,transcriber's ,note3 ,italicized text indicated by underscores4 #ab-c_/d represents whole and fractional parts of numbers4 ,,cornell ,,nature-,,study ,,leaflets ,,being ,a ,,selection1 ,,with ,,revision1 ,,from ,,the ,,teachers' ,,leaflets1 ,,home ,,nature-,,study ,,lessons1 ,,junior ,,naturalist ,,monthlies ,,and ,,other ,,publications ,,from ,,the ,,college ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,cornell ,,university1 ,,ithaca1 ,n4,y41 #ahif-aijd ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york--,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,nature-,,study ,,bulletin ,,no4 #a ,illustration ,,albany ,j4 ,b4 ,,lyon ,,company1 ,,printers #aijd ,,letter ,,of ,,transmittal4 ,,college ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,cornell ,,university1 ,,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 ,hon4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,wieting1 ,commissioner of ,agriculture1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y43 ,,sir4--,i submit herewith as a part of the ,annual ,report of #aijc a number of the nature-study publications for reprinting4 ,most of these publications are out of print and the call for them still continues4 ,these publications have practically all arisen under your supervision1 and under the directorship of ,professor ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts4 ,nature-study work should begin in the primary grades4 ,it is a fundamental educational process1 because it begins with the concrete and simple1 develops the power of observation1 relates the child to its environment1 develops sympathy for the common and the near-at-hand4 ,by the time the child has arrived at the fifth or sixth grade he should be well prepared for specific work in the modern environmental geography1 in the industries1 or in other exacter common-life subjects4 ,nature-study is a necessary foundation for the best work in biology1 physiography and agriculture4 ,since it is content work1 it is also equally important as a preparation in all expression work1 as in ,english1 number and reading4 ,in most present-day rural schools it may well continue through the eighth grade2 and1 if well taught1 it may even take the place very profitably of some of the science of some of the higher schools4 ,its particular sphere1 however1 in a well-developed school1 is below the sixth grade1 possibly below the fifth4 ,but even if the term nature-study ceases at the fifth or sixth grade1 the nature-study method will persist throughout the school course1--the method of dealing first-hand and in their natural setting with objects1 phenomena and affairs1 and of proceeding from the simple and undissected to the complex and remote4 ,the reader should bear in mind that the ,college of ,agriculture has no organic connection with the public school system of ,new ,york ,state1 and that its nature-study work is a propaganda4 ,from first to last the ,college has been fortunate in having the sympathy1 aid1 and approval of the ,state ,department of ,public ,instruction1 and now of the new ,education ,department4 ,the time is now near at hand when nature-study will be adequately recognized in the school system of the ,state1 and then the nature-study work of the ,college of ,agriculture may take new form4 ,in these reprinted leaflets the reader will find many methods of presentation of a great variety of subject-matter4 ,a wide range has purposely been included1 in the hope that any interested teacher may find at least one or two leaflets that will be suggestive in his own work4 ,our own ideas as to what is a valuable leaflet have changed greatly since the work was begun2 and it is to be expected that they will continue to change with the progress of the work and the development of the schools4 ,it would be an interesting review if we were to summarize our own experiences with our own work4 ,the leaflet that is most praised by the critics may be the least useful in practice4 ,the greatest danger is that of making the work too complete1 too rigid and too formidable4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,director ,college of ,agriculture4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,teachers' ,,leaflets4 ,leaflet4 ,page4 ,the ,schoolhouse #i ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,i4 ,what is ,nature-,study8 #aa ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,ii4 ,the ,nature-,study ,movement #ba ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,iii4 ,an ,appeal to the ,teachers of ,new ,york ,state #ca ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,iv4 ,what ,is ,agricultural ,education8 #de ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,v4 ,suggestions for ,nature ,study ,work #ee ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,vi4 ,a ,summer ,shower #ha ,ralph ,s4 ,tarr4 ,,vii4 ,a ,snow ,storm #ic ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,viii4 ,a ,handful of ,soil3 ,what ,it ,is #ii ,ralph ,s4 ,tarr4 ,,ix4 ,a ,handful of ,soil3 ,what ,it ,does #aae ,l4 ,a4 ,clinton4 ,x4 ,the ,brook #abe ,j4 ,o4 ,martin4 ,introduction by ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xi4 ,insect ,life of a ,brook #ace ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xii4 ,life in an ,aquarium #ada ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xiii4 ,a ,study of ,fishes #aeg ,h4 ,d4 ,reed4 ,,xiv4 ,the ,opening of a ,cocoon #afg ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xv4 ,a ,talk about ,spiders #aga ,john ,henry ,comstock4 ,,xvi4 ,life ,history of the ,toad #ahe ,simon ,henry ,gage4 ,,xvii4 ,life in a ,terrarium #bjg ,alice ,i4 ,kent4 ,,xviii4 ,directions for ,collecting and ,preserving ,insects #bac ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xix4 ,some ,tent-,makers #bbg ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xx4 ,mosquitoes #bcg ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xxi4 ,the ,ways of the ,ant #bdc ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xxii4 ,the ,birds and ,i #bec ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,early ,birds #bfa ,louis ,agassiz ,fuertes4 ,,xxiv4 ,the ,woodpeckers #bfi ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xxv4 ,the ,chickadee #bgi ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xxvi4 ,the ,white-,breasted ,nuthatch #bhc ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xxvii4 ,about ,crows #bhg ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xxviii4 ,how a ,squash ,plant ,gets ,out of the ,seed #bia ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxix4 ,how the ,trees ,look in ,winter #big ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxx4 ,one ,way of ,drawing ,trees in ,their ,winter ,aspects #cjg ,charles ,w4 ,furlong4 ,,xxxi4 ,four ,apple ,twigs #cag ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxxii4 ,the ,burst of ,spring #cbg ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxxiii4 ,evergreens and ,how ,they ,shed ,their ,leaves #ccc ,h4 ,p4 ,gould4 ,,xxxiv4 ,the ,clovers and ,their ,kin #cdi ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xxxv4 ,how ,plants ,live ,together #cfa ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxxvi4 ,planting a ,plant #cfg ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxxvii4 ,cuttings and ,cuttings #cfi ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxxviii4 ,a ,children's ,garden #cgi ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,xxxix4 ,a ,hill of ,potatoes #che ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts4 ,,xl4 ,the ,hepatica #cia ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xli4 ,jack-in-the-,pulpit #cie ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xlii4 ,indian ,corn #cig ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xliii4 ,the ,ripened ,corn #dja ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xliv4 ,the ,uses of ,food ,stored in ,seeds #dji ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xlv4 ,the ,life ,history of a ,beet #dae ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xlvi4 ,pruning #dag ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,,xlvii4 ,study of a ,tree #dbc ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xlviii4 ,the ,maple in ,february #dca ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,xlix4 ,the ,red ,squirrel or ,chickaree #dce ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,l4 ,improvement of ,school ,grounds #dcg ,john ,w4 ,spencer4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,children',s ,,leaflets4 ,the ,child's ,realm #dea ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,li4 ,a ,snow ,storm #dec ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lii4 ,a ,plant at ,school #dee ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,liii4 ,an ,apple ,twig and an ,apple #dfg ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,liv4 ,twigs in ,late ,winter #dgc ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lv4 ,pruning #dge ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lvi4 ,the ,hepatica #dgg ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lvii4 ,jack-in-the-,pulpit #dgi ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lviii4 ,dandelion #dha ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey and ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,lix4 ,maple ,trees in ,autumn #dhc ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lx4 ,a ,corn ,stalk #dhe ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxi4 ,in the ,corn ,fields #dhg ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxii4 ,the ,alfalfa ,plant #dhi ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey and ,john ,w4 ,spencer4 ,,lxiii4 ,the ,red ,squirrel #die ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxiv4 ,robin #dii ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,,lxv4 ,crows #eja ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxvi4 ,a ,friendly ,little ,chickadee #ejc ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxvii4 ,the ,family of ,woodpeckers #eje ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxviii4 ,deserted ,birds' ,nests #eae ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxix4 ,the ,poultry ,yard3 ,some ,thanksgiving ,lessons #eag ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey and ,james ,e4 ,rice4 ,,lxx4 ,little ,hermit ,brother #ebi ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,,lxxi4 ,a ,home for ,friendly ,little ,neighbors #ecg ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxxii4 ,moths and ,butterflies #ede ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxxiii4 ,the ,paper ,makers #eea ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxxiv4 ,some ,carpenter ,ants and ,their ,kin #eee ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey4 ,,lxxv4 ,a ,garden ,all ,your ,own #eei ,john ,w4 ,spencer4 ,,lxxvi4 ,the ,gardens and the ,school ,grounds #efi ,john ,w4 ,spencer4 ,,lxxvii4 ,something for ,young ,farmers #egc ,john ,w4 ,spencer4 ,,lxxviii4 ,bulbs #egg ,john ,w4 ,spencer4 ,,lxxix4 ,a ,talk ,about ,bulbs by the ,gardener #eha ,c4 ,e4 ,hunn4 ,,lxxx4 ,horses #ehi ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey and ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts4 ,,part ,i4 ,,teachers' ,,leaflets4 ,,publications ,,designed ,,to ,,aid ,,the ,,teacher ,,with ,,subject-,,matter1 ,,to ,,indicate ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view1 ,,and ,,to ,,suggest ,a ,,method ,,of ,,presentation4 ,,the ,,school ,,house4 ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,in the rural districts1 the school must become a social and intellectual centre4 ,it must stand in close relationship with the life and activities of its community4 ,it must not be an institution apart1 exotic to the common-day lives2 it must teach the common things and put the pupil into sympathetic touch with his own environment4 ,then every school house will have a voice1 and will say3 ,i teach ,the earth and soil ,to them that toil1 ,the hill and fen ,to common men ,that live right here2 ,the plants that grow1 ,the winds that blow1 ,the streams that run ,in rain and sun ,throughout the year2 ,and then ,i lead1 ,thro' wood and mead1 ,thro' mold and sod1 ,out unto ,god ,with love and cheer4 ,i teach6 ,,leaflet ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,nature-,,study8#a ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #a ,paragraphs adapted from ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #f1 ,may #a1 #ahig1 and from subsequent publications4 ,illustration ,nature-study1 as a process1 is seeing the things that one looks at1 and the drawing of proper conclusions from what one sees4 ,its purpose is to educate the child in terms of his environment1 to the end that his life may be fuller and richer4 ,nature-study is not the study of a science1 as of botany1 entomology1 geology1 and the like4 ,that is1 it takes the things at hand and endeavors to understand them1 without reference primarily to the systematic order or relationships of the objects4 ,it is informal1 as are the objects which one sees4 ,it is entirely divorced from mere definitions1 or from formal explanations in books4 ,it is therefore supremely natural4 ,it trains the eye and the mind to see and to comprehend the common things of life2 and the result is not directly the acquiring of science but the establishing of a living sympathy with everything that is4 ,the proper objects of nature-study are the things that one oftenest meets4 ,stones1 flowers1 twigs1 birds1 insects1 are good and common subjects4 ,the child1 or even the high school pupil1 is first interested in things that do not need to be analyzed or changed into unusual forms or problems4 ,therefore1 problems of chemistry and of physics are for the most part unsuited to early lessons in nature-study4 ,moving things1 as birds1 insects and mammals1 interest children most and therefore seem to be the proper objects for nature-study2 but it is often difficult to secure such specimens when wanted1 especially in liberal quantity1 and still more difficult to see the objects in perfectly natural conditions4 ,plants are more easily had1 and are therefore usually more practicable for the purpose1 although animals and minerals should by no means be excluded4 ,if the objects to be studied are informal1 the methods of teaching should be the same4 ,if nature-study were made a stated part of a rigid curriculum1 its purpose might be defeated4 ,one difficulty with our present school methods is the necessary formality of the courses and the hours4 ,tasks are set1 and tasks are always hard4 ,the best way to teach nature-study is1 with no hard and fast course laid out1 to bring in some object that may be at hand and to set the pupils to looking at it4 ,the pupils do the work1--they see the thing and explain its structure and its meaning4 ,the exercise should not be long1 not to exceed fifteen minutes perhaps1 and1 above all things1 the pupil should never look upon it as a recitation1 nor as a means of preparing for examination4 ,it may come as a rest exercise1 whenever the pupils become listless4 ,ten minutes a day1 for one term1 of a short1 sharp1 and spicy observation lesson on plants1 for example1 is worth more than a whole text-book of botany4 ,the teacher should studiously avoid definitions1 and the setting of patterns4 ,the old idea of the model flower is a pernicious one1 because it does not exist in nature4 ,the model flower1 the complete leaf1 and the like1 are inferences1 and pupils should always begin with things and phenomena1 and not with abstract ideas4 ,in other words1 the ideas should be suggested by the things1 and not the things by the ideas4 ,here is a drawing of a model flower1 the old method says2 go and find the nearest approach to it4 ,go and find me a flower1 is the true method1 and let us see what it is4 ,every child1 and every grown person too1 for that matter1 is interested in nature-study1 for it is the natural way of acquiring knowledge4 ,the only difficulty lies in the teaching1 for very few teachers have had experience in this informal method of drawing out the observing and reasoning powers of the pupil without the use of text-books4 ,the teacher must first of all feel in natural objects the living interest which it is desired the pupils shall acquire4 ,if the enthusiasm is not catching1 better let such teaching alone4 ,primarily1 nature-study1 as the writer conceives it1 is not knowledge4 ,he would avoid the leaflet that gives nothing but information4 ,nature-study is not method4 ,of necessity each teacher will develop a method2 but this method is the need of the teacher1 not of the subject4 ,nature-study is not to be taught for the purpose of making the youth a specialist or a scientist4 ,now and then a pupil will desire to pursue a science for the sake of the science1 and he should be encouraged4 ,but every pupil may be taught to be interested in plants and birds and insects and running brooks1 and thereby his life will be the stronger4 ,the crop of scientists will take care of itself4 ,it is said that nature-study teaching is not thorough and therefore is undesirable4 ,much that is good in teaching has been sacrificed for what we call thoroughness1--which in many cases means only a perfunctory drill in mere facts4 ,one cannot teach a pupil to be really interested in any natural object or phenomenon until the pupil sees accurately and reasons correctly4 ,accuracy is a prime requisite in any good nature-study teaching1 for accuracy is truth and it develops power4 ,it is better that a pupil see twenty things accurately1 and see them himself1 than that he be confined to one thing so long that he detests it4 ,different subjects demand different methods of teaching4 ,the method of mathematics cannot be applied to dandelions and polliwogs4 ,the first essential in nature-study is actually to see the thing or the phenomenon4 ,it is positive1 direct1 discriminating1 accurate observation4 ,the second essential is to understand why the thing is so1 or what it means4 ,the third essential is the desire to know more1 and this comes of itself and thereby is unlike much other effort of the schoolroom4 ,the final result should be the development of a keen personal interest in every natural object and phenomenon4 ,real nature-study cannot pass away4 ,we are children of nature1 and we have never appreciated the fact so much as we do now4 ,but the more closely we come into touch with nature1 the less do we proclaim the fact abroad4 ,we may hear less about it1 but that will be because we are living nearer to it and have ceased to feel the necessity of advertising it4 ,much that is called nature-study is only diluted and sugar-coated science4 ,this will pass4 ,some of it is mere sentimentalism4 ,this also will pass4 ,with the changes1 the term nature-study may fall into disuse2 but the name matters little so long as we hold to the essence4 ,all new things must be unduly emphasized1 else they cannot gain a foothold in competition with things that are established4 ,for a day1 some new movement is announced in the daily papers1 and then1 because we do not see the head lines1 we think that the movement is dead2 but usually when things are heralded they have only just appeared4 ,so long as the sun shines and the fields are green1 we shall need to go to nature for our inspiration and our respite2 and our need is the greater with every increasing complexity of our lives4 ,all this means that the teacher will need helps4 ,he will need to inform himself before he attempts to inform the pupil4 ,it is not necessary that he become a scientist in order to do this4 ,he goes as far as he knows1 and then says to the pupil that he cannot answer the questions that he cannot4 ,this at once raises him in the estimation of the pupil1 for the pupil is convinced of his truthfulness1 and is made to feel--but how seldom is the sensation6--that knowledge is not the peculiar property of the teacher but is the right of any one who seeks it4 ,nature-study sets the pupil to investigating for himself4 ,the teacher never needs to apologize for nature4 ,he is teaching merely because he is an older and more experienced pupil than his pupil is4 ,this is the spirit of the teacher in the universities to-day4 ,the best teacher is the one whose pupils the farthest outrun him4 ,in order to help the teacher in the rural schools of ,new ,york1 we have conceived of a series of leaflets explaining how the common objects can be made interesting to children4 ,whilst these are intended for the teacher1 there is no harm in giving them to the pupil2 but the leaflets should never be used as texts from which to make recitations4 ,now and then1 take the children for a ramble in the woods or fields1 or go to the brook or lake4 ,call their attention to the interesting things that you meet--whether you yourself understand them or not--in order to teach them to see and to find some point of sympathy2 for every one of them will some day need the solace and the rest which this nature-love can give them4 ,it is not the mere information that is valuable2 that may be had by asking someone wiser than they1 but the inquiring and sympathetic spirit is one's own4 ,the pupils will find their regular lessons easier to acquire for this respite of ten minutes with a leaf or an insect1 and the school-going will come to be less perfunctory4 ,if you must teach drawing1 set the picture in a leaflet before the pupils for study1 and then substitute the object4 ,if you must teach composition1 let the pupils write on what they have seen4 ,after a time1 give ten minutes now and then to asking the children what they saw on their way to school4 ,now1 why is the ,college of ,agriculture at ,cornell ,university interesting itself in this work8 ,it is trying to help the farmer1 and it begins with the most teachable point--the child4 ,the district school cannot teach technical professional agriculture any more than it can teach law or engineering or any other profession or trade1 but it can interest the child in nature and in rural problems1 and thereby join his sympathies to the country at the same time that his mind is trained to efficient thinking4 ,the child will teach the parent4 ,the coming generation will see the result4 ,in the interest of humanity and country1 we ask for help4 ,how to make the rural school more efficient is one of the most difficult problems before our educators1 but the problem is larger than mere courses of study4 ,social and economic questions are at the bottom of the difficulty1 and these questions may be beyond the reach of the educator4 ,a correspondent wrote us the other day that an old teacher in a rural school1 who was receiving #bj a month1 was underbid #ej cents by one of no experience1 and the younger teacher was engaged for #ai4ej1 thus saving the district for the three months' term the sum of #a4ej4 ,this is an extreme case1 but it illustrates one of the rural school problems4 ,one of the difficulties with the rural district school is the fact that the teachers tend to move to the villages and cities1 where there is opportunity to associate with other teachers1 where there are libraries1 and where the wages are sometimes better4 ,this movement is likely to leave the district school in the hands of younger teachers1 and changes are very frequent4 ,to all this there are many exceptions4 ,many teachers appreciate the advantages of living in the country4 ,there they find compensations for the lack of association4 ,they may reside at home4 ,some of the best work in our nature-study movement has come from the rural schools4 ,we shall make a special effort to reach the country schools4 ,yet it is a fact that new movements usually take root in the city schools and gradually spread to the smaller places4 ,this is not the fault of the country teacher2 it comes largely from the fact that his time is occupied by so many various duties and that the rural schools do not have the advantage of the personal supervision which the city schools have4 ,retrospect and ,prospect after five years' work4#b #b ,from ,bull4 #bjf1 ,sixth ,report of ,extension ,work1 #aijb4 ,to create a larger public sentiment in favor of agriculture1 to increase the farmer's respect for his own business1--these are the controlling purposes in the general movement that we are carrying forward under the title of nature-study4 ,it is not by teaching agriculture directly that this movement can be started4 ,the common schools in ,new ,york will not teach agriculture to any extent for the present1 and the movement1 if it is to arouse a public sentiment1 must reach beyond the actual farmers themselves4 ,the agricultural status is much more than an affair of mere farming4 ,the first undertaking1 as we conceive the problem1 is to awaken an interest in the things with which the farmer lives and has to do1 for a man is happy only when he is in sympathy with his environment4 ,to teach observation of common things1 therefore1 has been the fundamental purpose4 ,a name for the movement was necessary4 ,we did not wish to invent a new name or phrase1 as it would require too much effort in explanation4 ,therefore1 we chose the current and significant phrase nature-study1 which1 while it covers many methods and practices1 stands everywhere for the opening of the mind directly to the common phenomena of nature4 ,we have not tried to develop a system of nature-study nor to make a contribution to the pedagogics of the subject4 ,we have merely endeavored1 as best we could1 to reach a certain specific result1--the enlarging of the agricultural horizon4 ,we have had no pedagogical theories1 or1 if we have1 they have been modified or upset by the actual conditions that have presented themselves4 ,neither do we contend that our own methods and means have always been the best4 ,we are learning4 ,yet we are sure that the general results justify all the effort4 ,theoretical pedagogical ideals can be applied by the good teacher who comes into personal relations with the children1 and they are almost certain to work out well4 ,these ideals cannot always be applied1 however1 with persons who are to be reached by means of correspondence and in a great variety of conditions1 and particularly when many of the subjects lie outside the customary work of the schools4 ,likewise1 the subjects selected for our nature-study work must be governed by conditions and not wholly by ideals4 ,we are sometimes asked why we do not take up topics more distinctly agricultural or economic4 ,the answer is that we take subjects that teachers will use4 ,we would like1 for example1 to give more attention to insect subjects1 but it is difficult to induce teachers to work with them4 ,if distinctly agricultural topics alone were used1 the movement would have very little following and influence4 ,moreover1 it is not our purpose to teach technical agriculture in the common schools1 but to inculcate the habit of observing1 to suggest work that has distinct application to the conditions in which the child lives1 to inspire enthusiasm for country life1 to aid in home-making1 and to encourage a general movement towards the soil4 ,these matters cannot be forced4 ,in every effort by every member of the extension staff1 the betterment of agricultural conditions has been the guiding impulse1 however remote from that purpose it may have seemed to the casual observer4 ,we have found by long experience that it is unwise to give too much condensed subject-matter4 ,the individual teacher can give subject-matter in detail because personal knowledge and enthusiasm can be applied4 ,but in general correspondence and propagandist work this cannot be done4 ,with the ,junior ,naturalist1 for example1 the first impulse is to inspire enthusiasm for some bit of work which we hope to take up4 ,this enthusiasm is inspired largely by the organization of clubs and by the personal correspondence that is conducted between the ,bureau and these clubs and their members4 ,it is the desire1 however1 to follow up this general movement with instruction in definite subject-matter with the teacher4 ,therefore1 a course in ,home ,nature-study was formally established under the general direction of ,mrs4 ,mary ,rogers ,miller4 ,it was designed to carry on the experiment for one year1 in order to determine whether such a course would be productive of good results and to discover the best means of prosecuting it4 ,these experimental results were very gratifying4 ,nearly #b1jjj ,new ,york teachers are now regularly enrolled in the ,course1 the larger part of whom are outside the metropolitan and distinctly urban conditions4 ,every effort is made to reach the rural teacher4 ,in order that the work may reach the children1 it must be greatly popularized and the children must be met on their own ground4 ,the complete or ideal leaflet may have little influence4 ,for example1 ,i prepared a leaflet on ,a ,children's ,garden which several people were kind enough to praise4 ,however1 very little direct result was secured from the use of this leaflet until ,uncle ,john began to popularize it and to make appeals to teachers and children by means of personal talks1 letters and circulars4 ,so far as possible1 his appeal to children was made in their own phrase4 ,the movement for the children's garden has now taken definite shape1 and the result is that more than #bf1jjj children in ,new ,york ,state are raising plants during the present year4 ,another illustration of this kind may be taken from the effort to improve the rural school grounds4 ,i wrote a bulletin on ,the ,improvement of ,rural ,school ,grounds1 but the tangible results were very few4 ,now1 however1 through the work of ,uncle ,john with the teachers and the children1 a distinct movement has begun for the cleaning and improving of the school grounds of the ,state4 ,this movement is yet in its infancy1 but several hundred schools are now in process of renovation1 largely through the efforts of the children4 ,the idea of organizing children into clubs for the study of plants and animals1 and other outdoor subjects1 originated1 so far as our work is concerned1 with ,mr4 ,john ,w4 ,spencer himself an actual1 practical farmer4 ,his character as ,uncle ,john has done much to supply the personality that ordinarily is lacking in correspondence work1 and there has been developed amongst the children an amount of interest and enthusiasm which is surprising to those who have not watched its progress4 ,the problems connected with the rural schools are probably the most difficult questions to solve in the whole field of education4 ,we believe1 however1 that the solution cannot begin directly with the rural schools themselves4 ,it must begin in educational centres and gradually spread to the country districts4 ,we are making constant efforts to reach the actual rural schools and expect to utilize fully every means within our power1 but it is work that is attended with many inherent difficulties4 ,we sometimes feel that the agricultural status can be reached better through the hamlet1 village1 and some of the city schools than by means of the little red school house on the corner4 ,by appeals to the school commissioners in the rural districts1 by work through teachers' institutes1 through farmers' clubs1 granges and other means we believe that we are reaching farther and farther into the very agricultural regions4 ,it is difficult to get consideration for purely agricultural subjects in the rural schools themselves4 ,often the school does not have facilities for teaching such subjects1 often the teachers are employed only for a few months1 and there is frequently a sentiment against innovation4 ,it has been said that one reason why agricultural subjects are taught less in the rural schools of ,america than in those of some parts of ,europe1 is because of the few male teachers and the absence of school gardens4 ,we have met with the greatest encouragement and help from very many of the teachers in the rural schools4 ,often under disadvantages and discouragements they are carrying forward their part of the educational work with great consecration and efficiency4 ,in all the educational work we have been fortunate to have the sympathy and co-operation of the ,state ,department of ,public ,instruction4 ,we do not expect that all teachers nor even a majority will take up nature-study work4 ,it is not desirable that they should4 ,we are gratified1 however1 at the large number who are carrying it forward4 ,this ,cornell nature-study movement is one small part of a general awakening in educational circles1 a movement which looks towards bringing the child into actual contact and sympathy with the things with which he has to do4 ,this work is taking on many phases4 ,one aspect of it is its relation to the teaching of agriculture and to the love of country life4 ,this aspect is yet in its early experimental stage4 ,the time will come when institutions in every ,state will carry on work along this line4 ,it will be several years yet before this type of work will have reached what may be considered an established condition1 or before even a satisfactory body of experience shall have been attained4 ,out of the varied and sometimes conflicting methods and aims that are now before the public1 there will develop in time an institution-movement of extension agricultural teaching4 ,the literature issued by the ,bureau of ,nature-,study is of two general types3 that which is designed to be of more or less permanent value to the teacher and the school2 and that which is of temporary use1 mostly in the character of supplements and circulars designed to meet present conditions or to rally the teachers or the ,junior ,naturalists4 ,the literature of the former type is now republished and is to be supplied gratis to teachers in ,new ,york ,state4 ,the first publication of the ,bureau of ,nature-,study was a series of teachers' leaflets4 ,this series ran to twenty-two numbers4 ,it was discontinued in ,may1 #aija1 because it was thought that sufficient material had then been printed to supply teachers with subjects for a year's work4 ,it was never intended to publish these leaflets indefinitely4 ,unfortunately1 however1 some persons have supposed that because these teachers' leaflets were discontinued we were lessening our efforts in the nature-study work4 ,the fact is that later years have seen an intensification of the effort and also a strong conviction on the part of all those concerned that the work has permanent educative value4 ,we never believed so fully in the efficiency of this kind of effort as at the present time4 ,,leaflet ,,ii4 ,,the ,,nature-,,study ,,movement4#c ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #c ,reprinted from the ,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #aijc4 ,paper read in general session at ,boston1 ,july1 #aijc4 ,the nature-study movement is the outgrowth of an effort to put the child into contact and sympathy with its own life4 ,it is strange that such a movement is necessary4 ,it would seem to be natural and almost inevitable that the education of the child should place it in intimate relation with the objects and events with which it lives4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that our teaching has been largely exotic to the child2 that it has begun by taking the child away from its natural environment2 that it has concerned itself with the subject-matter rather than with the child4 ,this is the marvel of marvels in education4 ,let me illustrate by a reference to the country school4 ,if any man were to find himself in a country wholly devoid of schools1 and were to be set the task of originating and organizing a school system1 he would almost unconsciously introduce some subjects that would be related to the habits of the people and to the welfare of the community4 ,being freed from traditions1 he would teach something of the plants and animals and fields and people4 ,yet1 as a matter of fact1 what do our rural schools teach8 ,they usually teach the things that the academies and the colleges and the universities have taught--that old line of subjects that is supposed1 in its higher phases1 to lead to learning4 ,the teaching in the elementary school is a reflection of old academic methods4 ,we really begin our system at the wrong end--with a popularizing and simplifying of methods and subjects that are the product of the so-called higher education4 ,we should begin with the child4 ,the greatest achievement of modern education1 writes ,professor ,payne1 is the gradation and correlation of schools1 whereby the ladder of learning is let down from the university to secondary schools1 and from these to the schools of the people4 ,it is historically true that the common schools are the products of the higher or special schools1 and this explains why it is that so much of the common-school work is unadapted to the child4 ,the kindergarten and some of the manual-training1 are successful revolts against all this4 ,it seems a pity that it were ever necessary that the ladder of learning be let down2 it should be stood on the ground4 ,the crux of the whole subject lies in the conception of what education is4 ,we all define it in theory to be a drawing out and a developing of the powers of the mind2 but in practice we define it in the terms of the means that we employ4 ,we have come to associate education with certain definite subjects1 as if no other sets of subjects could be made the means of educating a mind4 ,one by one1 new subjects have forced themselves in as being proper means for educating4 ,all the professions1 natural science1 mechanic arts1 politics1 and last of all agriculture1 have contended for a place in educational systems and have established themselves under protest4 ,now1 any subject1 when put into pedagogic form1 is capable of being the means of educating a man4 ,the study of ,greek is no more a proper means of education than the study of ,indian corn is4 ,the mind may be developed by means of either one4 ,classics and calculus are no more divine than machines and potatoes are4 ,we are much in the habit of speaking of certain subjects as leading to culture2 but this is really factitious1 for culture is the product only of efficient teaching1 whatever the subject-matter may be4 ,so insistent have we been on the employing of culture studies that we seem to have mistaken the means of education for the object or result of education4 ,what a man is1 is more important than what he knows4 ,anything that appeals to a man's mind is capable of drawing out and training that mind2 and is there any subject that does not appeal to some man's mind8 ,the subject may be ,sanskrit literature1 hydraulics1 physics1 electricity1 or agriculture--all may be made the means whereby men and women are educated1 all may lead to what we ought to know as culture4 ,the particular subject with which the person deals is incidental1 for ,a man's a man for a' that and a' that4 ,is there1 then1 to be no choice of subjects8 ,there certainly is4 ,it is the end of education to prepare the man or woman better to live4 ,the person must live with his surroundings4 ,he must live with common things4 ,the most important means with which to begin the educational process1 therefore1 are those subjects that are nearest the man4 ,educating by means of these subjects puts the child into first-hand relation with his own life4 ,it expands the child's spontaneous interest in his environment into a permanent and abiding sympathy and philosophy of life4 ,i never knew an exclusive student of classics or philosophy who did not deplore his lack of touch with his own world4 ,these common subjects are the natural1 primary1 fundamental1 necessary subjects4 ,only as the child-mind develops should it be taken on long flights to extrinsic subjects1 distant lands1 to things far beyond its own realm2 and yet1 does not our geography teaching still frequently begin with the universe or with the solar system8 ,in the good time coming1 geography will not begin with a book at all1 as1 in fact1 it does not now with many teachers4 ,it may end with one4 ,it will begin with physical features in the very neighborhood in which the child lives--with brooks and lakes and hills and fields4 ,education should begin always with objects and phenomena4 ,we are living in a text-book and museum age4 ,first of all1 we put our children into books1 sometimes even into books that tell about the very things at the child's door1 as if a book about a thing were better than the thing itself4 ,so accustomed are we to the book-route that we regard any other route as unsystematic1 unmethodical1 disconnected4 ,books are only secondary means of education4 ,we have made the mistake of considering them primary4 ,this mistake we are rapidly correcting4 ,as the book is relegated to its proper sphere1 we shall find ourselves free to begin with the familiar end of familiar things4 ,not only are we to begin with common objects and events1 but with the child's natural point of contact with them4 ,start with the child's sympathies2 lead him on and out4 ,we are to develop the child1 not the subject4 ,the specialists may be trusted to develop the subject-matter and to give us new truth4 ,the child is first interested in the whole plant1 the whole bug1 the whole bird1 as a living1 grooving object4 ,it is a most significant fact that most young children like plants1 but that most youths dislike botany4 ,the fault lies neither in the plants nor in the youths4 ,a youth may study cells until he hates the plant that bears the cells4 ,he may acquire a technical training in cells1 but he may be divorced from objects with which he must live1 and his life becomes poorer rather than richer4 ,i have no objection to minute dissection and analysis1 but we must be very careful not to begin it too early nor to push it too far1 for we are not training specialists3 we are developing the power that will enable the pupil to get the most from his own life4 ,as soon as the pupil begins to lose interest in the plant or the animal itself1 stop6 ,there is still another reason for the study of the common things in variety3 it develops the power to grasp the problems of the day and to make the man resourceful4 ,a young man who has spent all his time in the schoolroom is usually hopelessly helpless when he encounters a real circumstance4 ,i see this remarkably illustrated in my own teaching1 for ,i have young men from the city and from farms4 ,the farm boy will turn his hand to twenty things where the city boy will turn his to one4 ,the farm boy has had to meet problems and to solve them for himself3 this is sometimes worth more than his entire school training4 ,why does the farm boy make his way when he goes to the city8 ,it is no mere incident to one's life that he be able to think in the thought of his own time4 ,even though one expect to devote himself wholly to a dead language1 in school he should study enough natural science and enough technology to enable him to grasp living problems4 ,i fear that some institutions are still turning out men with medival types of mind4 ,now1 therefore1 ,i come again to my thesis1--to the statement that the end and purpose of nature-study is to educate the young mind by means of the subjects within its own sphere1 by appealing to its own sympathetic interest in them1 in order that the person's life may be sweeter1 deeper1 and more resourceful4 ,nature-study would not necessarily drive any subject from the curriculum2 least of all would it depreciate the value of the humanities2 but it would restore to their natural and proper place the subjects that are related to the man4 ,it would begin with things within the person's realm4 ,if we are to interest children--or grown-ups1 either1 for that matter--we must begin by teaching the things that touch their lives4 ,where there is one person that is interested in philology1 there are hundreds that are interested in engines and in wheat4 ,from the educational point of view1 neither the engine nor the wheat is of much consequence1 but the men who like the engines and who grow the wheat are immeasurably important and must be reached4 ,there are five millions of farms in the ,united ,states on which chickens are raised1 and also thousands of city and village lots where they are grown4 ,i would teach chickens4 ,i would reach ,men by means of the ,old ,hen4 ,how unrelated much of our teaching is to the daily life is well shown by inquiries recently made of the children of ,new ,jersey by ,professor ,earl ,barnes4 ,inquiries were made of the country school children in two agricultural counties of the ,state as to what vocation they hoped to follow4 ,as ,i recall the figures1 of the children at seven years of age #bf per cent desired to follow some occupation connected with country life4 ,of those at fourteen years1 only #b per cent desired such occupation4 ,this remarkable falling off ,professor ,barnes ascribes in part to the influence of the teacher in the country schools1 who is usually a town or city girl4 ,the teacher measures everything in terms of the city4 ,she talks of the city4 ,she returns to the city at the end of the week4 ,in the meantime1 all the beauty and attractiveness and opportunity of the country may be unsuggested4 ,unconsciously both to teacher and pupil1 the minds of the children are turned toward the city4 ,there results a constant migration to the city1 bringing about serious social and economic problems2 but from the educational point of view the serious part of it is the fact that the school training may unfit the child to live in its normal and natural environment4 ,it is often said that the agricultural college trains the youth away from the farm2 the fact is that the mischief is done long before the youth enters college4 ,let me give another illustration of the fact that dislike of country life is bred very early in the life of the child4 ,in a certain rural school in ,new ,york ,state1 of say forty-five pupils1 ,i asked all those children that lived on farms to raise their hands2 all hands but one went up4 ,i then asked those who wanted to live on the farm to raise their hands2 only that one hand went up4 ,now1 these children were too young to feel the appeal of more bushels of potatoes or more pounds of wool1 yet they had thus early formed their dislike of the farm4 ,some of this dislike is probably only an ill-defined desire for a mere change1 such as one finds in all occupations1 but ,i am convinced that the larger part of it was a genuine dissatisfaction with farm life4 ,these children felt that their lot was less attractive than that of other children2 ,i concluded that a flower garden and a pleasant yard would do more to content them with living on the farm than ten more bushels of wheat to the acre4 ,of course1 it is the greater and better yield that will enable the farmer to supply these amenities2 but at the same time it must be remembered that the increased yield itself does not arouse a desire for them4 ,i should make farm life interesting before ,i make it profitable4 ,of course1 nature-study is not proposed merely as a means of keeping youth in the country2 ,i have given these examples only to illustrate the fact that much of our teaching is unrelated to the circumstances in which the child lives--and this is particularly true of teaching in the rural schools4 ,nature-study applies to city and country conditions alike1 acquiring additional emphasis in the country from the fact that what we call nature forms the greater part of the environment there4 ,but the need to connect the child with itself is fundamental to all efficient teaching4 ,to the city child the problems associated with the city are all-important2 but even then ,i should give much attention to the so-called nature subjects2 for these are clean1 inspiring1 universal4 ,back to nature is an all-pervading tendency of the time4 ,we must distinguish sharply between the purposes of nature-study and its methods4 ,its purposes are best expressed in the one word sympathy4 ,by this ,i do not mean sentimentalism or superficiality or desultoriness4 ,the acquiring of sympathy with the things and events amongst which one lives is the result of a real educational process--a process as vital and logical and efficient as that concerned in educating the older pupil in terms of fact and science4 ,nature-study is not natural history1 nor biology1 nor even elementary science4 ,it is an attitude1 a point of view1 a means of contact4 ,nature-study is not merely the adding of one more thing to a curriculum4 ,it is not co-ordinate with geography1 or reading1 or arithmetic4 ,neither is it a mere accessory1 or a sentiment1 or an entertainment1 or a tickler of the senses4 ,it is not a study4 ,it is not the addition of more work4 ,it has to do with the whole point of view of elementary education1 and therefore is fundamental4 ,it is the full expression of personality4 ,it is the practical working out of the extension idea that has become so much a part of our time4 ,more than any other recent movement1 it will reach the masses and revive them4 ,in time it will transform our ideals and then transform our methods4 ,the result of all this changing point of view ,i like to speak of as a new thing4 ,of course1 there is no education that is wholly new in kind2 and it is equally true that education is always new1 else it is dead and meaningless4 ,but this determination to cast off academic methods1 to put ourselves at the child's point of view1 to begin with the objects and phenomena that are near and dear to the child1 is just now so marked1 and is sure to be so far-reaching in its effects1 that ,i cannot resist the temptation to collect these various movements1 for emphasis1 under the title of the new education4 ,nature-study is another name for this new education4 ,it is a revolt from the too exclusive science-teaching and book-teaching point of view1 a protest against taking the child first of all out of its own environment4 ,it is a product of the teaching of children in the elementary schools4 ,the means and methods in nature-study are as varied as the persons who teach it4 ,most of the criticism of the movement--even among nature-study folk themselves--has to do with means and methods rather than with real ideals4 ,we are now in the epoch when we should overlook minor differences and all work together for the good of a common cause4 ,there is no one subject and no one method that is best4 ,while it is not my purpose to enter into any discussion of the methods of teaching nature-study1 ,i cannot refrain from calling attention to what ,i believe to be some of the most serious dangers1 7#a7 ,i would first mention the danger of giving relatively too much attention to mere subject-matter or fact4 ,nowhere should the acquiring of mere information be the end of an educational process1 and least of all in nature-study1 for the very essence of nature-study is spirit1 sympathy1 enthusiasm1 attitude toward life4 ,these results the youth gains naturally when he associates in a perfectly free and natural way with objects in the wild4 ,science-teaching has fallen short of its goal in the elementary schools--and even in the colleges and universities--by insisting so much on the subject-matter that the pupil is overlooked4 ,in standing so rigidly for the letter1 we have missed the spirit4 ,president ,eliot has recently called attention to this danger3 ,college professors heretofore have been apt to think that knowledge of the subject to be taught was the sufficient qualification of a teacher2 but all colleges have suffered immeasurable losses as a result of this delusion4 7#b7 ,a second danger is the tendency to make the instruction too long and too laborious4 ,as soon as the child becomes weary of giving attention1 the danger-point is reached2 for thereafter there is loss in the spirit and enthusiasm1 however much may be gained in dry subject-matter4 ,i believe that even in high schools and colleges we make mistakes by demanding too long-continued application to one subject4 ,short1 sharp1 enthusiastic exercises1 with pith and point1 of five to ten minutes' duration1 are efficient and sufficient for most purposes1 particularly with beginners4 7#c7 ,a third danger is the practice of merely telling or explaining4 ,set the child to work1 and let the work be within his own realm4 ,pollen1 lichens1 capsules1 lymphatics1 integuments--these are not within the child's range2 they smack of the museum and the text-book4 ,yet it appears to be the commonest thing to put mere children at the subject of cross-fertilization2 they should first be put1 perhaps1 at flowers and insects4 ,i wish that in every schoolroom might be hung the motto1 ,teaching1 not telling4 7#d7 ,a fourth point ,i ought to mention is the danger of clinging too closely to the book habit2 this ,i have already touched on4 ,we are gradually growing out of the book slavery1 even in arithmetic and grammar and history4 ,this means a distinct advance in the abilities of the teacher4 ,of all subjects that should not be taught by the book1 nature-study is chief4 ,its very essence is freedom from tradition and method4 ,i wish that there were more nature-study books2 but they are most useful as sources of fact and inspiration1 not as class texts4 ,the good teacher of nature-study must greatly modify the old idea of recitations4 ,i wish to quote again from ,president ,eliot3 ,arithmetic is a very cheap subject to teach2 so are spelling and the old-fashioned geography4 ,as to teaching history in the old-fashioned way1 anybody could do that who could hear a lesson recited4 ,to teach nature-studies1 geometry1 literature1 physiography1 and the modern sort of history requires well-informed and skillful teachers1 and these cost more than the lesson-hearers did4 7#e7 ,finally1 we must come into contact with the actual things1 not with museums and collections4 ,museums are little better than books unless they are regarded as secondary means4 ,the museum has now become a laboratory4 ,the living museum must come more and more into vogue1--living birds1 living plants1 living insects4 ,the ideal laboratory is the out-of-doors itself2 but for practical school purposes this must be supplemented4 ,the most workable living laboratory of any dimensions is the school garden4 ,the true school garden is a laboratory plat2 time is coming when such a laboratory will be as much a part of a good school equipment as blackboards and charts and books now are4 ,it will be like an additional room to the school building4 ,aside from the real school garden1 every school premises should be embellished and improved as a matter of neighborhood and civic pride2 for one cannot expect the child to rise above the conditions in which he is placed4 ,all these dangers cannot be overcome by any system or method2 they must be solved one by one1 place by place1 each teacher for himself4 ,whenever nature-study comes to be rigidly graded and dressed and ordered1 the breath of life will be crushed from it4 ,it is significant that everywhere mere method is giving way to individualism4 ,in time1 the methods of teaching nature-study will crystallize and consolidate around a few central points4 ,the movement itself is well under way4 ,it will persist because it is vital and fundamental4 ,it will add new value and significance to all the accustomed work of the schools2 for it is not revolutionary1 but evolutionary4 ,it stands for naturalness1 resourcefulness1 and for quickened interest in the common and essential things of life4 ,we talk much about the ideals of education2 but the true philosophy of life is to idealize everything with which we have to do4 ,,leaflet ,,iii4 ,,an ,,appeal ,,to ,,the ,,teachers ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,state4#d ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #d ,supplement to ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,march1 #aijd4 7,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #f47 ,illustration ,the kernel of modern educational development is to relate the school-training to the daily life4 ,much of our education is not connected with the conditions in which the pupils live and is extraneous to the lives that they must lead4 ,the free common schools are more recent in development than universities1 colleges and academies and they are even yet essentially academic and in many ways undemocratic4 ,they teach largely out of books and of subjects that have little vital relation with things that are real to the child4 ,the school work is likely to be exotic to the pupil4 ,the child lives in one world1 and goes to school in another world4 ,every subject has teaching-power when put into pedagogic form4 ,the nearer this subject is to the child1 the greater is its teaching power1 other conditions being comparable2 and the more completely does it put him into touch with his environment and make him efficient and happy therein4 ,in time1 all subjects in which men engage will be put in form for teaching and be made the means of training the mind4 ,the old subjects will not be banished1 but rather extended2 but the range of subjects will be immensely increased because we must reach all people in terms of their daily experience4 ,how all these subjects are to be handled as school agencies1 we cannot yet foresee1 nor is it my purpose now to discuss the question2 but it is certain that the common things must be taught4 ,and the common subjects are as capable of being made the means of developing the imagination and the higher ideals as are many of the traditional subjects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,junior ,gardeners beginning the work of cleaning up a ,new ,york school ground4 ,great numbers of our people are in industrial and agricultural environments4 ,by means of the industrial and agricultural trades they must live4 ,these trades must be made more efficient2 and the youth must be educated to see in them more than a mere livelihood4 ,these industrial and agricultural subjects must be put more and more into schools4 ,my own interest lies at present more with the agricultural subjects1 and these are the occasion for this appeal4 ,the so-called industrial and commercial subjects have already been put into schools with good effect3 the agricultural subjects now must come within the school horizon4 ,probably one million and more of the people of ,new ,york ,state live on farms4 ,this is approximately one in seven of our entire population4 ,moreover1 every person is interested in the out-of-doors and in the things that grow therein4 ,the future agricultural efficiency of ,new ,york ,state will depend on the school training more than on any other single factor2 and on the agricultural efficiency of the ,state will depend1 to an important extent1 its economic supremacy4 ,new ,york is the fourth ,state in total agricultural wealth1 being exceeded only by ,illinois1 ,iowa and ,ohio4 ,all the country children should be reached in terms of the country4 ,most of our school books are made for the city and town rather than for the country4 ,the problem of the development of the rural school is the most important single educational problem now before us2 and it is essentially an agricultural problem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,junior ,gardeners at work in a ,new ,york school ground4 ,the grounds are now ready for planting4 ,the mail carrier now calls and the pupils take the mail home4 ,my appeal1 therefore1 is to every teacher in ,new ,york ,state1 whether in country or city--for the city teacher makes public opinion1 helps to set educational standards1 and many of the country children go to school in the cities4 ,i do not wish to press agriculture into the schools as a mere professional subject1 but ,i would teach--along with the customary school work--the objects and phenomena and affairs of the country as well as of the city4 ,the schools lead away from the country rather than towards it4 ,all this ,i do not regard as a fault of the schools1 but merely as a limitation due to the fact that the schools are still in process of evolution4 ,it requires time to adapt a means to an end1 and the schools are not to be criticised4 ,but we must do our best to hasten the evolution4 ,schools1 colleges and universities have only begun to reach the people effectively3 these institutions must eventually touch every vital and homely problem1 for they are to be the controlling factors in our civilization4 ,any subject that is worthy a person's attention out of school is also worthy his attention in school4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,sugar beets and a fourteen-year-old experimenter4 7,supt4 ,kern1 ,illinois47 ,i heard a good story the other day of an occurrence of many years ago illustrating the fact that school training may be wholly exotic to the pupil4 ,the story was told in ,ogdensburg1 and ,heuvelton is near by4 ,the class in geography was on exhibition1 for there were visitors4 ,the questions were answered quickly3 ,how far is it from ,rome to ,corinth8 ,from ,rome to ,constantinople8 ,from ,paris to ,rome8 ,a visitor was asked whether he had any questions to propound4 ,he had one3 ,how far is it from ,heuvelton to ,ogdensburg8 ,no one answered2 yet the visitor said that none of the pupils would be likely to go from ,rome to ,constantinople1 but that every one of them would go from ,heuvelton to ,ogdensburg4 ,not only must the school teach in terms of its own environment1 but more and more it must become the intellectual and social center of the neighborhood or district4 ,every modern rural school building should be attractive enough to induce clubs of many kinds to hold meetings in it4 ,in the old lyceum days the school house was an important gathering place4 ,these days are mostly past1 but better days should be coming3 the school should connect at every point with the life of the community4 ,any event1 however small1 that centers the attention of the people at the school house is a beginning and is worth while4 ,a year ago the children and teacher in one of our district schools began the work of cleaning up the premises4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #a7 shows them at work4 ,later1 when the grounds were renovated and ready for the planting1 boxes were placed for the reception of the mail for those who do not live on the carrier's route3 this is the beginning of a centering of attention at the school house4 ,i think that the boxes might have been more attractive and perhaps better placed1 but this will come in time3 a beginning has been made4 ,when once the people of any community come to think of the school house as a meeting-place for old folks as well as for children1 what may we not expect of the rural school8 ,we need adult education as well as juvenile education4 ,i have now no course of study to propose for agricultural or country-life subjects in the schools1 but ,i would like to know how many teachers in the ,state desire to take up certain work of this nature as an experiment4 ,the ,college of ,agriculture will be glad to suggest the kind of work1 if need be4 ,the western states are undertaking this work3 we must not be behind4 ,it is endorsed by ,superintendent ,skinner1 as will be seen from the letter published at the close of this pamphlet4 ,to be effective and meaningful1 this work should deal directly with the things1--handling the things1 studying the things1 learning from the things4 ,this is nature-study4 ,to commit to memory something about things is of little consequence4 ,we are too closely committed to books4 ,we are often slaves to books4 ,books are only secondary or incidental means of educating1 particularly in nature-study subjects4 ,we have known the book-way of educating for so long a time that many of us have come to accept it as a matter of course and as the only way4 ,a ,new ,york school man recently told me an incident that illustrates this fact singularly well4 ,in the ,cattaraugus ,indian ,reservation he opened a school in which at first he employed only manual-training and nature-study work4 ,soon one of the children left school4 ,the teacher sought the mother and asked why4 ,the mother replied that there was no use in sending the child to school because the teacher had given it no books to study4 ,so slavishly have we followed the book-route that even the ,indian accepts it as the only road to schooling6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,prize corn and a ten-year-old experimenter in one of ,supt4 ,kern's districts1 ,illinois4 ,,school-,,gardens4 ,many lines of work might be suggested for an occasional period4 ,perhaps the best one for spring is a school-garden4 ,in time1 every good school will have its garden1 as it now has charts and blackboards and books4 ,a school-garden is a laboratory-room added to the school house4 ,it may be five feet square or ten times that much4 ,the children prepare the land1--lessons in soils1 soil physics2 sow the seed1--lessons in planting1 germination1 and the like2 care for the plants1--lessons in transplanting1 struggle for existence1 natural enemies1 conditions that make for the welfare of the plants4 ,the older pupils may be organized into experiment clubs1 as they are being organized in parts of ,illinois 7see article on ,learning by ,doing1 by ,supt4 ,o4 ,j4 ,kern1 ,review of ,reviews1 ,oct41 #aijc1 p4 #def74 ,we can help you in this school-gardening work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,learning by doing4 ,a new kind of school work in ,illinois1 under the direction of ,supt4 ,kern4 ,,other ,,work4 ,if not school-gardens1 take up other lines of work1--study the school premises1 the nearby brook or field1 an apple tree1 or any other common object or phenomenon4 ,if there is any special agricultural industry in the neighborhood1 discuss it and set the pupils at work on it4 ,any of these common-day subjects will interest the children and brighten up the school work2 and the pursuit of them will teach the children the all-important fact that so few of us ever learn1--the fact that the commonest and homeliest things are worthy the best attention of the best men and women4 ,,improving ,,the ,,school ,,grounds4 ,just now1 the improving of school grounds is a pressing subject4 ,as a preliminary to the actual improving of the grounds1 suppose that the following problems were set before the pupils3 #a4 ,exercises on the ,grounds4 #a4 ,area4--,measure the school grounds1 to determine the lengths and widths4 ,draw an outline map showing the shape4 ,the older pupils may compute the square surface area4 ,the distances may be compared1 for practice1 in feet1 yards and rods4 7,arithmetic47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,using the ,babcock milk test at ,professor ,hollister's ,school1 ,corinth1 ,n4 ,y4 #b4 ,contour4--,is the area level1 or rough1 or sloping8 ,determine how great the slope is by sighting across a carpenter's level4 ,in what direction does the ground slope8 ,is the slope natural1 or was it made by grading8 ,the older pupils may draw a cross-section line1 to a scale1 to show what the slope is4 7,geography47 #c4 ,fences4--,what parts of the area are fenced8 ,what kind of fence8 ,total length of fence8 ,give opinion whether this fence is needed1 with reasons4 ,is the fence in good repair8 ,if not1 what should be done to remedy it8 7,arithmetic1 language47 #d4 ,soil4--,what is the nature of the soil--clay1 sand1 gravel1 field loam8 ,was subsoil spread on the surface when the grounds were graded8 ,is the soil poor or rich1 and why do you think so8 ,is it stony8 ,what can be done to improve the soil8 7,geography1 language47 #e4 ,ground cover4--,what is on the ground--sod or weeds1 or is it bare8 ,what do you think would be the best ground cover1 and why8 7,geography1 language47 #f4 ,trees and bushes4--,how many trees and bushes are there on the ground8 ,were they planted1 or did they come up of themselves8 ,make a map showing where the principal ones are4 ,name all the kinds1 putting the trees in one list and the bushes in another4 ,do any of the trees need pruning1 and why8 ,state whether any of them have been injured or are unhealthy4 7,geography1 language47 #g4 ,tenants4--,what animals live or have lived on the school premises8 ,what birds' nests do you find 7these may be found in winter78 ,hornets' nests8 ,perhaps you can find cocoons or egg-masses of insects in winter1 and the active insects themselves in spring and fall4 ,what birds visit the place8 ,do rabbits or mice or moles or frogs inhabit the premises8 7,geography1 language47 #h4 ,natural features4--,describe any strong natural features1 as rocks1 ponds1 streams1 groves4 ,what views do you get from the school grounds8 7,geography1 language47 #b4 ,exercises on the ,school ,structures4 #i4 ,buildings4--,how many buildings are on the grounds1 including sheds1 etc48 ,give the sizes in lengths and widths4 ,brick or wood8 ,color8 ,make a map or chart showing the position of these structures1 being careful to have the buildings properly proportioned with reference to the entire area4 7,language1 geography47 #aj4 ,repairs needed4--,describe what condition the structures are in4 ,tell whether repairs are needed on foundations1 side walls1 roof1 belfry1 chimney1 steps1 doors1 windows1 paint4 7,language47 #aa4 ,flag pole4--,where is your flag pole8 ,could it be in a better place8 ,how tall is it above ground8 ,how much in diameter at the base8 ,what kind of wood8 ,painted8 ,how deep in the ground8 ,when was it put up8 ,what repairs does it need8 7,language47 #c4 ,general ,exercises4 #ab4 ,history4--,when was the land set aside for a school8 ,when was the school house built8 ,who built it8 7,history1 language47 #ac4 ,cost4--,try to find out what the land cost4 ,what the building cost4 ,are they worth as much now8 7,history1 language47 #ad4 ,government4--,determine what officers have general control of the school4 ,how did they come to be officers8 ,how long do they hold office8 ,what are the duties of each8 ,determine whether your school receives any aid from the ,state4 7,government47 #ae4 ,improvement4--,tell what you think should be done to improve the school grounds and the school structures4 7,language47 #af4 ,photographs4--,the teacher or some pupil should photograph the school premises1 and send the picture to us4 ,we want at least one picture of every rural school house and grounds in the ,state4 ,even a very poor photograph is better than none4 ,experiment ,garden4--,every school ground should have at least one small plat on which the children can grow some plant that is useful in that community4 ,just now alfalfa is demanding much attention from farmers1 and it is certain soon to become a very important farm crop in ,new ,york ,state4 ,it is used for pasturage and for hay4 ,when once established1 it lives for years4 ,it is allied to clover and is a handsome plant for any school grounds4 ,will not the teacher suggest to the children that they make an alfalfa bed along one side of the school grounds8 ,it will be attractive and will teach many lessons to pupils and parents even if it is only a few square feet in size4 ,we want to put an alfalfa plat on every rural school ground in the ,state4 ,we will supply the seed free4 ,alfalfa is easy to grow if only a few essential principles are kept in mind4 ,we will send full directions to any one who applies4 ,from year to year we will give nature-study lessons on these alfalfa plats4 ,we are anxious to start work of the above kind4 ,it can be done at any time of the year4 ,we are already in touch with more than #djj school grounds1 but we want to reach every rural school ground in the ,state4 ,will not the teacher send to us the best piece of work done by any pupil in any of the foregoing sixteen problems8 ,these papers we will file1 as showing the conditions of the premises of the particular school4 ,they will enable us to see the progress that is being made from year to year in the improvement of your school premises4 ,they will also enable us better to give advice1 when called upon to do so4 ,sometimes we can send to the particular school a man to give advice on the spot4 ,sending the best reports to the ,university will be a reward to the most diligent pupils4 ,send all reports to ,john ,w4 ,spencer1 ,nature-,study ,bureau1 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 ,we desire to put in the rural school houses of the ,state some good pictures of country and farm scenes4 ,these pictures will be artistic reproductions of meritorious photographs1 and large enough to hang on the walls of the school room4 ,with each picture will be sent instructions for framing in order to make the picture more attractive4 ,we shall choose eight such pictures for distribution the present school year4 ,we will send one of these pictures free to any rural school in the ,state that takes up two of the problems given above2 and all of them to schools that take up the sixteen problems4 ,we expect to publish lists of all schools1 with teachers' names1 that take up this work in improving the premises of rural schools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,junior ,naturalists making ready for planting4 ,tompkins ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,to one who is not teaching in the public schools1 all this work seems to be simple enough4 ,such persons are likely to be impatient that more rapid progress is not made in introducing agricultural and common-life subjects into the schools4 ,but the teacher knows that all this work requires patience and skill4 ,it cannot as yet be forced into the schools and still retain spontaneity and vitality4 ,it must come gradually1 and prove itself as it goes4 ,probably all public school teachers are now agreed that the schools should be put closely in line with the life of their various communities4 ,the questions now to be solved are chiefly those of means and methods1 and of arousing the school constituencies to the new points of view4 ,a full and free discussion of the whole subject is now needed4 ,the time is hardly yet ripe for very definite courses of study in these new fields4 ,many schools are already teaching these new subjects with entire success3 these schools can serve the cause by making their experience public4 ,,letters ,,on ,,the ,,subject4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,junior ,gardeners at work in one of the ,new ,york ,schools4 ,however1 this circular is merely an appeal4 ,it is an inquiry for suggestions and co-operation4 ,i desire to know what can be accomplished in the schools of ,new ,york ,state in the direction of inspiring and useful work for children that live in the country or are interested in the country4 ,i am sure that something needs to be done3 just what is most feasible and best the teachers must largely determine4 ,as further suggestions1 ,i append two letters from ,new ,york teachers3 ,from ,a4 ,m4 ,hollister1 ,principal of the ,corinth ,public ,schools1 ,saratoga ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,i am sending you under separate cover a picture of my class at work with the ,babcock test machine 7,fig4 #f74 ,we have used the machine both as a means of instruction in physics and chemistry and as a general demonstration before the different classes in the school4 ,it beautifully illustrates some very important principles of physics and chemistry4 ,the most marvellous effect1 however1 has been shown in the quality of the milk sold in the village4 ,milk was sold showing a test as low as #b4i per cent butter fat4 ,almost as soon as the first testing was reported1 the milk showed #c4h per cent butter fat4 ,milk has been sent to the school from a number of dairymen with request for a test on particular cows that the parties might base their purchases of cows on the results of the test4 ,in regard to the gardening with some of our boys1 ,i would say that both boys and parents are much interested in the subject4 ,we shall doubtless start about forty gardens of one-tenth acre each4 ,the boys are to keep an exact account of all expenses to study methods1 and to do all the work4 ,i am anticipating results in a number of directions4 ,the boys will be given something to do and to interest themselves in1 which of itself is an important thing for a village boy4 ,it will also develop a power of observation and ingenuity4 ,we wish to get all the information we can on potato1 tomato and squash culture4 ,other things will be suggested during the winter4 ,approval of the ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction4 7,published by permission47 ,for many years ,i have been making earnest efforts to induce teachers1 pupils and patrons to improve and beautify the school buildings and school surroundings of our ,state4 ,some progress has been made1 but much remains to be done4 ,i heartily welcome the coperation of every agency which can contribute to this result4 ,we must interest parents and teachers in this work1 but to obtain the best results ,i have always found that we must first interest the children4 ,once a spirit of enthusiasm is awakened in the children1 it is easy to keep them interested and busy4 ,i have long appreciated the earnest assistance of representatives of ,cornell ,university in arousing the interest of pupils1 and ,i heartily commend the plan outlined by the ,college of ,agriculture to make a study of the schoolhouse and school grounds a practical part of the daily education of the child4 ,a child's surroundings have much to do with his education4 ,the result of such systematic study as is suggested must surely be a steadily increasing determination to remedy defects and correct any evil which may exist4 ,when the attention of children is directed to existing conditions which bring discomfort1 it will not be difficult to induce them to devise ways and means to improve matters4 ,i shall watch the result of your efforts with deep interest1 and stand ready to coperate with you in every way4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,,charles ,r4 ,,skinner1 ,,albany1 ,dec4 #ag1 #aijc4 ,state ,superintendent4 ,,leaflet ,,iv4 ,,what ,,is ,,agricultural ,,education8#e ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #e ,cornell ,countryman1 ,june1 #aijd4 ,agricultural education has made great progress within the past few years4 ,methods are crystallizing and at the same time the field is enlarging4 ,we once thought of agricultural education as wholly special or professional1 but we now conceive of it as an integral part of general and fundamental educational policy4 ,as a college or university subject it is necessarily technical and semi-professional2 but college work must articulate with the common-school work1 as language and science now articulate with the schools4 ,that is1 agricultural subjects are now to be considered as a part of primary and secondary school work1 leading naturally to special work in the same subjects for those who desire technical training4 ,in the schools the subjects are to be treated non-professionally1 as primary means of educating the child4 ,the reason for using these subjects as means of educating lies in the principle that the child should be educated in terms of its own life rather than wholly in subjects that are foreign to its horizon and experience4 ,it is most surprising that1 while the theory of education is that the person shall be trained into efficiency1 we nevertheless have employed subjects that have little relation to the individual child's effectiveness4 ,not long since my father showed me a letter that he received from a school girl in #ahea4 ,it read as follows3 ,i seat myself expressly for the purpose to finish this letter which has been long begun4 ,i go to school room to ,mr4 ,wells and study parsing mental ,philosophy grammar and penciling4 ,this sounds as if it came from ,the ,complete ,letter-,writer4 ,this person lived on a farm4 ,she lives on a farm to this day4 ,her parents and grandparents lived on a farm4 ,the family had no expectation of living elsewhere than on a farm4 ,yet1 in her entire school life1 ,i presume there was not a single hour devoted to any subject directly connected with the farm or with the country4 ,if her studies touched life in any way that she could comprehend1 it was probably in habits of thought of the city and of the academician rather than in anything that appealed to her as related to the life she was to lead4 ,it is small wonder that the farm has been devoid of ideals1 and that the attraction has been to leave it4 ,the direction of the stream determines the course of the river4 ,the future course of education will develop many means of training the child mind4 ,heretofore these means have been few and the result has been narrow4 ,we shall see agricultural1 commercial1 social subjects put into pedagogic form and be made the agencies whereby minds are drawn out4 ,these will be at least as efficient as the customary methods that we happen thus far to have employed4 ,how much of one or how much of another is a detail that must be left to the future4 ,nor does it follow that the old-time subjects are to pass away4 ,they will be an important part of the system1 but not the whole system4 ,these new subjects are now coming into the schools as rapidly1 perhaps1 as they can be assimilated4 ,it is a general feeling that our schools already are overcrowded with subjects2 and this may be true4 ,the trouble is that while we are introducing new ideas as to subjects1 we are still holding to old ideas as to curriculums and courses of study4 ,we will break up our schools into different kinds2 we will employ more teachers2 we will not endeavor to train all children alike2 we will find that we may secure equal results from many kinds of training2 we will consider the effect on the pupil to be of much greater importance than the developing of the particular subject that he pursues2 there are many men of many minds2 some system will be evolved whereby individual capabilities will be developed to the full2 the means will be related to the pupil3 one of the factors will be subjects making up the environment of the pupil that lives in the country4 ,my plea1 therefore1 is that agricultural and country life subjects become the means of educating some of the pupils of at least some of the schools4 ,to be sure1 we have already introduced natural science into many of the schools1 but1 for the most1 part1 this has worked down from the college and1 necessarily1 it usually stops at the high school4 ,we need something much more vital for the secondary schools than science as commonly taught4 ,the great nature-study movement is an expression1 as yet imperfect1 of the feeling that there should be some living connection between the school life and the real life4 ,a college of agriculture1 therefore1 is as much interested in the common schools as a college of arts and sciences is4 ,it should be a part of a system1 however informal that system may be1 not an establishment isolated from other educational agencies4 ,but even as a college it will reach more persons than it has ever reached in the past4 ,in any self-sustaining commonwealth it is probable that one-third of the people must be intimately associated with the soil4 ,these people need to be as well-trained as those who follow the mechanic trades or the professions4 ,it is immensely difficult to put these agricultural subjects into teachable form and to reach the agricultural people in a way that will mean much to them1 because agriculture is a compound of many wonderfully diverse trades in every conceivable kind of natural conditions4 ,nor can one institution in each large state or province hope eventually to reach all these people1 any more than one institution can reach all those who would best be taught in terms of books4 ,but there must be at least one institution that is well equipped for the very highest kind of effort in these fields2 ,congress long ago recognized this fact in the establishment of the land-grant colleges1 and all persons who are informed on agricultural education also now recognize it4 ,the agricultural colleges have been handicapped from the first for lack of funds4 ,it is now coming to be recognized that the highest kind of effort in these colleges cannot be sustained on a farm that pays for itself nor by means that are copied from the customary college work in humanities and science4 ,if it is to be efficient1 agricultural education of a university grade is probably more expensive to equip and maintain than any other kind of education4 ,once it was thought that the agricultural college should be wholly separate from any classical institution4 ,the oldest of the existing ,american agricultural colleges1 the ,michigan institution1 is established on this principle4 ,so are the ,massachusetts1 ,iowa and ,pennsylvania colleges and a number of others4 ,it is natural that this should have been the feeling in the original movement for the establishment of these colleges1 for the movement was itself a protest and revolt from the existing education4 ,time1 however1 has put agricultural subjects on an equal pedagogical plane with other subjects1 and there is no more reason why the agriculture should be segregated by itself than that the architecture or law or fine arts should be4 ,the agricultural colleges connected with universities are now beginning to grow rapidly4 ,this is illustrated in the great development of the agricultural colleges at the universities in ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 ,nebraska1 ,missouri1 ,ohio1 and elsewhere4 ,it was once thought that the agricultural student would be looked down upon in a university or in a college with other departments4 ,this was once true4 ,it was true once1 also1 of the student in natural science and mechanic arts4 ,pioneers are always marked men4 ,the only way to place agricultural students on an equality with other students is to place them on an equality4 ,these remarks are made in no disparagement of the separate agricultural colleges1 but only to illustrate the character of the growth of agricultural education4 ,no doubt the separate colleges blazed the way4 ,they stand for an idea that we would not like to dispense with4 ,every state and territory has one college founded on the land grant1 and in the ,southern states there are two1 one for the whites and one for the blacks2 in nearly half of the states these colleges are separate institutions4 ,but the fact remains that the college connected with the university is to have the broader field in the future4 ,its very connection dignifies it and gives it parity4 ,it draws on many resources that the separate college knows not of1 unless1 indeed1 the separate college develops these resources for itself4 ,the tendency1 therefore1 is for every ambitious separate college to develop the accessory resources1 in the way of equipment in general science1 literature1 the arts2 for agricultural education is constantly coming to be of a higher grade4 ,the separate agricultural and mechanical colleges are rapidly becoming essentially industrial universities1 giving general training but with the emphasis on the technical subjects4 ,it is strange how far this principle of education by isolation has been carried in the development of the agricultural colleges4 ,not only have the colleges been separated from other educational enterprises1 but in many cases they have been planted far in the open country1 partly on the theory that the farm boy1 of all others1 should be removed from temptation and from the allurements of other occupations4 ,it was the early theory1 also1 that the agricultural student must be compelled to do manual labor in order that he be put in sympathy with it and that his attention be isolated from tendencies that might divert him from farming4 ,these methods seem to have rested on the general theory that if you would make a man a farmer you must deprive him of everything but farming4 ,it would be interesting to try to estimate how much this general attitude on the part of the agricultural colleges was itself responsible for the very inferiority of position that the agricultural student was supposed to occupy4 ,this attitude tended to maintain a traditional class distinction or even to create such a distinction4 ,agricultural education must be adapted to its ends2 but it must also be able to stand alone in competition with all other education without artificial props4 ,it is no longer necessary that the agricultural student wear blinders4 ,on the other hand1 the farm point of view must be kept constantly before the student1 as the engineering point of view is kept before the student in a college of civil engineering2 but we are coming to a new way of accomplishing this4 ,mere teaching of the sciences that underlie agricultural practice will not accomplish it2 nor1 on the other hand1 will drill in mere farm practice accomplish it4 ,it is not the purpose of an agricultural college to make men farmers1 but to educate farmers4 ,we are not to limit the student's vision to any one occupation1 but to make one occupation more meaningful and attractive than it has ever been before4 ,from the farmer's point of view a leading difficulty with the college course is that it sometimes tends to slacken a man's business energy4 ,one cannot at the same time pursue college studies and commercial business2 and yet farming is a business4 ,in a four years' course some students are likely to incur certain habits of ease that are difficult to overcome upon their return to the farm4 ,how much this is a fault of the courses of instruction and how much a personal equation of the student is always worth considering4 ,but if this is a fault of college work it is generic and not peculiar to colleges of agriculture4 ,experience has now shown that a compulsory labor system is no preventive of this tendency1 at least not with students of college and university age4 ,student labor is now a laboratory effort1 comparable with laboratory work in medicine or mechanic arts4 ,the mature student must have some other reason for laboring than merely a rule that labor is required4 ,however1 it is yet largely an unsolved problem with the agricultural colleges as to just how the stirring business side of farming can be sufficiently correlated with the courses of study to keep the student in touch and sympathy with affairs4 ,with the passing of compulsory student labor there has no doubt been a reaction in the direction of too little utilization of the college farm in schemes of education2 but we shall now get back to the farm again1 but this time on a true educational basis4 ,nothing is more significant of the development of the agricultural colleges than the recent splitting up of the professorships4 ,from agricultural chemistry as a beginning1 in one form or another1 there have issued a dozen chairs1 first one subject and then another being separated as a teachable and administrative entity4 ,even the word agriculture is now being dropped from the professorships1 for this is a term for a multitude of enterprises1 not for a concrete subject4 ,horticulture was one of the first protuberances to be lopped off2 and even this must very soon be divided into its component parts1 for there is little relationship between the effort that grows apples and that grows orchids or between the market garden and landscape gardening4 ,even the chair of agronomy1 the newest department of the colleges1 must soon be separated into its units4 ,forty years ago mechanic arts was undivided4 ,who then would have prophesied such professorships as experimental engineering1 electrical engineering1 marine engineering1 railroad engineering1 naval architecture1 machine design8 ,the progress of the dividing up of the mechanic arts and civil engineering marks the rate of our progress1 in the terms of the ,land ,grant ,act1 to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life4 ,all trades1 classes and professions are to be reached with a kind of education that is related to their work4 ,one by one we are reaching persons in all walks and all places4 ,socially1 there are centuries of prejudice against the farmer4 ,when education is finally allowed to reach him in such a way as to be indispensable to him1 it will at last have become truly democratic4 ,in this spirit agriculture is divided into its teachable units4 ,the lists of divisions of the teaching force or curriculum in the larger agricultural colleges illustrate this admirably4 ,in ,illinois1 for example1 the title of professors and instructors are associated with such divisions as thremmatology1 agronomy1 pomology1 olericulture1 floriculture1 soil physics1 dairy husbandry1 dairy manufacture1 horses1 beef cattle1 swine husbandry1 farm crops4 ,at ,cornell the cordinate departments of instruction in the ,college of ,agriculture are classified as agricultural chemistry1 economic entomology1 soils1 agronomy1 horticulture1 animal husbandry with its sub-department of poultry husbandry1 dairy industry1 agricultural engineering and architecture1 the farm home1 rural economy and sociology1 out-door art 7including landscape gardening71 nature-study for teachers1 besides miscellaneous courses--making altogether thirteen divisions4 ,the courses now offered in the ,cornell ,college of ,agriculture1 not including the winter-courses1 are #gf1 of which #ga are to be given in the next academic year4 ,nearly all these courses comprise a half-year's work4 ,while all this subdividing represents progress there are disadvantages attending it1 because it tends to give a partial view of the subject4 ,the larger number of farmers must engage in general mixed husbandry rather than in specialties4 ,farming is a philosophy1 not a mere process4 ,the tendency of the inevitable subdividing of the subjects is to force the special view rather than the general view1 as if1 in medicine1 students were to become specialists rather than general practitioners4 ,the farm-philosophy idea was represented by the older teachers of agriculture4 ,of these men ,professor ,roberts is a typical example1 and his work in making students to be successful1 all-around farmers is not yet sufficiently appreciated4 ,much of this farm philosophy is now coming into the courses of instruction under the titles of rural economy1 rural economics1 rural sociology and the like4 ,i have sometimes thought that the time may come when we will again have professors of agriculture who will cordinate and synthesize the work of the agronomist1 soil physicist1 chemist1 dairyman and others4 ,however1 the dividing has not yet worked any harm1 and perhaps my fears are ungrounded2 and it is certain that with increasing knowledge and specialization the courses of instruction must still further divide4 ,another most significant development in agricultural education is the change in attitude towards the college farm4 ,once it was thought that the college estate should be run as a model farm4 ,however1 a farm that sets a pattern to the farmer must be conducted on a commercial basis2 yet it is manifest that it is the province of a college to devote itself to education1 not primarily to business4 ,a farm cannot be a model for all the kinds of farming of the commonwealth2 and if it does not represent fairly completely the agriculture of the state1 it misses its value as a pattern4 ,at all events the pattern-farm idea is practically given up4 ,it is then a question whether the farm shall be used merely to illustrate1--to display kinds of tools1 examples of fences and fields1 breeds of stock4 ,this conception of the college farm is comparable with the old idea of experiments in agricultural chemistry3 the teacher performed the experiments for the students to see4 ,the prevailing idea of the college farm is now 7or at least1 ,i think1 soon must be7 that it shall be used as a true laboratory1 as the student in chemistry now works first-hand with his materials instead alone of receiving lectures and committing books4 ,is a student studying cattle8 ,the herds are his for measurements1 testing as to efficiency1 studying in respect to heredity1 their response to feeding1 their adaptability to specific purposes1 and a hundred other problems4 ,cattle are as much laboratory material for the agricultural student as rocks are for the geological student or plants for the botanical student4 ,technical books were once kept only in libraries2 now they are kept also in laboratories and are laboratory equipment4 ,college museums were once only for display2 now they are also for actual use by the student4 ,barns are laboratories1 to be as much a part of the equipment of a college of agriculture as shops are of mechanic arts4 ,they should be in close connection with the main buildings1 not removed to some remote part of the premises4 ,modern ideas of cleanliness and sanitation are bound to revolutionize the construction and care of barns4 ,there is no reason why these buildings should be offensive4 ,it was once thought that dissecting rooms and hospitals should be removed from proximity to other buildings2 but we have now worked these laboratories integrally into the plans of colleges4 ,time has now come for a closer assembling of the college barns with the college classrooms4 ,likewise the entire farm is no doubt to be used in the future as a laboratory1 at least in the institutions of university grade--except such part as is used for pure investigation and research4 ,where1 then1 shall the student go to see his model barn8 ,to these farms themselves2 here a stock farm2 there a fruit farm2 elsewhere a dairy farm4 ,the shops in the colleges of mechanic arts have long since come to be true laboratories2 they do not engage in railroading or manufacturing4 ,they do not try to pay their way2 if they do pay their way this fact is only an incidental or secondary consideration4 ,a college of agriculture is a teaching institution3 it must have equipment and laboratories4 ,it will be seen that the word agriculture has taken on a new and enlarged meaning4 ,the farmer is not only a producer of commodities3 he is a citizen1 a member of the commonwealth1 and his efficiency to society and the state depends on his whole outlook4 ,also his personal happiness depends on his outlook4 ,he must concern himself not alone with technical farming1 but also with all the affairs that make up an agricultural community3 good roads1 organizations1 schools1 mail routes1 labor movements1 rural architecture1 sanitation1 the sthetic aspect of the country4 ,one will be struck with the new signification of agriculture if he scan the titles of publications that issue from governmental agricultural departments1 agricultural experiment stations1 agricultural nature-study bureaus1 agricultural colleges4 ,i cannot close this sketch without calling attention to the fact that the college of agriculture has obligations to the farmers of its commonwealth4 ,the very fact that every college of agriculture in ,north ,america is supported by public funds imposes this obligation4 ,moreover1 the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts stand for true democratic effort1 for they have a definite constituency that they are called upon to aid4 ,it is desirable that as many persons as possible shall assemble at the college itself1 but those who cannot go to college still have the right to ask for help4 ,this is particularly true in agriculture1 in which the interests are widely separated and incapable of being combined and syndicated4 ,thereupon has arisen the great extension movement that1 in one way or another1 is now a part of the work of every agricultural college4 ,education was once exclusive2 it is now in spirit inclusive4 ,the agencies that have brought about this change of attitude are those associated with so-called industrial education1 growing chiefly out of the forces set in motion by the ,land ,grant ,act of #ahfb4 ,this ,land ,grant is the ,magna ,charta of education3 from it in this country we shall date our liberties4 ,,leaflet ,v4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,nature-,,study ,,work4#f ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #f ,syllabus of ,lectures3 ,nature-,study 7,animal and ,plant ,life71 ,mrs4 ,a4 ,b4 ,comstock4 ,illustration ,suggestions for nature-study must necessarily be more or less general4 ,nature-study should be a matter of observation on the part of the pupils4 ,the teacher's part is to indicate points for observation and not to tell what is to be seen4 ,after the child has observed all that it is possible for him to see1 the remainder of the story may be told him or may be read4 ,the objects of nature-study should be always in the teacher's mind4 ,these are1 primarily1 to cultivate the child's power of observation and to put him in sympathy with out-of-door life4 ,having these objects clearly in mind1 the teacher will see that the spending of a certain amount of time each day giving lessons is not the most important part of the work4 ,a great amount of nature-study may be done without spending a moment in a regular lesson4 ,in the case of all the things kept in the schoolroom--i4 e41 growing plants1 insects in cages and aquaria1 tame birds and domestic animals--the children will study the problems for themselves4 ,the privilege of watching these things should be made a reward of merit4 ,the use of nature-study readers should be restricted4 ,the stories in these should not be read until after the pupils have completed their own observations on the subjects of the stories4 ,stories about adventures of animals and adventures with animals may always be read with safety1 as these do not1 strictly speaking1 belong to nature-study4 ,they belong rather to literature and may be used most successfully to interest the child in nature4 ,blackboard drawings and charts should be used only to illustrate objects too small for the pupil to see with the naked eye4 ,the pupil must also be made to understand that the object drawn on the board is a real enlargement of the object he has studied with his unaided eye4 ,the use of a simple lens often contributes much interest to the work of observation4 ,the compound microscope may be used to show some exceptionally interesting point1 as the compound eyes of insects1 the scales on the butterfly's wing1 or the viscid thread of the spider4 ,but this is by no means necessary4 ,nature-study work does not actually require the use of either microscope or lens1 although the latter is a desirable adjunct4 ,the great danger that besets the teacher just beginning nature-study is too much teaching1 and too many subjects4 ,in my own work ,i would rather a child spent one term finding out how one spider builds its orb web than that he should study a dozen different species of spiders4 ,if the teacher at the end of the year has opened the child's mind and heart in two or three directions nature-ward1 she has done enough4 ,in teaching about animals1 teach no more of the anatomy than is obviously connected with the distinctive habits of each one2 i4 e41 the hind legs of a grasshopper are long so that it can jump1 and the ears of a rabbit are long so that it can hear the approach of its foes4 ,while it is desirable for the teacher to know more than she teaches1 in nature-study she may well be a learner with her pupils since they are likely any day to read some page of nature's book never before read by human eyes4 ,this attitude of companionship in studying with her pupils will have a great value in enabling her to maintain happy and pleasant relations with them4 ,it has also great disciplinary value4 ,reasons for and against graded courses in nature-study4 ,the question whether there should be a graded course in nature-study is decidedly a query with two answers4 ,the reasons why there should not be a graded course1 are3 #ast4 ,the work should be spontaneous and should be suggested each day by the material at hand4 ,mother ,nature follows no schedule4 ,she refuses to produce a violet one day1 an oriole the next1 and a blue butterfly on the third4 #b;d4 ,a graded course means a hard and fast course which each teacher must follow whether or not her tastes and training coincide with it4 #c;d4 ,there is no natural grading of nature-study work4 ,a subject suited for nature-study may be given just as successfully in the first as in the fifth grade4 ,there is only one reason why a nature-study course should be graded1 and that is so cogent that it outweighs all the reasons on the other side3 the training of the grade teacher in nature-study is at present so limited in subject-matter that if the course were ungraded the same work would be given over and over in the successive grades until the pupils became utterly weary of it4 ,to many a pupil in the lower grades to-day1 nature-study means the sprouting of beans and peas and nothing more4 ,as a matter of experience1 we believe that after a nature-study subject is once studied it should be dropped entirely1 the pupil should not again meet it in the schoolroom until he finds it in its respective science in the high school or college4 ,on this account1 we have been persuaded that a graded course1 or at least a consecutive course1 is necessary4 ,the following suggestions about grading the course are given with a hope of being helpful1 and not because we believe that the courses indicated are necessarily the best courses possible4 ,we have graded each subject so that a teacher may follow her own tastes and inclinations1 and may not be forced to teach zoology when her interests are entirely with botany1 or vice versa4 ,we have tried to give a distinctive trend to the observations for each year1 and have suggested a line along which the work may be done4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the time to study any living thing is when you chance to find it4 ,if you find an interesting caterpillar or cricket or bird1 study it1 whatever your grade of work4 ,the probabilities are that it may be long before you chance upon these same species again4 ,it has been the experience of most teachers that the lower grades are much more interested in nature-study than are the higher4 ,especially are the seventh and eighth grades difficult to interest4 ,therefore1 we have made this part of the course economic in its bearing1 hoping that this may appeal to the grown-up feeling of pupils of these grades4 ,,insects4 ,,first ,,grade4 ,the first year of work with insects may well be restricted to familiarizing the pupils with the three most striking phases in the life of insects with complete metamorphosis1 i4 e41 the larv1 the pup1 and the winged insects4 ,moths and butterflies are especially adapted for this work with the small children4 ,fall work4--,in ,september there are still many caterpillars feeding4 ,bring them in the schoolroom and feed them in breeding cages4 ,for different forms of cheap breeding cages1 see ,insect ,life1 pp4 #cbf-ccj2 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #e 7,no4 ,,xix1 this volume72 ,lessons in ,nature-,study1 p4 #de4 ,during ,october many of the hairy caterpillars will be found hurrying along in quest of suitable winter quarters4 ,these should be brought in and put in box cages having sand or dirt in the bottom4 ,they are seeking secluded corners in which to curl up and hide during the cold weather4 ,some of them pass the winter in their cocoons1 and some do not4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #bci-bda2 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #cag-cbd2 ,moths and ,butterflies1 7b71 pp4 #aia-aih4 ,bring in as many cocoons as possible4 ,november or ,december1 after the leaves have fallen from the trees1 is the best time in which to hunt for the cocoons of ,cecropia1 ,promethea1 and ,cynthia4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #aid-aif2 ,moths and ,butterflies1 7b71 pp4 #aai-ahj4 ,teach the pupils the difference between the cocoon and the pupa4 ,the pupa is the quiescent form of the insect4 ,the cocoon is the silken bag covering it1 and is always made by the caterpillar before it changes to a pupa4 ,if possible bring in some butterfly larv4 ,in ,september many may be found4 ,the cabbage butterfly especially is always with us4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bde4 ,also the larv of the black swallow-tail may be easily found4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bdc2 ,everyday ,butterflies1 p4 #acj2 ,moths and ,butterflies1 7b71 p4 #ci4 ,show the children 7do not tell them7 that the butterfly caterpillars do not make cocoons1 but that the naked pupa is suspended by a silk button1 and in some cases also by a silk thread4 ,many teachers complain that but few of the moths are able to get out of the cocoons4 ,the usual reason for this is that in the heated atmosphere of the schoolroom the cocoons become too dry4 ,to obviate this1 the cocoons should be dipped in water every week or two4 ,spring work4--,during the spring term use the apple-tree tent-caterpillars4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #e 7,no4 ,,xix1 this volume72 ,moths and ,butterflies1 7b7 p4 #bja4 ,show the four stages of the insect3 egg1 caterpillar1 pupa1 and moth4 ,pay especial attention to the way in which the caterpillars grow4 ,summary of methods4--,this whole year's work may be done with no regular lessons1 and all the time required will be the care of the breeding cages and the time given to hunting for the caterpillars and cocoons4 ,the child's reading may be selected from the many stories of the caterpillars1 moths and butterflies4 ,yet be very careful to make each child understand that he himself is studying out the especial story of each caterpillar and cocoon in the schoolroom4 ,,second ,,grade4 ,the plan for the second year is to continue the study of the life-histories of insects4 ,the pupil1 having learned the different stages of the moths and butterflies1 should learn that all insects do not experience such marvelous changes of form4 ,fall work4--,arrange a breeding cage like figs4 #bhh1 #bhi1 ,insect ,life1 p4 #cbi1 placing fresh sod in the flower pot and covering the lamp chimney with a square of wire netting4 ,push the glass chimney down into the earth so as to allow no crevices through which the insects may escape4 ,in such a cage1 place grasshoppers and crickets of all sizes1 and study their growth4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #cc-cg4 ,show the pupils that the young grasshopper looks like the old one except that the wings are shorter2 the same is true of crickets4 ,keep the sod damp so the grass will not become dry2 and when it gets too old replace it with other sod4 ,a good way to keep these insects alive and to keep the children interested in them is to plant wheat and grass seed in several flower pots1 and then to move the glass chimney from pot to pot1 giving the insects fresh pasturage when needed4 ,as early as possible start some aquaria4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #aa 7,no4 ,,xii1 this volume72 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #ccj-ccb4 ,the mosquito is one of the most available insects for study in the aquarium4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #aca-acf2 ,lessons in ,nature-,study1 p4 #ab4 ,the nymphs of dragon flies and damsel flies and many others may be studied during the entire winter4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #adj-adb2 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #aa 7,no4 ,,xii1 this volume72 ,outdoor ,studies1 p4 #ed4 ,those that have cannibalistic habits should be kept apart1 each one in a separate jar4 ,they may be fed by dropping into the jar a bit of raw beefsteak tied to the end of a string4 ,the purpose of the string is that the uneaten meat may be withdrawn before it decays4 ,it should not be left in the water more than twenty-four hours4 ,the insects do not need feeding more than twice a week4 ,spring work4--,in the spring get new material for the aquaria4 ,in pools where there are many dead leaves look for the caddice worms that build the log cabin cases1 for these may be kept in aquaria that have no running water4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #adi4 ,while we advise the introduction of the aquaria during the second year1 their use should be continued during the following four grades2 there are always new things to study in ponds and streams1 and nothing so fascinates a child as watching the movements of these little denizens of the water4 ,summary of methods4--,there need be no set lessons in the work of the second year1 unless the teacher in a few words1 now and then1 chooses to call attention to certain things as the occasion seems to demand4 ,the object of the year's work is to teach the pupil the life histories of insects which have no quiescent or pupa stage1 and this should be accomplished by simple observation of specimens bred in the schoolroom4 ,,third ,,grade4 ,the general subject of this year's work may well be the ,homes of ,insects4 ,this is a most interesting topic1 and if well taught will inspire the pupils to much individual observation and collecting4 ,the questions to be asked concerning insect homes are3 ,of what material are they made8 ,how are they made8 ,what is the purpose of the home8 ,is it made by the insect for itself to live in1 or is it made by the mother for the protection of her young8 ,is it made as a protection for the insects while they are eating1 or do they go out to feed and come back only to rest and spend the night or day8 ,fall work4--,leaf rollers3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bjf2 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #aai4 ,leaf miners3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bjh2 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #bi4 ,galls3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #baj2 ,outdoor ,studies1 pp4 #ah1 #ch-ci4 ,fall web worm3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bjj4 ,scallop shell moth3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bja4 ,nests of silver spotted skipper3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bjc2 ,everyday ,butterflies1 p4 #aij4 ,bag worms3 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bjd4 ,ant lions3 ,outdoor ,studies1 p4 #ha4 ,carpenter bees3 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #ajh4 ,tiger beetle larv3 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #bgj-bgb4 ,all kinds of cocoons are found by the children4 ,ask concerning the cocoons3 ,where did you find them8 ,were they in protected places8 ,why8 ,of these nests there are many more than those mentioned above4 ,in fact1 to one who sees what he looks at1 every plant1 every tree1 every fence corner and every foot along the country path contains many most interesting homes4 ,the leaf rollers and leaf miners are the most common and most easily found of all4 ,spring work4--,the spring work in this subject may be to study the way in which caddice worms make their houses2 take a caddice worm out of its house and watch it build another4 ,this is a new phase of the study of caddice worms4 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #acc4 ,study the homes of beetles under sticks and stones1 and find the homes of the engraver beetles under bark4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #baf4 ,this work must necessarily be done by the pupils out of school hours1 and their discoveries and specimens of homes should be made topics for lessons for the whole school4 ,during this term begin a butterfly calendar1 made on the same plan as the bird calendar4 ,a collection of butterflies might be started for the schoolroom in connection with the calendar4 ,study the specimens caught and determine whether they hibernated as adults or chrysalids4 ,if their wings are battered and torn1 they spent the winter as adults4 ,if they are bright in colors and their wings perfect1 they spent the winter in the chrysalis state4 ,hints for collecting insects3 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #g 7,no4 ,,xviii1 this volume72 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #bhc-cad and pp4 #dh-di4 ,how to ,know the ,butterflies4 ,summary of methods4--,the work in the third grade1 as outlined1 requires a lesson period now and then when single specimens are brought in by individual pupils4 ,each pupil should examine the specimen1 and after that the lesson may be given4 ,,fourth ,,grade4 ,after having studied ,insect ,homes1 the pupils will be ready to take up the broader subject1 ,how ,insects ,live4 ,the work of this year may be given on this subject4 ,in order to study the life-histories of insects1 the pupils should know some things about insect anatomy4 ,if the work as indicated in the previous grades has been followed1 the pupils know the number of legs1 wings1 and compound eyes most insects have1 without ever having killed a specimen or having received a special lesson in insect anatomy4 ,now teach the children how insects breathe and how they eat4 ,show the spiracles on the body of any caterpillar which is not hairy2 they may be seen on the abdomen of a grasshopper or of a butterfly that has not too many large scales to cover them4 ,after they have seen these spiracles or breathing pores1 give a lesson1 illustrated by chart or blackboard1 showing that these holes lead to the breathing tubes of the body4 ,manual for the ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #gc-ge4 ,to show how insects eat1 allow the pupils to watch the following insects in the breeding cages while feeding3 a grasshopper2 a leaf beetle 7potato beetle is a good example72 any caterpillar2 an ant2 and a wasp4 ,show that all these have mouth parts made for biting4 ,let the pupils see an aphid sucking the juice of a plant2 this may be done by bringing in a twig infested by aphids4 ,let the pupils see the water bugs in the aquarium eat4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #abc-aca1 and pp4 #acg-adj4 ,let them watch a fly1 a honey bee1 and1 if possible1 a butterfly or moth1 eat4 ,all these have mouth parts made for sucking4 ,all this work should be original investigation on the part of the pupils4 ,after the pupils find out how insects breathe and eat1 let them see how each insect lives a life adapted to its own peculiar needs4 ,try to feed some cabbage worms on clover or grass4 ,then try turnip or mustard leaves1 and watch the result4 ,change the potato beetle larv to some other plant1 and watch the result4 ,let the pupils first find out how the insects breathe in the water4 ,each insect in the aquarium tells a different story as to its way of getting air4 ,the teacher will find all these stories indicated in the chapters in ,insect ,life devoted to pond and brook insects4 ,call especial attention to protective coloring of insects4 ,show that when an insect resembles its surroundings in color it is thereby enabled to escape its enemies2 or1 if need be1 is enabled to creep upon its prey unobserved4 ,note the color of the grasshopper in the road2 color of meadow grasshopper2 color of the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly 7green and hard to find74 ,notice the shape and color of walking sticks2 color of the katydids4 ,note the bright color of the larv of potato beetle4 ,why8 7,they are distasteful to birds1 and their colors advertise the fact47 ,study the ,monarch butterfly and the ,viceroy4 ,everyday ,butterflies1 p4 #ie and p4 #big2 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #ci4 ,bring out strongly in all this work that the insect in order to live must have its special food plant and must escape notice of its enemies4 ,this is the proper place to begin the study of the valuable work done by birds in destroying insects4 ,in addition to this general work1 study especially the wasps4 ,solitary ,wasps3 ,mud daubers4 ,bring in their nests and examine them4 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #if4 ,how are the nests provisioned1 and for what purpose were they made8 ,find1 if possible1 nests of other solitary wasps4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bah1 p4 #bfb1 p4 #bfd4 ,social ,wasps3 ,bring in a deserted nest of yellow-jackets4 ,of what is it made8 ,how8 ,what for8 ,do the wasps store honey8 ,do they live as a colony during the winter8 ,all these questions may be answered by a pupil who knows of a yellow-jackets' nest in the fall and watches it during the winter4 ,for the teacher there are discussions of these insects in ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #ffj-ffd4 ,wasps and their ,ways4 ,continue the butterfly collection and the butterfly calendar4 ,spring work4--,in the spring1 begin a collection of moths for the schoolroom4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #ej4 ,caterpillars and ,moths4 ,in the spring1 notice when the first house-flies appear4 ,what happens to the house-fly in winter8 7,send for ,circular ,no4 #ce1 second series1 ,div4 of ,entomology of ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 for the life-history of the house-fly47 ,explain that one female destroyed early in the season means thousands fewer late in the season4 ,encourage the children to bring to the schoolroom all sorts of flies and compare them with the house-fly4 ,the object of this is to teach something of the wonderful variety of forms among small and inconspicuous insects4 ,make a collection of flies for the schoolroom4 ,for description of flies1 see ,insect ,life1 pp4 #hc-hd4 ,a good plan for the spring work is to keep the pupils interested in the first appearance1 after the vicissitudes of winter1 of each insect which it is possible for them to find4 ,note that insects do not appear before their food plants appear4 ,summary of objects and methods4--,the