,,! ,,wond] ,,book ,,( ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,e>?quakes ,illu/ration3 ,,m\nt ,,vesuvius ,,9 ,,eruption ,,! ,,wond] ,,book ,,( ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,e>?quakes ,,by ,pr(essor ,,edw9 ,j4 ,,h\/on1 ,ph4,d4 ,,new ,,york ,,fr$]ick ,a4 ,,/okes ,,company ,publi%]s ,copyright1 #aijg1 by ,,fr$]ick ,a4 ,,/okes ,,company ,all rights res]v$ ,octob]1 #aijg ,,ackn[l$gm5ts ,we take ?is opportunity ( ackn[l$g+ ! c\rtesy ( ! foll[+ publi%]s1 :o h help$ u 9 connection ) ! illu/rations ( ?is book3-- ,h5ry ,holt & ,company 7,physiography1 by ,roll9 ,d4 ,salisbury74 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company 7,figs4 #ac1 #ce1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de & #df1 ,volcanoes3 ,:at ,!y ,are & ,:at ,!y ,tea*1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,judd2 ,fig4 #ae1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell74 ,! ,am]ican ,book ,company 7,manual ( ,geology1 by ,james ,dwight ,dana74 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons 7,e>?quakes 9 ! ,light ( ! ,new ,seismology1 by ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton74 ,! ,cl>5don ,press 7,geology3 ,*emical1 ,physical1 & ,/ratigraphical1 by ,joseph ,pre/wi*74 ,,! ,,publi%]s4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,eruption ,,( ,,krakatoa ,,9 #ahhc #a ,,ii4 ,,"s ,,effects ,,( ,,! ,,eruption ,,( ,,krakatoa #ab ,,iii4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,isl& ,,( ,,hawaii #bf ,,iv4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,isl& ,,( ,,icel& #df ,v4 ,,vesuvius #eh ,,vi4 ,,o!r ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,m$it]ranean #gc ,,vii4 ,,orizaba1 ,,popocatepetl1 ,,ixtaccihuatl1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,mexico #he ,,viii4 ,,cosegu9a ,,& ,,o!r ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,c5tral ,,am]ica #ia ,,ix4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica #ig ,x4 ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates #aje ,,xi4 ,,! ,,cata/rophe ,,( ,,m>t9ique ,,& ,,! ,,volcanic ,,isl&s ,,( ,,! ,,less] ,,antilles #aag ,,xii4 ,,"s ,,o!r ,,not$ ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s #abe ,,xiii4 ,,jorullo1 ,a ,,"y ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9 #acj ,,xiv4 ,,mid-,,ocean ,,volcanic ,,isl&s #acg ,,xv4 ,,subm>9e ,,volcanoes #ada ,,xvi4 ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,volcanoes #adh ,,xvii4 ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,pa/ #aec ,,xviii4 ,,laplace',s ,,nebul> ,,hypo!sis #aeg ,,xix4 ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,heat$ ,,int]ior1 ,,! ,,cause ,,( ,,volcanoes #afe ,,xx4 ,,"s ,,=ms ,,( ,,lava #agh ,,xxi4 ,,mud ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,hot ,,spr+s #aic ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,moon #bjg ,,xxiii4 ,,e>?quakes #bai ,,xxiv4 ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,e>?quakes #bca ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,calabria ,,9 #aghc #bde ,,xxvi4 ,,! ,,great ,,lisbon ,,e>?quake ,,( #agee #beb ,,xxvii4 ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,cut*1 ,,india1 ,,9 #ahai #beg ,,xxviii4 ,,! ,,san ,,francisco ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,april #ah1 #aijf #bfb ,,xxix4 ,,"s ,,o!r ,,notable ,,e>?quakes #bfi ,,xxx4 ,,sodom ,,& ,,gomorrah ,,& ,,! ,,cities ,,( ,,! ,,pla9 #bha ,,xxxi4 ,,in/rum5ts ,,= ,,record+ ,,& ,,measur+ ,,e>?quake ,,%ocks #bij ,,xxxii4 ,,seaquakes #bif ,,xxxiii4 ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,e>?quakes #cjc ,,xxxiv4 ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,e>?quakes #cjh ,,xxxv4 ,,e>?quakes ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,pa/--,,cataclysms #cai ,,xxxvi4 ,,! ,,kimb]ly ,,diamond ,,fields ,,& ,,_! ,,volcanic ,,orig9 #cbf ,,xxxvii4 ,,! ,,fabl$ ,,cont95t ,,( ,,atlantis #cce ,,xxxviii4 ,,plato',s ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,atlantis #cdd ,,xxxix4 ,,nature',s ,,w>n+ ,,( ,,com+ ,,e>?quakes #cfd ,,full ,,page ,,illu/rations ,,page ,,mt4 ,,vesuvius ,,9 ,,eruption ,frontispiece ,,/ones ,,& ,,lava ,,?r[n ,,upw>ds--,,eruption ,,( ,,mokuawe[eo1 ,,hawaii1 ,,july #d-ba1 #ahii fac4 #cf ,,cotopaxi #ajb ,,! ,,lava ,,fl[ ,,( ,,! ,,crat] ,,( ,,kilauea1 ,,hawaiian ,,isl&s #ahd ,a ,,san ,,francisco ,,pavem5t ,,torn ,,by ,,! ,,e>?quake #bff ,,illu/rations ,,9 ,,text ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,! ,,sunda ,,isl&s #c #b4 ,,krakatoa ,,be=e ,,! ,,eruption #d #c4 ,,krakatoa ,,aft] ,,! ,,eruption #d #d4 ,,volcanic ,,du/ ,,z ,,x ,,appe>s ,,"u ,,! ,,microscope #ai #e4 ,,! ,,hawaiian ,,isl&s #bg #f4 ,,hawaii #bi #g4 ,,panorama ,,( ,,mokuawe[eo #ce #h4 ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,crat] ,,( ,,kilauea ,,f ,,! ,,volcano ,,h\se #ce #i4 ,,crat] ,,( ,,kilauea #dj #aj4 ,,sections ,,( ,,kilauea ,,at ,,diff]5t ,,p]iods #db #aa4 ,,icel& #dg #ab4 ,,! ,,m$it]ranean #ei #ac4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,di/rict ,,ar\nd ,,vesuvius #fj #ad4 ,,mt4 ,,etna #gg #ae4 ,,/romboli1 ,,view$ ,,f ,,! ,,nor?we/1 ,,april1 #ahgd #gi #af4 ,,mexico ,,& ,,c5tral ,,am]ica #hf #ag4 ,,s\? ,,am]ica #ih #ah4 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates #ajf #ai4 ,,panorama ,,f ,,! ,,mesa ,,at ,,! ,,edge ,,( ,,mt4 ,,taylor #aaj #bj4 ,,volcanic ,,necks1 ,,edge ,,( ,,mesa ,,at ,,mt4 ,,taylor #aaa #ba4 ,,! ,,less] ,,antilles #aah #bb4 ,,graham',s ,,isl&--,a ,,rec5t ,,volcanic ,,isl& #adc #bc4 ,,aleutian ,,isl&s #adf #bd4 ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,_w1 ,,%[+ ,,location ,,( ,,active ,,& ,,rec5tly ,,ext9ct ,,volcanoes #aej #be4 ,,volcanic ,,vesicles #ahc #bf4 ,,?read-,,lace ,,scori ,,f ,,kilauea #ahe #bg4 ,,?read-,,lace ,,scori ,,f ,,kilauea #ahe #bh4 ,,fro/-,,l ,,lava ,,cry/als #ahg #bi4 ,,fro/-,,l ,,lava ,,cry/als #ahg #cj4 ,,basaltic ,,columns1 ,,isle ,,( ,,cyclops1 ,,italy #ahh #ca4 ,,column> ,,& ,,non-,,column> ,,basalt #ahi #cb1 #cc4 ,,driblet ,,cones #aij #cd4 ,,lava ,,/alactites #aia #ce4 ,,crat] ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,geys] ,,( ,,icel& #bjb #cf4 ,,giant ,,geys] #bjc #cg4 ,,bee ,,hive #bjc #ch4 ,,bee ,,hive ,,geys] ,,( ,,icel& #bje #ci4 ,,heavy ,,/one ,,obelisks ,,twi/$ ,,by ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,,( #aghc #bbi #dj4 ,,circul> ,,holl[ ,,=m$ ,,by ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake #bci #da4 ,,section ,,( ,,circul> ,,holl[ ,,=m$ ,,by ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake #bci #db4 ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,,( #aghc #bdf #dc4 ,,fissures ,,caus$ ,,by ,,! ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake #bdi #dd4 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,di/rict ,,visit$ ,,by ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,cut* ,,( #ahai #beh #de4 ,,s9dree ,,be=e ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( #ahai #bei #df4 ,,s9dree ,,aft] ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( #ahai #bfj #dg4 ,,map ,,( ,,we/]n ,,coa/ ,,( ,,cali=nia ,,%[+ ,,position ,,( ,,san ,,francisco #bfc #dh4 ,,new ,,zeal& #bgd #di4 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,region ,,affect$ ,,by ,,! ,,*>le/on ,,e>?quake ,,( #ahhf #bgg #ej4 ,,syria #bhb #ea4 ,,complex ,,record ,,( ,,seismograph #bic #eb4 ,,long ,,di/ance ,,seismogram #bic #ec4 ,,vic5t9i ,,v]tical ,,p5dulum #bid #ed4 ,,vic5t9i ,,p5dulum ,,& ,,record] #bie #ee4 ,,davison',s ,,e>?quake ,,map ,,( ,,japan #cjf ,,! ,,wond] ,,book ,,( ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,e>?quakes ,,! ,,wond] ,,book ,,( ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,e>?quakes ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,volcanic ,,eruption ,,( ,,krakatoa ,,9 #ahhc ,krakatoa is a little isl& 9 ! ,/raits ( ,sunda1 ab\t ?irty miles we/ ( ! isl& ( ,java1 & ne>ly ! same di/ance ea/ ( ! isl& ( ,sumatra4 ,x is un9habit$ & v small1 measur+ ab\t five miles 9 l5g? & less ?an ?ree miles 9 wid?4 ,its total area is only ?irte5 squ>e miles4 ,?is little piece ( l& made itself fam\s by :at took place on x dur+ ! mon? ( ,augu/1 #ahhc4 ,krakatoa is "o ( ! _m isl&s t =m ! l>ge isl& *a9 kn[n z ! ,sunda ,isl&s4 ,! mo/ important isl&s ( ?is *a9 are ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,sumbawa1 ,flores1 & ,c]am4 ,betwe5 ,sumatra & ,java1 ! l>ge/ two ( ^! isl&s1 !re is a *annel call$ ! ,/raits ( ,sunda t connects ! wat]s ( ! ,indian ,ocean ) ^? ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,! ,/raits ( ,sunda is an important piece ( wat] t =ms "o ( ! great highways to ! ,ea/4 ,%ipp+ is1 !re=e1 always to be f\nd 9 its wat]s4 ,z c be se5 by ! map1 ,krakatoa is n f> f ! ,equator1 be+ situat$ 9 lat4 #f #g' ,s4 & long4 #aje #bf' ,e4 f ,gre5wi*4 ,s9ce !re are ab\t sixty-n9e miles 9 e degree ( latitude1 ,krakatoa is ab\t #dbj miles s\? ( ! ,equator1 & is ab\t tw5ty-five miles f ,java4 ,java is "p ( ! ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 :i* includes ,java1 ,celebes1 ! ,spice ,isl&s1 & p>ts ( ,borneo & ,sumatra4 ,batavia1 ! pr9cipal seaport ( ,java1 ne> ! nor?we/ coa/1 is a great %ipp+ c5tre1 visit$ by vessels f ne>ly all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 no h>bor1 b is approa*$ f ! ocean by means ( a canal two miles 9 l5g?1 ! sides ( :i* are provid$ ) massive brick walls4 ,besides ,batavia1 :i* is situat$ ab\t "o hundr$ ,engli% miles ea/ ( ,krakatoa1 !re are _m small] t[ns or villages1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is ,anj]1 a ?riv+ seaport t[n1 :]e sail+ vessels obta9 _! supplies ( food & fre% wat]4 ,be=e ! eruption ( ,krakatoa1 ,anj] 0 provid$ ) a /rong1 /one ligh?\se4 ,java is especially not$ = its production ( c(fee1 9 :i* x is second only to ,brazil4 ,its area is ab\t ! same z t ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york4 ,java is "o ( ! mo/ d5sely populat$ p>ts ( ! _w1 conta9+ ne>ly f\r times z _m p z ! :ole ,/ate ( ,new ,york4 ,^! facts ab\t ! situation & surr\nd+s ( ,krakatoa are necess>y to an und]/&+ ( ! wond]ful ?+ t happ5$ on x dur+ ! mon? ( ,augu/1 #ahhc4 ,9 t mon? ,krakatoa suff]$ a mo/ trem5d\s explosive volcanic eruption1 = x is a volcano4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,! ,,sunda ,,isl&s ,a volcano is a m\nta9 or hill1 g5]ally conical 9 %ape1 hav+ at ! top a ne>ly c5tral op5+1 call$ a crat]1 f :i* at times melt$ rock & lava1 vapor & gases escape4 ,! lava ei!r fl[s d[n ! side ( ! m\nta9 9 a liquid condition1 or is ?r[n upw>ds into ! air4 ,if ! di/ance ! lava is ?r[n upw>ds is suffici5tly great ! melt$ matt] solidifies be=e x falls to ! e>?4 ,9 su* cases ! l>ge/ fragm5ts =m :at are call$ volcanic c9d]s1 ! small] pieces1 volcanic a%es1 & ! extremely small p>ticles1 volcanic du/4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! lava is ?r[n to a comp>atively small height1 x is /ill melt$ :5 x falls1 & is !n kn[n z volcanic drops or driblets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,krakatoa ,,be=e ,,! ,,eruption ,x is n surpris+ t ,krakatoa is a volcanic isl&1 s9ce x lies 9 "o ( ! mo/ active belts ( volcanic isl&s 9 ! _w1 & ne> ! coa/s ( ! mo/ active ( ^! isl&s2 i4 e41 ,java4 ,?is belt1 z %[n 9 ! map1 includes1 besides ! ,sunda ,isl& *a91 p>ts ( ,gilolo1 ,celebes1 ,m9danao & ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,^! isl&s lie betwe5 ,asia on ! nor?we/ & ,au/ralia on ! s\!a/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,krakatoa ,,aft] ,,! ,,eruption ,!re is no o!r "p ( ! _w )1 p]haps1 ! s+le exception ( ,japan1 :]e s _m active volcanoes are cr[d$ 9 s small a space4 ,! isl& ( ,java1 small z x is1 has ne>ly fifty volcanoes1 ( :i* at lea/ tw5ty-eight are active4 ,!y are situat$ 9 a l(ty range runn+ f ea/ to we/1 "s ( ! peaks ( :i* are m ?an #aj1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,volcanic eruptions are s frequ5t t ! isl& is seldom free f !m4 ,z w be se5 f ! map %[n 9 ,fig4 #b1 ,krakatoa consi/s ( ?ree gr\ps ( volcanic m\nta9s1 ! s\!rn gr\p giv+ ! "n ( ,krakatoa to ! isl&4 ,/rictly speak+1 ?is m\nta9 0 call$ ,rakata1 b z x is n[ g5]ally kn[n z ,krakatoa1 x w\ld be unwise to attempt to call x by any o!r "n4 ,! c5tral m\nta9 or gr\p ( m\nta9s is kn[n z ,danan1 & consi/s l>gely ( "p ( an old crat]4 ,! gr\p ( m\nta9s :i* lies ne> ! nor!rn end ( ! isl& 0 kn[n z ,p]boawatan4 ,f ! c5tre ( ?is latt] gr\p ( m\nta9s are sev]al old lava /reams consi/+ ( a v>iety ( lava resembl+ a d>k-color$ glass1 kn[n to m9]alogi/s z obsidian1 or volcanic glass4 ,al?\gh ,krakatoa 0 always a volcano1 yet betwe5 ! ye>s #afhj & #ahhc1 x 0 9 ! condition ( a sleep+ or ext9ct volcano4 ,!re _h be5 a sev]e explosive eruption 9 ! ye> #afhj1 t caus$ great loss ( life & prop]ty1 b ev] s9ce t "t all activity _h ceas$ & x seem$ t ! volcano w\ld nev] aga9 bur/ out4 ,9 o!r words1 x 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z a tru/wor?y1 s$ate1 quiet1 in(f5sive & p]fectly safe volcano1 t _h become ext9ct4 ,! long cont9u$ quiet ( ,krakatoa 0 brok5 on ! #bj? ( ,may1 #ahhc1 :5 ! inhabitants ( ,batavia on ! isl& ( ,java 7 t]rifi$ by noises l ! fir+ ( great guns1 t 7 fir/ he>d betwe5 t5 & elev5 o'clock 9 ! morn+4 ,^! noises 7 accompani$ by ! %ak+ ( ! gr\nd & build+s4 ,! sleep+ volcano ( ,krakatoa 0 evid5tly gr[+ re/less1 b no great damage 0 done & soon all 0 aga9 quiet4 ,! di/urbances 7 m]ely ! =]unn] ( ! t]rible eruption soon to foll[1 & confid5ce 0 soon re/or$4 ,b sudd5ly1 on ,sunday1 ,augu/ #bf?1 #ahhc1 almo/ )\t any fur!r w>n+s1 ,krakatoa bur/ into t]rible activity & began an explosive eruption t has nev] be5 equall$ 9 sev]ity 9 ! memory ( man4 ,t memorable ,sunday ( ,augu/ #bf?1 #ahhc1 came dur+ a season ( ! ye> kn[n z ! dry monsoon1 a "n giv5 ! season ( ! p]iodical w9ds f ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,batavia1 & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 greatly ne$$ ra91 = 9 ?is "p ( ! _w x seldom ra9s f ,april to ,octob]1 al?\gh ! air is v moi/ & damp4 ,= ?is reason ! beg9n+ ( ! wet season is always welcom$4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! rumbl+ s\nds ( ! approa*+ cata/rophe ( ,krakatoa 7 he>d 9 ,batavia1 ! p1 believ+ t ! noises 7 due to peals ( ?und]1 rejoic$1 = all ?\ght !y h]ald$ an e>li] sett+ 9 ( ! wet monsoon4 ,b :5 ! rumbl+ s\nds increas$ & reports 7 he>d l heavy artill]y1 x 0 cle> t ! s\nds 7 ! beg9n+ ( a volcanic eruption1 a ph5om5on ) :i* !y 7 only too well acqua9t$1 b1 z volcanic eruptions 7 f> f be+ uncommon 9 ,java1 no "o 0 v greatly fright5$4 ,b ?is "t ! noises increas$ to su* an ext5t t ! p became al>m$4 ,?r\gh\t ! night ! appall+ s\nds cont9u$ & 7 accompani$ by %ak+s ( ! e>? suffici5tly /rong to %ake ! h\ses viol5tly4 ,sleep 0 out ( ! "q4 ,_m ( ! p left _! h\ses & rema9$ all night 9 ! op5 air1 fe>+ ! %ocks w\ld br+ ! h\ses d[n ov] _! heads4 ,! morn+ in/ead ( h]ald+ ! dawn ( a beautiful tropical day1 ) its bright1 *e]ful sunlight1 br\ght ) x skies cov]$ ) gray cl\ds t completely hid ! sun4 ,! rumbl+ s\nds1 h[ev]1 _h decreas$1 & ! p 7 beg9n+ to congratulate !mselves t ! dang]s 7 ov]1 :5 sudd5ly1 ! sky grew d>k]1 & !re began a %[] ( a%es t soon cov]$ ! /reets & h\ses ( ! city4 ,ab\t sev5 o'clock on ! morn+ ( ,augu/ #bg?1 a mo/ trem5d\s cra% 0 he>d4 ,! sky rapidly became s d>k t x 0 soon necess>y to light ! lamps 9 ! h\ses ( ,batavia1 & "s ( ! neighbor+ t[ns 9 ! we/]n "p ( ,java4 ,9 addition to ?is ! air 0 fill$ ) vapor1 :ile e n[ & !n e>?quake %ocks 7 aga9 felt4 ,^! %ocks 7 accompani$ by t]rific noises l ^? produc$ by ! explosion ( heavy artill]y4 ,! noises rapidly increas$ 9 numb] & int5sity until !y produc$ a ne>ly cont9u\s ro>1 ! nature ( :i* x is almo/ impossible to describe s9ce x is probable t su* s\nds _h nev] be5 he>d be=e by man4 ,x is a curi\s fact1 :i*1 ,i believe1 has nev] be5 satisfactorily expla9$1 t 9 mo/ cases ! p 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! volcano1 z1 = example1 ^? on bo>d vessels 9 ! ,/raits ( ,sunda1 did n he> ! t]rific noises at all4 ,possibly !y 7 too l\d & simply gave a s+le inw>d impetus to ! drum ( ! e> & !n held x 9 position4 ,probably "s ( my read]s may rememb] t witty description giv5 by ,dr4 ,oliv] ,w5dell ,holmes ( an alleg$ ef=t made by all ! p ( ! _w to f9d out :e!r or n !re is a man 9 ! moon4 ,?is wond]ful plan 0 z foll[s3 ,c>eful calculations 7 made to asc]ta9 :5 x w\ld be ! same "t ov] all ! e>? s t all ! p ( ! e>? c\ld simultane\sly %\t at ! top ( _! voices4 ,9 ?is way x 0 hop$ t ! man 9 ! moon1 if !re 7 su* a p]son1 w\ld notice ! noise4 ,! /ory goes on to tell h[ :5 ! "t approa*$ = ! great exp]im5t1 & all 7 ready to %\t z l\d z !y c\ld1 t ea* p]son reason+ to himself or h]self1 t amid s great a noise no "o c\ld notice :e!r 8 or h] voice 0 omitt$1 det]m9$ to rema9 sil5t1 s z to be able to he> ! noise & ! bett] to obs]ve :at ! man 9 ! moon w\ld d :5 ! s\nd rea*$ him4 ,! result 0 t e p]son on ! e>? rema9$ sil5t & simply li/5$1 s t ! e>? 0 nev] s quiet be=e4 ,_h ,oliv] ,w5dell ,holmes1 or any o!r p]son conceiv+ ! witty idea1 liv$ dur+ ! "t ( ! great explosive eruption ( ,krakatoa1 on t memorable ,augu/ #bg?1 #ahhc1 he might h tak5 ! opportunity ( obs]v+ ! man 9 ! moon1 _h he n be5 fright5$ by :at 0 occurr+1 = c]ta9ly nev] be=e 7 su* trem5d\s or t]rify+ s\nds produc$1 = ^! s\nds1 z we %all see %ortly1 7 actually he>d = di/ances ( m ?an #c1jjj miles f ! volcano4 ,!re 7 two diff]5t k9ds ( waves produc$ 9 ! air by ! trem5d\s =ces at "w 9 ! eruption ( ,krakatoa2 namely1 atmosph]ic waves & s\nd waves4 ,! atmosph]ic waves %[$ _! pres5ce 9 ! air by means ( *anges produc$ 9 ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,n[1 :ile ^! *anges _c readily be felt by man1 yet _! pres5ce c be easily %[n by ! use ( in/rum5ts call$ b>omet]s4 ,!re are 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 build+s call$ meteorological obs]vatories1 t are provid$1 among o!r in/rum5ts1 ) record+ b>omet]s4 ,^! in/rum5ts caught ! great atmosph]ic waves t 7 produc$ by ! eruption ( ,krakatoa4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! a/\nd+ fact 0 le>n$ t ! waves />t+ f ! volcano travell$ no less ?an sev5 times ar\nd ! _w4 ,:5 we say a/\nd+1 x mu/ n be und]/ood t ! =mation ( su* waves 0 at all contr>y to ! kn[n laws ( physics4 ,on ! contr>y1 provid$ ! =ce ( ! eruption 0 suffici5tly great1 su* waves mu/ h be5 produc$ 9 ! great rial ocean4 ,! a/oni%+1 or wond]ful ?+1 0 t ! =ce sett+ up ^! waves 0 s great t x caus$ !m to move sev5 times ar\nd ! globe4 ,! atmosph]ic waves 7 s p[]ful t x w be wor? our :ile to describe !m 9 detail4 ,/>t+ f ! volcano ( ,krakatoa1 z a c5tre1 ^! waves mov$ outw>ds 9 all directions1 becom+ gradually l>g] & l>g] until !y rea*$ a po9t halfway r\nd ! globe1 or #ahj f ,krakatoa4 ,! waves did n1 h[ev]1 /op "h1 b cont9u$ mov+ onw>d1 n[ gr[+ small] & small] until !y rea*$ a po9t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 imm$iately opposite ,krakatoa4 ,su* a po9t on a globe is call$ an antipodal po9t4#a ,! waves did n /op at ?is po9t1 b aga9 advanc$ mov+ t[>d ,krakatoa1 gr[+ l>g] & l>g] until !y aga9 rea*$ a po9t halfway ar\nd ! globe1 or #ahj f ,krakatoa1 :5 !y aga9 cont9u$ mov+ b n[ cont9ually gr[+ small] & small]1 until !y rea*$ ,krakatoa4 ,"h !y aga9 began mov+ completely ar\nd ! globe1 & ?is 0 cont9u$ = z _m z sev5 times4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! waves ceas$ on ! sev5? "t ar\nd4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y1 probably1 kept on mov+ = _m additional times1 b !y 7 !n s feeble t ev5 ! s5sitive record+ b>omet]s 7 unable to detect _! pres5ce4 ,!re 0 ano!r k9d ( waves 9 ! atmosph]e t did n require b>omet]s = _! detection4 ,^! 7 ! s\nd waves1 & c readily be detect$ by ! human e>4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( ! great eruption ( ,krakatoa1 ! int5sity ( ! s\nds 0 s great t ! s\nds c\ld be he>d di/9ctly at di/ances ( sev]al ?\s& miles f ,krakatoa4 ,! s\nd waves s closely resembl$ ! explosion ( artill]y t at ,a*e51 a port on ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,sumatra1 #a1jgc miles f ,krakatoa1 ! au?orities1 believ+ t an attack 0 be+ made on ! port1 plac$ all _! troops "u arms to repel ! invad]s4 ,! s\nds 7 also di/9ctly he>d at ,bangkok1 9 ,siam1 a di/ance ( #a1dac miles f ! volcano4 ,!y 7 also he>d at ! ,*agos ,isl&s1 a gr\p ( isl&s situat$ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean ab\t #b1bfg miles f ,krakatoa4 ,two /eam]s at ,s+apore1 #ebb miles di/ant1 7 despat*$ to f9d ! vessel t 0 believ$ to be fir+ guns z di/ress signals4 ,! s\nds 7 di/9ctly he>d 9 p>ts ( ,s\? ,au/ralia1 #b1ajj miles di/ant1 & 9 ,we/]n ,au/ralia1 at #a1gjj miles di/ance4 ,b x w be unnecess>y to give any fur!r details ( ! great di/ances at :i* ^! s\nds 7 actually he>d4 ,x w suffice to say t !y 7 he>d z f> (f z ab\t #c1jjj miles4 ,x is difficult to picture to "o's self su* great di/ances4 ,assum+ ! greate/ di/ances to be 9 ! neighborhood ( #c1jjj miles1 x w\ld be z if a s\nd produc$1 say1 9 ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 or ,philadelphia1 0 s l\d t x c\ld be he>d 9 ,am/]dam1 ,london1 or ,p>is4 ,"s idea ( ! int5sity ( ^! s\nds c be _h f ! fact t 9 ,batavia1 :51 9 accordance ) usage1 a gun 0 fir$ f "o ( ! =ts at eight o'clock 9 ! morn+1 two h\rs be=e ! greate/ int5sity ( ! s\nds _h be5 rea*$1 ! s\nd ( ! gun c\ld sc>cely be he>d above ! cont9u\s ro>4 ,:ile1 ( c\rse1 ! pr9cipal reason ! s\nd waves 7 c>ri$ s f> 0 ! great =ce caus+ ! eruption1 yet ^! di/ances 7 increas$ by ! fact t ! explosion occurr$ 9 a region almo/ entirely surr\nd$ by great bodies ( wat]4 ,! waves c\ld1 !re=e1 be readily c>ri$ along ! surface ( ! sea4 ,_h !re be5 a high m\nta9 wall1 l ! ,&es ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 on "o side ( ! volcano !y w\ld probably h be5 %ut (f 9 ?is direction a %ort di/ance f :]e !y 7 produc$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,"s ,,effects ,,( ,,! ,,eruption ,,( ,,krakatoa ,besides ! s\nd waves 9 ! air1 !re 7 waves 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,sudd5ly1 )\t any w>n+1 ! p ( ,batavia 7 surpris$ by a huge wave t1 cross+ ! ,/raits ( ,sunda1 ent]$ ! %ip canal be=e ref]r$ to z connect+ ! city ) ! ocean1 &1 ris+ above ! brick wall1 p\r$ ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,al?\gh ,batavia 0 #ajj ,engli% miles f ,krakatoa1 yet aft] travell+ ?is di/ance ! wave 0 suffici5tly /rong to ent] ! city & flood its /reets ) wat] to a dep? ( sev]al feet4 ,=tunately1 ! loss ( life 0 small 9 ! city ( ,batavia1 b v great 9 ! surr\nd+ t[ns & villages4 ,! ocean waves v>i$ 9 height at diff]5t times ( ! eruption4 ,! greate/ 7 f fifty to eighty feet high4 ,j imag9e ! effect ( a wave twice ! height ( an ord9>y h\se4 ,! waves caus$ great damage to ! %ipp+ 9 ! neighborhood4 ,9 "o in/ance1 a vessel 0 c>ri$ "o & a half miles inl& & left on dry l& ?irty feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! total loss ( life by ! waves has be5 e/imat$ at #ce1jjj p2 besides ?is1 ( c\rse1 !re 0 a great am\nt ( prop]ty de/roy$4 ,! greate/ loss 0 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ,krakatoa4 ,gigantic waves swept ov] ! l[l&s ly+ ne> ! %ores ( ,sumatra & ,java1 :]e ov] areas sev]al miles 9 wid? ne>ly ev]y?+ 0 de/roy$1 ! h\ses1 trees1 & p be+ swept away & ! surface ( ! l& greatly *ang$4 ,! t[ns ( ,k>ang & ,anj]1 z well z num]\s small] villages1 7 almo/ completely de/roy$4 ,! seaport t[n ( ,anj]1 by f> ! mo/ important ( ! above t[ns1 0 almo/ completely swept away4 ,! heavy /one ligh?\se 0 s completely oblit]at$ t no traces ( its heavy /one f\ndations c\ld aft]w>ds be f\nd4 ,! ,rev4 ,phillip ,neale1 =m]ly a ,briti% *apla9 at ,batavia1 f ^: acc\nt ( ! eruption ( ,krakatoa "s ( ! above facts h be5 tak51 tells ( ! brave action ( ! keep] ( ! ligh?\se at ,anj]4 ,besides 8 "w z ligh?\se keep]1 to see t ! light 0 con/antly burn+ dur+ ! night1 he 0 *>g$ ) telegraph+ to ,batavia ! names ( all pass+ vessels4 ,on ! fateful morn+ ( ! great cata/rophe1 obs]v+ t ! sun did n rise1 he kept ! light ( ! ligh?\se burn+1 &1 not)/&+ ! dang] to :i* he 0 expos$1 cont9u$ at 8 po/ 9 ord] to s5d ^w to ,batavia ( ! pass+ ( an ,engli% /eam]4 ,:ile do+ ?is ! ligh?\se 0 swept away & ! brave man p]i%$4 ,! foll[+ v]bal acc\nt ( ! de/ruction ( ! port ( ,anj] 0 giv5 by a ,dut* pilot /ation$ at ,anj]4 ,?is description is quot$ by ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,neale f an article prep>$ by him = publication 9 ,! ,leisure ,h\r4 ,i h liv$ 9 ,anj] all my life1 & little ?\ght ! old t[n w\ld h be5 de/roy$ 9 ! way x has4 ,i am gett+ on 9 ye>s1 & q expect$ to h laid my bones 9 ! little cemet]y ne> ! %ore1 b n ev5 t has escap$ & "s ( ! bodies h actually be5 wa%$ out ( _! graves & c>ri$ out to sea4 ,! :ole t[n has be5 swept away1 & ,i h lo/ ev]y?+ except my life4 ,! wond] is t ,i escap$ at all4 ,i c nev] be too ?ankful = su* a miracul\s escape z ,i _h4 ,! eruption began on ! ,sunday aft]noon4 ,we did n take mu* notice at fir/1 until ! reports grew v l\d4 ,!n we notic$ t ,krakatoa 0 completely envelop$ 9 smoke4 ,aft]w>ds came on ! ?ick d>kness1 s black & int5se t ,i c\ld n see my h& be=e my eyes4 ,x 0 ab\t ?is "t t a message came f ,batavia inquir+ z to explosive %ocks1 & ! la/ telegram s5t (f f u 0 tell+ y ab\t ! d>kness & smoke4 ,t[>ds night ev]y?+ became worse4 ,! reports became deaf5+1 ! natives c[]$ d[n panic-/rick51 & a r$1 fi]y gl>e 0 visible 9 ! sky above ! burn+ m\nta94 ,al?\gh ,krakatoa 0 tw5ty-five miles away1 ! concussion & vibration f ! con/antly repeat$ %ocks 7 mo/ t]rify+4 ,_m ( ! h\ses %ook s mu* t we fe>$ e m9ute w\ld br+ !m d[n4 ,!re 0 little sleep = any ( u t dreadful night4 ,be=e daybreak on ,monday1 on go+ out ( doors1 ,i f\nd ! %[] ( a%es _h comm5c$1 & ?is gradually increas$ 9 =ce until at l5g? l>ge pieces ( pumice /one kept fall+ ar\nd4 ,ab\t six ,a4 ,m4 ,i 0 walk+ along ! bea*4 ,!re 0 no sign ( ! sun1 z usual1 & ! sky _h a dull1 depress+ look4 ,"s ( ! d>kness ( ! previ\s day _h cle>$ (f1 b x 0 n v light ev5 !n4 ,look+ out to sea ,i notic$ a d>k1 black object ?r\gh ! gloom1 travell+ t[>ds ! %ore4 ,at fir/ sight x seem$ l a l[ range ( hills ris+ out ( ! wat]1 b ,i knew !re 0 no?+ ( ! k9d 9 t "p ( ! ,sunda ,/rait4 ,a second glance--& a v hurri$ "o x 0--conv9c$ me t x 0 a l(ty ridge ( wat] _m feet high1 & worse /ill1 t x w\ld soon break ^u ! coa/ ne> ! t[n4 ,!re 0 no "t to give any w>n+1 & s ,i turn$ & ran = my life4 ,my runn+ days h long gone by1 b y may be sure t ,i did my be/4 ,9 a few m9utes ,i he>d ! wat] ) a l\d ro> break ^u ! %ore4 ,ev]y?+ 0 engulf$4 ,ano!r glance ar\nd %[$ ! h\ses be+ swept away & ! trees ?r[n d[n on e side4 ,brea?less & exhau/$ ,i /ill press$ on4 ,z ,i he>d ! ru%+ wat]s beh9d me1 ,i knew t x 0 a race = life4 ,/ruggl+ on1 a few y>ds m br\ght me to "s ris+ gr\nd1 & "h ! torr5t ( wat] ov]took me4 ,i gave up all = lo/1 z ,i saw ) dismay h[ high ! wave /ill 04 ,i 0 soon tak5 (f my feet & borne inl& by ! =ce ( ! resi/less mass4 ,i rememb] no?+ m until a viol5t bl[ ar\s$ me4 ,"s h>d1 firm sub/ance seem$ )9 my rea*1 & clut*+ x1 ,i f\nd ,i _h ga9$ a place ( safety4 ,! wat]s swept pa/1 & ,i f\nd myself cl++ to a cocoanut palm-tree4 ,mo/ ( ! trees ne> ! t[n 7 uproot$ & ?r[n d[n = miles1 b ?is "o =tunately _h escap$ & myself ) x4 ,! huge wave roll$ on1 gradually decreas+ 9 height & /r5g? until ! m\nta9 slopes at ! back ( ,anj] 7 rea*$1 & !n1 its fury sp5t1 ! wat] gradually rec$$ & fl[$ back into ! sea4 ,! sight ( ^? rec$+ wat]s haunts me /ill4 ,z ,i clung to ! palm-tree1 wet & exhau/$1 !re float$ pa/ ! dead bodies ( _m a fri5d & neighbor4 ,only a m]e h&ful ( ! population escap$4 ,h\ses & /reets 7 completely de/roy$1 & sc>cely a trace rema9s ( :]e ! once busy1 ?riv+ t[n orig9ally /ood4 ,unless y g y\rself to see ! ru9 y w nev] believe h[ completely ! place has be5 swept away4 ,dead bodies1 fall5 trees1 wreck$ h\ses1 an imm5se muddy morass & great pools ( wat]1 are all t is left ( ! t[n :]e my life has be5 sp5t4 ,my home & all my belong+s ( c\rse p]i%$--ev5 ! clo!s ,i am we>+ are borr[$--b ,i am ?ankful en\gh to h escap$ ) my life & to be none ! worse = all t ,i h pass$ ?r\gh4 ,z is common 9 cases ( e>?quake waves a great depression 9 ! level ( ! sea occurr$ at places great di/ances f ,krakatoa4 ,= example1 at ! h>bor ( ,ceylon1 ! wat] rec$$ s f> t = ab\t ?ree m9utes ! boats 7 left high & dry1 & !n a huge wave c>ri$ !m ) x z x ru%$ ov] ! l&4 ,p]haps "o ( ! be/ evid5ces ( ! imm5se p[] ( ocean waves is to be se5 9 ! massive blocks ( :ite coral rock t 7 wa%$ up by ! waves1 on p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,java = di/ances ( f two to ?ree miles f ! ocean4 ,_m ( ^! blocks weigh$ f tw5ty to ?irty tons4 ,inde$1 "s ( !m rea*$ ! weight ( f =ty to fifty tons4 ,x is probable t ! isl& ( ,krakatoa & its neighbor+ small] isl&s =m$ portions ( a huge cone ab\t eight miles 9 diamet]1 t has be5 brok5 up at "s v remote b unkn[n "t by1 p]haps1 a great] cata/rophe ?an t ( ,augu/1 #ahhc4 ,9 ! ,/raits ( ,sunda ! wat] 0 rais$ fifty feet to eighty feet above ! ord9>y level1 & produc$ trem5d\s de/ruction especially on ! coa/s ( ,java & ,sumatra1 sweep+ away _m villages & dr[n+ _m ?\s&s ( p4 ,! wave _h a velocity ( progression ( ne>ly #djj miles p] h\r1 or eight times fa/] ?an an ord9>y express tra94 ,:5 x is said t ! velocity ( progression ( ! wave 0 ne>ly #djj miles p] h\r1 x is n meant t a body float+ on ! ocean1 su*1 = example1 z a %ip1 w\ld h be5 c>ri$ =w>d at ?is high velocity1 b w\ld m]ely rise & fall 9 a to-&-fro sw+ to ab\t ! height ( ! wave2 t is1 fifty to eighty feet accord+ to :at may h be5 ! height4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! s\nd waves ^! motions ( wat] cov]$ or pass$ ov] ne>ly all ! wat]s ( ! e>?4 ,! waves progress+ t[>d ! we/1 cross$ ! ,indian ,ocean rea*+ to ! coa/ ( ,h9do/an1 & ,madagasc>1 & sweep+ ar\nd ! s\!rn "p ( ,africa1 f9ally rea*$ ! coa/s ( ,france & ,engl&1 z well z ! ea/]n "p ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,sweep+ t[>ds ! ea/1 !y rea*$ ! coa/s ( ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 & cross+ ! va/ ,pacific ,ocean 7 felt at ,alaska & ! we/]n coa/s ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,b besides ! enorm\s waves caus$ by ! eruption1 !re 7 m>k$ *anges 9 ! level ( ! l&4 ,l>ge portions ( ! coa/ ( ,sumatra & ,java 7 almo/ annihilat$1 mu* ( ! orig9al surface ne> ! coa/ be+ subm]g$1 & places t 7 =m]ly dry l& are n[ cov]$ ) wat] to a dep? ( f #fjj to #ijj feet4 ,! enorm\s am\nt ( mat]ial ?r[n into ! air by ! =ces ( ! eruption is especially *>act]i/ic ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,su* quantities ( pumice /one & a%es fell f ! cl\ds t1 s9k+ 9 ! wat] & collect+ on ! b$ ( ! *annel1 !y *ang$ ! dep? ( ! wat]1 s z to r5d] navigation dang]\s4 ,inde$1 ! ,sebesi ,*annel1 ly+ on ! nor? ( ! isl& ( ,krakatoa 0 completely block$ by a huge bank ( volcanic mat]ial1 portions ( :i* project$ above ! wat]1 =m+ two small] isl&s4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 h s9ce be5 wa%$ away by ! waves4 ,we w n attempt to give at pres5t any explanations z to ! causes ( ?is great volcanic eruption1 s9ce ! diff]5t !ories z to ! cause ( volcanoes w be bett] und]/ood :5 o!r volcanic eruptions h be5 describ$4 ,x is suffici5t "h to say t if a l>ge quantity ( wat] %\ld h sudd5ly rea*$ a great mass ( molt5 rock1 frightful explosive eruptions w\ld h occurr$1 & if ! isl& 0 re/+ on a subm]g$ crat] its sudd5 disappe>ance may be expla9$4 ,ano!r great wond] connect$ ) ! explosive eruption ( ,krakatoa 0 ! enorm\s heights to :i* ! f9e du/ 0 ?r[n up into ! air4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t dur+ ! mo/ int5se ( ^! eruptions ! p>ticles rea*$ elevations ( p]haps m ?an tw5ty-five miles above ! level ( ! sea4 ,c>ri$ by ! w9ds1 ! f9e p>ticles rema9$ susp5d$ 9 ! air = _m mon?s1 & gave rise to magnific5t sunlight effects1 su* z e>ly dawn1 l5g!n$ twilights1 lurid skies1 & gorge\s sunsets ( a r$di% t9t4 ,!re 7 also caus$ curi\s haloes1 z well z gre5 & blue moons4 ,! f9e du/ p>ticles consi/$ ( m9ute cry/als ( feldsp> & o!r m9]als1 & :5 exam9$ "u ! microscope pres5t$ ! appe>ance %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,^! m9]al sub/ances p]mitt$ a portion ( ! light to pass ?r\gh !m1 ?us produc+ wond]ful optical effects 9 ! atmosph]e ei!r because !y act$ l m9ute prisms & s produc$ ra9b[ colors1 or because !y turn$ ! rays ( light out ( _! c\rse z to produce :at is call$ int]f]5ce by color effects ( a nature simil> to ! colors se5 9 "m-(-pe>l1 ra9b[ coal1 or 9 ! w+ cases ( _m beetles4 ,! explanations ( ^! ph5om5a are too difficult = a book ( ?is "*4 ,an explosive volcanic eruption is a v t]rify+ & wond]ful ph5om5on4 ,frightful ro>+ s\nds are sudd5ly he>d1 ! e>? %akes = _m miles ar\nd1 :5 sudd5ly a va/ quantity ( molt5 rock1 & sometimes huge /ones1 are ?r[n out ( ! crat] high up into ! air4 ,s great is ! =ce t ?r[s ^! mat]ials out ( ! op5+ t heavy masses ( rocks (t5 are eject$ v mu* fa/] ?an ! projectiles f ! l>ge/ guns t are us$ 9 any ( ! navies ( ! _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,volcanic ,,du/ ,,z ,,x ,,appe>s ,,"u ,,! ,,microscope ,z ! molt5 lava cools & falls 9 ! =m ( prodigi\s cl\ds ( a%es1 c9d]s & du/1 = _m miles ar\nd ! volcano1 ev5 ! light ( ! sun is obscur$1 & "o _c see ! h& be=e ! face4 ,"s ( ! mat]ials 9 ^! cl\ds are s light t !y rema9 susp5d$ 9 ! air = _m h\rs1 (t5 inde$ = _m days1 & sometimes ev5 = ye>s4 ,! heavi] p>ticles1 h[ev]1 soon beg9 to fall1 & be=e long ! e>?'s surface bo? ar\nd ! volcano1 & (t5 at consid]able di/ances f x1 is cov]$ ) a ?ick lay] ( a%es4 ,! s\nds accompany+ a volcanic eruption are (t5 t]rify+4 ,amid %ak+s & trembl+s ( ! e>?'s cru/1 kn[n z e>?quakes1 !re are occasionally he>d noises l ! explosion ( huge guns4 ,sometimes ^! s\nds foll[ "o ano!r s rapidly t !y produce an almo/ cont9u\s ro>4 ,?r\gh ! ro> ( ! explosion a curi\s crackl+ noise c be he>d1 due to ! fragm5ts ( /one hurl$ out ( ! crat] /rik+ aga9/ "o ano!r1 especially z ! /ones :i* are ?r[n out ( ! crat] & h comm5c$ to fall back aga9 to ! e>?1 are /ruck by o!rs t are /ill ris+4 ,imm5se quantities ( a%es1 /ones1 vapor & gases are ?r[n upw>ds = great di/ances into ! air1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 a lava /ream p\rs ov] ! l[e/ side ( ! crat]4 ,z ! column ( a%es & c9d]s rea*es its greate/ height 9 ! air1 x beg9s to spread outw>d on all sides1 rapidly gr[+ l a huge d>k mu%room4 ,?is soon %uts out ! light ( ! sun1 & f x %[]s ( r$ hot a%es & c9d]s fall to ! e>?4 ,x w\ld be extremely dang]\s to be on ! side ( ! volcanic m\nta9 dur+ an explosive eruption2 =1 ev5 %\ld y escape fall+ into an op5+ 9 ! side ( ! m\nta91 y might be kill$ by ! huge /ones t are con/antly fall+ on all sides ar\nd ! op5+1 or might be buri$ "u ! va/ %[]s ( r$ hot a%es t are p\r$ d[n f ! d5se cl\ds ov]hang+ ! m\nta91 or suffocat$ by cl\ds ( sulphur vapor t ru% d[n its sides4 ,:5 at a safe di/ance ! sight is c]ta9ly magnific5t4 ,!re is no light f ! sun4 ,all w\ld be 9 pit* d>kness b = ! r$di% gl>e ?r[n upw>ds by ! r$ hot lava1 by ! gl[+ %[]s ( a%es t are be+ ra9$ d[n on ! sides ( ! m\nta91 or by t]rific lightn+ fla%es1 due to ! dis*>ge ( ! imm5se quantities ( electricity produc$ by ! =ces ( ! eruption4 ,naturally a great volcanic eruption c cause a consid]able loss ( life & prop]ty4 ,:5 a l>ge lava /ream beg9s to fl[ d[n ! sides ( ! m\nta91 x _c be /opp$1 & %\ld x fl[ t[>d a village or t[n x is likely to de/roy ! t[n completely4 ,besides ?is1 ! vegetation ( ! c\ntry = _m miles ar\nd is de/roy$ by ! %[]s ( r$ hot a%es t fall f ! sky4 ,! h\ses ( neighbor+ cities are simil>ly ru9$ by ! great conflagrations ?us set up4 ,fur!r de/ruction is also caus$ by l>ge /reams ( mud t ru% d[n ! slopes ( ! m\nta91 or by huge waves set up 9 ! ocean4 ,if ! volcano is situat$1 z mo/ volcanoes are1 ne> ! coa/1 ! %[]s ( a%es & fall+ /ones may set fire to vessels 9 ! neighborhood1 or ! progress ( su* vessels may be s]i\sly ret>d$ by lay]s ( a%es or pumice /one t float on ! surface4 ,sometimes ^! lay]s are s ?ick z actually to br+ %ips to a complete /&/ill4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t volcanoes are 9 a con/ant /ate ( eruption4 ,on ! contr>y1 ne>ly all volcanoes1 aft] an eruption1 become quiet or inactive4 ,! air soon cle>s by ! a%es settl+1 & ! sunlight aga9 appe>s4 ,a cru/ =ms ov] ! surface ( ! lava1 :i* rapidly becomes h>d en\gh to p]mit "o to walk ov] x safely4 ,! vegetation1 :i* has be5 de/roy$ by ! hot a%es1 aga9 spr+s up1 &1 if ! volcano happ5s to be situat$ )9 ! tropics1 :]e !re is an abundance ( moi/ure1 ! l& soon aga9 becomes cov]$ by a luxuriant vegetation4 ,mo/ ( ! p1 :o h escap$ sudd5 dea? dur+ ! eruption1 return to ! ru9s ( _! h\ses2 = x is a curi\s fact t no matt] h[ great has be5 a volcanic eruption1 or h[ f>-rea*+ ! ru91 ! survivors1 z a rule1 d n appe> to hesitate to return to _! old neighborhood4 ,9 a few ye>s ! fields are re-cultivat$1 ! villages are rebuilt1 & ! p app>5tly =get !y are liv+ ov] a slumb]+ volcano1 :i* may at any "t aga9 bur/ =? 9 a dang]\s eruption4 ,a volcano t ?r[s out molt5 rock1 vapor & gases is kn[n z an active volcano4 ,an active volcano1 h[ev]1 is only correctly said to be 9 a /ate ( eruption :5 ! quantity ( ! molt5 rock1 lava or vapor x ?r[s out is greatly 9 excess ( ! ord9>y am\nt4 ,sometimes ! volcanic activity s greatly decreases t ! molt5 rock or lava no long] rises 9 ! crat]1 b1 on ! contr>y1 beg9s to s9k1 s t ! top ( ! lava 9 ! crat] is (t5 at a consid]able di/ance bel[ its edges4 ,! lava !n beg9s to h>d5 on ! surface1 &1 if ! "t is suffici5t1 ! h>d5$ "p ext5ds = a consid]able di/ance d[nw>d4 ,9 ?is way ! op5+ connect+ ! crat] ) ! molt5 lava bel[ becomes gradually clos$1 ! volcano be+ ?us %ut up1 or cork$1 j z a bottle is tightly clos$ by means ( a cork driv5 into ! op5+ at its top s z to prev5t ! escape ( ! liquid x conta9s4 ,x may s\nd que] to say t a volcano has its crat] s cork$ up z to prev5t ! escape ( ! lava1 b ! idea is nev]!less correct & helpful4 ,to realize ! size ( ^! huge volcanic corks "o mu/ rememb] t ! crat]s ( "s volcanoes are sev]al miles across4 ,a volcano ?us *ok$ or cork$ up is said to be ext9ct4 ,:5 we speak ( an ext9ct volcano we d n mean t ! volcano w nev] aga9 become active4 ,a volcano does n cease to erupt because !re are no m molt5 mat]ials 9 ! e>? to escape1 b simply because its cork or cru/ ( h>d5$ lava has be5 driv5 9 s tightly t ! *ances ( its ev] be+ loos5$ aga9 seem to be v small4 ,b small z ! *ances may seem we mu/ n =get t ! volcano may at any "t become active1 or g into its old bus9ess ( ?r[+ out mat]ials ?r\gh its crat]4 ,a volcano 9 an ext9ct condition is n unlike a /eam boil]1 ! safety valve ( :i* has be5 firmly fix$ 9 place4 ,if ! /eam cont9ues to be g5]at$ 9 ! boil]1 x is only a matt] ( "t :5 ! boil] w bl[ up1 & ! explosion w be all ! great] because ! safety valve did n all[ ! /eam to escape e>li]4 ,sometimes an int]m$iate class ( volcanoes call$ dormant is introduc$ betwe5 active volcanoes on ! "o h& & ext9ct volcanoes on ! o!r4 ,! "n dormant volcano1 or1 z ! ^w means1 sleep+ volcano1 is objectionable1 s9ce x might lead "o to ?9k t an ext9ct volcano is n sleep+ b dead1 & ?is is wrong4 ,s9ce ! plug ( h>d5$ lava 9 ! volcanic crat] is g5]ally at a mu* l[] level ?an ! top ( ! crat]1 ! crat] w soon become fill$ to a great] or less dep? ) wat]1 produc$ ei!r by ! ra91 or by ! melt+ ( ! sn[ t falls on ! top ( ! m\nta94 ,crat] lakes1 (t5 ( v great dep?s1 are common 9 ext9ct volcanoes4 ,( c\rse1 :5 an ext9ct volcano aga9 becomes active1 two ?+s mu/ happ5 if ! eruption is explosive4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! =ce ( ! explosion mu/ be suffici5tly great to loos5 ! /opp] or plug ( h>d5$ lava :i* /ops x4 ,9 do+ ?is ! mass is brok5 into a numb] ( fragm5ts t are ?r[n =cibly upw>ds into ! air4 ,aft] ris+ (t5 = great heights !y soon fall aga9 on ! sides ( ! m\nta94 ,b besides ! break+ up ( ! /opp]1 ! lake 9 ! crat] ( ! volcano is ?r[n out along ) ! c9d]s or a%es1 produc+ v de/ructive fl[s ( :at are call$ aque\s lava or mud /reams4 ,^! /reams fl[ d[n ! sides ( ! m\nta91 c>ry+ ) !m imm5se quantities ( bo? ! a%es ?r[n out dur+ ! eruption1 or ^? t h collect$ ar\nd ! sides ( ! crat] dur+ previ\s eruptions4 ,v frequ5tly1 ^! /reams ( aque\s lava produce great] de/ruction ?an ! molt5 lava4 ,if y h ev] wat*$ common ants at "w cle>+ out or enl>g+ _! und]gr\nd homes1 9 a piece ( smoo? gravel walk 9 y\r g>d51 y c =m "s idea :y ! m\nta9 imm$iately ar\nd a volcanic crat] is conical 9 %ape4 ,if ! colony ( ants happ5s to be fairly l>ge1 y c see an almo/ unbrok5 /ream ( ^! indu/ri\s little animals1 ea* be>+ 9 its m&ibles a small gra9 ( s& or gravel br\ght up f "s place bel[ ! surface4 ,c>ry+ x a %ort di/ance f ! op5+1 x ?r[s x on ! gr\nd1 rapidly return+ = ano!r load4 ,9 ?is way !re is heap$ up ar\nd all sides ( ! op5+ a pile ( s& or gravel1 ! outw>d slopes ( :i* gives ! pile a conical =m4 ,y h1 probably1 notic$ t ! /eepness ( ! slopes dep5ds on ! size ( ! gra9s2 = ! l>g] ^! gra9s ! %>p] or /eep] ! slopes1 ! v f9e gra9s produc+ flat m\nds or cones4 ,x is ! same ) a volcanic cone4 ,! mat]ials t are ?r[n upw>ds into ! air1 fall+ aga9 on ! m\nta91 collect ar\nd ! crat] on all sides1 ?us giv+ x ! *>act]i/ic cone-l %ape ( ! volcanic m\nta94 ,:]e no?+ occurs to di/urb ! =mation ( ! cone its height above ! level ( ! sea w gradually increase4 ,v frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 dur+ explosive eruptions1 a l>ge "p ( ?is cone w be bl[n away by ! =ce ( ! eruption only to be aga9 built up dur+ "s lat] eruption4 ,inde$1 9 ! case ( volcanic isl&s1 ! =ce ( a great volcanic eruption is sometimes s great t n only is a l>ge volcanic m\nta9 bl[n entirely away1 b a hole is left1 :]e x _h be5 /&+1 t ext5ds fur!r d[nw>ds bel[ ! level ( ! sea ?an ! top ( ! m\nta9 ext5d$ previ\sly above x4 ,! above are "s1 b by no means all1 ! wond]s att5d+ volcanic eruptions4 ,we %all ref] to o!rs 9 subsequ5t *apt]s 9 describ+ p>ticul> eruptions4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,volcanic ,,isl& ,,( ,,hawaii ,! volcanic isl& ( ,hawaii1 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl& *a91 is situat$ 9 ! mid ,pacific1 s\? ( ! ,tropic ( ,canc]4 ,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #e1 ?is isl& *a9 consi/s ( ,hawaii1 ,maui1 ,molokai1 ,oahu1 ,kauai1 ,nihau1 & ab\t eight l>ge isl&s1 toge!r ) num]\s small isl&s1 ext5d+ 9 a g5]al nor?we/ direction f ,hawaii to ,nihau1 a di/ance ( ab\t #djj miles4 ,l mo/ volcanic isl&s !y lie 9 m or less /raight l9es1 probably along fissures1 9 ?is case 9 two ne>ly p>allel l9es4 ,! isl& ( ,nihau1 h[ev]1 is an exception1 ! direction ( ! greate/ l5g? be+ almo/ /raight across ! two p>allel l9es4 ,! ,s&wi* ,isl&s lie #b1jjj miles f ,san ,francisco 9 deep wat]1 betwe5 #b1jjj & #c1jjj fa?oms1 or betwe5 #ab1jjj & #ah1jjj feet 9 dep?4 ,?is isl& *a9 consi/s ( great volcanic m\nta9s1 t _h1 at "o "t1 fifte5 active volcanoes ( ! fir/ class4 ,^! are n[ all ext9ct b ?ree1 & all ( ^! are on ! isl& ( ,hawaii4 ,9 8 report to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey = #ahhb-hc1 ,dutton /ates t ! summit ( ,mt4 ,haleakala on ,ea/ ,maui is #aj1cej feet above ! sea level4 ,oahu has peaks on its ea/]n side #b1ijj feet high1 & peaks on ! we/]n side #c1hej feet high4 ,! summit ( ,kauai is probably #f1bjj feet above ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,! ,,hawaiian ,,isl&s ,f ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,x c be %[n by deep-sea s\nd+s t all ^! volcanic piles are ! summits ( a gigantic m\nta9 mass t rises abruptly f ! b$ ( ! ,pacific4 ,!re are reasons = believ+ t ?is subm>9e *a9 cont9ues = _m hundr$s ( miles 9 ! same direction beyond ,kauai4 ,! ext9ct volcano1 ,haleakala1 on ,ea/ ,maui appe>s to h be5 9 eruption at a mu* lat] day ?an ,mt4 ,kea1 :i* is also an ext9ct volcano4 ,b ! natives h no traditions ( any eruptions4 ,! volcanoes on ! o!r isl&s h be5 ext9ct = a v long "t judg+ f ! ext5t ( _! erosion4 ,dutton is ( ! op9ion t ! we/]n isl&s ( ! *a9 h be5 ext9ct = mu* long] times ?an ! rema9+ isl&s4 ,! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 also kn[n z ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 are "o ( ! colonial possessions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! isl& ( ,hawaii is ab\t #b1jjj miles f ,san ,francisco4 ,honolulu1 on ! isl& ( ,oahu1 ! pr9cipal seaport ( ! *a91 has a pleasant climate1 & is an important coal+ /ation = w>%ips1 comm]cial vessels1 :al]s1 & trad+ %ips g5]ally4 ,! pr9cipal product ( ! isl& is sug> cane4 ,! isl& ( ,hawaii1 z %[n 9 map1 ,fig4 #f1 consi/s ( five volcanic m\nta9s & "s small coral reefs4 ,^! m\nta9s are3 ,mt4 ,kea1 on ! nor?1 #ac1hje feet 9 height2 ,mt4 ,haulalai1 9 ! we/ c5tral "p ( ! isl&1 #h1bgc feet 9 height2 ,mt4 ,loa1 9 ! s\? c5tral "p ( ! isl&1 #ac1fge feet 9 height2 ,mt4 ,kilauea1 tw5ty miles ea/ ( ! crat] ( ,loa1 #d1jdj feet high at ! ,volcano ,h\se1 & #d1aeh feet on ! highe/ po9t on ! we/1 & ,kohala1 #e1eje feet 9 height1 runn+ ?r\gh ! nor?we/]n "p ( ! isl&1 & ! ,kohala m\nta9s 9 ! nor?we/]n "p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,hawaii ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,( ^! m\nta9s1 ,mt4 ,loa & ,kilauea are ! only active volcanoes1 & are 9 frequ5t eruption4 ,mt4 ,haulalai 0 9 eruption dur+ #ahjd4 ,mt4 ,kea has n be5 active dur+ hi/orical times1 :ile ,mt4 ,kohala has be5 inactive = s long a "t t its slopes are deeply gulli$ :]ev] ! riv]s fl[ d[n !m4 ,z y c see f ! map1 ,hawaii is v l>ge4 ,x has a l5g? ( n9ety-?ree miles f nor? to s\?1 & a bread? ( eighty miles f ea/ to we/1 its area is ab\t #f1ejj squ>e miles4 ,) ! exception ( small pat*es ( coral reefs1 ,hawaii is =m$ entirely ( lava1 & is ! l>ge/ pile ( lava 9 ! _w ) ! s+le exception ( ,icel&4 ,:]e ! isl&s ( ! ,hawaiian *a9 h coral reefs ext5d+ (f _! coa/s1 excell5t h>bors are f\nd 9 ! deep wat]s betwe5 ! isl&s & ! reefs4 ,hawaii1 h[ev]1 has no ext5d$ reefs ( ?is "*1 &1 consequ5tly1 no fir/-class h>bors4 ,hilo1 on ! ea/]n coa/1 is ! be/ h>bor1 & is1 !re=e1 ! pr9cipal settlem5t4 ,a v brief exam9ation ( ! map ( ,hawaii w %[ y t !re are no riv]s on ! isl&1 except on ! sides expos$ to ! w9d1 t is1 on ! nor!rn & nor!a/]n slopes4 ,s9ce ! ye>ly ra9fall on ,hawaii is l>ge1 be+ 9 ! neighborhood ( a hundr$ in*es1 y w und]/& t consid]able ra9 wat] falls on ! isl&4 ,9 ^? p>ts ( ! isl& :]e x does n run (f ! surface x mu/ dra9 d[nw>d ?r\gh ! loose piles ( brok5 rocks or c9d]s4 ,a ra9fall ( "o hundr$ in*es a ye> means t if all ! ra9 :i* falls on ea* squ>e foot ( surface 0 collect$ 9 a flat vessel "o foot squ>e ) v]tical sides x w\ld fill ! vessel to ! dep? ( "o hundr$ in*es1 or ov] eight feet4 ,! dra9age ( ! ra9wat] d[nw>ds ?r\gh ^! p>ts ( ! isl&1 mu/1 !re=e1 be l>ge4 ,ano!r curi\s fact y c notice on ! map1 is t ! lava /reams ( ! pa/ fifty ye>s f ,mt4 ,loa indicat$ by heavy dott$ l9es1 9 no cases beg9 at ! crat]1 b />t at fairly consid]able di/ances f x4 ,lat] on 9 ?is *apt] we %all expla9 ! reason = ?is curi\s fact4 ,s9ce practically ! :ole ( ,hawaii has be5 =m$ f ! /reams ( lava t h fl[$ at "o "t or ano!r1 y c und]/& h[ great ^! fl[s mu/ h be54 ,b to d ?is fully y mu/ n only take into consid]ation ! portions ( ! isl& t lie above ! ocean & rea* into ! air at its greate/ height to #ac1hje feet above its surface1 y mu/ also rememb] t ?is m\nta9 rises f a deep ocean1 s t if all ! wat] 7 remov$1 y w\ld see ,hawaii t[]+ up above ! =m] level ( ! sea to ! height ( ab\t #ca1jjj feet1 or high] ?an ,mt4 ,ev]e/1 ! highe/ po9t on ! e>? above ! pres5t sea level4 ,?is w\ld be1 approximately1 five & eight-t5?s miles4 ,y c und]/&1 !re=e1 h[ great ! fl[ ( lava mu/ h be54 ,we %all beg9 ! description ( ,hawaii ) ! active volcano ( ,mt4 ,loa1 or1 z x is sometimes call$ 9 ,hawaii1 ,! ,:ite ,m\nta94 ,y w rememb] t ! eruption ( ,krakatoa 0 ( ! explosive type4 ,practically no melt$ rock or lava escap$ f ! crat]4 ,inde$1 if x _h escap$ x w\ld n h be5 se52 =1 n only ! cone ne> ! crat]1 b also mu* ( ! m\nta9 itself 0 bl[n completely out ( sight & cov]$ by ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! eruptions ( ,mt4 ,loa are ( an entirely diff]5t type4 ,9 ,loa !re are no explosions1 ! eruptions be+ :at are call$ ! non-explosive or quiet volcanic eruption type4 ,x w be necess>y to expla9 "s ( ! peculi>ities ( ?is k9d ( eruptions4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce 9 ! liquidity or ! ease ) :i* diff]5t k9ds ( lava fl[4 ,"s lava is v ?ick or viscid1 or is /icky l ?ick molasses or t>1 & !re=e fl[s v sluggi%ly4 ,o!r lava is ?9 or mobile1 m closely resembl+ wat] 9 ! ease ) :i* x fl[s4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( a volcanic m\nta9 ( fairly consid]able height1 :]e ! lava possesses m>k$ liquidity1 ! lava z x rises f great dep?s 9 ! tube ( ! volcano seldom fl[s ov] ! top or rim ( ! crat]4 ,?is is n because ! =ce t br+s ! lava up is unable to c>ry x a few ?\s& feet high]1 s t x c run ov] ! brim ( ! crat]1 b because ! walls ( ! volcanic m\nta9s are unable to /& ! great pressure :i* ! mass ( liquid lava ex]ts aga9/ _! sides4 ,x c be %[n t a column ( liquid lava #ejj feet high1 w ex]t a pressure on ! walls ( ! crat] ( ab\t #fbe p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,!re=e1 9 v high volcanic m\nta9s1 long be=e ! lava c rea* ! edge ( ! crat] & ov]fl[1 ! pressure becomes s great1 t cracks or fissures are made 9 ! sides ( ! m\nta91 ?r\gh :i* ! lava is quietly dis*>g$2 :51 ( c\rse1 ! level ( ! lava 9 ! crat] falls consid]ably4 ,9 volcanoes ( ! explosive type1 no matt] :at may be ! condition ( lava1 %\ld a l>ge quantity ( wat] sudd5ly f9d an entrance to a l>ge body ( molt5 lava at "s di/ance bel[ ! surface1 ! lava w\ld be sudd5ly ?r[n explosively into ! air1 :]e be+ *ill$1 x w\ld aft]w>ds desc5d 9 %[]s ( a%es1 c9d]s1 or volcanic du/4 ,9 "s volcanic m\nta9s su* z ,mt4 ,loa1 ! crat]1 in/ead ( be+ situat$ at ! top ( a conical pass ( a%es or o!r mat]ial1 consi/s ( a pit-l depression1 g5]ally occupy+ a level tract or pla9 at ! top ( ! m\nta94 ,?is pit is kn[n z a cald]a1 or caldron1 or :at y might1 p]haps1 call a huge kettle or boil]4 ,! pit has m or less v]tical sides t ext5d d[nw>ds = unkn[n dep?s to ! place f :i* ! lava comes4 ,! v]tical walls ( ! cald]a are n1 h[ev]1 smoo?1 b exhibit num]\s horizontal l$ges1 t m>k places :]e portions ( ! floor ( ! cald]a 7 situat$ at diff]5t times4 ,at ! bottom ( ! l>ge pit or cald]a on ! summit ( ,mt4 ,loa c be se5 ! level floor =m$ ( h>d5$ lava4 ,?is floor is surr\nd$ by v]tical walls on :i* c be se5 ! brok5 edges ( ! old lake b$4 ,capta9 ,dutton1 9 a pap] on ,hawaiian volcanoes1 prep>$ = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 & publi%$ 9 its ,f\r? ,annual ,report = #ahhb-hc1 ?us describes ! appe>ance at ! great crat] z x 0 9 #ahhb4 ,! summit ( ,mauna ,loa 7,mt4 ,loa71 is a broad & l>ge plat=m ab\t five miles 9 l5g? & f\r miles 9 wid?1 )9 :i* is sunk5 ! great cald]a call$ ,mokuawe[eo4 ,! di/ance f ! po9t :]e we fir/ rea* ! summit to ! br9k ( ! pit is ab\t a mile & a half4 ,! surface ( ! plat=m is mu* m rugg$ ?an ! slopes j asc5d$4 ,x is riv5 ) cracks1 & small faults1#b & piles ( %att]$ rock are se5 on e h&4 ,n[h]e is !re to be se5 ! semblance ( a c9d] cone4 ,d\btless _m eruptions h brok5 =? f ! v>i\s fissures on ?is summit1 b only "h & !re c insignificant traces ( su* cata/rophes be def9itely di/+ui%$4 ,! abs5ce ( fragm5tal ejecta 7brok5 rock t are ?r[n out7 is extraord9>y4 ,! %att]$ blocks1 slabs1 & spalls 7*ips7 :i* ev]y:]e cumb] ! surface appe> to h result$ f ! spontane\s %iv]+ & %att]+ ( ! lava %eets by _! own int]nal t5sions z !y cool$4 ,fig4 #g1 tak5 f ,dutton's report1 gives ! g5]al %ape ( ?is great cald]a4 ,dutton's description ( ! same is z foll[s3 ,! l5g? ( ! ma9 cald]a is a little less ?an ?ree miles & its wid? ab\t a mile & ?ree-qu>t]s4 ,its floor1 view$ f above1 appe>s to be compos$ ( a s]ies ( flat surfaces occupy+ two di/9ct levels1 ! high] ^u ! surface ( ! black l$ge1 ! l[] ly+ )9 ! l$ge4 ,^u ! we/]n side is a small c9d] cone /&+ close ^u ! bord] ( ! black l$ge4 ,x is ! only "o visible1 ei!r )9 ! cald]a or ^u ! surr\nd+ summit4 ,its height is ab\t #abe or #acj feet4 ,x 0 se5 9 op]ation1 ?r[+ up /eam1 clots ( lava1 & lapilli 7"s ( ! l>g] pieces ( fragm5t>y lava7 9 ! ye> #ahgh4 ,! only o!r div]sifications ( ! floor are _m cracks :i* trav]se x1 ! l>g] ( :i* are di/9ctly visible f above4 ,"s ( !m are consid]ably fault$4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 recogniz+ ! fact t ! :ole floor has be5 produc$ by ! s9kage ( ! lava b$s :i* once cont9u$ ov] ! entire ext5t ( ! depression1 _! und]sides hav+ be5 melt$ (f mo/ probably by ! fires b5ea?4 ,! lava b$s 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! br9k ^u ! summit plat=m we> ! aspect ( "s antiquity4 ,!y h become br[n & c>i\s by wea!r+1 &1 al?\gh no soil is g5]at$1 little drifts ( gravel are se5 "h & !re mix$ ) pumice4 ,s9ce ! cald]a 0 =m$ !re is no indication t ! lavas h any:]e ov]fl[$ its rim4 ,& yet x is a v /range fact t )9 a half mile1 & aga9 )9 a mile to a mile & a half1 lavas h be5 repeat$ly erupt$ )9 ! la/ =ty ye>s f ! summit plat=m1 & h outfl[$ at po9ts situat$ f #gjj to #ijj feet above ! level ( ! lava lake )94 ,traces may also be se51 at v>y+ di/ances back ( ! rim1 ( v _m eruptions 9 :i* ! rocks betok5 great rec5cy1 al?\gh no dates c be assign$ to _! occurr5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,panorama ,,( ,,mokuawe[eo ,f ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,crat] ,,( ,,kilauea ,,f ,,! ,,volcano ,,h\se ,f ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,dur+ 8 visit to ?is great pit1 ,capta9 ,dutton succe$$ 9 climb+ d[n ! almo/ v]tical walls on ! side ( ! crat]1 &1 rea*+ ! surface ( ! h>d5$ lake1 walk$ ov] x4 ,x mu/ h requir$ no little c\rage to ?us v5ture on ! ?9 floor ( a lake :i* he knew 0 fill$ to great dep?s ) r$ hot boil+ lava1 = he 0 walk+ ov] ! surface ( a slumb]+ volcano1 t might at almo/ any mom5t awak51 & op5+1 swall[ him & 8 companions4 ,?r\gh enorm\s cracks 9 ! floor1 he c\ld feel ! heat f ! molt5 mass1 :ile1 ?r\gh ! same op5+s came sugge/ive :iffs ( sulphur vapor4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( ?is m\nta91 on ,janu>y #bc;d1 #ahei1 ! light f ! gl[+ lava /reams 0 bright en\gh to read f9e pr9t at ,hilo1 a di/ance ( ?irty-five miles4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( #aheb1 a /ream ( :ite-hot lava 0 ?r[n up into ! air f "o ( ! fissures to a height ( f #cjj to #djj feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/ones ,,& ,,lava ,,?r[n ,,upw>ds--,,eruption ,,( ,,mokuawe[eo1 ,,hawaii1 ,,july #d-ba1 #ahii ,f a ,/]eograph1 ,copyright1 by ,und]wood ,und]wood ,:5 an eruption takes place 9 ,mt4 ,loa ! column ( lava sl[ly rises 9 ! crat]1 ?reat5+ to ov]fl[ its l[e/ edges1 b be=e ?is c take place ! pressure becomes s great t "s portion ( ! m\nta9 bel[ ! crat] is fractur$ & ! lava quietly escapes4 ,dur+ "s conditions ( ! m\nta9 e fifte5 or tw5ty m9utes a column ( highly gl[+ lava is %ot upw>ds l a f\nta9 to a height ( #ejj feet & ov]1 fall+ back into ! lake 9 fi]y spray4 ,unusual heights ( ^! /reams are g5]ally foll[$ by an eruption4 ,^! curi\s jets ( molt5 rock c]ta9ly _c be due to ! pressure ( high] columns ( lava1 s9ce ! crat] itself is ne> ! top ( a high pla94 ,!y are believ$ to be due to /eam =m$ by ! p5etration ( ! ra9 wat] t falls on ?is "p ( ! m\nta94 ,y c n[ und]/& :y ! lava /reams escap+ f ,mt4 ,loa z %[n on ! map1 9 ,fig4 #f1 d n beg9 at ! level ( ! crat]2 = ! dis*>ge ( ! lava does n take place ov] ! rim ( ! crat]1 b ?r\gh ! cracks or fissures =m$ fur!r d[n ! sides ( ! m\nta9s4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! fissures are limit$ to ! sides ( ! m\nta9 :]e !y c be se54 ,!y probably occur 9 _m places bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] on "s "p ( ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,! crevices t are =m$ 9 ?is mann] 9 ! sides ( ! m\nta9 v>y greatly 9 size1 "s be+ s n>r[ t ! lava sc>cely fl[s ?r\gh !m at all b simply fills up ! crevice1 h>d5s on cool+1 & m5ds ! cracks 9 ! m\nta9s1 9 ! way t a crack is m5d$ 9 a piece ( *9a by ! use ( glue or 9 a wall ( masonry by mort>4 ,?r\gh ! l>ge/ crevices or cracks1 h[ev]1 l>ge lava /reams may cont9ue to fl[ (t5 = sev]al weeks1 or ev5 long]4 ,sometimes1 especially t[>ds ! close ( ! eruptive fl[1 ! lava may escape disruptively1 s t small cones are =m$ along ! l9es ( ! fissures4 ,cones ( ?is "* are call$ lat]al cones1 & 9 ! case ( a volcanic isl&1 :]e ! lava fl[s out bel[ ! level ( ! wat]1 ! lat]al cones sometimes project above ! wat] & =m volcanic isl&s or dang]\s %oals t imp$e navigation4 ,:5 ! lava p\rs out ( a crevice 9 ! side ( ! m\nta91 a riv] ( molt5 rock ru%es d[n ! slopes1 at fir/ l a torr5t1 b on rea*+ ! m ne>ly level gr\nd1 x spreads out 9 great lava lakes or fields1 ! surface ( :i* takes on ! *>act]i/ic black appe>ance ( basalt1 a c]ta9 k9d ( glass1 = ! lavas ( ,mt4 ,loa are g5]ally basaltic4 ,aft] an eruption ! h>d5$ floor ( lava 9 ! cald]a1 be+ no long] support$ by ! liquid mass =m]ly bel[ x1 falls 91 leav+ a l>ge cavity ) only ! edges ( ! old floor cl++ to ! sides ( ! pit4 ,x w be int]e/+ to give a %ort acc\nt ( "s ( ! great lava /reams t h be5 p\r$ out at diff]5t times f ,mt4 ,loa4 ,9 ! great eruption ( ,augu/ #aa?1 #ahee1 ! lava escap$ ?r\gh fissures f two to ?irty in*es 9 wid?4 ,!n1 fl[+ 9 a cont9u\s /ream1 x did n /op until x 0 )9 five miles ( ,hilo4 ,9 ! eruption ( ,janu>y #bc;d1 #ahei1 ! lava /ream fl[$ t[>ds ! nor?we/ on ! ea/ side ( ,haulalai1 rea*+ ! sea 9 eight days4 ,! eruption ( ,m>* #bg?1 #ahfh1 0 *>act]iz$ by sev]e e>?quake %ocks1 "o ( :i*1 occurr+ on ! second ( ,april1 de/roy$ _m h\ses & produc$ huge fissures 9 ! e>?4 ,^! %ocks produc$ great e>?quake waves t rea*$ di/ant coa/s4 ,mt4 ,kilauea1 lies at a l[] level t[>ds ! ea/4 ,?is crat] is situat$ at #d1jdj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & is ne>ly #f1jjj feet bel[ ! cald]a on ! top ( ,mt4 ,loa4 ,fig4 #h1 tak5 f ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 ,f\r? ,annual ,report1 = #ahhb-hc1 %[s a view ( ,kilauea f ! ,volcano ,h\se4 ,dutton gives ! foll[+ description ( ! appe>ance ( ,halemaumau1 ! pit crat] or cald]a ( ,kilauea4 ,9 front ( u & "r b5ea? our feet1 ov] ! cre/ ( a ne>ly v]tical wall1 m ?an #gjj feet bel[1 is outspread ! broad floor ( ! f>-fam$ ,kilauea4 ,x is a pit ab\t ?ree & a half miles 9 l5g?1 & two & a half miles 9 wid?1 ne>ly elliptical 9 plan & surr\nd$ ) cliffs1 = ! mo/ "p inaccessible to human foot1 & v>y+ 9 altitude f a little m ?an #cjj feet to a little m ?an #gjj feet4 ,! altitude ( ! po9t on :i* we /& is ab\t #d1bjj feet above ! sea4444 ,! object ^u :i* ! att5tion is in/antly fix$ is a l>ge *aotic pile ( rocks1 situat$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! amphi!atre1 ris+ to a height :i* by an eye e/imate appe>s to be ab\t #cej to #djj feet4 ,f innum]able places 9 its mass volumes ( /eam are p\r$ =? & borne away to ! leew>d by ! trade w9d4 ,! color ( ! pile is int5sely black4444 ,ar\nd x spreads out ! slightly undulat$ floor ( ! amphi!atre1 z black z midnight4 ,to ! left ( ! /eam+ pile is an op5+ 9 ! floor ( ! crat]1 )9 :i* we behold ! ruddy gleams ( boil+ lava4 ,f num]\s po9ts 9 ! surr\nd+ floor cl\ds ( /eam issue =? & melt away 9 ! /eady fl[ ( ! w9d4 ,! vapors issue mo/ copi\sly f an area situat$ to ! "r ( ! c5tral pile1 & 9 ! s\!rn portion ( ! amphi!atre4 ,desolation & horror reign supreme4 ,! engirdl+ walls ev]y:]e h$ge x 94 ,b ^u _! summits1 & ^u ! receiv+ plat=m beyond1 are all ! weal? & luxuriance ( tropical vegetation height5+ ! contra/ ( ! desolation bel[4444 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,crat] ,,( ,,kilauea ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,fig4 #i repres5ts ! pit-l crat] ( ,kilauea z x appe>$ aft] ! eruption ( #ahhf4 ,"h1 z w be se51 !re are sev]al lakes ( lava1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* is kn[n z ,halemaumau4 ,! eruption ( #ahhf1 l all ! eruptions ( ,kilauea1 consi/$ ( ! escape ( ! lava f an op5+ on ! side ( ! m\nta9 bel[ ! crat]1 & a s9k+ 9 ( ! h>d5$ floor ( ! crat]4 ,! figure also %[s ! position ( ! ,new ,lake t lies ea/ ( ,halemaumau4 ,! ext5t & appe>ance ( ea* ( ^! lakes are con/antly *ang+1 bo? z to height & area4 ,dutton gives ! foll[+ description ( ! appe>ance ( ! lake ( lava1 & "s curi\s ph5om5a t occur on its surface4 ,he is describ+ ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! pool ( molt5 lava cov]$ z x is ) a h>d5$ black cru/3 ,! surface ( ! lake is cov]$ ov] ) a black solidifi$ cru/ %[+ a rim ( fire all ar\nd its edge4 ,at num]\s po9ts at ! edge ( ! cru/ jets ( fire are se5 sp\t+ upw>ds1 ?r[+ up a spray ( gl[+ lava drops1 & emitt+ a dull1 simm]+ s\nd4 ,! heat = ! "t be+ is n int5se4 ,n[ & !n a f\nta9 breaks out 9 ! middle ( ! lake & boils freely = a few m9utes4 ,x !n becomes quiet1 b only to r5ew ! op]ation at "s o!r po9t4 ,gradually ! spurt+ & frett+ at ! edges augm5t4 ,a bel* ( lava is ?r[n up "h & !re to ! height ( five or six feet1 & falls back ^u ! cru/4 ,pres5tly1 ne> ! edge1 a cake ( ! cru/ cracks (f1 & "o edge ( x b5d+ d[nw>ds desc5ds b5ea? ! lava1 & ! :ole cake disappe>s1 disclos+ a nak$ surface ( liquid fire4 ,aga9 x coats ov] & turns black4 ,?is op]ation is repeat$ edgewise at "s o!r "p ( ! lake4 ,sudd5ly a network ( cracks %oots ?r\gh ! entire cru/4 ,piece aft] piece ( x turns its edge d[nw>ds & s9ks ) a gr& commotion1 leav+ ! :ole pool a s+le expanse ( liquid lava4 ,! lake surges feebly = a:ile1 b soon comes to re/4 ,! heat is n[ insupportable1 & = a "t x is necess>y to )draw f ! imm$iate br9k4 ,x is v curi\s to ?9k ( cakes ( h>d5$ lava float+ on ! surface ( molt5 lava1 b1 ( c\rse1 ?is is j z natural z cakes ( ice float+ on ! surface ( wat]2 = a cake ( h>d5$ lava is1 z y w und]/&1 only a cake ( froz5 lava1 &1 be+ light] ?an ! molt5 lava1 mu/1 ( c\rse1 float on its surface4 ,! disappe>ance ( ^! cakes ( froz5 lava & _! remelt+ is /ill m curi\s1 & c be expla9$ z foll[s3 ,! froz5 or solidifi$ mass ( black basalt is a trifle light] ?an ! lava on :i* x is float+ only :ile its temp]ature is high1 & !re=e exp&$ by heat4 ,z soon z x cools1 its d5sity increases1 & :5 x becomes a little great] ?an t ( ! liquid lava1 x beg9s to s9k & soon disappe>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,sections ,,( ,,kilauea ,,at ,,diff]5t ,,p]iods ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,pr(essor ,dana1 :o has made a c>eful /udy ( ! ph5om5a ( ,kilauea1 %[s 9 ,fig4 #aj1 a cross section ( ,kilauea at diff]5t times4 ,be=e ! eruption ( #ahbc1 ! dep? ( ! crat] 0 f #hjj to #a1jjj feet4 ,at ! eruption ! bottom #fjj to #hjj feet1 mak+ ! dep? ( ,kilauea ov] ?is deep] c5tral "p ab\t #a1ejj feet4 ,! v>y+ dep?s at diff]5t dates are cle>ly m>k$ on ! draw+4 ,! eruptions ( ,kilauea g5]ally occur z foll[s3 ,fir/ !re is a sl[ ris+ ( ! lava 9 ! crat]4 ,?is ris+ cont9ues until ! pressure is s great t ! m\nta9 is ruptur$ at "s l[] place4 ,next a dis*>ge ( ! lava & a s9k+ to a level 9 ! conduit t w dep5d on ! position ( ! crevice4 ,!n a gradual fall+ 9 ( ! h>d5$ floor ( ! lake1 a portion ( ! horizontal walls rema9+ on ! sides ( ! cald]a4 ,! eruption ( ,kilauea1 h[ev]1 has n always be5 ( ! quiet type4 ,!re 0 an eruption 9 ! ye> #aghi t w\ld appe> to h be5 ( ! explosive v>iety4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt is giv5 by ,dana z tak5 f a hi/ory ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s by ! ,rev4 ,i4 ,dibble1 publi%$ 9 #ahdc3 ,! army ( ,ke\a1 a ,hawaiian *ief1 be+ pursu$ by ,kamehamoha1 7 at ! "t ne> ,kilauea4 ,= two prec$+ nights !re _h be5 eruptions1 ) ejections ( /ones & c9d]s4 ,! army ( ,ke\a set out on _! way 9 ?ree diff]5t companies4 ,! company 9 advance _h n proce$$ f> be=e ! gr\nd began to %ake & rock b5ea? _! feet1 & x became q impossible to /&4 ,soon a d5se cl\d ( d>kness 0 se5 to rise out ( ! crat]1 &1 almo/ at ! same in/ant1 ! ?und] began to ro> 9 ! heav5s & ! lightn+ to fla%4 ,x cont9u$ to asc5d & spread ar\nd until ! :ole region 0 envelop$1 & ! light ( day 0 entirely exclud$4 ,! d>kness 0 ! m t]rific1 be+ made visible by an awful gl>e f /reams ( r$ & blue light1 v>i\sly comb9$ ?r\gh ! action ( ! fires ( ! pit & ! fla%es ( lightn+ above4 ,soon foll[$ an imm5se volume ( s& & c9d]s1 :i* 7 ?r[n to a great height1 & came d[n 9 a de/ructive %[] = _m miles ar\nd4 ,a few ( ! =w>d company 7 burn$ to dea? by ! s&1 & all ( !m exp]i5c$ a suffocat+ s5sation4 ,! re> company1 :i* 0 ne>e/ ! volcano at ! "t1 suff]$ little injury1 & aft] ! e>?quake & %[] ( s& _h pass$ ov]1 ha/5$ on to greet _! comrades ahead on _! escape f s imm95t a p]il4 ,b :at 0 _! surprise & con/]nation to f9d ! c5tre company a collection ( corpses6 ,"s 7 ly+ d[n1 & o!rs 7 sitt+ upright1 clasp+ ) dy+ grasp _! wives & *ildr51 & jo9+ noses 7! mode ( express+ affection7 z 9 ! act ( tak+ leave4 ,s mu* l life !y look$ t at fir/ !y suppos$ !m m]ely at re/1 & x 0 n until !y _h come up to !m & h&l$ !m t !y c\ld detect _! mi/ake4 ,mr4 ,dibble adds3 ,a bla/ ( sulphur\s gas1 a %[] ( heat$ emb]s1 or a volume ( heat$ /eam w\ld suffici5tly acc\nt = ?is sudd5 dea?4 ,"s ( ! n>rators :o saw ! corpses1 affirm t ?