h\se1 z x is m]ely a "q ( soak+ !m 9 clean1 s(t wat] = a few h\rs4 ,if ! only wat] available is h>d1 #a_/b lb4 ( borax %\ld be add$ = e #ajj lb4 ( raw hides4 ,borax is useful 9 any case1 z x is a spl5did cleans] & a v useful *emical 9 ! tann]y4 ,mo/ ( ! hides us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 h[ev]1 are wet-salt$ 7i4e41 salt$ 9 ! wet /ate71 z x has become cu/om>y = mo/ but*]s to s5d hides & sk9s to ! auction m>kets 9 all ! pr9cipal t[ns1 :]e !y are (f]$ = sale e week4 ,x is /ill a debatable po9t among tann]s z to :e!r x is bett] to buy hides direct f ! but*] or ?r\gh ^! m>kets4 ,x is c]ta9ly a great advantage to put hides into "w quickly 7al?\gh n be=e !y are q cool71 z "t is sav$ 9 ! soak+ process1 & !re is practically no loss ( gelat9\s matt]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! tann] is able to buy j ! selection ( hides t he wants f ! auction m>kets4 ,"u ?is arrangem5t1 sev]al days mu/ elapse be=e ! tann] receives !m1 & x is1 !re=e1 absolutely necess>y to pres]ve !m1 o!rwise !y beg9 to decompose quickly4 ,! fir/ sign ( decay is ! slipp+ ( ! hair1 :i*1 9 t condition1 may be pull$ out ( its roots q easily4 ,micro-organisms multiply rapidly 9 ! gelat9e ( ! hide1 ! gra9 comes away1 & decomposition sets 9 s quickly t1 9 a few days aft] ! removal ( ! hide f ! c>case1 x may lose ne>ly half its value = tann+ purposes if x has n be5 pres]v$ by salt+ or by dry+ rapidly 9 ! %ade 9 a curr5t ( air4 ,salt$ hides ne$ a m prolong$ soak+ ?an fre% hides1 z x is ess5tial t all trace ( salt be remov$ be=e ! next process1 o!rwise ! f9i%$ lea!r may be flat1 & poor 9 quality4 ,usually1 two days' soak+ 9 sev]al *anges ( wat] is necess>y4 ,= ! soak+ process1 fre% or salt$ hides & sk9s are ei!r soak$ 9 squ>e1 cem5t-l9$1 brick pits1 or 9 wood5 vats fill$ ) clean1 cold wat]4 ,a good sy/em is to put a pack ( sk9s 9 "o huge tank fill$ ) clean wat] & leave !m 9 soak ov]night be=e transf]r+ !m to ! ord9>y pits4 ,ea* pit w take #ej hides1 or #aj doz5 calf sk9s1 or #bj doz5 goat sk9s4 ,tann]s designate z a pack ea* lot ( hides or sk9s !y "w ?r\gh1 irrespective ( ! quantity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,,drum ,,tumbl] ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,,fall] ,,/ocks ,besides salt+ !m1 !re are o!r ways ( cur+ hides & sk9s1 & a l>ge proportion is simply dri$ or dry-salt$1 ! salt 9 ! latt] me?od be+ appli$ :ile ! hides are moi/4 ,dry hides1 :e!r fl9t 7i4e41 simply dri$7 or salt$1 require special treatm5t to make !m s(t & pliable1 )\t :i* x w\ld be impossible to conv]t !m into lea!r4 ,soak+ 9 pla9 wat] is insuffici5t1 z x w\ld ne$ too mu* "t1 dur+ :i* !re w\ld be a great loss ( gelat9e4 ,! use ( *emicals & me*anical motion are requir$2 sometimes *emicals alone w ?or\ghly s(t5 ! hides1 b ?is is n (t5 ! case4 ,bo? alkalies & acids may be us$ = s(t5+ dri$ hides1 & x is difficult to say :i* gives ! bett] result1 al?\gh ! =m] are frequ5tly us$1 ma9ly because treatm5t ) acids is a comp>atively rec5t innovation4 ,bo? k9ds are effective1 b ! use ( acids ret>ds ! loos5+ ( ! hair1 al?\gh x has be5 prov$ exp]im5tally t acid-s(t5$ hides give a slightly improv$ yield ( lea!r comp>$ ) ! effect ( ! alkal9e process--a notewor?y advantage :]e ! f9i%$ lea!r is to be sold by weight4 ,! acid g5]ally us$--=mic--has antiseptic prop]ties1 & c h no h>mful effect on animal tissues1 z is g5]ally ! case :]e m9]al acids1 especially sulphuric1 are us$4 ,sulphur\s acid is also said to be a good s(t5+ ag5t = hides1 b x is r>ely us$4 ,! mo/ satisfactory alkalies are sulphide ( sodium 7cry/allis$ or conc5trat$7 & cau/ic soda1 & ( ^! two1 ! sulphide is pref]r$ 9 n9e cases out ( t54 ,! quantities us$ v>y accord+ to ! condition ( ! hides1 b ! av]age is ab\t #a lb4 ( cau/ic soda1 or #a lb4 ( conc5trat$ sulphide ( sodium 7#fe p] c5t471 or #b lb4 ( cry/allis$ sulphide ( sodium 7#cj p] c5t47 = e #ajj gal4 ( wat]4 ,( =mic acid1 #a lb4 is suffici5t = #ajj gal4 ( wat]4 ,x is possible to s(t5 hides by ^! means )\t me*anical acid1 b ! "t is consid]ably %ort5$ by drumm+ ! hides1 i4e41 plac+ !m 9 a r\nd or1 pref]ably1 a squ>e tumbl] fitt$ inside ) %elves or /aves 7,fig4 #ac74 ,! drum is rotat$ me*anically = a few h\rs1 dur+ :i* "t ! hides are ?or\ghly knead$ & s(t5$ by ! alkali4 ,tann]s (t5 use a ma*9e kn[n z ! fall] /ocks 7,fig4 #ad71 :i* kneads ! hides v ?or\ghly1 ?\gh some:at dra/ically4 ,! drum me?od is pref]able1 provid+ ! hides c be suitably s(t5$4 ,an old me?od1 & "o t is us$ n[ by "s ( ! small firms1 is to break ov] 7i4e41 vigor\sly scrape7 ! hides ) a curv$ blunt knife fitt$ into two wood5 h&les4 ,= ?is manual op]ation1 ! hide is plac$1 fle% side up1 ov] ! tann]'s beam 7,fig4 #ae7 & is !n scrap$ ) ! knife4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae ,,tann]',s ,,beam ,ano!r old me?od1 :i* has n yet disappe>$1 is to make use ( /ale soak liquors1 :i*1 al?\gh effici5t = s(t5+ purposes1 cause a great loss ( hide sub/ance ow+ to ! active gr[? ( bact]ia1 :i* are develop$ z a result ( ! wat] becom+ f\l & putrid ) dirt1 blood1 & dissolv$ gelat9\s matt]4 ,?is me?od ( soak+ is always dang]\s1 ap>t f ! great loss ( gelat9e1 = ! ?9 gra9 7hyal9e lay]7 is liable to be eat5 away 9 pat*es1 a defect :i* greatly r$uces ! value ( lea!r4 ,dri$ hides are n only difficult to treat successfully 9 ! diff]5t processes ( mak+ !m into lea!r1 b !y are also ( highly speculative value1 al?\gh !y are well pres]v$ :5 completely dry4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ! dry+ is imp]fect2 x may1 = example1 h be5 s rapid t ! ext]ior ( bo? sides is ?or\ghly dri$ be=e ! air is able to p5etrate into ! c5tre4 ,! result is t ! int]ior ( ! hide putrefies1 b !re may be no indication ( ?is until ! hides are soak$ & s(t5$1 :5 !y may fall to pieces & are only saleable to glue mak]s4 ,aga91 ! hides may be dri$ 9 ! hot sun & be badly bli/]$1 ) ! same result z reg>ds _! value = lea!r4 ,if ! hides are dri$ 9 too high a temp]ature1 !y become horny & r>ely make satisfactory lea!r ow+ to ! difficulty ( s(t5+ !m4 ,x is e/imat$ t q #aj p] c5t4 ( ! dri$ hides are improp]ly cur$ &1 !re=e1 useless = mak+ into satisfactory lea!r4 ,ap>t f ! comm]cial risk 9 buy+ dry hides1 _! import1 especially f ,russia & ,*9a1 is a s\rce ( dang] 9 convey+ ! disease ( an?rax to workm54 ,x has be5 conclusively prov$ t dri$ hides are mu* m liable ?an wet-salt$ hides to cause infection4 ,s f>1 only "o c\ntry1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 has tak5 /eps to prev5t ! importation ( ! disease ( an?rax1 al?\gh mo/ c\ntries h issu$ regulations 9 reg>d to ! precaution to be tak5 to avoid infection by an?rax 9 ^? factories :]e import$ hides1 wool1 hair1 & bones are treat$4 ,x w\ld seem t ! mo/ rational me?od w\ld be to dis9fect ! hides be=e !y are %ipp$1 z x c]ta9ly appe>s to be unwise to import any =m ( disease2 un=tunately1 ! fir/ regulations issu$ by ! ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t prov$ to be impracticable1 z ! sugge/$ me?od _h ! effect ( l[]+ ! quality ( ! hides1 & mak+ ! prelim9>y op]ations tr\blesome4 ,_! second s*eme1 consi/+ ( bal+ a c]ta9 numb] ( hides 9 canvas dis9fect$ ) a #j4jb p] c5t4 solution ( m]curic *loride1 is m satisfactory1 =1 al?\gh x may n /]ilise all ! an?rax spores inside ! bale1 x %\ld prev5t !m rea*+ o!r goods4 ,?is ,gov]nm5t ord] only applies to hides1 sk9s1 hair1 & wool com+ f c\ntries :]e an?rax is kn[n to be preval5t4 ,! disease ( an?rax is g5]ally contract$ by work]s ?r\gh sores or cuts 9 ! h&2 ! bacilli multiply rapidly 9 contact ) ! blood1 & ! fir/ sign ( disease is usually %[n by a r$ swell+ or pimple 9 ! neck4 ,if treat$ at ?is /age by anti-an?rax s]um a cure is (t5 effect$1 b if treatm5t is delay$ ! disease quickly proves fatal1 ! pati5t dy+ 9 awful agony4 ,! g]ms ( ! disease may also be swall[$ & ! disease develop int]nally1 b cases ( ?is k9d are r>e4 ,besides ! dang] to work]s1 !re is ! risk ( cattle be+ infect$4 ,! efflu5t f tann]ies :]e an?rax-infect$ sk9s are treat$ conta9s millions ( bacilli1 & x is d\btful if ! latt] are /]ilis$ ev5 :5 ! efflu5ts are precipitat$ & arat$ be=e !y are run into /reams or municipal sew]s4 ,9 any case1 ! s$im5t may be infect$1 & ?is ultimately f9ds its way to ! l&4 ,until ! v>i\s ,european ,gov]nm5ts insi/ on import$ hides f an?rax-infect$ areas be+ /]ilis$ be=e %ipm5t1 ! use ( a dis9fectant su* z lysol or a simil> cresylic comp\nd1 or bi*loride ( m]cury1 seems imp]ative 9 ! fir/ process ( soak+4 ,! use ( ^! dis9fectants w\ld make ! wa/e liquors fit = dis*>ge into sew]s or /reams4 ,! ,engli% ,public ,heal? & ,riv] ,pollution ,acts h _h a great effect 9 improv+ ! hygi5e ( ! tann]y1 al?\gh lea!r manufactur]s h n welcom$ !m1 z1 9 "s cases1 !y h meant consid]able exp5se 9 provid+ settl+ tanks = ! treatm5t ( wa/e liquors4 ,! ,public ,heal? ,act gives p[] to any t[n corporation to decl>e z (f5sive trades su* bus9esses z tann+1 hide & sk9 m]*ant+1 fellmong]+1 tall[ melt+1 etc41 & sev]al bor\ghs h tak5 advantage ( ?is law4 ,9 su* cases1 anyone desir+ to set up bus9ess 9 ^! trades mu/ apply to ! ,t[n ,c\ncil1 :o may or may n give _! cons5t2 9 fact1 a few applications to e/abli% ^! bus9esses h lately be5 refus$4 ,:ile ! cur+ ( wet hides ) salt or 9 br9e is m satisfactory ?an dry+ !m1 ! use ( ord9>y salt is n an ideal me?od1 z #aj p] c5t4 br9e dissolves hide sub/ance4 ,! rec5t introduction ( a pure dry salt 7#ii-ih p] c5t47 & ( a /]ilis$ salt = comm]cial purposes has to a l>ge ext5t remov$ ! objections to ord9>y salt4 ,dry sulphate ( soda is also a satisfactory cure4 ,x may be t1 z hygi5ic conditions are fur!r advanc$ 9 ! v>i\s indu/ries1 a suitable dis9fectant w h to be us$ = all hides1 9 addition to ! salt1 except :]e ! hides are s5t direct to ! tann]y f ! slaught]h\se4 ,! cure ( hides 9 hot c\ntries1 especially :]e *eap salt is unavailable1 is (t5 unsatisfactory4 ,a me?od ( obviat+ ?is difficulty has be5 f\nd 9 ,*9a1 :]e1 9 "o or two ( ! pr9cipal t[ns1 hides & sk9s are pres]v$ by freez+ !m 9 cold-/orage4 ,al?\gh ?is process /iff5s ! hides1 x is said to be fairly satisfactory if !y are all[$ to s(t5 naturally be=e soak+ !m4 ,if submitt$ to r\gh treatm5t be=e ! /iffness relaxes1 !re is a great dang] ( ! hide fibres be+ ruptur$4 ,freez+ removes ! difficulty ( s(t5+ :i* is exp]i5c$ 9 treat+ dri$ hides1 :ile x pres]ves ! hide sub/ance4 ,aft] ! op]ation ( soak+1 hides & sk9s are ready to be treat$ = ! removal ( ! hair4 ,!re are sev]al ways ( loos5+ ! hair %ea?s1 b mo/ ( !m consi/ ( treat+ ! hides 9 a solution ( a cau/ic alkali4 ,! use ( a solution ( common lime 0 practically univ]sal until a few ye>s ago1 b n[adays sulphide ( sodium1 r$ ars5ic sulphide 7realg>71 & cau/ic soda are also us$1 g5]ally 9 admixture ) ! lime4 ,ano!r process consi/s 9 sweat+ ! hides 9 a heat$ room1 pref]ably a damp cell>1 :]e rapid decomposition ( ! hides soon loos5s ! hair4 ,?is me?od is r>ely us$ 9 ,engl&1 b a few ,am]ican tann]s seem to pref] x = c]ta9 classes ( hides4 ,9 ! ,am]ican process1 ! hides are fir/ soak$1 & !n cut 9 half d[n ! back1 =m+ :at are kn[n z sides4 ,dry hides are subject$ to ! usual me*anical op]ations 9 ! fall] /ocks1 9 :i* !y are knead$ by two l>ge hamm]s 7,fig4 #ad71 or !y are drumm$ 9 ! tumbl] 7,fig4 #ac74 ,aft] ! sides are ?or\ghly s(t5$ & dra9$1 !y are transf]r$ to ! sweat pit1 :i* is1 pref]ably1 a d>k und]gr\nd *amb]4 ,! /ock requires v c>eful att5tion z ! process is risky4 ,! temp]ature %\ld nev] exce$ #ge ,f41 o!rwise ! hides may be irretrievably ru9$4 ,! process may take f "o to f\r days1 accord+ to ! v>y+ conditions ( ! hides & ( ! wea!r4 ,! loss ( nitrog5\s matt] gives rise to ! developm5t ( a /rong od\r ( ammonia1 :i* is sometimes ev5 too pung5t = ! workm54 ,:5 ! hair is judg$ to be suffici5tly loose1 ! sides are wa%$ 9 cold wat] & put 9 ! /ocks aga9 = ab\t t5 m9utes1 :5 all ! hair w be remov$2 or ! hair may be scrap$ (f 9 ! unhair+ ma*9e4 ,?is me?od is n useful = sole lea!r1 z x causes too great a loss ( gelat9e1 b x saves "t 9 ! production ( sides int5d$ = boot upp] lea!r1 :i* is usually sold by measurem5t 7sup]ficial area74 ,a dehair+ process has lately be5 inv5t$ & pat5t$1 h[ev]1 :i* may sup]s$e all ( ! me?ods j describ$4 ,?is process consi/s 9 treat+ ! hides ) v>i\s enzymes :i* loos5 ! hair s effectively t x c be remov$ m easily ?an ! hair ( a lim$ hide4 ,! f9e1 %ort hairs und]nea? are also remov$1 :]eas by ! lime me?od a fur!r process is ne$$ to get rid ( ^! hairs4 ,! only drawback to its use is t ! inv5tor has n yet be5 able to produce a mat]ial *eap en\gh to place on ! m>ket1 b z soon z ?is difficulty is ov]come ! enzyme me?od may become fairly g5]al4 ,nei!r ! hair nor ! gelat9e ( ! hide c be damag$ by ?is me?od4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af ,,lime ,,y>d 7,dri-p$ ,tann]y7 ,! usual me?od ( lim+ is c>ri$ out 9 brick pits ( squ>e or rectangul> %ape ) a slop+ front on :i* ! hides or sk9s c be pil$ to dra9 7,fig4 #af74 ,!re is a great v>iation 9 ! quality ( lime1 & 9 all cases x %\ld be te/$ = ! available p]c5tage ( cau/ic lime4 ,a good sample %\ld conta9 betwe5 #gj & #hj p] c5t4 ( pure lime4 ,buxton lime1 :i* c be obta9$ 9 p[d]$ =m1 is p>ticul>ly suitable = ! tann]y4 ,! ord9>y lime is pref]able to ! *alk lime1 z x is usually /rong]1 ?\gh x sometimes conta9s m impurities4 ,gas lime is ! poore/ ( all4 ,lime %\ld be /or$ 9 a d>k place1 o!rwise ! outside ( ! heap c>bonates quickly1 =m+ *alk 7,ca,o ,,co#b ,ca,c,o#c7 :i* is ( no use = ! lim+ process4 ,to prep>e ! lime = ! pits x is slak$ 7i4e41 =m$ into a pa/e ) wat]4 ,all ! lumps %\ld be r$uc$ to pa/e 9 ord] to avoid lime burns1 :i* are caus$ by direct contact ( ! hides ) pieces ( unslak$ lime4 ,a c]ta9 quantity ( ! pa/e is !n add$ to ! wat] or old lime liquor 9 ! pit1 & ! liquor is well plung$ up to ha/5 solution & diffusion ( ! lime4 ,a long wood5 pole1 ) a flat block ( wood atta*$1 is us$ = ?is purpose & also = press+ d[n ! hides "u ! surface ( ! liquor4 ,two me?ods ( lim+ are 9 vogue3 7#a7 ! s+le-pit sy/em1 & 7#b7 ! ?ree-pit sy/em2 b ! latt] is ! bett] me?od1 z x is m easily controll$1 & causes less loss ( gelat9e ?an ! =m]4 ,9 ?is sy/em ! liquor is /r5g!n$ ) fre% lime = ea* pack ( sk9s4 ,its great fault is t ! pit is only cle>$ out at long int]vals 9 ord] to take advantage ( ! mell[ness ( us$ lime liquors2 h5ce1 !re is frequ5tly l>ge accumulation ( insoluble lime/one & o!r s$im5t f ! lime1 9 addition to a quantity ( dissolv$ gelat9e1 :i* rapidly accumulates putrefactive bact]ia4 ,:5 ! pit is cle>$ out ! process ( lim+ is di/urb$ = a "t1 z fre% lime liquors are n b5eficial to hides & sk9s1 & ! loos5+ ( ! hair is delay$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ?ree-pit sy/em p]mits liquors ( uni=m /r5g?1 & ! process is cont9u$ )\t int]ruption4 ,ea* new pack is fir/ plac$ 9 ! olde/ ( ! ?ree liquors1 :i* is !n cle>$ out1 & a new liquor prep>$4 ,f ! weake/ pit ! hides pass to a /rong] liquor1 & ! process is f9i%$ 9 ! ?ird pit1 :i* %\ld conta9 a new lime liquor4 ,! mell[ liquors1 be+ *>g$ ) bact]ia1 facilitate ! loos5+ ( ! hair1 :ile ! ?ird liquor1 consi/+ ( fre% lime1 s]ves to swell ! fibres ( ! hide1 by means ( :i* ! fle% is m effectually remov$4 ,! lime also =ms a soap ) ! natural grease ( ! hide2 ?is grease c !re=e be remov$4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 especially 9 ! cattle f$ up = ,*ri/mas1 ! hides conta9 a l>g] quantity ( fat ?an ! alkali ( ! lime liquor c conv]t into a soap1 & ! surplus grease is frequ5tly se5 9 ! f9i%$ lea!r1 z x is difficult to remove 9 lat] processes4 ,a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 or lactic acid1 giv5 j be=e ! process ( tann+ is said to remove ! grease1 al?\gh a slight loss results 9 ! case ( ^? lea!rs sold by weight4 ,! objection to natural grease 9 lea!r c be und]/ood :]e ! latt] is int5d$ = col\rs1 b 9 ! case ( sole lea!r x ought n to be a disadvantage1 yet1 ow+ m]ely to ! d>k] appe>ance ( ! lea!r :]e ! grease rea*es ! gra91 its sell+ value is r$uc$ by #b;d4 or #c;d4 p] lb4 ,! /range "p is t ! gra9 ( ?is sole lea!r1 :5 made into boots1 is buff$ on an em]y :eel1 !n sometimes col\r$ ) a pa9t1 & f9ally sold 9 boots at ! same price z lea!r free f grease & regul> 9 col\r4 ,! lim+ process 9 pits takes f six days to a mon?1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! lea!r requir$4 ,light calf sk9s may be ready = unhair+ )9 a week1 :ile hides int5d$ to be f9i%$ = raw hide lea!r may be left 9 ! pits q a mon?1 ! object be+ to di/5d & h>d5 ! fibres4 ,lamb sk9s int5d$ = p>*m5t1 & small calf sk9s = vellum1 are also subject$ to prolong$ lim+4 ,betwe5 ^! extremes1 !re are sev]al /ages 9 ! process :i* h v>y+ effects on ! "* ( ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,9 fact1 x is a tann]'s dictum t lea!r is made or m>r$ 9 ! lime liquor1 ?