,transcriber's ,notes ,texts printed in italics in the original work have been transcribed as text1 bold face texts as text4 ,small caps texts have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,u represents a ,u-shape rather than the letter ,u4 ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings1 not all characters and symbols may display as intended4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the ned of this text4 ,,alchemy3 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,paracelsus ,frontispiece ,,alchemy3 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,being ,a ,,brief ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,alchemistic ,,doctrines1 ,,and ,,their ,,relations1 ,,to ,,mysticism ,,on ,,the ,,one ,,hand1 ,,and ,,to ,,recent ,,discoveries ,,in ,,physical ,,science ,,on ,,the ,,other ,,hand2 ,,together ,,with ,,some ,,particulars ,,regarding ,,the ,,lives ,,and ,,teachings ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,noted ,,alchemists ,,by ,h4 ,,stanley ,,redgrove1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,author ,,of 8,,on ,,the ,,calculation ,,of ,,thermo-,,chemical ,,constants10 8,,matter1 ,,spirit ,,and ,,the ,,cosmos10 ,,etc4 ,,with #af ,,full-,,page ,,illustrations ,,second ,,and ,,revised ,,edition ,,london ,,william ,,rider ,,son1 ,,ltd4 #h ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,e4,c4 #d #aibb ,first published #aiaa ,second ,edition #aibb ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,it is exceedingly gratifying to me that a second edition of this book should be called for4 ,but still more welcome is the change in the attitude of the educated world towards the old-time alchemists and their theories which has taken place during the past few years4 ,the theory of the origin of ,alchemy put forward in ,chapter ,i has led to considerable discussion2 but whilst this theory has met with general acceptance1 some of its earlier critics took it as implying far more than is actually the case4 ,as a result of further research my conviction of its truth has become more fully confirmed1 and in my recent work entitled ,bygone ,beliefs 7,rider1 #aibj71 under the title of 8,the ,quest of the ,philosopher's ,stone10 ,i have found it possible to adduce further evidence in this connection4 ,at the same time1 whilst ,i became increasingly convinced that the main alchemistic hypotheses were drawn from the domain of mystical theology and applied to physics and chemistry by way of analogy1 it also became evident to me that the crude physiology of bygone ages and remnants of the old phallic faith formed a further and subsidiary source of alchemistic theory4 ,i have barely1 if at all1 touched on this matter in the present work2 the reader who is interested will find it dealt with in some detail in 8,the ,phallic ,element in ,alchemical ,doctrine0 in my ,bygone ,beliefs4 ,in view of recent research in the domain of ,radioactivity and the consequent advance in knowledge that has resulted since this book was first published1 ,i have carefully considered the advisability of rewriting the whole of the last chapter1 but came to the conclusion that the time for this was not yet ripe1 and that1 apart from a few minor emendations1 the chapter had better remain very much as it originally stood4 ,my reason for this course was that1 whilst considerably more is known to-day1 than was the case in #aiaa1 concerning the very complex transmutations undergone spontaneously by the radioactive elements--knowledge helping further to elucidate the problem of the constitution of the so-called 8elements0 of the chemist--the problem really cognate to my subject1 namely that of effecting a transmutation of one element into another at will1 remains in almost the same state of indeterminateness as in #aiaa4 ,in #aiac1 ,sir ,william ,ramsay#a thought he had obtained evidence for the transmutation of hydrogen into helium by the action of the electric discharge1 and ,professors ,collie and ,patterson#b thought they had obtained evidence of the transmutation of hydrogen into neon by similar means4 ,but these observations 7as well as ,sir ,william ,ramsay's earlier transmutational experiments7 failed to be satisfactorily confirmed2#c and since the death of the latter1 little1 if anything1 appears to have been done to settle the questions raised by his experiments4 ,reference must1 however1 be made to a very interesting investigation by ,sir ,ernest ,rutherford on the 8,collision of -,particles with ,light ,atoms10#d from which it appears certain that when bombarded with the swiftly-moving -particles given off by radium-,c1 the atoms of nitrogen may be disintegrated1 one of the products being hydrogen4 ,the other product is possibly helium1#e though this has not been proved4 ,in view of ,rutherford's results a further repetition of ,ramsay's experiments would certainly appear to be advisable4 #a ,see his 8,the ,presence of ,helium in the ,gas from the ,interior of an ,x-,ray ,bulb10 ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 ciii4 7#aiac71 pp4 #bfd et seq4 #b ,see their 8,the ,presence of ,neon in ,hydrogen after the ,passage of the ,electric ,discharge through the latter at ,low ,pressures10 ibid41 pp4 #dai et seq42 and 8,the ,production of ,neon and ,helium by the ,electric ,discharge10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,a1 vol4 xci4 7#aiae71 pp4 #cj et seq4 #c ,see especially the report of negative experiments by ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,g4 ,egerton1 published in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,a1 vol4 xci4 7#aiae71 pp4 #ahj et seq4 #d ,see the ,philosophical ,magazine for ,june1 #aiai1 #fth ,series1 vol4 xxxvii4 pp4 #ecg-ehg4 #e ,or perhaps an isotope of helium 7see below74 ,as concerns the spontaneous transmutations undergone by the radioactive elements1 the facts appear to indicate 7or1 at least1 can be brought into some sort of order by supposing7 the atom to consist of a central nucleus and an outer shell1 as suggested by ,sir ,ernest ,rutherford4 ,the nucleus may be compared to the sun of a solar system4 ,it is excessively small1 but in it the mass of the atom is almost entirely concentrated4 ,it is positively charged1 the charge being neutralised by that of the free electrons which revolve like planets about it1 and which by their orbits account for the volume of the atom4 ,the atomic weight of the element depends upon the central sun2 but the chemical properties of the element are determined by the number of electrons in the shell2 this number is the same as that representing the position of the element in the periodic system4 ,radioactive change originates in the atomic nucleus4 ,the expulsion of an -particle therefrom decreases the atomic weight by #d units1 necessitates 7since the -particle carries two positive charges7 the removal of two electrons from the shell in order to maintain electrical neutrality1 and hence changes the chemical nature of the body1 transmuting the element into one occupying a position two places to the left in the periodic system 7for example1 the change of radium into niton74 ,but radioactivity sometimes results in the expulsion of a -particle from the nucleus4 ,this results in the addition of an electron to the shell1 and hence changes the chemical character of the element1 transmuting it into one occupying a position one place to the right in the periodic system1 but without altering its atomic weight4 ,consequently1 the expulsion of one - and two -particles from the nucleus1 whilst decreasing the atomic weight of the element by #d1 leaves the number of electrons in the shell1 and thus the chemical properties of the element1 unaltered4 ,these remarkable conclusions are amply borne out by the facts1 and the discovery of elements 7called 8isobares07 having the same atomic weight but different chemical properties1 and of those 7called 8isotopes07 having identical chemical characters but different atomic weights1 must be regarded as one of the most significant and important discoveries of recent years4 ,some further reference to this theory will be found in #gg and #ha3 the reader who wishes to follow the matter further should consult the fourth edition of ,professor ,frederick ,soddy's ,the ,interpretation of ,radium 7#aibj71 and the two chapters on the subject in his ,science and ,life 7#aibj71 one of which is a popular exposition and the other a more technical one4 ,these advances in knowledge all point to the possibility of effecting transmutations at will1 but so far attempts to achieve this1 as ,i have already indicated1 cannot be regarded as altogether satisfactory4 ,several methods of making gold1 or rather elements chemically identical with gold1 once the method of controlling radioactive change is discovered 7as assuredly it will be7 are suggested by ,sir ,ernest ,rutherford's theory of the nuclear atom4 ,thus1 the expulsion of two -particles from bismuth or one from thallium would yield the required result4 ,or lead could be converted into mercury by the expulsion of one -particle1 and this into thallium by the expulsion of one -particle1 yielding gold by the further expulsion of an -particle4 ,but1 as ,professor ,soddy remarks in his ,science and ,life just referred to1 8if man ever achieves this further control over ,nature1 it is quite certain that the last thing he would want to do would be to turn lead or mercury into gold--for the sake of gold4 ,the energy that would be liberated1 if the control of these sub-atomic processes were as possible as is the control of ordinary chemical changes1 such as combustion1 would far exceed in importance and value the gold4 ,rather it would pay to transmute gold into silver or some base metal40 ,in #aja of the book ,i suggest that the question of the effect on the world of finance of the discovery of an inexpensive method of transmuting base metal into gold on a large scale is one that should appeal to a novelist specially gifted with imagination4 ,since the words were first written a work has appeared in which something approximating to what was suggested has been attempted and very admirably achieved4 ,my reference is to ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells's novel1 ,the ,world ,set ,free1 published in #aiad4 ,in conclusion ,i should like to thank the very many reviewers who found so many good things to say concerning the first edition of this book4 ,for kind assistance in reading the proofs of this edition my best thanks are due also and are hereby tendered to my wife1 and my good friend ,gerald ,druce1 ,esq41 ,m4,sc4 ,h4 ,s4 ,r4 #aia1 ,,camden ,,road1 ,,london1 ,n4,w4 #a4 ,october1 #aiba4 ,,preface ,the number of books in the ,english language dealing with the interesting subject of ,alchemy is not sufficiently great to render an apology necessary for adding thereto4 ,indeed1 at the present time there is an actual need for a further contribution on this subject4 ,the time is gone when it was regarded as perfectly legitimate to point to ,alchemy as an instance of the aberrations of the human mind4 ,recent experimental research has brought about profound modifications in the scientific notions regarding the chemical elements1 and1 indeed1 in the scientific concept of the physical universe itself2 and a certain resemblance can be traced between these later views and the theories of bygone ,alchemy4 ,the spontaneous change of one 8element0 into another has been witnessed1 and the recent work of ,sir ,william ,ramsay suggests the possibility of realising the old alchemistic dream--the transmutation of the 8base0 metals into gold4 ,the basic idea permeating all the alchemistic theories appears to have been this3 ,all the metals 7and1 indeed1 all forms of matter7 are one in origin1 and are produced by an evolutionary process4 ,the ,soul of them all is one and the same2 it is only the ,soul that is permanent2 the body or outward form1 i4e41 the mode of manifestation of the ,soul1 is transitory1 and one form may be transmuted into another4 ,the similarity1 indeed it might be said1 the identity1 between this view and the modern etheric theory of matter is at once apparent4 ,the old alchemists reached the above conclusion by a theoretical method1 and attempted to demonstrate the validity of their theory by means of experiment2 in which1 it appears1 they failed4 ,modern science1 adopting the reverse process1 for a time lost hold of the idea of the unity of the physical universe1 to gain it once again by the experimental method4 ,it was in the elaboration of this grand fundamental idea that ,alchemy failed4 ,if ,i were asked to contrast ,alchemy with the chemical and physical science of the nineteenth century ,i would say that1 whereas the latter abounded in a wealth of much accurate detail and much relative truth1 it lacked philosophical depth and insight2 whilst ,alchemy1 deficient in such accurate detail1 was characterised by a greater degree of philosophical depth and insight2 for the alchemists did grasp the fundamental truth of the ,cosmos1 although they distorted it and made it appear grotesque4 ,the alchemists cast their theories in a mould entirely fantastic1 even ridiculous--they drew unwarrantable analogies--and hence their views cannot be accepted in these days of modern science4 ,but if we cannot approve of their theories in toto1 we can nevertheless appreciate the fundamental ideas at the root of them4 ,and it is primarily with the object of pointing out this similarity between these ancient ideas regarding the physical universe and the latest products of scientific thought1 that this book has been written4 ,it is a regrettable fact that the majority of works dealing with the subject of ,alchemy take a one-sided point of view4 ,the chemists generally take a purely physical view of the subject1 and instead of trying to understand its mystical language1 often 7,i do not say always7 prefer to label it nonsense and the alchemist a fool4 ,on the other hand1 the mystics1 in many cases1 take a purely transcendental view of the subject1 forgetting the fact that the alchemists were1 for the most part1 concerned with operations of a physical nature4 ,for a proper understanding of ,alchemy1 as ,i hope to make plain in the first chapter of this work1 a synthesis of both points of view is essential2 and1 since these two aspects are so intimately and essentially connected with one another1 this is necessary even when1 as in the following work1 one is concerned primarily with the physical1 rather than the purely mystical1 aspect of the subject4 ,now1 the author of this book may lay claim to being a humble student of both ,chemistry and what may be generalised under the terms ,mysticism and ,transcendentalism2 and he hopes that this perhaps rather unusual combination of studies has enabled him to take a broad-minded view of the theories of the alchemists1 and to adopt a sympathetic attitude towards them4 ,with regard to the illustrations1 the author must express his thanks to the authorities of the ,british ,museum for permission to photograph engraved portraits and illustrations from old works in the ,british ,museum ,collections1 and to ,g4 ,h4 ,gabb1 ,esq41 ,f4,c4,s41 for permission to photograph engraved portraits in his possession4 ,the author's heartiest thanks are also due to ,frank ,e4 ,weston1 ,esq41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,c4,s41 and ,w4 ,g4 ,llewellyn1 ,esq41 for their kind help in reading the proofs1 c4 ,h4 ,s4 ,r4 ,,the ,,polytechnic1 ,,london1 ,w4 ,october1 #aiaj4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,alchemy #a #a4 ,the ,aim of ,alchemy #a #b4 ,the ,transcendental ,theory of ,alchemy #b #c4 ,failure of the ,transcendental ,theory #c #d4 ,the ,qualifications of the ,adept #d #e4 ,alchemistic ,language #e #f4 ,alchemists of a ,mystical ,type #g #g4 ,the ,meaning of ,alchemy #g #h4 ,opinions of other ,writers #h #i4 ,the ,basic ,idea of ,alchemy #aj #aj4 ,the ,law of ,analogy #ab #aa4 ,the ,dual ,nature of ,alchemy #ac #ab4 8,body1 ,soul and ,spirit0 #ad #ac4 ,alchemy1 ,mysticism and ,modern ,science #ae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,physical ,,alchemy #ag #ad4 ,supposed ,proofs of ,transmutation #ag #ae4 ,the ,alchemistic ,elements #ah #af4 ,aristotle's ,views regarding the ,elements #ai #ag4 ,the ,sulphur-,mercury ,theory #bj #ah4 ,the ,sulphur-,mercury-,salt ,theory #bb #ai4 ,alchemistic ,elements and ,principles #bc #bj4 ,the ,growth of the ,metals #be #ba4 ,alchemy and ,astrology #bf #bb4 ,alchemistic ,view of the ,nature of ,gold #bg #bc4 ,the ,philosopher's ,stone #bi #bd4 ,the ,nature of the ,philosopher's ,stone #cj #be4 ,the ,theory of ,development #cb #bf4 ,the ,powers of the ,philosopher's ,stone #cd #bg4 ,the ,elixir of ,life #ce #bh4 ,the ,practical ,methods of the ,alchemists #cf ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,alchemists 7,a4 ,,before ,,paracelsus7 #ci #bi4 ,hermes ,trismegistos #ci #cj4 ,the ,smaragdine ,table #dj #ca4 ,zosimus of ,panopolis #db #cb4 ,geber #db #cc4 ,other ,arabian ,alchemists #dd #cd4 ,albertus ,magnus #dd #ce4 ,thomas ,aquinas #dd #cf4 ,roger ,bacon #de #cg4 ,arnold de ,villanova #dg #ch4 ,raymond ,lully #dg #ci4 ,peter ,bonus #di #dj4 ,nicolas ,flamel #ea #da4 8,basil ,valentine0 and the ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony4 #eb #db4 ,isaac of ,holland #ec #dc4 ,bernard ,trvisan #ed #dd4 ,sir ,george ,ripley #ee #de4 ,thomas ,norton #ef ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,alchemists 7,b4 ,,paracelsus ,,and ,,after7 #eh #df4 ,paracelsus #eh #dg4 ,views of ,paracelsus #fj #dh4 ,iatro-chemistry #fa #di4 ,the ,rosicrucian ,society #fb #ej4 ,thomas ,charnock #fe #ea4 ,andreas ,libavius #ff #eb4 ,edward ,kelley and ,john ,dee #fg #ec4 ,henry ,khunrath #gj #ed4 ,alexander ,sethon and ,michael ,sendivogius #gj #ee4 ,michael ,maier #gb #ef4 ,jacob ,boehme #gd #eg4 ,j4 ,b4 van ,helmont and ,f4 ,m4 van ,helmont #ge #eh4 ,johann ,rudolf ,glauber #gg #ei4 ,thomas ,vaughan 78,eugenius ,philalethes07 #gg #fj4 8,eirenus ,philalethes0 and ,george ,starkey #gi ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,outcome ,,of ,,alchemy #ha #fa4 ,did the ,alchemists achieve the ,magnum ,opus8 #ha #fb4 ,the ,testimony of van ,helmont #hb #fc4 ,the ,testimony of ,helvetius #hc #fd4 ,helvetius obtains the ,philosopher's ,stone #he #fe4 ,helvetius performs a ,transmutation #hg #ff4 ,helvetius's ,gold ,assayed #hh #fg4 ,helvetius's ,gold ,further ,tested #hh #fh4 ,the ,genesis of ,chemistry #hi #fi4 ,the ,degeneracy of ,alchemy #ij #gj4 8,count ,cagliostro0 #ia ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,modern ,,chemistry #id #ga4 ,the ,birth of ,modern ,chemistry #id #gb4 ,the ,phlogiston ,theory #id #gc4 ,boyle and the ,definition of an ,element #if #gd4 ,the ,stoichiometric ,laws #if #ge4 ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory #ii #gf4 ,the ,determination of the ,atomic ,weights of the ,elements #ajb #gg4 ,prout's ,hypothesis #ajb #gh4 ,the 8,periodic ,law0 #aje #gi4 ,the ,corpuscular ,theory of ,matter #aji #hj4 ,proof that the ,electrons are not ,matter #aaj #ha4 ,the ,electronic ,theory of ,matter #aab #hb4 ,the ,etheric ,theory of ,matter #aac #hc4 ,further ,evidence of the ,complexity of the ,atoms #aad #hd4 ,views of ,wald and ,ostwald #aae ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,modern ,,alchemy #aag #he4 8,modern ,alchemy0 #aag #hf4 ,x-,rays and ,becquerel ,rays #aag #hg4 ,the ,discovery of ,radium #aah #hh4 ,chemical ,properties of ,radium #aai #hi4 ,the ,radioactivity of ,radium #abj #ij4 ,the ,disintegration of the ,radium ,atom #abb #ia4 8,induced ,radioactivity0 #abc #ib4 ,properties of ,uranium and ,thorium #abc #ic4 ,the ,radium ,emanation #abd #id4 ,the ,production of ,helium from ,emanation #abe #ie4 ,nature of this ,change #abg #if4 ,is this ,change a true ,transmutation8 #abh #ig4 ,the ,production of ,neon from ,emanation #acj #ih4 ,ramsay's ,experiments on ,copper #acb #ii4 ,further ,experiments on ,radium and ,copper #acd #ajj4 ,ramsay's ,experiments on ,thorium and allied ,metals #acd #aja4 ,the ,possibility of ,making ,gold #acf #ajb4 ,the ,significance of 8,allotropy0 #acf #ajc4 ,conclusion #adb ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,,plate #a4 ,portrait of ,paracelsus ,frontispiece ,,to ,,face ,,page ,,plate #b4 ,symbolical ,illustration representing the ,trinity of ,body1 ,soul and ,spirit #ae ,,plate #c4 ,symbolical ,illustrations representing-- 7,a7 ,the ,fertility of the ,earth #bf 7,b7 ,the ,amalgamation of ,mercury and ,gold ,,plate #d4 ,symbolical ,illustrations representing-- 7,a7 ,the ,coction of ,gold-,amalgam in a ,closed ,vessel #cc 7,b7 ,the ,transmutation of the ,metals ,,plate #e4 ,alchemistic ,apparatus-- 7,a7 7,b7 ,two forms of apparatus for sublimation #cg ,,plate #f4 ,alchemistic ,apparatus-- 7,a7 ,an ,athanor #ch 7,b7 ,a ,pelican ,,plate #g4 ,portrait of ,albertus ,magnus #dd ,,plate #h4 ,portraits of-- 7,a7 ,thomas ,aquinas #eb 7,b7 ,nicolas ,flamel ,,plate #i4 ,portraits of-- 7,a7 ,edward ,kelley #fh 7,b7 ,john ,dee ,,plate #aj4 ,portrait of ,michael ,maier #gb ,,plate #aa4 ,portrait of ,jacob ,boehme #gd ,,plate #ab4 ,portraits of ,j4 ,b4 and ,f4 ,m4 van ,helmont #gf ,,plate #ac4 ,portrait of ,j4 ,f4 ,helvetius #hd ,,plate #ad4 ,portrait of 8,cagliostro0 #ib ,,plate #ae4 ,portrait of ,robert ,boyle #id ,,plate #af4 ,portrait of ,john ,dalton #ajj ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,periodic ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,elements ,pages #ajf1 #ajg ,,alchemy3 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,alchemy ,the ,aim of ,alchemy4 #a4 ,alchemy is generally understood to have been that art whose end was the transmutation of the so-called base metals into gold by means of an ill-defined something called the ,philosopher's ,stone2 but even from a purely physical standpoint1 this is a somewhat superficial view4 ,alchemy was both a philosophy and an experimental science1 and the transmutation of the metals was its end only in that this would give the final proof of the alchemistic hypotheses2 in other words1 ,alchemy1 considered from the physical standpoint1 was the attempt to demonstrate experimentally on the material plane the validity of a certain philosophical view of the ,cosmos4 ,we see the genuine scientific spirit in the saying of one of the alchemists3 8,would to ,god 4 4 4 all men might become adepts in our ,art--for then gold1 the great idol of mankind1 would lose its value1 and we should prize it only for its scientific teaching40#f ,unfortunately1 however1 not many alchemists came up to this ideal2 and for the majority of them1 ,alchemy did mean merely the possibility of making gold cheaply and gaining untold wealth4 #f 8,,eiren,,us ,,philalethes03 ,an ,open ,entrance to the ,closed ,palace of the ,king 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 ,restored and ,enlarged1 edited by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahic1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agh74 ,the ,transcendental ,theory of ,alchemy4 #b4 ,by some mystics1 however1 the opinion has been expressed that ,alchemy was not a physical art or science at all1 that in no sense was its object the manufacture of material gold1 and that its processes were not carried out on the physical plane4 ,according to this transcendental theory1 ,alchemy was concerned with man's soul1 its object was the perfection1 not of material substances1 but of man in a spiritual sense4 ,those who hold this view identify ,alchemy with1 or at least regard it as a branch of1 ,mysticism1 from which it is supposed to differ merely by the employment of a special language2 and they hold that the writings of the alchemists must not be understood literally as dealing with chemical operations1 with furnaces1 retorts1 alembics1 pelicans and the like1 with salt1 sulphur1 mercury1 gold and other material substances1 but must be understood as grand allegories dealing with spiritual truths4 ,according to this view1 the figure of the transmutation of the 8base0 metals into gold symbolised the salvation of man--the transmutation of his soul into spiritual gold--which was to be obtained by the elimination of evil and the development of good by the grace of ,god2 and the realisation of which salvation or spiritual transmutation may be described as the ,new ,birth1 or that condition of being known as union with the ,divine4 ,it would follow1 of course1 if this theory were true1 that the genuine alchemists were pure mystics1 and hence1 that the development of chemical science was not due to their labours1 but to pseudo-alchemists who so far misunderstood their writings as to have interpreted them in a literal sense4 ,failure of the ,transcendental ,theory4 #c4 ,this theory1 however1 has been effectively disposed of by ,mr4 ,arthur ,edward ,waite1 who points to the lives of the alchemists themselves in refutation of it4 ,for their lives indisputably prove that the alchemists were occupied with chemical operations on the physical plane1 and that for whatever motive1 they toiled to discover a method for transmuting the commoner metals into actual1 material gold4 ,as ,paracelsus himself says of the true 8spagyric physicians10 who were the alchemists of his period3 8,these do not give themselves up to ease and idleness 4 4 4 ,but they devote themselves diligently to their labours1 sweating whole nights over fiery furnaces4 ,these do not kill the time with empty talk1 but find their delight in their laboratory40#g ,the writings of the alchemists contain 7mixed1 however1 with much that from the physical standpoint appears merely fantastic7 accurate accounts of many chemical processes and discoveries1 which cannot be explained away by any method of transcendental interpretation4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that chemistry owes its origin to the direct labours of the alchemists themselves1 and not to any who misread their writings4 #g ,,paracelsus3 8,concerning the ,nature of ,things0 7see ,the ,hermetic and ,alchemical ,writings of ,paracelsus1 edited by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahid1 vol4 i4 p4 #afg74 ,the ,qualifications of the ,adept4 #d4 ,at the same time1 it is quite evident that there is a considerable element of ,mysticism in the alchemistic doctrines2 this has always been recognised2 but1 as a general rule1 those who have approached the subject from the scientific point of view have considered this mystical element as of little or no importance4 ,however1 there are certain curious facts which are not satisfactorily explained by a purely physical theory of ,alchemy1 and1 in our opinion1 the recognition of the importance of this mystical element and of the true relation which existed between ,alchemy and ,mysticism is essential for the right understanding of the subject4 ,we may notice1 in the first place1 that the alchemists always speak of their ,art as a ,divine ,gift1 the highest secrets of which are not to be learnt from any books on the subject2 and they invariably teach that the right mental attitude with regard to ,god is the first step necessary for the achievement of the magnum opus4 ,as says one alchemist3 8,in the first place1 let every devout and ,god-fearing chemist and student of this ,art consider that this arcanum should be regarded1 not only as a truly great1 but as a most holy ,art 7seeing that it typifies and shadows out the highest heavenly good74 ,therefore1 if any man desire to reach this great and unspeakable ,mystery1 he must remember that it is obtained not by the might of man1 but by the grace of ,god1 and that not our will or desire1 but only the mercy of the ,most ,high1 can bestow it upon us4 ,for this reason you must first of all cleanse your heart1 lift it up to ,him alone1 and ask of ,him this gift in true1 earnest1 and undoubting prayer4 ,he alone can give and bestow it40#h ,and 8,basil ,valentine03 8,first1 there should be the invocation of ,god1 flowing from the depth of a pure and sincere heart1 and a conscience which should be free from all ambition1 hypocrisy1 and vice1 as also from all cognate faults1 such as arrogance1 boldness1 pride1 luxury1 worldly vanity1 oppression of the poor1 and similar iniquities1 which should all be rooted up out of the heart--that when a man appears before the ,throne of ,grace1 to regain the health of his body1 he may come with a conscience weeded of all tares1 and be changed into a pure temple of ,god cleansed of all that defiles40#i #h ,the ,sophic ,hydrolith2 or1 ,water ,stone of the ,wise 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #gd74 #i ,the ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony 7,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite's translation1 p4 #ac74 ,see #da4 ,alchemistic ,language4 #e4 ,in the second place1 we must notice the nature of alchemistic language4 ,as we have hinted above1 and as is at once apparent on opening any alchemistic book1 the language of ,alchemy is very highly mystical1 and there is much that is perfectly unintelligible in a physical sense4 ,indeed1 the alchemists habitually apologise for their vagueness on the plea that such mighty secrets may not be made more fully manifest4 ,it is true1 of course1 that in the days of ,alchemy's degeneracy a good deal of pseudo-mystical nonsense was written by the many impostors then abounding1 but the mystical style of language is by no means confined to the later alchemistic writings4 ,it is also true that the alchemists1 no doubt1 desired to shield their secrets from vulgar and profane eyes1 and hence would necessarily adopt a symbolic language4 ,but it is past belief that the language of the alchemist was due to some arbitrary plan2 whatever it is to us1 it was very real to him4 ,moreover1 this argument cuts both ways1 for those1 also1 who take a transcendental view of ,alchemy regard its language as symbolical1 although after a different manner4 ,it is also1 to say the least1 curious1 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite points out1 that this mystical element should be found in the writings of the earlier alchemists1 whose manuscripts were not written for publication1 and therefore ran no risk of informing the vulgar of the precious secrets of ,alchemy4 ,on the other hand1 the transcendental method of translation does often succeed in making sense out of what is otherwise unintelligible in the writings of the alchemists4 ,the above-mentioned writer remarks on this point3 8,without in any way pretending to assert that this hypothesis reduces the literary chaos of the philosophers into a regular order1 it may be affirmed that it materially elucidates their writings1 and that it is wonderful how contradictions1 absurdities1 and difficulties seem to dissolve wherever it is applied40#aj #aj ,,arthur ,,edward ,,waite3 ,the ,occult ,sciences 7#ahia71 p4 #ia4 ,the alchemists' love of symbolism is also conspicuously displayed in the curious designs with which certain of their books are embellished4 ,we are not here referring to the illustrations of actual apparatus employed in carrying out the various operations of physical ,alchemy1 which are not infrequently found in the works of those alchemists who at the same time were practical chemists 7,glauber1 for example71 but to pictures whose meaning plainly lies not upon the surface and whose import is clearly symbolical1 whether their symbolism has reference to physical or to spiritual processes4 ,examples of such symbolic illustrations1 many of which are highly fantastic1 will be found in plates #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,we shall refer to them again in the course of the present and following chapters4 ,alchemists of a ,mystical ,type4 #f4 ,we must also notice that1 although there cannot be the slightest doubt that the great majority of alchemists were engaged in problems and experiments of a physical nature1 yet there were a few men included within the alchemistic ranks who were entirely1 or almost entirely1 concerned with problems of a spiritual nature2 ,thomas ,vaughan1 for example1 and ,jacob ,boehme1 who boldly employed the language of ,alchemy in the elaboration of his system of mystical philosophy4 ,and particularly must we notice1 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite has also indicated1 the significant fact that the ,western alchemists make unanimous appeal to ,hermes ,trismegistos as the greatest authority on the art of ,alchemy1 whose alleged writings are of an undoubtedly mystical character 7see #bi74 ,it is clear1 that in spite of its apparently physical nature1 ,alchemy must have been in some way closely connected with ,mysticism4 ,the ,meaning of ,alchemy4 #g4 ,if we are ever to understand the meaning of ,alchemy aright we must look at the subject from the alchemistic point of view4 ,in modern times there has come about a divorce between ,religion and ,science in men's minds 7though more recently a unifying tendency has set in72 but it was otherwise with the alchemists1 their religion and their science were closely united4 ,we have said that 8,alchemy was the attempt to demonstrate