\gh 9 no place deeply burnt1 yet !y 7 ?or\ghly scor*$4 ,z y w see 9 ,*apt] ,,xi1 ?is sudd5 & awful dea? due to highly heat$ air & du/ p>ticles1 caus$ ev5 a great] loss ( life 9 ! cata/rophic eruption ( ,pele1 9 ,m>t9ique on ,may #h1 #aijb4 ,by reason ( its situation at a l[] level on ! slopes ( ,mt4 ,loa1 ,kilauea 0 at "o "t ?\ght to be "o ( ! crat]s l[] d[n on ! slopes ( ,loa4 ,?is 0 ! op9ion ( ,pr(essor ,dana :5 he exam9$ ! di/rict 9 #ahdj4 ,s9ce ?is "t ! region has be5 m c>efully /udi$1 & ,mt4 ,loa & ,kilauea1 are n[ g5]ally reg>d$ z sep>ate & indep5d5t volcanoes1 nei!r ( :i* acts z a safety valve = ! o!r4 ,we %all n attempt 9 ?is *apt] to say any?+ conc]n+ ! s\rces or places f :]e ^! great supplies ( lava h be5 drawn4 ,?is w be left to "s subsequ5t *apt]1 aft] we h describ$ /ill o!r volcanoes4 ,! outl9es ( m\nta9s l ,mt4 ,loa or ,kilauea diff] greatly f m\nta9s l ,vesuvius2 _! slopes1 l ! slopes ( all o!r ,hawaii volcanoes1 h an incl9ation :i* does n exce$ #aj4 ,! lava /reams1 !re=e1 z !y fl[ d[n ! m\nta9s1 move m sl[ly ?an !y w\ld 7 ! slopes m precipit\s1 z 9 m\nta9s l ,vesuvius4 ,!re h be5 _m eruptions ( ,kilauea4 ,t :i* occurr$ 9 ! ye> #ahdj1 0 ( great magnitude 7see map1 ,fig4 #f71 & began 9 a fissure s\?we/ ( ! crat]4 ,! pr9cipal eruption1 h[ev]1 broke out ab\t twelve miles f ! sea coa/1 & ab\t tw5ty-five miles ea/ ( ,kilauea4 ,"h an enorm\s mass ( lava =m+ a /ream ne>ly ?ree miles wide rea*$ ! ocean at ,nanawale4 ,:5 an eruption takes place on ,mt4 ,loa ?r\gh a fissure at ! height ( #aj1jjj to #ac1jjj feet ! l5g? ( ! lava /reams is frequ5tly z great z tw5ty-five to ?irty miles4 ,(t5 ! lava ?\gh h>d5+ at ! surface w cont9ue to fl[ und]nea? ?r\gh huge tunnels1 ( :i* ! top & sides are compos$ ( solidifi$ p>ts ( ! same lava /ream4 ,aft] ! fl[ has ceas$ long holl[ tunnels (t5 rema94 ,if ! l[] end ( su* a tunnel conta9+ molt5 lava is mom5t>ily clos$1 ! pressure ( ! lava above may n only bur/ ?r\gh ! ob/ruction1 b may ev5 ?r[ ! lava upw>ds 9 jets #cjj to #gjj feet high4 ,probably mo/ ( y h se5 illum9$ f\nta9s :]e jets ( wat] are beautifully light$ up by diff]5t color$ electric lights plac$ bel[ !m4 ,su* f\nta9s1 h[ev]1 c b poorly comp>e ei!r 9 beauty or gr&eur ) ^! wond]ful lava f\nta9s1 common on ! slopes ( ,mt4 ,loa dur+ an eruption4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,volcanic ,,isl& ,,( ,,icel& ,! isl& ( ,icel& consi/s ( a numb] ( volcanic m\nta9s "s ( :i* are /ill active4 ,z c be se5 f ! map1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa1 ,icel& lies 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean1 imm$iately bel[ ! ,arctic ,circle1 ab\t #bej miles ea/ ( ,gre5l&1 & #fjj miles we/ ( ,norway4 ,its l5g? f ea/ to we/ is ab\t #cjj miles1 & its bread? ab\t #bjj miles1 its total area1 includ+ ! adjac5t isl&s1 be+ m ?an #dj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,7 all ! wat] remov$ f ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean1 x w\ld be se5 t ,icel& re/s on ! b$ ( ! ,atlantic1 on a subm>9e plateau or highl&2 =1 9 ?is "p ( ! ocean ! wat] is only f #a1ejj to #c1jjj feet deep4 ,?is subm>9e plateau ext5ds z f> z ,norway on ! ea/1 ,gre5l& on ! nor?1 & ! isl& ( ,jan ,may5 on ! nor!a/4 ,imm$iately nor? ( ! plateau ! ocean sudd5ly drops to a dep? ( #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,icel& ,t[>d ! s\? ! plateau ext5ds ) b few int]ruptions ?r\gh ! middle ( ! ocean to a %oal kn[n z ! ,dolph9 ,%oal1 z f> z lat4 #be ,n4 ,?is "p ( ! ocean1 :i* c only relatively be call$ a %oal1 is n g5]ally deep] ?an #i1fjj feet1 al?\gh 9 "s places ! wat] is m ?an #ab1jjj feet deep4 ,on ea* side ( ! ,dolph9 ,%oal ! wat] is mu* deep]1 be+ 9 places #ae1jjj feet on ! ea/1 :ile on ! we/ !re are dep?s z great z f #ag1jjj to #ba1jjj feet4 ,?is sunk5 plateau1 possibly includ+ ! %all[] plateau on ! nor?1 is believ$ by "s to be ! rema9s ( ! fabl$ cont95t ( ,atlantis1 to :i* we %all ref] 9 ano!r "p ( ?is book4 ,! coa/ l9e ( ,icel& is unbrok5 on ! s\!a/1 b ! rema9d] ( ! coa/ is deeply ind5t$ ) bays or fiords 9 :i* are _m excell5t h>bors4 ,icel& is liable to frequ5t e>?quake %ocks & volcanic eruptions4 ,f c>eful records t h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! isl&1 we le>n t s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! twelf? c5tury !re h practically nev] be5 int]vals long] ?an =ty ye>s1 & m g5]ally n long] ?an tw5ty ye>s1 9 :i* !re has n be5 a great e>?quake or a great volcanic eruption4 ,^! volcanic eruptions are (t5 v protract$4 ,= example1 "o eruption ( ! volcano ,hecla cont9u$ = six ye>s )\t ceas+4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ! great ,engli% geologi/1 writes z foll[s ab\t ,icel&3 ,e>?quakes h (t5 %ak5 ! :ole isl& at once1 caus+ great *anges 9 ! int]ior1 su* z ! s9k+ d[n ( hills1 ! r5d+ ( m\nta9s1 ! des]tion ( riv]s by _! *annels1 & ! appe>ance ( new lakes4 ,new isl&s h (t5 be5 ?r[n up ne> ! coa/1 "s ( :i* /ill exi/1 :ile o!rs h disappe>$1 ei!r by subsid5ces or ! action ( ! waves4 ,9 ! int]val betwe5 eruptions innum]able hot spr+s af=d v5t to ! subt]ranean heat1 & solfat>as dis*>ge copi\s /reams ( inflammable matt]4 ,! volcanoes 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! isl& are obs]v$1 l ^? ( ! ,phlegran ,fields1 ,italy1 to be 9 activity by turns1 "o v5t (t5 s]v+ = a "t z a safety valve = ! re/4 ,_m cones are (t5 ?r[n up 9 "o eruption & 9 ?is case !y take a l9e> direction1 runn+ g5]ally f s\!a/ to nor?we/4 ,! volcanic eruptions ( ,icel& belong = ! great] "p to ! fissure type4 ,dur+ a volcanic eruption 9 ,icel& ! gr\nd is split 9 fissures or cracks1 g5]ally p>allel to ea* o!r1 & v>y+ 9 wid? f a few in*es to sev]al y>ds4 ,^! fissures ext5d = great di/ances across ! c\ntry4 ,! lava quietly wells out along ! fissures n unlike ! way quiet spr+ wat]s fl[ f _! res]voirs4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,?4 ,?orodds51 ! ,icel&ic geologi/1 !re are two sy/ems ( fissures ext5d+ ?r\gh ,icel&1 f s\?we/ to nor!a/ 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! isl&1 & f nor? to s\? 9 ! nor!rn "p4 ,:]e two l9es ( fissures cross ea* o!r ! po9ts ( int]section may be especially active4 ,dr4 ,?4 ,?orodds5 arranges ! volcanoes ( ,icel& "u ?ree heads1 i4 e41 cone-%ap$ volcanoes2 lava cones2 & *a9s ( crat]s1 ! la/ be+ ! commone/4 ,out ( #ajg volcanoes exam9$ by him 9 ,icel&1 eight 7 ( ! ,vesuvian type1 or 7 built up ( lay]s ( lava & volcanic a%es2 sixte5 7 ( ! lava-cone type1 simil> to ,mt4 ,loa1 ( ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 & ! rema9+ eighty-?ree 7 ( ! type ( crat] *a9s4 ,! volcano ( ,snaefell ,jkul1 #d1gaj feet above ! level ( ! ocean1 is built up ( alt]nate lay]s ( lava & h>d5$ volcanic mud4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 a true cone-%ap$ m\nta94 ,! l>ge/ volcano 9 ,icel&1 ! ,dyngjufkll1 ) its imm5se crat] ( ,askja1 has an area ( "s tw5ty-five squ>e miles4 ,9 its =m x resembles ,snaefell4 ,volcanoes ( ! lava-cone type h be5 built up entirely ( lava & h a slight angle ( incl9ation4 ,^! volcanoes range 9 size f small hillocks to ! l>ge/ m\nta9s on ! isl&4 ,_! cones g5]ally /& on a base ( wide circumf]5ce & frequ5tly rise to great heights1 ! top be+ occupi$ by a cald]a1 or pit crat] l t on ,mt4 ,loa or ,kilauea4 ,volcanoes ( ! type ( *a9-crat]s foll[ ! natural fissures 9 ! cru/4 ,^! crat]s are g5]ally l[1 seldom be+ m ?an #cej feet high4 ,!re are also se5 9 ,icel& caldron-%ap$ depressions t h be5 =m$ by explosive eruptions4 ,"o ( ! be/ in/ances ( su* crat]s is ,viti1 on ! side ( ,mt4 ,krafla4 ,?is crat] 0 =m$ by ! sudd5 eruption ( ,may #ag?1 #agbd4 ,! lava sometimes quietly runs out ( ! entire l5g? ( ! fissure )\t =m+ any cone4 ,?is 0 ! case ( a great fissure kn[n z ! ,eldgja ,*asm4 ,"h ?ree lava /reams cov]$ an area ( #bgj squ>e miles4 ,z ! lava comes out ( ! fissures1 x g5]ally produces long ramp>ts ( slags1 & blocks ( lava t are pil$ up on ei!r side ( ! fissure4 ,sometimes a l9e ( l[ cones is built up4 ,^! cones consi/ ( heaps ( slag1 c9d]s1 & blocks ( lava4 ,_! crat]s are n r\nd$ z 9 ! case ( volcanoes ( ! ,vesuvian type1 b are oblong1 or h _! greate/ diamet] ext5d+ 9 a direction ( ! fissure4 ,icel&ic lava z x escapes f ! fissures is peculi> 9 t x is v viscid or pla/ic & c be readily drawn out into long ?reads t c be spun into ropes4 ,:5 su* lava runs d[n ! sides ( a /eep slope1 x (t5 splits on cool+ into sep>ate blocks4 ,:]e x runs ov] flat1 level gr\nd1 h[ev]1 x spreads uni=mly on all sides1 produc+ va/ level lava des]ts t are z flat z ! surface ( a well built floor4 ,!re are _m riv]s 9 ! nor? & ! we/ ( ,icel&4 ,n[1 z ! lava /reams fl[ out ( ! fissures !y ent] ! *annels ( ! riv]s s t ! /reams ( wat] mu/ f9d new pa?s to ! sea1 & ?is op]ation may be repeat$ aga9 & aga94 ,(t5 ! "t betwe5 eruptions is long en\gh to give ! riv]s opportunity to cut deep *annels or gorges 9 _! new *annels2 b on ! next escape ( ! lava ^! gorges & valleys are aga9 fill$ ) ! molt5 rock1 & ! riv]s mu/ beg9 _! *annel cutt+ all ov]4 ,y w note ! frequ5t use ( ! ^w ,jkul1 z ,snaefell ,jkul1 ,skapt> ,jkul1 ,orefa ,jkul1 etc4 ,! "n ,jkul means a l>ge mass ( ice1 or a m\nta9 t is cont9ually cov]$ ) sn[1 = example1 ,snaefell ,jkul1 is a beautifully %ap$1 sn[-cov]$ m\nta9 situat$ on a po9t ( l& on ! we/]n coa/ ( ! isl&1 ext5d+ out ne>ly fifty miles into ! sea1 betwe5 ! ,faxa ,fiord & ! ,briela ,fiord4 ,x is a v conspicu\s object1 be+ visible to pass+ %ips at consid]able di/ances f ! isl&4 ,orefa ,jkul is ! highe/ m\nta9 9 ,icel&4 ,skapt> ,jkul is "o ( ! active volcanoes ( ,icel&4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ,icel& has be5 =m$ entirely by lava ?r[n up f ! bottom ( a subm>9e plateau1 until x ext5d$ above ! surface ( ! wat]s4 ,to make an isl& entirely ( lava ) an area ( #dj1jjj squ>e miles1 mu/1 ( c\rse1 h requir$ _m cones or crat]s t cont9u$ to p\r =? lava = p]iods ( "t mu* long] ?an ^? dur+ :i* man has liv$ on ! e>?4 ,! surface ( ,icel& is f> f attractive4 ,! int]ior is practically a va/ lava des]t1 cov]$ ) sn[-clad m\nta9s or ,jkuls4 ,!re is no plant life except 9 m>%y l&s ne> ! coa/s1 & ev5 "h sc>cely en\gh grass is rais$ to fe$ ! few cattle & horses own$ by ! inhabitants4 ,!re is no agriculture1 ow+ to ! v %ort summ]s1 s t all gra9 is br\ght f ,europe4 ,e n[ & !n ! grass crop is de/roy$ by accumulation ( ,pol> ice on ! nor!rn & we/]n coa/s4 ,su* failures are always att5d$ by great fam9es1 :5 _m ( ! p die4 ,%\ld y ev] visit ,icel& y w\ld probably be surpris$ to he> ! p speak+ ab\t _! =e/s4 ,y might g ov] all ! coa/s ( ! isl& )\t see+ any?+ l>g] ?an a bir* bu%1 n mu* high] ?an six feet4 ,^! are :at ! ,icel&]s l to speak ( z _! =e/ trees1 & ,i suppose !re is no h>m done1 if "o only und]/&s j :at !y mean by trees4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ,icel& has practically no trees1 yet x has no difficulty 9 obta9+ a pl5tiful supply ( timb]1 s9ce 9 ! deep fiords or bays on ! we/]n & s\!rn coa/s !re c always be f\nd mu* drift timb] br\ght !re by ! ocean curr5ts f ! =e/s ( ,am]ica4 ,! pr9cipal t[n or settlem5t 9 ,icel& is ,reykjavik1 ! capital ( ! isl&1 on ! s\?we/]n coa/2 ?is is ! *ief trad+ place on ! isl&4 ,?+valla is also an important t[n4 ,! lavas t =m ! entire mass ( ,icel& 7 ?r[n out bo? be=e & s9ce ! glacial age4 ,x is ! op9ion ( ,geikie t ^! outfl[s h cont9u$ un9t]rupt$ly s9ce t age to ! pres5t "t4 ,x is kn[n t ! lavas ( ,icel& 7 ?r[n out bo? be=e & aft] ! glacial age1 because dur+ ! glacial age1 deep cutt+s or groov+s 7 made on ! surface ( ! e>? by ! glaci]s z !y sl[ly mov$ ov] x4 ,n[ lava b$s conta9+ ! glacial scrat*es h be5 f\nd & re/+ on !m are o!r lava /reams4 ,! scrat*$ lavas mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 ?r[n out be=e ! glacial age1 & ! second lavas aft] t age4 ,let u n[ exam9e "s ( ! m active volcanoes ( ,icel& & _! eruptions4 ,we w beg9 ) ! well-kn[n volcano ( ,skapt> ,jkul4 ,! foll[+ description ( ?is volcano has be5 tak5 f a book on ,icel& by ,e4 ,h5d]son1 publi%$ 9 ,bo/on1 #ahca4 ,skapt> ,jkul lies 9 ! s\? c5tral "p ( ,icel& ab\t =ty odd miles f ! coa/4 ,x takes its "n f ! ,skapt> ,riv]1 d[n ^: *annel ! lava fl[$ its entire di/ance ( =ty miles f ! ocean4 ,skapt> ,jkul consi/s ( ab\t tw5ty conical hills ly+ along "o ( ! fissures t ext5ds f nor!a/ to s\?we/4 ,x appe>s f ,h5d]son's acc\nt t p liv+ 9 ! neighborhood ( ,skapt> ,jkul 7 greatly al>m$ by repeat$ e>?quakes t 7 felt at diff]5t times f ! fir/ to ! eigh? ( ,june1 #aghc4 ,^! e>?quake %ocks increas$ 9 numb] & viol5ce1 s t ! p left _! homes & await$ 9 t]ror ! com+ cata/rophe4 ,on ! morn+ ( ! eigh? a prodigi\s cl\d ( d5se smoke d>k5$ ! air1 & ! surr\nd+ l& soon became cov]$ ) a%es1 pumice1 & brim/one4 ,z is common ) eruptions 9 ,icel&1 t h be5 prec$$ by long p]iods ( re/1 ! heat produc$ by ! escap+ lava & ! sulphur\s gases1 melt$ su* quantities ( ice t great floods 7 produc$ 9 ! riv]s4 ,on ! #aj? ( ,june va/ torr5ts ( lava t _h be5 escap+ f ! crat]s ent]$ ! valley ( ! ,skapt> ,riv]1 & comm5c$ fl[+ ?r\gh its *annel4 ,imm5se quantities ( /eam 7 produc$1 &1 9 less ?an tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ! riv] 0 completely dri$ up1 = ! lava _h collect$ 9 ! *annel1 :i* 9 _m places fl[s betwe5 high rocks f #djj to #fjj feet 9 height & ne>ly #bjj feet 9 bread?1 & _h n only fill$ ! riv] to its br9k1 b _h ov]fl[$ ! adjac5t fields to a consid]able ext5t1 & fl[+ along ! cultivat$ banks ( ! riv] de/roy$ all ! f>ms 9 its pa?4 ,on ga9+ ! outlet1 :]e ! *annel ( ! ,skapt> em]g$ into ! pla91 x might h be5 suppos$ t ! burn+ flood w\ld h at once spread ov] ! l[ fields1 :i* lay imm$iately be=e x1 b1 contr>y to all expectations1 ?is fl[ 0 = a "t /opp$ by an imm5se unfa?om$ abyss 9 ! riv]'s b$1 into :i* x empti$ itself ) great noise4 ,:5 ?is *asm 0 at la/ fill$1 ! lava increas$ by fre% fl[s1 rose to a prodigi\s height1 & break+ ov] ! cool$ mass1 proce$$ s\? t[>ds ! pla94 ,9 ! meantime ! ?und] & lightn+1 toge!r ) subt]ranean ro>s1 cont9u$ ) little or no int]mission4 ,on ! #ah? ( ,june1 #aghc1 ano!r dreadful eruption ( r$ hot lava came f ! volcano4 ,?is fl[$ ) great velocity & =ce ov] ! surface ( ! cool+ /ream t _h be5 ?r[n out pr9cipally on ! t5? ( ! mon?4 ,float+ isl&s consi/+ ( masses ( flam+ rock 7 se5 on ! surface ( ! lava /ream1 & ! wat] t _h be5 bank$ up on bo? sides ( ! /ream 0 ?r[n into viol5t boil+4 ,9 ! meantime p liv+ along ! ,hv]fisfloit1 ! next l>ge/ riv] to ! ea/ ( ! ,skapt>1 _h n yet be5 visit$ by ! lava /reams4 ,x is true t _! vegetation _h be5 de/roy$ by %[]s ( r$ hot /one & a%es1 & t bo? atmosph]e & wat] 7 fill$ ) poison\s sub/ances4 ,! l& _h also be5 plung$ 9 utt] d>kness1 s t x 0 sc>cely possible at noonday to di/+ui% a %eet ( :ite pap] held up at ! w9d[ f ! blackness ( ! wall on ei!r side4 ,b ! molt5 lava /reams _h n yet rea*$ ! p ( ?is valley & !y hop$ t ! eruption w\ld soon be ov]1 & t ! lava fl[ w\ld cont9ue to foll[ ! ,skapt>4 ,on ! #c;d ( ,augu/1 h[ev]1 !y 7 al>m$ by see+ /eam escap+ f ! ,riv] ,hv]fisfloit1 & soon all its wat] 0 dri$ up1 & a fre% lava fl[ p\r$ d[n ^u !m4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,skapt>1 ! melt$ rock completely fill$ ! empty *annel to ! br9k1 & !n ov]fl[+1 cov]$ ! l[ gr\nds on bo? sides1 s t by ! n9? ( ,augu/ x _h rea*$ ! op5 & level c\ntry ne> its m\? & 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs spread itself = a di/ance ( ne>ly six miles across ! pla94 ,?is fl[ cont9u$ aft] ! end ( ,augu/1 &1 inde$1 ev5 z late z ! mon? ( ,febru>y1 #aghd1 :5 a new eruption took place 9 ?is "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,hecla1 ano!r well-kn[n volcano 9 ,icel&1 situat$ ab\t ?irty miles f ! s\!rn coa/1 consi/s ( ?ree peaks1 ! c5tral ( :i* is ! highe/4 ,its crat]s =m va/ holl[s on ! sides ( ^! peaks1 & at ! "t ( ! eruption 9 #agff 7 cov]$ ) sn[4 ,hecla is believ$ to h be5 an active volcano long be=e ,icel& 0 inhabit$4 ,no less ?an tw5ty-?ree eruptions h be5 record$ betwe5 ,a4 ,d4 #ajjd & ! great eruption ( #agff-fh4 ,volcanic hi/ory frequ5tly repeats itself4 ,!re _h be5 no great eruption ( ,hecla = a p]iod ( ab\t twelve ye>s1 & ! p liv+ 9 ! neighborhood 7 congratulat+ !mselves on ! belief t ! m\nta9 0 becom+ actually ext9ct1 & t !re=e !y ne$ n tr\ble !mselves ab\t eruptions4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 m f>see+1 po9t$ out ! fact t ! lakes & riv]s 9 ! vic9ity did n freeze1 & t ! am\nt ( wat] !y conta9$ 0 greatly decreas$4 ,! foll[+ description ( ! great eruption ( ,hecla t 0 rem>kable bo? = its viol5ce1 z well z = ! "t dur+ :i* x cont9u$1 is tak5 f ,sym+ton's ,sket*es ( ,f>oe ,isl&s & ,icel&3 ,on ! #d? ( ,april1 #agff1 !re 7 "s slight %ocks ( an e>?quake1 & e>ly next morn+ a pill> ( s&1 m+l$ ) fire & r$ hot /ones1 bur/ ) a l\d ?und]+ noise f its summit4 ,masses ( pumice1 six feet 9 circumf]5ce1 7 ?r[n to ! di/ance ( t5 or fifte5 miles1 toge!r ) heavy magnetic /ones1 "o ( :i*1 eight p\nds weight1 fell f\rte5 miles (f1 & sank into gr\nd /ill h>d5$ by ! fro/4 ,! s& 0 c>ri$ t[>ds ! nor?we/1 cov]+ ! l&1 #aej miles r\nd1 f\r in*es deep1 imp$+ ! fi%+ boats along ! coa/1 & d>k5+ ! air1 s t at ,?+ore1 #adj miles di/ant1 x 0 impossible to "k :e!r a %eet ( pap] 0 :ite or black4 ,at ,holum1 #aee miles to ! nor?1 "s p]sons ?\ght !y saw ! />s %9+ ?r\gh ! s&-cl\d4 ,ab\t mid-day1 ! w9d ve]+ r\nd to ! s\!a/1 convey$ ! du/ into ! c5tral des]t1 & prev5t$ x f totally de/roy+ ! pa/ures4 ,on ! #i? ( ,april1 ! lava fir/ appe>$1 spread+ ab\t five miles t[>ds ! s\?we/1 & on ! #bc;d ( ,may1 a column ( wat] 0 se5 %oot+ up 9 ! mid/ ( ! s&4 ,! la/ viol5t eruption 0 on ! #e? ( ,july1 ! m\nta9s1 9 ! int]val1 (t5 ceas+ to eject any matt]2 & ! l>ge /ones ?r[n into ! air 7 comp>$ to a sw>m ( bees clu/]+ ar\nd ! m\nta9-top2 ! noise 0 he>d l l\d ?und] =ty miles di/ant1 & ! accompany+ e>?quakes 7 m sev]e at ,krisuvik1 eighty miles we/w>d1 ?an at half ! di/ance on ! opposite side4 ,! eruptions are said to be 9 g5]al m viol5t dur+ a nor? or we/ w9d ?an :5 x bl[s f ! s\? or ea/1 & on ?is occasion m matt] 0 ?r[n out 9 mild ?an 9 /ormy wea!r4 ,:]e ! a%es 7 n too ?ick1 x 0 obs]v$ t !y increas$ ! f]tility ( ! grass fields1 & "s ( !m 7 c>ri$ ev5 to ! ,orkney ,isl&s1 ! inhabitants ( :i* 7 at fir/ t]rifi$ by :at !y consid]$ %[]s ( black sn[4 ,! l>ge/ volcano 9 ,icel& is ,dyngjufjoll4 ,?is has on its summit ! gigantic crat] ( ,askja1 "s tw5ty-five squ>e miles 9 area4 ,?is crat] is ( ! int]m$iate =m2 ! mo/ g5]al =m ( volcanoes on ! isl& consi/+ ( a numb] ( crat]s t closely foll[ fissures4 ,pr(essor ,john/rup1 9 a report to ! ,dani% ,gov]nm5t1 on ?is volcano1 /ates t ! valley ( ,askja has be5 gradually fill$ by repeat$ fl[s ( lava f enorm\s crat]s on ! edge ( ! m\nta94 ,9 _m places ! surface ( ! e>? is cov]$ ) bright r$ pumice /one t 0 ?r[n out dur+ an eruption ,m>* #bi?1 #ahge4 ,"s ( ^! crat]s are fill$ ) /eam t escapes ) an almo/ deaf5+ ro>4 ,! surpris+ feature ( ?is eruption 0 ! imm5se quantity ( pumice /one t escap$4 ,! volcanoes 9 ! ,nyvatus ,oraefi are entirely diff]5t4 ,?is b>r5 pla9 is ?irty-five miles 9 l5g? & ?irte5 miles 9 bread?4 ,sudd5ly on ! #ah? ( ,febru>y1 #ahge1 a volcano appe>$ 9 ! c5tre1 & f\r o!r crat]s 7 =m$ at subsequ5t dates4 ,! mass ( lava t 0 ?r[n out ( ^! op5+s has be5 e/imat$ at #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 or eighte5 times ! e/imat$ mass ( lava t has be5 emitt$ f ,vesuvius betwe5 #agid & #ahee4 ,?is lava is basalt4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,vesuvius ,! old ,greeks & ,romans _h b little k ( volcanoes4 ,!y only knew ! volcanic m\nta9s 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,"h !re are ?ree volcanic regions3--"o 9 ! neighborhood ( ,naples2 "o includ+ ,sicily & ! neighbor+ isl&s1 & ! o!r t ( ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago4 ,"s idea c be _h ( ^! ?ree regions f a map ( ! ,m$it]ranean %[n 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,! pr9cipal volcanoes are ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,/romboli1 & ,vulcano1 a m\nta91 by ! way1 t gave its "n to all volcanic m\nta9s4 ,9 ?is *apt] we w describe ! volcano ( ,vesuvius1 ! mo/ active1 ?\gh by no means ! l>ge/ ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,b1 be=e do+ ?is1 x w be well fir/ to describe briefly ! volcanic di/ricts surr\nd+ ,vesuvius4 ,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ac1 ?is di/rict includes ,vesuvius1 ,procida1 & ,is*ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,! ,,m$it]ranean ,is*ia is a small isl& measur+ ab\t five miles f ea/ to we/1 & ?ree miles f nor? to s\?4 ,!re 7 su* t]rific volcanic eruptions on ?is isl& long be=e ! ,*ri/ian ,era1 t sev]al ,greek colonies 7 =c$ to ab&on x4 ,a colony e/abli%$ long aft]w>ds1 ab\t #chj ,b4 ,c41 by ! k+ ( ,syracuse also _h to dep>t4 ,/rabo1 ! ,grecian geograph] 7born ab\t #fc ,b4 ,c471 /ates t1 accord+ to tradition1 t]rific e>?quakes occurr$ on ! isl& a little be=e 8 "t1 & its pr9cipal m\nta9 ?rew out l>ge quantities ( molt5 rock1 :i* fl[$ into ! sea4 ,at ! "t ( ?is eruption !re 7 e>?quake waves 9 ! sea1 ! wat]s ( :i* sl[ly rec$$1 leav+ l>ge portions ( ! bottom uncov]$1 & ru%+1 aft]w>ds1 viol5tly ov] ! l&1 caus$ great de/ruction4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is di/urbance1 s ,/rabo ass]ts1 t ! isl& ( ,procida 0 =m$ by be+ viol5tly torn f ,is*ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,di/rict ,,ar\nd ,,vesuvius ,! ,phlegran ,fields 0 a "n giv5 by ! anci5ts to "s ( ! l[l&s 9 ! neighborhood ( ,naples2 !y 7 believ$ to be "u ! special protection ( ! ,roman gods4 ,:5 ! frequ5t e>?quake %ocks %ook ^! fields1 ! ,roman p believ$ t conflicts 7 tak+ place betwe5 _! gods & slumb]+ giants conf9$ 9 ! regions bel[ ! surface4 ,x is m ?an probable t ,mt4 ,vesuvius has always be5 ! c5tre ( ^! volcanic di/urbances4 ,long be=e ! ,*ri/ian ,era1 h[ev]1 ,vesuvius1 or ,somma1 ! "n giv5 to ! old crat] t !n occupi$ ! summit ( ! m\nta91 _h be5 an ext9ct crat]4 ,inde$1 x _h be5 s quiet t ! p :o liv$ on its slopes did n appe> to "k !y 7 liv+ on ! slopes ( a slumb]+ volcano4 ,_! k ( volcanic m\nta9s mu/ h be5 v limit$1 = ?is m\nta9 ) ! huge pit at its summit _h all ! appe>ance ( a volcanic crat]4 ,:5 !y climb$ to ! top ( ! m\nta91 :i*1 ( c\rse1 !y frequ5tly did to look aft] ! v9ey>ds !y 7 cultivat+ on ! slopes1 & look$ d[n into ! deep pit f ! rocks on its edge1 !y c\ld see at ! bottom ( a great c5tral pit ?ree miles 9 diamet]1 a lake1 ) room "h & !re to enable "o to walk along its bord]s4 ,! walls ( ! precipice 7 cov]$ ) luxuriant v9es4 ,:5 we say t none ( ! p ev5 suspect$ t ,vesuvius _h ev] be5 9 a /ate ( eruption1 we mu/ except "s ( _! le>n$ m54 ,= bo? ,diodorus ,siculus1 a native ( ,sicily1 :o liv$ ab\t #aj ,b4 ,c41 & wrote an ,univ]sal ,hi/ory1 conta9+ "s =ty volumes1 ( :i* only ab\t "o-?ird rema91 & ,/rabo1 ! ,geograph]1 po9t$ out 9 a g5]al mann]1 t ,vesuvius1 & mu* ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 look$ z if x _h be5 eat5 by fire4 ,!n1 too1 a ,roman philosoph] :o liv$ betwe5 ,a4 ,d4 #a & ,a4 ,d4 #fd1 spoke ( ,vesuvius be+ a *annel = ! et]nal fire6 ,let u n[ endeavor to obta9 "s idea ( ! appe>ance ( ?is region a %ort "t be=e ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 :5 ,vesuvius bur/ =? 9 a t]rific eruption4 ,! slopes ( ! m\nta9 7 cov]$ ) ! ri* vegetation t *>act]izes ?is "p ( ,italy4 ,:5 mo/ volcanic a%es & lava h be5 expos$ = "s "t to ! atmosph]e !y make a v f]tile soil4 ,n[1 ?is soil on ! slopes ( ,vesuvius made ! v9ey>ds t cov]$ ! m\nta9 slopes & ! fields = miles ar\nd its base1 be> v pl5tifully1 s t ! p liv$ v com=tably4 ,"h & !re on ! slopes ( ! m\nta9 l>ge t[ns l ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii _h long be5 e/abli%$1 :ile1 9 ! di/ance1 0 ! l>ge city ( ,naples4 ,besides ^! !re 7 num]\s popul\s t[ns & villages scatt]$ "h & !re ov] ! pla9 or on ! l[] m\nta9 slope4 ,y h all probably read ( ! ,roman gladiator1 ,sp>tacus4 ,sp>tacus 0 a ,?racian by bir?1 & :ile a %eph]d _h be5 tak5 prison] by ! ,romans & sold to a tra9] ( gladiators at ,capua4 ,*aff+ "u ! tyranny ( ! ,romans1 :o =c$ him to fight 9 ! ar5a ) m5 & bea/s1 he revolt$ aga9/ 8 ma/]s1 & ) a b& ( "s sev5ty foll[]s1 fl$ to a m\nta9 fa/ness 9 ! crat] ( ,vesuvius4 ,pr\d ,rome s5t a few m5 to recapture him1 ) sc\rges = 8 puni%m5t1 b !y 7 beat5 by ,sp>tacus4 ,e day dissatisfi$ m5 l himself escap$ f ! ,romans & jo9$ 8 ranks4 ,rome s5t a l>g] body ( m5 aga9/ ,sp>tacus1 b !y also 7 beat54 ,at la/1 recogniz+ ! gravity ( ! position1 ! ,roman ,prtor1 ,clodius1 0 s5t aga9/ ,sp>tacus ) an army ( "s ?ree ?\s& m54 ,clodius caught ,sp>tacus 9 ! crat] & gu>d$ ! only space by :i* x seem$ possible = ,sp>tacus to escape4 ,us+ ! v9es t cov]$ ! precipit\s walls ( ! crat]1 ,sp>tacus did escape1 & fall+ unexpect$ly on ! armies ( ,clodius1 r\t$ !m4 ,aft] ?is victory1 ,sp>tacus ) an army ( ov] #ajj1jjj m5 ov]ran s\!rn ,italy1 & sack$ _m ( ! cities ( ! ,roman ,campania4 ,dur+ ?is "t ,sp>tacus defeat$ "o ,roman army aft] ano!r1 until f9ally1 9 ! ye> #ga ,b4 ,c41 ,crassus 0 s5t aga9/ him & va9ly endeavor$ to conqu] him4 ,be+ unsuccessful1 ,crassus urg$ ! ,roman ,s5ate to recall ,lucullis f ,asia & ,pompey f ,spa91 & f9ally poor ,sp>tacus 0 cut d[n 9 a fight he made aga9/ ,crassus & ,lucullis4 ,b let u come to ! great eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 ,a4 ,d4 #gi4 ,! p liv+ on ! slopes ( ,vesuvius 7 n )\t pl5ty ( w>n+s ( ! dreadful cata/rophe t 0 com+4 ,z e>ly z ,a4 ,d4 #fc !re 0 a great e>?quake t %ook ! c\ntry f> beyond ,naples4 ,9 ,pompeii1 !n a fl\ri%+ city1 ! ,temple ( ,isis 0 s mu* damag$ t x _h to be rebuilt4 ,ev5 if ! e>?quake %ocks _h n =etold ! com+ eruption1 !re 7 o!r signs4 ,! height ( wat] 9 ! wells decreas$4 ,spr+s t _h nev] be=e be5 kn[n to fail1 dri$ up completely4 ,^! *anges1 z we well "k1 7 due to ! r$ hot lava be+ sl[ly =c$ up f great dep?s into ! tube connect$ ) ! crat]4 ,! e>?quake %ocks cont9u$ at irregul> int]vals = sixte5 ye>s1 until1 on ! #be? ( ,augu/1 ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 ab\t "o o'clock 9 ! aft]noon1 ,vesuvius bur/ =? 9 ! t]rible eruption t de/roy$ ! t[ns ( ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum4 ,pompeii 0 a seaport t[n situat$ ne> ! m\? ( ! ,riv] ,s>no1 ab\t fifte5 miles s\!a/ ( ,naples4 ,x 0 a beautiful place1 conta9+ _m spl5did temples4 ,its p = ! great] "p liv$ luxuri\sly1 = ,pompeii 0 ! summ] resort ( ! ri*] p ( ,naples1 "s ( :om liv$ !re dur+ ! hotte/ mon?s ( ! ye>4 ,h]culaneum1 ! o!r t[n1 0 ne>] ,naples1 only five miles f ! city4 ,x 0 also1 l ,pompeii1 a beautiful t[n1 & conta9$ _m spl5did build+s4 ,9 ea* t[n !re 7 magnific5t ba?s & a l>ge !atre4 ,! inhabitants sp5t s mu* ( _! "t 9 ! op5 air1 or 9 ! ba?s1 t x 0 n necess>y = !m to build v l>ge h\ses4 ,! h\ses1 h[ev]1 7 well built1 & ?\gh g5]ally consi/+ ( practically a s+le /ory1 7 provid$ ) all ! luxuries t great weal? c\ld comm&4 ,on ,augu/ #be?1 ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 sev]e e>?quake %ocks aga9 visit$ ?is "p ( ! _w & ,vesuvius sudd5ly ?rew up f its crat] an imm5se column ( black smoke1 :i*1 ris+ high 9 ! air1 spread out 9 ! =m ( a huge mu%room1 or1 p]haps1 m l ! umbrella p9e tree ( ! neighborhood4 ,rapidly spread+ on all sides1 ! smoke soon completely %ut out ! light ( ! sun1 & wrapp$ ! e>? 9 an inky d>kness1 except = a r$ gl>e f columns ( molt5 rock t ru%$ out ( ! crat]4 ,f ! d>k cl\d imm5se quantities ( r$ hot /ones1 pumice1 & volcanic a%es desc5d$ on ! e>?4 ,at ! same "t !re fell a deluge ( ra91 caus$ by ! sudd5 cond5sation ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( wat] vapor t 0 ?r[n out f ! crat] dur+ ! eruption4 ,=tunately1 v few ( ! p 7 kill$ 9 ei!r ( ! cities ( ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum1 al?\gh "s bodies 7 f\nd 9 ! ru9s4 ,mo/ ( ! p escap$ ?r\gh ! d>kness & gloom1 cont9u+ to flee f ! city = at lea/ ?ree days4 ,bo? cities 7 cov]$ s deep ) a%es or mud t ! tops ( ! talle/ build+s 7 no long] visible4 ,pompeii 0 buri$ by %[]s ( a%es or volcanic c9d]s1 & ,h]culaneum ma9ly by va/ floods ( aque\s lava4 ,s completely 7 ^! cities cov]$ t _! v exi/5ce 0 at la/ =gott54 ,x is true t ,titus1 :o 0 !n ,emp]or ( ,rome1 endeavor$ to cle> away ! a%es & rebuild ,pompeii1 b ! task 0 s great t he f9ally ab&on$ x4 ,dur+ ! ye> #aeib1 ! ar*itect ,fontana1 :ile sup]9t5d+ ! build+ ( an aqu$uct1 came across "s anci5t build+s4 ,at a mu* lat] date1 9 #agac1 "s workm51 :ile digg+ a well 9 ! village ( ,portici1 uncov]$ ?ree m>vell\sly beautiful m>ble /atues4 ,9 ! ye> #agch1 ! same well 0 dug deep]1 :5 traces ( ! old !atre ( ,h]culaneum 7 discov]$4 ,"s ef=t 0 !n made to excavate ! city & _m ( ! public build+s & private h\ses 7 uncov]$1 & /atues1 mosaics1 wall pa9t+s1 & *>r$ manuscripts ( papyrus 7 f\nd4 ,a few ( ^! h be5 unroll$ & deciph]$1 b ow+ to ! difficulty ( do+ ?is1 )\t de/roy+ !m1 ! greate/ numb] /ill rema9 unread4 ,9 #ahfj1 ! ,italian ,gov]nm5t began a sy/ematic excavation ( ! buri$ cities1 & n[ bo? ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum are ?r[n op5 to ! sunlight s t "o c walk ?r\gh ! old /reets1 & look into ! h\ses1 9 :i*1 be=e ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 ! p liv$ s happily4 ,_m int]e/+ /ories are told ab\t ! discov]ies t 7 made dur+ ! gov]nm5t excavations4 ,! skeleton ( "o ( ! inhabitants 0 f\nd grasp+ a money bag4 ,he might h escap$1 b _h gone back to get 8 money4 ,he got x1 b rema9$ ) x4 ,9 ano!r place1 ! skeletons ( a numb] ( p 7 f\nd 9 an und]gr\nd room or cell> ( a h\se1 :]e 7 also f\nd "s m\ldy bread & empty wat] flasks4 ,in/ead ( leav+ ! city1 :i* !y might h done1 !y _h retreat$ to ! und]gr\nd room = safety1 b ! f9e volcanic du/ drift$ 9 & suffocat$ !m4 ,! y\ng] ,pl9y1 ! hi/orian1 has giv5 an excell5t acc\nt ( "s features ( ?is great eruption4 ,x appe>s t 8 uncle 0 /ation$ ) ! ,roman fleet1 9 ! ,bay ( ,naples1 at ! "t ( ! eruption4 ,he describes ! d>k cl\d ( a%es t 0 =m$ ov] ,vesuvius4 ,he ref]s to ! rapidity ) :i* x spread1 & to ! %[]s ( a%es1 c9d]s1 & /ones t x ra9$ d[n on ! e>?4 ,8 uncle1 ! eld] ,pl9y1 l&$ on ! coa/1 & 0 aft]w>ds kill$ by a cl\d ( sulphur\s vapor t swept d[n ! side ( ! m\nta94 ,! foll[+ lett] f ! y\ng] ,pl9y1 describ+ 8 flight ) 8 "m f ,mis5um1 is quot$ f ,dana's ,*>act]i/ics ( ,volcanoes4 ,x 0 n[ sev5 o'clock on ! morn+ ( ,augu/ #be?1 b ! light 0 /ill fa9t & d\btful4 ,! surr\nd+ build+s _h be5 badly %ak51 & al?\gh we 7 9 an op5 spot a little y>d betwe5 8 uncle's h\se & ! sea1 ! space 0 s small t ! dang] ( a cata/rophe f fall+ walls 0 great & c]ta94 ,n till !n did we make up our m9ds to g f ! t[n4444 ,:5 we 7 free f ! build+s we /opp$4 ,!re we saw _m wond]s & endur$ _m t]rors4 ,! vehicles we _h ord]$ to be br\ght out kept runn+ backw>d & =w>d1 ?\gh on level gr\nd2 & ev5 :5 block$ ) /ones !y w\ld n keep /ill4 ,besides ?is1 we saw ! sea suck$ d[n &1 z x 71 driv5 back by ! e>?quake4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! %ore _h advanc$ on ! sea1 & _m m>9e animals 7 left high & dry4 ,on ! o!r side 0 a d>k & dreadful cl\d1 :i* 0 brok5 by zigzag & rapidly vibrat+ fla%es ( fire1 & yawn+ %[$ long %apes ( flame4 ,^! 7 l lightn+1 only ( great] ext5t4444 ,pretty soon ! cl\d began to desc5d ov] ! e>? & cov] ! sea4 ,x enfold$ ,capre & hid also ! promontory ( ,mis5um4 444 ,! flight 0 cont9u$4 ,a%es n[ fell1 yet /ill 9 small am\nt4 ,i look$ back4 ,a ?ick mi/ 0 close at our heels1 :i* foll[$ u1 spread+ out ov] ! c\ntry1 l an inundation4 444 ,turn+ f ! ro> 9 ord] to avoid ! flee+1 t]ror-/rick5 ?rong1 !y re/$4 ,h>dly _h we sat d[n :5 night 0 ov] u--n su* a night z :5 !re is no moon & cl\ds cov] ! sky1 b su* d>kness z "o f9ds 9 close-%ut rooms4 ,"o he>d ! screams ( wom51 ! frett+ cries ( babes1 & %\ts ( m54444 ,little by little x grew light aga94 ,we did n ?9k x ! light ( day1 b a pro( t ! fire 0 com+ ne>]4 ,x 0 inde$ fire1 b x /opp$ af> (f2 & !n !re 0 d>kness aga91 & aga9 a ra9 ( a%es1 abundant & heavy1 & aga9 we rose & %ook !m (f1 else we _h be5 cov]$ & ev5 cru%$ by ! weight4444 ,at la/ ! murky vapor roll$ away1 9 disappe>+ smoke or fog4 ,soon ! real daylight appe>$2 ! sun %one out1 ( a lurid hue1 to be sure1 z 9 an eclipse4 ,! :ole _w :i* met our fright5$ eyes 0 trans=m$4 ,x 0 cov]$ ) a%es :ite z sn[4 ,"y ,pl9y & 8 "m return$ to ,mis5um1 & surviv$ ! p]ils to :i* !y 7 expos$4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is eruption t a l>ge "p ( ! old crat] 0 bl[n (f ! m\nta9 by ! trem5d\s =ce at "w4 ,!re h be5 _m eruptions ( ,vesuvius s9ce ! great eruption ( ,a4 ,d4 #gi4 ,"o ( ^! occurr$ dur+ ! reign ( ,sev]us1 ,a4 ,d4 #bjc4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is eruption t an additional "p ( ! old crat] ( ,somma 0 bl[n away4 ,ano!r great eruption occurr$ ,a4 ,d4 #dgb4 ,!n great quantities ( volcanic du/ 7 ?r[n up into ! air1 & fall+1 cov]$ practically all p>ts ( ,europe1 produc+ d>k5+ ( ! sun & great fe> z f> z ! city ( ,con/ant9ople4 ,b :at 0 p]haps a /ill great] eruption occurr$ dur+ ,decemb] ( #afca4 ,?is eruption spread great quantities ( a%es ov] ! c\ntry = hundr$s ( miles ar\nd1 & great /reams ( mud ru%$ d[n ! slopes ( ! m\nta94 ,bucc9i gives ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ?is eruption3 ,! crat] 0 five miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & ab\t #a1jjj paces deep4 ,its sides 7 cov]$ ) bru%wood1 & at ! bottom !re 0 a pla9 on :i* cattle graz$4 ,9 ! woody p>ts wild bo>s frequ5tly h>bor$4 ,9 "o "p ( ! pla91 cov]$ ) a%es1 7 ?ree small pools1 "o fill$ ) hot b bitt] wat]2 ano!r ) wat] salti] ?an ! sea1 & a ?ird ) wat] t 0 hot b ta/eless4 ,b at l5g? ^! =e/s & grassy pla9s 7 consum$1 be+ sudd5ly bl[n into ! air & _! a%es scatt]$ to ! w9ds4 ,9 ,decemb]1 #afca1 sev5 /reams ( lava p\r$ at once f ! crat] & ov]fl[$ sev]al villages1 on its flanks1 & at ! foot ( ! m\nta94 ,reisna1 p>tly built ov] ! anci5t city ( ,h]culaneum1 0 consum$ by ! fi]y torr5t4 ,great floods ( mud 7 z de/ructive z lava4 ,?is is no unusual occurr5ce dur+ ^! cata/rophes = su* is ! viol5ce ( ! ra9s produc$ by ! evolution ( aque\s vapors t torr5ts ( wat] desc5d ! cone & become *>g$ ) impalpable volcanic du/1 & roll+ among a%es1 acquire suffici5t consi/5cy to des]ve ! ord9>y appellation ( aque\s lava4 ,( c\rse1 y w und]/& t we h giv5 only a few ( ! mo/ notable ( ! eruptions ( ,mt4 ,vesuvius4 ,s9ce ! yea ,a4 ,d4 #aejj !re h be5 no less ?an fifty-six record$ eruptions1 t ( ! ye> #aheg be+ especially viol5t4 ,omitt+ ^! eruptions we at la/ come to ! great rec5t eruption ( #ahgb4 ,=tunately1 ! eruption ( #ahgb1 z well z /ill m rec5t eruptions t h occurr$1 h be5 m accurately describ$ ?an h mo/ volcanic eruptions1 = ! ,italian ,gov]nm5t1 recogniz+ ! value to ! natives ( ,italy ( a k ( :at 0 go+ on at ! crat] ( ,vesuvius1 has ma9ta9$ = ! pa/ ?irty ye>s an obs]vatory on ! we/]n "p ( ! m\nta94 ,?is obs]vatory has be5 plac$ 9 *>ge ( ,pr(4 ,luigi ,palmi]i1 a well-kn[n /ud5t ( volcanoes & e>?quakes4 ,at ?is place records are kept ( ! behavior ( ! volcano1 ( all e>?quake di/urbances1 z well z o!r ph5om5a4 ,at ! same "t1 by ! use ( photography1 excell5t pictures h be5 obta9$ %[+ ! appe>ance ( ! sky dur+ an eruption4 ,vesuvius _h be5 9 a quiet /ate f ,novemb]1 #ahdh1 to ! ye> #ahga1 :5 small quantities ( lava fl[$ cont9u\sly = sev]al mon?s4 ,aga91 e>ly 9 #ahgb1 o!r quiet eruptions ( lava cont9u$ = weeks at a "t4 ,f9ally1 on ,april #bf?1 ( t ye>1 a viol5t explosive eruption occurr$4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt has be5 tak5 f ,palmi]i's report1 entitl$1 ,! ,eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahgb4 ,on ,april #bc;d ! record+ e>?quake in/rum5ts1 ! seismographs1 7 greatly affect$4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ! #bd? lava /reams fl[$ d[n ! cone 9 v>i\s directions4 ,^! /reams 7 cont9u$ on ! #be? & ! #bf?1 s t on ! night ( ! #bf? ! obs]vatory lay betwe5 two /reams ( molt5 lava t ?rew out s mu* heat t ! glass w9d[s 9 ! obs]vatory 7 crack$1 & a scor*+ smell 0 q p]ceptible 9 ! rooms4 ,! cone ( ! m\nta9 0 deeply fissur$1 lava escap+ freely f all ! fissures1 s t ! molt5 rock appe>$ to ooze f ov] its entire surface1 or z ,palmi]i express$ x1 ,vesuvius sweat$ fire4 ,?is great crack+ or fissur+ ( ! cone 0 accompani$ by ! op5+ ( two l>ge crat]s at ! summit1 t dis*>g$1 ) a great noise1 imm5se cl\ds ( /eam1 du/1 lapilli1 & volcanic bombs4 ,^! latt] are v curi\s & consi/ ( masses ( s(t lava t are ?r[n high into ! air by ! outru%+ columns ( /eam4 ,be+ rotat$ or spun1 z !y rise 9 ! air1 !y assume a sph]ical %ape4 ,"s ( ^! volcanic bombs 7 ?r[n to a height e/imat$ by ,palmi]i to h be5 ne>ly #d1jjj feet above ! top ( ! m\nta94 ,:5 ! height ( a projectile is kn[n1 ! velocity ) :i* x left ! op5+ f :i* x 0 project$ or ?r[n c be e/imat$1 s t ! volcanic bombs mu/ h left ! crat] at a velocity ( ab\t #fjj feet p] second4 ,on ! #bg?1 9 ! ev5+1 ! lava /reams ceas$ fl[+1 b ! du/ & lapilli cont9u$ to fall dur+ ! #bh? & ! #bi?4 ,on ! #cj? ! detonations decreas$ & by ! #a/ ( ,may ! eruption 0 entirely ov]4 ,palmi]i calculat$ t ! quantity ( molt5 rock ?r[n out dur+ ?is eruption 0 suffici5t to cov] an area ( ab\t #a4h squ>e miles to an av]age dep? ( ab\t ?irte5 feet4 ,z we c see f ! above descriptions1 ! volcanic activity ( ,vesuvius is *>act]iz$ by long p]iods ( re/ foll[$ by p]iods ( activity4 ,! p]iods ( re/ are measur$ by ye>s1 & (t5 by c5turies2 ! p]iods ( activity by days or h\rs4 ,b ,vesuvius 0 n to h a long p]iod ( re/ aft] its eruption ( #ahgb4 ,on ! contr>y1 %ortly aft] ! great disa/] ( ,m>t9ique 9 #aijf1 x aga9 became active1 & on ! #e? ( ,april1 #aijf1 began ?r[+ l>ge blocks ( lava out ( its c5tral cone1 & on ! next day began to ?r[ out l>ge /reams ( lava1 :i*1 on ,april #g?1 de/roy$ a village 9 ! neighborhood4 ,at ! same "t rumbl+ s\nds 7 he>d1 & viol5t e>?quake %ocks %att]$ ! w9d[s ( ! h\ses4 ,pr(essor ,matteucci1 ! pres5t director ( ! ,vesuvius ,obs]vatory1 made ! foll[+ report on ,april ! #h?4 ,! eruption ( ,vesuvius has assum$ extraord9>y proportions4 ,ye/]day & la/ night ! activity ( ! crat] 0 t]rific1 & is increas+4 ,! neighborhood ( ! obs]vatory is completely cov]$ ) lava4 ,inc&esc5t rocks are be+ ?r[n up by ! ?\s&s1 to a height ( #b1djj feet or ev5 #c1jjj feet1 & fall+ back =m a l>ge cone4 ,ano!r /ream ( lava has appe>$4444 ,! noise ( ! explosion & ( ! rocks /rik+ toge!r is deaf5+4 ,! gr\nd is %ak5 by /rong & cont9u\s seismic movem5ts1 & ! seismic in/rum5ts in/rum5ts employ$ to record ! "t1 direction1 & int5sity ( e>?quake movem5ts ?reat5 to break4 ,x w probably be necess>y to ab&on ! obs]vatory1 :i* is v mu* expos$ to ! %ocks4 ,! telegraph is int]rupt$1 & x is believ$ ! ,funicul> railroad has be5 de/roy$4 ,on ,april #i? ,matteucci made ! foll[+ report3 ,! explosive activity ( ,vesuvius1 :i* 0 s great ye/]day1 & 0 accompani$ by v p[]ful electric dis*>ges1 dim9i%$ ye/]day aft]noon4 ,dur+ ! night ! expulsion ( rocks ceas$1 b ! emission ( s& increas$1 completely envelop+ me & =m+ a r$ mass f six to t5 c5timet]s deep1 :i* c>ri$ desolation into ^! elevat$ regions4 ,masses ( s& glid+ along ! e>?1 creat$ complete d>kness until sev5 o'clock4 ,sev]al blocks ( /one broke w9d[s 9 ! obs]vatory4 ,la/ night ! e>?quake %ocks 7 /rong] & m frequ5t ?an ye/]day1 & displac$ ! seismic app>atus4 ,ye/]day aft]noon & ?is morn+1 torr5ts ( s& fell4 ,on ,april #aj? ,matteucci s5t ! foll[+ report3 ,la/ night 0 calm1 except = a few explosions ( consid]able =ce f "t to "t4 ,at f\r o'clock ?is morn+ ! explosions became m viol5t4 ,! seismic in/rum5ts record$ /rong di/urbances4 ,! eruption ( ,vesuvius ( #aijf 0 especially not$ = ! great quantities ( s& & a%es ?r[n out ( ! crat]4 ,! am\nt ( s& t fell on ! ro( ( ! m>ket h\se at ,monti ,olivetto 0 s great t ! ro( fell 94 ,9 ?is eruption !re 7 "s six lava /reams t p\r$ d[n ! m\nta94 ,! mo/ =midable ( ^! 0 t :i* desc5d$ t[>ds ,torre ,annunziata4 ,"h x /opp$ j %ort ( ! wall ( ! cemet]y outside ( ! t[n4 ,dur+ ?is eruption ( ,vesuvius1 z 9 previ\s eruptions1 cl\ds ( volcanic du/ collect$ 9 ! air1 %utt+ (f ! light ( ! sun4 ,naples 0 9 a /ate ( semi-d>kness4 ,! ro(s ( ! h\ses 7 cov]$ to a dep? ( sev]al in*es ) an exce$+ly f9e r$di% du/4 ,9 "s places ?is du/ _h drift$ into heaps fully a y>d 9 dep?4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,o!r ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,m$it]ranean ,! relative positions ( ! o!r volcanic m\nta9s ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea2 i4 e41 ,etna1 ,/romboli1 & ! volcanoes ( ! ,santor9 gr\p ( ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 are %[n 9 ! map1 ,fig4 #ab4 ,we w beg9 ) ! volcanic m\nta9 ( ,etna1 "u :i*1 accord+ to my?ology1 ! angry gods _h buri$ ! rebelli\s ,typhoon4 ,etna is situat$ on ! isl& ( ,sicily1 imm$iately s\?we/ ( ,italy4 ,x is a mu* l>g] m\nta9 ?an ,vesuvius1 ris+1 z x does1 f a circul> base ab\t eighty-sev5 miles ar\nd1 to a height ( #aj1hdj feet above ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,x =ms a conspicu\s object :5 se5 ei!r f ! ,m$it]ranean1 or f di/ant p>ts ( ,italy4 ,! height ( ,etna is s great t its slopes c be divid$ into ?ree di/9ct climatic zones or belts4 ,! l[e/ ( ^! lies betwe5 ! sea & a height ( #b1ejj feet4 ,9 ?is zone ! m\nta9 slopes are cov]$ ) cultivat$ fields1 olive groves1 or*>ds1 & v9ey>ds4 ,! middle zone lies betwe5 #b1ejj feet & #f1bgj feet4 ,?is zone is cov]$ ) =e/s ( *e/nuts1 oaks1 bee*es1 & cork trees4 ,! ?ird & highe/ zone includes ! re/ ( ! m\nta91 & may be call$ ! des]t zone1 s9ce x is a /]ile region1 cov]$ ) huge blocks ( lava & scori1 & t]m9at+1 9 ! high] portions1 9 a sn[-cov]$ pla91 f :i* ! c5tral cone rises4 ,etna is cont9ually s5d+ up columns ( /eam & sulphur vapor4 ,e n[ & !n x />ts 9 eruption1 ?r[+ out l>ge quantities ( lava ei!r f ! crat] on its summit1 or f "s ( ! #bjj small] cones or crat]s t occupy portions ( its slopes4 ,on acc\nt1 probably1 ( its height ! eruptions are mo/ frequ5tly on ! sides4 ,etna af=ds a magnific5t example ( a huge volcanic pile ( ! ,vesuvian type1 :i* has be5 sl[ly built up by ! gradual accumulation ( mat]ials t h escap$ f its crat]s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features ( ! high] regions ( ,etna is an imm5se *asm r5t 9 a side ( ! cone ne> ! summit1 & kn[n z ! ,val del ,bove4 ,?is *asm =ms a va/ amphi!at]4 ,! great =ce t remov$ su* an imm5se mass ( matt] f ! cone c\ld n h be5 ! erod+ p[] ( wat]1 s9ce ! mat]ials ( ! cone are too por\s to p]mit /reams ( any size to ru% d[n ! slopes4 ,! =ce is mo/ probably to be f\nd 9 "s explosive eruption ( ! m\nta91 :5 a portion ( ! crat] 0 sudd5ly bl[n (f1 j z 0 done 9 ,vesuvius :5 a l>ge "p ( ! old crat] ( ,somma 0 bl[n away4 ,:at is especially int]e/+ ab\t ! ,val del ,bove is ! opportunity x af=ds = /udy+ ! int]ior /ructure ( ! m\nta91 = x practically enables "o to ent] to almo/ ! he>t ( ?is great volcano4 ,! ,val del ,bove has ! %ape ( a great pit five miles 9 diamet]4 ,x has almo/ v]tical walls1 ! height ( :i* v>ies ) _! position4 ,^? :i* rea* highe/ up ! m\nta9 v>y f #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet 9 height4 ,l ,vesuvius1 ,etna has be5 split or fissur$ into great crevices t h be5 fill$ ) lava dur+ ! _m eruptions ( its c5tral crat]4 ,on h>d5+1 ^! lava /reams =m :at are kn[n z dikes4 ,z ! sides ( ! m\nta9 are worn away by erosion1 ! dikes1 be+ h>d] ?an ! re/ ( ! cone1 project f its sides l huge walls4 ,an excell5t opportunity = see+ !m is af=d$ 9 ! walls ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ! ,engli% geologi/1 :o has c>efully /udi$ ,mt4 ,etna1 ass]ts t ?is m\nta9 began to be =m$ dur+ a geological p]iod kn[n z ! ,t]ti>y ,age1 ?r\gh a crat] t op5$ on ! floor ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,! mat]ial ?us ?r[n out1 collect$ ar\nd ! crat] & produc$ a m\nta9\s pile t gradually em]g$ above ! level ( ! sea1 & on fre% mat]ials cont9u+ to be ?r[n out1 at l5g? rea*$ its pres5t height4 ,x w\ld appe> t at "s =m] "t 9 its hi/ory1 !re 7 two v5ts ne> ! top ( ! m\nta91 ! second crat] be+ =m$ imm$iately "u ! ,val del ,bove4 ,soon1 h[ev]1 ! second & l[] crat] 0 clos$1 ! upp] "o alone rema9+ active4 ,! m\nta91 !re=e1 cont9u$ to be sl[ly rais$ 9 ! air by ! mat]ials br\ght out ?r\gh ?is op5+4 ,!n came ! great explosive eruption dur+ :i* ! side ( ! m\nta9 0 bl[n (f to =m ! great *asm ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,because ( its almo/ con/ant activity1 ,mt4 ,etna mu/ h be5 well kn[n to ! anci5ts1 :o describ$ "s ( its mo/ viol5t eruptions4 ,! foll[+ brief notes conc]n+ ^! eruptions h be5 tak5 f ,lyell4 ,accord+ to ,diodorus ,siculus1 an eruption t occurr$ be=e ! ,trojan w>1 caus$ ! p liv+ 9 di/ricts ne> ! m\nta9 to seek new homes4 ,?ucididies1 ! ,greek hi/orian1 /ates t 9 ! six? ye> ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 :i* w\ld be ab\t ! spr+ ( #dbe ,b4 ,c41 a lava /ream caus$ great de/ruction 9 ! neighborhood ( ,campania1 ?is be+ ! ?ird eruption t _h occurr$ 9 ,sicily s9ce x _h be5 settl$ by ! ,greeks4 ,s5eca1 dur+ ! fir/ c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian ,era1 calls ! att5tion ( ,lucullus to ! fact t dur+ 8 "t ,mt4 ,etna _h lo/ s mu* ( its height t x c\ld no long] be se5 by boatm5 f po9ts at :i* x _h be=e be5 readily visible4 ,b pass+ by ^! v e>ly eruptions ( ,etna we come to ! great eruption ( #affi4 ,?is eruption 0 prec$$ by an e>?quake t de/roy$ _m h\ses 9 a t[n situat$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! =e/ zone1 ab\t tw5ty-five miles bel[ ! summit ( ! m\nta91 & t5 miles f ! sea at ,catania4 ,dur+ ?is eruption two deep fissures 7 op5$ ne> ,catania4 ,f ^! su* quantities ( s& & scori 7 ?r[n out1 t1 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree or f\r mon?s1 a d\ble cone 0 =m$ #dej feet high1 :i* is n[ kn[n z ,monte ,rosso4 ,b :at 0 mo/ curi\s 0 ! sudd5 op5+1 ) a l\d cra%1 ( a fissure six feet broad rea*+ d[n to unkn[n dep?s t ext5d$ 9 a some:at crook$ c\rse to )9 a mile ( ! summit ( ,etna4 ,?is great fissure 0 twelve miles 9 l5g? & emitt$ a mo/ vivid light4 ,five o!r p>allel fissures ( consid]able l5g? op5$1 "o aft] ano!r1 ?r[+ out vapor1 & emitt+ bell[+ s\nds :i* 7 he>d at a di/ance ( =ty miles4 ,^! fissures 7 aft]w>ds fill$ ) molt5 rock1 & 9 ?is mann] 7 =m$ ! long dikes ( porphyry & o!r rocks t are se5 to be pass+ ?r\gh "s ( ! old] lavas ( ,mt4 ,etna4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,mt4 ,,etna ,f ,map ( ,/ate & ,gov]nm5t ,! great lava /reams :i* fl[$ d[n ! side ( ! m\nta9 dur+ ?is eruption1 de/roy$ f\rte5 t[ns & villages1 & at l5g? rea*$ ,catania4 ,a great wall _h be5 rais$ ar\nd ?is city to prev5t ! lava f ent]+ x4 ,! molt5 rock1 h[ev]1 accumulat$1 until x rose to ! top ( ! wall1 :i* 0 sixty feet high1 & !n p\r+ ov] x 9 a fi]y cascade1 ov]:elm$ "p ( ! city4 ,x is said t dur+ ! fir/ "p ( its j\rney1 ! lava /reams mov$ ov] ?irte5 miles 9 tw5ty days1 or at ! rate ( #afb feet an h\r4 ,beyond ?is1 aft] ! lava _h ?ick5$ by cool+1 x _h a velocity ( only tw5ty-two feet p] h\r4 ,fig4 #ad repres5ts a plan ( ,mt4 ,etna r$uc$ f a map by ! ,italian ,gov]nm5t4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( #ahfe1 a r5t 0 made 9 ! m\nta9 ext5d+ f ,m\nt ,frum5to 7,b 9 ! prec$+ map7 = "o & "o-half miles1 & six cones f #cjj to #cej feet 9 height 7 =m$ along ! fissure4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( #ahgd1 great fissures ?ree miles 9 l5g? 7 =m$ 9 ! m\nta94 ,!re exi/s on ! slopes ( ,mt4 ,etna va/ subt]ranean grottoes =m$ by ! sudd5 conv]sion into /eam ( great quantities ( wat] t 7 ov]:elm$ by ! molt5 mass4 ,^! imm5se volumes ( /eam produc$ enorm\s bubbles 9 ! molt5 lava4 ,:5 ! lava h>d5$ irregul> grottoes 7 left4 ,lyell describes "o ( ^! z foll[s3 ,ne> ,nicolosi1 n f> f ,monte ,rosso1 "o ( ^! great op5+s may be se51 call$ ! ,fossa della ,palomba1 #fbe feet 9 circumf]5ce at its m\? & sev5ty-eight deep4 ,aft] rea*+ ! bottom ( ?is1 we ent] ano!r d>k cavity1 & !n o!rs 9 succession1 sometimes desc5d+ precipices by means ( ladd]s4 ,at l5g?1 ! vaults t]m9ate 9 a great gall]y n9ety feet long1 & f fifte5 to fifty broad1 beyond :i* !re is /ill a passage1 nev] yet explor$1 s t ! ext5t ( ^! cav]ns rema9s unkn[n4 ,! walls & ro(s ( ^! great vaults are compos$ ( r\gh bri/l+ scori ( ! mo/ fanta/ic =ms4 ,besides ! eruptions m5tion$ !re h be5 _m o!rs1 su* z ^? ( #ahaa1 #ahai1 & #aheb4 ,! la/ ( ^! 0 great] ?an any eruption except t ( #affi4 ,x began 9 ,augu/1 #aheb1 & cont9u$ until ,may1 #ahec1 & 0 rem>kable = ! imm5se quantity ( lava ?r[n out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,/romboli1 ,,view$ ,,f ,,! ,,nor?we/1 ,,april1 #ahgd ,we come n[ to ! volcano ( ,/romboli4 ,/romboli1 "o ( ! ,lip>i isl&s1 is situat$ ab\t sixte5 miles we/ ( ! ,/raits ( ,mess9a4 ,its g5]al appe>ance is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ae4 ,! =m ( ! m\nta9 is t ( an irregul> f\r-sid$ pyramid1 :i* rises ab\t #c1jij feet above ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & /&s on ! bottom ( ! sea 9 wat] ab\t #c1jjj feet deep4 ,if y c>efully exam9e ! appe>ance ( ,/romboli1 z %[n 9 ! prec$+ figure1 y w notice t ! flat cl\d :i* hangs ov] ! isl& is made up ( a numb] ( globul> masses ( vapor1 =m$ dur+ ! peculi> action ( ! volcano4 ,:5 exam9$ by night ,/romboli pres5ts a /ill m curi\s appe>ance4 ,s9ce ! m\nta9 /&s alone1 its height p]mits x to be se5 readily at sea = di/ances ( at lea/ a hundr$ miles4 ,at night a curi\s gl[ ( r$ light may be se5 on ! l[] surfaces ( ! cl\d4 ,?is light is n cont9u\s1 b increases 9 int5sity f a fa9t gl[ to a fairly bright r$ light1 !n gradually decreases1 & f9ally dies away completely4 ,aft] a:ile ! light aga9 appe>s1 aga9 gradually decreases1 & disappe>s1 & ?is cont9ues until ! ris+ sun prev5ts ! r$ gl[ f be+ any long] visible4 ,/romboli1 !re=e1 acts n unlike ! fla%+ ligh?\ses s common on ! sea coa/s ( all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,inde$1 x is actually us$ by sailors 9 ! ,m$it]ranean = ! purpose ( %[+ !m _! direction4 ,= ?is reason ,/romboli is commonly call$ ,! ,ligh?\se ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,z ,judd rem>ks1 f :om mu* ( ! in=mation conc]n+ "s ( ! volcanic di/ricts ( ! ,m$it]ranean has be5 obta9$1 ! fla%+ light ( ,/romboli diff]s f t ( ! ord9>y fla%+ light 9 two important respects2 viz41 9 ! int]vals t elapse betwe5 ! successive fla%es1 & 9 ! int5sity ( ! light emitt$4 ,z y "k1 x is necess>y t ! diff]5t ligh?\ses plac$ ne> "o ano!r on a coa/ mu/ h _! lights ( su* a nature t !y c be readily di/+ui%$4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 ! fla%+ light has be5 devis$4 ,9 fla%+ ligh?\ses1 ! lights only appe> at int]vals1 "o ligh?\se be+ di/+ui%$ f ano!r 9 its neighborhood by ! int]vals betwe5 successive fla%es1 or1 sometimes1 inde$1 by ! color ( "s ( ! fla%es4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( ,/romboli1 ! int]vals betwe5 ! successive gl[+s ( ! r$ lights are v irregul>1 v>y+ betwe5 "o & tw5ty fla%es p] second4 ,moreov]1 ! int5sity ( ! light also v>ies greatly f "t to "t4 ,y naturally inquire z to ! cause ( ^! fla%es ( light t are emitt$ by ,/romboli4 ,if1 z ,judd sugge/s1 y %\ld climb to ! summit ( ! m\nta91 dur+ ! daytime1 & look d[n ! inside ( ! crat]1 y c\ld see its black slag bottom cross$ by _m cracks & fissures4 ,f mo/ ( ! small] fissures ! vapor ( wat] is quietly escap+4 ,?is vapor rises 9 ! air 9 :i* x soon disappe>s4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 l>g] cracks on ! bottom ( ! crat] f :i*1 at m or less regul> int]vals1 masses ( /eam are emitt$ ) l\d snort+ puffs n unlike ^? produc$ by a locomotive4 ,f "s ( ! op5+s molt5 matt] is se5 sl[ly ooz+ out1 collect+ 9 p>ts ( ! crat] & mov+ up & d[n 9 a heav+ motion4 ,e n[ & !n a bubble is =m$ on ! surface ( ?is liquid4 ,! bubble swells to a gigantic size1 & sudd5ly bur/s4 ,! /eam x conta9$ escapes1 c>ry+ fragm5ts ( scum :i* are ?r[n high into ! air4 ,! masses ( /eam1 =m$ bel[ ! surface ( ! /icky1 boil+1 lava1 9 endeavor+ to escape1 =ce _! way ?r\gh ! mass1 bl[ huge bubbles1 :i*1 on bur/+1 produce ! ro>+ s\nds t are he>d1 & ?r[+ great columns ( vapor 9 ! air1 produce ! r\nd$ masses ( cl\ds y c see float+ high up 9 ! air ov] ! m\nta94 ,at ! same "t ! scum is p>tially remov$ f ! r$ hot surface1 its light illum9es ! l[] surface ( ! ov]hang+ cl\d1 :i* fl+s x back aga9 to ! e>?4 ,) ! bur/+ ( ea* bubble1 & ! cle>+ ( ! scum f ! surface ( ! r$ hot mass1 ! light beg9s1 increases 9 int5sity1 & !n z ! scum aga9 beg9s to collect on ! surface1 decreases1 & f9ally disappe>s1 & n until ! bur/+ ( ! next bubble is x aga9 visible4 ,b let u make a /udy ( "s ( ! peculi>ities ( ,vulcano1 ano!r ( ! ,lip>i isl&s1 :i* lies nor? ( ,sicily4 ,vulcano af=ds a curi\s example ( a volcano t has be5 h>ness$ by man1 or made to d "w = him4 ,all volcanoes br+ f inside ( ! e>? diff]5t k9ds ( *emical sub/ances1 9 ! =m ( vapors1 gases1 or molt5 mat]ials4 ,n[1 ^! mat]ials act+ on "o ano!r1 produce *emical sub/ances "s ( :i*1 su* z sal ammoniac1 sulphur1 & boracic acid1 possess comm]cial value4 ,?is is especially true 9 ! case ( ,vulcano1 & s9ce ! eruptions are n g5]ally viol5t1 a *emical works has actually be5 erect$ by a ,scot* firm on ! side ( ! m\nta91 :]e ! mat]ials are collect$ f ! crevices4 ,?is ef=t to h>ness a volcano 0 = a "t s successful t ! same p contemplat$ ! build+ ( great lead5 *amb]s ov] ! pr9cipal fissure at ! bottom ( ! crat]1 s t ! l>ge volumes ( eject$ vapors might be cond5s$ & collect$4 ,b ,vulcano1 l all o!r volcanoes1 c\ld n be reli$ on cont9ually to keep ! peace4 ,"o day x sudd5ly bur/ =? m fi]cely ?an usual1 s t ! workm5 7 compell$ to ab&on ! factory & fly d[n ! m\nta9 = _! lives1 b n1 h[ev]1 be=e "s ( !m 7 sev]ely injur$ by ! explosions4 ,vulcano is an in/ance ( a volcano 9 an almo/ exhau/$ or dormant condition4 ,x has _h1 h[ev]1 _m eruptions dur+ ! pa/ few c5turies1 "s ( :i* h be5 v viol5t1 = example1 t ( #aghc1 & t ( #aghf4 ,!re /ill rema9s to be consid]$ ! volcanic region ( ! ,santor9 gr\p ( ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago4 ,! isl& ( ,santor9 or ,!ra1 is ! s\!rnmo/ ( ! ,cyclades4 ,x is an exce$+ly curi\s isl&1 be+ a subm]g$ volcano1 ) mo/ ( ! top ( ! crat] rema9+ above ! wat]s1 s t ! entire isl& has ! %ape ( an irregul> circle or cresc5t brok5 at sev]al po9ts4 ,its =mation is1 probably1 due to ! gradual s9k+ ( a volcanic m\nta9 until its crat] has be5 almo/ completely subm]g$1 only ! high] p>ts ( ! edges ( ! crat] be+ left above ! surface ( ! wat]s4 ,suppose1 = example1 a m\nta9 l ,vesuvius at ! "t ! crat] ,somma exi/$1 0 sunk bel[ ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean until only ! highe/ p>ts ( ! crat] rema9$ above ! wat]s4 ,if1 n[1 "o or m volcanic eruptions occurr$1 produc+ crat]s or volcanic isl&s inside ! subm]g$ rim1 y w\ld h a condition ( affairs se5 9 ! isl& ( ,santor94 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,orizaba1 ,,popocatepetl1 ,,ixtaccihuatl1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,mexico ,:ile "s ( ! volcanoes ( ,mexico are /ill 9 an active condition1 mo/ ( !m are ei!r only slightly active or are dormant or ext9ct4 ,humboldt1 ! celebrat$ travell] & geograph]1 /ates t !re are only f\r active volcanic m\nta9s 9 ,mexico2 namely1 ,popocatepetl1 ,tuxtula1 ,colima1 & ,jorullo4 ,b !re are _m o!rs1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ,orizaba1 ,ixtaccihuatl1 ,x9antecatl1 ,tuxtula1 ,c(re de ,p]ote1 & ,colima4 ,( c\rse1 y c und]/& t1 s9ce ext9ct volcanoes may at any "t become active1 9 p>ts ( ! _w :]e communication ) ! int]ior is n good1 _m volcanic m\nta9s t h be5 reg>d$ z ext9ct may h brok5 out tempor>ily1 dur+ hi/orical times1 )\t _! eruptions hav+ be5 record$4 ,x 0 at "o "t ?\ght t ,popocatepetl 0 ! highe/ m\nta9 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,m rec5t measurem5ts1 h[ev]1 h %[n t !re are at lea/ ?ree o!r m\nta9s 9 ?is "p ( ! _w1 t are mu* high]4 ,"o ( ^! is ! active volcano ( ,orizaba t we w n[ briefly describe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,mexico ,,& ,,c5tral ,,am]ica ,orizaba is situat$ 9 ! nor? c5tral "p ( ,mexico1 ab\t sev5ty-five miles we/ ( ,v]a ,cruz4 ,its anci5t ,aztec "n 0 ,cittaltepetl1 or ,/> ,m\nta94 ,! height ( ! m\nta9 is #ah1bjj feet4 ,l all high tropical m\nta9s ^: summits are sn[-clad1 "o w\ld pass ?r\gh ! same *anges 9 climate1 9 go+ f its base to its summit1 z 9 go+ along ! e>?'s surface f ! equator to ! poles4 ,ne> ! base ( ! m\nta9 w be f\nd a tropical climate1 above t a temp]ate climate1 :ile 9 /ill high] regions1 ! climate ( ! ,arctic region4 ,accord+ to ,russell1 f ^: "w on ! volcanoes ( ,nor? ,am]ica mu* ( ! in=mation conc]n+ ! volcanoes ( ,mexico & ,c5tral ,am]ica has be5 cond5s$1 ,orizaba has ?ree crat]s on its summit4 ,! la/ record$ eruption took place ab\t ! middle ( ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury4 ,! m\nta9 is n[ 9 a dormant or ext9ct condition1 z may be se5 f ! fact t its ?ree crat]s are = ! great] "p fill$ ) sn[4 ,orizaba1 l ,etna1 & _m o!r volcanoes1 has deep fissures ext5d+ ?r\gh its sides4 ,?r\gh ^!1 lava /reams h fl[$ dur+ times :5 x 0 active4 ,!re are also f\nd on ! slopes ( ?is m\nta9 _m cones ( a type kn[n z p>asitic cones4 ,^! cones are n caus$ by mat]ials t h be5 br\ght to ! surface dur+ an eruption1 b h be5 =m$ by ! /eam pass+ ?r\gh lava /reams t h come out ( ! crat] dur+ o!r eruptions4 ,popocatepetl1 or1 z ! ^w means1 ,! ,smok+ ,m\nta91 is ! second highe/ m\nta9 9 ,mexico4 ,accord+ to rec5t measurem5ts made by ! ,mexican ,gov]nm5t1 its height is #ag1hgf feet4 ,popocatepetl is situat$ on ! edge ( ! great plateau ( ,mexico1 =ty miles s\!a/ ( ! ,city ( ,mexico4 ,x is a conical m\nta91 & is a magnific5t object :5 se5 f ! ,city ( ,mexico1 ris+1 z x does1 fully #aj1jjj feet f ! elevation ( ! city1 :ile on ! ea/ x t[]s = ne>ly #ah1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,?is spl5did m\nta9 is poetically describ$ by ,russell3 ,se5 f ! basal pla9s1 x sweeps up 9 "o gr& curve to ne>ly its full height1--a collossus ( ?ree & a qu>t] miles 9 elevation1 :ite ) ev]la/+ fro/ on its summit1 & ba!d 9 ! gre5 ( palms1 bananas1 oranges1 & mangoes1 at its base4 ,ev]gre5 oaks & p9es encircle its middle height1 & above !m1 be=e ! ice itself is rea*$1 occur broad areas ( loose s& into :i* ! lavas h be5 *ang$ by wea!r+4 ,s(t wrea?s ( sulphur\s vapor may at times be se5 curl+ ov] ! cre/ ( ! summit crat]1--g5tle rem9d]s t ! days ( volcanic activity are n yet necess>ily ov]4 ,popocatepetl takes its "n1 ,! ,smok+ ,m\nta9 f ! fact t gases & vapor are cont9ually be+ emitt$ f its summit crat]4 ,x has a conical peak ) a depression or crat] on its summit4 ,! bottom ( ! crat] is cross$ by fissures f :i* small quantities ( /eam escape1 n1 h[ev]1 suffici5t to melt all ! sn[ :i* cov]s ! slopes ( ! m\nta9 to a dep? ( f eight to t5 feet4 ,a small lake ( hot wat] has collect$ 9 ! crat] f ! wat] d]iv$ f ! melt+ sn[4 ,?is wat]1 s9k+ ?r\gh ! por\s mat]ials 9 ! cone1 is ! s\rce ( a great numb] ( l>ge hot spr+s t occur ar\nd ! base ( ! m\nta94 ,reclus /ates t ! fir/ to climb to ! top ( ,popocatepetl 0 "o ( ,cortez' (fic]s1 #aeai4 ,ano!r sn[-capp$ volcano1 :i* ris+ f ! pla9 ( ,mexico is 9 cle> view ( ! city1 is ,ixtaccihuatl 7,ets-tak'-se-wat-el71 or z ! ^w means 9 ! anci5t ,aztec1 ,! ,:ite ,woman4 ,?is m\nta91 z measur$ by ,heilpr91 is #af1ifj feet 9 height4 ,ixtaccihuatl is n[ 9 s dormant a condition t _m :o h climb$ to ! top ass]t t x is n a volcano at all1 s9ce !y f9d no crat] on its summit4 ,nor are !re any signs ( volcanic heat1 ! summit be+ sn[ clad dur+ summ]4 ,! conical =m ( ! m\nta91 h[ev]1 & ! fact t ! entire m\nta9 is =m$ ( volcanic rocks1 %[ beyond d\bt t x is an ext9ct volcano1 ^: crat] has mo/ probably be5 completely fill$ 9 by ! wa%+ away ( its sides4 ,x9antecatl is ano!r ext9ct volcanic m\nta9 situat$ ab\t =ty miles s\?we/ ( ! ,city ( ,mexico4 ,x is ab\t #af1ejj feet high4 ,its "n means 9 ! anci5t ,aztec language1 ,! ,nak$ ,"l4 ,x is also sometimes kn[n z ! ,nevado de ,toluca1 or ,! ,sn[ ( ,toluca4 ,on ! top ( ! peak are two crat]s fill$ ) lakes ( fre% wat]4 ,russell /ates t ! l>g] ( ^! lakes is ab\t ?irty feet 9 dep? & conta9 a peculi> species ( fi%4 ,tuxtula is ano!r volcano ( ,mexico1 situat$ on ! we/]n coa/ ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ab\t eighty miles s\!a/ ( ,v]a ,cruz4 ,x 0 an active volcano 9 #affd1 :5 x ?rew out molt5 lava4 ,x !n became dormant until ,m>*1 #agic1 :5 its long re/ 0 brok5 by "o ( ! gr&e/ explosive eruptions ( mod]n times4 ,?is eruption rivall$ 9 en]gy ! great explosive eruption :i* blew (f ! summit ( ,cosegu9a1 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 9 #ahce4 ,z is common 9 ! case ( explosive eruptions1 volcanic du/ & scori 7 bl[n high into ! air1 &1 be+ c>ri$ by ! w9ds1 fell on ! ro(s ( h\ses & on ! l& at a di/ance ( #aej miles4 ,!re h be5 a numb] ( less viol5t eruptions ( ,tuxtula s9ce #ahce4 ,tuxtula is a comp>atively l[ m\nta91 be+ only #d1ifj feet high1 because mu* ( ! m\nta9 0 bl[n away by ! eruption ( #agic4 ,z ,russell po9ts out1 x is n safe to inf] t because an erod$ m\nta9 is n l(ty x _c be "y or en]getic1 s9ce ! v en]gy ( "s ( its eruptions may1 z 9 ! case ( ,tuxtula1 bl[ away a l>ge "p ( ! m\nta94 ,a l[ m\nta91 ) an unusually l>ge crat]1 g5]ally means a m\nta9 t has be5 visit$ by a great explosive eruption4 ,ano!r ext9ct volcano kn[n z ! ,c(re de ,p]ote is situat$ on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,mexico1 ea/ ( ,ixtaccihuatl1 ab\t ?irty miles nor? ( ,orizaba4 ,x takes its "n ,c(re de ,p]ote :i* means ! ,c(f9 ( ,p]ote1 f its peculi> box-l %ape4 ,x 0 call$ 9 ! ,aztec language ,nauhcampatepetl1 or ! ,f\r-,ridg$ ,m\nta94 ,c(re de ,p]ote is 9 a dormant or ext9ct condition4 ,we w conclude ?is brief description ( ! volcanoes ( ,mexico ) ! volcano ( ,colima1 a m\nta9 ab\t #e1ejj feet high situat$ on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,mexico4 ,colima has be5 active ( rec5t ye>s1 eruptions hav+ occurr$ 9 #ahfi1 #ahgb1 #ahgc1 & #ahhe4 ,dur+ ^! eruptions lava escap$ f lat]al op5+s 9 ! sides ( ! m\nta91 ^! op5+s be+ t]m$ by ! natives ! ,sons ( ,colima4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,cosegu9a ,,& ,,o!r ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,c5tral ,,am]ica ,c5tral ,am]ica has a great numb] ( volcanoes ext5d+ along ne>ly all its we/]n coa/1 or on ! ,pacific side ( ! c\ntry4 ,c5tral ,am]ica consi/s ( a high pla9 or table-l& slop+ g5tly t[>ds ! nor!a/1 b t]m9at+ abruptly on ! s\?we/4 ,9 ! op9ion ( geologi/s ?is table-l& consi/s ( ! surface ( a huge tilt$ block ( ! e>?'s cru/1 or1 p]haps1 m probably1 ( a s]ies ( su* blocks1 t are limit$ on ! s\?we/ by a n>r[ belt ( int]sect+ fractures4 ,x is 9 ^! fractures t scores ( volcanoes are situat$1 toge!r ) active crat]s1 solfat>as1 & hot spr+s4 ,! volcanoes are ma9ly ( ! ,vesuvian type4 ,!re are s _m volcanoes 9 ?is "p ( ! _w t x w be possible to describe b a few ( !m4 ,we w beg9 ) ! volcano ( ,cosegu9a1 situat$ on ! ,pacific coa/ ( ,nic>agua4 ,its appe>ance is t ( a conical m\nta9 ) ! top cut (f1 & sugge/s t x is mo/ probably an explosive volcano :i* has _h ! top bl[n away dur+ "s ( its great eruptions4 ,cosegu9a is celebrat$ by reason ( its trem5d\s eruption ( #ahce4 ,be=e ! /ill m trem5d\s explosive eruption ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahhc1 describ$ 9 ! fir/ two *apt]s ( ?is book1 ,cosegu9a %>$ ) ,sombawa1 on ! isl& ( ,sumatra1 z be+ ! =emo/ ( explosive volcanoes4 ,x _h be5 e/imat$ t be=e its eruption ( #ahce1 ,cosegu9a _h a height ( p]haps #aj1jjj feet1 b s mu* ( x 0 bl[n away by ?is eruption t x n[ is a little less ?an #d1jjj feet4 ,! foll[+ description ( ! great eruption ( ,cosegu9a 9 #ahce has be5 cond5s$ f an acc\nt prep>$ by ,squi]1 publi%$ 9 #ahej4 ,y w note 9 read+ ?is brief acc\nt h[ closely _m ( ! ph5om5a resemble ^? t occurr$ dur+ ! eruption ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahcc4 ,! eruption ( ,cosegu9a 0 h]ald$ on ! morn+ ( ,janu>y #bj?1 #ahce1 by sev]al l\d explosions t 7 he>d = a di/ance ( "s #cjj miles ar\nd ! crat] ( ! volcano4 ,!n foll[$ an ink black cl\d =m$ directly ov] ! m\nta91 :i* gradually spread on all sides %utt+ (f ! light ( ! sun1 except = a sickly yell[i% light4 ,f9e s& 0 ?r[n f ?is cl\d1 :i* made x bo? difficult & pa9ful to brea!4 ,= two :ole days ! cl\d cont9u$ to gr[ d5s]1 ! explosions l\d] & m frequ5t1 & ! ra9 ( s& ?ick]4 ,on ! ?ird day ! explosions 7 /ronge/ & ! d>kness greate/4 ,! am\nt ( s& t fell f ! cl\d 0 s great t p left _! h\ses1 fe>+ ! ro(s w\ld be cru%$ 9 by ! great weight4 ,?is s& fell 9 l>ge quantities ov] an area m ?an #a1ejj miles 9 diamet]1 or1 quot+ ! language ( ,squi]3 ,! noise ( ! explosions 0 he>d ne>ly z f> 7#a1ejj miles74 ,& ! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,belize1 eight hundr$ miles di/ant1 mu/]$ 8 troops1 "u ! impression t !re 0 a naval action (f ! h>bor4 ,all nature seem$ ov]aw$2 ! birds des]t$ ! air1 & ! wild bea/s _! fa/nesses1 cr\*+1 t]ror-/rick5 & h>mless1 9 ! dwell+s ( m54 ,! p = a hundr$ leagues gr\p$1 dumb ) t]ror1 amid/ ! ?ick d>kness1 be>+ crosses on _! %\ld]s & /ones on _! heads 9 p5it5tial abasem5t & dismay4 ,_m believ$ t ! day ( doom _h come1 & cr[d$ 9 ! tott]+ *ur*es1 :]e1 9 ! pauses ( ! explosions1 ! voices ( ! prie/s 7 he>d 9 solemn invocation to ,heav54 ,! brighte/ lights 7 invisible at ! di/ance ( a few feet2 & to height5 ! t]ror ( ! sc5e1 occasional lightn+s trav]s$ ! d>kness1 %$d+ a lurid gl>e ov] ! e>?4 ,?is cont9u$ = =ty-?ree h\rs1 & !n gradually pass$ away4 ,x appe>s t ! eruption ( ,cosegu9a 0 foll[$ by viol5t e>?quake %ocks & o!r evid5ces ( volcanic en]gy ov] ext5d$ regions4 ,= example1 !re 7 fe>ful e>?quakes along ! ,&es1 ! wor/ ( :i* occurr$ on ,febru>y #bj?1 & cont9u$ at ! rate ( ?ree or f\r a day up to ,m>* #f?1 &1 less frequ5tly1 to ,m>* #ag?4 ,x 0 dur+ "o ( ^! e>?quakes t ! city ( ,concepcion1 ,*ile1 0 s completely de/roy$1 t b a s+le h\se rema9$4 ,! same brilliant sunsets & sunrises occurr$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w aft] ! eruption ( ,cosegu9a1 due to ! pres5ce ( l>ge quantities ( volcanic du/ t foll[$ ! great eruption ( ,krakatoa4 ,! cause ( ?is great explosive eruption ( ,cosegu9a 0 mo/ probably ! same z t :i* is believ$ to h caus$ ! eruption ( ,krakatoa1 namely1 a l>ge volume ( wat] sudd5ly ga9+ access to a mass ( liquid lava4 ,volcn del ,fuego is ano!r ( ! _m volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,x is situat$ z "o ( a gr\p ( volcanoes on ! highe/ summit ( ! ,i/hmus4 ,?is volcanic m\nta9 has a regul> cone ) regul> slopes on all sides1 except on ! nor?1 :]e a table-l projection1 ab\t #a1jjj feet bel[ ! summit1 is all t rema9s ( a va/ cone1 ! summit ( :i* 0 bl[n away1 accord+ to ,russell1 9 prehi/oric times1 j z 0 ! crat] ( ,somma on ,vesuvius4 ,!re h be5 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 s9ce ! "t ( ! ,spani% conque/1 "s fifty volcanic eruptions suffici5tly great to h be5 record$4 ,"s idea ( ! activity ( ,fuego dur+ ?is "t may be _h f ! fact t ( all ^! eruptions "s tw5ty 7 ^? ( ,fuego4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 h[ev]1 ! volcano is dormant & app>5tly almo/ ext9ct4 ,! record$ eruptions ( ,fuego are ne>ly all ( ! explosive type4 ,among ! mo/ viol5t 7 ^? t occurr$ dur+ #aebf1 #aeda1 & #aeha4 ,dur+ #aehb1 #aehe1 & #aehf1 !re 7 eruptions ne>ly e mon?1 ! mo/ t]rible be+ ne> ,*ri/mas day 9 #aehf4 ,o!r memorable eruptions occurr$ 9 #afad1 #afbc1 #afhf1 & #agje1 & at o!r dates d[n to ,augu/ #ag?1 #ahfj1 f :i* date to ! pres5t "t ! volcano has be5 quiet4 ,we w conclude ?is brief description ( ! volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,am]ica ) t ( ,volcn de ,agua1 or1 z ! ^w means1 ,! ,wat] ,volcano4 ,x is situat$ 9 ,guatemala ne> ! coa/1 & is "o ( ! m\nta9s t occupies ! plateau on :i* ,fuego is situat$4 ,! ,volcn de ,agua is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable volcanoes 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 /&+1 z x does1 ne>ly alone1 & ris+ to an elevation ( #c1cej metres 7#aj1ihh ft471 above ! level ( ! sea4 ,x has be5 ext9ct = a long "t4 ,x has be5 suppos$ by "s1 f its "n1 t ?is is a volcano t ?r[s out wat]4 ,o!rs believe t ! "n comes f ! wat] produc$ by ! melt+ ( ! sn[ t is collect$ on ! sides ( ! m\nta94 ,n[ !re almo/ always escapes f ! crat]s ( volcanoes dur+ viol5t eruptions imm5se quantities ( wat] vapor1 :i*1 cond5s+1 fall z va/ %[]s ( ra9 t (t5 deluge ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,9 sn[-clad m\nta9s1 ! escape ( lava is (t5 att5d$ by floods caus$ by ! rapid melt+ ( ! sn[4 ,! wat] volcano did n1 h[ev]1 take its "n f ei!r ( ^! facts1 b r because at ! "t ( ! ,spani% invasion1 ! crat] ( ! m\nta9 0 occupi$ by a l>ge lake1 & t dur+ an e>?quake 9 #aeda ! wall ( ! crat] 0 brok51 :5 ! lake 0 p\r$ z an imm5se /ream ( wat] d[n ! side ( ! m\nta91 ov]:elm+ a village :i* 0 situat$ on ?is slope4 ,t ?is 0 ! correct orig9 ( ! same may be se5 f ! fact t ! crat] at ! pres5t "t /ill %[s ! rema9s ( its =m] lake bas91 & t on ! sides ( ! brok5 rim an imm5se rav9e c be se5 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] p\r$ d[n on ! village bel[4 ,daub5y describes ?is volcano z foll[s3 ,! ,volcn de ,agua 7,wat]-,volcano7 is ( enorm\s height1 be+ cov]$ ) et]nal sn[1 9 ! latitude ( #ad4 ,capta9 ,basil ,hall e/imates x at m ?an #ad1jjj feet1 b a rec5t travell] /ates x at #ab1fjj4 ,x has ! =m ( a blunt$ cone clo!d ) p]petual v]dure to its summit4 ,! crat] is f =ty to sixty y>ds 9 dep?1 & ab\t #aej 9 diamet]1--! sides & bottom /rew$ ) masses ( rock1 app>5tly %[+ ! effects ( boil+ wat] or ( fire4 ,by a deluge ( wat] f ?is volcano 9 #aebg1 ! orig9al city ( ,guatemala 0 ov]:elm$2 & ! next built1 call$ ! ,old ,city1 ,la ,antiqua1 0 ru9$ by an e>?quake 9 #aggc4 ,! pres5t capital is situat$ at a di/ance ( eight leagues f ! m\nta94 ,ano!r volcano 9 ?is "p ( ! c\ntry is describ$ by ,daub5y z foll[s3 ,massaya1 ne> ! lake ( t "n1 0 "o ( ! mo/ active v5ts at ! "t ( ! fir/ discov]y ( ! c\ntry4 ,its flames 7 visible tw5ty-five miles (f4 ,its crat] 0 only tw5ty or ?irty paces 9 diamet]2 b ! melt$ lava 'see!d & roll$ 9 waves z high z t[]s4' ,a /ory is told ( a ,dom9ican :o imag9$ ! fluid lava 0 melt$ gold1 & desc5d$ into ! crat] ) an iron ladle to c>ry "s away2 b ! ladle1 x is said1 melt$1 & ! monk escap$ ) difficulty4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica ,! volcanoes ( ,s\? ,am]ica are limit$ to ! ,&es ,m\nta9 ,sy/em t /ret*es l a huge wall along ! entire we/]n side ( ! cont95t4 ,! names ( ! m important ( ^! volcanoes are m>k$ on ! map ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ag4 ,z w be se51 ?is huge m\nta9 wall rea*es f ,patagonia on ! s\? to ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama on ! nor?4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! volcanoes 9 ,s\? ,am]ica is ( ! l9e> type4 ,! crat]s foll[ "o ano!r 9 m or less /raight l9es1 or are situat$ along ! l9es ( great fissures t lie ne> ! ocean4 ,y mu/ n1 h[ev]1 suppose t !re is a cont9u\s *a9 ( active volcanic m\nta9s f ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama to ! s\!rn "p ( ! cont95t4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 f lat4 #b ,n41 or f ! nor? ( ,quito1 to lat4 #dc ,s4 or s\? ( ,*ile1 a total di/ance includ+ #de ( latitude1 !re is a succession ( di/ricts ) active & ext9ct volcanoes1 or at lea/ ) volcanoes t h be5 quiet dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,s\? ,,am]ica ,lyell traces ! volcanoes ( ,s\? ,am]ica z foll[s3 ,! pr9cipal l9e ( active v5ts :i* h be5 se5 9 eruption 9 ! ,&es ext5ds f lat4 #dc #bh' ,s41 444 to lat4 #cj ,s42 to ^! ?irte5 degrees ( latitude succe$ m ?an eight degrees1 9 :i* no rec5t volcanic eruptions h be5 obs]v$4 ,we !n come to ! volcanoes ( ,bolivia & ,p]u1 ext5d+ six degrees f ,s4 to ,n41 or f lat4 #ba ,s4 to lat4 #ae ,s4 ,betwe5 ! ,p]uvian volcanoes & ^? ( ,quito ano!r space int]v5es ( no less ?an f\rte5 degrees ( latitude1 9 :i* !re is said to be b few active volcanoes z f> z is yet kn[n4 ,! volcanoes ( ,quito !n succe$1 beg9n+ ab\t #ajj geographical miles s\? ( ! equator1 & cont9u+ = ab\t #aej miles nor? ( x1 :5 !re occurs ano!r undi/urb$ region ( m ?an six degrees ( latitude1 aft] :i* we arrive at ! volcanoes ( ,guatemala1 or ,c5tral ,am]ica1 nor? ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4 ,( c\rse1 y mu/ n und]/& t !re are no ext9ct volcanoes 9 ^! gaps4 ,on ! contr>y1 accord+ to ,daub5y1 we f9d1 beg9n+ on ! nor? 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,colombia1 ! l(ty volcano ( ,tolima4 ,accord+ to ,daub5y's book publi%$ 9 #ahdh1 ,tolima 0 !n con/antly emitt+ /eam & sulphur gases f its summit4 ,tolima is situat$ 9 ! ea/]nmo/ ( ! ?ree m\nta9 ranges t ext5d ?r\gh ?is section ( ! c\ntry4 ,x is1 !re=e1 at a comp>atively great di/ance f ! ocean4 ,tolima 0 9 eruption 9 #aeie4 ,x aga9 bur/ out 9 #ahbf4 ,com+ n[ to ,ecuador we f9d t ?is1 ! smalle/ ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,republics1 conta9s num]\s great volcanic m\nta9s4 ,"s ( ! pr9cipal volcanic m\nta9s are ,*imborazo1 #bj1dih feet above ! sea2 ,antisana1 #ah1hhj feet2 ,cotopaxi1 #ai1ffj feet2 ,pi*9*a 7#ag1fdd feet 9 #ahdh1 ,daub5y71 ,el ,alt>1 #af1chc feet4 ,^! all lie 9 ,s\? ,am]ica on ! plateau ( ,quito4 ,z ,b>on ,alex&] von ,humboldt has po9t$ out1 ! volcanic m\nta9s ( ,quito are arrang$ 9 two p>allel *a9s t ext5d side by side = a di/ance ( ov] #ejj miles nor? into ! ,/ate ( ,colombia1 includ+ betwe5 !m ! high plateaus ( ,quito & ,lacumbia4 ,accord+ to ,:ymp]1 h[ev]1 :o has rec5tly /udi$ ?is "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 !re is a succession ( bas9s betwe5 ! m\nta9s1 b !re is no su* ?+ z a s+le valley 9 ! int]ior ( ,ecuador4 ,! ext9ct volcanoes ( ,cayamba1 ,antisana1 & ,*imborazo are ! mo/ important4 ,on all ?ree m\nta9s !re are old lava /reams on _! sides4 ,al?\gh no crat]s c be se5 on _! summits1 yet x is almo/ c]ta9 !y once _h crat]s4 ,!re is pl5ty ( room on ! summit ( ,antisana = a cone z great z t ( ,cotopaxi4 ,:ymp] is ( ! op9ion t ! sn[ domes t =m ! summit ( ,*imborazo 7 at "o "t two ( ! highe/ po9ts ( ! rim ( ! old crat]4 ,ne>ly due s\? ( ,quito is ! great volcanic cone ( ,el ,alt>4 ,l all ! peaks ( ?is high plateau1 ,el ,alt> rises to a great height above ! sea1 be+ at ! pres5t "t #af1chc feet above ! sea4 ,?is m\nta9 has an enorm\s crat] t appe>s to be dormant or ext9ct1 & is cov]$ ) sn[4 ,accord+ to ! traditions ( ,indians1 ,el ,alt>1 or1 z !y call x1 ,capac ,urcu or ,! ,*ief1 0 ! highe/ m\nta9 ne> ! equator1 be+ mu* high] ?an ,*imborazo4 ,b dur+ a prodigi\s eruption t occurr$ be=e ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 & cont9u$ un9t]rupt$ly = eight ye>s1 ! height ( ! m\nta9 0 consid]ably r$uc$4 ,accord+ to ,b\ss+ault1 ! fragm5ts ( ! cone ( ?is celebrat$ m\nta9 are n[ spread = great di/ances ar\nd ! m\nta9 on ! surr\nd+ l[l&s4 ,pi*9*a 9 ,ecuador1 an ext9ct volcano1 is situat$ almo/ imm$iately on ! equator4 ,x has a height z measur$ by ,:ymp] by ! b>omet]1 ( #ae1iah feet above ! ,pacific4 ,! summit is cov]$ by blocks ( pumice4 ,sev]al species ( li*5s are f\nd at ?is elevation4 ,accord+ to ,daub5y1 ,pi*9*a 0 ext9ct prior to #aeci1 :5 x became active4 ,!re 7 also eruptions 9 #aegg1 #aehg1 & #affh4 ,x 0 also 9 activity dur+ #ahca4 ,cayamba1 ano!r volcanic m\nta9 ( ,ecuador1 lies to ! ea/ ( ,pi*9*a1 a %ort di/ance nor? ( ! equator4 ,its height is #ai1ahf feet4 ,x is ne>ly ext9ct4 ,cotopaxi1 #ai1fhj feet1 is ano!r volcanic m\nta9 ( ! high plateau ( ,quito4 ,cotopaxi is /ill active4 ,its slopes are cov]$ ) sn[ d[n to a height ( ab\t #ad1hjj feet4 ,betwe5 ! l[] edge ( ?is sn[ l9e & ! l[] slopes ( ! m\nta91 !re lies a zone ( nak$ rock4 ,accord+ to ,:ymp]1 ! eruption ( ,cotopaxi1 9 #ahgg1 0 prec$$ by an unusual degree ( activity 9 ! e>li] p>ts ( ! ye>4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 did n cause any al>m until ,june #be?1 #ahgg1 :51 %ortly aft] midday1 an eruption1 att5d$ by trem5d\s subt]ranean ro>s1 began1 & an imm5se black column %ot up into ! air = ab\t twice ! height ( ! cone4 ,?is eruption 0 cle>ly visible at ,quito1 = ! w9d blew ! a%es t[>ds ! ,pacific4 ,at ?is "t ! summit _h n *ang$ its appe>ance1 b t[>ds #f3cj ,a4 ,m41 on ! next day1 ano!r enorm\s column ( a%es rose f ! crat]4 ,! a%es & c9d]s 7 fir/ c>ri$ due nor? by ! w9ds1 & !n1 spread+ out 9 all directions1 7 subsequ5tly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! air all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,at ,quito1 z e>ly z #h ,a4 ,m41 ! sky assum$ ! appe>ance x g5]ally has at twilight1 & ! d>kness increas$ until midday1 :5 x became z d>k z at midnight4 ,inde$1 x 0 s d>k t "o c\ld n see 8 h& be=e 8 face4 ,dur+ ?is eruption1 z is v common 9 ! eruptions ( ! sn[-clad m\nta9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 a flood ( wat]1 due to ! rapid melt+ ( ! sn[ & ice on ! summit1 ru%$ d[n ! m\nta9 slopes at #aj o'clock ,a4 ,m41 on ! #bf? ( ! mon?1 almo/ imm$iately aft] ! appe>ance ( a /ream ( lava t began to fl[ d[n ! m\nta94 ,9 a few mom5ts ! m\nta9 0 completely %ut (f f view by imm5se columns ( /eam & smoke4 ,at fir/1 a l[1 moan+ s\nd 0 he>d1 :i* rapidly increas$ to a ro>1 :5 a deluge ( mud1 m+l$ ) huge blocks ( ice & /ones1 swept d[n ! m\nta91 leav+ a des]t 9 its pa?4 ,x is e/imat$ t at "s places ?is /ream mov$ ) a velocity ( fifty miles p] h\r4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ,cotopaxi is %[n 9 ! accompany+ reproduction f ! pa9t+ by ,fr$]ick ,e4 ,*ur* 9 ! ,l5ox ,libr>y1 ,new ,york4 ,accord+ to ,:ymp]1 :o made an asc5t ( ,cotopaxi 9 #ahhj1 ! crat] on ! summit has ! =m ( an imm5se amphi!atre1 #b1cjj feet across f nor? to s\?1 & #a1fej feet f ea/ to we/4 ,its cre/ is irregul> & not*$4 ,! crat] is surr\nd$ by p]p5dicul> cliffs4 ,! we/]n side ( ! volcano is irregul>4 ,b>ometric measurem5ts gave ! height ( ?is volcano at #ai1dih feet4 ,its height z tak5 by ,la ,condam9e1 dur+ ! e>ly p>ts ( ! la/ c5tury1 0 #ai1fje feet1 s t1 accord+ to ,:ymp]1 assum+ z w\ld seem probable1 t ?is diff]5ce 9 height has n all be5 due to errors 9 measurem5ts1 ! volcano has gr[n or increas$ 9 height dur+ ! la/ c5tury & a half4 ,*imborazo1 #bj1dih feet1 is ano!r l(ty m\nta9 on ! plateau ( ,quito4 ,?is volcano is situat$ 9 lat4 #a #cj' ,s41 & is n at ! pres5t "t 9 an active condition4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 =m$ entirely ( volcanic mat]ial4 ,its upp] portions are cov]$ ) a lay] ( sn[ to a level ( "s #b1fjj feet bel[ ! summit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cotopaxi ,f a ,pa9t+ by ,fr$]ick ,e4 ,*ur* 9 ! ,l5ox ,collection ( ! ,new ,york ,public ,libr>y4 ,by ,p]mission ,*imborazo has an enorm\s volcanic summit1 :i*1 :5 se5 f ! ,pacific1 :5 ! air is especially cle> aft] ! long ra9s ( w9t]1 is a mo/ spl5did sight4 ,:ymp]1 :o asc5d$ ! m\nta91 says3 ,:5 ! transp>5cy ( ! air is increas$ & its enorm\s circul> summit is se5 project$ ^u ! deep azure ( blue ( ! ,equatorial sky1 x repres5ts a magnific5t sight4 ,! great r>ity ( ! air ?r\gh :i* ! top ( ! ,&es is se5 adds mu* to ! spl5dor4 ,:ymp] says1 t z f> z records are conc]n$1 !re h be5 no eruptions ( ,*imborazo1 :i* has app>5tly be5 an ext9ct volcano = _m ye>s4 ,its crat] has be5 completely buri$ by a ?ick cap ( ice on its summit1 :ile :at lava /reams exi/ on ! m\nta9 are ei!r cov]$ by l>ge glaci]s1 or h be5 remov$ by erosion1 or hidd5 by vegetation4 ,*imborazo possesses less ( ! conical outl9e ?an ,cotopaxi4 ,!re are /eep cliffs t[>ds ! summit t h be5 nam$ by ,:ymp] ! nor!rn & s\!rn walls4 ,!y seem to him to h be5 =m$ by ! viol5t upheavals ( ! explosive eruptions t h bl[n away portions ( ! cone4 ,!re are o!r volcanoes 9 ?is di/rict1 b ! above are all we h space = describ+4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 ! volcano ( ,rancagua1 9 ,*ile1 lat4 #cd #ae' ,s41 is cont9ually ?r[+ up a%es & vapors l ,/romboli4 ,inde$1 a ye> seldom passes 9 ,*ile )\t "s e>?quake %ocks4 ,( ^! %ocks ^? :i* came f ! side ne>e/ ! sea are mo/ viol5t4 ,! t[n ( ,copiapo 0 laid wa/e by ^! %ocks dur+ ! ye>s #aggc1 #agif1 & #ahai1 9 bo? in/ances aft] int]vals ( tw5ty-?ree ye>s4 ,s9ce ! volcanic m\nta9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica are sn[-cov]$ ! occurr5ces ( volcanic eruptions are apt to be att5d$ by great floods caus$ by ! rapid melt+ ( ! sn[1 z well z sometimes by ! break+ ( huge subt]ranean cavities t are fill$ ) wat]4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 ! volcanoes ( ,p]u rise f a plateau f #ag1jjj to #bj1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal volcanoes ( ,p]u is ,arequipa1 ^: summit is #ah1hgg feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! m\nta9 takes its "n f ! city ( ,arequipa1 :i* is situat$ n f> f its base4 ,x is an active volcano4 ,ano!r volcano1 ,viejo1 is f\nd 9 lat4 #af #ee' ,s4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 !re are active v5ts ext5d+ ?r\gh ,*ile to ! isl& ( ,*iloe to lat4 #cj ,n4 ,aconcagua1 we/ ( ,valp>aiso1 9 lat4 #cb #ci' ,s41 #bc1jjj feet 9 height1 ! highe/ m\nta9 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 is /ill 9 an active condition4 ,accord+ to ,scrope1 :5 ! city ( ,m5doza 0 de/roy$ by an e>?quake1 t kill$ #aj1jjj p1 9 ,m>*1 #ahfa1 x is probable t ,aconcagua 0 9 eruption4 ,!re are _m o!r active volcanoes 9 ,*ile1 ext5d+ z f> s\? z ! volcanoes ( ,patagonia1 nor? ( ! ,/raits ( ,magellan z well z o!rs ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,= "s read]s ?is may be a surpris+ *apt] head+1 = x is a g5]al impression t !re are no volcanoes 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is true t practically all ( ! volcanoes ( ?is c\ntry are dormant or ext9ct4 ,!y h1 h[ev]1 at "o "t be5 exce$+ly active1 &1 if reports are correct1 "s ( !m 7 active dur+ comp>atively rec5t times4 ,ne>ly all ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates lie we/ ( ! m]idian ( ,d5v]4 ,^! volcanoes belong to two di/9ct types1 ei!r ! ,vesuvian type ) built up cones1 or ! plateau or fissure type already ref]r$ to4 ,! foll[+ brief description ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 collat$1 = ! great] "p1 f ,wallace's excell5t book on ! volcanoes ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,cross+ ! ,unit$ ,/ates on ! ,s\!rn ,pacific ,railroad "o's att5tion is caught1 9 ,arizona1 by a magnific5t gr\p ( m\nta9s kn[n z ! ,san ,francisco ,m\nta9s4 ,! highe/ peak ( ^! m\nta9s rea*es #ab1efb feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & #e1gjj feet above ! surface ( ! plateau on :i* ! m\nta9s /&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,accord+ to ,g4 ,k4 ,gilb]t1 ! ,san ,francisco ,m\nta9 gr\p is =m$ ( a v>iety ( lava kn[n z tra*yte1 t is ( comp>atively rec5t ejection1 possibly ( a geological age call$ ! ,t]ti>y4 ,! lava =m+ ! m\nta9s escap$ ?r\gh a numb] ( crat] cones1 "s ( :i* c /ill be se5 9 ! neighborhood4 ,"s ( ^! crat]s are n[ 9 almo/ z p]fect a condition z ! day !y 7 =m$4 ,inde$1 to "o look+ at !m f a neighbor+ elevation1 !y appe> s fre%1 & s little affect$ by ! climate1 t "o might almo/ believe t ! lava _h j fl[$ out ( ! crat]s1 & has n yet h>d5$4 ,nev]!less1 geologi/s are sure !y h be5 =m$ long be=e man appe>$ on ! e>?4 ,9 "o ( ^! crat]s a lake ( fre% wat] has collect$4 ,ano!r ext9ct volcano ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ,mt4 ,taylor 9 ,new ,mexico1 ne>ly ea/ ( ! ,san ,francisco ,m\nta9s4 ,?is m\nta9 rises f ! surface ( a high table-l&1 or1 z x is call$ 9 ?is "p ( ! _w1 a mesa4 ,! surface ( ! plateau is cov]$ ) a ?ick lava /ream f :i* ,mt4 ,taylor rises to a height ( #aa1cij feet above ! level ( ! ocean4 ,?is mesa1 or table-l&1 is =ty-sev5 miles 9 l5g? f nor?we/ to s\!a/1 & ab\t tw5ty-?ree miles 9 bread?4 ,its g5]al elevation is ab\t #h1bjj feet4 ,! plateau rises ab\t #b1jjj feet above ! surface ( ! level l& t surr\nds x4 ,all ^! #b1jjj feet h be5 remov$ by erosion4 ,! table-l& f :i* ,mt4 ,taylor rises has n be5 erod$ by ! action ( ! ra91 riv]s1 & o!r wea!r+ ag5cies l ! surface ( ! c\ntry surr\nd+ x1 because ( a cov]+ ( lava t has be5 spread ov] its surface to a dep? ( ab\t #cjj feet4 ,mt4 ,taylor is =m$ almo/ entirely ( lava t has escap$ ?r\gh a s+le op5+ & has built up a high cone ar\nd x4 ,! volcano is n[ q ext9ct1 s t ! orig9al =m ( ! m\nta9 has be5 greatly *ang$ by erosion4 ,y w rememb]1 :5 we 7 discuss+ ! g5]al subject ( volcanoes1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is book1 t we spoke ( volcanic m\nta9s be+ bottl$ up aft] an eruption1 by ! h>d5+ ( ! lava :i* rema9$ 9 ! crat] & ! tube t connects ! crat] ) ! place f :i* ! lava _h be5 d]iv$4 ,we !n spoke ( ?is h>d5$ mass be+ kn[n z a volcanic plug1 or /opp]1 expla9+ h[ ! volcano c\ld nev] aga9 erupt ?r\gh its old crat] unless x c\ld develop suffici5t =ce to bl[ out or remove ?is /opp]4 ,n[ besides ! crat] at ! top ( ,mt4 ,taylor !re 7 sev]al o!rs 9 ! erod$ region surr\nd+ ! mesa1 or high table-l&1 f :i* ,mt4 ,taylor rises4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! erosion :i* remov$ ! #b1jjj feet ( rocks on all portions ( ! old mesa t 7 n protect$ by ! coat+ ( lava1 ^! old m\nta9 plugs 7 too h>d to be worn away or erod$1 & 71 !re=e1 left project+ into ! air l va/ pyramids4 ,if y %\ld ev] visit ,mt4 ,taylor & %\ld g to ! ea/]n bord] ( ?is mesa1 & look ov] ! erod$ pla91 y w\ld see 9 ! l[l&s a "p ( ! places f :i* ! #b1jjj feet ( matt] h be5 sl[ly erod$4 ,dutton describes ! beautiful panorama t is to be se5 z foll[s3 ,! edge ( ! mesa sudd5ly desc5ds by a succession ( l$ges & slopes1 ne>ly #b1jjj feet into ! rugg$ & highly div]sifi$ valley-pla9 bel[4 ,! c\ntry b5ea? is a m$ley ( l[ cliffs & bluffs1 %[+ ! br[ns & pale yell[s ( ! ,cretace\s s&/ones & %ales4 ,out ( ?is confus$ pat*work ( bright colors rise sev]al objects ( rem>kable aspect4 ,!y are app>5tly inaccessible eyries ( black rock1 & at a r\gh guess1 by comp>ison ) ! kn[n altitudes ( surr\nd+ objects1 _! heights above ! mean level ( ! adjo9+ pla9 may range f #hjj to #a1ejj feet4 ,! blackness ( _! %ade may be exagg]at$ by contra/ ) ! brilliant colors ( ! rocks & soil out ( :i* !y rise1 b _! =ms are ev5 m /rik+4 ,^! black piles are ! necks or lava plugs ( ext9ct volcanoes4 ,!y rise above ! level ( ! pla9 because1 be+ h>d] ?an ! surr\nd+ rocks1 !y h resi/$ erosion4 ,9 "s cases ^! necks or plugs h be5 conv]t$ by %r9kage1 on cool+1 into beautiful columns1 some:at ( ! type ( ! basaltic columns ( ! ,giant's ,causeway4 ,x w\ld be difficult to c\nt ! numb] ( volcanic necks t c be se5 ne> ! edge ( ! mesa4 ,"o's att5tion is at once attract$ to "s doz5 ( ^! piles1 :i* are especially /rik+ on acc\nt ( _! great size1 & om9\s black color1 b ! numb] is by no means limit$ to ?is doz54 ,!re are hundr$s ( !m4 ,fig4 #ai gives "s idea ( a "p ( ! view f ! edge ( ! mesa1 & ,fig4 #bj ! appe>ance ( two ( ^! volcanic necks4 ,b besides high volcanic m\nta9s su* z ! ,san ,francisco ,m\nta9s & ,mt4 ,taylor1 !re are1 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to be f\nd fragm5ts ( huge crat]s f :i*1 9 ! geological pa/1 imm5se quantities ( lava h escap$4 ,9 "s in/ances ^! crat]s are b fragm5ts ( huge crat]s1 t1 l ! crat] ( ,mt4 ,somma1 9 ,vesuvius1 h be5 ne>ly completely bl[n away by "s unrecord$ explosion dur+ ! f> pa/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,panorama ,,f ,,! ,,mesa ,,at ,,! ,,edge ,,( ,,mt4 ,,taylor ,f ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,a crat] ( ?is type1 kn[n z ,ice ,spr+s ,crat]1 is situat$ 9 ! des]t valley we/ ( ! ,wahsat* ,m\nta9s1 "s #abe miles s\? ( ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,utah4 ,?is crat] is especially int]e/+ f ! fact t x occupies a position on a pla9 t 0 =m$ by ! deposition ( s$im5t 9 an imm5se lake t cov]$ ?is "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates v long be=e man liv$ on ! e>?4 ,we are allud+ to ,lake ,bonneville1 a lake t exi/$ 9 a geological "t kn[n z ! ,glacial ,epo*4 ,?is lake occupi$ ! t]ritory n[ fill$ by ! ,great ,salt ,lake ( ,utah1 b t[>ds ! close ( ! ,glacial ,epo* x 0 imm5sely l>g] ?an x is n[4 ,?is c be %[n n only by ! pres5ce ( %ore l9es1 t are cle>ly m>k$ on ! sides ( ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s1 b also by ! anci5t lake bea*es1 & deltas1 t are common 9 ! di/rict1 s t in/ead ( !re be+ ! comp>atively limit$ area ( ,great ,salt ,lake z m>k$ on ! maps ( to-day !re 0 a lake t _h an area ( #ai1gej squ>e miles1 t cov]$ an area on :i* at lea/ #bjj1jjj p dwell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,volcanic ,,necks1 ,,edge ,,( ,,mesa ,,at ,,mt4 ,,taylor ,f ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,a simil> lake1 kn[n z ,lake ,lehontan1 exi/$ at ! same "t1 cov]+ l>ge areas 9 ! we/]n p>ts ( ,nevada4 ,com+ n[ to ,ice ,spr+s ,crat]s 9 ,utah1 we f9d "h ?ree small crat]s =m$ ( scori & lapilli 7volcanic a%es consi/+ ( small angul> /ony fragm5ts74 ,ne> !m lies a fragm5t ( a mu* l>g] crat] kn[n z ! ,cresc5t4 ,9 "s respects ?is crat] 0 n unlike ! crat] ( ,somma t surr\nd$ ,mt4 ,vesuvius4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 z l>ge1 hav+ a diamet] ( only #b1bjj feet4 ,f ^! crat]s /reams ( basalt fl[$ until !y cov]$ consid]able areas4 ,a /ill m rec5t crat] kn[n z ,tab]nacle ,crat] is situat$ f\r miles s\? ( ! ,ice ,spr+s ,crat]4 ,tab]nacle ,crat] takes its "n f ! build+ kn[n 9 ,salt ,lake ,city z ! ,tab]nacle4 ,accord+ to ,gilb]t1 ?is crat] 0 =m$ at a "t :5 ,lake ,bonneville /ood at a comp>atively l[ level1 or :5 ! wat] 0 only f fifty to sev5ty-five feet above ! bottom ( ! valley on :i* ! crat] n[ /&s4 ,at t "t an explosive volcanic eruption occurr$ on ! bottom ( ! lake1 & ! rim ( ! crat]1 built up by ?is explosion1 0 gradually pu%$ above ! surface ( ! lake1 s z to %ut out its wat]s4 ,ext9ct volcanic crat]s1 n unlike ^? ( ,utah1 occur also ne> ,ragt[n1 9 ,nevada1 9 a di/rict kn[n z ! ,c>son ,valley ,des]t1 9 "o ( ! broade/ areas ( :at 0 once ,lake ,lahontan4 ,ragt[n is tw5ty-two miles s\?we/ ( ,wadswor? on ! ,c5tral ,pacific ,railroad4 ,at ! pres5t "t !re are two circul> depressions or volcanic crat]s fill$ ) pools ( /rongly alkal9e wat] kn[n z ! ,ragt[n ,pond1 or ,soda ,lake4 ,! l>ge lake cov]s an area ( #bfh-a_/b acres4 ,its greate/ diamet] is ov] #d1jjj feet4 ,)\t go+ into a detail$ description x w suffice to say t ! l>g] crat] probably 0 de/roy$ by an explosive volcanic eruption4 ,ano!r int5sely alkal9e lake t fills an ext9ct volcanic crat] is ! ,mono ,lake1 situat$ 9 ,mono ,valley 9 ,cali=nia at ! ea/]n base ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas4 ,x has an area ( ab\t #bjj squ>e miles4 ,! c5tre ( ! lake has two small isl&s nam$ ,pa*a & ,negit4 ,imm$iately s\? ( ,mono ,lake are a numb] ( crat]s t occupy portions ( :at 0 once app>5tly a fissure ext5d+ 9 a g5]al nor? & s\? direction4 ,! highe/ ( ^! crat]s are 9 ! neighborhood ( #b1ejj feet4 ,b leav+ ^! inconspicu\s crat]s1 let u briefly exam9e "s ( ! high] m\nta9 peaks ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t are ( volcanic orig94 ,"o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s ( ^! is ,mt4 ,%a/a4 ,?is m\nta9 is situat$ 9 ,cali=nia1 at ! nor!rn end ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas4 ,x has a height ( #ad1cej feet4 ,x is a sn[-clad m\nta9 ( a conical =m1 & is a conspicu\s object 9 ! l&scape1 because x /&s alone4 ,mt4 ,%a/a is a d\ble-con$ m\nta94 ,besides ! cone on its summit !re is a well-develop$ cone kn[n z ,%a/9a on ! we/]n side ( ! m\nta91 #b1jjj feet l[] ?an ! ma9 summit4 ,!re are well-def9$ lava /reams on ! slopes ( ,mt4 ,%a/a4 ,"o ( ^!1 :i* issu$ f ! s\!rn side ( ! m\nta9 at an elevation ( #e1ejj feet1 divid$ into two /reams4 ,"o ( ^! /reams is twelve miles 9 l5g?4 ,! o!r ent]$ ! canyon ( ! ,sacram5to ,riv]1 ?us displac+ ! wat]4 ,com+ n[ to ! ,cascade ,m\nta9s1 9 ,oregon & ,wa%+ton1 we w f9d 9 !m a numb] ( giant peaks ( volcanic orig94 ,! mo/ important ( ^! are 9 regul> ord] f s\? to nor?1 z foll[s3 ,mt4 ,pitt1 #i1gfj feet2 ,mt4 ,mazana1 #h1bbc2 ,mt4 ,union1 #g1hha2 ,mt4 ,scott1 #g1abc2 ,?ree ,si/]s1 ,mt4 ,jeff]son1 #aj1bjj1 & ,mt4 ,hood1 #aa1bbe1 9 ,oregon2 ,mt4 ,adams1 #i1egj2 ,mt4 ,/4 ,hel5's1 #i1gej2 ,mt4 ,ra9i]1 #ad1ebe1 & ,mt4 ,bak] 9 ,wa%+ton1 #aj1hgg4 ,ne>ly all ^! m\nta9s h crat]s ei!r on _! summits or on _! sides4 ,!y are ext9ct volcanic m\nta9s1 t 71 = ! mo/ "p1 ?r[n up dur+ ! ,t]ti>y ,geological ,p]iod1 s t !y h all be5 greatly affect$ by erosion4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! above volcanic m\nta9s is ,mt4 ,mazana1 9 ,oregon4 ,?is m\nta9 has on its summit an approximately circul> cavity f five to six miles 9 diamet]1 t is occupi$ by a lake ( wat] kn[n z ,crat] ,lake4 ,?is lake is #f1bci feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & has a dep? ( #a1ige feet4 ,x is surr\nd$ by ne>ly v]tical walls rang+ f #ijj to #b1bjj feet deep1 s t ! va/ cald]a ( :i* ?is great depression consi/s has a dep? ( at lea/ #d1jjj feet4 ,mt4 ,pitt1 situat$ ab\t sixty miles nor? ( ,mt4 ,%a/a1 9 s\!rn ,oregon1 has a regul>ly %ap$ volcanic cone1 & ! remnant ( a crat] at its summit4 ,! ,?ree ,si/]s & ,mt4 ,jeff]son lie to ! nor? ( ,mt4 ,pitt4 ,l ! o!rs !y are anci5t volcanic m\nta9s4 ,b little is accurately kn[n conc]n+ !m4 ,mt4 ,hood1 #aa1bbe feet high1 rises f ! cre/ ( ! ,cascade range 9 ,nor?we/ ,oregon1 ab\t tw5ty-five miles s\? ( ! ,columbia ,riv]4 ,mt4 ,hood is an exce$+ly maje/ic m\nta94 ,at its summit !re are only portions ( ! walls ( ! orig9al crat]4 ,:5 asc5d$ 9 #ahhh1 /reams ( sulphur vapor 7 escap+ f fum>oles on its nor!a/]n slopes1 at an elevation ( #h1ejj feet above ! sea4 ,mt4 ,adams & ,mt4 ,/4 ,hel5's lie to ! nor? ( ,mt4 ,hood4 ,mt4 ,adams ab\t sixty miles to ! nor?1 & beyond ?is1 ,mt4 ,/4 ,hel5's4 ,accurate in=mation conc]n+ ! summit ( ,mt4 ,adams is /ill lack+4 ,mt4 ,/4 ,hel5's 9 ,wa%+ton has m ( a conical summit4 ,russell /ates t accord+ to fronti]sm51 ,/4 ,hel5's has be5 9 a /ate ( activity )9 ! pa/ fifty ye>s4 ,a ,fr5*-,canadian ass]ts t ! m\nta9 0 9 actual eruption dur+ ! w9t] ( #ahda-dc1 t at ?is date ! light f ! volcano 0 suffici5tly bright to enable "o to see & pick up a p9 9 ! grass at midnight ne> 8 cab9 "s tw5ty miles di/ant4 ,mt4 ,/4 ,hel5's 0 asc5d$ 9 #ahhi1 :5 fum>oles 7 f\nd on ! nor!a/ side4 ,mt4 ,ra9i] 9 ,wa%+ton is pla9ly visible f ,puget ,s\nd4 ,x is a mo/ magnific5t m\nta94 ,! summit has a b[l-%ap$ crat]1 ( an almo/ p]fectly circul> =m4 ,! inside ( ! crat]1 :5 la/ asc5d$1 0 fill$ to )9 ?irty or ?irty-five feet ( its rim ) ice & sn[4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 evid5ces ( heat1 s9ce num]\s jets ( /eam 7 se5 issu+ f its int]ior rim4 ,mt4 ,bak]1 ,wa%+ton1 is ! nor!rnmo/ ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,cascade ,m\nta9s1 s\? ( ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,b little is kn[n ( ?is m\nta94 ,! summit appe>s z a conical peak f ,puget ,s\nd1 s t its =m w\ld seem to %[ t x is ( volcanic orig94 ,accord+ to ,gibbs1 (fic]s ( ! ,hudson ,bay ,company1 z well z ! ,indians1 decl>$ t ,mt4 ,bak] 0 9 eruption 9 #ahdc1 :5 x broke out at ! same "t z ,mt4 ,/4 ,hel5's1 cov]+ ! c\ntry ) a%es4 ,!re are b few volcanoes 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s :i* ext5d f nor? to s\? ?r\gh ! ,unit$ ,/ates at a consid]able di/ance to ! ea/ ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas & ,cascade ,ranges4 ,! ,spani% ,peaks1 situat$ 9 ! s\!a/]n "p ( ,colorado ab\t sixty miles s\? ( ,pueblo1 are ! rema9s ( anci5t volcanoes4 ,two ( ! mo/ prom95t ( ^! peaks rise f #ab1gbj to #ac1fbj feet above ! sea4 ,we %all make no ef=t to attempt to describe ! volcanic m\nta9s t may exi/ 9 ^? portions ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,ranges or ! ,cascade ,range ly+ 9 ,canada4 ,comp>atively little is kn[n ( !m1 b inasmu* z volcanic activity has be5 manife/$ 9 ,alaska1 x w\ld seem highly improbable1 z ,russell rem>ks1 t volcanoes %\ld sudd5ly cease at ! nor!rn b\nd>ies ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & !n beg9 aga9 at ! mo/ s\!rn "p ( ,alaska4 ,x w be suffici5t to say t ,mt4 ,edgecome1 situat$ on an isl& 9 ! neighborhood ( ,sitka1 is ( volcanic orig91 & t ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 beg9n+ at ,alaska on ! ea/ at ! head ( ,cook's ,inlet1 ext5d we/w>d ?r\gh ! ,p59sula ( ,alaska to ! ,p59sula ( ,kamts*atka = a di/ance ( ne>ly #a1fjj miles4 ,?is belt1 :i* is call$ by ,russell ! ,aleutian ,volcanic ,belt1 conta9s num]\s volcanoes t are kn[n to h be5 active 9 hi/orical times4 ,mt4 ,wrangell1 on ! ,copp] ,riv]1 #bjj miles nor!a/ ( ! head ( ,cook's ,inlet1 is a l(ty volcanic m\nta9 t is said to h be5 9 eruption 9 #ahai1 & at ! "t ( la/ report 0 /ill ?r[+ out columns ( /eam4 ,:ile mu* rema9s to be asc]ta9$ ab\t ! volcanoes ( ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 x w\ld appe> t !re are active volcanoes on tw5ty-five ( ^! isl&s1 on :i* "s =ty-eight crat]s h be5 f\nd4 ,eruptions are common 9 ! di/rict4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,cata/rophe ,,( ,,m>t9ique ,,& ,,! ,,volcanic ,,isl&s ,,( ,,! ,,less] ,,antilles ,! ,we/ ,indies ,isl& *a9 consi/s ( two gr\ps ( isl&s2 i4 e41 ! ,great] ,antilles1 includ+ ,cuba1 ,jamaica1 ,hayti1 & ,porto ,rico1 on ! we/1 & ! *a9 ( ! ,less] ,antilles on ! ea/4 ,! ,less] ,antilles consi/s ( two p>allel *a9s1 ! we/]nmo/ ( :i* is = ! great] "p m\nta9\s ) peaks sev]al ?\s& feet 9 height4 ,all ^! isl&s are volcanic4 ,! *a9 on ! ea/ consi/s ( l[1 calc>e\s rocks1 or rocks consi/+ l>gely ( lime4 ,9 ! we/]n *a9 ! isl&s beg9n+ on ! s\? are1 ,gr5ada1 ,/4 ,v9c5t1 ,/4 ,lucia1 ,m>t9ique1 ,dom9ica1 ,guadel\pe1 ,monts]rat1 ,nevis1 & ,/4 ,eu/ace1 :ile 9 ! calc>e\s *a9 are f\nd ! ,tobago1 ,b>badoes1 & o!rs4 ,prior to #aijb1 ! greate/ volcanic eruption 9 ?is "p ( ! _w occurr$ on ! isl& ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 ) ! volcano ( ,s\frire4 ,al?\gh ! =ces display$ 7 exce$+ly great1 yet !y become insignificant :5 comp>$ ) ! appall+ eruption t took place 9 ,m>t9ique only a %ort "t ago2 namely1 ,may ! #h?1 #aijb1 :5 ! volcano ( ,mt4 ,pele1 situat$ on ! nor?we/]n "p ( ! isl&1 bur/ into an eruption s t]rible t 9 de/ruction ( life x f> exce$$ ! eruption ( ,krakatoa1 al?\gh ! am\nt ( en]gy caus+ ! eruption 0 mu* small]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,! ,,less] ,,antilles ,heilpr91 9 a book call$ ,mt4 ,pele & ! ,trag$y ( ,m>t9ique1 f :om mo/ ( ! in=mation ( ?is *apt] has be5 obta9$1 calls att5tion to ! fact t be=e ! eruption ( ,pele !re 7 pl5ty ( w>n+s = ^? intellig5t en\gh to note !m4 ,= two or ?ree weeks prior to ,may #h?1 #aijb1 ! volcanic activity ( ,pele _h be5 rapidly increas+1 ! m\nta9 ?r[+ out cl\ds ( a%es & sulphur\s vapors f its crat]4 ,by ,april #be? ! sulphur\s vapors _h s increas$ 9 quantity z to make brea?+ difficult 9 ,/4 ,pi]re4 ,! a%es fell on ! surr\nd+ c\ntry & by ! #b;d ( ,may _h s cov]$ ! /reets ( ,/4 ,pi]re z to /op traffic4 ,?ree days lat]1 ,may #f?1 %ortly be=e noon1 an avalan*e ( mud p\r$ d[n ! slopes ( ! m\nta9 ) ! rapidity ( an express tra94 ,^! torr5ts ( mud & wat] delug$ ! t[ns & villages 9 ! neighborhood4 ,! activity ( ,mt4 ,pele increas$ until ! morn+ ( ,may #h?1 #aijb1 :51 almo/ at exactly #h ,a4 ,m41 an eruption occurr$1 s t]rible 9 its effects t 9 two m9utes ! city ( ,/4 ,pi]re 0 almo/ completely de/roy$4 ,/4 ,pi]re1 ! pr9cipal t[n ( ,m>t9ique1 is situat$ on ! isl& ( ,m>t9ique1 on ! nor?we/]n coa/1 ab\t t5 miles s\?we/ ( ,mt4 ,pele4 ,/4 ,pi]re 0 settl$ z f> back z #afce4 ,x is situat$ on an op5 road/ead )\t any h>bor4 ,t !re 7 _m po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 ! position ( ,/4 ,pi]re & ! de/roy$ city ( ,pompeii w be recogniz$ z ! description ( ! cata/rophe is giv54 ,/4 ,pi]re 0 a beautiful city1 & =m$ ! natural outlet to "o ( ! ri*e/ di/ricts 9 ,m>t9ique = ! production ( sug> cane & cocoa4 ,x conta9$ _m f9e h\ses1 ! homes ( plant]s1 weal?y bank]s1 m]*ants1 & %ipp]s1 :o1 besides _! regul> h\ses 9 ! city1 _h con/ruct$ h&some villas on heights on ! outskirts ( ! city4 ,! h\ses 7 to a great ext5t "o or two /ories 9 height1 & 7 9 _m cases surr\nd$ by f9e g>d5s4 ,! city ext5d$ along ! coa/ = ab\t two miles4 ,! /reets 7 well light$4 ,! eruption ( ,mt4 ,pele on ,may #h?1 #aijb1 0 ( a v unusual "*1 conta9+ a feature t--) ! exception ( a volcanic eruption ( ,s\frire1 a volcanic m\nta9 on ! neighbor+ isl& ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 & an eruption ( ,kilauea 9 ,hawaii--s f> z ,i am aw>e1 nev] be=e occurr$4 ,?is 0 a bla/ ( highly heat$ air1 m+l$ ) :ite hot or inc&esc5t du/1 t swept d[n ! side ( ! m\nta9 ) a velocity ( "o or two miles p] m9ute1 or possibly m4 ,ne>ly all ( ! p 9 ,/4 ,pi]re 7 kill$4 ,f ! appe>ance ( ! bodies x seem$ t dea? 0 practically in/antane\s1 & 0 due ei!r to scor*+ or burn+1 or asphyxiation by ! brea?+ ( highly heat$ air4 ,! numb] ( p s kill$1 includ+ almo/ ! entire population ( ,/4 ,pi]re1 z well z a numb] ( adjo9+ settlem5ts1 0 n less ?an #cj1jjj4 ,! zone ( absolute de/ruction 0 limit$ to an area ! ext5t ( :i* did n greatly exce$ eight or n9e squ>e miles4 ,on ! outskirts ( ?is zone ! de/ruction1 ?\gh consid]able1 0 less complete4 ,!re 0 almo/ an entire abs5ce ( great e>?quake %ocks dur+ ! eruption4 ,foll[+ ! t]rible eruption ( ,may #h? 7 a numb] ( less viol5t eruptions on ,may #bj?1 #bf?1 ,june #f?1 ,july #i?1 & ,augu/ #ca/4 ,accord+ to ,heilpr9 ^! eruptions 7 ( ! same "* z t ( ,may #h?4 ,!re has be5 consid]able discussion z to ! exact causes ( ! tornadic inc&esc5t bla/ t caus$ ! awful de/ruction ( life4 ,)\t ent]+ ?is discussion x is suffici5t to say t x is n[ g5]ally consid]$ t ! bla/ consi/$ ( highly heat$ air1 & sup]-heat$ /eam load$ ) great quantities ( f9ely divid$ r$ hot or ev5 :ite hot du/ p>ticles4 ,:ile1 p]haps1 ! =ce produc+ ! awful eruption ( ,mt4 ,pele 0 greatly excell$ 9 ! case ( _m o!r volcanic eruptions2 su* z ,pap&ayang1 9 #aggb2 ,asamayama1 9 #aghc2 ,skapt> ,jkul1 9 #aghc2 ,tomboro1 9 #ahae2 ,cosegu9a1 9 #ahce2 & ,krakatoa1 9 #ahhc2 yet1 9 ! words ( ,heilpr91 9 int5sity & swiftness ( its dea?-deal+ bla/ 444 ! eruption ( ,may #h?1 & ( lat] dates1 /&s unique 9 records ( volcanic manife/ations4 ,:ile ! am\nt ( a%es t accompani$ ! bla/ ( :ite hot /eam & air 0 comp>atively small1 yet dur+ ! "t betwe5 ?is & ! subsequ5t eruptions1 ! am\nt ( a%es t 7 ?r[n f ! surface ( ,mt4 ,pele 0 exce$+ly great4 ,accord+ to ,russell1 9 a pap] on ! volcanic eruptions ( ,m>t9ique & ,/4 ,v9c5t1 9 #aijb1 ! am\nt ( a%es & solid matt] g5]ally ?r[n out f ! crat] ( ,mt4 ,pele w\ld be equal to #dj1jjj1jjj cubic feet e m9ute1 or "o & a half times ! s$im5ts dis*>g$ by ! ,mississippi 9 ! c\rse ( a :ole ye>4 ,accord+ to ,heilpr91 h[ev]1 ! actual am\nt ( du/ ?r[n f ! crat] ( ,mt4 ,pele 01 probably1 #ejj times great] ?an ! am\nt dis*>g$ by ! ,mississippi ,riv] 9 ! c\rse ( a ye>1 &1 consequ5tly1 consid]ably great] ?an t ( all ! riv]s ( ! _w comb9$1 or1 z he says3 ,mont ,pele has n[ be5 9 a condition ( =ceful activity = upw>ds ( two hundr$ days2 c we assume t dur+ ?is "t x may h ?r[n out a mass ( mat]ial ^: cubical cont5ts are h>dly less ?an a qu>t] ( ! area ( ,m>t9ique z x n[ appe>s above ! wat]s8 ,"o is1 inde$1 almo/ appall$ by ! magnitude ( ?is "w1 & yet ! "w may ev5 be v mu* great] ?an is "h /at$4 ,we ask ourselves ! que/ions1 :at becomes ( ! void t is be+ =m$ 9 ! int]ior8 ,:at =m ( new cata/rophe does x invite8 ,!re c be no answ] to a "q ( ?is k9d--except 9 ! future happ5+ t may be associat$ ) ?is special condition4 ,b geologi/s mu/ take c\nt ( ! =ce z be+ "o ( greate/ pot5tial en]gy1 ^: relation to ! modell+ & ! %ap+ ( ! de/9ies ( ! globe is ( f> great] significance ?an has g5]ally be5 conceiv$4 ,a curi\s circum/ance connect$ ) ! eruption ( ,mt4 ,pele 0 ! mo/ pron\nc$ electric & magnetic di/urbances4 ,moreov]1 z 9 ! case ( ! eruption ( ,krakatoa1 !re 7 ! same aft] gl[s or r$ sunsets & sunrises due to ! pres5ce ( f9e volcanic du/ 9 ! high] regions ( ! air4 ,^! ph5om5a 7 obs]v$ ov] widely sep>at$ areas4 ,x appe>s t ?is great eruption 9 ,m>t9ique 0 prec$$ by sev]e e>?quakes 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 especially 9 ,colombia & ,v5ezuela4 ,! mo/ m>k$ 0 ! great e>?quake :i* on ,april #ah? de/roy$ ! city ( ,guatamaula2 ?is 01 p]haps1 ! mo/ de/ructive e>?quake t has occurr$ 9 ! ,we/]n ,hemisph]e s9ce ! great e>?quake ( #ahab1 t de/roy$ ! city ( ,c>acas4 ,inde$1 ,pr(essor ,milne sugge/s t x 0 ?is e>?quake t br\ght ab\t ! eruption ( ,mt4 ,pele4 ,s\frire1 on ! isl& ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 _h a great eruption on ,may #g?1 #aijb1 "o day be=e ! awful eruption ( ,mt4 ,pele4 ,no lava fl[$ dur+ ?is eruption4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 great dis*>ges ( mud1 due to a lake t be=e ! eruption fill$ ! top ( a depression kn[n z ! old crat] :i* lay s\?we/ ( a new crat]1 or ! crat] t 0 =m$ dur+ ! eruption ( #ahab4 ,! old crat] 0 n9e-t5?s ( a mile across f ea/ to we/1 & eight-t5?s ( a mile f nor? to s\?4 ,! dep? to ! crat] floor 0 f #a1jjj to #b1djj feet4 ,! surface ( ! new & %all[ boil+ lake :i* occupi$ ! deepe/ "p ( ! floor dur+ ! latt] "p ( ,may1 & f ,june to ,augu/1 0 e/imat$ to be only #a1bjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! %eet ( wat] t occupi$ x be=e ! eruption be+ sev]al hundr$ feet high]4 ,s\frire did n fail to give w>n+s ( its com+ eruption4 ,rumbl+s 7 he>d two days be=e ! explosion4 ,on ,may #e?1 #aijb1 fi%]m5 :o cross$ ! lake notic$ t ! wat] 0 di/urb$ & agitat$4 ,on ! ,tuesday foll[+1 ,may #f?1 great cl\ds 7 ?r[n out dur+ ! aft]noon1 & ! volcano 0 illum9$ by a r$di% gl>e ( fire4 ,! fir/ explosion 0 he>d %ortly be=e two o'clock on ! foll[+ day & ! volcano bur/ into activity4 ,! explosions1 toge!r ) great dis*>ges ( pumice1 a%es1 & b\ld]s1 foll[$ "o ano!r rapidly4 ,a column ( /eam 0 %ot up into ! air = a height ( #cj1jjj feet4 ,! sev]e/ p>oxysm came %ortly aft] t5 ,a4 ,m41 & 0 succe$$ by o!rs ne>ly z viol5t dur+ ! next few h\rs4 ,by ?is "t a r$di% curta9 ( cl\ds ne>ly %ut out ! isl& f view1 & rapidly advanc$ ov] ! l& & desc5d$ on ! sea4 ,?is eruption caus$ a loss ( life ( ab\t #a1cej4 ,?is eruption ( ,mt4 ,s\frire 0 accompani$ by ! same tornadic bla/ ( gl[+ air4 ,!re 0 n1 h[ev]1 any s+le bla/ q z sev]e z t :i* att5d$ ! eruption ( ,pele on ,may #h?1 #aijb4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,"s ,,o!r ,,not$ ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s ,s9ce ! limits ( our book w prev5t any fur!r description ( volcanic di/ricts or regions1 we mu/ cont5t ourselves ) descriptions ( "s ( ! not$ ( ! rema9+ volcanoes1 al?\gh _m we w ?us omit conta9 great wond]s4 ,z we h already se5 f ! description ( ,krakatoa1 ! isl& ( ,java ne> :i* ,krakatoa is situat$ is especially not$ n only = ! great numb] ( its volcanic m\nta9s1 b also = ! frequ5cy & sev]ity ( _! eruptions4 ,p]haps ! mo/ de/ructive eruption ( any ( ! volcanic m\nta9s ( ,java 0 ( a volcanic m\nta9 call$ ,pap&ayang4 ,?is volcano1 situat$ on ! s\!rn coa/ ( ! isl&1 is #g1jcd feet 9 height1 & 0 9 eruption 9 #aggb4 ,accord+ to ,scrope1 f :om ! details ( ?is eruption h be5 obta9$1 two o!rs ( ! _m volcanoes on ,java1 situat$ at #ahd & #ceb geographical miles respectively f ,pap&ayang1 broke out at ! same "t into active eruption1 al?\gh sev]al int]v5+ cones 7 undi/urb$4 ,! eruption ( ,pap&ayang 0 ( ! explosive type1 a l>ge "p ( ! m\nta9 be+ brok5 (f by ! great =ce ( ! eruption1 & its mat]ials scatt]$ f> & wide ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,dur+ ?is eruption =ty villages ) _! inhabitants 7 buri$ by great %[]s ( a%es4 ,an area ( fifte5 by six miles 0 left 9 ! %ape ( a huge pit by ! great eruption4 ,x 0 at fir/ believ$ by "s t ?is pit 0 due to ! actual s9k+ 9 ( ! gr\nd1 b a m c>eful /udy has %[n t x 0 9 reality caus$ by ! great =ce ( ! eruption1 be+1 9 po9t ( fact1 a va/ explosive crat] t 0 =m$ by ! expulsion ( ! mat]ials t =m]ly fill$ x4 ,"s idea ( ! great ext5t ( ?is eruption ( ,pap&ayang may be _h by ! size ( ?is huge crat] t 0 six by fifte5 miles 9 diamet]4 ,ano!r great volcanic m\nta9 9 ,java t _h a t]rific eruption 0 ,galungoon1 or ,galung ,gung4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 f :om ! facts ( ?is eruption h be5 obta9$1 prior to ?is eruption ! slopes ( ! m\nta9 7 highly cultivat$ & d5sely populat$4 ,!re 0 a circul> pit or crat] on ! summit ( ! m\nta91 b !re _h be5 no traditions ( any eruptions prior to #ahbb4 ,9 ,july1 #ahbb1 ! wat]s ( ! ,kunir ,riv]1 "o ( ! small riv]s t fl[ d[n ! slopes ( ! m\nta91 7 obs]v$ to become hot & turbid4 ,on ! #h? ( ,octob]1 #ahbb1 a t]rific explosion 0 sudd5ly he>d1 accompani$ by great e>?quake %ocks1 :5 imm5se columns ( hot wat] & boil+ mud1 mix$ ) burn+ brim/one1 a%es1 & lapilli1 7 ?r[n viol5tly l a great wat]sp\t f ! op5+ 9 ! m\nta91 ) su* enorm\s viol5ce t great quantities fell across ! ,riv] ,t&oi1 =ty miles di/ant1 :ile ! valleys 9 ! neighborhood 7 fill$ ) a burn+ torr5t4 ,! riv]s ov]fl[$ _! banks & produc$ great de/ruction by floods ( burn+ & boil+ mat]ials t wa%$ away all ! villages & cultivat$ fields 9 _! pa?4 ,dur+ ?is eruption an ext5d$ area 0 cov]$ ) boil+ mud 9 :i* 7 completely buri$ ! bodies ( _m ( ^? :o p]i%$4 ,s great 0 ! viol5ce ) :i* ! boil+ mud1 c9d]s1 etc41 7 ?r[n out ( ! m\nta9 t !y entirely fail$ to fall on _m ( ! villages 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood1 :ile ! m remote villages 7 completely de/roy$ & buri$ out ( sight "u ! mud4 ,! fir/ eruption cont9u$ = ne>ly five h\rs4 ,dur+ sev]al days foll[+ ! eruption1 torr5ts ( ra9 fell1 :i* produc$ floods 9 ! riv]s t cov]$ ! c\ntry f> & wide ) ?ick lay]s ( mud4 ,f\r days aft] ! great eruption1 t is1 on ! #ab? ( ,octob]1 #ahbb1 a second & /ill m viol5t eruption occurr$1 :5 imm5se quantities ( hot mud 7 aga9 ?r[n out ( ! crat]4 ,great blocks ( h>d5$ lava call$ basalt 7 ?r[n a di/ance ( sev5 miles f ! volcano4 ,?is eruption 0 accompani$ by a viol5t e>?quake4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is eruption t a huge piece ( ! side ( ! cone 0 bl[n out1 n unlike ! case ( ! ,val del ,bove on ,mt4 ,etna4 ,! surr\nd+ c\ntry 0 cov]$ ) mud4 ,! imm5se quantity ( mat]ials ?us ?r[n out ( ! side ( ! m\nta9 produc$ *anges 9 ! c\rses ( sev]al riv]s1 ?us caus+ great floods :i* 9 ! s+le night ( ,octob] #ab? dr[n$ #b1jjj p4 ,dur+ ^! eruptions !re 7 #aad villages de/roy$1 ) a total loss ( life ( ab\t #d1jjj4 ,!re is a volcanic m\nta9 on ! isl& ( ,sumbawa t is not$ = ! v de/ructive eruption t occurr$ on x 9 ,april1 #ahae4 ,if y exam9e ! map ( ! ,sunda ,isl&s *a91 y w see t ! isl& ( ,sumbawa lies imm$iately ea/ ( a little isl& call$ ,lombock1 ab\t #bjj miles ea/ ( ,java4 ,?is eruption ( ,sumbawa 0 ( ! mo/ frightful viol5ce1 &1 inde$1 ) ! exception ( ,krakatoa & ,pele1 0 "o ( ! greate/ eruptions 9 hi/oric times4 ,l all great eruptions1 t ( ,sumbawa gave pl5ty ( signs ( its com+4 ,dur+ ,april1 #ahad1 ! volcano manife/$ consid]able increase 9 its activity1 & a%es fell on ! decks ( vessels sail+ pa/ ! isl&4 ,! eruption began on ,april #e?1 #ahae1 b rea*$ its greate/ viol5ce on ! #aa? & #ab? ( ,april4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 ! s\nd ( ! explosion 0 he>d at ! isl& ( ,sumatra at a di/ance ( #igj geographical miles t[>ds ! we/1 & 9 ! opposite direction x 0 he>d = a di/ance ( #gbj miles4 ,! de/ruction ( life 0 t]rible4 ,out ( a population ( #ab1jjj 9 ! prov9ce ( ,tomboro1 only tw5ty-six p escap$ ) _! lives4 ,l _m o!r great eruptions ! %oot+ upw>ds ( ! great column ( matt] f ! crat] produc$ a viol5t :irlw9d t c>ri$ p1 horses1 cattle1 & almo/ e movable object high into ! air1 & tore up huge trees by _! roots4 ,imm5se quantities ( a%es fell ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 or 7 c>ri$ t[>ds ,java to ! we/ a di/ance ( #cjj miles1 :ile on ! nor? !y 7 c>ri$ t[>ds ,celebes = a di/ance ( #bag miles4 ,c9d]s cov]$ ! ocean t[>ds ! we/ two feet ?ick & sev]al miles 9 l5g?1 s t %ips c\ld h>dly make _! way ?r\gh !m4 ,! d>kness 9 ,java produc$ by ! d5se a% cl\d 0 great] ?an _h ev] be=e be5 exp]i5c$ ) ! s+le exception ( ! great eruption ( ,krakatoa4 ,a consid]able quantity ( ?is volcanic du/ 0 c>ri$ to ! isl&s ( ,amboyna & ,b&a1 ! la/ nam$ isl& be+ at a di/ance ( #hjj miles ea/ ( ! volcano4 ,?is eruption ( ,sumbawa 0 att5d$ by great lava /reams t cov]$ va/ areas ( ! l& & aft]w>ds p\r$ into ! sea4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! explosive eruption ( ,krakatoa great waves 7 produc$ 9 ! ocean all along ! coa/s ( ,sumbawa1 & surr\nd+ isl&s4 ,! sea sudd5ly rose f two to twelve feet4 ,a great wave ru%$ up ! m\?s ( ! riv]s1 & at ! t[n ( ,tomboro1 on ! we/ side ( ,sumbawa1 an area ( l& 0 sunk 9 ! wat]s & rema9$ p]man5tly cov]$ by eighte5 feet ( wat]4 ,! mo/ important ( ! /ill active volcanoes ( ,japan is ,assamayna4 ,?is m\nta9 0 9 t]rible eruption dur+ ! autumn ( #aghc1 :5 d5se %[]s ( a%es ?r[n out ( ! crat] d>k5$ ! sky1 turn+ ! day into night1 &1 fall+ on ! cultivat$ fields ar\nd ! m\nta91 *ang$ !m into des]ts4 ,dur+ ! eruption "s =ty-eight villages 7 de/roy$ by %[]s ( a%es & r$ hot /ones & ?\s&s ( ! inhabitants 7 ei!r kill$ directly by ! /ones & a%es1 or di$ f />vation1 s9ce _! fields 7 cov]$ ) a%es = miles ar\nd to a dep? ( f two & a half to five feet4 ,ano!r t]rible eruption 9 ,japan 0 9 ! volcanic m\nta9 ( ,wunz51 or ,onz5-,gatake4 ,?is occurr$ dur+ #agia-ic4 ,dur+ ! la/ eruption ( ?is volcano1 #ec1jjj p lo/ _! lives1 ei!r by reason ( ! eruption ( ! volcano1 or by huge waves set up 9 ! ocean by an e>?quake4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,jorullo1 ,a ,,"y ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9 ,y mu/ n suppose t :5 we speak ( ,jorullo z a "y volcanic m\nta9 t we mean "y 9 ! s5se t y or ,i might be call$ "y1 b "y z reg>ds m\nta9s2 = ,jorullo1 n[ a great m\nta9 range1 _h no exi/5ce be=e ! ye> #agei1 & t w\ld make ! m\nta9 a little less ?an #aej ye>s old1 :i* s f> z m\nta9s are conc]n$ may prop]ly be reg>d$ z q "y4 ,! /ory ( ,jorullo is v int]e/+1 & af=ds an excell5t example ( ! great scale on :i* mod]n volcanic eruptions take place dur+ hi/orical times4 ,if y exam9e ! map ( ,mexico on page #hf y w see t ,jorullo lies #agj miles s\?we/ ( ! city ( ,mexico1 & #ajh miles f ! ,pacific ,ocean1 :i* is ! ne>e/ l>ge body ( wat]4 ,?is m\nta9 is ( especial int]e/ because1 if old traditions are to be believ$1 x 0 ?r[n up dur+ practically a s+le night4 ,?is wond]ful ev5t took place on an elevat$ pla9 or plateau1 call$ ! ,pla9 ( ,malpais1 t lies betwe5 #b1jjj & #c1jjj feet above ! level ( ! ocean4 ,! pla9 0 situat$ 9 a "p ( ,mexico t 0 celebrat$ = ! gr[? ( ! f9e/ cotton & indigo 9 ! _w4 ,x =m$ ! l>ge e/ate ( a weal?y plant]1 ,seor ,p$ro de ,jorullo1 :o liv$ at 8 ease z a weal?y plant] is apt to d 9 tropical c\ntries l ,mexico4 ,jorullo's plantation 0 cov]$ by an especially f]tile soil1 s9ce x 0 =m$ by ! deposits ( volcanic a%es1 du/1 tufa1 etc41 produc$1 mo/ probably1 by neighbor+ volcanoes long be=e man appe>$ on ! e>?1 = ! pla9 ( ,malpais 0 b\nd$ by hills t 7 compos$ ( volcanic mat]ials4 ,!re _h1 h[ev]1 be5 no signs ( volcanic activity 9 ! neighborhood4 ,x _h inde$ be5 quiet1 s f> z volcanic eruptions 7 conc]n$1 s9ce ! "t ( ! discov]y ( ,am]ica by ,columbus1 until ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,! f]tile fields ( ! ,jorullo plantation 7 wat]$ by two riv]s1 or z we w\ld probably call !m1 brooks1 ! ,cuitamba & ! ,san ,p$ro4 ,signs 7 n want+ ( ! com+ calamity4 ,dur+ ,june1 #agei1 subt]ranean s\nds 7 he>d ( a l[ rumbl+ "*1 :i* e n[ & !n increas$ until !y resembl$ 9 int5sity ! s\nds produc$ by ! fir+ ( l>ge guns4 ,^! s\nds 7 accompani$ by e>?quake %ocks t greatly t]rifi$ ! p & caus$ !m to flee f _! homes4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 occurr$1 s1 becom+ accu/om$ to ! noises1 ! p return$ to _! h\ses4 ,! noises & trembl+s ceas$ = ov] two mon?s1 until1 on ! #bi? ( ,septemb]1 #agei1 !y 7 aga9 he>d1 & a t]rible eruption began4 ,a long fissure op5$ 9 ! e>?1 ext5d+ g5]ally f nor!a/ to s\?we/4 ,f ?is fissure flames bur/ out1 fragm5ts ( burn+ rock & /one1 toge!r ) l>ge quantities ( a%es 7 ?r[n to great heights 9 ! air1 & 7 foll[$ by /reams ( molt5 rock4 ,six volcanic cones 7 =m$ along ! fissure4 ,! highe/ ( ^! cones is :at n[ con/itutes ! volcanic m\nta9 ( ,jorullo1 :i* !n rea*$ a height ( at lea/ #a1fjj feet above ! level ( ! pla94 ,f its cone 7 ?r[n out great quantities ( lava ( ! same type z t :i* escap$ f ! crat]s ( _m volcanic isl&s su* z ,hawaii & ,icel&1 namely1 basaltic lavas4 ,?is eruption1 :i* began on ! #bi? ( ,septemb]1 #agei1 cont9u$ until ! mon? ( ,febru>y1 #agfj4 ,! acc\nt z above giv5 0 obta9$ by ,humboldt1 :o visit$ ! c\ntry "s fifty-six ye>s aft] ! eruption4 ,?is /ory 0 told him by ! ,indians1 b 0 also record$ 9 v]se by a ,jesuit prie/1 ,raphael ,l&iva1 a native ( ,guatemala4 ,accord+ to ! acc\nt giv5 ,humboldt by ! ,indians1 x appe>s t :5 a long "t aft] ! eruptions _h quiet$ d[n1 !y _h return$ to _! old homes ) ! hope ( cultivat+ "p ( ! gr\nds1 !y f\nd ! pla9s /ill too hot to p]mit _! liv+ on !m4 ,accord+ to ,lyell1 !re 0 ar\nd ! base ( ! cone1 spread+ f !m z a c5tre ov] an area ( "s f\r squ>e miles1 a convex mass1 ab\t #eej feet 9 height1 mo/ ( ! surface ( :i* 0 cov]$ ) ?\s&s ( small flatti% conical m\nds f six to n9e feet 9 height4 ,^!1 toge!r ) num]\s l>ge fissures t cross$ ! pla9 9 diff]5t directions1 s]v$ z po9ts = ! escape ( sulphur vapors1 z well z = ! vapors ( hot wat]4 ,dur+ ! escape ( lava f ! crat]s 9 #agei1 ! molt5 rock1 spread+ ov] ! pla91 ran into ! *annels ( ! riv] or brooks be=e nam$1 driv+ out ! wat]4 ,?is wat] reappe>$ at ! base ( ! m\nta9 9 num]\s hot spr+s4 ,humboldt ?\ght t ! conical m\nta9s _h be5 lift$ or rais$ by ! =mation ( huge bubbles =m$ "u ! lava1 ?us caus+ x to assume a %ape n unlike t ( a huge bladd]4 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 has n be5 accept$ by geologi/s at ! pres5t "t4 ,scrope po9ts out t ?is 0 probably ! orig9 ( ! little conical m\nds t cov]$ ! surface ( ! pr9cipal conical m\nds b 0 n1 9 all probability1 ! cause ( ! m\nd itself4 ,he says3 ,) reg>d to ! disput$ "q z to ! orig9 ( ! rais$ pla9 ( ! ,malpais1 ,m4 de ,saussure1 ! la/ & mo/ tru/wor?y visitor1 entirely confirms ! op9ion :i* ,i v5tur$ to proclaim 9 #ahbe1 t ,humboldt 0 mi/ak5 9 suppos+ x to h be5 'bl[n up f b5ea? l a bladd]1' & t x is m]ely an ord9>y curr5t ( lava1 :i*1 ow+ to its v imp]fect liquidity at ! "t ( its issue f ! volcanic v5t1 z well z to ! ov]fl[ ( "o %eet or /ream ^u ano!r1 _h acquir$ great ?ickness ab\t its s\rce1 gradually ?9n+ (f t[>ds ! out] limit ( ! elliptical area x cov]$4 ,if y h be5 able to foll[ ! above y w see t ,mr4 ,scrope means t 9 8 op9ion ! cone ( ,jorullo is a lava cone l t we h already /udi$ on ,mt4 ,loa or ,mt4 ,kilauea1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! lava z x came out f ! op5+ on ! top ( ,jorullo1 fl[$ 9 all directions ar\nd ! op5+1 ?us build+ up a m\nta9 9 ! =m ( a flat lava cone4 ,p]haps "o ( ! reasons ,humboldt _h = believ+ ! entire elevation ( ,jorullo to be due to ! =mation ( a huge bladd] 0 ! fact t ! pla9 on :i* ! cone is situat$1 :5 /ruck1 gave out a s\nd z ?\gh !re 0 a va/ holl[ space bel[ x4 ,?is 0 especially ! case :5 ! ho(s ( ! horses driv5 ov] its surface produc$ s\nds z ?\gh !y 7 mov+ ov] ! summit ( a holl[ dome-l space bel[4 ,b1 z ,lyell po9ts out1 ?is 0 probably only due to ! fact t ! mat]ials =m+ ! cone 7 v light & por\s4 ,accord+ to ,burkh>dt1 a ,g]man m9+ eng9e] :o visit$ ,jorullo 9 #ahbg1 !re appe>s to h be5 no o!r eruptions ( ! volcano s9ce ! "t ( ,humboldt's visit4 ,mr4 ,burkh>dt desc5d$ to ! bottom ( ! crat] & obs]v$ t small quantities ( sulphur\s vapors 7 /ill escap+4 ,! small cones or hornitos1 h[ev]1 on ! slopes _h entirely ceas$ emitt+ /eam4 ,x appe>$1 too1 t ! tw5ty-f\r ye>s t _h pass$ s9ce ! "t ( ,humboldt's visit1 ! ri* soil ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry _h p]mitt$ ! successful cultivation ( "s crops ( sug> cane & indigo4 ,russell appe>s to d\bt ! reliability ( ! in=mation obta9$ by ,humboldt conc]n+ ,jorullo4 ,he sugge/s t a poetical acc\nt by ! ,jesuit mission>y f :om ,humboldt obta9$ mu* ( 8 in=mation 0 n apt to possess m>k$ sci5tific accuracy4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ?is may be true1 yet to a c]ta9 ext5t x seems entirely probable t ! pr9cipal facts 7 z above giv54 ,! foll[+ acc\nt z giv5 by ,humboldt1 is tak5 f a translation made 9 ! e>ly "p ( #ahjj3 ,! affright$ inhabitants fl$ to ! m\nta9s ( ,aguas>co4 ,a tract ( gr\nd f ?ree to f\r squ>e miles 9 ext5t1 :i* goes by ! "n ( ,malpays1 rose up 9 ! %ape ( a bladd]4 ,! b\nds ( ?is convulsion are /ill di/+ui%able 9 ! fractural /rata4 ,! ,malpays1 ne> its edge1 is only twelve metres above ! old level ( ! pla9 call$ ! ,playas de ,jorullo2 b ! convexity ( ! gr\nd ?us ?r[n up increases progressively t[>ds ! c5tre1 to an elevation ( #afj metres 7#ebd4h ft474 ,^? :o witness$ ?is cata/rophe f ! top ( ,aguas>co ass]t t flames 7 se5 to issue =? = an ext5t ( m ?an half a squ>e league1 t fragm5ts ( burn+ rocks 7 ?r[n up to prodigi\s heights1 & t ?r\gh a ?ick cl\d ( a%es1 illum9at$ by ! volcanic fire1 ! s(t5$ surface ( ! e>? 0 se5 to swell up l an agitat$ sea4 ,! riv]s ( ,cuitamba & ,san ,p$ro precipitat$ !mselves into ! burn+ *asms4 ,! decomposition ( ! wat] contribut$ to invigorate ! flames1 :i* 7 di/+ui%able at ! city ( ,pascu>o1 ?\gh situat$ on v ext5sive table-l& #a1djj metres 7#d1eib ft47 elevat$ above ! pla9s ( ,las ,playas de ,jorullo4 ,eruptions ( mud1 & especially ( /rata ( clay envelop+ balls ( decompos$ basalt 9 conc5trical lay]s1 appe>$ to indicate t subt]ranean wat] _h no small %>e 9 produc+ ?is extraord9>y revolution4 ,?\s&s ( small cones1 f two to ?ree metres 9 height1 call$ by ! indig5es ov5s1 issu$ =? f ! ,malpays4444 ,9 ! mid/ ( ! ov5s1 six l>ge masses1 elevat$ f #djj to #ejj metres ea* above ! old level ( ! pla91 sprung up f a *asm1 ( :i* ! direction is f ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ! ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 ,?is is ! ph5om5on ( ! ,mont5ovo ( ,naples1 sev]al times repeat$ 9 a range ( volcanic hills4 ,! mo/ elevat$ ( ^! enorm\s masses1 :i* be>s "s resemblance to ! puys de l',auv]gne1 is ! great ,volcan de ,jorullo4 ,x is cont9ually burn+1 & has ?r[n up f ! nor? side an imm5se quantity ( scorifi$ & basaltic lavas conta9+ fragm5ts ( primitive rocks4 ,^! great eruptions ( ! c5tral volcano cont9u$ till ! mon? ( ,febru>y1 #agfj4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>s !y became gradually less frequ5t4444 ,! ro(s ( ! h\ses ( ,qu]et>o 7 !n cov]$ ) a%es at a di/ance ( m ?an =ty-eight leagues 9 a /raight l9e f ! sc5e ( ! explosion4 ,al?\gh ! subt]ranean fire n[ appe>s f> f viol5t1 & ! ,malpays & ! great volcano beg9 to be cov]$ ) vegetation1 we nev]!less f\nd ! ambi5t air heat$ to su* a degree by ! action ( ! small ov5s1 t ! !rmomet] at a great di/ance f ! surface & 9 ! %ade rose z high z #dc ,c4 7#aji #d' ,f474 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,mid-,,ocean ,,volcanic ,,isl&s ,besides ! volcanoes we h already describ$1 !re are _m o!rs situat$ 9 mid-ocean f> f any cont95t4 ,a brief description w be giv5 ( a few ( ^!4 ,all ! ?ree great c5tral oceans1 ! ,pacific1 ! ,atlantic1 & ! ,indian1 conta9 num]\s volcanic isl&s1 "s ( :i* rise _m ?\s&s ( feet above ! g5]al level4 ,we w beg9 ) a description ( "s ( ! m important volcanic isl&s ( ! ,pacific4 ,x 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,kotzebue1 & aft]w>ds by ,d>w91 t all ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean c be divid$ into two great classes1 ! high isl&s & ! l[ isl&s4 ,all ! high isl&s are ( volcanic orig91 :ile ! l[ isl&s are ( coral =mation4 ,x is ! op9ion ( ,dana1 :o has made a c>eful /udy ( coral =mations1 especially 9 ! ,pacific1 t 9 all probability ev5 ! l[ isl&s ( ! ,pacific 7 orig9ally volcanic1 & t ! deposits ( coral _h be5 made along _! %ores aft] _! volcanoes _h become ext9ct4 ,! isl&s ( ! ,pacific1 l ! %ores ( ! cont95ts & mo/ ( _! m\nta9 ranges1 ext5d 9 two great l9es ( tr5d1 or g5]al direction1 :i* int]sect ea* o!r ne>ly at "r angles4 ,^! l9es ext5d f ! s\!a/ to ! nor?we/1 & f ! nor!a/ to ! s\?we/ respectively1 ^? ext5d+ 9 a g5]al direction f s\!a/ to nor?we/ be+ ! mo/ common 9 ! ,pacific4 ,n[1 p]haps1 ! greate/ numb] ( ! e>?'s volcanoes are arrang$ along fissures1 or cracks 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! crat]s are situat$ along ! cracks1 ! op5+s be+ kept cle> at ! crat]1 & gradually clos+ else:]e1 probably by pressure4 ,9 o!r words1 mo/ ( ! volcanoes foll[ "o ano!r along m or less /raight l9es4 ,= example1 9 ! we/]n "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica !y foll[ ! ,&es ,m\nta9s4 ,a simil> arrangem5t exi/s 9 ! volcanoes ( ,c5tral ,am]ica1 ,mexico1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,n[1 ?is is especially true ( mid-ocean volcanoes ( ! ,pacific :i* lie along l9es ext5d+ f s\!a/ to nor?we/1 or f nor!a/ to s\?we/1 ?