\gh ?is1 ( c\rse1 only applies to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! heavi] ! hides1 ! long] ! lim+ requir$4 ,=tunately1 ! limit$ solubility ( ! lime 9 wat] af=ds a wide m>g9 ( safety 9 work+1 & ! only dang] to gu>d aga9/ is ! too prolong$ use ( old liquors1 :i* are readily detect$ by ! /rong od\r ( ammonia4 ,"o important prop]ty ( lime is its l[] solubility 9 hot ?an 9 cold wat]4 ,lime by itself does n readily attack ! hair bulbs1 & ! sl[ness ( ! process has l$ to ! introduction ( o!r *emicals1 g5]ally = use 9 conjunction ) lime4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! are sulphide ( sodium & r$ ars5ic4 ,mixtures ( sulphide ( sodium & lime1 or r$ ars5ic & lime are n[ l>gely us$1 ! =m] = hides1 calf1 & %eep sk9s1 & ! latt] = goat & kid sk9s4 ,bo? sulphide ( sodium & ars5ic dissolve k]at9\s matt]s 7horns1 hair1 etc47 & workm5 %\ld1 !re=e1 be provid$ ) rubb] gloves to prev5t ! loss ( _! f+] nails4 ,sulphides naturally l[] ! comm]cial value ( ! hair remov$ &1 if us$ alone1 de/roy x4 ,9 admixture1 h[ev]1 ! hair has "s value1 al?\gh x is n s good z t remov$ by ! use ( pure lime4 ,aga9/ ?is1 h[ev]1 !re is a great sav+ ( "t & less loss ( hide sub/ance &1 !re=e1 increas$ weight ( lea!r4 ,sulphide ( sodium is prep>$ 9 cry/allis$ or conc5trat$ =m2 ! =m]1 ab\t #cj p] c5t4 /r5g?1 is pref]r$ 9 ,great ,brita91 :ile ! latt]--#fe p] c5t4 /r5g?--is prep>$ = export1 ! ma9 object be+ to save ! co/ ( transit ( #ce p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,ab\t ?irty diff]5t sulphide salts may be us$1 b ! sodium & ars5ic disulphides are ! be/1 z x has be5 %[n t ! mo/ rapid loos5+ ( ! hair occurs :]e ! quantities ( sulphur & alkali are ne>ly ! same4 ,!re are two ars5ic salts us$ 9 ! trade1 namely1 realg>1 or r$ sulphide ( ars5ic 7,z#b,s#b7 & orpim5t1 or ! yell[ sulphide 7,z#b,s#c71 b ! =m] is (t5 pref]r$ z x is said to give bett] results ?an ! latt]4 ,9 practice1 ! proportion ( ars5ic us$ is #a "p 9 #bj p>ts ( lime1 al?\gh x naturally v>ies a little accord+ to ! class ( sk9 "u treatm5t4 ,sulphide ( sodium is us$ 9 ! proportion ( #a "p to #aj ( lime1 or1 if conc5trat$ sulphide be us$1 #a 9 #bj4 ,! quantities ( lime1 or lime & sulphide1 us$ are e/imat$ on ! weight ( ! raw hides4 ,= hides int5d$ = sole lea!r1 #e p] c5t4 ( lime on ! weight ( hides is ample1 :ile a little m may be us$ = hides int5d$ = dress+ lea!r 7i4e41 lea!r :i* has to be dress$ or f9i%$ ) a c]ta9 degree ( flexibility = bags1 boot upp]s1 etc474 ,:5 a mixture ( lime & sulphide is us$1 #c p] c5t4 & #j4c p] c5t4 respectively is a satisfactory quantity4 ,! action ( ?is mixture on hides is complex & has n yet be5 def9itely asc]ta9$1 b x is ?\ght t ! calcium sulphydrate =m$ by ! *emical reaction betwe5 sulphide ( sodium & calcium hydrate 7slak$ lime7 is ! active pr9ciple4 ,9 ! pit me?od ( lim+1 x is ess5tial t ! liquors be frequ5tly plung$1 :ile ! hides %\ld be tak5 out 7haul$71 pil$ to dra9 = a few h\rs1 & put back aga9 7set71 or transf]r$ to ano!r pit4 ,al?\gh lime is m soluble 9 cold ?an 9 w>m wat]1 x is f\nd 9 practice t ! process may be /opp$ or consid]ably ret>d$ 9 v cold wea!r1 & ! activity ( ! liquors is increas$ by ! application ( wa/e /eam 7convey$ ?r\gh iron pipes f ! boil]74 ,sulphide ( sodium & lime are sometimes made into a ?9 pa/e1 :i* is appli$ to ! hair side ( hides & sk9s ) a mop or fibre bru%4 ,! hides are !n fold$ d[n ! back ) ! fle% sides out2 o!r hides are simil>ly treat$ & plac$ 9 a pile4 ,?is saves a great am\nt ( lab\r 9 pitt+1 &1 if ! pa/e is fairly /rong1 consi/+ ( #b to #b-a_/b p] c5t4 sulphide1 ! hair c be remov$ aft] a few h\rs4 ,) s _m depilatories available1 x is n surpris+ t sev]al pat5ts h be5 grant$ & num]\s sugge/ions made ) ! object ( try+ to improve on ! old process ( lim+4 ,:ile !re may be "s objections to lime1 x has a few advantages :i* are lack+ 9 o!r depilatories4 ,^! advantages are n p]fectly und]/ood !oretically1 b ! tann] recognises !m 9 practice4 ,h5ce1 !re are v few tann]ies :]e lime is n us$ at all1 & ! only progress t seems to h be5 made 9 ! process ( lim+ consi/s 9 ! admixture ( sulphide ( sodium or ars5ic to ha/5 ! process1 r$uce ! loss ( gelat9e1 &1 9 ! case ( ars5ic1 to improve ! f95ess ( ! gra9 ( sk9s = boot upp] & glove lea!rs4 ,"o pat5t$ me?od consi/$ 9 =m+ ! calcium hydrate )9 ! hide by treat+ x ) a #a p] c5t4 solution ( cau/ic soda & !n ) a #a-a_/b p] c5t4 solution ( calcium *loride1 ! reaction ( ^! two *emicals =m+ calcium hydrate 7lime7 & sodium *loride 7salt74 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 does n loos5 ! hair at all & has to be supplem5t$ by soak+ ! hides 9 putrid wat]4 ,x is a good me?od ( lim+ hides or sk9s dress$ 9 ! hair1 z x op5s up ! fibres )\t weak5+ ! hair roots & prep>es ! hides 9 a suitable condition = tann+4 ,ano!r me?od consi/s 9 mix+ a small quantity ( soda a% ) ! lime1 !reby ha/5+ ! process by increas+ ! alkal9ity ( ! liquor4 ,a some:at complicat$ me?od 0 introduc$ a few ye>s ago1 b1 al?\gh x seem$ advantage\s f a *emical po9t ( view1 x has n prov$ successful 9 practice s f> z is kn[n1 probably because ( its exp5se4 ,9 consi/$ ( f\r di/9ct processes4 ,! hides 7 fir/ mopp$ on ! hair side ) a ?9 pa/e ( lime & ars5ic1 & dehair$ aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,9 ! second process1 !y 7 treat$ 9 a drum = tw5ty-f\r h\rs ) a solution ( sodium sulphide1 !y 7 !n drumm$ = tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 a solution ( hyposulphite ( soda1 & f9ally plac$ 9 a vat or pit conta9+ a solution ( lime & a little ars5ic = two to five days4 ,aft] wa%+1 etc41 !y 7 ready = tann+4 ,! sulphide ( sodium swell$ ! hides or sk9s by di/5d+ ! fibres1 & ! natural fat is conv]t$ into a soluble soap4 ,! hyposulphite arre/s ! action ( ! sulphide & acts z an antiseptic4 ,9 mod]n y>ds x is a gr[+ practice to use me*anical p[] to keep ! hides 9 motion1 in/ead ( h&l+ !m4 ,! hides are atta*$ to poles jo9$ to a /rong cross beam1 :i*1 9 its turn1 is connect$ by /\t iron rods ) ! ma9 pullies & %aft+4 ,! in/allation is exp5sive1 b x saves an enorm\s am\nt ( manual lab\r & "t1 :ile ensur+ uni=m treatm5t4 ,?is me?od is n s mu* us$ = lim+ z = ! tann+ process4 ,aft] loos5+ ! hair & op5+ up ! fibres1 ! next op]ation is dehair+ or depilation1 or1 z x is g5]ally describ$ 9 ! trade1 unhair+4 ,! hair mu/ slip q easily be=e beg9n+ ?is op]ation1 o!rwise a numb] ( !m w be left 9 ! hide & w be difficult1 or almo/ impossible1 to remove lat] on if ! hides are be+ made into sole lea!r4 ,^! hairs pres5t an unsightly appe>ance & l[] ! value ( ! lea!r4 ,depilation may be done by h& or ma*9e2 b ! latt] me?od is rapidly sup]s$+ ! =m]1 z x is 9 ne>ly e o!r process ( lea!r manufacture4 ,9 ! manual process1 ! hair is remov$ by scrap+ x (f 9 a d[nw>d direction ) a blunt1 convex-%ap$ knife1 fitt$ into two wood5 h&les 7,fig4 #ag71 ! hides be+ plac$ on a slop+ convex beam 7,fig4 #ae7 support$ by a tre/le4 ,a s]ies ( grooves "u ! beam p]mits x to be plac$ at any angle4 ,! beam 7diff]5t f t us$ by curri]s7 may be ( wood1 iron1 /eel1 or z9c-cov]$ wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag ,,dehair+ ,,knife ,!re are sev]al types ( unhair+ ma*9es1 ( :i* ! ,leidg5 m ne>ly approa*es h& "w ?an any o!r4 ,! sk9s are plac$ on a s(t b$ ( felt1 & ! work+ roll]1 fitt$ ) spiral knives1 is br\ght into contact ) ! hide & scrapes (f ! hair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah ,,dehair+ ,,& ,,fle%+ ,,ma*9e ,! type ( ma*9e (t5 us$1 h[ev]1 is %[n 9 ,figure #ah2 ! work+ "p is a long sp9dle fitt$ ) helical knives4 ,! advantages ( ?is ma*9e are its l>ge output & its use = o!r op]ations by simply *ang+ ! work+ roll]4 ,! blades mu/ be blunt = dehair+1 b %>p5$ blades are ne$$ = fle%+4 ,if hides int5d$ = sole lea!r are be+ dehair$1 ! %ort hairs :i* are n remov$ by ! dehair+ knife are c>efully scrap$ (f ) a %>p knife4 ,o!r k9ds ( hides & sk9s are fre$ f %ort hairs 9 a lat] op]ation4 ,:5 ! hides are dehair$1 !y are sometimes submitt$ at once to ! next op]ation ( fle%+1 :i*1 z its "n implies1 consi/s 9 remov+ loose fle% & fat f ! fle% side1 t is1 ! side ne> ! c>case4 ,! ext5t to :i* ?is op]ation is c>ri$ out dep5ds on ! quality ( ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,naturally1 ! m fle% left on ! great] ! weight1 p>ticul>ly z loose fle% w absorb a l>ge quantity ( tann91 &1 un=tunately1 ( adult]ants :i* are frequ5tly us$ = weight+ common lea!rs4 ,! fle% ought to be remov$ 9 all cases1 = ! loose fle% =ms v poor & spongy lea!r4 ,:]e hides & sk9s are tann$ & !n dri$ = sale to lea!r dress]s & f9i%]s1 !re is (t5 ! t5d5cy to leave f> too mu* loose fle% on !m1 ) ! object ( produc+ z mu* weight ( lea!r z possible4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( economy1 ?is is a mi/ake1 = ! loose fle% mu/ be remov$ dur+ ! dress+ process1 :]eas1 if x _h be5 tak5 (f at fir/1 bo? mat]ial & "t w\ld h be5 sav$ 9 ! process ( tann+4 ,if ! fle%+ is n done directly aft] dehair+1 ! hides or sk9s %\ld be plac$ 9 a weak lime liquor1 & ?is me?od is to be recomm5d$4 ,! great po9t to be obs]v$ is to keep ! lim$ hides1 bo? be=e & aft] dehair+1 away f contact ) ! air1 z ! *emical action ( ! c>bonic acid on lime results 9 ! =mation ( *alk1 :i* t5ds to h>d5 ! hides & to r\gh5 ! gra91 s t x is likely to be scrat*$ 9 lat] op]ations4 ,:]e ! hides are int5d$ = sole lea!r1 & n treat$ ) an acid be=e ent]+ ! tann+ liquors1 ! pres5ce ( *alk w\ld lead to an unev5 col\r+ ( ! lea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai ,,fle%+ ,,knife ,fle%+ by h& dem&s great skill4 ,! knife us$ 7,fig4 #ai7 is simil> to ! unhair+ knife1 except t x has two edges4 ,! cutt+ is done ) ! convex edge1 :i* has to be kept v %>p4 ,! concave edge ne$ n be %>p1 its use be+ limit$ to scrap+ (f loose p>ticles ( fle%1 :ile ! p>ts n remov$ by ?is means are cut (f ) ! %>p edge4 ,! knife is held slant+ly1 ) ! blade almo/ p>allel ) ! beam4 ,! /rokes %\ld be %ort & 9 a semicircul> direction1 o!rwise x is difficult to avoid cutt+ ! sk9s4 ,?is manual op]ation is n[ l>gely sup]s$$ by ma*9]y1 & w1 no d\bt1 soon be obsolete4 ,! e>ly types ( fle%+ ma*9es 7 n a success1 b ! mod]n ma*9e is v effective4 ,!re are sev]al makes on ! m>ket1 b 9 mo/ cases ! work+ tool is ( simil> con/ruction & consi/s ( a long cyl9d] to :i* spiral knives are fix$4 7,fig4 #ah47 ,half ( ^! blades conv]ge to ! left & half to ! "r1 ! object be+ n only to cut away ! fle% b also to /ret* ! hides outw>d1 ?us ensur+ an ev5ly cut surface4 ,! fle%+s & useless pieces ( sk9 are kept 9 a weak lime liquor until !re is a suffici5t quantity to s5d to ! glue mak]2 al?\gh 9 "s ( ! l>g] tann]ies ?is (fal1 te*nically t]m$ spet*es1 or glue pieces1 is conv]t$ into glue on ! premises4 ,9 hot wea!r1 a l>ge accumulation ( fle%+s is liable to putrefaction1 despite ! use ( pl5ty ( lime wat]4 ,:ile lime c]ta9ly arre/s putrefaction ( gelat9\s matt] = a "t1 decomposition aft]w>ds sets 9 & s]i\s damage may be done4 ,to avoid ?is1 x has be5 a common practice 9 ,g]many to use =maldehyde1 b1 :ile ?is acts z a pres]vative1 x h>d5s animal tissues1 & has a tann+ effect1 ) ! result t ! pieces are r5d]$ insoluble & _c1 ( c\rse1 be r$uc$ to a liquid gelat9e by boil+4 ,glue mak]s h condemn$ ! use ( =maldehyde1 b o!r pres]vatives1 su* z lysol 7a cresylic comp\nd7 & arasol1 h no tann+ effect & may be us$ ) safety4 ,aft] ! op]ation ( fle%+1 x is necess>y to get rid ( ! lime 9 ! hides1 =1 if !y 7 put directly into tan liquors1 ! lime1 be+ alkal9e1 w\ld neutralise ! acidity ( ! tan liquors & ret>d ! beg9n+ ( ! tann+ process = a long p]iod4 ,! lea!r w\ld ultimately be poor1 ?91 /a9$1 & brittle4 ,up to ! process ( delim+1 !re is n a great deal ( diff]5ce 9 prep>+ ! hides & sk9s = ! l>ge v>iety ( lea!rs1 b betwe5 ! fle%+ & ! tann+ processes ! "w v>ies consid]ably1 & l>gely det]m9es ! "* ( ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,:5 ! hides or sk9s are 9 ! lim$ /ate1 !y are gri/ly & firm 9 texture4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( ?is firmness is desirable 9 "s lea!rs1 su* z sole & belt+1 &1 !re=e1 x is deem$ advisable to leave a small quantity ( lime 9 ! hides1 al?\gh1 to get !m ev5ly col\r$ 9 tann+1 x is ess5tial t ! lime %\ld be completely remov$ f ! surface ( ! hide4 ,an old me?od1 :i* is ev5 9 use to-day 9 "s tann]ies1 is to wa% ! fle%$ hides 9 a cubical or hexagonal drum = sev]al h\rs 9 runn+ wat]1 :i* is convey$ ?r\gh an iron pipe 9 ! j\rnal ( ! drum1 & escapes ?r\gh small holes 9 ! drum4 ,! effect ( us+ a h>d wat] = wa%+ out ! lime is %[n 9 ! int]ior ( ^! wa%+ drums1 ! sides ( :i* become incru/rat$ ) a ?ick1 h>d deposit4 ,! surface ( ?is incru/ration is irregul>1 & small projections are sometimes =m$ :i* m>k ! hides & r$uce _! value1 z ! impressions are n remov$ 9 lat] processes4 ,! mod]n me?od ( delim+ hides int5d$ = sole lea!r is to use a weak solution ( acid1 or an acid salt4 ,= ?is purpose1 sulphuric & hydro*loric acids are by f> ! *eape/1 b require h&l+ ) great c>e1 z any excess us$ has a corrosive & de/ructive effect on ! fibres1 :i* results 9 weak lea!r4 ,mild organic acids are mu* saf]1 & ^? g5]ally pref]r$ are lactic1 =mic1 & butyric1 al?\gh boracic & acetic acids are fav\r$ by "s tann]s4 ,butyrate ( ammonia is us$ = ! same purpose by a numb] ( ,fr5* tann]s4 ,! same acid ba? c be us$ = a second lot ( hides1 b suffici5t acid %\ld be add$ to raise ! acidity ( ! liquor to its =m] /&>d4 ,x is inadvisable to use "o ba? m ?an f\r or five times4 ,! salt =m$ dur+ ! process by ! comb9ation ( ! lime ) ! acid--calcium lactate1 =mate1 butyrate1 acetate1 or borate1 accord+ to ! acid us$--mu/ be wa%$ f ! hides1 ei!r 9 a pit or drum1 be=e !y are ready = ! tan liquors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj ,,scudd+ ,,knife ,o!r k9ds ( hides & sk9s require additional treatm5t1 accord+ to ! class ( lea!r x is int5d$ to make4 ,hides to be dress$ = su* purposes z bags1 portmanteaus1 cases1 h>ness1 belt+1 & /\t upp]s are usually /eep$ 9 an infusion ( h5 or pigeon dung4 ,a vat is fill$ ) tepid wat]1 a quantity ( ! dung1 usually ab\t half a pailful1 is add$ & well /irr$ 9 ! wat] be=e putt+ ! hides 94 ,! acid f]m5tation evolv$ neutralises ! lime1 :ile bact]ia multiply & rapidly r$uce ! rubb]y lim$ hide to a s(t1 flaccid condition4 ,! hides are !n well wa%$ 9 cle> wat] & scudd$1 aft] :i* !y are transf]r$ to ! tan pits4 ,scudd+ is ! te*nical "n ( an op]ation p]=m$ on hides & sk9s ) a special tool1 kn[n z ! scudd+ knife1 :i* consi/s ( a convex piece ( slate or vulcanite fitt$ into a wood5 or /eel h&le 7,fig4 #bj74 ,! hides are plac$ on ! beam1 gra9 side up1 & vigor\sly work$ ) ! knife to scrape (f scud 7i4e41 %ort hairs1 dirt1 & soluble lime salts74 ,bo? sides ( ! hides %\ld be scudd$ = be/ "w4 ,! process ( treat+ hides ) excrem5t is kn[n te*nically z bat+1 ,calf sk9s1 :i* are curri$ or dress$ aft] tann+1 %\ld be r$uc$ to a m supple condition ?an hides int5d$ = h>ness1 belt+1 & milit>y lea!rs4 ,a m active dung is1 !re=e1 us$ = sk9s ( all k9ds :i* h to be r5d]$ supple4 ,dog manure is g5]ally us$1 t f ! hunt+ k5nels be+ pref]r$4 ,import$ dry dung has to be us$ by "s firms1 z ! supply ( fre% dung is insuffici5t4 ,! dem& = ! latt] is v ke51 z x is m effective ?an ! dry product4 ,goat sk9s dress$ = ! fam\s %oe lea!r kn[n z glaz$ or glac kid1 & kid sk9s = glove lea!r1 ne$ a l>g] proportion ( pu] ?an ne>ly e o!r k9d ( lea!r1 = ! gra9 ( goat sk9s is naturally h>d & requires a l>ge quantity ( dung to r$uce x to ! necess>y s(tness & suppl5ess ( kid lea!r4 ,al?\gh ^! processes c only be describ$ z disagreeable1 !y app>5tly h no injuri\s effect on ! workm54 ,fur!r1 ! hides & sk9s are ?or\ghly clean$ be=e putt+ !m 9 ! tan liquors1 9 :i* ! bact]ial activity caus$ by ! infusion ( dung is quickly arre/$4 ,=tunately1 f ! hygi5ic po9t ( view1 ! use ( natural bates & pu]s1 al?\gh /ill ext5sive1 is likely to be sup]s$$ ev]y:]e by artificial products4 ,s f> !re are ne>ly #b1jjj tann]ies ?r\gh\t ! _w :]e ! artificial bat+ mat]ials are pref]r$1 ,g]man & ,am]ican tann]s be+ ! pr9cipal us]s4 ,! be/ kn[n artificial bate is ,oropon1 :i* consi/s ( a mixture ( pancreat9 or tryps91 ammonium salts1 & a l>ge quantity ( sawdu/1 ! la/-nam$ m]ely act+ z a me*anical ag5t4 ,! enzyme1 pancreat91 is ! active +r$i5t1 & may be prep>$ f ! inte/9es ( ! pig4 ,x has ! effect ( break+ up ! album9\s matt]s ( hides & sk9s1 :i* are rapidly r$uc$ to a s(t & supple condition1 :ile ! ammonium salts cleanse !m4 ,! quantities us$ v>y accord+ to ! degree ( suppl5ess requir$ 9 ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,! pat5tee & v5dor ( ?is propriet>y article claims t x is suitable = all classes ( lea!r4 ,hides = sole lea!r are sometimes treat$ ) a weak ,oropon liquor 9 ,cont95tal tann]ies &1 z a result ( ! cleans+ prop]ties ( ?is bat+ mat]ial & its effect 9 op5+ up ! fibres1 ! tannage proce$s rapidly4 ,! use ( enzymes = bat+ 0 discov]$ by an ,engli% lea!r manufactur] & *emi/1 :o did n take out a pat5t = 8 inv5tion1 probably because he _h previ\sly pat5t$ & work$ on a comm]cial scale a bact]ial bate :i* gives v good results b requires mu* skill 9 application4 ,! artificial product1 ,oropon1 has _m advantages ov] excrem5ts4 ,x is simpl]1 clean]1 & m rapid 9 work+1 & nev] damages ! gra9 ( ! sk94 ,on ! contr>y1 great c>e & exp]i5ce are ne$$ 9 us+ excrem5ts1 & ! sk9s may be s badly damag$ ?r\gh neglig5ce z to be almo/ wor?less4 ,bate burns are fairly frequ5t :5 dung is us$1 & are g5]ally due to h>d pieces be+ insuffici5tly brok5 up & diffus$ 9 ! liquor4 ,o!r useful artificial products are3 ,erod91 & ,pu]9e1 a pat5t$ ,am]ican product :i* consi/s ( a weak organic acid & a small proportion ( molasses4 ,possibly1 malt enzymes or dia/ase c\ld be utilis$ = ! manufacture ( an artificial bate or pu]1 al?