,,arch,,ology ,,and ,,the ,,bible ,illustration3 ,a ,,hillside ,,street ,,in ,,roman ,,jerusalem ,,along ,,which ,,jesus ,,and ,,the ,,disciples ,,may ,,well ,,have ,,walked 7after ,germer-,durand74 --,frontispiece4 ,green ,fund ,book1 ,no4 #ag ,,arch,,ology ,,and ,,the ,,bible ,,by ,,george ,a4 ,,barton1 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,biblical ,,literature ,,and ,,semitic ,,languages ,,in ,,bryn ,,mawr ,,college2 ,,sometime ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,school ,,of ,,oriental ,,research ,,in ,,jerusalem ,,part ,i ,,the ,,bible ,,lands1 ,,their ,,exploration1 ,,and ,,the ,,resultant ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,bible ,,and ,,history ,,part ,,ii ,,translations ,,of ,,ancient ,,documents ,,which ,,confirm ,,or ,,illuminate ,,the ,,bible ,,philadelphia ,,american ,,sunday-,,school ,,union #ahaf ,chestnut ,street ,copyright1 #aiaf1 by ,,american ,,sunday-,,school ,,union ,all rights vested in and reserved by ,,american ,,sunday-,,school ,,union ,first ,edition1 ,may1 #aiaf4 ,second ,edition1 ,june1 #aiag4 ,to ,,caroline ,b4 ,d4 ,,barton ,faithful ,comrade in the ,campaign of ,life ,,preface ,for a hundred years or more the explorer and the excavator have been busy in many parts of the world4 ,they have brought to light monuments and texts that have in many cases revolutionized our conceptions of history and have in other cases thrown much new light on what was previously known4 ,in no part of the world have these labors been more fruitful than in the lands of the ,bible4 ,in ,egypt and ,babylonia vistas of history have been opened to view that were undreamed of before exploration began4 ,the same is true for that part of the history of ,palestine which antedates the coming of ,israel4 ,information has also been obtained which illumines later portions of the history1 and makes the ,biblical narrative seem much more vivid4 ,it is now possible to make real to oneself the details of the life of the ,biblical heroes1 and to understand the problems of their world as formerly one could not do4 ,exploration has also brought to light many inscriptions in the various countries that confirm or illuminate the traditions1 history1 poetry1 and prophecy of the ,bible4 ,the sands of ,egypt have even yielded us some reputed new sayings of our ,lord4 ,it is the purpose of this book to gather into one volume the most valuable information of all sorts that the excavations in ,bible lands have afforded1 and to put it in such form that it may be of service to the pastor and ,sunday-school teacher4 ,an attempt has been made so to present the material that one may not only have the wealth of illumination for ,biblical study that exploration has produced1 but also that he may possess an outline of the history of the exploration and of the countries sufficient to enable him to place each item in its proper perspective4 ,whether in handling so large a mass of data the writer has achieved his aim1 the reader must judge4 ,the preparation of the volume was undertaken at the request of the ,board of ,managers of the ,american ,sunday-,school ,union1 for publication under the ,john ,c4 ,green ,income ,fund1--a fund founded in #ahgg 8for the purpose of aiding 444 in securing a ,sunday-school literature of the highest order of merit 444 by procuring works 444 germane to the objects of the ,society40 ,the foundation requires that the manuscripts procured by the fund shall become the exclusive property of the ,american ,sunday-,school ,union1 and1 that the selling price may be reduced1 the ,society is prohibited from including the cost of the manuscript in the price of the book4 ,this work is confined to those phases of archology upon which light has been thrown by exploration4 ,no attempt is made1 for example1 to treat the constitution of the ,hebrew family1 or the dress worn in ancient ,palestine1 for these are subjects to which exploration has contributed no new knowledge4 ,the texts published in ,part ,,ii have1 with few exceptions1 been freshly translated by the writer especially for this work4 ,this is true of all except the majority of the ,egyptian texts and two ,greek papyri which were not accessible in the original4 ,translations of these were taken from the works of well-known scholars1 to each of whom credit is given in connection with the passage quoted from his work4 ,the quotations of ,palestinian place names from the inscriptions of the ,egyptian kings1 of which the writer has made a special study1 are based on his own translations of the originals4 ,an archological fact1 or a text brought to light by excavation1 is often of little significance apart from its interpretation1 and the interpretation of such data frequently varies according to the point of view occupied by the interpreter4 ,as stated in the foreword of ,part ,,ii1 it has been the writer's aim throughout to maintain a neutral attitude on controverted points4 ,not the least service that archology has rendered has been the presentation of a new background against which the inspiration of the ,biblical writers stands out in striking vividness4 ,often one finds traditions in ,babylonia identical with those embodied in the ,old ,testament1 but they are so narrated that no such conception of ,god shines through them as shines through the ,biblical narrative4 ,babylonians and ,egyptians pour out their hearts in psalms with something of the same fervor and pathos as the ,hebrews1 but no such vital conception of ,god and his oneness gives shape to their faith and brings the longed-for strength to the spirit4 ,egyptian sages developed a social conscience comparable in many respects with that of the ,hebrew prophets1 but they lacked the vital touch of religious devotion which took the conceptions of the prophets out of the realm of individual speculation and made them the working ethics of a whole people4 ,archology thus reinforces to the modern man with unmistakable emphasis the ancient words1 8,men spake from ,god1 being moved by the ,holy ,spirit0 7#b ,peter #a3ba74 ,the writer is under obligation to all his predecessors4 ,endeavor has been made in the footnotes to acknowledge each individual obligation4 ,lest any oversight may have occurred there1 he would here express both his indebtedness and his gratitude to all who by their various explorations and studies have preceded him and been his teachers4 ,of these1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister should1 perhaps1 be singled out for an especial word of gratitude1 for in ,chapters ,,vi-,,xi of ,part ,i his work of excavation has been quoted more frequently than any other4 ,this apparent partiality is due to the fact that ,gezer was excavated more completely than any other ,palestinian site2 that1 because of its early and long-continued occupation in ancient times1 it reveals a great variety of civilizations2 and that1 in ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,prof4 ,macalister has presented the results of his work with a completeness and a degree of intelligibility that no other excavator in ,palestine has approached4 ,he has made his work a model of what such a publication should be1 and has thereby made us all his debtors4 ,especial thanks are due to ,dr4 ,george ,b4 ,gordon1 ,director of the ,university ,museum1 ,philadelphia1 for his kindness in furnishing an advance copy of the proof-sheets of ,volume ,x of the ,publications of the ,babylonian ,section of the museum1 from which the material embodied in ,chapter ,,viii of ,part ,,ii was translated1 and to ,prof4 ,morris ,jastrow1 ,jr41 and ,dr4 ,edward ,chiera for the benefit of their fresh collation of the text4 ,this was of considerable importance1 since ,dr4 ,langdon's copy of large portions of it had been made from photographs1 rather than from the original tablet4 ,the writer is also indebted to ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,arnold1 of ,andover ,theological ,seminary1 for helpful suggestions concerning the interpretation of a passage in the temple-papyrus from ,elephantine which has hitherto baffled translators4 ,thanks are also due to the following authors and publishers for permission to reproduce illustrations contained in books written or published by them3 ,the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 for permission relating to ,warren's ,jerusalem2 ,bliss and ,macalister's ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj2 ,macalister's ,excavation of ,gezer1 and ,peters and ,thiersch's ,painted ,tombs of ,marissa2 ,rev4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,j4 ,ball1 of ,oxford1 ,light from the ,east2 ,j4 ,c4 ,hinrichs'sche ,buchhandlung1 ,koldewey's ,das ,wieder ,erstehende ,babylon2 ,dr4 ,i4 ,benzinger and ,herr ,paul ,siebeck1 ,hebrische ,archologie2 ,monsieur ,j4 ,gabalda1 ,vincent's ,jrusalem2 ,prof4 ,a4 ,t4 ,clay1 of ,yale1 ,light on the ,old ,testament from ,babel2 ,prof4 ,paul ,haupt1 of ,johns ,hopkins1 ,the ,psalms in his ,sacred ,books of the ,old ,testament2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,peters and ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,peters' ,nippur2 ,prof4 ,c4 ,c4 ,torrey1 of ,yale1 ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society2 ,george ,h4 ,doran ,co41 ,ramsay's ,letters to the ,seven ,churches of ,asia2 ,dr4 ,mitchell ,carroll1 ,american ,journal of ,archology and ,art and ,archology2 ,rev4 ,a4 ,e4 ,breen1 ,diary of ,my ,life in the ,holy ,land2 ,thomas ,nelson and ,sons1 ,the ,illustrated ,teachers' ,bible2 and to ,ferris and ,leach1 for permission to use again a number of photographs published in the writer's ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,e4 ,brnnow not only granted permission to reproduce illustrations from ,brnnow and ,domaszewski's ,provincia ,arabia1 but generously loaned the original photographs and drawings4 ,prof4 ,harold ,n4 ,fowler1 ,editor of the ,american ,journal of ,archology1 also kindly loaned an original photograph of the excavation at ,sardis4 ,the source of each illustration1 when not the writer's own1 is indicated in the list of illustrations by mentioning the name of the author of the book or article from which it is taken4 ,grateful acknowledgment should also be made to ,rev4 ,edwin ,wilbur ,rice1 ,d4 ,d41 ,litt4 ,d41 ,honorary ,editor of the ,publications of the ,american ,sunday-,school ,union1 who carefully read the book in manuscript and made many valuable criticisms and suggestions4 ,the table of contents and the chapter-headings were prepared by ,james ,mc,conaughy1 ,litt4 ,d41 ,editor of the ,publications of the ,american ,sunday-,school ,union2 the indices1 by ,a4 ,j4 ,r4 ,schumaker1 ,m4 ,a41 ,assistant ,editor4 ,the writer is grateful to them1 not only for this service1 but for many helpful criticisms and courtesies while the book has been passing through the press4 ,valuable suggestions have also been made by ,mrs4 ,barton1 who has carefully read the proofs4 ,miss ,bertha ,v4 ,dreisbach has given intelligent and painstaking service in preparing the manuscript for the press1 and in proof-reading2 ,mr4 ,v4 ,winfield ,challenger and ,miss ,laura ,g4 ,leach have rendered a like valuable service in assembling and arranging the illustrations4 ,the quotations of ,scripture passages throughout are from the ,american ,standard ,revised ,version4 ,if this volume should bring to some remote worker or secluded young person a tithe of the inspiration and joy that such a book would have brought the writer in the rural home of his boyhood1 he would ask no higher reward for the labor it has cost4 ,,george ,a4 ,,barton4 ,,bryn ,,mawr1 ,,pa4 ,,may1 #aiaf4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,it is gratifying to know that this book has been found useful by so many students of the ,bible and that a second edition is necessary4 ,minor errors1 especially typographical1 have been corrected throughout the volume4 ,the chief feature of this edition is the addition of an ,appendix1 in which will be found some material that has come to light in the last year1 and one or two items that were overlooked when the first edition was written4 ,,george ,a4 ,,barton4 ,,bryn ,,mawr1 ,,pa4 ,,june1 #aiag4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations #a ,,table ,,of ,,signs #i ,,introduction #aa ,i4 ,,egypt #ag ,the ,land4 ,the ,preservation of ,antiquities4 ,egyptian ,discoveries4 ,decipherment4 ,chronology4 ,outline of the ,history4 ,egyptian ,discoveries which bear on the ,bible4 ,,ii4 ,,babylonia ,,and ,,assyria #dj ,the ,land4 ,the ,preservation of ,antiquities4 ,the ,discovery of ,antiquities4 ,the ,decipherment of the ,inscriptions4 ,chronology4 ,outline of the ,history4 ,discoveries which illumine the ,bible4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,hittites #fh ,a ,forgotten ,empire4 ,hittite ,monuments4 ,hittite ,decipherment4 ,hittite ,history4 ,,iv4 ,,palestine ,,and ,,its ,,exploration #hc ,the ,land4 ,early ,exploration4 ,early ,american ,explorations4 ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,the ,german ,palestine ,society4 ,the ,american ,school at ,jerusalem4 ,samaria4 ,parker's ,excavations at ,jerusalem4 ,latest ,excavations4 ,v4 ,,outline ,,of ,,palestine',s ,,arch,,ological ,,history #ajc ,the ,early ,stone ,age4 ,the ,late ,stone ,age4 ,the ,amorites4 ,the ,canaanites4 ,egyptian ,domination4 ,the ,philistines4 ,the ,hebrews4 ,philistine ,civilization4 ,the ,hebrew ,kingdoms4 ,the ,exile and ,after4 ,the ,coming of ,rome4 ,later ,history4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,palestine #abc ,their ,sites4 ,the ,walls4 ,the ,stone ,work4 ,houses4 ,palaces4 ,foundation ,sacrifices4 ,city ,gates4 ,water ,supply4 ,,vii4 ,,roads ,,and ,,agriculture #acb ,,viii4 ,,pottery #ada ,importance of ,pottery4 ,pre-,semitic ,pottery4 ,first ,semitic ,pottery to #ahjj ,b4 ,c4 ,pottery of ,second ,semitic ,period4 ,third ,semitic ,period4 ,israelitish or ,fourth ,semitic ,period4 ,hellenistic ,period4 ,,ix4 ,,utensils ,,and ,,personal ,,ornaments #adi ,x4 ,,measures1 ,,weights1 ,,and ,,money #aeh ,measures4 ,weights4 ,inscribed ,weights4 ,money4 ,,xi4 ,,high ,,places ,,and ,,temples #afg ,a ,sanctuary of the ,pre-,semitic ,cave-,dwellers4 ,a ,rock-,altar at ,megiddo4 ,a ,rock-,altar at ,jerusalem4 ,high ,place at ,tell es-,safi4 ,high ,place at ,gezer4 ,at ,taanach4 ,high ,places at ,petra4 ,a ,supposed ,philistine ,temple4 ,at ,megiddo4 ,the ,temple to ,augustus at ,samaria4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,tombs ,,of ,,palestine #agi ,burning the ,dead4 ,cave ,burials4 ,cistern ,burial4 ,burial under ,menhirs4 ,earth-,graves4 ,rock-,hewn ,shaft ,tombs4 ,doorway ,tombs4 ,tombs with a ,rolling-,stone4 ,,xiii4 ,,jerusalem #ahe ,situation4 ,gihon4 ,cave-,dwellers4 ,the ,el-,amarna ,period4 ,jebusite ,jerusalem4 ,the ,city of ,david4 ,solomon's ,jerusalem4 ,from ,solomon to ,hezekiah4 ,hezekiah4 ,from ,hezekiah to the ,exile4 ,the ,destruction of #ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,the ,second ,temple4 ,nehemiah and the ,walls4 ,late ,persian and ,early ,greek ,periods4 ,in the ,time of the ,maccabees4 ,asmonan ,jerusalem4 ,herod the ,great4 ,the ,pool of ,bethesda4 ,gethsemane4 ,calvary4 ,agrippa ,i and the ,third ,wall4 ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,decapolis #bac ,origin4 ,damascus4 ,scythopolis4 ,cities ,east of the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,gadara4 ,pella and ,dion4 ,gerasa4 ,philadelphia4 ,jesus in the ,decapolis4 ,,xv4 ,,athens1 ,,corinth1 ,,and ,,the ,,churches ,,of ,,asia #bai ,,part ,,ii ,i4 ,,an ,,epic ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,which ,,circulated ,,in ,,babylon ,,and ,,assyria ,,in ,,the ,,seventh ,,century ,b4 ,c4 #bce ,text of the ,epic4 ,comparison of the ,epic with the ,first ,chapter of ,genesis4 ,the ,epic and ,other ,parts of the ,bible4 ,,ii4 ,,another ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,found ,,at ,,babylon #bee ,text of the ,account4 ,comparison of it with ,genesis #b4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,babylonian ,,sabbath #beh ,feast of ,marduk and ,zarpanit4 ,a ,day called ,shabatum4 ,a ,day in ,some ,tablets at ,yale4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,adapa ,,and ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,man #bfj ,comparison with ,genesis #c4 ,the ,adapa ,myth4 ,v4 ,,the ,,patriarchs ,,before ,,the ,,flood #bfd ,babylonian ,long-,lived ,kings4 ,comparison with ,genesis #e4 ,comparison with ,genesis #d4 ,comparison with the ,list of ,berossos4 ,,vi4 ,a ,,babylonian ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,flood1 ,,from ,a ,,tablet ,,written ,,at ,,nineveh ,,in ,,the ,,seventh ,,century ,b4 ,c4 #bgc ,translation of the ,text4 ,comparison with ,genesis #f-i4 ,another ,babylonian ,version4 ,,vii4 ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,and ,,flood1 ,,from ,a ,,tablet ,,written ,,at ,,nippur ,,before #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 #bgh ,translation4 ,comparison with the ,other ,version4 ,,viii4 ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,a ,,city ,,and ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,from ,a ,,tablet ,,written ,,at ,,nippur ,,before #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 #bhc ,translation4 ,comparison with ,biblical ,material4 ,,ix4 ,,abraham ,,and ,,arch,,ology #bij ,abraham hired an ,ox4 ,abraham leased a ,farm4 ,abraham paid his ,rent4 ,who was this ,abraham8 ,travel between ,babylonia and ,palestine4 ,hammurapi1 ,king of the ,westland4 ,kadur-,mabug4 ,kings supposed by some to be those of ,genesis #ad4 ,x4 ,,jacob ,,and ,,joseph #bii ,appearances of these ,names in ,babylonian and ,egyptian ,records4 8,the ,tale of the ,two ,brothers02 its ,bearing on the ,story of ,joseph in ,genesis4 ,letters to a ,ruler like ,joseph4 ,the ,seven ,years of ,famine4 ,inscription showing ,preparation for ,famine4 ,,xi4 ,,palestine ,,in ,,the ,,patriarchal ,,age #cjg ,the ,tale of ,sinuhe4 ,communication between ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,,xii4 ,,moses ,,and ,,the ,,exodus #caj ,the ,legend of ,sargon of ,agade2 its ,resemblance to the ,story of ,moses4 ,the ,pillar of ,merneptah2 the ,only ,appearance of the ,name 8,israel0 outside of the ,bible4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,code ,,of ,,hammurapi ,,and ,,the ,,pentateuch #cac ,the ,text of the ,code2 ,resemblance to and ,contrast with the ,mosaic ,code4 ,the ,mosaic ,code not borrowed from the ,babylonian2 ,different ,underlying ,conceptions4 ,,xiv4 ,,an ,,alleged ,,parallel ,,to ,,leviticus--,a ,,carthaginian ,,law ,,concerning ,,sacrifices #cdb ,the ,text of the ,carthaginian ,law4 ,comparison with the ,levitical ,law4 ,,xv4 ,,some ,,letters ,,from ,,palestine #cdd ,letters of ,rib-,adda of ,gebal4 ,of ,ebed-,hepa of ,jerusalem4 ,their ,light on ,conditions in the ,period of the ,egyptian ,domination of ,palestine4 ,,xvi4 ,,documents ,,from ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,israel',s ,,judges #ceb ,report of ,wenamon4 ,its ,illustration of ,certain ,points of ,biblical ,history about the ,time of ,deborah or ,gideon4 ,reference to the ,philistines4 ,,xvii4 ,,arch,,ological ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,kings #ceh ,gudea and ,cedar-,wood for his ,palace4 ,the ,eponym ,canon4 ,the ,seal of ,shema4 ,shishak's ,list of ,conquered ,asiatic ,cities4 ,ashurnasirpal's ,description of his ,expedition to ,mediterranean ,lands4 ,shalmaneser ,,iii's ,claims regarding ,tribute from the ,kings of ,israel4 ,the ,moabite ,stone4 ,adadnirari ,,iv's ,mention of the 8,land of ,omri40 ,inscription describing ,tiglathpileser ,,iv's ,campaign4 ,sargon's ,conquests4 ,sennacherib's ,western ,campaigns4 ,the ,siloam ,inscription4 ,esarhaddon's ,list of ,conquered ,kings4 ,ashurbanipal's ,assyrian ,campaign4 ,necho of ,egypt4 ,nebuchadrezzar ,,ii4 ,evil-,merodach4 ,discoveries in ,sheba4 ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,babylonian ,,exile #chb ,inscriptions of ,nabuna'id2 their ,bearing on ,biblical ,statements regarding ,belshazzar4 ,account of the ,capture of ,babylon bearing on the ,book of ,daniel4 ,inscription of ,cyrus bearing on the ,capture of ,babylon4 ,cyrus's ,permission for the ,return to ,jerusalem4 ,,xix4 ,a ,,jewish ,,colony ,,in ,,egypt ,,during ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,nehemiah #chg ,papyri ,witness to the ,existence of a ,colony at ,elephantine4 ,translation of a ,petition relating to their ,temple4 ,reply of ,persian ,governor4 ,historical ,bearings of these ,documents4 ,a ,letter relating to the ,passover4 ,a ,letter showing that the ,jews were ,unpopular at ,elephantine4 ,,xx4 ,a ,,babylonian ,,job #cib ,translation of a ,poem relating to the ,afflictions of a ,good ,man4 ,comparison with the ,book of ,job4 ,a ,fragment of ,another ,similar ,poem4 ,,xxi4 ,,psalms ,,from ,,babylonia ,,and ,,egypt #cih ,character of their ,psalms4 ,babylonian ,prayers to the ,goddess ,ishtar4 ,comparison with the ,psalter4 ,a ,babylonian ,hymn to the ,moon-,god4 ,a ,babylonian ,hymn to ,bel4 ,an ,egyptian ,hymn to the ,sun-,god4 ,is the ,hymn ,monotheistic8 ,an ,egyptian ,hymn in ,praise of ,aton4 ,comparison with the ,psalter4 ,,xxii4 ,,parallels ,,to ,,proverbs ,,and ,,ecclesiastes #djg ,the ,nature of the ,book of ,proverbs and the ,parallels4 ,babylonian ,proverbs from the ,library of ,ashurbanipal4 ,precepts from the ,library of ,ashurbanipal4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,egyptian ,precepts of ,ptahhotep4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,parallel to ,ecclesiastes from the ,gilgamesh ,epic4 ,,xxiii4 ,,egyptian ,,parallels ,,to ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,songs #dac ,nature of the ,song of ,songs4 ,translation of ,some ,egyptian ,love-,poems4 ,comparison with ,biblical ,passages4 ,,xxiv4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,passages ,,in ,,the ,,prophets #dag ,uniqueness of the ,prophetic ,books4 ,an ,assyrian ,prophetic ,vision4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,the ,egyptian ,social ,conscience4 ,tale of the ,eloquent ,peasant4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,an ,ideal ,king2 ,extract from the ,admonitions of ,ipuwer4 ,comparison with ,messianic ,expectations4 ,sheol4 ,ishtar's ,descent to the ,underworld4 ,comparison with ,prophetic ,passages4 ,a ,lamentation for ,tammuz4 ,,xxv4 ,,reputed ,,sayings ,,of ,,jesus ,,found ,,in ,,egypt #dbh ,early ,collections of the ,words of ,jesus4 ,translation of ,sayings found in #ahig4 ,comments4 ,translation of a ,leaf found in #aijd4 ,comments4 ,opinions as to these ,sayings4 ,,xxvi4 ,,arch,,ological ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,enrolment ,,of ,,quirinius #dcb ,translation of a ,papyrus showing that in the ,second ,century ,enrolment was made ,every ,fourteen ,years4 ,comments4 ,translation referring to an ,enrolment in the ,reign of ,nero4 ,fragment from the ,reign of ,tiberius4 ,enrolments probably inaugurated by ,augustus4 ,document showing that ,people went to their own towns for ,enrolment4 ,inscription supposed to refer to ,quirinius4 ,inscription from ,asia ,minor referring to ,quirinius4 ,discussion4 ,conclusions4 ,,xxvii4 ,,arch,,ological ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,acts ,,and ,,epistles #dch ,the ,politarchs of ,thessalonica4 ,an ,altar to ,unknown ,gods4 ,an ,inscription from ,delphi and the ,date of ,paul's ,contact with ,gallio4 ,some ,epistles from ,egypt4 ,inscriptions mentioning ,aretas1 ,king of ,arabia4 ,,appendix #dde ,discoveries at ,carchemish4 ,hrozny's ,decipherment of ,hittite4 ,discoveries at ,jerusalem and ,balata4 ,a ,new ,babylonian ,account of the ,creation of ,man4 ,reports of ,commanders of ,egyptian ,frontier-,fortresses ,relating to the ,entrance of ,asiatics into ,egypt in ,time of ,famine4 ,supposed ,trace of the ,ten ,lost ,tribes in ,mesopotamia4 ,,index ,,of ,,scripture ,,passages #dec ,,index #dei ,,illustrations3 ,plates #a-aad4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,a ,hillside ,street in ,roman ,jerusalem along which ,jesus and the ,disciples may well have walked ,frontispiece4 ,,figure ,,plate #a ,syrian ,traders in ,egypt1 from a ,tomb at ,beni ,hasan 7after ,ball7 #a #b ,crown of ,lower ,egypt #a #c ,crown of ,upper ,egypt #a #d ,crown of ,united ,egypt #a #e ,sphinx and ,pyramid of ,khafre #a #f ,pyramids of ,khufu and ,khafre #b #g ,step ,pyramid of ,zoser #b #h ,body from a ,pre-dynastic ,tomb #c #i ,head of the ,mummy of ,ramses ,,ii #c #aj ,a ,store-,chamber at ,pithom 7after ,naville7 #d #aa ,ancient and ,modern ,brick-,making 7after ,petrie7 #d #ab ,plan of ,city and ,temple of ,leontopolis 7after ,petrie7 #e #ac ,a ,passover-,oven 7after ,petrie7 #e #ad ,the ,rosetta ,stone 7after ,thomas ,nelson and ,sons7 #f #ae ,the 8,israel0 ,inscription of ,merneptah #f #af ,mounds of ,nuffar 7after ,clay7 #g #ag ,excavation at ,nuffar 7after ,clay7 #g #ah ,gate of ,ishtar1 ,babylon 7after ,koldewey7 #h #ai ,phalanx of ,soldiers from ,eannatum's 8,stele of ,vultures0 #h #bj ,inscribed ,column from ,persepolis #i #ba ,silver ,vase of ,entemena #i #bb ,mound of ,birs ,nimrd 7after ,peters7 #i #bc ,hittite ,gates at ,boghaz ,koi 7after ,puchstein7 #aj #bd ,hittite ,types from ,egyptian ,monuments 7after ,garstang7 #aj #be ,a ,hittite ,king 7after ,puchstein7 #aa #bf ,the ,boss of ,tarkondemos #aa #bg ,the ,seal of ,shema1 ,servant of ,jeroboam #aa #bh ,tell el-,hesy after ,excavation #ab #bi ,the ,site of the ,old ,testament ,jericho #ab #cj ,excavation of ,gezer #ac #ca ,remains of a ,colonnaded ,street at ,samaria #ac #cb ,excavation at ,tell ,hum #ad #cc ,egyptians ,attacking a ,palestinian ,city 7after ,perrot and ,chipiez7 #ad #cd ,israelitish ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #ae #ce ,israelitish ,houses at ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #ae #cf ,philistines from the ,palace of ,ramses ,,iii #af #cg ,canaanitish ,fortress at ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #af #ch ,inscribed ,disc from ,phstos 7one-fourth actual size7 #ag #ci ,gebel ,fureidis #ag #dj ,bastion for the ,protection of an ,inserted ,tower 7after ,macalister7 #ah #da ,remains of ,walls of ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #ah #db ,walls of ,buildings at ,samaria 7after ,reisner7 #ai #dc ,specimens of ,stone-,work at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ai #dd ,building-,bricks from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ai #de ,plan of ,palace at ,taanach 7after ,sellin7 #bj #df ,the ,great ,city ,wall at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bj #dg ,israelitish ,houses at ,gezer #ba #dh ,specimens of ,mosaic ,floors 7after ,macalister7 #ba #di ,a ,doorway at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bb #ej ,door-,sockets from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bb #ea ,supposed ,house of ,hiel1 ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #bc #eb ,foundation of the ,palace of ,omri1 ,samaria 7after ,reisner7 #bc #ec ,hebrew ,palace at ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #bc #ed ,plan of the ,maccaban ,castle at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bd #ee ,stone-,work of the ,maccaban ,castle 7after ,macalister7 #bd #ef ,a ,foundation-,deposit1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bd #eg ,a ,city ,gate at ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #be #eh ,the ,south ,gate at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #be #ei ,the ,south ,gate at ,beth-shemesh 7after ,mackenzie7 #be #fj ,entrance to the ,underground ,tunnel at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bf #fa ,the ,north ,gate at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bf #fb ,plans of the ,underground ,tunnel at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #bg #fc ,plan of ,underground ,tunnel at ,gibeon 7after ,abel7 #bh #fd ,one of ,solomon's ,pools #bh #fe ,post of ,city ,gate1 ,samaria 7after ,reisner7 #bi #ff ,part of ,city ,wall and ,gate1 ,samaria 7after ,reisner7 #bi #fg ,road ,south of ,gerizim #cj #fh ,lines of ,roman ,roads at ,tell el-,ful #cj #fi ,roman ,road ,north of ,amman #cj #gj ,a ,granary at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ca #ga ,some ,roman ,mile-,stones #ca #gb ,plan of a ,granary at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ca #gc ,a ,hoe 7after ,macalister7 #cb #gd ,an ,egyptian ,reaping 7after ,wreszinski7 #cb #ge ,a ,sickle 7after ,wreszinski7 #cb #gf ,plowshares from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #cb #gg ,egyptian ,plowing 7after ,wilkinson7 #cc #gh ,a ,modern ,threshing-,floor #cc #gi ,egyptians ,threshing and ,winnowing 7after ,wilkinson7 #cc #hj ,egyptian ,threshing-,sledge 7after ,wilkinson7 #cc #ha ,a ,saddle-,quern from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #cd #hb ,a ,rotary-,quern 7after ,macalister7 #cd #hc ,a ,mortar and ,pestle 7after ,macalister7 #cd #hd ,two ,women ,grinding at a ,mill 7after ,schumacher7 #cd #he ,an ,ancient ,olive-,press 7after ,macalister7 #ce #hf ,a ,modern ,olive-,press 7after ,macalister7 #ce #hg ,a ,wine ,vat 7after ,macalister7 #cf #hh ,an ,olive-,press at ,work 7after ,macalister7 #cf #hi ,cows' ,horns from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #cg #ij ,animals' ,heads from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #cg #ia ,a ,horse's ,bit from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #cg #ib ,drawings of ,horses from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #cg #ic ,a ,clay ,bird from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ch #id ,a ,cock from ,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch7 #ch #ie ,a ,bee-,hive from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ch #if ,pre-,semitic ,jars 7after ,macalister7 #ci #ig ,pre-,semitic ,pottery 7after ,macalister7 #ci #ih ,four ,pitchers from the ,first ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #ci #ii ,three ,pitchers from the ,first ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #ci #ajj ,a ,jar from the ,first ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #ci #aja ,jugs from the ,second ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #dj #ajb ,a ,jug from the ,second ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #dj #ajc ,a ,jar from the ,second ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #dj #ajd ,some ,fine ,pottery from the ,first ,semitic ,stratum 7after ,macalister7 #da #aje 8,ear0 and 8,button0 ,jar-,handles 7after ,macalister7 #da #ajf ,a 8,pillar0 ,handle 7after ,macalister7 #da #ajg ,a ,flat-bottomed ,jug 7after ,macalister7 #da #ajh ,a ,painted ,philistine ,vase from ,beth-shemesh 7after ,mackenzie7 #db #aji ,war-,scene on ,potsherd from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #db #aaj ,jars of ,third ,semitic ,stratum from ,beth-shemesh 7after ,mackenzie7 #db #aaa ,hebrew ,pottery from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #db #aab ,hebrew ,jars and ,pitchers from ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #dc #aac ,hebrew ,pitchers and ,bowls from ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #dc #aad ,a ,funnel from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #dd #aae ,a ,potter's ,seal from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #dd #aaf ,an ,inscribed ,hebrew ,jar-,stamp from the ,shephelah 7after ,bliss and ,macalister7 #dd #aag ,hebrew ,pottery from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #dd #aah ,a ,scarab used as a ,jar-,stamp 7after ,macalister7 #de #aai ,a ,jar-,handle ,stamped with a ,scarab 7after ,macalister7 #de #abj ,a ,jar with ,tapering ,base from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #de #aba ,hellenistic ,filter from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #de #abb ,hellenistic ,pottery from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #de #abc ,hellenistic ,strainer from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #df #abd ,roman ,pots from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #df #abe ,hellenistic ,jar from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #df #abf ,a ,lamp of the ,first ,semitic ,period1 ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #df #abg ,lamps from the ,second ,semitic ,period1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #dg #abh ,lamps from the ,israelitish ,period1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #dg #abi ,a ,byzantine ,lamp from ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #dg #acj ,a ,lamp bearing a ,christian ,legend 7after ,macalister7 #dg #aca ,hellenistic ,lamps from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #dh #acb ,hebrew ,lamps from ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #dh #acc ,ovens found at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #di #acd ,a ,baking-,tray from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #di #ace ,bronze ,dishes from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #di #acf ,shell ,spoons from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #di #acg ,silver ,dishes from a ,philistine ,grave at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ej #ach ,glass ,ointment ,vessels from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ej #aci ,feeding-,bottles 7871 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ea #adj ,forks from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ea #ada ,philistine ,silver ,ladle1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ea #adb ,bronze ,needles and ,pins from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ea #adc ,bone ,needles from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eb #add ,modern ,woman ,spinning #eb #ade ,spindle ,whorls from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eb #adf ,a ,large ,key from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eb #adg ,a ,smaller ,key from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eb #adh ,lamp-,stands from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #ec #adi ,flint ,knives from ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #ec #aej ,iron ,knives from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ed #aea ,bronze ,knives from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ed #aeb ,a ,chisel from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #aec ,a ,file from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #aed ,a ,cone of ,flint for making ,knives1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #aee ,a ,bronze ,hammer-,head1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #aef ,a ,fish-,hook1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #aeg ,a ,bone ,awl-,handle from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #aeh ,whetstones from ,jericho 7after ,sellin7 #ee #aei ,nails from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ee #afj ,axe-,heads from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ef #afa ,carpenters' ,tools from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ef #afb ,a ,scimitar from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eg #afc ,impression of a ,basket on ,mud1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eg #afd ,flint ,arrow-,heads from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eg #afe ,bronze ,arrow-,heads from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eg #aff ,bronze ,swords from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eh #afg ,bronze ,spear-,heads1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #eh #afh ,a ,pipe from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ei #afi ,an ,egyptian ,harp 7after ,haupt7 #ei #agj ,an ,assyrian ,upright ,harp 7after ,haupt7 #ei #aga ,an ,assyrian ,horizontal ,harp 7after ,haupt7 #ei #agb ,a ,babylonian ,harp 7after ,haupt7 #ei #agc ,jewish ,harps on ,coins of ,bar ,cocheba1 #acb-ace ,a4 ,d4 7after ,madden7 #ei #agd ,assyrian ,dulcimer 7after ,haupt7 #ei #age ,seals from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fj #agf ,a ,comb from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fj #agg ,toys from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fj #agh ,styli from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fj #agi ,children's ,rattles from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fj #ahj ,a ,perfume-,box1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fa #aha ,a ,necklace from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fa #ahb ,bracelets from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fa #ahc ,spatul from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fa #ahd ,rings from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fa #ahe ,supposed ,hebrew ,measures from ,jerusalem 7after ,germer-,durand7 #fb #ahf ,a ,neseph ,weight #fc #ahg ,a ,payim ,weight belonging to ,haverford ,college #fc #ahh ,a ,beqa ,weight 7after ,torrey7 #fc #ahi ,a 8,daric0 of ,darius 7after ,benzinger7 #fc #aij ,a ,tetradrachma of ,alexander the ,great 7after ,benzinger7 #fc #aia ,a ,coin of ,ptolemy ,lagi 7after ,benzinger7 #fc #aib ,half-,shekel of ,simon the ,maccabee 7after ,benzinger7 #fd #aic ,a ,coin of ,john ,hyrcanus 7after ,madden7 #fd #aid ,tetradrachma of ,lysimachus #fd #aie ,a ,coin of ,augustus #fd #aif ,a ,denarius of ,tiberius #fd #aig ,a ,coin of ,claudius #fd #aih ,a ,coin of ,herod the ,great #fd #aii ,a ,roman ,quadrans 787 #fd #bjj ,a ,coin of ,herod ,agrippa ,i #fd #bja ,a ,shekel of the ,revolt of ,a4 ,d4 #gj #fd #bjb ,cave-,dwellers' ,place of ,sacrifice1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fe #bjc ,plan of ,caves at ,semitic ,high ,place1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fe #bjd 8,pillars0 of the ,high ,place at ,gezer #fe #bje ,rock-,altar at ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #ff #bjf ,the 8,beth-el0 of ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ff #bjg ,the ,supposed ,serpent-,pen at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ff #bjh ,the ,rock-,altar at ,jerusalem 7after ,dalman7 #fg #bji ,the ,laver at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fg #baj ,the ,terra-cotta ,altar from ,taanach 7after ,sellin7 #fh #baa ,supposed ,high ,place at ,taanach 7after ,sellin7 #fh #bab ,high ,place at ,tell es-,safi 7after ,bliss and ,macalister7 #fi #bac ,libation ,bowl from ,taanach 7after ,sellin7 #fi #bad ,an ,astarte ,plaque from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #fi #bae ,plan of the ,high ,place at ,petra 7after ,brnnow7 #gj #baf ,plan of ,herod's ,temple at ,samaria 7after ,lyon7 #gj #bag ,the ,altar at ,petra 7after ,brnnow7 #ga #bah ,the 8,round ,altar0 at ,petra 7after ,brnnow7 #ga #bai ,supposed 8,pillars0 at ,petra 7after ,brnnow7 #ga #bai;a ,a ,brazen ,serpent from ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #gb #bbj ,plan of ,supposed ,semitic ,temple at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #gb #bba ,walls of ,herod's ,temple1 ,samaria 7after ,reisner7 #gb #bbb 8,pillars0 of a ,supposed ,temple1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #gc #bbc ,chapel of the ,palace at ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #gc #bbd ,voluted ,capital 7probably ,philistine7 from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #gd #bbe ,incense-,burner from ,megiddo 7after ,schumacher7 #gd #bbf ,philistine ,graves1 ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ge #bbg ,a ,rock-hewn ,tomb at ,siloam 7after ,benzinger7 #ge #bbh ,a ,shaft-,tomb 7after ,bliss and ,macalister7 #ge #bbi ,a ,cistern-,burial at ,gezer 7after ,macalister7 #ge #bcj ,a ,columbarium at ,petra 7after ,dalman7 #gf #bca ,entrance to the ,tomb of the ,judges #gf #bcb ,a ,sunken-,door ,tomb 7after ,mitt4 u4 ,nach4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,palstina-,vereins7 #gg #bcc ,kokim in the ,tomb of the ,judges #gg #bcd ,plan of a ,hellenistic ,tomb at ,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch7 #gh #bce ,a ,cross-,section of the ,tomb of the ,judges #gh #bcf ,architectural ,decoration of a ,hellenistic ,tomb at ,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch7 #gi #bcg ,plan of the ,upper ,floor of the ,tomb of the ,judges #gi #bch ,a ,tomb with a ,rolling-,stone at ,beit ,jibrin 7after ,moulton7 #hj #bci ,interior of a ,hellenistic ,tomb at ,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch7 #hj #bdj ,the ,hills and ,valleys of ,jerusalem 7after ,vincent7 #ha #bda ,underground ,jebusite ,tunnel at ,gihon1 ,jerusalem 7after ,vincent7 #hb #bdb ,maudsley's ,scarp1 ,jerusalem #hb #bdc ,plan of ,solomon's ,buildings1 ,jerusalem 7after ,stade7 #hc #bdd ,phoenician ,quarry-,marks1 ,jerusalem 7after ,warren7 #hc #bde ,shaft at the ,southeast ,corner of the ,temple ,area 7after ,warren7 #hd #bdf ,examining ,ancient ,walls in an ,underground ,tunnel 7after ,warren7 #hd #bdg ,front ,views of ,solomon's ,temple 7after ,stade7 #he #bdh ,side ,views of ,solomon's ,temple 7after ,stade7 #he #bdi ,plan of ,solomon's ,temple 7after ,stade7 #hf #bej ,the ,seven-branched ,lamp-,stand from the ,arch of ,titus #hf #bea ,the ,brazen ,laver of ,solomon's ,temple 7after ,stade7 #hg #beb ,a ,portable ,laver of ,solomon's ,temple 7after ,stade7 #hg #bec ,stone-,work of a ,wall of ,jerusalem built in the ,fifth ,century ,a4 ,d4 #hh #bed ,stone-,work in ,nehemiah's ,wall1 ,jerusalem #hh #bee ,restoration of the ,asmonan ,bridge over the ,tyropoeon ,valley 7after ,hanauer7 #hi #bef ,front of 8,david's ,tower0 7,herod's ,palace7 ,today 7after ,breen7 #hi #beg ,reconstruction of ,herod's ,temple 7after ,caldecott7 #ij #beh 8,solomon's ,stables0 #ij #bei ,one of the ,supposed ,pools of ,bethesda 7after ,hanauer7 #ia #bfj ,front of the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher #ia #bfa 8,gordon's ,calvary10 looking toward ,jerusalem 7after ,breen7 #ib #bfb 8,gordon's ,calvary10 from the ,city ,wall 7after ,breen7 #ib #bfc ,outside of 8,gordon's ,holy ,sepulcher0 7after ,breen7 #ic #bfd ,inside of 8,gordon's ,holy ,sepulcher0 7after ,breen7 #ic #bfe ,the ,barada 7,abana71 ,damascus #id #bff ,the ,street ,called ,straight1 ,damascus #id #bfg ,palace at ,kanatha 7after ,brnnow7 #ie #bfh ,circular ,forum and ,colonnaded ,street1 ,gerasa #ie #bfi ,temple of the ,sun1 ,gerasa #if #bgj ,site of ,rabbah ,ammon #if #bga ,theater at ,amman 7,palestinian ,philadelphia7 #ig #bgb ,roman ,forum at ,athens #ig #bgc ,mars' ,hill1 ,athens #ih #bgd ,fountain in the ,agora1 ,corinth #ih #bge ,lintel of ,jewish ,synagogue1 ,corinth 7after ,richardson7 #ii #bgf ,lechum ,road1 ,corinth 7after ,richardson7 #ii #bgg ,parthenon1 ,athens1 from the ,east #ajj #bgh ,main ,street at ,ephesus #ajj #bgi ,site of the ,temple of ,diana1 ,ephesus1 in #aijb #aja #bhj ,the ,theater1 ,ephesus #aja #bha ,the ,amphitheater1 ,ephesus #ajb #bhb ,the ,stadium1 ,ephesus #ajb #bhc ,pergamum 7after ,ramsay7 #ajc #bhd ,the ,acropolis and partly ,excavated ,temple1 ,sardis 7after ,butler7 #ajc #bhe ,excavated ,temple1 ,sardis1 looking toward the ,hermus ,valley 7after ,butler7 #ajd #bhf ,a ,christian ,church at ,sardis 7after ,butler7 #aje #bhg ,smyrna 7after ,ramsay7 #aje #bhh ,a ,ruin at ,laodicea 7after ,ramsay7 #ajf #bhi ,a ,bridge over the ,jordan on the ,line of a ,roman ,road #ajf #bij ,fragment of a ,creation-,tablet #ajg #bia ,assyrian ,sacred ,tree ,conventionalized #ajg #bib ,hammurapi ,receiving the ,laws from the ,sun-,god #ajg #bic ,the ,so-called ,adam and ,eve ,seal #ajg #bid ,a ,tablet from ,nippur1 ,relating the ,beginnings of ,irrigation and ,agriculture 7after ,langdon7 #ajh #bie ,top of the ,black ,obelisk of ,shalmaneser #ajh #bif ,jehu of ,israel ,doing ,homage to ,shalmaneser #ajh #big ,the ,siloam ,inscription #aji #bih ,sennacherib ,receiving ,tribute at ,lachish 7after ,ball7 #aji #bii ,an ,altar to ,unknown ,gods 7after ,deissmann7 #aaj #cjj ,the ,moabite ,stone #aaj #cja ,papyrus ,containing ,sayings of ,jesus 7after ,grenfell and ,hunt7 #aaa ,,maps ,map of ,egypt to ,first ,cataract ,facing page #ah ,map of the ,ancient ,world ,facing page #dj ,map of ,palestine ,facing page #ajd ,,plate ,map of ,jerusalem in the ,time of the ,jebusites and ,david #aab ,map of ,solomon's ,jerusalem #aab ,map of ,jerusalem from ,hezekiah to the ,exile #aac ,map of ,nehemiah's ,jerusalem #aac ,map of ,asmonan ,jerusalem #aad ,map of ,herodian ,jerusalem #aad ,,explanation ,,of ,,signs section4 ibid4 the same4 op4 cit4 work cited4 f4 and following page4 ff4 and following pages4 cf4 compare4 v4 verse4 col4 column4 p4 page4 in translations of tablets indicate words supplied where not decipherable4 44444 in translations of tablets indicate missing line or words which cannot be supplied4 ,,introduction ,one who would write on archology and the ,bible must at the outset define the scope of his undertaking1 for the word archology conveys different meanings to different people4 ,judgments also differ as to how things ancient can best serve the interests of the ,biblical student4 ,to many the word archology calls up visions of ancient pottery1 jewelry1 swords1 utensils1 etc41 which are valued as objects of curiosity simply because they are old4 ,others1 when they think of archology1 call to mind excavations1 in which the walls of ancient temples and cities are laid bare1 so that we may see how men lived in other days4 ,to such1 archology is identical with antiquarianism4 ,a book on archology and the ,bible written from this point of view would confine itself to the way in which texts of ,scripture are illustrated or illumined by antiquarian objects4 ,to still others the word archology calls up ancient tablets or papyri1 inscribed with hieroglyphics or some other strange characters1 from which the initiated can decipher texts that prove the truth of one's views of ,scripture4 ,according to this view1 archology is the science of ancient documents1 and a book dealing with archology and the ,bible should confine itself to the discussion of documents which confirm or illustrate the ,biblical text4 ,those who hold either of these views of archology will find in this book much that will accord with their expectations1 but much also that will seem to them irrelevant4 ,in ,part ,i1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,,vi-,,xii deal with antiquities1 their discovery1 and the light which these shed upon the inspired page1 for antiquarianism is a part of archology4 ,portions of ,part ,i are devoted to the discovery of inscribed objects2 in ,part ,,ii the reader will find a full presentation of the bearing of these upon the different parts of the ,sacred ,volume4 ,those who hold the second of the views mentioned above will not1 therefore1 be disappointed4 ,neither of the views mentioned corresponds1 however1 with the limits of archology4 ,archology is 8that branch of knowledge which takes cognizance of past civilizations1 and investigates their history in all fields1 by means of the remains of art1 architecture1 monuments1 inscriptions1 literature1 language1 implements1 customs1 and all other examples which have survived40#a ,this definition is accepted by the writer of this work and has guided him in the preparation of the following pages4 ,it has1 of course1 been impossible in one volume to deal adequately with the antiquities and the ancient documents and to treat fully the history of the civilizations of the ,biblical countries1 but an endeavor has been made to place the reader in possession of an intelligent point of view with reference to these things4 ,as the physical structure of a country determines to a large degree the nature of its buildings1 the utensils employed by its inhabitants1 their writing materials1 and their relations with other peoples1--as well as the way the objects were preserved from ancient to modern times1--brief descriptions of the physical features of ,egypt1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,palestine1 the three most prominent of ,biblical countries1 have been introduced4 ,our knowledge of the early history of ,egypt and ,babylonia has come almost wholly from archological exploration2 it has seemed fitting1 therefore1 to introduce in ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,i1 #f1 and ,chapter ,,ii1 #f1 brief sketches of the history of these countries4 ,this appeared all the more necessary since the inhabitants of these two countries worked out1 in advance of any other peoples1 the initial problems of civilization4 ,palestine borrowed from them both1 so that it is impossible to understand the history and archology of ,palestine apart from ,egyptian and ,babylonian antecedents4 ,whenever it is possible the reader should supplement these sketches by reference to the larger works cited in the notes4 ,similarly in ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,v1 an outline of the history of ,palestine from the earliest times is presented4 ,to some this may seem unnecessary1 since centuries of that history passed before the ,hebrew people came to the country1 but it is hoped that every reader will be glad to know the various vicissitudes through which passed the land that was chosen by ,god as the home of the religious leaders of the human race4 ,this history also gives emphasis to the promise 8to give thee great and goodly cities1 which thou buildedst not1 and houses full of all good things1 which thou filledst not1 and cisterns hewn out1 which thou hewedst not1 vineyards and olive-trees1 which thou plantedst not0 7,deut4 #f3aj1 #aa74 ,some1 too1 may be surprised that the chronologies of ,egypt and ,babylonia and ,assyria should be treated as fully as they are in ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,i1 #e1 and ,chapter ,,ii1 #e1 but in the writer's view this treatment was necessary and appropriate for several reasons3 7#a7 ,the data on which these chronologies are built up are for the most part the fruits of archological research4 7#b7 ,they are our only means of measuring the antiquity of civilization1 since the ,bible itself affords no continuous system of chronology4#b ,if the student of the ,bible is to have any intelligent idea of what 8the fulness of time0 7,gal4 #d3d7 means1 he should know what the sources of our chronology are and how they are rightly used4 7#c7 ,such a presentation seemed all the more necessary because in many books1 especially those of some ,english ,egyptologists1 the materials are employed uncritically1 and civilization is made to appear much older than it really is4 ,to accomplish all these aims the writer has adopted the following plan3 ,in three chapters the archology1 history1 and civilization of ,egypt1 ,babylonia and ,assyria1 and the ,hittites are briefly treated1 together with the discoveries which especially interest the ,biblical student4 ,these are the three great civilizations which preceded the ,israelitish4 ,a much more detailed treatment is given to ,palestine1 to which ,chapters ,,iv-,,xiv of ,part ,i are devoted4 ,in the last chapter of ,part ,i an attempt has been made to present the discoveries in ,greece and ,asia ,minor which throw light on the ,new ,testament4 ,in ,part ,,ii the texts1 ,babylonian1 ,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 ,hebrew1 ,moabitish1 ,phnician1 ,aramaic1 ,greek1 and ,latin1 which bear on the ,bible1 are translated4 ,they are arranged in the order of the ,biblical books which they illuminate4 ,each translation is accompanied by a brief discussion in which its chief bearing on the ,bible is pointed out4 ,in conclusion it may not be out of place to offer a word of guidance to two or three classes of readers4 ,those who are not interested in the history of ,babylonia and ,egypt1 but wish simply to know what has been discovered in those countries which throws light on the ,scriptures1 should turn at once to ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,i1 #g1 and ,chapter ,,ii1 #g1 and to the translations of the various texts in ,part ,,ii4 ,a reader that is interested especially in ,palestine1 rather than in the ancient civilizations to which the ,hebrews were indebted1 should begin ,part ,i at ,chapter ,,iv4 ,possibly after he has read that which the ,holy ,land has contributed to the understanding of the ,bible1 he may be ready to give a little attention to such outlying peoples as the ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 and ,hittites4 ,in that case he will turn back and read ,chapters ,i-,,iii4 ,pastors or ,sunday-school teachers who wish to employ the book as a tool by means of which to study certain texts or lessons should follow a different course4 ,these will be able with the aid of the full index of ,scripture references to turn at once to all the material bearing on the passage in question4 ,if the use of this index does not afford all the information desired1 reference should then be made to the analytical table of contents at the beginning1 or to the index of subjects at the end1 or to both4 ,it is the writer's hope that1 in addition to its use as a book of reference for the elucidation or illustration of individual texts1 there may be some who will enjoy reading the whole work1 and who will find1 as he himself has found1 that every scrap of knowledge of ancient life in ,bible lands serves to make the ,bible story and the lives of ,biblical characters so much more real1 or puts them or their words in a perspective so much more clear1 that the eternal message comes with new power and can be transmitted with greater efficiency4 ,,part ,i ,,the ,,bible ,,lands1 ,,their ,,exploration1 ,,and ,,the ,,resultant ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,bible ,,and ,,history ,,arch,,ology ,,and ,,the ,,bible ,,chapter ,i ,,egypt ,,the ,,land4 ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,antiquities4 ,,egyptian ,,discoveries4 ,,decipherment4 ,,chronology4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,history3 ,the pre-dynastic period4 ,the archaic period4 ,the old kingdom4 ,the first period of disintegration4 ,the middle kingdom4 ,second period of disintegration4 ,the empire period4 ,the period of foreign dynasties4 ,the lower empire4 ,the ,persian period4 ,the ,ptolemaic period4 ,the ,roman period4 ,,egyptian ,,discoveries ,,which ,,bear ,,on ,,the ,,bible3 ,texts bearing on the story of ,joseph4 ,the ,invasion of ,egypt by the ,hyksos4 ,the ,el-,amarna letters4 ,period of the ,oppression and the ,exodus4 ,campaign of ,sheshonk ,i4 ,papyri discovered at ,elephantine4 ,the palace of ,hophra4 ,the castle at ,tahpanhes4 ,the ,jewish temple at ,leontopolis4 ,papyri from ,oxyrhynchus4 ,discoveries in ,nubia4 #a4 ,the ,land4--,egypt is in many ways unique among the countries of the world4 ,one of these unique features is its form4 ,if we omit the ,delta1 it has but one dimension1--length4 ,from ,cairo to the ,first ,cataract is a distance of #ehc miles1 while the breadth of the valley1 including the barren lands on each side of it1 varies from #ab to #ca miles4 ,if we include ,nubia to the ,fourth ,cataract1 which the ,egyptians ultimately conquered1 the length is much greater1 being about #a1ajj miles4 ,in ,nubia the banks are much more precipitous1 the valley varying from #e to #i miles4 ,the verdant portion is1 however1 often not more than a mile in width4 ,this land is flanked on each side by extensive barren deserts on which there is almost no rainfall4 ,egypt itself would be a part of this desert1 were it not for the overflow of the ,nile4 ,this overflow is caused by the peculiar formation of this marvelous river4 ,the upper part of the ,nile consists of two main branches1 called1 respectively1 the ,white and the ,blue ,nile4 ,the ,white ,nile rises #c degrees south of the equator1 some #d1jjj miles south of the ,mediterranean1 to the south of ,lake ,victoria ,nyanza4 ,this region is watered by tropical rains1 which fall almost daily4 ,this steady water supply gives to the ,nile its constant volume4 ,at ,khartum1 #a1cej miles from the ,mediterranean in a direct line1 and #a1fej miles as the river winds1 the ,white ,nile is joined by the ,blue ,nile4 ,this branch of the river drains a large part of ,abyssinia1 an upland and mountainous region which has a dry and a rainy season4 ,in the dry season this stream dwindles almost to nothing2 in the rainy season it is a turbid mountain torrent1 which rushes impetuously onward1 laden with loose soil from all the land which it drains4 ,for this reason it is called the ,blue1 i4 e41 the ,dark or ,turbid1 ,nile4 ,at a distance of #adj miles north of the union of the two ,niles the river receives its only other tributary1 the ,atbara1 which also flows in from the eastern side4 ,the ,atbara1 like the ,blue ,nile1 is an insignificant stream except in the rainy season1 when it is a torrent4 ,it is the variation of the water supply from the ,blue ,nile and ,atbara which causes the overflow of the river in ,egypt4 ,at the beginning of ,june the river begins slowly to swell2 between the #aeth and the #bjth of ,july the increase becomes very rapid2 toward the end of ,september the water ceases to rise and remains at the same height for twenty to thirty days4 ,in ,october it rises again1 attaining its greatest height4 ,it then decreases1 and in ,january1 ,february1 and ,march the fields gradually dry off4 ,this overflow prepares the soil of ,egypt for cultivation1 first by softening it and then by fertilizing it4 ,it was easy1 under these conditions1 to develop agriculture there4 ,indeed1 the width of productive ,egypt is determined by the lateral extent of this overflow4 ,for the last #a1ejj miles of its course the ,nile receives no tributary4 ,it plows its way through regions of desert which1 but for the ,nile itself1 are unbroken4 ,at six points1 beginning at ,khartum and ending at ,assuan1 the river makes its way over granite ridges1 through which it has never succeeded in cutting a smooth channel4 ,these are called the ,cataracts4 ,as civilized man discovered these from the north1 that at ,assuan is known as the ,first ,cataract1 and that at ,khartum as the ,sixth4 ,the calendar of ancient ,egypt was shaped in part by the ,nile4 ,the year was divided into three seasons of four months each4 ,beginning with the rise of the water about ,july #aith1 there was the season of the inundation1 which was followed by four months of winter and four months of summer4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,egypt4 ,in late geologic time all ,egypt north of ,cairo was a bay of the ,mediterranean4 ,in the course of the centuries the sea has been driven out by deposits of detritus brought down by the ,nile4 ,as the mud was deposited in this level region1 the water continued to make its way through it here and there4 ,several mouths were kept open1 and thus the ,delta was formed4 ,this ,delta is called ,lower ,egypt4 ,upper ,egypt extends from ,cairo to the ,first ,cataract2 ,nubia1 from the ,first ,cataract to the ,sixth4 #b4 ,the ,preservation of ,antiquities4--,rain in ,egypt is very1 very rare4 ,one might almost say that it never rains4 ,the country lies in a latitude so far south that frost is rarely known4 ,these two conditions have united to preserve the ruins of many ancient buildings in both ,egypt and ,nubia in a state of perfection which is rare in other countries4 ,it was the custom of the ancient ,egyptians to bury their dead in the dry land beyond the reach of the ,nile's overflow4 ,like many other peoples1 they placed in the tombs of their dead many objects used by the departed in life4 ,further1 their peculiar beliefs concerning immortality led them to mummify the bodies of the departed2 i4 e41 they fortified them against decay4 ,thus archological objects have been preserved in ,egypt in an abundance and a perfection without parallel4 ,so many of these are massive temples of stone1 which1 through all the ages1 have stood unconcealed as silent witnesses of a past greatness1 that from ,cairo to the ,first ,cataract ,egypt is one great archological museum4 #c4 ,egyptian ,discoveries4--,although many ,egyptian antiquities have always been visible1 they attracted little attention until modern times4 ,egyptian temple walls are covered with hieroglyphic writing1 but the art of reading it had long been lost4 ,coptic1 a language descended from the ancient ,egyptian1 was still preserved as the sacred language of the ,egyptian ,church1 as ,latin is the ecclesiastical language of ,roman ,catholics1 but no one realized that ,coptic was simply late ,egyptian4 ,in the seventeenth century ,european travelers began to bring home ,egyptian antiquities4 ,in #afhc a specimen of ,egyptian art was presented to the ,ashmolean ,museum at ,oxford4 ,in the eighteenth century ,r4 ,pococke 7#agjd-agfe7 and ,f4 ,l4 ,norden 7#agjd-agdb7 described a number of ,egyptian ruins and identified a number of the sites mentioned by classical authors4 ,pococke was an ,englishman and ,norden a ,dane4 ,others1 like the explorer ,bruce1 who was seeking the sources of the ,nile 7#agfh-aggc71 participated to some extent in the work4 ,no systematic examination of the antiquities was made1 however1 until the time of ,napoleon ,i4 ,when ,napoleon invaded ,egypt in #agih1 he was accompanied by an army of eminent scholars and artists1 nearly a hundred strong1 and although in the settlement with ,england1 which followed in #ahjb1 the ,french were compelled to surrender their archological treasures to ,great ,britain1 they were permitted to publish the results of their observations and explorations4 ,the publication of these advanced slowly1 but between #ahji and #ahbb the great work1 consisting of one volume of introduction1 three volumes of plates1 and three volumes of texts1 was given to the world4 ,in these volumes the antiquities from the ,first ,cataract to ,alexandria were systematically described1 and many of them were reproduced in magnificent water-color illustrations4 ,as the nineteenth century progressed1 additional discoveries were made1 partly by the labors of such scientists as ,lepsius and ,mariette1 and partly through the rifling of tombs by natives1 who often sold their finds to ,europeans4 ,since ,egypt passed under ,english control1 exploration has been fostered by the government1 and ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,italian1 and ,american explorers have taken part in it4 ,the tombs of many of the ancient ,pharaohs1 the mummies of a considerable number of them1 all sorts of implements and household furniture1 have been discovered1 as well as a great variety of historical1 literary1 religious1 and business documents4 ,within the last twenty years a series of tombs of a previously unknown type has been discovered4 ,the bodies buried in these tombs did not lie on the back as the ordinary ,egyptian mummy does1 but on the side1 with the knees drawn up to the chin4 ,it was at first thought that these tombs were the work of a new race of men who had invaded ,egypt at some time in the historical period1 but further study indicates that they are the tombs of the early ,egyptians from whom the ,egyptians known to history were descended4 #d4 ,decipherment4--,one of the objects found by the ,french at the time of ,napoleon's expedition was the 8,rosetta ,stone10 so called because found at ,rosetta 7,ar-,rashid71 a town near the mouth of the westernmost of the large branches of the ,nile4 ,this stone was set up about #bjj ,b4 ,c4 by some priests1 who expressed1 through the inscription which it bore1 their thanks to the young king1 ,ptolemy ,v1 because certain taxes formerly imposed on them had been remitted4 ,the inscription was written in three kinds of writing--hieroglyphic ,egyptian 7picture-writing71 demotic ,egyptian 7developed from picture-writing71 and ,greek2 7see ,fig4 #ad74 ,it was among the objects which the ,english took in #ahjb1 and had been placed in the ,british ,museum4 ,although the ,greek portion of the inscription could be easily read1 the attempts of various scholars1 through a period of twenty years1 had succeeded in establishing the values of only a few characters of the ,egyptian4 ,in #ahah ,jean ,franois ,champollion1 a ,french scholar1 who before this had busied himself with the study of ,coptic