,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god ,,is         
,,within ,,you      ,illustration3      
titlepage      ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of     
,,god ,,is    ,,within ,,you            
,,christianity ,,not ,,as ,a ,,mystic   
,,religion    ,,but ,,as ,a ,,new       
,,theory ,,of ,,life      ,,translated  
,,from ,,the ,,russian ,,of    ,,count  
,,leo ,,tolstoy      ,,by    ,,constance
 ,,garnett      ,,new ,,york    ,,the   
,,cassell ,,publishing ,,co4    #ca     
,,east #ag,,th ,,st4 7,,union ,,square7 
,,copyright1 #ahid1 ,,by    ,,the       
,,cassell ,,publishing ,,co4      ,all  
rights reserved4      ,,the ,,mershon   
,,company ,,press1    ,,rahway1 ,n4 ,j4 
,,translator',s ,,preface4      ,the    
book ,i have had the privilege of       
translating is1 undoubtedly1  one of the
 most remarkable studies of the social  
and psychological  condition of the     
modern world which has appeared in      
,europe for many  years1 and its        
influence is sure to be lasting and far 
reaching4  ,tolstoy's genius is beyond  

dispute4 ,the verdict of the civilized  
world has pronounced him as perhaps the 
greatest novelist of our  generation4   
,but the philosophical and religious    
works of his later  years have met with 
a somewhat indifferent reception4 ,they 
have  been much talked about1 simply    
because they were his work1 but1 as     
,tolstoy himself complains1 they have   
never been seriously discussed4  ,i     
hardly think that he will have to repeat
 the complaint in regard  to the present
 volume4 ,one may disagree with his     
views1 but no one  can seriously deny   
the originality1 boldness1 and depth of 
the social  conception which he develops
 with such powerful logic4 ,the novelist
  has shown in this book the religious  
fervor and spiritual insight  of the    
prophet2 yet one is pleased to recognize
 that the artist is  not wholly lost in 
the thinker4 ,the subtle intuitive      
perception of  the psychological basis  
of the social position1 the analysis of 
the  frame of mind of oppressors and    

oppressed1 and of the intoxication of   
,authority and ,servility1 as well as   
the purely descriptive passages  in the 
last chapter--these could only have come
 from the author of  ,war and ,peace4   
,the book will surely give all classes  
of readers much to think of1  and must  
call forth much criticism4 ,it must be  
refuted by those who  disapprove of its 
teaching1 if they do not want it to have
 great  influence4    ,one cannot of    
course anticipate that ,english people1 
slow as they are  to be influenced by   
ideas1 and instinctively distrustful of 
all that  is logical1 will take a leap  
in the dark and attempt to put          
,tolstoy's  theory of life into         
practice4 ,but one may at least be sure 
that his  destructive criticism of the  
present social and political rgime  will
 become a powerful force in the work of 
disintegration and social               
reconstruction which is going on around 
us4 ,many earnest thinkers  who1 like   
,tolstoy1 are struggling to find their  

way out of the  contradictions of our   
social order will hail him as their     
spiritual  guide4 ,the individuality of 
the author is felt in every line of his 
work1 and even the most prejudiced      
cannot resist the fascination  of his   
genuineness1 sincerity1 and profound    
earnestness4 ,whatever  comes from a    
heart such as his1 swelling with anger  
and pity at the  sufferings of humanity1
 cannot fail to reach the hearts of     
others4 ,no  reader can put down the    
book without feeling himself better and 
more  truth-loving for having read it4  
,many readers may be disappointed with  
the opening chapters of the  book4      
,tolstoy disdains all attempt to        
captivate the reader4 ,he  begins by    
laying what he considers to be the      
logical foundation  of his doctrines1   
stringing together quotations from      
little-known  theological writers1 and  
he keeps his own incisive logic for the 
later part of the book4    ,one word as 
to the translation4 ,tolstoy's style in 

his religious and  philosophical works  
differs considerably from that of his   
novels4  ,he no longer cares about the  
form of his work1 and his style is      
often slipshod1 involved1 and diffuse4  
,it has been my aim to give a  faithful 
reproduction of the original4           
,,constance ,,garnett4    ,january1     
#ahid4          ,,preface4      ,in the 
year #ahhd ,i wrote a book under the    
title ,what ,i ,believe1 in  which ,i   
did in fact make a sincere statement of 
my beliefs4    ,in affirming my belief  
in ,christ's teaching1 ,i could not help
  explaining why ,i do not believe1 and 
consider as mistaken1 the  ,church's    
doctrine1 which is usually called       
,christianity4    ,among the many points
 in which this doctrine falls short of  
the  doctrine of ,christ ,i pointed out 
as the principal one the absence of  any
 commandment of non-resistance to evil  
by force4 ,the perversion  of ,christ's 
teaching by the teaching of the ,church 
is more clearly  apparent in this than  

in any other point of difference4    ,i 
know--as we all do--very little of the  
practice and the spoken and  written    
doctrine of former times on the subject 
of non-resistance to  evil4 ,i knew what
 had been said on the subject by the    
fathers of the  ,church--,origen1       
,tertullian1 and others--,i knew too of 
the existence  of some so-called sects  
of ,mennonites1 ,herrnhuters1 and       
,quakers1  who do not allow a ,christian
 the use of weapons1 and do not enter   
military service2 but ,i knew little of 
what had been done by these  so-called  
sects toward expounding the question4   
,my book was1 as ,i had anticipated1    
suppressed by the ,russian  censorship2 
but partly owing to my literary         
reputation1 partly  because the book had
 excited people's curiosity1 it         
circulated  in manuscript and in        
lithographed copies in ,russia and      
through  translations abroad1 and it    
evoked1 on one side1 from those who     
shared my convictions1 a series of      

essays with a great deal of  information
 on the subject1 on the other side a    
series of criticisms  on the principles 
laid down in my book4    ,a great deal  
was made clear to me by both hostile and
 sympathetic  criticism1 and also by the
 historical events of late years2 and ,i
 was  led to fresh results and          
conclusions1 which ,i wish now to       
expound4    ,first ,i will speak of the 
information ,i received on the history  
of  the question of non-resistance to   
evil2 then of the views of this         
question maintained by spiritual        
critics1 that is1 by professed          
believers in the ,christian religion1   
and also by temporal ones1 that  is1    
those who do not profess the ,christian 
religion2 and lastly ,i  will speak of  
the conclusions to which ,i have been   
brought by all  this in the light of the
 historical events of late years4       
,l4 ,,tolstoy4    ,,yasna,a ,,poliana1  
,may #ad_/bf1 #ahic4                    
,,contents4        ,,chapter            

,,page         ,i4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of
 ,,non-,,resistance ,,to ,,evil ,,by    
,,force           ,,has ,,been          
,,professed ,,by ,a ,,minority ,,of     
,,men ,,from           ,,the ,,very     
,,foundation ,,of ,,christianity1       
#a        ,,ii4 ,,criticisms ,,of ,,the 
,,doctrine ,,of ,,non-,,resistance ,,to 
,,evil ,,by ,,force ,,on ,,the ,,part   
,,of ,,believers ,,and ,,of             
,,unbelievers1                          
#bi       ,,iii4 ,,christianity         
,,misunderstood ,,by ,,believers1       
#dh        ,,iv4 ,,christianity         
,,misunderstood ,,by ,,men ,,of         
,,science1           #he         ,v4    
,,contradiction ,,between ,,our ,,life  
,,and ,,our ,,christian                 
,,conscience1                           
#aji        ,,vi4 ,,attitude ,,of ,,men 
,,of ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,to ,,war1  
#acc       ,,vii4 ,,significance ,,of   
,,compulsory ,,service1                 
#afd      ,,viii4 ,,doctrine ,,of       
,,non-,,resistance ,,to ,,evil ,,by     

,,force ,,must           ,,inevitably   
,,be ,,accepted ,,by ,,men ,,of ,,the   
,,present           ,,day1              
#ahd        ,,ix4 ,,the ,,acceptance    
,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,conception ,,of
           ,,life ,,will ,,emancipate   
,,men ,,from ,,the ,,miseries           
,,of ,,our ,,pagan ,,life1              
#bjh         ,x4 ,,evil ,,cannot ,,be   
,,suppressed ,,by ,,the ,,physical      
,,force           ,,of ,,the            
,,government--,,the ,,moral ,,progress  
,,of           ,,humanity ,,is ,,brought
 ,,about ,,not ,,only ,,by ,,individual 
,,recognition ,,of ,,the ,,truth1 ,,but 
,,also           ,,through ,,the        
,,establishment ,,of ,a ,,public        
,,opinion1        #bce       ,,xi4 ,,the
 ,,christian ,,conception ,,of ,,life   
,,has ,,already          ,,arisen ,,in  
,,our ,,society1 ,,and ,,will           
,,infallibly ,,put          ,,an ,,end  
,,to ,,the ,,present ,,organization ,,of
 ,,our ,,life          ,,based ,,on     
,,force--,,when ,,that ,,will ,,be1     

#bfd      ,,xii4 ,,conclusion--,,repent 
,,ye1 ,,for ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of        
,,heaven ,,is ,,at ,,hand1              
#bgh               ,ye shall know the   
truth1 and the truth shall make you     
free4--,,john viii4 #cb4         ,fear  
not them which kill the body1 but are   
not able to kill the       soul2 but    
rather fear him which is able to destroy
 both soul and       body in            
hell4--,,matt4 x4 #bh4         ,ye have 
been bought with a price2 be not ye the 
servants of       men4--#a ,,cor4 vii4  
#bc4          ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god
 ,,is ,,within ,,you4          ,,chapter
 ,i4         ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of      
,,non-,,resistance ,,to ,,evil ,,by     
,,force ,,has ,,been       ,,professed  
,,by ,a ,,minority ,,of ,,men ,,from    
,,the ,,very ,,foundation ,,of          
,,christianity4         ,of the ,book   
,what ,i ,believe--,the ,correspondence 
,evoked       by it--,letters from      
,quakers--,garrison's                   
,declaration--,adin       ,ballou1 his  

,works1 his ,catechism--,helchitsky's   
,net of       ,faith--,the ,attitude of 
the ,world to ,works ,elucidating       
,christ's       ,teaching--,dymond's    
,book ,on ,war--,musser's               
,non-resistance                         
,asserted--,attitude of the ,government 
in #ahah to ,men who ,refused       to  
,serve in the ,army--,hostile ,attitude 
of ,governments ,generally       and of 
,liberals to ,those who ,refuse to      
,assist in ,acts of ,state              
,violence1 and their ,conscious ,efforts
 to ,silence and ,suppress       these  
,manifestations of ,christian           
,non-resistance4      ,among the first  
responses called forth by my book were  
some letters  from ,american ,quakers4  
,in these letters1 expressing their     
sympathy  with my views on the          
unlawfulness for a ,christian of war and
 the  use of force of any kind1 the     
,quakers gave me details of their own   
so-called sect1 which for more than two 
hundred years has actually  professed   

the teaching of ,christ on              
non-resistance to evil by force1  and   
does not make use of weapons in         
self-defense4 ,the ,quakers sent  me    
also their pamphlets1 journals1 and     
books1 from which ,i learnt  how they   
had1 years ago1 established beyond doubt
 the duty for a  ,christian of          
fulfilling the command of non-resistance
 to evil by  force1 and had exposed the 
error of the ,church's teaching in      
allowing  war and capital punishment4   
,in a whole series of arguments and     
texts showing that war--that is1  the   
wounding and killing of men--is         
inconsistent with a religion  founded on
 peace and good will toward men1 the    
,quakers maintain  and prove that       
nothing has contributed so much to the  
obscuring of  ,christian truth in the   
eyes of the heathen1 and has hindered so
 much  the diffusion of ,christianity   
through the world1 as the disregard of  
this command by men calling themselves  
,christians1 and the permission  of war 

and violence to ,christians4            
,christ's teaching1 which came to be    
known to men1 not by means of  violence 
and the sword1 they say1 but by means of
 non-resistance to  evil1 gentleness1   
meekness1 and peaceableness1 can only be
 diffused  through the world by the     
example of peace1 harmony1 and love     
among  its followers4    ,a ,christian1 
according to the teaching of ,god       
himself1 can act only  peaceably toward 
all men1 and therefore there can be no  
authority  able to force the ,christian 
to act in opposition to the teaching of 
,god and to the principal virtue of the 
,christian in his relation with  his    
neighbors4    ,the law of state         
necessity1 they say1 can force only     
those to  change the law of ,god who1   
for the sake of earthly gains1 try to   
reconcile the irreconcilable2 but for a 
,christian who sincerely  believes that 
following ,christ's teaching will give  
him salvation1  such considerations of  
state can have no force4    ,further    

acquaintance with the labors of the     
,quakers and their  works--with ,fox1   
,penn1 and especially the work of       
,dymond 7published  in #ahbg7--showed me
 not only that the impossibility of     
reconciling  ,christianity with force   
and war had been recognized long1 long  
ago1  but that this irreconcilability   
had been long ago proved so clearly  and
 so indubitably that one could only     
wonder how this impossible              
reconciliation of ,christian teaching   
with the use of force1 which  has been1 
and is still1 preached in the churches1 
could have been  maintained in spite of 
it4    ,in addition to what ,i learned  
from the ,quakers ,i received about the 
same time1 also from ,america1 some     
information on the subject from a       
source perfectly distinct and previously
 unknown to me4    ,the son of ,william 
,lloyd ,garrison1 the famous champion of
 the  emancipation of the negroes1 wrote
 to me that he had read my book1 in     
which he found ideas similar to those   

expressed by his father in the  year    
#ahch1 and that1 thinking it would be   
interesting to me to know  this1 he sent
 me a declaration or proclamation of    
non-resistance  drawn up by his father  
nearly fifty years ago4    ,this        
declaration came about under the        
following circumstances3  ,william      
,lloyd ,garrison took part in a         
discussion on the means of  suppressing 
war in the ,society for the             
,establishment of ,peace among  ,men1   
which existed in #ahch in ,america4 ,he 
came to the conclusion  that the        
establishment of universal peace can    
only be founded on  the open profession 
of the doctrine of non-resistance to    
evil by  violence 7,matt4 v4 #ci71 in   
its full significance1 as understood by 
the ,quakers1 with whom ,garrison       
happened to be on friendly relations4   
,having come to this conclusion1        
,garrison thereupon composed and laid   
before the society a declaration1 which 
was signed at the time--in  #ahch--;by  

many members4         ,,declaration ,,of
 ,,sentiments ,,adopted ,,by ,,the      
,,peace ,,convention4                   
,,boston1 #ahch4         ,we1 the       
undersigned1 regard it as due to        
ourselves1 to the       cause which we  
love1 to the country in which we live1  
to       publish a declaration          
expressive of the purposes we aim to    
accomplish and the measures we shall    
adopt to carry forward the       work of
 peaceful universal reformation4        
,we do not acknowledge allegiance to any
 human government4       ,we recognize  
but one ,king and ,lawgiver1 one ,judge 
and ,ruler       of mankind4 ,our       
country is the world1 our countrymen are
 all       mankind4 ,we love the land of
 our nativity only as we love all       
other lands4 ,the interests and rights  
of ,american citizens are       not     
dearer to us than those of the whole    
human race4 ,hence we       can allow no
 appeal to patriotism to revenge any    
national insult       or injury4444     

,we conceive that a nation has no right 
to defend itself against       foreign  
enemies or to punish its invaders1 and  
no individual       possesses that right
 in his own case1 and the unit cannot be
 of       greater importance than the   
aggregate4 ,if soldiers thronging       
from abroad with intent to commit rapine
 and destroy life may       not be      
resisted by the people or the           
magistracy1 then ought no               
resistance to be offered to domestic    
troublers of the public       peace or  
of private security4         ,the dogma 
that all the governments of the world   
are approvingly       ordained of ,god1 
and that the powers that be in the      
,united       ,states1 in ,russia1 in   
,turkey1 are in accordance with his     
will1       is no less absurd than      
impious4 ,it makes the impartial ,author
       of our existence unequal and     
tyrannical4 ,it cannot be affirmed      
that the powers that be in any nation   
are actuated by the spirit       or     

guided by the example of ,christ in the 
treatment of enemies2       therefore   
they cannot be agreeable to the will of 
,god1 and       therefore their         
overthrow by a spiritual regeneration of
 their       subjects is inevitable4    
,we regard as unchristian and unlawful  
not only all wars1       whether        
offensive or defensive1 but all         
preparations for       war2 every naval 
ship1 every arsenal1 every              
fortification1       we regard as       
unchristian and unlawful2 the existence 
of any       kind of standing army1 all 
military chieftains1 all monuments      
commemorative of victory over a fallen  
foe1 all trophies won       in battle1  
all celebrations in honor of military   
exploits1 all       appropriations for  
defense by arms2 we regard as           
unchristian and       unlawful every    
edict of government requiring of its    
subjects       military service4        
,hence we deem it unlawful to bear arms1
 and we cannot hold       any office    

which imposes on its incumbent the      
obligation to       compel men to do    
right on pain of imprisonment or death4 
,we       therefore voluntarily exclude 
ourselves from every legislative        
and judicial body1 and repudiate all    
human politics1 worldly       honors1   
and stations of authority4 ,if we cannot
 occupy a seat       in the legislature 
or on the bench1 neither can we elect   
others       to act as our substitutes  
in any such capacity4 ,it follows that  
we cannot sue any man at law to force   
him to return anything he       may have
 wrongly taken from us2 if he has seized
 our coat1 we       shall surrender him 
our cloak also rather than subject him  
to       punishment4         ,we believe
 that the penal code of the old         
covenant--an eye for       an eye1 and a
 tooth for a tooth--has been abrogated  
by ,jesus       ,christ1 and that under 
the new covenant the forgiveness instead
       of the punishment of enemies has 
been enjoined on all his       disciples

 in all cases whatsoever4 ,to extort    
money from enemies1       cast them into
 prison1 exile or execute them1 is      
obviously not       to forgive but to   
take retribution4         ,the history  
of mankind is crowded with evidences    
proving that       physical coercion is 
not adapted to moral regeneration1 and  
that       the sinful dispositions of   
men can be subdued only by love2 that   
evil can be exterminated only by good2  
that it is not safe to       rely upon  
the strength of an arm to preserve us   
from harm2 that       there is great    
security in being gentle1               
long-suffering1 and       abundant in   
mercy2 that it is only the meek who     
shall inherit       the earth2 for those
 who take up the sword shall perish by  
the       sword4         ,hence as a    
measure of sound policy--of safety to   
property1       life1 and liberty--of   
public quietude and private             
enjoyment--as       well as on the      
ground of allegiance to ,him who is     

,king of       kings and ,lord of lords1
 we cordially adopt the non-resistance  
principle1 being confident that it      
provides for all possible               
consequences1 is armed with omnipotent  
power1 and must       ultimately triumph
 over every assailing force4         ,we
 advocate no ,jacobinical doctrines4    
,the spirit of ,jacobinism       is the 
spirit of retaliation1 violence1 and    
murder4 ,it neither       fears ,god nor
 regards man4 ,we would be filled with  
the spirit of       ,christ4 ,if we     
abide by our fundamental principle of   
not opposing       evil by evil we      
cannot participate in sedition1 treason1
       or violence4 ,we shall submit to 
every ordinance and every               
requirement of government1 except such  
as are contrary to the       commands of
 the ,gospel1 and in no case resist the 
operation of       law1 except by meekly
 submitting to the penalty of           
disobedience4         ,but while we     
shall adhere to the doctrine of         

non-resistance       and passive        
submission to enemies1 we purpose1 in a 
moral and       spiritual sense1 to     
assail iniquity in high places and in   
low       places1 to apply our          
principles to all existing evil1        
political1       legal1 and             
ecclesiastical institutions1 and to     
hasten the time       when the kingdoms 
of this world will have become the      
kingdom of       our ,lord ,jesus       
,christ4 ,it appears to us a            
self-evident truth       that whatever  
the ,gospel is designed to destroy at   
any period       of the world1 being    
contrary to it1 ought now to be         
abandoned4       ,if1 then1 the time is 
predicted when swords shall be beaten   
into plowshares and spears into pruning 
hooks1 and men shall       not learn the
 art of war any more1 it follows that   
all who       manufacture1 sell1 or     
wield these deadly weapons do thus array
       themselves against the peaceful  
dominion of the ,son of ,god on         

earth4         ,having thus stated our  
principles1 we proceed to specify the   
measures we propose to adopt in carrying
 our object into effect4         ,we    
expect to prevail through the           
,foolishness of ,preaching4 ,we         
shall endeavor to promulgate our views  
among all persons1 to       whatever    
nation1 sect1 or grade of society they  
may belong4       ,hence we shall       
organize public lectures1 circulate     
tracts and       publications1 form     
societies1 and petition every governing 
body4       ,it will be our leading     
object to devise ways and means for     
effecting a radical change in the views1
 feelings1 and practices       of       
society respecting the sinfulness of war
 and the treatment of       enemies4    
,in entering upon the great work before 
us1 we are not unmindful       that in  
its prosecution we may be called to test
 our sincerity       even as in a fiery 
ordeal4 ,it may subject us to insult1   
outrage1       suffering1 yea1 even     

death itself4 ,we anticipate no small   
amount       of misconception1          
misrepresentation1 and calumny4 ,tumults
 may       arise against us4 ,the proud 
and pharisaical1 the ambitious and      
tyrannical1 principalities and powers1  
may combine to crush       us4 ,so they 
treated the ,messiah whose example we   
are humbly       striving to imitate4   
,we shall not be afraid of their terror4
       ,our confidence is in the ,lord  
,almighty and not in man4 ,having       
withdrawn from human protection1 what   
can sustain us but that       faith     
which overcomes the world8 ,we shall not
 think it strange       concerning the  
fiery trial which is to try us1 but     
rejoice       inasmuch as we are        
partakers of ,christ's sufferings4      
,wherefore we commit the keeping of our 
souls to ,god4 ,for every       one that
 forsakes houses1 or brethren1 or       
sisters1 or father1 or       mother1 or 
wife1 or children1 or lands for         
,christ's sake1 shall       receive a   

hundredfold1 and shall inherit          
everlasting life4         ,firmly       
relying upon the certain and universal  
triumph of the       sentiments         
contained in this declaration1 however  
formidable       may be the opposition  
arrayed against them1 we hereby affix   
our       signatures to it2 commending  
it to the reason and conscience       of
 mankind1 and resolving1 in the strength
 of the ,lord ,god1 to       calmly and 
meekly abide the issue4    ,immediately 
after this declaration a ,society for   
,non-resistance  was founded by         
,garrison1 and a journal called the     
,non-resistant1  in which the doctrine  
of non-resistance was advocated in its  
full  significance and in all its       
consequences1 as it had been expounded  
in  the declaration4 ,further           
information as to the ultimate destiny  
of  the society and the journal ,i      
gained from the excellent biography of  
,w4 ,l4 ,garrison1 the work of his son4 
,the society and the journal did not    

exist for long4 ,the greater  number of 
,garrison's fellow-workers in the       
movement for the  liberation of the     
slaves1 fearing that the too radical    
programme  of the journal1 the          
,non-resistant1 might keep people away  
from  the practical work of             
negro-emancipation1 gave up the         
profession  of the principle of         
non-resistance as it had been expressed 
in the  declaration1 and both society   
and journal ceased to exist4    ,this   
declaration of ,garrison's gave so      
powerful and eloquent an  expression of 
a confession of faith of such importance
 to men1 that  one would have thought it
 must have produced a strong impression 
on  people1 and have become known       
throughout the world and the subject of 
discussion on every side4 ,but nothing  
of the kind occurred4 ,not only  was it 
unknown in ,europe1 even the ,americans1
 who have such a high  opinion of       
,garrison1 hardly knew of the           
declaration4    ,another champion of    

non-resistance has been overlooked in   
the same  way--the ,american ,adin      
,ballou1 who lately died1 after spending
 fifty  years in preaching this         
doctrine4 ,how great the ignorance is of
  everything relating to the question of
 non-resistance may be seen  from the   
fact that ,garrison the son1 who has    
written an excellent  biography of his  
father in four great volumes1 in answer 
to my  inquiry whether there are        
existing now societies for              
non-resistance1  and adherents of the   
doctrine1 told me that as far as he knew
 that  society had broken up1 and that  
there were no adherents of that         
doctrine1 while at the very time when he
 was writing to me there was  living1 at
 ,hopedale in ,massachusetts1 ,adin     
,ballou1 who had taken part  in the     
labors of ,garrison the father1 and had 
devoted fifty years of  his life to     
advocating1 both orally and in print1   
the doctrine of  non-resistance4 ,later 
on ,i received a letter from ,wilson1 a 

pupil and  colleague of ,ballou's1 and  
entered into correspondence with ,ballou
  himself4 ,i wrote to ,ballou1 and he  
answered me and sent me his works4      
,here is the summary of some extracts   
from them3    ,jesus ,christ is my ,lord
 and teacher1 says ,ballou in one of his
  essays exposing the inconsistency of  
,christians who allowed a right  of     
self-defense and of warfare4 ,i have    
promised1 leaving all else1  to follow  
him1 through good and through evil1 to  
death itself4 ,but  ,i am a citizen of  
the democratic republic of the ,united  
,states2 and  in allegiance to it ,i    
have sworn to defend the ,constitution  
of my  country1 if need be1 with my     
life4 ,christ requires of me to do unto 
others as ,i would they should do unto  
me4 ,the ,constitution of the  ,united  
,states requires of me to do unto two   
millions of slaves at  that time there  
were slaves2 now one might venture to   
substitute the  word 'laborers' the very
 opposite of what ,i would they should  

do  unto me--that is1 to help to keep   
them in their present condition of      
slavery4 ,and1 in spite of this1 ,i     
continue to elect or be elected1 ,i     
propose to vote1 ,i am even ready to be 
appointed to any office under           
government4 ,that will not hinder me    
from being a ,christian4 ,i shall  still
 profess ,christianity1 and shall find  
no difficulty in carrying  out my       
covenant with ,christ and with the      
government4    ,jesus ,christ forbids me
 to resist evil doers1 and to take from 
them  an eye for an eye1 a tooth for a  
tooth1 bloodshed for bloodshed1 and     
life for life4    ,my government demands
 from me quite the opposite1 and bases a
 system  of self-defense on gallows1    
musket1 and sword1 to be used against   
its  foreign and domestic foes4 ,and the
 land is filled accordingly with        
gibbets1 prisons1 arsenals1 ships of    
war1 and soldiers4    ,in the           
maintenance and use of these expensive  
appliances for murder1  we can very     

suitably exercise to the full the       
virtues of forgiveness  to those who    
injure us1 love toward our enemies1     
blessings to those  who curse us1 and   
doing good to those who hate us4    ,for
 this we have a succession of ,christian
 priests to pray for us  and beseech the
 blessing of ,heaven on the holy work of
 slaughter4    ,i see all this 7i4 e41  
the contradiction between profession and
  practice71 and ,i continue to profess 
religion and take part in  government1  
and pride myself on being at the same   
time a devout  ,christian and a devoted 
servant of the government4 ,i do not    
want  to agree with these senseless     
notions of non-resistance4 ,i cannot    
renounce my authority and leave only    
immoral men in control of the           
government4 ,the ,constitution says the 
government has the right to  declare    
war1 and ,i assent to this and support  
it1 and swear that ,i  will support it4 
,and ,i do not for that cease to be a   
,christian4 ,war1  too1 is a ,christian 

duty4 ,is it not a ,christian duty to   
kill hundreds  of thousands of one's    
fellow-men1 to outrage women1 to raze   
and burn  towns1 and to practice every  
possible cruelty8 ,it is time to dismiss
  all these false sentimentalities4 ,it 
is the truest means of forgiving        
injuries and loving enemies4 ,if we only
 do it in the spirit of love1  nothing  
can be more ,christian than such murder4
    ,in another pamphlet1 entitled ,how 
many ,men are ,necessary to ,change a   
,crime into a ,virtue8 he says3 ,one man
 may not kill4 ,if he kills a           
fellow-creature1 he is a murderer4 ,if  
two1 ten1 a hundred men do so1  they1   
too1 are murderers4 ,but a government or
 a nation may kill as  many men as it   
chooses1 and that will not be murder1   
but a great and  noble action4 ,only    
gather the people together on a large   
scale1 and a  battle of ten thousand men
 becomes an innocent action4 ,but       
precisely  how many people must there be
 to make it so8--that is the question4  

,one man cannot plunder and pillage1 but
 a whole nation can4 ,but  precisely how
 many are needed to make it permissible8
 ,why is it that  one man1 ten1 a       
hundred1 may not break the law of ,god1 
but a great  number may8    ,and here is
 a version of ,ballou's catechism       
composed for his flock3      ,,catechism
 ,,of ,,non-,,resistance4    ,q4 ,whence
 is the word non-resistance derived8    
,a4 ,from the command1 ,resist not evil4
 7,m4 v4 #ci47    ,q4 ,what does this   
word express8    ,a4 ,it expresses a    
lofty ,christian virtue enjoined on us  
by ,christ4    ,q4 ,ought the word      
non-resistance to be taken in its widest
  sense--that is to say1 as intending   
that we should not offer any  resistance
 of any kind to evil8    ,a4 ,no2 it    
ought to be taken in the exact sense of 
our ,saviour's  teaching--that is1 not  
repaying evil for evil4 ,we ought to    
oppose  evil by every righteous means in
 our power1 but not by evil4    ,q4     
,what is there to show that ,christ     

enjoined non-resistance in  that sense8 
,a4 ,it is shown by the words he uttered
 at the same time4 ,he said3  ,ye have  
heard1 it was said of old1 ,an eye for  
an eye1 and a tooth  for a tooth4 ,but  
,i say unto you ,resist not evil4 ,but  
if one smites  thee on the right cheek1 
turn him the other also2 and if one will
 go  to law with thee to take thy coat  
from thee1 give him thy cloak also4     
,q4 ,of whom was he speaking in the     
words1 ,ye have heard it was said  of   
old8    ,a4 ,of the patriarchs and the  
prophets1 contained in the ,old         
,testament1 which the ,hebrews          
ordinarily call the ,law and the        
,prophets4    ,q4 ,what utterances did  
,christ refer to in the words1 ,it was  
said  of old8    ,a4 ,the utterances of 
,noah1 ,moses1 and the other prophets1  
in which  they admit the right of doing 
bodily harm to those who inflict harm1  
so as to punish and prevent evil deeds4 
,q4 ,quote such utterances4    ,a4      
,whoso sheddeth man's blood1 by man     

shall his blood be  shed4--,,gen4 ix4   
#f4    ,he that smiteth a man1 so that  
he die1 shall be surely put to          
death4444 ,and if any mischief follow1  
then thou shalt give life for  life1 eye
 for eye1 tooth for tooth1 hand for     
hand1 foot for foot1  burning for       
burning1 wound for wound1 stripe for    
stripe4--,,ex4 xxi4  #ab and #bc-be4    
,he that killeth any man shall surely be
 put to death4 ,and if a man  cause a   
blemish in his neighbor1 as he hath     
done1 so shall it be done  unto him3    
breach for breach1 eye for eye1 tooth   
for tooth4--,,lev4  xxiv4 #ag1 #ai1 #bj4
    ,then the judges shall make diligent
 inquisition2 and behold1 if the        
witness be a false witness1 and hath    
testified falsely against his  brother1 
then shall ye do unto him as he had     
thought to have done  unto his          
brother4444 ,and thine eye shall not    
pity2 but life shall  go for life1 eye  
for eye1 tooth for tooth1 hand for hand1
 foot for  foot4--,,deut4 xix4 #ah1 #ba4

    ,noah1 ,moses1 and the ,prophets    
taught that he who kills1 maims1  or    
injures his neighbors does evil4 ,to    
resist such evil1 and to  prevent it1   
the evil doer must be punished with     
death1 or maiming1  or some physical    
injury4 ,wrong must be opposed by wrong1
 murder by  murder1 injury by injury1   
evil by evil4 ,thus taught ,noah1       
,moses1  and the ,prophets4 ,but ,christ
 rejects all this4 ,i say unto you1 is  
written in the ,gospel1 resist not evil1
 do not oppose injury with  injury1 but 
rather bear repeated injury from the    
evil doer4 ,what was  permitted is      
forbidden4 ,when we understand what kind
 of resistance  they taught1 we know    
exactly what resistance ,christ forbade4
    ,q4 ,then the ancients allowed the  
resistance of injury by injury8    ,a4  
,yes4 ,but ,jesus forbids it4 ,the      
,christian has in no case the  right to 
put to death his neighbor who has done  
him evil1 or to do  him injury in       
return4    ,q4 ,may he kill or maim him 

in self-defense8    ,a4 ,no4    ,q4 ,may
 he go with a complaint to the judge    
that he who has wronged  him may be     
punished8    ,a4 ,no4 ,what he does     
through others1 he is in reality doing  
himself4    ,q4 ,can he fight in        
conflict with foreign enemies or        
disturbers of  the peace8    ,a4        
,certainly not4 ,he cannot take any part
 in war or in preparations  for war4 ,he
 cannot make use of a deadly weapon4 ,he
 cannot oppose  injury to injury1       
whether he is alone or with others1     
either in  person or through other      
people4    ,q4 ,can he voluntarily vote 
or furnish soldiers for the government8 
,a4 ,he can do nothing of that kind if  
he wishes to be faithful to  ,christ's  
law4    ,q4 ,can he voluntarily give    
money to aid a government resting on    
military force1 capital punishment1 and 
violence in general8    ,a4 ,no1 unless 
the money is destined for some special  
object1 right  in itself1 and good both 
in aim and means4    ,q4 ,can he pay    

taxes to such a government8    ,a4 ,no2 
he ought not voluntarily to pay taxes1  
but he ought not to  resist the         
collecting of taxes4 ,a tax is levied by
 the government1  and is exacted        
independently of the will of the        
subject4 ,it is  impossible to resist it
 without having recourse to violence of 
some  kind4 ,since the ,christian cannot
 employ violence1 he is obliged to      
offer his property at once to the loss  
by violence inflicted on it by  the     
authorities4    ,q4 ,can a ,christian   
give a vote at elections1 or take part  
in  government or law business8    ,a4  
,no2 participation in election1         
government1 or law business is          
participation in government by force4   
,q4 ,wherein lies the chief significance
 of the doctrine of  non-resistance8    
,a4 ,in the fact that it alone allows of
 the possibility of  eradicating evil   
from one's own heart1 and also from     
one's  neighbor's4 ,this doctrine       
forbids doing that whereby evil has     

endured  for ages and multiplied in the 
world4 ,he who attacks another and      
injures him1 kindles in the other a     
feeling of hatred1 the root of  every   
evil4 ,to injure another because he has 
injured us1 even with  the aim of       
overcoming evil1 is doubling the harm   
for him and for  oneself2 it is         
begetting1 or at least setting free and 
inciting1 that  evil spirit which we    
should wish to drive out4 ,satan can    
never be  driven out by ,satan4 ,error  
can never be corrected by error1 and    
evil  cannot be vanquished by evil4     
,true non-resistance is the only real   
resistance to evil4 ,it is  crushing the
 serpent's head4 ,it destroys and in the
 end extirpates  the evil feeling4      
,q4 ,but if that is the true meaning of 
the rule of non-resistance1  can it     
always be put into practice8    ,a4 ,it 
can be put into practice like every     
virtue enjoined by the  law of ,god4 ,a 
virtue cannot be practiced in all       
circumstances without  self-sacrifice1  

privation1 suffering1 and in extreme    
cases loss of  life itself4 ,but he who 
esteems life more than fulfilling the   
will of  ,god is already dead to the    
only true life4 ,trying to save his life
 he  loses it4 ,besides1 generally      
speaking1 where non-resistance costs the
  sacrifice of a single life or of some 
material welfare1 resistance  costs a   
thousand such sacrifices4               
,non-resistance is ,salvation2          
,resistance is ,ruin4    ,it is         
incomparably less dangerous to act      
justly than unjustly1 to  submit to     
injuries than to resist them with       
violence1 less dangerous  even in one's 
relations to the present life4 ,if all  
men refused to  resist evil by evil our 
world would be happy4    ,q4 ,but so    
long as only a few act thus1 what will  
happen to them8    ,a4 ,if only one man 
acted thus1 and all the rest agreed to  
crucify him1 would it not be nobler for 
him to die in the glory of              
non-resisting love1 praying for his     

enemies1 than to live to wear  the crown
 of ,csar stained with the blood of the 
slain8 ,however1 one  man1 or a thousand
 men1 firmly resolved not to oppose evil
 by evil  are far more free from danger 
by violence than those who resort to    
violence1 whether among civilized or    
savage neighbors4 ,the robber1  the     
murderer1 and the cheat will leave them 
in peace1 sooner than  those who oppose 
them with arms1 and those who take up   
the sword  shall perish by the sword1   
but those who seek after peace1 and     
behave kindly and harmlessly1 forgiving 
and forgetting injuries1 for  the most  
part enjoy peace1 or1 if they die1 they 
die blessed4 ,in  this way1 if all kept 
the ordinance of non-resistance1 there  
would  obviously be no evil nor crime4  
,if the majority acted thus they would  
establish the rule of love and good will
 even over evil doers1 never  opposing  
evil with evil1 and never resorting to  
force4 ,if there were  a moderately     
large minority of such men1 they would  

exercise such  a salutary moral         
influence on society that every cruel   
punishment  would be abolished1 and     
violence and feud would be replaced by  
peace  and love4 ,even if there were    
only a small minority of them1 they     
would rarely experience anything worse  
than the world's contempt1 and  meantime
 the world1 though unconscious of it1   
and not grateful for  it1 would be      
continually becoming wiser and better   
for their unseen  action on it4 ,and if 
in the worst case some members of the   
minority  were persecuted to death1 in  
dying for the truth they would have     
left behind them their doctrine1        
sanctified by the blood of their        
martyrdom4 ,peace1 then1 to all who seek
 peace1 and may overruling  love be the 
imperishable heritage of every soul who 
obeys willingly  ,christ's word1 ,resist
 not evil4                              
,,adin ,,ballou4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,for fifty years
 ,ballou wrote and published books      

dealing principally  with the question  
of non-resistance to evil by force4 ,in 
these  works1 which are distinguished by
 the clearness of their thought  and    
eloquence of exposition1 the question is
 looked at from every  possible side1   
and the binding nature of this command  
on every  ,christian who acknowledges   
the ,bible as the revelation of ,god is 
firmly established4 ,all the ordinary   
objections to the doctrine of           
non-resistance from the ,old and ,new   
,testaments are brought forward1  such  
as the expulsion of the money-changers  
from the ,temple1 and  so on1 and       
arguments follow in disproof of them    
all4 ,the practical  reasonableness of  
this rule of conduct is shown           
independently of  ,scripture1 and all   
the objections ordinarily made against  
its  practicability are stated and      
refuted4 ,thus one chapter in a book  of
 his treats of non-resistance in        
exceptional cases1 and he owns  in this 
connection that if there were cases in  

which the rule of  non-resistance were  
impossible of application1 it would     
prove that  the law was not universally 
authoritative4 ,quoting these cases1 he 
shows that it is precisely in them that 
the application of the rule  is both    
necessary and reasonable4 ,there is no  
aspect of the question1  either on his  
side or on his opponents'1 which he has 
not followed up  in his writings4 ,i    
mention all this to show the            
unmistakable interest  which such works 
ought to have for men who make a        
profession of  ,christianity1 and       
because one would have thought ,ballou's
 work would  have been well known1 and  
the ideas expressed by him would have   
been  either accepted or refuted2 but   
such has not been the case4    ,the work
 of ,garrison1 the father1 in his       
foundation of the ,society of           
,non-resistants and his ,declaration1   
even more than my correspondence  with  
the ,quakers1 convinced me of the fact  
that the departure of the  ruling form  

of ,christianity from the law of ,christ
 on non-resistance  by force is an error
 that has long been observed and pointed
 out1 and  that men have labored1 and   
are still laboring1 to correct4         
,ballou's  work confirmed me still more 
in this view4 ,but the fate of          
,garrison1  still more that of ,ballou1 
in being completely unrecognized in     
spite of fifty years of obstinate and   
persistent work in the same  direction1 
confirmed me in the idea that there     
exists a kind of tacit  but steadfast   
conspiracy of silence about all such    
efforts4    ,ballou died in ,august1    
#ahij1 and there was an obituary notice 
of him  in an ,american journal of      
,christian views 7,religio-philosophical
  ,journal1 ,august #bc74 ,in this      
laudatory notice it is recorded that    
,ballou was the spiritual director of a 
parish1 that he delivered  from eight to
 nine thousand sermons1 married one     
thousand couples1  and wrote about five 
hundred articles2 but there is not a    

single  word said of the object to which
 he devoted his life2 even the word     
non-resistance is not mentioned4        
,precisely as it was with all the       
preaching of the ,quakers for two       
hundred years1 and1 too1 with the       
efforts of ,garrison the father1 the    
foundation of his society and  journal1 
and his ,declaration1 so it is with the 
life-work of ,ballou4  ,it seems just as
 though it did not exist and never had  
existed4    ,we have an astounding      
example of the obscurity of works which 
aim at  expounding the doctrine of      
non-resistance to evil by force1 and at 
confuting those who do not recognize    
this commandment1 in the book of  the   
,tsech ,helchitsky1 which has only      
lately been noticed and has not         
hitherto been printed4    ,soon after   
the appearance of my book in ,german1 ,i
 received a letter  from ,prague1 from a
 professor of the university there1     
informing me  of the existence of a     
work1 never yet printed1 by ,helchitsky1

 a ,tsech  of the fifteenth century1    
entitled ,the ,net of ,faith4 ,in this  
work1  the professor told me1           
,helchitsky expressed precisely the same
 view  as to true and false             
,christianity as ,i had expressed in my 
book ,what  ,i ,believe4 ,the professor 
wrote to me that ,helchitsky's work was 
to  be published for the first time in  
the ,tsech language in the ,journal  of 
,the ,petersburg ,academy of ,science4  
,since ,i could not obtain the  book    
itself1 ,i tried to make myself         
acquainted with what was known of       
,helchitsky1 and ,i gained the following
 information from a ,german book  sent  
me by the ,prague professor and from    
,pypin's history of ,tsech  literature4 
,this was ,pypin's account3    ',the    
,net of ,faith' is ,christ's teaching1  
which ought to draw man  up out of the  
dark depths of the sea of worldliness   
and his own  iniquity4 ,true faith      
consists in believing ,god's ,word2 but 
now a time  has come when men mistake   

the true faith for heresy1 and therefore
  it is for the reason to point out what
 the true faith consists in1  if anyone 
does not know this4 ,it is hidden in    
darkness from men1 and  they do not     
recognize the true law of ,christ4      
,to make this law plain1 ,helchitsky    
points to the primitive  organization of
 ,christian society--the organization   
which1 he says1  is now regarded in the 
,roman ,church as an abominable heresy4 
,this  primitive ,church was his special
 ideal of social organization1  founded 
on equality1 liberty1 and fraternity4   
,christianity1 in  ,helchitsky's view1  
still preserves these elements1 and it  
is only  necessary for society to return
 to its pure doctrine to render         
unnecessary every other form of social  
order in which kings and popes  are     
essential2 the law of love would alone  
be sufficient in every  case4           
,historically1 ,helchitsky attributes   
the degeneration of ,christianity  to   
the times of ,constantine the ,great1   

whom the ,pope ,sylvester  admitted into
 the ,christian ,church with all his    
heathen morals  and life4 ,constantine1 
in his turn1 endowed the ,pope with     
worldly  riches and power4 ,from that   
time forward these two ruling powers    
were constantly aiding one another to   
strive for nothing but outward  glory4  
,divines and ecclesiastical dignitaries 
began to concern  themselves only about 
subduing the whole world to their       
authority1  incited men against one     
another to murder and plunder1 and in   
creed  and life reduced ,christianity to
 a nullity4 ,helchitsky denies          
completely the right to make war and to 
inflict the punishment of  death2 every 
soldier1 even the 'knight1' is only a   
violent evil  doer--a murderer4    ,the 
same account is given by the ,german    
book1 with the addition of a  few       
biographical details and some extracts  
from ,helchitsky's writings4    ,having 
learnt the drift of ,helchitsky's       
teaching in this way1 ,i  awaited all   

the more impatiently the appearance of  
,the ,net of ,faith  in the journal of  
the ,academy4 ,but one year passed1 then
 two and  three1 and still the book did 
not appear4 ,it was only in #ahhh that  
,i learned that the printing of the     
book1 which had been begun1 was         
stopped4 ,i obtained the proofs of what 
had been printed and read  them through4
 ,it is a marvelous book from every     
point of view4    ,its general tenor is 
given with perfect accuracy by ,pypin4  
,helchitsky's fundamental idea is that  
,christianity1 by allying itself  with  
temporal power in the days of           
,constantine1 and by continuing  to     
develop in such conditions1 has become  
completely distorted1 and  has ceased to
 be ,christian altogether4 ,helchitsky  
gave the title  ,the ,net of ,faith to  
his book1 taking as his motto the verse 
of  the ,gospel about the calling of the
 disciples to be fishers of men2  and1  
developing this metaphor1 he says3      
,christ1 by means of his  disciples1    

would have caught all the world in his  
net of faith1 but  the greater fishes   
broke the net and escaped out of it1 and
 all the  rest have slipped through the 
holes made by the greater fishes1  so   
that the net has remained quite empty4  
,the greater fishes who  broke the net  
are the rulers1 emperors1 popes1 kings1 
who have not  renounced power1 and      
instead of true ,christianity have put  
on what  is simply a mask of it4        
,helchitsky teaches precisely what has  
been  and is taught in these days by the
 non-resistant ,mennonites and          
,quakers1 and in former times by the    
,bogomilites1 ,paulicians1 and many     
others4 ,he teaches that ,christianity1 
expecting from its adherents            
gentleness1 meekness1 peaceableness1    
forgiveness of injuries1  turning the   
other cheek when one is struck1 and love
 for enemies1  is inconsistent with the 
use of force1 which is an indispensable 
condition of authority4    ,the         
,christian1 according to ,helchitsky's  

reasoning1 not only cannot  be a ruler  
or a soldier2 he cannot take any part in
 government nor  in trade1 or even be a 
landowner2 he can only be an artisan or 
a  husbandman4    ,this book is one of  
the few works attacking official        
,christianity  which has escaped being  
burned4 ,all such so-called heretical   
works  were burned at the stake1        
together with their authors1 so that    
there  are few ancient works exposing   
the errors of official ,christianity4   
,the book has a special interest for    
this reason alone4 ,but apart  from its 
interest from every point of view1 it is
 one of the most  remarkable products of
 thought for its depth of aim1 for the  
astounding strength and beauty of the   
national language in which  it is       
written1 and for its antiquity4 ,and yet
 for more than four  centuries it has   
remained unprinted1 and is still        
unknown1 except to  a few learned       
specialists4    ,one would have thought 
that all such works1 whether of the     

,quakers1  of ,garrison1 of ,ballou1 or 
of ,helchitsky1 asserting and proving as
  they do1 on the principles of the     
,gospel1 that our modern world takes  a 
false view of ,christ's teaching1 would 
have awakened interest1  excitement1    
talk1 and discussion among spiritual    
teachers and their  flocks alike4       
,works of this kind1 dealing with the   
very essence of ,christian  doctrine1   
ought1 one would have thought1 to have  
been examined  and accepted as true1 or 
refuted and rejected4 ,but nothing of   
the  kind has occurred1 and the same    
fate has been repeated with all  those  
works4 ,men of the most diverse views1  
believers1 and1 what is  surprising1    
unbelieving liberals also1 as though by 
agreement1 all  preserve the same       
persistent silence about them1 and all  
that has  been done by people to explain
 the true meaning of ,christ's doctrine 
remains either ignored or forgotten4    
,but it is still more astonishing that  
two other books1 of which ,i  heard on  

the appearance of my book1 should be so 
little known4 ,i mean  ,dymond's book   
,on ,war1 published for the first time  
in ,london in  #ahbd1 and ,daniel       
,musser's book on ,non-resistance1      
written in #ahfd4  ,it is particularly  
astonishing that these books should be  
unknown1  because1 apart from their     
intrinsic merits1 both books treat not  
so  much of the theory as of the        
practical application of the theory to  
life1 of the attitude of ,christianity  
to military service1 which is           
especially important and interesting now
 in these days of universal             
conscription4    ,people will ask1      
perhaps3 ,how ought a subject to behave 
who believes  that war is inconsistent  
with his religion while the government  
demands from him that he should enter   
military service8    ,this question is1 
,i think1 a most vital one1 and the     
answer to it is  specially important in 
these days of universal conscription4   
,all--or  at least the great majority of

 the people--are ,christians1 and all   
men are called upon for military        
service4 ,how ought a man1 as a         
,christian1 to meet this demand8 ,this  
is the gist of ,dymond's answer3    ,his
 duty is humbly but steadfastly to      
refuse to serve4    ,there are some     
people1 who1 without any definite       
reasoning about it1  conclude           
straightway that the responsibility of  
government measures  rests entirely on  
those who resolve on them1 or that the  
governments  and sovereigns decide the  
question of what is good or bad for     
their  subjects1 and the duty of the    
subjects is merely to obey4 ,i think    
that arguments of this kind only obscure
 men's conscience4 ,i cannot  take part 
in the councils of government1 and      
therefore ,i am not  responsible for its
 misdeeds4 ,indeed1 but we are          
responsible for our  own misdeeds4 ,and 
the misdeeds of our rulers become our   
own1 if we1  knowing that they are      
misdeeds1 assist in carrying them out4  

,those  who suppose that they are bound 
to obey the government1 and that the    
responsibility for the misdeeds they    
commit is transferred from them  to     
their rulers1 deceive themselves4 ,they 
say3 ,we give our acts up  to the will  
of others1 and our acts cannot be good  
or bad2 there is  no merit in what is   
good nor responsibility for what is evil
 in our  actions1 since they are not    
done of our own will4    ,it is         
remarkable that the very same thing is  
said in the instructions  to soldiers   
which they make them learn--that is1    
that the officer  is alone responsible  
for the consequences of his command4    
,but  this is not right4 ,a man cannot  
get rid of the responsibility for  his  
own actions4 ,and that is clear from the
 following example4 ,if  your officer   
commands you to kill your neighbor's    
child1 to kill  your father or your     
mother1 would you obey8 ,if you would   
not obey1  the whole argument falls to  
the ground1 for if you can disobey  the 

governors in one case1 where do you draw
 the line up to which  you can obey     
them8 ,there is no line other than that 
laid down by  ,christianity1 and that   
line is both reasonable and practicable4
    ,and therefore we consider it the   
duty of every man who thinks war        
inconsistent with ,christianity1 meekly 
but firmly to refuse to serve  in the   
army4 ,and let those whose lot it is to 
act thus1 remember  that the fulfillment
 of a great duty rests with them4 ,the  
destiny of  humanity in the world       
depends1 so far as it depends on men at 
all1 on  their fidelity to their        
religion4 ,let them confess their       
conviction1  and stand up for it1 and   
not in words alone1 but in sufferings   
too1  if need be4 ,if you believe that  
,christ forbade murder1 pay no heed  to 
the arguments nor to the commands of    
those who call on you to  bear a hand in
 it4 ,by such a steadfast refusal to    
make use of force1  you call down on    
yourselves the blessing promised to     

those who hear  these sayings and do    
them1 and the time will come when the   
world  will recognize you as having     
aided in the reformation of mankind4    
,musser's book is called ,non-resistance
 ,asserted1 or ,kingdom of  ,christ and 
,kingdoms of this ,world ,separated4    
,this book is devoted to  the same      
question1 and was written when the      
,american ,government was  exacting     
military service from its citizens at   
the time of the ,civil  ,war4 ,and it   
has1 too1 a value for all time1 dealing 
with the question  how1 in such         
circumstances1 people should and can    
refuse to enter  military service4 ,here
 is the tenor of the author's           
introductory  remarks3 ,it is well known
 that there are many persons in the     
,united  ,states who refuse to fight on 
grounds of conscience4 ,they are called 
the 'defenseless1' or 'non-resistant'   
,christians4 ,these ,christians  refuse 
to defend their country1 to bear arms1  
or at the call of  government to make   

war on its enemies4 ,till lately this   
religious  scruple seemed a valid excuse
 to the government1 and those who urged 
it were let off service4 ,but at the    
beginning of our ,civil ,war public     
opinion was agitated on this subject4   
,it was natural that persons  who       
considered it their duty to bear all the
 hardships and dangers  of war in       
defense of their country should feel    
resentment against  those persons who   
had for long shared with them the       
advantages of the  protection of the    
government1 and who now in time of need 
and danger  would not share in bearing  
the labors and dangers of its defense4  
,it  was even natural that they should  
declare the attitude of such men        
monstrous1 irrational1 and suspicious4  
,a host of orators and writers1 our     
author tells us1 arose to oppose  this  
attitude1 and tried to prove the        
sinfulness of non-resistance1  both from
 ,scripture and on common-sense grounds4
 ,and this was  perfectly natural1 and  

in many cases the authors were          
right--right1  that is1 in regard to    
persons who did not renounce the        
benefits  they received from the        
government and tried to avoid the       
hardships  of military service1 but not 
right in regard to the principle of     
non-resistance itself4 ,above all1 our  
author proves the binding  nature of the
 rule of non-resistance for a           
,christian1 pointing out  that this     
command is perfectly clear1 and is      
enjoined upon every  ,christian by      
,christ without possibility of          
misinterpretation4  ,bethink yourselves 
whether it is righteous to obey man more
 than  ,god1 said ,peter and ,john4 ,and
 this is precisely what ought to be  the
 attitude of every man who wishes to be 
,christian to the claim  on him for     
military service1 when ,christ has said1
 ,resist not  evil by force4 ,as for the
 question of the principle itself1 the  
author regards that as decided4 ,as to  
the second question1 whether  people    

have the right to refuse to serve in the
 army who have not  refused the benefits
 conferred by a government resting on   
force1 the  author considers it in      
detail1 and arrives at the conclusion   
that  a ,christian following the law of 
,christ1 since he does not go to  war1  
ought not either to take advantage of   
any of the institutions  of government1 
courts of law1 or elections1 and that in
 his private  concerns he must not have 
recourse to the authorities1 the police1
  or the law4 ,further on in the book he
 treats of the relation of  the ,old    
,testament to the ,new1 the value of    
government for those  who are           
,christians1 and makes some observations
 on the doctrine of  non-resistance and 
the attacks made on it4 ,the author     
concludes his  book by saying3          
,christians do not need government1 and 
therefore  they cannot either obey it in
 what is contrary to ,christ's teaching 
nor1 still less1 take part in it4       
,christ took his disciples out of  the  

world1 he says4 ,they do not expect     
worldly blessings and worldly           
happiness1 but they expect eternal life4
 ,the ,spirit in whom they  live makes  
them contented and happy in every       
position4 ,if the world  tolerates them1
 they are always happy4 ,if the world   
will not leave  them in peace1 they will
 go elsewhere1 since they are pilgrims  
on the  earth and they have no fixed    
place of habitation4 ,they believe that 
the dead may bury their dead4 ,one thing
 only is needful for them1  to follow   
their ,master4    ,even putting aside   
the question as to the principle laid   
down in  these two books as to the      
,christian's duty in his attitude to    
war1  one cannot help perceiving the    
practical importance and the urgent     
need of deciding the question4    ,there
 are people1 hundreds of thousands of   
,quakers1 ,mennonites1  all our         
,douhobortsi1 ,molokani1 and others who 
do not belong to  any definite sect1 who
 consider that the use of force--and1   

consequently1 military service--is      
inconsistent with ,christianity4        
,consequently there are every year among
 us in ,russia some men called  upon for
 military service who refuse to serve on
 the ground of their  religious         
convictions4 ,does the government let   
them off then8 ,no4  ,does it compel    
them to go1 and in case of disobedience 
punish them8  ,no4 ,this was how the    
government treated them in #ahah4 ,here 
is an  extract from the diary of        
,nicholas ,myravyov of ,kars1 which was 
not  passed by the censor1 and is not   
known in ,russia3                       
,,tiflis1 ,october #b1 #ahah4           
,in the morning the commandant told me  
that five peasants       belonging to a 
landowner in the ,tamboff government had
 lately       been sent to ,georgia4    
,these men had been sent for soldiers1  
but       they would not serve2 they had
 been several times flogged and         
made to run the gauntlet1 but they would
 submit readily to the       cruelest   

tortures1 and even to death1 rather than
 serve4 ',let us       go1' they said1  
'and leave us alone2 we will not hurt   
anyone2       all men are equal1 and the
 ,tzar is a man like us2 why should we  
pay him tribute2 why should ,i expose my
 life to danger to kill       in battle 
some man who has done me no harm8 ,you  
can cut us to       pieces and we will  
not be soldiers4 ,he who has compassion 
on       us will give us charity1 but as
 for the government rations1 we         
have not had them and we do not want to 
have them4' ,these were       the words 
of those peasants1 who declare that     
there are numbers       like them in    
,russia4 ,they brought them four times  
before the       ,committee of          
,ministers1 and at last decided to lay  
the matter       before the ,tzar1 who  
gave orders that they should be taken to
       ,georgia for correction1 and     
commanded the commander-in-chief        
to send him a report every month of     
their gradual success in       bringing 

these peasants to a better mind4    ,how
 the correction ended is not known1 as  
the whole episode indeed  was unknown1  
having been kept in profound secrecy4   
,this was how the government behaved    
seventy-five years ago--this is  how it 
has behaved in a great number of cases1 
studiously concealed  from the people4  
,and this is how the government behaves 
now1 except  in the case of the ,german 
,mennonites1 living in the province of  
,kherson1 whose plea against military   
service is considered well  grounded4   
,they are made to work off their term of
 service in labor in  the forests4      
,but in the recent cases of refusal on  
the part of ,mennonites to serve  in the
 army on religious grounds1 the         
government authorities have  acted in   
the following manner3    ,to begin with1
 they have recourse to every means of   
coercion used in  our times to correct  
the culprit and bring him to a better   
mind1  and these measures are carried   
out with the greatest secrecy4 ,i know  

that in the case of one man who declined
 to serve in #ahhd in ,moscow1  the     
official correspondence on the subject  
had two months after his  refusal       
accumulated into a big folio1 and was   
kept absolutely secret  among the       
,ministry4    ,they usually begin by    
sending the culprit to the priests1 and 
the  latter1 to their shame be it said1 
always exhort him to obedience4  ,but   
since the exhortation in ,christ's name 
to forswear ,christ is for  the most    
part unsuccessful1 after he has received
 the admonitions of  the spiritual      
authorities1 they send him to the       
gendarmes1 and the  latter1 finding1 as 
a rule1 no political cause for offense  
in him1  dispatch him back again1 and   
then he is sent to the learned men1 to  
the doctors1 and to the madhouse4       
,during all these vicissitudes he  is   
deprived of liberty and has to endure   
every kind of humiliation  and suffering
 as a convicted criminal4 7,all this has
 been repeated  in four cases47 ,the    

doctors let him out of the madhouse1 and
 then  every kind of secret shift is    
employed to prevent him from going      
free--whereby others would be encouraged
 to refuse to serve as he has  done--and
 at the same time to avoid leaving him  
among the soldiers1  for fear they too  
should learn from him that military     
service is not  at all their duty by the
 law of ,god1 as they are assured1 but  
quite  contrary to it4    ,the most     
convenient thing for the government     
would be to kill the  non-resistant by  
flogging him to death or some other     
means1 as  was done in former days4 ,but
 to put a man openly to death because   
he believes in the creed we all confess 
is impossible4 ,to let a  man alone who 
has refused obedience is also           
impossible4 ,and so  the government     
tries either to compel the man by       
ill-treatment  to renounce ,christ1 or  
in some way or other to get rid of him  
unobserved1 without openly putting him  
to death1 and to hide  somehow both the 

action and the man himself from other   
people4 ,and  so all kinds of shifts and
 wiles and cruelties are set on foot    
against him4 ,they either send him to   
the frontier or provoke him to          
insubordination1 and then try him for   
breach of discipline and shut  him up in
 the prison of the disciplinary         
battalion1 where they can  ill treat him
 freely unseen by anyone1 or they       
declare him mad1 and  lock him up in a  
lunatic asylum4 ,they sent one man in   
this way to  ,tashkend--that is1 they   
pretended to transfer him to the        
,tashkend  army2 another to ,omsk2 a    
third they convicted of insubordination 
and  shut up in prison2 a fourth they   
sent to a lunatic asylum4    ,everywhere
 the same story is repeated4 ,not only  
the government1 but  the great majority 
of liberal1 advanced people1 as they are
 called1  studiously turn away from     
everything that has been said1 written1 
or  done1 or is being done by men to    
prove the incompatibility of force  in  

its most awful1 gross1 and glaring      
form--in the form1 that is1  of an army 
of soldiers prepared to murder anyone1  
whoever it may  be--with the teachings  
of ,christianity1 or even of the        
humanity which  society professes as its
 creed4    ,so that the information ,i  
have gained of the attitude of the      
higher  ruling classes1 not only in     
,russia but in ,europe and ,america1    
toward  the elucidation of this question
 has convinced me that there exists  in 
these ruling classes a consciously      
hostile attitude to true  ,christianity1
 which is shown pre-eminently in their  
reticence in  regard to all             
manifestations of it4          ,,chapter
 ,,ii4         ,,criticisms ,,of ,,the  
,,doctrine ,,of ,,non-,,resistance ,,to 
,,evil ,,by ,,force ,,on       ,,the    
,,part ,,of ,,believers ,,and ,,of      
,,unbelievers4         ,fate of the     
,book ,what ,i ,believe--,evasive       
,character of       ,religious          
,criticisms of ,principles of my        

,book--#ast ,reply3 ,use       of ,force
 not ,opposed to ,christianity--#b;d    
,reply3 ,use of ,force       ,necessary 
to ,restrain ,evil ,doers--#c;d ,reply3 
,duty of ,using       ,force in ,defense
 of ,one's ,neighbor--#dth ,reply3 ,the 
,breach       of the ,command of        
,non-resistance to be ,regarded ,simply 
as a       ,weakness--#eth ,reply3      
,reply ,evaded by ,making ,believe that 
the       ,question has long been       
,decided--,to ,devise such ,subterfuges 
and to take ,refuge ,behind the         
,authority of the ,church1 of           
,antiquity1 and of ,religion is all that
 ,ecclesiastical ,critics       can do  
to get out of the ,contradiction between
 ,use of ,force and       ,christianity 
in ,theory and in ,practice--,general   
,attitude of the       ,ecclesiastical  
,world and of the ,authorities to       
,profession of       ,true              
,christianity--,general ,character of   
,russian ,freethinking                  
,critics--,foreign ,freethinking        

,critics--,mistaken ,arguments of       
these ,critics the ,result of           
,misunderstanding the ,true ,meaning of 
,christ's ,teaching4      ,the          
impression ,i gained of a desire to     
conceal1 to hush up1 what ,i  had tried 
to express in my book1 led me to judge  
the book itself  afresh4    ,on its     
appearance it had1 as ,i had            
anticipated1 been forbidden1 and  ought 
therefore by law to have been burnt4    
,but1 at the same time1 it  was         
discussed among officials1 and          
circulated in a great number of         
manuscript and lithograph copies1 and in
 translations printed abroad4    ,and   
very quickly after the book1 criticisms1
 both religious and  secular in         
character1 made their appearance1 and   
these the government  tolerated1 and    
even encouraged4 ,so that the refutation
 of a book  which no one was supposed to
 know anything about was even chosen as 
the subject for theological             
dissertations in the academies4    ,the 

criticisms of my book1 ,russian and     
foreign alike1 fall under  two general  
divisions--the religious criticisms of  
men who regard  themselves as believers1
 and secular criticisms1 that is1 those 
of  freethinkers4    ,i will begin with 
the first class4 ,in my book ,i made it 
an accusation  against the teachers of  
the ,church that their teaching is      
opposed  to ,christ's commands clearly  
and definitely expressed in the ,sermon 
on the ,mount1 and opposed in especial  
to his command in regard to  resistance 
to evil1 and that in this way they      
deprive ,christ's  teaching of all      
value4 ,the ,church authorities accept  
the teaching of  the ,sermon on the     
,mount on non-resistance to evil by     
force as divine  revelation2 and        
therefore one would have thought that if
 they felt  called upon to write about  
my book at all1 they would have found it
  inevitable before everything else to  
reply to the principal point of  my     
charge against them1 and to say plainly1

 do they or do they not  admit the      
teaching of the ,sermon on the ,mount   
and the commandment  of non-resistance  
to evil as binding on a ,christian4 ,and
 they were  bound to answer this        
question1 not after the usual fashion   
7i4 e41  that although on the one side  
one cannot absolutely deny1 yet on  the 
other side one cannot again fully       
assent1 all the more seeing  that1 etc41
 etc474 ,no2 they should have answered  
the question as  plainly as it was put  
in my book--,did ,christ really demand  
from his  disciples that they should    
carry out what he taught them in the    
,sermon on the ,mount8 ,and can a       
,christian1 then1 or can he not1  always
 remaining a ,christian1 go to law or   
make any use of the law1  or seek his   
own protection in the law8 ,and can the 
,christian1 or can  he not1 remaining a 
,christian1 take part in the            
administration of  government1 using    
compulsion against his neighbors8       
,and--the most  important question      

hanging over the heads of all of us in  
these days  of universal military       
service--can the ,christian1 or can he  
not1  remaining a ,christian1 against   
,christ's direct prohibition1 promise   
obedience in future actions directly    
opposed to his teaching8 ,and can  he1  
by taking his share of service in the   
army1 prepare himself to  murder men1   
and even actually murder them8    ,these
 questions were put plainly and         
directly1 and seemed to require  a plain
 and direct answer2 but in all the      
criticisms of my book there  was no such
 plain and direct answer4 ,no2 my book  
received precisely  the same treatment  
as all the attacks upon the teachers of 
the ,church  for their defection from   
the ,law of ,christ of which history    
from the  days of ,constantine is full4 
,a very great deal was said in          
connection with my book of my having    
incorrectly interpreted this and other  
passages of the ,gospel1 of  my being in
 error in not recognizing the ,trinity1 

the redemption1  and the immortality of 
the soul4 ,a very great deal was said1  
but not  a word about the one thing     
which for every ,christian is the most  
essential question in life--how to      
reconcile the duty of forgiveness1      
meekness1 patience1 and love for all1   
neighbors and enemies alike1  which is  
so clearly expressed in the words of our
 teacher1 and in the  heart of each of  
us--how to reconcile this duty with the 
obligation  of using force in war upon  
men of our own or a foreign people4     
,all that are worth calling answers to  
this question can be brought  under the 
following five heads4 ,i have tried to  
bring together in  this connection all  
,i could1 not only from the criticisms  
on my book1  but from what has been     
written in past times on this theme4    
,the first and crudest form of reply    
consists in the bold assertion  that the
 use of force is not opposed by the     
teaching of ,christ2 that  it is        
permitted1 and even enjoined1 on the    

,christian by the ,old and  ,new        
,testaments4    ,assertions of this kind
 proceed1 for the most part1 from men   
who  have attained the highest ranks in 
the governing or ecclesiastical         
hierarchy1 and who are consequently     
perfectly assured that no one  will dare
 to contradict their assertion1 and that
 if anyone does  contradict it they will
 hear nothing of the contradiction4     
,these men  have1 for the most part1    
through the intoxication of power1 so   
lost  the right idea of what that       
,christianity is in the name of which   
they  hold their position that what is  
,christian in ,christianity presents    
itself to them as heresy1 while         
everything in the ,old and ,new         
,testaments which can be distorted into 
an antichristian and heathen  meaning   
they regard as the foundation of        
,christianity4 ,in support of  their    
assertion that ,christianity is not     
opposed to the use of force1  these men 
usually1 with the greatest audacity1    

bring together all the  most obscure    
passages from the ,old and ,new         
,testaments1 interpreting  them in the  
most unchristian way--the punishment of 
,ananias and  ,sapphira1 of ,simon the  
,sorcerer1 etc4 ,they quote all those   
sayings  of ,christ's which can possibly
 be interpreted as justification of     
cruelty3 the expulsion from the ,temple2
 ,it shall be more tolerable  for the   
land of ,sodom than for this city1 etc41
 etc4 ,according to  these people's     
notions1 a ,christian government is not 
in the least  bound to be guided by the 
spirit of peace1 forgiveness of         
injuries1  and love for enemies4    ,to 
refute such an assertion is useless1    
because the very people who  make this  
assertion refute themselves1 or1 rather1
 renounce ,christ1  inventing a         
,christianity and a ,christ of their own
 in the place of  him in whose name the 
,church itself exists1 as well as their 
office  in it4 ,if all men were to learn
 that the ,church professes to believe  

in a ,christ of punishment and warfare1 
not of forgiveness1 no one  would       
believe in the ,church and it could not 
prove to anyone what it  is trying to   
prove4    ,the second1 somewhat less    
gross1 form of argument consists in     
declaring that1 though ,christ did      
indeed preach that we should turn  the  
left cheek1 and give the cloak also1 and
 this is the highest  moral duty1 yet   
that there are wicked men in the world1 
and if these  wicked men were not       
restrained by force1 the whole world and
 all good  men would come to ruin       
through them4 ,this argument ,i found   
for the  first time in ,john            
,chrysostom1 and ,i show how he is      
mistaken in my  book ,what ,i ,believe4 
,this argument is ill grounded1 because 
if we allow ourselves to  regard any men
 as intrinsically wicked men1 then in   
the first place  we annul1 by so doing1 
the whole idea of the ,christian        
teaching1  according to which we are all
 equals and brothers1 as sons of one    

,father in heaven4 ,secondly1 it is ill 
founded1 because even if to  use force  
against wicked men had been permitted by
 ,god1 since it is  impossible to find a
 perfect and unfailing distinction by   
which one  could positively know the    
wicked from the good1 so it would come  
to  all individual men and societies of 
men mutually regarding each other  as   
wicked men1 as is the case now4         
,thirdly1 even if it were possible  to  
distinguish the wicked from the good    
unfailingly1 even then it  would be     
impossible to kill or injure or shut up 
in prison these  wicked men1 because    
there would be no one in a ,christian   
society to  carry out such punishment1  
since every ,christian1 as a ,christian1
 has  been commanded to use no force    
against the wicked4    ,the third kind  
of answer1 still more subtle than the   
preceding1  consists in asserting that  
though the command of non-resistance to 
evil by force is binding on the         
,christian when the evil is directed    

against himself personally1 it ceases to
 be binding when the evil  is directed  
against his neighbors1 and that then the
 ,christian is  not only not bound to   
fulfill the commandment1 but is even    
bound  to act in opposition to it in    
defense of his neighbors1 and to  use   
force against transgressors by force4   
,this assertion is an  absolute         
assumption1 and one cannot find in all  
,christ's teaching  any confirmation of 
such an argument4 ,such an argument is  
not  only a limitation1 but a direct    
contradiction and negation of the       
commandment4 ,if every man has the right
 to have recourse to force  in face of a
 danger threatening another1 the        
question of the use  of force is reduced
 to a question of the definition of     
danger for  another4 ,if my private     
judgment is to decide the question of   
what is  danger for another1 there is no
 occasion for the use of force which    
could not be justified on the ground of 
danger threatening some  other man4     

,they killed and burnt witches1 they    
killed aristocrats  and girondists1 they
 killed their enemies1 because those who
 were in  authority regarded them as    
dangerous for the people4    ,if this   
important limitation1 which             
fundamentally undermines the  whole     
value of the commandment1 had entered   
into ,christ's meaning1  there must have
 been mention of it somewhere4 ,this    
restriction is  made nowhere in our     
,saviour's life or preaching4 ,on the   
contrary1  warning is given precisely   
against this treacherous and scandalous 
restriction which nullifies the         
commandment4 ,the error and             
impossibility of such a limitation is   
shown in the ,gospel with  special      
clearness in the account of the judgment
 of ,caiaphas1 who  makes precisely this
 distinction4 ,he acknowledged that it  
was wrong  to punish the innocent       
,jesus1 but he saw in him a source of   
danger  not for himself1 but for the    
whole people1 and therefore he said3    

,it is better for one man to die1 that  
the whole people perish not4  ,and the  
erroneousness of such a limitation is   
still more clearly  expressed in the    
words spoken to ,peter when he tried to 
resist by  force evil directed against  
,jesus 7,matt4 xxvi4 #eb74 ,peter was   
not  defending himself1 but his beloved 
and heavenly ,master4 ,and ,christ  at  
once reproved him for this1 saying1 that
 he who takes up the sword  shall perish
 by the sword4    ,besides1 apologies   
for violence used against one's neighbor
 in  defense of another neighbor from   
greater violence are always             
untrustworthy1 because when force is    
used against one who has not  yet       
carried out his evil intent1 ,i can     
never know which would be  greater--the 
evil of my act of violence or of the act
 ,i want to  prevent4 ,we kill the      
criminal that society may be rid of him1
 and  we never know whether the criminal
 of to-day would not have been  a       
changed man to-morrow1 and whether our  

punishment of him is not  useless       
cruelty4 ,we shut up the dangerous--as  
we think--member of  society1 but the   
next day this man might cease to be     
dangerous and  his imprisonment might be
 for nothing4 ,i see that a man ,i know 
to be  a ruffian is pursuing a young    
girl4 ,i have a gun in my hand--,i kill 
the ruffian and save the girl4 ,but the 
death or the wounding of the  ruffian   
has positively taken place1 while what  
would have happened  if this had not    
been ,i cannot know4 ,and what an       
immense mass of evil  must result1 and  
indeed does result1 from allowing men to
 assume the  right of anticipating what 
may happen4 ,ninety-nine per cent4 of   
the  evil of the world is founded on    
this reasoning--from the ,inquisition   
to dynamite bombs1 and the executions or
 punishments of tens of  thousands of   
political criminals4    ,a fourth1 still
 more refined1 reply to the question1   
,what ought to  be the ,christian's     
attitude to ,christ's command of        

non-resistance  to evil by force8       
consists in declaring that they do not  
deny the  command of non-resistance to  
evil1 but recognize it2 but they only   
do not ascribe to this command the      
special exclusive value attached  to it 
by sectarians4 ,to regard this command  
as the indispensable  condition of      
,christian life1 as ,garrison1 ,ballou1 
,dymond1 the  ,quakers1 the ,mennonites1
 and the ,shakers do now1 and as the    
,moravian  brothers1 the ,waldenses1 the
 ,albigenses1 the ,bogomilites1 and the 
,paulicians did in the past1 is a       
one-sided heresy4 ,this command has     
neither more nor less value than all the
 other commands1 and the man  who       
through weakness transgresses any       
command whatever1 the command  of       
non-resistance included1 does not cease 
to be a ,christian if  he hold the true 
faith4 ,this is a very skillful device1 
and many  people who wish to be deceived
 are easily deceived by it4 ,the device 
consists in reducing a direct conscious 

denial of a command to a  casual breach 
of it4 ,but one need only compare the   
attitude of the  teachers of the ,church
 to this and to other commands which    
they  really do recognize1 to be        
convinced that their attitude to this is
  completely different from their       
attitude to other duties4    ,the       
command against fornication they do     
really recognize1 and  consequently they
 do not admit that in any case          
fornication can cease  to be wrong4 ,the
 ,church preachers never point out cases
 in which the  command against          
fornication can be broken1 and always   
teach that  we must avoid seductions    
which lead to temptation to fornication4
  ,but not so with the command of       
non-resistance4 ,all church preachers   
recognize cases in which that command   
can be broken1 and teach the  people    
accordingly4 ,and they not only do not  
teach that we should  avoid temptations 
to break it1 chief of which is the      
military oath1  but they themselves     

administer it4 ,the preachers of the    
,church never  in any other case        
advocate the breaking of any other      
commandment4  ,but in connection with   
the commandment of non-resistance they  
openly  teach that we must not          
understand it too literally1 but that   
there  are conditions and circumstances 
in which we must do the direct          
opposite1 that is1 go to law1 fight1    
punish4 ,so that occasions for          
fulfilling the commandment of           
non-resistance to evil by force are     
taught for the most part as occasions   
for not fulfilling it4 ,the  fulfillment
 of this command1 they say1 is very     
difficult and pertains  only to         
perfection4 ,and how can it not be      
difficult1 when the breach  of it is not
 only not forbidden1 but law courts1    
prisons1 cannons1  guns1 armies1 and    
wars are under the immediate sanction of
 the  ,church8 ,it cannot be true1 then1
 that this command is recognized by  the
 preachers of the ,church as on a level 

with other commands4    ,the preachers  
of the ,church clearly do not recognize 
it2 only not  daring to acknowledge     
this1 they try to conceal their not     
recognizing  it4    ,so much for the    
fourth reply4    ,the fifth kind of     
answer1 which is the subtlest1 the most 
often used1  and the most effective1    
consists in avoiding answering1 in      
making  believe that this question is   
one which has long ago been decided     
perfectly clearly and satisfactorily1   
and that it is not worth while  to talk 
about it4 ,this method of reply is      
employed by all the more or  less       
cultivated religious writers1 that is to
 say1 those who feel the  laws of       
,christ binding for themselves4 ,knowing
 that the contradiction  existing       
between the teaching of ,christ which we
 profess with our  lips and the whole   
order of our lives cannot be removed by 
words1  and that touching upon it can   
only make it more obvious1 they1 with   
more or less ingenuity1 evade it1       

pretending that the question of         
reconciling ,christianity with the use  
of force has been decided  already1 or  
does not exist at all4#a      #a ,i only
 know one work which differs somewhat   
from this general    definition1 and    
that is not a criticism in the precise  
meaning of    the word1 but an article  
treating of the same subject and having 
my book in view4 ,i mean the pamphlet of
 ,mr4 ,troizky 7published at    ,kazan71
 ,a ,sermon for the ,people4 ,the author
 obviously accepts    ,christ's teaching
 in its true meaning4 ,he says that the 
prohibition    of resistance to evil by 
force means exactly what it does mean2  
and    the same with the prohibition of 
swearing4 ,he does not1 as others    do1
 deny the meaning of ,christ's teaching1
 but unfortunately he does    not draw  
from this admission the inevitable      
deductions which present    themselves  
spontaneously in our life when we       
understand ,christ's    teaching in that
 way4 ,if we must not oppose evil by    

force1 nor swear1    everyone naturally 
asks1 ,how1 then1 about military        
service8 and the    oath of obedience8  
,to this question the author gives no   
reply2 but    it must be answered4 ,and 
if he cannot answer1 then he would do   
better    not to speak on the subject at
 all1 as such silence leads to error4   
,the majority of religious critics of my
 book use this fifth method  of replying
 to it4 ,i could quote dozens of such   
critics1 in all of  whom1 without       
exception1 we find the same thing       
repeated3 everything  is discussed      
except what constitutes the principal   
subject of  the book4 ,as a             
characteristic example of such          
criticisms1 ,i will  quote the article  
of a well-known and ingenious ,english  
writer and  preacher--,farrar--who1 like
 many learned theologians1 is a great   
master of the art of circuitously       
evading a question4 ,the article was    
published in an ,american journal1 the  
,forum1 in ,october1 #ahhh4    ,after   

conscientiously explaining in brief the 
contents of my book1  ,farrar says3     
,tolstoy came to the conclusion that a  
coarse deceit  had been palmed upon the 
world when these words1 ',resist not    
evil1'  were held by civil society to be
 compatible with war1 courts of         
justice1 capital punishment1 divorce1   
oaths1 national prejudice1 and1  indeed1
 with most of the institutions of civil 
and social life4 ,he  now believes that 
the kingdom of ,god would come if all   
men kept these  five commandments of    
,christ1 viz43 #a4 ,live in peace with  
all men4 #b4  ,be pure4 #c4 ,take no    
oaths4 #d4 ,resist not evil4 #e4        
,renounce national  distinctions4       
,tolstoy1 he says1 rejects the          
inspiration of the ,old ,testament2     
hence he rejects the chief doctrines of 
the ,church--that of the  ,atonement by 
blood1 the ,trinity1 the descent of the 
,holy ,ghost  on the ,apostles1 and his 
transmission through the priesthood4    
,and he recognizes only the words and   

commands of ,christ4 ,but is  this      
interpretation of ,christ a true one8 he
 says4 ,are all men  bound to act as    
,tolstoy teaches--i4 e41 to carry out   
these five  commandments of ,christ8    
,you expect1 then1 that in answer to    
this  essential question1 which is the  
only one that could induce a man  to    
write an article about the book1 he will
 say either that this  interpretation of
 ,christ's teaching is true and we ought
 to follow  it1 or he will say that such
 an interpretation is untrue1 will show 
why1 and will give some other correct   
interpretation of those words  which ,i 
interpret incorrectly4 ,but nothing of  
the kind is done4  ,farrar only         
expresses his belief that1 though       
actuated by the  noblest sincerity1     
,count ,tolstoy has been misled by      
partial and  one-sided interpretations  
of the meaning of the ,gospel and the   
mind  and will of ,christ4 ,what this   
error consists in is not made clear2  it
 is only said3 ,to enter into the proof 

of this is impossible in  this article1 
for ,i have already exceeded the space  
at my command4    ,and he concludes1 in 
a tranquil spirit3    ,meanwhile1 the   
reader who feels troubled lest it should
 be his duty  also to forsake all the   
conditions of his life and to take up   
the  position and work of a common      
laborer1 may rest for the present on    
the principle1 securus judicat orbis    
terrarum4 ,with few and rare            
exceptions1 he continues1 the whole of  
,christendom1 from the days  of the     
,apostles down to our own1 has come to  
the firm conclusion that  it was the    
object of ,christ to lay down great     
eternal principles1 but  not to disturb 
the bases and revolutionize the         
institutions of all  human society1     
which themselves rest on divine         
sanctions as well as  on inevitable     
conditions4 ,were it my object to prove 
how untenable  is the doctrine of       
communism1 based by ,count ,tolstoy upon
 the divine  paradoxes sic1 which can be

 interpreted only on historical         
principles in accordance with the whole 
method of the teaching of  ,jesus1 it   
would require an ampler canvas than ,i  
have here at my  disposal4 ,what a pity 
he has not an ampler canvas at his      
disposal6  ,and what a strange thing it 
is that for all these last fifteen      
centuries no one has had a canvas ample 
enough to prove that  ,christ1 whom we  
profess to believe in1 says something   
utterly unlike  what he does say6       
,still1 they could prove it if they     
wanted to4 ,but  it is not worth while  
to prove what everyone knows2 it is     
enough to  say1 securus judicat orbis   
terrarum4    ,and of this kind1 without 
exception1 are all the criticisms of    
educated believers1 who must1 as such1  
understand the danger of  their         
position4 ,the sole escape from it for  
them lies in their hope  that they may  
be able1 by using the authority of the  
,church1 of  antiquity1 and of their    
sacred office1 to overawe the reader and

  draw him away from the idea of reading
 the ,gospel for himself and  thinking  
out the question in his own mind for    
himself4 ,and in this  they are         
successful2 for1 indeed1 how could the  
notion occur to  anyone that all that   
has been repeated from century to       
century with  such earnestness and      
solemnity by all those archdeacons1     
bishops1  archbishops1 holy synods1 and 
popes1 is all of it a base lie and a    
calumny foisted upon ,christ by them for
 the sake of keeping safe  the money    
they must have to live luxuriously on   
the necks of other  men8 ,and it is a   
lie and a calumny so transparent that   
the only way  of keeping it up consists 
in overawing people by their            
earnestness1  their conscientiousness4  
,it is just what has taken place of late
  years at recruiting sessions2 at a    
table before the zertzal--the  symbol of
 the ,tzar's authority--in the seat of  
honor under the  life-size portrait of  
the ,tzar1 sit dignified old officials1 

wearing  decorations1 conversing freely 
and easily1 writing notes1 summoning    
men before them1 and giving orders4     
,here1 wearing a cross on his  breast1  
near them1 is a prosperous-looking old  
priest in a silken  cassock1 with long  
gray hair flowing on to his cope1 before
 a lectern  who wears the golden cross  
and has a ,gospel bound in gold4        
,they summon ,ivan ,petroff4 ,a young   
man comes in1 wretchedly1 shabbily      
dressed1 and in terror1 the muscles of  
his face working1 his eyes  bright and  
restless2 and in a broken voice1 hardly 
above a whisper1  he says3 ,i--by       
,christ's law--as a ,christian--,i      
cannot4 ,what is  he muttering8 asks the
 president1 frowning impatiently and    
raising  his eyes from his book to      
listen4 ,speak louder1 the colonel with 
shining epaulets shouts to him4 ,i--,i  
as a ,christian---- ,and at last  it    
appears that the young man refuses to   
serve in the army because he  is a      
,christian4 ,don't talk nonsense4 ,stand

 to be measured4 ,doctor1  may ,i       
trouble you to measure him4 ,he is all  
right8 ,yes4 ,reverend  father1         
administer the oath to him4    ,no one  
is the least disturbed by what the poor 
scared young man is  muttering4 ,they do
 not even pay attention to it4 ,they all
 mutter  something1 but we've no time to
 listen to it1 we have to enroll so     
many4    ,the recruit tries to say      
something still4 ,it's opposed to the   
law  of ,christ4 ,go along1 go along2 we
 know without your help what is  opposed
 to the law and what's not2 and you     
soothe his mind1 reverend  father1      
soothe him4 ,next3 ,vassily ,nikitin4   
,and they lead the  trembling youth     
away4 ,and it does not strike           
anyone--the guards1 or  ,vassily        
,nikitin1 whom they are bringing in1 or 
any of the spectators  of this          
scene--that these inarticulate words of 
the young man1 at  once suppressed by   
the authorities1 contain the truth1 and 
that the  loud1 solemnly uttered        

sentences of the calm1 self-confident   
official  and the priest are a lie and a
 deception4    ,such is the impression  
produced not only by ,farrar's article1 
but  by all those solemn sermons1       
articles1 and books which make their    
appearance from all sides directly there
 is anywhere a glimpse of  truth        
exposing a predominant falsehood4 ,at   
once begins the series of  long1 clever1
 ingenious1 and solemn speeches and     
writings1 which deal  with questions    
nearly related to the subject1 but      
skillfully avoid  touching the subject  
itself4    ,that is the essence of the  
fifth and most effective means of       
getting  out of the contradictions in   
which ,church ,christianity has placed  
itself1 by professing its faith in      
,christ's teaching in words1 while  it  
denies it in its life1 and teaches      
people to do the same4    ,those who    
justify themselves by the first method1 
directly1 crudely  asserting that       
,christ sanctioned violence1 wars1 and  

murder1  repudiate ,christ's doctrine   
directly2 those who find their defense  
in the second1 the third1 or the fourth 
method are confused and can  easily be  
convicted of error2 but this last class1
 who do not argue1  who do not          
condescend to argue about it1 but take  
shelter behind  their own grandeur1 and 
make a show of all this having been     
decided  by them or at least by someone 
long ago1 and no longer offering a      
possibility of doubt to anyone--they    
seem safe from attack1 and will  be     
beyond attack till men come to realize  
that they are under the  narcotic       
influence exerted on them by governments
 and churches1 and  are no longer       
affected by it4    ,such was the        
attitude of the spiritual critics--i4   
e41 those  professing faith in          
,christ--to my book4 ,and their attitude
 could  not have been different4 ,they  
are bound to take up this attitude by   
the contradictory position in which they
 find themselves between  belief in the 

divinity of their ,master and disbelief 
in his clearest  utterances1 and they   
want to escape from this contradiction4 
,so that  one cannot expect from them   
free discussion of the very essence of  
the question--that is1 of the change in 
men's life which must result  from      
applying ,christ's teaching to the      
existing order of the world4  ,such free
 discussion ,i only expected from       
worldly1 freethinking  critics who are  
not bound to ,christ's teaching in any  
way1 and can  therefore take an         
independent view of it4 ,i had          
anticipated that  freethinking writers  
would look at ,christ1 not merely1 like 
the  ,churchmen1 as the founder of a    
religion of personal salvation1 but1  to
 express it in their language1 as a     
reformer who laid down new  principles  
of life and destroyed the old1 and whose
 reforms are not  yet complete1 but are 
still in progress even now4    ,such a  
view of ,christ and his teaching follows
 from my book4 ,but to  my astonishment1

 out of the great number of critics of  
my book there  was not one1 either      
,russian or foreign1 who treated the    
subject from  the side from which it was
 approached in the book--that is1 who   
criticised ,christ's doctrines as       
philosophical1 moral1 and social        
principles1 to use their scientific     
expressions4 ,this was not done in  a   
single criticism4 ,the freethinking     
,russian critics taking my book  as     
though its whole contents could be      
reduced to non-resistance to  evil1 and 
understanding the doctrine of           
non-resistance to evil itself  7no doubt
 for greater convenience in refuting it7
 as though it would  prohibit every kind
 of conflict with evil1 fell vehemently 
upon this  doctrine1 and for some years 
past have been very successfully proving
  that ,christ's teaching is mistaken in
 so far as it forbids resistance  to    
evil4 ,their refutations of this        
hypothetical doctrine of ,christ  were  
all the more successful since they knew 

beforehand that their  arguments could  
not be contested or corrected1 for the  
censorship1  not having passed the book1
 did not pass articles in its defense4  
,it is a remarkable thing that among us1
 where one cannot say a word  about the 
,holy ,scriptures without the           
prohibition of the censorship1  for some
 years past there have been in all the  
journals constant  attacks and          
criticisms on the command of ,christ    
simply and directly  stated in ,matt4 v4
 #ci4 ,the ,russian advanced critics1   
obviously  unaware of all that has been 
done to elucidate the question of       
non-resistance1 and sometimes even      
imagining apparently that the rule  of  
non-resistance to evil had been invented
 by me personally1 fell  foul of the    
very idea of it4 ,they opposed it and   
attacked it1 and  advancing with great  
heat arguments which had long ago been  
analyzed  and refuted from every point  
of view1 they demonstrated that a man   
ought invariably to defend 7with        

violence7 all the injured and           
oppressed1 and that thus the doctrine of
 non-resistance to evil is an  immoral  
doctrine4    ,to all ,russian critics   
the whole import of ,christ's command   
seemed reducible to the fact that it    
would hinder them from  the active      
opposition to evil to which they are    
accustomed4 ,so  that the principle of  
non-resistance to evil by force has been
  attacked by two opposing camps3 the   
conservatives1 because this  principle  
would hinder their activity in          
resistance to evil as  applied to the   
revolutionists1 in persecution and      
punishment  of them2 the revolutionists1
 too1 because this principle would      
hinder their resistance to evil as      
applied to the conservatives  and the   
overthrowing of them4 ,the conservatives
 were indignant  at the doctrine of     
non-resistance to evil by force         
hindering the  energetic destruction of 
the revolutionary elements1 which may   
ruin  the national prosperity2 the      

revolutionists were indignant at the    
doctrine of non-resistance to evil by   
force hindering the overthrow  of the   
conservatives1 who are ruining the      
national prosperity4 ,it  is worthy of  
remark in this connection that the      
revolutionists have  attacked the       
principle of non-resistance to evil by  
force1 in spite  of the fact that it is 
the greatest terror and danger for every
  despotism4 ,for ever since the        
beginning of the world1 the use of      
violence of every kind1 from the        
,inquisition to the ,schlsselburg       
fortress1 has rested and still rests on 
the opposite principle of the  necessity
 of resisting evil by force4    ,besides
 this1 the ,russian critics have pointed
 out the fact that the  application of  
the command of non-resistance to        
practical life would  turn mankind aside
 out of the path of civilization along  
which it is  moving4 ,the path of       
civilization on which mankind in ,europe
 is moving  is in their opinion the one 

along which all mankind ought always to 
move4    ,so much for the general       
character of the ,russian critics4      
,foreign critics started from the same  
premises1 but their discussions  of my  
book were somewhat different from those 
of ,russian critics1 not  only in being 
less bitter1 and in showing more        
culture1 but even in  the               
subject-matter4    ,in discussing my    
book and the ,gospel teaching generally1
 as it is  expressed in the ,sermon on  
the ,mount1 the foreign critics         
maintained  that such doctrine is not   
peculiarly ,christian 7,christian       
doctrine is  either ,catholicism or     
,protestantism according to their       
views7--the  teaching of the ,sermon on 
the ,mount is only a string of very     
pretty  impracticable dreams du charmant
 docteur1 as ,renan says1 fit for  the  
simple and half-savage inhabitants of   
,galilee who lived eighteen  hundred    
years ago1 and for the half-savage      
,russian peasants--,sutaev  and         