\gh !y w\ld n be s effective z animal products4 ,:]e hides & sk9s h be5 treat$ ) ,oropon1 !y may be transf]r$ to ! tan liquors aft] be+ r9s$ 9 wat]1 al?\gh x is bett] to submit !m to ! op]ation ( scudd+4 ,!re are two te/s to det]m9e ! end ( ! process ( bat+ & pu]+1 al?\gh ! ext5t to :i* ! r$uction is c>ri$ dep5ds on ! k9d ( lea!r want$4 ,= ?is reason1 x is n advisable to remove e trace ( lime f hides :i* mu/ possess a c]ta9 degree ( firmness :5 f9i%$ into lea!r4 ,( ! two te/s1 "o is *emical & ! o!r me*anical4 ,9 ! =m] case1 a cross section is made 9 ! ?icke/ "p ( ! hide & a few drops ( ph5olph?ale9 are add$ to ! cross section2 if ! :ole ( ! lime has be5 remov$1 no coloration is giv51 b1 if lime be pres5t1 a purpli% col\r is giv51 :i* v>ies 9 int5sity accord+ to ! cont5ts ( lime 9 ! hide4 ,! o!r te/ is made by pressure ) ! ?umb nail1 &1 if ! impression be p]man5t1 ! hides or sk9s are 9 a suffici5tly r$uc$1 or1 z x is te*nically kn[n1 fall5 condition = all practical purposes4 ,! latt] te/ is really only useful :5 ! process has to be c>ri$ to its fulle/ practical ext5t1 z x af=ds no idea ( ! int]m$iate /age4 ,! exp]i5c$ workman c judge ! progress made by appe>ance & t\*4 ,9 cases :]e sk9s h be5 pu]$ ) excrem5t x is (t5 necess>y1 aft] scudd+ !m1 to submit !m to a fur!r process be=e tann+4 ,?is is kn[n z dr5*+1 & consi/s 9 treat+ ! sk9s 9 an infusion ( :eat5 bran or pea fl\r4 ,! acid f]m5tation produc$ by ^! +r$i5ts effectually cleanses ! sk9s by neutralis+ ! la/ traces ( lime & scud1 & prep>es !m 9 an ideal condition = ! process ( tann+4 ,! comb9$ processes ( bat+ ) ,oropon & dr5*+ 9 bran are extremely useful = sk9s to be dress$ into glove lea!r4 ,foll[+ ! processes ( bat+1 pu]+1 or dr5*+1 ! sk9s are wa%$ 9 wat] to remove all me*anical impurities1 & are !n 9 a p]fectly clean condition = tann+4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,tann+ ,,processes ,! me?ods ( tann+ may be classifi$ z foll[3 7#a7 ,vegetable tann+ processes2 7#b7 me?ods ( *rom+2 7#c7 taw+ processes2 7#d7 oil tannages2 7#e7 =maldehyde tannages2 7#f7 sundry tannages1 *iefly m9]al2 & 7#g7 comb9ation tannages4 ,! public is *iefly famili> ) types ( vegetable tannage 9 boot sole1 bag1 & portmanteau lea!rs2 ( *rome tannage1 9 box calf & glaz$ kid us$ = boot upp]s2 ( ! taw+ process1 9 kid glove lea!r2 & ( ! oil tannage 9 wa% lea!r or *amois4 ,,vegetable ,,tann+ ,,processes ,! me?ods ( tann+ ) infusions ( b>ks1 leaves1 & fruits ( trees & plants conta9+ tann9 are mu* m num]\s ?an !y 7 a decade ago1 & tann]s h n[ to pay special att5tion to ! selection & bl5d+ ( ! mat]ials !y use 9 ord] to produce ! v>i\s qualities ( lea!r requir$4 ,=m]ly1 mo/ ( ! sole lea!r 0 tann$ 9 oak b>k liquors1 &1 9 ! lat] /ages ( ! process1 valonia & gambi] 7 add$ to quick5 ! process & give solidity to ! lea!r4 ,?is tannage1 :i* may be describ$ z an oak b>k tannage1 is /ill us$ by a few tann]s1 b ! wide *oice ( mat]ials available has br\ght o!r tann+ ag5ts into prom95ce1 *iefly because !y possess m a/r+5t prop]ties1 &1 !re=e1 tan m quickly ?an oak b>k4 ,moreov]1 ! ne$ ( o!r mat]ials ?an oak b>k became a necessity sev]al ye>s ago1 z ! supply ( ! latt] w\ld be inadequate to produce ! l>ge quantity ( lea!r n[ requir$1 ev5 all[+ = ! rapid developm5t ( m9]al tannages4 ,fur!r1 x is amply prov$ t a good bl5d ( mat]ials 7mix$ tannage7 produces q z durable & a firm] lea!r ?an ! old oak b>k tannage2 un=tunately1 !re are o!r bl5ds1 occasionally comb9$ ) extrane\s weight+ mat]ials1 :i* acc\nt = ! poor quality ( a great deal ( mod]n sole lea!r4 ,:ile ! mix$ tannage is n[ popul> = sole1 belt+1 h>ness1 & o!r heavy lea!rs1 vegetable tann$ light sk9s1 su* z calf1 goat1 & %eep1 are 9 mo/ cases treat$ ) a s+le mat]ial1 suma* be+ us$ = a good proportion ( !m4 ,:i*ev] me?od be us$1 ! fir/ ess5tial is ! mo/ suitable means ( lea*+ ! mat]ials1 or extract+ ! tann94 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 t ?is process may be ev5tually elim9at$ f ! tann]y1 = mo/ tann+ mat]ials are n[ conv]t$ into extracts1 :i* only require dissolv+ 9 wat] to prep>e ! tan liquor4 ,! manufacture ( tann+ extracts is q a sep>ate bus9ess1 :i* is g5]ally1 b n always1 conduct$ 9 factories situat$ ne> ! s\rce ( ! raw mat]ials4 ,!re are important extract works 9 ! ,arg5t9e1 ,p>aguay1 ,canada1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,hung>y1 ,nor? ,g]many1 ,borneo1 ,smyrna1 ,france1 ,italy1 & ,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba ,,b>k ,,mill ,:]e natural tann+ mat]ials are us$1 ei!r entirely or 9 conjunction ) extracts1 ! lea*+ is done 9 a s]ies ( l>ge squ>e pits1 f\r ( :i* w\ld suffice = a small y>d1 :ile a v l>ge tann+ w\ld ne$ twelve or sixte54 ,oak b>k1 :i* is usually deliv]$ to ! tann]y 9 /rips measur+ #c to #f ft4 9 l5g?1 mu/ be *opp$ or gr\nd into small pieces by ma*9e 7,fig4 #ba74 ,a measur$ quantity 7a c]ta9 numb] ( baskets or skeps full7 is plac$ 9 ! empty pits1 :i* are !n fill$ ) wat]4 ,! liquor is pump$ f ^! pits1 z requir$1 to o!rs 9 :i* ! hides are tann$4 ,! h>d fruit ( myrobalans1 :i* some:at resembles nutmegs1 is p[d]$ 9 a dis9tegrator or special cru%]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb ,,tan-,,y>d 7,dri-p$ ,tann]y7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc ,,hide ,,r\nd$ ,,= ,,sole ,,lea!r ,! ?ree pr9cipal vegetable tannages are ^? = sole1 dress+1 & light lea!rs1 & x is obvi\s t a c>eful selection ( mat]ials is necess>y to obta9 ! desir$ effects4 ,= ?is reason1 oak b>k1 al?\gh a good tann+ mat]ial = dress+ lea!r1 is insuffici5t to produce a firm sole lea!r1 &1 !re=e1 ev5 9 ! s-call$ pure b>k tannages1 valonia or o!r suitable tann9 is us$ t[>ds ! end ( ! process 9 ord] to increase ! solidity & wat]pro( quality ( ! lea!r4 ,!re are two g5]al me?ods ( tann+ sole lea!r1 namely1 ! pit & ! drum tannage4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! hides are pass$ ?r\gh ?ree s]ies ( pits conta9+ gradually increas$ /r5g?s ( tann9 7,fig4 #bb74 ,^! s]ies are te*nically describ$ z susp5d]s or col\r+ pits1 h&l]s1 & lay]s or layaways4 ,to facilitate h&l+ & economise tann+ mat]ials1 hides are r\nd$ 7i4e41 cut into sections7 ei!r be=e tann+ or aft] ! hides h pass$ ?r\gh ! susp5d]s 7,fig4 #bc74 ,! obvi\s advantage ( ! =m] me?od is t ! (fal 7%\ld]s & bellies7 remov$ c be *rome tann$ if requir$4 ,! susp5d]s may consi/ ( any numb] ( pits f six to tw5ty-f\r1 accord+ to ! size ( ! tann]y4 ,z ! "n implies1 ! hides are susp5d$ 9 ! liquors f poles1 :i* ext5d across ! top ( ! pit4 ,! hides are atta*$ to ! poles by means ( /\t cord or copp] hooks4 ,v>i\s me*anical appliances are 9 use to sup]s$e ! old me?od ( all[+ ! hides to re/ dur+ ?is process4 ,^! me?ods save "t & t5d to produce ev5 coloration1 ! latt] be+ a v important po9t 9 ! e>ly /ages ( tann+4 ,"s ( ! me?ods advocat$1 h[ev]1 are too vigor\s = ! hides at ?is /age1 :5 ! *ief object %\ld be to pres]ve z mu* gelat9e z possible4 ,! be/ me*anical sy/em is t :i* g5tly raises & l[]s ! hides 9 ! liquors4 ,"s ( ! ,am]ican tann]s use a me*anical contrivance kn[n z ! rock]1 :i* consi/s ( a /\t wood5 beam rock+ f a c5tral pivot1 & ) a see-saw movem5t4 ,! objection to ?is me?od is t ! hides d n receive equal treatm5t1 ^? 9 ! c5tre receiv+ h>dly any movem5t1 :ile o!rs at ! ends ( ! beam are rais$ too f> out ( ! liquor4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ! col\r+ ( ! lea!r mu/ be irregul>4 ,ano!r me?od1 inv5t$ 9 ,engl&1 consi/s 9 susp5d+ ! hides f a wood5 frame :i* c be me*anically mov$ on :eels4 ,z ! contact ( tann+ liquors ) iron mu/ be avoid$ to prev5t discoloration 7iron & tann9 =m ! basis ( inks71 ! :eels %\ld be galvaniz$4 ,?is me*anical me?od is v satisfactory1 = ! hides are mov$ g5tly & kept 9 ! liquors4 ,z "s tann9s oxidise rapidly 7i4e41 d>k5 9 col\r by exposure to ! air71 any process :i* exposes ! hides at ?is /age = l5g?y p]iods %\ld be avoid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd ,,b>komet] ,! !ory ( ! vegetable tann+ process is n p]fectly und]/ood1 & ! pr9cipal trade *emi/s are n yet agre$ z to :e!r ! *anges are *emical1 physical1 or bo?4 ,_m are incl9$ to believe t bo? *anges take place1 & ?is view is probably correct1 z a pure tannic acid produces a ?91 empty lea!r1 :ile a tann+ mat]ial :i* conta9s a fair proportion ( non-tann9 matt]s1 yields a full & firm lea!r4 ,! practical tann] :o adapts 8 "w to ! !ory t tann+ is a process ( fe$+ ! hides ) gradually increas+ /r5g?s ( tann91 is1 9 any ev5t1 on ! "r track4 ,! susp5d] liquors are always weak 9 tann91 & are pump$ f h&l] liquors ?r\gh :i* packs ( hides h already pass$4 ,x is important t ^! liquors possess a c]ta9 degree ( acidity1 &1 if ! natural acids ( ! tan liquor are too weak1 or neutralis$ completely by ! lime 9 a pack ( hides t has be5 treat$1 a small quantity ( acetic1 =mic1 or lactic acid is add$4 ,=mic acid has ! additional advantage ( mak+ ! liquor antiseptic4 ,x is absolutely necess>y t ! liquors h acid prop]ties1 o!rwise tann+ _c proce$4 ,acid assi/s p5etration ( tann94 ,hyposulphite ( soda1 =maldehyde1 or syn!tic tann9 may be us$ = ! same purpose1 :ile ^! also help to keep ! lea!r light 9 col\r1 ow+ to _! blea*+ prop]ties4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ?ree or f\r susp5d] pits1 9 :i* ! tan liquor is gradually /r5g!n$1 ! hides are (t5 r\nd$ & ! butts 7,fig4 #bc7 are transf]r$ to ! h&l]s4 ,! fir/ h&l] liquor %\ld regi/] ab\t #be degrees by ! b>komet] 7,fig4 #bd71 an in/rum5t :i* regi/]s ! d5sity ( tan liquors4 ,! h&l]s consi/ ( a s]ies ( six or eight1 & ! /r5g? ( ! liquors %\ld be increas$ gradually4 ,aft] a day's imm]sion 9 ! fir/ h&l] liquor1 ! hides are haul$ out ) a %>p two-prong$ hook fix$ to ! end ( a long wood5 pole1 simil> to t us$ 9 ! lim+ process4 ,aft] !y h be5 pil$ up = a few h\rs1 two workm51 "o on ea* side ( ! pit1 place ! hides flat 9 ! next pit4 ,! tan liquor is !n run (f ! fir/ h&l] to ! susp5d] & fre% liquor is pump$ into ! empty pit1 :i* !n becomes ! head or /ronge/ liquor ( ! s]ies4 ,! succe$+ packs w1 !re=e1 foll[ 9 rotation3 ! fir/ go+ to ,no4 #b pit1 ! second to ,no4 #c1 & s on4 ,9 ! la/ two or ?ree h&l] pits1 ! hides are sometimes du/$ ) fre%ly gr\nd tann+ mat]ial1 su* z oak b>k1 myrobalans1 or divi-divi1 ! object be+ to /r5g!n ! tan liquor s t x p5etrates ! hides be=e !y are transf]r$ to ! lay]s4 ,! h&l] liquors1 :i* are orig9ally s5t back f ! lay]s1 are also frequ5tly /r5g!n$ by ! addition ( oakwood1 *e/nut1 or quebra*o extracts1 al?\gh "s tann]s only use extracts 9 ! lay]s4 ,gambi] is a useful mat]ial at ?is /age1 z x keeps ! liquors mell[ & plumps ! lea!r4 ,9 ! lay]s1 ! la/ s]ies ( tan pits1 ! hides are treat$ ) v /rong extracts1 & are also heavily du/$ ) su* natural tann+ mat]ials z give firmness & solidity to ! lea!r4 ,= ?is purpose1 no?+ is bett] ?an valonia1 or valonia extract1 :i* deposits a l>ge quantity ( bloom1 or ellagic acid4 ,:]e a mix$ tannage ( natural mat]ials is us$1 ! d5sity ( ! liquors may rea* #ej degrees b>komet]1 b if /rong extracts be add$1 ! b>komet] may exce$ #ajj degrees4 ,! relation betwe5 ! lay]s & h&l]s 9 reg>d to ! disposal ( ! us$ liquors is simil> to t betwe5 h&l]s & susp5d]s2 ! fir/ lay] us$ is s5t to ! la/ h&l]4 ,by ! ,engli% me?od1 ! lea!r is n1 z a rule1 transf]r$ imm$iately f "o pit to ano!r1 z x is f\nd pref]able to lay ! hides 9 pile = a few h\rs1 by :i* means ! great weight helps to =ce ! tann9 ?r\gh !m4 ,by dra9+ ! hides1 !y are 9 good condition = ! absorption ( ! next tan liquor4 ,! ,engli% me?od ( h&l+ is too sl[ = mo/ ( ! ,am]ican tann]ies1 :]e ! great] proportion ( ! hides are cut /raight d[n ! c5tre to =m sides1 z !y are te*nically kn[n4 ,9 ,am]ica1 ! pieces ( lea!r1 :e!r hides1 butts1 bellies1 or %\ld]s1 are (t5 ti$ toge!r & transf]r$ f "o pit to ano!r by means ( a skeleton reel1 work$ ei!r by h& or me*anically4 ,! late/ type ( reel is a great improvem5t on ! old reel4 ,! co/ ( manual lab\r 9 _m ,engli% tann]ies is v great1 9 view ( ! fact t ! hides h to pass ?r\gh _m pits1 & ! "w ( transf]r+ ! hides f "o pit to ano!r is done entirely by h&4 ,x seems t !re is pl5ty ( scope = me*anical +5uity 9 ov]com+ ?is difficulty1 & x may yet be f\nd possible to con/ruct a p]=at$ brass plat=m1 connect$ ) a crane1 by :i* ! :ole ( ! hides c\ld be lift$ out 9 a second1 left to dra9 = half an h\r or m1 & !n bodily transf]r$ to1 & l[]$ 91 ! next pit4 ,naturally1 x is easi]1 & q )9 ! b\nds ( practicability1 to raise ! hides f susp5d]s by me*anical p[]1 z x w\ld n be difficult to fix a /\t cross-beam to ! pulley f :i* ! hides are susp5d$4 ,! lea!r c be safely treat$ ) v a/r+5t tann9 9 ! la/ s]ies ( pits1 & ! use ( /rong extracts is1 !re=e1 a common practice at t /age1 n only to give solidity & firmness to ! lea!r1 b to increase its weight4 ,x w\ld be q fatal to ! production ( good lea!r if /rong tann9s 7 us$ 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! process1 because ! surface on bo? sides w\ld tan quickly1 ! gra9 ( ! hide w\ld be badly drawn ow+ to ! s5sitiv5ess ( gelat9e to a/r+5t solutions1 & x w\ld be impossible to make ! tann9 p5etrate ! hide4 ,! f9al product w\ld be a half-tann$ lea!r :i* w\ld be extremely brittle & poor 9 quality2 9 fact1 q unsuitable = sole lea!r4 ,despite ! well-kn[n axiom t ! vegetable tannage 7b n ! m9]al7 mu/ proce$ sl[ly & gradually 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! process if ! hides are to be prop]ly tann$1 ! mod]n t5d5cy is to spe$ up ! tann+1 ) ! result t1 9 "s cases1 ! s-call$ sole lea!r is really n fit = ! purpose = :i* x is int5d$4 ,! root ( ! evil is ! desp]ate attempt made by _m boot manufactur]s to produce l[]-pric$ boots ?an ^? ( _! competitors4 ,tak+ into acc\nt ! developm5t ( lea!r trades *emi/ry1 x is n surpris+ t ! problem ( r$uc+ ! "t requir$ to complete ! old processes ( tann+ has receiv$ mu* att5tion4 ,! results h be5 successful 9 "s in/ances & h c]ta9ly prov$ t v good sole lea!r c be made )\t leav+ ! hides 9 ! pits = a ye> or long]4 ,x has also be5 %[n t ! absorption ( tann9 c be accel]at$ by treat+ ! hides1 be=e putt+ !m 9 ! susp5d]s1 ) a solution ( acid 7lactic or butyric = pref]5ce71 or hyposulphite ( soda1 or syn!tic tann94 ,! latt] p5etrates ! hides 9 a few h\rs )\t contract+ ! gra91 increases ! solubility ( ! vegetable tann9s subsequ5tly us$1 & helps to keep ! lea!r light & uni=m 9 col\r4 ,x is ( no use alone = heavy lea!rs1 h[ev]1 z x lacks ! physical prop]ties necess>y to make ! lea!r firm & resi/ant to wat]4 ,! use ( soluble oils 9 ! tan liquors is ano!r late innovation :i* has giv5 good results4 ,! t]m soluble 9 connection ) oils m]ely means t !y are made miscible ) wat] by treat+ !m ) acids4 ,solubilis$ cod oil might be specially useful1 z x has tann+ prop]ties & w\ld increase ! we>+ & wat]pro( qualities ( ! lea!r4 ,! *ief objects ( us+ oil 9 tann+1 h[ev]1 are to increase ! weight ( ! lea!r & p]mit ! use ( /rong liquors4 ,! tann+ process outl9$ is ! oak b>k tannage1 :i* is n[ supplant$ 9 _m y>ds by ! mix$ tannage1 9 :i* v>i\s tann9s1 *iefly exotic1 are skilfully bl5d$ to produce ! k9d ( lea!r want$4 ,ea* tann9 seems to h special *>act]i/ics1 al?