and ,egyptian geography1 began the study of the ,rosetta ,stone4 ,he assumed that the language of the upper registers must be an older form of the ,coptic tongue4 ,by a most painstaking comparison of the characters in the upper registers with the ,coptic equivalents of the words in the lower or ,greek register1 he succeeded in deciphering the long-forgotten writing of ancient ,egypt4 ,he published his discovery in #ahbb4 ,thus the door to the historical and literary treasures of ancient ,egypt was unlocked1 and from that time to this the study of ,egyptian inscriptions and documents has gone steadily forward4 ,many universities now maintain chairs of ,egyptology4 ,the ability to read ,egyptian has opened up vistas of history of which men had hitherto no conception4 #e4 ,chronology4--,we are dependent for our main outline of ,egyptian chronology upon the work of ,manetho1 an ,egyptian priest1 who lived about #bej ,b4 ,c41 and wrote a chronicle of his native land in the ,greek language4 ,he grouped the kings of ,egypt from the time of ,menes 7or ,mena7 to the conquest of ,alexander the ,great 7#ccb ,b4 ,c47 into thirty-one dynasties4 ,manetho's dynasties enable scholars to determine the relative order of the kings1 and thus form the backbone of our chronology4 ,around his statements the discoveries of the excavators and explorers are grouped4 ,manetho's work has not1 however1 come down to us4 ,we know it only through quotations in the ,chronographiai of ,julius ,africanus 7#bba ,a4 ,d47 and the ,chronicon of ,eusebius of ,cesarea 7#bfe-cdj ,a4 ,d474 ,the number of years assigned to each king1 and consequently the length of time covered by the dynasties1 differ in these two copies1 so that1 while the work of ,manetho forms the backbone of our chronology1 it gives us no absolutely reliable chronology4 ,it is for this reason that the chronological schemes of modern scholars have differed so widely4 ,another source of chronological information is the so-called 8,palermo ,stone10 which is preserved in the ,museum of ,palermo1 ,sicily4 ,this stone is a hard diorite1 and is but a fragment of the original4 ,it was inscribed about the middle of the fifth dynasty1 and originally contained a list of the kings of ,egypt from a time long before ,mena to the middle of the fifth dynasty4 ,though now but a fragment1 it is still of great value for the period which it covers4 ,in addition to this1 we also have the ,king ,list of ,karnak1 set up by ,thothmes ,,iii1 of the eighteenth dynasty1 the ,king ,list of ,abydos1 inscribed by ,seti ,i and ,ramses ,,ii1 of the nineteenth dynasty1 and the ,king ,list of ,sakkarah1 inscribed by ,ramses ,,ii4 ,as these are all simply selections from the list of the predecessors of their authors1 they are of secondary importance4 ,the 8,turin ,papyrus0 would be of value chronologically1 but for its unfortunate history4 ,this papyrus originally contained the most complete list of ,egyptian kings that has come down to us1 with the exception of ,manetho's chronology4 ,it formed part of the collection of ,m4 ,drovetti1 the ,french ,consul-,general in ,egypt4 ,the collection was offered to the ,french government in #ahah1 but was finally purchased by the king of ,sardinia4 ,when the collection arrived in ,turin1 it was found that this papyrus was broken into small fragments in the bottom of the box in which it had been shipped4 ,the fragments were afterward 7#ahbd7 examined by ,champollion the younger1 who discovered their true character4 ,in #ahbf another ,egyptologist went to ,turin and joined the fragments2 but the science of ,egyptology was then in its infancy1 and he in his ignorance joined pieces which did not naturally belong together4 ,for this reason it is only occasionally that the document yields us any chronological data4 ,the greatest aid in fixing ,egyptian chronology is the 8,sothic ,cycle40 ,at an early date the ,egyptians adopted a calendar which made up a year of #cfe days4 ,their year originally began when the rapid rising of the ,nile coincided with the rising of the star ,sirius1 called by them ,sothis4 ,these events coincided on ,july #aith4 ,as their calendar made no allowance for leap year1 in four years their new year began a day too soon1 in eight years two days too soon1 and so on4 ,in #a1dfj years 7i4 e41 #cfe #d7 their ,new ,year's ,day would make a complete circuit of the year4 ,these periods of #a1dfj years are called ,sothic ,cycles4 ,censorinus1 in ,chapters ,,xviii and ,,xxi of his ,de ,die ,natali1 written in #bch ,a4 ,d41 tells us that a new ,sothic cycle began at some time between #adj and #add ,a4 ,d4 ,if a new cycle began in #adj ,a4 ,d41 the previous one began in #acbj ,b4 ,c42 the one before that1 in #bghj ,b4 ,c42 and the one before that1--if they had their calendar so early1--in #dbdj ,b4 ,c4 ,reisner holds that the ,egyptians adopted their calendar in #bghj ,b4 ,c41 but ,meyer and ,breasted hold that it is unthinkable that they should have been without a calendar until that time1 as by that date the civilization of the pyramid builders was at its height2 they accordingly maintain that the ,egyptian calendar was adopted in #dbdj ,b4 ,c4 ,an illustration will show how the ,sothic cycle helps in determining dates4 ,a priest in the #abjth year of the twelfth dynasty wrote a letter to his subordinates1 to inform them that the rising of ,sothis would occur on the fifteenth day of the eighth month4 ,as there were thirty days in each month1 the year diverged at this time #bbe days4 ,this date1 then1 was just #ijj years after the beginning of the cycle in #bghj ,b4 ,c42 i4 e41 the letter was written in the year #ahhj ,b4 ,c4 ,it proves that the twelfth dynasty began in #bjjj ,b4 ,c41 and fixes for us all the dates of that dynasty4 ,the calendar in the so-called ,papyrus ,ebers shows that in the tenth year of ,amenophis ,i1 of the eighteenth dynasty1 the divergence had increased to #cjh days4 ,this must have been #a1bcb years after the beginning of the cycle1 which was the year #aedh ,b4 ,c4 ,data gained from these sources are supplemented by what is called dead reckoning2 i4 e41 by adding together all the specific dates of the length of reigns which are given in the inscriptions1 and testing them by collateral references4 ,meyer and ,breasted have worked out the chronology from these data in this way4 ,meyer places the accession of ,mena at #cbjj ,b4 ,c41 while ,breasted places it at #cdjj ,b4 ,c4 ,this difference is slight when compared with the differences in the chronologies of the older ,egyptologists4 #f4 ,outline of ,history4#c--,the history of ,egypt1 as it concerns our subject1 extends over a period of five thousand years4 ,it falls into twelve periods3 7#a7 ,the ,pre-,dynastic ,period1 which we suppose extended from about #ejjj ,b4 ,c41 or earlier1 until about #cdjj ,b4 ,c41 is the period before that covered by ,manetho's dynasties4 ,at the beginning of this period ,egypt was divided into #db districts1 which the ,egyptians called spt or sp1 and which the ,greeks afterwards called nomes4 ,each nome was occupied by a different tribe1 which at the first lived in isolation from the other tribes4 ,each tribe had its god1 to which an animal was sacred4 ,this condition prevailed for so many centuries that the customs of this time became permanently fixed4 ,the sacredness of these animals continued right down to ,roman times4 ,during this period the dead were buried on their sides with the knees drawn up to the chin2 7see ,fig4 #h74 ,the ,egyptians of this period lived partly by hunting1 partly by fishing1 and partly by agriculture4 ,from objects found in their tombs we infer that they used stone implements1 wore a great many beads1 made implements and combs of bone1 made decorated pottery1 constructed boats for use on the ,nile and fitted sails to them1 and each tribe had its own standard or emblem4 ,of course1 during the centuries when ,egypt was so politically divided there were many wars between nome and nome4 ,after some centuries1 through the conquest of one nome by another1 these #db nomes were consolidated into two kingdoms4 ,the #bj nomes of the ,delta formed the kingdom of ,lower ,egypt2 the #bb nomes1 which were ranged along the ,nile from ,cairo to the ,first ,cataract1 formed the kingdom of ,upper ,egypt4 ,the symbol of ,upper ,egypt was a papyrus plant2 that of ,lower ,egypt1 the bee4 ,the crown of ,upper ,egypt was a kind of tall helmet2 that of ,lower ,egypt1 a diadem of openwork2 7see ,figs4 #b1 #c1 and #d74 ,at what period this union of the nomes into two kingdoms occurred1 we can only conjecture4 ,probably it was as early as #dbjj or #dcjj ,b4 ,c4 ,at all events1 the two kingdoms existed separately for so long a time that their memory was ever afterward preserved4 ,to the end of ,egyptian history the kings bore the title1 8king of ,upper ,egypt and ,lower ,egypt40 ,even in the ,hebrew of the ,old ,testament the name for ,egypt is literally 8,the two ,egypts40 ,in this long pre-dynastic period the people were gradually emerging from savagery toward civilization4 ,they were solving the initial problems of civilized life4 ,according to ,meyer and ,breasted the people of ,lower ,egypt had progressed far enough before #dbjj ,b4 ,c4 to invent a calendar which approximately coincided with the solar year4 7#b7 ,the ,archaic ,period4--,the history of united ,egypt begins with the reign of ,menes or ,mena1 who in some way1 whether by conquest or marriage is uncertain1 united the two crowns4 ,he came from the nome of ,this1 of which the city of ,abydos1 sacred to the worship of ,osiris1 was the chief town4 ,he and his successors continued to administer the two parts of ,egypt as separate countries4 ,mena founded the first dynasty1 and the second dynasty seems to have been connected with his house2 it was1 at all events1 from the nome of ,this4 ,these two dynasties ruled ,egypt for #dbj years1 from #cdjj to #bihj ,b4 ,c4 ,this is known as the archaic period of ,egyptian history4 ,men were1 during this time1 gradually developing the art of expressing thought by means of picture-writing4 ,at some time during the first dynasty the ,egyptians began to work the turquoise mines in the ,wady ,maghara in the peninsula of ,sinai4 ,the tombs of this period were low1 flat houses of brick4 ,the ,arabs call them mastabas or 8benches40 ,during the second dynasty the ,egyptians began to conceive of their gods in human form4 ,they preserved the continuity of the earlier animal and bird forms by putting the old heads on human bodies4 7#c7 ,the ,old ,kingdom embraces dynasties three to six1 and extended from #bihj to #bdge ,b4 ,c41 a period of more than #ejj years4 ,during the third and fourth dynasties the power of the king was supreme and the first great culmination of ,egypt's civilization occurred4 ,it was in this period that the pyramids developed4 ,zoser1 the first king of the third dynasty1 built as his tomb the so-called ,step ,pyramid2 7see ,fig4 #g74 ,it consists of five stages which vary from #bi to #cf feet in height4 ,it is not1 therefore1 a true pyramid4 ,at the base it is #ceb #cif feet4 ,seneferu1 the last king of the third dynasty1 built a similar tomb1 but1 as he made the stages lower and more numerous1 it approached more nearly the pyramidal form4 ,khufu or ,cheops1 the founder of the fourth dynasty1 improving upon the work of his predecessors1 constructed the first real pyramid and the greatest of them all4 ,the blocks with which he built were about three feet high1 and he made a step with each course of stones4 ,a covering1 which has now been removed1 was originally placed over the whole1 thus securing a perfect pyramidal form4 ,this pyramid is now #gej 7originally #gfh7 feet on each side1 and #dea 7originally #dhb7 feet high4 ,it contains some #b1cjj1jjj blocks of stone1 each weighing on the average two and a half tons2 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,the stone was quarried from the ,mokattam hills on the other side of the ,nile1 more than twelve miles away4 ,khafre1 the next king but one after ,khufu1 built the second pyramid1 which is almost as high as that of ,khufu1 being #ddg feet1 but measures on the sides but #fij feet4 ,within and under the pyramids are the tomb chambers4 ,khafre also carved out of the native rock1 not far from these two pyramids1 the great ,sphinx1 the head of which bore a portrait of himself4 ,from the top of the head to the pavement under the paws is #ff feet2 the breadth of the face is #ac feet #h inches1 and the other parts are in proportion4 ,near the ,sphinx stands a temple1 built of polished granite1 which is connected by an underground passage with the pyramid of ,khafre4 ,all these are silent but eloquent witnesses to the skill of the ,egyptians of this period in stone work1 and to the absolute power of the ,pharaoh2 7see ,figs4 #e and #f74 ,menkaure1 the next king1 constructed a smaller pyramid1 the side of its base being #cef feet and its height #bjd 7originally #bai7 feet4 ,either his power was less or the resources of the kingdom were becoming exhausted4 ,though the pyramidal form of tombs continued for several centuries1 no others were ever built that approached these in size4 ,the fifth dynasty was founded by a priest of ,on4 ,during its rule the power of the king was not so absolute1 and a powerful nobility began to develop4 ,these nobles had themselves buried in tombs of the old mastaba type1 and adorned the walls with pictures of the industries which were carried on upon their country estates4 ,one of the most famous of these is the tomb of a certain ,ti1 from the pictures in which much has been learned of the various industries of ancient ,egypt4 ,by the time of the sixth dynasty a strong nobility had been developed in the different nomes1 so that the monarchy was thoroughly feudal4 ,the absolute power that the kings of the first four dynasties had exercised had passed away4 ,during the sixth dynasty the conquest of northern ,nubia was begun1 an expedition was sent to the far-away land of ,punt1 a country far to the south4 ,it was probably the region on both sides of the straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 comprising southwestern ,arabia and ,somaliland4 ,an expedition was also sent over sea to ,palestine1 to chastise the inhabitants of the southern portion of that country for invading ,egypt4 ,the capital of ,egypt during the whole of the ,old ,kingdom was ,memphis4 ,the city thus gained a prominence which made it ever afterward famous4 ,in early times it had been called the ,white ,wall1 but after the sixth dynasty it was called ,men-nofer1 of which ,memphis 7,hosea #i3f7 is a corruption4 ,it is in the ,old ,testament more often called ,noph1 a corruption of the last part of the name4 7,see ,isa4 #ai3ac2 ,jer4 #b3af2 #dd3a2 #df3ad1 #ai2 ,ezek4 #cj3ac1 #af47 7#d7 ,the ,first ,period of ,disintegration covers dynasties seven to ten of ,manetho's list1 a period lasting from #bdge to #bafj ,b4 ,c4 ,at the beginning of this period the powerful nobles in the different nomes seem1 many of them1 to have set up each a government of his own4 ,thus ,egypt was once more resolved into many contending kingdoms4 ,through a cycle of #b1ejj years a whole circle of political evolution had been completed4 ,starting with #db chiefs or kinglets1 the country had first become two kingdoms1 then one kingdom4 ,in this struggle the local nobility had been eliminated4 ,through nine hundred years the central monarchy was supreme1 then slowly a new nobility developed1 which finally overthrew the kingdom and once more made ,egypt a group of weak and contending states4 ,during the last two hundred and fifty years of this period of darkness we gain some glimpses of a feudal monarchy which had its residence at ,heracleopolis in central ,egypt and controlled a good part of the land with varying degrees of success4 ,these kings were apparently the ninth and tenth dynasties of ,manetho4 7#e7 ,the ,middle ,kingdom4--,about #bafj ,b4 ,c4 an eleventh dynasty arose and began to struggle for the supremacy1 finally achieving it4 ,this family belonged to the nome of ,thebes1 which had hitherto been of no particular importance4 ,it now became the seat of government1 and remained for #a1ejj years one of the most important cities of ,egypt4 ,about the year #bjjj this dynasty was followed by the twelfth1 a powerful line of kings which ruled from #bjjj to #aghh ,b4 ,c4 ,this was the period of the great ,middle ,kingdom4 ,the nobles were still strong1 and the monarchy was thoroughly feudal in its organization4 ,three of these monarchs bore the name ,sesostris4 ,they raised ,egypt to a high degree of prosperity and power4 ,trade with ,punt was resumed1 ,nubia was conquered to the ,second ,cataract1 which was made the southern frontier of the realm1 the mines of ,sinai were worked1 and one of the kings1 ,amenemhet ,,iii1 built a large temple there1 at a point now called ,sarbut el-,khadem4 ,this temple was explored a few years ago by ,petrie4 ,trade with ,palestine and ,syria flourished during this period4 ,a noble of middle ,egypt pictured in his tomb some of those who came to trade with him4 ,when the pictures were first discovered1 it was thought that they were the sons of ,jacob1 come to buy corn in ,egypt2 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,sesostris ,,iii invaded ,palestine before #ahej ,b4 ,c4 and captured a city which was apparently ,shechem1 though the spelling of the name is peculiar4 ,the kings of this period were buried in tombs of pyramidal form1 though the pyramids were not large4 ,one of them built a great administration building at ,hawara1 which was known to the ,greeks as the ,labyrinth and was regarded as one of the wonders of the world4 ,during this and the preceding period a social conscience was developed in ,egypt which found expression in a remarkable literature4 ,extracts from two examples of this1 8,the ,eloquent ,peasant0 and 8,the ,admonitions of ,ipuwer10 are published in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #dah1 ff41 #dba1 ff4 7#f7 ,second ,period of ,disintegration4--,the thirteenth dynasty1 which began in #aghh ,b4 ,c41 had not been long upon the throne1 when powerful rebellions again broke up the kingdom4 ,petty kinglets ruled once more in many parts of the land4 ,these kings comprise ,manetho's thirteenth and fourteenth dynasties4 ,the land1 disunited1 became an easy prey to an invader4 ,such an invader came4 ,for more than #c1jjj years ,egypt1 protected by her deserts1 had lived her life unmolested4 ,the uncivilized ,nubians on the south1 the ,lybians on the west of the ,delta1 and the uncivilized tribes of ,sinai had been easily held in check4 ,but now a powerful invader came from ,asia with a well organized1 though barbaric army4 ,they conquered ,egypt and imposed upon her two dynasties of kings1 who ruled for about a hundred years1 until they were driven out about #aehj ,b4 ,c4 ,these kings were ,manetho's fifteenth and sixteenth dynasties4 ,he calls them ,hyksos1 which has been held to mean 8,shepherd ,kings10 but which probably meant 8,ruler of ,countries40 ,they have been generally believed to be ,semitic1 though some scholars now think they may have been of ,hittite origin4 ,in any event1 large numbers of ,semites came to ,egypt with them1 and left many ,semitic names in the ,delta4 ,some of these will be discussed below4 ,this invasion broke up ,egypt's splendid isolation and brought her into the current of world events1 from which she was never afterward to free herself4 7#g7 ,the ,empire ,period4--,at some time before #afjj ,b4 ,c4 a seventeenth dynasty arose at ,thebes and began the struggle to expel the foreign kings4 ,this was not accomplished until the founder of the eighteenth dynasty1 ,amosis ,i 7#aehj-aegg71 achieved it4 ,in order to secure freedom from invasion the kings of this dynasty were compelled to follow the invaders into ,asia1 and in time ,thothmes ,,iii 7#aeja-addg7 conquered ,palestine1 ,phnicia1 and ,syria to the ,euphrates1 and organized it into a compact empire1 which held together until about #acfj4 ,the kings of this dynasty also carried the conquest of ,nubia to ,napata1 at the ,fourth ,cataract4 ,they worked the mines of ,sinai1 traded with ,punt1 and inaugurated the 8empire period10 which lasted in reality till well into the twentieth dynasty1 about #aafe1 and which1 for convenience1 we count as extending to the fall of the twenty-first dynasty in #ide ,b4 ,c4 ,the foreign conquests brought many immigrants to ,egypt and also took many ,egyptians for longer or shorter periods to foreign lands4 ,egyptian customs in dress as well as the ,egyptian language changed rapidly during this time4 ,the ,asiatic conquests of ,thothmes ,,iii brought ,egypt into relations with ,asiatic kings1 and in time his successors1 ,amenophis ,,iii and ,amenophis ,,iv1 had an interesting exchange of letters with kings of ,babylon1 ,assyria1 ,mitanni1 and ,alashia 7or ,cyprus71 as well as with ,egyptian viceroys in ,syria and ,palestine4 ,some of these letters are translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cdd1 ff4 ,amenophis ,,iv made the first attempt known in history to establish a monotheistic religion4 ,although it was unsuccessful1 it produced a beautiful hymn1 which is translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #djc1 ff4 ,the kings of this period were buried in tombs of a new type4 ,these were excavated out of the solid rock1 cut deep into the mountain-side4 ,they were all in the famous ,valley of the ,tombs of the ,kings back of ,thebes4 ,the nineteenth dynasty succeeded the eighteenth about #acej ,b4 ,c4 ,during a period of weakness between the two1 the ,asiatic dominions had been lost4 ,these were in large part reconquered by ,seti ,i and ,ramses ,,ii4 ,the last-mentioned king ruled #fg years1 from #abib to #abbe ,b4 ,c4 ,he did much building in all parts of ,egypt and ,nubia4 ,among his enterprises were the cities of ,pithom and ,raamses in the ,delta4 ,he has long been thought to have been the ,pharaoh who oppressed the ,hebrews4 ,early in his reign he fought with the ,hittites1 but afterward made a treaty of peace with their king and married his daughter4 ,the text of this treaty has been preserved4 ,it is the earliest extant international treaty1 and it contained an extradition clause1 though this applied to political offenders only4 7,for head of ,ramses1 see ,fig4 #i47 ,merneptah1 the son and successor of ,ramses ,,ii1 has been supposed to be the ,pharaoh of the ,exodus4 ,his hymn of victory over his enemies is translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #caa4 ,in the reign of ,ramses ,,iii1 of the twentieth dynasty 7#aaih-aafg ,b4 ,c471 the ,philistines and other tribes1 coming from across the sea1 from ,crete and ,asia ,minor1 invaded ,egypt4 ,repulsed by him1 they invaded ,palestine1 where they secured a foothold4 ,ramses ,,iv1 his successor1 was the last ,pharaoh to work the mines in ,sinai4 ,by the reign of ,ramses ,,ix 7#aadb-aabc ,b4 ,c471 ,egypt's ,asiatic empire was gone and her prosperity had so declined that the natives of ,thebes took to robbing the tombs of kings for a living4 ,the records of the trials of some of these have survived4 ,in the reign of ,ramses ,,xii 7#aaah-ajij ,b4 ,c471 ,wenamon made his famous expedition to ,phnicia1 a part of which is narrated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ceb1 ff4 ,the twenty-first dynasty 7#ajij-ide ,b4 ,c47 was a line of weak monarchs1 who simply held ,egypt together4 ,during their rule ,david built up ,israel's empire4 ,one of them1 either ,siamon or ,pesibkhenno ,,ii1 was the ,pharaoh whose daughter ,solomon married4 7,see #a ,kings #c3a1 f42 #i3af47 7#h7 ,the ,period of ,foreign ,dynasties 7#ide-ffc ,b4 ,c474--,during the time of the twenty-first dynasty the ,lybians1 who for centuries had made unsuccessful attempts to invade ,egypt1 settled in large numbers in different parts of the country1 and adopted ,egyptian customs1 while some of them became wealthy and powerful4 ,in #ide ,b4 ,c4 one of these1 named ,sheshonk1 founded the twenty-second dynasty4 ,this king is the ,shishak of the ,bible4 ,it was he who gave asylum to ,jeroboam1 when he fled from ,solomon 7#a ,kings #aa3dj71 and who in the days of ,rehoboam invaded ,palestine4 7,see #a ,kings #ad3be-bh47 ,the dynasty founded by ,shishak lasted for two hundred years4 ,during the first century of this time it was very flourishing4 ,one of its kings1 ,osorkon ,,ii1 was apparently an ally of ,ahab2 at all events1 a vase bearing ,osorkon's name was found at ,samaria in ,ahab's palace4 ,this dynasty made its capital at ,bubastis in the ,egyptian ,delta1 called ,pi-beseth in ,ezekiel #cj3ag4 ,during the last century of this dynasty's rule ,nubia1 which had been for many centuries under ,egyptian sway1 gained her independence under a powerful dynasty which made ,napata1 at the ,fourth ,cataract1 its capital4 ,in #gde ,b4 ,c4 the twenty-second dynasty was succeeded by the twenty-third1 which held a precarious existence until #gah1 when it was succeeded by the one king of the twenty-fourth4 ,egypt was during this period in great disorder1 and in #gab the ,nubian kings swept down from the south and conquered the country1 establishing the twenty-fifth dynasty4 ,the control thus passed from the ,lybians to the ,nubians4 ,tirhakah1 the third king of this dynasty1 took part in the wars against ,sennacherib in ,palestine4 7,see #b ,kings #ai3i2 ,isa4 #cg3i1 and ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cge1 ff47 ,in #fgj ,esarhaddon1 ,king of ,assyria1 invaded ,egypt1 defeated ,tirhakah and made all the ,delta as far as ,memphis an ,assyrian province4 ,some years later1 when ,tanut-amon1 the successor of ,tirhakah1 endeavored to regain the ,delta1 ,assurbanipal1 of ,assyria1 marched up the ,nile1 took ,thebes1 that for #a1ejj years had been mistress of ,egypt1 and during much of that time mistress of a large part of the then known world1 and barbarously sacked it4 ,this was in #ffa ,b4 ,c4 ,this event made a great impression on surrounding nations4 ,it is referred to in ,nahum #c3h1 where ,thebes is called ,no-amon1 or the city of the god ,amon4 7#i7 ,the ,lower ,empire is the name given by scholars to the period of the twenty-sixth dynasty1 #ffc-ebe ,b4 ,c4 ,this dynasty was founded by ,psammetik ,i1 who became the viceroy of ,egypt under ,assurbanipal1 of ,assyria1 in #ffc ,b4 ,c4 ,psammetik was descended from a native ,egyptian family of the city of ,sais in the western ,delta1 and a number of his ancestors had been prominent in the history of ,egypt during the preceding century4 ,at first he was a vassal of ,assyria1 but soon troubles in the eastern part of the ,assyrian dominions enabled him to make ,egypt independent4 ,the ,egyptians1 finding themselves once more free under a native dynasty1 experienced a great revival of national feeling4 ,everything ,egyptian interested them4 ,they looked with particular affection upon the age of the pyramid builders1 who lived more than two thousand years before them4 ,they revived old names and old titles1 and emulated the art of the olden days4 ,they manifested such vigor and originality withal1 that the art of the lower empire rivals that of the best periods of ,egyptian history4 ,necho1 the son and successor of ,psammetichus1 endeavored1 as ,assyria was declining to her fall1 to regain an ,asiatic empire4 ,josiah1 of ,judah1 who sought to thwart him1 was defeated by ,necho and killed at the battle of ,megiddo in #fjh ,b4 ,c4 7#b ,kings #bc3bi74 ,necho afterward deposed ,jehoahaz and took him captive to ,egypt 7#b ,kings #bc3cd74 ,four years later1 when ,necho made a second campaign into ,asia1 he was defeated by ,nebuchadrezzar at ,charchemish on the ,euphrates1 and compelled to hastily retreat to ,egypt1 hotly pursued by the ,babylonians4 ,jeremiah1 who perhaps caught sight of the rapidly moving armies from the ,judan hills1 has given a vivid account of the flight in ,jeremiah #df4 ,jeremiah considered this event so important that he began then to commit his prophecies to writing4 7,see ,jeremiah #cf47 ,after this ,necho devoted himself to the internal government of ,egypt1 though he became the patron of an enterprise for the circumnavigation of ,africa1 which was carried out by some ,phnicians4 7,see ,herodotus1 ,,iv1 #db47 ,hophra1 a later king of this dynasty 7#ehh-efi ,b4 ,c471 in order to gain influence in ,asia1 tempted ,king ,zedekiah to rebel against ,babylon1 and thus lured the little state of ,judah to its destruction4 ,during the reign of ,hophra's successor1 ,amosis ,,ii1 ,cyrus the ,great founded the ,persian empire1 and in #ebe ,b4 ,c4 ,cambyses1 the son of ,cyrus1 overthrew the twenty-sixth dynasty1 and made ,egypt a ,persian province4 7#aj7 ,the ,persian ,period4--,cambyses1 after conquering ,egypt1 attempted in vain to conquer ,nubia4 ,the ,nubian monarchs at this time moved their capital from ,napata1 at the ,fourth ,cataract1 to ,meroe1 at the ,sixth ,cataract4 ,darius 7#eba-dhe ,b4 ,c47 ruled ,egypt with great wisdom and tact1 but under his successors there were frequent rebellions4 ,finally1 in #djf ,b4 ,c41 the ,egyptians actually gained their independence1 which they maintained until #cdb ,b4 ,c4 ,during this period three native dynasties1 the twenty-eighth1 the twenty-ninth1 and the thirtieth1 successively occupied the throne4 ,manetho counts the ,persians as the twenty-seventh dynasty4 ,in #cdb ,b4 ,c4 the ,persians reconquered the country and held it for ten years until it was taken by ,alexander the ,great4 ,this ten years of ,persian rule constitutes ,manetho's thirty-first dynasty4 7#aa7 ,the ,ptolemaic ,period 7#ccb-ca ,b4 ,c474--,for eleven years ,egypt formed a part of ,alexander's empire4 ,upon his death1 in #cbc ,b4 ,c41 it fell to the control of his general1 ,ptolemy ,lagi1 who founded a line of ,ptolemies that ruled until overthrown by ,augustus in #ca ,b4 ,c4 ,with the accession of the ,ptolemies many ,greeks settled in ,egypt2 ,greek became one of the languages of commerce1 and had a considerable influence in transforming the ,egyptian language into ,coptic4 ,until the year #aih ,b4 ,c4 the ,ptolemies controlled ,palestine4 ,philadelphus1 the second of the line1 rebuilt in the ,greek style the city of ,rabbah ,ammon east of the ,jordan1 and named it ,philadelphia4 ,he1 like his father1 encouraged many ,jews to settle in ,alexandria1 and1 according to tradition1 became the patron of the translation of the ,old ,testament ,scriptures into ,greek4 ,at all events1 the ,pentateuch was translated in his time1 and the translation of the other books followed4 ,this translation is known as the 8,septuagint0 because of the legend that ,ptolemy ,philadelphus set #gb men to translate it4 ,by the beginning of the ,christian era there were so many ,jews in ,alexandria that it had become a second ,judah4 7#ab7 ,the ,roman ,period4--,the ,romans1 upon conquering ,egypt1 disturbed in no way the internal affairs of the country4 ,they gave it good government and fostered its internal institutions4 ,many old ,egyptian customs persisted among the people2 it is in regard to some of these that discoveries of interest to ,biblical scholars have been made4 ,from tombs and the places in the dry sands of the desert1 where waste-baskets were emptied1 many records have been discovered1 some of which are translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #dcb1 ff41 #ddj1 ff4 ,meantime1 a state had developed out of the old monarchy of ,nubia1 described above1 which was ruled by a woman1 whose official title was ,candace4 ,it was an officer of hers to whom ,philip preached1 as described in ,acts #h3bg-ci4 ,recent excavations in ,nubia have recovered some of the art of these people1 who became ,christian in the second or third century1 as well as some inscriptions of theirs in a script that is not yet deciphered4 #g4 ,egyptian ,discoveries which ,bear on the ,bible4 7#a7 ,texts ,bearing on the ,story of ,joseph4--,a number of texts from the ,middle ,kingdom and other periods present features similar to parts of the story of ,joseph and afford somewhat faint parallels to certain conceptions of the ,hebrew ,prophets4 ,these are translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cjj1 ff41 and p4 #dah1 ff4 ,the name of ,joseph's wife1 ,asenath 7in ,egyptian ,as-,neit1 8favorite of the goddess ,neith071 occurs from the eighteenth dynasty onward4 ,such names as ,potiphar1 the master of ,joseph 7,gen4 #ci3a71 and ,potiphera1 ,joseph's father-in-law 7,gen4 #da3de71 in ,egyptian ,pedefre1 8he whom the god ,re gives10 as well as the name given to ,joseph1 ,zaphenath-paneah 7,gen4 #da3de71 in ,egyptian ,de-pnute-ef-#8onkh1 8the god speaks and he lives10 are common in ,egypt from the beginning of the twenty-second dynasty1 #ide ,b4 ,c4 7#b7 ,the ,invasion of ,egypt by the ,hyksos4--,this took many ,semites to ,egypt4 ,the very name ,hyksos is held by ,breasted to mean 8ruler of countries40 ,it was probably a title by which these kings called themselves1 for they evidently ruled a considerable portion of western ,asia1 as well as ,egypt4 8,ruler of countries0 is just the ,semitic-,babylonian and ,assyrian shar-matti1 a title which ,mesopotamian kings gave to themselves through much of their history4 ,it had been employed by the ,sumerians before them1 being the familiar ,sumerian lugal kurkurra1 8king of countries40 ,if the ,hyksos were ,amorites1 kinsmen of theirs had ruled in ,babylonia long before their invasion of ,egypt1 and that these may have been ,amorites is indicated by the name ,jacob-her1 which was borne by one of their kings4 ,this is an ,egyptian form of the ,babylonian ,yagub-ilu1 or ,jacob-el1 an ,amorite name found on business documents in ,babylonia three or four hundred years earlier4 ,in the time of ,thothmes ,,iii this name was1 ,thothmes tells us1 borne by a ,palestinian city1 to which it had apparently been given by some ,amorite from ,babylonia4 ,whether the ,hyksos were ,amorites or not1 a number of ,semitic names were given to places in ,lower ,egypt at the time of their occupation4 ,such was the name ,magdol1 or ,migdol4 ,the ,egyptian name of ,tanis was ,zar1 which ,brugsch claims as ,semitic4 ,thakut1 an old name of ,pithom1 is the same as the ,semitic ,succoth1 8booths40 ,in the winter of #aije-aijf ,petrie1 excavating at ,tell el-,ye-hudiyeh1#d about #bj miles north of ,cairo1 discovered what he believes to have been one of the original encampments of the ,hyksos in ,egypt4 ,this encampment consisted of a large space1 averaging about #a1ejj feet in each direction1 surrounded by a wall of sloping sand and mud4 ,this wall1 varying from #hj to #adj feet wide at the top and from #acj to #bjj feet wide at the bottom1 presented on the outer side a long slope1 and is quite unlike any structure of the native ,egyptians4 ,from the nature of the wall and the small objects found near it1 ,petrie infers that it was the rampart of a people who defended themselves with bows and arrows4 ,a cemetery of the same level yielded to the explorer a considerable amount of black pottery1 not at all like pottery of native ,egyptian manufacture1 and a number of crude scarabs4 ,these objects ,petrie believes are products of the art of the ,hyksos before they had been in ,egypt long enough to adopt ,egyptian civilization4 ,in #aiab ,petrie discovered a similar ,hyksos camp at the site of ,heliopolis1 the ,biblical ,on4 ,it has been held by many that ,abraham1 ,joseph1 and ,jacob all went to ,egypt during the reign of the ,hyksos dynasty4 ,it would be natural for ,semites to enter such a country1 if it were ruled by a dynasty of the same blood as themselves4 ,egypt has1 however1 furnished no positive archological evidence of this view4 ,the ,semitic names just alluded to1 which are sometimes cited as evidence of it1 in reality only prove that many ,semites came with the ,hyksos4 ,they make it probable1 indeed1 that some of the ,hyksos were ,semites1 but give us no positive evidence concerning the patriarchs4 ,on the other hand1 nothing has been discovered in ,egypt to disprove this view4 7#c7 ,the ,el-,amarna ,letters4--,in the winter of #ahhg-ahhh a native ,egyptian woman1 according to one account1 accidentally discovered some clay tablets in the soil at ,tell el-,amarna1 about #bjj miles south of ,cairo on the east bank of the ,nile4 ,she is said to have sold her rights in the discovery for about #ej cents4 ,it was thus that nearly four hundred clay tablets1 inscribed in the ,babylonian language and characters1 which opened an entirely unknown vista in the history of ,palestine and the surrounding countries1 were found4 ,these were letters written to ,kings ,amenophis ,,iii and ,amenophis ,,iv1 of the eighteenth dynasty4 7,see #f 7#g747 ,seven of them were written by ,ebed-hepa1 ,king of ,jerusalem1 about #acfj ,b4 ,c41 and give us a glimpse of that city more than #cej years before ,david conquered it for ,israel4 ,others of the letters came from other cities of ,palestine and ,phnicia1 and reveal to us through contemporary documents the conditions there in the patriarchal age4 ,some of these are translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cdd1 ff4 7#d7 ,period of the ,oppression and the ,exodus4--,the statement in ,exodus #a3aa that the ,pharaoh who oppressed the ,egyptians built the store-cities of ,pithom and ,raamses1 indicates that this ,pharaoh was ,ramses ,,ii1 for ,naville1 who excavated the site of ,pithom 7,egyptian ,pi-tum1 8,house of the god ,tum07 in #ahhc1 found much work of ,ramses ,,ii there1 including colossal statues of this king1 and also found no evidence that there had been any town of importance on the site before4#e ,the name of the other city1 ,raamses1 also points to the same king1 since ,ramses ,i1 the only other king of the name ,egypt had known1 reigned less than two years--a time insufficient for the building of a city4 ,the ,bible evidently refers1 then1 to ,ramses ,,ii4 ,concerning ,ramses ,,ii and his reign much is now known1 as has been pointed out in #f 7#g72 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,all through the nineteenth dynasty peoples from ,syria were employed by the kings on public works4 ,among these was a people called #8prw ,aperu or ,apuri1 which some have thought to be ,hebrews4 ,whether the ,hebrews are really mentioned in this way is doubted by others1 for references to the #8prw do not cease at the time the ,exodus of ,israel must have occurred4 ,they were employed by ,ramses ,,iv1 of the twentieth dynasty1 as late as #aafe ,b4 ,c4 ,much has been learned from archology about ,egyptian brick-making1 and it corresponds to the description of it given in ,exodus4 ,we have pictures of men at the work4 ,no one thought of burning bricks in ,egypt4 ,the clay was moulded and dried in the sun4 ,straw was mixed with the clay to increase its adhesive quality4 ,naville says that some of the corners of some of the buildings at ,pithom were actually built of bricks without straw4 7,see ,exod4 #e3g-ah2 and ,fig4 #aa47 ,the name ,pithom continued as one of the names of this store-city or fortress until at least #bej ,b4 ,c41 for it is found on a pillar which ,ptolemy ,philadelphus set up there1 but side by side with this name the place1 all through its history1 bore the name ,thakut1 which is philologically the ,egyptian equivalent of the ,hebrew ,succoth4 ,as this was the first station of the ,hebrews when they left ,egypt 7,exod4 #ab3cg2 #ac3bj2 ,num4 #cc3e1 #f71 ,naville holds that the ,hebrews1 after leaving the land of ,goshen1 must have passed out on the south side of the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,petrie believes that in the winter of #aije-aijf he discovered the city of ,raamses#f at ,tell el-,retabeh1 eight miles west of the site of ,pithom1 on the ,wady ,tumilat4 ,the objects found here show that the site was occupied in the time of the ,old ,kingdom and onward1 but as ,ramses ,,ii and ,ramses ,,iii both set up here statues of themselves1 and erected important buildings1 and as the location is the only one that fulfils the conditions of the city ,raamses1 ,petrie feels confident that this was the site4 ,this view receives some confirmation from the title of an officer who served here under ,ramses ,,iii1 and who is called3 8,chief archer1 keeper of the granaries1 keeper of the palace2 chief archer1 keeper of the granaries of ,arabia 7or ,syria740 ,merneptah1 who is generally supposed to have been the ,pharaoh under whom the ,exodus occurred1 was not drowned in the ,red ,sea1 as some have wrongly inferred from ,exod4 #ad3bc-bh1 but was duly buried like his predecessors4 ,his mummy has been found and is now in the ,gizeh ,museum at ,cairo4 ,merneptah in the fifth year of his reign set up a hymn of victory on a pillar in a temple erected by his father1 ,ramses ,,ii4 ,this hymn1 discovered by ,petrie in #ahif1 is famous as the only writing outside the ,bible that mentions ,israel by name4 ,a part of it is translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #caa1 where its bearing on the ,exodus is discussed2 7see ,fig4 #ae74 7#e7 ,campaign of ,sheshonk ,i4--,the record on a wall of the temple of ,karnak in ,egypt by ,sheshonk ,i1 the ,shishak of #a ,kings #ad3be1 of his campaign in ,palestine1 confirms the statement of ,kings and puts the whole campaign in a new perspective4 ,it is treated in detail in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cei1 f4 7#f7 ,papyri ,discovered at ,elephantine4--,in recent years papyri discovered at ,elephantine1 an island in the ,first ,cataract1 reveal the existence of a ,jewish colony there1 which had a ,jewish temple on the island4 ,this colony was established there at some time during the twenty-sixth dynasty1 and was thus one of the earliest of those ,jewish settlements in foreign countries which formed the dispersion4 ,a number of the records of these papyri1 which relate the fortunes of this temple1 the relations of this colony to their ,egyptian neighbors and their knowledge of the law1 are translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #chg1 ff4 ,the origin of the colony is also discussed there4 7#g7 ,the ,palace of ,hophra4--,hophra1 of the twenty-sixth dynasty1 was1 as noted in #f 7#i71 the king who lured ,judah to her ruin4 ,petrie in #aijg discovered his palace at ,memphis4 ,the discovery makes ,hophra seem a little more real4#g 7#h7 ,the ,castle at ,tahpanhes4--,we learn from ,jer4 #dc3g1 #h and #dd3a that1 after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 ,jeremiah with many other ,jews fled to ,tahpanhes in ,egypt and established a ,jewish colony there4 ,jeremiah1 as a symbolical act1 was directed to hide some stones in the cement of the tiled area of the court of ,pharaoh's house there 7,jer4 #dc3h74 ,tahpanhes was the ,daphne of the ,greeks4 ,it was on the site of the modern ,tell ,defenneh4 ,this was in ancient times the easternmost city of the northern ,delta4 ,a hundred and fifty miles of desert stretched away to the east of it1 until one came to the gardens of ,gaza in ,palestine4 ,petrie excavated ,tell ,defenneh in #ahhc-ahhd1 and discovered the large castle there1 which is probably the building in which ,jeremiah buried his stones4 ,this was the last act of ,jeremiah's life of which we have any record4 ,he was then an old man and apparently died soon afterward1 probably at ,tahpanhes1 certainly in ,egypt4 7#i7 ,the ,jewish ,temple at ,leontopolis4--,josephus tells us twice1 once in his ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,book ,,xiii1 ,chapter ,,iii1 and again in his ,wars of the ,jews1 ,book ,,vii1 ,chapter ,x1 that1 when ,jonathan1 the ,maccabee1 was made high priest of the ,jews1 about #aec ,b4 ,c41 ,onias1 the son of ,onias ,,iii1 the deposed high priest1 went to ,egypt and obtained a grant of land and permission to build a ,jewish temple4 ,this land was in the region of the city of ,bubastis1 the nome where the cat goddess was sacred1 and was accordingly called by the ,greeks ,leontopolis4 ,there were at this time about as many ,jews in ,egypt as in ,palestine1 and doubtless ,ptolemy ,,vii thought to keep them more loyal by granting them a temple4 ,he gave to ,onias the revenues of a considerable territory for the support of the temple4 ,josephus tells us that ,onias urged as a reason for the construction of this temple that it would be in fulfilment of the prophecy in ,isa4 #ai3ai-bb4 ,josephus goes on to say that this temple was built as an exact reproduction of the temple at ,jerusalem and that it continued to exist as a place of worship until after the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,titus1 when troubles caused by ,jewish zealots led the ,roman government to close the temple at ,leontopolis and discontinue its worship2 7see ,fig4 #ab74 ,the site of this temple was at ,tell el-,yehudiyeh1 the 8,tell of the ,jewess10 about #bj miles north of ,cairo4 ,this tell was excavated by ,petrie in #aije-aijf4 ,he found there remains of the ,jewish temple1 which fully confirm the statements of ,josephus4 ,not only the temple1 but the form of the ,jewish settlement1 was made as far as possible a replica of the city of ,jerusalem4 ,one of the most interesting discoveries was a series of ovens for the roasting of ,paschal lambs4 ,others of a similar character were found higher up in the mound1 but this first series was most numerous4 ,petrie infers that the temple was dedicated by a great ,passover ,feast1 to which ,jews came in large numbers from throughout ,egypt2#h 7see ,fig4 #ac74 7#aj7 ,papyri from ,oxyrhynchus4--,about #abc miles south of ,cairo and nine miles to the west of the ,nile lies the town of ,behnesa1 which the ,greeks called ,oxyrhynchus1 from a sharp-nosed fish which was sacred there4 ,since #ahig ,grenfell and ,hunt1 two ,english explorers1 have been season after season exploring the rubbish heaps of the old town4 ,the inhabitants committed the contents of their waste-baskets to the sands1 and on account of the dry climate these have never decayed4 ,here were found the 8,sayings of ,jesus10 some of the documents concerning the ,roman census1 and some of the letters translated in ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #dcb1 ff41 #ddj1 ff41 as well as many remains of the works of classical authors4 ,similar documents have been found in other parts of ,egypt1 but no other site has yielded as many as ,oxyrhynchus4 7#aa7 ,discoveries in ,nubia4--,during the winter of #aijh-aiji ,mac,iver explored at ,karanog in ,nubia for the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,he found in a cemetery many remains of the civilization of the ,christian ,nubians4 ,they still called their queen ,candace 7see ,acts #h3bg71 fed her on milk1 and regarded obesity as an attribute of royalty4 ,more will be known of the ,nubians of this period when the inscriptions discovered at ,karanog and at ,shablul1 deciphered by ,mr4 ,griffith1 have been more completely studied4 ,the explorations of the ,english at ,meroe have afforded a connected view of the development of this ,nubian civilization4 ,they found there the remains of an early period extending from about #fej-djj ,b4 ,c41 which was followed by about a century when the royal residence was elsewhere1 a middle period from #cjj to #a ,b4 ,c41 during the latter part of which ,hellenic influences were felt1 and a late period1 from #a to #cej ,a4 ,d41 during which ,roman forms of art penetrated the country4#i ,,chapter ,,ii ,,babylonia ,,and ,,assyria ,,the ,,land4 ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,antiquities4 ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,antiquities3 ,by ,benjamin of ,tudela4 ,by ,rich4 ,by ,botta and ,place4 ,by ,layard4 ,by ,loftus and ,rawlinson4 ,by ,oppert and ,rassam4 ,by ,george ,smith4 ,by ,sarzec4 ,by ,peters1 ,ward1 and ,haynes4 ,by ,koldeway4 ,by ,andrae4 ,by de ,morgan4 ,by ,harper and ,banks4 ,by ,genouillac4 ,,the ,,decipherment ,,of ,,the ,,inscriptions3 ,by ,niebuhr4 ,by ,grotefend1 ,de ,sacy1 and ,rawlinson4 ,babylonian column4 ,babylonian-,semitic4 ,,chronology4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,history3 ,the prehistoric period4 ,sumerians4 ,the ,pre-,babylonian period4 8,stele of the ,vultures40 ,the early ,babylonian period4 ,kassites4 ,pashe dynasty4 ,the early ,assyrian period4 ,the second ,assyrian period4 ,the ,neo-,babylonian period4 ,the ,persian period4 ,the ,greek and ,parthian periods4 ,,discoveries ,,which ,,illumine ,,the ,,bible4 #a4 ,the ,land4--,the ,mesopotamian ,valley1 as the great region watered by the ,tigris and the ,euphrates ,rivers is called1 in many respects resembles ,egypt1 although in other respects it differs strikingly from ,egypt4 ,the country is like ,egypt in that it is formed by rivers2 it differs from ,egypt in that it has two rivers instead of one4 ,in late geologic time the ,persian ,gulf extended far up toward the ,mediterranean4 ,all of what was ,babylonia has been formed by detritus 7silt7 brought down by the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,the process of forming land is still going on4 ,at the head of the ,persian ,gulf about seventy feet a year is still formed in this way1 or a mile in about seventy-five years4 ,both the ,tigris and the ,euphrates rise in the mountainous regions of ,armenia1 on opposite sides of the same range of mountains4 ,the melting of the snows on these mountains gives both rivers1 like the ,nile1 a period of overflow4 ,as the source of the ,tigris is on the south side of the mountains1 it begins to rise first4 ,its rise begins about the first of ,march1 its overflow is at its height in ,may1 and the water recedes in ,june or ,july4 ,the ,euphrates begins to rise about the middle of ,march1 continues to rise until ,june1 and does not recede to its ordinary level until ,september4 ,the soil thus formed is of rich materials1 and the retreating flood leaves it each year well watered and softened for agriculture4 ,here1 as in ,egypt1 one of the earliest civilizations of the world developed4 ,it was quite independent of that in ,egypt1 and consequently differed from the ,egyptian in many respects4 ,unlike ,egypt1 ,babylonia had a rainy season2 nevertheless she was mainly dependent upon the overflow of the rivers for her irrigation and her fertility4 ,as she possessed two rivers1 her breadth was greater than that of ,egypt1 but she lacked the contiguity of protecting deserts1 such as ,egypt possessed4 ,all through her history her fertile plains attracted the mountain dwellers of the ,east and the peoples of the ,west4 ,subject to frequent invasion by these1 ,babylonia had no long peaceful development such as ,egypt enjoyed before the ,hyksos invasion4 ,from before the beginning of written history race mingled with race in this great valley1 invasions were frequent1 and the construction of permanent empires difficult4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,bible ,,lands ,the breadth of the ,mesopotamian ,valley affected also the building materials and the character of the art4 ,stone was much more difficult to obtain than in ,egypt4 ,clay only was abundant4 ,all buildings were consequently of brick4 ,these structures were far less enduring than those in ,egypt2 their upper parts have disintegrated and buried the lower portions4 ,babylonian ruins are accordingly all under ground4 ,the abundant clay was also used by the ,babylonians as writing material4 ,when baked1 it proved far more enduring than the ,egyptian papyrus4 ,thus1 notwithstanding the general similarities which the ,mesopotamian ,valley presents to ,egypt1 its differences profoundly affected ,babylonian history and ,babylonian art4 #b4 ,the ,preservation of ,antiquities4--,babylonian cities were usually built on terraces of brick4 ,the walls of the cities and their buildings were constructed of the same material4 ,refuse from the houses in these towns was always thrown out into the streets1 so that1 as the centuries passed1 the streets were gradually elevated4 ,the walls of the brick houses gradually became unstable in the lapse of time1 and as the houses were repaired they were brought up to the level of the street4 ,consequently even in peaceful times the mounds on which the cities were built gradually grew higher4 ,most of these cities were at various times destroyed in warfare4 ,sometimes all the houses would be partially demolished and the site would be for a time practically uninhabited4 ,when at length the place was repeopled1 the top of the mound would be smoothed off and taken as the base of a new city4 ,in this way through the many centuries of ,babylonian history the sites of her cities have become great mounds4 ,when these cities finally fell into ruin1 the clay of the upper part of the walls gradually disintegrated in the weather and formed a coating of earth over the whole1 which preserved the foundations of the walls both of cities and houses1 as well as the inscribed clay1 stone tablets1 and the works of art buried underneath4 ,connected with each ,babylonian and ,assyrian temple was a kind of staged tower1 shaped in a general way like the stepped pyramid of ,zoser at ,sakkarah in ,egypt4 ,the ,babylonians called these towers ,ziggurats4 ,as the bricks of these towers decayed1 they formed in connection with the city mound a kind of hillock or peak1 which varied in accordance with the height of the tower4 ,the ruin of the ,ziggurat at ,birs ,nimrd1 the ancient ,borsippa1 is one of the most imposing to be seen in ancient ,babylonia2 it was long thought to be the original of the ,tower of ,babel 7,gen4 #aa3i74 ,it thus came about that no ancient temple of ,babylonia1 like some of those in ,egypt1 has remained above ground4 ,explorers have had to dig to discover antiquities2 7see ,fig4 #bb74 #c4 ,the ,discovery of ,antiquities3 ,by ,benjamin of ,tudela4--,the first man from western ,europe who traveled through ,babylonia and ,assyria and noted their ruins was a ,jew1 ,benjamin of ,tudela1 in the kingdom of ,navarre4 ,leaving home about #aafj ,a4 ,d41 he traveled through ,palestine1 crossed the desert by way of ,tadmor1 visited ,mosul opposite ancient ,nineveh1 and went southward to the site of ,babylon4 ,he also saw the ruin of ,birs ,nimrd1 and believed it to be the ,tower of ,babel4 ,between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries many other travelers visited the ,mesopotamian ,valley and described what they saw4 ,some of these1 toward the close of the eighteenth century1 described curious inscriptions which they had seen there on bricks4 ,this information led the ,british ,east ,india ,company in #agig to instruct its resident at ,bussorah1 in southern ,babylonia1 to try to secure some of these inscriptions4 ,this he did1 and early in #ahja the first case of inscribed bricks arrived at the ,east ,india ,house in ,london1 where they are still preserved4 ,by ,rich4--,early in the nineteenth century ,claude ,james ,rich became resident of the ,east ,india ,company at ,bagdad4 ,in his travels through the region he visited the mounds of ,hillah 7,babylon71 ,kouyunjik 7,nineveh71 and others1 where he made some slight excavations1 and found many inscriptions4 ,the smaller ones he added to his collection1 but many of them were of too monumental a character to be removed4 ,through these efforts a wide-spread interest was aroused4 ,by ,botta and ,place4--,in #ahdb the ,french government created a vice-consulate at ,mosul1 opposite the site of ancient ,nineveh1 and appointed to the position ,paul ,emil ,botta1 who had served as ,french consul at ,alexandria in ,egypt4 ,botta's mission was made in part archological4 ,in ,december1 #ahdb1 ,botta began digging in the mound of ,kouyunjik1 the site of ancient ,nineveh4 ,here he worked for three months4 ,as he found only a few inscribed bricks and the fragments of some bas-reliefs1 he became discouraged1 and changed the field of his operations to a mound called ,khorsabad1 situated about fourteen miles to the northeast of ,kouyunjik4 ,here he discovered a palace filled with interesting inscribed bas-reliefs made of alabaster1 as well as a city about a mile in circumference4 ,under the corners of the palace and under the city gates were many inscribed cylinders of clay4 ,this proved to be the palace and city built by ,sargon1 ,king of ,assyria 7#gbb-gje ,b4 ,c471 as his new capital4 ,he named it ,dur-,sharrukin1 or ,sargonsburgh4 ,his name had so entirely disappeared from ancient literature that only one reference to him has survived1 that in ,isaiah #bj3a1 but here was his palace arising from the dust together with abundant annals of his reign4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfi1 ff47 ,botta and his successor1 ,victor ,place1 excavated intermittently at ,khorsabad for ten years1 uncovering the palace and making a plan of it1 excavating the city walls and gates1 studying the drainage of the ancient town1 and fully describing the whole4 ,although a part of the antiquities found were lost in the ,tigris by the wreck of a raft on which they were being floated down the river1 a large collection reached ,france1 where they are preserved in the ,louvre4 ,by ,layard4--,the success of ,botta fired the enthusiasm of ,austen ,henry ,layard1 a young ,englishman of ,huguenot descent1 who began to excavate in #ahde at ,nimrd1 a mound further down the ,tigris than ,mosul1 and the site of the ,biblical ,calah 7,gen4 #aj3aa74 ,his money was at first furnished by a few friends1 but as he soon discovered a royal palace there similar to the one ,botta had unearthed at ,khorsabad1 the trustees of the ,british ,museum commissioned him to excavate for them4 ,he thus continued the work intermittently until #ahdi4 ,during this time he spent most of his energy upon the mound of ,kouyunjik1 where he discovered another royal palace4 ,this palace proved to be the work of ,sennacherib1 the son of ,sargon 7named in #b ,kings #ah3ac2 ,isa4 #cf71 who built the one at ,khorsabad1 while the palace at ,calah was1 in its final form1 the work of ,esarhaddon1 the son of ,sennacherib4 7,see #b ,kings #ai3cg47 ,the palace at ,nineveh had in turn been repaired by ,esarhaddon's son1 ,assurbanipal4 ,by ,loftus and ,rawlinson4--,as these excavations progressed1 others were stimulated to make minor explorations4 ,thus in #ahej ,william ,kennett ,loftus carried on small excavations at the mound of ,warka1 the site of the ,biblical ,erech 7,gen4 #aj3aj71 in southern ,babylonia1 from which he recovered important antiquities4 ,from #ahea-ahee the oversight of ,english excavations was entrusted to ,sir ,henry ,c4 ,rawlinson1 the ,british consul-general at ,bagdad4 ,under his direction ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,british vice-consul at ,bassorah1 made an excavation at the mound of ,mugheir1 the site of ,ur of the ,chaldees1 where he unearthed important inscriptions4 ,at the same time ,loftus was traveling about ,babylonia collecting antiquities4 ,by ,oppert and ,rassam4--,in #aheb a ,french expedition under the direction of ,jules ,oppert reached ,babylonia4 ,oppert made important excavations at ,hillah1 the site of the city of ,babylon1 and at ,birs ,nimrd1 the ancient ,borsippa4 ,in #aheb ,hormuzd ,rassam1 who had been one of ,layard's helpers1 continued under ,rawlinson's direction the excavation at ,nineveh4 ,this work continued until #ahed2 ,rassam had the good fortune to find1 in a part of the mound previously untouched1 still another palace4 ,this was the palace of ,assurbanipal1 the last of ,assyria's great kings1 who ruled from #ffh to #fbf ,b4 ,c41 and who collected here a great library4 ,this library ,rassam discovered1 and as it contained every variety of ,babylonian and ,assyrian literature1 including dictionaries and grammatical exercises1 it was one of the most important archological discoveries ever made4 ,during the last part of the time ,rassam was succeeded by ,loftus4 ,finally1 in the autumn of #ahed1 ,rawlinson himself undertook an excavation at ,birs ,nimrd1 and unearthed some important inscriptions of ,nebuchadrezzar ,,ii1 ,king of ,babylon1 #fjd-efb ,b4 ,c4 7,see #b ,kings #bd1 #be47 ,after this the interest in excavation waned for a time1 while scholars were busy reading the tablets already found4 ,by ,george ,smith4--,in ,december1 #ahgb1 ,george ,smith1 an employee of the ,british ,museum1 announced that among the tablets from ,nineveh he had found an account of the flood which closely resembled that in the ,bible4 ,this aroused so much interest that the proprietors of the ,london ,daily ,telegraph contributed money to send ,george ,smith to ,assyria to explore further the mounds there4 ,george ,smith thus led two expeditions of exploration1 one in #ahgc and the other in #ahgd4 ,he extended the trenches of his predecessors at ,nineveh and discovered many more important inscriptions4 ,in #ahgf he was on his way to ,mesopotamia for the third time1 when he died of fever at ,aleppo4 ,the ,british ,museum immediately secured the services of ,rassam again1 who during that year and #ahgg extended the work at ,kouyunjik 7,nineveh7 and also found a palace of ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 ,king of ,assyria1 #hfj-hbd ,b4 ,c41 at a mound called ,balawat1 situated to the east of ,kouyunjik4 ,by ,sarzec4--,meantime1 the interest of ,france was again aroused1 and in #ahgg her consul at ,bassorah1 ,ernest de ,sarzec1 began the excavation of ,telloh1 a mound in southern ,babylonia1 which turned out to be the site of ,shirpurla or ,lagash1 one of the oldest and most important of the ancient cities of ,babylonia4 ,work was carried on at intervals here by ,sarzec until his death in #aija1 and has since been continued by ,gaston ,cros4 ,the results have not received the popular acclaim accorded to the discoveries of ,botta and ,layard1 but scientifically they are far more important4 ,some of the oldest examples of ,babylonian art have been discovered1 as well as many thousands of tablets4 ,one room alone contained an archive of business documents estimated at thirty thousand4 ,much of our knowledge of the history of early ,babylonia is derived from material found at ,telloh4 ,by ,peters1 ,ward1 and ,haynes4--,in #ahhd ,america began to take an interest in ,babylonian exploration4 ,this was due largely to the initiative of ,dr4 ,john ,p4 ,peters1 then ,professor of ,hebrew in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 now ,rector of ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 ,new ,york4 ,through his efforts ,miss ,catherine ,l4 ,wolfe1 of ,new ,york1 contributed the money to defray the expenses of an expedition to ,babylonia for a preliminary survey4 ,this expedition was led by ,dr4 ,william ,hayes ,ward1 ,editor of the ,new ,york ,independent4 ,it spent the winter of #ahhd-ahhe in ,mesopotamia1 made many observations of the various mounds1 and collected some archological material4 ,dr4 ,peters continued his efforts1 and as a result a fund was raised in ,philadelphia to defray the expenses of an excavation in the interest of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,this expedition set out in #ahhh under the direction of ,dr4 ,peters4 ,the site chosen for the exploration was ,nuffar1 about sixty miles to the southeast of ,babylon4 ,the work was continued for two seasons under the direct control of ,dr4 ,peters4 ,after an interruption of three years the work was resumed under the general direction of ,dr4 ,peters1 with ,dr4 ,john ,h4 ,haynes as ,field ,director4 ,dr4 ,haynes1 in the most self-sacrificing and heroic manner1 continued the work both summer and winter until ,february1 #ahif1 laying bare many of the features of the ancient city of ,nippur1 which had occupied the site1 and discovering many inscribed tablets4 ,while this work was in progress ,prof4 ,herman ,v4 ,hilprecht became nominal head of the expedition on account of the removal of ,dr4 ,peters to ,new ,york4 ,a fourth expedition under the guidance of ,dr4 ,haynes began work at ,nuffar 7,nippur7 in ,february1 #ahii1 and worked until ,march1 #aijj4 ,during this work ,dr4 ,haynes discovered a large archive of tablets1 the exact number of which is variously estimated4 ,the find was similar to that made by ,sarzec at ,telloh2 7see ,figs4 #af and #ag74 ,nuffar1 the ancient ,nippur1 was one of the oldest centers of ,babylonian civilization1 and the work of the ,americans there is1 for our knowledge of the history of ancient ,babylonia1 next in importance to that done by the ,french at ,telloh4 ,a large number of the tablets discovered at ,nippur are now in the ,university ,museum in ,philadelphia4 ,meantime1 the ,turkish government had undertaken on its own account an excavation at ,abu ,haba1 the site of the ancient ,sippar in northern ,babylonia4 ,the direction of the work was committed to the oversight of the ,french ,assyriologist ,pre ,scheil1 and the work was carried on in the early part of the year #ahid4 ,much interesting material was brought to light4 ,by ,koldewey4--,also during this decade a new ,society1 the ,orient-,gesellschaft1 had been formed in ,berlin for the purpose of excavation4 ,this ,society began in #ahii the excavation of the great mound which covered the ruins of the ancient city of ,babylon4 ,the work was committed to the direction of ,dr4 ,robert ,koldewey1 who has carried it steadily forward until the present time4 ,koldewey has laid bare at ,babylon a number of the great works of ,king ,nebuchadrezzar--the magnificent walls with which he surrounded ,babylon1 and the palace and temples with which he adorned it4 ,as the work at ,babylon has progressed1 ,koldewey has made a number of minor excavations in smaller mounds of ,babylonia4 ,during the season of #aiab-aiac ,dr4 ,julius ,jordan undertook1 under ,dr4 ,koldewey's general direction1 an excavation at ,warka1 the ,biblical ,erech1 where ,loftus had dug sixty years before4 ,a part of the great temple of ,ishtar has been uncovered by ,dr4 ,jordan1 together with a portion of the city wall and many houses4 ,many tablets have also been found1 some of them having been written as late as the ,seleucid and ,parthian periods1 #cab-ej ,b4 ,c42 7see ,fig4 #ah74 ,by ,andrae4--,while the excavation at ,babylon has been in progress1 the ,orient-,gesellschaft has also conducted another at ,kalah-,sherghat1 on the ,tigris1 in ancient ,assyria4 ,this is the site of the city of ,ashur1 from which the country of ,assyria took its name4 7,cf4 ,gen4 #aj3aj1 #aa47 ,the work has been under the direction of ,dr4 ,andrae and has been in progress from #aijb to the present time4 ,temples and palaces have been uncovered1 and inscriptions from every period of ,assyrian history have been found4 ,the latest reports of the work at ,ashur tell of the discovery of objects which connect the founding of the city with immigrants from ,lagash in southern ,babylonia4 ,by de ,morgan4--,in #aijj a ,french expedition began the excavation of ,susa1 in ancient ,elam1 the ,shushan of the ,bible4 7,see ,neh4 #a3a2 ,esther #a3b1 etc41 and ,dan4 #h3b47 ,this work was under the direction of ,j4 de ,morgan4 ,while ,susa is not in ,babylonia1 the excavations here added greatly to our knowledge of ,babylonian history and life1 for during the first two seasons of the excavation1 two inscribed stone pillars were discovered1 which the ancient ,elamites had at some time taken as trophies of war from the ,babylonians4 ,one of these was an inscription of ,manishtusu1 ,king of ,kish1 who ruled about #bgjj ,b4 ,c41 and the other the pillar which contained the laws of ,hammurapi1 the most important single document relating to ,babylonian life that is known to us4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xiii47 ,by ,harper and ,banks4--,during the year #aijc-aijd the ,university of ,chicago sent an expedition to ,babylonia4 ,the expenses were borne by a contribution from ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller4 ,the late ,prof4 ,robert ,harper was ,scientific ,director of the expedition1 and ,dr4 ,edgar ,j4 ,banks1 ,field ,director4 ,the work was conducted at the mound of ,bismya1 which proved to be the site of the ancient city of ,adab1 one of the oldest ,babylonian cities1 which seems not to have been occupied since about #bfjj ,b4 ,c4 ,many interesting finds were made1 including a statue of a king1 ,lugaldaudu1 and many tablets4 ,friction with the ,turkish government brought the expedition to an untimely close1 and owing to the same cause the tablets discovered are hoarded at ,constantinople and have not been given to the world4 ,by ,genouillac4--,during the early part of the year #aiad a ,french expedition1 under the direction of ,h4 de ,genouillac1 excavated at ,ukhaimir1 the site of ancient ,kish4 ,they have discovered the great ,ziggurat of the temple of ,zamama1 the god of ,kish1 and are said to have made other important finds1 but the details are not yet published4 #d4 ,the ,decipherment of the ,inscriptions4--,the task of learning to read the inscriptions of ,babylonia and ,assyria was much more difficult than the decipherment of the ,egyptian hieroglyphs1 for no such simple key as the ,rosetta ,stone was at hand4 ,the key that finally unlocked the mystery came not from ,babylonia1 but from ,persepolis in ,persia4 ,when ,cyrus the ,great conquered ,babylon in #ech ,b4 ,c4 the ,persians had not developed a system of writing4 ,they accordingly adapted to their language the characters of the ,babylonian script4 ,the ,babylonian script had begun1 like the ,egyptian hieroglyphs1 as a system of picture-writing1 in which each picture represented an idea4 ,these had gone through a long development1 in which the original picture-forms had been supplanted by conventional characters derived therefrom4 ,in making these characters on clay1 one end of a line was always wider than the other1 hence the characters are called 8wedge-shaped0 or 8cuneiform40 ,in the course of the ages the ,babylonians had come to use the characters to express both syllables and whole words1 and a scribe might mingle these uses of a sign at will in writing a composition4 ,many of the signs might also express any one of several syllables4 ,in adapting this complicated system1 the ,persians had the wisdom to simplify it4 ,they selected or constructed a character for each sound1 making a real alphabet4 ,three of the ,persian kings1 ,darius 7#eba-dhe71 ,xerxes 7#def-dfe71 and ,artaxerxes ,,ii 7#dje-cei71 wrote their inscriptions in three languages1--,babylonian1 ,elamite1 and ,persian1--employing wedge-shaped scripts for all of them4 ,by ,niebuhr4--,in the ruins of the great palace of the ,persian kings at ,persepolis many of these inscriptions in three languages were preserved4 ,these ruins attracted the notice of many travelers from the time that ,odoric1 a monk1 saw them in #acbj ,a4 ,d41 and a number of travelers had made copies of some of them and brought them back to ,europe4 ,the inscriptions were a great puzzle4 ,after ,alexander the ,great 7#cca-cbc ,b4 ,c47 ,persia had been subject to foreign powers until #bbj ,a4 ,d41 when the ,sassanian dynasty 7#bbj-fda ,a4 ,d47 made ,persia again an independent kingdom4 ,in the revival of ,persian letters that occurred in ,sassanian times1 a form of the ,phnician alphabet was used1 because the old characters of these inscriptions had been forgotten4 ,in #agfe ,carsten ,niebuhr1 a ,dane1 visited ,persepolis and made accurate copies of a large number of these inscriptions4 ,the first correct reading of any of these inscriptions was done from ,niebuhr's copies2 7see ,fig4 #bj74 ,by ,grotefend1 de ,sacy1 and ,rawlinson4--,a number of scholars had studied ,niebuhr's copies1 but the first to read any of them correctly was ,georg ,friedrich ,grotefend1 a ,german scholar4 ,he began with the assumption that the three groups of lines in the inscriptions contained respectively three languages1 and that the first of these was the ,persian of ,cyrus and his successors4 ,in the years #aghg-agia ,sylvestre de ,sacy1 a ,french ,oriental scholar1 had studied and in part expounded some ,sassanian alphabetic inscriptions from ,persia1 which had also long attracted the notice of scholars4 ,these ,sassanian inscriptions were many of them cast in the same mould4 ,they ran thus3 8,x the great king1 king of kings1 the king of ,iran and ,aniran1 son of ,y1 the great king10 etc4 ,grotefend had these inscriptions before him1 and compared this formula with the inscriptions from ,persepolis4 ,he noted that as often as the formula contained the word 8king0 the inscriptions from ,persepolis contained the same group of signs1 and that as often as it had 8of kings10 they reproduced the group with a different ending4 ,he therefore rightly concluded that these signs were the old ,persian spelling of the ,persian word for 8king0 with its genitive plural4 ,taking from the ,sassanian inscriptions the word for king1 he proceeded to parcel out its sounds among the characters with which the word was spelled in the ,persepolis inscriptions4 ,he also found a king1 who was the son of a man not a king4 ,this1 he rightly held1 could be none other than ,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes4 ,apportioning the proper groups of signs among the sounds of these names1 he obtained still further alphabetical values4 ,thus a beginning was made4 ,grotefend was1 however1 unable to carry the work far1 and in the years that followed ,eugne ,burnouf1 ,christian ,lassen1 ,isidore ,lowenstern1 ,henry ,c4 ,rawlinson1 and ,edward ,hincks all made contributions to the subject4 ,the honor of having first correctly read and interpreted a long inscription belongs to ,rawlinson4 ,rawlinson was a young army officer1 who as a boy had been in ,india1 where he learned ,persian and several of the dialects of ,india4 ,in #ahcc he was sent to ,persia with other ,british officers to assist in the reorganization of the ,persian army4 ,here his attention was attracted by the great ,persian inscriptions in the mountains near ,hamadan1 the ancient ,ecbatana1 and in the intervals of military duties he copied and studied several of them4 ,he was1 in the early stages of his work1 quite unaware of the work done by ,grotefend and others1 but hit independently upon the method followed by ,grotefend4 ,owing to the fact that the inscriptions on which ,rawlinson worked were longer than those accessible to ,grotefend1 and also contained more proper names1 ,rawlinson attained greater success than any of his predecessors4 ,he did not publish his results1 however1 until he had become thoroughly familiar with all that others had done4 ,it was not until #ahdf that he published a full interpretation of the ,persian column of the great ,behistun#aj inscription of ,darius ,i4 ,babylonian ,column4--,this successful achievement related1 however1 only to the ,persian column4 ,the mysteries of the ,babylonian column had not yet been solved4 ,this task1 as will be evident from the complicated nature of the writing mentioned above1 was a much more difficult one4 ,the decipherment of the ,persian had1 however1 taught the sound of many cuneiform signs4 ,these sounds were carried over to the ,babylonian column as a nucleus of information4 ,excavations were all the time also bringing new material to light1 and a comparison of inscriptions1 in many of which the same words were written in different ways1 sometimes ideographically and sometimes syllabically1 helped on the general stock of knowledge4 ,rawlinson1 ,hincks1 ,jules ,oppert1 and ,fox ,talbot were the men who at this stage of the work were still wrestling with the problem4 ,again ,rawlinson was the man to achieve the first distinguished success4 ,in #ahea he published one hundred and twelve lines of the ,babylonian portion of the ,behistun inscription with transliteration and translation1 and accompanied the whole with copious notes in which the principles of the grammar were set forth4 ,a list of the signs and their values was also added4 ,from that day to this the study has steadily gone forward4 ,babylonian-,semitic4--,the work of ,rawlinson and his co-laborers proved that the language of the ancient ,babylonians was a ,semitic language1 closely akin to ,hebrew1 ,aramaic1 ,arabic1 and ,ethiopic4 ,within the next few years after he had found the key to the cuneiform writing1 ,rawlinson announced that the inscriptions from ,babylonia contained material in another and very different language4 ,the researches of later years have fully confirmed this1 and scholars call this language ,sumerian4 ,the people who spoke it were the inventors of many elements in the civilization of early ,babylonia1 and for many centuries at the dawn of history divided the country with the ,semites4 #e4 ,chronology4--,the materials for constructing the chronology of ,babylonian and ,assyrian history are as follows3 7#a7 ,claudius ,ptolemy1 an ,egyptian astronomer who flourished in the second century ,a4 ,d41 made a list of the kings of ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,babylonia back to the accession of the ,babylonian king1 ,nabonassar1 in #gdg ,b4 ,c4 ,this list was compiled as an astronomical aid1 and is very accurate4 7#b7 ,the ,assyrian kings kept lists of years and of principal events1 to which scholars have given the name 8,eponym ,lists10 because each year was named after the king or some officer4 ,tablets containing these lists have been recovered on which we can still read the chronology from #hic to #fff ,b4 ,c4 ,this list accordingly overlaps the list or 8canon0 of ,ptolemy4 ,some of these ,assyrian kings were also kings of ,babylon1 and where the lists overlap they agree4 ,one of these lists mentions an eclipse which occurred at ,nineveh in the month ,sivan 7,may-,june71 #gfc ,b4 ,c4 ,this eclipse has been calculated and verified by modern astronomers1 so that the chronology covered by these lists rests upon a secure scientific basis4 7#c7 ,for dates in ,assyrian history anterior to #hic ,b4 ,c4 we have to depend upon incidental notices in the inscriptions4 ,thus ,sennacherib1 whose date is fixed by the ,eponym ,lists as #gje-fha ,b4 ,c41 relates that during his reign he recovered from ,babylon the images of two gods that had been taken as booty by ,marduknadinakhi1 ,king of ,babylon1 from ,tiglath-pileser1 ,king of ,assyria1 #dah years before ,sennacherib brought them back4 ,it follows from this that ,tiglath-pileser ,i of ,assyria and ,marduknadinakhi of ,babylon were ruling from about #aabj to #aajj ,b4 ,c4 ,we also have a long inscription from the ,tiglath-pileser mentioned here1 who relates that in his reign he restored a temple1 which had been built by ,shamshi-,adad1 ruler of ,assyria1 son of ,ishmi-,dagan1 ruler of ,assyria1 #fda years before the time of ,ashur-dan1 ,king of ,assyria4 ,ashur-dan had1 he tells us1 pulled the temple down and it had lain in ruins #fj years until he 7,tiglath-pileser7 rebuilt it4 ,by adding these numbers we reach #ahai or #ahbj ,b4 ,c4 as the accession of ,shamshi-,adad4 ,again ,sennacherib found at ,babylon a seal which bore the following inscription3 8,tukulti-,ninib1 king of the world1 son of ,shalmaneser1 ,king of ,assyria1 conqueror of the land of ,chalda4 ,whoever changes the writing of my name1 may ,ashur and ,adad destroy his name4 ,this seal was presented by the land of ,assyria to the land of ,akkad0 7,babylonia74 ,to this ,sennacherib added the following inscription3 8,i1 ,sennacherib1 after #fjj years conquered ,babylon1 and from its treasures brought it out and took it40 ,we learn from this that ,tukulti-,ninib was ruling in ,assyria from about #acjj to #abij ,b4 ,c4 ,andrae has recently 7#aiad7 published an inscription of ,tukulti-,ninib in which he states that he repaired a temple which had been built by his ancestor1 ,ilu-shumma1 ,king of ,assyria1 #gbj years before4 ,ilu-shumma was1 accordingly1 ruling in ,assyria about #bjbj to #bjaj ,b4 ,c4 7#d7 ,among the tablets in the ,british ,museum are two so-called 8dynastic tablets0 which contain lists of the kings of ,babylon from the time that ,babylon became the leading city of the country to its capture by the ,persians4 ,the kings are divided into eight dynasties1 the length of the reign of each king was originally given1 and at the end of each dynasty a statement was given of the number of kings in that dynasty and the total length of their reigns4 ,these tablets are unfortunately much broken1 so that they afford us little help after the year #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 ,we learn from them1 however1 that ,marduknadinakhi1 the king mentioned by ,sennacherib as ruling about #aajj ,b4 ,c41 belonged to the fourth ,babylonian dynasty1 and1 if we add together the years given for the previous dynasties1 we are taken back nearly to the year #bdjj ,b4 ,c4 for the accession of the first dynasty of ,babylon4 ,evidence has1 however1 come to light in recent years which proves that the first and second of these dynasties overlapped1 one ruling in the north while the other ruled in the south4 ,a reliable chronology cannot1 therefore1 be obtained by adding these numbers together4 ,in order to correct them recourse must be had to other evidence4 7#e7 ,franz ,xaver ,kugler1 who is both an astronomer and an ,assyriologist1 has recently shown that an astronomical tablet which was published as long ago as #ahgj1 and which notes for a series of years when ,venus was the evening and when the morning star1 contains a date formula which fixes its compilation in the reign of ,ammi-zadugga1 the tenth of the eleven kings of the first dynasty of ,babylon4 ,from mathematical calculations of the position of the planet ,venus1 ,kugler is accordingly able to fix the accession year of ,ammi-zadugga as either #bjdj1 #aigf1 or #aheg ,b4 ,c4 ,as the first of these dates is too early1 and the third is1 in the judgment of most scholars1 too late1 it follows that his accession year was in #aigf4 ,from the lengths of the reigns of the various kings of this dynasty as given in the dynastic tablets1 it follows that the first dynasty of ,babylon began its rule in #bbjf ,b4 ,c4 7#f7 ,under ,adad-nirari ,,iii1 ,king of ,assyria 7#haj-ghb ,b4 ,c471 a so-called synchronistic history of ,assyria and ,babylonia was compiled4 ,it covered about #fjj years1 beginning with a treaty of peace between ,karaindash1 ,king of ,babylon1 and ,ashur-rim-nishishu1 ,king of ,assyria4 ,it aids in filling gaps left by breaks in other lists4 7#g7 ,a chronological tablet in the ,babylonian collection of ,yale ,university contains a list of the kings of ,larsa4 ,this city was conquered by ,hammurapi1 of the first dynasty of ,babylon1 in the #cast year of his reign4 ,the tablet1 therefore1 counts ,hammurapi one of the kings of ,larsa1 ascribing to him twelve years of rule4 ,the tablet was apparently compiled in the twelfth year of ,samsuiluna1 ,hammurapi's successor1 to whom twelve years are also ascribed4 ,it gives the total length of the dynasty of ,larsa as #bhi years4 ,that dynasty1 accordingly1 began its rule in #bceh ,b4 ,c4 7#h7 ,in a chronological list of the kings of ,ur and ,nisin on a tablet in the ,university ,museum1 ,philadelphia1#aa it is stated that the kings of ,ur ruled #aag years and the kings of ,nisin #bbe years and #f months4 ,a tablet has now been discovered which shows that the dynasty of ,nisin was not overthrown until #baag or #baaf ,b4 ,c4 ,its #bbe years1 therefore1 were all parallel to the time of the dynasty of ,larsa4 ,as the dynasty of ,nisin rose upon the ruins of the kingdom of ,ur1 the dates of the kingdom of ,ur are1 therefore1 fixed as #bdeh-bcda ,b4 ,c4 7#i7 ,a chronological tablet published by ,scheil in the ,comptes rendus of the ,french ,academy for #aiaa gives a list of five early dynasties of ,babylonia3 a dynasty of ,opis1 one of ,kish1 one of ,agade1 and two of ,erech4 7#aj7 ,a group of chronological tablets in the ,university ,museum in ,philadelphia1#ab which assign several dynasties to each of several well-known ,babylonian cities1 ascribe to their kings incredibly long reigns4 ,one of these is translated in ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,iv4 7#aa7 ,fragments of a work of ,berossos1 a ,babylonian priest who lived after the time of ,alexander the ,great1 contain a list of ,babylonian kings4 ,he based his work on such tablets as those in the ,university ,museum4 ,his statements abound accordingly in incredible numbers4 ,from these tablets it appears that the dynasty of ,ur was preceded by the dynasty of ,gutium1 which ruled for #aei years2 the dynasty of ,gutium was preceded by a dynasty of ,erech for #bf years2 that1 by a dynasty of ,agade for #aig years2 that1 by one king of ,erech1 ,lugalzaggisi1 who ruled #be years2 he was apparently preceded by a dynasty of ,kish for #ajf years2 that1 by a dynasty of ,opis for #ii years4 ,these figures take us back to #cjgj ,b4 ,c41 though the arrangement for the time before ,lugalzaggisi is in part conjectural4 ,four dynasties of what are known to have been historical kings existed before this time1 so that we are led to place the beginning of the historical period in ,babylonia about #cbjj ,b4 ,c4 or earlier4 7#ab7 ,nabuna'id1 ,king of ,babylon1 #eee-ech ,b4 ,c41 states that he found1 in repairing the temple at ,sippar 7,agade71 the temple-platform of ,naram-,sin1 son of ,sargon1 which no one had seen for #c1bjj years4 ,as he made this statement about #eej ,b4 ,c41 it was long supposed that this fixed the date of ,naram-,sin as #cgej ,b4 ,c41 and that of his father1 ,sargon1 at about #chjj ,b4 ,c4 ,these dates will be found in many of the older books1 but they are incredible4 ,they would1 if true1 leave long gaps in the history that we have no information to fill4 ,since it has been clearly proved that the dynasties overlapped1 it seems that ,nabuna'id reached his date by adding together the totals of dynasties1 some of which were contemporary4 ,it now seems probable that he placed ,naram-,sin about #a1ajj years too early4 ,the sources here enumerated afford us a tolerably accurate chronology back to about #bdej ,b4 ,c4 ,all dates earlier than this have to be estimated by combining statements of early dynastic tablets with archological and palographic considerations4 #f4 ,outline of the ,history4--,the history of ,babylonia and ,assyria falls into eight different periods4 ,our information is not yet sufficiently complete to enable us to write the history of any one of them1 but we can discern in outline a most fascinating course of events4 7#a7 ,the ,prehistoric ,period1 or the period before the rise of written history1 during which we can ascertain from various inferences the general course of events4 ,this period must have begun about #dejj or #ejjj ,b4 ,c4 and lasted down to about #cbjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the ,semites from ,arabia#ac were the first to pour into the fertile valley of ,mesopotamia4 ,they came up from the south1 establishing the city of ,eridu on the shore of the ,persian ,gulf1 then the cities of ,ur1 ,erech1 ,lagash1 ,nippur1 etc4 ,they carried with them the culture of the palm-tree1 and learned to raise grain in the alluvial soil of the rivers1 but they had no system of writing4 ,the early cities of ,babylonia were the fortified residences of different tribes1 which were frequently at war with one another4 ,one city would subjugate its neighbors for a time and establish a small empire4 ,as long as it continued to rule1 a certain degree of homage was paid to its god by all the cities over which it ruled4 ,in prehistoric times there were kingdoms of this sort ruled at one time by ,eridu1 at another by ,erech1 and at another by ,nippur1 for ,ea1 the god of ,eridu1 ,anu1 the god of ,erech1 and ,enlil or ,bel1 god of ,nippur1 were ever after worshiped as the supreme gods of ,babylonia4 ,sumerians4--,at some time before the dawn of history a people whom we call ,sumerians moved into ,babylonia from the ,east4 ,these people spoke a language which possesses some features in common with ,finnish and ,turkish4 ,they were neither ,aryans nor ,semites4 ,the ,semites wore thick hair and long beards2 the ,sumerians shaved both their heads and faces4 ,these ,sumerians overran southern ,babylonia as far north as ,nippur and in this region became the ruling race4 ,they grafted the worship of their own gods upon the worship of the deities of the cities which they conquered1 but the ,semitic elements of these local deities persisted even in ,sumerian thought4 ,it thus came about that the bald and beardless ,sumerians picture their gods with hair and beards4 ,after settling in ,babylonia1 the ,sumerians developed a system of writing4 ,it was at first hieroglyphic1 like the ,egyptian system4 ,afterward the ,semites1 who still retained the supremacy in the cities of ,kish and ,agade in the north1 and who had probably been reinforced there by fresh migrations from ,arabia1 adapted this system of writing to their own language4 ,as clay was the usual writing material and it was difficult to make good pictures on it1 the pictographic form of the writing was soon lost4 ,the pictures degenerated into those conventional symbols which are today known as the 8cuneiform0 characters4 7#b7 ,the ,pre-,babylonian ,period of the history includes the period from about #cbjj ,b4 ,c4 down to the rise of the city of ,babylon1 about #bajj ,b4 ,c4 ,this period1 like the preceding1 was a time of successive city kingdoms4 ,one city would establish an empire for a while1 then another1 having become more powerful1 would take the leadership4 ,when first our written records enable us to trace the course of events1 ,lagash in the south and ,kish in the north were the rival cities4 ,lagash was ruled by a king1 ,enkhegal4 ,a little later ,meselim1 ,king of ,kish1 conquered all of southern ,babylonia1 including ,lagash4 ,after ,meselim had passed away1 ,ur-,nina founded a new dynasty at ,lagash and gained his independence4 ,ur-,nina's grandson1 ,eannatum1 raised the power of ,lagash to its greatest height1 conquering all the cities of ,babylonia1 even ,kish4 ,the ,elamites were always invading the fertile plains of ,babylonia1 so ,eannatum ascended the eastern mountains and subjugated ,elam4 8,stele of the ,vultures40--,he celebrated his victories by the erection of one of the most remarkable monuments which the ancient world produced1 the so-called 8stele of the vultures40 ,from the pictures on the monument we learn that the soldiers of ,lagash1 about #biej ,b4 ,c41 waged their battles in a solid phalanx protected by shields4 ,the ,greeks were formerly supposed to have invented this form of attack1 but were anticipated by #b1ejj years2 7see ,fig4 #ai74 ,although this dynasty furnished several other rulers1 the leadership of all ,babylonia was lost after the death of ,eannatum4 ,it passed first to ,opis and then again to ,kish4 ,lagash continued to flourish1 however1 during #bjj years1 while these cities were the overlords of its rulers4 ,its wars had made it rich1 and all the arts flourished there4 ,our best specimens of terra-cotta and stone work come from this period of this city4 ,under ,entemena1 the successor of ,eannatum1 a silver vase of exquisite workmanship and ornamentation was made2 7see ,fig4 #ba74 ,after a century or more of wealth and luxury1 during which priests and officials became corrupt1 a new king1 ,urkagina1 seized the throne and endeavored to reform the administration4 ,naturally1 his reforms were unpopular with the priesthood and the army1 and1 though popular with the people1 he unintentionally weakened the defensive power of his country4 ,at this juncture a new ruler named ,lugalzaggisi arose in the city of ,umma1 who ultimately overthrew ,lagash and became king of all ,babylonia4 ,he made ,erech his capital4 ,this was about #bhjj ,b4 ,c4 ,lugalzaggisi claims to have overrun the country from the ,persian ,gulf to the ,mediterranean4 ,if so1 and there is no good reason to doubt his claim1 ,babylonia and the ,palestinian coast-lands were under him brought together for the first time4 ,after ,lugalzaggisi the city of ,agade came to the fore4 ,its great ,king ,sargon about #bgge ,b4 ,c4 founded a dynasty which ruled for nearly two hundred years4 ,the kings of this line were ,semitic and resided sometimes at ,agade and sometimes at ,kish4 ,sargon conquered ,syria and a later chronicle says that he crossed the western sea4 ,as a seal of this dynasty was found in ,cyprus1 it is possibly true4 ,naram-,sin1 one of the most famous kings of this line1 conquered the country of ,magan1 which some believe to be the peninsula of ,sinai1 but which others hold was situated in eastern ,arabia4 ,about the time of this dynasty1 or a little before1 ,king ,lugaldaudu flourished at ,adab1 the modern ,bismya1 where ,dr4 ,banks found his statue4 ,in this same general period a king named ,anubanini ruled in a city to the northward1 called ,lulubi4 ,perhaps it was under the later kings of this dynasty of ,agade1 or under a dynasty of ,erech which held sway for a brief period after them1 that ,gudea flourished at ,lagash4 ,this ruler does not claim to be a king1 but his city enjoyed great prosperity under him1 and he rebuilt it in fine style4 ,he seems to have been on peaceful terms with much of the world1 and brought for his structures stone from ,magan1 cedar wood from ,amanus on the ,mediterranean coast1 and copper from ,lebanon4 ,after this time the land was overrun by hordes from ,gutium1 a region to the northeast beyond the ,tigris4 ,they established a dynasty which lasted for #abe 7or #aei7 years4 ,in #bdeh ,b4 ,c4 a dynasty arose in the city of ,ur1 situated far to the south4 ,these kings were ,sumerians and under them a great ,sumerian revival occurred4 ,by this time northern ,babylonia was called ,akkad1 from the city of ,agade1 and southern ,babylonia was called ,sumir1 from a corruption of the name of one of the quarters of ,lagash4 ,these kings combined with the title 8king of ,ur0 the title 8king of ,sumir and ,akkad40 ,sumir is the ,biblical 8,shinar0 7,gen4 #aj3aj2 #aa3b1 etc474 ,dungi1 the second king of this dynasty of ,ur1 reigned #eh years and established a wide empire1 which included ,elam and the city of ,susa4 ,he established a system of government posts to aid the royal officers of army and state in the performance of their duties4 ,upon the fall of the dynasty of ,ur1 the dominion of ,babylonia was divided between two cities1 ,nisin and ,larsa1 each of which furnished a dynasty which flourished for more than two and a quarter centuries4 ,naturally1 these kings were continually struggling with each other for the supremacy1 and sometimes one city was the more powerful1 sometimes the other4 ,the ,elamites1 who during the whole period had occasionally swooped down into the ,mesopotamian ,valley1 overran ,larsa and furnished the last two kings of its dynasty1--,arad-,sin and ,rim-,sin4 ,these kings have each been thought by different scholars to be the ,arioch of ,gen4 #ad3a4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,ix47 ,about #bbaj ,b4 ,c4 a dynasty of rulers was founded in the city of ,babylon that was destined to bring a new era into the history of the country4 ,after a struggle of more than a century ,hammurapi1 the sixth king of this line1 broke the power of ,larsa and made ,babylon the leading city of the country4 ,nisin had previously fallen4 ,with the rise of ,babylon another period of the life of the country was ended4 ,the above sketch calls attention to a few only of the more prominent features and cities of ,babylonia4 ,there were many others which participated in her life during the millennium of the pre-,babylonian period4 ,the recovery of more inscriptions will no doubt make this statement more true even than we now dream4 ,each of these contributed its mite to the progress of civilization in this melting-pot of races in this far-off time4 7#c7 ,the ,early ,babylonian ,period began with the reign of ,hammurapi and continued till about #ajej ,b4 ,c4 ,it includes the rule of the first four dynasties of ,babylon4 ,the period began gloriously under ,hammurapi1 who conquered all of ,babylonia1 and extended his sway also to the ,mediterranean4 ,he was as great as an administrator as he was as a conqueror2 he codified the laws of ,babylonia and inscribed them on a stone pillar1 which was set up in the temple of ,marduk in ,babylon4 ,these laws have been recovered1 and are one of the most valuable archological discoveries of modern times4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xiii47 ,soon after the death of ,hammurapi1 a revolt occurred under one ,ilumailu1 who established in the region near the ,persian ,gulf a dynasty known as the 8dynasty of the sea lands10 which was afterward called the second dynasty of ,babylon4 ,down to #aibd ,b4 ,c4 the two dynasties divided the country between them4 ,in that year ,babylonia was invaded by the ,hittites1 who came from the northwest1 and the first dynasty of ,babylon was overthrown4 ,the ,hittites appear to have ruled the country for a short time1 when they were driven out by the 8dynasty of the sea lands10 which1 so far as we know1 controlled the country for the next hundred and fifty years4 ,kassites4--,about #agej ,b4 ,c41 or shortly before1 ,babylonia was once more invaded by a race of barbarians from the east of the ,tigris1 called ,kassites or ,cossans4 ,they captured ,babylon and founded the third dynasty of ,babylon1 which ruled for #egf years4 ,the kings of this dynasty gradually absorbed ,babylonian culture4 ,soon after #agjj ,b4 ,c4 they expelled the kings of the sea lands from the south and ruled the whole country4 ,assyria1 which under the first dynasty had been a ,babylonian colony1 gained her independence before #adjj ,b4 ,c41 so that after that the independent histories of the two lands run on parallel lines4 ,during the long period of ,kassite rule1 ,babylon experienced many vicissitudes4 ,assyria was at times friendly and at times hostile4 ,in the reign of ,kurigalzu1 ,elam was successfully invaded and spoil formerly taken by the kings of ,elam was brought back to ,babylonia4 ,kadashman-turgu and ,burnaburiash1 kings of this dynasty1 carried on friendly correspondence with ,amenophis ,,iii and ,amenophis ,,iv1 kings of ,egypt1 #adjj-acej ,b4 ,c4 ,pashe ,dynasty4--,about #aage ,b4 ,c4 the ,kassite dynasty was superseded by the ,pashe dynasty1 which ruled the country for more than a hundred and thirty years4 ,the greatest king of this time was ,nebuchadrezzar ,i1 who reigned about #aaej ,b4 ,c4 ,he emulated with considerable success the career of his great predecessor1 ,hammurapi4 ,after the fall of the fourth dynasty1 the country was divided and fell a prey to the ,elamites1 who overran it about #ajej4 ,for the following #dej years ,babylonia1 though often independent1 was of little political importance4 7#d7 ,the ,early ,assyrian ,period4--,assyria's empire grew out of the domination of the city of ,ashur1 as that of ,rome grew out of the domination of the city of ,rome4 ,ashur and ,nineveh had been founded by colonists from ,lagash about #cjjj or #bhjj ,b4 ,c4 ,this is shown by archological remains found at ,ashur1 and by the name of ,nineveh4 ,we can first trace the names of ,assyria's rulers shortly before the year #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,they do not call themselves kings1 and were1 perhaps1 then subject to ,babylon4 ,about #adcj ,b4 ,c4 we learn that ,assyria had become an independent kingdom4 ,her king at that time1 ,ashur-rim-nishishu1 was a contemporary of ,karaindash1 ,king of ,babylon4 ,ashur-uballit about #acgj-acdc was a contemporary of ,burnaburiash1 ,king of ,babylon1 and shared in the correspondence with ,egyptian kings contained in the ,el-,amarna letters4 ,shalmaneser ,i about #acjj ,b4 ,c4 conquered the region to the west of ,assyria extending across the ,euphrates in the direction of the ,mediterranean4 ,ashur-nasirpal1 a later king 7#hhd-hfj ,b4 ,c471 says that ,shalmaneser 8made0 the city of ,calah#ad as a new capital for his country4 ,his son1 ,tukulti-,ninib ,i1 turned his arms to the southward and conquered ,babylon1 which he held for seven years4 ,after him ,assyria's power declined for a time1 but was revived by ,tiglath-pileser ,i1 who carried ,assyria's conquests again across the ,euphrates to the ,mediterranean ,sea and northward to the region of ,lake ,van4 ,after the reign of ,tiglath-pileser ,i1 ,assyria's power rapidly declined again1 and the first period of ,assyria's history was closed4 ,our sources almost fail us for a hundred years or more4 7#e7 ,the ,second ,assyrian ,period4--,assyria slowly emerged from the obscurity into which she had fallen after the death of ,tiglathpileser ,i4 ,the progress went forward through the reigns of eleven different kings4 ,finally1 in the reign of ,ashur-nasirpal ,,ii1 #hhd-hfj ,b4 ,c41 a period of foreign conquest was once more inaugurated4 ,this monarch again carried the conquests of his country northward and also to the ,mediterranean4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfj47 ,under him ,assyria became the best fighting machine in the ancient world--a machine that was run with ruthless cruelty over all conquered peoples4 ,this king set his successors the example of flaying and impaling numbers of conquered peoples1 and of boasting of such deeds in his chronicles4 ,probably such deeds were not now committed for the first time1 but so far as we know they had not been so gloated over4 ,ashur-nasirpal's successor1 ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 #hfh-hbd ,b4 ,c41 made1 besides campaigns into ,armenia and elsewhere1 six campaigns against the lands of ,syria and ,palestine4 ,on his first campaign in #hed he was met at ,qarqar by a confederation of kings1 among whom were ,ahab of ,israel and ,ben-,hadad of ,damascus4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfj1 ff47 ,on his fourth campaign in #hdb ,b4 ,c4 ,jehu1 who had in that year usurped the throne of ,israel1 hastened to make his peace with ,shalmaneser by giving him a heavy tribute4 ,thus ,assyria gained a right to claim ,israel as a vassal state4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfb1 f47 ,the next two kings1 ,shamshi-,adad ,,iv and ,adad-nirari ,,iv1 controlled ,assyria until #ghc ,b4 ,c41 and maintained her power4 ,the last-mentioned king made three expeditions into the ,west1 and claims to have received tribute not only from ,israel but from ,philistia and ,edom1 but no details of his campaigns have survived4 ,after #ghc the power of ,assyria declined again1 and the decline lasted until #gde1 when the reigning dynasty was overthrown1 and an able general1 whose name was apparently ,pul1 gained the throne 7cf4 #b ,kings #ae3ai71 and took the great name of ,tiglath-pileser4 ,he reigned as the fourth king of that name4 ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv was great both as a warrior and as a statesman4 ,he broke for the time being the power of the kingdom of ,urartu in ,armenia1 conquered parts of ,media on the east1 and also annexed ,babylon to ,assyria4 ,babylon during this later ,assyrian period had usually been permitted to retain a king of her own1 though the kingdom was of little political importance as compared with ,assyria4 ,tiglath-pileser made his power dominant in ,babylonia at the beginning of his reign1 and during the last two years of his life actually reigned there as king4 ,the ,babylonian scribes did not recognize his high-sounding name of ,tiglath-pileser1 but still called him ,pul4 ,in the first year of his reign ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv inaugurated a new policy with reference to conquered peoples4 ,this was the policy of transporting to a distant part of his empire the wealthy and influential members of a conquered nation1 and of putting similar exiles from other lands in their place4 ,individuals so transported would be unable longer to foment rebellion against him4 ,it was a brutal policy1 but it was a measure designed to build up a permanent empire4 ,tiglath-pileser made four expeditions to the west1 though the first two touched northern ,phnicia only4 ,in #gci1 when he made his appearance in ,palestine1 ,menahem1 ,king of ,israel1 hastened to pay him tribute 7#b ,kings #ae3ai74 ,four years later1 however1 after ,pekah had usurped the throne of ,israel1 that king formed an alliance with ,rezin of ,damascus for the purpose of throwing off the ,assyrian yoke1 and tried to force ,ahaz of ,judah to join in the enterprise4 7,see ,isa4 #g3a1 f47 ,this1 ,ahaz1 supported by the prophet ,isaiah1 refused to do4 ,in #gcc-gcb ,tiglath-pileser came again into the ,west1 overran the territory of the kingdom of ,israel1 deported the chief inhabitants of ,galilee to distant parts of his dominions 7#b ,kings #ae3bi1 #cj71 and replaced ,pekah1 who had been killed1 by ,king ,hoshea1 who ruled over a greatly diminished territory and upon whom a heavy ,assyrian tribute was imposed4 ,tiglath-pileser then turned eastward and conquered ,damascus1 which his predecessors since the days of ,shalmaneser ,,iii had been vainly trying to capture4 ,while the ,assyrian monarch was at ,damascus1 ,king ,ahaz of ,judah went thither and became his vassal4 7,see #b ,kings #af3aj1 f47 ,thus ,judah also passed under the ,assyrian yoke4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cff47 ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv was succeeded by ,shalmaneser ,v1 #gbg-gbb ,b4 ,c41 and soon after the death of ,tiglath-pileser1 ,hoshea of ,israel was persuaded to join several petty rulers of ,philistia and ,egypt in rebelling against ,assyria4 ,in #gbe an ,assyrian army overran ,hoshea's territory1 and laid siege to ,samaria4 ,the military position of ,samaria and its strong walls made it almost impregnable1 and the siege dragged on for three years 7#b ,kings #ag3e74 ,before the city fell1 another king had ascended the throne of ,assyria4 ,he was a usurper1 a general1 who took the great name of ,sargon1 and who ruled from #gbb to #gje ,b4 ,c4 ,samaria succumbed in ,sargon's first year and #bg1bij of its inhabitants were deported4 ,the discontent of the west was not at once quieted4 ,other states remained in rebellion and an ,assyrian army finally defeated them at ,raphia1 southwest of ,gaza1 in #gai ,b4 ,c4 ,sargon then turned his arms in other directions1 fighting at various times with the kingdom of ,urartu in ,armenia1 overcoming ,carchemish1 a ,hittite kingdom on the ,euphrates in #gag 7see ,isa4 #aj3i71 and making an expedition into ,arabia in #gae4 ,in #gaa ,ashdod revolted and ,sargon's ,tartan or chief officer came to put the rebellion down 7,isa4 #bj3a74 ,at the beginning of ,sargon's reign his arms had been defeated in ,babylonia1 and ,merodachbaladan1 a ,chaldan 7see #b ,kings #bj3ab71 seized the throne of ,babylon and held it from #gba to #gji4 ,then he was defeated and ,sargon took over the control of ,babylonia4 ,merodachbaladan1 however1 escaped to the marsh lands at the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 and survived to make trouble later4 ,in #gje ,sargon died and was succeeded by his son1 ,sennacherib1 who ruled from #gje to #fha ,b4 ,c4 ,at the beginning of his reign troubles broke out in ,babylonia1 which cannot here be followed in detail4 ,they lasted for years1 and none of ,sennacherib's measures gave the country permanent peace4 ,at last ,sennacherib became so incensed that he destroyed ,babylon4 ,her buildings were burned and battered down1 her walls overthrown1 and the ,euphrates turned through canals into the land on which she had stood1 to make it a marsh4 ,one incident in the series of events which led up to this sad climax was the reappearance in #gjb of ,merodachbaladan1 who seized the throne of ,babylon and tried to stir up a rebellion against ,assyria4 ,he even sent letters to ,hezekiah1 ,king of ,judah4 7,see #b ,kings #bj3ab47 ,at the beginning of ,sennacherib's reign a number of the petty kings of ,philistia had withheld their tribute4 ,into this revolt ,hezekiah1 ,king of ,judah1 had been drawn4 ,busied with other wars1 ,sennacherib was unable to quell this rebellion until the year #gja4 ,in that year his army met the forces of the confederated kingdoms at ,elteke in the valley of ,aijalon and overcame them4 ,sennacherib then proceeded to ,lachish1 where he received the submission of the neighboring kinglets4 ,from ,lachish he sent a messenger who summoned ,hezekiah of ,judah to submit 7cf4 ,isa4 #cf1 #cg74 ,hezekiah obeyed the summons and paid a heavy tribute4 ,space does not permit us to speak of the wars of ,sennacherib against ,elam and other countries4 ,it would seem that after ,tirhakah ascended the throne of ,egypt in #fhh ,b4 ,c41 he persuaded the kingdoms of ,palestine to rebel4 ,the ,assyrian came west again and threatened to invade ,egypt and to destroy ,jerusalem4 ,isaiah then predicted that ,jerusalem would be delivered 7,isa4 #ca3e71 a prediction which was fulfilled4 ,sennacherib's army was attacked by bubonic plague and was compelled to retire4#ae ,sennacherib was assassinated in #fha and was succeeded by his son1 ,esarhaddon1 who ruled till #ffh4 ,esarhaddon rebuilt ,babylon1 which his father had destroyed1 and two years before his death conquered all of ,lower ,egypt and made it an ,assyrian province4 ,during his reign a great horde of ,scythians poured into ,asia through the ,caucasus region from southern ,russia4 ,the ,assyrian army prevented ,assyria from being overwhelmed by this horde4 ,the stream of invaders was divided1 one part flowing east to ,media1 the other part westward to ,asia ,minor4 ,esarhaddon's son and successor1 ,ashurbanipal1 ruled from #ffh to #fbf4 ,his reign was the ,augustan age of ,assyria4 ,at the beginning he was called upon to put down a rebellion in ,egypt1 and as trouble there recurred several times1 trouble which was fomented by emissaries from ,thebes and ,nubia1 he finally in #ffa pushed up the ,nile and conquered ,thebes and gave it over to plunder4 7,see ,nahum #c3h47 ,space does not permit us to follow ,ashurbanipal's wars4 ,about the middle of his reign his brother1 ,shamash-shumukin1 who was ruling ,babylon1 rebelled along with many other vassals1 and although the rebels were finally put down1 the seeds of the decay of ,assyria's power were sown4 ,manasseh1 ,king of ,judah1 as long as he lived was a faithful vassal of ,esarhaddon and ,ashurbanipal4 7,cf4 #b ,kings #ai3cg2 #b ,chron4 #cc47 ,the great work of ,ashurbanipal was the collection of his library at ,nineveh4 ,he sent to all the old temples of ,babylonia and had copies made of their incantations1 hymns1 and epics4 ,these1 together with chronicles1 medical tablets1 dictionaries1 etc41 he collected in his palace1 where they were found by ,layard and ,rassam1 and form the basis of our knowledge of the ,assyrian and ,babylonian language1 literature1 and history4 ,with the death of ,ashurbanipal1 the last ,assyrian period had really closed4 ,though the kingdom continued for twenty years more1 they were but the years of a lingering death4 7#f7 ,the ,neo-,babylonian ,period4--,in #fbe1 the year after ,ashurbanipal's death1 ,nabopolassar1 the viceroy of ,babylon1 who appears to have been a ,chaldan1#af gained his independence1 and established the ,neo-,babylonian1 or ,chaldan empire4 ,nabopolassar himself reigned till #fjd ,b4 ,c4 ,during his reign the power of the city of ,babylon gradually extended over all southern ,babylonia1 and up the ,euphrates to ,carchemish4 ,during these years ,assyria was gradually diminishing in territory4 ,as ,assyria had declined1 ,media1 which had long been in greater or less degree subject to ,assyria1 had become free1 and ,median kings had little by little gained control of the country toward ,assyria4 ,nabopolassar finally made an alliance with the ,median king1 and together they overthrew ,nineveh in #fjf ,b4 ,c4 ,in #fjd ,necho of ,egypt marched with an army to the ,euphrates1 and ,nabopolassar sent his son1 ,nebuchadrezzar ,,ii1 to meet him4 ,nebuchadrezzar defeated ,necho at the battle of ,carchemish1 and hotly pursued him toward ,egypt4 7,see ,jer4 #df47 ,the pursuit was1 however1 interrupted by the death of ,nabopolassar1 and the recall of ,nebuchadrezzar to ,babylon to be crowned as king4 ,the defeat of ,necho had made ,judah a ,babylonian vassal-state4 ,nebuchadrezzar ruled until #efb ,b4 ,c41 and raised ,babylon to a height of power which rivaled that attained under the great ,hammurapi4 ,he also rebuilt the city in great magnificence4 ,the palaces1 temples1 and walls of this period1 unearthed by ,koldewey1 were most magnificent structures4 ,owing to rebellions1 first of ,jehoiakim and then of ,zedekiah1 kings of ,judah1 ,nebuchadrezzar twice besieged ,jerusalem1 once in #eig1 and again in #ehf ,b4 ,c41 on both occasions capturing the city4 ,in #ehf he destroyed it4 7#b ,kings #bd1 #be47 ,following the ,assyrian practice1 which had prevailed since ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv1 he transported considerable numbers of the more influential people of the city each time he took it4 ,these were settled in ,babylonia4 ,one colony of them was stationed near ,nippur4 ,among those who were transported in #eig was a young priest1 who afterward became the prophet ,ezekiel4 ,the colony with which he came was settled by the ,khubur canal near ,nippur4 7,see ,ezek4 #a3a47 ,the young king1 ,jehoiachin1 who was also taken captive at that time1 remained in confinement during the rest of ,nebuchadrezzar's reign4 ,he was only released by ,amil-,marduk1 ,nebuchadrezzar's son1 who succeeded his father and reigned two years4 7,see #b ,kings #be3bg-cj47 ,after ,nebuchadrezzar the kingdom of ,babylon rapidly declined through four reigns4 ,meantime1 ,cyrus1 who in #eec had overthrown the kingdom of ,media and erected the kingdom of ,persia on its ruins1 had been gradually extending his realm to the gean ,sea on the west1 and to the borders of ,india on the east4 ,in #ech ,b4 ,c4 ,cyrus captured ,babylon and overthrew ,nabuna'id4 7#g7 ,the ,persian ,period lasted from #ech to #cca ,b4 ,c4 ,during this time ,babylonia was but a province of the ,persian empire1 though the ,persian kings made it one of their capitals4 ,cyrus reversed the policy of transportation1 which had been practised by the ,assyrians and ,babylonians for two hundred years1 and permitted subject peoples to return to their lands and restore their institutions and worship4 ,he sought to attach them to his government by gratitude instead of fear4 ,it was owing to this policy that the ,jewish state was once more established with ,jerusalem as its capital1 though still a ,persian colony4 ,cambyses extended ,persian power to ,egypt in #ebe1 and ,darius ,i1 #eba-dhe ,b4 ,c41 extended it to ,india and into ,europe4 ,under ,darius the temple at ,jerusalem was rebuilt and the ,jews there tried unsuccessfully to regain their independence4 ,this they attempted once more under ,artaxerxes ,,iii about #cej ,b4 ,c41 but his general1 ,bagoses1 put down their rebellion with great severity4 ,during the ,persian period life in ,babylonia went on as before4 ,the old gods were worshiped1 the old culture was continued1 the same language was used1 and many business documents written in it have come down to us4 ,the earlier ,persian kings employed it for their inscriptions1 and in a short time the ,persians made from it an alphabet of their own4 7#h7 ,the ,greek and ,parthian ,periods4--,alexander the ,great overthrew ,darius ,,iii1 the last of the ,persian kings1 in #cca ,b4 ,c41 when ,assyria and ,babylonia passed under the sway of the ,macedonian4 ,when ,alexander returned from his conquest of hither ,india in #cbe ,b4 ,c41 he planned to extend his empire westward to the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and to make ,babylon its capital4 ,plans for the enlargement and beautifying of the city1 so as to make it a worthy capital for such an empire1 were under way when ,alexander suddenly died in ,june1 #cbc ,b4 ,c4 ,in the final division of the world among ,alexander's successors1 ,babylonia fell to ,seleucus1 together with all the territory from the ,mediterranean to the borders of ,india4 ,as ,seleucus desired a capital on the ,mediterranean1 so as to watch more successfully the movements of his rivals1 he built ,antioch on the ,orontes and made it his residence4 ,babylon was1 however1 made the capital of the eastern half of the empire1 and the king's son1 as viceroy1 made it his residence4 ,soon after #bfj ,b4 ,c4 ,bactria and ,parthia1 in the eastern part of the empire of the ,seleucid1 gained their independence4 ,in course of time ,parthia absorbed ,bactria and became an empire1 which lasted till #bcj ,a4 ,d4 ,about #aej ,b4 ,c4 the ,parthians conquered ,babylonia1 which remained with little interruption under their sway till the establishment of the ,sassanian kingdom of the ,persians in #bbj ,a4 ,d4 ,babylonia was under the control of this last dynasty until the coming of the ,mohammedans in the year #fcg ,a4 ,d4 ,the old culture of the ,babylonians1 their religion1 language1 and writing were maintained well down toward the ,christian era4 ,copies of old ,sumerian hymns have been found in ,babylonia which bear dates as late as #ha ,b4 ,c41 and business documents in ,semitic are numerous4#ag #g4 ,discoveries ,which ,illumine the ,bible4--,discoveries in ,babylonia and ,assyria which illumine the ,biblical narratives are numerous4 ,the sites of many cities1 such as ,ur of the ,chaldees1 ,erech1 ,babylon1 ,ashur1 ,nineveh1 and ,calah1 have been excavated4 ,the number of documents which have come to light which in one way or another have a bearing on the ,bible is too numerous to mention here4 ,an effort has been made in ,part ,,ii to translate examples of most of them4 ,indeed1 the greater part of the material in ,part ,,ii was recovered by excavations in these countries4 ,to ,babylonia and to ,egypt mankind owes the working out of the initial problems of civilization1 the processes of agriculture1 the making of bricks1 the working of stone1 the manufacture and use of the ordinary implements of life1 the development of elementary mathematics and astronomy1 etc4 ,these problems were by slow processes independently worked out in each country through long ages4 ,the higher spiritual concepts which have now become the heritage of man neither ,babylonia nor ,egypt was fitted to contribute4 ,these came through the agency of other peoples4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,hittites ,a ,,forgotten ,,empire4 ,,hittite ,,monuments3 ,sendjirli4 ,boghaz ,koi4 ,other recent excavations4 ,,hittite ,,decipherment3 ,sayce's early work4 ,peiser4 ,jensen4 ,conder4 ,sayce's later work4 ,thompson4 ,delitzsch4 ,,hittite ,,history3 ,first appearance4 ,hyksos possibly ,hittites4 ,the ,mitanni4 ,kingdom of 8,hittite ,city40 ,carchemish4 ,samal and ,yadi4 ,hamath4 #a4 ,a ,forgotten ,empire4--,among the peoples who are said to have been in ,palestine in the ,patriarchal age are the ,hittites 7,gen4 #bc3aj2 #bf3cd1 etc474 ,they are mentioned most often in the list of peoples whom the ,israelites drove out of the country when they conquered it3 8the ,canaanite1 the ,hittite1 the ,amorite1 the ,hivite1 and the ,jebusite10 and the man is still living who first suspected that anything more than this could be known of them4 ,this man was ,prof4 ,sayce1 of ,oxford4 ,in the inscriptions of the ,egyptian kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties there is frequent mention of a people called ,kheta4 ,in the inscriptions of ,assyrian kings there is also frequent mention of a people called ,kha-at-tu4 ,slowly1 too1 during the nineteenth century rock-carvings1 often accompanied by inscriptions in a peculiar hieroglyph1 were found scattered through northern ,syria and ,asia ,minor4 ,the figures of gods and men on these carvings usually wore caps of a peculiarly pointed type and shoes turned far up at the toe4 ,in #ahgf it dawned upon ,prof4 ,sayce that these were all references to the ,biblical ,hittites4 ,he proceeded to elaborate this view in two articles published in the ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,vols4 ,v and ,,vii4 ,about the same time the ,rev4 ,william ,wright independently started the same idea1 and gave it expression in his book1 ,the ,empire of the ,hittites1 #ahhd1 #b;d ed41 #ahhe4 ,at this period it was impossible to discern more than that there had been a widely scattered ,hittite civilization1 which might have been an empire4 #b4 ,hittite ,monuments4--,this civilization1 it was seen1 had left its monuments at ,hamath in ,syria1 at ,carchemish on the ,euphrates1 at various points in ancient ,cappadocia1 ,lycaonia1 and ,phrygia1 as well as near ,smyrna in ,asia ,minor and on the ,lydian mountains to the west of ,sardis4 ,in #ahia ,prof4 ,w4 ,max ,mller1 of ,philadelphia1 reached the conclusion from a study of the ,egyptian inscriptions that the ,hittites had come into ,syria from the northwest1 and that their main strength was in ,asia ,minor4 ,among the letters found at ,el-,amarna in ,egypt in #ahhg-ahhh were some from ,dushratta1 a king of ,mitanni4 ,a study of these made it clear that the ,mitanni inhabited the region on both sides of the ,euphrates north of ,carchemish1 and that they were of the same stock as the ,hittites4 ,our sources of information indicate that the territory of the ,mitanni lay east of the ,euphrates1 but scattered monuments of the ,hittite type are found on the west of that river4 7#a7 ,sendjirli4--,from #ahhh to #ahia a ,german expedition excavated at ,sendjirli1 near the head-waters of the ,kara ,su in northern ,syria1 and brought to light most interesting remains of a civilization that was fundamentally ,hittite4 ,inscriptions found here dated in the reigns of ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv and ,esarhaddon were in ,aramaic4 ,by this time there had been an influx of ,aramans1 but the art shows that ,hittites held the place at an earlier time1 and there is reason to believe that one of the kings mentioned here had1 about #hej ,b4 ,c41 joined in a ,hittite federation4 7#b7 ,boghaz ,koi4--,among the monuments known to ,prof4 ,sayce at the beginning of his brilliant studies of the ,hittites1 were some from ,boghaz ,koi1 in ,asia ,minor4 ,different travelers had noted that here must have been a somewhat extensive city1 adorned with several large buildings1 all of which were ornamented with carvings of the peculiar ,hittite type4 ,in #aijf the late ,prof4 ,winckler1 of ,berlin1 excavating here in connection with the authorities of the ,turkish ,museum at ,constantinople1 discovered an archive of clay tablets inscribed in ,babylonian characters4 ,a group of similar tablets from ,cappadocia had been previously purchased by the ,british ,museum4 ,winckler's discovery was important because he found some of the tablets inscribed in ,hittite written in cuneiform characters4 ,of those written in the ,babylonian language1 one contained a copy of the great treaty between ,hattusil1 a ,hittite king1 and ,ramses ,,ii of ,egypt4 ,there were also tablets containing ,sumerian and ,semitic equivalents of ,hittite words4 ,owing to the long illness of ,winckler which followed these discoveries1 an illness that terminated in death1 the results of this discovery are only now being given to the world4 ,in #aijg ,winckler and ,puchstein1 in conjunction with ,makridy ,bey of the ,turkish ,museum1 made a thorough examination of the remains of walls and buildings at ,boghaz ,koi4 ,the results have since been published in a handsome volume entitled ,boghaskoi1 die ,bauwerke1 ,leipzig1 #aiab2 7see ,figs4 #bc and #be74 7#c7 ,other ,recent ,excavations4--,an ,american expedition consisting of ,drs4 ,olmstead1 ,charles1 and ,wrench1 of ,cornell ,university1 explored in ,asia ,minor in #aijg-aijh4 ,the members of this expedition collated all the known monuments of the ,hittites1 but so far only their collation of the inscriptions has been published4 ,the ,institute of ,archology of the ,university of ,liverpool has also sent one or more expeditions to explore the ,hittite country4 ,in #aiaj they excavated to some extent at ,sakje-,geuze1 not far from ,sendjirli1 but their results are not yet published4 ,since #aiaa the trustees of the ,british ,museum have had an excavation in progress at the site of ancient ,carchemish on the ,euphrates4 ,here most important ,hittite remains have been discovered1 though again the details of the work have not been given to the public4 ,the expedition has also made some minor excavations at several points in the neighborhood1 and find that ,hittite remains are numerous in that region4 ,in addition to these places1 ,hittite remains have been observed at ,yaila1 ,marash1 ,giaour-,kalesi1 ,karaburna1 ,kizil ,dagh1 ,fraktin1 ,ivriz1 ,kara-,bel1 ,mount ,sypilus1 ,tashji1 ,asarjik1 ,bulghar-,maden1 ,gurun1 and ,kara ,dagh4 ,one who will look up these places on a map of modern ,turkey will see that ,hittite monuments are distributed from near the shores of the gean ,sea to the ,euphrates at ,carchemish and to ,hamath in ,syria4 7,for addition to this section1 see ,appendix47 #c4 ,hittite ,decipherment4 7#a7 ,sayce's ,early ,work4--,prof4 ,sayce1 whose insight first grasped the significance of the ,hittite monuments1 was also the first to attempt the solution of the riddle which the inscriptions present4 ,in #ahhj he thought he had found a key to the writing1 such as the ,rosetta ,stone had been to ,egyptian1 in the so-called 8,boss of ,tarkondemos02 7see ,fig4 #bf74 ,this 8boss0 consisted of a round silver plate1 in form like half an orange1 which must have covered the knob of a staff or dagger4 ,this had been described by ,dr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,mordtmann1 in the ,journal of the ,german ,oriental ,society in #ahgb4 ,the original was then in the possession of ,alexander ,jovanoff1 a numismatist of ,constantinople1 who had obtained it at ,smyrna4 ,the 8boss0 bore in its center a figure of the peculiar ,hittite form1 flanked on both sides by writing in the ,hittite characters1 while around the whole was an inscription in the cuneiform writing of ,assyria4 ,from this ,sayce tentatively determined the values of a number of ,hittite signs4 ,the results were1 however1 attended with considerable uncertainty1 since the ,assyrian characters were capable of being read in more than one way4 ,using the key thus obtained1 ,sayce enlarged his list of supposed sign-values and in #ahhd and #ahhe published as known the values of thirty-two ,hittite signs4 ,in the years that followed ,ball and ,menant took up the discussion of the ,hittite signs1 but with no decisive result4 ,in #ahhi ,winckler and ,abel published in one of the volumes of the ,royal ,museum at ,berlin the first instalment of the text of the ,el-,amarna letters1 in which there were two from ,dushratta1 ,king of ,mitanni1 in the native language of that country1 though written in ,babylonian characters4 ,in the following year1 #ahij1 ,profs4 ,jensen1 ,brnnow1 and ,sayce all published in the ,zeitschrift fr ,assyriologie studies of this language1 ,sayce even venturing a translation of a part of the text4 ,each of these scholars had worked independently of the others1 but none of them seems to have suspected that the language had anything to do with ,hittite4 7#b7 ,peiser4--,in #ahib ,dr4 ,peiser1 then of ,breslau ,university1 published his book on the ,hittite inscriptions1 in which he essayed another method of decipherment4 ,layard had found four ,hittite seals in the palace of ,sennacherib at ,nineveh4 ,peiser inferred that these must be seals of four ,hittite kings mentioned in the inscriptions of that time1 and proceeded to assign each seal to the name of a known ,hittite king1 and interpret the signs on the seal by the name of that king as spelled out in the cuneiform characters of the ,assyrian inscriptions4 ,having obtained in this way tentative values for several signs1 he proceeded by inference to guess at other signs1 and so tentatively read some inscriptions4 7#c7 ,jensen4--,prof4 ,jensen1 of ,marburg1 wrote in that same year an unfavorable review of ,peiser's work4 ,when reading the proofs of his review he added a postscript to say that he believed he had himself discovered the key to ,hittite4 ,two years later1 #ahid1 he published in the ,journal of the ,german ,oriental ,society his method of solving the problem4 ,jensen's starting-point