experimentally on the material plane the validity of a certain philosophical view of the ,cosmos02 now1 this 8philosophical view of the ,cosmos0 was ,mysticism4 ,alchemy had its origin in the attempt to apply1 in a certain manner1 the principles of ,mysticism to the things of the physical plane1 and was1 therefore1 of a dual nature1 on the one hand spiritual and religious1 on the other1 physical and material4 ,as the anonymous author of ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahae7 remarks1 8,the universal chemistry1 by which the science of alchemy opens the knowledge of all nature1 being founded on first principles forms analogy with whatever knowledge is founded on the same first principles4 4 4 4 ,saint ,john describes the redemption1 or the new creation of the fallen soul1 on the same first principles1 until the consummation of the work1 in which the ,divine tincture transmutes the base metal of the soul into a perfection1 that will pass the fire of eternity20#aa that is to say1 ,alchemy and the mystical regeneration of man 7in this writer's opinion7 are analogous processes on different planes of being1 because they are founded on the same first principles4 #aa ,f4 ,b43 ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahae71 ,preface1 p4 #c4 ,opinions of other ,writers4 #h4 ,we shall here quote the opinions of two modern writers1 as to the significance of ,alchemy2 one a mystic1 the other a man of science4 ,says ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 8,if the authors of the #8,suggestive ,inquiry' and of #8,remarks on ,alchemy and the ,alchemists' two books putting forward the transcendental theory had considered the lives of the symbolists1 as well as the nature of the symbols1 their views would have been very much modified2 they would have found that the true method of ,hermetic interpretation lies in a middle course2 but the errors which originated with merely typographical investigations were intensified by a consideration of the great alchemical theorem1 which1 par excellence1 is one of universal development1 which acknowledges that every substance contains undeveloped resources and potentialities1 and can be brought outward and forward into perfection4 ,they the generality of alchemists applied their theory only to the development of metallic substances from a lower to a higher order1 but we see by their writings that the grand hierophants of ,oriental and ,western alchemy alike were continually haunted by brief and imperfect glimpses of glorious possibilities for man1 if the evolution of his nature were accomplished along the lines of their theory40#ab ,mr4 ,m4 ,m4 ,pattison ,muir1 ,m4,a41 says3 84 4 4 alchemy aimed at giving experimental proof of a certain theory of the whole system of nature1 including humanity4 ,the practical culmination of the alchemical quest presented a threefold aspect2 the alchemists sought the stone of wisdom1 for by gaining that they gained the control of wealth2 they sought the universal panacea1 for that would give them the power of enjoying wealth and life2 they sought the soul of the world1 for thereby they could hold communion with spiritual existences1 and enjoy the fruition of spiritual life4 ,the object of their search was to satisfy their material needs1 their intellectual capacities1 and their spiritual yearnings4 ,the alchemists of the nobler sort always made the first of these objects subsidiary to the other two4 4 4 40#ac #ab ,,arthur ,,edward ,,waite3 ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahhh71 pp4 #cj1 #ca4 ,as says another writer of the mystical school of thought3 8,if we look upon the subject of ,alchymy from the point which affords the widest view1 it may be said that ,alchymy has two aspects3 the simply material1 and the religious4 ,the dogma that ,alchymy was only a form of chemistry is untenable by any one who has read the works of its chief professors4 ,the doctrine that ,alchymy was religion only1 and that its chemical references were all blinds1 is equally untenable in the face of history1 which shows that many of its most noted professors were men who had made important discoveries in the domain of common chemistry1 and were in no way notable as teachers either of ethics or religion0 78,sapere ,aude10 ,the ,science of ,alchymy1 ,spiritual and ,material 7#ahic71 pp4 #c and #d74 #ac ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a43 ,the ,story of ,alchemy and the ,beginnings of ,chemistry 7#aijb71 pp4 #aje and #ajf4 ,the ,basic ,idea of ,alchemy4 #i4 ,the famous axiom beloved by every alchemist--8,what is above is as that which is below1 and what is below is as that which is above0--although of questionable origin1 tersely expresses the basic idea of ,alchemy4 ,the alchemists postulated and believed in a very real sense in the essential unity of the ,cosmos4 ,hence1 they held that there is a correspondence or analogy existing between things spiritual and things physical1 the same laws operating in each realm4 ,as writes ,sendivogius 84 4 4 the ,sages have been taught of ,god that this natural world is only an image and material copy of a heavenly and spiritual pattern2 that the very existence of this world is based upon the reality of its celestial archetype2 and that ,god has created it in imitation of the spiritual and invisible universe1 in order that men might be the better enabled to comprehend ,his heavenly teaching1 and the wonders of ,his absolute and ineffable power and wisdom4 ,thus the ,sage sees heaven reflected in ,nature as in a mirror2 and he pursues this ,art1 not for the sake of gold or silver1 but for the love of the knowledge which it reveals2 he jealously conceals it from the sinner and the scornful1 lest the mysteries of heaven should be laid bare to the vulgar gaze40#ad #ad ,,michael ,,sendivogius3 ,the ,new ,chemical ,light1 ,pt4 ,,ii41 ,concerning ,sulphur 7,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ach74 ,the alchemists held that the metals are one in essence1 and spring from the same seed in the womb of nature1 but are not all equally matured and perfect1 gold being the highest product of ,nature's powers4 ,in gold1 the alchemist saw a picture of the regenerate man1 resplendent with spiritual beauty1 overcoming all temptations and proof against evil2 whilst he regarded lead--the basest of the metals--as typical of the sinful and unregenerate man1 stamped with the hideousness of sin and easily overcome by temptation and evil2 for whilst gold withstood the action of fire and all known corrosive liquids 7save aqua regia alone71 lead was most easily acted upon4 ,we are told that the ,philosopher's ,stone1 which would bring about the desired grand transmutation1 is of a species with gold itself and purer than the purest2 understood in the mystical sense this means that the regeneration of man can be effected only by ,goodness itself--in terms of ,christian theology1 by the ,power of the ,spirit of ,christ4 ,the ,philosopher's ,stone was regarded as symbolical of ,christ ,jesus1 and in this sense we can understand the otherwise incredible powers attributed to it4 ,the ,law of ,analogy4 #aj4 ,with the theories of physical ,alchemy we shall deal at length in the following chapter1 but enough has been said to indicate the analogy existing1 according to the alchemistic view1 between the problem of the perfection of the metals1 i4e41 the transmutation of the 8base0 metals into gold1 and the perfection or transfiguration of spiritual man2 and it might also be added1 between these problems and that of the perfection of man considered physiologically4 ,to the alchemistic philosopher these three problems were one3 the same problem on different planes of being2 and the solution was likewise one4 ,he who held the key to one problem held the key to all three1 provided he understood the analogy between matter and spirit4 ,the point is not1 be it noted1 whether these problems are in reality one and the same2 the main doctrine of analogy1 which is1 indeed1 an essential element in all true mystical philosophy1 will1 we suppose1 meet with general consent2 but it will be contended 7and rightly1 we think7 that the analogies drawn by the alchemists are fantastic and by no means always correct1 though possibly there may be more truth in them than appears at first sight4 ,the point is not that these analogies are correct1 but that they were regarded as such by all true alchemists4 ,says the author of ,the ,sophic ,hydrolith3 84 4 4 the practice of this ,art enables us to understand1 not merely the marvels of ,nature1 but the nature of ,god ,himself1 in all its unspeakable glory4 ,it shadows forth1 in a wonderful manner 4 4 4 all the articles of the ,christian faith1 and the reason why man must pass through much tribulation and anguish1 and fall a prey to death1 before he can rise again to a new life40#ae ,a considerable portion of this curious alchemistic work is taken up in expounding the analogy believed to exist between the ,philosopher's ,stone and 8the ,stone which the builders rejected10 ,christ ,jesus2 and the writer concludes3 8,thus 4 4 4 ,i have briefly and simply set forth to you the perfect analogy which exists between our earthly and chemical and the true and heavenly ,stone1 ,jesus ,christ1 whereby we may attain unto certain beatitude and perfection1 not only in earthly but also in eternal life40#af ,and likewise says ,peter ,bonus3 8,i am firmly persuaded that any unbeliever who got truly to know this ,art1 would straightway confess the truth of our ,blessed ,religion1 and believe in the ,trinity and in our ,lord ,jesus ,christ40#ag #ae ,the ,sophic ,hydrolith2 or1 ,water ,stone of the ,wise 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #hh74 #af ,ibid4 p4 #aad4 #ag ,,peter ,,bonus3 ,the ,new ,pearl of ,great ,price 7,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite's translation1 p4 #bge74 ,the ,dual ,nature of ,alchemy4 #aa4 ,for the most part1 the alchemists were chiefly engaged with the carrying out of the alchemistic theory on the physical plane1 i4e41 with the attempt to transmute the 8base0 metals into the 8noble0 ones2 some for the love of knowledge1 but alas6 the vast majority for the love of mere wealth4 ,but all who were worthy of the title of 8alchemist0 realised at times1 more or less dimly1 the possibility of the application of the same methods to man and the glorious result of the transmutation of man's soul into spiritual gold4 ,there were a few who had a clearer vision of this ideal1 those who devoted their activities entirely1 or almost so1 to the attainment of this highest goal of alchemistic philosophy1 and concerned themselves little if at all with the analogous problem on the physical plane4 ,the theory that ,alchemy originated in the attempt to demonstrate the applicability of the principles of ,mysticism to the things of the physical realm brings into harmony the physical and transcendental theories of ,alchemy and the various conflicting facts advanced in favour of each4 ,it explains the existence of the above-mentioned1 two very different types of alchemists4 ,it explains the appeal to the works attributed to ,hermes1 and the presence in the writings of the alchemists of much that is clearly mystical4 ,and finally1 it is in agreement with such statements as we have quoted above from ,the ,sophic ,hydrolith and elsewhere1 and the general religious tone of the alchemistic writings4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,symbolical ,,illustration ,representing the ,trinity of ,body1 ,soul and ,spirit4 ,to face page #ae 8,body1 ,soul and ,spirit40 #ab4 ,in accordance with our primary object as stated in the preface1 we shall confine our attention mainly to the physical aspect of ,alchemy2 but in order to understand its theories1 it appears to us to be essential to realise the fact that ,alchemy was an attempted application of the principles of ,mysticism to the things of the physical world4 ,the supposed analogy between man and the metals sheds light on what otherwise would be very difficult to understand4 ,it helps to make plain why the alchemists attributed moral qualities to the metals--some are called 8imperfect10 8base02 others are said to be 8perfect10 8noble40 ,and especially does it help to explain the alchemistic notions regarding the nature of the metals4 ,the alchemists believed that the metals were constructed after the manner of man1 into whose constitution three factors were regarded as entering3 body1 soul1 and spirit4 ,as regards man1 mystical philosophers generally use these terms as follows3 8body0 is the outward manifestation and form2 8soul0 is the inward individual spirit#ah2 and 8spirit0 is the universal ,soul in all men4 ,and likewise1 according to the alchemists1 in the metals1 there is the 8body0 or outward form and properties1 8metalline soul0 or spirit1#ai and finally1 the all-pervading essence of all metals4 ,as writes the author of the exceedingly curious tract entitled ,the ,book of ,lambspring3 8,be warned and understand truly that two fishes are swimming in our sea10 illustrating his remark by the symbolical picture reproduced in plate #b1 and adding in elucidation thereof1 8,the ,sea is the ,body1 the two ,fishes are ,soul and ,spirit40#bj ,the alchemists1 however1 were not always consistent in their use of the term 8spirit40 ,sometimes 7indeed frequently7 they employed it to denote merely the more volatile portions of a chemical substance2 at other times it had a more interior significance4 #ah ,which1 in virtue of man's self-consciousness1 is1 by the grace of ,god1 immortal4 #ai ,see the work ,of ,natural and ,supernatural ,things1 attributed to 8,basil ,valentine10 for a description of the 8spirits0 of the metals in particular4 #bj ,the ,book of ,lambspring1 translated by ,nicholas ,barnaud ,delphinas 7see the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgg74 ,this work contains many other fantastic alchemistic symbolical pictures1 amongst the most curious series in alchemistic literature4 ,alchemy1 ,mysticism and ,modern ,science4 #ac4 ,we notice the great difference between the alchemistic theory and the views regarding the constitution of matter which have dominated ,chemistry since the time of ,dalton4 ,but at the present time ,dalton's theory of the chemical elements is undergoing a profound modification4 ,we do not imply that ,modern ,science is going back to any such fantastic ideas as were held by the alchemists1 but we are struck with the remarkable similarity between this alchemistic theory of a soul of all metals1 a one primal element1 and modern views regarding the ether of space4 ,in its attempt to demonstrate the applicability of the fundamental principles of ,mysticism to the things of the physical realm ,alchemy apparently failed and ended its days in fraud4 ,it appears1 however1 that this true aim of alchemistic art--particularly the demonstration of the validity of the theory that all the various forms of matter are produced by an evolutionary process from some one primal element or quintessence--is being realised by recent researches in the domain of physical and chemical science4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,physical ,,alchemy ,supposed ,proofs of ,transmutation4 #ad4 ,it must be borne in mind when reviewing the theories of the alchemists1 that there were a number of phenomena known at the time1 the superficial examination of which would naturally engender a belief that the transmutation of the metals was a common occurrence4 ,for example1 the deposition of copper on iron when immersed in a solution of a copper salt 7e4g41 blue vitriol7 was naturally concluded to be a transmutation of iron into copper1#ba although1 had the alchemists examined the residual liquid1 they would have found that the two metals had merely exchanged places2 and the fact that white and yellow alloys of copper with arsenic and other substances could be produced1 pointed to the possibility of transmuting copper into silver and gold4 ,it was also known that if water 7and this is true of distilled water which does not contain solid matter in solution7 was boiled for some time in a glass flask1 some solid1 earthy matter was produced2 and if water could be transmuted into earth1 surely one metal could be converted into another4#bb ,on account of these and like phenomena the alchemists regarded the transmutation of the metals as an experimentally proved fact4 ,even if they are to be blamed for their superficial observation of such phenomena1 yet1 nevertheless1 their labours marked a distinct advance upon the purely speculative and theoretical methods of the philosophers preceding them4 ,whatever their faults1 the alchemists were the forerunners of modern experimental science4 #ba ,cf4 ,the ,golden ,tract concerning the ,stone of the ,philosophers 7,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #be74 #bb ,lavoisier 7eighteenth century7 proved this apparent transmutation to be due to the action of the water on the glass vessel containing it4 ,the ,alchemistic ,elements4 #ae4 ,the alchemists regarded the metals as composite1 and granting this1 then the possibility of transmutation is only a logical conclusion4 ,in order to understand the theory of the elements held by them we must rid ourselves of any idea that it bears any close resemblance to ,dalton's theory of the chemical elements2 this is clear from what has been said in the preceding chapter4 ,now1 it is a fact of simple observation that many otherwise different bodies manifest some property in common1 as1 for instance1 combustibility4 ,properties such as these were regarded as being due to some principle or element common to all bodies exhibiting such properties2 thus1 combustibility was thought to be due to some elementary principle of combustion--the 8sulphur0 of the alchemists and the 8phlogiston0 of a later period4 ,this is a view which priori appears to be not unlikely2 but it is now known that1 although there are relations existing between the properties of bodies and their constituent chemical elements 7and also1 it should be noted1 the relative arrangement of the particles of these elements71 it is the less obvious properties which enable chemists to determine the constitution of bodies1 and the connection is very far from being of the simple nature imagined by the alchemists4 ,aristotle's ,views regarding the ,elements4 #af4 ,for the origin of the alchemistic theory of the elements it is necessary to go back to the philosophers preceding the alchemists1 and it is not improbable that they derived it from some still older source4 ,it was taught by ,empedocles of ,agrigent 7#ddj ,b4,c4 circa71 who considered that there were four elements--earth1 water1 air1 and fire4 ,aristotle added a fifth1 8the ether40 ,these elements were regarded1 not as different kinds of matter1 but rather as different forms of the one original matter1 whereby it manifested different properties4 ,it was thought that to these elements were due the four primary properties of dryness1 moistness1 warmth1 and coldness1 each element being supposed to give rise to two of these properties1 dryness and warmth being thought to be due to fire1 moistness and warmth to air1 moistness and coldness to water1 and dryness and coldness to earth4 ,thus1 moist and cold bodies 7liquids in general7 were said to possess these properties in consequence of the aqueous element1 and were termed 8waters10 c4 ,also1 since these elements were not regarded as different kinds of matter1 transmutation was thought to be possible1 one being convertible into another1 as in the example given above 7 #ad74 ,the ,sulphur-,mercury ,theory4 #ag4 ,coming to the alchemists1 we find the view that the metals are all composed of two elementary principles--sulphur and mercury--in different proportions and degrees of purity1 well-nigh universally accepted in the earlier days of ,alchemy4 ,by these terms 8sulphur0 and 8mercury10 however1 must not be understood the common bodies ordinarily designated by these names2 like the elements of ,aristotle1 the alchemistic principles were regarded as properties rather than as substances1 though it must be confessed that the alchemists were by no means always clear on this point themselves4 ,indeed1 it is not altogether easy to say exactly what the alchemists did mean by these terms1 and the question is complicated by the fact that very frequently they make mention of different sorts of 8sulphur0 and 8mercury40 ,probably1 however1 we shall not be far wrong in saying that 8sulphur0 was generally regarded as the principle of combustion and also of colour1 and was said to be present on account of the fact that most metals are changed into earthy substances by the aid of fire2 and to the 8mercury10 the metallic principle par excellence1 was attributed such properties as fusibility1 malleability and lustre1 which were regarded as characteristic of the metals in general4 ,the pseudo-,geber 7see #cb7 says that 8,sulphur is a fatness of the ,earth1 by temperate ,decoction in the ,mine of the ,earth thickened1 until it be hardned and made dry40#bc ,he considered an excess of sulphur to be a cause of imperfection in the metals1 and he writes that one of the causes of the corruption of the metals by fire 8is the ,inclusion of a burning ,sulphuriety in the profundity of their ,substance1 diminishing them by ,inflamation1 and exterminating also into ,fume1 with extream ,consumption1 whatsoever ,argentvive in them is of good ,fixation40#bd ,he assumed1 further1 that the metals contained an incombustible as well as a combustible sulphur1 the latter sulphur being apparently regarded as an impurity4#be ,a later alchemist says that sulphur is 8most easily recognised by the vital spirit in animals1 the colour in metals1 the odour in plants40#bf ,mercury1 on the other hand1 according to the pseudo-,geber1 is the cause of perfection in the metals1 and endows gold with its lustre4 ,another alchemist1 quoting ,arnold de ,villanova1 writes3 8,quicksilver is the elementary form of all things fusible2 for all things fusible1 when melted1 are changed into it1 and it mingles with them because it is of the same substance with them4 ,such bodies differ from quicksilver in their composition only so far as itself is or is not free from the foreign matter of impure sulphur40#bg ,the obtaining of 8philosophical mercury10 the imaginary virtues of which the alchemists never tired of relating1 was generally held to be essential for the attainment of the magnum opus4 ,it was commonly thought that it could be prepared from ordinary quicksilver by purificatory processes1 whereby the impure sulphur supposed to be present in this sort of mercury might be purged away4 #bc ,of the ,sum of ,perfection 7see ,the ,works of ,geber1 translated by ,richard ,russel1 #afgh1 pp4 #fi and #gj74 #bd ,of the ,sum of ,perfection 7see ,the ,works of ,geber1 p4 #aef74 #be ,see ,the ,works of ,geber1 p4 #afj4 ,this view was also held by other alchemists4 #bf ,the ,new ,chemical ,light1 ,part ,,ii41 ,concerning ,sulphur 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aea74 #bg ,see ,the ,golden ,tract concerning the ,stone of the ,philosophers 7,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #ag74 ,the sulphur-mercury theory of the metals was held by such famous alchemists as ,roger ,bacon1 ,arnold de ,villanova and ,raymond ,lully4 ,until recently it was thought to have originated to a great extent with the ,arabian alchemist1 ,geber2 but the late ,professor ,berthelot showed that the works ascribed to ,geber1 in which the theory is put forward1 are forgeries of a date by which it was already centuries old 7see #cb74 ,occasionally1 arsenic was regarded as an elementary principle 7this view is to be found1 for example1 in the work ,of the ,sum of ,perfection1 by the pseudo-,geber71 but the idea was not general4 ,the ,sulphur-,mercury-,salt ,theory4 #ah4 ,later in the history of ,alchemy1 the mercury-sulphur theory was extended by the addition of a third elementary principle1 salt4 ,as in the case of philosophical sulphur and mercury1 by this term was not meant common salt 7sodium chloride7 or any of those substances commonly known as salts4 8,salt0 was the name given to a supposed basic principle in the metals1 a principle of fixity and solidification1 conferring the property of resistance to fire4 ,in this extended form1 the theory is found in the works of ,isaac of ,holland and in those attributed to 8,basil ,valentine10 who 7see the work ,of ,natural and ,supernatural ,things7 attempts to explain the differences in the properties of the metals as the result of the differences in the proportion of sulphur1 salt1 and mercury they contain4 ,thus1 copper1 which is highly coloured1 is said to contain much sulphur1 whilst iron is supposed to contain an excess of salt1 c4 ,the sulphur-mercury-salt theory was vigorously championed by ,paracelsus1 and the doctrine gained very general acceptance amongst the alchemists4 ,salt1 however1 seems generally to have been considered a less important principle than either mercury or sulphur4 ,the same germ-idea underlying these doctrines is to be found much later in ,stahl's phlogistic theory 7eighteenth century71 which attempted to account for the combustibility of bodies by the assumption that such bodies all contain 8phlogiston0--the hypothetical principle of combustion 7see #gb7--though the concept of 8phlogiston0 approaches more nearly to the modern idea of an element than do the alchemistic elements or principles4 ,it was not until still later in the history of ,chemistry that it became quite evident that the more obvious properties of chemical substances are not specially conferred on them in virtue of certain elements entering into their constitution4 ,alchemistic ,elements and ,principles4 #ai4 ,the alchemists combined the above theories with ,aristotle's theory of the elements4 ,the latter1 namely1 earth1 air1 fire and water1 were regarded as more interior1 more primary1 than the principles1 whose source was said to be these same elements4 ,as writes ,sendivogius in ,part ,,ii4 of ,the ,new ,chemical ,light3 8,the three ,principles of things are produced out of the four elements in the following manner3 ,nature1 whose power is in her obedience to the ,will of ,god1 ordained from the very beginning1 that the four elements should incessantly act on one another so1 in obedience to her behest1 fire began to act on air1 and produced ,sulphur2 air acted on water1 and produced ,mercury2 water1 by its action on the earth1 produced ,salt4 ,earth1 alone1 having nothing to act upon1 did not produce anything1 but became the nurse1 or womb1 of these three ,principles4 ,we designedly speak of three ,principles2 for though the ,ancients mention only two1 it is clear that they omitted the third 7,salt7 not from ignorance1 but from a desire to lead the uninitiated astray40#bh #bh ,the ,new ,chemical ,light1 ,part ,,ii41 ,concerning ,sulphur 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #adb-adc74 ,beneath and within all these coverings of outward properties1 taught the alchemists1 is hidden the secret essence of all material things4 84 4 4 the elements and compounds10 writes one alchemist1 8in addition to crass matter1 are composed of a subtle substance1 or intrinsic radical humidity1 diffused through the elemental parts1 simple and wholly incorruptible1 long preserving the things themselves in vigour1 and called the ,spirit of the ,world1 proceeding from the ,soul of the ,world1 the one certain life1 filling and fathoming all things1 gathering together and connecting all things1 so that from the three genera of creatures1 ,intellectual1 ,celestial1 and ,corruptible1 there is formed the ,one ,machine of the whole world40#bi ,it is hardly necessary to point out how nearly this approaches modern views regarding the ,ether of ,space4 #bi ,,alexander ,,von ,,suchten3 ,man1 the best and most perfect of ,god's creatures4 ,a more complete ,exposition of this ,medical ,foundation for the less ,experienced ,student4 7,see ,,benedictus ,,figulus3 ,a ,golden and ,blessed ,casket of ,nature's ,marvels1 translated by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahic1 pp4 #ga and #gb47 ,the ,growth of the ,metals4 #bj4 ,the alchemists regarded the metals as growing in the womb of the earth1 and a knowledge of this growth as being of very great importance4 ,thomas ,norton 7who1 however1 contrary to the generality of alchemists1 denied that metals have seed and that they grow in the sense of multiply7 says3-- 8,mettalls of kinde grow lowe under ground1 ,for above erth rust in them is found2 ,soe above erth appeareth corruption1 ,of mettalls1 and in long tyme destruction1 ,whereof noe ,cause is found in this ,case1 ,buth that above ,erth thei be not in their place ,contrarie places to nature causeth strife ,as ,fishes out of water losen their ,lyfe3 ,and ,man1 with ,beasts1 and ,birds live in ayer1 ,but ,stones and ,mineralls under ,erth repaier40#cj #cj ,,thomas ,,norton3 ,ordinall of ,alchemy 7see ,theatrum ,chemicum ,britannicum1 edited by ,elias ,ashmole1 #afeb1 p4 #ah74 ,norton here expresses the opinion1 current among the alchemists1 that each and every thing has its own peculiar environment natural to it2 a view controverted by ,robert ,boyle 7 #ga74 ,so firm was the belief in the growth of metals1 that mines were frequently closed for a while in order that the supply of metal might be renewed4 ,the fertility of ,mother ,earth forms the subject of one of the illustrations in ,the ,twelve ,keys of 8,basil ,valentine0 7see #da74 ,we reproduce it in plate #c1 fig4 ,a4 ,regarding this subject1 the author writes3 8,the quickening power of the earth produces all things that grow forth from it1 and he who says that the earth has no life makes a statement which is flatly contradicted by the most ordinary facts4 ,for what is dead cannot produce life and growth1 seeing that it is devoid of the quickening spirit4 ,this spirit is the life and soul that dwell in the earth1 and are nourished by heavenly and sidereal influences4 ,for all herbs1 trees1 and roots1 and all metals and minerals1 receive their growth and nutriment from the spirit of the earth1 which is the spirit of life4 ,this spirit is itself fed by the stars1 and is thereby rendered capable of imparting nutriment to all things that grow1 and of nursing them as a mother does her child while it is yet in the womb4 ,the minerals are hidden in the womb of the earth1 and nourished by her with the spirit which she receives from above4 8,thus the power of growth that ,i speak of is imparted not by the earth1 but by the life-giving spirit that is in it4 ,if the earth were deserted by this spirit1 it would be dead1 and no longer able to afford nourishment to anything4 ,for its sulphur or richness would lack the quickening spirit without which there can be neither life nor growth40#ca #ca 8,,basil ,,valentine03 ,the ,twelve ,keys 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ccc-ccd74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,a4 ,,symbolical ,,illustration ,representing the ,fertility of the ,earth4 ,b4 ,,symbolical ,,illustration ,representing the ,amalgamation of ,gold with ,mercury4 7,see page #cc47 ,to face page #bf ,alchemy and ,astrology4 #ba4 ,the idea that the growth of each metal was under the influence of one of the heavenly bodies 7a theory in harmony with the alchemistic view of the unity of the ,cosmos71 was very generally held by the alchemists2 and in consequence thereof1 the metals were often referred to by the names or astrological symbols of their peculiar planets4 ,these particulars are shown in the following table3-- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,metals4 ,planets1 c4#cb ,symbols4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,gold ,sun ,silver ,moon ,mercury ,mercury ,copper ,venus ,iron ,mars ,tin ,jupiter ,lead ,saturn ---------------------------------------- ------- ,moreover1 it was thought by some alchemists that a due observance of astrological conditions was necessary for successfully carrying out important alchemistic experiments4 #cb ,this supposed connection between the metals and planets also played an important part in ,talismanic ,magic4 ,alchemistic ,view of the ,nature of ,gold4 #bb4 ,the alchemists regarded gold as the most perfect metal1 silver being considered more perfect than the rest4 ,the reason of this view is not difficult to understand3 gold is the most beautiful of all the metals1 and it retains its beauty without tarnishing2 it resists the action of fire and most corrosive liquids1 and is unaffected by sulphur2 it was regarded1 as we have pointed out above 7see #i71 as symbolical of the regenerate man4 ,silver1 on the other hand1 is1 indeed1 a beautiful metal which wears well in a pure atmosphere and resists the action of fire2 but it is attacked by certain corrosives 7e4g41 aqua fortis or nitric acid7 and also by sulphur4 ,through all the metals1 from the one seed1 ,nature1 according to the alchemists1 works continuously up to gold2 so that1 in a sense1 all other metals are gold in the making2 their existence marks the staying