\gh ! mat]ials are classifi$ into only ?ree gr\ps1 namely3 pyrogallol1 cate*ol1 & mix$ 7pyrogallol & cate*ol7 tann9s4 ,g5]ally1 ! be/ mix$ tannages = solid lea!r consi/ ( a comb9ation ( bo? pyrogallol & cate*ol tann9s4 ,review+ ! *>act]i/ics ( "s ( ! pr9cipal tann+ mat]ials1 x may be said t oak b>k produces a nice1 fawn-col\r$ lea!r ( /rong texture1 b tans sl[ly2 valonia makes ! lea!r solid1 durable1 & wat]pro(2 myrobalans quick5 ! process & light5 ! objectionable col\r ( o!r tann9s2 divi-divi & alg>obilla are v ri* 9 tann91 & are1 !re=e1 useful 9 lat] /ages ( ! process2 gambi] mell[s ! a/r+5cy ( o!r liquors & plumps ! lea!r2 :ile mo/ ( ! tann+ extracts on ! m>ket p5etrate ! hides mu* m quickly1 (t5 give a light] col\r ?an t produc$ by solutions ( ! natural mat]ials1 & exp$ite ! process consid]ably4 ,! mo/ popul> tann+ mat]ials are3 oakwood1 quebra*o1 *e/nut1 valonia1 myrobalan1 mangrove1 mimosa1 hemlock & spruce extracts1 oak b>k1 valonia1 gambi] & suma*4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! comb9ations 9 use-- ,= ,sole ,lea!r4 #a4 ,oak b>k & valonia1 or valonia extract4 #b4 ,oak b>k1 valonia1 & gambi]4 #c4 ,oak b>k1 quebra*o extract1 & myrobalan extract4 #d4 ,*e/nut1 quebra*o & valonia extracts4 #e4 ,*e/nut & oakwood extracts4 #f4 ,oakwood & quebra*o extracts1 & divi-divi or alg>obilla4 #g4 ,quebra*o extract1 myrobalans1 & valonia4 #h4 ,quebra*o1 mangrove1 & valonia extracts4 #i4 ,oakwood1 mimosa1 & valonia extracts4 #aj4 ,hemlock & oak extracts 7,am]ican union tannage74 ,= ,dress+ ,lea!rs4 #a4 ,oak b>k & suma*4 #b4 ,oakwood & quebra*o extracts1 & suma*4 #c4 ,syn!tic tann9 & oakwood extract4 #d4 ,syn!tic tann9 & myrobalans4 #e4 ,gambi] & suma*4 #f4 ,wattle b>k & myrobalans4 ,suma* is (t5 us$ alone = "s classes ( goat1 %eep1 & calf sk9s4 ,syn!tic tann9s c also be us$ alone = light lea!rs4 ,_m o!r v>iations may be tabulat$1 = ne>ly e tann] has 8 own recipe1 hav+ f\nd by exp]i5ce ! bl5d ( tannage t be/ suits 8 trade4 ,ap>t f ^! innum]able comb9ations1 ! only me?od :]eby ! vegetable tann+ process may be ha/5$ is ! me*anical1 = :i* purpose ei!r ! paddle 7,fig4 #be7 or ! drum 7,fig4 #ac7 is us$4 ,! =m] consi/s ( a :eel con/ruct$ ( wood5 %elves :i*1 :5 9 motion1 dip a little way into ! tan liquor 9 a vat1 & s keep x 9 con/ant circulation4 ,! drum is fitt$ inside ) wood5 %elves or pegs1 :i* c>ry "s ( ! hides or sk9s to ! top ( ! drum at ea* revolution4 ,7 x n = ^! %elves1 ! tannage w\ld probably be irregul> or o!rwise unsatisfactory1 z ! hides w\ld always be heap$ toge!r at ! bottom ( ! drum4 ,! paddles & drum are m (t5 us$ = light ?an = heavy lea!r1 z !y n only h ! effect ( mak+ ! lea!r loose on ! gra91 b also make x s(t & supple1 *>act]i/ics :i* are n requir$ 9 mo/ ( ! heavy lea!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be ,,paddle ,,vat ,h[ev]1 ! drum is n[ l>gely us$ on ! ,cont95t = ! tannage ( sole lea!r4 ,a great sav+ 9 ! co/ ( production is !reby effect$1 b ! lea!r1 al?\gh ( satisfactory appe>ance1 lacks ! durability & wat]pro( quality ( pit-tann$ lea!r4 ,! process is mu* simpl] ?an ! pit me?od1 & less room is requir$4 ,!re are only two /ages ( tann+3 7#a7 by plac+ ! hides 9 col\r+ pits or susp5d]s1 9 :i* ! hides are ne>ly /ruck ?r\gh ) tann92 & 7#b7 runn+ !m 9 sl[ly-revolv+ drums conta9+ solutions ( tann9 :i* are gradually /r5g!n$ until ! process is f9i%$4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! tann9 is rapidly =c$ betwe5 ! fibres ( ! hide by me*anical action1 b x is n s firmly comb9$ z t sl[ly absorb$ by ! hide 9 ! pit me?od4 ,?is c be prov$ by plac+ two pieces ( weigh$ lea!r--"o tann$ 9 pits & ! o!r 9 a drum--= tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 dry+ ! lea!r & reweigh+ x1 :5 x w be f\nd t ! drum-tann$ lea!r has lo/ ! great] p]c5tage ( weight4 ,to obviate ?is disadvantage z f> z possible1 use is made ( special oils1 :i* s]ve to fix ! tann9 m firmly betwe5 ! fibres & r5d] ! lea!r m resi/ant to wat]4 ,o!r frequ5t drawbacks ( drum tann+ are loos5ess ( gra9 & lack ( sub/ance4 ,9 sole lea!r tann+1 ! =m] is modifi$ to "s ext5t by extra pressure 9 roll+ ! lea!r dur+ ! f9i%+ op]ations2 :ile ! latt] difficulty is sometimes ov]come by swell+ ! lea!r ) acid & !n fix+ ! swoll5 condition ( ! hide by treat+ x ) a weak solution ( =maldehyde4 ,?is *emical also has tann+ prop]ties1 s t ! process is ha/5$2 b lea!r prep>$ 9 ?is way _c be z durable z t produc$ by a natural tannage4 ,x seems t ! aid ( ! eng9e] is necess>y to ov]come ! difficulty ( loos5ess ( ! gra9 caus$ by ! sev]e p\nd+ ( ! hides 9 ! drums4 ,! con/ant circulation ( ! tan liquor is requir$1 b ! hides %\ld only be subject$ to g5tle motion4 ,x is true !re are tann+ drums on ! m>ket :i* are said to obviate all ! difficulty f\nd 9 mak+ sole lea!r 9 ord9>y drums fitt$ ) %elves or pegs1 b a drum t meets ! ideal conditions = ! production ( a solid yet flexible sole lea!r has n yet be5 inv5t$4 ,x seems t a k9d ( inn] framework1 to :i* ! hides c be atta*$ & :i* rotates mu* m sl[ly ?an ! ma9 drum1 may solve ! problem4 ,! drum tannage p]mits ! use ( an excessive quantity ( tann91 :i*1 ( c\rse1 adds to ! weight ( ! lea!r4 ,by ! drum me?od ( tann+1 heavy hides c be tann$ 9 two days aft] leav+ ! col\r+ pits2 light] hides are1 naturally1 tann$ 9 less "t1 proportionate to _! sub/ance4 ,! pit me?od occupies any "t f "o to fifte5 mon?s1 al?\gh n[adays v few hides are left 9 ! tan pits = a ye>4 ,! me?ods ( tann+ j describ$ relate *iefly to sole lea!r1 b !re is an enorm\s production ( lea!r kn[n z dress+ hides1 :i* are tann$1 dri$ 9 ! r\gh /ate1 & s5t to curri]s or lea!r dress]s = f9i%+4 ,^! hides are us$ = num]\s purposes1 includ+ bags1 portmanteaus1 h>ness1 saddl]y1 /raps1 belt+1 & boot upp]s4 ,! tannage ( dress+ hides diff]s slightly f t ( sole lea!r2 ! liquors mu/ be mell[] & conta9 less insoluble matt]1 9 ord] to obta9 ! necess>y pliability1 & a good1 cle> col\r on ! gra94 ,a satisfactory tannage is obta9$ by treat+ ! hides 9 oak b>k liquors1 :i*1 9 ! lat] /ages ( ! process1 may be /r5g!n$ ) oak wood1 or myrobalan extract1 or pure gambi]1 & complet+ ! process 9 a tepid ba? ( suma*1 :i* cle>s & light5s ! col\r4 ,! drum is m suitable = ! tannage ( dress+ hides ?an x is = sole lea!r4 ,a quick me?od ( drum tann+ w\ld be to treat ! hides fir/ 9 a #e p] c5t4 solution ( n]adol1 ! artificial tann91 & !n complete ! process ) oakwood1 *e/nut1 or quebra*o extracts1 or ev5 9 mixtures ( ^! extracts4 ,9 ?is way1 fairly good lea!r c\ld be made 9 ab\t two days4 ,n]adol prev5ts ! drawn gra9 & d>k coloration t w\ld result f ! use ( vegetable extracts alone4 ,9 ! case ( light sk9s1 su* z calf1 goat1 & %eep1 ! me?od ( vegetable tannage aga9 diff]s f ^? j describ$1 al?\gh !re is a fair quantity ( calf sk9s tann$ ) oak b>k1 especially ^? us$ 9 ! %oe trade4 ,! t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 is to complete ! process rapidly by us+ extracts1 su* z oakwood1 quebra*o1 or mimosa4 ,a v good tannage = ! production ( a mell[ & plump lea!r is t ( pure gambi]1 ! col\r produc$ =m+ a good gr\nd = br[n %ades4 ,:]e light1 fancy col\rs are requir$ on ! f9i%$ lea!r1 ?is tannage mu/ be complet$ by plac+ ! sk9s 9 a tepid ba? ( suma*4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! vegetable-tann$ %eep & goat sk9s is produc$ by suma* alone1 :i* 0 adjudg$ by ! ,commission appo9t$ a few ye>s ago by ! ,royal ,society ( ,arts to inve/igate ! cause ( decay 9 bookb9d+ lea!r to be ! be/ tann+ mat]ial & ! "o lea/ affect$ by ext]ior conditions1 su* z gas1 sunlight1 air & du/4 ,_m %eep sk9s are split into two sections by ma*9e be=e tann+1 ! top portion1 kn[n z ! gra91 be+ tann$ 9 suma*1 & describ$ z skiv]s4 ,! "u section1 ! side ne> ! c>case1 is kn[n 9 ! trade z a l9+1 & is usually made into ! s-call$ *amois lea!r by means ( ! oxidation ( fi% oils4 ,o!r notewor?y vegetable tannages are ^? us$ 9 ! production ( ,russia lea!r1 & a l>ge proportion ( ,ea/ ,india lea!r4 ,real ,russia lea!r1 ( :i* ! raw mat]ial consi/s ( small native hides & calf sk9s1 has a *>act]i/ic & pleasant od\r1 :i* is d]iv$ f ! bir* & will[ b>ks us$ 9 ! tann+ process4 ,bir* b>k conta9s an ess5tial oil1 :i* is p]man5tly fix$ on ! fibres ( ! lea!r dur+ ! process ( tann+4 ,?is lea!r is only produc$ 9 ,russia1 & *iefly 9 "o l>ge tann]y1 al?\gh imitations are made 9 ,great ,brita91 ,am]ica1 & ,g]many4 ,^! are produc$ by ! use ( ord9>y tann+ mat]ials1 & ! sc5t is appli$1 ei!r dur+ or aft] ! dye+ process by ! addition ( bir* t> oil1 :i* is made by ! di/illation ( bir* b>k4 ,9 "s respects1 = example1 9 brilliance ( f9i%1 smoo?ness ( gra91 & fre$om f defects1 ! imitation is bett] ?an ! real1 b ! latt] has ! great advantage t its p]fume is ( sup]ior fragrance & p]man5t1 :]eas ! imitation lea!r only reta9s ! od\r = ab\t a ye>4 ,x is some:at rem>kable1 9 view ( ! good dem& t exi/s = ! lea!r1 especially 9 ,engl& & ,g]many1 t no firm outside ,russia has ?\ght x wor? :ile to produce ! g5u9e article4 ,! tannage w\ld be p>ticul>ly s]viceable = bookb9d+ lea!r1 z ! oil ( ! bir* has bo? insecticidal & antiseptic prop]ties4 ,! pr9cipal vegetable tannage us$ = ,indian lea!r1 namely1 ! b>k ( ! acacia arabica1 kn[n to ! natives z babul1 or babool1 has q a contr>y effect1 = x conta9s a l>ge quantity ( r$ col\r+ matt]1 :i* is incorporat$ ) ! lea!r 9 ! tann+ process1 & al?\gh x %[s v little 9 ! r\gh-tann$ lea!r1 x is apt to d>k5 if ! f9i%$ lea!r is expos$ to /rong light = a long p]iod4 ,?is oxidation is accompani$ by a gradual weak5+ ( ! fibres ( ! lea!r1 :i* is1 !re=e1 q unsuitable = bookb9d+4 ,=tunately1 ,indian tann]s are mak+ rapid progress 9 us+ o!r tann+ mat]ials1 a good numb] ( :i* are f\nd 9 ,india4 ,al?\gh ! b>k ( ! acacia arabica is n altoge!r satisfactory1 ! pods ( ! same tree1 :i* are comm]cially kn[n z bablah & conta9 ne>ly twice z mu* tann9 z ! b>k1 produce a v light-col\r$1 almo/ :ite1 lea!r1 & x is ass]t$ t ?is mat]ial is a valuable sub/itute = suma*4 ,,m9]al ,,tannages ,by f> ! mo/ important ( ! m9]al tannages is ! *rome process1 ! m]its & dem]its ( :i* h n only be5 freely discuss$ 9 ! trade1 b also 9 ! lay press4 ,fanciful !ories ( ! poison\s "* ( ?is k9d ( lea!r h be5 publi%$ f "t to "t 9 ! daily press4 ,su* absurd /atem5ts z t prussic acid & m]cury are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( *rome lea!r h>dly ne$ refut+1 z1 ev5 if !y c\ld conv]t sk9s into lea!r1 ! co/ w\ld prohibit _! use4 ,! only poison\s acid us$ 9 "o ( ! _m *rome processes is *romic acid1 b ?is is conv]t$ into ! oxide ( *romium 9 a second ba? & is1 !re=e1 made q innocu\s4 ,! *rome tannage is effect$ ei!r by ! "o-ba? me?od or ! two-ba?4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! tann+ ag5t1 ei!r a basic *romium sulphate or *loride1 is pres5t 9 ! "o liquor us$2 9 ! latt] me?od1 ! hides or sk9s are impregnat$ ) a solution ( *romic acid1 :i* is r$uc$ to *romic oxide 9 a second ba? consi/+ ( sulphur\s acid & a small quantity ( free sulphur4 ,! prop]ties ( lea!r produc$ by ! two-ba? process r5d] x especially suitable = vulcanis+ on rubb]2 h5ce its l>ge use = non-skidd+ b&s = motor tyres4 ,!re are sev]al recipes = mak+ "o-ba? liquors4 ,a fav\rite mixture consi/s ( *rome alum & sodium c>bonate 7common soda74 ,ano!r me?od consi/s ( r$uc+ a solution ( *romic acid ) glucose or grape-sug>4 ,?is liquor has a great] plump+ effect on ! lea!r ?an ! *rome alum liquor has4 ,a ?ird process ( mak+ a "o-ba? liquor comb9es ! use ( bi*romate ( pota% & *rome alum1 :i*1 :5 dissolv$1 is conv]t$ into a basic *rome salt by means ( a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,! "o-ba? liquor c be easily & safely appli$ to hides & sk9s1 & is us$ 9 mu* ! same mann] z a vegetable tan liquor1 beg9n+ ) a weak solution & gradually increas+ ! /r5g? until ! process is complet$4 ,! two-ba? me?od ne$s great c>e1 z a slight diff]5ce 9 ! proportions ( ! +r$i5ts us$ may alt] ! "* ( ! lea!r produc$4 ,! =mula n[ l>gely us$ is practically ! same z t ( ! orig9al pat5tee1 ,augu/us ,s*ultz1 an ,am]ican *emi/4 ,! fir/ ba?1 ! *romic acid solution1 is made by treat+ bi*romate ( pota% or soda ) hydro*loric1 sulphuric1 or =mic acids4 ,bi*romate ( pota% & hydro*loric acid 7commonly kn[n z muriatic acid1 or spirits ( salts7 are commonly us$1 & 9 ! proportion ( #e p] c5t4 & #b-a_/b p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! dra9$ pelts 7#e lb4 ( bi*romate & #b-a_/b lb4 ( acid = #ajj lb4 ( pelts74 ,! *emical reaction is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation-- ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #b;,h,cl #b,k,cl #b;,cr,o#c ,h#b,o ,bi*romate ( pota% ,hydro*loric ,acid ,potassium *loride *romic acid wat]4 ,?is process is mo/ conv5i5tly c>ri$ out 9 ! paddle-vat 7,fig4 #be71 :i*1 9 ?is case1 %\ld be fitt$ ) a wood5 cov] to exclude light1 s9ce ! col\r ( ! *romic acid liquor is affect$ by /rong light4 ,"s *rome tann]s pref] to use ! drum tumbl] 7,fig4 #ac71 b ! p\nd+ ( ! sk9s by ?is me?od is apt to make ! gra9 loose4 ,:i*ev] me?od be adopt$1 ! hides or sk9s %\ld be hors$ up to dra9 = sev]al h\rs be=e transf]r+ !m to ! second ba?4 ,x is important t !y be plac$ gra9 to gra9 & smoo!d out1 z creases & air bubbles betwe5 ! sk9s become fix$ 9 ! second liquor1 & depreciate ! value ( ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,to avoid ?is dang]1 _m tann]s pass ! hides or sk9s ?r\gh a /rik+-out ma*9e "u light pressure4 ,ano!r detail ( importance is to cov] ! *rom$ sk9s ) canvas or matt+ to keep !m f ! light4 ,al?\gh ! sk9s are pres]v$ by *romic acid1 !y are n made into lea!r1 = 9 ?is condition !y w\ld dry q horny4 ,h5ce1 x is undesirable t ! hides %\ld be dri$ at ?is /age & sold z lea!r1 al?\gh su* a proce$+ has be5 attempt$4 ,fur!r1 *romic acid is an irritant poison :i* may cause an eruption on ! h&s & arms ( work]s h&l+ ! hides 9 ?is solution1 unless !y are protect$ by rubb] gloves1 or by coat+ ! h&s ) a mixture ( vasel9e & lanol9e4 ,! second ba? consi/s ( *emicals :i* r$uce ! *romic acid to ! oxide1 :i* is q in]t1 s t !re is no dang] :atev] ( contract+ a poison$ foot z ! result ( we>+ *rome lea!r4 ,! *emicals l>gely us$ = ! second ba? are hyposulphite ( soda & hydro*loric acid4 ,sodium sulphite may also be us$ )\t ! addition ( acid4 ,! sk9s *ange f an orange col\r to a pale1 blui%-grey t9t1 b ! process is n complet$ until a cross section %[s t ! col\r has *ang$ "r ?r\gh ! sk94 ,a suitable proportion is #aj p] c5t4 hypo & #b-a_/b p] c5t4 acid 7#bh ,twaddell7 calculat$ on ! weight ( ! dra9$ pelts4 ,calf1 goat1 & %eep sk9s are usually treat$ 9 ! drum1 b hides1 especially if a c]ta9 degree ( firmness is requir$1 are pref]ably run 9 ! paddle-vat4 ,! reaction ( ! *emicals 9 ! second ba? are some:at complicat$1 b ! pr9cipal po9t is ! r$uction ( ! *romic acid 7,cr,o#c7 to *romic oxide 7,cr#b,o#c74 ,! sulphur\s acid produc$ acts z ! r$uc+ ag5t1 b is n freely lib]at$ until t[>ds ! end ( ! process1 ! sk9s fir/ *ang+ into a dirty br[n col\r :i* gradually gives place to a beautiful pale-blui% t9t4 ,! la/ /ages ( ! process are also m>k$ by ! =mation ( free sulphur1 :i* aids mat]ially 9 s(t5+ ! lea!r1 & giv+ ! two-ba? *rome tann$ lea!r its *>act]i/ic rubb]y texture4 ,! vats 9 :i* ?is process is c>ri$ out %\ld always be fitt$ ) lids to conf9e ! /rong sulphur\s fumes4 ,by add+ an excess ( hypo1 ! sk9s c be blea*$ until !y are ne>ly :ite4 ,?is has no h>mful effect on ! lea!r1 b makes x s(t]1 ?