,bondarev--and the ,russian mystic      
,tolstoy1 but not at all  consistent    
with a high degree of ,european culture4
    ,the foreign freethinking critics   
have tried in a delicate manner1        
without being offensive to me1 to give  
the impression that my  conviction that 
mankind could be guided by such a nave  
doctrine as  that of the ,sermon on the 
,mount proceeds from two causes3 that   
such  a conviction is partly due to my  
want of knowledge1 my ignorance  of     
history1 my ignorance of all the vain   
attempts to apply the  principles of the
 ,sermon on the ,mount to life1 which   
have been  made in history and have led 
to nothing2 and partly it is due to  my 
failing to appreciate the full value of 
the lofty civilization  to which mankind
 has attained at present1 with its      
,krupp cannons1  smokeless powder1      
colonization of ,africa1 ,irish         
,coercion ,bill1  parliamentary         
government1 journalism1 strikes1 and the
 ,eiffel ,tower4    ,so wrote de ,vog   

and ,leroy ,beaulieu and ,matthew       
,arnold2 so wrote  the ,american author 
,savage1 and ,ingersoll1 the popular    
freethinking  ,american preacher1 and   
many others4    ,christ's teaching is no
 use1 because it is inconsistent with   
our industrial age1 says ,ingersoll     
navely1 expressing in this  utterance1  
with perfect directness and simplicity1 
the exact notion  of ,christ's teaching 
held by persons of refinement and       
culture of our  times4 ,the teaching is 
no use for our industrial age1 precisely
 as  though the existence of this       
industrial age were a sacred fact which 
ought not to and could not be changed4  
,it is just as though drunkards  when   
advised how they could be brought to    
habits of sobriety should  answer that  
the advice is incompatible with their   
habit of taking  alcohol4    ,the       
arguments of all the freethinking       
critics1 ,russian and foreign  alike1   
different as they may be in tone and    
manner of presentation1  all amount     

essentially to the same strange         
misapprehension--namely1  that ,christ's
 teaching1 one of the consequences of   
which is  non-resistance to evil1 is of 
no use to us because it requires a      
change of our life4    ,christ's        
teaching is useless because1 if it were 
carried into  practice1 life could not  
go on as at present2 we must add3 if we 
have  begun by living sinfully1 as we do
 live and are accustomed to live4  ,not 
only is the question of non-resistance  
to evil not discussed2  the very mention
 of the fact that the duty of           
non-resistance enters  into ,christ's   
teaching is regarded as satisfactory    
proof of the  impracticability of the   
whole teaching4    ,meanwhile one would 
have thought it was necessary to point  
out at  least some kind of solution of  
the following question1 since it is at  
the root of almost everything that      
interests us4    ,the question amounts  
to this3 ,in what way are we to decide  
men's  disputes1 when some men consider 

evil what others consider good1 and     
vice versa8 ,and to reply that that is  
evil which ,i think evil1 in  spite of  
the fact that my opponent thinks it     
good1 is not a solution  of the         
difficulty4 ,there can only be two      
solutions3 either to find a  real       
unquestionable criterion of what is evil
 or not to resist evil  by force4       
,the first course has been tried ever   
since the beginning of  historical      
times1 and1 as we all know1 it has not  
hitherto led to any  successful results4
    ,the second solution--not forcibly  
to resist what we consider evil  until  
we have found a universal               
criterion--that is the solution given   
by ,christ4    ,we may consider the     
answer given by ,christ unsatisfactory2 
we may  replace it by another and       
better1 by finding a criterion by which 
evil could be defined for all men       
unanimously and simultaneously2 we  may 
simply1 like savage nations1 not        
recognize the existence of the          

question4 ,but we cannot treat the      
question as the learned critics of      
,christianity do4 ,they pretend either  
that no such question exists at  all or 
that the question is solved by granting 
to certain persons  or assemblies of    
persons the right to define evil and to 
resist it  by force4 ,but we know all   
the while that granting such a right to 
certain persons does not decide the     
question 7still less so when we  are    
ourselves the certain persons71 since   
there are always people who  do not     
recognize this right in the authorized  
persons or assemblies4    ,but this     
assumption1 that what seems evil to us  
is really evil1 shows  a complete       
misunderstanding of the question1 and   
lies at the root of  the argument of    
freethinking critics about the          
,christian religion4 ,in  this way1     
then1 the discussions of my book on the 
part of ,churchmen  and freethinking    
critics alike showed me that the        
majority of men  simply do not          

understand either ,christ's teaching or 
the questions  which ,christ's teaching 
solves4          ,,chapter ,,iii4       
,,christianity ,,misunderstood ,,by     
,,believers4         ,meaning of        
,christian ,doctrine1 ,understood by a  
,minority1       has ,become ,completely
 ,incomprehensible for the ,majority    
of ,men--,reason of this to be ,found in
 ,misinterpretation       of            
,christianity and ,mistaken ,conviction 
of ,believers and       ,unbelievers    
,alike that they ,understand it--,the   
,meaning of       ,christianity         
,obscured for ,believers by the         
,church--,the ,first       ,appearance  
of ,christ's ,teaching--,its ,essence   
and ,difference       from ,heathen     
,religions--,christianity not ,fully    
,comprehended       at the ,beginning1  
,became ,more and ,more ,clear to those 
who       ,accepted it from its         
,correspondence with                    
,truth--,simultaneously       with this 
,arose the ,claim to ,possession of the 

,authentic       ,meaning of the        
,doctrine ,based on the ,miraculous     
,nature of       its                    
,transmission--,assembly of ,disciples  
as ,described in the       ,acts--,the  
,authoritative ,claim to the ,sole      
,possession of the       ,true ,meaning 
of ,christ's ,teaching ,supported by    
,miraculous       ,evidence has ,led by 
,logical ,development to the ,creeds of 
the       ,churches--,a ,church ,could  
,not be ,founded by                     
,christ--,definitions       of a ,church
 ,according to the ,catechisms--,the    
,churches have       ,always been       
,several in ,number and ,hostile to ,one
 ,another--,what       is ,heresy--,the 
,work of ,g4 ,arnold on                 
,heresies--,heresies       the          
,manifestations of ,progress in the     
,churches--,churches       ,cause       
,dissension among ,men1 and are ,always 
,hostile to                             
,christianity--,account of the ,work    
,done by the ,russian                   

,church--,matt4 xxiii4 #bc--,the ,sermon
 on the ,mount or the       ,creed--,the
 ,orthodox ,church ,conceals from the   
,people the ,true       ,meaning of     
,christianity--,the ,same ,thing is     
,done by the ,other                     
,churches--,all the ,external           
,conditions of ,modern ,life are such   
as to ,destroy the ,doctrine of the     
,church1 and therefore the              
,churches use ,every ,effort to ,support
 their ,doctrines4      ,thus the       
information ,i received1 after my book  
came out1 went to show  that the        
,christian doctrine1 in its direct and  
simple sense1 was  understood1 and had  
always been understood1 by a minority of
 men1  while the critics1 ecclesiastical
 and freethinking alike1 denied the     
possibility of taking ,christ's teaching
 in its direct sense4 ,all this         
convinced me that while on one hand the 
true understanding of this  doctrine had
 never been lost to a minority1 but had 
been established  more and more clearly1

 on the other hand the meaning of it had
 been  more and more obscured for the   
majority4 ,so that at last such a depth 
of obscurity has been reached that men  
do not take in their direct  sense even 
the simplest precepts1 expressed in the 
simplest words1 in  the ,gospel4        
,christ's teaching is not generally     
understood in its true1 simple1  and    
direct sense even in these days1 when   
the light of the ,gospel  has penetrated
 even to the darkest recesses of human  
consciousness2  when1 in the words of   
,christ1 that which was spoken in the   
ear is  proclaimed from the housetops2  
and when the ,gospel is influencing     
every side of human life--domestic1     
economic1 civic1 legislative1  and      
international4 ,this lack of true       
understanding of ,christ's words  at    
such a time would be inexplicable1 if   
there were not causes to  account for   
it4    ,one of these causes is the fact 
that believers and unbelievers alike    
are firmly persuaded that they have     

understood ,christ's teaching a  long   
time1 and that they understand it so    
fully1 indubitably1 and  conclusively   
that it can have no other significance  
than the one  they attribute to it4 ,and
 the reason of this conviction is that  
the  false interpretation and consequent
 misapprehension of the ,gospel is  an  
error of such long standing4 ,even the  
strongest current of water  cannot add a
 drop to a cup which is already full4   
,the most difficult subjects can be     
explained to the most slow-witted  man  
if he has not formed any idea of them   
already2 but the simplest  thing cannot 
be made clear to the most intelligent   
man if he is  firmly persuaded that he  
knows already1 without a shadow of      
doubt1  what is laid before him4    ,the
 ,christian doctrine is presented to the
 men of our world to-day  as a doctrine 
which everyone has known so long and    
accepted so  unhesitatingly in all its  
minutest details that it cannot be      
understood in any other way than it is  

understood now4    ,christianity is     
understood now by all who profess the   
doctrines of  the ,church as a          
supernatural miraculous revelation of   
everything  which is repeated in the    
,creed4 ,by unbelievers it is regarded  
as  an illustration of man's craving for
 a belief in the supernatural1  which   
mankind has now outgrown1 as an         
historical phenomenon which  has        
received full expression in             
,catholicism1 ,greek ,orthodoxy1 and    
,protestantism1 and has no longer any   
living significance for us4 ,the        
significance of the ,gospel is hidden   
from believers by the ,church1  from    
unbelievers by ,science4    ,i will     
speak first of the former4 ,eighteen    
hundred years ago there  appeared in the
 midst of the heathen ,roman world a    
strange new  doctrine1 unlike any of the
 old religions1 and attributed to a man1
  ,christ4    ,this new doctrine was in 
both form and content absolutely new to 
the  ,jewish world in which it          

originated1 and still more to the ,roman
  world in which it was preached and    
diffused4    ,in the midst of the       
elaborate religious observances of      
,judaism1 in  which1 in the words of    
,isaiah1 law was laid upon law1 and in  
the  midst of the ,roman legal system   
worked out to the highest point  of     
perfection1 a new doctrine appeared1    
which denied not only  every deity1 and 
all fear and worship of them1 but even  
all human  institutions and all         
necessity for them4 ,in place of all the
 rules  of the old religions1 this      
doctrine sets up only a type of inward  
perfection1 truth1 and love in the      
person of ,christ1 and--as a result  of 
this inward perfection being attained by
 men--also the outward  perfection      
foretold by the ,prophets--the kingdom  
of ,god1 when all men  will cease to    
learn to make war1 when all shall be    
taught of ,god and  united in love1 and 
the lion will lie down with the lamb4   
,instead  of the threats of punishment  

which all the old laws of religions  and
 governments alike laid down for        
non-fulfillment of their rules1  instead
 of promises of rewards for fulfillment 
of them1 this doctrine  called men to it
 only because it was the truth4 ,john   
vii4 #ag3 ,if any  man will do ,his     
will1 he shall know of the doctrine     
whether it be  of ,god4 ,john viii4 #df3
 ,if ,i say the truth1 why do ye not    
believe  me8 ,but ye seek to kill me1 a 
man that hath told you the truth4 ,ye   
shall know the truth1 and the truth     
shall make you free4 ,god is a  spirit1 
and they that worship him must worship  
him in spirit and in  truth4 ,keep my   
sayings1 and ye shall know of my sayings
 whether they  be true4 ,no proofs of   
this doctrine were offered except its   
truth1  the correspondence of the       
doctrine with the truth4 ,the whole     
teaching  consisted in the recognition  
of truth and following it1 in a greater 
and greater attainment of truth1 and a  
closer and closer following  of it in   

the acts of life4 ,there are no acts in 
this doctrine which  could justify a man
 and make him saved4 ,there is only the 
image of  truth to guide him1 for inward
 perfection in the person of ,christ1   
and for outward perfection in the       
establishment of the kingdom of  ,god4  
,the fulfillment of this teaching       
consists only in walking in the  chosen 
way1 in getting nearer to inward        
perfection in the imitation  of ,christ1
 and outward perfection in the          
establishment of the kingdom  of ,god4  
,the greater or less blessedness of a   
man depends1 according  to this         
doctrine1 not on the degree of          
perfection to which he has  attained1   
but on the greater or less swiftness    
with which he is  pursuing it4    ,the  
progress toward perfection of the       
publican ,zaccheus1 of the woman  that  
was a sinner1 of the robber on the      
cross1 is a greater state  of           
blessedness1 according to this doctrine1
 than the stationary  righteousness of  

the ,pharisee4 ,the lost sheep is dearer
 than  ninety-nine that were not lost4  
,the prodigal son1 the piece of money   
that was lost and found again1 are      
dearer1 more precious to ,god than      
those which have not been lost4         
,every condition1 according to this     
doctrine1 is only a particular  step in 
the attainment of inward and outward    
perfection1 and  therefore has no       
significance of itself4 ,blessedness    
consists in  progress toward perfection2
 to stand still in any condition        
whatever  means the cessation of this   
blessedness4    ,let not thy left hand  
know what thy right hand doeth4 ,no man 
having put his hand to the plow and     
looking back is fit for the  kingdom of 
,god4 ,rejoice not that the spirits are 
subject to you1  but seek rather that   
your names be written in heaven4 ,be ye 
perfect1 even as your ,father in heaven 
is perfect4 ,seek ye first  the kingdom 
of heaven and its righteousness4    ,the
 fulfillment of this precept is only to 

be found in uninterrupted  progress     
toward the attainment of ever higher    
truth1 toward  establishing more and    
more firmly an ever greater love within 
oneself1 and establishing more and more 
widely the kingdom of ,god  outside     
oneself4    ,it is obvious that1        
appearing as it did in the midst of the 
,jewish  and heathen world1 such        
teaching could not be accepted by the   
majority of men1 who were living a life 
absolutely different from  what was     
required by it4 ,it is obvious1 too1    
that even for those by  whom it was     
accepted1 it was so absolutely opposed  
to all their old  views that it could   
not be comprehensible in its full       
significance4    ,it has been only by a 
succession of misunderstandings1 errors1
  partial explanations1 and the         
corrections and additions of            
generations that the meaning of the     
,christian doctrine has grown           
continually more and more clear to men4 
,the ,christian view of  life has       

exerted an influence on the ,jewish and 
heathen1 and the  heathen and ,jewish   
view of life has1 too1 exerted an       
influence on  the ,christian4 ,and      
,christianity1 as the living force1 has 
gained  more and more upon the extinct  
,judaism and heathenism1 and has  grown 
continually clearer and clearer1 as it  
freed itself from the  admixture of     
falsehood which had overlaid it4 ,men   
went further  and further in the        
attainment of the meaning of            
,christianity1 and  realized it more and
 more in life4    ,the longer mankind   
lived1 the clearer and clearer became   
the meaning  of ,christianity1 as must  
always be the case with every theory of 
life4    ,succeeding generations        
corrected the errors of their           
predecessors1  and grew ever nearer and 
nearer to a comprehension of the true   
meaning4 ,it was thus from the very     
earliest times of ,christianity4  ,and  
so1 too1 from the earliest times of     
,christianity there were men  who began 

to assert on their own authority that   
the meaning they  attribute to the      
doctrine is the only true one1 and as   
proof bring  forward supernatural       
occurrences in support of the           
correctness of  their interpretation4   
,this was the principal cause at first  
of the misunderstanding of the          
doctrine1 and afterward of the complete 
distortion of it4    ,it was supposed   
that ,christ's teaching was transmitted 
to men not  like every other truth1 but 
in a special miraculous way4 ,thus the  
truth of the teaching was not proved by 
its correspondence with the  needs of   
the mind and the whole nature of man1   
but by the miraculous  manner of its    
transmission1 which was advanced as an  
irrefutable  proof of the truth of the  
interpretation put on it4 ,this         
hypothesis  originated from             
misunderstanding of the teaching1 and   
its result was  to make it impossible to
 understand it rightly4    ,and this    
happened first in the earliest times1   

when the doctrine  was still not so     
fully understood and often interpreted  
wrongly1  as we see by the ,gospels and 
the ,acts4 ,the less the doctrine was   
understood1 the more obscure it appeared
 and the more necessary were  external  
proofs of its truth4 ,the proposition   
that we ought not to  do unto others as 
we would not they should do unto us1 did
 not need  to be proved by miracles and 
needed no exercise of faith1 because    
this proposition is in itself convincing
 and in harmony with man's  mind and    
nature2 but the proposition that ,christ
 was ,god had to be  proved by miracles 
completely beyond our comprehension4    
,the more the understanding of ,christ's
 teaching was obscured1  the more the   
miraculous was introduced into it2 and  
the more the  miraculous was introduced 
into it1 the more the doctrine was      
strained  from its meaning and the more 
obscure it became2 and the more it  was 
strained from its meaning and the more  
obscure it became1 the  more strongly   

its infallibility had to be asserted1   
and the less  comprehensible the        
doctrine became4    ,one can see by the 
,gospels1 the ,acts1 and the ,epistles  
how from the  earliest times the        
non-comprehension of the doctrine called
 forth the  need for proofs through the 
miraculous and incomprehensible4    ,the
 first example in the book of ,acts is  
the assembly which gathered  together in
 ,jerusalem to decide the question which
 had arisen1  whether to baptize or not 
the uncircumcised and those who had     
eaten  of food sacrificed to idols4     
,the very fact of this question being   
raised showed that those who  discussed 
it did not understand the teaching of   
,christ1 who rejected  all outward      
observances--ablutions1 purifications1  
fasts1 and  sabbaths4 ,it was plainly   
said1 ,not that which goeth into a man's
  mouth1 but that which cometh out of a 
man's mouth1 defileth him1 and          
therefore the question of baptizing the 
uncircumcised could only have  arisen   

among men who1 though they loved their  
,master and dimly felt  the grandeur of 
his teaching1 still did not understand  
the teaching  itself very clearly4 ,and 
this was the fact4    ,just in          
proportion to the failure of the members
 of the assembly  to understand the     
doctrine was their need of external     
confirmation  of their incomplete       
interpretation of it4 ,and then to      
settle this  question1 the very asking  
of which proved their misunderstanding  
of  the doctrine1 there was uttered in  
this assembly1 as is described in  the  
,acts1 that strange phrase1 which was   
for the first time found  necessary to  
give external confirmation to certain   
assertions1 and  which has been         
productive of so much evil4    ,that is1
 it was asserted that the correctness of
 what they had  decided was guaranteed  
by the miraculous participation of the  
,holy  ,ghost1 that is1 of ,god1 in     
their decision4 ,but the assertion that 
the ,holy ,ghost1 that is1 ,god1 spoke  

through the ,apostles1 in its  turn     
wanted proof4 ,and thus it was          
necessary1 to confirm this1 that  the   
,holy ,ghost should descend at          
,pentecost in tongues of fire upon      
those who made this assertion4 7,in the 
account of it1 the descent  of the ,holy
 ,ghost precedes the assembly1 but the  
book of ,acts was  written much later   
than both events47 ,but the descent of  
the ,holy  ,ghost too had to be proved  
for those who had not seen the tongues  
of fire 7though it is not easy to       
understand why a tongue of fire  burning
 above a man's head should prove that   
what that man is going  to say will be  
infallibly the truth74 ,and so arose the
 necessity for  still more miracles and 
changes1 raisings of the dead to life1  
and  strikings of the living dead1 and  
all those marvels which have been  a    
stumbling-block to men1 of which the    
,acts is full1 and which1 far  from ever
 convincing one of the truth of the     
,christian doctrine1 can  only repel men

 from it4 ,the result of such a means of
 confirming the  truth was that the more
 these confirmations of truth by tales  
of  miracles were heaped up one after   
another1 the more the doctrine was      
distorted from its original meaning1 and
 the more incomprehensible it  became4  
,thus it was from the earliest times1   
and so it went on1 constantly           
increasing1 till it reached in our day  
the logical climax of the  dogmas of    
transubstantiation and the infallibility
 of the ,pope1 or of  the bishops1 or of
 ,scripture1 and of requiring a blind   
faith rendered  incomprehensible and    
utterly meaningless1 not in ,god1 but in
 ,christ1  not in a doctrine1 but in a  
person1 as in ,catholicism1 or in       
persons1  as in ,greek ,orthodoxy1 or in
 a book1 as in ,protestantism4 ,the more
  widely ,christianity was diffused1 and
 the greater the number of  people      
unprepared for it who were brought under
 its sway1 the less it  was understood1 
the more absolutely was its             

infallibility insisted  on1 and the less
 possible it became to understand the   
true meaning of  the doctrine4 ,in the  
times of ,constantine the whole         
interpretation  of the doctrine had been
 already reduced to a rsum--supported by
  the temporal authority--of the        
disputes that had taken place in the    
,council--to a creed which reckoned     
off--,i believe in so and so1 and  so   
and so1 and so and so to the end--to one
 holy1 ,apostolic ,church1  which means 
the infallibility of those persons who  
call themselves  the ,church4 ,so that  
it all amounts to a man no longer       
believing in  ,god nor ,christ1 as they 
are revealed to him1 but believing in   
what  the ,church orders him to believe 
in4    ,but the ,church is holy2 the    
,church was founded by ,christ4 ,god    
could  not leave men to interpret his   
teaching at random--therefore he        
founded the ,church4 ,all those         
statements are so utterly untrue  and   
unfounded that one is ashamed to refute 

them4 ,nowhere nor in  anything1 except 
in the assertion of the ,church1 can we 
find that  ,god or ,christ founded      
anything like what ,churchmen understand
 by the  ,church4 ,in the ,gospels there
 is a warning against the ,church1 as it
  is an external authority1 a warning   
most clear and obvious in the  passage  
where it is said that ,christ's         
followers should call no  man master4   
,but nowhere is anything said of the    
foundation of what  ,churchmen call the 
,church4    ,the word church is used    
twice in the ,gospels--once in the sense
 of  an assembly of men to decide a     
dispute1 the other time in connection   
with the obscure utterance about a      
stone--,peter1 and the gates of  hell4  
,from these two passages in which the   
word church is used1 in  the            
signification merely of an assembly1 has
 been deduced all that we  now          
understand by the ,church4    ,but      
,christ could not have founded the      
,church1 that is1 what we now           

understand by that word4 ,for nothing   
like the idea of the ,church as  we know
 it now1 with its sacraments1 miracles1 
and above all its  claim to             
infallibility1 is to be found either in 
,christ's words or in  the ideas of the 
men of that time4    ,the fact that men 
called what was formed afterward by the 
same word  as ,christ used for something
 totally different1 does not give them  
the right to assert that ,christ founded
 the one1 true ,church4    ,besides1 if 
,christ had really founded such an      
institution as the  ,church for the     
foundation of all his teaching and the  
whole faith1  he would certainly have   
described this institution clearly and  
definitely1 and would have given the    
only true ,church1 besides tales  of    
miracles1 which are used to support     
every kind of superstition1  some tokens
 so unmistakable that no doubt of its   
genuineness could  ever have arisen4    
,but nothing of the sort was done by    
him4 ,and there  have been and still are

 different institutions1 each calling   
itself  the true ,church4    ,the       
,catholic catechism says3 ,l'glise est  
la socit des fidles  tablie par notre   
,seigneur ,jsus ,christ1 rpandue sur    
toute la terre  et soumise  l'authorit  
des pasteurs lgitimes1 principalement   
notre ,saint ,pre le ,pape1#b           
understanding by the words pasteurs     
lgitimes an association of men having   
the ,pope at its head1  and consisting  
of certain individuals bound together by
 a certain  organization4      #b ,the  
,church is the society of the faithful1 
established by our    ,lord ,jesus      
,christ1 spread over the whole earth1   
and subject to the    authority of its  
lawful pastors1 and chief of them our   
,holy ,father    the ,pope4    ,the     
,greek ,orthodox catechism says3 ,the   
,church is a society founded  upon earth
 by ,jesus ,christ1 which is united into
 one whole1 by one  divine doctrine and 
by sacraments1 under the rule and       
guidance of a  priesthood appointed by  

,god1 meaning by the priesthood         
appointed by  ,god the ,greek ,orthodox 
priesthood1 consisting of certain       
individuals  who happen to be in such or
 such positions4    ,the ,lutheran      
catechism says3 ,the ,church is holy    
,christianity1 or the  collection of all
 believers under ,christ1 their head1 to
 whom the  ,holy ,ghost through the     
,gospels and sacraments promises1       
communicates1  and administers heavenly 
salvation1 meaning that the ,catholic   
,church is lost in error1 and that the  
true means of salvation is in           
,lutheranism4    ,for ,catholics the    
,church of ,god coincides with the      
,roman priesthood  and the ,pope4 ,for  
the ,greek ,orthodox believer the       
,church of ,god  coincides with the     
establishment and priesthood of         
,russia4#c      #c ,homyakov's          
definition of the ,church1 which was    
received with some    favor among       
,russians1 does not improve matters1 if 
we are to agree    with ,homyakov in    

considering the ,greek ,orthodox ,church
 as the one    true ,church4 ,homyakov  
asserts that a church is a collection of
 men    7all without distinction of     
clergy and laymen7 united together by   
love1 and that only to men united by    
love is the truth revealed 7let    us   
love each other1 that in the unity of   
thought1 etc471 and that    such a      
church is the church which1 in the first
 place1 recognizes    the ,nicene       
,creed1 and in the second place does    
not1 after the    division of the       
churches1 recognize the popes and new   
dogmas4 ,but    with such a definition  
of the church1 there is still more      
difficulty    in reconciling1 as        
,homyakov tries to do1 the church united
 by love    with the church that        
recognizes the ,nicene ,creed and the   
doctrine    of ,photius4 ,so that       
,homyakov's assertion that this church1 
united    by love1 and consequently     
holy1 is the same church as the ,greek  
,orthodox priesthood profess faith in1  

is even more arbitrary than the         
assertions of the ,catholics or the     
,orthodox4 ,if we admit the idea of    a
 church in the sense ,homyakov gives to 
it--that is1 a body of men    bound     
together by love and truth--then all    
that any man can predicate    in regard 
to this body1 if such an one exists1 is 
its love and truth1    but there can be 
no outer signs by which one could reckon
 oneself    or another as a member of   
this holy body1 nor by which one could  
put anyone outside it2 so that no       
institution having an external          
existence can correspond to this idea4  
,for ,lutherans the ,church of ,god     
coincides with a body of men who        
recognize the authority of the ,bible   
and ,luther's catechism4    ,ordinarily1
 when speaking of the rise of           
,christianity1 men belonging  to one of 
the existing churches use the word      
church in the singular1  as though there
 were and had been only one church4 ,but
 this is  absolutely incorrect4 ,the    

,church1 as an institution which        
asserted  that it possessed infallible  
truth1 did not make its appearance      
singly2 there were at least two churches
 directly this claim was made4    ,while
 believers were agreed among themselves 
and the body was one1 it  had no need to
 declare itself as a church4 ,it was    
only when believers  were split up into 
opposing parties1 renouncing one        
another1 that  it seemed necessary to   
each party to confirm their own truth by
  ascribing to themselves infallibility4
 ,the conception of one church  only    
arose when there were two sides divided 
and disputing1 who each  called the     
other side heresy1 and recognized their 
own side only as  the infallible church4
    ,if we knew that there was a church 
which decided in the year #ea to        
receive the uncircumcised1 it is only so
 because there was another  church--of  
the ,judaists--who decided to keep the  
uncircumcised out4    ,if there is a    
,catholic ,church now which asserts its 

own infallibility1 that is only because 
there are  churches--,greco-,russian1   
,old ,orthodox1 and ,lutheran--each     
asserting  its own infallibility and    
denying that of all other churches4 ,so 
that  the one ,church is only a         
fantastic imagination which has not the 
least trace of reality about it4    ,as 
a real historical fact there has        
existed1 and still exist1 several       
bodies of men1 each asserting that it is
 the one ,church1 founded by  ,christ1  
and that all the others who call        
themselves churches are only  sects and 
heresies4    ,the catechisms of the     
churches of the most world-wide         
influence--the  ,catholic1 the ,old     
,orthodox1 and the ,lutheran--openly    
assert this4    ,in the ,catholic       
catechism it is said3 ,quels sont ceux  
qui sont hors  de l'glise8 ,les         
infidles1 les hrtiques1 les             
schismatiques4#d  ,the so-called ,greek 
,orthodox are regarded as schismatics1  
the  ,lutherans as heretics2 so that    

according to the ,catholic catechism    
the only people in the ,church are      
,catholics4      #d ,who are those who  
are outside the ,church8 ,infidels1     
heretics1    and schismatics4    ,in the
 so-called ,orthodox catechism it is    
said3 ,by the one ,christian  ,church is
 understood the ,orthodox1 which remains
 fully in accord  with the ,universal   
,church4 ,as for the ,roman ,church and 
other sects  7the ,lutherans and the    
rest they do not even dignify by the    
name of  church71 they cannot be        
included in the one true ,church1 since 
they  have themselves separated from it4
    ,according to this definition the   
,catholics and ,lutherans are outside   
the ,church1 and there are only         
,orthodox in the ,church4    ,the       
,lutheran catechism says3 ,die wahre    
,kirche wird darein erkannt1  dass in   
ihr das ,wort ,gottes lauter und rein   
ohne ,menschenzustze  gelehrt und die   
,sacramente treu nach ,christi          
,einsetzung gewahret  werden4#e      #e 

,the true ,church will be known by the  
,word of ,god being studied    clear and
 unmixed with man's additions and the   
sacraments being    maintained faithful 
to ,christ's teaching4    ,according to 
this definition all those who have added
 anything to  the teaching of ,christ   
and the apostles1 as the ,catholic and  
,greek  churches have done1 are outside 
the ,church4 ,and in the ,church there  
are only ,protestants4    ,the          
,catholics assert that the ,holy ,ghost 
has been transmitted without  a break in
 their priesthood4 ,the ,orthodox assert
 that the same ,holy  ,ghost has been   
transmitted without a break in their    
priesthood4  ,the ,arians asserted that 
the ,holy ,ghost was transmitted in     
their  priesthood 7they asserted this   
with just as much right as the  churches
 in authority now74 ,the ,protestants of
 every kind--,lutherans1  ,reformed     
,church1 ,presbyterians1 ,methodists1   
,swedenborgians1  ,mormons--assert that 
the ,holy ,ghost is only present in     

their  communities4 ,if the ,catholics  
assert that the ,holy ,ghost1 at the    
time  of the division of the ,church    
into ,arian and ,greek1 left the ,church
  that fell away and remained in the one
 true ,church1 with precisely  the same 
right the ,protestants of every         
denomination can assert that  at the    
time of the separation of their ,church 
from the ,catholic  the ,holy ,ghost    
left the ,catholic and passed into the  
,church they  professed4 ,and this is   
just what they do4    ,every church     
traces its creed through an             
uninterrupted transmission  from ,christ
 and the ,apostles4 ,and truly every    
,christian creed that  has been derived 
from ,christ must have come down to the 
present  generation through a certain   
transmission4 ,but that does not prove  
that it alone of all that has been      
transmitted1 excluding all the  rest1   
can be the sole truth1 admitting of no  
doubt4    ,every branch in a tree comes 
from the root in unbroken connection2   

but the fact that each branch comes from
 the one root1 does not  prove at all   
that each branch was the only one4 ,it  
is precisely the  same with the ,church4
 ,every church presents exactly the same
 proofs  of the succession1 and even the
 same miracles1 in support of its       
authenticity1 as every other4 ,so that  
there is but one strict and  exact      
definition of what is a church 7not of  
something fantastic  which we would wish
 it to be1 but of what it is and has    
been in  reality7--a church is a body of
 men who claim for themselves that  they
 are in complete and sole possession of 
the truth4 ,and these  bodies1 having in
 course of time1 aided by the support of
 the  temporal authorities1 developed   
into powerful institutions1 have been   
the principal obstacles to the diffusion
 of a true comprehension of  the        
teaching of ,christ4    ,it could not be
 otherwise4 ,the chief peculiarity which
 distinguished  ,christ's teaching from 
previous religions consisted in the fact

  that those who accepted it strove ever
 more and more to comprehend  and       
realize its teaching4 ,but the ,church  
doctrine asserted its own  complete and 
final comprehension and realization of  
it4    ,strange though it may seem to us
 who have been brought up in the        
erroneous view of the ,church as a      
,christian institution1 and in  contempt
 for heresy1 yet the fact is that only  
in what was called  heresy was there any
 true movement1 that is1 true           
,christianity1 and  that it only ceased 
to be so when those heresies stopped    
short in  their movement and also       
petrified into the fixed forms of a     
church4    ,and1 indeed1 what is a      
heresy8 ,read all the theological works 
one  after another4 ,in all of them     
heresy is the subject which first       
presents itself for definition2 since   
every theological work deals  with the  
true doctrine of ,christ as             
distinguished from the erroneous        
doctrines which surround it1 that is1   

heresies4 ,yet you will not find        
anywhere anything like a definition of  
heresy4    ,the treatment of this       
subject by the learned historian of     
,christianity1 ,e4 de ,pressens1 in his 
,histoire du ,dogme 7,paris1  #ahfi71   
under the heading ,ubi ,christus1 ibi   
,ecclesia1 may serve as  an illustration
 of the complete absence of anything    
like a definition  of what is understood
 by the word heresy4 ,here is what he   
says in  his introduction 7p4 #c73 ,je  
sais que l'on nous conteste le droit de 
qualifier ainsi that is1 to call        
heresies les tendances qui furent  si   
vivement combattues par les premiers    
,pres4 ,la dsignation mme  d'hrsie      
semble une atteinte porte  la libert de 
conscience et de  pense4 ,nous ne       
pouvons partager ce scrupule1 car il    
n'irait  rien  moins qu' enlever au     
,christianisme tout caractre            
distinctif4#f      #f ,i know that our  
right to qualify thus the tendencies    
which were    so actively opposed by the

 early ,fathers is contested4 ,the very 
use    of the word heresy seems an      
attack upon liberty of conscience and   
thought4 ,we cannot share this scruple2 
for it would amount to nothing    less  
than depriving ,christianity of all     
distinctive character4    ,and though he
 tells us that after ,constantine's time
 the ,church did  actually abuse its    
power by designating those who dissented
 from it  as heretics and persecuting   
them1 yet he says1 when speaking of     
early  times3 ,l'glise est une libre    
association2 il y a tout profit  se     
sparer d'elle4 ,la polmique contre      
l'erreur n'a d'autres ressources  que la
 pense et le sentiment4 ,un type        
doctrinal uniforme n'a pas  encore t    
labor2 les divergences secondaires se   
produisent en  ,orient et en ,occident  
avec une entire libert2 la thologie     
n'est  point lie  d'invariables         
formules4 ,si au sein de cette diversit 
apparait un fonds commun de croyances1  
n'est-on pas en droit d'y  voir non pas 

un systme formul et compos par les      
reprsentants  d'une autorit d'cole1 mais
 la foi elle-mme dans son instinct  le  
plus sr et sa manifestation la plus     
spontane8 ,si cette mme  unanimit qui se
 rvle dans les croyances essentielles1  
se retrouve  pour repousser telles ou   
telles tendances1 ne serons-nous pas en 
droit de conclure que ces tendances     
taient en dsacord flagrant  avec les    
principes fondamentaux du christianisme8
 ,cette prsomption  ne se               
transformera-t-elle pas en certitude si 
nous reconnaissons  dans la doctrine    
universellement repousse par l',eglise  
les traits  caractristiques de l'une des
 religions du pass8 ,pour dire que  le  
gnosticisme ou l'bionitisme sont les    
formes lgitimes de la  pense chrtienne  
il faut dire hardiment qu'il n'y a pas  
de pense  chrtienne1 ni de caractre     
spcifique qui la fasse reconnatre4 ,sous
  prtexte de l'largir1 on la dissout4   
,personne au temps de ,platon  n'et os  
couvrir de son nom une doctrine qui     

n'eut pas fait place   la thorie des    
ides2 et l'on et excit les justes       
moqueries  de la ,grce1 en voulant faire
 d',epicure ou de ,znon un disciple  de 
l',acadmie4 ,reconnaissons donc que s'il
 existe une religion  ou une doctrine   
qui s'appelle christianisme1 elle peut  
avoir ses  hrsies4#g      #g ,the       
,church is a free association2 there is 
much to be gained by    separation from 
it4 ,conflict with error has no weapons 
other than    thought and feeling4 ,one 
uniform type of doctrine has not yet    
been    elaborated2 divergencies in     
secondary matters arise freely in ,east 
and ,west2 theology is not wedded to    
invariable formulas4 ,if in the    midst
 of this diversity a mass of beliefs    
common to all is apparent1    is one not
 justified in seeing in it1 not a       
formulated system1 framed    by the     
representatives of pedantic authority1  
but faith itself in    its surest       
instinct and its most spontaneous       
manifestation8 ,if the    same unanimity

 which is revealed in essential points  
of belief is    found also in rejecting 
certain tendencies1 are we not justified
 in    concluding that these tendencies 
were in flagrant opposition to the      
fundamental principles of ,christianity8
 ,and will not this presumption    be   
transformed into certainty if we        
recognize in the doctrine    universally
 rejected by the ,church the            
characteristic features of one    of the
 religions of the past8 ,to say that    
gnosticism or ebionitism    are         
legitimate forms of ,christian thought1 
one must boldly deny the    existence of
 ,christian thought at all1 or any      
specific character by    which it could 
be recognized4 ,while ostensibly        
widening its realm1    one undermines   
it4 ,no one in the time of ,plato would 
have ventured    to give his name to a  
doctrine in which the theory of ideas   
had no    place1 and one would          
deservedly have excited the ridicule of 
,greece    by trying to pass off        

,epicurus or ,zeno as a disciple of the 
,academy4    ,let us recognize1 then1   
that if a religion or a doctrine exists 
which    is called ,christianity1 it may
 have its heresies4    ,the author's    
whole argument amounts to this3 that    
every opinion which  differs from the   
code of dogmas we believe in at a given 
time1 is  heresy4 ,but of course at any 
given time and place men always believe 
in something or other2 and this belief  
in something1 indefinite at  any place1 
at some time1 cannot be a criterion of  
truth4    ,it all amounts to this3 since
 ubi ,christus ibi ,ecclesia1 then      
,christus is where we are4    ,every    
so-called heresy1 regarding1 as it does1
 its own creed as  the truth1 can just  
as easily find in ,church history a     
series of  illustrations of its own     
creed1 can use all ,pressens's arguments
 on  its own behalf1 and can call its   
own creed the one truly ,christian      
creed4 ,and that is just what all       
heresies do and have always done4       

,the only definition of heresy 7the word
 1 means a  part7 is this3 the name     
given by a body of men to any opinion   
which  rejects a part of the ,creed     
professed by that body4 ,the more       
frequent  meaning1 more often ascribed  
to the word heresy1 is--that of an      
opinion which rejects the ,church       
doctrine founded and supported by  the  
temporal authorities4    ,there is a    
remarkable and voluminous work1 very    
little known1  ,unpartheyische ,kirchen-
 und ,ketzer-,historie1 #agbi1 by       
,gottfried  ,arnold1 which deals with   
precisely this subject1 and points out  
all  the unlawfulness1 the              
arbitrariness1 the senselessness1 and   
the  cruelty of using the word heretic  
in the sense of reprobate4 ,this  book  
is an attempt to write the history of   
,christianity in the form  of a history 
of heresy4    ,in the introduction the  
author propounds a series of questions3 
7#a7  ,of those who make heretics2 7#b7 
,of those whom they made heretics2  7#c7

 ,of heretical subjects themselves2 7#d7
 ,of the method of making  heretics2 and
 7#e7 ,of the object and result of      
making heretics4    ,on each of these   
points he propounds ten more questions1 
the answers  to which he gives later on 
from the works of well-known            
theologians4  ,but he leaves the reader 
to draw for himself the principal       
conclusion from the expositions in the  
whole book4 ,as examples of  these      
questions1 in which the answers are to  
some extent included  also1 ,i will     
quote the following4 ,under the #dth    
head1 of the manner  in which heretics  
are made1 he says1 in one of the        
questions 7in the  #gth73    ,does not  
all history show that the greatest      
makers of heretics  and masters of that 
craft were just these wise men1 from    
whom the  ,father hid his secrets1 that 
is1 the hypocrites1 the ,pharisees1 and 
lawyers1 men utterly godless and        
perverted 7,question #bj-ba78 ,and  in  
the corrupt times of ,christianity were 

not these very men cast  out1 denounced 
by the hypocrites and envious1 who were 
endowed by  ,god with great gifts and   
who would in the days of pure           
,christianity  have been held in high   
honor8 ,and1 on the other hand1 would   
not the  men who1 in the decline of     
,christianity raised themselves above   
all1  and regarded themselves as the    
teachers of the purest ,christianity1   
would not these very men1 in the times  
of the apostles and disciples  of       
,christ1 have been regarded as the most 
shameless heretics and                  
anti-,christians8    ,he expounds1 among
 other things in these questions1 the   
theory  that any verbal expression of   
faith1 such as was demanded by the      
,church1 and the departure from which   
was reckoned as heresy1 could  never    
fully cover the exact religious ideas of
 a believer1 and that  therefore the    
demand for an expression of faith in    
certain words was  ever productive of   
heresy1 and he says1 in ,question #ba3  

,and if heavenly things and thoughts    
present themselves to a man's  mind as  
so great and so profound that he does   
not find corresponding  words to express
 them1 ought one to call him a heretic1 
because he  cannot express his idea with
 perfect exactness8 ,and in ,question   
#cc3    ,and is not the fact that there 
was no heresy in the earliest days  due 
to the fact that the ,christians did not
 judge one another by  verbal           
expressions1 but by deed and by heart1  
since they had perfect  liberty to      
express their ideas without the dread of
 being called  heretics2 was it not the 
easiest and most ordinary ecclesiastical
  proceeding1 if the clergy wanted to   
get rid of or to ruin anyone1 for  them 
to cast suspicion on the person's       
belief1 and to throw a cloak  of heresy 
upon him1 and by this means to procure  
his condemnation and  removal8    ,true 
though it may be that there were sins   
and errors among the  so-called         
heretics1 it is no less true and        

evident1 he says farther  on1 from the  
innumerable examples quoted here 7i4 e41
 in the  history of the ,church and of  
heresy71 that there was not a single    
sincere and conscientious man of any    
importance whom the ,churchmen  would   
not from envy or other causes have      
ruined4    ,thus1 almost two hundred    
years ago1 the real meaning of heresy   
was  understood4 ,and notwithstanding   
that1 the same conception of it has     
gone on existing up to now4 ,and it     
cannot fail to exist so long as  the    
conception of a church exists4 ,heresy  
is the obverse side of the  ,church4    
,wherever there is a church1 there must 
be the conception  of heresy4 ,a church 
is a body of men who assert that they   
are in  possession of infallible truth4 
,heresy is the opinion of the men who   
do not admit the infallibility of the   
,church's truth4    ,heresy makes its   
appearance in the ,church4 ,it is the   
effort to break  through the petrified  
authority of the ,church4 ,all effort   

after a  living comprehension of the    
doctrine has been made by heretics4     
,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,augustine1       
,luther1 ,huss1 ,savonarola1            
,helchitsky1  and the rest were         
heretics4 ,it could not be otherwise4   
,the follower of ,christ1 whose service 
means an ever-growing  understanding of 
his teaching1 and an ever-closer        
fulfillment of it1  in progress toward  
perfection1 cannot1 just because he is a
 follower  of ,christ1 claim for himself
 or any other that he understands       
,christ's teaching fully and fulfills   
it4 ,still less can he claim this  for  
any body of men4    ,to whatever degree 
of understanding and perfection the     
follower of  ,christ may have attained1 
he always feels the insufficiency of his
  understanding and fulfillment of it1  
and is always striving toward  a fuller 
understanding and fulfillment4 ,and     
therefore1 to assert  of one's self or  
of any body of men1 that one is or they 
are in  possession of perfect           

understanding and fulfillment of        
,christ's word1  is to renounce the very
 spirit of ,christ's teaching4          
,strange as it may seem1 the churches as
 churches have always been1  and cannot 
but be1 institutions not only alien in  
spirit to ,christ's  teaching1 but even 
directly antagonistic to it4 ,with good 
reason  ,voltaire calls the ,church     
l'infme2 with good reason have all or   
almost all so-called sects of           
,christians recognized the ,church as   
the scarlet woman foretold in the       
,apocalypse2 with good reason is  the   
history of the ,church the history of   
the greatest cruelties and  horrors4    
,the churches as churches are not1 as   
many people suppose1  institutions which
 have ,christian principles for their   
basis1  even though they may have       
strayed a little away from the straight 
path4 ,the churches as churches1 as     
bodies which assert their own           
infallibility1 are institutions opposed 
to ,christianity4 ,there is not  only   

nothing in common between the churches  
as such and ,christianity1  except the  
name1 but they represent two principles 
fundamentally  opposed and antagonistic 
to one another4 ,one represents pride1  
violence1 self-assertion1 stagnation1   
and death2 the other1 meekness1         
penitence1 humility1 progress1 and life4
    ,we cannot serve these two masters2 
we have to choose between them4    ,the 
servants of the churches of all         
denominations1 especially of  later     
times1 try to show themselves champions 
of progress in  ,christianity4 ,they    
make concessions1 wish to correct the   
abuses  that have slipped into the      
,church1 and maintain that one cannot1  
on  account of these abuses1 deny the   
principle itself of a ,christian        
church1 which alone can bind all men    
together in unity and be a  mediator    
between men and ,god4 ,but this is all a
 mistake4 ,not only  have the churches  
never bound men together in unity2 they 
have always  been one of the principal  

causes of division between men1 of their
  hatred of one another1 of wars1       
battles1 inquisitions1 massacres of     
,st4 ,bartholomew1 and so on4 ,and the  
churches have never served as  mediators
 between men and ,god4 ,such mediation  
is not wanted1 and was  directly        
forbidden by ,christ1 who has revealed  
his teaching directly  and immediately  
to each man4 ,but the churches set up   
dead forms in  the place of ,god1 and   
far from revealing ,god1 they obscure   
him from  men's sight4 ,the churches1   
which originated from misunderstanding  
of  ,christ's teaching and have         
maintained this misunderstanding by     
their  immovability1 cannot but         
persecute and refuse to recognize all   
true  understanding of ,christ's words4 
,they try to conceal this1 but in  vain2
 for every step forward along the path  
pointed out for us by  ,christ is a step
 toward their destruction4    ,to hear  
and to read the sermons and articles in 
which ,church writers  of later times of

 all denominations speak of ,christian  
truths and  virtues2 to hear or read    
these skillful arguments that have been 
elaborated during centuries1 and        
exhortations and professions1  which    
sometimes seem like sincere professions1
 one is ready to  doubt whether the     
churches can be antagonistic to         
,christianity4 ,it  cannot be1 one says1
 that these people who can point to such
 men  as ,chrysostom1 ,fnelon1 ,butler1 
and others professing the ,christian    
faith1 were antagonistic to             
,christianity4 ,one is tempted to say1  
,the churches may have strayed away from
 ,christianity1 they may be  in error1  
but they cannot be hostile to it4 ,but  
we must look to  the fruit to judge the 
tree1 as ,christ taught us4 ,and if we  
see that  their fruits were evil1 that  
the results of their activity were      
antagonistic to ,christianity1 we cannot
 but admit that however good  the men   
were--the work of the ,church in which  
these men took part  was not ,christian4

 ,the goodness and worth of these men   
who served  the churches was the        
goodness and worth of the men1 and not  
of  the institution they served4 ,all   
the good men1 such as ,francis of       
,assisi1 and ,francis of ,sales1 our    
,tihon ,zadonsky1 ,thomas  ,kempis1  and
 others1 were good men in spite of their
 serving an institution  hostile to     
,christianity1 and they would have been 
still better if  they had not been under
 the influence of the error which they  
were  serving4    ,but why should we    
speak of the past and judge from the    
past1 which  may have been              
misrepresented and misunderstood by us8 
,the churches1  with their principles   
and their practice1 are not a thing of  
the  past4 ,the churches are before us  
to-day1 and we can judge of them to     
some purpose by their practical         
activity1 their influence on men4       
,what is the practical work of the      
churches to-day8 ,what is their         
influence upon men8 ,what is done by the

 churches among us1 among the           
,catholics and the ,protestants of all  
denominations--what is their  practical 
work8 and what are the results of their 
practical work8    ,the practice of our 
,russian so-called ,orthodox ,church is 
plain to  all4 ,it is an enormous fact  
which there is no possibility of hiding 
and about which there can be no         
disputing4    ,what constitutes the     
practical work of this ,russian ,church1
 this  immense1 intensely active        
institution1 which consists of a        
regiment  of half a million men and     
costs the people tens of millions of    
rubles8    ,the practical business of   
the ,church consists in instilling by   
every  conceivable means into the mass  
of one hundred millions of the  ,russian
 people those extinct relics of beliefs 
for which there is  nowadays no kind of 
justification1 in which scarcely anyone 
now  believes1 and often not even those 
whose duty it is to diffuse these  false
 beliefs4 ,to instill into the people   

the formulas of ,byzantine  theology1 of
 the ,trinity1 of the ,mother of ,god1  
of ,sacraments1 of  ,grace1 and so on1  
extinct conceptions1 foreign to us1 and 
having no  kind of meaning for men of   
our times1 forms only one part of the   
work of the ,russian ,church4 ,another  
part of its practice consists in  the   
maintenance of idol-worship in the most 
literal meaning of the  word2 in the    
veneration of holy relics1 and of ikons1
 the offering of  sacrifices to them1   
and the expectation of their answers to 
prayer4  ,i am not going to speak of    
what is preached and what is written  by
 clergy of scientific or liberal        
tendencies in the theological  journals4
 ,i am going to speak of what is        
actually done by the clergy  through the
 wide expanse of the ,russian land among
 a people of one  hundred millions4     
,what do they1 diligently1 assiduously1 
everywhere  alike1 without intermission1
 teach the people8 ,what do they demand 
from the people in virtue of their      

7so-called7 ,christian faith8    ,i will
 begin from the beginning with the birth
 of a child4 ,at the  birth of a child  
they teach them that they must recite a 
prayer over  the child and mother to    
purify them1 as though without this     
prayer  the mother of a newborn child   
were unclean4 ,to do this the priest    
holds the child in his arms before the  
images of the saints 7called  by the    
people plainly gods7 and reads words of 
exorcizing power1 and  this purifies the
 mother4 ,then it is suggested to the   
parents1 and  even exacted of them1     
under fear of punishment for            
non-fulfillment1  that the child must be
 baptized2 that is1 be dipped by the    
priest  three times into the water1     
while certain words1 understood by no   
one1 are read aloud1 and certain        
actions1 still less understood1  are    
performed2 various parts of the body are
 rubbed with oil1 and  the hair is cut1 
while the sponsors blow and spit at an  
imaginary  devil4 ,all this is necessary

 to purify the child and to make him a  
,christian4 ,then it is instilled into  
the parents that they ought to          
administer the sacrament to the child1  
that is1 give him1 in the  guise of     
bread and wine1 a portion of ,christ's  
body to eat1 as a  result of which the  
child receives the grace of ,god within 
it1 and  so on4 ,then it is suggested   
that the child as it grows up must be   
taught to pray4 ,to pray means to place 
himself directly before the  wooden     
boards on which are painted the faces of
 ,christ1 the ,mother of  ,god1 and the 
saints1 to bow his head and his whole   
body1 and to touch  his forehead1 his   
shoulders and his stomach with his right
 hand1  holding his fingers in a certain
 position1 and to utter some words  of  
,slavonic1 the most usual of which as   
taught to all children are3  ,mother of 
,god1 virgin1 rejoice thee1 etc41 etc4  
,then it is instilled into the child as 
it is brought up that at the  sight of  
any church or ikon he must repeat the   

same action--i4  e41 cross himself4     
,then it is instilled into him that on  
holidays  7holidays are the days on     
which ,christ was born1 though no one   
knows  when that was1 on which he was   
circumcised1 on which the ,mother of    
,god died1 on which the cross was       
carried in procession1 on which  ikons  
have been set up1 on which a lunatic saw
 a vision1 and so  on7--on holidays he  
must dress himself in his best clothes  
and go to  church1 and must buy candles 
and place them there before the images  
of the saints4 ,then he must give       
offerings and prayers for the dead1  and
 little loaves to be cut up into        
three-cornered pieces1 and must  pray   
many times for the health and prosperity
 of the ,tzar and the  bishops1 and for 
himself and his own affairs1 and then   
kiss the cross  and the hand of the     
priest4    ,besides these observances1  
it is instilled into him that at least  
once a year he must confess4 ,to confess
 means to go to the church  and to tell 

the priest his sins1 on the theory that 
this informing  a stranger of his sins  
completely purifies him from them4 ,and 
after  that he must eat with a little   
spoon a morsel of bread with wine1      
which will purify him still more4 ,next 
it is instilled into him that  if a man 
and woman want their physical union to  
be sanctified they  must go to church1  
put on metal crowns1 drink certain      
potions1 walk  three times round a table
 to the sound of singing1 and that then 
the physical union of a man and woman   
becomes sacred and altogether  different
 from all other such unions4    ,further
 it is instilled into him in his life   
that he must observe  the following     
rules3 not to eat butter or milk on     
certain days1 and  on certain other days
 to sing ,te ,deums and requiems for the
 dead1  on holidays to entertain the    
priest and give him money1 and several  
times in the year to bring the ikons    
from the church1 and to carry  them     
slung on his shoulders through the      

fields and houses4 ,it is  instilled    
into him that on his death-bed a man    
must not fail to eat  bread and wine    
with a spoon1 and that it will be still 
better if  he has time to be rubbed with
 sacred oil4 ,this will guarantee his   
welfare in the future life4 ,after his  
death it is instilled into  his         
relatives that it is a good thing for   
the salvation of the dead  man to place 
a printed paper of prayers in his hands2
 it is a good  thing further to read    
aloud a certain book over the dead body1
 and to  pronounce the dead man's name  
in church at a certain time4 ,all this  
is regarded as faith obligatory on      
everyone4    ,but if anyone wants to    
take particular care of his soul1 then  
according to this faith he is instructed
 that the greatest security  of the     
salvation of the soul in the world is   
attained by offering  money to the      
churches and monasteries1 and engaging  
the holy men by  this means to pray for 
him4 ,entering monasteries too1 and     

kissing  relics and miraculous ikons1   
are further means of salvation for the  
soul4    ,according to this faith ikons 
and relics communicate a special        
sanctity1 power1 and grace1 and even    
proximity to these objects1  touching   
them1 kissing them1 putting candles     
before them1 crawling  under them while 
they are being carried along1 are all   
efficacious  for salvation1 as well as  
,te ,deums repeated before these holy   
things4    ,so this1 and nothing else1  
is the faith called ,orthodox1 that is  
the actual faith which1 under the guise 
of ,christianity1 has been  with all the
 forces of the ,church1 and is now with 
especial zeal1  instilled into the      
people4    ,and let no one say that the 
,orthodox teachers place the essential  
part of their teaching in something     
else1 and that all these are  only      
ancient forms1 which it is not thought  
necessary to do away  with4 ,that is    
false4 ,this1 and nothing but this1 is  
the faith taught  through the whole of  

,russia by the whole of the ,russian    
clergy1 and  of late years with especial
 zeal4 ,there is nothing else taught4   
,something different may be talked of   
and written of in the capitals2  but    
among the hundred millions of the people
 this is what is done1  this is what is 
taught1 and nothing more4 ,churchmen may
 talk of  something else1 but this is   
what they teach by every means in their 
power4    ,all this1 and the worship of 
relics and of ikons1 has been introduced
  into works of theology and into the   
catechisms4 ,thus they teach it  to the 
people in theory and in practice1 using 
every resource of  authority1 solemnity1
 pomp1 and violence to impress them4    
,they compel  the people1 by overawing  
them1 to believe in this1 and jealously 
guard this faith from any attempt to    
free the people from these  barbarous   
superstitions4    ,as ,i said when ,i   
published my book1 ,christ's teaching   
and his very  words about non-resistance
 to evil were for many years a subject  

for ridicule and low jesting in my eyes1
 and ,churchmen1 far from  opposing it1 
even encouraged this scoffing at sacred 
things4 ,but try  the experiment of     
saying a disrespectful word about a     
hideous idol  which is carried          
sacrilegiously about ,moscow by drunken 
men under the  name of the ikon of the  
,iversky virgin1 and you will raise a   
groan  of indignation from these same   
,churchmen4 ,all that they preach is an 
external observance of the rites of     
idolatry4 ,and let it not be said  that 
the one does not hinder the other1 that 
,these ought ye to have  done1 and not  
to leave the other undone4 ,all1        
therefore1 whatsoever  they bid you     
observe1 that observe and do2 but do not
 ye after their  works3 for they say1   
and do not 7,matt4 xxiii4 #bc1 #c74     
,this was spoken of the ,pharisees1 who 
fulfilled all the external  observances 
prescribed by the law1 and therefore the
 words  whatsoever they bid you observe1
 that observe and do1 refer to  works of

 mercy and goodness1 and the words do   
not ye after their  works1 for they say 
and do not1 refer to their observance of
  ceremonies and their neglect of good  
works1 and have exactly the  opposite   
meaning to that which the ,churchmen try
 to give to the  passage1 interpreting  
it as an injunction to observe          
ceremonies4  ,external observances and  
the service of truth and goodness are   
for  the most part difficult to combine2
 the one excludes the other4 ,so it  was
 with the ,pharisees1 so it is now with 
,church ,christians4    ,if a man can be
 saved by the redemption1 by sacraments1
 and by  prayer1 then he does not need  
good works4    ,the ,sermon on the      
,mount1 or the ,creed4 ,one cannot      
believe in both4  ,and ,churchmen have  
chosen the latter4 ,the ,creed is taught
 and is  read as a prayer in the        
churches1 but the ,sermon on the ,mount 
is  excluded even from the ,gospel      
passages read in the churches1 so that  
the congregation never hears it in      

church1 except on those days when  the  
whole of the ,gospel is read4 ,indeed1  
it could not be otherwise4  ,people who 
believe in a wicked and senseless       
,god--who has cursed  the human race and
 devoted his own ,son to sacrifice1 and 
a part of  mankind to eternal           
torment--cannot believe in the ,god of  
love4 ,the  man who believes in a ,god1 
in a ,christ coming again in glory to   
judge  and to punish the quick and the  
dead1 cannot believe in the ,christ  who
 bade us turn the left cheek1 judge not1
 forgive those that wrong  us1 and love 
our enemies4 ,the man who believes in   
the inspiration of  the ,old ,testament 
and the sacred character of ,david1 who 
commanded  on his deathbed the murder of
 an old man who had cursed him1 and     
whom he could not kill himself because  
he was bound by an oath to  him1 and the
 similar atrocities of which the ,old   
,testament is full1  cannot believe in  
the holy love of ,christ4 ,the man who  
believes in  the ,church's doctrine of  

the compatibility of warfare and capital
  punishment with ,christianity cannot  
believe in the brotherhood of all  men4 
,and what is most important of all--the 
man who believes in salvation  through  
faith in the redemption or the          
sacraments1 cannot devote all  his      
powers to realizing ,christ's moral     
teaching in his life4    ,the man who   
has been instructed by the ,church in   
the profane doctrine  that a man cannot 
be saved by his own powers1 but that    
there is  another means of salvation1   
will infallibly rely upon this means and
  not on his own powers1 which1 they    
assure him1 it is sinful to trust  in4  
,the teaching of every ,church1 with its
 redemption and sacraments1  excludes   
the teaching of ,christ2 most of all the
 teaching of the  ,orthodox ,church with
 its idolatrous observances4    ,but the
 people have always believed of their   
own accord as they  believe now1 will be
 said in answer to this4 ,the whole     
history  of the ,russian people proves  

it4 ,one cannot deprive the people of   
their traditions4 ,this statement1 too1 
is misleading4 ,the people  did         
certainly at one time believe in        
something like what the ,church         
believes in now1 though it was far from 
being the same thing4 ,in  spite of     
their superstitious regard for ikons1   
house-spirits1 relics1  and festivals   
with wreaths of birch leaves1 there has 
still always  been in the people a      
profound moral and living understanding 
of  ,christianity1 which there has never
 been in the ,church as a whole1  and   
which is only met with in its best      
representatives4 ,but the  people1      
notwithstanding all the prejudices      
instilled into them by the  government  
and the ,church1 have in their best     
representatives long  outgrown that     
crude stage of understanding1 a fact    
which is proved  by the springing up    
everywhere of the rationalist sects with
 which  ,russia is swarming to-day1 and 
on which ,churchmen are now carrying on 

an ineffectual warfare4 ,the people are 
advancing to a consciousness  of the    
moral1 living side of ,christianity4    
,and then the ,church comes  forward1   
not borrowing from the people1 but      
zealously instilling into  them the     
petrified formalities of an extinct     
paganism1 and striving  to thrust them  
back again into the darkness from which 
they are  emerging with such effort4    
,we teach the people nothing new1       
nothing but what they believe1 only  in 
a more perfect form1 say the ,churchmen4
 ,this is just what the man  did who    
tied up the full-grown chicken and      
thrust it back into the  shell it had   
come out of4    ,i have often been      
irritated1 though it would be comic if  
the  consequences were not so awful1 by 
observing how men shut one another  in a
 delusion and cannot get out of this    
magic circle4    ,the first question1   
the first doubt of a ,russian who is    
beginning to  think1 is a question about
 the ikons1 and still more the          

miraculous  relics3 ,is it true that    
they are genuine1 and that miracles are 
worked through them8 ,hundreds of       
thousands of men put this question  to  
themselves1 and their principal         
difficulty in answering it is  the fact 
that bishops1 metropolitans1 and all men
 in positions of  authority kiss the    
relics and wonder-working ikons4 ,ask   
the bishops  and men in positions of    
authority why they do so1 and they will 
say  they do it for the sake of the     
people1 while the people kiss them      
because the bishops and men in authority
 do so4    ,in spite of all the external
 varnish of modernity1 learning1 and    
spirituality which the members of the   
,church begin nowadays to assume  in    
their works1 their articles1 their      
theological journals1 and their         
sermons1 the practical work of the      
,russian ,church consists of nothing    
more than keeping the people in their   
present condition of coarse  and savage 
idolatry1 and worse still1 strengthening

 and diffusing  superstition and        
religious ignorance1 and suppressing    
that living  understanding of           
,christianity which exists in the people
 side by side  with idolatry4    ,i     
remember once being present in the      
monks' bookshop of the ,optchy          
,hermitage while an old peasant was     
choosing books for his grandson1  who   
could read4 ,a monk pressed on him      
accounts of relics1 holidays1           
miraculous ikons1 a psalter1 etc4 ,i    
asked the old man1 ,has he the  ,gospel8
 ,no4 ,give him the ,gospel in ,russian1
 ,i said to the monk4  ,that will not do
 for him1 answered the monk4 ,there you 
have an  epitome of the work of our     
,church4    ,but this is only in        
barbarous ,russia1 the ,european and    
,american  reader will observe4 ,and    
such an observation is just1 but only so
 far  as it refers to the government1   
which aids the ,church in its task of   
stultification and corruption in        
,russia4    ,it is true that there is   

nowhere in ,europe a government so      
despotic  and so closely allied with the
 ruling ,church4 ,and therefore the     
share  of the temporal power in the     
corruption of the people is greatest in 
,russia4 ,but it is untrue that the     
,russian ,church in its influence on    
the people is in any respect different  
from any other church4    ,the churches 
are everywhere the same1 and if the     
,catholic1 the  ,anglican1 or the       
,lutheran ,church has not at hand a     
government as  compliant as the         
,russian1 it is not due to any          
indisposition to  profit by such a      
government4    ,the ,church as a church1
 whatever it may be--,catholic1         
,anglican1  ,lutheran1                  
,presbyterian--every church1 in so far  
as it is a church1  cannot but strive   
for the same object as the ,russian     
,church4 ,that  object is to conceal the
 real meaning of ,christ's teaching and 
to  replace it by their own1 which lays 
no obligation on them1 excludes  the    

possibility of understanding the true   
teaching of ,christ1 and  what is the   
chief consideration1 justifies the      
existence of priests  supported at the  
people's expense4    ,what else has     
,catholicism done1 what else is it doing
 in its  prohibition of reading the     
,gospel1 and in its demand for          
unreasoning  submission to ,church      
authorities and to an infallible ,pope8 
,is the  religion of ,catholicism any   
other than that of the ,russian ,church8
  ,there is the same external ritual1   
the same relics1 miracles1 and          
wonder-working images of ,notre ,dame1  
and the same processions2 the  same     
loftily vague discussions of            
,christianity in books and sermons1  and
 when it comes to practice1 the same    
supporting of the present  idolatry4    
,and is not the same thing done in      
,anglicanism1 ,lutheranism1  and every  
denomination of ,protestantism which has
 been formed into a  church8 ,there is  
the same duty laid on their             

congregations to believe  in the dogmas 
expressed in the fourth century1 which  
have lost  all meaning for men of our   
times1 and the same duty of idolatrous  
worship1 if not of relics and ikons1    
then of the ,sabbath ,day and the       
letter of the ,bible4 ,there is always  
the same activity directed to           
concealing the real duties of           
,christianity1 and to putting in their  
place an external respectability and    
cant1 as it is so well described  by the
 ,english1 who are peculiarly oppressed 
by it4 ,in ,protestantism  this tendency
 is specially remarkable because it has 
not the excuse  of antiquity4 ,and does 
not exactly the same thing show itself  
even  in contemporary revivalism--the   
revived ,calvinism and ,evangelicalism1 
to which the ,salvation ,army owes its  
origin8    ,uniform is the attitude of  
all the churches to the teaching of     
,christ1 whose name they assume for     
their own advantage4    ,the            
inconsistency of all church forms of    

religion with the teaching  of ,christ  
is1 of course1 the reason why special   
efforts are  necessary to conceal this  
inconsistency from people4 ,truly1 we   
need  only imagine ourselves in the     
position of any grown-up man1 not       
necessarily educated1 even the simplest 
man of the present day1 who  has picked 
up the ideas that are everywhere in the 
air nowadays  of geology1 physics1      
chemistry1 cosmography1 or history1 when
 he1  for the first time1 consciously   
compares them with the articles  of     
belief instilled into him in childhood1 
and maintained by the  churches--that   
,god created the world in six days1 and 
light before  the sun2 that ,noah shut  
up all the animals in his ark1 and so   
on2  that ,jesus is also ,god the ,son1 
who created all before time was2  that  
this ,god came down upon earth to atone 
for ,adam's sin2 that he  rose again1   
ascended into heaven1 and sitteth on the
 right hand of  the ,father1 and will   
come in the clouds to judge the world1  

and so  on4 ,all these propositions1    
elaborated by men of the fourth century1
  had a certain meaning for men of that 
time1 but for men of to-day  they have  
no meaning whatever4 ,men of the present
 day can repeat  these words with their 
lips1 but believe them they cannot4 ,for
 such  sentences as that ,god lives in  
heaven1 that the heavens opened and  a  
voice from somewhere said something1    
that ,christ rose again1 and  ascended  
somewhere in heaven1 and again will come
 from somewhere on  the clouds1 and so  
on1 have no meaning for us4    ,a man   
who regarded the heavens as a solid1    
finite vault could believe  or          
disbelieve that ,god created the        
heavens1 that the heavens opened1  that 
,christ ascended into heaven1 but for us
 all these phrases have  no sense       
whatever4 ,men of the present can only  
believe1 as indeed  they do1 that they  
ought to believe in this2 but believe it
 they  cannot1 because it has no meaning
 for them4    ,even if all these phrases

 ought to be interpreted in a figurative
  sense and are allegories1 we know that
 in the first place all  ,churchmen are 
not agreed about it1 but1 on the        
contrary1 the majority  stick to        
understanding the ,holy ,scripture in   
its literal sense2 and  secondly1 that  
these allegorical interpretations are   
very varied and  are not supported by   
any evidence4    ,but even if a man     
wants to force himself to believe in the
 doctrines  of the ,church just as they 
are taught to him1 the universal        
diffusion  of education and of the      
,gospel and of communication between    
people  of different forms of religion  
presents a still more insurmountable    
obstacle to his doing so4    ,a man of  
the present day need only buy a ,gospel 
for three copecks  and read through the 
plain words1 admitting of no            
misinterpretation1  that ,christ said to
 the ,samaritan woman that the ,father  
seeketh  not worshipers at ,jerusalem1  
nor in this mountain nor in that1 but   

worshipers in spirit and in truth1 or   
the saying that the ,christian  must not
 pray like the heathen1 nor for show1   
but secretly1 that is1  in his closet1  
or that ,christ's follower must call no 
man master or  father--he need only read
 these words to be thoroughly convinced 
that  the ,church pastors1 who call     
themselves teachers in opposition to    
,christ's precept1 and dispute among    
themselves1 constitute no kind of       
authority1 and that what the ,churchmen 
teach us is not ,christianity4  ,less   
even than that is necessary4 ,even if a 
man nowadays did continue  to believe in
 miracles and did not read the ,gospel1 
mere association  with people of        
different forms of religion and faith1  
which happens  so easily in these days1 
compels him to doubt of the truth of his
  own faith4 ,it was all very well when 
a man did not see men of any  other form
 of religion than his own2 he believed  
that his form of  religion was the one  
true one4 ,but a thinking man has only  

to come  into contact--as constantly    
happens in these days--with people1     
equally good and bad1 of different      
denominations1 who condemn each  other's
 beliefs1 to doubt of the truth of the  
belief he professes  himself4 ,in these 
days only a man who is absolutely       
ignorant or  absolutely indifferent to  
the vital questions with which religion 
deals1 can remain in the faith of the   
,church4    ,what deceptions and what   
strenuous efforts the churches must     
employ  to continue1 in spite of all    
these tendencies subversive of the      
faith1 to build churches1 to perform    
masses1 to preach1 to teach1 to         
convert1 and1 most of all1 to receive   
for it all immense emoluments1  as do   
all these priests1 pastors1 incumbents1 
superintendents1  abbots1 archdeacons1  
bishops1 and archbishops4 ,they need    
special  supernatural efforts4 ,and the 
churches do1 with ever-increasing       
intensity and zeal1 make such efforts4  
,with us in ,russia1 besides  other     

means1 they employ simple brute force1  
as there the temporal  power is willing 
to obey the ,church4 ,men who refuse an 
external  assent to the faith1 and say  
so openly1 are either directly punished 
or deprived of their rights2 men who    
strictly keep the external forms  of    
religion are rewarded and given         
privileges4    ,that is how the         
,orthodox clergy proceed2 but indeed all
 churches  without exception avail      
themselves of every means for the       
purpose--one of the most important of   
which is what is now called  hypnotism4 
,every art1 from architecture to poetry1
 is brought into requisition  to work   
its effect on men's souls and to reduce 
them to a state of  stupefaction1 and   
this effect is constantly produced4     
,this use of  hypnotizing influence on  
men to bring them to a state of         
stupefaction  is especially apparent in 
the proceedings of the ,salvation ,army1
  who employ new practices to which we  
are unaccustomed3 trumpets1  drums1     

songs1 flags1 costumes1 marching1       
dancing1 tears1 and dramatic            
performances4    ,but this only         
displeases us because these are new     
practices4 ,were  not the old practices 
in churches essentially the same1 with  
their  special lighting1 gold1 splendor1
 candles1 choirs1 organ1 bells1         
vestments1 intoning1 etc48    ,but      
however powerful this hypnotic influence
 may be1 it is not the  chief nor the   
most pernicious activity of the ,church4
 ,the chief and  most pernicious work of
 the ,church is that which is directed  
to the  deception of children--these    
very children of whom ,christ said3 ,woe
  to him that offendeth one of these    
little ones4 ,from the very first       
awakening of the consciousness of the   
child they begin to deceive  him1 to    
instill into him with the utmost        
solemnity what they do not  themselves  
believe in1 and they continue to instill
 it into him  till the deception has by 
habit grown into the child's nature4    

,they  studiously deceive the child on  
the most important subject in life1  and
 when the deception has so grown into   
his life that it would be  difficult to 
uproot it1 then they reveal to him the  
whole world of  science and reality1    
which cannot by any means be reconciled 
with the  beliefs that have been        
instilled into him1 leaving it to him to
 find  his way as best he can out of    
these contradictions4    ,if one set    
oneself the task of trying to confuse a 
man so that he  could not think clearly 
nor free himself from the perplexity of 
two  opposing theories of life which had
 been instilled into him from           
childhood1 one could not invent any     
means more effectual than the  treatment
 of every young man educated in our     
so-called ,christian  society4    ,it is
 terrible to think what the churches do 
to men4 ,but if one  imagines oneself in
 the position of the men who constitute 
the  ,church1 we see they could not act 
differently4 ,the churches are  placed  

in a dilemma3 the ,sermon on the ,mount 
or the ,nicene ,creed--the  one excludes
 the other4 ,if a man sincerely believes
 in the ,sermon  on the ,mount1 the     
,nicene ,creed must inevitably lose all 
meaning and  significance for him1 and  
the ,church and its representatives     
together  with it4 ,if a man believes in
 the ,nicene ,creed1 that is1 in the    
,church1 that is1 in those who call     
themselves its representatives1  the    
,sermon on the ,mount becomes           
superfluous for him4 ,and therefore  the
 churches cannot but make every possible
 effort to obscure the  meaning of the  
,sermon on the ,mount1 and to attract   
men to themselves4  ,it is only due to  
the intense zeal of the churches in this
 direction  that the influence of the   
churches has lasted hitherto4    ,let   
the ,church stop its work of hypnotizing
 the masses1 and deceiving  children    
even for the briefest interval of time1 
and men would begin  to understand      
,christ's teaching4 ,but this           

understanding will be  the end of the   
churches and all their influence4 ,and  
therefore the  churches will not for an 
instant relax their zeal in the business
  of hypnotizing grown-up people and    
deceiving children4 ,this1 then1  is the
 work of the churches3 to instill a     
false interpretation of  ,christ's      
teaching into men1 and to prevent a true
 interpretation of  it for the majority 
of so-called believers4                 
,,chapter ,,iv4         ,,christianity  
,,misunderstood ,,by ,,men ,,of         
,,science4         ,attitude of ,men of 
,science to ,religions in               
,general--,what       ,religion is1 and 
,what is its ,significance for the ,life
 of       ,humanity--,three ,conceptions
 of ,life--,christian ,religion the     
,expression of the ,divine ,conception  
of ,life--,misinterpretation       of   
,christianity by ,men of ,science1 who  
,study it in its       ,external        
,manifestations ,due to their           
,criticising it from       ,standpoint  

of ,social ,conception of               
,life--,opinion1 ,resulting       from  
this ,misinterpretation1 that ,christ's 
,moral ,teaching is       ,exaggerated  
and ,cannot be put into                 
,practice--,expression of       ,divine 
,conception of ,life in the             
,gospel--,false ,ideas of ,men       of 
,science on ,christianity ,proceed from 
their ,conviction that       they have  
an ,infallible ,method of               
,criticism--,from which come       ,two 
,misconceptions in ,regard to ,christian
 ,doctrine--,first       ,misconception1
 that the ,teaching ,cannot be put into 
,practice1       ,due to the ,christian 
,religion ,directing ,life in a ,way    
,different       from that of the       
,social ,theory of ,life--,christianity 
holds up       ,ideal1 does not lay down
 ,rules--,to the ,animal ,force of ,man 
,christ ,adds the ,consciousness of a   
,divine ,force--,christianity           
,seems to ,destroy ,possibility of ,life
 only when the ,ideal held       up is  