\gh ma9ly along ! =m]4 ,"s ( ! volcanic isl&s ( ! ,pacific h already be5 describ$ or ref]r$ to1 z1 = example1 ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 :i* /ret* 9 a curv$ l9e f ! s\?we/]n extremity ( ! p59sula ( ,alaska to ,kamts*atka on ! coa/ ( ,asia4 ,we h already describ$ ! isl& ( ,hawaii1 ! great volcanoes ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s *a91 & besides ^! !re are 9 ! ,nor? ,pacific ! ,ladrone ,isl&s1 ly+ ea/ ( ! ,philipp9es4 ,"s ( ! pr9cipal rema9+ isl&s are3 ! ,fejee ,isl&s1 :i* are volcanic1 ) num]\s hot spr+s & crat]s4 ,! ,fri5dly ,isl&s1 ) ! peak ( ,tafua1 #b1ach feet high1 an active volcano ) a l>ge crat] always burn+1 & two o!r volcanoes1 ,apia1 & ,upala4 ,tahiti1 to ! ea/1 is at pres5t ext9ct4 ,"o ( its m\nta9s1 ,orob5a1 said to be #aj1jjj feet high1 has a crat] on its summit4 ,! ,m>quesas1 /ill fur!r to ! ea/1 are also volcanic4 ,all ( ^! isl&s lie g5]ally 9 ! l9es ( ! nor!a/ tr5d4 ,! ,tongan or ,new ,zeal& ,isl& *a9 ext5ds 9 ! direction ( ! nor!a/ tr5d4 ,?is1 z y w see1 is ! direction 9 :i* ! two isl&s ( ,new ,zeal& ext5d4 ,! ,tongan ,isl& *a9 is cont9u$ to ! s\? ?r\gh ,auckl& & ! ,macquaire ,isl&s to #eh ,s4 ,t[>ds ! nor?1 9 almo/ ! same l9e1 are ! ,k]madec ,isl&s ne> #cj ,s4 ,!re are sev]al active volcanoes 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,an explosive eruption ( ,t>aw]a1 9 ,new ,zeal&1 9 #ahhc1 cont9u$ = sev]al days1 & 0 foll[$1 ?ree days aft]w>ds1 by an outbur/ 9 an active volcano 9 ! ,bay ( ,pl5ty1 & two mon?s aft]w>ds1 by a viol5t outbur/ 9 a volcano on ! isl& ( ,n9af\ 9 ! ,tongan ,isl&s4 ,com+ n[ to ! ,atlantic ,ocean we f9d a numb] ( volcanic m\nta9s 9 ! deep wat]s ne> mid-ocean4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^!1 besides ,icel&1 are ! ,azores1 ! ,can>ies1 ,cape ,v]de ,isl&s1 ,asc5sion ,isl&1 ,/4 ,hel5a ,isl&1 & ,tri/an d',acunha4 ,! ,peak ( ,pico1 9 ! ,azores1 rises to a height ( #g1jaf feet4 ,! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe1 9 ! ,can>ies1 rea*es ! height ( #ab1bbe feet4 ,t5]iffe is a sn[-capp$ m\nta94 ,x has a cone on its summit ) precipit\s walls l ,vesuvius4 ,sulphur\s vapors are cont9ually =m$ at its summit1 b no flames c be se54 ,9 ! ,cape ,v]de ,isl&s is to be f\nd ! active volcanic m\nta9 ( ,fuego1 ris+ #g1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,x has a c5tral cone t has be5 brok5 d[n on "o side l t ( ,somma on ,vesuvius4 ,fuego 0 9 eruption 9 #aghe1 & also 9 #agii4 ,asc5sion ,isl&1 s\? ( ! equator1 is =m$ entirely ( volcanic mat]ials4 ,?is isl& rises f an app>5tly granite floor on ! b$ ( ! ocean1 9 wat] #ab1jjj feet deep4 ,/4 ,hel5a lies fur!r to ! s\?4 ,x is an ext9ct volcano1 & has ! rema9s ( a crat] on its summit ) lava dikes 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! isl&4 ,tri/an d',acunha is an isolat$ m\nta9 t lies 9 ! ,s\? ,atlantic1 s\? ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 #a1ejj miles f ,africa1 ! ne>e/ l&4 ,x is an ext9ct volcano t rises f a dep? ( #ab1aej feet to a height ( #g1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,x has a truncat$ cone on its summit & a lake ( pure wat] 9 its old crat]4 ,!re are only a few volcanic isl&s 9 ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,k]guel5 ,isl& lies 9 ! s\!rn wat]s4 ,/4 ,paul & ,am/]dam to ! nor?1 ly+ ne> #dj ,s4 lat41 z well z ! ,crozet ,isl&s1 are ext9ct volcanoes4 ,9 ! ,arctic ,ocean is ! volcanic isl& ( ,jan ,may54 ,9 ! ,ant>ctic ,ocean1 z f> z is kn[n1 !re are only two volcanoes1 ,mt4 ,erebus & ,mt4 ,t]ror4 ,mt4 ,erebus1 #ab1djj feet high1 is an active volcano4 ,mt4 ,t]ror1 #aj1iij feet high1 is an ext9ct volcano4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,subm>9e ,,volcanoes ,a subm>9e volcano is a volcano t erupts on ! b$ ( ! ocean ) its crat] cov]$ by ! wat]s4 ,_m ( ! great volcanic m\nta9s ( ! _w began z subm>9e volcanoes4 ,a crat] fir/ op5$ on ! floor ( ! ocean1 & lava escap+1 0 heap$ up ar\nd ! op5+1 until x em]g$ above ! surface z an isl&4 ,z we h se51 ! isl& ( ,icel& is believ$ to h begun 9 ?is way4 ,su*1 too1 9 all probability1 0 ! orig9 ( ,hawaii1 ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 & ,santor94 ,b besides ! volcanic m\nta9s t 7 ?r[n up dur+ ! geological pa/1 !re are o!rs t h be5 call$ into exi/5ce :ile man has be5 liv+ on ! e>?4 ,we w n[ describe a few isl&s t h be5 =m$ 9 ?is mann] by subm>9e volcanic eruptions4 ,t volcanic eruptions1 or at lea/ some?+ t greatly resembles eruptions1 occur on ! b$ ( ! ocean too f> bel[ ! surface to p]mit !m to be directly se5 f above1 has be5 %[n 9 a numb] ( cases :]e ! capta9s ( vessels h report$ t 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ocean1 jets ( wat]1 or /eam1 & pill>s ( flame h be5 se5 ris+ to great heights f ! surface ( ! wat]1 & t 9 c]ta9 regions sulphur\s smoke has also be5 se54 ,dur+ su* occurr5ces1 ! wat] is agitat$1 z if x 7 be+ viol5tly boil$4 ,moreov]1 ^! p>ts ( ! ocean are %ak5 by sev]e e>?quake %ocks4 ,ano!r evid5ce ( subm>9e volcanic eruptions is to be f\nd 9 great quantities ( a%es1 scori1 or pumice /one1 t are se5 spread out ov] ! surface ( ! ocean aft] ! commotions ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph4 ,/ill ano!r pro( is t p>ts ( ! ocean ^: wat]s 7 previ\sly v deep are f\nd to h sudd5ly %oal$4 ,( c\rse1 ! be/ pro( is ! appe>ance ( rocky reefs or small isl&s ?r[n up above ! surface ( ! wat]1 especially :]e volcanic cones appe>4 ,:ile 9 _m cases ! new isl&s ?us ?r[n up are subsequ5tly wa%$ away by ! waves1 yet "s h cont9u$ above ! wat]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ not$ in/ances ( ! =mation ( an isl& by a subm>9e volcano 0 ,sabr9a1 :i* 0 ?r[n up 9 #ahaa1 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 (f ! %ores ( ,/4 ,mi*ael 9 ! ,azores ,isl&s4 ,sabr9a _h a cone t 0 #cjj feet 9 height4 ,x did n long rema9 above ! wat]s1 h[ev]1 be+ soon wa%$ away by ! waves4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 9 ! same "p ( ! ocean :]e ,sabr9a appe>$1 o!r isl&s h appe>$ & disappe>$1 at times long be=e #ahaa2 t is1 dur+ ! ye> #afia1 z well z dur+ #agbj4 ,ano!r in/ance ( a subm>9e isl& is ,graham's ,isl&1 t 0 ?r[n up 9 #ahca1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 betwe5 ! we/ coa/ ( ,sicily & ! ne>e/ "p ( ,africa1 on :i* anci5t ,c>?age 0 situat$4 ,! "p ( ! sea :]e ! isl& 0 ?r[n up _h previ\sly a dep? ( #fjj feet4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ,graham's ,isl& is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bb4 ,graham's ,isl& 0 =m$ by accumulations ( loose scoria & c9d]s1 toge!r ) blocks ( lava & fragm5ts ( lime/one4 ,x rea*$ a height ( #bjj feet above ! wat]1 b only rema9$ above ! surface = a few mon?s1 :5 x 0 wa%$ away1 leav+ a subm>9e bank "s twelve miles 9 wid?1 t 0 cov]$ by wat] ( ab\t #aej feet1 b :i*1 h[ev]1 increas$ rapidly 9 dep? t[>ds ! edge until dep?s ( f #a1bjj to #b1jjj feet 7 rea*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,graham',s ,,isl&--,a ,,rec5t ,,volcanic ,,isl& ,accord+ to ,lyell1 on ! #bh? ( ,june1 #ahca1 be=e ,graham's ,isl& appe>$1 a %ip pass+ ov] ?is portion ( ! sea felt sev]e e>?quake %ocks4 ,on ,july #aj? ( ! same ye>1 ! capta9 ( a vessel f ,sicily report$ t z he pass$ ne> ?is "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 a column ( wat]1 #hjj y>ds 9 circumf]5ce1 0 se5 to rise f ! sea to a height ( sixty feet1 & t aft]w>ds a column ( /eam ris+ to a height ( #a1hjj feet 0 se5 9 ! same place4 ,on aga9 pass+ ! same region on ,july #ah?1 ?is capta9 f\nd a small isl& ab\t twelve feet 9 height1 ) a crat] 9 its c5tre1 t 0 ?r[+ out volcanic mat]ials1 toge!r ) imm5se masses ( vapor4 ,! isl& ?us =m$ grew rapidly1 bo? 9 size & height4 ,:5 visit$ at ! end ( ,july1 x _h atta9$ a height ( f fifty to n9ety feet1 & 0 ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 circumf]5ce4 ,by ,augu/ #d?1 x _h rea*$ a height ( #bjj feet1 & 0 !n "s ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce4 ,f ?is "t1 h[ev]1 ! isl& began to decrease 9 size1 z ! waves began to wa% x away4 ,by ,augu/ #be?1 x 0 only two miles 9 circumf]5ce4 ,on ,septemb] #c;d1 x _h decreas$ to ?ree-fif?s ( a mile 9 circumf]5ce1 & cont9u$ to decrease until x entirely disappe>$1 s t 9 ! ye> #ahcb1 !re 71 accord+ to measurem5ts1 "s #aej feet ( wat] ov] its =m] site4 ,! ,m$it]ranean ,sea betwe5 ,sicily & ,greece is also especially liable to subm>9e activity4 ,new isl&s appe> & disappe> s frequ5tly t 9 ?is region !y are almo/ reg>d$ z common ph5om5a4 ,!re are _m o!r p>ts ( ! ocean :]e subm>9e volcanic eruptions are common4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ! n>r[e/ "p ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean betwe5 ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,"h !re is a region situat$ p>tly above ! equator1 ?\gh = ! great] "p s\? ( ! equator1 frequ5tly visit$ by subm>9e eruptions1 t are accompani$ by e>?quakes1 by ! agitation ( ! wat]1 by ! appe>ance ( float+ masses ( a%es & scori1 z well z by columns ( /eam or smoke4 ,float+ masses ( a%es & scori sometimes occur s ?ick z to ret>d ! progress ( vessels4 ,b :at =ms1 p]haps1 "o ( ! be/ in/ances ( a l>ge isl& =m$ by subm>9e eruptions dur+ hi/orical times1 is ,bogosl(f ,isl& 9 ,behr+ ,sea1 "s =ty miles we/ ( ,unalaska ,isl&4 ,?is isl&1 ! position ( :i* is se5 on ! accompany+ map1 is kn[n to ! ,russians z ,ioanna ,bogoslova1 or ,/4 ,john ! ,!ologian4 ,x is situat$ 9 lat4 #ec #eh' ,n41 long4 #afh we/4 ,x is said t dur+ ! ye> #agie1 "s ( ! natives ( ,unalaska ,isl& saw :at !y ?\ght 0 a fog 9 ! neighborhood ( a small rock1 :i* !y _h kn[n = a long "t to project above ! sea 9 ^! wat]s4 ,?is rock 0 m>k$ on "s ,russian *>t dat$ #agfh-fi4 ,x 0 se5 by ,capta9 ,cooke1 9 #aggh1 & 0 nam$ by him ,%ip ,rock4 ,b x 0 n a fog t ! ,unalaskans _h se5 9 ! neighborhood ( ,%ip ,rock2 =1 to _! great surprise1 ! fog cont9u$ 9 sight al?\gh ev]y:]e else ! air 0 q cle>4 ,( c\rse1 ?is 0 a great my/]y to ! p4 ,dur+ ! spr+ ( #agif1 "o ( !m1 :o possess$ ei!r great] curiosity ?an ! re/1 or great] c\rage1 or bo?1 visit$ ! rock4 ,he return$1 tell+ ! /range /ory t all ! ocean ar\nd ! rock 0 boil+1 & t ! mi/ or fog 0 caus$ by ! ris+ /eam4 ,:at 0 tak+ place 0 a subm>9e eruption4 ,dur+ ,may1 #agif1 suffici5t matt] _h be5 br\ght up f bel[ to increase greatly ! area ( ! small rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,aleutian ,,isl&s ,dur+ lat] ye>s sev]al attempts h be5 made to visit ,bogosl(f ,isl&4 ,= example1 ! isl& 0 visit$ dur+ #ahgb & #ahgc1 :5 x 0 f\nd to h increas$ 9 height to #hej feet4 ,b no appe>ance ( any volcanic crat] 0 to be se54 ,dur+ ,octob]1 #ahhc1 a great volcanic eruption occurr$ !re4 ,consid]able *anges 7 produc$ 9 its %ape1 z well z 9 ! dep? ( ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,dur+ ?is eruption1 cl\ds ( /eam completely hid ! isl&4 ,great quantities ( a%es obscur$ ! light ( ! sun4 ,aft] ! eruption1 a new isl& 0 ?r[n up ne> ! old "o1 9 a place :]e ! wat] _h previ\sly be5 deep en\gh = ! ready passage ( %ips4 ,! new isl& 0 ab\t half a mile f ! old "o4 ,x 0 conical 9 =m1 f #ejj to #hjj feet 9 height1 & ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 diamet]4 ,! new isl& 0 visit$ 9 #ahhd by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,rev5ue ,m>9e ,/eam] ,corw94 ,lieut5ant ,c>twell1 :o visit$ ! isl& at ?is "t1 describ$ x z foll[s3 ,! sides ( ,new ,bogosl(f rise ) a g5tle slope to ! crat]4 ,! asc5t at fir/ appe>s easy1 b a ?9 lay] ( a%es1 =m$ into a cru/ by ! action ( ra9 & moi/ure1 is n /rong en\gh to su/a9 a man's weight4 ,at e /ep my feet cru%$ ?r\gh ! out] cov]+ & ,i sank at fir/ ankle-deep & lat] on knee-deep into a s(t1 almo/ impalpable du/ :i* arose 9 cl\ds & ne>ly suffocat$ me4 ,z ! summit 0 rea*$1 ! heat ( ! a%es become almo/ unbe>able1 & ,i 0 =c$ to cont9ue ! asc5t by pick+ my way ov] rocks ^: surfaces be+ expos$ to ! air1 7 some:at cool$ & af=d$ a m secure foo?old4 ,on all sides ( ! cone !re are op5+s ?r\gh :i* /eam escap$ ) m or less en]gy4 ,i obs]v$ f "s v5ts ! /eam 0 emitt$ at regul> int]vals1 :ile f o!rs x issu$ ) no p]ceptible int]mission4 ,ar\nd ea* v5t !re 0 a ?ick deposit ( sulphur1 :i* gave (f suffocat+ vapors4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,volcanoes ,hav+ n[ consid]$ at "s l5g? ! pr9cipal volcanoes ( ! e>?1 & endeavor$ to obta9 "s idea ( ! _m wond]s !y exhibit1 especially z reg>ds ! va/ quantities ( mat]ial !y br+ f ! inside ( ! e>?1 z well z ! great =ce ) :i* !y sometimes ?r[ ^! mat]ials out ( _! crat]s1 x w be well to po9t out :]e su* volcanoes are to be f\nd4 ,x may h seem$ to y1 :5 y h c>efully foll[$ :at has be5 said ab\t ! e>?'s volcanoes1 t !y are to be f\nd pretty ne>ly ev]y:]e1 at lea/ s f> z latitude is conc]n$2 & 9 ?is supposition y are correct2 = !re are volcanoes 9 ! ,arctic ,ocean1 z 9 ! volcanic isl& ( ,jan ,may5 betwe5 ,icel& & ,spitzb]g51 !re are ,mt4 ,erebus & ,mt4 ,t]ror 9 ! ,ant>ctic ,ocean1 besides v num]\s volcanoes 9 ! ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 & ,indian ,oceans1 & _! %ores 9 bo? ! temp]ate & ! torrid zones4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o ?+ t y h probably especially notic$ & t is t volcanoes are seldom f\nd at v great di/ances f ! ocean1 except on "s ( its arms or seas1 su* z ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,i d n mean by ?is t all ! e>?'s volcanoes are ei!r situat$ directly on ! coa/ ( ! cont95ts or on isl&s1 s9ce1 9 su* a l>ge body z ! e>?1 a di/ance ( a few hundr$ miles f ! ocean is h>dly to be reg>d$ z be+ v f> f x4 ,b x is true t all ! e>?'s volcanoes are ei!r situat$ on ! coa/s ( ! cont95ts1 or on isl&s1 &1 moreov]1 !y are situat$ to a great] or less ext5t along l9es1 :i*1 z we h already po9t$ out1 are believ$ to m>k weak portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ t h be5 fissur$ or fractur$4 ,9 ord] t y may h "s idea ( ?is di/ribution1 ,i ?9k x w be well to give y a numb] ( int]e/+ facts t h be5 po9t$ out by ,dana4 ,accord+ to ?is au?ority1 !re are some?+ 9 ! neighborhood ( #cjj active volcanoes on ! e>?4 ,( ^!1 no less ?an five-six?s1 or #bej1 lie ei!r on ! bord]s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean1 or on "s ( its _m isl&s4 ,?irty-n9e ei!r lie )9 or on ! bord]s ( ! ,atlantic1 ( :i* ?irte5 are 9 ,icel&1 or ne> ! ,arctic ,circle1 ?ree 9 ! ,can>ies1 sev5 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 six 9 ! ,less] ,antilles1 & t5 9 ! ,atlantic ,oceanic ,isl&s4 ,! ,indian ,ocean conta9s only a few active volcanoes4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a mu* great] numb] ( ext9ct volcanoes1 :i* may at any "t aga9 become active4 ,! foll[+ is ! di/ribution ( ! e>?'s volcanoes z giv5 by ,dana4 ,z y w see1 f an inspection ( ,fig4 #bd1 all ( ! regions ( volcanoes lie ei!r on ! bord]s ( ! cont95ts1 or on isl&s 9 ! oceans4 ,! di/ricts are z foll[s3 #a4 ,scatt]$ ,ov] ! ,pacific ,ocean4--,?is di/rict includes ! foll[+ active volcanoes2 i4 e41 ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 ne>ly 9 mid-ocean1 almo/ directly bel[ ! ,tropic ( ,canc]2 9 ! we/ c5tral p>ts ( ! ,s\? ,pacific2 9 ! ,new ,hebrides2 9 ! ,fri5dly ,isl&s1 ! ,tongan or ,new ,zeal& ,isl&s1 9 ! ,santa ,cruz ,isl&s1 & 9 ! ,ladrones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,_w1 ,,%[+ ,,location ,,( ,,active ,,& ,,rec5tly ,,ext9ct ,,volcanoes #b4 ,on ! ,bord]s ( ! ,pacific4--,?is di/rict includes ! volcanoes t ext5d f ! s\!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica at int]vals along ! ,&es ,m\nta9 range4 ,( ^! !re are ?irty-two 9 ,*ile1 sev5 or eight 9 ,bolivia & ,s\!rn ,p]u2 ab\t tw5ty 9 ! neighborhood ( ,quito4 ,fur!r nor? !re are ?irty-n9e 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 & sev5 9 ,mexico4 ,proce$+ nor?w>ds ?r\gh ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are a numb] ( volcanic m\nta9s1 g5]ally ext9ct1 9 portions ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas & ,cascade ,ranges4 ,probably a numb] ( volcanic m\nta9s exi/ 9 portions ( ,canada ly+ betwe5 ! nor!rn b\nd>ies ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,alaska1 & a numb] 9 ,alaska2 "s tw5ty-"o volcanic m\nta9s 9 ! ,aleutian ,isl&s2 "s fifte5 or tw5ty 9 ,kamts*atka2 ?irte5 9 ! ,kuriles2 "s tw5ty-five or ?irty 9 ,japan & ! neighbor+ isl&s2 "s fifte5 or tw5ty 9 ! ,philipp9es2 sev]al along ! nor!rn coa/s ( ,new ,gu9ea2 a numb] 9 ,new ,zeal& & s\? ( ,cape ,horn2 ! volcanoes ( ! ,deception ,isl& ) its hot spr+s1 & also 9 ! ,s\? ,%etl&s #fb #cj' ,s4 #c4 ,9 ! ,indian ,ocean4--,on ! we/]n bord] ( ! ,indian ,ocean !re are a few volcanoes 9 ,madagasc>2 9 ! ,isl& ( ,b\rbon2 ,mauritius2 ! ,comoro ,isl&s2 & 9 ,k]guel5 ,l& on ! s\?4 ,!re are also volcanoes on ! we/]n bord] ( ! ,indian ,ocean :]e ! l(ty peak ( ,kilima ,ndjro1 #ah1jjj feet1 is volcanic4 #d4 ,ov] ! ,seas t ,sep>ate ! ,nor!rn & ! ,s\!rn ,cont95ts & 9 _! ,vic9ity4--,?is is an especially active region ( volcanoes4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce ! cont95ts ( ! _w are sometimes divid$ into ?ree pairs or d\ble cont95ts2 namely1 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 connect$ by ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama2 ,europe & ,africa1 connect$ by ! ,i/hmus ( ,suez2 & ,au/ralia & ,asia1 completely sep>at$ by a sunk5 i/hmus1 ! summits ( :i* =m ! ,sunda ,isl& *a94 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! regions we h ! v active gr\p ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 :]e !re are t5 volcanic isl&s4 ,9 ! second pair ( d\ble cont95ts we h ! volcanoes ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,r$ ,seas1 & _! bord]s1 su* z ,sicily1 ,vesuvius1 & o!r p>ts ( ,italy1 ,spa91 ,g]many1 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ext5d+ ea/w>d ?r\gh ! ,caspian1 ,mt4 ,ar>at1 ,demav5d1 on ! s\? %ores ( ! ,caspian1 ,mt4 ,ar>at1 & "s few o!rs along ! bord]s ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,9 ! ,ea/ ,indies we f9d ! mo/ int5se c5tre ( volcanic activity 9 ! _w4 ,"h !re are "s #bjj volcanoes ( :i* !re are ne>ly fifty 9 ,java alone1 m ?an half ( :i* are /ill active4 ,!re are ne>ly z _m volcanoes 9 ,sumatra1 & _m 9 ! small isl&s ne> ,borneo1 ! ,philipp9es1 etc4 #e4 ,on ! ,bord]s ( ! ,atlantic & ,else:]e4--,x is an int]e/+ fact t !re are no volcanoes on ! ea/]n bord]s ( ! ,atlantic nor? ( ! ,we/ ,indies ,isl& *a94 ,9 ! ,s\? ,atlantic ! only volcano on ! bord]s is "o ( ! ,cam]oons ,m\nta9s4 ,9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean we h ,icel&1 ! ,azores1 ! ,can>ies1 ,cape ,v]de1 ,asc5sion1 ,/4 ,hel5a1 & ,tri/an d',acunha4 ,?is curi\s di/ribution ( ! volcanoes ( ! _w ne> ! oceanic wat]s appe>s to be dep5d5t r on ! v e>ly %apes ( ! cont95ts & ! ocean b$s ?an on _! pres5t %apes4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,pa/ ,! "q is (t5 ask$ :e!r ! volcanic eruptions ( ! geological pa/ 7 n mu* m viol5t & de/ructive ?an ! volcanoes ( ! pres5t "t4 ,n[1 :ile ?is is a matt] t prop]ly belongs to ! subject ( geology1 & w be treat$ at great] l5g? 9 ! ,wond] ,book on ,geology1 yet a %ort m5tion %\ld be made ( x "h4 ,x is ! op9ion ( ,dana t :ile !re h be5 volcanoes dur+ ! diff]5t geological ages1 yet volcanic activity has increas$ ?r\gh ! geological pa/ until ! age t imm$iately prec$$ ! appe>ance ( man on ! e>?4 ,he ?9ks !re is no reason = believ+ t !re 7 any v great volcanic eruptions dur+ ! e>lie/ geological "t kn[n z ! ,ar*ic4 ,dana speaks z foll[s conc]n+ ?is3 ,9 ?is connection x is an in/ructive fact t 9 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 at epo*s :5 !re 0 ! greate/ am\nt ( friction & cru%+ 444 ^? ( ! mak+ ( ! ,gre5 ,m\nta9s & ! ,appala*ians 444 no volcanoes 7 made1 & little took place 9 ! way ( eruptions ?r\gh fissures4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,pre/wi* seems incl9$ to ?9k t ! abs5ce ( well-m>k$ cones ( volcanic mat]ial 9 ! rock ( ! old] geological ages is n to be reg>d$ z pro( t no eruptions !n took place1 s9ce ! v great am\nt ( erosion t occurr$ betwe5 t "t & ! ,t]ti>y ,age be=e ! appe>ance ( man1 w\ld1 probably1 h completely oblit]at$ any cones1 & ev5 ! volcanic mat]ials w\ld h und]gone su* *anges z completely to alt] _! g5]al "*4 ,he agrees1 h[ev]1 ) ,dana t1 probably1 ! mo/ viol5t & explosive volcanoes ( ! geological ages h be5 ^? ( ! ,t]ti>y ,age4 ,)\t1 h[ev]1 attempt+ any?+ m ?an a brief ref]5ce to ! volcanoes ( ! geological pa/1 x may be said t _m ( ! m important ( ! active volcanoes ( ! e>?'s pres5t "t 7 begun 9 ! ,t]ti>y ,age4 ,mt4 ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & ,mt4 ,hecla are believ$ to h comm5c$ at ?is "t4 ,!re is an int]e/+ region ( geological volcanoes 9 ! neighborhood ( ,auv]gne 9 ,c5tral ,france4 ,"h !y occur 9 ?ree sep>ate gr\ps t ext5d ov] a high granite plat=m f nor? to s\? = a di/ance ( ab\t #ajj miles1 & f tw5ty to eighty miles f ea/ to we/4 ,! eruptions began 9 ! e>li] portions ( ! ,t]ti>y ,age1 & cont9u$ d[n to ! latt] p]iods ( prehi/oric times4 ,"s ( ^! volcanic crat]s rema9 to-day almo/ z unaffect$ by erosion z if !y _h be5 =m$ b rec5tly4 ,o!r regions ( geological volcanoes are to be f\nd 9 p>ts ( ,spa9 ne> ! foot ( ! ,pyr5ees ,m\nta9s1 9 p>ts ( ,italy & ,g]many1 z well z 9 regions 9 ! ,caucasus ,m\nta9s4 ,9 ,asia ,m9or !re exi/s a gr\p ( almo/ ?irty ext9ct volcanoes 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,gulf ( ,smyrna4 ,bo? ,little & ,great ,ar>at conta9 volcanic cones3 t 9 ! latt] m\nta9 0 active dur+ hi/orical times4 ,!re are also ext5sive volcanic di/ricts 9 ! ,taurus ,m\nta9s4 ,9 addition to ^! !re are gr\ps ( ext9ct volcanoes 9 portions ( ,c5tral ,asia4 ,ad51 on ! ,r$ ,sea1 is ! c5tre ( an ext5sive volcanic di/rict4 ,inde$1 on bo? %ores ( ! ,r$ ,sea !re are a few volcanoes t are /ill active1 :ile 9 ,s9ai1 & 9 ! di/ricts ( ! s\?1 !re are sev]al ext9ct crat]s4 ,b x is 9 ! ,new ,_w1 especially on ! ,pacific coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 t volcanic activity 0 especially great dur+ ! geological pa/4 ,!re is a di/rict conta9+ volcanic rocks t ext5ds ?r\gh v>i\s p>ts ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 f ,new ,mexico & ,nor? ,cali=nia1 to ,oregon & ,briti% ,columbia4 ,?is di/rict has a wid? ( f eighty to #bjj miles1 & a l5g? ( n q #hjj miles4 ,?is great area ( ne>ly #aej1jjj squ>e miles is cov]$ ) great %eets ( volcanic rocks except :]e m\nta9 ranges rise f !m1 or :]e ! riv]s h cut deep valleys ?r\gh !m4 ,9 portions ( ,cali=nia & ,new ,mexico ^! plateaus rise to heights ( f #h1jjj to #aj1jjj feet1 :ile 9 p>ts ( ,colorado1 :]e !y =m huge dome-l m\nta9s1 !y rea* a ?ickness ( #ad1jjj feet4 ,9 ,oregon ! %eet ( lava is #b1jjj feet ?ick1 &1 inde$1 9 "s places1 is e/imat$ to h a dep? ( #g1jjj feet4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ne>ly all ,am]ican geologi/s ^! great lava fl[s 9 we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica 7 n ( ! type kn[n z crat] eruptions1 b 7 :at are call$ fissure eruptions4 ,"s ( !m are believ$ to h occurr$ dur+ geological times z e>ly z ! ,eoc5e4 ,pre/wi*1 h[ev]1 is ( ! op9ion t ! eruptions ( ! pa/ 9 ^! portions ( ! _w 7 n conf9$ to fissure eruptions1 b t crat] eruptions also occurr$2 & t x 0 t[>ds ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y ,age t crat] eruptions occurr$ ) great lava fl[s4 ,inde$1 z we h se51 9 portions ( ,utah & ! neighborhood ! rema9s ( true crat]s c be f\nd4 ,besides ! above !re are evid5ces ( geological volcanoes ( /ill old] times4 ,9 portions ( ,deccan1 9 s\!rn ,h9do/an1 !re is an imm5se plateau =m$ ( trap rock1 t ext5ds f ea/ to we/ = a di/ance ( #djj miles1 & f nor? to s\? ?r\gh f #gjj to #hjj miles4 ,?is di/rict1 ) an area ( almo/ #bjj1jjj squ>e miles1 is cov]$ ) a va/ lava %eet4 ,x 01 9 ! op9ion ( ,pre/wi*1 f :om _m ( ! facts ( ! geological volcanic eruptions h be5 obta9$1 probably /ill m ext5sive4 ,! plateau ( ,deccan rises gradually f ! ea/ to ! we/1 :]e1 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,ghauts ,m\nta9s1 x rea*es a height ( f #d1jjj to #e1jjj feet4 ,"o ( ! greate/ ( ^! prehi/oric volcanoes ( ,scotl& 0 a volcano 9 ! ,isle ( ,mull 9 ! ,hebrides4 ,?is volcano 0 probably ne>ly ?irty miles across at its base1 & 0 f #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj feet high4 ,x is n[ only #c1agb feet 9 height4 ,accord+ to ,judd ! ,isl& ( ,skye 9 ,inv]ness-%ire is ! rema9s ( a volcano t 0 active 9 ,t]ti>y times1 probably _m millions ( ye>s ago4 ,?is volcano 0 v l>ge1 probably ab\t ?irty miles across at its base1 ) a height ( p]haps z great z #ab1jjj or #ae1jjj feet4 ,n[ !re are only left "s granite & o!r simil> rocks t =m ! ,r$ ,m\nta9s & ,coolim ,hills ( ,skye t rea* ab\t #c1jjj feet above ! sea level4 ,!re are _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w conta9+ volcanoes t 7 active dur+ ! geological pa/4 ,! above1 h[ev]1 is z f> z we c describe su* volcanoes 9 ?is book4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,laplace',s ,,nebul> ,,hypo!sis ,la,place's nebul> hypo!sis is ! "n giv5 to an +5i\s hypo!sis propos$ by ,la,place1 a celebrat$ ,fr5* a/ronom]1 9 an endeavor to expla9 h[ ! sol> sy/em has be5 evolv$4 ,y w notice t ?is is call$ a hypo!sis & n a !ory4 ,! ^w hypo!sis is prop]ly appli$ to a m or less intellig5t guess or assumption1 t has be5 made = ! purpose ( try+ to f9d out 9 ! cause ( any natural ph5om5on4 ,a !ory is an expression ( a physical tru? bas$ on natural laws & pr9ciples t h be5 indep5d5tly e/abli%$4 ,a !ory1 !re=e1 is mu* m complete ?an a hypo!sis4 ,a hypo!sis1 z ,silliman rem>ks1 be>s ! same relation to a !ory or law1 t a scaffold+ does to a complet$ build+1 s9ce x =ms a conv5i5t means = erect+ ! build+4 ,la,place's "w is prop]ly call$ a hypo!sis1 because x is n to be consid]$ z any m ?an a means = enabl+ "o intellig5tly to inquire into ! probable mann] 9 :i* ! sol> sy/em has rea*$ its pres5t condition1 by gradual /eps or /ages dur+ ! almo/ inconceivable l5g? ( "t s9ce its creation4 ,be=e describ+ ,la,place's hypo!sis x w be necess>y to give y "s ideas conc]n+ :at is kn[n by a/ronom]s z ! sol> sy/em4 ,! sol> sy/em consi/s ( ! sun1 & ! eight l>ge bodies call$ planets t revolve ar\nd ! sun4 ,x also includes a numb] ( moons or satellites revolv+ ar\nd ! planets1 a numb] ( small bodies1 call$ planetoids or a/]oids1 toge!r ) num]\s comets & meteorites4 ,besides ^! !re is probably a sy/em ( meteoric bodies t are believ$ to revolve ar\nd ! sun1 & to produce1 by ! reflection ( ! light f _! surfaces1 :at is kn[n z ! zodiacal light4 ,! pr9cipal bodies ( ! sol> sy/em are ! planets4 ,^! con/itute eight l>ge bodies nam$ 9 _! ord] f ! sun1 beg9n+ ) ! ne>e/3 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,e>?1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 & ,neptune4 ,! la/ f\r planets1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 & ,neptune are mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 & are !re=e kn[n z ! major planets 9 ord] to di/+ui% !m f ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,e>?1 & ,m>s1 :i* are call$ ! m9or planets4 ,y c rememb] ! ord] 9 :i* ! la/ ?ree planets come by _! initial lett]1 ,s-aturn1 ,u-ranus1 & ,n-eptune1 spell+ ! ^w ,,sun1 ar\nd :i* !y all revolve4 ,x may be int]e/+ to /ate "h t ! anci5ts knew ( sev5 only ( ^! planets4 ,s9ce1 z !y ass]t$1 !re 7 only sev5 days 9 ! week1 & sev5 op5+s into ! head2 i4 e41 two = ! eyes1 two = ! no/rils1 two = ! e>s1 & "o = ! m\?1 x 0 natural t !re %\ld be b sev5 planets4 ,dur+ lat] ye>s1 h[ev]1 an eigh? planet 0 discov]$ & nam$ ,neptune4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to expla9 to y h[ ! position ( ?is planet 0 reason$ out by ma!matical calculations1 t is1 9 o!r words1 h[1 z a result ( su* calculations1 an a/ronom] 0 told t if he w\ld po9t 8 telescope to a c]ta9 "p ( ! heav5s he w\ld discov] a new planet4 ,he did ?is & locat$ ! planet ,neptune4 ,h[ev] int]e/+ ?is /ory may be x belongs prop]ly to a/ronomy1 & w be describ$ 9 full 9 ! ,wond] ,book ( ,a/ronomy4 ,9 ! op9ion ( "s a/ronom]s x is q probable t a n9? planet w be f\nd f> beyond ! orbit ( ,neptune4 ,!re may also be "s additional planets discov]$ betwe5 ,m]cury & ! ,sun4 ,besides ! eight kn[n planets !re exi/1 some:]e betwe5 ! orbits ( ,m>s & ,jupit]1 _m small] planets call$ a/]oids1 or m9or planets4 ,a long "t ago x 0 po9t$ out by ,bode t a curi\s relation exi/s betwe5 ! di/ances ( ! planets f ! sun4 ,?is relation or law is g5]ally kn[n1 aft] ! "n ( ! a/ronom] :o fir/ call$ att5tion to x1 z ,bode's ,law4 ,no reason has be5 discov]$ = ?is arrangem5t ( ! planets1 s t ,bode's ,law may be reg>d$ z empirical4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be m5tion$ "h t ! di/ances ( all ! planets f ! sun agrees ) ! law v closely1 ) ! s+le exception ( ,neptune1 :i* is q at v>iance ) ! law4 ,x 0 notic$ at an e>ly date1 t a gap exi/$ betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]1 s t a/ronom]s began to believe t !re 0 probably a miss+ planet 9 t space1 & ?is belief 0 greatly /r5g!n$ :5 ,neptune 0 discov]$ 9 #agha4 ,)\t go+ any fur!r into ?is /ory 9 ?is book1 x may be said t x is ! g5]al op9ion ( a/ronom]s t ! planetoids or a/]oids 7 =m$ possibly f ! fragm5ts ( ! miss+ planet1 or1 m probably1 f ! break+ up ( "s ( ! out] r+s on ! planet ,m>s4 ,! di/ances ( ! planets f ! c5tral sun v>y f ! ne>e/ planet1 ,m]cury1 :i* is ab\t #cf1jjj1jjj miles f ! sun1 to ! fur!/1 or ,neptune1 :i* is #b1gff1jjj1jjj miles f ! sun4 ,all ! major planets h a s+le moon1 or m1 revolv+ ar\nd !m4 ,= example1 ,jupit] has f\r moons2 ,uranus1 six2 ,saturn1 eight2 ,neptune1 "o4 ,z to ! m9or planets1 ,m>s has two moons2 &1 z f> z is kn[n1 nei!r ,m]cury or ,v5us has a moon4 ,our e>? has "o moon1 b1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 ?is is n to be reg>d$ z a moon or satellite ( ! e>?1 b r z a tw9 planet to ! e>?4 ,la,place's nebul> hypo!sis 0 propos$ by ,la,place dur+ ! ye> #agif4 ,:ile !re are _m objections t c be br\ght aga9/ x1 s9ce x fails to acc\nt = all ( ! ph5om5a ( ! sol> sy/em1 yet x is a significant fact n[1 9 ! ye> #aijg1 ne>ly a c5tury & a qu>t] aft] ! hypo!sis 0 fir/ ann\nc$1 t al?\gh modifi$ 9 _m respects1 !re has n be5 any hypo!sis propos$ to entirely replace x4 ,:ile ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,la,place is necess>ily a matt] t belongs to a/ronomy1 yet x w be advisable to consid] x "h1 s9ce x expla9s ! s\rce ( ! orig9al heat ( bo? ! e>? & ! moon1 :i* we believe is ! true cause ( volcanoes4 ,9 8 nebul> hypo!sis1 ,la,place assumes t all ! mat]ials ( :i* ! sol> sy/em is =m$1 7 orig9ally scatt]$ ?r\gh\t space 9 ! %ape ( an exce$+ly r>e =m ( matt] kn[n z nebul\s matt]4 ,he po9ts out t if x be grant$ t ?is m$ium began to accumulate ar\nd a common c5tre1 s z to =m a huge globe or sph]e1 & if a motion ( rotation on its axis f we/ to ea/ 7 giv5 to ?is sph]e t1 on /rictly me*anical pr9ciples1 a sy/em ( heav5ly bodies correspond+ to ! sol> sy/em might h be5 evolv$4 ,let u1 !re=e1 try to und]/& h[ ?is might h be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,! nebul\s matt] t ,la,place assum$ orig9ally con/itut$ all ! matt] 9 ! sol> sy/em1 0 highly heat$ gase\s matt]4 ,9 o!r words1 x consi/$ ( ord9>y matt] rais$ to a v high temp]ature2 ,la,place ?\ght at a temp]ature v mu* hott] ?an t ( ! sun4 ,z ?is great mass ( matt] comm5c$ to cool1 x began to collect ar\nd a c5tre & sl[ly rotate4 ,its contraction or %r9kage1 :ile cool+1 mu/ h caus$ an increase 9 ! spe$ ) :i* x spun ar\nd or rotat$ on its axis4 ,at fir/ x spun b sluggi%ly1 b z x cool$ & began to %r9k ?is rate ( rotation began sl[ly to increase4 ,n[ y mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! huge rotat+ mass1 z imag9$ by ,la,place1 0 v _m times l>g] ?an ! size ( our pres5t sun4 ,inde$1 in/ead ( hav+ a diamet] ( only #hff1ejj miles1 its temp]ature 0 s high t ! nebul\s matt] ( :i* x 0 compos$ _h exp&$ x s mu* t x ext5d$ f> beyond ! orbit ( ,neptune1 or _h a diamet] twice z great z #b1gff1jjj1jjj miles4 ,z ! huge mass cont9u$ to %r9k or contract1 its rotation began to gradually increase until at la/ its c5trifugal =ce 0 suffici5tly great to cause x to bulge out at ! equator1 s z at la/ to sep>ate a r+ ( gase\s matt]4 ,?is r+ 0 left beh9d by ! sun1 z x cont9u$ cool+1 & =m$ ! fir/ planet t 0 born into ! sol> sy/em4 ,! r+ might h cont9u$ to revolve ar\nd ! sun = a "t1 & w\ld1 ( c\rse1 revolve 9 ! same direction z t 9 :i* ! sun 0 rotat+1 t is1 f we/ to ea/4 ,ev5tually1 h[ev]1 x broke up into small] fragm5ts1 t aft]w>ds collect$ 9 a s+le body1 &1 assum+ a globe-l %ape ( ! planet1 =m$ ! planet ,neptune4 ,necess>ily1 too1 ! planet s =m$ n only w\ld revolve 9 its orbit f we/ to ea/ 9 ! same direction 9 :i* ! sun 0 revolv+ on its axis1 b w\ld also rotate or sp9 on its axis 9 ! same direction4 ,aft]1 9 ?is way1 ?r[+ (f ! fir/ planet1 ! c5tral sun cont9u$ to cool & gr[ small]1 until ! increase 9 ! rate ( its rotation 0 aga9 su* z to p]mit its c5trifugal =ce to =m a second r+ ar\nd its equator1 :i* be+ left z ! sun cont9u$ to contract1 gave rise to ano!r planet1 or to ,uranus1 & s on until ! f\r major planets & ! f\r m9or planets 7 born4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 ! planet t 0 fir/ born 0 ! planet t is f>!/ f ! sun1 t is1 ,neptune1 & ! planet la/ born mu/ h be5 ! ne>e/ planet1 ,m]cury4 ,b :ile all ?is planet =m+ 0 go+ on1 ! sep>ate planets also cont9u$ to %r9k1 &1 !re=e1 began to rotate m rapidly on _! axes4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! c5trifugal =ce1 r+-l masses began to =m ar\nd _! equators1 & ^! masses left by ! planet con/itut$ _! moons or satellites4 ,z y c see1 accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 j z ! planets w\ld all revolve 9 _! orbits f we/ to ea/1 & rotate on _! axes 9 ! same direction z ! sun1 s1 too1 ! moons or satellites ( ! planets w\ld also rotate on _! axes1 f ea/ to we/1 & revolve 9 _! orbits 9 ! same direction4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! ext5t to :i* ,la,place's nebul> hypo!sis expla9s ! peculi>ities ( ! sol> sy/em1 we mu/ inquire :at are ! mo/ important ( ^! peculi>ities4 ,we w take ^! f ,"y's g5]al book on ,a/ronomy1 f :i* mo/ ( ! facts 9 ?is *apt] h be5 cond5s$4 ,!y are z foll[s3 ,! orbits ( ne>ly all ! planets & _! satellites are ne>ly circul>2 !y are all 9 ! same plane2 & all revolve 9 ! same direction4 ,!y are1 moreov]1 ) ! s+le exception ( ,neptune1 arrang$ at di/ances f ! sun 9 accordance ) ,bode's ,law4 ,all ! planets increase 9 bo? directions1 t[>ds & f ! sun1 9 d5sity f ,saturn1 ! lea/ d5se4 ,all ! planets1 ) ! exception probably ( ,uranus1 rotate 9 a plane t is ne>ly ! same z ! plane ( ! orbit 9 :i* !y revolve4 ,moreov]1 ) ! exception ( probably bo? ,uranus & ,neptune1 all ! planets rotate 9 ! same direction z t 9 :i* !y revolve4 ,! satellites revolve 9 orbits ^: planes ne>ly co9cide ) ! plane ( ! planets' rotation1 :ile ! direction ( ! revolution ( ! satellites is ! same z t 9 :i* _! planets revolve4 ,f9ally1 ! l>ge/ planets rotate mo/ swiftly4 ,n[1 ,la,place's nebul> hypo!sis expla9s ne>ly all ( ! above facts4 ,! foll[+ modifications ( ! hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 are necess>y4 ,let u briefly exam9e "s ( ^! modifications4 ,9 ! fir/ place x c be %[n t ! orig9al nebul\s mass in/ead ( be+ at a high] temp]ature ?an t ( ! sun 0 probably at a mu* l[] temp]ature1 s9ce ! cond5sation ( ! gase\s matt] mu/ h increas$ ! temp]ature4 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( ! orig9al nebul\s mass be+ purely gase\s x 01 z ,"y express$ x3 ,r a cl\d ( ice cold meteoric du/ ?an an inc&esc5t gas or a fire mi/4 ,or 9 o!r words1 ! orig9al nebul\s mass f :i* ! sol> sy/em 0 evolv$1 consi/$ ( f9ely divid$ p>ticles ( solid or liquid matt] surr\nd$ by an envelope ( p]man5t gase\s matt]4 ,a d\bt1 too1 has be5 rais$ z reg>ds ! mann] 9 :i* ! planets 7 lib]at$ f ! c5tral sun4 ,in/ead ( sep>at+ 9 ! =m ( a regul> r+1 x has be5 ?\ght t probably 9 mo/ cases ?is sep>ation assum$ ! %ape ( a lump4 ,x might1 h[ev]1 h occurr$ at times 9 ! r+-l =m z may be se5 9 ! case ( ! planet ,saturn4 ,aga91 in/ead ( ! out] r+s be+ sep>at$ fir/1 & ! o!rs 9 regul> ord]1 s t ! out] planets are mu* ! old]1 x w\ld seem possible1 or1 z ,"y /ates1 ev5 probable1 t sev]al ( ! planets may be ( ! same or ne>ly ! same age1 z !y w\ld be if m ?an "o r+ _h be5 sep>at$ at "o "t1 or1 inde$1 sev]al planets may h be5 =m$ f diff]5t zones ( a s+le r+4 ,z y w see1 ,la,place's nebul> hypo!sis assumes t bo? sun & moon 7 9 a highly heat$ condition :5 !y 7 sep>at$ f ! nebul\s sun1 s t we c und]/& t ! =m] molt5 condition ( _! int]iors 0 due to ! heat !y orig9ally possess$4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,heat$ ,,int]ior1 ,,! ,,cause ,,( ,,volcanoes ,z we h already se51 ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,la,place w\ld seem to make x m ?an probable t ! e>? 0 orig9ally 9 a highly heat$ condition1 & only rea*$ its pres5t /ate aft] long cool+4 ,:ile ?is cool+ has gone on = probably millions ^u millions ( ye>s bo? be=e & dur+ ! geological pa/1 yet 9 ! op9ion ( p]haps ! be/ geologi/s ! int]ior ( ! e>? is /ill v hot1 only ! out] portions or cru/ hav+ h>d5$ by loss ( heat4 ,t !re is a v hot region some:]e inside ! e>? is evid5t1 s9ce f "s place or places bel[ ! surface !re come out ! imm5se /reams ( lava t1 cont9u+ to fl[ at irregul> int]vals1 h at la/ built up su* great masses ( l& z ! isl& ( ,hawaii1 ! /ill great] isl& ( ,icel&1 ! ev5 great] lava fields ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! great plateau ( ! ,deccan 9 s\!rn ,h9du/an4 ,x c]ta9ly mu/ h requir$ a great quantity ( lava to build up an isl& l ,hawaii ) its area ( fully #dj1jjj squ>e miles1 = ! highe/ po9t on ! summit ( ,mt4 ,kea rea*es #ac1hje feet above ! level ( ! sea1 &1 moreov]1 /&s on ! b$ ( ! ,pacific ,ocean 9 wat] fully #ab1jjj feet deep4 ,b ,icel& is only "o ( _m simil> cases4 ,volcanoes are to be f\nd 9 practically all p>ts ( ! e>?1 n only 9 ! equatorial regions1 :]e !y are especially num]\s1 b also 9 ! frigid & temp]ate zones4 ,we mu/ also rememb] ! imm5se lava /reams t are kn[n to h come f ! int]ior dur+ ! great fissure eruptions ( ! geological pa/4 ,:5 all ^! facts are tak5 into consid]ation1 x w\ld c]ta9ly seem t !re is only "o s\rce suffici5tly great to supply ?is wond]ful dem&1 & t is ! entire inside ( ! e>?4 ,b entirely ap>t f volcanic ph5om5a !re are o!r pro(s t ! entire int]ior ( ! e>? is 9 a highly heat$ condition4 ,! diff]5ces ( temp]ature caus$ by ! sun dur+ day & night d n affect ! e>? mu* bel[ a dep? ( ?ree feet1 :ile ! diff]5ces ( temp]ature betwe5 summ] & w9t] d n ext5d mu* fur!r bel[ ! surface ?an =ty feet4 ,bel[ ^! dep?s1 9 all p>ts ( ! e>?1 ! temp]ature ( ! cru/ rises at a rate1 :i*1 al?\gh n uni=m1 yet is n f> f an increase ( "o degree ( ! ,fahr5heit !rmomet] scale = e fifty or sixty feet ( desc5t4 ,if ! above rate ( increase cont9ues uni=m ! temp]ature ( ! cru/ w\ld be suffici5tly hot to boil wat] at a di/ance ( ab\t #h1jjj feet bel[ ! surface1 :ile at a dep? ( ab\t ?irty miles ! temp]ature w\ld be suffici5tly high to melt all kn[n sub/ances at ord9>y conditions ( atmosph]ic pressure2 t is1 to melt all kn[n sub/ances if !y 7 subject$ to su* a temp]ature at ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 consid]+ ! above we mu/ n lose sight ( ! fact t ?is increase 9 temp]ature ) desc5t bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?'s cru/ occurs1 n only 9 places :]e !re are volcanoes1 b ov] all p>ts ( ! e>?1 ?us seem+ to po9t out t !re is some?+ hot bel[ ! surface :i* fills ! entire inside ( ! e>?4 ,x is true ! greate/ di/ance to :i* man has actually gone d[n ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/ is b a few miles4 ,we d n1 !re=e1 "k by actual exp]i5ce t ! int]ior is any:]e 9 a fus$ condition1 yet ! escape ( lava or molt5 rocks 9 all latitudes1 & 9 ! enorm\s quantities ref]r$ to above1 seems to %[ t ! entire inside ( ! e>? is at a temp]ature suffici5tly high to melt all kn[n sub/ances "u ord9>y conditions4 ,x may be int]e/+ 9 ?is connection to exam9e "s ( ! pro(s ( ?is increase 9 temp]ature ) desc5t bel[ ! surface4 ,! foll[+ figures are giv5 by ,dana3 ,bor+s to great dep?s h be5 made 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! e>?1 bo? = artesian wells z well z = ! %afts ( m9es4 ,aft] pass+ ! l9e ( inv>iable temp]ature1 ! rate ( increase = a total di/ance ( #d1jjj feet bel[ ! surface is 9 ! neighborhood ( f "o degree = fifty-five to sixty feet1 or an av]age ( fifty-sev5 & a half feet = ea* degree ( heat4 ,9 ! case ( ! deep artesian well bor$ at ,gr5elle1 ,p>is1 :]e a temp]ature ( eighty-five degrees ,fahr5heit 0 rea*$ at a di/ance ( #b1jjj feet1 ! rate ( increase 0 some:at m rapid1 be+ "o degree ,fahr5heit = e sixty feet4 ,9 a deep well bor$ 9 a salt m9e at ,neusalzw]k1 ,prussia1 a dep? ( #b1bjj feet %[$ a temp]ature ( n9ety-"o degrees ,fahr5heit at ! bottom4 ,?is 0 at ! rate ( "o degree = e fifty feet ( desc5t4 ,at ,s*lad5ba*1 9 ,prussia1 a well has be5 dug to ! dep? ( #e1gce feet ) a temp]ature ( #acd ,f4 ,a bor+ at ,:eel+1 9 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 rea*$ a dep? ( #d1ejj feet1 #c1gjj feet bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,"h ! rate ( increase ( temp]ature 9 ! upp] half 0 "o degree ,fahr5heit = e eighty feet1 & 9 ! l[] half ( "o degree = e sixty feet4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ because ! rate ( increase ( temp]ature is n uni=m t ! argum5t ( a highly heat$ int]ior is weak5$4 ,on ! contr>y1 x w\ld be v surpris+ if ! rate cont9u$ uni=m2 = x is evid5t t ! conduct+ p[] ( diff]5t mat]ials 9 ! e>?'s cru/ = heat mu/ necess>ily make a great diff]5ce 9 ! rate at :i* heat %\ld increase1 z we g f>!r d[n into ! e>?4 ,?is is s important a matt] t ,i w expla9 x at some:at great] l5g?4 ,let u suppose t in/ead ( ! highly heat$ int]ior ( ! e>?1 we consid] ! simple case ( a hot /ove1 ! doors or o!r op5+s into :i* are clos$ s t x is impossible to see ! r$ hot coals inside4 ,n[1 suppose holes 7 bor$ 9 ! sides ( ?is /ove n deep en\gh to rea* ! r$ hot mass )91 & t tightly fitt+ rods or plugs all ( ! same l5g? & ?ickness1 b ( diff]5t k9ds ( mat]ials su* z wood1 e>!nw>e1 glass1 iron1 copp]1 silv]1 & gold1 etc41 7 s plac$ 9 ! holes z to tightly fit !m4 ,n[1 "u ^! circum/ances ! end ( all ! plugs w\ld be at ! same di/ance f ! heat$ inside4 ,!y w\ld n1 h[ev]1 by any means %[ ! same temp]atures1 ! metallic rods w\ld be too hot to t\*1 :ile ! end ( ! piece ( wood w\ld h>dly be hot en\gh to burn ! h& :5 held aga9/ x4 ,! piece ( glass & e>!nw>e ?\gh less cool w\ld be mu* less hot ?an ! diff]5t rods ( metals4 ,_! temp]atures w\ld be necess>ily affect$ by _! conduct+ p[] = heat4 ,! wood1 ! glass1 & ! e>!nw>e be+ poor] conductors ?an ! metals w\ld %[ mu* l[] temp]atures4 ,n[1 ! same ?+ is true ) ! diff]5t mat]ials t con/itute ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,"s ( ^! are mu* bett] conductors ( heat ?an o!rs1 s t ! rate ( increase ( temp]ature ) desc5t bel[ ! surface mu/ necess>ily v>y ) ! k9d ( mat]ials t =m ! cru/ ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,y may1 !re=e1 safely conclude t ! entire int]ior ( ! e>? is 9 a highly heat$ condition1 & t ! s\rce ( ?is heat is to be trac$ to ! heat ! e>? orig9ally possess$ :51 9 accordance to ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,la,place1 x 0 sep>at$ f ! sun :i* gave bir? to x1 t ! pres5t cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 =m$ on ! outside by ! loss ( a portion ( ?is heat4 ,! rapidity ) :i* a body cools1 dep5ds1 among o!r ?+s1 on ! diff]5ce betwe5 its temp]ature & t ( ! m$ium 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,! great] ?is diff]5ce ( temp]ature ! great] ! rapidity ( cool+4 ,c>eful measurem5ts made by ,tait1 ! ,engli% physici/1 %[ t our e>? loses e ye> f ea* squ>e foot ( surface1 an am\nt ( heat t w\ld be able to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] f ! melt+ po9t ( ice to ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 or f #cb ,f4 to #bab ,f4 ,! rate ( loss ( heat1 mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 mu* great] :5 ! e>? 0 m highly heat$ ?an x is n[1 & w be mu* small] ?an n[ _m ye>s f ! pres5t4 ,n[1 let u suppose1 :at ne>ly ev]yone ackn[l$ges to be true1 t ! e>? 0 orig9ally s hot z to be a molt5 globe1 & t :ile 9 ?is molt5 condition1 x began to revolve or move ar\nd ! sun4 ,s9ce ! empty space ?r\gh :i* ! e>? moves is v cold1 some?+ 9 ! neighborhood ( #de bel[ ! z]o ( ! ,fahr5heit !rmomet] scale1 ! loss ( heat w\ld take place v rapidly & a ?9 cru/ ( h>d5$ mat]ials w\ld be =m$ on ! outside4 ,n[ all ! "t ! e>? is cool+1 x is %r9k+ or gr[+ small]4 ,a v little ?\ght w conv9ce y t ?is cool+ or %r9kage c\ld n g on un9t]rupt$ly2 =1 :ile ! e>? 0 cool+ x 0 contract+1 or gr[+ small]1 & 9 ?is way a great pressure1 or z x is g5]ally call$ 9 sci5ce1 a great /ress 0 be+ produc$4 ,e n[ & !n ?is /ress became s great t ! cru/ ( ! e>? 0 fractur$ or brok54 ,at fir/ ^! fractures w\ld n require a v great am\nt ( /ress or =ce1 s9ce ! cru/ ( lava 0 !n v ?94 ,aft] great p]iods ( "t1 h[ev]1 ! cru/ grew ?ick] & ?ick]1 & ! am\nt ( =ce requir$ to break x cont9ually increas$1 s t ! fractures ( ! cru/ produc$ a great] di/urbance4 ,:5ev] ! e>?'s cru/ 0 fractur$ 9 ?is way ! e>? 0 %ak5 by :at are call$ e>?quakes1 :ile a "p ( ! molt5 int]ior w\ld run out or escape1 mak+ volcanoes4 ,9 ! v e>ly times nei!r ! e>?quakes or ! volcanoes 7 z en]getic z !y 7 at lat] p]iods :5 ! ?ickness ( ! e>?'s cru/ increas$4 ,n[1 hav+ z we believe correctly come to ! conclusion t ! entire int]ior ( ! e>? is 9 a highly heat$ condition1 ! next "q t arises is z to ! pres5t condition ( ?is int]ior4 ,a long "t ago x 0 believ$ t ! int]ior ( ! e>? is /ill melt$1 & t a cool$ portion or cru/ surr\nds a great molt5 mass t fills all ! inside2 t x is ?is mass :i* supplies ! imm5se quantities ( molt5 rock or lava t escape ?r\gh ! crat]s ( volcanoes or ?r\gh ! fissures 9 ! cru/4 ,)\t go+ into ?is "q ?or\ghly1 s9ce x is a v difficult "q to und]/&1 x w be suffici5t to say t !re are _m reasons :y x is impossible to believe t ! int]ior is /ill melt$4 ,y w und]/& t if ! int]ior ( ! e>? 7 melt$ l a huge c5tral sea ( fire t ea* volcano w\ld necess>ily affect all ! o!rs4 ,n[1 z we h se51 ?is is nev] ! case1 s t ?is is "o reason we _c believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( a melt$ int]ior4 ,ano!r reason we _c believe 9 a molt5 int]ior is an a/ronomical consid]ation4 ,x c be %[n t "u ! attraction ( ! sun & moon ! e>? c\ld n possibly behave z x does if x 7 /ill liquid 9 ! int]ior4 ,t1 on ! contr>y1 ! behavior ( ! e>? to ! attraction ( ! sun & moon is su* z to make x necess>y = u to believe t x is z rigid ?r\gh\t z w\ld be a globe ( /eel ( ! same size4 ,i c easily und]/& t y f9d x v difficult to see h[ x c be believ$ t ! int]ior ( ! e>? is solid & yet at ! same "t be suffici5tly hot to melt4 ,i c imag9e he>+ y ask if x is hot en\gh 9 ! inside to melt any kn[n mat]ials1 :y x is n melt$4 ,! reason1 h[ev]1 is v simple :5 y come to ?9k x ov]4 ,= a solid to fuse or become melt$1 x is n only necess>y = x to be heat$ to a temp]ature :i* is diff]5t = diff]5t sub/ances1 b t at ! same "t x is heat$ x %all h pl5ty ( room 9 :i* to exp& or gr[ bigg]4 ,9 o!r words1 ! temp]ature requir$ to fuse any sub/ance increases v rapidly ) ! pressure to :i* t sub/ance is expos$4 ,n[1 try to ?9k ( ! pressure to :i* ! mat]ials t fill ! inside ( ! e>? are subject$ at great di/ances bel[ ! surface4 ,?is pressure is enorm\s1 n only by reason ( ! weight ( ! _m miles ( rocks t are press+ d[n1 b also by reason ( ! enorm\s /ress or pressure caus$ by contraction or %r9kage4 ,:5 we say t ! int]ior ( ! e>? is hot en\gh to melt all kn[n sub/ances we mean hot en\gh to melt !m if !y c\ld be br\ght f great dep?s to ! level ( ! sea1 b n hot en\gh to melt !m :5 subject$ to ! great pressure t exi/s 9 regions f> bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,briefly1 ! condition ( ?+s is believ$ to be z foll[s3 ,! entire int]ior is fill$ ) rock hot en\gh to melt at ! level ( ! sea1 b "u too great pressure to melt4 ,if ?is be grant$1 z x is by p]haps ! greate/ numb] ( m5 :o are compet5t to judge1 ! ph5om5a ( e>?quakes c be readily expla9$1 z c1 inde$1 ! ph5om5a ( ^? great movem5ts :]eby great *anges ( level take place 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,n[ let u see h[ volcanoes c be expla9$ on ! assumption t ! int]ior ( ! e>? is hot en\gh to melt1 b rema9s solid only because !re is no room = ! heat$ mass to exp& 94 ,su* a heat$ int]ior z we h imag9$1 mu/ be con/antly los+ its heat &1 !re=e1 %r9k+4 ,e n[ & !n ?is %r9kage mu/ produce great fissures or cracks 9 ! solid cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,n[ %\ld su* cracks or fissures ext5d d[nw>ds to ! heat$ int]ior1 !re mu/ result a decrease 9 ! pressure4 ,! rocks w\ld1 !re=e1 beg9 to exp& & w\ld be =c$ by ! great pressure to rise sl[ly 9 su* cracks or fissures4 ,! fur!r !y rise ! great] ! relief ( pressure1 until !y at la/ assume a molt5 condition 9 :i* !y are =c$ out ?r\gh ! crat]s ( volcanoes z molt5 rocks or lava4 ,b x is n only volcanoes t seem to indicate a highly heat$ pla/ic condition z exi/+ 9 ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,z geologi/s well "k1 !re are to be f\nd 9 ! v>i\s /rata ( ! e>? places :]e great fissures h be5 made at v>i\s times dur+ ! geological pa/4 ,^! fissures v>y 9 wid? f a few in*es to _m hundr$s ( feet1 & are frequ5tly scores ( miles 9 l5g?4 ,lava ei!r fl[s out ( !m1 & cov]s adjo9+ sections ( ! c\ntry1 or simply rises 9 !m &1 aft]w>ds cool+1 =ms dikes4 ,9 _m in/ances1 h[ev]1 ! lava is =c$ 9 betwe5 m or less horizontal lay]s & 9 "s cases has caus$ ^! lay]s to assume ! %ape ( :at geologi/s "k z subtrud]ant m\nta9s4 ,"s ( ! ea/]n ranges ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s h be5 =m$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,we c1 !re=e1 picture to ourselves ! foll[+ z ! mann] ( =mation ( an ord9>y volcano4 ,a fissure is fir/ =m$ 9 ! solid cru/ ( ! e>?1 ext5d+ d[nw>ds to ! regions ( great heat4 ,!re is ?us produc$ a relief ( pressure1 s t at ?is po9t ! highly heat$ rocks beg9 to be sl[ly =c$ up ?r\gh ! fissure4 ,z !y rise high] & high] !y become less solid & f9ally exp& into fus$ masses t c fl[ out ( ! crat] or op5+ 9 ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 ?is way a volcano is />t$4 ,b = ?is volcano to cont9ue 9 eruption1 x is necess>y t ! conditions %all cont9ue t =ce ! molt5 rock upw>ds f great dep?s4 ,x is n en\gh = ! lava to fill ! crevice t exi/s upw>ds to ! surface1 x mu/ cont9ue to be =c$ upw>ds until x escapes4 ,if x is p]mitt$ to rema9 9 ! fissure = any "t1 x h>d5s1 & only great dikes are =m$4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t "s o!r =ce mu/ be call$ into action to keep ! fissure op5 or1 9 o!r words1 to prev5t ! *ill+ ( ! lava4 ,n[1 ?is =ce is g5]ally believ$ to be ! expansive =ce ( /eam or ! vapor ( wat]4 ,z ,dana po9ts out1 by f> ! great] "p ( ! vapor :i* escapes f ! crat]s ( volcanoes consi/s ( /eam or ! vapor ( wat]4 ,inde$1 x c be %[n t = e hundr$ p>ts ( diff]5t vapors1 at lea/ n9ety-n9e ( su* p>ts consi/ ( wat] vapor4 ,x is = ! great] "p1 to ! pressure ( /eam or wat] vapor t ! escape ( lava f ! tube ne> ! top ( ! crat] is due4 ,( c\rse1 ! "q arises z to :]e ! wat] comes f t produces ?is /eam4 ,!re are ?ree possible s\rces4 ,f ! ra9s2 f leakage at ! b$ ( ! ocean2 & f vapors exi/+ at great dep?s bel[ ! surface4 ,x is n probable t ei!r ra9 wat]1 or wat] f ! ocean1 p5etrates ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/ = di/ances mu* great] ?an a few ?\s& feet4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 v well kn[n t 9 all p>ts ( ! e>?1 except 9 des]t regions1 :e!r !y are ne> or f> f ! ocean1 ! rocks are always f\nd fully *>g$ ) wat]4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! sl[ly ris+ lava passes ?r\gh ! moi/ rocks t ev]y:]e =m ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 !re mu/ be =m$ 9 !m great quantities ( /eam "u v high pressure4 ,moreov]1 _m sub/ances1 especially ^? =m+ lava1 possess ! p[] ( absorb+ l>ge quantities ( /eam & o!r gases4 ,!re=e1 z ! molt5 mat]ial rea*es ! moi/ rocks 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 x becomes highly *>g$ ) /eam1 & z ! lava rises t[>ds ! surface ?is /eam exp&s4 ,:]e ! lava is 9 a v fluid condition ! /eam quietly escapes1 z does ! /eam f ! surface ( boil+ wat]4 ,b :]e ! lava is visc\s1 l t> or pit*1 great bubbles are =m$1 :i*1 on _! explosion1 ?r[ ! lava upw>ds = great di/ances into ! air4 ,we c1 !re=e1 acc\nt 9 ?is mann] = bo? ! non-explosive z well z ! explosive type ( volcanoes4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t x is ! explosive p[] ( /eam :i* is ! pr9cipal cause ( ! lava ris+ upw>ds f great dep?s4 ,?is is caus$ by ! great pressure or /ress set up by ! contraction ( a cool+ cru/4 ,! pressure ( ?is /eam is add$ to ?is pressure :i* keeps ! lava fl[+ upw>ds f great dep?s bel[4 ,! objection has sometimes be5 urg$ t x is impossible to believe ! lava comes f a highly heat$ int]ior1 because1 z is well kn[n1 lavas are ( diff]5t types ev5 :5 com+ f ! same volcano at diff]5t times ( eruption4 ,:ile su* an objection w\ld h weight 7 x believ$ t ! int]ior ( ! e>? is /ill 9 a molt5 condition1 x loses its weight :5 "o believes t ! int]ior is solid4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be ackn[l$g$ t ! l>ge/ "p ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? w\ld probably h ! same *emical composition if x _h ev] be5 9 a completely melt$ condition ?r\gh\t4 ,i d n d\bt y h already conclud$ t ! reason ! e>?'s volcanoes are practically limit$ to ! bord]s ( cont95ts1 or to ! %ores ( isl&s1 is ! leakage ( ! ocean wat]s into ! cru/ at ^! p>ts4 ,?is 0 at "o "t believ$ by mo/ geologi/s4 ,t sea wat] has mu* to d ) su* volcanoes z ,vesuvius !re is no d\bt1 b x is n[ g5]ally recogniz$ t x is n s mu* ! pres5t outl9es ( ! e>?1 or ! pres5t arrangem5t ( its l& & wat] areas1 t det]m9es ! di/ribution ( ! _w's volcanoes4 ,x is r believ$ t ! location ( ! l9es ( fractures along :i* ! e>?'s volcanoes are f\nd 7 det]m9$ by conditions t occurr$ long be=e ! e>? assum$ its pres5t outl9es4 ,b !re is ano!r explanation t has be5 sugge/$ z reg>ds ! condition ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,judd ref]s to ?is explanation z foll[s3 ,"s physici/s h ass]t$ t a globe ( liquid matt] radiat+ its heat into space1 w\ld t5d to solidify bo? at ! surface & ! c5tre at ! same "t4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is action w\ld be ! production ( a sph]e ) a solid ext]nal %ell & a solid c5tral nucleus1 b ) an int]pos$ lay] 9 a fluid or semi-fluid condition4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t if we suppose ! solidification to h gone s f> z to h caus$ ! p>tial union ( ! int]ior nucleus & ! ext]nal %ell1 we may conceive a condition ( ?+s 9 :i* ! /ability & rigidity is suffici5t to satisfy bo? geologi/s & a/ronom]s1 b t 9 /ill unsolidifi$ pockets or res]voirs1 fill$ ) liquefi$ rock1 betwe5 ! nucleus & ! %ell1 we %\ld h a compet5t cause = ! production ( ! volcanic ph5om5a ( ! globe4 ,9 ?is hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 x is assum$ t ! cool+ at ! c5tre & ! surface ( ! globe w\ld g on at su* rate t ! res]voirs ( liquid mat]ial w\ld be left at a mod]ate dep? f ! surface1 s t easy communication c\ld be op5$ betwe5 !m & volcanic v5ts4 ,i mu/ caution y1 h[ev]1 n to ?9k t ! above !ory ( volcanoes is accept$ by all sci5tific m54 ,on ! contr>y1 !re are _m :o believe t ! e>? is solid ?r\gh\t because x has completely lo/ its orig9al heat2 t x is only comp>atively small areas t are to be f\nd fill$ ) molt5 or at lea/ highly heat$ mat]ial4 ,b ^! op9ions are held l>gely by ^? :o h giv5 _! att5tion almo/ entirely to ! ph5om5a ( e>?quakes1 or :o base _! reason+s on ma!matical gr\nds only & h n suffici5tly consid]$ ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 !y c be bett] und]/ood aft] we h expla9$ ! ph5om5a ( e>?quakes1 we w def] _! discussion to ! la/ *apt]s ( ?is book4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,"s ,,=ms ,,( ,,lava ,9 describ+ ! wond]s ( volcanoes1 we mu/ n fail to say some?+ ( ! _m rem>kable =ms t lava is capable ( assum+4 ,all volcanic lavas conta9 l>ge quantities ( an acid sub/ance kn[n z silica1 or :at is kn[n bett] z qu>tz s&4 ,?is mat]ial exi/s 9 lava comb9$ *emically ) v>i\s sub/ances call$ bases1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* are alum9a1 magnesia1 lime1 iron1 pota%1 & soda4 ,al?\gh !re are _m k9ds ( lava1 yet all lavas c be arrang$ "u ?ree great classes accord+ to ! quantity ( silica !y conta94 ,acid lavas are ^? 9 :i* ! quantity ( silica is greate/4 ,9 ^! lavas ! silica1 :i* v>ies f #ff to #hj1 is comb9$ ) small quantities ( lime or magnesia1 & comp>atively l>ge quantities ( pota% or soda4 ,"s ( ! mo/ important v>ieties ( acid lavas are kn[n z tra*ytes1 &esites1 rhyolites1 & obsidians4 ,basic lavas are ^? conta9+ f #de to #ee ( silica4 ,!y are ri* 9 lime & magnesia1 b poor 9 soda or pota%4 ,"s ( ! mo/ important ( basic lavas are ! dol]ites & basalts4 ,g5]ally speak+1 basic lavas are ( a d>k] color ?an acid lavas1 & fuse at mu* l[] temp]atures4 ,int]m$iate lavas are ^? conta9+ silica 9 ! proportion ( f #ee to #ff4 ,:ile ! temp]ature ( liquid lava has n be5 v accurately det]m9$1 yet1 s9ce we "k t molt5 lava is able to melt silv] or copp]1 its temp]ature mu/ be some:]e betwe5 #b1ejj ,f4 & #c1jjj ,f41 ! melt+ po9t v>y+ ) ! *emical composition4 ,accord+ to ,dana lavas c be divid$ into ! foll[+ classes accord+ to _! fusibility2 i4 e41 lavas ( easy fusibility1 su* z basalts2 ^! lavas fuse at ab\t #b1bej ,f42 lavas ( m$ium fusibility1 includ+ &esites2 ^! lavas fuse at ab\t #b1ebj ,f42 lavas ( difficult fusibility1 su* z tra*ytes2 ^! lavas fuse at ab\t #b1gjj ,f4 ,b :at is1 p]haps1 mo/ curi\s ab\t lavas is t :5 ! surface ( a fre%ly brok5 piece ( cold lava is c>efully exam9$1 x is f\nd to conta9 a numb] ( small cry/als ( su* m9]al sub/ances z qu>tz1 feldsp>1 hornbl5de1 mica1 magnetite1 etc4 ,! be/ way to /udy ! diff]5t =ms ( lava cry/als is to prep>e a ?9 transp>5t slice ( h>d5$ lava & !n exam9e x ) a good magnify+ glass4 ,x w be f\nd t ! slice consi/s ( a mass ( a glass-l mat]ial ?r\gh :i* ! cry/als are irregul>ly di/ribut$1 n unlike ! rais9s & currants 9 a slice ( n ov] ri* plumcake4 ,:5 exam9$ by a m p[]ful glass1 su* z a microscope1 cl\dy pat*es c be se5 di/ribut$ irregul>ly ?r\gh ! glass-l mass4 ,:5 ^! pat*es are exam9$ by a high] p[] ( ! microscope !y are se5 to consi/ ( small solid p>ticles ( def9ite =ms kn[n z microli?s & cry/allites4 ,x has be5 %[n by a c>eful /udy ( ^! m9ute objects t !y =m ! exce$+ly small p>ticles ( :i* cry/als are built up4 ,if we fuse a small quantity ( lava & !n let x sl[ly cool1 ! glassy mass w be f\nd to conta9 num]\s cry/allites4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 fus$ lava is p]mitt$ to cool quickly1 x takes on ! =m ( a black1 glass-l mass kn[n z obsidian or volcanic glass1 a v common =m ( lava 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,9 "s lavas !re are f\nd l>g] cry/als t appe> to h be5 sep>at$ f ! glassy mass1 "u ! great pressure t exi/s 9 ! subt]ranean res]voirs at great dep?s bel[ ! volcanic crat]1 & !n float$ to ! surface surr\nd$ by ! glass-l mat]ial4 ,n[ :5 we exam9e ^! cry/als ) a high] p[] ( ! microscope1 we frequ5tly f9d 9 !m m9ute cavities conta9+ a small quantity ( liquid & a bubble ( gas1 ?us caus+ !m to resemble small _s levels4 ,! liquid 9 su* cavities has be5 exam9$ *emically & 9 mo/ cases has be5 f\nd to consi/ ( wat] conta9+ sev]al salts 9 solution4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! liquid consi/s ( liquefi$ c>bonic acid gas4 ,^! wond]ful ?+s w be discuss$ at great] l5g? 9 ! ,wond] ,book ( ,light4 ,:5 ! mass ( molt5 rock or lava t comes out ( ! crat] ( a volcano is ?r[n upw>ds 9 ! air ! condition x assumes by ! "t x falls back aga9 to ! e>? dep5ds on ! height x rea*es4 ,if ?is height is great ! lava *ills or h>d5s be=e rea*+ ! e>?1 & assumes v>i\s =ms accord+ to ! size ( ! fragm5ts4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! fragm5ts are call$ c9d]s2 ! f9] p>ticles volcanic du/2 :ile mo/ ( ^? ( int]m$iate p>ticles are kn[n among o!r ?+s z volcanic a%es4 ,we h already se5 t :5 an explosive volcanic eruption occurs !re is sudd5ly ?r[n out ( ! crat] ( ! volcano a huge column ( v>i\s sub/ances t rises sometimes z high z #cj1jjj feet or ev5 m4 ,! small] fragm5ts ( lava are quickly cool$ & =m volcanic a%es1 s&1 c9d]s1 or du/4 ,^! are rapidly spread out by ! w9d 9 ! =m ( a black cl\d1 t n only cov]s ! m\nta9 b rea*es out ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 completely %utt+ (f ! light ( ! sun4 ,f ?is cl\d p>ticles ( r$ hot a%es1 c9d]s1 s&1 etc41 beg9 to fall1 ! l>ge/ p>ticles ne> ! crat] ( ! volcano1 & ! small] p>ticles at mu* great] di/ances4 ,9 v p[]ful explosive volcanic eruptions su* z ,krakatoa1 ! f9] du/ may be c>ri$ to practically all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,volcanic a%es consi/ ( a f9e1 light1 gray p[d]4 ,^! p>ticles take ! "n a%es f _! resemblance to ! a%es left aft] ! burn+ ( pieces ( wood or coal 9 an op5 fire4 ,! "n1 h[ev]1 z ,geicke po9ts out1 is un=tunate1 s9ce x is apt to lead "o to suppose t volcanic a%es consi/ ( "s burn$ mat]ial4 ,su* an idea is errone\s1 h[ev]1 s9ce a%es d n consi/ ( any?