was gained from inscriptions from ,jerabis1 the site of ancient ,carchemish1 ,hamath1 and other places4 ,he inferred that a certain sign was the determinative for city1 and that the names preceding this sign were names of places4 ,gaining in this way some values for signs1 he read the names of some kings4 ,he found that these names had nominatives ending in s and accusative cases ending in m2 he accordingly leaped to the conclusion that the ,hittite language was a member of the ,indo-,european group of languages1 as this is the only known group of tongues in which this phenomenon occurs4 ,this inference later research has in part confirmed4 ,jensen1 however1 went further and endeavored to show that the ,hittites were the ancestors of the ,armenians of later time4 ,this theory led to the publication in #ahih of his book1 ,hittiter und ,armenier4 ,of the correctness of this view he has not been able to convince other scholars4 ,by this time ,jensen and others had begun to see that the ,mitannians and the ,hittites were kindred peoples and worshiped the same gods4 ,it is now recognized that ,jensen correctly ascertained the value of some signs1 though many of his guesses1 like those of his predecessors1 have proved incorrect4 7#d7 ,conder4--,in #ahih ,lieut4-,col4 ,c4 ,r4 ,conder published ,the ,hittites and ,their ,language1 a work in which he presented still another decipherment of the inscriptions4 ,conder's decipherment was based on a comparison of the ,hittite characters with the ,sumerian pictographs on the one hand and the syllabary which was used by ,greeks in ,cyprus1 ,caria1 and ,lydia on the other4 ,he assumed that if a picture had in ,sumerian a certain syllabic value1 and if the ,cypriotic syllabary presented a character somewhat resembling it which had a similar value1 the ,hittite character which most closely resembled these must have the same value1 since the ,hittites lived between the two peoples who used the other syllabaries4 ,this system of decipherment has attracted no adherents because it is based on a fallacious inference4 ,it does not follow because a nation lives between two other nations1 that its institutions are kindred to those of its neighbors4 ,one could not explain writings of the ,indian tribes of ,arizona1 for example1 by comparing them with books printed in ,english in ,st4 ,louis and in ,spanish in ,los ,angeles6 ,in #ahii ,messerschmidt1 who was collecting in one body all the known ,hittite inscriptions for publication1 published a study of the language of ,mitanni1#ah which advanced our knowledge of the language of the letters of ,dushratta4 ,messerschmidt's later publication of the ,hittite inscriptions#ai made it far easier for scholars to study the subject4 7#e7 ,sayce's ,later ,work4--,stimulated by ,jensen's efforts1 ,prof4 ,sayce returned to the study of ,hittite in #aijc1 and published in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology of that year 7,vol4 ,,xxv7 a new decipherment4 ,he followed ,jensen's method1 accepting a number of ,jensen's readings as proved1 and with the originality and daring that characterize so much of his work1 launched many new readings4 ,some of these have commended themselves to his successors4 ,in #aiji ,ferdinand ,bork returned to the problem of the language of ,mitanni1 and published a pretty complete decipherment of the ,mitannian tablets in the ,el-,amarna letters4 ,in #aiaa ,dr4 ,b4 ,b4 ,charles1 the philologist of the ,cornell expedition to ,asia ,minor1 published as ,part ,,ii of ,volume ,i of ,travels and ,studies in the ,nearer ,east1 which is to embody the results of the ,cornell expedition1 his collation of the ,hittite inscriptions4 ,this publication added some new texts to those previously known4 ,in #aiab ,prof4 ,clay1 of ,yale1 rendered the subject of ,hittiteology a distinct service by including in his volume of ,personal ,names from ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of the ,cassite ,period a list of ,hittite and ,mitannian proper names1 and a list of the nominal and verbal elements which enter into the composition of such names4 7#f7 ,thompson4--,the latest attempt on a large scale to unravel the mystery of the ,hittite inscriptions is that of ,r4 ,campbell ,thompson1 8,a ,new ,decipherment of the ,hittite ,hieroglyphs10 published in ,archologia1 second series1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,oxford1 #aiac4 ,mr4 ,thompson was a member of the ,british expedition which excavated ,carchemish1 and gained the idea which gave him the starting-point for his decipherment from an inscription excavated by that expedition4 ,this inscription contained many proper names1 and1 after passing it and looking at it every day for a long time1 it occurred to ,mr4 ,thompson that a certain elaborate sign which frequently occurred in it might be a part of the name of the ,hittite ,king ,sangar1 who is frequently mentioned by ,ashurnasirpal ,,ii and ,shalmeneser ,,iii of ,assyria4 ,in seeking proof for this ,mr4 ,thompson was led into a study of the texts which resulted in a new interpretation of the ,hittite signs4 ,his work is logical at every point1 he makes no inference without first examining all the occurrences in the known texts of the group of signs in question1 and he tests his inferences wherever possible by the known results of a study of ,mitannian and cuneiform ,hittite4 ,it is too soon to pronounce a final verdict1 but it looks as though ,thompson had materially advanced the decipherment of ,hittite4 7#g7 ,delitzsch4--,after the death of ,prof4 ,winckler1 the cuneiform tablets which he had discovered at ,boghaz ,koi were turned over to ,ernst ,weidner for publication4 ,that publication is soon to appear1 but ,prof4 ,friedrich ,delitzsch1 under whose general direction ,weidner is working1 published in ,may1 #aiad1 a study based on twenty-six fragments of lexicographical texts which are to appear in ,weidner's work4 ,these texts defined ,hittite words in ,sumerian and in ,assyrian4 ,although the texts are very fragmentary1 ,prof4 ,delitzsch has been able to gain in this way a vocabulary of about #afe ,hittite words1 the meanings of most of which are known1 and to ascertain some facts about the grammar of ,hittite4 ,we are1 it would seem1 just on the eve of a complete mastery of the secrets of the ,hittite inscriptions4 ,the more our knowledge of the ,hittites grows1 the less simple seems the problem of their racial affinities4 ,some features of their speech clearly resemble features of the ,indo-,european family of languages1 but other features would seem to denote ,tartar affinities4 ,in a number of instances the influence of the ,assyrian language can clearly be traced4 ,the same confusion presents itself when we study the pictures of ,hittites as they appear in ,egyptian reliefs4 ,two distinct types of face are there portrayed4 ,one type has high cheek bones1 oblique eyes1 and wears a pigtail1 like the peoples of ,mongolia and ,china2 the other has a clean-cut head and face which resemble somewhat the early ,greeks4 ,these may well have been ,aryans4 ,that there was a strain in the ,hittite composition that came from ,turkestan or that came through that country is also indicated by the fact that the ,hittites were the first of the peoples of western ,asia to use the horse4 ,evidence of the use of the horse as a domestic animal by the people of ,turkestan at an early date was brought to light by the excavations of ,prof4 ,pumpelly#bj in that land1 so that the presence of horses among the ,hittites naturally suggests some connection with that region4 ,among the ,hittite allies ,semitic ,amorites are also pictured4 ,these have receding foreheads and projecting beards4 #d4 ,hittite ,history4 7#a7 ,first ,appearance4--,the earliest reference to the ,hittites which we have in any written record occurs in a ,babylonian chronicle1 which states that 8against ,shamsu-ditana the men of the country ,khattu marched40#ba ,shamsu-ditana was the last king of the first dynasty of ,babylon4 ,his reign terminated in #aibd ,b4 ,c4 ,khattu land1 as will appear further on1 was the name later given to the ,hittite settlement in ,cappadocia4 ,one would naturally suppose that the name would have the same significance here1 but of this we cannot be certain4 ,the tablet on which this chronicle was written was inscribed in the ,persian or late ,babylonian period1 but there is evidence that it was copied from an earlier original4 ,if its statement is true1 the ,hittites had made their appearance in history and were prepared to mingle in that mle of the races which occurred when the first dynasty of ,babylon was overthrown4 ,nothing is said in the chronicle as to the location of the land of ,khattu1 but there can be no doubt that the ,hittites approached ,babylonia from the northwest4 ,their seat must have been in the region where we later find the ,hittites1 or ,mitanni4 ,at what period the ,hittites came into this region we can only conjecture4 ,the excavations at ,sakje-,geuze reveal a civilization there extending back to about #cjjj ,b4 ,c41 which resembled that found at ,susa in ,elam belonging to the same period4 ,this civilization may not have been ,hittite in its beginnings4 ,mr4 ,woolley1 a member of the ,british expedition which has excavated at ,carchemish1 in a study of the objects found in tombs at ,carchemish and at other places near by1 thinks it possible that the coming of the ,hittites is marked by a transition period in the art--a period the termination of which he marks by the date of the fall of the first dynasty of ,babylon4 ,it may well be that ,indo-,europeans followed by ,mongols came about #bajj or #bjjj into this region1 or that the ,mongols were there earlier and that the ,indo-,europeans then came4 ,in the resultant civilization it would seem1 from the information that we have1 that there was a mingling of the two races2 7see ,fig4 #bd74 7#b7 ,hyksos ,possibly ,hittites4--,since the ,hittites were able to help overthrow the first dynasty of ,babylon1 some scholars have recognized the possibility that those invaders of ,egypt who established the dynasties called ,hyksos may have been ,hittites1 or may have been led by ,hittites4 ,there is much evidence that many ,semites entered ,egypt at that time1 but as ,syria and ,palestine were peopled with ,semites earlier than this1 such an invasion would naturally have had many ,semites among its camp followers1 if not in its armies1 even if the leaders were ,hittites4 ,at present1 however1 this is but a possibility4 ,some slight evidence in favor of the possibility may be found in the name of the king of ,jerusalem who was a vassal of ,amenophis ,,iv1 and who wrote the letters from ,jerusalem which are in the ,el-,amarna collection4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cde1 ff47 ,his name was ,abdi-,hepa1 and ,hepa was a ,hittite and ,mitannian deity4 ,abdi-,hepa had grown up a trusted subject of the ,egyptians4 ,his ancestors must1 therefore1 have been in ,palestine for some time4 ,a settlement of ,hittites there in the ,hyksos days would account for this4 ,the twenty-third chapter of ,genesis represents the city of ,hebron as in the possession of the ,hittites when ,abraham purchased the cave of ,machpelah as a place of burial for his dead1 and1 though many scholars regard ,genesis #bc1 which gives this account1 as a late composition1 its representation would receive some confirmation from archology1 if the ,hyksos were ,hittites4 ,there is a possibility that the ,hittites were in southern ,palestine earlier than this4 ,brugsch#bb thought that he found in an inscription in the ,louvre1 written by an officer of ,amenemhet ,i1 ,king of ,egypt1 #bjjj-aigj ,b4 ,c41 a statement that this officer had destroyed the palaces of the ,hittites near the ,egyptian frontier of ,palestine4 ,this reading is still defended by ,prof4 ,sayce1#bc though other ,egyptologists1 such as ,w4 ,max ,mller#bd and ,breasted1#be claim that the word that was thought to be ,hittites is not a proper name1 but a common noun meaning nomads4 ,the text of the passage is uncertain1 and no important inference can in any case be made from it4 ,during the period when we obtain glimpses of the history of the ,hittites1 they were never united in one empire4 ,different kingdoms flourished here and there1 such as that of the ,mitanni in ,mesopotamia1 the ,hittites at ,boghaz ,koi1 the kingdoms of ,carchemish1 of ,hamath1 and ,tyana4 ,these flourished at different times all the way from #adjj to #gjj ,b4 ,c41 and there were doubtless other kingdoms also1 for the ,hittite sculptures near ,smyrna and ,manissia cannot have been made by any of these1 unless possibly the great ,hittite kingdom at ,boghaz ,koi may once have extended its power to the gean4 7#c7 ,the ,mitanni4--,the earliest of these kingdoms which we can trace is that of the ,mitanni4 ,when ,thothmes ,,iii of ,egypt extended his conquests to the ,euphrates in #adfh ,b4 ,c41 he came into contact with the ,mitanni4 ,the king of the country is not named1 but it was claimed that her chiefs hid themselves in caves4#bf ,there is some reason for believing that their chief city was at ,haran#bg in ,mesopotamia1 the city where ,abraham sojourned for a time 7,gen4 #aa3ca2 #ab3d74 ,if this be true1 it gives a new meaning to ,ezek4 #af3c3 8,the ,amorite was thy father and thy mother was a ,hittite40 ,thothmes evidently touched the kingdom of ,mitanni on its western border4 ,he did not penetrate its heart or overcome its king4 ,although he took tribute1 he does not tell us the name of the king of the ,mitanni whose armies he fought4 ,half a century later the king of the ,mitanni was ,artatama ,i4 ,he was a contemporary of ,thothmes ,,iv of ,egypt1 who ruled #adbj-adaa ,b4 ,c4 ,perhaps it was their mutual fear of the rising power of the ,hittite kingdom at ,boghaz ,koi that led ,artatama and ,thothmes ,,iv to form an alliance4 ,at all events1 such an alliance was made1 and ,thothmes married a daughter of ,artatama1 though ,artatama's grandson says that the ,egyptian king sent his request for her hand seven times before ,artatama yielded to his solicitations4 ,artatama ,i was succeeded by ,shutarna ,i1 whose reign overlapped a part of that of ,amenophis ,,iii of ,egypt1 #adaa-acge ,b4 ,c4 ,among the queens of ,amenophis ,,iii was a daughter of ,shutarna ,i4 ,before the reign of ,amenophis ,,iii had ended ,shutarna ,i had been succeeded by ,dushratta1 who continued the friendly relations with ,egypt4 ,dushratta's reign also overlapped in part that of ,amenophis ,,iv of ,egypt1 #acge-aceg ,b4 ,c41 and ,dushratta wrote several letters to both of these ,egyptian kings4 ,it is from these letters that we gain most of our information about ,mitanni4 ,meanwhile the great kingdom of the ,hittites at ,boghaz ,koi had entered upon its era of expansion under ,subbiluliuma1 who pushed his conquests first eastward and then southward4 ,dushratta feared to meet the ,hittite in battle and retired to the eastward1 allowing much of his country to be overrun4 ,this land ,subbiluliuma gave to one of his allies1 and ,dushratta was murdered soon afterward by his son1 ,sutatarra1 who usurped the crown4 ,soon after this the ,assyrians invaded the lands of the ,mitanni from the east1 and the land1 already distracted by its internal divisions1 was thrown into a worse confusion4 ,at this juncture ,subbiluliuma crossed the ,euphrates again and entered ,mitannian territory4 ,he was accompanied by settlers who brought cattle1 sheep1 and horses to remain in the country4 ,advised by an oracle1 he deposed ,sutatarra and placed upon the throne ,mattiuaza1 a son of ,dushratta1 who had been heir-apparent and who had fled when his father was murdered4 ,to ,mattiuaza ,subbiluliuma gave his daughter in marriage1 and ,mitanni became a vassal state of the ,hittite realm4 ,after this our sources tell us no more of its history4 ,near the ,mitanni were the ,harri1 who were probably of the same race1 for in the time of ,subbiluliuma they were ruled first by ,artatama ,,ii1 a brother of ,dushratta1 and then by ,sutarna ,,ii4 ,this state also became a part of ,subbiluliuma's kingdom4 7#d7 ,kingdom of 8,hittite ,city40--,the wave of migration from the northeast which brought the ,mitanni into upper ,mesopotamia had swept on westward into ,cappadocia1 where the greatest ,hittite state afterward developed4 ,the monuments erected by the ,hittites were nearly all of a religious character4 ,in the earlier time they wrote few historical inscriptions4 ,such inscriptions as we have in ,hittite hieroglyphs seem to come from the later periods and to record alliances4 ,it is probable that in the development of the ,hittite state in ,cappadocia first one city and then another had the upper hand4 ,the ,hittite monuments at ,eyuk are of a more primitive character than those at ,boghaz ,koi1 and it is natural to suppose that a ,hittite state flourished here before the rise of the one at ,boghaz ,koi4 ,be that as it may1 the most powerful ,hittite monarchy of which we know arose at ,boghaz ,koi1 which they called 8,hittite ,city40 ,this monarchy emerged about #adjj ,b4 ,c4 ,its first king was ,hattusil ,i1 of whom we know no more than that he was the founder of the great dynasty which ruled from the 8,hittite ,city0 for two hundred years4 ,the king who laid the foundations of the greatness of this dynasty was ,subbiluliuma1 the next king1 whose conquests over the ,mitanni and ,harri we have already traced4 ,he conquered also a number of neighboring states1 and compelled them to sign with him treaties of alliance which made them his vassals4 ,chronicles of these events were discovered by ,winckler among the clay tablets found at ,boghaz ,koi4 ,subbiluliuma also turned his armies southward and conquered ,syria down to the confines of ,palestine4 ,these conquests were in progress when some of the ,el-,amarna letters1 written to ,amenophis ,,iv of ,egypt and translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cdd1 ff41 were written4 ,here he pursued the same policy that he had pursued in ,mesopotamia1 and compelled the conquered countries to enter into treaties with him1 which subjugated them to his will4 ,among the kings so treated was the ,amorite ,king ,aziru1 who at that time ruled ,amorites living in the southern part of the valley between the ,lebanon mountain ranges and in the region afterward occupied by the tribe of ,asher4 ,they also held some of the southern ,phnician cities4 ,this represents the most southerly extension of ,subbiluliuma's power4 ,whether ,subbiluliuma also extended his conquests to the west of ,asia ,minor1 we have no means of knowing4 ,some scholars suppose that he had done so before he began the conquest of ,mitanni4 ,certain it is that ,hittite rock sculptures of gigantic size exist in the mountains near ,smyrna and ,manissia1 to the west of ,sardis4 ,these sculptures represent the great ,hittite goddess4 ,near ,smyrna there are also the remains of great buildings4 ,we know of no ,hittite monarch who would be so likely to have carried ,hittite power to these parts as ,subbiluliuma4 ,if he did so1 possibly in later time the ,hittites here became independent4 ,at all events1 some centuries later they were known to ,ionian ,greeks in this region1 for ,homer's ,odyssey1 ,book ,,xi1 line #eba1 records the tradition that some ,hittites were killed with ,eurypylos4 ,when ,subbiluliuma died he was succeeded by his son1 ,arandas1 whose occupation of the throne was brief1 and who seems to have been without effective power4 ,after a short time he was replaced by his brother1 ,mursil1 who appears to have enjoyed a long reign4 ,subbiluliuma1 called by the ,egyptians ,seplel1 was reigning when ,amenophis ,,iv of ,egypt came to the throne in #acge ,b4 ,c41 for he sent an embassy to congratulate him1 and ,mursil appears to have reigned until after the year #acbj ,b4 ,c4 ,the two reigns1 therefore1 covered more than half a century4 ,the first years of ,mursil's reign were apparently passed in peace1 but soon after #acbj ,shalmeneser ,i invaded the countries in the eastern part of the ,hittite confederacy1 conquering all the territory east of the ,euphrates1 and a considerable territory to the west of that river4 ,meantime1 ,mursil had renewed the treaty with the ,amorites of ,syria1 whose king at this time was ,abbi-,teshub1 or ,abi-,adda4 ,ere long1 however1 trouble arose for him on his southern border4 ,seti ,i of ,egypt came to the throne in #acac ,b4 ,c41 and began a series of vigorous campaigns for the conquest of ,palestine4 ,in time he came face to face with the ,hittite power in ,syria4 ,at this juncture ,mursil died and was succeeded by his son1 ,mutallu1 who soon met ,seti ,i in battle and convinced that monarch that it was unwise to attempt to extend ,egypt's empire in ,asia to the ,euphrates1 as ,thothmes ,,iii had done4 ,owing to internal troubles in ,assyria the eastern border of the ,hittite realm was left undisturbed for a considerable time1 during which ,mutallu could devote himself to other matters4 ,in #abib ,b4 ,c4 ,ramses ,,ii succeeded ,seti ,i as king of ,egypt and soon began vigorously to push ,egyptian conquests into northern ,syria4 ,mutallu recognized the importance of the struggle and collected a large army from all his allies4 ,these forces were drawn from all parts of ,asia ,minor2 even the countries of the extreme west contributed their quota4 ,aleppo and states in that region also contributed their share4 ,a great battle was fought at ,kadesh on the ,orontes in #abhg ,b4 ,c41 in which ,mutallu1 by surprising his foe1 disorganized a part of the ,egyptian forces and endangered the life of ,ramses himself4 ,by the opportune arrival of reinforcements the ,egyptians escaped entire defeat1 so that the result was a drawn battle4 ,the battle had1 however1 cost the ,hittites much4 ,the slaughter of their forces had been enormous4 ,among the slain were many chieftains1 including the king of ,aleppo4 ,the ,amorites at once threw off their allegiance to the ,hittites1 and many of the other troops mutinied4 ,mutallu was assassinated4 ,he was succeeded by ,hattusil ,,ii1 the ,khetasar of the ,egyptian inscriptions4 ,assyria had become weak1 so that ,hattusil was no longer pressed upon his eastern border4 ,after a little he reduced the ,amorites once more to submission1 and compelled them to take back their king1 ,put-akhi1 whom they had driven out at the time of their rebellion against ,mutallu4 ,he gave ,put-akhi a ,hittite princess for a wife4 ,later1 about #abga ,b4 ,c41 ,hattusil concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with ,ramses ,,ii of ,egypt4 ,the treaty which guaranteed this alliance has come down to us1 and is the first international treaty the details of which are known to us4 7,see ,chapter ,i1 p4 #cj47 ,hattusil ,,ii must have enjoyed a long reign1 but we do not know the date of his death4 ,he had two successors1 ,dudkhalia and ,arnuanta1 whose reigns are known to us1 and who continued the sway of the dynasty down to about #abjj ,b4 ,c4 ,they were respectively the son and grandson of ,hattusil ,,ii4 ,an edict of ,dudkhalia concerning the vassal states has survived1 in which the name of ,eni-,teshub1 ,king of ,carchemish1 appears4 ,carchemish would seem to have been the chief of the allied states4 ,of ,arnuanta we have no details1 though two fragments of royal edicts and a seal of his have come down to us4 ,he was called 8the great king1 the son of ,dudkhalia40 ,after him our sources fail1 and the story ends in darkness4 ,we know1 however1 that the days of the power of this dynasty were over4 ,egyptian sources tell us that tribes from western ,asia ,minor and from beyond the sea swept over ,cilicia and northern ,syria soon after the year #abjj ,b4 ,c41 and there was then no ,hittite power there to restrain them4 7#e7 ,carchemish4--,of the other ,hittite kingdoms far less is known4 ,carchemish1 which1 as we have just seen1 played an important part in the federation of the great ,hittite power1 continued its existence for several centuries4 ,in the time of ,ashurnasirpal ,,ii and ,shalmeneser ,,iii the kingdom of ,carchemish entered into alliance with these kings and preserved its existence by becoming their vassal4 ,judging from the meager reports hitherto published of the ,british excavation at ,carchemish1 this was a flourishing period in the history of the city4 ,a hundred years later1 in the reign of ,sargon1 ,pisiris1 who was then king of ,carchemish1 defied the ,assyrian1 who brought the kingdom to an end in #gag ,b4 ,c4 7,cf4 ,isa4 #aj3i47 7#f7 ,samal and ,yadi4--,when the ,aramans swept westward about #acjj ,b4 ,c4 they apparently dislodged the ,hittites from a number of their sites and occupied their country4 ,among the places so occupied was the site of ,sendjirli mentioned above4 ,all the carvings found among its architectural remains reveal the influence of ,hittite art1 but the inscriptions found there are in ,aramaic4 ,these inscriptions show that there were in that region two petty kingdoms named1 respectively1 ,samal and ,yadi4 ,the names of several kings of these monarchies who ruled between #hej and #gcj ,b4 ,c4 have been recovered4 ,they are all ,araman4 7#g7 ,hamath4--,farther to the south1 at ,hamath on the ,orontes1 a ,hittite kingdom existed in the time of ,david4 ,its king was then called ,toi or ,tou1 who made an alliance with ,david 7#b ,sam4 #h3i1 f2 #a ,chron4 #ah3i1 f474 ,this kingdom was probably the outgrowth of the earlier occupation of the ,orontes valley1 three hundred years before1 by the ,hittites of the great empire4 ,it continued until the time of ,ahab4 ,its king was then ,irhulina1 who along with ,ahab1 ,ben-,hadad of ,damascus1 and several other kings made an alliance to resist the encroachments of ,shalmaneser ,,iii of ,assyria in #hed ,b4 ,c4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfj1 ff47 ,irhulina caused several inscriptions to be made on stone1 which survived at ,hamath until our time4 ,according to ,mr4 ,thompson's interpretation of them they are all records of his various alliances4 ,by the next century1 however1 the ,aramans had captured ,hamath1 for in the reigns of ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv 7#gde-gbg7 and of ,sargon 7#gbb-gje ,b4 ,c47 the names of its kings were ,semitic4 ,these names were1 respectively1 ,enu-ilu and ,yau-bidi1 or ,ilu-bidi4 ,we gain glimpses also of a number of other ,hittite states4 ,there was1 for example1 the state of ,kummukh1 which lay to the west of the ,euphrates1 and another in western ,cilicia1 that had its center at ,tyana1 the modern ,bor4 ,these states appear to have reached their zenith after the fall of the great ,hittite dynasty which had its capital at ,boghaz ,koi4 ,doubtless as time goes on we shall learn of the existence of many other small ,hittite kingdoms which flourished at one time or another4 ,at some time1 either when the ,hyksos were making their way into ,egypt or when ,subbiluliuma was pushing southward into ,syria1 the ,hittites mentioned in the ,old ,testament must have made some small settlements in ,palestine4 ,here the ,hebrews came into contact with them4 ,they were really an unimportant outlying fringe of the great ,hittite people1 but they had the good fortune to have their names preserved in the most immortal literature in the world1 the ,bible1 and so their memory was ever kept alive1 while that of their more illustrious kinsmen was utterly forgotten4 ,it is only archological research that has restored something of the original perspective4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,palestine ,,and ,,its ,,exploration ,,the ,,land3 ,rainfall4 ,,early ,,exploration3 ,place names4 ,,early ,,american ,,explorations3 ,robinson and ,smith4 ,lynch4 ,american exploration societies4 ,,palestine ,,exploration ,,fund3 ,warren's excavations at ,jerusalem4 ,the survey of ,palestine4 ,exploration of ,lachish4 ,bliss's excavation at ,jerusalem4 ,excavation at ,azekah4 ,at ,tell es-,safi 7,gath874 ,tell el-,judeideh4 ,at ,marash 7,moresheth-,gath74 ,gezer4 ,beth-shemesh4 ,exploring the ,wilderness of ,zin4 ,,the ,,german ,,palestine ,,society3 ,guthe's excavation at ,jerusalem4 ,megiddo4 ,taanach4 ,capernaum4 ,jericho4 ,,the ,,american ,,school ,,at ,,jerusalem4 ,,samaria4 ,,parker',s ,,excavations ,,at ,,jerusalem4 ,,latest ,,excavations4 #a4 ,the ,land4--,palestine is a very different land from either ,egypt or ,mesopotamia4 ,they are made by the irrigation of rivers4 ,palestine is fertilized by rain from heaven4 ,in them the scenery is monotonous2 they are river valleys each of which was once in part an arm of the sea1 but now filled up by the gradual deposit of mud4 ,palestine was formed in one of the greatest geological upheavals the earth ever experienced4 ,this was nothing less than a great rift in the earth's crust extending from the ,lebanon mountains to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the strata on the west side of this rift slipped downward past those on its east side for a mile or more4 ,those on the west were bent at different points in this long course in different ways1 but the result of the rift itself was to form the ,jordan valley and the bed of the ,dead ,sea1 the valley which runs from the ,dead ,sea to the ,gulf of ,akaba1 and that deep rift between ,asia and ,africa which forms the ,red ,sea itself4 ,in ,palestine the strata on the west of this rift bent up into two parallel ridges1 to the west of which a narrow plain of varying width1 ancient ,philistia1 rises from the sea4 ,to the east of this rift the land remained at approximately its old level4 ,the various ridges of the country are1 on account of the birth-pangs of their origin1 intersected with valleys innumerable1 so that in no country of the world can such variety of scenery and climate be found within such narrow limits4 ,rainfall4--,this land1 with all its variety of form1 is redeemed from the desert by the moisture which the west winds drive in from the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,these winds in the winter months bring clouds1 which1 when they come into contact with the colder air over the elevated hills1 deposit their moisture in rain4 ,the ,jordan valley is so warm that little rain falls upon it1 but it drains the water from the rainfall on both sides of it4 ,just so far back as the clouds reach before their moisture is exhausted1 just so far the fertile land extends2 beyond that is the ,arabian ,desert4 ,when the rainfall during a winter is good1 bountiful crops are raised the following season2 when it is scant1 the harvest fails and famine follows4 ,in ,egypt and ,babylonia a man could water his garden by kicking a hole in a dyke2 they were lands which were watered 8with thy foot0 7,deut4 #aa3aj72 ,palestine was dependent on heaven for its life1 and we cannot doubt that this fact was one of the instruments for the training of the ,israelites for their great religious mission4 ,in a land of such variety--a land in which for nine months in the year snow-capped ,hermon may be seen from many an elevated point and from the whole stretch of the tropical ,jordan valley1 where oleanders are blooming and mustard seeds are growing into trees--it was possible to think of ,god in a way that was at least more difficult in ,egypt or in ,mesopotamia4 ,here in this marvelous land1 which formed a bridge between the two oldest civilizations of the world1 the men lived to whom ,god committed the task of writing most of the ,bible4 ,this was the earthly home of the ,son of ,god4 ,even before the ,hebrews came into it1 many had crossed this bridge and some had paused long upon it4 ,living here they had left the remains of their homes1 their cities1 and their civilizations4 ,archology is now recovering these4 ,after the time of ,christ various races and civilizations continued to pass over the bridge4 ,their remains buried those left by earlier men4 ,the story of the recovery of these earlier remains is1 accordingly1 not only of great interest1 but often of great value to the reader of the ,bible4 #b4 ,early ,exploration4--,the misfortunes which overtook ,juda in the years #gj and #acb-ace ,a4 ,d41 in consequence of the ,jewish rebellions against ,rome1 led to the paganizing of ,jerusalem and the expulsion of the ,jews from ,juda4 ,at this period ,christianity was a struggling and a persecuted religion1 too busy working its way to take an active interest in the land of its birth4 ,when ,constantine early in the fourth century made ,christianity the religion of the ,roman ,empire1 all this was changed4 ,both ,constantine and his mother1 ,helena1 took the deepest interest in identifying the holy places in ,jerusalem1 and a stream of pilgrims began at once to visit the land4 ,the earliest of these to leave us an account of his travels was a pilgrim from ,bordeaux who visited ,palestine in #ccc ,a4 ,d4 ,as he was anxious to see the principal places hallowed by the bodily presence of ,christ and the heroes of ,scripture1 he visited places in different parts of the country4 ,he was followed by many others4 ,the stream has been almost continuous down to the present time4 ,as the aim of these travelers was devotional and they possessed little scholarly training or critical faculty1 their works are of secondary value to the modern student4 ,they did1 however1 prevent that loss of knowledge of the country to which ,babylonia was subjected for so many centuries4 ,place ,names4--,at the very beginning of this period ,eusebius of ,csarea1 a contemporary of ,constantine1 compiled a list of the place names of ,palestine which are mentioned in the ,bible4 ,the names were arranged in alphabetical order1 the events for which the places are celebrated were given1 in many instances identifications with places existing in the fourth century were proposed1 and the distances from other well-known places mentioned4 ,in the next century this work was translated into ,latin by ,jerome1 who lived many years at ,bethlehem and traveled extensively in ,palestine1 and who died in #dbj ,a4 ,d4 ,it is called the ,onomasticon4 #c4 ,early ,american ,explorations4--,as the reader approaches modern times he finds the works of some of the pilgrims assuming a more scientific character4 ,to some extent1 too1 these works were supplemented by those of travelers like ,chteaubriand1#bh ,burckhardt1#bi and ,lamartine4#cj 7#a7 ,robinson and ,smith4--,the scientific study of the localities and antiquities of ,palestine was1 however1 begun by an ,american1 the late ,prof4 ,edward ,robinson1 of ,union ,seminary1 ,new ,york4 ,robinson was fully equipped with ,biblical knowledge1 and was thoroughly familiar with ,josephus and other works bearing on his subject4 ,he possessed the critical faculty in a high degree1 and combined with it a keen constructive faculty4 ,in #ahch and again in #aheb he traveled through ,palestine with ,eli ,smith1 a missionary4 ,they were equipped with compass1 telescope1 thermometer1 and measuring tape4 ,his knowledge of history enabled ,robinson to look beneath many traditions4 ,with keen penetration he discerned under the guise of many a modern ,arabic name the form of a ,biblical original1 and accomplished more for the scientific study of ,biblical ,palestine than any of his predecessors4 ,as he traveled he also noted and briefly described such remains of antiquity as could be seen above ground4 ,the results of ,robinson's first journey were embodied in his ,biblical ,researches1 ,new ,york1 #ahda4 ,in the second edition1 ,london1 #ahef1 the results of the second journey were embodied1 and the number of volumes increased to three4 ,the impetus given to the exploration of ,palestine by the labors of ,robinson was continued by ,tobler1 ,gurin1 ,renan1 and many others4#ca 7#b7 ,lynch4--,meantime1 another ,american1 ,lieut4 ,w4 ,f4 ,lynch1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 rendered an important service by the exploration in #ahdh of the ,dead ,sea4 ,in ,april and ,may of that year about three weeks were spent in exploring that body of water4 ,lieut4 ,lynch was accompanied by ,dr4 ,anderson1 a geologist4 ,the party traversed the sea back and forth in two metal boats that had been launched on the ,sea of ,galilee and floated down the ,jordan4 ,the fact that the ,jordan valley is lower than the level of the sea had never been recognized until #ahcg1 and1 until the visit of ,lynch and ,anderson1 the depth of the depression was only a matter of conjecture4 ,by this expedition it was scientifically determined that the surface of the ,dead ,sea is #a1cjj feet lower than that of the ,mediterranean4#cb 7#c7 ,american ,exploration ,societies4--,the work of ,american exploration was later continued by the ,american ,exploration ,society1 founded in #ahgj4 ,under its auspices1 ,rev4 ,john ,a4 ,paine1 of ,tarrytown1 ,new ,york1 visited the ,holy ,land4 ,one of the results of his visit was the identification of ,pisgah4#cc ,later an ,american ,palestine ,exploration ,society was organized4 ,this ,society employed ,mr4 ,rudolph ,meyer1 an engineer1 to make a map of ,palestine1 and from #ahge to #ahgg also employed ,rev4 ,selah ,merrill1 who afterward was for many years the ,u4 ,s4 ,consul at ,jerusalem1 as explorer4 ,dr4 ,merrill gathered much archological information1 especially in the country east of the ,jordan4#cd #d4 ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4--,as a result of the interest engendered by the work of ,robinson1 ,lynch1 and others1 the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund was organized in ,london in #ahfe4 ,by this act a permanent body was created to foster continuously the exploration of the ,holy ,land1 and to rescue the work from the fitful activities of individual enterprise4 ,such enterprise could supplement the work of the ,fund1 but could no longer hope to compete with it4 ,within six months from the organization of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund its first expedition was sent out4 ,this was led by ,capt41 now ,gen4 ,sir ,charles ,warren1 who had just completed a survey of ,jerusalem as part of a plan for bringing water into the city4 ,the chief object of this expedition1 which was in the field from ,december1 #ahfe1 to ,may1 #ahff1 was to indicate spots for future excavation4 ,it made a series of sketch maps of the country on the scale of one inch to the mile1 studied some synagogues in ,galilee noted by ,robinson1 but not fully described by him1 and laid bare on ,mount ,gerizim the remains of a church built on a rough platform which may once have supported the ,samaritan temple4 7#a7 ,warren's ,excavations at ,jerusalem4--,a second expedition under ,lieut4-,col41 now ,sir ,charles ,warren1 made considerable excavations on the temple-hill at ,jerusalem4 ,he sank a remarkable series of shafts to the bottom of the walls enclosing the temple area1 and proved that in places these walls rest on foundations from #hj to #abe feet below the present surface4 ,he laid bare solid masonry1 which bore what are apparently ,phnician quarry-marks and which he believed to go back to the time of ,solomon4 ,on the west side of the temple enclosure he found #hj feet below the present surface the ruins of a bridge1 which ,robinson had conjectured crossed the ,tyropon ,valley from the temple enclosure at this point from an arch1 the base of which is still visible outside of the temple wall4#ce ,among many other discoveries made by ,warren were a part of the ancient city wall south of the temple area and an underground passage leading up from the ancient spring of ,gihon1 which was probably the 8gutter0 7,r4 ,v41 8watercourse07 of #b ,sam4 #e3h4 7#b7 ,the ,survey of ,palestine4--,after this the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund undertook a survey of ,palestine1 the object of which was to make a complete and authoritative map of the country on the scale of one inch to a mile1 and also a description of all archological remains of antiquity which were above ground4 ,the work was undertaken in #ahga and the survey of western ,palestine was completed in #ahgh4 ,owing to an outbreak of cholera1 the work was interrupted from #ahgd to #ahgg4 ,among those who took part in it were ,capt4 ,c4 ,r4 ,conder 7now ,lieut4-,col471 who was in charge of the work from #ahgb to #ahgd1 and ,capt4 ,kitchener 7now ,lord ,kitchener74 ,the great map was published in #ahhj1 and covers an area of #f1jjj square miles1 from the ,mediterranean to the ,jordan and from the ,egyptian desert to a point near ,tyre4 ,the completion of this map was a monumental accomplishment1 and must form the basis for all similar work4 ,the archological remains noted on the map are described in three volumes of ,memoirs1 also published by the ,exploration ,fund4 ,in #ahha ,capt4 ,conder was sent out to make a similar survey of the country east of the ,jordan4 ,he endeavored to work under the old permit from the ,turkish government1 but to this the ,turks objected4 ,after working for ten weeks1 during which he surveyed about #ejj square miles of territory1 he was compelled to desist4 ,the results of his work1 however1 fill a stout volume entitled ,the ,survey of ,eastern ,palestine1 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,the work undertaken by ,conder has since been carried on by other agencies4 ,dr4 ,gottlieb ,schumacher1 an engineer residing at ,haifa1 who was employed in surveying the railway to ,mecca1 has published authoritative volumes on the region to the east of the ,sea of ,galilee4#cf ,on a larger scale is the work of ,brnnow and ,domaszewsky on the ,roman province of ,arabia1#cg a work which includes ancient ,edom as far as ,petra4 ,the last-mentioned remarkable city has been described also in two excellent volumes by ,gustaf ,h4 ,dalman1 ,director of the ,german ,evangelical ,institute in ,jerusalem4#ch ,in #ahgc-ahgd the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund entrusted an archological mission of a general nature to the ,french scholar1 ,clermont-,ganneau1 who several years before had been ,french ,consul at ,jerusalem4 ,clermont-,ganneau was embarrassed by the failure of the ,turkish government to grant him a firman1 but made numerous archological discoveries in the country between ,jaffa and ,jerusalem4 ,these were published by the ,fund in two large volumes1#ci although they did not appear until #ahif and #ahii1 respectively4 ,in the winter of #ahhc-ahhd1 a complete geological survey was made of the valley of the ,dead ,sea and the region to the south 7,wady el-,arabah7 by ,prof4 ,edward ,hull1 who afterward published a volume on the subject4#dj ,hull was accompanied by ,major ,kitchener1 who made a complete triangulation of the district lying between ,mount ,sinai and the ,wady el-,arabah4 7#c7 ,exploration of ,lachish4--,in #ahij the ,exploration ,fund entered upon a new phase of work or1 rather1 resumed one that had been interrupted for twenty years1--that of excavation4 ,the services of ,prof4 ,petrie1 the ,egyptian explorer1 were secured and the attempt to wrest from the soil of ,palestine some of the buried secrets of the past was renewed4 ,the site chosen was ,tell el-,hesy1 where stood in ancient times the city of ,lachish 7,josh4 #aj3c2 #b ,kings #ad3ai2 #ah3ad1 etc474 ,this mound rose about #abj feet above the bed of an intermittent stream4 ,about #fj feet of this height consisted of accumulated dbris of the ancient city4 ,the water in the course of centuries had so exposed some of the potsherds that ,petrie was confident before he began digging that rich discoveries awaited him4 ,he worked here only about six weeks1 running trenches into different parts of the mound1 but he found and classified such a variety of pottery that he felt confident that he had unearthed a city which had been occupied from a time anterior to the ,hebrew conquest of ,canaan down to about #cej ,b4 ,c4#da ,in #ahib the work was continued under the direction of ,dr4 ,frederick ,j4 ,bliss1 who cut away a considerable section from the northeast corner of the mound1 and found the stratified remains of eight different cities1 one above the other4#db ,in the third of these cities from the bottom a cuneiform tablet was found1 which mentions one of the men who figure in the letters found at ,tell el-,amarna in ,egypt4 ,this tablet would indicate that this third city was flourishing during the period #adjj-acej ,b4 ,c4 ,the two cities below this must1 accordingly1 belong to an earlier period4 ,bliss supposed that the first city was built about #agjj ,b4 ,c4 ,above the remains of the third city was a bed of ashes of some thickness1 which shows1 in ,petrie's opinion1 that after the destruction of this city the mound was used for a period of perhaps fifty years as a place for burning alkali4 ,near the top of the dbris of the fourth city a glazed seal was found similar to those made in ,egypt in the time of the twenty-second dynasty 7#ide-gde ,b4 ,c474 ,this city1 then1 belonged to the early part of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,in the seventh and eighth cities pottery of polished red and black types was found4 ,this class of pottery is of ,greek origin1 dating from #eej-cej ,b4 ,c4 ,these occupations of the mound must1 then1 be of that period4 ,the fifth and sixth cities would1 accordingly1 fall between #gej and #eej ,b4 ,c4 ,this excavation thus shows how the stratification of the mounds of ,palestine reveals the march of the peoples across the country2 7see ,fig4 #bh74 7#d7 ,bliss's ,excavation at ,jerusalem4--,from #ahid to #ahig ,dr4 ,bliss was engaged in excavations at ,jerusalem4#dc ,here he devoted his attention to an endeavor to recover the line of the ancient wall on the south side of the city4 ,this he did1 following it from 8,maudsley's ,scarp0#dd at the northwest corner of the westernmost of the two hills on which ,jerusalem is situated across the slope to the eastward and then across the ,tyropon ,valley4 ,this was the wall rebuilt by ,nehemiah on lines then already old 7,neh4 #c-f74 ,it was destroyed by ,titus in the year #gj ,a4 ,d41 and afterward rebuilt by the ,empress ,eudoxia in the fifth century ,a4 ,d4 7#e7 ,excavation at ,azekah4--,from #ahih to #aijj ,dr4 ,bliss excavated for the ,fund at several sites in the ,biblical ,shephelah1#de the low hills which formed the border-land between ancient ,juda and ,philistia4 ,the work began at ,tell ,zakariya1 the ,biblical ,azekah1 situated above the lower part of the ,vale of ,elah4 ,azekah was fortified by ,king ,rehoboam 7#b ,chron4 #aa3e-aj74 ,here an important citadel or fortress was uncovered4 ,while the masonry of the top part was similar to that of ,herodian buildings at ,jerusalem1 the pottery found about the foundations indicated that the beginnings of the structure go back to early ,israelitish times4 ,it may well be one of ,jeroboam's fortresses4 ,underneath it were remains from late pre-,israelitish times4 ,it appears that the hill was occupied as the site of a city only shortly before the ,hebrew conquest4 ,the fortress was not1 however1 built at the time of this earliest occupation4 7#f7 ,at ,tell es-,safi 7,gath874--,next the excavation was transferred to ,tell es-,safi1 which was situated on the south side of the ancient ,vale of ,elah at the point where it sweeps into the ,philistine plain1 and which was thought to be the site of the ,biblical ,gath 7,josh4 #aa3bb2 #a ,sam4 #e3h2 #ag3d2 #b ,kings #ab3ag74 ,here in #aadd ,a4 ,d4 the ,latin ,kingdom of ,jerusalem established by the ,crusaders built a fortress1 which they called ,blanche-,garde1 as an outpost against ,ashkelon4 ,it was hoped that the excavation of ,dr4 ,bliss would determine whether or not this was really the site of ,gath1 but owing to the occupation of the tell by a ,mohammedan cemetery and a wely1 or sacred building1 this was not possible4 ,the outline of the city walls was1 however1 traced1 the foundations of ,blanche-,garde examined1 and here and there trenches were sunk to the rock4 ,these trenches revealed in the various strata pottery and objects1 first1 of the period of the ,crusaders2 secondly1 of the ,seleucid period 7#cab-fe ,b4 ,c472 thirdly1 of the ,jewish period1 #gjj-cej ,b4 ,c41 and two pre-,israelite strata4 ,the mound had1 then1 been occupied from about #agjj ,b4 ,c4 to the ,seleucid times1 and again in the period of the ,latin ,kingdom of ,jerusalem4 ,the most interesting discovery at ,tell es-,safi was that of an old pre-,israelitish high place1 which contained three pillars such as are denounced in ,deuteronomy4 7,see ,deut4 #g3e2 #ab3c1 etc47 ,at the time of this discovery no similar discovery had been made4 ,the foundations of this high place were near the bottom of the last pre-,israelite stratum1 so that it was clearly constructed by the ,amorites1 or ,canaanites1 or whoever occupied this city before the ,hebrews arrived4 7#g7 ,tell el-,judeideh4--,the excavations next moved to ,tell el-,judeideh1 a mound some distance to the south of ,tell ,zakariya4 ,here they traced the outlines of the city wall1 found the remains of a ,roman villa1 and sunk a number of shafts to the rock4 ,from the pottery found in these shafts they inferred that the mound had been occupied in the earliest period1 but deserted for a considerable time before the ,hebrew conquest4 ,it was then reoccupied in the latter part of the ,judan monarchy1 and was finally fortified in the ,seleucid or ,roman period4 ,it seems to have been deserted soon after the ,roman period4 ,it is not known what was the ancient name of the city that stood there4 7#h7 ,at ,marash 7,moresheth-,gath74--,the last mound excavated in this region was ,tell ,sandahanna1 situated a mile to the south of ,beit ,jibrin4 ,the mound takes its name from a church of ,st4 ,anne1 the ruins of which may still be seen near by4 ,it occupies the site of the city of ,marissa of the ,seleucid period1 and of the older ,jewish ,marash4 ,it is probably the site of ,moresheth-,gath1 the home of the prophet ,micah4 7,see ,micah #a3ad47 ,here considerable portions of the ,seleucid stratum of the mound were excavated1 and a smaller portion of the ,jewish stratum4 ,the ,jewish stratum rested directly on the rock2 the site seems1 therefore1 not to have been inhabited in pre-,israelite times4 7#i7 ,gezer4--,the next undertaking of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund was the excavation of ,gezer4 ,this work was entrusted to the direction of ,r4 ,a4 ,stewart ,macalister1 who had been ,dr4 ,bliss's assistant from #ahih to #aijj and who is now ,professor of ,celtic in the ,university of ,dublin4 ,work was begun on ,tell el-,jazar1 about six miles southeast of the town of ,ramleh1 which ,clermont ,ganneau#df had1 in ,june1 #aijb1 identified as the site of ,gezer4 7,josh4 #aj3cc2 ,judges #a3bg2 #b ,sam4 #e3be47 ,it continued1 with such interruptions as winter weather and an outbreak of cholera made necessary1 until ,august1 #aije4 ,it was renewed in the spring of #aijg and carried on until early in #aiji4 ,during this time more than half of the mound was excavated4 ,no other mound in ,palestine has been so fully explored4 ,naturally1 therefore1 ,gezer has furnished us with more archological information than any other excavation2 7see ,fig4 #cj74 ,the results of this excavation convinced ,mr4 ,macalister that the classification of the strata adopted by the excavators of ,lachish and the mounds of the ,shephelah was capable of improvement4 ,he found that ,gezer had been occupied at first by a non-,semitic people1 remains of whose bones indicate that they were about #e feet #f inches high1 who lived in caves1 and whose implements were wholly of stone4 ,he estimated that these people probably occupied the site from about #cjjj to #bejj ,b4 ,c4 ,about #bejj ,b4 ,c4 a ,semitic race1 probably ,amorite1 took possession of the city and occupied it to the end of the ,hebrew monarchy4 ,four periods could be traced in the ,semitic occupation1 each represented by differences in walls1 implements1 and objects used4 ,the first ,semitic period ended with the fall of the twelfth ,egyptian dynasty1 about #ahjj ,b4 ,c4 ,in this stratum scarabs of the period of the ,egyptian 8middle kingdom0 were found4 ,the second ,semitic stratum continued until about the end of the eighteenth ,egyptian dynasty1 about #acej ,b4 ,c4 ,the third ,semitic stratum lasted till the establishment of the ,hebrew monarchy1 about #ajjj ,b4 ,c42 the fourth was contemporaneous with the ,hebrew kingdoms1 #ajjj-ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,the mound was again occupied in the ,hellenistic or ,maccaban period4#dg ,after the ,maccaban turmoils the inhabitants seem to have deserted the tell4 ,under the modern village of ,abu ,shusheh1 on the southwest slope of the mound1 a ,roman mosaic has been found1 but nothing from ,roman times was discovered on the mound itself4 ,there were likewise no remains from the period of the ,crusaders4 ,in the course of this excavation many important discoveries were made4 ,many of these will be mentioned in subsequent chapters4 ,we need only mention here an old ,semitic high place1 which had its beginnings in the first ,semitic stratum before #ahjj ,b4 ,c41 and was used down to the end of the fourth ,semitic or ,hebrew stratum1 about #fjj ,b4 ,c4 ,it began with two 8pillars10 but others were added as time passed until there were ten in all4#dh ,in the third ,semitic stratum 7i4 e41 the one preceding the ,hebrew occupation7 a building was found which ,mr4 ,macalister thought might have been a temple4 ,in the middle of its largest hall were some stones which looked as though they might have supported wooden pillars1 which1 in turn1 probably supported the roof4 ,mr4 ,macalister thought this was a structure similar to that which ,samson pulled down at ,gaza#di 7,judges #af3bc-cj74 ,one of the most important discoveries was a rock-cut tunnel leading down through the heart of the rock to a spring in a cave #id feet below the surface of the rock and #abj feet below the level of the present surface of the ground4#ej ,this was to enable the people of the city to obtain water in time of siege4 ,it was used for some #ejj years and was apparently closed up about #acjj-abjj ,b4 ,c4 ,its beginnings go back accordingly to the first ,semitic period4 ,a palace of the ,maccaban time1 apparently built by ,simon the ,maccabee1 #adc-ace ,b4 ,c41 was also discovered4#ea 7,cf4 #a ,macc4 #ad3cd47 ,various walls were discovered1 which at different times encircled the city4 ,the most massive of these was apparently constructed during the eighteenth ,egyptian dynasty1 and continued to be the city wall down to the ,babylonian ,exile4 ,at some time after its construction towers had been inserted in the wall4 ,these towers were shown to be a later insertion by the fact that their stones touched the stones of the wall on each side1 but were not interlocked with them4 ,mr4 ,macalister thinks that these towers may have been inserted by ,solomon when he fortified the city 7#a ,kings #i3ae-ai74 ,at some later time the weakness of such a tower had become apparent1 and a bastion had been built around it4#eb ,the excavation at ,gezer was fruitful in many directions4 ,other aspects of it will be taken up in future chapters in connection with other topics4 7#aj7 ,beth-shemesh4--,the next task undertaken by the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund was the exploration of ,ain ,shems1 the ,biblical ,beth-shemesh4 7,see ,josh4 #ae3aj2 #b ,kings #ad3h-ad1 etc47 ,ain ,shems1 like ,gezer1 is situated in what was in ,biblical times the ,shephelah4 ,it is near the station of ,der ,aban on the railway from ,jaffa to ,jerusalem4 ,excavations were carried on at this point in #aiaa and #aiab under the direction of ,dr4 ,duncan ,mackenzie1 who had had ten years' experience on the staff of ,sir ,arthur ,evans1 the explorer of ,crete4 ,at the bottom of the mound the remains of a very early settlement were discovered4#ec ,above this the ruins of a once prosperous city1 which was for that time large1 were found4 ,it was surrounded by strong walls and one of its rugged gates was discovered on the south4 ,in the upper strata of this city imitations of ,cretan pottery were found4 ,as it is probable that the ,philistines came from ,crete1 or were intimately associated with people who were under ,cretan influence1 this pottery is doubtless ,philistine4 ,the city which was encircled by this wall had passed through two periods of history4 ,the original wall was built before the domination of ,palestine by ,egypt4 ,as this domination began about #aejj ,b4 ,c41 the earlier fortress of ,beth-shemesh belongs to that period4 ,the second period belongs in its earlier strata to the age of the ,el-,amarna letters1 in which the city is called ,beth-,ninib4 ,the upper period of it belongs1 as has been noted1 to the ,philistine period4 ,this city was destroyed by a siege which resulted in the burning of the city--a burning which left quite a bed of ashes4 ,dr4 ,mackenzie thought that this was the siege by which the ,israelites gained possession of ,beth-shemesh4 ,the city was occupied by the ,hebrews apparently until the invasion of ,palestine by ,sennacherib1 ,king of ,assyria1 in #gja ,b4 ,c4 ,at all events1 it was in the possession of ,judah in the days of ,king ,amaziah 7#b ,kings #ad3h-ad74 ,corresponding to this1 ,israelitish pottery was found in the stratum above the ashes4 ,dr4 ,mackenzie is of the opinion that during this ,hebrew period the city was without a wall4 ,apparently after the time of ,sennacherib the site was abandoned for several centuries1 for next above the ,israelitish stratum the remains of a monastery of the ,byzantine period 7#cbe-fcf ,a4 ,d47 were found4 ,this monastery apparently was not begun until just at the close of the ,byzantine period1 for it appears that it was not finished at the time of the ,mohammedan conquest4 7#aa7 ,exploring the ,wilderness of ,zin4--,the most recent service of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund was the sending of two explorers1 ,c4 ,leonard ,woolley and ,t4 ,e4 ,lawrence1 in the winter of #aiac-ad1 to explore the wilderness to the south of ,palestine4 ,the results of their work have been published in the ,fund's ,annual1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 under the title ,the ,wilderness of ,zin4 ,the explorers identified a considerable part of the 8,darb es-,shur10 or the 8way of ,shur0 7,gen4 #af3g1 etc474 ,it was the caravan road from ,palestine to ,egypt4 ,they also adduce strong evidence against the identification of ,ain ,kades with ,kadesh-,barnea 7,num4 #cb3h1 etc471 and think that ,kossima1 which lies nearer to the ,egyptian road and is surrounded by much more verdure1 may have been ,kadesh-,barnea4 ,the identification of ,ain ,kades with ,kadesh-,barnea was made by the late ,dr4 ,henry ,clay ,trumbull1 after a very brief visit to the spot1 and it has been accepted by many others4 ,between #cbe and #fcf ,a4 ,d4 extensive settlements and cities of considerable size existed in this wilderness4 ,this was one of the facts that led ,ellsworth ,huntington to believe that the rainfall in ,palestine was much greater at that time4 ,with this view ,woolley and ,lawrence take issue4 ,they say that where the old wells have been kept open1 the water still rises as high as ever it did4 ,they hold that the cities mentioned were possible because of the great energy and skill of the people of that time in sinking wells4 #e4 ,the ,german ,palestine ,society4--,while the work of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 which has been outlined in detail1 was going on1 other countries were aroused to similar activities4 ,in #ahgg a similar ,society1 the ,deutscher ,palstina-,verein1 was organized to foster the collection of information about the land of the ,bible4 ,accurate scientific research in all branches of knowledge relating to ,palestine was contemplated1 and the co-operation of travelers and of the ,german colonies in ,palestine was invited4 ,in #ahgh this ,society began the publication of a journal#ed which has become a repository of information about the ,holy ,land4 7#a7 ,guthe's ,excavation at ,jerusalem4--,in #ahhj ,prof4 ,guthe excavated at various points on ,ophel at ,jerusalem1 and followed the line of the ancient wall along the east side of the city of ,david4#ee 7#b7 ,megiddo4--,in #aijc this ,german ,society undertook the excavation of ,tell el-,mutesellim1 the site of the ,biblical ,megiddo#ef 7,josh4 #ab3ba2 #b ,kings #bc3bi1 etc474 ,this work was entrusted to the direction of ,dr4 ,gottlieb ,schumacher1 of ,haifa4 ,work was begun on the #gth of ,february1 #aijc1 and continued at intervals until the #cjth of ,november1 #aije4 ,in the lowest stratum of the mound ,dr4 ,schumacher found traces of a settlement the houses of which were constructed of mud-bricks4 ,over the ruins of these a second series of houses had been built of stone4 ,in the same stratum some tombs were found containing skeletons1 some pottery of early forms1 a bronze knife1 and some scarabs set in gold4 ,the walls of the city were in part built of brick4 ,the settlements represented by this stratum antedated #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,in the next stratum a large structure1 probably a palace1 was found1 which had been occupied through the periods represented by the stratum in which its foundations were laid and the stratum next above it4 ,the building was of stone and was large4 ,in one part of it was a 8pillar0 apparently used for worship4 ,various types of pottery1 knives of flint and bronze1 many stone household utensils1 an ,astarte figure1 and some scarabs of the period of the twelfth ,egyptian dynasty were found4 ,this stratum1 then1 belonged to the period #bjjj-ahjj ,b4 ,c4 ,next above this stratum was one in which types of painted pottery similar to that of the ,philistines came to light4 ,in the fifth stratum from the bottom a palace of the ,hebrew period was discovered4 ,in this palace a seal was found bearing a lion and the inscription 8belonging to ,shema1 the servant of ,jeroboam40 ,it is impossible to tell whether the ,jeroboam who was ,shema's master was ,jeroboam ,i or ,jeroboam ,,ii4 ,in this same stratum a temple was found containing three 8pillars02 7see ,fig4 #bg74 ,in another part of the mound in a sixth stratum1 which seemed to be late ,hebrew1 three 8pillars0 were found in an open space near the south gate1 a stone religious emblem1 and a decorated incense-burner4 ,elsewhere this sixth stratum yielded a blacksmith's shop4 ,in a seventh stratum1 just under the soil1 remains of the ,greek period were found1 among which was an ,athenian coin4 ,this was the last occupation of the tell1 and was pre-,christian4 ,at the beginning of the ,roman period the town was moved from the high land of the mound down nearer the water supply4 ,on the slope of the hill a native-rock altar was found which had been used in prehistoric times4 7#c7 ,taanach4--,in #ahii ,prof4 ,ernst ,sellin1 of ,vienna1 visited ,palestine and became so deeply interested in its exploration that he induced several ,austrian scientific bodies and individuals to contribute a fund for the purpose4 ,the result was an excavation of ,tell ,taanek1 the ,biblical ,taanach 7,josh4 #ab3ba2 ,judges #e3ai71 conducted by ,sellin in #aijb and #aijc4 ,sellin did not excavate the mound in a systematic way and his results are not very clearly presented in his book4#eg ,he traced in several places four strata in the tell4 ,an early stratum had its beginnings1 he thought1 as early as #bejj ,b4 ,c4 ,this stratum represented probably an occupation of more than a thousand years4 ,in its later parts the remains of a large palace were found1 and in a cave underneath it four cuneiform tablets1 written in the script of the ,el-,amarna period4 ,originally there were more tablets in the archive1 but it had been rifled in ancient times4 ,above this was a stratum in which pottery of the ,cypriote and ,philistine type was found4 ,next above this was a ,hebrew stratum1 which seems to have lasted1 judging by objects found in it1 down to the time of ,psammetik ,i of ,egypt1 #ffc-fji ,b4 ,c4 ,in this stratum the remains of a high place with