\gh some:at loos] on ! gra94 ,:5 completely tann$1 ! sk9s are hors$ up aga91 left to dra9 = at lea/ tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & are !n ready = dress+ & f9i%+4 ,! recipes = ! "o-ba? process are num]\s1 b x is becom+ a common practice = tann]s to buy ! liquors or extracts already prep>$ 9 *emical works1 :i* are1 naturally1 bett] fitt$ up = ! production ( a m uni=m mat]ial ?an x w\ld be possible to make 9 mo/ tann]ies4 ,,comb9ation ,,tannages ,comb9ation tannages h /eadily gr[n 9 fav\r dur+ ! la/ few ye>s1 & w probably h an important be>+ on future me?ods ( tann+4 ,among ^? f\nd practicable are3 7#a7 ,vegetable & *rome2 7#b7 vegetable & alum2 7#c7 alum & *rome2 7#d7 syn!tic & natural tann9s2 7#e7 syn!tic & *rome2 7#f7 alum & syn!tic2 7#g7 =maldehyde & *rome2 7#h7 *rome & iron4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,dress+1 ,,dye+1 ,,& ,,f9i%+ ,,( ,,lea!r ,! dress+ & f9i%+ ( lea!rs ( all k9ds seems to be ( gr[+ importance e ye>1 despite ! fact t ! durability ( lea!r is (t5 impair$ by ! *emicals & heavy ma*9]y us$ 9 ord] to get a cle> & bright col\r or a highly-glaz$ f9i%4 ,"o exception to ?is rule1 h[ev]1 is japann$ & enamell$ lea!rs made by ! new collodion-amyl acetate process1 :i* n only produces ! s-call$ pat5t f9i%1 b also adds to ! /r5g? ( ! lea!r4 ,dress+ & f9i%+ may be conv5i5tly classifi$ 9 f\r sections-- #a4 ,f9i%+ ( boot sole lea!r4 #b4 ,dye+ & f9i%+ ( ma*9e belt+1 /rap1 h>ness1 & o!r heavy greasy lea!rs4 #c4 ,dye+ & f9i%+ ( boot1 portmanteau1 case1 bookb9d+1 hat1 & uphol/]y lea!rs1 & ( ! num]\s fancy lea!rs4 #d4 ,dress+1 dye+1 & f9i%+ ( glove & *amois lea!rs4 ,!re are also a few special k9ds ( lea!r :i* d n come )9 ! scope ( ?is li/4 ,! limit$ size ( ?is book makes x impossible to outl9e ! f9i%+ ( all k9ds ( lea!r1 & only a few ( ! important v>ieties c be ref]r$ to 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,,sole ,,lea!r ,=m]ly1 ! f9i%+ ( sole lea!r 0 a fairly easy matt]1 z ! sl[ process ( tann+ ) oak b>k :i* 0 9 g5]al use gave ! latt] a nice fawn col\r4 ,! mod]n t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 is to dem& ev5 light]-col\r$ lea!r ?an t produc$ by an oak b>k tannage1 &1 z mo/ ( ! mix$ tannages imp>t a d>k] col\r1 ! practice ( blea*+ has be5 univ]sally adopt$4 ,?is process is to be greatly deprecat$1 s9ce x r$uces ! /r5g? ( ! lea!r4 ,fur!r1 x has ! s]i\s drawback ( remov+ matt]s :i* w\ld add to ! wat]pro( quality ( ! lea!r1 & yet ! boot manufactur]s dem& light-col\r$ sole lea!r4 ,z 9 _m o!r articles ( mod]n manufacture1 quality is sacrific$ = appe>ance4 ,! col\r ( sole lea!r is ( no importance :atev] to ! we>] ( ! boot1 & ! public %\ld make a /rong prote/ aga9/ blea*$ sole lea!r1 & also aga9/ lea!r weight$ ) adult]ants1 if !y wi% to get boots ( good we>+ quality4 ,x is difficult to "k :]e ! f9i%+ ( "s ( ! mod]n sole lea!r beg9s4 ,=m]ly1 ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 tann+ & f9i%+ 0 di/9ct1 = ! f9i%+ processes 7 begun z soon z ! hides 7 suffici5tly tann$4 ,?is is by no means ! case to-day1 z1 9 _m cases1 ! f9i%+ may be said to beg9 ) a supplem5t>y b unnecess>y tannage 9 v /rong tann+ extracts1 ) ! object ( mak+ ! lea!r firm & plump1 &1 incid5tally1 imp>t+ additional weight4 ,?is practice w\ld be discont9u$ if sole lea!r 7 sold by sup]ficial measurem5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? :o fav\r ! cont9uance ( ! pres5t sy/em ( sell+ by weight ass]t t ! adoption ( ! measurem5t sy/em w\ld indubitably result 9 ! production ( a lot ( "u-tann$ lea!r1 t me*anical means w\ld be devis$ to /ret* ! lea!r & ?us give x an artificial area1 & t a fair quantity ( ! lea!r produc$ does n lie flat1 & w\ld1 !re=e1 be difficult to measure correctly4 ,a great po9t 9 fav\r ( sell+ by measurem5t is t !re w\ld be no necessity to weight ! lea!r1 & a m]e visual exam9ation w\ld suffice to det]m9e ! quality1 :]eas x is (t5 difficult to /ate :e!r lea!r has be5 treat$ ) injuri\s artificial matt]s or n1 & c]ta9ly impossible to det]m9e ! ext5t ( ?is fraud1 )\t a c>eful & some:at elaborate analysis4 ,( c\rse1 !re are "s r\gh practical te/s = asc]ta9+ ! quality ( sole lea!r1 especially 9 reg>d to ! ext5t ( its resi/ance to wat]4 ,a weigh$ quantity ( ! lea!r is soak$ 9 wat] = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 tak5 out1 squeez$1 dri$1 & reweigh$4 ,if ! loss ( weight does n exce$ #e p] c5t41 ! lea!r is a good sample & well tann$2 on ! o!r h&1 x does n foll[ t a loss1 say1 ( #dj p] c5t41 w\ld indicate adult]ation ) injuri\s mat]ials1 z ! lea!r may h be5 tann$ ) an excess ( /rong extracts :i* h n prop]ly comb9$ ) ! fibres1 ) ! result t ! excess is easily remov$ 9 contact ) wat]4 ,h[ev]1 me?ods ( fix+ tann+ extracts on ! fibres ( ! lea!r h be5 devis$ 7see p4 #aag74 ,a c>eful note %\ld be made ( ! "t requir$ to soak ! lea!r ?r\gh2 if wat] is absorb$ rapidly1 ! lea!r is1 naturally1 unfit = soles4 ,aft] ! tann] has tak5 great pa9s to produce ! pal5ess ( t9t requir$1 ! %oemak] buffs away ! gra91 !reby r$uc+ ! resi/ance ( ! lea!r to we>1 & !n g5]ally cov]s x ) a black1 tan1 or :ite dress+4 ,9 its turn1 ?is f9i% is likewise spoil$ ! fir/ "t ! lea!r is worn4 ,!re c\ld be no?+ m futile ?an ! elaborate f9i%+ ( sole lea!r to make x pale 9 col\r1 z x means t fully #hj p] c5t4 ( ! lea!r produc$ has to be blea*$ 9 "s way or o!r2 & ! mann] 9 :i* ?is process is effect$ has a direct influ5ce on r$uc+ ! we>+ quality ( ! lea!r4 ,if1 = example1 ! col\r ( ! lea!r is bright5$ ) myrobalans1 or suma*1 or ) extracts ( ^! mat]ials1 ! we>+ quality is n affect$2 un=tunately1 ?is me?od is n l>gely us$1 z x does n increase ! weight ( ! lea!r & w\ld t5d to make x s(t4 ,a l>ge proportion ( sole lea!r is treat$ ) /rong sulphit$ extracts1 :i* bo? blea* & increase ! weight ( ! lea!r4 ,9 "s cases1 ! lea!r is plac$ 9 vats conta9+ hot tann+ extracts to increase ! blea*+ effect & add to ! weight4 ,! ga9 ( weight by ?is surplus tannage may be1 & (t5 is1 f #h p] c5t4 to #aj p] c5t41 &1 :]eas ! tann] a c5tury ago us$ to get only slightly above #ej p] c5t4 ( lea!r on ! weight ( ! raw hide1 x is no uncommon ?+ n[adays to get a yield ( ne>ly #gj p] c5t4 ,! tann]s are h>dly to be blam$ = ?is practice1 :i* really ought to be /opp$2 x is almo/ entirely due to ! dem& ( buy]s = lea!r at a l[ price p] lb41 irrespective ( its sup]ficial area comp>$ ) a high]-pric$ & (t5 *eap] article4 ,x is only fair to /ate t ^? boot manufactur]s :o h tak5 c>eful co/+s ( _! lea!r h n suff]$ great loss 9 ?is way1 b mo/ repair]s buy common lea!r 9 ord] to be able to d _! "w at fix$ prices usual 9 ?is trade4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ?is lea!r is "u-tann$ or weight$1 &1 9 ei!r case1 absorbs wat] l a sponge4 ,?is k9d ( lea!r is q unfit = soles1 & ought to be condemn$1 z x n only absorbs moi/ure b also reta9s x = a long "t1 s t x is frequ5tly a cause ( colds & o!r compla9ts aris+ f *ills4 ,if ! repair] does n co/ 8 lea!r z accurately z ! :olesale boot manufactur]1 ! latt] (t5 neglects to take into acc\nt ! quality ( ! lea!r1 s long z *eap soles c be cut f x4 ,! cont9ual dem& = lea!r :i* w yield l[-pric$ soles has br\ght ab\t ano!r practice :i* is mu* worse ?an ! use ( hot extracts4 ,9 ?is case1 ! hides are n tann$ ?or\ghly1 b1 in/ead ( complet+ ! process ) tann+ extracts1 ! lea!r is treat$ ) *eap *emicals1 su* z epsom salts 7magnesium sulphate71 glucose1 & b>ium salts4 ,^! add consid]able weight & save ! co/ ( exp5sive tann+ mat]ials2 fur!r1 x is claim$ t !y give increas$ firmness & sub/ance to ! ?9n] p>ts ( ! lea!r1 :i* o!rwise c\ld n be us$ = soles4 ,x is conceivable1 !re=e1 t lea!r ( ?is k9d c\ld be cut to great] advantage ?an t prop]ly tann$1 b1 s9ce ?is artificial fill+ is wa%$ out on ! fir/ contact ) wat] & ! lea!r rapidly det]iorates ?r\gh attract+ & reta9+ moi/ure1 ! fraud ( ! sy/em is at once app>5t4 ,al?\gh ! use ( lea!r artificially weight$ ) hygroscopic *emicals is extremely detrim5tal to heal?1 x 0 only dur+ la/ ye> t laws 7 pass$ =bidd+ ! adult]ation ( lea!r1 & ev5 ^! are inadequate4 ,/range to relate1 ! two c\ntries :]e ^! legal measures h be5 tak51 ,au/ralia & ,s\? ,africa1 enjoy = ! mo/ "p a hot & dry climate1 :ile x is 9 wet wea!r t adult]at$ lea!r is mo/ h>mful4 ,h[ev]1 to ,au/ralia belongs ! hon\r ( initiat+ legal measures aga9/ frauds 9 lea!r manufacture1 & _! praisewor?y action mu/ soon be copi$ by o!r civilis$ c\ntries4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld be inadvisable to prohibit ! addition ( e o!r mat]ial except ^? ) tann+ prop]ties4 ,!re are und\bt$ly a few sub/ances :i*1 us$ 9 comb9ation ) ! tann+ mat]ials1 add to ! /r5g? & value ( ! lea!r1 & x is ! op9ion ( "s tann]s t great developm5ts w take place 9 ?is direction4 ,c]ta9 oils1 sulphonat$ 9 ord] to r5d] !m easily miscible ) wat]1 & kn[n comm]cially z soluble oils1 ex]cise a b5eficial effect :5 mix$ ) ! tan liquors1 = !y lubricate ! fibres ( ! lea!r1 assi/ p5etration ( & fix ! tann94 ,! "t requir$ = ! process is1 !re=e1 mu* r$uc$1 z /rong liquors may be us$ )\t h>mful effect4 ,! oil also s]ves z a lubricant = ! fibres1 obviates ! h>%ness & brittl5ess usually associat$ ) rapidly-tann$ lea!r1 & fix$ to ! ext5t ( ab\t #c p] c5t41 mu/ increase its durability4 ,be/ ( all1 f ! tann]'s po9t ( view1 !re is a mod]ate increase ( weight4 ,!re are two or ?ree special tann+ oils on ! m>ket4 ,a vegetable gummy product has lately be5 introduc$ to ! trade :i* has be5 f\nd to give rem>kable results :5 us$ 9 conjunction ) tann+ mat]ials4 ,?is gummy matt] is extract$ f vegetable se$s & is plac$ on ! m>ket "u ! "n ( ,tragasol4 ,its composition is some:at simil> to t ( tann9s1 ! ,tragasol ,co4's analysis %[+ x to conta9 #dc4ea p] c5t1 ( c>bon1 #f4bc p] c5t4 ( hydrog51 #dh4ch p] c5t4 ( oxyg51 #j4ci p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 & #a4di p] c5t4 ( a%4 ,x is v l>gely us$ = /r5g!n+ & siz+ textile fabrics1 & seems de/9$ to play an important "p 9 ! lea!r trade1 = x has tann+ prop]ties1 increases ! /r5g? ( ! lea!r1 & consid]ably ha/5s ! process4 ,its mo/ important advantage is t x p]mits successful tannage 9 ! drum1 ?us effect+ a great sav+ ( "t & lab\r4 ,hi!rto1 rapid tannages h n be5 v successful1 z !y g5]ally made ! lea!r h>% & brittle1 & less5$ its durability4 ,lea!r tann$ by previ\s rapid me?ods 0 also less wat]pro( ?an t tann$ 9 pits by sl[ me?ods4 ,all ^! defects are avoid$ by us+ ,tragasol1 :i*1 :5 comb9$ ) tann+ extracts1 =ms a curdy precipitate1 describ$ by ! mak]s ( ,tragasol z cutiloid 7contraction ( cutis & colloid1 cutis mean+ sk91 & ! ,tragasol be+1 *emically1 a colloid74 ,! cutiloid tannage increases ! wat]-resi/ant prop]ties ( lea!r1 & prev5ts ! oxidation & consequ5t d>k5+ ( ! col\r ( ! tann+ mat]ial us$ ) x4 ,te/s h be5 made :i* %[ t cutiloid-tann$ lea!r w )/& a fall ( wat] #ab 94 high = six weeks be=e complete p5etration takes place2 ord9>y tannages d n (t5 resi/ wat] = m ?an a few h\rs4 ,= ! tannage ( sole lea!r 9 ! drum by ! cutiloid process1 ab\t #abj p] c5t4 ( ,tragasol & #dj p] c5t4 ( *e/nut or oakwood extract are requir$2 ?is quantity is divid$ into f\r equal portions1 :i* are add$ to ! drum successively at int]vals ( "o h\r4 ,! hides %\ld !n be ne>ly tann$ ?r\gh1 & ! process is complet$ ) /rong extract 7*e/nut & quebra*o1 or myrobalans1 accord+ to ! k9d ( lea!r requir$74 ,aft] drumm+ ! hides = t5 h\rs1 !y %\ld rema9 at re/ = two h\rs1 !n drumm$ ano!r h\r1 & s on1 alt]nately1 until ! completion ( ! process1 :i* may require f tw5ty-f\r to ?irty-six h\rs1 accord+ to ! sub/ance ( ! hides4 ,by ?is process1 ! yield ( lea!r may exce$ #fj p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! raw pelts4 ,?is p]c5tage ( yield may be rais$ to #gj p] c5t4 or m 9 ! case ( sole lea!r by /eep+ ! hides 9 hot extract4 ,! action ( acids 9 swell+ gelat9e is sometimes abus$1 p>ticul>ly on ! ,cont95t & 9 ,am]ica4 ,z po9t$ out be=e1 tan liquors mu/ be mildly acid 9 "* be=e ! process c proce$1 &1 if ! organic acids ( ! tann+ mat]ials are insuffici5t1 ! addition ( a small quantity ( =mic1 or lactic1 or acetic acid is necess>y2 b1 9 _m ( ! ,am]ican acid tannages1 an excessive quantity ( m9]al acid is us$1 ) ! object ( swell+ ! hides4 ,:5 9 ?is condition1 !y rapidly absorb an abnormal quantity ( tann91 & ! f9i%$ lea!r is unnaturally ?ick4 ,to make matt]s worse1 ! tannage is sometimes n complet$1 b1 in/ead1 ! hides are treat$ 7dop$7 ) hygroscopic *emicals1 :i* n only increase ! weight ( ! lea!r b also endang] ! heal? ( ^? :o h to we> x4 ,mo/ ( ! ,am]ican tann]ies make no secret ( _! use ( ^! unnecess>y *emicals1 b ass]t t !y are oblig$ to use !m 9 ord] to meet competition1 & because a l>ge numb] ( bootmak]s insi/ on buy+ sole lea!r at a l[ price p] lb4 ,! ,lea!r & ,pap] ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,u4,s4,a4 ,bureau ( ,indu/ry analys$ sev]al ,am]ican lea!rs 9 #aiac & f\nd t a l>ge majority 7 artificially weight$ ) glucose & ,epsom salts 7magnesium sulphate74 ,b>ium comp\nds are also us$ = ! same purpose1 b ! ,am]ican tannages are app>5tly free ( ?is adult]ant4 ,! results 7 publi%$ 9 a pamphlet by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t1 toge!r ) a li/ ( ! firms ^: lea!rs 7 te/$4 ,:ile ! ,european tann]s d n weight _! lea!r s freely z ! ,am]icans ) ^! *emicals1 ! practice ( swell+ ! hides unduly is n unkn[n1 ) ! diff]5ce t1 especially on ! ,cont95t1 ! swoll5 fibres are fix$ by treat+ ! hides ) a weak solution ( =maldehyde1 :i* also acts z a prelim9>y tann+ ag5t4 ,! tannage c !n be rapidly complet$ ) fairly /rong extracts1 z ! =maldehyde prev5ts ! contraction ( ! gra9 :i* w\ld ensue if untreat$ raw pelts 7 plac$ 9 /rong tan liquor4 ,! acid-=maldehyde process is risky1 & _c be recomm5d$4 ,! use ( ! artificial tann91 n]adol1 has replac$ x 9 _m ,cont95tal sole-lea!r tann]ies4 ,a prelim9>y tannage ) n]adol =ms a good mordant = ! use ( ! /rong extracts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf ,,p9n+ ,,sole ,,butts ,:atev] ! me?od us$ to improve or depreciate ! natural tannage1 ! surplus mat]ial left on ! surface is rais$ or bru%$ (f1 &1 aft] ! lea!r has be5 left to dra9 = a few h\rs1 x is s5t to ! f9i%+ dep>tm5t1 :i* is usually ! dry+ %$4 ,!re1 x is left pil$ up = a day or two1 until x is 9 ! "r condition = oil+4 ,! lea!r mu/ be oil$1 o!rwise ! gra9 w\ld be h>% & brittle :5 dry1 & w\ld d>k5 9 col\r1 especially at ! edges4 ,cod oil is g5]ally us$1 & sometimes a little m9]al oil is add$ to x to prev5t possible impurities 9 ! fi% oil ris+ to ! surface ( ! lea!r or caus+ damage 9 o!r ways4 ,a cod oil purifi$ by di/illation w\ld1 h[ev]1 be q safe to use1 & !re seems to be no reason :y tann]s %\ld use crude oils s frequ5tly z !y d1 n[ t a l>ge numb] ( oils specially prep>$ = ! lea!r trade are available4 ,l9se$ oil is also us$ 9 admixture ) cod oil1 its oxidis+ prop]ties ha/5+ ! process ( dry+4 ,! lea!r is lib]ally oil$ ) a bru% or swab on ! gra9 side & imm$iately hung up 9 ! dry+ %$1 :]e x is left until x rea*es :at is te*nically kn[n z a samm$ condition 7i4e41 j damp en\gh to exude no wat] :5 ! lea!r is d\bl$ ov]74 ,x is !n /ruck out 7p9n$7 on ! gra9 side1 ei!r ) a h& tool 7,fig4 #bf7 or by ma*9e4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! lea!r is plac$ on a long wood5 beam & ! p9n] works f ! left side1 keep+ two ( ! ?ree edges ( 8 knife flat on ! lea!r :ile mak+ heavy =w>d /rokes4 ,z ! scum is work$ out1 ! op]ator mops x up ) a wet clo?4 ,ma*9]y has replac$ h& lab\r 9 ?is op]ation 9 all mod]n tann]ies4 ,! pressure ( ! tool removes scud & dirt1 v>y+ 9 quantity accord+ to ! am\nt ( bloom conta9$ 9 ! p>ticul> tann+ mat]ials us$4 ,! lea!r is !n laid 9 pile = a few h\rs1 :5 x is 9 a fit condition = ! fir/ roll+1 :i* is kn[n 9 ! trade z roll+ on4 ,?is op]ation is g5]ally done by ma*9e 7,fig4 #bg7 n[adays1 b ! old me?od ( us+ a h& roll] heavily weight$ ) an iron box 7,fig4 #bh7 is /ill practis$ 9 a few y>ds4 ,aft] roll+1 ! lea!r is hung up aga9 until ne>ly dry1 :5 x is tak5 d[n & siz$ ) a weak col\r+ matt]1 made up ( annatto or tum]ic1 ) *alk or :it5+ dissolv$ 9 :ite v9eg> 7acetic acid7 & dilut$4 ,x is !n roll$ aga9 7roll+ (f7 & poli%$ ) a piece ( flannel4 ,f9ally1 x is hung up to air (f1 & is !n ready = ! w>eh\se4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg ,,roll+ ,,ma*9e ,9 _m y>ds ! f9i%+ consi/s m]ely 9 /rik+ out ! lea!r1 roll+ x :5 prop]ly temp]$1 hang+ up until ne>ly dry1 & re-roll+4 ,an ,am]ican ma*9e = giv+ ! f9al poli% to sole lea!r has lately be5 introduc$4 ,in/ead ( ! roll+ ma*9e1 "s ,fr5* tann]s use ! hamm]+ ma*9e1 :i* gives good results1 b is necess>ily sl[ & frightfully noisy 9 action4 ,! /eel hamm] moves up & d[n ) rem>kable rapidity1 b only a small area is cov]$ by ea* bl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh ,,old ,,me?od ,,( ,,roll+ ,,sole ,,lea!r ,! artificial dry+ ( sole lea!r1 or ( any o!r k9d1 is a matt] t ne$s c>eful att5tion1 = x is obvi\s t great delay w\ld occur1 & a l>ge am\nt ( bus9ess w\ld be lo/1 if tann]s reli$ solely on ! climatic conditions ( ! ,briti% ,isles2 9 fact1 ! wea!r is s r>ely fit = dry+ lea!r t e up-to-date tann]y conta9s "s artificial aids1 ! ne$ = :i* has be5 m press+ s9ce a l>ge proportion ( lea!r conta9s a surplus ( tann+ matt] :i* is liable to oxidise 9 contact ) /rong light & air1 !reby d>k5+ ! lea!r & mak+ x brittle4 ,among ! satisfactory dry+ plants are ^? ( ,h[>d-,smi? ,co41 & ! ,sutcliffe ,v5tilat+ & ,dry+ ,co41 ,ltd4 ,bo? "w on ! !ory ( fann+ a cont9u\s curr5t ( hot air ?r\gh ! dry+-room1 s t ! moi/ure evaporat+ f ! lea!r is con/antly drawn (f :ile ! app>atus is at "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi ,,fan 7,h[>d-,smi? sy/em7 ,! ,h[>d-,smi? plant consi/s ( a s]ies ( /eel tubes into :i* hot wat] or /eam is pump$4 ,^! pipes are enclos$ 9 a *amb] 9 :i* ! air naturally acquires great heat4 ,a fan 7,fig4 #bi7 is fix$ 9 "o side ( ?is *amb] 7,fig4 #cj7 &1 :5 9 motion1 drives ! hot air ?r\gh a wide tube :i* leads to ! dry+ *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj ,,fan ,,fix$ ,,9 ,,*amb] 7,h[>d-,smi? sy/em7 ,figure #ca %[s ! ,sutcliffe ,fan & ,heat] in/all$ 9 a tann]y4 ,at lea/ two hygromet]s %\ld be hung up 9 a dry+-room to det]m9e ! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! air4 ,,*rome ,,sole ,,lea!r ,! manufacture ( *rome sole lea!r suitable = ord9>y walk+ boots is ( comp>atively rec5t orig91 al?