questions to be answered during the whole year's work are3 ,how do the ,insects live1--on what do they feed8 ,how do they escape their enemies8 ,what happens to them in winter8 ,how are the new broods started in the spring8 ,the work is chiefly observation1 but occasional lessons may be given and stories may be told to keep the interest in the work from flagging4 ,,fifth ,,grade4 ,fall work4--,study the ,bees and ,ants4 ,fit up ants' nests4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bgh4 ,teach the whole life-history by allowing the pupils to colonize the nests4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #fcc-fci2 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bga4 ,make observations upon the eggs1 pup1 workers1 males1 females4 ,what are the winged forms that appear in swarms in ,june and ,july4 ,let the pupils observe the relation of ants to aphids4 ,this may be done on almost any shrub or roadside plant4 ,home ,nature-,study ,lesson #aijd1 ,no4 #h4 ,the teacher should read ,sir ,john ,lubbock's ,ants1 ,bees and ,wasps4 ,many stories on these subjects may be told and read1 especially those concerning the habits of exotic ants and ant wars which the children are not likely to see2 also of the slave-making ants4 ,these slave-making ants are quite common in ,new ,york ,state2 their nests may be found under stones4 ,they resemble the brown mound-builder ant2 the slaves are black4 ,spring work4--,in the spring work in this grade1 study the habits of the honey bee4 ,an observation hive is desirable but not necessary4 ,bring in the honeycomb filled with honey4 ,if there are apiarists in your neighborhood1 they will gladly give you specimens of brood in the comb4 ,read ,the ,bee ,people and the ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 p4 #fgc4 ,develop all the facts of the wonderful life in the hive by letting the pupils observe them as far as possible4 ,then give them the many interesting stories3 ,story of the ,workers4 ,story of the ,queen4 ,story of the ,drone4 ,story of the ,bee ,larva4 ,story of ,honey ,making4 ,story of ,wax and ,comb ,making4 ,story of the ,swarm4 ,in connection with the study of the honey bee1 study the bumble bee4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #fgb-fgc2 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bef4 ,begin with the study of the big queen that appears in ,may or ,june4 ,show that she is of great benefit to us and must not be harmed or frightened4 ,let the bumble bee's nest be a problem for summer observation1 and finish the study in the next grade in the fall4 ,summary of objects and methods4--,the work of this year should have for its objects the harmonious life of social insects2 their unselfish work for each other2 their devotion to their respective colonies2 their ways of building and of defending their habitations4 ,the work should be based upon observations made by the pupils in and out of the schoolroom4 ,many lessons should be given1 mostly in the form of stories4 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 pp4 #ee-id4 ,,sixth ,,grade4 ,fall work4--,study the spiders4 ,lessons in ,nature-,study1 p4 #ajc2 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #bbc-bcb4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,quarterly1 final number 7,no4 ,,xv1 this volume74 ,in order to study spiders1 they need not be handled with bare hands4 ,while all spiders are venomous to the same extent1 perhaps1 that a mosquito or a bee is venomous1 there is only one species in the eastern ,united ,states 7and that is very rare7 the bite of which need be feared by human beings4 ,the use of spiders in nature-study does not have to do with handling living specimens1 but rather with the habits of the different species and the building of the webs4 ,in catching spiders to bring into the schoolroom1 use the method indicated by ,professor ,kellogg in ,nature-,study ,lessons4 ,capture the specimen by the use of a pill box3 take the box in one hand and the cover in the other1 and catch the spider by suddenly closing the box over it4 ,the pupils should be made to observe the chief differences between spiders and insects2 i4 e41 spiders have two regions of the body instead of three as in insects2 eight legs instead of six1 simple eyes instead of compound4 ,compare spiders with daddy-long-legs4 ,if the teacher chooses to kill a specimen and show the arrangement of the eyes and the spinnerets under the microscope1 she may do so4 ,this is not necessary1 although ,i have seen it done successfully in the sixth grade4 ,diagrams and blackboard drawings may be used instead of the microscope4 ,let the pupils observe the uses of silk by the spider3 #a4 ,snare for prey4 #b4 ,to enwrap prey when first entangled4 #c4 ,nests for eggs4 #d4 ,lining for habitations4 #e4 ,means of locomotion4 ,introduce the grass spider into the schoolroom in glass jars containing grass sod1 and let the pupils observe it at work4 ,encourage a study of cobwebs4 ,capture the owner of an orb web1 and bring it in a glass jar to the schoolroom4 ,try to give it its natural environment2 i4 e41 some sort of frame or branch of tree on which it may fasten its web4 ,the orb web3 #a4 ,how is it made8 #b4 ,of how many kinds of silk8 #c4 ,the way the spiral thread is arranged as shown by drawings4 #d4 ,the position of the spider on the web4 #e4 ,the way the spider passes from one side of the web to the other4 #f4 ,the way it treats its prey when the victim is once entangled4 ,the engineering ability shown in making this web is one of the most marvelous things in all the realm of animal life4 ,these observations may well cover two months of this term4 ,study the ballooning spiders1 the jumping spiders1 the running spiders1 and the crab spiders4 ,study as many egg-sacs of spiders as possible4 ,another topic for study during the fall term is the ,songs of ,insects4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #bce4 ,bring in the katydids1 crickets1 and meadow grasshoppers1 place them in cages containing green sod1 and observe them while they are singing4 ,note that only the males sing4 ,show the ears of the crickets1 katydids1 and meadow grasshoppers in the elbows of their front legs4 ,the ear of the grasshopper is on the side of the segment of the abdomen next to the thorax4 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 pp4 #c-bg4 ,study snowy tree cricket4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 p4 #aah4 ,if possible1 get a cicada as these insects continue to sing through the warm days of ,september4 ,show the cover to the drums on the lower side of the common cicada4 ,cornell ,nature-,study ,bulletin1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #bd 7,no4 ,,vi1 this volume74 ,this can be made a most interesting subject1 and pupils should be encouraged to do observation work outside of school4 ,begin a general collection for schoolroom4 ,spring work4--,continue making a general collection for the schoolroom1 and specialize in this direction4 ,when an insect is brought in and added to the collection1 if the teacher knows the insect1 a lesson should be given on its life and habits4 ,this connecting of the life and habits of the insects with the collection of dead specimens is of greater value from a nature-study point of view than the collection itself4 ,summary of methods4--,while this year's work must be based on the observations of the pupils in the schoolroom and out-of-doors1 yet many interesting lessons may be given by the teacher4 ,,seventh ,,grade4 ,the study of this entire year may be the relation of insects to flowers4 ,most of the references are given in the ,plant-life work for this grade4 ,the insect work may be limited to3 ,what insects visit flowers8 ,how do they carry pollen8 ,how does each kind of insect reach the nectar8 ,which insects are robbers1 and which are true pollen carriers8 ,the use of pollen by insects4 ,outdoor ,studies1 pp4 #g-ab4 ,take up the study of golden rod and its insect visitors1 i4 e41 let the pupils watch a bunch of golden rod and note all the insect visitors4 ,for directions concerning this work see ,outdoor ,studies1 pp4 #bi-df4 ,in the same way take up the study of asters and the late flowers1 and their insect visitors4 ,describe the visitor2 what it does2 what part of the plant it visits4 ,summary of objects and methods4--,the object of this whole year's work is to show the beautiful inter-relation between insects and flowers4 ,the studies must necessarily be made in the field4 ,but many delightful lessons may be given on the structure of flowers1 that make of greatest use to the flowers the work of insect visitors4 ,,eighth ,,grade4 ,the object of this year's work is the economic side of insect-study4 ,many pupils do not continue these studies to high school or college4 ,yet if they have homes with gardens or trees in city or country1 they must learn to cope with the many insect enemies that feed upon cultivated plants4 ,they should also learn to discriminate between insect friends and foes4 ,they should learn the best methods of combating the foes and preserving the friends4 ,explain first that in fighting an insect enemy we must know how it eats4 ,if it inserts its beak in the stem of the plant there is no use trying to kill it by putting poison on the leaves4 ,,common ,,insect ,,foes4 ,to be studied in the schoolroom3 ,fall work4--,codlin-moth4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #ahj4 ,show work on an apple1 and give methods of destroying it4 ,plum curculio4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #ahb4 ,the pomace flies4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #ahd4 ,scale insects4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #afe-agd4 ,potato beetle4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 p4 #agf4 ,spring work4--,tussock moths and canker worms4 ,circular ,no4 #i1 #b;d ,series1 ,dept4 ,agr41 ,div4 of ,ent41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,cornell ,teachers' ,circular1 ,no4 #a4 ,cabbage worms4 ,how to ,know the ,butterflies4 ,currant worms4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #fac-fad4 ,plant lice or aphids4 ,insect ,life1 pp4 #agg-agh4 ,carpet beetle4 ,circular ,no4 #e1 #b;d ,series1 ,dept4 ,agr41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 p4 #eci4 ,clothes moth4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #beg-beh2 ,circular ,no4 #cf1 #b;d ,series1 ,dept4 ,agr41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,tent caterpillar4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #e 7,no4 ,,xix1 this volume74 ,a study of spraying should be made4 ,insects and ,insecticides1 pp4 #ci-ef4 ,spray ,calendar1 distributed free by the ,cornell ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,important ,insecticides4 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #abg1 ,dept4 ,agr41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,insect ,,friends4 ,fall work4--,lady bugs4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #agi4 ,aphis lions4 ,insect ,life1 p4 #agh2 ,ways of the ,six-,footed1 p4 #abe4 ,red clover and the bumble bee4 ,parasitic insects4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects1 pp4 #fba-fcj4 ,spring work4--,bees and orchard in blossom4 ,summary of methods4--,the observations may be made in the schoolroom or out-of-doors4 ,there should be observations of experiments in spraying4 ,this may be accomplished in most localities by encouraging the pupils to visit orchards undergoing the operation of spraying4 ,however1 by means of syringe or watering pot1 the infested plants brought into the schoolroom may be sprayed and the results noted4 ,lessons should be given on the importance of preserving insect friends while we are destroying insect enemies4 ,,other ,,animals ,,adapted ,,for ,,nature-,,study4 ,the ,toad and ,frog4 ,the study of either of these two species is delightful spring work for any grade4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #i 7,no4 ,,xvi1 this volume72 ,wilderness ,ways1 p4 #be4 ,salamanders or ,efts4 ,familiar ,life of the ,roadside4 ,fishes4 ,observations upon goldfish or minnows kept in an aquarium should be made the basis of lessons upon the life of fishes4 ,study3 7#a7 ,the shape of the body2 see how it is especially adapted to rapid movement through the water4 7#b7 ,the shape and arrangement of the fins1 and their uses4 7#c7 ,how the fish propels itself through the water4 7#d7 ,how the fish breathes4 7#e7 ,the shape of the fish's mouth1 and how and what it eats4 7#f7 ,experiment to ascertain the ability of the fish to see and hear4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #ba 7,nos4 ,,xiii and ,,xxxvi1 this volume74 ,encourage observations of habits of different species of fish common in our ponds and streams4 ,study their eggs and the places where they are found4 ,teach the children the reason for the game laws1 and impress upon them a true respect for those laws4 ,food and ,game ,fishes4 ,mice4 ,some house mice in an improvised cage may be placed in the schoolroom1 and the habits of the little creatures observed4 ,give them paper to see how they make their nests4 ,note how and what they eat1 and how they clean themselves4 ,note shape of teeth and their use4 ,if possible1 study the wild mice4 ,squirrels and ,other ,fur ,bearers1 p4 #aaa2 ,wild ,life1 p4 #aga4 ,squirrels and ,chipmunks4 ,the work on these animals must be based on out-of-door observations4 ,try to get the pupils to discover for themselves answers to the following questions3 ,how and where do they travel8 ,what do they eat8 ,where and how do they carry their food8 ,do they store it for winter8 ,if so1 where8 ,what do they do in winter8 ,squirrels and ,other ,fur ,bearers1 p4 #ae1 p4 #acd2 ,wild ,neighbors1 p4 #a4 ,rabbits4--,a domesticated rabbit should1 if possible1 be kept in the schoolyard so that the pupils may make their own observations upon its habits4 ,let them study3 ,how and what it eats4 ,the shape of its teeth4 ,the form and use of the ears4 ,how does it travel8 ,what sort of tracks does it make1 and why8 ,from these observations lead the pupils to think of the life of the wild rabbit1 how it is adapted to escape from its enemies and to get its food4 ,ways of ,wood ,folk1 p4 #da2 ,story of ,raggylug4 ,guinea pigs4--,these little animals are easily kept in the schoolroom1 and1 though not particularly interesting in their habits1 they prove attractive to the smaller children and may be studied in the same way as the other animals4 ,domestic animals4--,these need not be studied in the schoolroom1 as the pupils1 if they have opportunity1 can make the observations at home4 ,studies of the horse1 cow1 pig1 sheep1 and goat1 and also the cat and dog may be made most interesting4 ,such questions as these may be asked concerning each3 ,what is the characteristic form of the animal8 ,what is its clothing8 ,what does it eat8 ,how are its teeth adapted to its food8 ,what is its chief use to man8 ,how does it travel1 slow or fast8 ,how are its feet adapted to its way of running or walking8 ,has it a language8 ,how many emotions can it express by sound8 ,how many can it express by action8 ,how does it fight1 and what are its weapons8 ,what sort of life did its wild ancestors live8 ,how did they get their food1 and how did they escape from their enemies8 ,summary of methods of nature-study of animals4--,study only so much anatomy as is clearly adapted to the animal's ways of living4 ,observations made by the pupils should be arranged into lessons by either pupil or teacher4 ,such lessons make excellent ,english themes1 and they may be adapted to any grade4 ,,birds4 ,begin the study of birds by the careful study of some domesticated species that may be observed closely and for a long period4 ,the hen is perhaps the best for this purpose4 ,study carefully all of the adaptations of her anatomy to her life necessities4 ,study shape of her body2 the feathers2 the bill2 her food2 how she eats2 drinks2 the shape of her feet2 their covering2 how she sees2 hears2 smells2 sleeps2 study the life of a chick2 study the language of chick1 hen and cock2 embryology of a chick4 ,study a robin or some bird that builds near houses4 ,note all its habits from the time it appears in spring until autumn4 ,bird houses and bird protection4 ,usefulness of birds4 ,our ,native ,birds1 ,lange4 ,publications of ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,summary of methods4--,it is much more important that the pupil know the habits of one species than that he should know by name many species4 ,therefore encourage patient watching and careful observation concerning the things which birds do4 ,such observations may be made into lessons by pupil or by teacher for the benefit of all the pupils4 ,first ,book of ,birds1 and ,second ,book of ,birds2 ,bird ,lore2 ,the ,story of the ,birds2 ,bird ,neighbors4 ,,plants4 ,,first ,,grade4 ,fall term4--,let the children study the different forms and the colors of leaves4 ,by no means teach the botanical terms for all the shapes of leaves2 simply let the children gather and bring in all the different kinds of leaves they can find4 ,let them draw the different forms in their blank books4 ,press leaves and mount them4 ,the object of this work is to give the child an idea of the great number of leaf forms and colors1 and to get him interested in observing them4 ,references3 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #ij-ajj2 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #gi-ij2 ,gray's ,how ,plants ,grow1 chapter on ,leaves and ,forms of ,leaves2 ,elements of ,botany1 pp4 #hi-ic4 ,winter and spring terms4--,let the children study vegetables4 ,the following questions should be answered concerning a vegetable4 ,what part of the plant is it8 ,does it grow below or above ground8 ,what sort of leaf has it8 ,what sort of flower8 ,what sort of fruit or seed8 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #cec1 #cef1 #cfd2 ,first ,studies1 pp4 #ej1 #ea1 #agd2 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #ca-cg2 ,cornell ,teachers' ,quarterly1 ,no4 #g 7,no4 ,,xxxix1 this volume74 ,,second ,,grade4 ,teach the use of the flower4 ,do this by bringing in all flowers possible1 and show that as the flower fades the fruit becomes evident4 ,let the pupils observe for themselves the fact that the flower exists for the sake of the fruit4 ,interest the pupils in all kinds of fruits and seeds4 ,this is not the place to teach seed dispersion1 but simply the forms and colors of fruits and seeds4 ,let the pupils also observe that insects carry pollen from flower to flower4 ,do not give the explanation of this to children of this age1 but let them see the bees at work4 ,for this work see ,plant ,world1 by ,mrs4 ,bergen1 pp4 #hj-ajg4 ,let the pupils observe the following things in plant physiology3 ,flowers sleep3 ,botany1 ,bailey1 p4 #ej2 ,lessons with ,plants1 p4 #djb2 ,plants1 ,coulter1 pp4 #i1 #aj1 #dh2 ,elements of ,botany1 p4 #ih4 ,plants turn toward the light3 ,elements of ,botany1 p4 #ajj2 ,botany1 ,bailey1 p4 #ej2 ,first ,studies1 p4 #acf4 ,effect of frost on flowers and leaves4 ,winter and spring work4--,seed germination3 ,first ,studies1 pp4 #a-bd2 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #caf-cca2 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #afd-aga2 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #a 7,no4 ,,xxviii1 this volume72 ,plants1 p4 #cjg2 ,lessons in ,nature-,study1 p4 #bb4 ,let the pupils observe in the field3 ,position of leaves when first open4 ,a ,reader in ,botany1 by ,newell1 ,part ,i1 p4 #hd4 ,position of leaves and flowers in the rain4 ,first ,studies1 p4 #ace2 ,elements of ,botany1 pp4 #age-agf2 ,plants1 p4 #ea4 ,,third ,,grade4 ,fall work4--,the fall work of this grade may be 7#a7 ,the way flowers make fruit1 i4 e41 the way the fruit is formed from the flower4 7#b7 ,the dispersion of seeds4 ,fruits4 ,first ,studies1 pp4 #afh-aga2 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #bea-caj2 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #adg-aeg4 ,seed dispersion4 ,first ,studies1 p4 #agf2 ,plant ,world1 pp4 #acc-aef2 ,little ,wanderers1 by ,morley2 ,seed ,dispersal1 by ,beal2 ,cornell ,teachers' ,quarterly1 ,no4 #b 7,no4 ,,viii1 this volume72 ,seed ,travelers1 by ,weed2 ,botany1 ,bailey1 p4 #aeh4 ,let the pupils observe3 ,how some plants get up in the world4 ,first ,studies1 p4 #aej2 ,lessons with ,plants1 p4 #cif2 ,botany1 ,bailey1 p4 #ajh4 ,spring work4--,opening of the buds4 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #dh-fc2 ,first ,studies1 p4 #cc4 ,arrangement of buds4 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #fc-fi4 ,expansion of bark4 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #fi-gb4 ,,fourth ,,grade4 ,the object of this year's work may be the teaching of the value of earth1 air1 light1 and water upon plants4 ,fall work4--,experiments to show these to be carried on in schoolroom4 ,experiments to show value of earth to plants3 7#a7 ,plant seeds in fertile earth2 poor earth2 clean sand or sawdust4 7#b7 ,plant seeds in sawdust and on cotton batting placed on water in a jar4 ,experiments to show use of light to plants3 7#a7 ,sow seeds in two boxes of earth prepared just alike4 ,place one in the window1 one in a dark closet1 and note results4 7#b7 ,place house plants from greenhouse in a window1 and note change of position of leaves4 7#c7 ,the story of the sunflower4 ,experiments showing use of water to plants3 7#a7 ,place a very much wilted cut plant in water1 and note result4 7#b7 ,place seeds in earth which is dry1 and in earth which is kept moist4 7#c7 ,plant seeds on batting floating on a tumbler of water1 and note results4 ,these experiments should extend over several weeks4 ,winter and spring work4--,begin the study of trees4 ,choose some tree in the schoolyard1 if possible1 and make this the basis of the work4 ,the following is an outline for the study of a maple tree3 ,begin observations in ,january4 ,make drawings of the tree1 showing the relations of branches to trunk and general outline4 ,note the following details3 ,the color of trunk and branches in ,january1 and the color in ,february and ,march2 when the buds begin to swell2 the arrangement of buds2 watch closely to determine whether a bud develops into a blossom or a leaf2 the peculiarities of bark on trunk and branches2 do the leaves or the blossoms appear first2 the shape and color of the blossoms2 draw them and study them thoroughly2 the color and position of the leaves when they first appear2 draw the different stages of the unfolding of the leaves2 keep a calendar of all the year's history of the tree2 when in full leaf make another drawing of the whole tree2 study the tree from below1 and if possible from above1 to show arrangement of leaves in reference to light2 make drawings of the fruit when it is formed2 study how it travels2 when the first autumn tints appear2 make colored drawings of the tree in its autumn foliage1 and note when leaves begin to fall and when the branches are finally bare2 note different form of maple in the open and maple in the forest4 ,in connection with the year's history of the tree1 study the tree from an economic point of view4 ,make a special study of sugar-making in connection with the maple tree4 ,study maple wood4 ,to do this get a quarter section of a piece of maple log and study the grain lengthwise and in cross sections4 ,study all the industries possible in which maple is used4 ,devote one notebook to all the work on the maple tree1 and at the end summarize the observations4 ,for drawing of trees1 see ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #ab 7,nos4 ,,xxix and ,,xxx1 this volume74 ,home ,nature-,study1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,nos4 #b1 #e4 ,,fifth ,,grade4 ,the work during this grade may be devoted to plant physiology4 ,for this work use ,first ,studies of ,plant ,life1 ,atkinson4 ,the experiments described in this book are simple and excellent2 they give the pupil definite knowledge of the life processes of plants1 and the use to the plant of roots1 stems1 leaves1 flowers1 and fruit4 ,continue studies of trees4 ,select some other species than the one studied during the last grade4 ,study it in the same way4 ,note the differences between the two4 ,two or three contrasting species may thus be studied4 ,,sixth ,,grade4 ,having studied in the previous year the uses of different parts of the plant1 the pupil will be fitted now to take up the general subject of weeds4 ,take some common forms and let the pupils observe that they grow where other plants do not grow1 or that they drive out other plants2 then study the special reasons why each kind of weed is able to do these things4 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #bad-bbb2 ,elements of ,botany1 pp4 #aif-bje4 ,during the autumn another subject for study in this grade is ,mushrooms4 ,lead the pupils to see how these flowerless plants produce seed1 and let them bring in as many forms as possible4 ,do not try to teach which mushrooms are poisonous4 ,lessons with ,plants1 p4 #cdg2 ,mushrooms1 by ,atkinson4 ,winter work4--,evergreen trees4 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #ac 7,no4 ,,xxxiii1 this volume74 ,spring work4--,the spring work may well be the making of a calendar for trees and plants4 ,keep a record each day of the leafage of plants1 the appearance of weeds1 and the appearance of blossoms of fruit trees and all common flowers4 ,record which appear first1 leaves or blossoms4 ,this work will be good preparation for the study of the struggle for existence1 which comes in the next grade4 ,,seventh ,,grade4 ,the work for this year1 both fall and spring1 may be the study of the cross fertilization of flowers4 ,choose a few of the common flowers1 and let the pupils study the means by which pollen is carried from flower to flower4 ,in studying any flower fertilized by insects always ask3 ,where is the nectary8 ,where in relation to the nectary are the stigma and the anthers8 ,what path must the insect follow in order to get the nectar8 ,do the flowers attract insects by color8 ,by fragrance8 ,what insects do you find visiting the flowers studied8 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #bbd-bde2 ,plants1 ,coulter1 pp4 #aji-acg2 ,elements of ,botany1 pp4 #ahb-aif2 ,readers in ,botany1 ,newell1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #hf2 ,plant ,world1 ,bergen1 pp4 #eg-abg2 ,ten ,new ,england ,blossoms1 ,weed4 ,the cross fertilization of flowers is only one adaptation for succeeding in the struggle for existence4 ,study as many other ways of insuring the continuance of a plant as is possible4 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #aig-bag2 ,lessons with ,plants1 pp4 #ae-bj2 ,elements of ,botany1 pp4 #aii-bab4 ,study plant communities4 ,botany1 ,bailey1 pp4 #bai-bbg2 ,plant ,relations1 pp4 #adf1 #afb1 #afh2 ,plant ,structures1 p4 #cac2 ,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #ai 7,no4 ,,xxxv1 this volume74 ,,eighth ,,grade4 ,it seems to be the experience of most teachers that pupils of the seventh and eighth grades are with difficulty kept interested in nature-study4 ,this is probably due to the fact that the methods suited to earlier grades are not suited to these4 ,pupils of this age1 now feeling grown up1 are attracted only by more mature work4 ,they may be interested in some of the following subjects3 ,horticulture and ,gardening4--,cornell ,teachers' ,leaflets4 ,garden-,making2 ,the ,pruning-,book2 ,the ,principles of ,fruit-,growing2 ,the ,principles of ,vegetable-,gardening1 all by ,bailey4 ,plant ,culture1 by ,goff4 ,forestry4--,relations of forests to preservation of rain-fall and streams4 ,preservation of ,forests4 ,use of ,forests4 ,reforesting waste lands1 etc4 ,a ,primer of ,forestry by ,pinchot1 ,united ,states ,department ,agriculture4 ,a ,first ,book of ,forestry1 ,roth4 ,ferns4--,study and make collections of all the ferns of the locality4 ,make drawings of each fern and its fruiting organs1 and press and mount the specimens with full accounts of habits and locality of the plant4 ,how to ,know the ,ferns1 ,mrs4 ,parsons2 ,gray's ,botany2 ,our ,ferns1 ,clute4 ,,bibliography4#g #g ,this list comprises some of the books that have been helpful to me4 ,it is not intended to be complete4 ,good new books are constantly appearing4 ,the teacher should endeavor to keep up with the new books4 ,,insects4 ,every ,day ,butterflies4 ,s4 ,h4 ,scudder4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #b4jj4 ,insect ,life4 ,j4 ,h4 ,comstock4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4be4 ,lessons in ,nature-,study4 ,jenkins ,kellogg4 ,w4 ,b4 ,harrison1 #a4jj4 ,manual for ,study of ,insects4 ,j4 ,h4 ,comstock4 ,comstock ,pub4 ,co4 #c4ge4 ,moths and ,butterflies4 7a7 ,julia ,p4 ,ballard4 ,putnam's ,sons4 #a4ej4 ,moths and ,butterflies4 7b7 ,mary ,c4 ,dickerson4 ,ginn ,co4 #b4ej4 ,stories of ,insect ,life4 ,weed ,murtfeldt4 ,ginn ,co4 #ce cents4 ,outdoor ,studies4 ,james ,b4 ,needham4 ,american ,book ,co4 #dj cents4 ,bee ,people4 ,margaret ,w4 ,morley4 ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg4 #a4be4 ,the ,butterfly ,book4 ,w4 ,j4 ,holland4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #c4jj4 ,caterpillars and ,their ,moths4 ,eliot and ,soule4 ,the ,century ,co4 #b4jj4 ,wasps and ,their ,ways4 ,margaret ,w4 ,morley4 ,dodd1 ,mead ,co4 #a4ej4 ,the ,ways of the ,six-,footed4 ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,ginn ,co4 #dj cents4 ,how to ,know the ,butterflies4 ,j4 ,h4 and ,anna ,botsford ,comstock4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #b4be4 ,,animals ,,other ,,than ,,insects4 ,animal ,life4 ,jordan ,kellogg4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4be4 ,familiar ,fish4 ,eugene ,mc,carthy4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4ej4 ,story of the ,fishes4 ,james ,n4 ,baskett4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #fe cents4 ,familiar ,life of the ,roadside4 ,schuyler ,mathews4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4ge4 ,squirrels and ,other ,fur ,bearers4 ,john ,burroughs4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #a4jj4 ,wild ,life in ,orchard and ,field4 ,harper ,bros4 ,wild ,neighbors4 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 ,ernest ,ingersoll4 #a4ej each4 ,kindred of the ,wild4 ,roberts4 ,l4 ,c4 ,page4 #b4jj4 ,wild ,life ,near ,home4 ,dallas ,lore ,sharp4 ,the ,century ,co4 #b4jj4 ,four ,footed ,americans4 ,wright4 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 #a4ej4 ,american ,animals4 ,stone ,cram4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #d4jj4 ,food and ,game ,fishes4 ,jordan ,evermann4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #d4jj4 ,various books that deal with animals from the story or narrative point of view will be found to be interesting and helpful4 ,they are often useful in arousing an interest in the subject4 ,there are many good animal books not mentioned in the above list4 ,birds4 ,bird ,homes4 ,a4 ,r4 ,dugmore4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #b4jj4 ,bird ,life 7with colored plates74 ,frank ,m4 ,chapman4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #e4jj4 ,bird ,neighbors4 ,neltje ,blanchan4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #b4jj4 ,birds of ,village and ,field4 ,florence ,merriam4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #b4jj4 ,first ,book of ,birds4 ,olive ,thorne ,miller4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #a4jj4 ,second ,book of ,birds4 ,olive ,thorne ,miller4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #a4jj4 ,our ,native ,birds4 ,d4 ,lange4 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 #a4jj4 ,story of the ,birds4 ,james ,n4 ,baskett4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #fe cents4 ,how to ,attract the ,birds4 ,neltje ,blanchan4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #a4ce4 ,the ,bird ,book4 ,eckstorm4 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co4 #hj cents4 ,the ,relations of ,birds to ,man4 ,weed ,dearborn4 ,lippincott4 #b4ej4 ,the ,woodpeckers4 ,f4 ,h4 ,eckstorm4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #a4jj4 ,bird ,lore4 ,a magazine4 ,the ,macmillans4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #a4jj4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,botany2 an ,elementary ,text for ,schools4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 #a4jj4 ,corn ,plants4 ,f4 ,l4 ,sargent4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #fj cents4 ,elements of ,botany4 ,j4 ,y4 ,bergen4 ,ginn ,co4 #a4aj4 ,familiar ,flowers of ,field and ,garden4 ,s4 ,mathews4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4ge4 ,first ,studies in ,plant ,life4 ,george ,f4 ,atkinson4 ,ginn ,co4 #gj cents4 ,flowers and ,their ,friends4 ,margaret ,w4 ,morley4 ,ginn ,co4 #fj cents4 ,flowers of ,field1 ,hill and ,swamp4 ,c4 ,creevey4 ,harper ,bros4 #b4ej4 ,glimpses at the ,plant ,world4 ,fanny ,d4 ,bergen4 ,ginn ,co4 #ce cents4 ,a ,guide to the ,wild ,flowers4 ,alice ,lounsberry4 ,frederick ,a4 ,stokes ,co4 #b4ej4 ,how ,plants ,grow4 ,asa ,gray4 ,american ,book ,co4 #hj cents4 ,how to ,know the ,ferns4 ,mrs4 ,frances ,theodore ,parsons4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons4 #a4ej4 ,our ,ferns in ,their ,haunts4 ,clute4 ,stokes ,co4 #b4jj4 ,how to ,know the ,wild ,flowers4 ,mrs4 ,wm4 ,starr ,dana4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons4 #b4jj4 ,lessons ,with ,plants4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 #a4aj4 ,little ,wanderers4 ,margaret ,w4 ,morley4 ,ginn ,co4 #ce cents4 ,mushrooms4 ,george ,f4 ,atkinson4 ,andrus ,church1 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 #c4jj4 ,plants2 a text-book of botany4 ,j4 ,m4 ,coulter4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #b4jj4 ,plants and ,their ,children4 ,mrs4 ,wm4 ,starr ,dana4 ,american ,book ,co4 #fe cents4 ,reader in ,botany4 ,j4 ,h4 ,newell4 #b vols4 ,ginn ,co4 #gj cents4 ,seed ,dispersal4 ,w4 ,j4 ,beal4 ,ginn ,co4 #dj cents4 ,ten ,new ,england ,blossoms4 ,clarence ,m4 ,weed4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #a4be4 ,with the ,wild ,flowers1 #a4jj2 ,field1 ,forest and ,wayside ,flowers1 #a4ej4 ,maud ,going4 ,baker1 ,taylor ,co4 ,flowers and ,their ,insect ,visitors4 ,gibson4 ,newson ,co4 #a4jj4 ,,trees4 ,a ,guide to the ,trees4 ,alice ,lounsberry4 ,frederick ,a4 ,stokes ,co4 #b4ej4 ,familiar ,trees and ,their ,leaves4 ,s4 ,mathews4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4ge4 ,our ,native ,trees4 ,our ,native ,shrubs4 ,harriet ,keeler4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons4 #b4jj each4 ,a ,primer of ,forestry4 ,pinchot4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agri4 ,getting ,acquainted with the ,trees4 ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,farland4 ,outlook ,co4 #a4ge4 ,the ,first ,book of ,forestry4 ,roth4 ,ginn ,co4 #a4jj4 ,among ,green ,trees4 ,julia ,e4 ,rogers4 ,mumford4 #c4jj4 ,trees1 ,shrubs and ,vines4 ,parkhurst4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons4 #a4ej4 ,practical ,forestry4 ,john ,gifford4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4bj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,nature-,study ,idea4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 #a4jj4 ,science ,sketches4 ,david ,starr ,jordan4 ,mc,clurg ,co4 #a4ej4 ,poetry of the ,seasons4 ,mary ,i4 ,lovejoy4 ,silver1 ,burdette ,co4 #fj cents4 ,nature in ,verse4 ,mary ,i4 ,lovejoy4 ,silver1 ,burdette ,co4 #fj cents4 ,nature ,pictures by ,american ,poets4 ,the ,macmillan ,co4 #a4be4 ,arbor ,day ,manual4 ,charles ,skinner4 ,bardeen ,co4 #b4ej4 ,songs of ,nature4 ,john ,burroughs4 ,mc,clure1 ,phillips ,co4 #a4ej4 ,among ,flowers and ,trees4 ,wait ,leonard4 ,lee ,shepherd4 #b4jj4 ,,leaflet ,,vi4 ,a ,,summer ,,shower4#h ,,by ,r4 ,s4 ,,tarr4 #h ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #ad3 ,cornell ,nature-,study ,bulletin1 ,june1 #ahii4 ,illustration ,a ,rainstorm comes1 the walks are wet1 the roads are muddy4 ,then the sun breaks through the clouds and soon the walks are no longer damp and the mud of the road is dried4 ,where did the water come from and where has it gone8 ,let us answer these questions4 ,a kettle on the stove is forgotten and soon a cracking is heard2 the housewife jumps to her feet for the kettle is dry4 ,the kettle was filled with water1 but it has all boiled away2 and where has it gone8 ,surely into the air of the room1 for it can be seen issuing as steam and then disappearing from view1 as if by magic4 ,the heat of the fire has changed the liquid water to a gas as invisible as the air itself4 ,this gas is water vapor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,a glass of cold water on which vapor has condensed in drops4 ,do you wish to prove that the water vapor is there1 although unseen8 ,then1 if the day is cool1 watch the window and notice the drops of water collect upon it4 ,or1 if the day is warm1 bring an ice-cold glass or pitcher into the room and see the drops collect upon it 7,fig4 #i74 ,people sometimes say1 when drops of water collect on a glass of cold water1 that the glass is sweating2 but see whether the same thing will not happen with a cold glass that does not contain water4 ,these two simple observations teach us two very important facts3 7#a7 ,that heat will change liquid water to an invisible vapor1 or gas1 which will float about in the air of a room2 and 7#b7 that cold will cause some of the vapor to change back to liquid water4 ,let us observe a little further4 ,the clothes upon the line on wash day are hung out wet and brought in dry4 ,if the sun is shining they probably dry quickly2 but will they not dry even if the sun is not shining8 ,they will1 indeed2 so here is another fact to add to our other two1 namely 7#c7 that the production of vapor from water will proceed even when the water is not heated4 ,this change of water to vapor is called evaporation4 ,the water evaporates from the clothes2 it also evaporates from the walks after a rain1 from the mud of the road1 from the brooks1 creeks and rivers1 and from ponds1 lakes1 and the great ocean itself4 ,indeed1 wherever water is exposed to the air some evaporation is taking place4 ,yet heat aids evaporation1 as you can prove by taking three dishes of the same kind and pouring the same amount of water into each1 then placing one on the stove1 a second in the sun1 and a third in a cool1 shady place1 as a cellar1 and watching to see which is the last to become dry4 ,about three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered by water1 so that the air is receiving vapor all the time4 ,in fact1 every minute thousands of barrels of water-vapor are rising into the atmosphere from the surface of the ocean4 ,the air is constantly moving about1 forming winds1 and this load of vapor is1 therefore1 drifted about by the winds1 so that the air you are breathing may have in it vapor that came from the ocean hundreds or even thousands of miles away4 ,you do not see the vapor1 you are perhaps not even aware that it is there2 yet in a room #aj feet high and #bj feet square there is often enough vapor1 if it could all be changed back to water to fill a two-quart measure4 ,there is a difference in the amount of vapor from time to time4 ,some days the air is quite free from it1 and then clothes will dry rapidly4 ,on other days the air is damp and humid2 then people say it is muggy1 or that the humidity is high4 ,on these muggy days in summer the air is oppressive because there is so much vapor in it4 ,near the sea1 where there is so much water to evaporate1 the air is commonly more humid or moist than in the interior1 away from the sea1 where there is less water to evaporate4 ,we have seen that there is some vapor in all air1 and that there is more at some times than at others4 ,we have also seen how it has come into the air1 and that cold will cause it to condense to liquid water on cold window panes and on water glasses4 ,there are other ways in which the vapor may be changed to liquid4 ,after a summer day1 even when there has been no rain1 soon after the sun sinks behind the western horizon the grass becomes so damp that one's feet are wet in walking through it4 ,the dew is falling4 ,during the daytime the grass is warmed by the sun2 but when the sun is gone it grows cooler1 much as a stove becomes cool when the fire is out4 ,this cool grass chills the air near it and changes some of the vapor to liquid1 which collects in drops on the grass1 as the vapor condenses on the outside of a glass of ice water4 ,in the opposite season of the year1 on a cold winter's day1 when you step out of a warm house into the chilly air1 a thin cloud1 or fog1 forms as you expel the air from your lungs1 and you say that you can see your breath4 ,what you really see are the little drops of water formed as the vapor-laden breath is chilled on passing from the warm body to the cold air4 ,the vapor is condensed to form a tiny mist4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a wreath of fog settled in a valley with the hilltops rising above it4 ,doubtless you have seen a wreath of fog settling in a valley at night2 or in the morning you may have looked out upon a fog that has gathered there during the night 7,fig4 #aj74 ,if your home happens to be upon a hillside1 perhaps you have been able to look down upon the fog nestled there like a cloud on the land1 which it really is4 ,such a fog is caused in very nearly the same way as the tiny fog made by breathing4 ,the damp air in the valley has been chilled until the vapor has condensed to form tiny mist or fog particles4 ,without doubt you can tell why this fog disappears when the sun rises and the warm rays fall upon it4 ,on the ocean there are great fogs1 covering the sea for hundreds of miles2 they make sailing dangerous1 because the sailors cannot see through the mist1 so that two vessels may run together1 or a ship may be driven upon the coast before the captain knows it4 ,once more1 this is merely condensed vapor caused by chilling air that has become laden with vapor4 ,this chilling is often caused when warm1 damp winds blow over the cold parts of the ocean4 ,this leads the way to an understanding of a rain storm2 but first we must learn something about the temperature of the air4 ,the air near the ground where we live is commonly warmer than that above the ground where the clouds are4 ,people who have gone up in balloons tell us so2 and now scientific men who are studying this question are in the habit of sending up great kites1 carrying thermometers and other instruments1 in order to find out about the air far above the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,fog clouds among the valleys in the mountains1 only the mountain peaks projecting above them4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to send up a kite or a balloon to prove this4 ,if your home is among mountains1 or even among high hills1 you can prove it for yourself2 for often1 in the late autumn1 when it rains on the lower ground1 it snows upon the mountain tops1 so that when the clouds have cleared away the surface of the uplands is robed in white 7,fig4 #ab74 ,in the springtime1 or in the winter during a thaw1 people living among these highlands often start out in sleighs on a journey to a town1 which is in the valley1 and before they reach the valley their horses are obliged to drag the sleigh over bare ground4 ,it is so much warmer on the lower ground that the snow melts away much more quickly than it does among the hills4 ,the difference in temperature is1 on the average1 about one degree for every three hundred feet1 so that a hill top rising twelve hundred feet above a valley would have an average temperature about four degrees lower than the valley4 ,now some mountains1 even in ,new ,york1 rise thousands of feet above the surrounding country4 ,they rise high into the regions of cold air1 so that they are often covered with snow long before any snow has fallen on the lowlands2 and the snow remains upon them long after it has disappeared from the lower country 7,fig4 #ab74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a mountain whitened by snow on the top1 while there is no snow at the base4 ,some mountains are so lofty that it never rains upon them1 but snows instead2 and they are never free from snow1 even in mid-summer4 ,if one climbs to the top of such peaks he finds it always very cold there4 ,while he is shivering from the cold he can look down upon the green fields where the birds are singing1 the flowers blossoming and the men1 working in the fields1 are complaining of the heat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a mountain peak snow capped1 and covered on the very crest by a cloud4 ,one who watches such a mountain as this1 or in fact any mountain peak1 will notice that it is frequently wrapped in clouds 7,fig4 #ac74 ,damp winds blowing against the cold mountains are chilled and the vapor is condensed4 ,if one climbs through such a cloud1 as thousands of people have done when climbing mountains1 he often seems to pass through nothing but a fog1 for really many clouds are only fogs high in the air4 7,fig4 #ad74 ,but very often rain falls from these clouds that cling to the mountain sides4 ,the reason for this is easy to understand4 ,as the air comes against the cold mountains so much vapor is condensed that some of the tiny fog particles grow larger and larger until they become mist particles1 which are too heavy to float in the air4 ,they then begin to settle2 and as one particle strikes against another1 the two unite1 and this continues until perhaps a dozen have joined together so as to form a good-sized drop1 which is so heavy that it is obliged to fall to the ground as rain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,clouds clinging to the mountain sides4 ,if one were climbing these mountains he would find himself1 in passing through the clouds1 either in a fog or a mist4 ,let us now look at our summer storms4 ,these do not form about mountain peaks2 yet what has been said about the mountains will help us to understand such showers4 ,it is a hot summer day4 ,the air is muggy and oppressive1 so that the least exertion causes a perspiration1 and even in the shade one is uncomfortably hot4 ,soon great banks of clouds appear 7,fig4 #ae71--the thunder heads1--and people say a thunder shower is coming1 so that we will soon have relief from this oppressive heat4 ,the clouds draw near1 lightning is seen and thunder heard1 and from the black base of the cloud1 torrents of water fall upon the earth4 ,if we could have watched this cloud from the beginning1 and followed it on its course1 we would have seen some facts that would help explain it4 ,similar clouds perhaps began to form over your head in the early afternoon and drifted away toward the east1 developing into thunder storms many miles to the east of you4 ,on such a day as this1 the air near the ground is so damp that it gives up vapor easily1 as you can prove by allowing a glass of ice water to stand on a table and watching the drops of water gather there1 causing the glass to sweat 7,fig4 #i74 ,the sun beats down upon the heated ground and the surface becomes like a furnace1 so that the air near the ground is warmed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a thunder head1 or cumulus cloud4 ,air that is warm is lighter than cool air1 and1 being lighter1 will rise1 for the heavy cool air will settle and push it up1 as a chip of wood will rise in a pail of water1 because it is lighter than the water which pushes it to the top4 ,this is why the warm air rises from a furnace1 or a stove1 or a lamp4 ,it is the reason why the hot air rises through a house chimney2 undoubtedly you can find other illustrations1 as ventilation1 and can find abundant opportunity to prove that warm air will rise4 ,the warm1 moist air near the ground becomes so light that the heavy air above settles down and pushes it up1 so that an uprising current of air is formed above the heated ground1 much as an uprising current of hot air rises through the chimney when the stove is lighted4 ,rising thousands of feet into the sky the warm air reaches such a height1 and finally comes to a place so cool1 that some of the vapor must be condensed1 forming fog particles1 which in turn form a cloud4 ,on such a day1 if you will watch a cloud1 you will notice that its base is flat 7,fig4 #ae72 and this flat base marks the height above ground where the temperature of the atmosphere is low enough to change the vapor to fog particles4 ,of course the air still rises somewhat above this base and continues to get cooler1 and to have more and more vapor condensed4 ,this makes a pile of clouds resting on a level base1 but with rounded tops 7,fig4 #ae74 ,sometimes the base of these summer clouds1 called cumulus clouds1 is a mile above the ground and their tops fully a mile higher than this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,photograph of a lightning flash4 ,just as on the mountain side1 where the drops grow larger until they must fall1 so here1 fog particles grow to drops of such a size that they are too heavy to float4 ,this growth is often aided by the violent currents of air1 which sometimes tumble and toss the clouds about so that you can see the commotion from the ground4 ,these currents blow one particle against another1 forming a single drop from the collision of two2 then still others are added until the rain drop is so heavy that it must fall4 ,but sometimes the air currents are so rapid that the drops are carried on up1 higher and higher1 notwithstanding the fact that they are heavy4 ,then they may be carried so high1 and into air so cold1 that they are frozen1 forming hail4 ,these hailstones cannot sink to the ground until they are thrown out of the violent currents1 when they fall to the ground1 often near the edge of the storm4 ,some hailstones are of great size2 you will find it interesting to examine them4 ,if you do this1 notice the rings of clear and clouded ice that are often to be seen4 ,these are caused when the hail1 after forming1 settles to a place where it melts a little1 then is lifted again by another current1 growing larger by the addition of more vapor4 ,this continues until finally the ice ball sinks to the ground4 ,there is thunder and lightning in such storms4 ,few things in nature are grander than these1 and those who will watch the lightning flash will see many beautiful and interesting sights 7,fig4 #af74 ,sometimes the flash goes from cloud to cloud1 again from the cloud to the ground4 ,no one knows exactly why the lightning comes2 but we do know that it is an electric spark1 something like that which one can often see pass from the trolley to the wire of an electric car line4 ,the main difference is that the spark in a thunder storm is a powerful lightning bolt that passes over a space of thousands of feet and often does great damage where it strikes4 ,the thunder is a sound which may be compared to the crack heard when a spark passes from the trolley1 though of course the noise is very much louder4 ,the crack of the lightning echoes and reverberates among the clouds1 often changing to a great rumble2 but this rumbling is mainly caused by the echo1 the sound from the lightning being a loud crack or crash like that which we sometimes hear when the lightning strikes near by4 ,some of the vapor of the air1 on condensing1 gathers on solid objects like grass1 or glass2 but some1 as fog1 floats about in the air4 ,really this1 too1 is often gathered around solid objects4 ,floating about in the air are innumerable bits of dust which you can see dancing about in the sunlight when a sunbeam enters a dark room4 ,some of these dust particles are actual dust from the road1 but much of it is something else1 as the pollen of plants1 microbes1 and the solid bits produced by the burning of wood or coal4 ,each bit serves as a tiny nucleus on which the vapor condenses2 and so the very dust in the air aids in the formation of rain by giving something solid around which the liquid can gather4 ,the great amount of dust in the air near the great city of ,london is believed to be one of the causes for the frequent fogs of that city4 ,that there is dust in the air1 and that the rain removes it1 is often proved when a dull hazy air is changed to a clear1 bright air by a summer shower4 ,watch to find instances of this4 ,indeed1 after such a hazy day1 when the rain drops first begin to fall1 if you will let a few drops fall upon a sheet of clean white paper1 and then dry it1 you will find the paper discolored by the dust that the rain brought with it4 ,so the rain purifies the air by removing from it the solids that are floating in it4 ,these are only a few of the things of interest that you can see for yourself by studying the air4 ,watch the sky2 it is full of interest4 ,see what you can observe for yourself4 ,watch especially the clouds1 for they are not only interesting but beautiful 7,fig4 #ag74 ,their forms are often graceful1 and they change with such rapidity that you can notice it as you watch them4 ,even in the daytime the colors and shadows are beautiful2 but at sunrise and at sunset the clouds are often changed to gorgeous banks of color4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,a sky flecked with clouds high in the air4 ,watch the clouds and you will be repaid2 look especially for the great piles of clouds in the east during the summer when the sun is setting 7,fig4 #ah74 ,those lofty banks1 tinged with silver and gold1 and rising like mountains thousands of feet into the air1 are really made of bits of fog and mist4 ,among them vapor is still changing to water and rain drops are forming1 while violent currents are whirling the drops about1 and perhaps lifting them to such a height that they are being frozen into hailstones4 ,far off to the east1 beneath that cloud1 rain is falling in torrents1 lightning is flashing and thunder crashing1 though you cannot hear it because it is so far away4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the cloud banks of a thunder storm on the horizon4 ,you see the storm merely as a brightly lighted and beautifully colored cloud mass in the sky2 but the people over whom it is hanging find it a threatening black cloud1 the source of a furious wind1 a heavy rain1 and the awe-inspiring lightning4 ,to them it may not be beautiful1 though grand in the extreme2 and so1 too1 when the summer thunder shower visits you in the early evening1 you may know that people to the west of you are probably looking at its side and top and admiring its beauty of form and color4 ,the storm passes on1 still to the eastward1 and finally the cloud mass entirely disappears beneath the eastern horizon2 but if you watch1 you will see signs that it is still there1 though out of sight2 for in the darkness of the night you can see the eastern horizon lighted by little flashes1 the source of which cannot be seen4 ,you call it heat lightning1 but it is really the last signal that we can see of the vanishing thunder storm1 so far away that the sound of the crashing thunder cannot be heard4 ,you watch the mysterious flashes2 they grow dimmer and dimmer and finally you see them no more4 ,our summer shower is gone4 ,it has done what thousands of others have done before1 and what thousands of others will do in the future4 ,it has started1 moved off1 and finally disappeared from sight2 and as it has gone it has told us a story4 ,you can read a part of this story if you will2 and in reading it will find much that interests4 ,,leaflet ,,vii4 ,a ,,snow ,,storm4#i ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 ,the snow had begun in the gloaming1 ,and busily all the night ,had been heaping field and highway ,with a silence deep and white4 ,every pine and fir and hemlock ,wore ermine too dear for an earl1 ,and the poorest twig on the elm-tree ,was ridged inch deep with pearl4 ,from sheds new-roofed with ,carrara ,came ,chanticleer's muffled crow ,the stiff rails were softened to swan's-down ,and still fluttered down the snow4 --,lowell4 #i ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,december1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,the storm which ,lowell describes so delightfully is the first soft1 gentle snow fall that comes in ,november or early ,december4 ,the silence deep and white settles like a benediction over the brown1 uneven landscape1 and makes of it a scene of enchantment4 ,very different from this is the storm that comes when the winter cold is most severe and winter winds most terrific4 ,then the skies are as white as the fields1 with never a sign of blue2 if the sun appears at all1 it shines cold instead of warm1 and seems but a vague white spot behind the veil of upward1 downward whirling snowflakes2 the wild wind takes the snow dust in eddies across the fields and piles it at the fences in great drift billows with overhanging crests4 ,on such a day the snow is so cold and dry1 the clouds so low and oppressive1 the bare trees so brown and bleak1 that we shiver even though we gaze on the dreary scene from the window of a warm and comfortable room4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,snow crystals enlarged4 ,but another change is sure to come4 ,some ,february day the wind will veer suddenly to the south and breathe warm thawing breaths over the white frozen world4 ,then will the forests appear in robes of vivid blue-purple against the shining hills2 and in the mornings the soft blue of the horizon will shade upward into rose-color and still upward into yellow and beryl green2 these hues are never seen on the forest or in the sky except when the snow covers the earth to the horizon line4 ,the eye that loves color could ill afford to lose from the world the purples and blues which bring contrast into the winter landscape4 ,the snow storm to our limited understanding1 begins with a miracle--the miracle of crystallization4 ,why should water freezing freely in the air be a part of geometry1 the six rays of the snow crystal growing at an angle one to another1 of sixty degrees8 ,or as if to prove geometry divine beyond cavil1 sometimes the rays include angles of twice sixty degrees4 ,then why should the decorations of the rays assume thousands of intricate1 beautiful forms1 each ray of a flake ornamented exactly like its five sisters8 ,and why should the snowflake formed in the higher clouds of the upper air be tabular in shape but still1 in cross section1 show that it is built on the plan of six radii8 ,look at it as we will1 the formation of a crystal is a beautiful mystery and is as unfathomable as is the mystery of life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,snow crystals enlarged4 ,i am indebted to the courtesy of ,mr4 ,r4 ,g4 ,allen1 ,section ,director for ,new ,york of the ,u4 ,s4 ,weather ,bureau1 for suggestions in making out the following questions4 ,the beautiful pictures of snow crystals illustrating this lesson were made from photographs taken by ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,bentley of ,jericho1 ,vt4 ,it is our desire to interest all teachers in the natural history of a snow storm1 to the end that they may love the country better and be content to live therein4 ,a thermometer hung in a sheltered1 open place away from the warmth of the house is a necessary preliminary to the proper observation of the phenomena of a snow storm4 ,dark woolen cloth is the best medium on which to catch and observe snow crystals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,with a silence deep and white4 ,,questions ,,on ,a ,,snow ,,storm4 #a4 ,what causes snow8 #b4 ,at what temperature do snow crystals form8 #c4 ,how do the clouds appear before a snow storm8 #d4 ,what is the temperature of the air before the storm8 #e4 ,what is the direction of the wind before the storm8 #f4 ,does the storm come from the same direction as the wind8 #g4 ,what are the conditions of the wind and temperature when the snow crystals are most perfect in form8 #h4 ,what are these conditions when the snow crystals are matted together in great flakes8 #i4 ,what are these conditions when the snow crystals appear sharp and needle-like8 #aj4 ,are the snow crystals of the same storm similar in structure and decoration8 #aa4 ,what is the difference in structure between a snowflake and a hail stone8 #ab4 ,what is sleet8 #ac4 ,what is the difference between hoar frost and snow8 #ad4 ,does the temperature rise or fall during a snow storm8 #ae4 ,is it colder or warmer after a snow storm has passed than it was before it began8 #af4 ,what are the conditions of weather which cause a blizzard8 #ag4 ,why does a covering of snow prevent the ground from freezing so severely as it would if bare8 #ah4 ,why is snow a bad conductor of heat8 #ai4 ,pack snow in a quart cup until it is full and let it melt2 then tell how full the cup is of water4 ,what do you infer from this8 #bj4 ,have you ever observed the grass to be green beneath snow drifts8 ,tell why4 #ba4 ,does snow evaporate as well as melt8 #bb4 ,how does snow benefit the farmer and the fruit grower8 #bc4 ,do the snow storms in your locality come from one general direction all winter8 ,,leaflet ,,viii4 ,a ,,handful ,,of ,,soil3 ,,what ,,it ,,is4#aj ,,by ,r4 ,s4 ,,tarr4 #aj ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #b3 ,leaflet #ae4 ,illustration ,wind drifts a seed from the parent plant until it settles to the ground1 perhaps in a field or by the roadside1 or even in the schoolyard4 ,there it remains through the long winter2 but with the return of spring1 encouraged by the warm sunlight1 the seed awakens from its dormant condition1 breaks open the seed-cover and sends leaves into the air and roots into the ground4 ,no one planted the seed2 yet the plant has made its way in the world and it thrives until it has given to other seeds the same opportunity to start in life4 ,had the seed fallen upon a board or a stone it might have sent out leaves and roots2 but it could never have developed into a plant1 for something necessary would have been lacking4 ,what is there in the soil that is so necessary to the success of plant life8 ,how has it come to be there8 ,what is this soil that the plants need so much8 ,these are some of the questions which we will try to answer4 ,one readily sees that the soil furnishes a place in which the plants may fix themselves1--an anchorage1 as it were4 ,it is also easy to see that from the soil the plants obtain a supply of water2 and1 moreover1 that this water is very necessary1 for the vegetation in a moist country suffers greatly in time of drought1 and few plants are able to grow in a desert region because there is so little water4 ,you can make a desert in the schoolroom and contrast it with moist soil by planting seeds in two dishes of soil1 watering one1 but furnishing no water to the other4 ,that water is necessary to plants is also proved by the plant itself4 ,the sap and the moisture which may be pressed out of a grass stem or an apple are principally water taken from the soil by the roots4 ,but there is more than water1 for the juice of an apple is sweet or sour1 while the sap and juice of other plants may be sweet or bitter4 ,there are substances dissolved in the water4 ,it is these dissolved substances that the plants need for their growth1 and they find them ready for use in the soil4 ,there is a plant-food which the roots seek and find1 so that every plant which sends roots into the soil takes something from it to build up the plant tissue4 ,the sharp edges of some sedges1 which will cut the hand like a dull knife1 and the wood ashes left when a wood fire is burned1 represent in part this plant-food obtained from the soil4 ,let us take a handful of soil from the field1 the schoolyard1 or the street and examine it4 ,we find it to be dirt that soils the hands2 and when we try to brush off the dirt1 we notice a gritty feeling that is quite disagreeable4 ,this is due to the bits of mineral in the soil2 and that these are hard1 often harder than a pin1 may often be proved by rubbing soil against a piece of glass1 which the hard bits will often scratch1 while a pin will not4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,a boulder-strewn soil of glacial origin with one of the large erratics on the right similar to those which early attracted attention to the drift4 ,see page #aje4 ,study this soil with the eye and you may not see the tiny bits1 though in sandy soils one may easily notice that there are bits of mineral4 ,even fine loamy and clay soils1 when examined with a pocket lens or a microscope1 will be found to be composed of tiny fragments of mineral4 ,it is evident that in some way mineral has been powdered up to form the soil2 and since the minerals come from rocks1 it is the rocks that have been ground up4 ,that powdered rock will make just such a substance as soil may be proved by pounding a pebble to bits1 or by collecting some of the rock dust that is made when a hole is drilled in a rock4 ,much the same substance is ground from a grindstone when a knife is sharpened on it1 making the water muddy like that in a mud hole4 ,it will be an interesting experiment to reduce a pebble to powder and plant seeds in it to see whether they will grow as well as in soil2 but in preparing it try to avoid using a sandstone pebble1 because sandy soils are never very fertile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,a glacial soil1 containing numerous transported pebbles and boulders1 resting on the bed rock4 ,not only is soil made up of bits of powdered rock1 but it everywhere rests upon rock 7,fig4 #be74 ,some consider soil to be only the surface layers in which plants grow2 but really this is1 in most places1 essentially the same as the layers below1 down even to the very rock1 so that we might call it all soil2 though1 since a special name1 regolith 7meaning stone blanket71 has been proposed for all the soft1 soil-like rock-cover1 we may speak of it as regolith and reserve the word soil for the surface layers only4 ,in some places there is no soil on the bare rocks2 elsewhere the soil-cover is a foot or two in depth2 but there are places where the regolith is several hundred feet deep4 ,in such places1 even the wells do not reach the bed rock2 nor do the streams cut down to it2 but even there1 if one should dig deep enough1 he would reach the solid rock beneath4 ,how has the hard rock been changed to loose soil8 ,one of the ways1 of which there are several1 may be easily studied whenever a rock has been exposed to the air4 ,let us go to a stone wall or among the pebbles in a field1 for instance1 and1 chipping off the surface1 notice how different the inside is from the outside4 ,the outer crust is rusted and possibly quite soft1 while the interior is harder and fresher4 ,many excellent examples of this may be found in any stony field or stone wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the bed of a stream at low water1 revealing the rounded pebbles that have been worn and smoothed by being rolled about1 thus grinding off tiny bits which later are built into the flood-plains4 ,as hard iron rusts and crumbles to powder when exposed to the weather2 so will the minerals and the rocks decay and fall to bits2 but rocks require a very much greater time for this than does iron4 ,it happens that the soil of ,new ,york has not been produced by the decay of rock2 and1 therefore1 although the soils in many parts of the world have been formed in this way1 we will not delay longer in studying this subject now1 nor in considering the exact way in which rocks are enabled to crumble4 ,another way in which rocks may be powdered may be seen in most parts of ,new ,york4 ,the rains wash soil from the hillsides causing the streams to become muddy4 ,in the streams there are also many pebbles1 possibly the larger fragments that have fallen into the stream after having been broken from the ledges4 ,the current carries these all along down the stream1 and1 as they go1 one piece striking against another1 or being dragged over the rocks in the stream bed1 the pebbles are ground down and smoothed 7,fig4 #bc71 which means1 of course1 that more mud is supplied to the stream1 as mud is furnished from a grindstone when a knife or scythe is being sharpened on it4 ,on the pebbly beaches of the sea or lakeshore much the same thing may be seen2 and here also the constant grinding of the rocks wears off the edges until the pebbles become smooth and round4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,near view of a cut in glacial soil1 gullied by the rains1 and with numerous transported pebbles embedded in the rock flour4 ,supplied with bits of rock from the soil1 or from the grinding up of pebbles and rocks along its course1 the stream carries its load onward1 perhaps to a lake1 which it commences to fill1 forming a broad delta of level and fertile land1 near where the stream enters the lake4 ,or1 possibly1 the stream enters the sea and builds a delta there1 as the ,mississippi river has done4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,a scratched limestone pebble taken from a glacial soil4 ,but much of the mud does not reach the sea4 ,the greatest supply comes when the streams are so flooded by heavy rains or melting snows that the river channel is no longer able to hold the water1 which then rises above the banks1 overflowing the surrounding country4 ,then1 since its current is checked where it is so shallow1 the water drops some of its load of rock bits on the flood-plain1 much as the muddy water in a gutter drops sand or mud on the sidewalk when1 in time of heavy rains1 it overflows the walk4 ,many of the most fertile lands of the world are flood-plains of this kind1 where sediment1 gathered by the streams farther up their courses1 is dropped upon the flood-plains1 enriching them by new layers of fertile soil4 ,one does not need to go to the ,nile1 the ,yellow1 or the ,mississippi for illustrations of this2 they abound on every hand1 and many thousands of illustrations1 great and small1 may be found in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,doubtless you can find one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,the grooved bed rock scratched by the movement of the ice sheet over it4 ,there are other ways in which soils may be formed2 but only one more will be considered1 and that is the way in which most of the soils of ,new ,york have been made4 ,to study this let us go to a cut in the earth1 such as a well or a stream bank 7,figs4 #bb and #bd74 ,scattered through the soil numerous pebbles and boulders will doubtless be found2 and if these are compared with the bed rock of the country1 which underlies the soil 7,fig4 #bb71 some of them will be found to be quite different from it4 ,for instance1 where the bed rock is shale or limestone1 some of the pebbles will no doubt be granite1 sandstone1 etc4 ,if you could explore far enough1 you would find just such rocks to the north of you1 perhaps one or two hundred miles away in ,canada2 or1 if your home is south of the ,adirondacks1 you might trace the pebbles to those mountains4 ,on some of these pebbles1 especially the softer ones1 such as limestone1 you will find scratches1 as if they had been ground forcibly together 7,fig4 #be74 ,looking now at the bed rock in some place from which the soil has been recently removed1 you will find it also scratched and grooved 7,fig4 #bf72 and if you take the direction of these scratches with the compass1 you will find that they extend in a general north and south direction1 pointing1 in fact1 in the same direction from which the pebbles have come4 ,all over northeastern ,north ,america and northwestern ,europe the soil is of the same nature as that just described4 ,in our own country this kind of soil reaches down as far as the edge of the shaded area in the map 7,fig4 #bg71 and it will be noticed that all of ,new ,york is within that area excepting the extreme southwestern part near the southern end of ,chautauqua lake4 ,not only is the soil peculiar within this district1 but there are many small hills of clay or sand1 or sometimes of both together 7,figs4 #cc and #cd74 ,they rise in hummocky form and often have deep pits or kettle-shaped basins between1 sometimes1 when the soil is clayey enough to hold water1 containing tiny pools4 ,these hills extend in somewhat irregular ranges stretching across the country from the east toward the west4 ,the position of some of these ranges is indicated on the map 7,fig4 #bg74 ,for a long time people wondered how this soil with its foreign pebbles and boulders1 altogether called drift1 came to be placed where it is2 they were especially puzzled to tell how the large boulders1 called erratics 7,fig4 #ba71 should have been carried from one place to another4 ,it was suggested that they came from the bursting of planets1 from comets1 from the explosion of mountains1 from floods1 and in other ways equally unlikely2 but ,louis ,agassiz1 studying the glaciers of the ,alps and the country round about1 was impressed by the resemblance between the drift and the materials carried by living glaciers4 ,agassiz1 therefore1 proposed the hypothesis that glaciers had carried the drift and left it where we now find it2 but for many years his glacial hypothesis met with a great deal of opposition because it seemed impossible that the climate could have changed so greatly as to cover what is now a temperate land with a great sheet of ice4 ,indeed1 even now1 although all who have especially studied the subject are convinced1 many people have not accepted ,agassiz's explanation1 just as years ago1 long after it was proved that the earth rotated each day1 many people still believed that it was the sun1 not the earth1 that was moving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,map showing the extent of the ice sheet in the ,united ,states4 ,position of some of the moraines indicated by the heavily shaded lines4 7,after ,chamberlain47 ,the glacial explanation is as certain as that the earth rotates4 ,for some reason1 which we do not know1 the climate changed and allowed ice to cover temperate lands1 as before that time the climate had changed so as to allow plants like those now growing as far south as ,virginia to live in ,greenland1 now ice covered4 ,when the ice of the glacier melted away it left many signs of its presence2 and when the temperate latitude plants grew in ,greenland they left seeds1 leaves and tree trunks which have been imbedded in the rocks as fossils4 ,one may now pick the leaves of temperate climate trees from the rocks beneath a great icecap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,a view over the great ice plateau of ,greenland1 with a mountain peak projecting above it4 ,to one who studies them1 the signs left by the glacier are as clear proof as the leaves and seeds4 ,from these signs we know that the climate has changed slowly1 but we have not yet learned why it changed4 ,there are now two places on the earth where vast glaciers1 or ice sheets1 cover immense areas of land1 one in the ,antarctic1 a region very little known1 the other in ,greenland1 where there is an ice sheet covering land having an area more than ten times that of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,let us study this region to see what is being done there1 in order to compare it with what has been done in ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,the edge of a part of the great ,greenland ice sheet 7on the left7 resting on the land1 over which are strewn many boulders brought by the ice and left there when it melted4 ,in the interior is a vast plateau of ice1 in places over #aj1jjj feet high1 a great icy desert 7,fig4 #bh71 where absolutely no life of any kind1 either animal or plant1 can exist1 and where it never rains1 but where the storms bring snow even in the middle of summer4 ,such must have been the condition in northeastern ,america during the glacial period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,a scratched pebble taken from the ice of the ,greenland glacier4 ,this vast ice sheet is slowly moving outward in all directions from the elevated center1 much as a pile of wax may be made to flow outward by placing a heavy weight upon the middle4 ,moving toward the north1 east1 south and west1 this glacier must of course come to an end somewhere4 ,in places1 usually at the heads of bays1 the end is in the sea1 as the end of our glacier must have been off the shores of ,new ,england4 ,from these sea-ends1 icebergs constantly break off2 these floating away toward the south1 often reach1 before they melt1 as far as the path followed by the steamers from the ,united ,states to ,europe4 ,between the bays where the glacier ends in the sea1 the ice front rests on the land 7,fig4 #bi71 as it did over the greater part of ,new ,york and the states further west4 ,there it melts in the summer1 supplying streams with water and filling many small ponds and lakes4 ,the front stands there year after year1 sometimes moving a little ahead1 again melting further back so as to reveal the rocks on which it formerly rested4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a part of the edge of the ,greenland glacier1 with clean white ice above1 and dark discolored bands below where laden with rock fragments4 ,in the foreground is a boulder-strewn moraine4 ,the bed rock here is found to be polished1 scratched and grooved just like the bed-rock in ,new ,york2 and the scratches extend in the direction from which the ice moves4 ,resting on the rock are boulders and pebbles 7,fig4 #bb71 sometimes on the bare rock1 sometimes imbedded in a clay as they are in the drift4 ,as we found when studying the soil in our own region1 so here the pebbles are often scratched1 and many of them are quite different from the rock on which they rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,hummocky surface of the boulder-strewn moraine of ,greenland4 ,going nearer to the ice we find the lower part loaded with pebbles1 boulders and bits of clay very like those on the rocks near by4 ,fig4 #cj shows one of these1 scratched and grooved1 which ,i once dug from the ice of this very glacier4 ,the bottom of the ice is like a huge sandpaper1 being dragged over the bed rock with tremendous force4 ,it carries a load of rock fragments1 and as it moves secures more by grinding or prying them from the rocks beneath4 ,these all travel on toward the edge of the ice1 being constantly ground finer and finer as wheat is ground when it goes through the mill4 ,indeed the resemblance is so close that the clay produced by this grinding action is often called rock flour4 ,dragged to the front of the ice1 the rock bits1 great and small1 roll out as the ice melts1 some1 especially the finest1 being carried away in the water1 which is always muddy with the rock flour it carries2 but much remains near the edge of the ice1 forming a moraine 7,figs4 #ca and #cb74 ,this moraine1 dumped at the edge of the glacier1 very closely resembles the hummocky hills of ,new ,york 7,figs4 #cc and #cd71 mentioned above1 which are really moraines formed at the ice-edge during the glacial period4 ,while their form is quite alike1 the ,new ,york moraines are generally less pebbly than the ,greenland moraines1 because the ,greenland glacier carries less rock flour than did the glacier which covered ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,a view over the hummocky surface of a part of the moraine of the great ,american ice sheet in ,central ,new ,york4 ,in the ,greenland glacier1 as you can see in ,fig4 #ca1 there is much dirt and rock2 in the glacier of the glacial period there was even more4 ,when it melted away the ice disappeared as water1 but the rock fragments of course fell down upon the rock beneath and formed soil4 ,if over a certain region1 as for instance over your home1 the ice carried a great load of drift1 when this gradually settled down1 as the ice melted1 it formed a deep layer of soil2 but if the glacier had only a small load a shallow soil was left4 ,again1 if the ice front remained for a long time near a certain place1 as near your home1 it kept bringing and dumping rock fragments to form moraines1 which1 of course1 would continue to grow higher so long as the ice dumped the rock fragments1 much as a sand pile will continue to grow higher so long as fresh loads are brought and dumped4 ,there are other causes for differences in the glacial soils1 but most of them cannot be considered here4 ,one of them is so important1 however1 that it must be mentioned4 ,with the melting of so much ice1 vast floods of water were caused1 and these came from the ice1 perhaps in places where there are now no streams1 or at best only small ones4 ,these rapid currents carried off much of the rock flour and left the coarser and heavier sand1 gravel1 or pebbles1 the latter often well rounded1 with the scratches removed by the long-continued rolling about in the glacial stream bed4 ,one often finds such beds of sand or gravel in different parts of the ,state1 telling not only of ice where it is now absent1 but of water currents where is now dry land4 ,the rock flour was in some cases carried to the sea1 elsewhere to lakes1 or in still other places deposited in the flood-plains of the glacier-fed rivers4 ,now some of this rock flour is dug out to make into bricks4 ,enough has been said to show that the soils of ,new ,york were brought by a glacier1 and to point out that there are many differences in thickness as well as in kind and condition of the soil4 ,the agriculture of the ,state is greatly influenced by these differences4 ,in some cases one part of a farm has a deep1 rich soil1 another part a barren1 sandy1 pebbly or boulder-covered soil 7,fig4 #ba71 while in still another part the bed rock may be so near the surface that it does not pay to clear the forest from it4 ,moreover1 some farms are in hummocky moraines1 while others1 near by1 are on level plains 7,fig4 #cd71 where a broad glacial stream built up a flood-plain in a place where now the stream is so small that it never rises high enough to overflow the plain4 ,there are even other differences than these1 and one who is familiar with a region is often puzzled to explain them2 but they are all due to the glacier or to the water furnished by its melting1 and a careful study by a student of the subject of ,glacial ,geology will serve to explain them4 ,each place has had peculiar conditions and it would be necessary to study each place much more carefully than has been done here in order to explain all the differences4 ,not only is agriculture influenced greatly by the differences in the soil from place to place1 but also by the very fact that they are glacial soils4 ,being made up of partly ground-up rock fragments the soils are often stony and difficult to till4 ,unlike the soil of rock decay1 the particles of which the glacial soil is made have been derived by mechanical grinding1 not by chemical decay and disintegration4 ,there has been less leaching out of the soluble compounds which make plant foods4 ,these are stored up in the rock fragments ready for use when decay causes the proper changes to produce the soluble compounds which plants require4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,hummocky moraine hills in the background and a level gravel plain--an ancient glacial-stream flood-plain--in foreground4 ,slowly the glacial soils are decaying1 and1 as they do so1 are furnishing plant-food to the water which the roots greedily draw in4 ,so the glacial soil is not a mere store house of plant-food1 but a manufactory of it as well1 and glacial soils are therefore strong and last for a long time4 ,that decay is going on1 especially near the surface1 may often be seen in a cut in the soil1 where the natural blue color of the drift is seen below1 while near the surface the soil is rusted yellow by the decay of certain minerals which contain iron4 ,few materials on the earth are more important than the soil2 it acts as the intermediary between man and the earth4 ,the rocks have some substances locked up in them which animals need2 by decay1 or by being ground up1 the rocks crumble so that plants may send roots into them and extract the substances needed by animals4 ,gifted with this wonderful power the plants grow and furnish food to animals1 some of which is plant-food obtained from the rocks2 and so the animals of the land1 and man himself1 secure a large part of their food from the rocks4 ,it is then worth the while to stop for a moment and think and study about this1 one of the most marvelous of the many wonderful adjustments of ,nature1 but so common that most persons live and die without even giving it more than a passing thought4 ,,leaflet ,,ix4 ,a ,,handful ,,of ,,soil3 ,,what ,,it ,,does4#aa ,,by ,l4 ,a4 ,,clinton4 #aa ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #b3 ,leaflet #ae1 ,october1 #ahii4 ,illustration ,the more one studies the soil1 the more certainly it will be found that the earth has locked up in her bosom many secrets1 and that these secrets will not be given up for the mere asking4 ,as mysterious as the soil may appear at different times1 it always is governed by certain laws4 ,these principles once understood1 the soil becomes an open book from which one may read quickly and accurately4 ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,soil4 ,the soil has certain offices to perform for which it is admirably fitted4 ,the most important of these offices are3 #a4 ,to hold plants in place2 #b4 ,to serve as a source of plant-food2 #c4 ,to act as a reservoir for moisture2 #d4 ,to serve as a storehouse for applied plant-food or fertilizer4 ,some soils are capable of performing all these offices1 while others are fitted for only a part of them4 ,thus a soil which is pure sand and almost entirely deficient in the essential elements of plant-food1 may serve1 if located near a large city1 merely to hold the plants in position while the skillful gardener feeds the plants with specially prepared fertilizers1 and supplies the moisture by irrigation4 ,early in the study of soils an excursion1 if possible1 should be made into the woods4 ,great trees will be seen and under the trees will be found various shrubs and possibly weeds and grass4 ,it will be noticed that the soil is well occupied with growing plants4 ,the surface will be found covered with a layer several inches thick of leaves and twigs4 ,beneath this covering the soil is dark1 moist1 full of organic matter1 loose1 easily spaded except as roots or stones may interfere1 and has every appearance of being fertile4 ,,soil ,,conditions ,,as ,,found ,,in ,,many ,,fields4 ,after examining the conditions in the forest1 a study should be made of the soil in some cultivated field4 ,it will be found that in the field the soil has lost many of the marked characteristics noticed in the woodland4 ,in walking over the field1 the soil will be found to be hard and compact4 ,the surface may be covered with growing plants1 for if the seeds which have been put into the soil by the farmer have not germinated and the plants made growth1 nature has quickly come to the rescue and filled the soil with other plants which we commonly call weeds4 ,it is nature's plan to keep the soil covered with growing plants1 and from nature we should learn a lesson4 ,the field soil1 instead of being moist1 is dry2 instead of being loose and friable1 it is hard and compact1 and it appears in texture entirely different from the woodland soil4 ,the cause of the difference is not hard to discover4 ,in the woods1 nature for years has been building up the soil4 ,the leaves from the trees fall to the ground and form a covering which prevents washing or erosion1 and these leaves decay and add to the humus1 or vegetable mould1 of the soil4 ,roots are constantly decaying and furnish channels through the soil and permit the circulation of air and water4 ,in the field1 nature's lesson has been disregarded and too often the whole aim seems to be to remove everything from the soil and to make no returns4 ,consequently the organic matter1 or humus1 has been used up2 the tramping of the horses' feet has closed the natural drainage canals2 after the crop is removed1 the soil is left naked during the winter and the heavy rains wash and erode the surface1 and remove some of the best plant-food4 ,after a few years of such treatment1 the farmer wonders why the soil will not produce as liberally as it did formerly4 ,experiment ,no4 #a4--,the fact that there is humus1 or vegetable mould1 in certain soils can be shown by burning4 ,weigh a potful of hard soil and a potful of lowland soil1 or muck1 after each has been thoroughly dried4 ,then put the pots on the coals in a coal stove4 ,after the soil is thoroughly burned1 weigh again4 ,some of the difference in weight may be due to loss of moisture1 but if the samples were well dried in the beginning1 most of the loss will be due to the burning of the humus4 ,,conditions ,,which ,,affect ,,fertility4 ,there are certain conditions which affect soil fertility and of these the most important are3 ,texture2 ,moisture-content2 ,plant-food2 ,temperature4 ,,texture ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,fertility4 ,by texture is meant the physical condition of the soil4 ,upon good texture1 more than upon any other one thing1 depends the productivity of the soil4 ,when the texture is right the soil is fine1 loose1 and friable2 the roots are able to push through it and the feeding area is enlarged4 ,each individual particle is free to give up a portion of its plant-food1 or its film of moisture4 ,the conditions which are found in the woods' soil are almost ideal4 ,experiment ,no4 #b4--,the importance of good texture may be well shown in the class room4 ,pots should be filled with a soil which is lumpy and cloddy1 and other pots with the same kind of material after it has been made fine and mellow4 ,after seeds are planted in the different pots1 a careful study should be made of the length of time required for germination and of the health and vigor of the plants4 ,experiment ,no4 #c4--,the greater part of our farming lands do not present ideal conditions as regards texture4 ,clay soils are especially likely to be in bad condition4 ,if samples of the various soils can be collected1 as sand1 loam1 clay1 etc41 it may be clearly shown how different soils respond to the same kind of treatment4 ,with a common garden trowel1 the soils should be stirred and worked while wet1 and then put away to dry4 ,after drying1 the conditions presented by the soils should be noted1 also the length of time required for the soils to become dry4 ,whereas the sand and the loam will remain in fairly good condition when dry1 the clay will have become puddled1 i4 e41 the particles will have run together and made a hard1 compact mass4 ,thus it is found in practice that clay soils must be handled with far more care and intelligence than is required for the sand and loams1 if the texture is to be kept perfect4 ,experiment ,no4 #d4--;,if1 in the experiment above suggested1 the clay soil is mixed with leaf-mould1 or humus soil1 from the woods1 it will be found to act very differently4 ,the vegetable matter thus mixed with the mineral matter prevents the running together of the particles of clay4 ,two principles1 both important as relating to soil texture1 now have been illustrated4 ,soils must not be worked when they are so wet that their particles will cohere1 and organic matter1 or humus1 must be kept mixed with the mineral matter of the soil4 ,in practical farm operations1 if the soil can be made into a mud ball it is said to be too wet to work4 ,the required amount of humus is retained in the soil by occasionally plowing under some green crop1 as clover1 or by applying barn manures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,the glass of water at the right has received lime and the clay has been flocculated2 the other was not treated4 ,clay soils are also frequently treated with lime to cause them to remain in good condition and be more easily tilled4 ,lime causes the fine particles to flocculate1 or to become granular1 i4 e41 several particles unite to form a larger particle1 and these combinations are more stable and do not so readily puddle1 or run together4 ,a mud-puddle in clay soil will remain murky until the water has evaporated entirely4 ,let a little water-slaked lime be mixed with the muddy water1 and the particles of clay will be flocculated and will settle to the bottom2 thus the water will become clear4 ,experiment ,no4 #e4--;,into two glasses of water put some fine clay soil2 thoroughly stir the mixture 7,fig4 #ce74 ,into one glass thus prepared put a spoonful of water-slaked lime2 stir thoroughly1 then allow both glasses to remain quiet that the soil may settle4 ,notice in which glass the water first becomes clear1 and note the appearance of the sediment in each4 ,,the ,,moisture ,,in ,,the ,,soil4 ,in ,leaflet ,,vi has been given the history of a thunder shower4 ,we are not told much about the history of the water after it reaches the earth4 ,if we go out immediately after a heavy shower1 we find little streams running alongside the road4 ,these little streams unite to make larger ones1 until finally the creeks and rivers are swollen1 and1 if the rain was heavy enough1 the streams may overflow their banks4 ,in all these streams1 from the smallest to the largest1 the water is muddy4 ,where did this mud come from8 ,it was washed largely from the cultivated fields1 and the finest and best soil is certain to be the first to start on its voyage to the valleys or to the sea4 ,if the farmer had only learned better the lesson from nature and kept his fields covered with plants1 a large part of the loss might have been prevented4 ,a rain gauge should be kept in every school yard1 so that every shower can be measured4 ,it can then be easily determined by the pupils how many tons of rain fall upon the school grounds1 or how much falls upon an acre of land4 ,it will be a matter of surprise that the amount is so great4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 a4 ,soil too dry4 b4 ,soil in good condition4 c4 ,soil too wet4 ,not all the water which falls during a summer shower is carried off by surface drainage1 since a considerable part sinks into the soil4 ,as it passes down1 each soil grain takes up a portion and surrounds itself with a little film of water1 much as does a marble when dipped into water4 ,if the rain continues long enough1 the soil will become saturated and the water which cannot be retained1 will1 under the influence of gravity1 sink down to the lower layers of soil until it finally reaches the level of the free water4 ,from this free water1 at varying depths in the soil1 wells and springs are supplied4 ,if the soil were to remain long saturated1 seeds would not germinate1 and most cultivated plants would not grow because all the air passages of the soil would be filled with water 7,fig4 #cf74 ,the water which sinks down deep into the soil and helps to supply our wells is called free water4 ,that part which is held as a film by the soil particles 7as on a marble7 is called capillary water4 ,after the rain is over and the sun shines1 a part of the moisture which is held by the particles near the surface is lost by evaporation4 ,the moisture which is below tends to rise to restore the equilibrium2 thus there is created a current toward the surface1 and finally into the air2 the moisture which thus escapes aids in forming the next thunder storm4 ,experiment ,no4 #f4--;,humus enables the soil to take up and hold large quantities of water4 ,to illustrate this1 two samples of soil should be obtained1 one a humus1 or alluvial1 soil1 rich in organic matter1 and the other a sandy soil4 ,put the two samples where they will become thoroughly air dry4 ,procure1 say five pounds each of the dry soils1 and put each into a glass tube over one end of which there is tied a piece of muslin1 or fine wire gauze4 ,from a graduated glass pour water slowly upon each sample until the water begins to drain from the bottom of the tube4 ,in this way it can be shown which soil has the greater power of holding moisture4 ,both samples should then be set away to dry4 ,by weighing the samples each day1 it can be determined which soil has the greater power of retaining moisture4 ,this experiment may be conducted not only with sand and humus1 but with clay1 loam1 gravel1 and all other kinds of soil4 ,experiment ,no4 #g4--;,a finely pulverized soil will hold more film-moisture than a cloddy soil4 ,to illustrate the importance of texture as related to moisture1 soil should be secured which is cloddy1 or lumpy4 ,one tube should be filled1 as heretofore described 7,exp4 ,no4 #f71 with the lumpy soil1 and the other tube with the fine soil which results from pulverizing the lumps1 equal weights of soil being used in each case4 ,from a graduated glass pour water upon each sample until the drainage begins from the bottom4 ,notice which soil possesses greater power of absorbing moisture4 ,put the samples away to dry1 and by careful weighing1 each day1 it can be determined which soil dries out more readily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,foot-prints on the sands of time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,a cross section through one of the foot-prints4 ,the prudent farmer will take measures to prevent the escape of this moisture into the air4 ,all the film-moisture 7on the soil particles7 needs to be carefully conserved or saved1 for the plants will need very large amounts of moisture before they mature1 and they can draw their supply only from this film-moisture4 ,we can again apply the lesson learned in the woods4 ,the soil there is always moist2 the leaves form a cover1 or blanket1 which prevents the evaporation of moisture4 ,underneath an old plank or board1 the soil will be found moist4 ,if we can break the connection between the soil and the air1 we can check the escape of moisture4 ,a layer of straw over the soil will serve to prevent the loss of moisture2 yet a whole field cannot be thus covered4 ,it has been found that the surface soil1 if kept loose1 say about three inches of the top soil can be made to act as a blanket or covering for the soil underneath4 ,although this top layer may become as dry as dust1 yet it prevents the escape1 by evaporation1 of moisture from below4 ,it is a matter of common observation that if tracks are made across a freshly cultivated field1 the soil where the tracks are will become darker 7,fig4 #cg74 ,this darker appearance of the soil in the foot-marks is due to the moisture which is there rising to the surface4 ,the implement of tillage makes the soil loose1 breaking the capillary connection between the lower layers of soil and the surface2 thus the upward passage of the water is checked4 ,where the foot-print is1 the soil has been again pressed down at the surface1 the particles have been crowded closer together1 and capillarity is restored to the surface so that the moisture is free to escape 7,fig4 #ch74 ,in caring for flower-beds1 or even in growing plants in a pot in the school-room1 it is important that the surface of the soil be kept loose and mellow4 ,far better in a flower garden is a garden rake than a watering pot4 ,experiment ,no4 #h4--,to show the importance of the surface mulch1 fill several pots with a sandy loam soil1 putting the same weight of soil into each pot4 ,in one pot1 pack the soil firmly2 in another pot1 pack the soil firmly and then make the surface loose4 ,these pots of soil may then be put away to dry2 by daily weighing each it can be readily determined what effects the various methods of treatment have upon the moisture-holding power of soils4 ,experiment ,no4 #i4--,the above experiment may be varied by covering the soil in some of the pots with leaves1 or straw1 or paper1 care being taken that the added weight of the foreign matter is properly accounted for4 ,,soil ,,temperature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the moss-grown lawn or grass plot4 ,if a kernel of corn be placed in the ground in early spring before the soil has become warm1 the seed will not germinate4 ,abundance of moisture and oxygen may be present1 but the third requisite for germination1 proper temperature1 is lacking4 ,the soil is very slow to become warm in the spring1 and this is due to the large amount of water which must be evaporated4 ,during the winter and spring1 the rain and melting snow have saturated the soil4 ,the under-drainage is deficient so there is no way for the escape of the surplus water except by evaporation1 and evaporation is a cooling process4 ,a well-drained soil is thus warmer than a poorly-drained one4 ,the atmosphere is much quicker to respond to changes in temperature than is the soil4 ,in the spring1 the air becomes warm while the soil continues cold1 and the rains which fall during this time are warmed by passing through the warm air4 ,then in sinking through the soil the rain-water parts with some of its heat which makes the soil warmer4 ,during mid-summer the soil becomes very warm1 and it is not affected by cool nights1 as is the atmosphere4 ,consequently as a summer rain may be several degrees cooler than the soil1 the water in passing through the soil takes up some of the heat2 thus the soil conditions are made more favorable for plant growth4 ,therefore1 soil temperature is regulated somewhat by the rainfall4 ,experiment ,no4 #aj4--,the color of a soil also affects its temperature1 a dark soil being warmer than a light colored soil4 ,by having thermometers as a part of the school room equipment1 interesting experiments may be conducted in determining the effect of color and moisture upon the temperature of soils4 ,,air ,,in ,,the ,,soil4 ,although that part of the plant which we can see is entirely surrounded by air1 it is also necessary that the soil be in such a condition that it can be penetrated by the air4 ,indeed1 growth cannot begin in a soil from which the air is excluded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,the clover roots penetrate the soil deeply4 ,experiment ,no4 #aa4--,to prove this1 put clay soil in a pot and plant seeds2 then wet the surface of the soil and puddle or pack the clay while wet and watch for the seeds to germinate and grow4 ,at the same time put seeds in another pot filled with loose1 mellow1 moist soil4 ,frequently1 after the farmer has sown his grain1 there comes a heavy1 beating rain1 and the surface of the soil becomes so packed that the air is excluded and the seeds cannot germinate4 ,if plants are grown in pots and the water is supplied at the top1 the soil may become so hard and compact as to exclude the air and the plants will make a sickly growth4 ,the surface soil must be kept loose so that the air can penetrate it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,after the clover dies the soil is in better condition for its having lived4 ,on many lawns it may be noticed that the grass is not thriving4 ,it has a sickly appearance1 and even the application of fertilizer does not seem to remedy the conditions4 ,perhaps the ground has become so hard that the air cannot penetrate and the grass is being smothered4 ,if the surface of the soil can be loosened with a garden rake1 and clover seed sown1 much good may be accomplished4 ,the clover is a tap-rooted plant1 sending its main root deep into the soil4 ,after the death of the plant1 the root decays1 and the nitrogen which is stored in it can be used as food by the other plants4 ,most useful of all1 however1 in such cases1 the decay of the tap-root of the clover makes a passage deep into the soil and thus allows the air to enter4 ,consult ,figs4 #ci-da4 ,,leaflet ,x4 ,,the ,,brook4#ab ,,by ,j4 ,o4 ,,martin4 ,,introduction ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #ab ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #e3 ,leaflet #ah4 ,june1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,a brook is the best of subjects for nature-study4 ,it is near and dear to every child4 ,it is a world in itself4 ,it is an epitome of the nature in which we live4 ,in miniature1 it illustrates the forces which have shaped much of the earth's surface4 ,day by day and century by century1 it carries its burden of earth-waste which it lays down in the quiet places4 ,always beginning and never ceasing1 it does its work as slowly and as quietly as the drifting of the years4 ,it is a scene of life and activity4 ,it reflects the sky4 ,it is kissed by the sun4 ,it is caressed by the winds4 ,the minnows play in the pools4 ,the soft weeds grow in the shallows4 ,the grass and the dandelions lie on its sunny banks4 ,the moss and fern are sheltered in the nooks4 ,it comes one knows not whence2 it flows one knows not whither4 ,it awakens the desire of exploration4 ,it is a realm of mysteries4 ,it typifies the flood of life4 ,it goes on forever4 ,in many ways can the brook be made an adjunct of the school-room4 ,one teacher or one grade may study its physiography2 another its birds2 another may plat it4 ,or one teacher and one grade may devote a month or a term to one phase of it4 ,thus the brook may be made the center of a life-theme4 ,l4 ,h4 ,b4 ,i4 ,a ,,brook ,,and ,,its ,,work4 ,on a rainy day most of us are driven indoors and thus we miss some of nature's most instructive lessons1 for in sunshine or rain the great mother toils on1 doing some of her hardest labor when her face is overcast with clouds4 ,let us find our waterproofs1 raise our umbrellas1 bid defiance to the pattering rain1 and go forth to learn some of the lessons of a rainy day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,the brook may be made the center of a life-theme4 ,along the roadside1 the steady1 down-pouring rain collects into pools and rills1 or sinks out of sight in the ground4 ,the tiny streams search out the easiest grade and run down the road1 digging little gullies as they go4 ,soon these rills meet and1 joining their muddy currents1 flow on with greater speed down the hillside until they reach the bottom of the valley and go to swell the brook which flows on1 through sunshine or rain4 ,the water which sinks into the ground passes out of sight for a time1 but its journey is also downward toward the brook1 though the soil1 acting as a great sponge1 holds it back and makes it take a slower pace than the rushing surface water4 ,this slower-moving underground water percolates through the soil until it comes to a layer of rock1 clay1 or other impervious substance1 along the slope of which it flows until it is turned again to the surface in the form of a spring4 ,perhaps this spring is one of those clear1 cold pools1 with the water bubbling up through its sandy bottom1 from which we love to drink on a hot summer's day2 or1 again1 it is a swampy spot on the hillside where the cat-tails grow4 ,in whatever form it issues from the ground1 a tiny rill carries away its overflow1 and this sooner or later joins the brook4 ,the brook1 we see1 is simply the collected rainfall from the hillsides1 flowing away to join the river4 ,it grows larger as other brooks join it1 and becomes a creek and finally a river4 ,but where is the dividing line between brook1 creek1 and river8 ,so gradually does the brook increase in volume that it would be difficult to draw any dividing line between it and the larger streams4 ,and so with the rills that formed the brook3 each is a part of the river1 and the names rill1 brook1 creek1 and river are merely relative terms4 ,brooks are but rivers on a small scale2 and if we study the work that a brook is doing1 we shall find it engaged in cutting down or building up1 just as the river does1 although1 owing to the smaller size of the brook1 we can see most of these operations in a short distance4 ,let us take our way through the wet grass and dripping trees to the brookside and see what work it is doing4 ,the countless rain-born rills are pouring their muddy water into the brook and to-day its volume is much greater than when it is fed1 as it is in fair weather1 by the slower-moving underground water of the springs4 ,it roars along with its waters no longer clear but full of clay and sand 7mud as we call it74 ,if we should dip up a glassful of this muddy water1 we should find that when it had settled there remained on the bottom of the glass a thin deposit of sediment4 ,the amount of this sediment is small1 no doubt1 for a single glassful1 but when we think of the great quantity of water constantly flowing by1 we can see that considerable sediment is going along with it4 ,but this sediment in suspension is not all the load that the brook is moving4 ,if you will roll up your sleeve1 plunge your hand to the bottom of the brook and hold it there quietly1 you will feel the coarser gravel and small stones rolling along the bottom4 ,all this load of sand and gravel comes1 as we have seen1 from the valley sides1 the banks of the brook1 and from its bed4 ,it is moving downward away from its original resting place2 and what is the result8 ,for thousands upon thousands of years1 our brook may have been carrying off its yearly load of sediment2 and though each day's labor is small1 yet the added toil of centuries has been great4 ,the result of this labor we can see in the great trough or valley through which the brook flows4 ,tennyson speaks of the ceaseless toil of the brook in the following words3 ,i chatter1 chatter1 as ,i flow ,to join the brimming river1 ,for men may come and men may go1 ,but ,i go on forever4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,a brook cutting under its bank and causing a landslide4 ,we have seen how the rills and torrents bring into the brook their loads of sand1 clay1 and gravel2 now let us walk along the bank and see what the brook is doing to increase this load4 ,just here there is a sudden turn in the channel and so sharp is the curve that the rushing stream is not able to keep in mid-channel1 but throws itself furiously against the outer bank of the curve1 eating into the clay of which it is composed1 until the bank is undermined1 allowing a mass of clay to slide down into the stream bed1 where it is eaten up and carried away by the rushing water 7,fig4 #dc74 ,farther on1 the brook dashes down a steep1 rocky incline1 and if we listen and watch we may hear the thud of boulders hurled along1 or even see a pebble bound out of the muddy foaming water4 ,these moving pebbles strike against each other and grind along the bottom1 wearing out themselves as well as the large unmovable boulders of the rocky bed of the brook4 ,thus the larger stones are ground down1 rounded at first but in time reduced to sand1 adding in this way to the moving burden of the brook4 ,by this slow process of cutting and grinding1 the deep rock gorges of ,new ,york state1 like those at ,watkins1 ,ithaca1 ,au ,sable ,chasm1 and even the mighty gorge of ,niagara1 have been made4 ,the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado1 over a mile in depth1 is one of the greatest examples of stream cutting to be found in the world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,a pile of brook debris deposited by the checking of the current4 ,now the brook leads us into a dripping woodland1 and just ahead we can hear the roar of a little waterfall1 for at this point the cutting stream flows upon the bed rock with its alternating bands of hard and soft rock through which the busy brook is cutting a miniature gorge4 ,here is a hard layer which the stream has undermined until it stands out as a shelf1 over which the water leaps and falls in one mass with a drop of nearly ten feet4 ,watch how the water below boils and eddies2 think with what force it is hammering its stone-cutting tools upon the rocky floor4 ,surely here is a place where the brook is cutting fast4 ,notice that swirling eddy where the water is whirling about with the speed of a spinning top2 let us remember this eddy and when the water is lower we will try to see what is happening at its bottom4 ,on the other side of the woods our brook emerges into a broad meadow2 let us follow it and see what becomes of its load1 whether it is carried onward1 or whether the tired brook lays it down occasionally to rest4 ,out of the woods1 the brook dashes down a steep incline until the foaming tide comes to rest in a deep pool4 ,what becomes of the large pebbles which have been swept down8 ,do they go on or do they stop8 ,if you go to the outlet of the pool you will see that the water is coming out with nothing in its grasp but the fine clay and sand1 the gravel and pebbles having been dropped by the less rapid current of the pool4 ,this is one of the most important of the brook's lessons1 for anything that tends to check the current makes it drop some of the sediment that it carries 7,fig4 #dd74 ,yonder is an old tree stump with its crooked roots caught fast on the bottom2 the mid-stream current rushes against it only to be thrown back in a boiling eddy1 and the waters split in twain and flow by on either side with their current somewhat checked4 ,in the rear of the stump is a region of quiet water where the brook is building up a pile of gravel4 ,farther on1 the banks of the brook are low and here the waters no longer remain in the channel1 but overflow the low land1 spreading out on either side in a broad sheet4 ,the increased friction of this larger area reduces the current1 and again we see the brook laying down some of its load4 ,the sand and gravel deposited here is spread out in a flat plain called a flood plain1 because it is built up when the stream is in flood4 ,it is on the large flood plains of rivers that many of our richest farm lands occur4 ,these receive1 each spring when the stream is in flood1 a fresh coating of soil mixed with fragments of vegetable matter1 and thus grow deeper and richer year by year4 ,the flood plains of the ,mississippi and of the ,nile are notable examples of this important form of stream deposit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,a delta built by a tiny rill flowing from a steep clay bank4 ,and now let us make one more rainy-day observation before going back to our warm1 dry homes4 ,just ahead on the other side of that clump of alders and willows lies the pond into which the brook flows and where its current is so checked that it gives up almost all its burden of sediment4 ,close to the shore it has dropped its heaviest fragments1 while the sand and clay have been carried farther out1 each to be dropped in its turn1 carefully assorted as to size and weight4 ,here you can see that the stream has partly filled this end of the pond1 and it is now sending its divided current out over the deposit which it has made in a series of branching rivulets4 ,this deposit is called a delta 7,fig4 #de71 and deltas are another important form of stream deposits4 ,in the lakes and ponds1 deltas may grow outward until the lake is filled1 when the stream will meander across the level plain without much current and hence without much cutting power 7,fig4 #df74 ,in the sea1 great deltas are being formed in some places1 like those at the mouths of the ,mississippi1 the ,nile1 and the ,ganges4 ,large areas of dry land have thus been built4 ,deltas1 like flood plains1 afford rich farming lands when they are built high enough to remain above the water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,a brook flowing across a pond which has been filled4 ,here let us end our study of the brook for to-day1 and wait until the rain ceases and the water runs clear again2 then we can see the bottom and can also learn by contrast how much more work the brook has been doing to-day than it does when the volume of water is less4 ,on the road home1 however1 we can notice how the temporary streams1 as well as the everflowing brook1 have been cutting and depositing4 ,see where this tiny rill has run down that steep clay bank until its current was checked at the foot4 ,notice how it has spread out its sediment in a fan-shaped deposit4 ,this form of deposit is sometimes made by larger streams1 especially in a mountainous country with plains at the foot of the slopes4 ,they are called alluvial fans or cone deltas 7,fig4 #dg71 but they are not as important as flood plains and deltas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,a brook building a delta into a lake4 ,formerly the brook flowed straight ahead1 but its own delta has caused it to change its direction4 ,the first dry1 sunny morning that comes we visit the brook again4 ,it no longer roars1 but its clear waters now sing a pleasant melody as they ripple along the stony bed4 ,we can see at a glance that comparatively little work is going on to-day1 and yet if we look closely1 we shall see glittering particles of sand moving along the bottom4 ,the clear water1 however1 allows us to study the bottom which before was hidden by the load of mud4 ,first we see the rounded boulders and pebbles of all sizes which must have been rolled about for a long time to make them so smooth4 ,some of them are so very hard that we cannot even scratch them with our knives2 others are soft and easily broken4 ,what would be the effect of rolling together stones of such varying hardness8 ,we must think of these stones as the tools with which the brook cuts and grinds1 for water without sediment can do little more than slightly to dissolve the rock4 ,let us go at once to the little waterfall1 for we shall be curious to see what lies at the bottom of the whirling eddy that drew our attention yesterday4 ,as we look down into the sunlit pool we see that the eddy is gone1 for the volume of water is not great enough to cause it to revolve1 but there in the rock on the bottom is a deep basin-like hole4 ,in the bottom of this hole we shall see a number of well-rounded stones1 with perhaps some sand and gravel4 ,these stones are the tools which1 whirled about by the eddying water1 have cut the basin-like holes4 ,holes of this sort are common in rocky stream beds1 especially in the neighborhood of falls or in places where falls have once been2 they are called pot-holes and represent another form of stream cutting 7,fig4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,a pot-hole cut in the rock of a stream's bed4 ,next let us visit the flood plains which we saw forming when the water was high4 ,now we shall find the brook flowing in its channel with the flood plain deposits left high and dry4 ,if we dig down into the flood plain1 we shall see that it is made up of successive layers varying in thickness and in the size of the fragments4 ,each of these layers represents a period of high water and the size of the fragments in the layer tells us something of the strength of the current1 and therefore of the intensity of the flood4 ,some layers are thicker than others1 showing a longer period of flood1 or perhaps several floods in which there was little variation4 ,this stratification1 as it is called1 is one of the peculiarities of water deposits and it is due to the assorting power of currents which vary in force4 ,if we were to cut into the delta we should find the same thing to be true1--a regular succession of layers1 though sometimes confused by changes in direction of flow4 ,to-day we shall notice something which escaped our attention when it was held by the rushing torrent--the valley bottom is much wider than the bed of the stream2 if we keep our eyes open we shall see the explanation of this in the abandoned channels1 where1 owing to some temporary obstructions1 the stream has been turned from side to side of the valley1 now cutting on one bank and now on the other4 ,in this turning from side to side the cutting area of the stream is increased1 and it goes on widening its valley as well as cutting it downward4 ,and now we have learned some of the most important ways in which the busy brook is toiling2 but there are other points which we might have seen1 and in some brooks there are special features to be noted4 ,however1 we have learned that the brook is no idler1 that its main work is to conduct to the ocean the rain that falls upon the earth's surface1 and that in doing this it is wearing down the hills1 carrying them away only to build up in other places4 ,the cheerful song of the brook takes on a new meaning as we lie in the shade and watch it hurry by4 ,it is not the song of idleness nor of pleasure1 but like the song with which a cheerful and tireless worker seeks to make its task lighter4 ,,leaflet ,,xi4 ,,insect ,,life ,,of ,a ,,brook4#ac ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 #ac ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #e3 ,leaflet #ah1 ,june1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,what wader1 be he boy or water-fowl1 has not watched the water-insects8 ,how they dart hither and thither1 some skimming the surface1 others sturdily rowing about in the clear shallows6 ,the sunlight fastens1 for an instant1 their grotesque reflections on the smooth bottom1 then away--the shadow is lost1 except for the picture it left in the memory of the onlooker4 ,the splashing1 dashing wader1 with his shout and his all-disturbing stick1 stands but a poor chance of making intimate acquaintances among water-folk4 ,your true brook-lover is a quiet individual except when occasion demands action4 ,the lad who1 from the vantage ground of a fallen log or overhanging bank1 looks down on the housekeeping affairs of his tiny neighbors has the right spirit4 ,indeed1 ,i doubt whether these little folk are aware of his presence or curiosity4 ,time was when the enjoyment of brook-life was limited to boys4 ,white