of ,nature's powers2 as 8,eirenus ,philalethes0 says3 8,all metallic seed is the seed of gold2 for gold is the intention of ,nature in regard to all metals4 ,if the base metals are not gold1 it is only through some accidental hindrance2 they are all potentially gold40#cc ,or1 as another alchemist puts it3 8,since 4 4 4 the substance of the metals is one1 and common to all1 and since this substance is 7either at once1 or after laying aside in course of time the foreign and evil sulphur of the baser metals by a process of gradual digestion7 changed by the virtue of its own indwelling sulphur into ,,gold1 which is the goal of all the metals1 and the true intention of ,nature--we are obliged to admit1 and freely confess that in the mineral kingdom1 as well as in the vegetable and animal kingdoms1 ,nature seeks and demands a gradual attainment of perfection1 and a gradual approximation to the highest standard of purity and excellence40#cd ,such was the alchemistic view of the generation of the metals2 a theory which is admittedly crude1 but which1 nevertheless1 contains the germ of a great principle of the utmost importance1 namely1 the idea that all the varying forms of matter are evolved from some one primordial stuff--a principle of which chemical science lost sight for awhile1 for its validity was unrecognised by ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory 7at least1 as enunciated by him71 but which is being demonstrated1 as we hope to show hereinafter1 by recent scientific research4 ,the alchemist was certainly a fantastic evolutionist1 but he was an evolutionist1 and1 moreover1 he did not make the curious and paradoxical mistake of regarding the fact of evolution as explaining away the existence of ,god--the alchemist recognised the hand of the ,divine in nature--and1 although1 in these days of modern science1 we cannot accept his theory of the growth of metals1 we can1 nevertheless1 appreciate and accept the fundamental germ-idea underlying it4 #cc 8,,eiren,,us ,,philalethes03 ,the ,metamorphosis of ,metals 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bci74 #cd ,the ,golden ,tract ,concerning the ,stone of the ,philosophers 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #ai74 ,the ,philosopher's ,stone4 #bc4 ,the alchemist strove to assist ,nature in her gold-making1 or1 at least1 to carry out her methods4 ,the pseudo-,geber taught that the imperfect metals were to be perfected or cured by the application of 8medicines40 ,three forms of medicines were distinguished2 the first bring about merely a temporary change1 and the changes wrought by the second class1 although permanent1 are not complete4 8,a ,medicine of the third ,order10 he writes1 8,i call every ,preparation1 which1 when it comes to ,bodies1 with its projection1 takes away all ,corruption1 and perfects them with the ,difference of all ,compleatment4 ,but this is one only40#ce ,this1 the true medicine that would produce a real and permanent transmutation1 is the ,philosopher's ,stone1 the ,masterpiece of alchemistic art4 ,similar views were held by all the alchemists1 though some of them taught that it was necessary first of all to reduce the metals to their first substance4 ,often1 two forms of the ,philosopher's ,stone were distinguished1 or perhaps we should say1 two degrees of perfection in the one ,stone2 that for transmuting the 8imperfect0 metals into silver being said to be white1 the stone or 8powder of projection0 for gold being said to be of a red colour4 ,in other accounts 7see ,chapter ,v47 the medicine is described as of a pale brimstone hue4 #ce ,of the ,sum of ,perfection 7see ,the ,works of ,geber1 translated by ,richard ,russel1 #afgh1 p4 #aib74 ,most of the alchemists who claimed knowledge of the ,philosopher's ,stone or the materia prima necessary for its preparation1 generally kept its nature most secret1 and spoke only in the most enigmatical and allegorical language1 the majority of their recipes containing words of unknown meaning4 ,in some cases gold or silver1 as the case may be1 was employed in preparing the 8medicine02 and1 after projection had been made1 this was1 of course1 obtained again in the metallic form1 the alchemist imagining that a transmutation had been effected4 ,in the case of the few other recipes that are intelligible1 the most that could be obtained by following out their instructions is a white or yellow metallic alloy superficially resembling silver or gold4 ,the ,nature of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 #bd4 ,the mystical as distinguished from the pseudo-practical descriptions of the ,stone and its preparation are by far the more interesting of the two4 ,paracelsus1 in his work on ,the ,tincture of the ,philosophers1 tells us that all that is necessary for us to do is to mix and coagulate the 8rose-coloured blood from the ,lion0 and 8the gluten from the ,eagle10 by which he probably meant that we must combine 8philosophical sulphur0 with 8philosophical mercury40 ,this opinion1 that the ,philosopher's ,stone consists of 8philosophical sulphur and mercury0 combined so as to constitute a perfect unity1 was commonly held by the alchemists1 and they frequently likened this union to the conjunction of the sexes in marriage4 8,eirenus ,philalethes0 tells us that for the preparation of the ,stone it is necessary to extract the seed of gold1 though this cannot be accomplished by subjecting gold to corrosive liquids1 but only by a homogeneous water 7or liquid7--the ,mercury of the ,sages4 ,in the ,book of the ,revelation of ,hermes1 interpreted by ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1 concerning the ,supreme ,secret of the ,world1 the ,medicine1 which is here1 as not infrequently1 identified with the alchemistic essence of all things or ,soul of the ,world1 is described in the following suggestive language3 8,this is the ,spirit of ,truth1 which the world cannot comprehend without the interposition of the ,holy ,ghost1 or without the instruction of those who know it4 ,the same is of a mysterious nature1 wondrous strength1 boundless power4 4 4 4 ,by ,avicenna this ,spirit is named the ,soul of the ,world4 ,for1 as the ,soul moves all the limbs of the ,body1 so also does this ,spirit move all bodies4 ,and as the ,soul is in all the limbs of the ,body1 so also is this ,spirit in all elementary created things4 ,it is sought by many and found by few4 ,it is beheld from afar and found near2 for it exists in every thing1 in every place1 and at all times4 ,it has the powers of all creatures2 its action is found in all elements1 and the qualities of all things are therein1 even in the highest perfection 4 4 4 it heals all dead and living bodies without other medicine1 4 4 4 converts all metallic bodies into gold1 and there is nothing like unto it under ,heaven40#cf #cf ,see ,,benedictus ,,figulus3 ,a ,golden and ,blessed ,casket of ,nature's ,marvels 7translated by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahic1 pp4 #cf1 #cg1 and #da74 ,the ,theory of ,development4 #be4 ,from the ascetic standpoint 7and unfortunately1 most mystics have been somewhat overfond of ascetic ideas71 the development of the soul is only fully possible with the mortification of the body2 and all true ,mysticism teaches that if we would reach the highest goal possible for man--union with the ,divine--there must be a giving up of our own individual wills1 an abasement of the soul before the ,spirit4 ,and so the alchemists taught that for the achievement of the magnum opus on the physical plane1 we must strip the metals of their outward properties in order to develop the essence within4 ,as says ,helvetius3 84 4 4 the essences of metals are hidden in their outward bodies1 as the kernel is hidden in the nut4 ,every earthly body1 whether animal1 vegetable1 or mineral1 is the habitation and terrestrial abode of that celestial spirit1 or influence1 which is its principle of life or growth4 ,the secret of ,alchemy is the destruction of the body1 which enables the ,artist to get at1 and utilise for his own purposes1 the living soul40#cg ,this killing of the outward nature of material things was to be brought about by the processes of putrefaction and decay2 hence the reason why such processes figure so largely in alchemistic recipes for the preparation of the 8,divine ,magistery40 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that the alchemists used the terms 8putrefaction0 and 8decay0 rather indiscriminately1 applying them to chemical processes which are no longer regarded as such4 ,pictorial symbols of death and decay representative of such processes are to be found in several alchemistic books4 ,there is a curious series of pictures in ,a ,form and ,method of ,perfecting ,base ,metals1 by ,janus ,lacinus1 the ,calabrian 7a short tract prefixed to ,the ,new ,pearl of ,great ,price by ,peter ,bonus--see #ci71 of which we show three examples in plates #c and #d4 ,in the first picture of the series 7not shown here7 we enter the palace of the king 7gold7 and observe him sitting crowned upon his throne1 surrounded by his son 7mercury7 and five servants 7silver1 copper1 tin1 iron and lead74 ,in the next picture 7plate #c1 fig4 ,b71 the son1 incited by the servants1 kills his father2 and1 in the third1 he catches the blood of his murdered parent in his robes2 whereby we understand that an amalgam of gold and mercury is to be prepared1 the gold apparently disappearing or dying1 whilst the mercury is coloured thereby4 ,the next picture shows us a grave being dug1 i4e41 a furnace is to be made ready4 ,in the fifth picture in the series1 the son 8thought to throw his father into the grave1 and to leave him there2 but 4 4 4 both fell in together02 and in the sixth picture 7plate #d1 fig4 ,a71 we see the son being prevented from escaping1 both son and father being left in the grave to decay4 ,here we have instructions in symbolical form to place the amalgam in a sealed vessel in the furnace and to allow it to remain there until some change is observed4 ,so the allegory proceeds4 ,ultimately the father is restored to life1 the symbol of resurrection being 7as might be expected7 of frequent occurrence in alchemistic literature4 ,by this resurrection we understand that the gold will finally be obtained in a pure form4 ,indeed1 it is now the 8great medicine0 and1 in the last picture of the series 7plate #d1 fig4 ,b71 the king's son and his five servants are all made kings in virtue of its powers4 #cg ,j4 ,f4 ,,helvetius3 ,the ,golden ,calf1 ch4 iv4 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bih74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,a4 ,,symbolical ,,illustration ,representing the ,coction of ,gold ,amalgam in a ,closed ,vessel4 ,b4 ,,symbolical ,,illustration ,representing the ,transmutation of the ,metals4 ,to face page #cc ,the ,powers of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 #bf4 ,the alchemists believed that a most minute proportion of the ,stone projected upon considerable quantities of heated mercury1 molten lead1 or other 8base0 metal1 would transmute practically the whole into silver or gold4 ,this claim of the alchemists1 that a most minute quantity of the ,stone was sufficient to transmute considerable quantities of 8base0 metal1 has been the object of much ridicule4 ,certainly1 some of the claims of the alchemists 7understood literally7 are out of all reason2 but on the other hand1 the disproportion between the quantities of ,stone and transmuted metal cannot be advanced as an priori objection to the alchemists' claims1 inasmuch that a class of chemical reactions 7called 8catalytic07 is known1 in which the presence of a small quantity of some appropriate form of matter--the catalyst--brings about a chemical change in an indefinite quantity of some other form or forms2 thus1 for example1 cane-sugar in aqueous solution is converted into two other sugars by the action of small quantities of acid2 and sulphur-dioxide and oxygen1 which will not combine under ordinary conditions1 do so readily in the presence of a small quantity of platinized asbestos1 which is obtained unaltered after the reaction is completed and may be used over and over again 7this process is actually employed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol74 ,however1 whether any such catalytic transmutation of the chemical 8elements0 is possible is merely conjecture4 ,the ,elixir of ,life4 #bg4 ,the ,elixir of ,life1 which was generally described as a solution of the ,stone in spirits of wine1 or identified with the ,stone itself1 could be applied1 so it was thought1 under certain conditions to the alchemist himself1 with an entirely analogous result1 i4e41 it would restore him to the flower of youth4 ,the idea1 not infrequently attributed to the alchemists1 that the ,elixir would endow one with a life of endless duration on the material plane is not in strict accord with alchemistic analogy4 ,from this point of view1 the effect of the ,elixir is physiological perfection1 which1 although ensuring long life1 is not equivalent to endless life on the material plane4 8,the ,philosophers' ,stone10 says ,paracelsus1 8purges the whole body of man1 and cleanses it from all impurities by the introduction of new and more youthful forces which it joins to the nature of man40#ch ,and in another work expressive of the opinions of the same alchemist1 we read3 84 4 4 there is nothing which might deliver the mortal body from death2 but there is ,one ,thing which may postpone decay1 renew youth1 and prolong short human life 4 4 40#ci ,in the theory that a solution of the ,philosopher's ,stone 7which1 it must be remembered1 was thought to be of a species with gold7 constituted the ,elixir ,vit1 can be traced1 perhaps1 the idea that gold in a potable form was a veritable cure-all3 in the latter days of ,alchemy any yellow-coloured liquid was foisted upon a credulous public as a medicinal preparation of gold4 #ch ,,theophrastus ,,paracelsus3 ,the ,fifth ,book of the ,archidoxies 7see ,the ,hermetic and ,alchemical ,writings of ,paracelsus1 translated by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahid1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ci74 #ci ,the ,book of the ,revelation of ,hermes1 interpreted by ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1 concerning the ,supreme ,secret of the ,world4 7,see ,,benedictus ,,figulus3 ,a ,golden ,casket of ,nature's ,marvels1 translated by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahic1 pp4 #cc and #cd47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,alchemistic ,,apparatus4 ,a and ,b4--,two forms of ,apparatus for ,sublimation4 ,to face page #cg ,the ,practical ,methods of the ,alchemists4 #bh4 ,we will conclude this chapter with some few remarks regarding the practical methods of the alchemists4 ,in their experiments1 the alchemists worked with very large quantities of material compared with what is employed in chemical researches at the present day4 ,they had great belief in the efficacy of time to effect a desired change in their substances1 and they were wont to repeat the same operation 7such as distillation1 for example7 on the same material over and over again2 which demonstrated their unwearied patience1 even if it effected little towards the attainment of their end4 ,they paid much attention to any changes of colour they observed in their experiments1 and many descriptions of supposed methods to achieve the magnum opus contain detailed directions as to the various changes of colour which must be obtained in the material operated upon if a successful issue to the experiment is desired4#dj ,in plates #e and #f we give illustrations of some characteristic pieces of apparatus employed by the alchemists4 ,plate #e1 fig4 ,a1 and plate #f1 fig4 ,a1 are from a work known as ,alchemiae ,gebri 7#aede72 plate #e1 fig4 ,b1 is from ,glauber's work on ,furnaces 7#afea72 and plate #f1 fig4 ,b1 is from a work by ,dr4 ,john ,french entitled ,the ,art of ,distillation 7#afea74 ,the first figure shows us a furnace and alembics4 ,the alembic proper is a sort of still-head which can be luted on to a flask or other vessel1 and was much used for distillations4 ,in the present case1 however1 the alembics are employed in conjunction with apparatus for subliming difficultly volatile substances4 ,plate #e1 fig4 ,b1 shows another apparatus for sublimation1 consisting of a sort of oven1 and three detachable upper chambers1 generally called aludels4 ,in both forms of apparatus the vapours are cooled in the upper part of the vessel1 and the substance is deposited in the solid form1 being thereby purified from less volatile impurities4 ,plate #f1 fig4 ,a1 shows an athanor 7or digesting furnace7 and a couple of digesting vessels4 ,a vessel of this sort was employed for heating bodies in a closed space1 the top being sealed up when the substances to be operated upon had been put inside1 and the vessel heated in ashes in an athanor1 a uniform temperature being maintained4 ,the pelican1 illustrated in plate #f1 fig4 ,b1 was used for a similar purpose1 the two arms being added in the idea that the vapours would be circulated thereby4 #dj ,as writes ,espagnet in his ,hermetic ,arcanum1 canons #fd and #fe3 8,the ,means or demonstrative signs are ,colours1 successively and orderly affecting the matter and its affections and demonstrative passions1 whereof there are also three special ones 7as critical7 to be noted2 to these some add a ,fourth4 ,the first is black1 which is called the ,crow's head1 because of its extreme blackness1 whose crepusculum sheweth the beginning of the action of the fire of nature and solution1 and the blackest midnight sheweth the perfection of liquefaction1 and confusion of the elements4 ,then the grain putrefies and is corrupted1 that it may be the more apt for generation4 ,the white colour succeedeth the black1 wherein is given the perfection of the first degree1 and of the ,white ,sulphur4 ,this is called the blessed stone2 this ,earth is white and foliated1 wherein ,philosophers do sow their gold4 ,the third is ,orange colour1 which is produced in the passage of the white to the red1 as the middle1 and being mixed of both is as the dawn with his saffron hair1 a forerunner of the ,sun4 ,the fourth colour is ,ruddy and ,sanguine1 which is extracted from the white fire only4 ,now because whiteness is easily altered by any other colour before day it quickly faileth of its candour4 ,but the deep redness of the ,sun perfecteth the work of ,sulphur1 which is called the ,sperm of the male1 the fire of the ,stone1 the ,king's ,crown1 and the ,son of ,sol1 wherein the first labour of the workman resteth4 8,besides these decretory signs which firmly inhere in the matter1 and shew its essential mutations1 almost infinite colours appear1 and shew themselves in vapours1 as the ,rainbow in the clouds1 which quickly pass away and are expelled by those that succeed1 more affecting the air than the earth3 the operator must have a gentle care of them1 because they are not permanent1 and proceed not from the intrinsic disposition of the matter1 but from the fire painting and fashioning everything after its pleasure1 or casually by heat in slight moisture0 7see ,collectanea ,hermetica1 edited by ,w4 ,wynn ,westcott1 vol4 i41 #ahic1 pp4 #bh and #bi74 ,very probably this is not without a mystical meaning as well as a supposed application in the preparation of the physical ,stone4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,alchemistic ,,apparatus4 ,a4--,an ,athanor4 ,b4--,a ,pelican4 ,to face page #ch ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,alchemists#da 7,a4 ,,before ,,paracelsus7 ,hermes ,trismegistos4 #bi4 ,having now considered the chief points in the theory of ,physical ,alchemy1 we must turn our attention to the lives and individual teachings of the alchemists themselves4 ,the first name which is found in the history of ,alchemy is that of ,hermes ,trismegistos4 ,we have already mentioned the high esteem in which the works ascribed to this personage were held by the alchemists 7 #f74 ,he has been regarded as the father of ,alchemy2 his name has supplied a synonym for the ,art--the ,hermetic ,art--and even to-day we speak of hermetically sealing flasks and the like4 ,but who ,hermes actually was1 or even if there were such a personage1 is a matter of conjecture4 ,the alchemists themselves supposed him to have been an ,egyptian living about the time of ,moses4 ,he is now generally regarded as purely mythical--a personification of ,thoth1 the ,egyptian ,god of learning2 but1 of course1 some person or persons must have written the works attributed to him1 and the first of such writers 7if1 as seems not unlikely1 there were more than one7 may be considered to have a right to the name4 ,of these works1 the ,divine ,pymander1#db a mystical-religious treatise1 is the most important4 ,the ,golden ,tractate1 also attributed to ,hermes1 which is an exceedingly obscure alchemistic work1 is now regarded as having been written at a comparatively late date4 #da ,it is perhaps advisable to mention here that the lives of the alchemists1 for the most part1 are enveloped in considerable obscurity1 and many points in connection therewith are in dispute4 ,the authorities we have followed will be found1 as a rule1 specifically mentioned in what follows2 but we may here acknowledge our general indebtedness to the following works1 though1 as the reader will observe1 many others have been consulted as well3 ,thomas ,thomson's ,the ,history of ,chemistry1 ,meyer's ,a ,history of ,chemistry1 the anonymous ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahae71 the works of ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography1 and certain articles in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,this must not be taken to mean1 however1 that we have always followed the conclusions reached in these works1 for so far as the older of them are concerned1 recent researches by various authorities--to whom reference will be found in the following pages1 and to whom1 also1 we are indebted--have shown1 in certain cases1 that such are not tenable4 #db ,dr4 ,everard's translation of this work forms vol4 ii4 of the ,collectanea ,hermetica1 edited by ,w4 ,wynn ,westcott1 ,m4,b41 ,d4,p4,h4 ,it is now1 however1 out of print4 ,the ,smaragdine ,table4 #cj4 ,in a work attributed to ,albertus ,magnus1 but which is probably spurious1 we are told that ,alexander the ,great found the tomb of ,hermes in a cave near ,hebron4 ,this tomb contained an emerald table--8,the ,smaragdine ,table0--on which were inscribed the following thirteen sentences in ,phnician characters3-- #a4 ,i speak not fictitious things1 but what is true and most certain4 #b4 ,what is below is like that which is above1 and what is above is like that which is below1 to accomplish the miracles of one thing4 #c4 ,and as all things were produced by the mediation of one ,being1 so all things were produced from this one thing by adaptation4 #d4 ,its father is the ,sun1 its mother the ,moon2 the wind carries it in its belly1 its nurse is the earth4 #e4 ,it is the cause of all perfection throughout the whole world4 #f4 ,its power is perfect if it be changed into earth4 #g4 ,separate the earth from the fire1 the subtle from the gross1 acting prudently and with judgment4 #h4 ,ascend with the greatest sagacity from the earth to heaven1 and then again descend to the earth1 and unite together the powers of things superior and things inferior4 ,thus you will obtain the glory of the whole world1 and all obscurity will fly far away from you4 #i4 ,this thing is the fortitude of all fortitude1 because it overcomes all subtle things1 and penetrates every solid thing4 #aj4 ,thus were all things created4 #aa4 ,thence proceed wonderful adaptations which are produced in this way4 #ab4 ,therefore am ,i called ,hermes ,trismegistos1 possessing the three parts of the philosophy of the whole world4 #ac4 ,that which ,i had to say concerning the operation of the ,sun is completed4 ,these sentences clearly teach the doctrine of the alchemistic essence or 8,one ,thing10 which is everywhere present1 penetrating even solids 7this we should note is true of the ether of space71 and out of which all things of the physical world are made by adaptation or modification4 ,the terms ,sun and ,moon in the above passage probably stand for ,spirit and ,matter respectively1 not gold and silver4 ,zosimus of ,panopolis4 #ca4 ,one of the earliest of the alchemists of whom record remains was ,zosimus of ,panopolis1 who flourished in the fifth century1 and was regarded by the later alchemists as a master of the ,art4 ,he is said to have written many treatises dealing with ,alchemy1 but only fragments remain4 ,of these fragments1 ,professor ,venable says3 84 4 4 they give us a good idea of the learning of the man and of his times4 ,they contain descriptions of apparatus1 of furnaces1 studies of minerals1 of alloys1 of glass making1 of mineral waters1 and much that is mystical1 besides a good deal referring to the transmutation of metals40#dc ,zosimus is said to have been the author of the saying1 8like begets like10 but whether all the fragments ascribed to him were really his work is doubtful4 #dc ,f4 ,p4 ,,venable1 ,ph4,d43 ,a ,short ,history of ,chemistry 7#ahif71 p4 #ac4 ,among other early alchemists we may mention also ,africanus1 the ,syrian2 ,synesius1 ,bishop of ,ptolemais1 and the historian1 ,olympiodorus of ,thebes4 ,geber4 #cb4 ,in the seventh century the ,arabians conquered ,egypt2 and strangely enough1 ,alchemy flourished under them to a remarkable degree4 ,of all the ,arabian alchemists1 ,geber has been regarded as the greatest2 as ,professor ,meyer says3 8,there can be no dispute that with the name ,geber was propagated the memory of a personality with which the chemical knowledge of the time was bound up40#dd ,geber is supposed to have lived about the ninth century1 but of his life nothing definite is known4 ,a large number of works have been ascribed to him1 of which the majority are unknown1 but the four ,latin ,,mss4 which have been printed under the titles ,summa ,perfectionis ,mettalorum1 ,de ,investigatione ,perfectionis ,metallorum1 ,de ,inventione ,veritatis and ,de ,fornacibus ,construendis1 were1 until a few years ago1 regarded as genuine4 ,on the strength of these works1 ,geber has ranked high as a chemist4 ,in them are described the preparation of many important chemical compounds2 the most essential chemical operations1 such as sublimation1 distillation1 filtration1 crystallisation 7or coagulation1 as the alchemists called it71 c42 and also important chemical apparatus1 for example1 the water-bath1 improved furnaces1 c4 ,however1 it was shown by the late ,professor ,berthelot that ,summa ,perfectionis ,mettalorum is a forgery of the fourteenth century1 and the other works forgeries of an even later date4 ,moreover1 the original ,arabic ,,mss4 of ,geber have been brought to light4 ,these true writings of ,geber are very obscure2 they give no warrant for believing that the famous sulphur-mercury theory was due to this alchemist1 and they prove him not to be the expert chemist that he was supposed to have been4 ,the spurious writings mentioned above show that the pseudo-,geber was a man of wide chemical knowledge and experience1 and play a not inconsiderable part in the history of ,alchemy4 #dd ,,ernst ,,von ,,meyer3 ,a ,history of ,chemistry 7translated by ,dr4 ,mc,gowan1 #aijf71 p4 #ca4 ,other ,arabian ,alchemists4 #cc4 ,among other ,arabian alchemists the most celebrated were ,avicenna and ,rhasis1 who are supposed to have lived some time after ,geber2 and to whom1 perhaps1 the sulphur-mercury theory may have been to some extent due4 ,the teachings of the ,arabian alchemists gradually penetrated into the ,western world1 in which1 during the thirteenth century1 flourished some of the most eminent of the alchemists1 whose lives and teachings we must now briefly consider4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 by de ,bry ,,portrait ,,of ,,albertus ,,magnus4 ,to face page #dd ,albertus ,magnus 7#aaic-abhj74 #cd4 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,albert ,groot or ,albert von ,bollstdt 7see plate #g71 was born at ,lauingen1 probably in #aaic4 ,he was educated at ,padua1 and in his later years he showed himself apt at acquiring the knowledge of his time4 ,he studied theology1 philosophy and natural science1 and is chiefly celebrated as an ,aristotelean philosopher4 ,he entered the ,dominican order1 taught publicly at ,cologne1 ,paris and elsewhere1 and was made provincial of this order4 ,later he had the bishopric of ,regensburg conferred on him1 but he retired after a few years to a ,dominican cloister1 where he devoted himself to philosophy and science4 ,he was one of the most learned men of his time and1 moreover1 a man of noble character4 ,the authenticity of the alchemistic works attributed to him has been questioned4 ,thomas ,aquinas 7#abbe-abgd74 #ce4 ,the celebrated ,dominican1 ,thomas ,aquinas 7see plate #h71 was probably a pupil of ,albertus ,magnus1 from whom it is thought he imbibed alchemistic learning4 ,it is very probable1 however1 that the alchemistic works attributed to him are spurious4 ,the author of these works manifests a deeply religious tone1 and1 according to ,thomson's ,history of ,chemistry1 he was the first to employ the term 8amalgam0 to designate an alloy of mercury with some other metal4#de #de ,,thomas ,,thomson3 ,the ,history of ,chemistry1 vol4 i4 7#ahcj71 p4 #cc4 ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-abid74 #cf4 ,roger ,bacon1 the most illustrious of the medival alchemists1 was born near ,ilchester in ,somerset1 probably in #abad4 ,his erudition1 considering the general state of ignorance prevailing at this time1 was most remarkable4 ,professor ,meyer says3 8,he is to be regarded as the intellectual originator of experimental research1 if the departure in this direction is to be coupled with any one name--a direction which1 followed more and more as time went on1 gave to the science of ,chemistry its own peculiar stamp1 and ensured its steady development40#df ,roger ,bacon studied theology and science at ,oxford and at ,paris2 and he joined the ,franciscan order1 at what date1 however1 is uncertain4 ,he was particularly interested in optics1 and certain discoveries in this branch of physics have been attributed to him1 though probably erroneously4 ,it appears1 also1 that he was acquainted with gunpowder1 which was1 however1 not employed in ,europe until many years later4#dg ,unfortunately1 he earned the undesirable reputation of being in communication with the powers of darkness1 and as he did not hesitate to oppose many of the opinions current at the time1 he suffered much persecution4 ,he was a firm believer in the powers of the ,philosopher's ,stone to transmute large quantities of 8base0 metal into gold1 and also to extend the life of the individual4 8,alchimy10 he says1 8is a ,science1 teaching how to transforme any kind of mettall into another3 and that by a proper medicine1 as it appeareth by many ,philosophers ,bookes4 ,alchimy therefore is a science teaching how to make and compound a certaine medicine1 which is called ,elixir1 the which when it is cast upon mettals or imperfect bodies1 doth fully perfect them in the verie projection40#dh ,he also believed in ,astrology2 but1 nevertheless1 he was entirely opposed to many of the magical and superstitious notions held at the time1 and his tract1 ,de ,secretis ,operibus ,artis et ,natur1 et de ,nullitate ,magi1 was an endeavour to prove that many so-called 8miracles0 could be brought about simply by the aid of natural science4 ,roger ,bacon was a firm supporter of the ,sulphur-,mercury theory3 he says3 84 4 4 the natural principles in the mynes1 are ,argent-vive1 and ,sulphur4 ,all mettals and minerals1 whereof there be sundrie and divers kinds1 are begotten of these two3 but ,i must tel you1 that nature alwaies intendeth and striveth to the perfection of ,gold3 but many accidents coming between1 change the metalls4 4 4 4 ,for according to the puritie and impuritie of the two aforesaide principles1 ,argent-vive and ,sulphur1 pure1 and impure mettals are ingendred40#di ,he expresses surprise that any should employ animal and vegetable substances in their attempts to prepare the ,stone1 a practice common to some alchemists but warmly criticised by others4 ,he says3 8,nothing may be mingled with mettalls which hath not beene made or sprung from them1 it remaineth cleane inough1 that no strange thing which hath not his originall from these two viz41 sulphur and mercury1 is able to perfect them1 or to make a chaunge and new transmutation of them3 so that it is to be wondered at1 that any wise man should set his mind upon living creatures1 or vegetables which are far off1 when there be minerals to bee found nigh enough3 neither may we in any wise thinke1 that any of the ,philosophers placed the ,art in the said remote things1 except it were by way of comparison40#ej ,the one process necessary for the preparation of the ,stone1 he tells us1 is 