,mistaken for ,rule--,ideal ,must ,not  
be ,lowered--,life1       ,according to 
,christ's ,teaching1 is ,movement--,the 
,ideal and       the ,precepts--,second 
,misconception ,shown in ,replacing     
,love       and ,service of ,god by     
,love and ,service of ,humanity--,men of
       ,science ,imagine their ,doctrine
 of ,service of ,humanity and           
,christianity are ,identical--,doctrine 
of ,service of ,humanity       ,based on
 ,social ,conception of ,life--,love for
 ,humanity1 ,logically       ,deduced   
from ,love of ,self1 has ,no ,meaning   
because ,humanity is       a            
,fiction--,christian ,love ,deduced from
 ,love of ,god1 ,finds its       ,object
 in the whole ,world1 not in ,humanity  
,alone--,christianity       ,teaches    
,man to ,live in ,accordance with his   
,divine ,nature--,it       ,shows that  
the ,essence of the ,soul of ,man is    
,love1 and that his       ,happiness    
,ensues from ,love of ,god1 whom he     
,recognizes as ,love       within       

himself4      ,now ,i will speak of the 
other view of ,christianity which       
hinders the  true understanding of      
it--the scientific view4    ,churchmen  
substitute for ,christianity the version
 they have framed of  it for themselves1
 and this view of ,christianity they    
regard as the  one infallibly true one4 
,men of science regard as ,christianity 
only the tenets held by the  different  
churches in the past and present2 and   
finding that these  tenets have lost all
 the significance of ,christianity1 they
 accept it  as a religion which has     
outlived its age4    ,to see clearly how
 impossible it is to understand the     
,christian  teaching from such a point  
of view1 one must form for oneself an   
idea of the place actually held by      
religions in general1 by the  ,christian
 religion in particular1 in the life of 
mankind1 and of the  significance       
attributed to them by science4    ,just 
as the individual man cannot live       
without having some  theory of the      

meaning of his life1 and is always1     
though often  unconsciously1 framing his
 conduct in accordance with the meaning 
he attributes to his life1 so too       
associations of men living in  similar  
conditions--nations--cannot but have    
theories of the meaning  of their       
associated life and conduct ensuing from
 those theories4  ,and as the individual
 man1 when he attains a fresh stage of  
growth1  inevitably changes his         
philosophy of life1 and the grown-up man
  sees a different meaning in it from   
the child1 so too associations  of      
men--nations--are bound to change their 
philosophy of life and  the conduct     
ensuing from their philosophy1 to       
correspond with their  development4     
,the difference1 as regards this1       
between the individual man and  humanity
 as a whole1 lies in the fact that the  
individual1 in  forming the view of life
 proper to the new period of life on    
which  he is entering and the conduct   
resulting from it1 benefits by the      

experience of men who have lived before 
him1 who have already passed  through   
the stage of growth upon which he is    
entering4 ,but humanity  cannot have    
this aid1 because it is always moving   
along a hitherto  untrodden track1 and  
has no one to ask how to understand     
life1 and to  act in the conditions on  
which it is entering and through which  
no  one has ever passed before4         
,nevertheless1 just as a man with wife  
and children cannot continue  to look at
 life as he looked at it when he was a  
child1 so too in  the face of the       
various changes that are taking place1  
the greater  density of population1 the 
establishment of communication between  
different peoples1 the improvements of  
the methods of the struggle  with       
nature1 and the accumulation of         
knowledge1 humanity cannot  continue to 
look at life as of old1 and it must     
frame a new theory of  life1 from which 
conduct may follow adapted to the new   
conditions on  which it has entered and 

is entering4    ,to meet this need      
humanity has the special power of       
producing men  who give a new meaning to
 the whole of human life--a theory of   
life  from which follow new forms of    
activity quite different from all       
preceding them4 ,the formation of this  
philosophy of life appropriate  to      
humanity in the new conditions on which 
it is entering1 and of the  practice    
resulting from it1 is what is called    
religion4    ,and therefore1 in the     
first place1 religion is not1 as science
  imagines1 a manifestation which at one
 time corresponded with the  development
 of humanity1 but is afterward outgrown 
by it4 ,it is a  manifestation always   
inherent in the life of humanity1 and is
 as  indispensable1 as inherent in      
humanity at the present time as at  any 
other4 ,secondly1 religion is always the
 theory of the practice  of the future  
and not of the past1 and therefore it is
 clear that  investigation of past      
manifestations cannot in any case grasp 

the  essence of religion4    ,the       
essence of every religious teaching lies
 not in the desire for  a symbolic      
expression of the forces of nature1 nor 
in the dread  of these forces1 nor in   
the craving for the marvelous1 nor in   
the  external forms in which it is      
manifested1 as men of science imagine2  
the essence of religion lies in the     
faculty of men of foreseeing and        
pointing out the path of life along     
which humanity must move in the         
discovery of a new theory of life1 as a 
result of which the whole  future       
conduct of humanity is changed and      
different from all that has  been       
before4    ,this faculty of foreseeing  
the path along which humanity must move1
  is common in a greater or less degree 
to all men4 ,but in all times  there    
have been men in whom this faculty was  
especially strong1 and  these men have  
given clear and definite expression to  
what all men  felt vaguely1 and formed a
 new philosophy of life from which new  

lines of action followed for hundreds   
and thousands of years4    ,of such     
philosophies of life we know three2 two 
have already been  passed through by    
humanity1 and the third is that we are  
passing  through now in ,christianity4  
,these philosophies of life are three   
in number1 and only three1 not because  
we have arbitrarily brought  the various
 theories of life together under these  
three heads1 but  because all men's     
actions are always based on one of these
 three  views of life--because we cannot
 view life otherwise than in these      
three ways4    ,these three views of    
life are as follows3 ,first1 embracing  
the  individual1 or the animal view of  
life2 second1 embracing the  society1 or
 the pagan view of life2 third1         
embracing the whole world1  or the      
divine view of life4    ,in the first   
theory of life a man's life is limited  
to his one  individuality2 the aim of   
life is the satisfaction of the will of 
this individuality4 ,in the second      

theory of life a man's life is  limited 
not to his own individuality1 but to    
certain societies and  classes of       
individuals3 to the tribe1 the family1  
the clan1 the  nation2 the aim of life  
is limited to the satisfaction of the   
will  of those associations of          
individuals4 ,in the third theory of    
life a  man's life is limited not to    
societies and classes of individuals1   
but extends to the principle and source 
of life--to ,god4    ,these three       
conceptions of life form the foundation 
of all the  religions that exist or have
 existed4    ,the savage recognizes life
 only in himself and his personal       
desires4  ,his interest in life is      
concentrated on himself alone4 ,the     
highest  happiness for him is the       
fullest satisfaction of his desires4    
,the  motive power of his life is       
personal enjoyment4 ,his religion       
consists  in propitiating his deity and 
in worshiping his gods1 whom he         
imagines as persons living only for     

their personal aims4    ,the civilized  
pagan recognizes life not in himself    
alone1 but  in societies of men--in the 
tribe1 the clan1 the family1 the        
kingdom--and sacrifices his personal    
good for these societies4 ,the  motive  
power of his life is glory4 ,his        
religion consists in the  exaltation of 
the glory of those who are allied to    
him--the founders  of his family1 his   
ancestors1 his rulers--and in worshiping
 gods who  are exclusively protectors of
 his clan1 his family1 his nation1 his  
government4#h      #h ,the fact that so 
many varied forms of existence1 as the  
life of    the family1 of the tribe1 of 
the clan1 of the state1 and even the    
life of humanity theoretically conceived
 by the ,positivists1 are    founded on 
this social or pagan theory of life1    
does not destroy the    unity of this   
theory of life4 ,all these varied forms 
of life are    founded on the same      
conception1 that the life of the        
individual is    not a sufficient aim of

 life--that the meaning of life can be  
found    only in societies of           
individuals4    ,the man who holds the  
divine theory of life recognizes life   
not in  his own individuality1 and not  
in societies of individualities 7in  the
 family1 the clan1 the nation1 the      
tribe1 or the government71  but in the  
eternal undying source of life--in ,god2
 and to fulfill  the will of ,god he is 
ready to sacrifice his individual and   
family  and social welfare4 ,the motor  
power of his life is love4 ,and his     
religion is the worship in deed and in  
truth of the principle of the           
whole--,god4    ,the whole historic     
existence of mankind is nothing else    
than the  gradual transition from the   
personal1 animal conception of life  to 
the social conception of life1 and from 
the social conception  of life to the   
divine conception of life4 ,the whole   
history of the  ancient peoples1 lasting
 through thousands of years and ending  
with  the history of ,rome1 is the      

history of the transition from the      
animal1 personal view of life to the    
social view of life4 ,the whole  of     
history from the time of the ,roman     
,empire and the appearance of           
,christianity is the history of the     
transition1 through which we are  still 
passing now1 from the social view of    
life to the divine view of  life4       
,this view of life is the last1 and     
founded upon it is the ,christian       
teaching1 which is a guide for the whole
 of our life and lies at the  root of   
all our activity1 practical and         
theoretic4 ,yet men of what is  falsely 
called science1 pseudo-scientific men1  
looking at it only in  its externals1   
regard it as something outgrown and     
having no value  for us4    ,reducing it
 to its dogmatic side only--to the      
doctrines of the  ,trinity1 the         
redemption1 the miracles1 the ,church1  
the sacraments1  and so on--men of      
science regard it as only one of an     
immense number  of religions which have 

arisen among mankind1 and now1 they say1
  having played out its part in history1
 it is outliving its own age  and fading
 away before the light of science and of
 true enlightenment4    ,we come here   
upon what1 in a large proportion of     
cases1 forms the  source of the grossest
 errors of mankind4 ,men on a lower     
level of  understanding1 when brought   
into contact with phenomena of a higher 
order1 instead of making efforts to     
understand them1 to raise  themselves up
 to the point of view from which they   
must look at the  subject1 judge it from
 their lower standpoint1 and the less   
they  understand what they are talking  
about1 the more confidently and         
unhesitatingly they pass judgment on it4
    ,to the majority of learned men1    
looking at the living1 moral teaching   
of ,christ from the lower standpoint of 
the state conception of  life1 this     
doctrine appears as nothing but a very  
indefinite and  incongruous combination 
of ,indian asceticism1 ,stoic and       

,neoplatonic  philosophy1 and           
insubstantial anti-social visions1 which
 have  no serious significance for our  
times4 ,its whole meaning is            
concentrated for them in its external   
manifestations--in ,catholicism1        
,protestantism1 in certain dogmas1 or in
 the conflict with the  temporal power4 
,estimating the value of ,christianity  
by these  phenomena is like a deaf man's
 judging of the character and quality   
of music by seeing the movements of the 
musicians4    ,the result of this is    
that all these scientific men1 from     
,kant1  ,strauss1 ,spencer1 and ,renan  
down1 do not understand the meaning of  
,christ's sayings1 do not understand the
 significance1 the object1 or  the      
reason of their utterance1 do not       
understand even the question  to which  
they form the answer4 ,yet1 without even
 taking the pains  to enter into their  
meaning1 they refuse1 if unfavorably    
disposed1  to recognize any             
reasonableness in his doctrines2 or if  

they want  to treat them indulgently1   
they condescend1 from the height of     
their superiority1 to correct them1 on  
the supposition that ,christ  meant to  
express precisely their own ideas1 but  
did not succeed in  doing so4 ,they     
behave to his teaching much as          
self-assertive people  talk to those    
whom they consider beneath them1 often  
supplying  their companions' words3     
,yes1 you mean to say this and that4    
,this  correction is always with the aim
 of reducing the teaching of the        
higher1 divine conception of life to the
 level of the lower1 state  conception  
of life4    ,they usually say that the  
moral teaching of ,christianity is very 
fine1 but overexaggerated2 that to make 
it quite right we must reject  all in it
 that is superfluous and unnecessary to 
our manner of life4  ,and the doctrine  
that asks too much1 and requires what   
cannot be  performed1 is worse than that
 which requires of men what is possible 
and consistent with their powers1 these 

learned interpreters of  ,christianity  
maintain1 repeating what was long ago   
asserted1 and  could not but be         
asserted1 by those who crucified the    
,teacher because  they did not          
understand him--the ,jews4    ,it seems 
that in the judgment of the learned men 
of our time the  ,hebrew law--a tooth   
for a tooth1 and an eye for an eye--is a
 law of  just retaliation1 known to     
mankind five thousand years before the  
law  of holiness which ,christ taught in
 its place4    ,it seems that all that  
has been done by those men who          
understood  ,christ's teaching literally
 and lived in accordance with such an   
understanding of it1 all that has been  
said and done by all true  ,christians1 
by all the ,christian saints1 all that  
is now reforming  the world in the shape
 of socialism and communism--is simply  
exaggeration1 not worth talking about4  
,after eighteen hundred years of        
education in ,christianity the          
civilized world1 as represented by its  

most advanced thinkers1  holds the      
conviction that the ,christian religion 
is a religion of  dogmas2 that its      
teaching in relation to life is         
unreasonable1 and  is an exaggeration1  
subversive of the real lawful           
obligations of  morality consistent with
 the nature of man2 and that very       
doctrine of  retribution which ,christ  
rejected1 and in place of which he put  
his  teaching1 is more practically      
useful for us4    ,to learned men the   
doctrine of non-resistance to evil by   
force  is exaggerated and even          
irrational4 ,christianity is much better
  without it1 they think1 not observing 
closely what ,christianity1 as          
represented by them1 amounts to4        
,they do not see that to say that the   
doctrine of non-resistance to  evil is  
an exaggeration in ,christ's teaching is
 just like saying  that the statement of
 the equality of the radii of a circle  
is an  exaggeration in the definition of
 a circle4 ,and those who speak  thus   

are acting precisely like a man who1    
having no idea of what a  circle is1    
should declare that this requirement1   
that every point  of the circumference  
should be an equal distance from the    
center1  is exaggerated4 ,to advocate   
the rejection of ,christ's command of   
non-resistance to evil1 or its          
adaptation to the needs of life1        
implies a misunderstanding of the       
teaching of ,christ4    ,and those who  
do so certainly do not understand it4   
,they do not  understand that this      
teaching is the institution of a new    
theory  of life1 corresponding to the   
new conditions on which men have        
entered now for eighteen hundred years1 
and also the definition  of the new     
conduct of life which results from it4  
,they do not  believe that ,christ meant
 to say what he said2 or he seems to    
them  to have said what he said in the  
,sermon on the ,mount and in other      
places accidentally1 or through his lack
 of intelligence or of  cultivation4#i  

#i ,here1 for example1 is a             
characteristic view of that kind from   
the    ,american journal the ,arena     
7,october1 #ahij73 ,new ,basis of       
,church    ,life4 ,treating of the      
significance of the ,sermon on the      
,mount and    non-resistance to evil in 
particular1 the author1 being under no  
necessity1 like the ,churchmen1 to hide 
its significance1 says3      ,christ in 
fact preached complete communism and    
anarchy2 but one must    learn to regard
 ,christ always in his historical and   
psychological    significance4 ,like    
every advocate of the love of humanity1 
,christ    went to the furthest extreme 
in his teaching4 ,every step forward    
toward the moral perfection of humanity 
is always guided by men who    see      
nothing but their vocation4 ,christ1 in 
no disparaging sense be it    said1 had 
the typical temperament of such a       
reformer4 ,and therefore    we must     
remember that his precepts cannot be    
understood literally as    a complete   

philosophy of life4 ,we ought to analyze
 his words with    respect for them1 but
 in the spirit of criticism1 accepting  
what is    true1 etc4      ,christ would
 have been happy to say what he ought1  
but he was not    able to express       
himself as exactly and clearly as we can
 in the    spirit of criticism1 and     
therefore let us correct him4 ,all that 
he    said about meekness1 sacrifice1   
lowliness1 not caring for the morrow1   
was said by accident1 through lack of   
knowing how to express himself          
scientifically4    ,matt4 vi4 #be-cd3   
,therefore ,i say unto you1 ,take no    
thought for your  life1 what ye shall   
eat1 or what ye shall drink2 nor yet for
 your  body1 what ye shall put on4 ,is  
not the life more than meat1 and  the   
body than raiment8 ,behold the fowls of 
the air2 for they sow  not1 neither do  
they reap1 nor gather into barns2 yet   
your heavenly  ,father feedeth them4    
,are ye not much better than they8      
,which of you  by taking thought can add

 one cubit unto his stature8 ,and why   
take  ye thought for raiment8 ,consider 
the lilies of the field how they  grow2 
they toil not1 neither do they spin2 and
 yet ,i say unto you1  ,that even       
,solomon in all his glory was not       
arrayed like one of these4  ,wherefore1 
if ,god so clothe the grass of the      
field1 which to-day is1  and to-morrow  
is cast into the oven1 shall he not much
 more clothe  you1 ,o ye of little      
faith8 ,therefore take no thought1      
saying1 ,what  shall we eat8 or1 ,what  
shall we drink8 or1 ,where-withal shall 
we  be clothed8 7,for after all these   
things do the ,gentiles seek71 for  your
 heavenly ,father knoweth that ye have  
need of all these things4  ,but seek ye 
first the kingdom of ,god1 and his      
righteousness1 and  all these things    
shall be added unto you4 ,take therefore
 no thought  for the morrow2 for the    
morrow shall take thought for the things
  of itself4 ,sufficient unto the day is
 the evil thereof4 ,luke xii4  #cc-cd3  

,sell that ye have1 and give alms2      
provide yourselves bags  which wax not  
old1 a treasure in the heavens that     
faileth not1  where no thief            
approacheth1 neither moth corrupteth4   
,for where your  treasure is1 there will
 your heart be also4 ,sell all thou hast
 and  follow me2 and he who will not    
leave father1 or mother1 or children1   
or brothers1 or fields1 or house1 he    
cannot be my disciple4 ,deny  thyself1  
take up thy cross each day and follow   
me4 ,my meat is to do  the will of him  
that sent me1 and to perform his works4 
,not my will1  but thine be done2 not   
what ,i will1 but as thou wilt4 ,life is
 to do  not one's will1 but the will of 
,god4    ,all these principles appear to
 men who regard them from the           
standpoint of a lower conception of life
 as the expression of an  impulsive     
enthusiasm1 having no direct application
 to life4 ,these  principles1 however1  
follow from the ,christian theory of    
life1 just  as logically as the         

principles of paying a part of one's    
private  gains to the commonwealth and  
of sacrificing one's life in defense of 
one's country follow from the state     
theory of life4    ,as the man of the   
state conception of life said to the    
savage3  ,reflect1 bethink yourself6    
,the life of your individuality cannot  
be  true life1 because that life is     
pitiful and passing4 ,but the life  of a
 society and succession of individuals1 
family1 clan1 tribe1 or  state1 goes on 
living1 and therefore a man must        
sacrifice his own  individuality for the
 life of the family or the state4 ,in   
exactly  the same way the ,christian    
doctrine says to the man of the social1 
state conception of life1 ,repent       
ye----i4 e41  bethink yourself1 or you  
will be ruined4 ,understand that this   
casual1  personal life which now comes  
into being and to-morrow is no more can 
have no permanence1 that no external    
means1 no construction of it can  give  
it consecutiveness and permanence4 ,take

 thought and understand  that the life  
you are living is not real life--the    
life of the  family1 of society1 of the 
state will not save you from            
annihilation4  ,the true1 the rational  
life is only possible for man according 
to the  measure in which he can         
participate1 not in the family or the   
state1  but in the source of life--the  
,father2 according to the measure  in   
which he can merge his life in the life 
of the ,father4 ,such is  undoubtedly   
the ,christian conception of life1      
visible in every  utterance of the      
,gospel4    ,one may not share this view
 of life1 one may reject it1 one may    
show  its inaccuracy and its            
erroneousness1 but we cannot judge of   
the  ,christian teaching without        
mastering this view of life4 ,still less
  can one criticise a subject on a      
higher plane from a lower point of      
view4 ,from the basement one cannot     
judge of the effect of the spire4  ,but 
this is just what the learned critics of

 the day try to do4 ,for  they share the
 erroneous idea of the orthodox         
believers that they  are in possession  
of certain infallible means for         
investigating a  subject4 ,they fancy if
 they apply their so-called scientific  
methods  of criticism1 there can be no  
doubt of their conclusion being correct4
    ,this testing the subject by the    
fancied infallible method of science  is
 the principal obstacle to understanding
 the ,christian religion for            
unbelievers1 for so-called educated     
people4 ,from this follow all the       
mistakes made by scientific men about   
the ,christian religion1 and  especially
 two strange misconceptions which1 more 
than everything  else1 hinder them from 
a correct understanding of it4 ,one of  
these  misconceptions is that the       
,christian moral teaching cannot be     
carried  out1 and that therefore it has 
either no force at all--that is1  it    
should not be accepted as the rule of   
conduct--or it must be  transformed1    

adapted to the limits within which its  
fulfillment is  possible in our society4
 ,another misconception is that the     
,christian  doctrine of love of ,god1   
and therefore of his service1 is an     
obscure1  mystic principle1 which gives 
no definite object for love1 and should 
therefore be replaced by the more exact 
and comprehensible principles  of love  
for men and the service of humanity4    
,the first misconception in regard to   
the impossibility of following  the     
principle is the result of men of the   
state conception of life  unconsciously 
taking that conception as the standard  
by which the  ,christian religion       
directs men1 and taking the ,christian  
principle  of perfection as the rule by 
which that life is to be ordered2 they  
think and say that to follow ,christ's  
teaching is impossible1 because  the    
complete fulfilment of all that is      
required by this teaching  would put an 
end to life4 ,if a man were to carry out
 all that ,christ  teaches1 he would    

destroy his own life2 and if all men    
carried it  out1 then the human race    
would come to an end1 they say4    ,if  
we take no thought for the morrow1 what 
we shall eat and what we  shall drink1  
and wherewithal we shall be clothed1 do 
not defend our  life1 nor resist evil by
 force1 lay down our life for others1   
and  observe perfect chastity1 the human
 race cannot exist1 they say4    ,and   
they are perfectly right if they take   
the principle of perfection  given by   
,christ's teaching as a rule which      
everyone is bound to  fulfill1 just as  
in the state principles of life everyone
 is bound to  carry out the rule of     
paying taxes1 supporting the law1 and so
 on4    ,the misconception is based     
precisely on the fact that the teaching 
of ,christ guides men differently from  
the way in which the precepts  founded  
on the lower conception of life guide   
men4 ,the precepts of  the state        
conception of life only guide men by    
requiring of them an  exact fulfillment 

of rules or laws4 ,christ's teaching    
guides men by  pointing them to the     
infinite perfection of their heavenly   
,father1 to  which every man            
independently and voluntarily struggles1
 whatever the  degree of his            
imperfection in the present4    ,the    
misunderstanding of men who judge of the
 ,christian principle from  the point of
 view of the state principle1 consists  
in the fact that  on the supposition    
that the perfection which ,christ points
 to1 can  be fully attained1 they ask   
themselves 7just as they ask the same   
question on the supposition that state  
laws will be carried out7 what  will be 
the result of all this being carried    
out8 ,this supposition  cannot be made1 
because the perfection held up to       
,christians is  infinite and can never  
be attained2 and ,christ lays down his  
principle1 having in view the fact that 
absolute perfection can never  be       
attained1 but that striving toward      
absolute1 infinite perfection  will     

continually increase the blessedness of 
men1 and that this  blessedness may be  
increased to infinity thereby4          
,christ is teaching not angels1 but men1
 living and moving in  the animal life4 
,and so to this animal force of movement
 ,christ1  as it were1 applies the new  
force--the recognition of ,divine       
perfection--and thereby directs the     
movement by the resultant of  these two 
forces4    ,to suppose that human life  
is going in the direction to which      
,christ  pointed it1 is just like       
supposing that a little boat afloat on a
  rapid river1 and directing its course 
almost exactly against the  current1    
will progress in that direction4        
,christ recognizes the existence of both
 sides of the parallelogram1  of both   
eternal indestructible forces of which  
the life of man is  compounded3 the     
force of his animal nature and the force
 of the  consciousness of kinship to    
,god4 ,saying nothing of the animal     
force  which asserts itself1 remains    

always the same1 and is therefore       
independent of human will1 ,christ      
speaks only of the ,divine force1       
calling upon a man to know it more      
closely1 to set it more free from  all  
that retards it1 and to carry it to a   
higher degree of intensity4    ,in the  
process of liberating1 of strengthening 
this force1 the true  life of man1      
according to ,christ's teaching1        
consists4 ,the true life1  according to 
preceding religions1 consists in        
carrying out rules1 the  law2 according 
to ,christ's teaching it consists in an 
ever closer  approximation to the divine
 perfection held up before every man1   
and  recognized within himself by every 
man1 in an ever closer and closer       
approach to the perfect fusion of his   
will in the will of ,god1 that  fusion  
toward which man strives1 and the       
attainment of which would be  the       
destruction of the life we know4    ,the
 divine perfection is the asymptote of  
human life to which it  is always       

striving1 and always approaching1 though
 it can only be  reached in infinity4   
,the ,christian religion seems to       
exclude the possibility of life only    
when men mistake the pointing to an     
ideal as the laying down of a  rule4 ,it
 is only then that the principles       
presented in ,christ's  teaching appear 
to be destructive of life4 ,these       
principles1 on the  contrary1 are the   
only ones that make true life possible4 
,without  these principles true life    
could not be possible4    ,one ought not
 to expect so much1 is what people      
usually say in  discussing the          
requirements of the ,christian religion4
 ,one cannot  expect to take absolutely 
no thought for the morrow1 as is said in
  the ,gospel1 but only not to take too 
much thought for it2 one cannot  give   
away all to the poor1 but one must give 
away a certain definite  part2 one need 
not aim at virginity1 but one must avoid
 debauchery2  one need not forsake wife 
and children1 but one must not give too 

great a place to them in one's heart1   
and so on4    ,but to speak like this is
 just like telling a man who is         
struggling  on a swift river and is     
directing his course against the        
current1  that it is impossible to cross
 the river rowing against the current1  
and that to cross it he must float in   
the direction of the point he  wants to 
reach4    ,in reality1 in order to reach
 the place to which he wants to go1 he  
must row with all his strength toward a 
point much higher up4    ,to let go the 
requirements of the ideal means not only
 to diminish  the possibility of        
perfection1 but to make an end of the   
ideal  itself4 ,the ideal that has power
 over men is not an ideal invented by   
someone1 but the ideal that every man   
carries within his soul4 ,only  this    
ideal of complete infinite perfection   
has power over men1 and  stimulates them
 to action4 ,a moderate perfection loses
 its power of  influencing men's hearts4
    ,christ's teaching only has power   

when it demands absolute                
perfection--that is1 the fusion of the  
divine nature which exists in  every    
man's soul with the will of ,god--the   
union of the ,son with the  ,father4    
,life according to ,christ's teaching   
consists of nothing but  this setting   
free of the ,son of ,god1 existing in   
every man1 from the  animal1 and in     
bringing him closer to the ,father4     
,the animal existence of a man does not 
constitute human life alone4  ,life1    
according to the will of ,god only1 is  
also not human life4  ,human life is a  
combination of the animal life and the  
divine life4  ,and the more this        
combination approaches to the divine    
life1 the more  life there is in it4    
,life1 according to the ,christian      
religion1 is a progress toward the      
divine perfection4 ,no one condition1   
according to this doctrine1 can  be     
higher or lower than another4 ,every    
condition1 according to this  doctrine1 
is only a particular stage1 of no       

consequence in itself1  on the way      
toward unattainable perfection1 and     
therefore in itself  it does not imply a
 greater or lesser degree of life4      
,increase of  life1 according to this1  
consists in nothing but the quickening  
of  the progress toward perfection4 ,and
 therefore the progress toward          
perfection of the publican ,zaccheus1 of
 the woman that was a sinner1  and of   
the robber on the cross1 implies a      
higher degree of life than  the stagnant
 righteousness of the ,pharisee4 ,and   
therefore for this  religion there      
cannot be rules which it is obligatory  
to obey4 ,the  man who is at a lower    
level but is moving onward toward       
perfection  is living a more moral1 a   
better life1 is more fully carrying out 
,christ's teaching1 than the man on a   
much higher level of morality  who is   
not moving onward toward perfection4    
,it is in this sense that the lost sheep
 is dearer to the ,father than  those   
that were not lost4 ,the prodigal son1  

the piece of money lost  and found      
again1 were more precious than those    
that were not lost4    ,the fulfillment 
of ,christ's teaching consists in moving
 away from  self toward ,god4 ,it is    
obvious that there cannot be definite   
laws  and rules for this fulfillment of 
the teaching4 ,every degree of          
perfection and every degree of          
imperfection are equal in it2 no        
obedience to laws constitutes a         
fulfillment of this doctrine1 and       
therefore for it there can be no binding
 rules and laws4    ,from this          
fundamental distinction between the     
religion of ,christ  and all preceding  
religions based on the state conception 
of life1  follows a corresponding       
difference in the special precepts of   
the state theory and the ,christian     
precepts4 ,the precepts of the  state   
theory of life insist for the most part 
on certain practical  prescribed acts1  
by which men are justified and secure of
 being  right4 ,the ,christian precepts 

7the commandment of love is not a       
precept in the strict sense of the word1
 but the expression of the  very essence
 of the religion7 are the five          
commandments of the ,sermon  on the     
,mount--all negative in character4 ,they
 show only what at a  certain stage of  
development of humanity men may not do4 
,these commandments are1 as it were1    
signposts on the endless road to        
perfection1 toward which humanity is    
moving1 showing the point of  perfection
 which is possible at a certain period  
in the development  of humanity4        
,christ has given expression in the     
,sermon on the ,mount to the eternal    
ideal toward which men are spontaneously
 struggling1 and also the  degree of    
attainment of it to which men may reach 
in our times4    ,the ideal is not to   
desire to do ill to anyone1 not to      
provoke ill  will1 to love all men4 ,the
 precept1 showing the level below which 
we  cannot fall in the attainment of    
this ideal1 is the prohibition of  evil 

speaking4 ,and that is the first        
command4    ,the ideal is perfect       
chastity1 even in thought4 ,the precept1
 showing  the level below which we      
cannot fall in the attainment of this   
ideal1  is that of purity of married    
life1 avoidance of debauchery4 ,that is 
the second command4    ,the ideal is to 
take no thought for the future1 to live 
in the  present moment4 ,the precept1   
showing the level below which we cannot 
fall1 is the prohibition of swearing1 of
 promising anything in the  future4 ,and
 that is the third command4    ,the     
ideal is never for any purpose to use   
force4 ,the precept1 showing  the level 
below which we cannot fall is that of   
returning good for  evil1 being patient 
under wrong1 giving the cloak also4     
,that is the  fourth command4    ,the   
ideal is to love the enemies who hate   
us4 ,the precept1 showing  the level    
below which we cannot fall1 is not to do
 evil to our  enemies1 to speak well of 
them1 and to make no difference between 

them and our neighbors4    ,all these   
precepts are indications of what1 on our
 journey to  perfection1 we are already 
fully able to avoid1 and what we must   
labor to attain now1 and what we ought  
by degrees to translate into            
instinctive and unconscious habits4 ,but
 these precepts1 far from  constituting 
the whole of ,christ's teaching and     
exhausting it1 are  simply stages on the
 way to perfection4 ,these precepts must
 and  will be followed by higher and    
higher precepts on the way to the       
perfection held up by the religion4     
,and therefore it is essentially a part 
of the ,christian religion to  make     
demands higher than those expressed in  
its precepts2 and by no  means to       
diminish the demands either of the ideal
 itself1 or of the  precepts1 as people 
imagine who judge it from the standpoint
 of the  social conception of life4     
,so much for one misunderstanding of the
 scientific men1 in relation  to the    
import and aim of ,christ's teaching4   

,another misunderstanding  arising from 
the same source consists in substituting
 love for men1  the service of humanity1
 for the ,christian principles of love  
for ,god  and his service4    ,the      
,christian doctrine to love ,god and    
serve him1 and only as a  result of that
 love to love and serve one's neighbor1 
seems to  scientific men obscure1       
mystic1 and arbitrary4 ,and they would  
absolutely exclude the obligation of    
love and service of ,god1 holding  that 
the doctrine of love for men1 for       
humanity alone1 is far more  clear1     
tangible1 and reasonable4    ,scientific
 men teach in theory that the only good 
and rational life  is that which is     
devoted to the service of the whole of  
humanity4  ,that is for them the import 
of the ,christian doctrine1 and to that 
they reduce ,christ's teaching4 ,they   
seek confirmation of their own  doctrine
 in the ,gospel1 on the supposition that
 the two doctrines are  really the same4
    ,this idea is an absolutely mistaken

 one4 ,the ,christian doctrine has      
nothing in common with the doctrine of  
the ,positivists1 ,communists1  and all 
the apostles of the universal           
brotherhood of mankind1 based  on the   
general advantage of such a brotherhood4
 ,they differ from one  another         
especially in ,christianity's having a  
firm and clear basis  in the human soul1
 while love for humanity is only a      
theoretical  deduction from analogy4    
,the doctrine of love for humanity alone
 is based on the social  conception of  
life4    ,the essence of the social     
conception of life consists in the      
transference of the aim of the          
individual life to the life of          
societies of individuals3 family1 clan1 
tribe1 or state4 ,this  transference is 
accomplished easily and naturally in its
 earliest  forms1 in the transference of
 the aim of life from the individual to 
the family and the clan4 ,the           
transference to the tribe or the nation 
is more difficult and requires special  

training4 ,and the transference  of the 
sentiment to the state is the furthest  
limit which the process  can reach4     
,to love one's self is natural to       
everyone1 and no one needs any          
encouragement to do so4 ,to love one's  
clan who support and protect  one1 to   
love one's wife1 the joy and help of    
one's existence1 one's  children1 the   
hope and consolation of one's life1 and 
one's parents1  who have given one life 
and education1 is natural4 ,and such    
love1  though far from being so strong  
as love of self1 is met with pretty     
often4    ,to love--for one's own sake1 
through personal pride--one's tribe1    
one's nation1 though not so natural1 is 
nevertheless common4 ,love  of one's own
 people who are of the same blood1 the  
same tongue1  and the same religion as  
one's self is possible1 though far from 
being so strong as love of self1 or even
 love of family or clan4  ,but love for 
a state1 such as ,turkey1 ,germany1     
,england1 ,austria1  or ,russia is a    

thing almost impossible4 ,and though it 
is zealously  inculcated1 it is only an 
imagined sentiment2 it has no existence 
in  reality4 ,and at that limit man's   
power of transferring his interest      
ceases1 and he cannot feel any direct   
sentiment for that fictitious  entity4  
,the ,positivists1 however1 and all the 
apostles of fraternity  on scientific   
principles1 without taking into         
consideration the  weakening of         
sentiment in proportion to the extension
 of its object1  draw further deductions
 in theory in the same direction4       
,since1  they say1 it was for the       
advantage of the individual to extend   
his  personal interest to the family1   
the tribe1 and subsequently to the      
nation and the state1 it would be still 
more advantageous to extend  his        
interest in societies of men to the     
whole of mankind1 and so all  to live   
for humanity just as men live for the   
family or the state4    ,theoretically  
it follows1 indeed1 having extended the 

love and  interest for the personality  
to the family1 the tribe1 and thence  to
 the nation and the state1 it would be  
perfectly logical for men  to save      
themselves the strife and calamities    
which result from the  division of      
mankind into nations and states by      
extending their  love to the whole of   
humanity4 ,this would be most logical1  
and  theoretically nothing would appear 
more natural to its advocates1 who  do  
not observe that love is a sentiment    
which may or may not be felt1  but which
 it is useless to advocate2 and         
moreover1 that love must  have an       
object1 and that humanity is not an     
object4 ,it is nothing but  a fiction4  
,the family1 the tribe1 even the state  
were not invented by men1 but  formed   
themselves spontaneously1 like ant-hills
 or swarms of bees1  and have a real    
existence4 ,the man who1 for the sake of
 his own  animal personality1 loves his 
family1 knows whom he loves3 ,anna1     
,dolly1 ,john1 ,peter1 and so on4 ,the  

man who loves his tribe and  takes pride
 in it1 knows that he loves all the     
,guelphs or all the  ,ghibellines2 the  
man who loves the state knows that he   
loves ,france  bounded by the ,rhine1   
and the ,pyrenees1 and its principal    
city ,paris1  and its history and so on4
 ,but the man who loves humanity--what  
does  he love8 ,there is such a thing as
 a state1 as a nation2 there is the     
abstract conception of man2 but humanity
 as a concrete idea does not1  and      
cannot exist4    ,humanity6 ,where is   
the definition of humanity8 ,where does 
it end and  where does it begin8 ,does  
humanity end with the savage1 the idiot1
  the dipsomaniac1 or the madman8 ,if we
 draw a line excluding from  humanity   
its lowest representatives1 where are we
 to draw the line8  ,shall we exclude   
the negroes like the ,americans1 or the 
,hindoos like  some ,englishmen1 or the 
,jews like some others8 ,if we include  
all men  without exception1 why should  
we not include also the higher animals1 

many of whom are superior to the lowest 
specimens of the human race4    ,we know
 nothing of humanity as an eternal      
object1 and we know  nothing of its     
limits4 ,humanity is a fiction1 and it  
is impossible  to love it4 ,it would1   
doubtless1 be very advantageous if men  
could  love humanity just as they love  
their family4 ,it would be very         
advantageous1 as ,communists advocate1  
to replace the competitive1             
individualistic organization of men's   
activity by a social universal          
organisation1 so that each would be for 
all and all for each4  ,only there are  
no motives to lead men to do this4 ,the 
,positivists1  the ,communists1 and all 
the apostles of fraternity on scientific
  principles advocate the extension to  
the whole of humanity of the  love men  
feel for themselves1 their families1 and
 the state4 ,they  forget that the love 
which they are discussing is a personal 
love1  which might expand in a rarefied 
form to embrace a man's native  country1

 but which disappears before it can     
embrace an artificial  state such as    
,austria1 ,england1 or ,turkey1 and     
which we cannot  even conceive of in    
relation to all humanity1 an absolutely 
mystic  conception4    ,a man loves     
himself 7his animal personality71 he    
loves his family1  he even loves his    
native country4 ,why should he not love 
humanity8  ,that would be such an       
excellent thing4 ,and by the way1 it is 
precisely what is taught by             
,christianity4 ,so think the advocates  
of  ,positivist1 ,communistic1 or       
,socialistic fraternity4    ,it would   
indeed be an excellent thing4 ,but it   
can never be1 for the  love that is     
based on a personal or social conception
 of life can  never rise beyond love for
 the state4    ,the fallacy of the      
argument lies in the fact that the      
social  conception of life1 on which    
love for family and nation is founded1  
rests itself on love of self1 and that  
love grows weaker and weaker  as it is  

extended from self to family1 tribe1    
nationality1 and state2  and in the     
state we reach the furthest limit beyond
 which it cannot  go4    ,the necessity 
of extending the sphere of love is      
beyond dispute4 ,but  in reality the    
possibility of this love is destroyed by
 the necessity  of extending its object 
indefinitely4 ,and thus the             
insufficiency of  personal human love is
 made manifest4    ,and here the        
advocates of ,positivist1 ,communistic1 
,socialistic  fraternity propose to draw
 upon ,christian love to make up the    
default  of this bankrupt human love2   
but ,christian love only in its results1
  not in its foundations1 ,they propose 
love for humanity alone1 apart  from    
love for ,god4    ,but such a love      
cannot exist4 ,there is no motive to    
produce it4  ,christian love is the     
result only of the ,christian conception
 of  life1 in which the aim of life is  
to love and serve ,god4    ,the social  
conception of life has led men1 by a    

natural transition  from love of self   
and then of family1 tribe1 nation1 and  
state1 to  a consciousness of the       
necessity of love for humanity1 a       
conception  which has no definite limits
 and extends to all living things4 ,and 
this necessity for love of what awakens 
no kind of sentiment in a man  is a     
contradiction which cannot be solved by 
the social theory of  life4    ,the     
,christian doctrine in its full         
significance can alone solve  it1 by    
giving a new meaning to life4           
,christianity recognizes love  of self1 
of family1 of nation1 and of humanity1  
and not only  of humanity1 but of       
everything living1 everything existing2 
it  recognizes the necessity of an      
infinite extension of the sphere  of    
love4 ,but the object of this love is   
not found outside self in  societies of 
individuals1 nor in the external world1 
but within self1  in the divine self    
whose essence is that very love1 which  
the animal  self is brought to feel the 

need of through its consciousness of its
  own perishable nature4    ,the        
difference between the ,christian       
doctrine and those which  preceded it is
 that the social doctrine said3 ,live in
 opposition  to your nature             
understanding by this only the animal   
nature1 make  it subject to the external
 law of family1 society1 and state4     
,christianity says3 ,live according to  
your nature understanding by  this the  
divine nature2 do not make it subject to
 anything--neither  you 7an animal self7
 nor that of others--and you will attain
 the very  aim to which you are striving
 when you subject your external self4   
,the ,christian doctrine brings a man to
 the elementary consciousness  of self1 
only not of the animal self1 but of the 
divine self1 the  divine spark1 the self
 as the ,son of ,god1 as much ,god as   
the ,father  himself1 though confined in
 an animal husk4 ,the consciousness of  
being the ,son of ,god1 whose chief     
characteristic is love1 satisfies  the  

need for the extension of the sphere of 
love to which the man of  the social    
conception of life had been brought4    
,for the latter1 the  welfare of the    
personality demanded an ever-widening   
extension of  the sphere of love2 love  
was a necessity and was confined to     
certain  objects--self1 family1 society4
 ,with the ,christian conception of     
life1 love is not a necessity and is    
confined to no object2 it is the        
essential faculty of the human soul4    
,man loves not because it is his        
interest to love this or that1 but      
because love is the essence of his      
soul1 because he cannot but love4       
,the ,christian doctrine shows man that 
the essence of his soul is  love--that  
his happiness depends not on loving this
 or that object1  but on loving the     
principle of the whole--,god1 whom he   
recognizes  within himself as love1 and 
therefore he loves all things and all   
men4    ,in this is the fundamental     
difference between the ,christian       

doctrine  and the doctrine of the       
,positivists1 and all the theorizers    
about  universal brotherhood on         
non-christian principles4    ,such are  
the two principal misunderstandings     
relating to the  ,christian religion1   
from which the greater number of false  
reasonings  about it proceed4 ,the first
 consists in the belief that ,christ's  
teaching instructs men1 like all        
previous religions1 by rules1 which     
they are bound to follow1 and that these
 rules cannot be fulfilled4  ,the second
 is the idea that the whole purport of  
,christianity is to  teach men to live  
advantageously together1 as one family1 
and that  to attain this we need only   
follow the rule of love to humanity1    
dismissing all thought of love of ,god  
altogether4    ,the mistaken notion of  
scientific men that the essence of      
,christianity consists in the           
supernatural1 and that its moral        
teaching is impracticable1 constitutes  
another reason of the failure  of men of

 the present day to understand          
,christianity4          ,,chapter ,v4   
,,contradiction ,,between ,,our ,,life  
,,and ,,our ,,christian ,,conscience4   
,men ,think they can ,accept            
,christianity without ,altering their   
,life--,pagan ,conception of ,life does 
not ,correspond with ,present           
,stage of ,development of ,humanity1 and
 ,christian ,conception       ,alone    
,can ,accord with it--,christian        
,conception of ,life not yet            
,understood by ,men1 but the ,progress  
of ,life itself will ,lead       them   
,inevitably to ,adopt it--,the          
,requirements of a ,new ,theory of      
,life ,always ,seem ,incomprehensible1  
,mystic1 and ,supernatural--,so         
,seem the ,requirements of the          
,christian ,theory of ,life to the      
,majority of ,men--,the ,absorption of  
the ,christian ,conception of           
,life will ,inevitably be ,brought      
,about as the ,result of ,material      
and ,spiritual ,causes--,the ,fact of   

,men ,knowing the ,requirements       of
 the ,higher ,view of ,life1 and yet    
,continuing to ,preserve       ,inferior
 ,organizations of ,life1 ,leads to     
,contradictions and       ,sufferings   
which ,embitter ,existence and ,must    
,result in its                          
,transformation--,the ,contradictions of
 our ,life--,the ,economic              
,contradiction and the ,suffering       
,induced by it for ,rich and       ,poor
 ,alike--,the ,political ,contradiction 
and the ,sufferings       ,induced by   
,obedience to the ,laws of the          
,state--,the ,international             
,contradiction and the ,recognition of  
it by ,contemporaries3                  
,komarovsky1 ,ferri1 ,booth1 ,passy1    
,lawson1 ,wilson1 ,bartlett1            
,defourney1 ,moneta--,the ,striking     
,character of the ,military             
,contradiction4      ,there are many    
reasons why ,christ's teaching is not   
understood4 ,one  reason is that people 
suppose they have understood it when    

they have  decided1 as the ,churchmen   
do1 that it was revealed by supernatural
  means1 or when they have studied1 as  
the scientific men do1 the  external    
forms in which it has been manifested4  
,another reason  is the mistaken notion 
that it is impracticable1 and ought to  
be  replaced by the doctrine of love for
 humanity4 ,but the principal  reason1  
which is the source of all the other    
mistaken ideas about it1  is the notion 
that ,christianity is a doctrine which  
can be accepted  or rejected without any
 change of life4    ,men who are used to
 the existing order of things1 who like 
it and  dread its being changed1 try to 
take the doctrine as a collection of    
revelations and rules which one can     
accept without their modifying  one's   
life4 ,while ,christ's teaching is not  
only a doctrine which  gives rules which
 a man must follow1 it unfolds a new    
meaning in  life1 and defines a whole   
world of human activity quite different 
from all that has preceded it and       

appropriate to the period on which  man 
is entering4    ,the life of humanity   
changes and advances1 like the life of  
the  individual1 by stages1 and every   
stage has a theory of life  appropriate 
to it1 which is inevitably absorbed by  
men4 ,those who  do not absorb it       
consciously1 absorb it unconsciously4   
,it is the  same with the changes in the
 beliefs of peoples and of all humanity 
as it is with the changes of belief of  
individuals4 ,if the father  of a family
 continues to be guided in his conduct  
by his childish  conceptions of life1   
life becomes so difficult for him that  
he  involuntarily seeks another         
philosophy and readily absorbs that     
which  is appropriate to his age4       
,that is just what is happening now to  
humanity at this time of  transition    
through which we are passing1 from the  
pagan conception  of life to the        
,christian4 ,the socialized man of the  
present day  is brought by experience of
 life itself to the necessity of        

abandoning the pagan conception of life1
 which is inappropriate to  the present 
stage of humanity1 and of submitting to 
the obligation  of the ,christian       
doctrines1 the truths of which1 however 
corrupt  and misinterpreted1 are still  
known to him1 and alone offer him a     
solution of the contradictions          
surrounding him4    ,if the requirements
 of the ,christian doctrine seem strange
 and even  alarming to the man of the   
social theory of life1 no less strange1 
incomprehensible1 and alarming to the   
savage of ancient times seemed  the     
requirements of the social doctrine when
 it was not fully  understood and could 
not be foreseen in its results4    ,it  
is unreasonable1 said the savage1 to    
sacrifice my peace of mind  or my life  
in defense of something                 
incomprehensible1 impalpable1 and       
conventional--family1 tribe1 or nation2 
and above all it is unsafe to  put      
oneself at the disposal of the power of 
others4    ,but the time came when the  

savage1 on one hand1 felt1 though       
vaguely1  the value of the social       
conception of life1 and of its chief    
motor  power1 social censure1 or social 
approbation--glory1 and when1 on  the   
other hand1 the difficulties of his     
personal life became so  great that he  
could not continue to believe in the    
value of his old  theory of life4 ,then 
he accepted the social1 state theory of 
life and  submitted to it4    ,that is  
just what the man of the social theory  
of life is passing  through now4    ,it 
is unreasonable1 says the socialized    
man1 to sacrifice my  welfare and that  
of my family and my country in order to 
fulfill  some higher law1 which requires
 me to renounce my most natural and     
virtuous feelings of love of self1 of   
family1 of kindred1 and of  country2 and
 above all1 it is unsafe to part with   
the security of  life afforded by the   
organization of government4    ,but the 
time is coming when1 on one hand1 the   
vague consciousness in  his soul of the 

higher law1 of love to ,god and his     
neighbor1 and1  on the other hand1 the  
suffering1 resulting from the           
contradictions  of life1 will force the 
man to reject the social theory and to  
assimilate the new one prepared ready   
for him1 which solves all the           
contradictions and removes all his      
sufferings--the ,christian theory  of   
life4 ,and this time has now come4      
,we1 who thousands of years ago passed  
through the transition1 from  the       
personal1 animal view of life to the    
socialized view1 imagine  that that     
transition was an inevitable and natural
 one2 but this  transition through which
 we have been passing for the last      
eighteen  hundred years seems arbitrary1
 unnatural1 and alarming4 ,but we  only 
fancy this because that first transition
 has been so fully  completed that the  
practice attained by it has become      
unconscious and  instinctive in us1     
while the present transition is not yet 
over and  we have to complete it        

consciously4    ,it took ages1 thousands
 of years1 for the social conception of 
life  to permeate men's consciousness4  
,it went through various forms  and has 
now passed into the region of the       
instinctive through  inheritance1       
education1 and habit4 ,and therefore it 
seems natural to  us4 ,but five thousand
 years ago it seemed as unnatural and   
alarming  to men as the ,christian      
doctrine in its true sense seems to-day4
    ,we think to-day that the           
requirements of the ,christian          
doctrine--of  universal brotherhood1    
suppression of national distinctions1   
abolition of private property1 and the  
strange injunction of  non-resistance to
 evil by force--demand what is          
impossible4 ,but it  was just the same  
thousands of years ago1 with every      
social or even  family duty1 such as the
 duty of parents to support their       
children1  of the young to maintain the 
old1 of fidelity in marriage4 ,still    
more strange1 and even unreasonable1    

seemed the state duties of  submitting  
to the appointed authority1 and paying  
taxes1 and fighting  in defense of the  
country1 and so on4 ,all such           
requirements seem  simple1              
comprehensible1 and natural to us       
to-day1 and we see nothing  mysterious  
or alarming in them4 ,but three or five 
thousand years ago  they seemed to      
require what was impossible4    ,the    
social conception of life served as the 
basis of religion because  at the time  
when it was first presented to men it   
seemed to them  absolutely              
incomprehensible1 mystic1 and           
supernatural4 ,now that we  have        
outlived that phase of the life of      
humanity1 we understand  the rational   
grounds for uniting men in families1    
communities1 and  states4 ,but in       
antiquity the duties involved by such   
association were  presented under cover 
of the supernatural and were confirmed  
by it4    ,the patriarchal religions    
exalted the family1 the tribe1 the      

nation4  ,state religions deified       
emperors and states4 ,even now most     
ignorant  people--like our peasants1 who
 call the ,tzar an earthly god--obey    
state laws1 not through any rational    
recognition of their necessity1  nor    
because they have any conception of the 
meaning of state1 but  through a        
religious sentiment4    ,in precisely   
the same way the ,christian doctrine is 
presented to men  of the social or      
heathen theory of life to-day1 in the   
guise of a  supernatural religion1      
though there is in reality nothing      
mysterious1  mystic1 or supernatural    
about it4 ,it is simply the theory of   
life  which is appropriate to the       
present degree of material development1 
the present stage of growth of humanity1
 and which must therefore  inevitably be
 accepted4    ,the time will come--it is
 already coming--when the ,christian    
principles of equality and fraternity1  
community of property1  non-resistance  
of evil by force1 will appear just as   

natural and  simple as the principles of
 family or social life seem to us now4  
,humanity can no more go backward in its
 development than the  individual man4  
,men have outlived the social1 family1  
and state  conceptions of life4 ,now    
they must go forward and assimilate the 
next and higher conception of life1     
which is what is now taking  place4     
,this change is brought about in two    
ways3 consciously through  spiritual    
causes1 and unconsciously through       
material causes4    ,just as the        
individual man very rarely changes his  
way of life at  the dictates of his     
reason alone1 but generally continues to
 live  as before1 in spite of the new   
interests and aims revealed to him  by  
his reason1 and only alters his way of  
living when it has become  absolutely   
opposed to his conscience1 and          
consequently intolerable  to him2 so1   
too1 humanity1 long after it has learnt 
through its  religions the new interests
 and aims of life1 toward which it must 

strive1 continues in the majority of its
 representatives to live as  before1 and
 is only brought to accept the new      
conception by finding  it impossible to 
go on living its old life as before4    
,though the need of a change of life is 
preached by the religious  leaders and  
recognized and realized by the most     
intelligent men1 the  majority1 in spite
 of their reverential attitude to their 
leaders1  that is1 their faith in their 
teaching1 continue to be guided by the  
old theory of life in their present     
complex existence4 ,as though the       
father of a family1 knowing how he ought
 to behave at his age1 should  yet      
continue through habit and              
thoughtlessness to live in the same     
childish way as he did in boyhood4      
,that is just what is happening in the  
transition of humanity from  one stage  
to another1 through which we are passing
 now4 ,humanity  has outgrown its social
 stage and has entered upon a new       
period4 ,it  recognizes the doctrine    

which ought to be made the basis of life
 in  this new period4 ,but through      
inertia it continues to keep up the old 
forms of life4 ,from this inconsistency 
between the new conception of  life and 
practical life follows a whole          
succession of contradictions  and       
sufferings which embitter our life and  
necessitate its alteration4    ,one need
 only compare the practice of life with 
the theory of it1 to  be dismayed at the
 glaring antagonism between our         
conditions of life  and our conscience4 
,our whole life is in flat contradiction
 with all we know1 and with  all we     
regard as necessary and right4 ,this    
contradiction runs through  everything1 
in economic life1 in political life1 and
 in international  life4 ,as though we  
had forgotten what we knew and put away 
for a time  the principles we believe in
 7we cannot help still believing in them
  because they are the only foundation  
we have to base our life on7 we  do the 
very opposite of all that our conscience

 and our common sense  require of us4   
,we are guided in economical1 political1
 and international questions  by the    
principles which were appropriate to men
 of three or five  thousand years ago1  
though they are directly opposed to our 
conscience and the conditions of life in
 which we are placed to-day4    ,it was 
very well for the man of ancient times  
to live in a society  based on the      
division of mankind into masters and    
slaves1 because he  believed that such a
 distinction was decreed by ,god and    
must always  exist4 ,but is such a      
belief possible in these days8    ,the  
man of antiquity could believe he had   
the right to enjoy the  good things of  
this world at the expense of other men1 
and to keep  them in misery for         
generations1 since he believed that men 
came  from different origins1 were base 
or noble in blood1 children of  ,ham or 
of ,japhet4 ,the greatest sages of the  
world1 the teachers of  humanity1 ,plato
 and ,aristotle1 justified the existence

 of slaves and  demonstrated the        
lawfulness of slavery2 and even three   
centuries ago1  the men who described an
 imaginary society of the future1       
,utopia1  could not conceive of it      
without slaves4    ,men of ancient and  
medival times believed1 firmly believed1
 that  men are not equal1 that the only 
true men are ,persians1 or ,greeks1  or 
,romans1 or ,franks4 ,but we cannot     
believe that now4 ,and people  who      
sacrifice themselves for the principles 
of aristocracy and of  patriotism       
to-day1 don't believe and can't believe 
what they assert4    ,we all know and   
cannot help knowing--even though we may 
never have  heard the idea clearly      
expressed1 may never have read of it1   
and may  never have put it into words1  
still through unconsciously imbibing    
the ,christian sentiments that are in   
the air--with our whole heart we  know  
and cannot escape knowing the           
fundamental truth of the ,christian     
doctrine1 that we are all sons of one   

,father1 wherever we may live  and      
whatever language we may speak2 we are  
all brothers and are  subject to the    
same law of love implanted by our common
 ,father in our  hearts4    ,whatever   
the opinions and degree of education of 
a man of to-day1  whatever his shade of 
liberalism1 whatever his school of      
philosophy1  or of science1 or of       
economics1 however ignorant or          
superstitious  he may be1 every man of  
the present day knows that all men have 
an  equal right to life and the good    
things of life1 and that one set  of    
people are no better nor worse than     
another1 that all are equal4  ,everyone 
knows this1 beyond doubt2 everyone feels
 it in his whole  being4 ,yet at the    
same time everyone sees all round him   
the division  of men into two           
castes--the one1 laboring1 oppressed1   
poor1 and  suffering1 the other idle1   
oppressing1 luxurious1 and profligate4  
,and everyone not only sees this1 but   
voluntarily or involuntarily1  in one   

way or another1 he takes part in        
maintaining this distinction  which his 
conscience condemns4 ,and he cannot help
 suffering from the  consciousness of   
this contradiction and his share in it4 
,whether he be master or slave1 the man 
of to-day cannot help  constantly       
feeling the painful opposition between  
his conscience and  actual life1 and the
 miseries resulting from it4    ,the    
toiling masses1 the immense majority of 
mankind who are suffering  under the    
incessant1 meaningless1 and hopeless    
toil and privation  in which their whole
 life is swallowed up1 still find their 
keenest  suffering in the glaring       
contrast between what is and what ought 
to  be1 according to all the beliefs    
held by themselves1 and those who  have 
brought them to that condition and keep 
them in it4    ,they know that they are 
in slavery and condemned to privation   
and  darkness to minister to the lusts  
of the minority who keep them down4     
,they know it1 and they say so plainly4 

,and this knowledge increases  their    
sufferings and constitutes its bitterest
 sting4    ,the slave of antiquity knew 
that he was a slave by nature1 but our  
laborer1 while he feels he is a slave1  
knows that he ought not to be1  and so  
he tastes the agony of ,tantalus1       
forever desiring and never  gaining what
 might and ought to be his4    ,the     
sufferings of the working classes1      
springing from the  contradiction       
between what is and what ought to be1   
are increased  tenfold by the envy and  
hatred engendered by their consciousness
 of  it4    ,the laborer of the present 
day would not cease to suffer even if   
his toil were much lighter than that of 
the slave of ancient times1  even if he 
gained an eight-hour working day and a  
wage of three  dollars a day4 ,for he is
 working at the manufacture of things   
which  he will not enjoy1 working not by
 his own will for his own benefit1  but 
through necessity1 to satisfy the       
desires of luxurious and idle  people in

 general1 and for the profit of a single
 rich man1 the  owner of a factory or   
workshop in particular4 ,and he knows   
that all  this is going on in a world in
 which it is a recognized scientific    
principle that labor alone creates      
wealth1 and that to profit by the  labor
 of others is immoral1 dishonest1 and   
punishable by law2 in a  world1         
moreover1 which professes to believe    
,christ's doctrine that we  are all     
brothers1 and that true merit and       
dignity is to be found in  serving one's
 neighbor1 not in exploiting him4 ,all  
this he knows1 and  he cannot but suffer
 keenly from the sharp contrast between 
what is  and what ought to be4          
,according to all principles1 according 
to all ,i know1 and what  everyone      
professes1 the workman says to himself4 
,i ought to  be free1 equal to everyone 
else1 and loved2 and ,i am--a slave1    
humiliated and hated4 ,and he too is    
filled with hatred and tries to  find   
means to escape from his position1 to   

shake off the enemy who  is over-riding 
him1 and to oppress him in turn4 ,people
 say1 ,workmen  have no business to try 
to become capitalists1 the poor to try  
to  put themselves in the place of the  
rich4 ,that is a mistake4 ,the          
workingmen and the poor would be wrong  
if they tried to do so in a  world in   
which slaves and masters were regarded  
as different species  created by ,god2  
but they are living in a world which    
professes the  faith of the ,gospel1    
that all are alike sons of ,god1 and so 
brothers  and equal4 ,and however men   
may try to conceal it1 one of the first 
conditions of ,christian life is love1  
not in words but in deeds4    ,the man  
of the so-called educated classes lives 
in still more glaring  inconsistency and
 suffering4 ,every educated man1 if he  
believes in  anything1 believes in the  
brotherhood of all men1 or at least he  
has  a sentiment of humanity1 or else of
 justice1 or else he believes in        
science4 ,and all the while he knows    

that his whole life is framed on        
principles in direct opposition to it   
all1 to all the principles of           
,christianity1 humanity1 justice1 and   
science4    ,he knows that all the      
habits in which he has been brought up1 
and  which he could not give up without 
suffering1 can only be satisfied        
through the exhausting1 often fatal1    
toil of oppressed laborers1  that is1   
through the most obvious and brutal     
violation of the  principles of         
,christianity1 humanity1 and justice1   
and even of  science 7that is1 economic 
science74 ,he advocates the principles  
of fraternity1 humanity1 justice1 and   
science1 and yet he lives so  that he is
 dependent on the oppression of the     
working classes1 which  he denounces1   
and his whole life is based on the      
advantages gained  by their oppression4 
,moreover he is directing every effort  
to  maintaining this state of things so 
flatly opposed to all his beliefs4      
,we are all brothers--and yet every     

morning a brother or a sister  must     
empty the bedroom slops for me4 ,we are 
all brothers1 but every  morning ,i must
 have a cigar1 a sweetmeat1 an ice1 and 
such things1  which my brothers and     
sisters have been wasting their health  
in  manufacturing1 and ,i enjoy these   
things and demand them4 ,we are all     
brothers1 yet ,i live by working in a   
bank1 or mercantile house1  or shop at  
making all goods dearer for my brothers4
 ,we are all  brothers1 but ,i live on a
 salary paid me for prosecuting1        
judging1  and condemning the thief or   
the prostitute whose existence the whole
  tenor of my life tends to bring about1
 and who ,i know ought not to  be       
punished but reformed4 ,we are all      
brothers1 but ,i live on the  salary ,i 
gain by collecting taxes from needy     
laborers to be spent  on the luxuries of
 the rich and idle4 ,we are all         
brothers1 but ,i  take a stipend for    
preaching a false ,christian religion1  
which ,i  do not myself believe in1 and 

which only serves to hinder men from    
understanding true ,christianity4 ,i    
take a stipend as priest or  bishop for 
deceiving men in the matter of the      
greatest importance to  them4 ,we are   
all brothers1 but ,i will not give the  
poor the benefit  of my educational1    
medical1 or literary labors except for  
money4  ,we are all brothers1 yet ,i    
take a salary for being ready to commit 
murder1 for teaching men to murder1 or  
making firearms1 gunpowder1 or          
fortifications4    ,the whole life of   
the upper classes is a constant         
inconsistency4  ,the more delicate a    
man's conscience is1 the more painful   
this  contradiction is to him4    ,a man
 of sensitive conscience cannot but     
suffer if he lives such a  life4 ,the   
only means by which he can escape from  
this suffering is  by blunting his      
conscience1 but even if some men succeed
 in dulling  their conscience they      
cannot dull their fears4    ,the men of 
the higher dominating classes whose     

conscience is  naturally not sensitive  
or has become blunted1 if they don't    
suffer  through conscience1 suffer from 
fear and hatred4 ,they are bound to     
suffer4 ,they know all the hatred of    
them existing1 and inevitably  existing 
in the working classes4 ,they are aware 
that the working  classes know that they
 are deceived and exploited1 and that   
they  are beginning to organize         
themselves to shake off oppression and  
revenge themselves on their oppressors4 
,the higher classes see the  unions1 the
 strikes1 the ,may ,day ,celebrations1  
and feel the calamity  that is          
threatening them1 and their terror      
passes into an instinct  of self-defense
 and hatred4 ,they know that if for one 
instant they  are worsted in the        
struggle with their oppressed slaves1   
they will  perish1 because the slaves   
are exasperated and their exasperation  
is  growing more intense with every day 
of oppression4 ,the oppressors1  even if
 they wished to do so1 could not make an

 end to oppression4  ,they know that    
they themselves will perish directly    
they even relax  the harshness of their 
oppression4 ,and they do not relax it1  
in spite  of all their pretended care   
for the welfare of the working classes1 
for the eight-hour day1 for regulation  
of the labor of minors and of  women1   
for savings banks and pensions4 ,all    
that is humbug1 or else  simply anxiety 
to keep the slave fit to do his work4   
,but the slave is  still a slave1 and   
the master who cannot live without a    
slave is less  disposed to set him free 
than ever4    ,the attitude of the      
ruling classes to the laborers is that  
of a man  who has felled his adversary  
to the earth and holds him down1 not  so
 much because he wants to hold him down1
 as because he knows that  if he let him
 go1 even for a second1 he would himself
 be stabbed1  for his adversary is      
infuriated and has a knife in his hand4 
,and  therefore1 whether their          
conscience is tender or the reverse1 our

  rich men cannot enjoy the wealth they 
have filched from the poor  as the      
ancients did who believed in their right
 to it4 ,their whole  life and all their
 enjoyments are embittered either by the
 stings of  conscience or by terror4    
,so much for the economic contradiction4
 ,the political contradiction  is even  
more striking4    ,all men are brought  
up to the habit of obeying the laws of  
the state  before everything4 ,the whole
 existence of modern times is defined by
  laws4 ,a man marries and is divorced1 
educates his children1 and even  7in    
many countries7 professes his religious 
faith in accordance with  the law4 ,what
 about the law then which defines our   
whole existence8  ,do men believe in it8
 ,do they regard it as good8 ,not at    
all4 ,in the  majority of cases people  
of the present time do not believe in   
the  justice of the law1 they despise   
it1 but still they obey it4 ,it was     
very well for the men of the ancient    
world to observe their laws4  ,they     

firmly believed that their law 7it was  
generally of a religious  character7 was
 the only just law1 which everyone ought
 to obey4 ,but  is it so with us8 we    
know and cannot help knowing that the   
law of  our country is not the one      
eternal law2 that it is only one of the 
many laws of different countries1 which 
are equally imperfect1 often  obviously 
wrong and unjust1 and are criticised    
from every point of  view in the        
newspapers4 ,the ,jew might well obey   
his laws1 since  he had not the         
slightest doubt that ,god had written   
them with his  finger2 the ,roman too   
might well obey the laws which he       
thought had  been dictated by the nymph 
,egeria4 ,men might well observe the    
laws if  they believed the ,tzars who   
made them were ,god's anointed1 or even 
if  they thought they were the work of  
assemblies of lawgivers who had  the    
power and the desire to make them as    
good as possible4 ,but we all  know how 
our laws are made4 ,we have all been    

behind the scenes1 we  know that they   
are the product of covetousness1        
trickery1 and party  struggles2 that    
there is not and cannot be any real     
justice in them4  ,and so modern men    
cannot believe that obedience to civic  
or political  laws can satisfy the      
demands of the reason or of human       
nature4 ,men  have long ago recognized  
that it is irrational to obey a law the 
justice of which is very doubtful1 and  
so they cannot but suffer in  obeying a 
law which they do not accept as         
judicious and binding4    ,a man cannot 
but suffer when his whole life is       
defined beforehand for  him by laws1    
which he must obey under threat of      
punishment1 though  he does not believe 
in their wisdom or justice1 and often   
clearly  perceives their injustice1     
cruelty1 and artificiality4    ,we      
recognize the uselessness of customs and
 import duties1 and are  obliged to pay 
them4 ,we recognize the uselessness of  
the expenditure  on the maintenance of  

the ,court and other members of         
,government1 and  we regard the teaching
 of the ,church as injurious1 but we are
 obliged  to bear our share of the      
expenses of these institutions4 ,we     
regard  the punishments inflicted by law
 as cruel and shameless1 but we must    
assist in supporting them4 ,we regard as
 unjust and pernicious the  distribution
 of landed property1 but we are obliged 
to submit to it4  ,we see no necessity  
for wars and armies1 but we must bear   
terribly  heavy burdens in support of   
troops and war expenses4    ,but this   
contradiction is nothing in comparison  
with the  contradiction which confronts 
us when we turn to international        
questions1 and which demands a solution 
under pain of the loss of  the sanity   
and even the existence of the human     
race4 ,that is the  contradiction       
between the ,christian conscience and   
war4    ,we are all ,christian nations  
living the same spiritual life1 so that 
every noble and pregnant thought1       

springing up at one end of the  world1  
is at once communicated to the whole of 
,christian humanity and  evokes         
everywhere the same emotion of pride and
 rejoicing without  distinction of      
nationalities4 ,we who love thinkers1   
philanthropists1  poets1 and scientific 
men of foreign origin1 and are as proud 
of  the exploits of ,father ,damien as  
if he were one of ourselves1 we1  who   
have a simple love for men of foreign   
nationalities1 ,frenchmen1  ,germans1   
,americans1 and ,englishmen1 who respect
 their qualities1 are  glad to meet them
 and make them so warmly welcome1 cannot
 regard war  with them as anything      
heroic4 ,we cannot even imagine without 
horror  the possibility of a            
disagreement between these people and   
ourselves  which would call for         
reciprocal murder4 ,yet we are all bound
 to take  a hand in this slaughter which
 is bound to come to pass to-morrow--if 
not to-day4    ,it was very well for the
 ,jew1 the ,greek1 and the ,roman to    

defend  the independence of his nation  
by murder4 ,for he piously believed     
that his people was the only true1 fine1
 and good people dear to  ,god1 and all 
the rest were ,philistines1 barbarians4 
,men of medival  times--even up to the  
end of the last and beginning of this   
century--might continue to hold this    
belief4 ,but however much we  work upon 
ourselves we cannot believe it4 ,and    
this contradiction for  men of the      
present day has become so full of horror
 that without its  solution life is no  
longer possible4    ,we live in a time  
which is full of inconsistencies1 writes
 ,count  ,komarovsky1 the professor of  
international law1 in his learned       
treatise4 ,the press of all countries is
 continually expressing the  universal  
desire for peace1 and the general sense 
of its necessity  for all nations4      
,representatives of governments1 private
 persons1 and official  organs say the  
same thing2 it is repeated in           
parliamentary debates1  diplomatic      

correspondence1 and even in state       
treaties4 ,at the same  time governments
 are increasing the strength of their   
armies every  year1 levying fresh taxes1
 raising loans1 and leaving as a bequest
  to future generations the duty of     
repairing the blunders of the  senseless
 policy of the present4 ,what a striking
 contrast between  words and deeds6 ,of 
course governments will plead in        
justification  of these measures that   
all their expenditure and armament are  
exclusively for purposes of defense4    
,but it remains a mystery to  every     
disinterested man whence they can expect
 attacks if all  the great powers are   
single-hearted in their policy1 in      
pursuing  nothing but self-defense4 ,in 
reality it looks as if each of the      
great powers were every instant         
anticipating an attack on the part  of  
the others4 ,and this results in a      
general feeling of insecurity  and      
superhuman efforts on the part of each  
government to increase  their forces    

beyond those of the other powers4 ,such 
a competition  of itself increases the  
danger of war4 ,nations cannot endure   
the  constant increase of armies for    
long1 and sooner or later they will     
prefer war to all the disadvantages of  
their present position and  the constant
 menace of war4 ,then the most trifling 
pretext will be  sufficient to throw the
 whole of ,europe into the fire of      
universal  war4 ,and it is a mistaken   
idea that such a crisis might deliver us
  from the political and economical     
troubles that are crushing us4 ,the     
experience of the wars of latter years  
teaches us that every war  has only     
intensified national hatreds1 made      
military burdens more  crushing and     
insupportable1 and rendered the         
political and economical  position of   
,europe more grievous and insoluble4    
,modern ,europe keeps under arms an     
active army of nine millions of  men1   
writes ,enrico ,ferri1 besides fifteen  
millions of reserve1 with  an outlay of 

four hundred millions of francs per     
annum4 ,by continual  increase of the   
armed force1 the sources of social and  
individual  prosperity are paralyzed1   
and the state of the modern world may be
  compared to that of a man who condemns
 himself to wasting from lack  of       
nutrition in order to provide himself   
with arms1 losing thereby  the strength 
to use the arms he provides1 under the  
weight of which  he will at last        
succumb4    ,charles ,booth1 in his     
paper read in ,london before the        
,association  for the ,reform and       
,codification of the ,law of ,nations1  
,june #bf1  #ahhg1 says the same thing4 
,after referring to the same number1    
nine  millions of the active army and   
fifteen millions of reserve1 and  the   
enormous expenditure of governments on  
the support and arming  of these forces1
 he says3 ,these figures represent only 
a small  part of the real cost1 because 
besides the recognized expenditure  of  
the war budget of the various nations1  

we ought also to take  into account the 
enormous loss to society involved in    
withdrawing  from it such an immense    
number of its most vigorous men1 who are
  taken from industrial pursuits and    
every kind of labor1 as well as  the    
enormous interest on the sums expended  
on military preparations  without any   
return4 ,the inevitable result of this  
expenditure on war  and preparations for
 war is a continually growing national  
debt4 ,the  greater number of loans     
raised by the governments of ,europe    
were  with a view to war4 ,their total  
sum amounts to four hundred millions    
sterling1 and these debts are increasing
 every year4    ,the same ,professor    
,komarovsky says in another place3 ,we  
live in  troubled times4 ,everywhere we 
hear complaints of the depression of    
trade and manufactures1 and the         
wretchedness of the economic position   
generally1 the miserable conditions of  
existence of the working  classes1 and  
the universal impoverishment of the     

masses4 ,but in spite  of this1         
governments in their efforts to maintain
 their independence  rush to the        
greatest extremes of senselessness4 ,new
 taxes and duties  are being devised    
everywhere1 and the financial oppression
 of the  nations knows no limits4 ,if we
 glance at the budgets of the states  of
 ,europe for the last hundred years1    
what strikes us most of all is  their   
rapid and continually growing increase4 
,how can we explain this extraordinary  
phenomenon1 which sooner or  later      
threatens us all with inevitable        
bankruptcy8    ,it is caused beyond     
dispute by the expenditure for the      
maintenance  of armaments which swallows
 up a third and even a half of all the  
expenditure of ,european states4 ,and   
the most melancholy thing is  that one  
can foresee no limit to this            
augmentation of the budget  and         
impoverishment of the masses4 ,what is  
socialism but a protest  against this   
abnormal position in which the greater  

proportion of the  population of our    
world is placed8    ,we are ruining     
ourselves1 says ,frederick ,passy in a  
letter read  before the last ,congress  
of ,universal ,peace 7in #ahij7 in      
,london1  we are ruining ourselves in   
order to be able to take part in the    
senseless wars of the future or to pay  
the interest on debts we have  incurred 
by the senseless and criminal wars of   
the past4 ,we are dying  of hunger so as
 to secure the means of killing each    
other4    ,speaking later on of the way 
the subject is looked at in ,france1 he 
says3 ,we believe that1 a hundred years 
after the ,declaration of the  ,rights  
of ,man and of the citizen1 the time has
 come to recognize  the rights of       
nations and to renounce at once and     
forever all those  undertakings based on
 fraud and force1 which1 under the name 
of  conquests1 are veritable crimes     
against humanity1 and which1 whatever   
the vanity of monarchs and the pride of 
nations may think of them1  only weaken 

even those who are triumphant over them4
    ,i am surprised at the way religion 
is carried on in this country1  said    
,sir ,wilfrid ,lawson at the same       
congress4 ,you send a boy to  ,sunday   
school1 and you tell him3 ',dear boy1   
you must love your  enemies4 ,if another
 boy strikes you1 you mustn't hit him   
back1 but  try to reform him by loving  
him4' ,well4 ,the boy stays in the      
,sunday  school till he is fourteen or  
fifteen1 and then his friends send him  
into the army4 ,what has he to do in the
 army8 ,he certainly won't  love his    
enemy2 quite the contrary1 if he can    
only get at him1 he  will run him       
through with his bayonet4 ,that is the  
nature of all  religious teaching in    
this country4 ,i do not think that that 
is a  very good way of carrying out the 
precepts of religion4 ,i think if  it is
 a good thing for a boy to love his     
enemy1 it is good for a  grown-up man4  
,there are in ,europe twenty-eight      
millions of men under arms1 says        

,wilson1 to decide disputes1 not by     
discussion1 but by murdering one        
another4 ,that is the accepted method   
for deciding disputes among  ,christian 
nations4 ,this method is1 at the same   
time1 very expensive1  for1 according to
 the statistics ,i have read1 the       
nations of ,europe  spent in the year   
#ahgb a hundred and fifty millions      
sterling on  preparations for deciding  
disputes by means of murder4 ,it seems  
to  me1 therefore1 that in such a state 
of things one of two alternatives  must 
be admitted3 either ,christianity is a  
failure1 or those who have  undertaken  
to expound it have failed in doing so4  
,until our warriors  are disarmed and   
our armies disbanded1 we have not the   
right to call  ourselves a ,christian   
nation4    ,in a conference on the      
subject of the duty of ,christian       
ministers  to preach against war1 ,g4   
,d4 ,bartlett said among other things3  
,if  ,i understand the ,scriptures1 ,i  
say that men are only playing with      

,christianity so long as they ignore the
 question of war4 ,i have lived  a      
longish life and have heard our         
ministers preach on universal peace     
hardly half a dozen times4 ,twenty years
 ago1 in a drawing room1 ,i  dared in   
the presence of forty persons to moot   
the proposition that  war was           
incompatible with ,christianity2 ,i was 
regarded as an arrant  fanatic4 ,the    
idea that we could get on without war   
was regarded as  unmitigated weakness   
and folly4    ,the ,catholic priest     
,defourney has expressed himself in the 
same  spirit4 ,one of the first precepts
 of the eternal law inscribed  in the   
consciences of all men1 says the ,abb   
,defourney1 is  the prohibition of      
taking the life or shedding the blood of
 a  fellow-creature without sufficient  
cause1 without being forced  into the   
necessity of it4 ,this is one of the    
commandments which  is most deeply      
stamped in the heart of man4 ,but so    
soon as it is  a question of war1 that  

is1 of shedding blood in torrents1 men  
of  the present day do not trouble      
themselves about a sufficient cause4    
,those who take part in wars do not even
 think of asking themselves  whether    
there is any justification for these    
innumerable murders1  whether they are  
justifiable or unjustifiable1 lawful or 
unlawful1  innocent or criminal2 whether
 they are breaking that fundamental     
commandment that forbids killing without
 lawful cause4 ,but their  conscience is
 mute4 ,war has ceased to be something  
dependent on moral  considerations4 ,in 
warfare men have in all the toil and    
dangers they  endure no other pleasure  
than that of being conquerors1 no sorrow
  other than that of being conquered4   
,don't tell me that they are  serving   
their country4 ,a great genius answered 
that long ago in the  words that have   
become a proverb3 ',without justice1    
what is an empire  but a great band of  
brigands8' ,and is not every band of    
brigands a  little empire8 ,they too    

have their laws2 and they too make war  
to  gain booty1 and even for honor4     
,the aim of the proposed institution the
 institution of an  international board 
of arbitration is that the nations of   
,europe may  cease to be nations of     
robbers1 and their armies1 bands of     
brigands4  ,and one must add1 not only  
brigands1 but slaves4 ,for our armies   
are  simply gangs of slaves at the      
disposal of one or two commanders or    
ministers1 who exercise a despotic      
control over them without any real      
responsibility1 as we very well know4   
,the peculiarity of a slave is that he  
is a mere tool in the hands  of his     
master1 a thing1 not a man4 ,that is    
just what soldiers1  officers1 and      
generals are1 going to murder and be    
murdered at the  will of a ruler or     
rulers4 ,military slavery is an actual  
fact1 and  it is the worst form of      
slavery1 especially now when by means of
  compulsory service it lays its fetters
 on the necks of all the strong  and    

capable men of a nation1 to make them   
instruments of murder1  butchers of     
human flesh1 for that is all they are   
taken and trained  to do4    ,the       
rulers1 two or three in number1 meet    
together in cabinets1  secretly         
deliberate without registers1 without   
publicity1 and  consequently without    
responsibility1 and send men to be      
murdered4    ,protests against          
armaments1 burdensome to the people1    
have not  originated in our times1 says 
,signor ,e4 ,g4 ,moneta4 ,hear what     
,montesquieu wrote in his day4 ',france 
and one might say1 ,europe  will be     
ruined by soldiers4 ,a new plague is    
spreading throughout  ,europe4 ,it      
attacks sovereigns and forces them to   
maintain an  incredible number of armed 
men4 ,this plague is infectious and     
spreads1 because directly one government
 increases its armament1 all  the others
 do likewise4 ,so that nothing is gained
 by it but general  ruin4    ',every    
government maintains as great an army as

 it possibly could  maintain if its     
people were threatened with             
extermination1 and people  call peace   
this state of tension of all against    
all4 ,and therefore  ,europe is so      
ruined that if private persons were in  
the position of  the governments of our 
continent1 the richest of them would not
 have  enough to live on4 ,we are poor  
though we have the wealth and trade of  
the whole world4'    ,that was written  
almost #aej years ago4 ,the picture     
seems drawn  from the world of to-day4  
,one thing only has changed--the form   
of government4 ,in ,montesquieu's time  
it was said that the cause  of the      
maintenance of great armaments was the  
despotic power of  kings1 who made war  
in the hope of augmenting by conquest   
their  personal revenues and gaining    
glory4 ,people used to say then3 ',ah1  
if only people could elect those who    
would have the right to refuse          
governments the soldiers and the        
money--then there would be an end  to   

military politics4' ,now there are      
representative governments in  almost   
the whole of ,europe1 and in spite of   
that1 war expenditures  and the         
preparations for war have increased to  
alarming proportions4    ,it is evident 
that the insanity of sovereigns has     
gained possession  of the ruling        
classes4 ,war is not made now because   
one king has  been wanting in civility  
to the mistress of another king1 as it  
was  in ,louis ,,xiv4's time4 ,but the  
natural and honorable sentiments of     
national honor and patriotism are so    
exaggerated1 and the public  opinion of 
one nation so excited against another1  
that it is enough  for a statement to be
 made 7even though it may be a false    
report7  that the ambassador of one     
state was not received by the principal 
personage of another state to cause the 
outbreak of the most awful  and         
destructive war there has ever been     
seen4 ,europe keeps more  soldiers under
 arms to-day than in the time of the    

great ,napoleonic  wars4 ,all citizens  
with few exceptions are forced to spend 
some years  in barracks4 ,fortresses1   
arsenals1 and ships are built1 new      
weapons  are constantly being invented1 
to be replaced in a short time by  fresh
 ones1 for1 sad to say1 science1 which  
ought always to be aiming  at the good  
of humanity1 assists in the work of     
destruction1 and is  constantly         
inventing new means for killing the     
greatest number of  men in the shortest 
time4 ,and to maintain so great a       
multitude of  soldiers and to make such 
vast preparations for murder1 hundreds  
of  millions are spent annually1 sums   
which would be sufficient for the       
education of the people and for immense 
works of public utility1  and which     
would make it possible to find a        
peaceful solution of the  social        
question4    ,europe1 then1 is1 in this 
respect1 in spite of all the conquests  
of  science1 in the same position as in 
the darkest and most barbarous  days of 

the ,middle ,ages4 ,all deplore this    
state of things--neither  peace nor     
war--and all would be glad to escape    
from it4 ,the heads of  governments all 
declare that they all wish for peace1   
and vie with  one another in the most   
solemn protestations of peaceful        
intentions4  ,but the same day or the   
next they will lay a scheme for the     
increase  of the armament before their  
legislative assembly1 saying that  these
 are the preventive measures they take  
for the very purpose of  securing peace4
    ,but this is not the kind of peace  
we want4 ,and the nations are not       
deceived by it4 ,true peace is based on 
mutual confidence1 while  these huge    
armaments show open and utter lack of   
confidence1 if not  concealed hostility1
 between states4 ,what should we say of 
a man who1  wanting to show his friendly
 feelings for his neighbor1 should      
invite  him to discuss their differences
 with a loaded revolver in his hand8    
,it is just this flagrant contradiction 

between the peaceful  professions and   
the warlike policy of governments which 
all good  citizens desire to put an end 
to1 at any cost4    ,people are         
astonished that every year there are    
sixty thousand cases  of suicide in     
,europe1 and those only the recognized  
and recorded  cases--and excluding      
,russia and ,turkey2 but one ought      
rather to be  surprised that there are  
so few4 ,every man of the present day1  
if we  go deep enough into the          
contradiction between his conscience and
 his  life1 is in a state of despair4   
,not to speak of all the other          
contradictions between modern life and  
the conscience1 the permanently armed   
condition of ,europe together  with its 
profession of ,christianity is alone    
enough to drive any man  to despair1 to 
doubt of the sanity of mankind1 and to  
terminate an  existence in this         
senseless and brutal world4 ,this       
contradiction1  which is a quintessence 
of all the other contradictions1 is so  

terrible that to live and to take part  
in it is only possible if one  does not 
think of it--if one is able to forget   
it4    ,what6 all of us1 ,christians1   
not only profess to love one another1   
but do actually live one common life2 we
 whose social existence beats  with one 
common pulse--we aid one another1 learn 
from one another1  draw ever closer to  
one another to our mutual happiness1 and
 find  in this closeness the whole      
meaning of life6--and to-morrow some    
crazy ruler will say some stupidity1 and
 another will answer in the  same       
spirit1 and then ,i must go expose      
myself to being murdered1  and murder   
men--who have done me no harm--and more 
than that1 whom  ,i love4 ,and this is  
not a remote contingency1 but the very  
thing we  are all preparing for1 which  
is not only probable1 but an inevitable 
certainty4    ,to recognize this clearly
 is enough to drive a man out of his    
senses  or to make him shoot himself4   
,and this is just what does happen1 and 

especially often among military men4 ,a 
man need only come to himself  for an   
instant to be impelled inevitably to    
such an end4    ,and this is the only   
explanation of the dreadful intensity   
with which  men of modern times strive  
to stupefy themselves1 with spirits1    
tobacco1 opium1 cards1 reading          
newspapers1 traveling1 and all kinds  of
 spectacles and amusements4 ,these      
pursuits are followed up as an          
important1 serious business4 ,and indeed
 they are a serious business4  ,if there
 were no external means of dulling their
 sensibilities1 half  of mankind would  
shoot themselves without delay1 for to  
live in  opposition to one's reason is  
the most intolerable condition4 ,and    
that is the condition of all men of the 
present day4 ,all men of the  modern    
world exist in a state of continual and 
flagrant antagonism  between their      
conscience and their way of life4 ,this 
antagonism is  apparent in economic as  
well as political life4 ,but most       

striking of  all is the contradiction   
between the ,christian law of the       
brotherhood  of men existing in the     
conscience and the necessity under which
 all  men are placed by compulsory      
military service of being prepared  for 
hatred and murder--of being at the same 
time a ,christian and a  gladiator4     
,,chapter ,,vi4         ,,attitude ,,of 
,,men ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,to   
,,war4         ,people do not ,try to   
,remove the ,contradiction between ,life
 and       ,conscience by a ,change of  
,life1 but their ,cultivated ,leaders   
,exert ,every ,effort to ,obscure the   
,demands of ,conscience1 and            
,justify their ,life2 in this ,way they 
,degrade ,society below       ,paganism 
to a ,state of ,primeval                
,barbarism--,undefined ,attitude        
of ,modern ,leaders of ,thought to ,war1
 to ,universal ,militarism1       and to
 ,compulsory ,service in ,army--,one    
,section ,regards ,war as       an      
,accidental ,political ,phenomenon1 to  

be ,avoided by ,external       ,measures
 only--,peace ,congress--,the ,article  
in the ,revue des                       
,revues--,proposition of ,maxime du     
,camp--,value of ,boards of             
,arbitration and ,suppression of        
,armies--,attitude of ,governments      
to ,men of this ,opinion and ,what they 
,do--,another ,section       ,regards   
,war as ,cruel1 but                     
,inevitable--,maupassant--,rod--,a      
,third ,section ,regard ,war as         
,necessary1 and not without its         
,advantages--,doucet--,claretie--,zola--
,vog4      ,the antagonism between life 
and the conscience may be removed in two
  ways3 by a change of life or by a     
change of conscience4 ,and there  would 
seem there can be no doubt as to these  
alternatives4    ,a man may cease to do 
what he regards as wrong1 but he cannot 
cease  to consider wrong what is wrong4 
,just in the same way all humanity  may 
cease to do what it regards as wrong1   
but far from being able to  change1 it  

cannot even retard for a time the       
continual growth of a  clearer          
recognition of what is wrong and        
therefore ought not to be4  ,and        
therefore it would seem inevitable for  
,christian men to abandon  the pagan    
forms of society which they condemn1 and
 to reconstruct  their social existence 
on the ,christian principles they       
profess4    ,so it would be were it not 
for the law of inertia1 as immutable a  
force in men and nations as in inanimate
 bodies4 ,in men it takes the  form of  
the psychological principle1 so truly   
expressed in the words  of the ,gospel1 
,they have loved darkness better than   
light because  their deeds were evil4   
,this principle shows itself in men not 
trying  to recognize the truth1 but to  
persuade themselves that the life  they 
are leading1 which is what they like and
 are used to1 is a life  perfectly      
consistent with truth4    ,slavery was  
opposed to all the moral principles     
advocated by ,plato  and ,aristotle1 yet

 neither of them saw that1 because to   
renounce  slavery would have meant the  
break up of the life they were living4  
,we see the same thing in our modern    
world4    ,the division of men into two 
castes1 as well as the use of force in  
government and war1 are opposed to every
 moral principle professed by  our      
modern society4 ,yet the cultivated and 
advanced men of the day  seem not to see
 it4    ,the majority1 if not all1 of   
the cultivated men of our day try       
unconsciously to maintain the old social
 conception of life1 which  justifies   
their position1 and to hide from        
themselves and others its               
insufficiency1 and above all the        
necessity of adopting the ,christian    
conception of life1 which will mean the 
break up of the whole  existing social  
order4 ,they struggle to keep up the    
organization  based on the social       
conception of life1 but do not believe  
in it  themselves1 because it is extinct
 and it is impossible to believe in  it4