+ t is left aft] burn+1 b m]ely ( f9e p>ticles ( molt5 rock t h h>d5$ by cool+4 ,:5 9 ! %ape ( :at is kn[n z volcanic du/ ^! p>ticles are s exce$+ly small t !y c readily make _! way ?r\gh ! smalle/ op5+s 9 a clos$ room j z does ! f9e/ du/ 9 ! rooms ( our h\ses :5 !y are %ut up4 ,!re are cases on record :]e p h be5 suffocat$ by ! entrance ( volcanic du/ 9 clos$ rooms to :i* !y h fl$ = safety dur+ volcanic eruptions4 ,volcanic s& consi/s ( ! co>s] p>ticles ( *ill$ lava t are p>tly r\nd & p>tly angul>4 ,!y are ( v>i\s sizes up to t ( an ord9>y pea4 ,volcanic s& is =m$ by ! break+ up ( ! lava by ! explosion ( ! vapors z !y escape f ! lava on relief f pressure4 ,volcanic du/ :5 exam9$ by ! microscope is f\nd to consi/ ( v small p>ticles t are m or less cry/all9e4 ,b besides ! above !re are l>g] fragm5ts kn[n z lapilli1 consi/+ ( r\nd$ or angul> bits ( lava v>y+ 9 size f t ( a pea to an ord9>y black walnut4 ,^! sometimes consi/ ( solid fragm5ts1 b are usually por\s1 sometimes s mu* s t !y readily float on wat]4 ,a curi\s =m sometimes assum$ by lava consi/s ( :at are call$ volcanic bombs4 ,^! are =m$ dur+ explosive eruptions1 :5 masses ( liquid lava are hurl$ high up into ! air4 ,dur+ _! flight !y take on a rot>y motion1 :i* t5ds to make !m globul>1 s t cool+1 :ile /ill revolv+1 !y assume ! =m ( a m or less sph]ical mass4 ,at times1 h[ev]1 !y are /ill suffici5tly s(t :5 !y /rike ! e>? to be flatt5$ out 9 ! =m ( flat cakes4 ,:5 ( a sph]ical =m ^! are v prop]ly call$ volcanic bombs4 ,t volcanic bombs h actually be5 subject$ to a sp9n+ motion :ile 9 ! air c sometimes be %[n by ! fact t masses ( scori are frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! int]ior ) air cells l>ge/ at ! c5tre ( ! bomb4 ,volcanic bombs are sometimes ?r[n f ! crat] to great di/ances4 ,dur+ "o ( its rec5t eruptions1 ,cotopaxi ?rew out bombs t fell at a di/ance ( n9e miles f ! crat]4 ,accord+ to ,dana ano!r =m ( lava bombs is sometimes f\nd on ! slopes ( ! active volcanoes ( ,hawaii1 :]e masses ( lava acquire a ball-l %ape :ile roll+ d[n an incl9ation4 ,:at are sometimes call$ volcanic bombs1 b :i* are m prop]ly volcanic vesicles1 are produc$ by small fragm5ts ( lava :i* are ?r[n up 9 ! air = only a mod]ate height &1 on cool+1 assume pe>-l =ms4 ,fig4 #be repres5ts ! appe>ance ( volcanic vesicles4 ,! direction 9 :i* ^! vesicles mov$ ?r\gh ! air :ile 9 a molt5 /ate is indicat$ by _! %ape1 ! blunt end be+ ! end t[>ds :i* ! p>ticles 7 project$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,volcanic ,,vesicles ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,b by f> ! great] portion ( ! h>d5$ lava2 i4 e41 ! co>s]1 heavi] p>ticles1 fall back on ! m\nta91 & collect+ ar\nd ! crat] build up volcanic cones1 z already describ$ 9 ! case ( m\nta9s ( ! ,vesuvian type4 ,!re are two diff]5t ways 9 :i* ! melt$ lava is brok5 up into f9e p>ticles :5 x is ?r[n upw>ds f ! crat] ( ! volcano4 ,ne>ly all lava conta9s l>ge quantities ( /eam t are %ut up1 or occlud$ 9 ! mass1 be+ prev5t$ f escap+ by reason ( ! pressure to :i* ! lava is subject$4 ,! lava is releas$ f ?is pressure z x is ?r[n out ( ! crat]4 ,! /eam or gases escape explosively & ?us break ! lava into f9e liquid spray1 :i* rapidly h>d5s4 ,!re is ano!r way 9 :i* small p>ticles ( lava are =m$4 ,sometimes l>ge pieces ( h>d5$ lava are %ot upw>ds into ! air ) a velocity z great z t ) :i* a heavy projectile leaves ! muzzle ( a l>ge gun4 ,^! heavy p>ticles /rik+ aga9/ "o ano!r1 ei!r :ile ris+ or fall+1 are brok5 into small] fragm5ts4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ^! fragm5ts fall back aga9 into ! crat] f :i* !y are aga9 viol5tly ?r[n out1 & are aga9 brok5 into small] fragm5ts ei!r :ile ris+ or fall+4 ,y w1 probably1 rememb] sev]al in/ances ( volcanic eruptions :]e masses ( rock 7 ?r[n viol5tly up into ! air out ( ! crat]4 ,^! l>g] masses are kn[n z volcanic blocks4 ,!y probably consi/ ( masses ( h>d5$ lava t h collect$ 9 ! tube ( ! volcano dur+ "s ( its p]iods ( inactivity4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 !y consi/ ( fragm5ts ( rocks t are n ( volcanic orig94 ,cases are on record :]e volcanic blocks h be5 ?r[n out ( ! crat]s 9 s great quantities z to cov] ! surface ( _m squ>e miles ( l& ) fragm5ts hundr$s ( feet deep4 ,!re is sometimes =m$ on ! surface ( a pool ( lava z x collects 9 ! crat]s ( su* volcanoes z ,mt4 ,loa or ,kilauea1 :5 ! volcanoes are n 9 eruption1 a mat]ial resembl+ fro? or scum4 ,! same ?+ sometimes occurs on ! surface ( "s k9ds ( lava z x runs d[n ! side ( ! m\nta94 ,9 ?is way a v light v>iety ( highly cellul> lava kn[n z pumice /one is produc$4 ,! action :i* ?us takes place is n unlike t :i* occurs dur+ ! rais+ ( a lot ( ! d\gh f :i* bread is made1 :]e ! c>bonic acid gas :i* is =m$ dur+ ! rais+ ( ! d\gh exp&s1 & produces ! well-kn[n op5 cellul> /ructure ( well-rais$ bread4 ,9 ! case ( pumice /one1 h[ev]1 ?is rais+ goes on to su* an ext5t t ! mass consi/s (t5 ( less ?an #b ( solid matt]1 ! rema9d] be+ a tangl$ mass ( air4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,lava ,,fl[ ,,( ,,! ,,crat] ,,( ,,kilauea1 ,,hawaiian ,,isl&s ,f a ,/]eograph1 ,copyright1 by ,und]wood ,und]wood ,fragm5ts ( lava t possess a cellul> /ructure =m :at are kn[n z scori4 ,! lighte/ ( all k9ds ( scori is :at is kn[n z ?read-lace scori4 ,"h ! ?9 walls consi/ ( m]e ?reads4 ,figs4 #bf & #bg repres5t ! appe>ance ( ?read-lace scori f ,kilauea4 ,! sep>ate ?reads are v f9e1 be+ only f "o-?irtie? to "o-=tie? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,z c be se51 ?is =m ( scori h six-sid$ or hexagonal %apes4 ,y c =m "s idea ( ! great lightness ( su* scori :5 y le>n t !y conta9 only #a4g ( rocky mat]ial4 ,inde$1 !y conta9 s little solid mat]ial t a lay] ( volcanic glass only "o in* ?ick1 if bl[n out into scori1 w\ld be able to produce a lay] sixty in*es ?ick4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,?read-,,lace ,,scori ,,f ,,kilauea ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,ano!r curi\s =m sometimes assum$ by lava1 especially 9 ! case ( ,kilauea1 is :]e ! lava is spun out 9 ! =m ( long silk-l hairs4 ,?is is call$ by ! natives ,pele's hair1 aft] ! "n ( _! goddess4 ,inasmu* z ! orig9 ( ?is =m ( lava 0 at "o "t g5]ally attribut$ to ! action ( ! w9d 9 draw+ out ?read-l pieces f ! jets ( lava ?r[n upw>ds f ! pool1 x w be int]e/+ if its true cause is expla9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,?read-,,lace ,,scori ,,f ,,kilauea ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,dutton1 9 8 report on ! ,hawaiian volcanoes1 ref]s to ! =mation ( ,pele's hair z foll[s3 ,! ph5om5on ( ,pele's hair is (t5 spok5 ( 9 ! s*ool books1 & receives its "n f ?is locality4 ,x has g5]ally be5 expla9$ z ! result ( ! action ( ! w9d ^u m9ute ?reads ( lava drawn out by ! spurt+ up ( boil+ lava4 ,no?+ ( ! sort 0 se5 "h1 & yet ,pele's hair 0 se5 =m+ 9 great abundance4 ,:5ev] ! surface ( ! liquid lava 0 expos$ dur+ ! break-up ! air above ! lake 0 fill$ ) ^! cobwebs1 b !re 0 no spurt+ or app>5t boil+ on ! expos$ surface4 ,! explanation ( ! ph5om5on :i* ,i w\ld (f] is z foll[s3 ,liquid lava com+ up f ! dep?s always conta9s m or less wat]1 :i* x gives (f sl[ly & by degrees1 9 mu* ! same way z *ampagne gives (f c>bonic acid :5 ! bottle is uncork$4 ,wat]-vapor is held 9 ! liquid lava by "s aff9ity simil> to *emical aff9ity1 & ?\gh x escapes ultimately1 yet x is surr5d]$ by ! lava ) reluctance s long z ! lava rema9s liquid4 ,b :5 ! lava solidifies ! wat] is expell$ mu* m en]getically1 & ! wat]-vapor sep>ates 9 ! =m ( m9ute vesicles4 ,s9ce ! congelation ( all silice\s comp\nds is a passage free f a liquid condition ?r\gh an int]m$iate /ate ( viscosity to f9al solidity1 ! walls ( ^! vesicles are capable ( be+ drawn out z 9 ! case ( glass4 ,! commotion set up by ! desc5d+ cru/ produces eddies & numb]less curr5ts 9 ! surface ( ! lava4 ,^! vesicles are drawn out on ! surface ( ! curr5t ) exce$+ t5uity1 produc+ myriads ( m9ute filam5ts1 & ! air1 agitat$ by ! int5se heat at ! surface ( ! pool1 readily lifts !m & wafts !m away4 ,x =ms almo/ :olly at ! "t ( ! break-up4 ,! air is !n full ( x4 ,yet ,i saw no sp\t+ or sputt]+1 b only ! eddy+ ( ! lava l wat] 9 ! wake ( a %ip4 ,! c\ntry to ! leew>d ( ,kilauea %[s an abundance ( ,pele's hair1 & x may be ga!r$ by ! b>relful4 ,a bun* ( x is mu* l f9ely %r$d$ asbe/os4 ,y h probably (t5 se5 ! beautiful fro/ pictures t collect on ! panes ( glass 9 a room :]e ! v5tilation has be5 neglect$4 ,^! pictures consi/ ( gr\p+s ( ice cry/als t collect on ! surface ( ! w9d[s1 :5 ! moi/ vapor-lad5 air 9 ! room is *ill$ by contact ) _! cold surfaces4 ,n[ ! cry/als =m$ 9 cool+ lavas are sometimes gr\p$ 9 =ms closely resembl+ fro/ pictures4 ,a few ( su* =ms are repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #bh & #bi 9 lava f ,mt4 ,loa & ,mt4 ,kea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,fro/-,,l ,,lava ,,cry/als ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,fro/-,,l ,,lava ,,cry/als ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,c]ta9 v>ieties ( lava1 especially t :i* is f\nd 9 dikes1 =m cool1 beautiful columns call$ basaltic columns4 ,!y are due to ! contraction t occurs on ! cool+ ( ! mat]ial4 ,in/ances ( basaltic columns are se5 9 ! ,giant's ,causeway1 on ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,irel&1 z well z 9 ! ,isle ( ,cyclops on ! coa/ ( ,italy4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! latt] is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,basaltic ,,columns1 ,,isle ,,( ,,cyclops1 ,,italy ,x is a curi\s fact t ! entire mass ( basalt does n g5]ally take ! column\s =m b only c]ta9 lay]s :i* t]m9ate sudd5ly above & bel[ at /ructureless masses ( basalt1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca4 ,^! columns1 h[ev]1 are always f\nd at "r angles to ! cool+ surfaces z se5 9 ! figures4 ,!y may1 !re=e1 be incl9$ at all angles to ! horizon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,,column> ,,& ,,non-,,column> ,,basalt ,:5 molt5 lava is only ?r[n up a %ort di/ance into ! air f a crat] x is /ill p>tially molt5 :5 on fall+ x aga9 rea*es ! e>?1 & !re=e cl+s to any surface on :i* x falls4 ,!re are ?us built up curi\s cones kn[n z driblet cones1 9 :i* ! sep>ate drops cov]+ ! sides ( ! cone c be di/9ctly trac$4 ,driblet cones are repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #cb & #cc4 ,"h1 z c be se51 ! sep>ate drops c be readily trac$ z !y run d[n a %ort di/ance be=e cool+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #cb1 #cc4 ,,driblet ,,cones ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,we h already ref]r$ briefly to ! lava caves or grottoes1 t are =m$ 9 "s ( ! lava /reams issu+ f ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 or ,hawaii4 ,^! caves consi/ ei!r ( a numb] ( communicat+ huge bubbles1 or ( ! tunnels t are =m$ 9 ! lava by ! h>d5+ ( ! outside ( ! lava /reams z !y fl[ d[n ! sides ( ! m\nta91 & t[>ds ! close ( ! eruption are aft]w>ds empti$ by ! molt5 lava )9 cont9u+ to fl[ to a l[] level be=e solidify+4 ,n[1 9 ! int]ior ( ^! caves1 !re are (t5 f\nd on ! walls1 z well z on ! portions ( ! floors ( ! caves1 imm$iately bel[ !m1 curi\s p5dants1 l icicles1 or1 m correctly1 l ! /alactites ( lime/one t are se5 hang+ to ! walls ( caves 9 lime/one di/ricts1 :]e !y are =m$ z foll[s3 z ! ra9 wat] s9ks ?r\gh lime/one /rata x dissolves "s ( ! lime1 :51 sl[ly fall+1 drop aft] drop1 f ! ro(s ( ! cav]ns1 small p>ticles ( lime are deposit$ on ! ro(1 & 9 ?is mann] a p5dant ( lime/one is =m$4 ,! wat] t falls to ! floor ( ! causeway imm$iately bel[1 also builds up a dome-l hillock call$ a /alagmite4 ,9 due "t ! pill> rea*es d[nw>ds1 & ! opposite hillock upw>ds until ! two meet1 ?us =m+ great natural pill>s t appe> to hold up ! ro( ( ! va/ cave 9 :i* !y h be5 sl[ly =m$4 ,a numb] ( lava /alactites are repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,lava ,,/alactites ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,n[1 9 a simil> mann] ^! lava /alactites1 =m$ 9 ! lava caves or grottoes1 are caus$ by ! /ream z x escapes f ! walls ( ! caves deposit+ on !m /alactites ( v>i\s lava m9]als x has dissolv$ z x sl[ly pass$ ?r\gh !m4 ,b ! mo/ important ( all volcanic products is volcanic du/4 ,?is1 z we h se51 is s light t x rema9s longe/ 9 ! air1 & is (t5 c>ri$ by ! w9ds to great di/ances f ! volcano f :i* x escap$4 ,x may int]e/ y to "k t "s ( ! mo/ fruitful ( ! great :eat fields ( ! we/]n p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates owe _! extraord9>y f]tility to imm5se deposits ( volcanic du/ t h be5 ?r[n out f "s ( ! great volcanoes ( ! geological pa/1 n[ f\nd 9 an ext9ct condition 9 ^! p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,accord+ to ,russell1 imm5se deposits ( volcanic du/ are spread ov] va/ areas 9 ,montana1 ,s\!rn ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 & ,kansas1 z well z ov] p>ts ( ,oregon1 & ,wa%+ton1 &1 inde$1 ov] l>ge areas ( s\?we/]n ,canada & ,alaska4 ,x is practically c]ta9 t _m ( ! eruptions produc+ ?is du/ occurr$ )9 hi/oric times4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 _m times 9 ^! p>ts ( our c\ntry :5 ! d5se a% cl\ds hid+ ! sun turn$ ! day into night & de/roy$ ! =e/s & o!r vegetation by %[]s ( r$ hot a%es4 ,!re 7 produc$1 too1 ! same great dread1 & possibly loss ( life z common dur+ hi/orical eruptions4 ,x is pleas+1 h[ev]1 to ?9k t :ile ^! great cata/rophes br\ght suff]+ & dread to ! p :o !n liv$ on ! e>?1 !y 71 nev]!less1 b ! =]unn]s ( ^? fruitful fields t at a mu* lat] age 7 to bless ! p :o aft]w>ds liv$ on !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,mud ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,hot ,,spr+s ,mud volcanoes are ! m or less conical hillocks f :i*1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 mud is ?r[n out ?r\gh ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,geikie def9es mud volcanoes z foll[s3 ,conical hills =m$ by ! accumulation ( f9e & usually sal9e 7salty7 mud1 :i*1 ) v>i\s gases1 is cont9u\sly or int]mitt5tly giv5 out f ! orifice or crat] 9 ! c5tre4 ,!y occur 9 gr\ps1 ea* hillock be+ sometimes less ?an a y>d 9 height1 b rang+ up to elevations ( #ajj feet or m4 ,l true volcanoes1 !y h _! p]iods ( repose1 :5 ei!r no dis*>ge takes place at all1 or mud oozes out tranquilly f ! crat]1 & _! p]iods ( activity1 :5 l>ge volumes ( gas1 & sometimes columns ( flame1 ru% out ) consid]able viol5ce & explosion1 & ?r[ up mud & /ones to a height ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,!re are two k9ds ( mud volcanoes3 ^? 9 :i* ! mud is ?r[n out by ! action ( diff]5t k9ds ( gases1 & ^? 9 :i* ! mud is ?r[n out by ! action ( /eam4 ,mud volcanoes may or n be volcanic ph5om5a4 ,^? :i* occur 9 ! neighborhood ( volcanoes :e!r active1 dormant1 or ext9ct1 are probably ( volcanic orig94 ,!re are o!rs1 h[ev]1 :i* occur 9 regions f> remov$ f volcanoes4 ,^! are probably due n to volcanoes1 b to *emical action & ! eruptions are caus$ by ! action ( gases4 ,! gases produc+ ^! eruptions are ei!r c>bonic acid gas 7! gas t is giv5 (f f soda wat]72 c>burett$ hydrog5 7! gas t is sometimes se5 escap+ f ! bottom ( m>%y gr\nd72 sulphurett$ hydrog5 7a gas t is giv5 (f f rott5 or decompos+ eggs1 & possess+ ! *>act]i/ic odor ( decay$ eggs7 & nitrog5 gas d]iv$ f ! atmosph]e4 ,9 mud volcanoes ( ! gase\s type ! mud is g5]ally cold1 & ! wat] salty4 ,9 ?is latt] case ! mud volcanoes are also call$ salses4 ,daub5y has po9t$ out t ! mud volcanoes ( ?is class t occur 9 ! neighborhood ( ,sicily are due to ! sl[ burn+ or oxidation ( b$s ( sulphur4 ,mud volcanoes :i* eject hot mud by ! =ce ( eruption ( /eam1 :i* occur 9 volcanic di/ricts1 are ( volcanic orig94 ,!y are caus$ by ! passage ( hot wat] & /eam ?r\gh b$s ( volcanic rock su* z tufa1 or h>d5$ volcanic mud & o!r volcanic products4 ,! hot wat] or /eam raises ! temp]ature ( ! mud ?r\gh :i* x passes to ! boil+ po9t4 ,z ,dana rem>ks1 ! mud v>ies 9 consi/5cy f v liquid muddy wat] to a ?ick mass l boil+ soap1 or 9 "s cases l masses ( mud or pa9t1 &1 9 /ill o!r cases1 to mat]ial l s(t mort>1 ! consi/5cy ( ! mud v>y+ ) ! dryness ( ! season4 ,!re are ?ree regions :]e mud volcanoes are especially common4 ,"o ( ! be/ kn[n is 9 ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k1 f\r miles nor? ( ,yell[/one ,lake1 & six miles f ,crat] ,hill4 ,"s ( ^! mud volcanoes h circul> crat]s ab\t t5 feet 9 dep? ar\nd :i* !y h built m\nds1 ! rims ( :i* are sev]al feet above ! g5]al level4 ,!re are well-kn[n regions ( mud volcanoes 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,icel&4 ,"h1 accord+ to ,lyell1 !y occur 9 _m ( ! valleys :]e sulphur vapor & /eam bur/s f fissures 9 ! gr\nd ) a l\d hiss+ noise4 ,9 ^! regions !re are pools ( boil+ wat] fill$ ) a blui% black clay-l pa/e1 t is kept viol5tly boil+4 ,huge bubbles1 fifte5 feet or m 9 diamet]1 rise f ! surface ( ! boil+ mass4 ,! volcanoes pile up ! mud ar\nd ! sides ( _! crat]s or bas9s4 ,ano!r "p ( ! _w :]e mud volcanoes are especially num]\s is on ! we/]n %ores ( ! ,caspian ,sea at a place call$ ,baku4 ,^! are ( ! gase\s type & are att5d$ by flames t blaze up to great heights (t5 = sev]al h\rs4 ,^! flames are due to ! pres5ce ( natural gas & petroleum vapor t pass out ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,l>ge quantities ( mud are ?r[n out f ! crat]s ( ^! mud volcanoes4 ,!re are also _m mud volcanoes 9 a di/rict 9 ,india ab\t #abj miles nor?we/ ( ,cut* ne> ! m\? ( ! ,indus4 ,9 ?is region ! cone built up ar\nd ! crat] is sometimes z high z #djj feet4 ,! foll[+ description ( mud volcanoes on ,java is quot$ f ,daub5y's book on volcanoes4 ,x w\ld appe> likewise f ,dr4 ,horsfield's description1 t ,java exhibits ph5om5a ( a simil> k9d to ^? notic$ 9 ,sicily & at ! foot ( ! ,ap5n9es1 & !re kn[n "u ! "n ( ',salses4' ,9 ! calc>e\s di/rict 7:i* ,i suspect to belong to ! same class ( =mations z ! blue clay & t]ti>y lime/one ( ,sicily7 occur a numb] ( hot spr+s1 conta9+ 9 solution a l>ge quantity ( calc>e\s e>?1 :i* incru/s ! surface ( ! gr\nd ne> x4 ,( ^!1 "s are mu* mix$ ) petroleum1 & o!rs highly sal9e4 ,! latt] are disp]s$ ?r\gh a di/rict ( c\ntry consi/+ ( lime/one1 sev]al miles 9 circumf]5ce4 ,!y are ( consid]able numb]1 & =ce !mselves upw>ds ?r\gh ap]tures 9 ! rocks ) "s viol5ce & ebullition4 ,! wat]s are /rongly impregnat$ ) muriate ( soda1 & yield ^u evaporation v good salt = cul9>y purposes 7n less ?an #bjj tons 9 ! ye>74 ,ab\t ! c5tre ( ?is lime/one di/rict is f\nd an extraord9>y volcanic ph5om5on4 ,on approa*+ ! spot f a di/ance1 x is fir/ discov]$ by a l>ge volume ( smoke ris+ & disappe>+ at int]vals ( a few seconds1 resembl+ ! vapors aris+ f a viol5t surf1 :il/ a dull noise is he>d l t ( di/ant ?und]4 ,hav+ advanc$ s ne> t ! vision 0 no long] imp$$ by ! smoke1 a l>ge hemisph]ical mass 0 obs]v$1 consi/+ ( black e>? mix$ ) wat]1 ab\t sixte5 feet 9 diamet]1 ris+ to ! height ( tw5ty or ?irty feet 9 a p]fectly regul> mann]1 &1 z x 71 pu%$ up by a =ce b5ea?1 :i* sudd5ly explod$ ) a dull noise1 & scatt]$ ab\t a volume ( black mud 9 e direction4 ,aft] an int]val ( two or ?ree1 or sometimes f\r or five seconds1 ! hemisph]ical body ( mud or e>? rose & explod$ aga94 ,9 ! same mann] ?is volcanic ebullition goes on )\t int]ruption1 ?r[+ up a globul> mass ( mud1 & disp]s+ x ) viol5ce ?r\gh ! neighbor+ places4 ,! spot :]e ! ebullition occurs is ne>ly circul> & p]fectly level2 x is cov]$ ) only ! e>?y p>ticles impregnat$ ) salt wat]1 :i* are ?r[n up f bel[2 its circumf]5ce may be e/imat$ at ab\t half an ,engli% mile4 ,9 ord] to conduct ! salt wat] to ! circumf]5ce1 small passages or gutt]s are made 9 ! loose muddy e>?1 :i* lead x to ! bord]s1 :]e x is collect$ 9 holes dug 9 ! gr\nd = ! purpose ( evaporation4 ,a /rong1 pung5t1 sulphur\s smell1 some:at resembl+ t ( e>?-oil 7naph?a71 is p]ceiv$ on /&+ ne> ! site ( ! explosion1 & ! mud rec5tly ?r[n up possesses a degree ( heat great] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,dur+ ! ra9y season ^! explosions are m viol5t1 ! mud is ?r[n up mu* high]1 & ! noise is he>d at a great] di/ance4 ,?is volcanic ph5om5on is situat$ ne> ! c5tre ( ! l>ge pla91 :i* int]rupts ! great s]ies ( volcanoes1 & owes its orig9 to ! same g5]al cause z t ( ! num]\s eruptions met ) 9 ?is isl&4 ,!re are1 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 spr+s1 ^: wat]s issue f _! res]voirs at temp]atures ei!r at or ne> ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,^! are call$ hot or !rmal spr+s4 ,hot spr+s are f\nd bo? 9 volcanic regions1 z well z 9 regions :]e !re are no volcanoes1 b :]e !re are l9es ( deep fissures or faults4 ,accord+ to ,dana1 9 bo? ( ^! classes1 ! cause is to be trac$ to heat ( volcanic or deep subt]ranean orig94 ,hot spr+s are also f\nd 9 regions :]e !re are no volcanoes4 ,9 ^! cases ! heat is due to ! gradual oxidation ( v>i\s sulphide ores1 or to "s o!r *emical action4 ,! wat]s ( hot or !rmal spr+s almo/ always conta9 v>i\s m9]al sub/ances 9 solution4 ,all spr+ wat] conta9s "s little dissolv$ m9]al matt]1 b 9 hot spr+s ! quantity ( ?is matt] is great] ?an 9 cold spr+s1 because hot wat] c dissolve m9]al sub/ances mu* bett] ?an c cold wat]4 ,x might surprise y to he> t "o ( ! commone/ sub/ances t is f\nd 9 solution 9 ! wat]s ( _m hot spr+s is silica2 = silica is practically s&1 & s& does n easily dissolve 9 wat] z does sug>4 ,! v hot wat]1 h[ev]1 :i* comes f ! hot spr+1 ^: temp]ature bel[ ! e>?'s surface is v mu* high] ?an x is :5 x comes out ( ! spr+1 possesses ! p[] ( readily dissolv+ silica f ! rocks ov] :i* x fl[s4 ,:5 ! wat]s ( su* spr+s rea* ! surface ! silica is deposit$ 9 a solid condition ar\nd ! outlets ( ! spr+s4 ,9 ?is way !re are built up crat]s or m\nds1 or1 m correctly1 crat]-%ap$ bas9s4 ,sometimes ! hot wat] conta9s calc>e\s sub/ances dissolv$ 9 x1 ! solution be+ caus$ n only by reason ( ! hot wat]1 b also by means ( ! c>bonic gas x conta9s4 ,:5 ?is wat] fl[s f ! spr+s1 x builds up ! same crat]-%ap$ m\nds1 only 9 ?is case ! m\nds are ( lime in/ead ( silica4 ,!re are peculi> k9ds ( hot spr+s call$ geys]s1 t possess ! p[] ( ?r[+ huge /reams ( wat] up into ! air at m or less regul> int]vals4 ,! ^w geys] is an ,icel&ic ^w mean+ to rage1 or snort1 or gu%1 ! "n be+ giv5 by reason ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! wat]s ru% viol5tly out dur+ an eruption4 ,z ,dana po9ts out1 :5 ! wat] 9 a bas9 ( a hot spr+ m]ely boils1 :e!r ?is boil+ is ne>ly cont9u\s1 or ! wat] is alt]nately boil+ & quiet1 ! spr+ is call$ a hot or !rmal spr+1 b :]e ! wat] is ?r[n viol5tly out at m or less regul> int]vals1 x is call$ a geys]4 ,! cause ( ! eruption ( a geys] 0 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,buns51 ! celebrat$ ,g]man *emi/1 aft] a c>eful /udy ( ! geys] regions 9 ,icel&4 ,! wat]s ( geys]s conta9 l>ge quantities ( ei!r silica or lime 9 solution4 ,buns5 trac$ ! cause ( ^! curi\s eruptions to be ! mann] 9 :i* ! hot spr+s pile up cones ( silica or lime/one ar\nd _! m\?s4 ,! wat] ( a geys] g5]ally issues f ! top ( a m or less conical hillock1 rea*+ ! surface ?r\gh a funnel-%ap$ tube4 ,bo? ! tube & ! bas9 are cov]$ ) a smoo? coat+ ( silica or lime/one4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,great ,geys] 9 ,icel&1 ! bas9 is ov] fifty feet high & sev5ty-five feet deep4 ,bo? ! tube & ! bas9 h be5 sl[ly deposit$ by ! hot wat] ( ! geys]4 ,x is only :5 ! tube ( a geys] has rea*$ a c]ta9 dep? t ! geys] is able to erupt4 ,moreov]1 z soon z ?is tube passes a c]ta9 dep? ! geys] c no long] erupt & =ev] aft]w>ds becomes an ord9>y hot spr+4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 to be f\nd 9 mo/ geys] regions1 a numb] ( :at might be call$ "y geys]s or m]ely hot spr+s1 t are n yet deep en\gh to erupt2 o!rs t h j comm5c$ eruption1 o!rs t h rea*$ _! prime1 :ile o!rs t1 old & decrepit1 h aga9 m]ely become hot spr+s4 ,let u n[ try to und]/& ! cause ( ! eruption ( a geys]4 ,buns5's explanation1 :i* is n[ g5]ally accept$1 is z foll[s3 ,! heat ( ! volcanic /rata ?r\gh :i* ! tube ( ! geys] ext5ds1 gradually raises ! temp]ature ( ! wat] t fills ! geys] tube4 ,s9ce ! boil+ po9t ( a liquid increases ) ! pressure to :i* x is subject$1 f> d[n 9 ! tube ( a geys]1 ! pressure aris+ f ! weight ( ! wat] above x is suffici5tly great to prev5t ! wat] f beg9n+ to boil until x rea*es a temp]ature f> high] ?an t at :i* x w\ld boil 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! tube4 ,suppose n[1 :5 ! wat] 9 ! funnel-%ap$ tube is ne>ly fill$ to ! top1 ! wat] at la/ gr[s hot en\gh to beg9 boil+ at "s po9t ne> ! middle ( ! tube4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam driv5 (f f ?is portion ( ! wat] raises ! column ( wat] above x 9 ! tube & beg9s to empty x out ( ! top ( ! geys]4 ,all ! wat] bel[ ?is po9t be+ ?us sudd5ly reliev$ ( its pressure1 & be+ n[ mu* hott] ?an is necess>y to boil ! wat] at t decreas$ pressure1 sudd5ly fla%es into /eam1 & viol5tly %oots out all ! wat] above x to a height t 9 "s cases may be z great z #ajj to #bjj feet4 ,! /eam causes ?is eruption1 !n ru%es out ) a ro>1 & ! geys] eruption is ov]4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall 9 8 *>m+ book entitl$ ,heat z a ,mode ( ,motion speaks z foll[s conc]n+ ,pr(essor ,buns5's discov]y3 ,previ\s to an eruption1 bo? ! tube & bas9 are fill$ ) hot wat]2 detonations :i* %ake ! gr\nd1 are he>d at int]vals1 & ea* is succe$$ by a viol5t agitation ( ! wat] 9 ! bas94 ,! wat] 9 ! pipe is lift$ up s z to =m an em95ce 9 ! middle ( ! bas91 & an ov]fl[ is ! consequ5ce4 ,^! detonations are evid5tly due to ! production ( /eam 9 ! ducts :i* fe$ ! geys] tube1 :i* /eam escap+ into ! cool] wat] ( ! tube is !re sudd5ly cond5s$1 & produces ! explosions4 ,pr(essor ,buns5 succe$$ 9 det]m9+ ! temp]ature ( ! geys] tube1 f top to bottom1 a few m9utes be=e a great eruption2 & ^! obs]vations reveal$ ! extraord9>y fact t at no "p ( ! tube did ! wat] rea* its boil+ po9t4 ,9 ! sket* n reproduc$ ,i h giv5 on "o side ! temp]atures actually obs]v$1 & on ! o!r side ! temp]atures at :i* wat] w\ld boil1 tak+ into acc\nt bo? ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e & ! pressure ( ! sup]9cumb5t column ( wat]4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to ! boil+ po9t is at ,a1 a height ( #cj feet f ! bottom2 b ev5 "h ! wat] is #b ,c41 or m ?an #c-a_/b ,f41 bel[ ! temp]ature at :i* x c\ld boil4 ,h[ !n is x possible t an eruption c\ld occur "u su* circum/ances8 ,fix y\r att5tion ^u ! wat] at ! po9t ,a1 :]e ! temp]ature is )9 #b ,c4 ( ! boil+ po9t4 ,call to m9d ! lift+ ( ! column :5 ! detonations are he>d4 ,let u suppose t by ! entrance ( /eam f ! ducts ne> ! bottom ( ! tube1 ! geys] column is elevat$ six feet1 a height q )9 ! limits ( actual obs]vation2 ! wat] at ,a is !reby transf]r$ to ,b4 ,its boil+ po9t at ,a is #abc4h1 & its actual temp]ature #aba4h2 b at ,b its boil+ po9t is only #abj4h1 h5ce1 :5 transf]r$ f ,a to ,b ! heat :i* x possesses is 9 excess ( t necess>y to make x boil4 ,?is excess ( heat is in/antly appli$ to ! g5]ation ( /eam3 ! column is ?us lift$ high]1 & ! wat] bel[ is fur!r reliev$4 ,m /eam is g5]at$2 f ! middle d[nw>ds ! mass sudd5ly bur/s into ebullition1 ! wat] above1 mix$ ) /eam cl\ds1 is project$ into ! atmosph]e1 & we h ! geys] eruption 9 all its gr&eur4 ,by its contact ) ! air ! wat] is cool$1 falls back into ! bas91 p>tially refills ! tube1 9 :i* x gradually rises1 & f9ally fills ! bas9 z be=e4 ,detonations are he>d at int]vals1 & ris+s ( ! wat] 9 ! bas94 ,^! are s _m futile attempts at an eruption1 = n until ! wat] 9 ! tube comes suffici5tly ne> its boil+ temp]ature1 to make ! lift+ ( ! column effective1 c we h a true eruption4 ,! pr9cipal geys] regions ( ! _w are 9 ,icel&1 9 ,new ,zeal&1 & 9 ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!re are sev]al geys] regions 9 ,icel&4 ,! be/ kn[n lies 9 ! neighborhood ( ,mt4 ,hecla4 ,"h is a great geys] t %oots up a column ( wat] to a height ( ab\t #ajj feet e ?irty h\rs4 ,fig4 #ce repres5ts ! appe>ance ( ! crat] ( ! great geys] 9 ,icel&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,crat] ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,geys] ,,( ,,icel& ,x is a well-kn[n fact t 9 geys] regions g5]ally1 ! ?r[+ ( /ones or o!r mat]ials into ! tube w frequ5tly ha/5 an eruption4 ,?is is probably due to ! fact t ! ?r[+ 9 ( ^! ?+s results 9 ! rais+ ( ! wat] 9 ! tube1 ?us ha/5+ ! eruption4 ,! ,new ,zeal& region is 9 ! neighborhood ( ,lake ,rotomahama 9 ! nor!rn isl&4 ,! geys] region 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k is by f> ! mo/ int]e/+ ( all geys] regions4 ,?is region is situat$ pr9cipally ar\nd ,fire-,hole ,=k ( ! ,madison1 & ne> ,%o%one ,lake at ! head ( ,lake ,=k ( ! ,snake ,riv]4 ,!re are _m geys]s 9 ?is region1 z well z simple hot spr+s4 ,! temp]ature ( _! wat]s v>ies f betwe5 #afj & #bjj ,f4 to ! boil+ po9t ( wat] at ?is elevation4 ,z y are probably aw>e1 wat] boils at ! temp]ature ( #bab ,f4 only "u ! condition ( ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure t exi/s at ! level ( ! sea4 ,at high] elevations1 su* z on ! slopes ( m\nta9s1 or on high plateaus1 wat] boils at a l[] temp]ature4 ,! height ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* ! ,yell[/one ,p>k is situat$ is s great t ! wat] boils at temp]atures ( f #aih to #aii ,f4 ,! conical hillock ( geys] cones f :i* ! wat]s fl[ assume v>i\s %apes1 two ( :i* are %[n 9 ,figs4 #cf & #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,giant ,,geys] ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,bee ,,hive ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,t %[n 9 ,fig4 #cf repres5ts ! %ape ( ! cone ( ! giant geys] 9 ! upp] geys] bas9 ( ! ,fire-,hole1 ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 ,?is cone is ab\t t5 feet 9 height1 & tw5ty-f\r feet 9 diamet]4 ,z %[n 9 ! figure x is brok5 on "o ( its sides4 ,x ?r[s out1 at long int]vals1 a column ( wat] ! height ( :i* v>ies f n9ety to #bjj feet4 ,fig4 #ch repres5ts ! crat] ( a cone kn[n z ! ,bee ,hive 9 eruption4 ,besides ! above nam$ geys] regions !re is ano!r region on ! %ores ( ,celebes1 & a small region on ,san ,miguel1 9 ! ,azores ,isl&s1 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,besides hot spr+s & mud volcanoes !re are two o!r ph5om5a connect$ ) volcanic action t we w n[ briefly describe4 ,:5 eruptions take place & ! lava beg9s to fl[ d[n ! side ( a m\nta91 ! diff]5t vapors & gases ) :i* ! lava is *>g$ beg9 to escape or pass out f ! boil+ or fus$ mass4 ,:5 ^! sub/ances are ( su* a "* t !y produce fumes1 or ! vapors ( v>i\s *emical sub/ances1 t become solid on cool+1 !y =m :at are call$ fum>oles1 a ^w d]iv$ f a ,lat9 ^w mean+ to smoke4 ,= ! great] "p1 fum>oles are f\nd on ! edge ( crat]s1 b sometimes are f\nd 9 cav]n\s places ei!r 9 ! crat] or 9 ! lava /reams4 ,!re is1 /ill1 ano!r class ( op5+s ?r\gh :i* only sulphur\s vapors escape4 ,^! are call$ solfat>as1 a ^w d]iv$ f ! ,italian ^w solfo1 or sulphur4 ,solfat>as are g5]ally f\nd 9 regions di/ant f volcanic action4 ,9 ! mat]ials t escape f rec5tly eject$ lava1 or molt5 lava1 ! temp]ature is high en\gh to volatilize _m ( ! solid +r$i5ts4 ,b :]e ! temp]ature is l[1 only sulphur vapors are driv5 (f4 ,x is = ?is reason t fum>oles are only f\nd ar\nd ! crat]s ( active volcanoes1 or on ! l9es ( cracks or crevices ( ! lava /ream :]e ! temp]ature is v high4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,bee ,,hive ,,geys] ,,( ,,icel& ,f ,dana's ,manual ( ,geology ,besides wat] vapor & sulphur\s vapors !re are o!r sub/ances t escape f ! e>? 9 volcanic di/ricts4 ,sulphur\s acid1 toge!r ) hydrog5 & nitrog5 escape f ne>ly all lava4 ,at ,vesuvius *lor9e gas is giv5 (f4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 z soon z x passes into ! atmosph]e becomes *ang$ into hydro*loric acid4 ,sulphur\s acid is frequ5tly *ang$ into sulphuric acid1 :i*1 comb9+ ) v>i\s sub/ances1 =ms su* mat]ials z gypsum1 or sulphate ( lime1 ! *emical "n = pla/] ( ,p>is2 sulphate ( soda or ,glaub]'s salt2 sodium *loride or common table salt2 & sal ammoniac4 ,y w rememb] 9 read+ ! description ( ,vulcano1 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 t "s ( ^! products 7 collect$ at ! *emical works t _h be5 e/abli%$ on ! volcano4 ,:5 a volcanic m\nta9 is = ! "t be+ pass+ f an active to an ext9ct condition1 x is sometimes said to be 9 ! fum>ole /age1 s9ce ! pres5ce ( ! fum>oles are ! only indication ( its activity4 ,! volcanic heat is /ill great4 ,:5 x rea*es a /ill great] decl9e1 ! fum>oles disappe>1 & only solfat>as are left4 ,! am\nt ( heat is n[ only suffici5t to produce sulphur vapors & ! vapor ( wat]4 ,?is is call$ ! solfat>a /age4 ,( c\rse1 z we h already po9t$ out1 fum>oles & solfat>as may occur 9 ! neighborhood ( a volcano at diff]5t di/ances f its crat]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,! ,,volcanoes ,,( ,,! ,,moon ,!re c be no d\bt t ! moon 0 once ! seat ( v great volcanic activity4 ,x 0 =m]ly believ$ t ! v _m volcanic crat]s :i* c be se5 on its surface :5 x is exam9$ by a comp>atively small telescope1 7 all ext9ct4 ,:ile ?is is ne>ly true1 yet rec5t inve/igations h %[n t 9 all probability a feeble volcanic activity /ill exi/s 9 a few ( ^! crat]s4 ,! di/9ctness ) :i* ! surface ( ! moon is se5 does n dep5d s mu* on ! size ( ! telescope employ$1 z x does on ! /ead9ess ( ! atmosph]e :5 ! telescope is be+ us$4 ,:5 "o wi%es to exam9e a v di/ant body l a />1 x is necess>y to use a p[]ful telescope1 b 9 ! case ( a comp>atively ne> body1 l "o ( ! planets or ! moon1 a big telescope is n necess>y4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to make ! obs]vations at "s "t ( ! ye>1 or 9 "s "p ( ! _w1 :5 ! air is apt to be free f w9ds4 ,a p]son on ! e>?'s surface look+ at ! heav5ly bodies ?r\gh a telescope is practically 9 ! position 9 :i* he w\ld be 7 he at ! bottom ( ! wat] 9 a l>ge lake look+ up ?r\gh ! wat] at "s body 9 ! heav5s4 ,he w\ld h no difficulty 9 see+ su* a body di/9ctly z long z ! upp] surface ( ! wat] rema9$ quiet1 & unruffl$ by waves4 ,z soon1 h[ev]1 z waves 7 set up1 ! images se5 9 ! telescope are s di/ort$ z to become practically wor?less4 ,x is = ?is reason t x is cu/om>y to build great a/ronomical obs]vatories 9 p>ts ( ! _w :]e !re are apt to be _m days 9 ! ye> :5 ! air is almo/ entirely free f w9d4 ,s9ce ! atmosph]e is apt to be di/urb$ by w9ds 9 bo? ! temp]ate & ! pol> latitudes1 ^! p>ts ( ! _w are n v satisfactory z sites = a/ronomical obs]vatories4 ,! conditions are m favorable ne> ! equator1 s9ce1 al?\gh at c]ta9 seasons ( ! ye> !re are v sev]e /orms 9 ^! regions1 yet !re are q long p]iods :5 ! air is almo/ entirely free f w9ds4 ,x is = ?is reason t ,h>v>d ,univ]sity has erect$ an a/ronomical obs]vatory at ,arequipa1 ,p]u1 at an elevation ( #h1jjj feet above ! level ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,"h1 ) a comp>atively small object glass1 ( ab\t twelve in*es ap]ture1 magnific5t photographs h be5 obta9$ n only ( ! moon b also ( ! planet ,m>s4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,pick]+1 f ^: magnific5t "w1 entitl$1 ,! ,moon1 mu* ( ! in=mation 9 ?is *apt] has be5 obta9$1 ! moon1 :i* is g5]ally spok5 ( z a satellite ( ! e>?1 ought r to be call$ ! e>?'s tw9 planet4 ,al?\gh ! moon appe>s to revolve 9 a small elliptical orbit ar\nd ! e>? x %\ld prop]ly be said to revolve ar\nd ! sun2 =1 toge!r ) ! e>?1 x revolves ar\nd ! sun once e ye>4 ,z se5 f any ( ! planets t lie ne> ! e>? ! e>? & moon w\ld appe> z a v beautiful d\ble />4 ,9 ord] ! m readily to und]/& :at w be said %ortly conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! moon1 x may be m5tion$ t ! moon's diamet] is #b1afc miles1 or a little m ?an "o-f\r? ! diamet] ( our e>?4 ,y w1 mo/ probably1 be surpris$ to le>n t ! orig9 ( ! moon is believ$ to be v diff]5t f ! orig9 ( ! moons or satellites ( ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ! o!r planets4 ,z we h already se51 accord+ to ! nebul> hypo!sis1 all ! planets except ! e>? probably _h _! moons =m$ f ! r+s t 7 left surr\nd+ !m :5 !y %runk on cool+ to _! pres5t dim5sions4 ,su* a r+ is /ill to be se5 surr\nd+ ,saturn4 ,n[ x is believ$ t our moon 0 =m$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,x 0 n ?r[n (f f ! e>? :ile ! latt] 0 9 a highly fluid or gase\s condition1 b aft] ! e>? _h %runk5 to ne>ly its pres5t size &1 mo/ probably1 aft] a solid cru/ _h be5 =m$ on its surface4 ,9 ord] t our e>? %\ld be able to viol5tly ?r[ (f a l>ge portion ( its mass1 x is only necess>y t at ! "t ?is sep>ation occurr$1 its motion ( rotation on its axis 0 suffici5tly great to enable x to make "o complete revolution 9 r less ?an ?ree h\rs in/ead ( 9 ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs x n[ requires4 ,at ?is velocity ( rotation1 objects w\ld fly (f ! e>? 9 ! neighborhood ( ! equator1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! high c5trifugal =ce4 ,let u1 !n1 endeavor to see if x 0 at all probable t ! e>? ev] did turn s rapidly on its axis4 ,y all probably "k t x is pr9cipally ! attraction ( ! moon t produces ! e>?'s tides4 ,( c\rse1 ! sun also produces tides on ! e>?1 b x is s f> (f f ! e>? t n )/&+ its great] mass ! tides x =ms are mu* small] ?an ^? produc$ by ! moon4 ,y also "k t ! moon produces at ! same "t two tides 9 e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 on directly opposite sides ( ! e>?2 "o on ! side imm$iately "u ! moon1 & ! o!r on ! side fur!/ f ! moon4 ,z ! e>? rotates betwe5 ^! two tides1 !y act z a break :i* s]ves to imp$e its motion4 ,e high tide1 !re=e1 t5ds to make ! e>? rotate m sl[ly1 & ?us to sl[ly increase ! l5g? ( ! day4 ,= ?is reason to-day is a trifle long] ?an ye/]day1 & /ill long] ?an a day a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,y mu/ n suppose = a mom5t t ?is increase 9 ! l5g? ( ! day is l>ge4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is s small t s9ce ! ye> ,a4 ,d4 #a1 up to ! pres5t "t1 ! day is only a v small fraction ( a second long]4 ,b x 0 v diff]5t 9 ! e>?'s geological pa/1 :5 ! inside ( ! e>? 0 9 a molt5 condition2 = !n great tides 7 set up 9 ! melt$ int]ior ( ! e>? t n only greatly *ang$ ! %ape ( ! e>?1 b decreas$ ! rate ( rotation mu* m rapidly ?an x does :5 ! e>?'s tides are limit$ z !y are n[ to ! wat]s on ! e>?'s surfaces4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 at ! same "t1 some?+ go+ on t t5d$ greatly to make ! e>? turn m rapidly on its axis4 ,:ile ! orig9ally melt$ e>? 0 cool+ & %r9k+1 ! rate ( its rotation 0 necess>ily increas+4 ,z y "k1 ! "t ( vibration ( a p5dulum1 t is1 ! "t x requires to make "o complete to-&-fro motion1 is %ort] ! %ort] ! l5g? ( ! p5dulum4 ,a p5dulum two feet long moves to & fro m sl[ly ?an a p5dulum "o foot 9 l5g?4 ,9 ! same way a rotat+ sph]e w make "o complete rotation 9 a %ort] "t :5 its radius1 :i* corresponds to ! l5g? ( a p5dulum1 is %ort]4 ,!re=e1 z ! e>? %runk1 x rotat$ m & m rapidly1 & at la/ rea*$ a rapidity ( motion at :i* an imm5se quantity ( matt] flew (f its surface ne>e/ ! equator & w5t out into space1 nev] aga9 to return4 ,x 0 ?is mass t con/itut$ ! e>?'s moon4 ,necess>ily su* a trem5d\s cata/rophe 0 att5d$ by an e>?quake z well z by ! mo/ fe>ful volcanic ph5om5a t ! e>? has ev] witness$4 ,! t]rible cata/rophe produc$ by ! explosive eruption ( ,krakatoa 0 b z a small drop ( ra9 fall+ on ! e>?1 :5 comp>$ ) ! cata/rophe produc$ :5 ! five ?\s& million cubic miles ( mat]ial left ! e>?'s surface1 nev] aga9 to return to x4 ,x is n kn[n :e!r ?is matt] 0 torn (f ! e>? at a s+le "t or dur+ successive times1 b quot+ ! beautiful language ( ,pr(essor ,pick]+3 ,we may try 9 va9 to imag9e ! awful upro> & fe>ful volcanic ph5om5a exhibit$ :5 a planet 0 cleft 9 twa91 & a new planet 0 born into ! sol> sy/em4 ,?is t]rible cata/rophe took place at a "t n :5 ! e>? 0 a gase\s mass1 b :5 x _h cond5s$ into a comp>atively small mass n mu* l>g] ?an x is at its pres5t "t1 & possibly ev5 aft] x _h h>d5$ suffici5tly to =m a solid cru/ on its outside4 ,if y look at a map ( ! e>? on a ,m]cator's projection1 su*1 = example1 z t employ$ 9 illu/rat+ ! di/ribution ( ! _w's volcanoes 9 ,fig4 #bd1 y c see1 ev5 )\t any v close exam9ation1 t ! great wat] area ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean has its ea/]n & we/]n %ores almo/ p>allel to ea* o!r1 s t if y conceive ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,cont95ts z be+ pu%$ toge!r1 !y w\ld1 except at ! s\?1 almo/ completely fit toge!r1 & ! same ?+ is true1 if ,gre5l& is pu%$ t[>ds ! nor!a/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,( c\rse1 "s portions ( ! coa/ w\ld n fit exactly1 b !n ^! portions might ei!r h be5 worn away1 or1 z is m probable1 h be5 *ang$ 9 %ape by ! deposit ( imm5se b$s ( s$im5t>y rocks spread ov] ! bord]s ( ! ,atlantic by ! great riv]s t empty into x4 ,?is is s rem>kable a fact t x w be well wor? y\r :ile to turn to ! map m5tion$ & conv9ce y\rself ( ! pro( ( :at ,i h j said4 ,z y w see1 ,europe & ,africa w\ld almo/ exactly fit aga9/ ,s\? ,am]ica & ,nor? ,am]ica1 :ile ,gre5l& w\ld ev5 m closely fit aga9/ ! nor!a/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,n[1 :ile we d n say t x 0 s1 x has be5 sugge/$ z j possible t ! great depression ( ! ,pacific ,ocean repres5ts ! spot t 0 once fill$ by ! moon4 ,t ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,cont95ts1 !n torn asund] by ! great =ce ( ! convulsion1 7 left float+ on ! surface ( a sea ( molt5 matt]1 a greatly wid5$ crack m>k+ positions !y assum$ at ! end ( ?is cataclysm4 ,( c\rse1 y mu/ und]/& t all ?is is a m]e supposition1 & t we d n "k :e!r ! e>? 0 actually cool$ on ! outside :5 ?is occurr$1 s9ce x might h /ill be5 9 a liquid condition ?r\gh\t4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 to h occurr$ r rec5tly1 s9ce x c\ld n h occurr$ until ! e>? %runk s mu* t x became s small 9 radius z to acquire a v rapid rate ( motion on its axis4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t we are1 p]haps1 bett] acqua9t$ ) t side ( ! moon :i* is turn$ t[>ds u ?an we are ) ! surface ( ! e>? on :i* we live4 ,( c\rse1 ,i d n mean 9 ! small details ( ! moon's surface1 b ) su* portions z c be se5 ?r\gh a good telescope :5 ! air is quiet4 ,:ile !re are no p>ts ( ! moon's surface t h n be5 c>efully exam9$ 9 detail probably ?\s&s ( times by acute a/ronom]s1 !re are /ill comp>atively l>ge areas ( ! e>? t h nev] be5 once trodd5 by civiliz$ man4 ,:5 ,i speak ( all p>ts ( ! moon's surface1 ,i only mean ^? p>ts t are turn$ t[>ds u4 ,y may possibly be ignorant ( ! fact t ! moon always turns exactly ! same face t[>ds ! e>?4 ,n only has no man ev] se5 ! opposite side ( ! moon1 b he nev] c hope to see x :ile he rema9s on ! e>?4 ,?is is because ! moon turns or rotates on its axis 9 exactly ! same "t t x revolves 9 its orbit4 ,:5 ,i say t ! "t ( rotation is ! same z ! "t ( revolution ( ! moon1 ,i d n mean t x is almo/ ! same1 b t x is exactly ! same4 ,if x diff]$ ev5 b a small fraction ( a second1 a "t w\ld come :5 we w\ld be able to see ! o!r side ( ! moon4 ,n[1 s9ce a/ronom]s h made c>eful pictures ( ! moon1 _m1 _m ye>s ago1 we c see by comp>+ !m ) photographs tak5 at ! pres5t "t !re has be5 no *ange :atev] 9 t face ( ! moon :i* is turn$ t[>ds u1 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 proves beyond "q1 t ! "t ( ! moon's rotation dur+ ?is great p]iod has rema9$ exactly ! same z ! "t ( its revolution4 ,x may possibly seem to y t x _c be a matt] ( great importance 9 a book l ?is on ! ,wond]s ( ,volcanoes & ,e>?quakes1 :e!r or n ! moon always turns its face t[>ds ! e>?2 on ! contr>y1 x is a matt] ( ! greate/ importance s9ce by x we c prove positively t ! moon 0 at "o "t at lea/ 9 a p>tly fluid condition4 ,x 0 ! pres5ce ( ?is p>tly fluid int]ior t result$ 9 ! "t ( ! moon's rotation agree+ exactly ) ! "t ( its revolution4 ,! tides ( ! e>? set up 9 ! moon's molt5 int]ior1 tides1 t in/ead ( rea*+ twice e day ! height ( a few feet only1 7 set up 9 ! molt5 mass 9 ! moon's int]ior1 probably rea*+ miles 9 height1 rapidly decreas$ ! "t ( ! moon's rotation until ! moon rotat$ once only dur+ e complete revolution4 ,ev5 n[ t ! moon is probably solid ?r\gh\t1 ! "t ( its rotation & revolution exactly agree because1 :ile 9 a molt5 condition1 ! action ( ! e>? *ang$ its %ape f t ( an exact sph]e to a sph]oid1 ) its longe/ axis 9 ! direction ( ! e>?4 ,ev51 !re=e1 if ! moon at any "t began to rotate fa/] ?an ! e>?1 ! e>? act+ on its project+ surface ret>d$ x until ! "t ( its rotation agre$ exactly ) ! "t ( its revolution4 ,x 0 at "o "t believ$ t ! moon _h no atmosph]e4 ,x is n[ kn[n1 h[ev]1 t x has an atmosph]e4 ,x is true ?is is a r>e atmosph]e1 probably n great] 9 d5sity ?an ! "o-t5 ?\s&? ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,?is important "q 0 settl$ once = all on ,augu/ #ab?1 #ahib1 at ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory at ,arequipa1 ,p]u1 :5 a photograph 0 tak5 ( an object on ! moon4 ,x c\ld be readily se5 on exam9+ ?is photograph t ! light com+ f ! moon exp]i5c$ a b5d+1 kn[n z refraction1 9 pass+ f ! space outside ! moon to its atmosph]e on to its surface4 ,( c\rse1 :5 ! moon 0 ?r[n (f f ! e>? by reason ( its great c5trifugal =ce1 x c>ri$ along ) x a portion ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,b s9ce ! quantity ( matt] 9 ! moon is only ab\t "o-eightie? ( t ( ! e>?1 ! =ce ( gravity on ! moon is mu* small] ?an t on ! e>?1 be+ almo/ exactly "o-six? t ( ! e>?'s gravity4 ,9 o!r words1 if y c\ld succe$ 9 rea*+ ! moon's surface1 y w\ld only weigh "o-six? ( :at y weigh on ! e>?1 b !n y c\ld c>ry a weight six times heavi] ) no great] ef=t1 &1 z = runn+1 jump+1 & o!r a?letic ex]cises1 ! surface ( ! moon w\ld1 inde$1 be a great place on :i* to break records1 s9ce "o c\ld readily jump six times high]1 put ! %ot six times fur!r1 ?an on ! e>?1 or g ?r\gh mo/ o!r a?letic ex]cises ) a correspond+ increase4 ,)\t go+ any fur!r into ?is "q x w be suffici5t to say t ! moon's pres5t atmosph]e is believ$ to consi/ ( c>bonic acid gas1 & t :ile on ! g5]al surface ( ! moon ?is atmosph]e mu/ be v r>e1 yet1 at ! bottom ( ! great fissures t cross ! moon's surface1 x may possess a fairly great d5sity1 especially if ! moon /ill possesses feeble volcanic activity2 t c>bonic acid gas is /ill be+ giv5 (f f ! inside ( ! moon z we "k x is be+ giv5 (f f inside ! e>?4 ,"u ! be/ conditions ( atmosph]e & telescope1 we c see ! moon's surface z x w\ld appe> at a di/ance v>y+ f #hjj miles to #cjj miles f ! e>?4 ,) a fifte5-in* telescope1 "u p]fect conditions ( vision1 objects c be se5 z if !y 7 at a di/ance ( #hjj miles f ! e>?1 & ) ! mo/ p[]ful glasses1 & ! be/ conditions ( atmosph]e ?is di/ance c be r$uc$ to ab\t #cjj miles4 ,?is w\ld enable u to cle>ly see l>ge objects l riv]s1 lakes1 seas1 or =e/s1 if !y exi/$1 b w\ld n be suffici5t to enable u to see h\ses1 build+s1 or roads4 ,:5 we come to exam9e ! surface ( ! moon "u ! mo/ favorable conditions1 we f9d t x is extremely irregul>4 ,!re are pl5ty ( high m\nta9s4 ,^! m\nta9s are n collect$ 9 ranges z !y are on ! e>?'s surface1 b are completely sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 & are scatt]$ 9 great numb]s ov] ! moon's surface4 ,y may =m "s idea ( ! numb] ( volcanoes t h be5 obs]v$ on ! moon :5 ,i tell y t z _m z #cb1jjj h be5 se5 on t side ( ! moon t is turn$ t[>ds ! e>?4 ,n[ x is an int]e/+ fact t almo/ all ^! m\nta9s possess great crat]s t are n unlike "s ( ! volcanic crat]s we see on ! e>?4 ,! volcanic crat]s ( ! moon1 h[ev]1 are ( v mu* great] size ?an ^? on ! e>?1 _m be+ f fifty to sixty miles 9 diamet]1 :ile "s ( !m are m ?an #ajj miles 9 diamet]4 ,small] crat]s1 say f tw5ty to tw5ty-five miles 9 diamet]1 c be c\nt$ by ! hundr$s4 ,l mo/ ( ! moon's crat]s1 ! l>ge/ crat] m closely resembles "o ( ! pit-crat]s or cald]as on ! isl& ( ,hawaii4 ,?is volcanic crat] consi/s ( a huge circul> r+ ) a small irregul> peak t rises inside ! r+4 ,?is peak1 by ! way1 might at fir/ appe> to resemble ! crat] ( ,vesuvius1 :i* aft] a long p]iod ( inactivity ( ! m\nta9 dur+ ! eruption t de/roy$ ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum 0 ?r[n up inside ( :at _h be5 left /&+ ( ! old crat] ( ,somma4 ,b x has no crat] at its summit1 &1 !re=e1 resembles r ! irregul> pile or rock t rises f ! surface ( a lava lake 9 ! crat]s ( ,mt4 ,loa or ,mt4 ,kilauea 9 ,hawaii4 ,besides ! num]\s crat]s to be se5 on ! moon's surface !re are _m l9es ( deep1 crook$ valleys1 kn[n z rills1 t may at "o "t h be5 ! b$s ( riv]s4 ,besides ! rills1 !re are _m /raight clefts ab\t half a mile 9 wid?1 t ext5d d[n into ! surface ( ! moon = unkn[n dep?s4 ,^! clefts c be se5 pass+ directly ?r\gh m\nta9s & valleys4 ,!y are believ$ to be cracks or fissures 9 ! moon's surface4 ,on ! moon is a great crat] call$ ,ty*o4 ,x is situat$ ne> ! moon's s\? pole4 ,! great crat] ( ,ty*o is by f> ! mo/ prom95t object on ! moon's surface4 ,x has a sy/em ( rays t ext5d = great di/ances ar\nd its crat]s4 ,y w also see if y exam9e ! moon's surface by a p[]ful glass t !re are imm5se pla9s call$ oceans or seas4 ,by an appropriate cu/om ! names ( ! diff]5t crat]s on ! moon are ! same z ! names ( ! great a/ronom]s & philosoph]s t h long s9ce pass$ f _! labors1 su* z ,ty*o1 ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 ,plato1 etc4 ,v>i\s explanations h be5 giv5 z to ! orig9 ( ! crat]s on ! moon's surface1 b )\t go+ into a discussion x may be said t !y are n[ g5]ally reg>d$ z hav+ be5 =m$ 9 ! ma9 j z 7 ! crat]s ( ! e>?'s volcanoes4 ,! trem5d\s size ( ! moon's crat]s is ( c\rse due to ! great decrease 9 ! =ce ( gravity4 ,?is w\ld make ! crat]s1 approximately1 six times z great z ! crat]s on ! e>?4 ,pr(essor ,pick]+ po9ts out t :ile ! moon's crat]s resemble m closely ^? ( ,hawaii ?an ^? ( any o!r ( ! e>?'s volcanoes1 yet !re is ?is diff]5ce 9 !m3 t :ile ! e>?'s crat] floors are g5]ally consid]ably high] ?an ! level ( ! sea1 ! moon's crat] floors are g5]ally bel[ ! level ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,/ill1 tak+ !m all 9 all1 ! crat]s ( ! moon's volcanoes resemble ^? ( ! isl& ( ,hawaii1 or aga9 quot+ f ,pick]+3-- ,!re seems1 inde$1 to be no feature f\nd ^u ! moon :i* is n pres5t$ by ^! ,hawaiian volcanoes1 !re is no feature ( ! volcanoes t does n also h its c\nt]p>t 9 ! moon4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,e>?quakes ,an e>?quake is a %ak+ ( ! e>?4 ,x may v>y 9 int5sity f a %ak+ s feeble t x requires ! use ( a delicate in/rum5t to detect x1 to a %ak+ viol5t en\gh to ov]?r[ heavy build+s1 & ev5 to make great r5ts or fissures 9 ! cru/4 ,an e>?quake !n is an e>?-%ake4 ,x may be caus$ by any?+ capable ( %ak+ ! e>?2 = example1 z ! fall+ ( a heavy weight on its surface4 ,n[1 a %ak+ s caus$ is only felt 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! place ! weight /rikes ! e>?4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 an e>?quake1 ! %ak+ spreads 9 all directions ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/1 until1 9 ! case ( v viol5t e>?quakes1 x rea*es portions t may be situat$ _m ?\s&s ( miles away f :]e ! %ock />t$4 ,?is spread+ ( ! e>?quake waves ?r\gh ! solid e>? is n unlike ! spread+ ( ! circul> waves t are set up 9 a /ill wat] surface :5 a /one is toss$ 94 ,any %ak+ ( ! e>?'s cru/ produces :at may be call$ an e>?-%ake or e>?quake4 ,! m]e fall+ ( a ra9drop on ! e>? produces a slight %ak+4 ,! fall+ ( a heavy /one produces a /rong] %ak+1 & sets up a s]ies ( m9ute waves1 g5]ally call$ vibrations1 t spread ar\nd ! place 9 all directions f :]e ! /one /ruck4 ,^! movem5ts1 h[ev]1 :ile !y spread 9 all directions1 j z !y d 9 a surface ( a lake1 :5 a /one is ?r[n into x1 are ( c\rse mu* m quickly /opp$ by ! solid e>? ?an simil> movem5ts are by ! m readily movable wat]4 ,b1 :ile any %ak+ ( ! e>?'s cru/ con/itutes an e>?quake1 yet1 /rictly speak+1 an e>?quake is produc$ only by "s =ce t acts sudd5ly on ! e>?1 at a po9t bel[ its surface1 &1 !re=e1 out ( sight4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 w\ld rule out all su* %ak+s z are caus$ by bodies /rik+ ! out] surface ( ! e>?4 ,e>?quakes may occur 9 any "p ( ! _w1 & at any "t ( ! day or ye>4 ,!y d occur1 h[ev]1 mo/ frequ5tly 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! _w1 at c]ta9 seasons ( ! ye> & at c]ta9 h\rs ( ! day4 ,e>?quakes are f> f be+ unusual occurr5ces4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! _w1 su* z ! isl& ( ,java1 !y are v common1 & 9 ,japan1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 sc>cely a day passes )\t "o or m %ocks 9 "s "p ( t little empire4 ,pr(essor ,mallet1 :o has made a v ext5sive /udy ( e>?quakes1 publi%$ 9 #ahej to #aheh1 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 brief ab/racts or descriptions ( all ! m important e>?quakes he c\ld f9d records ( dur+ ! pa/ #c1def ye>s4 ,! numb] ( e>?quakes ?us record$ dur+ ?is p]iod rea*$ #f1hcj4 ,( ?is great numb] ne>ly "o-half occurr$ dur+ ! la/ fifty ye>s4 ,x %\ld n be inf]r$ f ! above figures t ! numb] ( e>?quakes has really increas$ s greatly 9 ! pa/ half-c5tury4 ,! explanation ( ! app>5t increase is t great] c>e has be5 tak5 rec5tly 9 record+ e>?quakes1 & t an app>atus call$ a seismomet]1 or e>?quake-record]1 has be5 inv5t$ :i* automatically produces a record ( ! smalle/ %ocks2 s t a great _m h be5 record$ t w\ld o!rwise h pass$ undetect$4 ,x is ! op9ion ( ,le ,conte t if ! records ( all ! e>?quakes ( #c1def ye>s _h be5 ?us made !re w\ld h be5 f\nd dur+ ! entire "t ( ,mallet's rese>*es to h occurr$ no less ?an #bjj1jjj1 :ile dur+ ! la/ f\r ye>s ( ,mallet's records1 ! numb] w\ld h probably rea*$ two e>?quakes p] week4 ,s9ce ,mallet's "t1 ,pr(4 ,alexis ,p]ry publi%$ 7#ahgf7 a mu* l>g] li/ ( e>?quakes4 ,p]ry f9ds t f #ahdc to #ahgb !re h be5 #ag1bdi e>?quakes1 or #ege e ye>4 ,p]ry's li/1 h[ev]1 is incomplete1 s9ce x fails to record e>?quakes t occurr$ 9 mid-ocean1 & 9 ! unexplor$ & unciviliz$ p>ts ( ! _w4 ,s x seems likely t e>?quakes are s common t our e>?1 at "s "p or o!r ( its surface1 is cont9ually %ak+ or quak+4 ,e>?quakes are su* trem5d\s ph5om5a t !y 7 necess>ily obs]v$ by ! anci5ts4 ,we f9d m or less complete acc\nts ( !m 9 v>i\s writ+s4 ,lucretius 7,titus ,c>us ,lucretius1 a great ,roman poet7 speaks z foll[s1 9 8 ,de ,r]um ,natura 7,on ! ,nature ( ,?+s74 ,we use ,munro's translation "h3 ,n[ m>k & le>n :at ! law ( e>?quakes is4 ,& fir/ ( all take = grant$ t ! e>? bel[ u z well z above is fill$ 9 all p>ts ) w9dy cav]ns1 & be>s )9 its bosom _m lakes & _m *asms1 cliffs & craggy rocks2 & y mu/ suppose t _m riv]s hidd5 b5ea? ! cru/ ( ! e>? roll on ) viol5t waves & subm]g$ /ones2 = ! v nature ( ! case requires x to be ?r\gh\t l to itself4 ,) su* ?+s !n atta*$ & plac$ bel[1 ! e>? quakes above f ! %ock ( great fall+ masses1 :5 und]nea?1 "t has und]m9$ va/ cav]ns4 ,:ole m\nta9s1 inde$1 fall 91 & 9 an in/ant f ! mighty %ock trembl+s spread !mselves f> & wide f t c5tre4 ,& ) good cause1 s9ce build+s beside a road tremble ?r\gh\t1 :5 %ak5 by a wagon ( n su* v great weight2 & !y rock no less1 :]e any %>p pebble on ! road jolts up ! iron tires ( ! :eels on bo? sides4 ,sometimes1 too1 :5 an enorm\s mass ( soil ?r\gh age rolls d[n f ! l& into great & ext5sive pools ( wat]1 ! e>? rocks & sways ) ! undulation ( ! wat] j z a vessel at times _c re/1 until ! liquid )9 has ceas$ to sway ab\t 9 un/eady undulations4444 ,! same great quak+ likewise arises f ?is cause1 :5 on a sudd5 ! w9d & "s enorm\s =ce ( air ga!r+ ei!r f )\t or )9 ! e>? h flung !mselves into ! holl[ ( ! e>? & !re *afe at fir/ ) mu* upro> among ! great cav]ns & are c>ri$ on ) a :irl+ motion1 & :5 _! =ce1 aft]w>ds /irr$ & la%$ into fury1 bur/s abroad & at ! same mom5t cleaves ! deep e>? & op5s up a great yawn+ *asm4 ,?is fell out 9 ,syrian ,sidon & took place at gium 9 ! ,peloponnese1 two t[ns :i* an outbreak ( w9d ( ?is sort & ! ensu+ e>?quake ?rew d[n4 ,& _m wall$ places besides fell d[n by great commotions on l& & _m t[ns sank d[n engulf$ 9 ! sea toge!r ) _! burgh]s4 ,& if !y d n break out1 /ill ! impetu\s fury ( ! air & ! fi]ce viol5ce ( ! w9d spread ov] ! num]\s passages ( ! e>? l a %iv]+-fit & !reby cause a trembl+4 ,( c\rse1 no "o at ! pres5t "t believes ?is ridicul\s explanation z to ! cause ( e>?quakes4 ,ari/otle1 a ,greek philosoph]1 speaks ?us conc]n+ e>?quakes4 ,we quote ! translation employ$ by ,mallet3 ,?ree !ories on ! subject h be5 h&$ d[n to u by ?ree diff]5t p]sons2 namely1 ,anaxagoras ( ,klazom5e1 be=e him ,anaxim5es ! ,milesian1 & lat] ?an ^! ,democritus ( ,abd]a4 ,anaxagoras says t ! e!r ( nature rises upw>d1 b t :5 x falls into holl[ places 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! e>? x moves x 7! e>?72 because ! p>ts above are cem5t$ or clos$ up by ra91 all p>ts be+ by nature equally spongy or full ( cavities1 bo? ^? :i* are above 7:]e we live7 & ^? :i* are bel[4 ,( ?is op9ion x may p]haps be unnecess>y to say any?+1 z be+ fooli%1 = x is absurd to suppose t ?+s w\ld ?us exi/ above & b5ea?1 & t ! p>ts ( bodies :i* h weight w\ld n on e side be borne to ! e>?1 & ^? :i* are light1 & fi]y1 rise2 especially s9ce we see ! surface ( ! e>? to be convex & sph]ical1 ! horizon con/antly *ang+ z we *ange our place1 at lea/ z f> z we "k4 ,& x is also fooli% to ass]t on ! "o h& t x rema9s 9 ! air on acc\nt ( its great size1 & on ! o!r to say t x is %ak51 :5 /ruck f b5ea? upw>ds4 ,& besides ^! objections1 x is to be rem>k$ t he has n treat$ ( ! att5dant circum/ances ( e>?quakes1 = nei!r e "t nor place is subject to ^! convulsions4 ,b ,democritus says1 t ! e>? be+ full ( wat]1 & receiv+ mu* also by means ( ra91 is mov$ by ?is4 ,= :5 ! wat] increases 9 bulk1 because ! cavities _c conta9 x1 9 its /ruggles x causes an e>?quake4 ,& :5 ! e>? becomes p>tially dri$ up1 ! wat] be+ drawn f ! full res]voirs into ^? :i* are empty1 9 pass+ f "o to ! o!r1 by its movem5ts x causes an e>?quake also4 ,anaxim5es1 h[ev]1 says t ! e>?1 :5 p>*$ up & aga9 moi/5$1 cracks1 & by ! masses ?us brok5 (f fall+ on x1 is %ak52 :]e=e e>?quakes occur 9 dr\?s & aga9 9 times ( ra92 9 dr\?s1 because1 z we h said1 x cracks1 :5 highly dri$1 & !n1 :5 moi/5$ ov] aga91 x cracks & falls to pieces4 ,7 ?is ! case1 h[ev]1 ! e>? ought to appe> 9 _m places subsid+4 ,:y !n is x t hi!rto _m places h be5 v subject to ^! convulsions :i* d n pres5t any su* rem>kable diff]5ces f o!rs8 ,yet su* ought to be ! case4 ,&1 moreov]1 ^? :o ?9k ?us mu/ ass]t t e>?quakes con/antly become less & less1 & at la/ cease altoge!r4 ,= ! cont9ual cond5sation ( ! e>? w\ld cause ?is4 ,:]e=e1 if ?is be n ! fact1 x is pla9 t ?is is n ! correct explanation4 ,besides ! above1 !re are num]\s ref]5ces to e>?quakes 9 ! works ( o!r writ]s4 ,?ales1 ,s5eca1 & ,pl9y all speak ( ^! ph5om5a & appe> to describe correctly ! movem5t ( ! e>? 9 waves bo? 9 ! solid l&1 z well z on ! sea4 ,com+ d[n to less anci5t writ]s1 ,mallet ref]s to a book by ,fromondi1 publi%$ 9 ,antw]p1 9 #aebg1 t conta9s mu* valuable & int]e/+ in=mation4 ,among o!r ?+s ,fromondi decl>es t 9 ! ye> #cfi1 9 ! reign ( ,val5t9ian1 !re 0 a great e>?quake t %ook ne>ly ! entire _w & t ano!r e>?quake ( almo/ equal sev]ity occurr$ 9 #aaaf4 ,he also /ates t 9 #afja an e>?quake cont9u$ = ne>ly =ty days2 t a great e>?quake 9 ,italy1 9 #aech1 la/$ fifte5 days1 & t ano!r1 9 ,spa91 la/$ = ne>ly ?ree ye>s4 ,?is does n mean t ^! e>?quakes actually cont9u$ to %ake ! e>? viol5tly = ! times m5tion$4 ,^! are only ! times dur+ :i*1 at int]vals ( great] or less l5g?1 successive %ocks 7 felt 9 ^! localities4 ,ano!r ( ! less anci5t writ]s ref]r$ to by ,mallet is ,travag9i1 :o publi%$ a book 9 ,v5ice 9 #afhc4 ,?is book conta9s a description ( a t]rible e>?quake occurr+ 9 ,italy on ! #f? ( ,april1 #affg1 :i* affect$ l>ge portions ( ! c\ntry adjac5t to ,ragusa4 ,)\t attempt+ at pres5t to discuss ! v>i\s !ories ( e>?quakes1 x w suffice to say t e>?quakes c be divid$1 accord+ to _! orig91 into two classes3 volcanic e>?quakes1 or e>?quakes t are caus$ by practically ! same =ces t cause volcanoes1 & tectonic#c e>?quakes1 or ^? produc$ by ! slipp+ ( a l>ge mass ( rock ly+ along ! l9es ( old or new fractures4 ,e>?quakes ( ! fir/ class are f\nd especially 9 volcanic di/ricts1 :ile ^? ( ! second class are f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 :e!r 9 volcanic di/ricts or else:]e4 ,accord+ to ,dana1 e>?quakes ( ! second class g5]ally />t 9 ! neighborhood ( m\nta9s1 :]e old l9es ( fractures are especially abundant4 ,z reg>ds ! direction ( ! %ak+ movem5ts ( ! e>?1 e>?quakes c be divid$ into ?ree diff]5t classes3 explosive e>?quakes1 or ^? 9 :i* ! =ce acts v]tically upw>ds2 horizontal e>?quakes1 or ^? 9 :i* ! =ce moves 9 a m or less horizontal direction1 or p>allel to ! g5]al surface ( ! e>?1 & rot>y e>?quakes1 or ^? 9 :i* ! e>? rotates or moves 9 great eddies or :irls4 ,:5 ! e>?quake wave is />t$ bel[ ! e>?'s surface1 x spreads ?r\gh ! cru/ 9 all directions4 ,! direction ^! waves w h on em]g+1 or com+ out ( ! surface1 w dep5d on ! di/ance ( ?is po9t f ! place ! waves />t$4 ,:5 a place is situat$ directly ov] :]e ! wave />t$1 ! waves w em]ge s z to move v]tically upw>ds1 s t ! e>? at ?is po9t w be %ak5 by an explosive e>?quake4 ,z ! po9t :]e ! waves pass out is situat$ fur!r & fur!r f ! place :]e ! waves />t1 ! waves w em]ge m ne>ly horizontally1 ! great] ! di/ance f ! s\rce4 ,9 explosive e>?quakes1 :i*1 z j expla9$1 occur at areas almo/ imm$iately above ! po9t :]e ! di/urbance />ts1 ! =ce is1 g5]ally speak+1 ! greate/4 ,9 e>?quakes ( ?is "* ! =ce is sometimes suffici5tly great to ?r[ l>ge bodies high up into ! air4 ,9 ! case ( ! great ,riobamba e>?quake ( #agig1 ! =ce 0 n only suffici5tly great to fracture ! e>? 9 v>i\s places1 b also to ?r[ bodies ly+ on ! surface great di/ances into ! air4 ,bodies ( m5 7 ?r[n sev]al hundr$ feet into ! air & 7 aft]w>ds f\nd on ! o!r side ( a broad riv] or high up on ! side ( a hill4 ,x is possible t ,humboldt did n inquire ) z mu* c>e z he %\ld h done into ^! reports4 ,!y 7 probably greatly exagg]at$1 s9ce x is difficult to und]/& h[ a =ce great z ?is w\ld h fail$ to deta* ! soil at ^! places1 & hurl x aft] ! p4 ,?is mu*1 h[ev]1 c be accept$1 t ! upw>d =ce 0 v great4 ,9 ! great ,calabria e>?quake ( ,m>*1 #aghc1 ,dolomieu /ates t ! tops ( ! granite hills ( ,calabria 7 di/9ctly se5 to rise & fall4 ,9 "s cases h\ses 7 sudd5ly rais$ a great di/ance 9 ! air1 & 7 aft]w>ds br\ght d[n aga9 to a position ( re/1 at a high] level )\t any damage occurr+ to !m4 ,9 a simil> mann] dur+ ! ,c>acas e>?quake ( ,m>*1 #ahab1 ! gr\nd 0 se5 to rise & fall 9 a ne>ly v]tical direction4 ,b1 p]haps1 "o ( ! mo/ t]rible e>?quakes ( ?is "* 0 ! e>?quake t de/roy$ ! great] "p ( ,jamaica 9 ,june1 #agic4 ,dur+ ?is e>?quake ! entire surface ( ! gr\nd at ,port ,royal assum$ ! appe>ance ( a roll+ sea4 ,h\ses 7 %ift$ f _! old sites4 ,_m ( ! inhabitants :o _h succe$$ 9 escap+ f ! city to ! neighbor+ c\ntry 7 ?r[n great di/ances into ! air4 ,"s ( ^!1 by good =tune1 fell into ! h>bor1 f :i*1 9 "s cases1 !y escap$ ) _! lives4 ,"h aga9 ! projectile =ce 0 probably greatly exagg]at$4 ,v]tical movem5ts *>act]iz$ ! great e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 on ,novemb] #a/1 #agee1 ! city appe>+ to h be5 n f> f ! po9t ( orig94 ,! commone/ type ( e>?quakes is ! horizontal1 :]e ! waves em]ge at ! surface 9 a direction ei!r horizontal or p>allel to ! g5]al surface1 or at lea/ incl9$ to x at a v small angle4 ,:]e ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ?r\gh :i* ! waves spread1 are ( ! same k9d & ( ! same d5sity 9 all directions1 ! area %ak5 is approximately circul>1 b :]e ! mat]ials ( ! cru/ are m or less d5se 9 "s directions ?an 9 o!rs1 ! area ( di/urbance is ( c\rse oblong or elliptical4 ,9 "s cases e>?quakes ( ! horizontal type are limit$ almo/ entirely to a s+le direction4 ,?is is especially ! case ) e>?quakes t occur 9 m\nta9\s di/ricts4 ,^! e>?quakes are kn[n z l9e> e>?quakes1 s9ce !y spread almo/ 9 a s+le l9e4 ,:5 e>?quake waves pass f "o m$ium to ano!r1 t is1 f "o k9d ( rock to ano!r1 ! great] portion ( ! waves is refract$ or b5t out ( _! /raight direction z !y pass into ! new m$ium2 a "p ( ! waves1 h[ev]1 are reflect$4 ,x is ^! reflect$ waves t probably cause rot>y e>?quakes4 ,! spe$ ) :i* ! surface waves move outw>ds 9 all directions1 v>ies n only ) ! =ce ( ! wave1 b also ) ! k9d ( mat]ial ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,?is velocity may be 9 ! neighborhood ( tw5ty miles p] second1 :ile 9 o!rs ! velocity is z great z #adj miles p] second4 ,naturally1 "o w\ld suppose t ! mo/ sev]e e>?quakes are ^? 