8continuall concoction0 in the fire1 which is the method that 8,god hath given to nature40#ea ,he died about #abid4 #df ,,ernst ,,von ,,meyer3 ,a ,history of ,chemistry 7translated by ,dr4 ,mc,gowan1 #aijf71 p4 #ce4 #dg ,see ,,roger ,,bacon',s ,discovery of ,miracles1 chaps4 vi4 and xi4 #dh ,,roger ,,bacon3 ,the ,mirror of ,alchimy 7#aeig71 p4 #a4 #di ,ibid4 p4 #b4 #ej ,,roger ,,bacon3 ,the ,mirror of ,alchimy 7#aeig71 p4 #d4 #ea ,ibid4 p4 #i4 ,arnold de ,villanova 7#ab--8-acaj874 #cg4 ,the date and birthplace of ,arnold de ,villanova1 or ,villeneuve1 are both uncertain4 ,he studied medicine at ,paris1 and in the latter part of the thirteenth century practised professionally in ,barcelona4 ,to avoid persecution at the hands of the ,inquisition1 he was obliged to leave ,spain1 and ultimately found safety with ,frederick ,,ii4 in ,sicily4 ,he was famous not only as an alchemist1 but also as a skilful physician4 ,he died 7it is thought in a shipwreck7 about #acaj-acac4 ,raymond ,lully 7#abce8-acae74 #ch4 ,raymond ,lully1 the son of a noble ,spanish family1 was born at ,palma 7in ,majorca7 about #abce4 ,he was a man of somewhat eccentric character--in his youth a man of pleasure2 in his maturity1 a mystic and ascetic4 ,his career was of a roving and adventurous character4 ,we are told that1 in his younger days1 although married1 he became violently infatuated with a lady of the name of ,ambrosia de ,castello1 who vainly tried to dissuade him from his profane passion4 ,her efforts proving futile1 she requested ,lully to call upon her1 and in the presence of her husband1 bared to his sight her breast1 which was almost eaten away by a cancer4 ,this sight--so the story goes--brought about ,lully's conversion4 ,he became actuated by the idea of converting to ,christianity the heathen in ,africa1 and engaged the services of an ,arabian whereby he might learn the language4 ,the man1 however1 discovering his master's object1 attempted to assassinate him1 and ,lully narrowly escaped with his life4 ,but his enthusiasm for missionary work never abated--his central idea was the reasonableness and demonstrability of ,christian doctrine--and unhappily he was1 at last1 stoned to death by the inhabitants of ,bugiah 7in ,algeria7 in #acae4eb #eb ,see ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahae71 pp4 #ag et seq4 ,a very large number of alchemistic1 theological and other treatises are attributed to ,lully1 many of which are undoubtedly spurious2 and it is a difficult question to decide exactly which are genuine4 ,he is supposed to have derived a knowledge of ,alchemy from ,roger ,bacon and ,arnold de ,villanova4 ,it appears more probable1 however1 either that ,lully the alchemist was a personage distinct from the ,lully whose life we have sketched above1 or that the alchemistic writings attributed to him are forgeries of a similar nature to the works of pseudo-,geber 7 #cb74 ,of these alchemical writings we may here mention the ,clavicula4 ,this he says is the key to all his other books on ,alchemy1 in which books the whole ,art is fully declared1 though so obscurely as not to be understandable without its aid4 ,in this work an alleged method for what may be called the multiplication of the 8noble0 metals rather than transmutation is described in clear language2 but it should be noticed that the stone employed is itself a compound either of silver or gold4 ,according to ,lully1 the secret of the ,philosopher's ,stone is the extraction of the mercury of silver or gold4 ,he writes3 8,metals cannot be transmuted 4 4 4 in the ,minerals1 unless they be reduced into their first ,matter4 4 4 4 ,therefore ,i counsel you1 ,o my ,friends1 that you do not work but about ,sol and ,luna1 reducing them into the first ,matter1 our ,sulphur and ,argent vive3 therefore1 ,son1 you are to use this venerable ,matter2 and ,i swear unto you and promise1 that unless you take the ,argent vive of these two1 you go to the ,practick as blind men without eyes or sense4 4 4 40#ec #ec ,,raymond ,,lully3 ,clavicula1 or1 ,a ,little ,key 7see ,aurifontina ,chymica1 #afhj1 p4 #afg74 ,peter ,bonus 7#adth ,century74 #ci4 ,in #aedf1 a work was published entitled ,magarita ,pretiosa1 which claimed to be a 8faithful abridgement10 by 8,janus ,lacinus ,therapus1 the ,calabrian10 of a ,,ms4 written by ,peter ,bonus in the fourteenth century4 ,an abridged ,english translation of this book by ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite was published in #ahid4 ,of the life of ,bonus1 who is said to have been an inhabitant of ,pola1 a seaport of ,istria1 nothing is known2 but the ,magarita ,pretiosa is an alchemistic work of considerable interest4 ,the author commences1 like pseudo-,geber in his ,sum of ,perfection1 by bringing forward a number of very ingenious arguments against the validity of the ,art2 he then proceeds with arguments in favour of ,alchemy and puts forward answers in full to the former objections2 further difficulties1 c41 are then dealt with4 ,in all this1 compared with many other alchemists1 ,bonus1 though somewhat prolix1 is remarkably lucid4 ,all metals1 he argues1 following the views of pseudo-,geber1 consist of mercury and sulphur2 but whilst the mercury is always one and the same1 different metals contain different sulphurs4 ,there are also two different kinds of sulphurs--inward and outward4 ,sulphur is necessary for the development of the mercury1 but for the final product1 gold1 to come forth1 it is necessary that the outward and impure sulphur be purged off4 8,each metal10 says ,bonus1 8differs from all the rest1 and has a certain perfection and completeness of its own2 but none1 except gold1 has reached that highest degree of perfection of which it is capable4 ,for all common metals there is a transient and a perfect state of inward completeness1 and this perfect state they attain either through the slow operation of ,nature1 or through the sudden transformatory power of our ,stone4 ,we must1 however1 add that the imperfect metals form part of the great plan and design of ,nature1 though they are in course of transformation into gold4 ,for a large number of very useful and indispensable tools and utensils could not be provided at all if there were no copper1 iron1 tin1 or lead1 and if all metals were either silver or gold4 ,for this beneficent reason ,nature has furnished us with the metallic substance in all its different stages of development1 from iron1 or the lowest1 to gold1 or the highest state of metallic perfection4 ,nature is ever studying variety1 and1 for that reason1 instead of covering the whole face of the earth with water1 has evolved out of that elementary substance a great diversity of forms1 embracing the whole animal1 vegetable and mineral world4 ,it is1 in like manner1 for the use of men that ,nature has differentiated the metallic substance into a great variety of species and forms40#ed ,according to this interesting alchemistic work1 the ,art of ,alchemy consists1 not in reducing the imperfect metals to their first substance1 but in carrying forward ,nature's work1 developing the imperfect metals to perfection and removing their impure sulphur4 #ed ,,peter ,,bonus3 ,the ,new ,pearl of ,great ,price 7,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite's translation1 pp4 #agf-agg74 ,nicolas ,flamel 7#accj-adah74 #dj4 ,nicolas ,flamel 7see plate #h7 was born about #accj1 probably in ,paris4 ,his parents were poor1 and ,nicolas took up the trade of a scrivener4 ,in the course of time1 ,flamel became a very wealthy man and1 at the same time1 it appears1 one who exhibited considerable munificence4 ,this increase in ,flamel's wealth has been attributed to supposed success in the ,hermetic ,art4 ,we are told that a remarkable book came into the young scrivener's possession1 which1 at first1 he was unable to understand1 until1 at last1 he had the good fortune to meet an adept who translated its mysteries for him4 ,this book revealed the occult secrets of ,alchemy1 and by its means ,nicolas was enabled to obtain immense quantities of gold4 ,this story1 however1 appears to be of a legendary nature1 and it seems more likely that ,flamel's riches resulted from his business as a scrivener and from moneylending4 ,at any rate1 all of the alchemistic works attributed to ,flamel are of more or less questionable origin4 ,one of these1 entitled ,a ,short ,tract1 or ,philosophical ,summary1 will be found in ,the ,hermetic ,museum4 ,it is a very brief work1 supporting the sulphur-mercury theory4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,thomas ,,aquinas4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,nicolas ,,flamel4 ,to face page #eb 8,basil ,valentine0 and 8,the ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony40 #da4 ,probably the most celebrated of all alchemistic books is the work known as ,triumph-,wagen des ,antimonii4 ,a ,latin translation with a commentary by ,theodore ,kerckringius was published in #afhe1 and an ,english translation of this version by ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite appeared in #ahic4 ,the author describes himself as 8,basil ,valentine1 a ,benedictine monk40 ,in his 8,practica10 another alchemistic work1 he says3 8,when ,i had emptied to the dregs the cup of human suffering1 ,i was led to consider the wretchedness of this world1 and the fearful consequences of our first parents' disobedience 4 4 4 ,i made haste to withdraw myself from the evil world1 to bid farewell to it1 and to devote myself to the ,service of ,god40#ee ,he proceeds to relate that he entered a monastery1 but finding that he had some time on his hands after performing his daily work and devotions1 and not wishing to pass this time in idleness1 he took up the study of ,alchemy1 8the investigation of those natural secrets by which ,god has shadowed out eternal things10 and at last his labours were rewarded by the discovery of a ,stone most potent in the curing of diseases4 ,in ,the ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony are accurately described a large number of antimonial preparations1 and as ,basil was supposed to have written this work some time in the fifteenth century1 these preparations were accordingly concluded to have been1 for the most part1 his own discoveries4 ,he defends with the utmost vigour the medicinal values of antimony1 and criticises in terms far from mild the physicians of his day4 ,on account of this work ,basil ,valentine has ranked very high as an experimental chemist2 but from quite early times its date and authorship have been regarded alike as doubtful2 and it appears from the researches of the late ,professor ,schorlemmer 8to be an undoubted forgery dating from about #afjj1 the information being culled from the works of other writers4 4 4 40#ef ,probably the other works ascribed to ,basil ,valentine are of a like nature4 ,the ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony does1 however1 give an accurate account of the knowledge of antimony of this time1 and the pseudo-,valentine shows himself to have been a man of considerable experience with regard to this subject4 #ee 8,,basil ,,valentine03 ,the 8,practica0 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 i4 p4 #cac74 #ef ,sir ,h4 ,e4 ,,roscoe1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,c4 ,,schorlemmer1 ,f4,r4,s43 ,a ,treatise on ,chemistry1 vol4 i4 7#aije71 p4 #i4 ,isaac of ,holland 7#aeth ,century74 #db4 ,isaac of ,holland and a countryman of the same name1 probably his son1 are said to have been the first ,dutch alchemists4 ,they are supposed to have lived during the fifteenth century1 but of their lives nothing is known4 ,isaac1 although not free from superstitious opinions1 appears to have been a practical chemist1 and his works1 which abound in recipes1 were held in great esteem by ,paracelsus and other alchemists4 ,he held that all things in this world are of a dual nature1 partly good and partly bad4 84 4 4 ,all that ,god hath created good in the upper part of the world10 he writes1 8are perfect and uncorruptible1 as the heaven3 but whatsoever in these lower parts1 whether it be in beasts1 fishes1 and all manner of sensible creatures1 hearbs or plants1 it is indued with a double nature1 that is to say1 perfect1 and unperfect2 the perfect nature is called the ,quintessence1 the unperfect the ,feces or dreggs1 or the venemous or combustible oile4 4 4 4 ,god hath put a secret nature or influence in every creature1 and 4 4 4 to every nature of one sort or kind he hath given one common influence and vertue1 whether it bee on ,physick or other secret works1 which partly are found out by naturall workmanship4 ,and yet more things are unknown than are apparent to our senses40#eg ,he gives directions for extracting the ,quintessence1 for which marvellous powers are claimed1 out of sugar and other organic substances2 and he appears to be the earliest known writer who makes mention of the famous sulphur-mercury-salt theory4 #eg ,one hundred and ,fourteen ,experiments and ,cures of the ,famous ,physitian ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1 whereunto is added 4 4 4 certain ,secrets of ,isaac ,hollandus1 concerning the ,vegetall and ,animall ,work 7#afeb71 p4 #ce4 ,bernard ,trvisan 7#adjf-adij74 #dc4 ,bernard ,trvisan1 a ,french count of the fifteenth century1 squandered enormous sums of money in the search for the ,stone1 in which the whole of his life and energies were engaged4 ,he seems to have become the dupe of one charlatan after another1 but at last1 at a ripe old age1 he says that his labours were rewarded1 and that he successfully performed the magnum opus4 ,in a short1 but rather obscure work1 he speaks of the ,philosopher's ,stone in the following words3 8,this ,stone then is compounded of a ,body and ,spirit1 or of a volatile and fixed ,substance1 and that is therefore done1 because nothing in the ,world can be generated and brought to light without these two ,substances1 to wit1 a ,male and ,female3 ,from whence it appeareth1 that although these two ,substances are not of one and the same species1 yet one ,stone doth thence arise1 and although they appear and are said to be two ,substances1 yet in truth it is but one1 to wit1 ,argent-vive40#eh ,he appears1 however1 to have added nothing to our knowledge of chemical science4 #eh ,,bernard1 ,,earl ,,of ,,tr,,visan3 ,a ,treatise of the ,philosophers ,stone1 #afhc 7see ,collectanea ,chymica3 ,a ,collection of ,ten ,several ,treatises in ,chemistry1 #afhd1 p4 #ia74 ,sir ,george ,ripley 7#ad--8-adij874 #dd4 ,sir ,george ,ripley1 an eminent alchemistic philosopher of the fifteenth century1 entered upon a monastic life when a youth1 becoming one of the canons regular of ,bridlington4 ,after some travels he returned to ,england and obtaining leave from the ,pope to live in solitude1 he devoted himself to the study of the ,hermetic ,art4 ,his chief work is ,the ,compound of ,alchymie 4 4 4 conteining twelve ,gates1 which was written in #adga4 ,in this curious work1 we learn that there are twelve processes necessary for the achievement of the magnum opus1 namely1 ,calcination1 ,solution1 ,separation1 ,conjunction1 ,putrefaction1 ,congelation1 ,cibation1 ,sublimation1 ,fermentation1 ,exaltation1 ,multiplication1 and ,projection4 ,these are likened to the twelve gates of a castle which the philosopher must enter4 ,at the conclusion of the twelfth gate1 ,ripley says3-- 8,now thou hast conqueryd the twelve ,gates1 ,and all the ,castell thou holdyst at wyll1 ,keep thy ,secretts in store unto thy selve2 ,and the commaundements of ,god looke thou fulfull3 ,in fyer conteinue thy glas styll1 ,and ,multeply thy ,medcyns ay more and more1 ,for wyse men done say store ys no sore40#ei #ei ,sir ,,george ,,ripley3 ,the ,compound of ,alchemy 7see ,theatrum ,chemicum ,britannicum1 edited by ,elias ,ashmole1 #afeb1 p4 #ahf74 ,at the conclusion of the work he tells us that in all that he wrote before he was mistaken2 he says3-- 8,i made ,solucyons full many a one1 ,of ,spyrytts1 ,ferments1 ,salts1 ,yerne and ,steele2 ,wenyng so to make the ,phylosophers ,stone3 ,but fynally ,i lost eche dele1 ,after my ,boks yet wrought ,i well2 ,whych evermore untrue ,i provyd1 ,that made me oft full sore agrevyd40#fj #fj ,ibid4 p4 #ahi4 ,ripley did much to popularise the works of ,raymond ,lully in ,england1 but does not appear to have added to the knowledge of practical chemistry4 ,his ,bosom ,book1 which contains an alleged method for preparing the ,stone1 will be found in the ,collectanea ,chemica 7#ahic74 ,thomas ,norton 7#aeth ,century74 #de4 ,thomas ,norton1 the author of the celebrated ,ordinall of ,alchemy1 was probably born shortly before the commencement of the fifteenth century4 ,the ,ordinall1 which is written in verse 7and which will be found in ,ashmole's ,theatrum ,chemicum ,britannicum71#fa is anonymous1 but the author's identity is revealed by a curious device4 ,the initial syllables of the proem and of the first six chapters1 together with the first line of the seventh chapter1 give the following couplet3-- 8,tomais ,norton of ,briseto1 ,a parfet ,master ye maie him call trowe40 #fa ,a prose version will be found in ,the ,hermetic ,museum translated back into ,english from a ,latin translation by ,maier4 ,samuel ,norton1 the grandson of ,thomas1 who was also an alchemist1 says that ,thomas ,norton was a member of the privy chamber of ,edward ,,iv4 ,norton's distinctive views regarding the generation of the metals we have already mentioned 7see #bj74 ,he taught that true knowledge of the ,art of ,alchemy could only be obtained by word of mouth from an adept1 and in his ,ordinall he gives an account of his own initiation4 ,he tells us that he was instructed by his master 7probably ,sir ,george ,ripley7 and learnt the secrets of the ,art in forty days1 at the age of twenty-eight4 ,he does not1 however1 appear to have reaped the fruits of this knowledge4 ,twice1 he tells us1 did he prepare the ,elixir1 and twice was it stolen from him2 and he is said to have died in #adgg1 after ruining himself and his friends by his unsuccessful experiments4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,alchemists 7continued7 7,b4 ,,paracelsus ,,and ,,after7 ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda47 #df4 ,that erratic genius1 ,paracelsus--or1 to give him his correct name1 ,philip 787 ,aureole 787 ,theophrast ,bombast von ,hohenheim--whose portrait forms the frontispiece to the present work--was born at ,einsiedeln in ,switzerland in #adic4 ,he studied the alchemistic and medical arts under his father1 who was a physician1 and continued his studies later at the ,university of ,basle4 ,he also gave some time to the study of magic and the occult sciences under the famous ,trithemius of ,spanheim4 ,paracelsus1 however1 found the merely theoretical 8book learning0 of the university curriculum unsatisfactory and betook himself to the mines1 where he might study the nature of metals at first hand4 ,he then spent several years in travelling1 visiting some of the chief countries of ,europe4 ,at last he returned to ,basle1 the chair of ,medical ,science of his old university being bestowed upon him4 ,the works of ,isaac of ,holland had inspired him with the desire to improve upon the medical science of his day1 and in his lectures 7which were1 contrary to the usual custom1 delivered not in ,latin1 but in the ,german language7 he denounced in violent terms the teachings of ,galen and ,avicenna1 who were until then the accredited authorities on medical matters4 ,his use of the ,german tongue1 his coarseness in criticism and his intense self-esteem1 combined with the fact that he did lay bare many of the medical follies and frauds of his day1 brought him into very general dislike with the rest of the physicians1 and the municipal authorities siding with the aggrieved apothecaries and physicians1 whose methods ,paracelsus had exposed1 he fled from ,basle and resumed his former roving life4 ,he was1 so we are told1 a man of very intemperate habits1 being seldom sober 7a statement seriously open to doubt72 but on the other hand1 he certainly accomplished a very large number of most remarkable cures1 and1 judging from his writings1 he was inspired by lofty and noble ideals and a fervent belief in the ,christian religion4 ,he died in #aeda4 ,paracelsus combined in himself such opposite characteristics that it is a matter of difficulty to criticise him aright4 ,as says ,professor ,ferguson3 8,it is most difficult 4 4 4 to ascertain what his true character really was1 to appreciate aright this man of fervid imagination1 of powerful and persistent conviction1 of unbated honesty and love of truth1 of keen insight into the errors 7as he thought them7 of his time1 of a merciless will to lay bare these errors and to reform the abuses to which they gave rise1 who in an instant offends by his boasting1 his grossness1 his want of self-respect4 ,it is a problem how to reconcile his ignorance1 his weakness1 his superstition1 his crude notions1 his erroneous observations1 his ridiculous inferences and theories1 with his grasp of method1 his lofty views of the true scope of medicine1 his lucid statements1 his incisive and epigrammatic criticisms of men and motives40#fb ,it is also a problem of considerable difficulty to determine which of the many books attributed to him are really his genuine works1 and consequently what his views on certain points exactly were4 #fb ,,john ,,ferguson1 ,m4,a43 ,article 8,paracelsus10 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith edition 7#ahhe71 vol4 xviii4 p4 #bcf4 ,views of ,paracelsus4 #dg4 ,paracelsus was the first to recognise the desirability of investigating the physical universe with a motive other than alchemistic4 ,he taught that 8the object of chemistry is not to make gold1 but to prepare medicines10 and founded the school of ,iatro-chemistry or ,medical ,chemistry4 ,this synthesis of chemistry with medicine was of very great benefit to each science2 new possibilities of chemical investigation were opened up now that the aim was not purely alchemistic4 ,paracelsus's central theory was that of the analogy between man1 the microcosm1 and the world or macrocosm4 ,he regarded all the actions that go on in the human body as of a chemical nature1 and he thought that illness was the result of a disproportion in the body between the quantities of the three great principles--sulphur1 mercury1 and salt--which he regarded as constituting all things2 for example1 he considered an excess of sulphur as the cause of fever1 since sulphur was the fiery principle1 c4 ,the basis of the iatro-chemical doctrines1 namely1 that the healthy human body is a particular combination of chemical substances3 illness the result of some change in this combination1 and hence curable only by chemical medicines1 expresses a certain truth1 and is undoubtedly a great improvement upon the ideas of the ancients4 ,but in the elaboration of his medical doctrines ,paracelsus fell a prey to exaggeration and the fantastic1 and many of his theories appear to be highly ridiculous4 ,this extravagance is also very pronounced in the alchemistic works attributed to him2 for example1 the belief in the artificial creation of minute living creatures resembling men 7called 8homunculi07--a belief of the utmost absurdity1 if we are to understand it literally4 ,on the other hand1 his writings do contain much true teaching of a mystical nature2 his doctrine of the correspondence of man with the universe considered as a whole1 for example1 certainly being radically true1 though fantastically stated and developed by ,paracelsus himself4 ,iatro-,chemistry4 #dh4 ,between the pupils of ,paracelsus and the older school of medicine1 as might well be supposed1 a battle royal was waged for a considerable time1 which ultimately concluded1 if not with a full vindication of ,paracelsus's teaching1 yet with the acceptance of the fundamental iatro-chemical doctrines4 ,henceforward it is necessary to distinguish between the chemists and the alchemists--to distinguish those who pursued chemical studies with the object of discovering and preparing useful medicines1 and later those who pursued such studies for their own sake1 from those whose object was the transmutation of the 8base0 metals into gold1 whether from purely selfish motives1 or with the desire to demonstrate on the physical plane the validity of the doctrines of ,mysticism4 ,however1 during the following century or two we find1 very often1 the chemist and the alchemist united in one and the same person4 ,men such as ,glauber and ,boyle1 whose names will ever be remembered by chemists1 did not doubt the possibility of performing the magnum opus4 ,in the present chapter1 however1 we shall confine our attention for the most part to those men who may be regarded1 for one reason or another1 particularly as alchemists4 ,and the alchemists of the period we are now considering present a very great diversity4 ,on the one hand1 we have men of much chemical knowledge and skill such as ,libavius and van ,helmont1 on the other hand we have those who stand equally as high as exponents of mystic wisdom--men such as ,jacob ,boehme and1 to a less extent1 ,thomas ,vaughan4 ,we have those1 who1 although they did not enrich the science of ,chemistry with any new discoveries1 were1 nevertheless1 regarded as masters of the ,hermetic ,art2 and1 finally1 we have alchemists of the ,edward ,kelley and 8,cagliostro0 type1 whose main object was their own enrichment at their neighbours' expense4 ,before1 however1 proceeding to an account of the lives and teachings of these men1 there is one curious matter--perhaps the most remarkable of all historical curiosities--that calls for some brief consideration4 ,we refer to the 8far-famed0 ,rosicrucian ,society4 ,the ,rosicrucian ,society4 #di4 ,the exoteric history of the ,rosicrucian ,society commences with the year #afad4 ,in that year there was published at ,cassel in ,germany a pamphlet entitled ,the ,discovery of the ,fraternity of the ,meritorious ,order of the ,rosy ,cross1 addressed to the ,learned in ,general and the ,governors of ,europe4 ,after a discussion of the momentous question of the general reformation of the world1 which was to be accomplished through the medium of a secret confederacy of the wisest and most philanthropic men1 the pamphlet proceeds to inform its readers that such an association is in existence1 founded over one hundred years ago by the famous ,c4,r4,c41 grand initiate in the mysteries of ,alchemy1 whose history 7which is clearly of a fabulous or symbolical nature7 is given4 ,the book concludes by inviting the wise men of the time to join the ,fraternity1 directing those who wished to do so to indicate their desire by the publication of printed letters1 which should come into the hands of the ,brotherhood4 ,as might well be expected1 the pamphlet was the cause of considerable interest and excitement1 but although many letters were printed1 apparently none of them were vouchsafed a reply4 ,the following year a further pamphlet appeared1 ,the ,confession of the ,rosicrucian ,fraternity1 addressed to the ,learned in ,europe1 and in #afaf1 ,the ,chymical ,nuptials of ,christian ,rosencreutz4 ,this latter book is a remarkable allegorical romance1 describing how an old man1 a lifelong student of the alchemistic ,art1 was present at the accomplishment of the magnum opus in the year #adei4 ,an enormous amount of controversy took place2 it was plain to some that the ,society had deluded them1 whilst others hotly maintained its claims2 but after about four years had passed1 the excitement had subsided1 and the subject ceased1 for the time being1 to arouse any particular interest4 ,some writers1 even in recent times1 more gifted for romance than for historical research1 have seen in the ,rosicrucian ,society a secret confederacy of immense antiquity and of stupendous powers1 consisting of the great initiates of all ages1 supposed to be in possession of the arch secrets of alchemistic art4 ,it is abundantly evident1 however1 that it was nothing of the sort4 ,it is clear from an examination of the pamphlets already mentioned that they are animated by ,lutheran ideals2 and it is of interest to note that ,luther's seal contained both the cross and the rose--whence the term 8,rosicrucian40 ,the generally accepted theory regards the pamphlets as a sort of elaborate hoax perpetrated by ,valentine ,andre1 a young and benevolent ,lutheran divine2 but more1 however1 than a mere hoax4 ,as the late ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,vaughan wrote3 84 4 4 this ,andre writes the ,discovery of the ,rosicrucian ,brotherhood1 a jeu-d'esprit with a serious purpose1 just as an experiment to see whether something cannot be done by combined effort to remedy the defect and abuses--social1 educational1 and religious1 so lamented by all good men4 ,he thought there were many ,andres scattered throughout ,europe--how powerful would be their united systematic action6 4 4 4 ,he hoped that the few nobler minds whom he desired to organize would see through the veil of fiction in which he had invested his proposal2 that he might communicate personally with some such1 if they should appear2 or that his book might lead them to form among themselves a practical philanthropic confederacy1 answering to the serious purpose he had embodied in his fiction40#fc ,his scheme was a failure1 and on seeing its result1 ,andre1 not daring to reveal himself as the author of the pamphlets1 did his best to put a stop to the folly by writing several works in criticism of the ,society and its claims4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 however1 whose work on the subject should be consulted for further information1 rejects this theory1 and suggests that the ,rosicrucian ,society was probably identical with the ,militia ,crucifera ,evangelica1 a secret society founded in ,nuremburg by the ,lutheran alchemist and mystic1 ,simon ,studion4#fd #fc ,,robert ,,alfred ,,vaughan1 ,b4,a43 ,hours with the ,mystics 7#gth edition1 #ahie71 vol4 ii4 bk4 #h1 chap4 ix4 p4 #acd4 #fd ,,arthur ,,edward ,,waite3 ,the ,real ,history of the ,rosicrucians1 7#ahhg74 ,thomas ,charnock 7#aebd-aeha74 #ej4 ,we must now turn our attention to the lives and teachings of the alchemists of the period under consideration1 treating them1 as far as possible1 in chronological order2 whence the first alchemist to come under our notice is ,thomas ,charnock4 ,thomas ,charnock was born at ,faversham 7,kent71 either in the year #aebd or in #aebf4 ,after some travels over ,england he settled at ,oxford1 carrying on experiments in ,alchemy4 ,in #aeeg he wrote his ,breviary of ,philosophy4 ,this work is almost entirely autobiographical1 describing ,charnock's alchemistic experiences4 ,he tells us that he was initiated into the mysteries of the ,hermetic ,art by a certain ,james ,s4 of ,salisbury2 he also had another master1 an old blind man1 who on his death-bed instructed ,charnock4 ,unfortunately1 however1 ,thomas was doomed to failure in his experiments4 ,on the first attempt his apparatus caught fire and his work was destroyed4 ,his next experiments were ruined by the negligence of a servant4 ,his final misfortune shall be described in his own words4 ,he had started the work for a third time1 and had spent much money on his fire1 hoping to be shortly rewarded4 4 4 4 8,then a ,gentleman that oughte me great mallice ,caused me to be prest to goe serve at ,callys3 ,when ,i saw there was no other boote1 ,but that ,i must goe spight of my heart roote2 ,in my fury ,i tooke a ,hatchet in my hand1 ,and brake all my ,worke whereas it did stand40#fe #fe ,,thomas ,,charnock3 ,the ,breviary of ,naturall ,philosophy 7see ,theatrum ,chemicum ,britannicum1 edited by ,ashmole1 #afeb1 p4 #bie47 ,thomas ,charnock married in #aefb a ,miss ,agnes ,norden4 ,he died in #aeha4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unnecessary to say that his name does not appear in the history of ,chemistry4 ,andreas ,libavius 7#aedj-afaf47 #ea4 ,andreas ,libavius was born at ,halle in ,germany in #aedj1 where he studied medicine and practiced for a short time as a physician4 ,he accepted the fundamental iatro-chemical doctrines1 at the same time1 however1 criticising certain of the more extravagant views expressed by ,paracelsus4 ,he was a firm believer in the transmutation of the metals1 but his own activities were chiefly directed to the preparation of new and better medicines4 ,he enriched the science of ,chemistry by many valuable discoveries1 and tin tetra-chloride1 which he was the first to prepare1 is still known by the name of spiritus fumans ,libavii4 ,libavius was a man possessed of keen powers of observation2 and his work on ,chemistry1 which contains a full account of the knowledge of the science of his time1 may be regarded as the first text-book of ,chemistry4 ,it was held in high esteem for a considerable time1 being reprinted on several occasions4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,edward ,,kelley4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,john ,,dee4 ,to face page #fh ,edward ,kelley 