\gh natural *rome hides 7 dress$ m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago = t5nis boot soles & o!r a?letic %oes4 ,!re c be no d\bt ( ! sup]ior we>+ & wat]pro( qualities ( well-dress$ *rome sole1 b its high price1 comp>$ ) t ( vegetable-tann$ sole lea!r1 is aga9/ its g5]al use4 ,ei!r ! "o ba? or two ba? tannage 7describ$ on p4 #ajh7 may be us$1 b1 on ! :ole1 ! "o ba? me?od is pref]r$ = ! foll[+ reasons3 7#a7 ,its application is easi]2 7#b7 x produces a firm] & less ela/ic lea!r2 & 7#c7 !re is practically no dang] ( weak5+ ! hide fibres4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! two-ba? process produces a plump] lea!r :i* c1 naturally1 c>ry m dress+ & comm& a correspond+ly bett] price4 ,9 skill$ h&s1 x is also "u bett] control ?an ! "o-ba? process1 :ile x is absolutely necess>y = ! popul> pale blui%-grey t9t ( *rome lea!r t5nis soles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca ,,sutcliffe ,,sy/em ,,( ,,dry+ ,! natural *rome sole requires v little dress+4 ,! *rom$ hides 7usually r\nd$ into butts or b5ds1 %\ld]s & bellies7 are all[$ to rema9 on a horse two or ?ree days aft] ! completion ( ! tannage1 s t ! oxide ( *romium may comb9e m firmly ) ! fibres4 ,!y are !n plac$ 9 ! drum tumbl] aga9 & wa%$ 9 cold wat] = sev]al h\rs4 ,a con/ant /ream is convey$ to ! drum ?r\gh a rubb] pipe fix$ to ! tap1 & escapes ?r\gh small holes 9 ! drum4 ,! acid salts are n ?or\ghly remov$ by ?is wa%+ & mu/1 !re=e1 be neutralis$ ) an alkali4 ,borax is ! be/ = ! purpose1 ow+ to its mild action on lea!r & antiseptic prop]ties4 ,f #a to #b p] c5t4 borax on ! weight ( ! lea!r is g5]ally suffici5t1 :ile1 if soda be us$ = economical reasons1 only half ! quantity is requir$4 ,! drum is revolv$ = ab\t an h\r2 ! liquor is !n run (f1 & ! lea!r receives a fur!r wa%+ 9 cold wat] = half an h\r1 :5 x is 9 a condition to receive ! dress+1 :i* is *iefly compos$ ( mat]ials :i* help to fill & lubricate ! int]/ices ( ! fibres s t ! sub/ance is ma9ta9$ & ! natural /r5g? ( ! fibres pres]v$4 ,gelat9e1 pure glue1 ,tragasol1 p>aff9 wax1 c>nauba wax1 sp]maceti1 ,m>seilles soap1 are among ! v>i\s +r$i5ts us$2 :ile ! delicacy ( ! t9t may be improv$ ) *9a clay or ,fr5* *alk4 ,recipes v>y consid]ably1 ea* manufactur] claim+ to h secret me?ods4 ,solutions are made ( ! +r$i5ts1 or1 :]e "o or m ( ! mat]ials are insoluble1 !y are atomis$ 9 a mix+ pan be=e use4 ,to induce ?or\gh p5etration1 ! dress+ liquid may be appli$ to ! lea!r at a fairly high temp]ature1 z *rome lea!r is unaffect$ by heat :i* w\ld de/roy ! fibres ( ord9>y vegetable-tann$ lea!r4 ,ev5 s1 x is inadvisable to use a high] temp]ature ?an #agj ,f4 ,! lea!r is ?or\ghly impregnat$ ) ! dress+ 9 ab\t an h\r's "t1 & is !n pil$ on a wood5 horse = sev]al h\rs1 or ov]night1 to dra9 & p]mit ?or\gh incorporation ( ! dress+ ) ! lea!r4 ,:5 well-dra9$1 ! gra9 ( ! hides is smoo!d by pressure ) a special tool 7,fig4 #cb7 or by ma*9e1 ! op]ation be+ kn[n te*nically z /rik+ out4 ,! ma*9e 7,fig4 #cd7 gives q satisfactory results & has replac$ h& lab\r 9 all mod]n works4 ,! hides are !n /ra9$ 7i4e41 ext5d$ & nail$ to wood5 frames71 or !y are simply hung up to dry4 ,9 ! latt] case1 !re is a small %r9kage ( ! size ( ! hide1 b ! sub/ance is ma9ta9$4 ,) good /ra9+1 a satisfactory increase ( surface measurem5t c be obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb ,,sleek] ,:5 ! lea!r is completely dri$1 x may be sold at once1 b if1 z is g5]ally ! case1 a special nap f9i% is requir$ on ! fle% side1 ! hides are plac$ 9 damp$ deal sawdu/ until !y are 9 ! "r condition ( flexibility = ! next process1 kn[n z fluff+4 ,?is is done on a rapidly revolv+ :eel 7,fig4 #cc7 cov]$ ) em]y p[d] v>y+ 9 ! size ( gra9 accord+ to ! effect desir$ on ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,! abrasion ( ! lea!r on ! fle% 7i4e41 ! "u side7 raises a s(t nap4 ,c>borundum1 a special abrasive made 9 ,am]ica1 by ! fusion ( s&1 coke1 & salt at a v high temp]ature1 has to "s ext5t supplant$ ! use ( em]y4 ,z a f9al f9i%1 ! fle% side may be rubb$ ov] ) *alk or *9a clay to give x a cle> saleable appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc ,,fluff+ ,,ma*9e ,! *rome sole lea!r us$ = ord9>y boots is q a diff]5t product1 & x is only 9 ! la/ two or ?ree ye>s t x has be5 us$ to any ext5t4 ,! ,dri-p$ is ! be/ kn[n make ( ?is lea!r4 ,! tannage is effect$ by ! "o or two-ba? me?ods already describ$4 ,! processes prep>atory to *rom+ are v important1 z x is ess5tial to get ! maximum yield ( pelt4 ,! hides are1 !re=e1 (t5 treat$ ) sulphide ( sodium1 :i* loos5s ! hair 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs or less4 ,!y are !n plac$ 9 fairly /rong limes = two or ?ree days to swell ! fibres & saponify ! grease4 ,aft] be+ wa%$ 9 cold wat]1 ! hides are treat$ ) a weak solution ( lactic1 boracic1 or butyric acid1 or butyrate ( ammonia1 to remove all trace ( lime1 :5 !y are ready to be *rome-tann$4 ,aft] *rom+ !m1 neutralisation ( ! acid *rome salts is effect$ ) borax1 & ! lea!r is ready = dress+4 ,! pr9cipal objects ( ?is process are to make ! lea!r firm & wat]pro(1 & to rem$y its t5d5cy to slip easily on wet pavem5ts4 ,! la/-nam$ is ! greate/ difficulty1 & !re are only ab\t two or ?ree firms :o h really surm\nt$ x4 ,ea* manufactur] keeps 8 recipe secret1 b ! +r$i5ts t g to make ! v>i\s dress+s are drawn f ! foll[+3 ,/e>9es1 m9]al oil1 ,tragasol1 res91 c>nauba wax1 beeswax1 p>aff9 wax1 glue4 ,res91 or asphalt1 or bo?1 may be us$ to prev5t ! lea!r slipp+ 9 contact ) a wet pavem5t4 ,"o pat5t describes a me?od ( dress+ *rome sole lea!r ) a mixture ( asphalt1 res91 & p>aff9 wax4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd ,,/rik+-,,out ,,& ,,sc\r+ ,,ma*9e ,! wat]pro(+ +r$i5ts are pref]ably appli$ to ! lea!r 9 ! tumbl] at a high temp]ature1 say1 #afj-agj ,f4 ,aft] runn+ ! drum = ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r1 ! lea!r is impregnat$ ) ! mixture1 & is !n hors$ up = at lea/ tw5ty-f\r h\rs to all[ complete incorporation ( ! fatty +r$i5ts ) ! fibres ( ! lea!r4 ,a suitable wat]pro( dress+ & fill+ increases ! /r5g? ( ! lea!r4 ,! f9i%+ ( ! lea!r is simple4 ,! butts or b5ds are smoo!d & /ret*$ out by ma*9e 7,fig4 #cd71 oil$ on ! gra91 nail$ or ext5d$ ) special metal grips on squ>e wood5 frames1 & dri$4 ,9 "s cases1 !y are hung up until ne>ly dry1 roll$ by ma*9e in/ead ( be+ put on bo>ds & air$ (f 9 a dry+ /ove4 ,a pat5t$ me?od ( mak+ wat]pro( *rome sole lea!r to prev5t x slipp+ & los+ its %ape 9 we> consi/s 9 fir/ treat+ ! lea!r 9 a solution ( glue1 gelat9e1 ag>-ag>1 or o!r colloidal sub/ance1 ) ! addition ( =maldehyde1 & !n submitt+ x to /rong pressure "u ! influ5ce ( a high temp]ature1 9 ord] to fix ! colloidal matt]s4 ,! pressure is made betwe5 heat$ plates4 ,! lea!r is aft]w>ds impregnat$ ) a mixture ( wool-grease1 pit*1 asphalt1 res91 wax1 gutta-p]*a1 etc4 ,a recipe giv5 9 ! specification consi/s ( wool grease 7#fj p>ts71 asphalt 7#aj p>ts71 s(t pit* 7#be p>ts7 & gutta-p]*a 7#e p>ts74 ,! mass is fus$ & kept at #ij ,c4 ,! hides are plac$ flat 9 ?is mixture1 :i* !y quickly absorb4 ,if ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t %\ld ev] introduce a ,bill to /op ! adult]ation ( lea!r1 x may be f\nd some:at difficult to deal ) *rome sole1 :i* mu/ h "s fill+ mat]ial to make its use practicable4 ,no exception c be tak5 to ! dress+ ( lea!r ) mat]ials t make x wat]pro( & increase its /r5g?2 9 fact1 mu* m w be done 9 ?is direction ?an has ev] be5 attempt$ 9 ! pa/1 z wat]pro( sole lea!r is a necessity 9 ,great ,brita94 ,any measure to *eck ! adult]ation ( lea!r mu/1 !re=e1 cle>ly def9e ! *emicals :i* are kn[n to be h>mful 9 lea!r & :i* may n be us$4 ,?is has n be5 ov]look$ by ! ,au/ralian ,gov]nm5t1 :i* has =bidd5 ! use ( b>ium salts 9 lea!r1 & likewise ! importation ( lea!r boots or any goods made ( lea!r conta9+ ?is *emical4 ,su* goods s5t to ,au/ralia are liable to confiscation1 & x is report$ t a few consignm5ts ( boots h already be5 condemn$4 ,lea!r1 ei!r export$ or import$1 mu/ n conta9 m ?an #c p] c5t4 ( glucose unless ! p]c5tage is m>k$ on ea* consignm5t1 9 :i* case1 x is presum$1 a tann] may use z mu* ( ! adult]ant z he likes1 al?\gh ! fact t he has to disclose ?is practice acts z a det]r5t 9 mo/ cases4 ,un=tunately1 ! ,au/ralian ,act leaves an important loophole1 s9ce ! use ( ,epsom salts1 :i* c be made to increase ! weight ( lea!r m ?an any o!r *emical1 is n prohibit$4 ,9 any case1 none ( ^! hygroscopic mat]ials is ( any use to *rome sole1 = !y w\ld attract moi/ure :i* x is desirable to resi/4 ,,va*e ,,sole ,,lea!r ,z its "n implies1 va*e sole lea!r is a ,cont95tal product1 be+ made *iefly 9 ,france1 ,belgium1 & ,g]many4 ,! raw mat]ial consi/s ( light & m$ium c[ hides4 ,! details ( work+ are some:at simil> to ^? us$ 9 tann+ ,engli% sole lea!r1 ! ma9 diff]5ce be+ t ! hides are susp5d$ 9 ! lime liquors in/ead ( ?r[+ !m 9 flat4 ,! sy/em ( tannage is n s v>i$ z ! ,engli%1 s9ce ! mat]ials us$ g5]ally consi/ ( oak & p9e b>ks1 myrobalans1 quebra*o & oak extracts2 & ! f9i%+ mat]ials are ( q ano!r "*4 ,! ,cont95tal tann]s g5]ally use ! ,raumur !rmomet]1 :ile ! ,beaum hydromet] is us$ to det]m9e ! d5sity ( ! tan liquors 9 place ( ! ,engli% b>komet] 7,fig4 #bd74 ,"o degree ,beaum is equal to #f4i b>komet]4 ,va*e lea!r is m pliable ?an ,engli% sole lea!r1 b ! addition ( valonia extract t[>ds ! end ( ! tann+ process w\ld greatly increase its firmness4 ,! f9i% is appli$ to ! fle% side ( ! lea!r1 & a typical recipe consi/s ( a size su* z ,iri% moss or ,tragasol 7#a "p71 fl\r 7#bj p>ts71 *9a clay 7#bj p>ts71 & pure gambi] 7#b p>ts7 9 #bjj p>ts ( wat]4 ,! size is dissolv$ & cool$1 & ! o!r +r$i5ts are !n add$4 ,,ma*9e ,,belt+1 ,,h>ness1 ,,& ,,saddl]y ,,lea!rs ,^! lea!rs are r>ely made by "o firm2 usually1 /rap butts & mo/ k9ds ( belt+ lea!rs are dress$ by curri]s1 ^: trade is q di/9ct f t ( curry+ %oe lea!r4 ,! tann+ & curry+ ( h>ness & saddl]y lea!rs is ano!r special bran*4 ,besides ^! ?ree important trades1 !re is ! dress+ ( hydraulic1 me*anical1 & o!r indu/rial lea!rs1 :i* likewise =m special sections ( ! heavy lea!r indu/ry4 ,belt+ lea!r is an important item 9 ! trade1 &1 z a good proportion is made f ! f9e/ hides1 ?is class ( lea!r is among ! mo/ exp5sive made4 ,at pres5t1 !re is mu* controv]sy 9 ! trade z to :e!r ! vegetable-tann$ or ! *rome-tann$ article is ! m economical 9 use4 ,briefly1 *rome belt+ is sup]ior 9 works :]e !re is mu* /eam or m9]al acids1 z x is n affect$ by ^! conditions to ! same ext5t z b>k-tann$ belt+4 ,its t5sile /r5g? is also great]1 b aga9/ ^! advantages mu/ be set its high] co/ & t5d5cy to /ret* unduly 9 comp>ison ) ! vegetable-tann$ product4 ,x c be safely said1 h[ev]1 t ! use ( *rome belt+ is on ! increase1 al?\gh its production is n ne>ly on su* a big scale z t ( ! old type ( belt+4 ,! tannage ( belt+ lea!r is simil> to t ( sole lea!r1 except t !re is no necessity to cont9ue ! process1 aft] ! tann9 has /ruck ?r\gh1 ) ! object ( increas+ its firmness & weight4 ,att5tion mu/ also be paid to ! class ( tann+ mat]ials us$1 especially = belt+ ( ! be/ quality1 z x mu/ h great t5sile /r5g? & /& a sev]e /ra9 9 ! dynamometric te/4 ,tann9s t rapidly oxidise 9 contact ) light & air h1 !re=e1 to be avoid$4 ,! oak b>k tannage1 ) a little *e/nut & oakwood extracts to f9i% ! process1 is a good me?od ( imp>t+ to ! hide ! "r degree ( firmness & flexibility4 ,z 9 ! case ( sole lea!r1 belt+ may be artificially weight$ dur+ ! tannage1 al?\gh x is usually done 9 ! curry+ process1 if at all4 ,!re c be no d\bt t a quantity ( adult]at$ belt+ lea!r is made1 & w cont9ue to be made :ile ! practice ( sell+ by weight is 9 vogue4 ,z a rule1 sophi/icat$ belt+ lea!r has a mu* weak] t5sile /r5g? ?an ! pure product & is ( relatively poor value1 s9ce ! r$uction ( price is usually a matt] ( only a few p5ce4 ,if us]s ( belt+ b\ght on ! pr9ciple ( value in/ead ( price1 !y w\ld nev] buy adult]at$ lea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce ,,lea!r-,,/uff+ ,,drum ,9 tann+ hides = belt+1 ! %\ld]s & bellies are cut (f & usually dress$ = sole or h>ness lea!r1 leav+ ! butt1 ! prime "p ( ! hide1 #d-a_/b ft4 9 l5g? 7,fig4 #bc74 ,! tann$ butt is fir/ %av$ to level ! sub/ance1 !n wa%$ 9 a solution ( borax1 & suma*$ 9 ! drum4 ,aft] smoo?+ ! lea!r 9 ! /rik+-out ma*9e1 x is p>tially dri$ 7samm$7 & !n rubb$ on bo? sides ) a dubb9 ( cod oil & tall[4 ,9 ?is condition ! butts are left pil$ up = a few days1 s t ! dubb9 p5etrates ! lea!r1 :i* is !n ext5d$ ) ! sleek] 7,fig4 #cb7 to make x smoo? & to remove surplus grease1 :i* is sold to soap-mak]s "u ! curri]'s "n ( mois+s4 ,! lea!r is f9ally dri$1 roll$ 7optional71 /ret*$ by ma*9e1 & cut up 9 ! wid? ( belt+ requir$4 ,in/ead ( h&-/uff+ ! lea!r ) cod oil & tall[1 :i* is /ill ! be/ me?od1 a l>ge quantity ( butts are n[ drum-/uff$1 ! object be+ to make use ( /e>9es1 :i* are h>d] & heavi] greases ?an tall[4 ,! type ( drum %[n 9 ,figure #ce1 9 :i* ! grease is incorporat$ ) ! lea!r by means ( live /eam1 gives satisfactory results1 al?\gh hot air app>atus is n[ replac+ ! /eam injector4 ,a pat5t has lately be5 grant$ to an ,am]ican inv5tor = ! production ( a /rong & *eap belt+4 ,fle% splits ( hides are simply /uck toge!r ) a collodion or nitrocellulose solution4 ,any numb] ( lay]s may be us$1 accord+ to ! sub/ance requir$1 ! only ess5tial quality be+ t ! lea!r %\ld be free f grease4 ,! adhesive prop]ty ( nitrocellulose solutions is probably /rong] ?an t ( any o!r mat]ial1 b1 un=tunately1 ! t\gh film !y =m on dry+ does n grip a greasy surface4 ,be=e ! solution us$ to jo9 ! pieces ( lea!r toge!r is dry1 ! lea!r is roll$ "u heavy pressure1 &1 :5 ?or\ghly dri$1 c be cut up = belt+4 ,! dress+ ( h>ness lea!r is simil> to ! manual process ( mak+ belt+1 ) ! exception t ! butts or b5ds 7half butts7 are /a9$ ei!r black or a pale /raw col\r1 ! latt] be+ kn[n to ! trade z ! ,london col\r4 ,annatto is (t5 us$ to get ?is col\r4 ,! bright1 greasy f9i% on h>ness lea!r is obta9$ by rubb+ buck tall[ ov] ! gra9 & poli%+ ) a glass sleek] or a piece ( flannel4 ,! op]ation is sometimes done by ma*9e1 9 :i* ! work+ cyl9d] is cov]$ ) pieces ( cotton rag4 ,saddl]y lea!rs are dress$ on simil> l9es1 b ! f9i% is n s greasy z h>ness4 ,pig sk9s make ! be/ & t\ghe/ lea!r = ?is purpose4 ,!y are dress$ 9 a simil> mann] to h>ness hides1 b special att5tion has to be giv5 to pig sk9s to get rid ( ! l>ge quantity ( natural grease !y conta94 ,,boot ,,upp] ,,lea!rs ,:]eas ! numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( boot upp] lea!rs 9 use less ?an ?ree decades ago 0 limit$ to five or six 7wax$ calf1 calf kid1 ,fr5* kid1 mock kid1 levant1 col\r$ calf7 x is n[ almo/ legion4 ,al?\gh ! v>iety is almo/ bewild]+1 h[ev]1 ! popul> dem& is conf9$ to ab\t half-a-doz5 sorts1 :i* include real & imitation box calf1 box hide1 glac or glaz$ kid1 pat5t lea!r1 will[ calf1 dull-f9i%$ *rome lea!r1 & wax$ kip butts & wax$ splits = workm5's boots4 ,box lea!rs & glaz$ kid are ! mo/ popul> ( all4 ,g5]ally speak+1 glaz$ kid is m suitable = we> 9 ! summ] & autumn2 :ile box lea!r1 be+ ?ick] & /rong]1 is pref]able = ! w9t]4 ,imitation will[ calf 7i4e41 calf sk9 tann$ 9 vegetable & *rome liquors1 ei!r sep>ately or comb9$7 is v suitable = easy-we>+ boots1 b is n s durable & resi/ant to wat] z ! pure *rome-tann$ article4 ,! tannage ( box & will[ lea!rs may be effect$ by ! "o or two-ba? process already describ$ 7p4 #ajh74 ,be=e ! tannage1 x is advisable to pickle ! hides or sk9s 9 a solution ( alum & salt1 ) ! object ( prev5t+ contraction ( ! tissues ( ! hide1 & provid+ a mordant = ! m rapid absorption & fixation ( ! *rome salts4 ,! tannage complet$1 ! acid salts 9 ! lea!rs are neutralis$ ) borax1 & aft] ! lea!r has be5 wa%$ 9 w>m wat] x is ready = dye+4 ,! dye+ ( box calf is g5]ally done 9 ! drum tumbl]1 b !re are sev]al o!r me?ods4 ,"o sy/em us$ on ! ,cont95t is to dip ! sk9s1 a pair at a "t & plac$ fle% to fle%1 9 a v /rong dye liquor4 ,?is me?od is sl[1 & n 9 accordance ) mod]n ideas2 us$ = produc+ br[ns & fancy %ades1 x is v difficult to avoid irregul>ity ( col\r :]e l>ge p>cels are manipulat$4 ,ano!r me?od is vat dye+1 ! process be+ c>ri$ out 9 a wood5 vat 7,fig4 #be7 & ! dye liquor circulat$ by means ( a paddle4 ,! "o advantage ( ?is sy/em is t ! lea!r c be easily exam9$ dur+ ! process4 ,a useful me?od ( dye+ is c>ri$ out by bru%+ ! col\r+ mat]ials on ! gra9 side ( ! lea!r4 ,?is process is economical1 & x has ! fur!r advantage t ! f9i%$ lea!r c be us$ = unl9$ boots & o!r purposes :]e an undy$ fle% is necess>y4 ,! orig9al box lea!r 0 dy$ a d>k-blue %ade 9 ! drum be=e x 0 %av$1 &1 z ! dye does n p5etrate v f> into *rome lea!r1 unless a /rong mordant ( tann9 be previ\sly us$1 ! subsequ5t %av+ left ! fle% side ( ! lea!r a v pale-blui% t9t4 ,! process ( dye+ is lea/ tr\blesome & mo/ effective :5 done 9 ! drum tumbl]4 ,! lea!r is run 9 w>m wat] until ! temp]ature rea*es #adj-aej ,f 7#fj-ff ,c47 & ! dye+ mat]ials are add$ gradually 9 a box at ! side ( ! drum :5ce x passes ?r\gh ! axle or j\rnal into ! tumbl]4 ,al?\gh *rome lea!r is n mat]ially affect$ by boil+ wat] 9 contradi/9ction to vegetable-tann$ lea!r1 :i* _c be treat$ ) wat] above #fj ,c4 )\t injury1 x is inadvisable to dye x 9 boil+ solutions1 ! above-m5tion$ temp]ature be+ ! mo/ satisfactory4 ,!re are two me?ods ( dye+ blacks 9 ! lea!r trade3 7#a7 ! logwood-ammonia1 & 7#b7 ! anil9e black4 ,! =m] is ! *eap] ( ! two & q satisfactory1 al?