9 :i* ! waves move ! mo/ rapidly4 ,on ! contr>y1 h[ev]1 ! comp>atively feeble %ocks are s5t ?r\gh ! e>? ) great] velocity4 ,9 rot>y e>?quakes1 z ! "n indicates1 ! gr\nd is :irl$ or twi/$ 9 ! mann] ( a viol5t eddy1 & is (t5 left 9 ?is twi/$ condition4 ,9 ! great ,calabria e>?quake1 huge blocks ( /one =m+ obelisks 7 twi/$ on "o ano!r 9 a mann] repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ci4 ,9 ?is case ! p$e/als rema9$ unaffect$1 b ! sep>ate blocks ( /one 7 p>tially turn$ ar\nd1 z %[n4 ,dur+ ?is e>?quake ! e>? 0 s twi/$ t trees1 :i* _h be5 plant$ 9 /raight l9es be=e ! e>?quake1 7 left /&+ 9 zigzags4 ,dur+ ! great ,*>le/on e>?quake1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ! *imney-tops ( ! h\ses 7 sep>at$ at places :]e !y jo9$ ! ro( & 7 twi/$ ar\nd ^! places )\t be+ ov]?r[n4 ,9 "s ( ! h\ses w>drobes or bureaus 7 turn$ at "r angles to _! =m] positions1 & 9 "s cases 7 ev5 f\nd ) _! faces turn$ t[>ds ! wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,heavy ,,/one ,,obelisks ,,twi/$ ,,by ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,,( #aghc ,mallet sugge/s t 9 "s cases ! rot>y motion is m app>5t ?an real1 be+ due only to a to-&-fro motion )\t any twi/+1 ! app>5t turn+ be+ due to ! great] fre$om ( motion ( ! object 9 "o direction ?an 9 ano!r4 ,a twi/+ motion1 h[ev]1 has actually tak5 place 9 "s e>?quakes4 ,:ile sep>ate %ocks1 9 a giv5 locality1 may foll[ "o ano!r at int]vals = fairly long times1 yet ! pr9cipal %ock or %ake t produces ! greate/ damage is g5]ally ( exce$+ly %ort duration4 ,9 ! ,c>acas e>?quake ! greate/ de/ruction 0 accompli%$ 9 ab\t "o m9ute4 ,!re 7 ?ree di/9ct %ocks1 ea* ( :i* la/$ b ?ree or f\r seconds4 ,! great ,calabria e>?quake1 ( #aghc1 la/$ b two m9utes4 ,! e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 9 #agee1 la/$ five m9utes1 b ! fir/1 & wor/1 %ock1 0 only f five to six seconds4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,e>?quakes ,! nature ( an e>?quake & ! movem5ts ( its waves f _! />t+ place hav+ n[ be5 briefly describ$1 x rema9s to expla9 "s ( ! /range ph5om5a t prec$e1 accompany1 or foll[ "o4 ,next to ! viol5t %ak+ ( ! e>?'s cru/1 p]haps ! mo/ wond]ful & impressive ?+ is ! great v>iety ( s\nds & noises4 ,^! occur n only :ile ! e>?-waves are pass+ ?r\gh ! cru/ at any place1 b also long be=e ! pr9cipal %ocks rea* ! place1 z well z long aft] !y h pass$4 ,e>?quake s\nds v>y almo/ inf9itely1 bo? 9 int5sity & "*4 ,"s are l ! g5tle sigh+s ( ! w9d1 or resemble fa9t my/]i\s :isp]+s2 "s are n unlike ! confus$ murmur+s ( a cr[d$ room2 "s resemble ! s\nds ( a busy /reet4 ,"s s\nds are full & /rong1 l ! deep bass notes ( a l>ge organ4 ,o!rs resemble ! d9 ( a great battle ) ! reports ( ! l>ge guns4 ,/ill o!rs rea* ! int5sity ( cont9u\s peals ( ?und]4 ,b we c bett] und]/& ! nature ( e>?quake s\nds f an actual description ( !m 9 a numb] ( great e>?quakes1 & by inquir+ at ! same "t into any ( ! peculi> facts connect$4 ,humboldt 9 8 great "w1 ,cosmos1 ?us describes ! v>i$ voice ( ! e>?quake3 ,x is ei!r roll+ or ru/l+1 or clank+1 l *a9s be+ mov$1 or l ne> ?und]1 or cle> & r++1 z if obsidian or "s o!r vitrifi$ masses 7 /ruck 9 subt]ranean cavities4 ,t ! s\nds produc$ dur+ e>?quakes are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! gr\nd fa/] ?an ?r\gh ! air appe>s cle> f ! fact t su* s\nds are sometimes he>d 9 deep m9es :5 !y are n at all he>d on ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 describ+ ! e>?quake t occurr$ 9 ,kamts*atka1 9 #agei1 ,kra%5ik(f ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg /ates t noises 7 he>d l ! ru%+ ( a /rong und]gr\nd w9d1 accompani$ by a hiss+ s\nd1 :i* resembl$ ! sizzl+s he>d :5 r$ hot coals are ?r[n 9 wat]4 ,9 an e>?quake t occurr$ 9 ,l9coln%ire1 ,engl&1 ,febru>y #f?1 #ahag1 a noise 0 he>d closely resembl+ ! s\nds ( wagons runn+ away on a road4 ,s complete & conv9c+ 0 ! resemblance t sev]al wagon]s on "o ( ! roads drew _! teams to "o side s z to p]mit ! runaway to pass safely4 ,ano!r k9d ( noise he>d dur+ e>?quakes is a l\d holl[ bell[+4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! s\nds are m musical 9 _! nature1 be+ n unlike ^? produc$ by a v l>ge organ pipe4 ,at o!r times !y resemble ! noises produc$ :5 /eam is bl[n into cold wat]4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( e>?quake s\nds is giv5 by ,daub5y1 9 8 book on volcanoes4 ,x appe>s t dur+ ,m>*1 #ahbb1 ! p liv+ on ! isl& ( ,melida1 opposite ,ragusa1 9 ,dalmatia1 7 greatly al>m$ by s\nds t at fir/ !y believ$ due to cannonad+ ei!r at sea or on ! neighbor+ coa/4 ,!y aft]w>ds f\nd t ^! s\nds 7 due to some?+ t 0 tak+ place "u ! gr\nd4 ,! noises cont9u$ at int]vals until ,augu/ #bc;d1 #ahbc1 :5 a great e>?quake occurr$1 dur+ :i* "o ( ! highe/ m\nta9s on ! isl& 0 cleft or split 9 "o place4 ,! und]gr\nd noises cont9u$ f "t to "t & s fright5$ ! p t !y 7 ab\t to leave ! isl& p]man5tly & emigrate to ! ma9l& ( ,dalmatia4 ,!y 7 dissuad$ f do+ s by ! gov]nm5t1 & :ile ! noises cont9u$ at int]vals x s happ5$ t no damage came to !m4 ,x is said1 h[ev]1 t tw5ty ye>s aft] an active volcano broke out on ! isl&4 ,!re are v>i\s causes t produce e>?quake s\nds4 ,a v slight rubb+ or gr9d+ toge!r ( rock surfaces may produce fairly l\d noises1 ! volume ( ! s\nd be+ increas$ by transmission ?r\gh ! rock masses t lie 9 ! pa? ( ! waves4 ,an example ( su* an increase 9 ! l\dness ( s\nds is se5 9 ! case ( sev]al ( ! l>ge blocks ( /one us$ = "s ( ! pi]s ( ,k+/on ,h>bor1 9 ,irel&4 ,:5 ^! rocks are mov$ toge!r by bl[s ( ! waves !y produce l\d & appall+ s\nds1 z if ! :ole isl& 7 be+ wa%$ away4 ,! same rocks1 h[ev]1 :5 left high & dry on ! fall+ ( ! tide1 c be caus$ to rub toge!r1 :5 mov$ by ! h&4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 !y produce b feeble s\nds t c only be he>d 9 _! imm$iate neighborhood4 ,no d\bt1 "s f9d x difficult to und]/& h[ x is possible = comp>atively feeble s\nd-waves to be /r5g!n$ by _! passage ?r\gh l>ge masses ( solids4 ,?is is important & %\ld be made cle>4 ,z ev]yone well kn[s1 ! tick+ ( a wat* c only be he>d at a %ort di/ance :5 ! wat* is held 9 ! h&1 because ! s\nd-waves _c readily pass ?r\gh ! body ( ! p]son hold+ ! wat* to ! e>?1 ! mat]ials ( ! body n be+ suffici5tly ela/ic4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! wat* be plac$ on ! b>e surface ( a l>ge wood5 table f :i* ! tableclo? has be5 remov$1 s t ! wat* c come directly 9 contact ) ! wood1 & no?+ else is plac$ on ! table b ! wat*1 ! s\nd-waves are transmitt$ to ! mass ( ! table & its entire surface s5ds !m out into ! air4 ,! tick+ ( ! wat* c !n be he>d di/9ctly 9 almo/ any "p ( a l>ge room4 ,mallet /ates t 9 ne>ly all great e>?quakes s\nds are he>d be=e ! pr9cipal %ock1 & 9 8 description ( ! ,calabrian e>?quake ,hamilton says3 ,all agre$ t e %ock seem$ to come ) a rumbl+ noise f ! we/w>d1 beg9n+ ) ! horizontal & end+ ) ! vorticose 7rot>y7 motion4 ,accord+ to ,dolomieu1 dur+ ! ,lisbon e>?quake1 ! %ocks 7 prec$$ by a l\d subt]ranean noise l ?und]1 :i* 0 r5ew$ = e %ock4444 ,?is great %ock1 he says1 ref]r+ to "o ( ! great upw>d %ocks1 occurr$ )\t ! prelude ( any slight %ocks1 )\t any notice :atev] z sudd5ly z ! bl[+ up ( a m9e4444 ,"s1 h[ev]1 pret5d t a muffl$ int]ior noise 0 he>d almo/ at ! same mom5t4 ,! noises d n g5]ally cont9ue long aft] ! e>?quake %ocks4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 a v l\d noise is he>d at int]vals = a consid]able l5g? ( "t aft] ! pr9cipal %ock4 ,?is 0 ! case at ,quito & ,ib>ra1 9 :i* a great noise 0 he>d = f eighte5 to tw5ty m9utes aft] ! pr9cipal %ock4 ,9 a simil> mann] dur+ ! e>?quake ( ,octob]1 #agdf1 at ,lima1 & ,callao1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 peals ( und]gr\nd ?und] 7 he>d at ,truxillo = fifte5 m9utes aft] ! pr9cipal %ock4 ,9 su* cases x seems probable t ! noises 7 n caus$ by ! same impulses t caus$ ! orig9al %ock1 b by ! =ces t caus$ ! subsequ5t %ock4 ,humboldt relates t 9 #aghd !re 7 noises he>d at ,guanajuato1 f ! #i? to ! #ab? ( ,febru>y4 ,!y 7 n1 h[ev]1 foll[$ by an e>?quake4 ,humboldt also /ates t 9 an e>?quake :i* occurr$ on ! #cj? ( ,april1 #ahab1 on ! banks ( ! ,or9oco ,riv]1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 a l\d ?und]+ noise 0 he>d1 )\t1 h[ev]1 any %ock1 b at ?is "t a volcano on ! isl& ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 9 ! ,less] ,antilles1 al?\gh "s #fcb miles to ! nor!a/1 0 p\r+ out /reams ( lava4 ,aga9 9 ! great eruption ( ,cotopaxi1 9 #agcd1 und]gr\nd noises 7 he>d z if cannon 7 be+ fir$4 ,^! s\nds 7 di/9ctly he>d at z great a di/ance z ,honda on ! banks ( ! ,magdal5a ,riv]4 ,n[1 be>+ 9 m9d t ! crat] ( ,cotopaxi is situat$ on ! high plateau ( ,quito1 9 a region full ( valleys & fissures1 x w\ld seem t = ! s\nds to h be5 s5t ?r\gh ! #dcf miles betwe5 ! m\nta9s & ! valley ( ! ,magdal5a ,riv]1 ! waves mu/1 = ! great] "p1 h be5 transmitt$ ?r\gh ! solid e>? at "s consid]able di/ance bel[ ! surface4 ,mallet /ates t ! und]gr\nd noises :i* cont9u$ = m ?an a mon? f ! midnight ( ,janu>y #i?1 #aghd1 at ,guanajuato1 7 n foll[$ by any e>?quake %ocks1 t x 0 if z ?und] cl\ds occupi$ ! space bel[ ! surface at t "p ( ! e>? & f ^! cl\ds !re came ! sl[ roll+ s\nds l %ort1 quick1 snaps ( ?und]4 ,major ,dutton 9 8 book entitl$ ,e>?quakes 9 ! ,light ( ! ,new ,seismology gives ! foll[+ z ! pr9cipal signs t h]ald ! com+ e>?quake 9 ! op5 c\ntry4 ,! fir/ s5sation is ! s\nd4 ,x is :olly unlike any?+ we h ev] he>d be=e1 unless we h already _h a simil> exp]i5ce4 ,x is a /range murmur4 ,"s lik5 x to ! sigh+ ( p9e-trees 9 ! w9d1 or to fall+ ra92 o!rs to ! di/ant ro> ( ! surf2 o!rs to ! f>-(f rumble ( ! railway tra92 o!rs to di/ant ?und]4 ,x gr[s l\d]4 ,! e>? beg9s to quiv]1 !n to %ake rudely4 ,soon ! gr\nd beg9s to heave4 ,!n x is actually se5 to be trav]s$ by visible waves some:at likes waves at sea1 b ( less height & mov+ mu* m swiftly4 ,! s\nd becomes a ro>4 ,x is difficult to /&1 & at l5g? x becomes impossible to d s4 ,! victim fl+s himself to ! gr\nd to avoid be+ da%$ to x1 or he cl+s to a conv5i5t sapl+1 or f5ce-po/1 to avoid be+ ov]?r[n4 ,! trees are se5 to sway sometimes ?r\gh l>ge arcs1 & are said1 d\btless ) exagg]ation1 to t\* ! gr\nd ) _! bran*es1 fir/ on "o side1 !n on ! o!r4 ,z ! waves ru% pa/1 ! gr\nd on ! cre/s op5s 9 cracks :i* close aga9 9 ! tr\ghs4 ,z !y close1 ! squeez$-out air bl[s =? s& & gravel1 & sometimes s& & wat] are spurt$ high 9 air4 ,! ro> becomes appall+4 ,?r\gh its d9 are he>d l\d1 deep1 solemn booms t seem l ! voice ( ! ,et]nal ,"o1 speak+ out ( ! dep?s ( ! univ]se4 ,sudd5ly ?is /orm subsides1 ! e>? comes spe$ily to re/ & all is ov]4 ,!re are _m o!r curi\s ph5om5a besides e>?quake s\nds or noises4 ,among "s ( ! m int]e/+ are ! fire & smoke t are se5 to come out ( fissures t h be5 r5t 9 ! gr\nd4 ,x is possible t 9 _m cases ^! fla%es ( fire are 9 reality produc$ by electric dis*>ges t mom5t>ily light ! cl\ds ( du/ ?r[n up out ( ! fissure4 ,b sometimes true flames are se5 escap+ f ! fissures4 ,?is 0 ! case dur+ ! e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 9 #agee1 :5 fire bur/ ?r\gh fissures at sev]al places1 burn+ ) a lamb5t flame = "s h\rs4 ,! cl\ds ( du/ t foll[ ! r5d+ ( m\nta9 masses by e>?quakes are probably to be trac$ to ! fracture ( ! rock masses1 ! du/ s =m$ be+ viol5tly ?r[n =? by ! air squeez$ out ( ! fissures1 :5 !y are sudd5ly clos$4 ,! viol5t compression ( ?is air may raise ?is du/ to inc&esc5ce4 ,mallet ass]ts t 9 _m cases ! cl\ds ( smoke obs]v$ d n consi/ ( true smoke l t produc$ :5 wood or vegetable matt]s are incompletely burn$1 b is only ord9>y air mix$ ) sulphur\s acid gas1 & v>i\s o!r gases4 ,b n only fire & smoke are se5 at times com+ out ( fissures 9 ! e>?4 ,a ?+ /ill m frequ5tly ?r[n out is wat]1 :i* (t5 sp\ts =? along ) great quantities ( mud1 s&1 & ! f9ely gr\nd fragm5ts ( e>?y mat]ials g5]ally4 ,among _m o!r in/ances :]e ! emission ( wat] f ! crevices 0 p>ticul>ly noticeable1 may be m5tion$ ! e>?quakes at ,jamaica 9 #afhg & #afib4 ,"h ! wat]1 9 "s places1 0 ?r[n out ( ! gr\nd to consid]able heights 9 ! air4 ,mallet calls att5tion to ! fact t ! wat]s ( spr+s collect 9 res]voirs consi/+ ei!r ( fissures or crevices ( ! rocks1 ( small wid? b great dep?1 :i* are v]tical or incl9$ to ! horizon1 or 9 res]voirs t are =m$ ( ext5d$ b$s ( s& or gravel4 ,n[1 :5 ! e>?quake waves mov+ horizontally ov] ! surface produce movem5ts t squeeze ^! fissures toge!r1 ! wat] 9 ! fissures is spurt$ out 9 high jets1 & c>ries ) x ! f9ely divid$ rock or s& =m$ by ! rubb+ toge!r ( ! rock surfaces4 ,9 ! case ( ! res]voirs consi/+ ( b$s ( s& or gravel1 ly+ betwe5 imp]vi\s lay]s1 if1 dur+ an e>?quake motion1 ! l& areas are sudd5ly l[]$1 ! wat] ru%+ into ! cavity ?us left w aft]w>ds be %ot out ) consid]able =ce1 :5 ! l& is sudd5ly rais$ aga94 ,:]e !re are no direct op5+s 9 ! gr\nd ! wat] w bur/ ?r\gh ! cru/ 9 ! %ape ( great v]tical jets1 ?us =m+ a circul> hole1 brok5 or fractur$ at its edges4 ,wat] jets ( ?is "* 7 especially num]\s dur+ ! e>?quake ( ,calabria 9 #aghc4 ,9 a swampy pla91 kn[n z ,ros>no1 _m ( ^! circul> wells or op5+s ab\t ! size ( an ord9>y c>riage :eel1 ?\gh 9 "s cases mu* l>g]1 7 to be se5 cr[d$ toge!r4 ,! appe>ance ( ! op5+s are repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dj4 ,"s ( ^! 7 fill$ ) wat]1 b ! great] numb] 7 dry & fill$ ) loose s&4 ,^! latt]1 :5 exam9$ by digg+1 7 %[n to be funnel-%ap$1 z se5 9 ,fig4 #da4 ,z se51 ! m>g9s ( ! wells exhibit a s]ies ( cracks or crevices ext5d+ radially outw>d f ! c5tre4 ,_! orig9 is evid5t4 ,z ! wat] 0 viol5tly expell$ by ! squeez+ motion ( ! upp] & l[] imp]vi\s /rata1 x %ot upw>ds1 ?us produc+ ! funnel-%ap$ tube4 ,at ! same "t ! =ce ( ! eruption 0 suffici5tly great to produce ! radial fissures or fractures at ! sides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,circul> ,,holl[ ,,=m$ ,,by ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,section ,,( ,,circul> ,,holl[ ,,=m$ ,,by ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,b great] fissures ?an ^! h be5 =m$ by e>?quakes1 especially ^? ( ! class creat$ by a slipp+ ( ! e>?'s /rata4 ,9 ! case ( an e>?quake on ! ,s\? ,isl& ( ,new ,zeal&1 9 #ahdh1 a fissure hav+ an av]age wid? ( eighte5 in*es c\ld be cle>ly se5 ext5d+ 9 a direction p>allel to ! m\nta9 *a9 = a di/ance ( sixty miles1 & dur+ a lat] e>?quake 9 ! same region1 9 #ahee1 a fracture 0 =m$ t c\ld be cle>ly trac$ = a di/ance ( ne>ly n9ety miles4 ,9 "s cases ^! fissures or fractur$ p>ts ( ! cru/ are left ) "o ( _! sides at a high] level ?an ! opposite side4 ,?is 0 ! case ( ! great ,japanese e>?quake ( ,octob] #bh?1 #ahia4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( waves produc$ by e>?quakes2 namely1 ! e>?quake waves prop] ?r\gh ! e>?2 ! s\nd waves 9 ! air1 & great =c$ waves 9 ! sea4 ,! s\nd waves ( c\rse rea* ! air f ! po9t ( orig9 bel[ ! e>?'s surface ?r\gh ! solid mat]ials ( ! cru/1 & take on ! curi\s v>ieties already describ$ 9 connection ) ! s\nds accompany+ e>?quakes4 ,we h already briefly describ$ ! mann] 9 :i* ! e>?quake waves travel ?r\gh ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,!re rema9 to be discuss$ ! great waves t are roll$ up 9 ! ocean dur+ an e>?quake %ock4 ,^! waves are1 p]haps1 among ! mo/ de/ructive ph5om5a ( great e>?quakes4 ,! foll[+ are only "s ( ! m rem>kable ( su* waves1 & h be5 tak5 f ,mallet's collection ( e>?quake data4 ,dur+ "s ( ! great e>?quakes on ! coa/s ( ,*ile & ,p]u1 huge waves f ! ocean did great damage :5 !y rea*$ ! l&4 ,9 ! e>?quake ( #aeij1 ocean waves ru%$ = sev]al leagues inl& ov] ! coa/ ( ,*ile1 c>ry+ ) !m %ips t 7 left high & dry z ! wave rec$$4 ,9 ! e>?quake ( #afhg1 ,callao 0 inundat$ by a great wave f ! ,pacific ,ocean1 & %ips 7 c>ri$ a full league into ! c\ntry4 ,dur+ ! e>?quake ( #agdf1 ,callao 0 aga9 swept away by a huge ocean wave4 ,at lat] times e>?quake waves h caus$ great damage to sev]al o!r p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,ocean waves ( ?is "* are =m$ by successive upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts at ! bottom ( ! ocean1 foll[+ ea* o!r at v brief int]vals4 ,le ,conte po9ts out t ! sudd5 upheaval ( ! b$ ( ! ocean =ms a huge m\nd 9 ! surface ( ! wat] :i* results 9 a l>ge wave t spreads rapidly 9 all directions4 ,waves produc$ 9 ?is mann] sometimes rea* a height ( fifty to sixty feet4 ,!y are n readily obs]v$ 9 ! deep ocean1 b z soon z !y rea* ! %all[ wat]s ne> ! %ore !y ru% =w>d1 =m+ waves f fifty to sixty feet 9 height &1 ru%+ ov] ! l&1 sweep ev]y?+ be=e !m4 ,dur+ ! great ,lisbon e>?quake ( #agee a huge wave />t$ at a po9t fifty miles (f ! coa/ ( ,portugal4 ,half an h\r aft] ! e>?quake 0 ov] sev]al waves1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* 0 sixty feet 9 height1 ru%$ ov] a "p ( ! city & greatly increas$ ! ru9 already wr\ght by ! e>?quake4 ,accord+ to ,le ,conte ! great waves s =m$ mov$ 9 all directions across ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,!y 7 ?irty feet high :5 !y rea*$ ,cadiz1 eighte5 feet 9 height at ,madeira1 & five feet on ! coa/ ( ,irel&4 ,!y ev5 cross$ ! ,atlantic1 be+ obs]v$ on ! coa/s ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,a great ocean wave accompani$ ! ,japanese e>?quake 9 #ahed4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,lisbon e>?quake ?is wave />t$ 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean (f ! coa/ ( ,japan & only rea*$ ! isl& half an h\r aft]w>ds4 ,x 0 ?irty feet 9 height1 & completely swept away ! t[n ( ,simoda4 ,ow+ to wat]'s great] fre$om ( motion e>?quake waves travel great] di/ances ?r\gh ! wat] ?an !y d on l&4 ,( c\rse1 great e>?quake %ocks z a rule cause a v l>ge loss ( life4 ,! foll[+ figures f ,mallet give "s idea ( ! ext5t ( ?is loss1 :i* is g5]ally a matt] ( a few mom5ts4 ,9 ! ,lisbon e>?quake1 :]e ! wor/ %ock la/$ a few seconds1 #fj1jjj p 7 kill$4 ,dur+ o!r e>?quakes ! losses h be5 z foll[s3 #aj1jjj at ,morocco2 #dj1jjj 9 ,calabria2 #ej1jjj 9 ,syria1 & probably #abj1jjj 9 e>?quakes t occurr$ 9 ,syria 9 ,a4 ,d4 #ai & 9 ,a4 ,d4 #ebf4 ,b ev5 ^! figures give only a meagre idea ( ! va/ loss ( life t has occurr$ dur+ ! pa/4 ,x is said t dur+ ! reign ( ,ju/9ian1 e>?quakes repeat$ly %ook ! :ole ,roman _w4 ,! city ( ,con/ant9ople 0 visit$ by e>?quake %ocks t cont9u$ at int]vals = =ty days4 ,deep *asms 7 op5$ 9 ! e>? & huge masses 7 ?r[n into ! air4 ,enorm\s sea-waves 7 =m$4 ,at ,antio*1 dur+ ! e>?quake ( ,may #bj?1 ,a4 ,d4 #ebf1 #bej1jjj p are believ$ to h be5 kill$4 ,on ! #ca/ ( ,july1 ,a4 ,d4 #cfe1 9 ! second ye> ( ,val5t9ian1 a dreadful e>?quake %ook ! ,roman _w1 & a great wave roll$ 9 f ! ,m$it]ranean & swept two miles inl&1 c>ry+ %ips ov] ! tops ( h\ses4 ,dur+ ?is e>?quake #ej1jjj p lo/ _! lives at ,alex&ria4 ,9 ! e>?quake ( ,mess9a 9 #afib1 #gd1jjj p are said to h be5 kill$2 &1 accord+ to o!r acc\nts1 #ajj1jjj4 ,9 ! ye> ,a4 ,d4 #fjb1 ano!r e>?quake at ,antio* kill$ #fj1jjj p4 ,dur+ ! e>?quake ( ,quito1 9 #agig1 ,humboldt e/imates t #dj1jjj natives 7 ei!r buri$ 9 crevices 9 ! e>?1 "u ! ru9s ( build+s1 or 7 dr[n$ 9 lakes & ponds t 7 tempor>ily =m$4 ,9 ?is connection ,mallet writes z foll[s3 ,su* are ! numb]s to be met ) 9 n>ratives1 & if we suppose t !re occurs "o great e>?quake 9 ?ree ye>s ov] ! :ole e>? & t ?is involves ! entombm5t ( only #aj1jjj human be+s1 & t su* has be5 ! economy ( our sy/em = ! la/ #d1jjj ye>s1 we %all h a numb] repres5t+ above #ac1jjj1jjj m5 ?us sudd5ly swall[$ up1 ) c\ntless bodies ( animals ( e l[] class4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell !n ) good reason sugge/s t ev5 9 our own "t we may yet f9d ! rema9s ( m5 & ( _! habitations & implem5ts ?us buri$ deep & embalm$1 z x 71 by e>?quakes t occurr$ 9 ! days ( ,moses & ! ,ptolemies4 ,necess>ily ! progress ( a great e>?quake wave w produce great *anges 9 ! e>?'s surface features2 = example1 l&slides1 :]e imm5se lay]s ( clay or o!r mat]ial slip or slide to a l[] level & are ?r[n across ! c\rse ( a riv]1 caus+ its wat]s to be damm$ up & !n by spread+ to =m great lakes4 ,sometimes1 aft] va/ bodies ( wat] h be5 collect$ 9 ?is mann]1 disa/r\s floods result lat] f a sudd5 giv+ way ( ! b>ri]1 & ! loss ?us caus$ is occasionally f> great] ?an t directly due to ! e>?quake4 ,p]man5t *anges ( level are frequ5tly caus$ by e>?quakes1 z1 = example1 ! coa/ ( ,*ile dur+ ! e>?quake ( ,novemb] #ai?1 #ahbb1 :]e ! coa/ = _m miles 0 rais$ f ?ree to f\r feet above its =m] plane4 ,9 o!r cases ! level ( ! gr\nd is p]man5tly l[]$4 ,?is occurr$ 9 ! ,b5gal e>?quake 9 #agfb1 :5 an area ( "s sixty squ>e miles sudd5ly sank1 leav+ only ! tops ( ! high] po9ts above wat]4 ,9 "s cases ( *anges 9 ! level ( ! gr\nd1 l>ge areas be+ rais$ 9 "o place & l[]$ 9 ano!r1 riv]s take new c\rses1 & _! old c\rses are completely oblit]at$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,calabria ,,9 #aghc ,all /ud5ts ( elem5t>y geography are quick to notice t ! extreme s\!a/]n "p ( ,italy is %ap$ some?+ l a boot1 :i* appe>s to be kick+ at ! isl& ( ,sicily4 ,?is "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea has = v _m ye>s be5 ! ar5a or /orm c5tre ( m or less int5se volcanic activity4 ,to ! nor?we/ is ! active volcano ( ,vesuvius1 z well z ! volcanic regions ( ! ,phlegran ,fields4 ,imm$iately opposite ! po9t ( ,italy1 ne> ! toe ( ! foot1 is ! active volcanic m\nta91 ,etna1 :ile n f> f ?is po9t is ! volcano ( ,/romboli4 ,9 #aghc ?is "p ( ! _w 0 visit$ by a v sev]e e>?quake4 ,s9ce at t "t ! c\ntry 0 divid$ into two p>ts1 kn[n z ,upp] ,calabria & ,l[] ,calabria1 ?is e>?quake is sometimes spok5 ( z ! e>?quake ( ! ,calabrias1 or m simply z ! ,calabrian e>?quake4 ,! great m\nta9 range ( ! ,ap5n9es1 ma9ly ( granite =mation1 ext5ds ?r\gh ! c5tral "p ( ,italy4 ,! l&s adjo9+ ! m\nta9s on ea* side are flat & m>%y1 & consequ5tly unheal?y4 ,num]\s obs]v]s h compil$ excell5t acc\nts ( ! ,calabrian e>?quake4 ,^!1 hav+ be5 made by educat$ p]sons1 are1 to a l>ge ext5t free f ! inconsi/5cies & exagg]ations apt to *>act]ize descriptions by ignorant p]sons1 especially :5 9 a condition ( excitem5t or al>m4 ,among reliable writ]s 0 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 :o made a p]sonal exam9ation ( ! region1 soon aft] ! fir/ sev]e %ock1 & collect$ mu* valuable in=mation = a pap] :i* 0 aft]w>ds publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,!n1 too1 ,dolomieu1 ano!r sci5tific man ( high ability1 made a c>eful /udy ( ! effects produc$ by ! e>?quake4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,,( #aghc ,z c be se5 by an exam9ation ( ! map pres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #db1 ! "p ( ,italy includ$ 9 ! ,calabrias cov]s an area f nor? to s\? almo/ equal to two degrees ( latitude4 ,al?\gh ! %ock ext5d$ beyond ! limits ( ,calabria1 s9ce x rea*$ z f> nor? z ,naples1 z well z ov] a great "p ( ! ,isl& ( ,sicily1 ! t]ritory 9 :i* ! greate/ damage 0 done did n exce$ 9 area ab\t #ejj squ>e miles4 ,! s\!rn "p ( ,italy is subject to frequ5t e>?quake %ocks4 ,pignat>i1 an ,italian physician1 ass]ts t ?is region 0 visit$ dur+ #aghc by no less ?an #idi e>?quakes1 ( :i* #eja 7 ( ! fir/ class1 or degree ( int5sity1 :ile 9 #aghd1 !re 7 #aea e>?quakes1 ( :i* n9ety-eight 7 ( ! fir/ class4 ,x seems t ! city ( ,oppido1 m>k$ on ! above map z midway betwe5 ! two coa/s1 0 ! po9t f :i* ! sev]e e>?quake ( #aghc />t$4 ,if "o draws a circle1 ) a radius ( tw5ty-two miles1 ar\nd ,oppido z a c5tre1 ! portions ( ! ,calabrias t 7 ! mo/ affect$ w all lie )9 ?is circle4 ,! great ,calabrian e>?quake 0 att5d$ by num]\s %ocks4 ,! fir/ & ! mo/ sev]e %ock1 t ( ,febru>y #e?1 #aghc1 0 only two m9utes 9 de/roy+ mo/ ( ! h\ses 9 all cities1 t[ns1 & villages on ! we/]n side ( ! ,ap5n9es 9 ?is "p ( ,italy4 ,ano!r sev]e %ock occurr$ on ! #bh? ( ,m>*4 ,?is %ock 0 almo/ z sev]e z t ( ,febru>y #e?4 ,9 ord] to und]/& _m ( ! effects produc$ by ?is e>?quake1 inquiry mu/ be made into ! geological "* ( ! region4 ,accord+ to ,dolomieu1 ! flat c\ntry at ! slopes ( ! ,ap5n9es1 kn[n z ! ,pla9 ( ,calabria1 is cov]$ ) s& & clay mix$ ) sea %ells4 ,^! /rata h be5 deposit$ by ! sea f mat]ials t h be5 obta9$ by ! decomposition ( ! granite m\nta9 ranges 9 ! ,ap5n9es4 ,! pla9 is q level except :]e x is cross$ by deep valleys or rav9es1 :i* h be5 erod$ or cut by ! swift m\nta9 torr5ts4 ,9 _m cases1 ^! rav9es or valleys h dep?s z great z #fjj feet4 ,_! sides are g5]ally almo/ p]p5dicul>4 ,consequ5tly1 z ,lyell rem>ks1 ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( ! m\nta9 *a91 ! soil1 :i* adh]es b loosely to ! granite base ( ! m\nta9 *a91 c\ld !re=e be easily sep>at$ f ! m\nta91 & slid+ ov] ! solid /eeps ( ! m\nta9 c\ld readily move1 especially ?r\gh ! rav9es or gorges1 to di/ances 9 "s cases z great z f n9e to t5 miles4 ,?is peculi>ity ( ! c\ntry mu/ be ?or\ghly und]/ood1 s9ce1 o!rwise1 x w\ld seem impossible t l&s c\ld be c>ri$ sev]al miles f _! =m] position1 & (t5 be> along ) !m almo/ undi/urb$ h\ses1 olive groves1 v9ey>ds1 & cultivat$ fields4 ,! heav+ ( ! surface ( ! e>? l ! wat]s ( ! sea1 s common 9 sev]e e>?quakes1 occurr$ dur+ ! ,calabrian e>?quake4 ,9 "s places ?is heav+ s %ook ! trees t !y b5t until _! tops t\*$ ! gr\nd ne> _! base4 ,p>ts ( ! gr\nd 7 viol5tly ?r[n upw>ds into ! air z 9 ! explosive type ( e>?quakes4 ,9 _m in/ances ! l>ge pav+ /ones 7 ?r[n into ! air & aft]w>ds f\nd ) _! l[] portions upw>ds4 ,dur+ ! e>?quake deep fissures 7 made 9 ! e>? at v>i\s localities & !re 71 moreov]1 m>k$ *anges ( level4 ,at ,mess9a 9 ,sicily ! %ore 0 fissur$ & r5t & :ile be=e ! convulsion ! surface _h be5 level1 x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be incl9$ t[>d ! sea4 ,accord+ to ,dolomieu ! foll[+ curi\s incid5t occurr$ dur+ ! passage ( ! e>?quake waves4 ,a well 9 ! gr\nd ( "o ( ! conv5ts ( ! ,augu/9es1 l9$ on ! inside ) /ones1 0 s affect$ by ! upw>d ?ru/ giv5 to ! l& t its /one l9+ 0 left project+ above ! level ( ! e>? 9 ! =m ( a small t[] "s eight or n9e feet 9 height4 ,frequ5t in/ances occurr$ ( deep fissures 9 ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,_m ( ^! rema9$ op5 aft] ! e>?quake1 al?\gh 9 o!r cases !y 7 firmly clos$ toge!r be=e ! e>?quake %ocks ceas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,fissures ,,caus$ ,,by ,,! ,,calabrian ,,e>?quake ,fig4 #dc repres5ts ! appe>ance ( c]ta9 fissures 9 a "p ( ,calabria dur+ ?is e>?quake4 ,^! cracks1 x w be notic$1 radiate or pass outw>d 9 all directions f a c5tral po9t1 j l ! cracks t are =m$ 9 a glass w9d[ pane :5 x is fractur$ by a /one ?r[n aga9/ x4 ,( c\rse1 ! mo/ viol5t effects 7 ne> ! orig9 ( ! e>?quake at ,oppido4 ,"h ! =mation ( deep fissures 0 common4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ! c\ntry a numb] ( build+s 7 sudd5ly swall[$ up 9 a c5tral *asm1 :i* almo/ imm$iately clos$1 ?us p]man5tly bury+ all ^! objects4 ,"s idea ( ! =ce ) :i* ! fissures 7 aft]w>ds clos$ c be =m$ by reflect+ on a case :]e1 9 ord] to recov] "s ( ! buri$ articles1 ! gr\nd 0 dug up at ^! po9ts1 & x 0 f\nd t ! mat]ials1 human bodies & o!r objects1 7 s jamm$ toge!r z to make "o compact mass4 ,to ,sir ,william ,hamilton a place 0 %[n :]e ! fissures1 ?\gh1 :5 he saw !m1 !y 7 n m ?an a foot 9 wid?1 _h op5$ suffici5tly wide dur+ ! %ock to swall[ up a hundr$ goats z well z an ox4 ,an e>?quake t caus$ su* m>k$ *anges 9 ! appe>ance ( ! e>?'s surface1 naturally made great *anges 9 ! direction ( ! riv]s4 ,9 "o case ! end ( a small valley 0 s completely fill$ ) /ones & dirt t ! wat] 0 damm$ up1 produc+ a lake two miles 9 l5g? & "o mile 9 bread?4 ,9 a simil> mann] no less ?an #bae lakes 7 =m$ 9 diff]5t portions ( ,calabria4 ,( c\rse1 9 ! flat c\ntry at ! base ( ! ,ap5n9es1 frequ5t l&slides occurr$1 ! l& slid+ into great *asms & cont9u+ to move d[n !m = consid]able di/ances1 s t 9 _m places pieces ( l& conta9+ olive trees1 v9ey>ds1 & gre5 fields1 7 bodily transport$ = di/ances ( sev]al miles4 ,?is1 moreov]1 0 done s quietly z to leave ! h\ses entirely un9jur$1 & ! trees & o!r vegetation cont9u+ to gr[ up ) app>5tly no m>k$ decrease 9 vitality4 ,z is usual 9 su* cases1 ! sudd5 & /rong bl[s act+ on ! wat]s ( ! sea1 kill$ great numb]s ( fi% j z does ! explosion ( dynamite at a po9t bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]2 & 9 a simil> way ! fi% t usually live at ! bottom ( ! sea 9 ! s(t mud1 be+ di/urb$ by ! e>?quake %ocks1 came ne> ! surface :]e !y 7 caught 9 va/ numb]s4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t dur+ ?is e>?quake ! volcano ( ,/romboli %[$ a m>k$ decrease 9 ! volume ( smoke x gave out4 ,etna1 h[ev]1 0 obs]v$ to emit l>ge quantities ( vapor dur+ ! convulsion4 ,lyell tells ! foll[+ /ory ( ! ,pr9ce ( ,scilla1 :o ) _m ( 8 vassals s\ght safety 9 _! fi%+ boats4 ,sudd5ly1 on ! night ( ,febru>y #e?1 :ile "s ( ! p 7 sleep+ 9 ! boat1 & o!rs 7 re/+ on a l[ pla9 ne> ! sea1 9 ! neighborhood1 ano!r %ock occurr$1 a great mass 0 torn f a neighbor+ m\nta9 & hurl$ ) a cra% on ! pla91 & imm$iately aft]w>ds a wave1 tw5ty feet or m 9 height1 roll$ ov] ! level pla91 sweep+ away ! p4 ,x !n retreat$1 b soon ru%$ back aga91 br++ ) x _m ( ! bodies ( ! p :o _h p]i%$4 ,at ! same "t all ! boats 7 ei!r sunk or da%$ aga9/ ! bea*1 & ! ,pr9ce ) #a1dcj ( 8 p 0 de/roy$4 ,! total numb] ( dea?s caus$ by ?is e>?quake 9 ! ,calabrias & ,sicily 7 e/imat$ by ,hamilton at #dj1jjj4 ,besides ^! ab\t #bj1jjj m p]i%$ 9 epidemics t foll[$ ! e>?quake1 or di$ = lack ( prop] food4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi ,,! ,,great ,,lisbon ,,e>?quake ,,( #agee ,lisbon1 ! capital ( ,portugal1 on ! ,tagus ,riv]1 is built along bo? banks = five miles1 & on sev]al small neighbor+ hills4 ,x is suppli$ ) wat] by means ( an aqu$uct1 call$ ! ,alcant>a1 :i* br+s ! wat] f spr+s ab\t n9e miles to ! nor?we/4 ,= portions ( its l5g? ! aqu$uct is plac$ und]gr\nd1 b :]e x crosses ! deep valley ( ! ,alcant>a x is support$1 = a di/ance ( #b1djj feet1 by a numb] ( m>ble ar*es1 :i* 9 "o place are #bfj feet 9 height4 ,?is fact is put =w>d n m]ely = ! sake ( its arti/ic int]e/1 b because1 /range to relate1 ?is "p ( ! aqu$uct rema9$ un9jur$ dur+ t great e>?quake1 ! greate/ ( mod]n times4 ,on ! #a/ ( ,novemb]1 #agee1 ?is frightful cata/rophe1 accord+ to ,lyell1 f ^: excell5t acc\nt mu* ( ! in=mation conta9$ 9 ?is *apt] has be5 obta9$1 /ruck ! beautiful city almo/ )\t any w>n+4 ,t]rible s\nds came sudd5ly f und]gr\nd2 almo/ in/antly aft]w>d a viol5t %ock ?rew d[n ! great] portion ( ! city2 9 less ?an six m9utes #fj1jjj p 7 kill$4 ,! place f :i* ?is e>?quake />t$ mu/ h be5 situat$ on ! b$ ( ! ocean at "s di/ance f ! coa/2 = ! great wave ?us rais$ 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean did n rea* ! m\? ( ! ,tagus ,riv] until ab\t half an h\r aft] ! mo/ sev]e %ocks 7 ov]4 ,! arrival ( ?is wave at ! m\? ( ! ,tagus 0 ann\nc$ by ! sea retir+ to su* an ext5t z to leave ! b> dry4 ,!n a huge wave1 sixty feet 9 height1 roll$ 9 f ! ocean & complet$ ! "w ( de/ruction t _h be5 comm5c$ by ! e>?quake4 ,s great 0 ! %ock t ! m\nta9s 9 ! neighborhood 7 viol5tly %ak5 & "s ( !m split or fractur$ 9 a mo/ wond]ful mann]4 ,p>ticul>ly l>ge 0 ! loss ( life 9 ! *ur*es :i!r hundr$s ha/5$ = refuge :5 ! %ak+s ( ! e>? began1 = mo/ ( ^! build+s fell & buri$ ! wor%ipp]s4 ,ano!r imm5se loss ( life 0 caus$ by ! de/ruction ( a l>ge m>ble quay or :>f t 0 sudd5ly swall[$ up by ! sea4 ,:ile ! build+s 9 ! city 7 be+ ov]?r[n by ! viol5t %ak+s ( ! e>?1 a multitude s\ght ! quay z a flat place :]e !y c\ld n be injur$ by ! fall+ build+s4 ,sudd5ly1 h[ev]1 ?is /ructure sank into ! wat] & n only 7 all ! p dr[n$1 b none ( ! bodies 0 ev] aft]w>ds f\nd4 ,failure to f9d any remnants ( ! pi] or any ( ! p :o p]i%$ on x has be5 attribut$ to ! =mation ( eddies or :irls t 7 suffici5tly /rong to c>ry d[n vessels by suction simil> to t ( ! fam\s mael/rom (f ! coa/ ( ,norway4 ,( c\rse1 9 a "t ( b\ndless excitem5t l t ( ! ,lisbon e>?quake1 acc\nts are apt to be highly exagg]at$4 ,= example1 ass]tions are made 9 _m books t ! wat] left 9 ! h>bor aft] ! s9k+ ( ! quay 0 unfa?omable4 ,n[1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! dep? ( ?is place has be5 measur$ & f\nd to be less ?an #ajj fa?oms4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t n "o ( ! bodies ( ! p on t quay 0 ev] aga9 se51 x is possible1 z ,lyell sugge/s1 t a deep fissure or *asm op5$ imm$iately on ! gr\nd on :i* ! quay /ood1 s t x1 toge!r ) all on x1 7 dropp$ into ! *asm1 :i*1 clos+1 buri$ !m deep 9 ! e>?4 ,! ,lisbon e>?quake 0 especially not$ = ! ext5t ( c\ntry affect$ by x4 ,humboldt e/imat$ ?is area z be+ m ?an f\r times ! size ( ,europe4 ,9 p>ts ( ?is area imm5se m\nta9 ranges1 su* z ! ,pyr5ees1 ,alps1 etc41 7 viol5tly %ak54 ,:5 ! size ( ^! m\nta9s is consid]$ "o realizes t x mu/ h requir$ a mighty =ce to %ake !m4 ,^! %ak+s 7 s sev]e t !y produc$ a deep fissure 9 ! gr\nd 9 ,france4 ,cont9u+ t[>ds ! nor? ! solid e>? 0 %ak5 z f> z ! %ores ( ! ,baltic & ,norway & ,sw$51 g5]ally4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 includ$ ! flat c\ntry ( ,nor!rn ,g]many4 ,! hot spr+s ( ,toplitz disappe>$ = a "t1 b1 break+ out aft]w>ds1 dis*>g$ su* quantities ( muddy wat] t ! surr\nd+ c\ntry 0 inundat$4 ,! waves cross$ ! ,atlantic1 caus+ high tides on ! isl& ( ,antigua1 ,b>badoes1 & ,m>t9ique1 ( ! ,less] ,antilles1 :]e1 in/ead ( ! usual tides ( two feet1 tides ( tw5ty feet high 7 obs]v$4 ,fur!r to ! nor? ! waves rea*$ ! ea/]n %ores ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & %ook ! cont95t z f> we/ z ! ,great ,lakes1 & spread 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic z f> z ,icel&4 ,t[>d ! s\? ! waves affect$ p>ts ( nor?we/]n ,africa1 :]e mu* loss ( life occurr$ 9 ! villages "s eight leagues di/ant f ! city ( ,morocco4 ,"h f #h1jjj to #aj1jjj p 7 kill$1 be+ swall[$ up by deep fissures 9 ! e>?1 :i* aft]w>ds clos$ on _! bodies4 ,sev]e %ocks 7 9 _m cases felt on vessels at sea4 ,9 "o in/ance1 al?\gh ! vessels 7 at consid]able di/ances f :]e ! waves />t$1 ! capta9s report$ t ! %ocks 7 s great t on sev]al occasions x 0 believ$ ! vessel _h /ruck a rock1 till1 on heav+ ! lead1 !y f\nd t !y 7 9 v deep wat]4 ,9 ano!r in/ance1 su* 0 ! %ock to ! vessel t ! planks on ! deck _h _! seams op5$4 ,9 /ill ano!r case sev]al ( ! sailors 7 ?r[n into ! air = a di/ance ( ab\t "o & a half feet4 ,x has be5 frequ5tly obs]v$ t :5 great e>?quakes happ51 curi\s *anges take place 9 ! level ( ! wat]s ( lakes entirely disconnect$ ) ! ocean2 = example1 m\nta9 lakes1 f> above ! level ( ! sea1 ! wat] sudd5ly ris+ & !n resum+ its orig9al level4 ,sometimes ! wat]s ( su* lakes h sudd5ly disappe>$1 probably be+ dra9$ (f ?r\gh a fissure =m$ 9 ! b$ ( ! lake4 ,9 su* ev5t ! lake g5]ally rema9s dry aft] ! passage ( ! e>?quake4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,lisbon e>?quake x 0 obs]v$ t ! wat] ( ,lo* ,lomond 9 ,scotl& fir/ rose above its ord9>y1 !n sank aga9 to its usual level4 ,?is diff]5ce ( level is expla9$ by ,lyell z foll[s3 :5 ! e>?quake waves rea*$ ! lake1 ! wat] be+ unable to take ! sudd5 %ove giv5 to x by ! e>?quake waves1 da%$ ov] t side ( ! bas9 :i* fir/ receiv$ ! %ock4 ,assum+ ?is to be ! case1 s9ce ! rise ( ! level 9 ! wat] ( ,lo* ,lomond 0 two feet & f\r in*es1 x is comp>atively easy to calculate ! spe$ ( movem5t t ! e>?quake waves _h1 :5 !y rea*$ ?is body ( wat]4 ,calculat$ 9 ?is way x w\ld seem t ! waves _h a spe$ ( ab\t tw5ty miles a m9ute4 ,b :at especially *>act]iz$ ! ,lisbon e>?quake 7 ! great waves t 7 produc$ 9 ! ocean4 ,besides ! huge wave t ent]$ ! ,tagus1 a wave ( ! same height swept ea/w>d along ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,spa91 & ! nor?we/]n coa/ ( ,africa4 ,at ,tangi] 9 ,africa x swept ! coa/ z a v high wave no less ?an eighte5 times1 or1 9 o!r words1 eighte5 huge waves roll$ 9 f ! ocean4 ,at ,fun*al1 on ! ,madeira ,isl&s1 ?is wave rose fifte5 feet above ! high wat] m>k4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! great sea waves are />t$ 9 e>?quake movem5ts4 ,"s believe t !y are due to ! sudd5 rais+ or heav+ up ( ! wat]1 f> above ord9>y level4 ,b1 z ,lyell po9ts out1 ?is explanation w\ld n be satisfactory = ! waves produc$ 9 ! case ( ! ,lisbon e>?quake1 s9ce x w\ld fail to acc\nt = ! fact t bo? on ! coa/s ( ,portugal z well z on ! isl& ( ,madeira ! high wave 0 prec$$ by a movem5t ( ! wat] t[>d ! po9t ( orig92 t is1 ! wat]s mov$ away f ,lisbon & ! ,madeira ,isl&s1 s z to leave ! wat] v l[ at ^? po9ts1 :5 %ortly aft]w>ds a huge wave ru%$ 9 f ! sea & swept ov] ! l&4 ,e>?quake waves move mu* m rapidly ?r\gh ! solid rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ ?an ?r\gh ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! %ock transmitt$ ?r\gh ! solid e>? f ,lisbon to ! ,madeira ,isl&s took only tw5ty-five m9utes to rea* ! isl&s1 :ile ! waves 9 ! ocean took ab\t two & a half h\rs to cov] ! same di/ance4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,cut*1 ,,india1 ,,9 #ahai ,cut* is "o ( ! ,prov9ces ( ,india ly+ on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,h9do/an1 ea/ ( ! delta ( ! ,indus ,riv]4 ,a great e>?quake occurr$ 9 ?is region on ,june #af?1 #ahai4 ,z indicat$ by ! map pres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dd1 by ,lyell1 ! di/rict ( ,cut* lies on ! coa/ ( ! ,arabian ,sea4 ,cut* is at times a p59sula1 be+ wa%$ on ! s\? & ea/ by ! ,arabian ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,cut*1 & on ! nor? by a depression kn[n z ! ,runn ( ,cut* :i*1 dur+ unusual tides1 is ov]fl[$ by ! wat]s ( ! sea1 b = ! re/ ( ! ye> is dry4 ,! e>?quake ( ,cut* 0 app>5tly c5tral at ! t[n ( ,bhooj1 :]e ! de/ruction 0 extreme1 h>dly a h\se be+ left /&+4 ,! %ock ext5d$ ov] a radius ( ab\t #a1jjj miles f ,bhooj1 rea*+ to ,khatm&oo1 ,calcutta1 & ,pondi*]ry4 ,at ,anj> ! =t1 toge!r ) its t[] & guns1 7 completely ru9$4 ,! %ocks cont9u$ at int]vals aft] ! pr9cipal %ock until ,june #bj?1 :5 ! volcano ( ,d5odur is said by "s to h emitt$ flames1 al?\gh ?is is d5i$ by o!rs4 ,great *anges 7 produc$ 9 ! ea/]n *annel ( ! ,indus1 :i* =ms ! we/]n b\nd>y ( ! ,prov9ce ( ,cut*4 ,! wat] 9 ?is inlet _h become s l[ t x 0 readily =dable at l[ tide at ,luckput1 & 0 only cov]$ ) six feet ( wat] at high tide4 ,aft] ! e>?quake x deep5$ at ! port ( ,luckput to ov] eighte5 feet at l[ tide1 :ile 9 o!r p>ts ( ! *annel ! wat] _h deep5$ f f\r to t5 feet at high tide1 :]e be=e ! e>?quake %ock x _h nev] be5 deep] ?an f "o to two feet4 ,inde$1 aft] ^! *anges ! inl& navigation ( ! c\ntry aga9 became possible aft] hav+ be5 clos$ = _m c5turies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,di/rict ,,visit$ ,,by ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,cut* ,,( #ahai ,! ,cut* e>?quake result$ 9 a m>k$ depression ( ! c\ntry1 especially nor? ( ,luckput1 :]e ! =t & village ( ,s9dree 7 s quietly sunk t ! =t1 ) its t[] & walls1 0 left project+ slightly above a body ( wat] t n only completely cov]$ ! old site b also =m$ a l>ge lake m>k$ on ! prec$+ map1 at ,s9dree1 by ! d>k %ad+4 ,x 0 ?is *ange ( level t deep5$ ! ea/]n *annel ( ! ,indus1 j m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #de44 ,,s9dree ,,be=e ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( #ahai ,fig4 #de1 f ,lyell1 gives an idea ( ! appe>ance ( ! =t at ,s9dree be=e ! e>?quake4 ,! appe>ance ( ! =t aft] its subm]g5ce is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #df1 :]e1 z w be notic$1 only ! top ( ! t[] & ! walls rema9 above ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,t ! masonry 0 n affect$ ei!r by ! e>?quake1 or by ! inru% ( wat]s1 is evid5t f ! fact t ! ru9s 7 /ill /&+ 9 ,m>*1 #ahch1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,9 heavy %ad+ on ! map 9 ,fig4 #dd is a l>ge area ly+ 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! prov9ce kn[n z ! ,runn ( ,cut*4 ,?is is a flat region ( ab\t #g1jjj squ>e miles4 ,x owes its level surface to its be+ ! des]t$ or dri$-up b$ ( a sea4 ,= ! great] "p ( ! ye> its bottom is dry & h>d1 & is cov]$ ) a cru/ ( salt half an in* or s 9 ?ickness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,,s9dree ,,aft] ,,! ,,e>?quake ,,( #ahai ,accord+ to ,lyell1 f :om mo/ ( ! facts conc]n+ ?is e>?quake h be5 obta9$1 ! ,runn ( ,cut* is connect$ ) a va/ inl& sea1 n only by ! wat] driv5 into x ?r\gh ! ,gulf ( ,cut*1 b also ?r\gh ! ea/]n *annel ( ! ,indus at ,luckput4 ,^! *anges occur especially dur+ ! monsoon1 :5 ! seas are high1 & especially aft] ! heavy ra9s t come ) ^! w9ds1 :5 ! wet condition ( ! soil p]mits ! sea wat] to spread rapidly4 ,traditions ( ! natives t5d to confirm belief t ,cut* a long "t ago 0 a true p59sula1 & t ! ,runn ( ,cut* 0 !n an arm ( ! sea4 ,t a *ange ( ?is "* did occur 9 ! ,runn ( ,cut* seems to be prov$ by ! ru9s ( old t[ns n[ f> inl& t are said to h be5 anci5t seaports1 & z app>5t evid5ces ( ?is _m pieces ( wr\ght iron & %ips' nails h be5 f\nd 9 p>ts ( ! ,runn4 ,at ! same "t t ! s9k+ ( ! l& ar\nd ! =t & village ( ,s9dree took place a consid]able elevation occurr$ 9 ! neighborhood4 ,imm$iately aft] ! e>?quake1 ! p 9 ,s9dree saw t a l[ hill or m\nd _h be5 ?r[n up 9 a place t be=e _h be5 a l[ & p]fectly level pla94 ,!y nam$ ?is elevation ! ,ullah ,bund1 or ! ,m\nd ( ,god1 9 ord] to di/+ui% x f sev]al embankm5ts t _h be5 built directly across ! ea/]n m\? ( ! ,indus2 = ! ,ullah ,bund _h be5 rais$ by ! e>?quake across ! same bran* ( ! ,indus4 ,= sev]al ye>s aft] ! e>?quake ( #ahai m>k$ *anges kept develop+ 9 ! *annels ( ! ,indus4 ,dur+ #ahbf a l>ge body ( wat] ent]$ into ! ea/]n bran* ( ! ,indus above ! ,ullah ,bund & f9ally =c$ its way ?r\gh ! m\nd1 ?us e/abli%+ a direct c\rse to ! sea4 ,! ,ullah ,bund1 be+ ?us cut 9 two1 an opportunity 0 af=d$ ( see+ ! mat]ials ( :i* x 0 compos$4 ,^! 7 f\nd to consi/ pr9cipally ( clay fill$ ) %ells4 ,! op5+ ( ! riv] result$ 9 ?r[+ su* l>ge quantities ( fre% wat] into ,lake ,s9dree t its wat]s 7 r5d]$ fre% = sev]al mon?s1 b at la/ rega9$ _! salt9ess4 ,dana /ates t 9 #ahde ano!r e>?quake occurr$ 9 ?is di/rict :i* conv]t$ ,s9dree ,lake into a salt m>%4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii ,,! ,,san ,,francisco ,,e>?quake ,,( ,,april #ah1 #aijf ,ab\t twelve m9utes pa/ five o'clock on ! morn+ ( ! #ah? ( ,april1 #aijf1 ! inhabitants ( ,san ,francisco 7 rudely awak5$ by a few frightful e>?quake %ocks4 ,_! h\ses 7 viol5tly %ak5 to & fro1 & on all sides 7 he>d ! awful cra%+s ( fall+ walls1 *imneys1 & build+s1 toge!r ) ! dea?-%rieks ( ^? caught 9 ! ru9s4 ,ru%+ madly into ! /reets !y c\ld see on e side evid5ces ( de/ruction2 =1 9 almo/ e direction1 7 heaps ( fall5 build+s1 /ill be+ viol5tly %ak5 by ! e>?quake waves t rapidly pass$ ?r\gh ! solid e>?4 ,huge cracks or crevices _h be5 =m$ 9 ! /reets1 :ile ! heavy rails ( ! trolley tracks _h be5 b5t & twi/$ by ! mighty =ces4 ,be=e describ+ 9 detail ! great ,san ,francisco e>?quake1 ! location ( ! city & its surr\nd+s dem& consid]ation4 ,z c be se5 f ! map1 ,fig4 #dg1 ,san ,francisco is situat$ on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,cali=nia1 at ! nor!rn end ( a p59sula1 "s tw5ty miles 9 l5g? & ab\t six miles 9 wid?4 ,?is p59sula is =m$ by ! magnific5t ,bay ( ,san ,francisco on ! ea/1 a navigable /rait call$ ! ,gold5 ,gate on ! nor?1 & ! ,pacific ,ocean on ! we/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,map ,,( ,,we/]n ,,coa/ ,,( ,,cali=nia ,,%[+ ,,position ,,( ,,san ,,francisco ,san ,francisco ,bay1 accessible by ! ,gold5 ,gate1 is ! pr9cipal h>bor on ! ,pacific ,coa/1 & is1 inde$1 "o ( ! mo/ magnific5t h>bors 9 ! _w4 ,x is l&-lock$1 t is1 surr\nd$ by a cont9u\s l& bord] except at its entrance ?r\gh ! ,gold5 ,gate4 ,includ+ ,san ,pablo ,bay1 x has a l5g? ( ab\t fifty-five miles1 & v>ies 9 bread? f ?ree to twelve miles4 ,! entrance to ! h>bor1 h[ev]1 is imp$$ by a b> across ! m\? ( ! ,gold5 ,gate1 ov] :i* !re is a dep? ( b ?irty feet ( wat] at l[ tide4 ,san ,francisco has ov] #gej miles ( /reets1 #bjj miles ( :i* are pav$4 ,! city is light$ by bo? electricity & gas1 & has an ext5sive sy/em ( wat]-works1 ! wat] be+ br\ght f ! ,pil>citos & ,calav]as ,creeks1 situat$ f tw5ty to =ty miles respectively f ! city4 ,san ,francisco is 9 a region :]e e>?quakes are common4 ,x might1 !re=e1 be visit$ at any "t by a great cata/rophe4 ,!re h occurr$ betwe5 #ahej & #ahhh1 no less ?an #bed e>?quake %ocks 9 ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia1 ^! %ocks hav+ be5 especially frequ5t 9 ! c\ntry surr\nd+ ,san ,francisco ,bay4 ,! mo/ sev]e 7 ! e>?quake ( #ahfh1 :i* injur$ ,san ,francisco2 ! ,ow5s ,valley e>?quake ( #ahgb2 ! ,vacaville e>?quake ( #ahib2 ! ,m>e ,isl& e>?quake ( #ahih2 & a small] e>?quake 9 #aijj4 ,s9ce #aijj !re 0 a p]iod ( re/ until ! #ah? ( ,april1 #aijf4 ,z 9 ! case ( practically all sev]e e>?quakes1 t :i* de/roy$ ,san ,francisco consi/$ ( a few mom5t>y %ocks3 !n all 0 ov]4 ,accord+ to a prelim9>y report ( ! ,/ate ,e>?quake ,commission1 appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nor ( ,cali=nia1 ,april #ba/1 #aijf1 ^! %ocks1 z record$ 9 ! obs]vatory at ,b]keley1 began at twelve m9utes & six seconds aft] five ,a4 ,m41 ,pacific ,/&>d ,"t4 ,_! entire duration 0 only "o m9ute & fifty seconds1 b1 z frequ5tly happ5s1 !re 7 a numb] ( m9or %ocks1 foll[+ at regul> int]vals dur+ ! next few h\rs z well z ! next few days4 ,:ile ! mo/ sev]e %ocks 7 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,p59sula ( ,san ,francisco1 yet m9or di/urbances 7 felt z f> nor? z ,coos ,bay1 ,oregon1 & z f> s\? z ,los ,angeles1 ,cali=nia4 ,z %[n by record+ in/rum5ts at ! seismograph /ation at ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 ,sitka1 ,alaska2 ,potsdam1 ,g]many2 & ,tokio1 ,japan1 a s]ies ( waves 7 propagat$ ?r\gh ! e>?1 z well z ov] its p]iph]y4 ,! damage done )9 ! city limits 0 wide-rea*+4 ,among ! build+s almo/ completely de/roy$ 7 ! ,city ,hall1 on :i* ab\t #g1jjj1jjj _h be5 exp5d$1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,po/ ,(fice1 besides _m bus9ess blocks1 hotels1 dep>tm5t /ores1 !atres1 banks1 *ur*es1 & dwell+ h\ses4 ,amid ! t]rors ( su* a calamity x is difficult to obta9 obs]vations possess+ any sci5tific value4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 !re 0 9 ! city a physici/ tra9$ to obs]ve ph5om5a ( ?is "*1 ,pr(essor ,george ,davidson ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 ,l o!rs1 he _h be5 awak5$ by ! fir/ sev]e %ock4 ,at once recogniz+ ! nature ( ! ph5om5on1 & desir\s ( obta9+ ! exact "t ( its occurr5ce1 he c\nt$ seconds :ile he ran t[>ds ! table on :i* he _h plac$ 8 wat*1 & 9 ?is way e/imat$ t ! %ock occurr$ at twelve m9utes pa/ five 9 ! morn+4 ,! clos5ess ( ?is obs]vation is emphasiz$ by ! fact t x diff]$ f ! record$ "t by only six seconds4 ,he /ates t ! motion1 at ! "t ( its greate/ int5sity1 closely resembl$ t ( a rat vigor\sly %ak5 by a t]ri]4 ,! de/ruction caus$ by ! e>?quake 01 h[ev]1 b a small "p ( ! total loss to ! city4 ,fires 7 almo/ imm$iately />t$ 9 ! ru9$ h\ses by ! fires 9 ! kit*5s & o!r p>ts ( ! h\ses1 by ! ignit$ jets ( ! illum9at+ gas1 &1 p]haps1 especially1 by ! cross+ ( num]\s electric light wires4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! woodwork & o!r combu/ible mat]ials ( ! build+s 7 loosely toss$ toge!r by ! %ocks help$ ! quick spread ( ! fires1 & ?is1 too1 0 probably greatly aid$ by ! illum9at+ gas f ! brok5 gas pipes & ma9s4 ,eight sev]e conflagrations 71 !re=e1 soon rag+ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! doom$ city4 ,:at made ^! fires especially dang]\s 0 ! fact t ! e>?quake %ocks _h de/roy$ ! wat] pipes4 ,?us ! firem5 7 h&icapp$ 9 _! h]oic endeavors to ext+ui% ! flames4 ,at ! "t ( ! fire a /rong w9d 0 bl[+ f ! nor!a/4 ,s9ce ! firem5 7 unable to *eck ! flames1 ! fire l9e rapidly advanc$4 ,its pa? l$ t[>ds ! be/ resid5tial p>ts ( ! city ?r\gh portions ( ! mission section conta9+ a d5se population ( poor p4 ,! dwell+s 9 ?is latt] section consi/$ ( frame h\ses1 ?r\gh :i* ! flames rapidly spread4 ,!re 0 b "o way to save ! city f total de/ruction--a free use ( dynamite6 ,?is 0 intellig5tly employ$ until ! supply gave out1 :5 x seem$ t ! city 0 doom$ to utt] de/ruction4 ,b at ! la/ mom5t1 z x 71 came a lucky *ange 9 ! direction ( ! w9d4 ,in/ead ( bl[+ f ! nor!a/1 ! /eady s\?we/ w9ds set 91 & beat back ! fire on itself1 s by ,friday1 ! #ah? be+ ,w$nesday1 x 0 "u complete control & ! re/ ( ! city 0 sav$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,san ,,francisco ,,pavem5t ,,torn ,,by ,,! ,,e>?quake ,f a ,/]eograph1 ,copyright1 #aijf1 by ,und]wood ,und]wood ,! ext5t ( ! fire is ?us describ$ 9 an article 9 ! ,outlook1 = ,saturday1 ,april #bh?1 #aijf1 z foll[s3 ,! turn 9 ! direction ( ! fire endang]$ = a "t ! great ,f]ry ,h\se1 at ! foot ( ,m>ket ,/reet4 ,:ile ! section actually de/roy$ is n1 geographically speak+1 mu* m ?an "o-?ird ( ! city limits1 yet x is 9 ! he>t ( ,san ,francisco1 & includes ! *ief bus9ess /reets & ! ,mission ,di/rict1 inhabit$ by poor p1 & a l>ge "p ( ! s-call$ ,nob ,hill ,qu>t]1 :]e 7 ! f9e/ & co/lie/ resid5ces ( ! city4 ,ano!r f9e resid5ce section1 ,civic ,heights1 escap$1 toge!r ) t kn[n z ! ,we/]n ,di/rict4 ,! unburn$ di/rict1 ?\gh l>ge 9 ext5t1 0 9 ! nature ( suburbs1 & 0 n closely built up1 s t e/imates made1 z late z ,saturday1 decl>$ t ?ree-f\r?s ( ,san ,francisco's improvem5ts 9 real e/ate _h be5 de/roy$4 ,! burnt di/rict 0 ab\t two miles f ea/ to we/ & f two to f\r miles f nor? to s\?1 )1 ( c\rse1 v irregul> outl9es4 ,naturally1 ! great de/ruction wr\ght by ! e>?quake ( ,april #ah?1 #aijf1 attract$ ! almo/ univ]sal att5tion ( sci5tific m5 especially int]e/$ 9 e>?quake ph5om5a4 ,we are1 !re=e1 able to speak au?oritatively ab\t ! probable causes4 ,! great ,san ,francisco e>?quake ( ,april #ah?1 #aijf1 appe>s to h be5 a tectonic quake4 ,ransome1 9 an article entitl$1 ,! ,probable ,cause ( ! ,san ,francisco ,e>?quake1 says3 ,! region ?us amply fulfils ! conditions "u :i* tectonic e>?quakes arise4 ,x is 9 un/able equilibrium1 & x is cut by long nor?we/ faults into n>r[ blocks :i* are 9 turn trav]s$ by _m m9or dislocations4 ,"u ! op]ation ( ! unkn[n =ces ( elevation & subsid5ce1 /resses are set up :i* f9ally ov]come ! adhesion ( ! oppos+ walls ( "o or m ( ! fault fissures2 an abrupt slip ( a few in*es1 or a few feet1 takes place & an e>?quake results4 ,! region ext5d+ = "s hundr$s ( miles nor? & s\? ( ! ,bay ( ,san ,francisco may be consid]$ z p>ticul>ly susceptible to %ocks on acc\nt ( ! numb] & magnitude ( ! faults & ! evid5ces t ^! furni% ( v rec5t slipp+s & ! m>k$ subsid5ce 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ,gold5 ,gate4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix ,,"s ,,o!r ,,notable ,,e>?quakes ,x w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be impossible )9 ! limits ( ?is book to attempt a description ( all ! rem>kable e>?quakes 9 ! annals ( sci5ce2 b be=e leav+ ?is "p ( ! !me a brief acc\nt ( a few m among ! _m may be wor? :ile4 ,jamaica1 "o ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s1 ab\t n9ety miles s\? ( ,cuba1 suff]$ a v de/ructive e>?quake 9 #afib4 ,dur+ ?is e>?quake ! gr\nd 0 agitat$ l ! waves ( ! sea4 ,^! movem5ts 7 s viol5t t num]\s fissures 7 made 9 ! gr\nd1 z _m z #cjj be+ =m$ at ! same "t1 rapidly op5+ & clos+4 ,_m ( ! inhabitants 7 swall[$ up 9 ^! fissures4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 _! bodies 7 aft]w>d ?r[n out ( ! fissures1 along ) quantities ( wat]4 ,! ,jamaican e>?quake 0 *>act]iz$ by m>k$ s9k+s ( ! gr\nd4 ,at ! city ( ,port ,royal1 :i* 0 !n ! capital1 _m h\ses on ! h>bor side sank 9 f tw5ty-f\r to =ty-eight feet ( wat]4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! e>?quake at ,cut*1 _m ( ^! h\ses 7 left /&+1 ! *imney tops ( "s be+ se5 above ! wat]1 ) _! f\ndations & o!r p>ts app>5tly un9jur$1 & "s ( !m 7 /&+ at a date z late z #aghj4 ,at a little lat] date1 #agic1 !y 7 mo/ly ru9s4 ,dur+ ! ,jamaican quake a tract ( l& conta9+ at lea/ #a1jjj acres ne> ! t[n 0 sunk1 & a wave ( ! sea roll$ ov] x4 ,?is wave is said by ,lyell to h c>ri$ a frigate ov] ! ro(s ( ! h\ses & left x /r&$ on "o ro(4 ,:5 ! wave roll$ back to ! sea1 ! weight ( ! frigate made x fall ?r\gh ! ro(4 ,p]haps "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ?+s ab\t ! ,jamaican e>?quake 0 ! swall[+ up ( sev]al plantations1 :i* disappe>$1 toge!r ) all _! inhabitants1 _! =m] place becom+ a lake4 ,b ! lake soon disappe>$1 leav+ a mass ( s& & gravel :i* oblit]at$ any lea/ sign t dwell+s & trees _h once adorn$ ! spot4 ,! =ces develop$ dur+ ?is e>?quake 7 suffici5tly p[]ful to make sev]al r5ts 9 ! ,blue ,m\nta9s1 & ! %ock ( bl[s on ! wat]s ( ! sea kill$ fi% by ! hundr$ ?\s&s s t ! silv] %9e ( _! dead bodies /ret*$ = miles & 0 beheld = days on ! face ( ! deep4 ,portions ( ! _w t h be5 frequ5tly visit$ by mighty e>?quakes1 are ! coa/s ( ,*ile4 ,on ! #bd? ( ,may1 #agea1 a "p ( ! ,*ilian coa/ ne> ! anci5t t[n ( ,concepcion1 sometimes call$ ,p5co1 0 de/roy$ by an e>?quake1 & ! p[]ful e>?quake waves t aft]w>ds ru%$ 9 f ! sea4 ,s complete 0 ?is de/ruction t ! anci5t h>bor 0 r5d]$ useless & ! p _h to build ano!r t[n ab\t t5 miles f ! coa/1 s z to be beyond ! rea* ( e>?quake waves f ! sea4 ,ano!r great e>?quake occurr$ on ! coa/ ( ,*ile on ! #ai? ( ,novemb]1 #ahbb4 ,?is %ock 0 felt simultane\sly ov] a di/ance ( #a1bjj miles f nor? to s\?4 ,x rea*$ its greate/ int5sity ab\t #ajj miles nor? ( ,valp>aiso4 ,?is e>?quake caus$ a ris+ ( ! coa/ to a height ( f ?ree to five feet4 ,f c>eful exam9ations x appe>s t ! area ov] :i* a p]man5t elevation ( ! c\ntry took place mu/ h be5 equal to #ajj1jjj squ>e miles1 an area equal to ab\t half ( ! area ( ,france1 & five-six?s t ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4 ,if we suppose1 says ,dana1 ! elevation to h be5 only ?ree feet on an av]age1 x w be se5 t ! mass ( rock add$ to ! cont95t ( ,am]ica by ! movem5t1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! mass previ\sly bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 & aft] ! %ock1 p]man5tly above x1 mu/ h conta9$ fifty-sev5 cubic miles 9 bulk2 :i* w\ld be suffici5t to =m a conical m\nta9 two miles high 7or ab\t z high z ,etna7 ) a circumf]5ce at ! base ( ne>ly ?irty-?ree miles4444 ,assum+ ! ,great ,pyramid ( ,egypt1 if solid1 to weigh 9 accordance ) ! e/imate be=e giv5 #f1jjj1jjj tons1 we may /ate t ! rock add$ to ! cont95t by ! ,*ilian e>?quake w\ld h equall$ m ?an #ajj1jjj pyramids4 ,b x mu/ always be borne 9 m9d t ! weight ( rock "h allud$ to con/itut$ b an insignificant "p ( ! :ole am\nt :i* ! volcanic =ces _h to ov]come4 ,! ?ickness ( rock betwe5 ! surface ( ,*ile & ! subt]ranean foci ( volcanic action may be _m miles or leagues deep4 ,say t ! ?ickness 0 only two miles1 ev5 !n ! mass :i* *ang$ place & rose ?ree feet1 be+ #bjj1jjj cubic miles 9 volume1 mu/ h exce$$ 9 weight #cfc1jjj1jjj pyramids4 ,! %ocks ( ?is e>?quake cont9u$ f ! "t ( its occurr5ce1 on ,novemb] #ai?1 #ahbb1 to ! end ( ,septemb]1 #ahbc1 & ev5 !n !re 7 sc>cely two days t pass$ )\t a %ock4 ,on ! #bj? ( ,febru>y1 #ahce1 ! same "p ( ! _w 0 9 ! ?roes ( an e>?quake t 0 felt ne>ly #a1jjj miles f nor? to s\?1 or f ne> ! t[n ( ,concepcion to ! ,isle ( ,*iloe1 & f ea/ to we/ a di/ance ( ab\t #ejj miles1 f ,m5doza to ! isl& ( ,juan ,f]n&ez1 :i* y probably "k bett] z ,rob9son ,crusoe's ,isl&4 ,by ?is e>?quake ! new t[n ( ,concepcion & sev]al o!r t[ns 7 p>tly de/roy$4 ,!re 7 ! same ph5om5a connect$ ) great sea waves t are common 9 e>?quakes ( ?is "*4 ,bo? ?is & ! prec$+ e>?quakes probably began on ! b$ ( ! ocean at "s di/ance f ! coa/2 =1 9 ! la/ e>?quake1 ! sea retir$ f ! ,bay ( ,concepcion & vessels 7 gr\nd$ t _h be5 an*or$ 9 sev5 fa?oms ( wat]4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds waves f sixte5 to tw5ty feet 9 height ru%$ 9 f ! ocean & swept ov] ! l&4 ,x is int]e/+ 9 ?is connection to note t ! volcanoes ( ! ,*ilian ,&es 7 9 an unusual /ate ( activity be=e1 dur+1 & aft] ! e>?quake4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ( ?is quake 0 ! great numb] ( sev]e %ocks4 ,betwe5 ! day ( ! fir/ great %ock2 i4 e41 on ,febru>y #bj?1 #ahce1 & ,m>* #d?1 !re 7 m ?an #cjj sev]e %ocks4 ,9 ?is z 9 ! prec$+ quake a notable elevation ( ! l& ne> ! coa/ occurr$1 am\nt+ to f f\r to five feet1 & a "p ( ! b$ ( ! ocean ne> ! coa/ 0 rais$ p]man5tly above ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 ! description ( ! explosive eruption ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahhc1 ! fact 0 not$ t ! isl& ( ,java is v frequ5tly visit$ by e>?quakes4 ,"h a t]ribly sev]e e>?quake occurr$ on ! #e? ( ,janu>y1 #afii4 ,!re 7 no less ?an #bjh %ocks ( great int5sity4 ,consid]able prop]ty 9 ! city ( ,batavia 0 de/roy$1 & a neighbor+ riv]1 t has its head wat]s by a volcano ne> ! city1 ran high & muddy & br\ght d[n multitudes ( fi%es t _h be5 kill$1 toge!r ) _m buffaloes1 tig]s1 rh9oc]oses1 de]1 & o!r wild bea/s4 ,sev5 hills bord]+ on ! riv] sank d[n1 damm+ up ! /reams ( ! region & !reby caus+ wide de/ruction f floods4 ,dur+ portions ( ! ye>s #ahaa & #ahab an e>?quake occurr$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley ne> ! t[n ( ,new ,madrid1 ,miss\ri1 at ! m\? ( ! ,ohio ,riv]4 ,^! %ocks cont9u$ almo/ incessantly = sev]al mon?s1 & 7 accompani$ by a s9k+ ( ! gr\nd ov] l>ge areas4 ,?is depress$ area1 kn[n 9 ! neighborhood z ,! ,sunk ,c\ntry1 ext5d$ along ! c\rse ( ! ,:ite ,wat] ,riv] & its tribut>ies = a di/ance ( ab\t eighty miles f nor? to s\?1 & sev]al miles f ea/ to we/4 ,mo/ ( x 0 conv]t$ into a m>%y lake *>act]iz$ by ?\s&s ( subm]g$ trees4 ,! area 0 cov]$ = ! great] "p ) wat] to a dep? ( ab\t ?ree to f\r feet4 ,z ! e>?quake %ocks cont9u$ at int]vals = sev]al mon?s !re 0 an ample opportunity = /udy+ ! peculi>ities ( ! e>? waves4 ,! gr\nd rose & fell l l>ge waves 9 ! sea1 & aft] ! cre/ ( ! waves _h rea*$ great heights1 ! gr\nd bur/1 & ?rew l>ge quantities ( wat]1 s&1 & e>? into ! air4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,,new ,,zeal& ,?r\gh\t ! di/urb$ di/rict !re 7 num]\s depressions kn[n z s9k-holes1 or irregul>ly %ap$ pits1 v>y+ f t5 to ?irty y>ds across1 & hav+ a dep? ( ab\t tw5ty feet4 ,^! 7 =m$ by ! =cible ejection ( l>ge quantities ( wat] mix$ ) s&4 ,new ,zeal& has be5 subject to e>?quake %ocks = a long "t1 ! ye>s #ahbf1 #ahda1 #ahdc1 #ahdh1 & #ahee be+ especially m>k$ by su* visitations4 ,x is a *>act]i/ic ( ! ,new ,zeal& e>?quakes t !y h produc$ a m>k$ *ange 9 ! coa/ l9e4 ,?is 0 p>ticul>ly ! case ) ^? ( #ahdh & #ahee4 ,! #bc;d ( ,janu>y1 #ahee1 an e>?quake occurr$ t 0 mo/ viol5t 9 ! n>r[e/ "p ( ,cook's ,/rait1 a body ( wat] sep>at+ ! two pr9cipal isl&s t con/itute ,new ,zeal&2 or1 z !y are call$1 ! ,nor? ,isl& & ! ,s\? ,isl&4 ,^! %ocks 7 felt at sea by %ips #aej miles f ! coa/4 ,! entire area %ak51 includ+ ! wat]1 has be5 e/imat$ at ?ree times ! area ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,nor? ,isl& a tract ( l& hav+ an area ( #d1fjj squ>e miles is believ$ to h be5 p]man5tly rais$ f "o to n9e feet4 ,! e>?quakes 9 ,new ,zeal& are evid5tly ( ! tectonic type4 ,dur+ t ( #ahdh a r5t or fissure 0 =m$1 :i*1 ?\gh b eighte5 in*es 9 av]age wid?1 yet ext5d$ = a di/ance ( sixty miles 9 a direction p>allel to "o ( ! m\nta9 *a9s4 ,on ! #ca/ ( ,augu/1 #ahhf1 an e>?quake ( consid]able int5sity occurr$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! neighborhood ( ! city ( ,*>le/on1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,! details ( ?is e>?quake 7 c>efully /udi$ by ,major ,dutton ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 & publi%$ 9 ! ,n9? ,annual ,report ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey ( #ahhh4 ,*>le/on is situat$ on a n>r[ tongue ( l& betwe5 ! ,a%ley & ! ,coop] ,riv]s1 ab\t sev5 miles f ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,!re are 9 ?is area num]\s creeks connect$ ) ! dra9age ( ^! riv]s4 ,z ! city limits ext5d$1 ! creeks 7 fill$ 91 =m+ made l&1 all build+s or /ructures erect$ on ?is l& be+ support$ by pil+s4 ,x appe>s t ! po9t at :i* ! e>?quakes />t$ 0 situat$ sixte5 or sev5te5 miles f ,*>le/on4 ,! e>?quake %ock affect$ a l>ge area ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,fig4 #di %[s curv$ l9es call$ isoseismal connect+ places1 hav+ ! same degree ( seismic int5sity4 ,?is map %[s t ^! isoseimals are m>k$ by figures or numb]s f two to t54 ,^! numb]s are ! numb]s ( ! ,rossi-,=el e>?quake scale4 ,!y indicate v>y+ degrees ( int5sity1 beg9n+ f ! lea/ int5se %ock :i* is m>k$ z two & end+ ) ! sev]e/ %ock m>k$ z t54 ,!re is "o degree n m>k$ on ?is map1 ! lea/1 call$ ! micro-seismic %ock4 ,! %ocks !n increase 9 int5sity z foll[s3 ,,ii4 ,extremely feeble %ocks2 ,,iii4 ,v feeble %ocks2 ,,iv4 ,feeble %ocks2 ,v4 ,%ocks ( mod]ate int5sity2 ,,vi4 ,fairly /rong %ocks2 ,,vii4 ,/rong %ocks2 ,,viii4 ,v /rong %ocks2 ,,ix4 ,extremely /rong %ocks2 ,x4 ,%ocks ( extreme int5sity4 ,! mean+ ( ! map pres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ figure w n[ become m app>5t 9 sev]al ways4 ,t portion numb]$ t51 d5ot+ :]e %ocks ( greate/ int5sity h be5 exp]i5c$1 cle>ly indicates ! region j above ! po9t :]e ! e>?quake orig9at$4 ,beyond ?is is a region m>k$ n9e :]e ! e>?quake %ock has decreas$ 9 int5sity to ! next figure on ! ,rossi-,=el scale1 & !n to eight & a half1 sev51 six1 five1 f\r1 ?ree1 & two4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,region ,,affect$ ,,by ,,! ,,*>le/on ,,e>?quake ,,( #ahhf ,! ,*>le/on e>?quake damag$ prop]ty to a consid]able ext5t2 =1 al?\gh comp>atively few build+s 7 completely de/roy$1 a consid]able numb] 7 p>tially injur$1 & _m1 n ?r[n d[n by ! %ock1 _h to be torn d[n 9 ord] to insure public safety4 ,! loss ( life1 =tunately1 0 comp>atively small4 ,dur+ ?is e>?quake a numb] ( op5+s call$ crat]lets 7 made 9 ! gr\nd by ! =cible ejection ( l>ge quantities ( wat] & s&4 ,! empire ( ,japan is ano!r "p ( ! _w p>ticul>ly subject to great z well z frequ5t e>?quake %ocks4 ,al?\gh ,japan is also especially not$ = its volcanic activity1 its e>?quakes are almo/ entirely ( ! tectonic type1 or are due to ! slipp+ ( ! l& at faults 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,mo/ ( ^! quakes occur on ! b$ ( ! ocean on ! sides ( a /eep slope t ext5ds d[n to a v deep "p ( ! ,pacific kn[n z ! ,tusc>ora ,deep4 ,on ! #bh? ( ,octob]1 #ahia1 ,japan 0 visit$ by a great quake1 g5]ally kn[n z ! ,m9o-,ow>o e>?quake1 f ! "n ( ! two prov9ces ( ,m9o & ,ow>o 9 :i* x occurr$4 ,?is e>?quake is correctly reg>d$ z "o ( ! mo/ sev]e 9 ,japanese records4 ,orig9at+1 z x did1 9 a d5sely populat$ section1 x caus$ a great loss ( life & prop]ty4 ,! dea?s rea*$ ab\t #g1jjj1 :ile ! numb] ( h\ses entirely de/roy$ rea*$ ab\t #hj1jjj & ^? p>tly de/roy$ ne>ly #bjj1jjj4 ,! total area m>k$ly affect$ rea*$ #bej1jjj squ>e kilometres1 :ile ! area s5sibly affect$ rea*$ #ijj1jjj squ>e kilometres1 or a little m ?an "o-half ! ,empire4 ,! place at :i* ?is e>?quake />t$ 0 situat$1 n z usual on ! b$ ( ! ocean1 b on ! surface ( ! l&4 ,! fir/ %ock 0 ! /ronge/ & wr\ght ! greate/ havoc4 ,besides ! loss ( life & prop]ty1 ! damage to ! sy/em ( dikes or levees on ! riv] :]e x pass$ ?r\gh ! delta pla9 ne> ! riv]'s m\? 