    ,all modern                         
literature--philosophical1 political1   
and artistic--is  striking in this      
respect4 ,what wealth of idea1 of form1 
of color1  what erudition1 what art1 but
 what a lack of serious matter1 what    
dread of any exactitude of thought or   
expression6 ,subtleties1  allegories1   
humorous fancies1 the widest            
generalizations1 but nothing  simple and
 clear1 nothing going straight to the   
point1 that is1 to  the problem of life4
    ,but that is not all2 besides these 
graceful frivolities1 our  literature is
 full of simple nastiness and brutality1
 of arguments  which would lead men back
 in the most refined way to primeval    
barbarism1 to the principles not only of
 the pagan1 but even of the  animal     
life1 which we have left behind us five 
thousand years ago4    ,and it could not
 be otherwise4 ,in their dread of the   
,christian  conception of life which    
will destroy the social order1 which    
some  cling to only from habit1 others  

also from interest1 men cannot but  be  
thrown back upon the pagan conception of
 life and the principles  based on it4  
,nowadays we see advocated not only     
patriotism and  aristocratic principles 
just as they were advocated two thousand
  years ago1 but even the coarsest      
epicureanism and animalism1 only  with  
this difference1 that the men who then  
professed those views  believed in them1
 while nowadays even the advocates of   
such views do  not believe in them1 for 
they have no meaning for the present    
day4 ,no  one can stand still when the  
earth is shaking under his feet4 ,if we 
do not go forward we must go back4 ,and 
strange and terrible to say1  the       
cultivated men of our day1 the leaders  
of thought1 are in reality  with their  
subtle reasoning drawing society back1  
not to paganism  even1 but to a state of
 primitive barbarism4    ,this tendency 
on the part of the leading thinkers of  
the day is  nowhere more apparent than  
in their attitude to the phenomenon in  

which all the insufficiency of the      
social conception of life is  presented 
in the most concentrated form--in their 
attitude1 that is1  to war1 to the      
general arming of nations1 and to       
universal compulsory  service4    ,the  
undefined1 if not disingenuous1 attitude
 of modern thinkers to  this phenomenon 
is striking4 ,it takes three forms in   
cultivated  society4 ,one section look  
at it as an incidental phenomenon1      
arising  out of the special political   
situation of ,europe1 and consider  that
 this state of things can be reformed   
without a revolution in  the whole      
internal social order of nations1 by    
external measures  of international     
diplomacy4 ,another section regard it as
 something  cruel and hideous1 but at   
the same time fated and inevitable1 like
  disease and death4 ,a third party with
 cool indifference consider war  as an  
inevitable phenomenon1 beneficial in its
 effects and therefore  desirable4      
,men look at the subject from different 

points of view1 but all alike  talk of  
war as though it were something         
absolutely independent of  the will of  
those who take part in it4 ,and         
consequently they do not  even admit the
 natural question which presents itself 
to every simple  man3 ,how about        
me--ought ,i to take any part in it8 ,in
 their view  no question of this kind   
even exists1 and every man1 however he  
may  regard war from a personal         
standpoint1 must slavishly submit to the
  requirements of the authorities on the
 subject4    ,the attitude of the first 
section of thinkers1 those who see a way
  out of war in international diplomatic
 measures1 is well expressed in  the    
report of the last ,peace ,congress in  
,london1 and the articles and  letters  
upon war that appeared in ,no4 #h of the
 ,revue des ,revues1  #ahia4 ,the       
congress after gathering together from  
various quarters the  verbal and written
 opinion of learned men opened the      
proceedings by  a religious service1 and

 after listening to addresses for five  
whole  days1 concluded them by a public 
dinner and speeches4 ,they adopted  the 
following resolutions3    #a4 ,the      
congress affirms its belief that the    
brotherhood of man  involves as a       
necessary consequence a brotherhood of  
nations4    #b4 ,the congress recognizes
 the important influence that           
,christianity  exercises on the moral   
and political progress of mankind1 and  
earnestly urges upon ministers of the   
,gospel and other religious  teachers   
the duty of setting forth the principles
 of peace and good  will toward men4    
,and it recommends that the third       
,sunday in ,december  be set apart for  
that purpose4    #c4 ,the congress      
expresses the opinion that all teachers 
of history  should call the attention of
 the young to the grave evils inflicted 
on mankind in all ages by war1 and to   
the fact that such war has been  waged  
for most inadequate causes4    #d4 ,the 
congress protests against the use of    

military drill in  schools by way of    
physical exercise1 and suggests the     
formation of  brigades for saving life  
rather than of a quasi-military         
character2  and urges the desirability  
of impressing on the ,board of          
,examiners  who formulate the questions 
for examination the propriety of guiding
  the minds of children in the          
principles of peace4    #e4 ,the        
congress holds that the doctrine of the 
,rights of ,man  requires that the      
aboriginal and weaker races1 their      
territories and  liberties1 shall be    
guarded from injustice and fraud1 and   
that these  races shall be shielded     
against the vices so prevalent among the
  so-called advanced races of men4 ,it  
further expresses its conviction  that  
there should be concert of action among 
the nations for the  accomplishment of  
these ends4 ,the congress expresses its 
hearty  appreciation of the resolutions 
of the ,anti-slavery ,conference held   
recently at ,brussels for the           

amelioration of the condition of the    
peoples of ,africa4    #f4 ,the congress
 believes that the warlike prejudices   
and traditions  which are still fostered
 in the various nationalities1 and the  
misrepresentations by leaders of public 
opinion in legislative  assemblies or   
through the press1 are often indirect   
causes of war1  and that these evils    
should be counteracted by the           
publication of  accurate information    
tending to the removal of               
misunderstanding  between nations1 and  
recommends the importance of considering
 the  question of commencing an         
international newspaper with such a     
purpose4    #g4 ,the congress proposes  
to the ,inter-parliamentary ,conference 
that  the utmost support should be given
 to every project for unification  of   
weights and measures1 coinage1 tariff1  
postage1 and telegraphic  arrangements1 
etc41 which would assist in constituting
 a commercial1  industrial1 and         
scientific union of the peoples4    #h4 

,the congress1 in view of the vast      
social and moral influence  of woman1   
urges upon every woman to sustain the   
things that make  for peace1 as         
otherwise she incurs grave              
responsibility for the  continuance of  
the systems of militarism4    #i4 ,the  
congress expresses the hope that the    
,financial ,reform  ,association and    
other similar societies in ,europe and  
,america should  unite in considering   
means for establishing equitable        
commercial  relations between states1 by
 the reduction of import duties4 ,the   
congress feels that it can affirm that  
the whole of ,europe desires  peace1 and
 awaits with impatience the suppression 
of armaments1  which1 under the plea of 
defense1 become in their turn a danger  
by  keeping alive mutual distrust1 and  
are1 at the same time1 the cause  of    
that general economic disturbance which 
stands in the way of  settling in a     
satisfactory manner the problems of     
labor and poverty1  which ought to take 

precedence of all others4    #aj4 ,the  
congress1 recognizing that a general    
disarmament would be  the best guarantee
 of peace and would lead to the solution
 of the  questions which now most divide
 states1 expresses the wish that  a     
congress of representatives of all the  
states of ,europe may be  assembled as  
soon as possible to consider the means  
of effecting a  gradual general         
disarmament4    #aa4 ,the congress1 in  
consideration of the fact that the      
timidity of  a single power might delay 
the convocation of the above-mentioned  
congress1 is of opinion that the        
government which should first  dismiss  
any considerable number of soldiers     
would confer a signal  benefit on       
,europe and mankind1 because it would1  
by public opinion1  oblige other        
governments to follow its example1 and  
by the moral  force of this accomplished
 fact would have increased rather than  
diminished the conditions of its        
national defense4    #ab4 ,the congress1

 considering the question of            
disarmament1 as of  peace in general1   
depends on public opinion1 recommends   
the peace  societies1 as well as all    
friends of peace1 to be active in its   
propaganda1 especially at the time of   
parliamentary elections1 in  order that 
the electors should give their votes to 
candidates who are  pledged to support  
,peace1 ,disarmament1 and ,arbitration4 
#ac4 ,the congress congratulates the    
friends of peace on the  resolution     
adopted by the ,international ,american 
,conference1 held  at ,washington in    
,april last1 by which it was recommended
 that  arbitration should be obligatory 
in all controversies1 whatever their    
origin1 except only those which may     
imperil the independence of one  of the 
nations involved4    #ad4 ,the congress 
recommends this resolution to the       
attention of  ,european statesmen1 and  
expresses the ardent desire that similar
  treaties may speedily be entered into 
between the other nations of  the world4

    #ae4 ,the congress expresses its    
satisfaction at the adoption by the     
,spanish ,senate on ,june #af last of a 
project of law authorizing the          
government to negotiate general or      
special treaties of arbitration  for the
 settlement of all disputes except those
 relating to the  independence or       
internal government of the states       
affected2 also  at the adoption of      
resolutions to a like effect by the     
,norwegian  ,storthing and by the       
,italian ,chamber4    #af4 ,the congress
 resolves that a committee be appointed 
to address  communications to the       
principal political1 religious1         
commercial1  and labor and peace        
organizations1 requesting them to send  
petitions  to the governmental          
authorities praying that measures be    
taken  for the formation of suitable    
tribunals for the adjudicature of       
international questions so as to avoid  
the resort to war4    #ag4 ,seeing 7#a7 
that the object pursued by all peace    

societies is  the establishment of      
judicial order between nations1 and 7#b7
 that  neutralization by international  
treaties constitutes a step toward  this
 judicial state and lessens the number  
of districts in which war  can be       
carried on1 the congress recommends a   
larger extension of the  rule of        
neutralization1 and expresses the wish1 
7#a7 that all treaties  which at present
 assure to certain states the benefit of
 neutrality  remain in force1 or if     
necessary be amended in a manner to     
render the  neutrality more effective1  
either by extending neutralization to   
the  whole of the state or by ordering  
the demolition of fortresses1 which     
constitute rather a peril than a        
guarantee for neutrality2 7#b7 that  new
 treaties in harmony with the wishes of 
the populations concerned  be concluded 
for establishing the neutralization of  
other states4    #ah4 ,the sub-committee
 proposes1 7#a7 that the annual ,peace  
,congress  should be held either        

immediately before the meeting of the   
annual  ,sub-parliamentary ,conference1 
or immediately after it in the same     
town2 7#b7 that the question of an      
international peace emblem be  postponed
 sine die2 7#c7 that the following      
resolutions be adopted3    a4 ,to       
express satisfaction at the official    
overtures of the  ,presbyterian ,church 
in the ,united ,states addressed to the 
highest  representatives of each church 
organization in ,christendom to unite   
in a general conference to promote the  
substitution of international           
arbitration for war4    b4 ,to express  
in the name of the congress its profound
 reverence  for the memory of ,aurelio  
,saffi1 the great ,italian jurist1 a    
member  of the committee of the         
,international ,league of ,peace and    
,liberty4    7#d7 ,that the memorial    
adopted by this congress and signed by  
the  president to the heads of the      
civilized states should1 as far as      
practicable1 be presented to each power 

by influential deputations4    7#e7     
,that the following resolutions be      
adopted3    a4 ,a resolution of thanks  
to the presidents of the various        
sittings of the congress4    b4 ,a      
resolution of thanks to the chairman1   
the secretaries1 and  the members of the
 bureau of the congress4    c4 ,a       
resolution of thanks to the conveners   
and members of the  sectional           
committees4    d4 ,a resolution of      
thanks to ,rev4 ,canon ,scott ,holland1 
,rev4 ,dr4  ,reuen ,thomas1 and ,rev4   
,j4 ,morgan ,gibbon for their pulpit    
addresses  before the congress1 and also
 to the authorities of ,st4 ,paul's     
,cathedral1 the ,city ,temple1 and      
,stamford ,hill ,congregational ,church 
for the use of those buildings for      
public services4    e4 ,a letter of     
thanks to her ,majesty for permission to
 visit  ,windsor ,castle4    f4 ,and    
also a resolution of thanks to the ,lord
 ,mayor and ,lady  ,mayoress1 to ,mr4   
,passmore ,edwards1 and other friends   

who have  extended their hospitality to 
the members of the congress4    #ai4    
,the congress places on record a        
heartfelt expression of  gratitude to   
,almighty ,god for the remarkable       
harmony and concord  which have         
characterized the meetings of the       
assembly1 in which so  many men and     
women of varied nations1 creeds1        
tongues1 and races  have gathered in    
closest co-operation1 and for the       
conclusion of the  labors of the        
congress2 and expresses its firm and    
unshaken belief  in the ultimate triumph
 of the cause of peace and of the       
principles  advocated at these meetings4
    ,the fundamental idea of the        
congress is the necessity 7#a7 of       
diffusing among all people by all means 
the conviction of the  disadvantages of 
war and the great blessing of peace1 and
 7#b7 of  rousing governments to the    
sense of the superiority of             
international  arbitration over war and 
of the consequent advisability and      

necessity of disarmament4 ,to attain the
 first aim the congress  has recourse to
 teachers of history1 to women1 and to  
the clergy1  with the advice to the     
latter to preach on the evil of war and 
the  blessing of peace every third      
,sunday in ,december4 ,to attain the    
second object the congress appeals to   
governments with the suggestion  that   
they should disband their armies and    
replace war by arbitration4    ,to      
preach to men of the evil of war and the
 blessing of peace6 ,but  the blessing  
of peace is so well known to men that1  
ever since there  have been men at all1 
their best wish has been expressed in   
the  greeting1 ,peace be with you4 ,so  
why preach about it8    ,not only       
,christians1 but pagans1 thousands of   
years ago1 all  recognized the evil of  
war and the blessing of peace4 ,so that 
the  recommendation to ministers of the 
,gospel to preach on the evil of  war   
and the blessing of peace every third   
,sunday in ,december is quite           

superfluous4    ,the ,christian cannot  
but preach on that subject every day of 
his  life4 ,if ,christians and preachers
 of ,christianity do not do so1  there  
must be reasons for it4 ,and until these
 have been removed no  recommendations  
will be effective4 ,still less effective
 will be the  recommendations to        
governments to disband their armies and 
replace  them by international boards of
 arbitration4 ,governments1 too1 know   
very well the difficulty and the        
burdensomeness of raising and           
maintaining forces1 and if in spite of  
that knowledge they do1 at the  cost of 
terrible strain and effort1 raise and   
maintain forces1 it is  evident that    
they cannot do otherwise1 and the       
recommendation of the  congress can     
never change it4 ,but the learned       
gentlemen are unwilling  to see that1   
and keep hoping to find a political     
combination1 through  which governments 
shall be induced to limit their powers  
themselves4    ,can we get rid of war8  

asks a learned writer in the ,revue des 
,revues4 ,all are agreed that if it were
 to break out in ,europe1 its           
consequences would be like those of the 
great inroads of barbarians4  ,the      
existence of whole nationalities would  
be at stake1 and therefore  the war     
would be desperate1 bloody1 atrocious4  
,this consideration1 together with the  
terrible engines of  destruction        
invented by modern science1 retards the 
moment of  declaring war1 and maintains 
the present temporary situation1 which  
might continue for an indefinite period1
 except for the fearful cost  of        
maintaining armaments which are         
exhausting the ,european states and     
threatening to reduce nations to a state
 of misery hardly less than  that of war
 itself4    ,struck by this reflection1 
men of various countries have tried to  
find means for preventing1 or at least  
for softening1 the results of  the      
terrible slaughter with which we are    
threatened4    ,such are the questions  

brought forward by the ,peace ,congress 
shortly  to be held in ,rome1 and the   
publication of a pamphlet1 ',sur le     
,dsarmement'4    ,it is unhappily beyond
 doubt that with the present            
organization of  the majority of        
,european states1 isolated from one     
another and guided  by distinct         
interests1 the absolute suppression of  
war is an illusion  with which it would 
be dangerous to cheat ourselves4 ,wiser 
rules and  regulations imposed on these 
duels between nations might1 however1 at
  least limit its horrors4    ,it is    
equally chimerical to reckon on projects
 of disarmament1 the  execution of which
 is rendered almost impossible by       
considerations  of a popular character  
present to the mind of all our readers4 
,this  probably means that ,france      
cannot disband its army before taking   
its revenge4 ,public opinion is not     
prepared to accept them1 and  moreover1 
the international relations between     
different peoples are  not such as to   

make their acceptance possible4         
,disarmament imposed  on one nation by  
another in circumstances threatening its
 security  would be equivalent to a     
declaration of war4    ,however1 one may
 admit that an exchange of ideas between
 the nations  interested could aid1 to a
 certain degree1 in bringing about the  
good  understanding indispensable to any
 negotiations1 and would render         
possible a considerable reduction of the
 military expenditure which  is crushing
 the nations of ,europe and greatly     
hindering the solution  of the social   
question1 which each individually must  
solve on pain of  having internal war as
 the price for escaping it externally4  
,we might at least demand the reduction 
of the enormous expenses  of war        
organized as it is at present with a    
view to the power of  invasion within   
twenty-four hours and a decisive battle 
within a week  of the declaration of    
war4    ,we ought to manage so that     
states could not make the attack        

suddenly  and invade each other's       
territories within twenty-four hours4   
,this practical notion has been put     
forth by ,maxime du ,camp1 and his      
article concludes with it4    ,the      
propositions of ,m4 du ,camp are as     
follows3    #a4 ,a diplomatic congress  
to be held every year4    #b4 ,no war to
 be declared till two months after the  
incident which  provoked it4 7,the      
difficulty here would be to decide      
precisely what  incident did provoke the
 war1 since whenever war is declared    
there  are very many such incidents1 and
 one would have to decide from which  to
 reckon the two months' interval47      
#c4 ,no war to be declared before it has
 been submitted to a  plebiscitum of the
 nations preparing to take part in it4  
#d4 ,no hostilities to be commenced till
 a month after the official  declaration
 of war4    ,no war to be declared4 ,no 
hostilities to be commenced1 etc4 ,but  
who  is to arrange that no war is to be 
declared8 ,who is to compel people  to  

do this and that8 ,who is to force      
states to delay their operations  for a 
certain fixed time8 ,all the other      
states4 ,but all these others  are also 
states which want holding in check and  
keeping within  limits1 and forcing1    
too4 ,who is to force them1 and how8    
,public  opinion4 ,but if there is a    
public opinion which can force          
governments  to delay their operations  
for a fixed period1 the same public     
opinion  can force governments not to   
declare war at all4    ,but1 it will be 
replied1 there may be such a balance of 
power1 such  a pondration de forces1 as 
would lead states to hold back of  their
 own accord4 ,well1 that has been tried 
and is being tried even  now4 ,the ,holy
 ,alliance was nothing but that1 the    
,league of ,peace was  another attempt  
at the same thing1 and so on4    ,but1  
it will be answered1 suppose all were   
agreed4 ,if all were agreed  there would
 be no more war certainly1 and no need  
for arbitration  either4    ,a court of 

arbitration6 ,arbitration shall replace 
war4 ,questions  shall be decided by a  
court of arbitration4 ,the ,alabama     
question was  decided by a court of     
arbitration1 and the question of the    
,caroline  ,islands was submitted to the
 decision of the ,pope4 ,switzerland1   
,belgium1 ,denmark1 and ,holland have   
all declared that they prefer           
arbitration to war4    ,i dare say      
,monaco has expressed the same          
preference4 ,the only  unfortunate thing
 is that ,germany1 ,russia1 ,austria1   
and ,france have  not so far shown the  
same inclination4 ,it is amazing how men
 can  deceive themselves when they find 
it necessary6 ,governments consent  to  
decide their disagreements by           
arbitration and to disband their        
armies6 ,the differences between ,russia
 and ,poland1 between ,england  and     
,ireland1 between ,austria and ,bohemia1
 between ,turkey and the  ,slavonic     
states1 between ,france and ,germany1 to
 be soothed away by  amiable            

conciliation6    ,one might as well     
suggest to merchants and bankers that   
they should  sell nothing for a greater 
price than they gave for it1 should     
undertake the distribution of wealth for
 no profit1 and should  abolish money1  
as it would thus be rendered            
unnecessary4    ,but since commercial   
and banking operations consist in       
nothing but  selling for more than the  
cost price1 this would be equivalent to 
an invitation to suppress themselves4   
,it is the same in regard to            
governments4 ,to suggest to governments 
that they should not have  recourse to  
violence1 but should decide their       
misunderstandings in  accordance with   
equity1 is inviting them to abolish     
themselves as  rulers1 and that no      
government can ever consent to do4      
,the learned men form societies 7there  
are more than a hundred such            
societies71 assemble in congresses 7such
 as those recently held in  ,london and 
,paris1 and shortly to be held in       

,rome71 deliver addresses1  eat public  
dinners and make speeches1 publish      
journals1 and prove by  every means     
possible that the nations forced to     
support millions of  troops are strained
 to the furthest limits of their        
endurance1 that  the maintenance of     
these huge armed forces is in opposition
 to all  the aims1 the interests1 and   
the wishes of the people1 and that it is
  possible1 moreover1 by writing        
numerous papers1 and uttering a great   
many words1 to bring all men into       
agreement and to arrange so that  they  
shall have no antagonistic interests1   
and then there will be no  more war4    
,when ,i was a little boy they told me  
if ,i wanted to catch a bird ,i  must   
put salt on its tail4 ,i ran after the  
birds with the salt in  my hand1 but ,i 
soon convinced myself that if ,i could  
put salt on a  bird's tail1 ,i could    
catch it1 and realized that ,i had been 
hoaxed4    ,people ought to realize the 
same fact when they read books and      

articles on arbitration and disarmament4
    ,if one could put salt on a bird's  
tail1 it would be because it could  not 
fly and there would be no difficulty in 
catching it4 ,if the bird  had wings and
 did not want to be caught1 it would not
 let one put  salt on its tail1 because 
the specialty of a bird is to fly4 ,in  
precisely the same way the specialty of 
government is not to obey1  but to      
enforce obedience4 ,and a government is 
only a government so  long as it can    
make itself obeyed1 and therefore it    
always strives  for that and will never 
willingly abandon its power4 ,but since 
it is  on the army that the power of    
government rests1 it will never give up 
the army1 and the use of the army in    
war4    ,the error arises from the      
learned jurists deceiving themselves    
and others1 by asserting that government
 is not what it really  is1 one set of  
men banded together to oppress another  
set of men1  but1 as shown by science1  
is the representation of the citizens in

  their collective capacity4 ,they have 
so long been persuading other  people of
 this that at last they have persuaded  
themselves of it2  and thus they often  
seriously suppose that government can be
 bound  by considerations of justice4   
,but history shows that from ,csar  to  
,napoleon1 and from ,napoleon to        
,bismarck1 government is in its  essence
 always a force acting in violation of  
justice1 and that it  cannot be         
otherwise4 ,justice can have no binding 
force on a ruler  or rulers who keep    
men1 deluded and drilled in readiness   
for acts  of violence--soldiers1 and by 
means of them control others4 ,and so   
governments can never be brought to     
consent to diminish the number of  these
 drilled slaves1 who constitute their   
whole power and importance4    ,such is 
the attitude of certain learned men to  
the contradiction  under which our      
society is being crushed1 and such are  
their methods  of solving it4 ,tell     
these people that the whole matter rests

 on the  personal attitude of each man  
to the moral and religious question  put
 nowadays to everyone1 the question1    
that is1 whether it is  lawful or       
unlawful for him to take his share of   
military service1  and these learned    
gentlemen will shrug their shoulders and
 not  condescend to listen or to answer 
you4 ,the solution of the question  in  
their idea is to be found in reading    
addresses1 writing books1  electing     
presidents1 vice-presidents1 and        
secretaries1 and meeting  and speaking  
first in one town and then in another4  
,from all this  speechifying and writing
 it will come to pass1 according to     
their  notions1 that governments will   
cease to levy the soldiers1 on whom     
their whole strength depends1 will      
listen to their discourses1  and will   
disband their forces1 leaving themselves
 without any  defense1 not only against 
their neighbors1 but also against their 
own subjects4 ,as though a band of      
brigands1 who have some unarmed         

travelers bound and ready to be         
plundered1 should be so touched by      
their complaints of the pain caused by  
the cords they are fastened  with as to 
let them go again4    ,still there are  
people who believe in this1 busy        
themselves over  peace congresses1 read 
addresses1 and write books4 ,and        
governments1  we may be quite sure1     
express their sympathy and make a show  
of  encouraging them4 ,in the same way  
they pretend to support temperance      
societies1 while they are living        
principally on the drunkenness of  the  
people2 and pretend to encourage        
education1 when their whole  strength is
 based on ignorance2 and to support     
constitutional  freedom1 when their     
strength rests on the absence of        
freedom2 and  to be anxious for the     
improvement of the condition of the     
working  classes1 when their very       
existence depends on their oppression2  
and  to support ,christianity1 when     
,christianity destroys all government4  

,to be able to do this they have long   
ago elaborated methods  encouraging     
temperance1 which cannot suppress       
drunkenness2 methods of  supporting     
education1 which not only fail to       
prevent ignorance1 but  even increase   
it2 methods of aiming at freedom and    
constitutionalism1  which are no        
hindrance to despotism2 methods of      
protecting the  working classes1 which  
will not free them from slavery2 and a  
,christianity1 too1 they have           
elaborated1 which does not destroy1 but 
supports governments4    ,now there is  
something more for the government to    
encourage--peace4  ,the sovereigns1 who 
nowadays take counsel with their        
ministers1  decide by their will alone  
whether the butchery of millions is to  
be begun this year or next4 ,they know  
very well that all these  discourses    
upon peace will not hinder them from    
sending millions of  men to butchery    
when it seems good to them4 ,they listen
 even with  satisfaction to these       

discourses1 encourage them1 and take    
part in  them4    ,all this1 far from   
being detrimental1 is even of service to
  governments1 by turning people's      
attention from the most important  and  
pressing question3 ,ought or ought not  
each man called upon for  military      
service to submit to serve in the army8 
,peace will soon be arranged1 thanks to 
alliances and congresses1  to books and 
pamphlets2 meantime go and put on your  
uniform1 and  prepare to cause suffering
 and to endure it for our benefit1 is   
the  government's line of argument4 ,and
 the learned gentlemen who get up       
congresses and write articles are in    
perfect agreement with it4    ,this is  
the attitude of one set of thinkers4    
,and since it is that  most beneficial  
to governments1 it is also the most     
encouraged by all  intelligent          
governments4    ,another attitude to war
 has something tragical in it4 ,there   
are men  who maintain that the love for 
peace and the inevitability of war  form

 a hideous contradiction1 and that such 
is the fate of man4 ,these  are mostly  
gifted and sensitive men1 who see and   
realize all the  horror and imbecility  
and cruelty of war1 but through some    
strange  perversion of mind neither see 
nor seek to find any way out of this    
position1 and seem to take pleasure in  
teasing the wound by dwelling  on the   
desperate position of humanity4 ,a      
notable example of such an  attitude to 
war is to be found in the celebrated    
,french writer ,guy de  ,maupassant4    
,looking from his yacht at the drill and
 firing practice  of the ,french        
soldiers the following reflections occur
 to him3    ,when ,i think only of this 
word war1 a kind of terror seizes upon  
me1 as though ,i were listening to some 
tale of sorcery1 of the  ,inquisition1  
some long past1 remote abomination1     
monstrous1 unnatural4    ,when          
cannibalism is spoken of1 we smile with 
pride1 proclaiming  our superiority to  
these savages4 ,which are the savages1  

the real  savages8 ,those who fight to  
eat the conquered1 or those who fight to
  kill1 for nothing but to kill8    ,the
 young recruits1 moving about in lines  
yonder1 are destined to  death like the 
flocks of sheep driven by the butcher   
along the road4  ,they will fall in some
 plain with a saber cut in the head1 or 
a  bullet through the breast4 ,and these
 are young men who might work1 be       
productive and useful4 ,their fathers   
are old and poor4 ,their mothers1  who  
have loved them for twenty years1       
worshiped them as none but  mothers can1
 will learn in six months' time1 or a   
year perhaps1 that  their son1 their    
boy1 the big boy reared with so much    
labor1 so much  expense1 so much love1  
has been thrown in a hole like some dead
 dog1  after being disemboweled by a    
bullet1 and trampled1 crushed1 to a     
mass of pulp by the charges of cavalry4 
,why have they killed her boy1  her     
handsome boy1 her one hope1 her pride1  
her life8 ,she does not  know4 ,ah1 why8

    ,war6 fighting6 slaughter6 massacres
 of men6 ,and we have now1 in our       
century1 with our civilization1 with the
 spread of science1 and the  degree of  
philosophy which the genius of man is   
supposed to have  attained1 schools for 
training to kill1 to kill very far off1 
to  perfection1 great numbers at once1  
to kill poor devils of innocent  men    
with families and without any kind of   
trial4    ,and what is most bewildering 
is that the people do not rise against  
their governments4 ,for what difference 
is there between monarchies  and        
republics8 ,the most bewildering thing  
is that the whole of  society is not in 
revolt at the word war4    ,ah6 we shall
 always live under the burden of the    
ancient and  odious customs1 the        
criminal prejudices1 the ferocious ideas
 of our  barbarous ancestors1 for we are
 beasts1 and beasts we shall remain1    
dominated by instinct and changed by    
nothing4 ,would not any other man  than 
,victor ,hugo have been exiled for that 

mighty cry of deliverance  and truth8   
',to-day force is called violence1 and  
is being brought to  judgment2 war has  
been put on its trial4 ,at the plea of  
the human  race1 civilization arraigns  
warfare1 and draws up the great list of 
crimes laid at the charge of conquerors 
and generals4 ,the nations  are coming  
to understand that the magnitude of a   
crime cannot be  its extenuation2 that  
if killing is a crime1 killing many can 
be no  extenuating circumstance2 that if
 robbery is disgraceful1 invasion       
cannot be glorious4 ,ah6 let us proclaim
 these absolute truths2 let us  dishonor
 war6'    ,vain wrath1 continues        
,maupassant1 a poet's indignation4 ,war 
is  held in more veneration than ever4  
,a skilled proficient in that line1 a   
slaughterer of genius1 ,von  ,moltke1 in
 reply to the peace delegates1 once     
uttered these strange  words3    ',war  
is holy1 war is ordained of ,god4 ,it is
 one of the most sacred  laws of the    
world4 ,it maintains among men all the  

great and noble  sentiments--honor1     
devotion1 virtue1 and courage1 and saves
 them in  short from falling into the   
most hideous materialism4'    ,so1 then1
 bringing millions of men together into 
herds1 marching by  day and by night    
without rest1 thinking of nothing1      
studying nothing1  learning nothing1    
reading nothing1 being useful to no one1
 wallowing  in filth1 sleeping in mud1  
living like brutes in a continual state 
of stupefaction1 sacking towns1 burning 
villages1 ruining whole  populations1   
then meeting another mass of human      
flesh1 falling upon  them1 making pools 
of blood1 and plains of flesh mixed with
 trodden  mire and red with heaps of    
corpses1 having your arms or legs       
carried  off1 your brains blown out for 
no advantage to anyone1 and dying in    
some corner of a field while your old   
parents1 your wife and children  are    
perishing of hunger--that is what is    
meant by not falling into  the most     
hideous materialism6    ,warriors are   

the scourge of the world4 ,we struggle  
against nature  and ignorance and       
obstacles of all kinds to make our      
wretched life  less hard4 ,learned      
men--benefactors of all--spend their    
lives in  working1 in seeking what can  
aid1 what be of use1 what can alleviate 
the lot of their fellows4 ,they devote  
themselves unsparingly to their  task of
 usefulness1 making one discovery after 
another1 enlarging the  sphere of human 
intelligence1 extending the bounds of   
science1 adding  each day some new store
 to the sum of knowledge1 gaining each  
day  prosperity1 ease1 strength for     
their country4    ,war breaks out4 ,in  
six months the generals have destroyed  
the work  of twenty years of effort1 of 
patience1 and of genius4    ,that is    
what is meant by not falling into the   
most hideous  materialism4    ,we have  
seen it1 war4 ,we have seen men turned  
to brutes1 frenzied1  killing for fun1  
for terror1 for bravado1 for            
ostentation4 ,then  when right is no    

more1 law is dead1 every notion of      
justice has  disappeared4 ,we have seen 
men shoot innocent creatures found on   
the  road1 and suspected because they   
were afraid4 ,we have seen them kill    
dogs chained at their masters' doors to 
try their new revolvers4 ,we  have seen 
them fire on cows lying in a field for  
no reason whatever1  simply for the sake
 of shooting1 for a joke4    ,that is   
what is meant by not falling into the   
most hideous  materialism4    ,going    
into a country1 cutting the man's throat
 who defends his house  because he wears
 a blouse and has not a military cap on 
his head1  burning the dwellings of     
wretched beings who have nothing to eat1
  breaking furniture and stealing goods1
 drinking the wine found in  the        
cellars1 violating the women in the     
streets1 burning thousands  of francs'  
worth of powder1 and leaving misery and 
cholera in one's  track--    ,that is   
what is meant by not falling into the   
most hideous  materialism4    ,what have

 they done1 those warriors1 that proves 
the least  intelligence8 ,nothing4 ,what
 have they invented8 ,cannons and       
muskets4  ,that is all4    ,what remains
 to us from ,greece8 ,books and statues4
 ,is ,greece great  from her conquests  
or her creations8    ,was it the        
invasions of the ,persians which saved  
,greece from falling  into the most     
hideous materialism8    ,were the       
invasions of the barbarians what saved  
and regenerated ,rome8    ,was it       
,napoleon ,i4 who carried forward the   
great intellectual  movement started by 
the philosophers of the end of last     
century8    ,yes1 indeed1 since         
government assumes the right of         
annihilating  peoples thus1 there is    
nothing surprising in the fact that the 
peoples assume the right of annihilating
 governments4    ,they defend           
themselves4 ,they are right4 ,no one has
 an absolute right  to govern others4   
,it ought only to be done for the       
benefit of those  who are governed4 ,and

 it is as much the duty of anyone who   
governs to  avoid war as it is the duty 
of a captain of a ship to avoid         
shipwreck4    ,when a captain has let   
his ship come to ruin1 he is judged and 
condemned1 if he is found guilty of     
negligence or even incapacity4    ,why  
should not the government be put on its 
trial after every  declaration of war8  
,if the people understood that1 if they 
themselves passed judgment on murderous 
governments1 if they refused  to let    
themselves be killed for nothing1 if    
they would only turn  their arms against
 those who have given them to them for  
massacre1 on  that day war would be no  
more4 ,but that day will never come4#aj 
#aj ,sur l',eau1 pp4 #ga-hj4    ,the    
author sees all the horror of war4 ,he  
sees that it is caused by  governments  
forcing men by deception to go out to   
slaughter and be  slain without any     
advantage to themselves4 ,and he sees1  
too1 that  the men who make up the      
armies could turn their arms against the

  governments and bring them to         
judgment4 ,but he thinks that that  will
 never come to pass1 and that there is1 
therefore1 no escape  from the present  
position4 ,i think war is terrible1 but 
that it is  inevitable2 that compulsory 
military service is as inevitable as    
death1 and that since government will   
always desire it1 war will  always      
exist4    ,so writes this talented and  
sincere writer1 who is endowed with that
  power of penetrating to the innermost 
core of the subjects which  is the      
essence of the poetic faculty4 ,he      
brings before us all the  cruelty of the
 inconsistency between men's moral sense
 and their  actions1 but without trying 
to remove it2 seems to admit that this  
inconsistency must exist and that it is 
the poetic tragedy of life4    ,another 
no less gifted writer1 ,edouard ,rod1   
paints in still more  vivid colors the  
cruelty and madness of the present state
 of  things4 ,he too only aims at       
presenting its tragic features1 without 

suggesting or forseeing any issue from  
the position4    ,what is the good of   
doing anything8 ,what is the good of    
undertaking  any enterprise8 ,and how   
are we to love men in these troubled    
times  when every fresh day is a menace 
of danger8444 ,all we have begun1 the   
plans we are developing1 our schemes of 
work1 the little good we may  have been 
able to do1 will it not all be swept    
away by the tempest  that is in         
preparation8444 ,every where the earth  
is shaking under  our feet and          
storm-clouds are gathering on our       
horizon which will  have no pity on us4 
,ah6 if all we had to dread were the    
revolution which is held up  as a       
specter to terrify us6 ,since ,i cannot 
imagine a society more  detestable than 
ours1 ,i feel more skeptical than       
alarmed in regard  to that which will   
replace it4 ,if ,i should have to suffer
 from the  change1 ,i should be consoled
 by thinking that the executioners of   
that day were the victims of the        

previous time1 and the hope of          
something better would help us to endure
 the worst4 ,but it is not  that remote 
peril which frightens me4 ,i see another
 danger1 nearer  and far more cruel2    
more cruel because there is no excuse   
for it1  because it is absurd1 because  
it can lead to no good4 ,every day one  
balances the chances of war on the      
morrow1 every day they become more      
merciless4    ,the imagination revolts  
before the catastrophe which is coming  
at the end of our century as the goal of
 the progress of our era1  and yet we   
must get used to facing it4 ,for twenty 
years past every  resource of science   
has been exhausted in the invention of  
engines  of destruction1 and soon a few 
charges of cannon will suffice to       
annihilate a whole army4 ,no longer a   
few thousands of poor devils1  who were 
paid a price for their blood1 are kept  
under arms1 but whole  nations are under
 arms to cut each other's throats4 ,they
 are robbed  of their time now 7by      

compulsory service7 that they may be    
robbed  of their lives later4 ,to       
prepare them for the work of massacre1  
their hatred is kindled by persuading   
them that they are hated4 ,and          
peaceable men let themselves be played  
on thus and go and fall on one  another 
with the ferocity of wild beasts2       
furious troops of peaceful  citizens    
taking up arms at an empty word of      
command1 for some  ridiculous question  
of frontiers or colonial trade          
interests--,heaven  only knows what4444 
,they will go like sheep to the         
slaughter1 knowing  all the while where 
they are going1 knowing that they are   
leaving  their wives1 knowing that their
 children will want for food1 full  of  
misgivings1 yet intoxicated by the      
fine-sounding lies that are  dinned into
 their ears4 ,they will march without   
revolt1 passive1  resigned--though the  
numbers and the strength are theirs1 and
 they  might1 if they knew how to       
co-operate together1 establish the reign

  of good sense and fraternity1 instead 
of the barbarous trickery of  diplomacy4
 ,they will march to battle so deluded1 
so duped1 that they  will believe       
slaughter to be a duty1 and will ask the
 benediction  of ,god on their lust for 
blood4 ,they will march to battle       
trampling  underfoot the harvests they  
have sown1 burning the towns they have  
built--with songs of triumph1 festive   
music1 and cries of jubilation4  ,and   
their sons will raise statues to those  
who have done most in  their slaughter4 
,the destiny of a whole generation      
depends on the hour in which some       
ill-fated politician may give the signal
 that will be followed4  ,we know that  
the best of us will be cut down and our 
work will be  destroyed in embryo4 ,we  
know it and tremble with rage1 but we   
can  do nothing4 ,we are held fast in   
the toils of officialdom and red  tape1 
and too rude a shock would be needed to 
set us free4 ,we are  enslaved by the   
laws we set up for our protection1 which

 have become  our oppression4 ,we are   
but the tools of that autocratic        
abstraction  the state1 which enslaves  
each individual in the name of the will 
of  all1 who would all1 taken           
individually1 desire exactly the        
opposite  of what they will be made to  
do4    ,and if it were only a generation
 that must be sacrificed6 ,but there    
are graver interests at stake4    ,the  
paid politicians1 the ambitious         
statesmen1 who exploit the  evil        
passions of the populace1 and the       
imbeciles who are deluded by            
fine-sounding phrases1 have so          
embittered national feuds that the      
existence of a whole race will be at    
stake in the war of the morrow4  ,one of
 the elements that constitute the modern
 world is threatened1  the conquered    
people will be wiped out of existence1  
and whichever  it may be1 we shall see a
 moral force annihilated1 as if there   
were  too many forces to work for       
good--we shall have a new ,europe formed

  on foundations so unjust1 so brutal1  
so sanguinary1 stained with so          
monstrous a crime1 that it cannot but be
 worse than the ,europe of  to-day--more
 iniquitous1 more barbarous1 more       
violent4    ,thus one feels crushed     
under the weight of an immense          
discouragement4 ,we are struggling in a 
cul de sac with muskets  aimed at us    
from the housetops4 ,our labor is like  
that of sailors  executing their last   
task as the ship begins to sink4 ,our   
pleasures  are those of the condemned   
victim1 who is offered his choice  of   
dainties a quarter of an hour before his
 execution4 ,thought  is paralyzed by   
anguish1 and the most it is capable of  
is to  calculate--interpreting the vague
 phrases of ministers1 spelling out  the
 sense of the speeches of sovereigns1   
and ruminating on the words  attributed 
to diplomatists reported on the         
uncertain authority of the              
newspapers--whether it is to be         
to-morrow or the day after1 this year   

or the next1 that we are to be murdered4
 ,so that one might seek in  vain in    
history an epoch more insecure1 more    
crushed under the weight  of            
suffering4#aa      #aa ,le ,sens de la  
,vie1 pp4 #bjh-ac4    ,here it is       
pointed out that the force is in the    
hands of those who  work their own      
destruction1 in the hands of the        
individual men who  make up the masses2 
it is pointed out that the source of the
 evil is  the government4 ,it would seem
 evident that the contradiction between 
life and conscience had reached the     
limit beyond which it cannot go1  and   
after reaching this limit some solution 
of it must be found4    ,but the author 
does not think so4 ,he sees in this the 
tragedy of  human life1 and after       
depicting all the horror of the position
 he  concludes that human life must be  
spent in the midst of this horror4      
,so much for the attitude to war of     
those who regard it as something  tragic
 and fated by destiny4    ,the third    

category consists of men who have lost  
all conscience and1  consequently1 all  
common sense and feeling of humanity4   
,to this category belongs ,moltke1 whose
 opinion has been quoted above  by      
,maupassant1 and the majority of        
military men1 who have been  educated in
 this cruel superstition1 live by it1   
and consequently are  often in all      
simplicity convinced that war is not    
only an inevitable1  but even a         
necessary and beneficial thing4 ,this is
 also the view of  some civilians1      
so-called educated and cultivated       
people4    ,here is what the celebrated 
academician ,camille ,doucet writes in  
reply to the editor of the ,revue des   
,revues1 where several letters  on war  
were published together3         ,,dear 
,,sir3 ,when you ask the least warlike  
of academicians       whether he is a   
partisan of war1 his answer is known    
beforehand4         ,alas6 sir1 you     
yourself speak of the pacific ideal     
inspiring       your generous           

compatriots as a dream4         ,during 
my life ,i have heard a great many good 
people protest       against this       
frightful custom of international       
butchery1 which       all admit and     
deplore2 but how is it to be remedied8  
,often1 too1 there have been attempts to
 suppress dueling2 one       would fancy
 that seemed an easy task3 but not at   
all6 ,all that       has been done      
hitherto with that noble object has     
never been and       never will be of   
use4         ,all the congresses of both
 hemispheres may vote against       war1
 and against dueling too1 but above all 
arbitrations1       conventions1 and    
legislations there will always be the   
personal       honor of individual men1 
which has always demanded dueling1 and  
the interests of nations1 which will    
always demand war4         ,i wish none 
the less from the depths of my heart    
that the       ,congress of ,universal  
,peace may succeed at last in its very  
honorable and difficult enterprise4     

,i am1 dear sir1 etc41                  
,,camille ,,doucet4    ,the upshot of   
this is that personal honor requires men
 to fight1 and  the interests of nations
 require them to ruin and exterminate   
each  other4 ,as for the efforts to     
abolish war1 they call for nothing but a
  smile4    ,the opinion of another     
well-known academician1 ,jules          
,claretie1 is of  the same kind4        
,,dear ,,sir he writes3 ,for a man of   
sense there can be but one       opinion
 on the subject of peace and war4       
,humanity is created to live1 to live   
free1 to perfect and       ameliorate   
its fate by peaceful labor4 ,the general
 harmony       preached by the          
,universal ,peace ,congress is but a    
dream perhaps1       but at least it is 
the fairest of all dreams4 ,man is      
always       looking toward the         
,promised ,land1 and there the harvests 
are to       ripen with no fear of their
 being torn up by shells or crushed     
by cannon wheels4444 ,but6 ,ah6         

but--since philosophers and             
philanthropists are not the controlling 
powers1 it is well for       our        
soldiers to guard our frontier and      
homes1 and their arms1       skillfully 
used1 are perhaps the surest guarantee  
of the peace       we all love4         
,peace is a gift only granted to the    
strong and the resolute4                
,i am1 dear sir1 etc41                  
,,jules ,,claretie4    ,the upshot of   
this letter is that there is no harm in 
talking about  what no one intends or   
feels obliged to do4 ,but when it comes 
to  practice1 we must fight4    ,and    
here now is the view lately expressed by
 the most popular  novelist in ,europe1 
mile ,zola3    ,i regard war as a fatal 
necessity1 which appears inevitable for 
us from its close connection with human 
nature and the whole  constitution of   
the world4 ,i should wish that war could
 be put  off for the longest possible   
time4 ,nevertheless1 the moment will    
come when we shall be forced to go to   

war4 ,i am considering it at  this      
moment from the standpoint of universal 
humanity1 and making  no reference to   
our misunderstanding with ,germany--a   
most trivial  incident in the history of
 mankind4 ,i say that war is necessary  
and  beneficial1 since it seems one of  
the conditions of existence for         
humanity4 ,war confronts us everywhere1 
not only war between different  races   
and peoples1 but war too1 in private and
 family life4 ,it seems  one of the     
principal elements of progress1 and     
every step in advance  that humanity has
 taken hitherto has been attended by    
bloodshed4    ,men have talked1 and     
still talk1 of disarmament1 while       
disarmament  is something impossible1 to
 which1 even if it were possible1 we    
ought  not to consent4 ,i am convinced  
that a general disarmament throughout   
the world would involve something like a
 moral decadence1 which would  show     
itself in general feebleness1 and would 
hinder the progressive  advancement of  

humanity4 ,a warlike nation has always  
been strong and  flourishing4 ,the art  
of war has led to the development of all
 the  other arts4 ,history bears witness
 to it4 ,so in ,athens and in ,rome1    
commerce1 manufactures1 and literature  
never attained so high a point  of      
development as when those cities were   
masters of the whole world  by force of 
arms4 ,to take an example from times    
nearer our own1 we  may recall the age  
of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the wars of the ,grand
 ,monarque were  not only no hindrance  
to the progress of the arts and         
sciences1  but even1 on the contrary1   
seem to have promoted and favored their 
development4    ,so war is a beneficial 
thing6    ,but the best expression of   
this attitude is the view of the most   
gifted of the writers of this school1   
the academician de ,vog4  ,this is what 
he writes in an article on the ,military
 ,section of the  ,exhibition of #ahhi3 
,on the ,esplanade des ,invalides1 among
 the exotic and colonial  encampments1 a

 building in a more severe style        
overawes the  picturesque bazaar2 all   
these fragments of the globe have come  
to gather round the ,palace of ,war1 and
 in turn our guests mount  guard        
submissively before the mother building1
 but for whom they  would not be here4  
,fine subject for the antithesis of     
rhetoric1 of  humanitarians who could   
not fail to whimper over this           
juxtaposition1  and to say that 'ceci   
tuera cela1'#ab that the union of the   
nations through science and labor will  
overcome the instinct of war4  ,let us  
leave them to cherish the chimera of a  
golden age1 which  would soon become1 if
 it could be realized1 an age of mud4   
,all  history teaches us that the one is
 created for the other1 that blood  is  
needed to hasten and cement the union of
 the nations4 ,natural  science has     
ratified in our day the mysterious law  
revealed to ,joseph  de ,maistre by the 
intuition of his genius and by          
meditation on  fundamental truths2 he   

saw the world redeeming itself from     
hereditary  degenerations by sacrifice2 
science shows it advancing to perfection
  through struggle and violent          
selection2 there is the statement of    
the same law in both1 expressed in      
different formulas4 ,the statement  is  
disagreeable1 no doubt2 but the laws of 
the world are not made  for our         
pleasure1 they are made for our         
progress4 ,let us enter this            
inevitable1 necessary palace of war2 we 
shall be able to observe  there how the 
most tenacious of our instincts1 without
 losing any of  its vigor1 is           
transformed and adapted to the varying  
exigencies of  historical epochs4       
#ab ,phrase quoted from ,victor-,hugo1  
,notre-,dame de ,paris4    ,m4 de ,vog  
finds the necessity for war1 according  
to his views1 well  expressed by the two
 great writers1 ,joseph de ,maistre and 
,darwin1  whose statements he likes so  
much that he quotes them again4         
,,dear ,,sir he writes to the editor of 

the ,revue des ,revues3       ,you ask  
me my view as to the possible success of
 the ,universal       ,congress of      
,peace4 ,i hold with ,darwin that       
violent struggle       is a law of      
nature which overrules all other laws2  
,i hold       with ,joseph de ,maistre  
that it is a divine law2 two different  
ways of describing the same thing4 ,if  
by some impossible       chance a       
fraction of human society--all the      
civilized ,west1       let us           
suppose--were to succeed in suspending  
the action of       this law1 some races
 of stronger instincts would undertake  
the task of putting it into action      
against us3 those races       would     
vindicate nature's reasoning against    
human reason2 they       would be       
successful1 because the certainty of    
peace--,i do       not say peace1 ,i say
 the certainty of peace--would1 in      
half a century1 engender a corruption   
and a decadence more       destructive  
for mankind than the worst of wars4 ,i  

believe that       we must do with      
war--the criminal law of humanity--as   
with all       our criminal laws1 that  
is1 soften them1 put them in force as   
rarely as possible2 use every effort to 
make their application                  
unnecessary4 ,but all the experience of 
history teaches us that       they      
cannot be altogether suppressed so long 
as two men are left       on earth1 with
 bread1 money1 and a woman between them4
         ,i should be very happy if the 
,congress would prove me in error4      
,but ,i doubt if it can prove history1  
nature1 and ,god in error       also4   
,i am1 dear sir1 etc41                  
,e4 ,m4 ,,de ,,vog4    ,this amounts to 
saying that history1 human nature1 and  
,god show  us that so long as there are 
two men1 and bread1 money and a         
woman--there will be war4 ,that is to   
say that no progress will lead  men to  
rise above the savage conception of     
life1 which regards no  participation of
 bread1 money 7money is good in this    

context7 and  woman possible without    
fighting4    ,they are strange people1  
these men who assemble in ,congresses1  
and  make speeches to show us how to    
catch birds by putting salt on their    
tails1 though they must know it is      
impossible to do it4 ,and amazing  are  
they too1 who1 like ,maupassant1 ,rod1  
and many others1 see clearly  all the   
horror of war1 all the inconsistency of 
men not doing what  is needful1 right1  
and beneficial for them to do2 who      
lament over  the tragedy of life1 and do
 not see that the whole tragedy is at   
an end directly men1 ceasing to take    
account of any unnecessary              
considerations1 refuse to do what is    
hateful and disastrous to them4  ,they  
are amazing people truly1 but those who1
 like ,de ,vog and  others1 who1        
professing the doctrine of evolution1   
regard war as not  only inevitable1 but 
beneficial1 and therefore               
desirable--they are  terrible1 hideous1 
in their moral perversion4 ,the others1 

at least1  say that they hate evil1 and 
love good1 but these openly declare that
  good and evil do not exist4    ,all   
discussion of the possibility of        
re-establishing peace instead of        
everlasting war--is the pernicious      
sentimentality of phrasemongers4  ,there
 is a law of evolution by which it      
follows that ,i must live  and act in an
 evil way2 what is to be done8 ,i am an 
educated man1 ,i  know the law of       
evolution1 and therefore ,i will act in 
an evil way4  ,entrons au palais de la  
guerre4 ,there is the law of evolution1 
and therefore there is neither good nor 
evil1 and one must live for  the sake of
 one's personal existence1 leaving the  
rest to the action  of the law of       
evolution4 ,this is the last word of    
refined culture1  and with it1 of that  
overshadowing of conscience which has   
come upon  the educated classes of our  
times4 ,the desire of the educated      
classes  to support the ideas they      
prefer1 and the order of existence based

  on them1 has attained its furthest    
limits4 ,they lie1 and delude           
themselves1 and one another1 with the   
subtlest forms of deception1  simply to 
obscure1 to deaden conscience4          
,instead of transforming their life into
 harmony with their  conscience1 they   
try by every means to stifle its voice4 
,but it is in  darkness that the light  
begins to shine1 and so the light is    
rising  upon our epoch4                 
,,chapter ,,vii4         ,,significance 
,,of ,,compulsory ,,service4            
,universal ,compulsory ,service is not a
 ,political ,accident1 but       the    
,furthest ,limit of the ,contradiction  
,inherent in the ,social                
,conception of ,life--,origin of        
,authority in ,society--,basis of       
,authority is ,physical ,violence--,to  
be ,able to ,perform its       ,acts of 
,violence ,authority ,needs a ,special  
,organization--,the                     
,army--,authority1 that is1 ,violence1  
is the ,principle which       is        

,destroying the ,social ,conception of  
,life--,attitude of       ,authority to 
the ,masses1 that is1 ,attitude of      
,government to       ,working ,oppressed
 ,classes--,governments ,try to ,foster 
in ,working       ,classes the ,idea    
that ,state ,force is ,necessary to     
,defend ,them       from ,external      
,enemies--,but the ,army is ,principally
 ,needed       to ,preserve ,government 
from its own ,subjects--,the ,working   
,classes--,speech of ,m4 de             
,caprivi--,all ,privileges of ,ruling   
,classes ,based on ,violence--,the      
,increase of ,armies up to ,point       
of ,universal ,service--,universal      
,compulsory ,service ,destroys all      
the ,advantages of ,social ,life1 which 
,government is ,intended       to       
,preserve--,compulsory ,service is the  
,furthest ,limit of       ,submission1  
since in ,name of the ,state it         
,requires ,sacrifice of       all that  
can be ,precious to a ,man--,is         
,government ,necessary8--,the           

,sacrifices ,demanded by ,government in 
,compulsory ,service have ,no           
,longer any ,reasonable ,basis--,and    
there is ,more ,advantage to be         
,gained by not ,submitting to the       
,demands of the ,state than by          
,submitting to ,them4      ,educated    
people of the upper classes are trying  
to stifle the  ever-growing sense of the
 necessity of transforming the existing 
social order4 ,but life1 which goes on  
growing more complex1 and  developing in
 the same direction1 and increases the  
inconsistencies  and the sufferings of  
men1 brings them to the limit beyond    
which  they cannot go4 ,this furthest   
limit of inconsistency is universal     
compulsory military service4    ,it is  
usually supposed that universal military
 service and the  increased armaments   
connected with it1 as well as the       
resulting  increase of taxes and        
national debts1 are a passing           
phenomenon1  produced by the particular 
political situation of ,europe1 and that

  it may be removed by certain political
 combinations without any  modification 
of the inner order of life4    ,this is 
absolutely incorrect4 ,universal        
military service is only the  internal  
inconsistency inherent in the social    
conception of life1  carried to its     
furthest limits1 and becoming evident   
when a certain  stage of material       
development is reached4    ,the social  
conception of life1 we have seen1       
consists in the  transfer of the aim of 
life from the individual to groups and  
their  maintenance--to the tribe1       
family1 race1 or state4    ,in the      
social conception of life it is supposed
 that since the  aim of life is found in
 groups of individuals1 individuals will
  voluntarily sacrifice their own       
interests for the interests of  the     
group4 ,and so it has been1 and still   
is1 in fact1 in certain  groups1 the    
distinction being that they are the most
 primitive  forms of association in the 
family or tribe or race1 or even in the 

patriarchal state4 ,through tradition   
handed down by education and  supported 
by religious sentiment1 individuals     
without compulsion  merged their        
interests in the interest of the group  
and sacrificed  their own good for the  
general welfare4    ,but the more       
complex and the larger societies become1
 and especially  the more often conquest
 becomes the cause of the amalgamation  
of  people into a state1 the more often 
individuals strive to attain  their own 
aims at the public expense1 and the more
 often it becomes  necessary to restrain
 these insubordinate individuals by     
recourse  to authority1 that is1 to     
violence4 ,the champions of the social  
conception of life usually try to       
connect the idea of authority1  that is1
 of violence1 with the idea of moral    
influence1 but this  connection is quite
 impossible4    ,the effect of moral    
influence on a man is to change his     
desires and  to bend them in the        
direction of the duty required of him4  

,the man  who is controlled by moral    
influence acts in accordance with his   
own  desires4 ,authority1 in the sense  
in which the word is ordinarily         
understood1 is a means of forcing a man 
to act in opposition to  his desires4   
,the man who submits to authority does  
not do as he  chooses but as he is      
obliged by authority4 ,nothing can      
oblige a  man to do what he does not    
choose except physical force1 or the    
threat of it1 that is--deprivation of   
freedom1 blows1 imprisonment1  or       
threats--easily carried out--of such    
punishments4 ,this is what  authority   
consists of and always has consisted of4
    ,in spite of the unceasing efforts  
of those who happen to be in  authority 
to conceal this and attribute some other
 significance to  it1 authority has     
always meant for man the cord1 the chain
 with  which he is bound and fettered1  
or the knout with which he is to be     
flogged1 or the ax with which he is to  
have hands1 ears1 nose1 or  head cut    

off1 or at the very least1 the threat of
 these terrors4 ,so  it was under ,nero 
and ,ghenghis ,khan1 and so it is       
to-day1 even under  the most liberal    
government in the ,republics of the     
,united ,states  or of ,france4 ,if men 
submit to authority1 it is only because 
they  are liable to these punishments in
 case of non-submission4 ,all state     
obligations1 payment of taxes1          
fulfillment of state duties1 and        
submission to punishments1 exile1 fines1
 etc41 to which people appear  to submit
 voluntarily1 are always based on bodily
 violence or the  threat of it4    ,the 
basis of authority is bodily violence4  
,the possibility of  applying bodily    
violence to people is provided above all
 by an  organization of armed men1      
trained to act in unison in submission  
to  one will4 ,these bands of armed men1
 submissive to a single will1 are  what 
constitute the army4 ,the army has      
always been and still is the  basis of  
power4 ,power is always in the hands of 

those who control the  army1 and all men
 in power--from the ,roman ,csars to the
 ,russian and  ,german ,emperors--take  
more interest in their army than in     
anything1  and court popularity in the  
army1 knowing that if that is on their  
side their power is secure4    ,the     
formation and aggrandizement of the     
army1 indispensable to the  maintenance 
of authority1 is what has introduced    
into the social  conception of life the 
principle that is destroying it4    ,the
 object of authority and the            
justification for its existence  lie in 
the restraint of those who aim at       
attaining their personal  interests to  
the detriment of the interests of       
society4    ,but however power has been 
gained1 those who possess it are in no  
way different from other men1 and       
therefore no more disposed than  others 
to subordinate their own interests to   
those of the society4  ,on the contrary1
 having the power to do so at their     
disposal1 they  are more disposed than  

others to subordinate the public        
interests to  their own4 ,whatever means
 men have devised for preventing those  
in  authority from over-riding public   
interests for their own benefit1 or  for
 intrusting power only to the most      
faultless people1 they have not  so far 
succeeded in either of those aims4      
,all the methods of appointing          
authorities that have been tried1       
divine right1 and election1 and         
heredity1 and balloting1 and  assemblies
 and parliaments and senate--have all   
proved ineffectual4  ,everyone knows    
that not one of these methods attains   
the aim either  of intrusting power only
 to the incorruptible1 or of preventing 
power from being abused4 ,everyone knows
 on the contrary that men  in           
authority--be they emperors1 ministers1 
governors1 or police  officers--are     
always1 simply from the possession of   
power1 more  liable to be demoralized1  
that is1 to subordinate public interests
  to their personal aims than those who 

have not the power to do so4  ,indeed1  
it could not be otherwise4    ,the state
 conception of life could be justified  
only so long as  all men voluntarily    
sacrificed their personal interests to  
the  public welfare4 ,but so soon as    
there were individuals who would  not   
voluntarily sacrifice their own         
interests1 and authority1 that  is1     
violence1 was needed to restrain them1  
then the disintegrating  principle of   
the coercion of one set of people by    
another set entered  into the social    
conception of the organization based on 
it4    ,for the authority of one set of 
men over another to attain its object   
of restraining those who override public
 interests for their personal  ends1    
power ought only to be put into the     
hands of the impeccable1  as it is      
supposed to be among the ,chinese1 and  
as it was supposed to  be in the ,middle
 ,ages1 and is even now supposed to be  
by those who  believe in the            
consecration by anointing4 ,only under  

those conditions  could the social      
organization be justified4    ,but since
 this is not the case1 and on the       
contrary men in power  are always far   
from being saints1 through the very fact
 of their  possession of power1 the     
social organization based on power has  
no  justification4    ,even if there was
 once a time when1 owing to the low     
standard of  morals1 and the disposition
 of men to violence1 the existence of an
  authority to restrain such violence   
was an advantage1 because the  violence 
of government was less than the violence
 of individuals1  one cannot but see    
that this advantage could not be        
lasting4 ,as  the disposition of        
individuals to violence diminished1 and 
as the  habits of the people became more
 civilized1 and as power grew more      
demoralized through lack of restraint1  
this advantage disappeared4    ,the     
whole history of the last two thousand  
years is nothing but  the history of    
this gradual change of relation between 

the moral  development of the masses on 
the one hand and the demoralization of  
governments on the other4    ,this1 put 
simply1 is how it has come to pass4     
,men lived in families1 tribes1 and     
races1 at feud with one another1        
plundering1 outraging1 and killing one  
another4 ,these violent  hostilities    
were carried on on a large and on a     
small scale3 man  against man1 family   
against family1 tribe against tribe1    
race against  race1 and people against  
people4 ,the larger and stronger groups 
conquered and absorbed the weaker1 and  
the larger and stronger  they became1   
the more internal feuds disappeared and 
the more the  continuity of the group   
seemed assured4    ,the members of a    
family or tribe1 united into one        
community1 are less  hostile among      
themselves1 and families and tribes do  
not die like one  man1 but have a       
continuity of existence4 ,between the   
members of one  state1 subject to a     
single authority1 the strife between    

individuals  seems still less and the   
life of the state seems even more       
secure4    ,their association into      
larger and larger groups was not the    
result  of the conscious recognition of 
the benefits of such associations1  as  
it is said to be in the story of the    
,varyagi4 ,it was produced1 on  one     
hand1 by the natural growth of          
population1 and1 on the other1 by       
struggle and conquest4    ,after        
conquest the power of the emperor puts  
an end to internal  dissensions1 and so 
the state conception of life justifies  
itself4  ,but this justification is     
never more than temporary4 ,internal    
dissensions disappear only in proportion
 to the degree of oppression  exerted by
 the authority over the dissentient     
individuals4 ,the  violence of internal 
feud crushed by authority reappears in  
authority  itself1 which falls into the 
hands of men who1 like the rest1 are    
frequently or always ready to sacrifice 
the public welfare to their  personal   

interest1 with the difference that their
 subjects cannot  resist them1 and thus 
they are exposed to all the demoralizing
  influence of authority4 ,and thus the 
evil of violence1 when it passes  into  
the hands of authority1 is always       
growing and growing1 and in  time       
becomes greater than the evil it is     
supposed to suppress1 while1  at the    
same time1 the tendency to violence in  
the members of the  society becomes     
weaker and weaker1 so that the violence 
of authority  is less and less needed4  
,government authority1 even if it does  
suppress private violence1  always      
introduces into the life of men fresh   
forms of violence1 which  tend to become
 greater and greater in proportion to   
the duration and  strength of the       
government4    ,so that though the      
violence of power is less noticeable in 
government  than when it is employed by 
members of society against one another1 
because it finds expression in          
submission1 and not in strife1 it       

nevertheless exists1 and often to a     
greater degree than in former  days4    
,and it could not be otherwise1 since1  
apart from the demoralizing  influence  
of power1 the policy or even the        
unconscious tendency of  those in power 
will always be to reduce their subjects 
to the extreme  of weakness1 for the    
weaker the oppressed1 the less effort   
need be  made to keep him in subjection4
    ,and therefore the oppression of the
 oppressed always goes on growing  up to
 the furthest limit1 beyond which it    
cannot go without killing  the goose    
with the golden eggs4 ,and if the goose 
lays no more eggs1  like the ,american  
,indians1 negroes1 and ,fijians1 then it
 is killed in  spite of the sincere     
protests of philanthropists4    ,the    
most convincing example of this is to be
 found in the condition  of the working 
classes of our epoch1 who are in reality
 no better  than the slaves of ancient  
times subdued by conquest4    ,in spite 
of the pretended efforts of the higher  

classes to ameliorate  the position of  
the workers1 all the working classes of 
the present  day are kept down by the   
inflexible iron law by which they only  
get just what is barely necessary1 so   
that they are forced to work  without   
ceasing while still retaining strength  
enough to labor for  their employers1   
who are really those who have conquered 
and enslaved  them4    ,so it has always
 been4 ,in ratio to the duration and    
increasing  strength of authority its   
advantages for its subjects disappear   
and  its disadvantages increase4    ,and
 this has been so1 independently of the 
forms of government  under which nations
 have lived4 ,the only difference is    
that under  a despotic form of          
government the authority is concentrated
 in a  small number of oppressors and   
violence takes a cruder form2 under     
constitutional monarchies and republics 
as in ,france and ,america  authority is
 divided among a great number of        
oppressors and the  forms assumed by    

violence is less crude1 but its effect  
of making  the disadvantages of         
authority greater than its advantages1  
and of  enfeebling the oppressed to the 
furthest extreme to which they can be   
reduced with advantage to the           
oppressors1 remains always the same4    
,such has been and still is the         
condition of all the oppressed1 but     
hitherto they have not recognized the   
fact4 ,in the majority of  instances    
they have believed in all simplicity    
that governments exist  for their       
benefit2 that they would be lost without
 a government2 that  the very idea of   
living without a government is a        
blasphemy which  one hardly dare put    
into words2 that this is the--for some  
reason  terrible--doctrine of anarchism1
 with which a mental picture of all     
kinds of horrors is associated4         
,people have believed1 as though it were
 something fully proved1 and  so needing
 no proof1 that since all nations have  
hitherto developed  in the form of      

states1 that form of organization is an 
indispensable  condition of the         
development of humanity4    ,and in that
 way it has lasted for hundreds and     
thousands of years1  and                
governments--those who happened to be in
 power--have tried it1  and are now     
trying more zealously than ever to keep 
their subjects in  this error4    ,so it
 was under the ,roman emperors and so it
 is now4 ,in spite of the  fact that the
 sense of the uselessness and even      
injurious effects of  state violence is 
more and more penetrating into men's    
consciousness1  things might have gone  
on in the same way forever if           
governments were  not under the         
necessity of constantly increasing their
 armies in  order to maintain their     
power4    ,it is generally supposed that
 governments strengthen their forces    
only to defend the state from other     
states1 in oblivion of the fact  that   
armies are necessary1 before all things1
 for the defense of  governments from   

their own oppressed and enslaved        
subjects4    ,that has always been      
necessary1 and has become more and more 
necessary with the increased diffusion  
of education among the masses1  with the
 improved communication between people  
of the same and of  different           
nationalities4 ,it has become           
particularly indispensable  now in the  
face of communism1 socialism1 anarchism1
 and the labor  movement generally4     
,governments feel that it is so1 and    
strengthen  the force of their          
disciplined armies4#ac      #ac ,the    
fact that in ,america the abuses of     
authority exist in spite    of the small
 number of their troops not only fails  
to disprove this    position1 but       
positively confirms it4 ,in ,america    
there are fewer    soldiers than in     
other states4 ,that is why there is     
nowhere else so    little oppression of 
the working classes1 and no country     
where the    end of the abuses of       
government and of government itself     

seems so    near4 ,of late as the       
combinations of laborers gain in        
strength1 one    hears more and more    
frequently the cry raised for the       
increase of the    army1 though the     
,united ,states are not threatened with 
any attack    from without4 ,the upper  
classes know that an army of fifty      
thousand    will soon be insufficient1  
and no longer relying on ,pinkerton's   
men1 they feel that the security of     
their position depends on the           
increased strength of the army4    ,in  
the ,german ,reichstag not long ago1 in 
reply to a question why  funds were     
needed for raising the salaries of the  
under-officers1 the  ,german ,chancellor
 openly declared that trustworthy       
under-officers  were necessary to       
contend against socialism4 ,caprivi only
 said  aloud what every statesman knows 
and assiduously conceals from the       
people4 ,the reason to which he gave    
expression is essentially the  same as  
that which made the ,french kings and   

the popes engage ,swiss  and ,scotch    
guards1 and makes the ,russian          
authorities of to-day so  carefully     
distribute the recruits1 so that the    
regiments from the  frontiers are       
stationed in central districts1 and the 
regiments from  the center are stationed
 on the frontiers4 ,the meaning of      
,caprivi's  speech1 put into plain      
language1 is that funds are needed1 not 
to  resist foreign foes1 but to buy     
under-officers to be ready to act       
against the enslaved toiling masses4    
,caprivi incautiously gave utterance to 
what everyone knows perfectly  well1 or 
at least feels vaguely if he does not   
recognize it1 that  is1 that the        
existing order of life is as it is1 not1
 as would be  natural and right1 because
 the people wish it to be so1 but       
because  it is so maintained by state   
violence1 by the army with its bought   
under-officers and generals4    ,if the 
laborer has no land1 if he cannot use   
the natural right of  every man to      

derive subsistence for himself and his  
family out of the  land1 that is not    
because the people wish it to be so1 but
 because a  certain set of men1 the     
land-owners1 have appropriated the right
 of  giving or refusing admittance to   
the land to the laborers4 ,and this     
abnormal order of things is maintained  
by the army4 ,if the immense  wealth    
produced by the labor of the working    
classes is not regarded  as the property
 of all1 but as the property of a few   
exceptional  persons2 if labor is taxed 
by authority and the taxes spent by a   
few on what they think fit2 if strikes  
on the part of laborers are  repressed1 
while on the part of capitalists they   
are encouraged2 if  certain persons     
appropriate the right of choosing the   
form of the  education1 religious and   
secular1 of children1 and certain       
persons  monopolize the right of making 
the laws all must obey1 and so dispose  
of the lives and properties of other    
people--all this is not done  because   

the people wish it and because it is    
what is natural and  right1 but because 
the government and ruling classes wish  
this to be  so for their own benefit1   
and insist on its being so even by      
physical  violence4    ,everyone1 if he 
does not recognize this now1 will know  
that it is so  at the first attempt at  
insubordination or at a revolution of   
the  existing order4    ,armies1 then1  
are needed by governments and by the    
ruling classes  above all to support the
 present order1 which1 far from being   
the  result of the people's needs1 is   
often in direct antagonism to them1  and
 is only beneficial to the government   
and ruling classes4    ,to keep their   
subjects in oppression and to be able to
 enjoy the  fruits of their labor the   
government must have armed forces4      
,but there is not only one government4  
,there are other governments1           
exploiting their subjects by violence in
 the same way1 and always  ready to     
pounce down on any other government and 

carry off the  fruits of the toil of its
 enslaved subjects4 ,and so every       
government  needs an army also to       
protect its booty from its neighbor     
brigands4  ,every government is thus    
involuntarily reduced to the necessity  
of  emulating one another in the        
increase of their armies4 ,this increase
  is contagious1 as ,montesquieu pointed
 out #aej years ago4    ,every increase 
in the army of one state1 with the aim  
of self-defense  against its subjects1  
becomes a source of danger for          
neighboring  states and calls for a     
similar increase in their armies4       
,the armed forces have reached their    
present number of millions not  only    
through the menace of danger from       
neighboring states1 but  principally    
through the necessity of subduing every 
effort at revolt  on the part of the    
subjects4    ,both causes1 mutually     
dependent1 contribute to the same result
 at  once2 troops are required against  
internal forces and also to keep  up a  

position with other states4 ,one is the 
result of the other4  ,the despotism of 
a government always increases with the  
strength of  the army and its external  
successes1 and the aggressiveness of a  
government increases with its internal  
despotism4    ,the rivalry of the       
,european states in constantly          
increasing their  forces has reduced    
them to the necessity of having recourse
 to  universal military service1 since  
by that means the greatest possible     
number of soldiers is obtained at the   
least possible expense4 ,germany  first 
hit on this device4 ,and directly one   
state adopted it the  others were       
obliged to do the same4 ,and by this    
means all citizens  are under arms to   
support the iniquities practiced upon   
them2 all  citizens have become their   
own oppressors4    ,universal military  
service was an inevitable logical       
necessity1 to  which we were bound to   
come4 ,but it is also the last          
expression  of the inconsistency        

inherent in the social conception of    
life1  when violence is needed to       
maintain it4 ,this inconsistency has    
become obvious in universal military    
service4 ,in fact1 the whole            
significance of the social conception of
 life consists in man's  recognition of 
the barbarity of strife between         
individuals1 and the  transitoriness of 
personal life itself1 and the           
transference of  the aim of life to     
groups of persons4 ,but with universal  
military  service it comes to pass that 
men1 after making every sacrifice to    
get rid of the cruelty of strife and the
 insecurity of existence1  are called   
upon to face all the perils they had    
meant to avoid4 ,and  in addition to    
this the state1 for whose sake          
individuals renounced  their personal   
advantages1 is exposed again to the same
 risks of  insecurity and lack of       
permanence as the individual himself was
 in  previous times4    ,governments    
were to give men freedom from the       

cruelty of personal  strife and security
 in the permanence of the state order of
  existence4 ,but instead of doing that 
they expose the individuals to  the same
 necessity of strife1 substituting      
strife with individuals of  other states
 for strife with neighbors4 ,and the    
danger of destruction  for the          
individual1 and the state too1 they     
leave just as it was4    ,universal     
military service may be compared to the 
efforts of a man to  prop up his falling
 house who so surrounds it and fills it 
with props  and buttresses and planks   
and scaffolding that he manages to keep 
the  house standing only by making it   
impossible to live in it4    ,in the    
same way universal military service     
destroys all the benefits  of the social
 order of life which it is employed to  
maintain4    ,the advantages of social  
organization are security of property   
and  labor and associated action for the
 improvement of existence--universal    
military service destroys all this4     

,the taxes raised from the people for   
war preparations absorb the  greater    
part of the produce of labor which the  
army ought to defend4    ,the           
withdrawing of all men from the ordinary
 course of life destroys  the           
possibility of labor itself4 ,the danger
 of war1 ever ready to  break out1      
renders all reforms of social life vain 
and fruitless4    ,in former days if a  
man were told that if he did not        
acknowledge  the authority of the state1
 he would be exposed to attack from     
enemies domestic and foreign1 that he   
would have to resist them  alone1 and   
would be liable to be killed1 and that  
therefore it would  be to his advantage 
to put up with some hardships to secure 
himself  from these calamities1 he might
 well believe it1 seeing that the       
sacrifices he made to the state were    
only partial and gave him the  hope of a
 tranquil existence in a permanent      
state4 ,but now1 when the  sacrifices   
have been increased tenfold and the     

promised advantages  are disappearing1  
it would be a natural reflection that   
submission to  authority is absolutely  
useless4    ,but the fatal significance 
of universal military service1 as the   
manifestation of the contradiction      
inherent in the social conception  of   
life1 is not only apparent in that4 ,the
 greatest manifestation of  this        
contradiction consists in the fact that 
every citizen in being  made a soldier  
becomes a prop of the government        
organization1 and  shares the           
responsibility of everything the        
government does1 even  though he may not
 admit its legitimacy4    ,governments  
assert that armies are needed above all 
for external  defense1 but that is not  
true4 ,they are needed principally      
against  their subjects1 and every man1 
under universal military service1       
becomes an accomplice in all the acts of
 violence of the government  against the
 citizens without any choice of his own4
    ,to convince oneself of this one    

need only remember what things are  done
 in every state1 in the name of order   
and the public welfare1 of  which the   
execution always falls to the army4 ,all
 civil outbreaks  for dynastic or other 
party reasons1 all the executions that  
follow  on such disturbances1 all       
repression of insurrections1 and        
military  intervention to break up      
meetings and to suppress strikes1 all   
forced  extortion of taxes1 all the     
iniquitous distributions of land1 all   
the restrictions on labor--are either   
carried out directly by the  military or
 by the police with the army at their   
back4 ,anyone who  serves his time in   
the army shares the responsibility of   
all these  things1 about which he is1 in
 some cases1 dubious1 while very often  
they are directly opposed to his        
conscience4 ,people are unwilling to  be
 turned out of the land they have       
cultivated for generations1 or  they are
 unwilling to disperse when the         
government authority orders  them1 or   

they are unwilling to pay the taxes     
required of them1 or  to recognize laws 
as binding on them when they have had no
 hand in  making them1 or to be deprived
 of their nationality--and ,i1 in the   
fulfillment of my military duty1 must go
 and shoot them for it4  ,how can ,i    
help asking myself when ,i take part in 
such punishments1  whether they are     
just1 and whether ,i ought to assist in 
carrying them  out8    ,universal       
service is the extreme limit of violence
 necessary for the  support of the whole
 state organization1 and it is the      
extreme limit  to which submission on   
the part of the subjects can go4 ,it is 
the  keystone of the whole edifice1 and 
its fall will bring it all down4    ,the
 time has come when the ever-growing    
abuse of power by governments  and their
 struggles with one another has led to  
their demanding such  material and even 
moral sacrifices from their subjects    
that everyone  is forced to reflect and 
ask himself1 ,can ,i make these         

sacrifices8  ,and for the sake of what  
am ,i making them8 ,i am expected for   
the  sake of the state to make these    
sacrifices1 to renounce everything  that
 can be precious to man--peace1 family1 
security1 and human  dignity4 ,what is  
this state1 for whose sake such terrible
 sacrifices  have to be made8 ,and why  
is it so indispensably necessary8 ,the  
state1 they tell us1 is indispensably   
needed1 in the first place1  because    
without it we should not be protected   
against the attacks of  evil-disposed   
persons2 and secondly1 except for the   
state we should  be savages and should  
have neither religion1 culture1         
education1 nor  commerce1 nor means of  
communication1 nor other social         
institutions2  and thirdly1 without the 
state to defend us we should be liable  
to be  conquered and enslaved by        
neighboring peoples4    ,except for the 
state1 they say1 we should be exposed to
 the  attacks of evil-disposed persons  
in our own country4    ,but who are     

these evil-disposed persons in our midst
 from whose  attacks we are preserved by
 the state and its army8 ,even if1 three
  or four centuries ago1 when men prided
 themselves on their warlike  prowess1  
when killing men was considered an      
heroic achievement1 there  were such    
persons2 we know very well that there   
are no such persons  now1 that we do not
 nowadays carry or use firearms1 but    
everyone  professes humane principles   
and feels sympathy for his fellows1 and 
wants nothing more than we all do--that 
is1 to be left in peace  to enjoy his   
existence undisturbed4 ,so that nowadays
 there are no  special malefactors from 
whom the state could defend us4 ,if by  
these  evil-disposed persons is meant   
the men who are punished as criminals1  
we know very well that they are not a   
different kind of being like  wild      
beasts among sheep1 but are men just    
like ourselves1 and no more  naturally  
inclined to crimes than those against   
whom they commit  them4 ,we know now    

that threats and punishments cannot     
diminish their  number2 that that can   
only be done by change of environment   
and moral  influence4 ,so that the      
justification of state violence on the  
ground  of the protection it gives us   
from evil-disposed persons1 even if it  
had some foundation three or four       
centuries ago1 has none whatever  now4  
,at present one would rather say on the 
contrary that the action  of the state  
with its cruel methods of punishment1   
behind the general  moral standard of   
the age1 such as prisons1 galleys1      
gibbets1 and  guillotines1 tends rather 
to brutalize the people than to civilize
  them1 and consequently rather to      
increase than diminish the number of    
malefactors4    ,except for the state1  
they tell us1 we should not have any    
religion1 education1 culture1 means of  
communication1 and so on4  ,without the 
state men would not have been able to   
form the social  institutions needed for
 doing anything4 ,this argument too was 

well  founded only some centuries ago4  
,if there was a time when people were so
 disunited1 when they had so  little    
means of communication and interchange  
of ideas1 that they  could not          
co-operate and agree together in any    
common action in  commerce1 economics1  
or education without the state as a     
center1 this  want of common action     
exists no longer4 ,the great extension  
of means  of communication and          
interchange of ideas has made men       
completely  able to dispense with state 
aid in forming societies1 associations1 
corporations1 and congresses for        
scientific1 economic1 and political     
objects4 ,indeed government is more     
often an obstacle than an  assistance in
 attaining these aims4    ,from the end 
of last century there has hardly been a 
single  progressive movement of humanity
 which has not been retarded by the     
government4 ,so it has been with        
abolition of corporal punishment1 of    
trial by torture1 and of slavery1 as    

well as with the establishment  of the  
liberty of the press and the right of   
public meeting4 ,in our  day governments
 not only fail to encourage1 but        
directly hinder  every movement by which
 people try to work out new forms of    
life for  themselves4 ,every attempt at 
the solution of the problems of labor1  
land1 politics1 and religion meets with 
direct opposition on the part  of       
government4    ,without governments     
nations would be enslaved by their      
neighbors4  ,it is scarcely necessary to
 refute this last argument4 ,it carries 
its  refutation on the face of it4 ,the 
government1 they tell us1 with its      
army1 is necessary to defend us from    
neighboring states who might  enslave   
us4 ,but we know this is what all       
governments say of one  another1 and yet
 we know that all the ,european nations 
profess the  same principles of liberty 
and fraternity1 and therefore stand in  
no need of protection against one       
another4 ,and if defense against        

barbarous nations is meant1             
one-thousandth part of the troops now   
under arms would be amply sufficient for
 that purpose4 ,we see that  it is      
really the very opposite of what we have
 been told4 ,the power  of the state1   
far from being a security against the   
attacks of our  neighbors1 exposes us1  
on the contrary1 to much greater danger 
of  such attacks4 ,so that every man who
 is led1 through his compulsory  service
 in the army1 to reflect on the value of
 the state for whose  sake he is        
expected to be ready to sacrifice his   
peace1 security1 and  life1 cannot fail 
to perceive that there is no kind of    
justification  in modern times for such 
a sacrifice4    ,and it is not only from
 the theoretical standpoint that every  
man must see that the sacrifices        
demanded by the state have no           
justification4 ,even looking at it      
practically1 weighing1 that is to  say1 
all the burdens laid on him by the      
state1 no man can fail to see  that for 

him personally to comply with state     
demands and serve in the  army1 would1  
in the majority of cases1 be more       
disadvantageous than  to refuse to do   
so4    ,if the majority of men choose to
 submit rather than to refuse1 it is    
not the result of sober balancing of    
advantages and disadvantages1  but      
because they are induced by a kind of   
hypnotizing process  practiced upon     
them4 ,in submitting they simply yield  
to the  suggestions given them as       
orders1 without thought or effort of    
will4 ,to resist would need independent 
thought and effort of which  every man  
is not capable4 ,even apart from the    
moral significance of  compliance or    
non-compliance1 considering material    
advantage only1  non-compliance will be 
more advantageous in general4           
,whoever ,i may be1 whether ,i belong to
 the well-to-do class of the            
oppressors1 or the working class of the 
oppressed1 in either case the           
disadvantages of non-compliance are less

 and its advantages greater  than those 
of compliance4 ,if ,i belong to the     
minority of oppressors  the             
disadvantages of non-compliance will    
consist in my being brought  to judgment
 for refusing to perform my duties to   
the state1 and  if ,i am lucky1 being   
acquitted or1 as is done in the case of 
the  ,mennonites in ,russia1 being set  
to work out my military service at  some
 civil occupation for the state2 while  
if ,i am unlucky1 ,i may be  condemned  
to exile or imprisonment for two or     
three years 7,i judge  by the cases that
 have occurred in ,russia71 possibly to 
even longer  imprisonment1 or possibly  
to death1 though the probability of that
  latter is very remote4    ,so much for
 the disadvantages of non-compliance4   
,the disadvantages of  compliance will  
be as follows3 if ,i am lucky ,i shall  
not be sent to  murder my               
fellow-creatures1 and shall not be      
exposed to great danger  of being maimed
 and killed1 but shall only be enrolled 

into military  slavery4 ,i shall be     
dressed up like a clown1 ,i shall be at 
the beck  and call of every man of a    
higher grade than my own from corporal  
to  field-marshal1 shall be put through 
any bodily contortions at their         
pleasure1 and after being kept from one 
to five years ,i shall have  for ten    
years afterward to be in readiness to   
undertake all of it  again at any       
minute4 ,if ,i am unlucky ,i may1 in    
addition1 be sent to  war1 where ,i     
shall be forced to kill men of foreign  
nations who have  done me no harm1 where
 ,i may be maimed or killed1 or sent to 
certain  destruction as in the case of  
the garrison of ,sevastopol1 and other  
cases in every war1 or what would be    
most terrible of all1 ,i may be  sent   
against my own compatriots and have to  
kill my own brothers for  some dynastic 
or other state interests which have     
absolutely nothing  to do with me4 ,so  
much for the comparative disadvantages4 
,the comparative advantages of          

compliance and non-compliance are as    
follows3    ,for the man who submits1   
the advantages will be that1 after      
exposing  himself to all the humiliation
 and performing all the barbarities     
required of him1 he may1 if he escapes  
being killed1 get a decoration  of red  
or gold tinsel to stick on his clown's  
dress2 he may1 if he is  very lucky1 be 
put in command of hundreds of thousands 
of others as  brutalized as himself2 be 
called a field-marshal1 and get a lot of
  money4    ,the advantages of the man  
who refuses to obey will consist in     
preserving his dignity as a man1 gaining
 the approbation of good  men1 and above
 all knowing that he is doing the work  
of ,god1 and so  undoubtedly doing good 
to his fellow-men4    ,so much for the  
advantages and disadvantages of both    
lines of conduct  for a man of the      
wealthy classes1 an oppressor4 ,for a   
man of the poor  working class the      
advantages and disadvantages will be the
 same1 but  with a great increase of    

disadvantages4 ,the disadvantages for   
the  poor man who submits will be       
aggravated by the fact that he will by  
taking part in it1 and1 as it were1     
assenting to it strengthen the  state of
 subjection in which he is held himself4
    ,but no considerations as to how far
 the state is useful or beneficial  to  
the men who help to support it by       
serving in the army1 nor of  the        
advantages or disadvantages for the     
individual of compliance or             
non-compliance with state demands1 will 
decide the question of the  continued   
existence or the abolition of           
government4 ,this question  will be     
finally decided beyond appeal by the    
religious consciousness  or conscience  
of every man who is forced1 whether he  
will or no1  through universal          
conscription1 to face the question      
whether the  state is to continue to    
exist or not4          ,,chapter ,,viii4
         ,,doctrine ,,of                
,,non-,,resistance ,,to ,,evil ,,by     