\gh _m dy]s seem to pref] ! anil9e process4 ,! latt] c]ta9ly gives a deep] black1 b x is n at all necess>y to make ! fle% side ( box calf black1 & _m buy]s pref] ! back blue1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! gra9 side ( ! lea!r mu/ be f9i%$ a jet black4 ,! crude logwood is g5]ally subject$ to a process ( f]m5tation or age+4 ,! new wood has to be plac$ on /one or cem5t$ floor+ 9 a w>m room & frequ5tly turn$ ov] until f]m5tation has ceas$1 :i* usually takes ab\t a week4 ,x is !n cut into small *ips by ma*9]y & pack$ 9 bags4 ,?is is ! =m 9 :i* x always us$ to ent] ! tann]y1 b x is n[ g5]ally prep>$ 9 pa/e or cry/al extract by mak]s ( tann+ & dye-wood extracts1 a bus9ess :i* gr[s 9 importance e ye>4 ,! col\r+ matt] ( logwood is haematoxyl91 :i* is conv]t$ into haemat9 by oxidation2 h5ce1 ! extract is (t5 ref]r$ to z haemat9 cry/als4 ,! pa/e may be us$ :]e x is desirable to increase ! sub/ance ( ! lea!r1 b mo/ dy]s pref] ! cry/als1 :i* are easily dissolv$ 9 hot wat]4 ,"o lb4 ( cry/als1 to :i* is add$ j en\gh ammonia to *ange ! br[n col\r to violet blue1 suffices = ea* #ajj lb4 ( lea!r dy$4 ,! col\r+ matt] is absorb$ by ! "t ! drum has be5 runn+ half an h\r1 leav+ cle> wat] beh9d4 ,! next process is kn[n te*nically z fat-liquor+1 :i*1 z its "n implies1 consi/s 9 lubricat+ ! fibres ( ! lea!r ) fatty or oily matt]s4 ,?is is a v important process1 =1 :5 suitable +r$i5ts are us$1 ! pliability1 /r5g?1 & wat]pro( quality ( ! lea!r are greatly increas$4 ,! mak+ ( special fat-liquors = diff]5t k9ds ( lea!r has become q an important bus9ess1 & mo/ makes c be dep5d$ ^u = ! specifi$ purposes4 ,x is a debatable po9t z to :e!r fat-liquor+ %\ld prec$e or foll[ dye+4 ,g5]ally speak+1 x is bett] to adopt ! latt] c\rse1 z ! fatty +r$i5ts help to fix ! col\r+ matt] on ! fibres ( ! lea!r4 ,! dye is also less liable to fade :5 fat liquor+ foll[s ! col\r+4 ,! numb] ( mat]ials t may be us$ = ! process ( fat-liquor+ is almo/ legion1 b ! pr9cipal are soaps1 oils1 egg-yolk1 tall[1 fl\r1 ,tragasol1 ,iri% moss1 *9a clay1 & />*4 ,unless ! special prep>ations made by lea!r trade *emical firms be us$1 mu* c>e has to be ex]cis$ 9 select+ ! mo/ suitable +r$i5ts = ea* class ( lea!r4 ,= example1 ! mixture t w\ld give good results on vegetable-tann$ lea!r might be q unsuitable = *rome lea!r4 ,!n1 aga91 ! selection ( mat]ial is bas$ on ! /yle ( f9i% requir$1 a dull f9i% necessitat+ heavy fats & greases :i* w\ld be q unsuitable = bright lea!rs1 & p>ticul>ly = ^? ( ! *rome-tannage4 ,among ! hundr$s ( recipes t h be5 publi%$ f "t to "t1 tall[ has only f\nd a place 9 "o or two mixtures1 yet x is "o ( ! f9e/ mat]ials = /r5g!n+ & lubricat+ ! fibres ( lea!r4 ,if its spl5did prop]ties 7 fully kn[n1 x w\ld be v l>gely us$ = fat-liquor+ purposes4 ,( c\rse1 x is well kn[n to ! curry+ trade1 hav+ = sev]al c5turies =m$ ! basis1 toge!r ) cod oil1 ( ! dubb9 us$ 9 /uff+ wax$ lea!r & belt+ butts4 ,! foll[+ is a useful recipe = a fat-liquor = box calf3 #b lb4 ,m>seilles soap & #c lb4 neatsfoot oil = e #ajj lb4 ( lea!r4 ,! soap is cut into small pieces & dissolv$ 9 hot wat]1 & ! oil is add$ sl[ly & ?or\ghly mix$ by /irr+ vigor\sly4 ,:]e possible1 emulsification %\ld be done 9 a ma*9e1 9 ord] to atomise ! +r$i5ts4 ,! f9] !y c be br\ght into a /ate ( division1 ! bett] !y w be absorb$ by ! lea!r4 ,o!r suitable fat-liquors = box lea!rs are ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,turkey r$ oil1 #b p] c5t4 ( weight ( lea!r & neutral soap #a p] c5t43 7#b7 neatsfoot oil1 #b lb42 tall[1 #a lb42 & ,tragasol1 #a lb43 7#c7 cod oil1 #b lbs42 ,m>seilles soap1 #a lb43 7#d7 neatsfoot oil1 #b lbs42 egg-yolk1 #a_/b lb41 or six fre% yolks4 ,! process is complet$ 9 #bj-cj m9utes4 ,9 ! case ( fancy col\rs or br[ns1 ! lea!r %\ld g5]ally be well-dra9$ & w>m$ up aga9 9 ! drum 9 hot wat] 7#agj ,f47 be=e fat-liquor+1 b ! precaution is unnecess>y = black lea!rs4 ,aft] ! fat-liquor+ process1 ! lea!r is remov$ f ! drum1 & pil$ up on ! horse to dra91 & left = sev]al h\rs or ov]night1 to all[ x to assimilate ! fatty +r$i5ts4 ,x is !n submitt$ to an op]ation kn[n z sleek+ or /rik+ out1 ) ! object ( remov+ surplus wat] & s facilitat+ dry+1 & mak+ ! gra9 side smoo?4 ,ma*9]y is n[ almo/ univ]sally employ$1 especially = *rome lea!r4 ,a good type ( /rik+ out ma*9e is %[n 9 ,figure #cd4 ,if done by h&1 ! sk9s are plac$ on a slop+ glass or slate table1 ) ! fle% side upp]mo/1 :i* is !n /ret*$ out by /rong pressure ) a tool kn[n z a sleek]1 ! /rokes be+ made d[nw>d 9 ! direction ( ! hair gr[?4 ,! fle% side done1 ! :ole sk9 is turn$ ov] & ! gra9 side is simil>ly treat$4 ,sometimes only ! fle% side is /ruck out1 especially if ! gra9 is s(t & t5d]4 ,! sleek] consi/s ( an iron1 /eel1 or copp] blade1 ab\t #f 94 squ>e1 fitt$ 9 a wood h&le 7,fig4 #cb74 ,! sk9s are hung up 9 ! dry+-room imm$iately !y are ext5d$ & smoo!d by sleek+1 & are !n ei!r all[$ to dry completely1 or1 z is g5]ally ! case ) be/ lea!r1 !y are hung up until a great deal ( ! moi/ure is evaporat$ & ! sk9s are left 9 a slightly moi/1 or1 z x is g5]ally t]m$1 samm$ condition4 ,! sk9s are !n tak5 d[n1 damp$ 9 dry p>ts1 fold$ ov]1 laid 9 piles to equalise ! moi/ure1 & f9ally smoo!d out & /ret*$ aga9 by h& or ma*9e4 ,?is second op]ation aft] ! dye+ is kn[n z sett+4 ,*rome-tann$ sk9s are usually /ret*$ & nail$ on squ>e bo>ds aft] sett+1 z1 ow+ to _! ela/icity1 !y are liable to %r9k consid]ably 9 dry+4 ,! sup]ficial area c be increas$ by fully ext5d+ ! sk9s4 ,?is op]ation is te*nically describ$ z /ra9+4 ,x may be /at$ "h t vegetable-tann$ lea!rs are n g5]ally /ra9$ on bo>ds1 z su* lea!r is bett] 9 quality & sub/ance :5 hung up & dri$4 ,lea!r ( comb9$ tannage 7i4e41 tann$ ) vegetable & *rome products7 is1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly /ra9$1 z ! a/r+5t prop]ty ( *rome w\ld o!rwise cause contraction ( ! fibres4 ,:5 dri$ on ! bo>ds ! lea!r is some:at /iff1 & has1 !re=e1 to be s(t5$ be=e any f9i%+ +r$i5ts are appli$4 ,*rome lea!r is s(t5$ by plac+ x = a few days 9 damp sawdu/1 :i*1 = br[n or fancy col\r$ lea!r1 mu/ be ( deal or :ite p9e1 &1 !re=e1 free f objectionable col\r+ matt]2 b1 = black lea!r1 ! sawdu/ ( any wood is suitable4 ,! sk9s mu/ be sy/ematically pil$ "o above ! o!r1 & a little damp$ sawdu/ scatt]$ ov] ea* sk94 ,:5 prop]ly season$1 ! sk9s are bru%$ free ( ! sawdu/ & /ak$1 ei!r by h& or ma*9e1 usually by ! latt] means4 ,! /ak+ knife may be fix$ 9 a wood crut* 7arm /ake71 or fix$ upright 9 a v]tical wood5 /& 7knee /ake74 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! sk9s to be /ak$ mu/ be secur$ 9 a horizontal wood5 groove fix$ to two uprights1 ! workman !n press+ heavily 9 a d[nw>d direction ) ! /ak+ knife1 ( :i* ! crut* is held "u ! armpit4 ,9 us+ ! upright /ake1 ! lea!r is mov$ to & fro ov] ! edge ( ! fix$ knife4 ,bo? ( ^! manual op]ations are ardu\s & some:at dang]\s1 & %\ld be displac$ by ma*9]y :]ev] possible 7,fig4 #cf74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf ,,/ak+ ,,& ,,glaz+ ,,ma*9e ,! ?or\ghly s(t5$ lea!r is !n dri$1 mordant$ ) a solution ( logwood1 or haemat9 cry/als1 black$ ) levant ink1 a specially prep>$ black dye1 or ) a suitable anil9e dye1 & dri$ aga94 ,x is f9ally season$ ) a glut9\s or album9\s mixture 7blood album51 milk1 & a little anil9e black dye make a good mixture71 dri$1 glaz$1 season$ a second "t1 & reglaz$4 ,a light coat+ ( m9]al oil turns ! f9i% into a jet black1 & ! lea!r is ready = ! w>eh\se4 ,!re are sev]al types ( glaz+ ma*9es1 b ! gras%opp] 7s call$ ow+ to its action7 is ! mo/ popul> = box calf4 ,?is ma*9e is ! same z %[n 9 ,figure #cf1 except t ! work+ tool is replac$ ) a smoo? glass or agate roll]4 ,! t]m box appli$ to ?is lea!r 0 inv5t$ by a prom95t ,am]ican tann]1 & _h he regi/]$ ! "n & pat5t$ 8 process he w\ld h reap$ a v ri* h>ve/1 = ! lea!r is us$ 9 enorm\s quantities ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,z x 01 ! ,am]ican firm tri$ to obta9 an injunction aga9/ ,engli% firms manufactur+ ! lea!r1 b _h to )draw _! claim1 z !y 7 n ! inv5tors ( *rome lea!r1 :i* 0 made 9 ,scotl& be=e x 0 introduc$ to ! ,/ates4 ,moreov]1 ! ^w box1 z appli$ to lea!r1 0 n regi/]$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,will[ calf is exactly ! same k9d ( lea!r z box calf1 except t x is dy$ br[n in/ead ( black4 ,! season+ mixture naturally diff]s & may consi/ ( a mixture ( egg album51 milk1 & a little ( ! same1 or simil>1 dye solution z t us$ 9 ! dye+ process4 ,9 ord] to get cle> col\r+1 ! dyes %\ld be well dissolv$ & /ra9$ ?r\gh f9e musl94 ,,*amois ,,lea!r ,?is k9d ( lea!r is well kn[n to ! g5]al public "u ! "n ( wa%-lea!r1 b x is1 p]haps1 n s widely kn[n t !re is practically no real *amois lea!r available1 s9ce ! species ( animal be>+ ?is "n is almo/ ext9ct4 ,n[adays1 *amois1 or %amoy is made f ! fle% split ( %eep sk91 & ! me?od :]eby ! lea!r is produc$ is describ$ z ! oil tannage4 ,! *amois lea!r dress] may also d ! prelim9>y "w ( fellmong]+1 b m (t5 he receives ! pelts1 or fells1 f ! fellmong]4 ,al?\gh ! pelts h be5 9 a lime liquor kn[n z ! fellmong]'s ga!r+ limes1 ! process ( lim+ has to be cont9u$ & c>efully regulat$4 ,too mu* lim+ makes ! pelts loose1 ow+ to ! developm5t ( bact]ia4 ,?is effect w\ld cause ! f9i%$ lea!r to be s(t & spongy4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "u-lim+ fails to remove suffici5t ( ! cem5t sub/ance :i* b9ds ! fibres ( ! pelts2 consequ5tly1 ! lea!r produc$ f ^! pelts is ?9 & some:at gri/ly4 ,aft] be+ lim$1 ! sk9s are cobb$ 7i4e41 ! bits ( wool or hair left on by ! fellmong] are remov$7 & ! pelts are !n fle%$ by ma*9]y4 ,! next op]ation1 splitt+1 is v important & requires skilful att5tion to get good results4 ,! ,re$] ma*9e is l>gely 9 use1 b ! b&-knife ma*9e is also suitable4 ,! top half ( ! %eep sk9 7i4e41 ! gra9 side7 is utilis$ = ! manufacture ( skiv]s1 :ile ! "u portion1 or fle% side1 te*nically call$ l9+1 s]ves z ! raw mat]ial = *amois lea!r4 ,! be/ l9+s are g5]ally sort$ out = mak+ into p>*m5t1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 comm&s a mu* high] price ?an *amois4 ,l9+s = *amois are !n submitt$ to ! op]ation ( ei!r re-splitt+ or friz+1 ! object be+ to remove ! loose tissue ly+ betwe5 ! gra9 & fle%4 ,! pelts are re-split 9 ! case ( *eap *amois1 b friz$ if int5d$ = *oice f9i%4 ,friz+ is an op]ation peculi> to ! mak+ ( *amois & glove lea!r4 ,x is done ) a v %>p knife1 simil> to ! fle%+ knife1 & on a m upright beam ?an t us$ by tann]s4 ,! "w requires great skill1 friz]s be+ among ! be/ paid work]s 9 ! trade4 ,friz+ done1 ! l9+s are fre$ f lime by wa%+ !m 9 ! drum tumbl]1 or paddle-vat1 ?r\gh :i* cold wat] is all[$ to fl[ cont9u\sly = two or ?ree h\rs4 ,:5 lamb sk9s1 :i* are too ?9 to split1 are made into *amois lea!r1 ! gra9 is remov$ by friz+4 ,a quick & effective me?od ( delim+ is to treat ! sk9s 9 a weak solution ( lactic acid4 ,"s dress]s use a dr5* ( pea-fl\r or bran4 ,! mild acids produc$ by ! f]m5tation ( ^! mat]ials n only neutralise ! lime b also r$uce ! gri/ly nature ( ! sk9s to a s(t1 supple condition4 ,! bran infusion is slightly w>m$ to ha/5 ! process ( f]m5tation1 b ! temp]ature mu/ n exce$ #ajj ,f4 7#cb ,c474 ,! l9+s are !n r9s$ 9 cold wat] & s5t to ! /ock+ ma*9es1 9 :i* !y are knead$ until !y become q s(t4 ,ei!r ! fall]-/ocks or ! me*anical pu%]s 7,fig4 #ad7 may be us$1 ! latt] be+ ! m mod]n ma*9e4 ,! op]ation may require f f\r to t5 h\rs1 ! completion be+ det]m9$ by ! condition ( ! sk9s4 ,samm+ foll[s /ock+1 & = ?is purpose ! l9+s are hung up 9 ! dry+ %$ until ?or\ghly dripp$1 b n dri$4 ,9 ?is slightly damp condition !y are !n prep>$ = ! next process ( oil+1 :i* is ! mo/ important "p ( *amois-dress+1 z x conv]ts ! p]i%able raw l9+s into lea!r4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 cod oil 7g5]ally ,newf\ndl&7 is us$ exclusively1 & gives be/ results4 ,:ale & %>k liv]1 or m5had5 oils are (t5 us$ abroad4 ,! l9+s are plac$ 9 a tub or vat1 a few at a "t1 & oil is p\r$ ov] ea* lay] until a suffici5t numb] has be5 treat$ to fill ! /ock+ ma*9e4 ,! /ocks are run = half-an-h\r1 or until ! oil has p5etrat$ ! l9+s1 :5 !y are put back into ! vat1 :]e !y rema9 = ab\t an h\r4 ,!y are !n re-/ock$1 tak5 into ! %$ to samm1 re-oil$ 9 ! vat1 & /ock$ aga94 ,^! processes are repeat$ until ! sk9s are ?or\ghly impregnat$ ) ! oil1 :5 !y are dri$ 9 a w>m /ove4 ,! sk9s are n yet conv]t$ into lea!r1 :i* only occurs 9 oil-dress+1 aft] ! oxidation ( ! oil4 ,?is is effect$ by spontane\s heat1 ! dry oil$ sk9s be+ heap$ 9 boxes & cov]$4 ,/rict att5tion has to be paid to avoid ov]-heat+ ! sk9s1 :i* are turn$ ov] & *ang$ at int]vals4 ,:5 ! lea!r ceases to heat1 ! process is complet$4 ,x is !n dipp$ into hot wat] & me*anically press$1 to remove surplus or uncomb9$ oil1 :i* is collect$ & sold "u ! "n ( sod oil4 ,! lea!r is aft]w>ds drumm$ 9 w>m wat] & f9ely cleans$ 9 an alkal9e solution1 pota%1 soda1 or borax1 *iefly ! fir/ nam$1 be+ us$ = ?is purpose4 ,!y are !n r9s$ 9 wat]1 dri$1 damp$1 & s(t5$ by /ak+4 ,at ?is /age1 ! be/ sk9s are sort$ out = ! glove mak]s4 ,! o!rs are f9i%$ = wa%-lea!r by re-/ak+1 p>+ ) ! moon-knife1 & smoo?+ bo? sides ( ! sk9 ) a scurf]1 or f9e pumice-/one4 ,9 ! w>eh\se1 !y are damp$1 /ret*$ out1 pil$ up1 & kept fully ext5d$ by plac+ heavy weights ne> ! edges ( ea* pile ( sk9s4 ,,glov+ ,,lea!r ,progress 9 ! art ( mak+ lea!r = gloves has be5 rapid dur+ ! la/ few ye>s2 b fur!r important developm5ts are expect$1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! process ( tann+4 ,practically ! only me?od t has be5 us$ = _m decades = conv]t+ kid1 lamb1 & %eep sk9s into glov+ lea!r is t kn[n te*nically z taw+1 :i* consi/s ( treat+ sk9s ) alum1 salt1 egg-yolk1 fl\r1 & a vegetable oil4 ,^! sub/ances *ange sk9s into extremely supple & /ret*y lea!r1 b :5 ?is is made into gloves x is f> f ideal 9 we>1 because x fails to keep ! h&s w>m 9 cold1 wet wea!r1 x is easily soil$ & _c be clean$ )\t great exp5se1 & x is n v /rong 9 texture4 ,comb9ation tannages h lately be5 produc$1 h[ev]1 :i* remove ! defects ( alum$ lea!r4 ,by means ( a light *rome tannage aft] taw+1 ! lea!r is /r5g!n$ & made m resi/ant to wat]1 & c be clean$ ) a damp rag or sponge4 ,by tann+ sk9s ) ! =maldehyde process1 or ) ,n]adol1 ! artificial tann91 = mak+ into sude lea!r1 ! f9i%$ article is n only wa%able b also resi/s ! action ( alkalies & soap4 ,! adaptation ( comb9$ tannages 9 ! manufacture ( glov+ lea!rs has only lately be5 develop$1 & fur!r improvem5ts w d\btless be effect$ be=e long4 ,lamb1 kid1 goat1 & %eep sk9s con/itute ! raw mat]ial = glov+ lea!rs1 al?\gh de] & antelope sk9s are also us$ to a small ext5t4 ,real kid sk9s are ! be/ we>+ dress gloves1 b ! great majority ( s-call$ kid gloves are made ( lamb sk9s4 ,! raw kid & lamb sk9s are *iefly ( ,european1 ,arabian1 & ,indian orig94 ,%eep sk9s f ! ,cape provide ! raw mat]ial = a l>ge numb] ( m5's gloves1 & lea!r ( v good quality c be produc$ f ! be/ grades4 ,mo/ ( ! sk9s are pres]v$ by dry+1 or by salt+ & dry+1 al?