0 heavy1 & s+ul> 9 "s ( its features4 ,9 "o case1 ne> ! city ( ,nagoya1 on ! ,bay ne> ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,niphon1 "o ( ^! levees 0 lift$ & %ift$ bodily m ?an sixty feet f its orig9al position4 ,t ?is quake 0 ( ! tectonic type 0 evid5t f ! great fault t 0 =m$4 ,accord+ to ,davison ?is fault 0 sev5ty miles 9 l5g? & 9 places _h a bread? ( f two to five feet4 ,x ext5d$ f ea/ to we/1 cross+ ! entire wid? ( ! isl&4 ,ano!r great e>?quake 0 t :i* hit nor!a/]n ,b5gal & ,assam 9 ,india on ! #ab? ( ,june1 #ahig4 ,accord+ to ! ,india ,geological ,survey1 by :om a c>eful exam9ation ( ! effects produc$ by ?is quake 0 made1 x 01 p]haps1 ! greate/ quake t ev] happ5$1 n ev5 except+ ! ,lisbon e>?quake4 ,! place :]e ! quake />t$ appe>s to h be5 ( unusual size & irregul>ity ( outl9e4 ,its s\!rn b\nd>y 0 almo/ 9 ! %ape ( a /raight l9e ext5d+ f ea/ to we/ ab\t #bjj miles1 & cov]+ a total area ( ne>ly #f1jjj squ>e miles4 ,ov] all ?is va/ area ! int5sity ( ! %ock 0 exce$+ly sev]e4 ,! total area p]ceptibly %ak5 by ! quake 0 ab\t equal to #a1gej1jjj squ>e miles4 ,t ?is quake 0 ( ! tectonic type became evid5t1 :5 sev]al faults 7 f\nd 9 ! gr\nd aft]w>ds4 ,"s ( ^! ext5d$ twelve miles1 ) a bread? at places z great z ?irty feet4 ,valp>aiso1 or1 z ! "n means1 ,vale ( ,p>adise1 ! second l>ge/ city ( ,*ile & its *ief seaport1 lies ab\t n9ety miles ea/ ( ,santiago1 ! capital1 ) :i* x is connect$ by a railroad4 ,?is beautiful sea city is built at ! base ( a clu/] ( hills ab\t #a1fjj feet above sea level4 ,on ,augu/ #af?1 #aijf1 x 0 visit$ by an e>?quake4 ,!re 7 two di/9ct %ocks4 ,contr>y to g5]al rule x 0 n ! fir/1 b ! second %ock t did ! mo/ damage1 com+ ab\t t5 m9utes aft] ! fir/4 ,z y w see f ! above date ! e>?quake ( ,valp>aiso occurr$ %ortly aft] ! cata/rophe ( ,san ,francisco4 ,9 a g5]al way1 its com+ 0 pr$ict$ by ,dr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,beck] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 on ,april #ai?1 #aijf1 "o day aft] ! ,san ,francisco disa/]4 ,beck] publi%$ an article 9 ! ,new ,york ,tribune1 9 :i* he argu$ t ! sev]e %ock at ,san ,francisco1 hav+ occurr$ on "o "p ( ! e>?quake region ext5d+ ar\nd ! ,pacific1 w\ld probably soon affect o!r portions ( ?is region along ! ,pacific coa/ l9e ( ?is hemisph]e4 ,z at ,san ,francisco fi]ce fires imm$iately />t$ 9 ! ru9s ( ! h\ses1 b ! ,valp>aisans 7 m =tunate 9 hav+ a wat] supply available4 ,!re 7 v _m %ocks foll[+ ! fir/ two ( ?is e>?quake4 ,inde$1 dur+ ,augu/ #af?1 #ag?1 #ah?1 & #ai?1 no less ?an #chj 7 not$4 ,santiago1 situat$ at ! foot ( ! ,&es1 0 also consid]ably damag$ by ! same e>?quake4 ,e/imates1 probably cons]vative1 put ! total ( dead 9 bo? cities at #a1jjj & ! numb] ( p r5d]$ homeless tempor>ily1 at #ajj1jjj4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx ,,sodom ,,& ,,gomorrah ,,& ,,! ,,cities ,,( ,,! ,,pla9 ,! ea/]n bord] ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea or ,syria1 ) t "p ( ,arabia =m+ ! ,s9ai ,p59sula & :i* lies betwe5 ! two nor!rn arms ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 is a region =m]ly *>act]iz$ by extreme volcanic activity4 ,?is region includes ! great] "p ( ! l& promis$1 accord+ to ! ,old ,te/am5t1 to ! ,*ildr5 ( ,israel4 ,?r\gh a l>ge "p ( ?is region fl[s t hi/oric riv]1 ! ,jordan1 until x empties into ! ,dead ,sea1 also call$ ! ,salt ,sea1 ! ,sea ( ! ,pla91 & by "s ,lake ,asphaltites because ( asphalt or bitum5 s abundant on its %ores4 ,?is riv] has its s\rce 9 ! ,m\nta9s ( ,lebanon1 "s di/ance nor? ( ! ,sea ( ,*9n]?1 ,tib]ius1 or ! ,sea ( ,galilee1 :i* empties into ! ,riv] ,jordan4 ,z ! map 9 ,fig4 #ej %[s1 ?is fam\s1 ?\gh small riv]1 fl[s betwe5 ranges ( high hills1 or l[ m\nta9s1 t lie on bo? its ea/]n & we/]n b\nd>ies2 & ^! p>allel ranges ext5d d[n to ! ,gulf ( ,akaba1 :i* =ms ! ea/]n b\nd>y ( ! ,s9ai ,p59sula4 ,! ,sea ( ,galilee1 ! valley ( ! ,jordan & ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,dead ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,akaba1 are all1 = ! mo/ "p1 consid]ably bel[ ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean or ! ,r$ ,sea2 ! ,sea ( ,galilee be+ ab\t #fbf feet & ! ,dead ,sea #acab feet bel[ t l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,,syria ,t ?is c\ntry has be5 ! sc5e ( great volcanic activities is evid5t f ! volcanic rocks f\nd ov] diff]5t portions ( its surface4 ,moreov]1 ! rema9s ( sev]al crat]s are /ill visible4 ,on ! we/]n banks ( ! ,jordan num]\s dikes & /reaks ( basalt occur 9 ! lime/one t cov]s p>ts ( ! region4 ,besides !re are !rmal spr+s ^: wat]s are at a temp]ature1 accord+ to ,daub5y1 ( #aad ,f4 ,!n1 too1 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,dead ,sea1 z well z 9 ! neighborhood ( ! adjo9+ m\nta9 ranges1 !re are quantities ( sulphur & asphaltum or bitum51 :ile on ! ,dead ,sea asphaltum is f\nd float+ 9 suffici5t quantity to be a s\rce ( consid]able rev5ue to ! boatm5 :o collect x4 ,x 0 9 ?is region t ,sodom1 ,gomorrah1 & o!r cities ( ! pla9 7 situat$2 cities s wick$ t ,god utt]ly de/roy$ !m by volcanoes & e>?quakes4 ,volcanic activity 0 evid5tly common 9 ?is l& ( ! ,bible dur+ ! times ( ! prophets ( ,israel2 = 9 _! poetic writ+s are frequ5t ref]5ces to su* ph5om5a--beautiful & maje/ic similes & metaphors d]iv$ f contemplation ( live volcanoes4 ,j]emiah says3 ,behold1 ,i am aga9/ !e1 ,o dev\r+ m\nta91 sai? ! ,"l1 :i* de/roye? all ! e>?2 & ,i w /ret* out m9e h& ^u !e1 & roll !e d[n f ! rocks1 & w make !e a burnt#d m\nta94 ,& !y %all n take ( !e a /one = a corn]1 nor a /one = f\ndations2 b ?\ %alt be desolate =ev]1 sai? ! ,"l4 7,j]4 li1 #be-bf47 ,s1 too1 ! prophet ,isaiah says3 ,oh t ?\ w\ld/ r5d ! heav5s1 t ?\ w\ld/ come d[n1 t ! m\nta9s might fl[ d[n at ?y pres5ce6 ,z :5 ! melt+ fire burne?1 ! fire cause? ! wat] to boil1 to make ?y "n kn[n to ?9e adv]s>ies1 t ! nations may tremble at ?y pres5ce6 ,:5 ?\ did/ t]rible ?+s :i* we look n =1 ?\ came? d[n1 ! m\nta9s fl[$ d[n at ?y pres5ce4 7,is4 lxiv1 #a-b47 ,s1 too1 ! prophet ,nahum says3 ,! m\nta9s quake at him1 & ! hills melt1 & ! e>? is burn$ at 8 pres5ce1 yea1 ! _w1 & all t dwell !re94 ,:o c /& be=e 8 indignation8 ,& :o c abide 9 ! fi]c5ess ( 8 ang]8 ,8 fury is p\r$ d[n l fire1 & ! rocks are ?r[n d[n by him4 7,nahum1 i1 #e-f47 ,let u n[ exam9e briefly ! description ,moses gives ( ! de/ruction ( ,sodom1 ,gomorrah1 & o!r cities ( ! pla94 ,?is de/ruction occurr$ dur+ ! life "t ( ,abraham & 8 nephew ,lot4 ,! record says t ,god told ,abraham ,he int5d$ to de/roy !m because ( _! wick$ness4 ,!n foll[s 9 ! #ah? *apt] ( ,g5esis ! eloqu5t plead+ ( ,abraham = "o ( ! doom$ cities4 ,at ,abraham's e>ne/ plea ,god promises to sp>e ,sodom if fifty righte\s m5 c be f\nd !re94 ,obta9+ ?is respite1 ,abraham repeat$ly asks fur!r m]cy = ! city1 & at la/ receives ! sacr$ promise t ! city %all n be de/roy$1 if b t5 righte\s p c be f\nd !re4 ,an evid5ce ( ! great wick$ness ( ! city is se5 9 ! fact t n ev5 t5 c\ld be f\nd4 ,:]eupon ! ,"l gives notice to ,lot t ! cities 7 doom$ & comm&s ,lot to leave at once ) 8 family4 ,escape = ?y life2 look n beh9d !e1 nei!r /ay ?\ 9 all ! pla92 escape to ! m\nta91 le/ ?\ be consum$6 ,moses describes :at happ5$ z foll[s3 ,! sun 0 ris5 ^u ! e>?1 :5 ,lot ent]$ into ,zo>4 ,!n ! ,"l ra9$ ^u ,sodom & ^u ,gomorrah brim/one & fire f ! ,"l out ( heav52 ,& he ov]?rew ^? cities & all ! pla91 & all ! inhabitants ( ! cities1 & t :i* grew ^u ! gr\nd4 ,b 8 wife look$ back f beh9d him1 & %e became a pill> ( salt4 ,& ,abraham gat up e>ly 9 ! morn+ to ! place :]e he /ood be=e ! ,"l3 ,& he look$ t[>d ,sodom & ,gomorrah1 & t[>d all ! l& ( ! pla91 & beheld1 & lo1 ! smoke ( ! c\ntry w5t up z ! smoke ( a furnace4 7,g54 xix1 #bc-bh74 ,?is is cle>ly ! description ( a volcanic eruption1 = ?r\gh\t ! ,bible ?+s are describ$ z !y appe> to be4 ,:5 ,moses speaks ( brim/one & fire be+ ra9$ ^u ,sodom & ,gomorrah out ( heav51 he is describ+ ! ph5om5on z x w\ld appe> to "o look+ at x4 ,( c\rse1 we "k t 9 volcanic eruptions su* ?+s come to ! e>? ?r\gh ! crat] ( ! volcano4 ,! lava is ?r[n high into ! air1 & ! h>d5+1 b /ill r$ hot1 a%es1 ra9 d[n on ! e>? f ! a% cl\d t =ms ov] ! m\nta94 ,b1 look$ at f a di/ance !y appe> to fall or be ra9$ d[n f ! skies4 ,9 exactly ! same way1 ,livy1 ! ,roman hi/orian1 tells ab\t %[]s ( /ones t fell f heav5 on ,mt4 ,albano ne> ,rome = two :ole days dur+ ! second ,punic ,w>4 ,s1 too1 ev5 ,pl9y1 :o _h "s pret5sions to be consid]$ a naturali/1 9 describ+ ! appe>ance ( ,mt4 ,vesuvius dur+ ! t]rible eruption ( ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 :5 ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii 7 de/roy$1 speaks ( ! r$ hot /ones & a%es z fall+ f above4 ,s1 9 reality1 !y did1 al?\gh1 z 9 ! case ( ! cities ( ! pla91 ! mat]ials =m+ ! cl\d came f ! crat] ( ! volcano bel[4 ,z to brim/one fall+ f ! sky1 ?is is by no means an unusual occurr5ce dur+ _m volcanic eruptions1 s9ce sulphur is a common mat]ial1 (t5 ?r[n out ( ! crat]s ( "s volcanoes4 ,note also ! /atem5t t1 :5 ,abraham rose e>ly 9 ! morn+ & look$ t[>d ! place :]e ,sodom & ,gomorrah /ood1 he saw ! smoke ( ! c\ntry g up l ! smoke ( a furnace4 ,?is 01 probably1 ! smoke caus$ by ! burn+ ( ! city1 or ev5 by ! de/ruction ( ! crops 9 _! fields1 :5 ignit$ by ! fall+ r$ hot a%es4 ,x might also h be5 p>tly due to ! burn+ ( asphalt ?r[n out f ! fissures 9 ! gr\nd1 or to ! %[]s ( volcanic a%es t fell f ! cl\d =m$ dur+ ! eruption4 ,t ! cities !re 7 de/roy$ by a volcano f> 9 ! pa/ appe>s f ?+s outside ( ! ,bible prop]2 = ,/rabo1 ! ,greek geograph]1 ref]s to ,jewi% traditions t ?irte5 fl\ri%+ cities 7 swall[$ up by a volcano1 & ?is f9ds fair corroboration 9 ! ru9s along ! we/]n bord]s ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,a writ] ref]r+ to ^! eruptions says3 ,! eruptions !mselves h ceas$ long s9ce1 b ! effects1 :i* usually succe$ !m1 /ill cont9ue to be felt at int]vals 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! coa/ 9 g5]al is subject to e>?quakes1 & hi/ory notes sev]al :i* h *ang$ ! face ( ,antio*1 ,laodicea1 ,tripoli1 ,b]ytus1 ,tyre1 & ,sidon4 ,9 #agic !re happ5$ "o :i* spread ! greate/ ravages4 ,x is said to h de/roy$ 9 ! valley ( ,balbec upw>ds ( #bj1jjj p]sons4 ,att5tion has already be5 call$ to ! fact t ! valley ( ! ,jordan occupies a depress$ or sunk5 region f> bel[ ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,r$ ,seas4 ,x is ! belief ( "s geologi/s t ?is depression 0 caus$ by an e>?quake :i* accompani$ ! volcanic eruption t de/roy$ ,sodom & ,gomorrah & ! cities ( ! pla94 ,inde$1 "s cont5d t ! pres5t site ( ! valley ( ! ,jordan1 includ+ ! ,sea ( ,tib]ius & ! ,dead ,sea1 is a great fissure t 0 made 9 ! lime/one ( ! valley dur+ ! "t ( t e>?quake4 ,x w\ld appe> f ! peculi> geography ( ?is section ( c\ntry t ! ,jordan ,riv] has n always empti$ into ! ,dead ,sea1 b t be=e ! "t ( ! de/ruction ( ! ,cities ( ! ,pla9 ! great] "p ( ! c\ntry n[ occupi$ by ! ,dead ,sea 0 a f]tile valley1 & ! ,jordan empti$ directly into ! ,r$ ,sea at ! ,gulf ( ,akaba2 t dur+ ! di/urbance ?r\gh *anges 9 ! valley1 or possibly by a lava /ream fl[+ across a portion ( ! b$ ( ! l[] ,jordan1 or ev5 by a huge accumulation ( /ones or a%es ?r[n out f a neighbor+ volcano1 ! dis*>ge ( ! riv] into ! ,r$ ,sea 0 cut (f1 & t 9 ?is way ! wat]s ( ! riv]s began to accumulate & to fl[ ov] ! pla91 ?us =m+ ! bas9 ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 acc\nt+ = ! saltness ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,!re are l>ge quantities ( salt1 & salty matt]s g5]ally1 9 ! volcanic rocks ( ! region1 b1 ev5 if ?is 7 n s1 :5 a riv] empties into a lake ) no outlet to ! sea1 & :i* !re=e loses its wat] by evaporation only1 ! wat] w gradually become v salt1 s9ce ! rema9+ wat]s ( su* a lake conta9 m or less salt1 :ile ! wat] !y lose by evaporation conta9s none4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,dead ,sea are v salt1 b n ! salte/ 9 ! _w4 ,9 e #ajj p\nds ( ,dead ,sea wat] tw5ty-f\r p\nds consi/ ( salty matt]s4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,great ,salt ,lake1 9 ,utah1 conta9 eighte5 p] c5t ( salty matt]s4 ,lake ,van1 9 ea/]n ,turkey1 is1 p]haps1 ! salte/ lake on e>?1 x conta9+ no less ?an ?irty-?ree p\nds ( salty sub/ances 9 e #ajj p\nds ( wat]4 ,daub5y1 an au?ority on volcanoes1 & q compet5t to give an op9ion conc]n+ :at is possible 9 ?is l9e1 describes :at he believes took place1 z foll[s3 ,briefly !n to recapitulate ! tra9 ( ph5om5a by :i* ! de/ruction ( ! cities might h be5 br\ght ab\t1 ,i w\ld suppose t ! ,riv] ,jordan1 prior to t ev5t1 cont9u$ its c\rse tranquilly ?r\gh ! great longitud9al valley1 call$ ,el ,arabah1 into ! ,gulf ( ,akaba2 t a %[] ( /ones & s& f "s neighbor+ volcano fir/ ov]:elm$ ^! places2 & t its eruption 0 foll[$ by a depression ( ! :ole ( ! region1 f "s po9t app>5tly int]m$iate betwe5 ! lake ( ,tib]ius & ! m\nta9s ( ,lebanon1 to ! wat]%$ 9 ! p>allel ( #cj1 :i* occurs 9 ! valley ( ,el ,arabah above-m5tion$4 ,i w\ld !nce inf] t ! wat]s ( ! ,jordan1 p5t-up )9 ! valley by a range ( m\nta9s to ! ea/ & we/1 & a b>ri] ( elevat$ table-l& to ! s\?1 c\ld f9d no outlet1 & consequ5tly by degrees =m$ a lake 9 its mo/ depress$ portion1 :i*1 h[ev]1 did n occur at once1 & !re=e is n record$ by ,scripture z a "p ( ! cata/rophe1 ?\gh ref]5ce is made 9 ano!r passage ( its exi/5ce 9 :at 0 be=e ! valley ( ,siddim4 ,z reg>ds ! turn+ ( ,lot's wife into a pill> ( salt1 ,h5d]son1 :o has c>efully /udi$ ?is "p ( ! c\ntry1 rem>ks3 ,h[ natural is ! incru/ation ( 8 wife on ?is hypo!sis6 ,rema9+ 9 a l[] "p ( ! valley1 & look+ ) a wi/ful eye t[>ds ,sodom1 %e 0 surr\nd$1 ere %e 0 aw>e1 by ! lava1 :i* ris+ & swell+1 at l5g? rea*$ h]1 & 7:il/ ! volcanic effluvia depriv$ h] ( life7 incru/$ h] :]e %e /ood1 s t be+1 z x 71 embalm$ by ! salso-bitum9\s mass1 %e became a conspicu\s beacon & admonitory example ( future g5]ations4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi ,,in/rum5ts ,,= ,,record+ ,,& ,,measur+ ,,e>?quake ,,%ocks ,to attempt by ! unaid$ s5ses a det]m9ation ( ! direction 9 :i* e>?quake %ocks rea* any c]ta9 spot1 ! velocity ) :i* !y are travell+1 _! degree ( int5sity1 _! g5]al "*1 :e!r horizontal or v]tical1 or any peculi>ities :i* might %[ !m to be exceptional w\ld be futile = m reasons ?an "o4 ,ev5 a skill$ sci5tific obs]v]1 famili> ) :at has already be5 discov]$ & eag] to discov] m1 might 9 ! excitem5t ( an e>?quake become s excit$ himself z to make him unable to take reliable obs]vations4 ,b human +5uity has succe$$ 9 devis+ delicate in/rum5ts capable ( record+ n only ! exact "t ( ! arrival ( an e>?quake %ock1 b also ( measur+ ! diff]5t p>ts ( :at may seem to be a s+le %ock1 ! direction 9 :i* ! %ocks rea* ! place1 z well z ! v>iations ( int5sity 9 all ! %ocks4 ,crude in/rum5ts to d "s ( ^! ?+s h be5 9 use f v e>ly times4 ,accord+ to ,mallet among ! m important ( ^! e>ly in/rum5ts 0 ! foll[+3 ! in/rum5t ( ,cacciatore ( ,palm]o4 ,?is consi/$ ( a circul> wood5 di%1 ab\t t5 in*es 9 diamet]1 plac$ horizontally1 & fill$ ) m]cury to ! brim ( eight not*es at equal di/ances ap>t4 ,b5ea? ea* not* 0 plac$ a small cup4 ,on ! passage ( ! e>?quake waves ! vessel1 be+ tilt$ 9 a direction dep5d5t on ! direction 9 :i* ! waves 7 travell+1 w\ld cause "s ( ! m]cury to spill ov] into "o or m ( ! cups1 ?us indicat+ by its am\nt ! int5sity ( ! wave1 & by ! p>ticul> cup or cups t 7 fill$1 ! direction 9 :i* ! waves rea*$ ! place4 ,some:at simil> contrivances 7 ( a vessel p>tly fill$ ) molasses1 or o!r /icky liquid2 or a cyl9drical tub1 ! sides ( :i* 7 *alk$ or :itewa%$ & fill$ ) "s color$ liquid4 ,9 ei!r ( ^! cases1 on ! passage ( ! e>?quake waves1 ! vessels 7 tilt$ & %[$ by ! height ( ! m>ks ! int5sity ( ! waves1 & by ! position ( ! m>ks ! direction 9 :i* ! waves fir/ rea*$ ! in/rum5t4 ,^! in/rum5ts1 ?\gh satisfactory = ! /udy ( e>?quake %ocks a long "t ago1 :5 an e>?quake 0 reg>d$ z practically consi/+ ( b a s+le %ock1 or1 at ! mo/1 ( a v few %ocks1 w\ld be wor?less = ! /udy ( e>?quakes n[1 = x is f9ally kn[n t an e>?quake consi/s ( a s]ies ( _m hundr$s ( vibrations1 diff]+ greatly 9 _! rapidity & int5sity1 & foll[+ "o ano!r 9 a def9ite ord]4 ,! old =ms ( e>?quake in/rum5ts 7 kn[n z seismoscopes4 ,! ^w seismoscope is a comp\nd ^w f ,greek consi/+ ( ! two words1 seism & scope4 ,x means lit]ally any in/rum5t capable ( see+1 or call+ att5tion to1 a seism1 or e>?-%ake4 ,9 o!r words1 a seismoscope is any in/rum5t capable ( call+ att5tion only to an e>?-%ake4 ,( c\rse1 nei!r ( ! rude seismoscopes j m5tion$ w\ld be able to give any valuable indications ( ! successive %ak+s to :i* ! vessel conta9+ ! viscid liquid _h be5 subject$1 s9ce ! liquid w\ld simply be spla%$ a numb] ( times ov] ! same p>ts ( ! vessel4 ,9 ord] to get a record ( ! successive %ocks ano!r =m ( app>atus mu/ be employ$1 a =m kn[n z a seismograph4 ,conc]n+ ! complex "* ( ! app>5tly s+le e>?quake %ock1 ,pr(essor ,milne makes ?is highly int]e/+ & picturesque /atem5t3 ,an e>?quake di/urbance at a /ation f> remov$ f its orig9 %[s t ! ma9 movem5t has two att5dants1 "o :i* prec$es & ! o!r :i* foll[s4 ,! fir/ ( ^! by its *>act]i/ics indicates :at is to foll[1 :il/ ! latt]1 9 a v mu* m pron\nc$ mann]1 w (t5 repeat at def9ite int]vals1 b ) decreas+ int5sity1 ! prom95t features ( :at has pass$4 ,inasmu* z ^! latt] rhy?mical1 b decreas+1 impulses ( ! dy+ e>?quake are m likely to result f reflection ?an f int]f]5ce1 ,i h provisionally call$ !m ,e*oes4 ,!re are _m diff]5t =ms ( in/rum5ts kn[n z seismographs t are capable ( record+ all ( ^! vibrations1 b !re is ?is objection to _! use3 t ! records appe> 9 s tangl$ a =m t x is practically impossible to deciph] or untangle !m4 ,?is fact c be grasp$ by exam9+ ,fig4 #ea1 :i* repres5ts a record ( ?is k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,,complex ,,record ,,( ,,seismograph ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 to employ a modifi$ =m ( in/rum5t call$ a seismomet]1 able n only to record all ! diff]5t vibrations1 b to record !m 9 su* a mann] t !y c be easily recogniz$4 ,fig4 #eb1 = example1 %[s results obta9$ by ! use ( a seismomet]1 9 :i* ! diff]5t vibrations are sep>at$1 & s record$ on a %eet ( pap]1 z to be readily und]/ood4 ,su* a record is call$ a seismogram1 & repres5ts a long di/ance seismogram4 ,"h ! l>ge arr[ indicates ! beg9n+ ( ! record4 ,& h]e91 z c be cle>ly se51 :at w\ld appe> to an obs]v] )\t an in/rum5t only a s+le %ock1 la/+ b ! fraction ( a m9ute1 9 reality consi/s ( ! prelim9>y %ake z repres5t$ 9 ab & bc1 ! pr9cipal %ake1 z repres5t$ at c1 d#a1 d#b1 & d#c1 & ! f9al portions ( ! %ake or ! e*oes ( ,pr(essor ,milne1 z repres5t$ f d#c to e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,,long ,,di/ance ,,seismogram ,except 9 a v g5]al way !re is = pres5t purposes no ne$ ( expla9+ ! con/ruction & op]ation ( ! seismomet] & seismograph4 ,suffice x to say1 !re are _m =ms ( ^! in/rum5ts1 any ( :i* are capable ( record+ ! details ( a pass+ %ock4 ,! mo/ important ?+ 9 ei!r a seismograph or a seismomet] is to obta9 :at is kn[n z a /eady po9t2 t is1 a po9t consi/+ ( "s object or mass t w rema9 practically at re/1 :ile ev]y?+ ar\nd x1 ev5 ! support :i* holds x1 is affect$ by ! e>?quake4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 n v easy to obta9 a /eady po9t1 b x c be done2 & x w be at once compreh5d$ t if a plate or piece ( pap] 7 atta*$ to su* a /eady po9t or mass1 & a p5cil or trac] _h "o ( its ends re/+ on ! plate1 & its o!r end atta*$ to ! support t vibrates ) ! e>?1 a trac+ or record w\ld be drawn on ! plate f :i* ! "* ( ! motion ( ! end ( ! trac]1 &1 !re=e1 ( ! e>?1 w\ld be m>k$ on ! plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,,vic5t9i ,,v]tical ,,p5dulum ,v>i\s devices h be5 employ$ = ! /eady po9ts4 ,! mo/ successful consi/s ( a heavy mass ( lead4 ,fig4 #ec repres5ts a =m ( in/rum5t inv5t$ by ,pr(essor ,vic5t9i ( ,italy4 ,"h ! /eady po9t consi/s ( a heavy lead5 bob1 ( #bjj1 #djj1 or ev5 #ejj kilograms1 susp5d$ by ?ree metallic rods unit$ above by a brass cap1 hung on a /eel wire to a bracket fix$ on ! wall4 ,?is wire may h a l5g? z great z fifty feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,,vic5t9i ,,p5dulum ,,& ,,record] ,fig4 #ed repres5ts ! record+ in/rum5t4 ,"h a trac] is provid$ t is capable ( multiply+ ! motion fifty times1 or ev5 eighty times4 ,a record is trac$ on a %eet ( pap] pass+ ov] a roll] :i* imp>ts a rapid motion to a %eet s z to make sure t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! %ock or vibration w be record$ on sep>ate portions ( ! pap]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii ,,seaquakes ,z e>?quakes are %ak+s ( ! e>?'s cru/ 9 places :]e x is uncov]$ by ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 s seaquakes are ! %ak+s ( ^? portions t lie on ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,mallet po9ts out t ! e>?quake wave may />t ei!r 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95t1 or on ! b$ ( ! ocean2 t ! latt] place is ! m common1 s9ce on ! l& v5ts--rude safety-valves1 z x 71--are provid$ by ! crat]s ( ! volcanoes2 t1 :5 e>?quakes />t on ! ocean b$1 ! impulses are convey$ 9 diff]5t =ms ( waves1 i4 e41 ^? ?r\gh ! solid e>?1 ^? ?r\gh ! wat]1 & ^? ?r\gh ! air1 ) v>y+ s\nds l bell[+s & explosions1 or l ! roll+ ( wagons ov] r\gh roads4 ,to le>n :5 quakes occur on ! sea is a mu* h>d] task1 s9ce on ! l& we c use seismoscopes1 seismographs1 or seismomet]s to indicate1 record1 or measure ! %ak+s ( ! cru/1 :ile on ! sea1 :]e ! wat] is always 9 m or less motion & ! surface s f> f ! ocean's b$ ?is is impossible1 or1 r %all x be said1 has hi!rto be5 f\nd s2 = t ! m9d ( man may surm\nt ?is ob/acle is n impossible to conceive4 ,to detect ! wave produc$ by ! quak+ ( ! b$ ( ! ocean is exce$+ly difficult1 s9ce ^? 9 v deep wat] are flat or possess b a small height4 ,inde$1 9 ! deepe/ p>ts ( ! ocean ?is height is probably to be measur$ only by in*es in/ead ( feet4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! waves advance t[>ds ! %ore !y increase 9 height1 & :5 !y rea* ! %all[s ne> ! coa/1 !y beg9 to curl ov] & break1 ?us creat+ ! enorm\s waves m5tion$ s (t5 z att5d+ great e>?quakes 9 ! ocean4 ,dur+ ! great e>?quake ( ,simoda 9 ,japan1 #ahed1 ! wat]s ( ! bay 7 fir/ greatly agitat$1 & !n retreat$1 leav+ ! bottom b>e 9 places :]e ! wat] 0 =m]ly ?irty feet deep4 ,a wave1 ?irty feet high1 !n ru%$ 9 f ! bay &1 climb+ ! l&1 swept away ev]y?+ 9 its pa?1 cov]+ ! t[n ) wat] to ! tops ( ! h\ses4 ,?is mon/] wave !n rec$$1 b ru%$ back five times4 ,9 #agea1 an e>?quake wave sudd5ly ent]$ ,callao1 ! port ( ,lima1 ,p]u1 s9k+ tw5ty-?ree vessels & driv+ a frigate inl&1 :]e x 0 left high & dry4 ,?is wave ext5d$ across ! ,pacific to ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 a di/ance ( #f1jjj miles4 ,on ! #ac? ( ,augu/1 #ahff1 an e>?quake wave1 t />t$ a %ort di/ance f %ore1 produc$ a numb] ( e>?quake waves sixty feet high t rea*$ ! coa/ ( ,p]u half an h\r aft] ! pr9cipal e>?quake %ock4 ,^! waves rea*$ ,coquimbo1 #hjj miles di/ant1 9 ab\t ?ree h\rs1 & ,honolulu1 on ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 #e1ebj miles di/ant1 9 twelve h\rs1 & ! coa/ ( ,japan1 m ?an #aj1jjj miles di/ant1 on ! next day4 ,le ,conte rem>ks t ^! waves w\ld h encircl$ ! e>?1 _h x n be5 = ! b>ri] int]pos$ by ! ,&es4 ,ano!r great seaquake1 kn[n z ! ,iquiqui seaquake1 dur+ #ahfh 9 ! same neighborhood damag$ sev]ely ! t[ns ( nor? ,*ile & s\!rn ,p]u4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 !re is difficulty 9 readily obs]v+ ! e>?quake waves t =m 9 ! deep ocean1 yet su* is at times ! viol5ce ( an e>?quake t !re is no difficulty 9 detect+ its pres5ce1 ev5 9 deep wat]4 ,dr4 ,rudolph has made a c>eful /udy ( ! evid5ces ( e>?quakes produc$ 9 ! deep sea1 f a c>eful exam9ation ( a great numb] ( ! logs ( %ips4 ,logs1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 are books 9 :i* ! capta9 or comm&+ (fic] makes c>eful entries ( all important happ5+s to ! vessel1 conditions ( ! wea!r & ( ! sea4 ,f ?is s\rce ,dr4 ,rudolph obta9$ consid]able in=mation ( mu* value conc]n+ ^! ph5om5a4 ,i h already call$ y\r att5tion to portion ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean ly+ ne> ! ,equator1 9 ! w>me/ "p ( ! ocean1 betwe5 ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica1 z be+ a region especially liable to subm>9e volcanic %[]s4 ,:ile1 g5]ally speak+1 !re is no?+ 9 ?is region to indicate ! probability ( subm>9e di/urbance1 yet sudd5ly1 if a vessel happ5s to pass directly ov] ! po9t ( orig9 ( ! quake1 !re ensues a great quak+ or quiv]+4 ,loose objects on ! %ip beg9 to %ake & clatt]4 ,noises arise f "s invisible po9t deep d[n 9 ! ocean4 ,! di/urbance gr[s1 ! noises beg9 to resemble di/ant ?und]1 ! %ip trembles & /agg]s z ?\gh x _h /ruck rocks1 & _m believe %e is ab\t to g d[n2 :51 z sudd5ly z x began1 ! commotion ceases1 ! noises /op1 & ! %ip %apes h] c\rse z calmly1 & z gallantly1 z be=e4 ,rudolph gives two excell5t examples ( seaquakes 9 ?is region1 bo? ( :i* 71 d\btless1 due to subm>9e eruptions4 ,on ! #be? ( ,janu>y1 #ahei1 z ! %ip ,flor5ce 0 9 lat4 #j #dh' ,n41 long4 #bi #af' ,w41 ab\t t5 miles ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 f ,/4 ,paul's ,rock1 ! p on bo>d felt a sudd5 %ock t began ) a rumbl+ s\nd l di/ant ?und]4 ,?is la/$ only =ty seconds4 ,! glass & di%es ( ! vessel rattl$ s viol5tly t x 0 fe>$ !y w\ld be brok54 ,! %ak+s 7 s /rong t sev]al objects on ! vessel 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,ev]yone believ$ ! %ip _h /ruck on rocks4 ,! capta9 lean$ ov] ! taffrail 9 ord] to see ! position ( ! reef1 b soon saw t ! vessel _h /ruck no?+1 & in=m$ 8 crew x 0 only an e>?quake %ock4 ,ano!r ( ! log books exam9$ by ,rudolph 0 t ( a %ip 9 ! same "p ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,?is record %[$ t sudd5ly on a morn+1 9 #ahhc1 /range noises 7 he>d t soon increas$ & became n unlike ! fir+ ( great guns or ! peals ( di/ant ?und]4 ,! %ip vibrat$ z if its an*or _h be5 sudd5ly let g1 & at ! same "t a feel+ came ov] all ! crew1 z if !y _h be5 electrifi$4 ,9 "s cases ! vibrations 7 suffici5tly sev]e to ?r[ heavy objects f ! deck1 z appe>s 9 an acc\nt giv5 by a ,fr5* geologi/ ( a quake 9 ! ,m$it]ranean (f ! %ores ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,our %ip 0 ov] ! epic5tre1#e he says1 & 0 s sev]ely %ak5 t at fir/ ! ,admiral fe>$ ! complete de/ruction ( ! corvette4 ,he !n makes ! /atem5t t ! %ocks :i* 7 directly upw>ds 7 s /rong z to ?r[ heavy objects 9 ! air2 = example1 a heavy gun & its c>riage4 ,:ile x is possible1 z ,dutton rem>ks1 t ?is incid5t ( ! heavy gun & c>riage 0 grossly exagg]at$1 yet x %\ld n be =gott5 t 9 ! case ( subm>9e eruptions su* z t :i* result$ 9 ! production ( ! isl& ( ,sabr9a1 an imm5se column ( wat]1 weigh+ probably _m times m ?an a gun & its c>riage1 0 obs]v$ to be %ot high into ! air4 ,:]e ! seaquake is produc$ by a /rong subm>9e volcanic eruption1 !re is a viol5t commotion ( ! wat] itself1 s t a vessel pass+ ov] su* a po9t may be greatly injur$1 &1 inde$1 ev5 de/roy$4 ,su* disa/]s1 h[ev]1 are =tunately exce$+ly r>e4 ,among o!r common effects ( seaquakes is ! de/ruction ( fi% already m5tion$ by ! sudd5 bl[ to ! wat] /unn+ & kill+ !m1 j z ! explosion ( dynamite or o!r high explosives does 9 a lake or pond4 ,! mo/ m>k$ effect1 h[ev]1 ( seaquakes is ! />t+ ( ! great wave on ! coa/s ( cont95ts & isl&s4 ,!re are c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ocean t are especially liable to seaquakes4 ,"s ( ! m important ( ^!1 z %[n by ,rudolph's rese>*es1 are3 ,! region already ref]r$ to 9 ! n>r[e/ p>ts ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean betwe5 ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica almo/ imm$iately "u ! equator4 ,"h !re are two well m>k$ regions4 ,"o is 9 lat4 #a ,n41 long4 #cj ,w41 :]e !re is a subm>9e ridge1 ! tops ( :i* =m :at are kn[n z ,/4 ,paul's ,rock4 ,! ocean "h is v deep1 ! slopes ( ! ridge desc5d+ rapidly4 ,x is on ^! slopes t e>?quakes are v apt to occur j z !y d on ! /eep slopes ( m\nta9 ranges4 ,! o!r region1 call$ by ,rudolph ! ,equatorial ,di/rict1 lies a little fur!r to ! ea/ on bo? sides ( ! equator 9 long4 #bj ,w4 ,x appe>s f ,rudolph's rese>*es t betwe5 #ahde & #ahic no less ?an ?irty-sev5 seaquakes 7 report$ 9 ! logs ( %ips 9 ! neighborhood ( ,/4 ,paul's ,rock1 & betwe5 #agdg & #ahij1 9 ! equatorial di/rict1 !re 7 =ty-n9e seaquakes4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ^! 7 all ! quakes 9 ! regions dur+ ^! times1 s9ce1 ( c\rse1 _m %ocks mu/ h happ5$ t 7 n felt ev5 by vessels 9 ! neighborhood & _m m1 :5 ?is portion ( ! ocean 0 free f any craft4 ,9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic !re is a portion ( ! ocean's b$ kn[n z ! ,we/ ,indies ,deep4 ,"h ! b$ is m>k$ by great dep?s & by _m irregul>ities & is1 !re=e1 a region :]e seaquakes are common4 ,/ill ano!r di/rict is f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,azores4 ,?is is ! region 9 :i* ! ,lisbon e>?quake is believ$ to h />t$4 ,ano!r region :]e seaquakes are common is 9 ! ,pacific along ! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica f ! equator to #de ,s4 lat4 ,"h1 says ,dutton1 especially 9 ! vic9ity ( ! angle :]e ! ,p]uvian & ,*ilian coa/s meet h !y be5 mo/ num]\s & =midable4 ,! h>bors ( ,pisco1 ,arica1 ,tacua1 ,iquiqui1 & ,pisago h be5 repeat$ly subject to ^! de/ructive invasions4 ,!re has be5 consid]able discussion z to ! exact mann] 9 :i* ! e>?quake waves are set up4 ,:atev] be ! cause or causes1 ! action mu/ be sudd51 su* z an upheaval ( ! bottom1 or a collapse ( a l>ge section ( ! ocean's b$1 ) a dropp+ ( a va/ body ( wat]4 ,or1 possibly1 a subm>9e volcanic eruption causes ! wat] to lift sudd5ly "u pressure ( /eam g5]at$ by escape ( ! lava & o!r hot volcanic products4 ,dr4 ,rudolph attributes e>?quake waves to subm>9e volcanic eruptions alone4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 z if ea* "o ( ! o!r ?+s above ref]r$ to might at times be ! direct cause4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,e>?quakes ,e>?quakes may occur at any "p ( ! e>?'s surface1 at any "t ( ! day1 or at any season ( ! ye>1 yet !y are m frequ5t at c]ta9 p>ts1 c]ta9 h\rs1 c]ta9 seasons4 ,s9ce "s e>?quakes are unque/ionably connect$ ) volcanic eruptions1 a map or *>t ( ! volcanoes ( ! e>? w\ld also1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 %[ ! p>ts ( ! e>? t are likely to be visit$ by e>?quakes4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 by f> ! mo/ sev]e e>?quakes are n directly connect$ ) volcanoes1 b are due to sudd5 slips ( fault$ /rata1 a volcanic *>t w\ld necess>ily fail to indicate accurately ! pr9cipal e>?quake regions4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( a map %[+ ! di/ribution ( e>?quakes ov] ! e>?'s surface1 ,mallet adopt$ ! plan ( color+s or t9t+s 9 su* a mann] t ! dep? ( ! colors w\ld repres5t n only ! p>ts %ak51 b also ! relative numb] ( times %ak51 z well z ! int5sity ( ! %ocks4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! dep? ( t9t to be employ$1 ,mallet divid$ e>?quakes into ! foll[+ classes accord+ to _! int5sity3 ,great e>?quakes1 or e>?quakes ( ! fir/ class2 or ^? 9 :i* ! area affect$ is ( great size1 9 :i* _m cities h be5 ov]?r[n1 & _m p kill$1 & p>ts ( ! surface greatly alt]$4 ,int]m$iate e>?quakes1 or ^? 9 :i*1 al?\gh ! area affect$ is great1 yet ! de/ruction ( build+s1 or loss ( life1 has be5 comp>atively small4 ,m9or e>?quakes1 or ^? :i*1 al?\gh capable ( produc+ small fissures 9 ! cru/1 g5]ally leave b few or no traces ( _! occurr5ce4 ,! greate/ di/ance to :i* e>?quake waves ( ! fir/ class ext5d is tak5 by ,mallet z be+ ov] a diamet] ( #a1jhj miles2 ^? ( ! second class ov] a diamet] ( ab\t #cfj miles1 & ^? ( ! ?ird class ov] a diamet] ( ab\t #abj miles4 ,accord+ to ! ,rossi ,=el scale already giv51 e>?quake %ocks are divid$ accord+ to _! relative int5sity into t5 sep>ate classes1 viz43 ,i4 ,! micro-seismic2 ,,ii4 ,! extremely feeble2 ,,iii4 ,! v feeble2 ,,iv4 ,! feeble2 ,v4 ,! mod]ately int5se2 ,,vi4 ,! fairly /rong2 ,,vii4 ,! /rong2 ,,viii4 ,! v /rong2 ,,ix4 ,! extremely /rong2 ,x4 ,%ocks ( extreme int5sity4 ,an e>?quake map prep>$ accord+ to ,mallet's scale w\ld %[ a great] dep? ( color or t9t 9 ! neighborhood ( ! volcanic di/ricts ( ! e>? & especially 9 ! neighborhood ( ! m\nta9 regions1 :]e tectonic quakes are mo/ frequ5t4 ,oceanic areas w\ld be left almo/ unt9t$1 n because e>?quakes d n occur on ! b$ ( ! ocean1 b because ( ! difficulty ( obs]v+ su* e>?quakes at great di/ances f ! l&4 ,s f> f e>?quakes be+ abs5t on ! b$ ( ! ocean x is mo/ probable t !y are m frequ5t !re ?an else:]e4 ,prep>$ 9 ?is way1 ,mallet's map w\ld %[ a prepond]ance ( e>?quakes along ! bord]s ( ! cont95ts1 especially along ! ,great ,circle ( ,fire on ! bord]s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,dutton z well z "s o!rs ass]t t ! ,great ,circle ( ,fire on ! %ores ( ! ,pacific has 9 reality no exi/5ce2 t1 in/ead ( !re be+ a cont9u\s region ( volcanoes1 !re is 9 reality no?+ m ?an a consid]able numb] ( volcanoes arrang$ 9 gr\ps along ! bord]s ( ?is ocean1 b sep>at$ by spaces conta9+ no m>k$ volcanic activity4 ,we d n ?9k ?is a t5able position1 s9ce x is well kn[n t volcanoes lie along great l9es ( fissures at diff]5t po9ts or op5+s :i* are kept op5 by subsequ5t volcanic activity1 :ile ! rema9+ portions are clos$ soon aft]w>ds2 &1 moreov]1 9 p>ts ( ^! s-call$ non-volcanic regions1 !re are probably ext5d$ regions ( ext9ct volcanoes4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,mallet _m maps h be5 made to %[ ! di/ribution ( e>?quakes4 ,among ! be/ ( su* is t by ,m4 de ,montessus de ,ballore4 ,"s idea ( ! great am\nt ( "w requir$ = ! prep>ation ( ,montessus' map may be =m$ :5 "o le>ns t ! catalogue ( e>?quakes collect$ by him = ?is purpose includ$ = ! ye>s #ahhj to #aijj1 #aca1bib quakes4 ,de ,montessus' e>?quake map divides ! gr& divisions ( ! e>? into num]\s sub-divisions1 too num]\s1 inde$1 = ev5 brief description 9 a "w ( ?is k9d4 ,f ! map he ?us labori\sly prep>$ ,de ,montessus drew ! foll[+ g5]al conclusions3 #a4 ,! p>ts ( ! e>? t are mo/ apt to be %ak5 by e>?quakes are ^? :i* possess ! greate/ diff]5ces ( relief betwe5 _! highl&s & l[l&s1 & t 9 su* regions ! mo/ pron\nc$ e>?quakes are f\nd on ! /eepe/ slopes4 #b4 ,e>?quakes are mo/ common along ^? p>ts ( ! cru/ t are ?r[n up 9 huge wr9kles1 or m\nta9 ranges1 :e!r ^! masses be above ! level ( ! sea or are cov]$ by x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,davison',s ,,e>?quake ,,map ,,( ,,japan #c4 ,e>?quakes are m common 9 m\nta9\s di/ricts ?an 9 pla9s4 ,b n all m\nta9s are *>act]iz$ by e>?quakes nor are all pla9s free f !m4 ,sometimes ! pla9 at ! base ( ! m\nta9 appe>s to be especially liable to %ocks1 probably by reason ( slips along faults at ^! po9ts4 ,! great m\nta9 ranges ( ! _w are g5]ally *>act]iz$ by unequal slopes1 ! long g5tle slope fac+ ! int]ior ( ! cont95ts1 & ! %ort1 abrupt slopes be+ turn$ t[>ds ! coa/4 ,n[1 ,montessus po9ts out t volcanoes are ! mo/ frequ5t on ! %ort1 abrupt slopes4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 :]e ! long slopes are ! r\ghe/1 x is ^! slopes t are mo/ frequ5tly %ak54 ,! b$s ( ! ocean t lie along rapidly desc5d+ l9es1 especially :5 !y lie on ! bord]s ( l>ge m\nta9 ranges1 are especially liable to e>?quakes4 ,dr4 ,*>les ,davison has made a map ( ! e>?quakes ( ,japan 9 :i* he _h adopt$ ! plan ( repres5t+ ! orig9 or c5tres ( e>?quakes by a s]ies ( cont\r l9es l ^? employ$ on topographical maps4 ,! advantage ( ?is type ( map ov] t employ$ by ,mallet is j ?is3 ,davison's e>?quake map ( ,japan 9 :i* ! active volcanoes are m>k$ by dots1 & ! e>?quakes by cont\r l9es surr\nd+ ! po9ts ( orig91 discloses ! int]e/+ fact t "h ! positions ( ! volcanoes & ! e>?quake c5tres co9cide1 s9ce ! m\nta9\s di/ricts :]e ! active volcanoes are num]\s are s+ul>ly free f e>?quakes4 ,?is c be se5 f an inspection ( ,fig4 #ee4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,e>?quakes ,e>?quakes occurr$ long be=e man appe>$ on e>?4 ,x is natural1 !re=e1 t our e>ly ance/ors1 exp]i5c+ ^! unwelcome ph5om5a1 vaguely endeavor$ to expla9 _! causes4 ,^! e>ly attempts at explanation h 9 _m cases be5 ( an exce$+ly fanciful "*4 ,! anci5t ,mongolians & ,h9doos decl>$ t e>?quakes are due to our e>? re/+ on a huge frog & t !y occur :5ev] ! frog scrat*es its head4 ,9 ,japan1 :]e e>?quakes are v common1 ! ignorant p ev5 at a mu* lat] day decl>$ t !re exi/s 9 ! dep? ( ! sea an imm5se fi% :i*1 :5 angry1 da%es its head viol5tly aga9/ ! coa/ ( ! isl&1 ?us mak+ ! e>? tremble4 ,?is is1 d\btless1 ! bigge/ fi%-/ory extant4 ,ano!r folk-lore explanation 9 ,japan attributes ! cause ( ! trembl+s ( ! e>? to a subt]ranean mon/] ^: head lies 9 ! nor? ( ! isl& ( ,hondo1 :ile 8 tail lies betwe5 ! two pr9cipal cities4 ,! %ak+ ( 8 tail causes e>?quakes4 ,fanta/ic & fooli% z ^! explanations are1 x is wor?y ( note t ! fir/ ( ! ,japanese explanations %[s no little obs]vation on ! "p ( ! p1 s9ce x locates ! />t+-po9ts ( e>?quakes z be+ n on ! l&1 b on ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 ne>ly all ! great e>?quakes 9 ,japan seem to />t some:]e betwe5 ! coa/s ( ! isl&s on ! sea-bottom t leads d[n to a v deep "p ( ! ,pacific kn[n z ! ,tusc>ora ,deep4 ,_m ye>s ago ne>ly ev]yone believ$ t e>?quakes 7 caus$ solely by ! =ces t produce volcanic eruptions2 t all e>?quakes1 :e!r 9 ! neighborhood ( active volcanoes1 or at great di/ances !refrom1 7 to be reg>d$ solely z volcanic 9 _! orig94 ,x is n[ recogniz$ t ! mo/ sev]e & f>-rea*+ e>?quakes h no imm$iate connection ) volcanic explosions1 b are due to ! sudd5 slipp+s ( ! e>?'s /rata ov] l9es ( faults2 or1 9 o!r words1 e>?quakes are mo/ frequ5tly ( ! tectonic type4 ,at ! pres5t "t !re is un=tunately mu* diff]5ce 9 op9ion z to ! exact cause ( e>?quakes4 ,by ?is is n meant ! imm$iate cause1 b ! ultimate cause4 ,z to ! imm$iate cause1 practically all are agre$ t quakes ( volcanic orig9 are to be trac$ to ! same =ces t produce volcanic eruptions1 :ile quakes ( tectonic orig9 are due directly to ! slipp+ ( ! /rata along ! faults4 ,b :5 inquiry is in/itut$ z to ! nature ( ! =ces t cause ! volcanic eruptions1 or t produce su* an alt]ation ( ! /rata z p]mits !m aft]w>ds to slip & ?us j> ! e>?1 !re is mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,z c be se5 f a few quotations ( well-kn[n au?orities1 only two k9ds ( e>?quakes exi/2 namely1 volcanic e>?quakes & tectonic e>?quakes4 ,dana1 = example1 :ile ackn[l$g+ t small e>?quakes may be caus$ by ! sudd5 fall+ ( l>ge rock masses into cavities 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 says3 ,b true e>?quakes come1 = ! mo/ "p at lea/1 f "o or ! o!r ( ! foll[+ s\rces ( di/urbance4 #a4 ,vapors sudd5ly produc$1 caus+ ruptures & friction4 #b4 ,sudd5 movem5ts or slips along old or new fractures4 ,e>?quakes due to ! =m] ( ^! me?ods are common ab\t volcanoes1 & at ! ,hawaiian isl&s %ak+s t are de/ructive ov] ! isl& ( ,hawaii at ! mom5t ( "s ( ! m viol5t eruptions1 d n (t5 affect ! isl& ( ,oahu1 a dep? ( #ejj fa?oms ( wat]1 ! lea/ dep? betwe5 ! two isl&s1 be+ suffici5t to /op (f ! vibrations4444 ,e>?quakes ( ! second mode ( orig9 may occur 9 all regions1 volcanic or n4 ,!y h _! orig9 mo/ly 9 ! vic9ity ( m\nta9 regions1 :]e old fractures mo/ ab\nd4 ,! vibrations may beg9 9 a slip ( a few in*es1 9 fact2 b :]e !re has be5 a succession ( slips1 up & up f #aj1jjj feet or m1 z 9 ! ,appala*ian1 e>?quakes ( inconceivable volcanic activity mu/ h result$4 ,dana po9ts out t volcanoes /& on l9es ( fractures 9 ! op5+s ( :i* _! exi/5ce began & t1 dur+ geological "t1 slips up or d[n ^! fractures h occurr$1 produc+ e>?quakes & possibly />t+ eruptions4 ,pre/wi*1 a well-kn[n ,engli% geologi/1 speaks v decid$ly conc]n+ ! causes ( e>?quakes3 ,= my own "p1 ,i am dispos$ to %>e ! belief express$ by ,dana t ! t5sion or pressure1 by :i* ! great oscillations or plications ( ! e>?'s cru/ h be5 produc$1 h n entirely ceas$2 & t ?is is g5]ally ! mo/ probable cause ( e>?quakes4 ,! uplift+ ( ! great cont95tal tracts & m\nta9 ranges mu/ h always left ! int]ior ( ! cru/ 9 a /ate ( un/able equilibrium1 & any slight slide or settl+ along an old fracture1 or 9 highly di/urb$ & di/ort$ /rata1 w\ld be att5d$ by an e>?quake %ock4 ,9 volcanic areas ! removal ( ! l>ge volumes ( molt5 rock f ! int]ior to ! surface mu/ produce settlem5ts & /ra9s :i* might also result 9 "s ( ^! m9or e>?quakes to :i* volcanic di/ricts are s subject4 ,:]e we h ! two conditions comb9$1 z !y are 9 ! ,&es 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ^! e>?quake ph5om5a are1 z we %\ld expect1 develop$ on ! gr&e/ & wide/ scale4 ,geikie1 ! ,scot* geologi/1 says3 ,v>i\s conceivable causes may1 at diff]5t times & "u diff]5t conditions1 communicate a %ock to ! subt]ranean regions4 ,su* z ! sudd5 fla%+ into /eam ( wat] 9 ! sph]odial /ate1 ! sudd5 cond5sation ( /eam1 ! explosion ( a volcanic outp\r1 ! fall+ 9 ( ! ro( ( a subt]ranean cavity1 or ! sudd5 snap ( deep-seat$ rocks subject$ to prolong$ & int5se /ress4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ! great ,engli% geologi/1 holds ! foll[+ views conc]n+ ! orig9 ( e>?quakes4 ,he speaks z foll[s 9 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology3 #a4 ,! prim>y cause ( ! volcanoes & ! e>?quakes are to a great ext5t ! same1 & connect$ ) ! developm5t ( heat & *emical action at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! int]ior ( ! globe4 #b4 ,volcanic heat has be5 suppos$ by _m to be ! result ( ! high temp]ature :i* belong$ to ! :ole planet :5 x 0 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 a temp]ature :i* !y suppose to h be5 always dim9i%+ & /ill to cont9ue to dim9i% by radiation into space4444 ,! p[]ful ag5cy ( /eam or aque\s vapor 9 volcanic eruptions leads u to comp>e its p[] ( propell+ lava to ! surface ) t :i* x ex]ts 9 driv+ up wat] 9 ! pipe ( an ,icel&ic geys]4 ,v>i\s gases also1 r5d]$ liquid by pressure at great dep?s1 may aid 9 caus+ volcanic outbur/s & 9 fissur+ & convuls+ ! rocks dur+ e>?quakes4 ,major ,cl>5ce ,edw>d ,dutton1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 an ackn[l$g$ au?ority on seismology1 speaks z foll[s3 ,?us f>1 !n1 we h two causes ( e>?quakes :i* are app>5tly well su/a9$3 7#a7 ! d[n?r[s1 :i* h (t5 be5 obs]v$ to be accompani$ by e>?quakes1 & 7#b7 volcanic action4 ,b nei!r ( !m h be5 %[n to be connect$ ) m ?an a comp>atively small numb]4 ,mu* ! great] "p ( ! e>?quakes /ill require explanation1 & ! indications are manifold t "s ( !m are produc$ by "s cause yet to be /at$4 ,he ackn[l$ges1 h[ev]1 ?is unkn[n cause may be traceable to volcanic ag5cy4 ,to quote him 9 full3 ,x rema9s n[ to ref] to ! possibility t _m quakes ^: orig9 is unkn[n1 or extremely d\btful1 may1 aft] all1 be volcanic4 ,?is mu/ be fully admitt$1 &1 inde$1 x is 9 _m cases highly probable4 ,evid5ces t volcanic action has tak5 place 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>? )\t visible1 p]man5t results on ! surface ab\nd 9 anci5t rock exposures4 ,=mations ( great geological age1 once deeply buri$ & br\ght to daylight by secul> d5udations1 %[ t lavas h p5etrat$ surr\nd+ rock-masses 9 _m a/oni%+ ways4 ,sometimes !y h intrud$ betwe5 /rata1 lift+ or float+ up ! ov]ly+ b$s )\t any indication ( escap+ to ! surface4 ,sometimes ! lava breaks across a s]ies ( /rata & f9ds its way into ! p>t+s betwe5 high] b$s4 ,or x =ces its way into a fissure to =m a dike :i* may nev] rea* ! surface4 ,9 "o place a long arm or %eet ( lava has 9 a mo/ surpris+ & inexplicable mann] ?ru/ itself into ! envelop+ rock-mass1 & 9 ! old] or metamorphic rocks ^! (f%oots or apophyses cross ea* o!r 9 great numb]s & =m a tangl$ network ( intrusive dikes4 ,9 o!r places ! intrud$ lava has =m$ imm5se l5ticul> 7l5se %ap$7 masses 7laccolites71 :i* h dom$ up ! ov]ly+ /rata into m\nta9 masses4 ,^! intrusions1 almo/ inf9itely v>i$ 9 =m & condition1 are (t51 9 fact usually1 inexplicable z me*anical problems1 b _! reality is v\*$ = by ! evid5ce ( our s5ses4 ,:at conc]ns u "h is ! great en]gy :i* !y sugge/ & _! adequacy to g5]ate 9 ! rocks ^? sudd51 ela/ic displacem5ts :i* are ! real initiatory impulses ( an e>?quake4 ,!y assure u t a great deal ( volcanic action has transpir$ 9 pa/ ages f> "u gr\nd1 :i* makes no o!r sign at ! surface ?an ^? vibrations :i* we call an e>?quake4 ,koto1 ! celebrat$ ,japanese /ud5t ( e>?quakes1 & a memb] ( ! ,e>?quake ,inve/igation ,committee appo9t$ by ! ,japanese ,gov]nm5t = /udy+ ! great ,m9o-,ow>o e>?quake1 9 ,japan1 #ahia1 is prop]ly reg>d$ z an au?ority on e>?quakes4 ,liv+1 z he does1 9 a c\ntry :]e e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions are ( almo/ daily occurr5ce1 he has _h abundant opportunity = /udy+ ^! ph5om5a1 especially 9 connection ) ! ,seismological ,in/itute ( ,japan4 ,he speaks z foll[s3 ,to make cle> once = all my own /&po9t1 ,i may say pla9ly t ! *a9 ( volcanoes & ! sy/em ( m\nta9s ( ! non-volcanic e>?quake1 appe> to me to h v intimate & fundam5tal relations ) ! s-call$ tectonic l9e4 ,mallet reg>ds e>?quakes t c be directly traceable to volcanic orig9 z unsuccessful ef=ts on ! "p ( nature to e/abli% volcanoes4 ,he speaks conc]n+ ?is matt] z foll[s3 ,an e>?quake 9 a non-volcanic region may1 9 fact1 be view$ z an uncomplet$ ef=t to e/abli% a volcano4 ,! =ces ( explosion & impulse are ! same 9 bo?2 !y diff] only 9 degree ( en]gy1 or 9 ! v>y+ sorts & degrees ( resi/ance oppos$ to !m4 ,!re is m ?an a m]e vaguely admitt$ connection betwe5 !m1 z h]et(ore commonly ackn[l$g$--"o s vague t ! e>?quake has be5 (t5 /at$ to be ! cause ( ! volcano 7,johnson1 ',phy4 ,atlas1' ,geology1 page #ba71 & m commonly ! volcano ! cause ( ! e>?quake1 nei!r view be+ ! expression ( ! tru? ( nature4 ,!y are n 9 ! relation to ea* o!r ( cause & effect1 b are bo? unequal manife/ations ( a common =ce "u diff]5t conditions4 ,be=e clos+ ?is *apt] on ! causes ( e>?quakes x may be well to /ate briefly ! explanations t h be5 sugge/$ by ^? :o hold t ! e>? is solid & cold ?r\gh\t its entire mass1 except t 9 ! neighborhood ( volcanic di/ricts !re are limit$ areas situat$ only a comp>atively few miles bel[ ! surface :]e ! rocks are highly heat$4 ,pr(essor ,mallet sugge/$ t ! s\rce ( heat = ^! local areas ( melt$ rocks 0 to be f\nd 9 ! enorm\s me*anical =ce t is develop$ by ! cru%+ ( ! /rata 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! pr9cipal objection to ,mallet's !ory is to be f\nd 9 ! fact t1 = ?is heat to be available = ! melt+ ( rocks1 x mu/ be produc$ rapidly1 & n spread out ov] long p]iods ( "t4 ,moreov]1 !re w\ld appe> to be no o!r way to acc\nt = ! production ( ! great =ce requir$ to effect ! cru%+ ( ! e>?'s /rata save on ! assumption ( a highly heat$ int]ior /ill cool+ & contract+4 ,9 8 ,aspects ( ! ,e>? ,%al] has sugge/$ an hypo!sis t may be reg>d$ to a c]ta9 ext5t z expla9+ h[ heat1 sl[ly g5]at$1 might be blanket$1 or prev5t$ f escap+ & s possibly rea*+ a temp]ature suffici5tly high to melt ! mat]ials 9 portions ( ! int]ior n f> bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,we ?us see t 9 ! wat] imprison$ 9 ! deposits ( ! e>ly geological ages & br\ght to a high temp]ature by ! blanket+ action ( ! m rec5tly deposit$ b$s1 we h a suffici5t cause = ! great g5]ation ( /eam at high temp]atures1 & ?is is ! sole ess5tial ph5om5on ( volcanic eruptions4 ,we see also by ?is hypo!sis :y volcanoes d n occur at po9ts remote f ! sea1 & :y !y cease to be 9 action soon aft] ! sea leaves _! neighborhood4444 ,! =ego+ consid]ations make x tol]ably cle> t volcanoes are f$ f deposits ( wat] conta9$ 9 anci5t rocks :i* h become greatly heat$ ?r\gh ! blanket+ effects ( ! /rata :i* h be5 laid d[n ^u !m4 ,! gas :i* is ! only inv>iable elem5t ( volcanic eruptions is /eam2 moreov]1 x is ! /eam ( sea-wat]1 z is prov5 by analysis ( ! ejections4 ,x breaks its way to ! surface only on ^? p>ts ( ! e>? :i* are ne> to :]e ! deposition ( /rata is lift+ ! temp]ature ( wat] conta9$ 9 rocks by prev5t+1 9 fact1 ! escape ( ! e>?'s heat4 ,ano!r v common !ory is t ( *emical action1 or ! heat produc$ by ! oxidation ( v>i\s sub/ances inside ! e>?1 su*1 = example1 z iron pyrites1 a comp\nd ( iron & sulphur4 ,:5 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy discov]$ metallic sodium & x 0 f\nd t ?is mat]ial1 :5 ?r[n on wat]1 possess$ ! p[] ( lib]at+ int5se heat1 ! discov]y 0 welcom$ by geologi/s z af=d+ a possible explanation ( ! cause ( volcanoes & e>?quakes4 ,x may be said g5]ally conc]n+ *emical action z ! s\rce ( ! e>?'s int]ior heat1 t ! *ief objection aga9/ x is ! fact t su* heat is lib]at$ too sl[ly to result 9 ! production ( a v high temp]ature4 ,?is objection does n exi/ 9 ! case ( su* sub/ances z metallic sodium1 s9ce "h ! heat is rapidly develop$ & is suffici5t 9 am\nt to fuse ! sub/ances produc$4 ,b 9 ! lava produc$ 9 su* great quantities z x is 9 volcanic di/ricts !re mu/ be lib]at$ at ! same "t l>ge quantities ( gase\s hydrog54 ,n[1 al?\gh hydrog5 is1 z we h already se51 sometimes giv5 (f ) ! gases t escape f volcanic crat]s1 yet ! quantity :i* escapes is s small t ?is !ory ( volcanic activity has be5 practically ab&on$4 ,q rec5tly1 h[ev]1 among ! v>i\s *emical sub/ances t are produc$ "u ! extremely high temp]atures ( ! electric furnace h be5 f\nd1 or =m$1 a numb] ( curi\s sub/ances su* z calcium c>bide1 calcium silicide1 b>ium silicide1 etc41 t possess ! prop]ty ( becom+ highly heat$ on com+ 9 contact ) wat]4 ,n[ x is an int]e/+ fact t ! hydrog5 & o!r gases :i* are giv5 (f by ! action ( wat] on ^! sub/ances are absorb$ 9 l>ge quantities by ! mat]ials !mselves1 s t ! objection ( ! abs5ce ( hydrog5 & simil> gases 9 ! crat]s ( ! volcanoes w\ld n be q z objectionable z 9 ! case ( su* sub/ances4 ,( c\rse1 x is impossible to say :e!r su* sub/ances z calcium c>bide1 etc41 actually exi/ inside ! e>?'s cru/1 yet1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 ! pr9cipal condition necess>y = _! =mation1 i4 e41 a high temp]ature1 exi/$ at times long aft] ! e>?1 assum+ ! correctness ( ! nebul> hypo!sis1 0 sep>at$ f ! nebul\s sun4 ,!re /ill rema9s to be discuss$ ! mo/ curi\s ( all possible causes t h be5 sugge/$ = ! pres5ce ( ! local heat$ areas at comp>atively %ort di/ances bel[ ! e>?'s cru/2 namely1 radio-activity4 ,9 #ahif1 ,h5ri ,becqu]el1 a ,fr5*man1 :ile inve/igat+ ! p[] ( ! ,x-rays1 :5 pass+ ?r\gh c]ta9 sub/ances1 to produce phosphoresc5ce1 or caus+ ! sub/ances to %9e 9 ! d>k1 made ! extraord9>y discov]y t "s ( ! salts ( uranium possess ! p[] ( emitt+ a peculi> radiation closely resembl+ ! ,x-rays1 t is able to pass ?r\gh sub/ances opaque to ord9>y light z well z to affect photographic plates4 ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y "p ( ?is discov]y 0 t ! salts ( uranium app>5tly possess ! p[] ( giv+ out ?is radiation cont9u\sly )\t be+ expos$ to ! sun's rays4 ,?is peculi> prop]ty 0 call$ radio-activity1 & 0 %ortly aft]w>ds f\nd to be pres5t 9 _m o!r sub/ances besides uranium1 & notably s 9 two newly discov]$ elem5ts kn[n z polonium & radium4 ,n[ x has be5 sugge/$ t if !re exi/$ some:]e b5ea? ! e>?'s cru/ 9 ^! locally heat$ areas1 l>ge quantities ( radio-active sub/ances1 ^! regions w\ld at la/ become highly heat$1 & 9 ?is way likely to produce volcanoes & e>?quakes4 ,x w\ld n1 h[ev]1 seem t ?is is probably _! true cause4 ,f :at has j be5 said x is cle> h[ exce$+ly difficult x has become to expla9 ! s\rce ( ! e>?'s int]ior heat :5 ! fact ( ! e>?'s orig9al highly heat$ condition is d5i$4 ,we are1 !re=e1 dispos$ ) ,russell to believe1 z /at$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ?is volume1 t ! ultimate cause ( bo? volcanoes & e>?quakes is to be f\nd 9 ! gradual cool+ ( an orig9ally highly heat$ globe1 & t ! great] "p ( ! int]ior is /ill 9 a highly heat$ condition1 hot en\gh to be melt$ b yet 9 a solid condition by reason ( ! great pressure to :i* x is subject$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv ,,e>?quakes ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,pa/--,,cataclysms ,!re 7 num]\s volcanoes 9 ! geological pa/2 !re=e1 s9ce volcanic eruptions are g5]ally att5d$ by e>?quake %ocks1 x foll[s t dur+ t remote pa/ ! e>? has be5 viol5tly %ak5 by e>?quakes4 ,inde$1 if we assume1 z we believe to be ! case1 t ! cause ( e>?quakes is correctly to be trac$ to an orig9ally heat$ globe :i* is gradually cool+1 x foll[s t ! e>? 0 necess>ily subject to great e>?quakes almo/ f ! "t :5 x began to cool4 ,b to e/abli% z a fact ! occurr5ce ( an e>?quake at s remote a "t 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory is f> m difficult ?an to detect ! occurr5ce ( a volcano at t "t4 ,:ile ! e>?quake %ocks may produce fissures 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & may be accompani$ by great *anges ( level1 yet ! great "t t has elaps$ betwe5 su* occurr5ces & ! pres5t w\ld p]mit ! v>i\s geological ag5cies t are at "w ei!r to cov] ^! fissures completely1 or completely to remove by erosion1 or 9 o!r simil> ways1 ! rocks 9 :i* !y occurr$4 ,x is diff]5t 9 ! case ( a volcano2 = ! volcanic crat]s are 9 _m cases /ill left /&+1 & !n !re are ! volum9\s %eets ( lava t h spread ov] great areas ( ! e>?1 z well z num]\s volcanic cones4 ,besides1 !re are ?\s&s ( squ>e miles ( surface t h be5 cov]$1 (t5 to great dep?s1 by deposits ( volcanic du/ ?r[n out at "o "t or ano!r f ! crat]s ( ! !n active volcanoes4 ,i am sure y w ackn[l$ge t any =ce capable ( caus+ great cracks or fissures 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 mu/1 :ile do+ ?is1 h produc$ viol5t %ak+s ( ! e>?4 ,great cracks or fissures are to be f\nd 9 ! rocks ( all ! geological =mations4 ,^! are a record ( ! e>?quakes t mu/ h att5d$ ^! convulsions4 ,& !re is pl5ty ( evid5ce to %[ t ! e>?'s cru/ has be5 torn into ^! fissures 9 places deep d[n bel[ ! pres5t surface2 =1 by ! action ( wat]1 _m ( ^! portions h be5 uncov]$ s t ^! great cracks or fissures :i* h be5 aft]w>ds fill$ ) a molt5 rock t has h>d5$ c be se5 9 ! great dikes t /ill rema94 ,b !re are /ill o!r evid5ces ( ! exi/5ce ( e>?quakes dur+ ! geological pa/4 ,!re are f\nd 9 ! diff]5t /rata ( ! e>?'s cru/ fossil rema9s ( ! plants & animals t liv$ on ! e>? long be=e ! creation ( man4 ,by a c>eful /udy ( ^! fossils we "k positively ! k9ds ( animals & plants t liv$ on ! e>?1 9 its wat]s1 or 9 its atmosph]e1 :5 ^! /rata 7 be+ deposit$4 ,x is 9 ?is way possible = a geologi/ to trace ! life ( ! e>? & its developm5t z x is writt5 on ! great book ( :i* ! e>?'s diff]5t /rata =m ! sep>ate pages4 ,n[1 a c>eful /udy ( ! e>?'s fauna & flora dur+ ! geological pa/1 %[s1 beyond any "q1 t occasionally great *anges h occurr$ 9 ! e>?2 =1 "h & !re1 dur+ diff]5t times1 we f9d t c]ta9 species ( animals & plants h completely disappe>$1 to be foll[$1 aft] c]ta9 int]vals1 by entirely diff]5t species4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t *anges h occurr$ t h made x impossible = ! animals & plants t =m]ly liv$ on ! e>? to exi/ "u ! *ang$ conditions4 ,^! occurr5ces are kn[n to geologi/s z ext]m9ations1 cata/rophes1 or cataclysms4 ,!y are also sometimes call$ revolutions1 = !y m>k a m or less complete wip+-out ( ! animals liv+ at ! "t !y occurr$4 ,if y w try to ?9k y w readily und]/& h[ great a cata/rophe mu/ be1 t w\ld be able to wipe out or completely de/roy an entire race ( animals4 ,y h d\btless read ) a/oni%m5t ! t]rible cata/rophe t accompani$ ! eruption ( ,krakatoa1 especially at ! loss ( life & prop]ty caus$ by ! great waves t 7 set up 9 ! ocean1 b f> rea*+ z ^! losses 7 !y h nev]!less affect$ b a limit$ portion ( ! e>?4 ,! pla9 tru? is ev5 m /up5d\s1 = cata/rophes ( ! geological pa/ appe> to h be5 s f>-rea*+ & p[]ful z to affect ! :ole surface ( ! e>?1 & to h annihilat$ entire races ( animals & plants z if !y _h nev] exi/$4 ,geologi/s are all practically agre$ t !re are only two ways 9 :i* su* ext]m9ations ( ! e>?'s life c\ld h be5 caus$1 & ^! are *anges 9 ! e>?'s climate1 or ! />t+ ( waves 9 ! sea by great e>?quakes4 ,9 ! sea2 = x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t 9 ! geological pa/ ! great] "p ( ! e>?'s surface 0 cov]$ by wat]1 & ! l& areas 7 comp>atively small & l[1 s t waves creat$ by e>?quakes might easily h ov]:elm$ ! entire l& surface4 ,( c\rse1 x is fair to suppose t 9 _m cases ^! ext]m9ations may h be5 caus$ by sudd5 *anges ( climate1 su* z w\ld naturally h result$ f any *ange 9 ! direction ( hot ocean curr5ts :i* =m]ly fl[$ f ! equator to ! poles4 ,! appe>ance ( a fairly l>ge mass ( l& 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ocean might readily h turn$ aside ! hot ocean curr5ts t =m]ly swept ov] ! pol> regions1 ?us greatly l[]+ ! e>?'s av]age temp]ature 9 ^! regions4 ,b x seems probable t ! pr9cipal cause ( ! de/ruction ( life 9 ! geological pa/ 0 produc$ by e>?quake waves 9 ! sea1 sweep+ ov] ! cont95ts4 ,let u1 !re=e1 exam9e two ( ! e>?'s pr9cipal geological revolutions or cataclysms2 namely1 t :i* occurr$ at ! close ( an e>ly geological "t kn[n z ! ,palaeozoic1 & t :i* occurr$ at ! end ( a geological "t int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,palaeozoic "t or ! "t ( anci5t life1 call$ ! ,mesozoic "t1 & ! ,c5ozoic "t1 or ! "t imm$iately prec$+ ! pres5t "t4 ,^! two revolutions are call$ by ,dana1 ! ,po/-,palaeozoic1 or ,appala*ian ,revolution1 & ! ,po/-,mesozoic ,revolution4 ,bo? 7 *>act]iz$ by ! mak+ ( great m\nta9 sy/ems1 & 71 !re=e1 especially liable to repetitions ( trem5d\s e>?quakes t mu/ h produc$ enorm\s waves 9 ! ocean4 ,palaeozoic "t1 says ,dana1 clos$ ) ! mak+ ( "o ( ! great m\nta9 ranges ( ,nor? ,am]ica--! ,appala*ian1 besides ranges 9 o!r l&s1 & 9 produc+ "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal & abrupt disappe>ances ( life 9 geological hi/ory4 ,s great an ev5t is prop]ly /yl$ a revolution4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,palaeozoic "t imm5se di/urbances ( ! e>?'s cru/ occurr$ dur+ ! uplift+ ( ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9 ,sy/em4 ,"o may1 p]haps1 =m "s fa9t idea ( ! imm5sity ( ! =ces at "w1 f ! fact t !re 7 great faults produc$ by ! uplift+ ( ! l&s att5d$ ) displacem5t am\nt+ to #aj1jjj or #bj1jjj feet or m2 t 9 p>ts ( s\?we/]n ,virg9ia !re 7 flexure faults #ajj miles 9 l5g?4 ,z to ! probability ( ! ext5sive ext]m9ations t h occurr$ dur+ ^! times be+ produc$ by e>?quake waves1 ,dana speaks ?us3 ,! causes ( ! ext]m9ation are two4444 7#a7 a cold] climate4444 7#b7 e>?quake waves produc$ by orog5ic movem5ts 7movem5ts produc+ m\nta9 ranges74 ,if ,nor? ,am]ica f ! we/ ( ! ,c>ol9as to ! ,mississippi ,valley c be %ak5 9 consequ5ce ( a little slip along a fracture 9 times ( p]fect quiet 7! allusion "h to ! ,*>le/on e>?quake1 9 #ahhf71 & ru9 m>k its movem5ts1 incalculable viol5ce & great surg+s ( ! ocean %\ld h occurr$ & be5 (t5 repeat$ dur+ ! progress ( flexures1 miles 9 height & space1 & slips along newly op5$ fractures t kept up _! int]rupt$ progress ?r\gh ?\s&s ( feet ( displacem5ts4444 ,"u su* circum/ances ! deva/ation ( ! sea-bord] & ! l[-ly+ l& ( ! p]iod1 ! de/ruction ( _! animals & plants1 w\ld h be5 a sure result4 ,! survivors )9 a long di/ance ( ! coa/l9e w\ld h be5 few4 ,! same waves w\ld h swept ov] ,european l& & seas1 & !re f\nd coadjutors = new /rife 9 e>?quake waves ( ,european orig94 ,^! times ( cata/rophe may h cont9u$ 9 ,am]ica ?r\gh half ( ! foll[+ ,triassic p]iod2 = fully two ?irds ( ! ,triassic p]iod are unrepres5t$ by rocks & fossils on ! ,atlantic bord]4 ,com+ n[ to ! ,po/-,mesozoic revolution ?is p]iod 0 m>k$ by ! mak+ ( ! greate/ ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican m\nta9 sy/ems4 ,dana po9ts out t ?is revolution affect$ ! summit region ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s ov] a broad belt probably z long z ! we/]n side ( ! cont95t4 ,?is great belt ( m\nta9-mak+ ext5d$ f ! ,arctic regions ?r\gh ,nor? ,am]ica1 probably p>allel$ by l "w1 ( equal ext5t1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 b on a m ea/]n l9e4 ,! disappe>ance ( species1 says ,dana1 at ! close ( ,mesozoic "t 0 "o ( ! two mo/ not$ 9 all geological hi/ory4 ,probably n a t5? "p ( ! animal species ( ! _w disappe>$ at ! "t1 & f> less ( ! vegetable life & t]re/rial ,inv]tebrates2 yet ! *ange 0 s compreh5sive t no ,cretace\s species ( ,v]tebrate is yet kn[n to occur 9 ! rocks ( ! ,am]ican ,t]ti>y1 & n ev5 a m>9e ,inv]tebrate4 ,9 trac+ ! causes ( ^! disappe>ances1 ,dana po9ts out t1 p]haps1 ! pr9cipal cause 0 a decrease 9 ! temp]ature ( ! ocean1 s9ce ! de/ructions 7 limit$ 9 l>ge measure to m>9e life4 ,he reg>ds1 h[ev]1 ! o!r mo/ probable cause z traceable to e>?quake waves2 = ! mak+ ( a great m\nta9 range along ! entire l5g? ( ! cont95t result$ 9 displacem5ts ( ! rock =mations along l9es hundr$s ( miles 9 l5g?4 ,su* displacem5ts mu/ h be5 att5d$ by a succession ( e>?quakes ( unusual viol5ce1 caus+ ! de/ruction by sudd5 %ocks b5ea?1 & result+1 directly & indirectly1 9 waves sweep+ ov] ! cont95t4 ,s9ce at ?is "t ! l& 0 /ill l[ = ! great] "p1 ! huge waves mu/ h repeat$ly swept ov] ! great] "p ( ! l&1 leav+ only ! small] species ( animals & ! vegetation4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t dur+ ! geological pa/ e>?quakes occurr$ t 7 probably va/ly great] ?an any t h occurr$ on ! e>? dur+ m rec5t times4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi ,,! ,,kimb]ly ,,diamond ,,fields ,,& ,,_! ,,volcanic ,,orig9 ,! elem5t>y sub/ance c>bon occurs 9 ?ree =ms1 i4 e41 *>coal1 graphite1 & ! diamond4 ,! commone/ =m ( c>bon is to be f\nd 9 *>coal1 z well z 9 bitum9\s coal1 an?racite coal1 & lignite4 ,graphite1 also kn[n z plumbago1 or black lead1 is ! sub/ance y h se5 s (t5 9 ! lead ( p5cils4 ,! diamond1 z e "o kn[s1 is ! highly priz$ preci\s /one t sp>kles s brightly 9 ! light1 & is s h>d t x is capable ( scrat*+ almo/ any o!r sub/ance4 ,diamonds are f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,we are n[ int]e/$ 9 !m1 h[ev]1 only z !y occur 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! _w1 z 9 ! great ,kimb]ly diamond fields 9 ,s\!rn ,africa4 ,dr4 ,max ,bau] 9 8 book on preci\s /ones says t ! discov]y ( diamonds 9 ,s\? ,africa 0 made by a travell] nam$ ,o',reilly1 :o1 9 #ahfg1 saw a *ild sitt+ 9 ! h\se ( a ,bo] nam$ ,jacobs1 play+ ) a %9+ /one4 ,jacob's f>m 0 a %ort di/ance s\? ( ! ,orange ,riv] ne> ,hopet[n4 ,?is /one prov$ to be a diamond weigh+ "s tw5ty-"o & ?ree-t5?s c>ats & 0 aft]w>ds sold = #b1ejj4 ,! incid5t l$ to ! discov]y & consequ5t developm5t ( ! ,kimb]ly diamond fields4 ,)\t go+ into a description ( ! diff]5t deposits 9 :i* diamonds are f\nd1 x w suffice to say t 9 ! ,kimb]ly di/rict ! diamonds occur di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! mat]ials t fill peculi> funnel-%ap$ depressions call$ pipes :i* ext5d v]tically d[nw>d to unkn[n dep?s4 ,! rock t fills a pipe consi/s ( an entirely diff]5t mat]ial f t 9 :i* ! pipe occurs4 ,! upp] extremity ( ! pipe is g5]ally slightly elevat$ above ! g5]al surface = a few y>ds4 ,! pipes v>y 9 diamet] f tw5ty to #gej y>ds1 diamet]s ( f #bjj to #cjj y>ds be+ quiet common4 ,9 #ahib1 ! diamond-be>+ mat]ial f\nd 9 ! pipes ( ! ,kimb]ly m9es _h be5 excavat$ v]tically d[nw>ds a di/ance ( #a1bfa feet1 )\t any signs ( its be+ exhau/$4 ,n[1 ! mat]ials :i* fill ! pipe ( ! great ,kimb]ly m9e are practically ! same 9 all ! m9es 9 ! neighborhood4 ,at ! upp] "p ( ! pipe ! mat]ials %[ ! action ( wea!r+ by exposure to ! air4 ,"h ! gr\nd is ( a yell[i% color4 ,bel[1 ! mat]ials h a blue color4 ,accord+ to ,bau] ! diamond-be>+ mat]ial t fills ! upp] "p ( ! pipe consi/s ( a s(t1 s&y mat]ial ( a light yell[ color1 kn[n to diamond m9]s z yell[ gr\nd1 or yell[ /uff4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,kimb]ly m9e1 ! yell[ gr\nd has a ?ickness ( ab\t sixty feet4 ,bel[ x ! mat]ial has a blue color & is kn[n z ! blue gr\nd4 ,?is latt] mat]ial possesses ! "* ( a volcanic tuff1 :i* is a h>d5$ clay4 ,x is ( a gre5 or blui% gre5 color & has ! appe>ance ( dri$ mud t holds or b9ds toge!r num]\s irregul>1 t\gh1 & sometimes r\nd$ fragm5ts ( a gre5 or blui% black s]p5t9e4 ,! diamonds are f\nd ne> ! surface 9 ! yell[ gr\nd1 z well z d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! blue gr\nd4 ,x 0 at "o "t ?