,,force ,,must ,,inevitably ,,be        
,,accepted ,,by ,,men ,,of ,,the        
,,present ,,day4         ,christianity  
is ,not a ,system of ,rules1 but a ,new 
,conception of       ,life1 and         
therefore it was ,not ,obligatory and   
was ,not ,accepted       in its ,true   
,significance by ,all1 but only by a    
,few--,christianity       is1 ,moreover1
 ,prophetic of the ,destruction of the  
,pagan ,life1       and therefore of    
,necessity of the ,acceptance of the    
,christian                              
,doctrines--,non-resistance of ,evil by 
,force is ,one ,aspect of       the     
,christian ,doctrine1 which must        
,inevitably in ,our ,times be           
,accepted by ,men--,two ,methods of     
,deciding ,every ,quarrel--,first       
,method is to ,find a ,universal        
,definition of ,evil1 which ,all ,must  
,accept1 and to ,resist this ,evil by   
,force--,second ,method is the          
,christian ,one of ,complete            
,non-resistance by ,force--,though the  

,failure of the ,first ,method was      
,recognized since the ,early ,days      
of ,christianity1 it was ,still         
,proposed1 and only as ,mankind         
has ,progressed it has ,become ,more and
 ,more ,evident that there       ,cannot
 be any ,universal ,definition of       
,evil--,this is ,recognized       by    
,all at the ,present ,day1 and if ,force
 is ,still ,used to ,resist       ,evil1
 it is ,not ,because it is ,now         
,regarded as ,right1 but       ,because 
,people ,don't ,know ,how to ,avoid     
,it--,the ,difficulty of       ,avoiding
 ,it is the ,result of the ,subtle and  
,complex ,character       of the        
,government ,use of ,force--,force is   
,used in ,four ,ways3                   
,intimidation1 ,bribery1 ,hypnotism1 and
 ,coercion by ,force of                 
,arms--,state ,violence ,can ,never be  
,suppressed by the ,forcible            
,overthrow of the ,government--,men are 
,led by the ,sufferings of       the    
,pagan ,mode of ,life to the ,necessity 

of ,accepting ,christ's       ,teaching 
with its ,doctrine of ,non-resistance by
 ,force--,the       ,consciousness of   
its ,truth which is ,diffused           
,throughout       ,our ,society1 ,will  
also ,bring ,about its                  
,acceptance--,this       ,consciousness 
is in ,complete ,contradiction with ,our
 ,life--,this       is ,specially       
,obvious in ,compulsory ,military       
,service1 but ,through       ,habit and 
the ,application of the ,four ,methods  
of ,violence by       the ,state1 ,men  
do not ,see this ,inconsistency of      
,christianity       with ,life of a     
,soldier--,they do ,not even ,see ,it1  
though the       ,authorities           
,themselves ,show all the ,immorality of
 a ,soldier's       ,duties with        
,perfect ,clearness--,the ,call to      
,military ,service is       the ,supreme
 ,test for ,every ,man1 when the ,choice
 is ,offered ,him1       between        
,adopting the ,christian ,doctrine of   
,non-resistance1 or       ,slavishly    

,submitting to the ,existing ,state     
,organization--,men       ,usually      
,renounce ,all ,they ,hold ,sacred1 and 
,submit to the ,demands       of        
,government1 ,seeming to ,see ,no ,other
 ,course ,open to ,them--,for       ,men
 of the ,pagan ,conception of ,life     
there is ,no ,other ,course       ,open1
 and ,never ,will ,be1 in ,spite of the 
,growing ,horrors of                    
,war--,society1 ,made ,up of ,such ,men1
 ,must ,perish1 and ,no ,social         
,reorganization ,can ,save ,it--,pagan  
,life ,has ,reached ,its ,extreme       
,limit1 and ,will ,annihilate ,itself4  
,it is often said that if ,christianity 
is a truth1 it ought to have  been      
accepted by everyone directly it        
appeared1 and ought to have  transformed
 men's lives for the better4 ,but this  
is like saying that  if the seed were   
ripe it ought at once to bring forth    
stalk1 flower1  and fruit4    ,the      
,christian religion is not a legal      
system which1 being imposed by          

violence1 may transform men's lives4    
,christianity is a new and higher       
conception of life4 ,a new conception of
 life cannot be imposed on  men2 it can 
only be freely assimilated4 ,and it can 
only be freely  assimilated in two ways3
 one spiritual and internal1 the other  
experimental and external4    ,some     
people--a minority--by a kind of        
prophetic instinct divine  the truth of 
the doctrine1 surrender themselves to it
 and adopt  it4 ,others--the            
majority--only through a long course of 
mistakes1  experiments1 and suffering   
are brought to recognize the truth of   
the  doctrine and the necessity of      
adopting it4    ,and by this            
experimental external method the        
majority of ,christian  men have now    
been brought to this necessity of       
assimilating the  doctrine4 ,one        
sometimes wonders what necessitated the 
corruption of  ,christianity which is   
now the greatest obstacle to its        
acceptance in  its true significance4   

,if ,christianity had been presented to 
men in its true1 uncorrupted  form1 it  
would not have been accepted by the     
majority1 who would have  been as       
untouched by it as the nations of ,asia 
are now4 ,the peoples  who accepted it  
in its corrupt form were subjected to   
its slow but  certain influence1 and by 
a long course of errors and experiments 
and  their resultant sufferings have now
 been brought to the necessity of       
assimulating it in its true             
significance4    ,the corruption of     
,christianity and its acceptance in its 
corrupt form  by the majority of men was
 as necessary as it is that the seed    
should  remain hidden for a certain time
 in the earth in order to germinate4    
,christianity is at once a doctrine of  
truth and a prophecy4 ,eighteen         
centuries ago ,christianity revealed to 
men the truth in which they  ought to   
live1 and at the same time foretold what
 human life would  become if men would  
not live by it but continued to live by 

their  previous principles1 and what it 
would become if they accepted the       
,christian doctrine and carried it out  
in their lives4    ,laying down in the  
,sermon on the ,mount the principles by 
which to  guide men's lives1 ,christ    
said3 ,whosoever heareth these sayings  
of  mine1 and doeth them1 ,i will liken 
him unto a wise man1 who built his      
house upon a rock2 and the rain         
descended1 and the floods came1 and  the
 winds blew1 and beat upon that house2  
and it fell not1 for it was  founded    
upon a rock4 ,and everyone that heareth 
these sayings1 and  doeth them not1     
shall be likened unto a foolish man1 who
 built his  house upon the sand2 and the
 rain descended1 and the floods came1   
and  the winds blew1 and beat upon that 
house2 and it fell3 and great was  the  
fall of it 7,matt4 vii4 #bd-bg74    ,and
 now after eighteen centuries the       
prophecy has been fulfilled4 ,not       
having followed ,christ's teaching      
generally and its application to  social

 life in non-resistance to evil1 men    
have been brought in spite  of          
themselves to the inevitable destruction
 foretold by ,christ for  those who do  
not fulfill his teaching4    ,people    
often think the question of             
non-resistance to evil by force  is a   
theoretical one1 which can be neglected4
 ,yet this question  is presented by    
life itself to all men1 and calls for   
some answer  from every thinking man4   
,ever since ,christianity has been      
outwardly  professed1 this question is  
for men in their social life like the   
question which presents itself to a     
traveler when the road on which  he has 
been journeying divides into two        
branches4 ,he must go on and  he cannot 
say3 ,i will not think about it1 but    
will go on just as ,i  did before4      
,there was one road1 now there are two1 
and he must make  his choice4    ,in the
 same way since ,christ's teaching has  
been known by men they  cannot say3 ,i  
will live as before and will not decide 

the question of  resistance or          
non-resistance to evil by force4 ,at    
every new struggle  that arises one must
 inevitably decide2 am ,i1 or am ,i not1
 to resist  by force what ,i regard as  
evil4    ,the question of resistance or 
non-resistance to evil arose when  the  
first conflict between men took place1  
since every conflict is  nothing else   
than resistance by force to what each of
 the combatants  regards as evil4 ,but  
before ,christ1 men did not see that    
resistance  by force to what each       
regards as evil1 simply because one     
thinks evil  what the other thinks good1
 is only one of the methods of settling 
the dispute1 and that there is another  
method1 that of not resisting  evil by  
force at all4    ,before ,christ's      
teaching1 it seemed to men that the one 
only means  of settling a dispute was by
 resistance to evil by force4 ,and they 
acted accordingly1 each of the          
combatants trying to convince himself   
and others that what each respectively  

regards as evil1 is actually1           
absolutely evil4    ,and to do this from
 the earliest time men have devised     
definitions of  evil and tried to make  
them binding on everyone4 ,and such     
definitions  of evil sometimes took the 
form of laws1 supposed to have been     
received by supernatural means1         
sometimes of the commands of rulers  or 
assemblies to whom infallibility was    
attributed4 ,men resorted to  violence  
against others1 and convinced themselves
 and others that  they were directing   
their violence against evil recognized  
as such by  all4    ,this means was     
employed from the earliest times1       
especially by those  who had gained     
possession of authority1 and for a long 
while its  irrationality was not        
detected4    ,but the longer men lived  
in the world and the more complex their 
relations became1 the more evident it   
was that to resist by force  what each  
regarded as evil was irrational1 that   
conflict was in no  way lessened        

thereby1 and that no human definitions  
can succeed in  making what some regard 
as evil be accepted as such by others4  
,already at the time ,christianity      
arose1 it was evident to a great  number
 of people in the ,roman ,empire where  
it arose1 that what was  regarded as    
evil by ,nero and ,caligula could not be
 regarded as evil  by others4 ,even at  
that time men had begun to understand   
that human  laws1 though given out for  
divine laws1 were compiled by men1 and  
cannot be infallible1 whatever the      
external majesty with which they  are   
invested1 and that erring men are not   
rendered infallible by  assembling      
together and calling themselves a senate
 or any other  name4 ,even at that time 
this was felt and understood by many4   
,and it  was then that ,christ preached 
his doctrine1 which consisted not only  
of the prohibition of resistance to evil
 by force1 but gave a new  conception of
 life and a means of putting an end to  
conflict between  all men1 not by making

 it the duty of one section only of     
mankind  to submit without conflict to  
what is prescribed to them by certain   
authorities1 but by making it the duty  
of all--and consequently of  those in   
authority--not to resort to force       
against anyone in any  circumstances4   
,this doctrine was accepted at the time 
by only a very small number  of         
disciples4 ,the majority of men1        
especially all who were in power1  even 
after the nominal acceptance of         
,christianity1 continued to  maintain   
for themselves the principle of         
resistance by force to  what they       
regarded as evil4 ,so it was under the  
,roman and ,byzantine  emperors1 and so 
it continued to be later4    ,the       
insufficiency of the principle of the   
authoritative definition of  evil and   
resistance to it by force1 evident as it
 was in the early  ages of              
,christianity1 becomes still more       
obvious through the division  of the    
,roman ,empire into many states of equal

 authority1 through  their hostilities  
and the internal conflicts that broke   
out within  them4    ,but men were not  
ready to accept the solution given by   
,christ1 and  the old definitions of    
evil1 which ought to be resisted1       
continued to  be laid down by means of  
making laws binding on all and enforced 
by  forcible means4 ,the authority who  
decided what ought to be regarded  as   
evil and resisted by force was at one   
time the ,pope1 at another  an emperor  
or king1 an elective assembly or a whole
 nation4 ,but both  within and without  
the state there were always men to be   
found who  did not accept as binding on 
themselves the laws given out as the    
decrees of a god1 or made by men        
invested with a sacred character1  or   
the institutions supposed to represent  
the will of the nation2  and there were 
men who thought good what the existing  
authorities  regarded as bad1 and who   
struggled against the authorities with  
the  same violence as was employed      

against them4    ,the men invested with 
religious authority regarded as evil    
what the  men and institutions invested 
with temporal authority regarded as     
good and vice versa1 and the struggle   
grew more and more intense4  ,and the   
longer men used violence as the means of
 settling their  disputes1 the more     
obvious it became that it was an        
unsuitable means1  since there could be 
no external authority able to define    
evil  recognized by all4    ,things went
 on like this for eighteen centuries1   
and at last reached  the present        
position in which it is absolutely      
obvious that there  is1 and can be1 no  
external definition of evil binding upon
 all4  ,men have come to the point of   
ceasing to believe in the possibility   
or even desirability of finding and     
establishing such a general  definition4
 ,it has come to men in power ceasing to
 attempt to prove  that what they regard
 as evil is evil1 and simply declaring  
that they  regard as evil what they     

don't like1 while their subjects no     
longer  obey them because they accept   
the definition of evil laid down by     
them1 but simply obey because they      
cannot help themselves4 ,it was not     
because it was a good thing1 necessary  
and beneficial to men1 and the  contrary
 course would have been an evil1 but    
simply because it was  the will of those
 in power that ,nice was incorporated   
into ,france1  and ,lorraine into       
,germany1 and ,bohemia into ,austria1   
and that ,poland  was divided1 and      
,ireland and ,india ruled by the        
,english government1  and that the      
,chinese are attacked and the ,africans 
slaughtered1 and  the ,chinese prevented
 from immigrating by the ,americans1 and
 the ,jews  persecuted by the ,russians1
 and that landowners appropriate lands  
they do not cultivate and capitalists   
enjoy the fruits of the labor  of       
others4 ,it has come to the present     
state of things2 one set of  men commit 
acts of violence no longer on the       

pretext of resistance  to evil1 but     
simply for their profit or their        
caprice1 and another  set submit to     
violence1 not because they suppose1 as  
was supposed in  former times1 that this
 violence was practised upon them for   
the sake  of securing them from evil1   
but simply because they cannot avoid it4
    ,if the ,roman1 or the man of       
medival times1 or the average ,russian  
of  fifty years ago1 as ,i remember him1
 was convinced without a shade of  doubt
 that the violence of authority was     
indispensable to preserve  him from     
evil2 that taxes1 dues1 serfage1        
prisons1 scourging1 knouts1  executions1
 the army and war were what ought to    
be--we know now that  one can seldom    
find a man who believes that all these  
means of  violence preserve anyone from 
any evil whatever1 and indeed does not  
clearly perceive that most of these acts
 of violence to which he is  exposed1   
and in which he has some share1 are in  
themselves a great  and useless evil4   

,there is no one to-day who does not see
 the uselessness and  injustice of      
collecting taxes from the toiling masses
 to enrich idle  officials2 or the      
senselessness of inflicting punishments 
on weak or  depraved persons in the     
shape of transportation from one place  
to  another1 or of imprisonment in a    
fortress where1 living in security  and 
indolence1 they only become weaker and  
more depraved2 or the  worse than       
uselessness and injustice1 the positive 
insanity and  barbarity of preparations 
for war and of wars1 causing devastation
  and ruin1 and having no kind of       
justification4 ,yet these forms of      
violence continue and are supported by  
the very people who see their           
uselessness1 injustice1 and cruelty1 and
 suffer from them4 ,if fifty  years ago 
the idle rich man and the illiterate    
laborer were both  alike convinced that 
their state of everlasting holiday for  
one and  everlasting toil for the other 
was ordained by ,god himself1 we know   

very well that nowadays1 thanks to the  
growth of population and  the diffusion 
of books and education1 it would be hard
 to find in  ,europe or even in ,russia1
 either among rich or poor1 a man to    
whom  in one shape or another a doubt as
 to the justice of this state  of things
 had never presented itself4 ,the rich  
know that they are  guilty in the very  
fact of being rich1 and try to expiate  
their guilt  by sacrifices to art and   
science1 as of old they expiated their  
sins by sacrifices to the ,church4 ,and 
even the larger half of the  working    
people openly declare that the existing 
order is iniquitous  and bound to be    
destroyed or reformed4 ,one set of      
religious people  of whom there are     
millions in ,russia1 the so-called      
sectaries1  consider the existing social
 order as unjust and to be destroyed on 
the ground of the ,gospel teaching taken
 in its true sense4 ,others  regard it  
as unjust on the ground of the          
socialistic1 communistic1  or           

anarchistic theories1 which are         
springing up in the lower strata  of the
 working people4 ,violence no longer    
rests on the belief in its  utility1 but
 only on the fact of its having existed 
so long1 and  being organized by the    
ruling classes who profit by it1 so that
 those  who are under their authority   
cannot extricate themselves from it4    
,the governments of our day--all of     
them1 the most despotic and the  liberal
 alike--have become what ,herzen so well
 called ,ghenghis ,khan  with the       
telegraph2 that is to say1 organizations
 of violence based  on no principle but 
the grossest tyranny1 and at the same   
time taking  advantage of all the means 
invented by science for the peaceful    
collective social activity of free and  
equal men1 used by them to  enslave and 
oppress their fellows4    ,governments  
and the ruling classes no longer take   
their stand  on right or even on the    
semblance of justice1 but on a skillful 
organization carried to such a point of 

perfection by the aid of  science that  
everyone is caught in the circle of     
violence and has  no chance of escaping 
from it4 ,this circle is made up now of 
four  methods of working upon men1      
joined together like the links of a     
chain ring4    ,the first and oldest    
method is intimidation4 ,this consists  
in  representing the existing state     
organization--whatever it may be1  free 
republic or the most savage             
despotism--as something sacred and      
immutable1 and therefore following any  
efforts to alter it with the  cruellest 
punishments4 ,this method is in use     
now--as it has been from  olden         
times--wherever there is a government3  
in ,russia against the  so-called       
,nihilists1 in ,america against         
,anarchists1 in ,france against         
,imperialists1 ,legitimists1            
,communards1 and ,anarchists4           
,railways1 telegraphs1 telephones1      
photographs1 and the great  perfection  
of the means of getting rid of men for  

years1 without  killing them1 by        
solitary confinement1 where1 hidden from
 the  world1 they perish and are        
forgotten1 and the many other modern    
inventions employed by government1 give 
such power that when once  authority has
 come into certain hands1 the police1   
open and secret1  the administration and
 prosecutors1 jailers and executioners  
of  all kinds1 do their work so         
zealously that there is no chance of    
overturning the government1 however     
cruel and senseless it may be4    ,the  
second method is corruption4 ,it        
consists in plundering the  industrious 
working people of their wealth by means 
of taxes and  distributing it in        
satisfying the greed of officials1 who  
are bound  in return to support and keep
 up the oppression of the people4 ,these
  bought officials1 from the highest    
ministers to the poorest copying        
clerks1 make up an unbroken network of  
men bound together by the same          
interest--that of living at the expense 

of the people4 ,they become  the richer 
the more submissively they carry out the
 will of the  government2 and at all    
times and places1 sticking at nothing1  
in all  departments support by word and 
deed the violence of government1 on     
which their own prosperity also rests4  
,the third method is what ,i can only   
describe as hypnotizing the  people4    
,this consists in checking the moral    
development of men1  and by various     
suggestions keeping them back in the    
ideal of life1  outgrown by mankind at  
large1 on which the power of government 
rests4  ,this hypnotizing process is    
organized at the present in the most    
complex manner1 and starting from their 
earliest childhood1 continues  to act on
 men till the day of their death4 ,it   
begins in their  earliest years in the  
compulsory schools1 created for this    
purpose1  in which the children have    
instilled into them the ideas of life of
  their ancestors1 which are in direct  
antagonism with the conscience  of the  

modern world4 ,in countries where there 
is a state religion1  they teach the    
children the senseless blasphemies of   
the ,church  catechisms1 together with  
the duty of obedience to their          
superiors4  ,in republican states they  
teach them the savage superstition of   
patriotism and the same pretended       
obedience to the governing  authorities4
    ,the process is kept up during later
 years by the encouragement of          
religious and patriotic superstitions4  
,the religious superstition is          
encouraged by establishing1 with  money 
taken from the people1 temples1         
processions1 memorials1 and  festivals1 
which1 aided by painting1 architecture1 
music1 and  incense1 intoxicate the     
people1 and above all by the support of 
the  clergy1 whose duty consists in     
brutalizing the people and keeping  them
 in a permanent state of stupefaction by
 their teaching1 the  solemnity of their
 services1 their sermons1 and their     
interference  in private life--at       

births1 deaths1 and marriages4 ,the     
patriotic  superstition is encouraged by
 the creation1 with money taken from    
the people1 of national ftes1           
spectacles1 monuments1 and festivals  to
 dispose men to attach importance to    
their own nation1 and to the            
aggrandizement of the state and its     
rulers1 and to feel antagonism  and even
 hatred for other nations4 ,with these  
objects under  despotic governments     
there is direct prohibition against     
printing  and disseminating books to    
enlighten the people1 and everyone who  
might rouse the people from their       
lethargy is exiled or imprisoned4       
,moreover1 under every government       
without exception everything is  kept   
back that might emancipate and          
everything encouraged that  tends to    
corrupt the people1 such as literary    
works tending to keep  them in the      
barbarism of religious and patriotic    
superstition1 all  kinds of sensual     
amusements1 spectacles1 circuses1       

theaters1 and  even the physical means  
of inducing stupefaction1 as tobacco and
  alcohol1 which form the principal     
source of revenue of states4  ,even     
prostitution is encouraged1 and not only
 recognized1 but even  organized by the 
government in the majority of states4   
,so much for  the third method4    ,the 
fourth method consists in selecting from
 all the men who  have been stupefied   
and enslaved by the three former methods
 a  certain number1 exposing them to    
special and intensified means of        
stupefaction and brutalization1 and so  
making them into a passive  instrument  
for carrying out all the cruelties and  
brutalities needed  by the government4  
,this result is attained by taking them 
at the  youthful age when men have not  
had time to form clear and definite     
principles of morals1 and removing them 
from all natural and human  conditions  
of life1 home1 family and kindred1 and  
useful labor4 ,they  are shut up        
together in barracks1 dressed in special

 clothes1 and  worked upon by cries1    
drums1 music1 and shining objects to go 
through  certain daily actions invented 
for this purpose1 and by this means  are
 brought into an hypnotic condition in  
which they cease to be men  and become  
mere senseless machines1 submissive to  
the hypnotizer4  ,these physically      
vigorous young men 7in these days of    
universal  conscription1 all young men71
 hypnotized1 armed with murderous       
weapons1 always obedient to the         
governing authorities and ready for  any
 act of violence at their command1      
constitute the fourth and  principal    
method of enslaving men4    ,by this    
method the circle of violence is        
completed4    ,intimidation1 corruption1
 and hypnotizing bring people into a    
condition in which they are willing to  
be soldiers2 the soldiers give  the     
power of punishing and plundering them  
7and purchasing officials  with the     
spoils71 and hypnotizing them and       
converting them in time  into these same

 soldiers again4    ,the circle is      
complete1 and there is no chance of     
breaking through it  by force4    ,some 
persons maintain that freedom from      
violence1 or at least a great           
diminution of it1 may be gained by the  
oppressed forcibly overturning  the     
oppressive government and replacing it  
by a new one under which  such violence 
and oppression will be unnecessary1 but 
they deceive  themselves and others1 and
 their efforts do not better the        
position  of the oppressed1 but only    
make it worse4 ,their conduct only tends
  to increase the despotism of          
government4 ,their efforts only afford a
  plausible pretext for government to   
strengthen their power4    ,even if we  
admit that under a combination of       
circumstances specially  unfavorable for
 the government1 as in ,france in #ahgj1
 any government  might be forcibly      
overturned and the power transferred to 
other  hands1 the new authority would   
rarely be less oppressive than the  old 

one2 on the contrary1 always having to  
defend itself against its  dispossessed 
and exasperated enemies1 it would be    
more despotic and  cruel1 as has always 
been the rule in all revolutions4       
,while socialists and communists regard 
the individualistic1  capitalistic      
organization of society as an evil1 and 
the anarchists  regard as an evil all   
government whatever1 there are          
royalists1  conservatives1 and          
capitalists who consider any socialistic
 or  communistic organization or anarchy
 as an evil1 and all these  parties have
 no means other than violence to bring  
men to agreement4  ,whichever of these  
parties were successful in bringing     
their schemes  to pass1 must resort to  
support its authority to all the        
existing  methods of violence1 and even 
invent new ones4    ,the oppressed would
 be another set of people1 and coercion 
would take  some new form2 but the      
violence and oppression would be        
unchanged or  even more cruel1 since    

hatred would be intensified by the      
struggle1  and new forms of oppression  
would have been devised4 ,so it has     
always  been after all revolutions and  
all attempts at revolution1 all         
conspiracies1 and all violent changes of
 government4 ,every conflict  only      
strengthens the means of oppression in  
the hands of those who  happen at a     
given moment to be in power4    ,the    
position of our ,christian society1 and 
especially the ideals most  current in  
it1 prove this in a strikingly          
convincing way4    ,there remains now   
only one sphere of human life not       
encroached upon  by government          
authority--that is the domestic1        
economic sphere1 the  sphere of private 
life and labor4 ,and even this is       
now--thanks to the  efforts of          
communists and socialists--being        
gradually encroached upon  by           
government1 so that labor and           
recreation1 dwellings1 dress1 and  food 
will gradually1 if the hopes of the     

reformers are successful1 be  prescribed
 and regulated by government4    ,the   
slow progress of eighteen centuries has 
brought the ,christian  nations again to
 the necessity of deciding the question 
they have  evaded--the question of the  
acceptance or non-acceptance of         
,christ's  teaching1 and the question   
following upon it in social life of     
resistance or non-resistance to evil by 
force4 ,but there is this  difference1  
that whereas formerly men could accept  
or refuse to  accept the solution given 
by ,christ1 now that solution cannot be 
avoided1 since it alone can save men    
from the slavery in which they  are     
caught like a net4    ,but it is not    
only the misery of the position which   
makes this  inevitable4    ,while the   
pagan organization has been proved more 
and more false1  the truth of the       
,christian religion has been growing    
more and more  evident4    ,not in vain 
have the best men of ,christian         
humanity1 who apprehended  the truth by 

spiritual intuition1 for eighteen       
centuries testified to  it in spite of  
every menace1 every privation1 and every
 suffering4 ,by  their martyrdom they   
passed on the truth to the masses1 and  
impressed  it on their hearts4          
,christianity has penetrated into the   
consciousness of humanity1  not only    
negatively by the demonstration of the  
impossibility of  continuing in the     
pagan life1 but also through its        
simplification1  its increased clearness
 and freedom from the superstitions     
intermingled with it1 and its diffusion 
through all classes of the  population4 
,eighteen centuries of ,christianity    
have not passed without an  effect even 
on those who accepted it only           
externally4 ,these  eighteen centuries  
have brought men so far that even while 
they  continue to live the pagan life   
which is no longer consistent with  the 
development of humanity1 they not only  
see clearly all the  wretchedness of    
their position1 but in the depths of    

their souls  they believe 7they can only
 live through this belief7 that the     
only salvation from this position is to 
be found in fulfilling  the ,christian  
doctrine in its true significance4 ,as  
to the time  and manner of salvation1   
opinions are divided according to the   
intellectual development and the        
prejudices of each society4 ,but  every 
man of the modern world recognizes that 
our salvation lies in  fulfilling the   
law of ,christ4 ,some believers in the  
supernatural  character of ,christianity
 hold that salvation will come when all 
men  are brought to believe in ,christ1 
whose second coming is at hand4  ,other 
believers in supernatural ,christianity 
hold that salvation  will come through  
the ,church1 which will draw all men    
into its  fold1 train them in the       
,christian virtues1 and transform their 
life4 ,a third section1 who do not admit
 the divinity of ,christ1  hold that the
 salvation of mankind will be brought   
about by slow  and gradual progress1    

through which the pagan principles of   
our  existence will be replaced by the  
principles of liberty1 equality1  and   
fraternity--that is1 by ,christian      
principles4 ,a fourth section1  who     
believe in the social revolution1 hold  
that salvation will come  when through a
 violent revolution men are forced into 
community  of property1 abolition of    
government1 and collective instead of   
individual industry--that is to say1 the
 realization of one side of  the        
,christian doctrine4 ,in one way or     
another all men of our day in  their    
inner consciousness condemn the existing
 effete pagan order1  and admit1 often  
unconsciously and while regarding       
themselves as  hostile to ,christianity1
 that our salvation is only to be found 
in  the application of the ,christian   
doctrine1 or parts of it1 in its  true  
significance to our daily life4         
,christianity cannot1 as its ,founder   
said1 be realized by the majority  of   
men all at once2 it must grow like a    

huge tree from a tiny seed4  ,and so it 
has grown1 and now has reached its full 
development1 not  yet in actual life1   
but in the conscience of men of to-day4 
,now not only the minority1 who have    
always comprehended ,christianity  by   
spiritual intuition1 but all the vast   
majority who seem so far  from it in    
their social existence recognize its    
true significance4    ,look at          
individual men in their private life1   
listen to their  standards of conduct in
 their judgment of one another2 hear not
  only their public utterances1 but the 
counsels given by parents  and guardians
 to the young in their charge2 and you  
will see that1  far as their social life
 based on violence may be from realizing
  ,christian truth1 in their private    
life what is considered good by  all    
without exception is nothing but the    
,christian virtues2 what is  considered 
as bad is nothing but the antichristian 
vices4 ,those who  consecrate their     
lives self-sacrificingly to the service 

of humanity  are regarded as the best   
men4 ,the selfish1 who make use of the  
misfortunes of others for their own     
advantage1 are regarded as the  worst of
 men4    ,though some non-,christian    
ideals1 such as strength1 courage1 and  
wealth1 are still worshiped by a few who
 have not been penetrated by  the       
,christian spirit1 these ideals are out 
of date and are abandoned1  if not by   
all1 at least by all those regarded as  
the best people4  ,there are no ideals1 
other than the ,christian ideals1 which 
are  accepted by all and regarded as    
binding on all4    ,the position of our 
,christian humanity1 if you look at it  
from the  outside with all its cruelty  
and degradation of men1 is terrible     
indeed4 ,but if one looks at it within1 
in its inner consciousness1  the        
spectacle it presents is absolutely     
different4    ,all the evil of our life 
seems to exist only because it has been 
so  for so long2 those who do the evil  
have not had time yet to learn how  to  

act otherwise1 though they do not want  
to act as they do4    ,all the evil     
seems to exist through some cause       
independent of the  conscience of men4  
,strange and contradictory as it seems1 
all men of the present day  hate the    
very social order they are themselves   
supporting4    ,i think it is ,max      
,mller who describes the amazement of an
 ,indian  convert to ,christianity1 who 
after absorbing the essence of the      
,christian doctrine came to ,europe and 
saw the actual life of  ,christians4 ,he
 could not recover from his astonishment
 at the  complete contrast between the  
reality and what he had expected to     
find among ,christian nations4 ,if we   
feel no astonishment at the  contrast   
between our convictions and our conduct1
 that is because  the influences1       
tending to obscure the contrast1 produce
 an effect  upon us too4 ,we need only  
look at our life from the point of view 
of  that ,indian1 who understood        
,christianity in its true significance1 

without any compromises or concessions1 
we need but look at the  savage         
brutalities of which our life is full1  
to be appalled at the  contradictions in
 the midst of which we live often       
without observing  them4    ,we need    
only recall the preparations for war1   
the mitrailleuses1 the  silver-gilt     
bullets1 the torpedoes1 and--the ,red   
,cross2 the solitary  prison cells1 the 
experiments of execution by             
electricity--and the  care of the       
hygienic welfare of prisoners2 the      
philanthropy of the  rich1 and their    
life1 which produces the poor they are  
benefiting4    ,and these               
inconsistencies are not1 as it might    
seem1 because men  pretend to be        
,christians while they are really       
pagans1 but because of  something       
lacking in men1 or some kind of force   
hindering them from  being what they    
already feel themselves to be in their  
consciousness1  and what they genuinely 
wish to be4 ,men of the present day do  

not  merely pretend to hate oppression1 
inequality1 class distinction1  and     
every kind of cruelty to animals as well
 as human beings4 ,they  genuinely      
detest all this1 but they do not know   
how to put a stop to  it1 or perhaps    
cannot decide to give up what preserves 
it all1 and  seems to them necessary4   
,indeed1 ask every man separately       
whether he thinks it laudable and       
worthy of a man of this age to hold a   
position from which he receives  a      
salary disproportionate to his work2 to 
take from the people--often  in         
poverty--taxes to be spent on           
constructing cannon1 torpedoes1 and     
other instruments of butchery1 so as to 
make war on people with whom  we wish to
 be at peace1 and who feel the same wish
 in regard to us2  or to receive a      
salary for devoting one's whole life to 
constructing  these instruments of      
butchery1 or to preparing oneself and   
others for  the work of murder4 ,and ask
 him whether it is laudable and worthy  

of a man1 and suitable for a ,christian1
 to employ himself1 for a  salary1 in   
seizing wretched1 misguided1 often      
illiterate and drunken1  creatures      
because they appropriate the property of
 others--on a much  smaller scale than  
we do--or because they kill men in a    
different  fashion from that in which we
 undertake to do it--and shutting them  
in prison for it1 ill treating them and 
killing them2 and whether  it is        
laudable and worthy of a man and a      
,christian to preach for a  salary to   
the people not ,christianity1 but       
superstitions which one  knows to be    
stupid and pernicious2 and whether it is
 laudable and  worthy of a man to rob   
his neighbor for his gratification of   
what  he wants to satisfy his simplest  
needs1 as the great landowners do2  or  
to force him to exhausting labor beyond 
his strength to augment  one's wealth1  
as do factory owners and manufacturers2 
or to profit  by the poverty of men to  
increase one's gains1 as merchants do4  

,and  everyone taken separately1        
especially if one's remarks are directed
  at someone else1 not himself1 will    
answer1 ,no6 ,and yet the very man  who 
sees all the baseness of those actions1 
of his own free will1  uncoerced by     
anyone1 often even for no pecuniary     
profit1 but only  from childish vanity1 
for a china cross1 a scrap of ribbon1 a 
bit of  fringe he is allowed to wear1   
will enter military service1 become  a  
magistrate or justice of the peace1     
commissioner1 archbishop1 or  beadle1   
though in fulfilling these offices he   
must commit acts the  baseness and      
shamefulness of which he cannot fail to 
recognize4    ,i know that many of these
 men will confidently try to prove that 
they  have reasons for regarding their  
position as legitimate and quite        
indispensable4 ,they will say in their  
defense that authority is given  by     
,god1 that the functions of the state   
are indispensable for the  welfare of   
humanity1 that property is not opposed  

to ,christianity1  that the rich young  
man was only commanded to sell all he   
had and  give to the poor if he wished  
to be perfect1 that the existing        
distribution of property and our        
commercial system must always remain  as
 they are1 and are to the advantage of  
all1 and so on4 ,but1 however  much they
 try to deceive themselves and others1  
they all know that  what they are doing 
is opposed to all the beliefs which they
 profess1  and in the depths of their   
souls1 when they are left alone with    
their  conscience1 they are ashamed and 
miserable at the recollection of it1    
especially if the baseness of their     
action has been pointed out to  them4 ,a
 man of the present day1 whether he     
believes in the divinity  of ,christ or 
not1 cannot fail to see that to assist  
in the capacity  of tzar1 minister1     
governor1 or commissioner in taking from
 a poor  family its last cow for taxes  
to be spent on cannons1 or on the pay   
and pensions of idle officials1 who live

 in luxury and are worse  than useless2 
or in putting into prison some man we   
have ourselves  corrupted1 and throwing 
his family on the streets2 or in        
plundering  and butchering in war2 or in
 inculcating savage and idolatrous      
superstitions in the place of the law of
 ,christ2 or in impounding  the cow     
found on one's land1 though it belongs  
to a man who has no  land2 or to cheat  
the workman in a factory1 by imposing   
fines for  accidentally spoiled         
articles2 or making a poor man pay      
double the  value for anything simply   
because he is in the direst             
poverty2--not  a man of the present day 
can fail to know that all these actions 
are  base and disgraceful1 and that they
 need not do them4 ,they all know  it4  
,they know that what they are doing is  
wrong1 and would not do  it for anything
 in the world if they had the power of  
resisting the  forces which shut their  
eyes to the criminality of their actions
 and  impel them to commit them4    ,in 

nothing is the pitch of inconsistency   
modern life has attained to  so evident 
as in universal conscription1 which is  
the last resource  and the final        
expression of violence4    ,indeed1 it  
is only because this state of universal 
armament has been  brought about        
gradually and imperceptibly1 and because
 governments  have exerted1 in          
maintaining it1 every resource of       
intimidation1  corruption1              
brutalization1 and violence1 that we do 
not see its  flagrant inconsistency with
 the ,christian ideas and sentiments by 
which the modern world is permeated4    
,we are so accustomed to the            
inconsistency that we do not see all    
the hideous folly and immorality of men 
voluntarily choosing the  profession of 
butchery as though it were an honorable 
career1 of  poor wretches submitting to 
conscription1 or in countries where     
compulsory service has not been         
introduced1 of people voluntarily       
abandoning a life of industry to recruit

 soldiers and train them as  murderers4 
,we know that all of these men are      
either ,christians1 or  profess humane  
and liberal principles1 and they know   
that they thus  become partly           
responsible--through universal          
conscription1 personally                
responsible--for the most insane1       
aimless1 and brutal murders4 ,and  yet  
they all do it4    ,more than that1 in  
,germany1 where compulsory service first
  originated1 ,caprivi has given        
expression to what had been hitherto  so
 assiduously concealed--that is1 that   
the men that the soldiers  will have to 
kill are not foreigners alone1 but their
 own countrymen1  the very working      
people from whom they themselves are    
taken4 ,and  this admission has not     
opened people's eyes1 has not horrified 
them6  ,they still go like sheep to the 
slaughter1 and submit to everything     
required of them4    ,and that is not   
all3 the ,emperor of ,germany has lately
 shown still  more clearly the duties of

 the army1 by thanking and rewarding a  
soldier for killing a defenseless       
citizen who made his approach           
incautiously4 ,by rewarding an action   
always regarded as base and  cowardly   
even by men on the lowest level of      
morality1 ,william has  shown that a    
soldier's chief duty--the one most      
appreciated by  the authorities--is that
 of executioner2 and not a professional 
executioner who kills only condemned    
criminals1 but one ready to  butcher any
 innocent man at the word of command4   
,and even that is not all4 ,in #ahib1   
the same ,william1 the enfant  terrible 
of state authority1 who says plainly    
what other people  only think1 in       
addressing some soldiers gave public    
utterance to  the following speech1     
which was reported next day in thousands
 of  newspapers3 ,conscripts6 he said1  
you have sworn fidelity to me  before   
the altar and the minister of ,god6 ,you
 are still too young to  understand all 
the importance of what has been said    

here2 let your  care before all things  
be to obey the orders and instructions  
given  you4 ,you have sworn fidelity to 
me1 lads of my guard2 that means  that  
you are now my soldiers1 that you have  
given yourselves to me  body and soul4  
,for you there is now but one enemy1 my 
enemy4 ,in  these days of socialistic   
sedition it may come to pass that ,i    
command  you to fire on your own        
kindred1 your brothers1 even your own   
fathers  and mothers--which ,god        
forbid6--even then you are bound to obey
 my  orders without hesitation4    ,this
 man expresses what all sensible rulers 
think1 but studiously  conceal4 ,he says
 openly that the soldiers are in his    
service1 at  his disposal1 and must be  
ready for his advantage to murder even  
their brothers and fathers4    ,in the  
most brutal words he frankly exposes all
 the horrors and  criminality for which 
men prepare themselves in entering the  
army1  and the depths of ignominy to    
which they fall in promising obedience4 

,like a bold hypnotizer1 he tests the   
degree of insensibility of the          
hypnotized subject4 ,he touches his skin
 with a red-hot iron2 the skin  smokes  
and scorches1 but the sleeper does not  
awake4    ,this miserable man1 imbecile 
and drunk with power1 outrages in this  
utterance everything that can be sacred 
for a man of the modern  world4 ,and yet
 all the ,christians1 liberals1 and     
cultivated people1  far from resenting  
this outrage1 did not even observe it4  
,the last1 the most extreme test is put 
before men in its coarsest  form4 ,and  
they do not seem even to notice that it 
is a test1 that  there is any choice    
about it4 ,they seem to think there is  
no course  open but slavish submission4 
,one would have thought these insane    
words1 which outrage everything a man of
 the present day holds  sacred1 must    
rouse indignation4 ,but there has been  
nothing of the  kind4    ,all the young 
men through the whole of ,europe are    
exposed year after  year to this test1  

and with very few exceptions they       
renounce all  that a man can hold       
sacred1 all express their readiness to  
kill  their brothers1 even their        
fathers1 at the bidding of the first    
crazy  creature dressed up in a livery  
with red and gold trimming1 and only    
wait to be told where and when they are 
to kill4 ,and they actually  are ready4 
,every savage has something he holds    
sacred1 something for which he is  ready
 to suffer1 something he will not       
consent to do4 ,but what is it  that is 
sacred to the civilized man of to-day8  
,they say to him3 ,you  must become my  
slave1 and this slavery may force you to
 kill even  your own father2 and he1    
often very well educated1 trained in all
  the sciences at the university1       
quietly puts his head under the yoke4   
,they dress him up in a clown's costume1
 and order him to cut capers1  turn and 
twist and bow1 and kill--he does it all 
submissively4 ,and  when they let him   
go1 he seems to shake himself and go    

back to his  former life1 and he        
continues to discourse upon the dignity 
of man1  liberty1 equality1 and         
fraternity as before4    ,yes1 but what 
is one to do8 people often ask in       
genuine perplexity4  ,if everyone would 
stand out it would be something1 but by 
myself1 ,i  shall only suffer without   
doing any good to anyone4    ,and that  
is true4 ,a man with the social         
conception of life cannot  resist4 ,the 
aim of his life is his personal welfare4
 ,it is better for  his personal welfare
 for him to submit1 and he submits4     
,whatever they do to him1 however they  
torture or humiliate him1 he  will      
submit1 for1 alone1 he can do nothing2  
he has no principle for  the sake of    
which he could resist violence alone4   
,and those who  control them never allow
 them to unite together4 ,it is often   
said  that the invention of terrible    
weapons of destruction will put an end  
to war4 ,that is an error4 ,as the means
 of extermination are improved1  the    

means of reducing men who hold the state
 conception of life to  submission can  
be improved to correspond4 ,they may    
slaughter them by  thousands1 by        
millions1 they may tear them to pieces1 
still they will  march to war like      
senseless cattle4 ,some will want       
beating to make  them move1 others will 
be proud to go if they are allowed to   
wear a  scrap of ribbon or gold lace4   
,and of this mass of men so brutalized  
as to be ready to promise  to kill their
 own parents1 the social                
reformers--conservatives1  liberals1    
socialists1 and anarchists--propose to  
form a rational and  moral society4     
,what sort of moral and rational society
 can be formed  out of such elements8   
,with warped and rotten planks you      
cannot build  a house1 however you put  
them together4 ,and to form a rational  
moral  society of such men is just as   
impossible a task4 ,they can be formed  
into nothing but a herd of cattle1      
driven by the shouts and whips of  the  

herdsmen4 ,as indeed they are4    ,so1  
then1 we have on one side men calling   
themselves ,christians1 and  professing 
the principles of liberty1 equality1 and
 fraternity1 and  along with that ready1
 in the name of liberty1 to submit to   
the most  slavish degradation2 in the   
name of equality1 to accept the crudest1
  most senseless division of men by     
externals merely into higher and  lower 
classes1 allies and enemies2 and1 in the
 name of fraternity1  ready to murder   
their brothers4#ad      #ad ,the fact   
that among certain nations1 as the      
,english and the    ,american1 military 
service is not compulsory 7though       
already one    hears there are some who 
advocate that it should be made so7 does
 not    affect the servility of the     
citizens to the government in principle4
    ,here we have each to go and kill or
 be killed1 there they have    each to  
give the fruit of their toil to pay for 
the recruiting and    training of       
soldiers4    ,the contradiction between 

life and conscience and the misery      
resulting from it have reached the      
extreme limit and can go no  further4   
,the state organization of life based on
 violence1 the aim of  which was the    
security of personal1 family1 and social
 welfare1 has  come to the point of     
renouncing the very objects for which it
 was  founded--it has reduced men to    
absolute renunciation and loss of the   
welfare it was to secure4    ,the first 
half of the prophecy has been fulfilled 
in the generation  of men who have not  
accepted ,christ's teaching4 ,their     
descendants  have been brought now to   
the absolute necessity of putting the   
truth  of the second half to the test of
 experience4          ,,chapter ,,ix4   
,,the ,,acceptance ,,of ,,the           
,,christian ,,conception ,,of ,,life    
,,will       ,,emancipate ,,men ,,from  
,,the ,,miseries ,,of ,,our ,,pagan     
,,life4         ,the ,external ,life of 
,christian ,peoples ,remains ,pagan     
,though       they are ,penetrated by   

,christian ,consciousness--,the ,way    
,out       of this ,contradiction is by 
the ,acceptance of the ,christian       
,theory of ,life--,only ,through        
,christianity is ,every ,man ,free1     
and ,emancipated of ,all ,human         
,authority--,this ,emancipation can     
be ,effected by no ,change in ,external 
,conditions of ,life1 but       ,only by
 a ,change in the ,conception of        
,life--,the ,christian       ,ideal of  
,life ,requires ,renunciation of all    
,violence1 and in       ,emancipating   
the ,man who ,accepts it1 ,emancipates  
the ,whole       ,world from ,all       
,external ,authorities--,the ,way ,out  
of the ,present       ,apparently       
,hopeless ,position is for ,every ,man  
who is ,capable       of ,assimilating  
the ,christian ,conception of ,life1 to 
,accept       it and ,live in           
,accordance with it--,but ,men ,consider
 this ,way       too ,slow1 and ,look   
for ,deliverance ,through ,changes in   
,material       ,conditions of ,life    

,aided by ,government--,that ,will ,lead
 to ,no       ,improvement1 as it is    
simply ,increasing the ,evil under which
 ,men       are ,suffering--,a ,striking
 ,instance of this is the ,submission to
       ,compulsory ,military ,service1  
which it would be ,more ,advantageous   
for ,every ,man to ,refuse than to      
,submit to--,the ,emancipation of       
,men ,can ,only be ,brought ,about by   
each ,individual ,emancipating          
,himself1 and the ,examples of this     
,self-emancipation which are            
already ,appearing ,threaten the        
,destruction of ,governmental           
,authority--,refusal to ,comply with the
 ,unchristian ,demands       of         
,government ,undermines the ,authority  
of the ,state and       ,emancipates    
,men--,and therefore ,cases of such     
,non-compliance       are ,regarded with
 more ,dread by ,state ,authorities than
 any       ,conspiracies or ,acts of    
,violence--,examples of ,non-compliance 
in ,russia1 in ,regard to ,oath of      

,allegiance1 ,payment of ,taxes1        
,passports1 ,police ,duties1 and        
,military ,service--,examples of such   
,non-compliance in other                
,states--,governments do not ,know how  
to       ,treat ,men who ,refuse to     
,comply with their ,demands on          
,christian       ,grounds--,such        
,people1 without ,striking a ,blow1     
,undermine       the very ,basis of     
,government from ,within--,to ,punish   
them is       ,equivalent to ,openly    
,renouncing ,christianity1 and          
,assisting in       ,diffusing the ,very
 ,principle by which these ,men ,justify
 their       ,non-compliance--,so       
,governments are in a ,helpless         
,position--,men       who ,maintain the 
,uselessness of ,personal ,independence1
 only       ,retard the ,dissolution of 
the ,present ,state ,organization ,based
       on ,force4      ,the position of 
the ,christian peoples in our days has  
remained just  as cruel as it was in the
 times of paganism4 ,in many respects1  

especially in the oppression of the     
masses1 it has become even more  cruel  
than it was in the days of paganism4    
,but between the condition of men in    
ancient times and their condition  in   
our days there is just the difference   
that we see in the world  of vegetation 
between the last days of autumn and the 
first days of  spring4 ,in the autumn   
the external lifelessness in nature     
corresponds  with its inward condition  
of death1 while in the spring the       
external  lifelessness is in sharp      
contrast with the internal state of     
reviving  and passing into new forms of 
life4    ,in the same way the similarity
 between the ancient heathen life and   
the life of to-day is merely external3  
the inward condition of men in  the     
times of heathenism was absolutely      
different from their inward  condition  
at the present time4    ,then the       
outward condition of cruelty and of     
slavery was in complete  harmony with   
the inner conscience of men1 and every  

step in advance  intensified this       
harmony2 now the outward condition of   
cruelty and of  slavery is completely   
contradictory to the ,christian         
consciousness  of men1 and every step in
 advance only intensifies this          
contradiction4    ,humanity is passing  
through seemingly unnecessary1 fruitless
 agonies4  ,it is passing through       
something like the throes of birth4     
,everything  is ready for the new life1 
but still the new life does not come4   
,there seems no way out of the position4
 ,and there would be none1  except that 
a man 7and thereby all men7 is gifted   
with the power of  forming a different1 
higher theory of life1 which at once    
frees him  from all the bonds by which  
he seems indissolubly fettered4    ,and 
such a theory is the ,christian view of 
life made known to mankind  eighteen    
hundred years ago4    ,a man need only  
make this theory of life his own1 for   
the fetters  which seemed so            
indissolubly forged upon him to drop off

 of  themselves1 and for him to feel    
himself absolutely free1 just as a  bird
 would feel itself free in a fenced-in  
place directly it took to  its wings4   
,people talk about the liberty of the   
,christian ,church1 about giving  or not
 giving freedom to ,christians4         
,underlying all these ideas and         
expressions there is some strange       
misconception4 ,freedom cannot be       
bestowed on or taken from a ,christian  
or ,christians4 ,freedom is an          
inalienable possession of the           
,christian4    ,if we talk of bestowing 
freedom on ,christians or withholding it
 from  them1 we are obviously talking   
not of real ,christians but of people   
who only call themselves ,christians4 ,a
 ,christian cannot fail to be  free1    
because the attainment of the aim he    
sets before himself cannot  be prevented
 or even hindered by anyone or anything4
    ,let a man only understand his life 
as ,christianity teaches him to         
understand it1 let him understand1 that 

is1 that his life belongs  not to       
him--not to his own individuality1 nor  
to his family1 nor to  the state--but to
 him who has sent him into the world1   
and let him  once understand that he    
must therefore fulfill not the law of   
his own  individuality1 nor his family1 
nor of the state1 but the infinite  law 
of him from whom he has come2 and he    
will not only feel himself  absolutely  
free from every human power1 but will   
even cease to regard  such power as at  
all able to hamper anyone4    ,let a man
 but realize that the aim of his life is
 the fulfillment of  ,god's law1 and    
that law will replace all other laws for
 him1 and he  will give it his sole     
allegiance1 so that by that very        
allegiance  every human law will lose   
all binding and controlling power in his
  eyes4    ,the ,christian is           
independent of every human authority by 
the fact  that he regards the divine law
 of love1 implanted in the soul of      
every man1 and brought before his       

consciousness by ,christ1 as the  sole  
guide of his life and other men's also4 
,the ,christian may be subjected to     
external violence1 he may be  deprived  
of bodily freedom1 he may be in bondage 
to his passions 7he  who commits sin is 
the slave of sin71 but he cannot be in  
bondage in  the sense of being forced by
 any danger or by any threat of external
  harm to perform an act which is       
against his conscience4    ,he cannot be
 compelled to do this1 because the      
deprivations and  sufferings which form 
such a powerful weapon against men of   
the state  conception of life1 have not 
the least power to compel him4          
,deprivations and sufferings take from  
them the happiness for which  they live2
 but far from disturbing the happiness  
of the ,christian1  which consists in   
the consciousness of fulfilling the will
 of ,god1  they may even intensify it1  
when they are inflicted on him for      
fulfilling his will4    ,and therefore  
the ,christian1 who is subject only to  

the inner divine  law1 not only cannot  
carry out the enactments of the external
 law1  when they are not in agreement   
with the divine law of love which  he   
acknowledges 7as is usually the case    
with state obligations71 he  cannot even
 recognize the duty of obedience to     
anyone or anything  whatever1 he cannot 
recognize the duty of what is called    
allegiance4    ,for a ,christian the    
oath of allegiance to any government    
whatever--the very act which is regarded
 as the foundation of the  existence of 
a state--is a direct renunciation of    
,christianity4  ,for the man who        
promises unconditional obedience in the 
future  to laws1 made or to be made1 by 
that very promise is in the most        
positive manner renouncing              
,christianity1 which means obeying in   
every  circumstance of life only the    
divine law of love he recognizes within 
him4    ,under the pagan conception of  
life it was possible to carry out the   
will of the temporal authorities1       

without infringing the law of  ,god     
expressed in circumcisions1 ,sabbaths1  
fixed times of prayer1  abstention from 
certain kinds of food1 and so on4 ,the  
one law was  not opposed to the other4  
,but that is just the distinction       
between  the ,christian religion and    
heathen religion4 ,christianity does not
  require of a man certain definite     
negative acts1 but puts him in  a new1  
different relation to men1 from which   
may result the most  diverse acts1 which
 cannot be defined beforehand4 ,and     
therefore the  ,christian not only      
cannot promise to obey the will of any  
other man1  without knowing what will be
 required by that will2 he not only     
cannot obey the changing laws of man1   
but he cannot even promise to  do       
anything definite at a certain time1 or 
to abstain from doing  anything for a   
certain time4 ,for he cannot know what  
at any time will  be required of him by 
that ,christian law of love1 obedience  
to which  constitutes the meaning of    

life for him4 ,the ,christian1 in       
promising  unconditional fulfillment of 
the laws of men in the future1 would    
show plainly by that promise that the   
inner law of ,god does not  constitute  
for him the sole law of his life4       
,for a ,christian to promise obedience  
to men1 or the laws of men1 is  just as 
though a workman bound to one employer  
should also promise  to carry out every 
order that might be given him by        
outsiders4 ,one  cannot serve two       
masters4    ,the ,christian is          
independent of human authority1 because 
he  acknowledges ,god's authority alone4
 ,his law1 revealed by ,christ1 he      
recognizes in himself1 and voluntarily  
obeys it4    ,and this independence is  
gained1 not by means of strife1 not by  
the destruction of existing forms of    
life1 but only by a change  in the      
interpretation of life4 ,this           
independence results first  from the    
,christian recognizing the law of love1 
revealed to him by  his teacher1 as     

perfectly sufficient for all human      
relations1 and  therefore he regards    
every use of force as unnecessary and   
unlawful2  and secondly1 from the fact  
that those deprivations and sufferings1 
or threats of deprivations and          
sufferings 7which reduce the man of  the
 social conception of life to the       
necessity of obeying7 to the  ,christian
 from his different conception of life1 
present themselves  merely as the       
inevitable conditions of existence4 ,and
 these  conditions1 without striving    
against them by force1 he patiently     
endures1 like sickness1 hunger1 and     
every other hardship1 but they  cannot  
serve him as a guide for his actions4   
,the only guide for the  ,christian's   
actions is to be found in the divine    
principle living  within him1 which     
cannot be checked or governed by        
anything4    ,the ,christian acts       
according to the words of the prophecy  
applied to  his teacher3 ,he shall not  
strive1 nor cry2 neither shall any man  

hear his voice in the streets4 ,a       
bruised reed shall he not break1 and    
smoking flax shall he not quench1 till  
he send forth judgment unto  victory4   
7,matt4 xii4 #ai1 #bj47    ,the         
,christian will not dispute with anyone1
 nor attack anyone1 nor  use violence   
against anyone4 ,on the contrary1 he    
will bear violence  without opposing it4
 ,but by this very attitude to violence1
 he will  not only himself be free1 but 
will free the whole world from all      
external power4    ,ye shall know the   
truth1 and the truth shall make you     
free4  ,if there were any doubt of      
,christianity being the truth1 the      
perfect liberty1 that nothing can       
curtail1 which a man experiences        
directly he makes the ,christian theory 
of life his own1 would be an            
unmistakable proof of its truth4    ,men
 in their present condition are like a  
swarm of bees hanging  in a cluster to a
 branch4 ,the position of the bees on   
the branch  is temporary1 and must      

inevitably be changed4 ,they must start 
off  and find themselves a habitation4  
,each of the bees knows this1 and       
desires to change her own and the       
others' position1 but no one of  them   
can do it till the rest of them do it4  
,they cannot all start  off at once1    
because one hangs on to another and     
hinders her from  separating from the   
swarm1 and therefore they all continue  
to hang  there4 ,it would seem that the 
bees could never escape from their      
position1 just as it seems that worldly 
men1 caught in the toils of  the state  
conception of life1 can never escape4   
,and there would be  no escape for the  
bees1 if each of them were not a living1
 separate  creature1 endowed with wings 
of its own4 ,similarly there would be   
no escape for men1 if each were not a   
living being endowed with the  faculty  
of entering into the ,christian         
conception of life4    ,if every bee who
 could fly1 did not try to fly1 the     
others1 too1  would never be stirred1   

and the swarm would never change its    
position4 ,and if the man who has       
mastered the ,christian conception  of  
life would not1 without waiting for     
other people1 begin to live  in         
accordance with this conception1 mankind
 would never change its  position4 ,but 
only let one bee spread her wings1 start
 off1 and fly  away1 and after her      
another1 and another1 and the clinging1 
inert  cluster would become a freely    
flying swarm of bees4 ,just in the same 
way1 only let one man look at life as   
,christianity teaches him to  look at   
it1 and after him let another and       
another do the same1 and  the enchanted 
circle of existence in the state        
conception of life1  from which there   
seemed no escape1 will be broken        
through4    ,but men think that to set  
all men free by this means is too slow a
  process1 that they must find some     
other means by which they could  set all
 men free at once4 ,it is just as though
 the bees who want to  start and fly    

away should consider it too long a      
process to wait for  all the swarm to   
start one by one2 and should think they 
ought to  find some means by which it   
would not be necessary for every        
separate  bee to spread her wings and   
fly off1 but by which the whole swarm   
could fly at once where it wanted to4   
,but that is not possible2 till  a      
first1 a second1 a third1 a hundredth   
bee spreads her wings and  flies off of 
her own accord1 the swarm will not fly  
off and will not  begin its new life4   
,till every individual man makes the    
,christian  conception of life his own1 
and begins to live in accord with it1   
there can be no solution of the problem 
of human life1 and no  establishment of 
a new form of life4    ,one of the most 
striking phenomena of our times is      
precisely this  advocacy of slavery1    
which is promulgated among the masses1  
not by  governments1 in whom it is      
inevitable1 but by men who1 in          
advocating  socialistic theories1 regard

 themselves as the champions of freedom4
    ,these people advance the opinion   
that the amelioration of life1 the      
bringing of the facts of life into      
harmony with the conscience1 will  come1
 not as the result of the personal      
efforts of individual men1  but of      
itself as the result of a certain       
possible reconstruction  of society     
effected in some way or other4 ,the idea
 is promulgated  that men ought not to  
walk on their own legs where they want  
and  ought to go1 but that a kind of    
floor under their feet will be moved    
somehow1 so that on it they can reach   
where they ought to go without  moving  
their own legs4 ,and1 therefore1 all    
their efforts ought to  be directed1 not
 to going so far as their strength      
allows in the  direction they ought to  
go1 but to standing still and           
constructing  such a floor4    ,in the  
sphere of political economy a theory is 
propounded which  amounts to saying that
 the worse things are the better they   

are2 that  the greater the accumulation 
of capital1 and therefore the oppression
  of the workman1 the nearer the day of 
emancipation1 and1 therefore1  every    
personal effort on the part of a man to 
free himself from the  oppression of    
capital is useless4 ,in the sphere of   
government it  is maintained that the   
greater the power of the government1    
which1  according to this theory1 ought 
to intervene in every department  of    
private life in which it has not yet    
intervened1 the better it  will be1 and 
that therefore we ought to invoke the   
interference of  government in private  
life4 ,in politics and international    
questions  it is maintained that the    
improvement of the means of destruction1
  the multiplication of armaments1 will 
lead to the necessity of making  war by 
means of congresses1 arbitration1 and so
 on4 ,and1 marvelous  to say1 so great  
is the dullness of men1 that they       
believe in these  theories1 in spite of 
the fact that the whole course of life1 

every  step they take1 shows how        
unworthy they are of belief4    ,the    
people are suffering from oppression1   
and to deliver them from  this          
oppression they are advised to frame    
general measures for the  improvement of
 their position1 which measures are to  
be intrusted to  the authorities1 and   
themselves to continue to yield         
obedience to  the authorities4 ,and     
obviously all that results from this is 
only  greater power in the hands of the 
authorities1 and greater oppression     
resulting from it4    ,not one of the   
errors of men carries them so far away  
from the aim  toward which they are     
struggling as this very one4 ,they do   
all kinds  of different things for the  
attainment of their aim1 but not the one
  simple obvious thing which is within  
reach of everyone4 ,they devise  the    
subtlest means for changing the position
 which is irksome to  them1 but not that
 simplest means1 that everyone should   
refrain from  doing what leads to that  

position4    ,i have been told a story  
of a gallant police officer1 who came to
  a village where the peasants were in  
insurrection and the military  had been 
called out1 and he undertook to pacify  
the insurrection  in the spirit of      
,nicholas ,i41 by his personal influence
 alone4 ,he  ordered some loads of rods 
to be brought1 and collecting all the   
peasants together into a barn1 he went  
in with them1 locking the door  after   
him4 ,to begin with1 he so terrified the
 peasants by his loud  threats that1    
reduced to submission by him1 they set  
to work to flog  one another at his     
command4 ,and so they flogged one       
another until  a simpleton was found who
 would not allow himself to be flogged1 
and shouted to his companions not to    
flog one another4 ,only then  the       
flogging ceased1 and the police officer 
made his escape4 ,well1  this           
simpleton's advice would never be       
followed by men of the state  conception
 of life1 who continue to flog one      

another1 and teach  people that this    
very act of self-castigation is the last
 word of  human wisdom4    ,indeed1 can 
one imagine a more striking instance of 
men flogging  themselves than the       
submissiveness with which men of our    
times will  perform the very duties     
required of them to keep them in        
slavery1  especially the duty of        
military service8 ,we see people        
enslaving  themselves1 suffering from   
this slavery1 and believing that it must
  be so1 that it does not matter1 and   
will not hinder the emancipation  of    
men1 which is being prepared somewhere1 
somehow1 in spite of the                
ever-increasing growth of slavery4      
,in fact1 take any man of the present   
time whatever 7,i don't mean a  true    
,christian1 but an average man of the   
present day71 educated  or uneducated1  
believing or unbelieving1 rich or poor1 
married or  unmarried4 ,such a man lives
 working at his work1 or enjoying his   
amusements1 spending the fruits of his  

labors on himself or on those  near to  
him1 and1 like everyone1 hating every   
kind of restriction and  deprivation1   
dissension and suffering4 ,such a man is
 going his way  peaceably1 when suddenly
 people come and say to him3 ,first1    
promise  and swear to us that you will  
slavishly obey us in everything we      
dictate to you1 and will consider       
absolutely good and authoritative       
everything we plan1 decide1 and call    
law4 ,secondly1 hand over a  part of the
 fruits of your labors for us to dispose
 of--we will use  the money to keep you 
in slavery1 and to hinder you from      
forcibly  opposing our orders4 ,thirdly1
 elect others1 or be yourself elected1  
to take a pretended share in the        
government1 knowing all the while  that 
the government will proceed quite       
without regard to the foolish  speeches 
you1 and those like you1 may utter1 and 
knowing that its  proceedings will be   
according to our will1 the will of those
 who have  the army in their hands4     

,fourthly1 come at a certain time to the
  law courts and take your share in     
those senseless cruelties which  we     
perpetrate on sinners1 and those whom we
 have corrupted1 in the  shape of penal 
servitude1 exile1 solitary confinement1 
and death4 ,and  fifthly and lastly1    
more than all this1 in spite of the fact
 that  you may be on the friendliest    
terms with people of other nations1  be 
ready1 directly we order you to do so1  
to regard those whom we  indicate to you
 as your enemies2 and be ready to       
assist1 either in  person or by proxy1  
in devastation1 plunder1 and murder of  
their  men1 women1 children1 and aged   
alike--possibly your own kinsmen or     
relations--if that is necessary to us4  
,one would expect that every man of the 
present day who has a grain  of sense   
left1 might reply to such requirements1 
,but why should ,i  do all this8 ,one   
would think every right-minded man must 
say in  amazement3 ,why should ,i       
promise to yield obedience to everything

 that  has been decreed first by        
,salisbury1 then by ,gladstone2 one day 
by  ,boulanger1 and another by          
,parliament2 one day by ,peter ,,iii41  
the next  by ,catherine1 and the day    
after by ,pougachef2 one day by a mad   
king  of ,bavaria1 another by ,william8 
,why should ,i promise to obey them1    
knowing them to be wicked or foolish    
people1 or else not knowing them  at    
all8 ,why am ,i to hand over the fruits 
of my labors to them in the  shape of   
taxes1 knowing that the money will be   
spent on the support  of officials1     
prisons1 churches1 armies1 on things    
that are harmful1  and on my own        
enslavement8 ,why should ,i punish      
myself8 ,why should  ,i go wasting my   
time and hoodwinking myself1 giving to  
miscreant  evildoers a semblance of     
legality1 by taking part in elections1  
and  pretending that ,i am taking part  
in the government1 when ,i know  very   
well that the real control of the       
government is in the hands  of those who

 have got hold of the army8 ,why should 
,i go to the law  courts to take part in
 the trial and punishment of men because
 they  have sinned1 knowing1 if ,i am a 
,christian1 that the law of vengence  is
 replaced by the law of love1 and1 if ,i
 am an educated man1 that  punishments  
do not reform1 but only deprave those on
 whom they are  inflicted8 ,and why1    
most of all1 am ,i to consider as       
enemies the  people of a neighboring    
nation1 with whom ,i have hitherto lived
 and  with whom ,i wish to live in love 
and harmony1 and to kill and rob  them1 
or to bring them to misery1 simply in   
order that the keys of  the temple at   
,jerusalem may be in the hands of one   
archbishop and not  another1 that one   
,german and not another may be prince in
 ,bulgaria1  or that the ,english rather
 than the ,american merchants may       
capture  seals8    ,and why1 most of    
all1 should ,i take part in person or   
hire others to  murder my own brothers  
and kinsmen8 ,why should ,i flog myself8

 ,it is  altogether unnecessary for me2 
it is hurtful to me1 and from every     
point of view it is immoral1 base1 and  
vile4 ,so why should ,i do  this8 ,if   
you tell me that if ,i do it not ,i     
shall receive some injury  from someone1
 then1 in the first place1 ,i cannot    
anticipate from  anyone an injury so    
great as the injury you bring on me if  
,i obey  you2 and secondly1 it is       
perfectly clear to me that if we our own
  selves do not flog ourselves1 no one  
will flog us4    ,as for the            
government--that means the tzars1       
ministers1 and officials  with pens in  
their hands1 who cannot force us into   
doing anything1  as that officer of     
police compelled the peasants2 the men  
who will  drag us to the law court1 to  
prison1 and to execution1 are not tzars 
or officials with pens in their hands1  
but the very people who are  in the same
 position as we are4 ,and it is just as 
unprofitable and  harmful and unpleasant
 to them to be flogged as to me1 and    

therefore  there is every likelihood    
that if ,i open their eyes they not only
  would not treat me with violence1 but 
would do just as ,i am doing4           
,thirdly1 even if it should come to pass
 that ,i had to suffer for it1  even    
then it would be better for me to be    
exiled or sent to prison  for standing  
up for common sense and right--which1 if
 not to-day1  at least within a very    
short time1 must be triumphant--than to 
suffer for folly and wrong which must   
come to an end directly4 ,and           
therefore1 even in that case1 it is     
better to run the risk of their         
banishing me1 shutting me up in prison1 
or executing me1 than of my  living all 
my life in bondage1 through my own      
fault1 to wicked men4  ,better is this  
than the possibility of being destroyed 
by victorious  enemies1 and being       
stupidly tortured and killed by them1 in
 fighting  for a cannon1 or a piece of  
land of no use to anyone1 or for a      
senseless rag called a banner4    ,i    

don't want to flog myself and ,i won't  
do it4 ,i have no reason to do  it4 ,do 
it yourselves1 if you want it done2 but 
,i won't do it4    ,one would have      
thought that not religious or moral     
feeling alone1  but the simplest common 
sense and foresight should impel every  
man of  the present day to answer and to
 act in that way4 ,but not so4 ,men of  
the state conception of life are of the 
opinion that to act in that  way is not 
necessary1 and is even prejudicial to   
the attainment of  their object1 the    
emancipation of men from slavery4 ,they 
hold that  we must continue1 like the   
police officer's peasants1 to flog one  
another1 consoling ourselves with the   
reflection that we are talking  away in 
the assemblies and meetings1 founding   
trades unions1 marching  through the    
streets on the #ast of ,may1 getting up 
conspiracies1 and  stealthily teasing   
the government that is flogging us1 and 
that  through all this it will be       
brought to pass that1 by enslaving      

ourselves in closer and closer bondage1 
we shall very soon be free4    ,nothing 
hinders the emancipation of men from    
slavery so much as this  amazing error4 
,instead of every man directing his     
energies to freeing  himself1 to        
transforming his conception of life1    
people seek for an  external united     
method of gaining freedom1 and continue 
to rivet  their chains faster and       
faster4    ,it is much as if men were to
 maintain that to make up a fire there  
was no need to kindle any of the coals1 
but that all that was  necessary was to 
arrange the coals in a certain order4   
,yet the fact  that the freedom of all  
men will be brought about only through  
the  freedom of individual persons1     
becomes more and more clear as time     
goes on4 ,the freedom of individual men1
 in the name of the ,christian          
conception of life1 from state          
domination1 which was formerly  an      
exceptional and unnoticed phenomenon1   
has of late acquired  threatening       

significance for state authorities4     
,if in a former age1 in the ,roman      
times1 it happened that a ,christian    
confessed his religion and refused to   
take part in sacrifices1 and to  worship
 the emperors or the gods2 or in the    
,middle ,ages a ,christian  refused to  
worship images1 or to acknowledge the   
authority of the  ,pope--these cases    
were in the first place a matter of     
chance4 ,a man  might be placed under   
the necessity of confessing his faith1  
or he  might live all his life without  
being placed under this necessity4  ,but
 now all men1 without exception1 are    
subjected to this trial of  their faith4
 ,every man of the present day is under 
the necessity  of taking part in the    
cruelties of pagan life1 or of refusing 
all  participation in them4 ,and        
secondly1 in those days cases of refusal
  to worship the gods or the images or  
the ,pope were not incidents that  had  
any material bearing on the state4      
,whether men worshiped or did  not      

worship the gods or the images or the   
,pope1 the state remained  just as      
powerful4 ,but now cases of refusing to 
comply with the  unchristian demands of 
the government are striking at the very 
root  of state authority1 because the   
whole authority of the state is based   
on the compliance with these unchristian
 demands4    ,the sovereign powers of   
the world have in the course of time    
been  brought into a position in which1 
for their own preservation1 they  must  
require from all men actions which      
cannot be performed by men  who profess 
true ,christianity4    ,and therefore in
 our days every profession of true      
,christianity1 by  any individual man1  
strikes at the most essential power of  
the state1  and inevitably leads the way
 for the emancipation of all4    ,what  
importance1 one might think1 can one    
attach to such an incident  as some     
dozens of crazy fellows1 as people will 
call them1 refusing  to take the oath of
 allegiance to the government1 refusing 

to pay  taxes1 to take part in law      
proceedings or in military service8     
,these people are punished and exiled to
 a distance1 and life goes  on in its   
old way4 ,one might think there was no  
importance in such  incidents2 but yet1 
it is just those incidents1 more than   
anything  else1 that will undermine the 
power of the state and prepare the  way 
for the freedom of men4 ,these are the  
individual bees1 who are  beginning to  
separate from the swarm1 and are flying 
near it1 waiting  till the whole swarm  
can no longer be prevented from starting
 off  after them4 ,and the governments  
know this1 and fear such incidents  more
 than all the socialists1 communists1   
and anarchists1 and their  plots and    
dynamite bombs4    ,a new reign is      
beginning4 ,according to the universal  
rule and  established order it is       
required that all the subjects should   
take  the oath of allegiance to the new 
government4 ,there is a general  decree 
to that effect1 and all are summoned to 

the council-houses to  take the oath4   
,all at once one man in ,perm1 another  
in ,tula1 a third  in ,moscow1 and a    
fourth in ,kalouga declare that they    
will not take  the oath1 and though     
there is no communication between them1 
they  all explain their refusal on the  
same grounds--namely1 that swearing  is 
forbidden by the law of ,christ1 and    
that even if swearing had not  been     
forbidden1 they could not1 in the spirit
 of the law of ,christ1  promise to     
perform the evil actions required of    
them in the oath1  such as informing    
against all such as may act against the 
interests  of the government1 or        
defending their government with firearms
  or attacking its enemies4 ,they are   
brought before rural police  officers1  
district police captains1 priests1 and  
governors4 ,they are  admonished1       
questioned1 threatened1 and punished2   
but they adhere to  their resolution1   
and do not take the oath4 ,and among the
 millions of  those who did take the    

oath1 those dozens go on living who did 
not  take the oath4 ,and they are       
questioned3    ,what1 didn't you take   
the oath8    ,no1 ,i didn't take the    
oath4    ,and what happened--nothing8   
,nothing4    ,the subjects of a state   
are all bound to pay taxes4 ,and        
everyone  pays taxes1 till suddenly one 
man in ,kharkov1 another in ,tver1 and  
a third in ,samara refuse to pay        
taxes--all1 as though in collusion1     
saying the same thing4 ,one says he will
 only pay when they tell him  what      
object the money taken from him will be 
spent on4 ,if it is for  good deeds1 he 
says1 he will give it of his own accord1
 and more  even than is required of him4
 ,if for evil deeds1 then he will give  
nothing voluntarily1 because by the law 
of ,christ1 whose follower he  is1 he   
cannot take part in evil deeds4 ,the    
others1 too1 say the same  in other     
words1 and will not voluntarily pay the 
taxes4    ,those who have anything to be
 taken have their property taken from   

them by force2 as for those who have    
nothing1 they are left alone4    ,what1 
didn't you pay the tax8    ,no1 ,i      
didn't pay it4    ,and what             
happened--nothing8    ,nothing4         
,there is the institution of passports4 
,everyone moving from his  place of     
residence is bound to carry one1 and to 
pay a duty on it4  ,suddenly people are 
to be found in various places declaring 
that to  carry a passport is not        
necessary1 that one ought not to        
recognize  one's dependence on a state  
which exists by means of force2 and     
these  people do not carry passports1 or
 pay the duty on them4 ,and again1  it's
 impossible to force those people by any
 means to do what is  required4 ,they   
send them to jail1 and let them out     
again1 and these  people live without   
passports4    ,all peasants are bound to
 fill certain police offices--that of   
village constable1 and of watchman1 and 
so on4 ,suddenly in ,kharkov  a peasant 
refuses to perform this duty1 justifying

 his refusal on  the ground that by the 
law of ,christ1 of which he is a        
follower1 he  cannot put any man in     
fetters1 lock him up1 or drag him from  
place  to place4 ,the same declaration  
is made by a peasant in ,tver1 another  
in ,tambov4 ,these peasants are abused1 
beaten1 shut up in prison1  but they    
stick to their resolution and don't fill
 these offices  against their           
convictions4 ,and at last they cease to 
appoint them as  constables4 ,and again 
nothing happens4    ,all citizens are   
obliged to take a share in law          
proceedings in the  character of        
jurymen4 ,suddenly the most different   
people--mechanics1  professors1         
tradesmen1 peasants1 servants1 as though
 by agreement  refuse to fill this      
office1 and not on the grounds allowed  
as  sufficient by law1 but because any  
process at law is1 according to  their  
views1 unchristian4 ,they fine these    
people1 trying not to let  them have an 
opportunity of explaining their motives 

in public1 and  replace them by others4 
,and again nothing can be done4    ,all 
young men of twenty-one years of age are
 obliged to draw lots for  service in   
the army4 ,all at once one young man in 
,moscow1 another in  ,tver1 a third in  
,kharkov1 and a fourth in ,kiev present 
themselves  before the authorities1 and1
 as though by previous agreement1       
declare  that they will not take the    
oath1 they will not serve because  they 
are ,christians4 ,i will give the       
details of one of the first  cases1     
since they have become more frequent1   
which ,i happen to know  about4#ae ,the 
same treatment has been repeated in     
every other case4  ,a young man of fair 
education refuses in the ,moscow        
,townhall to take  the oath4 ,no        
attention is paid to what he says1 and  
it is requested  that he should         
pronounce the words of the oath like the
 rest4 ,he  declines1 quoting a         
particular passage of the ,gospel in    
which  swearing is forbidden4 ,no       

attention is paid to his arguments1 and 
he  is again requested to comply with   
the order1 but he does not comply  with 
it4 ,then it is supposed that he is a   
sectary and therefore does  not         
understand ,christianity in the right   
sense1 that is to say1  not in the sense
 in which the priests in the pay of the 
government  understand it4 ,and the     
young man is conducted under escort to  
the  priests1 that they may bring him to
 reason4 ,the priests begin to  reason  
with him1 but their efforts in ,christ's
 name to persuade  him to renounce      
,christ obviously have no influence on  
him2 he is  pronounced incorrigible and 
sent back again to the army4 ,he        
persists  in not taking the oath and    
openly refuses to perform any military  
duties4 ,it is a case that has not been 
provided for by the laws4 ,to  overlook 
such a refusal to comply with the       
demands of the authorities  is out of   
the question1 but to put such a case on 
a par with simple  breach of discipline 

is also out of the question4      #ae   
,all the details of this case1 as well  
as those preceding it1 are    authentic4
    ,after deliberation among           
themselves1 the military authorities    
decide to get rid of the troublesome    
young man1 to consider him  as a        
revolutionist1 and they dispatch him    
under escort to the  committee of the   
secret police4 ,the police authorities  
and gendarmes  cross-question him1 but  
nothing that he says can be brought     
under the  head of any of the           
misdemeanors which come under their     
jurisdiction4  ,and there is no         
possibility of accusing him either of   
revolutionary  acts or revolutionary    
plotting1 since he declares that he does
 not  wish to attack anything1 but1 on  
the contrary1 is opposed to any  use of 
force1 and1 far from plotting in secret1
 he seeks every  opportunity of saying  
and doing all that he says and does in  
the  most open manner4 ,and the         
gendarmes1 though they are bound by no  

hard-and-fast rules1 still find no      
ground for a criminal charge in  the    
young man1 and1 like the clergy1 they   
send him back to the army4  ,again the  
authorities deliberate together1 and    
decide to accept  him though he has not 
taken the oath1 and to enrol him among  
the  soldiers4 ,they put him into the   
uniform1 enrol him1 and send him  under 
guard to the place where the army is    
quartered4 ,there the chief  officer of 
the division which he enters again      
expects the young man  to perform his   
military duties1 and again he refuses to
 obey1 and in  the presence of other    
soldiers explains the reason of his     
refusal1  saying that he as a ,christian
 cannot voluntarily prepare himself to  
commit murder1 which is forbidden by the
 law of ,moses4    ,this incident occurs
 in a provincial town4 ,the case awakens
 the  interest1 and even the sympathy1  
not only of outsiders1 but even  of the 
officers4 ,and the chief officers       
consequently do not decide  to punish   

this refusal of obedience with          
disciplinary measures4 ,to  save        
appearances1 though1 they shut the young
 man up in prison1 and  write to the    
highest military authorities to inquire 
what they are  to do4 ,to refuse to     
serve in the army1 in which the ,tzar   
himself  serves1 and which enjoys the   
blessing of the ,church1 seems insanity 
from the official point of view4        
,consequently they write from           
,petersburg that1 since the young man   
must be out of his mind1 they  must not 
use any severe treatment with him1 but  
must send him to a  lunatic asylum1 that
 his mental condition may be inquired   
into and  be scientifically treated4    
,they send him to the asylum in the hope
  that he will remain there1 like       
another young man1 who refused ten      
years ago at ,tver to serve in the army1
 and who was tortured in  the asylum    
till he submitted4 ,but even this step  
does not rid the  military authorities  
of the inconvenient man4 ,the doctors   

examine  him1 interest themselves warmly
 in his case1 and naturally finding in  
him no symptoms of mental disease1 send 
him back to the army4 ,there  they      
receive him1 and making believe to have 
forgotten his refusal1  and his motives 
for it1 they again request him to go to 
drill1 and  again in the presence of the
 other soldiers he refuses and explains 
the reason of his refusal4 ,the affair  
continues to attract more and  more     
attention1 both among the soldiers and  
the inhabitants of the  town4 ,again    
they write to ,petersburg1 and thence   
comes the decree  to transfer the young 
man to some division of the army        
stationed on  the frontier1 in some     
place where the army is under martial   
law1  where he can be shot for refusing 
to obey1 and where the matter can       
proceed without attracting observation1 
seeing that there are few  ,russians and
 ,christians in such a distant part1 but
 the majority are  foreigners and       
,mohammedans4 ,this is accordingly done4