7#aeee-aeie7 and ,john ,dee 7#aebg-afjh47 #eb4 ,edward ,kelley or ,kelly 7see plate #i7 was born at ,worcester on ,august #a1 #aeee4 ,his life is so obscured by various traditions that it is very difficult to arrive at the truth concerning it4 ,the latest1 and probably the best1 account will be found in ,miss ,charlotte ,fell ,smith's ,john ,dee 7#aiji74 ,edward ,kelley1 according to some accounts1 was brought up as an apothecary4#ff ,he is also said to have entered ,oxford ,university under the pseudonym of ,talbot4#fg ,later1 he practised as a notary in ,london4 ,he is said to have committed a forgery1 for which he had his ears cropped2 but another account1 which supposes him to have avoided this penalty by making his escape to ,wales1 is not improbable4 ,other crimes of which he is accused are coining and necromancy4 ,he was probably not guilty of all these crimes1 but that he was undoubtedly a charlatan and profligate the sequel will make plain4 ,we are told that about the time of his alleged escape to ,wales1 whilst in the neighbourhood of ,glastonbury ,abbey1 he became possessed1 by a lucky chance1 of a manuscript by ,st4 ,dunstan setting forth the grand secrets of ,alchemy1 together with some of the two transmuting tinctures1 both white and red1#fh which had been discovered in a tomb near by4 ,his friendship with ,john ,dee1 or ,dr4 ,dee as he is generally called1 commenced in #aehb4 ,now1 ,john ,dee 7see plate #i7 was undoubtedly a mathematician of considerable erudition4 ,he was also an astrologer1 and was much interested in experiments in 8crystal-gazing10 for which purpose he employed a speculum of polished cannel-coal1 and by means of which he believed that he had communication with the inhabitants of spiritual spheres4 ,it appears that ,kelley1 who probably did possess some mediumistic powers1 the results of which he augmented by means of fraud1 interested himself in these experiments1 and not only became the doctor's 8scryer10 but also gulled him into the belief that he was in the possession of the arch-secrets of ,alchemy4 ,in #aehc1 ,kelley and his learned dupe left ,england together with their wives and a ,polish nobleman1 staying firstly at ,cracovia and afterwards at ,prague1 where it is not unlikely that the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii4 knighted ,kelley4 ,as instances of the belief which the doctor had in ,kelley's powers as an alchemist1 we may note that in his ,private ,diary under the date ,december #ai1 #aehf1 ,dee records that ,kelley performed a transmutation for the benefit of one ,edward ,garland and his brother ,francis2#fi and under the date ,may #aj1 #aehh1 we find the following recorded3 8,e4,k4 did open the great secret to me1 ,god be thanked60#gj ,that he was not always without doubts as to ,kelley's honesty1 however1 is evident from other entries in his ,diary4 ,in #aehg occurred an event which must be recorded to the partners' lasting shame4 ,to cap his former impositions1 ,kelley informed the doctor that by the orders of a spirit which had appeared to him in the crystal1 they were to share 8their two wives in common02 to which arrangement1 after some further persuasion1 ,dee consented4 ,kelley's profligacy and violent temper1 however1 had already been the cause of some disagreement between him and the doctor1 and this incident leading to a further quarrel1 the erstwhile friends parted4 ,in #aehi1 the ,emperor ,rudolph imprisoned ,kelley1 the price of his freedom being the transmutative secret1 or a substantial quantity of gold1 at least1 prepared by its aid4 ,he was1 however1 released in #aeic2 but died in #aeie2 according to one account1 as the result of an accident incurred while attempting to escape from a second imprisonment4 ,dee merely records that he received news to the effect that ,kelley 8was slayne40 #ff ,see1 for example1 ,,william ,,lilly3 ,history of ,his ,life and ,times 7#agae1 reprinted in #ahbb1 p4 #bbg74 #fg ,see ,,anthony ,,wood',s account of ,kelley's life in ,athen ,oxonienses 7#crd edition1 edited by ,philip ,bliss1 vol4 i4 col4 #fci47 #fh ,william ,lilly1 the astrologer1 in his ,history of ,his ,life and ,times 7#ahbb reprint1 pp4 #bbe-bbf71 relates a different story regarding the manner in which ,kelley is supposed to have obtained the ,great ,medicine1 but as it is told at third hand1 it is of little importance4 ,we do not suppose that there can be much doubt that the truth was that ,dee and others were deceived by some skilful conjuring tricks1 for whatever else ,kelley may have been1 he certainly was a very ingenious fellow4 #fi ,the ,private ,diary of ,dr4 ,john ,dee 7,the ,camden ,society1 #ahdb71 p4 #bb4 #gj ,the ,private ,diary of ,dr4 ,john ,dee 7,the ,camden ,society1 #ahdb71 p4 #bg4 ,it was during his incarceration that he wrote an alchemistic work entitled ,the ,stone of the ,philosophers1 which consists largely of quotations from older alchemistic writings4 ,his other works on ,alchemy were probably written at an earlier period4#ga #ga ,an ,english translation of ,kelley's alchemistic works were published under the editorship of ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 in #ahic4 ,henry ,khunrath 7#aefj-afje74 #ec4 ,henry ,khunrath was born in ,saxony in the second half of the sixteenth century4 ,he was a follower of ,paracelsus1 and travelled about ,germany1 practising as a physician4 8,this ,german alchemist10 says ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 84 4 4 is claimed as a hierophant of the psychic side of the magnum opus1 and 4 4 4 was undoubtedly aware of the larger issues1 of ,hermetic theorems02 he describes ,khunrath's chief work1 ,amphitheatrum ,sapienti tern1 c41 as 8purely mystical and magical40#gb #gb ,a4 ,e4 ,,waite3 ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahhh71 p4 #aei4 ,alexander ,sethon 78-#afjd7 and ,michael ,sendivogius 7#aeff8-afdf74 #ed4 ,the date and birthplace of ,alexander ,sethon1 a ,scottish alchemist1 do not appear to have been recorded1 but ,michael ,sendivogius was probably born in ,moravia about #aeff4 ,sethon1 we are told1 was in possession of the arch-secrets of ,alchemy4 ,he visited ,holland in #afjb1 proceeded after a time to ,italy1 and passed through ,basle to ,germany2 meanwhile he is said to have performed many transmutations4 ,ultimately arriving at ,dresden1 however1 he fell into the clutches of the young ,elector1 ,christian ,,ii41 who1 in order to extort his secret1 cast him into prison1 and put him to the torture1 but without avail4 ,now1 it so happened that ,sendivogius1 who was in quest of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 was staying at ,dresden1 and hearing of ,sethon's imprisonment obtained permission to visit him4 ,sendivogius offered to effect ,sethon's escape in return for assistance in his alchemistic pursuits1 to which arrangement the ,scottish alchemist willingly agreed4 ,after some considerable outlay of money in bribery1 ,sendivogius's plan of escape was successfully carried out1 and ,sethon found himself a free man2 but he refused to betray the high secrets of ,hermetic philosophy to his rescuer4 ,however1 before his death1 which occurred shortly afterwards1 he presented him with an ounce of the transmutative powder4 ,sendivogius soon used up this powder1 we are told1 in effecting transmutations and cures1 and1 being fond of expensive living1 he married ,sethon's widow1 in the hope that she was in the possession of the transmutative secret4 ,in this1 however1 he was disappointed2 she knew nothing of the matter1 but she had the manuscript of an alchemistic work written by her late husband4 ,shortly afterwards ,sendivogius printed at ,prague a book entitled ,the ,new ,chemical ,light under the name of 8,cosmopolita10 which is said to be this work of ,sethon's but which ,sendivogius claimed for his own by the insertion of his name on the title-page1 in the form of an anagram4 ,the tract ,on ,sulphur which was printed at the end of later editions1 however1 is said to have been the genuine work of the ,moravian4 ,whilst his powder lasted1 ,sendivogius travelled about1 performing1 we are told1 many transmutations4 ,he was twice imprisoned in order to extort the secrets of ,alchemy from him1 on one occasion escaping1 and on the other occasion obtaining his release from the ,emperor ,rudolph4 ,afterwards1 he appears to have degenerated into an impostor1 but this is said to have been a finesse to hide his true character as an alchemistic adept4 ,he died in #afdf4gc #gc ,see ,f4 ,b43 ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers 7#ahae71 pp4 #ff-fi4 ,the ,new ,chemical ,light was held in great esteem by the alchemists4 ,the first part treats at length of the generation of the metals and also of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 and claims to be based on practical experience4 ,the seed of ,nature1 we are told1 is one1 but various products result on account of the different conditions of development4 ,an imaginary conversation between ,mercury1 an ,alchemist and ,nature which is appended1 is not without a touch of humour4 ,says the ,alchemist1 in despair1 8,now ,i see that ,i know nothing2 only ,i must not say so4 ,for ,i should lose the good opinion of my neighbours1 and they would no longer entrust me with money for my experiments4 ,i must therefore go on saying that ,i know everything2 for there are many that expect me to do great things for them4 4 4 4 ,there are many countries1 and many greedy persons who will suffer themselves to be gulled by my promises of mountains of gold4 ,thus day will follow day1 and in the meantime the ,king or the donkey will die1 or ,i myself40#gd ,the second part treats of the ,elements and ,principles 7see #ag and #ai74 #gd ,the ,new ,chemical ,light1 ,part ,i4 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abe74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 by ,j4 ,brunn ,,portrait ,,of ,,michael ,,maier4 ,to face page #gb ,michael ,maier 7#aefh-afbb74 #ee4 ,michael ,maier 7see plate #aj7 was born at ,rendsberg 7in ,holstein7 about #aefh4 ,he studied medicine assiduously1 becoming a most successful physician1 and he was ennobled by ,rudolf ,,ii4 ,later on1 however1 he took up the subject of ,alchemy1 and is said to have ruined his health and wasted his fortune in the pursuit of the alchemistic ignis fatuus--the ,stone of the ,philosophers--travelling about ,germany and elsewhere in order to have converse with those who were regarded as adepts in the ,art4 ,he took a prominent part in the famous ,rosicrucian controversy 7see #di71 defending the claims of the alleged society in several tracts4 ,he is said1 on the one hand1 to have been admitted as a member of the fraternity2 and on the other hand1 to have himself founded a similar institution4 ,a full account of his views will be found in the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,craven's ,count ,michael ,maier3 ,life and ,writings 7#aiaj74 ,he was a very learned man1 but his works are somewhat obscure and abound in fanciful allegories4 ,he read an alchemistic meaning into the ancient fables concerning the ,egyptian and ,greek gods and heroes4 ,like most alchemists1 he held the supposed virtues of mercury in high esteem4 ,in his ,lusus ,serius3 or1 ,serious ,passe-time1 for example1 he supposes a ,parliament of the various creatures of the world to meet1 in order that ,man might choose the noblest of them as king over all the rest4 ,the calf1 the sheep1 the goose1 the oyster1 the bee1 the silkworm1 flax and mercury are the chosen representatives1 each of which discourses in turn4 ,it will be unnecessary to state that ,mercury wins the day4 ,thus does ,maier eulogise it3 8,thou art the miracle1 splendour and light of the world4 ,thou art the glory1 ornament1 and supporter of the ,earth4 ,thou art the ,asyle1 ,anchor1 and tye of the ,universe4 ,next to the minde of ,man1 ,god ,created nothing more ,noble1 more ,glorious1 or more ,profitable40#ge ,his ,subtle ,allegory concerning the ,secrets of ,alchemy1 very useful to possess and pleasant to read1 will be found in the ,hermetic ,museum1 together with his ,golden ,tripod1 consisting of translations of 8,valentine's0 8,practica0 and ,twelve ,keys1 ,norton's ,ordinal and ,cremer's spurious ,testament4 #ge ,,michael ,,maier3 ,lusus ,serius3 or ,serious ,passe-time 7#afed71 p4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,plate #aa4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,jacob ,,boehme4 ,to face page #gd ,jacob ,boehme 7#aege-afbd47 #ef4 ,jacob ,boehme1 or ,behmen 7see plate #aa71 was born at ,alt ,seidenberg1 a village near ,grlitz1 in #aege4 ,his parents being poor1 the education he received was of a very rudimentary nature1 and when his schooling days were over1 ,jacob was apprenticed to a shoemaker4 ,his religious nature caused him often to admonish his fellow-apprentices1 which behaviour ultimately caused him to be dismissed4 ,he travelled about as a journeyman shoemaker1 returning1 however1 to ,grlitz in #aeid1 where he married and settled in business4 ,he claims to have experienced a wonderful vision in #aeih1 and to have had a similar vision two years later4 ,in these visions1 the first of which lasted for several days1 he believed that he saw into the inmost secrets of nature2 but what at first appeared dim and vague became clear and coherent in a third vision1 which he tells us was vouchsafed to him in #afaj4 ,it was then that he wrote his first book1 the ,aurora1 which he composed for himself only1 in order that he should not forget the mysteries disclosed to him4 ,at a later period he produced a large number of treatises of a mystical-religious nature1 having spent the intervening years in improving his early education4 ,these books aroused the ire of the narrow-minded ecclesiastical authorities of the town1 and ,jacob suffered considerable persecution in consequence4 ,he visited ,dresden in #afbd1 and in the same year was there taken ill with a fever4 ,returning to ,grlitz1 he expired in a condition of ecstasy4 ,jacob ,boehme was an alchemist of a purely transcendental order4 ,he had1 it appears1 acquired some knowledge of ,chemistry during his apprentice days1 and he employed the language of ,alchemy in the elaboration of his system of mystical philosophy4 ,with this lofty mystical-religious system we cannot here deal2 ,boehme is1 indeed1 often accounted the greatest of true ,christian mystics2 but although conscious of his superiority over many minor lights1 we think this title is due to ,emanuel ,swedenborg4 ,the question of the validity of his visions is also one which lies beyond the scope of the present work2#gf we must confine our attention to ,boehme as an alchemist4 ,the ,philosopher's ,stone1 in ,boehme's terminology1 is the ,spirit of ,christ which must 8tincture0 the individual soul4 ,in one place he says1 8,the ,phylosophers ,stone is a very dark disesteemed ,stone1 of a ,gray colour1 but therein lyeth the highest ,tincture40#gg ,in the transcendental sense1 this is reminiscent of the words of ,isaiah3 8,he hath no form nor comeliness2 and when we see him1 there is no beauty that we should desire him4 4 4 4 ,he was despised and we esteemed him not10 c4#gh #gf ,for a general discussion of spiritual visions see the present writer's ,matter1 ,spirit and the ,cosmos 7,rider1 #aiaj71 ,chapter ,,iv41 8,on ,matter and ,spirit40 ,undoubtedly ,boehme's visions involved a valuable element of truth1 but at the same time much that was purely relative and subjective4 #gg ,,jacob ,,boehme3 ,epistles 7translated by ,j4 ,e41 #afdi71 ,ep4 iv4 #aaa1 p4 #fe4 #gh ,the ,book of the ,prophet ,isaiah1 chap1 liii41 vv4 #b and #c1 ,r4,v4 ,j4 ,b4 van ,helmont 7#aegg-afdd7 and ,f4 ,m4 van ,helmont 7#afah-afii47 #eg4 ,john ,baptist van ,helmont 7see plate #ab7 was born in ,brussels in #aegg4 ,he devoted himself to the study of medicine1 at first following ,galen1 but afterwards accepting in part the teachings of ,paracelsus2 and he helped to a large extent in the overthrow of the old medical doctrines4 ,his purely chemical researches were also of great value to the science4 ,he was a man of profound knowledge1 of a religious temperament1 and he possessed a marked liking for the mystical4 ,he was inspired by the writings of ,thomas ,kempis to imitate ,christ in all things1 and he practised medicine1 therefore1 as a work of benevolence1 asking no fee for his services4 ,at the same time1 moreover1 he was a firm believer in the powers of the ,philosopher's ,stone1 claiming to have himself successfully performed the transmutation of the metals on more than one occasion1 though unacquainted with the composition of the medicine employed 7see #fb74 ,many of his theoretical views are highly fantastical4 ,he lived a life devoted to scientific research1 and died in #afdd4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,,portraits ,,of ,j4 ,b4 ,,and ,f4 ,m4 ,,van ,,helmont4 7,from the ,frontispiece to ,j4 ,b4 van ,helmont's ,oriatrike74 ,to face page #gf ,van ,helmont regarded water as the primary element out of which all things are produced4 ,he denied that fire was an element or anything material at all1 and he did not accept the sulphur-mercury-salt theory4 ,to him is due the word 8gas0--before his time various gases were looked upon as mere varieties of air--and he also made a distinction between gases 7which could not be condensed7#gi and vapours 7which give liquids on cooling74 ,in particular he investigated the gas that is now known as carbon-dioxide 7carbonic anhydride71 which he termed gas sylvestre2 but he lacked suitable apparatus for the collection of gases1 and hence was led in many cases to erroneous conclusions4 #gi ,it has since been discovered that all gases can be condensed1 given a sufficient degree of cold and pressure4 ,francis ,mercurius van ,helmont 7see plate #ab71 the son of ,john ,baptist1 born in #afah1 gained the reputation of having also achieved the magnum opus1 since he appeared to live very luxuriously upon a limited income4 ,he was a skilled chemist and physician1 but held many queer theories1 metempsychosis included4 ,johann ,rudolf ,glauber 7#afjd-affh74 #eh4 ,johann ,rudolf ,glauber was born at ,karlstadt in #afjd4 ,of his life little is known4 ,he appears to have travelled about ,germany a good deal1 afterwards visiting ,amsterdam1 where he died in #affh4 ,he was of a very patriotic nature1 and a most ardent investigator in the realm of ,chemistry4 ,he accepted the main iatro-chemical doctrines1 but gave most of his attention to applied ,chemistry4 ,he enriched the science with many important discoveries2 and crystallised sodium sulphate is still called 8,glauber's ,salt40 ,glauber1 himself1 attributed remarkable medicinal powers to this compound4 ,he was a firm believer in the claims of ,alchemy1 and held many fantastic ideas4 ,thomas ,vaughan 78,eugenius ,philalethes07 7#afbb-afff47 #ei4 ,thomas ,vaughan1 who wrote under the name of 8,eugenius ,philalethes10 was born at ,newton in ,brecknockshire in #afbb4 ,he was educated at ,jesus ,college1 ,oxford1 graduating as a ,bachelor of ,arts1 and being made a fellow of his college4 ,he appears also to have taken holy orders and to have had the living of ,st4 ,bridget's 7,brecknockshire7 conferred on him4#hj ,during the civil wars he bore arms for the king1 but his allegiance to the ,royalist cause led to his being accused of 8drunkenness1 swearing1 incontinency and bearing arms for the ,king02 and he appears to have been deprived of his living4 ,he retired to ,oxford and gave himself up to study and chemical research4 ,he is to be regarded as an alchemist of the transcendental order4 ,his views as to the nature of the true ,philosopher's ,stone may be gathered from the following quotation3 8,this1 reader10 he says1 speaking of the mystical illumination1 8is the ,christian ,philosopher's ,stone1 a ,stone so often inculcated in ,scripture4 ,this is the ,rock in the wildernesse1 because in great obscurity1 and few there are that know the right way unto it4 ,this is the ,stone of ,fire in ,ezekiel2 this is the ,stone with ,seven ,eyes upon it in ,zacharie1 and this is the ,white ,stone with the ,new ,name in the ,revelation4 ,but in the ,gospel1 where ,christ himself speakes1 who was born to discover mysteries and communicate ,heaven to ,earth1 it is more clearly described40#ha ,at the same time he appears to have carried out experiments in physical ,alchemy1 and is said to have met with his death in #afff through accidentally inhaling the fumes of some mercury with which he was experimenting4 #hj ,see ,,anthony ,,wood3 ,athen ,oxonienses1 edited by ,philip ,bliss1 vol4 iii4 7#ahag71 cols4 #gbb-gbf4 #ha ,,thomas ,,vaughan 78,eugenius ,philalethes073 ,anima ,magica ,abscondita 7see ,the ,magical ,writings of ,thomas ,vaughan1 edited by ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 #ahhh1 p4 #ga74 ,thomas ,vaughan was an ardent disciple of ,cornelius ,agrippa1 the sixteenth-century theosophist4 ,he held the peripatetic philosophy in very slight esteem4 ,he was a man devoted to ,god1 though probably guilty of some youthful follies1 full of love towards his wife1 and with an intense desire for the solution of the great problems of ,nature4 ,amongst his chief works1 which are by no means wanting in flashes of mystic wisdom1 may be mentioned ,anthroposophia ,theomagica1 ,anima ,magica ,abscondita 7which were published together71 and ,magia ,adamica2 or1 the ,antiquitie of ,magic4 ,with regard to his views as expressed in the first two of these books1 a controversy ensued between ,vaughan and ,henry ,moore1 which was marked by considerable acrimony4 8,eirenus ,philalethes0 7#afbc8-87 and ,george ,starkey 78-#affe74 #fj4 ,the use of the pseudonym 8,philalethes0 has not been confined to one alchemist4 ,the cosmopolitan adept who wrote under the name of 8,eirenus ,philalethes10 has been confused1 on the one hand1 with ,thomas ,vaughan1 on the other hand with ,george ,starkey 78-#affe74 ,he has also been identified with ,dr4 ,robert ,child 7#afac-afed72 but his real identity remains shrouded in mystery4#hb ,george ,starkey 7or ,stirk71 the son of ,george ,stirk1 minister of the ,church of ,england in ,bermuda1 graduated at ,harvard in #afdf and practised medicine in the ,united ,states of ,america from #afdg to #afej4 ,in #afea he came to ,england and practised medicine in ,london4 ,he died of the plague in #affe4 ,in #afed-e he published ,the ,marrow of ,alchemy1 by 8,eirenus ,philoponos ,philalethes10 which some think he had stolen from his ,hermetic ,master4 ,other works by 8,eirenus ,philalethes0 appeared after ,starkey's death and became immensely popular4 ,the ,open ,entrance to the ,closed ,palace of the ,king 7the most famous of these7 and the ,three ,treatises of the same author will be found in ,the ,hermetic ,museum4 ,some of his views have already been noted 7see #a and #bb74 ,on certain points he differed from the majority of the alchemists4 ,he denied that fire was an element1 and1 also1 that bodies are formed by mixture of the elements4 ,according to him there is one principle in the metals1 namely1 mercury1 which arises from the aqueous element1 and is termed 8metalically differentiated water1 i4e41 it is water passed into that stage of development1 in which it can no longer produce anything but mineral substances40#hc ,philalethes's views as to 8metallic seed0 are also of considerable interest4 ,of the seed of gold1 which he regarded as the seed1 also1 of all other metals1 he says3 8,the seed of animals and vegetables is something separate1 and may be cut out1 or otherwise separately exhibited2 but metallic seed is diffused throughout the metal1 and contained in all its smallest parts2 neither can it be discerned from its body3 its extraction is therefore a task which may well tax the ingenuity of the most experienced philosopher4 4 4 40#hd ,well might this have been said of the electron of modern scientific theory4 #hb ,see ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite's ,lives of ,alchemystical ,philosophers1 art4 8,eirenus ,philalethes10 and the ,biographical ,preface to his ,the ,works of ,thomas ,vaughan 7#aiai72 also the late ,professor ,ferguson's 8#8,the ,marrow of ,alchemy'10 ,the ,journal of ,the ,alchemical ,society1 vol4 iii4 7#aiae71 pp4 #ajf et seq41 and ,professor ,g4 ,l4 ,kittredge's ,doctor ,robert ,child1 ,the ,remonstrant 7,camb41 ,mass41 #aiai74 ,the last mentioned writer strongly urges the identification of 8,eirenus ,philalethes0 with ,george ,starkey4 #hc 8,,eiren,,us ,,philalethes03 ,the ,metamorphosis of ,metals 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcf74 ,compare with van ,helmont's views1 #eg4 #hd ,ibid41 p4 #bdj4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,outcome ,,of ,,alchemy ,did the ,alchemists achieve the 8,magnum ,opus08 #fa4 ,the alchemists were untiring in their search for the ,stone of the ,philosophers1 and we may well ask whether they ever succeeded in effecting a real transmutation4 ,that many apparent transmutations occurred1 the observers being either self-deceived by a superficial examination--certain alloys resemble the 8noble metals0--or deliberately cheated by impostors1 is of course undoubted4 ,but at the same time we must not assume that1 because we know not the method now1 real transmutations have never taken place4 ,modern research indicates that it may be possible to transmute other metals1 such as lead or bismuth1 into gold1 and consequently we must admit the possibility that amongst the many experiments carried out1 a real transmutation was effected4 ,on the other hand1 the method which is suggested by the recent researches in question could not have been known to the alchemists or accidentally employed by them2 and1 moreover1 the quantity of gold which is hoped for1 should such a method prove successful1 is far below the smallest amount that would have been detected in the days of ,alchemy4 ,but if there be one method whereby the metals may be transmuted1 there may be other methods4 ,and it is not altogether an easy task to explain away the testimony of eminent men such as were van ,helmont and ,helvetius4 ,the ,testimony of van ,helmont4 #fb4 ,john ,baptist van ,helmont 7see #eg71 who was celebrated alike for his skill as a physician and chemist and for his nobility of character1 testified in more than one place that he had himself carried out the transmutation of mercury into gold4 ,but1 as we have mentioned above1 the composition of the ,stone employed on these occasions was unknown to him4 ,he says3 84 4 4 ,for truly1 ,i have divers times seen it the ,stone of the ,philosophers1 and handled it with my hands3 but it was of colour1 such as is in ,saffron in its ,powder1 yet weighty1 and shining like unto powdered ,glass3 ,there was once given unto me one fourth part of one ,grain3 ,but ,i call a ,grain the six hundredth part of one ,ounce3 ,this quarter of one ,grain therefore1 being rouled up in ,paper1 ,i projected upon eight ,ounces of ,quick-silver made hot in a ,crucible2 and straightway all the ,quick-silver1 with a certain degree of ,noise1 stood still from flowing1 and being congealed1 setled like unto a yellow ,lump3 but after pouring it out1 the ,bellows blowing1 there were found eight ,ounces1 and a little less than eleven ,grains eight ,ounces less eleven ,grains of the purest ,gold3 ,therefore one only ,grain of that ,powder1 had transchanged #aiahf #aiaef ,parts of ,quick-silver1 equal to itself1 into the best ,gold40#he #he ,j4 ,b4 ,,van ,,helmont3 ,life ,eternal 7see ,oriatrike1 translated by ,j4 ,c41 #affb2 or van ,helmont's ,workes1 translated by ,j4 ,c41 #affd1 which is merely the former work with a new title-page and preliminary matter1 pp4 #gea and #geb74 ,and again3 8,i am constrained to believe that there is the ,stone which makes ,gold1 and which makes ,silver2 because ,i have at distinct turns1 made projection with my hand1 of one grain of the ,powder1 upon some thousand grains of hot ,quick-silver2 and the buisiness succeeded in the ,fire1 even as ,books do promise2 a ,circle of many ,people standing by1 together with a tickling ,admiration of us all4 4 4 4 ,he who first gave me the ,gold-making ,powder1 had likewise also1 at least as much of it1 as might be sufficient for changing two hundred thousand ,pounds of ,gold3 4 4 4 ,for he gave me perhaps half a grain of that ,powder1 and nine ounces and three quarters of ,quick-silver were thereby transchanged3 ,but that ,gold1 a strange man a stranger1 being a ,friend of one evenings acquaintance1 gave me40#hf #hf ,j4 ,b4 ,,van ,,helmont3 ,the ,tree of ,life 7see ,oriatrike or ,van ,helmont's ,workes1 p4 #hjg74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,to face page #hd ,the ,testimony of ,helvetius4 #fc4 ,john ,frederick ,helvetius 7see plate #ac71 an eminent doctor of medicine1 and physician to the ,prince of ,orange1 published at the ,hague in #affg the following remarkable account of a transmutation he claimed to have effected4 ,certain points of resemblance between this account and that of van ,helmont 7e4g41 in each case the ,stone is described as a glassy substance of a pale yellow colour7 are worth noticing3 8,on the #bg ,december1 #afff1 in the forenoon1 there came to my house a certain man1 who was a complete stranger to me1 but of an honest1 grave countenance1 and an authoritative mien1 clothed in a simple garb like that of a ,memnonite4 4 4 4 8,after we had exchanged salutations1 he asked me whether he might have some conversation with me4 ,he wished to say something to me about the ,pyrotechnic ,art1 as he had read one of my tracts 7directed against the sympathetic ,powder of ,dr4 ,digby71 in which ,i hinted a suspicion whether the ,grand ,arcanum of the ,sages was not after all a gigantic hoax4 ,he1 therefore1 took that opportunity of asking me whether ,i could not believe that such a grand mystery might exist in the nature of things1 by means of which a physician could restore any patient whose vitals were not irreparably destroyed4 ,i answered3 #8,such a ,medicine would be a most desirable acquisition for any physician2 nor can any man tell how many secrets there may be hidden in ,nature2 yet1 though ,i have read much about the truth of this ,art1 it has never been my good fortune to meet with a real ,master of the ,alchemical ,science4' ,i also enquired whether he was a medical man4 4 4 4 ,in reply1 he 4 4 4 described himself as a brassfounder4 4 4 4 ,after some further conversation1 the ,artist ,elias 7for it was he7 thus addressed me3 #8,since you have read so much in the works of the ,alchemists about this ,stone1 its substance1 its colour1 and its wonderful effects1 may ,i be allowed the question1 whether you have not yourself prepared it8' ,on my answering his question in the negative1 he took out of his bag a cunningly-worked ivory box1 in which there were three large pieces of a substance resembling glass1 or pale sulphur1 and informed me that here was enough of the ,tincture for the production of #bj tons of gold4 ,when ,i had held the precious treasure in my hand for a quarter of an hour 7during which time ,i listened to a recital of its wonderful curative properties71 ,i was compelled to restore it to its owner1 which ,i could not help doing with a certain degree of reluctance4 ,after thanking him for his kindness in shewing it to me1 ,i then asked how it was that his ,stone did not display that ruby colour1 which ,i had been taught to regard as characteristic of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,he replied that the colour made no difference1 and that the substance was sufficiently mature for all practical purposes4 ,my request that he would give me a piece of his ,stone 7though it were no larger than a coriander seed71 he somewhat brusquely refused1 adding1 in a milder tone1 that he could not give it me for all the wealth ,i possessed1 and that not on account of its great preciousness1 but for some other reason which it was not lawful for him to divulge2 4 4 4 ,helvetius obtains the ,philosopher's ,stone4 #fd4 8,when my strange visitor had concluded his narrative1 ,i besought him to give me a proof of his assertion1 by performing the transmutatory operation on some metals in my presence4 ,he answered evasively1 that he could not do so then1 but that he would return in three weeks1 and that1 if he was then at liberty to do so1 he would shew me something that would make me open my eyes4 ,he appeared punctually to the promised day1 and invited me to take a walk with him1 in the course of which we discoursed profoundly on the secrets of ,nature in fire1 though ,i noticed that my companion was very chary in imparting information about the ,grand ,arcanum4 4 4 4 ,at last ,i asked him point-blank to show me the transmutation of metals4 ,i besought him to come and dine with me1 and to spend the night at my house2 ,i entreated2 ,i expostulated2 but in vain4 ,he remained firm4 ,i reminded him of his promise4 ,he retorted that his promise had been conditional upon his being permitted to reveal the secret to me4 ,at last1 however1 ,i prevailed upon him to give me a piece of his precious ,stone--a piece no larger than