its 8pillars0 were found1 as well as a terra-cotta incense-altar of wonderful construction4 ,above this there were in places a few remains from the ,seleucid period1 including some pottery1 and at the top of the mound some remains of an ,arabic settlement4 ,this last seems to have been established here about the time of the ,crusaders4 ,sellin thinks ,taanach was destroyed by the ,scythian invasion1 about #fbe ,b4 ,c41 that in the ,seleucid period the main settlement here was not on the mound1 and that it was then unoccupied until the time of the ,crusaders4 7#d7 ,capernaum4--,the ,deutsche ,orient-,gesellschaft1 which was carrying on excavations in ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 and ,assyria1 undertook the investigation of the remains of ancient synagogues in ,galilee and the ,jaulan4 ,among these they excavated the ruins of the synagogue at ,tell ,hum on the ,sea of ,galilee1#eh the probable site of ,capernaum4 ,here they found the remains of a once beautiful synagogue which was probably built in the fourth century ,a4 ,d4 ,beneath it is the floor of a still older building4 ,this last is probably the synagogue in which so many of the incidents of the ministry of ,christ in ,capernaum took place1 the one built by a ,roman centurion4 7,see ,luke #g3e and ,fig4 #cb47 7#e7 ,jericho4--,this same ,society undertook1 in the years #aijg-aiji1 the excavation of ,jericho2 7see ,fig4 #bi74 ,the work was entrusted to the direction of ,prof4 ,sellin1 of ,vienna4 ,the digging occupied about three weeks in the spring of #aijg1 and about three months of the early part of each of the years #aijh and #aiji4ei ,at the bottom of the mound traces of a prehistoric occupation of the site were uncovered1 but as these were under the foundations of a ,canaanitish fortress1 which were not demolished1 nothing further was ascertained about them4 ,above this prehistoric city were the remains of an ,amorite or ,canaanite city4 ,a jar handle found in the lower half of this ,canaanite stratum was stamped with a scarab of the time of the twelfth ,egyptian dynasty1 which indicates that this occupation goes back to about #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the walls of this early city were traced on all sides of the tell except the east4 ,on this side1 where the ,ain es-,sultan is 7otherwise called ,elisha's ,fountain1 from the incident of #b ,kings #b3ai-bb71 the wall had entirely disappeared4 ,this early city was small4 ,the whole of it could have been put into the ,colosseum at ,rome4 ,all early ,palestinian cities were1 however1 small4 ,in the city was a citadel with a double wall4 ,each wall represented a different period of history4 ,both were built of brick1 as were the houses of the time4 ,the outer wall was between four and five feet thick and appeared to be the older2 the inner one was about ten feet thick4 ,they were joined here and there by transverse walls2 7see ,fig4 #cg74 ,the city had been burned apparently about #acjj-abjj ,b4 ,c41 perhaps at the time of the ,hebrew conquest4 ,above the ruins of this pre-,israelitish city were the remains of the ,hebrew town4 ,the earliest of these remains seems to date from the ninth century ,b4 ,c42 7see #a ,kings #af3cd71 as it was rebuilt in the days of ,ahab2 7see ,fig4 #cd74 ,the ,israelites1 in ,sellin's judgment1 made the city considerably larger than it had been in the earlier time4 ,a wall1 which he believed to be the wall of the ,hebrew period1 was found on all sides except the east1 considerably outside the older wall4 ,pre ,vincent1 of the ,french cole ,biblique at ,jerusalem1 believes this wall to have been built in the ,canaanite period also1 but his reasons do not seem convincing4 ,on the eastern edge of the ,israelitish stratum the remains of a large stone building were found4 ,sellin thinks this may be the palace and fortress built by ,hiel in the time of ,ahab 7#a ,kings #af3cd74 ,this ,israelitish city seems to have flourished only about two hundred years4 ,it was probably destroyed in the time of ,sennacherib1 about #gjj ,b4 ,c4 ,sellin thought he found traces of another rebuilding which must soon have followed the destruction1 but this ,jericho was also destroyed by ,nebuchadrezzar in #ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,at some time after the ,babylonian ,exile the city was rebuilt and flourished until destroyed by ,vespasian in #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,it was rebuilt after #cbe ,a4 ,d4 and continued until destroyed by the invasion of the ,persian ,king ,chosroes ,,ii1 in #fad ,a4 ,d4 ,some slight settlements have existed on the mound in ,moslem times1 but the ,jericho of today is more than a mile distant4 #f4 ,the ,american ,school at ,jerusalem4--,in the year #aijj the ,american ,school of ,oriental ,research in ,palestine was opened at ,jerusalem under the gis of the ,archological ,institute of ,america4 ,it is one of the purposes of this school1 when its funds will permit1 to carry on excavations as well as explorations4 ,hitherto it has not had money sufficient to enable it to undertake extensive excavations4 ,in addition to the investigation of many matters not strictly archological1 the ,school has conducted a number of minor explorations4 ,when the present writer was ,director1 #aijb-aijc1 he cleared the so-called ,tomb of the ,judges and found the ruins of a caravansary of the ,crusading period near the ,damascus ,gate4 ,under ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 #aijc-aijd1 an excavation was made on the supposed line of the 8,third ,wall0 of ,jerusalem4 ,under ,nathaniel ,schmidt1 #aijd-aije1 the ,dead ,sea was explored and some discoveries made in the ,valley of the ,arnon and the ,wady ,suweil4#fj ,under ,d4 ,g4 ,lyon1 #aijf-aijg1 some pre-,israelitish pottery was recovered from tombs of ,samieh east of ,et-,taiyibeh4#fa ,under ,w4 ,j4 ,moulton1 #aiab-aiac1 some painted tombs of the ,seleucid time were explored at ,beit ,jibrin4 #g4 ,samaria4--,although the ,american ,school at ,jerusalem has not yet been able to undertake extensive excavations1 through the generosity of ,mr4 ,jacob ,schiff1 of ,new ,york1 ,harvard ,university was able to excavate at ,sebastiyeh1 the site of ancient ,samaria1 during parts of three seasons--#aijh1 #aiji1 and #aiaj4 ,during the first season the work was under the direction of ,prof4 ,d4 ,g4 ,lyon2 during #aiji and #aiaj1 under the direction of ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,reisner1 who has had large experience in such work in ,egypt1 and who1 in addition to many archological triumphs there1 has solved the riddle of the ,sphinx4 ,at ,samaria#fb a large palace was found built upon the native rock4 ,this is believed to be the remains of the palace of ,omri 7#a ,kings #af3bd74 ,above this were the ruins of a larger palace1 the wall of which was faced with white marble4 ,this is believed to have been the palace of ,ahab1 who is said to have built an 8ivory house0 7#a ,kings #bb3ci74 ,in a building on a level with this palace a considerable number of inscribed potsherds were found4 ,they were receipts for wine and oil stored there4 ,at the western edge of the hill the old city gate was uncovered4 ,it had been rebuilt at different times4 ,the foundations were clearly laid in the ,israelitish period4 ,on these now rests a superstructure of ,herodian workmanship4 ,above the ruins of the ,hebrew city were the remains of a city built by the ,assyrians4 7,see #b ,kings #ag3bd-cd47 ,this was inferred by the character of the building materials employed1 and by the fragment of a clay tablet found there4 ,still above this were remains of a city of the ,seleucid time--the city destroyed by ,john ,hyrcanus#fc in #aji ,b4 ,c4 ,still above this were remains of the temple built by ,herod the ,great1 when he rebuilt ,samaria and named it ,sebaste1 the ,greek for ,augusta1 in honor of the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,this temple had been repaired in the third century ,a4 ,d4 #h4 ,parker's ,excavations at ,jerusalem4--,in the years #aiji1 #aiaj1 and #aiaa an ,english expedition under ,capt41 the ,hon4 ,montague ,parker1 a retired officer of the ,british army1 made extensive explorations upon ,ophel1 the slope of the eastern hill south of the present city walls at ,jerusalem4 ,parker was not an archologist and the motive for the exploration is not yet disclosed4 ,the party is said to have been abundantly supplied with money1 and to have come to ,palestine in a private yacht1 which was anchored off ,jaffa while they were at work4 ,in #aiaa the hostility of the ,moslems became so excited by the rumor that they had attempted to excavate under the ,mosque of ,omar that the expedition came to an abrupt close1 and the explorers escaped on their yacht4 ,through the descriptions of two residents of ,jerusalem1 ,prof4 ,hughes ,vincent#fd and ,dr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,g4 ,masterman1#fe we have some knowledge of the value of ,parker's work4 ,he cleared the silt out of the ,siloam tunnel so as to reveal its real depth1 which seems to have been between five and six feet4 ,it had been so silted up that it appeared to be only about half that depth4 ,he also explored more fully the caves about ,ain ,sitti ,miriam 7the ,biblical ,gihon1 #a ,kings #a3cc71 which had been partially explored by ,sir ,charles ,warren1 so that the nature and probable use of these are now known much better4 ,more will be said of this in a future chapter4 #i4 ,latest ,excavations4--,within the last few years the ,assumptionist ,fathers have been excavating on a tract of land purchased by them on the eastern slope of the western hill to the south of the present city wall4 ,they believe that they have discovered the house of ,caiaphas1 to which ,christ was led in the course of his trial 7,matt4 #bf3eg2 ,john #ah3bd74 ,possibly they have found the house which1 after the time of ,constantine1 was pointed out to ,christian pilgrims as that of ,caiaphas4 ,however this may be1 they have unearthed several streets of ,roman and ,jewish ,jerusalem1 and are keeping them uncovered4 ,these streets1 like the ruins of ,pompeii1 disclose pavements and house-foundations that may go back to the time of ,christ4 ,here1 possibly1 one may look upon pavements which his feet actually trod4#ff ,in #aiad some excavations were made on ,ophel at ,jerusalem under the direction of ,capt4 ,weil for a ,jewish organization1 and at the mound ,balata1 near ,nablous1 the ,biblical ,shechem1 by the ,germans4 ,the work at ,balata was under the direction of ,prof4 ,sellin4 ,both are said to have made discoveries4 ,at ,balata it is said that the city gate of ancient ,shechem was uncovered4 ,nothing has1 however1 been published concerning these1 and the great war of #aiad brought all such work to a stop4 ,the preparation of foundations of a new ,jewish hospital near the ,dung ,gate has laid bare the aqueducts which conveyed the water from 8,solomon's ,pools0 into the city4#fg ,in this account only the principal explorations have been mentioned4 ,in all parts of ,palestine1 and especially at ,jerusalem1 important archological discoveries are frequently made when people are digging to lay the foundations of buildings1 to construct a cistern1 or for other purposes4 ,other important discoveries1 as1 for instance1 the rock-cut high place at ,petra1#fh and the painted tombs at ,beit ,jibrin1#fi have been made by people traveling through the land4 ,many discoveries made in this way are recorded in the ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 the ,zeitschrift des deutschen ,palstina-,vereins1 and the ,revue biblique4 ,lack of space forbids the attempt to chronicle these4#gj ,,chapter ,v ,,outline ,,of ,,palestine',s ,,arch,,ological ,,history ,,the ,,early ,,stone ,,age4 ,,the ,,late ,,stone ,,age4 ,,the ,,amorites4 ,,the ,,canaanites4 ,,egyptian ,,domination3 ,thothmes ,,iii4 ,palestine in the ,el-,amarna ,letters4 ,seti ,i4 ,ramses ,,ii4 ,merneptah4 ,ramses ,,iii4 ,,the ,,philistines4 ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,,philistine ,,civilization4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,kingdoms4 ,,the ,,exile ,,and ,,after3 ,the ,samaritans4 ,alexander the ,great and his successors4 ,the ,maccabees4 ,the ,asmonans4 ,,the ,,coming ,,of ,,rome3 ,the ,herods4 ,the destruction of ,jerusalem in #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,,later ,,history4 #a4 ,the ,early ,stone ,age4--,palestine appears to have been inhabited at a very remote period4 ,scholars divide the races of prehistoric men1 who used stone implements1 into two classes--,palolithic and ,neolithic4 ,palolithic men did not shape their stone implements4 ,if they chanced to find a stone shaped like an axe1 they used it as such2 if they found a long1 thin one with a sharp edge1 they used it for a knife4 ,neolithic man had learned to shape his stone tools4 ,he could make knives for himself out of flint and form other tools from stone4 ,the earliest inhabitants of ,palestine belonged to the palolithic period4 ,unshaped stone implements have been found in many parts of the country4 ,they have been picked up in the maritime plain1 in still larger numbers on the elevated land south of ,jerusalem1 and again to the south of ,amman1 the ,biblical ,rabbah ,ammon1 on the east of the ,jordan4 ,the ,assumptionist ,fathers of ,notre ,dame de ,france at ,jerusalem have a fine collection of flint implements in their ,museum4 ,these palolithic men lived in caves in which they left traces of their occupation4 ,several of these caves in ,phnicia have been explored by ,pre ,zumoffen1 of the ,catholic ,university of ,st4 ,joseph1 ,beirut4#ga ,it has been estimated that these cave-dwellers may have been in ,palestine as early as #aj1jjj ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,the ,late ,stone ,age4--,of neolithic men in ,palestine much more is known4 ,this knowledge comes in part from the numerous cromlechs1 menhirs1 dolmens1 and 8gilgals0 which are scattered over eastern ,palestine4 ,a cromlech is a heap of stones roughly resembling a pyramid2#gb a menhir is a group of unhewn stones so set in the earth as to stand upright like columns2#gc a dolmen consists of a large unhewn stone which rests on two others which separate it from the earth2#gd and a 8gilgal0 is a group of menhirs set in a circle4#gc ,these monuments are the remains of men of the stone age who dwelt here before the dawn of history4 ,they were probably erected by some of those peoples whom the ,hebrews called ,rephaim#ge or 8shades0--people who1 having lived long before1 were dead at the time of the ,hebrew occupation4 ,similar monuments of the stone age have been found in ,japan1 ,india1 ,persia1 the ,caucasus1 the ,crimea1 ,bulgaria2 also in ,tripoli1#gf ,tunis1 ,algeria1 ,morocco1 ,malta1 southern ,italy1 ,sardinia1 ,corsica1 the ,belearic ,isles1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,france1 the ,british ,isles1 ,scandinavia1 and the ,german shores of the ,baltic4 ,some scholars hold that all these monuments were made by one race of men1 who migrated from country to country4 ,as the monuments are not found at very great distances from the sea1 the migrations are supposed to have followed the sea coasts4#gg ,others scout the idea of a migration over such long distances at such an early epoch of the world's history1 and believe that the fashion of making such monuments was adopted from people to people by imitation4 ,be this as it may1 these monuments seem to have been in ,egypt and ,palestine before the ,semites and ,hamites developed into the ,egyptians1 ,amorites1 and ,hebrews1 for they were adopted by them as the 8pillars0 which are so often denounced in the ,old ,testament1 and in ,egypt were gradually shaped and prolonged into the obelisks4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,palestine ,of the men of this stone age the excavations have furnished us with some further information4 ,at ,gezer the native rock below all the cities was found to contain caves1#gh some natural and some artificial1 which had formed the dwellings of men of the stone age4 ,they1 like men today1 were lazy4 ,if one found a cave that would protect him from heat1 cold1 and rain1 he would occupy it and save himself the trouble of making one4 ,but there were not enough caves to go around1 so some of the men of ancient ,gezer cut caves for themselves out of the soft limestone rock4 ,it must have been a difficult task with the stone implements at their disposal1 but they accomplished it1 sometimes cutting stairs by which to descend into them4 ,one such cave seems to have been used by them as a temple4 ,in it were found a quantity of pig bones1 which were apparently the remains of their sacrifices4 ,if they offered the pig in sacrifice1 they were certainly not ,semitic1 for ,semites abhorred swine4 ,these early men sometimes adorned the sides of their dwellings by scratching pictures on the walls4 ,several pictures of cattle were found4 ,one cow seemed to have knobs on her horns to keep her from goring6 ,one drawing represented a stag that was being killed with a bow and arrow4#gi ,these early men burned their dead1 and one of the caves in the eastern end of the hill was used as their crematory4 ,steps in the rock led down to its entrance4 ,the cave itself was #ca feet long1 #bd feet #f inches wide1 and the height varied from #b to #e feet4 ,near one end a hole had been cut to the upper air to act as a flue4 ,below this the fires that burned their dead had been kindled2 cinders and charred bones of these far-off men were found as grim tokens of their funeral rites4 ,shortly after these bones were found the anatomist1 ,prof4 ,alexander ,macalister1 of ,cambridge ,university1 father of the excavator1 visited the camp at ,gezer and made a study of the bones4 ,he found that they represented a non-,semitic race4 ,the peculiar modifications of the bones caused by the squatting so universally practised by ,semites were absent4 ,the men whose bones these were could not have been more than #e feet #f inches in height1 and many of the women must have been as short as #e feet #c inches4 ,a pottery head found in one of the caves1 which may be a rude portrait of the type of face seen in ,gezer in this period1 has a sloping forehead1 which afforded little brain-space1 and a prominent lower jaw4 ,these people used flint knives1 crushed their grain in hollow stones with rounded stones1 employed a variety of stone implements1 and made pottery of a rude type1 which will be described in a later chapter4 ,the city of ,gezer in this cave-dwelling period was surrounded by a unique wall or rampart4#hj ,this consisted of a stone wall about #f feet high and #b feet thick1 on the outer side of which was a rampart of packed earth about #f feet #f inches at the base and sloping toward the top4 ,this bank of earth was protected by a covering of small stones about #h inches in depth4 ,this rampart never could have been of much value in warfare1 and was1 perhaps1 meant as a protection against incursions of wild animals4 ,in the hillsides around ,gezer there are many caves which were probably human habitations during this period1 but as they have been open during many centuries1 traces of their early occupation have long since been destroyed4 ,at ,beit ,jibrin1 six or eight hours to the south of ,gezer1 there are also many caves in the rock1 numbers of which are artificial4 ,at various periods these have been employed as residences4 ,it is altogether probable that the use of some of them goes back to the time of the cave-dwellers of ,gezer4 ,mr4 ,macalister has suggested a connection between these cave-dwellers of ,gezer and the ,biblical ,horites1#ha since ,horite means 8cave-dweller40 ,in the ,bible the ,horites are said to have dwelt to the east of the ,jordan1 and more especially in ,edom 7,gen4 #ad3f2 #cf3bj1 #ba1 #bi2 ,deut4 #b3ab1 #bb74 ,it seems probable that the reason why the ,bible places them all beyond ,jordan is that the cave-dwellers had disappeared from western ,palestine centuries before the ,hebrews came1 while to the east of the ,jordan they lingered on until displaced by those who were more nearly contemporary with the ,hebrews4 ,on the west of the ,jordan megalithic monuments were probably once numerous1 since traces of them still survive in ,galilee and ,juda1#hb but later divergent civilizations have removed most of them4 ,in the time of ,amos one of these 8gilgals0 was used by the ,hebrews as a place of worship1 of which the prophet did not approve4#hc ,it seems probable that there was a settlement of these cave-dwellers at ,jerusalem4 ,the excavations of ,capt4 ,parker brought to light an extensive system of caves around the ,virgin's ,fountain1 ,ain ,sitti ,miriam1 as the ,arabs call it1 which is the ,biblical ,gihon4#hd ,these caves are far below the present surface of the ground4 ,it was found1 too1 that there would be no spring at this point at all1 if some early men had not walled up the natural channel in the rock down which the water originally ran4 ,these men1 judging by the fragments of pottery and the depth of the dbris1 belonged to about the same period as the cave-dwellers of ,gezer4 ,they apparently settled at this point because of the water1 and one of the caves may have been a sanctuary to their god4 ,a new vista is thus added to the history of that city1 which was later the scene of so much ,biblical life4 ,from various archological considerations ,mr4 ,macalister estimated that the diminutive cave-dwelling men lived at ,gezer for about #ejj years1 from #cjjj to #bejj ,b4 ,c41 when they were displaced by a ,semitic people4 #c4 ,the ,amorites4--,we are accustomed to call this ,semitic people ,amorites1 and it is probable that this is right4 ,about #bhjj ,b4 ,c41 under a great king named ,sargon1#he a city of ,babylonia called ,uru1 or ,amurru1#hf and ,agade conquered all of ,babylonia4 ,the dynasty founded by ,sargon was ,semitic and ruled ,babylonia for #aig years4#hg ,even before ,sargon conquered ,babylonia1 ,lugalzaggisi1 ,king of ,erech1 had penetrated to the ,mediterranean coast4 ,sargon and two of his successors1 ,naram-,sin and ,shargali-sharri1 carried their conquests to the ,mediterranean lands4 ,a seal of the last-mentioned king was found in ,cyprus4 ,it is probable that the coming of the ,amorites began in the north with the conquests of these kings4 ,to the east of the ,lebanon the ,princeton expedition found stone structures similar to ,babylonian ,ziggurats1 which they attribute to the ,amorites1 and hold to indicate the prevalence of ,babylonian influence in this region4 ,it is probable that the ,amorites slowly worked southward1 occupying different cities as they went4 ,mr4 ,macalister's estimate that they reached ,gezer about #bejj ,b4 ,c4 is not1 therefore1 unreasonable1 though they may have arrived there a century earlier than that4 ,this was the beginning of that long intercourse with ,babylonia which resulted in the employment of the ,babylonian language and script for the purpose of expressing written thought in ,palestine long after the ,egyptians had conquered the country4 ,this intercourse was the more natural because the ,semites who came to ,palestine were of the same race as those who were dominant in ,babylonia4 ,meantime1 the ,egyptians had begun to take notice of ,palestine4 ,uni1 an officer of ,pepi ,i of the sixth ,egyptian dynasty1 relates that he crossed the sea in ships to the back of the height of the ridge north of the 8sand-dwellers0 and punished the inhabitants4#hh ,this refers to the coast of ,palestine in the neighborhood of the ,philistine cities or ,gezer4 ,the time was between #bfjj and #begj ,b4 ,c4 ,egypt was at this time only anxious to make her own borders secure2 she had no desire to occupy this ,asiatic land4 ,again1 between #bcjj and #bbjj ,b4 ,c41 a fresh migration of ,semites1 apparently also of the ,amorite branch1 invaded ,babylonia and in time made the city of ,babylon the head of a great empire4 ,this race furnished the first dynasty of ,babylon1 which ruled from #bbaj to #aibd ,b4 ,c4 ,its greatest king1 ,hammurapi1#hi who gave to ,babylonia a code of laws in the vernacular language1#ij conquered the 8west land10 which means the ,mediterranean coast4 ,it was probably under his successor1 ,shamsu-iluna1 but certainly under one of the kings of this period1 that a man in ,sippar1 in leasing a wagon for a year1 stipulated that it should not be driven to the ,mediterranean coast1 because1 apparently1 travel between that coast and northern ,babylonia was so frequent4#ia ,in this same period there lived in ,babylonia an ,abraham1 the records of some of whose business documents have come down to us4#ib ,we also find there men who bore the names ,yagubilu 7,jacobel7 and ,yashubilu 7,josephel71 and one who was called simply ,yagub1 or ,jacob4 ,palestinian evidence from a later time leads us to believe that men bearing all these names migrated during this period to ,palestine and gave their names to cities which they either built or occupied4#ic ,egyptians also came to ,palestine during this period4 ,the tale of ,sinuhe#id relates the adventures of a man who fled to ,palestine in the year #aigj ,b4 ,c41 and who reached the land of ,kedem1 or the ,east1 which apparently lay to the east of the ,jordan4#ie ,it is referred to several times in the old ,testament4 7,see ,gen4 #bi3a2 ,judges #f3c1 #cc2 #g3ab2 #h3aj2 ,job #a3c1 etc47 ,sinuhe there entered the service of an ,amorite chieftain1 ,ammienshi1 married his eldest daughter1 became ruler of a portion of his land1 and lived there for many years4 ,he finally returned to ,egypt and wrote an account of his adventures4 ,this region was also called by ,sinuhe and other ,egyptians ,upper ,retenu1 a name which they also applied to all the higher parts of ,syria and ,palestine4 ,retenu is philologically equivalent to ,lotan 7,gen4 #cf3bj1 #bb1 #bi2 #a ,chron4 #a3ch1 #ci7 and ,lot 7,gen4 #aa3bg2 #ab3d1 etc474 ,when ,sinuhe arrived in ,kedem he found other ,egyptians already there4 ,ammienshi was well acquainted with ,egyptians4 ,there was apparently considerable trade with ,egypt at this time4 ,men from ,palestine often went there for this purpose4 ,such traders are pictured on an ,egyptian tomb of this period4 ,trade with ,egypt is also shown to have existed by the discovery of ,egyptian scarabs of the time of the ,middle ,kingdom in the excavation of ,gezer1 ,jericho1 ,taanach1 and ,megiddo4 ,as ,egypt was nearer and commerce with it easier1 its art affected the art of ,palestine during this period more than did the art of ,babylon1 although the people were akin to the ,babylonians4 ,in the reign of ,sesostris ,,iii1 #ahhg-ahdi ,b4 ,c41 the ,egyptian king sent an expedition into ,palestine1 and captured a place1 called in ,egyptian ,sekmem1 which is thought by some to be a misspelling of ,shechem4#if ,this expedition probably stimulated ,egyptian influence in the country1 though the ,egyptians established no permanent control over the land at this time4 ,when the ,amorites occupied ,palestinian cities they at once erected fortifications4 ,the inmost of the three walls of ,gezer is their work4 ,it was a wall about #ac feet in thickness1 in which were towers #da feet long and #bd feet thick and about #ij feet apart4 ,it contained at least two gates4#ig ,at ,megiddo the city was surrounded by a wall1 parts of which were made of brick1#ih while at ,jericho the older of the walls of the central citadel dates from this time4#ii #d4 ,the ,canaanites4--,between #ahjj and #agej ,b4 ,c4 a migration occurred which greatly disturbed all western ,asia4 ,there moved into ,babylonia from the east a people called ,kassites4 ,they conquered ,babylonia and established a dynasty which reigned for #egf years4#ajj ,coincident with this movement into ,babylonia there was a migration across the whole of ,asia to the westward1 which caused an invasion of ,egypt and the establishment of the ,hyksos dynasties there4#aja ,as pointed out previously1#ajb it is possible that this movement1 in so far as the leadership of the invasion of ,egypt was concerned1 was ,hittite4 ,in any event1 however1 many ,semites were involved in it1 as the ,semitic names in the ,egyptian ,delta at this time prove4 ,it is customary to assume that it was in connection with this migration that the ,canaanites came into ,palestine4 ,this cannot1 in the present state of our knowledge1 be clearly proved1 but such evidence as we have points in this direction4 ,there began at this time a new period of culture at ,gezer1 which is quite distinguishable from that which had preceded4 ,this indicates the coming of new influences4 ,moreover1 there was apparently an augmentation of the population of ,palestine at this time4 ,new cities were founded at ,tell el-,hesy and ,tell es-,safi1#ajc and elsewhere4 ,we thus feel sure that there was an increase of population and1 when next our written sources reveal to us the location of the nations1 the ,canaanites were dwelling in ,phnicia4 ,the ,egyptian scribes of a later time called the entire western part of ,syria and ,palestine 8,the ,canaan40#ajd ,probably1 therefore1 the ,canaanites settled along the sea coast4 ,we1 therefore1 infer that they came into this region at this time4 ,with the coming of an increased population1 the ,amorites appear to have been in part subjugated and absorbed1 and in part forced into narrower limits4 ,a powerful group of them maintained their integrity in the region afterward occupied by the tribe of ,asher and in the valley between the ,lebanon and ,anti-,lebanon mountains1 where they afterward formed a kingdom4 ,another group of them survived to the east of the ,jordan1 where they maintained a kingdom until overthrown by the ,hebrews4 7,see ,num4 #ba and ,deut4 #a-c47 ,after the coming of the ,canaanites our information concerning the history of ,palestine fails us for nearly three hundred years4 ,all that we know of the history of the country is what can be inferred from the accumulated dbris of the 8second ,semitic0 strata of the different mounds that have been excavated4 ,during these centuries ,egypt was invaded by the ,hyksos1 whose course was run1 and under the great eighteenth dynasty the ,hyksos were expelled1 chased into ,asia1 and the conquest of ,asia undertaken4 #e4 ,egyptian ,domination4--,ahmose ,i1 #aehj-aeeg ,b4 ,c41 besieged ,sharuhen 7,josh4 #ai3f7 in southern ,palestine for six years and captured it1 while both ,amenophis ,i and ,thothmes ,i between #aeeg and #aeja ,b4 ,c4 made raids through ,palestine and ,syria to the ,euphrates4 ,of their deeds in ,palestine no records have survived4 7#a7 ,thothmes ,,iii4--,it is not until the reign of ,thothmes ,,iii that detailed information begins4 ,between #adgh and #addg ,b4 ,c4 this king made no less than seventeen expeditions into ,palestine1 ,phnicia1 and ,syria4 ,at the beginning of his reign this country was dotted with petty kingdoms2 before its close he had so thoroughly amalgamated it with ,egypt that it remained an integral part of the ,egyptian dominion for #ajj years4 ,before his death ,thothmes inscribed on the walls of the temple of ,amon at ,thebes a list of the places in ,asia which he had conquered4 ,many of these were in ,palestine and in ,syria1 and we learn in this way what towns were already places of importance a century or two before the ,hebrew conquest4 ,among places that are mentioned in the ,old ,testament he names#aje ,kedesh 7,josh4 #ai3cg71 ,megiddo1 ,lebonah 7,judges #ba3ai71 ,addar 7,josh4 #ae3c71 two different cities named ,abel2 see ,judges #g3bb 7which mentions one situated in the ,jordan valley71 and #b ,sam4 #bj3ad 7which refers to one near ,dan71 ,damascus1 ,hammath#ajf 7,josh4 #ai3ce71 situated on the ,sea of ,galilee 7where there are still hot springs71 ,beeroth 7,josh4 #i3ag71 ,sharon1 ,tob 7,judges #aa3c1 #e71 ,kanah 7,josh4 #ai3bh71 ,ashtaroth 7,deut4 #a3d2 ,josh4 #i3bj71 ,makkedah 7,josh4 #ae3da71 ,laish 7,judges #ah3g1 #ah71 ,hazor 7,josh4 #aa3a2 ,judges #d3b71 ,chinneroth 7,josh4 #aa3b71 ,shunem 7,josh4 #ai3ah2 #a ,sam4 #bh3da2 #b ,kings #d3h71 ,achshaph 7,josh4 #aa3a71 ,taanach1 ,ibleam 7,josh4 #ag3aa2 ,judges #a3bg71 ,ijon 7#a ,kings #ae3bj71 ,accho1 ,anaharath 7,josh4 #ai3ai71 ,ophra 7,judges #f3aa71 ,joppa1 ,gath1 ,lod 7,neh4 #g3cg7 or ,lydda 7,acts #i3cb71 ,ono 7#a ,chron4 #h3ab71 ,aphik 7#a ,sam4 #d3a71 ,migdol1 ,ephes-dammim 7#a ,sam4 #ag3a71 ,rakkath 7,josh4 #ai3ce71 ,gerar 7,gen4 #bj3a1 etc471 ,rabbith 7,josh4 #ai3bj71 ,namaah 7,josh4 #ae3da71 ,rehob 7,josh4 #ai3bh71 ,edrei 7,deut4 #a3d2 ,josh4 #ab3d71 ,daiban 7,neh4 #aa3be71 ,bethshean 7,josh4 #ag3aa71 ,beth-anoth 7,josh4 #ae3ei71 ,helkath 7,josh4 #ai3be71 ,geba 7,josh4 #ah3bd71 ,zererah 7,judges #g3bb71 and ,zephath 7,judges #a3ag74 ,in addition to these towns which are mentioned in the ,bible1 the list of ,thothmes ,,iii contains many other names which we cannot yet identify4 ,among these are the names of two cities1 ,josephel and ,jacobel1 which are discussed in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cjj4 ,these names1 as already noted1 are the same as the names of two ,babylonian ,amorites of the time of the first dynasty4 ,it seems probable that two important ,amorites had migrated to ,palestine and had either founded new cities1 or had been men of such consequence that their names were attached to cities previously in existence4 ,a parallel to this is found in the name of ,abu ,gosh4 ,he was a sheik of the nineteenth century1 but his name displaced the name of the village previously called ,karyet el-,ineb1 between ,jaffa and ,jerusalem1 and it is now called ,abu ,gosh4 ,conjectures differ as to the part of ,palestine in which the cities ,jacobel and ,josephel were situated4 ,we have in reality no certain clue as to this4 ,it is probable also that something similar had occurred in the case of ,abraham4 ,it has been pointed out previously that ,abraham is known to have been a ,babylonian name at the time of the first ,babylonian dynasty4 ,the ,biblical records tell of the coming of ,abraham from ,mesopotamia 7,gen4 #aa3ca-ab3e71 and the inscriptions of ,sheshonk1 the ,biblical ,shishak1 tell us some centuries later of the existence of a place1 apparently in southern ,judah1 called 8,the ,field of ,abram40 ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfj4 7#b7 ,palestine in the ,el-,amarna ,letters4--,during the #ajj years of ,egyptian supremacy in ,palestine which ,thothmes ,,iii inaugurated1 the fortifications of certain strategic cities were greatly strengthened4 ,at ,gezer1 for example1 an entirely new wall was built4 ,this was the 8outer0 wall of ,mr4 ,macalister's classification1 a substantial structure fourteen feet wide1 which completely encircled the city4 ,this massive wall remained the city's defence down to the ,babylonian ,exile4 ,from the ,el-,amarna letters we gain another glimpse of ,palestine about a hundred years after the death of ,thothmes ,,iii4 ,the ,biblical cities which are mentioned in these letters are ,accho 7,judges #a3ca71 ,ashkelon1 ,arvad 7,ezek4 #bg3h71 ,aroer 7,num4 #cb3cd71 ,ashtaroth 7,deut4 #a3d1 etc471 ,gebal 7,ezek4 #bg3i71 ,gezer 7,josh4 #aj3cc1 #a ,kings #i3ae1 etc471 ,gath1 ,gaza1 ,jerusalem1 ,joppa1 ,keilah 7#a ,sam4 #bc3a71 ,lachish 7,josh4 #aj3c1 etc471 ,megiddo1 ,sidon1 ,tyre1 ,shechem1 ,sharon1 ,taanach1 and ,zorah 7,judges #ac3b74 ,one city1 called in these letters ,beth-,ninib1 is1 in all probability1 ,bethshemesh 7,josh4 #ae3aj1 etc474 ,many other towns are mentioned in the letters1 but as they are not mentioned in the ,bible they are not enumerated here4 ,these letters were written just as the ,egyptian dominion in ,asia was breaking up1 owing to the fact that ,king ,amenophis ,,iv was much more deeply interested in religious reform than in politics4#ajg ,the disintegration of the empire produced great disorder4 ,the power which ,egypt had exerted in the past made the ,asiatics still fear to come out openly against her1 but the correspondence shows that several petty states were plotting against one another1 frequently encroaching upon one another1 and yet all the time professing to be loyal to ,egypt4 ,the largest number of these states were in the north in ,phnicia4 ,the principal states were the city kingdoms of ,gebal1 ,beirut1 ,tyre1 ,jerusalem1 and the ,amorites4#ajh ,jerusalem at this time ruled a considerable territory1#aji but its history will be discussed connectedly in a future chapter4#aaj ,the kings of the ,amorites during this period were ,ebed-,ashera and ,aziru4 ,while these small kingdoms of ,palestine and ,phnicia were contending with one another1 and the king of ,egypt was giving no attention to them1 the land was invaded from the north by the ,hittites under the great ,king ,subbiluliuma1#aaa who gradually conquered the ,amorites and the ,orontes ,valley4 ,it was at the same time invaded from the east by the ,habiri1 who were probably the ,hebrews4#aab ,with this movement of peoples there came into the west a third wave of ,semitic migration1 the ,araman4 ,we hear nothing of the ,aramaic-speaking peoples in earlier time1 but about #acjj ,b4 ,c4 they are mentioned by both ,shalmaneser ,i1 of ,assyria1 and ,ramses ,,ii1 of ,egypt1 as though they were in ,syria and ,palestine4 ,in later time they formed the basis of the population from the east of the ,euphrates to the ,mediterranean coast and southward to ,damascus4 ,in ,deut4 #bf3e ,israelites are told to say 8,a wandering ,araman was my father0 7,r4 ,v41 margin74 ,the reference seems to be to ,jacob1 though possibly ,abraham is intended4 ,in either case1 it shows that the ,hebrews recognized that there was an ,araman strain in their ancestry4 ,perhaps the ,habiri were ,aramans1 or were allied with ,aramans4 ,at all events1 in the struggles that ensued1 little by little all allegiance to ,egypt was thrown off by the ,palestinians4 ,letters to ,egypt ceased to be written1 our sources fail us1 and for more than forty years we can only conjecture what was happening in ,palestine4 7#c7 ,seti ,i4--,with the accession of ,seti ,i of the nineteenth ,egyptian dynasty1 who ruled from #acac to #abib ,b4 ,c41 some knowledge of events in ,palestine begins once more to come to us4 ,seti in his first year entered ,asia1 captured an unnamed walled town on the border of the desert1 pushed northward and took the towns in the ,plain of ,jezreel1 crossed the ,jordan and conquered cities in the ,hauran1 where he set up a pillar1 discovered there a few years since by ,principal ,george ,adam ,smith2 he then turned west and conquered a city on the slopes of the ,lebanon mountains4#aac ,this campaign regained for ,egypt all of ,palestine and southern ,phnicia4 ,in his third year ,seti was again in ,asia4 ,on this campaign he overthrew the kingdom of the ,amorites in northern ,galilee4 ,they occupied the city of ,kedesh in ,naphtali 7,josh4 #ai3cg74 ,this city ,seti besieged and took4 7#d7 ,ramses ,,ii4--,thus at the beginning of the reign of ,ramses ,,ii1 who ruled from #abib-abbe ,b4 ,c41 all ,palestine was subject to ,egypt4 ,the practical defeat of ,ramses by the ,hittites at ,kadesh on the ,orontes in his fifth year1 however1 caused all ,palestine to revolt1 and ,ramses was compelled to undertake the reconquest of the land4 ,this he accomplished between his fifth and eighth years1 beginning with the ,philistine cities and overrunning the whole country to the ,hauran1 where he set up a pillar1 as his father had previously done4#aad ,so far as we know1 ,palestine remained quietly under the rule of ,ramses during the remainder of his long reign4 ,ramses ,,ii1 like ,thothmes ,,iii1 left on record a long list of cities conquered by him in ,asia4 ,of these the following are ,palestinian towns mentioned in the ,bible3#aae ,hammath 7,josh4 #ai3ce71 ,beth-shean 7,josh4 #ag3aa71 ,beth-anath 7,josh4 #ai3ch71 and ,hadasha 7,josh4 #ae3cg74 ,pella1 a town in the ,jordan valley not mentioned in the ,bible1 also occurs in his list1 and there is also a possible mention of ,jacobel in a corrupted form4 7#e7 ,merneptah4--,after the accession of ,merneptah1 the successor of ,ramses ,,ii1 a rebellion broke out4 ,this was about #abbc ,b4 ,c4 ,merneptah put down the rebellion1 but in the struggle caused by it1 he was compelled to reduce ,gezer by siege4 ,it was on this campaign that he came into contact with ,israel and defeated her4#aaf ,some think the ,israelites whom he mentioned were those who more than a century and a quarter before had been battling against ,jerusalem2 others1 that they were those who had just escaped from ,egypt4 ,the reign of ,merneptah was followed by some years of unstable government in ,egypt1 but this does not appear to have been a sufficiently long period for great changes to occur in ,palestine4 ,order was restored in ,egypt by ,setnakht about #abjj ,b4 ,c41 and his son and successor1 ,ramses ,,iii1 #aaih-aafg ,b4 ,c41 reasserted his sovereignty over ,palestine and ,phnicia4 7#f7 ,ramses ,,iii4--,ramses ,,iii found himself confronted with a peculiar situation4 ,the ,egyptian ,delta and the coasts of ,palestine were invaded by hordes of people from over the sea4 ,as early as the reign of ,ramses ,,ii the ,egyptians had employed men from the island of ,sardinia as mercenaries2 there must then have been intercourse with distant islands across the sea4 #f4 ,the ,philistines4--,now1 however1 hordes of ,sicilians1 ,danaoi1 ,peleset 7,philistines71 ,thekel1 and many other tribes came from over the sea4 ,these tribes came in part from islands1 such as ,sicily and ,crete1 and in part from the coasts of ,asia ,minor4 ,ramses ,,iii was compelled to fight with them1 both in the ,delta and in ,phnicia4 ,on the walls of his temple at ,medinet ,habu he has left us pictures of the ,philistines4 ,a remarkable inscribed disc was found a few years since at ,phstos in ,crete4 ,it is printed with a sort of movable type1 and each character is a pictograph or hieroglyph4 ,prof4 ,macalister has shown that it is1 in all probability1 a contract tablet4#aag ,when the tablet was first published ,eduard ,meyer pointed out#aah that a frequently recurring sign1 which is apparently the determinative for 8man0 or 8person10 has the same sort of upstanding hair as the ,philistines pictured by ,ramses ,,iii on the walls of ,medinet ,habu4 ,this tablet1 accordingly1 was written by ,philistines or their near kindred4 ,in this view there is general agreement among scholars4 ,amos declared that the ,lord brought the ,philistines from ,caphtor 7,amos #i3g74 ,if this disc was written in ,crete1 it would follow that ,caphtor was ,crete4 ,it is thought possible by some that the disc was written in ,asia ,minor1 whence it was carried to ,crete2 in that case ,caphtor would be a name for ,asia ,minor4#aai ,at all events1 this inscription makes it clear that the ,philistines came from over the sea1 and that their point of departure was either ,crete or ,asia ,minor4 ,ramses ,,iii reveals to us through his inscriptions the ,philistines in the act of migrating into ,palestine4 ,with them were the ,thekel1 who afterward were absorbed by the ,philistines2 7see ,figs4 #cf and #ch74 ,in his struggle with these tribes ,ramses ,,iii was compelled to carry the war into ,asia1 where he overcame and defeated them4 ,in commemoration of this event he has left a list of places which he conquered in ,asia4 ,most of them1 so far as they can be identified1 were further north than ,palestine1 but the following are names of places mentioned in the ,bible3#abj ,seir 7,gen4 #ad3f1 etc471 ,caineh 7,amos #f3b71 or ,calno 7,isa4 #aj3i71 ,tyre1 ,carchemish1 ,beth-,dagon 7,josh4 #ae3da71 ,kir-,bezek1 probably the same as ,bezek 7,judges #a3e71 ,hadashah 7,josh4 #ae3cg71 ,ardon 7#a ,chron4 #b3ah71 ,beer 7cf4 ,num4 #ba3af71 ,senir 7,deut4 #c3i71 ,zobebah 7#a ,chron4 #d3h71 ,gether 7,gen4 #aj3bc71 and ,ar 7,num4 #ba3ae2 ,isa4 #ae3a1 etc474 ,after ,ramses ,,iii the ,egyptian empire became too weak to interfere in ,palestinian affairs4 ,in the chronology followed by many scholars today it was about this time that the ,hebrews completed their conquest of the country and the age of the ,judges began4 #g4 ,the ,hebrews4--,on their way into ,palestine the ,hebrews1 as already noted1 invaded and conquered a kingdom of the ,amorites which lay to the east of the ,jordan and had its capital at ,heshbon4 7,see ,num4 #ba3ba and ,deut4 #a3d1 etc474 ,this kingdom was a survival of the ancient ,amorite occupation of the land4 ,the ,amorites composing it had not been absorbed or displaced by more recent pre-,hebrew invaders4 ,it is stated in ,judges #a3bg-cf that there were a number of cities from which the ,israelites did not1 at the time of their conquest1 drive out the inhabitants4 ,the principal excavations in ,palestine have had to do with cities which were not conquered by ,hebrews at this time--,taanach1 ,megiddo1 and ,gezer4 ,we are told in ,josh4 #aj3cc that when ,horam1 ,king of ,gezer1 came to the aid of the king of ,lachish1 ,joshua 8smote him and his people till he left none remaining40 ,as nothing is said of the capture of ,gezer1 this must refer only to the force which went to the aid of ,lachish4 ,this view is confirmed by the fact that in the time of ,david1 ,gezer was in the hands of the ,philistines4 7,see #a ,chron4 #bj3d47 ,gezer did not come into the hands of the ,hebrews until the time of ,solomon1 when ,solomon's ,egyptian father-in-law conquered it and gave it to him4 ,mr4 ,macalister found evidence that at about this time there was a considerable increase of the population of ,gezer1 which seems to confirm the statement of ,judges #a3bi that ,canaanites and ,israelites dwelt together there4 ,this evidence consisted in the crowding together of houses1 so that1 as many new ones were built1 they became smaller4 ,new houses also encroached upon the land of the 8high place40#aba ,there was evidently an increase of the population such as an influx of ,hebrews would account for4 ,evidence of ,hebrew conquest seems also to have come to light in the capture and burning of ,jericho#abb and ,bethshemesh1#abc which the excavations have revealed4 #h4 ,philistine ,civilization4--,the next source of information which archology furnishes us concerning ,palestine is the report of ,wenamon1 translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ceb1 ff4 ,wenamon visited ,dor and ,gebal about #aajj ,b4 ,c4 ,he found a king of the ,thekel established in ,dor1 so that the ,philistines were probably by this time established in the whole maritime plain4 ,with the coming of the ,philistines into ,palestine1 new influences were introduced into the country4 ,these are most apparent in the pottery that has come down to us4 7,see ,chapter ,,viii47 ,the ,philistines1 whether they came from ,crete or from the coasts of the gean ,sea1 had been influenced by those higher forms of art which were in later times developed into the superb ,greek forms4 ,just at the time when history tells us the ,philistines came into ,palestine1 we begin to find in its mounds the remains of a more ornate pottery4 #i4 ,the ,hebrew ,kingdoms4--,as the ,philistines filled the maritime plain1 and began to push into the hill country1 the ,israelites formed a kingdom by which to oppose them4 ,the kingdom of ,saul accomplished little1 but that of ,david1 which began about #ajjj ,b4 ,c41 overcame the ,philistines and all other peoples adjacent to the ,hebrews and established an ,israelitish empire4#abd ,this was possible because just at that time both ,egypt and ,assyria were weak4 ,before the end of the reign of ,solomon this empire began to disintegrate 7#a ,kings #aa3ad-be71 and at his death1 about #icg ,b4 ,c41 it faded entirely away and the kingdom was divided into the kingdoms of ,israel and ,judah4 ,the history of these kingdoms is given in outline in the ,bible and is probably familiar to every reader of this book4 ,these kingdoms1 frequently at war with each other1 were first invaded by ,sheshonk 7,shishak7 of ,egypt 7#a ,kings #ad3be71 who made them his vassals 7see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cei1 f471 and in later centuries were made subject to ,assyria4 ,israel suffered this fate first in #hdb ,b4 ,c41 and ,judah in #gcb4 ,on account of her rebellions1 the kingdom of ,israel was overthrown by ,assyria in the year #gbb ,b4 ,c4 ,after ,assyria became weak1 ,judah was made subject to ,egypt in #fjh ,b4 ,c41 but passed under the sway of ,babylon in the year #fjd4 ,because she repeatedly rebelled against ,babylon1 the prominent ,judans were carried captive partly in #eig ,b4 ,c4 and partly in #ehf1 and in the year last mentioned ,jerusalem was overthrown and its temple destroyed4 ,excavations have brought to light much evidence as to the houses1 high places1 and the mode of life of this time1#abe as well as evidence of how ,shishak fought against ,rehoboam1 ,shalmaneser ,,iii against ,ahab and ,jehu1 ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv against ,menahem and ,pekah1 ,shalmaneser ,v and ,sargon against ,hoshea1 and ,sennacherib against ,judah4 ,it has also told us much about ,nebuchadrezzar4#abf #aj4 ,the ,exile and ,after4--,the ,babylonian ,exile was brought by ,cyrus to a possible end in #ech ,b4 ,c4 ,this is also illuminated by that which exploration has brought to light4#abg ,the temple was rebuilt through the efforts of ,haggai and ,zechariah during the years #ebj-eag ,b4 ,c4 ,in #ddd ,b4 ,c4 ,nehemiah rebuilt the walls of ,jerusalem1 as related in ,neh4 #a-g4 ,thus under the ,persian empire ,judah was re-established4 ,it consisted of a little country around ,jerusalem2 it was poor and weak1 but was aided by money sent from ,babylonia by ,jews who were still resident there4 7#a7 ,the ,samaritans4--,in the neighborhood of ,samaria was a people who were descended in part from ,hebrews whom ,sargon did not carry away and in part from the ,gentiles whom he brought in4 ,these people worshiped ,jehovah4 7,see #b ,kings #ag3bd-cd47 ,when the little ,jewish state had been re-established at ,jerusalem1 they wished to participate in ,jewish worship and to be recognized as good ,jews4 ,since they were not of pure ,hebrew descent1 the ,jews would not permit this1 so they at last desisted1 built a temple to ,jehovah on ,mount ,gerizim 7see ,john #d3bj71 and became a large and flourishing sect4#abh ,they based their worship on the ,pentateuch1 and were so much like the ,jews that there was constant friction between them4 ,this friction is reflected in ,luke #i3ea-ed1 ,john #d3i1 and in many passages of the ,talmud4 ,it was this sect that occupied ,samaria in the time of ,christ and made it in his day a distinct division of the country4 7#b7 ,alexander the ,great and ,his ,successors4--,in #ccb ,b4 ,c4 ,palestine passed from ,persian rule to that of ,alexander the ,great4 ,after his death in #cbc it came under the rule of his general1 ,ptolemy ,lagi1 who ultimately became king of ,egypt4 ,later1 #bbj-aih ,b4 ,c41 there was a struggle for the possession of ,palestine between the descendants of ,ptolemy and the house of ,seleucus1 another general of ,alexander1 who had established a kingdom with its capital at ,antioch4 ,during these wars the ,jews suffered greatly4 ,finally the ,seleucid king won1 and ,palestine passed definitely under the control of ,syria4 ,with the coming of ,alexander new cultural influences had entered ,palestine from the ,hellenic world1 and down to #afh ,b4 ,c4 such influences were eagerly welcomed by a portion of the ,jews4 7#c7 ,the ,maccabees4--,in that year1 however1 ,antiochus ,,iv undertook to forcibly ,hellenize the ,jews and to blot out their religion4 ,this the more faithful ,jews resented1 and a great revolt ensued4 ,this revolt had as its first successful general ,judas1 son of ,mattathias1 who1 because of his victories1 was surnamed makkab1 or the ,hammer2 it is1 therefore1 known as the ,maccaban revolt4 ,with varying fortunes the struggle dragged on for #be years4#abi ,it finally succeeded because of civil wars in ,syria4 ,on account of these each faction favored the ,jews1 and ,syria became continually weaker4 ,in #adc ,b4 ,c4 the ,jews once more achieved their independence under ,simon1 brother of ,judas1 whom they ordained should be ,prince and ,high ,priest forever4#acj 7#d7 ,the ,asmonans4--,the attaining of independence was accompanied by a great wave of racial and religious enthusiasm4 ,not since the days of ,ahaz1 in #gcc ,b4 ,c41 had ,judah been free of foreign domination4 ,at the beginning of the reign of ,simon1 it was still but a small territory around ,jerusalem4 ,hebron and all to the south of it was in the hands of the ,edomites1 who three centuries before had been driven out of ,edom by the ,nabathans ,simon began to enlarge their territory4 ,he won ,gezer and ,joppa4 ,john ,hyrcanus1 his son and successor1 #ace-aje ,b4 ,c41 conquered the ,edomites1 and compelled them to become ,jews2 he also conquered and destroyed ,samaria in #aji ,b4 ,c4 ,he began the conquest of ,galilee4 ,his son1 ,aristobulus ,i #aje-ajd ,b4 ,c41 assumed the title of king4 ,a regal dynasty was thus founded1 which is known as the ,asmonan or ,hasmonan dynasty1 i4 e41 the 8,simonites0 or descendants of ,simon4 ,alexander ,jannus1 #ajd-gi ,b4 ,c41 completed the conquest of ,galilee and the region to the east of the ,jordan1 and extended the bounds of the kingdom of the ,asmonans to practically the same limits as those of the kingdom of ,david4 ,the ,galileans were also ,judaized1 as the ,edomites had been4 ,this period of ,jewish prosperity continued to #fi ,b4 ,c4 ,through it all1 in spite of the religious zeal of the ,jews1 ,hellenic influences made themselves felt in many aspects of the country's life4 #aa4 ,the ,coming of ,rome4--,on the death of ,queen ,alexandra in #fi ,b4 ,c41 her sons1 ,john ,hyrcanus ,,ii and ,aristobulus ,,ii1 both aspired to the supreme power1 and till #fc ,b4 ,c4 civil war ensued4 ,in #fe ,b4 ,c4 the ,romans had terminated the independence of ,syria and made it a ,roman province4 ,in #fc ,b4 ,c4 both the ,jewish brothers appealed to ,pompey1 who had come to ,damascus4 ,aristobulus1 however1 acted treacherously1 and ,pompey marched upon ,jerusalem and took it by siege4 ,jewish independence was thus forever lost1 and ,palestine passed under the yoke of ,rome4 ,down to #cg ,b4 ,c4 the country experienced many vicissitudes1 as the struggles of the ,roman triumvirs were reflected in it4 ,these vicissitudes culminated in the year #dj ,b4 ,c41 when ,orodes ,i1 ,king of ,parthia1 captured ,jerusalem and placed ,antigonus1 a son of ,aristobulus ,,ii1 on the throne4 ,antigonus was king and a vassal of ,parthia for three years4 7#a7 ,the ,herods4--,in #cg ,b4 ,c4 ,herod the ,great1 whose father had served under the ,romans1 by the aid of a ,roman army furnished him by ,mark ,antony1 drove ,antigonous out and began his notable reign4 ,herod was a man of great energy1 an ,edomite by descent1 whose ancestors had become ,jews by compulsion4 ,while professedly a ,jew1 he was deeply enamored of the ,grco-,roman culture4 ,he wrung taxes from the people in order to beautify ,palestine with cities and temples built on ,hellenic models4 ,he rebuilt1 among other undertakings1 the ,jewish temple at ,jerusalem and the city of ,samaria4 ,this last he named ,sebaste1 the ,greek for ,augusta1 naming it in honor of the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,he built a heathen temple there1 surrounded the city with a colonnaded street1 many of the columns of which are still standing1 and otherwise adorned it4 ,he built for himself a palace at ,jericho1 and another on the top of a hill to the southeast of ,bethlehem1 today called ,gebel ,fureidis2 7see ,figs4 #ca and #ci74 ,upon his death1 in #d ,b4 ,c41 his kingdom was divided1 ,archelaus receiving ,judah and ,samaria2 ,antipas1 ,galilee and ,pera1 and ,philip1 ,iturea and ,trachonitis4 ,none of his sons was permitted by the ,romans to be called king1 but all bore the title of 8tetrarch40 ,the rule of ,archelaus proved so unbearable that in #f ,a4 ,d4 ,augustus banished him to ,gaul and placed ,juda and ,samaria under ,procurators1 who were responsible to the ,proconsuls of the province of ,syria4 ,pontius ,pilate was the fifth of these ,procurators4 ,after the death of ,herod ,antipas in #ci ,a4 ,d41 the ,emperor ,caligula made ,herod ,agrippa ,i1 a grandson of ,herod the ,great1 king of the dominions over which that monarch had ruled4 ,agrippa assumed control in #da and ruled till his death in #dd ,a4 ,d4 ,his death is described in ,acts #ab3bc4 ,after his death the whole country was governed by ,procurators4 7#b7 ,the ,destruction of ,jerusalem in #gj ,a4 ,d4--,roman rule was always distasteful to the ,jews1 and as the years passed they became more and more restive4 ,these smouldering fires broke into the flame of open rebellion in the year #ff ,a4 ,d41 and after four years of terrible warfare ,jerusalem was captured and destroyed in #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,the temple1 also razed to the ground1 has never been rebuilt4 ,the country about ,jerusalem was peopled by some of the poorer of the peasantry1 and the tenth ,roman legion remained in the city for a long time to keep order in that region4 #ab4 ,later ,history4--,in #acb ,a4 ,d41 in the reign of ,hadrian1 a man called ,bar ,chocaba1 or the 8,son of the ,star10 came forward1 claiming to be the ,messiah1 and headed a ,jewish revolt4 ,so fiercely did the ,jews fight that the insurrection was not quelled by ,rome until #ace ,a4 ,d4 ,when it was finally put down1 ,hadrian determined to blot the name of ,jerusalem from the map4 ,he rebuilt ,jerusalem1 making it a ,roman colony1 named it lia ,capitolina1 and built a temple to ,jupiter on the spot where the temple of ,jehovah had formerly stood4 ,no ,jew was permitted to come near the city4 ,jerusalem as built by ,hadrian continued until the time of ,constantine1 and the form thus imposed upon it lasted much longer4 ,when ,constantine made ,christianity the religion of the empire1 both he and his mother began to take an interest in the ,holy ,city and the ,holy ,land4 ,other ,christians followed them4 ,the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher was built1 and the temple of ,jupiter built by ,hadrian was turned into a ,christian church4 ,pilgrimages to the ,holy ,land began1 and monasteries1 churches1 and bishoprics in time sprang up over all the country4 ,thus for three hundred years the influences which were felt in ,palestine emanated from ,byzantium or ,constantinople4 ,in #fae ,a4 ,d4 the land was overrun by ,chosroes ,,ii of ,persia1 who captured ,jerusalem and destroyed many of its churches4 ,the ,persians held it until #fbh1 when the ,byzantine kings regained it4 ,the control of ,jerusalem by the ,christians was1 however1 of short duration1 for in #fcf ,palestine was captured by the ,mohammedans1 and with the exception of #hi years has ever since been under ,mohammedan control4#aca ,during these long centuries the country was ruled by the ,caliphs of ,medina1 ,damascus1 and ,bagdad2 by the ,buvide ,sultans1 the ,fatimite ,caliphs of ,egypt1 and the ,seljuk ,turks4 ,the cruelties inflicted by these last rulers upon ,christians led to the ,crusades1 the first of which established the ,latin kingdom of ,jerusalem1#acb which continued from #ajii to #aahh ,a4 ,d4 ,this kingdom1 organized on the feudal basis then existing in western ,europe1 extended over all of ,palestine and ,syria1 including ,antioch1 and for nearly half the time1 ,edessa beyond the ,euphrates4 ,its existence marks an epoch in the archology of the country4 ,since the fall of this ,latin kingdom1 ,palestine has remained under ,moslem control4 ,first the ,eyyubide ,sultans of ,egypt1 then the ,mamelukes of that same land held sway4 ,in #aeag the ,ottoman ,turks captured it1 and have since inflicted their misrule upon it4 ,what fortunes the great war now raging may bring to this land of sacred associations1 we await with intense interest4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,palestine ,,their ,,sites4 ,,the ,,walls4 ,,the ,,stone ,,work4 ,,houses4 ,,palaces3 ,at ,taanach4 ,at ,samaria4 ,at ,jericho4 ,at ,megiddo4 ,,foundation ,,sacrifices4 ,,city ,,gates4 ,,water ,,supply3 ,springs4 ,underground tunnels4 ,reservoirs4 #a4 ,their ,sites4--,the cities of ,palestine were usually built on hills4 ,these elevations1 surmounted as they were by walls1 created a natural means of defence from attack2 7see ,fig4 #cc74 ,even more important than an elevated situation was a water supply1 hence all ,palestinian cities of importance are near springs4 ,the necessity of being near a spring led1 in some cases1 to the erection of a city on a level plain4 ,this was the case with ,jericho2 the only mound at its site is that created by the city itself4 ,the hills on which the cities were erected varied in height4 ,that at ,megiddo rose to a height of but #de to #ij feet above the surrounding land1 but even this elevation was a great protection from the simple methods of attack known to ancient warfare4 ,the hill ,ophel1 the site of ,jebusite ,jerusalem1 rises today from #fj to #aej feet above the valley of the ,kidron1 and in ancient times that valley was from #bj to #ej feet deeper than it is now4 ,the same hill was separated from the land on the west by a valley the bed of which in ancient times was from #ej to #ajj feet below the top of the hill4 ,the hill on which ,samaria was situated rose some #cjj feet above the surrounding valley on all sides except the east1 and when fortified presented such an impregnable front that it took even an ,assyrian army three years to capture it4 7#b ,kings #ag3e47 ,in the ,seleucid and ,roman periods1 when some cities expanded in size1 the hilltops were sometimes abandoned and they spread out over the plain4 ,this was the case with ,gerasa and ,philadelphia 7,rabbah ,ammon74#acc ,but 8a city set on a hill0 7,matt4 #e3ad7 was a common feature of the ,palestinian landscape4 #b4 ,the ,walls4--,the walls by which the cities were surrounded varied according to the advancement of the different periods1 and according to the importance of the place4 ,as has already been pointed out in ,chapter ,v1 the first wall at ,gezer was but #f feet high and #b feet thick1 and had a sloping bank of earth packed against it on the outside4 ,this bank was #f feet #f inches thick at the base and was covered with a facing of stone4 ,in the ,amorite period a wall #ac feet thick was erected at ,gezer1 in which towers were constructed about every #ij feet4 ,these towers were #bd #da feet4 ,their height is1 of course1 unknown4 ,this wall was probably built about #bejj ,b4 ,c4 and formed the defense of the city for a thousand years4 ,by that time the tops of the houses probably protruded above the wall1 and the population had increased so that more space was needed4 ,this wall was1 accordingly1 replaced by another built outside of it4 ,much of the material of which the old wall was constructed went into the new wall1 which was approximately #ad feet thick and contained occasional towers4 ,at some time a part of this wall had been destroyed1 and then rebuilt4 ,probably at the time of this rebuilding1 additional towers had been inserted at different points4 ,the stones of these towers touched those of the wall without being articulated with them4 ,it has been conjectured#acd that these towers were a part of the repairs made by ,king ,solomon after the town had been captured by his ,egyptian father-in-law and presented to ,solomon4 7,see #a ,kings #i3af1 #ag47 ,still later an attempt was made to strengthen the weakness caused by the unclosed seam between the towers and the wall by constructing around the towers rude bastions4 7,see ,figs4 #dj1 #df47 ,mr4 ,macalister conjectures that this was done by the ,syrian ,general ,bacchides when he hastily fortified ,gezer and occupied it in #afj ,b4 ,c4#ace 7#a ,macc4 #i3eb47 ,at ,lachish1 ,petrie found massive city walls1 though he did not describe them in detail4#acf ,at ,taanach1 ,sellin found a strong city wall1 but did not attempt to trace it about the tell4#acg ,schumacher devoted considerable attention to the city walls of ,megiddo1 a