 ,they transfer  him to a division      
stationed on the ,zacaspian border1 and 
in company  with convicts send him to a 
chief officer who is notorious for his  
harshness and severity4    ,all this    
time1 through all these changes from    
place to place1 the  young man is       
roughly treated1 kept in cold1 hunger1  
and filth1 and  life is made burdensome 
to him generally4 ,but all these        
sufferings  do not compel him to change 
his resolution4 ,on the ,zacaspian      
border1 where he is again requested to  
go on guard fully armed1 he  again      
declines to obey4 ,he does not refuse to
 go and stand near  the haystacks where 
they place him1 but refuses to take his 
arms1  declaring that he will not use   
violence in any case against anyone4    
,all this takes place in the presence of
 the other soldiers4 ,to let  such a    
refusal pass unpunished is impossible1  
and the young man is  put on his trial  
for breach of discipline4 ,the trial    
takes place1  and he is sentenced to    

confinement in the military prison for  
two  years4 ,he is again transferred1 in
 company with convicts1 by tape1  to    
,caucasus1 and there he is shut up in   
prison and falls under the              
irresponsible power of the jailer4      
,there he is persecuted for a year  and 
a half1 but he does not for all that    
alter his decision not to  bear arms1   
and he explains why he will not do this 
to everyone with  whom he is brought in 
contact4 ,at the end of the second year 
they  set him free1 before the end of   
his term of imprisonment1 reckoning  it 
contrary to law to keep him in prison   
after his time of military  service was 
over1 and only too glad to get rid of   
him as soon as  possible4    ,other men 
in various parts of ,russia behave1 as  
though by agreement1  precisely in the  
same way as this young man1 and in all  
these cases  the government has adopted 
the same timorous1 undecided1 and       
secretive course of action4 ,some of    
these men are sent to the lunatic       

asylum1 some are enrolled as clerks and 
transferred to ,siberia1 some  are sent 
to work in the forests1 some are sent to
 prison1 some are  fined4 ,and at this  
very time some men of this kind are in  
prison1  not charged with their real    
offense--that is1 denying the lawfulness
  of the action of the government1 but  
for non-fulfillment of special          
obligations imposed by government4 ,thus
 an officer of reserve1 who  did not    
report his change of residence1 and     
justified this on the  ground that he   
would not serve in the army any longer1 
was fined  thirty rubles for            
non-compliance with the orders of the   
superior  authority4 ,this fine he also 
declined voluntarily to pay4 ,in the    
same  way some peasants and soldiers who
 have refused to be drilled and  to bear
 arms have been placed under arrest on a
 charge of breach of  discipline and    
insolence4    ,and cases of refusing to 
comply with the demands of government   
when  they are opposed to ,christianity1

 and especially cases of refusing  to   
serve in the army1 are occurring of late
 not in ,russia only1  but everywhere4  
,thus ,i happen to know that in ,servia 
men of the  so-called sect of ,nazarenes
 steadily refuse to serve in the army1  
and the ,austrian ,government has been  
carrying on a fruitless contest  with   
them for years1 punishing them with     
imprisonment4 ,in the year  #ahhe there 
were #acj such cases4 ,i know that in   
,switzerland in the  year #ahij there   
were men in prison in the castle of     
,chillon for  declining to serve in the 
army1 whose resolution was not shaken by
  their punishment4 ,there have been    
such cases in ,sweden1 and the  men who 
refused obedience were sent to prison in
 exactly the same  way1 and the         
government studiously concealed these   
cases from the  people4 ,there have been
 similar cases also in ,prussia4 ,i know
 of the  case of a sub-lieutenant of the
 ,guards1 who in #ahia declared to the  
authorities in ,berlin that he would    

not1 as a ,christian1 continue  to      
serve1 and in spite of all admonitions1 
threats1 and punishments  he stuck to   
his resolution4 ,in the south of ,france
 a society has  arisen of late bearing  
the name of the ,hinschists 7these facts
 are  taken from the ,peace ,herald1    
,july1 #ahia71 the members of which     
refuse to enter military service on the 
grounds of their ,christian  principles4
 ,at first they were enrolled in the    
ambulance corps1 but  now1 as their     
numbers increase1 they are subjected to 
punishment for  non-compliance1 but they
 still refuse to bear arms just the     
same4    ,the socialists1 the           
communists1 the anarchists1 with their  
bombs and  riots and revolutions1 are   
not nearly so much dreaded by           
governments  as these disconnected      
individuals coming from different parts1
 and  all justifying their              
non-compliance on the grounds of the    
same  religion1 which is known to all   
the world4    ,every government knows by

 what means and in what manner to       
defend itself from revolutionists1 and  
has resources for doing  so1 and        
therefore does not dread these external 
foes4 ,but what  are governments to do  
against men who show the uselessness1   
superfluousness1 and perniciousness of  
all governments1 and who do  not contend
 against them1 but simply do not need   
them and do without  them1 and therefore
 are unwilling to take any part in them8
    ,the revolutionists say3 ,the form  
of government is bad in this respect    
and that respect2 we must overturn it   
and substitute this or that  form of    
government4 ,the ,christian says3 ,i    
know nothing about the  form of         
government1 ,i don't know whether it is 
good or bad1 and ,i  don't want to      
overturn it precisely because ,i don't  
know whether it's  good or bad1 but for 
the very same reason ,i don't want to   
support it  either4 ,and ,i not only    
don't want to1 but ,i can't1 because    
what it  demands of me is against my    

conscience4    ,all state obligations   
are against the conscience of a         
,christian--the  oath of allegiance1    
taxes1 law proceedings1 and military    
service4 ,and  the whole power of the   
government rests on these very          
obligations4    ,revolutionary enemies  
attack the government from without4     
,christianity does not attack it at all1
 but1 from within1 it destroys  all the 
foundations on which government rests4  
,among the ,russian people1 especially  
since the age of ,peter ,i41 the        
protest of ,christianity against the    
government has never ceased1 and  the   
social organization has been such that  
men emigrate in communes  to ,turkey1 to
 ,china1 and to uninhabited lands1 and  
not only feel no  need of state aid1 but
 always regard the state as a useless   
burden1  only to be endured as a        
misfortune1 whether it happens to be    
,turkish1  ,russian1 or ,chinese4 ,and  
so1 too1 among the ,russian people more 
and  more frequent examples have of late

 appeared of conscious ,christian       
freedom from subjection to the state4   
,and these examples are the more        
alarming for the government from the    
fact that these non-compliant  persons  
often belong not to the so-called lower 
uneducated classes1  but are men of fair
 or good education2 and also from the   
fact that  they do not in these days    
justify their position by any mystic and
  exceptional views1 as in former times1
 do not associate themselves  with any  
superstitious or fanatic rites1 like the
 sects who practice  self-immolation by 
fire1 or the wandering pilgrims1 but put
 their  refusal on the very simplest and
 clearest grounds1 comprehensible to    
all1 and recognized as true by all4     
,thus they refuse the voluntary payment 
of taxes1 because taxes are  spent on   
deeds of violence--on the pay of men of 
violence--soldiers1  on the construction
 of prisons1 fortresses1 and cannons4   
,they as  ,christians regard it as      
sinful and immoral to have any hand in  

such  deeds4    ,those who refuse to    
take the oath of allegiance refuse      
because to  promise obedience to        
authorities1 that is1 to men who are    
given to  deeds of violence1 is contrary
 to the sense of ,christ's teaching4    
,they refuse to take the oath in the law
 courts1 because oaths are  directly    
forbidden by the ,gospel4 ,they refuse  
to perform police  duties1 because in   
the performance of these duties they    
must use  force against their brothers  
and ill treat them1 and a ,christian    
cannot do that4 ,they refuse to take    
part in trials at law1 because  they    
consider every appeal to law is         
fulfilling the law of vengeance1  which 
is inconsistent with the ,christian law 
of forgiveness and love4  ,they refuse  
to take any part in military            
preparations and in the  army1 because  
they cannot be executioners1 and they   
are unwilling to  prepare themselves to 
be so4    ,the motives in all these     
cases are so excellent that1 however    

despotic governments may be1 they could 
hardly punish them openly4  ,to punish  
men for refusing to act against their   
conscience the  government must renounce
 all claim to good sense and            
benevolence4 ,and  they assure people   
that they only rule in the name of good 
sense and  benevolence4    ,what are    
governments to do against such people8  
,governments can of course flog to death
 or execute or keep in  perpetual       
imprisonment all enemies who want to    
overturn them by  violence1 they can    
lavish gold on that section of the      
people who are  ready to destroy their  
enemies4 ,but what can they do against  
men  who1 without wishing to overturn or
 destroy anything1 desire simply  for   
their part to do nothing against the law
 of ,christ1 and who1  therefore1 refuse
 to perform the commonest state         
requirements1 which  are1 therefore1 the
 most indispensable to the maintenance  
of the  state8    ,if they had been     
revolutionists1 advocating and          

practicing violence  and murder1 their  
suppression would have been an easy     
matter2 some  of them could have been   
bought over1 some could have been duped1
 some  could have been overawed1 and    
these who could not be bought over1     
duped1 or overawed would have been      
treated as criminals1 enemies  of       
society1 would have been executed or    
imprisoned1 and the crowd  would have   
approved of the action of the           
government4 ,if they had  been fanatics1
 professing some peculiar belief1 it    
might have been  possible1 in disproving
 the superstitious errors mixed in with 
their  religion1 to attack also the     
truth they advocate4 ,but what is to be 
done with men who profess no            
revolutionary ideas nor any peculiar    
religious dogmas1 but merely because    
they are unwilling to do evil to  any   
man1 refuse to take the oath1 to pay    
taxes1 to take part in law  proceedings1
 to serve in the army1 to fulfill1 in   
fact1 any of the  obligations upon which

 the whole fabric of a state rests8     
,what is to  done with such people8 ,to 
buy them over with bribes is impossible2
  the very risks to which they          
voluntarily expose themselves show that 
they are incorruptible4 ,to dupe them   
into believing that this is  their duty 
to ,god is also impossible1 since their 
refusal is based on  the clear1         
unmistakable law of ,god1 recognized    
even by those who are  trying to compel 
men to act against it4 ,to terrify them 
by threats is  still less possible1     
because the deprivations and sufferings 
to which  they are subjected only       
strengthen their desire to follow the   
faith  by which they are commanded3 to  
obey ,god rather than men1 and not to   
fear those who can destroy the body1 but
 to fear him who can destroy  body and  
soul4 ,to kill them or keep them in     
perpetual imprisonment  is also         
impossible4 ,these men have friends1 and
 a past2 their way  of thinking and     
acting is well known2 they are known by 

everyone  for good1 gentle1 peaceable   
people1 and they cannot be regarded as  
criminals who must be removed for the   
safety of society4 ,and to put  men to  
death who are regarded as good men is to
 provoke others to  champion them and   
justify their refusal4 ,and it is only  
necessary  to explain the reasons of    
their refusal to make clear to everyone 
that these reasons have the same force  
for all other men1 and that  they all   
ought to have done the same long ago4   
,these cases put the  ruling powers into
 a desperate position4 ,they see that   
the prophecy  of ,christianity is coming
 to pass1 that it is loosening the      
fetters  of those in chains1 and setting
 free them that are in bondage1 and     
that this must inevitably be the end of 
all oppressors4 ,the ruling  authorities
 see this1 they know that their hours   
are numbered1 and  they can do nothing4 
,all that they can do to save themselves
 is only  deferring the hour of their   
downfall4 ,and this they do1 but their  

position is none the less desperate4    
,it is like the position of a conqueror 
who is trying to save a town  which has 
been been set on fire by its own        
inhabitants4 ,directly he  puts out the 
conflagration in one place1 it is alight
 in two other  places2 directly he gives
 in to the fire and cuts off what is on 
fire  from a large building1 the        
building itself is alight at both ends4 
,these separate fires may be few1 but   
they are burning with a flame  which1   
however small a spark it starts from1   
never ceases till it has  set the whole 
ablaze4    ,thus it is that the ruling  
authorities are in such a defenseless   
position before men who advocate        
,christianity1 that but little is       
necessary to overthrow this sovereign   
power which seems so powerful1  and has 
held such an exalted position for so    
many centuries4 ,and  yet social        
reformers are busy promulgating the idea
 that it is not  necessary and is even  
pernicious and immoral for every man    

separately  to work out his own freedom4
 ,as though1 while one set of men have  
been at work a long while turning a     
river into a new channel1 and had  dug  
out a complete water-course and had only
 to open the floodgates  for the water  
to rush in and do the rest1 another set 
of men should  come along and begin to  
advise them that it would be much       
better1  instead of letting the water   
out1 to construct a machine which would 
ladle the water up from one side and    
pour it over the other side4    ,but the
 thing has gone too far4 ,already ruling
 governments feel their  weak and       
defenseless position1 and men of        
,christian principles are  awakening    
from their apathy1 and already begin to 
feel their power4    ,i am come to send 
a fire on the earth1 said ,christ1 and  
what will  ,i1 if it be already kindled8
    ,and this fire is beginning to burn4
          ,,chapter ,x4         ,,evil  
,,cannot ,,be ,,suppressed ,,by ,,the   
,,physical ,,force ,,of ,,the           

,,government--,,the ,,moral ,,progress  
,,of ,,humanity ,,is ,,brought ,,about  
,,not       ,,only ,,by ,,individual    
,,recognition ,,of ,,truth1 ,,but ,,also
 ,,through ,,the       ,,establishment  
,,of ,a ,,public ,,opinion4             
,christianity ,destroys the ,state--,but
 ,which is ,most ,necessary3            
,christianity or the ,state8--,there are
 ,some who ,assert the       ,necessity 
of a ,state ,organization1 and ,others  
who ,deny it1 both       ,arguing from  
same ,first ,principles--,neither       
,contention can       be ,proved by     
,abstract ,argument--,the ,question must
 be ,decided       by the ,stage in the 
,development of ,conscience of ,each    
,man1       which will either ,prevent  
or ,allow him to ,support a ,government 
,organization--,recognition of the      
,futility and ,immorality of            
,supporting a ,state ,organization      
,contrary to ,christian ,principles     
will ,decide the ,question for ,every   
,man1 in ,spite of any       ,action on 

,part of the ,state--,argument of those 
who ,defend the       ,government1 that 
it is a ,form of ,social ,life1 ,needed 
to ,protect       the ,good from the    
,wicked1 till all ,nations and all      
,members of       each ,nation have     
,become ,christians--,the ,most ,wicked 
are ,always       those in ,power--,the 
whole ,history of ,humanity is the      
,history       of the ,forcible         
,appropriation of ,power by the ,wicked 
and their       ,oppression of the      
,good--,the ,recognition by ,governments
 of the       ,necessity of ,opposing   
,evil by ,force is ,equivalent to       
,suicide       on their ,part--,the     
,abolition of ,state-violence cannot    
,increase       the ,sum ,total of ,acts
 of ,violence--,the ,suppression of the 
,use       of ,force is not only        
,possible1 but is even ,taking ,place   
before       ,our ,eyes--,but it will   
,never be ,suppressed by the ,violence  
of ,government1 but through ,men who    
have ,attained ,power by       ,evidence

 ,recognizing its ,emptiness and        
,becoming ,better and       ,less       
,capable of ,using ,force--,individual  
,men and also ,whole       ,nations     
,pass ,through this ,process--,by this  
,means ,christianity       is ,diffused 
,through ,consciousness of ,men1 not    
only in ,spite of       ,use of         
,violence by ,government1 but even      
,through its ,action1       and         
therefore the ,suppression is not to be 
,dreaded1 but is       ,brought ,about  
by the ,national ,progress of           
,life--,objection of       those who    
,defend ,state ,organization that       
,universal ,adoption of                 
,christianity is hardly ,likely to be   
,realized at any ,time--,the            
,general ,adoption of the ,truths of    
,christianity is being ,brought         
,about not only by the ,gradual and     
,inward ,means1 that is1 by             
,knowledge of the ,truth1 ,prophetic    
,insight1 and ,recognition of       the 
,emptiness of ,power1 and ,renunciation 

of it by ,individuals1       but also by
 ,another ,external ,means1 the         
,acceptance of a ,new       ,truth by   
,whole ,masses of ,men on a ,lower      
,level of ,development       ,through   
,simple ,confidence in their            
,leaders--,when a ,certain       ,stage 
in the ,diffusion of a ,truth has been  
,reached1 a ,public       ,opinion is   
,created which ,impels a ,whole ,mass of
 ,men1 formerly       ,antagonistic to  
the ,new ,truth1 to ,accept it--,and    
therefore all       ,men may ,quickly be
 ,brought to ,renounce the use of       
,violence       when once a ,christian  
,public ,opinion is ,established--,the  
,conviction of ,force being ,necessary  
,hinders the ,establishment       of a  
,christian ,public ,opinion--,the ,use  
of ,violence ,leads ,men to             
,distrust the ,spiritual ,force which is
 the ,only ,force by which       they   
,advance--,neither ,nations nor         
,individuals have been really           
,subjugated by ,force1 but only by      

,public ,opinion1 which no ,force       
can ,resist--,savage ,nations and       
,savage ,men can only be ,subdued       
by the ,diffusion of a ,christian       
,standard among them1 while             
actually ,christian ,nations in order to
 ,subdue them do all they       can to  
,destroy a ,christian ,standard--,these 
,fruitless ,attempts to       ,civilize 
,savages ,cannot be ,adduced as ,proofs 
that ,men ,cannot be       ,subdued by  
,christianity--,violence by ,corrupting 
,public ,opinion1       only ,hinders   
the ,social ,organization from being    
,what it ,ought       to ,be--,and by   
the ,use of ,violence being ,suppressed1
 a ,christian       ,public ,opinion    
would be ,established--,whatever might  
be the       ,result of the ,suppression
 of ,use of ,force1 this ,unknown       
,future       could not be ,worse than  
the ,present ,condition1 and so there is
       no ,need to ,dread it--,to       
,attain ,knowledge of the ,unknown1 and 
to       ,move ,toward it1 is the       

,essence of ,life4      ,christianity in
 its true sense puts an end to          
government4 ,so it was  understood at   
its very commencement2 it was for that  
cause that  ,christ was crucified4 ,so  
it has always been understood by people 
who  were not under the necessity of    
justifying a ,christian government4     
,only from the time that the heads of   
government assumed an external  and     
nominal ,christianity1 men began to     
invent all the impossible1  cunningly   
devised theories by means of which      
,christianity can be  reconciled with   
government4 ,but no honest and          
serious-minded man of  our day can help 
seeing the incompatibility of true      
,christianity--the  doctrine of         
meekness1 forgiveness of injuries1 and  
love--with  government1 with its pomp1  
acts of violence1 executions1 and wars4 
,the profession of true ,christianity   
not only excludes the possibility  of   
recognizing government1 but even        
destroys its very foundations4    ,but  

if it is so1 and we are right in saying 
that ,christianity is  incompatible with
 government1 then the question naturally
 presents  itself3 which is more        
necessary to the good of humanity1 in   
which  way is men's happiness best to be
 secured1 by maintaining the            
organization of government or by        
destroying it and replacing it by       
,christianity8    ,some people maintain 
that government is more necessary for   
humanity1  that the destruction of the  
state organization would involve the    
destruction of all that humanity has    
gained1 that the state has been  and    
still is the only form in which humanity
 can develop4 ,the evil  which we see   
among peoples living under a government 
organization  they attribute not to that
 type of society1 but to its abuses1    
which1 they say1 can be corrected       
without destroying it1 and thus         
humanity1 without discarding the state  
organization1 can develop and  attain a 
high degree of happiness4 ,and men of   

this way of thinking  bring forward in  
support of their views arguments which  
they think  irrefutable drawn from      
history1 philosophy1 and even religion4 
,but  there are men who hold on the     
contrary that1 as there was a time when 
humanity lived without government1 such 
an organization is temporary1  and that 
a time must come when men need a new    
organization1 and  that that time has   
come now4 ,and men of this way of       
thinking also  bring forward in support 
of their views arguments which they     
think  irrefutable from philosophy1     
history1 and religion4    ,volumes may  
be written in defense of the former view
 7and volumes  indeed have long ago been
 written and more will still be written 
on  that side71 but much also can be    
written against it 7and much also1  and 
most briliantly1 has been               
written--though more recently--on this  
side74    ,and it cannot be proved1 as  
the champions of the state maintain1    
that the destruction of government      

involves a social chaos1 mutual         
spoliation and murder1 the destruction  
of all social institutions1  and the    
return of mankind to barbarism4 ,nor can
 it be proved as the  opponents of      
government maintain that men have       
already become so  wise and good that   
they will not spoil or murder one       
another1 but  will prefer peaceful      
associations to hostilities2 that of    
their own  accord1 unaided by the state1
 they will make all the arrangements    
that they need1 and that therefore      
government1 far from being any  aid1    
under show of guarding men exerts a     
pernicious and brutalizing  influence   
over them4 ,it is impossible to prove   
either of these  contentions by abstract
 reasoning4 ,still less possible is it  
to prove  them by experiment1 since the 
whole matter turns on the question1     
ought we to try the experiment8 ,the    
question whether or not the time  has   
come to make an end of government would 
be unanswerable1 except  that there     

exists another living means of settling 
it beyond dispute4    ,we may dispute   
upon the question whether the nestlings 
are ready to  do without the mother-hen 
and to come out of the eggs1 or whether 
they are not yet advanced enough4 ,but  
the young birds will decide  the        
question without any regard for our     
arguments when they find  themselves    
cramped for space in the eggs4 ,then    
they will begin to  try them with their 
beaks and come out of them of their own 
accord4    ,it is the same with the     
question whether the time has come to do
  away with the governmental type of    
society and to replace it by a  new     
type4 ,if a man1 through the growth of a
 higher conscience1 can  no longer      
comply with the demands of government1  
he finds himself  cramped by it and at  
the same time no longer needs its       
protection4  ,when this comes to pass1  
the question whether men are ready to   
discard the governmental type is solved4
 ,and the conclusion will be  as final  

for them as for the young birds hatched 
out of the eggs4  ,just as no power in  
the world can put them back into the    
shells1 so  can no power in the world   
bring men again under the governmental  
type  of society when once they have    
outgrown it4    ,it may well be that    
government was necessary and is still   
necessary  for all the advantages which 
you attribute to it1 says the man who   
has mastered the ,christian theory of   
life4 ,i only know that on  the one     
hand1 government is no longer necessary 
for me1 and on  the other hand1 ,i can  
no longer carry out the measures that   
are  necessary to the existence of a    
government4 ,settle for yourselves  what
 you need for your life4 ,i cannot prove
 the need or the harm of  governments in
 general4 ,i know only what ,i need and 
do not need1  what ,i can do and what ,i
 cannot4 ,i know that ,i do not need to 
divide  myself off from other nations1  
and therefore ,i cannot admit that ,i   
belong exclusively to any state or      

nation1 or that ,i owe allegiance  to   
any government4 ,i know that ,i do not  
need all the government  institutions   
organized within the state1 and         
therefore ,i cannot  deprive people who 
need my labor to give it in the form of 
taxes  to institutions which ,i do not  
need1 which for all ,i know may be      
pernicious4 ,i know that ,i have no need
 of the administration or of  courts of 
justice founded upon force1 and         
therefore ,i can take no  part in       
either4 ,i know that ,i do not need to  
attack and slaughter  other nations or  
to defend myself from them with arms1   
and therefore  ,i can take no part in   
wars or preparations for wars4 ,it may  
well be  that there are people who      
cannot help regarding all this as       
necessary  and indispensable4 ,i cannot 
dispute the question with them1 ,i can  
only speak for myself2 but ,i can say   
with absolute certainty that ,i  do not 
need it1 and that ,i cannot do it4 ,and 
,i do not need this and  ,i cannot do   

it1 not because such is my own1 my      
personal will1 but  because such is the 
will of him who sent me into life1 and  
gave me an  indubitable law for my      
conduct through life4    ,whatever      
arguments may be advanced in support of 
the contention that  the suppression of 
government authority would be injurious 
and would  lead to great calamities1 men
 who have once outgrown the governmental
  form of society cannot go back to it  
again4 ,and all the reasoning  in the   
world cannot make the man who has       
outgrown the governmental  form of      
society take part in actions disallowed 
by his conscience1  any more than the   
full-grown bird can be made to return   
into the  egg-shell4    ,but even it be 
so1 say the champions of the existing   
order of  things1 still the suppression 
of government violence can only be      
possible and desirable when all men have
 become ,christians4 ,so  long as among 
people nominally ,christians there are  
unchristian  wicked men1 who for the    

gratification of their own lusts are    
ready  to do harm to others1 the        
suppression of government authority1    
far from being a blessing to others1    
would only increase their  miseries4    
,the suppression of the governmental    
type of society is  not only undesirable
 so long as there is only a minority of 
true  ,christians2 it would not even be 
desirable if the whole of a nation  were
 ,christians1 but among and around them 
were still unchristian  men of other    
nations4 ,for these unchristian men     
would rob1 outrage1  and kill the       
,christians with impunity and would make
 their lives  miserable4 ,all that would
 result1 would be that the bad would    
oppress  and outrage the good with      
impunity4 ,and therefore the authority  
of  government must not be suppressed   
till all the wicked and rapacious       
people in the world are extinct4 ,and   
since this will either never  be1 or at 
least cannot be for a long time to come1
 in spite of the  efforts of individual 

,christians to be independent of        
government  authority1 it ought to be   
maintained in the interests of the      
majority4 ,the champions of government  
assert that without it the  wicked will 
oppress and outrage the good1 and that  
the power of the  government enables the
 good to resist the wicked4    ,but in  
this assertion the champions of the     
existing order of things  take for      
granted the proposition they want to    
prove4 ,when they say  that except for  
the government the bad would oppress the
 good1 they  take it for granted that   
the good are those who at the present   
time are in possession of power1 and the
 bad are those who are in  subjection to
 it4 ,but this is just what wants       
proving4 ,it would only  be true if the 
custom of our society were what is1 or  
rather is  supposed to be1 the custom in
 ,china2 that is1 that the good always  
rule1 and that directly those at the    
head of government cease to be  better  
than those they rule over1 the citizens 

are bound to remove  them4 ,this is     
supposed to be the custom in ,china4 ,in
 reality it is  not so and can never be 
so4 ,for to remove the heads of a       
government  ruling by force1 it is not  
the right alone1 but the power to do so 
that is needed4 ,so that even in ,china 
this is only an imaginary  custom4 ,and 
in our ,christian world we do not even  
suppose such a  custom1 and we have     
nothing on which to build up the        
supposition that  it is the good or the 
superior who are in power2 in reality it
 is  those who have seized power and who
 keep it for their own and their        
retainers' benefit4    ,the good cannot 
seize power1 nor retain it2 to do this  
men must love  power4 ,and love of power
 is inconsistent with goodness2 but     
quite  consistent with the very opposite
 qualities--pride1 cunning1 cruelty4    
,without the aggrandizement of self and 
the abasement of others1  without       
hypocrisies and deceptions1 without     
prisons1 fortresses1  executions1 and   

murders1 no power can come into         
existence or be  maintained4    ,if the 
power of government is suppressed the   
more wicked will  oppress the less      
wicked1 say the champions of state      
authority4 ,but  when the ,egyptians    
conquered the ,jews1 the ,romans        
conquered the  ,greeks1 and the         
,barbarians conquered the ,romans1 is it
 possible that  all the conquerors were 
always better than those they conquered8
  ,and the same with the transitions of 
power within a state from one  personage
 to another3 has the power always passed
 from a worse person  to a better one8  
,when ,louis ,,xvi4 was removed and     
,robespierre came  to power1 and        
afterward ,napoleon--who ruled then1 a  
better man or a  worse8 ,and when were  
better men in power1 when the           
,versaillist party  or when the ,commune
 was in power8 ,when ,charles ,i4 was   
ruler1 or when  ,cromwell8 ,and when    
,peter ,,iii4 was ,tzar1 or when he was 
killed and  ,catherine was ,tzaritsa in 

one-half of ,russia and ,pougachef ruled
 the  other8 ,which was bad then1 and   
which was good8 ,all men who happen to  
be in authority assert that their       
authority is necessary to keep the  bad 
from oppressing the good1 assuming that 
they themselves are the  good par       
excellence1 who protect other good      
people from the bad4    ,but ruling     
means using force1 and using force means
 doing to him to  whom force is used1   
what he does not like and what he who   
uses the  force would certainly not like
 done to himself4 ,consequently ruling  
means doing to others what we would not 
they should do unto us1 that  is1 doing 
wrong4    ,to submit means to prefer    
suffering to using force4 ,and to prefer
  suffering to using force means to be  
good1 or at least less wicked  than     
those who do unto others what they would
 not like themselves4    ,and therefore1
 in all probability1 not the better but 
the worse have  always ruled and are    
ruling now4 ,there may be bad men among 

those who  are ruled1 but it cannot be  
that those who are better have generally
  ruled those who are worse4    ,it     
might be possible to suppose this with  
the inexact heathen  definition of good2
 but with the clear ,christian          
definition of good  and evil1 it is     
impossible to imagine it4    ,if the    
more or less good1 and the more or less 
bad cannot be  distinguished in the     
heathen world1 the ,christian conception
 of good  and evil has so clearly       
defined the characteristics of the good 
and  the wicked1 that it is impossible  
to confound them4 ,according to         
,christ's teaching the good are those   
who are meek and long-suffering1  do not
 resist evil by force1 forgive injuries1
 and love their  enemies2 those are     
wicked who exalt themselves1 oppress1   
strive1  and use force4 ,therefore by   
,christ's teaching there can be no doubt
  whether the good are to be found among
 rulers or ruled1 and whether  the      
wicked are among the ruled or the       

rulers4 ,indeed it is absurd  even to   
speak of ,christians ruling4            
,non-,christians1 that is those who find
 the aim of their lives in  earthly     
happiness1 must always rule ,christians1
 the aim of whose  lives is the         
renunciation of such earthly happiness4 
,this difference has always existed and 
has become more and more  defined as the
 ,christian religion has been more      
widely diffused and  more correctly     
understood4    ,the more widely true    
,christianity was diffused and the more 
it  penetrated men's conscience1 the    
more impossible it was for  ,christians 
to be rulers1 and the easier it became  
for non-,christians  to rule them4      
,to get rid of governmental violence in 
a society in which all are  not true    
,christians1 will only result in the    
wicked dominating the  good and         
oppressing them with impunity1 say the  
champions of the  existing order of     
things4 ,but it has never been1 and     
cannot be  otherwise4 ,so it has always 

been from the beginning of the world1   
and so it is still4 ,the wicked will    
always dominate the good1 and  will     
always oppress them4 ,cain overpowered  
,abel1 the cunning ,jacob  oppressed the
 guileless ,esau and was in his turn    
deceived by ,laban1  ,caiaphas and      
,pilate oppressed ,christ1 the ,roman   
emperors oppressed  ,seneca1 ,epictetus1
 and the good ,romans who lived in their
 times4  ,john ,,iv4 with his favorites1
 the syphilitic drunken ,peter with  his
 buffoons1 the vicious ,catherine with  
her paramours1 ruled and  oppressed the 
industrious religious ,russians of their
 times4    ,william is ruling over the  
,germans1 ,stambouloff over the         
,bulgarians1  the ,russian officials    
over the ,russian people4 ,the ,germans 
have  dominated the ,italians1 now they 
dominate the ,hungarians and            
,slavonians2 the ,turks have dominated  
and still dominate the  ,slavonians and 
,greeks2 the ,english dominate the      
,hindoos1 the  ,mongolians dominate the 

,chinese4    ,so that whether           
governmental violence is suppressed or  
not1 the  position of good men1 in being
 oppressed by the wicked1 will be       
unchanged4    ,to terrify men with the  
prospect of the wicked dominating the   
good is  impossible1 for that is just   
what has always been1 and is now1 and   
cannot but be4    ,the whole history of 
pagan times is nothing but a recital of 
the  incidents and means by which the   
more wicked gained possession  of power 
over the less wicked1 and retained it by
 cruelties and  deceptions1 ruling over 
the good under the pretense of guarding 
the  right and protecting the good from 
the wicked4 ,all the revolutions  in    
history are only examples of the more   
wicked seizing power and  oppressing the
 good4 ,in declaring that if their      
authority did not  exist the more wicked
 would oppress the good1 the ruling     
authorities  only show their            
disinclination to let other oppressors  
come to power  who would like to snatch 

it from them4    ,but in asserting this 
they only accuse themselves4 ,they say  
that  their power1 i4 e41 violence1 is  
needed to defend men from other         
possible oppressors in the present or   
the future4#af      #af ,i may quote in 
this connection the amazingly naive and 
comic    declaration of the ,russian    
authorities1 the oppressors of other    
nationalities--the ,poles1 the ,germans 
of the ,baltic provinces1 and    the    
,jews4 ,the ,russian ,government has    
oppressed its subjects for    centuries1
 and has never troubled itself about the
 ,little ,russians    of ,poland1 or the
 ,letts of the ,baltic provinces1 or the
 ,russian    peasants1 exploited by     
everyone4 ,and now it has all of a      
sudden    become the champion of the    
oppressed--the very oppressed whom it is
    itself oppressing4    ,the weakness 
of the use of violence lies in the fact 
that all the  arguments brought forward 
by oppressors in their own defense can  
with even better reason be advanced     

against them4 ,they plead the  danger of
 violence--most often imagined in the   
future--but they are  all the while     
continuing to practice actual violence  
themselves4  ,you say that men used to  
pillage and murder in the past1 and that
  you are afraid that they will pillage 
and murder one another if your  power   
were no more4 ,that may happen--or it   
may not happen4 ,but the  fact that you 
ruin thousands of men in prisons1       
fortresses1 galleys1  and exile1 break  
up millions of families and ruin        
millions of men1  physically as well as 
morally1 in the army1 that fact is not  
an  imaginary but a real act of         
violence1 which1 according to your own  
argument1 one ought to oppose by        
violence4 ,and so you are yourselves    
these wicked men against whom1 according
 to your own argument1 it is  absolutely
 necessary to use violence1 the         
oppressed are sure to say  to their     
oppressors4 ,and non-,christian men     
always do say1 and think  and act on    

this reasoning4 ,if the oppressed are   
more wicked than  their oppressors1 they
 attack them and try to overthrow them2 
and in  favorable circumstances they    
succeed in overthrowing them1 or what is
  more common1 they rise into the ranks 
of the oppressors and assist in  their  
acts of violence4    ,so that the very  
violence which the champions of         
government hold  up as a                
terror--pretending that except for its  
oppressive power  the wicked would      
oppress the good--has really always     
existed and  will exist in human        
society4 ,and therefore the suppression 
of state  violence cannot in any case be
 the cause of increased oppression of   
the good by the wicked4    ,if state    
violence ceased1 there would be acts of 
violence perhaps on  the part of        
different people1 other than those who  
had done deeds of  violence before4 ,but
 the total amount of violence could not 
in any  case be increased by the mere   
fact of power passing from one set of   

men to another4    ,state violence can  
only cease when there are no more wicked
 men in  society1 say the champions of  
the existing order of things1 assuming  
in this of course that since there will 
always be wicked men1 it can  never     
cease4 ,and that would be right enough  
if it were the case1 as  they assume1   
that the oppressors are always the best 
of men1 and that  the sole means of     
saving men from evil is by violence4    
,then1 indeed1  violence could never    
cease4 ,but since this is not the case1 
but quite  the contrary1 that it is not 
the better oppress the worse1 but the   
worse oppress the better1 and since     
violence will never put an end  to evil1
 and there is1 moreover1 another means  
of putting an end to  it1 the assertion 
that violence will never cease is       
incorrect4 ,the  use of violence grows  
less and less and evidently must        
disappear4  ,but this will not come to  
pass1 as some champions of the existing 
order imagine1 through the oppressed    

becoming better and better under  the   
influence of government 7on the         
contrary1 its influence causes  their   
continual degradation71 but through the 
fact that all men are  constantly       
growing better and better of themselves1
 so that even the  most wicked1 who are 
in power1 will become less and less     
wicked1 till  at last they are so good  
as to be incapable of using violence4   
,the progressive movement of humanity   
does not proceed from the  better       
elements in society seizing power and   
making those who are  subject to them   
better1 by forcible means1 as both      
conservatives and  revolutionists       
imagine4 ,it proceeds first and         
principally from the  fact that all men 
in general are advancing steadily and   
undeviatingly  toward a more and more   
conscious assimilation of the ,christian
 theory  of life2 and secondly1 from the
 fact that1 even apart from conscious   
spiritual life1 men are unconsciously   
brought into a more ,christian  attitude

 to life by the very process of one set 
of men grasping the  power1 and again   
being replaced by others4    ,the worse 
elements of society1 gaining possession 
of power1 under  the sobering influence 
which always accompanies power1 grow    
less and  less cruel1 and become        
incapable of using cruel forms of       
violence4  ,consequently others are able
 to seize their place1 and the same     
process of softening and1 so to say1    
unconscious ,christianizing goes  on    
with them4 ,it is something like the    
process of ebullition4 ,the  majority of
 men1 having the non-,christian view of 
life1 always strive  for power and      
struggle to obtain it4 ,in this struggle
 the most cruel1  the coarsest1 the     
least ,christian elements of society    
overpower the  most gentle1             
well-disposed1 and ,christian1 and rise 
by means of their  violence to the upper
 ranks of society4 ,and in them is      
,christ's  prophecy fulfilled3 ,woe to  
you that are rich6 woe unto you that are

  full6 woe unto you when all men shall 
speak well of you6 ,for the men  who are
 in possession of power and all that    
results from it--glory  and wealth--and 
have attained the various aims they set 
before  themselves1 recognize the vanity
 of it all and return to the position   
from which they came4 ,charles ,v41     
,john ,,iv41 ,alexander ,i41 recognizing
  the emptiness and the evil of power1  
renounced it because they were          
incapable of using violence for their   
own benefit as they had done4    ,but   
they are not the solitary examples of   
this recognition of the  emptiness and  
evil of power4 ,everyone who gains a    
position of power  he has striven for1  
every general1 every minister1 every    
millionaire1  every petty official who  
has gained the place he has coveted for 
ten  years1 every rich peasant who has  
laid by some hundred rubles1 passes     
through this unconscious process of     
softening4    ,and not only individual  
men1 but societies of men1 whole        

nations1  pass through this process4    
,the seductions of power1 and all the   
wealth1 honor1 and luxury it  gives1    
seem a sufficient aim for men's efforts 
only so long as they  are unattained4   
,directly a man reaches them he sees all
 their vanity1  and they gradually lose 
all their power of attraction4 ,they are
 like  clouds which have form and beauty
 only from the distance2 directly  one  
ascends into them1 all their splendor   
vanishes4    ,men who are in possession 
of power and wealth1 sometimes even     
those  who have gained for themselves   
their power and wealth1 but more often  
their heirs1 cease to be so eager for   
power1 and so cruel in their  efforts to
 obtain it4    ,having learnt by        
experience1 under the operation of      
,christian  influence1 the vanity of all
 that is gained by violence1 men        
sometimes in one1 sometimes in several  
generations lose the vices  which are   
generated by the passion for power and  
wealth4 ,they  become less cruel and so 

cannot maintain their position1 and are 
expelled from power by others less      
,christian and more wicked4  ,thus they 
return to a rank of society lower in    
position1 but  higher in morality1      
raising thereby the average level of    
,christian  consciousness in men4 ,but  
directly after them again the worst1    
coarsest1 least ,christian elements of  
society rise to the top1  and are       
subjected to the same process as their  
predecessors1 and  again in a generation
 or so1 seeing the vanity of what is    
gained by  violence1 and having imbibed 
,christianity1 they come down again     
among  the oppressed1 and their place is
 again filled by new oppressors1  less  
brutal than former oppressors1 though   
more so than those they  oppress4 ,so   
that1 although power remains externally 
the same as  it was1 with every change  
of the men in power there is a constant 
increase of the number of men who have  
been brought by experience to  the      
necessity of assimilating the ,christian

 conception of life1 and  with every    
change--though it is the coarsest1      
cruelest1 and least  ,christian who come
 into possession of power1 they are less
 coarse and  cruel and more ,christian  
than their predecessors when they gained
  possession of power4    ,power selects
 and attracts the worst elements of     
society1 transforms  them1 improves and 
softens them1 and returns them to       
society4    ,such is the process by     
means of which ,christianity1 in spite  
of the  hindrances to human progress    
resulting from the violence of power1   
gains more and more hold of men4        
,christianity penetrates to the         
consciousness of men1 not only in spite 
of the violence of power1 but  also by  
means of it4    ,and therefore the      
assertion of the champions of the state1
 that if  the power of government were  
suppressed the wicked would oppress  the
 good1 not only fails to show that that 
is to be dreaded1 since  it is just what
 happens now1 but proves1 on the        

contrary1 that it  is governmental power
 which enables the wicked to oppress the
 good1  and is the evil most desirable  
to suppress1 and that it is being       
gradually suppressed in the natural     
course of things4    ,but if it be true 
that governmental power will disappear  
when those  in power become so          
,christian that they renounce power of  
their own  accord1 and there are no men 
found willing to take their place1 and  
even if this process is already going   
on1 say the champions of the  existing  
order1 when will that come to pass8 ,if1
 after eighteen  hundred years1 there   
are still so many eager for power1 and  
so few  anxious to obey1 there seems no 
likelihood of its happening very        
soon--or indeed of its ever happening at
 all4    ,even if there are1 as there   
have always been1 some men who prefer   
renouncing power to enjoying it1 the    
mass of men in reserve1 who  prefer     
dominion to subjection1 is so great that
 it is difficult to  imagine a time when

 the number will be exhausted4          
,before this ,christianizing process    
could so affect all men one  after      
another that they would pass from the   
heathen to the ,christian  conception of
 life1 and would voluntarily abandon    
power and wealth1  it would be necessary
 that all the coarse1 half-savage men1  
completely incapable of appreciating    
,christianity or acting upon it1  of    
whom there are always a great many in   
every ,christian society1  should be    
converted to ,christianity4 ,more than  
this1 all the savage  and absolutely    
non-,christian peoples1 who are so      
numerous outside  the ,christian world1 
must also be converted4 ,and therefore1 
even  if we admit that this             
,christianizing process will some day   
affect  everyone1 still1 judging by the 
amount of progress it has made in       
eighteen hundred years1 it will be many 
times eighteen centuries  before it will
 do so4 ,and it is therefore impossible 
and unprofitable  to think at present of

 anything so impracticable as the       
suppression  of authority4 ,we ought    
only to try to put authority into the   
best  hands4    ,and this criticism     
would be perfectly just1 if the         
transition from  one conception of life 
to another were only accomplished by the
  single process of all men1 separately 
and successively1 realizing1  each for  
himself1 the emptiness of power1 and    
reaching ,christian  truth by the inner 
spiritual path4 ,that process goes on   
unceasingly1  and men are passing over  
to ,christianity one after another by   
this  inner way4    ,but there is also  
another external means by which men     
reach  ,christianity and by which the   
transition is less gradual4    ,this    
transition from one organization of life
 to another is not  accomplished by     
degrees like the sand running through   
the hourglass  grain after grain4 ,it is
 more like the water filling a vessel   
floating on water4 ,at first the water  
only runs in slowly on one  side1 but as

 the vessel grows heavier it suddenly   
begins to sink1 and  almost             
instantaneously fills with water4    ,it
 is just the same with the transitions  
of mankind from one  conception--and so 
from one organization of life--to       
another4 ,at  first only gradually and  
slowly1 one after another1 men attain to
 the  new truth by the inner spiritual  
way1 and follow it out in life4 ,but    
when a certain point in the diffusion of
 the truth has been reached1  it is     
suddenly assimilated by everyone1 not by
 the inner way1 but1 as  it were1       
involuntarily4    ,that is why the      
champions of the existing order are     
wrong in arguing  that1 since only a    
small section of mankind has passed over
 to  ,christianity in eighteen          
centuries1 it must be many times        
eighteen  centuries before all the      
remainder do the same4 ,for in that     
argument  they do not take into account 
any other means1 besides the inward     
spiritual one1 by which men assimilate a

 new truth and pass from one  order of  
life to another4    ,men do not only    
assimilate a truth through recognizing  
it by  prophetic insight1 or by         
experience of life4 ,when the truth has 
become sufficiently widely diffused1 men
 at a lower stage of  development accept
 it all at once simply through          
confidence in those  who have reached it
 by the inner spiritual way1 and are    
applying it  to life4    ,every new     
truth1 by which the order of human life 
is changed and  humanity is advanced1 is
 at first accepted by only a very small 
number of men who understand it through 
inner spiritual intuition4  ,the        
remainder of mankind who accepted on    
trust the preceding truth  on which the 
existing order is based1 are always     
opposed to the  diffusion of the new    
truth4    ,but seeing that1 to begin    
with1 men do not stand still1 but are   
steadily advancing to a greater         
recognition of the truth and a  closer  
adaptation of their life to it1 and     

secondly1 all men in  varying degrees   
according to their age1 their education1
 and their  race are capable of         
understanding the new truths1 at first  
those  who are nearest to the men who   
have attained the new truth by          
spiritual intuition1 slowly and one by  
one1 but afterward more and  more       
quickly1 pass over to the new truth4    
,thus the number of men  who accept the 
new truth becomes greater and greater1  
and the truth  becomes more and more    
comprehensible4    ,and thus more       
confidence is aroused in the remainder1 
who are at a  less advanced stage of    
capacity for understanding the truth4   
,and it  becomes easier for them to     
grasp it1 and an increasing number      
accept  it4    ,and so the movement goes
 on more and more quickly1 and on an    
ever-increasing scale1 like a snowball1 
till at last a public opinion  in       
harmony with the new truth is created1  
and then the whole mass of  men is      
carried over all at once by its momentum

 to the new truth and  establishes a new
 social order in accordance with it4    
,those men who accept a new truth when  
it has gained a certain degree  of      
acceptance1 always pass over all at once
 in masses4 ,they are like  the ballast 
with which every ship is always loaded1 
at once to keep  it upright and enable  
it to sail properly4 ,if there were no  
ballast1  the ship would not be low     
enough in the water1 and would shift its
  position at the slightest change in   
its conditions4 ,this ballast1  which   
strikes one at first as superfluous and 
even as hindering  the progress of the  
vessel1 is really indispensable to its  
good  navigation4    ,it is the same    
with the mass of mankind1 who not       
individually1 but  always in a mass1    
under the influence of a new social idea
 pass all  at once from one organization
 of life to another4 ,this mass always  
hinders1 by its inertia1 frequent and   
rapid revolutions in the social  order  
which have not been sufficiently proved 

by human experience4  ,and it delays    
every truth a long while till it has    
stood the test of  prolonged struggles1 
and has thoroughly permeated the        
consciousness  of humanity4    ,and that
 is why it is a mistake to say that     
because only a very  small minority of  
men has assimilated ,christianity in    
eighteen  centuries1 it must take many  
times as many centuries for all mankind 
to assimilate it1 and that since that   
time is so far off1 we who live  in the 
present need not even think about it4   
,it is a mistake1 because  the men at a 
lower stage of culture1 the men and the 
nations who are  represented as the     
obstacle to the realization of the      
,christian order  of life1 are the very 
people who always pass over in masses   
all at  once to any truth that has once 
been recognized by public opinion4      
,and therefore the transformation of    
human life1 through which men  in power 
will renounce it1 and there will be none
 anxious to take  their place1 will not 

come only by all men consciously and    
separately  assimilating the ,christian 
conception of life4 ,it will come when  
a ,christian public opinion has arisen1 
so definite and easily  comprehensible  
as to reach the whole of the inert mass1
 which is not  able to attain truth by  
its own intuition1 and therefore is     
always  under the sway of public        
opinion4    ,public opinion arises      
spontaneously and spreads for hundreds  
and  thousands of years1 but it has the 
power of working on men by  infection1  
and with great rapidity gains a hold on 
great numbers of  men4    ,but1 say the 
champions of the existing order1 even if
 it is  true that public opinion1 when  
it has attained a certain degree of     
definiteness and precision1 can convert 
the inert mass of men outside  the      
,christian world--the non-,christian    
races--as well as the coarse  and       
depraved who are living in its midst1   
what proofs have we that  this          
,christian public opinion has arisen and

 is able to replace force  and render it
 unnecessary4    ,we must not give up   
force1 by which the existing order is   
maintained1 and by relying on the vague 
and impalpable influence  of public     
opinion expose ,christians to the risk  
of being pillaged1  murdered1 and       
outraged in every way by the savages    
inside and outside  of civilized        
society4    ,since1 even supported by   
the use of force1 we can hardly control 
the non-,christian elements which are   
always ready to pour down on  us and to 
destroy all that has been gained by     
civilization1 is it  likely that public 
opinion could take the place of force   
and render  us secure8 ,and besides1 how
 are we to find the moment when public  
opinion has become strong enough to be  
able to replace the use of  force8 ,to  
reject the use of force and trust to    
public opinion to  defend us would be as
 insane as to remove all weapons of     
defense in a  menagerie1 and then to let
 loose all the lions and tigers1 relying

 on  the fact that the animals seemed   
peaceable when kept in their cages  and 
held in check by red-hot irons4 ,and    
therefore people in power1  who have    
been put in positions of authority by   
fate or by ,god1 have  not the right to 
run the risk1 ruining all that has been 
gained by  civilization1 just because   
they want to try an experiment to see   
whether public opinion is or is not able
 to replace the protection  given by    
authority4    ,a ,french writer1        
forgotten now1 ,alphonse ,karr1 said    
somewhere1 trying  to show the          
impossibility of doing away with the    
death penalty3 ,que  messieurs les      
assassins commencent par nous donner    
l'exemple4 ,often  have ,i heard this   
bon mot repeated by men who thought that
 these  words were a witty and          
convincing argument against the         
abolition of  capital punishment4 ,and  
yet all the erroneousness of the        
argument of  those who consider that    
governments cannot give up the use of   

force  till all people are capable of   
doing the same1 could not be more       
clearly expressed than it is in that    
epigram4    ,let the murderers1 say the 
champions of state violence1 set us the 
example by giving up murder and then we 
will give it up4 ,but the  murderers say
 just the same1 only with much more     
right4 ,they say3  ,let those who have  
undertaken to teach us and guide us set 
us the  example of giving up legal      
murder1 and then we will imitate them4  
,and they say this1 not as a jest1 but  
seriously1 because it is the  actual    
state of the case4    ,we cannot give up
 the use of violence1 because we are    
surrounded  by violent ruffians4        
,nothing in our days hinders the        
progress of  humanity and the           
establishment of the organization       
corresponding to  its present           
development more than this false        
reasoning4 ,those in  authority are     
convinced that men are only guided and  
only progress  through the use of force1

 and therefore they confidently make use
  of it to support the existing         
organization4 ,the existing order is    
maintained1 not by force1 but by public 
opinion1 the action of which  is        
disturbed by the use of force4 ,so that 
the effect of using force  is to disturb
 and to weaken the very thing it tries  
to maintain4    ,violence1 even in the  
most favorable case1 when it is not used
 simply  for some personal aims of those
 in power1 always punishes under the    
one inelastic formula of the law what   
has long before been condemned  by      
public opinion4 ,but there is this      
difference1 that while public  opinion  
censures and condemns all the acts      
opposed to the moral law1  including the
 most varied cases in its reprobation1  
the law which  rests on violence only   
condemns and punishes a certain very    
limited  range of acts1 and by so doing 
seems to justify all other acts of the  
same kind which do not come under its   
scope4    ,public opinion ever since the

 time of ,moses has regarded            
covetousness1 profligacy1 and cruelty as
 wrong1 and censured  them accordingly4 
,and it condemns every kind of          
manifestation of  covetousness1 not only
 the appropriation of the property of   
others  by force or fraud or trickery1  
but even the cruel abuse of wealth2  it 
condemns every form of profligacy1      
whether with concubine1 slave1  divorced
 woman1 or even one's own wife2 it      
condemns every kind of  cruelty1 whether
 shown in blows1 in ill-treatment1 or in
 murder1  not only of men1 but even of  
animals4 ,the law resting on force  only
 punishes certain forms of covetousness1
 such as robbery and  swindling1 certain
 forms of profligacy and cruelty1 such  
as conjugal  infidelity1 murder1 and    
wounding4 ,and in this way it seems to  
countenance all the manifestations of   
covetousness1 profligacy1 and  cruelty  
which do not come under its narrow      
definition4    ,but besides corrupting  
public opinion1 the use of force leads  

men to the fatal conviction that they   
progress1 not through the  spiritual    
impulse which impels them to the        
attainment of truth and  its realization
 in life1 and which constitutes the only
 source of  every progressive movement  
of humanity1 but by means of violence1  
the very force which1 far from leading  
men to truth1 always carries  them      
further away from it4 ,this is a fatal  
error1 because it leads  men to neglect 
the chief force underlying their        
life--their spiritual  activity--and to 
turn all their attention and energy to  
the use  of violence1 which is          
superficial1 sluggish1 and most         
generally  pernicious in its action4    
,they make the same mistake as men who1 
trying to set a steam  engine in motion1
 should turn its wheels round with their
 hands1  not suspecting that the        
underlying cause of its movement was the
  expansion of the steam1 and not the   
motion of the wheels4 ,by turning  the  
wheels by hand and by levers they could 

only produce a semblance  of movement1  
and meantime they would be wrenching the
 wheels and so  preventing their being  
fit for real movement4    ,that is just 
what people are doing who think to make 
men advance by  means of external force4
    ,they say that the ,christian life  
cannot be established without the  use  
of violence1 because there are savage   
races outside the pale  of ,christian   
societies in ,africa and in ,asia 7there
 are some who  even represent the       
,chinese as a danger to civilization71  
and that  in the midst of ,christian    
societies there are savage1 corrupt1    
and1  according to the new theory of    
heredity1 congenital criminals4 ,and    
violence1 they say1 is necessary to keep
 savages and criminals from             
annihilating our civilization4    ,but  
these savages within and without        
,christian society1 who are such  a     
terror to us1 have never been subjugated
 by violence1 and are not  subjugated by
 it now4 ,nations have never subjugated 

other nations by  violence alone4 ,if a 
nation which subjugated another was on a
 lower  level of civilization1 it has   
never happened that it succeeded in     
introducing its organization of life by 
violence4 ,on the contrary1 it  was     
always forced to adopt the organization 
of life existing in the  conquered      
nation4 ,if ever any of the nations     
conquered by force have  been really    
subjugated1 or even nearly so1 it has   
always been by the  action of public    
opinion1 and never by violence1 which   
only tends to  drive a people to further
 rebellion4    ,when whole nations have 
been subjugated by a new religion1 and  
have  become ,christian or ,mohammedan1 
such a conversion has never been        
brought about because the authorities   
made it obligatory 7on the  contrary1   
violence has much oftener acted in the  
opposite direction71  but because public
 opinion made such a change inevitable4 
,nations1 on  the contrary1 who have    
been driven by force to accept the faith

 of  their conquerors have always       
remained antagonistic to it4    ,it is  
just the same with the savage elements  
existing in the midst  of our civilized 
societies4 ,neither the increased nor   
the diminished  severity of punishment1 
nor the modifications of prisons1 nor   
the  increase of police will increase or
 diminish the number of criminals4      
,their number will only be diminished by
 the change of the moral  standard of   
society4 ,no severities could put an end
 to duels and  vendettas in certain     
districts4 ,in spite of the number of   
,tcherkesses  executed for robbery1 they
 continue to be robbers from their youth
  up1 for no maiden will marry a        
,tcherkess youth till he has given      
proof of his bravery by carrying off a  
horse1 or at least a sheep4 ,if  men    
cease to fight duels1 and the           
,tcherkesses cease to be robbers1 it    
will not be from fear of punishment     
7indeed1 that invests the crime  with   
additional charm for youth71 but through

 a change in the moral  standard of     
public opinion4 ,it is the same with all
 other crimes4  ,force can never        
suppress what is sanctioned by public   
opinion4 ,on the  contrary1 public      
opinion need only be in direct          
opposition to force  to neutralize the  
whole effect of the use of force4 ,it   
has always  been so and always will be  
in every case of martyrdom4    ,what    
would happen if force were not used     
against hostile nations and  the        
criminal elements of society we do not  
know4 ,but we do know by  prolonged     
experience that neither enemies nor     
criminals have been  successfully       
suppressed by force4    ,and indeed how 
could nations be subjugated by violence 
who are led by  their whole education1  
their traditions1 and even their        
religion to  see the loftiest virtue in 
warring with their oppressors and       
fighting  for freedom8 ,and how are we  
to suppress by force acts committed  in 
the midst of our society which are      

regarded as crimes by the  government   
and as daring exploits by the people8   
,to exterminate such nations and such   
criminals by violence is  possible1 and 
indeed is done1 but to subdue them is   
impossible4    ,the sole guide which    
directs men and nations has always been 
and is  the unseen1 intangible1         
underlying force1 the resultant of all  
the  spiritual forces of a certain      
people1 or of all humanity1 which finds 
its outward expression in public        
opinion4    ,the use of violence only   
weakens this force1 hinders it and      
corrupts  it1 and tries to replace it by
 another which1 far from being          
conducive to the progress of humanity1  
is detrimental to it4    ,to bring under
 the sway of ,christianity all the      
savage nations  outside the pale of the 
,christian world--all the ,zulus1       
,mandchoos1  and ,chinese1 whom many    
regard as savages--and the savages who  
live in  our midst1 there is only one   
means4 ,that means is the propagation   

among these nations of the ,christian   
ideal of society1 which can only  be    
realized by a ,christian life1          
,christian actions1 and ,christian      
examples4 ,and meanwhile1 though this is
 the one only means of  gaining a hold  
over the people who have remained       
non-,christian1 the  men of our day set 
to work in the directly opposite fashion
 to attain  this result4    ,to bring   
under the sway of ,christianity savage  
nations who do not  attack us and whom  
we have therefore no excuse for         
oppressing1 we  ought before all things 
to leave them in peace1 and in case we  
need  or wish to enter into closer      
relations with them1 we ought only to   
influence them by ,christian manners and
 ,christian teaching1 setting  them the 
example of the ,christian virtues of    
patience1 meekness1  endurance1 purity1 
brotherhood1 and love4 ,instead of that 
we begin by  establishing among them new
 markets for our commerce1 with the sole
  aim of our own profit2 then we        

appropriate their lands1 i4 e41 rob     
them2 then we sell them spirits1        
tobacco1 and opium1 i4 e41 corrupt      
them2 then we establish our morals among
 them1 teach them the use  of violence  
and new methods of destruction1 i4 e41  
we teach them  nothing but the animal   
law of strife1 below which man cannot   
sink1  and we do all we can to conceal  
from them all that is ,christian in  us4
 ,after this we send some dozens of     
missionaries prating to them  of the    
hypocritical absurdities of the ,church1
 and then quote the  failure of our     
efforts to turn the heathen to          
,christianity as an  incontrovertible   
proof of the impossibility of applying  
the truths of  ,christianity in         
practical life4    ,it is just the same 
with the so-called criminals living in  
our  midst4 ,to bring these people under
 the sway of ,christianity there  is one
 only means1 that is1 the ,christian    
social ideal1 which  can only be        
realized among them by true ,christian  

teaching and  supported by a true       
example of the ,christian life4 ,and to 
preach  this ,christian truth and to    
support it by ,christian example we  set
 up among them prisons1 guillotines1    
gallows1 preparations for  murder2 we   
diffuse among the common herd idolatrous
 superstitions to  stupefy them2 we sell
 them spirits1 tobacco1 and opium to    
brutalize  them2 we even organize       
legalized prostitution2 we give land to 
those  who do not need it2 we make a    
display of senseless luxury in the      
midst of suffering poverty2 we destroy  
the possibility of anything  like a     
,christian public opinion1 and          
studiously try to suppress  what        
,christian public opinion is existing4  
,and then1 after having  ourselves      
assiduously corrupted men1 we shut them 
up like wild beasts  in places from     
which they cannot escape1 and where they
 become still  more brutalized1 or else 
we kill them4 ,and these very men whom  
we  have corrupted and brutalized by    

every means1 we bring forward as a      
proof that one cannot deal with         
criminals except by brute force4    ,we 
are just like ignorant doctors who put a
 man1 recovering from  illness by the   
force of nature1 into the most          
unfavorable conditions  of hygiene1 and 
dose him with the most deleterious      
drugs1 and then  assert triumphantly    
that their hygiene and their drugs saved
 his  life1 when the patient would have 
been well long before if they had  left 
him alone4    ,violence1 which is held  
up as the means of supporting the       
,christian  organization of life1 not   
only fails to produce that effect1 it   
even  hinders the social organization of
 life from being what it might and      
ought to be4 ,the social organization is
 as good as it is not as a  result of   
force1 but in spite of it4    ,and      
therefore the champions of the existing 
order are mistaken  in arguing that     
since1 even with the aid of force1 the  
bad and  non-,christian elements of     

humanity can hardly be kept from        
attacking  us1 the abolition of the use 
of force and the substitution of public 
opinion for it would leave humanity     
quite unprotected4    ,they are         
mistaken1 because force does not protect
 humanity1 but1  on the contrary1       
deprives it of the only possible means  
of really  protecting itself1 that is1  
the establishment and diffusion of a    
,christian public opinion4 ,only by the 
suppression of violence will a          
,christian public opinion cease to be   
corrupted1 and be enabled to be         
diffused without hindrance1 and men will
 then turn their efforts in  the        
spiritual direction by which alone they 
can advance4    ,but how are we to cast 
off the visible tangible protection of  
an  armed policeman1 and trust to       
something so intangible as public       
opinion8 ,does it yet exist8 ,moreover1 
the condition of things  in which we are
 living now1 we know1 good or bad2 we   
know its  shortcomings and are used to  

it1 we know what to do1 and how to      
behave under present conditions4 ,but   
what will happen when we give  it up and
 trust ourselves to something invisible 
and intangible1 and  altogether unknown8
    ,the unknown world on which they are
 entering in renouncing their  habitual 
ways of life appears itself as dreadful 
to them4 ,it is  all very well to dread 
the unknown when our habitual position  
is  sound and secure4 ,but our position 
is so far from being secure that  we    
know1 beyond all doubt1 that we are     
standing on the brink of a  precipice4  
,if we must be afraid let us be afraid  
of what is really alarming1 and  not    
what we imagine as alarming4    ,fearing
 to make the effort to detach ourselves 
from our perilous  position because the 
future is not fully clear to us1 we are 
like  passengers in a foundering ship   
who1 through being afraid to trust      
themselves to the boat which would carry
 them to the shore1 shut  themselves up 
in the cabin and refuse to come out of  

it2 or like  sheep1 who1 terrified by   
their barn being on fire1 huddle in a   
corner  and do not go out of the        
wide-open door4    ,we are standing on  
the threshold of the murderous war of   
social  revolution1 terrific in its     
miseries1 beside which1 as those who    
are preparing it tell us1 the horrors of
 #agic will be child's play4  ,and can  
we talk of the danger threatening us    
from the warriors of  ,dahomey1 the     
,zulus1 and such1 who live so far away  
and are not  dreaming of attacking us1  
and from some thousands of swindlers1   
thieves1 and murderers1 brutalized and  
corrupted by ourselves1 whose  number is
 in no way lessened by all our          
sentences1 prisons1 and  executions8    
,moreover this dread of the suppression 
of the visible protection of  the       
policeman is essentially a sentiment of 
townspeople1 that is1 of  people who are
 living in abnormal and artificial      
conditions4 ,people  living in natural  
conditions of life1 not in towns1 but in

 the midst  of nature1 and carrying on  
the struggle with nature1 live without  
this protection and know how little     
force can protect us from the  real     
dangers with which we are surrounded4   
,there is something sickly  in this     
dread1 which is essentially dependent on
 the artificial  conditions in which    
many of us live and have been brought   
up4    ,a doctor1 a specialist in       
insanity1 told a story that one summer  
day when he was leaving the asylum1 the 
lunatics accompanied him to  the street 
door4 ,come for a walk in the town with 
me8 the doctor  suggested to them4 ,the 
lunatics agreed1 and a small band       
followed the  doctor4 ,but the further  
they proceeded along the street where   
healthy  people were freely moving      
about1 the more timid they became1 and  
they  pressed closer and closer to the  
doctor1 hindering him from walking4  ,at
 last they all began to beg him to take 
them back to the asylum1  to their      
meaningless but customary way of life1  

to their keepers1 to  blows1 strait     
waistcoats1 and solitary cells4    ,this
 is just how men of to-day huddle in    
terror and draw back to  their          
irrational manner of life1 their        
factories1 law courts1  prisons1        
executions1 and wars1 when ,christianity
 calls them to  liberty1 to the free1   
rational life of the future coming age4 
,people ask1 ,how will our security be  
guaranteed when the existing            
organization is suppressed8 ,what       
precisely will the new organization  be 
that is to replace it8 ,so long as we do
 not know precisely how our  life will  
be organized1 we will not stir a step   
forward4    ,an explorer going to an    
unknown country might as well ask for a 
detailed map of the country before he   
would start4    ,if a man1 before he    
passed from one stage to another1 could 
know his  future life in full detail1 he
 would have nothing to live for4 ,it is 
the same with the life of humanity4 ,if 
it had a programme of the life  which   

awaited it before entering a new stage1 
it would be the surest  sign that it was
 not living1 nor advancing1 but simply  
rotating in  the same place4    ,the    
conditions of the new order of life     
cannot be known by us because  we have  
to create them by our own labors4 ,that 
is all that life is1  to learn the      
unknown1 and to adapt our actions to    
this new knowledge4    ,that is the life
 of each individual man1 and that is the
 life of  human societies and of        
humanity4          ,,chapter ,,xi4      
,,the ,,christian ,,conception ,,of     
,,life ,,has ,,already ,,arisen ,,in    
,,our       ,,society1 ,,and ,,will     
,,infallibly ,,put ,,an ,,end ,,to ,,the
 ,,present       ,,organization ,,of    
,,our ,,life ,,based ,,on               
,,force--,,when ,,that ,,will ,,be4     
,the ,condition and ,organization of our
 ,society are ,terrible1       but they 
,rest only on ,public ,opinion1 and can 
be ,destroyed by       it--,already     
,violence is ,regarded from a ,different

 ,point of ,view2       the ,number of  
those who are ,ready to ,serve the      
,government is       ,diminishing2 and  
even the ,servants of ,government are   
,ashamed of       their ,position1 and  
so often ,do ,not ,perform their        
,duties--,these       ,facts are all    
,signs of the ,rise of a ,public        
,opinion1 which       ,continually      
,growing will ,lead to ,no ,one being   
,willing to ,enter       ,government    
,service--,moreover1 it ,becomes ,more  
and ,more ,evident       that those     
,offices are of ,no ,practical          
,use--,men already ,begin to            
,understand the ,futility of all        
,institutions ,based on ,violence1      
and if a ,few already ,understand it1   
,all will ,one ,day ,understand         
it--,the ,day of ,deliverance is        
,unknown1 but it ,depends on ,men       
,themselves1 on how far ,each ,man      
,lives ,according to the ,light         
that is in ,him4      ,the position of  
,christian humanity with its prisons1   

galleys1  gibbets1 its factories and    
accumulation of capital1 its taxes1     
churches1 gin-palaces1 licensed         
brothels1 its ever-increasing  armament 
and its millions of brutalized men1     
ready1 like chained  dogs1 to attack    
anyone against whom their master incites
 them1  would be terrible indeed if it  
were the product of violence1 but  it is
 pre-eminently the product of public    
opinion4 ,and what has  been established
 by public opinion can be destroyed by  
public  opinion--and1 indeed1 is being  
destroyed by public opinion4    ,money  
lavished by hundreds of millions1 tens  
of millions of  disciplined troops1     
weapons of astounding destructive power1
 all  organizations carried to the      
highest point of perfection1 a whole    
army of men charged with the task of    
deluding and hypnotizing the  people1   
and all this1 by means of electricity   
which annihilates  distance1 under the  
direct control of men who regard such an
  organization of society not only as   

necessary for profit1 but even  for     
self-preservation1 and therefore exert  
every effort of their  ingenuity to     
preserve it--what an invincible power it
 would seem6 ,and  yet we need only     
imagine for a moment what will really   
inevitably  come to pass1 that is1 the  
,christian social standard replacing the
  heathen social standard and           
established with the same power and     
universality1 and the majority of men as
 much ashamed of taking  any part in    
violence or in profiting by it1 as they 
are to-day of  thieving1 swindling1     
begging1 and cowardice2 and at once we  
see the  whole of this complex1 and     
seemingly powerful organization of      
society  falls into ruins of itself     
without a struggle4    ,and to bring    
this to pass1 nothing new need be       
brought before men's  minds4 ,only let  
the mist1 which veils from men's eyes   
the true  meaning of certain acts of    
violence1 pass away1 and the ,christian 
public opinion which is springing up    

would overpower the extinct  public     
opinion which permitted and justified   
acts of violence4 ,people  need only    
come to be as much ashamed to do deeds  
of violence1 to  assist in them or to   
profit by them1 as they now are of      
being1 or  being reputed a swindler1 a  
thief1 a coward1 or a beggar4 ,and      
already  this change is beginning to    
take place4 ,we do not notice it just   
as we do not notice the movement of the 
earth1 because we are moved  together   
with everything around us4    ,it is    
true that the organization of society   
remains in its principal  features just 
as much an organization based on        
violence as it was  one thousand years  
ago1 and even in some respects1         
especially in the  preparation for war  
and in war itself1 it appears still more
 brutal4  ,but the rising ,christian    
ideal1 which must at a certain stage of 
development replace the heathen ideal of
 life1 already makes its  influence     
felt4 ,a dead tree stands apparently as 

firmly as ever--it  may even seem firmer
 because it is harder--but it is rotten 
at the  core1 and soon must fall4 ,it is
 just so with the present order of      
society1 based on force4 ,the external  
aspect is unchanged4 ,there is  the same
 division of oppressors and oppressed1  
but their view of the  significance and 
dignity of their respective positions is
 no longer  what it once was4    ,the   
oppressors1 that is1 those who take part
 in government1 and those  who profit by
 oppression1 that is1 the rich1 no      
longer imagine1 as  they once did1 that 
they are the elect of the world1 and    
that they  constitute the ideal of human
 happiness and greatness1 to attain     
which was once the highest aim of the   
oppressed4    ,very often now it is not 
the oppressed who strive to attain the  
position of the oppressors1 and try to  
imitate them1 but on the  contrary the  
oppressors who voluntarily abandon the  
advantages of  their position1 prefer   
the condition of the oppressed1 and try 

to  resemble them in the simplicity of  
their life4    ,not to speak of the     
duties and occupations now openly       
despised1  such as that of spy1 agent of
 secret police1 money-lender1 and       
publican1 there are a great number of   
professions formerly regarded  as       
honorable1 such as those of police      
officials1 courtiers1 judges1  and      
administrative functionaries1 clergymen1
 military officers1  speculators1 and   
bankers1 which are no longer considered 
desirable  positions by everyone1 and   
are even despised by a special circle of
  the most respected people4 ,there are 
already men who voluntarily  abandon    
these professions which were once       
reckoned irreproachable1  and prefer    
less lucrative callings which are in no 
way connected with  the use of force4   
,and there are even rich men who1 not   
through religious sentiment1 but  simply
 through special sensitiveness to the   
social standard that is  springing up1  
relinquish their inherited property1    

believing that a  man can only justly   
consume what he has gained by his own   
labor4    ,the position of a government 
official or of a rich man is no longer1 
as it once was1 and still is among      
non-,christian peoples1 regarded  as    
necessarily honorable and deserving of  
respect1 and under the  special blessing
 of ,god4 ,the most delicate and moral  
people 7they are  generally also the    
most cultivated7 avoid such positions   
and prefer  more humble callings that   
are not dependent on the use of force4  
,the best of our young people1 at the   
age when they are still  uncorrupted by 
life and are choosing a career1 prefer  
the calling of  doctor1 engineer1       
teacher1 artist1 writer1 or even that of
 simple  farmer living on his own labor1
 to legal1 administrative1 clerical1    
and military positions in the pay of    
government1 or to an idle  existence    
living on their incomes4    ,monuments  
and memorials in these days are mostly  
not erected in honor  of government     

dignitaries1 or generals1 or still less 
of rich men1  but rather of artists1 men
 of science1 and inventors1 persons who 
have nothing in common with the         
government1 and often have even been  in
 conflict with it4 ,they are the men    
whose praises are celebrated  in poetry1
 who are honored by sculpture and       
received with triumphant  jubilations4  
,the best men of our day are all        
striving for such places of honor4      
,consequently the class from which the  
wealthy and the government  officials   
are drawn grows less in number and lower
 in intelligence  and education1 and    
still more in moral qualities4 ,so that 
nowadays  the wealthy class and men at  
the head of government do not           
constitute1 as they did in former days1 
the lite of society2 on  the contrary1  
they are inferior to the middle class4  
,in ,russia and ,turkey as in ,america  
and ,france1 however often  the         
government change its officials1 the    
majority of them are  self-seeking and  

corrupt1 of so low a moral standard that
 they do  not even come up the          
elementary requirements of common       
honesty  expected by the government4    
,one may often nowadays hear from       
persons  in authority the nave complaint
 that the best people are always1  by   
some strange--as it seems to            
them--fatality1 to be found in the  camp
 of the opposition4 ,as though men were 
to complain that those who  accepted the
 office of hangman were--by some strange
 fatality--all  persons of very little  
refinement or beauty of character4      
,the most cultivated and refined people 
of our society are not  nowadays to be  
found among the very rich1 as used      
formerly to be the  rule4 ,the rich are 
mostly coarse money grubbers1 absorbed  
only1 in  increasing their hoard1       
generally by dishonest means1 or else   
the  degenerate heirs of such money     
grubbers1 who1 far from playing any     
prominent part in society1 are mostly   
treated with general contempt4    ,and  

besides the fact that the class from    
which the servants of  government and   
the wealthy are drawn grows less in     
number and lower  in caliber1 they no   
longer themselves attach the same       
importance  to their positions as they  
once did2 often they are ashamed of the 
ignominy of their calling and do not    
perform the duties they are  bound to   
perform in their position4 ,kings and   
emperors scarcely  govern at all2 they  
scarcely ever decide upon an internal   
reform  or a new departure in foreign   
politics4 ,they mostly leave the        
decision of such questions to government
 institutions or to public  opinion4    
,all their duties are reduced to        
representing the unity  and majesty of  
government4 ,and even this duty they    
perform less and  less successfully4    
,the majority of them do not keep up    
their old  unapproachable majesty1 but  
become more and more democratized and   
even vulgarized1 casting aside the      
external prestige that remained to      

them1 and thereby destroying the very   
thing it was their function to          
maintain4    ,it is just the same with  
the army4 ,military officers of the     
highest  rank1 instead of encouraging in
 their soldiers the brutality and       
ferocity necessary for their work1      
diffuse education among the  soldiers1  
inculcate humanity1 and often even      
themselves share the  socialistic ideas 
of the masses and denounce war4 ,in the 
last plots  against the ,russian        
,government many of the conspirators    
were in  the army4 ,and the number of   
the disaffected in the army is always   
increasing4 ,and it often happens 7there
 was a case1 indeed1 within  the last   
few days7 that when called upon to quell
 disturbances  they refuse to fire upon 
the people4 ,military exploits are      
openly  reprobated by the military      
themselves1 and are often the subject of
  jests among them4    ,it is the same  
with judges and public prosecutors4 ,the
 judges1 whose  duty it is to judge and 

condemn criminals1 conduct the          
proceedings  so as to whitewash them as 
far as possible4 ,so that the ,russian  
,government1 to procure the condemnation
 of those whom they want to  punish1    
never intrust them to the ordinary      
tribunals1 but have them  tried before a
 court martial1 which is only a parody  
of justice4 ,the  prosecutors themselves
 often refuse to proceed1 and even when 
they do  proceed1 often in spite of the 
law1 really defend those they ought  to 
be accusing4 ,the learned jurists whose 
business it is to justify  the violence 
of authority1 are more and more disposed
 to deny the  right of punishment and to
 replace it by theories of              
irresponsibility  and even of moral     
insanity1 proposing to deal with those  
they call  criminals by medical         
treatment only4    ,jailers and         
overseers of galleys generally become   
the champions of  those whom they ought 
to torture4 ,police officers and        
detectives  are continually assisting   

the escape of those they ought to       
arrest4  ,the clergy preach tolerance1  
and even sometimes condemn the use of   
force1 and the more educated among them 
try in their sermons to avoid  the very 
deception which is the basis of their   
position and which  it is their duty to 
support4 ,executioners refuse to perform
 their  functions1 so that in ,russia   
the death penalty cannot be carried out 
for want of executioners4 ,and in spite 
of all the advantages bestowed  on these
 men1 who are selected from convicts1   
there is a constantly  diminishing      
number of volunteers for the post4      
,governors1 police  officials1 tax      
collectors often have compassion on the 
people and try  to find pretexts for not
 collecting the tax from them4 ,the rich
 are  not at ease in spending their     
wealth only on themselves1 and lavish   
it on works of public utility4          
,landowners build schools and hospitals 
on their property1 and some even give up
 the ownership of their land  and       

transfer it to the cultivators1 or      
establish communities upon  it4         
,millowners and manufacturers build     
hospitals1 schools1 savings  banks1     
asylums1 and dwellings for their        
workpeople4 ,some of them  form         
co-operative associations in which they 
have shares on the same  terms as the   
others4 ,capitalists expend a part of   
their capital on  educational1 artistic1
 philanthropic1 and other public        
institutions4  ,and many1 who are not   
equal to parting with their wealth in   
their  lifetime1 leave it in their wills
 to public institutions4    ,all these  
phenomena might seem to be mere         
exceptions1 except that  they can all be
 referred to one common cause4 ,just as 
one might fancy  the first leaves on the
 budding trees in ,april were           
exceptional if we  did not know that    
they all have a common cause1 the       
spring1 and that  if we see the branches
 on some trees shooting and turning     
green1 it  is certain that it will soon 

be so with all4    ,so it is with the   
manifestation of the ,christian standard
 of opinion  on force and all that is   
based on force4 ,if this standard       
already  influences some1 the most      
impressionable1 and impels each in his  
own sphere to abandon advantages based  
on the use of force1 then  its influence
 will extend further and further till it
 transforms  the whole order of men's   
actions and puts it into accord with the
  ,christian ideal which is already a   
living force in the vanguard of         
humanity4    ,and if there are now      
rulers1 who do not decide on any step on
 their  own authority1 who try to be as 
unlike monarchs1 and as like plain      
mortals as possible1 who state their    
readiness to give up their  prerogatives
 and become simply the first citizens of
 a republic2  if there are already      
soldiers who realize all the sin and    
harm of  war1 and are not willing to    
fire on men either of their own or a    
foreign country2 judges and prosecutors 

who do not like to try and  to condemn  
criminals2 priests1 who abjure          
deception2 tax-gatherers  who try to    
perform as little as they can of their  
duties1 and rich  men renouncing their  
wealth--then the same thing will        
inevitably  happen to other rulers1     
other soldiers1 other judges1 priests1  
tax-gatherers1 and rich men4 ,and when  
there are no longer men willing  to fill
 these offices1 these offices themselves
 will disappear too4    ,but this is not
 the only way in which public opinion is
 leading men  to the abolition of the   
prevailing order and the substitution of
 a  new order4 ,as the positions based  
on the rule of force become less        
attractive and fewer men are found      
willing to fill them1 the more  will    
their uselessness be apparent4          
,everywhere throughout the ,christian   
world the same rulers1 and the  same    
governments1 the same armies1 the same  
law courts1 the same  tax-gatherers1 the
 same priests1 the same rich men1       

landowners1  manufacturers1 and         
capitalists1 as ever1 but the attitude  
of the  world to them1 and their        
attitude to themselves is altogether    
changed4    ,the same sovereigns have   
still the same audiences and interviews1
  hunts and banquets1 and balls and     
uniforms2 there are the same  diplomats 
and the same deliberations on alliances 
and wars2 there  are still the same     
parliaments1 with the same debates on   
the ,eastern  question and ,africa1 on  
treaties and violations of treaties1 and
  ,home ,rule and the eight-hour day2   
and one set of ministers replacing      
another in the same way1 and the same   
speeches and the same  incidents4 ,but  
for men who observe how one newspaper   
article has more  effect on the position
 of affairs than dozens of royal        
audiences or  parliamentary sessions1 it
 becomes more and more evident that     
these  audiences and interviews and     
debates in parliaments do not direct    
the course of affairs1 but something    

independent of all that1 which  cannot  
be concentrated in one place4    ,the   
same generals and officers and soldiers1
 and cannons and  fortresses1 and       
reviews and maneuvers1 but no war breaks
 out4 ,one  year1 ten1 twenty years pass
 by4 ,and it becomes less and less      
possible to rely on the army for the    
pacification of riots1 and more  and    
more evident1 consequently1 that        
generals1 and officers1 and  soldiers   
are only figures in solemn              
processions--objects of amusement  for  
governments--a sort of immense--and far 
too expensive--corps de  ballet4    ,the
 same lawyers and judges1 and the same  
assizes1 but it becomes  more and more  
evident that the civil courts decide    
cases on the  most diverse grounds1 but 
regardless of justice1 and that criminal
  trials are quite senseless1 because   
the punishments do not attain  the      
objects aimed at by the judges          
themselves4 ,these institutions         
therefore serve no other purpose than to

 provide a means of  livelihood for men 
who are not capable of doing anything   
more useful4    ,the same priests and   
archbishops and churches and synods1 but
 it  becomes more and more evident that 
they have long ago ceased to  believe in
 what they preach1 and therefore they   
can convince no one  of the necessity of
 believing what they don't believe      
themselves4    ,the same tax collectors1
 but they are less and less capable of  
taking  men's property from them by     
force1 and it becomes more and more     
evident that people can collect all that
 is necessary by voluntary  subscription
 without their aid4    ,the same rich   
men1 but it becomes more and more       
evident that they can  only be of use by
 ceasing to administer their property in
 person and  giving up to society the   
whole or at least a part of their       
wealth4    ,and when all this has become
 absolutely evident to everyone1 it will
  be natural for men to ask themselves3 
,but why should we keep and  maintain   

all these kings1 emperors1 presidents1  
and members of all  sorts of senates and
 ministries1 since nothing comes of all 
their  debates and audiences8 ,wouldn't 
it be better1 as some humorist          
suggested1 to make a queen of           
india-rubber8    ,and what good to us   
are these armies with their generals and
 bands  and horses and drums8 ,and what 
need is there of them when there  is no 
war1 and no one wants to make war8 and  
if there were a war1  other nations     
would not let us gain any advantage from
 it2 while the  soldiers refuse to fire 
on their fellow-countrymen4    ,and what
 is the use of these lawyers and judges 
who don't decide  civil cases with      
justice and recognize themselves the    
uselessness of  punishments in criminal 
cases8    ,and what is the use of tax   
collectors who collect the taxes        
unwillingly1 when it is easy to raise   
all that is wanted without them8        
,what is the use of the clergy1 who     
don't believe in what they preach8      