aprons1 dainty slippers and fear of being called ,tom-boy restrained the natural impulses of the little women4 ,happily that day is past1 and it no longer looks queer for girls to live in the open air and sunshine1 free to chase butterflies and hunt water-bugs with their brothers4 ,my brooks abound in swift eddies1 perfect whirlpools in miniature1 and water-falls of assorted sizes4 ,they have also their quiet reaches1 where whirligig beetles perform their marvelous gyrations1 and bright-eyed polliwogs twirl their tails in early ,may4 ,on the banks are ferns and mosses2 sometimes willows and alders form a fringing border4 ,the heart-leaved willows along many brooksides are found to bear at the tips of many of their branches1 knob-like bodies which look like pine cones4 7,fig4 #di47 ,now everybody knows that willows bear their seeds in catkins4 ,why1 then1 should so many brookside willows thrust these cones in our faces8 ,on cutting one of the cones open1 we learn the secret4 ,a tiny colorless grub rolls helplessly out of a cell in the very centre of the cone4 ,it is the young of a small gnat1 scarcely larger than a mosquito1 and known as a gall gnat4 ,the cone-shaped body on the willow branch is called a pine-cone willow-gall4 ,the little gray gnat comes out in the spring4 ,any one can collect the galls from the willows and keep them in some kind of cage in the house until the gnats come forth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,knob-like bodies resembling pine cones4 ,the pine-cone gall is an enlarged and deformed bud4 ,the twig might have developed into a branch but for the presence of the little larva4 ,the scales of the cone are the parts which under more favorable conditions would have been leaves4 ,the brook-lover cannot afford to miss the pine-cone willow-galls4 ,wandering along the brookside in spring or early summer1 one is surprised to find so many insect visitors darting about in the air4 ,there are dragon-flies of many shapes1 sizes and colors2 dainty damsel-flies perch airily on reeds1 their gleaming wings a-flutter in the sunshine2 sometimes a nervous mud-wasp alights for a moment1 and then up and away4 ,the dragon-flies seem intent on coming as near to the water as possible without wetting their wings4 ,they pay no heed to other visitors1 yet how easily they escape the net of the would be collector6 ,let them alone4 ,their business is important if we would have a new generation of dragon-flies to delight the eye next year4 ,the eggs of these creatures are left in the water and the young ones are aquatic4 ,if you would know more of them1 dip down into the stream in some sluggish bay4 ,dip deep and trail the net among the water plants4 ,besides dragon-fly nymphs there will be caddice-worm cases like tiny cob-houses1 water-boatmen1 back-swimmers1 and giant water-bugs4#ad ,these are insects characteristic of still or sluggish water1 and are found in spring and summer4 #ad ,these and other forms found in still or slow flowing water are described and pictured in ,leaflet ,no4 ,,xii1 ,life in an ,aquarium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,water-striders have long1 thin legs4 ,the insects which skip lightly over the surface of the water where the current is not too strong1 are water-striders4 7,fig4 #ej47 ,some are short and stout1 others slender-bodied2 but all have long thin legs4 ,their color is nearly black4 ,as they scurry about in the sunshine the delighted watcher will sometimes catch a glimpse of their reflections on the bottom4 ,six oval bits of shadow1 outlined by rims of light2 there is nothing else like it6 ,be sure you see it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the dobson makes no pretensions to beauty4 7,natural size74 ,let us leave the quiet1 restful pools and the sluggish bays1 and follow the hurrying water to the rapids4 ,every stone changes the course of the current and the babble makes glad the heart of the wayfarer4 ,let us leave no stone unturned1 until we have routed from his favorite haunt that genius of the rapids1 the dobson4 7,fig4 #ea47 ,these creatures bear other common names4 ,they are prized by fishermen in the black bass season4 ,dirty brown in color and frankly ugly in appearance and disposition1 these larv1 for such they are1 have little to fear from the casual visitor at the water's edge4 ,when a stone is lifted1 the dobsons beneath it allow themselves to be hurried along for some distance by the current4 ,the danger over1 they catch hold and await their prey farther down stream4 ,in spite of their vicious looking jaws these insects are not venomous4 ,at the very worst they could do no more than pinch the finger of the unwary explorer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,may-fly nymph4 7,three times natural size74 ,when the dobson is full grown1 it is called a hellgrammite fly or horned corydalis4 ,it has lost none of its ugliness1 though it has gained two pairs of thin1 brownish-gray wings1 and flies about in the evening4 ,it has been known to create some consternation by flying in at an open window4 ,it is harmless and short-lived in the adult stage4 ,upturned stones are likely to bring to view other strangers4 ,lying close against these wet stony surfaces one usually finds young ,may-flies4 7,fig4 #eb4ae7 ,these1 like the young dragon-flies1 are called nymphs4 #ae ,figures #eb1 #ec and #ed are adapted from ,dr4 ,r4 ,leuckart's ,zoological ,charts4 ,when they are ready to leave the water they make their way to the shore1 and1 clinging to some convenient tree trunk or building1 they shed their nymph skins4 ,i have seen trees and buildings on the banks of the ,st4 ,lawrence river literally covered with these cast skins4 ,in the early morning in ,june and ,july one may watch the molting process1 the unfolding of the gauzy wings1 and the unsheathing of the long filaments4 7,fig4 #ec47 ,do not believe that ,may-flies are harmful4 ,they are sometimes too numerous for comfort at summer resorts where myriads of them swarm about the lights2 but stories of their stinging and biting are entirely without foundation4 ,they are short-lived in the adult stage4 ,the name of the family to which they belong1 ,ephemerid1 suggests their ephemeral existence4 ,it is of these that poets have sung4 ,stone-fly nymphs1 also1 cling closely to the flat stones4 ,the cast skins of these are frequently found on the banks of streams4 ,they resemble the ,may-fly nymphs but can be identified by a comparison with these illustrations4 7,fig4 #ed47 ,sometimes on the very brink of a cataract one will see what appear like patches of loose black moss4 ,strangely enough1 these are the larv of black-flies1 related to the terrible black-fly of the north woods4 ,the black-fly larv can live only in the swiftest water4 ,there they pass through their transformations and succeed in emerging into their arial stage1 in spite of the rushing current4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,the ,may-fly sheds its nymph skin4 7,twice natural size47 ,all these things and many more are seen by those who frequent the water brooks4 ,observers cannot tell all they see1 for some things are too deep for words4 ,they can and do say to one and all1 ,come1 let us visit the brook together4 ,the water and all that dwell in it and round about1 invite us and make us welcome4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,stone-fly1 showing one pair of wings4 ,the lower figure is a nymph4 7,twice natural size47 ,,leaflet ,,xii4 ,,life ,,in ,,an ,,aquarium4#af ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 #af ,teachers' ,leaflet ,no4 #aa4 ,may1 #ahih4 ,illustration ,there is no more fascinating adjunct to nature-study than a well-kept aquarium4 ,it is a never-ending source of enjoyment1 interest and instruction to students of any age4 ,children in the kindergarten or at home will watch with delight the lively occupants1 which cut all sorts of queer capers for their amusement1 and older people may read some of nature's choicest secrets through the glassy sides of the little water world4 ,to many1 the word aquarium suggests a vision of an elaborately constructed glass box1 ornamented with impossible rock-work and strange water plants1 or a globe in which discouraged and sickly-looking gold-fish appear and disappear1 and take strange1 uncanny shapes as they dart hither and thither4 ,such forms of aquaria have their place in the world1 but they are not suited to the needs of an ordinary school-room4 ,every school may have some sort of an aquarium if the teacher and pupils are willing to give it some daily thought and care4 ,without such attention a fine aquarium may become an unsightly and disagreeable object1 its inhabitants unhealthy and its beauty and usefulness lost4 ,the great fundamental principle underlying success in making and maintaining an aquarium is this3 imitate nature4 ,we all know how much easier it is to formulate a principle1 and even to write a book about it1 than to put it into practice4 ,most of us have not had the time and opportunity for the close observation of nature necessary to interpret her methods and to imitate her4 ,it is to those teachers who are anxious to learn what nature has to teach and who wish to lead their pupils to a higher and wider conception of life1 that these suggestions are offered4 ,four things are important in making and keeping an aquarium3 #a4 ,the equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and maintained4 ,it is probable that an aquarium in an elementary school is mainly used for the study of animal life2 but animals do not thrive in water where no plants are growing4 ,nature keeps plants and animals in the same pond and we must follow her lead4 ,the plants have three valuable functions in the aquarium4 ,first1 they supply food for the herbivorous creatures4 ,second1 they give off a quantity of oxygen which is necessary to the life of the animals4 ,third1 they take up from the water the harmful carbonic acid gas which passes from the bodies of the animals4 ,just how the plants do this is another story4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,a museum-jar aquarium4 7,more animal life would make a better equilibrium47 #b4 ,the aquarium must be ventilated4 ,its top should be broad and open4 ,every little fish1 snail and insect wants air1 just as every boy and girl wants it4 ,a certain quantity of air is mixed with the water1 and the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their supply4 ,how does ,mother ,nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria1--the ponds and streams8 ,the plants furnish part of the air1 as we have said4 ,the open pond1 whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze1 is constantly being provided with fresh air4 ,a tadpole or a fish can no more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney4 #c4 ,the temperature should be kept between #dj and #ej ,fahr4 ,both nature and experience teach us this4 ,a shady corner is a better place for the aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day4 #d4 ,it is well to choose such animals for the aquarium as are adapted to life in still water4 ,unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to supply a constant flow of water through the aquarium1 it is better not to try to keep creatures that we find in swift streams4 ,practical experience shows that there are certain dangers to guard against1--dangers which may result in the unnecessary suffering of the innocent4 ,perhaps the most serious results come from overstocking4 ,it is better to have too few plants or animals than too many of either4 ,a great deal of light1 especially bright sunlight1 is not good for the aquarium4 ,a pond that is not shaded soon becomes green with a thick growth of slime or alg4 ,this does not look well in an aquarium and is likely to take up so much of the plant-food that the other plants are starved out4 ,the plants in the school-room window may provide shade for the aquarium1 just as the trees and shrubs on its banks shade the pond4 ,if we find green slime forming on the light side of our miniature pond1 we should put it in a darker place1 shade it heavily so that the light comes in from the top only1 and put in a few more snails4 ,these will make quick work of the green slime1 since they are fond of it1 if we are not4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,a rectangular glass aquarium4 ,some of the most innocent-looking water nymphs may be concealing habits that we can hardly approve4 ,there are some which feed on their smaller and weaker neighbors1 and even on the members of their own families4 ,we know that such things go on in nature1 but if we wish to have a happy family we must keep the cannibals by themselves4 ,after an aquarium has been filled with water and the inhabitants well established1 it is not necessary to change the water1 except in case of accident4 ,the water that is lost by evaporation has to be replaced4 ,it should be poured in gently in order not to disturb the water and destroy its clearness4 ,if a piece of rubber tubing is available1 a practical use of the siphon can be shown and the aquarium replenished at the same time4 ,it is a good plan to use rain water1 or clear water from a pond1 for this purpose4 ,a piece of thin board or a pane of glass may be used as a cover to keep the dust out of the aquarium4 ,this need not fit tightly or be left on all the time4 ,a wire netting or a cover of thin cotton net would keep the flying insects from escaping1 and it might be tied on permanently4 ,dust may be skimmed off the top of the water or may be removed by laying pieces of blotting paper on the surface for a moment4 ,if any of the inhabitants do not take kindly to the life in the aquarium1 they can be taken out and kept in a jar by themselves--a sort of fresh air and cold water cure4 ,if any chance to die they ought to be removed before they make the water unfit for the others4 ,bits of charcoal in the water are helpful if a deodorizer or disinfectant is needed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,a home-made aquarium4 ,experience1 the dear but thorough teacher1 is of more value to every one of us than many rules and precepts4 ,nothing can rob us of the pleasure that comes of finding things out for ourselves4 ,much of the fun as well as much of the success in life comes from overcoming its difficulties4 ,one must have a large store of patience and courage and hopefulness to undertake the care of an aquarium4 ,after it is once made it is less trouble to take care of than a canary or a pet rabbit4 ,but most things that are worth doing require patience1 courage and hopefulness1 and if we can add to our store of any of these by our study of life in an aquarium we are so much the better for it4 ,two kinds of aquaria will be found useful in any school4 ,permanent ones--those which are expected to continue through a season or through a whole year if the school-room is warm enough to prevent freezing2 and temporary ones--those which are for lesson hours or for the study of special forms4 ,if some one phase in the life of any aquatic animal is to be studied during a short period1 it is well to have special temporary aquaria4 ,also1 when a talk on some of the occupants of the larger aquarium is to be given1 specimens may be placed in small vessels for the time being and returned later4 ,for such purposes glass tumblers can be used1 or small fruit jars1 finger bowls1 broken goblets set in blocks of wood1 ordinary white bowls or dishes1 tubs1 pails or tanks for large fishes1--in fact any wide-mouthed vessel which is easy to get4 ,special suggestions will be made in connection with the study of some of the water insects and others4 ,a permanent aquarium need not be an expensive affair4 ,the rectangular ones are best if large fishes are to be kept1 yet they are not essential4 ,here1 again1 it is easier to write directions for the construction of a perfect aquarium than it is for the most patient teacher1 with the help of the boys who are handy with tools1 to put together a box of wood and glass that will not spring a leak some day and spoil everything4 ,but failures do not discourage us2 they make us only more determined4 ,if a rectangular water-tight box is out of the question1 what is the next best thing8 ,one of the busiest laboratories in ,new ,york ,state has plants and animals living in jars of all shapes and sizes1--fruit jars1 glass butter jars1 candy jars1 battery jars1 museum jars1 and others of like nature4 ,there are rectangular and round aquaria of various sizes kept by all firms who deal in laboratory supplies1 and if some money is to be spent1 one of these is a good investment4 ,fig4 #ef shows one of these rectangular ones1 and ,fig4 #eg shows a round one of small size which is useful and does not cost much4 ,a ,,good ,,school ,,aquarium4 ,a cheap1 substantial aquarium for general use may be made of glass and angle or valley tin4 ,pieces of glass are always handy and the tin can be had at any tin-shop4 ,the tinsmith will know just how to cut1 angle and solder it4 ,the following directions for making an aquarium of this kind are supplied us by ,professor ,c4 ,f4 ,hodge of ,clark ,university4 ,he has made and used them for years with great satisfaction in the university laboratory and in graded schools4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #eh1 #ei7 shows various sizes4 ,a good all-round size has these dimensions3 #ab inches high1 #ae inches long and #h inches wide4 ,one may use spoiled photographic plates for small desk aquaria1 in which to watch the development of wigglers1 dragon-fly nymphs or other water insects4 ,lids of wire screen are shown on some of the aquaria in the picture 7#a1 #b and #c74 ,to make the frame4--,if the aquarium is to be #aj x #h x #e inches1 we shall need two pieces of glass for sides #aj x #e inches1 two for ends #h x #aj1 and one for bottom #h x #e2 and two strips of tin #c_/d inch wide1 #bh inches long1 and four strips #aj-c_/h inches long4 ,these should be angled by the tinner1 and out of them we shall make the frame4 ,the #bh-;inch strips should be cut with tinner's snips half way in two at #aj-c_/h1 #e-c_/h1 #aj-c_/h and #e-c_/h inches1 cutting off the end at the last mark4 ,this keeps the top and the bottom of the frame each in one piece4 ,next we bend them into shape4 ,when the corners are well squared they should be soldered4 ,the four #aj-c_/h pieces make the vertical corners and we will solder them in place4 ,an easy way to be sure that each angle is square is to hold it in a mechanic's square while soldering it4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #eh1 #ei4 ,permanent aquarium made of tin and glass4 ,to set the glass4--,lay the aquarium cement 7see recipe7 on evenly all around the bottom of the frame and press the bottom glass into place4 ,put in the sides and ends in the same way4 ,next carefully put a few very limber twigs into the aquarium to hold the glass against the frame till the cement takes hold4 ,cut off the extra cement with a knife and smooth it nicely4 ,cover the frame with asphaltum varnish or black lacquer4 ,in a week it will be ready to use4 ,double thick glass must be used for large aquaria4 ,cement4--,shun all resinous cements that require to be put on hot4 ,the following is a recipe for cement used in successful angle tin aquaria1 for both salt and fresh water3 #aj parts1 by measure1 fine1 dry1 white sand1 #aj parts plaster of ,paris1 #aj parts litharge1 #a part powdered resin4 ,stir well together and1 as wanted1 mix to consistency of stiff putty with pure boiled linseed oil4 ,the formula given by the ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission is recommended3 #h parts putty1 #a part red lead1 #a part litharge4 ,mix1 when wanted1 to consistency of stiff putty1 with raw linseed oil4 ,after reading all these directions and getting the idea of an aquarium1 one should think the whole matter out for himself and make it just as he wants it4 ,directions are useful as suggestions only4 ,the shallow form is better for raising toads1 frogs and insect larv2 the deeper aquaria show water plants and fishes to better advantage4 ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,aquarium4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,eel-grass4 ,it is now time to begin to think about what shall be kept in the aquarium4 ,at the bottom a layer of sand1 the cleaner the better1 two or three inches deep will be needed4 ,a few stones1 not too large1 may be dropped in on top of this first layer1 to make it more natural4 ,the water plants come next and will thrive best if planted securely in the sand4 ,the most difficult thing is to get the water in without stirring things up4 ,a good way is to pour the water in a slow stream against the inside of the aquarium4 ,the best way is to use a rubber tube siphon1 but even then the water ought not to flow from a very great height4 ,if the aquarium is large1 it had better be put in its permanent place before filling4 ,the aquarium will soon be ready for snails1 polliwogs1 and what ever else we may wish to put into it4 ,in the course of a few days the plants will be giving up oxygen and asking for carbon dioxid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,duck-weed4 ,plants that thrive and are useful in aquaria4--,many of the common marsh or pond plants are suitable4 ,the accompanying illustrations show a few of these4 ,nothing can be prettier than some of these soft1 delicate plants in the water4 ,the eel-grass1 or tape grass 7,fig4 #fj71 is an interesting study in itself1 especially at blossoming time when the spiral stems1 bearing flowers1 appear4 ,any who are especially interested in the life-history of this plant may read in reference books a great deal about what other observers have learned from the plant concerning its methods of growth and development4 ,the best that we learn will be what the plant itself tells us day by day4 ,some of the best reference books on both plant and animal life are found in the ,new ,york ,state ,teachers' ,library and can be obtained by teachers through the school commissioners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,water plants4 ,every boy and girl who likes to taste the fresh1 peppery plants which they find growing in cold springs1 knows watercress4 ,if the aquarium is not too deep1 this plant will grow above the surface and furnish a resting place for some snail which1 tired perhaps by its constant activity1 enjoys a few minutes in the open air4 ,duck-weed or duck's-meat 7,fig4 #fa7 grows on the surface1 dangling its long thread-like roots in the water4 ,a little of it is enough4 ,too much would keep us from looking down upon our little friends in the water4 ,the parrot's feather 7,fig4 #fb1 ,a7 is an ornamental water plant that can be obtained from a florist2 a plant that looks very like it grows in our ponds4 ,it is called water-milfoil4 ,the water purslane1 ,b1 or the common stoneworts1 ,nitella and ,chara1 ,d1 ,e1 the waterweed1 ,f1 and the horn-wort1 ,c1 appear graceful and pretty in the water4 ,if you do not find any of these1 you are sure to find others growing in the ponds in your neighborhood which will answer the purpose just as well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,snail4 ,animals that may be kept in aquaria4--,the snail4 ,the common pond snail with the spiral shell1 either flat or conical1 can be found clinging to the stems of the cat-tails or flags and to floating rubbish in ponds or swamps4 ,if these are picked off carefully and taken home in a pail of water they will be valuable inhabitants for the aquarium4 ,they are vegetable feeders and unless there is some green slime in the water1 cabbage or lettuce leaves may be put where the snails can get them4 ,the eggs of the snail are excellent food for fishes1 and if a few could be secured for special study1 their form1 habits and development may be made delightful observation and drawing lessons4 ,snails can be kept out of the water for some time on moist earth4 ,land snails and slugs should be kept on wet sand and fed with lettuce and cabbage leaves4 ,the common slug of the garden is often injurious to vegetation4 ,it may always be tracked by the trail of slime it leaves behind it4 ,gardeners often protect plants from those creatures by sprinkling wood-ashes about them4 ,minnows4 ,every boy knows where to find these spry little fellows4 ,they can be collected with a dipper or net and will thrive in an aquarium if fed with earth worms or flies or other insects4 ,if kept in small quarters where food is scarce1 they will soon dispatch the other occupants of the jar4 ,they will1 however1 eat bits of fresh meat4 ,if the aquarium is large enough1 it would hardly be complete without minnows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,snail with conical shell4 ,cat fish4--,it will not be practicable to keep a cat fish in the permanent aquarium4 ,if one is to be studied it can be obtained at any fish market or by angling1 the latter a slow method1 but one which will appeal to every boy in the class4 ,the cat fish should be kept in a tub1 tank1 or large pan of water1 and if not wanted for laboratory work1 they might be fried for lunch1 as cat fish are very good eating4 ,gold fish are a special delight if kept in large aquaria4 ,these may often be obtained from dealers in the larger cities4 ,those who wish other fish for study should be able to get information from the ,new ,york ,state ,fish ,culturist1 concerning the species that are suited to life in still water1 and how to get and take care of them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,frog spawn4 ,the clam4--,if empty clam shells are plenty on the bank of some stream after a freshet1 a supply of clams may be obtained by raking the mud or sand at the bottom of the stream4 ,they can be kept in a shallow pan1 and if the water is warmish and they are left undisturbed for a time1 they will move about4 ,if kept in a jar of damp sand they will probably bury themselves4 ,they feed on microscopic plants and might not thrive in the permanent aquarium4 ,crawfish or crayfish4--,these can be collected with nets from under stones in creeks or ponds4 ,they can live very comfortably out of the water part of the time4 ,there is small chance for the unsuspecting snail or water insect which comes within reach of the hungry jaws of the crawfish1 and the temporary aquarium is the safest place for him4 ,many who live near the ocean can obtain and keep in sea water the lobster1 a cousin of the crawfish1 and will find that the habits of either will afford much amusement as well as instruction4 ,the school boy generally knows the crawfish as a crab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,a useful net for general collecting4 ,the frog4--,the study of the development of the common frog is accompanied with little or no difficulty4 ,to be sure there are some species which require two or three years to complete their growth and changes1 from the egg to the adult1 yet most of the changes can be seen in one year4 ,frogs are not at all shy in the spring1 proclaiming their whereabouts in no uncertain tones from every pond in the neighborhood4 ,the frog spawn can be found clinging to plants or rubbish in masses varying in size from a cluster of two or three eggs to great lumps as large as the two fists4 ,the spawn is a transparent jelly in which the eggs are imbedded4 ,each egg is dark colored1 spherical in shape1 and about as large as a small pea4 ,the eggs of the small spotted salamander are found in similar masses of jelly and look very much like the frog's eggs4 ,if a small quantity of this jelly-like mass be secured by means of a collecting net or by wading in for it1 it may be kept in a flat white dish with just enough clean1 cool water to cover it1 until the young tadpoles have hatched4 ,as they grow larger a few may be transferred to a permanent aquarium prepared especially for them in a dish with sloping sides1 and their changes watched from week to week through the season4 ,the growing polliwog feeds on vegetable diet2 what does the full grown frog eat8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,the predaceous diving-beetle4 ,insects that can be kept in aquaria4--,insects are to many the most satisfactory creatures that can be keep in aquaria4 ,they are plentiful1 easy to get1 each one of the many kinds seems to have habits peculiar to itself1 and each more curious and interesting than the last4 ,some insects spend their entire life in the water2 others are aquatic during one stage of their existence only4 ,those described here are a few of the common ones in ponds and sluggish streams1 of the central part of the state of ,new ,york4 ,if these cannot be found1 others just as interesting may be kept instead4 ,one can hardly make a single dip with a net without bringing out of their hiding places many of these little people4 ,the predaceous diving-beetle 7,fig4 #fg7 is well named4 ,he is a diver by profession and is a skilled one4 ,the young of this beetle are known as water-tigers 7,fig4 #fh71 and their habits justify the name4 ,their food consists of the young of other insects2 in fact it is better to keep them by themselves unless we wish to have the aquarium depopulated4 ,when the tiger has reached his full size1 his form changes and he rests for a time as a pupa2 then comes forth as a hard1 shiny beetle like ,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,a water-tiger4 ,the water-scavenger beetle 7,fig4 #fi71 so called because of its appetite for decayed matter1 is common in many ponds4 ,it has1 like the diving beetle1 a hard1 shiny back1 with a straight line down the middle1 but the two can be distinguished when seen together4 ,the young of this beetle look and act something like the water-tigers1 but have not such great ugly jaws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,a water-scavenger beetle4 ,there are three other swimmers even more delightful to watch than those already mentioned4 ,the water-boatmen 7,fig4 #gj71 with their sturdy oar-like legs and business-like way of using them1 are droll little fellows4 ,they are not so large as the back-swimmers4 ,fig4 #ga shows a back-swimmer just in the act of pulling a stroke4 ,these creatures swim with their boat-shaped backs down and their six legs up4 ,we must be careful how we handle the back-swimmers1 for each one of them carries a sharp bill and may give us a thrust with it which would be painful1 perhaps poisonous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,water-boatman4 ,the water-scorpion 7,fig4 #gb7 is a queer creature living in a neighborly way with the boatmen and back-swimmers1 though not so easy to find4 ,do not throw away any dirty little twig which you find in the net after a dip among water plants near the bottom of a stream or pond4 ,it may begin to squirm and reveal the fact that it is no twig but a slender-legged insect with a spindle-shaped body4 ,we may handle it without danger1 as it is harmless4 ,this is a water-scorpion1 and his way of catching his prey and getting his air supply will be interesting to watch4 ,he is not shy and will answer questions about himself promptly and cheerfully4 ,fig4 #gb will give an idea of the size and appearance of this insect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,a back-swimmer4 ,no water insect except the big scavenger beetle can begin to compare in size with the giant water-bug 7,fig4 #gc74 ,we may think at first that he is a beetle1 yet the way he crosses his wings on his back proves him a true bug4 ,in quiet ponds these giants are common enough1 but the boy or girl who bags a full-grown one at the first dip of the net may be considered lucky4 ,the boatmen1 back-swimmers and giants all have oars1 yet are not entirely dependent on them4 ,they have strong wings1 too1 and if their old home gets too thickly settled1 and the other insects on which they feed are scarce1 they fly away to other places4 ,the giant water-bug often migrates at night1 and is attracted to any bright light he sees in his journey4 ,this habit has given him the popular name of electric-light bug4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,water-scorpion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,giant water-bug4 ,among the insects which spend but part of their life in the water1 we shall find many surprises4 ,it made us feel queer when we learned that the restless but innocent-looking wiggler of the rain-water barrel was really the young of the too familiar mosquito4 ,the adult mosquito leaves its eggs in tiny boat-shaped masses on the surface of stagnant water1 where food will be abundant for the young which soon appear4 ,some time is spent by the wigglers in eating and growing before they curl up into pup4 ,insects are rarely active in the pupa stage4 ,the mosquito is one of the very few exceptions4 ,from these lively pup the full-grown mosquitoes emerge4 ,fig4 #gd shows a small glass tumbler in which are seen the three aquatic stages of the mosquito's life and an adult just leaving the pupa skin4 ,nothing is easier than to watch the entire development of the mosquito1 and the changes must be seen to be fully enjoyed and appreciated4 ,it would be interesting to note the differences between the mosquitoes that come out of the small aquaria4 ,a supply of wigglers may be kept in the permanent aquarium where they serve as food for the other insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,temporary aquarium1 containing eggs1 larv and pup of mosquito4 ,every child knows the dragon-fly or darning-needle1 and none but the bravest of them dare venture near one without covering ears or eyes or mouth1 for fear of being sewed4 ,many and wide-spread are the superstitions concerning this insect1 and it is often difficult to bring children to believe that this creature1 besides being a thing of beauty1 is not only harmless but actually beneficial4 ,if they knew how many mosquitos the darning-needle eats in a day they would welcome instead of fearing the gay creature4 ,the young of the dragon-fly live a groveling existence1 as different as can be from that of their sun-loving parents4 ,their food consists of mosquito larv1 water-fleas and the like1 and their method of catching their prey is as novel as it is effective4 ,pupils and teacher can get plenty of good healthy entertainment out of the behavior of these awkward and voracious little mask-wearers4 ,the first dip of the net usually brings up a supply of dragon-fly nymphs and of their more slender cousins1 the damsel-fly nymphs4 ,the latter have expanded plate-like appendages at the hind end of the body which distinguish them from the dragon-fly nymphs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,the life history of a dragon-fly as seen in an aquarium4 ,the transformation of one of these young insects into an adult is one of the most interesting observation lessons that can be imagined for a warm spring morning4 ,if a dragon-fly nymph should signify its intention of changing its form in my school-room1 ,i should certainly suspend all ordinary work and attend to him alone4 ,each child should see if possible this wonderful transfiguration4 ,floating in the water of a pond or stream one may find a little bundle of grass or weed stems1 with perhaps a tiny pebble clinging to the mass4 ,close examination will prove this to be the house-boat of one of our insect neighbors1 the caddice-worm4 ,contrasting strangely with the untidy exterior is the neat interior1 with its lining of delicate silk1 so smooth that the soft-bodied creature which lives inside is safe from injury4 ,the commonest of the many forms of houses found here are those illustrated in ,figs4 #gf and #gg4 ,these will find all they wish to eat in a well-stocked aquarium4 ,when full grown they will leave the water as winged creatures1 like ,fig4 #gh1 and return to its depths no more4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,case of caddice-worm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,another caddice-worm case4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,caddice-fly4 ,there is surely no lack of material furnished by ,mother ,nature for the study of aquatic life4 ,every one who really believes in its usefulness can have an aquarium1 and will feel well repaid for the time and effort required when the renewed interest in nature is witnessed which this close contact with living beings brings to every student4 ,let us take hold with a will1 overcome the difficulties in the way1 and teacher and pupils become students together4 ,,leaflet ,,xiii4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,fishes4#ag ,,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,reed4 #ag ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #h3 ,leaflet #ba4 ,january1 #aija4 ,illustration ,the first forms of animal life which attract the young naturalist's attention are doubtless the birds4 ,these are most interesting to him because of their beautiful colors1 their sweet songs1 and the grace with which they fly4 ,but who has watched the fishes in a brook or an aquarium and is not able to grant them a place1 in beauty1 grace and delicate coloration1 equal to the birds8 ,to be sure1 fishes cannot sing1 yet there are so many other interesting facts in connection with their habits and life-histories that it fully makes up for their lack of voice4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,fish4 ,while observing a living fish and admiring its beauty1 it will probably occur to some of us that a fish consists only of a head and tail4 ,yet this is not all4 ,between the head and tail is a part that we may call the trunk4 ,it contains the digestive and other organs4 ,there is no indication of a neck in a fish4 ,any such constriction would destroy the regular outline of the animal's body and thus retard the speed with which it moves through the water4 ,but head1 trunk and tail are not all4 ,there are attached to the outer side of the fish's body certain appendages that are called fins4 ,before discussing some of the different kinds of fishes and their habits1 it will be necessary to learn something about fins1 for the fins of all fishes are not alike4 ,when a fish moves through the water1 it bends its tail first to one side and then to the other4 ,this undulatory movement1 as it is called1 pushes the fish's body ahead4 ,one can observe the movements easily upon a specimen kept alive in an aquarium jar4 ,at the extreme end of the tail there is a broad1 notched fin which aids the tail in propelling and steering the body4 ,we will call this the tail or caudal fin 7,fig4 #gi ,b74 ,in most of our common fishes there are seven fins--six without the caudal4 ,the first of these six is a large fin situated near the middle of the back4 ,this is the back or dorsal fin 7,fig4 #gi ,a74 ,sometimes we may find a fish that has two dorsal fins4 ,in this case the one nearest the head is called first dorsal and the next one behind it the second dorsal4 ,near the head1 in a position corresponding to our arms1 is a pair of fins which are called the arm or pectoral fins 7,fig4 #gi ,e74 ,farther back towards the tail1 on the under side of the fish1 is another pair1 corresponding in position to the hind legs of a quadruped4 ,this pair is called the leg or pelvic fins 7,fig4 #gi ,d74 ,just behind the pelvic fins is a single fin1 situated on the middle line of the body4 ,this is the anal fin 7,fig4 #gi ,c74 ,the pectoral and pelvic fins are called paired fins because they are in pairs4 ,the others which are not in pairs are called median fins1 because they are situated on the middle line of the body4 ,the paired fins serve as delicate balancers to keep the body right side up and to regulate speed4 ,they are also used to propel the body backwards4 ,after naming the different fins of the fish in the schoolroom aquarium1 it will be interesting to observe the uses of each4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,diagram of a fish to show3 ,a1 dorsal fin2 ,b1 caudal fin2 ,c1 anal fin2 ,d1 pelvic fins2 ,e1 pectoral fins2 ,l1 lateral line4 ,on the side of the body1 extending from the head to the caudal fin1 is1 in most fishes1 a line made up of a series of small tubes which open upon the surface4 ,this is called the lateral line1 and acts in the capacity of a sense organ 7,fig4 #gi ,l74 ,is the lateral line straight or curved8 ,does it curve upwards or downwards8 ,does the curvature differ in different kinds of fishes8 ,do all the fishes you find possess a lateral line8 ,is the lateral line complete in all fishes1 i4 e41 does it extend from the head to the caudal fin without a single break8 ,,where ,,fishes ,,spend ,,the ,,winter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 #a1 ,shiner2 #b1 ,barred ,killifish2 #c1 ,black-nosed ,dace2 #d1 ,creek ,chub2 #e1 ,young of ,large-mouthed ,black ,bass2 #f1 ,varying-toothed ,minnow4 ,as winter approaches and the leaves fall and the ground becomes frozen1 the birds leave us and go farther south into warmer climates where food is more abundant4 ,we are all familiar with this habit of the birds1 but how many of us know or have even wondered what the fishes have been doing through the cold winter months while the streams and ponds have been covered with ice8 ,before the warmth of spring comes to raise the temperature of the streams1 let us go to some familiar place in a brook where1 during the summer1 are to be found scores of minnows4 ,none are to be found now4 ,the brook shows no signs of ever having contained any living creatures4 ,suppose we go farther up or down the stream until we find a protected pool the bottom of which is covered with sediment and water-soaked leaves4 ,with our net we will dip up some of the leaves and sediment1 being sure that we dip from the very bottom4 ,on looking over this mass of muddy material we may find a fish two or three inches long1 with very fine scales1 a black back1 a silvery belly and a blackish or brown band on the side of the body extending from the tip of the nose to the tail4 ,this is the ,black-nosed ,dace 7,fig4 #hj74 ,if specimens of this fish are caught very early in the spring1 one will be able to watch some interesting color changes4 ,as the spawning time approaches1 the dark band on the sides and the fins change to a bright crimson4 ,sometimes the whole body may be of this gaudy color4 ,during the summer the lateral band becomes orange4 ,as the season goes1 the bright colors gradually fade until finally1 in the fall and winter1 the little black-nose is again clothed in his more modest attire4 ,a great many of the fishes1 and especially the larger ones1 seek some deep pond or pool in the stream at the approach of winter1 and remain near the bottom4 ,if the pond or stream is so deep that they do not become chilled they will remain active1 swimming about and taking food all winter4 ,but when the stream is very shallow and the fishes feel the cold1 they settle down to the bottom1 moving about very little and taking little or no food4 ,the carp collect in small numbers and pass the winter in excavations that they make in the muddy bottom4 ,if the dbris thrown up by the water across the marshy end of a lake be raked over during the winter1 one will probably find some of the smaller catfishes spending the season in a semi-dormant state4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,the ,common ,catfish or ,bullhead4 ,some interesting experiments may be tried with the fishes in the aquarium jar4 ,keep them for a few days where it is cold and then bring them into a warmer room and note the difference in their activity4 ,,the ,,common ,,catfish ,,or ,,bullhead4 ,this sleepy old fellow differs in many respects from most of our common fishes4 ,he has no scales4 ,about the mouth are eight long whisker-like appendages1 called barbels 7,fig4 #ha74 ,perhaps he is called catfish because he has whiskers about his mouth like a cat4 ,any one who has ever taken a catfish from the hook probably knows that care is needed in order not to receive a painful prick from the sharp spines in his pectoral and dorsal fins4 ,there is nothing aristocratic about the catfish4 ,in warm pools and streams where the water is sluggish and the muddy bottom is covered with weeds1 he may be found moving lazily about in search of food4 ,his taste is not delicate4 ,animal substance1 whether living or dead1 satisfies him4 ,when in search of food he makes good use of his barbels1 especially those at the corners of his mouth1 which he uses as feelers4 ,the catfish will live longer out of water than most of our other food fishes4 ,they will live and thrive in water which is far too impure for pumpkin seeds or bass4 ,they spawn late in the spring4 ,the mother fish cares for her young much as a hen cares for her chickens4 ,when they are old enough to take care of themselves1 she weans them4 ,,the ,,common ,,sunfish ,,or ,,pumpkin ,,seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,the common ,sunfish or ,pumpkin ,seed4 ,some evening just at sunset visit a quiet pool in a nearby stream4 ,drop in your hook baited with an angle worm and presently the dancing cork shows that you have a bite4 ,on pulling up you find that you really have a fish4 ,it is a beautiful creature1 too--thin flat body shaped something like the seed of a pumpkin4 ,his back is an olive green delicately shaded with blue4 ,his sides are spotted with orange1 while his belly is a bright yellow4 ,his cheeks are orange-color streaked with wavy lines of blue4 ,just behind his eye on his ear-flap is a bright scarlet spot4 ,this is the common ,sunfish or ,pumpkin ,seed 7,fig4 #hb74 ,he is a very beautiful1 aristocratic little fellow1 looking like a brilliant coin fresh from the mint4 ,keep him alive in an aquarium jar with a shiner4 ,compare the two fishes1 as to the size and shape of their bodies and fins4 ,feed them different kinds of food1 such as worms1 insects and crackers1 and try to discover which they like best and how they eat4 ,the sunfishes prefer quiet waters4 ,they lay their eggs in the spring of the year4 ,the male selects a spot near the banks of the stream or pond where the water is very shallow4 ,here he clears a circular area about a foot in diameter4 ,after making a slight excavation in the gravel or sand1 the nest is completed4 ,the eggs are then deposited by the female in the basin-like excavation4 ,he watches his nest and eggs with great diligence1 driving away other fishes that chance to come near4 ,,the ,,black ,,basses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,adult ,small-mouthed ,black ,bass4 ,the black basses are not usually found in small streams where it is most pleasant for teachers and pupils to fish4 ,they are fishes that seek the rivers and lakes4 ,there are two kinds of black bass1 the ,large-mouthed and the ,small-mouthed4 ,as the name indicates1 the two may be distinguished by the size of the mouth4 ,in the large-mouthed black bass the upper jaw extends to a point behind the eye1 while in the small-mouthed species it extends to a point just below the middle of the eye 7,fig4 #hc74 ,both kinds of black bass may be found in the same body of water4 ,the character of the bottoms over which they are found1 however1 differs4 ,the small-mouthed prefers the stony bars or shoals4 ,the large-mouthed1 on the contrary1 selects a muddy bottom grown over with reeds4 ,they feed upon crayfish 7crabs71 minnows1 frogs1 worms1 tadpoles and insects4 ,our black basses are very queer parents4 ,they prepare a nest in which the eggs are deposited4 ,both male and female are very courageous in the defense of their eggs and young4 ,as soon as the young fishes are able to take care of themselves the parent fishes leave them1 and after that time may even feed upon their own children4 ,,the ,,stickleback4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,a ,stickleback4 ,the sticklebacks are queer little fellows indeed 7,fig4 #hd74 ,the slender body1 extremely narrow tail1 and the sharp1 free spines in front of the dorsal fin1 give them at once the appearance of being both active and pugnacious little creatures4 ,the sticklebacks are detrimental to the increase of other fishes since they greedily destroy the spawn and young of all fishes that come within their reach4 ,they build nests about two inches in diameter1 with a hole in the top4 ,after the eggs are laid the male defends the nest with great bravery4 ,the little five-spined brook stickleback in the ,cayuga ,lake basin1 ,n4 ,y41 is most commonly found in stagnant pools1 shaded by trees1 where the water is filled with decaying vegetable matter1--the so-called green frog-spawn 7spirogyra71 and duck weed4 ,if you supply the sticklebacks with plenty of fine vegetable material1 you may induce them to built a nest in the aquarium jar1 but they must be caught and placed in the jar early in the season before they spawn4 ,,the ,,johnny ,,darters4 ,in ,new ,york ,state1 every swift stream which has a bed of gravel and flat stones ought to contain some one of the ,johnny darters1 for there are a great many different kinds 7,fig4 #he74 ,they are little creatures1 delighting in clear water and swift currents where they dart about1 hiding under stones and leaves1 or resting on the bottom with their heads up-stream4 ,the body of a darter is compact and spindle-shaped1 gradually tapering from the short head to a narrow tail4 ,the eyes are situated nearly on top of the head4 ,the color of the darters varies greatly with the different kinds4 ,some are very plain1 the light ground color being broken only by a few brown markings4 ,others are gorgeous in their colorings1 it seeming as if they had attempted to reproduce the rainbow on their sides4 ,such kinds are indeed very attractive and are ranked with the most beautifully colored of all our common fishes4 ,when a darter swims1 he appears bird-like1 for he flies through the water much as a bird flies through the air4 ,he does not use his tail alone in swimming1 as the catfish1 the sunfish1 the stickleback1 and most of the other fishes do1 but flies with his pectoral fins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,a ,johnny ,darter4 ,you surely must have a ,johnny darter in your aquarium jar4 ,the ,johnnies are true ,american fishes4 ,though small1 they face the strong currents and eke out a living where their larger cousin1 the yellow perch1 would perish4 ,there are many interesting facts which may be learned from the ,johnny darters when kept alive in an aquarium4 ,when not actually moving in the water1 do the ,johnnies rest on the bottom of the jar or remain suspended in the middle apparently resting on nothing1 as the other aquarium fishes do8 ,when a fish remains still in the middle of the jar he does so because he has a well-developed air-bladder to help buoy him up1 and when a fish dies it is the air-bladder which causes him to turn over and rise to the top4 ,now if the ,johnnies always rest on the bottom of the jar when not swimming and if one happens to die and does not rise to the top we may know that1 if he has an air-bladder at all1 it is only a vestigial one4 ,it would be interesting also to find out for ourselves whether a ,johnny darter can really climb trees 7,i mean by trees1 of course1 the water plants in the aquarium jar71 or if he can perch upon the branches like a bird4 ,,the ,,minnows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,a convenient form of aquarium jar supplied with water plants4 ,the bottom is covered with clean sand and flat stones4 ,all the small fishes of the brooks are called minnows1 or more often minnies1 by the boy fisherman4 ,the boy believes that they grow into larger fishes4 ,this is not true4 ,the minnows are a distinct group of fishes and1 for the most part1 small ones4 ,they do not grow to be bass or pike or sunfishes or anything else but minnows4 ,some of the minnows1 however1 are comparatively large4 ,two of these are the ,creek ,chub 7,fig4 #hj71 and the ,shiner 7,fig4 #hj74 ,the chub is the king of the small brooks1 being often the largest and most voracious fish found in such streams4 ,his common diet probably consists of insects and worms1 but if very hungry he does not object to eating a smaller fish4 ,during the spawning season1 which is springtime1 the male chub has sharp1 horny tubercles or spines developed upon the snout4 ,we are able to recognize the creek chub by means of a black spot at the front of the base of the dorsal fin4 ,the shiner or red-fin has much larger scales than the chub4 ,the back is elevated in front of the dorsal fin1 giving him the appearance of a hump-back4 ,his sides are a steel-blue with silvery reflections4 ,while the shiner is not the largest1 it is almost everywhere one of the most abundant brook fishes4 ,in spring the lower fins of the male become reddish4 ,like the chub1 he has small horny tubercles developed on the snout4 ,,random ,,notes4 ,did you ever see a fish yawn8 ,watch a shiner in your aquarium4 ,sometimes you may see him open his mouth widely as though he was very sleepy4 ,again you may find him resting on the bottom of the jar taking a nap4 ,fishes cannot close their eyes when they sleep for they have no eyelids4 ,a convenient way to collect fishes for the schoolroom aquarium is to use a dip net4 ,the ordinary insect net will do1 but it is better to replace the cheese-cloth bag by a double thickness of mosquito-bar1 thus enabling one to move the net through the water more rapidly4 ,by dipping in the deep pools1 among grasses and under the banks with such a net one can soon obtain fishes enough to stock an aquarium 7,fig4 #hf74 ,the aquarium jar should never be placed in the sun4 ,it is better to have only three or four fishes in an aquarium at one time4 ,some flat stones on the bottom of the jar will afford them convenient hiding places4 ,for further notes on aquaria1 consult ,leaflet ,no4 ,,xii4 ,illustration ,,leaflet ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,a ,,cocoon4#ah ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 #ah ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #d3 ,leaflet #ag4 ,march1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,among the commonest treasures brought into the schools by children in the fall or winter are the cocoons of our giant silk-worms4 ,if one has a place to put them where the air is not too warm or dry1 no special care will be necessary to keep them through the winter4 ,out-door conditions must be imitated as nearly as possible4 ,if early in the fall one is fortunate enough to meet one of these giants out for a walk1 it is the simplest thing in the world to capture him and watch him spin his marvelous winter blanket4 ,two members of this family of giant insects are quite common in this state1 the largest the ,cecropia1 called sometimes the ,emperor1 and the ,promethea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,cocoon of the ,cecropia moth4 ,it sometimes hangs from a twig of a fruit tree4 ,the ,cecropia moth often measures five or six inches across--a veritable giant4 ,its main color is dusty brown1 with spots and bands of cinnamon brown and white4 ,on each wing is a white crescent bordered with red and outlined with a black line4 ,the body is heavy and covered with thick1 reddish-brown hairs1 crossed near the end with black and white lines4 ,on its small head are two large feathery feelers or antenn4 ,the ,cecropia moth emerges from the cocoon1 full grown1 in early summer1 when out of doors4 ,those kept in the house often come out as early as ,march4 ,the eggs are deposited by the adults upon apple1 pear1 cherry1 maple and other shade and fruit trees4 ,professor ,comstock says that the spiny caterpillars which hatch from the eggs in about two weeks1 are known to feed upon the leaves of some fifty species of plants4 ,one could therefore hardly make a mistake in offering refreshment to these creatures1 since they are anything but epicures4 ,the full-grown caterpillar1 having spent the summer eating and growing1 with now and then a change of clothes1 is often three inches long and an inch in diameter4 ,it is a dull bluish green in color4 ,on its back are two rows of wart-like protuberances 7tubercles71 some yellow1 some red1 some blue4 ,as there is nothing else in nature which is just like it1 one need have no difficulty in recognizing the ,cecropia in its different phases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,end of cocoon of ,cecropia1 inside view1 showing where the moth gets out4 ,the cocoon which this giant silk-worm weaves is shown in ,fig4 #hg4 ,it may be found on a twig of some tree in the dooryard1 but sometimes on a fence-post or equally unexpected place4 ,inside the cocoon the brown pupa1 alive but helpless1 waits for spring4 ,after the moth comes out it is interesting to examine the structure of the cocoon1 and to discover how the moth managed to free itself without destroying the silken blanket 7,fig4 #hh74 ,swinging loosely from last summer's twigs in lilac bushes1 and on such trees as wild cherry and ash1 one often finds the slender cocoons of the ,promethea moth 7,fig4 #hi74 ,we cannot help admiring the skill and care displayed by the spinner of this tidy winter overcoat4 ,the giant silk-worm which spun it chose a leaf as a foundation4 ,he took care to secure himself against the danger of falling by fastening the leaf to the twig which bore it by means of shining strands of silk4 ,it is easy to test the strength of this fastening by attempting to pull it loose from the twig4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,cocoon of ,promethea moth fastened to a twig with silk4 ,the moths which come from these cocoons do not always look alike1 yet they are all brothers and sisters4 ,the brothers are almost black1 while the wings of the sisters are light reddish brown1 with a light gray wavy line crossing the middle of both wings4 ,the margins of the wings are clay-colored4 ,on each wing is a dark velvety spot4 ,the adults emerge in spring and are most often seen in the late afternoon4 ,their flight is more spirited than that of the ,cecropia1 which moves very sedately1 as becomes a giant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,cocoon of ,promethea1 cut open lengthwise to show the valve-like device at upper end through which the adult moth pushes its way out4 ,the caterpillars of this species1 the young ,prometheas1 feed during the summer on leaves of wild cherry1 ash and other trees4 ,they grow to be about two inches long1 and are distinguished from others by their pale bluish green color and yellow legs4 ,they also have rows of wart-like elevations on their backs1 some black and shining1 four of a bright red and one large and yellow near the hindmost end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the life of these giant insects is divided into four distinct stages3 the egg1 deposited by the adult moth usually on or near the food plant2 the larva1 or caterpillar stage1 when most of the eating and all the growing is done2 the pupa1 passed inside the cocoon woven by the larva2 and the adult1 a winged moth4 ,the life-cycle or generation is one year1 the winter being passed in the pupa stage4 ,the insect lives but a short time in the adult stage and the egg stage is but two or three weeks4 ,most of the summer is devoted to the caterpillar phase of its life4 ,these creatures are entirely harmless4 ,they seldom appear in numbers sufficient to make them of economic importance4 ,,leaflet ,,xv4 ,a ,,talk ,,about ,,spiders4#ai ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,comstock4 #ai ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #i3 ,leaflet #bb4 ,may1 #aija4 ,illustration ,of all our little neighbors of the fields there are none that are more universally shunned and feared than spiders1 and few that deserve it less4 ,there is a wide-spread belief that spiders are dangerous1 that they are liable to bite1 and that their bites are very venomous4 ,now this may be true of certain large species that live in hot countries2 but the spiders of the ,northern ,united ,states are practically harmless4 ,it is true1 spiders bite and inject venom sufficient to kill a fly into the wound made by their jaws4 ,but they are exceedingly shy creatures1 fearing man more than they are to be feared4 ,if an observer will refrain from picking up a spider there is not the slightest danger of being bitten by one2 and excepting a single uncommon species no spider is known in this part of the country whose bite would seriously affect a human being4 ,on the other hand1 spiders do much to keep in check various insect pests1 and hence must be regarded as our friends4 ,it is1 however1 from a different point of view that we wish to look upon them at this time4 ,it is as illustrations of remarkable development of instinctive powers1 and of wonderful correlation of structure and habit1 that we would have the reader study these creatures4 ,the teacher of nature-study can find no more available or more fertile field from which to take subjects for interesting children in the world about us4 ,let us then put aside our fears and go into the fields and see whether we can learn something of the ways of these spinners4 ,,the ,,funnel-,,web ,,weavers4 ,often on summer mornings the grass of the roadsides and fields is seen to be carpeted with little sheets of glistening silk1 the webs of the grass-spider4 ,none were observed the day before2 and we wonder at the sudden appearance of this host of weavers4 ,later in the day the webs have vanished6 ,have the weavers rolled them up and carried them off8 ,we remember that there was an especially fine one near the end of the veranda steps2 we examine the place carefully and find that it is still there1 but not so conspicuous as it was4 ,the warm sun has dissipated the dew which rendered visible to our dull eyes the tapestry of the fields4 ,now that our eyes are opened we can find the webs everywhere and are impressed with a suspicion that perhaps ordinarily we see very little of what is around us4 ,we examine one of the webs carefully and find that it is a closely woven sheet made of threads running in all directions2 that it is attached to spears of grass1 and supported by numerous guy lines1 and that from one side a funnel-like tube extends downwards4 ,if1 while we are watching1 an insect alights on the sheet1 there darts from the tunnel1 where she was concealed1 the owner of the web1 a dark-colored spider2 and the insect must be agile if it escapes4 ,if you attempt to catch the spider it retreats to its tunnel2 and when you examine the tunnel the spider is not there4 ,you find that the tube is open below1 that there is a back door by which the spider can escape when hard pressed4 ,we call those spiders that makes webs of this kind ,the ,funnel-web ,weavers4 ,they are long-legged1 brown spiders1 which run on the upper surface of their webs2 these are usually made on grass1 but sometimes they are found in the angles of buildings1 and in quite high places4 ,,the ,,cobweb ,,weavers4 ,the webs that we most often find in the corners of rooms are of a different kind and are made by the members of a family known as ,the ,cobweb ,weavers4 ,in these webs there is not such a definite sheet of silk as in those of the funnel-web weavers1 but instead a shapeless maze of threads extending in all directions4 ,many of the cobweb weavers1 however1 make their webs in the fields on bushes1 and weave in them a flat or curved sheet1 under which the spider hangs back downward4 ,the funnel-web weavers run right side up2 the cobweb weavers hang inverted4 ,some of the cobweb weavers do not remain in their webs1 but have a nest in a neighboring crack or corner1 from which they rush to seize their prey1 and sometimes there is a funnel-shaped tube leading to their nest4 ,but these spiders differ from the true funnel-web weavers in running back downwards on the lower side of their webs4 ,,the ,,orb ,,weavers4 ,the spider webs that most often excite admiration are those in which the supporting threads radiate from a center like the spokes of a wheel1 and bear a spiral thread4 ,such webs are known as orb-webs2 and the family of spiders that make them1 ,the ,orb ,weavers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,nearly completed orb-web4 ,few if any of the structures built by lower animals are more wonderful than these webs2 but they are so common that they are often considered hardly worthy of notice4 ,if they occurred only in some remote corner of the earth1 every one would read of them with interest4 ,the webs or nets of the different species of orb weavers differ in the details of their structure2 but the general plan is quite similar4 ,there is first a framework of supporting lines4 ,the outer part of this framework is irregular1 depending upon the position of the objects to which the net is attached2 but the central part is very regular1 and consists of a number of lines radiating from the center of the net 7,fig4 #ia74 ,all of these supporting lines are dry and inelastic4 ,touch them with your pencil and you find that they neither stretch nor adhere to it4 ,upon these radiating lines there is fastened in a very regular manner a thread which is sticky and elastic4 ,this will adhere to your pencil1 and will stretch several times its normal length before breaking4 ,usually this sticky thread is fastened to the radiating lines so as to form a spiral2 but a few species make nets in which it is looped back and forth4 ,and even in the nets where the greater part of the thread is in a spiral there are in most cases a few loops near the lower margin 7,fig4 #ia74 ,examine the next orb-web you find and see whether it is true in that case4 ,many of the orb weavers strengthen their nets by spinning a zigzag ribbon across the center4 ,this ribbon is made by spreading apart the spinnerets1 the organs from which the silk is spun1 and which will be described later4 ,ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are held close together so that they form a single thread1 but by spreading them apart many threads can be spun at once1 thus forming a ribbon4 ,some orb weavers are not content with making a simple zigzag band across the center of the net1 but weave an elaborate bit of lace in this position4 ,fig4 #ib is from a photograph of the center of the net of one of these spiders1 which was found near ,ithaca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,lace-like hub of an orb-web4 ,in studying the various kinds of orb-webs one should pay particular attention to the center of the web2 for this part differs greatly in the webs of the different species4 ,there is usually a hub composed entirely of dry and inelastic silk woven in an irregular manner2 outside of this there are several turns of a spiral thread which is also dry2 this constitutes the notched zone1 a name suggested by the fact that the spiral line is attached for a short space to each radius it crosses1 thus giving the line a notched course4 ,in many cases it is here1 on the hub and the notched zone1 that the spider waits for its prey2 and it is obvious that sticky silk in this place would be objectionable4 ,between the notched zone and the spiral zone1 the part furnished with the sticky spiral thread1 there is a clear space1 the free zone1 crossed only by the radii4 ,this gives the spider an opportunity to pass from one side of the web to the other without going around the entire web4 ,some orb weavers do not wait upon the hub but have a retreat near one edge of the net1 in which they hang back downwards4 ,while resting in these retreats they keep hold of some of the lines leading from the net1 so that they can instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect4 ,when an insect in its flight touches one of the turns of the sticky line the line adheres to it1 but it stretches so as to allow the insect to become entangled in other turns of the line4 ,if it were not for this elasticity of the sticky line1 most insects could readily tear themselves away before the spider had time to reach them4 ,in running over its net the spider steps upon the radii1 carefully avoiding the sticky line2 otherwise it would destroy its own net4 ,the rapidity with which a spider can cross its net without touching the sticky line is remarkable4 ,in making its web an orb weaver first spins a number of lines extending irregularly in various directions about the place where its orb is to be2 this is the outer supporting framework4 ,often the first line spun is a bridge between two quite distant points1 as the branches of two separate bushes4 ,how did the spider cross the gulf8 ,it has no wings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,nearly completed orb-web4 ,the bridge building can be easily seen on a warm summer evening1 the time at which the spiders are most active repairing their old nets and building new ones4 ,the spider lifts the hind end of its body and spins forth a thread2 this is carried off by the wind1 until1 finally striking some object1 it becomes fast to it4 ,the spider then pulls in the slack line1 like a sailor1 and when the line is taut fastens it to the object on which it is standing1 and the bridge is formed4 ,after making the outward framework1 the radiating lines are formed4 ,a line is stretched across the space so as to pass through the point which is to be the center of the orb4 ,in doing this the spider may start on one side1 and be forced to walk in a very roundabout way on the outer framework to the opposite side4 ,it carefully holds the new line up behind it as it goes along1 so that it shall not become entangled with the lines on which it walks2 one or both hind feet serve as hands in these spinning operations2 for1 as the spider has eight feet1 it can spare one or two for other purposes than locomotion4 ,when the desired point is reached the slack is pulled in and the line fastened4 ,the spider then goes to the point where the center of the orb is to be1 and1 fastening another line1 it walks back to the outer framework1 and attaches this line an inch or two from the first4 ,in this way all of the radiating lines are drawn4 ,the next step is to stay these radii by a spiral line1 which is begun near the center1 and attached to each radius as it crosses it4 ,the turns of this spiral are as far apart as the spider can conveniently reach4 ,all of the threads spun up to this stage in the construction of the web are dry and inelastic4 ,the spider now proceeds to stretch upon this framework a sticky and elastic line1 which is the most important part of the web1 the other lines being merely a framework to support it4 ,in spinning the sticky line1 the spider begins at the outer edge of the orb1 and passing around it1 fastens this line to each radius as it goes4 ,thus a second spiral is made4 ,the turns of this spiral are placed quite close together1 and the first spiral1 which is merely a temporary support1 is destroyed as the second spiral progresses4 ,fig4 #ic represents a web in which the second spiral is made over the outer half of the radii4 ,in this figure1 aa represents the temporary stayline2 bb1 the sticky spiral2 and cc1 the fragments of the first spiral hanging from the radii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,wasp1 with head1 thorax and abdomen separated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,spider1 showing division of the body into cephalothorax and abdomen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,lower side of cephalothorax of a spider2 md1 mandible2 mx1 maxilla2 p1 palpus2 l1 lower lip2 s1 sternum4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,spider4 ,spiders differ much in appearance from the true insects4 ,in the insects the body is composed of three regions3 the head2 the thorax1 to which the legs are attached2 and the abdomen or hind part of the body 7,fig4 #id74 ,in the spiders the head and thorax are grown together1 forming a region which is known as the cephalothorax2 to this the abdomen is joined by a short1 narrow stalk 7,fig4 #ie74 ,spiders differ also from insects in the number of their legs1 spiders having eight legs and insects only six4 ,spiders have two pairs of jaws1 which1 except in the ,tarantula family1 move sidewise like the jaws of insects4 ,the first pair of jaws are called the mandibles4 ,each mandible consists of two segments1 a strong basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one1 at the tip of which the poison gland opens 7,fig4 #if74 ,the second pair of jaws is known as the maxill4 ,these jaws are situated just behind the mandibles1 one on each side of the mouth4 ,each maxilla bears a large feeler or palpus4 ,these palpi vary greatly in form2 frequently1 especially in females1 they resemble legs2 hence many spiders appear to have five pairs of legs4 ,in the male spiders the last segment of the palpus is more or less enlarged1 ending in a complicated1 knob-like structure 7,fig4 #ig74 ,it is thus easy to determine the sex of a spider by merely examining the palpi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,maxilla and palpus of male house-spider4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,head of spider1 showing eyes and mandibles4 ,the greater number of spiders have four pairs of eyes 7,fig4 #ih71 but there may be only one1 two1 or three pairs2 and certain cave spiders are blind4 ,the eyes appear like little gems set in the front of the cephalothorax4 ,they are most prominent in the jumping spiders1 which stalk their prey on plants1 logs1 fences1 and the sides of buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,spinnerets of a spider4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,a group of spinning tubes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,viscid silk from an orb-web4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,spinnerets and cribellum of a curled-thread weaver4 ,the most characteristic feature of spiders is their spinning organs4 ,the silk is secreted in glands within the abdomen1 and while in the body it is a fluid4 ,it passes out through the spinnerets1 which are situated near the hind end of the abdomen4 ,there are two or three pairs of spinnerets4 ,these are more or less finger-like in form1 and sometimes jointed 7,fig4 #ii74 ,upon the end of each spinneret there are many small tubes1 the spinning tubes 7,fig4 #ajj71 from which the silk is spun4 ,some spiders have as many as one hundred and fifty or two hundred of these spinning tubes on each spinneret4 ,ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are brought close together1 so that all of the minute threads that emerge from the numerous spinning tubes unite to form a single thread4 ,hence this tiny thread1 which is so delicate that we can see it only when the light falls on it in a favorable way1 is composed of hundreds of threads4 ,it is not like a rope1 composed of separate strands2 for all the minute threads fuse together into a single thread4 ,the change in the silk from a fluid to a solid cord1 strong enough to support the weight of the spider1 must take place quickly after the silk comes in contact with the air on leaving the spinning tubes2 the minute size of the threads coming from the spinning tubes doubtless facilitates this change4 ,sometimes a spider will spread its spinnerets apart1 and thus spin a broad ribbon-like band4 ,we have seen a spider seize a large grasshopper which was entangled in its web1 and rolling it over two or three times1 completely envelop it in a sheet of silk spun from its spread-apart spinnerets4 ,we have already described bands spun by orb weavers across the hub of the net in this way4 ,it is supposed that the two kinds of silk spun by the orb weavers are spun from different spinnerets1 and that the viscid silk comes from the front pair4 ,when this silk is first spun1 the viscid matter forms a continuous layer of liquid on the outside of it4 ,but very soon this layer breaks up into bead-like masses--in a way similar to that in which the moisture on a clothes line on a foggy day collects into drops 7,fig4 #aja74 ,there are two families of spiders that have spinning organs differing from those of all other spiders4 ,they have in front of the usual spinnerets an additional organ1 which is named the cribellum 7,fig4 #ajb1 c74 ,this bears spinning tubes like the other spinnerets1 but these tubes are much finer4 ,these spiders have also on the next-to-the-last segment of the hind legs one or two rows of curved spines2 this organ is the calamistrum 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,by means of the calamistrum these spiders comb from the cribellum a band of loose threads which form a part of their webs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,last two segments of hind leg of spider1 showing calamistrum4 ,,the ,,curled-,,thread ,,weavers4 ,the spiders possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum represent two families1 one of which makes irregular webs2 the other1 those which are of definite form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,web of a curled-thread weaver4 ,an irregular web of a curled-thread weaver is shown in ,fig4 #ajd1 from a photograph4 ,in this web the framework is of ordinary silk2 and upon this framework is placed a band of curled or tangled threads 7,fig4 #aje74 ,an insect alighting on a net of this kind is likely to get its feet caught in the tangled silk1 and to be held fast till the spider can pounce upon it4 ,nets of this kind are found on bushes and on the sides of buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,fragment of a curled-thread weaver's web1 enlarged4 ,there are two quite distinct types of regular webs made by spiders possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum4 ,one is a round web which resembles at first sight those of the orb weavers2 but it differs from the ordinary orb-web in that the spiral thread is made of curled or hackled silk4 ,these webs are nearly horizontal1 and are usually made between stones or in low bushes2 they are not common4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,web of the triangle spider4 ,the other type is represented by the web of the triangle spider4 ,this web is most often found stretched between the twigs of a dead branch of pine or hemlock4 ,at first sight it appears like a fragment of an orb-web 7,fig4 #ajf72 but a little study will show that it is complete4 ,the accompanying figure1 by ,dr4 ,b4 ,g4 ,wilder1 who first described the habits of this spider 7,popular ,science ,monthly1 #ahge7 illustrates the form of the web4 ,it consists of four plain lines corresponding to the radiating lines of an orb-web1 and a series of cross lines1 which are spun by the cribellum and calamistrum4 ,each cross line is composed of two lines1 about #a_/ejj of an inch apart4 ,these double lines take the place of the curled threads woven by other members of the family to which the triangle spider belongs4 ,from the point where the radiating lines meet1 a strong line extends to one of the supporting twigs4 ,near this twig the spider rests1 pulling the web tight so that there is some loose line between its legs1 as shown in the enlarged figure4 ,when an insect becomes entangled in one of the cross lines1 the spider suddenly lets go the loose line so that the whole web springs forward1 and the insect is entangled in other cross lines4 ,the spider then draws the web tight and snaps it again4 ,this may be repeated several times before the spider goes out upon the web after its prey4 ,the triangle spider is a tiny fellow1 and so closely resembles the color of the dead branch near which it rests that it is very difficult to find2 its web is more easily seen1 though it usually requires careful searching to discover it4 ,,the ,,motherhood ,,of ,,spiders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,egg-sac of a spider4 ,as a rule young spiders are forced to shift for themselves1 and a very hard time they have2 but of this we have not space to write4 ,with spiders1 the mother's care is devoted chiefly to furnishing protection to her helpless eggs4 ,these are placed in silken sacs1 which are often very elaborate in construction and protected with great care4 ,the most common egg-sacs are those found in the fields attached to stones and pieces of wood 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,they are disk-shaped objects1 silvery in color1 and about the size of an old-fashioned three-cent piece4 ,the egg-sacs of the cobweb weavers can be found suspended in their webs2 and those of the orb weavers1 in various situations4 ,fig4 #ajh represents the large egg-sac of one of the orb weavers4 ,this is made in the autumn1 and contains at that season a large number of eggs--five hundred or more4 ,these eggs hatch early in the winter2 but no spiders emerge from the egg-sac until the following spring4 ,if egg-sacs of this kind be opened at different times during the winter1 the spiders will be found to increase in size but diminish in numbers as the season advances4 ,in fact1 a strange tragedy goes on within these egg-sacs3 the stronger spiders calmly devour their weaker brothers1 and in the spring those that survive emerge sufficiently nourished to fight their battles in the outside world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,egg-sac of an orb weaver4 ,the females of the ,running ,spiders not only make a carefully constructed egg-sac1 but also care for the young spiders for a time4 ,the running spiders are the large dark-colored1 hairy spiders1 often found under stones and rubbish2 they are so-called because they capture their prey by running4 ,the females of most of the species 7those of the genus ,lycosa7 drag after them their egg-sac1 which is attached to the spinnerets 7,fig4 #aji72 and when the young hatch1 they climb on their mother's back1 and are carried about for a time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,lycosa and egg-sac4 ,one of the running spiders 7,dolomedes7 carries her egg-sac with her mandibles until the young are ready to emerge4 ,at this time the mother fastens the egg-sac in a bush1 and spins irregular threads about it1 among which the young spiders remain for a time 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,in the specimen figured1 the egg-sac was concealed in the upper part of the web4 ,,the ,,ballooning ,,spiders4 ,in warm autumn days1 innumerable threads can be seen streaming from fences1 bushes1 and the tips of stalks of grass1 or floating through the air4 ,these are made by the ,ballooning ,spiders1 which are able to travel long distances1 hundreds of miles1 through the air by means of these silken threads4 ,the ballooning spider climbs to some elevated point1 and then1 standing on the tips of its feet1 lifts its body as high as it can1 and spins out a thread of silk4 ,this thread is carried up and away by a current of air4 ,when the thread is long enough the force of the air current on it is sufficient to bear the spider up4 ,it then lets go its hold with its feet and sails away4 ,that these spiders travel long distances in this manner has been shown by the fact that they have been seen floating through the air at sea far from land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,nursery of ,dolomedes4 ,,leaflet ,,xvi4 ,,life ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,toad4#bj ,,by ,s4 ,h4 ,,gage4#ba #bj ,teachers' ,leaflet1 ,no4 #i1 ,may1 #ahig4 #ba ,it was the desire of the author to tell the story of this leaflet in pictures as well as in words1 and he wishes to express his appreciation of the enthusiasm and ability with which the illustrations were executed by ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,furlong4 ,in this edition are added half-tone reproductions of photographs to bring out more completely the life story4 ,on account of its economic importance1 and because the marvelous changes passed through in growing from an egg to a toad are so rapid that they may all be seen during a single spring term of school1 the common or warty toad has been selected as the subject of a leaflet in nature-study4 ,toads are found everywhere in ,new ,york1 and nearly everywhere in the world2 it is easy1 therefore1 to get abundant material for study4 ,this animal is such a good friend to the farmer1 the gardener1 the fruit-grower1 the florist and the stock-raiser that every man and woman1 every boy and girl1 ought to know something about it4 ,furthermore1 it is hoped and sincerely believed that the feeling of repugnance and dislike1 and the consequent cruelty to toads1 will disappear when teachers and children learn something about their wonderful changes in form1 structure and habits1 and how harmless and helpful they are4 ,then1 who that knows of the chances1 the dangers and struggles in the life of the toad1 can help a feeling of sympathy2 for after all1 how like our human life it is4 ,where sympathy is1 cruelty is impossible1 and one comes to feel the spirit of these beautiful lines from ,coleridge's ,ancient ,mariner3 ,he prayeth best who loveth best ,all things both great and small2 ,for the dear ,god who loveth us ,he made and loveth all4 ,it was ,william ,harvey1 the discoverer of the circulation of the blood1 who first clearly stated the fact that every animal comes from an egg4 ,this is as true of a toad as of a chicken4 ,the toad lives on the land and often a long way from any pond or stream1 but the first part of its life is spent in the water2 and so it is in the water that the eggs must be looked for4 ,to find the eggs one should visit the natural or artificial ponds so common along streams4 ,ponds from springs or even artificial reservoirs or the basins around fountains1 also may contain the eggs4 ,the time for finding the eggs depends on the season4 ,the toad observes the season1 not the almanac4 ,in ordinary years1 the best time is from the middle of ,april to the first of ,may4 ,one is often guided to the right place by noticing the direction from which the song or call of the toad comes4 ,the call of the toad is more or less like that of the tree toads4 ,in general it sounds like whistling1 and at the same time pronouncing deep in the throat1 bu-rr-r-r-r-4 ,if one watches a toad while it makes its call1 one can soon learn to distinguish the sound from others somewhat similar4 ,it will be found that different toads have slightly different voices1 and the same one can vary the tone considerably1 so that it is not so easy after all to distinguish the many batrachian solos and choruses on a spring or summer evening4 ,it will be noticed that the toad does not open its mouth when it sings1 but1 instead1 the resonator or vocal sac under its mouth and throat is greatly expanded4 ,one must be careful to distinguish the expansion of the mouth in breathing from the expansion of the vocal sac4 ,see the left hand toad in the drawing 7,fig4 #aaa7 for the vocal sac1 and the toad in hibernation 7,fig4 #aba7 for the expansion of the mouth in breathing4 ,it is only the males that possess the vocal sac1 so that the toad chorus is composed solely of male voices4 ,the eggs are laid in long strings or ropes which are nearly always tangled and wound round the water plants or sticks on the bottom of the pond4 ,if the pond is large and deep1 the eggs are laid near the shore where the water is shallow4 ,if the eggs have been freshly laid in clear water the egg ropes will look like glass tubes containing a string of jet black beads4 ,after a rain the eggs are obscured by the fine mud that settles on the transparent jelly surrounding them1 but the jelly is much more evident than in the freshly laid egg strings4 ,secure enough of the egg string to include #ej or #ajj eggs and place it in a glass fruit dish or a basin with clean water from the pond where the eggs were found4 ,let the children look at the eggs very carefully and note the color and the exact shape4 ,let them see whether the color is the same on all sides4 ,if the eggs are newly laid they will be nearly perfect spheres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,the toad in various stages of development from the egg to the adult ,frogs1 salamanders and tree toads lay their eggs in the same places and at about the same time as the toad we are to study4 ,only the toad lays its eggs in strings1 so one can be sure he has the right kind4 ,the others lay their eggs in bunches or singly on the plants1 so they never need be mistaken for the ones sought4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,just hatched toad tadpoles climbing up where the water is better aerated4 ,the eggs which are taken to the school house for study should be kept in a light place2 an east1 south or west window is best4 ,it requires only a short time for the eggs to hatch4 ,in warm weather two to four days are usually sufficient1 but in the cool days of ,april it may require ten days4 ,as the changes are so very rapid1 the eggs ought to be carefully looked at two or three times a day to make sure that all the principal changes are seen4 ,if a pocket lens or a reading glass is to be had it will add to the interest1 as more of the details can be observed4 ,but good sharp eyes are sufficient if no lens is available4 ,hatching4--,watch and see how long it is before the developing embryos commence to move4 ,note their change in form4 ,as they elongate they move more vigorously till on the second or third day they wriggle out of the jelly surrounding them4 ,this is hatching1 and they are now free in the water and can swim about4 ,it is curious to see them hang themselves up on the old egg string or on the edge of the dish 7,fig4 #aab74 ,they do this by means of a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,older toad tadpoles with their heads up4 ,how different the little creatures are1 which have just hatched1 from the grown up toad which laid the eggs6 ,the difference is about as great as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly4 ,tadpoles1 polliwogs4--,we call the young of the frog1 the toad and the tree toad1 tadpoles or polliwogs4 ,the toad tadpoles are black4 ,as they increase in size they may become greyish4 ,those raised in the house are usually darker than those growing in nature4 ,the tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with apparently nothing to eat4 ,this is because in each egg is some food1 just as there is a large supply of food within the egg shell to give the chicken a good start in life4 ,but when the food that the mother supplied in the egg is used up1 the little tadpoles would die if they could not find some food for themselves4 ,they must grow a great deal before they can turn into toads2 and just like children and other young animals1 to grow they must have plenty of food4 ,feeding the tadpoles4--,to feed the tadpoles it is necessary to imitate nature as closely as possible4 ,to do this1 a visit to the pond where the eggs were found will give the clue4 ,many plants are present1 and the bottom will be seen to slope gradually from the shore4 ,the food of the tadpole is the minute plant life on the stones1 the surface of the mud1 or on the outside of the larger plants4 ,one must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial pond in the laboratory or school-room or there will not be enough food1 and all will be half starved1 or some will get the food and the rest will starve to death4 ,while there may be thousands of tadpoles in the natural pond1 it will be readily seen that1 compared with the amount of water present1 there are really rather few4 ,probably many more were hatched in the school-house than can be raised in the artificial pond4 ,return the ones not put in the artificial pond to the natural pond4 ,it would be too bad to throw them out on the ground to die4 ,comparing the growth of the tadpoles4--,even when one does his best it is hard to make an artificial pond so good as the natural one for the tadpoles1 and the teacher will find it very interesting and stimulating to compare the growth and change in the tadpoles at the school-house with those in the natural pond4 ,as growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability of the environment1 it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial pond equals the natural pond for raising tadpoles4 ,it will be worth while to take a tadpole from the natural pond occasionally and put it in with those at the school-house1 so that the differences may be more strikingly shown4 ,there is some danger in making a mistake here1 however1 for there may be three or four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond4 ,those of the toad are almost jet black when young1 while the others are more or less brownish4 ,if one selects only the very black ones they will probably be toad tadpoles4 ,every week or oftener1 some water plants1 and perhaps a small stone covered with the growth of microscopic plants1 and some water1 should be taken from the pond to the artificial pond4 ,the water will supply the place of that which has evaporated1 and the water plants will carry a new supply of food4 ,if the water in the artificial pond in the school-room does not remain clear1 it should be carefully dipped out and fresh clear water added4 ,it is better to get the water from the pond where the eggs were laid1 although any clear water will answer2 but do not use distilled water4 ,the growth and changes in form should be looked for every day4 ,then it is very interesting to see what the tadpoles do1 how they eat1 and any signs of breathing4 ,all the changes from an egg to a little toad 7,fig4 #aaa71 are passed through in one or two months1 so that by the first of ,june the tadpoles will be found to have made great progress4 ,the progress will be not only in size1 but in form and action4 ,one of these actions should be watched with especial care1 for it means a great deal4 ,at first the little tadpoles remain under water all the time1 and do not seem to know or care that there is a great world above the water4 ,but as they grow larger and larger1 they rush up to the surface once in awhile and then dive down again1 as if their lives depended on it4 ,the older they grow the oftener do they come to the surface4 ,this is even more marked in the large tadpole of the bullfrog4 ,what is the meaning of this8 ,probably most of the pupils can guess correctly2 but it took scientific men a long time to find out just why this was done4 ,the real reason is that the tadpole is getting ready to breathe the free air above the water when it turns into a toad and lives on the land4 ,at first the little tadpoles breathe the air dissolved in the water1 just as a fish does4 ,this makes it plain why an artificial pond should have a broad surface exposed to the air4 ,if one should use a narrow and deep vessel1 like a fruit jar1 only a small amount of air could be taken up by the water and the tadpoles would be half suffocated4 ,as the tadpoles grow older they go oftener to the surface to get the air directly from the limitless supply above the water1 as they will have to do when they live wholly in the air4 ,disappearance of the tail4--,from the first to the middle of ,june the tadpoles should be watched with especial care1 for wonderful things are happening4 ,both the fore and hind legs will appear1 if they have not already4 ,the head will change in form and so will the body2 the color will become much lighter1 and1 but for the tail1 the tadpole will begin to look something like its mother4 ,if you keep an especially sharp lookout1 do you think you will see the tail drop off8 ,no1 toad nature is too economical for that4 ,the tail will not drop off1 but it will be seen to get shorter and shorter every day2 it is not dropping off1 but is being carried into the tadpole4 ,the tail is perfect at every stage2 it simply disappears4 ,how does this happen8 ,this is another thing that it took scientific men a long time to find out4 ,it is now known that there are two great methods for removing parts of the body no longer needed4 ,in the first method the living particles in the body which are able to wander all around1 as if they were inspectors to see that everything is in order1 may go to the part to be removed and take it up piece by piece4 ,these living particles are known as white blood corpuscles1 wandering cells1 phagocytes1 leucocytes and several other names4 ,in the other method1 the blood and the lymph going to the part to be removed dissolve it particle by particle4 ,apparently the toad tadpole's tail is dissolved by the blood and lymph rather than being eaten up by the phagocytes1 although the phagocytes do a part of the work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,transforming tadpole of the green tree toad to show the rapidity of tail absorption4 7,change in #bd hours4 ,natural size47 ,,hvla--,natural size4 ,change in #bd hours2 #bh mm4 of tail absorbed in #bd hours2 #a-a_/f mm4 per hour4 ,common toad shortens the tail about #a_/e mm4 per hour4 ,now1 when the tadpole is ready to dispense with its tail1 the blood and lymph and the phagocytes take it up particle by particle and carry it back into the body where it can be used just as any other good food would be4 ,this taking in of the tail is done so carefully that the skin epithelium or epidermis is never broken1 but covers up the outside perfectly all the time4 ,is not this a better way to get rid of a tail than to cut it off8 ,if you look at the picture of the disappearance of the tail in the toad tadpole 7,fig4 #aae7 and in the tree-toad tadpole 7,fig4 #aad71 you will get an idea how rapidly this takes place4 ,it is easier to see the actual shortening if the tadpoles are put in a white dish of clear water without any water plants4 ,the tadpoles do not eat anything while they are changing to toads1 so they will not need to be fed4 ,beginning of the life on the land4--,now1 when the legs are grown out1 and the tail is getting shorter1 the little tadpole likes to put its nose out of the water into the air2 and sometimes it crawls half way out4 ,when the tail gets quite short1 often a mere stub1 it will crawl out entirely and stay for some time in the air4 ,it now looks really like a toad except that it is nearly smooth instead of being warty1 and is only about as large as the end of a child's little finger 7,fig4 #aae74 ,finally1 the time comes when the tadpole1 now transformed into a toad1 must leave the water for the land4 ,what queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft1 smooth bottom of the pond and the pretty plants1 and the water that supported it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard1 rough1 dry land6 ,but the little toad must take the step4 ,it is no longer a tadpole1 or half tadpole and half toad4 ,it cannot again dive into the cool1 soft water when the air and the sunshine dry and scorch it4 ,as countless generations of little toads have done before1 it pushes boldly out over the land and away from the water4 ,if one visits the natural pond at about this season 7last half of ,june1 first of ,july71 he is likely to see many of the little fellows hopping away from the water4 ,and so vigorously do they hop along that in a few days they may be as far as a mile from the pond where they were hatched4 ,after a warm shower they are particularly active1 and are then most commonly seen4 ,many think they rained down4 ,they were not seen before the rain1 so they must have rained down4 ,is that good reasoning8 ,the little toad is careful and during the hot and sunny part of the day stays in the shade of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and shady place4 ,if it staid out in the sun too long it would be liable to dry up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,toad development in a single season 7#aijc74 #a-ah4 ,changes and growth1 ,april to ,november4 #a-ac4 ,development in #be to #fj days4 #ae-ah4 ,different sizes1 ,october #ba1 #aijc4 #i1 #ad4 ,different sizes1 ,july #cj1 #aijc4 #aj1 #aa4 ,the same tadpole1--#aa1 #dg hours older than #aj4 #ab1 #ac4 ,the same tadpole1--#ac1 #dg hours older than #ab4 ,,food ,,on ,,the ,,land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,toad catching a winged insect1 and illustrating how the tongue is extended and brought in contact with the insect4 ,several other creatures that the toad might eat are shown in various parts of the picture4 ,in the water the tadpole eats vegetable matter2 but when it becomes a toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but animal food1 and that must be so fresh that it is alive and moving4 ,this food consists of every creeping1 crawling or flying thing that is small enough to be swallowed4 ,while it will not touch a piece of fresh meat lying on the ground1 woe to moving snail1 insect or worm that comes within its reach6 ,it is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad helps men so greatly4 ,the insects and worms eat the grain1 the fruits and the flowers4 ,they bite and sting the animals and give men no end of trouble4 ,the toad is not partial1 but takes any live thing that gets near it1 whether it is caterpillar1 fly1 spider1 centipede or thousand-legged worm2 and it does not stop even there1 but will gobble up a hornet or a yellow jacket without the least hesitation4 ,it is astonishing to see the certainty with which a toad can catch these flying or crawling things4 ,the way the toad does this may be observed by watching one out of doors some summer evening or after a shower2 but it is more satisfactory to have a nearer view4 ,put a large toad into a box1 or better1 into a glass dish with some moist sand on the bottom4 ,in a little while1 if one is gentle1 the toad will become tame1 and then if flies and other insects are caught with a sweep net and put into the dish and the top covered with mosquito netting one can watch the process of capture4 ,it is very quickly accomplished1 and one must look sharply4 ,as shown in the little picture 7,fig4 #aaf71 the toad's tongue is fastened at the front part of its mouth1 not back in the throat as with men1 dogs1 cats and most animals4 ,it is so nicely arranged that it can be extended for quite a distance4 ,on it is a sticky secretion1 and when1 quick as a flash1 the tongue is thrown out or extended1 if it touches the insect1 the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper1 and is taken into the mouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,toad making a meal of an angle worm4 ,think how many insects and worms a toad could destroy in a single summer4 ,practically every insect and worm destroyed adds to the produce of the garden and the farm1 or takes away one cause of discomfort to men and animals4 ,one observer reports that a single toad disposed of twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes1 and another ate thirty-five celery worms within three hours4 ,he estimates that a good-sized toad will destroy nearly #aj1jjj insects and worms in a single summer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,two newts feasting on tadpoles4 ,,enemies--,,the ,,shadow ,,side ,,of ,,life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,in danger from a crow4 ,so far nothing has been said about the troubles and dangers of the toad's life4 ,fig4 #aaa is meant to show the main phases in the life-history4 ,if one looks at it perhaps he may wonder what becomes of all the tadpoles that first hatch1 as only two toads are shown at the top4 ,is not this something like the other life-histories8 ,how many little robins or chickens die and never become full-grown birds6 ,well1 the dangers to the toad begin at once4 ,suppose the eggs are laid in a pond that dries up before the little toads can get ready to live on the land2 in that case they all die4 ,the mother toads sometimes do make the mistake of laying the eggs in ponds that dry up in a little while4 ,you will not let the artificial pond at the school-house dry up1 will you8 ,then sometimes there is an especially dry summer1 and only those that transform very early from tadpoles to toads are saved4 ,in the little picture 7,fig4 #aah7 is shown another source of danger and cause for the diminution in numbers4 ,the newts and salamanders find young tadpoles very good eating and they make way with hundreds of them4 ,some die from what are called natural causes1 that is1 diseases1 or possibly they eat something that does not agree with them4 ,so that while there were multitudes of eggs 7#a1jjj or more from each toad71 and of just hatched tadpoles1 the number has become sadly lessened by the time the brood is ready to leave the water4 ,then when they set foot on land1 their dangers are not passed4 ,they may be parched by summer's heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle4 ,birds and snakes like them for food4 ,figs4 #aai and #abj show some of these dangers4 ,is it a wonder1 then1 that of all the multitudes of tadpoles so few grow up to be large toads8 ,we have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check1 it is not believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful story of a toad's life will join the crows1 the snakes and the salamanders in worrying or destroying their good friends4 ,,moulting ,,and ,,hibernation4 ,there are two very interesting things that happen in the life of many of the lower animals2 they happen to the toad also4 ,these are moulting1 or change of skin1 and hibernation1 or winter sleep4 ,every boy and girl ought to know about these1 and then1 if on the lookout1 some or all of the things will be seen4 ,moulting4--,probably everybody who lives in the country has seen a snake's skin without any snake in it4 ,it is often very perfect4 ,when the outside skin or cuticle of a snake or a toad gets old and dry or too tight for it1 a new covering grows underneath1 and the old one is shed4 ,this is a very interesting performance1 but the toad usually sheds it in a retired place1 so the process is not often seen4 ,those who have seen it say that a long crack or tear appears along the back and in front4 ,the toad keeps moving and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle4 ,this peels the cuticle off the sides4 ,now1 to get it off the legs and feet1 the toad puts its leg under its arm1 or front leg1 and in that way pulls off the old skin as if it were a stocking4 ,but when the front legs are to be stripped the mouth is used as is sometimes done by people in pulling off their gloves4 ,do you think it uses its teeth for this purpose8 ,you might look in a toad's mouth sometime1 and then you would know4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,snakes frequently swallow toads hind legs foremost1 as shown in the picture4 ,this is especially true of the garter snake1 which is a great enemy of the toad4 ,it is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swallows it4 ,this is true in some cases2 at least it is worth while keeping watch for4 ,it is certain that the toad sometimes swallows the cast skin2 it is also certain that in some cases the cast skin is not swallowed4 ,after a toad has shed his old skin1 he looks a great deal brighter and cleaner than before1 as if he had just got a new suit of clothes4 ,if you see one with a particularly bright skin1 you will now know what it means4 ,hibernation4--,the toad is a cold-blooded animal4 ,this means that the temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the surrounding air4 ,men1 horses1 cows1 dogs1 are said to be warm-blooded1 for their blood is warm and of about the some temperature whether the surrounding air is cold or hot4 ,when the air is too cool1 the toad becomes stupid and inactive4 ,in ,september or ,october a few toads may be seen on warm days or evenings1 but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller2 and finally1 as the cold ,november weather comes on1 none are seen4 ,where are they8 ,the toad seems to know that winter is coming1 that the insects and worms will disappear1 so that no food can be found4 ,it must go into a kind of death-like sleep1 in which it hardly moves or breathes4 ,this winter sleep or hibernation must be passed in some safe and protected place4 ,if the toad were to freeze and thaw with every change in the weather it would not wake up in the spring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,toad in the winter sleep4 7,natural size74 ,the wonderful foresight which instinct gives it1 makes the toad select some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it can bury itself4 ,the earth chosen is moist1 but not wet4 ,if it were dry the toad would dry up before spring4 ,it is not uncommon for farmers and gardeners to plough them up late in the fall or early in the spring4 ,also in digging cellars at about these times they are found occasionally4 ,in burying itself the toad digs with its hind legs and body1 and pushes itself backward into the hole with the front legs4 ,the earth caves in as the animal backs into the ground1 so that no sign is left on the outside4 ,once in far enough to escape the freezing and thawing of winter1 the toad moves around till there is a little chamber slightly larger than its body2 then it draws its legs up close1 shuts its eyes1 puts its head down between or on its hands1 and goes to sleep and sleeps for five months or more4 ,when the warm days of spring come it wakes up1 crawls out of bed and begins to take interest in life again4 ,it looks around for insects and worms1 and acts as if it had had only a comfortable nap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,the same toad awake in the spring4 7,natural size74 ,the little toad that you saw hatch from an egg into a tadpole and then turn to a toad1 would hibernate for two or three winters1 and by that time it would be quite a large toad4 ,after it had grown up and had awakened from its winter sleep some spring1 it would have a strong impulse to get back to the pond where it began life as an egg years before4 ,once there it would lay a great number of eggs1 perhaps as many as a thousand or two1 for a new generation of toads4 ,and this would complete its life cycle4 ,while the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the water and lays eggs for a new generation1 it may live many years afterward and lay eggs many times1 perhaps every year4 ,many insects1 some fish and other animals1 die after laying their eggs4 ,for such animals the completion of the life cycle ends the life-history also4 ,but unless the toad meets with some accident it goes back to its land home after laying the eggs1 and may live in the same garden or dooryard for many years1 as many as eight years1 and perhaps longer4 7,see ,bulletin ,no4 #df1 ,hatch ,experiment ,station of the ,massachusetts ,agricultural ,college1 ,amherst1 ,mass47 ,,erroneous ,,notions ,,about ,,the ,,toad4 ,if one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other stories common everywhere1 he will hear many wonderful things about the toad1 but most of the things are wholly untrue4 ,one of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison4 ,another is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues1 and still another1 that hidden away in the heads of some of the oldest ones are the priceless toad-stones1 jewels of inestimable value4 ,giving warts4--,probably every boy and girl living in the country has heard that if one takes a toad in his hands1 or if a toad touches him anywhere he will catch the warts4 ,this is not so at all1 as has been proved over and over again4 ,if a toad is handled gently and petted a little it soon learns not to be afraid1 and seems to enjoy the kindness and attention4 ,if a toad is hurt or roughly handled a whitish1 acrid substance is poured out of the largest warts4 ,this might smart a little if it got into the mouth1 as dogs find out when they try biting a toad4 ,it cannot be very bad1 however1 or the hawks1 owls1 crows and snakes that eat the toad would give up the practice4 ,the toad is really one of the most harmless creatures in the world1 and has never been known to hurt a man or a child4 ,a boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after handling a toad2 so might he after handling a jack-knife or looking at a steam engine2 but the toad does not give the warts any more than the knife or the engine4 ,cows giving bloody milk4--,it is a common belief in the country that if one kills a toad his cows will give bloody milk4 ,cows will give bloody milk if the udder is injured in any way1 whether a toad is killed or not4 ,there is no connection whatever between the bloody milk and a killed toad4 ,living without air and food4--,occasionally one reads or hears a story about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock4 ,when the rock is broken open it is said that the toad wakes up and hops around as if it had been asleep only half an hour4 ,just think for a moment what it would mean to find a live toad within a cavity in a solid rock4 ,it must have been there for thousands1 if not for millions of years1 without food or air4 ,the toad does not like a long fast1 but can stand it for a year or so without food if it is in a moist place and supplied with air4 ,it regularly sleeps four or five months every winter1 but never in a place devoid of air4 ,if the air were cut off the toad would soon die4 ,some careful experiments were made by ,french scientific men1 and the stories told about toads living indefinitely without air or food were utterly disproved4 ,it is not difficult to see that one working in a quarry might honestly think that he had found a toad in a rock4 ,toads are not very uncommon in quarries4 ,if a stone were broken open and a cavity found in it1 and then a toad were seen hopping away1 one might jump at the conclusion that the toad came out of the cavity in the rock4 ,is not this something like the belief that the little toads rain down from the clouds because they are most commonly seen after a shower8 ,,surveys ,,and ,,maps4 ,in considering the suggestions made in this leaflet1 we thought of the hundreds of schools throughout the state and wondered whether there might not be some difficulty in finding the ponds where the toads lay their eggs1 and in finding some of the things described in the other leaflets4 ,the teachers and students in ,cornell ,university found this difficulty in #ahfh when the ,university opened4 ,the great ,louis ,agassiz came to the ,university at the beginning to give a course of lectures on natural history4 ,the inspiration of his presence and advice1 and of those lectures1 lasts to this day4 ,agassiz1 and the ,university teachers1 who had many of them been his pupils1 saw at once that the region around ,ithaca must be full of interesting things2 but they did not know exactly where to find them4 ,agassiz himself made some explorations1 and the professors and students took hold of the work with the greatest enthusiasm4 ,they explored the beautiful lake1 the streams1 hills1 valleys1 gorges1 ponds and marshes4 ,careful notes were kept of the exact locality where every interesting thing was found and simple maps were made to aid in finding the places again4 ,finally1 after several years1 knowledge enough was gained to construct an accurate map for the use of all4 ,a part of this map1 showing only the most important features1 is put into this leaflet to serve as a guide 7,fig4 #abc74 ,it will be seen that the ,university is made the starting point4 ,with a few hints it is believed that every school can make a good beginning this year on a natural history survey of the region near its school-house1 and in the preparation of a map to go with the survey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,simple map showing the position of ,cornell ,university1 the city of ,ithaca1 ,cayuga ,lake1 and the roads and streams and ponds near the ,university4 ,from ,w4 ,r4 ,dudley's map in ,the ,cayuga ,flora4 ,scale1 #a centimeter to the kilometer4 ,u4 ,cornell ,university4 ,u4 ,l4 ,university ,lake in ,fall ,creek4 ,r4 ,reservoir supplied from ,university ,lake1 and supplying the campus4 ,e4 ,p4 ,east ,pond where the eggs of the toad1 tree toad1 frogs and salamanders are found4 ,f4 ,p4 ,forest ,home ,pond4 ,a very favorable place for eggs1 tadpoles1 etc4 ,inlet4 ,the inlet of the lake4 ,the lampreys are abundant near ,fleming's meadow4 ,preparation of the map4--,it is well to have the map of good size4 ,a half sheet of bristol board will answer1 but a whole sheet is better4 ,about the first thing to decide is the scale to which the map is to be drawn4 ,it is better to have the scale large4 ,twelve inches to the mile would be convenient4 ,divide the map into squares1 making the lines quite heavy4 ,if so large a scale were used it would be advantageous for locating places to have the large squares divided into square inches1 but much lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion with the lines representing the miles4 ,locating objects on the map4--,the corner of the school-house containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point4 ,if there is no corner stone1 select the most convenient corner4 ,put the school-house on the map anywhere you wish2 probably the center of the map would be the best place4 ,in the sample map the ,university is not in the center1 as it was desired to show more of the country to the south and west than to the north and east4 ,the map should of course be made like other maps1 so it will be necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass before locating anything on it4 ,perhaps the school-house has been placed facing exactly north and south or east and west1 that is1 arranged with the cardinal points of the compass2 if so1 it will be the best guide4 ,if you are not sure1 determine with a compass4 ,with it the points can be determined very accurately4 ,having determined the points of compass1 commence to locate objects in the landscape on the map as follows3 ,get their direction from the starting point at the corner of the school-house1 then measure the distance accurately by running a bicycle on which is a cyclometer1 straight between the starting point and the object4 ,the cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be read off easily4 ,if no bicycle with a cyclometer is available1 one can use a long measuring stick1 a tape measure or even a measured string2 but the bicycle and cyclometer are more convenient and accurate1 especially when the distances are considerable4 ,suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due west4 ,it should be located two inches west of the corner taken as the starting point4 ,if the direction were south-west1 then the two inches would be measured on the map in that direction and located accordingly4 ,proceed in this way for locating any pond or marsh1 forest or glen4 ,now1 when the places are located on the map1 you can see how easy it would be for any one to find the places themselves4 ,while the exact position should be determined if possible and located1 one does not often take a bee-line in visiting them1 but goes in roads1 often a long distance around4 ,in locating the objects on the map1 every effort should be made to get them accurately placed1 and this can be done most easily by knowing the distances in a straight line4 ,it is hoped that every school in the state will begin this year making a natural history survey and a map of the region around its school-house4 ,the map will show but few locations1 perhaps1 but it can be added to from year to year1 just as the ,university map has been added to2 and finally each school will have a map and notes showing exactly where the toads lay their eggs1 where fish and birds are2 and where the newts and salamanders1 the different trees and flowers1 rocks and fossils may be found4 ,if the dates are kept accurately for the different years1 one can also see how much variation there is4 ,indeed1 such nature-study will give a sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending the larger questions in natural science1 and it will make an almost perfect preparation for taking part in or for appreciating the great surveys of a state or a country4 ,it is believed that if accurate information were collected and careful maps made by the different schools1 the ,empire ,state could soon have a natural history survey and map better than any now in existence in any state or country4 ,to the ,teacher3 ,it is the firm belief of those who advocate nature-study that it is not only valuable in itself1 but that it will help to give enjoyment in other studies and meaning to them4 ,every pupil who follows out the work of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the region around the school-house4 ,this will help in the appreciation of map work generally4 ,so many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are concerning some phase of nature1 that nature-study must increase the appreciation of the literature2 and the noble thoughts in the literature will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the finer things in nature4 ,it is suggested that as many of the following selections as possible be read in connection with the leaflet3 ,the ,fiftieth ,birthday of ,agassiz1 by ,longfellow4 ,the ,prayer of ,agassiz1 by ,whittier4 ,professor ,wilder1 who was present1 assures the author that this describes an actual occurrence4 ,this ,silent ,prayer is also mentioned in an inspiring paragraph by ,henry ,ward ,beecher in the ,christian ,union1 #ahgc4 ,the first part of ,bryant's ,thanatopsis1 ,coleridge's ,ancient ,mariner1 ,burns' ,on ,scaring ,some ,water ,fowl in ,loch-,turit1 and ,to a ,mouse4 ,cowpers ,the ,task1 a selection from book vi41 beginning with line #efj4 ,this gives a very just view of the rights of the lower animals4 ,in connection with the disappearance of the tail1 read ,lowell's ,festina ,lente1 in the ,biglow ,papers4 ,for older pupils1 ,shakespeare's picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be