\gh "s kid sk9s are wet-salt$ & pack$ 9 b>rels = export4 ,x w\ld save lea!r-dress]s a great deal ( tr\ble if !y c\ld always get wet-salt$ sk9s2 b ! object ( dry+ !m is to r$uce ! weight & l[] ! co/ ( freight4 ,soak+ is done by me?ods already describ$ 7p4 #fe74 ,loose fle% & pieces ( fat are cut (f 9 ord] to facilitate ! action ( ! depilitant1 ( :i* ! be/ = glove lea!r is und\bt$ly a pa/e ( lime & r$ ars5ic4 ,sev5 or eight p>ts ( lime to "o ( ars5ic is a satisfactory proportion1 ! quantities to be mix$ dep5d+ on ! numb] ( sk9s to be treat$1 z a fre% mixture %\ld be made = ea* lot1 or pack z ! tann] t]ms x4 ,! lime %\ld be well brok5 up1 or1 bett] /ill1 pure p[d]$ lime %\ld be us$ & ! r$ ars5ic well mix$ ) x2 a little wat] is !n add$ to slake ! lime gradually1 & ! mixture is /irr$ to promote *emical reaction4 ,! comp\nd is fur!r dilut$ ) wat] until x has ! "r consi/5cy & ! col\r has *ang$4 ,! reaction g5]ates great heat1 & ! pa9t %\ld1 !re=e1 n be us$ at once4 ,! fle% side is mopp$ ) ! pa9t & ! sk9s are fold$ fle% to fle%4 ,aft] a few h\rs1 or z soon z ! hair or wool is loos5$1 ! sk9s are dehair$ or dewooll$4 ,! hair or wool is n all[$ to come into contact ) ! depilitant1 o!rwise x w\ld be damag$4 ,9 l>ge y>ds1 ! :ite hair is sep>at$ f ! col\r$1 z x is wor? ne>ly twice z mu*4 ,wool is sort$ into diff]5t qualities1 ( :i* ! numb] may v>y f f\r to eight1 or ev5 n9e1 accord+ to ! class ( sk9s treat$4 ,! pelts are !n ?or\ghly wa%$ & plac$ 9 lime liquors1 :]e !y rema9 = "o or two weeks1 be+ haul$ & set 9 ! usual mann]4 ,fle%+ & piec+ or trimm+ are ! next op]ations1 & !n foll[s ! v important process ( pu]+1 :i*1 9 ! case ( glove lea!r1 mu/ be ?or\ghly done s z to r$uce ! pelts to a v s(t & flaccid condition4 ,success 9 ! mak+ ( glove lea!r dep5ds l>gely on ! pu]+ process4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ,engli% tann]ies a decoction ( dog manure is us$1 at a temp]ature n exce$+ #ij ,f41 b on ! ,cont95t ! artificial pu]1 oropon1 is pref]r$4 ,x is mu* saf] to use & m uni=m 9 its action ?an excrem5t1 :i* develops bact]ia rapidly 9 contact ) gelat9\s pelts1 & c\ld ultimately de/roy !m entirely4 ,aft] pu]+ !m1 ! pelts are well wa%$ & submitt$ to ! process ( dr5*+1 :i* consi/s 9 putt+ ! sk9s into a w>m infusion ( bran or pea-fl\r & leav+ !m cov]$ until ! foll[+ morn+4 ,! slightly acid f]m5tation causes ! pelts to rise to ! top ( ! vat4 ,!y are pu%$ into ! liquor aga9 ) a pole & /irr$ r\nd4 ,?is is repeat$ ?ree or f\r times to prev5t damage to ! gra94 ,! process is (t5 done 9 ! paddle-vat 7,fig4 #be71 9 :i* ! bran liquor is circulat$ = sev]al h\rs be=e ! pelts are all[$ to rema9 quiesc5t4 ,dr5*+ ?or\ghly purges ! pelts ( ! la/ traces ( lime1 & puts !m 9 suitable condition = be+ made into lea!r4 ,! pelts are !n r9s$ 9 tepid wat] & scudd$ on ! gra9 ) a slate or vulcanite tool1 %ap$ some:at l a dehair+ knife4 ,! scud remov$ consi/s ( dirt1 dissolv$ lime salts1 %ort hairs1 & pigm5t4 ,ma*9es are rapidly replac+ manual lab\r = ?is op]ation4 ,! alum tannage1 kn[n te*nically z taw+1 is l>gely us$ = kid & lamb gloves4 ,! taw+ mixture is compos$ ( alum1 salt1 egg-yolk1 & :eat5 fl\r4 ,! proportions us$ v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t tann]ies1 b ! foll[+ is a typical recipe3 #d lb4 alum1 #b lb4 salt1 #a lb4 salt$ egg-yolk1 or ! yolks ( tw5ty fre% eggs1 & #e lb4 fl\r = #ajj lb4 ( pelts4 ,! fl\r is made into a pa/e1 ! egg yolk is dilut$ 9 w>m wat] & mix$ ) ! fl\r1 ! salt & alum are dissolv$ & add$1 & ! mixture ?or\ghly /irr$4 ,a suitable quantity ( wat] 7ab\t #b gals4 p] #ajj lb4 pelts7 is !n plac$ 9 ! drum tumbl]1 ! taw+ mixture is add$1 & ! drum revolv$ = a few m9utes be=e putt+ ! pelts 94 ,! process is complet$ 9 two or ?ree h\rs 9 ! case ( ?9 sk9s4 ,x is a good plan1 h[ev]1 to leave !m at re/ 9 ! drum = a day1 aft] :i* !y are pil$ up ov]night to all[ fur!r comb9ation ( ! taw+ mat]ials ) ! fibres ( ! pelts4 ,! lea!r is !n dri$ out completely1 damp$ 9 clean sawdu/1 or by spr9kl+ ) wat]1 levell$ by %av+ if necess>y1 /ak$ ov] an upright knife fix$ 9 a wood5 /& or by ma*9e1 & dri$ 9 a hot /ove4 ,9 ?is condition1 or 9 ! cru/1 z dress]s t]m x1 ! lea!r is all[$ to rema9 sev]al weeks to age1 a mo/ ess5tial process = ! production ( s(t1 & supple glove lea!r4 ,dress+ & dye+ are begun z soon z ! lea!r is satisfactorily ag$4 ,! sk9s are uni=mly soak$ 9 w>m wat]1 dy$1 & re-dress$ ) egg yolk 7re-egg$71 to :i* a small quantity ( olive oil1 or a sulphonat$ oil1 is add$4 ,"s dress]s pref] to give ! second taw+ mixture be=e dye+1 b ! advantage ( dress+ ! lea!r aft] dye+ is t ! col\r is securely fix$4 ,9 re-egg+1 _m dress]s use a simil> mixture to ! fir/ dress+4 ,! dye+ process is ( great importance1 s9ce ! col\r mu/ be fa/4 ,! lea!r is dy$ ei!r 9 ! drum or on a convex table4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! lea!r is naturally col\r$ bo? sides1 :ile1 9 ! latt]1 x is /a9$ ) a bru% on ! gra9 side only4 ,/a9+ is ! m difficult me?od4 ,kid glove lea!r may be dy$ ) anil9e col\rs1 or1 z m g5]ally practis$1 ) natural dye-woods z a base & anil9e dye = top-col\r+4 ,! great advantages ( ! latt] me?od are economy 9 dye-/uffs & increas$ dep? ( col\r4 ,! sk9s are fir/ prep>$ = dye+ by bru%+ )1 or drumm+ !m 91 an alkal9e solution4 ,/ale ur9e 0 l>gely us$ = ?is process1 b ammonical salts are n[ g5]ally pref]r$1 if only = sanit>y reasons4 ,! sk9s are !n drumm$ or paddl$ 91 or bru%$ )1 dye-wood liquids :i* h be5 c>efully /ra9$4 ,a l>ge selection is available1 includ+ fu/ic1 cuba wood1 saffron1 pea*wood1 logwood1 sappan wood1 cut*1 ,p]sian b]ries1 gambi] or t]ra japonica1 & gold5 tan b>k4 ,light & m$ium br[n c be obta9$ f ^! dye-woods )\t ! aid ( anil9e col\rs2 b = d>k %ades1 & to increase ! brilliancy ( o!r col\rs1 a top dye or coal-t> dye is (t5 giv54 ,! natural dyes are fur!r develop$ ) /rik]s1 :i* ma9ly consi/ ( metallic salts4 ,iron1 copp]1 & z9c sulphates1 nitrate & acetate ( iron1 bi*romate ( pota%1 & titanium salts 7titanium lactate1 titanium potassium oxalate1 & tanno-titanium oxalate7 are ! mo/ important4 ,! lactate1 sold comm]cially "u ! "n ( cori*rome1 is especially suitable1 z1 unlike ! m9]al acid salts1 especially ! sulphates1 x has no de/ructive effect on ! fibres ( ! lea!r4 ,dye-woods are n[ conc5trat$ 9 ! =m ( a pa/e1 or dry extract1 ! latt] be+ ! m reliable4 ,!y are also v conv5i5t to use & dissolve1 :ile mixtures are1 ( c\rse1 easily prep>$4 ,a good tan %ade on ,cape %eep c be obta9$ by mordant+ ! lea!r ) a solution ( #a lb4 ( bi*romate ( pota% = e #ajj lb4 ( lea!r1 drumm+ x 9 #h-i lb4 ( pure gambi]1 & !n ) a mixture ( cuba wood extract1 #a lb42 fu/ic extract1 #c_/d lb42 ,brazil wood extract1 #a_/b lb42 & logwood extract1 #a_/b oz4 ,aft] drumm+ ! lea!r 9 ?is dye liquor = ab\t an h\r1 ! col\r is develop$ ) cori*rome4 ,if a d>k] %ade be requir$1 ! lea!r c be treat$ ) a suitable basic dye4 ,aft] dye+ ! lea!r1 "s dress]s only fat-liquor x ) egg-yolk & a small quantity ( olive oil1 :ile o!rs pref] to re-dress x ) a simil> mixture to t us$ = taw+1 namely1 alum1 salt1 egg-yolk1 & fl\r2 b1 :]e titanium salts are us$1 ! latt] me?od is n ess5tial1 because titanium has tann+ prop]ties4 ,:5 dry1 ! lea!r is ready = f9i%+1 b x is advisable to keep x 9 /ore = a few days be=e pack+ x 9 damp sawdu/ or spr9kl+ x ) wat] to prep>e x = ! op]ation ( /ak+4 ,any?+ m unlike lea!r w\ld be difficult to imag9e at ?is /age1 b1 aft] /ret*+ ! sk9 9 ! /ak+ ma*9e1 or by draw+ x ov] ! upright /ake1 ! dry1 /iff1 & %rivell$ lea!r is r$uc$ to a v supple condition4 ,! fle% side ( ! lea!r is !n p>$ ) ! moon-knife1 or 9 ! %av+ ma*9e1 to equalise ! ?ickness4 ,9 "s works1 a special tool :i* p>es ! lea!r on a flat table is pref]r$2 ?is p>ticul> op]ation is call$ dol+4 ,! fle% side is f9i%$ by fluff+ x on ! em]y or c>borundum :eel 7,fig4 #cc74 ,f9ally1 ! gra9 is bru%$ & poli%$ ) ! glass sleek]1 or iron$4 ,*amois lea!r has be5 l>gely us$ = gloves ( late ye>s1 b ?is lea!r has ! defect1 9 common ) sude lea!rs1 ( gett+ soil$ mu* m quickly ?an gra9 lea!rs1 su* z kid1 lamb1 or ,cape %eep4 ,nev]!less1 sude & *amois gloves are likely to rema9 fa%ionable to a m or less ext5t4 ,! manufacture ( *amois lea!r is describ$ on page #add4 ,sun-blea*$ sk9s are ! be/ = dye+1 especially if delicate %ades are want$4 ,! frontispiece %[s a field cov]$ ) sk9s blea*+ 9 ! sun4 ,*emically blea*$ lea!r is likely to become discol\r$ aft] dye+4 ,defective sk9s are (t5 dy$ ) pigm5ts 7du/ col\rs71 & ?is sy/em is also appli$ to sk9s :i* h to be dy$ su* delicate %ades z _c be produc$ by wood or anil9e col\rs4 ,al?\gh x gives attractive results to ! eye1 & c]ta9ly cov]s up any defects ( ! gra91 ?is me?od ( dye+ is n altoge!r satisfactory1 z ! lea!r rema9s unpleasantly du/y 9 we> = q a long "t4 ,! dye+ ( *amois ) wood-dyes or coal-t> col\rs is by no means easy1 b ?is me?od gives ! be/ results :5 successful4 ,! grease mu/ fir/ be remov$ f ! lea!r ) a solution ( #e lb4 ( borax or #c-a_/b lb4 ( soda = e #ajj lb4 ( lea!r4 ,if ! lea!r is /ill greasy on ! surface1 a fur!r quantity ( soda or borax is giv51 aft] :i* ! lea!r is well wa%$ 9 w>m wat]1 suma*$1 r9s$ to remove ! p>ticles ( suma*1 & mordant$ ) titanium salts4 ,! dye+ is !n done ) anil9es or wood-dyes1 or a comb9ation ( bo?1 & ?is is foll[$ by fat-liquor+ ) egg-yolk & a sulphonat$ oil4 ,! f9i%+ op]ations are /ak+ & fluff+4 ,to get a good1 fa/ black on *amois & sude lea!rs is "o ( ! difficult processes 9 ! lea!r trade1 al?\gh x is easi] to get a good black on alum$ or *rom$ lea!r ?an on vegetable-tann$4 ,alum$ lea!r is wa%$ 9 a solution ( borax or c>bonate ( ammonia to remove uncomb9$ dress+ 9 ord] to prep>e x = dye+4 ,*rome-tann$ sude lea!r does n ne$ ?is prep>ation4 ,! lea!r is fir/ mordant$ ) dye-wood extract1 ( :i* a suitable mixture is logwood & fu/ic1 or logwood & qu]citron1 9 ! proportion ( #d lb4 & #b lb4 to e #ajj lb4 ( lea!r4 ,aft] drumm+ ! lea!r 9 ?is solution = ab\t an h\r1 a weak solution ( copp]as 7f]r\s sulphate7 & blue/one 7copp] sulphate7 is add$1 & ! mill+ is cont9u$ = tw5ty m9utes1 :5 ! lea!r is well prep>$ to receive ! black dye4 ,in/ead ( ! iron & copp] salts1 cori*rome is (t5 pref]r$1 z x is q safe to use1 :]eas iron salts h a de/ructive action on ! fibres ( ! lea!r1 unless ! precaution be tak5 to mordant ! sk9s ) a good quantity ( dye-wood extract4 ,foll[+ ! application ( ! iron or cori*rome /rik]1 ! lea!r is dy$ ) suitable anil9e black 7lea!r black1 or corvol9e7 & f9ally fat-liquor$ to n\ri% ! lea!r1 & to fix & int5sify ! black4 ,?is recipe also gives good results :]e ! sk9s are dy$ only on ! fle% side1 ! solutions be+ appli$ ) a bru%4 ,,:ite ,,wa%able ,,lea!r ,among ! new k9ds ( lea!r = gloves1 none is m rem>kable or m useful ?an ! wa%able %eep or goat sk9s4 ,! great advantage ( ?is lea!r is t x c be wa%$ 9 w>m wat] & soap any numb] ( times )\t injury1 :]eas gloves ( ord9>y taw$ kid & lamb sk9s h to be dry clean$ & _c be r5ovat$ _m times4 ,an additional advantage ( wa%able lea!r is its w>m?4 ,aft] be+ dehair$1 pu]$ & dr5*$1 ! sk9s are drumm$ 9 a solution ( =maldehyde & soda4 ,9 two or ?ree h\rs1 ! sk9s are tann$1 & are !n treat$ ) a solution ( sulphate ( ammonia4 ,! quantities requir$ are ab\t #c lb4 ( =maldehyde 7#dj p] c5t47 & #h lb4 ( sodium c>bonate 7#hj p] c5t471 & #a lb4 ( sulphate = #ajj lb4 ( pelts1 us+ suffici5t wat] to cov] ! sk9s well 9 ! drum4 ,?is tannage produces a :ite b some:at ?9 & empty lea!r1 & ! fat-liquor+ mu/1 !re=e1 be fill+ & s(t5+4 ,an emulsion ( :ite curd soap & olive oil1 or ( egg-yolk & neatsfoot oil1 is suitable4 ,cre/anol1 a special prep>ation1 also gives satisfactory results1 s9ce x is adapt$ = giv+ n\ri%m5t & resili5cy to ?91 empty lea!r4 ,,fancy ,,lea!rs ,! be/ kn[n ( ! fancy lea!rs is morocco4 ,?is v>iety has be5 made = ages1 & ! "n probably orig9at$ f ! fact t v f9e lea!rs ( ?is k9d 7 manufactur$ 9 ,morocco a few c5turies ago4 ,hi/ory records t a simil> lea!r1 dy$ r$1 0 made 9 ! n9? c5tury be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! be/ morocco lea!r is made f ,cont95tal goat sk9s1 :i* are mo/ly obta9$ f ,c5tral ,europe & ,spa94 ,! ,norwegian goat sk9s are also said to be ( good quality = ! morocco f9i%4 ,an inf]ior morocco lea!r1 :i* is produc$ 9 l>ge quantities1 is manufactur$ f ,ea/ ,india goat sk9s1 :ile a *eap] grade /ill c be produc$ f c]ta9 classes ( ,ea/ ,india %eep sk9s4 ,! real moroccos are tann$ 9 suma*1 b ! *eap] sorts are tann$ 9 ,india ) babool or turw> b>k & re-tann$ 9 suma* 9 ! c\ntries to :i* !y are export$1 *iefly ,great ,brita91 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,am]ica4 ,"o ( ! be/ me?ods ( suma*-tann+ goat & calf sk9s is t kn[n z ! bottle tannage4 ,ea* sk9 is d\bl$ ov] & sewn by ma*9e r\nd ! edge1 leav+ "p ( ! neck unsewn4 ,! sk9s are !n turn$ inside out & fill$ ) a /rong infusion ( suma*1 & float$ 9 a tub conta9+ suma* liquor4 ,aft] be+ a few h\rs 9 ! tub1 ! sk9s are heap$ "o above ! o!r 9 a l>ge pile1 :]e ! pressure =ces ! tann9 ?r\gh ! sk9s4 ,! process c be complet$ 9 tw5ty to tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 aft] :i* ! sk9s are cut op51 r9s$1 & f9i%$ 9 ! usual mann]4 ,?is me?od ( tann+ is n[ l>gely replac$ by ! use ( paddle-vats 7,fig4 #be74 ,! dye+ & f9i%+ are some:at simil> to t ( col\r$ boot upp] lea!r1 except t ! lea!r is slightly oil$ on ! gra9 in/ead ( be+ fat-liquor$4 ,!re are sev]al diff]5t me?ods ( gra9+ morocco lea!r2 "s ( ! gra9s are made naturally by press+ ! lea!r1 :5 fold$ ov]1 ) a cork-cov]$ bo>d1 :ile o!rs are fir/ emboss$ 9 v>i\s ways & !n bo>d$4 ,! well-kn[n cru%$ morocco is produc$ by glaz+ ! gra9$ lea!r "u heavy pressure4 ,skiv]s1 ! gra9 splits ( %eep sk9s 7see p4 #ade7 are ext5sively us$ = fancy articles4 ,! majority are f9i%$ ) a smoo? gra9 = hat-b&s1 bookb9d+1 & l9+s4 ,! gra9 ( a %eep sk9 is1 naturally1 s(t1 & n v /rong4 ,to /iff5 & /r5g!n ! gra91 an artificial lay]1 consi/+ ( pa/e f9i%es1 is (t5 appli$4 ,sk9s f9i%$ 9 ?is mann] are t]m$ pa/e gra9 skiv]s4 ,^! are l>gely us$ = bookb9d+ & *eap purses4 ,%eep gra9s are sometimes giv5 a f9i% some:at simil> to t ( lea!r bags4 ,?is is produc$ 9 a pr9t+ ma*9e by means ( a copp] roll] :i* is run ov] ! damp 7b n too wet7 lea!r4 ,! sk9s are !n describ$ z long-gra9 skiv]s4 ,! gra9 surface ( %eep sk9s is p>ticul>ly suitable = emboss+1 & wond]ful imitations ( all k9ds ( sk9s c be reproduc$ on skiv]s4 ,! fancy lea!r trade is n conf9$ to ^! imitations1 h[ev]1 z real liz>d1 seal1 i*neumon1 alligators1 crocodile1 %>k1 porpoise1 snake1 & ev5 frog sk9s 7,japanese7 are utilis$4 ,,index ,acid ,swell+ ( ,hides1 #aai ,adult]at$ ,lea!r1 #aad ,age+ ( ,lea!r1 #aea ,alg>obilla1 #dc ,alum ,tannage1 #aej ,annatto1 #acf ,antelope ,lea!r1 #fc ,an?rax1 #bg1 #fi ,ars5ic ,sulphide1 #ga ,bablah1 #de1 #ajg ,babool1 #de1 #ajg ,b&-knife ,splitt+ ,ma*9e1 #ed ,b>k ,mill1 #ic ,b>komet]1 #ig ,bat+1 #hf ,belt+ ,lea!r1 #acc ,bir* ,b>k1 #ajf ---- ,t> ,oil1 #ajg ,blea*+ ,lea!r 9 ,sun--,frontispiece ,boot ,lea!r1 #acg ,bottle ,tannage1 #aeg ,borax1 #fd ,box ,lea!r1 #acg ,buff+ ,cyl9d]1 #ed ,butts1 #ie ,butyrate ( ,ammonia1 #he1 #abi ,butyric ,acid1 #he1 #abi ,canaigre1 #de ,cape ,%eep1 #aec ,cate*ol ,tann9s1 #df ,cau/ic ,soda1 #ff ,celav9a1 #dc ,*amois ,lea!r1 #ah1 #add ,*e/nut ,oak1 #cg ---- ,tree1 #cf ,*rome-quebra*o ,tan ,liquor1 #cb ,*rome ,sole ,lea!r1 #abe ---- ,tann+1 #ajh ,cod ,oil1 #ajj1 #abj1 #adf ,collodion1 #acf ,col\r+ ,pits1 #id ,comb9ation ,tannages1 #aaa ,cre/anol1 #aef ,cru/ ,lea!r1 #aea ,curry+1 #acc1 #ace ,cut*1 #df ,dehair+ ,hides1 #ga ---- ,knife1 #hj ---- ,ma*9e1 #hb ,dehydration1 #b ,depilatories1 #gh1 #adi ,dis9fection ( ,hides1 #b ,divi-divi1 #dc ,dol+1 #aec ,dress+ ,lea!rs1 #ajb ---- ( ,lea!r1 #aab ,dr5*+1 #hi ,dri-p$ ,lea!r1 #abi ,drum-tann$ ,lea!r1 #ajc ,drum ,tumbl]1 #ff ,dry+ ( ,lea!r1 #abc ,du/ ,col\rs1 #aed ,dye+1 #aab1 #aee ,dye-wood ,extracts1 #aci1 #aeb1 #aee ,ellagic ,acid1 #dg1 #aba ,enzymes1 #gb ,erod91 #hh ,evolution ( ,lea!r ,manufacture1 #a ,extracts1 #dg ,fall] ,/ocks1 #ff1 #adf ,fancy ,lea!rs1 #aef ,fat ,liquors1 #aci ,fellmong]+1 #ade ,f9i%+1 #aab1 #abb1 #abg ,flay+3 ,me*anical me?od1 #ba ----3 ,pim's me?od1 #bd ,fle%+ ,knife1 #hc ---- ,ma*9e1 #hb ,fluff+1 #abh1 #aec ---- ,ma*9e1 #abi ,foot & ,m\? ,disease1 #f ,=mic ,acid1 #bh1 #ff1 #he1 #ie1 #ajj ,freez+ ,hides1 #ga ,friz+1 #ade ,fu/ic1 #aeb ,gallotannic ,acid1 #df ,gambi]1 #dj ,glaz$ ,kid1 #acg ,glaz+ ,ma*9e1 #adc ,glov+ ,lea!r1 #adg ,goat ,sk9s1 #ae ,gold5 ,tan ,b>k1 #aeb ,greasy ,hides1 #ab ---- ,sole ,lea!r1 #ge ,hamm]+ ,lea!r1 #abc ,h&l]s1 #id ,h>ness ,lea!r1 #acc ,haul+ & ,sett+ ,limes1 #gg ,hemlock1 #dd ,hide ,m>kets1 #g ,hides & ,sk9s1 #e ----1 ,cur+1 #b1 #bf ----1 ,defects (1 #ai ----1 ,dis9fection (1 #b1 #bf ----1 ,horse1 #ag ----1 ,s\rces ( ,supply1 #e ,hyal9e ,lay]1 #fh ,hypod]ma bovis1 #cj ---- l9eatum1 #cj ,japanese ,:ite ,lea!r1 #c ,lactic ,acid1 #he1 #ie1 #ajj1 #abi1 #adf ,l>* ,b>k1 #de ,lay]s1 #id ,lea!r-work+ ,ma*9]y1 #eb ,lim+1 #ga ,l9+s1 #ade ,logwood1 #ach ,lysol1 #hd ,ma*9]y1 #eb ,mangrove1 #da ,m>seilles ,soap1 #adj ,mimosa1 #db ,m9]al ,tannage1 #ajh ,mix$ ,tannages1 #aja ,morocco ,lea!r1 #aef ,motor ,lea!r ,b&s1 #ajh ,myrobalans1 #ch1 #ic ,n]adol1 #ej ,oak ,b>k1 #cd ,oakwood1 #ce ,oropon1 #hg ,paddle-vat1 #adf ,p>*m5t1 #ade ,pickl$ ,%eep ,sk9s1 #aj ,pigm5ts1 #aed ,pig ,sk9s1 #ah1 #acf ,p9n+ ,lea!r1 #aba ---- ,ma*9e1 #aba ,porpoise ,laces1 #ai ,prep>ation ( ,hides = ,tann+1 #fc ,pu]9e1 #hh ,pu]+1 #aej ,pyrogallol ,tann9s1 #df ,quebra*o1 #cb1 #cg ,r$ ,ars5ic1 #ga1 #adi ,re$] ,splitt+ ,ma*9e1 #ade ,roll] ,lea!r1 #ac ,roll+ ,sole ,lea!r1 #abb ,r\nd+ ( ,sole ,lea!r1 #ie ,saddl]y ,lea!r1 #acc ,samm+1 #adf ,scudd+1 #hf ,seal ,sk9s1 #ai ,sett+1 #adb ,%av+ ,cyl9d]1 #ec ---- ,knife1 #ee1 #ef ---- ,ma*9e1 #ef1 #fa ,%eep ,sk9s1 #ab ,sk9s & ,hides1 #e ,skiv]s1 #ade1 #aeg ,sleek]1 #abh ,soak+ ,hides1 #fe ,sod ,oil1 #adg ,sole ,lea!r1 #ie ,soluble ,oils1 #aag ,/ak+ ,ma*9e1 #adc ,/]ilis+ ,hides3 ,seym\r-,jones's me?od1 #bh ,/ra9+1 #abh1 #adb ,/rik+-out1 #abh1 #acj ,/uff+1 #ace ,sude ,lea!r1 #aed ,sulphide ( ,sodium1 #ff1 #gf ,sulphonat$ ,oils1 #aag ,suma*1 #ch ,susp5d] ,pits1 #id ,syn!tic ,tann91 #di1 #ie ,tann]'s ,beam1 #fh ,tann+ ,extracts1 #dg1 #ib ,tann+ ,mat]ials1 #cb ---- ,processes1 #ib ,tan-y>d1 #id ,taw+1 #aej ,t]ra japonica1 #dj ,tick ,fev]1 #bg ,titanium ,salts1 #aeb ,tragasol1 #aag1 #acj1 #adj ,turkey ,r$ ,oil1 #ada ,turw> ,b>k1 #aef ,va*e ,sole ,lea!r1 #acb ,valonia1 #ce ,w>ble ,fly1 #bh ,wattle ,b>k1 #db ,weight$ ,lea!r1 #aad ,:ite ,wa%able ,lea!r1 #aee ,will[ ,b>k1 #de1 #ajf ---- ,calf1 #add ,wool ,sk9 ,dress+1 #ea ,,! ,,end ,pr9t$ by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,ba?1 ,engl&