\ght t mo/ ( ! diamonds exi/$ 9 ! yell[ gr\nd1 & t !y w\ld soon disappe> entirely at %ort di/ances bel[ :]e ! blue gr\nd began4 ,"u ?is belief "s ( ! mo/ valuable claims *ang$ h&s at prices f> bel[ _! true value4 ,x 0 soon f\nd1 h[ev]1 t l>ge & valuable /ones exi/$ 9 ! blue gr\nd1 &1 inde$1 ?is gr\nd has nev] be5 m9$ to a dep? bel[ :]e valuable diamonds appe>4 ,! diamonds occur 9 v small quantities spread ?r\gh ! yell[ & blue gr\nds4 ,! foll[+ /atem5t by ,bau] w %[ ?is3 ,a /rik+ illu/ration ( _! sp>+ occurr5ce is furni%$ by ! fact t 9 ! ri*e/ "p ( ! ri*e/ m9e1 namely1 9 ! ,kimb]ly m9e1 !y con/itute only "o "p 9 #b1jjj1jjj1 or #j4jjjje ( ! blue gr\nd4 ,9 o!r m9es ! proportion is /ill l[]1 namely1 "o "p 9 #dj1jjj1jjj1 a yield :i* corresponds to five c>ats p] cubic y>d ( rock4 ,( c\rse1 y w desire by ?is "t to "k ! mann] 9 :i* ! pipes ( ! diamond m9es ( ,s\? ,africa h become fill$ ) ! diamond-be>+ rocks1 & p>ticul>ly :at diamonds h to d ) a book on volcanoes & e>?quakes4 ,dr4 ,emil ,coh51 :o has made a /udy ( ^! regions1 reg>ds ! pipes z volcanic v5ts or *imneys1 & t ! mat]ials fill+ ! pipes h be5 br\ght up f bel[ by volcanic =ces4 ,he says3 ,i consid] t ! diamantif]\s gr\nd is a product ( volcanic action1 & 0 probably erupt$ at a comp>atively l[ temp]ature 9 ! =m ( an a% saturat$ ) wat] & comp>able to ! mat]ials eject$ by a mud volcano4 ,subsequ5tly new m9]als 7 =m$ 9 ! mass1 consequ5t on alt]ations induc$ 9 ! upp] "p by exposure to atmosph]ic ag5cies1 & 9 ! l[] by ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,ea* ( ! crat]-l bas9s1 or1 p]haps1 m correctly1 funnels1 9 :i* alone diamonds are n[ f\nd1 0 at "o "t ! outlet ( an active volcano :i* became fill$ up1 p>tly ) ! products ( eruption & p>tly ) eject$ mat]ial :i* fell back f ! sides ( ! crat] int]m+l$ ) v>i\s =eign sub/ances1 su* z small pebbles1 or organic rema9s ( local orig91 all ( :i* became imb$d$ 9 ! volcanic tuff4 ,! sub/ance ( ! tuff 0 probably ma9ly d]iv$ f deep-seat$ cry/all9e rocks1 ( :i* isolat$ rema9s are n[ to be f\nd1 & :i* are simil> to ^? :i* n[ crop out at ! surface1 only at a consid]able di/ance f ! diamond fields4 ,^! cry/all9e rocks f :i* ! diamonds probably took _! orig91 7 pulv]iz$ & =c$ up into ! pipes by ! action ( volcanic =ces1 & imb$d$ 9 ?is eruptive mat]ial1 ^! diamonds ei!r 9 p]fect cry/als or 9 fragm5ts are n[ f\nd4 ,s f> z ! volcanic orig9 ( ! diamonds ( ! ,kimb]ly diamond fields is conc]n$1 ,coh5's !ory has be5 g5]ally accept$ ) ! foll[+ modifications3 t ! pipes 7 n fill$ by a s+le volcanic eruption1 b by successive eruptions1 & t 9 ! case ( ! ,kimb]ly m9e1 ! pipes conta9 ! results ( z _m z fifte5 successive eruptions4 ,!re has1 h[ev]1 be5 ano!r & m important modification propos$ to ,coh5's !ory1 :i* is f> m probable4 ,x w be notic$ t ,coh5's !ory reg>ds ! action ( ! volcanic eruption z only s]v+ to br+ fragm5ts ( a deep-seat$ "m rock t conta9$ ! diamonds up f bel[ ) ! mat]ial t fills ! pipe4 ,n[1 ,pr(4 ,c>vill ,lewis proposes ! foll[+ v important *ange 9 ,coh5's !ory3 t ! blue gr\nd does n consi/ ( fragm5t>y mat]ial or tuff1 b 0 =c$ up f bel[ 9 ! pipe 9 a molt5 mass & consolidat$ on cool+4 ,9 o!r words1 ! blue gr\nd is fill$ ) an ord9>y igne\s rock t 0 solidifi$ 9 place 9 ! v5t or pipe4 ,9 ! great ,kimb]ly m9es ! surface ( ! pipe is divid$ into num]\s sep>ate claims1 ea* consi/+ ( a small squ>e lot4 ,!re are s _m ( ^! claims 9 ! ,kimb]ly m9e t its surface is honey-comb$ by num]\s squ>e pits4 ,! "w is done l>gely by native ,kaffirs employ$ !re s9ce ! '#gj's4 ,z ! mat]ial 0 remov$ f ! pit1 ! adjo9+ claims 7 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by high v]tical walls4 ,at a lat] date1 9 ord] to remove ! mat]ial & sep>ate ! lots1 high /ag+ provid$ ) ropes & haul+ ma*9]y 0 erect$4 ,! numb] ( ^! ropes is n[ s great t ! m9e has ! appe>ance ( a huge cobweb4 ,a v ext5sive s]ies ( inve/igations has be5 made at a comp>atively rec5t date by ,pr(4 ,h5ri ,moissan ( ,france on v>i\s *emical products t are obta9$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! high temp]atures ( ! electric furnace4 ,:5 a p[]ful electric curr5t is caus$ to pass ?r\gh a highly refractory mat]ial1 t is to say1 a mat]ial difficult to fuse1 su* z c>bon1 x raises x to an extremely high temp]ature4 ,a /ill high] temp]ature c be obta9$ by caus+ a p[]ful curr5t to fl[ betwe5 two c>bon rods t are fir/ br\ght into contact1 & !n gradually sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 j z !y are 9 ! ord9>y arc lights employ$ = light+ ! /reets ( our cities4 ,9 ! latt] way a temp]ature t is e/imat$ z high z #c1ejj ,c4 7#f1ccb ,f471 c be readily obta9$4 ,"u ^! v high temp]atures "s v curi\s *emical products h be5 obta9$ 9 electric furnaces4 ,^! furnaces consi/ ( small *amb]s made ( highly refractory mat]ials closely surr\nd+ ! inc&esc5t c>bon1 or ! c>bon voltaic arc4 ,among "s ( ! mo/ curi\s ( ^! products are artificially produc$ diamonds4 ,moissan1 h[ev]1 0 n ! fir/ to produce diamonds artificially4 ,z soon z ,lavoisi] _h exp]im5tally %[n t ! *emical composition ( ! diamond & c>bon are ! same1 ef=ts 7 made to conv]t *>coal into diamonds1 & ,despretz1 z e>ly z #ahdi1 by means ( ! comb9$ influ5ce ( a p[]ful burn+ glass1 ! oxyhydrog5 bl[pipe1 & ! c>bon voltaic arc obta9$ a v high temp]ature4 ,he claims by ?is temp]ature to h be5 able to *ange c>bon into a few microscopic diamonds4 ,x is q possible1 9 ! light ( lat] inve/igations1 t ,despretz may h be5 mi/ak5 9 8 belief t he _h actually produc$ diamonds2 b :e!r ?is be s or n1 he 0 c]ta9ly "o ( ! pione]s 9 ?is e>ly trans=mation ( *>coal4 ,!oretically1 all t w\ld be requir$ 9 ord] to *ange ! non-cry/all9e =m ( c>bon into ! diamond1 w\ld be to subject ! c>bon to a temp]ature suffici5tly high to fuse x & !n p]mit x sl[ly to cry/allize4 ,c\ld ?is be done1 !re %\ld be no tr\ble 9 trans=m+ any am\nt ( coal into any equal am\nt ( diamonds4 ,b ! trans=mation is by no means z simple z might be suppos$4 ,x is n t ! temp]ature ( ! c>bon _c be rais$ to its po9t ( fusion1 b t z soon z a c]ta9 temp]ature has be5 rea*$1 ! c>bon1 in/ead ( fus+ or melt+1 is sudd5ly volatiliz$ or turn$ into vapor4 ,!re is no d\bt t ?is is done4 ,?\s&s ( feet ( c>bon rods are volatiliz$ e night 9 ! arc lamps ( our cities1 b ! tr\ble is t ?is c>bon vapor s =m$1 :5 cool$1 or cond5s$1 is n conv]t$ into ! exce$+ly h>d1 cle>1 cry/all9e diamond1 b into ! s(t1 dull black graphite or plumbago4 ,n[ ! process adopt$ by ,moissan 9 ord] to cause volatiliz$ c>bon1 or c>bon vapor1 to cond5se 9 ! =m ( cry/all9e diamonds 0 practically z foll[s3 he plac$ pieces ( pure c>bon inside a v /rong /eel tube1 su*1 = example1 z w\ld be =m$ by bor+ a %ort cyl9drical hole 9 a piece ( /rong ?ick /eel1 & plac+ a small quantity ( c>bon inside ! tube s =m$4 ,clos+ ! op5 end ( ! tube by means ( a tightly fitt+ screw plug1 he volatiliz$ ! c>bon inside ! tube4 ,! /eel1 tube1 & plug =m$ an electric furnace1 =1 z soon z he pass$ an electric curr5t ?r\gh x1 ! temp]ature at once became high en\gh to volatilize ! c>bon4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! c>bon vapor 0 subject$ to great pressure ow+ to ! limit$ space 9 :i* x 0 lib]at$4 ,z soon z ?is mass ( d5se vapor _h be5 =m$1 he seiz$ ! /eel tube ) a pair ( furnace tongs1 & plung$ x bel[ ! surface ( cold wat] 9 a bucket4 ,( c\rse1 z ! hot tube sudd5ly *ill$1 !re 0 a great %r9k+ 9 ! walls ( ! furnace1 s t ! already compress$ c>bon vapor 0 subject$ to a /ill great] pressure :i* possibly liquifi$ x4 ,( t1 h[ev]1 we _c speak def9itely4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c safely be ass]t$1 t :5 ! tube 0 brok5 op5 a confus$ mass ( small cry/als 0 f\nd inside1 "s ( :i*1 on exam9ation ) ! microscope1 7 f\nd to consi/ ( small cry/als ( two =ms ( diamonds1 namely1 ! black diamond1 or c>bonado1 & ! regul> cry/alliz$ diamond4 ,moissan made a great numb] ( exp]im5ts = produc+ diamonds 9 ?is way1 & succe$$ 9 =m+ "s v beautiful1 ?\gh microscopic1 diamonds4 ,:at may be said to *>act]ize especially ,moissan's exp]im5ts 0 ! comp>atively great numb] ( diamonds1 s small z to be sc>cely di/+ui%able "u ! microscope4 ,! high temp]ature to :i* ! mat]ials inside ! tube 7 expos$ result$ 9 ! production ( num]\s m9ute cry/als ( diff]5t m9]als4 ,9 ord] to get rid ( z _m ( ^! z possible ,moissan adopt$ ! plan ( subject+ ! mat]ial to ! action ( p[]ful solv5ts1 su* z sulphuric acid1 aqua regia1 or a mixture ( sulphuric & nitric acid1 & hydr(luoric acid4 ,^! acids de/roy$ mo/ ( ! m9ute cry/als ( o!r m9]als1 b left ! m9ute cry/als ( diamonds unaffect$4 ,n[ x w be obs]v$ t ! !ory propos$ by ,pr(4 ,c>vill ,lewis z to ! probable orig9 ( ! diamonds ( ! ,kimb]ly m9es be>s a wond]fully close resemblance to ! me?od adopt$ by ,moissan = ! production ( artificial diamonds1 s9ce x supposes ! diamonds to h be5 =m$ by ! sudd5 cool+ or *ill+ )9 ! pipe ( v>i\s molt5 mat]ials br\ght up f great dep?s by ! volcanic =ces4 ,if ?is be true1 !n besides ! comp>atively l>ge cry/alliz$ & p]fect diamonds f\nd 9 ! blue gr\nd ( ! ,kimb]ly m9es1 !re %\ld also be f\nd l>ge quantities ( microscopic diamonds1 j z are f\nd 9 ,moissan's electric furnaces1 9 :i* he produc$ artificial diamonds4 ,moissan1 consid]+ ?is1 obta9$ a specim5 ( ! blue gr\nd f ! ,kimb]ly diamond pipe & on subject+ x to ! action ( ! diff]5t solv5ts be=e nam$1 f\nd 9 ! mass t 0 left undissolv$ a great numb] ( microscopic diamonds4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t !re is no reasonable d\bt b t ! ,kimb]ly diamond fields _h _! diamonds produc$ by ! sudd5 *ill+ 9 ! volcanic pipes ( molt5 mat]ials br\ght f great dep?s by ! =ce ( volcanic eruption4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii ,,! ,,fabl$ ,,cont95t ,,( ,,atlantis ,besides ! sudd5 *anges ( level t frequ5tly occur dur+ e>?quake %ocks !re are gradual *anges ( level t take place v sl[ly ?r\gh\t long p]iods ( "t4 ,^! are believ$ to be due to ! w>p+s produc$ by ! cool+ ( an orig9ally highly heat$ globe4 ,x is n true1 !re=e1 t ! e>?'s surface is fix$1 or t its l& & wat] areas rema9 always ! same4 ,on ! contr>y1 :at is l& at "o "t is wat] at ano!r "t1 & s1 too1 wat] areas may become *ang$ into l& areas4 ,= ! mo/ "p ^! *anges g on s sl[ly z n to be noticeable 9 an ord9>y lifetime4 ,inde$1 9 "s cases1 !y are s extremely gradual t ,me?uselah himself might h gone to 8 grave 9 ignorance ( _! progress4 ,let u briefly note a few well-kn[n gradual *anges ( level4 ,"o ( ! mo/ ext5sive ( ^! is ! s9k+ ( an imm5se area1 ov] #f1jjj miles 9 diamet]1 t cov]s a l>ge "p ( ! b$ or floor ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,x is an easy matt] to obs]ve ! gradual *anges ( level on ! coa/s1 s9ce ! old wat] l9e c be at once f\nd1 b x is v difficult to detect su* *anges 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean1 hidd5 z x is by a cov]+ ( wat]4 ,yet _m ?+s t seem impossible to ! un9itiat$ are readily solv$ by ^? famili> ) physical sci5ce4 ,little signs1 mean+less to o!rs1 are easily read1 & ^! prove beyond d\bt ! gradual s9k+ ( ! ocean's b$4 ,x 0 once believ$ t ! coral polyps or animalcul f ! h>d1 bony skeletons ( :i* coral reefs are =m$1 c\ld live at ! greate/ dep?s ( ! ocean4 ,^! m9ute animals 71 !re=e1 g5]ally cr$it$ ) fill+ up ! deep ocean1 9 c]ta9 places1 & conv]t+ x into dry l&1 & poetic philosoph]s 7 pleas$ to po9t to _! indefatigable labors z an object lesson to ! slo?ful4 ,b ^! *>m+1 ?\gh fallaci\s1 ideas 7 rudely ov]?r[n by ! s\nd+ l9e & ! drag-net4 ,x _h long be5 kn[n t pieces ( coral rock 7 br\ght up by dr$g+ app>atus f ! bottom ( ! ocean at all dep?s1 b x 0 ev5tually %[n t su* pieces ( coral rock nev] conta9$ liv+ animalcul1 :5 br\ght f wat] at great] dep?s ?an f #ajj to #abj feet4 ,x puzzl$ sci5tific m5 no little at fir/ to expla9 ?is app>5t inconsi/5cy4 ,if ! coral polyp c\ld n live 9 wat] at great] dep?s ?an f #ajj to #abj feet1 h[ c\ld ! pres5ce ( coral rock at a dep? ( ?\s&s ( feet be expla9$8 ,happily1 h[ev]1 ?is problem 0 solv$ by ! great naturali/1 ,*>les ,d>w91 :o %[$ t coral isl&s c only be =m$ 9 p>ts ( ! ocean ^: b$s are s9k+ at ! same gradual rate at :i* ! coral rock is be+ deposit$4 ,! pres5ce1 !re=e1 ( coral isl&s on ! b$ ( ! ,pacific1 z well z along p>ts ( its coa/s1 are1 to sci5tific m51 z good indications ( its gradual s9k+ z if su* facts _h be5 writt5 9 ! cle>e/ language4 ,b !re are o!r in/ances ( gradual *anges ( level besides ! b$ ( ! ,pacific4 ,ab\t #fjj miles along ! coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 f ,disco ,bay1 ne> lat4 #fi ,n41 s\? to ! ,fir? ( ,igaliko1 lat4 #fj #dc' ,n41 ! b$ ( ! ocean has be5 sl[ly s9k+ ?r\gh #djj ye>s4 ,old build+s & isl&s h be5 cov]$ by ! wat]s1 s t fi%]m5 h be5 compell$ to provide new poles = _! boats4 ,z ,sir ,*>les ,lyell rem>ks3 ,9 "o place ! ,moravian settl]s h be5 oblig$ m ?an once to move inl& ! poles ^u :i* _! l>ge boats are set1 & ! old poles /ill rema9 b5ea? ! wat] z sil5t witnesses ( ! *ange4 ,besides ^! gradual *anges ( level !re are _m o!rs1 b only "o m ne$ be cit$3 ! gradual movem5ts ( ! coa/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica betwe5 ,labrador & ,new ,j]sey t are ris+ 9 "s places1 & s9k+ 9 o!r places4 ,! evid5ces ( ^! gradual *anges ( level are sometimes ( su* a "* t he :o runs may read !m4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ is1 p]haps1 t ( ! old ,roman temple ( ,jupit] ,s]apis1 at ,pozzuli1 on ! bord]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,?is temple1 :5 complet$1 0 #abd feet 9 l5g? & #aae feet 9 wid?4 ,its ro( 0 support$ by =ty-six columns1 ea* =ty-two feet 9 height1 & five feet 9 diamet]4 ,only ?ree ( ^! columns are n[ /&+4 ,!y give1 h[ev]1 unque/ionable evid5ce ( hav+ be5 subm]g$ = ab\t half _! height4 ,nor1 inde$1 is ! evid5ce want+ t ?is subm]g5ce cont9u$ a consid]able "t2 =1 :ile ! l[] twelve feet ( ! columns rema9 smoo? & unaffect$1 yet1 = a di/ance ( n9e feet above ?is portion1 !y h be5 p]=at$ by v>i\s /one-bor+ mollusks ( a species /ill liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,?is witnesses t ! columns1 :5 subm]g$1 7 buri$ 9 mud = twelve feet1 & surr\nd$ by wat] n9e feet deep4 ,accord+ to ,dana1 ! pavem5t ( ! temple is /ill "u wat]4 ,! fact t ano!r pavem5t exi/s bel[ x %[s t ^! *anges ( level _h occurr$ be=e ! temple 0 des]t$ by ! ,romans4 ,x appe>s1 t1 prior to #ahde1 a gradual s9k+ ( ?is "p ( ! coa/ _h be5 go+ on1 b t s9ce !n !re has ensu$ a gradual ris+4 ,! evid5ces ( ^! gradual *anges ( level 9 ! l& & wat] surfaces ( ! e>? _c be d\bt$ by ev5 ! mo/ skeptical4 ,aga9 & aga9 has ! dry l& disappe>$ bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,aga9 & aga91 ! ocean's b$ has be5 rais$ to ! surface & be5 conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,suppose we attempt to foll[ "o ( ! latt] movem5ts4 ,we w imag9e an ext5sive area to h sl[ly appe>$ above ! ocean4 ,9 due process ( "t ?is l& surface1 :i* we w assume to h cont95tal dim5sions1 gradually becomes cov]$ ) plant & animal life4 ,if x rema9s above ! wat] = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 its simple plants & animals acquire m & m complex =ms1 s z to make x difficult to detect any traces ( ! orig9al species f :i* !y h desc5d$1 or1 m correctly1 asc5d$4 ,moreov]1 :]e favorable conditions exi/1 ! cont95t becomes peopl$ ) m51 :o gradually advance f b>b>ism to semi-b>b>ism & ev5tually become a mo/ highly civiliz$ nation1 s5d+ to diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w colonies1 :o c>ry ) !m ! language & religi\s cu/oms ( ! l& ( _! bir?4 ,b1 a sudd5 or p>oxysmal *ange ( level occurs4 ,! highly develop$ & d5sely populat$ region is sudd5ly swept out ( exi/5ce & completely cov]$ by ! wat]s ( ! ocean until1 9 a few ?\s& ye>s1 all traces ( its exi/5ce h s completely disappe>$ t b few1 if any1 c be f\nd will+ to ackn[l$ge x ev] _h an exi/5ce4 ,su*1 x is claim$1 0 ! fate ( ! fabl$ ,cont95t ( ,atlantis4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be int]e/+ to endeavor briefly to review its pa/ hi/ory & to read "s ( ! ?+s t h be5 writt5 ab\t ?is "p ( ! _w1 :i* appe>s 9 ! op9ion ( "s ( ! anci5ts to h actually exi/$4 ,ref]5ces to ,atlantis h be5 made by v>i\s e>ly writ]s4 ,solon1 ! great ,a!nian lawgiv]1 :o fl\ri%$ #fjj ye>s ,b4 ,c41 began a description ( ?is place 9 v]se4 ,?is description 0 nev] complet$4 ,at a lat] date "o ( ,solon's desc5dants1 ,plato1 :o liv$ ab\t #djj ,b4 ,c41 prep>$ a description ( ,atlantis1 giv+ 9 detail its location1 ! g5]al "* ( its surface1 a description ( its pr9cipal city1 & ! civilization ( its inhabitants1 z well z a brief ref]5ce to its sudd5 de/ruction4 ,9 ano!r place ?is record ( ,plato w be giv5 9 full4 ,x w suffice n[ to quote briefly :at he says conc]n+ its location4 ,!re 0 an isl& situat$ 9 front ( ! /raits :i* y call ! ,columns ( ,h]acles 7,/raits ( ,gibralt>74 ,! isl& 0 l>g] ?an ,libya & ,asia put toge!r1 & 0 ! way to o!r isl&s1 & f ! isl& y might pass ?r\gh ! :ole 9 ! opposite cont95t1 = ?is sea :i* is )9 ! ,/raits ( ,h]acles is only a h>bor1 hav+ a n>r[ entrance1 b t o!r is ! real sea1 & ! surr\nd+ l& may mo/ truly be call$ a cont95t4 ,n[1 9 ! isl& ( ,atlantis1 !re 0 a great & wond]ful empire1 :i* _h rul$ ov] ! :ole isl& & sev]al o!rs1 z well z ov] "p ( ! cont95ts2 &1 besides ^!1 !y subject$ ! p>ts ( ,libya )9 ! ,columns ( ,h]acles z f> z ,egypt1 & ( ,europe z f> z ,tyrrh5ia4 ,! va/ p[]1 ?us ga!r$ into "o1 endeavor$ to subdue at "o bl[ our c\ntry & y\rs1 & ! :ole ( ! l& :i* 0 )9 ! /raits1 & !n1 ,solon1 y\r c\ntry %one =?1 9 ! excell5ce ( h] virtues & /r5g?1 among all mank9d1 = %e 0 ! fir/ 9 c\rage & milit>y skill1 & 0 ! lead] ( ! ,hell5es4 ,& :5 ! re/ fell (f f h]1 be+ compell$ to /& alone1 aft] hav+ und]gone ! v extremity ( dang]1 %e defeat$ & triumph$ ov] ! invad]s1 & pres]v$ f slav]y ^? :o 7 n yet subject$1 & freely lib]at$ all ! o!rs :o dwelt )9 ! limits ( ,h]acles4 ,b aft]w>ds1 !re occurr$ viol5t e>?quakes & floods1 & 9 a s+le day & night ( ra91 all y\r w>like m5 9 a body sunk into ! e>?1 & ! isl& ( ,atlantis 9 a l mann] disappe>$1 & 0 sunk b5ea? ! sea4 ,& t is ! reason :y ! sea 9 ^? p>ts is impassable & imp5etrable1 because !re is su* a quantity ( %all[ mud 9 ! way2 & ?is 0 caus$ by ! subsid5ce ( ! isl&4 7,plato's ,dialogues1 ii1 #eag1 ,timu74 ,b besides ,solon & ,plato !re are o!r anci5t writ]s :o ref] to ! lo/ isl& ( ,atlantis4 lian1 9 8 ,v>ia ,hi/oria1 lib4 iii1 *ap4 xvii1 /ates t ,!opompos1 :o fl\ri%$ #djj ,b4 ,c41 ref]s to an int]view betwe5 ,midas1 ,k+ ( ,phrygia1 & ,sielus1 9 :i* ! latt] speaks ( a great cont95t l>g] ?an ,asia1 ,europe1 & ,libya toge!r t exi/$ 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,proclus quotes a /atem5t f an anci5t writ]1 :o speaks ab\t ! isl&s ( ! sea beyond ! ,pill>s ( ,h]cules 7,/raits ( ,gibralt>74 ,m>cellus1 9 a book on ! ,e?iopians1 ref]s to sev5 isl&s 9 ! ,atlantic ^: inhabitants pres]ve leg5ds ( a great] isl& 7possibly ,atlantis71 t _h dom9ion ov] ! small isl&s4 ,diodorus ,siculus ass]ts t ! ,pho5icians discov]$ a l>ge isl& 9 ! ,atlantic beyond ! ,pill>s ( ,h]cules sev]al days' sail f ! coa/ ( ,africa4 ,hom]1 ,plut>*1 & o!r anci5t writ]s1 ref] to sev]al isl&s 9 ! ,atlantic situat$ sev]al ?\s& /adia f ! ,pill>s ( ,h]cules4 7,a /adium 0 a ,greek measure ( l5g? equal to #fjj feet4 ,x 0 equal to "o-eigh? ( a ,roman mile1 or #fbe ,roman feet47 ,ignatius ,donnelly1 9 8 book1 call$ ,atlantis1 ! ,ante-,diluvian ,_w1 claims t ,plato's description ( ,atlantis :i* has g5]ally be5 reg>d$ z imag9>y1 01 on ! contr>y1 hi/oric2 t ! prehi/oric cont95t ( ,atlantis 0 ! cradle ( ! human race2 t "h man rea*$ 8 highe/ civilization2 t ,atlantis 0 ! site ( ! ,g>d5 ( ,ed51 ! ,g>d5s ( ! ,hesp]ides1 ! ,elysian ,fields1 z well z ,olympus2 t1 "u ! =ms ( ! gods & goddesses ( ! anci5t ,greeks1 ! ,pho5icians1 ! ,h9doos1 & ! ,sc&9avians1 are relat$ ! /ories ( ! k+s1 que5s1 & h]oes ( ,atlantis4 ,mu* t has be5 claim$ = ! lo/ cont95t c h>dly be reg>d$ 9 any o!r light save t ( imag9ation4 ,= example1 x has be5 ass]t$ t x 0 f ,atlantis t ! colonies 7 s5t out t peopl$ ! coa/ c\ntries ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ( p>ts ( ! valley ( ! ,mississippi1 ! bas9 ( ! ,amazon1 ! we/]n coa/s ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 p>ts ( ,europe1 ! %ore l&s ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 ! coa/s ( ,europe1 includ+ ! ,caspian & ! ,black ,seas1 & ev5 ( p>ts ( ,africa4 ,x has also be5 ass]t$ t ?is mighty nation ( ,atlantis c>ri$ ! wor%ip ( ! sun to ,egypt1 :i* 0 "o ( its fir/ colonies1 &1 !re=e1 ! civilization ( ,egypt 0 b an (f%oot ( prehi/oric ,atlantis4 ,b x w be reasonably object$ t1 if su* a mass ( l& ev] exi/$ 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 "s evid5ces %\ld /ill be f\nd on ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,ev5 ?\gh great p]iods ( "t h elaps$ s9ce ! disappe>ance ( ,atlantis1 "s traces ( its =m] exi/5ce %\ld /ill rema9 on ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,are !re any evid5ces ( an old l& mass on ?is "p ( ! floor ( ! ,atlantic8 ,! answ] is unmi/akable4 ,deep-sea s\nd+s %[ beyond "q t !re /ill exi/s 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic 9 ! region :]e ,atlantis is said to h be5 locat$ a subm>9e isl&1 ! summits ( :i* appe> above ! wat]s 9 ! ,azores & ! ,can>y ,isl&s4 ,?is subm>9e isl& has be5 trac$ s\?we/ ov] ! b$ ( ! ocean = a di/ance ( sev]al ?\s& miles ) a bread? ( fully #a1jjj miles4 ,t[>d ! s\? !re is connect$ ) x ano!r subm>9e isl&1 ! summits ( :i* rea* above ! surface 9 ! isl&s ( ,asc5sion1 ,/4 ,hel5a1 & ,tri/an d',acunha4 ,b ! te/imony ( ! subm>9e isl&s ext5ds fur!r ?an ?is4 ,accord+ to a numb] ( c>eful s\nd+s x appe>s t ! b$ ( ^! p>ts ( ! ocean1 in/ead ( be+ *>act]iz$ by a comp>atively level surface due to ! gradual accumulation ( silt1 possesses1 to a great ext5t1 ! peculi>ly sculptur$ surfaces :i* are only produc$ by exposure = a long "t to ! atmosph]e4 ,o!r facts might be adduc$ to %[ t "s "t dur+ ! fir/ appe>ance ( man on ! e>? !re 0 a l>ge l& mass connect+ ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,cont95ts4 ,^! facts include ! wond]ful resemblances exi/+ betwe5 ! plants & animals ( ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,cont95ts1 ! close resemblances ( ! my?s & leg5ds ( ! races ( ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,cont95ts1 z well z ! id5tity ( _! religi\s ideas1 & ! close simil>ity ( _! language s f> z relates to c]ta9 fundam5tal ideas4 ,^! facts all po9t unque/ionably to ! exi/5ce ( "s l>ge l& mass betwe5 ! two cont95ts1 & to ?is ext5t to ?r[ light on ! probable exi/5ce ( prehi/oric ,atlantis4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii ,,plato',s ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,atlantis ,! foll[+ is a translation ( ,plato's record 9 full3 ,critias4 ,!n li/51 ,socrates1 to a /range tale1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 c]ta9ly true1 z ,solon1 :o 0 ! wise/ ( ! sev5 sages1 decl>$4 ,he 0 a relative & great fri5d ( my great-gr&fa!r1 ,dropidas1 z he himself says 9 sev]al ( 8 poems1 & ,dropidas told ,critias1 my gr&fa!r1 :o rememb]$1 & told u1 t !re 7 ( old great & m>vell\s actions ( ! ,a!nians1 :i* h pass$ into oblivion ?r\gh "t & ! de/ruction ( ! human race--& "o 9 p>ticul>1 :i* 0 ! greate/ ( !m all1 ! recital ( :i* w be a suitable te/imony ( our gratitude to y4444 ,socrates4 ,v good2 & :at is ?is anci5t fam\s action ( :i* ,critias spoke1 n z a m]e leg5d1 b z a v]itable action ( ! ,a!nian ,/ate1 :i* ,solon rec\nt$8 ,critias4 ,i w tell an old-_w /ory :i* ,i he>d f an ag$ man2 = ,critias 01 z he said1 at t "t ne>ly n9ety-ye>s ( age1 & ,i 0 ab\t t5 ye>s ( age4 ,n[ ! day 0 t day ( ! ,apaturia :i* is call$ ! regi/ration ( y\?2 at :i*1 accord+ to cu/om1 our p>5ts gave prizes = recitations1 & ! poems ( sev]al poets 7 recit$ by u boys1 & _m ( u sung ! poems ( ,solon1 :i* 7 new at ! "t4 ,"o ( our tribe1 ei!r because ?is 0 8 real op9ion1 or because he ?\ght t he w\ld please ,critias1 said t1 9 8 judgm5t1 ,solon 0 n only ! wise/ ( m5 b ! noble/ ( poets4 ,! old man1 ,i well rememb]1 bright5$ up at ?is1 & said smil+3 ,yes1 ,amyn&]1 if ,solon _h only1 l o!r poets1 made poetry ! bus9ess ( 8 life1 & _h complet$ ! tale :i* he br\ght ) him f ,egypt1 & _h n be5 compell$1 by reason ( ! factions & tr\bles :i* he f\nd /irr+ 9 ?is c\ntry :5 he came home1 to att5d to o!r matt]s1 9 my op9ion1 he w\ld h be5 z fam\s z ,hom]1 or ,hesiod1 or any poet4 ,& :at 0 t poem ab\t1 ,critias8 said ! p]son :o address$ him4 ,ab\t ! greate/ action :i* ! ,a!nians ev] did1 & :i* ought to h be5 mo/ fam\s1 b :i*1 ?r\gh ! lapse ( "t & ! de/ruction ( ! actors1 has n come d[n to u4 ,tell u1 said ! o!r1 ! :ole /ory1 & h[ & f :om ,solon he>d ?is v]itable tradition4 ,he repli$3 ,at ! head ( ! ,egyptian ,delta1 :]e ! riv] ,nile divides1 !re is a c]ta9 di/rict :i* is call$ ! di/rict ( ,sais1 & ! great city ( ! di/rict is also call$ ,sais1 & is ! city f :i* ,amasis ! k+ 0 sprung4 ,& ! citiz5s h a deity :o is _! f\ndress3 %e is call$ 9 ! ,egyptian tongue ,nei?1 :i* is ass]t$ by !m to be ! same :om ! ,hell5es call$ ,a!ne4 ,n[1 ! citiz5s ( ?is city are great lov]s ( ! ,a!nians1 & say t !y are 9 "s way relat$ to !m4 ,?i!r came ,solon1 :o 0 receiv$ by !m ) great honor2 & he ask$ ! prie/s1 :o 7 mo/ skilful 9 su* matt]s1 ab\t antiquity1 & made ! discov]y t nei!r he nor any o!r ,hell5e knew any?+ wor? m5tion+ ab\t ! times ( old4 ,on "o occasion1 :5 he 0 draw+ !m on to speak ( antiquity1 he began to tell ab\t ! mo/ anci5t ?+s 9 our "p ( ! _w--ab\t ,phoroneus1 :o is call$ '! fir/1' & ab\t ,niobe2 &1 aft] ! ,deluge1 to tell ( ! lives ( ,deucalian & ,pyrrha2 & he trac$ ! g5ealogy ( _! desc5dants1 & attempt$ to reckon h[ _m ye>s old 7 ! ev5ts ( :i* he 0 speak+1 & to give ! dates4 ,!reupon1 "o ( ! prie/s1 :o 0 ( v great age1 said3 ',o ,solon1 ,solon1 y ,hell5es are b *ildr51 & !re is nev] an old man :o is an ,hell5e4' ,solon1 he>+ ?is1 said1 ',:at d y mean8' ',i mean to say1' he repli$1 't 9 m9d y are all "y2 !re is no old op9ion h&$ d[n among y by anci5t traditions1 nor any sci5ce :i* is ho>y ) age4 ,& ,i w tell y ! reason ( ?is3 !re h be51 & !re w be aga91 _m de/ructions ( mank9d aris+ out ( _m causes4 ',!re is a /ory :i* ev5 y h pres]v$1 t once ^u a "t ,pha?on1 ! son ( ,helios1 hav+ yok$ ! /e$s 9 8 fa!r's *>iot1 because he 0 n able to drive !m 9 ! pa? ( 8 fa!r1 burnt up all t 0 ^u ! e>?1 & 0 himself de/roy$ by a ?und]-bolt4 ,n[1 ?is has ! =m ( a my?1 b really signifies a decl9ation ( ! bodies mov+ ar\nd ! e>?1 & 9 ! heav5s1 & a great conflagration ( ?+s ^u ! e>? recurr+ at long int]vals ( "t3 :5 ?is happ5s1 ^? :o live ^u ! m\nta9s & 9 dry & l(ty places are m liable to de/ruction ?an ^? :o dwell by riv]s or on ! sea-%ore2 & f ?is calamity ! ,nile1 :o is our nev]-fail+ savior1 saves & deliv]s u4 ',:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! gods purge ! e>? ) a deluge ( wat]1 among y h]dsm5 & %eph]ds on ! m\nta9s are ! survivors1 :]eas ^? ( y :o live 9 cities are c>ri$ by ! riv]s into ! sea2 b 9 ?is c\ntry nei!r at t "t nor at any o!r does ! wat] come up f bel[1 = :i* reason ! ?+s pres]v$ "h are said to be ! olde/4 ,! fact is1 t :]ev] ! extremity ( w9t] fro/ or ( summ] sun does n prev5t1 ! human race is always increas+ at times1 & at o!r times dim9i%+ 9 numb]s4 ,& :atev] happ5$ ei!r 9 y\r c\ntry or 9 ours1 or 9 any o!r regions ( :i* we are in=m$--if any action :i* is noble or great1 or 9 any o!r way rem>kable has tak5 place1 all t has be5 writt5 d[n ( old1 & is pres]v$ 9 our temples2 :]eas y & o!r nations are j be+ provid$ ) lett]s & ! o!r ?+s :i* ,/ates require2 & !n1 at ! usual p]iod1 ! /ream f heav5 desc5ds l a pe/il5ce1 & leaves only ^? ( y :o are de/itute ( lett]s & education2 & ?us y h to beg9 all ov] aga9 z *ildr51 & "k no?+ ( :at happ5$ 9 anci5t times1 ei!r among u or among y\rselves4 ',z = ^? g5ealogies ( y\rs :i* y h rec\nt$ to u1 ,solon1 !y are no bett] ?an ! tales ( *ildr52 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 y rememb] "o deluge only1 :]eas !re 7 _m ( !m1 &1 9 ! next place1 y d n "k t !re dwelt 9 y\r l& ! faire/ & noble/ race ( m5 :i* ev] liv$1 ( :om y & y\r :ole city are b a se$ or remnant4 ,& ?is 0 unkn[n to y1 because = _m g5]ations ! survivors ( t de/ruction di$ & made no sign4 ,= !re 0 a "t1 ,solon1 be=e t great deluge ( all1 :5 ! city :i* n[ is ,a!ns1 0 fir/ 9 w>1 & 0 prem95t = ! excell5ce ( h] laws1 & is said to h p]=m$ ! noble/ de$s1 & to h _h ! faire/ con/itution ( any ( :i* tradition tells1 "u ! face ( heav54' ,solon m>vell$ at ?is & e>ne/ly reque/$ ! prie/ to in=m him exactly & 9 ord] ab\t ^! =m] citiz5s4 ',y are welcome to he> ab\t !m1 ,solon1' said ! prie/1 'bo? = y\r own sake & = t ( ! city2 &1 above all1 = ! sake ( ! goddess :o is ! common patron & protector & educator ( bo? our cities4 ,%e f\nd$ y\r city a ?\s& ye>s be=e ours1 receiv+ f ! ,e>? & ,heph/us ! se$ ( y\r race1 & !n %e f\nd$ ours1 ! con/itution ( :i* is set d[n 9 our sacr$ regi/]s z #h1jjj ye>s old4 ,z t\*+ ! citiz5s ( #i1jjj ye>s ago1 ,i w briefly in=m y ( _! laws & ( ! noble/ ( _! actions2 & ! exact p>ticul>s ( ! :ole we w h]eaft] g ?r\gh at our leisure 9 ! sacr$ regi/]s !mselves4 ,if y comp>e ^! v laws ) y\r own1 y w f9d t _m ( ours are ! c\nt]p>t ( y\rs1 z !y 7 9 ! old5 "t4 ',9 ! fir/ place1 !re is ! ca/e ( prie/s1 :i* is sep>at$ f all ! o!rs2 next !re are ! artific]s1 :o ex]cise _! sev]al crafts by !mselves1 & )\t admixture ( any o!r1 & also !re is ! class ( %eph]ds & t ( hunt]s1 z well z t ( husb&m52 & y w obs]ve1 too1 t ! w>riors 9 ,egypt are sep>at$ f all ! o!r classes1 & are comm&$ by ! law only to engage 9 w>4 ,moreov]1 ! weapons ) :i* !y are equipp$ are %ields & spe>s1 & ?is ! goddess taught fir/ among y1 & !n 9 ,asiatic c\ntries1 & we among ! ,asiatics fir/ adopt$4 ',!n1 z to wisdom1 d y obs]ve1 :at c>e ! law took f ! v fir/1 se>*+ out & compreh5d+ ! :ole ord] ( ?+s d[n to prophecy & m$ic9e 7! latt] ) a view to heal?72 & out ( ^! div9e elem5ts draw+ :at 0 ne$ful = human life1 & add+ e sort ( k :i* 0 connect$ ) !m4 ,all ?is ord] & arrangem5t ! goddess fir/ imp>t$ to y :5 e/abli%+ y\r city2 & %e *ose ! spot ( e>? 9 :i* y 7 born1 because %e saw t ! happy temp]am5t ( ! seasons 9 t l& w\ld produce ! wise/ ( m54 ',:]e=e ! goddess1 :o 0 a lov] bo? ( w> & ( wisdom1 select$1 & fir/ ( all settl$ t spot :i* 0 ! mo/ likely to produce m5 like/ h]self4 ,& !re y dwelt1 hav+ su* laws z ^! & /ill bett] ones1 & excell$ all mank9d 9 all virtue1 z became ! *ildr5 & disciples ( ! gods4 ,_m great & wond]ful de$s are record$ ( y\r ,/ate 9 our hi/ories2 b "o ( !m exce$s all ! re/ 9 greatness & valor2 = ^! hi/ories tell ( a mighty p[] :i* 0 agress+ wantonly aga9/ ! :ole ( ,europe & ,asia1 & to :i* y\r city put an end4 ',?is p[] came =? out ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 = 9 ^? days ! ,atlantic 0 navigable2 & !re 0 an isl& situat$ 9 front ( ! /raits :i* y call ! ,columns ( ,h]acles3 ! isl& 0 l>g] ?an ,libya & ,asia put toge!r1 & 0 ! way to o!r isl&s1 & f ! isl& y might pass ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! opposite cont95t :i* surr\nd$ ! true ocean2 = ?is sea :i* is )9 ! ,/raits ( ,h]acles is only a h>bor1 hav+ a n>r[ entrance1 b t o!r is a real sea1 & ! surr\nd+ l& may be mo/ truly call$ a cont95t4 ,n[1 9 ! isl& ( ,atlantis !re 0 a great & wond]ful empire1 :i* _h rule ov] ! :ole isl& & sev]al o!rs1 z well z ov] p>ts ( ! cont95t2 &1 besides ^!1 !y subject$ ! p>ts ( ,libya )9 ! ,columns ( ,h]acles z f> z ,egypt1 & ( ,europe z f> z ,tyrrh5ia4 ',t va/ p[]1 ?us ga!r$ into "o1 endeavor$ to subdue at "o bl[ our c\ntry & y\rs1 & ! :ole ( ! l& :i* 0 )9 ! /raits2 & !n1 ,solon1 y\r c\ntry %one =?1 9 ! excell5ce ( h] virtue & /r5g?1 among all mank9d1 = %e 0 ! fir/ 9 c\rage & milit>y skill1 & 0 ! lead] ( ! ,hell5es4 ,& :5 ! re/ fell (f f h]1 be+ compell$ to /& alone1 aft] hav+ und]gone ! v extremity ( dang]1 %e defeat$ & triumph$ ov] ! invad]s1 & pres]v$ f slav]y ^? :o 7 n yet subject$1 & freely lib]at$ all ! o!rs :o dwelt )9 ! limits ( ,h]acles4 ,b aft]w>d !re occurr$ viol5t e>?quakes & floods1 & 9 a s+le day & night ( ra9 all y\r w>like m5 9 a body sunk into ! e>?1 & ! isl& ( ,atlantis 9 l mann] disappe>$1 & 0 sunk b5ea? ! sea4 ,& t is ! reason :y ! sea 9 ^? p>ts is impassable & imp5etrable1 because !re is su* a quantity ( %all[ mud 9 ! way2 & ?is 0 caus$ by ! subsid5ce ( ! isl&4' 7',plato's ,dialogues1' ii1 #eag1 ,timu47444 ,b 9 addition to ! gods :om y h m5tion$1 ,i w\ld specially invoke ,mnemosyne2 = all ! important "p ( :at ,i h to tell is dep5d5t on h] favor1 & if ,i c recollect & recite en\gh ( :at 0 said by ! prie/s1 & br\ght hi!r by ,solon1 ,i d\bt n t ,i %all satisfy ! requirem5ts ( ?is !atre4 ,to t task1 !n1 ,i w at once address myself4 ,let me beg9 by obs]v+ fir/ ( all t n9e ?\s& 0 ! sum ( ye>s :i* _h elaps$ s9ce ! w> :i* 0 said to h tak5 place betwe5 all ^? :o dwelt outside ! ,pill>s ( ,h]acles & ^? :o dwelt )9 !m4 ,?is w> ,i am n[ to describe4 ,( ! combatants on ! "o side ! city ( ,a!ns 0 report$ to h be5 ! rul]1 & to h direct$ ! conte/2 ! combatants on ! o!r side 7 l$ by ! k+s ( ! isl&s ( ,atlantis1 :i*1 z ,i 0 say+1 once _h an ext5t great] ?an t ( ,libya & ,asia2 &1 :5 aft]w>ds sunk by an e>?quake1 became an impassable b>ri] ( mud to voyag]s sail+ f h5ce to ! ocean4 ,! progress ( ! hi/ory w unfold ! v>i\s tribes ( b>b>ians & ,hell5es :i* !n exi/$1 z !y successively appe> on ! sc5e2 b ,i mu/ beg9 by describ+1 fir/ ( all1 ! ,a!nians z !y 7 9 t day1 & _! enemies :o f\ght ) !m2 & ,i %all h to tell ( ! p[] & =m ( gov]nm5t ( bo? ( !m4 ,let u give ! prec$5ce to ,a!ns4444 ,_m great deluges h tak5 place dur+ ! n9e ?\s& ye>s1 = t is ! numb] ( ye>s :i* h elaps$ s9ce ! "t ( :i* ,i am speak+2 & 9 all ! ages & *anges ( ?+s !re has nev] be5 any settlem5t ( ! e>? fl[+ d[n f ! m\nta9s1 z 9 o!r places1 :i* is wor? speak+ (2 x has always be5 c>ri$ r\nd 9 a circle1 & disappe>$ 9 ! dep?s bel[4 ,! consequ5ce is t1 9 comp>ison ) :at !n 01 !re are rema9+ 9 small islets only ! bones ( ! wa/$ body1 z !y may be call$1 all ! ri*] & s(t] p>ts ( ! soil hav+ fall5 away1 & ! m]e skeleton ( ! c\ntry be+ left4444 ,& next1 if ,i h n =gott5 :at ,i he>d :5 ,i 0 a *ild1 ,i w imp>t to y ! "* & orig9 ( _! adv]s>ies2 = fri5ds %\ld n keep _! /ories to !mselves1 b h !m 9 common4 ,yet1 be=e proce$+ fur!r 9 ! n>rative1 ,i ought to w>n y t y mu/ n be surpris$1 if y %\ld he> ,hell5ic names giv5 to =eign]s4 ,i w tell y ! reason ( ?is3 ,solon1 :o 0 int5d+ to use ! tale = 8 poem1 made an inve/igation into ! mean+ ( ! names1 & f\nd t ! e>ly ,egyptians1 9 writ+ !m d[n1 _h translat$ !m into _! own language1 & he recov]$ ! mean+ ( ! sev]al names & retranslat$ !m1 & copi$ !m out aga9 9 our language4 ,my great-gr&fa!r1 ,dropidas1 _h ! orig9al writ+1 :i* is /ill 9 my possession1 & 0 c>efully /udi$ by me :5 ,i 0 a *ild4 ,!re=e1 if y he> names su* z are us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 y mu/ n be surpris$1 = ,i h told y ! reason ( !m4 ,! tale1 :i* 0 ( great l5g?1 began z foll[s3 ,i h be=e rem>k$1 9 speak+ ( ! allotm5ts ( ! gods1 t !y di/ribut$ ! :ole e>? into portions diff]+ 9 ext5t1 & made !mselves temples & sacrifices4 ,& ,poseidon1 receiv+ = 8 lot ! isl& ( ,atlantis1 begat *ildr5 by a mortal woman1 & settl$ !m 9 a "p ( ! isl& :i* ,i w proce$ to describe4 ,on ! side t[>d ! sea1 & 9 ! c5tre ( ! :ole isl&1 !re 0 a pla9 :i* is said to h be5 ! faire/ ( all pla9s1 & v f]tile4 ,ne> ! pla91 & also 9 ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 at a di/ance ( ab\t fifty /adia1 !re 0 a m\nta91 n v high on any side4 ,9 ?is m\nta9 !re dwelt "o ( ! e>?-born primeval m5 ( t c\ntry1 ^: "n 0 ,ev5or1 & he _h a wife nam$ ,leucippe1 & !y _h an only daught]1 :o 0 nam$ ,cleito4 ,! maid5 0 gr[+ up to womanhood :5 h] fa!r & "m di$2 ,poseidon fell 9 love ) h]1 & _h int]c\rse ) h]2 &1 break+ ! gr\nd1 enclos$ ! hill 9 :i* %e liv$ all ar\nd1 mak+ alt]nate zones ( sea & l&1 l>g] & small]1 encircl+ "o ano!r2 !re 7 two ( l& & ?ree ( wat]1 :i* he turn$ z ) a la! out ( ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 equidi/ant e way1 s t no man c\ld get to ! isl&1 = %ips & voyag]s 7 n yet he>d (4 ,he himself1 z he 0 a god1 f\nd no difficulty 9 mak+ special arrangem5ts = ! c5tre isl&1 br++ two /reams ( wat] "u ! e>?1 :i* he caus$ to asc5d z spr+s1 "o ( w>m wat] & ! o!r ( cold1 & mak+ e v>iety ( food to spr+ up abundantly 9 ! e>?4 ,he also begat & br\ght up five pairs ( male *ildr51 divid+ ! isl& ( ,atlantis into t5 portions2 he gave to ! fir/-born ( ! elde/ pair 8 "m's dwell+ & ! surr\nd+ allotm5t1 :i* 0 ! l>ge/ & be/1 & made him k+ ov] ! re/2 ! o!rs he made pr9ces1 & gave !m rule ov] _m m5 & a l>ge t]ritory4 ,he nam$ !m all3 ! elde/1 :o 0 k+1 he nam$ ,atlas1 & f him ! :ole isl& & ! ocean receiv$ ! "n ( ,atlantic4 ,to 8 tw9 bro!r1 :o 0 born aft] him1 & obta9$ z 8 lot ! extremity ( ! isl& t[>d ! ,pill>s ( ,h]acles1 z f> z ! c\ntry :i* is /ill call$ ! region ( ,gades 9 t "p ( ! _w1 he gave ! "n :i* 9 ! ,hell5ic language is ,eumelus1 9 ! language ( ! c\ntry :i* is nam$ aft] him1 ,gadeirus4 ,( ! second pair ( tw9s1 he call$ "o ,amph]es & ! o!r ,evmon4 ,to ! ?ird pair ( tw9s he gave ! "n ,mneseus to ! eld]1 & ,auto*?on to ! "o :o foll[$ him4 ,( ! f\r? pair ( tw9s he call$ ! eld] ,elasippus & ! y\ng] ,me/or4 ,& ( ! fif? pair he gave to ! eld] ! "n ( ,azaes1 & to ! y\ng] ,diaprepes4 ,all ^! & _! desc5dants 7 ! inhabitants & rul]s ( div]s isl&s 9 ! op5 sea2 & also1 z has be5 already said1 !y held sway 9 ! o!r direction ov] ! c\ntry )9 ! ,pill>s z f> z ,egypt & ,tyrrh5ia4 ,n[ ,atlas _h a num]\s & honorable family1 & 8 elde/ bran* always reta9$ ! k+dom1 :i* ! elde/ son h&$ on to 8 elde/ = _m g5]ations2 & !y _h su* an am\nt ( weal? z 0 nev] be=e possess$ by k+s & pot5tates1 & is n likely ev] to be aga91 & !y 7 furni%$ ) ev]y?+ :i* !y c\ld desire bo? 9 city & c\ntry4 ,=1 because ( ! greatness ( _! empire1 _m ?+s 7 br\ght to !m f =eign c\ntries1 & ! isl& itself provid$ mu* ( :at 0 requir$ by !m = ! uses ( life4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y dug out ( ! e>? :atev] 0 to be f\nd !re1 m9]al z well z metal1 & t :i* is n[ only a "n1 & 0 !n some?+ m ?an a "n--ori*alcum--0 dug out ( ! e>? 9 _m p>ts ( ! isl&1 &1 ) ! exception ( gold1 0 e/eem$ ! mo/ preci\s ( metals among ! m5 ( ^? days4 ,!re 0 an abundance ( wood = c>p5t]s' "w1 & suffici5t ma9t5ance = tame & wild animals4 ,moreov]1 !re 7 a great numb] ( elephants 9 ! isl&1 & !re 0 provision = animals ( e k9d1 bo? = ^? :o live 9 lakes & m>%es & riv]s1 & also = ^? :i* live 9 m\nta9s1 & on pla9s1 & !re=e = ! animal :i* is ! l>ge/ & mo/ voraci\s ( !m4 ,also :atev] fragrant ?+s !re are 9 ! e>?1 :e!r roots1 or h]bage1 or woods1 or di/ill+ drops ( fl[]s1 or fruits1 grew & ?riv$ 9 t l&2 & aga91 ! cultivat$ fruit ( ! e>?1 bo? ! dry edible fruit & o!r species ( food1 :i* we call by ! g5]al "n ( legumes1 & ! fruits hav+ a h>d r9d1 af=d+ dr9ks1 & meats1 & o9tm5ts1 & good /ore ( *e/nuts & ! l1 :i* may be us$ to play )1 & are fruits :i* spoil ) keep+--& ! pleasant k9ds ( dess]t :i* console u aft] d9n]1 :5 we are full & tir$ ( eat+--all ^! t sacr$ isl& ly+ b5ea? ! sun br\ght =? fair & wondr\s 9 inf9ite abundance4 ,all ^! ?+s !y receiv$ f ! e>?1 & !y employ$ !mselves 9 con/ruct+ _! temples1 & palaces1 & h>bors & docks2 & !y arrang$ ! :ole c\ntry 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 fir/ ( all !y bridg$ ov] ! zones ( sea :i* surr\nd$ ! anci5t metropolis1 & made a passage into & out ( ! royal palace2 & !n !y began to build ! palace 9 ! habitation ( ! god & ( _! ance/ors4 ,?is !y cont9u$ to ornam5t 9 successive g5]ations1 e k+ surpass+ ! "o :o came be=e him to ! utmo/ ( 8 p[]1 until !y made ! build+ a m>vel to behold = size & = beauty4 ,&1 beg9n+ f ! sea1 !y dug a canal ?ree hundr$ feet 9 wid? & "o hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 & fifty /adia 9 l5g?1 :i* !y c>ri$ ?r\gh to ! out]mo/ zone1 mak+ a passage f ! sea up to ?is1 :i* became a h>bor1 & leav+ an op5+ suffici5t to enable ! l>ge/ vessels to f9d +ress4 ,moreov]1 !y divid$ ! zones ( l& :i* p>t$ ! zones ( sea1 con/ruct+ bridges ( su* a wid? z w\ld leave a passage = a s+le trireme to pass out ( "o into ano!r1 & ro($ !m ov]2 & !re 0 a way und]nea? = ! %ips1 = ! banks ( ! zones 7 rais$ consid]ably above ! wat]4 ,n[ ! l>ge/ ( ! zones into :i* a passage 0 cut f ! sea 0 ?ree /adia 9 bread?1 & ! zone ( l& :i* came next ( equal bread?2 b ! next two1 z well a zone ( wat] z ( l&1 7 two /adia1 & ! "o :i* surr\nd$ ! c5tral isl& 0 a /adium only 9 wid?4 ,! isl& 9 :i* ! palace 0 situat$ _h a diamet] ( five /adia4 ,?is1 & ! zones & ! bridge1 :i* 0 ! six? "p ( a /adium 9 wid?1 !y surr\nd$ by a /one wall1 on ei!r side plac+ t[]s1 & gates on ! bridges :]e ! sea pass$ 94 ,! /one :i* 0 us$ 9 ! "w !y qu>ri$ f und]nea? ! c5tre isl& & f und]nea? ! zones1 on ! out] z well z ! inn] side4 ,"o k9d ( /one 0 :ite1 ano!r black1 & a ?ird r$2 z !y qu>ri$1 !y at ! same "t holl[$ out decks1 d\ble )91 hav+ ro(s =m$ out ( ! native rock4 ,"s ( _! build+s 7 simple1 b 9 o!rs !y put toge!r diff]5t /ones1 :i* !y int]m+l$ = ! sake ( ornam5t1 to be a natural s\rce ( delight4 ,! entire circuit ( ! wall :i* w5t ar\nd ! out]mo/ "o !y cov]$ ) a coat+ ( brass1 & ! circuit ( ! next wall !y coat$ ) t91 & ! ?ird1 :i* encompass$ ! citadel1 fla%$ ) ! r$ light ( ori*alcum4 ,! palace 9 ! int]ior ( ! citadel 0 con/ruct$ 9 ?is wise3 9 ! c5tre 0 a holy temple1 d$icat$ to ,cleito & ,poseidon1 :i* rema9$ inaccessible1 & 0 surr\nd$ by an enclosure ( gold2 ?is 0 ! spot 9 :i* 0 orig9ally begott5 ! race ( t5 pr9ces1 & ?i!r !y annually br\ght ! fruits ( ! e>? 9 _! season f all ! t5 portions1 & p]=m$ sacrifices to ea* ( !m4 ,"h1 too1 0 ,poseidon's own temple1 ( a /adium 9 l5g? & half a /adium 9 wid?1 & ( a proportionate height1 hav+ a sort ( b>b>ic spl5dor4 ,all ! outside ( ! temple1 ) ! exception ( ! p9nacles1 !y cov]$ ) silv]1 & ! p9nacles ) gold4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! temple ! ro( 0 ( ivory1 adorn$ ev]y:]e ) gold & silv] & ori*alcum2 all ! o!r p>ts ( ! walls & pill>s & floor !y l9$ ) ori*alcum4 ,9 ! temple !y plac$ /atues ( gold3 !re 0 ! god himself /&+ 9 a *>iot--! *>iote] ( six w+$ horses--& ( su* a size t he t\*$ ! ro( ( ! build+ ) 8 head2 ar\nd him 7 a hundr$ ,n]eids rid+ on dolph9s1 = su* 0 ?\ght to be ! numb] ( !m 9 t day4 ,!re 7 also 9 ! int]ior ( ! temple o!r images :i* _h be5 d$icat$ by private individuals4 ,& ar\nd ! temple1 on ! outside1 7 plac$ /atues ( gold ( all ! t5 k+s & ( _! wives2 & !re 7 _m o!r great (f]+s1 bo? ( k+s & ( private individuals1 com+ bo? f ! city itself & ! =eign cities ov] :i* !y held sway4 ,!re 0 an alt>1 too1 :i* 9 size & workman%ip correspond$ to ! re/ ( ! "w1 & !re 7 palaces 9 l mann] :i* answ]$ to ! greatness ( ! k+dom & ! glory ( ! temple4 ,9 ! next place1 !y us$ f\nta9s bo? ( gold & hot spr+s4 ,^! 7 v abundant1 & bo? k9ds wond]fully adapt$ to use by reason ( ! sweetness & excell5ce ( _! wat]s4 ,!y con/ruct$ build+s ab\t !m1 & plant$ suitable trees2 also ci/]ns1 "s op5 to ! heav51 o!rs :i* !y ro($ ov]1 to be us$ 9 w9t] z w>m ba?s3 !re 7 ! k+'s ba?s1 & ! ba?s ( private p]sons1 :i* 7 kept ap>t2 also sep>ate ba?s = wom51 & o!rs aga9 = horses & cattle1 & to !m !y gave z mu* adornm5t z 0 suitable = !m4 ,! wat] :i* ran (f !y c>ri$1 "s to ! grove ( ,poseidon1 :]e 7 gr[+ all mann] ( trees ( wond]ful height & beauty1 ow+ to ! excell5ce ( ! soil2 ! rema9d] 0 convey$ by aqu$ucts :i* pass$ ov] ! bridges to ! out] circles3 & !re 7 _m temples built & d$icat$ to _m gods2 also g>d5s & places ( ex]cise1 "s = m51 & "s set ap>t = horses1 9 bo? ( ! two isl&s =m$ by ! zones2 & 9 ! c5tre ( ! l>g] ( ! two1 !re 0 a racec\rse ( a /adium 9 wid?1 & 9 l5g? all[$ to ext5d all r\nd ! isl&1 = horses to race 94 ,also !re 7 gu>d-h\ses at int]vals = ! body-gu>d1 ! m tru/$ ( :om _h _! duties appo9t$ to !m 9 ! less] zone1 :i* 0 ne>] ! ,acropolis2 :ile ! mo/ tru/$ ( all _h h\ses giv5 !m )9 ! citadel1 & ab\t ! p]sons ( ! k+s4 ,! docks 7 full ( triremes & naval /ores1 & all ?+s 7 q ready = use4 ,en\gh ( ! plan ( ! royal palace4 ,cross+ ! out] h>bors1 :i* 7 ?ree 9 numb]1 y w\ld come to a wall :i* began at ! sea & w5t all r\nd2 ?is 0 ev]y:]e di/ant fifty /adia f ! l>ge/ zone & h>bor1 & enclos$ ! :ole1 meet+ at ! m\? ( ! *annel t[>d ! sea4 ,! entire area 0 d5sely cr[d$ ) habitations2 & ! canal & ! l>ge/ ( ! h>bors 7 full ( vessels1 & m]*ants com+ f all p>ts1 :o1 f _! numb]s1 kept up a multitud9\s s\nd ( human voices & d9 ( all sorts1 night & day4 ,i h repeat$ 8 descriptions ( ! city & ! p>ts ab\t ! anci5t palace ne>ly z he gave !m1 & n[ ,i mu/ endeavor to describe ! nature & arrangem5t ( ! re/ ( ! c\ntry4 ,! :ole c\ntry 0 describ$ z be+ v l(ty & precipit\s on ! side ( ! sea1 b ! c\ntry imm$iately ab\t & surr\nd+ ! city 0 a level pla91 itself surr\nd$ by m\nta9s :i* desc5d$ t[>d ! sea2 x 0 smoo? & ev51 b ( an oblong %ape1 ext5d+ 9 "o direction ?ree ?\s& /adia1 & go+ up ! c\ntry f ! sea ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! isl& two ?\s& /adia2 ! :ole region ( ! isl& lies t[>d ! s\?1 & is %elt]$ f ! nor?4 ,! surr\nd+ m\nta9s 7 celebrat$ = _! numb] & size & beauty1 9 :i* !y exce$$ all t are n[ to be se5 any:]e2 hav+ 9 !m also _m weal?y inhabit$ villages1 & riv]s & lakes1 & mead[s supply+ food en\gh = e animal1 wild or tame1 & wood ( v>i\s sorts1 abundant = e k9d ( "w4 ,i w n[ describe ! pla91 :i* _h be5 cultivat$ dur+ _m ages by _m g5]ations ( k+s4 ,x 0 rectangul>1 & = ! mo/ "p /raight & oblong2 & :at x want$ ( ! /raight l9e foll[$ ! l9e ( ! circul> dit*4 ,! dep? & wid? & l5g? ( ?is dit* 7 incr$ible1 & gave ! impression t su* a "w1 9 addition to s _m o!r works1 c\ld h>dly h be5 wr\ght by ! h& ( man4 ,b ,i mu/ say :at ,i h he>d4 ,x 0 excavat$ to ! dep? ( a hundr$ feet1 & its bread? 0 a /adium ev]y:]e2 x 0 c>ri$ r\nd ! :ole ( ! pla91 & 0 t5 ?\s& /adia 9 l5g?4 ,x receiv$ ! /reams :i* came d[n ! m\nta9s1 & w9d+ r\nd ! pla91 & t\*+ ! city at v>i\s po9ts1 0 !re let (f into ! sea4 ,f above1 likewise1 /raight canals ( a hundr$ feet 9 wid? 7 cut 9 ! pla91 & aga9 let (f into ! dit*1 t[>d ! sea4 ,^! canals 7 at int]vals ( a hundr$ /adia1 & by !m !y br\ght d[n ! wood f ! m\nta9s to ! city1 & convey$ ! fruits ( ! e>? 9 %ips1 cutt+ transv]se passages f "o canal into ano!r1 & to ! city4 ,twice 9 ! ye> !y ga!r$ ! fruits ( ! e>?--9 w9t] hav+ ! b5efit ( ! ra9s1 & 9 summ] introduc+ ! wat] ( ! canals4 ,z to ! population1 ea* ( ! lots 9 ! pla9 _h an appo9t$ *ief ( m5 :o 7 fit = milit>y s]vice1 & ! size ( ! lot 0 to be a squ>e ( t5 /adia ea* way1 & ! total numb] ( all ! lots 0 sixty ?\s&4 ,& ( ! inhabitants1 ( ! m\nta9s & ( ! re/ ( ! c\ntry !re 0 also a va/ multitude hav+ lead]s1 to :om !y 7 assign$ accord+ to _! dwell+s & villages4 ,! lead] 0 requir$ to furni% = ! w>s ! six? portion ( a w>-*>iot1 s z to make up a total ( t5 ?\s& *>iots2 also two horses & rid]s ^u !m1 & a light *>iot )\t a seat1 accompani$ by a fight+ man on foot c>ry+ a small %ield1 & hav+ a *>iote] m\nt$ to guide ! horses2 also1 he 0 b\nd to furni% two heavy-arm$ m51 two ar*]s1 two sl+]s1 ?ree /one-%oot]s1 & ?ree javel9 m51 :o 7 skirmi%]s1 & f\r sailors1 to make up a complem5t ( twelve hundr$ %ips4 ,su* 0 ! ord] ( w> 9 ! royal city4 ,t ( ! o!r n9e gov]nm5ts 0 diff]5t 9 ea* ( !m1 & w\ld be we>isome to n>rate4 ,z to (fices & honors ! foll[+ 0 ! arrangem5t f ! fir/3 ea* ( ! t5 k+s1 9 8 own division & 9 8 own city1 _h ! absolute control ( ! citiz5s1 & 9 _m cases1 ( ! laws1 puni%+ & slay+ :omsoev] he w\ld4 ,n[ ! relations ( _! gov]nm5ts to "o ano!r 7 regulat$ by ! injunctions ( ,poseidon z ! law _h h&$ !m d[n4 ,^! 7 inscrib$ by ! fir/ m5 on a column ( ori*alcum1 :i* 0 situat$ 9 ! middle ( ! isl&1 at ! temple ( ,poseidon1 :i!r ! p 7 ga!r$ toge!r e fif? & six? ye>s alt]nately1 ?us giv+ equal honor to ! odd & to ! ev5 numb]4 ,& :5 !y 7 ga!r$ toge!r !y consult$ ab\t public affairs1 & inquir$ if any "o _h transgress$ 9 any?+1 & pass$ judgm5t on him accord+ly--& be=e !y pass$ judgm5t !y gave _! pl$ges to "o ano!r 9 ?is wise3 ,!re 7 bulls :o _h ! range ( ! temple ( ,poseidon2 & ! t5 :o 7 left alone 9 ! temple1 aft] !y _h (f]$ pray]s to ! gods t !y might take ! sacrifices :i* 7 acceptable to !m1 hunt$ ! bulls )\t weapons1 b ) /aves & nooses2 & ! bull :i* !y caught !y l$ up to ! column4 ,! victim 0 !n /ruck on ! head by !m1 & sla9 ov] ! sacr$ inscription4 ,n[ on ! column1 besides ! law1 !re 0 inscrib$ an oa? invok+ mighty curses on ! disob$i5t4 ,:51 !re=e1 aft] (f]+ sacrifices accord+ to _! cu/oms1 !y _h burnt ! limbs ( ! bull1 !y m+l$ a cup & ca/ 9 a clot ( blood = ea* ( !m4 ,! re/ ( ! victim !y took to ! fire1 aft] hav+ made a purification ( ! column all r\nd4 ,!y !n drew f ! cup 9 gold5 vessels1 &1 p\r+ a libation on ! fire1 !y swore t !y w\ld judge accord+ to ! laws on ! column1 & w\ld puni% any "o :o _h previ\sly transgress$1 & t = ! future !y w\ld n1 if !y c\ld help1 transgress any ( ! inscriptions1 & w\ld n comm&1 or obey any rul] :o comm&$ !m1 to act o!rwise ?an accord+ to ! laws ( _! fa!r ,poseidon4 ,?is 0 ! pray] :i* ea* ( !m (f]$ up = himself & = 8 family1 at ! same "t dr9k+1 & d$icat+ ! vessel 9 ! temple ( ! god2 &1 aft] sp5d+ "s necess>y "t at supp]1 :5 d>kness came on & ! fire ab\t ! sacrifice 0 cool1 all ( !m put on mo/ beautiful azure robes1 &1 sitt+ on ! gr\nd at night ne> ! emb]s ( ! sacrifices on :i* !y _h sworn1 & ext+ui%+ all ! fires ab\t ! temple1 !y receiv$ & gave judgm5t1 if any ( !m _h any accusation to br+ aga9/ any "o2 &1 :5 !y _h giv5 judgm5t1 at daybreak !y wrote d[n _! s5t5ces on a gold5 tablet1 & deposit$ !m z memorials ) _! robes4 ,!re 7 _m special laws :i* ! sev]al k+s _h inscrib$ ab\t ! temple1 b ! mo/ important 0 ! foll[+3 t !y 7 n to take up arms aga9/ "o ano!r1 & !y 7 all to come to ! rescue1 if any "o 9 any city attempt$ to ov]?r[ ! royal h\se4 ,l _! ance/ors1 !y 7 to delib]ate 9 common ab\t w> & o!r matt]s1 giv+ ! supremacy to ! family ( ,atlas2 & ! k+ 0 n to h ! p[] ( life or dea? ov] any ( 8 k9sm51 unless he _h ! ass5t ( ! majority ( ! t5 k+s4 ,su* 0 ! va/ p[] :i* ! god settl$ 9 ! lo/ isl& ( ,atlantis2 & ?is he aft]w>d direct$ aga9/ our l& on ! foll[+ pretext1 z traditions tell4 ,= _m g5]ations1 z long z ! div9e nature la/$ 9 !m1 !y 7 ob$i5t to ! laws1 & well-affection$ t[>d ! gods1 :o 7 _! k9sm51 = !y possess$ true & 9 e way great spirits1 practic+ g5tl5ess & wisdom 9 ! v>i\s *ances ( life1 & 9 _! int]c\rse ) "o ano!r4 ,!y despis$ ev]y?+ b virtue1 n c>+ = _! pres5t /ate ( life1 & ?9k+ lightly on ! possession ( gold1 & o!r prop]ty1 :i* seem$ only a burd5 to !m2 nei!r 7 !y intoxicat$ by luxury1 nor did weal? deprive !m ( _! self-control2 b !y 7 sob]1 & saw cle>ly t all ^! goods are increas$ by virtu\s fri5d%ip ) "o ano!r1 & t by excessive zeal = !m & honor ( !m1 ! good ( !m is lo/1 & fri5d%ip p]i%es ) !m4 ,by su* reflections1 & by ! cont9uance 9 !m ( a div9e nature1 all t :i* we h describ$ wax$ & increas$ 9 !m2 b :5 ?is div9e portion began to fade away 9 !m1 & became dilut$ too (t51 & ) too mu* ( ! mortal admixture1 & ! human nature got ! upp] h&1 !n1 !y be+ unable to be> _! =tune1 became unseemly1 & to him :o _h an eye to see1 !y began to appe> base1 & _h lo/ ! faire/ ( _! preci\s gifts2 b to ^? :o _h no eye to see ! true happ9ess !y /ill appe>$ glori\s & bless$ at ! v "t :5 !y 7 fill$ ) unrighte\s av>ice & p[]4 ,zeus1 ! god ( gods1 :o rules ) law1 & is able to see into su* ?+s1 p]ceiv+ t an honorable race 0 9 a mo/ wret*$ /ate1 & want+ to inflict puni%m5t on !m1 t !y might be *a/5$ & improv$1 collect$ all ! gods into 8 mo/ holy habitation1 :i*1 be+ plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! _w1 sees all ?+s t p>take ( g5]ations4 ,& :5 he _h call$ !m toge!r1 he spake z foll[s3 ,! /ory abruptly ends "h1 = ,plato left no fur!r record4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxix ,,nature',s ,,w>n+ ,,( ,,com+ ,,e>?quakes ,t !re are signs ( com+ e>?quakes :i* might be read by man1 _h he suffici5t k1 !re w\ld seem to be b little d\bt4 ,^! ph5om5a foll[ natural laws s t ! approa* ( an e>?quake mu/ necess>ily be 9 a def9ite ord] bo? z reg>ds ! ph5om5a :i* prec$e z well z ^? :i* foll[ x4 ,!re %\ld1 !re=e1 be signs t w\ld enable "o to pr$ict its com+1 al?\gh x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t ^! signs1 s f> z we actually "k1 are indi/9ct4 ,x may seem to ! un?9k+ & unobs]vant t ! awful cata/rophe ( an e>?quake comes entirely unh]ald$2 t1 app>5tly1 x is n until ! e>?'s surface beg9s to rock to & fro "u ! mighty =ces t are caus+ de/ruction t its pres5ce c be kn[n4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m reasons = believ+ t 91 p]haps1 ! greate/ numb] ( cases1 x might h be5 =ese51 if great] att5tion _h be5 giv5 to ! slight indications ( its probable approa* a %ort "t be=e its occurr5ce4 ,x is evid5t t ! conditions ( great pressure or /ress 9 ! e>?'s cru/ :i* f9ally result 9 a disa/r\s e>?quake h be5 sl[ly accumulat+ = a long "t1 & t :5 ! pressure at la/ rea*es a po9t :]e ! cru/ has to yield or slip1 ! gr\nd is sudd5ly cru%$ & toss$ to & fro :ile va/ fissures & *asms are produc$ 9 ! subt]ranean regions4 ,at ^? po9ts ( ! e>? imm$iately above or 9 ! neighborhood ( su* regions x is possible t !re are _m signs ( ! com+ quake2 &1 al?\gh indi/+ui%able by our dull] s5ses1 are readily appreciat$ by ! m highly develop$ s5ses ( ! l[] animals4 ,inde$1 _h we accu/om$ ourselves to read+ ! v>i\s indications ( nature z ! l[] animals h1 we1 too1 might be able to read ^! w>n+s ( ! com+ e>?quake4 ,at great di/ances f ! place :]e ! e>?quake />ts !re w\ld necess>ily be a bett] opportunity = pr$ict+ its approa*4 ,z already /at$1 :at is call$ an e>?quake does n consi/ ( a s+le %ak+ ( ! gr\nd1 b ( a highly complex s]ies ( %ak+s4 ,accord+ to ,mallet1 ! foll[+ waves />t at ! same "t f ! place ( orig9 ( an e>?quake1 :5 locat$ on ! b$ ( an ocean2 i4 e41 an e>? s\nd wave & a e>? wave con/itut+ ! e>?'s %ake2 a s\nd wave ?r\gh ! ocean1 ano!r ?r\gh ! air2 a sea wave call$ by him a =c$ sea wave1 & f9ally ! great sea wave4 ,^! waves rea* a di/ant po9t 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 ! s\nd wave ?r\gh ! e>? & ! great e>?quake or %ake :i* produces ! damage4 ,!n a small] sea wave call$ ! =c$ sea wave4 ,?is is foll[$ almo/ imm$iately by ! s\nd wave ?r\gh ! sea4 ,next come ! air s\nd wave & f9ally ! great sea wave2 :i*1 ru%+ 9 on ! %ore1 sweeps ne>ly ev]y?+ be=e x4 ,9 o!r words1 ! di/urbances produc$ by ! great e>?quake foll[ 9 ?is ord] ( sequ5ce4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! great e>?quake wave prop] transmitt$ ?r\gh ! e>? %\ld = any reason be delay$ 9 rea*+ a di/ant place1 ! great s\nd waves %\ld be able to give w>n+ ( ! com+ di/urbances4 ,aga91 z we h already se51 ! e>?quake wave is prec$$ by a numb] ( prelim9>y tremors1 & is foll[$ by a numb] ( aft] tremors or e>?quake e*oes4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 ! prelim9>y waves rea* a place fir/1 x w\ld seem t ! approa* ( an e>?quake mu/ be h]ald$ by ! prelim9>y tremors4 ,^!1 p]haps1 at lea/ 9 "p1 enable ! l[] animals to detect its com+4 ,aga91 9 almo/ all in/ances !re are a numb] ( prelim9>y %ocks t prec$e ! great e>?quake %ock4 ,"s ( ^! prelim9>y %ocks cont9ue at int]vals = sev]al days or ev5 long]4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ^! subt]ranean s\nds fail to be foll[$ by e>?quakes4 ,milne ?9ks t ^! s\nds are caus$ by ! prelim9>y tremors :i* prec$e ! pr9cipal %ock ( ! e>?quake & t !y rea* ! place fir/4 ,"h aga9 !n x is evid5t t1 7 we able to int]pret prop]ly ^! s\nds1 we w\ld probably be able to =etell ! com+ quake ) a fair degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,!re w\ld appe> to be no reasonable d\bt t 9 "s mann] :i* we h n yet be5 able to discov]1 b probably along "s ( ! l9es indicat$ above1 animals are capable ( recogniz+ a com+ e>?quake4 ,long be=e ! com+ ( ! cata/rophe !y are said to exhibit extreme t]ror1 & 9 _m cases appe> to seek ! companion%ip ( man1 z if = protection4 ,t ! s5ses ( smell & he>+ are f> m acute 9 ! l[] animals ?an 9 man no "o c reasonably d\bt4 ,! mann] 9 :i* a tra9$ dog c foll[ a sc5t1 = a long "t aft] ! animal or ?+ produc+ x has pass$1 f> exce$s ! p[] ( sc5t possess$ by man1 & x is m ?an likely t ?is same p[] is possess$ by all animals :o live ^u or prey ^u o!r animals4 ,x is probable t fa9tly odor\s vapors or gases escape f ! cru/ %ortly be=e ! great %ock occurs1 & t ^! fa9t odors are w>n+s to ! animals ( ! approa*+ calamity4 ,! s5se ( he>+ also is mu* m acute 9 ! l[] animals4 ,daub5y is evid5tly ( ?is belief1 z w be se5 f ! foll[+3 ,^! gases & vapors 7allud+ to emanations giv5 (f f ! gr\nd dur+ e>?quakes7 ex]t an influ5ce on ! b>omet]1 :i* does appe> to be indirectly affect$ by ! e>?quake4 ,!n1 simil> prop]ties also may occasion t uneas9ess :i* animals are said to ev9ce be=e any su* ev5t4 ,?us1 accord+ to ! acc\nts ( "s writ]s1 rats & mice leave _! holes1 alligators seek ! dry l&1 quadrup$s snuff ! gr\nd1 & manife/ su* signs ( ! imp5d+ calamity t 9 c\ntries :]e e>?quakes are common1 ! inhabitants take ! al>m 9 consequ5ce1 & escape f _! h\ses4 ,x is "r1 h[ev]1 to add1 t m rec5t au?orities dispute altoge!r ! correctness ( ^! /atem5ts4 ,dutton d\bts ! ability ( animals to =etell com+ e>?quake %ocks4 ,b t ! l[] animals d exhibit signs ( fe> at ! approa* ( an e>?quake has be5 repeat$ly ass]t$ by good obs]v]s4 ,hamilton1 :o made a c>eful exam9ation ( ! neighbor+ c\ntry dur+ ! great e>?quake at ,calabria1 ass]ts t horses & ox5 dur+ ! %ocks ext5d$ _! legs widely 9 ord] to avoid be+ ?r[n d[n1 & t hogs1 ox51 horses1 & mules1 & also geese1 appe>$ to be pa9fully aw>e ( ! approa* ( ! e>?quake ( ,calabria2 & ! neigh+ ( a horse1 ! bray+ ( an ass1 or ! cackl+ ( a goose1 ev5 :5 he 7,hamilton7 0 mak+ 8 survey 7aft] ! occurr5ce ( ! great e>?quake %ock71 drove ! p out ( _! tempor>y %$s 9 expectation ( a %ock4 ,x is ass]t$ t birds appe> to be especially s5sible to a com+ e>?quake %ock4 ,t geese w quit ! wat] 9 :i* !y 7 swimm+ be=e ! e>?quake & w n return to x4 ,x is q possible t ^! birds ) _! heads imm]s$ 9 ! wat] c he> ! di/ant murmur+s long be=e !y become audible 9 ! air4 ,von ,h(f makes ! foll[+ /atem5t3 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t at su* times 7imm$iately be=e ! com+ ( an e>?quake %ock71 dome/ic animals %[$ a decid$ uneas9ess1 dogs h[l$ m\rnfully1 horses neigh$ 9 an unusual mann]1 & p\ltry flew re/lessly ab\t4 ,^! latt] ph5om5a might easily be produc$ by mephitic vap\rs1 :i* (t5 asc5d to ! surface ( ! e>? be=e ! break+ out ( an e>?quake4 ,mallet /ates t !re is abundant evid5ce t e>?quake %ocks1 ev5 :5 n ( v great int5sity1 produce nausea 9 bo? m5 & wom54 ,?is w\ld seem natural1 s9ce1 z ev]yone kn[s1 until "o is accu/om$ to sea-voyages1 m]ely to be toss$ to & fro by ! motion ( ! waves results 9 ! production ( sea-sickness4 ,x has be5 also notic$ t dur+ e>?quakes fi% :i* "u ord9>y circum/ances live 9 ! mud at ! bottom ( bodies ( wat] come ne> to ! surface & at su* times c be caught 9 great numb]s4 ,mallet cites ! foll[+ effects produc$ by e>?quakes3 ,among/ ! effects suppos$ to be produc$ by ! e>?quake on ! atmosph]e 7 reckon$ tempe/u\s w9ds1 ?und]-/orms1 meteors1 coldness ( ! air1 sev]e w9t]s1 heavy ra9s1 miasmata1 produc+ diseases & affect+ vegetation4 ,a v rem>kable in/ance ( ! latt] is quot$1 namely1 t 9 ,p]u1 aft] ! e>?quake ( #afhg1 :eat & b>ley w\ld n ?rive at all1 ?\gh =m]ly ! c\ntry 0 rem>kably fav\rable = !m4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell notes ! foll[+ ph5om5a att5d+ e>?quakes3 ,irregul>ities 9 ! seasons prec$+ or foll[+ ! %ocks2 sudd5 gu/s ( w9d1 int]rupt$ by dead calms2 viol5t ra9s at unusual seasons1 or 9 c\ntries :]e1 z a rule1 !y are almo/ unkn[n2 a r$d5+ ( ! sun's disk1 & haz9ess 9 ! air1 (t5 cont9u$ = mon?s2 an evolution ( electric matt]1 or ( inflammable gas f ! soil1 ) sulphur\s & mephitic vap\rs2 noises und]gr\nd1 l ! runn+ ( c>riages1 or ! dis*>ge ( artill]y1 or di/ant ?und]2 animals utt]+ cries ( di/ress1 & ev9c+ extraord9>y al>m1 be+ m s5sitive ?an m5 to ! slighte/ movem5t2 a s5sation l sea-sickness1 & a dizz9ess 9 ! head1 exp]i5c$ by m54 ,^!1 & o!r ph5om5a1 less connect$ ) our pres5t subject z geologi/s1 h recurr$ aga9 & aga9 at di/ant ages1 & 9 all p>ts ( ! globe4 ,,! ,,end ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,a po9t on ! o!r side ( ! e>? directly opposite a giv5 po9t4 ,footnote #b3 ,a fracture ( a /ratum1 or a g5]al rock mass1 ) a relative displacem5t ( ! opposite sides ( ! break4 ,! plane or fracture ( a fault1 kn[n z ! fault-plane1 is seldom v]tical4 ,! high] side is call$ ! heav$ or up?r[ side2 ! opposite side ! ?r[n or d[n?r[ side4 ,footnote #c3 ,tectonic ,e>?quake4 ,an e>?quake due to ! sudd5 slip ( fault$ /rata4 ,footnote #d3 ,i4 e41 burnt out m\nta91 ext9ct volcano4 ,footnote #e3 ,epic5tre4 ,a po9t on ! surface ( ! e>? v]tically above ! po9t ( orig9 ( an e>?quake1 or ! place :]e x />ts4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,obvi\s pr9t] errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,"s illu/rations h be5 mov$ to p>agraph breaks4 ,page #dc3 ,kamehamoha c\ld be a typo = ,kamehameha4 ,page #fh3 ,*ang$ salt] to salti]4 7,orig3 ano!r ) wat] salt] ?an ! sea17 ,page #gf3 ,*ang$ ,ena to ,etna4 7,orig3 dur+ 8 "t ,mt4 ,ena _h lo/ s mu* ( its height7 ,page #aae3 eruption dur+ ! w9t] ( #ahda-dc1 c\ld be a typo = #ahda-db or #ahdb-dc4 ,page #abb3 ,mont ,pele c\ld be a typo = ,m\nt ,pele4 ,page #acf3 #dc ,c4 7#aji #d' ,f474 c\ld be a typo = 7#aji4d ,f474 ,page #cda3 ,*ang$ "o-eight to "o-eigh?4 7,orig3 ,x 0 equal to "o-eight ( a ,roman mile7 ,reta9$ ! foll[+ spell+ v>iations3 ,page #di3 ,! l>ge/ volcano 9 ,icel&1 ! ,dyngjufkll1 ,page #eg3 ,! l>ge/ volcano 9 ,icel& is ,dyngjufjoll4 ,pages #eb1 #aic1 #caa3 ,geikie ,page #aha3 ,geicke ,pages #ag1 #aef1 #beg3 ,h9do/an ,page #afe3 ,h9du/an ,page #fc3 ,lucullis ,page #gf3 ,lucullus