,and what is the use of capital in the  
hands of private persons1 when  it can  
only be of use as the property of all8  
,and when once people have asked        
themselves these questions they  cannot 
help coming to some decision and ceasing
 to support all these  institutions     
which are no longer of use4    ,but even
 before those who support these         
institutions decide to  abolish them1   
the men who occupy these positions will 
be reduced to  the necessity of throwing
 them up4    ,public opinion more and   
more condemns the use of force1 and     
therefore  men are less and less willing
 to fill positions which rest on the    
use of force1 and if they do occupy     
them1 are less and less able to  make   
use of force in them4 ,and hence they   
must become more and more  superfluous4 
,i once took part in ,moscow in a       
religious meeting which used to take    
place generally in the week after       
,easter near the church in the  ,ohotny 
,row4 ,a little knot of some twenty men 

were collected together  on the         
pavement1 engaged in serious religious  
discussion4 ,at the  same time there was
 a kind of concert going on in the      
buildings of  the ,court ,club in the   
same street1 and a police officer       
noticing  the little group collected    
near the church sent a mounted policeman
  to disperse it4 ,it was absolutely    
unnecessary for the officer to  disperse
 it4 ,a group of twenty men was no      
obstruction to anyone1 but  he had been 
standing there the whole morning1 and he
 wanted to do  something4 ,the          
policeman1 a young fellow1 with a       
resolute flourish of  his right arm and 
a clink of his saber1 came up to us and 
commanded  us severely3 ,move on6 what's
 this meeting about8 ,everyone looked at
  the policeman1 and one of the         
speakers1 a quiet man in a peasant's    
dress1 answered with a calm and gracious
 air1 ,we are speaking of  serious      
matters1 and there is no need for us to 
move on2 you would do  better1 young    

man1 to get off your horse and listen4  
,it might do you  good2 and turning     
round he continued his discourse4 ,the  
policeman  turned his horse and went off
 without a word4    ,that is just what  
should be done in all cases of violence4
    ,the officer was bored1 he had      
nothing to do4 ,he had been put1 poor   
fellow1 in a position in which he had no
 choice but to give orders4  ,he was    
shut off from all human existence2 he   
could do nothing but  superintend and   
give orders1 and give orders and        
superintend1  though his superintendence
 and his orders served no useful purpose
  whatever4 ,and this is the position in
 which all these unlucky rulers1        
ministers1 members of parliament1       
governors1 generals1 officers1          
archbishops1 priests1 and even rich men 
find themselves to some  extent already1
 and will find themselves altogether as 
time goes on4  ,they can do nothing but 
give orders1 and they give orders and   
send  their messengers1 as the officer  

sent the policeman1 to interfere  with  
people4 ,and because the people they    
hinder turn to them and  request them   
not to interfere1 they fancy they are   
very useful indeed4    ,but the time    
will come and is coming when it will be 
perfectly  evident to everyone that they
 are not of any use at all1 and only a  
hindrance1 and those whom they interfere
 with will say gently and  quietly to   
them1 like my friend in the street      
meeting1 ,pray don't  interfere with us4
 ,and all the messengers and those who  
send them  too will be obliged to follow
 this good advice1 that is to say1 will 
leave off galloping about1 with their   
arms akimbo1 interfering with  people1  
and getting off their horses and        
removing their spurs1 will  listen to   
what is being said1 and mixing with     
others1 will take their  place with them
 in some real human work4    ,the time  
will come and is inevitably coming when 
all institutions  based on force will   
disappear through their uselessness1    

stupidity1  and even inconvenience      
becoming obvious to all4    ,the time   
must come when the men of our modern    
world who fill offices  based upon      
violence will find themselves in the    
position of the  emperor in ,andersen's 
tale of ,the ,emperor's ,new ,clothes1  
when the  child seeing the emperor      
undressed1 cried in all simplicity1     
,look1  he is naked6 ,and then all the  
rest1 who had seen him and said         
nothing1 could not help recognizing it  
too4    ,the story is that there was    
once an emperor1 very fond of new       
clothes4 ,and to him came two tailors1  
who promised to make him some           
extraordinary clothes4 ,the emperor     
engages them and they begin to sew  at  
them1 but they explain that the clothes 
have the extraordinary  property of     
remaining invisible to anyone who is    
unfit for his  position4 ,the courtiers 
come to look at the tailors' work and   
see  nothing1 for the men are plying    
their needles in empty space4 ,but      

remembering the extraordinary property  
of the clothes1 they all  declare they  
see them and are loud in their          
admiration4 ,the emperor  does the same 
himself4 ,the day of the procession     
comes in which the  emperor is to go out
 in his new clothes4 ,the emperor       
undresses and  puts on his new clothes1 
that is to say1 remains naked1 and naked
 he  walks through the town4 ,but       
remembering the magic property of the   
clothes1 no one ventures to say that he 
has nothing on till a little  child     
cries out3 ,look1 he is naked6    ,this 
will be exactly the situation of all who
 continue through  inertia to fill      
offices which have long become useless  
directly  someone who has no interest in
 concealing their uselessness exclaims  
in all simplicity3 ,but these people    
have been of no use to anyone  for a    
long time past6    ,the condition of    
,christian humanity with its fortresses1
 cannons1  dynamite1 guns1 torpedoes1   
prisons1 gallows1 churches1 factories1  

customs offices1 and palaces is really  
terrible4 ,but still cannons  and guns  
will not fire themselves1 prisons will  
not shut men up of  themselves1 gallows 
will not hang them1 churches will not   
delude  them1 nor customs offices hinder
 them1 and palaces and factories are    
not built nor kept up of themselves4    
,all those things are the work  of men4 
,if men come to understand that they    
ought not to do these  things1 then they
 will cease to be4 ,and already they are
 beginning  to understand it4 ,though   
all do not understand it yet1 the       
advanced  guard understand and the rest 
will follow them4 ,and the advanced     
guard cannot cease to understand what   
they have once understood2  and what    
they understand the rest not only can   
but must inevitably  understand         
hereafter4    ,so that the prophecy that
 the time will come when men will be    
taught of ,god1 will learn war no more1 
will beat their swords  into plowshares 
and their spears into reaping-hooks1    

which means1  translating it into our   
language1 the fortresses1 prisons1      
barracks1  palaces1 and churches will   
remain empty1 and all the gibbets and   
guns and cannons will be left unused1 is
 no longer a dream1 but  the definite   
new form of life to which mankind is    
approaching with  ever-increasing       
rapidity4    ,but when will it be8      
,eighteen hundred years ago to this     
question ,christ answered that the  end 
of the world 7that is1 of the pagan     
organization of life7 shall  come when  
the tribulation of men is greater than  
it has ever been1  and when the ,gospel 
of the kingdom of ,god1 that is1 the    
possibility  of a new organization of   
life1 shall be preached in the world    
unto  all nations4 7,matt4 xxiv4 #c-bh47
 ,but of that day and hour knoweth no   
man but the ,father only 7,matt4 xxiv4  
#c-f71 said ,christ4 ,for it may  come  
any time1 in such an hour as ye think   
not4    ,to the question when this hour 
cometh ,christ answers that we cannot   

know1 but just because we cannot know   
when that hour is coming we  ought to be
 always ready to meet it1 just as the   
master ought to  watch who guards his   
house from thieves1 as the virgins ought
 to  watch with lamps alight for the    
bridegroom2 and further1 we ought  to   
work with all the powers given us to    
bring that hour to pass1 as  the        
servants ought to work with the talents 
intrusted to them4 7,matt4  xxiv4 #dc1  
and xxvi4 #ac1 #ad-cj47    ,and there   
could be no answer but this one4 ,men   
cannot know when the  day and the hour  
of the kingdom of ,god will come1       
because its coming  depends on          
themselves alone4    ,the answer is like
 that of the wise man who1 when asked   
whether it  was far to the town1        
answered1 ,walk6    ,how can we tell    
whether it is far to the goal which     
humanity is  approaching1 when we do not
 know how men are going toward it1 while
  it depends on them whether they go or 
do not go1 stand still1 slacken  their  

pace or hasten it8    ,all we can know  
is what we who make up mankind ought to 
do1 and not  to do1 to bring about the  
coming of the kingdom of ,god4 ,and that
 we  all know4 ,and we need only each   
begin to do what we ought to do1 we     
need only each live with all the light  
that is in us1 to bring about  at once  
the promised kingdom of ,god to which   
every man's heart is  yearning4         
,,chapter ,,xii4                        
,,conclusion--,,repent ,,ye1 ,,for ,,the
 ,,kingdom ,,of ,,heaven ,,is ,,at      
,,hand4         #a4 ,chance ,meeting    
with a ,train ,carrying ,soldiers to    
,restore ,order ,among the ,famishing   
,peasants--,reason of the               
,expedition--,how the ,decisions of the 
,higher ,authorities       are ,enforced
 in ,cases of ,insubordination on ,part 
of the       ,peasants--,what ,happened 
at ,orel1 as an ,example of ,how the    
,rights of the ,propertied ,classes are 
,maintained by ,murder and              
,torture--,all the ,privileges of the   

,wealthy are ,based on ,similar         
,acts of ,violence4         #b4 ,the    
,elements that ,made up the ,force ,sent
 to ,toula1 and       the ,conduct of   
the ,men ,composing it--,how these ,men 
,could       ,carry ,out such           
,acts--,the ,explanation is ,not to be  
,found in       ,ignorance1 ,conviction1
 ,cruelty1 ,heartlessness1 or ,want of  
,moral ,sense--,they do these ,things   
,because they are ,necessary to         
,support the ,existing ,order1 which    
they ,consider it ,every ,man's         
,duty to ,support--,the ,basis of this  
,conviction that the ,existing          
,order is ,necessary and                
,inevitable--,in the ,upper ,classes    
this       ,conviction is ,based on the 
,advantages of the ,existing ,order for 
,themselves--,but what ,forces ,men of  
the ,lower ,classes to ,believe       in
 the ,immutability of the ,existing     
,order1 from which they       ,derive no
 ,advantage1 and which they ,aid in     
,maintaining1 ,facts       ,contrary to 

their ,conscience8--,this is the ,result
 of the ,lower       ,classes being     
,deluded by the ,upper1 ,both as to the 
,inevitability       of the ,existing   
,order and the ,lawfulness of the ,acts 
of ,violence       ,needed to ,maintain 
it--,deception in ,general--,special    
,form of       ,deception in ,regard to 
,military ,service--,conscription4      
#c4 ,how can ,men ,allow that ,murder is
 ,permissible while they       ,preach  
,principles of ,morality1 and ,how can  
they ,allow of the       ,existence in  
their ,midst of a ,military             
,organization of ,physical       ,force 
which is a ,constant ,menace to ,public 
,security8--,it is only       ,allowed  
by the ,upper ,classes1 who ,profit by  
this ,organization1       ,because their
 ,privileges are ,maintained by it--,the
 ,upper ,classes       ,allow it1 and   
the ,lower ,classes ,carry it into      
,effect in ,spite of       their        
,consciousness of the ,immorality of the
 ,deeds of ,violence1       the ,more   

,readily ,because ,through the          
,arrangements of the       ,government  
the ,moral ,responsibility for such     
,deeds is ,divided       among a ,great 
,number of ,participants in it1 and     
,everyone ,throws       the             
,responsibility on ,someone             
,else--,moreover1 the ,sense of ,moral  
,responsibility is ,lost through the    
,delusion of ,inequality1 and       the 
,consequent ,intoxication of ,power on  
the ,part of ,superiors1       and      
,servility on the ,part of              
,inferiors--,the ,condition of these    
,men1 ,acting against the ,dictates of  
their ,conscience1 is ,like       that  
of ,hypnotized ,subjects ,acting by     
,suggestion--,the ,difference           
between this ,obedience to ,government  
,suggestion1 and ,obedience       to    
,public ,opinion1 and to the ,guidance  
of ,men of a ,higher ,moral             
,sense--,the ,existing ,order of        
,society1 which is the ,result of       
an ,extinct ,public ,opinion and is     

,inconsistent with the ,already         
,existing ,public ,opinion of the       
,future1 is only ,maintained by         
the ,stupefaction of the ,conscience1   
,produced ,spontaneously by             
,self-interest in the ,upper ,classes   
and ,through ,hypnotizing in       the  
,lower ,classes--,the ,conscience or the
 ,common ,sense of such       ,men may  
,awaken1 and there are ,examples of its 
,sudden ,awakening1       so that one   
can ,never be ,sure of the ,deeds of    
,violence they are       ,prepared      
for--,it ,depends ,entirely on the      
,point which the ,sense       of the    
,unlawfulness of ,acts of ,violence has 
,reached1 and this       ,sense may     
,spontaneously ,awaken in ,men1 or may  
be ,reawakened by       the ,influence  
of ,men of more ,conscience4         #d4
 ,everything ,depends on the ,strength  
of the ,consciousness of                
,christian ,truths in ,each ,individual 
,man--,the ,leading ,men of             
,modern ,times1 however1 do not ,think  

it ,necessary to ,preach or             
,practice the ,truths of ,christianity1 
but ,regard the ,modification       of  
the ,external ,conditions of ,existence 
within the ,limit ,imposed       by     
,governments as ,sufficient to ,reform  
the ,life of ,humanity--,on       this  
,scientific ,theory of ,hypocrisy1 which
 has ,replaced the       ,hypocrisy of  
,religion1 ,men of the ,wealthy ,classes
 ,base their       ,justification of    
their ,position--,through this          
,hypocrisy they       can ,enjoy the    
,exclusive ,privileges of their         
,position by ,force       and ,fraud1   
and ,still ,pretend to be ,christians to
 ,one ,another       and be ,easy in    
their ,minds--,this ,hypocrisy ,allows  
,men who       ,preach ,christianity to 
,take ,part in ,institutions ,based on  
,violence--,no ,external ,reformation of
 ,life will ,render it ,less            
,miserable--,its ,misery the ,result of 
,disunion ,caused by ,following         
,lies1 not the ,truth--,union only      

,possible in ,truth--,hypocrisy         
,hinders this ,union1 since ,hypocrites 
,conceal from themselves       and      
,others the ,truth they                 
,know--,hypocrisy ,turns all ,reforms   
of ,life to ,evil--,hypocrisy ,distorts 
the ,idea of ,good and       ,evil1 and 
so ,stands in the ,way of the ,progress 
of ,men toward                          
,perfection--,undisguised ,criminals and
 ,malefactors do ,less       ,harm than 
those who ,live by ,legalized ,violence1
 ,disguised by       ,hypocrisy--,all   
,men ,feel the ,iniquity of our ,life1  
and would       ,long ,ago have         
,transformed it if it had not been      
,dissimulated       by ,hypocrisy--,but 
,seem to have ,reached the ,extreme     
,limits of       ,hypocrisy1 and we     
,need only ,make an ,effort of          
,conscience to       ,awaken as from a  
,nightmare to a ,different ,reality4    
#e4 ,can ,man ,make this                
,effort8--,according to the             
,hypocritical       ,theory of the ,day1

 ,man is not ,free to ,transform his    
,life--,man       is not ,free in his   
,actions1 but he is ,free to ,admit or  
to ,deny       the ,truth he            
,knows--,when ,truth is ,once ,admitted1
 it ,becomes       the ,basis of        
,action--,man's ,threefold ,relation to 
,truth--,the       ,reason of the       
,apparent ,insolubility of the ,problem 
of ,free       ,will--,man's ,freedom   
,consists in the ,recognition of the    
,truth       ,revealed to him4 ,there is
 no ,other ,freedom--,recognition of    
,truth       ,gives ,freedom1 and ,shows
 the ,path ,along which1 ,willingly or  
,unwillingly by ,mankind1 ,man ,must    
,advance--,the ,recognition of          
,truth and ,real ,freedom ,enables ,man 
to ,share in the ,work of ,god1         
not as the ,slave1 but as the ,creator  
of ,life--,men ,need only ,make         
the ,effort to ,renounce all ,thought of
 ,bettering the ,external               
,conditions of ,life and ,bend all their
 ,efforts to ,recognizing and           

,preaching the ,truth they ,know1 to put
 an ,end to the ,existing               
,miserable ,state of ,things1 and to    
,enter upon the ,kingdom of ,god        
so far as it is yet ,accessible to      
,man--,all that is ,needed is       to  
,make an ,end of ,lying and             
,hypocrisy--,but then what ,awaits us   
in the ,future8--,what will ,happen to  
,humanity if ,men ,follow the           
,dictates of their ,conscience1 and how 
can ,life go on with the                
,conditions of ,civilized ,life to which
 we are ,accustomed8--,all              
,uneasiness on these ,points may be     
,removed by the ,reflection that        
,nothing ,true and ,good can be         
,destroyed by the ,realization of       
,truth1 but will only be ,freed from the
 ,alloy of ,falsehood4         #f4 ,our 
,life has ,reached the ,extreme ,limit  
of ,misery and ,cannot       be         
,improved by any ,systems of            
,organization--,all our ,life and       
all our ,institutions are ,quite        

,meaningless--,are we ,doing what       
,god ,wills of us by ,preserving our    
,privileges and ,duties to              
,government8--,we are put in this       
,position not ,because the ,world       
is so ,made and it is ,inevitable1 but  
,because we ,wish it to be       so1    
,because it is to the ,advantage of     
,some of us--,our ,conscience       is  
in ,opposition to our ,position and all 
our ,conduct1 and the       ,way ,out of
 the ,contradiction is to be ,found in  
the ,recognition       of the ,christian
 ,truth3 ,do ,not unto ,others what you 
,would       ,not they should ,do unto  
,you--,as our ,duties to ,self ,must be 
,subordinated to our ,duties to ,others1
 so ,must our ,duties to       ,others  
be ,subordinated to our ,duties to      
,god--,the ,only ,way ,out       of our 
,position ,lies1 if not in ,renouncing  
our ,position and our       ,privileges1
 at ,least in ,recognizing our ,sin and 
not ,justifying       it nor ,disguising
 it--,the ,only ,object of ,life is to  

,learn the       ,truth and to ,act on  
it--,acceptance of the ,position and of 
,state       ,action ,deprives ,life of 
all ,object--,it is ,god's ,will that we
       should ,serve ,him in our ,life1 
that is1 that we should ,bring          
,about the ,greatest ,unity of all that 
has ,life1 a ,unity only       ,possible
 in ,truth4      ,i was finishing this  
book1 which ,i had been working at for  
two years1  when ,i happened on the #ith
 of ,september to be traveling by rail  
through the governments of ,toula and   
,riazan1 where the peasants were        
starving last year and where the famine 
is even more severe now4 ,at  one of the
 railway stations my train passed an    
extra train which was  taking a troop of
 soldiers under the conduct of the      
governor of the  province1 together with
 muskets1 cartridges1 and rods1 to flog 
and  murder these same famishing        
peasants4    ,the punishment of flogging
 by way of carrying the decrees of the  
authorities into effect has been more   

and more frequently adopted of  late in 
,russia1 in spite of the fact that      
corporal punishment was  abolished by   
law thirty years ago4    ,i had heard of
 this1 ,i had even read in the          
newspapers of the  fearful floggings    
which had been inflicted in ,tchernigov1
 ,tambov1  ,saratov1 ,astrakhan1 and    
,orel1 and of those of which the        
governor of  ,nijni-,novgorod1 ,general 
,baranov1 had boasted4 ,but ,i had never
 before  happened to see men in the     
process of carrying out these           
punishments4    ,and here ,i saw the    
spectacle of good ,russians full of the 
,christian  spirit traveling with guns  
and rods to torture and kill their      
starving brethren4 ,the reason for their
 expedition was as follows3    ,on one  
of the estates of a rich landowner the  
peasants had common  rights on the      
forest1 and having always enjoyed these 
rights1  regarded the forest as their   
own1 or at least as theirs in common    
with the owner4 ,the landowner wished to

 keep the forest entirely  to himself   
and began to fell the trees4 ,the       
peasants lodged a  complaint4 ,the      
judges in the first instance gave an    
unjust decision  7,i say unjust on the  
authority of the lawyer and governor1   
who ought  to understand the matter71   
and decided the case in favor of the    
landowner4 ,all the later decisions1    
even that of the senate1 though  they   
could see that the matter had been      
unjustly decided1 confirmed  the        
judgment and adjudged the forest to the 
landowner4 ,he began to  cut down the   
trees1 but the peasants1 unable to      
believe that such  obvious injustice    
could be done them by the higher        
authorities1 did  not submit to the     
decision and drove away the men sent to 
cut down  the trees1 declaring that the 
forest belonged to them and they would  
go to the ,tzar before they would let   
them cut it down4    ,the matter was    
referred to ,petersburg1 and the order  
was transmitted  to the governor to     

carry the decision of the court into    
effect4  ,the governor asked for a troop
 of soldiers4 ,and here were the        
soldiers with bayonets and cartridges1  
and moreover1 a supply of  rods1        
expressly prepared for the purpose and  
heaped up in one of the  trucks1 going  
to carry the decision of the higher     
authorities into  effect4    ,the       
decisions of the higher authorities are 
carried into effect by  means of murder 
or torture1 or threats of one or the    
other1 according  to whether they offer 
resistance or not4    ,in the first case
 if the peasants offer resistance the   
practice is in  ,russia1 and it is the  
same everywhere where a state           
organization and  private property      
exist1 as follows3    ,the governor     
delivers an address in which he demands 
submission4 ,the  excited crowd1        
generally deluded by their leaders1     
don't understand a  word of what the    
representative of authority is saying in
 the pompous  official language1 and    

their excitement continues4 ,then the   
governor  announces that if they do not 
submit and disperse1 he will be obliged 
to have recourse to force4 ,if the crowd
 does not disperse even on  this1 the   
governor gives the order to fire over   
the heads of the  crowd4 ,if the crowd  
does not even then disperse1 the        
governor gives  the order to fire       
straight into the crowd2 the soldiers   
fire and the  killed and wounded fall   
about the street4 ,then the crowd       
usually runs  away in all directions1   
and the troops at the governor's command
  take those who are supposed to be the 
ringleaders and lead them off  under    
escort4 ,then they pick up the dying1   
the wounded1 and the dead1  covered with
 blood1 sometimes women and children    
among them4 ,the dead  they bury and the
 wounded they carry to the hospital4    
,those whom they  regard as the         
ringleaders they take to the town hall  
and have them  tried by a special       
court-martial4 ,and if they have had    

recourse to  violence on their side1    
they are condemned to be hanged4 ,and   
then  the gallows is erected4 ,and they 
solemnly strangle a few defenseless     
creatures4 ,this is what has often been 
done in ,russia1 and is and  must always
 be done where the social order is based
 on force4    ,but in the second case1  
when the peasants do submit1 something  
quite  special1 peculiar to ,russia1    
takes place4 ,the governor arrives on   
the  scene of action and delivers an    
harangue to the people1 reproaching     
them for their insubordination1 and     
either stations troops in the  houses of
 the villages1 where sometimes for a    
whole month the  soldiers drain the     
resources of the peasants1 or contenting
 himself  with threats1 he mercifully   
takes leave of the people1 or what is   
the most frequent course1 he announces  
that the ringleaders must be  punished1 
and quite arbitrarily without any trial 
selects a certain  number of men1       
regarded as ringleaders1 and commands   

them to be  flogged in his presence4    
,in order to give an idea of how such   
things are done ,i will describe  a     
proceeding of the kind which took place 
in ,orel1 and received the  full        
approval of the highest authorities4    
,this is what took place in ,orel4 ,just
 as here in the ,toula province1  a     
landlord wanted to appropriate the      
property of the peasants and  just in   
the same way the peasants opposed it4   
,the matter in dispute  was a fall of   
water1 which irrigated the peasants'    
fields1 and  which the landowner wanted 
to cut off and divert to turn his mill4 
,the peasants rebelled against this     
being done4 ,the landowner laid  a      
complaint before the district commander1
 who illegally 7as was  recognized later
 even by a legal decision7 decided the  
matter in  favor of the landowner1 and  
allowed him to divert the water course4 
,the landowner sent workmen to dig the  
conduit by which the water was  to be   
let off to turn the mill4 ,the peasants 

were indignant at this  unjust decision1
 and sent their women to prevent the    
landowner's men  from digging this      
conduit4 ,the women went to the dykes1  
overturned  the carts1 and drove away   
the men4 ,the landowner made a complaint
  against the women for thus taking the 
law into their own hands4 ,the  district
 commander made out an order that from  
every house throughout  the village one 
woman was to be taken and put in prison4
 ,the order  was not easily executed4   
,for in every household there were      
several  women1 and it was impossible to
 know which one was to be arrested4     
,consequently the police did not carry  
out the order4 ,the landowner           
complained to the governor of the       
neglect on the part of the police1  and 
the latter1 without examining into the  
affair1 gave the chief  official of the 
police strict orders to carry out the   
instructions  of the district commander 
without delay4 ,the police official1 in 
obedience to his superior1 went to the  

village and with the insolence  peculiar
 to ,russian officials ordered his      
policemen to take one  woman out of each
 house4 ,but since there were more than 
one woman  in each house1 and there was 
no knowing which one was sentenced  to  
imprisonment1 disputes and opposition   
arose4 ,in spite of these  disputes and 
opposition1 however1 the officer of     
police gave orders  that some woman1    
whichever came first1 should be taken   
from each  household and led away to    
prison4 ,the peasants began to defend   
their  wives and mothers1 would not let 
them go1 and beat the police and  their 
officer4 ,this was a fresh and terrible 
crime3 resistance was  offered to the   
authorities4 ,a report of this new      
offense was sent to  the town4 ,and so  
this governor--precisely as the governor
 of ,toula  was doing on that day--with 
a battalion of soldiers with guns and   
rods1 hastily brought together by means 
of telegraphs and telephones  and       
railways1 proceeded by a special train  

to the scene of action1  with a learned 
doctor whose duty it was to insure the  
flogging being  of an hygienic          
character4 ,herzen's prophecy of the    
modern ,ghenghis  ,khan with his        
telegrams is completely realized by this
 governor4    ,before the town hall of  
the district were the soldiery1 a       
battalion  of police with their         
revolvers slung round them with red     
cords1 the  persons of most importance  
among the peasants1 and the culprits4   
,a crowd of one thousand or more people 
were standing round4 ,the  governor1 on 
arriving1 stepped out of his carriage1  
delivered a  prepared harangue1 and     
asked for the culprits and a bench4 ,the
 latter  demand was at first not        
understood4 ,but a police constable whom
 the  governor always took about with   
him1 and who undertook to organize  such
 executions--by no means exceptional in 
that province--explained  that what was 
meant was a bench for flogging4 ,a bench
 was brought as  well as the rods1 and  

then the executioners were summoned 7the
 latter  had been selected beforehand   
from some horsestealers of the same     
village1 as the soldiers refused the    
office74 ,when everything was  ready1   
the governor ordered the first of the   
twelve culprits pointed  out by the     
landowner as the most guilty to come    
forward4 ,the first to  come forward was
 the head of a family1 a man of forty   
who had always  stood up manfully for   
the rights of his class1 and therefore  
was held  in the greatest esteem by all 
the villagers4 ,he was led to the bench 
and stripped1 and then ordered to lie   
down4    ,the peasant attempted to      
supplicate for mercy1 but seeing it was 
useless1 he crossed himself and lay     
down4 ,two police constables  hastened  
to hold him down4 ,the learned doctor   
stood by1 in readiness  to give his aid 
and his medical science when they should
 be needed4  ,the convicts spit into    
their hands1 brandished the rods1 and   
began  to flog4 ,it seemed1 however1    

that the bench was too narrow1 and it   
was difficult to keep the victim        
writhing in torture upon it4 ,then  the 
governor ordered them to bring another  
bench and to put a plank  across them4  
,soldiers1 with their hands raised to   
their caps1 and  respectful murmurs of  
,yes1 your ,excellency1 hasten          
obediently to  carry out this order4    
,meanwhile the tortured man1 half naked1
 pale  and scowling1 stood waiting1 his 
eyes fixed on the ground and his  teeth 
chattering4 ,when another bench had been
 brought they again made  him lie down1 
and the convicted thieves again began to
 flog him4    ,the victim's back and    
thighs and legs1 and even his sides1    
became  more and more covered with scars
 and wheals1 and at every blow there    
came the sound of the deep groans which 
he could no longer restrain4  ,in the   
crowd standing round were heard the sobs
 of wives1 mothers1  children1 the      
families of the tortured man and of all 
the others  picked out for punishment4  

,the miserable governor1 intoxicated    
with power1 was counting the  strokes on
 his fingers1 and never left off smoking
 cigarettes1 while  several officious   
persons hastened on every opportunity to
 offer him  a burning match to light    
them4 ,when more than fifty strokes had 
been  given1 the peasant ceased to      
shriek and writhe1 and the doctor1 who  
had been educated in a government       
institution to serve his sovereign  and 
his country with his scientific         
attainments1 went up to the  victim1    
felt his pulse1 listened to his heart1  
and announced to the  representative of 
authority that the man undergoing       
punishment had  lost consciousness1 and 
that1 in accordance with the conclusions
  of science1 to continue the punishment
 would endanger the victim's  life4 ,but
 the miserable governor1 now completely 
intoxicated by the  sight of blood1 gave
 orders that the punishment should go   
on1 and  the flogging was continued up  
to seventy strokes1 the number which    

the governor had for some reason fixed  
upon as necessary4 ,when the  seventieth
 stroke had been reached1 the governor  
said ,enough6 ,next  one6 ,and the      
mutilated victim1 his back covered with 
blood1 was  lifted up and carried away  
unconscious1 and another was led up4    
,the  sobs and groans of the crowd grew 
louder4 ,but the representative of  the 
state continued the torture4    ,thus   
they flogged each of them up to the     
twelfth1 and each of them  received     
seventy strokes4 ,they all implored     
mercy1 shrieked and  groaned4 ,the sobs 
and cries of the crowd of women grew    
louder and  more heart-rending1 and the 
men's faces grew darker and darker4 ,but
  they were surrounded by troops1 and   
the torture did not cease till  it had  
reached the limit which had been fixed  
by the caprice of the  miserable        
half-drunken and insane creature they   
called the governor4    ,the officials1 
and officers1 and soldiers not only     
assisted in it1  but were even partly   

responsible for the affair1 since by    
their  presence they prevented any      
interference on the part of the crowd4  
,when ,i inquired of one of the         
governors why they made use of this     
kind of torture when people had already 
submitted and soldiers were  stationed  
in the village1 he replied with the     
important air of a man  who thoroughly  
understands all the subtleties of       
statecraft1 that  if the peasants were  
not thoroughly subdued by flogging1 they
 would  begin offering opposition to the
 decisions of authorities again4 ,when  
some of them had been thoroughly        
tortured1 the authority of the state    
would be secured forever among them4    
,and so that was why the ,governor of   
,toula was going in his turn with  his  
subordinate officials1 officers1 and    
soldiers to carry out a  similar        
measure4 ,by precisely the same means1  
i4 e41 by murder and  torture1 obedience
 to the decision of the higher          
authorities was to  be secured4 ,and    

this decision was to enable a young     
landowner1 who  had an income of one    
hundred thousand1 to gain three thousand
 rubles  more by stealing a forest from 
a whole community of cold and famished  
peasants1 to spend it1 in two or three  
weeks in the saloons of  ,moscow1       
,petersburg1 or ,paris4 ,that was what  
those people whom ,i met  were going to 
do4    ,after my thoughts had for two   
years been turned in the same           
direction1 fate seemed expressly to have
 brought me face to face for  the first 
time in my life with a fact which showed
 me absolutely  unmistakably in practice
 what had long been clear to me in      
theory1  that the organization of our   
society rests1 not as people interested 
in maintaining the present order of     
things like to imagine1 on  certain     
principles of jurisprudence1 but on     
simple brute force1 on  the murder and  
torture of men4    ,people who own great
 estates or fortunes1 or who receive    
great  revenues drawn from the class who

 are in want even of necessities1  the  
working class1 as well as all those who 
like merchants1 doctors1  artists1      
clerks1 learned professors1 coachmen1   
cooks1 writers1  valets1 and barristers1
 make their living about these rich     
people1  like to believe that the       
privileges they enjoy are not the result
 of  force1 but of absolutely free and  
just interchange of services1 and  that 
their advantages1 far from being gained 
by such punishments and  murders as took
 place in ,orel and several parts of    
,russia this year1  and are always      
taking place all over ,europe and       
,america1 have no kind  of connection   
with these acts of violence4 ,they like 
to believe that  their privileges exist 
apart and are the result of free        
contract  among people2 and that the    
violent cruelties perpetrated on the    
people also exist apart and are the     
result of some general judicial1        
political1 or economical laws4 ,they try
 not to see that they all  enjoy their  

privileges as a result of the same fact 
which forces the  peasants who have     
tended the forest1 and who are in the   
direct need  of it for fuel1 to give it 
up to a rich landowner who has taken no 
part in caring for its growth and has no
 need of it whatever--the  fact1 that   
is1 that if they don't give it up they  
will be flogged or  killed4    ,and yet 
if it is clear that it was only by means
 of menaces1 blows1  or murder1 that the
 mill in ,orel was enabled to yield a   
larger  income1 or that the forest which
 the peasants had planted became  the   
property of a landowner1 it should be   
equally clear that all  the other       
exclusive rights enjoyed by the rich1 by
 robbing the  poor of their necessities1
 rest on the same basis of violence4 ,if
  the peasants1 who need land to        
maintain their families1 may not        
cultivate the land about their houses1  
but one man1 a ,russian1  ,english1     
,austrian1 or any other great landowner1
 possesses land  enough to maintain a   

thousand families1 though he does not   
cultivate  it himself1 and if a merchant
 profiting by the misery of the         
cultivators1 taking corn from them at a 
third of its value1 can  keep this corn 
in his granaries with perfect security  
while men are  starving all around him1 
and sell it again for three times its   
value  to the very cultivators he bought
 it from1 it is evident that all  this  
too comes from the same cause4 ,and if  
one man may not buy of  another a       
commodity from the other side of a      
certain fixed line1  called the         
frontier1 without paying certain duties 
on it to men who  have taken no part    
whatever in its production--and if men  
are driven  to sell their last cow to   
pay taxes which the government          
distributes  among its functionaries1   
and spends on maintaining soldiers to   
murder  these very taxpayers--it would  
appear self-evident that all this does  
not come about as the result of any     
abstract laws1 but is based on  just    

what was done in ,orel1 and which may be
 done in ,toula1 and is  done           
periodically in one form or another     
throughout the whole world  wherever    
there is a government1 and where there  
are rich and poor4    ,simply because   
torture and murder are not employed in  
every instance  of oppression by force1 
those who enjoy the exclusive privileges
  of the ruling classes persuade        
themselves and others that their        
privileges are not based on torture and 
murder1 but on some  mysterious general 
causes1 abstract laws1 and so on4 ,yet  
one would  think it was perfectly clear 
that if men1 who consider it unjust 7and
  all the working classes do consider it
 so nowadays71 still pay the  principal 
part of the produce of their labor away 
to the capitalist  and the landowner1   
and pay taxes1 though they know to what 
a bad use  these taxes are put1 they do 
so not from recognition of abstract laws
  of which they have never heard1 but   
only because they know they will  be    

beaten and killed if they don't do so4  
,and if there is no need to imprison1   
beat1 and kill men every time  the      
landlord collects his rents1 every time 
those who are in want of  bread have to 
pay a swindling merchant three times its
 value1 every  time the factory hand has
 to be content with a wage less than    
half of  the profit made by the         
employer1 and every time a poor man pays
 his  last ruble in taxes1 it is because
 so many men have been beaten and       
killed for trying to resist these       
demands1 that the lesson has now  been  
learnt very thoroughly4    ,just as a   
trained tiger1 who does not eat meat put
 under his nose1  and jumps over a stick
 at the word of command1 does not act   
thus  because he likes it1 but because  
he remembers the red-hot irons or  the  
fast with which he was punished every   
time he did not obey2 so  men submitting
 to what is disadvantageous or even     
ruinous to them1  and considered by them
 as unjust1 act thus because they       

remember what  they suffered for        
resisting it4    ,as for those who      
profit by the privileges gained by      
previous acts of  violence1 they often  
forget and like to forget how these     
privileges  were obtained4 ,but one need
 only recall the facts of history1 not  
the  history of the exploits of         
different dynasties of rulers1 but real 
history1 the history of the oppression  
of the majority by a small  number of   
men1 to see that all the advantages the 
rich have over the  poor are based on   
nothing but flogging1 imprisonment1 and 
murder4    ,one need but reflect on the 
unceasing1 persistent struggle of all to
  better their material position1 which 
is the guiding motive of men  of the    
present day1 to be convinced that the   
advantages of the rich  over the poor   
could never and can never be maintained 
by anything but  force4    ,there may be
 cases of oppression1 of violence1 and  
of punishments1  though they are rare1  
the aim of which is not to secure the   

privileges of the propertied classes4   
,but one may confidently assert  that in
 any society where1 for every man living
 in ease1 there are  ten exhausted by   
labor1 envious1 covetous1 and often     
suffering with  their families from     
direct privation1 all the privileges of 
the rich1  all their luxuries and       
superfluities1 are obtained and         
maintained  only by tortures1           
imprisonment1 and murder4    ,the train 
,i met on the #ith of ,september going  
with soldiers1 guns1  cartridges1 and   
rods1 to confirm the rich landowner in  
the possession  of a small forest which 
he had taken from the starving peasants1
  which they were in the direst need of1
 and he was in no need of at  all1 was a
 striking proof of how men are capable  
of doing deeds  directly opposed to     
their principles and their conscience   
without  perceiving it4    ,the special 
train consisted of one first-class      
carriage for the  governor1 the         
officials1 and officers1 and several    

luggage vans  crammed full of soldiers4 
,the latter1 smart young fellows in     
their  clean new uniforms1 were standing
 about in groups or sitting swinging    
their legs in the wide open doorways of 
the luggage vans4 ,some were  smoking1  
nudging each other1 joking1 grinning1   
and laughing1 others  were munching     
sunflower seeds and spitting out the    
husks with an air  of dignity4 ,some of 
them ran along the platform to drink    
some water  from a tub there1 and when  
they met the officers they slackened    
their  pace1 made their stupid gesture  
of salutation1 raising their hands to   
their heads with serious faces as though
 they were doing something of  the      
greatest importance4 ,they kept their   
eyes on them till they had  passed by   
them1 and then set off running still    
more merrily1 stamping  their heels on  
the platform1 laughing and chattering   
after the  manner of healthy1           
good-natured young fellows1 traveling in
 lively  company4    ,they were going to

 assist at the murder of their fathers  
or  grandfathers just as if they were   
going on a party of pleasure1 or at  any
 rate on some quite ordinary business4  
,the same impression was produced by the
 well-dressed functionaries  and        
officers who were scattered about the   
platform and in the  first-class        
carriage4 ,at a table covered with      
bottles was sitting  the governor1 who  
was responsible for the whole           
expedition1 dressed  in his             
half-military uniform and eating        
something while he chatted  tranquilly  
about the weather with some             
acquaintances he had met1  as though the
 business he was upon was of so simple  
and ordinary a  character that it could 
not disturb his serenity and his        
interest in  the change of weather4     
,at a little distance from the table sat
 the general of the police4  ,he was not
 taking any refreshment1 and had an     
impenetrable bored  expression1 as      
though he were weary of the formalities 

to be gone  through4 ,on all sides      
officers were bustling noisily about in 
their  red uniforms trimmed with gold2  
one sat at a table finishing his  bottle
 of beer1 another stood at the buffet   
eating a cake1 and  brushing the crumbs 
off his uniform1 threw down his money   
with a  self-confident air2 another was 
sauntering before the carriages of  our 
train1 staring at the faces of the      
women4    ,all these men who were going 
to murder or to torture the famishing   
and defenseless creatures who provide   
them their sustenance had the  air of   
men who knew very well that they were   
doing their duty1 and  some were even   
proud1 were glorying in what they were  
doing4    ,what is the meaning of it8   
,all these people are within half an    
hour of reaching the place where1  in   
order to provide a wealthy young man    
with three thousand rubles  stolen from 
a whole community of famishing peasants1
 they may be  forced to commit the most 
horrible acts one can conceive1 to      

murder  or torture1 as was done in      
,orel1 innocent beings1 their brothers4 
,and  they see the place and time       
approaching with untroubled serenity4   
,to say that all these government       
officials1 officers1 and soldiers  do   
not know what is before them is         
impossible1 for they are prepared  for  
it4 ,the governor must have given       
directions about the rods1 the          
officials must have sent an order for   
them1 purchased them1 and  entered the  
item in their accounts4 ,the military   
officers have given  and received orders
 about cartridges4 ,they all know that  
they are  going to torture1 perhaps to  
kill1 their famishing fellow-creatures1 
and that they must set to work within an
 hour4    ,to say1 as is usually said1  
and as they would themselves repeat1    
that they are acting from conviction of 
the necessity for supporting  the state 
organization1 would be a mistake4 ,for  
in the first place1  these men have     
probably never even thought about state 

organization  and the necessity of it2  
in the second place1 they cannot        
possibly  be convinced that the act in  
which they are taking part will tend to 
support rather than to ruin the state2  
and thirdly1 in reality the  majority1  
if not all1 of these men1 far from ever 
sacrificing their  own pleasure or      
tranquillity to support the state1 never
 let slip an  opportunity of profiting  
at the expense of the state in every way
  they can increase their own pleasure  
and ease4 ,so that they are not  acting 
thus for the sake of the abstract       
principle of the state4    ,what is the 
meaning of it8    ,yet ,i know all these
 men4 ,if ,i don't know all of them     
personally1  ,i know their characters   
pretty nearly1 their past1 and their way
  of thinking4 ,they certainly all have 
mothers1 some of them wives  and        
children4 ,they are certainly for the   
most part good1 kind1 even              
tender-hearted fellows1 who hate every  
sort of cruelty1 not to speak  of       

murder2 many of them would not kill or  
hurt an animal4 ,moreover1  they are all
 professed ,christians and regard all   
violence directed  against the          
defenseless as base and disgraceful4    
,certainly not one of them would be     
capable in everyday life1 for his  own  
personal profit1 of doing a hundredth   
part of what the ,governor  of ,orel    
did4 ,every one of them would be        
insulted at the supposition  that he was
 capable of doing anything of the kind  
in private life4    ,and yet they are   
within half an hour of reaching the     
place where they  may be reduced to the 
inevitable necessity of committing this 
crime4    ,what is the meaning of it8   
,but it is not only these men who are   
going by train prepared for  murder and 
torture4 ,how could the men who began   
the whole business1  the landowner1 the 
commissioner1 the judges1 and those who 
gave the  order and are responsible for 
it1 the ministers1 the ,tzar1 who are   
also good men1 professed ,christians1   

how could they elaborate such a  plan   
and assent to it1 knowing its           
consequences8 ,the spectators even1  who
 took no part in the affair1 how could  
they1 who are indignant at  the sight of
 any cruelty in private life1 even the  
overtaxing of a  horse1 allow such a    
horrible deed to be perpetrated8 ,how   
was it they  did not rise in indignation
 and bar the roads1 shouting1 ,no2 flog 
and kill starving men because they won't
 let their last possession  be stolen   
from them without resistance1 that we   
won't allow6 ,but  far from anyone doing
 this1 the majority1 even of those who  
were  the cause of the affair1 such as  
the commissioner1 the landowner1  the   
judge1 and those who took part in it and
 arranged it1 as the  governor1 the     
ministers1 and the ,tzar1 are perfectly 
tranquil and do  not even feel a prick  
of conscience4 ,and apparently all the  
men who  are going to carry out this    
crime are equally undisturbed4    ,the  
spectators1 who one would suppose could 

have no personal  interest in the       
affair1 looked rather with sympathy than
 with  disapproval at all these people  
preparing to carry out this infamous    
action4 ,in the same compartment with me
 was a wood merchant1 who had  risen    
from a peasant4 ,he openly expressed    
aloud his sympathy with  such           
punishments4 ,they can't disobey the    
authorities1 he said2  that's what the  
authorities are for4 ,let them have a   
lesson2 send  their fleas flying6       
,they'll give over making commotions1 ,i
 warrant  you4 ,that's what they want4  
,what is the meaning of it8    ,it is   
not possible to say that all these      
people who have provoked  or aided or   
allowed this deed are such worthless    
creatures that1  knowing all the infamy 
of what they are doing1 they do it      
against  their principles1 some for pay 
and for profit1 others through fear of  
punishment4 ,all of them in certain     
circumstances know how to stand  up for 
their principles4 ,not one of these     

officials would steal a  purse1 read    
another man's letter1 or put up with an 
affront without  demanding satisfaction4
 ,not one of these officers would       
consent to  cheat at cards1 would refuse
 to pay a debt of honor1 would betray a 
comrade1 run away on the field of       
battle1 or desert the flag4 ,not one  of
 these soldiers would spit out the holy 
sacrament or eat meat on  ,good ,friday4
 ,all these men are ready to face any   
kind of privation1  suffering1 or danger
 rather than consent to do what they    
regard as  wrong4 ,they have therefore  
the strength to resist doing what is    
against their principles4    ,it is even
 less possible to assert that all these 
men are such brutes  that it is natural 
and not distasteful to them to do such  
deeds4 ,one  need only talk to these    
people a little to see that all of them1
 the  landowner even1 and the judge1 and
 the minister and the ,tzar and  the    
government1 the officers and the        
soldiers1 not only disapprove  of such  

things in the depth of their soul1 but  
suffer from the  consciousness of their 
participation in them when they         
recollect  what they imply4 ,but they   
try not to think about it4    ,one need 
only talk to any of these who are taking
 part in the affair  from the landowner 
to the lowest policeman or soldier to   
see that in  the depth of their soul    
they all know it is a wicked thing1 that
 it  would be better to have nothing to 
do with it1 and are suffering from  the 
knowledge4    ,a lady of liberal views1 
who was traveling in the same train with
  us1 seeing the governor and the       
officers in the first-class saloon  and 
learning the object of the expedition1  
began1 intentionally  raising her voice 
so that they should hear1 to abuse the  
existing  order of things and to cry    
shame on men who would take part in such
  proceedings4 ,everyone felt awkward1  
none knew where to look1 but  no one    
contradicted her4 ,they tried to look as
 though such remarks  were not worth    

answering4 ,but one could see by their  
faces and their  averted eyes that they 
were ashamed4 ,i noticed the same thing 
in the  soldiers4 ,they too knew that   
what they were sent to do was a shameful
  thing1 but they did not want to think 
about what was before them4    ,when the
 wood merchant1 as ,i suspect           
insincerely only to show that  he was a 
man of education1 began to speak of the 
necessity of such  measures1 the        
soldiers who heard him all turned away  
from him1  scowling and pretending not  
to hear4    ,all the men who1 like the  
landowner1 the commissioner1 the        
minister1  and the ,tzar1 were          
responsible for the perpetration of this
 act1 as  well as those who were now    
going to execute it1 and even those who 
were mere spectators of it1 knew that it
 was a wickedness1 and were  ashamed of 
taking any share in it1 and even of     
being present at it4    ,then why did   
they do it1 or allow it to be done8     
,ask them the question4 ,and the        

landowner who started the affair1 and   
the judge who pronounced a clearly      
unjust even though formally legal       
decision1 and those who commanded the   
execution of the decision1 and  those   
who1 like the policemen1 soldiers1 and  
peasants1 will execute  the deed with   
their own hands1 flogging and killing   
their brothers1  all who have devised1  
abetted1 decreed1 executed1 or allowed  
such  crimes1 will make substantially   
the same reply4    ,the authorities1    
those who have started1 devised1 and    
decreed the  matter1 will say that such 
acts are necessary for the maintenance  
of the existing order2 the maintenance  
of the existing order is  necessary for 
the welfare of the country and of       
humanity1 for the  possibility of social
 existence and human progress4    ,men  
of the poorer class1 peasants and       
soldiers1 who will have to  execute the 
deed of violence with their own hands1  
say that they  do so because it is the  
command of their superior authority1 and

  the superior authority knows what he  
is about4 ,that those are in  authority 
who ought to be in authority1 and that  
they know what they  are doing appears  
to them a truth of which there can be no
 doubt4 ,if  they could admit the       
possibility of mistake or error1 it     
would only  be in functionaries of a    
lower grade2 the highest authority on   
which  all the rest depends seems to    
them immaculate beyond suspicion4       
,though expressing the motives of their 
conduct differently1 both  those in     
command and their subordinates are      
agreed in saying that  they act thus    
because the existing order is the order 
which must and  ought to exist at the   
present time1 and that therefore to     
support it  is the sacred duty of every 
man4    ,on this acceptance of the      
necessity and therefore immutability of 
the  existing order1 all who take part  
in acts of violence on the part of      
government base the argument always     
advanced in their justification4  ,since

 the existing order is immutable1 they  
say1 the refusal of a  single individual
 to perform the duties laid upon him    
will effect no  change in things1 and   
will only mean that some other man will 
be put  in his place who may do the work
 worse1 that is to say1 more cruelly1   
to the still greater injury of the      
victims of the act of violence4    ,this
 conviction that the existing order is  
the necessary and  therefore immutable  
order1 which it is a sacred duty for    
every man  to support1 enables good men1
 of high principles in private life1 to 
take part with conscience more or less  
untroubled in crimes such as  that      
perpetrated in ,orel1 and that which the
 men in the ,toula train  were going to 
perpetrate4    ,but what is this        
conviction based on8 ,it is easy to     
understand  that the landowner prefers  
to believe that the existing order is   
inevitable and immutable1 because this  
existing order secures him an  income   
from his hundreds and thousands of      

acres1 by means of which he  can lead   
his habitual indolent and luxurious     
life4    ,it is easy to understand that 
the judge readily believes in the       
necessity of an order of things through 
which he receives a wage  fifty times as
 great as the most industrious laborer  
can earn1 and  the same applies to all  
the higher officials4 ,it is only under 
the  existing rgime that as governor1   
prosecutor1 senator1 members of  the    
various councils1 they can receive their
 several thousands of  rubles a year1   
without which they and their families   
would at once  sink into ruin1 since if 
it were not for the position they occupy
  they would never by their own         
abilities1 industry1 or acquirements    
get a thousandth part of their salaries4
 ,the minister1 the ,tzar1  and all the 
higher authorities are in the same      
position4 ,the only  distinction is that
 the higher and the more exceptional    
their  position1 the more necessary it  
is for them to believe that the         

existing order is the only possible     
order of things4 ,for without it  they  
would not only be unable to gain an     
equal position1 but would be  found to  
fall lower than all other people4 ,a man
 who has of his own  free will entered  
the police force at a wage of ten       
rubles1 which he  could easily earn in  
any other position1 is hardly dependent 
on the  preservation of the existing    
rgime1 and so he may not believe in  its
 immutability4 ,but a king or an        
emperor1 who receives millions for  his 
post1 and knows that there are thousands
 of people round him who  would like to 
dethrone him and take his place1 who    
knows that he will  never receive such a
 revenue or so much honor in any other  
position1  who knows1 in most cases     
through his more or less despotic rule1 
that if he were dethroned he would have 
to answer for all his abuse  of         
power--he cannot but believe in the     
necessity and even sacredness  of the   
existing order4 ,the higher and the more

 profitable a man's  position1 the more 
unstable it becomes1 and the more       
terrible and  dangerous a fall from it  
for him1 the more firmly the man        
believes in  the existing order1 and    
therefore with the more ease of         
conscience  can such a man perpetrate   
cruel and wicked acts1 as though they   
were  not in his own interest1 but for  
the maintenance of that order4    ,this 
is the case with all men in authority1  
who occupy positions more  profitable   
than they could occupy except for the   
present rgime1  from the lowest police  
officer to the ,tzar4 ,all of them are  
more or  less convinced that the        
existing order is immutable1            
because--the  chief consideration--it is
 to their advantage4 ,but the peasants1 
the soldiers1 who are at the bottom of  
the social scale1 who have  no kind of  
advantage from the existing order1 who  
are in the very  lowest position of     
subjection and humiliation1 what forces 
them to  believe that the existing order

 in which they are in their humble and  
disadvantageous position is the order   
which ought to exist1 and which  they   
ought to support even at the cost of    
evil actions contrary to  their         
conscience8    ,what forces these men to
 the false reasoning that the existing  
order  is unchanging1 and that therefore
 they ought to support it1 when it  is  
so obvious1 on the contrary1 that it is 
only unchanging because  they themselves
 support it8    ,what forces these      
peasants1 taken only yesterday from the 
plow and  dressed in ugly and unseemly  
costumes with blue collars and gilt     
buttons1 to go with guns and sabers and 
murder their famishing  fathers and     
brothers8 ,they gain no kind of         
advantage and can be in  no fear of     
losing the position they occupy1 because
 it is worse than  that from which they 
have been taken4    ,the persons in     
authority of the higher                 
orders--landowners1 merchants1  judges1 
senators1 governors1 ministers1 tzars1  

and officers--take  part in such doings 
because the existing order is to their  
advantage4  ,in other respects they are 
often good and kind-hearted men1 and    
they  are more able to take part in such
 doings because their share in  them is 
limited to suggestions1 decisions1 and  
orders4 ,these persons  in authority    
never do themselves what they suggest1  
decide1 or  command to be done4 ,for the
 most part they do not even see how all 
the atrocious deeds they have suggested 
and authorized are carried  out4 ,but   
the unfortunate men of the lower orders1
 who gain no kind  of advantage from the
 existing rgime1 but1 on the contrary1  
are  treated with the utmost contempt1  
support it even by dragging people  with
 their own hands from their families1   
handcuffing them1 throwing  them in     
prison1 guarding them1 shooting them4   
,why do they do it8 ,what forces them to
 believe that the existing  order is    
unchanging and they must support it8    
,all violence rests1 we know1 on those  

who do the beating1 the  handcuffing1   
the imprisoning1 and the killing with   
their own hands4  ,if there were no     
soldiers or armed policemen1 ready to   
kill or  outrage anyone as they are     
ordered1 not one of those people who    
sign  sentences of death1 imprisonment1 
or galley-slavery for life would  make  
up his mind to hang1 imprison1 or       
torture a thousandth part  of those     
whom1 quietly sitting in his study1 he  
now orders to be  tortured in all kinds 
of ways1 simply because he does not see 
it nor  do it himself1 but only gets it 
done at a distance by these servile     
tools4    ,all the acts of injustice and
 cruelty which are committed in the     
ordinary course of daily life have only 
become habitual because there  are these
 men always ready to carry out such acts
 of injustice and  cruelty4 ,if it were 
not for them1 far from anyone using     
violence  against the immense masses who
 are now ill-treated1 those who now     
command their punishment would not      

venture to sentence them1 would  not    
even dare to dream of the sentences they
 decree with such easy  confidence at   
present4 ,and if it were not for these  
men1 ready to  kill or torture anyone at
 their commander's will1 no one would   
dare  to claim1 as all the idle         
landowners claim with such assurance1   
that  a piece of land1 surrounded by    
peasants1 who are in wretchedness from  
want of land1 is the property of a man  
who does not cultivate it1 or  that     
stores of corn taken by swindling from  
the peasants ought to  remain untouched 
in the midst of a population dying of   
hunger because  the merchants must make 
their profit4 ,if it were not for these 
servile instruments at the disposal of  
the authorities1 it could  never have   
entered the head of the landowner to rob
 the peasants of  the forest they had   
tended1 nor of the officials to think   
they are  entitled to their salaries1   
taken from the famishing people1 the    
price of their oppression2 least of all 

could anyone dream of killing  or       
exiling men for exposing falsehood and  
telling the truth4 ,all this  can only  
be done because the authorities are     
confidently assured that  they have     
always these servile tools at hand1     
ready to carry all  their demands into  
effect by means of torture and murder4  
,all the deeds of violence of tyrants   
from ,napoleon to the lowest  commander 
of a company who fires upon a crowd1 can
 only be explained  by the intoxicating 
effect of their absolute power over     
these  slaves4 ,all force1 therefore1   
rests on these men1 who carry out the   
deeds of violence with their own hands1 
the men who serve in the  police or the 
army1 especially the army1 for the      
police only venture  to do their work   
because the army is at their back4      
,what1 then1 has brought these masses of
 honest men1 on whom the whole  thing   
depends1 who gain nothing by it1 and who
 have to do these  atrocious deeds with 
their own hands1 what has brought them  

to accept  the amazing delusion that the
 existing order1 unprofitable1 ruinous1 
and fatal as it is for them1 is the     
order which ought to exist8    ,who has 
led them into this amazing delusion8    
,they can never have persuaded          
themselves that they ought to do what   
is against their conscience1 and also   
the source of misery and ruin  for      
themselves1 and all their class1 who    
make up nine-tenths of the  population4 
,how can you kill people1 when it is    
written in ,god's commandment3  ',thou  
shalt not kill'8 ,i have often inquired 
of different soldiers4  ,and ,i always  
drove them to embarrassment and         
confusion by reminding  them of what    
they did not want to think about4 ,they 
knew they were  bound by the law of     
,god1 ,thou shalt not kill1 and knew too
 that  they were bound by their duty as 
soldiers1 but had never reflected  on   
the contradiction between these duties4 
,the drift of the timid  answers ,i     
received to this question was always    

approximately this3  that killing in war
 and executing criminals by command of  
the  government are not included in the 
general prohibition of murder4  ,but    
when ,i said this distinction was not   
made in the law of ,god1 and  reminded  
them of the ,christian duty of          
fraternity1 forgiveness of  injuries1   
and love1 which could not be reconciled 
with murder1 the  peasants usually      
agreed1 but in their turn began to ask  
me questions4  ,how does it happen1 they
 inquired1 that the government which    
according to their ideas cannot do wrong
 sends the army to war and  orders      
criminals to be executed4 ,when ,i      
answered that the government  does wrong
 in giving such orders1 the peasants    
fell into still  greater confusion1 and 
either broke off the conversation or    
else got  angry with me4    ,they must  
have found a law for it4 ,the           
archbishops know as much  about it as we
 do1 ,i should hope1 a ,russian soldier 
once observed to  me4 ,and in saying    

this the soldier obviously set his mind 
at rest1  in the full conviction that   
his spiritual guides had found a law    
which authorized his ancestors1 and the 
tzars and their descendants1  and       
millions of men1 to serve as he was     
doing himself1 and that the  question ,i
 had put him was a kind of hoax or      
conundrum on my part4    ,everyone in   
our ,christian society knows1 either by 
tradition or by  revelation or by the   
voice of conscience1 that murder is one 
of the  most fearful crimes a man can   
commit1 as the ,gospel tells us1 and    
that the sin of murder cannot be limited
 to certain persons1 that is1  murder   
cannot be a sin for some and not a sin  
for others4 ,everyone  knows that if    
murder is a sin1 it is always a sin1    
whoever are the  victims murdered1 just 
like the sin of adultery1 theft1 or any 
other4  ,at the same time from their    
childhood up men see that murder is not 
only permitted1 but even sanctioned by  
the blessing of those whom  they are    

accustomed to regard as their divinely  
appointed spiritual  guides1 and see    
their secular leaders with calm         
assurance organizing  murder1 proud to  
wear murderous arms1 and demanding of   
others in the  name of the laws of the  
country1 and even of ,god1 that they    
should  take part in murder4 ,men see   
that there is some inconsistency here1  
but not being able to analyze it1       
involuntarily assume that this  apparent
 inconsistency is only the result of    
their ignorance4 ,the  very grossness   
and obviousness of the inconsistency    
confirms them in  this conviction4      
,they cannot imagine that the leaders of
 civilization1 the educated  classes1   
could so confidently preach two such    
opposed principles  as the law of       
,christ and murder4 ,a simple           
uncorrupted youth cannot  imagine that  
those who stand so high in his opinion1 
whom he regards  as holy or learned men1
 could for any object whatever mislead  
him  so shamefully4 ,but this is just   

what has always been and always is  done
 to him4 ,it is done 7#a7 by instilling1
 by example and direct  instruction1    
from childhood up1 into the working     
people1 who have  not time to study     
moral and religious questions for       
themselves1 the  idea that torture and  
murder are compatible with              
,christianity1 and  that for certain    
objects of state1 torture and murder are
 not only  admissible1 but ought to be  
employed2 and 7#b7 by instilling into   
certain of the people1 who have either  
voluntarily enlisted or been  taken by  
compulsion into the army1 the idea that 
the perpetration of  murder and torture 
with their own hands is a sacred duty1  
and even a  glorious exploit1 worthy of 
praise and reward4    ,the general      
delusion is diffused among all people by
 means of the  catechisms or books1     
which nowadays replace them1 in use for 
the  compulsory education of children4  
,in them it is stated that violence1    
that is1 imprisonment and execution1 as 

well as murder in civil or  foreign war 
in the defense and maintenance of the   
existing state  organization 7whatever  
that may be1 absolute or limited        
monarchy1  convention1 consulate1 empire
 of this or that ,napoleon or           
,boulanger1  constitutional monarchy1   
commune or republic7 is absolutely      
lawful  and not opposed to morality and 
,christianity4    ,this is stated in all
 catechisms or books used in schools4   
,and men  are so thoroughly persuaded of
 it that they grow up1 live and die in  
that conviction without once            
entertaining a doubt about it4    ,this 
is one form of deception1 the general   
deception instilled into  everyone1 but 
there is another special deception      
practiced upon the  soldiers or police  
who are picked out by one means or      
another to do  the torturing and        
murdering necessary to defend and       
maintain the  existing rgime4    ,in all
 military instructions there appears in 
one form or another  what is expressed  

in the ,russian military code in the    
following words3    ,article #hg4 ,to   
carry out exactly and without comment   
the orders  of a superior officer means3
 to carry out an order received from a  
superior officer exactly without        
considering whether it is good or  not1 
and whether it is possible to carry it  
out4 ,the superior officer  is          
responsible for the consequences of the 
order he gives4    ,article #hh4 ,the   
subordinate ought never to refuse to    
carry out the  orders of a superior     
officer except when he sees clearly that
 in  carrying out his superior officer's
 command1 he breaks the law of  ,god1   
one involuntarily expects2 not at all   
his oath of fidelity and  allegiance to 
the ,tzar4    ,it is here said that the 
man who is a soldier can and ought to   
carry  out all the orders of his        
superior without exception4 ,and as     
these  orders for the most part involve 
murder1 it follows that he ought to     
break all the laws of ,god and man4 ,the

 one law he may not break is  that of   
fidelity and allegiance to the man who  
happens at a given  moment to be in     
power4    ,precisely the same thing is  
said in other words in all codes of     
military instruction4 ,and it could not 
be otherwise1 since the whole  power of 
the army and the state is based in      
reality on this delusive  emancipation  
of men from their duty to ,god and their
 conscience1 and  the substitution of   
duty to their superior officer for all  
other  duties4    ,this1 then1 is the   
foundation of the belief of the lower   
classes that  the existing rgime so     
fatal for them is the rgime which ought 
to exist1 and which they ought therefore
 to support even by torture  and murder4
    ,this belief is founded on a        
conscious deception practiced on them by
  the higher classes4    ,and it cannot 
be otherwise4 ,to compel the lower      
classes1 which are  more numerous1 to   
oppress and ill treat themselves1 even  
at the cost  of actions opposed to their

 conscience1 it was necessary to deceive
  them4 ,and it has been done           
accordingly4    ,not many days ago ,i   
saw once more this shameless deception  
being  openly practiced1 and once more  
,i marveled that it could be practiced  
so easily and impudently4    ,at the    
beginning of ,november1 as ,i was       
passing through ,toula1 ,i  saw once    
again at the gates of the ,zemsky       
,court-house the crowd of  peasants ,i  
had so often seen before1 and heard the 
drunken shouts  of the men mingled with 
the pitiful lamentations of their wives 
and  mothers4 ,it was the recruiting    
session4    ,i can never pass by the    
spectacle4 ,it attracts me by a kind of 
fascination of repulsion4 ,i again went 
into the crowd1 took my stand  among the
 peasants1 looked about and asked       
questions4 ,and once again  ,i was      
amazed that this hideous crime can be   
perpetrated so easily in  broad daylight
 and in the midst of a large town4      
,as the custom is every year1 in all the

 villages and hamlets of the  one       
hundred millions of ,russians1 on the   
#ast of ,november1 the village  elders  
had assembled the young men inscribed on
 the lists1 often  their own sons among 
them1 and had brought them to the town4 
,on the road the recruits have been     
drinking without intermission1          
unchecked by the elders1 who feel that  
going on such an insane  errand1        
abandoning their wives and mothers and  
renouncing all they  hold sacred in     
order to become a senseless instrument  
of destruction1  would be too agonizing 
if they were not stupefied with spirits4
    ,and so they have come1 drinking1   
swearing1 singing1 fighting and         
scuffling with one another4 ,they have  
spent the night in taverns4 ,in  the    
morning they have slept off their       
drunkenness and have gathered  together 
at the ,zemsky ,court-house4    ,some of
 them1 in new sheepskin pelisses1 with  
knitted scarves round  their necks1     
their eyes swollen from drinking1 are   

shouting wildly  to one another to show 
their courage2 others1 crowded near the 
door1 are quietly and mournfully waiting
 their turn1 between their  weeping     
wives and mothers 7,i had chanced upon  
the day of the actual  enrolling1 that  
is1 the examination of those whose names
 are on the  list72 others meantime were
 crowding into the hall of the          
recruiting  office4    ,inside the      
office the work was going on rapidly4   
,the door is opened  and the guard calls
 ,piotr ,sidorov4 ,piotr ,sidorov       
starts1 crosses  himself1 and goes into 
a little room with a glass door1 where  
the  conscripts undress4 ,a comrade of  
,piotr ,sidorov's1 who has just been    
passed for service1 and come naked out  
of the revision office1 is  dressing    
hurriedly1 his teeth chattering4        
,sidorov has already heard  the news1   
and can see from his face too that he   
has been taken4 ,he  wants to ask him   
questions1 but they hurry him and tell  
him to make  haste and undress4 ,he     

throws off his pelisse1 slips his boots 
off his  feet1 takes off his waistcoat  
and draws his shirt over his head1 and  
naked1 trembling all over1 and exhaling 
an odor of tobacco1 spirits1  and sweat1
 goes into the revision office1 not     
knowing what to do with  his brawny bare
 arms4    ,directly facing him in the   
revision office hangs in a great gold   
frame a portrait of the ,tzar in full   
uniform with decorations1 and  in the   
corner a little portrait of ,christ in a
 shirt and a crown  of thorns4 ,in the  
middle of the room is a table covered   
with green  cloth1 on which there are   
papers lying and a three-cornered       
ornament  surmounted by an eagle--the   
zertzal4 ,round the table are sitting   
the  revising officers1 looking         
collected and indifferent4 ,one is      
smoking  a cigarette2 another is looking
 through some papers4 ,directly ,sidorov
  comes in1 a guard goes up to him1     
places him under the measuring  frame1  
raising him under his chin1 and         

straightening his legs4    ,the man with
 the cigarette--he is the doctor--comes 
up1 and without  looking at the         
recruit's face1 but somewhere beyond it1
 feels his  body over with an air of    
disgust1 measures him1 tests him1 tells 
the  guard to open his mouth1 tells him 
to breathe1 to speak4 ,someone  notes   
something down4 ,at last without having 
once looked him in the  face the doctor 
says1 ,right4 ,next one6 and with a     
weary air sits  down again at the table4
 ,the soldiers again hustle and hurry   
the lad4  ,he somehow gets into his     
trousers1 wraps his feet in rags1 puts  
on  his boots1 looks for his scarf and  
cap1 and bundles his pelisse under  his 
arm4 ,then they lead him into the main  
hall1 shutting him off  apart from the  
rest by a bench1 behind which all the   
conscripts who  have been passed for    
service are waiting4 ,another village   
lad like  himself1 but from a distant   
province1 now a soldier armed with a gun
  with a sharp-pointed bayonet at the   

end1 keeps watch over him1 ready  to run
 him through the body if he should think
 of trying to escape4    ,meantime the  
crowd of fathers1 mothers1 and wives1   
hustled by the  police1 are pressing    
round the doors to hear whose lad has   
been  taken1 whose is let off4 ,one of  
the rejected comes out and announces    
that ,piotr is taken1 and at once a     
shrill cry is heard from ,piotr's  young
 wife1 for whom this word taken means   
separation for four  or five years1 the 
life of a soldier's wife as a servant1  
often a  prostitute4    ,but here comes 
a man along the street with flowing hair
 and in a  peculiar dress1 who gets out 
of his droskhy and goes into the ,zemsky
  ,court-house4 ,the police clear a way 
for him through the crowd4 ,it is  the  
reverend father come to administer the  
oath1 ,and this father1  who has been   
persuaded that he is specially and      
exclusively devoted  to the service of  
,christ1 and who1 for the most part1    
does not  himself see the deception in  

which he lives1 goes into the hall where
  the conscripts are waiting4 ,he throws
 round him a kind of curtain of         
brocade1 pulls his long hair out over   
it1 opens the very ,gospel in  which    
swearing is forbidden1 takes the cross1 
the very cross on which  ,christ was    
crucified because he would not do what  
this false servant  of his is telling   
men to do1 and puts them on the lectern4
 ,and all  these unhappy1 defenseless1  
and deluded lads repeat after him the   
lie1 which he utters with the assurance 
of familiarity4    ,he reads and they   
repeat after him3    ,i promise and     
swear by ,almighty ,god upon his holy   
,gospel1 etc41  to defend1 etc41 and    
that is1 to murder anyone ,i am told to1
 and  to do everything ,i am told by men
 ,i know nothing of1 and who care       
nothing for me except as an instrument  
for perpetrating the crimes by  which   
they are kept in their position of      
power1 and my brothers in  their        
condition of misery4 ,all the conscripts

 repeat these ferocious  words without  
thinking4 ,and then the so-called father
 goes away  with a sense of having      
correctly and conscientiously done his  
duty4  ,and all these poor deluded lads 
believe that these nonsensical and      
incomprehensible words which they have  
just uttered set them free for  the     
whole time of their service from their  
duties as men1 and lay  upon them fresh 
and more binding duties as soldiers4    
,and this crime is perpetrated publicly 
and no one cries out to the  deceiving  
and the deceived3 ,think what you are   
doing2 this is the  basest1 falsest lie1
 by which not bodies only1 but souls    
too1 are  destroyed4    ,no one does    
this4 ,on the contrary1 when all have   
been enrolled1  and they are to be let  
out again1 the military officer goes    
with a  confident and majestic air into 
the hall where the drunken1 cheated     
lads are shut up1 and cries in a bold1  
military voice3 ,your health1  my lads6 
,i congratulate you on 'serving the     

,tzar6' ,and they1 poor  fellows        
7someone has given them a hint          
beforehand71 mutter awkwardly1  their   
voices thick with drink1 something to   
the effect that they are  glad4         
,meantime the crowd of fathers1 mothers1
 and wives is standing at the  doors    
waiting4 ,the women keep their tearful  
eyes fixed on the doors4  ,they open at 
last1 and out come the conscripts1      
unsteady1 but trying  to put a good face
 on it4 ,here are ,piotr and ,vania and 
,makar trying  not to look their dear   
ones in the face4 ,nothing is heard but 
the  wailing of the wives and mothers4  
,some of the lads embrace them and  weep
 with them1 others make a show of       
courage1 and others try to  comfort     
them4    ,the wives and mothers1 knowing
 that they will be left for three1      
four1 or five years without their       
breadwinners1 weep and rehearse  their  
woes aloud4 ,the fathers say little4    
,they only utter a clucking  sound with 
their tongues and sigh mournfully1      

knowing that they  will see no more of  
the steady lads they have reared and    
trained to  help them1 that they will   
come back not the same quiet            
hard-working  laborers1 but for the most
 part conceited and demoralized1        
unfitted  for their simple life4    ,and
 then all the crowd get into their      
sledges again and move away  down the   
street to the taverns and pot-houses1   
and louder than ever  sounds the medley 
of singing and sobbing1 drunken shouts1 
and the  wailing of the wives and       
mothers1 the sounds of the accordeon and
  oaths4 ,they all turn into the        
taverns1 whose revenues go to the       
government1 and the drinking bout       
begins1 which stifles their sense  of   
the wrong which is being done them4     
,for two or three weeks they go on      
living at home1 and most of that  time  
they are jaunting1 that is1 drinking4   
,on a fixed day they collect them1 drive
 them together like a flock  of sheep1  
and begin to train them in the military 

exercises and  drill4 ,their teachers   
are fellows like themselves1 only       
deceived and  brutalized two or three   
years sooner4 ,the means of instruction 
are3  deception1 stupefaction1 blows1   
and vodka4 ,and before a year has       
passed these good1 intelligent1         
healthy-minded lads will be as brutal   
beings as their instructors4    ,come1  
now1 suppose your father were arrested  
and tried to make his  escape8 ,i asked 
a young soldier4    ,i should run him   
through with my bayonet1 he answered    
with the  foolish intonation peculiar to
 soldiers2 and if he made off1 ,i ought 
to shoot him1 he added1 obviously proud 
of knowing what he must do  if his      
father were escaping4    ,and when a    
good-hearted lad has been brought to a  
state lower than  that of a brute1 he is
 just what is wanted by those who use   
him as an  instrument of violence4 ,he  
is ready2 the man has been destroyed and
  a new instrument of violence has been 
created4 ,and all this is done  every   

year1 every autumn1 everywhere1 through 
all ,russia in broad  daylight in the   
midst of large towns1 where all may see 
it1 and the  deception is so clever1 so 
skillful1 that though all men know the  
infamy of it in their hearts1 and see   
all its horrible results1 they  cannot  
throw it off and be free4    ,when one's
 eyes are opened to this awful deception
 practiced upon  us1 one marvels that   
the teachers of the ,christian religion 
and  of morals1 the instructors of      
youth1 or even the good-hearted and     
intelligent parents who are to be found 
in every society1 can teach  any kind of
 morality in a society in which it is   
openly admitted 7it  is so admitted1    
under all governments and all churches7 
that murder  and torture form an        
indispensable element in the life of    
all1 and  that there must always be     
special men trained to kill their       
fellows1  and that any one of us may    
have to become such a trained assassin4 
,how can children1 youths1 and people   

generally be taught any  kind of        
morality--not to speak of teaching in   
the spirit of  ,christianity--side by   
side with the doctrine that murder is   
necessary  for the public weal1 and     
therefore legitimate1 and that there are
  men1 of whom each of us may have to be
 one1 whose duty is to murder  and      
torture and commit all sorts of crimes  
at the will of those who  are in        
possession of authority4 ,if this is so1
 and one can and ought  to murder and   
torture1 there is not1 and cannot be1   
any kind of moral  law1 but only the law
 that might is right4 ,and this is just 
how it  is4 ,in reality that is the     
doctrine--justified to some by the      
theory  of the struggle for             
existence--which reigns in our society4 
,and1 indeed1 what sort of ethical      
doctrine could admit the legitimacy  of 
murder for any object whatever8 ,it is  
as impossible as a theory of            
mathematics admitting that two is equal 
to three4    ,there may be a semblance  

of mathematics admitting that two is    
equal  to three1 but there can be no    
real science of mathematics4 ,and there 
can only be a semblance of ethics in    
which murder in the shape of war  and   
the execution of criminals is allowed1  
but no true ethics4 ,the  recognition of
 the life of every man as sacred is the 
first and only  basis of all ethics4    
,the doctrine of an eye for an eye and a
 tooth for a tooth has been  abrogated  
by ,christianity1 because it is the     
justification of  immorality1 and a mere
 semblance of equity1 and has no real   
meaning4  ,life is a value which has no 
weight nor size1 and cannot be compared 
to any other1 and so there is no sense  
in destroying a life for a  life4       
,besides1 every social law aims at the  
amelioration of man's  life4 ,what way1 
then1 can the annihilation of the life  
of some men  ameliorate men's life8     
,annihilation of life cannot be a means 
of the  amelioration of life2 it is a   
suicidal act4    ,to destroy another    

life for the sake of justice is as      
though a man1  to repair the misfortune 
of losing one arm1 should cut off the   
other  arm for the sake of equity4      
,but putting aside the sin of deluding  
men into regarding the most  awful crime
 as a duty1 putting aside the revolting 
sin of using the  name and authority of 
,christ to sanction what he most        
condemned1  not to speak of the curse on
 those who cause these little ones  to  
offend--how can people who cherish their
 own way of life1 their  progress1 even 
from the point of view of their personal
 security1  allow the formation in their
 midst of an overwhelming force as      
senseless1 cruel1 and destructive as    
every government is organized on  the   
basis of an army8 ,even the most cruel  
band of brigands is not so  much to be  
dreaded as such a government4    ,the   
power of every brigand chief is at least
 so far limited that  the men of his    
band preserve at least some human       
liberty1 and can  refuse to commit acts 

opposed to their conscience4 ,but1 owing
 to the  perfection to which the        
discipline of the army has been brought1
  there is no limit to check men who    
form part of a regularly organized      
government4 ,there are no crimes so     
revolting that they would not  readily  
be committed by men who form part of a  
government or army1 at  the will of     
anyone 7such as ,boulanger1 ,napoleon1  
or ,pougachef7 who  may chance to be at 
their head4    ,often when one sees     
conscription levies1 military drills and
  maneuvers1 police officers with loaded
 revolvers1 and sentinels at  their     
posts with bayonets on their rifles2    
when one hears for whole  days at a time
 7as ,i hear it in ,hamovniky where ,i  
live7 the whistle  of balls and the dull
 thud as they fall in the sand2 when one
 sees in  the midst of a town where any 
effort at violence in self-defense is   
forbidden1 where the sale of powder and 
of chemicals1 where furious  driving and
 practicing as a doctor without a       

diploma1 and so on1 are  not allowed1   
thousands of disciplined troops1 trained
 to murder1  and subject to one man's   
will2 one asks oneself how can people   
who  prize their security quietly allow 
it1 and put up with it8 ,apart from  the
 immorality and evil effects of it1     
nothing can possibly be more  unsafe4   
,what are people thinking about8 ,i     
don't mean now ,christians1  ministers  
of religion1 philanthropists1 and       
moralists1 but simply  people who value 
their life1 their security1 and their   
comfort4 ,this  organization1 we know1  
will work just as well in one man's     
hands as  another's4 ,to-day1 let us    
assume1 power is in the hands of a ruler
  who can be endured1 but to-morrow it  
may be seized by a ,biron1 an           
,elizabeth1 a ,catherine1 a ,pougachef1 
a ,napoleon ,i41 or a ,napoleon ,,iii4  
,and the man in authority1 endurable    
to-day1 may become a brute  to-morrow1  
or may be succeeded by a mad or imbecile
 heir1 like the  ,king of ,bavaria or   

our ,paul ,i4    ,and not only the      
highest authorities1 but all little     
satraps  scattered over everywhere1 like
 so many ,general ,baranovs1 governors1 
police officers even1 and commanders of 
companies1 can perpetrate the  most     
awful crimes before there is time for   
them to be removed from  office4 ,and   
this is what is constantly happening4   
,one involuntarily asks how can men let 
it go on1 not from higher               
considerations only1 but from regard to 
their own safety8    ,the answer to this
 question is that it is not all people  
who do  tolerate it 7some--the greater  
proportion--deluded and submissive1     
have no choice and have to tolerate     
anything74 ,it is tolerated by  those   
who only under such an organization can 
occupy a position of  profit4 ,they     
tolerate it1 because for them the risks 
of suffering  from a foolish or cruel   
man being at the head of the government 
or  the army are always less than the   
disadvantages to which they would  be   

exposed by the destruction of the       
organization itself4    ,a judge1 a     
commander of police1 a governor1 or an  
officer will keep  his position just the
 same under ,boulanger or the republic1 
under  ,pougachef or ,catherine4 ,he    
will lose his profitable position for   
certain1 if the existing order of things
 which secured it to him is  destroyed4 
,and so all these people feel no        
uneasiness as to who is at  the head of 
the organization1 they will adapt       
themselves to anyone2  they only dread  
the downfall of the organization itself1
 and that is  the reason--though often  
an unconscious one--that they support   
it4    ,one often wonders why           
independent people1 who are not forced  
to do  so in any way1 the so-called lite
 of society1 should go into the  army in
 ,russia1 ,england1 ,germany1 ,austria1 
and even ,france1 and seek              
opportunities of becoming murderers4    
,why do even high-principled  parents   
send their boys to military schools8    