a grain of rape seed4 ,he delivered it to me as if it were the most princely donation in the world4 ,upon my uttering a doubt whether it would be sufficient to tinge more than four grains of lead1 he eagerly demanded it back4 ,i complied1 in the hope that he would exchange it for a larger piece2 instead of which he divided it in two with his thumb1 threw away one-half and gave me back the other1 saying3 #8,even now it is sufficient for you4' ,then ,i was still more heavily disappointed1 as ,i could not believe that anything could be done with so small a particle of the ,medicine4 ,he1 however1 bade me take two drachms1 or half an ounce of lead1 or even a little more1 and to melt it in the crucible2 for the ,medicine would certainly not tinge more of the base metal than it was sufficient for4 ,i answered that ,i could not believe that so small a quantity of ,tincture could transform so large a mass of lead4 ,but ,i had to be satisfied with what he had given me1 and my chief difficulty was about the application of the ,tincture4 ,i confessed that when ,i held his ivory box in my hand1 ,i had managed to extract a few crumbs of his ,stone1 but that they had changed my lead1 not into gold1 but only into glass4 ,he laughed1 and said that ,i was more expert at theft than at the application of the ,tincture4 #8,you should have protected your spoil with 8yellow wax10 then it would have been able to penetrate the lead and to transmute it into gold4' 4 4 4 ,helvetius performs a ,transmutation4 #fe4 84 4 4 ,with 4 4 4 a promise to return at nine o'clock the next morning1 he left me4 ,but at the stated hour on the following day he did not make his appearance2 in his stead1 however1 there came1 a few hours later1 a stranger1 who told me that his friend the ,artist was unavoidably detained1 but that he would call at three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,the afternoon came2 ,i waited for him till half-past seven o'clock4 ,he did not appear4 ,thereupon my wife came and tempted me to try the transmutation myself4 ,i determined1 however1 to wait till the morrow1 and in the meantime1 ordered my son to light the fire1 as ,i was now almost sure that he was an impostor4 ,on the morrow1 however1 ,i thought that ,i might at least make an experiment with the piece of #8,tincture' which ,i had received2 if it turned out a failure1 in spite of my following his directions closely1 ,i might then be quite certain that my visitor had been a mere pretender to a knowledge of this ,art4 ,so ,i asked my wife to put the ,tincture in wax1 and ,i myself1 in the meantime1 prepared six drachms of lead2 ,i then cast the ,tincture1 enveloped as it was in wax1 on the lead2 as soon as it was melted1 there was a hissing sound and a slight effervescence1 and after a quarter of an hour ,i found that the whole mass of lead had been turned into the finest gold4 ,before this transmutation took place1 the compound became intensely green1 but as soon as ,i had poured it into the melting pot it assumed a hue like blood4 ,when it cooled1 it glittered and shone like gold4 ,we immediately took it to the goldsmith1 who at once declared it to be the finest gold he had ever seen1 and offered to pay fifty florins an ounce for it4 ,helvetius's ,gold ,assayed4 #ff4 8,the rumour1 of course1 spread at once like wildfire through the whole city2 and in the afternoon1 ,i had visits from many illustrious students of this ,art2 ,i also received a call from the ,master of the ,mint and some other gentlemen1 who requested me to place at their disposal a small piece of the gold1 in order that they might subject it to the usual tests4 ,i consented1 and we betook ourselves to the house of a certain silversmith1 named ,brechtil1 who submitted a small piece of my gold to the test called #8the fourth'3 three or four parts of silver are melted in the crucible with one part of gold1 and then beaten out into thin plates1 upon which some strong aqua fortis nitric acid is poured4 ,the usual result of this experiment is that the silver is dissolved1 while the gold sinks to the bottom in the shape of a black powder1 and after the aqua fortis has been poured off1 the gold1 melted once again in the crucible1 resumes its former shape4 4 4 4 ,when we now performed this experiment1 we thought at first that one-half of the gold had evaporated2 but afterwards we found that this was not the case1 but that1 on the contrary1 two scruples of the silver had undergone a change into gold4 ,helvetius's ,gold ,further ,tested4 #fg4 8,then we tried another test1 viz41 that which is performed by means of a septuple of ,antimony2 at first it seemed as if eight grains of the gold had been lost1 but afterwards1 not only had two scruples of the silver been converted into gold1 but the silver itself was greatly improved both in quality and malleability4 ,thrice ,i performed this infallible test1 discovering that every drachm of gold produced an increase of a scruple of gold1 but the silver is excellent and extremely flexible4 ,thus ,i have unfolded to you the whole story from beginning to end4 ,the gold ,i still retain in my possession1 but ,i cannot tell you what has become of the ,artist ,elias4 ,before he left me1 on the last day of our friendly intercourse1 he told me that he was on the point of undertaking a journey to the ,holy ,land4 ,may the ,holy ,angels of ,god watch over him wherever he is1 and long preserve him as a source of blessing to ,christendom6 ,this is my earnest prayer on his and our behalf40#hg #hg ,j4 ,f4 ,,helvetius3 ,the ,golden ,calf1 ch4 iii4 7see ,the ,hermetic ,museum1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bhc et seq474 ,testimony such as this warns us not to be too sure that a real transmutation has never taken place4 ,on the whole1 with regard to this question1 an agnostic position appears to be the more philosophical4 ,the ,genesis of ,chemistry4 #fh4 ,but even if the alchemists did not discover the ,grand ,arcanum of ,nature1 they did discover very many scientifically important facts4 ,even if they did not prepare the ,philosopher's ,stone1 they did prepare a very large number of new and important chemical compounds4 ,their labours were the seeds out of which modern ,chemistry developed1 and this highly important science is rightfully included under the expression 8,the ,outcome of ,alchemy40 ,as we have already pointed out 7 #dh71 it was the iatro-chemists who first investigated chemical matters with an object other than alchemistic1 their especial end in view being the preparation of useful medicines1 though the medical-chemist and the alchemist were very often united in the one person1 as in the case of ,paracelsus himself and the not less famous van ,helmont4 ,it was not until still later that ,chemistry was recognised as a distinct science separate from medicine4 ,the ,degeneracy of ,alchemy4 #fi4 ,in another direction the ,outcome of ,alchemy was of a very distressing nature4 ,alchemy was in many respects eminently suitable as a cloak for fraud1 and those who became 8alchemists0 with the sole object of accumulating much wealth in a short space of time1 finding that the legitimate pursuit of the ,art did not enable them to realise their expectations in this direction1 availed themselves of this fact4 ,there is1 indeed1 some evidence that the degeneracy of ,alchemy had commenced as early as the fourteenth century1 but the attainment of the magnum opus was regarded as possible for some three or more centuries4 ,the alchemistic promises of health1 wealth and happiness and a pseudo-mystical style of language were effectively employed by these impostors4 ,some more or less ingenious tricks--such as the use of hollow stirring-rods1 in which the gold was concealed1 c4--convinced a credulous public of the validity of their claims4 ,of these pseudo-alchemists we have already made the acquaintance of ,edward ,kelley1 but chief of them all is generally accounted the notorious 8,count ,cagliostro40 ,that 8,cagliostro0 is rightfully placed in the category of pseudo-alchemists is certain1 but it also appears equally certain that1 charlatan though he was1 posterity has not always done him that justice which is due to all men1 however bad they may be4 8,count ,cagliostro0 7--8-#agie74 #gj4 ,of the birth and early life of the personage calling himself 8,count ,cagliostro0 nothing is known with any degree of certainty1 even his true name being enveloped in mystery4 ,it has1 indeed1 been usual to identify him with the notorious ,italian swindler1 ,giuseppe ,balsamo1 who1 born at ,palermo in #agdc 7or #agdh71 apparently disappeared from mortal ken after some thirty years1 of which the majority were spent in committing various crimes4 8,cagliostro's0 latest biographer1#hh who appears to have gone into the matter very thoroughly1 however1 throws very grave doubts on the truth of this theory4 #hh ,w4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,trowbridge3 ,cagliostro3 ,the ,splendour and ,misery of a ,master of ,magic 7#aiaj74 ,we must acknowledge our indebtedness for many of the particulars which follow to this work4 ,it is1 however1 unfortunately marred by a ridiculous attempt to show a likeness between 8,cagliostro0 and ,swedenborg1 for which1 by the way1 ,mr4 ,trowbridge has already been criticised by the ,spectator4 ,it may justly be said of ,swedenborg that he was scrupulously honest and sincere in his beliefs as well as in his actions2 and1 as a philosopher1 it is only now being discovered how really great he was4 ,he did1 indeed1 claim to have converse with spiritual beings2 but the results of modern psychical research have robbed such claims of any inherent impossibility1 and in ,swedenborg's case there is very considerable evidence for their validity4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,to face page #ib ,if the earlier part of 8,cagliostro's0 life is unknown1 the latter part is so overlaid with legends and lies1 that it is almost impossible to get at the truth concerning it4 ,in #aggf ,cagliostro and his wife were in ,london1 where 8,cagliostro0 became a ,freemason1 joining a lodge connected with 8,the ,order of ,strict ,observance10 a secret society incorporated with ,freemasonry1 and which 7on the ,continent1 at least7 was concerned largely with occult subjects4 8,cagliostro10 however1 was unsatisfied with its rituals and devised a new system which he called ,egyptian ,masonry4 ,egyptian ,masonry1 he taught1 was to reform the whole world1 and he set out1 leaving ,england for the ,continent1 to convert ,masons and others to his views4 ,we must look for the motive power of his extraordinary career in vanity and a love of mystery-mongering1 without any true knowledge of the occult2 it is probable1 indeed1 that ultimately his unbounded vanity triumphed over his reason and that he actually believed in his own pretensions4 ,that he did possess hypnotic and clairvoyant powers is1 we think1 at least probable2 but it is none the less certain that1 when such failed him1 he had no scruples against employing other means of convincing the credulous of the validity of his claims4 ,this was the case on his visit to ,russia1 which occurred not long afterwards4 ,at ,st4 ,petersburg a youthful medium he was employing1 to put the matter briefly1 8gave the show away10 and at ,warsaw1 where he found it necessary to turn alchemist1 he was detected in the process of introducing a piece of gold in the crucible containing the base metal he was about to 8transmute40 ,at ,strasburg1 which he reached in #aghj1 however1 he was more successful4 ,here he appeared as a miraculous healer of all diseases1 though whether his cures are to be ascribed to some simple but efficacious medicine which he had discovered1 to hypnotism1 to the power of the imagination on the part of his patients1 or to the power of imagination on the part of those who have recorded the alleged cures1 is a question into which we do not propose to enter4 ,at ,strasburg 8,cagliostro0 came into contact with the ,cardinal de ,rohan1 and a fast friendship sprang up between the two1 which1 in the end1 proved 8,cagliostro's0 ruin4 ,the 8,count0 next visited ,bordeaux and ,lyons1 successfully founding lodges of ,egyptian ,masonry4 ,from the latter town he proceeded to ,paris1 where he reached the height of his fame4 ,he became extraordinarily rich1 although he is said to have asked1 and to have accepted1 no fee for his services as a healer4 ,on the other hand1 there was a substantial entrance-fee to the mysteries of ,egyptian ,masonry1 which1 with its alchemistic promises of health and wealth1 prospered exceedingly4 ,at the summit of his career1 however1 fortune forsook him4 ,as a friend of de ,rohan1 he was arrested in connection with the ,diamond ,necklace affair1 on the word of the infamous ,countess de ,lamotte2 although1 of whatever else he may have been guilty1 he was perfectly innocent of this charge4 ,after lying imprisoned in the ,bastille for several months1 he was tried by the ,french ,parliament1 pronounced innocent1 and released4 ,immediately1 however1 the king banished him1 and he left ,paris for ,london1 where he seems to have been persistently persecuted by agents of the ,french king4 ,he returned to the ,continent1 ultimately reaching ,italy1 where he was arrested by the ,inquisition and condemned to death on the charge of being a ,freemason 7a dire offence in the eyes of the ,roman ,catholic ,church74 ,the sentence1 however1 was modified to one of perpetual imprisonment1 and he was confined in the ,castle of ,san ,leo1 where he died in #agie1 after four years of imprisonment1 in what manner is not known4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,modern ,,chemistry ,the ,birth of ,modern ,chemistry4 #ga4 ,chemistry as distinct from ,alchemy and ,iatro-chemistry commenced with ,robert ,boyle 7see plate #ae71 who first clearly recognised that its aim is neither the transmutation of the metals nor the preparation of medicines1 but the observation and generalisation of a certain class of phenomena2 who denied the validity of the alchemistic view of the constitution of matter1 and enunciated the definition of an element which has since reigned supreme in ,chemistry2 and who enriched the science with observations of the utmost importance4 ,boyle1 however1 was a man whose ideas were in advance of his times1 and intervening between the iatro-chemical period and the ,age of ,modern ,chemistry proper came the period of the ,phlogistic ,theory--a theory which had a certain affinity with the ideas of the alchemists4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,robert ,,boyle4 ,to face page #id ,the ,phlogiston ,theory4 #gb4 ,the phlogiston theory was mainly due to ,georg ,ernst ,stahl 7#affj-agcd74 ,becher 7#afce-afhb7 had attempted to revive the once universally accepted sulphur-mercury-salt theory of the alchemists in a somewhat modified form1 by the assumption that all substances consist of three earths--the combustible1 mercurial1 and vitreous2 and herein is to be found the germ of ,stahl's phlogistic theory4 ,according to ,stahl1 all combustible bodies 7including those metals that change on heating7 contain phlogiston1 the principle of combustion1 which escapes in the form of flame when such substances are burned4 ,according to this theory1 therefore1 the metals are compounds1 since they consist of a metallic calx 7what we now call the 8oxide0 of the metal7 combined with phlogiston2 and1 further1 to obtain the metal from the calx it is only necessary to act upon it with some substance rich in phlogiston4 ,now1 coal and charcoal are both almost completely combustible1 leaving very little residue2 hence1 according to this theory1 they must consist very largely of phlogiston2 and1 as a matter of fact1 metals can be obtained by heating their calces with either of these substances4 ,many other facts of a like nature were explicable in terms of the phlogiston theory1 and it became exceedingly popular4 ,chemists at this time did not pay much attention to the balance2 it was observed1 however1 that metals increased in weight on calcination1 but this was 8explained0 on the assumption that phlogiston possessed negative weight4 ,antoine ,lavoisier 7#agdc-agid71 utilising ,priestley's discovery of oxygen 7called 8dephlogisticated air0 by its discoverer7 and studying the weight relations accompanying combustion1 demonstrated the non-validity of the phlogistic theory#hi and proved combustion to be the combination of the substance burnt with a certain constituent of the air1 the oxygen4 ,by this time ,alchemy was to all intents and purposes defunct1 ,boerhave 7#affh-agch7 was the last eminent chemist to give any support to its doctrines1 and the new chemistry of ,lavoisier gave it a final death-blow4 ,we now enter upon the ,age of ,modern ,chemistry1 but we shall deal in this chapter with the history of chemical theory only so far as is necessary in pursuance of our primary object1 and hence our account will be very far from complete4 #hi ,it should be noted1 however1 that if by the term 8phlogiston0 we were to understand energy and not some form of matter1 most of the statements of the phlogistics would be true so far as they go4 ,boyle and the ,definition of an ,element4 #gc4 ,robert ,boyle 7#afbf-afia7 had defined an element as a substance which could not be decomposed1 but which could enter into combination with other elements giving compounds capable of decomposition into these original elements4 ,hence1 the metals were classed among the elements1 since they had defied all attempts to decompose them4 ,now1 it must be noted that this definition is of a negative character1 and1 although it is convenient to term 8elements0 all substances which have so far defied decomposition1 it is a matter of impossibility to decide what substances are true elements with absolute certainty2 and the possibility1 however faint1 that gold and other metals are of a compound nature1 and hence the possibility of preparing gold from the 8base0 metals or other substances1 must always remain4 ,this uncertainty regarding the elements appears to have generally been recognised by the new school of chemists1 but this having been so1 it is the more surprising that their criticism of alchemistic art was not less severe4 ,the ,stoichiometric ,laws4 #gd4 ,with the study of the relative weights in which substances combine1 certain generalisations or 8natural laws0 of supreme importance were discovered4 ,these stoichiometric laws1 as they are called1 are as follows3-- #a4 8,the ,law of ,constant ,proportion0--,the same chemical compound always contains the same elements1 and there is a constant ratio between the weights of the constituent elements present4 #b4 8,the ,law of ,multiple ,proportions0--,if two substances combine chemically in more than one proportion1 the weights of the one which combine with a given weight of the other1 stand in a simple rational ratio to one another4 #c4 8,the ,law of ,combining ,weights0--,substances combine either in the ratio of their combining numbers1 or in simple rational multiples or submultiples of these numbers4 7,the weights of different substances which combine with a given weight of some particular substance1 which is taken as the unit1 are called the combining numbers of such substances with reference to this unit4 ,the usual unit now chosen is #h grammes of ,oxygen47#ij #ij ,in order that these laws may hold good1 it is1 of course1 necessary that the substances are weighed under precisely similar conditions4 ,to state these laws in a more absolute form1 we can replace the term 8weight0 by 8mass10 or in preference1 8inertia02 for the inertias of bodies are proportional to their weights1 providing that they are weighed under precisely similar conditions4 ,for a discussion of the exact significance of these terms 8mass0 and 8inertia10 the reader is referred to the present writer's ,matter1 ,spirit and the ,cosmos 7,rider1 #aiaj71 ,chapter ,i41 8,on the ,doctrine of the ,indestructibility of ,matter40 ,as examples of these laws we may take the few following simple facts3-- #a4 ,pure water is found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the ratio of #ajjh parts by weight of the latter to #h parts by weight of the former2 and pure sulphur-dioxide1 to take another example1 is found always to consist of sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of #hjb parts by weight of sulphur to #h parts by weight of oxygen4 7,the ,law of ,constant ,proportion47 #b4 ,another compound is known consisting only of oxygen and hydrogen1 which1 however1 differs entirely in its properties from water4 ,it is found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the ratio of #ajjh parts by weight of the latter to #af parts by weight of the former1 i4e41 in it a definite weight of hydrogen is combined with an amount of oxygen exactly twice that which is combined with the same weight of hydrogen in water4 ,no definite compound has been discovered with a constitution intermediate between these two4 ,other compounds consisting only of sulphur and oxygen are also known4 ,one of these 7viz41 sulphur-trioxide1 or sulphuric anhydride7 is found always to consist of sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of #ece parts by weight of sulphur to #h parts by weight of oxygen4 ,we see1 therefore1 that the weights of sulphur combined with a definite weight of oxygen in the two compounds called respectively 8sulphur-dioxide0 and 8sulphur-trioxide10 are in the proportion of #hjb to #ece1 i4e41 #c 3 #b4 ,similar simple ratios are obtained in the case of all the other compounds4 7,the ,law of ,multiple ,proportions47 #c4 ,from the data given in 7#a7 above we can fix the combining number of hydrogen as #ajjh1 that of sulphur as #hjb4 ,now1 compounds are known containing sulphur and hydrogen1 and1 in each case1 the weight of sulphur combined with #ajjh grammes of hydrogen is found always to be either #hjb grammes or some multiple or submultiple of this quantity4 ,thus1 in the simplest compound of this sort1 containing only hydrogen and sulphur 7viz41 sulphuretted-hydrogen or hydrogen sulphide71 #ajjh grammes of hydrogen is found always to be combined with #afjd grammes of sulphur1 i4e41 exactly twice the above quantity4 7,the ,law of ,combining ,weights47 ,berthollet 7#agdh-ahbb7 denied the truth of the law of constant proportion1 and a controversy ensued between this chemist and ,proust 7#agee-ahbf71 who undertook a research to settle the question1 the results of which were in entire agreement with the law1 and were regarded as completely substantiating it4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 by ,worthington1 after ,allen ,,portrait ,,of ,,john ,,dalton4 ,to face page #ajj ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory4 #ge4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 ,john ,dalton 7see plate #ae7 put forward his ,atomic ,theory in explanation of these facts4 ,this theory assumes 7#a7 that all matter is made up of small indivisible and indestructible particles1 called 8atoms02 7#b7 that all atoms are not alike1 there being as many different sorts of atoms as there are elements2 7#c7 that the atoms constituting any one element are exactly alike and are of definite weight2 and 7#d7 that compounds are produced by the combination of different atoms4 ,now1 it is at once evident that if matter be so constituted1 the stoichiometric laws must necessarily follow4 ,for the smallest particle of any definite compound 7now called a 8molecule07 must consist of a definite assemblage of different atoms1 and these atoms are of definite weight3 whence the law of constant proportion4 ,one atom of one substance may combine with #a1 #b1 #c 4 4 4 atoms of some other substance1 but it cannot combine with some fractional part of an atom1 since the atoms are indivisible3 whence the law of multiple proportions4 ,and these laws holding good1 and the atoms being of definite weight1 the law of combining weights necessarily follows4 ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory gave a simple and intelligible explanation of these remarkable facts regarding the weights of substances entering into chemical combination1 and1 therefore1 gained universal acceptance4 ,but throughout the history of ,chemistry can be discerned a spirit of revolt against it as an explanation of the absolute constitution of matter4 ,the tendency of scientific philosophy has always been towards ,monism as opposed to ,dualism1 and here were not merely two eternals1 but several dozen2 ,dalton's theory denied the unity of the ,cosmos1 it lacked the unifying principle of the alchemists4 ,it is only in recent times that it has been recognised that a scientific hypothesis may be very useful without being altogether true4 ,as to the usefulness of ,dalton's theory there can be no question2 it has accomplished that which no other hypothesis could have done2 it rendered the concepts of a chemical element1 a chemical compound and a chemical reaction definite2 and has1 in a sense1 led to the majority of the discoveries in the domain of ,chemistry that have been made since its enunciation4 ,but as an expression of absolute truth1 ,dalton's theory1 as is very generally recognised nowadays1 fails to be satisfactory4 ,in the past1 however1 it has been the philosophers of the materialistic school of thought1 rather than the chemists qu chemists1 who have insisted on the absolute truth of the ,atomic ,theory2 ,kekul1 who by developing ,franklin's theory of atomicity or valency#ia made still more definite the atomic view of matter1 himself expressed grave doubts as to the absolute truth of ,dalton's theory2 but he regarded it as chemically true1 and thus voices what appears to be the opinion of the majority of chemists nowadays1 namely1 there are such things as chemical atoms and chemical elements1 incapable of being decomposed by purely chemical means1 but that such are not absolute atoms or absolute elements1 and consequently not impervious to all forms of action4 ,but of this more will be said later4 #ia ,the term 8valency0 is not altogether an easy one to define2 we will1 however1 here do our best to make plain its significance4 ,in a definite chemical compound we must assume that the atoms constituting each molecule are in some way bound together 7though not1 of course1 rigidly71 and we may speak of 8bonds0 or 8links of affinity10 taking care1 however1 not to interpret such terms too literally4 ,now1 the number of 8affinity links0 which one atom can exert is not unlimited2 indeed1 according to the valency theory as first formulated1 it is fixed and constant4 ,it is this number which is called the 8valency0 of the element2 but it is now known that the 8valency0 in most cases can vary between certain limits4 ,hydrogen1 however1 appears to be invariably univalent1 and is therefore taken as the unit of valency4 ,thus1 ,carbon is quadrivalent in the methane-molecule1 which consists of one atom of carbon combined with four atoms of hydrogen2 and ,oxygen is divalent in the water-molecule1 which consists of one atom of oxygen combined with two atoms of hydrogen4 ,hence1 we should expect to find one atom of carbon combining with two of oxygen1 which is the case in the carbon-dioxide--7carbonic anhydride7--molecule4 ,for a development of the thesis1 so far as the compounds of carbon are concerned1 that each specific 8affinity link0 corresponds in general to a definite and constant amount of energy1 which is evolved as heat on disruption of the bond1 the reader is referred to the present writer's monograph ,on the ,calculation of ,thermo-,chemical ,constants 7,arnold1 #aiji74 ,the phenomena of valency find their explanation in modern views concerning the constitution of atoms 7see #ha74 ,the ,determination of the ,atomic ,weights of the ,elements4 #gf4 ,with the acceptance of ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory1 it became necessary to determine the atomic weights of the various elements1 i4e41 not the absolute atomic weights1 but the relative weights of the various atoms with reference to one of them as unit4#ib ,we cannot in this place enter upon a discussion of the various difficulties1 both of an experimental and theoretical nature1 which were involved in this problem1 save to remark that the correct atomic weights could be arrived at only with the acceptance of ,avogadro's ,hypothesis4 ,this hypothesis1 which is to the effect that equal volumes of different gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of gaseous molecules1 was put forward in explanation of a number of facts connected with the physical behaviour of gases2 but its importance was for some time unrecognised1 owing to the fact that the distinction between atoms and molecules was not yet clearly drawn4 ,a list of those chemical substances at present recognised as 8elements10 together with their atomic weights1 will be found on pp4 #ajf1 #ajg4 #ib ,since hydrogen is the lightest of all known substances1 the unit1 ,hydrogen #a1 was at one time usually employed4 ,however1 it was seen to be more convenient to express the atomic weights in terms of the weight of the oxygen-atom1 and the unit1 ,oxygen #af is now always employed4 ,this value for the oxygen-atom was chosen so that the approximate atomic weights would in most cases remain unaltered by the change4 ,prout's ,hypothesis4 #gg4 ,it was observed by a chemist of the name of ,prout1 that1 the atomic weight of hydrogen being taken as the unit1 the atomic weights of nearly all the elements approximated to whole numbers2 and in #ahae he suggested as the reason for this regularity1 that all the elements consist solely of hydrogen4 ,prout's ,hypothesis received on the whole a very favourable reception2 it harmonised ,dalton's ,theory with the grand concept of the unity of matter--all matter was hydrogen in essence2 and ,thomas ,thomson undertook a research to demonstrate its truth4 ,on the other hand1 however1 the eminent ,swedish chemist1 ,berzelius1 who had carried out many atomic weight determinations1 criticised both ,prout's ,hypothesis and ,thomson's research 7which latter1 it is true1 was worthless7 in most severe terms2 for the hypothesis amounted to this--that the decimals in the atomic weights obtained experimentally by ,berzelius1 after so much labour1 were to be regarded as so many errors4 ,in #ahdd1 ,marignac suggested half the hydrogen atom as the unit1 for the element chlorine1 with an atomic weight of #cee1 would not fit in with ,prout's ,hypothesis as originally formulated2 and later1 ,dumas suggested one-quarter4 ,with this theoretical division of the hydrogen-atom1 the hypothesis lost its simplicity and charm1 and was doomed to downfall4 ,recent and most accurate atomic weight determinations show clearly that the atomic weights are not exactly whole numbers1 but that1 nevertheless1 the majority of them 7if expressed in terms of ,o #af as the unit7 do approximate very closely to such4 ,the ,hon4 ,r4 ,j4 ,strutt has recently calculated that the probability of this occurring1 in the case of certain of the commoner elements1 by mere chance is exceedingly small 7about #a in #a1jjj71ic and several attempts to explain this remarkable fact have been put forward4 ,modern scientific speculations concerning the constitution of atoms tend towards a modified form of ,prout's hypothesis1 or to the view that the atoms of other elements are1 in a manner1 polymerides of hydrogen and helium atoms4 ,as has been pointed out1 it is possible1 according to modern views1 for elements of different atomic weight to have identical chemical properties1 since these latter depend only upon the number of free electrons in the atom and not at all upon the massive central nucleus4 ,by a method somewhat similar to that used for determining the mass of kathode particles 7see #gi71 but applied to positively charged particles1 ,sir ,joseph ,thomson and ,dr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,aston discovered that the element neon was a mixture of two isotopic elements in unequal proportions1 one having an atomic mass of #bj1 the other 7present only to a slight extent7 having an atomic mass of #bb4 ,dr4 ,aston has perfected this method of analysing mixtures of isotopes and determining their atomic masses4#id ,the results are of great interest4 ,the atomic weight of hydrogen1 #ajjh1 is confirmed4 ,the elements helium1 carbon1 nitrogen1 oxygen1 fluorine1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 arsenic1 iodine and sodium are found to be simple bodies with whole-number atomic weights4 ,on the other hand1 boron1 neon1 silicon1 chlorine1 bromine1 krypton1 xenon1 mercury1 lithium1 potassium and rubidium are found to be mixtures4 ,what is specially of interest is that the indicated atomic mass of each of the constituents is a whole number4 ,thus chlorine1 whose atomic weight is #cedf1 is found to be a mixture of two chemically-identical elements whose atomic weights are #ce and #cg4 ,some of the elements1 e4g41 xenon1 are mixtures of more than two isotopes4 #ic ,hon4 ,r4 ,j4 ,,strutt3 8,on the ,tendency of the ,atomic ,weights to approximate to ,whole ,numbers10 ,philosophical ,magazine1 #f1 vol4 i4 7#aija71 pp4 #caa et seq4 #id ,f4 ,w4 ,,aston3 8,mass-spectra and ,atomic ,weights10 ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 cix4 7#aiba71 pp4 #fgg et seq4 ,it is highly probable that what is true of the elements investigated by ,dr4 ,aston is true of the remainder4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that the irregularities presented by the atomic weights of the ordinary elements1 which have so much puzzled men of science in the past1 are due to the fact that these elements are1 in many cases1 mixtures4 ,as concerns hydrogen1 it is only reasonable to suppose that the close packing of electrically charged particles should give rise to a slight decrease in their total mass1 so that the atomic weights of other elements referred to ,h #a should be slightly less than whole numbers1 or1 what is the same thing1 that the atomic weight of hydrogen referred to ,o #af should be slightly more than unity4 ,the 8,periodic ,law40 #gh4 ,a remarkable property of the atomic weights was discovered1 in the sixties1 independently by ,lothar ,meyer and ,mendeleff4 ,they found that the elements could be arranged in rows in the order of their atomic weights so that similar elements would be found in the same columns4 ,a modernised form of the ,periodic ,table will be found on pp4 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,it will be noticed1 for example1 that the 8alkali0 metals1 ,lithium1 ,sodium1 ,rubidium and ,csium1 which resemble one another very closely1 fall in ,column #a2 the 8alkaline earth0 metals occur together in ,column #b2 though in each case these are accompanied by certain elements with somewhat different properties4 ,much the same holds good in the case of the other columns of this ,table2 there is manifested a remarkable regularity1 with certain still more remarkable divergences 7see notes appended to ,table on pp4 #ajf1 #ajg74 ,this regularity exhibited by the 8elements0 is of considerable importance1 since it shows that1 in general1 the properties of the 8elements0 are periodic functions of their atomic weights2 and1 together with certain other remarkable properties of the 8elements10 distinguishes them sharply from the 8compounds40 ,it may be concluded with tolerable certainty1 therefore1 that if the 8elements0 are in reality of a compound nature1 they are all1 in general1 compounds of a like nature distinct from that of other compounds4 ,,the ,,periodic ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,elements4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,hydro- ,hydro- gena gen ,h ,h #ajjh #ajjh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,helium ,lithium,gluci- ,boron ,carbon ,nitro- ,oxygen ,fluo- num gen rine ,he ,li ,gl ,b ,c ,n ,o ,f #djj #fid #ia #aji #abjje #adjjh #afjj #aij ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,neon ,sodium ,magne- ,alumin-,silicon,phos- ,sulphur,chlo- sium ium phorus rine ,ne ,na ,mg ,al ,si ,p ,s ,cl #bjb #bcjj #bdcb #bga #bhc #cajd #cbjf #cedf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,argon ,potas- ,calcium,scan- ,tita- ,vana- ,chro- ,manga- ,iron siumb dium nium dium mium nese ,fe #eehd;c ,a ,k ,ca ,sc ,ti ,v ,cr ,mn ,cobalt #cii #ciaj #djjg #dea #dha #eaj #ebj #edic ,co #ehig ,nickel ,ni #ehfh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,copper ,zinc ,gallium,germa- ,arsenic,sele- ,bromine nium nium ,cu ,zn ,ga ,ge ,as ,se ,br #fceg #fecg #gja #gbe #gdif #gib #giib ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,krypton,rubi- ,stron- ,yttrium,zirco- ,colum- ,molyb- 8 ,ruthe- dium tium nium bium denum nium ,kr ,rb ,sr ,y ,zr ,cb ,mo ,ru #hbib #hede #hgfc #hicc #ijf #ica #ifj #ajag ,rhodium ,rh #ajbi ,palla- dium ,pd #ajfg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,silver ,cadmium,indium ,tin ,antimo-,tellu- ,iodine ny rium d ,ag ,cd ,in ,sn ,sb ,te ,i 7or #ajghh #aabdj #aadh #aahg #abjb #abge ,j7 #abfib ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,xenon ,csium ,barium ,lantha-,cerium 8 8 8 8 num e ,xe ,cs ,ba ,la ,ce #acjb #acbha #acgcg #acij #adjbe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ 8 8 8 8 8 ,tanta- ,tung- 8 ,osmium lum sten ,os ,ta ,w #aiji #ahae #ahdj ,iridium ,ir #aica ,platinum ,pt #aieb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,gold ,mercury,thal- ,lead ,bismuth,polo- 8 lium nium ,au ,hg ,tl ,pb ,bi 7#baj7 #aigb #bjjf #bjdj #bjgbj #bjhj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,emana- 8 ,radium ,acti- ,thorium,ekatan-,uranium 8 8 tion nium talum 7,niton7 ,ra 8 ,th 8 ,u #bbbj #bbfj #bcbae #bchb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,notes4 ,there are several somewhat different forms of this ,periodic ,table4 ,this is one of the simplest1 but it lacks certain advantages of some of the more complicated forms4 ,the atomic weights given are those of the ,international ,atomic ,weights ,committee for #aibj-a4 ,they are calculated on the basis1 ,oxygen #af4 ,the number of decimal places given in each case indicates the degree of accuracy with which each atomic weight has been determined4 ,the letter or letters underneath the name of each element is the symbol by which it is invariably designated by chemists4 ,the number above each column indicates the valency which the elements of each group exhibit towards oxygen4 ,many of the elements are exceptional in this respect4 a3 ,the exact position of ,hydrogen is in dispute4 b3 ,the positions of ,argon and ,potassium have been inverted in order that these elements may fall in the right columns with the elements they resemble2 d3 so also have the positions of ,tellurium and ,iodine4 c3 ,the whole of 8,group #h0 forms an exception to the ,table4 e3 ,there are a number of ill-defined rare earth metals with atomic weights lying between those of ,cerium and ,tantalum4 ,they all appear to resemble the elements of 8,group #c10 so that their positions in the ,table cannot be decided with accuracy4 ,it is now some years since the late ,sir ,william ,crookes attempted to explain the periodicity of the properties of the elements on the theory that they have all been evolved by a conglomerating process from some primal stuff--the protyle--consisting of very small particles4 ,he represented the action of this generative cause by means of a 8figure of eight0 spiral1 along which the elements are placed at regular intervals1 so that similar elements come underneath one another1 as in ,mendeleff's table1 though the grouping differs in some respects4 ,the slope of the curve is supposed to represent the decline of some factor 7e4g41 temperature7 conditioning the process1 which process is assumed to be of a recurrent nature1 like the swing of a pendulum4 ,after the completion of one swing 7to keep to the illustration of a pendulum7 whereby one series of elements is produced1 owing to the decline of the above-mentioned factor1 the same series of elements is not again the result as would otherwise be the case1 but a somewhat different series is produced1 each member of which resembles the corresponding member of the former series4 ,thus1 if the first series contains1 for example1 helium1 lithium1 carbon1 c41 the second series will contain instead1 argon1 potassium1 titanium1 c4 ,the whole theory1 though highly interesting1 is1 however1 by no means free from defects4 ,the ,corpuscular ,theory of ,matter4 #gi4 ,we must now turn our attention to those recent views of the constitution of matter which originated to a great extent in the investigations of the passage of electricity through gases at very low pressures4 ,it will be possible1 however1 on the present occasion1 to give only the very briefest account of the subject2 but a fuller treatment is rendered unnecessary by the fact that these and allied investigations and the theories to which they have given rise have been fully treated in several well-known works1 by various authorities on the subject1 which have appeared during the last few years4#ie #ie ,we have found ,prof4 ,harry ,jones' ,the ,electrical ,nature of ,matter and ,radioactivity 7#aijf71 ,mr4 ,soddy's ,radioactivity 7#aijd71 and ,mr4 ,whetham's ,the ,recent ,development of ,physical ,science 7#aiji7 particularly interesting4 ,mention1 of course1 should also be made of the standard works of ,prof4 ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson and ,prof4 ,rutherford4 ,when an electrical discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube1 invisible rays are emitted from the kathode1 generally with the production of a greenish-yellow fluorescence where they strike the glass walls of the tube4 ,these rays are called 8kathode rays40 ,at one time they were regarded as waves in the ether1 but it was shown by ,sir ,william ,crookes that they consist of small electrically charged particles1 moving with a very high velocity4 ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson was able to determine the ratio of the charge carried by these particles to their mass or inertia2 he found that this ratio was constant whatever gas was contained in the vacuum tube1 and much greater than the corresponding ratio for the hydrogen ion 7electrically charged hydrogen atom7 in electrolysis4 ,by a skilful method1 based on the fact discovered by ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,r4 ,wilson1 that charged particles can serve as nuclei for the condensation of water-vapour1 he was further able to determine the value of the electrical charge carried by these particles1 which was found to be constant also1 and equal to the charge carried by univalent ions1 e4g41 hydrogen1 in electrolysis4 ,hence1 it follows that the mass of these kathode particles must be much smaller than the hydrogen ion1 the actual ratio being about #a 3 #agjj4 ,the first theory put forward by ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson in explanation of these facts1 was that these kathode particles 78corpuscles0 as he termed them7 were electrically charged portions of matter1 much smaller than the smallest atom2 and since the same sort of corpuscle is obtained whatever gas is contained in the vacuum tube1 it is reasonable to conclude that the corpuscle is the common unit of all matter4 ,proof that the ,electrons are not ,matter4 #hj4 ,this eminent physicist1 however1 had shown mathematically that a charged particle moving with a very high velocity 7approaching that of light7 would exhibit an appreciable increase in mass or inertia due to the charge1 the magnitude of such inertia depending on the velocity of the particle4 ,this was experimentally verified by ,kaufmann1 who determined the velocities1 and the ratios between the electrical charge and the inertia1 of various kathode particles and similar particles which are emitted by compounds of radium 7see #hi and #ij74 ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson calculated these values on the assumption that the inertia of such particles is entirely of electrical origin1 and thereby obtained values in remarkable agreement with the experimental4 ,there is1 therefore1 no reason for supposing the corpuscle to be matter at all2 indeed1 if it were1 the above agreement would not be obtained4 ,as ,professor ,jones says3 8,since we know things only by their properties1 and since all the properties of the corpuscle are accounted for by the electrical charge associated with it1 why assume that the corpuscle contains anything but the electrical charge8 ,it is obvious that there is no reason for doing so4 8,the corpuscle is1 then1 nothing but a disembodied electrical charge1 containing nothing material1 as we have been accustomed to use that term4 ,it is electricity1 and nothing but electricity4 ,with this new conception a new term was introduced1 and1 now1 instead of speaking of the corpuscle we speak of the electron40#if ,applying this modification to the above view of the constitution of matter1 we have what is called 8the electronic theory10 namely1 that the material atoms consist of electrons1 or units of electricity in rapid motion2 which amounts to this--that matter is simply an electrical phenomenon4 #if ,h4 ,c4 ,,jones3 ,the ,electrical ,nature of ,matter and ,radioactivity 7#aijf71 p4 #ba4 ,the ,electronic ,theory of ,matter4 #ha4 ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson has elaborated this theory of the nature and constitution of matter2 he has shown what systems of electrons would be stable1 and has attempted to find therein the significance of ,mendeleff's generalisation and the explanation of valency4 ,there can be no doubt that there is a considerable element of truth in the electronic theory of matter2 the one characteristic property of matter1 i4e41 inertia1 can be accounted for electrically4 ,the fundamental difficulty is that the electrons are units of negative electricity1 whereas matter is electrically neutral4 ,several theories have been put forward to surmount this difficulty4 ,certainly the electron is a constituent of matter2 but is it the sole constituent8 ,recent research indicates that1 as already pointed out1 all atoms consist of two distinct portions1 a massive central nucleus1 whose net charge is positive1 surrounded by a number of electrons1 just sufficient to neutralize this charge4 ,the point of greatest interest is that the indicated number of free electrons is exactly the number which expresses the position of the element in the ,periodic ,table1 reckoning helium as #b1 lithium as #c1 and so on2 and it would seem that the chemical properties of the elements are determined entirely by these electrons1 and are1 therefore1 not1 strictly speaking1 periodic functions of their atomic weights1 as was formerly thought 7 #gh71 but of their atomic numbers4 ,the exact nature of the nuclei of the various atoms has yet to be determined3 in the case of the atoms heavier than helium they would appear to be made up of the nuclei of hydrogen and 7or7 helium atoms together with--in many cases--electrons insufficient in number to neutralize the positive charges associated with these4 ,the ,etheric ,theory of ,matter4 #hb4 ,the analysis of matter has been carried a step further4 ,a philosophical view of the ,cosmos involves the assumption of an absolutely continuous and homogeneous medium filling all space1 for an absolute vacuum is unthinkable1 and if it were supposed that the stuff filling all space is of an atomic structure1 the question arises1 ,what occupies the interstices between its atoms8 ,this ubiquitous medium is termed by the scientists of to-day 8the ,ether of ,space40 ,moreover1 such a medium as the ,ether is demanded by the phenomena of light4 ,it appears1 however1 that the ether of space has another and a still more important function than the transmission of light3 the idea that matter has its explanation therein has been developed by ,sir ,oliver ,lodge4 ,the evidence certainly points to the conclusion that matter is some sort of singularity in the ether1 probably a stress centre4 ,we have been too much accustomed to think of the ether as something excessively light and quite the reverse of massive or dense1 in which it appears we have been wrong4 ,sir ,oliver ,lodge calculates that the density of the ether is far greater than that of the most dense forms of matter2 not that matter is to be thought of as a rarefaction of the ether1 for the ether within matter is as dense as that without4 ,what we call matter1 however1 is not a continuous substance2 it consists1 rather1 of a number of widely separated particles1 whence its comparatively small density compared with the perfectly continuous ether4 ,further1 if there is a difficulty in conceiving how a perfect fluid like the ether can give rise to a solid body possessed of such properties as rigidity1 impenetrability and elasticity1 we must remember that all these properties can be produced by means of motion4 ,a jet of water moving with a sufficient velocity behaves like a rigid and impenetrable solid1 whilst a revolving disc of paper exhibits elasticity and can act as a circular saw4#ig ,it appears1 therefore1 that the ancient doctrine of the alchemistic essence is fundamentally true after all1 that out of the 8,one ,thing0 all material things have been produced by adaptation or modification2 and1 as we have already noticed 7 #fj71 there also appears to be some resemblance between the concept of the electron and that of the seed of gold1 which seed1 it should be borne in mind1 was regarded by the alchemists as the common seed of all metals4 #ig ,see ,sir ,,oliver ,,lodge1 ,f4,r4,s43 ,the ,ether of ,space 7#aiji74 ,further ,evidence of the ,complexity of the ,atoms4 #hc4 ,there are also certain other facts which appear to demand such a modification of ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory as is found in the ,electronic ,theory4 ,one of the characteristics of the chemical elements is that each one gives a spectrum peculiar to itself4 ,the spectrum of an element must1 therefore1 be due to its atoms1 which in some way are able1 at a sufficiently high temperature1 to act upon the ether so as to produce vibrations of definite and characteristic wave-length4 ,now1 in many cases the number of lines of definite wave-length observed in such a spectrum is considerable1 for example1 hundreds of different lines have been observed in the arc-spectrum of iron4 ,but it is incredible that an atom1 if it were a simple unit1 would give rise to such a number of different and definite vibrations1 and the only reasonable conclusion is that the atoms must be complex in structure4 ,we may here mention that spectroscopic examination of various heavenly bodies leads to the conclusion that there is some process of evolution at work building up complex elements from simpler ones1 since the hottest nebul appear to consist of but a few simple elements1 whilst cooler bodies exhibit a greater complexity4 ,views of ,wald and ,ostwald4 #hd4 ,such modifications of the atomic theory as those we have briefly discussed above1 although profoundly modifying1 and1 indeed1 controverting the philosophical significance of ,dalton's theory as originally formulated1 leave its chemical significance practically unchanged4 ,the atoms can be regarded no longer as the eternal1 indissoluble gods of ,nature that they were once supposed to be2 thus1 ,materialism is deprived of what was thought to be its scientific basis4#ih ,but the science of ,chemistry is unaffected thereby2 the atoms are not the ultimate units out of which material things are built1 but the atoms cannot be decomposed by purely chemical means2 the 8elements0 are not truly elemental1 but they are chemical elements4 ,however1 the atomic theory has been subjected to a far more searching criticism4 ,wald argues that substances obey the law of definite proportions because of the way in which they are prepared2 chemists refuse1 he says1 to admit any substance as a definite chemical compound unless it does obey this law4 ,wald's opinions have been supported by ,professor ,ostwald1 who has attempted to deduce the other stoichiometric laws on these grounds without assuming any atomic hypothesis#ii2 but these new ideas do not appear to have gained the approval of chemists in general4 ,it is not to be supposed that chemists will give up without a struggle a mental tool of such great utility as ,dalton's theory1 in spite of its defects1 has proved itself to be4 ,there does seem1 however1 to be logic in the arguments of ,wald and ,ostwald1 but the trend of recent scientific theory and research does not appear to be in the direction of ,wald's views4 ,certainly1 however1 it appears that1 on the one hand1 the atomic theory is not necessitated by the so-called 8stoichiometric laws02 but1 on the other hand1 a molecular constitution of matter seems to be demanded by the phenomenon known as the 8,brownian ,movement10 i4e41 the spontaneous1 irregular and apparently perpetual movement of microscopic portions of solid matter when immersed in a liquid medium2 such movement appearing to be explicable only as the result of the motion of the molecules of which the liquid in question is built up4#ajj #ih ,for a critical examination of ,materialism1 the reader is referred to the present writer's ,matter1 ,spirit and the ,cosmos 7,rider1 #aiaj71 especially ,chapters ,i4 and ,,iv4 #ii ,w4 ,,ostwald3 8,faraday ,lecture10 ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 lxxxv4 7#aijd71 pp4 #ejf et seq4 ,see also ,w4 ,,ostwald3 ,the ,fundamental ,principles of ,chemistry 7translated by ,h4 ,w4 ,morse1 #aiji71 especially ,chapters ,,vi41 ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 #ajj ,for an account of this singular phenomenon1 see ,prof4 ,,jean ,,perrin3 ,brownian ,movement and ,molecular ,reality 7translated from the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 #hme ,sries1 ,september1 #aiji1 by ,f4 ,soddy1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 #aiaj74 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,modern ,,alchemy 8,modern ,alchemy40 #he4 ,correctly speaking1 there is no such thing as 8,modern ,alchemy02 not that ,mysticism is dead1 or that men no longer seek to apply the principles of ,mysticism to phenomena on the physical plane1 but they do so after another manner from that of the alchemists4 ,a new science1 however1 is born amongst us1 closely related on the one hand to ,chemistry1 on the other to ,physics1 but dealing with changes more profound and reactions more deeply seated than are dealt with by either of these2 a science as yet without a name1 unless it be the not altogether satisfactory one of 8,radioactivity40 ,it is this science1 or1 perhaps we should say1 a certain aspect of it1 to which we refer 7it may be fantastically7 by the expression 8,modern ,alchemy03 the aptness of the title we hope to make plain in the course of the present chapter4 ,x-rays and ,becquerel rays4 #hf4 ,as is commonly known1 what are called ,x-rays are produced when an electric discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube4 ,it has been shown that these rays are a series of irregular pulses in the ether1 which are set up when the kathode particles strike the walls of the glass vacuum tube1#aja and it was found that more powerful effects can be produced by inserting a disc of platinum in the path of the kathode particles4 ,it was ,m4 ,becquerel who first discovered that there are substances which naturally emit radiations similar to ,x-rays4 ,he found that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate from which they were carefully screened1 and he also showed that these uranium radiations1 or 8,becquerel rays10 resemble ,x-rays in other particulars4 ,it was already known that certain substances fluoresce 7emit light7 in the dark after having been exposed to sunlight1 and it was thought at first that the above phenomenon exhibited by uranium salts was of a like nature1 since certain uranium salts are fluorescent2 but ,m4 ,becquerel found that uranium salts which had never been exposed to sunlight were still capable of affecting a photographic plate1 and that this remarkable property was possessed by all uranium salts1 whether fluorescent or not4 ,this phenomenon is known as 8radioactivity10 and bodies which exhibit it are said to be 8radioactive40 ,schmidt found that thorium compounds possess a similar property1 and ,professor ,rutherford showed that thorium compounds evolved also something resembling a gas4 ,he called this an 8emanation40 #aja ,they must not be confused with the greenish-yellow phosphorescence which is also produced3 the ,x-rays are invisible4 ,the ,discovery of ,radium4 #hg4 ,mme4 ,curie#ajb determined the radioactivity of many uranium and thorium compounds1 and found that there was a proportion between the radioactivity of such compounds and the quantity of uranium or thorium in them1 with the remarkable exception of certain natural ores1 which had a radioactivity much in excess of the normal1 and1 indeed1 in certain cases1 much greater than pure uranium4 ,in order to throw some light on this matter1 ,mme4 ,curie prepared one of these ores by a chemical process and found that it possessed a normal radioactivity4 ,the only logical conclusion to be drawn from these facts was that the ores in question must contain some unknown1 highly radioactive substance1 and the ,curies were able1 after very considerable labour1 to extract from pitchblende 7the ore with the greatest radioactivity7 minute quantities of the salts of two new elements--which they named 8,polonium0 and 8,radium0 respectively--both of which were extremely radioactive4 #ajb ,see ,madame ,,sklodowska ,,curie',s ,radio-active ,substances 7#bnd ed41 #aijd74 ,m4 ,debierne has obtained a third radioactive substance from pitchblende1 which he has called 8,actinium40 ,chemical ,properties of ,radium4 #hh4 ,radium is an element resembling calcium1 strontium1 and barium in chemical properties2 its atomic weight was determined by ,mme4 ,curie1 and found to be about #bbe1 according to her first experiments2 a redetermination gave a slightly higher value1 which has been confirmed by a further investigation carried out by ,sir ,t4 ,e4 ,thorpe4#ajc ,radium gives a characteristic spectrum1 and is intensely radioactive4 ,it should be noted that up to the middle of the year #aiaj the element radium itself had not been prepared2 in all the experiments carried out radium salts were employed 7i4e41 certain compounds of radium with other elements71 generally radium chloride and radium bromide4 ,in that year1 however1 ,mme4 ,curie1 in conjunction with ,m4 ,debierne1 obtained the free metal4 ,it is described as a white1 shining metal resembling the other alkaline earth metals4 ,it reacts very violently with water1 chars paper with which it is allowed to come in contact1 and blackens in the air1 probably owing to the formation of a nitride4 ,it fuses at #gjj ,c41 and is more volatile than barium4#ajd #ajc ,see ,sir ,t4 ,e4 ,,thorpe3 8,on the ,atomic ,weight of ,radium0 7,bakerian ,lecture for #aijg4 ,delivered before the ,royal ,society1 ,june #bj1 #aijg71 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 vol4 lxxx4 pp4 #bih et seq42 reprinted in ,the ,chemical ,news1 vol4 xcvii4 pp4 #bbi et seq4 7,may #ae1 #aijh74 #ajd ,madame ,p4 ,,curie and ,m4 ,a4 ,,debierne3 8,sur le radium mtallique10 ,comptes ,rendus hebdomadaires des ,sances de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 cli4 7#aiaj71 pp4 #ebc-ebe4 7,for an ,english translation of this paper see ,the ,chemical ,news1 vol4 cii4 p4 #age47 ,the ,radioactivity of ,radium4 #hi4 ,radium salts give off three distinct sorts of rays1 referred to by the ,greek letters 1 1 4 ,the -rays have been shown to consist of electrically charged 7positive7 particles1 with a mass approximately equal to that of four hydrogen atoms2 they are slightly deviated by a magnetic field1 and do not possess great penetrative power4 ,the -rays are similar to the kathode rays1 and consist of 7negative7 electrons2 they are strongly deviated by a magnetic field1 in a direction opposite to that in which the -particles are deviated1 and possess medium penetrative power1 passing for the most part through a thin sheet of metal4 ,the -rays resemble ,x-rays2 they possess great penetrative power1 and are not deviated by a magnetic field4 ,the difference in the effect of the magnetic field on these rays1 and the difference in their penetrative power1 led to their detection and allows of their separate examination4 ,radium salts emit also an emanation1 which tends to become occluded in the solid salt1 but can be conveniently liberated by dissolving the salt in water1 or by heating it4 ,the emanation exhibits the characteristic properties of a gas1 it obeys ,boyle's ,law 7i4e41 its volume varies inversely with its pressure71 and it can be condensed to a liquid at low temperatures2 its density as determined by the diffusion method is about #ajj4 ,attempts to prepare chemical compounds of the emanation have failed1 and in this respect it resembles the rare gases of the atmosphere--helium1 neon1 argon1 krypton1 and xenon--whence it is probable that its molecules are monatomic1 so that a density of #ajj would give its atomic weight as #bjj4aje ,as can be seen from the table on pp4 #ajf1 #ajg1 an atomic weight of about #bbj corresponds to a position in the column containing the rare gases in the periodic system4 ,that the emanation actually has an atomic weight of these dimensions was confirmed by further experiments carried out by the late ,sir ,william ,ramsay and ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,gray4#ajf ,these chemists determined the density of the emanation by actually weighing minute quantities of known volume of the substance1 sealed up in small capillary tubes1 a specially sensitive balance being employed4 ,values for the density varying from #ajh to #aac1 corresponding to values for the atomic weight varying from #baf to #bbg1 were thereby obtained4 ,sir ,william ,ramsay1 therefore1 considered that there could no longer be any doubt that the emanation was one of the elements of the group of chemically inert gases4 ,he proposed to call it ,niton1 and1 for reasons which we shall note later1 considered that in all probability it had an atomic weight of about #bbb4 #aje ,this follows from ,avogadro's ,hypothesis1 see #gf4 #ajf ,sir ,,william ,,ramsay and ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,gray3 8,la densit de l'manation du radium10 ,comptes ,rendus hebdomadaires des ,sances de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 cvi4 7#aiaj71 pp4 #abf et seq4 ,the ,disintegration of the ,radium ,atom4 #ij4 ,radium salts possess another very remarkable property1 namely1 that of continuously emitting light and heat4 ,it seemed1 at first1 that here was a startling contradiction to the law of the conservation of energy1 but the whole mystery becomes comparatively clear in terms of the corpuscular or the electronic theory of matter4 ,the radium-atom is a system of a large number 7see #ha7 of corpuscles or electrons1 and contains in virtue of their motion an enormous amount of energy4 ,but it is known from ,chemistry that atomic systems 7i4e41 molecules7 which contain very much energy are unstable and liable to explode4 ,the same law holds good on the more interior plane--the radium-atom is liable to1 and actually does1 explode4 ,and the result8 ,energy is set free1 and manifests itself partly as heat and light4 ,some free electrons are shot off 7the -rays71 which1 striking the undecomposed particles of salt1 give rise to pulses in the ether 7the -rays71#ajg just as the kathode particles give rise to ,x-rays when they strike the walls of the vacuum tube or a platinum disc placed in their path4 ,the - and -rays do not1 however1 result immediately from the exploding radium-atoms1 the initial products being the emanation and one -particle from each radium-atom destroyed4 #ajg ,this view regarding the -rays is not1 however1 universally accepted1 some scientists regarding them as consisting of a stream of particles moving with very high velocities4 8,induced ,radioactivity40 #ia4 ,radium salts have the property of causing surrounding objects to become temporally radioactive4 ,this 8induced radioactivity10 as it may be called1 is found to be due to the emanation1 which is itself radioactive 7it emits -rays only71 and is decomposed into minute traces of solid radioactive deposits4 ,by examining the rate of decay of the activity of the deposit1 it has been found that it is undergoing a series of sub-atomic changes1 the products being termed ,radium ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c4 ,it has been proved that all the - and -rays emitted by radium salts are really due to certain of these secondary products4 ,radium ,f is thought to be identical with ,polonium 7 #hg74 ,another product is also obtained by these decompositions1 with which we shall deal later 7 #id74 ,properties of ,uranium and ,thorium4 #ib4 ,uranium and thorium differ in one important respect from radium1 inasmuch as the first product of the decomposition of the uranium and thorium atoms is in both cases solid4 ,sir ,william ,crookes#ajh was able to separate from uranium salts by chemical means a small quantity of an intensely radioactive substance1 which he called ,uranium ,x1 the residual uranium having lost most of its activity2 and ,m4 ,becquerel1 on repeating the experiment1 found that the activity of the residual uranium was slowly regained1 whilst that of the uranium ,x decayed4 ,this is most simply explained by the theory that uranium first changes into uranium ,x4 ,it has been suggested that radium may be the final product of the breaking up of the uranium-atom2 at any rate1 it is quite certain that radium must be evolved in some way1 as otherwise there would be none in existence--it would all have decomposed4 ,this suggestion has been experimentally confirmed1 the growth of radium in large quantities of a solution of purified uranyl nitrate having been observed4 ,uranium gives no emanation4 ,thorium probably gives at least three solid products--,meso-thorium1 ,radio-thorium1 and ,thorium ,x1 the last of which yields an emanation resembling that