part of which were built of bricks4#ach ,at ,tell es-,safi 7,gath87 the outlines of the city walls were traced1 as they were at ,tell el-,judeideh4#aci ,at ,samaria a part of the ,roman wall of the time of ,herod was found2 lower down in the mound remains of a ,babylonian wall 7see #b ,kings #ag3bd71 beneath which the excavators recognized the ,hebrew wall4#adj ,city walls were found1 too1 at ,bethshemesh1#ada but of especial interest to the student of the ,bible are the walls of ,jericho4 ,here1 as at ,megiddo1 the walls were constructed in part of brick4 ,they had an average thickness of #ac feet4 ,the ,canaanitish wall was traced around three sides of the mound4 ,it was strengthened by occasional towers4#adb ,on the east1 next to the spring1 they had entirely disappeared4 ,this must not be pressed into a confirmation of ,josh4 #f3bj1 that the walls fell down flat1 for the later ,israelitish wall has disappeared on that side of the mound also4 ,later1 when in the days of ,ahab the ,israelites rebuilt the city 7#a ,kings #af3cd71 they did not place the wall on the old line1 but enclosed a considerably larger space4 ,this wall was constructed partly of bricks1 but mostly of stone4#adc ,the walls of ,jerusalem will be treated in ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,at the northwest corner of the ,canaanitish wall was a tower enclosed by two brick walls2 the outer wall was a little more than #d feet thick2 the inner1 about #aj feet4 #c4 ,the ,stone ,work4--,the kind of stones used in city walls varied with the circumstances and the degree of civilization4 ,the walls of the stone age were naturally made of small undressed stones4 ,the ,amorites began the use of cut stone4 ,their blocks are often fairly smooth and regular4 ,the ,amorite wall of ,gezer was made of more regular stones than the wall of the ,egyptian period4#add ,in the ,israelitish and ,jewish periods a stone with an embossed edge was often used4 ,it is found in the wall of ,nehemiah1 excavated by ,bliss1--a wall made of stones that some pre-exilic king had used before1--and appears also in the structures of ,herod the ,great4 ,in the structures of ,constantine and later ,byzantine builders1 this type of stone is replaced by a stone with a perfectly smooth surface--much more smooth than anything found in the early walls4 ,this type of stone work continued through the crusading period2 7see ,figs4 #bec1 #bed47 ,while these types can be traced1 their use was not altogether regular4#ade ,the areas of ,palestinian cities in the early time were very small4 ,all of ,canaanite ,jericho could be put in the ,colosseum at ,rome6 ,megiddo1 one of the largest of these early cities1 was built on a mound that contained only about eleven acres1 and ,jebusite ,jerusalem was built on a ridge that in ancient times contained not less than nine or more than thirteen acres4 #d4 ,houses4--,within these small areas the houses were crowded together1 as in the modern native villages of ,palestine1 separated only by narrow1 crooked lanes4 ,one may see in ,hebron or in some parts of ,jerusalem similar conditions to this day4 ,there was no drainage2 refuse was thrown into the streets4 ,the cities were ill-smelling places4 ,the wonder is that the mortality was not greater4 ,the houses in the central1 elevated portion of ,palestine were usually of stone1 though at ,gezer1 ,jericho1 and places in the lower-lying portions of the country they were sometimes of brick4 ,the walls of the stone houses were constructed of rough stones of a great variety of sizes1 from small pebbles to large boulders4 ,mortar and cement were never used4 ,the stones were set in mud4 ,they were not dressed except with a hammer in the roughest way4 ,the joints between them were wide and irregular4 ,into the crevices serpents and scorpions might crawl4 ,it was of such a house that ,amos says1 8a man 444 leaned his hand on the wall and a serpent bit him02 7#e3ai74 ,the bricks were rarely burned2 they were simply sun-dried1 and had no more cohesion than the earth in which they were embedded4 ,the houses generally had no floor except the earth1 which was smoothed off and packed hard4 ,sometimes this was varied by mixing lime with the mud and letting it harden1 and sometimes floors of cobblestones or stone chippings mixed with lime were found4 ,in the ,roman period mosaic floors1 made by embedding small smoothly cut squares of stone in the earth1 were introduced4 ,by employing stones of different colors the mosaics were often worked into beautiful patterns2 7see ,figs4 #ce1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #dg1 and #dh74 ,sometimes pictures of birds and animals were formed in the floors4 ,the doorways were usually simply an opening made by the vertical sides left in the masonry4 ,in the later time they were sometimes lined with standing stones4 ,the doors themselves have long since disappeared1 but there is evidence that1 like many houses still to be seen in ,palestine1 they were made fast to a post1 the lower end of which was set in a hollow or perforated stone4 ,when the door swung the whole post turned in this stone4 ,some of these stones were found4 ,in a few houses at ,gezer enclosures of stones on end were sometimes found in the middle or the corners of dwelling houses4 ,perhaps these were hearths4#adf ,some houses built after the time of ,alexander the ,great had a kind of piazza running along the side4 ,the remains of the pillars which supported the roofs of these were discovered4 ,beginning with the ,hellenistic period1 some of the better houses had baths4 7,on doors1 see ,figs4 #di1 #ej47 #e4 ,palaces4--,in the excavation of different sites the outlines of several larger buildings or palaces were uncovered4 ,a few of these are of interest to the student of the ,bible4 7#a7 ,at ,taanach4--,in the northeast of the mound at ,taanach#adg the remains of a building about #ge #gg feet were found4 ,it was in existence in the fourteenth century before ,christ4 ,this building contained several rooms1 as the plan will make clear2 7see ,fig4 #de74 ,the remains of the wall still showed one layer of hewn stones1 some of which were very large4 ,in a vault underneath the building four cuneiform tablets were found4 ,they had been placed there for safety in time of siege1 and these four tablets had been overlooked when the rest of the archive was rifled4 ,these tablets proved to be letters written at the same time as those found at ,el-,amarna4#adh ,the building was the palace of a ,canaanite king4 7#b7 ,at ,samaria4--,of especial interest to the student of the ,bible are the palaces of the ,hebrew period4 ,at ,samaria ,reisner discovered massive walls1 which were probably the remains of the palaces of ,omri and ,ahab4 ,that of ,omri was built of large stones and rested on the native rock4 ,as ,omri was the founder of the city 7#a ,kings #af3bd71 there can be little doubt that this was his palace4 ,an enlargement of this consisted of walls the construction of which was finer4 ,they were faced with white marble4 ,in this palace an alabaster vase was found1 inscribed with the name of ,osorkon ,,ii1 ,king of ,egypt1 who was a contemporary of ,king ,ahab4 ,this is1 therefore1 believed to be the palace of ,ahab--perhaps the 8house of ivory0 which ,ahab built 7#a ,kings #bb3ci74 ,as the volume on the excavation at ,samaria is not yet published1 it is impossible to give detailed plans of these buildings4 ,the accompanying picture 7,fig4 #eb7 shows some of their walls4 7#c7 ,at ,jericho4--,another building of this period1 which the excavators believed might have been built by ,hiel1 the rebuilder of ,jericho1 in the days of ,ahab 7#a ,kings #af3cd71 was uncovered by ,sellin4 ,it is the most pretentious building of the ,hebrew time at ,jericho and may well have been the residence of the governor of the place4 ,it consisted of a number of large rooms1 and was throughout constructed of fairly large but irregular stones2 7see ,fig4 #ea74 7#d7 ,at ,megiddo4--,another residence of an ,israelitish governor was found at ,megiddo4 ,this was a large1 irregular building1 constructed around a courtyard4 ,some of the work was of dressed stones of considerable size1 in every way superior to the stone-work of the earlier buildings of that city4 ,in this palace a seal of a man named ,shema was found1 which bore the inscription1 8,belonging to ,shema1 the servant of ,jeroboam40 ,we do not know whether this man served under ,jeroboam ,i or ,jeroboam ,,ii4 ,the fine character of the stone-work leads one to think the reign of ,jeroboam ,,ii the more probable date2 7see ,figs4 #ec and #bg74 ,one more palace should be noticed1 that of ,simon the ,maccabee 7#adc-ace ,b4 ,c471 at ,gezer4 ,this palace is clearly of the ,hellenistic type1 and was identified as the dwelling-place that ,simon built for himself 7#a ,macc4 #ac3dh71 by the discovery of an ancient curse against ,simon's palace scrawled in ,greek on a block of stone4 ,this building was constructed of rather finely cut stone1 was of irregular shape 7see ,figs4 #ed1 #ee71 had an imposing gate which admitted into a courtyard1 and was supplied with a good system of drainage4 #f4 ,foundation ,sacrifices4--,when a house was built it was customary to consecrate it by a sacrifice4 ,in early times in ,palestine this was often a human sacrifice4 ,in ,gezer the skeleton of a woman was found built into the walls of a house4 ,numerous skeletons of children were also found under the corners of houses4 ,such sacrificial offerings were more often made under the corners of buildings1 since the corners were considered sacred4 ,in ,babylonia and ,egypt the sacrifice was accompanied with the burial under the corner-stone of inscriptions and other deposits1 though in ,egypt1 as in ,palestine1 the deposit was not always under the corners4#adi ,similar sacrifices were found at ,taanach#aej and ,megiddo4#aea ,these sacrifices illustrate1 some think1 #a ,kings #af3cd1 where ,hiel laid the foundation of ,jericho with the loss of his first-born1 and set up its gates with the loss of his youngest son2 7see ,fig4 #ef74 #g4 ,city ,gates4--,the city gate was in ,palestine an important part of the town4 ,gateways were constructed in different ways at different times4 ,at ,gezer the northern gate consisted of a protruding tower1 into which one entered at the side1 then turned a right angle to gain entrance to the city2 7see ,fig4 #eh74 ,gates of this type are still common in the ,east4 ,the passageway in this gate at ,gezer was #dj feet wide4#aeb ,the southern gate of ,gezer consisted simply of a straight passageway1 #db feet long and #i feet wide1 between two brick towers2 7see ,fig4 #fa74 ,often1 as in the case of the gate found at ,bethshemesh 7,fig4 #ei71 there were rooms on each side of the passageway through the tower4 ,one with still more space within its tower was uncovered at ,megiddo2 7,fig4 #eg74 ,the city gates usually remained at the same points in the wall through the successive reconstructions of the city4 ,thus at ,samaria the remains of round ,herodian towers which flanked the gateway were found resting on larger square bases of the ,seleucid period1 beneath which the outline of the earlier ,israelitish towers was still visible2 7see ,figs4 #fe1 #ff74 ,the form of these gates illuminates many ,biblical passages4 ,lot sat in the gate of ,sodom 7,gen4 #ai3a74 ,joab took ,abner aside in the gate to speak to him 7#b ,sam4 #c3bg74 ,the gate was the place of conference for the elders of a city 7,gen4 #cd3bj74 ,to be praised in the 8gates10 where the city's affairs were settled 7,prov4 #ca3ca71 was to have desired fame4 #h4 ,water ,supply4 7#a7 ,springs4--,the water supply of ,palestinian cities came in part from the never-failing springs near which they were built4 ,this supply was1 however1 seldom sufficient1 so that from the early days cisterns were built to catch the water of the rainy season and conserve it for use during the summer months4 ,these cisterns were often excavated in the solid rock1 but sometimes were simple pits in the earth1 over the bottom of which a coating of lime or cement had been spread4 7#b7 ,underground ,tunnels4--,in time of war1 when a city might be shut up for years1 cities were often compelled to yield for want of water4 ,this was especially the case if the spring lay outside the city walls4 ,in several ,palestinian cities means were taken to secure access to a spring without exposing oneself to the enemy outside the wall4 ,one of the greatest of these undertakings was discovered at ,gezer4 ,this was a tunnel cut in the solid rock1 which was entered by a long flight of rock-cut steps4 ,at the entrance the rock formed an imposing archway #bc feet high and #ac feet #aj inches broad4 ,these dimensions were maintained throughout about two-thirds of the length of the tunnel4 ,the whole passage was about #acj feet long4 ,the last third of it had to be cut through a much harder rock1 where the work was much more difficult1 and its workmanship was here not so good as above4 ,the tunnel also became appreciably smaller4 ,the passage terminated in a large cave1 in the bottom of which was a spring1 and was evidently constructed to enable the inhabitants to reach a water supply in time of siege4 ,the floor of the cave is #id feet #f inches below the level of the rock surface under the ancient city4 ,the whole tunnel is a remarkable piece of engineering for an early people2 7see ,figs4 #fj and #fb74 ,the earth with which the mouth of the tunnel was closed contained objects which belonged to the time #adej-abej ,b4 ,c4 ,the steps in the passageway had been before this deeply worn by many feet--so deeply worn that ,mr4 ,macalister estimated that they must have been in use for #ejj years4 ,for these reasons he supposes that this water-passage was excavated about #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 or soon after that date4 ,it had ceased to be used before the ,israelites conquered the place4 ,a similar underground tunnel leading to a spring has been found at ,el-,gib1 ,gibeon1 7,fig4 #fc71 and one made in ,jebusite times also existed at ,jerusalem4 ,it is mentioned in #b ,sam4 #e3h1 and will be described in connection with ,jerusalem 7p4 #ahh74 ,at ,rabbah ,ammon an underground passage connected the old city situated on the hill with a large cistern which was roofed over so as to be concealed4 ,to this cistern in time of siege the inhabitants could go through the passage and obtain water4 ,it was this cistern#aec which ,joab had captured 7#b ,sam4 #ab3bg7 when he sent to ,david to come and take the city4 ,antiochus ,,iii of ,syria in the same way compelled the city to surrender in the year #bah ,b4 ,c41#aed and ,herod the ,great did the same thing before #cj ,b4 ,c4#aee 7#c7 ,reservoirs4--,among the sources of water supply for the cities of ,palestine the so-called ,pools of ,solomon to the south of ,bethlehem are unique4 ,they consist of three reservoirs1 partly rock-cut and in part constructed of walls of masonry1 in the ,wady ,artas1 about a mile and a half to the southwest of ,bethlehem4 ,the highest of these pools is #abg yards long and #gf yards wide1 and #be feet deep at its lower end4 ,the central pool is #ada yards long1 from #ec to #hc yards wide1 and #ch feet deep4 ,the lowest and finest of the three is #aid yards long1 #di to #fi yards wide1 and #dh feet at its deepest part4 ,in these reservoirs water from neighboring springs was collected and stored4 ,two aqueducts at different times conveyed it to ,jerusalem as it was needed4 ,these aqueducts are now known respectively as the ,low ,level ,aqueduct and the ,high ,level ,aqueduct4 ,the ,high ,level ,aqueduct appears to be the older4 ,in recent years the ,low ,level ,aqueduct has been repaired1 so that these 8pools0 still contribute to the water supply of ,jerusalem4 ,there is no evidence that ,solomon built these4 ,his name has been attached to them solely on account of ,eccl4 #b3f3 8,i made me pools of water40 ,the whole structure of these and their aqueducts seems rather to be ,greek or ,roman work2 7see ,fig4 #fd74 ,evidence for the dates is not conclusive1#aef but there is some probability that the pools were constructed by ,john ,hyrcanus ,i1 #ace-aje ,b4 ,c41 who made the ,high ,level ,aqueduct1 and that the ,low ,level ,aqueduct was constructed by ,herod the ,great4 ,this is much longer than the ,high ,level ,aqueduct1 as it makes a detour toward ,gebel ,fureidis1 where ,herod constructed a palace1 to which he conveyed water4 ,this ,low ,level ,aqueduct is probably the one afterward repaired by ,pontius ,pilate4#aeg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,roads ,,and ,,agriculture ,,roads3 ,early paths4 ,roman roads4 ,,agriculture3 ,granaries4 ,hoes and plows4 ,sickles4 ,threshing4 ,winnowing4 ,grinding4 ,mortars4 ,fruits4 ,vineyards and wine-vats4 ,olive-presses4 ,the agricultural calendar4 ,domestic animals4 ,bees4 ,birds4 ,hens4 #a4 ,roads4--,from the time cities were established in ,palestine there was more or less communication between them4 ,probably in a small way commerce was carried on among some of them1 but no effort was made to construct roads1 in the modern sense of the term1 until the ,roman period4 7#a7 ,early ,paths4--,before that time all traveling was done on foot or on the backs of donkeys and camels1 and for such travel a simple foot-path1 made by continuous use1 was all that was considered necessary4 ,the roads constructed by the ,romans have long since fallen into a state of utter disrepair1 so that1 with the exception of two or three roads that have been built in recent years1 the simple1 rough foot-paths that have existed from time immemorial still suffice for ,palestinian travel4 ,these paths are often exceedingly rough4 ,they were never surveyed and never repaired4 ,they were simply devoted to public use by immemorial custom4 ,if a landowner wished to raise grain in a field through which one of these paths ran1 he plowed up to the very edge of the narrow path and put in his seed4 ,there were neither fences nor ditches to separate the road from the field4 ,fields traversed by such roads are still very common in ,palestine4 ,it was along such a road that ,jesus and the disciples were traveling when they plucked the ears of wheat on the ,sabbath 7,matt4 #ab3a2 ,mark #b3bc2 ,luke #f3a74 ,it was such a road to which ,jesus alluded in the ,parable of the ,sower3 8,some seed fell by the wayside0 7,matt4 #ac3d2 ,mark #d3d2 ,luke #h3e74 ,a rough path is shown in ,fig4 #fg4 7#b7 ,roman ,roads4--,after ,palestine passed under the sway of ,rome in #fc ,b4 ,c4 a system of roads was built to connect the most important places4 ,we have no definite information about these from a source earlier than the ,onomasticon of ,eusebius1#aeh which was compiled before #cdj ,a4 ,d41 but in all probability those on the west of the ,jordan were constructed before the time of ,christ4 ,there were three main roads in this part of ,palestine4#aei ,one ran down the sea-coast4 ,starting at ,sidon1 it passed southward through ,tyre1 ,sarepta 7,zarephath1 #a ,kings #ag3aj2 ,luke #d3bf71 ,ptolemais 7,accho71 ,dor1 ,csarea1 ,joppa1 ,lydda1 ,azotus 7,ashdod71 and ,askelon to ,gaza4 ,a branch road ran eastward from ,tyre over the hills of ,galilee through ,kedesh in ,naphtali 7,josh4 #ab3bb2 #bj3g2 ,judges #d3f71 to ,csarea ,philippi 7,matt4 #af3ac2 ,mark #h3bg71 which was near the ancient ,dan 7,judges #ah3bi74 ,from ,csarea1 on the sea-coast south of ,dor1 another branch road ran southeastward through the valley of ,aijalon up to the site of ,gibeah of ,saul 7#a ,sam4 #aj3bf2 #aa3d1 etc471 where it joined the road along the central ridge of the country2 7see ,fig4 #fh74 ,starting from ,damascus another road ran southward to ,hyppos1 one of the cities of the ,decapolis1 which lay southeast of the ,sea of ,galilee1#afj crossed the ,jordan on a bridge below the ,sea of ,galilee 7shown in ,fig4 #bhi71 passed through ,scythopolis1 the ,beth-shean of the ,old ,testament 7,josh4 #ag3aa2 #a ,sam4 #ca3aj71 through ,sychar 7,john #d3e71 then southward along the central ridge of the country1 through ,bethel and ,ramah to ,jerusalem4 ,south of ,jerusalem it was continued to ,bethlehem and ,hebron4 ,four miles north of ,jerusalem it was joined by the road from ,csarea1 so that travelers from the coast and from the north entered ,jerusalem over the same road4 ,one can in many places still trace the lines of ,roman paving-stones which mark their courses4 ,thus the juncture of the two roads just mentioned is still visible1 and one may stand on the hillside and feel sure that he is looking at the very way over which ,paul was taken to ,csarea by the ,roman soldiers the night after his arrest in ,jerusalem 7,acts #bc3bc1 #bd74 ,from ,scythopolis 7,beth-shean7 another road ran southward through the ,jordan valley to ,jericho4 ,this was probably continued to ,jerusalem4 ,from ,sebaste 7,samaria7 another road ran northwestward through ,dothan 7,gen4 #cg3ag2 #b ,kings #f3ac71 to ,taanach1 ,megiddo1 and the coast4 ,after ,trajan overthrew the kingdom of the ,nabathans1 in #ajf ,a4 ,d41 he built a road on the east of the ,jordan1 southward from ,damascus to the ,red ,sea4 ,the ,roman government kept these roads in good order4 ,they marked the distances by milestones1 some of which have survived to modern times2 7,figs4 #fi1 #ga74 #b4 ,agriculture was the chief occupation of the inhabitants of ,palestine4 ,the cities were throughout its history simply the walled residences of farmers4 ,such trade as developed at different periods was always subordinate to agricultural pursuits4 ,we cannot expect exploration to furnish us with a complete view of ancient ,palestinian agriculture1 but such glimpses as it does afford us are most illuminating4 7#a7 ,granaries4--,in the excavation of ,gezer#afa it was found that granaries formed an important class of buildings4 ,some of these were connected with private houses and evidently belonged to individuals1 but some of them were so large and so much grain was found in them that it was rightly held that they must have been public granaries4 ,some of these buildings had been destroyed by fire1 and the charred grain1 retaining its original shape1 was easily recognized4 ,most of the granaries were circular structures1 such as are seen today dotting the fields of the maritime plain of ,palestine4 ,they varied greatly in size4 ,one was but #b feet #h inches in diameter2 another was #d feet #i inches across and #f feet #i inches deep4 ,one granary from the second ,semitic stratum 7#agjj-acej ,b4 ,c47 was connected with a house1 and contained several kinds of grain1 each stored in a separate chamber2 7,figs4 #gj1 #gb74 ,from such receptacles wheat1 barley1 oats1 and beans were recovered1 as well as three varieties of vetch1 one of which was probably the 8lentils0 of ,gen4 #be3cd2 #b ,sam4 #ag3bh2 #bc3aa2 and ,ezek4 #d3i4 ,barley is often mentioned in the ,bible2 the wheat is usually there called 8corn40 ,piles of straw and chaff1 such as the modern ,palestinians call tibn1 were also found4 7#b74 ,hoes and ,plows4--,naturally1 the implements with which the grain was cultivated have nearly all perished4 ,in the first place the ground had to be broken and prepared to receive the seed4 ,remains of two different kinds of hoes were found at ,gezer1 though the preparation of a sufficiently large area of ground to bear grain to support cities cannot have been made with such instruments2 7see ,fig4 #gc74 ,from an early time the plow1 which is frequently mentioned in the ,bible 7see1 for example1 #a ,kings #ai3ai71 was in use in ,palestine4 ,a number of plowshares were found at ,megiddo in the ruins of a blacksmith's shop1 and a diamond-shaped iron ring1 from ,gezer1 may have been used to attach oxen to a plow1 and the points of several ox-goads were found4 ,the ox-goad consisted1 as it does today1 of a long stick into the end of which a sharp iron point was fixed4 ,it is alluded to in ,acts #bf3ad4 ,as this goad was used in driving the oxen in plowing1 it indicates that plows were used4 ,these plows were probably similar to those used at the time in ,egypt2 7see ,figs4 #gf1 #gg74 7#c7 ,sickles4--,when the grain was ripe it was reaped with a sickle 7,deut4 #af3i2 ,jer4 #ej3af2 ,joel #c3ac74 ,in the earlier periods these were of flint2 later they were made of bronze1 and iron4 ,sickles of metal are1 however1 rarely found4 ,they were expensive1 while flint was abundant and cheap4 ,flint sickle-teeth were numerous1 therefore1 in all periods4 ,the earliest sickles were flints set in an animal's jaw-bone1 or in a curved piece of wood similar to the ,egyptian sickle shown in ,figs4 #gd1 #ge4 7#d7 ,threshing4--,after the grain was cut it was taken to the threshing-floor to be threshed4 ,these floors were often a comparatively level portion of rock which formed a part of a high place or sanctuary4 ,such was the threshing-floor of ,araunah1 the ,jebusite1 in #b ,sam4 #bd3ah4 ,it took several days to complete a threshing1 and as no one would think of stealing from a sacred place1 the whole community was protected by doing the threshing in its precincts4 ,sometimes the cattle were driven about over the grain1 as in ancient ,egypt 7see ,fig4 #gi71 and as is done in modern ,palestine still2 7see ,fig4 #gh74 ,this is the kind of threshing contemplated in ,deut4 #be3d4 ,at other times a kind of sledge drawn by cattle was driven about over the grain4 ,ornan 7,araunah7 was threshing with such an instrument 7#a ,chron4 #ba3bc2 #b ,sam4 #bd3bb71 and allusion is made to one in ,isa4 #da3ae2 7see ,fig4 #hj74 7#e7 ,winnowing4--,the grain was winnowed or cleansed of chaff by being thrown up1 as in ,fig4 #gi4 ,as it fell the wind blew the chaff away4 ,it is this process that ,john the ,baptist used as an illustration of the purging work of ,christ 7,matt4 #c3ab2 ,luke #c3ag74 7#f7 ,grinding4--,when the grain was cut1 threshed1 and winnowed1 there were no mills to which it could be taken for grinding4 ,this process had to be done in each home1 and the labor of doing it fell to the women of the household4 7,see ,exod4 #aa3e2 ,matt4 #bd3da47 ,grain was reduced to flour either by rubbing or by pounding4 ,the process of rubbing or grinding was accomplished either by a flat saddle-shaped stone over which another was rubbed 7see ,figs4 #ha1 #hd71 or by crushing between two stones1 the top one of which was revolved somewhat as a modern millstone 7,fig4 #hb74 ,it required two women1 as ,jesus said1 to grind at such a mill--one to feed it1 while the other manipulated the rubbing stone4 ,such stones were made of hard igneous rock procured from the region east of the ,sea of ,galilee1 and are called 8querns40 ,in the different periods of the history of ,palestine they varied in size and shape1 becoming round in the ,seleucid period 7#cbc-fc ,b4 ,c474 ,the upper stone was apparently rotated by twisting the wrist4 ,it could be thus turned half-way round and then back again4 ,no round millstones1 with the topmost of the pair perforated1 as in the modern millstone1 were found before the ,arabic period1 #fcg ,a4 ,d4 ,pictures of modern ,syrian women turning this perforated type of millstone do not1 therefore1 really illustrate1 as is often assumed1 the women of the ,bible as they ground at the mill4 ,probably the millstone which crushed the head of ,abimelech at ,thebez 7,judges #i3ec7 was the upper stone of a 8saddle quern40 ,the importance of these millstones is recognized in ,deut4 #bd3f1 which prohibits the taking of a mill or the upper millstone of a poor man as security1 on the ground that that was the same as taking a man's life as security4 ,the lower millstone was always made of the harder stone4 ,because of this and of the grinding and pounding to which it was subjected it became a symbol of firmness 7,job #da3bd74 7#g7 ,mortars4--,apparently the grain was also frequently crushed by pounding it with a pestle in a mortar4 ,so many of these made of stone were found at ,gezer that it is thought that these may have been used more often than the millstones2 7see ,fig4 #hc74 7#h7 ,fruits4--,in the course of the excavation of ,gezer dried figs1 grapes1 pomegranates1 and olives were found4 ,all of these are mentioned in the ,bible1 as1 for example1 in ,cant4 #b3ac2 ,rev4 #f3ac2 ,gen4 #dj3aa2 ,num4 #ac3bc2 ,micah #f3ae4 ,in one trench what appeared to be a pile of charred pistachio nuts was found4 ,acorns1 terebinth1 and apricot seeds were also discovered4#afb ,of these fruits1 those which left the most archological evidence of their existence are just those that are most frequently mentioned in the ,bible1--the grape and the olive4 7#i7 ,vineyards and ,wine-vats4--,the grape is often alluded to in the ,bible1 and directions are given as to how one may conduct himself in a vineyard 7,deut4 #bc3bd7 and as to how thoroughly one might glean his vines 7,lev4 #be3e74 ,the most complete description of a vineyard is in ,isa4 #e3a-h4 ,the one feature of that description that would survive for an archologist to discover is the wine-vat4 ,these vats were often cut in the solid rock1 and many of them have been found1 both in excavating and in traveling over the country4 ,the vats for pressing grapes and other fruits may be distinguished from olive-presses because they lack all arrangements for mechanical pressing4 ,the grapes were trodden with the feet1 and as the juice was pressed out it ran down into a deeper portion of the vat4 ,some of these vats are surrounded by 8cup-marks0 or hollow places cut in the stone in order to hold pointed-bottomed jars upright4 ,sometimes the cup-marks are connected with the main vat by tiny channels1 through which any of the grape-juice that might drain from the outside of the jar1 after the jar had been dipped in the vat1 might run back2 7see ,fig4 #hg74 7#aj7 ,olive-presses4--,similarly1 olive-presses are very numerous in ,palestine4 ,presses were found in the stratum of the cave-dwellers of ,gezer4 ,the olive industry is1 accordingly1 very old4 ,olive-presses comprised1 in addition to the vat1 an upright stone with a large hole in it4 ,in this hole a beam was inserted4 ,this beam rested on the olives which were to be pressed1 extending far beyond the receptacle containing the olives1 and weights were hung on the end farthest from the stone2 7see ,fig4 #hh74 ,palestine in ancient times1 as now1 was covered with olive orchards1 many of which had oil-presses4 ,such an orchard was called a 8garden40 ,the ,garden of ,gethsemane1 the scene of one of the most sacred incidents of the life of ,christ 7,matt4 #bf3cf2 ,mark #ad3cb71 was an olive orchard and took its name from the oil-press4 ,gethsemane means 8oil-press40 ,wine-vats and oil-presses were of various types1 but into their forms there is not space to enter here#afc2 7see ,figs4 #he1 #hf74 ,the prominent place held by wine and oil among the agricultural products of the country is indicated by the receipts for the storage of various quantities of these articles which were found at ,samaria4 7#aa7 ,the ,agricultural ,calendar4--,in the books of the old ,testament the names applied to the months are1 for the most part1 names derived from ,babylonia1 but it appears that at ,gezer they had a series of names for the months based on their agricultural year4 ,in the stratum which contained remains from the time of the ,hebrew monarchy1 #ajjj-eej ,b4 ,c41 an inscription was found which1 though the end was broken away1 contained the following names for the months3 #a4 ,month of ingathering4 7,see ,exod4 #bc3af2 #cd3bb47 #b4 ,month of sowing4 #c4 ,month of the late sowing84 #d4 ,month of the flax-harvest4 #e4 ,month of the barley-harvest4 7,see ,ruth #b3bc2 #b ,sam4 #ba3i47 #f4 ,month of the harvest of all other grains84 #g4 ,month of pruning vines4 #h4 ,month of summer-fruit figs4 ,this calendar1 beginning in ,october1 still conforms to the agricultural pursuits of the year4 ,it also gives us archological evidence of the culture of flax by the ancient ,israelites4 7,see ,josh4 #b3f2 ,prov4 #ca3ac2 ,hosea #b3e1 #i47 7#ab7 ,domestic ,animals4--,the domestic animals of ancient ,palestine may be traced in part by their bones found in various excavations1 and in part by the pictures of them drawn in caves and tombs4 ,the domestic animals most often mentioned in the ,bible are asses1 cattle1 sheep1 goats1 and camels4 ,bones1 pictures1 or models of these were found in all the strata of ,gezer4#afd ,there seem to have been a variety of cows2 the breeds varied in the different periods4 ,no horse bones were found until the third ,semitic period 7#acej-ajjj ,b4 ,c474 ,it was1 perhaps1 during that period that the horse was introduced by the ,hittites1 who appear to have brought it from ,turkestan1 where its bones have been found in much earlier strata4#afe ,the ass was1 however1 the common beast of burden in ,palestine1 and bones of horses are rare until the ,greek period4 ,a number of figures of horses' heads with their bridles were found1 as well as a horse's bit1 and the picture of a horse and his rider4 ,the pig was a domesticated animal of the primitive cave-dwellers of ,gezer1 who appear to have offered swine in sacrifice1 but pig-bones are rarely found in the ,semitic strata4 ,as swine were unclean to all ,semites1 this is not strange4 ,the dog appears to have been half-domesticated1 as the ,bible implies1 as his bones were employed for making prickers and similar tools1 but no pictures or models of dogs are known to the writer4 ,probably they were of the half-wild pariah type4 ,certainly they were not held in high esteem4 7,see #a ,sam4 #ag3dc2 #b ,sam4 #af3i47 ,for illustrations1 see ,figs4 #hi-ib4 7#ac7 ,bees4--,a number of inverted jars1 each pierced with a number of circular holes1 were found4 ,it seems probable that these were rude beehives4 ,before the ,israelites settled in ,palestine they knew it as 8a land flowing with milk and honey0 7,exod4 #c3h1 #ag2 ,num4 #ad3h2 #af3ac1 #ad2 ,deut4 #f3c71 and their view was1 we are told1 shared by others 7#b ,kings #ah3cb74 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find evidences of bee culture2 7see ,fig4 #ie74 7#ad7 ,birds4--,as to birds1 it is doubtful whether they had any domesticated ones before the ,babylonian ,exile4 ,a rude picture of an ostrich painted on a potsherd was found at ,gezer1 as well as some painted fragments of ostrich-egg shell4 ,the ostrich is mentioned in the ,old ,testament 7,job #ci3ac2 ,lam4 #d3c71 but as a wild bird4 ,the ,palestinians knew it as a bird that might be hunted4 ,they sometimes gathered the eggs of wild birds to eat 7,deut4 #bb3f2 ,isa4 #aj3ad74 ,these were1 perhaps1 sometimes ostrich-eggs4 ,the modern ,arabs make a kind of omelette of ostrich-eggs4 ,the ostrich was certainly not a domestic bird4 ,at ,gezer1 too1 a clay bird was found1 or1 rather1 a small jar made in the form of a bird4 ,the object was so realistic that holes were left in the clay wings for the insertion of feathers2 7,fig4 #ic74 ,the bird bears some resemblance to a duck1 figures of which were found at ,megiddo1#aff but the duck may have been wild4 ,one clay head of a goose or swan was also found1 but had the bird been domesticated there would probably have been more traces of it4 7#ae7 ,hens4--,the one domestic bird that can be traced in ,palestine is the hen1 and hens were not introduced until after the ,exile4 ,hens seem to have been first domesticated in ,india4 ,they are not mentioned in the ,rig ,veda1 but the ,aryans seem to have come into contact with them when they settled in the valley of the ,ganges about #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the ,yajur and ,atharva ,vedas mention the cock4 ,the hen is a domesticated ,bankiva fowl1 which also exists in a wild state in ,india4 ,from ,india the hen was domesticated eastward to ,china1 and westward to ,persia4 ,there is a possible picture of a cock on a sculpture of ,sennacherib1 which would indicate that the bird was known in ,assyria at the beginning of the seventh century before ,christ4 ,another is pictured on some ,babylonian gems from the time of ,nabuna'id1 about #eej ,b4 ,c4 ,pictures of cocks1 three of them somewhat doubtful1 are found on ,babylonian seals of the ,persian period4#afg ,the domesticated hen1 traveling by way of the ,black ,sea1 reached ,asia ,minor as early as the eighth century ,b4 ,c4#afh ,there is1 however1 no evidence of the presence of the hen in ,palestine before the ,greek period4 ,neither hen nor cock is mentioned in the ,old ,testament4 ,in a tomb discovered by ,peters and ,thiersch in #aijb1 near ,tell ,sandahanna1 the ,marissa of the ,seleucid period and the ,moresheth-gath of ,micah #a3ad1 a number of cocks are pictured2 7,fig4 #id74 ,the tomb1 constructed about #bjj ,b4 ,c41 contains a number of ,greek inscriptions4#afi ,in agreement with this evidence is also the fact that at ,taanach there was found in a late pre-,arabic stratum the skeleton of a hen with an egg4#agj ,before ,new ,testament times1 then1 the hen had become a domestic fowl in ,palestine4 ,every one would accordingly understand the lament of ,christ1 8,how often would ,i have gathered thy children together1 even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings1 and ye would not60 7,matt4 #bc3cg74 ,the cock was so universally kept at this time that one of the divisions of the night was called the 8cock-crowing0 7,mark #ac3ce74 ,it was the mark of the progress of the night afforded by the habits of the cock that was used by ,jesus in predicting ,peter's denial 7,matt4 #bf3cd2 ,mark #ad3cj2 ,luke #bb3cd2 ,john #ac3ch71 and it was the recalling of this prediction by the crowing of the cock that brought ,peter to repentant tears 7,matt4 #bf3gd2 ,mark #ad3fh1 #gb2 ,luke #bb3fj2 ,john #ah3bg74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,pottery ,,importance ,,of ,,pottery4 ,,pre-,,semitic ,,pottery4 ,,first ,,semitic ,,pottery ,,to #ahjj ,b4 ,c4 ,,pottery ,,of ,,second ,,semitic ,,period4 ,,third ,,semitic ,,period4 ,,israelitish ,,or ,,fourth ,,semitic ,,period4 ,,hellenistic ,,period4 #a4 ,importance of ,pottery4--,in all parts of the world the making of clay jars and receptacles is one of the earliest arts to be discovered1 and ,palestine was no exception to the rule4 ,in ,palestine such jars were particularly useful1 as the water for each family had to be carried from the nearest spring to the house4 ,it was natural that1 in a country which had so long a history as ,palestine1 and over which the influences of so many diverse civilizations swept1 there should be a considerable variety in the types of pottery in different periods4 ,indeed1 it is now recognized that the differences in these types are so marked that in the absence of other criteria it is possible approximately to date a stratum of the remains of any ancient city by the type of pottery found in it4 ,since this is so1 a brief outline of the different types is not out of place here1 although these differences have little or no bearing upon the interpretation of the ,bible4 ,only a brief statement is here attempted4 ,those who wish to study the subject more fully are referred to more extended works4#aga ,the classifications of pottery made by the leading experts differ1 as they have been written at different times and as the excavations have continually enlarged the material4 ,the classification presented in the following pages is mainly that of ,macalister1 based on the work at ,gezer and on previous excavations4 #b4 ,pre-,semitic ,pottery4--,there is first1 then1 the pottery of the pre-,semitic cave-dwellers4 ,this pottery is made out of clay that was in no way cleansed or refined4 ,it was made by hand1 the larger jars having been built up little by little4 ,the vessel1 after receiving such ornament as the potter desired1 was usually fired1 though sometimes simply sun-dried4 ,in firing the heat was often distributed very irregularly1 so that the surface was not all of the same color4 ,the jars were of moderate size1 flat on the bottom1 globular1 conical1 or cylindrical in shape4 ,they had concave necks and handles4 ,the handles were of two kinds--8ledge0 handles and 8loop0 handles4 ,a 8ledge0 handle consists of a piece of clay pinched into a flat projecting ledge and then baked hard4 ,a 8loop0 handle is one fastened to the jar at both ends1 similar to the handle of a pitcher4 ,bowls or saucers were also sometimes made with 8ledge0 handles2 7see ,fig4 #ig74 ,the most common ornamentation of the pottery of this period was made by combing the clay with wooden combs notched with teeth of greater or less fineness4 ,sometimes the marks left by the comb were perpendicular1 sometimes horizontal1 and sometimes diagonal4 ,one other type of ornament was exhibited in the pottery of the cave-dwellers4 ,that was either an incised representation of a rope or cord1 or a moulded imitation of one of these4 ,this ornamentation was probably suggested by the ropes or cords which were bound about the vessel before it was fired1 to prevent its falling apart4 ,at first the only coloring was a line of brick-red around the rims of jugs and saucers4 ,the most advanced stage is reached in ,fig4 #if1 where a network of red lines cross each other diagonally4 ,the tint of the red varies a good deal1 but this may be due to the unequal firing already mentioned4 ,a few specimens of burnished pottery were found in the caves4 ,this burnishing consisted in rubbing the surface of the vessel with strokes of a smooth bone or stone4 ,in some cases the vessel was dipped in a whitish wash after it was fired4 ,this adhered to it everywhere except on the bottom4 #c4 ,first ,semitic ,pottery to #ahjj ,b4 ,c4--,the pottery of the first ,semitic period1 which terminated about #ahjj ,b4 ,c41 is of a finer type4 ,the larger pieces were made on a wheel1 as were many of the smaller ones4 ,the wheel was rotated with the left hand1 while the potter moulded the vessel with the right4 ,the result was a much more shapely type of work than in the previous period4 ,in the pre-,semitic period limestone clays were employed2 in this period1 sandstone clays4 ,many of the objects1 like those of the preceding period1 were of a drab color1 though the tints of some of them ranged from a rich brownish red to orange4 ,the patches of color in these vessels were probably due to unequal heat in firing4 ,in size and shape the vessels presented a great variety4 ,there were large jars with flat bottoms1 inverted conical bodies1 and more or less abruptly rounded shoulders2 7see ,fig4 #ajj74 ,the mouth was wide and circular and surrounded by a flat1 widely expanding rim4 ,these jars averaged about two feet in height4 ,there were many pitchers made in this period4 ,they were large and small and of a great variety of shapes4 ,such pitchers present similar characteristics1 whether found at ,gezer or ,megiddo2 7see ,figs4 #ih1 #ii74 ,ledge and loop handles were common on the pitchers of this period1 but 8pillar0 and 8button0#agb handles were also sometimes found2 7see ,figs4 #aje1 #ajf74 ,the ornamentation of pottery showed some advance over the preceding period4 ,in addition to the rope motifs1 decoration formed by combinations of lines was also found4 ,one particularly fine type of pottery belonging to this period was found at ,gezer4 ,it was never found in the caves or in the higher strata4 ,vessels of this ware were usually found in groups1 indicating that they were the possessions of the rich4 ,the clay was well cleaned1 the shapes distinctive 7see ,fig4 #ajd71 and the ware was always covered with a cream-like coating4 ,saucers and bowls were common in this period4 ,the comb was still used in ornamenting pottery1 though sometimes it produced only a series of dots4 ,all surfaces were usually burnished1 though naturally this was much more thoroughly done in the expensive than in the cheaper wares4 #d4 ,pottery of ,second ,semitic ,period4--,during the second ,semitic period1 #ahjj-adjj ,b4 ,c41 trade was carried on with countries beyond the sea1 especially with ,cyprus4 ,there was probably also some trade with ,egypt and ,crete1 but the influence of ,cyprus was most potent in the pottery4 ,in this period1 probably owing to foreign influence1 the potters' wheel worked by foot was introduced4 ,this left both hands of the workman free and resulted in a great improvement of the ware4 ,there was in this period a great variety in the material used4 ,the cheaper vessels were made of a rough clay1 full of grits of black colored sand or flints1 which burned black in the middle of the clay and a reddish or yellowish drab on the surface4 ,at least seven other finer types of ware were found at ,gezer4#agc ,one of these was a ware made of a brilliant saffron-yellow clay1 which was enriched with painted decoration in bold black lines4 ,this was probably of foreign origin4 ,in this period the jar with pointed bottom1 long conical body1 well rounded shoulders1 short concave neck1 continuous circular mouth1 with an expanded rim1 though much narrower than in the preceding period1 is the most common type4 ,jugs with pointed bottoms also became common1 though there was a great variety in the shapes of jugs4 ,ledge handles had almost entirely disappeared in this period4 ,jars generally had two loop handles1 and sometimes four1 though occasionally they had none at all4 8,button0 handles are comparatively uncommon2 the loop handle is the style most generally used4 8,ear0 handles1 both vertical and transverse1 are also common2 7see ,figs4 #aja-ajc1 and #aje74 ,the most striking feature of the pottery of this period is the increase in the variety of ornamentation and the introduction of the pictures of animals and birds as ornamental motifs4 ,this was due1 no doubt1 to foreign influence4 ,the best specimens of this type of ornamentation so far published are from ,gezer1 though it is found elsewhere4 ,all kinds of vessels were made of clay during this period3 jars1 jugs1 pitchers1 bowls1 saucers1 drinking-cups1 etc41 etc4 ,many of the potters signed their work with a peculiar mark4 ,this mark was sometimes an impression of the potter's finger1 sometimes linear devices of various kinds scratched on the handle1 and sometimes the impression of an inscribed ,egyptian scarab1 usually of the period of the ,middle ,kingdom or the ,hyksos time4 ,jar handles marked with scarabs were also found at ,jericho2 7,figs4 #aah1 #aai74 #e4 ,third ,semitic ,period4--,the third ,semitic period1 #adjj to #ajjj ,b4 ,c41 while its wares sometimes differed in form from those of the preceding period1 is mainly marked off from the second period by a general degeneration in style4 ,no great differences are noticeable in the kinds of clay employed4 ,the jars have1 as a rule1 a less pointed bottom than in the preceding period2 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,the combed decoration is rare1 and the burnishing of the jars is both less frequent and less skilful than in the preceding period4 ,there is an increase in the tendency to use painted ornamentation1 which frequently consists of zigzag lines4 ,rough1 conventionalized representations of palm trees are also common4 ,in the last part of the period ,cretan influences are traceable4 ,this was probably due to the coming of the ,philistines4#agd ,potters' marks continue1 but scarabs are less often used in making them than in the preceding period4 ,the various kinds of vessels made seem to have been as great as in the preceding period4 ,a clay funnel or bottle-filler was also found in this period2 7see ,fig4 #aad74 #f4 ,israelitish or ,fourth ,semitic ,period4--,in the fourth ,semitic1 or the ,israelitish period1 #ajjj-fjj ,b4 ,c41 the method of manufacture remained the same as before1 and but little difference can be discerned in the clays employed4 ,there seems1 however1 to have been a steady decline in excellence4 ,the large jar with pointed bottom is still found1 but there is a tendency to broaden the bottom1 while retaining the convex form4 ,thus toward the close of the period a type of jar1 conical in form1 but with the apex of the cone at the top instead of at the bottom1 is found4 ,the types of pottery of this time may be seen by examining the forms found in the ,hebrew stratum at ,jericho 7,figs4 #ajg1 #aab1 #aac71 and from a temple at ,megiddo of the same period4 7,fig4 #aaa47 ,the forms and kinds of vessels found in this period are numerous4 ,painted ornamentation consists1 as a rule1 merely of rings around the vessel1 though sometimes zigzags made very carelessly are also found4 ,bird ornamentation1 so frequent in the third period1 entirely disappears in this4 ,the potters still employed marks4 ,these are of the same general character as in the earlier period1 though the scarab stamp entirely disappeared from ,gezer and the use of other seals became common4 ,these were most often a simple device of stars1 or names written in the old ,hebrew script4 ,at ,jericho the scarab stamp was still employed2 7see ,figs4 #aae1 #aag74 ,some jar handles inscribed with ,hebrew letters were found at ,gezer in a stratum that was pre-exilic4 ,a series of them was also found at the tells excavated by ,bliss and ,macalister in the ,shephelah in the years #ahih-aijj--;,es-,safi1 ,judeideh1 and ,zakariyeh4 ,these handles1 in addition to the impression of a seal1 contained the words1 8to the king10 in ,hebrew letters1 and the names of the cities1 ,hebron1 ,socho1 ,ziph1 and ,mamsheth4 ,the first three of these are well-known ,judan towns2 the last is unidentified4 ,sir ,charles ,warren found some similar stamps near the temple area at ,jerusalem4 ,there has been much discussion as to the date of the handles bearing these stamps4 ,since nothing of the kind was found at ,megiddo and ,taanach1 it has been inferred that this kind of jar handle came into existence after the overthrow of the kingdom of ,israel in the year #gbb ,b4 ,c4 ,it may be that the 8king0 referred to is the king of ,judah1 and that these stamps come from the last days of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,scholarly opinion is1 however1 divided1 some authorities contending that they come from the time after the ,exile4 ,the date is not entirely certain2 7see ,fig4 #aaf74age #g4 ,hellenistic ,period4--,in the time after the ,exile there is not much change in the character of the pottery until after the conquest of ,alexander the ,great4 ,the influx of influences from the ,grco-,macedonian world affected the whole life of the land1 and was reflected also in its pottery4 ,as in the second and third ,semitic periods1 there were importations of pottery from abroad1 though at this time the importations were from regions affected by ,greek art4 ,the ,palestinian potters of this period had1 therefore1 the best models4 ,the use of the potters' wheel was all but universal1 and the wares were burned hard4 ,a pile of these potsherds1 when struck with a stick1 emits a distinct musical 8clink10 which is not the case with potsherds from the earlier periods4 ,the clay employed was the finest and most homogeneous of any used in ,palestinian pottery1 and there is a general tendency1 especially in the cities near the coast1 to follow classical models2 7see ,figs4 #abb1 #abe74 ,jars have rounded or bluntly pointed bases1 vertical sides1 flattened or oblique shoulders1 and round mouths4 ,there are two loop handles just under the shoulders4 ,another form1 probably suggested by ,rhodian amphor1 has a long1 tapering base2 7see ,fig4 #abj74 ,it is impossible in the space that can be devoted to this topic to enumerate all the kinds of vessels that were made in this period or the variety of their forms4 ,only a few characteristic features can be noted4 ,the cooking pots of this time have a very distinctive form4 ,they have a globular base1 globular body1 short1 wide neck1 and a rounded continuous mouth2 7see ,fig4 #abbe;a74 ,the body of the vessel is often ribbed with horizontal flutings4 ,small jugs and vases were very common2 some of them had very characteristic forms4 ,jugs of this period found at ,jericho had a funnel at the side through which liquid could be poured into them4 ,as in the preceding period1 jar handles were frequently stamped with the mark of the potter4 ,these were now often ,greek letters1 though those so stamped were apparently imported from foreign countries4 ,at ,jericho ten jar handles were found stamped with the name 8,jah0 and three stamped with the name 8,jahu40#agf ,both ,jah 7see ,psa4 #fh3d7 and ,jahu are abbreviations of the name ,jehovah1 and probably are so to be understood here4 ,they often formed part of a personal name--thus ,elijah1 8,my ,god is ,jah40 ,from the second ,semitic period onward1 filters were made by piercing the bottom of a jug with holes4 ,these became more common in the third ,semitic period1 but this sort of device reached its full development in the ,hellenistic period1 which we are now considering4 ,various forms of strainers were found1 as shown in ,fig4 #abc1 and one very elaborate filter2 7see ,fig4 #aba74 ,with the coming of the ,romans in #fc ,b4 ,c41 new influences were introduced into the civilization of ,palestine4 ,in time these influences modified the pottery1 but it is doubtful whether they had an appreciable effect until after the ,new ,testament times4 ,pots from the ,roman period found at ,gezer 7see ,fig4 #abd7 differ from those of the ,hellenistic period chiefly in having bottoms that are more nearly flat4 ,by the time of the ,emperor ,constantine a change can be noted1 so that pottery of the ,byzantine period 7#cbe-fcg ,a4 ,d47 has characteristics of its own4 ,that period1 however1 lies beyond the range of ,biblical history4 ,in the study of pottery one of the most interesting topics is the evolution of the lamp4 ,the earliest lamps were simply wicks stuck into a saucer of oil and ignited4 ,of course1 the wick would easily fall down into the oil and the light would be extinguished4 ,the earliest device to prevent this was to make the saucer of irregular shape1 with a slight notch in one side in which the wick could lie4 7,see the right-hand lamp in ,fig4 #abg47 ,as time went on this resting-place for the wick developed more and more into a spout4 7,see ,fig4 #abf and the left-hand lamp in ,fig4 #abg47 ,this form of lamp was known as early as the first ,semitic period1 and persisted with slight development down through the ,israelitish time2 7see ,fig4 #abh74 ,its development was not1 however1 uniform in all parts of the country4 ,israelitish lamps found at ,jericho appear to be simply saucers with two or more indentations in the rim2 7see ,fig4 #acb74 ,perhaps in these more than one wick was used4 ,in the ,hellenistic period two improvements in the making of lamps occurred4 ,the first consisted in a still further development of the spout until its sides almost met and formed nearly a closed vessel4 ,the second improvement was1 perhaps1 due to outside influences4 ,it consisted in making the saucer small and covered4 ,in the middle of the cover was a small round hole into which the oil was poured2 at one side a spout protruded and the wick came out through this2 7see ,fig4 #aca74 ,the top of such lamps was ornamented with various designs4 ,in the ,byzantine and ,arabic periods the same general style of lamp was used1 but the shape and ornamentation of each period were different1 so that they can easily be distinguished2 7see ,fig4 #abi74 ,after the country became ,christian the ornamentation on the lamps was often made with ,greek letters4 ,these were made in ornamental forms and usually expressed some ,christian sentiment4 ,one of the most popular legends for these ,christian lamps was3 8,the light of ,christ shines for all02 7see ,fig4 #acj74 ,it was lamps such as these1 probably of the ,hellenistic type1 to which ,christ alluded in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins 7,matt4 #be3a-ab74 ,such a lamp would not contain oil enough to burn all night1 so that to carry it to a prolonged wedding-feast without a supply of oil was a powerful example of improvidence4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,utensils ,,and ,,personal ,,ornaments ,,utensils3 ,ovens4 ,baking-trays4 ,bowls1 etc4 ,feeding-bottles4 ,glassware4 ,spoons4 ,forks or ,flesh-hooks4 ,needles4 ,spinning 8,whorls40 ,lamp-stands4 ,keys4 ,knives4 ,saws4 ,chisels4 ,awls4 ,axes4 ,adzes4 ,whetstones4 ,files4 ,hammers4 ,nails4 ,baskets4 ,arrows4 ,spears4 ,swords4 ,fish-hooks4 ,styli4 ,seals4 ,the 8,pipe40 ,harps4 ,the ,dulcimer4 ,lyres4 ,children's toys4 ,,personal ,,ornaments3 ,combs4 ,perfume-boxes4 ,spatul for eye-paint1 etc4 ,fibul4 ,beads4 ,necklaces4 ,bracelets4 ,anklets4 ,rings4 #a4 ,utensils4--,the term 8utensil0 is of wide application4 ,the utensils of agriculture and the hand-mills for grinding grain have been described in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,among the devices used in connection with ,palestinian houses one of the most important was the oven4 7#a7 ,ovens4--,the ovens of ancient ,palestine were of the same kind as those used by the peasantry of that country today4 ,each consists of a cylinder of baked earth about #b feet in diameter and #a inches thick4 ,it is closed by a cover of the same material1 in which a stone or lump of clay has been embedded as a handle4 ,there is rarely any bottom except the bare earth4 ,the loaves1 which were flat discs1 were usually placed inside1 either on the ground covered with clean pebbles or on a baking-tray4 ,sometimes the loaves were plastered over the outside of the oven4 ,in this case the fire was built inside and might consist of grass 7,matt4 #f3cj2 ,luke #ab3bh74 ,the fire was usually heaped about the outside of the oven1 and often consisted of dried manure4 ,it is this use of manure as fuel that is alluded to in ,ezek4 #d3ab-ae--;a passage that has sometimes been greatly misunderstood4 ,such ovens were frequently found in all the strata4 ,in ,fig4 #acc two varieties of ovens are shown4 ,the one at the left hand is made of plain tile2 the other is covered over with potsherds1 to make it retain the heat longer4 ,sometimes in large houses groups of several ovens were found together4 ,ovens are frequently referred to in the ,bible1 sometimes as symbols of things that are hot4 7,see ,lev4 #aa3ce2 #bf3bf2 ,psa4 #ba3i2 ,hosea #g3d1 #f1 #g47 ,once a much-used oven is a symbol of blackness 7,lam4 #e3aj74 7#b7 ,baking-trays1 consisting of discs of baked clay about #aj inches in diameter1 were also found4 ,these were usually turned up at the edges1 and frequently perforated in order better to admit the heat to the under side of the loaf4 ,one specimen was found burnt through with constant use4 ,these trays were most numerous at ,gezer in the second and third ,semitic periods4 ,they were found at ,jericho in the ,jewish stratum2 7see ,fig4 #acd74 7#c7 ,bowls1 etc4--,in ,chapter ,,viii1 under the head of ,pottery1 the jars1 pitchers1 clay bowls1 saucers1 and cups which were used about ,palestinian homes have already been described4 ,bowls and saucers of stone were also employed from the earliest times4 ,they were far less fragile1 though more expensive4 ,probably the dishes used by the common people were in all periods made of clay4 ,after the introduction of metal1 however1 the wealthy often had dishes of bronze 7see ,fig4 #ace71 and sometimes of silver4 ,a ,philistine grave at ,gezer yielded some silver dishes of beautiful workmanship2 7see ,figs4 #acg1 #ada74 7#d7 ,feeding-bottles4--,a number of curiously shaped jars with spouts were found at ,gezer2 7see ,fig4 #aci74 ,mr4 ,macalister was at a loss to explain their use unless they were feeding-bottles4 ,the only other suggestion that he makes is that they were lamps1 but they are so different from the lamps of the time1 that that possibility seems to be excluded4 ,sellin thought similar objects found by him were vessels for pouring oil4 ,this may have been their purpose4 7#e7 ,glassware4--,vessels of glass are very rare in ,palestine until ,roman times4 ,in the remains of the third ,semitic period at ,gezer fragments of ornamented glass vessels1 which had been imported from ,egypt1 were found4 ,the ornamentation consisted of zigzag lines4 ,clear glass first appears in the ,israelitish period1 but it was rare and inartistic4 ,after the coming of the ,romans it became more common4 ,for examples of its use1 see the ointment vessels in ,fig4 #ach4 7#f7 ,spoons4--,the spoons of the poor were in all periods apparently adapted from shells1 as shown in ,fig4 #acf1 but the more wealthy1 especially when under the influence of more artistic foreigners1 had ladles of metal that seem very modern2 7see ,fig4 #ada74 ,these objects are from a ,philistine tomb4 7#g7 ,forks or ,flesh-hooks4--,forks were in existence1 as shown in ,fig4 #adj1 but were used not to eat with1 but to handle meat when it was cooking4 ,the one with three prongs in ,fig4 #adc reminds one of the 8flesh-hook of three teeth0 that the servant of ,hophni and ,phinehas1 sons of ,eli1 thrust into the caldron of seething sacrificial flesh1 in order to obtain the priest's portion 7#a ,sam4 #b3ac1 #ad74 7#h7 ,needles1 both of bone and bronze1 were found4 ,they were employed from the earliest times in such sewing as was necessary4 ,the way the eyes were made may be seen in ,fig4 #adb4 ,these give vivid reality to the saying of ,christ 8,it is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of ,god0 7,matt4 #ai3bd2 ,mark #aj3be2 ,luke #ah3be74 7#i7 ,spinning 8,whorls40--,spinning in ancient ,palestine1 as now1 was done in the simplest possible manner4 ,a tapering spindle was made of wood4 ,to this was attached a 8whorl0--either a stone or a lump of baked clay--in order to give the spindle momentum when whirled4 ,the wool was held in the hand1 a bit of it twisted into a thread with the fingers and attached to the spindle4 ,then more of the wool was pulled out and held in the hand while the spindle and whorl were given a twist with the other hand and allowed to twist the wool into thread4 ,the process was repeated again and again4 ,the writer has seen women in the ,east spinning while on a journey4 ,many of the spindle whorls1 made both of stone and of clay1 have been found by excavators2 7see ,figs4 #add1 #ade74 7#aj7 ,lamp-stands4--,in one of the palaces at ,megiddo a number of bronze tripods of various sorts were found2 7see ,fig4 #adh74 ,the tallest of these were #ac and #ad inches in height4 ,they were intended to support either bowls or lamps4 ,they are the kind of 8stand0 mentioned in ,matt4 #e3ae 7,r4 ,v4--the ,king ,james ,version called it a 8candlestick071 on which men1 when they lighted a lamp1 placed it so that it might 8give light to all that are in the house40 ,probably the poor had some less expensive form of lamp-stand4 7#aa7 ,keys in ,palestine were often large1 clumsy affairs4 ,they were probably most often made of wood1 and were much better fitted to be carried on the shoulder1 as a wood-chopper often carries his axe1 than to be carried in a pocket4 ,this is why ,isaiah 7#bb3bb7 speaks of laying the key of the house of ,david on the shoulder of ,eliakim4 ,of course1 all wooden keys of the ,biblical time have decayed4 ,iron keys from the ,hellenistic time were found at ,gezer1 two of which are shown in ,figs4 #adf1 #adg4 7#ab7 ,knives4--,one of the first implements made by man as he emerges from savagery is the knife4 ,the earliest knives of ,palestine were of flint1 which is in that country very abundant4 ,flint knives are made by taking a cone of flint that will easily flake1 and skilfully striking the top of it such a blow that a ribbon having a sharp edge is split off4 ,at ,gezer one of these cones1 left by an ancient flint knife-maker1 was found2 7see ,fig4 #aed74 ,after the introduction of bronze in the first ,semitic period1 #bejj-ahjj ,b4 ,c41 knives were often made of that2 7see ,fig4 #aea74 ,when1 about #ajjj ,b4 ,c41 iron came in1 it1 too1 was employed for knife-making2 7see ,fig4 #aej74 ,flint knives were always cheaper than those of metal and were probably always employed by the common people4 ,knives are referred to in the ,bible as the implements for slaying sacrifices 7,gen4 #bb3f1 #aj71 and in various other connections4 7,see1 for example1 ,ezek4 #e3a1 #b47 ,flint knives were preferred for the rite of circumcision 7,exod4 #d3be and ,josh4 #e3b1 #c72 7see ,fig4 #adi74 7#ac7 ,saws4--,ribbon-flint knives easily pass into saws when the edge is irregular4 ,a number of these came to light in the course of the excavation of ,gezer4 ,saws are referred to in #b ,sam4 #ab3ca and in #a ,kings #g3i4 ,saws made of thin1 flexible strips of metal existed4 ,these were set in wooden frames4 ,very meager fragments of these have been found4 7#ad7 ,chisels were fairly common at ,gezer in all strata after the introduction of bronze4 ,they were made usually of bronze1 even after the introduction of iron1 although iron chisels were found4 ,as the chisel is one of the most necessary tools of a carpenter1 our ,lord must often have used one in the days before his ministry2 7see ,fig4 #aeb74 7#ae7 ,awls4--,the awl is also a very useful tool4 ,in ancient ,gezer they were often set in bone handles4 ,modern ,palestinian carpenters employ a heated awl to make a hole in timber without splitting it4 ,as ancient carpenters probably had the same custom1 the awl was also one of the implements often used by ,christ2 7,fig4 #aeg74 7#af7 ,axes were found from the second ,semitic stratum onward4 ,those from the earlier time were made1 of course1 of bronze2 the later ones of iron4 ,in a few the butt of the axe-head was perforated to receive a thong to lash it to the helve4 ,how necessary this was is shown by such passages as ,deut4 #ai3e and #b ,kings #f3e4 ,a bronze double-edged axe was also found in the second ,semitic stratum2 7see ,fig4 #afj74 7#ag7 ,adzes4--,a few specimens of the adze were also found2 7see ,fig4 #afa74 ,one of these was of bone4 7#ah7 ,whetstones4--,tools1 of course1 needed sharpening1 and various specimens of whetstones were found2 7see ,fig4 #aeh74 ,it is difficult to distinguish these from 8rubbing-stones10 which were used when bathing to rub hardened skin from the body4 ,the same stone may at times have served both purposes4 7#ai7 ,files4--,a bronze file was made by perforating a tube of bronze with holes and leaving the rough edges made in the perforation protruding2 7see ,fig4 #aec74 ,these were probably used1 however1 for crumbing bread1 and not for sharpening tools4 7#bj7 ,hammers4--,many stone hammers from every period of ,palestinian history have been found4 ,the stone hammer seems to have persisted even after the introduction of metal4 ,bronze hammers are rare4 ,probably the hammer with which ,jael killed ,sisera 7,judges #d3ba2 #e3bf7 was of stone2 also the one referred to in ,jer4 #bc3bi2 7see ,fig4 #aee74 7#ba7 ,nails have been found in profusion1 made both of bronze and of iron2 7see ,fig4 #aei74 ,as soon as iron was introduced into the country it was generally employed in making nails4 ,christ1 as a carpenter1 must have employed a hammer1 and often have driven nails4 7#bb7 ,baskets are used in ,palestine1 as in other countries1 for all sorts of purposes4 ,they are frequently referred to in the ,bible4 7,see ,deut4 #bf3b1 #d2 #bh3e1 #ag2 ,judges #f3ai2 ,amos #h3a1 #b47 ,the basket of the modern ,palestinian peasant is usually made by sewing together a coil of rope made of straw or reeds4 ,after the mat thus formed has become large enough for the bottom of the basket1 it is given an upward turn to form the sides4 ,in excavating the water-passage at ,gezer interesting evidence came to light of the existence of such baskets in ancient times4 ,one of them had been left on some soft earth in the tunnel1 and1 although the basket itself had long ago decayed1 the form of it was still visible on the hardened clod on which it had rested2 7see ,fig4 #afc74 7#bc7 ,arrows4--,of implements of warfare some portions have survived4 ,one of these was the arrow1 which is mentioned more than fifty times in the ,bible1 and is employed in many metaphors4 ,arrows were made of a light perishable shaft to which an arrowhead of flint or bronze was attached4 ,this head terminated in a point1 which inflicted the wound4 ,arrow-heads were found in the ,palestinian strata later than the cave-dwellers2 7,figs4 #afd1 #afe1 #aff74 7#bd7 ,spears4--,the spear consisted of a long shaft with a metal head1 that could be thrown at an enemy4 ,it is often called a javelin4 ,such weapons are alluded to in the ,bible almost as often as arrows4 ,the excavations have yielded a good variety of bronze spear-heads2 7see ,fig4 #afg74 7#be7 ,swords4--,the swords of ancient ,palestine were used for thrusting rather than for cutting4 7,see #a ,sam4 #ca3e2 #b ,sam4 #b3af47 ,the blades are1 therefore1 short and pointed2 7see ,fig4 #aff74 ,sometimes the edges are actually thickened4 ,a fine scimitar1 found in a tomb in which other objects revealed ,mycenean influence1 is a great exception to the ordinary form of sword found in ,palestine2 7see ,fig4 #afb74 7#bf7 ,fish-hooks4--,spears and arrows could1 of course1 be used in hunting as well as in war1 but a fish-hook found at ,gezer 7see ,fig4 #aef7 is of especial interest to the student of the ,bible1 since some of the most prominent apostles1 ,peter1 ,andrew1 ,james1 and ,john1 were fishermen4 ,the fishing on the ,sea of ,galilee seems to have been done usually with nets4 ,nevertheless1 perhaps even there a hook was sometimes employed4 7#bg7 ,styli4--,the implements of the scribe which have survived are all specimens of a stylus for writing on clay or wax2 7see ,fig4 #agh74 ,the usual length of these styli was #c to #d inches4 ,in the ,hellenistic stratum at ,gezer1 however1 one was found as short as #b inches2 also one as long as #ab inches4 ,it was a stylus of the average kind found at ,gezer that ,isaiah was directed to use as recorded in ,isa4 #h3a4 7#bh7 ,seals4--,closely connected with the work of the scribe are the seals which are found wherever a mound is thoroughly excavated4 ,these were sometimes ,egyptian scarabs1 but more often1 especially in the later periods1 various figures and devices carved on a stone2 7see ,fig4 #age74 ,they might or might not contain the name of the owner4 ,the famous seal of ,shema1 mentioned on p4 #ig1 contained his name1 but often they appear simply to have been a kind of mark of their owners4 ,they might be impressed on clay or wax1 and1 as we have seen 7p4 #add71 potters used them to identify their work4 ,if the writing was on a clay tablet the seals were rolled over its edge 7see ,job #ch3ad71 or over any unwritten portion of its surface4 ,this took the place of the signature of the writer4 ,on the use of seals in ,bible times1 see #a ,kings #ba3h4 7#bi7 ,the 8,pipe40--,the people of ,palestine have always been fond of music1 though in modern times their music is of a rude and primitive sort4 ,probably in ancient times it did not rise to anything like modern standards4 ,at least one musical instrument has been brought to light by the excavations4 ,it is a part of a stone whistle or 8pipe0 found in the third ,semitic stratum--the period just before the coming of ,israel4 ,it is conical in shape1 and about #d inches long1 #a inches wide at one end1 and about inch wide at the mouthpiece4 ,it was perforated at the side by two holes2 7see ,fig4 #afh74 ,probably a mouthpiece of reed was fitted into it4 ,it was possible to make several notes on it4 ,this is probably a rude example of the 8pipe10 said to have been invented by ,jubal 7,gen4 #d3ba71 and often mentioned in the ,bible4 7,see #a ,sam4 #aj3e2 #a ,kings #a3dj2 ,isa4 #e3ab2 #a ,cor4 #ad3g47 ,the ,hebrew word for pipe means 8a pierced0 or 8perforated thing10 and this stone whistle answers the description well4 7#cj7 ,harps4--,other musical instruments were not made of material that could survive2 nevertheless from the ,babylonian1 ,assyrian1 and ,egyptian sculptures we have some idea of their form4 ,of these1 the harp is mentioned more than forty times in the ,bible4 ,for the forms of ancient harps1 see ,figs4 #afi-agb4 7#ca7 ,the ,dulcimer4--,this musical instrument is mentioned in ,dan4 #c3e1 #ae4 ,an ,assyrian dulcimer is shown in ,fig4 #agd4 7#cb7 ,lyres4--,a kind of lyre is pictured on certain ,jewish coins2 7see ,fig4 #agc74 7#cc7 ,children's ,toys4--,a touch of nature that links the ancient world with ours is found in the toys of children4 ,both from ,babylonia and ,palestine clay rattles have been recovered4 ,a series found at ,gezer is shown in ,fig4 #agi4 ,in addition to these rattles many grotesque animal figures came to light through the various excavations2 these figures were probably made for children to play with4 ,one or two had a hole drilled through a leg1 apparently for the insertion of a string by which a child could drag it4 ,the workmen who removed the earth sometimes begged for permission to take them home for their own children to play with#agg2 7see ,fig4 #agg74 #b4 ,personal ,ornaments4 7#a7 ,combs4--,of toilet articles the most universal is the comb4 ,these were made of bone or ivory4 ,they were both straight and curved1 ornamented and unornamented4 ,a fragment of one from ,gezer is shown in ,fig4 #agf4 7#b7 ,perfume-boxes4--,the ancients were fond of perfume4 8,perfumed with myrrh and frankincense1 with all powders of the merchant0 is a ,hebrew poet's description of an elegantly dressed man4 7,see ,cant4 #c3f47 ,perfume-boxes1 in which the various kinds of perfume were kept1 frequently are found in excavating2 7see1 for example1 ,fig4 #ahj74 ,women's perfume-boxes are denounced in ,isa4 #c3bj4 7#c7 ,spatul for ,eye-paint1 etc4--,little spatul1 or tools for lifting small quantities of cosmetics1 were also found2 7see ,fig4 #ahc74 ,these were probably most often used to apply kohl to the eyelids--a practice that was thought to enhance the beauty of women 7see ,ezek4 #bc3dj7 and which is still followed in the ,east4 7#d7 ,fibul4--,another article of the toilet which is found in abundance in all ancient excavations was the fibula--a rude kind of safety-pin4 ,the garments were held together by these4 ,they consisted of a kind of perforated bow through which a pin could be thrust4 ,in the earlier periods the bow and the pin were not fastened together4 ,the dress of the ancient ,palestinians was much like that of the modern peasants of the country4 ,it was not1 however1 made of materials that would last when buried in a mound4 ,all that has survived of it are some articles of personal adornment4 7#e7 ,beads were highly valued from the earliest times and are found in all strata4 ,in the earlier periods they were made of various colored stones2 it is only in the later strata that some glass beads are found4 7#f7 ,necklaces4--,beads1 cylinders1 and irregularly shaped pendants were strung so as to form necklaces4 ,one found at ,jericho is shown in ,fig4 #aha4 ,they are called 8chains0 in ,isa4 #c3ai2 ,prov4 #a3i1 and 8strings of jewels0 in ,cant4 #a3aj4 7#g7 ,bracelets and armlets have been found in abundance from nearly all periods4 ,they were made of bronze1 iron1 ivory1 glass1 silver1 and gold4 ,for some of their forms1 see ,fig4 #ahb4 ,they are frequently mentioned in the ,bible4 7,see1 for example1 ,gen4 #bd3cj2 ,exod4 #ce3bb2 #b ,sam4 #a3aj2 ,ezek4 #af3aa47 7#h7 ,anklets of bronze and silver have also been found in various places4 ,they are like bracelets1 only larger4 ,in a country where the ankles were usually left bare1 it was as natural to wear ornaments on them as on the arms4 ,these1 too1 are denounced along with the other ornaments of women in ,isa4 #c3ah4 7#i7 ,rings1 too1 of various kinds have been found in profusion4 ,most of the finger rings were simple circles of metal2 usually they were of bronze2 sometimes of iron4 ,silver and gold rings were comparatively few in number and of small size4 ,several signet rings were found at ,gezer4 ,finger rings are not often mentioned in the ,bible4 7,see1 however1 ,num4 #ca3ej47 ,they evidently were highly regarded by well-to-do people1 for in the ,parable of the ,prodigal ,son ,jesus tells us that the father 8put a ring on his hand0 7,luke #ae3bb74 ,signet rings were the possessions of the great and of kings4 7,see ,gen4 #da3db and ,esther #c3aj1 #ab1 and ,fig4 #ahd47 ,,chapter ,x ,,measures1 ,,weights1 ,,and ,,money ,,measures4 ,,weights4 ,,inscribed ,,weights4 ,,money3 ,who invented coinage8 ,darics4 ,maccaban coins4 ,asmonan coins4 ,herodian coins4 ,roman coins4 ,the ,widow's ,mite4 ,the ,piece of ,silver4 ,coinage of the ,revolt of #ff-gj ,a4 ,d4 #a4 ,measures4--,the ,hebrew units of dry measure were3 #a4 ,the ,homer 7or ,cor71 which contained #aj ,ephahs 7,ezek4 #de3aa1 #ad74 #b4 ,the ,ephah1 which contained #c ,seahs 7,isa4 #dj3ab7 or #aj ,omers 7,exod4 #af3cf7 or #ah ,cabs 7#b ,kings #f3be1 and ,josephus1 ,antiquities1 ,,ix1 iv1 #d74 ,corresponding to these were the units of liquid measure3 #a4 ,the ,homer 7or ,cor71 which contained #aj ,baths 7,ezek4 #de3aa1 #ad74 #b4 ,the ,bath1 which1 according to ,josephus and ,jerome1 contained #f ,hins 7see ,exod4 #bi3dj74 #c4 ,the ,hin1 which contained #c ,cabs1 or1 according to the ,talmud1 #ab ,logs4 ,these two systems have the ,homer as their major unit4 ,the ,homer had the same capacity in each system4 ,the ,ephah of dry measure equalled the ,bath of liquid measure1 and the ,cab was the same in each4 ,if1 then1 the capacity of one unit in either measure could be determined1 we should know the capacity of all the others4 ,it has been the custom of archologists to strike a kind of average of the confused statements of ,josephus and ,epiphanius#agh and correct these by estimates based on ,babylonian measures4 ,calculations based on this method will be found in recent works on ,hebrew archology and dictionaries of the ,bible4 ,it has been impossible1 however1 to reach certainty4 ,three systems will be found in the books referred to3 one based on the supposition that the ,log #i_/aj of a pint2 one based on the supposition that the ,log #ia_/ajj of a pint2 the third on the supposition that the ,log #a pint4 ,the estimates of the ,homer vary accordingly from #hj gallons to #ha4be gallons1 and #hi4bh gallons4#agi ,under these circumstances some discoveries of the ,augustinians of the ,assumption1 in the grounds of their monastery in ,jerusalem1 appear to be of importance4#ahj ,they found at various times in excavating for building purposes four vessels1 which seem to have been a series of measures4 ,taking the larger one as the unit1 the capacity of the one next smaller is three-quarters of the capacity of the first2 the third was just half the first2 the fourth1 a quarter of it4 ,these vessels all appear to have been in a building which had a ,hebrew inscription over its door4 ,although the inscription was broken1 the word 8,corban0#aha was still legible4 ,pre ,germer-,durand assumes1 accordingly1 that the building was used as a place where temple tithes were paid1 and that this series of vessels were standard measures employed in collecting tithes4 ,the quantities of material contained by these vessels are as follows3 ,largest1 #ba4be litres or #ai4f quarts4 ,second1 #ae4icg litres or #ad4g quarts4 ,third1 #aj4fbe litres or #i4h quarts4 ,fourth1 #e4cab litres or #d4i quarts4 ,pre ,germer-,durand thinks from a study of ,josephus and ,epiphanius that the largest of his vessels represents the ,ephah of dry measure or the ,bath of liquid measure4 ,if this assumption is right1 it gives a series of measures which are each about #g_/ab smaller than the smallest of the series referred to above4 ,on this basis ,hebrew dry measures become3 ,homer or ,cor #aif quarts or #f bushels and peck4 ,ephah #ai4f quarts or #b pecks1 #c4f quarts4 ,seah #f4ecc quarts4 ,omer #a4if quarts4 ,cab #a4hhh quarts4 ,liquid measure becomes3 ,homer or ,cor #aif quarts or #di gallons4 ,bath #ai4f quarts or #d4i gallons4 ,seah #f4ecc quarts4 ,hin #c4bff quarts4 ,cab #a4hhh quarts4 ,log 4#bgb quarts or approximately pint4 ,it is not certain that the vessels found by the ,augustinians represent the measures that ,germer-,durand supposes1 but it is as likely that they do as that the confused statements of ,josephus and ,epiphanius afford an accurate basis for calculations4 ,it is probable that in actual business there was in ancient times a great deal of variation allowed from the ordinary standard of measures4 ,we know of no rigid regulation of the matter by a central authority4 #b4 ,weights4--,the two weights most often mentioned in the ,bible are the talent and the shekel4 ,the ,bible nowhere tells us of how many shekels a talent was composed4 ,in ,babylonia the talent consisted of #fj manas1#ahb and each mana of #fj shekels1 so that the talent consisted of #cfjj shekels4 ,the ,phnicians divided the mana into #ej shekels1 and it is thought by scholars that the ,hebrews did the same1 though we have no positive evidence on the point4 ,manas are not mentioned in the ,bible1 unless in ,dan4 #e3be4ahc ,in the course of the excavations by ,bliss in the ,shephelah a number of weights were found1 some of which were inscribed4 ,macalister also found a large number of weights at ,gezer1 a few of which bore inscriptions4 ,some others have been found by natives and purchased by travelers4 ,the writer had the pleasure of discovering two weights in this way4 #c4 ,inscribed ,weights4--,these inscribed weights are of the greatest interest to the students of the ,bible4 ,five weights are known that are inscribed in old ,hebrew characters with the word neseph1 8half02 see ,fig4 #ahf4 ,these are undoubtedly half-shekels4 ,two of the three are broken1 and one is perforated4 ,the other two weigh1 respectively1 #aeg4ef grains and #aec4f grains4 ,the average of these is #aee4e grains1 which would make the shekel #caa grains4 ,another weight1 said to have come from ,samaria1 was described some years ago by ,dr4 ,chaplin4 ,it bears the inscription roba neseph1 8the quarter of a half10 and weighs #ci4b grains4 ,another weight from ,samaria is in the possession of ,mr4 ,herbert ,clark1 of ,jerusalem4 ,it is made in the form of a turtle and bears the inscription homesh1 8a fifth10 and weighs #ch4eh grains4 ,probably it was intended as the fifth part of a shekel4 ,another series of inscribed weights1 of which three examples are known1 bears the inscription beqa4 ,the word comes from a root that means 8cleave0 or 8split40 ,this word occurs twice in the ,old ,testament1 in ,gen4 #bd3bb and ,exod4 #ch3bf4 ,in the passage last mentioned it is defined as half a shekel2 7see ,fig4 #ahh74 ,a third variety of weight bears the inscription payim4 ,the first of these to be discovered was found by the writer in the hands of a dealer in ,jerusalem4 ,on one side it bore the word payim and on the other lezekaryahu yaer1 8belonging to ,zechariah son of ,jaer40 ,this weight is cubic in form 7see ,fig4 #ahg7 and weighs #aag4dca grains4#ahd ,macalister found another of similar shape1 which bore only the inscription payim4 ,it weighed #aad4ha grains4 ,the word payim is very puzzling4 ,it has been interpreted by ,clermont-,ganneau as meaning 8two-thirds10 and as designating two-thirds of a shekel4 ,possibly this is right4 ,this weight is mentioned in #a ,sam4 #ac3bj1 #ba1 and its discovery has explained a ,hebrew phrase which has puzzled all translators4 ,we now know that these verses should be rendered3 8,but all the ,israelites went down to the ,philistines1 to sharpen every man his plowshare1 and his axe1 and his adze1 and his hoe1 and the price was a pim 7or payim7 for the plowshares1 and for the axes1 and for the three-tined forks1 and for the adzes1 and for the setting of the goads40 ,the name of the weight here expresses the price1 just as shekel1 the name of another weight1 does elsewhere4#ahe ,one bronze weight found at ,gezer bore words meaning 8belonging to the king10 but it is not clear to what king it referred4 ,a glance at the weights here described makes it evident that the standards of the ancient ,hebrews were not exact4 ,if these are representative weights1 the shekel must have varied from #bjj to more than #cjj grains ,troy4 ,this is what one acquainted with the ,palestine of today would expect4 ,the peasants still use field-stone as weights1 selecting one that is approximately of the weight they desire4 ,even among the merchants of modern ,jerusalem1 where one would expect more exact standards than among the peasantry1 odd scraps of old iron are used for weights4#ahf ,a large number of uninscribed weights of the same general size and shape of those described#ahg were found at ,gezer4 ,whether larger weights or multiples of a shekel were discovered is uncertain4 ,a number of stones might have been used for weights1 but they were not inscribed and may have been used for other purposes4 ,a large bronze weight found at ,tell ,sandahanna is just sixty times the weight of a #caa-;grain shekel1 and may be a mana4#ahh ,where weights and measures differed so1 the words of ,amos 7#h3e71 8making the ephah small and the shekel great10 gain an added significance1 and we understand why the wise man denounced 8false balances0 7,prov4 #aa3a2 #bj3bc74 ,indeed1 of the weights found at ,gezer so many were under the average standard1 and so many above it1 that the inference lay close at hand that many men had one set of weights by which to purchase and another set by which to sell4#ahi #d4 ,money4--,down to the seventh century before ,christ money was not coined4 ,whenever it was employed as a medium of exchange1 it was weighed4 ,in western ,asia and ,egypt our sources show that in the period from #aejj to #acjj ,b4 ,c4 gold and silver were prepared for commercial use by being formed into rings4#aij ,these rings were of no standard weight2 they were weighed in the mass by scales4 ,probably the rings were small1 so that the weight could1 at the will of the merchant1 be increased by very slight amounts4 ,the ring-form was probably selected because this shape would present no corners that would rapidly wear away4 ,this type of commercial ring can be traced in the inscriptions of ,ashurnasirpal ,,ii of ,assyria1#aia #hhd-hfj ,b4 ,c4 ,it was used1 then1 in ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,phnicia1 by the ,hittites1 the ,aramans1 and the ,assyrians4 7#a7 ,who ,invented ,coinage8--,the oldest coins yet found were made by the ,lydians1 and on this account it is usually said that the ,lydians were the first to coin money4 ,the date of these coins is uncertain4 ,they bear the name of no king1 but are usually assigned to the seventh century ,b4 ,c4 ,mr4 ,head1 of the ,british ,museum1 dated them tentatively at #gjj ,b4 ,c4 ,they probably were made under the ,lydian dynasty founded by ,gyges in #fig ,b4 ,c41 the last king of which1 the famous ,crsus1 was overthrown by ,cyrus the ,great1 in #edf ,b4 ,c4 ,it is improbable that these coins were invented earlier than the reign of ,gyges1 and they may not have been put into circulation until he had been some years on the throne4 ,it is recognized that the weight of these coins conforms to a ,babylonian standard4 ,there seems to be evidence that coined money was employed by the ,assyrians in the reign of ,esarhaddon4 ,none of the coins have been found1 but a series of loans and payments1 dated in the years #fgf-fga ,b4 ,c41 designate the amounts of money in 8shekels of silver-heads of ,ishtar40#aib ,as has been noted by ,menant and ,johns1 this can hardly mean anything else than silver made into coins of the value of a shekel and stamped with the head of ,ishtar4 ,as ,gyges was a contemporary of ,esarhaddon1 it seems probable that ,lydia borrowed the idea of coinage from the ,mesopotamian ,valley4 ,be this as it may1 the coinage of money was a great step forward4 ,to have the value of a piece of metal determined beforehand and guaranteed by an official stamp greatly facilitated the transaction of business4 ,it eliminated the delays incident to weighing the metal1 and the disputes that were sure to ensue as to the correctness of the weights which were put into the balances4 7#b7 ,darics4--,the invention of coined money first affected ,palestine during the ,persian period4 ,darius ,i of ,persia1 #eba-dhf ,b4 ,c41 organized the coinage of that realm4 ,the gold coins issued by him were of the weight of a ,babylonian shekel4 ,they weighed from #abe to #acj grains ,troy4 ,one in the ,british ,museum weighs #abi grains4 ,they bore on the face a picture of ,darius with a bow to the left2 7see ,fig4 #ahi74 ,because of this picture they were called 8darics10 just as the ,french #bj-;franc piece is called a 8napoleon40 ,the daric is mentioned in several ,biblical books that were written after the beginning of the ,persian period4 7,see #a ,chron4 #bi3g2 ,ezra #b3fi2 #h3bg2 ,neh4 #g3gj-gb47 ,it is wrongly translated 8dram0 in the ,authorized ,version4 ,after the ,persian period the coinage of all the nations to whom the ,jews became subject circulated in turn in ,palestine4 ,foreign coins also found their way into the country4 ,many of these ultimately were lost and buried in the soil1 so that many1 many coins have been brought to light by archological research4 ,we have space here to mention only those that are of the greatest interest to students of the ,bible4 ,palestine passed under the sway of ,alexander the ,great in #ccb ,b4 ,c41 and after his death in #cbc it was attached to the territory of ,ptolemy ,lagi of ,egypt and his successors4 ,in #aii ,b4 ,c4 ,antiochus ,,iii wrested it from the ,ptolemies and the ,jews passed under the sway of the ,syrians4 ,during this time the coins of these rulers circulated in the country and are still frequently dug up there1 although they are not mentioned in the ,bible4 ,samples of these coins are shown in ,figs4 #aij1 #aie4 ,not until the ,jews had gained their independence under ,simon the ,maccabee1 in the year #adc ,b4 ,c41 did they issue any coinage of their own4 ,indeed1 it now seems clear that no coins were issued by ,simon until after the year #aci-ach ,b4 ,c41 when the ,syrian king by an especial grant accorded him that liberty4 ,the coins then issued appear to have been made of bronze only4#aic ,a silver coinage formerly attributed to ,simon the ,maccabee is now regarded as belonging to the time of the ,jewish revolt of #ff-gj ,a4 ,d4 7#c7 ,maccaban ,coins4--,the coins of ,simon consist of bronze half-shekels and quarter-shekels all dated in the year four4 ,antiochus ,,vii of ,syria apparently prevented the issue of others during the reign of ,simon4 ,his coins bear on their face the picture of a citron between two bundles of twigs4 ,around the border runs the inscription in old ,hebrew characters1 8year four2 one-half40 ,on the other side is a palm-tree with two bunches of fruit between two baskets filled with fruits1 and around the border runs the inscription1 8belonging to the redemption of ,zion20 7see ,fig4 #aib74 ,the weights of these coins vary from #bcb4f to #bcg grains4 ,the lighter ones are considerably worn4 ,the quarter-shekels have on one side two bundles of twigs1 around which run the words1 8year four2 one-fourth40 ,on the other side is pictured a citron with the stalk upward1 around which runs the inscription1 8belonging to the redemption of ,zion40 ,the weights of the known coins of this denomination vary from #aac4g to #aib4c grains4 ,the form of the letters on these coins shows that they are older than other ,jewish coins4 7#d7 ,asmonan ,coins4--,there are many coins from the reign of ,john ,hyrcanus1 the son and successor of ,simon1 but they are all of copper2 7see ,fig4 #aic74 ,they bear on their face the inscription3 8,johanan1 the high priest and the congregation of the ,jews02 on the reverse is a poppy head between two cornucopias4 ,similar coins were issued by the other ,asmonan princes4 7#e7 ,herodian ,coins4--,as ,herod the ,great was a vassal of ,rome1 he was permitted to issue copper coins only4 ,these exist in considerable variety4 ,figure #aih shows one1 the face of which is stamped with the image of a vessel with a bell-shaped cover1 above which are two palm-branches2 on the reverse the words meaning 8of ,king ,herod0 run around the edge1 while a tripod occupies the center4 ,at the left of the tripod is an abbreviation for 8year #c02 at the right is a monogram4 ,several other patterns are known4 ,coins of ,archlaus1 ,antipas1 ,herod ,philip 7,matt4 #ad3c2 ,mark #f3ag2 ,luke #c3ai71 and of ,herod ,agrippa ,i are known4 ,one is shown in ,fig4 #bjj4 7#f7 ,roman ,coins4--,the most common silver ,roman coin was the denarius1 rendered in the ,authorized ,version 8penny0 and in the ,revised ,version 8shilling40 ,its weight varied at different times4 ,in the time of ,christ it weighed about #fa4c grains ,troy1 and was worth #af cents of ,american money4 ,as the ministry of ,christ occurred in the reign of ,tiberius1 the tribute money shown to ,christ 7,matt4 #bb3ai2 ,mark #ab3ae-ag7 was probably a denarius of ,tiberius1 such as is shown in ,fig4 #aif4 ,the denarius was so named because it originally was equivalent to ten asses or small copper coins1 but the as was afterward reduced to #a_/af of the denarius4 ,the as is mentioned in ,matt4 #aj3bi2 ,luke #ab3f1 where ,a4 ,v4 renders it 8farthing0 and ,r4 ,v4 8penny40 ,it was worth about a cent4 ,the ,roman coin quadrans1 or the fourth part of an as1 worth about of a cent1 is mentioned in ,matt4 #e3bf2 ,mark #ab3db4 ,it is translated 8farthing02 7see ,fig4 #aii74 7#g7 ,the ,widow's ,mite4--,another coin1 translated 8mite10 is in ,greek lepton1 8the small one0 or the 8bit40 ,it was two of these that the widow cast into the treasury1 ,mark #ab3db1aid where it is said that two of them equaled a quadrans4 ,the 8mite0 was1 then1 of the value of of a cent4 ,it was doubtless the smallest coin in circulation1 but it has not yet been identified with certainty with any coin that archology has discovered4 7#h7 ,the ,piece of ,silver4--,in ,luke #ae3h the ,greek drachma is mentioned4 ,it is translated 8piece of silver40 ,the drachma corresponded roughly in value to the denarius4 ,drachmas had been issued by many different cities and many different kings1 and were still in circulation in ,palestine in the time of ,christ4 ,one still sees in that country today coins of the first ,napoleon1 and of many other sovereigns who have been long dead1 passing from hand to hand as media of value2 7see ,fig4 #aid74 7#i7 ,coinage of the ,revolt of #ff-gj ,a4 ,d4--,two silver coins1 a shekel and a half-shekel 7see ,fig4 #bja71 were formerly attributed to ,simon the ,maccabee4 ,the shekels weigh #bab4c to #bag4i grains and bear on their face above a cup or chalice the legend 8shekel of ,israel0 and a numeral4 ,the numeral stands for the first year4 ,examples are known which carry the enumeration up to the year 8five40 ,on the reverse a triple lily is pictured1 and in similar ,hebrew characters the words 8,jerusalem1 the holy0 are inscribed4 ,the half-shekel is smaller and has the same markings except that the legend on its face is simply 8half-shekel40 ,on the coins issued after the first year a ,hebrew sh precedes the number of the year4 ,the sh is an abbreviation of the ,hebrew word shana1 year4 ,for various reasons the consensus of expert opinion now is that these coins were issued during the ,jewish war of #ff-gj ,a4 ,d41 which1 according to ,jewish reckoning1 extended into the fifth year4 ,coins of the ,roman ,emperors1 ,augustus and ,claudius1 are shown in ,figs4 #aie1 #aig4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,high ,,places ,,and ,,temples#aie ,a ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the ,,pre-,,semitic ,,cave-,,dwellers4 ,a ,,rock-,,altar ,,at ,,megiddo4 ,a ,,rock-,,altar ,,at ,,jerusalem4 ,,high ,,place ,,at ,,tell ,,es-,,safi4 ,,high ,,place ,,at ,,gezer3 ,choice of site4 ,child-sacrifice4 ,corrupt worship4 ,,at ,,taanach3 ,pillars4 ,an altar of incense4 ,,high ,,places ,,at ,,petra4 ,a ,,supposed ,,philistine ,,temple4 ,,at ,,megiddo3 ,a ,hebrew temple4 ,a palace chapel4 ,another chapel4 ,,the ,,temple ,,to ,,augustus ,,at ,,samaria4 #a4 ,a ,sanctuary of the ,pre-,semitic ,cave-dwellers4--,the oldest sanctuary which we can trace in ,palestine appears to have been one of the caves at ,gezer4 ,this cave was #cb feet long1 #bj feet broad1 and #g feet #aa inches at its maximum height4 ,there were two entrances3 one on the east1 a tall1 narrow doorway1 was approached by a passage sloping downward2 the other1 on the west1 was a low1 narrow passage1 just wide enough to admit a person4 ,at the northern end there was a projection in the form of an apse1 the floor of which was about #b feet higher than that of the rest of the cave4 ,in the roof of this apse there was an opening1 about #a foot wide at the bottom1 leading to the upper air4 ,the rock of the roof here was #c feet #e inches thick4 ,this opening was #b feet #h inches in diameter at the top1 and a channel #d feet #f inches long cut in the surface of the rock was connected with it4 ,on the surface of the rock above the cave and about this channel there were a number of 8cup-marks0 similar to those found near ancient sacred places4 ,some of these were1 perhaps1 intended for places to set jars1 but some of them were connected with the channel which emptied into the opening in the roof of the cave#aif2 7see ,fig4 #bjb74 ,the suggestion which the excavator1 ,prof4 ,macalister1 makes is that this was a sanctuary of the cave-dwellers1 that they killed their victims on the surface of the rock above1 and let the blood run through the channel and the opening into the cave underneath1 where their deity was supposed to dwell4 ,they lived in caves themselves1 and it was natural for them to think their deity did the same4 ,this suggestion received some confirmation from the fact that on the floor of the apse under this opening there were found1 upon removing a layer of earth1 a number of pig bones4 ,the presence of these might be accounted for on the supposition that they were offered in sacrifice by the cave-dwellers to their deity4 ,swine were unclean to all ,semites1 and1 no doubt1 the later ,semitic inhabitants would have thrown the bones away1 if they had ever cleaned out the cave sufficiently to discover them4 #b4 ,a ,rock-altar at ,megiddo4--,another rock-altar of high antiquity was discovered on the slope of the mound of ,tell el-,mutesellim1 the ancient ,megiddo4#aig ,it was situated on the slope of the tell1 about half-way down4 ,its surface was covered with 8cup-marks10 like those on the altar at ,gezer1 and an opening about #b feet wide at the top and #a feet wide at the bottom made it possible for blood to trickle down through #c feet of rock into a cave below4 ,this cave contained several rooms1 the largest of which was about #ah feet #f inches long1 #g feet #h inches wide1 and #h feet #f inches high4 ,in the most northerly of the rooms were found various implements of black flint1 potsherds1 coals of a wood-fire1 the bones of sheep and goats1 olive-stones1 and ashes4 ,in the midst of the central room there lay a heap of human bones1 the skulls of which were badly destroyed4 ,these human bones show that after the cave had been used as a sanctuary it was employed as a sepulcher4 ,the same thing happened at ,gezer and elsewhere2 7see ,fig4 #bje74 #c4 ,a ,rock-altar at ,jerusalem4--,we are told in ,gen4 #bb3b that ,abraham went to the land of ,moriah to offer up ,isaac1 and in #b ,chron4 #c3a1 ff4 that ,solomon built the temple on ,mount ,moriah on the threshing floor which ,david acquired from ,ornan 7,araunah7 the ,jebusite4 ,just to the east of the site of ,solomon's temple in the open court where the altar of burnt-offering stood1 there was a rock surface similar to the two rock-altars described above4 ,it is still visible in ,jerusalem and is now enclosed in the ,mosque of ,omar4 ,the ,mohammedans regard it as a sacred rock4 ,one can still trace on it the channels which conducted the blood to an opening which in turn conducted it to a cave underneath4 ,this cave is still regarded by the ,mohammedans as sacred4 ,there is little doubt that the sacrificial victims offered in the temples of ,solomon and ,herod were slain on this stone1 and that that part of the blood not used in sprinkling drained into the cave underneath4 ,this rock-altar is on the hill to which we are told ,abraham came for the sacrifice of ,isaac#aih2 7see ,fig4 #bjh74 #d4 ,high ,place of ,tell es-,safi4--,in the ,old ,testament the 8high place0 is frequently mentioned as a place of worship4 7,see #a ,sam4 #i3ab1 f42 #a ,kings #c3b2 #b ,kings #bc3e1 #h1 etc47 ,it follows from #b ,kings #bc3ad that these high places contained 8pillars0 and 8asherim40 ,the pillars were made of stone1 and the asherim of wood4 ,recent exploration has brought to light a number of these high places1 and the revelations made by these discoveries greatly illuminate the ,old ,testament narrative4 ,the first of these was discovered by ,bliss and ,macalister at ,tell es-,safi4#aii ,the high place was enclosed by walls1 but1 as the upper courses of these had been destroyed1 the original height of the walls could not be determined4 ,within the largest enclosure stood three monoliths or 8pillars40 ,these rested on bases of stone4 ,the pillars themselves were1 respectively1 #e feet #aj inches1 #f feet #e inches1 and #g feet #a inch high4 ,one of them was pointed1 and one of them almost flat on the top4 ,no tool-mark was discernible on any of them4 ,all showed signs of having been rubbed4 ,the fat and the blood of sacrifices were smeared over such stones1 and the rubbing was probably produced by this4 ,the walls enclosing these pillars formed an approximate square #cj feet from east to west and #cb feet from north to south4 ,on the north a fairly large room was walled in1 as shown in ,fig4 #bab1 and on the south three smaller rooms4 ,in the wall to the north of the three pillars was a semicircular apse4 ,facing this apse was a low semicircle of stones #c feet #g inches in diameter1 which is situated much nearer the 8pillars40 ,the purpose of this semicircle is unknown4 ,in the east wall of the court of the high place there was a 8skewed0 opening1 or an opening which ran diagonally through the wall4 ,the purpose of this is obscure4 ,it has been suggested by ,prof4 ,macalister that it was made to permit the rising sun to shine on a certain spot of the interior on a certain day of the year1 but of this there is no proof4 #e4 ,high ,place of ,gezer4--,the foundations of this high place were in the second stratum below that which contained ,israelitish pottery4 ,it was one of the high places of the ,canaanites1 therefore1 or of one of the tribes that were in ,palestine before the coming of ,israel4 ,this is the most interesting of the high places which have been discovered in ,palestine4#bjj ,it contained ten monoliths or upright 8pillars10 the tallest of which was #aj feet #i inches in height1 and the shortest #e feet #e inches4 ,these pillars ran in a curved line the general direction of which was from north to south4 ,this was in striking contrast to the high place of ,tell es-,safi1 where the line of pillars ran from east to west4 ,the center of the curved line of the pillars of ,gezer was toward the east4 ,all of these pillars except one were of the kind of stone abundant about ,gezer4 ,they had been found near by4 ,none of them bore the mark of a tool4 ,they had not been shaped by working4 ,one of them 7the one that was the sacred stone1 as the smooth spots on it showed7 was a different kind of stone--the kind found at ,jerusalem and elsewhere1 but not near ,gezer4 ,there were on it traces of an indentation1 as though a rope for dragging it might have been fitted around it2 7,fig4 #bjf74 ,as ,mesha1 ,king of ,moab1 tells us twice in his inscription that he dragged altar-hearths of other deities away from their original locations into the presence of his god ,chemosh1#bja it seems likely that this stone was dragged to ,gezer from some other sanctuary--possibly from ,jerusalem4 ,perhaps it was its capture that first suggested to the inhabitants of ,gezer the establishment of this high place4 ,the other stones of the series were erected to keep this one company and to do it honor4 ,these were probably not all set up at once4 ,they were added from time to time by different rulers of ,gezer1 and we have no means of knowing when the latest of the pillars was erected2 7see ,fig4 #bjd74 7#a7 ,choice of ,site4--,judging from the scarabs found about the foundations of the high place1 its beginnings date from #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 or earlier1 and it continued in use down to the ,babylonian ,exile4 ,curiously enough1 this high place is not situated on the highest part of the hill4 ,the land is higher both to the east and to the west of it4 ,it is situated in a sort of saddle to the east of the middle of the mound4 ,why was this spot chosen for it8 ,two considerations1 perhaps1 led to the choice of the site4 ,a great ramifying cave on a higher part of the hill had already been appropriated by ,semites as a sepulcher1 and was1 therefore1 unclean4 ,the cave which the earlier inhabitants had used as a crematorium was for the same reason unacceptable4 ,why the high place was not built near the cave that the cave-dwellers had used as a temple1 we cannot now conjecture4 ,perhaps in some way the memory that that had been a sacred spot had faded from men's minds4 ,macalister thinks that the choice of the site was determined by the presence at this point of the two caves shown in ,fig4 #bjc4 ,these caves had been dwellings of cave-men in the pre-,semitic time4 ,they were now connected by a narrow1 crooked passage1 so that they could be utilized for the giving of oracles4 ,macalister conjectures that a priest or priestess would go into one1 while the devotee who wished to inquire of the god was sent into the other1 and that the inquirer would hear his oracle through this passage4 ,this theory is plausible1 though incapable of full proof4 ,just back of one of the pillars a square stone was found with a deep hole cut in its upper side2 7see ,fig4 #bji74 ,several theories as to the use of this have been put forward2 the most probable one is that it was a laver4 ,the area of the high place seems to have been approximately #aej feet from north to south and #abj feet from east to west4 ,some few walls were found of the same date as the high place1 but it was impossible to tell their purpose4 ,there seem to have been no buildings that could be regarded as a part of the sanctuary4 ,it seems to have been entirely open to the air4 ,two circular structures1 one at the north and the other to the south of the sacred stones1 were found4 ,the one at the south was badly ruined2 that to the north was in a good state of preservation4 ,this structure had a pavement of stones on a level with the bottom of the sacred pillars4 ,it was entirely surrounded by a wall #b feet thick at the bottom and #a foot #f inches thick at the top and #f feet high4 ,there was no doorway4 ,the wall leaned outward4 ,the diameter of the structure was #ac feet #h inches at the bottom and #af feet #f inches at the top2 7see ,fig4 #bjg74 ,on the pavement in this enclosure were the fragments of many clay bowls1 of a type found in ,cyprus1 but common at ,gezer from #adjj-hjj ,b4 ,c41 and among these fragments a brazen serpent1 evidently the model of a cobra4 ,this discovery suggests the possibility that the structure may have been a pen in which sacred serpents were kept4 ,the practice of venerating serpents as sacred is found in many parts of the world4#bjb ,this brazen serpent reminds one of ,nehushtan1 the brazen serpent worshiped by the ,judans until it was destroyed by ,king ,hezekiah4 7,see #b ,kings #ah3d1 and ,fig4 #bai;a47 7#b7 ,child-sacrifice4--,the whole area of the high place was found to be a cemetery of new-born infants4 ,these were in all probability first-born children who had been sacrificed to the deity of the high place4 ,two of them displayed marks of fire1 but most of them had been simply enclosed in large jars4 ,the body was usually put in head first4 ,two or three smaller vessels were put in with them4 ,these generally included a bowl and a jug4 ,they were usually inside the jar between the body and the jar's mouth2 sometimes they were outside near the mouth of the jar4 ,that these were sacrifices is shown by the fact that they were children4 ,it was not1 therefore1 a general place of burial4 ,indeed1 had these children not been sacrificial1 they could not have been buried in the sanctuary1 as dead bodies were unclean4 ,the ,semites generally believed that the first-born were sacred to deity and must be sacrificed to it4 ,this sort of human sacrifice persisted for a long time among the ,phnicians4 ,it was said that ,god called ,abraham to sacrifice ,isaac1 and that he then permitted him to offer a ram instead 7,gen4 #bb74 ,the law provided for the redemption of ,hebrew first-born by the sacrifice of a lamb 7,exod4 #cd3bj71 but in the time of ,king ,manasseh the old custom was revived and men 8made their children pass through the fire40 7,see #b ,kings #ba3f2 #bc3aj2 ,jer4 #g3ca2 #cb3ce47 ,the gruesome discoveries of this high place have made very real these horrible practices and the inhuman fate from which ,isaac and other ,hebrew children were delivered4 ,with the exception of a little unhewn stone about #ah inches square1 found in one of the caves connected with the high place1 and which might possibly have served as an altar1 no altar was found4 ,possibly none was needed in the rites practised there1 but it is more likely that the altar was simply a mound of earth such as is prescribed in ,exod4 #bj3bd--;a mound which could not be distinguished1 in excavating1 from the common earth4 7#c7 ,corrupt ,worship4--,of the nature of some of the services that went on in this high place in the name of ,ashtoreth eloquent testimony was borne by unnumbered ,ashtoreth-plaques that had been presented as votive offerings by the worshipers4 ,these varied in form and in artistic merit1 but were all designed to foster in the worshiper that type of debasing service described in ,isa4 #eg3c1 ff41 as ,fig4 #bad shows4 ,symbols of this nature were abundant during all the period while the high place was in use4 ,no one who was not1 like the writer1 at ,gezer during the excavation1 can realize how demoralizing the whole atmosphere of such worship must have been4 ,archology has here revealed to us in a most vivid way the tremendous power of those corrupting religious influences which the ,hebrew prophets so vigorously denounced4 ,these practices were deeply rooted in the customs of the ,canaanites2 they were sanctified by a supposed divine sanction of immemorial antiquity1 and they made an all-powerful appeal to the animal instincts in human nature4 ,we can realize now as never before the social and religious task which confronted the prophets4 ,that ,israel was by prophetic teaching purged of this cult is due to the power of ,god6 #f4 ,at ,taanach4 7#a7 ,pillars4--,sellin#bjc discovered two monoliths which he believed to be the pillars of a high place4 ,these stones had1 however1 been hewn1 which does not accord with the general ,semitic requirement that no tool should be lifted up upon such stones2 7see ,fig4 #baa74 ,however1 the indentation in one of the sacred stones of ,gezer1 apparently made to keep a rope from slipping1 shows that exceptions to the rule against cutting a sacred stone were allowed4 ,the two pillars at ,taanach were situated over a cave and figures of ,ashtoreth were found in connection with them1 so that they probably constituted another high place4 ,the stratum in which this was found proves that it belongs to the same period as the high place at ,gezer4 ,in connection with this high place an interesting libation bowl was found which is shown in ,fig4 #bac4 7#b7 ,an ,altar of ,incense4--,in another part of the mound at ,taanach ,sellin discovered a remarkable incense altar of terra-cotta1 #c feet in height1 and #ah inches in diameter at the base1 adorned with protruding animal heads1 which remind one of shortened gargoyles4 ,on one side of it was the figure of a palm-tree1 with two ibexes descending a mountain4 ,part of an ,ashtoreth figure and fragments of another altar were found near4 ,sellin thought that the building that contained these was a private house1 and1 if so1 we have in these objects some of the implements of private worship employed by ,israelites2 7see ,fig4 #baj74 #g4 ,high ,places at ,petra4--,one of the most interesting high places is cut out of the solid rock at ,petra4 ,petra may possibly be the ,sela of #b ,kings #ad3g1 since ,sela means 8crag0 or 8rock0 in ,hebrew1 and ,petra has the same meaning in ,greek4 ,the identity of ,petra with ,sela is not1 however1 certain4 ,petra lies in the southeastern part of ancient ,edom1 and was1 before the end of the fourth century ,b4 ,c41 occupied by the ,nabathans1 a ,semitic tribe4 ,these ,nabathans established a kingdom which continued until #ajf ,a4 ,d4 ,one of its kings1 ,haretat ,,iv1 is called ,aretas in #b ,cor4 #aa3cb4bjd ,when the ,roman ,emperor ,trajan overthrew this kingdom he organized its territory into the ,province of ,arabia1 and the beautiful buildings1 the remains of which make ,petra such an interesting ruin today1 date mostly from the ,roman period of its history4 ,during the ,nabathan period of ,petra they constructed three high places1 which are high places indeed1 since they are perched on ledges of rock above the ancient town4 ,the largest of these high places is still in an excellent state of preservation4 ,it is a little to the north of the citadel on a ledge which rises about #gjj feet above the town4 ,the ledge is #ebj feet long by #ij feet wide2 it runs nearly north and south with a slight inclination to the east4#bje ,the principal features of this ancient place of worship are an altar on the west side of the ledge1 a platform immediately south of this1 a large sunken area directly in front of the altar1 and a little to the south of this area a vat or laver4 ,this high place is approached by a flight of steps cut in the solid rock2 7see ,fig4 #bae74 ,the main area1 which corresponds to the enclosure of the high place at ,tell es-,safi1 is #dg feet #d inches long1 #bd feet #d inches wide1 and #ae to #ah inches deep1 though this depth is not uniform4 ,in some parts it falls to #aj inches4 ,about midway of the length of this area and #e feet from its west side1 there is a rock platform #e feet in length1 #b feet #g inches wide1 and #d inches high4 ,it has been suggested that this platform was intended for the offerer of a victim to stand upon1 in order that he might be distinguished from other worshipers who were crowding the area4 ,another possible view is that the sacred 8pillars0 stood upon this platform4 ,no pillars were found in connection with it4 ,probably such pillars were not cut out of the solid rock1 but were1 like the sacred stone of ,gezer1 brought from elsewhere4 ,the arrangement of other high places would indicate that they stood on or near this platform4 ,as this high place was not buried1 but exposed on the mountain top1 such pillars have in the course of the ages disappeared4 ,the altar is separated from the adjoining rock by a passageway which was cut on its north1 south1 and west sides4 ,it is of the same height as the adjoining rock4 ,on the east the ledge has been cut down to the level of the foot of the altar4 ,the altar is #i feet #a inch in length from north to south and #f feet #b inches wide4 ,it is #c feet high at its highest point4 ,on the top of the altar is a hollow pan1 perhaps to receive the fire4 ,this is #c feet #h inches long1 #a foot #b inches wide1 and #c inches deep4 ,ascent to the altar was made by a flight of steps leading up to its top on the east side4 ,the top step is wider than the others and forms a platform on which the officiating priest might stand2 7see ,fig4 #bag74 ,just south of the altar and separated from it by the passageway was the place where the victims were slain4 ,this has been called the round altar2 7see ,fig4 #bah74 ,this consists of a platform #af feet #f inches long from east to west1 #aa feet #i inches wide4 ,it is approached by a flight of steps4 ,near its center are two circular and concentric pans1 the larger #c feet #h inches in diameter with a depth of #c inches1 the smaller #a foot #e inches in diameter with a depth of #b inches4 ,from this inner basin a conduit #c feet #b inches long1 #b inches wide1 and #c inches deep conducted the blood to the edge of the platform4 ,this platform was undoubtedly intended for the place of slaughter4 ,the ,samaritans1 when they assemble on ,mount ,gerizim for the celebration of the ,passover1 still dig a round hole in the turf1 over which to slay the victim4 ,this hole is about #ah inches in diameter and #aj inches deep4 ,from it a conduit is dug1 through which the blood flows off to be absorbed by the earth4#bjf ,the supposed laver at ,petra is to the south of the area of the high place4 ,it is #i feet #i inches in length and #h feet #f inches in width4 ,it is now partially filled with earth1 and has above the earth an average depth of #c feet4 ,the remains of three other supposed high places have been found at ,petra1 but lack of space forbids their description here4#bjg ,the pillars supposed to have been connected with one of them are shown in ,fig4 #bai4 #h4 ,a ,supposed ,philistine ,temple4--,turning now to ,palestinian temples3 ,macalister discovered the remains of a building at ,gezer which he thinks may have been a temple4#bjh ,this building belonged to the third ,semitic stratum2 in other words1 to the period just before the coming of the ,israelites4 ,a general plan of its walls is shown in ,fig4 #bbj4 ,in a court in one part of the structure were five pillars which may have had the same religious significance as the pillars of the high place4 ,the two circular structures f f remind one of the circular structures of the high place of ,gezer4 ,these were filled with the fragments of the bones of sheep and goats4 ,as these bore no marks of cooking1 they could not have been mere domestic ash-pits1 and it is plausible to think of them as receptacles for the bodies of slaughtered victims4 ,in a forecourt of the structure a line of bases1 apparently intended for the support of columns1 was found4 ,macalister conjectured that these supported a roof over a part of the portico1 and it reminded him of the story of ,samson in the temple of ,dagon4 7,see ,judges #af3bc-cj47 ,it is quite possible that the feast of ,dagon described in ,judges #af may have been held in a structure similar to this1 that the lords of the ,philistines may have been gathered in such a porch1 and that ,samson may have pulled such pillars as rested upon these bases from under the roof that sheltered them1 and caused their destruction and his own death4 ,it is all possible1 but conjectural4 #i4 ,at ,megiddo4 7#a7 ,a ,hebrew ,temple4--,in the course of the excavation at ,megiddo a temple was found concerning the sacred nature of which there can be no such doubts as in the case of the building just mentioned#bji2 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,this temple was in the ,israelitish stratum1 and so is of especial interest to the students of the ,bible4 ,it was situated in the highest part of the city4 ,the whole space was not excavated1 but the portion uncovered was #aca feet long and #aae wide4 ,it was of the same period as the palace in which the seal of ,shema the servant of ,jeroboam was found1 and contained more drafted stones than the walls of that palace4 ,in one of the rooms of the temple stood two stones that were certainly 8pillars0 such as are denounced in ,deuteronomy4 ,one of these was #g feet #h inches high2 the other1 #g feet high4 ,the room in which these pillars stood was #cj feet long and #aj feet #g inches wide4 ,in building the wall of this temple a stone was used that had once formed the voluted capital of a column2 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,probably this stone was taken from an earlier ,philistine building4 ,in the grounds of the temple1 which were once regarded as holy1 several jars containing the skeletons of children were unearthed4 ,these had apparently been offered in sacrifice and buried like those found in the high place of ,gezer4 ,while the walls of this temple were built of larger and more carefully cut stones than most of the other walls in the city1 no effort seems to have been made to give the temple a definite architectural plan4 ,large towers were found near it1 but1 as the temple was at the east end of the city1 these formed part of fortifications4 ,the fortifications and other buildings crowded upon the temple1 so that1 had an effort been made to make it architecturally imposing1 the effect would have been lost4 7#b7 ,a ,palace ,chapel4--,the people of ,megiddo seem to have been particularly fond of the type of worship represented by this temple1 for in a room to the east of the palace of the ,hebrew governor was a room containing three 8pillars10 in which the remains of a number of terra-cotta goddesses were found4#baj ,this was apparently the private chapel of the palace4 ,this room was almost #dj feet long and #cb feet #aj inches wide2 7,fig4 #bbc74 ,its beginnings antedate the ,israelitish period1 since they come from the stratum before the conquest4 7#c7 ,another ,chapel4--,what seems to have been still another place of worship equipped with the necessary 8pillars0 was found in the ,hebrew stratum between the governor's palace and the southern gate of the city4#baa ,it would appear from the connecting walls that this sacred place may also have been intended for the special use of the occupants of the palace4 ,this room was not quite #cj feet long and a little less than #bj feet wide4 ,it contained six stones which ,dr4 ,schumacher took to be 8pillars40 ,like those at ,petra and ,taanach1 they had evidently been shaped with tools4 ,they did not stand in a row or in any regular relation to one another4 ,this might throw some doubt upon the religious significance of the stones4 ,could they not have been columns used in supporting the roof of the building8 ,since a small stone object that had religious significance in the high places was found in this room1 together with a most remarkable incense burner1 it is probable that these were religious 8pillars0 and that the room was a little chapel4 ,the object was of limestone and about #g inches long4 ,it was lying at the foot of one of the 8pillars40 ,the incense burner was made of a greyish soft limestone4 ,it was a little over #i inches in height4 ,the diameter of the bowl was #f inches4 ,the stone was cut so that the bowl rested on a pedestal1 which was divided by rings into two portions1 each of which was cut so as to represent a circle of overhanging leaves2 7see ,fig4 #bbe74 ,the whole was decorated with reddish-brown and cobalt-blue paints4 ,the decoration of the rim of the bowl is a geometrical design1 that on the bowl itself represents a sort of conventionalized lily blossom1 while the leaves suggest those of the palm4 ,these discoveries make it plain that the ,canaanite temples of ,palestine1 which the ,hebrews took over1 were simply high places in miniature1 enclosed in walls and probably roofed over1 though the roofs have disappeared4 ,the feeling that led to the change from the open air high place was the same as that underlying the saying of ,david3 8,i dwell in a house of cedar1 but the ark of ,god dwelleth within curtains0 7#b ,sam4 #g3b74 #aj4 ,the ,temple to ,augustus at ,samaria4--,the excavations at ,samaria#bab have brought to light the foundation of the temple erected by ,herod the ,great in honor of ,augustus4#bac ,this was a temple of a very different type4 ,it was patterned on ,grco-,roman models and everything was done to make it architecturally impressive4 ,unfortunately1 the results of the ,harvard expedition have not yet been given to the public in detail1 but from the imposing stairway1 discovered during the first season of the excavation1 together with the partial plan of the building as then uncovered1 and the outlines of its walls as a later season's work disclosed them1 one can form some idea of the imposing appearance of this structure4 ,a massive stairway led up to a large platform surrounded by large pillars4 ,this formed the portico4 ,back of this stretched the walls of the temple4 ,the general form of the building seems to have been similar to that of the large temple at ,jerash1 which will be described in ,chapter ,,xiv4#bad ,at the foot of the stairway leading up to the temple was found a large altar1 and near this a fallen statue of ,augustus4 ,for outlines of the temple1 see ,figs4 #baf and #bba4 ,these ancient places of worship which archology has brought to light are eloquent witnesses of the pathetic way the men of ,palestine 8felt after ,god1 if haply they might find him0 7,acts #ag3bg71 and the pathos is not lessened by the fact that they thus continued to grope1 even after the clearer light was shining about them4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,tombs ,,of ,,palestine ,,burning ,,the ,,dead4 ,,cave ,,burials4 ,,cistern ,,burial4 ,,burial ,,under ,,menhirs4 ,,earth-,,graves4 ,,rock-,,hewn ,,shaft ,,tombs4 ,,doorway ,,tombs4 ,,tombs ,,with ,a ,,rolling-,,stone4 #a4 ,burning the ,dead4--,as noted in a previous chapter1#bae the cave-dwellers of ,gezer burned their dead4 ,the ,semitic inhabitants of ,palestine did not follow this custom1 but buried theirs4 ,at ,gezer the caves that had formed the dwellings of the first inhabitants were put by the ,semites to various uses4 ,sometimes they1 too1 lived in them2 sometimes they made cisterns of them2 and sometimes they utilized them as places of burial for their dead4 #b4 ,cave ,burials4--,a cave that became a tomb after the ,semitic occupation was the one that had been the crematorium of the pre-,semitic inhabitants4#baf ,all over the floor of the cave above the burned bones was another stratum of bones that had never been burned4 ,these were scattered over the floor of the cave1 and1 although they had been much disturbed by rats1 it appeared that they belonged to that early type of burial in which the body is placed on its side with the knees drawn up toward the chin4 ,these bodies had apparently been deposited in all parts of the cave4 ,ranged around the sides of the cave was a series of enclosures marked off from the floor by lines of stones4 ,in these1 portions of various skeletons were found4 ,these enclosures seem to have been reservations made for persons of distinction4 ,for a time1 therefore1 the cave seems to have been used as a general place of burial4 ,in some of the other caves of ,gezer evidence was found that they had been used as tombs4#bag ,beautiful pottery and alabaster vessels were found with the bones4 ,wine and possibly food for the dead had been placed in these4 ,underneath the pottery in one cave a considerable number of scarabs were found1 some of them mounted in gold4 ,this must have been1 accordingly1 the burial place of persons of comparative wealth4 ,similar cave burials were found by ,mackenzie at ,beth-shemesh4#bah ,such cave burials as these at once recall ,abraham's purchase of the cave of ,machpelah as recorded in ,gen4 #bc4 ,the kind of burial presupposed in that chapter is just that found at ,gezer4 ,the mouth of the cave could be closed up and opened at will for later burials4 7,see ,gen4 #ej3ac47 ,the custom of placing food or drink or both in the sepulcher was all but universal in ,palestine4 ,it is silent testimony to a faith in a kind of after-life4 ,that that life as they conceived it was of a shadowy and an unsatisfactory nature is shown by the references to it in ,isa4 #ad3i-aa and ,ezek4 #cb3bb-cb4bai ,nevertheless1 these evidences that the mourners who stood by every ancient tomb provided food for their loved ones to eat in the after-life is eloquent testimony to the fact that even in that age the loving heart found it impossible to believe that the life of its dear ones had been altogether terminated4 #c4 ,cistern ,burial4--,another burial at ,gezer that must have been connected with some unusual circumstance led to the deposit of fifteen bodies in a cistern1#bbj and a number of spear heads were found with them4 ,the skeletons were all males except one1 which was that of a girl about sixteen years old1 whose spine had been