read4 ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ,act ,,ii1 ,scene ,,ii1 near the end1 commencing1 ,all the world's a stage1 etc4 ,kipling's ,jungle ,books1 and the works of ,ernest ,thompson-,seton and ,william ,j4 ,long will help one to see how the world might look from the standpoint of the animals4 ,one of the most satisfactory books to use in connection with nature-study is ,animal ,life1 by ,president ,david ,starr ,jordan and ,professor ,kellogg4 ,this gives the facts that every teacher ought to know in connection with the processes of reproduction4 ,attention is also called to ,a4 ,h4 ,kirkland's ,bulletin ,no4 #df of the ,hatch ,experiment ,station of the ,massachusetts ,agricultural ,college1 and to the ,nature-,study ,leaflet on the ,toad1 by ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,hodge1 of ,clark ,university1 ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,from egg back to toad4 ,,leaflet ,,xvii4 ,,life ,,in ,a ,,terrarium4#bb ,,by ,,alice ,i4 ,,kent4 ,and ,nature1 the old nurse1 took ,the child upon her knee1 ,saying3 ,here is a story-book ,thy ,father has written for thee4 --,longfellow to ,agassiz4 #bb ,nature-,study ,quarterly ,no4 #h3 ,leaflet #ba1 ,january1 #aija4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,life in the terrarium4 ,fortunate are the children and the teachers who are so placed that ,nature's story book is close at hand4 ,but city children and their teachers need not despair1 for ,nature1 the old nurse1 is loving and bountiful and will rewrite1 in living characters1 many a page from the wondrous book1 for those who care to read4 ,one such a page may be a terrarium--a confined plot of earth on which things may live and grow 7from terra1 earth1 as aquarium is from aqua1 water74 ,within its narrow confines1 the whole drama of the beautiful life of many a tiny creature may be rewritten4 ,here is a fragment of the drama1 as written in one terrarium4 ,this terrarium was made from an old berry crate 7,figs4 #abe1 #abf74 ,when the children saw it first1 last fall1 this is what it looked like3 a large rectangular box1 grass-green in color1 thirty-nine inches long1 eighteen inches wide1 and fifteen inches high4 ,the long sides were of glass1 the short sides and top of green wire netting4 ,the top could be removed like the lid of a box4 ,it stood upon a pedestal-table provided with castors4 ,in the bottom of the terrarium were three inches of rich soil1 covered with the delicate green of sprouting grass-seed4 ,in one corner was a mossy nook1 and in another a mass of thistles and clover4 ,at one end1 a small cabbage was planted and at the other lay several sprays of glossy pin-oak4 ,suspended from the top1 was a large spray of purple thistles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,butterfly-time in the terrarium world4 ,among the thistles in the corner1 ten pendants of vivid green1 bright with golden points1 could be seen4 ,they were the chrysalids of the monarch1 or milkweed1 butterfly4 ,among the cabbage leaves1 were many of the pale green eggs and several of the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly4 ,among the sprays of oak in the corner1 several oak caterpillars were feeding4 ,before many days had passed1 the drama of life began4 ,one by one1 the chrysalids of the milkweed butterfly paled in color and1 becoming transparent1 showed through their whitened walls the orange-colored wings of the developing butterflies within4 ,they then burst1 freeing their gorgeous tenants4 ,this happened until there were seven butterflies in the terrarium4 ,as two of these proved discontented with their new home1 they were set free4 ,the five others spent the little round of their arial life seemingly happy and satisfied4 ,they lived from three to six weeks and showed some individuality in their tastes and habits4 ,sometimes they chose the mossy corner for their resting place4 ,on other occasions they preferred the netting at the ends and top of the terrarium4 ,in fact1 the netting at the ends of the terrarium was a source of pleasure to these butterflies1 as it served as a secure resting place and an agreeable and convenient pathway to the top4 ,one of them spent nearly all its life on the thistles suspended from the top4 ,these thistles were kept fresh a long time by placing their stems in a large sponge which was frequently drenched with water4 ,the butterflies showed some individuality in their eating also4 ,thistle1 clover1 golden-rod1 nasturtiums1 and honey-suckle were offered to them4 ,the thistle and the golden-rod were most frequently visited1 and next to these the nasturtiums were most favored4 ,another fact noted was that most of the butterflies continued to visit the flower first chosen4 ,when1 however1 a thick syrup of sugar and water was offered to them1 the flowers were much neglected1 only one butterfly persisting in flower-visiting4 ,golden-rod was its choice4 ,if the syrup was fresh-made every morning and was placed in a convenient spot1 the butterflies never failed to sip it4 ,they generally slept clinging to the wire-netting at the ends or top of the terrarium4 ,in the meantime1 the cabbage began to attract the watchful eyes of the wondering children4 ,as it had industriously sent out many tiny roots1 it proved a safe and satisfactory home for its hidden occupants4 ,soon1 one by one1 the caterpillars began to appear at the edges of the uppermost leaves4 ,they began small tours in the vicinage of the cabbage1 and1 finally1 as with the butterflies1 the end wire nettings proved to be an easy pathway to the top of the terrarium4 ,here several found good resting places1 and slowly changed to chrysalids4 ,one day a cabbage butterfly obligingly flew in at the open window4 ,it was caught and placed in the terrarium4 ,it1 too1 proved to be very fond of sugar syrup4 ,one morning the syrup was accidentally spilled on the wooden ridge at the bottom of the terrarium outside of the netting4 ,the butterfly was so hungry that it could not wait for food more conveniently placed2 so it stretched its tongue out1 full length1 through the netting1 and in that way obtained it4 ,the children were surprised to find its tongue somewhat longer than its body4 ,at this time1 the cabbage was removed so that the eggs and the remaining young caterpillars could be observed4 ,the protecting coloring of the eggs and caterpillars was first noticed4 ,one little boy at first announced that the caterpillars were green because they were not ripe1 a good example surely of the danger of reasoning from analogy6 ,very soon the inhabitants of this terrarium world began to increase4 ,a father and two mother grasshoppers and a young one1 with his armor on1 came to live there2 also a woolly bear1 several other species of caterpillars1 several species of beetles1 a big horse-fly1 some lady-bugs1 and a cicada4 ,about this time too1 some very unwelcome immigrants appeared4 ,these were the ichneumon flies4 ,so numerous did they become in a very short time1 that they threatened desolation to this prosperous community4 ,nature's methods were then scrutinized and the services of two tree-toads were sought4 ,their response was immediate and cordial4 ,soon not an ichneumon fly could be found4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,hand over hand4 ,the grasshoppers were partial to celery1 over-ripe bananas1 and moisture4 ,three days after they became inhabitants of this miniature world1 the mother grasshopper dug a hole in the ground and laid eggs4 ,the observing children then had before them living illustrations of the three stages of grasshopper life4 ,the tree-toads were both amusing and accommodating4 ,they1 too1 liked the wire netting at the ends of the terrarium1 and delighted the children by climbing up foot over foot1 or hand over hand1 like odd four-handed sailor boys 7,fig4 #abg47 ,this brought into plain view the tiny suckers on their feet4 ,after the ichneumon flies had disappeared1 a new difficulty arose4 ,the ground became mouldy1 and the grass died down4 ,the terrarium was then placed by an open window and left there several hours for a number of days until it was thoroughly dried out4 ,then bird-seed was planted and the ground was watered thereafter with a small plant syringe4 ,this gave sufficient1 but not excessive moisture1 and it was one of the pleasures of the children to imitate a rainy day in the terrarium world4 ,and it was a pleasing experience1 for there were splashes of water on the glass sides and many shining drops on the netting and verdure1 which soon grew several inches tall2 there was the same delightful odor of rich fresh earth that one enjoys during summer rains1 and the sunshine touched with brilliancy the gay fall flowers and the gorgeous outspread wings of the butterflies4 ,at this time the terrarium had an annex in the shape of a wooden box1 a foot square1 with a gauze top4 ,here lived two mother spiders with their egg-balls carefully hung on the cobweb beams of their homes4 ,one day a beautiful yellow silk egg-ball was found out of doors1 and when it was carefully opened to show the eggs with which it was filled1 the gratifying discovery was made that these eggs were hatching4 ,they were very tiny and very numerous4 ,they were inclosed in a silken pouch and were the exact color of its lining4 ,when resting the little spiders seemed to hold their legs under the body1 and they were so small and so like the egg in general appearance that if they had not run about when disturbed they would never have been discovered4 ,as soon as the egg ball was opened they exploited their one talent1 for they ran out on the fingers of the person who held the ball and then suspended themselves by almost invisible threads from all parts of the fingers4 ,when they were to be returned to the egg-ball they were gently pushed up4 ,they then obligingly ran back into their silken home1 which was carefully closed as before4 ,these little ones were kept a week or ten days and were then allowed to escape and establish homes for themselves4 ,the life history of the spider was thus seen1 although1 unfortunately1 our adult spiders did not belong to the same species as the young ones4 ,to return to the terrarium3 ,it was now early in ,november and each day found one or more of the terrarium inhabitants missing4 ,one of the caterpillars disappeared and a cocoon made of its own hair was found in its place2 several chrysalids were found on the top of the terrarium2 the butterflies and the grasshoppers1 one by one1 went into that sleep from which there is no awakening2 and a number of the other creatures disappeared4 ,the children finally concluded that the latter had gone to sleep in the ground4 ,the grasshoppers and the tree-toads were the last to take their rest1 but just before they answered ,mother ,nature's call to slumber1 a large garden toad came to bear them company4 ,he was a very interesting toad for he bore signs of having lived through what must have been almost a tragedy4 ,he had lost the lower half of one front leg and had the scar of a long gash on his throat4 ,these disfigurements seemed not to cause him the least unhappiness1 for he had a very bright wide-awake expression and was as plump and complacent as a toad should be4 ,the loss of his leg caused him a little inconvenience1 for he sometimes lost his balance when hopping and fell on his back4 ,he occasionally found it difficult to right himself at once1 but a few vigorous kicks and jumps generally placed him right side up4 ,three days after he became a member of the terrarium community1 he1 too1 heard ,mother ,nature's call to bed1 and partially buried himself4 ,each day he covered himself more completely1 until finally only the top of his head and two sleepy eyes were to be seen4 ,one day1 about a week afterward1 he disappeared entirely4 ,he proved to be a very restless sleeper1 and frequently showed himself during the sunniest parts of nearly every day all winter1 occasionally coming entirely out of his earthy covering4 ,he served as a sort of barometer all winter1 appearing in bright and disappearing in gloomy weather4 ,he never1 however1 left the spot he had chosen for his bed4 ,winter is the night of the year1 and the little terrarium world indoors exemplifies it as truly as the great fields of ,nature's domain out of doors4 ,the soil is dry and hard in this miniature world and the verdure has dried down to palest green and brown4 ,in its earthy bed1 the caterpillars1 beetles1 and other creatures lie cosily asleep1 and with the masses of tiny eggs1 await the vivifying touch of spring4 ,,leaflet ,,xviii4 ,,directions ,,for ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,insects4#bc ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #bc ,teachers' ,leaflet ,no4 #g1 ,june1 #ahig4 ,illustration ,it is the purpose of this leaflet to give a few suggestions to aid those pupils of the secondary schools who desire to make collections of insects4 ,there are several good reasons why children should be encouraged to make collections of flowers1 birds and insects2 and the least of these reasons is the possession of such a collection on the part of the child4 ,making a collection of natural history specimens should only be the means to an end1 i4 e41 training the child to observe4 ,when eyes are opened to the wonders of nature1 every roadside1 brook and woodland is fraught with interest which is undreamed of by those who are nature-blind4 ,it is sad to think of the hosts of people who go through this beautiful world having eyes but seeing not1 having ears but hearing not4 ,the eyes must be unsealed in youth1 when the mind is alert and receptive if the man or woman is to find in later life that ,nature is not only a resource and recreation but an ever faithful friend holding out comforting arms to those who are weary in soul and body4 ,not only does the study of nature open the child's eyes1 but it also teaches him the value of accuracy4 ,the young naturalist soon understands that an observation is worth nothing unless it is truthful4 ,on the other hand1 nature-study cultivates the imagination4 ,the wonders in the lives of insects1 plants1 and birds are so illimitable that almost anything seems possible4 ,few indeed are the studies wherein the fire kindled by imaginative seeming is guarded and checked by the facts of actual seeing4 ,there are a few points in favor of beginning with insects when the child first attempts making a collection of natural objects4 ,insects are to be found everywhere and are easily caught2 it requires no technical skill to preserve them1 as is the case with birds2 they retain their natural forms and colors better than do flowers4 ,to secure the desired results for the pupil when he is making his collection of insects1 the teacher should take care that he makes his observations incidentally1 thus subserving the true methods of nature-study1 which is to teach the child while he remains unconscious of the fact that he is being taught4 ,the teacher1 therefore1 should ask the young collector1 ,where did you catch this butterfly8 ,where did you find this beetle8 ,upon what plant or flower did you find this bug8 ,did you hear this cricket chirp8 ,if so1 how did he do it8 etc41 etc42 thus making him tell orally or in a written language lesson the things he has seen while collecting4 ,the differences in the appearance and structure of the insects caught should also be brought out by questions4 ,these questions may be adapted to pupils of any age1 and the success of this part of the work must ever depend upon the interest and genius of the teacher4 ,the objection is sometimes raised that collecting and killing insects and birds incite the child to cruelty and wanton destruction of life4 ,this seems good a priori reasoning1 but experience does not confirm it4 ,we have always found that those who collect and take an interest in insect life are much more careful about killing or hurting insects than are other people2 the entomologist of all men takes the greatest pains to avoid stepping upon the caterpillar or cricket in his path2 also the young ornithologists who have come under our observation show the greatest devotion to the rights and interests of birds4 ,our experience is that as soon as the child begins to take an interest in insects he begins to see matters from their point of view1 and this insures a proper regard for their right to life4 ,it will be well1 however1 for the teacher to impress upon the pupil that he should kill no insect that is not desired for his collection4 ,the articles necessary for collecting insects are few and inexpensive4 ,one net and one killing bottle may do service for a grade or an entire country school1 thus reducing the expense to a minimum4 ,,insect ,,net4 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,materials required4 #a4 ,a handle about three feet long2 an old broom handle will do4 #b4 ,a piece of tin three inches wide1 long enough to reach around the handle4 #c4 ,a piece of ,no4 #c galvanized wire #c feet #f inches long4 #d4 ,one-sixth of a yard of heavy sheeting4 #e4 ,three-quarters of a yard of cheese cloth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,insect net4 ,bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back about #c inches of each end of the wire so they may be inserted into a hole drilled into the end of the handle4 ,the piece of tin should be fastened around the end of the handle where the wire is inserted to hold it securely in place4 ,if practicable1 a tinsmith should be called upon to help in bending the wire and fastening it to the handle4 ,after this is done1 take the sheeting and fold it over the wire double1 using only enough to fit around the wire without gathering2 the object of this heavy cloth is to prevent the net from wearing out quickly4 ,make the cheese cloth into a bag with rounded bottom and just wide enough to fit the facing of sheeting1 to which it should be sewed securely1 and the net is finished4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,net4 ,to be successful1 the net must be swung swiftly4 ,insects have many eyes and are very wide awake and have no desire to be caught2 therefore1 the collector must be very active if he gets anything4 ,one method of using the net is called sweeping2 to do this take the handle about a foot and a half above the ring and pass the net quickly back and forth striking it against the grass in front of you as you walk through open fields2 the net must be turned at each stroke and kept in rapid motion or the insects will escape4 ,after a time the net should be examined and the insects put in the killing bottle4 ,another method of using the net is called beating4 ,this method is used in collecting insects from bushes1 and consists of lifting the net1 mouth upward1 and striking it sharply against the branches or leaves1 thus jarring the insects into it4 ,to use the net in water1 sweep the water plants as quickly as possible4 ,in running streams1 overturn stones1 holding the net just below them with the mouth up stream4 ,an old dipper made into a sieve by perforating the bottom with an awl is a good utensil for collecting water insects4 ,,the ,,killing ,,bottle4 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,it is desirable to kill the insects in a humane way1 so that they will not suffer by the process2 it is also desirable that they should not revive after they are pinned1 both for their own sakes as well as for the sake of the feelings of the collector4 ,the best way to secure painless and sure death for the insects is by the means of a cyanide bottle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,killing bottle4 ,materials needed for a killing bottle4 #a4 ,a bottle with a wide mouth2 a morphine bottle or a small olive or pickle bottle will do4 ,even a glass fruit-can holding a pint will answer very well1 although taking off and putting on the cover consumes more time than is desirable4 #b4 ,a cork that will fit the bottle tightly and is long enough to handle easily4 #c4 ,two cents' worth of cyanide of potassium4 #d4 ,one cent's worth of plaster of ,paris4 ,these latter materials may be procured from any drug store4 ,place the lump of cyanide of potassium in the bottle and pour in enough water to cover it4 ,add immediately enough plaster of ,paris to soak up all the water2 leave the bottle open in a shady place for an hour and then wipe the dry plaster of ,paris from its sides1 put in the cork1 and it is ready for use4 ,the plaster of ,paris forms a porous cement1 which1 while it holds the cyanide fast in the bottom1 also allows the fumes of the poison to escape and fill the bottle4 ,it should be labelled poison1 for cyanide of potassium is very poisonous4 ,if kept corked when not in use1 a killing bottle made like this will last a whole season4 ,the first rule in using the killing bottle is this3 do not kill any more insects than you need for your collection4 ,the second rule is3 do not breathe the fumes of the bottle1 for they smell badly and are not good for you4 ,when you uncork the bottle to put an insect in it1 hold it away from your face and cork it up again as quickly as possible4 ,some insects may be caught from flowers1 etc41 directly into the bottle by holding it uncorked beneath them for a moment2 the fumes of the poison soon overcome them and they drop into the bottle4 ,in taking insects from the net1 hold the bottle in the right hand and the cork in the left2 insert the bottle into the net and place the mouth of it over an insect crawling on the inside of the net1 then put the cork on the outside of the net into the mouth of the bottle1 net and all1 for a moment until the insect falls into the bottom of the bottle2 then remove the cork and take the rest of the imprisoned insects in the same way4 ,insects should be left in the bottle at least an hour1 and may be left in there over night without injury to the specimens4 ,,insect ,,pins4 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,insect pins1 #a1 #c1 #e1 are ,german insect pins4 #b is a steel mourning pin4 ,after the insects are caught they should be pinned so that they may be arranged in the collection in an orderly manner4 ,common pins are not good for pinning insects2 they are too thick and they corrode very soon1 covering the specimens with verdigris4 ,regular insect pins are desirable as they are very slender and do not corrode so quickly4 ,these may be obtained of any dealer in entomological supplies at a cost of fifteen cents per hundred4 ,ask for the ,german insect pins ,nos4 #a1 #c and #e4 ,if these pins are too expensive you can use the black steel mourning pins4 ,these come in shallow boxes one by two inches square and have round glass heads and the boxes are labelled ,germany2 these may be procured from any dry goods store4 ,however1 insects pinned with any beside regular insect pins cannot be sold or exchanged4 ,all insects except beetles should be pinned through that part of the body just back of the head1 as shown in ,figs4 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada4 ,beetles should be pinned through the right wing-cover1 as shown in ,fig4 #ach4 ,about one-fourth of the pin should project above the back of the insect4 ,very small insects may be gummed to a narrow strip of card board and the pin put through the card board4 ,,labelling ,,specimens4 ,specimens should be labelled with the date of capture and the locality4 ,thus the butterfly1 ,fig4 #ada1 would be labelled thus3 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 ,aug4 #ab1 #ahif4 ,the paper on which this label is written should be slipped upon the pin with which the butterfly is pinned and placed just below the insect4 ,labels should be as small as possible and be neatly cut4 ,,insect ,,boxes4 ,for the beginner nothing is more convenient than an empty cigar box1 which may be obtained at any store where cigars are sold4 7,fig4 #aca47 ,the bottom of the box should be covered with some soft1 firm material into which pins may be pushed without bending them4 ,there are many such materials4 ,sheet cork or pressed peat may be obtained of dealers in entomological supplies4 ,some ingenious boys use regular bottle corks1 cut into cross sections about #a_/d inch thick4 ,others take the pith of dried corn-stalks divided in half lengthwise4 ,the cheapest and most easily procurable of the purchasable materials is cork linoleum4 ,this is for sale in most carpet stores4 ,get the quality that is about #a_/d inch thick1 which costs about #a per yard2 put it into the box cork-side up4 ,any of these materials can be fastened to the bottom of the box with glue or with tacks4 ,in all cases they should be covered neatly with white paper1 for the insects appear better against a white background4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,a convenient box for the use of the young collector4 ,for permanent collections1 wooden boxes with glass tops are much safer2 and as the insects may be seen through the glass these boxes are more practical for school collections4 ,this kind of a box is shown in ,fig4 #acb4 ,its sides are #ah by #af inches and its height is three inches outside measure4 ,the upper edge of the sides of the bottom part of the box is made with a tongue which fits into a groove made in the lower edge of the sides of the cover4 ,this is done so that the top and bottom parts of the box shall fit very closely together in order that museum pests cannot get in and destroy the specimens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,insect box made of wood1 with glass top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,a cross-section of the side of insect box ,fig4 #acb1 showing method of construction and giving measurements4 ,in ,fig4 #acc is a cross section through one side of the box1 showing how it should be made and giving measurements4 ,in the drawing the glass is fitted into a groove in the inner side of the cover4 ,this glass might be puttied in like a window pane if it is found difficult to make the groove4 ,the corners of the box may be mitred and dove-tailed1 or mitred and nailed2 the latter is more easily done4 ,any carpenter or cabinet maker can make this box4 ,great care must be taken to use only thoroughly seasoned wood in its construction2 otherwise the bottom will be sure to warp and shrink and leave cracks through which the museum pests will enter4 ,the cost of such a box will vary from #j4ge to #a4 ,basswood should be used for its construction2 pine is not at all suitable on account of the resin in it4 ,screw eyes may be put into these boxes and they may be hung on the walls of the schoolroom like pictures4 ,,museum ,,pests4 ,these are small beetles which find their way through the narrowest crevice into the insect boxes and lay their eggs on the pinned insects4 ,the larv when they hatch work within the specimens at first but after a time destroy the bodies entirely4 ,the presence of these little rascals may be detected by dust on the bottom of the box just below the infested insect4 ,as soon as this dust is observed1 pour into one corner of the box a tablespoonful of carbon bisulfide1 or benzine1 and close the box quickly4 ,the teacher or parent should put the substances into the boxes1 as the first is a poison and both are very inflammable4 ,as a method of preventing the beetles from attacking the collection it is well to fasten a moth ball into one corner of the box4 ,these may be obtained at a drug store4 ,,spreading-,,board4 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,butterflies and moths look much better in a collection when their wings are extended at right angles to the length of the body4 ,to arrange them thus we have to use what is termed a spreading-board4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,a spreading-board4 ,materials needed for a medium sized spreading-board4 #a4 ,two strips of pine or other soft wood #ah inches long1 #a-a_/b inches wide and #a_/b inch thick4 #b4 ,one strip of wood #ah inches long1 #c-a_/d inches wide and #a_/b inch thick4 #c4 ,two cleats #c-a_/d inches wide1 #c_/d inch high and #a_/b inch thick2 and two cleats #a inch wide and as high and thick as the others4 #d4 ,a strip of cork or linoleum #ag inches long and a little less than an inch wide4 ,to construct the spreading-board1 take the two narrow strips of wood1 place them one-fourth inch apart and on the under side fasten them across the ends of the longer cleats4 ,then on the same side as the cleats tack the piece of cork or linoleum over the space between the strips of board1 and as the cleats are one-half inch wide the linoleum should cover all the space left4 ,then midway the boards fasten the two smaller cleats4 ,fig4 #ace shows a cross-section of the spreading-board just in front of these two middle cleats4 ,now it is ready for the bottom board which will fit exactly if directions are followed1 and this completes it4 ,the space between the two upper boards is wide enough to take in the body of the moth or butterfly4 ,the cork or linoleum below the space will hold firmly the pin on which the butterfly is impaled4 ,the cleats hold the top and bottom boards apart and so protect the points of the pins4 ,spreading-boards may be made much smaller or much larger to suit moths of different sizes2 the space between the top boards must always be large enough to admit the body of the insect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,a cross-section of spreading-board in front of the cleat d in ,fig4 #acd4 ,to use the spreading-board3 ,insert the pin with the butterfly on it into the linoleum just far enough so that the body of the insect will be in the space between the boards up to the wings1 ,fig4 #ace4 ,place the wings out flat on the board and fasten them there with narrow strips of paper pinned across them1 ,fig4 #acd1 a4 ,while held down by these strips of paper arrange them so that the hind margins of the front wings shall cover the front margins of the hind wings and shall be in a line at right angles to the body2 then pin larger pieces of paper over the rest of the wings1 ,fig4 #acd1 b4 ,sometimes isinglass is used instead of paper to hold the wings down1 ,fig4 #acd1 c4 ,the insects should be left on the spreading-board at least three days2 and when the board has insects on it1 it should be kept in a box where the museum pests and mice cannot get at it4 ,sometimes when the moths are not spread soon after being killed1 they become so stiff that the wings cannot be moved without breaking them4 ,in such cases the insects should be put on paper in a jar which has some wet sand in the bottom and which can be covered tightly4 ,the air in such a can is so moist that in two or three days the insect will become limber and may be spread with ease4 ,,where ,,to ,,collect ,,insects4 ,the border of a piece of woods where many shrubs and weeds are growing is an especially good place for collecting many kinds of insects4 ,any place where there is a great variety of plants and flowers will give a variety of insects4 ,banks of streams and underneath stones in the fields are good places for collecting4 ,,when ,,to ,,collect ,,insects4 ,the best time of the year is during the summer months4 ,the best time of day is in the forenoon after eight o'clock1 and in the twilight at evening4 ,at night many moths may be caught by making a paste of sugar and water 7unrefined sugar is best7 and painting it upon tree trunks with a brush after sunset4 ,the paste should cover a space two inches wide and several inches long4 ,after dark seek these places cautiously with a lantern and moths will be found sucking the paste2 these may be caught with the killing bottle if you move carefully so as not to frighten them2 they do not seem to mind the light of the lantern4 ,electric street-lights attract many insects which may be caught in the net4 ,a lamp set in an open window is also a very good lure on warm nights in the spring and summer4 ,,arranging ,,the ,,insects ,,in ,,boxes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 a1 ,cricket4 b1 ,grasshopper4 ,after collecting insects comes the desire to arrange them properly1 putting together in neat rows those that resemble each other4 ,to classify insects correctly requires much study4 ,the scope of this leaflet admits of only a few suggestions about the most common insects4 ,dragon ,flies4--,there are many kinds of these1 but they all have four wings1 finely netted and transparent1 the hind wings being as large or larger than the front wings4 ,these are perfectly harmless insects4 ,grasshoppers1 ,crickets and ,katydids4--,these are known to all1 ,fig4 #acf4 ,there are two families of grasshoppers3 those with long horns or antenn and those with short antenn4 ,katydids1 crickets1 cockroaches and walking-sticks are near relatives to the grasshoppers4 ,bugs4--,these insects have the front pair of wings thick and heavy at the base and thin and transparent at the tips1 ,fig4 #acg1 b4 ,the squash-bug1 the chinch-bug1 and the electric-light bug are examples of these4 ,some bugs have the front wings entirely thin and transparent and sloping like a steep roof over the back of the insect1 like the cicada1 ,fig4 #acg1 a2 and the ,brownie bug1 ,fig4 #acg1 c1 d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 a1 ,cicada4 b1 ,stink-bug4 c1 ,leaf-hopper4 d1 ,leaf-hopper--front view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,beetles--showing the pin through the right wing cover4 a1 ,snapping beetle4 b1 ,wood-boring beetle4 c1 ,water beetle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,flies--showing the knobs just below the wings4 ,note that flies have only two wings4 a1 ,crane fly4 b1 ,pomace fly--enlarged4 ,beetles4--,these have hard wing-covers which meet in a straight line down the back and have a pair of thin wings folded under them1 ,fig4 #ach4 ,the ,june bug or ,may beetle and the potato beetle are good examples of beetles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 a1 ,wasp4 b1 ,bee4 ,note these have four wings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,the ,red ,admiral butterfly4 ,note the knobbed antenn4 ,flies4--,these have only two wings1 usually transparent4 ,behind each of these wings a short thread with a knob on it extends out on each side of the body instead of hind wings1 ,fig4 #aci4 ,house-flies1 horse-flies and mosquitoes are examples of flies4 ,bees1 ,wasps and ,ants4--,bees1 wasps and the winged form of ants have four transparent wings1 ,fig4 #adj4 ,some flies resemble bees and wasps1 but if examined it will be found that they have only two wings instead of four4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,the ,cabbage butterfly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,the ,bass-wood leaf-roller moth4 ,butterflies and ,moths4--,butterflies and moths may be told apart by the following character3 ,the antenn or horns of the butterflies are always threadlike and knobbed at the tip1 ,figs4 #ada1 #adb1 while the antenn of moths are in various shapes1 but never bear knobs at the tips1 ,figs4 #adc1 #add1 #ade1 #adf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,the ,imperial moth4 ,a common night-flying moth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,an under-wing moth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,the ,luna moth4 ,a common night-flying species4 ,,dealers ,,in ,,entomological ,,supplies4 ,the following is a list of the dealers in entomological supplies that have advertisements in the current ,american entomological journals3 ,a4 ,smith ,sons1 #bfi ,pearl ,street1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,john ,akhurst1 #gh ,ashland ,place1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,m4 ,abbott ,frazar1 #ic ,sudbury ,street1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,entomological ,society of ,ontario1 ,victoria ,hall1 ,london1 ,ont4 ,queen ,co41 #ajaj ,chestnut ,street1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,company1 #eae-edc ,n4 ,st4 ,paul ,street1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,leaflet ,,xix4 ,,some ,,tent-,,makers4#bd ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #bd ,teachers' ,leaflet ,no4 #e1 ,june1 #ahig4 ,it is unfortunate that there is1 throughout the country1 a prevailing dislike for the small creatures called worms4 ,this dislike is1 in most instances1 the result of wrong training1 and is by no means a natural instinct4 ,as evidence of this1 witness the joy with which the small boy or even the small girl1 handles bait when preparing to go fishing2 although of all common worms surely the angle-worm is least attractive from any point of view4 ,a still more striking example is the hardihood with which young fishermen catch the dobson to use as a lure for bass--for the dobson is not only very ugly in appearance but is also vicious1 often pinching severely the careless fingers of its captors4 ,thus the dislike for insects being the result of the point of view1 it should be the first duty of the teacher to remove this repulsion4 ,in the lesson which follows there is no occasion for teacher or pupils to touch the insects unless they choose to do so2 but an attempt is made to arouse an interest in the habits and ways of insect life4 ,if we can succeed in arousing the child's interest in the actions of a caterpillar1 he will soon forget his dislike for the little brothers which live upon foliage and which experience miraculous changes of form during their short lives4 ,in selecting the ,apple-tree ,tent ,caterpillar for this lesson we have been guided by the following facts3 ,first1 it is to be found in early spring2 second1 its life-history from egg to cocoon is accomplished within the limits of the spring term of our schools2 third1 it is common everywhere2 fourth1 it is an important insect from an economic point of view1 and the children may be taught how to keep it out of the orchards1 thus making the lesson of practical use4 ,in this lesson the teacher is encouraged to use her own methods and originate new ones to make the work interesting4 ,the ,leaflet is meant for the exclusive use of the teacher and the text should not be shown to the pupils4 ,the pictures on page #bce are to be shown to the pupils at the teacher's discretion4 ,when answers are herein given to the questions asked1 they are meant to aid the teacher in drawing out the correct replies from the children4 ,,materials ,,needed4 #a4 ,a pocket lens or a tripod lens is desirable1 but not a necessity4 ,these lenses may be bought from or ordered through any jeweler or bookseller4 ,they cost from twenty-five cents to one dollar each4 ,it is worth while for any teacher to possess one of these magnifiers as a means of interesting her pupils in many things4 #b4 ,a bottle1 a broad-bottomed one being preferable so that it will not tip over easily4 ,this bottle is to be filled with water in which a small branch of the apple tree may be placed to keep it fresh4 ,a common ink bottle will do to begin with4 ,fig4 #adg4 #c4 ,a wooden or pasteboard box1 twelve or fourteen inches square1--a soap box or hat box will do4 ,in place of a cover1 nail or paste mosquito netting or cheese cloth over the top2 remove the bottom so that the box may be placed over the bottle and the branch of apple in it4 ,this is called a breeding-cage1 and its use is to keep the insects from straying about the schoolroom4 #d4 ,a twig bearing the egg-mass of the tent caterpillar4 ,these are easily found before the leaves appear on the apple tree or the wild cherry tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,the bottle with the twigs bearing the egg-masses4 ,the tent is being woven below4 ,,methods ,,of ,,using ,,the ,,leaflet4 ,the teacher should give the pupils a preliminary talk on tents4 ,speak of the tents used by ,indians1 by armies1 by circuses1 by campers1 and describe them each in turn4 ,the teacher should use all the facts at her disposal1 and all her ingenuity to get the children interested in this subject4 ,spend a little time for two or three days in discussing tents1 and get the pupils to tell orally or in essays all they know about tents4 ,when sufficient interest is thus aroused1 tell them this3 ,the reason we have talked about tents is that we are going to study some little folks who make tents and live in them4 ,their tents are not made of bark like the ,indian's or of canvas like the soldier's1 but are made of the finest silk1 which is spun and woven by the tenters themselves4 ,these silken tents are not pitched upon the ground and fastened down by ropes and pegs1 for these folk1 like the ,swiss ,family ,robinson1 live in trees4 ,many people live in one of these tree tents1 and they are all brothers and sisters4 ,now1 just where these tents are made1 and how they are made1 and what sort of little people make them are things which we shall find out if we watch carefully and patiently4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,the ,,eggs4 ,,fig4 #adi1 a4 ,the teacher1 having found the egg-mass1 should show it to the pupils and let them1 during play hours1 collect some for themselves4 ,say that they are eggs1 but explain no further4 ,get the children to examine the egg-masses2 ask the following questions3 ,on what part of the trees are these egg-masses found8 ,what is the shape of the egg-mass8 7,bring out the fact that they look like a portion of the twig swollen or budded47 ,what is the color of the egg-mass8 ,is there much difference in color between the egg-mass and the branch8 ,has this similarity in color any use8 7,develop the idea that the shape and the color of the egg-mass make it resemble the twig so closely as to hide it from birds or any animal that would be likely to eat the eggs47 ,does the egg-mass shine8 ,why does it shine8 ,answer4 ,because there is a coat of varnish around the eggs4 ,why was varnish put around the eggs8 7,get the answer by asking why varnish is put on wood4 ,varnish is put around the eggs to preserve them and to keep them dry during the rains and snows of autumn and winter47 ,if the eggs are near the hatching period the varnish will have scaled off1 revealing the tiny white eggs2 if not1 let the teacher remove the varnish with a knife or pin1 thus exposing the eggs4 ,if the teacher has a lens the children should view the eggs through it4 ,exhibit the picture ,fig4 #adi1 b1 which represents the eggs greatly enlarged showing the net-work of cement which holds them in place4 ,ask the children to compare the shape of these eggs with that of bird's eggs1 and bring out the fact that these are thimble-shaped4 ,then ask the pupils to guess what sort of mother laid these eggs1 cemented them fast with a network1 and then covered them with a coat of waterproof varnish4 ,after sufficient interest is aroused on this point1 explain to them3 ,one day last ,july a little moth or miller was flitting about the tree from which these twigs were taken4 ,if we could have been there and caught her we should have found her a pretty little creature with four wings covered with down and a soft fuzzy body4 ,in color she was a pale rosy-brown1 and had two bands of pale yellow across each front wing4 7,call attention to the picture of the moth1 ,fig4 #adi1 e4#be7 #be ,if a specimen of the moth could be obtained1 it would be much more interesting to the children than the picture4 ,the teacher can collect or breed the moths in ,july to use the next spring to illustrate the lesson4 ,this is the little mother which laid her eggs in a ring around the twig and covered them with a waterproof coat to keep them safe and sound until this spring1 when they will hatch4 ,what will come out of these eggs when they hatch8 ,the teacher should not answer this question1 but let the pupils watch the eggs and discover the answer for themselves4 ,place the twig with the egg-mass upon it in the bottle of water 7,fig4 #adg74 ,it will be best if this twig is a part of a forked branch1 so that the caterpillars may make their web upon it 7,fig4 #adh74 ,as soon as the eggs hatch ask the following questions3 ,what sort of young ones hatch out of the eggs8 ,are they like their mother8 ,what color are they8 ,why are their heads so large8 ,answer4 ,so that they can gnaw the lid off the egg and thus get out4 ,why should the young ones of a pretty moth be little black caterpillars8 7,leave this answer for future investigation47 ,after the caterpillars hatch it will be necessary to bring in each day fresh apple twigs with buds and leaves on them so as to feed the little prisoners4 ,it is very desirable that they be kept alive until they have begun their web and have molted at least twice4 ,if they show a disposition to wander off1 put the breeding cage over the bottle and branch and so keep them confined with their food4 ,to supplement the study of the imprisoned caterpillars1 study should be made at the same time of the insects out of doors and under natural conditions4 ,if none appear upon an apple or wild cherry tree near the school-house1 the teacher should transfer a colony to such a tree 7,fig4 #adh74 ,this may be done by fastening a twig with an egg-mass upon it to a branch of the tree4 ,if too late to get the unhatched eggs1 get a nest with the small worms in it and tie that to the convenient branch instead4 ,this study of the insects out of doors is very necessary in discovering their normal habits4 ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,,the ,,caterpillars4 ,,fig4 #adi1 c4 ,if the eggs hatch before the leaves appear1 upon what do the caterpillars feed8 ,how long is it after hatching before the caterpillars commence to make their tent8 ,where is the tent always formed8 ,answer4 ,in the fork of the branches4 ,why is this so8 ,answer4 ,the forking branches offer a convenient support upon which to stretch the tent3 and when1 as in the case out of doors1 the tent is spread in a fork of the larger limbs1 these limbs afford two branching roads for the caterpillars to follow in searching for food4 ,let the pupils make drawings of the tent as soon as it is large enough to be seen well4 ,what is the color of the caterpillars when they are a week old8 ,upon what do they feed8 ,at what time of day do they feed8 ,when on a tree1 how far from their tent do they go for food8 ,are the paths over which the caterpillars travel when searching for food marked in any way8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,a young colony of tent-makers on a cherry tree4 ,answer4 ,this caterpillar spins a silken thread wherever it goes and therefore leaves a trail of silk behind it4 ,of what is the tent made8 ,compare the tent with a spider's web and note the differences4 ,where does the silk come from1 of which the tent is made8 ,answer4 ,the silk glands of the caterpillar are situated near the mouth1 while those of the spider are on the rear end of the body4 ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,,how ,,the ,,insects ,,grow4 ,the caterpillars shed their skins about five times4 ,the first molt occurs about three days after they hatch2 the second molt about four days later2 and the third molt about six days after the second4 ,after each molt1 the color and markings of the caterpillars are somewhat changed4 ,during some of the molts the pupils should watch a caterpillar change his skin4 ,after the class has seen this operation the teacher may give the following lesson3 ,where is your skeleton8 ,what is it made of8 ,what is it for8 ,bring out the fact that the skeleton is a support for the muscles and organs of the body4 ,where is an insect's skeleton8 ,get as many answers to this question as possible1 then explain3 ,the insect's skeleton is on the outside of its body instead of a skin1 and the flesh and muscles are supported by it on the inside instead of on the outside like our own4 ,as this skeleton is hard it cannot stretch2 as the insect grows and gets too large the shell bursts open and the insect walks out of it4 ,now underneath this old hard skeleton a new one is formed1 which is soft and flexible at first1 and so stretches to accommodate the growing insect4 ,after a little time this new skeleton also hardens and has to be shed when it is too small to suit its owner4 ,notes should be made by the pupil upon the change of color and markings after the different molts1 and the process of molting should be described4 ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,,the ,,pupa4 ,,fig4 #adi1 d4 ,in ordinary seasons1 about the middle of ,may1 the caterpillars get their growth4 ,if those in the breeding cage have died or have not thrived1 bring in a few full-grown caterpillars from the orchard and put them on some branches in the breeding cage4 ,give them fresh food each day as long as they will eat2 also place some sticks and chips on the bottom of the breeding cage for the worms to spin up on4 ,then have the children observe the following things3 ,how do the caterpillars begin their cocoons8 ,where are the cocoons made8 ,how are they made8 ,draw a picture of a cocoon4 ,about a week after a cocoon is made1 open it carefully with a pair of scissors so as not to hurt the inmate1 and let the pupil see the change that has come over the caterpillar4 ,have the pupils describe the pupa4 ,let the pupils make drawings of the pupa4 ,the moths will hardly emerge from the cocoons until after the close of the school term4 ,the children should be encouraged to gather the cocoons from the fences around the orchards and from the sticks and the branches on the ground and to carry them home4 ,the cocoons may be placed in pasteboard boxes and kept until the moths emerge1 about the middle of ,july4 ,,lesson ,v4 ,,destroying ,,the ,,caterpillars4 ,after the caterpillars are fully grown and all the processes of growth have been observed by the pupils1 the teacher should give a lesson upon the injury which they do to trees and the necessity of keeping the orchards free from these pests4 ,this lesson should be given guardedly so as not to encourage the children to cruelty in killing insects4 ,the teacher should always try to inculcate in the child reverence for life1 that wonderful force1 which we can so easily take from a creature but which we can never give back4 ,it is better to appeal to the child's sense of justice in giving this lesson4 ,the teacher may vary it to suit her own ideas1 but in substance it might be given somewhat as follows3 ,all life is sacred2 the smallest worm has as good a right to live in the sight of ,god as you or any child has4 ,life should never be taken except when necessary4 ,however1 no one has the right to interfere with the rights of another4 ,neither the child nor the worm has any right to trespass upon the property of any one else4 ,let us see whether these caterpillars are trespassers or not4 ,the farmer works hard to earn the money to buy the land upon which the orchard is planted2 he works hard to earn the money with which to buy the young trees2 he works hard to set out the trees and cultivate the orchard2 therefore the orchard and the fruit of it are his property1 and he has a right to drive away all thieves4 ,if men or children steal the fruit1 he has a right to appeal to the law and have them fined or imprisoned4 ,if worms come and injure the tree by eating up the foliage1 he has a right to keep them out if he can4 ,the leaves are necessary to the tree1 for if they are destroyed the tree cannot get the air it needs to keep it vigorous and enable it to mature its fruit4 ,we have seen that these caterpillars destroy the leaves1 and thus do great injury to the apple crop4 ,we therefore have a right to destroy these little robbers1 as that is the only way we can keep them out of our orchards4 ,how can the caterpillars be destroyed8 ,the egg-masses can be collected in winter and early spring from young orchards1 and burned4 ,tie bits of suet or fresh fat pork to the branches of the trees and thus induce chickadees1 nuthatches1 and woodpeckers to visit the orchard in winter4 ,these birds will destroy eggs and cocoons of the tent caterpillar1 and of other insect pests also4 ,in large1 old trees1 we must wait until later4 ,ask the pupils the following questions3 ,at what times did we find the worms in their tents8 ,answer4 ,early morning2 late afternoons2 and during cold1 dark days4 ,if we should destroy the tents in the middle of a warm1 sunny day1 what would happen8 ,answer4 ,the caterpillars1 being out feeding on the leaves1 would not be hurt1 and as soon as they came back would make another tent4 ,if the tent is destroyed in the early morning or late afternoon or on a cold1 dark day1 what would happen8 ,answer4 ,the caterpillars1 all being in the tent1 would be destroyed4 ,how may the tents be destroyed8 ,answer4 ,by wiping them out with a long pole on one end of which is wound a rag saturated with kerosene4 ,or by burning them out with a torch4 ,is it best to destroy the caterpillars early in the season1 while they are still small1 or to wait until they are large and are about ready to pupate4 ,if the trees were sprayed with ,paris green in the early spring1 what would happen8 ,answer4 ,the caterpillars would be killed as soon as they began to eat1 when they were first hatched4 ,when these caterpillars feed on the leaves of wild cherry they are doing no damage to an orchard4 ,therefore1 when the tents appear on wild cherry trees have we any right to destroy them8 ,answer4 ,the wise and careful farmer does not allow wild cherry trees to grow along his fences if they will become breeding places for insect enemies which will next year attack his orchards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,the ,curious ,history of a ,tent ,caterpillar4 a1 ,the masses of eggs on the twigs of an apple tree4 b1 ,the eggs enlarged4 c1 ,a full grown caterpillar4 d1 ,cocoons4 e1 ,the moth1 or adult insect4 ,,leaflet ,,xx4 ,,mosquitoes4#bf ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 ,nature-,study is learning those things in nature that are best worth knowing1 to the end of doing those things that make life most worth living4 --,,professor ,,hodge in ,nature-,study and ,life4 #bf ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #bc1 ,may1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,spite of all the efforts of scientists and nature-students to popularize the mosquito1 its reputation as a public nuisance is as well sustained as ever1 and it seems destined to remain as unpopular as were its ancestors4 ,there is no doubt that these creatures abound and that they are great annoyances to both man and animals1 as ,dr4 ,howard tells us in ,the ,insect ,book2 but he has laid a new and even more deadly sin at their door in stating1 as he does in no uncertain terms1 that they are active agents in the transfer of disease4 ,there seems to be no escape from the attention of these persistent imps o' evil4 ,though we travel to far ,alaska or to icy ,greenland we cannot be free4 ,since we are doomed to existence in the same world with the mosquito it behooves us to discover1 if possible1 some way to turn the creature to account for our entertainment or instruction4 ,forget for the moment that you despise mosquitoes1 and let us study their ways4 ,by making its life history the subject of some of our lessons we may at least learn how the mosquito lives and develops2 and later we can turn this knowledge to practical account4 ,since for many generations these creatures have made the human race the subject of insistent study1 it is no more than fair that the tables should be turned6 ,you are not good nature-students until you have recognized and overcome your prejudices4 ,you read the life history of the rabbit and you think you hate its enemies4 ,you watch a family of foxes with their cunning ways1 and the mother's care for her young and you cannot help sympathizing with them in their struggle for existence4 ,every creature in its turn becomes interesting to you when you find yourself wondering about how it makes its home1 rears its young1 and gets its food4 ,as you get nearer to nature you will cease to feel any pride in the fact that you hate snakes1 mosquitoes1 and all such varmints4 ,indeed that hatred1 born of ignorance1 will have given place to sympathy and interest4 ,you have a new point of view4 ,one of the first questions asked of the returning animals in early spring is1 ,how have you spent the winter8 ,the bluebird and the robin show no signs of weariness after their long flight from the ,south4 ,the woolly bear caterpillars look just as they did in ,october4 ,the early butterflies are a trifle worn and shabby after their hibernation4 ,but who has thought to inquire where and how the mosquito has spent the cold season8 ,who cares1 one may say1 so long as they don't stay around where we are as they did last summer8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,mosquito's wing4 ,suppose we make it our business from now on to care about such things1 and to inquire into the ways our plant and animal neighbors have of living and of getting a living4 ,are you quite sure that the mosquitoes have not spent their winter under your protection8 ,if in ,april you had had occasion to frequent either garret or cellar there you might have found them4 ,by dozens and scores they were waiting for the return of warm weather to free them4 ,many of them winter not as eggs1 larv1 or pup1 but as winged adults1 as mosquitoes4 ,this rather interferes with the prevalent notion that mosquitoes live but for a day4 ,would that this were true1 and might that day be short6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,raft of eggs1 greatly enlarged4 ,,the ,,life ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mosquito4 ,the life history of a mosquito is in four chapters1 some of which are exceedingly short1 others long4 ,the length of each may be varied by the weather and the season4 ,moisture and warmth are particularly advantageous to the rapid development of these creatures4 ,ten days in hot weather may be sufficient time for the growth of a generation of them1 from egg to adult4 ,there are many generations in a year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,the larva or wiggler4 ,the larv of mosquitoes are aquatic4 ,they live in stagnant water everywhere1 in ponds1 swamps1 ditches1 puddles1 rain-water barrels1 and horse-troughs4 ,in early spring the female mosquito that has wintered in your garret will probably go to the nearest rain-water barrel or water-tank4 ,she finds her way by instinct1 before the sun is up4 ,when you go to replenish your pitcher you will find a little flat cluster of eggs like a tiny raft floating on the surface 7,fig4 #aea74 ,it is dark-colored and the chances are you will not see it unless it gets into your pitcher4 ,by two o'clock in the afternoon there may be from two to four hundred lively little wigglers in the water4 ,possibly they will wait until the following day4 ,they all hatched from the eggs of one mosquito4 ,they hitch and twitch about in the water1 coming often to the surface and hanging there for a moment 7,fig4 #aeb74 ,you call them wigglers4 ,but did you ever wonder why they wiggle1 why they come so often to the surface1 and why they thrust up the little tube which projects from near the end of the body8 ,did you ever ask what they find to eat in the water1 and how they eat it8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,the active pupa4 ,the larval stage lasts about ten days in hot summer weather1 but longer when the days are cool4 ,then comes a change in form into the pupa 7,fig4 #aec74 ,the creature is still active and aquatic1 though no food is taken4 ,it does not stay long away from the surface while in this stage4 ,finally1 after two or more days as a pupa1 the full-grown mosquito emerges and takes wing1 leaving its pupa case floating on the top of the water like a forlorn little derelict4 ,,enemies ,,of ,,the ,,mosquito4 ,besides man1 the mosquito has many natural enemies4 ,in the water especially they fall easy victims to the thousand-and-one insect ogres4 ,the nymphs of dragon-flies are especially fond of wigglers1 and there has been much said and written about raising dragon-flies as a safeguard against mosquitoes4 ,most of the predaceous insects which live in still water feed on young mosquitoes1 while the adults often fall prey to their more swiftly flying insect neighbors4 ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,the ,,mosquito4 ,over and around the tumbler place a piece of close-woven mosquito netting to confine the adult insects4 ,a glass tumbler two-thirds full of rain-water1 a little cluster of eggs1 or a half dozen wigglers1 a keen observer1 and you have a nature-study opportunity not to be surpassed in the finest laboratory4 ,if you have already seen a part of the life history1 do not be satisfied until you have completed your chain of observations4 ,get the eggs2 watch the hatching1 the molting1 the transformations4 ,see every stage4 ,learn something new every time you look at the wiggler or the mature mosquito4 ,it is not at all necessary that you let these insects escape into the school-room and cause trouble4 ,those who wish more minute description1 with many illustrations of mosquitoes of different kinds1 should obtain from the ,division of ,publications1 ,department of ,agriculture1 the published results of ,dr4 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard's studies of mosquitoes4 ,in this pamphlet1 from which the drawings in this lesson are copied1 the subject of the transfer of disease germs by mosquitoes is very thoroughly discussed1 with pictures which distinguish between the common mosquito and those which transfer malaria and other diseases4 ,those scientists who had to do with the naming of the many species of mosquitoes had certainly a sense of humor4 ,one would think they named the creatures according to the mildness or malignity of their bite4 ,a few of the names are as follows3 ,culex excitans ,culex pungens ,culex irritans ,culex stimulans ,culex perturbans ,culex excrucians ,,the ,,crusade ,,against ,,mosquitoes4 ,,by ,m4 ,v4 ,,slingerland4 ,there is now a world-wide crusade against mosquitoes1 extending from the wilds of ,africa through the noted malarial districts of ,italy to ,america4 ,in ,america a ,national ,mosquito ,extermination ,society has been formed4 ,this extensive crusade is due to the practical demonstration that some kinds of mosquitoes may transmit malaria1 yellow fever and probably other diseases of human beings4 ,all mosquitoes must have water in which to develop1 and the warfare against them consists largely in destroying their watery breeding grounds4 ,this is being done on a large scale1 either by draining or by filling in marshes1 pools1 and similar places which often swarm with the wigglers4 ,large areas of such mosquito-breeding waste lands in ,new ,jersey and on ,long ,island are thus being reclaimed and the mosquito nuisance largely abated4 ,aquaria1 rain barrels1 tanks1 small ponds and similar places can be kept free from the wigglers by introducing small fish1 as gold fish or silver fish1 sunfish1 killies1 roaches or minnows4 ,an interesting and instructive object lesson could be given by putting a few minnows from a near-by brook into the school aquarium or into a specially prepared glass dish well stocked with the wigglers4 ,one can easily prevent mosquitoes from breeding in rain barrels or tanks by covering them with mosquito netting4 ,another practicable and successful method is to pour or sprinkle kerosene oil every two or three weeks in a thin film over the surface of cesspools1 rain barrels1 tanks1 ponds or any other body of sluggish water where the wigglers are found4 ,this oil film kills the wigglers 7both larv and pup7 by preventing them from getting to the surface to breathe1 and it also prevents the mother mosquito from laying her eggs on the water4 ,there are patent preparations or oils which penetrate all through the water1 killing the wigglers but spoiling the water for general use1 so that such oils are usually applied only to infested cesspools1 sewer basins1 or manure pits4 ,by a little concerted effort of local officials1 individuals1 or by the school children in applying whichever of the above methods is most practicable1 much interesting and valuable work could be accomplished and the pestiferous mosquito largely eliminated in many localities4 ,,leaflet ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,ways ,,of ,,the ,,ant4#bg ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #bg ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #a4 ,october1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,for many years ants have been recognized as among the most interesting of the little animals that people our fields4 ,however1 not until recently have we begun to understand1 even in a small measure1 their economic importance and the part they play in maintaining the balance in insect life4 ,therefore1 we shall give a few studies of ants and their ways1 and as a knowledge of their habits is necessary to begin with1 we will take up the ant-nest first4 ,,an ,,ant-,,nest4 ,two panes of glass laid flat one on the other with a space between of one-eighth of an inch or less1 these panes covered with a piece of dark paper or wood to keep out the light and then placed on something that will allow them to be surrounded by water2 a bit of blotting paper two inches square1 dampened and placed at one end of the glass chamber--these are all the materials and the art necessary for the construction of a perfectly equipped ant-nest4 ,once we wished to make an ant-nest hurriedly1 and this is the way we did it3 we chose an agate wash basin 7,fig4 #aed71 as this would not rust1 and filled it half-full of water2 in this we made an island1 by placing in it a three-pint agate basin turned bottom side up4 ,we took two discarded negatives1 size #dx#e inches1 and cleaned off the films2 then we placed one of the pieces of glass on the basin-island1 took the stumps of four burnt matches and placed one on each side of this glass near its edge2 then we placed the other piece of glass on top1 letting it rest on the matches to make a chamber just high enough for the ants to live in comfortably4 ,this done1 we took the cover of a cigar-box and cut it down to the size of the negatives1 put a screw-eye in the center to lift it by and placed it on top of the upper glass to make the chamber below quite dark4 ,then we took a trowel and fruit-can and went after some inhabitants for our island4 ,we went to an open pasture and turned over stones until we found beneath one a heap of yellowish grain-like pup and little translucent whitish bodies1 which we knew were larv1 all being cared for by swarms of worker-ants4 ,one of us pushed the trowel beneath1 taking up dirt and all1 while the other held the can open1 into which the trowel was emptied4 ,we hastened back and as gently as possible1 taking care to hurt none of our little captives1 placed the contents of the can on the top of the nest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,an improvised ant-nest4 ,as the first thought of an ant is never for its own safety1 but for the safety of its infant sisters1 the little workers began to hunt for a safe and dark place in which to stow away their charges4 ,in running about they soon discovered the space between the two pieces of glass and in a few hours the young ones were moved into the new quarters4 ,then we cleaned away the earth on top of the nest1 and by lifting the cover we were able to see all that was going on within4 ,the water in the wash-basin prevented any of our uneasy captives from escaping1 as these little people1 so clever in most things1 have never yet mastered the art of swimming4 ,i have an ant-nest on my table as ,i write1 shown in ,fig4 #aef4 ,instead of matches to keep the two pieces of glass apart ,i have a narrow strip of canton flannel glued around the edge of the glass floor except for two little doors at the opposite corners2 there is also a narrow strip of cloth partitioning the chamber into two rooms with a door at one end4 ,one room ,i left empty and in the other ,i placed a bit of blotting paper which ,i keep damp by occasionally adding a few drops of water4 ,the nest is placed upon a piece of plank #ah inches square4 ,around the plank near the edge is a groove about an inch deep made with a chisel and kept full of water1 so that my ants have a castle with a moat4 ,it was necessary to paint this bit of plank thoroughly1 above and below1 to keep it from warping4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,ant-nest1 on a piece of plank1 which has a moat near its edge to confine the insects4 ,the ants in my nest ,i found on a hillside beneath a stone2 they are brownish with yellow legs and a little less than a quarter of an inch in length4 ,they were stupid at first and would not discover the chamber prepared for them1 but persisted in hiding their young under bits of earth which were brought in with them4 ,so ,i made a scoop of a sheet of writing paper and with it placed a heap of the young1 with a few of the nurses1 in the empty chamber1 then put on the glass ceiling and cover and left them4 ,in a few hours the whole colony had moved into this chamber1 but evidently it was not humid enough for the health of the young1 and by the next morning the pup and larv and eggs were all in the other chamber arranged around the edges of the blotting paper4 ,what ,i have seen of interest in this nest on my table would fill a small volume1 if written out in detail4 ,just now a worker approached a pupa1 that appears through the lens like a little bag of meal tied at one end with a black string2 she examined it carefully with her antenn and concluded it needed to be moved1 and1 though it is as large as she1 picked it up in her jaws and carried it to a position which she regarded as more favorable4 ,then she approached a larva which looks like a little crook-neck squash1 inquired as to its needs with her antenn and then cleaned it with her tongue1 as a cat licks a kitten1 and fed it4 ,her next duty was to pick up a whole bunch of little white oblong eggs and scurry off with them to get them out of the light4 ,then she stopped to help another worker to straighten out the soft legs and antenn of a pale1 new sister that was just emerging from the pupa skin4 ,by the time ,i had seen as much as this ,i felt it my duty to replace the cover1 as the light greatly disturbs the little captives4 ,it is said that if a yellow glass be used for the upper piece1 the ants feel that they are in darkness1 and their actions may be watched constantly without disturbing them4 ,for a permanent nest1 it is necessary to secure a queen1 which lays all the eggs for the colony4 ,she may be recognized by her larger size and may sometimes be found in a nest under the stones4 ,however1 it is so difficult to obtain a queen that ,i more often bring in the young and the workers2 the latter will be content as long as they have the babies to feed and bring up2 when finally this is accomplished1 ,i usually take my colony back to its nest in the field1 where it is made most welcome4 ,this may seem sentimental1 but after you have watched these little people working so hard and taking such devoted care of their baby sisters and doing so many wise things in their home1 you will be loth to let the tiny creatures die of discouragement because they have nothing else to do1 and you will be still more loth to let them loose to scatter1 bewildered and helpless1 over a strange earth4 ,however1 ,i have to be very careful and mark the nest to which they belong1 for if ,i should put them near another colony1 my poor captives would soon die inglorious deaths4 ,food which we provide for the ants in captivity should be varied and should be put on the island1 rather than in the nest as we may thus be able to better clean away the refuse4 ,crackers or bread soaked in sweetened water1 sponge cake1 berry-jam1 sugar1 bits of raw meat1 yolks of hard boiled eggs crushed1 freshly killed insects or earth-worms1 all may prove acceptable to our little friends4 ,their food may be soft but should not be in a fluid state4 ,,questions ,,about ,,ants4 ,if you have not made an ant-nest and observed the ant as indicated1 make some field observations4 ,these may be made with the naked eye1 or with a tripod lens4 ,such a lens costs about thirty-five cents4 #a4 ,have you ever seen an ant-hill8 ,if so1 describe it4 #b4 ,do all ants build mound nests8 #c4 ,in what situations have you found ant-nests8 #d4 ,how many kinds of ants do you know8 #e4 ,have you ever seen winged ants8 ,if so1 describe the experience4 #f4 ,what is the reason for a winged form of ants8 #g4 ,have you observed ants meet and converse with each other8 ,if so1 how did they do it8 #h4 ,have you seen the ants carrying their young8 ,if so1 how do they do it8 #i4 ,if you have made an ant-nest1 tell what you have seen going on within it4 #aj4 ,tell any experiences you have had with ants1 that show their courage1 energy or cleverness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,uncovered ant-nest1 viewed from above1 looking through the glass ceiling4 ,the white pieces around the edges and at the center are strips of canton flannel1 forming walls and partition to the nest4 ,note the doors at the lower left and upper right hand corners and at lower end of the partition4 ,the piece of blotting paper in the chamber at the left chanced to have a picture of an eagle upon it4 ,the small white objects are pup1 assorted in heaps4 ,,ants ,,and ,,their ,,herds4#bh #bh ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #h1 ,may1 #aijd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,rose infested with aphids or plant-lice4 ,very soon after the green leaves come1 one may notice that the ants seem to be greatly interested in getting to the tops of trees1 bushes and vines4 ,if one watches for only a short time1 he may see them hastening up and down with that important ant-air which says plainly1 ,there now1 don't hinder me1 ,i haven't a moment to waste4 ,if we should follow with our eyes one of these hurried six-footed ,marthas on her way up a tree1 we would find that her business was that of milk-maid4 ,her cows are there pasturing on the leaves overhead1 and she hastens to them coaxing for the milk1 which is a clear drop of sweet honeydew4 ,for many years entomologists repeated the statement that the honeydew secreted by aphids or plant-lice for the use of the ants came from the two little tubes on the back of the insect4 ,it is easy to see how this mistake came about2 the tubes were there1 and so was the honeydew2 the tubes suggested a cow's udder1 and as the ants use the honeydew the natural inference was that it came from the tubes4 ,this interesting error has been printed in so many honorable books1 that it has become a classic4 ,as a matter of fact1 the caterpillars of our little1 blue butterflies do have glands on the abdomen which secrete honeydew for the use of the ants2 but the honeydew of the plant-lice1 like honey itself1 is manufactured in the alimentary canal1 and issues from it4 ,observations have shown that each individual plant-louse may produce from five to seven drops of honeydew in twenty-four hours4 ,if our cows could produce as much in proportion1 then a good ,holstein would give something like six thousand pounds of milk per day1 and would be a highly profitable animal to have in the dairy4 ,although the honeydew does not come from the little tubes on the back of the plant-louse1 yet those tubes have their uses4 ,i once observed a young spider approaching an aphid1 which was facing its enemy4 ,as the spider approached1 the aphid lifted its abdomen1 and thrust one of these tubes over directly in the spider's face1 and on this tube there suddenly appeared a little ball of yellow wax4 ,the whole act was so like a pugilist thrusting his fist in his enemy's face that ,i laughed4 ,the spider retreated and the aphid let its abdomen fall back in its natural position1 but the little wax ball remained for some time on the tip of the tube4 ,a ,german scientist1 ,mr4 ,busgen1 of the ,university of ,jena1 discovered that a plant-louse smeared the eyes and jaws of his enemy1 the aphis-lion1 with this wax which dried as soon as applied4 ,in action it was something like throwing a basin of paste at the head of an attacking party4 ,mr4 ,busgen discovered that the aphis-lion thus treated was obliged to stop and clean himself before he could go on with his hunt1 and meantime the aphid walked off in safety4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,a stable made by ants for plant-lice4 ,the honeydew is excreted in such quantities that often the pavement beneath trees may be seen to be spattered by the drops of this sweet rain4 ,it seems to be excreted solely for attracting the ants4 ,in return for this1 the ants give care and protection to their herds4 ,they sometimes take them into their nests and care for them4 ,in one case1 at least1 one species of ant builds for one species of aphid 7which lives upon dogwood7 a little mud stable which protects the aphids from all enemies4 ,this stable is neatly placed at the fork of the twigs and has a little circular door by which the ants may enter 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,the lady-bug larv and the ant-lions both feed voraciously on the aphids2 an ant will attack single-handed one of these depredators1 although it be much larger than herself1 and will drive it away or perish in the attempt4 ,some so-called practical people say1 ,let us study only those things in ,nature that affect our pocketbook1 and not waste our time studying irrelevant things4 ,if this spirit had animated scientists from the first1 many of the most important economic discoveries would never have been made4 ,this relation of ants to aphids is an example to the point4 ,for a hundred years has the fact been known that ants use the aphids for their cows1 and the practical men said1 ,this is a very pretty story1 but what we want is some method of killing the aphids4 ,it remained for ,professor ,forbes1 of ,illinois1 to show the practical application of this pretty story in the life history of the corn-root plant-louse1 which did great damage to the corn crop of the ,west4 ,these plant-lice winter in the ground wherever they chance to be left by the dying roots of the last year's crop1 and with their soft bodies could never work their way in the hard earth and to the roots of the newly-planted corn in the spring4 ,professor ,forbes discovered that the ants in these infested fields make mines along the principal roots of the new corn2 and that they then go out and collect the plant-lice1 and place them in these burrows1 and there watch over them and protect them4 ,,observation ,,lesson ,,on ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,ants ,,to ,,plant-,,lice4 ,a reading-glass or lens may be used to advantage in making these observations4 ,find some plant near at hand that is infested by aphids in order to note from time to time the relation of ants to these little creatures4 ,some aphids on the petiole and leaves of the ,virginia ,creeper on our piazza once afforded me a convenient field for daily observation4 #a4 ,how does the ant approach the aphid and ask for honeydew8 #b4 ,does she wait long if there is no response8 #c4 ,does the ant step on the aphids as she runs about among them8 #d4 ,what are the colors of the aphids you have observed8 #e4 ,on what plants were they feeding8 #f4 ,what sort of mouth parts have the aphids8 #g4 ,what part of the plant is their food1 and how do they get it8 #h4 ,why does not ,paris green applied to the leaves on which aphids are feeding kill them8 #i4 ,have you seen the lady-bird larv or the ant-lions destroying aphids8 ,explain4 #aj4 ,have you ever seen the little wax balls on the tubes of the plant-lice8 ,if so1 did you note when and why they were produced8 #aa4 ,have you ever seen an ant attacking the enemies of plant-lice8 ,describe4 #ab4 ,how do you think this relation of ants to aphids affects agriculture8 #ac4 ,study what the ants do for the aphids which infest your rose bushes4 ,do you infer from this that it is well to exterminate the ant colonies in your flower garden8 #ad4 ,do you know how to clear your plants of plant-lice8 ,if so1 how8 ,if not send to ,cornell or some other experiment station for a spray bulletin4 ,,leaflet ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,birds ,,and ,i4#bi ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #bi ,teachers' ,leaflet ,no4 #aj1 ,may1 #ahih4 ,illustration ,the springtime belongs to the birds and me4 ,we own it4 ,we know when the ,mayflowers and the buttercups bloom4 ,we know when the first frogs peep4 ,we watch the awakening of the woods4 ,we are wet by the warm ,april showers4 ,we go where we will1 and we are companions4 ,every tree and brook and blade of grass is ours2 and our hearts are full of song4 ,there are boys who kill the birds1 and girls who want to catch them and put them in cages2 and there are others who steal their eggs4 ,the birds are not partners with them2 they are only servants4 ,birds1 like people1 sing for their friends1 not for their masters4 ,i am sure that one cannot think much of the springtime and the flowers if his heart is always set upon killing or catching something4 ,we are happy when we are free2 and so are the birds4 ,the birds and ,i get acquainted all over again every spring4 ,they have seen strange lands in the winter1 and all the brooks and woods have been covered with snow4 ,so we run and romp together1 and find all the nooks and crannies which we had half forgotten since ,october4 ,the birds remember the old places4 ,the wrens pull the sticks from the old hollow rail and seem to be wild with joy to see the place again4 ,they must be the same wrens that were here last year and the year before1 for strangers could not make so much fuss over an old rail4 ,the bluebirds and wrens look into every crack and corner for a place in which to build1 and the robins and chipping-sparrows explore every tree in the old orchard4 ,if the birds want to live with us1 we should encourage them4 ,the first thing to do is to let them alone4 ,let them be as free from danger and fear as you or ,i4 ,take the hammer off the old gun1 give pussy so much to eat that she will not care to hunt for birds1 and keep away the boys who steal eggs and who carry sling-shots and throw stones4 ,plant trees and bushes about the borders of the place1 and let some of them1 at least1 grow into tangles2 then1 even in the back yard1 the wary cat-bird may make its home4 ,for some kinds of birds we can build houses4 ,some of the many forms which can be used are shown in the pictures at the end of this ,leaflet4 ,any ingenious boy can suggest a dozen other patterns4 ,although birds may not appreciate architecture1 it is well to make the houses neat and tasty by taking pains to have the proportions correct4 ,the floor space in each compartment should be not less than five by six inches1 and six by six or six by eight may be better4 ,by cutting the boards in multiples of these numbers1 one can easily make a house with several compartments2 for there are some birds1 as martins1 tree swallows1 and pigeons that like to live in families or colonies4 ,the size of the doorway is important4 ,it should be just large enough to admit the bird4 ,a larger opening not only looks bad1 but it exposes the inhabitants to dangers of cats and other enemies4 ,birds which build in houses1 aside from doves and pigeons1 are bluebirds1 wrens1 tree-swallows1 martins1 and sometimes the chickadees4 ,for the wren and the chickadee the opening should be an inch augur hole1 and for the others it should be about one-and-a-half inches4 ,only one opening should be provided for each house or compartment4 ,a perch or door-step should be provided just below each door4 ,it is here that the birds often stop to arrange their toilets2 and when the mistress is busy with domestic affairs indoors the male-bird often sits outside and entertains her with the latest neighborhood gossip4 ,these houses should be placed on poles or on buildings in somewhat secluded places4 ,martins and tree-swallows like to build their nests twenty-five feet or more above the ground1 but the other birds usually prefer an elevation less than twelve feet4 ,newly made houses1 and particularly newly painted ones1 do not often attract the birds4 ,but if the birds and ,i are companions ,i must know them more intimately4 ,merely building houses for them is not enough4 ,i want to know live and happy birds1 not dead ones4 ,we are not to know them1 then1 by catching them1 or stuffing them1 or collecting their eggs4 ,persons who make a business of studying birds may shoot birds now and then1 and collect their eggs4 ,but these persons are scientists and they are grown-up people4 ,they are trying to add to the sum of human knowledge1 while we want to know birds just because we want to4 ,but even scientists do not take specimens recklessly4 ,they do not rob nests4 ,they do not kill brooding birds4 ,they do not make collections merely for the sake of making them2 and even their collections are less valuable than a knowledge of the bird as it lives and flies and sings4 ,boys and girls should not make collections of eggs1 for these collections are mere curiosities1 as collections of spools and marbles are4 ,they may afford some entertainment1 to be sure1 but one can find amusement in harmless ways4 ,some persons think that the securing of collections makes one a naturalist1 but it does not4 ,the naturalist cares more for things as they really are in their own homes than for museum specimens4 ,one does not love the birds when he steals their eggs and breaks up their homes2 and he is depriving the farmer of one of his best friends1 for birds keep insects in check4 ,stuffed birds do not sing and empty eggs do not hatch4 ,then let us go to the fields and watch the birds4 ,sit down on the soft grass and try to make out what the robin is doing on yonder fence or why the wren is bursting with song in the thicket4 ,an opera-glass or spy-glass will bring them close to you4 ,try to find out not only what the colors and shapes and sizes are1 but what their habits are4 ,what does the bird eat8 ,how much does it eat8 ,where is its nest8 ,how many eggs does it lay8 ,what color are they8 ,how long does the mother bird sit8 ,does the father bird care for her when she is sitting8 ,how long do the young birds remain in the nest8 ,who feeds them8 ,what are they fed8 ,is there more than one brood in a season8 ,where do the birds go after breeding8 ,do they change their plumage8 ,are the mother birds and father birds unlike in size or color8 ,how many kinds of birds do you know8 ,these are some of the things that every boy or girl wants to know2 and we can find out by watching the birds6 ,there is no harm in visiting the nests1 if one does it in the right way4 ,i have visited hundreds of them and have kept many records of the number of eggs and the dates when they were laid1 how long before they hatched1 and when the birds flew away2 and the birds took no offense at my inquisitiveness4 ,these are some of the cautions to be observed3 ,watch only those nests which can be seen without climbing1 for if you have to climb the tree the birds will resent it4 ,make the visit when the birds are absent1 if possible2 at least1 never scare the bird from the nest4 ,do not touch the eggs or the nest4 ,make your visit very short4 ,make up your mind just what you want to see1 then look in quickly and pass on4 ,do not go too often2 once or twice a day will be sufficient4 ,do not take the other children with you1 for you are then likely to stay too long and to offend the birds4 ,now let us see how intimately you can become acquainted with some bird this summer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,illustration3 ,suggestions for home-made bird houses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,illustration3 ,improvised bird houses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,suggestions for home-made bird houses4 ,,leaflet ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,early ,,birds4#cj ,,by ,l4 ,a4 ,,fuertes4 #cj ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #d3 ,leaflet #ag1 ,march1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,after a long winter1 many of us are too impatient for spring to wait for the swelling of the buds1 the opening of the early flowers1 and the springing of the grass4 ,several weeks lie between the end of winter and the truly genial spring days1 and during this interval we look for something to herald the settled spring season4 ,and the thing which gives us that for which we are unconsciously looking1 more than all other signs1 is the arrival of the birds4 ,who has not warmed to the quavering call of the first blue-bird1 or been suddenly thrilled some early spring day with the sunny notes of the song-sparrow6 ,in the southern part of this ,state1 notably in the lower ,hudson ,valley1 the winter is spent by several birds which elsewhere we are accustomed to see only after the winter has passed4 ,among these are the blue-bird1 robin1 song-sparrow1 white-throated-sparrow1 meadow-lark1 and possibly the purple-finch4 ,but in most of the ,state we must wait until the first or second week in ,march before we can be sure of seeing any of them4 ,it is a question which of the earlier birds will first make its appearance1 as these early migrants are much less regular in their movements than those that come late in ,april and in ,may1 after the weather has become settled4 ,many a robin and blue-bird arrives during some early warm spell1 to find himself suddenly surrounded by flying snow and blown about by cold winds4 ,but these and a few other hardy ones seem able to stand such rebuffs with great equanimity1 and the momentary shining of a fickle ,march sun will often evoke some pent-up song-sparrow's notes from the shelter of a hedge or thicket4 ,robins1 blue-birds1 song-sparrows1 cowbirds1 meadow-larks1 phoebes1 bronzed grackles1 kingfishers1 and doves may be looked upon as the vanguards of the hosts of migrating birds that come to us each year1 and the first four or five may be expected almost any time after the first week in ,march4 ,if the winter has been late1 these may not appear until the middle or even the latter part of the month1 in which case one is busy keeping track of the arrivals1 as the other birds have caught up then1 and all come nearly at the same time4 ,it is unnecessary to give detailed descriptions of robins1 bluebirds1 and song-sparrows1 as nearly everyone is familiar with them2 but some of the other early comers may be more easily recognized if some field impressions of them be given4 99 99 99 99 99 ,almost any warm day in early ,march we may hear a thin1 clear tsssss in a high piping key1 and on looking up see from one to five black birds1 about the size of orioles1 flying in a strange undulating manner--some up and some down1 with the wings held close to their sides during the drop in their flight4 ,they are cowbirds4 ,the flock may swirl into the top of a tree and sit close together4 7,fig4 #agh47 ,if this happens within eyeshot1 stop and watch them for a moment4 ,one or two of the males are almost certain to utter the ridiculous song of the species1 which1 like that of their relatives1 the grackles1 is accompanied by the most grotesque of actions4 ,the bird spreads its wings to their utmost1 spreads and elevates the tail1 stretches its neck upwards and forwards1 and then1 quivering and tottering1 nearly falls forward off the perch4 ,the only sound which accompanies this absurd action is a faint chuckling clk-sfs'k1 which is scarcely to be heard a hundred feet away4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,cowbirds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with the cowbirds we may expect the arrival of the bronzed grackles1 which resemble them much in flight1 but are larger and come in far larger flocks--sometimes ten1 sometimes a hundred or more4 ,their arrival is known by the vigorous calls they utter while flying1 a loud bass jook4 ,when seen squabbling in the spruce trees or in the bare branches of the willows fringing the streams1 the males are likely to be giving their song4 ,it is scarcely more of a note than the cowbird's1 a rusty squeak1 and it is accompanied by a contortion in the same manner4 ,it is not such a pronounced effort1 however1 and is often only a slight shudder and shrug of the shoulders4 ,they feed1 like cowbirds1 mostly on the ground1 and walk about most sedately in the grass like small crows4 ,in tall grass1 however1 they waddle too much to be graceful4 ,when taking flight they spread their long pointed tails in a very peculiar and characteristic manner--not out in a horizontal plane1 like most birds1 but up at the sides in the shape of a gardener's trowel1 which gives them an extraordinary appearance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the redwings begin to come into the marshes soon after the grackles1 and are at that time in full feather and song4 ,their rich1 deliberate clonk-ka lrrrrrrr1 interlarded with the clear piping whistles of some of the flock1 makes a concert of bird-notes very dear to all who are familiar with it4 ,in their scarlet and black velvet dress these birds are impossible to mistake1 whether seen chasing over the marshes1 singing from an elm-top1 or balancing with spread tail upon some tall reed stalk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is a bird-note so often and so justly mistaken for that of the phoebe that the error certainly merits correction4 ,the spring song of the chick-a-dee 7which may be heard on almost any warm day all winter1 and is very easy to call forth by even a poorly whistled imitation7 is a clear1 pure eeeeee or -- which really says ,phoebe much more plainly than the true phoebe note1 this latter being much lower in tone1 and only to be heard after ,march is well on1 and almost always in the vicinity of running streams and brooklets2 while the gay little chick-a-dee whistles at any time or place that suits his versatile fancy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,meadow larks4 ,the mellow flute notes of the meadow larks 7,fig4 #agi7 float to us from the middle of some large1 open field1 and are among the most beautiful bits of bird music we ever hear4 ,they are not to be represented by notes1 and can only be most inadequately described4 ,there is great variation in the sequence of notes1 but all are beautifully clear and ringing1 and have a decided tinge of what would be sadness if it were not so sweet4 ,the bird flies in a very characteristic manner1 never raising the wings above the plane of the back1 and when seen below the horizon line always shows the white feathers in the tail4 ,his saffron breast and black breast-mark seldom show on the living birds1 and the mottled brown back is a wonderful safeguard against his many overhead enemies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,two or more doves may be seen winging their headlong flight through the air4 ,these are among the swiftest of birds1 and are generally out of eyeshot almost before you have seen them4 7,that is one way of knowing what they are47 ,in flight1 they look like small pigeons with very long graduated tails1 and when1 in some old orchard or open wood1 you see one rise from the ground into a tree1 the white lateral feathers in the tail make an easily recognizable mark4 7,fig4 #ahj47 ,their cooing notes are well known--a high-pitched overtone1 followed by several long bell-toned 7ooooo1--7ooooo1 notes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,mourning doves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,about ,april #a to #aj1 you may hear a scratching in the dead leaves among the underbrush in any thickly grown tangle1 and upon cautiously coming up you may discover the authors--not big grouse as you may have supposed1 but a flock of fine1 vigorous fox-sparrows on their way to their northern breeding grounds4 ,they are bright bay fellows1 with boldly blotched brown and white breasts1 diligently scattering the leaves for their food of seeds1 spiders1 ants1 and various insects4 ,if you have been fortunate enough not to have been seen you may hear their song1 which is one of the finest of our sparrow songs1 readily recognizable as such1 though not resembling any of its fellows--a clear1 vigorous carol1 often ending abruptly with a rather unmusical clip4 ,if1 however1 they have seen you1 you will be treated to a sharp tseep6 and a rear view of a flock of rapidly retreating birds1 for they are not sociable 7with us1 at least71 and generally take a hint to move on before you know of their presence4 ,they do not stay long with us on their migration1 and seeing them one day is no indication that you can find them the next4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although the white-throated sparrows spend the winter in our southern counties1 they do not start their northward journey as early as we might expect1 and it is not until the first part of ,april that we may be sure of finding them4 ,i have one list1 indeed that shows their first appearance on ,may first6 ,they are to be found in places similar to those which the fox-sparrows choose1 and are very similar to them in habits1 but the boldly striped head and gray breast are very distinctive marks4 ,almost all of our native sparrows have a call note1 the tsweep note1 which is hard to distinguish in the different species without much patient listening--and ,i doubt if any person is infallible in this distinction4 ,the white-throat has this note1 as well as the song-sparrow1 tree-sparrow 7a winter-bird71 fox-sparrow1 white-crown1 chippy1 field-sparrow1 grass-finch1 in fact all our brown-backed sparrows4 ,but the song of the white-throat is his own1 and may be heard frequently during his very leisurely journey through our state4 ,his ,canadian name1 ,peabody bird is descriptive of his notes1 -- 441 441 44 ,when a number get together and whistle1 as if they were singing a round1 it makes a very sweet concert4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,white-throated sparrow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the foremost birds in the spring movement is the grass-finch 7vesper-sparrow or bay-winged bunting74 ,it is to be found in open fields and along roadside fences1 in company with meadow larks1 and its sweet song may be heard almost any warm evening after the middle of ,april4 ,unlike most of our birds1 this sparrow sings at its best late in the afternoon and during twilight1 which perhaps makes its song seem the sweeter4 ,it is rather a gentle song1 though to be heard at some distance1 carrying quite as far as that of the song-sparrow4 ,although the quality of voice is somewhat similar in these two birds1 the grass-finch lacks the merry abandon that characterizes the song-sparrow's song1 but has instead a deeper chord1 which is called by some people sadness4 ,the bird may be easily recognized in the fields by the white tail-feathers1 which always show in flight4 ,it is about the size and general color of the song-sparrow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by the time the foregoing birds are comparatively common1 and the maple buds are bursting and the lilacs swelling1 the gay purple finch appears4 ,he is not purple at all1 but has a crimson head1 which fades on the lower breast through rosy pink into pure white4 ,he is fond of spruces and larches1 feeding greedily on the tender buds as well as on the ants and scale insects that infest them4 ,his song is a fine one1 and in addition to the charm of being poured forth in full flight1 is so long and intricate that one finds himself holding his breath as the burst of melody continues1 as if to help the little fellow catch up with his music4 99 99 99 99 99 ,along the banks of some lake or stream1 sitting idly on a telegraph pole or wire1 rising and settling1 elevating and depressing his long parted top-knot1 a patriarchal old kingfisher may be seen silently awaiting the gleam of a shiner in the water below 7,fig4 #ahb74 ,or perhaps you may first see him flying like a big woodpecker1 screaming his chattering cry high in the air1 or scaling close to the water under the fringing hemlock branches that overhang the stream4 ,his large size1 slate-blue back1 loud notes1 and characteristic flight make him a hard bird to mistake in any case4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,kingfisher4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are many other birds which pass us on their way north1 but they herald rather the summer than the breaking of spring4 ,the following list of spring migrations is taken from ,mr4 ,chapman's ,handbook of the ,birds of ,eastern ,north ,america1 and was compiled for use about ,new ,york ,city4 ,the dates nearly coincide with those ,i have found about the central part of the ,state1 and are1 in the main1 only a few days in advance of those for the northern counties4 ,the latter dates in the column are about what may be taken for the middle tier of counties4 ,it is the earnest hope of the writer that these few very brief sketches may be of use to those interested in entering the delightful field of the study of birds2 your experience may and probably will be different from that which ,i have cited1 which only goes to show that everyone must really see for himself1 and not only that1 but by so doing may make new observations and get new ideas on practically all of even our best known birds4 ,birds are not1 as a rule1 hard to watch1 and the patience it requires to sit still and be a stump long enough for birds to cease noticing you is soon and amply repaid by the new insight into an unknown realm which is sure to follow4 ,,list ,,of ,,birds ,,comprising ,,the ,,spring ,,migration4 7,until ,april #bj--;,approximate47 7,taken from ,chapman's ,handbook of ,birds of ,eastern ,north ,america47 ,date of arrival4 ,feb4 #ae-,mar4 #aj4 ,purple ,grackle4 ,rusty ,grackle4 ,red-winged ,blackbird4 ,robin4 ,bluebird4 ,mar4 #aj-bj ,woodcock4 ,phoebe4 ,meadow ,lark4 ,cowbird4 ,fox-sparrow4 ,mar4 #bj-ca ,wilson's ,snipe4 ,kingfisher4 ,mourning ,dove4 ,swamp-sparrow4 ,field-sparrow4 ,april #a-aj ,great ,blue ,heron4 ,purple ,finch4 ,vesper-sparrow4 ,savanna-sparrow4 ,chipping-sparrow4 ,tree ,swallow4 ,myrtle ,warbler4 ,american ,pipit4 ,hermit ,thrush4 ,april #aj-bj ,yellow-bellied ,woodpecker4 ,barn ,swallow4 ,yellow ,palm ,warbler4 ,pine ,warbler4 ,louisiana ,water ,thrush4 ,ruby-crowned ,kinglet4 ,,leaflet ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,woodpeckers4#ca ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ca ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #cj1 ,march1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,it is best to follow some definite line of bird study for an entire year4 ,all of the observations that could be made in a single month on any bird would give but an inadequate idea of its habits4 ,to know the life of a bird1 one must study it month by month for at least one year4 ,the woodpeckers seem a most attractive group for our study4 ,they are not only very interesting1 but of great importance to the farmer1 orchadist and forester4 ,there are five common species in ,new ,york ,state that we all may learn to know1 and then make observations of our own on their habits4 ,these species are the downy1 the hairy1 the sapsucker1 the flicker and the redhead4 ,the way to begin our observations in winter is to tie a piece of suet to the branch of some tree easily observed from our windows4 ,such a bird feast as this is on a branch of a chestnut oak in front of my office window1 and though ,i never have time to watch more than momentarily the birds that come there to eat1 yet each glance tells me something of their ways1 and my own day's work is much brighter and happier therefor4 ,the downy 7,fig4 #ahc71 as he is universally called1 comes with his mate every day and they eat greedily of the suet2 when they first arrive they are so absorbed in working this food mine that ,i sometimes stand directly beneath and watch them without frightening them4 ,perhaps they know that ,i am the friend who invited them to breakfast4 ,anyway1 as soon as they leave the suet they hunt industriously over my tree1 finding there all of the hidden insects1 and thus they keep my oak clean and pay for their breakfast4 ,occasionally the hairy woodpecker comes1 a self-invited guest to the suet banquet4 ,to the untrained eye he looks very like an over-grown downy1 as he is by two or three inches the longer2 but his outer tail feathers are entirely white1 while the downy's are barred with black2 usually the red cap of the hairy is divided by a black stripe4 ,the hairy is said to be a shy bird1 but ,i have seen him several times this winter at a suet party near dwellings4 ,in ,april there is likely to appear in any region of ,new ,york ,state a bird which is often mistaken for the downy or hairy1 although it is very different in both coloring and habits4 ,this is the sapsucker1 the only woodpecker of bad repute 7,fig4 #ahd74 ,however1 ,i am sure its deeds are not nearly so black as they are painted4 ,the male sapsucker has a bright red crown and chin and throat1 his breast is yellow1 and he is also yellowish on the back2 while the males of the downy and hairy are red-capped and black and white with no yellow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,downy woodpecker4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,sapsucker4 ,,questions ,,on ,,woodpeckers ,,to ,,be ,,answered ,,in ,,march4 #a4 ,what is the difference in appearance between the male and female downy8 #b4 ,how does the downy travel down a tree2 does it go head-first8 ,what food have you seen it eat8 #c4 ,how does the downy use its tail in going up and down the tree trunk8 #d4 ,have you approached a woodpecker closely enough to see how its toes are arranged8 ,if so1 describe them4 #e4 ,how does it manage its head to make its blows forceful8 #f4 ,are you able to discriminate between the hairy and the downy when you see them8 ,how8 #g4 ,do you know the difference in the notes of the hairy and downy8 ,explain4 ,,downy1 ,,sapsucker ,,and ,,red-,,head4#cb #cb ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #ca1 ,april1 #aijc4 ,this morning ,i was awakened by the beating of a drum over in the woods4 ,my ear was not yet sufficiently trained so that ,i knew whether my drummer was ,mr4 ,downy or ,mr4 ,hairy1 yet ,i strongly suspected the former4 ,the tattoo of the ,sapsucker 7which does not nest here7 ,james ,whitcomb ,riley has aptly characterized as ,weeding out the lonesomeness4 ,this is exactly what the drumming of woodpeckers in the early spring means4 ,the male selects some dried limb of hard wood and there beats out his well-known signal which advertises far and near1 ,wanted1 a wife4 ,and after he wins her he keeps on drumming to cheer her1 while she is busy with her family cares4 ,the woodpecker has no voice for singing1 like the robin or thrush1 and realizing his deficiency1 he does not insist on singing like the peacock1 whether he can or no4 ,he chooses rather to devote his voice to terse and business-like conversation1 and when he is musically inclined he turns drummer4 ,he is rather particular about his instrument1 and1 having found one that pleases him in tone1 returns to it day after day4 ,in case the drumming ,i heard this morning was an advertisement for a wife1 ,i am interested to know what has become of ,mrs4 ,downy1 who has been true to her mate all winter4 ,does1 perhaps1 the springtime bring divorce as well as marriage8 ,mr4 ,burroughs tells of a downy that was absolutely brutal in his treatment of his mate in winter1 not allowing her to live in his neighborhood4 ,be this as it may1 the downy and the hairy woodpeckers that have feasted upon my suet this winter have invariably come in pairs1 and while only one at a time sits at meat1 and the lord and master is somewhat bossy1 yet they seem to get along as well as most married pairs4 ,the sapsucker is a woodpecker that has strayed from the paths of virtue2 he has fallen into temptation by the wayside1 and instead of drilling a hole for the sake of the grub at the end of it he drills it for its own sake4 ,he is a tippler and sap is his beverage4 ,he is especially fond of the sap of the mountain ash1 apple1 thorn apple1 canoe birch1 red maple1 red oak and white ash4 ,he drills his holes in beautiful rows1 and sometimes girdles a limb or tree1 and for this he is pronounced a rascal by men who have themselves ruthlessly cut from our land millions of trees that should now be standing4 ,however1 the sapsucker does not live solely on sap and the soft cambium layer of the tree2 he also feeds on insects wherever he finds them4 ,when feeding their young1 sapsuckers are true flycatchers1 getting the insects while on the wing4 ,if you find a sapsucker girdling a tree in your orchard or a birch on your lawn1 just protect the trees with a wire netting1 and let the sapsucker catch mosquitoes for you instead1 and remember that he belongs to a good family and is entitled to some consideration1 even if he has taken to drink4 ,the red-head 7,fig4 #ahe7 is well named1 for his helmet and visor show a vivid1 glowing crimson that stirs the sensibilities of the color lover4 ,he is readily distinguished from all other woodpeckers because his entire head and the bib under his chin are red4 ,for the rest1 he is a beautiful dark metallic blue and white4 ,he is a most adept drummer1 and his roll is a long one4 ,one that ,i observed last spring selected a dead limb at the top of an oak tree and there he drummed merrily every morning4 ,he is an adaptable fellow and has been known to drum on tin roofs and lightning rods1 thus braving the dangers of civilization for the sake of better music4 ,though he can rattle so well when he is musically inclined1 he is not1 after all1 much of a woodpecker1 for he lives mostly on insects which he catches while they are crawling or on the wing1 and he also likes nuts4 ,he is especially fond of beech nuts1 and1 being a thrifty fellow as well as musical1 in time of plenty he stores up food against time of need4 ,he places his nuts in crevices and forks of branches1 in holes in trees1 and other hiding places4 ,lets us watch him this spring and see whether we can discover what he eats4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,the ,red-headed ,woodpecker4 ,,questions ,,about ,,woodpeckers ,,to ,,be ,,answered ,,in ,,april ,,and ,,may4 #a4 ,have you observed any species of woodpecker drumming8 #b4 ,have you been able to see the drum8 ,if so1 describe it4 #c4 ,are you able to distinguish between the tapping of the woodpecker when searching for food1 and his drumming when he is making music8 #d4 ,if you have made any observations on the sapsucker1 please give them4 #e4 ,have you seen the sapsucker at work8 ,if so1 did the holes girdle the tree8 ,were the holes round or square8 #f4 ,have you seen the red-head this spring8 #g4 ,describe the way the woodpecker uses its tail when climbing a tree4 #h4 ,send for ,bulletin ,no4 #g1 of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,ornithology1 called ,food of ,woodpeckers4 ,read this ,bulletin and answer these questions3 ,does the sapsucker do more harm than good8 ,what special benefit to us is the red-head8 ,which is the most useful of our woodpeckers8 ,,the ,,flicker ,,or ,,yellow ,,hammer4#cc #cc ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #cb1 ,may1 #aijc4 ,the first time ,i ever saw a flicker ,i said1 ,what a wonderful meadow lark1 and what is it doing on that ant hill8 ,but another glance revealed to me a red spot on the back of the bird's neck1 and as soon as ,i was sure that this was not a bloody gash ,i knew it belonged to no meadow lark4 ,the golden brown plumage dotted with black1 the under wings of luminous yellow1 the white spot above the tail1 the ashen gray back1 and1 above all1 the oriental ornaments of crescents1--one brilliant red across the back of the neck1 one black across the breast1--all conduce to make the flicker one of our most showy and beautiful birds4 ,the flicker has many names1 such as golden-winged woodpecker1 yellow hammer1 highhole1 and yarup or wake-up1 and many others4 ,it earned the name of highhole because of its way of excavating its nest high up in trees1 usually between ten and twenty-five feet from the ground4 ,it especially loves an old apple tree as a site for a nest1 and most of our large1 old orchards of ,new ,york ,state may boast of a pair of these handsome birds during the nesting season of ,may and ,june4 ,however1 the flicker is not above renting any house he finds vacant which was made by other birds last year4 ,the flicker earned his name of yarup or wake-up from his spring song1 which is a rollicking jolly wick-a-wick-a-wick4 ,as a business bird the flicker shines in the rather extraordinary line of eating ants4 ,it has a tongue equipped almost exactly like the tongue of the animal called the ant eater1 and it often may be seen using it with great effectiveness in catching the little communal laborers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,young ,flickers4 ,those who have observed the flicker during the courting season declare him to be the most silly and vain of all the bird wooers4 ,mr4 ,baskett says1 ,when he wishes to charm his sweet-heart he mounts a very small twig near her1 and lifts his wings1 spreads his tail1 and begins to nod right and left as he exhibits his mustache to his charmer1 and sets his jet locket first on one side of the twig and then the other4 ,he may even go so far as to turn his head half around to show her the pretty spot on his 'back hair4' ,in doing all this he performs the most ludicrous antics1 and has the silliest of expressions of face and voice as if in losing his heart1 as some one phrases it1 he had lost his head also4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,woodpeckers4 ,we have now studied our five species of woodpeckers common in ,new ,york ,state1 and ,i trust that you know them all by sight4 ,when you are teaching the children about the woodpecker1 there are many interesting stories to tell about the way that his form is adapted to his life4 ,some of these stories are as follows3 ,first4 ,the woodpecker's bill1 which is a drill and chisel1 and how he uses it for getting at the grub or the borer in the wood1 and for making the hole for the nest1 and for drumming when he feels musical4 ,second4 ,the tongue1 which is a barbed spear1 and has a wonderful spring attachment of bones which allows it to be thrust far out4 ,this tongue is fitted in each case to get the kind of food which sustains its owner4 ,third4 ,the feet have a special arrangement of toes which allows the bird to cling tenaciously to a tree trunk4 ,study the way the fourth toe1 which may be compared to our little finger1 has been moved around backward so that it acts as another thumb4 ,fourth4 ,study how the tail made of stiff feathers is particularly adapted to act as a brace1 helping the bird to climb a tree4 ,in studying all these things ,i would especially recommend you to a little book called1 ,the ,woodpeckers by ,fannie ,hardy ,eckstrom1 published by ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 price #a4jj4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,flicker4 #a4 ,have you ever seen a flicker8 #b4 ,do you know its song8 #c4 ,has the flicker a straight bill like the downy's8 #d4 ,what are the differences between the male and female flicker8 #e4 ,have you ever seen a flicker catching ants8 ,describe4 #f4 ,do you think the flicker is a beneficial bird8 ,if so1 why8 #g4 ,have you ever seen a flicker's nest8 ,describe4 #h4 ,do you know how the flicker feeds its young8 ,explain4 #i4 ,describe the difference in color between the male and female of the 7a7 downy1 7b7 the hairy1 7c7 the redhead1 7d7 the sapsucker1 7e7 and the flicker4 #aj4 ,how can you tell the difference between a flicker and a meadow lark during flight8 ,illustration3 ,downy's long tongue4 ,,leaflet ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,chickadee4#cd #cd ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #c1 ,december1 #aijc4 ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 ,he is the hero of the woods2 there are courage and good nature enough in that compact little body1 which you may hide in your fist1 to supply a whole groveful of ,may songsters4 ,he has the ,spartan virtue of an eagle1 the cheerfulness of a thrush1 the nimbleness of ,cock ,sparrow1 the endurance of the seabirds condensed into his tiny frame1 and there have been added a pertness and ingenuity all his own4 ,his curiosity is immense1 and his audacity equal to it2 ,i have even had one alight upon the barrel of the gun over my shoulder as ,i sat quietly under his tree4--,,ernest ,,ingersoll4 ,illustration ,however careless we may be of our friends when we are in the midst of the luxurious life of summer1 even the most careless among us give pleased attention to the birds that bravely endure with us the rigors of winter4 ,and when this winged companion of winter proves to be the most fascinating little ball of feathers ever created1 constantly overflowing with cheerful song1 our pleased attention changes to active delight4 ,thus it is that in all the lands of snowy winters the chickadee is a loved comrade of the country wayfarer2 that happy song1 chick-a-dee-dee-dee1 finds its way to the dullest consciousness and the most callous heart4 ,one day in ,february we were1 with much enjoyment1 wading through a drifted highway that skirted a forest1 the least twig of which bore a burden of soft snow4 ,over all hung that silence of winter which is the most silent silence that rests upon the earth anywhere outside the desert4 ,no breeze swayed a creaking branch or shook from it the snow in soft thud to the white carpet below4 ,even the song of the brook was smothered beneath coverlets of ice and pillows of drift4 ,we stood fast1 awed by the stillness1 when suddenly it was broken by the thrilling notes of the chickadees4 ,we could hardly credit our senses1 for it seemed as if the woods was a hopeless place for any living creature that morning4 ,but there before our eyes was a flock of these courageous birds hunting for food on the leeward sides of boles and branches left bare and black in the recent storm4 ,their tiny weights sent the snow in showers from the terminal twigs1 which phenomenon was greeted with triumphant song while the cheerful midgets hunted the relieved branches topside and bottomside for any lurking tidbit4 ,as we watched them1 ,emerson's poem came to mind3 ,piped a tiny voice near by1 ,gay and polite1 a cheerful cry-- ,chick-chickadeedee6 saucy note ,out of sound heart and merry throat1 ,as if it said1 ',good-day1 good ,sir6 ,fine afternoon1 old passenger6 ,happy to meet you in these places ,where ,january brings few faces4' ,no wonder that the great ,american philosopher was attracted by this other ,american philosopher who sings when he is cold and hungry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,a chickadee at the entrance to its nest4 ,besides its usual song the chickadee has a song that says phoebe much more distinctly than does the song of the phoebe itself4 ,few people recognize this1 and often in ,february or early ,march it is announced in the local newspaper1 ,the phoebe-birds were heard to-day though it may be weeks yet before these birds arrive4 ,the two songs may be easily distinguished by even the ear untrained to music4 ,in the phoebe song of the chickadee1 the last syllable is at least one note lower than the first and has a falling inflection2 while the last syllable of the phoebe bird's song is at least a half note higher than the first and has a rising inflection4 ,not long since ,i visited the deserted nest of a devoted pair of chickadees4 ,it was cuddled down in the bottom of a hole that opened on the very top of a fence post1 and1 one would imagine1 must have been wet more than once while inhabited4 ,however1 a large family was raised there during the past season and much enjoyment was derived from watching the many fubsy birdlings that found home and comfort in that unattractive retreat4 ,i looked upon them with special interest1 for ,i was sure they would visit the suet on my trees this winter and thus become friendly neighbors4 ,as soon as the trees are bare1 nail or tie bits of suet to branches which may be observed from your windows4 ,i know of no investment which pays such enormous dividends both to pleasure and pocket as do suet restaurants in orchards patronized by chickadees4 ,every child1 at home or school1 will be attracted by this experiment4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,chickadee4 #a4 ,describe the colors of the chickadee above2 below2 wings2 tail2 throat and head4 #b4 ,describe the differences in coloring between the chickadee and the nuthatch4 #c4 ,what is the shape of the chickadee's beak and for what is it adapted8 #d4 ,does it frequent the trunks of trees1 or the twigs8 #e4 ,describe its actions when hunting for food on a twig4 #f4 ,what is the chief food of the chickadee8 #g4 ,why is it of special value to the farmer8 #h4 ,what are the differences in the winter and summer habits of the chickadee8 #i4 ,do you know the phoebe note of the chickadee8 #aj4 ,where do these birds build their nests and of what material8 #aa4 ,what are the colors and markings on the eggs8 #ab4 ,when is the nesting season8 ,,leaflet ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,white-,,breasted ,,nuthatch4#ce ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ce ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #d1 ,january1 #aijd4 ,the busy nuthatch climbs his tree1 ,around the great bole spirally1 ,peeping into wrinkles gray1 ,under ruffled lichens gay1 ,lazily piping one sharp note ,from his silver maild throat4 --,,maurice ,,thompson4 ,with more artless inquisitiveness than fear1 this lively little acrobat stops his hammering or hatching at your approach1 and stretching himself out from the tree until it would seem he must fall off1 he peers down at you1 head downward1 straight into your upturned opera-glass4 ,if there is too much snow on the upper side of a branch watch how he runs along underneath it like a fly1 busily tapping the bark1 or adroitly breaking the decayed bits with his bill1 as he stretches for the spider's eggs1 larv1 etc41 hidden there2 yet somehow1 between mouthfuls1 managing to call out his cherry quank6 quank6 hank6 hank6 --,,neltje ,,blanchan4 ,illustration ,a voice outside is calling at me2 ,i cannot describe it accurately1 but it is making delightful woodsy remarks that make me long to throw aside the pen and go out and wander where the snow is making still softer the carpet of dead leaves on the forest floor4 ,it is not a musical note but it is most enticing and translates into sound the picture of bare-branched trees and the feeling of enchantment that permeates the forest in winter4 ,neltje ,blanchan says the voice reiterates quank1 quank1 others say it is nay1 nay--but no nasal sound of the human voice1 and no spelling of the ,english language adequately represent this call of the white-breasted nuthatch4 ,on the tree in front of the window ,i can see the owner of this sylvan voice4 ,he is a little bird blue-gray above with black head and black and white ,v-trimmings on the back of his suit and with soft1 white breast4 ,he is flitting blithely from tree to tree enjoying the snow storm and coming often to the suet feast which ,i have spread for him and for his little feathered kin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,the nuthatch1 one of the winter birds4 ,we have been having exciting times at the suet banquet this morning4 ,the building in which my office is1 stands on a high knoll near the forest-covered brink of a deep gorge4 ,thus my window is opposite the tops of the trees4 ,one of our nature-study staff1 a brave and gallant knight1 who loves birds and knows that ,i love to watch them1 climbed two of these trees at imminent risk of breaking his neck in order to place this suet just opposite my window4 ,the whole chickadee family and four nuthatches1 and ,sir ,downy and ,madam ,hairy had been reveling in the feast all the morning when suddenly one after another three crows appeared upon the scene4 ,my heart sank as ,i saw them eying the suet with interest4 ,nearer and nearer they hopped from branch to branch4 ,i pounded on the window and called out1 ,go away in both the crow and the ,english language1 all in vain4 ,one crow braver or hungrier than the others with one defiant eye on me flapped confidently down and sought to carry the suet off in his beak2 to his surprise it was tied on4 ,that seemed suspicious and when we raised the window and leaning far out explained matters he lifted slowly with a jeering caw that said plainly ,i'll call sometime when you are not at home and with that he and his companions disappeared up the gorge4 ,the invited guests at the suet table were less disturbed than was ,i1 and ,i suppose it is rather inconsistent to feed the chickadees and let the ravens go hungry4 ,but this suet will last the little birds a month while it would hardly furnish a breakfast for three crows2 and in philanthropic enterprises one is obliged to draw the line somewhere even at the cost of consistency4 ,i will return to my nuthatch1 who1 by the way1 has just hammered off a piece of suet and thrust it into a crevice of the bark on the tree bole4 ,why does he do that3 is it for convenience in eating or is it an attempt to store up some of his dinner for future need8 ,anyway it is bad manners1 like carrying off fruit from table d' hote4 ,but he is polite enough in another respect2 every time after eating the suet he wipes his beak on his branch napkin with great assiduity1 first one side and then the other1 almost as if he were sharpening it4 ,the woodpeckers are similarly fastidious in cleaning suet off their beaks4 ,the loud note of the nuthatch1 seeming to be out of proportion to the size of the bird is1 by no means1 its only note4 ,yesterday we observed a pair hunting over the branches of an elm over our heads1 and they were talking to each other in sweet confidential syllables wit1 wit1 wit1 entirely different from the loud note that is meant for the world at large4 ,the nuthatches and chickadees hunt together all winter4 ,this is no business partnership1 but one of congeniality based upon similar tastes4 ,thus it is that the two birds are often confused4 ,there is1 however1 a very noticeable character that distinguishes them at the first glance4 ,strange to say the nuthatch has also been confused with the sapsucker and has gained unjust obloquy thereby4 ,how any one with eyes could confuse these two birds is a mystery1 for they resemble each other in no particular nor in general appearance4 ,while the nuthatch finds much of its food on trees1 yet ,mr4 ,torrey tells of seeing one awkwardly turning over the fallen leaves for hidden cocoons and other things quite worth his while2 and ,mr4 ,baskett tells of having seem them catch flies in the air and becoming quite out of breath at this unusual exercise4 ,audubon made some most interesting observations on the nuthatch4 ,he says they may sleep hanging head downward4 ,he also says of their nesting habits that both birds work together1 all the time congratulating each other in the tenderest manner4 ,the male1 ever conspicuous on such occasions1 works some1 and carries off the slender chips chiseled by the female4 ,he struts around her1 peeps into the hole1 cherups at intervals1 or hovers about her on the wing4 ,while she is sitting on her eggs1 he seldom absents himself many moments2 now with a full bill he feeds her1 now returns to be assured that her time is pleasantly spent4 ,the red-breasted nuthatch is sometimes associated with its white-breasted cousin2 it is a smaller bird and is essentially a northern species4 ,the nuthatches get their name from their habit of wedging nuts and acorns into bark and then hatching them open4 ,from every standpoint the nuthatches are most desirable acquaintances1 and we cannot spend our time to better advantage than in getting familiar with their interesting habits4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,white-,,breasted ,,nuthatch4 #a4 ,describe from your own observations the colors of the nuthatch above and below4 #b4 7a7 ,what is the most noticeable character that distinguishes the nuthatch from the chickadee8 7b7 ,does the nuthatch usually frequent the bole or the twigs of a tree8 7c7 ,is there any difference in this respect between the habits of the nuthatch and the chickadee8 #c4 ,does the nuthatch alight with its head down or up8 #d4 ,does it travel down or up8 ,does it always go in a spiral8 #e4 ,what is its food8 #f4 ,does it open nuts for the meat or the grubs within8 #g4 ,does it use its tail as a brace in climbing trees as does the woodpecker8 #h4 ,where does it build its nest8 #i4 ,what is the color of the eggs8 #aj4 ,why does it seem less common in summer than in winter8 #aa4 ,how does it use its feet when resting on a tree trunk8 #ab4 ,has it any special development of the feet to help it in traveling on tree trunks8 #ac4 ,do you know the note of the nuthatch8 ,describe4 #ad4 ,how would you spell its note8 #ae4 ,how does the nuthatch help the farmer and fruit grower8 ,,leaflet ,,xxvii4 ,,about ,,crows4#cf ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 #cf ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #bg1 ,december1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,thousands and thousands of crows fast asleep amongst the branches of a grove of pines6 ,the trees themselves look dark and sombre against the snowy hillside1 but when the assemblage of dusky birds has gathered there1 the shadows thicken and the darkness settles like a pall4 ,soon all is hushed and silent4 ,would you not go miles to see such a sight8 ,yet maybe you have lived for years within easy walking distance of a great crow dormitory without even suspecting its existence4 ,you may have watched the crows flying overhead every morning and then again every afternoon1 without noticing that they came from the same direction each morning and returned at nightfall4 ,this was just my experience until ,i began to care about crows and their ways4 ,now ,i know that there is a sleeping roost a mile or so up one of our wooded valleys and the oldest inhabitant tells me that he remembers seeing more'n a million crows up there in winters when he was a boy4 ,undoubtedly generation after generation of crows return to these sleeping places2 certain localities have probably been so used for centuries4 ,although we have crows here all winter they may not be the same individuals that spent the summer here4 ,the center of crow population in the eastern ,united ,states from ,november till ,february is the neighborhood of ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,there the food supply is more abundant than where the ground is snow-covered in winter1 and thither the crows migrate in innumerable armies4 ,dormitories from ten to thirty acres in extent and accommodating from ten thousand to three hundred thousand crows each have been found in that region4 ,why crows gather thus in companies either small or large is undoubtedly due to their natural sociability4 ,the opportunities for exhibition of conversational powers offered by such a custom seems to be greatly appreciated by every crow4 ,such a babel as they raise when in early morning their watchman rouses them from sleep6 ,they appear to be reviling him for his untimely interruption4 ,for several minutes the woods fairly ring with their loud1 coarse shouts4 ,then1 as if resigned to their fate1 they take flight towards the feeding grounds4 ,by sunset they all congregate again and after recounting their adventures1 settle down early to sleep4 ,in open winters crows fare well enough4 ,seeds and berries are easy to get and considerable grain may be found in harvested fields4 ,but like barnyard fowls1 crows are omnivorous4 ,after the grasshoppers disappear1 a supply of animal food is hard to get4 ,the silken egg-sacs of spiders are often found torn open and rifled1 while suspiciously near by are the tracks of crows4 ,undoubtedly rabbits and field mice would unite with the spiders in declaring the crow to be their deadly enemy4 ,that crows eat corn is undeniable4 ,the farmers know it to their sorrow1 the bird's champions reluctantly admit it1 the crow himself goes openly into the field1 both in winter and summer1 with no intent to conceal his intentions4 ,and yet this universally acknowledged habit will bear investigation4 ,upon the real or supposed injury done to sprouting corn and to roasting-ears1 the farmer and his sons base their animosity toward crows and rejoice at the wholesale or retail slaughter of these birds4 ,carefully prepared estimates show conclusively that the crow is the farmer's friend4 ,only three per cent of the total food of the crow consists of corn in any form1 while twenty-six per cent consists of insects such as grasshoppers1 ,may beetles 7,june bugs1 whose young are the white grubs71 cutworms and other injurious kinds4 ,on such evidence as this would not an unprejudiced jury acquit the crow8 ,the best way to establish the crow in this new and true relationship to the farmer1 is to interest the boys and girls in studying crows and their ways4 ,to make a fair judgment1 one must collect evidence4 ,mere hearsay is not always to be depended on4 ,justice and truth are worth working for4 ,the case of the ,crow vs4 the ,farmer1 will give opportunity for the practice of both of these virtues4 ,,winter ,,birds4#cg #cg ,quiz on ,lesson ,no4 #bg1 ,december1 #aijb4 ,the winter is not so devoid of life as we sometimes think4 ,there are mammals in the woods and coverts1 fishes in the lakes and deep brooks1 birds in the forest and the open4 ,let us devote one early midwinter lesson to the birds4 ,have the children make particular observations on the ,english sparrow4 ,other birds may be observed1 as1 for example1 our old friend the crow4 ,all these birds touch the life of the farmer and the nature-lover4 ,those students who are so situated that a study of crows is impossible may substitute ,english sparrows1 chickadees1 woodpeckers or any other winter birds4 ,a bulletin entitled ,the ,common ,crow was issued by the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture in #ahie4 ,students in this course can obtain one copy each by sending ten cents to ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,union ,building1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,do not send stamps4 ,do crows winter in your vicinity8 ,are you able to verify the statements made in the lesson concerning the flight in opposite directions in morning and evening8 ,give observations made since receiving this lesson4 ,is there a crow dormitory in your vicinity8 7,inquire of old residents and keep a close watch47 ,watch a crow on the wing4 ,if he is flying low1 try to count the big wing feathers4 ,note here any peculiarities of this bird's way of flying4 ,how does a crow hold on to a limb when asleep8 ,what characteristics have crows and chickens in common8 ,how do they differ8 ,compare feathers1 bills and feet of chickens and crows4 ,look for crow tracks in the snow4 ,where have you seen them8 ,can you always tell which way the bird was going8 ,how8 ,sketch the tracks on separate sheet4 ,how long is the longest toe1 including the claw8 ,which toe is this8 ,is the track ever longer than the toe itself8 ,if so1 why8 ,have you ever seen the scratches in the snow made by the stiff wing feathers when the crow takes its flight from the ground8 ,count the scratches4 ,what food have you seen crows eating8 ,watch during the whole month and mention any new items you can add to their bill of fare4 ,have you ever seen crow's nests8 ,where8 ,when8 ,describe the nest1 eggs and nestlings1 if you have seen them4 7,these are things to look for during the spring and summer47 ,does the plumage of the yearling crow differ from that of the older birds8 ,do males and females differ in color8 ,crows are said to possess remarkably well developed brains4 ,what evidence have you of their sagacity1 fearlessness1 cunning or greed8 ,what other winter birds have you seen this year8 ,give on separate sheet an account of a winter walk4 ,,leaflet ,,xxviii4 ,,how ,a ,,squash ,,plant ,,gets ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,seed4#ch ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #ch ,teacher's ,leaflet ,no4 #a1 ,december1 #ahif4 ,the first ,cornell nature-study leaflet4 ,for a discussion of the title of this leaflet and what it signifies pedagogically1 consult ,the ,integument ,man1 in ,the ,nature-,study ,idea4 7,doubleday1 ,page ,co47 ,illustration ,if one were to plant seeds of a ,hubbard or ,boston ,marrow squash in loose warm earth in a pan or box1 and were then to leave the parcel for a week or ten days1 he would find1 upon his return1 a colony of plants like that shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,if he had not planted the seeds himself or had not seen such plants before1 he would not believe that these curious plants would ever grow into squash vines1 so different are they from the vines which we know in the garden4 ,this1 itself1 is a most curious fact1--this wonderful difference between the first and the later stages of nearly all plants1 and it is only because we know it so well that we do not wonder at it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,squash plant a week old4 ,it may happen1 however1--as it did in a pan of seed which ,i sowed a few days ago--that one or two of the plants may look like that shown in ,fig4 #aij4 ,here the seed seems to have come up on top of the plant2 and one is reminded of the curious way in which beans come up on the stalk of the young plant4 ,if we were to study the matter1 however1--as we may do at a future time--we should find a great difference in the ways in which the squashes and the beans raise their seeds out of the ground4 ,it is not our purpose to compare the squash and the bean at this time1 but we are curious to know why one of these squash plants brings its seed up out of the ground whilst all the others do not4 ,in order to find out why it is1 we must ask the plant1 and this asking is what we call an experiment4 ,we may first pull up the two plants4 ,the first one 7,fig4 #ahi7 will be seen to have the seed-coats still attached to the very lowest part of the stalk below the soil1 but the other plant has no seed at that point4 ,we will now plant more seeds1 a dozen or more of them1 so that we shall have enough to examine two or three times a day for several days4 ,a day or two after the seeds are planted1 we shall find a little point or root-like part breaking out of the sharp end of the seed1 as shown in ,fig4 #aia4 ,a day later this root part has grown to be as long as the seed itself 7,fig4 #aib71 and it has turned directly downwards into the soil4 ,but there is another most interesting thing about this germinating seed4 ,just where the root is breaking out of the seed 7shown at a in ,fig4 #aib71 there is a little peg or projection4 ,in ,fig4 #aic1 about a day later1 the root has grown still longer1 and this peg seems to be forcing the seed apart4 ,in ,fig1 #aid1 however1 it will be seen that the seed is really being forced apart by the stem or stalk above the peg for this stem is now growing longer4 ,the lower lobe of the seed has attached to the peg 7seen at a1 ,fig4 #aid71 and the seed-leaves seem to be backing out of the seed4 ,fig4 #aie shows the seed a day later4 ,the root has now produced many branches and has thoroughly established itself in the soil4 ,the top is also growing rapidly and is still backing out of the seed1 and the seed-coats are still firmly held by the obstinate peg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,squash plant which has brought the seed-coats out of the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,germination just beginning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,the root and peg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,third day of root growth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,the plant breaking out of the seed4 ,whilst we have been seeing all these peculiar things in the seeds which we have dug up1 the plantlets which we have not disturbed have been coming through the soil4 ,if we were to see the plant in ,fig4 #aie1 as it was coming up1 it would look like ,fig4 #aif4 ,it is tugging away in getting its head out of the bonnet which is pegged down underneath the soil1 and it has got its back up in the operation4 ,in ,fig4 #aig it has escaped from its trap and it is laughing and growing in delight4 ,it must now straighten itself up1 as it is doing in ,fig4 #aig1 and it is soon standing proud and straight1 as in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,we now see that the reason why the seed came up on the plant in ,fig4 #aij1 is that in some way the peg did not hold the seed-coats down 7see ,fig4 #aie71 and the expanding leaves1 being pinched together must get themselves loose as best they can4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,the operation further progressed4 ,there is another thing about this interesting squash plant which we must not fail to notice1 and this is the fact that these first two leaves of the plantlet came out of the seed and did not grow out of the plant itself4 ,we must notice1 too1 that these leaves are much smaller when they are first drawn out of the seed-coat than they are when the plantlet has straightened itself up4 ,that is1 these leaves increase very much in size after they reach the light and air4 ,the roots of the plantlet are now established in the soil and are taking in food which enables the plant to grow4 ,the next leaves which appear will be very different from these first or seed leaves4 ,these later ones are called the true leaves4 ,they grow right out of the little plant itself4 ,fig4 #aii shows these true leaves as they appear on a young ,crookneck squash plant1 and the plant now begins to look much like a squash vine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,the plant just coming up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,the plant liberated from the seed-coats4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,the plant straightening up4 ,we are now curious to know how the stem grows when it backs out of the seeds and pulls the little seed-leaves with it1 and how the root grows downwards into the soil4 ,now let us pull up another seed when it has sent a single root about two inches deep into the earth4 ,we will wash it very carefully and lay it upon a piece of paper4 ,then we will lay a ruler alongside of it1 and make an ink mark one-quarter of an inch from the tip1 and two or three other marks at equal distances above 7,fig4 #bjj74ci ,we will now carefully replant the seed4 ,two days later we will dig it up1 when we shall most likely find a condition somewhat like that in ,fig4 #bja4 ,it will be seen that the marks ,e1 ,c1 ,b1 are practically the same distance apart as before and they are also the same distance from the peg ,,aa4 ,the point of the root is no longer at ,,dd1 however1 but has moved on to ,f4 ,the root1 therefore1 has grown almost wholly in the end part4 #ci ,,note4--,common ink will not answer for this purpose because it runs when the root is wet2 indelible ink1 used for marking linen or for drawing1 should be used4 ,it should also be said that the root of the common pumpkin and of the summer bush squashes is too fibrous and branchy for this test4 ,it should be stated also that the root does not grow at its very tip1 but chiefly in a narrow zone just back of the tip2 but the determination of this point is rather too difficult for the beginner1 and1 moreover1 it is foreign to the purpose of this tract4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,the true leaves developing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,marking the root4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,the root grows in the end parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,the marking of the stem1 and the spreading apart of the marks4 ,now let us make a similar experiment with the stem or stalk4 ,we will mark a young stem1 as at ,a in ,fig4 #bjb2 but the next day we shall find that these marks are farther apart than when we made them 7,b1 ,fig4 #bjb74 ,the marks have all raised themselves above the ground as the plant has grown4 ,the stem1 therefore1 has grown between the joints rather than from the end4 ,the stem usually grows most rapidly1 at any given time1 at the upper or younger part of the joint 7or internode72 and the joint soon reaches the limit of its growth and becomes stationary1 while a new one grows out above it4 ,illustration ,,leaflet ,,xxix4 ,,how ,,the ,,trees ,,look ,,in ,,winter4#dj ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #dj ,teacher's ,leaflet ,no4 #ab1 ,january1 #ahii4 ,sidenote3 ,to the teacher4--,we want the country child to have a closer touch with nature in the winter time4 ,teach him to see1 to know1 and to care for the trees when they are leafless4 ,this leaflet will suggest how you may interest him4 ,you can also intensify his interest in the subject1 and at the same time increase his knowledge of drawing1 by having him make skeleton or outline drawings of the trees about the schoolhouse or the home4 ,leaflet ,,xxx gives suggestions for drawing4 ,you can correlate this work with geography by giving the distribution or range of the different kinds of trees4 ,indicate the limit of distribution northward1 southward1 eastward1 westward2 also the regions in which the species is most abundant4 ,the common manuals of botany will help you in this work2 or you may consult the many excellent special books on trees4 ,in teaching nature-study1 remember that a great part of its value lies in the enthusiasm and zeal with which you handle it4 ,try1 also1 to develop the sthetic sense of the pupil2 but do not teach mere sentiment4 ,illustration ,only the growing and open season is thought to be attractive in the country4 ,the winter is bare and cheerless4 ,the trees are naked4 ,the flowers are under the snow4 ,the birds have flown4 ,the only bright and cheery spot is the winter fireside4 ,but even there the farmer has so much time that he does not know what to do with it4 ,only those who have little time1 appreciate its value4 ,but the winter is not lifeless and charmless4 ,it is only dormant4 ,the external world fails to interest us because we have not been trained to see and know it2 and also because the rigorous weather and the snow prevent us from going afield4 ,in the spring1 summer1 and fall1 the hours are full to overflowing with life and interest4 ,on every hand we are in contact with nature4 ,if the farmer's winter is to be more enjoyable the farmer must have more points of contact with the winter world4 ,one of the best and most direct of these points of sympathy is an interest in the winter aspects of trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,small-fruited ,shagbark ,hickory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,pignut ,hickory4 ,this and ,fig4 #bjc are from ,lessons with ,plants4 a4 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,tree-,,top4 ,in the summer time we distinguish the kinds of trees chiefly by means of the shape and the foliage4 ,in winter the foliage is gone2 but the shape remains1 and the framework of the tree is also conspicuous4 ,trees are as distinct in winter as in summer2 and in some respects their characters are more apparent and pronounced4 ,observe the outline of a tree against the dull winter sky4 ,it does not matter what kind of tree it is4 ,note its height1 shape1 and size of top1 how many branches there are1 how the branches are arranged on the main trunk1 the direction of the branches1 whether the twigs are few or many1 crooked or straight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,slippery ,elm4 ,the expression is stiff and hard4 ,having observed these points in any tree1 compare one kind of tree with another and note how they differ in these features4 ,compare an apple tree with an elm1 an elm with a maple1 a basswood with a pine1 a poplar with a beech1 a pear tree with a peach tree4 ,having made comparisons between very dissimilar trees1 compare those which are much alike1 as the different kinds of maples1 of elms1 of oaks1 of poplars4 ,as your powers of observation become trained1 compare the different varieties of the same kind of fruit trees1 if there are good orchards in the vicinity4 ,the different varieties of pears afford excellent contrasts4 ,contrast the ,bartlett with the ,flemish ,beauty1 the ,kieffer with the ,seckel4 ,in apples1 compare the ,baldwin with the ,spy1 the ,king with the ,twenty ,ounce4 ,the sweet and sour cherries show marked differences in method of branching4 ,fruit men can tell many varieties apart in winter4 ,how8 ,two common hickories are shown in ,figs4 #bjc and #bjd4 ,how do they differ8 ,do they differ in length of trunk8 ,general method of branching8 ,direction of branches8 ,character of twig growth8 ,straightness or crookedness of branches8 ,contrast the slippery elm 7,fig4 #bje7 and the common or ,american elm 7,fig4 #baa74 ,the former has a crotchy or forked growth1 and long1 stiff1 wide-spreading branches4 ,the latter is more vase-like in shape4 ,the branches are willowy and graceful1 with a tendency to weep4 ,compare the oaks4 ,the white and scarlet oaks have short trunks when they grow in fields1 and the main branches are comparatively few and make bold angles and curves4 ,the swamp white oak 7,fig4 #bjf71 however1 has a more continuous trunk1 with many comparatively small1 horizontal1 and tortuous branches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,swamp ,white ,oak4 ,with ,fig4 #bjf compare the pepperidge 7,fig4 #bjg74 ,this is one of the most unusual and interesting of all our native trees4 ,it grows in swales4 ,it has a very tough-grained wood4 ,the autumn foliage is deep red and handsome4 ,the peculiarities of the tree are the continuation of the trunk to near the summit1 and the many lateral1 short1 deflected1 tortuous branches4 ,consider the structure of the sassafras in ,fig4 #bjh4 ,the great branches stand off nearly at right angles to the trunk1 and are bushy and twiggy at the ends4 ,each large branch if cut off at its base and stood upright would look like an independent tree1 so tree-like are its branches4 ,observe how much more bushy the sassafras is than any of the other trees already figured4 ,compare it in the method of branching and the twigginess with the slippery elm 7,fig4 #bje74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,pepperidge or ,sour ,gum4 ,the oddest of ,new ,york trees4 ,but there is still greater brushiness in the thorn-apple 7,fig4 #bji74 ,in twigginess ,figs4 #bjh and #bji are very unlike1 however4 ,pick out the differences4 ,observe the very short and spur-like twigs in the thorn-apple2 also notice how soon the trunk is lost in the branches4 ,with all the foregoing pictures compare the steeple-like form of the ,lombardy poplar 7,fig4 #baj74 ,the tree is frequent along roadsides and about yards4 ,what is its structure8 ,observe it as it stands against the winter sky4 ,there is nothing else in our northern landscape so straight and spire-like4 ,if you know a beech tree standing in a field1 contrast it with the ,lombardy poplar4 ,these two trees represent extremes of vertical and of horizontal branching4 ,aside from the general structure of the tree-top1 the pupil will become interested in the winter color of the tree and in the character of the bark4 ,how does the bark differ between elms and maples1 oaks and chestnuts1 birches and beeches1 hickories and walnuts8 ,why does the bark separate in ridges or peel off in strips8 ,is it not associated with the increase in diameter of the trunk8 ,the method of breaking of the bark is different and peculiar for each kind of tree4 ,look at these things2 and think about them4 ,,the ,,expression ,,of ,,the ,,tree4 ,consciously or unconsciously1 we think of trees much as we think of persons4 ,they suggest thoughts and feelings which are also attributes of people4 ,a tree is weeping1 gay1 restful1 spirited1 quiet1 sombre4 ,that is1 trees have expression4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,sassafras4 ,type of a bushy-topped tree4 ,the expression resides in the observer1 however1 not in the tree4 ,therefore1 the more the person is trained to observe and to reflect1 the more sensitive his mind to the things about him1 and the more meaning the trees have4 ,no one loves nature who does not love trees4 ,we love them for what they are1 wholly aside from their uses in fruit-bearing or shade-giving4 ,a knowledge and love of trees binds one close to the external world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,thorn-apple4 ,one of the most picturesque objects in the winter landscape4 ,how shall one increase his love of trees8 ,first1 by knowing them4 ,he learns their attributes and names4 ,knowing them in winter1 as already suggested1 is one of the ways of becoming acquainted4 ,second1 by endeavoring to determine what thought or feeling they chiefly express4 ,the slippery elm is stiff and hard4 ,the ,american elm is soft and graceful4 ,the ,lombardy poplar is prim and precise4 ,the oak is rugged1 stern1 and bold4 ,the pepperidge is dejected4 ,the long white branches of a leaning buttonwood standing against a distant forest1 suggest some spectre hurrying away from the haunts of men4 ,trees which have very strong expressions1 or which are much unlike others1 are said to have character4 ,they are peculiar4 ,of such trees are oaks1 pepperidges1 ,lombardy poplars1 button woods1 old apple trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,group of ,lombardy ,poplars4 ,from ,bulletin #fh4 ,a tree with very strong characters is said to be picturesque4 ,that is1 it is such an object as an artist delights to put into a picture4 ,trees which are very unsymmetrical1 or knotty1 gnarled1 or crooked1 are usually picturesque4 ,of all common trees1 none is more picturesque than an old apple tree4 ,observe its gnarled and crooked branches1 and the irregular spaces in its top4 ,encourage the pupil to extend his observation to all the trees about him1 especially to such as are common and familiar4 ,teach him to observe the growths of bushes and trees in the fence-rows which lie on his way to school2 and to observe carefully and critically4 ,how do gooseberry bushes differ from currant bushes1 and raspberries from blackberries8 ,observe the lilac bush and the snowballs4 ,how is the snow held on the different kinds of evergreens--as the pines1 spruces1 arbor-vit8 ,see how the fruit-spurs on pears and plums stand out against the sky4 7,consult ,leaflet ,no4 ,,xxxi1 ,four ,apple ,twigs47 ,are there any bright colors of branch and twig to relieve the bareness of the snow8 ,do you see any warmth of color in the swales where the willows and osiers are8 ,do you see old plumes of grass and weeds standing above the snow8 ,do they bring up any visions of summer and brooks and woods8 ,illustration ,,leaflet ,,xxx4 ,,one ,,way ,,of ,,drawing ,,trees ,,in ,,their ,,winter ,,aspect4#da ,,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,furlong4 #da ,teacher's ,leaflet1 ,no4 #ab1 ,january1 #ahii4 ,the few suggestions which are set forth in these pages are based upon two assumptions3--first1 that the teacher has some knowledge of the most salient principles of elementary perspective2 and second1 that she has a love for all things beautiful4 ,it is feasible to deal here not to any extent with art in either its abstract or its concrete form1 but only with drawing4 ,drawing1 in its simplest analysis1 is the ability to record objects as they appear to the normal eye4 ,art is more complicated4 ,it includes many elements1 a few of which are composition1 expression of movement1 and action4 ,the very thought1 feeling1 and refinement of the artist must be expressed in his work4 ,he must tell not only what he sees1 but also what he feels4 ,he interprets nature through his own moods4 ,there are no outlines in nature4 ,the boundaries1 shapes1 and character of various forms are determined by the difference of their color values1 and the contrasts of light and shade4 ,yet an outline drawing is the simplest means of representing form and proportion4 ,although inadequate in many respects1 this somewhat conventional rendering is important to the beginner1 for it is necessary that the child be taught to observe forms and proportions correctly2 and these impressions may be recorded most simply and definitely by outline drawings4 ,michael ,angelo emphasized its importance in these words3 ,the science of drawing or of outline is the essence of painting and all the fine arts1 and the root of all the sciences4 ,to a great extent1 one may show in an outline drawing the character and texture of surfaces4 ,our main object should be to train the boys and girls to observe in order to acquire a correctness of perception1 for education amongst us consists too much in telling1 not enough in training4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,the ,american ,elm1 one of the most typical of vase-form trees4 ,one of the greatest difficulties is to impress upon the minds of beginners the fact that they must think while they look and draw4 ,insist upon the pupil's looking repeatedly at the object4 ,it is better to observe for five minutes and draw for one1 than to observe for one and draw for five4 ,make the drawing lesson more interesting by telling the class something about the object which they are to draw1 involving in the story facts that will impress upon their minds some of the most salient characteristics of the object4 ,encourage the children to discuss the object1 drawing out facts for their own observation4 ,certain kinds of trees1 like certain races of people1 have a general similarity1 yet every single tree has an individuality of its own4 ,apply a few essential questions that will help to determine at least the kind of tree it is1 the race to which it belongs2 for first we must get its general character1 seeing its big proportions and shape2 and later must search for its individualities4 ,is it tall for its greatest width8 ,how far does the trunk extend before dividing8 ,at what height do the lowest branches arise8 ,what is their general direction8 ,do they appear to radiate from the trunk8 ,how do they appear to radiate from the trunk8 ,how do the main branches compare in size with the trunk8 ,are they crooked or straight8 ,the manner of branch growth must be studied carefully4 ,we see in our elm 7,fig4 #baa7 that the trunk divides at about a fourth of its height into several main branches1 while in the case of the pepperidge 7,fig4 #bjg7 the trunk extends to the very top of the tree1 the branches being small in proportion to the trunk1 not varying much in size1 and taking an oblique downward direction4 ,notice the weird expression of these trees with their crookedly bent tops1 one side of each trunk being almost devoid of branches4 ,the trunk of the sassafras 7,fig4 #bjh7 continues nearly to the top of this tree1 while the large branches1 though unsymmetrical1 give it a well-balanced appearance4 ,again in our picture of the thorn-apple 7,fig4 #bji71 we are at once impressed with its irregular form1 the branches on the left taking a more oblique direction than those of the other side1 the trunk dividing a little short of half the height of the tree4 ,for an example1 let our subject be an elm tree 7,fig4 #baa72 our drawing to be rendered in outline4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,blocking-in the elm tree 7,fig4 #baa74 ,the first work which the artist does when he draws the tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,working in the details with sharp lines4 ,the original pencil sketch is not followed exactly4 ,material4--,almost any good drawing paper1 white or buff in color1 will answer our purpose2 #ix#ab is a good size4 ,our pencil should be of medium grade lead 7,f4 or ,,hb47 of any standard make1 ,kohinoor preferred4 ,if procurable1 we should have a light drawing board #agx#bb inches 7here is an opportunity for the carpenters7 to place the paper on1 otherwise a very stiff piece of cardboard2 or a large geography book might answer4 ,it is best1 however1 to fasten our paper1 which we cannot do in using the book4 ,for fastening the paper use four thumb tacks for the corners4 ,a ,faber or multiplex pencil eraser is needed2 also a sponge eraser with which to remove the light lines and clean the drawing before lining it in4 ,our position4--,our point of view will depend upon our subject1 but it is not well to be so near as to necessitate raising the head in order to see the top of the tree4 ,if we take longer than one sitting for our drawing 7which ,i do not think advisable1 as we must not choose too complicated a subject71 we must mark our position in order to obtain again the same point of view4 ,position of the drawing-board4--,our paper must be placed on the board with its edges parallel to those of the board4 ,the drawing-board should be held perpendicular1 or nearly so1 to the direction in which it is seen1 for if the board is tilted far backward1 it will be fore-shortened and our tree will probably have been drawn longer than it should be4 ,how to look4--,the tendency of the beginner is to see and draw too much in detail4 ,it is most essential that we look first for the large shapes1 the greatest dimensions2 next for the smaller ones2 last for detail4 ,it is not well for the pupils to work too close to their drawings4 ,they should occasionally sit well back in their seats or get up and stand behind the seats to obtain the general effect of their drawing1 to see that the big shapes are right and that the character of the tree has not been lost4 ,as an aid to placing our drawing so as best to fill the space it has to occupy1 we may use what the ,french call a cherche-motif1 the ,english1 a finder4 ,this is nothing more than a small piece of stiff paper or cardboard about #ex#h inches1 in which is cut a small rectangular opening about #c_/dx#a inch2 the size and proportion may vary somewhat4 ,we may look through this opening1 the card acting as a frame to our picture4 ,this will help us to decide whether our subject will look better placed the horizontal or the vertical way of the paper and how much of the subject to include and where to place it in that space4 ,we may include more or less in the finder by varying its distance from the eye4 ,now1 ,i am sure we should not place ourselves within a dozen yards of our tree if we wished to get its general effect2 therefore1 we must have plenty of foreground in our drawing4 ,we must give the eye a chance to look1 allowing plenty of space between the lowest point of our drawing and the lower edge of our paper4 ,as the height of tree we are to draw 7,fig4 #baa7 is greater than its greatest width1 we find that it will fill the space best if placed the vertical way of the paper4 ,after indicating the extreme height and width by four light marks1 before carrying the drawing further we must test these proportions by comparing the width with the height1 always testing the shorter dimension into the longer1 viz43 ,to test the drawing4--,close one eye4 ,the pencil may be used to test the drawing by holding it in front of you at arm's length 7as in ,fig4 #bad7 perpendicular to the direction in which the object is seen2 also revolving it in a plane perpendicular to the direction in which the object is seen1 in order to compare one dimension with another4 ,for example1 hold your pencil horizontally at arm's length so that its blunt end covers the outermost left-hand point of the elm4 ,slide your thumb along the pencil till it covers the extreme right-hand point2 retain that measurement 7keeping the same position in your chair1 pencil always at arm's length72 revolve the pencil in the same plane until it coincides with the height of the elm1 at the same time lowering it so that the end of the thumb covers the lowest point of the tree2 note carefully the point that the blunt end covers2 raise the pencil so that the end of the thumb covers that point1 noting again where the blunt end occurs and notice how many times1 and how much over1 the width goes into the height4 ,in our elm 7,fig4 #baa7 we find that the width goes about once and six-sevenths into the height1 or a little short of twice4 ,if the latter statement is preferred1 we must bear in mind the proportion left over4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,how to test the drawing4 ,do not use the scale side of a ruler or marks on the pencil or object used in order to test the proportions1 and never transfer measurements from the object used in testing to your paper4 ,a scale or other mechanical means should not be used in free-hand drawing4 ,the teacher should have a spool of black thread and should give a piece about #b feet #f inches long to each pupil4 ,an eraser1 a knife1 or some small article may be attached to one end of the thread4 ,by holding the weighted thread as a plumb-line in front of us1 we have an absolutely vertical line2 so by having it intersect a desired point of our tree we may obtain the relative positions to the right and left of other points above and below this intersected point4 ,blocking-in4--,we may conceive of the general shape of our elm by looking at it with half closed eyes4 ,it appears in silhouette4 ,now imagine lines joining its outermost points2 this will give the general mass or shape of our tree4 ,now if we represent the outermost points contained in these lines by sketching lightly these blocking-in lines1 as they are called1 we obtain the general shape of the elm 7,fig4 #bab74 ,we must emphasize the fact that these blocking-in lines are to be sketched in lightly by holding the pencil near the blunt end1 using a free-arm motion4 ,now before going farther we again test these new points to see if they occupy their correct positions in relation to the height and width4 ,do not1 however1 transfer the measurements from the pencil to the paper4 ,this test is only to obtain the proportion of one dimension to another4 ,having tested these smaller dimensions we may draw lightly the main branches4 ,after having indicated their general direction and character of growth1 we may indicate some of the smaller branches and twigs 7,fig4 #bac74 ,all this work should be carried out without erasing2 all corrections should be made by slightly darker lines4 ,let us now sharpen our pencils to a good point and go over the drawing with a fine dark line1 carefully studying the character and spirit of the tree4 ,now erase the lighter and superfluous lines1 as the dark lines remain distinct enough to indicate our drawing4 ,lining-in4--,we may now take our pencil nearer the point and proceed to line-in the drawing1 going over it with a definite1 consistent line4 ,if desirable1 we may accent and bring out certain parts of the tree more strongly than others by darker or shade lines and short1 strong markings called accents4 ,these are especially effective at the junction and underside of branches1 and where one wishes to give the object a nearer appearance4 ,a soft1 broad1 grey line may be obtained by using a softer pencil 7,b7 and the drawing given variety by breaking lines here and there4 ,we should be cautious in using them1 however2 but lack of space does not permit further discussion of the subject of accented outlines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,the outline drawing complete1 and the first pencil marks erased4 ,allow the pupils to make short ten- or fifteen-minute time sketches of trees4 ,in these it is the spirit and general effect of the tree that we must strive for4 ,above all1 we must allow our little draughtsmen to give their own interpretation of the tree4 ,a helpful suggestion as to proportion1 etc41 would be in place1 but we must allow their individuality to have as much play as possible4 ,the suggestions given on these pages are necessary for the beginner4 ,some of them are hard facts2 but it lies with the teacher to develop the sthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant in the pupil1 ready to be moulded and started in the right direction4 ,if you have confined the pupils to the flat copy1 break away from it2 allow them to create4 ,let them see the beautiful things all about them4 ,they will respond4 ,let them draw from nature and still life4 ,train them to observe4 ,the early summer days1 just before school closes1 with their bright sunlight and strong shadows1 make many subjects interesting as light-and-shade drawings4 ,fall1 with its brilliant coloring1 gives us a chance to use the color-box1 while the early winter twilights will bring many an interesting silhouette before our boys and girls1 and next day during the drawing hour these impressions may be carried out in pen and ink4 ,the most successful teacher will be the one of sympathetic nature whose love reaches out to the boys and girls1 as well as to all things beautiful4 ,the most successful teacher will be the one who endeavors to place the children where they may view nature sympathetically and in the most intimate relationship4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxi4 ,,four ,,apple ,,twigs4#db ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #db ,teachers' ,leaflet ,no4 #c1 ,march1 #ahig4 ,illustration ,as ,i walked through an apple orchard the other day for the first time since the long winter had set in1 ,i was struck by the many different shapes and sizes of the limbs as ,i saw them against the blue-gray of the ,february sky4 ,i cut four of them in passing1 and as ,i walked back to the house ,i wondered why the twigs were all so different2 and ,i found myself guessing whether there would be any apples next summer4 ,i have had pictures made of these four little apple limbs4 ,let us look them over and see whether they have any story to tell of how they grew and what they have set out to do4 ,i4 ,one of these twigs 7,fig4 #baf7 was taken from a strong young tree which1 ,i remember1 bore its first good crop of apples last year4 ,this simple twig is plainly of two years' growth1 for the ring between the old and new wood is seen at ,b4 ,that is1 the main stem from the base up to ,b grew in #ahie1 and the part from ,b to the tip grew in #ahif4 ,but the buds upon these two parts look very unlike4 ,let us see what these differences mean4 ,we must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from ,b to #aj looked last summer while it was growing4 ,the shoot bore leaves4 ,where8 ,there was one just below each bud2 or1 to be more exact1 one bud developed just above each leaf4 ,these buds did not put out leaves4 ,they grew to their present size and then stopped4 ,the leaves fell4 ,what are these buds of the tip shoot preparing to do in #ahig8 ,we can answer this question by going back just one year and seeing what the buds on the lower 7or older7 part of the shoot did in #ahif4 ,on that part 7below ,b7 the buds seem to have increased in size4 ,therefore1 they must have grown larger last year4 ,there were no leaves borne below these buds in #ahif1 but a cluster of leaves came out of each little bud in the spring4 ,as these leaves expanded and grew1 the little bud grew on2 that is1 each bud grew into a tiny branch1 and when fall came each of these branches had a bud on its end to continue the growth in the year to come4 ,what we took to be simple buds at #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 are1 therefore1 little branches4 ,but the strangest part of this wonderful little twig has not yet been seen1--the branches are of different sizes1 and three of them 7#g1 #h1 #i7 have so far outstripped the others that they seem to be of a different kind4 ,it should be noticed1 too1 that the very lowermost bud 7at #a7 never grew at all1 but remained perfectly dormant during the entire year #ahif4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that the dormant bud and the smallest branches are on the lower part of the shoot1 and the three strong branches are at the very tip of the last year's growth4 ,if1 now1 we picture the twig as it looked in the fall of #ahie1 we shall see that it consisted of a single shoot1 terminating at ,b4 ,it had a large terminal bud 7like those at #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj71 and this bud pushed on into a branch in #ahif1 while three other buds near the tip did the same thing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,a two-year-old shoot from a young apple tree4 ,half size4 ,why did some of these branches grow to be larger than others8 ,simply because they were upon the strongest part of the shoot1 or that part where the greatest growth naturally takes place1 some one will answer4 ,but this really does not answer the question1 for we want to know why this part of the shoot is strongest4 ,probably the real reason is that there is more sunlight and more room on this outward or upward end4 ,in #ahig1--;if this shoot had been spared--each of these four largest twigs 7#g1 #h1 #i1 #aj7 would have done the same thing as the parent twig did in #ahif3 each would have pushed on from its end1 and one or two or three other strong branches would probably have started from the strong side-buds near the tips1 the very lowest buds would1 no doubt1 have remained perfectly inactive or dormant for lack of opportunity1 and the intermediate buds would have made short branches like #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,in other words1 the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips1 and these tip shoots eventually become strong branches1 unless some of them die in the struggle for existence4 ,what1 now1 becomes of the little branches lower down8 ,,ii4 ,from another apple tree ,i took the twig shown in ,fig4 #bag4 ,we see at once that it is very unlike the other one4 ,it seems to be two years old1 one year's growth extending from the base up to #g1 and the last year's growth extending from #g to #h2 but we shall see upon looking closer that this is not so4 ,the short branchlets at #c1 #d1 #e1 #g are very different from those in ,fig4 #baf4 ,they seem to be broken off4 ,the fact is that the broken ends show were apples were borne in #ahif4 ,the branchlets that bore them1 therefore1 must have grown in #ahie1 while the main branch1 from #a to #g1 grew in #ahid4 ,it is plain1 from the looks of the buds1 that the shoot from #g to #h grew last year1 #ahif4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,a three-year-old shoot and the fruit-spurs4 ,half size4 ,starting from the base1 then1 we have the main twig growing in #ahid2 the small side branches growing in #ahie2 these little branches bearing apples in #ahif2 and the terminal shoot also growing in #ahif4 ,why was there no terminal shoot growing in #ahie8 ,simply because its tip developed a fruit-bud 7at #g7 and therefore could not send out a branch2 for there are two kinds of buds1--the small1 pointed leaf-bud and the thick1 blunt fruit-bud4 ,if the branchlets #c1 #d1 #e1 #g are two years old1 the dormant buds--#a1 #b--must be of the same age4 ,that is1 for two long years these little buds have been waiting 7if ,i may use the expression7 for some bug to eat off the buds and leaves above1 or some accident to break the shoot beyond them1 so that they might have a chance to grow2 but they have waited in vain4 ,we have now found1 therefore1 that the little side shoots upon apple twigs often become fruit-branches or fruit-spurs1 while the more ambitious branches above them are making a great display of stem and leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,a fruit-spur which has borne six apples4 ,half size4 ,but will these fruit-spurs bear fruit again in #ahig8 ,no4 ,the bearing of an apple is hard work1 and these spurs did not have enough vitality left to make fruit-buds for the next year2 but as they must perpetuate themselves1 they have sent out small side buds which will bear a cluster of leaves and grow into another little spur in #ahig1 and in that year these new spurs will make fruit-buds for bearing in #ahih4 ,the side bud is plainly seen on spur #e1 also on spur #d1 whilst spur #g has sown a seed1 so to speak1 in the bud at #f4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 why the tree bears every other year4 ,,iii4 ,there was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked his apples4 ,perhaps the apples were not worth picking4 ,at any rate1 the dried apples1 shriveled and brown1 are still hanging on the twigs1 and even the birds do not seem to care for them4 ,i broke off one of these twigs 7,fig4 #bah74 ,let us see how many apples this interesting twig has borne4 ,we can tell by the square-cut scars4 ,an apple was once borne at #a1 another at #b1 another at #d1 another at #e1 another at #f1 and another at #g1--;and at #g there will be a scar when the apple falls4 ,six apples this modest shoot has borne6 ,and ,i wonder how many of them got ripe1 or how many were taken by the worms1 or how many were eaten by the little boys and girls on their way to school6 ,a peculiar thing happened when the fruit was growing at #b4 ,two side buds started out1 instead of one1 and both of them grew the next year4 ,but one of the little branchlets fell sick and died1 or a bug nipped off its end1 or it starved to death2 and its memory is preserved by the little stick standing up at #c4 ,the other branchlet thrived1 and eventually bore apples at #d1 #e1 #f1 and #g4 ,i have said that these fruit-spurs bear only every other year2 then1 if this branch has borne six apples consecutively1 it must be twelve years old4 ,the truth is that it is about twenty years old1 for some years it failed to bear2 but the age cannot be traced out in the picture1 although any little boy or girl with bright eyes could soon learn to trace out yearly rings on the shoot itself4 ,,iv4 ,the last shoot that ,i got that day has a whole volume of history in it1 and ,i cannot begin to tell its story unless ,i should write a small book4 ,but we will trace out its birthdays and see how many apples it has borne4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #bai1 and because it is so long ,i have had to break it into several pieces to get it on the page4 ,it begins at ,a1 and is continued at ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 and ,f4 ,let us count the yearly rings and see how old the whole limb is4 ,these rings are at #bh1 #bf1 ,d1 #ab1 #a1--;five of them2 and as the shoot grew one year before it made any ring1 and another year made no increase in length--as we shall presently see--the whole branch must be seven years old4 ,that is1 the limb probably started in #ahij4dc ,let us begin1 then1 at ,a1 and follow it out4 #dc ,it is really impossible to tell whether the shoot started from the limb ,a in #ahhi or #ahij1 without knowing the age of ,a2 for the spur may have developed its blossom bud at the end in either the first or second year of its life4 ,that is1 young fruit-spurs sometimes make a blossom bud the very year they start1 but they oftener stand still the second year and delay the blossom bud until that time4 #ahij4 ,started as a spur from the main branch1 ,a1 and grew to #a4 #ahia4 ,apple borne at #a4 ,this apple did not mature1 however1 as we can readily see by the smallness of the scar4 ,in this year1 two side buds developed to continue the spur the next year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,a seven-year-old apple twig and its curious history4 7,half size47 #ahib4 ,ceased to be a fruit-spur1 and made a strong growth on to #ab4 ,for some reason1 it had a good chance to grow4 ,perhaps the farmer pruned the tree1 and thereby gave the shoot an opportunity2 or perhaps he plowed and fertilized the land4 ,in the meantime1 one of the side buds grew to #c1 and the other to #g1 and each made a fruit-bud at its end4 #ahic4 ,shoot grew lustily1--on to ,d4 ,the fruit-bud at #c bore an apple1 which probably matured1 as shown by the scar #b4 ,two side buds were formed beneath this apple1 to continue the spur next year4 ,the fruit-bud at #g bloomed1 but the apple fell early1 as shown by the small scar4 ,two side buds were formed4 ,the buds upon the main shoot--#a to #ab--;all remained dormant4 #ahid4 ,shoot grew from ,d to beyond ,e4 ,side bud of #b grew to #d1 and made a fruit-bud on its end2 the other side bud grew on to #e1 and there made a fruit-bud4 ,side bud of #g grew on to #aj1 and the other one to #h1 each ending in a fruit-bud4 ,buds on old shoot--#a to #ab--still remained dormant4 ,some of the buds on the #ahic growth--#ab to ,d1--remained dormant2 but some of them made fruit-spurs1--#ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc4 #ahie4 ,shoot grew from beyond ,e to #bh4 ,flowers were borne at #d and #e2 but at #d the fruit fell early1 for the five or six scars of the flowers can be seen1 showing that no one of them developed more strongly than the other2 that is1 none of the flowers set4 ,a fairly good fruit was probably borne at #e4 ,at the base of each1 a bud started to continue the spur next year4 ,upon the other spur1 flowers were borne both at #h and #aj4 ,at #aj none of the flowers set fruit1 but a side bud developed4 ,at #h the fruit partially matured1 and a side bud was also developed4 ,the buds upon the old stem from #a to #ab still remained dormant4 ,some of the spurs on the #ahic growth--#ab to ,d--developed fruit-buds for bearing in #ahif4 ,some of the buds on the #ahid growth--,d to beyond ,e--remained dormant1 but others developed into small fruit-spurs4 ,one of these buds1 near the top of the #ahid growth1 threw out a long shoot1 starting from ,e2 and the bud at #bf also endeavored to make a long branch1 but failed4 #ahif4 ,main shoot grew from #bh to the end4 ,the side bud below #d 7where the fruit was borne the year before7 barely lived1 not elongating1 as seen above #c4 ,this branch of the spur is becoming weak and will never bear again4 ,the side bud of #e1 however1 made a fairly good spur and developed a fruit-bud at its end1 as seen at #f4 ,the side bud of #aj grew somewhat1 making the very short spur #aa4 ,this branchlet is also getting weak4 ,the bud of #h1 however1 developed a strong spur at #i4 ,both #aa and #i bear fruit-buds1 but that on #aa is probably too weak ever to bear fruit again4 ,in fact1 the entire spurs1 from #a to #f and #a to #i1 are too weak to be of much account for fruit-bearing4 ,this year several of the spurs along the #ahic growth--#ab to ,d--bore flowers4 ,flowers were borne from two buds on the first one 7at #ac and #ad71 but none of the flowers set4 ,one of the little apples that died last ,june still clings to the spur at #ad4 ,a side bud 7#ae7 formed to continue the spur in #ahig4 ,flowers were borne at #af1 #bj1 #ba1 and #bc1 but no apples developed4 ,upon #af and #bj the flowers died soon after they opened1 as seen by the remains of them4 ,upon #bc1 one of the flowers set an apple1 but the apple soon died4 ,the spurs #ag and #ah are so weak that they have never made fruit-buds1 and they are now nearly dead4 ,the spurs #ai and #bb have behaved differently4 ,like the others1 they grew in #ahid and would have made terminal fruit-buds in #ahie1 and would have borne fruit in #ahif2 but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or winter of #ahid1 so that two side buds developed in #ahie1 and each of these developed a fruit-bud at its end in #ahif in the spur #ai1 but only one of them developed such a bud in #bb4 ,upon these spurs1 therefore1 the bearing year has been changed4 ,upon the growth of #ahid--;,d to beyond ,e--only three spurs have developed1 nos4 #bd1 #be1 #bf4 ,these started out in #ahie1 and two of them--#be and #bf--;have made large fat buds which are evidently fruit-buds4 ,the shoot at ,e grew on to ,,ee1 and all the buds on its lower two-year-old portion remained dormant4 ,on the #ahie growth--from beyond ,e to #bh--;all the buds remained dormant save one1 and this one--#bg--made only a very feeble attempt to grow into a spur4 ,the buds upon the #ahib growth--#a to #ab--;are still dormant and waiting for an opportunity to grow4 ,what an eventful history this apple twig has had6 ,and yet in all the seven years of its life1 after having made fifteen efforts to bear fruit1 it has not produced a single good apple6 ,the fault1 therefore1 does not lie in the shoot4 ,it has done the best it could4 ,the trouble has been that the farmer either did not give the tree enough food to enable it to support the fruit1 or did not prune the tree so as to give the twig light and room1 or allowed apple-scab or some other disease to kill the young apples as they were forming4 ,i am wondering1 therefore1 whether1 when trees fail to bear1 it is not quite as often the fault of the farmer as it is of the trees8 ,,leaflet ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,burst ,,of ,,spring4#dd ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #dd ,nature-,study ,quarterly ,no4 #d1 ,leaflet #ag1 ,march1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,spring is coming6 ,the buds will burst and the birds will sing6 ,how do the buds burst8 ,watch them as the spring opens2 or1 if you are impatient1 cut long twigs and place them in bottles of water in a living-room1 and the buds will swell4 ,first1 notice what the winter buds are like1--that they are spherical1 or oblong1 or conical bodies lying close to the limb and tightly covered with scales4 ,notice that there is a mark or scar beneath the bud1 showing where a leaf was borne4 ,it is excellent practice to collect winter twigs of different kinds of trees and bushes1 and to compare the form and color of the shoots1 and the size1 shape1 color1 and make-up of the buds4 ,lay the twigs side by side on the table and notice how one differs from the other4 ,what part of the twig grew last year8 ,notice the ring at the base of the last year's growth4 ,after all the differences are noted1 put the twigs in water1 as you would a bouquet4 ,sometimes flowers and leaves will appear4 ,if the twigs are two or three feet long1 the buds are more likely to grow1 for then there is sufficient supply of food in them4 ,change the water frequently1 and cut off the lower ends of the twigs so that a fresh surface will be exposed to the water4 ,it will be two to five weeks before the buds open1 depending mostly on the kind of plant4 ,mark one bud on a maple1 or apple1 or lilac1 or other plant1 by tying a string about the twig4 ,look at it carefully from day to day3 observe how it opens1 and what comes out of it4 ,the pupil should know that a winter twig has interest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the bud may be peach or apricot4 ,soon the bud begins to swell at its top4 ,the scales open4 ,a white lining appears4 ,this lining soon protrudes 7,fig4 #bbj74 ,soon the lining opens4 ,we see that it is a flower4 ,or perhaps the peach bud sends out a green shoot rather than a flower4 ,there must be two kinds of peach and apricot buds1--a flower-bud and a leaf-bud4 ,can you tell them apart8 ,the flower-bud is thicker and rounder4 ,usually one stands on either side of a leaf-bud4 ,but the leaf-bud may stand alone4 ,find one3 any peach tree or apricot tree will have leaf-buds1 but all may not have flower-buds4 ,as the bud expands and the flower or leaf appears1 notice that the bud-scales fall away4 ,do these scales leave scars8 ,and do not these scars1 standing together1 make the ring which marks the beginning of the new growth8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,opening of an apricot bud4 99 99 99 99 99 ,observe a pear bud4 ,notice that the scales elongate as the bud swells4 ,you can see the white bases of the scales1 marking the new growth 7,fig4 #bba74 ,if it is a leaf-bud the scales may become three-fourths of an inch long before they fall4 ,but sooner or later1 they are cast1 and their places are marked by scars4 ,if it is a flower-bud1 notice that several flowers come out of it4 ,in the apricot and peach1 there is only one flower in each bud4 ,each of these little pear flowers is closed up like a bud and elevates itself on a stalk before it opens3 and this stalk becomes the stem of the pear fruit4 ,but this pear flower-bud contains leaves as well as flowers4 ,fig4 #bbb shows what comes out of a pear bud4 ,this1 then1 is a mixed flower-bud1--it contains both leaves and flowers4 ,the apricot and the peach bear true or simple flower-buds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,opening of a pear bud4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,what came out of a pear bud4 99 99 99 99 99 ,watch apple buds4 ,the scales do not elongate as in the pear1 but the flower-buds are mixed4 ,fig4 #bbc shows the expanding cluster from an apple flower-bud4 ,four flowers will open2 and there are six leaves4 ,if the buds are made to open in the house on severed twigs1 the leaves do not grow so large before the flowers expand1 for the twig does not contain sufficient food4 ,fig4 #bbd is a photograph of an apple twig which ,i had in my window one winter's day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,opening of an apple bud4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,apple flowers in midwinter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,examine a hickory twig4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #bbe7 shows the ring marking the beginning of the annual growth4 ,see the large leaf-scars4 ,notice that the terminal bud is much the largest4 ,it is the one which will grow4 ,the other buds will remain dormant unless they are forced into growth by the death of the terminal bud or by other unusual circumstances4 ,notice that buds differ in size on shoots of all plants2 consider that not all the buds are to grow3 there is a struggle for existence4 ,when the hickory bud expands1 some of the scales fall away2 but some of the inner parts enlarge into leaf-like bodies1 as shown in ,fig4 #bbf4 ,in some hickories these bodies become two or three inches long before they fall4 ,hickories open very late in the season4 ,the ,norway maple1 commonly planted on lawns1 behaves in a similar way4 ,observe the sugar maple4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,shoot of a hickory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,the opening of a hickory bud4 ,a twig of the common elm is shown in ,fig4 #bbg4 ,notice the ring4 ,see the two kinds of buds4 ,we suspect that the three larger ones are flower-buds4 ,with the very first warm days--before the robin has built her nest--these three buds will burst2 soon the red-brown tassels will hang on the leafless twigs4 ,each tassel is a flower4 ,several flowers come from each bud4 ,we see them in ,fig4 #bbh2 and the leaf-buds have elongated somewhat4 ,watch for the fruits or seeds that blow about the walks so early in spring2 and note how the leaves come out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,twig of elm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,blossoms of the elm4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with the first breath of spring1 the pussy willows come4 ,and what are the pussies8 ,they are clusters of flowers4 ,so snugly are the little flowers wrapped in wool1 that the pussies are silken-soft as they begin to expand4 ,fig4 #bbi is a willow shoot4 ,find one when the buds first begin to burst4 ,notice the big brown-black scale that covers the bud as a shield and falls when the pussy first begins to appear4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now what is a winter bud8 ,it is a miniature shoot or flower1 resting for the time1 and snugly wrapped for the long winter4 ,it was made last season4 ,it is ready to leap into growth the moment the warm rain of spring wakens it4 ,a good hand lens will show the embryo branch1 if a section is made of the bud4 ,this bud is not only ready-formed but is ready-fed4 ,the winter shoots contain starch4 ,on a cut surface of a dormant twig1 apply a drop of tincture of iodine2 note the bluish color1 which is indicative of starch4 ,this starch is insoluble2 but with the first awakening of life1 it changes into sugar1 which is soluble and is transferred to the growing part4 ,the burst of spring is made possible by means of this stored food4 ,notice the azalea in the florist's window 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,the large flower-buds were formed the year before1 and it is a short operation to force them into bloom4 ,the flowers come in advance of the leaves2 therefore these leaves could not have made the food required for the bloom4 ,the blooming of the apple twig 7,fig4 #bbd7 in the winter shows that the food is in the twig and buds4 ,once ,i drew a branch of a tree into a room and fastened it there4 ,it made leaves and began to grow while the tree to which it was attached was perfectly dormant 7,fig4 #bca74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,bloom of azalea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,the opening of a pussy willow4 ,not only are the buds ready-formed and ready-fed1 but they are covered4 ,snugly is the tender1 growing part protected4 ,pull away the scales of a winter bud one by one4 ,observe how closely they are placed4 ,often the chinks are filled with a packing of wool1 or are sealed with varnish4 ,dip the bud in water3 then see whether the water permeates the covering4 ,the chief value of the bud covering is not to protect from freezing1 as commonly supposed1 but to prevent the soft growing parts from drying out4 ,the plants are waiting for spring4 ,they are ready4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,branch of a tree bearing leaves inside a window1 when the tree itself is dormant4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxiii4 ,,evergreens ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,shed ,,their ,,leaves4#de ,,by ,h4 ,p4 ,,gould4 #de ,teacher's ,leaflet ,no4 #ac1 ,february1 #ahii4 ,sidenote3 ,note to the teacher4--,this leaflet has two particular objects3 to teach how evergreens shed their leaves1 and to enable you to distinguish a few of the evergreens which are most commonly met4 ,these studies 7and those suggested in ,leaflet ,no4 ,,xxix7 should be the means of adding much cheer to the winter4 ,encourage pupils to make collections of cones1 to observe when they shed their seeds1 and how long 7how many seasons7 they remain attached to the branch4 ,remember that mere identification of the kinds of trees is not the highest type of nature-study4 ,cones are good subjects for free-hand drawing4 ,beginners should draw them in outline1 omitting the shading4 ,encourage pupils to draw single leaf-clusters of the different pines1 cautioning them to show the right number of leaves in each case4 ,illustration ,cone-bearing evergreens are familiar to everyone2 yet this familiarity is usually with the trees as entire objects4 ,we do not often stop to analyze a tree in order to find out what gives it its characteristic appearance or to see what makes it look as it does4 ,we shall often find1 if we stop to look1 that much of the character of a tree1--that is1 its general appearance or the way in which it impresses us1--is due to the leaves and to their arrangement on the branches4 ,this is true of many of the evergreen trees4 ,why are certain kinds of trees called evergreen in distinction from those which are said to be deciduous8 ,the reason is obvious4 ,one kind is always green from the presence of foliage1 while the other sheds all of its leaves every season4 ,the evergreen trees1 like the pines and the spruces and the firs1 always appear to be well covered with foliage2 hence it does not often occur to us that these trees shed their leaves4 ,and yet perhaps we can recall happy hours when we used to play beneath some large pine tree where the ground was carpeted with pine needles4 ,the falling of the leaves of the maple trees or the oaks is a familiar sight1 but who has seen the spruce leaves fall1 and who can tell when the pine needles drop8 ,that the evergreen trees do shed their foliage1 as truly as the maples and the elms do1 we will not question1 for we can see the fallen leaves under any tree4 ,look up into the top of a spruce or pine4 ,see that the interior is bare of foliage4 ,the leaves are towards the ends of the branches1 where they receive sunlight4 ,yet the branches which are now in the interior once bore leaves1 for we can see the leaf-scars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,shoot of the common white pine1 one-third natural size4 ,it will be interesting to find out something about the leaves of our common evergreens4 ,let us look at some of them4 ,,the ,,white ,,pine4 ,in ,fig4 #bcb is shown a white pine branch4 ,notice that the leaves are borne in bunches or clusters of five4 ,each bunch of leaves is produced in the axil 7or angle7 of a minute scale-like body1 but this scale can best be seen and studied on the very young growth4 ,it has been worn away or broken from the older growth by the wind and the rain and the other forces of nature4 ,another strange fact should be well observed4 ,the leaves of the maples and other deciduous trees are borne only on the present season's growth2 but this is not the case in the pines1 and kindred trees4 ,if we trace back the growth of the past two or three years1 we may find that there are as many leaves on the wood that is two years old as there are on the last season's growth2 and in many cases we can find leaves on the part of the branch that is three years old4 ,this means that the pine leaves or needles are two and sometimes three years old when they fall4 ,the ,fig4 #bcb shows the falling of the leaves from the different years' growth4 ,the part of the branch between the tip and ,a is the last season's growth2 between ,a and ,b it is two years old2 the part between ,b and ,c is three years old4 ,the part that grew four seasons ago--beyond ,c--has no leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,cone of white pine4 ,it has shed its seeds4 ,half natural size4 ,the different seasons' growth is indicated not by distinct rings as in the case of deciduous trees1 but by the branching4 ,each whorl of branches about a limb represents the end of a season's growth4 ,a young pine tree1 or the younger limbs of an old tree1 shows this character very plainly4 ,do the leaves of the pines and of the other evergreen trees fall at the end of the growing season1 as the leaves of most of the deciduous trees do8 ,or do they gradually become lifeless and fall at any season1 from the force of the wind and other natural forces8 ,tie a large sheet of cloth in the top of some evergreen tree1 in such a way as to form a receptacle to catch the leaves4 ,do you catch leaves in winter as well as in summer8 ,do you find leaves on the snow8 ,as there are several different kinds of pines1 we must picture carefully in our minds the foliage of the white pine1 for it is different from that of any others4 ,the leaves are soft and very slender1 and from three to four inches long4 ,the base of each cluster of leaves is at first surrounded by a small sheath4 ,a scar is left when the leaves drop and these scars can often be seen on parts of the branches that are eight or ten years old4 ,do the leaves of other kinds of trees make a scar when they fall8 ,the white pine cones1 in which the seeds are borne1 are conspicuous objects4 ,they are five or six inches long and slightly curved4 ,it will be interesting to find out whether the seeds ripen the same year in which they are formed4 ,perhaps a cone still containing seeds can be secured4 ,carefully tear it apart and see where the seeds are attached4 ,red squirrels sometimes eat the pine seeds4 ,a white pine cone1 which has shed its seeds1 is shown in ,fig4 #bcc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,shoot of common pitch pine4 ,one-half natural size4 ,this kind of pine is found widely scattered in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and westward to ,minnesota and ,iowa and along the ,alleghany ,mountains as far south as ,georgia2 also in some parts of ,canada4 ,it is a valuable lumber tree4 ,,the ,,pitch ,,pine4 ,this kind of pine is very different1 in many respects1 from the white pine4 ,let us find some of the differences4 ,instead of having leaves in bunches of five1 it has them in clusters of three1 and the base of each cluster is inclosed by a scaly sheath which does not fall away as in the case of the white pine2 neither does the little scale-like body upon the branch1 in the axil of which the leaf-cluster is borne1 fall away1 but it may be found just below the leaf1 and even on branches that are several years old4 ,sometimes a sheath is found with only two leaves4 ,we shall want to know1 too1 how old the leaves are when they fall4 ,do they remain on the tree longer than the white pine leaves do8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,cone of pitch pine4 ,one-half natural size4 ,again1 instead of being soft and slender as the white pine leaves are1 we shall find that these leaves are rigid and thick in comparison1 and stand out straight from the branches4 ,the shape of the leaves is also distinct from that of the white pine needles4 ,see whether you can find any other differences4 ,a pitch pine branch is shown in ,fig4 #bcd4 ,the part between the tip and ,a is the past season's growth4 ,observe the foliage on the part that is two years old4 ,part of it has fallen4 ,we often find it on growth which is older than this2 but in this specimen there are no leaves on the three-year wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,pitch pine4 ,one-third natural size4 ,the cone of the pitch pine is very unlike that of the white pine4 ,fig4 #bce gives a good idea of one that has shed its seeds4 ,compare this with ,fig4 #bcc2 or1 better1 examine the two kinds of cones side by side4 ,the pitch pine cones are sometimes borne in clusters of two or more and they persist1--that is1 remain on the tree for several years after the seeds have ripened and scattered4 ,notice how the new cones are borne with reference to last season's growth4 ,are they attached to the tip of a branchlet8 ,or are they closely attached to the side of a branch8 ,figs4 #bcf and #bcg will help us answer this question4 ,the little cones in ,fig4 #bcg near the tip of the twig1 are just beginning to form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,pitch pine1 showing young cones4 ,half natural size4 ,the pitch pine usually grows in sandy or rocky soil and is found in the ,united ,states along the ,atlantic coast to ,virginia1 along the mountains to ,georgia1 westward to ,western ,new ,york1 ,eastern ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 and ,eastern ,tennessee4 ,it has little value as timber1 because it does not grow large enough4 ,,scotch ,,and ,,austrian ,,pines4 ,in the same manner other pines may be studied4 ,fig4 #bch shows a cone and a bit of foliage of the ,scotch pine1 and ,fig4 #bci the ,austrian pine4 ,these cones grew the past season and are not yet mature4 ,after they ripen and shed the seeds which they contain1 they will look somewhat like the cone in ,fig #bce4 ,the ,scotch pine has short and blue-green needles4 ,the ,austrian pine is coarser1 and has long dark-green needles4 ,there are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster is more conspicuous than in either the white or the pitch pine4 ,do the leaves persist in the ,scotch and ,austrian pines longer than they do in the others we have examined8 ,study the cones of these and other pines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,scotch pine4 ,half natural size4 ,the ,scotch and ,austrian pines are not native to this country1 but are much grown for ornament4 ,they can be found in almost any park and in many other places where ornamental trees are grown4 ,,the ,,norway ,,spruce4 ,the leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the pines4 ,instead of being in clusters of two or more1 they are single and without a sheath at the base2 neither are there scale-like bodies on the branches where the leaves are borne4 ,notice1 too1 that the leaves have a very short stem or petiole4 ,the leaves of the ,norway spruce are about one inch long1 although the length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in different trees4 ,they are rather stiff and rigid and sharp-pointed4 ,in a general way1 the leaves are four-sided1 though indistinctly so4 ,it will be interesting to study the position which the leaves take on the branches4 ,a hasty glance might give us the impression that the leaves are not produced on the under side of the branches2 but a more careful examination will convince us that there are nearly as many on the under side as on the upper4 ,the leaves are all pointing outward from the branch and as nearly upward as is possible4 ,in other words1 the leaves grow toward the light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,austrian pine4 ,one-third natural size4 ,we must not forget to see how long the leaves of the ,norway spruce persist and to find out when the leaf-scars disappear4 ,we can find leaves that must surely be six or seven years old and sometimes we can find them even older than this4 ,the leaf scars1 too1 remain a long time4 ,the falling of the leaves is illustrated in ,fig4 #bdj4 ,it shows the extremities of a limb which is eight years old4 ,the part between the tip and ,a is last season's growth2 between ,a and ,b it is two years old2 and beyond ,b is a part that grew three seasons ago4 ,the section beyond ,c is six years old2 from ,c to ,d is seven years of age4 ,the four years' growth of this limb not shown in the drawing was as densely covered with foliage as is the part shown in the upper figure2 but there are not many leaves between ,c and ,d 7seven years old7 and none on the eight-year-old wood 7except those on the branchlets1 and these are younger74 ,the cone of the ,norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white pine1 but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is4 ,the cones are usually borne on the tips of small branchlets1 although occasionally one is borne in the manner shown in ,fig4 #bda4 ,the cones usually fall the first winter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,twig of the common ,norway spruce4 ,half natural size4 ,the ,norway spruce is not a native of this country1 but like the ,scotch and ,austrian pines1 it was introduced from ,europe and is grown very widely as an ornamental tree4 ,it is the commonest evergreen in yards and parks4 ,,the ,,black ,,spruce ,,and ,,its ,,kin4 ,there are several different kinds of spruces which we find growing in our forests and swamps1 and sometimes these are planted for ornament4 ,a sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these1--the black spruce1--is shown in ,fig4 #bdb4 ,the foliage is not very unlike that of the ,norway spruce1 but the cones are very small in comparison4 ,they are about one inch long1 though they vary considerably in size4 ,before they open they are oval or plum-shaped2 but when mature and the scales of the cone have expanded1 they are nearly globular4 ,they are often borne in clusters1 as well as singly1 and persist for many years after the seeds have fallen4 ,the position of the cones will depend upon their age4 ,when young they point upward1 but they gradually turn downward4 ,in general appearance the white spruce resembles the black very closely4 ,the leaves of the white spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of color and when crushed or bruised give forth a peculiar1 disagreeable odor4 ,the cones vary in length from an inch to two inches1 and in shape are more cylindrical or finger-shaped than the cone of the black spruce4 ,the foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish tinge of color of the white spruce and the cones1 which are from one inch to two inches in length1 are obovate in shape--that is1 the widest place is through the upper part of the cone1 and from this point it gradually tapers to the tip4 ,they seldom persist longer than the second summer4 ,the leaves of all these different kinds of spruces vary greatly in length1 thickness1 and sharpness of point1 according to the part of the tree on which they grow1 and their surroundings4 ,the shedding of the leaves on these or other spruces can be determined as easily as in the ,norway spruce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,cone of ,norway spruce4 ,half size4 ,these three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of the northern ,united ,states and ,canada and farther south in the mountains4 ,they are sometimes all found growing together1 but the black spruce likes best the damp1 cold swamps1 while the others grow best on the drier and better drained lands4 ,the black spruce is commonest4 ,the red spruce is least known4 ,,the ,,balsam ,,fir4 ,this is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold1 damp grounds of the northern ,united ,states and ,canada1 and to some extent in the eastern states as far south as ,west ,virginia4 ,the foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces2 yet there are interesting differences in the characters of these two kinds of leaves4 ,perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the shape2 and the color of the fir leaves will attract our attention because the under side is a silvery color1 while the upper side is green4 ,what is the nature of the tip of the leaf and how does it compare with the pines and spruces in this respect8 ,does the leaf have a stem or petiole or is it attached directly to the branch without any stem8 ,how are the leaves shed8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,black spruce4 ,half natural size4 ,the cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate appearance4 ,it will be interesting to determine the position of the cones1 that is1 the direction in which they point1 and to learn whether it is the same when they are young as it is after they have matured4 ,the grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many blisters from which ,canada balsam is obtained4 ,,the ,,hemlock4 ,a hemlock twig is an interesting object4 ,it may have many characters in common with the spruce and fir2 yet the impression which we get from it1 or from a large hemlock tree1 is entirely distinct4 ,the arrangement of the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping branchlets are most pleasing4 ,we are led to examine it more closely4 ,we notice that the leaves appear to be borne in two more or less regular rows1--one on each side of the branch or twig2 but in reality they come from all sides of the branch1 and it is the position which the leaves assume that gives this two-rowed appearance4 ,the leaves have a short stalk or petiole1 and this stalk rests along the side of the branchlet in such a direction that the leaves are placed in single rows on either side of the branch4 ,the petioles of the leaves are nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a decided angle with the petiole4 ,this fact can best be brought out by carefully examining a small twig4 ,while we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets1 we should also notice the points of similarity and difference between these leaves and those of the spruces and firs4 ,we shall find that there is more in common1 at least so far as shape and color are concerned1 between the hemlock and the fir than between the hemlock and the spruce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,spray of the hemlock4 ,two-thirds natural size4 ,the small1 delicate cones1 borne on the tips of the branchlets1 will also attract our attention 7,fig4 #bdc47 ,we may wonder at their small size1 for they are only about three-quarters of an inch long1 and very delicate2 yet a second glance at the tree will impress us with the number of cones which the tree bears1 and we conclude that1 although the cones may be small1 yet there are so many of them that there will be no lack of seeds4 ,it is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many other kinds of trees1 yet we can easily determine that many of the leaves are several years old when they fall4 ,the bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather4 ,the tree is much used for lumber4 ,where does it grow8 ,,the ,,arbor-,,vit4 ,one might almost wonder1 at first sight1 if the arbor-vit 7often1 but wrongly1 called the white cedar7 has any leaves at all4 ,it does possess them1 however1 but they are very different in size and shape from any of the others that we have examined4 ,they are small scale-like bodies1 closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets1 in four rows4 ,leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be appressed4 ,the leaves of the arbor-vit are so close together that they overlap one another4 ,the leaves are of two distinct shapes1 sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves4 ,the former are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the branchlets1 while the latter are on the sides or edges4 ,see ,fig4 #bdd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,the ,arbor-vit4 ,nearly full size4 ,if we carefully look at the leaves1 we shall notice a raised spot near the point or tip4 ,this is said to be a resin gland4 ,this gland can be seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old4 ,most of the leaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years2 but even older ones can be found4 ,these older leaves1 however1 exist not as green1 active leaves1 but merely as dried and lifeless scales4 ,these lifeless leaves are probably detached from the branches by the forces of nature4 ,the cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones4 ,they are borne in the axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and are not conspicuous unless one is close to the tree4 ,the arbor-vit is much planted for hedges and screens1 as well as for other ornamental purposes4 ,there are many horticultural varieties4 ,the tree is abundant in a wild state in ,new ,york4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,kinds ,,of ,,common ,,evergreens4 ,the white pine 7,pinus ,strobus74--,leaves in clusters of five1 soft and slender2 cones five or six inches long1 slightly curved2 bark smooth except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees1 where it is fissured4 ,the pitch pine 7,pinus rigida74--,leaves in clusters of three1 from three to four inches long1 rather rigid2 cones two to three inches long1 often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne singly1 persisting long after the seeds have been shed2 bark more or less rough on the young growth and deeply fissured on the trunks of old trees4 ,the ,scotch pine 7,pinus sylvestris74--,leaves usually in clusters of two1 from two to four inches long1 rigid1 of a bluish-green hue when seen in a large mass on the tree2 cones two to three inches long and the scales tipped with a beak or prickle4 ,the ,austrian pine 7,pinus ,austriaca74--,leaves in clusters of two1 five or six inches long and somewhat rigid1 dark green in color1 and persisting for four or five years2 cones about three inches long1 conical in shape2 and scales not beaked or pointed as in the ,scotch pine4 ,the ,norway spruce 7,picea excelsa74--,leaves borne singly1 about one inch long1 dark green1 four-sided2 cones about six inches long1 and composed of thin scales1 and usually borne on the tips of branchlets4 ,the small branches mostly drooping4 ,the black spruce 7,picea nigra74--,in general appearance1 this is not very unlike the ,norway spruce1 but the small branches stand out more horizontally and the cones are only one or one and one-half inches long1 recurving on short branches4 ,the cones persist for several years after shedding the seed4 ,the white spruce 7,picea alba74--,leaves about one inch long1 having a glaucous or whitish tinge2 twigs stout and rigid1 of a pale greenish-white color2 cones from one to two and one-half inches long1 more or less cylindrical or finger-shaped1 and easily crushed when dry4 ,the red spruce 7,picea rubra74--,the foliage lacks the whitish tinge of the white spruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color2 twigs stouter than those of the black spruce and not so much inclined to droop2 cones about one inch long1 obovate1 and usually falling by the second summer4 ,the hemlock 7,tsuga ,canadensis74--,leaves about one-half inch long1 flat with rounded point1 green on the upper side1 whitish beneath1 and borne on short appressed petioles2 cones about three-quarters of an inch long1 oval or egg-shaped1 and borne on the ends of small branchlets and often persisting for some time4 ,the balsam fir 7,abies balsamea74--,leaves narrow1 less than one inch long1 borne singly1 very numerous and standing out from the branchlets in much the way of the spruce2 cones about three inches long1 cylindrical1 composed of thin scales1 and standing upright on the branches1 or recurved2 bark smooth1 light green with whitish tinge4 ,the arbor-vit 7,thuya occidentalis74--,leaves very small1 scale-like1 and over-lapping one another in four rows1 adhering closely to the branchlets2 the cones oblong and small1--a half-inch or less in length1--and composed of but few scales4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,clovers ,,and ,,their ,,kin4#df ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 ,the pedigree of honey does not concern the bee1 ,a clover any time to him is aristocracy4 --,,emily ,,dickinson4 #df ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #h1 ,may1 #aijd4 ,illustration3 ,white clover4 ,there is a deep-seated prejudice that usefulness and beauty do not belong together2--a prejudice based obviously on human selfishness1 for if a thing is useful to us we emphasize that quality so much that we forget to look for its beauty4 ,thus it is that the clover suffers great injustice2 it has for centuries been a most valuable forage crop1 and1 therefore1 we forget to note its beauty1 or to regard it as an object worthy of sthetic attention4 ,this is a pitiful fact2 but it cheats us more than it does the clover1 for the clover blossoms not for us1 but for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself4 ,as ,i remember the scenes which have impressed me most1 ,i find among them three in which clover was the special attraction4 ,one was a well-cultivated thrifty orchard carpeted with the brilliant red of the crimson clover in bloom4 ,one was a great field of alfalfa spread near the shore of the ,great ,salt ,lake1 which met our eyes as we came through the pass in the ,wasatch ,mountains after days of travel in dust-colored lands2 the brilliant green of that alfalfa field in the evening sunlight refreshed our eyes as the draught of cold water refreshes the parched throat of the traveller in a desert4 ,and another was a gently undulating field in our own ,state stretching away like a sea to the west1 covered with the purple foam of the red clover in blossom2 and the fragrance of that field settled like a benediction over the acres that margined it4 ,but we do not need landscapes to teach us the beauty of clover4 ,just one clover blossom studied carefully and looked at with clear-seeing eyes1 reveals each floweret beautiful in color1 interesting in form1 and perfect in its mechanism for securing pollination4 ,the clover is especially renowned for its partnerships with members of the animal kingdom4 ,it readily forms a partnership with man1 thriftily growing in his pastures and meadows1 while he distributes its seed4 ,for ages it has been a special partner of the bees1 giving them honey for carrying its pollen4 ,below the ground it has formed a mysterious partnership with microbes1 and the clover seems to be getting the best of the bargain4 ,for many years clover was regarded as a crop helpful to the soil1 and one reason given was the great length of the roots4 ,thus the roots of red clover often reach the depth of several feet1 even in heavy soil1 which they thus aerate and drain1 especially when they decay and leave channels4 ,but this is only half the story2 for a long time people had noted that on clover roots were little swollen places or nodules1 which were supposed to have come from some disease or insect injury4 ,the scientists became interested in the supposed disease1 and they finally ascertained that these nodules are filled with bacteria1 which are the underground partners of the clovers and other legumes4 ,these bacteria are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air1 and make it available for plant-food4 ,as nitrogen is the most expensive of the fertilizers1 any agency which can extract it from the free air for the use of plants is indeed a valuable aid to the farmer4 ,thus it is that in the modern agriculture1 clover or some other legume is put on the land once in three or four years in the regular rotation of crops1 and it brings back to the soil the nitrogen which other crops have exhausted4 ,an interesting fact about the partnership between the root bacteria and the clover-like plants is that the plants do not flourish without this partnership1 and investigators have devised a method by which these bacteria may be scattered in the soil on which some kinds of clover are to be planted1 and thus aid in growing a crop4 ,this method is to-day being used for the introduction of alfalfa here in ,new ,york ,state4 ,but the use of clover as a fertilizer is not limited to its root factory for capturing nitrogen2 its leaves break down quickly and readily yield the rich food material of which they are composed1 so that the farmer who plows under his second-crop clover instead of harvesting it1 adds greatly to the fertility of his farm4 ,the members of three distinct genera are popularly called clovers3 ,the ,true ,clovers 7,trifolium71 of which six or seven species are found in ,new ,york ,state1 and more than sixty species are found in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,medics 7,medicago71 of which four species are found here4 ,the ,melilots 7,melilotus71 or sweet clovers1 of which we have two species4 ,,the ,,true ,,clovers4 7,trifolium47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,the common red clover4 ,the ,red ,clover 7,fig4 #bde74 7,trifolium pratense4#dg7--,this beautiful dweller in our fields came to us from ,europe1 and it is also a native of ,asia4 ,it is the clover most widely cultivated in ,new ,york ,state for fodder1 and is one of our most important crops4 ,clover hay often being a standard of excellence by which other hay is measured4 ,the export of clover seed from the ,united ,states has sometimes reached the worth of two million dollars per year1 and this great industry is supposed to be carried on with the aid of that other partner of the red clover1 the bumblebee4 ,bumblebees had to be imported into ,australia before clover seed could be produced there4 ,the whole question of the relation of the bumblebee to the pollination of clover no doubt needs to be re-studied1 for recent observations have led to the contesting of prevailing opinions4 ,it has been supposed that the failure of the clover seed crop in some places is due to the destruction of bumblebees2 whether this is true or not1 we are certain that bumblebees visit clover blooms1 and the teacher can observe for himself4 #dg ,pronounced ,trifol' -ium praten' -se1 the second or specific name with three syllables4 ,there is a more perennial form of red clover1 known as variety perenne4 ,it is distinguished from the common form of red clover by its taller growth and mostly less hairy herbage1 and by the fact that the flower-head is usually somewhat stalked4 ,some persons regard it as a hybrid of red and zig-zag clover4 ,zig-,zag ,clover4 7,t4 medium47--,this is another species of red clover1 resembling the one just discussed1 except that its flower-head rises on a long stalk above the upper leaves1 while the red clover has the flower-head set close to these leaves4 ,the color of the blossom is darker than in red clover1 and the flower-head is looser4 ,the stems of the zig-zag clover are likely to be bent at angles and thus it gets its name4 ,it is a question whether this species is really grown on farms4 ,it is probable that some or all of the clover that passes under this name is ,trifolium pratense var4 perenne4 ,at all events1 the zig-zag clover seems to be imperfectly understood by botanists and others4 ,crimson ,clover--,scarlet ,clover 7,fig4 #bdf74 7,t4 incarnatum47--,while this beautiful clover grows as a weed in the southern parts of our ,state1 it has only recently begun to play an important part in our horticulture4 ,it is an annual1 and its home is the ,mediterranean region of ,europe4 ,it thrives best in loose1 sandy soils1 and in our ,state is chiefly used as a cover-crop for orchards1 and to plow under as a fertilizer4 ,it usually has bright1 crimson flowers1 arranged in a long1 pointed head1 and its brilliant green fan-shaped leaves make it the most artistically decorative of all our clovers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,crimson clover4 ,buffalo ,clover 7,fig4 #bdg74 7,t4 reflexum47--,this is sometimes taken for a variety of the red clover1 but only a glance is needed to distinguish it4 ,while the head is perhaps an inch in diameter the flowerets are not directed upward and set close as in the red clover1 but each floweret is on a little stalk1 and is bent abruptly backward4 ,the flowers are not pink4 ,the standard is red1 while the wings and keel are nearly white4 ,the leaves are blunt at the tip4 ,it grows in meadows in western ,new ,york and westward4 ,this species is native to this country4 ,alsike ,clover4 7,t4 hybridum47--,this is a perennial and grows in low meadows and waste places from ,nova ,scotia to ,idaho4 ,it was introduced from ,europe4 ,it is especially valuable in wet meadows1 where the red clover would be drowned4 ,the blossoms of the alsike look like those of the white clover except that they are a little larger and are pink2 but the long branching mostly upright stems are very different in habit from the creeping stems of the white clover2 the blossoms are very fragrant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,three clovers1 respectively1 ,buffalo1 ,yellow1 and ,rabbit-foot clover4 ,the ,white ,clover4 7,t4 repens47--,this beautiful little clover1 whose leaves make a rug for our feet in every possible place1 is well known to us all4 ,it is the clover best beloved by honey-bees1 and the person who does not know the distinct flavor of white clover honey has lost something out of life4 ,while in hard soil the white clover lasts only two or three years1 on rich1 moist lands it is a true perennial4 ,while it was probably a native in the northern part of ,america1 yet it is truly cosmopolitan and may be found in almost all regions of the temperate zones4 ,very likely the common stock of it is an introduction from ,europe4 ,by many this is considered to be the original shamrock4 ,the ,yellow1 or ,hop ,clover 7,fig4 #bdg74 7,t4 agrarium47--,this friendly little plant1 filling waste places with brilliant green leaves and small yellow flower-heads1 is not considered a clover by those who are not observant4 ,but if the flowerets in the small1 dense heads are examined1 they will be seen to resemble very closely those of the other clovers4 ,the stems are many-branched and often grow a foot or more in height4 ,the flowers are numerous1 and on fading turn brown1 and resemble the fruit of a pigmy hop vine1 whence the name4 ,its leaves are much more pointed than those of the medics1 with which it might be confused because of its yellow flowers4 ,low ,hop ,clover1 or ,hop ,trefoil4 7,t4 procumbens47--,this resembles the above species1 except that it is smaller and also more spreading1 and the stems and leaves are more downy4 ,the ,least ,hop ,clover4 7,t4 dubium47--,this may be readily distinguished from the above species by the fact that its yellow flowerets occur from three to ten in a head4 ,this is said by some to be the true shamrock1 although the white clover is also called the shamrock4 ,the ,rabbit-,foot1 or ,stone ,clover 7,fig4 #bdg74 7,t4 arvense47--,this is another clover not easily recognized as such4 ,it grows a foot or more in height and has erect branches4 ,the leaflets are narrow and all arise from the same point4 ,the flowerets occur in long1 dense heads4 ,the calyx is very silky1 and the lobes are longer than the white corollas1 thus giving the flower-head a soft1 hairy look1 something like the early stages of the blossom of the pussy willow4 ,because of its appearance it is often called pussy clover4 ,,the ,,medics4 7,medicago47 ,alfalfa 7,fig4 #bdh74 7,medicago sativa47--,this is the veteran of all the clovers1 for it has been under cultivation for twenty centuries4 ,it is a native of the valleys of western ,asia4 ,in ,america it was first introduced into ,mexico with the ,spanish invasion4 ,it was brought from ,chile to ,california in #ahed1 where it has since been the most important hay crop4 ,in fact1 there is no better hay than that made from alfalfa4 ,it was probably introduced into the ,atlantic ,states from southern ,europe1 and has grown as a weed for many years in certain localities in ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states2 only recently has it been considered a practicable crop for this climate1 although it was grown in ,jefferson ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 in #agia4 ,its special value is that it is a true perennial1 and may be cut three times or more during a season1 and when once established it withstands hot1 dry weather4 ,it is of marvelous value to the semi-arid regions4 ,the alfalfa flower is blue or violet1 and grows in a loose raceme4 ,the plant grows tall and its stems are many branched4 ,this and all these medics are introduced from ,europe4 ,black or ,hop ,medic4 7,m4 lupulina47--,this would hardly be called a clover by the novice4 ,the long stems lie along the ground1 and the tiny yellow flower-heads do not much resemble the clover blossom4 ,it is a common weed in waste places in our ,state4 ,it is perennial4 ,the ,toothed ,medic4 7,m4 denticulata47--,instead of having the yellow flowerets in a dense head1 this species has them in pairs or perhaps fours1 or sometimes more4 ,it is widely distributed as a weed1 and is also introduced as a pasture plant for early grazing4 ,it is of little value as hay4 ,the ,spotted ,medic4 7,m4 ,arabica47--,this very much resembles the preceding species except that the leaves are likely to have on them conspicuous dark spots near the center4 ,like the preceding species it is an annual and a weed1 and has also been introduced as a plant for early grazing4 ,this and the toothed medic are known to farmers under the name of bur-clover4 ,the reason for this name is found in the seed-pod1 which is twisted in a spiral and has an outer margin of curved prickles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,alfalfa1 foliage and flowers4 ,,the ,,melilots1 ,,or ,,sweet ,,clovers4 7,melilotus47 ,in driving or walking along the country roads1 we may find ourselves suddenly immersed in a wave of delightful fragrance1 and if we look for the source we may find this friendly plant flourishing in the most forbidding of soils4 ,growing as a weed1 it brings sweet perfume to us1 and at the same time nitrogen1 aeration and drainage to the hopeless soil1 making rich those places where other weeds have not the temerity to attempt to grow4 ,when the soil is generous1 the sweet clover often grows very tall1 sometimes as high as ten feet4 ,it is a cheerful1 adaptable and beneficial plant1 and ,i never see it without giving it a welcome1 which1 ,i am sorry to say1 ,i cannot always grant to other roadside wayfarers4 ,the sweet clovers are ,european4 ,the ,white ,sweet ,clover 7,m4 alba7 is sometimes called ,bokhara clover and has white flowers 7,fig4 #bdi74 ,the ,yellow ,sweet ,clover 7,m4 officinalis7 has yellow blossoms4 ,it has interesting old ,english names1 such as ,balsam ,flowers1 ,king's ,clover and ,heartwort4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,white sweet clover4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,clovers4 ,two general kinds of types of studies are to be made of the clovers3 identification studies1 whereby you will come to know the kinds of clover2 life history studies1 whereby you will come to know under what conditions the plants live and thrive4 ,the latter is the more important1 but the former usually precedes it1 for one is better able to discover and discuss the biological questions when he is acquainted with the species4 ,the following questions will bring out some of the important biological aspects3 #a4 ,how many of the true clovers1 the medics1 and the sweet clovers do you know8 #b4 ,send me properly labelled pressed specimens of the leaves and blossoms of the clovers that you have been able to find4 #c4 ,dig a root of red clover and find the nodules on it4 ,please describe them4 #d4 ,what methods does the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture employ to inoculate the soil with bacteria so that alfalfa may grow8 #e4 ,how do clover roots protect the land from the effects of heavy rains8 #f4 ,how do the clover plants conserve the moisture in the soil8 #g4 ,how does this conservation of moisture aid the farmer and orchardist8 #h4 ,what is a cover-crop1 and what are its uses8 #i4 ,why do farmers sow red clover with grass seed8 #aj4 ,how do the habits of the stems of white clover differ from those of other clovers8 #aa4 ,why is white clover so desirable for lawns8 #ab4 ,compare the floweret of the red clover with the sweet pea blossom and describe the resemblance4 #ac4 ,study a head of white clover from the time it opens until it is brown1 and tell what changes take place in it day by day4 #ad4 ,what has happened to the flowerets that are bent downward around the stalk8 #ae4 ,watch one of these flowerets deflect1 and describe the process4 #af4 ,how many flowerets do you find in a head of red clover8 ,of white clover8 ,of alsike8 #ag4 ,which flowerets open first in a head of red clover8 #ah4 ,describe a clover seed4 ,describe a seed of alfalfa4 #ai4 ,what insects do you find visiting the red clover blossoms8 ,the white clover blossoms8 ,,alfalfa1 ,,or ,,lucerne4#dh #dh ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #a1 ,october1 #aijd4 ,the alfalfa plant is just now coming into great prominence in ,new ,york ,state4 ,every teacher1 particularly in the rural schools1 will need to know the plant and to have some information about it4 ,what alfalfa is4--,it is a clover-like plant4 ,it is perennial4 ,it has violet-purple flowers4 ,the leaves have three narrow leaflets4 ,it sends up many stiff stems1 #b to #c feet high4 ,the roots go straight down to great depths4 ,why it is important4--,it is an excellent cattle food1 and cattle-raising for dairy purposes is the leading special agricultural industry in ,new ,york ,state4 ,in fact1 ,new ,york leads all the ,states in the value of its dairy products4 ,any plant that is more nutritious and more productive of pasture and hay than the familiar clovers and grasses will add immensely to the dairy industry1 and therefore to the wealth of the ,state4 ,alfalfa is such a plant4 ,it gives three cuttings of hay year after year in ,new ,york ,state1 thereby yielding twice as much as clover does4 ,in the production of digestible nutrients per acre ranks above clover as #bd ranks above #aj4 ,when once established it withstands droughts1 for the roots grow deep4 ,alfalfa is ,south ,european4 ,it was early introduced into ,north ,america4 ,it first came into prominence in the semi-arid ,west because of its drought-resisting qualities1 and now it has added millions of dollars to the wealth of the nation4 ,gradually it is working its way into the ,east4 ,it is discussed in the agricultural press and before farmers' institutes4 ,last year the ,college of ,agriculture offered to send a small packet of seeds to such school children in ,new ,york ,state as wanted to grow a little garden plat of it4 ,about #e1jjj children were supplied4 ,the teacher must now learn what alfalfa is4 ,in nearly every rural community1 sufficient alfalfa can be found for school purposes4 ,in many places it has run wild along roadsides4 ,on these plants make the following observations3 #a4 ,under what conditions have you found alfalfa growing8 ,how did the plant come to grow there1--sown1 or run wild8 #b4 ,describe the form of the root4 ,how does the root branch8 #c4 ,do you find the little tubercles or nodules on the roots8 ,on what part of the roots8 ,how large8 ,how numerous8 #d4 ,the crown of the plant 7at the surface of the ground71--describe it1 and how the tops and the roots start from it4 #e4 ,the stems1--how many from each crown1 whether erect or prostrate1 how they branch4 #f4 ,the leaves1--simple or compound8 ,form8 ,edges entire or fine toothed8 ,do the leaves sleep at night1 as those of clover do8 #g4 ,do you find any distinct spots on the leaves8 ,what do you think is the cause of them8 #h4 ,flowers1--how borne 7whether singly or in clusters71 color1 form1 resemblance to any other flowers you may know4 ,do they vary in color8 #i4 ,if possible1 find the seed-pods and seeds1 and describe4 #aj4 ,make inquiries as to whether alfalfa is becoming well known in your vicinity4 ,agricultural ,account of ,alfalfa4 ,you may be asked some practical questions about alfalfa2 therefore we give you a brief agricultural account of it4 ,if you desire further information1 write to the ,college of ,agriculture1 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 for ,bulletin #bba1 ,alfalfa in ,new ,york4 ,alfalfa is grown mostly for hay4 ,it is not adapted to pasture1 because the new growth springs from the crown at the surface of the ground1 and if this is destroyed the growth will not be renewed vigorously4 ,new ,york is a hay-producing ,state4 ,grain feeds can be grown more cheaply in the ,west4 ,it is of great importance to the ,state1 therefore1 if a better hay-producing plant can be found4 ,we have seen that ,new ,york leads the ,states in dairy cattle4 ,other livestock also is abundant4 ,last year more than half a million horses and mules were fed in the ,state4 ,success has not attended efforts to grow alfalfa in all parts of ,new ,york4 ,this is due to two principal reasons3 7#a7 farmers have not known the plant and its habits well enough to give it the care and treatment it demands2 7#b7 the soils of many localities1 because of their physical condition or composition1 are not suitable for the plant4 ,the alfalfa seedling is not a strong plant4 ,it cannot compete with weeds nor overcome adverse conditions of moisture2 it cannot adapt itself to conditions resulting from poor preparation of land1 and it is not vigorous in its ability to get food from any source4 ,care must be given to the preparation of the land in order that sufficient moisture may be supplied during the early stages of growth and that there may be an abundance of quickly available plant-food4 ,after growth has started1 alfalfa has the power to get some of its nitrogen from the air through the nodules which grow upon its roots2 yet during the early stages of growth it is essential that the soil be supplied with all elements of plant-food in available form4 ,while alfalfa requires an abundance of moisture for its best growth and development1 yet it will not grow in soils that hold water for any considerable length of time4 ,such soils are usually those with an impervious subsoil or hard-pan1 or those of clay or silt structure which retain free water to the exclusion of air4 ,therefore1 it is important that alfalfa soils be well and uniformly drained1 either by natural conditions or by underground drains4 ,one other essential of prime importance is that the soil be neutral or alkaline in its reaction2 in other words1 that it contain no free acid4 ,limestone or blue-grass soils are ideal in this regard for alfalfa4 ,if acid is present1 the difficulty may be corrected either wholly or in part by the application of #ejj to #b1jjj pounds of lime per acre4 ,as in most other legumes 7members of the family ,leguminos1 including peas1 beans1 clovers71 there is a peculiar relationship existing between the plant and excrescences or nodules upon its roots4 ,these nodules are essential to the normal growth and development of the plant4 ,they contain bacteria1 and these bacteria have the power of fixing or appropriating the free atmospheric nitrogen in the soil4 ,legumes are nitrogen-gatherers1 whereas most other plants secure their nitrogen only from decomposing organic matter4 ,failure to have the soil inoculated with the proper bacteria for alfalfa is the cause for many failures with the crop4 ,in most instances when the plants do not make satisfactory growth1 or have a yellow1 dwarfed appearance1 the trouble can be traced to the absence of these bacteria from the soil1 and hence to a lack of nodules on the roots4 ,the relationship existing between the plant and the organism is one of mutual benefit4 ,each kind of leguminous plant seems to have its characteristic bacterium1 which grows on no other plant1 although this question is not thoroughly settled4 ,farmers are becoming aware of this requisite in alfalfa culture and usually supply it in two different ways4 ,the older method is to take the surface soil from an old alfalfa field1 where the plants have grown well and where nodules are to be found on the roots1 and to sow it on the land to be seeded at the rate of one hundred or more pounds per acre4 ,in this way the soil becomes inoculated with the bacteria1 and as the young plants spring into growth the bacteria develop on the roots4 ,another method is to inoculate the seed before sowing with artificial cultures of the bacteria4 ,both of these methods are usually successful1 and if soil conditions are right the chances for failure are few4 ,alfalfa should be cut when it opens into flower4 ,at this time the stems and leaves contain their highest percentage of nutrients1 the leaves do not so easily fall off in curing1 and the stems are not so woody4 ,besides these reasons1 if cutting be delayed until after flowering1 the plant may not spring quickly into subsequent growth4 ,disease does not spare the alfalfa plant4 ,both leaves and roots are attacked1 the leaf spot being serious4 ,the parasitic dodder is a serious enemy in some parts of ,new ,york ,state4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxv4 ,,how ,,plants ,,live ,,together4#di ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #di ,nature-,study ,quarterly ,no4 #f3 ,leaflet #ai1 ,october1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,to the general observer1 plants seem to be distributed in a promiscuous and haphazard way1 without law or order4 ,this is because he does not see and consider4 ,the world is now full of plants4 ,every plant puts forth its supreme effort to multiply its kind4 ,the result is an intense struggle for an opportunity to live4 ,seeds are