,why do mothers buy their  children toy 
helmets1 guns1 and swords as playthings8
 7,the peasant's  children never play at
 soldiers1 by the way74 ,why do good men
 and  even women1 who have certainly no 
interest in war1 go into raptures  over 
the various exploits of ,skobeloff and  
others1 and vie with one  another in    
glorifying them8 ,why do men1 who are   
not obliged to do  so1 and get no fee   
for it1 devote1 like the marshals of    
nobility in  ,russia1 whole months of   
toil to a business physically           
disagreeable  and morally painful--the  
enrolling of conscripts8 ,why do all    
kings  and emperors wear the military   
uniform8 ,why do they all hold military 
reviews1 why do they organize maneuvers1
 distribute rewards to the  military1   
and raise monuments to generals and     
successful commanders8  ,why do rich men
 of independent position consider it an 
honor to  perform a valet's duties in   
attendance on crowned personages1       
flattering them and cringing to them and

 pretending to believe in  their        
peculiar superiority8 ,why do men who   
have ceased to believe  in the          
superstitions of the medival ,church1   
and who could not  possibly believe in  
them seriously and consistently1 pretend
 to  believe in and give their support  
to the demoralizing and blasphemous     
institution of the church8 ,why is it   
that not only governments but  private  
persons of the higher classes1 try so   
jealously to maintain  the ignorance of 
the people8 ,why do they fall with such 
fury on  any effort at breaking down    
religious superstitions or really       
enlightening the people8 ,why do        
historians1 novelists1 and poets1 who   
have no hope of gaining anything by     
their flatteries1 make heroes  of kings1
 emperors1 and conquerors of past times8
 ,why do men1 who  call themselves      
learned1 dedicate whole lifetimes to    
making theories  to prove that violence 
employed by authority against the people
 is  not violence at all1 but a special 

right8 ,one often wonders why a         
fashionable lady or an artist1 who1 one 
would think1 would take no  interest in 
political or military questions1 should 
always condemn  strikes of working      
people1 and defend war2 and should      
always be found  without hesitation     
opposed to the one1 favorable to the    
other4    ,but one no longer wonders    
when one realizes that in the higher    
classes there is an unerring instinct of
 what tends to maintain  and of what    
tends to destroy the organization by    
virtue of which  they enjoy their       
privileges4 ,the fashionable lady had   
certainly not  reasoned out that if     
there were no capitalists and no army to
 defend  them1 her husband would have no
 fortune1 and she could not have her    
entertainments and her ball-dresses4    
,and the artist certainly does  not     
argue that he needs the capitalists and 
the troops to defend  them1 so that they
 may buy his pictures4 ,but instinct1   
replacing  reason in this instance1     

guides them unerringly4 ,and it is      
precisely  this instinct which leads all
 men1 with few exceptions1 to support   
all the religious1 political1 and       
economic institutions which are to      
their advantage4    ,but is it possible 
that the higher classes support the     
existing order  of things simply because
 it is to their advantage8 ,cannot they 
see  that this order of things is       
essentially irrational1 that it is  no  
longer consistent with the stage of     
moral development attained  by people1  
and with public opinion1 and that it is 
fraught with  perils8 ,the governing    
classes1 or at least the good1 honest1  
and  intelligent people of them1 cannot 
but suffer from these fundamental       
inconsistencies1 and see the dangers    
with which they are threatened4  ,and is
 it possible that all the millions of   
the lower classes can  feel easy in     
conscience when they commit such        
obviously evil deeds  as torture and    
murder from fear of punishment8 ,indeed1

 it could  not be so1 neither the former
 nor the latter could fail to see the   
irrationality of their conduct1 if the  
complexity of government  organization  
did not obscure the unnatural           
senselessness of their  actions4    ,so 
many instigate1 assist1 or sanction the 
commission of every one  of these       
actions that no one who has a hand in   
them feels himself  morally responsible 
for it4    ,it is the custom among      
assassins to oblige all the witnesses of
  a murder to strike the murdered       
victim1 that the responsibility  may be 
divided among as large a number of      
people as possible4 ,the  same principle
 in different forms is applied under the
 government  organization in the        
perpetration of the crimes1 without     
which no  government organization could 
exist4 ,rulers always try to implicate  
as many citizens as possible in all the 
crimes committed in their  support4     
,of late this tendency has been         
expressed in a very obvious manner  by  

the obligation of all citizens to take  
part in legal processes  as jurors1 in  
the army as soldiers1 in the local      
government1 or  legislative assembly1 as
 electors or members4    ,just as in a  
wicker basket all the ends are so hidden
 away that it is  hard to find them1 in 
the state organization the              
responsibility for  the crimes committed
 is so hidden away that men will commit 
the most  atrocious acts without seeing 
their responsibility for them4    ,in   
ancient times tyrants got credit for the
 crimes they committed1  but in our day 
the most atrocious infamies1            
inconceivable under the  ,neros1 are    
perpetrated and no one gets blamed for  
them4    ,one set of people have        
suggested1 another set have proposed1 a 
third  have reported1 a fourth have     
decided1 a fifth have confirmed1 a sixth
  have given the order1 and a seventh   
set of men have carried it out4  ,they  
hang1 they flog to death women1 old men1
 and innocent people1 as  was done      

recently among us in ,russia at the     
,yuzovsky factory1 and is  always being 
done everywhere in ,europe and ,america 
in the struggle  with the anarchists and
 all other rebels against the existing  
order2  they shoot and hang men by      
hundreds and thousands1 or massacre     
millions in war1 or break men's hearts  
in solitary confinement1 and  ruin their
 souls in the corruption of a soldier's 
life1 and no one is  responsible4    ,at
 the bottom of the social scale         
soldiers1 armed with guns1 pistols1  and
 sabers1 injure and murder people1 and  
compel men through these  means to enter
 the army1 and are absolutely convinced 
that the  responsibility for the actions
 rests solely on the officers who       
command them4    ,at the top of the     
scale--the ,tzars1 presidents1          
ministers1 and  parliaments decree these
 tortures and murders and military      
conscription1 and are fully convinced   
that since they are either  placed in   
authority by the grace of ,god or by the

 society they  govern1 which demands    
such decrees from them1 they cannot be  
held  responsible4 ,between these two   
extremes are the intermediary           
personages who superintend the murders  
and other acts of violence1  and are    
fully convinced that the responsibility 
is taken off their  shoulders partly by 
their superiors who have given the      
order1 partly  by the fact that such    
orders are expected from them by all who
 are at  the bottom of the scale4       
,the authority who gives the orders and 
the authority who executes  them at the 
two extreme ends of the state           
organization1 meet together  like the   
two ends of a ring2 they support and    
rest on one another and  inclose all    
that lies within the ring4    ,without  
the conviction that there is a person or
 persons who will  take the whole       
responsibility of his acts1 not one     
soldier would ever  lift a hand to      
commit a murder or other deed of        
violence4    ,without the conviction    

that it is expected by the whole people 
not a  single king1 emperor1 president1 
or parliament would order murders or    
acts of violence4    ,without the       
conviction that there are persons of a  
higher grade who  will take the         
responsibility1 and people of a lower   
grade who require  such acts for their  
welfare1 not one of the intermediate    
class would  superintend such deeds4    
,the state is so organized that wherever
 a man is placed in the social  scale1  
his irresponsibility is the same4 ,the  
higher his grade the  more he is under  
the influence of demands from below1 and
 the less he  is controlled by orders   
from above1 and vice versa4    ,all men1
 then1 bound together by state          
organization1 throw the  responsibility 
of their acts on one another1 the       
peasant soldier  on the nobleman or     
merchant who is his officer1 and the    
officer on  the nobleman who has been   
appointed governor1 the governor on the 
nobleman or son of an official who is   

minister1 the minister on  the member of
 the royal family who occupies the post 
of ,tzar1 and  the ,tzar again on all   
these officials1 noblemen1 merchants1   
and  peasants4 ,but that is not all4    
,besides the fact that men get rid  of  
the sense of responsibility for their   
actions in this way1 they  lose their   
moral sense of responsibility also1 by  
the fact that in  forming themselves    
into a state organization they persuade 
themselves  and each other so           
continually1 and so indefatigably1 that 
they are  not all equal1 but as the     
stars apart1 that they come to believe  
it genuinely themselves4 ,thus some are 
persuaded that they are not  simple     
people like everyone else1 but special  
people who are to be  specially honored4
 ,it is instilled into another set of   
men by every  possible means that they  
are inferior to others1 and therefore   
must  submit without a murmur to every  
order given them by their superiors4    
,on this inequality1 above all1 on the  

elevation of some and the  degradation  
of others1 rests the capacity men have  
of being blind to  the insanity of the  
existing order of life1 and all the     
cruelty and  criminality of the         
deception practiced by one set of men on
 another4    ,those in whom the idea has
 been instilled that they are invested  
with  a special supernatural grandeur   
and consequence1 are so intoxicated     
with a sense of their own imaginary     
dignity that they cease to feel  their  
responsibility for what they do4        
,while those1 on the other hand1 in whom
 the idea is fostered  that they are    
inferior animals1 bound to obey their   
superiors in  everything1 fall1 through 
this perpetual humiliation1 into a      
strange  condition of stupefied         
servility1 and in this stupefied state  
do not  see the significance of their   
actions and lose all consciousness of   
responsibility for what they do4    ,the
 intermediate class1 who obey the orders
 of their superiors on the  one hand and

 regard themselves as superior beings on
 the other1 are  intoxicated by power   
and stupefied by servility at the same  
time and  so lose the sense of their    
responsibility4    ,one need only glance
 during a review at the                 
commander-in-chief1  intoxicated with   
self-importance1 followed by his        
retinue1 all  on magnificent and gayly  
appareled horses1 in splendid uniforms  
and wearing decorations1 and see how    
they ride to the harmonious  and solemn 
strains of music before the ranks of    
soldiers1 all  presenting arms and      
petrified with servility4 ,one need only
 glance  at this spectacle to understand
 that at such moments1 when they are  in
 a state of the most complete           
intoxication1 commander-in-chief1       
soldiers1 and intermediate officers     
alike1 would be capable of  committing  
crimes of which they would never dream  
under other  conditions4    ,the        
intoxication produced by such stimulants
 as parades1 reviews1  religious        

solemnities1 and coronations1 is1       
however1 an acute  and temporary        
condition2 but there are other forms of 
chronic1  permanent intoxication1 to    
which those are liable who have any kind
  of authority1 from that of the ,tzar  
to that of the lowest police  officer at
 the street corner1 and also those who  
are in subjection  to authority and in a
 state of stupefied servility4 ,the     
latter1 like  all slaves1 always find a 
justification for their own servility1  
in  ascribing the greatest possible     
dignity and importance to those they    
serve4    ,it is principally through    
this false idea of inequality1 and the  
intoxication of power and of servility  
resulting from it1 that men  associated 
in a state organization are enabled to  
commit acts opposed  to their conscience
 without the least scruple or remorse4  
,under the influence of this            
intoxication1 men imagine themselves no 
longer simply men as they are1 but some 
special beings--noblemen1  merchants1   

governors1 judges1 officers1 tzars1     
ministers1 or  soldiers--no longer bound
 by ordinary human duties1 but by other 
duties far more weighty--the peculiar   
duties of a nobleman1 merchant1         
governor1 judge1 officer1 tzar1         
minister1 or soldier4    ,thus the      
landowner1 who claimed the forest1 acted
 as he did only  because he fancied     
himself not a simple man1 having the    
same rights  to life as the peasants    
living beside him and everyone else1 but
 a  great landowner1 a member of the    
nobility1 and under the influence  of   
the intoxication of power he felt his   
dignity offended by the  peasants'      
claims4 ,it was only through this       
feeling that1 without  considering the  
consequences that might follow1 he sent 
in a claim to  be reinstated in his     
pretended rights4    ,in the same way   
the judges1 who wrongfully adjudged the 
forest to the  proprietor1 did so simply
 because they fancied themselves not    
simply  men like everyone else1 and so  

bound to be guided in everything only   
by what they consider right1 but1 under 
the intoxicating influence of  power1   
imagined themselves the representatives 
of the justice which  cannot err2 while 
under the intoxicating influence of     
servility they  imagined themselves     
bound to carry out to the letter the    
instructions  inscribed in a certain    
book1 the so-called law4 ,in the same   
way all  who take part in such an       
affair1 from the highest representative 
of  authority who signs his assent to   
the report1 from the superintendent     
presiding at the recruiting sessions1   
and the priest who deludes the          
recruits1 to the lowest soldier who is  
ready now to fire on his own  brothers1 
imagine1 in the intoxication of power or
 of servility1 that  they are some      
conventional characters4 ,they do not   
face the question  that is presented to 
them1 whether or not they ought to take 
part  in what their conscience judges an
 evil act1 but fancy themselves  various

 conventional personages--one as the    
,tzar1 ,god's anointed1 an  exceptional 
being1 called to watch over the         
happiness of one hundred  millions of   
men2 another as the representative of   
nobility2 another  as a priest1 who has 
received special grace by his           
ordination2  another as a soldier1 bound
 by his military oath to carry out all  
he  is commanded without reflection4    
,only under the intoxication of the     
power or the servility of their         
imagined positions could all these      
people act as they do4    ,were not they
 all firmly convinced that their        
respective vocations  of tzar1 minister1
 governor1 judge1 nobleman1 landowner1  
superintendent1 officer1 and soldier are
 something real and  important1 not one 
of them would even think without horror 
and  aversion of taking part in what    
they do now4    ,the conventional       
positions1 established hundreds of      
years1 recognized  for centuries and by 
everyone1 distinguished by special names

 and  dresses1 and1 moreover1 confirmed 
by every kind of solemnity1  have so    
penetrated into men's minds through     
their senses1 that1  forgetting the     
ordinary conditions of life common to   
all1 they look  at themselves and       
everyone only from this conventional    
point of view1  and are guided in their 
estimation of their own actions and     
those of  others by this conventional   
standard4    ,thus we see a man of      
perfect sanity and ripe age1 simply     
because  he is decked out with some     
fringe1 or embroidered keys on his coat 
tails1 or a colored ribbon only fit for 
some gayly dressed girl1  and is told   
that he is a general1 a chamberlain1 a  
knight of the  order of ,st4 ,andrew1 or
 some similar nonsense1 suddenly become 
self-important1 proud1 and even happy1  
or1 on the contrary1 grow  melancholy   
and unhappy to the point of falling ill1
 because he has  failed to obtain the   
expected decoration or title4 ,or what  
is still  more striking1 a young man1   

perfectly sane in every other matter1   
independent and beyond the fear of want1
 simply because he has been  appointed  
judicial prosecutor or district         
commander1 separates a poor  widow from 
her little children1 and shuts her up in
 prison1 leaving  her children uncared  
for1 all because the unhappy woman      
carried on a  secret trade in spirits1  
and so deprived the revenue of          
twenty-five  rubles1 and he does not    
feel the least pang of remorse4 ,or what
 is  still more amazing2 a man1         
otherwise sensible and good-hearted1    
simply because he is given a badge or a 
uniform to wear1 and told  that he is a 
guard or customs officer1 is ready to   
fire on people1  and neither he nor     
those around him regard him as to blame 
for it1  but1 on the contrary1 would    
regard him as to blame if he did not    
fire4 ,to say nothing of judges and     
juries who condemn men to death1  and   
soldiers who kill men by thousands      
without the slightest scruple  merely   

because it has been instilled into them 
that they are not  simply men1 but      
jurors1 judges1 generals1 and soldiers4 
,this strange and abnormal condition of 
men under state organization  is usually
 expressed in the following words3 ,as a
 man1 ,i pity  him2 but as guard1 judge1
 general1 governor1 tzar1 or soldier1 it
  is my duty to kill or torture him4    
,just as though there were some         
positions conferred and recognized1     
which would exonerate us from the       
obligations laid on each of us by the   
fact of our common humanity4    ,so1 for
 example1 in the case before us1 men are
 going to murder and  torture the       
famishing1 and they admit that in the   
dispute between  the peasants and the   
landowner the peasants are right 7all   
those  in command said as much to me74  
,they know that the peasants are        
wretched1 poor1 and hungry1 and the     
landowner is rich and inspires no       
sympathy4 ,yet they are all going to    
kill the peasants to secure three       

thousand rubles for the landowner1 only 
because at that moment they  fancy      
themselves not men but governor1        
official1 general of police1  officer1  
and soldier1 respectively1 and consider 
themselves bound  to obey1 not the      
eternal demands of the conscience of    
man1 but the  casual1 temporary demands 
of their positions as officers or       
soldiers4    ,strange as it may seem1   
the sole explanation of this astonishing
  phenomenon is that they are in the    
condition of the hypnotized1 who1  they 
say1 feel and act like the creatures    
they are commanded by the  hypnotizer to
 represent4 ,when1 for instance1 it is  
suggested to the  hypnotized subject    
that he is lame1 he begins to walk lame1
 that he  is blind1 and he cannot see1  
that he is a wild beast1 and he begins  
to bite4 ,this is the state1 not only of
 those who were going on this           
expedition1 but of all men who fulfill  
their state and social duties  in       
preference to and in detriment of their 

human duties4    ,the essence of this   
state is that under the influence of one
  suggestion they lose the power of     
criticising their actions1 and          
therefore do1 without thinking1         
everything consistent with the          
suggestion to which they are led by     
example1 precept1 or insinuation4       
,the difference between those hypnotized
 by scientific men and those  under the 
influence of the state hypnotism1 is    
that an imaginary  position is suggested
 to the former suddenly by one person in
 a very  brief space of time1 and so the
 hypnotized state appears to us in a    
striking and surprising form1 while the 
imaginary position suggested  by state  
influence is induced slowly1 little by  
little1 imperceptibly  from childhood1  
sometimes during years1 or even         
generations1 and not  in one person     
alone but in a whole society4    ,but1  
it will be said1 at all times1 in all   
societies1 the  majority of persons--all
 the children1 all the women absorbed in

 the  bearing and rearing of the young1 
all the great mass of the laboring      
population1 who are under the necessity 
of incessant and fatiguing  physical    
labor1 all those of weak character by   
nature1 all those who  are abnormally   
enfeebled intellectually by the effects 
of nicotine1  alcohol1 opium1 or other  
intoxicants--are always in a condition  
of  incapacity for independent thought1 
and are either in subjection  to those  
who are on a higher intellectual level1 
or else under the  influence of family  
or social traditions1 of what is called 
public  opinion1 and there is nothing   
unnatural or incongruous in their       
subjection4    ,and truly there is      
nothing unnatural in it1 and the        
tendency of men  of small intellectual  
power to follow the lead of those on a  
higher  level of intelligence is a      
constant law1 and it is owing to it     
that men can live in societies and on   
the same principles at all4  ,the       
minority consciously adopt certain      

rational principles through  their      
correspondence with reason1 while the   
majority act on the same  principles    
unconsciously because it is required by 
public opinion4    ,such subjection to  
public opinion on the part of the       
unintellectual  does not assume an      
unnatural character till the public     
opinion is  split into two4    ,but     
there are times when a higher truth1    
revealed at first to a few  persons1    
gradually gains ground till it has taken
 hold of such a  number of persons that 
the old public opinion1 founded on a    
lower  order of truths1 begins to totter
 and the new is ready to take its       
place1 but has not yet been firmly      
established4 ,it is like the  spring1   
this time of transition1 when the old   
order of ideas has not  quite broken up 
and the new has not quite gained a      
footing4 ,men begin  to criticise their 
actions in the light of the new truth1  
but in the  meantime in practice1       
through inertia and tradition1 they     

continue  to follow the principles which
 once represented the highest point of  
rational consciousness1 but are now in  
flagrant contradiction with it4    ,then
 men are in an abnormal1 wavering       
condition1 feeling the  necessity of    
following the new ideal1 and yet not    
bold enough to  break with the          
old-established traditions4    ,such is 
the attitude in regard to the truth of  
,christianity not only  of the men in   
the ,toula train1 but of the majority of
 men of our  times1 alike of the higher 
and the lower orders4    ,those of the  
ruling classes1 having no longer any    
reasonable  justification for the       
profitable positions they occupy1 are   
forced1  in order to keep them1 to      
stifle their higher rational faculty  of
 loving1 and to persuade themselves that
 their positions are  indispensable4    
,and those of the lower classes1        
exhausted by toil  and brutalized of set
 purpose1 are kept in a permanent       
deception1  practiced deliberately and  

continuously by the higher classes upon 
them4    ,only in this way can one      
explain the amazing contradictions with 
which our life is full1 and of which a  
striking example was presented  to me by
 the expedition ,i met on the #ith of   
,september2 good1 peaceful  men1 known  
to me personally1 going with untroubled 
tranquillity to  perpetrate the most    
beastly1 senseless1 and vile of crimes4 
,had not  they some means of stifling   
their conscience1 not one of them would 
be capable of committing a hundredth    
part of such a villainy4    ,it is not  
that they have not a conscience which   
forbids them from  acting thus1 just as1
 even three or four hundred years ago1  
when  people burnt men at the stake and 
put them to the rack they had a         
conscience which prohibited it2 the     
conscience is there1 but it has  been   
put to sleep--in those in command by    
what the psychologists call             
auto-suggestion2 in the soldiers1 by the
 direct conscious hypnotizing  exerted  

by the higher classes4    ,though       
asleep1 the conscience is there1 and in 
spite of the hypnotism  it is already   
speaking in them1 and it may awake4     
,all these men are in a position like   
that of a man under hypnotism1          
commanded to do something opposed to    
everything he regards as good  and      
rational1 such as to kill his mother or 
his child4 ,the hypnotized  subject     
feels himself bound to carry out the    
suggestion--he thinks he  cannot        
stop--but the nearer he gets to the time
 and the place of the  action1 the more 
the benumbed conscience begins to stir1 
to resist1  and to try to awake4 ,and no
 one can say beforehand whether he will 
carry out the suggestion or not2 which  
will gain the upper hand1 the  rational 
conscience or the irrational suggestion4
 ,it all depends on  their relative     
strength4    ,that is just the case with
 the men in the ,toula train and in     
general  with everyone carrying out acts
 of state violence in our day4    ,there

 was a time when men who set out with   
the object of murder and  violence1 to  
make an example1 did not return till    
they had carried  out their object1 and 
then1 untroubled by doubts or scruples1 
having calmly flogged men to death1 they
 returned home and caressed  their      
children1 laughed1 amused themselves1   
and enjoyed the  peaceful pleasures of  
family life4 ,in those days it never    
struck  the landowners and wealthy men  
who profited by these crimes1 that  the 
privileges they enjoyed had any direct  
connection with these  atrocities4 ,but 
now it is no longer so4 ,men know now1  
or are not far  from knowing1 what they 
are doing and for what object they do   
it4  ,they can shut their eyes and force
 their conscience to be still1  but so  
long as their eyes are opened and their 
conscience undulled1  they must         
all--those who carry out and those who  
profit by these  crimes alike--see the  
import of them4 ,sometimes they realize 
it only  after the crime has been       

perpetrated1 sometimes they realize it  
just before its perpetration4 ,thus     
those who commanded the recent  acts of 
violence in ,nijni-,novgorod1 ,saratov1 
,orel1 and the ,yuzovsky  factory       
realized their significance only after  
their perpetration1  and now those who  
commanded and those who carried out     
these crimes  are ashamed before public 
opinion and their conscience4 ,i have   
talked  to soldiers who had taken part  
in these crimes1 and they always        
studiously turned the conversation off  
the subject1 and when they  spoke of it 
it was with horror and bewilderment4    
,there are cases1  too1 when men come to
 themselves just before the perpetration
 of the  crime4 ,thus ,i know the case  
of a sergeant-major who had been beaten 
by two peasants during the repression of
 disorder and had made a  complaint4    
,the next day1 after seeing the         
atrocities perpetrated on  the other    
peasants1 he entreated the commander of 
his company to tear  up his complaint   

and let off the two peasants4 ,i know   
cases when  soldiers1 commanded to fire1
 have refused to obey1 and ,i know many 
cases of officers who have refused to   
command expeditions for torture  and    
murder4 ,so that men sometimes come to  
their senses long before  perpetrating  
the suggested crime1 sometimes at the   
very moment before  perpetrating it1    
sometimes only afterward4    ,the men   
traveling in the ,toula train were going
 with the object of  killing and        
injuring their fellow-creatures1 but    
none could tell  whether they would     
carry out their object or not4 ,however 
obscure  his responsibility for the     
affair is to each1 and however strong   
the idea instilled into all of them that
 they are not men1 but  governors1      
officials1 officers1 and soldiers1 and  
as such beings can  violate every human 
duty1 the nearer they approach the place
 of the  execution1 the stronger their  
doubts as to its being right1 and this  
doubt will reach its highest point when 

the very moment for carrying  it out has
 come4    ,the governor1 in spite of all
 the stupefying effect of his           
surroundings1 cannot help hesitating    
when the moment comes to give  final    
decisive command4 ,he knows that the    
action of the ,governor of  ,orel has   
called down upon him the disapproval of 
the best people1 and  he himself1       
influenced by the public opinion of the 
circles in which  he moves1 has more    
than once expressed his disapprobation  
of him4 ,he  knows that the prosecutor1 
who ought to have come1 flatly refused  
to  have anything to do with it1 because
 he regarded it as disgraceful4  ,he    
knows1 too1 that there may be changes   
any day in the government1  and that    
what was a ground for advancement       
yesterday may be the cause  of disgrace 
to-morrow4 ,and he knows that there is a
 press1 if not in  ,russia1 at least    
abroad1 which may report the affair and 
cover him  with ignominy forever4 ,he is
 already conscious of a change in public

  opinion which condemns what was       
formerly a duty4 ,moreover1 he cannot   
feel fully assured that his soldiers    
will at the last moment obey  him4 ,he  
is wavering1 and none can say beforehand
 what he will do4    ,all the officers  
and functionaries who accompany him     
experience in  greater or less degree   
the same emotions4 ,in the depths of    
their  hearts they all know that what   
they are doing is shameful1 that  to    
take part in it is a discredit and      
blemish in the eyes of some  people     
whose opinion they value4 ,they know    
that after murdering and  torturing the 
defenseless1 each of them will be       
ashamed to face his  betrothed or the   
woman he is courting4 ,and besides1 they
 too1 like  the governor1 are doubtful  
whether the soldiers' obedience to      
orders  can be reckoned on4 ,what a     
contrast with the confident air they all
  put on as they sauntered about the    
station and platform6 ,inwardly  they   
were not only in a state of suffering   

but even of suspense4  ,indeed they only
 assumed this bold and composed manner  
to conceal the  wavering within4 ,and   
this feeling increased as they drew near
 the  scene of action4    ,and          
imperceptible as it was1 and strange as 
it seems to say so1 all  that mass of   
lads1 the soldiers1 who seemed so       
submissive1 were in  precisely the same 
condition4    ,these are not the        
soldiers of former days1 who gave up the
 natural  life of industry and devoted  
their whole existence to debauchery1    
plunder1 and murder1 like the ,roman    
legionaries or the warriors of  the     
,thirty ,years' ,war1 or even the       
soldiers of more recent times who       
served for twenty-five years in the     
army4 ,they have mostly been only       
lately taken from their families1 and   
are full of the recollections  of the   
good1 rational1 natural life they have  
left behind them4    ,all these lads1   
peasants for the most part1 know what is
 the business  they have come about2    

they know that the landowners always    
oppress  their brothers the peasants1   
and that therefore it is most likely    
the same thing here4 ,moreover1 a       
majority of them can now read1  and the 
books they read are not all such as     
exalt a military life2  there are some  
which point out its immorality4 ,among  
them are often  free-thinking           
comrades--who have enlisted             
voluntarily--or young  officers of      
liberal ideas1 and already the first    
germ of doubt has  been sown in regard  
to the unconditional legitimacy and     
glory of  their occupation4    ,it is   
true that they have all passed through  
that terrible1 skillful  education1     
elaborated through centuries1 which     
kills all initiative  in a man1 and that
 they are so trained to mechanical      
obedience  that at the word of command3 
,fire6--,all the line6--,fire6 and so   
on1 their guns will rise of themselves  
and the habitual movements  will be     
performed4 ,but ,fire6 now does not mean

 shooting into the  sand for amusement1 
it means firing on their broken-down1   
exploited  fathers and brothers whom    
they see there in the crowd1 with women 
and  children shouting and waving their 
arms4 ,here they are--one with his      
scanty beard and patched coat and       
plaited shoes of reed1 just like  the   
father left at home in ,kazan or ,riazan
 province2 one with gray  beard and bent
 back1 leaning on a staff like the old  
grand-father2  one1 a young fellow in   
boots and a red shirt1 just as he was   
himself  a year ago--he1 the soldier who
 must fire upon him4 ,there1 too1 a     
woman in reed shoes and panyova1 just   
like the mother left at home4    ,is it 
possible they must fire on them8 ,and no
 one knows what each  soldier will do at
 the last minute4 ,the least word1 the  
slightest  allusion would be enough to  
stop them4    ,at the last moment they  
will all find themselves in the position
 of  a hypnotized man to whom it has    
been suggested to chop a log1 who       

coming up to what has been indicated to 
him as a log1 with the ax  already      
lifted to strike1 sees that it is not a 
log but his sleeping  brother4 ,he may  
perform the act that has been suggested 
to him1 and  he may come to his senses  
at the moment of performing it4 ,in the 
same way all these men may come to      
themselves in time or they may go  on to
 the end4    ,if they do not come to    
themselves1 the most fearful crime will 
be  committed1 as in ,orel1 and then the
 hypnotic suggestion under which  they  
act will be strengthened in all other   
men4 ,if they do come to  themselves1   
not only this terrible crime will not be
 perpetrated1  but many also who hear of
 the turn the affair has taken will be  
emancipated from the hypnotic influence 
in which they were held1 or  at least   
will be nearer being emancipated from   
it4    ,even if a few only come to      
themselves1 and boldly explain to the   
others all the wickedness of such a     
crime1 the influence of these few  may  

rouse the others to shake off the       
controlling suggestion1 and the         
atrocity will not be perpetrated4       
,more than that1 if a few men1 even of  
those who are not taking part  in the   
affair but are only present at the      
preparations for it1 or  have heard of  
such things being done in the past1 do  
not remain  indifferent but boldly and  
plainly express their detestation of    
such  crimes to those who have to       
execute them1 and point out to them all 
the senselessness1 cruelty1 and         
wickedness of such acts1 that alone     
will be productive of good4    ,that was
 what took place in the instance before 
us4 ,it was enough for  a few men1 some 
personally concerned in the affair and  
others simply  outsiders1 to express    
their disapproval of floggings that had 
taken  place elsewhere1 and their       
contempt and loathing for those who had 
taken part in inflicting them1 for a few
 persons in the ,toula case  to express 
their repugnance to having any share in 

it2 for a lady  traveling by the train1 
and a few other bystanders at the       
station1  to express to those who formed
 the expedition their disgust at  what  
they were doing2 for one of the         
commanders of a company1 who  was asked 
for troops for the restoration of order1
 to reply that  soldiers ought not to be
 butchers--and thanks to these and a few
  other seemingly insignificant         
influences brought to bear on these     
hypnotized men1 the affair took a       
completely different turn1 and the      
troops1 when they reached the place1 did
 not inflict any punishment1  but       
contented themselves with cutting down  
the forest and giving it  to the        
landowner4    ,had not a few persons had
 a clear consciousness that what they   
were  doing was wrong1 and consequently 
influenced one another in that          
direction1 what was done at ,orel would 
have taken place at ,toula4  ,had this  
consciousness been still stronger1 and  
had the influence  exerted been         

therefore greater than it was1 it might 
well have been  that the governor with  
his troops would not even have ventured 
to cut  down the forest and give it to  
the landowner4 ,had that consciousness  
been stronger still1 it might well have 
been that the governor would  not have  
ventured to go to the scene of action at
 all2 even that the  minister would not 
have ventured to form this decision or  
the ,tzar to  ratify it4    ,all        
depends1 therefore1 on the strength of  
the consciousness of  ,christian truth  
on the part of each individual man4     
,and1 therefore1 one would have thought 
that the efforts of all men  of the     
present day who profess to wish to work 
for the welfare of  humanity would have 
been directed to strengthening this     
consciousness  of ,christian truth in   
themselves and others4    ,but1 strange 
to say1 it is precisely those people who
 profess most  anxiety for the          
amelioration of human life1 and are     
regarded as  the leaders of public      

opinion1 who assert that there is no    
need  to do that1 and that there are    
other more effective means for the      
amelioration of men's condition4 ,they  
affirm that the amelioration  of human  
life is effected not by the efforts of  
individual men1 to  recognize and       
propagate the truth1 but by the gradual 
modification  of the general conditions 
of life1 and that therefore the efforts 
of individuals should be directed to the
 gradual modification  of external      
conditions for the better4 ,for every   
advocacy of a  truth inconsistent with  
the existing order by an individual is1 
they maintain1 not only useless but     
injurious1 since it provokes  coercive  
measures on the part of the authorities1
 restricting these  individuals from    
continuing any action useful to society4
 ,according  to this doctrine all       
modifications in human life are brought 
about by  precisely the same laws as in 
the life of the animals4    ,so that1   
according to this doctrine1 all the     

founders of religions1  such as ,moses  
and the prophets1 ,confucius1 ,lao-,tse1
 ,buddha1 ,christ1  and others1 preached
 their doctrines and their followers    
accepted  them1 not because they loved  
the truth1 but because the political1   
social1 and above all economic          
conditions of the peoples among whom    
these religions arose were favorable for
 their origination and  development4    
,and therefore the chief efforts of the 
man who wishes to serve  society and    
improve the condition of humanity ought1
 according to  this doctrine1 to be     
directed not to the elucidation and     
propagation  of truth1 but to the       
improvement of the external political1  
social1 and above all economic          
conditions4 ,and the modification  of   
these conditions is partly effected by  
serving the government  and introducing 
liberal and progressive principles into 
it1 partly  in promoting the development
 of industry and the propagation of     
socialistic ideas1 and most of all by   

the diffusion of science4  ,according to
 this theory it is of no consequence    
whether you profess  the truth revealed 
to you1 and therefore realize it in your
 life1 or  at least refrain from        
committing actions opposed to the truth1
 such  as serving the government and    
strengthening its authority when you    
regard it as injurious1 profiting by the
 capitalistic system when  you regard it
 as wrong1 showing veneration for       
various ceremonies  which you believe to
 be degrading superstitions1 giving     
support to  the law when you believe it 
to be founded on error1 serving as a    
soldier1 taking oaths1 and lying1 and   
lowering yourself generally4 ,it  is    
useless to refrain from all that2 what  
is of use is not altering  the existing 
forms of life1 but submitting to them   
against your own  convictions1          
introducing liberalism into the existing
 institutions1  promoting commerce1 the 
propaganda of socialism1 and the        
triumphs of  what is called science1 and

 the diffusion of education4 ,according 
to this theory one can remain a         
landowner1 merchant1 manufacturer1      
judge1 official in government pay1      
officer or soldier1 and still be  not   
only a humane man1 but even a socialist 
and revolutionist4    ,hypocrisy1 which 
had formerly only a religious basis in  
the doctrine  of original sin1 the      
redemption1 and the ,church1 has in our 
day  gained a new scientific basis and  
has consequently caught in its  nets all
 those who had reached too high a stage 
of development to be  able to find      
support in religious hypocrisy4 ,so that
 while in former  days a man who        
professed the religion of the ,church   
could take part  in all the crimes of   
the state1 and profit by them1 and still
 regard  himself as free from any taint 
of sin1 so long as he fulfilled the     
external observances of his creed1      
nowadays all who do not believe in  the 
,christianity of the ,church1 find      
similar well-founded irrefutable        

reasons in science for regarding        
themselves as blameless and even  highly
 moral in spite of their participation  
in the misdeeds of  government and the  
advantages they gain from them4    ,a   
rich landowner--not only in ,russia1 but
 in ,france1 ,england1  ,germany1 or    
,america--lives on the rents exacted    
from the people  living on his land1 and
 robs these generally poverty-stricken  
people  of all he can get from them4    
,this man's right of property in the    
land  rests on the fact that at every   
effort on the part of the oppressed     
people1 without his consent1 to make use
 of the land he considers  his1 troops  
are called out to subject them to       
punishment and murder4  ,one would have 
thought that it was obvious that a man  
living in this  way was an evil1        
egoistic creature and could not possibly
 consider  himself a ,christian or a    
liberal4 ,one would have supposed it    
evident  that the first thing such a man
 must do1 if he wishes to approximate   

to ,christianity or liberalism1 would be
 to cease to plunder and ruin  men by   
means of acts of state violence in      
support of his claim to the  land4 ,and 
so it would be if it were not for the   
logic of hypocrisy1  which reasons that 
from a religious point of view          
possession or  non-possession of land is
 of no consequence for salvation1 and   
from  the scientific point of view1     
giving up the ownership of land is a    
useless individual renunciation1 and    
that the welfare of mankind is  not     
promoted in that way1 but by a gradual  
modification of external  forms4 ,and so
 we see this man1 without the least     
trouble of mind  or doubt that people   
will believe in his sincerity1          
organizing an  agricultural exhibition1 
or a temperance society1 or sending some
  soup and stockings by his wife or     
children to three old women1 and  boldly
 in his family1 in drawing rooms1 in    
committees1 and in the  press1          
advocating the ,gospel or humanitarian  

doctrine of love for  one's neighbor in 
general and the agricultural laboring   
population  in particular whom he is    
continually exploiting and oppressing4  
,and other people who are in the same   
position as he believe him1  commend    
him1 and solemnly discuss with him      
measures for ameliorating  the condition
 of the working-class1 on whose         
exploitation their  whole life rests1   
devising all kinds of possible methods  
for this1  except the one without which 
all improvement of their condition  is  
impossible1 i4 e41 refraining from      
taking from them the land  necessary for
 their subsistence4 7,a striking example
 of this  hypocrisy was the solicitude  
displayed by the ,russian landowners    
last  year1 their efforts to combat the 
famine which they had caused1 and  by   
which they profited1 selling not only   
bread at the highest price1  but even   
potato haulm at five rubles the         
dessiatine 7about #b-d_/e  acres7 for   
fuel to the freezing peasants47    ,or  

take a merchant whose whole trade--like 
all trade indeed--is  founded on a      
series of trickery1 by means of which1  
profiting by the  ignorance or need of  
others1 he buys goods below their value 
and  sells them again above their value4
 ,one would have fancied it obvious     
that a man whose whole occupation was   
based on what in his own  language is   
called swindling1 if it is done under   
other conditions1  ought to be ashamed  
of his position1 and could not any way1 
while he  continues a merchant1 profess 
himself a ,christian or a liberal4      
,but the sophistry of hypocrisy reasons 
that the merchant can pass for  a       
virtuous man without giving up his      
pernicious course of action2  a         
religious man need only have faith and a
 liberal man need only  promote the     
modification of external conditions--the
 progress of  industry4 ,and so we see  
the merchant 7who often goes further and
  commits acts of direct dishonesty1    
selling adulterated goods1 using  false 

weights and measures1 and trading in    
products injurious to  health1 such as  
alcohol and opium7 boldly regarding     
himself and  being regarded by others1  
so long as he does not directly deceive 
his colleagues in business1 as a pattern
 of probity and virtue4 ,and  if he     
spends a thousandth part of his stolen  
wealth on some public  institution1 a   
hospital or museum or school1 then he is
 even regarded  as the benefactor of the
 people on the exploitation and         
corruption of  whom his whole prosperity
 has been founded3 if he sacrifices1    
too1 a  portion of his ill-gotten gains 
on a ,church and the poor1 then he is   
an exemplary ,christian4    ,a          
manufacturer is a man whose whole income
 consists of value  squeezed out of the 
workmen1 and whose whole occupation is  
based  on forced1 unnatural labor1      
exhausting whole generations of men4    
,it would seem obvious that if this man 
professes any ,christian  or liberal    
principles1 he must first of all give up

 ruining human  lives for his own       
profit4 ,but by the existing theory he  
is promoting  industry1 and he ought not
 to abandon his pursuit4 ,it would even 
be  injuring society for him to do so4  
,and so we see this man1 the harsh      
slave-driver of thousands of men1       
building almshouses with little  gardens
 two yards square for the workmen broken
 down in toiling for  him1 and a bank1  
and a poorhouse1 and a hospital--fully  
persuaded  that he has amply expiated in
 this way for all the human lives       
morally and physically ruined by        
him--and calmly going on with his       
business1 taking pride in it4    ,any   
civil1 religious1 or military official  
in government employ1 who  serves the   
state from vanity1 or1 as is most often 
the case1 simply  for the sake of the   
pay wrung from the harassed and toilworn
 working  classes 7all taxes1 however   
raised1 always fall on labor71 if he1 as
  is very seldom the case1 does not     
directly rob the government in the      

usual way1 considers himself1 and is    
considered by his fellows1 as a  most   
useful and virtuous member of society4  
,a judge or a public prosecutor knows   
that through his sentence or his        
prosecution hundreds or thousands of    
poor wretches are at once torn  from    
their families and thrown into prison1  
where they may go out of  their minds1  
kill themselves with pieces of broken   
glass1 or starve  themselves2 he knows  
that they have wives and mothers and    
children1  disgraced and made miserable 
by separation from them1 vainly begging 
for pardon for them or some alleviation 
of their sentence1 and this  judge or   
this prosecutor is so hardened in his   
hypocrisy that he and  his fellows and  
his wife and his household are all fully
 convinced  that he may be a most       
exemplary man4 ,according to the        
metaphysics of  hypocrisy it is held    
that he is doing a work of public       
utility4 ,and  this man who has ruined  
hundreds1 thousands of men1 who curse   

him and  are driven to desperation by   
his action1 goes to mass1 a smile of    
shining benevolence on his smooth face1 
in perfect faith in good and  in ,god1  
listens to the ,gospel1 caresses his    
children1 preaches moral  principles to 
them1 and is moved by imaginary         
sufferings4    ,all these men and those 
who depend on them1 their wives1 tutors1
  children1 cooks1 actors1 jockeys1 and 
so on1 are living on the blood  which by
 one means or another1 through one set  
of blood-suckers or  another1 is drawn  
out of the working class1 and every day 
their  pleasures cost hundreds or       
thousands of days of labor4 ,they see   
the  sufferings and privations of these 
laborers and their children1  their     
aged1 their wives1 and their sick1 they 
know the punishments  inflicted on those
 who resist this organized plunder1 and 
far from  decreasing1 far from          
concealing their luxury1 they insolently
  display it before these oppressed     
laborers who hate them1 as though       

intentionally provoking them with the   
pomp of their parks and  palaces1 their 
theaters1 hunts1 and races4 ,at the same
 time they  continue to persuade        
themselves and others that they are all 
much  concerned about the welfare of    
these working classes1 whom they have   
always trampled under their feet1 and on
 ,sundays1 richly dressed1  they drive  
in sumptuous carriages to the houses of 
,god built in very  mockery of          
,christianity1 and there listen to men1 
trained to this  work of deception1 who 
in white neckties or in brocaded        
vestments1  according to their          
denomination1 preach the love for their 
neighbor  which they all gainsay in     
their lives4 ,and these people have so  
entered into their part that they       
seriously believe that they really  are 
what they pretend to be4    ,the        
universal hypocrisy has so entered into 
the flesh and blood of  all classes of  
our modern society1 it has reached such 
a pitch that  nothing in that way can   

rouse indignation4 ,hypocrisy in the    
,greek  means acting1 and               
acting--playing a part--is always       
possible4  ,the representatives of      
,christ give their blessing to the ranks
 of  murderers holding their guns loaded
 against their brothers2 for  prayer    
priests1 ministers of various ,christian
 sects are always  present1 as          
indispensably as the hangman1 at        
executions1 and sanction  by their      
presence the compatibility of murder    
with ,christianity  7a clergyman        
assisted at the attempt at murder by    
electricity in  ,america7--but such     
facts cause no one any surprise4        
,there was recently held at ,petersburg 
an international exhibition of          
instruments of torture1 handcuffs1      
models of solitary cells1 that  is to   
say instruments of torture worse than   
knouts or rods1 and  sensitive ladies   
and gentlemen went and amused themselves
 by looking  at them4    ,no one is     
surprised that together with its        

recognition of liberty1  equality1 and  
fraternity1 liberal science should prove
 the necessity  of war1 punishment1     
customs1 the censure1 the regulation of 
prostitution1 the exclusion of cheap    
foreign laborers1 the hindrance  of     
emigration1 the justifiableness of      
colonization1 based on  poisoning and   
destroying whole races of men called    
savages1 and so on4    ,people talk of  
the time when all men shall profess what
 is called  ,christianity 7that is1     
various professions of faith hostile to 
one  another71 when all shall be        
well-fed and clothed1 when all shall  be
 united from one end of the world to the
 other by telegraphs  and telephones1   
and be able to communicate by balloons1 
when all  the working classes are       
permeated by socialistic doctrines1 when
  the ,trades ,unions possess so many   
millions of members and so many         
millions of rubles1 when everyone is    
educated and all can read  newspapers   
and learn all the sciences4    ,but what

 good or useful thing can come of all   
these improvements1 if  men do not speak
 and act in accordance with what they   
believe to be  the truth8    ,the       
condition of men is the result of their 
disunion4 ,their disunion  results from 
their not following the truth which is  
one1 but  falsehoods which are many4    
,the sole means of uniting men is their 
union in the truth4 ,and therefore the  
more sincerely men strive  toward the   
truth1 the nearer they get to unity4    
,but how can men be united in the truth 
or even approximate to it1 if  they do  
not even express the truth they know1   
but hold that there is  no need to do   
so1 and pretend to regard as truth what 
they believe to  be false8    ,and      
therefore no improvement is possible so 
long as men are  hypocritical and hide  
the truth from themselves1 so long as   
they do  not recognize that their union 
and therefore their welfare is only     
possible in the truth1 and do not put   
the recognition and profession  of the  

truth revealed to them higher than      
everything else4    ,all the material   
improvements that religious and         
scientific men can  dream of may be     
accomplished2 all men may accept        
,christianity1 and  all the reforms     
desired by the ,bellamys may be brought 
about with  every possible addition and 
improvement1 but if the hypocrisy which 
rules nowadays still exists1 if men do  
not profess the truth they  know1 but   
continue to feign belief in what they do
 not believe and  veneration for what   
they do not respect1 their condition    
will remain  the same1 or even grow     
worse and worse4 ,the more men are freed
  from privation2 the more telegraphs1  
telephones1 books1 papers1  and journals
 there are2 the more means there will be
 of diffusing  inconsistent lies and    
hypocrisies1 and the more disunited and 
consequently miserable will men become1 
which indeed is what we see  actually   
taking place4    ,all these material    
reforms may be realized1 but the        

position of  humanity will not be       
improved4 ,but only let each man1       
according  to his powers1 at once       
realize in his life the truth he knows1 
or  at least cease to support the       
falsehoods he is supporting in the      
place of the truth1 and at once1 in this
 year #ahic1 we should see  such reforms
 as we do not dare to hope for within a 
century--the  emancipation of men and   
the reign of truth upon earth4    ,not  
without good reason was ,christ's only  
harsh and threatening  reproof directed 
against hypocrites and hypocrisy4 ,it is
 not theft  nor robbery nor murder nor  
fornication1 but falsehood1 the special 
falsehood of hypocrisy1 which corrupts  
men1 brutalizes them and makes  them    
vindictive1 destroys all distinction    
between right and wrong in  their       
conscience1 deprives them of what is the
 true meaning of all  real human life1  
and debars them from all progress toward
 perfection4    ,those who do evil      
through ignorance of the truth provoke  

sympathy  with their victims and        
repugnance for their actions1 they do   
harm  only to those they attack2 but    
those who know the truth and do  evil   
masked by hypocrisy1 injure themselves  
and their victims1 and  thousands of    
other men as well who are led astray by 
the falsehood  with which the wrongdoing
 is disguised4    ,thieves1 robbers1    
murderers1 and cheats1 who commit crimes
 recognized  by themselves and everyone 
else as evil1 serve as an example of    
what ought not to be done1 and deter    
others from similar crimes4  ,but those 
who commit the same thefts1 robberies1  
murders1 and other  crimes1 disguising  
them under all kinds of religious or    
scientific  or humanitarian             
justifications1 as all landowners1      
merchants1  manufacturers1 and          
government officials do1 provoke others 
to  imitation1 and so do harm not only  
to those who are directly the  victims  
of their crimes1 but to thousands and   
millions of men whom  they corrupt by   

obliterating their sense of the         
distinction between  right and wrong4   
,a single fortune gained by trading in  
goods necessary to the  people or in    
goods pernicious in their effects1 or by
 financial  speculations1 or by         
acquiring land at a low price the value 
of which  is increased by the needs of  
the population1 or by an industry       
ruinous to the health and life of those 
employed in it1 or by  military or civil
 service of the state1 or by any        
employment which  trades on men's evil  
instincts--a single fortune acquired in 
any of  these ways1 not only with the   
sanction1 but even with the approbation 
of the leading men in society1 and      
masked with an ostentation of           
philanthropy1 corrupts men incomparably 
more than millions of thefts  and       
robberies committed against the         
recognized forms of law and  punishable 
as crimes4    ,a single execution       
carried out by prosperous educated men  
uninfluenced by passion1 with the       

approbation and assistance of           
,christian ministers1 and represented as
 something necessary and even  just1 is 
infinitely more corrupting and          
brutalizing to men than  thousands of   
murders committed by uneducated working 
people under the  influence of passion4 
,an execution such as was proposed by   
,joukovsky1  which would produce even a 
sentiment of religious emotion in the   
spectators1 would be one of the most    
perverting actions imaginable4  7,see   
vol4 iv4 of the works of ,joukovsky47   
,every war1 even the most humanely      
conducted1 with all its ordinary        
consequences1 the destruction of        
harvests1 robberies1 the license and    
debauchery1 and the murder with the     
justifications of its necessity  and    
justice1 the exaltation and             
glorification of military exploits1  the
 worship of the flag1 the patriotic     
sentiments1 the feigned  solicitude for 
the wounded1 and so on1 does more in one
 year to  pervert men's minds than      

thousands of robberies1 murders1 and    
arsons  perpetrated during hundreds of  
years by individual men under the       
influence of passion4    ,the luxurious 
expenditure of a single respectable and 
so-called  honorable family1 even within
 the conventional limits1 consuming  as 
it does the produce of as many days of  
labor as would suffice  to provide for  
thousands living in privation near1 does
 more to  pervert men's minds than      
thousands of the violent orgies of      
coarse  tradespeople1 officers1 and     
workmen of drunken and debauched habits1
  who smash up glasses and crockery for 
amusement4    ,one solemn religious     
procession1 one service1 one sermon from
 the  altar-steps or the pulpit1 in     
which the preacher does not believe1    
produces incomparably more evil than    
thousands of swindling tricks1          
adulteration of food1 and so on4    ,we 
talk of the hypocrisy of the ,pharisees4
 ,but the hypocrisy of  our society far 
surpasses the comparatively innocent    

hypocrisy of  the ,pharisees4 ,they had 
at least an external religious law1 the 
fulfillment of which hindered them from 
seeing their obligations  to their      
neighbors4 ,moreover1 these obligations 
were not nearly so  clearly defined in  
their day4 ,nowadays we have no such    
religious law  to exonerate us from our 
duties to our neighbors 7,i am not      
speaking  now of the coarse and ignorant
 persons who still fancy their sins can 
be absolved by confession to a priest or
 by the absolution of the  ,pope74 ,on  
the contrary1 the law of the ,gospel    
which we all profess  in one form or    
another directly defines these duties4  
,besides1 the  duties which had then    
been only vaguely and mystically        
expressed by  a few prophets have now   
been so clearly formulated1 have become 
such  truisms1 that they are repeated   
even by schoolboys and journalists4     
,and so it would seem that men of to-day
 cannot pretend that they do  not know  
these duties4    ,a man of the modern   

world who profits by the order of things
 based on  violence1 and at the same    
time protests that he loves his neighbor
  and does not observe what he is doing 
in his daily life to his  neighbor1 is  
like a brigand who has spent his life in
 robbing men1  and who1 caught at last1 
knife in hand1 in the very act of       
striking  his shrieking victim1 should  
declare that he had no idea that what he
  was doing was disagreeable to the man 
he had robbed and was prepared  to      
murder4 ,just as this robber and        
murderer could not deny what  was       
evident to everyone1 so it would seem   
that a man living upon  the privations  
of the oppressed classes cannot persuade
 himself and  others that he desires the
 welfare of those he plunders1 and that 
he  does not know how the advantages he 
enjoys are obtained4    ,it is          
impossible to convince ourselves that we
 do not know that there  are a hundred  
thousand men in prison in ,russia alone 
to guarantee  the security of our       

property and tranquillity1 and that we  
do not  know of the law tribunals in    
which we take part1 and which1 at our   
initiative1 condemn those who have      
attacked our property or our  security  
to prison1 exile1 or forced labor1      
whereby men no worse than  those who    
condemn them are ruined and corrupted2  
or that we do not  know that we only    
possess all that we do possess because  
it has been  acquired and is defended   
for us by murder and violence4    ,we   
cannot pretend that we do not see the   
armed policeman who marches  up and down
 beneath our windows to guarantee our   
security while we  eat our luxurious    
dinner1 or look at the new piece at the 
theater1 or  that we are unaware of the 
existence of the soldiers who will make 
their appearance with guns and          
cartridges directly our property is     
attacked4    ,we know very well that we 
are only allowed to go on eating our    
dinner1 to finish seeing the new play1  
or to enjoy to the end the  ball1 the   

,christmas fte1 the promenade1 the races
 or the hunt1  thanks to the policeman's
 revolver or the soldier's rifle1 which 
will  shoot down the famished outcast   
who has been robbed of his share1 and   
who looks round the corner with covetous
 eyes at our pleasures1 ready  to       
interrupt them instantly1 were not the  
policeman and the soldier  there        
prepared to run up at our first call for
 help4    ,and therefore just as a      
brigand caught in broad daylight in the 
act  cannot persuade us that he did not 
lift his knife in order to rob  his     
victim of his purse1 and had no thought 
of killing him1 we too1  it would seem1 
cannot persuade ourselves or others that
 the soldiers  and policemen around us  
are not to guard us1 but only for       
defense  against foreign foes1 and to   
regulate traffic and ftes and reviews2  
we cannot persuade ourselves and others 
that we do not know that  men do not    
like dying of hunger1 bereft of the     
right to gain their  subsistence from   

the earth on which they live2 that they 
do not like  working underground1 in the
 water1 or in stifling heat1 for ten to 
fourteen hours a day1 at night in       
factories to manufacture objects  for   
our pleasure4 ,one would imagine it     
impossible to deny what is so  obvious4 
,yet it is denied4    ,still1 there are1
 among the rich1 especially among the   
young1 and  among women1 persons whom ,i
 am glad to meet more and more          
frequently1  who1 when they are shown in
 what way and at what cost their        
pleasures  are purchased1 do not try to 
conceal the truth1 but hiding their     
heads in their hands1 cry3 ,ah6 don't   
speak of that4 ,if it is so1  life is   
impossible4 ,but though there are such  
sincere people who  even though they    
cannot renounce their fault1 at least   
see it1 the  vast majority of the men of
 the modern world have so entered into  
the parts they play in their hypocrisy  
that they boldly deny what is  staring  
everyone in the face4    ,all that is   

unjust1 they say2 no one forces the     
people to work for  the landowners and  
manufacturers4 ,that is an affair of    
free contract4  ,great properties and   
fortunes are necessary1 because they    
provide and  organize work for the      
working classes4 ,and labor in the      
factories and  workshops is not at all  
the terrible thing you make it out to   
be4  ,even if there are some abuses in  
factories1 the government and the       
public are taking steps to obviate them 
and to make the labor of the  factory   
workers much easier1 and even agreeable4
 ,the working classes  are accustomed to
 physical labor1 and are1 so far1 fit   
for nothing  else4 ,the poverty of the  
people is not the result of private     
property  in land1 nor of capitalistic  
oppression1 but of other causes3 it  is 
the result of the ignorance1 brutality1 
and intemperance of  the people4 ,and we
 men in authority who are striving      
against this  impoverishment of the     
people by wise legislation1 we          

capitalists who  are combating it by the
 extension of useful inventions1 we     
clergymen  by religious instruction1 and
 we liberals by the formation of trades 
unions1 and the diffusion of education1 
are in this way increasing  the         
prosperity of the people without        
changing our own positions4  ,we do not 
want all to be as poor as the poor2 we  
want all to be as  rich as the rich4 ,as
 for the assertion that men are ill     
treated and  murdered to force them to  
work for the profit of the rich1 that is
  a sophism4 ,the army is only called   
out against the mob1 when the  people1  
in ignorance of their own interests1    
make disturbances and  destroy the      
tranquillity necessary for the public   
welfare4 ,in the  same way1 too1 it is  
necessary to keep in restraint the      
malefactors  for whom the prisons and   
gallows are established4 ,we ourselves  
wish to suppress these forms of         
punishment and are working in that      
direction4    ,hypocrisy in our day is  

supported on two sides3 by false        
religion and  by false science4 ,and it 
has reached such proportions that if we 
were  not living in its midst1 we could 
not believe that men could attain  such 
a pitch of self-deception4 ,men of the  
present day have come into  such an     
extraordinary condition1 their hearts   
are so hardened1 that  seeing they see  
not1 hearing they do not hear1 and      
understand not4    ,men have long been  
living in antagonism to their           
conscience4 ,if it  were not for        
hypocrisy they could not go on living   
such a life4 ,this  social organization 
in opposition to their conscience only  
continues  to exist because it is       
disguised by hypocrisy4    ,and the     
greater the divergence between actual   
life and men's  conscience1 the greater 
the extension of hypocrisy4 ,but even   
hypocrisy has its limits4 ,and it seems 
to me that we have reached  those limits
 in the present day4    ,every man of   
the present day with the ,christian     

principles  assimilated involuntarily in
 his conscience1 finds himself in       
precisely the position of a man asleep  
who dreams that he is obliged  to do    
something which even in his dream he    
knows he ought not to  do4 ,he knows    
this in the depths of his conscience1   
and all the same  he seems unable to    
change his position2 he cannot stop and 
cease  doing what he ought not to do4   
,and just as in a dream1 his position   
becoming more and more painful1 at last 
reaches such a pitch of  intensity that 
he begins sometimes to doubt the reality
 of what is  passing and makes a moral  
effort to shake off the nightmare which 
is  oppressing him4    ,this is just the
 condition of the average man of our    
,christian  society4 ,he feels that all 
that he does himself and that is done   
around him is something absurd1 hideous1
 impossible1 and opposed to  his        
conscience2 he feels that his position  
is becoming more and more  unendurable  
and reaching a crisis of intensity4     

,it is not possible that we modern men1 
with the ,christian sense of  human     
dignity and equality permeating us soul 
and body1 with our need  for peaceful   
association and unity between nations1  
should really go  on living in such a   
way that every joy1 every gratification 
we have  is bought by the sufferings1 by
 the lives of our brother men1 and      
moreover1 that we should be every       
instant within a hair's-breadth  of     
falling on one another1 nation against  
nation1 like wild beasts1  mercilessly  
destroying men's lives and labor1 only  
because some  benighted diplomatist or  
ruler says or writes some stupidity to  
another equally benighted diplomatist or
 ruler4    ,it is impossible4 ,yet every
 man of our day sees that this is so    
and awaits the calamity4 ,and the       
situation becomes more and more         
insupportable4    ,and as the man who is
 dreaming does not believe that what    
appears to  him can be truly the reality
 and tries to wake up to the actual real

  world again1 so the average man of    
modern days cannot in the bottom  of his
 heart believe that the awful position  
in which he is placed  and which is     
growing worse and worse can be the      
reality1 and tries to  wake up to a     
true1 real life1 as it exists in his    
conscience4    ,and just as the dreamer 
need only make a moral effort and ask   
himself1 ,isn't it a dream8 and the     
situation which seemed to him so        
hopeless will instantly disappear1 and  
he will wake up to peaceful  and happy  
reality1 so the man of the modern world 
need only make  a moral effort to doubt 
the reality presented to him by his own 
hypocrisy and the general hypocrisy     
around him1 and to ask himself1  ,isn't 
it all a delusion8 and he will at once1 
like the dreamer  awakened1 feel himself
 transported from an imaginary and      
dreadful  world to the true1 calm1 and  
happy reality4    ,and to do this a man 
need accomplish no great feats or       
exploits4 ,he  need only make a moral   

effort4    ,but can a man make this     
effort8    ,according to the existing   
theory so essential to support          
hypocrisy1  man is not free and cannot  
change his life4    ,man cannot change  
his life1 because he is not free4 ,he is
 not free1  because all his actions are 
conditioned by previously existing      
causes4 ,and whatever the man may do    
there are always some causes  or other  
through which he does these or those    
acts1 and therefore  man cannot be free 
and change his life1 say the champions  
of the  metaphysics of hypocrisy4 ,and  
they would be perfectly right if man    
were a creature without conscience and  
incapable of moving toward  the truth2  
that is to say1 if after recognizing a  
new truth1 man  always remained at the  
same stage of moral development4 ,but   
man  is a creature with a conscience and
 capable of attaining a higher  and     
higher degree of truth4 ,and therefore  
even if man is not free  as regards     
performing these or those acts because  

there exists a  previous cause for every
 act1 the very causes of his acts1      
consisting  as they do for the man of   
conscience of the recognition of this or
  that truth1 are within his own        
control4    ,so that though man may not 
be free as regards the performance of   
his actions1 he is free as regards the  
foundation on which they are  performed4
 ,just as the mechanician who is not    
free to modify the  movement of his     
locomotive when it is in motion1 is free
 to regulate  the machine beforehand so 
as to determine what the movement is to 
be4    ,whatever the conscious man does1
 he acts just as he does1 and not       
otherwise1 only because he recognizes   
that to act as he is acting is  in      
accord with the truth1 or because he has
 recognized it at some  previous time1  
and is now only through inertia1 through
 habit1 acting  in accordance with his  
previous recognition of truth4    ,in   
any case1 the cause of his action is not
 to be found in any given  previous     

fact1 but in the consciousness of a     
given relation to truth1  and the       
consequent recognition of this or that  
fact as a sufficient  basis for action4 
,whether a man eats or does not eat1    
works or rests1 runs risks or  avoids   
them1 if he has a conscience he acts    
thus only because he  considers it right
 and rational1 because he considers that
 to act  thus is in harmony with truth1 
or else because he has made this        
reflection in the past4    ,the         
recognition or non-recognition of a     
certain truth depends not on  external  
causes1 but on certain other causes     
within the man himself4  ,so that at    
times under external conditions         
apparently very favorable  for the      
recognition of truth1 one man will not  
recognize it1 and  another1 on the      
contrary1 under the most unfavorable    
conditions will1  without apparent      
cause1 recognize it4 ,as it is said in  
the ,gospel1  ,no man can come unto me1 
except the ,father which hath sent me   

draw  him4 ,that is to say1 the         
recognition of truth1 which is the cause
  of all the manifestations of human    
life1 does not depend on external       
phenomena1 but on certain inner         
spiritual characteristics of the man    
which escape our observation4    ,and   
therefore man1 though not free in his   
acts1 always feels  himself free in what
 is the motive of his acts--the         
recognition or  non-recognition of      
truth4 ,and he feels himself independent
 not only  of facts external to his own 
personality1 but even of his own        
actions4    ,thus a man who under the   
influence of passion has committed an   
act  contrary to the truth he           
recognizes1 remains none the less free  
to  recognize it or not to recognize it2
 that is1 he can by refusing to         
recognize the truth regard his action as
 necessary and justifiable1  or he may  
recognize the truth and regard his act  
as wrong and censure  himself for it4   
,thus a gambler or a drunkard who does  

not resist temptation and  yields to his
 passion is still free to recognize     
gambling and  drunkenness as wrong or to
 regard them as a harmless pastime4 ,in 
the  first case even if he does not at  
once get over his passion1 he gets  the 
more free from it the more sincerely he 
recognizes the truth  about it2 in the  
second case he will be strengthened in  
his vice and  will deprive himself of   
every possibility of shaking it off4    
,in the same way a man who has made his 
escape alone from a house on  fire1 not 
having had the courage to save his      
friend1 remains free1  recognizing the  
truth that a man ought to save the life 
of another  even at the risk of his own1
 to regard his action as bad and to     
censure himself for it1 or1 not         
recognizing this truth1 to regard his   
action as natural and necessary and to  
justify it to himself4 ,in the  first   
case1 if he recognizes the truth in     
spite of his departure  from it1 he     
prepares for himself in the future a    

whole series of acts  of self-sacrifice 
necessarily flowing from this           
recognition of the  truth2 in the second
 case1 a whole series of egoistic acts4 
,not that a man is always free to       
recognize or to refuse to recognize     
every truth4 ,there are truths which he 
has recognized long before or  which    
have been handed down to him by         
education and tradition and  accepted by
 him on faith1 and to follow these      
truths has become a  habit1 a second    
nature with him2 and there are truths1  
only vaguely1  as it were distantly1    
apprehended by him4 ,the man is not free
 to  refuse to recognize the first1 nor 
to recognize the second class of        
truths4 ,but there are truths of a third
 kind1 which have not yet  become an    
unconscious motive of action1 but yet   
have been revealed so  clearly to him   
that he cannot pass them by1 and is     
inevitably obliged  to do one thing or  
the other1 to recognize or not to       
recognize them4  ,and it is in regard to

 these truths that the man's freedom    
manifests  itself4    ,every man during 
his life finds himself in regard to     
truth in the  position of a man walking 
in the darkness with light thrown before
  him by the lantern he carries4 ,he    
does not see what is not yet  lighted up
 by the lantern2 he does not see what he
 has passed which  is hidden in the     
darkness2 but at every stage of his     
journey he sees  what is lighted up by  
the lantern1 and he can always choose   
one side  or the other of the road4     
,there are always unseen truths not yet 
revealed to the man's  intellectual     
vision1 and there are other truths      
outlived1 forgotten1  and assimilated by
 him1 and there are also certain truths 
that rise  up before the light of his   
reason and require his recognition4 ,and
 it  is in the recognition or           
non-recognition of these truths that    
what we  call his freedom is manifested4
    ,all the difficulty and seeming     
insolubility of the question of the     

freedom of man results from those who   
tried to solve the question  imagining  
man as stationary in his relation to the
 truth4    ,man is certainly not free if
 we imagine him stationary1 and if we   
forget that the life of a man and of    
humanity is nothing but a  continual    
movement from darkness into light1 from 
a lower stage of  truth to a higher1    
from a truth more alloyed with errors to
 a truth  more purified from them4      
,man would not be free if he knew no    
truth at all1 and in the same way  he   
would not be free and would not even    
have any idea of freedom if  the whole  
truth which was to guide him in life had
 been revealed once  for all to him in  
all its purity without any admixture of 
error4    ,but man is not stationary in 
regard to truth1 but every individual   
man as he passes through life1 and      
humanity as a whole in the same  way1 is
 continually learning to know a greater 
and greater degree of  truth1 and       
growing more and more free from error4  

,and therefore men are in a threefold   
relation to truth4 ,some  truths have   
been so assimilated by them that they   
have become the  unconscious basis of   
action1 others are only just on the     
point of  being revealed to him1 and a  
third class1 though not yet assimilated 
by him1 have been revealed to him with  
sufficient clearness to force  him to   
decide either to recognize them or to   
refuse to recognize them4    ,these1    
then1 are the truths which man is free  
to recognize or to  refuse to recognize4
    ,the liberty of man does not consist
 in the power of acting  independently  
of the progress of life and the         
influences arising from  it1 but in the 
capacity for recognizing and            
acknowledging the truth  revealed to    
him1 and becoming the free and joyful   
participator in  the eternal and        
infinite work of ,god1 the life of the  
world2 or on  the other hand for        
refusing to recognize the truth1 and so 
being a  miserable and reluctant slave  

dragged whither he has no desire to go4 
,truth not only points out the way along
 which human life ought to  move1 but   
reveals also the only way along which it
 can move4 ,and  therefore all men must 
willingly or unwillingly move along the 
way of  truth1 some spontaneously       
accomplishing the task set them in life1
  others submitting involuntarily to the
 law of life4 ,man's freedom  lies in   
the power of this choice4    ,this      
freedom within these narrow limits seems
 so insignificant to men  that they do  
not notice it4 ,some--the               
determinists--consider this  amount of  
freedom so trifling that they do not    
recognize it at all4  ,others--the      
champions of complete free will--keep   
their eyes fixed on  their hypothetical 
free will and neglect this which seemed 
to them  such a trivial degree of       
freedom4    ,this freedom1 confined     
between the limits of complete ignorance
  of the truth and a recognition of a   
part of the truth1 seems  hardly freedom

 at all1 especially since1 whether a man
 is willing  or unwilling to recognize  
the truth revealed to him1 he will be   
inevitably forced to carry it out in    
life4    ,a horse harnessed with others 
to a cart is not free to refrain from   
moving the cart4 ,if he does not move   
forward the cart will knock him  down   
and go on dragging him with it1 whether 
he will or not4 ,but the  horse is free 
to drag the cart himself or to be       
dragged with it4 ,and  so it is with    
man4    ,whether this is a great or     
small degree of freedom in comparison   
with  the fantastic liberty we should   
like to have1 it is the only freedom    
that really exists1 and in it consists  
the only happiness attainable  by man4  
,and more than that1 this freedom is the
 sole means of accomplishing  the divine
 work of the life of the world4         
,according to ,christ's doctrine1 the   
man who sees the significance of  life  
in the domain in which it is not free1  
in the domain of effects1  that is1 of  

acts1 has not the true life4 ,according 
to the ,christian  doctrine1 that man is
 living in the truth who has transported
 his  life to the domain in which it is 
free--the domain of causes1 that  is1   
the knowledge and recognition1 the      
profession and realization in  life of  
revealed truth4    ,devoting his life to
 works of the flesh1 a man busies       
himself with  actions depending on      
temporary causes outside himself4 ,he   
himself  does nothing really1 he merely 
seems to be doing something4 ,in        
reality all the acts which seem to be   
his are the work of a higher  power1 and
 he is not the creator of his own life1 
but the slave of  it4 ,devoting his life
 to the recognition and fulfillment of  
the truth  revealed to him1 he          
identifies himself with the source of   
universal  life and accomplishes acts   
not personal1 and dependent on          
conditions  of space and time1 but acts 
unconditioned by previous causes1 acts  
which constitute the causes of          

everything else1 and have an infinite1  
unlimited significance4    ,the kingdom 
of heaven suffereth violence1 and the   
violent take it by  force4 7,matt4 xi4  
#ab47    ,it is this violent effort to  
rise above external conditions to the   
recognition and realization of truth by 
which the kingdom of heaven  is taken1  
and it is this effort of violence which 
must and can be  made in our times4     
,men need only understand this1 they    
need only cease to trouble  themselves  
about the general external conditions in
 which they are  not free1 and devote   
one-hundredth part of the energy they   
waste  on those material things to that 
in which they are free1 to the          
recognition and realization of the truth
 which is before them1 and to  the      
liberation of themselves and others from
 deception and hypocrisy1  and1 without 
effort or conflict1 there would be an   
end at once of the  false organization  
of life which makes men miserable1 and  
threatens  them with worse calamities in

 the future4 ,and then the kingdom of   
,god would be realized1 or at least that
 first stage of it for which  men are   
ready now by the degree of development  
of their conscience4    ,just as a      
single shock may be sufficient1 when a  
liquid is saturated  with some salt1 to 
precipitate it at once in crystals1 a   
slight  effort may be perhaps all that  
is needed now that the truth already    
revealed to men may gain a mastery over 
hundreds1 thousands1 millions  of men1  
that a public opinion consistent with   
conscience may be  established1 and     
through this change of public opinion   
the whole  order of life may be         
transformed4 ,and it depends upon us to 
make this  effort4    ,let each of us   
only try to understand and accept the   
,christian truth  which in the most     
varied forms surrounds us on all sides  
and forces  itself upon us2 let us only 
cease from lying and pretending that we 
do not see this truth or wish to realize
 it1 at least in what it  demands from  

us above all else2 only let us accept   
and boldly profess  the truth to which  
we are called1 and we should find at    
once that  hundreds1 thousands1 millions
 of men are in the same position as  we1
 that they see the truth as we do1 and  
dread as we do to stand  alone in       
recognizing it1 and like us are only    
waiting for others to  recognize it     
also4    ,only let men cease to be      
hypocrites1 and they would at once see  
that  this cruel social organization1   
which holds them in bondage1 and is     
represented to them as something stable1
 necessary1 and ordained of  ,god1 is   
already tottering and is only propped up
 by the falsehood of  hypocrisy1 with   
which we1 and others like us1 support   
it4    ,but if this is so1 if it is true
 that it depends on us to break down    
the existing organization of life1 have 
we the right to destroy it1  without    
knowing clearly what we shall set up in 
its place8 ,what will  become of human  
society when the existing order of      

things is at an  end8    ,what shall we 
find the other side of the walls of the 
world we are  abandoning8    ,fear will 
come upon us--a void1 a vast emptiness1 
freedom--how are  we to go forward not  
knowing whither1 how face loss1 not     
seeing  hope of gain8444 ,if ,columbus  
had reasoned thus he would never have   
weighed anchor4 ,it was madness to set  
off upon the ocean1 not knowing  the    
route1 on the ocean on which no one had 
sailed1 to sail toward  a land whose    
existence was doubtful4 ,by this madness
 he discovered  a new world4 ,doubtless 
if the peoples of the world could simply
  transfer themselves from one furnished
 mansion to another and better  one--it 
would make it much easier2 but unluckily
 there is no one to  get humanity's new 
dwelling ready for it4 ,the future is   
even worse  than the ocean--there is    
nothing there--it will be what men and  
circumstances make it4    ,if you are   
content with the old world1 try to      
preserve it1 it is  very sick and cannot

 hold out much longer4 ,but if you      
cannot bear to  live in everlasting     
dissonance between your beliefs and your
 life1  thinking one thing and doing    
another1 get out of the medival whited  
sepulchers1 and face your fears4 ,i know
 very well it is not easy4    ,it is not
 a little thing to cut one's self off   
from all to which a  man has been       
accustomed from his birth1 with which he
 has grown up  to maturity4 ,men are    
ready for tremendous sacrifices1 but not
 for  those which life demands of them4 
,are they ready to sacrifice modern     
civilization1 their manner of life1     
their religion1 the received            
conventional morality8    ,are we ready 
to give up all the results we have      
attained with such  effort1 results of  
which we have been boasting for three   
centuries2  to give up every convenience
 and charm of our existence1 to prefer  
savage youth to the senile decay of     
civilization1 to pull down the  palace  
raised for us by our ancestors only for 

the pleasure of having  a hand in the   
founding of a new house1 which will     
doubtless be built  long after we are   
gone8 7,herzen1 vol4 v4 p4 #ee47        
,thus wrote almost half a century ago   
the ,russian writer1 who with  prophetic
 insight saw clearly then1 what even the
 most unreflecting  man sees to-day1 the
 impossibility1 that is1 of life        
continuing on  its old basis1 and the   
necessity of establishing new forms of  
life4    ,it is clear now from the very 
simplest1 most commonplace point of     
view1 that it is madness to remain under
 the roof of a building which  cannot   
support its weight1 and that we must    
leave it4 ,and indeed it  is difficult  
to imagine a position more wretched than
 that of the  ,christian world to-day1  
with its nations armed against one      
another1  with its constantly increasing
 taxation to maintain its armies1  with 
the hatred of the working class for the 
rich ever growing more  intense1 with   
the ,damocles sword of war forever      

hanging over the  heads of all1 ready   
every instant to fall1 certain to fall  
sooner or  later4    ,hardly could any  
revolution be more disastrous for the   
great mass  of the population than the  
present order or rather disorder of our 
life1 with its daily sacrifices to      
exhausting and unnatural toil1 to       
poverty1 drunkenness1 and profligacy1   
with all the horrors of the war  that is
 at hand1 which will swallow up in one  
year more victims than  all the         
revolutions of the century4    ,what    
will become of humanity if each of us   
performs the duty ,god  demands of us   
through the conscience implanted within 
us8 ,will not  harm come if1 being      
wholly in the power of a master1 ,i     
carry out1 in  the workshop erected and 
directed by him1 the orders he gives me1
  strange though they may seem to me who
 do not know the ,master's final  aims8 
,but it is not even this question ,what 
will happen8 that agitates  men when    
they hesitate to fulfill the ,master's  

will4 ,they are  troubled by the        
question how to live without those      
habitual  conditions of life which we   
call civilization1 culture1 art1 and    
science4 ,we feel ourselves all the     
burdensomeness of life as it is2  we see
 also that this organization of life    
must inevitably be our  ruin1 if it     
continues4 ,at the same time we want the
 conditions of our  life which arise out
 of this organization--our civilization1
 culture1  art1 and science--to remain  
intact4 ,it is as though a man1 living  
in  an old house and suffering from cold
 and all sorts of inconvenience  in it1 
knowing1 too1 that it is on the point of
 falling to pieces1  should consent to  
its being rebuilt1 but only on the      
condition  that he should not be        
required to leave it3 a condition which 
is  equivalent to refusing to have it   
rebuilt at all4    ,but what if ,i leave
 the house and give up every convenience
 for a  time1 and the new house is not  
built1 or is built on a different plan  

so that ,i do not find in it the        
comforts to which ,i am accustomed8     
,but seeing that the materials and the  
builders are here1 there is  every      
likelihood that the new house will on   
the contrary be better  built than the  
old one4 ,and at the same time1 there is
 not only the  likelihood but the       
certainty that the old house will fall  
down and  crush those who remain within 
it4 ,whether the old habitual conditions
  of life are supported1 or whether they
 are abolished and altogether  new and  
better conditions arise2 in any case1   
there is no doubt we  shall be forced to
 leave the old forms of life which have 
become  impossible and fatal1 and must  
go forward to meet the future4          
,civilization1 art1 science1 culture1   
will disappear6    ,yes1 but all these  
we know are only various manifestations 
of truth1  and the change that is before
 us is only to be made for the sake  of 
a closer attainment and realization of  
truth4 ,how then can the  manifestations

 of truth disappear through our         
realizing it8 ,these  manifestations    
will be different1 higher1 better1 but  
they will not  cease to be4 ,only what  
is false in them will be destroyed2 all 
the  truth there was in them will only  
be stronger and more flourishing4       
,take thought1 oh1 men1 and have faith  
in the ,gospel1 in whose  teaching is   
your happiness4 ,if you do not take     
thought1 you will  perish just as the   
men perished1 slain by ,pilate1 or      
crushed by the  tower of ,siloam2 as    
millions of men have perished1 slayers  
and slain1  executing and executed1     
torturers and tortured alike1 and as the
 man  foolishly perished1 who filled his
 granaries full and made ready  for a   
long life and died the very night that  
he planned to begin  his life4 ,take    
thought and have faith in the ,gospel1  
,christ said  eighteen hundred years    
ago1 and he says it with even greater   
force  now that the calamities foretold 
by him have come to pass1 and the       

senselessness of our life has reached   
the furthest point of suffering  and    
madness4    ,nowadays1 after so many    
centuries of fruitless efforts to make  
our  life secure by the pagan           
organization of life1 it must be evident
  to everyone that all efforts in that  
direction only introduce fresh  dangers 
into personal and social life1 and do   
not render it more  secure in any way4  
,whatever names we dignify ourselves    
with1 whatever uniforms we wear1        
whatever priests we anoint ourselves    
before1 however many millions we        
possess1 however many guards are        
stationed along our road1 however  many 
policemen guard our wealth1 however many
 so-called criminals1  revolutionists1  
and anarchists we punish1 whatever      
exploits we have  performed1 whatever   
states we may have founded1 fortresses  
and  towers we may have erected--from   
,babel to the ,eiffel ,tower--there  are
 two inevitable conditions of life1     
confronting all of us1 which  destroy   

its whole meaning2 7#a7 death1 which may
 at any moment pounce  upon each of us2 
and 7#b7 the transitoriness of all our  
works1 which  so soon pass away and     
leave no trace4 ,whatever we may        
do--found  companies1 build palaces and 
monuments1 write songs and poems--it is 
all not for long time4 ,soon it passes  
away1 leaving no trace4 ,and  therefore1
 however we may conceal it from         
ourselves1 we cannot help  seeing that  
the significance of our life cannot lie 
in our personal  fleshly existence1 the 
prey of incurable suffering and         
inevitable  death1 nor in any social    
institution or organization4 ,whoever   
you may  be who are reading these lines1
 think of your position and of your     
duties--not of your position as         
landowner1 merchant1 judge1 emperor1    
president1 minister1 priest1 soldier1   
which has been temporarily  allotted you
 by men1 and not of the imaginary duties
 laid on you by  those positions1 but of
 your real positions in eternity as a   

creature  who at the will of ,someone   
has been called out of unconsciousness  
after an eternity of non-existence to   
which you may return at any  moment at  
his will4 ,think of your duties--not    
your supposed duties  as a landowner to 
your estate1 as a merchant to your      
business1 as  emperor1 minister1 or     
official to the state1 but of your real 
duties1  the duties that follow from    
your real position as a being called    
into  life and endowed with reason and  
love4    ,are you doing what he demands 
of you who has sent you into the world1 
and to whom you will soon return8 ,are  
you doing what he wills8 ,are  you doing
 his will1 when as landowner or         
manufacturer you rob the  poor of the   
fruits of their toil1 basing your life  
on this plunder  of the workers1 or     
when1 as judge or governor1 you ill     
treat men1  sentence them to execution1 
or when as soldiers you prepare for war1
  kill and plunder8    ,you will say    
that the world is so made that this is  

inevitable1 and  that you do not do this
 of your own free will1 but because you 
are  forced to do so4 ,but can it be    
that you have such a strong aversion  to
 men's sufferings1 ill treatment1 and   
murder1 that you have such  an intense  
need of love and co-operation with your 
fellows that you  see clearly that only 
by the recognition of the equality of   
all1 and  by mutual services1 can the   
greatest possible happiness be realized2
  that your head and your heart1 the    
faith you profess1 and even  science    
itself tell you the same thing1 and yet 
that in spite of it  all you can be     
forced by some confused and complicated 
reasoning to  act in direct opposition  
to all this2 that as landowner or       
capitalist  you are bound to base your  
whole life on the oppression of the     
people2 that as emperor or president you
 are to command armies1 that  is1 to be 
the head and commander of murderers2 or 
that as government  official you are    
forced to take from the poor their last 

pence for  rich men to profit and share 
them among themselves2 or that as  judge
 or juryman you could be forced to      
sentence erring men to ill  treatment   
and death because the truth was not     
revealed to them1 or  above all1 for    
that is the basis of all the evil1 that 
you could be  forced to become a        
soldier1 and renouncing your free will  
and your  human sentiments1 could       
undertake to kill anyone at the command 
of  other men8    ,it cannot be4        
,even if you are told that all this is  
necessary for the maintenance  of the   
existing order of things1 and that this 
social order with  its pauperism1       
famines1 prisons1 gallows1 armies1 and  
wars is  necessary to society2 that     
still greater disasters would ensue if  
this organization were destroyed2 all   
that is said only by those who  profit  
by this organization1 while those who   
suffer from it--and they  are ten times 
as numerous--think and say quite the    
contrary4 ,and at  the bottom of your   

heart you know yourself that it is not  
true1 that  the existing organization   
has outlived its time1 and must         
inevitably  be reconstructed on new     
principles1 and that consequently there 
is  no obligation upon you to sacrifice 
your sentiments of humanity to  support 
it4    ,above all1 even if you allow    
that this organization is necessary1    
why do you believe it to be your duty to
 maintain it at the cost of  your best  
feelings8 ,who has made you the nurse in
 charge of this sick  and moribund      
organization8 ,not society nor the state
 nor anyone2  no one has asked you to   
undertake this2 you who fill your       
position  of landowner1 merchant1 tzar1 
priest1 or soldier know very well  that 
you occupy that position by no means    
with the unselfish aim of  maintaining  
the organization of life necessary to   
men's happiness1  but simply in your own
 interests1 to satisfy your own         
covetousness or  vanity or ambition or  
indolence or cowardice4 ,if you did not 

desire  that position1 you would not be 
doing your utmost to retain it4 ,try    
the experiment of ceasing to commit the 
cruel1 treacherous1 and base  actions   
that you are constantly committing in   
order to retain your  position1 and you 
will lose it at once4 ,try the simple   
experiment1  as a government official1  
of giving up lying1 and refusing to take
  a part in executions and acts of      
violence2 as a priest1 of giving  up    
deception2 as a soldier1 of giving up   
murder2 as landowner or  manufacturer1  
of giving up defending your property by 
fraud and  force2 and you will at once  
lose the position which you pretend is  
forced upon you1 and which seems        
burdensome to you4    ,a man cannot be  
placed against his will in a situation  
opposed to his  conscience4    ,if you  
find yourself in such a position it is  
not because it is  necessary to anyone  
whatever1 but simply because you wish   
it4 ,and  therefore knowing that your   
position is repugnant to your heart and 

your head1 and to your faith1 and even  
to the science in which you  believe1   
you cannot help reflecting upon the     
question whether in  retaining it1 and  
above all trying to justify it1 you are 
doing what  you ought to do4    ,you    
might risk making a mistake if you had  
time to see and retrieve  your fault1   
and if you ran the risk for something of
 some value4 ,but  when you know beyond 
all doubt that you may disappear any    
minute1  without the least possibility  
either for yourself or those you draw   
after you into your error1 of retrieving
 the mistake1 when you know  that       
whatever you may do in the external     
organization of life it will  all       
disappear as quickly and surely as you  
will yourself1 and will  leave no trace 
behind1 it is clear that you have no    
reasonable ground  for running the risk 
of such a fearful mistake4    ,it would 
be perfectly simple and clear if you did
 not by your  hypocrisy disguise the    
truth which has so unmistakably been    

revealed  to us4    ,share all that you 
have with others1 do not heap up riches1
 do not  steal1 do not cause suffering1 
do not kill1 do not unto others what    
you would not they should do unto you1  
all that has been said not  eighteen    
hundred1 but five thousand years ago1   
and there could be no  doubt of the     
truth of this law if it were not for    
hypocrisy4 ,except  for hypocrisy men   
could not have failed1 if not to put the
 law in  practice1 at least to recognize
 it1 and admit that it is wrong not to  
put it in practice4    ,but you will say
 that there is the public good to be    
considered1 and  that on that account   
one must not and ought not to conform to
 these  principles2 for the public good 
one may commit acts of violence and     
murder4 ,it is better for one man to die
 than that the whole people  perish1 you
 will say like ,caiaphas1 and you sign  
the sentence of  death of one man1 of a 
second1 and a third2 you load your gun  
against  this man who is to perish for  

the public good1 you imprison him1 you  
take his possessions4 ,you say that you 
commit these acts of cruelty  because   
you are a part of the society and of the
 state2 that it is  your duty to serve  
them1 and as landowner1 judge1 emperor1 
or soldier  to conform to their laws4   
,but besides belonging to the state and 
having duties created by that position1 
you belong also to eternity  and to     
,god1 who also lays duties upon you4    
,and just as your duties  to your family
 and to society are subordinate to your 
superior  duties to the state1 in the   
same way the latter must necessarily be 
subordinated to the duties dictated to  
you by the eternal life and by  ,god4   
,and just as it would be senseless to   
pull up the telegraph posts  for fuel   
for a family or society and thus to     
increase its welfare at  the expense of 
public interests1 in the same way it is 
senseless to  do violence1 to execute1  
and to murder to increase the welfare of
 the  nation1 because that is at the    

expense of the interests of humanity4   
,your duties as a citizen cannot but be 
subordinated to the superior            
obligations of the eternal life of ,god1
 and cannot be in opposition  to them4  
,as ,christ's disciples said eighteen   
centuries ago3 ,whether  it be right in 
the sight of ,god to hearken unto you   
more than unto  ,god1 judge ye 7,acts   
iv4 #ai72 and1 ,we ought to obey ,god   
rather than  men 7,acts v4 #bi74    ,it 
is asserted that1 in order that the     
unstable order of things1  established  
in one corner of the world for a few    
men1 may not be  destroyed1 you ought to
 commit acts of violence which destroy  
the  eternal and immutable order        
established by ,god and by reason4 ,can 
that possibly be8    ,and therefore you 
cannot but reflect on your position as  
landowner1  manufacturer1 judge1        
emperor1 president1 minister1 priest1   
and  soldier1 which is bound up with    
violence1 deception1 and murder1 and    
recognize its unlawfulness4    ,i do not

 say that if you are a landowner you are
 bound to give up  your lands           
immediately to the poor2 if a capitalist
 or manufacturer1  your money to your   
workpeople2 or that if you are ,tzar1   
minister1  official1 judge1 or general1 
you are bound to renounce immediately   
the advantages of your position2 or if a
 soldier1 on whom all the  system of    
violence is based1 to refuse immediately
 to obey in spite  of all the dangers of
 insubordination4    ,if you do so1 you 
will be doing the best thing possible4  
,but it may  happen1 and it is most     
likely1 that you will not have the      
strength  to do so4 ,you have relations1
 a family1 subordinates and superiors2  
you are under an influence so powerful  
that you cannot shake it off2  but you  
can always recognize the truth and      
refuse to tell a lie  about it4 ,you    
need not declare that you are remaining 
a landowner1  manufacturer1 merchant1   
artist1 or writer because it is useful  
to  mankind2 that you are governor1     

prosecutor1 or tzar1 not because  it is 
agreeable to you1 because you are used  
to it1 but for the  public good2 that   
you continue to be a soldier1 not from  
fear of  punishment1 but because you    
consider the army necessary to society4 
,you can always avoid lying in this way 
to yourself and to others1 and  you     
ought to do so2 because the one aim of  
your life ought to be to  purify        
yourself from falsehood and to confess  
the truth4 ,and you need  only do that  
and your situation will change directly 
of itself4    ,there is one thing1 and  
only one thing1 in which it is granted  
to  you to be free in life1 all else    
being beyond your power3 that is to     
recognize and profess the truth4    ,and
 yet simply from the fact that other men
 as misguided and as  pitiful creatures 
as yourself have made you soldier1 tzar1
 landowner1  capitalist1 priest1 or     
general1 you undertake to commit acts of
  violence obviously opposed to your    
reason and your heart1 to base  your    

existence on the misfortunes of others1 
and above all1 instead  of filling the  
one duty of your life1 recognizing and  
professing the  truth1 you feign not to 
recognize it and disguise it from       
yourself  and others4    ,and what are  
the conditions in which you are doing   
this8 ,you who  may die any instant1 you
 sign sentences of death1 you declare   
war1  you take part in it1 you judge1   
you punish1 you plunder the working     
people1 you live luxuriously in the     
midst of the poor1 and teach weak  men  
who have confidence in you that this    
must be so1 that the duty of  men is to 
do this1 and yet it may happen at the   
moment when you are  acting thus that a 
bacterium or a bull may attack you and  
you will  fall and die1 losing forever  
the chance of repairing the harm you    
have done to others1 and above all to   
yourself1 in uselessly wasting  a life  
which has been given you only once in   
eternity1 without  having accomplished  
the only thing you ought to have done4  

,however commonplace and out of date it 
may seem to us1 however  confused we may
 be by hypocrisy and by the hypnotic    
suggestion which  results from it1      
nothing can destroy the certainty of    
this simple  and clearly defined truth4 
,no external conditions can guarantee   
our  life1 which is attended with       
inevitable sufferings and infallibly    
terminated by death1 and which          
consequently can have no significance   
except in the constant accomplishment of
 what is demanded by the  ,power which  
has placed us in life with a sole       
certain guide--the  rational conscience4
    ,that is why that ,power cannot     
require of us what is irrational and    
impossible3 the organization of our     
temporary external life1 the life  of   
society or of the state4 ,that ,power   
demands of us only what is  reasonable1 
certain1 and possible3 to serve the     
kingdom of ,god1 that  is1 to contribute
 to the establishment of the greatest   
possible union  between all living      

beings--a union possible only in the    
truth2 and to  recognize and to profess 
the revealed truth1 which is always in  
our  power4    ,but seek ye first the   
kingdom of ,god1 and his righteousness1 
and all  these things shall be added    
unto you4 7,matt4 vi4 #cc47    ,the sole
 meaning of life is to serve humanity by
 contributing to the  establishment of  
the kingdom of ,god1 which can only be  
done by the  recognition and profession 
of the truth by every man4    ,the      
kingdom of ,god cometh not with outward 
show2 neither shall they  say1 ,lo here6
 or1 ,lo there6 for behold1 the kingdom 
of ,god is within  you4 7,luke xvii4    
#bj1 #ba47                              
,,the ,,end4           99       99      
99       99       99    ,transcriber's  
note3    ,text enclosed by underscores  
is in italics 7italics74    ,small      
capital text has been replaced with all 
capitals4    ,text enclosed by plus     
signs 7,greek7 is a transileration of   
,greek4    ,variations in spelling1     

punctuation and hyphenation have been   
retained except in obvious cases of     
typographical error4    ,the transcriber
 has changed the page number for        
,chapter ,,xii in the  ,table of        
,contents from #bgi to #bgh4