obtained from radium1 but not identical with it4 #ajh ,sir ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s43 8,radio-activity of ,uranium10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 vol4 lxvi4 7#aijj71 pp4 #dji et seq4 ,the ,radium ,emanation4 #ic4 ,we must now more fully consider the radium emanation--a substance with more astounding properties than even the radium compounds themselves4 ,by distilling off the emanation from some radium bromide1 and measuring the quantities of heat given off by the emanation and the radium salt respectively1 ,professors ,rutherford and ,barnes#aji proved that nearly three-fourths of the total amount of heat given out by a radium salt comes from the minute quantity of emanation that it contains4 ,the amount of energy liberated as heat during the decay of the emanation is enormous2 one cubic centimetre liberates about four million times as much heat as is obtained by the combustion of an equal volume of hydrogen4 ,undoubtedly this must indicate some profound change1 and one may well ask1 ,what is the ultimate product of the decomposition of the emanation8 #aji ,e4 ,,rutherford1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,h4 ,t4 ,,barnes1 ,d4,sc43 8,heating ,effect of the ,radium ,emanation10 ,philosophical ,magazine #f1 vol4 vii4 7#aijd71 pp4 #bjb et seq4 ,the ,production of ,helium from ,radium4 #id4 ,it had been observed already that the radioactive minerals on heating give off ,helium--a gaseous element1 characterised by a particular yellow line in its spectrum--and it seemed not unlikely that helium might be the ultimate decomposition product of the emanation4 ,a research to settle this point was undertaken by ,sir ,william ,ramsay and ,mr4 ,soddy1#aaj and a preliminary experiment having confirmed the above speculation1 they carried out further very careful experiments4 8,the maximum amount of the emanation obtained from #ej milligrams of radium bromide was conveyed by means of oxygen into a ,u-tube cooled in liquid air1 and the latter was then extracted by the pump40 ,the spectrum was observed2 it 8was apparently a new one1 probably that of the emanation itself4 4 4 4 ,after standing from ,july #ag to #ba the helium spectrum appeared1 and the characteristic lines were observed40 ,sir ,william ,ramsay performed a further experiment with a similar result1 in which the radium salt had been first of all heated in a vacuum for some time1 proving that the helium obtained could not have been occluded in it2 though the fact that the helium spectrum did not immediately appear1 in itself proves this point4 ,sir ,william ,ramsay's results were confirmed by further careful experiments by ,sir ,james ,dewar and other chemists4 ,it was suggested1 therefore1 that the -particle consists of an electrically charged helium-atom1 and not only is this view in agreement with the value of the mass of this particle as determined experimentally1 but it has been completely demonstrated by ,professor ,rutherford and ,mr4 ,royds4 ,these chemists performed an experiment in which the emanation from about one-seventh of a gramme of radium was enclosed in a thin-walled tube1 through the walls of which the -particles could pass1 but which were impervious to gases4 ,this tube was surrounded by an outer jacket1 which was evacuated4 ,after a time the presence of helium in the space between the inner tube and the outer jacket was observed spectroscopically4#aaa ,now1 the emanation-atom results from the radium-atom by the expulsion of one -particle2 and since this latter consists of an electrically charged helium-atom1 it follows that the emanation must have an atomic weight of #bbf - #d1 i4e41 #bbb4 ,this value is in agreement with ,sir ,william ,ramsay's determination of the density of the emanation4 ,we may represent the degradation of the radium-atom1 therefore1 by the following scheme3-- -particle 7,helium-atom7 _/ #d ,radium-atom -particle 7,helium-atom7 #bbf _/ #d ,emanation 7,niton-atom7 #bbb ,radium-,a1 c4 #aaj ,sir ,,william ,,ramsay and ,,frederick ,,soddy3 8,experiments in ,radioactivity and the ,production of ,helium from ,radium10 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 vol4 lxxii4 7#aijc71 pp4 #bjd et seq4 #aaa ,e4 ,,rutherford1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,t4 ,,royds1 ,m4,sc43 8,the ,nature of the -,particle from ,radio-active ,substances10 ,philosophical ,magazine #f1 vol4 xvii4 7#aiji71 pp4 #bha et seq4 ,nature of this ,change4 #ie4 ,here1 then1 for the first time in the history of ,chemistry1 we have the undoubted formation of one chemical element from another1 for1 leaving out of the question the nature of the emanation1 there can be no doubt that radium is a chemical element4 ,this is a point which must be insisted upon1 for it has been suggested that radium may be a compound of helium with some unknown element2 or1 perhaps1 a compound of helium with lead1 since it has been shown that lead is probably one of the end products of the decomposition of radium4 ,the following considerations1 however1 show this view to be altogether untenable3 7i47 ,all attempts to prepare compounds of helium with other elements have failed4 7ii47 ,radium possesses all the properties of a chemical element2 it has a characteristic spectrum1 and falls in that column in the ,periodic ,table with those elements which it resembles as to its chemical properties4 7iii47 ,the quantity of heat liberated on the decomposition of the emanation is1 as we have already indicated1 out of all proportion to that obtained even in the most violent chemical reactions2 and 7iv47 one very important fact has been observed1 namely1 that the rate of decay of the emanation is unaffected by even extreme changes of temperature1 whereas chemical actions are always affected in rate by changes of temperature4 ,it will also be advisable1 perhaps1 to indicate some of the differences between helium and the emanation4 ,the latter is a heavy gas1 condensable to a liquid by liquid air 7recently it has been solidified#aab72 whereas helium is the lightest of all known gases with the exception of hydrogen and has been liquefied only by the most persistent effort4#aac ,the emanation1 moreover1 is radioactive1 giving off -particles1 whereas helium does not possess this property4 #aab ,by ,ramsay4 ,see ,proceedings of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 xxv4 7#aiji71 pp4 #hb and #hc4 #aac ,by ,professor ,onnes4 ,see ,chemical ,news1 vol4 xcviii4 p4 #cg 7,july #bd1 #aijh74 ,is this ,change a true ,transmutation8 #if4 ,it has been pointed out1 however1 that 7in a sense7 this change 7viz41 of emanation into helium7 is not quite what has been meant by the expression 8transmutation of the elements02 for the reason that it is a spontaneous change2 no effort of ours can bring it about or cause it to cease4#aad ,but the fact of the change does go to prove that the chemical elements are not the discrete units of matter that they were supposed to be4 ,and since it appears that all matter is radioactive1 although 7save in these exceptional cases7 in a very slight degree1#aae we here have evidence of a process of evolution at work among the chemical elements4 ,the chemical elements are not permanent2 they are all undergoing change2 and the common elements merely mark those points where the rate of the evolutionary process is at its slowest4 7,see also #gh and #hc47 ,thus1 the essential truth in the old alchemistic doctrine of the growth of metals is vindicated1 for the metals do grow in the womb of ,nature1 although the process may be far slower than appears to have been imagined by certain of the alchemists1#aaf and although gold may not be the end product4 ,as writes ,professor ,sir ,w4 ,tilden3 84 4 4 ,it appears that modern ideas as to the genesis of the elements1 and hence of all matter1 stand in strong contrast with those which chiefly prevailed among experimental philosophers from the time of ,newton1 and seem to reflect in an altered form the speculative views of the ancients40 84 4 4 ,it seems probable10 he adds1 8that the chemical elements1 and hence all material substances of which the earth1 the sea1 the air1 and the host of heavenly bodies are all composed1 resulted from a change1 corresponding to condensation1 in something of which we have no direct and intimate knowledge4 ,some have imagined this primal essence of all things to be identical with the ether of space4 ,as yet we know nothing with certainty1 but it is thought that by means of the spectroscope some stages of the operation may be seen in progress in the nebul and stars4 4 4 40#aag ,we have next to consider whether there is any experimental evidence showing it to be possible 7using the phraseology of the alchemists7 for man to assist in ,nature's work4 #aad ,see ,professor ,h4 ,c4 ,,jones3 ,the ,electrical ,nature of ,matter and ,radioactivity 7#aijf71 pp4 #abe-abf4 #aae ,it has been definitely proved1 for example1 that the common element potassium is radioactive1 though very feebly so 7it emits -rays74 ,it is also interesting to note that many common substances emit corpuscles at high temperatures4 #aaf ,says ,peter ,bonus1 however1 84 4 4 we know that the generation of metals occupies thousands of years 4 4 4 in ,nature's workshop4 4 4 40 7see ,the ,new ,pearl of ,great ,price1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite's translation1 p4 #ee71 and certain others of the alchemists expressed a similar view4 #aag ,sir ,,william ,a4 ,,tilden3 ,the ,elements3 ,speculations as to their ,nature and ,origin 7#aiaj71 pp4 #ajh1 #aji1 #acc and #acd4 ,with regard to ,sir ,william ,tilden's remarks1 it is very interesting to note that ,swedenborg 7who was born when ,newton was between forty and fifty years old7 not only differed from that great philosopher on those very points on which modern scientific philosophy is at variance with ,newton1 but1 as is now recognised by scientific men1 anticipated many modern discoveries and scientific theories4 ,it would be a most interesting task to set forth the agreement existing between ,swedenborg's theories and the latest products of scientific thought concerning the nature of the physical universe4 ,such1 however1 would lie without the confines of the present work4 ,the ,production of ,neon from ,emanation4 #ig4 ,as we have already indicated above 7 #ic71 the radium emanation contains a vast store of potential energy1 and it was with the idea of utilising this energy for bringing about chemical changes that ,sir ,william ,ramsay#aah undertook a research on the chemical action of this substance--a research with the most surprising and the most interesting results1 for the energy contained within the radium emanation appeared to behave like a veritable ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,the first experiments were carried out on distilled water4 ,it had already been observed that the emanation decomposes water into its gaseous elements1 oxygen and hydrogen1 and that the latter is always produced in excess4 ,these results were confirmed and the presence of hydrogen peroxide was detected1 explaining the formation of an excess of hydrogen2 it was also shown that the emanation brings about the reverse change to some extent1 causing oxygen and hydrogen to unite with the production of water1 until a position of equilibrium is attained4 ,on examining spectroscopically the gas obtained by the action of the emanation on water1 after the removal of the ordinary gases1 a most surprising result was observed--the gas showed a brilliant spectrum of neon1 accompanied with some faint helium lines4 ,a more careful experiment was carried out later by ,sir ,william ,ramsay and ,mr4 ,cameron1 in which a silica bulb was employed instead of glass4 ,the spectrum of the residual gas after removing ordinary gases was successfully photographed1 and a large number of the neon lines identified2 helium was also present4 ,the presence of neon could not be explained1 in ,ramsay's opinion1 by leakage of air into the apparatus1 as the percentage of neon in the air is not sufficiently high1 whereas this suggestion might be put forward in the case of argon4 ,moreover1 the neon could not have come from the aluminium of the electrodes 7in which it might be thought to have been occluded71 as the sparking tube had been used and tested before the experiment was carried out4 ,the authors conclude3 8,we must regard the transformation of emanation into neon1 in presence of water1 as indisputably proved1 and1 if a transmutation be defined as a transformation brought about at will1 by change of conditions1 then this is the first case of transmutation of which conclusive evidence is put forward40#aai ,however1 ,professor ,rutherford and ,mr4 ,royds have been unable to confirm this result4 ,they describe#abj attempts to obtain neon by the action of emanation on water4 ,out of five experiments no neon was obtained1 save in one case in which a small air leak was discovered2 and1 since the authors find that very minute quantities of this gas are sufficient to give a clearly visible spectrum1 they conclude that ,ramsay's positive results are due1 after all1 to leakage of air into the apparatus4 ,but if this is the true explanation of ,ramsay's results1 it is difficult to understand why1 in the case of the experiment with a solution of a copper salt described below1 the presence of neon was not detected1 for1 if due to leakage1 the proportions of the rare gases present should presumably have been the same in all the experiments4 ,further research seems necessary conclusively to settle the question4 #aah ,sir ,,william ,,ramsay3 8,the ,chemical ,action of the ,radium ,emanation4 ,pt4 ,i41 ,action on ,distilled ,water10 ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 xci4 7#aijg71 pp4 #ica et seq4 ,,alexander ,t4 ,,cameron and ,sir ,,william ,,ramsay1 ibid4 8,pt4 ,,ii41 ,on ,solutions containing ,copper1 and ,lead1 and on ,water10 ibid4 pp4 #aeic et seq4 8,pt4 ,,iii41 ,on ,water and ,certain ,gases10 ibid4 vol4 xciii4 7#aijh71 pp4 #iff et seq4 8,pt4 ,,iv41 ,on ,water10 ibid4 pp4 #iib et seq4 #aai ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 xciii4 7#aijh71 p4 #iig4 #abj ,e4 ,,rutherford1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,t4 ,,royds1 ,m4,sc43 8,the ,action of ,radium ,emanation on ,water10 ,philosophical ,magazine #f1 vol4 xvi4 7#aijh71 pp4 #hab et seq4 ,ramsay's ,experiments on ,copper4 #ih4 ,the fact that an excess of hydrogen was produced when water was decomposed by the emanation suggested to ,sir ,william ,ramsay and ,mr4 ,cameron that if a solution of a metallic salt was employed in place of pure water1 the free metal might be obtained4 ,these 8modern alchemists10 therefore1 proceeded to investigate the action of radium emanation on solutions of copper and lead salts1 and again apparently effected transmutations4 ,they found on removing the copper from a solution of a copper-salt which had been subjected to the action of the emanation1 and spectroscopically examining the residue1 that a considerable quantity of sodium was present1 together with traces of lithium2 and the gas evolved in the case of a solution of copper nitrate contained1 along with much nitric oxide and a little nitrogen1 argon 7which was detected spectroscopically71 but no helium4 ,it certainly seemed like a dual transformation of copper into lithium and sodium1 and emanation into argon4 ,they also observed that apparently carbon-dioxide is continually evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate 7see below1 #ajj74 ,it is worth while noticing that helium1 neon and argon occur in the same column in the ,periodic ,table with emanation2 lithium and sodium with copper1 and carbon with thorium2 in each case the elements produced being of lighter atomic weight than those decomposed4#aba ,the authors make the following suggestions3 87#a7 ,that helium and the -particle are not identical2 7#b7 that helium results from the #8degradation' of the large molecule of emanation by its bombardment with -particles2 7#c7 that this #8degradation1' when the emanation is alone or mixed with oxygen and hydrogen1 results in the lowest member of the inactive series1 namely1 helium2 7#d7 that if particles of greater mass than hydrogen or oxygen are associated with the emanation1 namely1 liquid water1 then the #8degradation' of the emanation is less complete1 and neon is produced2 7#e7 that when molecules of still greater weight and complexity are present1 as is the case when the emanation is dissolved in a solution of copper sulphate1 the product of #8degradation' of the emanation is argon4 ,we are inclined to believe too they say that 7#f7 the copper also is involved in this process of degradation1 and is reduced to the lowest term of its series1 namely1 lithium2 and at the same time1 inasmuch as the weight of the residue of alkali1 produced when copper nitrate is present1 is double that obtained from the blank experiment1 or from water alone1 the supposition is not excluded that the chief product of the #8degradation' of copper is sodium40#abb #aba ,see pp4 #ajf1 #ajg4 #abb ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 xci4 7#aijg71 pp4 #afje-afjf4 ,more recent experiments1 however1 proved that the -particle does consist of an electrically charged helium-atom1 and this view was latterly accepted by ,sir ,william ,ramsay1 so that the above suggestions must be modified in accordance therewith4 7,see #id47 ,further ,experiments on ,radium and ,copper4 #ii4 ,a little later ,madame ,curie and ,mademoiselle ,gleditsch#abc repeated ,cameron and ,ramsay's experiments on copper salts1 using1 however1 platinum apparatus4 ,they failed to detect lithium after the action of the emanation1 and think that ,cameron and ,ramsay's results may be due to the glass vessels employed4 ,dr4 ,perman#abd has investigated the direct action of the emanation on copper and gold1 and has failed to detect any trace of lithium4 ,the transmutation of copper into lithium1 therefore1 must be regarded as unproved1 but further research is necessary before any conclusive statements can be made on the subject4 #abc ,madame ,,curie and ,mademoiselle ,,gleditsch3 8,action de l'manation du radium sur les solutions des sels de cuivre10 ,comptes ,rendus hebdomadaires des ,sances de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 cxlvii4 7#aijh71 pp4 #cde et seq4 7,for an ,english translation of this paper1 see ,the ,chemical ,news1 vol4 xcviii4 pp4 #aeg and #aeh47 #abd ,,edgar ,,philip ,,perman3 8,the ,direct ,action of ,radium on ,copper and ,gold10 ,proceedings of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 xxiv4 7#aijh71 p4 #bad4 ,ramsay's ,experiments on ,thorium and allied ,metals4 #ajj4 ,in his presidential address to the ,chemical ,society1 ,march #be1 #aiji1 after having brought forward some exceedingly interesting arguments for the possibility of transmutation1 ,sir ,william ,ramsay described some experiments which he had carried out on thorium and allied elements4#abe ,it was found1 as we have already stated 7 #ih71 that1 apparently1 carbon-dioxide was continually evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate1 precautions being taken that the gas was not produced from the grease on the stop-cock employed1 and it also appeared that carbon-dioxide was produced by the action of radium emanation on thorium nitrate4 ,the action of radium emanation on compounds 7not containing carbon7 of other members of the carbon group1 namely1 silicon1 zirconium and lead1 was then investigated2 in the cases of zirconium nitrate and hydro-fluosilicic acid1 carbon-dioxide was obtained2 but in the case of lead chlorate the amount of carbon dioxide was quite insignificant4 ,curiously enough1 the perchlorate of bismuth1 a metal which belongs to the nitrogen group of elements1 also yielded carbon-dioxide when acted on by emanation4 ,sir ,william ,ramsay concludes his discussion of these experiments as follows3 8,such are the facts4 ,no one is better aware than ,i how insufficient the proof is4 ,many other experiments must be made before it can confidently be asserted that certain elements1 when exposed to #8concentrated energy1' undergo degradation into carbon40 ,some such confirmatory experiments were carried out by ,sir ,william ,ramsay and ,mr4 ,francis ,l4 ,usher1 and they also described an experiment with a compound of titanium4 ,their results confirm ,sir ,william ,ramsay's former experiments4 ,carbon-dioxide was obtained in appreciable quantities by the action of emanation on compounds of silicon1 titanium1 zirconium and thorium4 ,in the case of lead1 the amount of carbon dioxide obtained was inappreciable4#abf #abe ,sir ,,william ,,ramsay3 8,elements and ,electrons10 ,journal of the ,chemical ,society1 vol4 xcv4 7#aiji71 pp4 #fbd et seq4 #abf ,for a brief account in ,english of these later experiments see ,the ,chemical ,news1 vol4 c4 p4 #bji 7,october #bi1 #aiji74 ,the ,possibility of ,making ,gold4 #aja4 ,it does not seem unlikely that if it is possible to 8degrade0 elements1 it may be possible to build them up4 ,it has been suggested that it might be possible to obtain1 in this way1 gold from silver1 since these two elements occur in the same column in the ,periodic ,table2 but the suggestion still awaits experimental confirmation4 ,the question arises1 ,what would be the result if gold could be cheaply produced8 ,that gold is a metal admirably adapted for many purposes1 for which its scarcity prevents its use1 must be admitted4 ,but the financial chaos which would follow if it were to be cheaply obtained surpasses the ordinary imagination4 ,it is a theme that ought to appeal to a novelist of exceptional imaginative power4 ,however1 we need not fear these results1 for not only is radium extremely rare1 far dearer than gold1 and on account of its instability will never be obtained in large quantities1 but1 judging from the above-described experiments1 if1 indeed1 the radium emanation is the true ,philosopher's ,stone1 the quantity of gold that may be hoped for by its aid is extremely small4 ,the ,significance of 8,allotropy40 #ajb4 ,a very suggestive argument for the transmutation of the metals was put forward by ,professor ,henry ,m4 ,howe1 ,,ll4,d41 in a paper entitled 8,allotropy or ,transmutation80 read before the ,british ,association 7,section ,b71 ,sheffield ,meeting1 #aiaj4 ,certain substances are known which1 although differing in their physical properties very markedly1 behave chemically as if they were one and the same element1 giving rise to the same series of compounds4 ,such substances1 of which we may mention diamond1 graphite and charcoal 7e4g41 lampblack7--all of which are known chemically as 8carbon0--or1 to take another example1 yellow phosphorus 7a yellow1 waxy1 highly inflammable solid7 and red phosphorus 7a difficultly-inflammable1 dark red substance1 probably possessing a minutely crystalline structure71 are1 moreover1 convertible one into the other4#abg ,it has been customary to refer to such substances as different forms or allotropic modifications of the same element1 and not to regard them as being different elements4 ,as ,professor ,howe says1 8,if after defining #8elements' as substances hitherto indivisible1 and different elements as those which differ in at least some one property1 and after asserting that the elements cannot be transmuted into each other1 we are confronted with the change from diamond into lampblack1 and with the facts1 first1 that each is clearly indivisible hitherto and hence an element1 and1 second1 that they differ in every property1 we try to escape in a circle by saying that they are not different elements because they do change into each other4 ,in short1 we limit the name #8element' to indivisible substances which cannot be transmuted into each other1 and we define those which do transmute as ipso facto one element1 and then we say that the elements cannot be transmuted4 ,is not this very like saying that1 if you call a calf's tail a leg1 then a calf has five legs8 ,and if it is just to reply that calling a tail a leg does not make it a leg1 is it not equally just to reply that calling two transmutable elements one element does not make them so8 #abg ,diamond is transformed into graphite when heated by a powerful electric current between carbon poles1 and both diamond and graphite can be indirectly converted into charcoal4 ,the artificial production of the diamond1 however1 is a more difficult process2 but the late ,professor ,moissan succeeded in effecting it1 so far as very small diamonds are concerned1 by dissolving charcoal in molten iron or silver and allowing it to crystallise from the solution under high pressure4 ,graphite was also obtained4 ,red phosphorus is produced from yellow phosphorus by heating the latter in absence of air4 ,the temperature #bdj-bej ,c4 is the most suitable2 at higher temperatures the reverse change sets in1 red phosphorus being converted into yellow phosphorus4 8,is it philosophical to point to the fact that two such transmutable elements yield but a single line of derivatives as proof that they are one element8 ,is not this rather proof of the readiness1 indeed irresistibleness1 of their transmutation8 ,does not this simply mean that the derivativeless element1 whenever it enters into combination1 inevitably transmutes into its mate which has derivatives80#abh #abh ,professor ,,henry ,m4 ,,howe1 ,,ll4,d43 8,allotropy or ,transmutation40 7,see ,the ,chemical ,news1 vol4 cii4 pp4 #aec and #aed1 ,september #bc1 #aiaj47 ,according to the atomic theory the differences between what are termed 8allotropic modifications0 are generally ascribed to differences in the number and arrangement of the atoms constituting the molecules of such 8modifications10 and not to any differences in the atoms themselves4 ,but we cannot argue that two such 8allotropic modifications0 or elements which are transmutable into one another are one and the same element1 because they possess the same atomic weight1 and different elements are distinguished by different atomic weights2 for the reason that1 in the determination of atomic weights1 derivatives of such bodies are employed2 hence1 the value obtained is the atomic weight of the element which forms derivatives1 from which that of its derivativeless mate may differ considerably for all we know to the contrary1 if we do1 indeed1 regard the atomic weights of the elements as having any meaning beyond expressing the inertia-ratios in which they combine one with another4 ,if we wish to distinguish between two such 8allotropic modifications0 apart from any theoretical views concerning the nature and constitution of matter1 we can say that such 8modifications0 are different because equal weights of them contain1 or are equivalent to1 different quantities of energy1#abi since the change of one 8form0 to another takes place only with the evolution or absorption 7as the case may be7 of heat4#acj ,but1 according to modern views regarding the nature of matter1 this is the sole fundamental difference between two different elements--such are different because equal weights of them contain or are equivalent to different quantities of energy4 ,the so-called 8allotropic modifications of an element10 therefore1 are just as much different elements as any other different elements1 and the change from one 8modification0 to another is a true transmutation of the elements2 the only distinction being that what are called 8allotropic modifications of the same element0 differ only slightly in respect of the energy they contain1 and hence are comparatively easy to convert one into the other1 whereas different elements 7so called7 differ very greatly from one another in this respect1 whence it is to be concluded that the transmutation of one such element into another will only be attained by the utilisation of energy in a very highly concentrated form1 such as is evolved simultaneously with the spontaneous decomposition of the radium emanation4 #abi ,for a defence of the view that chemical substances may be regarded as energy-complexes1 and that this view is equally as valid as the older notion of a chemical substance as an inertia-complex1 i4e41 as something made up entirely of different units or atoms each characterised by the possession of a definite and constant weight at a fixed point on the earth's surface1 see an article by the present writer1 entitled 8,the ,claims of ,thermochemistry10 ,knowledge and ,scientific ,news1 vol4 vii4 7,new ,series71 pp4 #bbg et seq4 7,july1 #aiaj74 #acj ,in some cases the heat change accompanying the transformation of an element into an 8allotropic modification0 can be measured directly4 ,more frequently1 however1 it is calculated as the difference between the quantities of heat obtained when the two 8forms0 are converted into one and the same compound4 ,conclusion4 #ajc4 ,we have shown that modern science indicates the essential truth of alchemistic doctrine1 and our task is ended4 ,writing in #aijd1 ,sir ,william ,ramsay said3 8,if these hypotheses concerning the possibility of causing the atoms of ordinary elements to absorb energy are just1 then the transmutations of the elements no longer appears an idle dream4 ,the philosopher's stone will have been discovered1 and it is not beyond the bounds of possibility that it may lead to that other goal of the philosophers of the dark ages--the elixir vit4 ,for the action of living cells is also dependent on the nature and direction of the energy which they contain2 and who can say that it will be impossible to control their action1 when the means of imparting and controlling energy shall have been investigated80#aca ,whatever may be the final verdict concerning his own experiments1 those of ,sir ,ernest ,rutherford1 referred to in the ,preface to the present edition1 demonstrate the fact of transmutation2 and it is worth noticing how many of the alchemists' obscure descriptions of their ,magistery well apply to that marvellous something which we call ,energy1 the true 8,first ,matter0 of the ,universe4 ,and of the other problem1 the ,elixir ,vit1 who knows8 #aca ,sir ,,william ,,ramsay3 8,radium and its ,products10 ,harper's ,magazine 7,december #aijd71 vol4 xlix4 7,european ,edition71 p4 #eg4 ,,the ,,end4 ,printed in ,great ,britain by ,,unwin ,,brothers1 ,,limited ,,woking ,,and ,,london ,works by ,h4 ,,stanley ,,redgrove1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,on ,,the ,,calculation ,,of ,,thermo-,,chemical ,,constants4 7,arnold1 #aiji1 #fs4 net47 ,,matter1 ,,spirit ,,and ,,the ,,cosmos3 ,some ,suggestions towards a better ,understanding of the ,whence and ,why of their ,existence4 7,rider1 ,popular ,edition1 #aiaf1 #as4 net47 ,a ,,mathematical ,,theory ,,of ,,spirit4 ,being an ,attempt to employ certain ,mathematical ,principles in the ,elucidation of some ,metaphysical ,problems4 7,rider1 #aiab1 #bs4 #f;d4 net47 ,,experimental ,,mensuration4 ,an ,elementary ,text-,book of ,inductive ,geometry4 7,heinemann1 #aiab1 #bs4 #f;d4 net47 ,,the ,,magic ,,of ,,experience4 ,a ,contribution to the ,theory of ,knowledge4 ,with an ,introduction by ,sir ,,william ,f4 ,,barrett1 ,f4,r4,s4 7,dent1 #aiaf4 ,out of print47 ,,bygone ,,beliefs4 ,a ,series of ,excursions in the ,byways of ,thought4 7,rider1 #aibj1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net47 ,,purpose ,,and ,,transcendentalism4 ,an ,exposition of ,swedenborg's ,philosophical ,doctrine in ,relation to ,modern ,thought4 7,kegan ,paul1 #aibj1 #es4 net47 ,,roger ,,bacon1 the ,father of ,experimental ,science1 and ,medival ,occultism4 7,rider1 #aibj1 #as4 #f;d4 net47 ,,industrial ,,gases1 together with the ,liquefaction of ,gases4 ,by various authors1 including ,h4 ,s4 ,,redgrove4 7,crosby ,lockwood1 ,second ,impression1 #aiah1 #is4 net47 ,,the ,,indictment ,,of ,,war4 ,an ,anthology4 ,compiled by ,h4 ,s4 ,,redgrove and ,j4 ,h4 ,,rowbottom4 7,daniel1 #aiai1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net47 ,,joseph ,,glanvill1 and ,psychical ,research in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,by ,h4 ,s4 ,,redgrove and ,i4 ,m4 ,l4 ,,redgrove4 7,rider1 #aiba1 #bs4 net47 ,london3 ,,william ,,rider ,,son1 ,ltd41 #h ,paternoster ,row1 ,e4,c4 #d ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the text of the original work has been retained1 including inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation1 punctuation1 etc41 except as mentioned below4 ,page #hb1 footnote #he3 the original work had a letter missing2 8or0 seems to fit best 7or van ,helmont's ,workes74 ,page #hd1 ,memnonite3 possibly error for ,mennonite4 ,page #ic1 fulfull3 possibly error for fulfill4 ,changes made to the text3 ,footnotes and illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs4 ,some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,page xvii3 #adb changed to #adj 7,table of ,contents7 ,page #aj3 quesable changed to questionable ,page #da3 ,trismegistus changed to ,trismegistos as elsewhere ,page #ff3 ,gentlemen changed to ,gentleman ,page #abj1 footnote #ajd3 ,sances l',acadmie changed to ,sances de l',acadmie ,page #adj1 footnote #acj3 modication changed to modification4