scattered in profusion1 but only the few can grow4 ,the many do not find the proper conditions4 ,they fall on stony ground4 ,in ,fig4 #bej this loss is shown4 ,the trunk of an elm tree stands in the background4 ,the covering of the ground1 except about the very base of the tree1 is a mat of elm seedlings4 ,there are thousands of them in the space shown in the picture1 so many that they make a sod-like covering which shows little detail in the photograph4 ,not one of these thousands will ever make a tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,a carpet of young elms1 all of which must perish4 ,since there is intense competition for every foot of the earth's surface that is capable of raising plants1 it follows that every spot will probably have many kinds of plant inhabitants4 ,plants must live together4 ,they associate2 they become adapted or accustomed to each other4 ,some can live in shade2 they thrive in the forest1 where sun-loving plants perish4 ,others prefer the sun1 and thereby live together4 ,there are plant societies4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,a plant society waiting for the spring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4 ,weak1 narrow-leaved grasses grow in the cat-tail forest4 ,every distinct or separate area has its own plant society4 ,there is one association for the hard-tramped dooryard1--knot-weed and broad-leaved plantain with interspersed grass and dandelions2 one for the fence-row1--briars and choke-cherries and hiding weeds2 one for the dry open field1--wire-grass and mullein and scattered docks2 one for the slattern roadside1--sweet clover1 ragweed1 burdock2 one for the meadow swale1--smartweed and pitchforks2 one for the barnyard1--rank pigweeds and sprawling barn-grass2 one for the dripping rock-cliff1--delicate bluebells and hanging ferns and grasses4 ,indefinitely might these categories be extended4 ,we all know the plant societies1 but we have not considered them4 ,in every plant society there is one dominant note4 ,it is the individuality of one kind of plant which grows most abundantly or overtops the others4 ,certain plant-forms come to mind when one thinks of willows1 others when he thinks of an apple orchard1 still others when he thinks of a beech forest4 ,the farmer may associate pussly with cabbages and beets1 but not with wheat and oats4 ,he associates cockle with wheat1 but not with oats or corn4 ,we all associate dandelions with grassy areas1 but not with burdock or forests4 ,it is impossible to open one's eyes out-of-doors1 outside the paved streets of cities1 without seeing a plant society4 ,a lawn is a plant society4 ,it may contain only grass1 or it may contain weeds hidden away in the sward4 ,what weeds remain in the lawn8 ,only those which can withstand the mowing4 ,what are they8 ,let a bit of lawn grow as it will for a month1 and see what there is in it4 ,a swale1 a dry hillside1 a forest of beech1 a forest of oak1 a forest of hemlock or pine1 a weedy yard1 a tangled fence-row1 a brook-side1 a deep quiet swamp1 a lake shore1 a railroad1 a river bank1 a meadow1 a pasture1 a dusty roadway1--each has its characteristic plants4 ,even in the winter1 one may see these societies1--the tall plants still asserting themselves1 others of less aspiring stature1 and others snuggling just under the snow 7,fig4 #bea74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4 ,the wild grape covers the treetop1 and the children play in the bower4 ,the grape is searching for light4 ,often these societies are in the nature of overgrowth and undergrowth--one society living beneath another4 ,of such are forest societies4 ,few woods are so dark that some plants do not grow on the ground1 unless they are evergreen or coniferous woods4 ,even in humbler communities1 the overgrowth and undergrowth are usually apparent if one looks closely4 ,separate the cat-tails in the dense swamp and see the weak and narrow-leaved grasses growing between 7,fig4 #beb74 ,note the clover1 young grasses1 and other plants between the grass in the meadow3 the farmer says that his meadow has good bottom4 ,some plants even grow on top of other plants4 ,it is their way of getting light4 ,of such are the climbers4 ,note the mantle which the wild grape throws over the trees 7,fig4 #bec74 ,often the supporting tree is smothered and killed4 ,when an area is newly cleared1 many plants rush for it4 ,quickly it is covered with ambitious growths1--pokeweeds1 fireweeds1 thistles1 briars1 nettles4 ,often each plant occupies large places alone1 making clumps or patches4 ,these patches are plant colonies1--made up mostly of one species or kind 7,fig4 #bed74 ,but as the struggle tightens1 other plants insinuate themselves into the colony and it is broken up2 a mixed population results4 ,sometimes these colonies are broken up by the shade of trees and tall bushes which have come up near them1 for all neglected areas1 in this part of the world1 tend to return to forest if they are not mown1 pastured or burned4 ,mown and pastured areas run into grass1 for the grass withstands the cutting and grazing4 ,in burned areas the struggle begins anew when the fire has passed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,a colony of clotbur4 ,plant societies are easy to study for the school4 ,the study of them appeals to the desire for exploration and adventure1 and adds zest to the excursion4 ,go to a swale1 swamp1 roadside1 forest1 weedy field1 or other place1 and ask the pupil to note3 7#a7 that the flora of the place is unlike that of places with different physical features2 7#b7 that these particular plants grow together because they can all survive under similar conditions2 7#c7 what these conditions are1--whether sun1 shade1 dry soil1 wet soil1 sand1 clay1 rock2 7#d7 what particular plant is most abundant or gives character to the society4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,two plant societies1--the close-bitten sward and the rushy pond4 ,study one society thoroughly4 ,make lists of the kinds of plants and of the relative numbers of each4 ,if the names of the plants are not known1 call them by numbers2 make dried specimens of them for reference4 ,when another society is visited1 repeat these observations1 and compare one society with another4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4 ,the edge of the road4 ,trees and bushes crowd the drive-way1 and a ribbon of grass and weeds has pushed itself to the very margin4 ,ask every plant why it grows there4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxvi4 ,,planting ,a ,,plant4#ej ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #ej ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #h3 ,leaflet #ba1 ,january1 #aija4 ,illustration ,most persons are interested in plants1 even though they do not know it4 ,they enjoy the green verdure1 the brilliant flower1 the graceful form4 ,they are interested in plants in general4 ,i wish that every person were interested in some plant in particular4 ,there is a pleasure in the companionship1 merely because the plant is a living and a growing thing4 ,it expresses power1 vitality4 ,it is a complete1 self-sufficient organism4 ,it makes its way in the world4 ,it is alive4 ,the companionship with a plant1 as with a bird or an insect1 means more than the feeling for the plant itself4 ,it means that the person has interest in something real and genuine4 ,it takes him out-of-doors4 ,it invites him to the field4 ,it is suggestive4 ,it inculcates a habit of meditation and reflection4 ,it enables one to discover himself4 ,i wish that every child in ,new ,york ,state had a plant of his own1 and were attached to it4 ,why cannot the teacher suggest this idea to the pupils8 ,it may be enough to have only one plant the first year1 particularly if the pupil is young4 ,it matters little what the plant is4 ,the important thing is that it shall be alive4 ,every plant is interesting in its way4 ,a good pigweed is much more satisfactory than a poor rosebush4 ,the pupil should grow the plant from the beginning4 ,he should not buy it ready grown1 for then it is not his1 even though he own it4 ,it is well to begin with some plant that grows quickly and matures early4 ,one is ambitious in spring1 but his enthusiasm may wither and die in the burning days of summer4 ,if possible1 grow the plant in the free open ground2 if this is not feasible1 grow it in a pot or box or tin can4 ,take advantage of the early spring enthusiasm4 ,choose hardy and vigorous plants3 sow the seeds when the spirit moves4 ,if a pupil is interested in kitchen-garden vegetables1 recommend lettuce and radish1 or a potato4 ,if in flowers1 suggest sweet pea1 bachelor's button or blue-bottle1 annual phlox1 candytuft1 ,china aster4 ,if in fruits1 suggest strawberry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we desire to inaugurate a general movement for the planting of plants4 ,the school ground should be planted4 ,private yards should be planted4 ,roadsides should be planted4 ,in some cities and villages there are committees or other organizations whose object it is to encourage the planting of public and private places4 ,sometimes this organization is connected with the school interest1 sometimes with a local horticultural or agricultural society1 sometimes with a business men's organization4 ,there should be such a committee in every village and town4 ,we wish that the teachers might help in this work1 for they would not only be lending their aid to planting1 but also be interesting their pupils in some concrete and useful work1 and teaching them the value of public spirit4 ,arbor ,day should be more than a mere ceremonial4 ,it should be a means of awakening interest in definite plans for the adornment of the neighborhood and of directing the attention of the children nature-ward4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxvii4 ,,cuttings ,,and ,,cuttings4#ea ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #ea ,nature-,study ,quarterly ,no4 #c3 ,leaflet #af1 ,january1 #aijj4 ,illustration ,perhaps no subject connected with the growing of plants awakens so much popular wonder and inquiry as their propagation by means of cuttings and grafts4 ,we assume that propagation by means of seeds is the natural way1 and therefore do not wonder1 notwithstanding that it is wonderful4 ,we assume that propagation by cuttings is wholly unnatural1 and therefore never cease to wonder1 notwithstanding that this is less wonderful than the other4 ,to common minds1 common things are not wonderful4 ,mere commonplace familiarity takes away the charm1 for such minds have no desire of inquiry4 ,the well trained mind goes beneath the surface1 and wonders at everything2 and this wonder1 grown old and wise1 is the spirit of science4 ,a plant does not have a definite number of parts1 as an animal does4 ,it may have ten branches or fifty4 ,each of these branches may do what every other branch does--produce leaves1 flowers1 fruits1 seeds4 ,it is not so with the higher animals1 for in them each part may do something which some other part cannot do3 if the part is a leg1 it runs2 if an ear1 it hears4 ,each part serves the whole animal2 and it cannot reproduce the animal4 ,but in the plant1 each branch lives for itself3 it grows on the parent stock2 or1 if it is removed1 it may grow in the soil4 ,and if it grow in the soil1 it is relieved of competition with other branches and grows bigger3 it makes what we call a plant4 ,having thus bewildered my reader1 ,i may say that a bit of a plant stuck into the ground stands a chance of growing2 and this bit is a cutting4 ,plants have preferences1 however1 as to the kind of bit which shall be used2 but there is no way of telling what this preference is except by trying4 ,in some instances this preference has not been discovered1 and we may say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings4 ,most plants prefer that the cuttings be made of the soft or growing wood1 of which the slips of geraniums and coleus are examples4 ,others grow equally well from cuttings of the hard or mature wood1 as currants and grapes2 and in some instances this mature wood may be of roots1 as in the blackberry4 ,somewhat different principles underlie the handling of these two kinds of cuttings2 and these principles we may now consider4 ,we shall find it excellent practice to set the pupils to making cuttings now and then4 ,if we can do nothing more1 we can make cuttings of potatoes1 as the farmer does2 and we can plant them in a box in the window4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4 ,geranium cutting4 ,one-half natural size4 ,,the ,,softwood ,,cutting4 ,the softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing1 or at least from that which is not dormant4 ,it must not be allowed to wilt4 ,it must1 therefore1 be protected from direct sunlight and dry air until it is well established2 and if it has many leaves1 some of them should be removed1 or at least cut in two in order to reduce the evaporating surface4 ,keep the soil uniformly moist2 and avoid soils which contain much decaying organic matter1 for these soils are breeding places of fungi which attack the soft cutting and cause it to damp off4 ,for most plants1 the proper age of maturity of wood for the making of cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend2 if it snaps and hangs by the bark1 it is in proper condition2 if it bends without breaking it is too young and soft or too old2 if it splinters1 it is too old and woody4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4 ,carnation cutting4 ,natural size4 ,the tips of strong upright shoots usually make the best cuttings4 ,preferably each cutting should have a joint or node near its base2 and if the internodes are short1 it may comprise two or three joints4 ,allow one to three leaves to remain at the top4 ,if these leaves are large1 cut them in two4 ,insert the cutting half or more its length in clean sand or gravel4 ,press the earth firmly about it4 ,throw a newspaper over the bed to exclude the light--if the sun strikes it--and to prevent too rapid evaporation4 ,see that the soil is moist clear through1 not on top only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,rose cutting4 ,more than one-half natural size4 ,mason's sand is good earth in which to start cuttings4 ,or fine gravel--sifted of most of its earthy matter--may be used4 ,if the cuttings are to be grown in a window1 put three or four inches of the earth in a shallow box or a pan4 ,a soap box cut in two lengthwise1 so that it makes a box four or five inches deep--like a gardener's flat--is excellent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,cutting-bed1 showing carnations and roses4 ,if the box does not receive direct sunlight1 it may be covered with a pane of glass to prevent evaporation2 and then the children may see the plants more readily4 ,but take care that the air is not kept too close1 else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings and they will rot at the surface of the ground4 ,see that the pane is raised a little at one end to afford ventilation2 and if water collects in drops on the under side of the glass1 remove the pane for a time4 ,cuttings of common plants1 as geranium1 coleus1 fuchsia1 carnation1 should be kept in a living-room temperature4 ,the pictures are better than words4 ,the line across them shows where the soil comes4 ,there are softwood cuttings of the geranium 7,fig4 #beg71 the carnation 7,fig4 #beh71 and the rose 7,fig4 #bei72 and there is a gardener's cutting bed 7,fig4 #bfj7 with cuttings of carnations and roses4 ,be patient4 ,as long as the cuttings look bright and green1 they are safe4 ,it may be a month before roots form4 ,when roots have formed1 the plants will begin to make new leaves at the tip4 ,then they may be transplanted into other boxes or into pots4 ,the verbena in ,fig4 #bfa is just ready for transplanting4 ,each child will want a plant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,verbena cutting ready for transplanting4 ,two-thirds natural size4 ,it is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make the cuttings4 ,the best practice is to cut back some old plant severely1 then keep it warm and well watered1 and thereby force it to throw out new shoots4 ,the old geranium plant from the window garden1 or the one taken up from the lawn bed1 may be served this way4 ,see ,fig4 #bfb4 ,this may seem hard treatment1 but that is all the old plant is good for2 it has passed its usefulness for bloom4 ,the best plants of the geranium and the coleus and many window plants are those which are not more than one year old4 ,the cuttings that are made in ,january1 ,february1 or ,march will give compact blooming plants for the next winter2 and thereafter new ones take their place4 ,some plants may be propagated by means of cuttings of leaves4 ,the ,rex begonias or beefsteak geraniums are the commonest examples4 ,the large1 nearly mature leaf is divided into triangular pieces1 each piece containing at its point a bit of the leaf-base 7top of the leaf-stalk74 ,this kind of cutting is shown in ,fig4 #bfc4 ,this base is sometimes split 7as at o7 by gardeners to hasten the formation of roots4 ,only the tip of the cutting is stuck into the sand2 otherwise it is treated like other softwood cuttings4 ,,the ,,hardwood ,,cutting4 ,many plants grow readily from cuttings of ripe or dormant wood4 ,the willows cast their branchlets in snow and wind1 and these1 falling in pleasant places propagate their kind2 and thus the river sides and the lake shores become willow-crowned4 ,grapes1 currants1 gooseberries1 poplars readily take root from the hardwood4 ,fig4 #bfd shows a currant cutting4 ,it has only one bud above the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,old geranium plant cut back to make it throw out shoots from which cuttings can be made4 ,the best results are attained when the cuttings are made in the fall1 and then buried until spring in sand in the cellar4 ,they are not idle while they rest4 ,the lower end calluses or heals1 and the roots form more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring4 ,but if the children are interested1 take cuttings at any time in winter1 plant them in a deep box in the window1 and watch4 ,they will need no shading or special care4 ,when plants of any variety are scarce1 the cuttings may be shorter4 ,sometimes they are reduced to a single eye or bud1 with an inch or two of wood attached2 and these single-eye cuttings are planted much as one plants seeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,begonia leaf cutting4 ,natural size4 ,,the ,,graft4 ,if the cutting were planted in a plant rather than in the soil1 we should have a graft2 and the graft might grow4 ,in this case1 the cutting would not make roots1 but it would grow fast to the other plant1 and the twain would become one4 ,when the cutting is inserted in a plant it is no longer called a cutting1 but a cion2 and the plant in which it is inserted is called the stock4 ,the completed thing--the cion growing in the stock--is a graft4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,currant cutting4 ,one-third natural size4 ,plants are particular as to their companions1 when it comes to such close relationships as these4 ,they choose the stocks upon which they will grow2 but we can find out what their choice is only by making the experiment4 ,there are queer things about it4 ,the pear grows well on the quince1 but the quince does not grow so well on the pear4 ,the pear grows on some of the hawthorns1 but it is an unwilling subject on the apple4 ,tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato plants4 ,when the potato is the root1 both tomatoes and potatoes may be produced2 when the tomato is the root1 neither potatoes nor tomatoes will be produced4 ,chestnuts are said to grow on some kinds of oaks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,cion for cleft-grafting4 ,one-half natural size4 ,why do we graft8 ,think a bit4 ,if ,i sow seeds of a ,baldwin apple1 ,i shall probably have as many kinds of apples as ,i have trees4 ,some of these apples may be like the ,baldwin1 and they may not4 ,that is1 apple seeds do not reproduce the particular variety4 ,they will not be held to any stricter account than merely to produce apples2 these apples may range all the way from toothsome kinds to ,ben ,davis4 ,the nurseryman knows this1 and he does not wait for the trees to bear in the hope that they will produce something to his liking4 ,so he grafts them when they still are young1--takes a cion from the kind which he wishes to perpetuate4 ,so it happens that all the ,baldwins and the ,kings and the ,russets1 and all other named varieties1 are growing on alien roots2 and what kinds of fruits these stocks would have produced no one will ever know1 because their heads were cut off in youth and other heads were put on to order4 ,in this way apples and pears and plums and peaches and cherries and apricots are propagated1 for they will not grow readily from cuttings4 ,but raspberries and blackberries and gooseberries and currants and grapes grow willingly from cuttings1 and they are not grafted by the nurseryman4 ,the forming1 growing tissue of the trunk is the cambium1 lying on the outside of the woody cylinder1 beneath the bark4 ,in order that union may take place1 the cambium of the cion and the stock must come together4 ,therefore1 the cion is set in the side of the stock4 ,i once knew a man who believed that everything was designed for some useful purpose4 ,the hole in the pith bothered him1 until he discovered that a cion just filled it4 ,he grafted his trees accordingly2 but the experiment was productive of nothing except pithy remarks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,cleft-graft4 ,one-half natural size4 ,there are many ways of shaping the cion and of preparing the stock to receive it4 ,these ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock1 although many of them are matters of mere personal preference4 ,the underlying principles are two3 see that there is close contact between the cambiums of cion and stock2 cover the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the parts from disease4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,the graft waxed4 ,on large stocks the common form of grafting is the cleft-graft4 ,the stock is cut off and split2 and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted4 ,fig4 #bfe shows the cion2 ,fig4 #bff1 the cions set in the stock2 ,fig4 #bfg1 the stock waxed4 ,it will be seen that the lower bud--that lying in the wedge--is covered by the wax2 but being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather1 it is the most likely to grow3 it pushes through the wax4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,shield-budding4 ,one-half natural size4 ,the wax is made of beeswax1 resin1 and tallow4 ,the hands are greased1 and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to spread4 ,for the little grafting which any school would do1 it is better to buy the wax of a seedsman4 ,however1 grafting is hardly to be recommended as a general school diversion1 as the making of cuttings is2 and this account of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the general curiosity on the subject4 ,but we hope that now and then a youngster will make the effort for himself1 for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all by one's self4 ,cleft-grafting is done in spring1 as growth begins4 ,the cions are cut previously1 when perfectly dormant1 and from the tree which it is desired to propagate4 ,the cions are kept in sand or moss in the cellar4 ,limbs of various sizes may be cleft-grafted--from one-half inch up to four inches in diameter2 but a diameter of one inch is the most convenient size4 ,all the leading or main branches of a tree top may be grafted4 ,if the remaining parts of the top are gradually cut away and the scions grow well1 the entire top will be changed over to the new variety in three or four years4 ,each cion may be a different variety2 but there is no difference in the operation or the treatment of the tree4 ,on young or small stocks1 like nursery trees1 the cleft-graft is not practicable1 and a different form of grafting is employed2 but the teacher will not care to be confused with further details4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,the bud set in the matrix4 ,one-half natural size4 ,we have seen that a cutting may be reduced to a single bud2 so may a cion4 ,if the bud-cion has very little or no wood attached1 and is inserted underneath the bark1 the operation is known as budding4 ,the commonest form of budding is shown in ,figs4 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bgj4 ,this is the method known as shield-budding1 because the bud1 with its attached bark1 is shield-shaped 7,fig4 #bfh74 ,a ,t-shape incision is made in the stock1 and under the bark the bud is inserted 7,fig4 #bfi72 then the wound is tightly bound with soft cord or bast 7,fig4 #bgj74 ,budding may be performed whenever the bark will slip and when well grown buds can be secured1--that is1 either in spring or late summer4 ,it is usually performed at the latter season2 and then the bud does not throw out a shoot the same season1 but merely grows fast to the stock4 ,the next spring it throws out a shoot and makes a trunk2 and in the meantime the stock has been cut off just above the bud4 ,that is1 the bud-shoot takes the place of the top of the stock4 ,shield-budding is performed only on small and young stocks4 ,it is usually exclusively employed in the propagation of stone fruits1 as cherries1 peaches1 plums1 apricots1 for experience has proved that it is preferable to other forms of grafting4 ,it may also be employed for other fruit trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,the bud tied4 ,how is a peach tree made8 ,in #ahih a pit or seed is saved4 ,in the spring of #ahii it is planted4 ,the young tree comes up quickly4 ,in ,august1 #ahii1 the little stock has one bud--of the desired variety--inserted near the ground4 ,in the spring of #aijj the stock is severed just above the bud3 the bud throws out a shoot which grows to a height of four or six feet2 and in the fall of #aijj the tree is sold4 ,it is known as a year-old tree2 but the root is two years old4 ,how is an apple tree made8 ,the seed is saved in #ahih1 planted in #ahii4 ,the seedlings do not grow so rapidly as those of the peach4 ,at the end of #ahii they are taken up and sorted2 and in the spring of #aijj they are planted4 ,in ,july or ,august1 #aijj1 they are budded4 ,in the spring of #aija the stock is cut off above the bud2 and the bud-shoot grows three or four feet4 ,in #aijb the shoot branches1 or the top begins to form2 and in the fall of #aijb the tree may be sold as a two-year-old1 although most persons prefer to buy it in #aijc as a three-year-old4 ,in some parts of the country1 particularly in the west1 the little seedling is grafted in the winter of #ahii-aijj in a grafting-room2 and the young grafts are set in the nursery row in the spring of #aijj1 to complete their growth4 ,i have now given my reader an elementary lesson in horticulture2 but ,i shall consider it of little avail if it is not transformed into practice for the children4 ,february is the gardener's time for the starting of his cutting-beds1 in which to grow plants for the summer bloom4 ,ask the children to bring the old geraniums and fuchsias and coleus1 and other favorites4 ,keep them in a warm window2 cut them back2 see that they are well watered2 then take the cuttings when the time comes4 ,the children will be interested to watch the fortunes of the different cuttings4 ,they will be interested in ,vergil's couplet1 as set to rhyme in old-fashioned ,english3 ,some need no root1 nor doth the ,gardner doubt1 ,that ,sprigs though headlong set1 will timely sprout4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxviii4 ,a ,,children',s ,,garden4#eb ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #eb ,teachers' ,leaflet ,no4 #d1 ,april1 #ahig4 ,illustration ,we want every school child in the ,state to grow a few plants4 ,we want every one of them to learn something of why and how plants grow2 and the best and surest way to learn is to grow the plants and to watch them carefully4 ,we want everyone to become interested in everything that lives and grows4 ,it does not matter so very much just what kinds of plants one grows as it does that he grows something and grows it the best that he knows how4 ,we want the children to grow these plants for the love of it1--that is1 for the fun of it1--hence we propose that they grow flowers2 for when one grows pumpkins and potatoes1 and such things1 he is usually thinking of how much money he is going to make at the end of the season4 ,yet1 we should like some rivalry in the matter in every school1 and we therefore propose that a kind of a fair be held at the school-house next ,september1 soon after school begins1 so that each child may show the flowers which he has grown4 ,what a jolly time that will be6 ,now1 we must not try to grow too many things or to do too much4 ,therefore1 we propose that you grow sweet peas and ,china asters4 ,they are both easy to grow1 and the seeds are cheap4 ,each one has many colors1 and everybody likes them4 ,now let us tell you just how we should grow them4 #a4 ,the place4--,never put them--or any other flowers--in the middle of the lawn1--that is1 out in the center of the yard4 ,they do not look well there1 and the grass roots run under them and steal the food and the moisture4 ,i am sure that you would not like to see a picture hung up on a fence-post4 ,it has no background1 and it looks out of place4 ,the picture does not mean anything when hung in such a spot4 ,in the same way1 a flower bed does not mean anything when set out in the center of a lawn4 ,we must have a background for it1 if possible1--a wall upon which to hang it4 ,so we will put the flower bed just in front of some bushes or near the back fence1 or alongside the smoke-house1 or along the walk at the side of the house1 or in the back yard4 ,the flowers will not only look better in such places1 but it will not matter so much if we make a failure of our flower bed2 there are always risks to run1 for the old hen may scratch up the seeds1 the cow may break into the yard some summer night1 or some bug may eat the plants up4 ,perhaps some of the children may live so near to the school-house that they can grow their plants upon the school grounds1 and so have sweet peas and asters where there are usually docks and smartweeds4 ,grow them alongside the fence1 or against the school-house if there is a place where the eaves will not drip on them4 #b4 ,how to make the bed4--,spade the ground up deep4 ,take out all the roots of docks and thistles and other weeds4 ,shake the dirt all out of the sods and throw the grass away4 ,you may need a little manure in the soil1 especially if the land is either very hard or very loose and sandy4 ,but the manure must be very fine and well mixed into the soil4 ,it is easy1 however1 to make sweet pea soil so rich that the plants will run to vine and not bloom well4 ,make the bed long and narrow1 but not narrower than three feet4 ,if it is narrower than this the grass roots will be likely to run under it and suck up the moisture4 ,if the bed can be got at on both sides it may be as wide as five feet4 ,sow the seeds in little rows crosswise the bed4 ,the plants can then be weeded and hoed easily from either side4 ,if the rows are marked by little sticks1 or if a strong mark is left in the earth1 you can break the crust between the rows 7with a rake7 before the plants are up4 ,the rows ought to be four or five inches further apart than the width of a narrow rake4 #c4 ,how to water the plants4--,i wonder if you have a watering-pot8 ,if you have1 put it where you cannot find it2 for we are going to water this garden with a rake6 ,we want you to learn1 in this little garden1 the first great lesson in farming1--how to save the water in the soil4 ,if you learn that much this summer1 you will know more than many old farmers do4 ,you know that the soil is moist in the spring when you plant the seeds4 ,where does this moisture go to8 ,it dries up1--goes off into the air4 ,if we could cover up the soil with something1 we should prevent the moisture from drying up4 ,let us cover it with a layer of loose1 dry earth6 ,we will make this covering by raking the bed every few days1--once every week anyway1 and oftener than that if the top of the soil becomes hard and crusty1 as it does after a rain4 ,instead of pouring water on the bed1 therefore1 we will keep the moisture in the bed4 ,if1 however1 the soil becomes so dry in spite of you that the plants do not thrive1 then water the bed4 ,do not sprinkle it1 but water it4 ,wet it clear through at evening4 ,then in the morning1 when the surface begins to get dry1 begin the raking again to keep the water from getting away4 ,sprinkling the plants every day or two is one of the surest ways to spoil them4 #d4 ,when and how to sow4--,the sweet peas should be put in just as soon as the ground can be dug1 even before frosts are passed4 ,yet good results can be had if the seeds are put in as late as the #ajth of ,may4 ,in the sweet pea garden at ,cornell last year1 we sowed the seeds on the #bjth of ,april4 ,this was about right4 ,the year before1 we sowed them on the #cjth4 ,if sown very early1 they are likely to bloom better1 but they may be gone before the middle of ,september4 ,the blooming can be much prolonged if the flowers are cut as soon as they begin to fade4 ,plant sweet peas deep1--two or three or sometimes even four inches4 ,when the plants are a few inches high1 pull out a part of them so that they will not stand nearer together than six inches in the row4 ,it is a good plan to sow sweet peas in double rows1--that is1 put two rows only five or six inches apart1--and stick the brush or place the chicken-wire support between them4 ,china asters may be sown from the middle of ,may to the first of ,june4 ,in one large test at ,cornell1 we sowed them the #dth of ,june1 and had good success2 but this is rather later than we would advise4 ,the ,china asters are autumn flowers1 and they should be in their prime in ,september and early ,october4 ,sow the aster seed shallow1--not more than a half inch deep4 ,the tall kinds of asters should have at least a foot between the plants in the row1 and the dwarf kinds six to eight inches4 ,sometimes ,china asters have rusty or yellow spots on the undersides of their leaves4 ,this is a fungous disease4 ,if it appears1 have your father make some ammoniacal carbonate of copper solution and then spray them with it2 or ,bordeaux mixture will do just as well or better1 only that it discolors the leaves and flowers4 #e4 ,what varieties to choose4--,in the first place1 do not plant too much4 ,a garden which looks very small when the pussy willows come out and the frogs begin to peep1 is pretty big in the hot days of ,july4 ,a garden four feet wide and twenty feet long1 half sweet peas and half asters1 is about as big as most boys and girls will take care of4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,a clump of weeds in the corner by the house1--motherwort and ,virginia creeper4 ,how pretty they are6 ,in the next place1 do not get too many varieties4 ,four or five kinds each of peas and asters will be enough4 ,buy the named varieties1--that is1 those of known colors1--not the mixed packets4 ,if you are very fond of reds1 then choose the reddest kinds2 but it is well to put in at least three colors4 ,the varieties which please you may not please me or your neighbor1 so that ,i cannot advise you what to get4 ,of ,china asters1 the ,comet type--in various colors--will probably give the most satisfaction4 ,they are mostly large-growing kinds4 ,other excellent kinds are the ,perfection and ,peony-flowered1 ,semple or ,branching1 ,chrysanthemum-flowered1 ,washington1 ,victoria1 and1 for early1 ,queen of the ,market4 ,odd varieties are ,crown1 ,german ,quilled1 ,victoria ,needle1 and ,lilliput4 ,very dwarf kinds are ,dwarf ,bouquet or ,dwarf ,german1 and ,shakespeare4 ,one of the chief merits of the ,china aster is the lateness of bloom1 allowing the flowers to be used in the schools after they open in the fall4 ,an excellent flower for sowing during ,may is the common annual ,phlox 7,phlox ,drummondii of the catalogues74 ,poppies are also satisfactory1 but the flowers do not last long4 ,petunias are excellent and ,balsams1 ,clarkias1 ,coreopsis 7or ,calliopsis71 and ,zinnias may be sown4 ,now1 let us see how many boys and girls in ,new ,york ,state will raise sweet peas and ,china asters this year6 ,and we should like them to write us all about it4 ,,leaflet ,,xxxix4 ,a ,,hill ,,of ,,potatoes4#ec ,,by ,i4 ,p4 ,,roberts4 #ec ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,no4 #g3 ,leaflet #bj1 ,january1 #aija4 ,illustration ,plant a hill of potatoes4 ,you can do it in the school-room4 ,plant in a box or a flower-pot4 ,keep the box warm1 and do not let the soil dry out4 ,plant whole tubers and pieces of tubers4 ,plant pieces of various sizes4 ,plant some that have no eyes4 ,plant shallow--so that the tuber is just covered with soil--and deep4 ,watch the results4 ,all plants are abundantly supplied with means for reproducing their kind3 some by seed1 some by multiplication at the crown or base or by roots1 others by means of underground stems2 and some1 as the potato1 have two or more means of reproduction4 ,in its wild or partially improved state the potato is abundantly supplied with fruit1 seed balls1 borne on the top of the stalks4 ,the seeds of a single ball will often produce many varieties of potatoes2 but they cannot be depended upon to reproduce the parent stock4 ,farmers seldom attempt to raise potatoes from the seeds2 when they do it is for the purpose of securing new varieties4 ,the common method of reproduction is to plant a part or all of an enlarged underground stem1 that is1 a part of the potato or tuber4 ,when the soil is reasonably porous and fertile1 a strong root may start at the seed-piece and descend more or less directly into the subsoil4 ,in most cases1 however1 the roots spread laterally4 ,this is a good illustration of how plants may vary in their root habits in order to adapt themselves to their environment4 ,notice where the roots form on the plants you are growing4 ,few farmers know where they form4 ,distinguish the true or feeding roots from the underground stems4 ,determine how many tubers form on each underground stem4 ,dig up a hill of potatoes from the garden before school closes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,underground part of potato plant in mellow soil4 ,a single eye1 with a portion of the tuber attached to furnish nourishment to the bud until sustenance can be secured from newly formed rootlets1 may produce one1 occasionally more1 strong upright stems4 ,a most interesting study of manifold reproduction may be made even in the winter time by planting in a fertile soil a piece of potato containing a single eye 7,fig4 #bgc74 ,as soon as the rootlets begin to start1 divide each eye and piece into two parts and re-plant4 ,in a few days after the rootlets have again started1 divide the two pieces into four and re-plant4 ,this operation may be performed again and again1 until many plants suitable for transplanting in the open may be secured from a single eye4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,piece of tuber for planting1 bearing a single eye4 ,demonstrate that the potato contains starch4 ,this can be done by applying a drop of dilute iodine to a freshly cut surface of the tuber3 the starch grains turn blue-black4 ,five cents' worth of iodine purchased at the drug-store will be sufficient for many tests4 ,dilute it about one-half with water4 ,this starch1 after being changed to sugar1 supplies the young plant with nourishment4 ,dig up the pieces you have planted and see which start first1 shoots or roots4 ,the potato is an enlarged underground stem provided with numerous buds similar to those on the stems of plants above ground4 ,these buds are placed spirally on the underground stem or tuber with a considerable degree of uniformity4 ,as on the stems of other plants1 the buds are less numerous and weaker at the base and most numerous and vigorous at the top or upper end4 ,on a smooth well developed long potato1 the spiral arrangement of the buds may be illustrated by sticking a tooth-pick or pin in each eye1 beginning at the base or stem end1 and connecting the pins with a string 7,fig4 #bgd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,how to illustrate the spiral arrangement of the eyes4 ,,farm ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,potato4 ,now that we have seen the potato growing in the school-room1 some information may be given respecting its treatment in the field as a crop4 ,potatoes are easily raised1 even under adverse conditions1 although they respond quickly to superior fertility and tillage4 ,the average yield in the ,united ,states during the last ten years was #gf4f bushels an acre1 although from three to four hundred bushels an acre are not uncommon under superior tillage when soil and climate are at their best4 ,the area devoted to potatoes during the last decade was two and a half million acres annually4 ,potatoes do best on a moderately moist and deep soil and in a climate relatively cool4 ,since the period of growth is short1 varying from three to five months1 they should be planted in soil which has an abundance of readily available plant-food4 ,notice in ,fig4 #bgb that most of the underground stems which have produced potatoes leave the main stem about four inches below the surface and but a short distance above the seed-piece4 ,this suggests that the seed should be planted about four inches deep4 ,to produce three hundred bushels of potatoes requires the exhalation of over three hundred tons of water3 therefore water or moisture is of quite as much importance in securing large yields as plant-food4 ,it is best to prepare the land deeply1 to plant deep1 and then to practice nearly or quite level culture4 ,the practice of hilling up potatoes1 so common in most parts of the country1 is to be discouraged1 usually1 because it is wasteful of moisture and the tubers do not grow in the coolest part of the soil4 ,for very early potatoes1 hilling-up may be allowable4 ,till the soil very often to save the moisture4 ,for the philosophy of this1 see ,leaflet ,no4 ,,ix4 ,not infrequently the potato is seriously injured by blights which attack the leaves4 ,the early blight1 which usually appears in ,june1 may destroy some of the foliage1 thereby checking growth4 ,the late blight1 which also attacks the foliage1 is far more serious4 ,it differs little in outward appearance from the early blight4 ,in rare cases the vines are so seriously injured that no potatoes are formed4 ,the potato rot or blight did great damage to the potato in many localities in the ,united ,states in #ahde4 ,in #ahdf the blight appeared in ,ireland and virtually destroyed the entire crop4 ,before this date the potato had become the chief food supply of the peasantry4 ,the cultivation of oats as a food crop had been universal before the introduction of the potato1 but oats furnished so little food on a given area as compared to the potato that the cultivation of them at the time the blight appeared had been very largely abandoned4 ,the loss of the potato crop produced widespread famine4 ,the most conservative estimate of the numbers who perished for want of food or by disease caused by a meager diet of unhealthy and innutritions food is set down at six hundred thousand during the two years of the potato blight4 ,this disease was not so destructive in #ahdg as in #ahdf2 and by #ahdh it had virtually disappeared4 ,some one has said that if ,great ,britain had expended one dollar for investigating the diseases of potatoes where she had spent a thousand dollars for perfecting the engines of war1 the terrible famine might have been averted4 ,we now think it a relatively easy matter to keep the blight in check by thorough spraying with ,bordeaux mixture4 ,,how ,,the ,,potato ,,has ,,been ,,improved4 ,all plants have their origin in pre-existing plants4 ,while the young plant is always similar to the one from which it was derived1 it is never exactly like its parent in every detail4 ,this arises from the fact that all of the conditions under which the parent plant and its offspring grow are never exactly alike4 ,the variations or differences in the plants are usually exceedingly small in a single generation2 but occasionally they are wide1 in which case they are called sports and are usually difficult to perpetuate4 ,if successive generations of plants are reared under continuously improved conditions1 there will be a continuous and accumulating variation from generation to generation1 which in time may come to be so great as to make it difficult to discover a marked similarity between the wild and the cultivated forms of the same plant4 ,when conditions are undisturbed by man there is found to be a fierce struggle for existence4 ,the hardiest or those best suited to the conditions preponderate1 and this without any reference to the wants of mankind4 ,the farmer steps in and selects those plants which give promise of being most useful or most beautiful and then decreases or eliminates the struggle for these selected plants1 by destroying the plants which are least desirable1 by fertilizing and tilling the soil1 by conserving moisture1 and by improving the physical conditions of the land1 thereby making it more comfortable for the plants which he has chosen4 ,the selected or improved plant1 by reason of being more comfortable and better nourished1 tends to vary in one or more directions from the wild and unimproved types4 ,whenever these variations tend towards greater productiveness1 better quality or enhanced beauty1 selection is again made of such specimens as give promise of supplying the wants and gratifying the desires of civilized man4 ,the bettered conditions of the plant1 by reason of man's effort1 do not usually result in producing like variation along all lines4 ,one part of the plant as the flower1 the fruit1 or the stem1 varies more than the other parts4 ,all this tends to break up a single type or stock into many varieties4 ,there are hundreds of varieties of potatoes all traceable to a single wild species4 ,the kind and quantity of nourishment supplied plays the most important part of any single factor in producing variation4 ,the general character of the cultivated potato plant as to leaf1 stem1 root1 and habit of growth1 is virtually the same as the wild plant1 variation having been directed and accentuated along the line of increasing the size and quality of the underground tubers4 ,this habit of producing enormously enlarged underground stems has been operating so long that the plant has inherited the power of transmitting this acquired quality to the succeeding plants4 ,the most improved varieties seldom produce seed balls1 because growth has been directed so largely toward enlarging and multiplying the tubers4 ,by selecting tubers with shallow buds or eyes and avoiding those with deep1 sunken eyes1 varieties have been produced with few eyes or buds1 and these set not in deep indentations but nearly even with the surface of the potato4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as a school-room subject1 the potato is not very tractable1 unless we study merely the tubers4 ,if the school is in session in summer1 the growing plant may be had4 ,then it will be found to be an interesting and profitable exercise to set the children at the problem of determining the root-system of the potato plant4 ,how do the roots look8 ,does the plant have a tap-root1 or do the roots spread laterally8 ,are the tubers borne on roots8 ,or on underground stems8 ,why do you think so8 ,does the tuber terminate the branch8 ,what relation1 in position1 do the tuber-bearing branches bear to other parts of the underground system8 ,do you think that the tuber-bearing branches aid in collecting food from the soil8 ,the top of the plant may be studied in the same spirit1--branching1 leaves1 flowers1 berries4 ,if the growing plant cannot be had1 study tubers4 ,compare as to size1 shape1 color1 character of eyes1 whether scabby or smooth4 ,use them as objects in drawing4 ,plant tubers in the school-room1 in boxes or flower pots4 ,this ,leaflet will suggest some interesting observations4 ,how important is the potato crop in the ,state and nation8 ,the pupil can use his mathematics here4 ,,leaflet ,,xl4 ,,the ,,hepatica4#ed ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ed ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #cj1 ,march1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,as children are always especially interested in the wild flowers in spring1 ,i have thought best to study a few of the woodland blossoms4 ,the wonderful processes of plant life are as well shown in these as in any4 ,the hepatica is among the first which greets us in the spring1 and we will study this first4 ,there are several ways of getting acquainted with a plant3 one is to go-a-visiting1 and another is to invite the plant to our own home1 either as guest on the window-sill1 or as a tenant of the garden4 ,when we visit the hepatica in its own haunts it is usually with the longing for spring in our hearts that awakens with the first warm sunshine and which is really one of the subtlest as well as greatest charms of living in a climate that has a snowy winter4 ,as we thread our way into the sodden woods1 avoiding the streams and puddles that are little glacial rivers and lakes from fast disappearing snow-drifts still heaped on the north sides of things1 we look eagerly for signs of returning life4 ,the eye slowly differentiates from the various shades of brown in the floor of the forest a bit of pale blue or pink purple that at first seems as if it were an optical delusion2 but as we look again to make sure1 lo6 it is the hepatica4 ,there it is1 rising from its mass of purple brown leaves1 leaves that are always beautiful in shape and color and suggest patterns for sculpture like the acanthus or for rich tapestries like the palm-leaf in the ,orient4 ,there the brave little flower stands with its face to the sun and its back to the snow-drift and looks out on a gray brown world and nods at it and calls it good4 ,it is when the hepatica is our guest that we have a better opportunity for studying its form and features4 ,take up a hepatica root in the fall and pot it and place it in a cool cellar until ,march #a4 ,then give it light1 warmth1 and moisture on your table and see how gladly it will blossom and tell its secrets4 ,or perhaps if we are not sufficiently forehanded to get the root in the fall we can get it during a thaw in ,march when we go foraging for spring feelings in winter woods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4 ,hepatica1 harbinger of spring4 ,when finally a bud has uncuddled and lifted itself into a flower1 it will tell us the story of leaves in different disguises1 and we may be able to notice whether the pollen ripens and is all distributed when the flower begins to fade and fall4 ,we may note also the number of seeds and examine one of them with a lens4 ,it is what the botanists call an akene1 which simply means just one seed with a tight envelope about it4 ,we have a careless habit of forgetting all about plants after their blossoms fade unless their fruits or seed are good to eat or good to look at4 ,this is as inconsistent as it would be to lose all interest in the farm before the fields were planted4 ,after the flower is gone the plant must mature its seeds and somehow must sow them4 ,we will study the hepatica through the summer and autumn1 for we must know what is happening to it every month4 ,,questions ,,concerning ,,the ,,hepatica ,,to ,,be ,,answered ,,during ,,march ,,and ,,april4 #a4 ,in what situations are the hepaticas found8 #b4 ,how does the hepatica prepare for the winter and store up energy for blossoming early in the spring8 #c4 ,how early do you find blossom buds down in the center of the plant8 ,did you ever look for these buds in the fall8 #d4 ,do the flowers come out of the crown bud8 #e4 ,are the leaves that come up late in the spring as fuzzy when they first appear as those that come up early8 #f4 ,make out as complete a life-history of the hepatica as you can1--how it sows itself1 where it grows1 how long it lives1 with what plant it keeps company4 ,,leaflet ,,xli4 ,,jack-,,in-,,the-,,pulpit4#ee ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ee ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #ca1 ,april1 #aijc4 ,jack-in-the-,pulpit preaches to-day ,under the green trees1 just over the way4 ,squirrel and song sparrow high on their perch ,hear the sweet lily bells ringing to church4 ,come1 hear what his reverence rises to say1 ,in his low1 painted pulpit this calm ,sabbath day1 ,fair is the canopy over him seen1 ,penciled by nature's hand1 black1 brown1 and green4 ,j4 ,g4 ,whittier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,jack-in-the-,pulpit4 ,illustration ,at one time or another1 perhaps all of us are given to the belief that all flowers blossom for our especial enjoyment4 ,it is hard to think back for a thousand years and imagine hepaticas blooming on our ,new ,york hills2 yet no doubt1 they blossomed then in far greater numbers than they do to-day4 ,many of our native plants played their part in sustaining the lives of the native ,americans1 and that little preacher1 ,jack-in-the-pulpit1 was a turnip long before he was a preacher4 ,indian turnip was his name in the days of our ancestors because the ,indians boiled his bulb-like root and the ripe berries1 thus making them a less peppery and a more palatable food4 ,the ,st4 ,nicholas ,magazine was for so many years the organ through which ,jack preached so many sermons to children all over our land that he is even to-day one of the best loved of the woodland flowers4 ,whittier1 in his ,child ,life1 and ,lucy ,larcom have both celebrated ,jack-in-the-pulpit in song1 and these verses should be given to the children when they are studying the habits of this interesting plant4 ,jack-in-the-pulpit is a wild cousin of the over-civilized calla lily4 ,it is interesting to study the way the flowers resemble each other1 and this you and the children will be able to study for yourselves4 ,it will teach you that the showy parts of a blossom may be merely a protection1 and an advertisement for the true flower hidden within4 ,,questions ,,concerning ,,jack-,,in-,,the-,,pulpit4 #a4 ,where do you find this plant1 in dry or in wet locations8 #b4 ,what is the shape of the root8 ,is it pleasant to the taste8 #c4 ,how do the leaves look when they first appear above the ground8 #d4 ,how far are the leaves developed when the flowers appear8 #e4 ,does the tip of the hood fold over at first8 #f4 ,do you see a resemblance to the calla lily when you bend the tip of the hood backward8 ,compare or contrast the two plants4 #g4 ,how many leaves has ,jack-in-the-pulpit8 ,are they simple or compound8 #h4 ,what are the colors of the pulpits in your locality8 ,,leaflet ,,xlii4 ,,indian ,,corn4#ef ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ef ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #cb1 ,may1 #aijc4 ,hail6 ,ha-wen-ni-yu6 ,listen with open ears to the words of thy people4 ,continue to listen4 ,we thank our mother earth which sustains us4 ,we thank the winds which have banished disease4 ,we thank ,he-no for rain4 ,we thank the moon and stars which give us light when the sun has gone to rest4 ,we thank the sun for warmth and light by day4 ,keep us from evil ways that the sun may never hide his face from us for shame and leave us in darkness4 ,we thank thee1 oh1 mighty ,ha-wen-ni-yu that we still live4 ,we thank thee that thou hast made our corn to grow4 ,thou art our creator and our good ruler1 thou canst do no evil4 ,everything thou doest is for our happiness4 ,illustration ,thus prayed the ,iroquois ,indians when the corn had ripened on the hills and valleys of ,new ,york ,state long before it was a state1 and even before ,columbus had turned his ambitious prows westward in quest of the ,indies4 ,had he found the ,indies with their wealth of fabrics and spices he would have found there nothing so valuable to the world as has proved this golden treasure of ripened corn4 ,the origin of ,indian corn1 or maize1 is shrouded in mystery4 ,there is a plant which grows on the tablelands of ,mexico which is possibly the original species1 but so long had maize been cultivated by the ,american ,indians that it was thoroughly domesticated when ,america was discovered4 ,in those early days of ,american colonization it is doubtful1 says ,professor ,john ,fiske1 if our forefathers could have remained here had it not been for ,indian corn4 ,no plowing nor even clearing was necessary for the successful raising of this grain4 ,the trees were girdled1 thus killing their tops to let in the sunlight2 the rich earth was scratched a little with a primitive tool and the seed put in and covered2 and the plants that grew therefrom took care of themselves4 ,if the pioneers had been obliged to depend alone upon the wheat and rye of ,europe which would only grow with good tillage they might have starved before they had gained a foothold on our forest-covered shores4 ,while maize has never been a popular grain in ,european countries outside of the southermost parts1 yet on the great continents of ,africa and ,asia it was welcomed from the first1 and is now largely grown4 ,it has ripened for so many centuries on the slopes of the ,himalayas that if you were to ask one of the natives to-day how long it had grown there he would answer you always4 ,it is fitting that a grain which is so peculiarly adapted to be the aid and support of a great civilization should grow upon a plant of such dignity and beauty as is the maize4 ,the perfect proportions of the slender stalk to the long gracefully curving leaves2 the plumed tassels swaying and bowing to every breeze and sending their pollen showers to the waiting skeins of silk hidden below2 the ripened ear with its exact rows of shining yellow grains wrapped in silken husks2 all these make the corn plant as delightful to the eye as it is intrinsically important to the welfare of nations4 ,no more wonderful lesson in plant growth can we find for our study than this lesson of the ,indian corn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,parts of corn kernel4 ,,lesson ,,on ,,indian ,,corn ,,for ,,spring ,,and ,,summer4 ,secure a kernel of corn and cut it in halves 7,fig4 #bgg7 and with the naked eye you will be able to see there the young plant pressed close to its stored up food1 which1 though largely composed of starch1 also has in it proteids and oil4 ,you will see that this food is dry and thus cannot be used by the young plant1 for plants1 whether young or old1 must take their nourishment in a fluid condition4 ,soak the seed and see how soon the young plant passes on the moisture to soften the food so that it may imbibe it and grow4 ,fill a tumbler with earth and plant a grain of corn next to the glass so that you may be able to see how it grows4 ,,corn ,,stalks1 ,,leaves ,,and ,,roots4 #a4 ,which appears first1 root parts or leaf8 #b4 ,how does the leaf look when it first comes up8 #c4 ,how old is the corn when the blossom stalks begin to show above the leaves8 #d4 ,does the stalk break more easily at the joints than elsewhere8 ,measure the distances between the joints in a stalk of young corn and two weeks later measure these distances again1 and compare your figures4 ,from these measurements tell whether the plant grows only at the top1 or has it several growing places8 #e4 ,are the joints nearer each other at the bottom or at the top8 #f4 ,where do the bases of the leaves clasp the stalks8 #g4 ,tell why this arrangement gives strength to the stalk4 #h4 ,do you see a little growth at the base of the leaf that prevents the rain from flowing down between the stalk and the clasping leaf8 ,this is called the rain-guard4 ,how might it damage the plant if the water should get in between the leaf and stem8 #i4 ,what is the structure of the leaf and direction of the ribs8 #aj4 ,how does this structure keep the long leaf from being torn to pieces by the wind8 #aa4 ,note the ruffled edge of the leaf4 ,lay such a leaf flat on a table and bend it this way and that1 and note how this fullness allows it to bend without breaking the edges4 ,what advantage is this to the plant8 #ab4 ,study the roots of a corn plant4 ,how far do they extend into the ground8 ,describe them4 #ac4 ,study the brace roots that come off the stalk an inch or more above the ground4 ,of what utility are these to the plant8 #ad4 ,bend down a stalk of growing corn and place a stone on it near its base so as to hold it down1 and note how it acts4 ,does it commence to lift itself up straight from the joint1 or from a place between the joints8 #ae4 ,cut off the water supply from a plant1 or watch the corn during a drought and tell how the leaves behave4 #af4 ,do they offer as much surface to the air for evaporation when they are curled8 ,is this the way the plant protects itself by retaining this moisture during a dry time8 #ag4 ,do the stalks or leaves grow after the ears begin to form8 #ah4 ,do you find suckers growing2 if so what is the variety8 ,,flowers4 ,there are two kinds of flowers on the corn3 the tassels bearing the pollen1 and the ears bearing the ovules which develop into seeds4 ,study first the tassel4 ,observe the flowerets through a lens if you have one and note that the pollen sacs open a little at one side instead of at the tip so that the wind is needed in order to shake out the pollen4 ,it is estimated that on each corn plant there may be developed eighteen million pollen grains and two thousand ovules4 ,the pollen-tube must penetrate the whole length of each thread of corn-silk in order to reach the ovules4 #ai4 ,what agency carries the pollen grains to the ear8 #bj4 ,what would happen to a field of corn if the farmer cut off all the tassels as soon as they were formed8 #ba4 ,find a tassel before it appears and study it4 ,secure an ear when only an inch or two long and study it4 ,these should be studied as flower parts4 #bb4 ,how early can you find the ear8 ,look at every joint and tell how many ears you find on a young stalk4 #bc4 ,in studying the ear1 take first the husk4 ,does it resemble the leaf in structure8 ,what is the difference between the outer and the inner husks8 #bd4 ,do you believe that the husk is a modified leaf2 if so why8 ,in the young ear does each thread of silk extend out to the end of the ear2 if so why8 #be4 ,is there a thread of silk for each kernel in the ear8 #bf4 ,study corn when it is in the milk4 ,is the taste sweet8 #bg4 ,does this sweet taste continue as the kernel matures8 #bh4 ,how is the stalk modified to fit the ear8 ,,enemies4 ,the corn has many difficulties to contend with3 there are heavy winds1 too much or too little rain1 hail1 and1 worst of all1 frosts which not only kill it when it is first planted1 but also hurt it before it is matured4 ,the corn has living enemies also1 such as wire-worms and cut-worms4 ,our forefathers were much troubled with the mischief which crows did in pulling corn4 ,however1 many of our observing farmers to-day say that only in rare instances do the crows injure corn much4 ,the work done by cut-worms is often attributed to crows4 #bi4 ,please note in your locality what difficulties the corn has to contend with4 ,if possible make a special study of the damage said to be done by crows4 ,give the results4 ,,leaflet ,,xliii4 ,,the ,,ripened ,,corn4#eg ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #eg ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #a1 ,october1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,every boy and girl living on a farm in ,new ,york ,state twenty-five years or more ago1 has in memory a picture like this3 a stubbly hill-side field beset with russet shocks of corn and constellations of orange pumpkins1 whence might be seen wide valleys filled with purple haze1 and far hills bedecked with autumn tapestries woven about emerald patches of new wheat4 ,to such a field1 after the laggard sun had changed the hoar frost to dew1 would they hasten of an ,october morning1 to begin the corn-husking4 ,the enthusiastic youngster1 who had an eye to artistic unity in the situation1 invariably selected a pumpkin for his seat1 scorning his more sordid fellows who had brought milking-stools from the barn1 when nature had placed so many golden thrones at their disposal4 ,too soon a discovery was made about this that applies as well to other thrones1--it proved an uneasy seat1 and was abandoned for a sofa constructed of corn-stalks4 ,here1 leaning back with a full sense of luxury1 listening to the rustle of the dry leaves and husks and the monotonous song of the cricket1 enlivened now and then by the lazy call of the crow from the hemlocks on the hill1 the sweet note of the belated meadow-lark from the valley1 or the excited bark of the dog as he chased a squirrel along the fence1 the busy husker passed the autumn day4 ,on either side of him were evidences of his labor4 ,on the right stood great disheveled stooks of corn stalks bereft of their pockets of gold2 on the left lay in a heap the shining yellow ears1 ready to be measured in the waiting bushel-basket2 in front was always a little pile of noble ears with some of the husks still attached1--the seed corn4 ,proud was the boy when he had learned to select successfully the ear of good length1 cylindrical rather than pointed1 the cob firm and well filled from butt to tip with grains uniformly large1 of good color and in regular rows that showed no space between4 ,now-a-days1 we challenge this ideal of the perfect ear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,the ,harvest of the ,corn4 ,as chore time approached1 came the wagon afield to gather the harvest of ears and take them to the cribs1 where their gold gleaming between the boards gave comfortable assurance of peace and plenty4 ,but the seed corn was stored in a way learned by our forefathers from the ,american ,indians2 the ears were braided together by their husks1 by the skilled farmer1 who could make a braid two or three feet long1 strong enough to hold the weight of the ears that hung a heavy fringe along each side2 this braid when completed was tied with a bit of soft1 tow twine1 long saved for the purpose1 and then was hung on hooks on the granary walls4 ,there1 until spring1 waited the elect of the cornfield1 holding in perfect kernels all the future corn wealth of that farm4 ,from the first day's husking a bushel of ears was reserved from the crib and was spread on a chamber floor to dry quickly2 later this was taken to the mill and ground into samp1 one of the prized luxuries of the autumn bill of fare4 ,other corn was ground into finer meal for the delicious ,johnny-cake and the ,indian bread1 the latter reaching fullest perfection when baked in a brick oven4 ,to the tenants of the farm barns the corn meant even more than to those in the farm house4 ,in ,august the cattle in dry pastures cast longing eyes and expressive voices toward the pale1 green leaves and waving tassels of the sowed-corn1 and great was their joy the first day they tasted this delicacy2 in ,november1 they munched the dry leaves of the planted crop1 leaving in the barn-yard an angular patterned carpet of bare1 hard stalks4 ,in winter the corn meal1 in proper proportions1 made for them a food that kept them warm despite the cold winds that clutched at them1 through crevices1 with fingers of drifted snow4 ,and no less dependent on this important crop were the denizens of the fold1 of the sty1 and of the chicken-yard4 ,the old-time harvesting and husking are passing from the ,new ,york farm of to-day4 ,the granary is no longer frescoed with braids of model ears1 for the seed corn is now bought by the bushel from the seedsmen4 ,the corn harvester has dissolved the partnership between corn and pumpkin and fells the stalks by the acre1 doing away with the old-time stooks or shocks4 ,corn-stalks now become silage and are fed in a green condition throughout the winter4 ,how often do we lose something of picturesqueness when we gain the advantages of modern improvements6 ,let us be thankful1 however1 that the corn harvester and the silo make efficient use of the great fields of corn4 ,although there is but one species of corn recognized 7,zea ,mays71 there have been an endless number of varieties developed from it4 ,seven hundred and seventy of these were sufficiently distinct to be recognized when the ,department of ,agriculture published its account of varieties4 ,the importance of the corn crop to this country and to others is almost incalculable4 ,in #aijb1 the ,united ,states produced more than two and a half billion bushels and the export price was 4#fj per bushel4 ,when the corn crop fails every man1 rich or poor1 in ,america1 suffers from it1 and every business is affected by it4 ,though the man working in the cornfield may think only of his own crop1 yet he is the man that is helping maintain the prosperity of our country4 ,he is working for us all4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,ripened ,,corn4 #a4 ,is the corn crop in your vicinity good this year8 #b4 ,what affected it1 beneficially or otherwise8 #c4 ,how many ears of corn are there usually on a mature stalk8 #d4 ,are they on the same side of the stalk1 or how are they disposed8 #e4 ,how many kinds of corn do you know8 #f4 ,describe an average ear of each in the following particulars3 shape and color of kernel2 number of rows of kernels on the cob2 number of kernels in a row2 length of cob4 ,are the rows in distinct pairs8 ,do any of the rows disappear near the tip2 if so1 how many8 #g4 ,study a cob with corn on it4 ,are the kernel-sockets of adjacent rows opposite each other or alternate8 #h4 ,cut a kernel of pop-corn and a kernel of field corn across and compare the texture of the two4 ,what has this texture to do with causing the kernel to pop8 #i4 ,how many foods do you know made from the grain of the corn8 #aj4 ,how many products do you know made from stalks of the corn8 #aa4 ,do you know of any part of the corn that is used in constructing battleships8 #ab4 ,what is the corn crop of ,new ,york ,state worth in dollars a year8 7,see ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,bulletin1 ,no4 #agi47 #ac4 ,how many bushels of shelled corn are usually produced on an acre of well cultivated land8 #ad4 ,could the corn plant itself without the agency of man8 ,if you are able to draw1 please make a sketch of a kernel of sweet corn and a kernel of field corn4 ,break an ear of corn in two and sketch the broken end1 showing shape of the cob and its relation to the kernels4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,new ,,corn ,,breeding4#eh #eh ,extracted from an article by ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey in ,country ,life in ,america1 ,july1 #aijc4 ,the particular materials that give the corn kernel most of its value are the oil1 the protein and the starch4 ,for the production of corn oil--for which the demand is large--a corn that has a high oil content is1 of course1 particularly valuable2 while for the production of starch or for the feeding of bacon hogs1 a relatively higher percentage of other materials is desirable4 ,it is apparent1 therefore1 that races of corn should be bred for a particular content1 depending on the disposition to be made of the grain4 ,equal economic results cannot be attained1 however1 in increasing the content of any of the three leading ingredients1 since a pound of gluten is worth one cent1 a pound of starch one and one-half cents1 and a pound of oil five cents4 ,the amounts of these ingredients in the corn kernel are amenable to increase or diminution by means of selection1--by choosing for seed the kernels of ears that are rich or poor in one or the other of these materials4 ,fortunately1 the oil and starch and protein of the corn kernel occupy rather distinct zones4 ,next the outside hull is a dark and horny layer that is very rich in protein2 in the center is the large germ1 very rich in oil2 between the two is a white layer of starch4 ,it is found that the kernels on any ear are remarkably uniform in their content2 the dissection of a few kernels1 therefore1 enables the breeder to determine the ears that are rich in any one of the substances4 ,experiment stations in the corn-growing ,states are already making great headway in this new breeding of corn1 and one private concern in ,illinois is taking it up as a commercial enterprise4 ,all this recalls the remarkable breeding experiments of the ,vilmorins in ,france1 whereby the sugar-content of the beet was raised several points4 ,it is impossible to overestimate the value of any concerted corn-breeding work of this general type4 ,the grain alone of the corn crop is worth about one billion dollars annually4 ,it is possible to increase this efficiency several percentages2 the coming generation will see it accomplished4 ,an interesting cognate inquiry to this direct breeding work is the study of the commercial grades of grains4 ,it is a most singular fact that the dealer's grades are of a very different kind from the farmer's varieties4 ,in the great markets1 for example1 corn is sold as ,no4 #a yellow1 ,no4 #b yellow1 ,no4 #c yellow1 and the like4 ,any yellow corn may be thrown into these grades4 ,what constitutes a grade is essentially a judgment on the part of every dealer4 ,the result is that the grain is likely to be condemned or criticised when it reaches its destination4 ,complaints having come to the government1 the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has undertaken to determine how far the grades of grain can be reduced to indisputable instrumental measurement4 ,the result is likely to be a closer defining of what a grade is2 and1 this point once determined1 the producer will make an effort to grow such grain as will grade to ,no4 #a1 and thereby attain to the extra price4 ,eventually1 the efficiency points of the grower and the commercial grades of the dealer ought nearly or quite to coincide4 ,there should come a time when corn is sold on its intrinsic merits1 as1 for example1 on its starch content4 ,this corn would not then be graded #a1 #b and #c1 on its starch content1 because that content would be assured in the entire product2 but the grade #a would mean prime physical condition1 and the lower grades inferior physical condition4 ,eventually1 something like varietal names may be attached to those kinds of corn that1 for example1 grade fifteen per cent protein4 ,the name would be something like a guarantee of the approximate content1 as it now is in a commercial fertilizer4 ,the first thing that strikes one in all this new work is its strong contrast with the old ideals4 ,the points of the plants are those of performance and efficiency4 ,it brings into sharp relief the accustomed ideals as to what are the good points in any plant1 illustrating the fact that these points are for the most part only fanciful1 are founded on a priori judgments1 and are more often correlated with mere looks than with efficiency4 ,an excellent example may be taken from corn4 ,in scaling any variety of corn it is customary to assume that the perfect ear is one nearly or quite uniformly cylindrical throughout its length1 and having the tip and butt well covered with kernels4 ,now1 this ideal is clearly one of perfectness and completeness of mere form4 ,we have no knowledge that such form has any correlation with productiveness in ears1 hardiness1 drought-resisting qualities1 protein or starch content1--and yet these attributes are the ones that make corn worth growing at all4 ,we only know that such ears may bear more kernels4 ,an illustration also may be taken from string beans4 ,the ideal pod is considered to be one of which the tip-projection is very short and only slightly curved4 ,this1 apparently1 is a question of comeliness1 although a short tip may be associated in the popular mind with the absence of string in the pod2 but it is a question whether this character has any direct relation to the efficiency of the bean-pod4 ,we are also undergoing much the same challenging of ideas respecting the points of animals4 ,now1 animals and plants are bred to the ideals expressed in these arbitrary points by choosing for parents the individuals that score the highest4 ,when it becomes necessary to recast our scales of points1 the whole course of evolution of domestic plants and animals is likely to be changed4 ,we are to breed not so much for merely new and striking characters1 that will enable us to name1 describe and sell a novelty1 as to improve the performance along accustomed lines4 ,it may be worth while to produce a new variety of potato by raising new plants from the seed-bolls2 but it is much more to the point to augment the mealiness of some existing variety or to intensify its blight-resisting qualities4 ,we are not to start with a variety1 but with a plant4 ,,leaflet ,,xliv4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,food ,,stored ,,in ,,seeds4#ei ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ei ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #d1 ,january1 #aijd4 ,a mystery passing strange1 ,is the seed in its wondrous change2 ,forest and flower in its husk concealed1 ,and the golden wealth of the harvest field4 --,,lucy ,,larcom4 ,illustration ,as is the case with our own babies1 the first necessity of the infant plant is food close at hand to sustain this tiny speck of life until it shall be large and strong enough to provide for itself4 ,if we study any seed whatever we shall find some such motherly provision for the plant baby or germ4 ,sometimes the germ is a mere speck with a large amount of food packed around it1 as is the case with the nutmeg2 sometimes the baby is larger and its food is packed in a part adjacent to it1 as is the case with the corn 7,fig4 #bgi72 and sometimes the mother stuffs the baby itself so that it has enough to last it until its own little roots and leaves bring it mature food1 as is the case with the squash seed4 ,in any case this lunch put up by the mother1 to use ,uncle ,john's words1 is so close at hand that as soon as favorable conditions occur the little plant may eat and grow1 and establish itself in the soil4 ,nature is remarkable for her skill in doing up compact packages1 and in no other place is this skill better shown than in storing food in seeds for the young plants4 ,not only is it concentrated1 but it is protected and of such chemical composition that it is able to remain fresh and good for many years awaiting the favorable moment when it may nourish the starting germ4 ,people often wonder why1 when a forest is cleared of one species of trees1 another species grows in its place4 ,this often may have resulted from the seeds lying many years dormant awaiting the opportunity4 ,this preservation of the food in the seed is largely due to the protecting shell that keeps out the enemies of all sorts1 especially mould4 ,and yet1 however strong this box may be1 as it is in the hard-shelled hickory nut1 it falls apart like magic when the germ within begins to expand4 ,brain rather than brawn is the cause of man's supremacy in this world4 ,of all the beings that inhabit the earth he knows best how to use for his own advantage all things that exist4 ,his progress from savagery to civilization is marked by his growing power to domesticate animals and plants4 ,very early in his history man learned the value to himself of the seeds of the cereals4 ,he discovered that they may be kept a long time without injury2 that they contain a great amount of nutrition for their bulk2 that they are easily prepared for food2 that1 when planted1 they give largest return4 ,thus1 we see1 the advantages the plant mother had developed for her young1 man has turned to his own use4 ,that the food put up for the young plant is so protected and constituted as to endure unhurt for a long time gives the cereal grains their keeping quality4 ,that it is concentrated and well packed renders it convenient for man to transport4 ,that the box is easily separated from the lunch makes the preparation of food by crushing and sifting an easy matter for man4 ,that every mother plant1 to insure the continuation of the species1 develops many seeds1 so that in the great struggle for existence at least some shall survive1 makes the cereals profitable for man to plant1 and harvest the increase4 ,think once1 how few ears of corn it requires to plant an acre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,section of kernel of corn1 showing the embryo1 and the food supply at one side of it 7at the right74 ,because of all these things there has grown up between domestic plants and man a partnership4 ,man relieves the plant of the responsibility of scattering its seeds1 and in return takes for himself that proportion of the seeds which would have died in the struggle for existence had the plant remained uncultivated4 ,this partnership is fair to both parties4 ,different plants store food materials in different proportions in their seeds2 the most important of these food substances are starch1 oil1 protein1 and mineral matter4 ,all of these materials are necessary to man as food4 ,in the cereals the seeds contain a large proportion of starch1 but in the nuts1 like the butternuts and walnuts1 there is a predominance of oil4 ,let us for a moment examine a kernel of corn and a kernel of wheat and see how the food is arranged4 ,fig4 #bgi is a kernel of corn cut in two lengthwise2 at the lower left-hand corner are the root parts and leaf parts of the young plant 7the embryo72 above the embryo is the loose starch material4 ,now we have the baby corn plant lying at one side1 and its food packed about it4 ,however1 this food is in the form of starch1 and must be changed to sugar before the young plant can partake of it and grow4 ,there lies a connecting part between the germ and its food1 the scutellum4 ,this is so constituted that when soaked with water it ferments the starch and changes it to sugar for the young plant's use4 ,the germ itself is also a very nutritious food for man2 hence the seed is eaten1 baby and all4 ,in the corn1 those kernels with the largest germs have the largest food value1 and1 therefore1 to-day corn breeders are developing kernels with very large embryos4 ,if we examine the microscopic structure of the food part of a grain of wheat 7,fig4 #bhj71 we find that there are two outer layers1 a and b4 ,next there is a row of cells d that divides these outer layers from the flour cells within4 ,this is the aleurone layer4 ,at e are the flour cells which constitute the central portion of the wheat kernel4 ,they contain starch1 and also gluten1 and some oil1 and some mineral substances4 ,in grinding to make white flour1 the miller tries to leave the aleurone layer of cells d with the outer layers a and b1 for if it is mixed with the flour the latter spoils much sooner1 and it is also darker in color4 ,in the seed is a ferment that helps digest the food for the young plant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,section of grain of wheat4 ,in order to think more intelligently about our use of food1 let us find out1 if we can1 which parts of the food stored up by the plant for its sustenance are used by us both for ourselves and our livestock4 ,the intelligent farmer gives his stock a carefully balanced ration1 i4 e41 food that is well proportioned for the growth and product of the animal4 ,if he wishes his cows to give more milk he may give them more proteids in their food1 and less starch and fat4 ,if he wishes to fatten them he may give them a greater amount of starch and fat and less of the proteids4 ,in order to know what these proteids and starch and fat mean1 both to us and to the plant1 we have to know a little chemistry4 ,the following table may aid us in this3 ,nutritive substances which ,proteids 7casein1 gluten1 legumen1 contain nitrogen4 etc41 albuminoids1 gelatine1 white of egg1 etc474 ,nutritive substances which ,the carbohydrates 7sugar and do not contain nitrogen4 starch74 ,fats 7oils1 butter74 ,mineral substances4 ,lime1 phosphorus1 sulfur1 etc4 ,the substances mentioned in the above table are all needful to sustain the life of man and beast4 ,if we compare the body to a steam engine1 then we can see that its whole framework is built out of the proteids1 mineral matter and water4 ,the starch and sugar and fats constitute the fuel used to heat the boiler and make the engine move4 ,strictly speaking the proteids are also used somewhat as fuel1 as well as for framework4 ,it is easily seen from this that in order to be healthy we should try to give ourselves food containing a proper amount of building material to repair the breakage and wear and tear in the engine1 and also give ourselves enough fuel to make the boiler do its greatest possible work4 ,for if we do not have sufficient building material we break down1 and if we do not have sufficient fuel we lack energy4 ,food thus properly proportioned is called a well balanced ration4 ,a well balanced ration per day for the average human being is as follows3 ,proteids1 - - - - - - 4#dj lbs4 ,starch1 - - - - - - - #a4jj ,fats1 - - - - - - - - 4#dj ,mineral matter1 - - - 4#aj ----------- #a4ij lbs4 ,the above is the amount of nutriment necessary1 and in addition to this there should be sufficient bulk to keep the digestive organs healthy4 ,we are just now entering upon the era of intelligence in relation to our food4 ,it seems strange that this intelligence should first be applied to our domestic animals rather than to man4 ,as soon as the farmer discovered that to make his animals pay better he must give them the right proportions of building material and fuel for energy1 he demanded that the agricultural chemists give him directions for mixing and preparing their food4 ,but how few of the cooks in our land understand in the slightest degree this necessity for the proper proportions to our food6 ,when they do we may look forward to entering upon an era of serene good health1 when we shall have strength to bear and ability to do4 ,in answering the following list of questions you may be obliged to consult with the miller1 or feed-dealer1 but it is to be hoped that you will gain a clear conception of the parts of the seed used in making foods from cereals4 #a4 ,what is graham flour8 ,how does it differ from white wheat flour8 #b4 ,what is whole wheat flour8 #c4 ,what is bran8 #d4 ,what is cracked wheat8 #e4 ,what are shorts1 middlings1 or canaille8 #f4 ,which of the above are considered the more nutritious and why8 #g4 ,what part of the corn kernel is hominy8 #h4 ,what is corn meal8 #i4 ,is corn bran considered good food8 #aj4 ,what is gluten meal8 #aa4 ,what is germ meal8 #ab4 ,why is corn fattening to cattle8 #ac4 ,how much of the oat grain is contained in oat meal8 #ad4 ,what is a cotyledon8 #ae4 ,show by sketch or describe the cotyledon in the chestnut1 the walnut or hickory nut1 and the bean4 #af4 ,describe or show by sketch the position of the germinal portion in each of these4 ,if you cannot find the germ in these1 soak them in water for several days and then observe4 ,the following publications may be had from the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 on application3 ,circular ,no4 #df1 ,revised--,the ,functions and ,uses of ,food4 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,langworthy4 ,circular ,no4 #dc1 ,revised--,food-,nutrients-,food ,economy4 ,the ,cost of ,food as ,related to its ,nutritive ,value4 ,by ,r4 ,d4 ,milner4 ,a ,,problem ,,in ,,feeding4 ,as our knowledge increases1 we give greater attention to the economical and efficient use of all feeds for live-stock4 ,we cannot afford to feed even the corn stalks carelessly1 either for the immediate concern of the pocket-book or for the good of the animal4 ,the results of many experiments in feeding lead to the conclusion that a suitable daily ration for a cow giving milk and weighing #a1jjj pounds should contain #bd pounds of dry matter1 of which #b4e pounds is digestible protein2 4#d pounds digestible fat2 and #ab4e pounds digestible carbohydrates4 ,in such a ration1 the ratio of digestible protein to digestible carbohydrates in the ration will be as #a is to #e4d4 ,in computing this ratio the amount of fat1 multiplied by #b4d1 is added to the carbohydrates4 ,the fiber and the nitrogen-free extract constitute the carbohydrates4 ,individual animals vary so much in digestive capacity and in other respects that the foregoing standards may be frequently widely departed from to advantage4 ,thus many animals will profitably use more than #bd pounds of dry matter in a day and the ratio of protein to carbohydrates may vary from #a3e to #a3f4e without materially affecting the amount or character of the product4 ,standards are useful as guides4 ,the art of feeding and the skill of the feeder consist in determining in how far the standard should be conformed to or departed from in each individual case4 ,suppose a farmer has corn silage and timothy hay1 and may purchase cotton seed meal1 wheat bran and buckwheat middlings1 how may they be combined so that the ration shall contain #bd pounds dry matter1 and the ratio of protein to the carbohydrates shall be approximately #a3e4d8 ,the following table gives the data3 ,water4 ,protein4 ,fiber4 ,nitrogen-free ,fat4 extract4 ,in #ajj pounds of silage#fj4 #gi4a #a4b #d4c #g4d 4#f ,timothy hay #ac4b #c4d #af4h #bh4d #a4b ,cotton seed meal #h4b #ca4c #a4c #aj4i #aa4i ,wheat bran #aa4i #ac4f #a4h #dc4a #c4b ,buckwheat middlings #ac4b #bb4 #fa #cc4d #e4d #fj ,silage is often put up when the corn is more mature1 and then the water content is less than here given4 #fa ,included with nitrogen-free extract4 ,,leaflet ,,xlv4 ,,the ,,life ,,history ,,of ,a ,,beet4#fb ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 #fb ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #bi1 ,february1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,if you are fond of a dish of greens made of young beet leaves in early summer1 you must see to it that there are beets in the garden4 ,what shall be planted8 ,seeds4 ,certainly2 but where do the seeds come from8 ,most of us buy them from a seedsman1 it is true2 but somebody must grow them4 ,they are not manufactured articles4 ,if the beet plant produces seeds it must first have flowers4 ,have you ever seen the beet in blossom8 ,when do the flowers come and how do they look8 ,study the picture in ,leaflet ,,lii4 ,read the history beneath the picture4 ,better still1 get a plump red beet from the cellar1 and plant it in a can1 a box1 or a flower-pot4 ,if no beets are to be had1 a turnip1 a carrot1 or a parsnip will do as well4 ,it seems that plants come from beet roots as well as from beet seed4 ,the root you plant in the flower-pot grew last summer from a seed4 ,when may we expect the plant to produce seeds of its own1 thus multiplying according to its nature8 ,if you keep a beet plant long enough it will answer this question4 ,beet seeds are rather slow in germinating4 ,for this reason it is common to soak them in warm water several hours or a day before planting in the garden4 ,these facts are interesting in themselves2 and instead of being discouraged should we not try to find out some reason why the beet seed should take more time than the corn or the bean8 ,from a comparative study of a beet seedling and of a plant which comes from a beet root throughout a season1 one may learn the whole life history of a beet4 ,this story is not written down in books4 ,every stage of growth noted in the two plants should be regarded as typical of the life of an individual1 for each plant must pass through all these stages in its development from seed to seed again4 ,the seedling beet pushes out roots and begins early to take food from the soil4 ,one may even see the root-hairs through which the liquids enter the plant4 ,inquire if the plant growing from a beet root has put out new roots4 ,have not its old ones dried long ago in the cellar8 ,it is a good idea to have more than one plant1 so that investigation of a matter like this may go on without disturbing all4 ,where1 if not from the soil through roots1 does the food come from which nourishes those thick-ribbed leaves8 ,from the stored-up material in the root1 does it not8 ,is this not the plant's way of providing for the second half of its life1 after a long resting period in the beet stage8 ,when the plant or top has grown quite large1 how does the old beet look8 ,we may read in the botany that certain plants are biennials1 taking two seasons to pass through all the phases from seed to seed2 but we shall not know the joy of gaining knowledge from original sources nor experience the mental training that comes with this finding out process until we have actually planted the beets or other things and watched them grow4 ,the following questions relate to the study of a beet plant4 ,any other available plant may be reported on4 ,the important thing is that a minute study be made of some particular plant4 ,what plant are you making this special study of this month8 ,what care do you give it8 ,what conditions of temperature and moisture do you find most beneficial to its growth8 ,what other plants are related to it8 7,mention a wild and a cultivated plant47 ,what leads you to think them related8 7,make this clear and definite47 ,how do the plants which come from beet roots differ from those which come from the seed8 ,of what utility to the plant is the fleshy root of beet1 turnip1 or carrot8 ,when is this root made use of by the plant8 ,what becomes of the old beet as the plant grows larger and stronger8 ,what is the natural length of life of an individual beet plant8 ,through how many changes of form does it pass8 ,which of these are resting stages8 ,give the events in the life history of a beet in chronological order by seasons1 beginning with a seed in the spring of #aijc1 and ending with the first crop of ripened seed4 ,,leaflet ,,xlvi4 ,,pruning4#fc ,,by ,,mary ,,rogers ,,miller4 #fc ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #bj1 ,february1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,you should know how the trees in your school yard have been pruned4 ,who did the work1 nature or a man with a saw8 ,some people hold to the idea that pruning is unnatural1 and therefore should not be practiced4 ,let us see if this is true4 ,have you ever gone into the deep woods after a storm8 ,who has been there1 tearing and wrenching at the big limbs1 twisting the small branches until the ground is strewn with wreckage8 ,nature has been pruning a few trees and she works with a fury which is awe-inspiring4 ,but the trees are much the worse for their encounter with the forces they must obey without question4 ,their branches are broken2 mere stubs are left4 ,with the melting snow and the ,april rains germs of decay are likely to enter at every break in the bark4 ,in a few years the trunk may be weakened and the monarch of the woods lie prone upon the forest floor4 ,we may learn the lesson of how not to prune by looking at this great pine tree torn by the storm 7,fig4 #bha74 ,but why do we prune8 one asks4 ,let the horticulturist answer4 ,in a ,farmers' ,reading-,course lesson on ,the ,care of ,trees1 ,professor ,craig says3 ,fruit trees must be pruned4 ,if a tree in an open field is allowed to go unpruned1 the crown soon becomes a dense mass of twigs and interlacing branches4 ,such a tree may produce as large a number of apples as a well-pruned1 open-headed tree1 but will there be the same percentage of merchantable fruit8 ,the chief effort of every plant under natural conditions is expended in ensuring its own reproduction4 ,this is chiefly effected by means of seeds4 ,a small apple may contain as many seeds as a large one and even more4 ,the orchardist wants big fruits1 and if they are nearly seedless so much the better4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,a pine tree pruned by the storm4 ,in a tree top there is a sharp struggle for existence4 ,but few of the twigs which started from last year's buds will reach any considerable size4 ,one needs only to count the dead and the dormant buds on a branch1 and the weak1 stubby1 or decayed side shoots to appreciate this fact4 ,if part of the branches are cut out1 this struggle is reduced and energy is saved4 ,by judicious pruning the tree may be shaped to suit the needs of the owner4 ,if a low tree is desired to make fruit-gathering easy pruning keeps the head down4 ,an open1 spreading habit may be encouraged by cutting out such branches as tend to grow close to the main trunk4 ,a careful orchardist has an ideal in his mind and knows how to prune to bring the tree up to his standard4 ,he knows the habits of trees of different varieties4 ,he will not prune all alike4 ,he must prune some every year1 or the trees will not carry out his plans4 ,the pruner should not only know why he prunes1 but how the work should be done4 ,he should be able to tell why he removes one limb and leaves another4 ,when ,i look at the trees in parks and along the streets ,i wonder at the careless pruning4 ,judging from the way they are treated one would think that a tree could be produced in a year or two or three at most4 ,pruning should not be confined to fruit trees4 ,it may be practiced with profit on all kinds of plants from shade trees to house plants4 ,pinching off the terminal bud of a young geranium makes the plant branch4 ,cutting the lower limbs of a young elm makes the tree more stately4 ,nature may do this1 but broken branches leave wounds which the tree cannot heal4 ,small branches may be cut close with a sharp knife or pruning shears4 ,the tree readily heals these places4 ,it is little short of a crime to break or tear limbs from trees4 ,the injury done to the trees is bad enough2 but does not such heedless treatment of living things also have a baneful influence on the mutilator8 ,for larger branches1 if these must come off1 no tool is better than a sharp saw4 ,the cut should be smooth and clean4 ,no ragged edges of bark should be left4 ,the branch should all be cut off1 and care should be taken not to tear the bark about the wound4 ,if a stub six or eight inches long1 or even one inch1 be left1 the tree is likely to suffer4 ,the branch started years ago from a bud on the side of the main trunk1 then but a twig itself4 ,the fibers of the branch are continuous with those of the trunk4 ,in the air are the germs of decay4 ,these take hold of the bare stub and soon make their way to the center of the tree itself4 ,try as it may1 the tree cannot quickly heal a wound so far from the main paths traveled by the sap in the trunk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,close cutting results in prompt healing4 ,the two illustrations 7,figs4 #bhb1 #bhc7 show the right and the wrong way to remove a limb4 ,when the branch is cut close1 new growth takes place all around the cut surface and in a few years the wound is healed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,the long stub does not heal4 ,bad pruning is worse than no pruning4 ,do you not think that nature students should use their influence to protect the trees in the school grounds1 in the door yards1 and along the streets8 ,trees have insect and fungous enemies enough without having to contend against carelessness and neglect4 ,,questions ,,on ,,pruning4 #a4 ,describe the results of some of the natural forces you have seen pruning trees4 ,observe willows after a storm4 #b4 ,are all sorts of trees affected alike by wind1 ice1 and snow8 #c4 ,from your observations which kinds suffer most8 ,give your opinion as to why4 #d4 ,nature does not always prune in this boisterous fashion4 ,silent forces are at work pruning out the weak buds and shoots1 giving the strong ones a better chance4 ,select a very young tree1 or a shrub like the lilac4 ,examine the tips of the branches4 ,you will find healthy buds on last season's growth4 ,see if you can find any dormant buds4 ,are there any weak-looking or dead twigs8 #e4 ,compare the number of strong healthy shoots with the number which the plant started to make4 ,how many of each8 #f4 ,mention several good effects which may result from pruning4 #g4 ,what are some of the bad results of over-pruning8 ,of insufficient pruning8 #h4 ,consult some orchard-owner concerning this subject4 ,when does he prune to increase the production of fruit8 ,when to increase the growth of the woody part of the tree8 #i4 ,if the lower branches of a tree are not removed1 what is the effect on the shape of the tree8 #aj4 ,for what kinds of trees is this form desirable8 #aa4 ,what is your opinion as to the shearing of evergreens into fantastic shapes8 #ab4 ,if a tree has a tendency to grow crooked1 how should one prune to correct the habit8 #ac4 ,would you prune an elm tree just as you would an apple tree8 ,why8 #ad4 ,why does pinching off the terminal bud of a geranium produce a more bushy plant8 #ae4 ,discuss in full the reasons for cutting a limb off smoothly and close to the main trunk or larger branch4 ,look at every tree you pass to see whether it has been pruned well4 ,has it been able to cover its wounds by the healing process8 #af4 ,is it correct to suppose that anybody can prune a tree8 #ag4 ,the cut surfaces made by pruning large limbs from trees are often covered with thick paint1 tar1 or ,bordeaux mixture4 ,what is the purpose of this8 #ah4 ,why is it better to prune a little every year than a great deal once in five years8 #ai4 ,when is the best time to prune shade trees8 ,why8 #bj4 ,does a tree carry the bases of its branches upward as it grows higher1 or does the base of every branch remain at the level from which it started originally8 ,observe many trees in different situations before making up your mind on this point4 ,,leaflet ,,xlvii4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,a ,,tree4#fd ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #fd ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #b1 ,november1 #aijc4 ,,the ,,sugar ,,maple4 ,the maple puts her corals on in ,may1 ,while loitering frosts about the lowlands cling1 ,to be in tune with what the robins sing1 ,plastering new log-huts 'mid her branches gray2 ,but when the autumn southward turns away1 ,then in her veins burns most the blood of ,spring1 ,and every leaf1 intensely blossoming1 ,makes the year's sunset pale the set of day4 --,,lowell4 ,illustration ,like a friend is a tree1 in that it needs to be known season after season and year after year in order to be truly appreciated4 ,a person who has not had an intimate1 friendly acquaintance with some special tree has missed something from life4 ,yet even those of us who love a tree because we find its shade a comfort in summer and its bare branches etched against the sky a delight in winter1 may have very little understanding of the wonderful life-processes which have made this tree a thing of beauty4 ,if we would become aware of the life of our tree we must study it carefully4 ,we should best begin by writing in a blank book week after week what happens to our tree for a year4 ,if we keep such a diary1 letting the tree dictate what we write1 we shall then know more of the life of our tree4 ,in selecting a tree for this lesson ,i have chosen the sugar maple1 for several reasons4 ,it is everywhere common2 it is beautiful2 it is most useful2 and it has been unanimously chosen as the representative tree of the ,empire ,state4 ,let each of us choose some maple tree in our immediate vicinity that shall be the subject for our lesson now1 and again in the winter1 and again in the spring4 ,our first thought in this study is that a tree is a living being1 in a measure like ourselves1 and that it has been confronted with many difficult problems which it must have solved successfully1 since it is alive4 ,it has found breathing space and food2 it has won room for its roots in the earth and for its branches in the light2 and it has matured its seeds and planted them for a new generation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,sugar maple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,a sugar maple grown in an open field4 ,,brief ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,tree4 ,the tree lives by breathing and by getting its daily food4 ,it breathes through the numerous pores in its leaves1 and green bark1 and roots4 ,the leaves are often called the lungs of the tree1 but the young bark also has many openings into which the air penetrates1 and the roots get air that is present in the soil4 ,so the tree really breathes all over its active surface1 and by this process takes in oxygen from the air4 ,it gives off carbon dioxid as we do when we breathe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,silver maple4 ,while the leaves act as partial lungs they have two other most important functions4 ,first1 they must manufacture the food for the entire tree4 ,starch factories is the name that ,uncle ,john gives to the leaves when he talks to children1 and it is a good name4 ,the leaf is the factory2 the green pulp in the leaf cells is part of the machinery2 the machinery is set in motion by sun-shine power instead of steam or water power2 the raw materials are taken from the air and from the sap sent up from the roots2 the first product is usually starch4 ,thus1 it is well when we begin the study of our tree to notice that the leaves are so arranged as to gain all sunlight possible1 for without sunlight the starch factories would be obliged to shut down4 ,it has been estimated that on a mature maple of vigorous growth there is exposed to the sun nearly a half acre of leaf surface4 ,our tree appears to us in an unfamiliar light when we think of it as a starch factory covering half an acre4 ,plants are the original starch factories4 ,the manufactories that we build appropriate the starch that plants make from the raw materials4 ,starch is plant-food in a convenient form for storage2 but as it cannot be assimilated by plants in this form it must be changed to sugar before it can be transported and used in building up plant tissues4 ,hence the leaves have to perform the office of a stomach in order to digest the food they have made for the use of the tree2 they change the starch to sugar1 and they take from the sap nitrogen1 sulfur1 phosphorus1 and other substances which the roots have appropriated from the soil1 and to these they add portions of the starch1 and thus make the proteids which form another part of the diet of the tree4 ,it is interesting to know that while these starch factories can operate only in the sunlight1 the leaves can digest the food1 transport it1 and build up tissues in the dark4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,the bole of a sugar maple grown in a wood4 ,the autumn leaf1 which is so beautiful1 has completed its work4 ,the green material which colors the pulp in the leaf cells is withdrawn1 leaving there material which is useless1 so far as the growing of the tree is concerned1 but which glows gold and red1 thereby making glad the eye that loves the varying tints in autumn foliage4 ,it is a mistake to believe that the frost makes these brilliant colors3 they are caused by the natural old age and death of the leaf1 and where is there to be found old age and death more beautiful8 ,when the leaf turns yellow or red it is making ready to depart from the tree2 a thin corky layer is being developed between its petiole and the twig1 and when this is finally accomplished the leaf drops from its own weight1 from the touch of the lightest breeze1 or from a frost on a cold night4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,maples4 ,we want you to know the maples from actual observation4 ,discover the characteristic forms of the tree1 the character of bark1 fruits1 and leaves4 ,verify the pictures in this lesson4 ,though the fruit of the sugar maple matures in midsummer1 yet you may perhaps find beneath your tree some of the keys or seeds now partially planted4 ,if the tree stands alone you may perchance see how well she has strewn its seeds1 and how many of its progeny have been placed in positions where they can grow successfully4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,leaves and fruits of ,norway maple4 ,we have in ,new ,york ,state seven species of maple common in our forests4 ,two of these are dwarf species rarely attaining thirty-five feet in height1 more often found as mere bushes4 ,these two are the mountain maple and the striped maple or moosewood4 ,this latter is sometimes called goose-foot maple1 because its leaf is shaped somewhat like the foot of a goose4 ,of the maples that attain to the dignity of tall trees we have four species3 the sugar maple1 the silver or white maple1 the red or swamp maple1 and the box elder4 ,the leaf of the box elder does not look like the leaf of a maple at all2 it has a compound leaf of three or five leaflets1 but the flowers and fruits are those of the maples4 ,there is also a variety of sugar maple that is called black maple4 ,we have planted in our parks the sycamore and ,norway maples introduced from ,europe1 and also ornamental species from ,japan4 ,our native species are easily distinguished from these and from each other2 just a little observation as to the shape of the leaves1 the form of the trees1 and the character of the bark enables a person to tell all these species at a glance4 ,i hope that you will become familiar with the seven native species4 ,such knowledge is not only of practical use1 but gives real zest and pleasure4 ,when a person walks in the morning he should be able to call his tree acquaintances as well as his human acquaintances by name4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,leaves and fruits of striped maple4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,maples4 #a4 ,how many species of maple trees do you know and what are they8 #b4 ,how do you distinguish the red maple and the silver maple from the sugar maple8 #c4 ,what is the shape of the one tree you have chosen to study8 #d4 ,what is there in its shape to tell you of its history1 i4e41 did it grow in the open or in the forest8 ,was it ever shaded on either side2 if so1 what was the effect8 ,how have the prevailing winds affected its shape8 #e4 ,how old do you think the tree is8 #f4 ,was the tree injured by storm or insects during the past season2 if so1 how8 #g4 ,study the leaves on this tree and note any differences in shape and color4 #h4 ,what is the use of the skeleton of the leaf8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,leaves of mountain maple1 sugar maple1 red maple4 #i4 ,is there always a bud in the axil where the leaf stalk joins the twig8 #aj4 ,how are the leaves arranged on the twig8 #aa4 ,what is the color of the tree this autumn8 #ab4 ,when did the leaves begin to fall8 ,place in your note book the date when the tree finally becomes bare4 #ac4 ,have you found any seeds from your tree8 ,if so1 describe them4 #ad4 ,how are they dispersed and planted8 #ae4 ,are both seeds of the pair filled out8 #af4 ,how high is your tree8 #ag4 ,how large an area of shade does it produce8 ,if it stands alone1 measure the ground covered by its shadow from morning until evening4 #ah4 ,how has its shadow affected the plants beneath it8 ,are the same plants growing there that grow in the open field8 #ai4 ,make a sketch of the tree you are studying1 showing its outline4 #bj4 ,make a sketch of the leaf of the sugar maple4 ,,leaflet ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,maple ,,in ,,february4#fe ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #fe ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #e1 ,february1 #aijd4 ,,sap4 ,strong as the sea and silent as the grave1 it ebbs and flows unseen3 ,flooding the earth1--a fragrant tidal wave1 with mists of deepening green1 --,,john ,b4 ,,tabb4 ,illustration ,tapping the sugar bush are magical words to the country boy and girl4 ,the winter which was at first so welcome with its miracle of snow1 and its attendant joys of sleighing and skating1 begins to pall by the last of ,february4 ,too many days the clouds hang low and the swirling flakes make out-of-door pursuits difficult4 ,then there comes a day when the south wind blows blandly and the snow settles into hard1 marble-like drifts1 and here and there a knoll appears bare1 and soggy1 and brown4 ,it is then that there comes just a suggestion of spring in the air2 and the bare trees show a flush of living red through their grayness and every spray grows heavy with swelling buds4 ,well do we older folk remember that in our own childhood after a few such days the father would say1 ,we will get the sap buckets down from the stable loft and wash them1 for we can tap the sugar bush soon if this weather holds4 ,in those days the buckets were made of staves1 and were by no means so easily washed as are the metal buckets of to-day4 ,still do we recall the sickish smell of musty sap that greeted our nostrils when we poured the boiling water in to cleanse those old1 brown buckets4 ,during the long winter evenings we had all had something to do with the fashioning of the sap spiles made from selected stems of sumac2 after some older one had removed half of the small branch lengthwise with a draw-shave we younger ones had cleared out the pith1 thinking thirstily meanwhile of the sweet liquid which would sometime flow there4 ,with buckets and spiles ready when the momentous day came1 the large1 iron caldron kettle was loaded on a stoneboat together with the sap cask and log chain1 the axe and various other utensils1 and as many children as could find standing room2 and then the oxen were hitched on and the procession started across the rough pasture to the woods where it eventually arrived after numerous stops for reloading almost everything but the kettle4 ,when we came to the boiling-place we lifted the kettle into place and flanked it with two great logs1 against which the fire was to be kindled4 ,meanwhile the oxen and stoneboat had returned to the house for a load of buckets2 and the oxen blinking with bowed heads or with noses lifted aloft to keep the underbrush from striking their faces geed and hawed up hill and down dale through the woods1 stopping here and there while the man with the auger bored holes in certain trees near other holes which had bled sweet juices in years gone by4 ,when the auger was withdrawn the sap followed it and enthusiastic young tongues met it half way though they received more chips than sweetness therefrom4 ,then the spiles were driven in tightly with a wooden mallet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4 ,sugar making in ,new ,york4 ,the next day after tapping1 those of us large enough to wear the neck-yoke donned this badge of servitude and with its help brought pails of sap to the kettle1 and the boiling began4 ,as the evening shades gathered1 how delicious was the odor of the sap steam permeating the woods farther than the shafts of fire-light pierced the gloom6 ,how weird and delightful was this night experience in the woods6 and how cheerfully we swallowed the smoke which the contrary wind seemed ever to turn toward us6 ,we poked the fire to send the sparks upward and now and then we added more sap from the barrel and removed the scum from the boiling liquid with a skimmer which was thrust into the cleft end of a stick to provide it with a sufficiently long handle4 ,as the evening wore on we drew closer to each other as we told the stories of the ,indians and the bears and panthers that had roamed these woods when our father was a little boy2 and there came to each of us a disquieting suspicion that perhaps they were not all gone yet1 for everything seemed possible in those night-shrouded woods2 and our hearts suddenly jumped into our throats when nearby there sounded the tremulous1 blood-curdling cry of the screech owl4 ,it was the most fun to gather the sap in the warmer mornings1 when on the mounds the red squaw-berries were glistening through a frosty veil2 then we looked critically at the tracks in the snow to see what visitors had come sniffing around our buckets4 ,we felt nothing but scorn for him who could not translate correctly those hieroglyphics on the film of soft snow that made white again the soiled drifts4 ,rabbit1 skunk1 squirrel1 mouse1 muskrat1 fox3 we knew them all by their tracks4 ,after about three days of gathering and boiling the sap1 came the syruping down4 ,during all that afternoon we added no more sap1 and we watched carefully the tawny steaming mass in the kettle2 and when it threatened to boil over we threw in a thin slice of fat pork which seemed to have some mysterious1 calming influence4 ,the odor grew more and more delicious1 and finally the syrup was pronounced sufficiently thick4 ,the kettle was swung off the logs and the syrup dripped through a cloth strainer into the carrying pail4 ,oh6 the blackness of the material left on that strainer6 but it was clean woods-dirt and never destroyed our faith in the maple sugar any more than did the belief that our friends were made of dirt destroy our friendship for them4 ,now the old stave bucket and the sumac spile are gone1 and in their place a patent galvanized spile not only conducts the sap but holds in place a tin bucket carefully covered4 ,the old caldron kettle is broken or lies rusting in the shed4 ,in its place are evaporating vats placed over furnaces with chimneys1 built in the new-fangled sugar houses4 ,the maple molasses of to-day seems to us a pale and anmic liquid and lacks just that delicious flavor of the rich1 dark nectar which we1 with the help of cinders and smoke and various other things1 brewed of yore in the open woods4 ,while sugar-making interests us chiefly as one of our own industries1 yet we must not forget that it is based upon the life processes of the maple tree1 and in studying about it we may be able to learn important facts about the tree which we have chosen for our study4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,maple ,,tree4 #a4 ,how does the maple tree look in winter8 ,describe it or sketch it4 #b4 ,are the buds on the twigs opposite or alternate8 #c4 ,are the tips of the twigs the same color as the bark on the larger limbs and trunk8 #d4 ,if you can draw1 make a pencil sketch1 natural size1 of three inches square of bark of the maple tree trunk4 #e4 ,how does the bark on the trunk differ from that on the branches8 #f4 ,how does the bark on the trunk of a maple tree differ from that on the trunk of a soft maple or an elm8 #g4 ,what work for the tree do the trunk and branches perform8 #h4 ,is the tree tapped on all sides8 ,if not1 why8 #i4 ,how deep must the spiles be driven successfully to draw off the sap8 #aj4 ,would you tap a tree directly above or at the same spot tapped last year2 or would you place two spiles one above the other8 ,give reasons4 #aa4 ,why does the sap flow more freely on warm days after cold nights8 #ab4 ,is the sap of which we make sugar going up or down8 #ac4 ,how does the sugar come to be in the sap8 #ad4 ,why is the sugar made during the first run better than that which is made later8 ,why cannot you make sugar in the summer8 #ae4 ,does it injure trees to tap them8 #af4 ,do the holes made in earlier years become farther apart as the tree grows8 #ag4 ,what other trees besides the sugar maple give sweet sap8 #ah4 ,what animals1 birds1 and insects are to be seen in the woods during sugar-making time8 #ai4 ,have you ever seen the tracks of animals on the snow in the woods8 ,if so1 make pictures of them and tell what animals made them4 ,,leaflet ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,red ,,squirrel ,,or ,,chickaree4#ff ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ff ,home ,nature-,study ,course1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #b1 ,november1 #aijc4 ,all day long the red squirrels came and went1 and afforded me much entertainment by their manoeuvres4 ,one would approach at first warily through the shrub-oaks1 running over the snow crust by fits and starts like a leaf blown by the wind1 now a few paces this way1 with wonderful speed and waste of energy1 making inconceivable haste with his trotters as if it were for a wager1 and now as many paces that way1 but never getting on more than half a rod at a time2 and then suddenly pausing with a ludicrous expression and a gratuitous somerset1 as if all the eyes in the universe were fixed on him1--for all the motions of a squirrel1 even in the most solitary recesses of the forest1 imply spectators as much as those of a dancing girl1--wasting more time in delay and circumspection than would have sufficed to walk the whole distance1--,i never saw one walk1--and then suddenly1 before you could say ,jack ,robinson1 he would be in the top of a young pitch-pine1 winding up his clock and chiding all imaginary spectators1 soliloquizing and talking to all the universe at the same time1--for no reason that ,i could ever detect1 or he himself was aware of1 ,i suspect4--,,thoreau4 ,illustration ,from contact with civilization some wild animals flourish while others are soon exterminated by association with man4 ,to this latter class belongs the black squirrel4 ,within my own memory this beautiful creature was almost as common in the rural districts of ,new ,york ,state as was the red squirrel2 but now it is seen no more except in most retired places2 while the red squirrel1 pugnacious and companionable1 defiant and shy1 climbs on our very roofs and sits there scolding us for daring to come within his range of vision4 ,one reason for the disappearance of the black squirrel is1 undoubtedly1 the fact that its meat is a delicious food4 ,the red squirrel is also good food at certain times of the year1 but because of its lesser size1 and its greater agility and cunning1 it has succeeded in living not merely despite of man1 but because of man1 for now he rifles corn cribs and grain bins and waxes opulent by levying tribute on man's own savings4 ,although the red squirrel is familiar to us all1 yet1 ,i think1 there are few who really know its habits1 which are as interesting as are those of bear or lion4 ,note1 for example1 the way he peeps at us from the far side of the tree1 and the way he uses his tail as a balance and a help in steering as he leaps4 ,this same tail he uses in the winter as a boa by wrapping it around himself as he lies curled up in his snug house4 ,his vocal exercises are most entertaining also2 he is the only singer ,i know who can carry two parts at a time4 ,notice some time this autumn when the hickory nuts are ripe that the happy red squirrel is singing you a duet all by himself1--a high1 shrill chatter1 with a low chuckling accompaniment4 ,we usually regard nuts as the main food of squirrels1 but this is not necessarily so2 for they are fond of the seeds of pines and hemlocks1 and also hang around our orchards for apple-seeds4 ,in fact1 their diet is varied4 ,the red squirrel is a great thief and keeps his keen eye on chipmunks and mice1 hoping to find where they store their food so that he can steal it if he can do so without danger to his precious self4 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,red ,,squirrel4 ,we want you to make some original observations on the red squirrel4 #a4 ,in summer1 what is the color of the red squirrel on the upper parts8 ,beneath8 #b4 ,what is the color along the side where the two colors join8 #c4 ,do these colors change in winter8 #d4 ,tell how and where the squirrel makes its nest4 #e4 ,does it carry nuts in its teeth or in its cheeks8 #f4 ,has it cheek pockets like the chipmunk8 #g4 ,does the red squirrel store food for winter use8 ,if so1 where8 #h4 ,does it spend its time sleeping in winter like the chipmunk1 or does it go out often to get food8 #i4 ,name all the kinds of food which you know it eats4 #aj4 ,did you ever see a red squirrel disturb birds' nests8 #aa4 ,how does a squirrel get at the meat of a hard-shelled nut like a black walnut1 or a hickory nut8 7,answer this by a sketch1 if you can draw47 #ab4 ,do the squirrels of your neighborhood have certain paths in tree-tops which they follow8 #ac4 ,how many emotions does the squirrel express with his voice8 #ad4 ,what kind of tracks does the red squirrel make in the snow8 7,show this by a sketch if possible47 ,,leaflet ,l4 ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,country ,,school ,,grounds4#fg ,,by ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 #fg ,supplement to ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,,my ,,dear ,,teacher3 ,despite all that is said and done the average school ground is far short of its possibilities in an artistic way4 ,of this you are well aware1 and no doubt you have often wished that you might remedy this defect4 ,your hours are full of arduous work4 ,perhaps1 however1 you can interest your children to help you to clean and to improve the grounds1 without much extra care or work on your part4 ,this illustration of a schoolhouse 7,fig4 #bib7 is taken from ,bulletin #afj1 published by the ,college of ,agriculture of ,cornell ,university4 ,the title of the bulletin is ,hints on ,rural ,school ,grounds4 ,i wish you would send for the bulletin4 ,it will be mailed you free if you request it4 ,the picture is not an imaginary sketch1 but a faithful representation of what stood in a prosperous rural community less than five years ago4 ,to one familiar with country school buildings it will not be considered as a solitary awful example1 but rather as a type of many that are scattered over the ,state4 ,i hope it is not your misfortune to be teaching in such a house1 even though it is my desire to reach every teacher who is that luckless4 ,however1 to make my talk more real let us make believe1 as children say1 that you are the priestess in a similar temple of learning4 ,together we will plan how we can make the most of very uncongenial surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4 ,a country school property4 ,it would be safe to wager a red apple that the inside of the building is every bit as dilapidated as the outside4 ,a community that tolerates such a building would not be likely to have anything but the rudest furniture and most of that on crutches4 ,it would be something out of the usual if the box stove is not short a leg or two1 with brick-bats being used as substitutes4 ,you will be fortunate if the stove door has two good hinges and if the wood is not green4 ,at the last school meeting1 did the patrons instruct the trustees not to pay more than six dollars per week for your services8 ,was the proposition that the district raise five dollars1 to which the ,state would add five more for the purchase of books for a library1 unanimously voted down and the poor man who introduced the resolution expected to apologize for his temerity8 ,the leading man in the district each ,sunday during summer drives two miles to salt his young stock1 inspect fences1 and see how the yearlings are prospering2 but he never thinks of visiting the school to see how his children are progressing4 ,yet the people of this district are not bad4 ,they are counted good citizens by the bar and judge1 when they are drawn on juries4 ,the public buildings at the county-seat are models of their kind and these gentlemen do not remonstrate as to the expense4 ,perhaps it has not occurred to them that school buildings and grounds should have as high a standard as those of the county4 ,a correct public ideal is everything4 ,it is not a hopeless undertaking to advance such an ideal in the community of which we are speaking4 ,i suggest to you as teacher in this school to undertake some improvements in the grounds4 ,i consider the above sketch to be a zero case4 ,if improvements can be developed here1 it is reasonable to suppose that the same can be repeated where conditions are primarily better4 ,the possibilities are sufficient to warrant the undertaking4 ,the victory will add to your strength4 ,the lives of the children will be better filled for the part they may do1 and you will have started a public improvement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,the girls organized themselves into a tug-of-war team4 ,i should not appeal to the parents for help4 ,you have a fountain of power in the children4 ,it is necessary only to inspire and guide them4 ,this is no theory of mine4 ,it is a result that has been worked out in many instances4 ,the beautiful city of ,rochester is proud of its schools4 ,the development of the town made the construction of new school buildings necessary to such an extent that little money remained for the improvement of the grounds4 ,some of them were located in the breadwinners' districts4 ,the grounds were as the contractor left them2 your imagination can picture their condition4 ,the interiors were well nigh perfect4 ,the exterior was sometimes a ,sahara of mud and builders' rubbish4 ,the principal of one of the schools--a woman1 by the way1--knowing the force in children1 set about to apply it to the improvement of the surroundings4 ,her method was first to inspire1 and then to direct4 ,her success was ample4 ,both boys and girls participated4 ,the girls organized themselves into a tug-of-war team 7,fig4 #bic74 ,by fastening ropes to sticks and beams1 these things were hauled out of sight4 ,the boys leveled the hummocks and brought fertile soil from some distance4 ,this principal confined her improvements to small areas--so small that the children wanted to do more when they were through4 ,from the time school opened until the rigors of winter stopped the juvenile improvements1 only part of the space from the front of the building to the street was graded4 ,some of the boys brought chaff from a haymow1 which was raked in as lawn grass seed4 ,the following spring quite as many weeds appeared as grass1 but the children gave the weeds the personification of robbers and made their career short4 ,the promoters had a just pride in what they had accomplished2 and that meagre bit of lawn meant vastly more to them than had it been made by a high-salaried landscape gardener4 ,i am acquainted with another instance1 where the patrons are largely ,polish ,jews4 ,i am credibly informed that the average head of a family does not have a gross annual income to exceed three hundred and fifty dollars4 ,this necessitates that the mother go out for work and that the children leave school as soon as the law allows to take up work4 ,yet with all these unfavorable circumstances the pupils have a pride in their school grounds that is glorious to see4 ,in the fall of #aija prizes were offered for the greatest improvement of school grounds made by children4 ,nothing daunted1 the principal entered his grounds in competition with those in the more wealthy part of the city4 ,the committee of awards gave him the third prize4 ,to judge from the mere physical side1 the decision was no doubt just2 but when judged on the score of getting the greatest results from the least material1 the principal and his school may have deserved the first prize1 plus a reward4 ,the chances are that your fuel is wood1 and perhaps not very dry at that4 ,it is in a pile in the open4 ,sometimes the sticks are scattered over half the lot4 ,this you can prevent by properly appealing to the pride of your pupils4 ,you will find that they wish to be more tidy than is the school over in ,whippoorwill ,hollow or in some other district that is considered to be a little more in the back country than your own4 ,about the time you hear the first spring notes of the bluebird and the robin1 prepare public opinion in your little school community for a spring furnishing4 ,you can devise many ways to inspire them4 ,tell them about ,col4 ,george ,r4 ,waring and his white brigade and what they did to make ,new ,york ,city cleaner than it had been for many decades before4 ,after the ,spanish war1 when ,cuba became a responsibility upon the ,united ,states1 the question arose as to what could be done to make filthy ,havana cleaner and freer from yellow fever4 ,no one was thought by the ,federal government so competent to solve the problem as ,colonel ,waring4 ,he went1 spared not himself1 and did his duty1 did it so fearlessly that he died the victim of the filth he had fought so valiantly4 ,he had done much during previous years to commend his memory to posterity2 but probably nothing will stand out so prominently as his great ability to correct municipal untidiness4 ,ask your pupils to be ,warings in their own neighborhoods4 ,by this time the ground will be bare of snow and it will be soft4 ,ask some of the pupils to bring rakes1 and have them gather up the rubbish4 ,you can all play gypsies when you gather about the bonfire4 ,this will be a favorable time to sow grass seed2 for ,i have no doubt the school lot will need it4 ,a lawn mixture of seed would be ideal1 but ,i hardly expect you to pay for it4 ,at this stage of your improvements1 ,i scarcely expect that any of the patrons of your school would do so either4 ,later some of them may feel differently4 ,your pupils can at least follow the plan of those spoken of in ,rochester--get chaff from a haymow4 ,it will inevitably be a mixture of grass and weeds1 but the latter can be pulled out after germinating4 ,it is barely possible that some farmer will give you some clover and timothy1 such as he uses in seeding his meadow2 and this will be far better4 ,next1 ,i should put out a hitching-post4 ,when your school commissioner calls it will be appreciated4 ,if that functionary does not publicly compliment your school for even such small improvements1 ,i wish you would report such indifference to me1 giving his full address1 and ,i will request him to explain this forgetfulness4 ,good results in landscape-gardening depend on observing certain principles1 the same as with our wardrobe4 ,many a clever girl will accomplish more in dress with twenty-five dollars than others can do with twice that amount4 ,among the first and most important efforts is to make a frame or setting for the house by planting around the borders of the place4 ,sometimes the location will make this inconvenient if not impossible1 when1 for instance1 the building is placed near the street or crowded between other buildings4 ,even in such cases1 however1 it is well to keep the idea clearly in mind and to approach it as nearly as circumstances will permit4 ,an illustration of a normal location to which this principle can be applied is shown in ,fig4 #bid4 ,the trees and the higher shrubs are planted first and on the extreme borders of the lot1 with shorter shrubs1 roses1 and the like in front of them4 ,this frame can be given a finish by planting flowers or very low things next the grass4 ,if the area be ample1 let the edges be irregular 7,fig4 #bid72 but if very limited1 straight lines become necessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,showing how the borders may be planted4 ,the open space within the boundaries should be a mat of green carpeting1 for nothing can be more beautiful than sward4 ,fight all influences to bedeck it with beds of flowers in forms of stars and moons and other celestial and terrestrial designs4 ,the demands for such capers may be great1 but hold out against them boldly4 ,certain small shrubs1 ferns1 and flowers may be planted along the walls of the building1 particularly in the angles2 but ,i beg of you to leave the green plat unscalloped and unspoiled1 only as is necessary for drives and walks4 ,when the buildings are unsightly1 cover with vines and plant bushes against them4 ,fig4 #bie illustrates how ,fig4 #bib may be improved with very little effort4 ,now ,i will speak of the actual planting4 ,in the light of unnumbered thousands of ,arbor ,day trees put out to struggle a few weeks for life and then die1 this may seem the most important feature of my article4 ,to the unsuccessful planter1 let me suggest that he select shrubs and trees which take care of themselves under adverse conditions4 ,we have a number of such4 ,if they were imported from ,japan and sold at fancy prices1 they would be greatly appreciated4 ,the common sumac is one of them4 ,for a shrub ,i know of nothing of its class so sure to bear the ordeal of transplanting or to make more vigorous growth under adverse conditions4 ,it can be pruned to suit1 and nothing can rival its blaze of color in late autumn2 yet as a farmer1 ,i know the experience of fighting against its existence in fence corners1 about stone piles1 and on steep hillsides4 ,i do this even though ,i am fond of the shrub and admire it4 ,it encroaches on my vineyard and injures the crop4 ,grapes will help pay taxes and sumac will not4 ,in my cherry orchard it is a weed4 ,in my back yard and on the borders of my lawn it is an ornamental shrub4 ,the same can be observed of people4 ,when in their proper sphere they are helpful factors in a community2 when out of it they are nuisances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,how the grounds in ,fig4 #bib may be improved4 ,if you ask me to mention a tree most likely to live when planted by unskilled hands1 ,i should name the willow4 ,i mean the most common kind to be found in the northern ,states--the kind that stands beside the roadside watering-trough4 ,the impression is common that willows will thrive only in wet places4 ,it is true that a willow is very comfortable in places where many other trees will suffer from wet feet2 yet it will give good results elsewhere4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that poor soil goes with a poor school building1 and a refined tree would probably find life hard in such a place4 ,i should certainly plant a willow in such cases4 ,it will thrive where a goat can1 and where a sheep cannot4 ,for city places1 the ,carolina poplar is to be recommended4 ,if the soil is good enough1 plant maples1 elms1 or other trees4 ,a judicious planting of ,virginia creeper helps the appearance of buildings both good and bad4 ,i should surely plant it about the main building and the outbuildings and fences1 if the patrons of the school did not object4 ,the probabilities are that when the vines have begun to cover some of the deformities of the place1 some finicky resident of the district will cut them out on the plea that they promote decay of the weather-beaten clap-boards2 but do not be discouraged by such a possibility4 ,vines1 too1 usually interfere with the painting of a building4 ,although they may be taken down and put back after the painters are through1 the first effect is not regained unless the process of putting back has been done with unusual care4 ,do not make the mistake of planting too much4 ,a small lawn can be overdressed as is sometimes the case with women4 ,lilac1 ,japan quince1 syringa1 hydrangea1 and like common shrubs1 could be planted if the opportunities of space seem to warrant4 ,i hope it will be your taste to allow the limbs of the trees to start low and those of the shrubs to begin as near the ground as possible4 ,i am aware that among country people it is the practice to tolerate only the higher limbs4 ,i can give a reason for this only on the supposition that they must do something in pruning1 and the lower limbs are the most convenient to reach4 ,i know a man who came into possession of a place having a fine lot of evergreens with the lower branches at the ground4 ,by way of proclaiming a change of ownership he cut away the lower branches1 leaving a bare trunk of about five feet4 ,before he touched them they were beautiful green cones and when passing the place ,i always turned my face in their direction to enjoy the beauty4 ,when he was through they were standing on one leg1 and a wooden leg at that4 ,i have never felt kindly toward the man since4 ,in the matter of planting ,i know of no better method than that of the experienced orchardist4 ,as a rule he buys his trees of a nurseryman4 ,they are often dug in the fall1 and are planted the following spring4 ,during the interval they are stored in specially constructed cellars1 and at no time are the roots permitted to become dry4 ,when packed for shipment damp moss is placed about the roots4 ,when the orchardist removes them from the packing box he heels them in1 which is a kind of probationary planting in shallow furrows where they stand until ready to be set out permanently4 ,when that time comes the trees are taken from the trench and the roots plunged in a tub of thin mud or doused with water and covered with a blanket4 ,an orchardist counts a tree lost if the roots have been allowed to remain in the sun until the small rootlets have so dried that they have a gray appearance4 ,in taking the young tree from the nursery row only a fraction of the original roots go with the tree1 and these are badly bruised at the point of cleavage4 ,these ragged ends should be dressed smoothly by means of a slanting cut with a knife4 ,all mutilated roots should be removed4 ,you must bear in mind that the roots you find with the trees are capable of performing but a small part of what was done by all the roots when growing in their native place4 ,the hole in which the tree is set should be large enough to accommodate the roots without cramping them out of their natural positions4 ,it is important that the earth used for filling should be fertile1 and it is doubly important that it should be fine--even superfine4 ,clods1 even small clods like marbles1 will not snuggle up to the bark of the root as closely as is absolutely necessary4 ,set the tree about an inch deeper than you think it originally stood1 so that when planted and the earth settles1 it will really be about the same depth4 ,all the earth should not be dumped in at once and then the surface pressed firm with the feet4 ,a close examination will show that the soil has bridged in places1 leaving many roots in tiny caverns4 ,it is important that fine soil should be snuggled close to each little rootlet1 not for warmth but for moisture4 ,fill the hole by installments of one-third at each filling4 ,sprinkle the fine earth about the roots4 ,then dash in a third of a pail of water4 ,this will give the roots much needed moisture and1 best of all1 will wash the earth about each root fiber4 ,i urge the adoption of this careful method for all trees and shrubs1 not excepting the sumac and willow4 ,even wallows will show their gratitude for such considerate treatment1 even though they are able to survive rougher usage4 ,they will pay for it when the drought and neglect of summer come4 ,the most common mistake made in the selection of trees is in taking those that are too large4 ,for the conditions that we have under consideration1 ,i suggest that a tree no larger than a broom-handle be chosen4 ,i know that the common feeling is1 we shall have to wait too long for our shade4 ,unless the larger tree is in the hands of an expert1 the smaller will be the more desirable at the end of five years4 ,i much prefer1 moreover1 the selection of a tree or shrub growing in the sunshine1 rather than one from the shade4 ,i have one final request to make1 which to the novice will be the most difficult of all and one which he is quite likely to fail in performing because of lack of moral courage4 ,i mean the cutting back of the top of the tree or shrub after planting4 ,before the removal of the tree1 the roots probably found pasturage in a cart load of soil4 ,after planting1 the root pasturage is not more than half a bushel of soil4 ,what follows when the forces of plant growth begin8 ,a demand for soil products1 with a very much restricted means of supply4 ,the top must be cut back to match the shortened root system4 ,thousand of trees die every year because this principle is not duly observed and the failure is often attributed to the nurseryman4 ,the amount necessary to cut back differs with different trees and shrubs4 ,no hard and fast rules can be given4 ,with willows and sumacs one-third to one-half of everything bearing leaf buds can be cut away4 ,with a maple having a diameter of one and a half inches at the butt1 ,i should suggest that about one-third of the branch area be left to grow4 ,in this article ,i have had in mind the improvement of school grounds where all the conditions are at zero--where the building would be a discredit to any owner1 where the patrons are totally indifferent1 and where the only resource is to awaken a public spirit on the part of the children4 ,with better school buildings1 more ample grounds1 and a small number of patrons favorable to improvement1 the foregoing ideas need not be followed closely4 ,however1 they do contain principles and some details that deserve careful consideration1 even in landscape planting of the highest form4 ,the first step should be the development of local pride4 ,something may be accomplished among the parents2 but it is a problem as to what extent that may be done4 ,to the true teacher the pupils may be counted upon as the mainstay in such an undertaking4 ,to such a teacher ,i should say1 ,do not for a moment believe that the improvements seen about the school grounds will be all the good that is wrought4 ,fifty years from now there will be a few gray-haired men and women who take more interest in the appearance of their front-door-yard1 and give their children encouragement in having a posy bed all their own1 and who extend sympathy and service to the better appearance of the school grounds1 because of your altruism when you taught district school4 ,we have some aids that may be helpful to you and to which you are welcome4 ,bulletin #afj1 spoken of at the beginning1 specifically treats of this work1 and ,bulletin #aba1 on ,planting of ,shrubbery1 has been very popular4 ,we have published a number of articles on children's gardening1 all of which will be sent you free if you request it4 ,if you have specific problems we shall be glad to have you write and we will help you all we can by correspondence4 ,the most efficient help we can give you is through the organizing of your pupils into ,junior ,naturalist clubs4 ,we give these clubs especial instruction in gardening and the improvement of home and school grounds4 ,children receive great inspiration from large numbers doing the same thing1 while we can give instruction to ten thousand as easily as to one child4 ,many hundreds of teachers and thousands of children find the study of nature a beam of sunshine in the schoolroom and a great aid in the ,english period without being a burden to the teacher4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,children',s ,,leaflets4 ,,designed ,,to ,,open ,,the ,,eyes ,,of ,,the ,,young4 ,most of these leaflets were published as companions to the ,teachers' ,leaflets and ,lessons1--the teachers' lessons written in one vein and the children's in another4 ,even though the subject-matter may be largely duplicated in the two1 it seems worth while to keep these separate as showing a simple method of presentation and as suggesting a means of procedure to those who would reach small children4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,realm4 ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,a little child sat on the sloping strand ,gazing at the flow and the free1 ,thrusting its feet in the golden sand1 ,playing with the waves and the sea4 ,i snatch'd a weed that toss'd on the flood ,and parted its tangled skeins2 ,i trac'd the course of the fertile blood ,that lay in its meshd veins2 ,i told how the stars are garner'd in space1 ,how the moon on its course is roll'd1 ,how the earth is hung in its ceaseless place ,as it whirls in its orbit old3-- ,the little child paus'd with its busy hands ,and gaz'd for a moment at me1 ,then dropp'd again to its golden sands ,and play'd with the waves and the sea4 ,,leaflet ,,li4 ,a ,,snow ,,storm4#fh ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,vii47 ,a chill no coat however stout1 ,of homespun stuff could quite shut out1 99 99 99 99 99 ,the coming of the snow storm told4 --,,whittier4 #fh ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,december1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,surely1 it is going to snow1 says ,grandfather1 as he puts an armful of wood into the old box beside the fire2 and a happy feeling comes over you1 and you like ,grandfather a little better because he has promised you a snow storm4 ,what a wise old ,grandfather he is6 you think4 ,he always seems to know what is going to happen out-of-doors and you wonder how he learned it all4 ,perhaps ,i can tell you why ,grandfather is so wise4 ,when he was a boy he lived on a farm and was in the outdoor world summer and winter4 ,there he learned to know ,nature day by day4 ,this is why he can consult her now as to wind and weather1 and why he nearly always understands what she tells him4 ,he is a good observer4 ,if you hope ever to be as weather-wise as ,grandfather1 you must begin right away to see and to think4 ,the next time you hear him say1 ,it is going to snow1 put on your fur cap and mittens and go out-of-doors4 ,is the air clear1 crisp1 and cold--the kind you like to be out in8 ,or is it a keen cold that makes you long for the fire-place8 ,can you see the sun8 ,if so1 how does it look8 ,in what direction is the wind8 ,how cold does the thermometer tell you it is8 ,all the time that you are learning these things the storm will be coming nearer4 ,then on your dark coat sleeve something soft and white and glistening falls--a snowflake4 ,you touch the bright thing and it disappears4 ,where did it come from and whither did it go8 ,others follow faster and faster1 jostling each other as they whirl through the air4 ,look at them closely4 ,are the crystals large and flowery or small and clear8 ,put your head back and let them come down on your face4 ,is their touch soft or do they hurt as they fall8 ,perhaps by this time you are very cold and think that supper must be nearly ready4 ,you go into the house1 and you find the gray kitten snoozing comfortably on the hearthrug4 ,you snuggle down beside her to warm your frozen bones a bit1 and still the storm and outdoor world are near2 for is it not splendid music that the wind is making as it roars down the old chimney or sways the tall pine trees8 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,study4 ,answer as many of the following questions as you can from your own observations3 #a4 ,how did the sky look before it began to snow8 ,during the storm8 ,after the storm8 ,it is always a good thing to look up at the sky4 #b4 ,in what direction did the old weather-cock tell you the wind was blowing as the storm came on8 ,did the wind change during the storm8 ,if so1 did the snow change in any way8 #c4 ,look at snow crystals through a tripod lens if you have one4 ,how many points do they have8 #d4 ,after supper go to the window1 raise the shade1 and look out on the stormy night4 ,tell ,uncle ,john all that you see4 #e4 ,on your way to school the next day after a snow storm1 have the following in mind to write to us about3 7a7 ,the tracks in the snow4 ,how many do you find8 ,did ,rover make them8 the gray kitten8 a snow bird8 an old crow8 a rabbit8 a squirrel8 7b7 ,the way the trees and small plants receive the snow4 ,some hold it1 others cast it off3 why8 7c7 ,notice the snow drifts4 ,where are they highest8 ,why does the snow pile up in some places and not in others8 ,is the drift deepest close to buildings or a little way from them8 ,are the drifts deepest close to the trees1 or is there a space between the tree and the drift8 ,,leaflet ,,lii4 ,a ,,plant ,,at ,,school4#fi ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #fi ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,i dropped a seed into the earth4 ,it grew1 and the plant was mine4 ,it was a wonderful thing1 this plant of mine4 ,i did not know its name1 and the plant did not bloom4 ,all ,i know is that ,i planted something apparently as lifeless as a grain of sand and that there came forth a green and living thing unlike the seed1 unlike the soil in which it stood1 unlike the air into which it grew4 ,no one could tell me why it grew1 nor how4 ,it had secrets all its own1 secrets that baffle the wisest men2 yet this plant was my friend4 ,it faded when ,i withheld the light1 it wilted when ,i neglected to give it water1 it flourished when ,i supplied its simple needs4 ,one week ,i went away on a vacation1 and when ,i returned the plant was dead2 and ,i missed it4 ,although my little plant had died so soon1 it had taught me a lesson2 and the lesson was that it is worth while to have a plant4 ,i wish that every ,junior ,naturalist would have a plant4 ,it matters little what the plant is4 ,just drop the seed1 keep the earth warm and moist1 watch the plant come up1 see it grow4 ,measure its height at a given time every day4 ,keep a record of how many times you water it4 ,make a note of every new leaf that appears4 ,see whether it leans towards the light4 ,if it dies1 tell why4 ,four weeks from the time when you plant the seed1 send ,uncle ,john your notes4 ,a sheet of foolscap paper contains about twenty-eight lines1 one line for the notes of each day1 and space enough at the top to write your name1 date of sowing1 kind of seed1 and nature of the soil4 ,open the sheet and on each line at the left side write all the dates for four weeks ahead2 then fill in these lines across the two pages day by day as the plant grows4 ,for the first few days there will not be much to write1 but you can say whether you watered the earth or not1 and where you kept the pot or box4 ,it will be good practice to get into the habit of taking notes4 ,i suppose that the record of the first few days will run something as follows3 ,,myron ,,johnson1 name of school1 age ----4 ----1 ,teacher4 ,feb4 #b4 ,monday4 ,planted six cabbage seeds in loose soil from the chip yard4 ,i put the earth in a small old tin cup1 and pressed it down firmly4 ,i made it just nicely moist1 not wet4 ,i planted the seeds about equal distances apart and about one-fourth inch deep1 and pressed the earth over them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,an egg-shell farm4 ,the plants1 from left to right1 are3 cabbage1 field corn1 pop-corn1 wheat1 buckwheat4 ,feb4 #b4 ,did not water to-day1 for the soil seemed to be moist enough4 ,feb4 #c4 ,watered at #aj3cj ,a4 ,m4 ,teacher told me to be careful not to make the soil too wet4 ,feb4 #d4 ,watered at noon4 ,feb4 #e4 ,put the cup nearer the stove so that the seeds would come up more quickly4 ,feb4 #f4 ,the earth is cracking in two or three places4 ,watered at noon4 ,feb4 #g4 ,went to the schoolhouse and found some of the plants coming up4 ,feb4 #i4 ,four of the plants are up4 7,here tell how they look1 or make a few marks to show47 ,when your month's record is all complete1 send the sheet1 or a copy of it1 to ,uncle ,john1 and this will be your club dues4 ,see how many things you can find out in these four weeks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4 ,a window plant that is easy to grow4 ,it is a common garden beet4 ,the end of the beet was cut off so that it could be got into the tin can4 ,a very red beet will produce handsome red-ribbed leaves4 ,in all cases1 be sure that the crown or top of the plant has not been cut off too close1 or the leaves may not start readily4 ,the beet starts into growth quickly and the growing plant will stand much abuse4 ,it makes a very comely plant for the school-room window4 ,try carrot1 turnip1 and parsnip in the same way4 ,before the four weeks are past write to ,uncle ,john and he will tell you what next to do4 ,by that time your plants will need transplanting1 and he will tell you how to do it4 ,perhaps you can set some of the plants outdoors later on and see them grow all summer2 whether you can or not will depend on the kinds of plants that you grow4 ,if you want to grow asters or cabbages next summer1 you can start some of them in ,february and ,march4 ,quick-germinating seeds1 fit for starting in the schoolroom1 are wheat1 oats1 buckwheat1 corn1 bean1 pumpkin and squash1 radish1 cabbage1 turnip4 ,perhaps some of these require a warmer place than others in which to germinate4 ,if you find out which they are1 let ,uncle ,john know4 ,you can grow the plants in egg-shells1 wooden boxes 7as cigar boxes71 tin cans1 flower pots4 ,if you use tin cans it is well to punch two or three holes in the bottom so that the extra water will drain out4 ,set the can or box in a saucer1 plate1 or dripping-pan so that the water will not soil the desk or table4 ,it is best not to put it in a sunny window until after the plants are up1 for the soil is likely to bake or to become hard on top2 or if you do put it in such a place1 throw a newspaper over it to prevent the earth from drying out4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,plant ,,study4#gj #gj ,alice ,g4 ,mc,closkey1 ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,january1 #aijd4 ,last year hundreds of children sent us records of their plants4 ,this kind of work is most satisfactory to ,uncle ,john4 ,following is a record which we received in ,march1 from a girl in the fourth grade3 ,feb4 #af--,monday4 ,i planted seven cabbage seeds in an eggshell4 ,i did not water it4 ,feb4 #ag--;,did not see anything4 ,feb4 #ah--,saw a little brown thing4 ,feb4 #ai--,saw a little seed lying on top4 ,feb4 #bj--,saw little sprout4 ,feb4 #ba--;,holiday4 ,feb4 #bb--;,holiday4 ,feb4 #bc--;,holiday4 ,feb4 #bd--,saw two little sprouts4 ,feb4 #be--,the egg-shell was full of sprouts4 ,feb4 #bf--,the plant was coming up and the earth was very wet1 so ,i did not water it4 ,feb4 #bg--,saw six sprouts4 ,feb4 #bh--;,holiday4 ,march #a--;,holiday4 ,march #b--,turned the plant around1 so it would look toward the light4 ,march #b--,that afternoon ,i planted the cabbage in a tin can with tissue paper around it1 because the cabbage outgrew the eggshell some time ago4 ,march #c--;,i put the plant out of the window4 ,march #d--;,i did not look at it4 ,march #e--,one of the sprouts began to droop4 ,march #f--;,i dug the dirt up around it4 ,then it was put in the air out of the window4 ,march #g--;,holiday4 ,march #h--;,holiday4 ,march #i--;,i put it out of the window4 ,march #aj--;,it was put out of the window4 ,it was brought in at the close of school4 ,march #aa--;,dug the dirt out from the plant and patted it down4 ,march #ab--,watered4 ,march #ac--,put out of the window4 ,march #ad--;,holiday4 ,march #ae--;,holiday4 ,march #af--,watered and put out of the window4 ,,helen4 ,was not this a good record for a little girl to make8 ,i wish that she had told something about the soil in which she planted the seeds4 ,this is always important4 ,in winter you may have some difficulty in getting soil1 but in the village a florist will let you have some1 and in the country you may be able to get it in the cellar of a grocery store or from your own cellar4 ,perhaps you can find some in the potato bin4 ,when there is a thaw1 get some soil1 even if it is very wet2 you can dry it near the stove4 ,perhaps your schoolhouse will be too cold over ,sunday in mid-winter to allow you to grow plants4 ,if so1 plant the seeds at home4 ,when you have planted your seeds1 unless you take them up every day1 you cannot see how the little plants are behaving down under the soil4 ,i want to tell you how you can know some things that the plants are doing without disturbing them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,radish seeds germinating between blotting-paper and the side of a tumbler4 ,choose an ordinary glass 7,fig4 #bii71 roll up a piece of blotting paper so that it is a trifle smaller than the glass1 and place it inside4 ,between the blotting paper and the glass1 put a few radish seeds or any kind of seed such as you planted in the soil4 ,keep the blotting paper moist and watch what happens4 ,in four or five days the plants should be up4 ,here are some things to think about as you watch them3 #a4 ,note any change in the seeds when they have been moist for a few hours4 #b4 ,what happens to the outer coat of the seed8 #c4 ,in what direction does the little root grow8 ,the stem8 #d4 ,notice the woolly growth on the root8 ,does this growth extend to the tip of the root8 #e4 ,when the little plant has begun to grow1 turn it around so that the root is horizontal4 ,does it remain in that position8 #f4 ,how soon do the leaves appear8 ,it may interest some of the ,junior ,naturalists to see the effect of much water on seeds4 ,suppose you experiment a little along this line4 ,choose three glasses4 ,in one put seeds into water1 in another put them into very wet or muddy soil1 and in the third plant the seeds in moist soil1 such as seeds are ordinarily planted in4 ,tell us the results of the three experiments4 ,a ,,third-,,grade ,,record4 ,following is a facsimile reproduction of a spontaneous and unpruned record made by a child in the third grade4 ,the child grew beans in a tumbler against blotting paper1 as shown in ,fig4 #bii4 ,i hope that this will illustrate to both teacher and children the value of simple note-taking4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,the bean plants that were grown by the third-grade child4 ,,leaflet ,,liii4 ,,an ,,apple ,,twig ,,and ,,an ,,apple4#ga ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xxxi47 #ga ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,january1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,yesterday ,i went over into the old apple orchard4 ,it was a clear ,november day4 ,the trees were bare4 ,the wind had carried the leaves into heaps in the hollows and along the fences4 ,here and there a cold-blue wild aster still bloomed4 ,a chipmunk chittered into a stone pile4 ,i noticed many frost-bitten apples still clinging to the limbs4 ,there were decayed ones on the ground4 ,there were several small piles of fruit that the owner had neglected1 lying under the trees1 and they were now worthless4 ,i thought that there had been much loss of fruit1 and ,i wondered why4 ,if the fruit-grower had not made a profit from the trees1 perhaps the reason was partly his own fault4 ,not all the apples still clinging to the tree were frost-bitten and decayed4 ,i saw many very small apples1 no larger than the end of my finger1 standing stiff on their stems4 ,plainly these were apples that had died when they were young4 ,i wondered why4 ,illustration3 ,fig #cja4 ,this is the branch that tried and failed4 ,i took a branch home and photographed it4 ,you have the engraving in ,fig4 #cja4 ,note that there are three dead young apples at the tip of one branch4 ,each apple came from a single flower4 ,these flowers grew in a cluster4 ,there were three other flowers in this cluster1 for ,i could see the scars where they fell off4 ,but why did these three fruits die8 ,the whole branch on which they grew looked to be only half alive4 ,i believe that it did not have vigor enough to cause the fruit to grow and ripen4 ,if this were not the cause1 then some insect or disease killed the young apples1 for apples1 as well as people1 may have disease4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,these are the flowers that make the apples4 ,how many clusters are there8 ,beneath the three dead apples1 is still another dead one4 ,notice how shrivelled and dried it is1 and how the snows and rains have beaten away the little leaves from its tip4 ,the three uppermost apples grew in #aijb2 but this apple grew in some previous year4 ,if ,i could show you the branch itself1 ,i could make you see in just what year this little apple was borne1 and just what this branch has tried to do every year since4 ,this branch has tried its best to bear apples1 but the fruit-grower has not given it food enough1 or has not kept the enemies and diseases away4 ,the lesson that ,i got from my walk was this3 if the apples were not good and abundant it was not the fault of the trees1 for they had done their part4 ,in the cellar at home we have apples4 ,i like to go into the cellar at night with a lantern and pick apples from this box and that--plump and big and round--and eat them where ,i stand4 ,they are crisp and cool1 and the flesh snaps when ,i bite it and the juice is as fresh as the water from a spring4 ,there are many kinds of them1 each kind known by its own name1 and some are red and some are green1 some are round and some are long1 some are good and some are poor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,the apples are usually borne one in a place1 although the flowers are in clusters4 ,why8 ,over and over1 these apples in the cellar have been sorted1 until only the good ones are supposed to remain4 ,yet now and then ,i find a decayed heart or a hollow place4 ,the last one ,i picked up was fair and handsome on the outside1 but a black place and a little sawdust in the blossom end made me suspicious of it4 ,i cut it open4 ,here is what ,i found 7,fig4 #cjf74 ,someone else had found the apple before ,i had4 ,last summer a little moth had laid an egg on the growing apple1 a worm had come from the egg and had eaten and eaten into the apple1 burrowing through the core1 until at last it was full grown1 as shown in the picture4 ,now it is preparing to escape4 ,it has eaten a hole through the side of the apple1 but has plugged up the hole until it is fully ready to leave4 ,when it leaves it will crawl into a crack or crevice somewhere1 and next spring change into a pupa and finally come forth a small1 dun-gray moth4 ,this moth will lay the eggs and then die2 and thus will be completed the eventful life of the codlin-moth1 from egg to worm and pupa and moth4 ,but in doing all this the insect has spoiled the apple4 ,the insect acts as if the apple belonged to him2 but ,i think the apple belongs to me4 ,i wonder which is correct8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,the ,baldwin apple4 ,how many kinds of apples do you know8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cje4 ,the same ,baldwin apple cut in two4 ,some of these apples are sound and solid on the inside1 but they have hard blackish spots on the outside 7,fig4 #cjg74 ,this is a disease--the apple-scab4 ,this scab is caused by minute plants and these plants also claim the apple as their own4 ,there are ways by means of which the apple-grower is able to destroy the codlin-moth and the apple-scab2 and thereby he secures fair and sound apples4 ,insects and diseases and men are all fighting to own the apple4 ,,ten ,,things ,,to ,,learn ,,from ,,an ,,apple4 ,when you write your dues to ,uncle ,john on the apple1 answer as many of the following questions as you can4 ,you can get the answers from an apple itself4 ,he does not want you to ask anyone for the answers3 #a4 ,how much of the apple is occupied by the core8 #b4 ,how many parts or compartments are there in the core8 #c4 ,how many seeds are there in each part8 #d4 ,which way do the seeds point8 #e4 ,are the seeds attached or joined to any part of the core8 ,explain4 #f4 ,what do you see in the blossom end of the apple8 #g4 ,what do you see in the opposite end8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjf4 ,this is an apple in which a worm made its home4 #h4 ,is there any connection between the blossom end and the core8 #i4 ,find a wormy apple and see if you can make out where the worm left the apple4 ,perhaps you can make a drawing4 ,to do this1 cut the apple in two4 ,press the cut surface on a piece of paper4 ,when the apple is removed you can trace out the marks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,these are the apples on which other plants are living4--,the apple-scab4 #aj4 ,when you hold an apple in your hand1 see which way it looks to be bigger--lengthwise or crosswise4 ,then cut it in two lengthwise1 measure it each way1 and see which diameter is the greater4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjh4 ,here is where city boys and girls buy their apples4 ,,leaflet ,,liv4 ,,twigs ,,in ,,late ,,winter4#gb ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 #gb ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february1 #aijd4 ,illustration ,along a country road1 through a drifted field1 over a rail fence1 and into the woods ,i went1 gathering twigs here and there as ,i passed4 ,a ,february thaw had come and these first messengers of spring1 reaching out from shrub and tree1 were beginning to show signs of life4 ,many young people do not believe that spring is near until they hear a robin or a bluebird4 ,the bare little twigs tell us first4 ,look at them as you go on your way to school4 ,are they the same color in ,february that they were in the short ,december days8 ,when ,i reached home with my bundle of twigs1 it was fun to sit by the window and study the strange little things4 ,they were so different one from another1 and so interesting in every way1 that ,i decided to ask our boys and girls to gather some winter twigs and tell us about them4 ,select your twigs from the butternut1 willow1 hickory1 horsechestnut1 apple1 plum1 plane-tree1 maple1 or any other tree that you come across4 ,here are some suggestions that will help you in your study3 #a4 ,how many colors do you find in one twig8 ,count the tints and shades4 ,i found eight colors on a small maple branch 7,fig4 #cji74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4 ,red or swamp maple4 #b4 ,notice the differences in several twigs as they lie on the table4 ,what makes them look so different3 size1 shape1 color1 arrangement of buds1 the size or shape of the buds8 #c4 ,on how many twigs are the buds opposite each other8 ,note the opposite buds on the horsechestnut 7,fig4 #caj74 ,on how many are they alternate8 ,are the buds opposite on the butternut 7,fig4 #caa78 #d4 ,which twigs bear the buds singly8 #e4 ,when you find two or more buds growing together on a stem1 is there any difference in the size of the buds8 #f4 ,on how many of the twigs can you see a scar left by the leaf when it dropped off 7,fig4 #caj and ,fig4 #caa a1 a78 ,compare the leaf scars on different twigs4 ,notice the strange scar on the butternut 7,fig4 #caa74 ,it looks like the face of an old sheep4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caj4 ,horsechestnut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caa4 ,butternut4 #g4 ,do you see any cocoons on your twig8 #h4 ,you all know the rings on an apple twig that tell how much it grew each year4 ,do you find rings on other twigs8 ,do you see them on any of these pictures8 #i4 ,what do you suppose makes these rings8 ,do you think there was once a large terminal bud where these rings are8 ,,leaflet ,,lv4 ,,pruning4#gc ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xlvi47 #gc ,extended from ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february1 #aija4 ,illustration ,first snow1 then sleet1 and then a down-pour of rain--it stormed all day4 ,at night-fall it grew colder4 ,the wind blew fiercely4 ,the twigs and branches fell on the white crust which covered the earth4 ,nature was pruning the trees4 ,have you ever seen your father go into the orchard and prune his trees8 ,why did he do it8 ,compare the work done by nature and that which your father does4 ,which seems to be the more careful pruner8 ,let us experiment a little4 ,it will please ,uncle ,john4 ,he always wants his boys and girls to find out things for themselves4 ,select a branch of lilac or some other shrub4 ,mark it so that you will always know it4 ,count the buds on the branch4 ,watch them through the spring and the summer4 ,note the number that become branches4 ,you will then know that nature prunes the trees4 ,if you think a minute1 you will see that pruning is necessary in the plant world4 ,suppose a branch has thirty buds1 and that every bud should produce thirty branches1 each of which in turn should produce thirty more1--do you think there would be any room left in the world for boys and girls8 ,would a tree be able to hold so many branches8 ,you certainly have noticed decayed holes in trees4 ,did you ever wonder why they were there8 ,i suppose that most persons never wonder about it at all2 or if they do give it any passing thought1 they say it is only natural for trees to have rotten spots4 ,but these rotten spots mean that once the tree was injured4 ,perhaps the injury was the work of a careless or thoughtless man who pruned the tree4 ,very few persons seem really to know how to remove the limbs of a tree so that the wound will heal readily4 ,as you go and come1 observe how the trees have been pruned4 ,do you see long stubs left1 where limbs have been cut8 ,yes2 and that is the wrong way to cut them4 ,they should be cut close to the main branch or trunk1 for then the wounds will heal over better 7,fig4 #cab74 ,if we abused our cows and horses1 as we sometimes abuse our shade trees1 what would become of the animals8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cab4 ,the wrong way and the right way to remove a limb4 ,did you ever see trees that were mutilated to allow of the stringing of telephone and telegraph wires8 ,who owns the shade trees along a street or public highway8 ,,leaflet ,,lvi4 ,,the ,,hepatica4#gd ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xl47 #gd ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,march1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,something new and pleasant happened in my life this year4 ,in ,february1 while the wood was snow-covered and the roadsides piled high with drifts1 ,i saw hepaticas in bloom4 ,oh1 no6 ,i did not find them out of doors4 ,i had all the fun of watching them from my warm chimney-corner4 ,then when winds blew fiercely ,i often went to the window where they grew and buried my head in the sweet blossoms4 ,what do you suppose they told me8 ,if some winter day you feel their soft touch on your face1 and smell their woodsy fragrance1 you will hear the message4 ,perhaps you want to know how the hepaticas found their way into my window-box4 ,last fall as ,i walked through a leafy wood ,i gathered a few plants1 roots and all1 that ,i had known and loved in spring and summer days4 ,among them were hepaticas4 ,these ,i laid away in the cellar until the first of ,february4 ,then ,i planted them in a corner of the window-box that ,i had left for them4 ,since the little woods plants have come to live with me ,i have learned to know them well4 ,perhaps the most important lesson they have taught me is this3 ,the blossoms may be the least interesting part of a plant4 ,will you find out what hepaticas have to tell as the seasons pass8 ,even before you hear the first robin1 go into the woods1 find one of the hepaticas1 and mark it for your own4 ,you will know it by the old brown leaves4 ,then watch it day by day4 ,the following questions will help you to learn its life story3 #a4 ,where do hepaticas grow1 in sunny or shady places8 ,during which seasons do they get the most sunlight8 #b4 ,watch the first sign of life in the plant4 ,do the new leaves or the flowers come first8 #c4 ,look at the hepatica blossom a long time4 ,how many different parts can you see in it8 ,whether you know the names of these parts now does not matter4 ,i want you to see them4 #d4 ,notice the three small1 green1 leaf-like parts that are around the flower bud4 ,as the flower opens see whether they are a part of it1 or whether they are a little way from it on the stem4 #e4 ,observe the stem closely4 ,is it short or long8 ,hairy or smooth8 #f4 ,as the new leaves appear find out whether they are fuzzy on the inside as well as on the outside4 ,notice how they are rolled up and watch them unroll4 #g4 ,in how many different colors do you find hepaticas8 #h4 ,do some smell sweeter than others8 ,if so1 does color seem to have anything to do with it8 #i4 ,look at a hepatica plant at night or very late in the afternoon4 ,also watch it early in the morning and in cloudy weather4 ,then look at it in bright sunshine4 ,do you see any change in the flowers8 ,i think you will discover something of much interest4 #aj4 ,seed-time among hepaticas is very interesting4 ,notice what becomes of the three small1 leaf-like parts that were underneath the flower4 ,how many seeds are there8 #aa4 ,how long do you think the leaves of hepatica remain on the plant8 ,do you suppose they remain green all winter8 #ab4 ,what becomes of the hepatica plant after it blossoms8 ,did you ever see one in summer8 ,describe4 ,,leaflet ,,lvii4 ,,jack-,,in-,,the-,,pulpit4#ge ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xli47 #ge ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,april1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,they call him ,jack-in-the-,pulpit1 he stands up so stiff and so queer ,on the edge of the swamp1 and waits for the flower-folk to come and hear ,the text and the sermon1 and all the grave things that he has to say2 ,but the blossoms they laugh and they dance1 they are wilder than ever to-day2 ,and as nobody stops to listen1 so never a word has he said2 ,but there in his pulpit he stands1 and holds his umbrella over his head1 ,and we have not a doubt in our minds1 ,jack1 you are wisely listening1 ,to the organ-chant of the winds1 ,jack1 and the tunes that the sweet birds sing6 ,,lucy ,,larcom4 ,it is ,indian turnip1 said ,i4 ,no1 said ,grandmother1 it's memory root4 ,if you taste it once you will never forget it4 ,and what ,grandmother said to me so long ago1 ,i say to every boy and girl1 ,if you taste it once you will never forget it4 ,but of all the names for this strange little wood plant1 ,i like ,jack-in-the-pulpit best4 ,though never a word has it said in our lifelong acquaintance1 it has been a helpful little country preacher to me4 ,as we go into the woods this year1 let us make up our minds that we will know more than we ever have known before of its interesting life4 ,where do you find the ,jack-in-the-pulpit8 ,in what kind of soil does it grow8 ,how does it first come up8 ,what is the shape of the root8 ,one is enough for the whole class to study and it should be planted again4 ,we do not want the ,jack-in-the-pulpit to disappear from our woods4 ,does the little hood fold over at first8 ,the hood or umbrella is not the flower4 ,you will find the flowers on the little central stalk that you call ,jack4 ,see whether the blossoms are alike4 ,look at the blossoms on several plants4 ,place a stick by the side of one of these plants so that you will know it later in the year when the ,jack-in-the-pulpit has disappeared4 ,notice whether there are insects in the lower part of the flower stalk4 ,if so1 can they get out8 ,when the blossom has gone1 look for the seeds4 ,what color are they in ,june8 ,in ,august8 ,have you any house plant that you think is related to ,jack-in-the-pulpit8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cac4 ,tubers of ,jack-in-the-pulpit1 or ,indian turnip4 ,,leaflet ,,lviii4 ,,the ,,dandelion4#gf ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y and ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #gf ,supplement to ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,may1 #aijd4 ,illustration ,the first warmth of spring brought the dandelions out of the banks and knolls4 ,they were the first proofs that winter was really going1 and we began to listen for the blackbirds and swallows4 ,we loved the bright flowers1 for they were so many reflections of the warming sun4 ,they soon became more familiar1 and invaded the yards4 ,then they overran the lawns1 and we began to despise them4 ,we hated them because we had made up our minds not to have them1 not because they were unlovable4 ,in spite of every effort1 we could not get rid of them4 ,then if we must have them1 we decided to love them4 ,where once were weeds are now golden coins scattered in the sun1 and bees revelling in color2 and we are happy6 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,study4 ,i4 ,ask your teacher to let you go out of doors for ten minutes to look at dandelions4 ,in your note books write answers to the following questions3 #a4 ,at what time of day are you looking for the dandelions8 ,is the sun shining1 or is the sky overcast8 ,make up your mind to notice whether dandelions behave the same at all hours of the day and in all kinds of weather4 #b4 ,how many dandelions can you count as you stand on the school-ground8 ,the little yellow heads can be seen a long distance4 #c4 ,where do they prefer to grow1--on the hillsides1 along the roadsides1 in the marshes1 or in your garden8 ,,ii4 ,gather a basket full of blossoming dandelions1 roots and all1 take them to school1 and ask the teacher to let you have a dandelion lesson4 ,here are some suggestions that will help you3 #a4 ,each pupil should have a plant1 root and all4 ,describe the plant4 ,is it tall or short8 ,how many leaves are there8 ,how many blossoms8 #b4 ,hold the plant up so that you can see it well4 ,how many distinct colors do you find8 ,how many tints and shades of these colors8 #c4 ,look carefully at the blossom4 ,how many parts has it8 ,how much can you find out about the way in which the yellow head is made up8 ,,iii4 ,mark a dandelion plant in your garden4 ,watch it every day4 ,keep a record of all that happens in its life4 ,later in the year send ,uncle ,john a little history or account of the plant you have watched4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cad4 ,blow the dandelion balloon6 ,,dandelion4 ,dear common flower1 that grow'st beside the way1 ,fringing the dusty road with harmless gold1 ,first pledge of blithesome ,may1 ,which children pluck1 and1 full of pride uphold1 ,high-hearted buccaneers1 o'erjoyed that they ,an ,eldorado in the grass have found1 ,which not the earth's ample round ,may match in wealth1 thou art more dear to me ,than all the prouder summer-blooms may be4 --,,lowell4 ,,leaflet ,,lix4 ,,maple ,,trees ,,in ,,autumn4#gg ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflets ,,xlvii and ,,xlviii47 ,the hills are bright with maples yet1 ,but down the level land ,the beech leaves rustle in the wind1 ,as dry and brown as sand4 ,the clouds in bars of rusty red ,along the hill-tops glow1 ,and in the still sharp air the frost ,is like a dream of snow4--,,alice ,,cary4 #gg ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,november1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,the hills are bright with maples about the time ,jack ,frost appears1 and many people say that he makes the leaves turn red and yellow4 ,wise folk tell us1 however1 that ,jack ,frost is not the artist2 that leaves change to autumn tints when their work is completed4 ,boys and girls may not know that leaves work2 yet all through the long summer days when you have been playing in the shade of some old maple1 the leaves over your head have been very busy4 ,uncle ,john says that each leaf is a starch factory1 and this is true4 ,starch is necessary for plant food and it is manufactured in the leaves4 ,the green leaves and stems are the machinery1 which is run by sunlight4 ,look at a large branch of maple and see how the leaves are arranged to catch every sunbeam4 ,the more light the green parts of the tree get1 the more plant food can be made and the sturdier and handsomer the tree4 ,but the story of the way in which the plant food is made is a long one and not easy for young people to understand4 ,this can come later when you have become familiar with the many interesting things that you learn by watching the tree and by studying with the microscope4 ,if ,i should to go into your school-room and should ask how many boys and girls know a sugar maple1 ,i suppose every hand would be raised4 ,but if ,i should ask3 ,when does the sugar maple blossom8 ,what do the blossoms look like8 ,when do the winged seeds fall8 ,i wonder how many could give me satisfactory answers to my questions6 ,choose some fine old maple for study4 ,the one that stands near the door will be best1 since you can see it every day4 ,write in a note book all that you can find out about it as the weeks go by4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,fall ,,study4 #a4 ,notice how the leaves turn to the sunlight4 #b4 ,try to find two leaves exactly alike in color1 form1 size1 length of stem1 etc4 ,if you succeed send them to ,uncle ,john4 #c4 ,how many different tints can you find in a single leaf8 #d4 ,as you look at two sugar maple trees1 do they seem to be colored alike8 #e4 ,are all sugar maples that you know the same shape8 #f4 ,how are the leaves arranged on the branch8 #g4 ,can you find any winged seeds near the tree8 ,if so1 plant one in a box of earth and see whether it will grow4 #h4 ,if you find any plants growing beneath the maple tree1 describe them or tell what they are4 #i4 ,do you know any other kinds of maples8 ,how do you distinguish them8 ,illustration3 ,child's drawing of a maple leaf4 ,fifth grade4 7,reduced47 ,,leaflet ,,lx4 ,a ,,corn ,,stalk4#gh ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflets ,,xlii and ,,xliii47 #gh ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,may1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,tom1 said ,i to a young friend who stood by the window tossing a ten-cent piece into the air1 what plant is used for part of the design on that coin8 ,the boy did not answer right away4 ,i do not believe he had ever looked at it closely2 yet this is one of the prettiest of our silver pieces4 ,after a few minutes he said1 ,it is corn1 isn't it8 ,hearing a note of surprise in his voice1 ,i told him something about corn-raising in this country4 ,we then decided that it is a good thing to represent corn on one of the ,united ,states coins1 since it is a source of much of our wealth4 ,but aside from its value1 ,indian corn should interest us because it is a wonderful plant4 ,boys and girls do not know much more about it than does any old black crow4 ,you have watched the farmer plant corn and you like to eat it4 ,jim ,crow has watched the farmer plant corn and he likes to eat it1 too4 ,the time has come1 however1 when you can get ahead of him if you care to2 and to get ahead of crows on the corn question is worth the while4 ,let me tell you how to do it4 #a4 ,secure a kernel of corn1 cut it in halves1 and note the food inside it4 ,this food was stored in the seed by the parent plant4 ,uncle ,john would say that it is the lunch that the mother puts up for her children4 ,what must happen before the food can be used by the little plant8 #b4 ,place some moist soil in a tumbler1 and put a kernel of corn in it near the side so that you can watch it grow4 ,how soon does the root appear8 ,the leaves8 ,how many leaves come up at one time8 #c4 ,ask your father to give you a small piece of ground in the garden4 ,plant a few kernels of corn so that you will have some plants of your own to study this summer4 ,other people's plants are never so interesting as our own4 #d4 ,as your corn plants push their way up into the light and air1 watch them every day4 ,notice how the new leaves are protected by the next older ones4 #e4 ,is the stem hollow or solid8 ,in which way would it be stronger8 #f4 ,notice the joints4 ,are they the same distance apart throughout the length of the stem8 ,does the distance between the joints always remain the same8 ,measure them some day2 then in a week measure them again4 #g4 ,where does the stalk break most easily8 #h4 ,where does the leaf clasp the stalk8 #i4 ,notice how strong the leaf is4 ,in what direction do the ribs extend8 ,if these long narrow leaves were not strong what would happen to them as they wave back and forth in the wind8 #aj4 ,have you ever noticed the ruffled edges of the leaves8 ,as you bend them you will see that the edges do not tear4 #aa4 ,there are two kinds of blossoms on a corn plant4 ,the ear bears one kind1 the tassel the other4 ,if you were to cut all the tassels from the plants in your garden1 the kernels would not grow on the ears4 ,later on you will learn why4 #ab4 ,watch the ear closely as it grows4 #ac4 ,follow a thread of silk to the place where it is attached4 ,notice whether there is one silk for each kernel4 #ad4 ,when the corn is in the milk stage it is preparing to store up food for the young plants4 ,how does it taste at this time8 #ae4 ,look closely at the base of the corn stalk and you will see roots extending obliquely into the soil4 ,these are the brace roots4 ,of what use do you think they are to the corn stalk8 ,,leaflet ,,lxi4 ,,in ,,the ,,corn ,,fields4#gi ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflets ,,xlii and ,,xliii47 #gi ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,october1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,caw caw6 said ,jim ,crow as he flew over our heads4 ,was he jeering at us8 we wondered1 the children and ,i4 ,perhaps he was inquisitive to know what business we had in the open country and in the fields of corn4 ,perhaps he was not concerned with us at all4 ,very likely crows are less concerned with us than we think they are4 ,jim ,crow flew on out of sight1 but we stayed among the ripening corn4 ,the ears were filling out4 ,the ends of the silk were turning brown4 ,we saw many things that we had planned to look for in vacation3 the tall stem1 the brace roots1 the long strong leaves and the way the ribs extend in them1 the ruffled edges of the leaves1 the two kinds of blossoms1 and where each silken thread is attached4 ,the whole story was before us4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cae4 ,over the fields in corn-harvest time4 ,but this is the harvest time and we are ready to learn a new lesson from the corn fields4 ,as we watch them now let us answer the following questions3 #a4 ,how is the corn cut8 #b4 ,how many ears do you find on a stalk8 #c4 ,are the ears on the same side of the stalk or on opposite sides8 #d4 ,take into the school room as many kinds of corn as you can find and describe each as follows3 a--,the shape and color of the kernel4 b--,number of rows of kernels4 c--,the number of kernels in each row4 #e4 ,perhaps the girls will pop some corn and bring it to the ,junior ,naturalist ,club meeting4 ,let them try to pop field corn4 ,cut kernels in two of field corn and pop-corn1 and report whether they differ4 ,why does pop-corn pop8 #f4 ,make a list of the foods for which corn is used4 #g4 ,why are pumpkins planted among corn8 #h4 ,why not make for your school room some decorations from ears of corn8 ,illustration ,,leaflet ,,lxii4 ,,the ,,alfalfa ,,plant4#hj ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey and ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xxxiv47 #hj ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,october1 #aijd4 ,illustration ,all the things that the farmer sells are produced by plants and animals4 ,the animals live on the plants4 ,it is important that we know what some of these plants are4 ,some plants are grown for human food4 ,such are potato1 wheat1 apple1 lettuce4 ,some are grown only to feed to animals4 ,such are grasses and clover1--plants that are made into hay4 ,hay is the most important crop in ,new ,york ,state4 ,in fact1 ,new ,york leads all the ,states in the value of the hay and forage4 ,this value is more than #ff millions of dollars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caf4 ,sprig of the alfalfa plant4 ,hay is important in ,new ,york also because there are so many dairy cattle in the ,state4 ,there are more than one and one-half millions of dairy cattle in ,new ,york4 ,in the value of the milk and butter and cheese1 ,new ,york also leads all other ,states4 ,there are also great numbers of beef cattle1 horses1 mules1 and sheep4 ,all these millions of animals must be supplied with hay in our long cold winters4 ,hay is made in ,new ,york ,state from grasses and clover4 ,suppose we could find some plant that would yield twice as much hay as clover yields1 and yet be as nutritious1--you can readily see how valuable such a plant would be to the ,state4 ,it would be better than a gift of millions of dollars4 ,such a plant is alfalfa4 ,now that you know something about alfalfa in a general way1 ,i want you to know how the plant looks and how it grows4 ,it is not yet very well known even among farmers1 but its cultivation is increasing every year4 ,you will probably know where there are fields of it4 ,sometimes it grows along roadsides as a weed4 ,last spring ,uncle ,john offered to send a small packet of alfalfa seeds to any ,junior ,naturalist who wrote for it4 ,he sent about #e1jjj packets4 ,but if you do not know the plant or cannot find it1 write at once to ,uncle ,john and he will send you some by mail from the ,university farm4 ,let us see how many school children in ,new ,york ,state will know what alfalfa is between now and ,thanksgiving time4 ,when writing to ,uncle ,john about alfalfa1 try to answer as many of the following questions as possible from your own observation3 #a4 ,does the plant remind you of any other plant that you ever saw8 ,of what8 #b4 ,how does it grow1--straight up or spreading out on the ground8 #c4 ,how many stalks come from one root8 #d4 ,what are the leaves like8 ,mark out the shape with a pencil4 #e4 ,what are the flowers like8 ,do you know any other flowers of similar shape8 ,what is the color8 #f4 ,if possible1 dig around a plant and describe how the root looks4 ,does it branch into many fibres1 as grass roots or corn roots do8 ,,uncle ,,john',s ,,letter ,,about ,,the ,,alfalfa ,,gardens4 ,my ,dear ,boys and ,girls3 ,do you know much about the alfalfa plant8 ,do you remember that last spring we promised to send a packet of seed to each of you who asked for it8 ,did you send your name asking that you be served8 ,we received the names of several thousand children asking for seed and ,i am wondering whether you are one of them4 ,if so1 did you sow the seed8 ,will you write me a letter telling me what became of it8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cag4 ,what leaf is this8 ,is it enlarged8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cah4 ,leaf of alfalfa4 ,what significance have the spots8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cai4 ,flowers of the alfalfa4 ,are they natural size8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbj4 ,alfalfa pods4 ,how much enlarged8 ,i am very fond of children's letters4 ,each year ,i receive more than thirty thousand of them4 ,i sometimes wonder whether there is another man who is honored by so many letters from young people1 for ,i count it an honor to be so remembered4 ,as large as that number is1 ,i cannot spare one letter4 ,i always want a few more4 ,all your letters are read and ,i take great pains to answer all questions4 ,if1 by any oversight1 you have been missed ,i am sorry4 ,i know what it costs a boy or girl to write a letter4 ,i never open one without feeling that the writer is a friend of mine1 otherwise he would not have expended so much hard work to write it4 ,school has now begun and of course you are very busy1 and so is your teacher4 ,one of the best opportunities to write letters is in school4 ,please ask your teacher whether you may not write me during your language period4 ,you may say that she may make authors of all of you if she can1 but ,i will do all ,i can to help you become good letter writers4 ,ask her whether a letter to me may not be a substitute for a composition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cba4 ,crown of the alfalfa plant1 showing how root and top start off4 ,in your letter you may tell me your experience with alfalfa4 ,tell me your failures as well as your successes4 ,even though you received your seeds and did not sow them1 tell me that4 ,i shall never find fault with you for telling me the truth4 ,if you sowed the seed and the plants did not do well1 tell me that also4 ,the plants may look very small and uninteresting to you this year1 but next year they may surprise you4 ,in some parts of the ,united ,states the alfalfa crop is of great value and the loss of it would bring distress to many farmers4 ,i am wondering whether the crop1 as raised in all parts of our country1 is not worth more money than all the gold found in the ,klondike1 taking the two year by year4 ,i do not know how that may be4 ,i am wondering4 ,men by the thousand have gone to the gold mines and endured many hardships and later returned with less money than those who had remained at home and took care of their alfalfa4 ,it may be that a mine of wealth lies very near you1 and to get it you may have to ask alfalfa to find it and bring it to you4 ,gold cannot be found in all places in a gold country and alfalfa may not feel comfortable and grow in all parts of a good farming country4 ,what we asked of you last spring was that you become alfalfa prospectors and later tell us what you found4 ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 ,,leaflet ,,lxiii4 ,,the ,,red ,,squirrel4#ha ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xlix47 ,the squirrel came running down a slanting bough1 and as he stopped twirling a nut1 called out rather impudently1 ,look here6 just get a snug-fitting fur coat and a pair of fur gloves like mine and you may laugh at a northeast storm4--,,thoreau4 #ha ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,november1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,for a cheery companion give me the red squirrel6 ,i enter the woods and there the little fellow is1 ready to welcome me4 ,what a fine day it is for gathering nuts6 he seems to say1 and straightway1 as ,i listen to his merry chatter1 ,i think it is a fine day for any sport that includes him and the brown ,november woods4 ,young naturalists may think it is a difficult thing to become acquainted with red squirrels1 but you will often find them willing to be sociable if you show them a little kindness4 ,i have many times watched two or three squirrels playing about a friend as she sat in her garden4 ,they seemed to find her nearly as interesting as the old pine tree near by4 ,they are inquisitive animals4 ,how did you tame them8 ,i asked4 ,i fed them occasionally1 she replied4 ,at first ,i put some nuts on the grass several feet away from me4 ,then ,i gradually placed a tempting meal nearer and nearer until the little fellows seemed to lose all fear of me4 ,if we care to1 you and ,i1 we can learn a great deal about red squirrels before another year has passed4 ,if you live on a farm you should know the habits of all the wild creatures about you4 ,you can then be just to them1 and decide whether or not you can afford to let them continue to be tenants on your farm4 ,you will find that all of them have interesting lives4 ,,the ,,red ,,squirrel4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,just a tawny glimmer1 ,a dash of red and gray1-- ,is it a flitting shadow1 ,or a sunbeam gone astray8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,in the haunts of the red squirrel4 ,it glances up a tree trunk1 ,and from some branch1 ,i know ,a little spy in ambush ,is measuring his foe4 ,i hear his mocking chuckle2 ,in wrath he waxes bold1 ,and stays his pressing business ,to scold and scold and scold4 ,,questions ,,about ,,the ,,red ,,squirrel4 #a4 ,what is the color of the red squirrel8 ,is he really red8 ,is his entire coat of one color8 ,does he wear different colors in winter and summer8 #b4 ,did you ever see a red squirrel's nest8 ,if so1 describe it4 #c4 ,does the red squirrel hibernate2 that is1 does he sleep all winter as the chipmunk does8 #d4 ,what does a red squirrel eat8 ,did you ever see him getting the winged seeds out of a pitch pine cone8 #e4 ,do you believe a squirrel ever planted an oak8 ,give a reason4 #f4 ,if you live in the country1 you have seen red squirrels running on the rail fences4 ,why do they like rail fences8 ,do you see them so often on other kinds of fences8 #g4 ,notice the tracks made in the snow in winter woods4 ,try to find whether the red squirrel's is among them4 #h4 ,if you know any other kinds of squirrels1 tell how they differ from the red squirrel4 ,,leaflet ,,lxiv4 ,,robin4#hb ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 #hb ,introduction printed in ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,march1 #aija4 ,illustration ,the drifts along the fences are settling4 ,the brooks are brimming full4 ,the open fields are bare4 ,a warm knoll here and there is tinged with green4 ,a smell of earth is in the air4 ,a shadow darts through the apple tree3 it is the robin6 ,robin6 ,you and ,i were lovers when yet my years were few4 ,we roamed the fields and hills together4 ,we explored the brook that ran up into the great dark woods and away over the edge of the world4 ,we knew the old squirrel who lived in the maple tree4 ,we heard the first frog peep4 ,we knew the minnows that lay under the mossy log4 ,we knew how the cowslips bloomed in the lushy swale4 ,we heard the first soft roll of thunder in the liquid ,april sky4 ,robin6 ,the fields are yonder6 ,you are my better self4 ,i care not for the birds of paradise2 for whether here or there1 ,i shall listen for your carol in the apple tree4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our lesson on robin shall be a lesson out of doors4 ,we shall leave the books behind4 ,we shall see the bird4 ,we shall watch him and make up our minds what he is doing and why4 ,we shall know robin better2 and robin lives in the fields4 ,perhaps you think you know robin4 ,suppose that one of your friends never saw a robin2 do you think you could close your eyes and describe him so that your friend would know how the bird looks8 ,then tell me where robin builds its nest1 and of what materials2 and how many eggs are laid and their color2 and how long the mother bird sits2 and how long the fledglings remain in the nest4 ,you can readily find a family of robins in some near-by tree1 or perhaps even on the porch2 and you can learn all these things without ever disturbing the birds4 ,i want you to watch a bird build its nest4 ,you may think that you know how robin builds1 but can you really tell me just how the bird carries the mud1 and where it finds the other materials1 and how long the building operation continues8 ,do both birds take part in the building8 ,then ,i want to know whether you can tell the difference between father robin and mother robin4 ,did you ever notice whether robins that come first in the spring have brighter breasts than those that come later8 ,and can you explain8 ,tell me1 too1 what robin does with his year4 ,you know when he comes in spring and when he builds and when the speckled young ones fly4 ,but where is he in summer and fall and winter8 ,and what is he about all this time8 ,does he build another nest and rear another family1 or does he go vacationing8 ,and does he gather the same kind of food in spring and summer8 ,does he gather cherries for his family or for himself8 ,did you ever see robin in winter in ,new ,york8 ,what can you tell me about the song of robin8 ,does he sing all the year8 ,or does he have a different note for summer8 ,not one of you can tell how many different notes and calls robin has4 ,i sometimes think that robin knows several languages4 ,i have seen many more springs than you have seen3 and yet ,i always wait for robin on the lawn4 ,i often wonder whether the same robins come back to my lawn4 ,they seem to go to business at once4 ,they hop with the most confident air1 and day after day pull strings out of the ground4 ,you know what these strings are3 but do you know how robin finds them8 ,is it by smell1 or sight1 or feeling1 or hearing8 ,do you suppose he is listening when he cocks his head to one side and then to the other8 ,or is he merely making motions8 ,and ,i wonder whether birds and animals usually make motions just for the sake of making them8 ,i have asked you many questions1 and not one of you can answer4 ,perhaps ,i cannot answer4 ,you ask1 ,what's the use8 ,if you can see robin1 and learn why1 you can also learn other things4 ,but ,i like robin just because he is robin4 ,there is one thing more4 ,you will read about robin redbreast4 ,who is he8 ,find out for me whether robin redbreast of ,europe and of ,english poetry is the same as our ,american bird4 ,,leaflet ,,lxv4 ,,crows4#hc ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xxiv47 #hc ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february1 #aijd4 ,illustration ,at a wigwam in the ,adirondack ,mountains a tame crow lives with a family of ,indians4 ,these ,indians make baskets of birch bark and other things that they find out of doors1 and sell them to visitors who spend their summer in the mountains4 ,the little crow helps in the business4 ,he makes himself so interesting to the passers-by that they stop to watch him4 ,the ,indians then have an opportunity to show their baskets1 and very often sell them4 ,but we need not go to the ,adirondacks to find a crow that earns his living4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,beal1 who has studied crows a long time1 speaks of them as valuable farm hands2 and ,neltje ,blanchan says that they are as much entitled to a share of the corn as the horse that plows it4 ,this may surprise boys and girls who have heard crows spoken of as thieves and rascals4 ,let us look into their story so that we can find out for ourselves whether to the farmer the crow is a friend or an enemy4 ,how ,jim ,crow does harm3-- #a4 ,by killing toads1 frogs1 small snakes1 and salamanders 7lizards74 ,why are these little creatures first rate farm hands8 #b4 ,by pulling up sprouting corn4 ,some farmers prevent this by tarring the corn4 #c4 ,by stealing eggs1 small chickens1 and tiny birds4 ,it is said that the crow is rarely guilty of these wrongs4 ,what do you know about it8 ,how ,jim ,crow does good3-- #d4 ,by eating large numbers of insects3 grasshoppers1 caterpillars 7including army worms and cut worms71 ,june bugs1 and other insects4 ,so many insects does he devour that he earns more than he destroys4 ,a half bushel of corn scattered on a field is said to be sufficient in many cases to prevent ,jim ,crow from pulling the growing corn4 ,to study crows3-- ,watch the crows to find out just what they do4 ,do you ever see them flying in large numbers8 ,if so1 at what time of day do they fly8 ,where are they going8 ,notice how they use their wings4 ,do they come from the same direction each morning8 ,would it not be a great experience to make up a party and visit the place from which they come8 ,what do you think you would find there8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,who's afraid6 ,when you see crows feeding in a field try to learn what they are eating4 ,you can often find crows' tracks in the snow4 ,there the prints of their feet and wings may be seen4 ,what do you think interested the crows in the snow-covered field8 ,determine whether the caw is always the same4 ,is it sometimes short1 sometimes long8 ,can you associate these differences with the actions of the birds8 ,i wish you would read ,john ,hay's poem1 ,the ,crows at ,washington4 ,,leaflet ,,lxvi4 ,a ,,friendly ,,little ,,chickadee4#hd ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,,mccloskey4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xxiv47 ,this scrap of valor just for play ,fronts the north wind in waistcoat gray4 --,,emerson4 #hd ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,december1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,one cold ,december day a chickadee found himself alone in a wood4 ,he looked very much like other chickadees1 a small1 gray bird1 wearing1 as someone has said1 a black hood with white side pieces and a black vest4 ,he was like others of his kin1 too1 in that he was a skillful acrobat4 ,he could stand right side up on a twig or cling to it upside down--one position seemed as easy as the other4 ,but ,i am not sure that this little chickadee was like his fellows in one respect4 ,i have wondered whether they are all as friendly as he4 ,i shall tell of something that he did1 and leave it to young naturalists to find out whether other chickadees will show as friendly a spirit4 ,it happened on the cold ,december day when the chickadee was alone in the snow-choked wood that a ,senior ,naturalist wandered along that way4 ,whether or no the little bird knew that the tall man was there ,i cannot say4 ,at any rate1 he called out phoe-be1 the plaintive little pipe of two notes1 clearer and sweeter than the real phoebe bird can make4 ,the tall man answered the call1 whistling two notes as plaintive and sweet as the chickadee's own4 ,again and again the whistle was repeated and every time it was answered4 ,nearer and nearer came the fluffy midget1 until finally he alighted on a tree directly over the tall man's head4 ,and then a remarkable thing happened6 ,you will scarcely believe it1 yet it is true4 ,knowing how near the chickadee was1 the tall man whistled phoe-be very softly1 and the little bird flew down and rested on his arm4 ,how pleased the ,senior ,naturalist must have felt when he had gained the confidence of this wild bird6 ,i wish that our boys and girls would try to do the same thing and tell ,uncle ,john whether the experiment is successful4 ,,study ,,of ,a ,,chickadee ,,in ,,winter4 #a4 ,keep a sharp lookout for chickadees4 ,can you tell one when you see it8 ,they are often with nuthatches and downy woodpeckers4 ,if you tie a piece of suet in a tree near your house these winter birds may visit you4 #b4 ,listen to the notes of all the winter birds4 ,some day you will hear one say ,chick-a-dee-dee-dee-dee4 ,then he may sing phoe-be1 and you will try to imitate the notes4 ,he may answer you4 ,tell us how near you can get to one of these friendly little birds4 #c4 ,watch a chickadee searching for his breakfast on a twig4 ,what kind of a bill has he8 ,what do you think he is finding to eat8 #d4 ,if ,i lived on a farm ,i should have suet hung in my orchard to encourage the chickadees to stay there4 ,can you tell why8 #e4 ,do you see chickadees in summer8 ,where are they then8 #f4 ,if ,i were to ask you to find a deserted chickadee's nest1 where would you look8 ,,leaflet ,,lxvii4 ,,the ,,family ,,of ,,woodpeckers4#he ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,,mccloskey4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xxiv47 #he ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,january1 ,march1 ,april1 and ,may1 #aijc4 ,i4 ,,the ,,red-,,headed ,,woodpecker4 ,illustration ,the story goes that1 once upon a time1 a naturalist found a great many grasshoppers wedged into an old fencepost4 ,they were alive but could not get away4 ,bye and bye their jailor appeared4 ,he was neither somber nor ugly1 as you might suppose1 but a merry red-headed woodpecker4 ,with never a thought of cruelty in his little red head1 he had used the fencepost as a cold-storage place1 and had filled it with a good supply of food4 ,now ,i am sure our boys and girls will ask1 ,is this story true8 ,i cannot say4 ,the best way to decide whether it may be true is to study the habits of a red-headed woodpecker4 ,do you think that we shall find him capable of so clever a trick8 ,the red-head is not uncommon4 ,keep on the lookout for him4 ,his head1 neck1 throat1 and upper breast are red2 the rest of his body is blue-black and white4 ,he is a handsome fellow1 a bright bit of color in wood1 garden1 orchard1 or field4 ,let us see what we can learn about him4 ,,suggestions4 #a4 ,try to get a nearer view of any bird that you see sitting on a telegraph pole or fencepost4 ,it may be a red-headed woodpecker4 #b4 ,is this little fellow as good a drummer as his relatives8 #c4 ,his mate likes his music4 ,if she comes near1 the better to hear him drum1 notice whether she has a red head4 #d4 ,do you find beech-nuts or other food stored in decayed trees8 ,under a bit of raised bark8 ,in cracks in bark8 ,in gate posts8 ,if so1 a red-head may be about4 #e4 ,these woodpeckers eat more grasshoppers than any of the others4 ,find out whether they eat them on the ground4 #f4 ,have you ever seen one fly into the air after a passing insect8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbd4 ,the red-headed woodpecker4 #g4 ,do red-headed woodpeckers ever visit your chicken yard8 ,watch them closely and find out why they are there4 #h4 ,do you see them later in the year eating fruit on your farm8 #i4 ,it has been found that they eat ants1 wasps1 beetles1 bugs1 grasshoppers1 crickets1 moths1 spiders1 and caterpillars4 ,if you find them doing harm on your farm will you not compare it with the good they do8 #aj4 ,what plants do they visit8 #aa4 ,where is red-head's nest8 ,,ii4 ,,downy ,,woodpecker4--,a ,,little ,,orchard ,,inspector4#hf #hf ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,january1 #aijc4 ,rap6 rap6 rap6 the little inspector has come to look at our apple trees4 ,you are welcome1 downy woodpecker1 say we every one4 ,stay as long as you like4 ,we want to look at you closely so that we shall know you every time we see you4 ,a bird about three inches shorter than a robin1 black above1 white below1 white along the middle of the back1 and the male red on the nape of the neck3 this is the way downy looks4 ,a hardworking1 useful1 sociable tenant of the farm3 this is what downy is4 ,let us see how this little woodpecker is useful4 ,if you live on a farm1 you have probably heard of borers--grubs that get into trees and injure them4 ,your father does not like these grubs1 but downy does4 ,he seems to like any kind of grub4 ,watch him on a tree sometimes when he is looking for one4 ,he knows where to find it1 although neither you nor ,i might suspect that an insect is living beneath the smooth bark4 ,then he bores into the tree1 and spears the grub with his long tongue4 ,his tongue is a remarkable weapon4 ,he can stretch it two inches beyond the tip of his bill1 and it is barbed on both sides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbe4 ,cocoons of the codlin-moth as they were found attached to a piece of loose bark1 natural size4 ,downy does not stop work1 you must remember1 when borers are not plenty4 ,beetles nibble no more plants after his eyes light on them4 ,they are trespassers1 and as judge1 jury1 and executioner1 he proves his right to be considered a most useful farm hand4 ,ants1 too1 provide him with a good meal occasionally4 ,among the helpful deeds of the downy woodpecker1 we must not forget to mention that he destroys great numbers of the larv or worms of the codlin-moth in winter1 when these worms have tucked themselves away in the crevices of the bark1 all wrapped in their cocoons4 7,figs #cbe1 #cbf47 ,perhaps your father has shown you these little cocoons along the body and in the crotches of the apple tree4 ,if not1 you can find them yourself4 ,open some of them and see whether the worm is still there4 ,if he is not1 downy has probably taken him4 ,i suppose you know that the larv of the codlin-moth are the worms you find in apples4 ,see ,leaflet ,,liii4 ,you must not confound the downy woodpecker with that other woodpecker1 the sap-sucker1 that often drills rings of holes in the trunks of apple trees4 ,the sapsucker has yellow on his under parts4 ,i shall tell you about him some other time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,pup of the codlin-moth in cocoons1 enlarged4 ,you have learned that insects and apple-scab and yourselves all try to see who shall own the apple fruit4 ,now you know that birds1 and insects that feed on leaves and in the wood1 are also concerned in this quarrel about the apple4 ,a ,,few ,,things ,,to ,,observe4 #a4 ,does the downy woodpecker travel down a tree head first or does he hop backward8 #b4 ,try some day to see his feet4 ,you will find that two of his toes are turned forward and two backward4 ,are there other birds that have this arrangement of toes8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,the downy woodpecker4 #c4 ,notice that he braces himself with his tail as he works4 #d4 ,do you ever see the downy woodpecker eat seeds of plants that the farmers do not like to have on their land8 #e4 ,hang a bone or piece of unsalted suet out of doors for the woodpeckers4 ,they will enjoy an unexpected feast4 #f4 ,where does downy make his nest8 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sapsucker4#hg #hg ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,march1 #aijc4 ,if you are walking through an orchard or wood and see a jolly little woodpecker with red on its head1 do not say at once that it is a downy woodpecker4 ,look again4 ,has it yellow on the underparts1 black on the breast1 a red throat1 and red on the crown instead of on the nape8 ,then it is a sapsucker1 a new arrival4 7,fig4 #cbh47 ,it is larger than the downy4 ,the female has no red on the throat4 ,and to think that such a merry little fellow has such a bad reputation among farmer-folk6 ,you will be surprised to find how unkindly woodpeckers are treated throughout the country1 because of the misdeeds of the sapsucker4 ,even the downy has suffered much abuse4 ,this is unfortunate1 for ,i am sure downy woodpeckers have done much more good than sapsuckers have done harm4 ,i wish that all ,junior ,naturalists would try to find out whether even the sapsucker deserves all that has been said against him4 ,he does harm by boring holes in trees1 but how much8 ,let us learn4 ,as woodpeckers are not shy1 it is not difficult to get near them4 ,i have stood within a few feet of a sapsucker1 and he did not mind a bit4 ,he kept on boring holes in a tree without a thought that any one might object4 #a4 ,how many trees can you find that have holes bored by the sapsucker8 #b4 ,how are the holes arranged2 here and there on the trunk1 or in rings around it8 ,have you ever found a complete ring of holes8 #c4 ,keep a record of the months in which you find the sapsucker4 #d4 ,notice how the sap runs down into the holes that have been newly made by a sapsucker4 #e4 ,it is said that this woodpecker eats the inner bark of the tree as well as the sap4 ,what can you find out about this8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbh4 ,the sapsucker4 ,compare this picture with that of the downy woodpecker in ,fig4 #cbg4 #f4 ,do you ever find insects near the holes made by the sapsucker8 ,do you think he eats them8 #g4 ,find out where the sapsucker has his nest4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,flicker4#hh #hh ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,may1 #aijc4 ,three woodpeckers have been introduced to you in these leaflets3 the red-head1 the hard working downy 7,fig4 #cbg71 the sapsucker 7,fig4 #cbh74 ,there is one more that we ought to add to the list for summer study1 since he is very likely to cross our path1--the flicker 7,fig4 #cbi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbi4 ,the flicker4 ,this woodpecker has a great many names1 probably because he lives in a great many ,states4 ,the most common are3 flicker1 highhole1 yellow-hammer1 and golden-winged woodpecker4 ,i like the name flicker best of all4 ,he is a good-sized bird1 about two inches longer than a robin4 ,his colors are3 brownish with black spots above1 whitish spotted with black underneath1 a black crescent on the breast1 and a scarlet crescent on the back of the neck4 ,when he flies you will notice two things3 the rich golden color of the inside of his wings1 and the white patch on the back just above the tail4 ,now1 since he is a woodpecker1 you will probably expect to find the flicker in trees2 but you are quite as likely to find him on the ground4 ,about half of his food consists of ants1 and these he finds afield4 ,he also eats other insects1 as well as a good deal of plant food4 ,i hope that you will see a flicker this year and hear him call out1 a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a4 ,possibly some of you may find a nest that these birds have dug out in an old apple tree4 ,they do not always make new nests1 however1 but live in the deserted homes of other woodpeckers4 ,,questions4 #a4 ,has the flicker a straight bill like the downy woodpecker8 #b4 ,have you seen the flicker's mate8 ,if so1 in what way does she differ from him in color or marking8 #c4 ,where does the flicker build its nest8 ,what color are the eggs8 #d4 ,try to watch a flicker feeding its young4 ,describe4 #e4 ,do you know the call of the flicker8 ,can you imitate it1 or write it so that ,uncle ,john can recognize it8 #f4 ,do flickers remain all winter8 ,if not1 when do they come8 ,when do they leave8 ,,leaflet ,,lxviii4 ,,deserted ,,birds'-,,nests4#hi ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,,mccloskey4 #hi ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february1 #aija4 ,illustration ,there is a wagon trail which ,i like to follow2 it is always a pleasant walk4 ,there is no foot path2 so ,i do not think many people pass that way4 ,perhaps this is why many little wild creatures of the field and wood like to live there4 ,i do not know any other place where the birds sing so sweetly1 where the wild flowers grow so thick1 and where the insects are so numerous4 ,by the side of this road ,i found the little vireo's nest which you see in the picture4 ,it was about five feet from the ground1 and hung near the end of a long branch4 ,it was interesting to find out what it was made of1--grasses1 strips of bark1 hair1 pine needles1 plant fibres1 and bits of paper4 ,on the outside were lichens and spiders' webs4 ,the pieces of paper were dropped along the way1 ,i think1 by the leader in a cross-country run4 ,even the little vireos have an interest in the outdoor sports of the college men4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccj4 ,the vireo's nest4 ,one of the most interesting bird homes is the oriole's nest4 ,uncle ,john will like to know whether you find one4 ,the young orioles must have happy times in their cradle1 which hangs between the earth and the sky4 ,winter is the best time of year to hunt for birds' nests4 ,it is hard to find them in the spring and the summer4 ,the parent birds intend it shall be4 ,if you succeed in getting a nest1 take it into the school room so that the other members of your club can study it with you4 ,,suggestions4 ,where did you find the nest8 ,what is its size and shape8 ,name it1 if you can4 ,was it built on the horizontal crotch of the branch1 or on an upright crotch8 ,how was it fastened to the branch8 ,notice the materials of which it is made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cca4 ,the hanging nest of the oriole4 ,a cord is woven into the nest4 ,in the oriole's nest you will see that there is a difference in the way in which the upper and lower parts are made4 ,what is it8 ,how deep is the oriole's nest which you find8 ,compare the material on the outside with that on the inside4 ,how is the nest fastened to the twigs8 ,where does a catbird build its nest8 ,robin8 ,bluebird8 ,swallow8 ,hen8 ,turkey8 ,illustration3 ,what8 ,,leaflet ,,lxix4 ,,the ,,poultry ,,yard3 ,,some ,,thanksgiving ,,lessons4#ij ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,,mccloskey and ,,james ,e4 ,,rice4 #ij ,extended from ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,november1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,a rosy-cheeked girl1 a freckled-faced boy and a little bald-headed baby were the only young persons at the ,thanksgiving dinner4 ,the baby was not old enough to be invited1 but we were so thankful to have her with us that we could not resist drawing her chair up to the table4 ,the turkey was a big one and done to a turn4 ,we old folks thought so1 the freckled-faced boy thought so1 and the rosy-cheeked girl thought so4 ,the baby1 so far as ,i could judge1 thought not at all4 ,she chewed energetically on a spoon and left the discussion of the turkey to her elders4 ,having known for a long time that children like to chatter1 ,i decided that ,i would give the little lad and lassie opposite me an opportunity to talk about turkeys1 ducks1 chickens1 and the like4 ,these1 thought ,i1 are good ,thanksgiving topics1 and a boy and girl who have lived on a farm all their lives can tell me some interesting things about them4 ,but this world is full of many strange surprises6 ,it was not long before ,i learned that those little folk could not answer some very simple questions about poultry4 ,they did not even know why a chicken does not fall off the roost when it sleeps4 ,to be sure1 they could tell the exact moment when1 in the process of carving1 the wish-bone would appear3 but you will admit that this is very little4 ,i certainly was disappointed4 ,the bald-headed baby cheered things up a bit1 however1 by crowing lustily4 ,i rejoiced in the fact that apparently she had heard sounds from the barn-yard4 ,now there are many reasons why children1 ,junior ,naturalists especially1 should know something about poultry4 ,it may be that you live on a farm and will want to raise chickens1 ducks1 and turkeys some day2 and the farmer who knows his poultry best will be most successful in raising it4 ,but whether you live in country or city you will like to study these interesting birds4 ,let us see what we can find out about them in the next three or four weeks4 ,november1 the month of ,thanksgiving1 is a good time to begin4 ,,turkeys4 ,let us first pay our respects to the king of the poultry yard4 ,we may never know ,his ,royal ,highness1 the old gobbler1 very well1 because it is said he will not often permit folks to meet him on his own ground4 ,i am told that a visitor is more sure of a welcome within his domain if he wear sombre garb4 ,although gaily dressed himself the old fellow objects to bright colors on others4 ,there is one thing that we can do if the gobbler does not let us near him1--we can peek at him through the fence4 ,then1 too1 at ,thanksgiving time many a slain monarch will hang in a nearby market4 ,following are a few suggestions that will help us to learn something about turkeys4 ,i hope that you know all these things now1 and1 therefore1 will not need to be asked4 ,if you do1 please write ,uncle ,john4 ,how many letters do you think he will get from such persons8 ,in the study of any bird1 learn to describe it fully3 the size1 the shape1 the bill1 the length of legs1 the feet1 and the color4 ,is there more than one color of turkey8 ,observe the head1 face and wattles of the turkey gobbler4 ,notice the strong1 curved beak2 the bright1 clear1 hazel eyes4 ,how many colors does he wear8 ,when the turkey is being prepared for the ,thanksgiving dinner1 ask mother for the foot4 ,are there any feathers on it8 ,has it the same number of toes that you find on a rooster's foot8 ,is the arrangement of the toes the same8 ,perhaps you find scales on the legs of the turkey4 ,do you find them also on hens' legs8 ,on which side of the leg1--front or back--are the scales the larger8 ,when ,i was a little girl ,i liked to pull a tendon that ,i found in the turkey's foot after it had been cut off4 ,it was amusing to see the toes curl up4 ,i did not know then that when birds roost at night this tendon is stretched as they bend their legs4 ,then the toes grasp the perch and hold the bird on4 ,when it stretches its leg to leave the roost the toes spread out1 but not until then ,because of this birds can go to sleep without the least fear of falling4 ,what kind of perch do they choose1 a wide one or a narrow one8 ,why8 ,can you tell which is the hen turkey and which the gobbler8 ,explain4 ,on which one do you find a hairy tuft on the breast8 ,did you ever hear of the caruncle on the head of the turkey8 ,compare this with the comb in domestic fowls4 ,does it differ in shape8 ,do ducks and geese have combs8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccb4 ,a turkey likes to roam through the fields4 ,what is the color of the turkey's face8 ,does it change color8 ,do you notice any difference in color when the turkey is angry8 ,what are the turkey's wattles8 ,notice the fourth toe4 ,why is it placed in opposite direction to the others8 ,i wonder whether it enables the fowl to grip the perch2 and whether it gives the turkey a wide span for support in running over loose brush4 ,turkeys and chickens and other animals have habits1 as boys and girls do1 only that they are not bad habits4 ,did you ever watch turkeys hunting grasshoppers8 ,and did they go in flocks or alone8 ,how do chickens hunt1--in flocks or alone8 ,which roams farther from home1 turkeys or chickens8 ,do turkeys lay their eggs in the barn or poultry house1 as chickens do8 ,did you ever see a turkey's nest1 and where was it8 ,we have ,junior ,naturalists in many parts of the world3 ,england1 ,scotland1 ,australia1 ,egypt4 ,will they have an opportunity to study turkeys8 ,see what you can find out in answer to this question4 ,a ,,time-,,honored ,,race--,,geese4 ,geese1 as you know1 come of a very distinguished race4 ,this is no advantage to them in a social way in the poultry yard1 however4 ,there is not a duck nor a turkey nor even a wise rooster1 that knows or cares whether in times gone by geese saved a ,roman city1 or whether they were recognized in ancient ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccc4 ,geese2 a very distinguished race4 ,the story of the old gray goose was the one ,i liked best long ago1--the goose that died before ,aunt ,nabby had enough feathers to make a bed4 ,how often you and ,i have listened to mother sing about her6 ,and what an inconsiderate old gray goose we thought she was1 to die before the feather bed was finished4 ,some things for ,junior ,naturalists to think about come into my mind in connection with ,aunt ,nabby's goose and others of its kind3 ,why do goose feathers make the best beds8 ,do you think an old grandmother goose would give enough feathers in her lifetime to make a good bed8 ,i have heard of one that lived sixty years4 ,are feathers ever taken from live geese for beds8 ,compare the feathers of land-fowls and water-fowls4 ,probably one or more of our ,junior ,naturalists will have a goose for his ,thanksgiving dinner4 ,if so1 ,i wish that the wing feathers might be brought to school4 ,see whether you can find out why the wing feathers of a goose were preferred for making quill pens4 ,make a pen if you can and write a letter to ,uncle ,john with it4 ,the five outer wing feathers are most useful for writing1 and of these the second and third are best4 ,why8 ,do you think that the ,declaration of ,independence was signed with a quill pen8 ,do goose quills make good holders for artists' brushes8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccd4 ,a happy family4 ,what kind of food do geese like best8 ,is the tongue of a goose similar to that of a turkey or chicken8 ,is the old gander as cross as the turkey gobbler8 ,have you ever seen a flock of wild geese flying northward or southward8 ,which way are they going in the fall8 ,observe that nearly always they keep their ,v-shaped ranks unbroken4 ,there is1 of course1 a leader whose call the flock follows4 ,whether the leader is some chosen member of the number or whether he takes his position by chance ,i do not know4 ,what time of day do the wild geese fly8 ,do you like to hear them honking as they go on their way8 ,i wish you would find out whether our farmyard geese are only these common wild geese tamed4 ,,chickens ,,and ,,ducks2 ,,and ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,two ,,mother ,,hens4 ,one mother hen had her own brood of fluffy little chicks 7,fig4 #ccd74 ,when they were old enough they scratched for worms and ate gravel as obediently as any one could desire4 ,how happy they were underneath the hemlocks in the long afternoons6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cce4 ,mother hen and baby ducks4 ,the other mother hen had to take care of ducks 7,fig4 #cce74 ,pretty as any chicks they were1 but troublesome as only little ducks can be with a nervous old hen for their adopted mother4 ,the family in the picture looks very contented4 ,do you suppose that the photographer told them to look pleasant8 ,when we come to know ducks and chickens better1 we shall learn why the little ducks are often such a trial to the hen mother4 ,it may be that when we ask boys and girls to study chickens and ducks they will say that there is nothing new to learn about them4 ,i am not so sure4 ,the freckled-faced boy thought he knew all about them1 too4 ,let us see whether we can suggest some new things to think about1 as you look over the fence into the poultry yard1 or watch the cook preparing a hen or duck for the ,thanksgiving dinner4 ,as ,i looked at the chickens in a barn-yard the other day1 ,i was interested in the different kinds that ,i saw3 some brown1 some white1 some black1 some speckled2 some had feathers on their feet1 others had not2 some had combs with many points1 in others the comb was close to the head2 some had long tails1 some short tails1 some no tails at all to speak of4 ,if ,i were to name the differences that ,i noticed you would not get through reading them in time to write your ,november dues4 ,how many unlike marks or characters can you find in chickens or ducks8 ,have you ever seen two chickens or two ducks exactly alike8 ,compare the feet of a hen and a duck4 ,their bills4 ,do you think that a duck can scratch for worms8 ,what do ducks eat8 ,what kind of food do hens like best8 ,how do a hen's feathers differ from a duck's8 ,note the scales on a hen's foot4 ,snakes have scales on their bodies1 too4 ,some day you may learn a wonderful story that these similar features of hen and snake suggest4 ,touch a hen's eye lightly with a pencil4 ,does she cover it with a thin eyelid8 ,a turtle does this4 ,has a turtle scales also8 ,if so1 may be it will come into the wonderful story connected with hens and snakes4 ,look closely at a hen's ear4 ,watch chickens as they make their toilet4 ,a farmer told me that among the tail feathers of barn-fowls there is an oil sac that they find useful in cleaning their clothes4 ,i wonder whether this is true8 ,while ,i was watching some chickens the other day1 ,i saw one jump up into the air several times4 ,she was a skillful little acrobat4 ,what do you think she was trying to catch8 ,watch the cook as she prepares a chicken or turkey for dinner4 ,find the crop into which the food passes after it has been swallowed4 ,from the crop it passes on to the gizzard4 ,look closely at the gizzard4 ,see what strong muscles it has4 ,it needs them to grind the grain and gravel stones together4 ,it is a very good mill1 you see4 ,try to find out whether a duck has a crop and a gizzard4 ,do not ask any one4 ,wait until there is to be a duck for dinner some day4 ,would you suppose from the kind of food ducks eat that they need a crop and a gizzard8 ,do little chickens have feathers when they are hatched8 ,what is the cover of their bodies called8 ,are they always of the same color when they are hatched that they are when they are grown up8 ,what kinds of poultry change their color when their feathers grow8 ,notice the chickens of ,black ,minorcas 7if you know any one who has that kind71 then write ,uncle ,john about their color4 ,did you ever see fowls without feathers8 ,when you go to the fair be sure to look for some ,silkies4 ,did you ever see fowls whose feathers were all crinkled up toward their head8 ,look for ,frizzles when you go to the fair4 ,a ,,lesson ,,on ,,eggs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccf4 ,a coop of chickens4 ,what is the color of the turkey's egg8 ,do the first-laid turkey's eggs differ in color from those that are laid later8 ,how do these eggs differ in color from the eggs of ducks1 geese1 and hens8 ,do eggs from different breeds of hens differ in color8 ,do eggs from different kinds of poultry differ in shape8 ,can you not make some drawings of eggs showing how they differ1 and send to ,uncle ,john8 ,not one of you can tell how much a turkey's egg weighs1 nor a hen's egg4 ,do you think that eggs from all kinds of hens weigh the same8 ,and if they do not1 do you think that they are worth the same price the dozen8 ,did you ever look through an egg at a strong light8 ,what did you see8 ,was there an air space8 ,was it on the big end or the little end8 ,leave the eggs in a dry room for a few days4 ,does the air space increase in size8 ,boil an egg4 ,remove the shell carefully over the air space4 ,do you notice a membrane8 ,are there two membranes8 ,boil an egg until it is very hard2 does the white of the egg separate in layers8 ,break the yoke carefully2 do you notice layers of light and dark color8 ,is there a little soft light colored spot in the centre8 ,write to ,uncle ,john and ask him what this is4 ,,some ,,questions ,,in ,,general4 ,how many varieties of fowls can you name8 ,how do they differ in size and color8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccg4 ,what kind of hens are these8 ,have you ever seen ducks1 geese1 hens1 and turkeys standing on the snow or ice8 ,if so1 how did they behave8 ,which seemed to enjoy it8 ,why should a duck or goose be able to swim in ice water without apparently suffering from cold8 ,when mother dresses a duck or goose for dinner1 ask her to let you see the layers of fat under the skin and inside the body4 ,write to ,uncle ,john and tell him what the fat in the body is for4 ,ask him how this fat came in the body2 also whether there is such a thing as fat in the food which the ducks eat4 ,did you ever see hens and ducks out in the rain8 ,did they all enjoy it8 ,did you ever see anything wetter than a wet hen8 ,why do they look so disconsolate8 ,examine the feathers of different kinds of poultry4 ,how do the feathers of ducks1 geese1 turkeys and fowls differ8 ,try wetting the various feathers1 then let them dry out4 ,make drawings of these feathers1 showing1 if you can1 the different colors and shapes4 ,do turkeys think8 ,did you ever watch a turkey steal her nest8 ,where did she go8 ,how long did you watch her before you found the nest8 ,did she cover up her eggs8 ,with what8 ,why do they cover the eggs when they leave the nest8 ,do ducks1 geese1 turkeys1 and hens all cover their eggs8 ,why do hens differ in this respect from the turkeys8 ,do all kinds of ducks cover their eggs8 ,did you ever watch ducklings and little chickens eat8 ,did you notice any difference in their appetites8 ,which grow faster1 little chickens or little ducks8 ,do you know that some hens do not pay their board8 ,sometimes hens eat more than they are worth4 ,it may be the fault of the hen or it may be that she is not provided with the proper kind of food or given the proper care4 ,a hen cannot make eggs unless she has the proper kind of food4 ,some persons so feed and handle their hens that they are able to produce eggs for six cents the dozen2 other persons expend more than a dollar to get the dozen4 ,how does the farmer make his money from fowls 7that is1 what kind of products does he sell78 ,you should learn to classify chickens according to the uses for which they are grown4 7#a7 ,some kinds of hens excel in egg-laying4 ,these kinds are known as the egg breeds4 ,one of the leading egg breeds is the ,leghorn4 7#b7 ,others produce much meat1 and are known as the meat breeds1 as the ,brahma4 7#c7 ,others are fairly good fowls for both eggs and meat1 and are called general-purpose breeds1 of which ,plymouth ,rock and ,wyandotte are good examples4 7#d7 ,then there are fancy breeds1 grown as pets or curiosities or as game birds4 ,now1 try to find out whether there are any general differences in form and looks to distinguish one class of breeds from another4 ,and find out whether turkeys1 geese1 and ducks may be similarly classified4 ,,how ,,frank ,,and ,,henry ,,raised ,,chickens4 ,frank and ,henry wanted to keep chickens all by themselves4 ,they thought they might sell the eggs and the fowls and get spending money4 ,they knew little about chickens1 but then1 it did not matter1 for chickens will take care of themselves4 ,all there is to do is to give them corn and water every day1--at least1 so the boys thought4 ,both boys had a hard time the first year1 but they kept at it4 ,frank finally made a success4 ,henry lost money2 his hens died or did not lay1 and he had to give up4 ,one boy turned out to be a good farmer and the other a poor farmer4 ,you have seen such farmers living side by side4 ,i will tell you why ,frank succeeded4 #a4 ,he provided warm and pleasant quarters for the chickens1 so that the fowls were comfortable and contented4 #b4 ,he learned to like the chickens1 so that he spent many of his extra hours watching them and caring for them4 #c4 ,he learned that something more is required in feeding a hen than merely to satisfy her appetite4 ,some kinds of food may be best for growing chicks and others for laying hens4 #d4 ,he soon found that some hens lay more and larger eggs than others1 and he saved eggs from these hens for hatching4 ,henry said that eggs are eggs and that there was no sense in being so fussy4 #e4 ,he learned that eggs and poultry sell best when they really are best and when they are carefully cleaned and neatly packed4 ,frank had learned the first lessons in good farming4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cch4 ,at the drinking fountain4 ,,leaflet ,,lxx4 ,,little ,,hermit ,,brother4#ia ,,by ,,anna ,,botsford ,,comstock4 #ia ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,june1 #ahii4 ,illustration ,in far ,thibet exists a class of ,buddhist monks who are hermits and who dwell in caves4 ,i was told about these strange people by a ,senior ,naturalist1 who has spent his life going around the world and finding the countries upon it as easily as you ,junior ,naturalists find the same countries on the globe in the schoolroom4 ,a real naturalist is never contented with maps of places and pictures of things1 but always desires to see the places and things themselves4 ,the ,senior ,naturalist told me that he found ,thibet a dreary land inhabited by queer people2 and the hermit monks were the queerest of all4 ,each one dwelt in his solitary cave1 ate very little1 and worked not at all1 but spent his time in thought4 ,could we read his thoughts we should be none the wiser1 since they are only mysterious thoughts about mysterious things4 ,now it is a surprising fact that we have hermits of similar habits here in ,america2 only our hermits are little people who dress in a white garb and live in cells underground2 they also eat little and work not at all1 and probably meditate upon mysteries4 ,however1 they are equipped with six legs while the monks of ,thibet have only two1 a difference of little importance since neither hermit travels far from his cave4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are in eight or nine counties in ,new ,york ,state places that may surely expect visitors on certain years4 ,the connection between these guests and the hermits of ,thibet may not seem very close at first sight2 but wait and see4 ,the reason why these ,new ,york counties expect company is that they entertained a large number of similar guests in #ahhb1 #ahfe1 #ahdh1 #ahca1 #ahad1 in #agig1 and probably at intervals of seventeen years long before that2 in #agig1 however1 was the first record made of the appearance of these visitors4 ,every time they came they probably outstayed their welcome2 yet they had the good quality of allowing their hosts sixteen years of rest between visits4 ,in order that the ,junior ,naturalist may recognize these visitors ,i will describe their methods of arrival4 ,sometime in the latter part of ,may or in early ,june you may hear a great buzzing in some trees1 as if there were a thousand lilliputian buzz saws going at once4 ,if you examine the trees you will find on them many queer-looking insects1 with black bodies about an inch long1 covered with transparent wings folded like a roof4 ,naturally you will wonder how such great numbers of large insects could appear one day when they were nowhere to be seen the day before4 ,but if you look at the ground beneath the trees you will find in it many small holes4 ,you will also find clinging to the trees many whitish objects1 which at first sight seem like pale1 wingless insects1 but which on closer examination prove to be merely the cast skins of insects 7,fig4 #cci74 ,these are the cowls and robes which our little ,american hermits cast off after they come out of their underground cells1 and which they must shed before they can free their wings4 ,our little ,american hermits we call the seventeen-year locusts4 ,however1 this name is a most confusing one1 since we also call our grasshoppers locusts1 and to them the name truly belongs4 ,these seventeen-year locusts are really cicadas1 and they belong to a different order from the locusts4 ,the real locusts have mouth-parts formed for biting1 while the cicadas have mouth-parts grown together in the form of a tube1 through which they suck juices of plants4 ,so we hope the ,junior ,naturalists will call our little hermits by their right name1 cicadas2 and will not permit them to be spoken of as locusts4 ,in order that you may know the mysterious lives of these wonderful insects1 ,i will tell you the story of one of them4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,little ,,hermit ,,brother1 ,,cicada ,,septendecim4 ,once a cicada mother made with her ovipositor a little slit or cavity in an oak twig1 and in this slit placed in very neat order two rows of eggs4 ,six weeks later there hatched from one of these eggs a pale1 lively little creature1 that to the naked eye looked like a tiny white ant4 ,if1 however1 we could have examined him through a lens we should have found him very different from an ant2 for his two front legs were shaped somewhat like lobsters' big claws1 and instead of jaws like an ant1 he had simply a long beak that was hollow like a tube4 ,after he came out of his egg he ran about the tree and seemed interested for a time in everything he saw4 ,then1 suddenly1 he went to the side of a limb and deliberately fell off4 ,to his little eyes the ground below was invisible2 so our small cicada showed great faith when he practically jumped off the edge of his world into space4 ,he was such a speck of a creature that the breeze took him and lifted him gently down1 as if he were the petal of a flower2 and he alighted on the earth unhurt and probably much delighted with his sail through the air4 ,at once he commenced hunting for some little crevice in the earth2 and when he found it he went to the bottom of it and with his shovel-like fore-feet began digging downward4 ,i wonder if he stopped to give a last look at sky1 sunshine1 and the beautiful green world before he bade them good-bye for seventeen long years6 ,if so1 he did it hurriedly1 for he was intent upon reaching something to eat4 ,this he finally found a short distance below the surface of the ground1 in the shape of a juicy rootlet of the great tree above4 ,into this he inserted his beak and began to take the sap as we take lemonade through a straw4 ,he made a little cell around himself and then he found existence quite blissful4 ,he ate very little and grew very slowly1 and there was no perceptible change in him for about a year2 then he shed his skin for the first time1 and thus1 insect-wise1 grew larger4 ,after a time he dug another cell near another rootlet deeper in the ground2 but he never exerted himself more than was necessary to obtain the little food that he needed4 ,this idle life he found entirely satisfactory1 and the days grew into months and the months into years4 ,only six times in the seventeen years did our hermit change his clothes1 and this was each time a necessity1 since they had become too small4 ,judging from what the ,senior ,naturalist told me1 ,i think this is six times more than a ,thibetan hermit changes his clothes in the same length of time4 ,what may be the meditations of a little hermit cicada during all these years we cannot even imagine4 ,if any of the ,junior ,naturalists ever find out the secret they will be very popular indeed with the scientific men called psychologists4 ,however1 if we may judge by actions1 the sixteenth summer after our hermit buried himself he began to feel stirring in his bosom aspirations toward a higher life4 ,he surely had no memory of the beautiful world he had abandoned in his babyhood2 but he became suddenly possessed with a desire to climb upward1 and began digging his way toward the light4 ,it might be a long journey through the hard earth2 for during the many years he may have reached the depth of nearly two feet4 ,he is now as industrious as he was shiftless before2 and it takes him only a few weeks to climb out of the depths into which he had fallen through nearly seventeen years of inertia4 ,if it should chance that he reaches the surface of the ground before he is ready to enjoy life1 he hits upon a device for continuing his way upward without danger to himself4 ,sometimes his fellows have been known to crawl out of their burrows and seek safety under logs and sticks until the time came to gain their wings4 ,but this is a very dangerous proceeding1 since in forests there are many watchful eyes which belong to creatures who are very fond of bits of soft1 white meat4 ,so our cicada1 still a hermit1 may build him a tall cell out of mud above ground4 ,how he builds this hut1 cone1 or turret as it is variously called1 we do not know2 but it is often two inches in height1 and he keeps himself in the top of it4 ,under ordinary circumstances our cicada would not build a hut1 but remain in his burrow4 ,finally there comes a fateful evening when1 as soon as the sun has set1 he claws his way through the top of his mud turret or out of his burrow and looks about him for further means of gratifying his ambitions to climb4 ,a bush1 a tree1 the highest thing within his range of vision1 attracts his attention and he hurries toward it4 ,it may be he finds himself in company with many of his kind hurrying toward the same goal1 but they are of no interest to him as yet4 ,like the youth in the famous poem1 ,excelsior is his motto and he heeds no invitation to tarry4 ,when he reaches the highest place within his ken he places himself1 probably back downward1 on some branch or twig1 takes a firm hold with all his six pairs of claws1 and keeps very still for a time4 ,then his skeleton nymph-skin breaks open at the back and there pushes out of it a strange creature long and white1 except for two black spots upon its back2 on he comes until only the tip of his body remains in the old nymph-skin2 then he reaches forward and grasps the twig with his soft new legs and pulls himself entirely clear from the old hermit garb4 ,at once his wings begin to grow2 at first they are mere pads on his back1 but they soon expand until they cover his body and are flat like those of a miller4 ,the many veins in the wings are white and he keeps the wings fluttering in order that they may harden soon4 ,if1 in the moonlight of some ,june evening1 a ,junior ,naturalist should see a tree covered with cicadas at this stage he would think it had suddenly blossomed into beautiful1 white1 fluttering flowers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cci4 ,the cicada is full grown at last1 and his empty nymph skin is hanging to a branch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdj4 ,the cicada's drum4 ,as the night wears on1 the color of our hero changes and his wings harden2 until when the sun rises we behold him in the glory of a black uniform with facings of orange and with beautiful glassy wings folded roof-like above his body4 7,fig4 #cci47 ,great is the change wrought in his appearance during this one marvelous night1 and greater still the change wrought in his habits6 ,he is now no longer a hermit2 there are thousands of his kind about him1 a fact which he realizes with great joy4 ,so happy is he that he feels as if he must burst if he does not find some adequate means for expressing his happiness in this beautiful world of sunshine4 ,then suddenly he finds in himself the means of expression and bursts into song4 ,yet1 it is not a song exactly1 for he is a drummer rather than a singer4 ,on his body just behind each of his hind wings is a kettle drum4 ,the head to this drum is of parchment thrown into folds and may be seen with a lens if you lift his wings and look closely4 7,fig4 #cdj47 ,instead of drum sticks he uses a pair of strong muscles to throw the membranes into vibration and there is a complex arrangement of cavities and sounding boards around these drum heads so that the noise he gives off is a great one indeed for a fellow of his size4 ,so fond is he of making music that he has no time to eat or to do aught else but to sound fanfares all the sunshiny day4 ,he is not the only musician on the tree2 there are many others and they all join in a swelling chorus that has been described as a roar like that made by the rushing of a strong wind through the trees4 ,if our cicada could talk to one of you ,junior ,naturalists he would tell you that there was a good reason for all this music4 ,he would explain that only the men of the cicada world possess drums and that the object and reason of all their music is the entertainment of the lady cicadas1 who are not only very fond of this drumming1 but are good critics of cicada music as well4 ,he would perhaps tell you also that he had his eye on a certain graceful maiden perched on the leaf between him and the sun2 but she1 on the other hand1 seemed to give about equal attention to him and three other drummers situated near by4 ,excited by the competition and by her indifference1 he rattled his drum faster and faster until he rose to the heights of cicada melody and harmony that left his rivals far behind4 ,then the lady of his choice listened spellbound and pronounced him the greatest of all musicians1 and thus he won his bride4 ,however1 we may safely predict that their wedded life will be too full of happiness to last4 ,after a few weeks the sunshine1 the music1 the happiness of wooing and winning will prove too much for our hero and one day he will beat his drum in a last mad ecstacy and fall to earth and die from happy exhaustion4 ,his little wife may survive him only long enough to cut slits in some of the twigs of the home tree and place in them rows of eggs from which shall develop a family of hermits which shall come forth and fill the world with their music seventeen years hence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are many broods of cicadas in the ,united ,states1 so that they appear in different localities in different years4 ,new ,york ,state has five well-marked broods4 ,there are several other species of cicada peculiar to ,america4 ,one is called ,cicada tredecim1 since it appears every thirteen years4 ,however1 this species is limited to the ,south4 ,the dog-day harvest fly1 or lyreman1 is the cicada that is best known to us through the northern and middle ,states4 ,this appears in small numbers every year and is a distinct addition to the summer chorus of insect singers4 ,he is larger and much more dignified in appearance than is his cousin septendecim4 ,he wears a black suit embroidered with scrolls of dark olive green and the whole lower surface of his body is covered with white powder4 ,his drums are situated above plates which may be seen on the lower side of the body1 one behind each hind leg4 ,he hides in trees and his shrill music is so associated with the heat of summer noons that the sound itself makes one drowsy4 ,the hermit life of the lyreman in underground cells is supposed to last only two years4 ,while the cicadas of which we have spoken are the children of an ancient race which inhabits ,america1 ,europe also has her ancient races of cicadas1 although they are not the kind which live hermit lives for seventeen years4 ,we have evidence that their music was held in high esteem by the ancient races of men--especially the ,greeks4 ,when ,homer complimented his orators he compared them with cicadas4 ,thus it may lend a special interest to the study of the cicada by our ,junior ,naturalists when they know that his kettle drums have been celebrated instruments of music by poets who wrote three thousand years before ,america was discovered by ,columbus4 ,,queries ,,for ,,sharp ,,eyes4 #a4 ,when did you first see one of the cicadas8 #b4 ,what was it doing when you found it8 #c4 ,did it do anything to attract your notice to it1 or did you find it by accident8 #d4 ,where did you find it8 #e4 ,see whether you can determine which are the father and which the mother cicadas4 #f4 ,try to find where a mother cicada has laid eggs4 #g4 ,if you find where the cicada emerged from the ground1 or from a hut1 give a brief description of the location1 as to kind of soil1 etc4 #h4 ,where did you find the most of the cast-off nymph skins8 #i4 ,did you discover animals or birds feeding upon the cicada8 ,,leaflet ,,lxxi4 ,a ,,home ,,for ,,friendly ,,little ,,neighbors4#ib ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,,mccloskey4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xvii47 #ib ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,october1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,last year when vacation days were over our young people found it hard to leave the acquaintances that they had made during the summer1--the garden-folk1 the road-side-folk1 and the wood-folk4 ,let us take them indoors with us this year4 ,it will not be difficult to provide a home for some of the more friendly ones and they will help to make the schoolroom a cheerful place4 ,how pleasant it will be in the long afternoons to hear the cricket's merry tune or see the flutter of a butterfly's wings6 ,the quiet woods and the green fields will then seem nearer and we shall feel a little touch of their mystery and beauty4 ,it is not necessary to have a fine home for the outdoor-folk4 ,they will not object if it is not an up-to-date dwelling4 ,fig4 #cda illustrates a very convenient terrarium1 as the home is called4 ,the sides and top are covered with fine wire screening and the front is glass4 ,by raising the cover1 which is fastened to one side by means of hinges1 new visitors can be admitted easily4 ,another terrarium is shown in ,fig4 #abf1 page #bjh4 ,this is made from an old berry crate4 ,it does not look quite so well as the other1 but1 as ,i said before1 the inmates will not mind a bit4 ,the toads will give their high jump as gracefully and the crickets fiddle as merrily as in the finer one4 ,when the terrarium is ready to furnish1 you can have some nature-study trips in search of materials for it4 ,cover the floor with stones and place about three inches of good soil over them4 ,then you will be ready to select the carpet4 ,let this be of soft green moss1 the prettiest bits that you can find on the forest floor4 ,leave one corner free for sods on which tall grasses grow1 so that there will be a cozy nook for the orchestra 7crickets1 grasshoppers1 katydids1 and the like74 ,what a fine concert there will be6 ,will the most conceited toad in the terrarium ever dare to raise his voice in song again after hearing it8 ,perhaps next spring we shall know4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cda4 ,a shower for the little neighbors4 ,even before the home is completed1 you can gather your small guests about you4 ,temporary lodgings can be provided without much trouble4 ,fig4 #cdb illustrates a good insect cage1 and a box containing damp moss and covered with mosquito netting will make fairly comfortable quarters for salamanders 7lizards7 and toads4 ,the first visitor that you welcome will probably be a little woolly-bear1 a brown and black caterpillar that you see so often in your autumn walks 7,fig4 #cdc74 ,he is one of my favorite insect friends1 and ,i really like to have him snuggle up in a furry ball in my hand4 ,you will find woolly-bear a very restless little creature4 ,you never know what he is going to do next4 ,he may spin a cocoon this fall or he may curl up like a woodchuck1 as ,uncle ,john says1 and sleep until spring4 ,then1 if all goes well1 he will spin his cocoon and come out an ,isabella tiger-moth 7,fig4 #cdd74 ,no matter how fast woolly-bear may be hurrying along the highway when you meet him1 put him into the terrarium1 for you will find that he is a most entertaining little fellow4 ,if you have an insect net1 sweep it among shrubs and weeds4 ,i am hoping that when you look into it you will find golden-eyes or the lace-winged-fly4 ,when you see the pretty little green creature you will wonder that her children can be called aphis-lions1 for they are not at all like their mother 7,fig4 #cde72 but when you have watched them among the aphids or plant-lice1 you will understand how they have earned their name4 ,they have very long jaws and very large appetites4 ,no one knows better than golden-eyes what her children are capable of doing when on a foraging tour4 ,for this reason she places her eggs high on silken stalks 7,fig4 #cde74 ,if she laid them on the leaf close together1 the first aphis-lion hatched would not give the other members of his family a chance to open their eyes1 nor to know how pleasant it is to live on a green leaf4 ,as it is he walks down the silken stalk and finds himself among the aphids4 ,then1 when he has proved himself the gardener's friend by devouring a great many of the small green insects1 he spins a pearly white cocoon and out of this comes a lace-winged-fly with glistening golden eyes4 ,if one of these dainty creatures comes to live in your terrarium1 you may notice some day that it has a disagreeable odor4 ,this is a characteristic that many insects possess1 and owing to it the birds do not like to eat them4 ,there is another insect out in the garden that ought to be an inmate of every terrarium this fall1 the green cabbage-worm4 ,some ,junior gardeners will object to calling this a friendly little neighbor1 but you will find that he will teach you many new things1 in this way proving himself friendly to you as a naturalist4 ,you must remember that these green caterpillars did not know that you had planted the garden in which they worked destruction4 ,they did not know that you wanted to send the very best cabbage to the ,state fair4 ,they knew only that when they opened their eyes they were on a green leaf and it was good to eat4 ,probably you will find the eggs of the cabbage butterfly on the under side of the leaves4 ,then you can feed the young caterpillars when they hatch4 ,they will1 of course1 prefer cabbage leaves4 ,if you miss them some day1 search in the terrarium for the chrysalids into which they have changed4 ,these chrysalids sometimes imitate the color of the support from which they hang1 and you may have difficulty in finding them4 ,for this reason it may be well to keep one of the caterpillars under a lamp chimney1 the top of which has been covered with mosquito netting 7,fig4 #cdb71 so that you may know how the chrysalids look4 ,the cabbage butterflies are familiar to most boys and girls2 yet as they come out of the chrysalid state in your terrarium1 you will be able to observe them more closely4 ,notice that the wings are dull white on the upper sides1 while on the under side the apex of the fore wings and the entire surface of the hind wings are pale lemon yellow4 ,in the female you will find that there are two black spots besides the tip on each of the fore wings1 and in the male there is but one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdb4 ,an insect cage4 ,now that ,i have put you in the way to find a few members of the insect world for your terrarium1 ,i am going to ask you to think about some other outdoor-folk that naturalists learn to like4 ,have you ever turned over stones or broken off pieces of an old stump in the woods or along the bank of a stream8 ,if so1 you may have seen salamanders 7lizards7 making their escape as quickly as possible4 ,if you can get a few for your terrarium you will learn to like them1 for they are harmless and have very interesting ways4 ,do not catch them by their tails as they try to get away1 or you may find that you have captured the tails but lost the salamanders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdc4 ,woolly-bear1 natural size4 ,let the excursion in search of these little fellows be one of the jolliest of the year4 ,you will find them in moist places and should therefore1 carry a box containing damp moss to put them in4 ,i would suggest that you take two boxes along1 one for the smaller salamanders1 the other for their larger brothers4 ,why8 ,i will tell you4 ,it happened this summer that a party of little folks went out with me on a salamander hunt4 ,we found three kinds3 the ,spotted ,salamander1 which is black with yellow spots on each side of the back2 the ,red-back ,salamander1 which usually has a reddish brown band along the back2 and a black one covered with whitish spots4 ,this black one with whitish spots was named ,freckles by one of our number1 a much more attractive name than his own1 which is ,pleth'-o-don glu-ti-no'-sus4 ,we placed the three in a box1 and as ,i closed it the large spotted salamander seemed very well satisfied 7no wonder671 while the other two raised their heads in a most appealing way4 ,i was firm1 however1 and made them prisoners1 feeling sure that they would be comfortable in the nice large terrarium4 ,when morning came we opened the box1 for we were ready to put our little neighbors into their new home4 ,what was our surprise to find the spotted salamander alone6 ,as to countenance he was well content2 as to sides he was much bulged out4 ,poor little ,freckles and poor little ,red ,back6 ,i wish ,i had listened to your appeal6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdd4 ,isabella tiger moths1 male and female4 ,the red and black woolly-bear is the larva or caterpillar of this moth4 ,the smaller moth is the male4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,study4 #a4 ,a terrarium is an inclosed bit of earth on which things may live and grow4 ,do not think that it is necessary to have one as well made at first as that in the illustration4 7,fig4 #cda47 ,uncle ,john will be well pleased to know that you have made some arrangement for having outdoor-folk live in the schoolroom4 ,any such home will be a terrarium4 #b4 ,every one can have grasshoppers for study4 ,how many different kinds can you find8 ,do all have the feelers or antenn the same length8 ,observe the growth of the wings in the nymph1 as the young grasshopper is called4 ,in the grown-up ones notice that the narrow wing is on the outside and the pretty ones underneath4 #c4 ,every one can also find crickets1 and no terrarium will be complete without them4 ,in the warm schoolroom or home they will make music until late in the year4 ,watch the black cricket make music with his wings4 ,notice a tiny light speck near the elbow of the cricket's front leg4 ,this is the ear2 so you see the little fellows listen with their elbows4 ,the mother cricket has a spear at the end of her body4 ,with this she makes a hole in the ground in which to place her eggs4 ,she cannot chirp1 but the father makes enough music for the family4 ,you will see that the mother seems to enjoy it4 ,plant fresh grass seed and grain occasionally in the cricket corner of your terrarium4 #d4 ,if you do not own an insect net1 try to find a lace-winged fly without one4 ,it will not be difficult for young naturalists to see the flies resting on the bushes along the roadside4 ,these insects are valuable to farmers because their children1 the aphis-lions1 eat so many plant-lice and other insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cde4 ,golden-eyes or lace-winged fly2 eggs1 larva or aphis-lion1 cocoon1 adult4 ,look on the under side of the leaves for the cocoon illustrated in ,fig4 #cde4 ,it has the appearance of a small pearl4 ,the first time ,i found one ,i did not know what it was4 ,i left it on my desk hoping that something interesting would come out of it4 ,the next morning there was a pretty green insect trying to get out of the window and ,i wondered how it had come there4 ,while thinking about it my eye fell on the cocoon lying on my desk4 ,i noticed that a lid had been raised on it and suspected at once how golden-eyes had found her way into my room4 ,who will succeed in getting the eggs1 an aphis-lion1 a cocoon1 or a lace-winged fly8 ,let us know4 #e4 ,the larger the number of butterflies you can bring into the schoolroom1 the gayer will be the terrarium world4 ,gather fresh thistles or other flowers from which they can suck the nectar or give them sweetened water in a dish4 ,notice their long mouth-parts as they eat4 ,one of the most common of all butterflies is the large brown and black one4 ,this is called the monarch butterfly4 ,notice that many of these fly together on autumn days4 ,they are going south with the birds4 #f4 ,be sure to keep the moss damp for the salamanders and add occasionally fresh pieces in which they will get food4 ,perhaps you can teach them to eat raw meat after they have been with you awhile4 #g4 ,the terrarium will not be complete without a toad or two4 ,you can feed them flies1 other insects1 and earthworms1 and they may then leave the salamanders alone4 ,you need not be afraid to handle the toads for they cannot give you warts4 ,when they have been in the terrarium awhile they will show you how they like to spend the winter4 ,illustration3 ,a terrarium in ,school ,no4 #bc1 ,buffalo4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxii4 ,,moths ,,and ,,butterflies4#ic ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,,mccloskey4 #ic ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,march1 #aijb4 ,illustration ,of all the insects that interest boys and girls1 moths and butterflies seem to hold the first place4 ,i find1 however1 that young people are not always able to distinguish these insects one from another1 and do not know very much of the strange lives they lead4 ,perhaps you may have found out a few facts about them in books1 but this is not knowing4 ,to know1 one must see some of the wonderful things that they do4 ,when you have watched the whole life-story of a moth or butterfly1 you will have a far greater interest in these animals than their handsome wings and graceful flight have ever given you4 ,the most important thing to remember in the study of moths and butterflies is that they appear in four different forms during their lives4 ,these forms are3 ,the egg4 ,the larva4 ,the pupa4 ,the adult4 ,,the ,,eggs4 ,the eggs are laid singly or in clusters4 ,they are usually found on the plant which is the favorite food of the young4 ,look for the shining masses of the eggs of the tent-caterpillar on apple and wild cherry trees2 also for the yellow eggs of potato beetles on potato leaves4 ,,the ,,larva4 ,the larva or worm hatches from the egg4 ,during this period in its history the insect eats and grows4 ,if you doubt that they have good appetites1 undertake to feed a few healthy caterpillars this spring4 ,if you doubt that they are particular as to the kind of food they have1 find out for yourselves whether the apple tree worm will eat milk-weed leaves or whether the milk-weed caterpillar will eat leaves taken from an apple tree4 ,one of the most interesting things to notice in the study of larv or caterpillars is that they occasionally appear in bright new coats1 and we find the old ones have been cast aside4 ,it is necessity1 not pride1 that leads them to do this4 ,you see1 an insect's skeleton is on the outside of its body2 and if it could not be shed once in a while how would there be room for the little creature to grow8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,chrys'-a-lids of the mourning-cloak butterfly4 ,,the ,,pupa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdg4 ,cocoon of the cecropia moth4 ,it is often attached to the twig of a fruit tree4 ,of all the forms in which moths and butterflies appear1 the pupa is the strangest4 ,although we speak of this period in the life of the insect as one of rest or sleep1 it is the time when the most wonderful changes take place in its body4 ,the queer little objects that you see illustrated in ,fig4 #cdf are the pup of the mourning-cloak butterfly4 ,when the caterpillars were about to shed their coats for the last time1 they hung themselves head downward from a twig by means of a silk button which they had spun4 ,then they cast off their skins1 leaving the chrysalids or naked pup hanging2 protected from birds by their spiny form and protected from many enemies1 even from young naturalists1 by their wood-brown color which so closely resembles the support from which they are suspended4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdh4 ,the cecropia pupa inside the cocoon4 ,nearly natural size4 ,let us next look at the pupa of a moth4 ,this is often inside a covering which is called a cocoon4 ,if you look on the fruit trees or shade trees about your home you may find a cocoon of the ce-cr-pi-a moth4 ,you will see that it is made of silk4 ,this covering was spun by the giant silkworm as a protection against the storms of winter4 ,how snug the pupa is inside1 and how firmly the cocoon is fastened to the twig on which you found it6 ,figs4 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi show this interesting insect4 ,when you are studying pup remember that butterflies do not come out of cocoons4 ,their chrysalis or pupa is always uncovered4 ,in the case of moths1 however1 the pupa is either inside a cocoon or protected by being underground or in some well sheltered place4 ,these facts suggest a question4 ,is there any reason why the one should be better fitted to endure cold and storms than the other8 ,,the ,,adult4 ,we now come to the fourth period in the lives of moths and butterflies1 a period which has ever had and ever will have an interest for young and old4 ,since there are many persons1 little and big1 who cannot distinguish the two groups1 butterflies and moths1 let us learn the marks by which they may be known4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdi4 ,cecropia moth just emerged from the cocoon1 on which it hangs4 ,the moth comes from the pupa4 ,butterflies have uncovered pup4 ,they fly by day4 ,the wings are folded over the back when at rest4 ,the antenn or feelers have knobs on the ends4 7,fig4 #cej ,b47 ,the body is slender4 ,moths have pupae either inside cocoons or protected by being underground or in some sheltered place4 ,many moths fly at night4 ,the antenn are never knobbed4 7,fig4 #cej ,m ,m47 leave the wings spread when they are at rest4 ,the body is stout4 ,occasionally you may come across insects that very closely resemble butterflies1 yet have some characters that are similar to those of moths4 ,they are the skippers1 so named because of their strong and rapid flight4 ,the antenn have knobs1 but these knobs are drawn out and turned back in the form of a hook4 7,fig4 #cej ,s47 ,the body is rather stout4 ,the pupa is covered by a thin cocoon4 ,in some species the wings are held vertically1 in others horizontally4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,study4 ,cocoons and butterfly chrysalids are very hard to find because they so closely resemble the withered leaves that cling to shrubs and trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cej4 ,antenn or feelers4 ,you will probably find cocoons of the ce-cro-pi-a and pro-m-the-a moths4 ,the former1 illustrated by ,figs4 #cdg to #cdi1 is commonly found on fruit trees2 the latter swings loosely from a branch of ash1 wild cherry1 or lilac4 ,the promethea cocoon is enfolded in a leaf which the caterpillar fastened to a twig by means of silk before it spun the cocoon4 ,if you are rewarded for your search by finding some of these winter homes1 leave a few of them in a cool place and occasionally dip them in water that they may not become too dry4 ,look at them carefully from time to time and note any changes that take place4 ,following are a few suggestions that will help you in the study of cocoons3 #a4 ,observe the covering of the pupa closely4 ,is it made of other material beside silk8 ,when the woolly-bear1 that many of you have cared for all winter1 spins his cocoon1 he will use some of his own hair as well as silk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cea4 ,luna moth and swallow-tail butterfly4 #b4 ,open the cocoon4 ,is the pupa free from it8 ,are the threads of silk woven in the same direction in all parts of the covering8 #c4 ,out of which end do you think the moth will come8 #d4 ,describe the inside of the cocoon4 ,do you find anything in it beside the pupa8 #e4 ,the cocoons of the ,chinese silkworm are soaked in hot water or softened by steam before the thread can be unwound4 ,put one of the cocoons that you find in hot water and see whether you can unwind the silk4 ,i wish you could secure some cocoons of the real silkworm4 ,boys and girls often ask us what they shall feed moths and butterflies4 ,many of the adult insects do not eat at all4 ,some1 however1 sip the nectar of flowers or sap of trees4 ,oftentimes they will drink sweetened water or the juice of fruit4 ,if you have an opportunity1 watch one while it eats4 ,notice the long tongue through which it takes its food4 ,this is made of two pieces grooved on the inner side1 and when held together they form a tube4 ,when the insect is not eating these mouth-parts are coiled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceb4 ,the life-story of an insect1 the forest tent caterpillar4 m1 male moth2 f1 female2 p1 pupa2 e1 egg-ring recently laid2 g1 hatched egg-ring2 c1 caterpillar4 ,moths and caterpillars are natural size1 and eggs and pupa are slightly enlarged4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxiii4 ,,the ,,paper-,,makers4#id ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 #id ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,february and ,march1 #aija4 ,a ,,castle ,,made ,,of ,,paper4 ,illustration ,many school rooms in the ,state have a hornet's nest which some boy or girl has brought to show the teacher4 ,it is usually hung on the wall or used as an ornament on top of the bookcase4 ,let us take it down some day this month and learn something about it4 ,do you think the nest can be called a castle8 ,why not8 ,look inside4 ,is it not several stories high8 ,are there not spacious galleries in it8 ,is it not as well guarded when the wasps are at home as if an army of soldiers stood outside8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cec4 ,the paper castle4 ,let us see how this castle is built4 ,you have heard that wasps were the first paper makers4 ,in the early summer you will see them around wood that has been worn by the weather4 ,they take off loose fibres and by means of their mouth-parts work them into pulp4 ,can the rain get through this paper8 ,find out whether it is waterproof4 ,some of the nests made by vespa 7,fig4 #cec71 as the hornets or yellow-jackets are called1 are very large4 ,do you think a wasp could make one alone8 ,no1 these are social wasps2 that is1 a great many live together4 ,there are males1 females1 and workers4 ,some day we shall tell you how the wasps form their colony1 but for this lesson we want you to study the nest4 ,notice the envelope which covers the cells4 ,how many layers of paper are there in it8 ,we might call each layer a clapboard4 ,can you see any difference in the direction of the outside layers on top of the nest and those which are below8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ced4 ,interior arrangement of white-faced hornet's nest4 ,how many stories high is the nest8 ,note the difference in the size of the stories4 ,where do you find the smallest8 ,count the rooms or cells in each4 ,you know1 of course1 that an egg is placed in each cell4 ,when the larv1 as the young of the wasps are called1 are hatched1 they still live in the cells4 ,how do they manage to keep in their cells8 ,you see the nest is really turned upside down4 ,their little heads must hang where the worker wasps can feed them easily4 ,i wonder whether you can tell me why the young wasps do not fall out8 ,the workers chew all the food which they give the little ones4 ,when in summer you see hornets about your flower beds or feeding on other insects1 it may be that they are preparing breakfast for the young4 ,notice the flowers which they visit4 ,,polistes1 ,,the ,,paper-,,maker4 ,in the previous lesson ,i spoke of vespa wasps that make homes of paper4 ,you learned that they bite off pieces of weather-worn wood with their jaws and chew it until it is made into pulp4 ,were you interested in these social wasps8 ,if so1 you may like to hear about another member of the same family4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cee4 ,home of polistes1 the paper-maker4 ,hiding in some crevice about your house or the school building there is probably a wasp which naturalists call po-lis-tes4 ,she has been there ever since the cold weather came4 ,in the spring you may see her tearing off pieces of wood from some unpainted building or weather-worn fence4 ,let us see what she is going to do4 ,this wasp is the founder of a colony4 ,the first thing she does is to select a place for her home4 ,then she makes a few cells--only a few1 for she has no help4 ,when you find a nest like the one in the picture 7,fig4 #cee71 you will see how the comb is fastened to the roof or to a tree or to the under side of a stone4 ,as soon as the cells are completed1 the mother lays an egg in each4 ,from these eggs little grubs or larv are hatched4 ,they are fed by the mother until they become pup4 ,the cells are sealed over while the wasps are in the pupa state4 ,they have to break open the seals before they can come out4 ,all members of the first brood are workers4 ,as soon as they are hatched the mother has nothing to do but to provide eggs4 ,they clean out the cells in which they passed their early days2 they make additions to the nests2 they take care of the young4 ,do you remember how the vespa workers prepared food for the larv in their colony and what they fed them8 ,the young polistes are cared for in the same way4 ,you may see the workers flying about in your garden this summer1 getting the sweets from the various flowers that you have planted4 ,you will know why they are so busy through the long sunny days4 ,you will think of the hungry little wasps waiting for their dinner4 ,you will wonder whether they put their heads out of the cells when the workers feed them4 ,,nest ,,of ,,polistes4 #a4 ,compare the nest of polistes with that of vespa4 #b4 ,in what ways do they differ8 #c4 ,where did you find the nest8 #d4 ,how was it held in place8 #e4 ,how many cells are there in it8 #f4 ,notice the pieces of the seals which still remain on the nest4 ,tell us whether they are made of the same material as the cells4 ,of what utility are the seals8 ,,leaflet ,,lxxiv4 ,,some ,,carpenter ,,ants ,,and ,,their ,,kin4#ie ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y4 7,compare ,leaflet ,,xxi47 #ie ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,october1 #aijc4 ,illustration ,one bright ,august morning1 as we were walking along the edge of a wood1 we found an old tree trunk lying on the ground4 ,i am sure it had been there a long time4 ,large pieces of bark were loose enough to be lifted up2 being naturalists1 we took advantage of this fact to see whether anything was living underneath4 ,what queer little outdoor folk we found3 thousand-legged worms1 sow-bugs1 a black beetle that looked as if its back were made of patent-leather1 and best of all a colony of ants6 ,these ants were large black ones known as carpenter ants4 ,they had made very comfortable quarters in this old log4 ,how alarmed they were when we so rudely exposed them to the light6 ,one brave ant impressed me more than any other member of the colony4 ,i wish that all of our girls and boys might have seen it4 ,with my knife ,i commenced to cut down the wall of one of the rooms to see what was inside4 ,the soldier-like ant stood near and1 instead of running away1 it attacked the large steel blade with its jaws4 ,was not that a brave thing to do8 ,are you surprised that ,i closed the knife and put it into my pocket8 ,during all this time there was great commotion in the colony4 ,the worker ants were scurrying off with the younger members of the family1 trying to find a safe place for them4 ,some of these little brothers and sisters were tiny white legless creatures2 some were covered up in what looked like little bags2 others were ghost-like things1 very white and apparently lifeless4 ,now before you can understand what is going on in an ant's nest1 you must know four things3 #a4 ,the white oblong eggs are very small4 ,you will not see them readily4 #b4 ,the little legless creatures1 or larv1 hatch from the eggs and are fed by the workers4 ,mrs4 ,comstock says that an ant larva looks like a crook-neck squash4 #c4 ,the larv either spin cocoons or rest awhile without any covering before they become fully grown ants4 ,in their resting form they are called pup4 ,children usually think the little sack-like pup are the eggs4 #d4 ,the fully grown ants come from the pup4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cef4 ,making a home for ants4 ,we want every ,junior ,naturalist ,club to have an ant's nest in the school room and to observe the following3 ,in time of danger do the ants look to their own safety first8 ,watch the workers feed and clean the young4 ,try to see an ant help a younger relative out of the pupa skin4 ,notice how many uses the ants seem to have for their antenn or feelers4 ,has it ever seemed to you that ants carry on a conversation when they meet8 ,see how many different kinds of ants you can find out-of-doors1 ,tell us about their homes4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,ant',s ,,nest4 ,in the illustration 7,fig4 #cef7 you will see an ant's nest4 ,for this kind of nest you will need a plank1 near the outside edge of which is a deep groove4 ,the plank should be painted2 can you tell why8 ,in the center use two pieces of glass laid flat and separated by narrow sticks along each side1 so that they are about one-eighth of an inch apart4 ,the sticks should not come close together at one corner4 ,this leaves a little doorway for the ants4 ,cover the top glass with black paper or cloth so that the space between the two pieces of glass may seem a nice1 dark1 safe room in which ants may live4 ,it will be a good thing to keep a small piece of damp blotting paper in one corner of this room in case the workers want a moist place for the young ones4 ,fill the groove in the plank with water and the nest is ready4 ,the best ant colony to take indoors is the one that you find under stones in a pasture4 ,with a trowel lift up the ants1 pup1 larv1 and sand and put the contents carefully into a pint can4 ,when you reach the schoolroom put the contents of the can on the plank and watch what happens4 ,if the ants do not find the room you have made for them1 place a few larvae and pup within it4 ,they will probably find them4 ,do not neglect to provide food for the colony4 ,ants like to eat cracker soaked in sweetened water1 bread1 cake1 berry jams1 sugar1 bits of raw meat1 yolk of hard-boiled egg1 and custard4 ,illustration3 ,junior naturalist museum in the school4 ,district ,no4 #b1 ,sheridan1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxv4 ,a ,,garden ,,all ,,your ,,own4#if ,,by ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 #if ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,may1 #aijd4 ,,my ,,dear ,,nephews ,,and ,,nieces3 ,illustration ,would you like to have a garden this summer--a garden all your very own8 ,if so1 you can surely have one4 ,a man up in a balloon could have one if he were to try2 a man living down in a coal mine could not1 because there would be no sunlight4 ,plants must have light from the sun1 which is the vital source of all light4 ,i consider that anyone who cares for a plant1 growing either in a window box or in a tomato can1 has a garden4 ,yes2 a plant growing in an eggshell constitutes a garden4 ,a ,,little ,,girl',s ,,garden4 ,near my desk is a picture of a little girl1 holding in her arms a big pumpkin that she raised in a garden all her own4 ,i do not know how many pies could have been made from that pumpkin1 but1 at any rate1 it was a big pumpkin4 ,the seed from which the vine started was planted in an egg-shell in the school-room4 ,when the bright ,may days came the egg-shell had become too small for the plant or the plant had become too large for the egg-shell1 so the little girl planted it in the open ground at her home4 ,she must have been a tiny girl or the soil in her garden must have been very hard1 for without help she was unable to spade it and make it fine4 ,she hired her father to do it for her and paid him by carrying his dinner every day for a week to the shop where he worked4 ,when lunch time came1 papa and she had a little picnic all by themselves4 ,there is no prettier picture than is made by such strong comradeship between a little girl and her father4 ,,make ,a ,,bargain ,,with ,,your ,,teacher4 ,i hope your teacher will permit you to have some boxes of earth 7,i mean soil7 in the windows of your school-room1 in which you may plant flower or vegetable seeds4 ,in early ,june1 just before the close of school1 you can divide the plants among yourselves and set them out in the open ground or in window boxes at your home4 ,ask your teacher whether you may have such a privilege4 ,promise that if she will grant this favor you will be just as good as the little girl who had a little curl that hung in the middle of her fore-head1 and if at any time you become horrid the teacher may give your share of the plants to some one better behaved than yourself4 ,if she is a wise teacher she will consent1 but not until she has made a bargain with you that you are to do all the work and to ask nothing from her but advice when you need it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceg4 ,sweet peas4 ,a ,,plant ,,nursery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceh4 ,a nest of window pots4 ,your first garden should be in a shallow box1 called a flat1 which you may consider a kind of nursery for the plants4 ,let this nursery1 or cradle1 be as long and as wide as a soap box1 and not more than three or four inches deep4 ,you can make a flat1 as gardeners do1 by sawing a soap box in two4 ,in the bottom of the box make some small auger holes for drainage4 ,some of you may be so fortunate as to be able to gather from the woods and fields the material for fitting up the flat4 ,some moss1--say about an inch of it1--should first be laid in the bottom4 ,when moss cannot be found1 use stones or pieces of broken pottery to cover the drainage holes4 ,this is to prevent the soil from washing through4 ,the remainder of the flat should be filled with good woods earth4 ,pack the soil firmly4 ,fill the flat not even full1 but to within half an inch of the top4 ,those who cannot go to the fields must get the best garden soil to be found4 ,a few children may be unable to get even garden soil4 ,they will be obliged to go to the florist's for soil1 as they must do when they fill their window boxes4 ,because of the frequent waterings required by all plants growing in boxes1 it is important to get soil that is not sticky and that will not pack hard4 ,,sowing ,,the ,,seed4 ,when the time comes for the sowing of seeds1 you had better ask your teacher to look over your shoulder to see that you do it correctly4 ,in sowing1 put the seeds in straight rows4 ,these rows may be made by denting the soil with the sharp edge of a stick or ruler4 ,let the rows extend the entire width of the flat4 ,into the dent1 drop the seeds at regular intervals4 ,if any seeds drop outside of the dent1 gently push them into place with a toothpick4 ,half a dozen rows of one variety of flowers or vegetables having small seeds will give a large number of plants4 ,one flat may accommodate a number of varieties4 ,at the point where one variety stops and another begins1 a neat label of wood should be stuck4 ,this affords a good chance for a boy to bring his new jack-knife into use4 ,on the label should be written the name of each variety4 ,this will give an excellent opportunity for one who writes a good vertical hand to make himself useful4 ,begin at the very top of the label and write towards the lower end2 then if the lower part of the label rots off or becomes discolored1 you will still have the first and most important part of the name left4 ,the label should never be disturbed1 for a careless boy or girl might not put it back into the exact place where it was found1 which would be indeed unfortunate4 ,the ,smiths and ,joneses of that plant community would become so mixed that the ,joneses would be called ,smiths and the ,smiths would be known as ,joneses4 ,it would be as bad as changing door-plates4 ,when the seeds have been evenly distributed in rows like houses along a street there comes another very important step1--the covering of the seeds4 ,if seeds are covered too deep they will rot because of too much moisture2 if the covering is too thin1 the soil will dry so rapidly that the seeds will fail because of insufficient moisture4 ,the size of the seed usually determines the amount of covering necessary4 ,as a broad general rule1 the soil covering should be about four times the thickness of the seed4 ,having been covered1 the earth must be thoroughly watered4 ,this must be done gently and carefully4 ,if done with a rush1 the water will wash the covering away and many of the seeds will be left bare4 ,whenever such an accident occurs1 the seed may be pushed into the soil with a toothpick4 ,at most times when watering1 continue to apply the water until it just begins to drain through the bottom of the flat4 ,this should be practiced even after the seeds have germinated and become growing plants4 ,keep the flats shaded until the plants begin to push their heads through the soil4 ,after this time strong light should gradually be given them that the plants may not become tall and spindling1 or leggy1 as gardeners say4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cei4 ,transplanted into a pot4 ,if the seed boxes are in a sunny or windy place1 the soil may dry out too rapidly4 ,this can be prevented by laying a newspaper over the flat when the sun strikes it4 ,as the plantlets grow1 care must be taken not to shade them too much4 ,a ,,plant ,,kindergarten4 ,in some plants the first leaves are called the seed-leaves1 and1 like children's milk teeth1 soon disappear4 ,the next set are the true leaves4 ,after the true leaves appear1 if the plants seem crowded and uncomfortable1 like three boys trying to sleep in a narrow bed1 transplant them into other flats prepared similarly to the one into which the seeds were sown4 ,you may think of this as the promotion of the young plants from the cradle to the kindergarten4 ,here the plants should be placed about an inch from each other1 in squares4 ,wet the plants thoroughly before taking them up and also the soil into which they are to make their second home4 ,after this is done1 the soil should be pressed firmly about the roots1 as you snuggle the bedclothes about your neck on a cold winter's night4 ,it is entertaining practice to transplant the plants into pots1 if you happen to have any florist's pots of small size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfj4 ,a soap box put to use4 ,this transplanting of plants in the school-room gives a quiet occupation to boys and girls who for a time may not be engaged in study4 ,the disobedient child or the would-be smart one might better be denied the privilege4 ,i say privilege1 because the wise teacher will make window gardening a privilege and not required work4 ,after the transplanting has been completed and the plants thoroughly soaked with water1 they must be shaded for about twenty-four hours1 after which they had better receive the strong light once more1 when they will resume their growth4 ,,plants ,,need ,,water4 ,if plants could feel and talk1 they would tell of periods when they had endured great suffering because of thirst3 suffering as great as that sometimes experienced by travelers in crossing a desert4 ,often it has been so great as almost to ruin a plant's constitution4 ,i am often asked1 ,how frequently shall ,i water plants8 ,it is as difficult to give a fixed rule for watering as to determine how often a boy should be allowed a drink4 ,during cool cloudy weather1 plants do not require as much water as when the sun shines bright and hot on them4 ,i can give no better general direction than this3--water plants when the surface of the soil seems dry and powder-like1 when a pinch of it rolled between the thumb and finger does not form a little ball4 ,under conditions in which the drainage is good1 plants should receive water until the surplus begins to trickle out of the holes at the bottom4 ,if you follow these directions carefully1 your schoolroom garden should afford a good lot of plants for cultivation at home in the open ground or in boxes4 ,,what ,,you ,,may ,,plant4 ,as to the kind of seeds to sow1 you must be governed by what you most desire to have in your home garden for summer cultivation4 ,if you are able to have a garden in the open ground1 ,i would have you make a selection of both flowers and vegetables4 ,do not choose a large variety of either1 for children are but little men and women and must shape their tasks to fit their shoulders4 ,it would be better to have a garden the size of a horse blanket and have it in good condition all summer than to have a larger one and allow it to become a wilderness of weeds4 ,in the vegetable line1 you can have radishes and lettuce that may be harvested by the ,fourth of ,july4 ,after the first crop has been removed the ground should be spaded and wax beans planted in rows about eighteen inches apart and the beans six inches apart in the rows4 ,these give the juiciest of pods1 excellent for pickling4 ,kings and princes could have none better4 ,this plan gives you two crops from the same ground in one summer4 ,plant radishes in rows twelve inches apart and about two inches apart in the row4 ,pull them for the table when the roots are three-quarters of an inch or a little more in diameter4 ,set lettuce about three inches apart in the row1 which is twice or more as thick as the plants should be when full grown4 ,when half grown or more every other plant may be pulled out for table use and the remaining ones will soon fill the vacancies4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfa4 ,a window-garden of one's own4 ,in suggesting your selection of flowers1 ,i shall mention but a few4 ,i have chosen the following kinds because they are not too particular or exacting as to care1 while some are equally well adapted for cultivation either in the open ground or in window boxes4 ,i hope you will include sweet peas1 dahlias1 and gladioli in your selection4 ,i have not named them in this list because they are not suitable for planting in flats1 but are planted directly in the open ground where they are to spend their lives4 ,gladioli and most dahlias you will not raise from seeds4 ,the following is a list from which you may make a selection for planting in your school-room1 to divide later with your mates for home planting3-- ,petunia ,nasturtium ,suitable for planting either in ,sweet ,alyssum window boxes or in the open ground4 ,mignonette ,bachelor's ,button ,salvia 7,flowering ,sage7 ,phlox ,to be planted in ,aster the open ground4 ,marigold ,candytuft ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfb4 ,plan of the improvement of the school ground1 shown in ,fig4 #cfe4 ,,make ,a ,,garden ,,in ,a ,,box4 ,there is no reason why you cannot have a window-box as attractive as the one shown in ,fig4 #cfa4 ,plants will grow as well for you as for the richest or the greatest man of whom you ever heard4 ,all they require is to be made comfortable4 ,the two things most necessary for their comfort are water as often as they need it1 and fertile soil that will not become hard from frequent watering4 ,plants in boxes need water much oftener than those in the open ground4 ,i once knew of a window-box on a tin roof on the south side of the house that was watered morning1 noon1 and night4 ,those plants must have been comfortable1 for they made thrifty growth4 ,when you have learned how to make plants comfortable in a flat1 you will know what is necessary for their comfort in a window-box4 ,they should have the same kind of earth1 but more of it4 ,the box should never be less than eight inches wide and eight inches deep and as long as you can afford to fill with earth and plants4 ,there must be holes in the bottom for drainage1 and moss or small stones placed over the holes to prevent the soil from washing away4 ,the plants should be set four to six inches apart in the box4 ,at first1 this will seem too great a distance1 but after a few weeks of growth1 the plants will cover all bare spots4 ,when transplanting either to window-boxes or to the open ground1 do it the same way as when changing plants from the cradle flat to the kindergarten flat4 ,i know of a brother and a sister who found enough soil to fill some egg-shells4 ,the shells had small drainage holes in the bottom4 ,in time the plants grew and became too large for the egg-shells4 ,then the children went in search of more soil4 ,they found enough to fill a few tomato cans4 ,these cans also had drainage holes in the bottom4 ,in each can they set a plant4 ,they then put the cans into a soap box4 ,then they packed excelsior into all the vacant places in the soapbox4 ,the excelsior helped to hold the moisture4 ,the box stood on a back veranda where the plants had plenty of sunshine4 ,so long as they were comfortable they did their best1 which is as much as they could have done if they had been in expensive vases in the grounds of the ,white ,house at ,washington4 ,,consider ,,your ,,school ,,grounds4 ,on the last page of this leaflet are two pictures of a school-house4 ,the first shows how it looked when it had not a friend4 ,the second shows what the friendship of the teacher and the children could do for it4 ,in both cases the building remains the same4 ,look at one picture and then at the other4 ,see1 if you can1 what one thing has been done to make the difference--a difference as great as that between a tramp and a gentleman4 ,a few shrubs have been planted by the friends1 but the greatest thing they did was to clean up4 ,they took away everything that looked untidy and shabby4 ,at this time of the year you see many beautiful crocuses1 tulips1 daffodils1 and hyacinths4 ,nothing children can plant will give so much for the labor as these bulbs4 ,why not have some on the school grounds8 ,when school begins next ,september1 write me for directions how to grow them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfc4 ,product of a child's garden4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfd4 ,school premises before improving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfe4 ,school premises after improving4 ,could you not do as much for your school grounds8 ,,leaflet ,,lxxvi4 ,,the ,,gardens ,,and ,,the ,,school ,,grounds4#ig ,,by ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 #ig ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,june1 #aijc4 ,,my ,,dear ,,boys ,,and ,,girls3 ,illustration ,of course you believe that ,columbus discovered ,america1 even though you were not with him4 ,if you had been on the deck of his ship when ,san ,salvador raised its head on the rim of the sea1 you would be talking about it every day of your life4 ,as it is1 your knowledge comes to you through books1 and you think you are fortunate if you are able to answer questions correctly on examination4 ,this leads me to remark that there is much more interest in things that we have helped to make happen than in things that we read about and that were made to happen by some one else4 ,there is a chance for each of you boys and girls1 in a way1 to become a ,columbus4 ,it is true that1 not counting the north and south poles1 all the continents are discovered1 but there is much pleasure and fun in discovering facts4 ,i am now speaking from experience4 ,i think that ,james ,buchanan was ,president when ,i learned1 in such a way that ,i could explain to others1 the principles of a suction-pump4 ,some of the suggestions led me to make a squirt gun from a bit of elder stalk4 ,sometimes when ,i made a demonstration the water would fly in the faces of my audience4 ,i started a squirt gun factory1 but the teacher stopped the enterprise because it made too much litter in the school-room4 ,i have a suggestion that will start you on a voyage of discovery4 ,when you have gone as far as you can ,i wish you would write me1 telling what you have learned4 ,writers of agricultural books sometimes use the expression1 ,there is fertility in tillage4 ,is that true8 ,by fertility is meant the power of the soil to furnish plant-food4 ,fertile soil is rich soil4 ,by tillage is meant frequent stirring of the soil4 ,for example1 ,billy ,boy and his chum each have a flower garden side by side of equal size4 ,each boy sows seeds from the same bag4 ,the same sunshine and the same rains give vigor to each flower-bed alike4 ,billy ,boy spades the soil deep and makes it fine4 ,his chum stirs the top and leaves clods on the surface4 ,with the end of a sharp stick ,billy makes a straight drill for the seed4 ,on the bottom of the drill the soil is fine like meal1 and the seed is sown with great care and is covered with the finest soil4 ,if the seed is small he makes the soil covering very thin4 ,the last thing he does is to firm the soil by patting it with either his hand or the flat part of a hoe1 and he does it in an affectionate way as if he were patting a dog4 ,his chum makes the drill for the seed in a hasty way1 leaving in the bottom little clods of earth as large as hickory nuts4 ,he sows the seed as if he were glad to get rid of it1 and he covers it as if he wanted it out of sight as soon as possible4 ,which of the two boys gave the better tillage to the soil8 ,during the summer you will see how others care for their plants and you will see instances of good tillage and poor tillage4 ,you must observe and write me which of the two had the better success in having the seed come up4 ,the difference between the two ways does not end in sowing and germination of seed1 but continues all summer until the end of the season4 ,billy ,boy will care for the soil by combing it with a rake several times a week1 with the same care and affection with which the lover of a horse will groom the animal each morning4 ,the chum will think the plants are all like goats1 and ought to live with almost any chance4 ,billy ,boy will have no weeds among his plants and his chum will have them in great numbers4 ,the chum may say that weeds shade the plants and thereby protect them from drought4 ,i have known grown-up farmers to say that4 ,is it true8 ,go on a voyage of discovery and find out4 ,i hope your garden may be of the ,billy ,boy kind1 receiving plenty of tillage4 ,you will have no trouble to find any number of the other kind of gardens growing to weeds and receiving no tillage4 ,it will please me very much if you will write me1 giving as many reasons as you can why tillage makes the soil more fertile 7or rich7 and able to produce better plants and flowers4 ,each letter will be carefully read4 ,,an ,,experiment4 ,perhaps you can answer the questions by watching your garden or some one's else garden2 but you can answer them better if you will grow a few hills of corn4 ,in the fall ,i shall have many questions to ask you about corn1 and ,i want you to be able to answer by telling me what you have seen with your own eyes4 ,those of you who are ,junior ,naturalists have done well with your dues this year1 but we must always do better next year than we did last2 so ,i want you to know many things about ,indian corn when you come back to school in the fall4 ,your teacher has also been asked to study corn1 and ,i am going to study it myself4 ,i am a farmer and ,i have grown corn all my life4 ,once ,i thought that ,i knew all about it2 but frequently some one asks me a question about it that ,i cannot answer4 ,now1 ,i hope that you can plant at least ten hills of corn1 or1 if you do not plant it in hills1 you may make two rows1 each of them five or ten feet long4 ,i want you to plant part of these hills 7or one of the rows7 in good rich soil4 ,perhaps your father will let you plant them in the best part of the garden along with the cabbages or other crops2 or1 perhaps1 your mother will let you plant them at the back part of the flower garden4 ,then ,i want you to keep down the weeds and break or cultivate the ground often with a hoe or rake so that the soil is always loose4 ,then ,i want you to plant the other part of the corn in a poor or dry piece of ground1 where the weeds grow4 ,this part you need not cultivate4 ,i think that before the summer is half over you will learn a very great lesson by looking at these two pieces of corn4 ,some of you will say that you know beforehand what will happen2 but ,i want you to grow the corn nevertheless4 ,by fall ,i hope you will be able to write me whether you can tell a rich soil when you see it1 and also why you think it is rich4 ,i want everyone of the ,junior ,gardeners to tell me that much when school opens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the ,teacher3 ,we must depend upon your courtesy to help in reporting what has been done by you and your pupils in improvement of school grounds4 ,in addition to this we hope it may be your pleasure to ask all the children who are able to write to tell us in detail1 at some language period1 what they have done4 ,we are never able to get reports of all this good work4 ,many teachers feel that nothing but heroic deeds in the planting of school grounds are worthy of mention4 ,this is a mistake4 ,some grounds may be more improved by attention to simple tidiness than by expensive planting1 and they are equally worthy of mention4 ,the attendance at some schools is small and the pupils are young4 ,small efforts from them are relatively great when compared with what is done by schools with ample facilities4 ,we know a teacher who began her first teaching in the fall of #aijb4 ,the pupils were eight in number and most of them were small4 ,the school was in the country4 ,the interior of the building was shabby4 ,the teacher was courageous and resolute4 ,with her small handful of not over-competent pupils1 she had school exercises and the children sold tickets4 ,by this means enough paper was bought to cover the walls1 and the teacher and the children put the paper on4 ,then they made other sales1 for which they received as commission three pictures creditably framed4 ,they were hung on the walls of the school-house4 ,by this time1 the tide of civic improvement in that community began to turn towards the improving of the school building and grounds4 ,we are eagerly awaiting reports to know what was done on ,arbor ,day4 ,under such conditions1 it was no small thing that the teacher and children accomplished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cff4 ,making a school-garden in ,massachusetts4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxvii4 ,,something ,,for ,,young ,,farmers4#ih ,,by ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 #ih ,supplement to ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,april1 #aijb4 ,,my ,,dear ,,nephews ,,and ,,nieces3 ,illustration ,i wish to make farmers of you all4 ,i will try to tell you how to have farms all your own--farms on which you can plant seeds and see the plants grow4 ,once a little girl in ,buffalo1 who is one of my ,junior ,naturalists1 asked me whether ,i would call at her home and see the harvest from seeds she planted on one of her farms the spring before4 ,the principal of the school went with me1 for he knew all about the little girl's success1 and seemed proud of what she had accomplished4 ,what do you think it was she had raised8 ,it was something that filled her lap and was good to eat4 ,it was a fine pumpkin4 ,it weighed twenty-two pounds4 ,i wish ,i could have a photograph of her holding the pumpkin1 her face glowing with pride and satisfaction4 ,you are surely able to do as much as this little girl did4 ,perhaps you would prefer some other crop to pumpkins1 in which case you have many kinds of seeds from which to choose4 ,last spring1 in school1 this little girl with other boys and girls began planting and caring for egg-shell farms4 ,it costs no money and but little trouble to own several such farms4 ,the greatest pleasure and profit is to be found in having them in school1 for then you have the opportunity of seeing how others manage their farms1 and there is a spur in doing what others are doing4 ,when you have read all about my plan ,i wish you would ask your teacher whether you cannot have some egg-shell farms in your grade4 ,when your plants are large enough to put permanently in the open ground1 you can plant them in a garden or window-box at your home4 ,if it is not convenient to have egg-shell farms at school1 ask your parents if you cannot have some at home4 ,please give me your ears and your attention while ,i tell you how to get your farms4 ,in ,april you have eggs at some one of the three meals of the day1 and the empty shells can be easily obtained4 ,the end of the shell to be broken is the sharp or peaked end4 ,break away about a quarter or a third of it and pour out the white and the yolk that is inside4 ,this empty shell is to hold the soil of your farm1 and you can have as many farms as may be convenient to care for4 ,on each egg-shell you may write your name1 for the same reason that people have door plates on the doors of their houses or signs on their places of business4 ,some very methodical boys and girls write also the names of the kind of seeds sown1 and the dates of planting and sprouting4 ,do not forget to put a hole through the bottom of each one of your farms for drainage4 ,i wish ,i could be with you when you get your soil2 we would go out to the pastures and the woods for a supply4 ,i should be able to tell you much about different soils1 and how they have been made4 ,it is an interesting story that ,i must tell you when we are past the hurry of spring's work4 ,if we could go afield we should find the best soil for your egg-shell farms about the roots of rotted stumps or in rotted leaves4 ,it is necessary that the soil shall not bake hard because of frequent waterings1 shall not dry out quickly1 and shall have plenty of plant-food4 ,i fancy the most convenient plan will be for all of you who wish soil to form a syndicate by contributing a cent each and go to a florist and buy your soil4 ,tell the florist you wish it for your use and the probabilities are that he will be so much interested in your plants that you will get more for the same amount of money than ,i could if ,i were to go for you4 ,the next difficulty will be to keep your farms right side up4 ,that is easily accomplished by putting some sand or sawdust in a shallow box and making a dent where you wish each farm to stand4 ,if you have your farms in the school-room1 ,tom1 ,dick1 and ,harry can have all their farms in the same box4 ,there will be no trouble in separating them if the owner's name is written on each one4 ,next comes the planting of seeds and the problem of the amount of earth to put over them4 ,big seeds require more covering than little seeds4 ,seeds like peas1 beans1 and corn may be thrust into the middle of your farm4 ,small seeds1 like those of the petunia1 which are almost like dust1 require only the gentlest sprinkling of soil4 ,seeds as large as those of the aster and the balsam should be covered with a layer of earth as thick as a lead pencil4 ,i advise you to plant twice as many seeds as you wish to have grow4 ,many accidents may happen and if all grow1 the surplus plants can be replanted later or thrown away4 ,the earth covering should be sprinkled or sifted over the seeds1 and then it must be patted or pressed down firmly4 ,by this means the particles of soil are snuggled close together1 and the seed and the soil hold moisture much better than when the particles lie loose and far apart4 ,the next thing to do after planting is to sprinkle water over your farms4 ,do this as gently as possible1 for with all your care some seeds may be uncovered4 ,look over the ground carefully1 and those you find exposed poke into the earth with the point of a pencil or a stick4 ,the soil of your farms must be kept moist at all times4 ,this is a point that will require your continued attention4 ,when your ,uncle ,john attended school1 many years ago1 there was a passage in his reader that taught him that ,eternal vigilance is the price of liberty4 ,the attention required to keep plants suitably watered does not fall much short of eternal vigilance4 ,this need not scare you4 ,if you care for your farms you will find it a pleasure to wait on your plants4 ,if you have your egg-shell farms in the school-room1 there will be no opportunity to water your plants ,saturday or ,sunday1 when school is not in session4 ,i think if you make your farms soaking wet ,friday at the close of school1 and then set them back from the window out of the direct rays of the sun1 no harm will come from dryness before ,monday morning4 ,you must watch to see whether all members of the same family do the same thing precisely alike4 ,after sowing your seeds and watering your farms you will go to them many times to see whether anything has happened4 ,you will not be able to see anything or hear anything1 and you will conclude that nothing is going on in the soil4 ,in this you will be mistaken1 for some active changes are taking place4 ,they are of a kind that you can neither see nor hear4 ,in days to come1 when you are men and women1 you will be able to appreciate the fact that some of the most important events come about silently and some of the least important come with a racket4 ,the first leaves that appear on most plants are called the seed-leaves4 ,if your plants are comfortable1 but a few days will pass before true leaves develop4 ,you will find the latter very different from the seed-leaves4 ,before the first or seed-leaves appear it is not important that your farms have the strong sunlight4 ,in fact ,i always put my egg-shell farms in the shade while the seeds are germinating1 but at the first peep of a leaf or stem ,i put them in the full sunshine4 ,most of you will no doubt have your farms on the window ledge4 ,among the first things you will observe is a way all the leaves have of looking out of doors4 ,if you turn your farms around so the leaves are looking in the room1 the time will not be long before all of them will be faced out of doors again4 ,once on a time one of my ,junior ,naturalists told me that plants take to sunshine as a duck does to water4 ,a duck is never so comfortable as when in water2 and ,i am certain that sunshine is important to the comfort of most plants4 ,some of my nephews and nieces will understand why light is so necessary to plants1 for ,i have spoken of this before4 ,i hope you will this moment decide to have some egg-shell farms1 and sow some seed immediately after getting your soil4 ,later1 when the plants are large enough to plant in the open ground1 we will talk of what is best to do with them4 ,in ,leaflet ,,lii you will find a picture of an egg-shell farm4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxviii4 ,,bulbs4#ii ,,by ,,john ,w4 ,,spencer4 #ii ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,october1 #ahii4 ,a ,,bulb ,,garden4 ,illustration ,it's rather dark in the earth to-day1 ,said one little bulb to his brother2 ,but ,i thought that ,i felt a sunbeam ray-- ,we must strive and grow till we find the way8 ,and they nestled close to each other4 ,then they struggled and toiled by day and by night ,till two little snowdrops in green and white1 ,rose out of the darkness and into the light1 ,and softly kissed one another4--,boston ,journal4 ,to succeed with the cultivation of flowers1 the first thing to have in mind is to make the plant comfortable4 ,this condition should be not only the first thought1 but also the last thought4 ,if you can do this successfully1 the plant will do the rest of the work and your results will be abundant4 ,what plant comfort is1 is a question more easily suggested than answered1 for it is a very large subject--about as large as the surface of the earth4 ,as a venture we will say that there are as many different kinds of plants as there are people4 ,it is at least safe to say that plants have as many different notions as to their conditions of life as have the people of the different nations and tribes of the world4 ,if you were to have a birthday party and should invite as your guests the children from the four corners of the earth1 and by magic could bring them to you in a jiffy1 the boys and girls from ,greenland would come enfolded in seal-skin1 and those from ,hawaii would bring only their bathing suits4 ,you would have a busy time keeping them comfortable1 for when you opened the door to cool off the little ,greenlanders1 the little ,kanakas would complain of too much draft2 and at the table the former would ask if you happened to have some tallow candles for dessert1 and the latter would ask for bread-fruit and bananas4 ,many of our flowering plants have been brought together from such remote quarters as that4 ,we have bulbs from ,holland1 and pansies from ,england1 and phlox from the dry atmosphere of ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfg4 ,the ,snow-drop4 ,there is as much difference in the conditions necessary for comfort in these different plants as there is in the requirements of the little ,eskimos and little ,polynesians4 ,to some extent1 plants can change their manner of living1 but in the main they are happiest when they can have their own way1 just as you and ,i are4 ,we cannot bring about the foggy1 damp weather of ,holland and ,england when we want it2 neither can we bring the dry atmosphere of ,texas--air so dry that meat will cure hard in the hottest weather without tainting4 ,it so happens1 however1 that from one ,fourth of ,july to the next we have many kinds of weather1 and if one could not find conditions suited to almost any kind of plant it would be strange4 ,if we cannot make the weather accommodate itself to the best comfort of the plant1 we must set the plant so as to accommodate itself to the weather4 ,pansies from foggy ,england and bulbs from the lowlands of ,holland should be planted to bloom in the cool days of spring1 and the phlox from ,texas will prosper in the heat and drought of ,july and ,august4 ,with this idea well fixed in your mind1 you will easily see that when you know the country from which a plant has come1 a knowledge of the physical geography of that country will be helpful in knowing how to make the plant happy and prosperous4 ,we must also make the plant comfortable in the soil4 ,there is great difference in what plants require to make them comfortable4 ,some1 like thistles or mullein or ragweed1 will thrive on almost any soil and are no more exacting as to food than a goat or a mule2 but other plants are as notional as children reared in the lap of luxury4 ,as a rule1 flowering plants belong to the lap-of-luxury class4 ,soil covers the land as thin skin covers an apple or as a thin coat of butter covers bread1 and it holds more or less plant-food4 ,when men erect school buildings and afterwards grade the ground they usually turn a part of the soil upside down4 ,there is also considerable rubbish of the builders left scattered about1 such as brick-bats1 chips of stone1 and the like1 that go to make the place an uncomfortable one for notional plants4 ,for this reason ,i wish particularly to call your attention to the manner in which you should prepare the ground on which you intend to plant4 ,the first thing to do is to spade the ground thoroughly to the depth of at least ten inches4 ,all stones as large as a big boy's fist should be thrown out1 and all lumps given a bat with the back of the spade to break them into fine particles4 ,this is to be a flower-bed and should be soft like your own bed4 ,it would be better to make it up more than once4 ,after the first spading it would be well to cover the bed with a coat of stable fertilizer to a depth of six to eight inches1 which will give additional plant-food2 and in spading the second time1 this fertilizer will become thoroughly mixed with the soil4 ,the surface should next be raked smooth1 and your flower-bed will then be ready for planting4 ,we all admire the bright bulb flowers that are among the first to blossom in the spring4 ,these mostly come from ,holland1 or at least attain their perfection there4 ,we have just spoken of the importance of planting flowers at such a time that they may live their career when our climate is most like that from which they come4 ,in the case of bulbs1 spring and early summer is the most favorable time for them in this country1 and fall is the proper time for planting4 ,the exact time in the fall to plant1 how to plant1 what bulbs to plant1 when to put a winter overcoat on the bed1 and other details1 ,i will leave for ,mr4 ,hunn to tell in the following ,leaflet4 ,he has had many years' experience in the management of flowers1 and ,i advise you to read carefully what he says4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfh4 ,a bulb bed at the school house4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxix4 ,a ,,talk ,,about ,,bulbs ,,by ,,the ,,gardener4#ajj ,,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,hunn4 #ajj ,nature-,study ,quarterly1 ,october1 #ahii4 ,illustration ,perhaps you would like to hear from the gardener4 ,your ,uncle ,john has told you something about preparing a bed for your plants4 ,his advice is very good2 but the bulbs we are to talk about are like those notional children whom he mentions and they do not want tallow candles for any part of their meal4 ,you should know that bulbs do not want to come into direct contact with the stable fertilizer4 ,they want the fertilizer below them where the feeding roots may nibble at it when the bulb is hard at work developing the leaves and flower4 ,you know that all the leaves and the flowers were made the year before1 and the bulb simply holds them until the new roots have formed4 ,no kind of treatment will make a bulb produce more flowers than were formed in the year it grew 7last year72 but the better the treatment the larger and finer the flowers will be4 ,if ,i wanted to make a bulb bed1 ,i should choose1 if possible1 a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the depth of six inches4 ,then ,i should put into the bottom of the bed about two inches of well rotted manure and spade it into the soil4 ,then ,i should throw back half of the top soil1 level it off nicely1 set the bulbs firmly on this bed1 and then cover them with the remainder of the soil2 in this way you will have the bulbs from three to four inches below the surface4 ,it is dark down there and in the fall months the top of the ground is cooler than at the depth of five or six inches and the top of the bulb will not want to grow1 while the bottom1 which is always in a hurry1 will send out roots1 to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring4 ,when the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil1 the bed should have its winter overcoat4 ,this may be straw1 hay1 cornstalks1 or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of six inches if the material is coarse2 but if you use leaves1 three inches will be enough1 because the leaves lie close together and may smother out the frost that is in the ground and let the bulbs start4 ,what we want is to keep them asleep until spring1 because if they start too early the hard freezes of ,march and early ,april will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or above the surface4 ,early in ,april the covering may be removed gradually and should all be off the beds before the leaves show above the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfi4 ,simple designs for bulb beds4 ,perhaps many of you cannot find a sandy place for your beds2 if not1 make your beds as has been told you1 leaving the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage4 ,then1 when you are ready to set the bulb1 place a large handful of sand where your bulb is to go and set your bulb on it2 this will keep the water from standing around the bulb4 ,very good results may be obtained on heavy soil by this method4 ,what kind of bulbs shall we put into these beds8 ,choose hyacinths1 tulips1 narcissus1 or daffodils1 with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge4 ,if you use hyacinths you can have the national colors1 red1 white1 and blue1 or many shades of either color1 as shown in the diagrams 7,fig4 #cfi74 ,of tulips you can have stars or ribbons of yellow1 white1 or crimson1 or in fact almost any color except true blue4 ,in narcissus1 yellow1 sulfur1 and white are the colors4 ,the little crocuses come in yellow1 blue1 white1 and striped colors1 and are in bloom and gone before the large flowers take your attention4 ,many other bulbs are fine for spring flowering2 but as most of them are more difficult to grow and many of them rather expensive1 ,i do not think we will discuss them now4 ,suppose we want a bed of red1 white1 and blue hyacinths 7,fig4 #cfi71 and make it six feet in diameter3 how many bulbs would you want8 ,now1 hyacinths should be planted six inches apart each way1 and the outside row should be at least three inches from the edge of the bed4 ,you see you will want a little over one hundred bulbs1 which1 if one person had to buy them1 would cost him a considerable sum2 but if fifty or more boys and girls would club together it would be easy for everyone4 ,if you want a bed of tulips1 they should be planted four or five inches apart instead of six inches4 ,so you will need more bulbs2 but they are cheaper than hyacinths4 ,the narcissus bulbs1 being still smaller than tulips1 may be planted three inches apart2 and the little crocuses1 the first flowers of spring1 should touch one another1 as should also the snowdrops4 ,perhaps many of you do not wish to wait until spring for your bulbs to flower1 in which case we must try to persuade them to bloom through the winter1 say at ,christmas4 ,nearly all bulbs are good-natured1 and may be coaxed to do things that nature never asks them to do2 so if we go at it right we shall find it very easy to make them think their time to bloom has come1 even if the ground is covered with snow and the ice is thick on the ponds4 ,hyacinths1 narcissus1 and crocus can all be made to flower in the winter by starting this way4 ,get the bulbs so as to be able to pot them by the middle or last of ,october1 or if earlier all the better4 ,the soil should be rich1 sandy loam if possible2 if not1 the best you can get1 to which add about one-fourth the bulk of sand and mix thoroughly4 ,if ordinary flower pots are to be used1 put in the bottom a few pieces of broken pots1 charcoal1 or small stones for drainage2 then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot4 ,fill around it with soil1 leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the dirt4 ,if the soil is heavy1 a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful of sand under the bulb to carry off the water1 the same as is done in the beds outdoors4 ,if you do not have pots you may use boxes4 ,starch boxes are a good size to use as they are not heavy to handle2 and ,i have seen excellent flowers on bulbs planted in old tomato cans4 ,if boxes or cans are used1 care must be taken to have holes in the bottoms to let the water run out4 ,a large-size hyacinth bulb will do well in a five-inch pot4 ,the same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses4 ,after the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles1 they should be placed in a cool place1 either in a cold pit or cellar or on the shady side of a building1 or1 better yet1 plunged or buried up to the rim of the pot in a shady border4 ,this is done to force the roots to grow while the top stands still2 as only the bulbs with good roots will give good flowers4 ,when the weather gets cold enough so that a crust is frozen on the soil1 the pots should be covered with a little straw1 and as the weather gets colder more straw must be used4 ,from six to eight weeks after planting1 the bulbs should have made roots enough to grow the plant1 and the pots may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or so2 after which1 if the plants have started into growth1 they may be taken into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light4 ,they will grow very rapidly now and will want lots of water2 after the flowers begin to show1 the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time4 ,when just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of the time to help bring out the color of the flowers4 ,fig4 #cgj shows a pot of tulips4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgj4 ,pot of tulips4 ,i want to tell you of two bulbs that do not need so much fussing with to get them to bloom for ,christmas4 ,one of them is called freesia 7,fig4 #cga7 and if ,i could have but one kind of bulb to flower in the winter1 ,i should choose this4 ,the little bulbs are not half as large as crocus bulbs and you will be astonished at the large leaves and flowers such a bulb can produce4 ,the bulbs are about the cheapest of all winter bulbs and they grow without putting them away to make roots1 as the tops do not seem as impatient to start as those of most other bulbs1 but wait until there are roots to help them along4 ,the flowers are borne on a slender stem and look very graceful1 either on the plant or in bouquets4 ,they are also very fragrant1 and a pot with five or six bulbs will perfume a large room4 ,all they need is good light soil1 sunlight1 water1 and warmth to make glad the heart of anyone who plants them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cga4 ,pot of the freesia4 ,the other bulb ,i should select is the oriental narcissus or ,chinese sacred lily4 ,this grows in water without any soil whatever4 ,just take a bowl or glass dish about three times the size of the bulb2 put some pretty stones in the bottom2 set in the bulb and build up around it with stones so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown2 tuck two or three small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet2 then fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days1 as it evaporates4 ,set the dish in a warm1 light place4 ,in about six weeks the fragrant1 fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume and you will have the pleasure of watching the roots start and grow1 the top throw up long green leaves1 and the flower clusters develop and open their flowers4 ,hyacinths may also be grown in water1 but not as easily as this narcissus1 or in such inexpensive dishes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgb4 ,winter box of bulbs4 ,the picture 7,fig4 #cgb7 of a bulb box was taken last winter from a box of mixed bulbs grown at ,cornell4 ,the calla in the center and the ,kenilworth ivy trailing over the front were planted in the box in ,september1 and pots of geraniums and other plants set on the dirt to fill the space4 ,when the bulbs that were in pots were ready to be started they were taken out of the pots and set in the dirt in the box1 where they grew and flowered2 the tall stems are paper white narcissus1 the best variety for winter4 ,on each side there is a hyacinth just starting and in front a little freesia in bloom4 ,when these bulbs were done flowering1 small pots of blooming plants were set on the box and a charming window box was obtained with many different things in it through the winter4 ,,where ,,to ,,plant ,,bulbs2 ,,and ,,other ,,advice ,,for ,,the ,,outdoor ,,garden4 ,a large part of the beauty of the flower-bed lies in its position4 ,a flower-bed in the middle of the lawn is usually out of place4 ,it has no setting1 as the artists say4 ,it lacks background4 ,it is merely an incidental thing dropped into the sward4 ,it is out of place4 ,a flower-bed should belong to some part of the general planting of the grounds1 or it should be a part of the border or boundary surrounding the place4 ,the center of any grounds should be left open1 or free from heavy planting4 ,a few trees may be planted in the center1 if one desires shade2 but all the masses of foliage and flowers should be somewhere near the sides or else near the foundations of the house or near other definite boundary lines4 ,in such places the flower-bed is supported by other herbage4 ,it has relation to something else4 ,it forms a part of a general picture2 and every good yard should be a picture4 ,along the borders the beds are usually more easily cared for than they are in the center of the lawn4 ,in the latter place they are in danger of being trampled over1 and the roots of the grass run underneath the bed and absorb the food and moisture which the flowers need4 ,the beauty of a formal bed in the center of the lawn is destroyed if some of the plants are injured or do not develop4 ,symmetry is part of its merit4 ,if1 however1 the bed is along the border1 a few vacant places in the bed do not attract great attention4 ,in school grounds it is well to have the beds somewhat near together or continuous1 in order that the labor of taking care of them may be less4 ,it is always well to plant profusely4 ,much of the beauty of a flower-bed lies in an abundance of color4 ,one must consider1 also1 that some of the roots1 seeds1 or bulbs may fail4 ,some of them may not grow in the first place1 and others may be injured by weather or by accidents4 ,it is well to provide for all these contingencies4 ,one of the best plants to use for the school bulb garden is the crocus1 because the bulbs are cheap and very hardy4 ,the mixed bulbs1 comprising all the common colors1 can be had for forty or fifty cents per hundred at retail1 and if one should buy them in considerable quantities1 they could be had for less than this4 ,a thousand bulbs of mixed crocuses should be got for three dollars or a little more1 and these would make a great display along the fence or walks of any school garden4 ,one of the ways to grow crocuses is to plant the bulbs in the grass1 not cutting out the grass where they are planted4 ,that is1 they grow right in the sod4 ,by the time the lawn needs to be mown in the spring1 the flowers are gone and the crocuses can be cut with the grass4 ,the crocuses will not last so long in a mown sod as they will in beds which are especially prepared for them1 but they will ordinarily give good results for two or three years if the land is good2 and they are so cheap that they can be renewed from time to time4 ,other good1 hardy bulbs for fall planting out-of-doors1 aside from lilies1 are hyacinth1 snowdrop1 snowflake1 tulip1 narcissus of various kinds 7including daffodils and jonquils71 grape hyacinth1 squill4 ,all these are early spring bloomers and will delight the children's eyes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgc4 ,a good arrangement of shrubbery and flower-beds4 ,,leaflet ,,lxxx4 ,,horses4#aja ,,by ,,alice ,g4 ,mc,c,l,o,s,k,e,y and ,i4 ,p4 ,,roberts4 #aja ,junior ,naturalist ,monthly1 ,december1 #aijd4 ,illustration ,a few minutes ago ,i went into the stable to see ,peg and ,nan1 the two bay horses4 ,on the outside of each stall ,i found a door-plate1 with ,nan written in large1 black letters on one1 ,peg on the other4 ,i visited each old friend in turn4 ,they are quite different in disposition1 these two horses4 ,nan is gentle1 affectionate1 patient2 ,peg is spirited1 unfriendly1 restless4 ,i am very fond of them both and as yet have not been able to decide which ,i enjoy the more1 quiet ,nan or spirited ,peg4 ,all horses are interesting to me4 ,as ,i take my daily walk1 ,i like to look at the different ones ,i meet along the way4 ,there is the baker's horse and the butcher's2 the doctor's horse1 sleek and active2 the heavy gray horses that haul loads of coal up the hill all through the winter weather2 ,old ,speckle1 the postman's horse2 and the friendly bay ,i so often see feeding in the meadow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgd4 ,nan4 ,of all these wayside acquaintances1 ,i like best the one ,i meet in the meadow4 ,perhaps ,i associate him with the meadow-lark's song1 the fresh1 green grass1 and the gay little dandelions that were about when ,i first crossed his path2 or1 perhaps our friendship progressed more rapidly than city streets ever will permit4 ,he seems to know when ,i am approaching and raises his head in welcome4 ,i always pet him and talk to him a bit1 and we both know that two friends have met4 ,there are many things about horses that everyone ought to know4 ,if we were to ask ,junior ,naturalists how coach horses differ from roadsters and how roadsters differ from draft horses1 how many would be able to tell us8 ,perhaps you will ask1 ,what is a draft horse8 ,the draft horse has short legs1 a heavy body1 a short1 thick neck1 broad deep chest and shoulders1 strong hocks and moderately large feet4 ,it may be that your father owns a draft horse4 ,ask him whether it is a ,percheron1 a ,clydesdale1 or an ,english ,shire4 ,these are the most familiar breeds of draft horses4 ,the ,percherons came from ,france and at first they were gray4 ,now they are often black or dark brown4 ,the ,shires1 commonly bay1 brown or sorrel1 came from ,england2 and the ,clydesdales1 similar in appearance to the ,shires but smaller and more active1 came from ,scotland4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cge4 ,a typical draft horse4 ,all boys and girls know coach horses4 ,as you stand by the school-room window1 you may see one pass4 ,they have long arched necks and fine heads4 ,their bodies are rounded and well proportioned4 ,roadsters1 trotters1 and saddle horses are usually not so large as coachers4 ,their necks are inclined to be longer and their chests narrower than in the coach horse2 however1 their muscles and tendons are strong4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgf4 ,welsh pony and its mother4 ,now you must not think that just because a horse is drawing a load he is a draft horse2 nor because a horse is hitched to a coach he is a coach horse2 nor because he is driven on the road he is a roadster4 ,these three names1--draft horses1 coach horses1 roadsters1--represent types or classes4 ,they mean kinds of horses that are supposed to be best adapted for drawing1 or for coaches and carriages1 or for fast driving1 providing the horse has no other work to do4 ,but the horses that you usually see are just mere common horses of no particular type1 and are used for a great variety of purposes4 ,they are nondescripts1 which means undescribed or unclassified4 ,you would not think of putting a true draft horse1 like the animal in ,fig4 #cge1 on a light carriage2 nor of hitching a coacher like that in ,fig4 #cgg to a coal wagon4 ,do you think there is any real roadster1 or coach horse1 or draft horse in your neighborhood8 ,if not1 perhaps you can tell1 as the horses pass you1 whether they are nearest like one type or another4 ,try it4 ,if you will observe horses closely you will find that some are large1 heavy1 and strong1 and that they are seldom made to move rapidly1 while others may be nearly as tall but they are slim1 and carry their heads high and their necks arched4 ,you should also notice that the heavy draft horse does not lift his feet high nor walk with a proud and lofty tread1 while the coach horse lifts his feet high1 carries his head high1 and moves very proudly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgg4 ,a good coacher4 ,there are several breeds of draft or heavy horses4 ,fig4 #cge shows a fine ,clydesdale horse imported from ,scotland4 ,notice how nicely he is marked4 ,the horseman would say that he has four white stockings and plenty of feather on his fetlock2 strange1 is it not1 that this long hair should be called feather8 ,if you should see a large1 smooth gray horse similar to the ,clyde1 without the white stockings or the feather1 you may conclude that he is a ,percheron horse4 ,as we have said before1 the ,percheron breed of horses came from ,france4 ,it is not always gray in color4 ,it is slightly smaller than the ,clydesdale4 ,after you have learned that a draft horse should be large and strong1 study the picture of the coach horse 7,fig4 #cgg74 ,compare him with the draft horse4 ,the coach horse is not a fast trotter nor even a fast roadster1 but he is usually very beautiful1 strong1 and stylish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgh4 ,arabian horse4 ,now ,i shall ask you to compare the neck shown in ,fig4 #chj with that shown in ,fig4 #cha4 ,which do you think is the more beautiful8 ,the horse with the long1 slim neck is a noted trotter4 ,if the neck and head were large1 would it help or hinder the trotter8 ,compare the neck of the trotter with that of the draft horse and see whether you can explain why one is heavy and the other light4 ,can you explain to your parents why the draft horse should weigh more than the coach horse8 ,do you admire the head and neck shown in ,fig4 #chj8 ,wherein does it differ from the others8 ,this type is called ewe-neck4 ,can you tell why8 ,tell me whether you think this horse would be a safe driver4 ,what do you think of the head and neck of the ,arabian horse 7,fig-#cgh78 ,you like it1 do you8 ,why8 ,can you imagine what kind of horse belongs to that head and neck8 ,describe it4 ,probably the ,arabian horse would be too spirited for you so ,i shall show you a ,shetland pony4 7,fig4 #cgi47 ,where is ,shetland8 ,why are horses so small in the country where this little fellow came from8 ,how does he differ from the other horses shown in the ,leaflet8 ,note all of the differences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgi4 ,shetland pony4 ,in ,fig4 #cgf you will see the picture of a ,welsh pony1 and she has a ponyette1 a baby only a few days old4 ,which is the larger1 the ,shetland pony or the ,welsh pony8 ,which one would you prefer if the baby were left out8 ,could you raise a calf until it became a grown cow and then trade it for a pony8 ,just a plain little pony can be bought for the price of a good cow4 ,it is part of a good education to know how to raise and handle cows and horses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chj4 ,ewe-neck1 a poor horse4 ,with this ,leaflet in your hand1 you should go to the stable1 or1 better still1 out on the street1 and see whether you can find as good horses and ponies as the pictures represent4 ,as you study horses try to answer the following questions3 #a4 ,where is the horse's knee joint8 ,which way does the knee bend8 #b4 ,where is the hock joint8 ,which way does it bend8 #c4 ,can a horse sleep when standing8 #d4 ,how are the legs placed when a horse lies down8 #e4 ,how does a horse get up1--front legs first or hind legs first8 ,how does a cow get up8 #f4 ,when a horse starts1 after standing1 what foot does he put forward first1--the left or the right8 ,fore or back8 ,what foot moves next8 #g4 ,when a horse trots1 do the two feet on one side move together8 ,or do lefts and rights move together8 #h4 ,what does a driver mean when he says that a horse forges or over-reaches8 #i4 ,name the things that a horse commonly eats4 ,what is a good feed for a day1--how much of each thing1 and when given8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cha4 ,neck of a trotter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chb4 ,at pasture4 ,,index4 ,fig4 means that the page referred to contains the figure only1 no text reference4 ,,page4 ,agassiz1 glacial hypothesis #aje making of surveys and maps #bjb1 #bjc ,agriculture1 its place in schools #de-dg ,agricultural education1 what it is #de-ec ,air #hg1 #abc1 #abd ,alfalfa #dj1 #ced1 #cee1 #ceg-cfj1 #dhi-dic ,alluvial fans #acb ,annual rings #cba1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cce1 #dgd ,ants #fb1 #fd1 7,fig47 #bbd1 #bdc-bea1 #bgd1 #ejh1 #eac ,ant-lions #bej ,aphids #fb1 #fh1 #bdh-bea1 #eci ,aphis-lion #bdi1 #eci1 #edj1 #edc ,apple1 buds #cbh1 #cbi fruit #dfg-dgb grafting of #cgd1 #cge shape of tree #cjd twigs #cag-cbe ,apple-scab #dgj1 7,fig47 #dga ,apricot #cbh1 #cge1 #cgg ,aquaria #ei1 #fj1 #ada-aef1 #afe1 #aff ,arborvitae #cde1 #cdf1 #cdg ,asters #cgi-chc ,azalea #cca ,back-swimmers1 see ,bugs4 ,bagworms #fa ,balsams #chc ,barngrass #cfb ,bass1 black #afb ,basswood leaf-roller1 see ,moths4 ,beans #bia1 #dfj-dff1 #efc1 #efd ,begonias #cgb1 #cgc ,bees1 wings of 7,fig47 #bbd bumble #fe1 #fh1 #cea1 #ceb carpenter #fa honey #fb1 #fd1 #fe1 #cec ,beet #beg1 #dae1 #daf sugar #dje ,beetles #baj1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #ejg engraver #fa plum curculio #fh ,beetles1 potato #fb1 #fc1 #fh predaceous diving #aea snapping 7,fig47 #bbc tiger #fa water scavenger #aeb whirligig #ace wood-boring 7,fig47 #bbc ,bibliography of nature-study #gf-gi ,biennial #daf ,birds1 leaflets on #bec-bij1 #ejc1 #ejd1 #eae1 #eaf suggestions for study #gj1 #ga ,see special birds4 ,black bass1 see ,bass4 ,blackberry #cje1 #cgj1 #cge ,blackbird1 redwing #bfc ,black-fly1 see ,flies4 ,bluebells #cfb ,bluebird #bch1 #bfa ,black-nosed dace1 see ,dace4 ,bordeaux mixture #cha1 #chb1 #chi ,breeding cage #bbh ,brook1 ,the1 insects of #ace-adj suggestions for study #abe work of #abf-acd ,brownie-bugs1 see ,bugs4 ,budding #cgf1 #cgg ,buds apple #cag-cbe apricot #cbh azalea #cca butternut #dgd dormant #cah1 #cad-cbj1 #cbi elm #ccj flower #cai1 #cbh1 #ccj hepatica #cib hickory #cbi1 7,fig47 #ccj horse-chestnut 7,fig47 #dgd leaf #cai1 #cbh1 #ccj maple #cbi1 #dgc peach #cbh pear #cbh pussy-willow #ccj terminal #cah1 #dgd winter #gb1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cbg-ccf1 #dgc1 #dgd ,bugs1 #bbc brownie 7,fig47 #bbc back-swimmers #acf1 #aeb1 #aec giant water #acg1 #aec ,june #bhh ,bugs1 lady #baj1 #bej stink #bbc water boatmen #acf1 #aeb water scorpions #aeb1 #aec water-striders #acg ,bulbs #efg1 #egg-ehj1 #eha-ehc see special bulbs4 ,burdock #cfb ,butterflies #eh1 #ei1 #fa1 #fb1 #bbd1 #bch1 #edd cabbage #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 7,fig47 #bbd1 #edj common blue #bdh milkweed #bjh1 #bji monarch #fc1 #edd viceroy #fc ,butternut 7,fig47 #dgd ,cabbage butterfly1 see ,butterflies4 ,caddice-worm #fa1 #acf1 #aee ,cambium #cge ,cankerworms #fh ,carnations 7,fig47 #cgj1 #cgb ,carrot #beg ,caterpillars #eh1 #fb1 #eja apple-tree tent #ei1 #fi1 #bbg-bce of cecropia moth #afg1 #afh cabbage #fc1 #fh1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj of codlin-moth #dgj of common blue butterfly #bdh of fall web-worm #fa of promethea moth #afh1 #afi woolly-bear #baj1 #bch1 #eci1 7,fig47 #eda ,catfish #aej1 #afa ,cat-tails #cfd ,cecropia moth1 see ,moths4 ,cereals1 food value of #dji-dad ,chara 7,fig47 #adh1 #adi ,charcoal #add ,cherry1 grafting of #cgg ,chestnut1 grafting of #cgd ,chickadee #bgi-bha1 #bhe1 #ejc1 #ejd ,chickens #gj1 #ebb-ebd1 #ebe1 #ebf1 #ebg ,child's ,realm1 ,the 7poem7 #dea ,chinese lily1 see ,narcissus4 ,chipmunk #fi ,choke-cherries #cfb ,chrysalids #eh1 #ei of apple-tree tent caterpillar #bcc cabbage butterfly #bji1 #edj ,chrysalids1 codlin-moth #dgj milkweed butterfly #bjh ,cicada #ff1 #baj1 7,fig47 #bbc1 #ebi-ece dog-day harvest fly #ecd1 #ece seventeen-year locust #ebi-ece ,cion #cgd ,clam #aej ,clarkias #chc ,clay #aag1 #aah ,clothes moth1 see ,moths4 ,clouds #hd1 #he1 #hh1 #ij ,codlin-moth1 see ,moths4 ,clover #abd1 #cdi-cfj alsike #cec buffalo #ceb1 #cec crimson #ceb hop1 see yellow4 hop trefoil1 see low hop4 least hop #ced low hop #ced rabbit foot 7,fig47 #cec1 #ced red #cea1 #ceb scarlet1 see crimson4 stone1 see rabbit-foot4 zig-zag #ceb ,see1 also1 ,alfalfa1 ,medics1 ,melilots4 ,cocoons #eh1 #ei1 #afg-afi of cecropia moth #afg1 #afh codlin-moth #ejh lace-winged fly #eci1 #edj1 #edc promethea moth #afh1 #afi tent caterpillar 7,fig47 #bcc1 #bce woolly-bear #baa1 #eci ,cockle #cfc ,cold-blooded animals #aii ,coleus #cgj1 #cgb ,common blue butterfly1 see ,butterflies4 ,cones1 of arborvitae #cde1 #cdg hemlock #cdd1 #cdg balsam fir #cdc1 #cdg ,austrian pine #cch1 #cci1 7,fig47 #cdj1 #cdf pitch pine #ccg1 #cch1 #cdf ,scotch pine #cch1 #cci1 #cdf white pine 7,fig47 #cce1 #ccf1 #cdf black spruce #cda1 #cdb1 #cdf ,norway spruce #cda1 7,fig47 #cdb1 #cdf red spruce #cdb1 #cdg white spruce #cdb1 #cdf ,corn1 ,indian #cig-djg1 #dji-dad1 #dhe-dhh1 #ega ,coreopsis #chc ,corydalis1 #ach ,cowbird #bfa1 #bfb ,crane-fly1 see ,flies4 ,crayfish #aej ,creek chub #afe ,crickets #ei1 #ff1 #edc ,crocus #ehb1 #ehc1 #ehh ,crow #aig1 #bhd1 #bhg-bij1 #eja1 #ejb ,cross-fertilization1 see ,pollination4 ,currants #cje1 #cgj1 #cgc1 7,fig47 #cgd1 #cge ,currant-worms #fh ,cuttings #cfi-cgh ,cutworms #bhh1 #djj1 #eja ,cyanide bottle #baf1 #bag ,dace1 black-nosed #aei ,daffodils #ehb-ehh ,dahlia #efd ,dairy products1 value in ,n4 ,y4 ,state1 #dhi ,damping-off #cgj1 #cga ,damsel-flies #acf1 #aed ,dandelion #cfb1 #cfc1 #dha1 #dhb ,darter1 ,johnny #afc ,delta #ajc1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc ,dew #hc ,dobson #acg1 #ach ,dock #cfb1 #chj ,dodder #cfj ,dog-day harvest fly1 see ,cicada4 ,domestic animals #gj1 #dad ,see1 also1 ,horses1 ,poultry4 ,doves #bed1 #bfa1 #bfd ,dragon-flies #acf1 #aed1 #aee1 #bbb ,ducks #ebb-ebd1 #ebe1 #ebf ,duck-weed #adh ,eel-grass #adg1 #adh ,eggs1 of ants #bdf caterpillars #baj1 #bbi1 #bcj1 7,fig47 #bce cicada #ecj1 #ecd frogs #ahh grasshoppers #baj lace-winged fly #eci1 #edc mosquito #bch1 #bci domestic fowls #ebd1 #ebe salamanders #ahh spiders #aha-ahc1 #baa1 #bhh toads #ahf-ahi1 #bjj ,egg-shell farms #def1 #eff1 #egc-egf ,electric-light bug1 see giant water bug under ,bugs4 ,elm1 ,american #cjj1 #cjc1 7,fig47 #cjh1 #cji1 #caj-caf1 #ccj slippery 7,fig47 #bii1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cjc struggle for existence #cfa ,entomological supplies1 dealers in #bbf ,evaporation #hb ,evergreens #ccc-cdg ,see special kinds4 ,fall web-worm1 see ,caterpillars4 ,ferns #gf1 #cfb ,finch1 grass1 see vesper sparrow under ,sparrows4 purple #bfa1 #bfe1 #bff ,fir1 balsam #cdc1 #cdg ,fireweed #cfd ,fish #fi1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeg-aff ,see special fish4 ,flicker1 see ,woodpeckers4 ,flies #fb1 #bbd black #aci crane 7,fig47 #bbc hellgrammite #ach horse #baj house #fc pomace 7,fig47 #bbb ,flood-plain #ajd1 #acj ,flowers1 pistillate #djj staminate #djj study of #ga1 #gb ,fog #hc1 #hf1 #hh1 #hi ,foods1 value of various kinds #daa1 #dab bulletins on #dac ,forestry #ge ,fossils #ajg ,frog #aej1 #aea1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #eja ,frost #dbf1 #dbg ,fruits #ga1 #gb ,galls #fa pine-cone willow #ace1 #acf ,gardens1 children's #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #cgi-chc1 #eei-eff1 #efi-ega1 #egc-egf ,geese #ebj-ebb1 #ebe1 #ebf ,geraniums #cgj1 #cgb1 #dai ,giant water-bug1 see ,bugs4 ,germination #efj-efb1 #eff1 #egc-egf of bean #bia1 #dfj-dff squash #bia-bie ,glacial scratches 7,fig47 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj ,glacier 7,fig47 #ajj1 #ajd-aac ,gladiolus #efd ,gold-fish #aej ,gooseberries #cje1 #cgc1 #cge ,grackle1 bronzed #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfc ,grafting #cgd-cgh ,grape 7,fig47 #cfc1 #cfd1 #cgj1 #cgc1 #cge ,grape hyacinth #ehh ,grass #cfb1 #cfc1 #cfd1 #chj ,grasshoppers #ef1 #ei1 #fb1 #fc1 #ff1 #baj1 #bhh1 #ebd ,guinea-pigs #gj ,hail #hh1 #hi ,hawthorn #cgd ,hay1 value as crop in ,n4 ,y4 ,state #dhi ,hellgrammite fly1 see ,flies4 ,hemlock #cdc-cde1 #cdg ,hepatica #cia-cic1 #dgg1 #dgh ,hibernation1 of butterflies #fa1 #bch mosquitoes #bch toad #aii1 #bjj woolly-bear #eci ,hickory1 buds #cbi1 7,fig47 #ccj small-fruited shagbark 7,fig47 #bih1 #cjj pignut 7,fig47 #bih1 #cjj ,high-hole1 see flicker under ,woodpeckers4 ,horse-chestnut 7,fig47 #dgd ,horse-fly1 see ,flies4 ,horses #ehi-eid ,see1 also1 ,domestic ,animals4 ,horticulture #ge ,house-fly1 see ,flies4 ,hyacinth #ehb1 #ehc1 #ehf1 #ehh ,ichneumon flies #baj ,imperial moth1 see ,moths4 ,indian turnip1 see ,jack-in-the-,pulpit4 ,insects1 cage for #eci1 7,fig47 #edj how to collect and preserve #bac-bbf of a brook #ace-adj suggestions for study #eh-fi ,isabella moth1 see ,moths4 ,jack-in-the-,pulpit #cie1 #cif1 #dgi1 #dhj ,johnny ,darters1 see ,darter4 ,june bug1 see ,bugs4 ,katydid #ff ,kingfisher #bfa1 #bff ,knotweed #bfb ,lace-winged fly #eci1 #edj1 #edc1 #edd ,lady-bugs1 see ,bugs4 ,leaf-miners #fj ,leaf-rollers #fj basswood 7,fig47 #bbd ,leaf-scars #dgd of evergreens #ccd ,leaves1 autumn colors #ga1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dhc fall of #dbg functions of #dbd1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #dhc ,lenses #bbh ,lettuce #efc1 #efd ,lightning #hi1 #ia ,lilac #cje ,lime #aah ,lobster #ej ,locusts1 mouth parts #ecj seventeen-year1 see ,cicada4 ,lucerne1 see ,alfalfa4 ,luna moths1 see ,moths4 ,maple1 black #dbh box elder #dbh goose-foot1 see striped4 mountain #dbg1 7,fig47 #dbi ,norway #cbi1 #dbh planting of #ddf red #dbh1 7,fig47 #dbi1 7,fig47 #dgc silver #dbh striped #dbg1 7,fig47 #dbh sugar #gc1 #gd1 #cbi1 #dbc-dcj swamp1 see red4 ,maple sugar #dca-dcd ,maps1 construction of #bjb-bje ,martins #bed ,may-flies #ach1 #aci ,meadow-lark #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bgd ,medics #cej1 #cea black #cee hop1 see black toothed #cee spotted #cee ,see1 also1 ,alfalfa4 ,melilots #cej1 #cea white sweet clover #cef yellow sweet clover #cef ,bokhara clover #cef ,mice #fi ,milkweed butterfly1 see ,butterflies4 ,mineral matter1 in seeds #daj1 #daa in soils #ajj ,minnows #adi1 #afe ,monarch butterfly1 see ,butterflies4 ,moraine #aaj ,mosquitoes #eh1 #ei1 #fb1 #aec1 #aed1 #bcg-bda1 #bgb ,moths1 how to collect #bbb how to distinguish from butterflies #bbd life cycle #afi basswood leaf-roller 7,fig47 #bbd cecropia #afg1 #afh clothes #fh codlin #fh1 #dfh-dga1 #ejh imperial 7,fig47 #bbe ,isabella tiger #eci1 7,fig47 #edb luna 7,fig47 #bbf promethea #afg1 #afh1 #afi scallop-shell #fa tussock #fh underwing 7,fig47 #bbe ,moulting1 of caterpillars #bcb cicada #eca snake #aih toad #aih1 #aii ,mudwasps1 see ,wasps4 ,mulching1 of soil #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #chj1 #cha ,mullein #cfb1 #egi ,museum pests #bai1 #bbj ,mushrooms #gd ,narcissus #ehb1 #ehc1 #ehh oriental #ehe1 #ehf ,nature-study1 outline of movement #ba-bi suggestions for 7graded course and bibliography7 #ee-gi what it is #aa-bj ,nettles #cfd ,n4 ,y4 ,teachers1 ,an appeal to #ca-dc ,n4 ,y4 ,state ,teachers' ,library #adh ,nitella 7,fig47 #adh1 #adi ,nitrogen #cej1 #cfj ,note-taking #dee-deg1 #deh1 #dei1 #dfj-dff ,nuthatch1 white-breasted #bhc-bhf red-breasted #bhe ,nutmeg #dji ,oaks1 grafting of #cgd scarlet #cjj swamp white #cjj ,oil1 in seeds #cih1 #dje1 #daj ,oriole #eae1 #eaf ,parsley #cfc ,parsnips #beg ,parrot's feather 7,fig47 #adh1 #adi ,peaches #cbh1 #cge1 #cgg ,pear #cgd1 #cge ,pepperidge #cjj1 #cja1 #cjd1 #cji ,petunias #chc ,phlox #chc ,phoebe #bhj1 #cfa1 #cfc ,pigeons #bed ,pigweeds #cfb1 #cfg ,pines1 ,austrian #cch1 #cci1 7,fig47 #cdj1 #cdf pitch #ccf-cch1 #cdf ,scotch #cch1 #cci1 #cdf ,pitchforks #cfb ,plantain #cfb ,plants1 breeding of #chi1 #cij1 #dje-djg1 #daa planting of #cfg1 #cfh physiology of #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #adb1 #dbd-dbg societies of #cfa-cfe ,plums #cge1 #cgg ,plum curculio1 see ,beetles4 ,pokeweed #cfd ,pollination #cea1 #ceb1 #djj ,polliwogs1 see ,tadpoles4 ,pomace flies1 see ,flies4 ,ponies #eic1 #eid ,pop-corn #dhh ,poplar1 ,carolina #ddd cutting of #cgc ,lombardy #cja1 7,fig47 #cjc1 #cjd ,poppies #chc ,potatoes #cgj1 #cgd1 #che-cij1 #djg ,pot-holes #acc ,poultry #eag-ebg ,see1 also1 ,domestic ,animals4 ,predaceous diving beetles1 see ,beetles4 ,promethea moth1 see ,moths4 ,protective coloration #fb1 #fc ,protein #cih1 #dje ,pruning #dag-dba1 #ddd1 #dge1 #dgf ,pumpkin #dja ,pupa1 of ants #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf butterflies1 see ,chrysalids4 mosquitoes #bci1 #bdj moths1 see ,chrysalids4 ,quince #cgd ,rabbit #ef1 #gj ,radish #efc1 #efd ,ragweed #cfb1 #egi ,raindrops #hf1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij ,rainfall #aai1 #abc ,raspberry #cje1 #cge ,robin #bch1 #bfa1 #dii1 #ejj ,rock flour #aaj ,roots1 growing point of #bic1 #bid ,rose 7,fig47 #cga ,rust1 on asters #cha1 #chb ,salamanders #ahh1 #aig1 #eja1 #eci-edd ,sand #aag1 #abj ,sapsucker1 see ,woodpeckers4 ,sassafras #cja1 7,fig47 #cjb1 #cji ,scale insects #fh ,scallop-shell moth1 see ,moths4 ,school grounds1 improvement of #ce1 #ch-da1 #dcg-ddg1 #eff-efh1 #ega1 #egb ,schoolroom1 ,the #i ,scion1 see ,cion4 ,seed1 dispersal of #gb dormant #dji1 #daj uses of stored food #dji-dad ,see1 also1 ,germination4 ,shiner #afb1 #afe ,shower1 ,a ,summer #ha-ia ,silage #djc ,siphon #add ,skipper1 silver spotted #fa ,sleep1 of flowers #gb ,slug #adi ,smartweed #cfb1 #chj ,snakes #aig1 #aih1 #eja ,snails #adc1 #adh1 #adi ,snow #hd1 #he1 #ic-ig1 #dec1 #ded ,snowball bush #cje ,snowdrops #ehb1 #ehc1 #ehh ,snowflakes #ehh ,soil #ii-aad value of various kinds #aae-abd in school gardens #efj1 #egj1 #ega1 #egd1 #egi1 #eha ,sparrows1 fox #bfd1 #bfe song #bfa1 #bfe tree #bfe white-crowned #bfe white-throated #bfa1 #bfe vesper #bfe ,spiders #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #aga-ahc1 #baa1 #bdi1 #bhh ,spraying #fh1 #fi ,springs #abf ,spruce1 black #cda-cdc1 #cdf ,norway #cci-cda1 7,fig47 #cdb1 #cdf red #cdb1 #cdc1 #cdg ,squash #bia-bie1 #djg ,squill #ehh ,squirrel1 red #dce1 #dcf black #dce how to study #fi ,starch #cca1 #chf1 #chg1 #cih1 #dje1 #daj1 #dhc ,stems1 growing point of #bie ,stickleback #afc ,stink-bugs1 see ,bugs4 ,stock1 for grafting #cgd ,stone-flies #ach1 #adj ,storms1 snow #ic-ig1 #dec1 #ded thunder #hf1 #hg1 #ij ,stratification #acc ,stream-cutting #abg-abi1 #acc ,stream deposition #ajd1 #acj1 #acc ,struggle for existence #gd1 #ge1 #cfa1 #daj1 #dah ,sumac #dca1 #dcc1 #dff ,sunfish #afa ,sweet clover1 see ,melilots4 ,sweet-peas #cgi-chc1 #efd ,swallow1 tree #bed ,tadpoles #ace1 #ahi-aic ,tape-grass #adg1 #adh ,terrarium #bjg-bab1 #ecg-edd ,thistle #cfd1 #egi ,thunder #hi ,thorn-apple #cja1 7,fig47 #cjc1 #cji ,tillage #egj1 #ega ,tomato #cgd ,trees1 winter aspect of #big-cje how to draw #cjg-caf how to plant #ddd-ddf see special kinds4 ,tree-toads #ahh1 #ahi1 #baj ,tussock moth1 see ,moths4 ,underwing moth1 see ,moths4 ,virginia creeper #ddd ,vireo #eae ,verbena #cgb ,vegetables #ga ,viceroy butterfly1 see ,butterflies4 ,walking-sticks #fc ,warm-blooded #aii ,wasps #fb1 #fc1 7,fig47 #bbd mud #acf ,water #abj1 #abf ,water boatmen1 see ,bugs4 ,watercress #adh ,waterfalls #abi1 #acc ,water-milfoil 7,fig47 #adh1 #adi ,water-purslane 7,fig47 #adh1 #adi ,water-scavenger beetle1 see ,beetle4 ,water-scorpion1 see ,bugs4 ,water-strider1 see ,bugs4 ,water-tiger #aeb ,weeds #gd ,wheat #daa ,whirligig beetle1 see ,beetles4 ,willows #cje1 #cgc1 #ddc1 #ddf pussy #ccj ,wire-grass #cfb ,wire-worms #djj ,woodpeckers #bfi-bgg1 #eje-eac downy #bfi1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bhd1 #ejg-eaj flicker #bgd-bgg1 #eab1 #eac golden-winged1 see flicker4 hairy #bfi1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bhd red-head #bgb1 #eje-ejg sapsucker #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #eaj-eab ,wrens #bed ,yarup1 see flicker under ,woodpeckers4 ,yellow-hammer1 see flicker under ,woodpeckers4 ,zinnias #chc ,transcriber's ,note3 ,alternative spelling retained4 ,punctuation normalized without comment4 ,spelling change ,page #ajh1 moivng was changed to read moving ,page #aee1 caddice-warm was changed to read caddice-worm4 ,page #agh1 entangeled was changed to read entangled4 ,page #aij1 grow a a great was changed to read grow a great4 ,page #bbc1 ,snappping beetle was changed to read ,snapping beetle4 ,page #bgd1 ,ornothology was changed to read ,ornithology4 ,page #bhd1 ,i pounded on the widow was changed to read ,i pounded on the window4 ,page #bhe1 ,audobon was changed to read ,audubon4 ,page #bhh1 omniverous was changed to read omnivorous4 ,page #cba1 histery was changed to read history4 ,page #cfc1 open ones eyes was changed to read open one's eyes4 ,page #chc1 motherworth and ,virginia creeper was changed to read motherwort and ,virginia creeper4 ,page #cif1 ,is is pleasant was changed to read ,is it pleasant4 ,page #ecj1 thousand liliputian was changed to read thousand lilliputian4 ,page #eaj1 once that it it is was changed to read once that it is4 ,page #eib1 ,is you should was changed to read ,if you should4