severed and only the upper part of the skeleton deposited in the cistern2 7see ,fig4 #bbi74 ,the cistern is too deep to favor the supposition that the bodies had been deposited at successive times4 ,macalister hazards the conjecture that the men died of plague and that the girl was offered as a sacrifice to propitiate the deity4 ,a plague1 however1 would have attacked women as well as men4 ,perhaps the men were slain in defending ,gezer from the attack of an enemy that had succeeded in severing the body of the girl4 ,the real cause of the tragedy is1 however1 unknown to us4 #d4 ,burial under ,menhirs4--,a very old form of burial1 still practised by the half-nomadic tribes east of the ,jordan1 is to place the dead in the earth within one of the prehistoric gilgals or menhirs4 ,how old this form of burial is1 it is impossible to tell4 ,it is assumed by some writers that it was practised by the neolithic people who erected these monuments1 and who are believed by such writers to have been ancestor worshipers4 ,if1 however1 these neolithic men were akin to the neolithic cave-dwellers of ,gezer1 they burned their dead4 ,another explanation is1 accordingly1 more probable4 ,all through the history of ,palestine the sanctity of certain spots has persisted4 ,a place once considered as holy1 if not so regarded by the next wave of conquerors1 nevertheless often has enough sanctity clinging to it to make it taboo4 ,no thief will disturb objects left within its precincts1 lest the spirit of the place bring disaster upon him4 ,it seems probable that the wandering tribes on the border of the ,arabian ,desert have utilized the sacred places of these prehistoric men for the burial of their dead1 in order that the fear of violating the taboo pertaining to these places may secure the bodies from disturbance4 ,whatever the reason may be1 they still bury their dead in such precincts and place their tribal wasms or marks on such stones4#bba #e4 ,earth-graves4--,the simplest form of burial was to place the body in the ground without accessory of any kind4 ,in the course of the excavation of ,gezer a few burials of this sort came to light4#bbb ,the skeleton was in these cases stretched out2 sometimes it was lying on its back2 sometimes on its side4 ,as these bodies were buried without accessories1 so contrary to the custom of the ,palestinians who placed food or drink by the dead1 the excavator thought that they were probably the graves of murdered persons1 who had been hastily concealed in the earth4 ,another form of burial1 when the interment occurred within a city1 is illustrated by the five 8,philistine0 graves found at ,gezer4#bbc ,these graves were excavations in the earth1 lined with cement1 and1 after the interment1 covered with four or five massive stones and earth2 7,fig4 #bbf74 ,in these graves the usual deposits of food and drink had been made in beautiful bronze and silver vessels1 which show kinship to the art of ,cyprus2 7see ,fig4 #acg74 ,they are probably1 therefore1 ,philistine4 #f4 ,rock-hewn ,shaft ,tombs4--,a form of tomb of which many examples are to be found in all parts of ,palestine is the rock-hewn tomb4 ,the limestone of the country is easily cut1 and lends itself readily to the construction of this kind of burial-place4 ,such tombs are of two kinds--8shaft0 tombs and 8doorway0 tombs4 ,the structure of a shaft tomb is as follows3#bbd ,the tomb chamber or chambers are cut in the rock and are approached by a perpendicular rock-hewn shaft1 which is usually rectangular4 ,this shaft is closed at the bottom with slabs and then the shaft is filled with earth4 ,such tombs are usually constructed in ledges covered over with soil1 so that1 when the hole leading to the rock-cut shaft is filled1 the tomb is effectually concealed4 ,such tombs are very numerous all the way from pre-,israelitish times to the ,greek period4 ,for a plan of one1 see ,fig4 #bbh4 #g4 ,doorway ,tombs4--,the 8doorway0 tombs are sometimes cut in a ledge that is altogether under ground4 ,in that case a flight of steps is excavated leading down to the door2 7,fig4 #bcb74 ,often the tomb is cut in a ledge on the slope of a hill1 so that the doorway is approached from the level of the ground2 7see ,fig4 #bbg74 ,doors were1 no doubt1 fitted into the doorways4 ,the places cut in the rock for the latches or bars of such doors are sometimes still visible4 ,these tombs consisted sometimes of one room1 sometimes of several4 ,sometimes the bodies were laid on the floor of the tomb2 sometimes elevated benches or shelves were cut in the rock on which bodies might be placed4 ,quite as often shafts or niches were cut into the rock1 into which a body or a sarcophagus could be shoved endwise4 ,such a shaft is called technically a kk1 in the plural1 kkim4 ,for examples of them1 see ,figs4 #bcc1 #bcg4 ,the date at which this kind of tomb was introduced has not been satisfactorily determined4 ,sometimes numerous small tombs1 each one resembling somewhat a kk1 were cut in a hillside4 ,archologists call such a group of tombs a 8columbarium02 7see ,fig4 #bcj74 ,in the ,hellenistic and ,roman periods efforts were made to give adornment to such tombs4 ,the so-called 8,tombs of the ,judges0#bbe near ,jerusalem1 of which the writer was the first to make a scientific examination1 is a good example of this kind of tomb#bbf2 7see ,fig4 #bca74 ,this tomb consisted of three rooms in its upper level and three in its lower level2 7see ,fig4 #bce74 ,the ledges and kkim in it made provision for seventy bodies1 and a rough chamber opening out of room ,d was evidently used for the deposit of the bones of those who had been long dead1 when a niche or kk was needed for the reception of another body4 ,sometimes the pillars of a porch were carved out of the solid rock4 ,a number of such tombs are to be found near ,jerusalem4 ,there is one in the ,kidron ,valley near ,gethsemane1 cut wholly out of the rock and finished to a spire at the top4 ,this is the so-called 8,absalom's pillar40 ,in the time of ,christ the tombs of ,israel's heroes were adorned and venerated4 ,jesus alludes to this in ,luke #aa3dg1 #dh4 ,elisha must have been buried in a doorway tomb1 into which by opening the door the body of a man could be easily thrown4 7,see #b ,kings #ac3bj1 #ba47 ,it was1 no doubt1 the memory of such narratives as this that led to the reverence paid to the tombs of the prophets in the time of ,christ4 ,another tomb at ,jerusalem1 called the 8,tombs of the ,kings10 has a large open court cut down into the rock1 from the different sides of which entrances lead to the other tomb chambers4 ,this tomb was built for ,queen ,helena of ,adiabene1 the ancient ,assyria1 who1 in the days of ,herod the ,great1 was converted to ,judaism and removed to ,jerusalem4 ,she died and was buried there4#bbg ,sometimes in the ,seleucid period the interior of the tombs was also made very ornate4 ,such were the tombs1 discovered in #aijb1bbh of some wealthy ,greek-speaking citizens of ,marissa4 ,a plan of one of them is shown in ,fig4 #bcd1 and examples of its inner ornamentation in ,fig4 #bcf4 ,these tombs were also adorned with pictures of vases1 trees1 animals1 etc42 7see ,fig4 #bci74 ,the figures1 as well as the interior generally1 were decorated with red1 yellow1 and brown paints4 ,one of them was that of ,apollophanes1 chief of the ,sidonians at ,marissa4 ,over the different niches in the tombs the names of the persons buried were inscribed in ,greek letters4 ,rock-cut tombs1 whether large or small1 were regarded as important possessions1 and the people who might be buried in them were frequently carefully specified by their builders4 ,an example of this may be found in ,part ,,ii of the present work1 p4 #ddb4 #h4 ,tombs with a ,rolling-stone4--,one other type of tomb must be noticed even in this hasty sketch4 ,to close a 8doorway0 tomb securely must always have been a matter of difficulty in ,palestine4 ,it was not easy with the kind of locks they had to keep intruders out of tombs4 ,this led to the cutting of a large groove by the side of the doorway into which a rolling-stone was fitted4 ,when it was desired to open the tomb1 the stone could be rolled back4 ,the stones were too heavy to be easily disturbed4 ,it was in a new tomb of this type that the body of ,jesus was laid1 and it was such a stone that the women found rolled away on the resurrection morning4 7,see ,matt4 #bh3b2 ,mark #af3c1 #d2 ,luke #bd3b2 ,john #bj3a1 and ,fig4 #bch47 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,jerusalem#bbi ,,situation4 ,,gihon4 ,,cave-,,dwellers4 ,,the ,,el-,,amarna ,,period4 ,,jebusite ,,jerusalem4 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,david3 ,millo4 ,david's reign4 ,,solomon',s ,,jerusalem3 ,site of ,solomon's buildings4 ,solomon's temple4 ,solomon's palace4 ,,from ,,solomon ,,to ,,hezekiah4 ,,hezekiah4 ,,from ,,hezekiah ,,to ,,the ,,exile4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of #ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,,the ,,second ,,temple4 ,,nehemiah ,,and ,,the ,,walls4 ,,late ,,persian ,,and ,,early ,,greek ,,periods4 ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,maccabees4 ,,asmon,,an ,,jerusalem4 ,,herod ,,the ,,great3 ,herod's palace4 ,herod's theater4 ,herod's temple4 ,,the ,,pool ,,of ,,bethesda4 ,,gethsemane4 ,,calvary4 ,,agrippa ,i ,,and ,,the ,,third ,,wall4 #a4 ,situation4--,since #ahfg excavations have been made at ,jerusalem from time to time4 ,the most important of these were mentioned in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,an attempt will be made here to set before the reader the growth and development of ,jerusalem from period to period1 as that growth is now understood by foremost scholars4 ,our knowledge of the situation and form of the city in the different periods is based partly on formal excavations1 partly on remains that have been accidentally found1 and partly on a study of the references to ,jerusalem in the ,bible and other ancient writings4 ,these references are interpreted in the light of the topography and of the archological remains4 ,jerusalem is situated on the central ridge of ,palestine1 where the ridge broadens out to a small plateau4 ,the plateau at this point is approximately #b1ejj feet above the level of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,in a narrower sense the site of the city is two rocky promontories which run south from the plateau with the valley ,el-,wad 7in ,roman times the ,tyropon7 between them4 ,on the north these promontories merge into the plateau1 but on the east1 south1 and west the valleys of ,hinnom and the ,kidron sharply separate them from the surrounding land4 ,the steep sides of these valleys made fortification easy in ancient times4 ,the highest point of the western hill is about #djj feet higher than the bottom of the ,kidron valley1 which in ancient times was #bj to #dj feet deeper than now2 7see ,fig4 #bdj74 ,indeed1 the position was almost impregnable4 ,only on the north was the city vulnerable4 ,west of the city hills gently rise to a slight elevation and shut out the view4 ,the easternmost of the two promontories is lower than the western1 which in its turn slopes to the east4 ,just south of the ,mount of ,olives1 to the east of ,jerusalem1 there is a rift in the hills through which the distant mountains of ,moab can be seen4 ,from elevated buildings in the city the ,dead ,sea is also visible4 ,the slope of the hills of ,jerusalem and her broader outlook to the eastward are significant of the influences that moulded her earlier history4 ,during the centuries that ,israel was an independent nation the ,philistine plain was nearly always in the hands of a hostile people4 ,jerusalem was thus cut off from influences that might otherwise have reached her from across the ,mediterranean1 and was shut up to influences that reached her through kindred tribes and nations to the east4 ,thus in intellectual kinship1 as well as in physical outlook1 the gaze of ,jerusalem was directed toward the ,orient4 ,all ,palestinian cities of importance were situated near perpetual springs4 ,there are at ,jerusalem but two unfailing sources of water--the ,ain ,sitti ,miriam 7the ancient ,gihon7 and the ,bir ,eyyub 7,biblical ,en-rogel74 ,these are both in the ,kidron valley1 the former just under the brow of the eastern hill some #djj yards from the southern point of the hill1 the latter at the point where the valley of ,hinnom and the ,kidron unite4 ,of these two sources of supply1 the ,gihon is pre-eminently fitted to attract an early settlement4 ,it is almost under the hill1 whereas the other is out in the midst of the open valley4 ,gihon1 too1 is at the base of a hill that can be defended easily on three sides1 whereas a town built on a hillside above ,en-rogel1 as the modern ,silwan is1 could be easily attacked from above4 ,these conditions determined the situation of the earliest settlement1 which was near ,gihon4 #b4 ,gihon4--,the ,parker expedition of #aiji-aiaa revealed by its excavations the fact that the source of the spring of ,gihon is a great crack in the rock in the bottom of the valley far below the present apparent source4#bcj ,this crack is about #af feet long1 is of great depth1 and runs east and west4 ,the western end of it just enters the mouth of the cave where the apparent source is today1 but the eastern end passes out into the bed of the valley4 ,all the water would discharge into the valley but for a wall at the eastern end of the rift1 built in very ancient times1 which confines the water and compels it to flow into the cave4 ,this wall was constructed by some of the earliest inhabitants of the place4 ,the spring thus produced is intermittent4 ,its flow is not ceaseless4 ,the water breaks from the hole in the rainy season1 three to five times a day2 in the summer but twice a day2 and after the failure of the spring rains1 less than once a day4 ,this fact indicates that the waters collect in some underground cavern from which they are drained by a siphon-like tunnel4 ,the 8troubling0 of the ,pool of ,bethesda 7,john #e3d7 is thought by some scholars to have been due to the action of such a siphon-like spring4 #c4 ,cave-dwellers4--,about this spring the ,parker expedition found large caves and rooms excavated in the rock1 and indications that these had once been inhabited4 ,a great deal of pre-,israelite pottery was also found around the spring4 ,these indications seem to show that the site was inhabited for at least a thousand years before ,david1 and perhaps for two thousand1 and that its first inhabitants were cave-dwellers4 ,one naturally thinks in this connection of the cave-dwellers of ,gezer4 ,it is possible that the first ,jerusalemites belonged to the same period and were of the same race4 ,one thinks1 too1 of the sacred cave and the stone altar on the next peak of the eastern ridge to the north1 where the temple afterward stood1 and wonders whether it may not have been the sanctuary of this early cave-dwelling race4 ,a definite answer cannot be given to this question4 ,one can only recognize that it may possibly be true4 #d4 ,the ,el-,amarna ,period4--,the next knowledge we have of ,jerusalem comes from the letters of ,ebed-,hepa1 which were written to ,amenophis ,,iv of ,egypt between #acge and #aceg ,b4 ,c4 ,at that time it was already a walled city1 for ,ebed-,hepa speaks of 8throwing it open40#bca ,the fortified city of ,ebed-,hepa was1 no doubt1 identical with the later ,jebusite city4 ,it was situated on the eastern hill just above the spring of ,gihon4 ,probably in the period just before this time it had1 like ,gezer1 been surrounded by a massive wall4 ,in connection with this fortification the rock near ,gihon had been scarped 7cut to a perpendicular surface7 in order to increase the difficulty of scaling the wall4#bcb ,as the wall of ,gezer lasted for a thousand years1 so this ,egyptian wall continued to the reign of ,david4 ,it is privately reported that ,weil in his excavation in #aiac-ad found on the eastern hill remains of a wall with a sloping glacis similar to that belonging to the earliest period of ,megiddo4 ,this would not only confirm our inference that ,jerusalem was a walled city in the time of ,ebed-,hepa1 but indicate that its wall had been built at a much earlier time4 ,it was also in the fourteenth century ,b4 ,c4 the capital of a considerable kingdom which ,ebed-,hepa ruled as a vassal of the king of ,egypt4 ,this kingdom extended as far west as ,beth-shemesh and ,keilah 7#a ,sam4 #bc3a71 including1 perhaps1 ,gezer4 ,aijalon seems to have been included in it on the north1 and ,carmel in ,judah 7#a ,sam4 #be3b7 on the south4 ,when the letters of ,ebed-,hepa were written1 his kingdom was being attacked and apparently overcome by the ,habiri1 a people who may have been the first wave of the ,hebrew conquest4#bcc ,the letters of ,ebed-,hepa cease without telling us whether or not the ,habiri captured his city4 ,if they did and they were really ,hebrews1 they did not hold it long1 for1 when the ,biblical records lift the veil that hides so much of the past1 ,jerusalem was in the hands of the ,jebusites4 7,see ,josh4 #ae3fc2 ,judges #a3ba47 #e4 ,jebusite ,jerusalem4--,the ,jebusites held it all through the period of the ,judges 7,judges #ai3aj1 #aa74 ,israel did not capture it until the reign of ,david4 7,see #b ,sam4 #e3f-h47 ,at some earlier period of the history of ,jerusalem an underground rock-cut passage similar to the one at ,gezer#bcd had been made1 so as to permit the inhabitants in case of siege to descend to the spring for water without going outside the walls2 7see ,fig4 #bda74 ,the natural slope of the hill had been reinforced at this point by the escarpment of the rock1 and the ,jebusites felt so secure that they taunted the ,hebrews from the top of the walls4 ,joab1 however1 discovered the way to this underground passage through the cave back of the spring1 ,gihon1 and1 leading a band of men up through it1 appeared suddenly within the city1 taking the ,jebusites by surprise1 and captured it4 #f4 ,the ,city of ,david4--,david then took up his residence at ,jerusalem1 thus making it the capital of the kingdom of ,israel4 ,thus the city of the ,jebusites1 situated on the eastern hill1 which was called ,zion1 became the 8city of ,david40 ,a few modern writers still insist that the 8city of ,david0 was on the western hill1 which since #ccc ,a4 ,d4 has been called ,zion4 ,this1 as most scholars have seen1 is an impossible view4 ,solomon built a palace for ,pharaoh's daughter near his own on the temple hill1 and1 when she moved into it1 she went up out of the city of ,david 7#a ,kings #i3bd74 ,as the western hill is higher than the eastern1 she must have gone from a point on the eastern hill lower than the temple4 ,when the temple was completed1 ,solomon brought the ark up from the city of ,david to the holy of holies in the new temple 7#b ,chron4 #e3b74 ,scripture thus confirms the inferences from the pottery and the water supply1 that the 8city of ,david0 was on the eastern hill1 and that that hill was ,zion4 ,it was a small town1 since the space it could occupy was not more than thirteen acres1 and may have been less4 7#a7 ,millo4--,after occupying his new capital ,david 8built round about from ,millo and inward0 7#b ,sam4 #e3i74 ,what was ,millo8 ,this is a great puzzle1 and there are many varying opinions about it4 ,the word literally means a 8filling10 and is employed in ,assyrian for the building up of a terrace on which a building may be erected4 ,it may have been a 8filling0 on the line of the valley that separated the hill of the citadel of ,david from ,moriah or the temple hill4 ,it would seem to have been on the edge of the city1 since ,david built from there 8inward40 ,some have supposed it to be a fortress1 and the ,septuagint translated it by 8akra10 which means 8citadel40 ,some have thought of it as a fort1 others as a solid tower4 ,if on the line of the valley mentioned1 it may have been at the northeast corner1 or at the northwest corner of the town4 ,some have supposed that it was at the southern end of the eastern hill in order to protect a pool there4 ,just below the southern end of the eastern hill in the valley of the ,kidron lay the 8,king's ,gardens10 and just across the valley1 the village of ,siloah4 ,in #b ,kings #ab3bj it is said that ,joash was killed in ,millo1 leading down to ,silla4 ,we know of no ,silla4 ,is it a corruption of the ,hebrew word for 8shade0 or is it a corruption of ,siloah8 ,in the former case the reference might be to the ,king's ,gardens1 in the latter to the village of ,siloah4 ,either of these suppositions would favor a site for ,millo at the south end of the hill1 but the words 8leading down to ,silla0 may have had quite a different origin and meaning4#bce ,we must1 therefore1 confess that the location of ,millo cannot at present be determined4 7#b7 ,david's ,reign4--,as ,david's reign advanced and his success in war compelled neighboring nations to pay tribute1 probably the population of ,jerusalem increased4 ,such an increase would naturally lead to the erection of houses outside the walls1 as it has in recent times4 ,it is altogether probable that a settlement on the western hill was thus begun in the reign of ,david4 ,there is no hint1 however1 that he took any steps to enclose such a settlement within a wall4 ,the phrase 8the way of the gate0 in #b ,sam4 #ae3b implies that there was still but one gate in the walls4 ,this is in striking contrast to the number of gates in later times4 ,the only record that we have of further action on ,david's part that affected the future growth of ,jerusalem refers to the way in which he took over the rock on ,mount ,moriah and the sacred cave under it and made a sanctuary to ,jehovah4 7,see #b ,sam4 #bd47 ,this action1 at a later time1 determined the site of the temple4 #g4 ,solomon's ,jerusalem4--,david left ,jerusalem a military fortress2 ,solomon transformed it into a city with imposing buildings4 ,this creation of a more imposing city was in accord with the general character of ,solomon's reign4 ,he established a large harem1 made marriage alliances with many neighboring kings1 maintained such an establishment that it was necessary to make a regular levy on a different portion of the country each month for supplies1 and endeavored to make his capital as splendid as the capital of a rich commercial ,phnician monarch4 ,such a policy necessitated1 probably1 the enlargement of ,jerusalem4 ,david1 who began life as a shepherd-boy1 was content to live the simple life to the end2 ,solomon1 born to the purple1 desired to surround himself with a pomp befitting his rank4 ,the ,biblical writers were more interested in the construction of the temple and of ,solomon's palace than in any other phase of his work1 but they have left us some hints of his activities in other directions4 ,they tell us that he 8built ,millo and the wall of ,jerusalem0 7#a ,kings #i3ae71 that he 8built the wall of ,jerusalem round about0 7#a ,kings #c3a71 and that he 8built ,millo and repaired the breach in the city of ,david1 his father0 7#a ,kings #aa3bg74 ,evidently ,millo had fallen into disrepair since ,david rebuilt it1 and the walls of the city of ,david on the eastern hill were also in need of repairs4 ,these repairs he made1 but did he go further8 ,it is intrinsically probable that he did4 ,the king who fortified ,hazor in ,naphtali1 ,megiddo1 ,gezer1 ,beth-horon1 ,baalath1 and ,tamar would hardly leave a large suburb of his capital on the western hill unfortified4 ,the statement that he 8built the wall of ,jerusalem round about10 while it does not clearly state that he did more than fortify the 8city of ,david0 on ,zion1 seems to imply that he did4 ,this view is strengthened by ,bliss's discovery on the western hill of some walls that connected once with a great fortress at the southwest corner of the western hill1 which he believed to be the work of ,solomon4 ,the site of this fortress is now occupied by 8,bishop ,gobat's ,school10 an ,english foundation for the education of native boys4 ,when the school was rebuilt in #ahgd ,mr4 ,henry ,maudsley examined the surface of the rock1 which is escarped1 or cut perpendicularly1 for about #ajj feet to the southeast of the school and #dc feet north of it4 ,the scarp is about #dj feet high at the highest point2 7,fig4 #bdb74 ,the school is built on a large projection of the scarp #de feet square and #bj feet high4 ,the surface of the rock under the school bears unmistakable signs that there was once an ancient tower there4 ,to the eastward of this ,bliss discovered the foundations of an ancient tower4 ,beyond this to the east there was a deep rock-cut ditch4 ,the tower on its northeast corner fitted into another rock-scarp which ran northward into land on which they could not excavate4#bcf ,the deep rock-cut ditch or moat at the east of the scarp suggests that at the period of the ,latin kingdom of ,jerusalem1 #ajii-aahh ,a4 ,d41 this fortress formed the fortification of the southwest corner of the city1 from which the wall ran off sharply in a direction a little east of north4 ,this view is confirmed by the discovery which ,bliss made of a wall1 apparently built by the ,crusaders1 that ran in a north-easterly direction by an irregular course along the high part of the western hill toward the temple area4 ,as this wall rested on remains of the ,roman time it cannot well have belonged to a time earlier than the crusading period4 ,may not1 then1 ,maudsley's scarp itself have been cut by the ,crusaders who were most energetic and masterly builders8 ,this seems hardly probable1 for ,josephus1 in describing the course of the wall on the west side of the western hill1 says that beginning at ,herod's palace 7the modern ,turkish fortress7 the wall ran southward through a place called 8,bethso40#bcg ,bethso is a corruption of ,beth-zur1 which means rock-fortress--an apt description of the tower on ,maudsley's scarp4 ,as ,josephus makes no mention of the construction of a fortress at this point by ,herod1 it was probably built at an earlier period4 ,the writer holds with ,bliss that it is probable that the original fortress on the site of ,bishop ,gobat's ,school was constructed by ,solomon and that he enclosed the top of the western hill with a wall4 ,whether that wall simply enclosed the top of the hill and followed something of the same course as the wall of the ,crusaders mentioned above 7so ,bliss thinks71 or whether it ran down the eastern slope of the western hill to the southern point of the 8,city of ,david10 it is impossible now to determine4 ,the view that ,solomon extended the city to the western hill cannot be proved1 since there is no definite reference in the ,bible to the western hill in the time of ,solomon1 and there is no inscription on the masonry found definitely to connect it with him4 ,in consideration of all the conditions it seems probable that ,solomon enclosed a part of the western hill4 ,if so1 the wall built by ,solomon on the north side of the western hill was probably on the line of what ,josephus called the 8first wall40 ,this wall1 was rebuilt from time to time4 ,the dbris of a part of it seems still to be in place at the east end of 8,david ,street0 in modern ,jerusalem4 ,a short street1 high above the surrounding levels1 now runs on the top of this dbris4#bch 7#a7 ,site of ,solomon's ,buildings4--,concerning the building of ,solomon's palace and the temple there can be no doubt1 for the ,bible contains accounts of the construction of these4 ,their general location is also well known4 ,they were across the little valley which separated the part of ,zion called ,ophel 7where the city of ,david was situated7 from the part sometimes called ,moriah4#bci ,this hill-top included the threshing-floor of ,araunah1 the ,jebusite 7#b ,sam4 #bd71 and ,solomon now enclosed this with a wall4 ,sir ,charles ,warren believed that he found portions of this wall at the southeast angle of the ancient temple area1 #hj feet below the present surface of the ground4 ,during his excavations in the years #ahfg-ahgj he sunk at this point a shaft to the native rock1 from the bottom of which a tunnel was carried inward to the base of the wall4 ,he found twenty-one courses of drafted stones below the surface at this point1 and the stones in the lower courses bore quarry marks which resemble old ,hebrew or ,phnician characters4#bdj ,the lower courses of stones were from #c feet #f inches to #d feet #c inches in height4 ,some of the characters were cut in the stones2 some painted on them4 ,it is most probable that these were remains of the work of ,solomon2 7see ,figs4 #bdd1 #bde1 and #bdf74 ,the enclosure of this hill-top with a wall set it apart from the rest of ,jerusalem4 ,it was a kind of separate fortress4 ,at the time it emphasized the majesty of ,solomon--his apartness from his people4 ,this separate enclosure of the temple hill was perpetuated through the whole history of ,jerusalem and is maintained today4 ,in all periods the temple hill has been a fortress that could be defended apart from the city4 7#b7 ,solomon's ,temple4--,of the form and situation of the buildings of ,solomon on the hill that was enclosed by this new wall1 there is a wide diversity of opinion4 ,this diversity arises in part from the fact that some scholars take at their face value statements of ,josephus1 the ,talmud1 and other late sources concerning ,solomon's temple1 while others attribute less weight to the statements of those sources which were written long after this temple was destroyed1 and base their views rather on the earlier documents4 ,the last is the only sound method of study1 and is the course followed here4 ,we shall take as evidence of the plan and situation of the buildings the ,biblical writers who had seen them4 ,we are at the start confronted1 however1 with a difficulty1 since no ,biblical writer has given us an exact statement as to what part of the hill ,solomon's temple occupied4 ,most modern scholars hold1 nevertheless1 that it was built at the highest point of the hill just west of the sacred cave1 which has already been mentioned1#bda and the old rock-altar above it4 ,this view is confirmed by ,josephus#bdb and is undoubtedly correct1 although three or four modern scholars have doubted it4 ,the temple would naturally be built near the spot where the angel is said to have appeared to ,david 7#b ,sam4 #bd3af71 and as angels are frequently represented in the ,old ,testament as appearing upon rocks 7see ,judges #f3aa1 f42 #ac3ai7bdc it is altogether probable that the appearance to ,david was on the rock-altar at the top of the hill4 ,on this rock the animals for sacrifice were slain1 as the conduits for blood still visible on its top indicate4 ,near it1 then1 or on it the altar of burnt-offerings stood4 ,we learn from ,ezekiel1 who had served as a priest in the temple of ,solomon1 that the temple faced the east1 that it stood to the west of the altar1 and that there was room between the temple and the altar for twenty-five men4 7,see ,ezek4 #h3af47 ,the temple was a rectangular building with its greatest length running east and west4 ,its measurements were #abd feet for the length1 #ej for the breadth1 and #ee for the height4 ,it was constructed of stones and cedar beams4 ,the outer temple1 afterward called the holy place1 was #gj feet long1 #cd feet wide1 and #eb feet high4 ,back of it was the holy of holies1 where the ark was placed4 ,it was a cube #cd feet each way4 ,apparently there was a chamber above it4#bdd ,this room was adorned with carvings of cherubim1 palms1 and open flowers 7#a ,kings #f3bi1 #cb1 #ce74 ,it had no window4 ,according to #b ,chron4 #c3ad1 it was separated from the holy place by a veil4 ,the holy place contained the table of show-bread and ten golden lamp-stands 7#a ,kings #g3di74bde ,the lattice work high up in the walls of this room 7#a ,kings #f3d7 can have admitted only an uncertain light4 ,the building was richly adorned with cedar and gold4 ,it consisted of three stories1 and the walls were of varying thickness1 since ledges were built in them to receive the beams of the different stories4 ,each story contained a series of chambers for storage or the use of the priests4 ,those of the first story were five cubits wide1 those of the second six1 and those of the third seven2 7see ,figs4 #bdg-bdi74 ,in front of the temple was a porch of unknown height1 and before this were two bronze pillars with ornamented tops1 named ,jachin and ,boaz4 ,a little to the southeast of the temple in the open air was a brazen laver supported by twelve brazen oxen 7#a ,kings #g3bc-bf1 #ci74 ,before the temple ,solomon also placed a brazen altar 7#b ,chron4 #a3e1 #f2 #b ,kings #af3ad74 ,another article of temple furniture is described as a 8base40 ,it was apparently a portable holder for a laver4 ,it was made of bronze1 provided with wheels1 and ornamented with figures of lions1 cherubim1 and palm-trees 7#a ,kings #g3bg-cg72 7see ,figs4 #bea1 #beb74 ,it is clear that the temple was not1 like a modern church1 intended for the accommodation of the people4 ,it was simply ,jehovah's dwelling4 ,hither the priests might come to bring the offerings of the people1 and to propitiate him4 ,solomon surrounded the temple with a court enclosed by a wall of three courses of hewn stones and cedar beams 7#a ,kings #f3cf74 ,this court became in later time the auditorium of the nation4 ,outside of this was a larger court with walls of similar construction 7#a ,kings #g3ab72 7see ,fig4 #bdc74 7#c7 ,solomon's ,palace4--,just to the south of the temple court1 separated from it only by a wall1 was a middle court in which was ,solomon's own palace and the palace of ,pharaoh's daughter 7#a ,kings #g3h74 ,these palaces were a little lower down the hill than the temple1 and ,solomon had a private 8ascent0 by which he could go up into the temple 7#a ,kings #aj3e74 ,the royal palaces were so near that a shout in the court around the altar could be heard in the palace 7#b ,kings #aa3ab1 #ac74 ,these palaces were built of hewn stone and cedar4 ,south of this court was still another1 separated from it by a wall4 ,in this most southerly and lowest of the courts stood the hall of state1 in which was the throne room1 where ,solomon sat in judgment4 ,this hall was paneled with cedar from floor to roof4 ,the throne was of ivory1 was approached by six steps1 and flanked on each side by lions 7#a ,kings #aj3ah-bj74 ,south of this and probably intended as its vestibule was the 8porch of pillars10 #hf by #eb feet 7#a ,kings #g3f74 ,still south of this stood the 8house of the forest of ,lebanon0 7#a ,kings #g3b71 so called because its four rows of cedar pillars were poetically suggestive of a ,lebanon forest4 ,this was the largest of all the buildings1 being #agb feet long1 #hf feet wide1 and #eb feet high4 ,there seem to have been two stories1 the uppermost of which was supported by #de pillars in three rows4 ,josephus says that the upper room of this hall was designed to 8contain a great body of men1 who would come together to have their causes determined40#bdf ,he may have been influenced1 however1 in making the statement by the customs of his own time4 ,as one went northward1 then1 up the hill from the 8city of ,david10 he passed through a gateway into the large court4 ,in this court he came first to the 8house of the forest of ,lebanon40 ,beyond this he would enter through the 8porch of pillars0 into the splendid hall of judgment with its imposing throne4 ,if he were a favored servant or an honored guest of the king1 he might be admitted to the inner court1 in which case he would behold the imposing palaces of ,solomon and his principal queen4 ,a passageway to the eastward of this more private court led the person not so favored to the sacred court about the temple4 ,in the construction of these buildings ,solomon employed ,phnician architects and workmen4 ,his buildings were1 therefore1 more imposing than those ordinarily erected in ,palestine4 ,the ,phnicians were the intermediaries of the ancient world1 and were the recipients of influences from ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 the ,hittites1 ,cyprus1 and the ,mycenean world4 ,through them something of the world's architectural culture touched the buildings of ,solomon4 #h4 ,from ,solomon to ,hezekiah4--,between the time of ,solomon and ,hezekiah1 the ,bible furnishes us with but little information about ,jerusalem4 ,one topographical fact is given us in the narrative of the war between ,amaziah of ,judah and ,jehoash of ,israel1 before #ghb ,b4 ,c4 ,after ,jehoash had been victorious in the battle at ,beth-shemesh1 he came up to ,jerusalem and 8brake down the wall of ,jerusalem from the gate of ,ephraim unto the corner gate1 four hundred cubits0 7#b ,kings #ad3ac72 7see ,fig4 #cjd74 ,this wall was afterward repaired by ,uzziah1 who strengthened it with towers4 ,indeed1 it seems probable that ,uzziah's work was more extensive and that1 in order to render the city more impregnable1 he added a second wall on the north4 ,certainly a wall existed here before the ,exile1 for when ,nehemiah rebuilt the walls1 this wall joined the temple area at its northwest corner1 and we know of no king after ,uzziah who would be likely to construct such a defence unless it was ,hezekiah4 ,as the city easily withstood the attack of ,pekah and ,rezin in #gce 7,isa4 #g3a1 ff471 it seems probable that ,uzziah was the builder4 ,this wall by whomsoever it was built was in all probability on the line of the so-called 8second wall0 of ,josephus4 ,as to just what its course was we cannot now tell1 further than that it started from near the ,corner ,gate1 near where the modern ,turkish fortress now stands1 and terminated at the temple area4 ,some have supposed that after leaving the ,corner ,gate it ran as far northward as the line on which the northern wall of the modern city runs1 then eastward from there to a point near the present ,damascus ,gate1 and then turned southward to the temple area4 ,this seems improbable1 however1 since in the time of ,zechariah the tower of ,hananel1 which stood near the northwest corner of the present area of the ,mosque of ,omar1 was the most northerly point of the city4 ,it is thus possible that this second wall may have run south of the site of the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher4 ,its whole course accordingly lies underneath the present city4 ,none of this has been excavated except a short part of the course near the ancient ,corner ,gate4 ,in #ahhe1 when digging was in progress for the foundations of the ,grand ,new ,hotel1 just inside the ,jaffa ,gate and north of the ,turkish fortress1 a course of large ,jewish stones was laid bare which the late ,dr4 ,merrill and others believed to be a part of this second wall4 ,the nature of the digging did not1 however1 disclose its course for any great distance2 the part revealed ran nearly north and south4 ,unless ,solomon built the wall which ran from ,maudsley's scarp at the northwest corner of the western hill eastward down the slope of that hill to the southern point of the eastern hill1 it must have been built by some king of this period4 ,no hint is given us as to who built this wall4 ,it may have been done in the reign of ,jehoshaphat1 which was a period of prosperity and expansion 7#b ,kings #c3d-ab71 or in the reign of ,uzziah1 which was also a very prosperous time4 ,the need of stronger defenses created by the advance of the ,assyrians into western ,asia in the ninth and eighth centuries ,b4 ,c4 makes it probable that ,uzziah was the builder4 ,at all events it was accomplished by the time of ,hezekiah4 ,in the reign of ,ahaz there was a conduit 7,isa4 #g3c7 leading from the 8upper pool10 or ,gihon1 to a lower pool1 which probably lay somewhere near the mouth of the ,tyropon valley4 ,this conduit has been discovered4 ,it was designed partly to conduct water from ,gihon out into the valley of the ,kidron for the irrigation of the king's gardens1 and partly to fill the lower pool so that cattle could come and drink4 ,isaiah refers to the waters of this conduit as 8the waters of ,shiloah that go softly0 7,isa4 #h3f74 ,of course1 this conduit was in ,isaiah's time an old one4 ,it is impossible to tell when it was first constructed4 ,it may have been made as early as the time of ,solomon or ,david1 or even in ,jebusite times4 ,in the reign of ,ahaz a change was made in the nature of the altar of burnt-offerings in the temple4 ,when ,ahaz went to ,damascus to do homage to ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv of ,assyria1 he saw an altar that pleased him1 and sent a pattern of it home to the high priest1 ,urijah1 with directions to have one made like it for the temple4 ,this ,urijah did4 ,this altar was apparently constructed of stone4 ,it displaced the brazen altar of ,solomon1 which was henceforth kept for the king's private use 7#b ,kings #af3aj-af74 ,it is thought by some that the measurements of this stone altar are reproduced in ,ezekiel #dc3ac-ag4 ,the brazen altar had always been out of accord with the ,hebrew law4 7,see ,exod4 #bj3bd-bf47 #i4 ,hezekiah4--,apart from his reform 7#b ,kings #ah3a-f7 and the invasions of ,sennacherib 7#b ,kings #ah3i1 ff471 the event of especial interest mentioned in connection with ,hezekiah is that 8he made the pool and the conduit and brought the water into the city0 7#b ,kings #bj3bj74 ,scholars are agreed that this refers to the rock-cut aqueduct in which the ,siloam inscription was found4#bdg ,this was for the time of its construction a notable engineering achievement1 though recent exploration of the tunnel shows that the workers frequently went astray and cut in directions that they did not intend4 ,indeed1 it is probable that the great bends in the tunnel were made on account of such mistakes and not as ,clermont-,ganneau formerly thought in order to avoid the tombs of the kings4 ,up to the present1 search for these tombs has been vain4 ,they must have been somewhere on the eastern hill1 but there is no reason to believe that they were at the great depth at which this tunnel was cut through the rock4 ,if the supposition made above as to the walls of ,uzziah is correct1 it was ,hezekiah who built the first wall across the mouth of the ,tyropon valley so as to enclose within the city his new pool4 ,this wall was found by ,bliss4 ,it formed the dam of the pool4 ,it was strongly buttressed and had been rebuilt from time to time4 ,bliss detected five periods in its history4#bdh #aj4 ,from ,hezekiah to the ,exile4--,after ,hezekiah1 the general features of ,jerusalem remained the same down to the time of the ,babylonian ,exile in #ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,we hear of a ,fish ,gate1 probably where it was at a later time1 at the north of the city in the wall built by ,uzziah4 ,zephaniah mentions in connection with it 8the second quarter0 of the city 7,zeph4 #a3aj71 which was probably the part of the town between the north wall of ,uzziah and the older north wall of ,solomon on the western hill4 ,the prophetess ,huldah lived there in the time of ,josiah 7#b ,kings #bb3ad74 ,zephaniah also mentions a part of the city called ,maktesh or the ,mortar 7,zeph4 #a3aa74 ,this was a part of ,jerusalem occupied by ,phnician traders and craftsmen4 ,it was probably in the hollow between the two hills1 i4 e41 in the ,tyropon valley4 ,in the reign of ,manasseh we hear of the sacrifice of children4 ,for this purpose a pit was excavated on the floor of the valley of ,hinnom1 to the south of the city1 and arrangements were made to burn the victims4 ,this was called ,topheth 7,jer4 #g3ca74 ,later it was defiled 7#b ,kings #bc3aj71 and to perpetuate the defilement refuse from the city seems to have been burned there4 ,the valley of ,hinnom is in ,hebrew gai hinnom4 ,later generations conceived that the heavenly ,jerusalem had also its valley of ,hinnom for the consumption of its refuse1 hence gai hinnom is used in the ,new ,testament in the form ,gehenna as a name of hell4 7,see ,matt4 #e3bi2 #aj3bh47 #aa4 ,the ,destruction of #ehf ,b4 ,c4--,toward the end of the siege of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadrezzar in the year #ehf it is said that the men of war fled by the way of the gate between the two walls which was by the king's garden 7#b ,kings #be3d74 ,this was evidently a gate by the ,pool of ,siloam1 where the two walls of the eastern hill and the wall which came down the western hill and crossed the mouth of the ,tyropon valley all came together4#bdi ,in ,august of the year #ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,jerusalem was destroyed by ,nebuchadrezzar4 ,the temple1 the royal palace1 and the residences of the principal men were burned and the walls of the city were broken down 7#b ,kings #be3i1 #aj74 ,all that was combustible was burned1 including the city gates 7,neh4 #a3c74 ,all portable things of value were carried away4 ,jerusalem now entered on a period of desolation4 ,the city was probably not entirely deserted4 ,some of the poor who still managed to extract a subsistence from the desolate hills still found shelter in her ruins4 ,all the well-to-do inhabitants were transported to ,babylonia4 ,it is often assumed that the site of the temple was unused during the ,exile and that no offerings were made there1 but ,jer4 #da3d1 #e shows that this was not the case4 ,probably an altar was repaired very soon1 and the poor people still went through their most indispensable religious ceremonies amid the desolation1 for men came from ,samaria two months after the destruction of the city to celebrate there the ,feast of ,tabernacles4 ,this destruction of the city and the deportation of its population made a very deep impression on the ,jews4 ,how their affections clung to the desolate and defaced city is touchingly depicted in the book of ,lamentations and in the #acgth ,psalm4 ,indeed1 the destruction of the real ,jerusalem was the beginning of that ideal ,jerusalem which has been so influential in the religious history of the world4#bej #ab4 ,the ,second ,temple4--,beyond the erection of an altar1 already mentioned1 the first steps toward the rebuilding of the temple were taken1 so many scholars think1 in the second year of ,king ,darius of ,persia1 i4 e41 in #ebj ,b4 ,c4 ,eighteen years earlier ,cyrus had made it possible for this to be done1#bea but for various reasons it had not been undertaken4#beb ,the man whose preaching moved the people to begin the rebuilding was ,haggai1 and the circumstances under which he did it are recounted in his book4 ,haggai's persuasion was later seconded by the efforts of ,zechariah4 ,through four years the house slowly rose1 and was finally completed in ,march of the sixth year of ,darius 7#eaf ,b4 ,c471 five months less than #gj years after it was destroyed4 ,there is no doubt that the second temple was built on the lines of the first1 which were probably still traceable in the dbris4 ,it was also constructed of stone which still lay about the top of the hill--stone that had been used in the work of ,solomon4 ,it was not because it was smaller than the first temple that old men who had seen that wept as they looked on the new one 7,ezra #c3ab71 but because it was less ornate4 ,it was probably without ornament4 ,josephus 7,contra ,apion1 i1 #bb7 says that the temple court was enclosed by a wall a plethra in length and #ajj ,greek cubits in breadth1 i4 e41 #dhe by #ade feet4 ,it was not1 then1 very large4 ,it is uncertain whether there was at this time more than one court2 #a ,macc4 #d3dh speaks of 8courts10 but ,josephus tells#bec how the people pelted ,alexander ,jannus with citrons while he was officiating at the altar during the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 so that it is probable that the courts were not separated by a wall1 but by a difference of elevation4 ,the inner court was probably higher than the other1 as it is around the ,mosque of ,omar today4 ,within this court was an altar of unhewn stones4 ,the temple itself consisted as before of the holy place and the holy of holies4 ,before the holy place was a porch1 and around the building there were many small chambers as formerly4 ,the holy of holies was separated from the holy place by a veil 7#a ,macc4 #a3bb71 but now it contained no ark of the covenant1 as that had been lost in #ehf ,b4 ,c4 ,the holy of holies in the second temple was empty except for the 8stone of foundation0 on which the high priest placed his censer on the day of atonement4#bed ,in the holy place the table of show-bread stood in front of the veil4 ,instead of the ten golden lamp-stands of ,solomon's temple there now stood there the lamp with seven branches 7see ,zech4 #d74 ,a golden altar of incense replaced it 7#a ,macc4 #a3ba7 in the time of the ,maccabees1 though it may not have been placed there before the time of ,ezra4 ,such was the temple as reconstructed after the ,exile4 ,in one important respect its perspective was changed4 ,the royal palace and the administrative buildings1 which before the ,exile had shared the crest of the northern spur of ,zion with the temple1 were not rebuilt4 ,the temple stood there alone4 ,little by little the part of the hill to the south of the temple was cleared of the dbris and the ground became a temple court4 ,this was significant of the religious condition of the post-exilic time4 ,kings had vanished2 the worship of ,jehovah held the supreme place in the thought of the people4 #ac4 ,nehemiah and the ,walls4--,for seventy-two years after the temple was rebuilt1 the walls of the city still lay in ruins4 ,that they were at last restored was due to the patriotism and energy of a noble young ,jew1 ,nehemiah1 who had been a cup-bearer to ,artaxerxes ,i of ,persia4 ,the story of how he obtained the royal permission to return to ,jerusalem as governor1 with authority to rebuild the walls1 how upon his arrival he traced by their ruins the lines of the old walls1 with what energy and amid what difficulties he pushed their rebuilding to completion in the course of three months in the year #ddd ,b4 ,c41 is told in detail in ,nehemiah #a-g and need not be repeated here4 ,at the northwest corner of the western hill there was placed in the wall at this time a gate called the ,valley ,gate 7,neh4 #c3ac74 ,this was the gate discovered by ,bliss#bee a little to the east of the old fortress on ,maudsley's scarp4 ,when the wall was completed1 a ceremony of dedication was held4 ,at this festival two processions started from this ,valley ,gate2 one of these went around the south side of the city1 the other around the north side 7,neh4 #ab3ca-dj74 ,they met at the temple4 ,the procession that went around the south side of the city passed by the ,dung ,gate1 which was situated in the southern wall well down the hill1 then by the ,fountain ,gate1 near the ,pool of ,siloam1 then up the 8ascent of the wall0 by the stairs of the 8,city of ,david10 and passed the ,water ,gate somewhere above the spring of ,gihon4 ,still above this1 probably just to the east of the temple area1 was the ,horse ,gate 7,neh4 #c3bh74 ,the other company1 starting from the ,valley ,gate at the southwest corner of the city1 passed northward by the 8,tower of the ,furnaces0 unto the broad wall1 above the ,gate of ,ephraim1 by the ,old ,gate1 and by the ,fish ,gate1 past the ,tower of ,hananel and the ,tower of ,hammeah1 unto the ,sheep ,gate4 ,this description1 together with the line of the previous wall1 enables us approximately to determine the outline of post-exilic ,jerusalem2 7see ,fig4 #cje74 ,the one point of doubt has to do with the line of the second wall on the north of the city1 laid out probably by ,uzziah4 ,as that line is directly under the present city it has never been possible to follow it by excavations4 ,we can only conjecture what its course may have been4 ,the towers of ,hananel and ,hammeah were clearly north of the temple area4 ,they probably fortified the wall along the edge of a shallow valley which separated ,moriah from the hill north of it4 ,this hill was later called ,bezetha4 #ad4 ,late ,persian and ,early ,greek ,periods4--,after the time of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 we have no clear topographical references to ,jerusalem until the second century ,b4 ,c4 ,it seems probable that ,jerusalem and ,judah rebelled against one of the later ,persian kings and that the city suffered4#bef ,we hear that ,ptolemy ,i of ,egypt also captured ,jerusalem1#beg but whether these experiences led to any modification in the form of the city1 we do not know4 ,the ,wisdom of ,jesus1 the ,son of ,sirach1 often called ,ecclesiasticus1 which was written about #ahj ,b4 ,c41 indicates that ,jerusalem was a carefully organized city4 ,many professions and much commerce were represented in it1 as well as many human sins and foibles4#beh ,the author declares#bei that a high priest1 ,simon1 the son of ,onias 7probably ,simon ,,ii1 #bah-aih ,b4 ,c471 repaired the temple and fortified the city4 ,what the nature of either work was1 we do not know4 ,so far as can be ascertained1 he confined himself to the strengthening of old defenses1 and did not change the topography4 ,in the early part of the reign of ,antiochus ,,iv1 while many ,jews were kindly inclined to ,greek culture and to ,greek ways1 an outdoor gymnasium was established in ,jerusalem4#bfj ,this was in a hollow just above the ,tyropon valley to the west of the south end of the temple enclosure4#bfa ,josephus calls it the ,xystus1 a ,greek name that reveals its character4 ,some reminder that it was once a gymnasium perhaps lingers in ,maidan1 the modern ,arabic name for the locality1 which means hippodrome1 or place of combat4 #ae4 ,in the ,time of the ,maccabees4--,in the ,maccaban period the city was divided into three parts--the city proper1 the temple1 and the ,akra or citadel4 ,as to the situation of the ,akra1 there is a wide difference of opinion4 ,into the different theories it is impossible to go4#bfb ,the writer agrees with ,george ,adam ,smith1 that in all probability the ,akra was the 8,city of ,david0 of the earlier time1 as #a ,maccabees states 7#a3cc2 #g3cb1 #cc2 #ad3cf74 ,we first hear of this ,akra in #aih ,b4 ,c41 when an ,egyptian garrison held out in it against ,antiochus ,,iii4#bfc ,it was so shut off from the rest of ,jerusalem that1 though1 after the onslaught of ,antiochus ,,iv on the ,jews in #afh ,b4 ,c41 ,judas ,maccabus recovered the city and temple as early as #afe ,b4 ,c41 the ,syrians kept possession of the ,akra for twenty-three years more1 until they were finally dislodged by ,simon the ,maccabee in #adb ,b4 ,c4#bfd #af4 ,asmonan ,jerusalem4--,during the ,asmonan dynasty which grew out of the ,maccaban struggle1#bfe three new features were added to ,jerusalem4 ,one was a castle1 to the northward of the temple area built by ,john ,hyrcanus ,i1 #ace-aje ,b4 ,c4#bff ,this was known to ,greek-speaking ,jews as ,baris1 which is a corruption of the ,hebrew ,birah1 a fortress4 ,its walls are massive and high4 ,it commanded the approach to the temple area from the north1 and greatly strengthened the effectiveness of the temple fortification4 ,one of the ,asmonans1 probably ,john ,hyrcanus ,i1 built a palace in ,jerusalem4#bfg ,this palace apparently stood on the site now occupied by the ,synagogue of the ,german ,jews in ,jerusalem4#bfh ,it was connected with the temple area by a bridge1#bfi of which a remnant of the easternmost span1 now called 8,robinson's ,arch10#bgj is still visible on the western wall of the temple enclosure4 ,this bridge was destroyed by ,pompey when he captured ,jerusalem in #fc ,b4 ,c41#bga and its remains were found by ,warren in the bottom of the ,tyropon valley1 #hj feet below the present surface of the ground4#bgb ,as the ,asmonans were high priests as well as kings1 this bridge gave them easy access to the temple from their palace4 ,the palace itself1 situated on a part of the western hill that overtopped the temple hill1 was so placed that the royal priest could sit in his palace and watch what was transpiring in the temple courts and in the valley below4 ,the third accomplishment of the ,asmonans was probably the construction of ,solomon's ,pools and the ,high ,level ,aqueduct by which the water was brought into ,jerusalem4#bgc ,this work appears also to have been accomplished by ,john ,hyrcanus ,i1 for ,timarchus1 the biographer of ,antiochus ,,vii1 who was a contemporary of ,hyrcanus ,i1 says of ,jerusalem that 8the whole city runs down with waters1 so that even the gardens are irrigated by the water which flows off from it40#bgd ,such a description would be quite unfitting1 if all the water had been supplied by ,gihon1 ,en-rogel1 and the cisterns about ,jerusalem4 ,it implies that a perpetual stream of water1 such as came through one of the aqueducts1 flowed into the city4 ,one other structure is attributed to an ,asmonan4 ,alexander ,jannus was very unpopular with the ,pharisees1 and once1 as already noted1 he was pelted by the people with citrons4 ,he thereupon erected a wooden barrier around the temple and the altar1 thus excluding the laity from a close approach to the temple1#bge and creating a court for the priests alone4 ,jerusalem suffered from four sieges in the troublous days when the ,asmonan power was waning and that of ,rome was being established4 ,the first was by ,haretat1 ,king of the ,nabathans1 in #fe ,b4 ,c41 but was lifted without result4#bgf ,the second was that of ,pompey in #fc ,b4 ,c4 ,it resulted in the capture of the city and in considerable damage4 ,the bridge across the ,tyropon to the royal palace was broken down4#bgg ,the third was that of the ,partisans in #dj ,b4 ,c41 when they captured the city and placed ,antigonus1 son of ,aristobulus ,,ii1 on the throne4#bgh ,the fourth was that by which ,herod the ,great became master of ,jerusalem in #cg ,b4 ,c4 ,at this time a part of the two northern walls were broken down4#bgi ,the topography of the city was in no way changed until after the conquest by ,herod1 who changed the face of ,jerusalem in many ways4 #ag4 ,herod the ,great4--,the first work of ,herod was to rebuild and strengthen the fortress to the north of the temple4 ,this he did at the beginning of his reign while ,mark ,antony was still in power in the ,east4 ,he accordingly renamed the castle ,antonia4#bhj ,herod also rebuilt and strengthened the walls which he had battered down in taking ,jerusalem1 adding towers to make them more impregnable4 ,at the southwest corner of the city he erected three new towers1--,hippacus1 ,phasael1 and ,mariamne4#bha ,these all probably stood in or near the space now covered by the ,turkish fortress at the ,jaffa ,gate4 ,hippacus was apparently the northwest tower of the present citadel1 ,phasael the easternmost of the towers in the same structure1 which still bears the name 8,tower of ,david02 ,mariamne lay to the east of these4 ,hippacus was #hj cubits high1 ,phasael #ij1 and ,mariamne #ej4 ,on the north of these1 perhaps near the point where the northwest corner of the present city wall is1 stood ,psephinus1 an octagonal tower #gj cubits high4 7#a7 ,herod's ,palace4--,in connection with the towers ,hippacus and ,phasael and on the site of the present ,turkish citadel1 ,herod built a new and splendid royal palace4#bhb ,its walls on the west and north were the same as the old city walls2 on the east and south1 walls of the same massiveness were erected4 ,it contained two halls1 each the size of the sanctuary1 with couches within for a hundred guests4 ,there were many other richly furnished chambers4 ,the towers and the palace were faced with marble4 ,stretching to the southward1 of the palace were colonnades which bordered on open courts1 in which shrubberies1 fountains1 and long walks abounded4 ,these fountains were fed by the ,high ,level ,aqueduct4 ,this palace commanded the highest point of the southwestern hill4 ,its construction finally transferred the controlling power to the western hill1 or as ,josephus calls it1 the 8,upper ,city40 ,ever after this the western hill was the seat of political power4 ,when ,procurators ruled ,juda this palace became the prtorium4#bhc ,it was to this castle that our ,saviour was brought to be tried by ,pontius ,pilate4 ,it was to its entrance1 probably on the east1 that ,pilate brought ,jesus and offered to release him1 when the people cried3 8,away with this man 444 crucify him0 7,luke #bc3 #ah1 #ba74 ,this palace1 built by one of the ablest and most unscrupulous of men1 is thus associated with one of the most sacred and tragic moments of history4 ,from that day to this it has remained the seat of political authority in ,jerusalem4 ,its presence on the western hill has gradually drawn the name ,zion from the original city of ,david to the western hill1 and so distorted the ,old ,testament traditions that even several modern scholars#bhd still refuse to give credence to the clear voice of the ,old ,testament as to the site of the original ,zion4 ,the palace1 battered down and rebuilt again and again1 still retains in its walls many of the massive stones of ,herod4 ,this palace was completed about #bc ,b4 ,c4 7#b7 ,herod's ,theater4--,about #be ,b4 ,c4 ,herod founded an athletic gathering to be celebrated every five years in honor of ,augustus4#bhe ,josephus1 in speaking of this fact1 says that ,herod built a theater in ,jerusalem1 and also a very great amphitheater in the plain4 ,if he actually built a theater in the city1 all traces of it have disappeared4 ,to the south of the city on a hill considerably beyond the ,valley of ,hinnom1 the remains of a great theater were discovered some years ago by the late ,dr4 ,schick4#bhf ,this theater faced the north1 its diameter was more than #acj feet1 and spectators seated in it could see ,jerusalem in the distance4 ,it is thought by some scholars that this is the theater to which ,josephus alludes1 as ,herod would hardly have ventured to outrage ,jewish feeling by placing such a structure in the sacred city4 ,if the discovery of ,dr4 ,schick represents ,herod's theater1 it is quite unknown where the 8amphitheater in the plain10 to which ,josephus makes reference1 was situated4 7#c7 ,herod's ,temple4--,when the palace of ,herod was completed1 the splendid structures of ,antonia and the palace quite overshadowed the old dingy temple4 ,the temple had frequently been repaired by the high priests1 and perhaps during the ,maccaban time had been somewhat embellished1 but it nevertheless remained essentially as it had been rebuilt after the ,exile4 ,herod had built ,sebaste on the site of ancient ,samaria in #bg ,b4 ,c41 and began about #bb ,b4 ,c4 to build ,csarea4 ,in these and other cities he had erected splendid temples to heathen deities2 naturally he desired to make the temple of his capital city worthy to stand beside them4 ,he had difficulty in persuading the ,jews to let him touch the sacred house1 but yielding in many things to their scruples1 work was finally begun in the year #bj-ai ,b4 ,c4 ,some of the priests became carpenters and stone-cutters1 so that no profane hands need touch the sacred shrine4#bhg ,the old temple was taken down and the new one erected in the space of eighteen months4 ,but much remained to be done and the work dragged along until after ,herod's death4 ,in the time of ,christ 8forty and six years was this temple in building0 7,john #b3bj71 and it was not then completed4 ,it was finished only in #fd ,a4 ,d41 six years before it was finally destroyed4#bhh ,the temple itself occupied the site of its predecessor1 and was of the same plan and dimensions4 ,these ,herod did not dare to change4 ,they were consecrated by nearly a thousand years of sacred associations4 ,if he could not enlarge it1 however1 he could make it higher1 and he made its elevation a hundred cubits or #agb feet4 ,he also enlarged the porch1 making it #abj feet broad4 ,the whole was built of huge blocks of white stone1 with plates of gold upon the front4#bhi ,the holy of holies consisted1 as before1 of a dark1 empty room1 #ce feet in each dimension4 ,it was separated from the holy place by curtains1 an outer and an inner1 which were a foot apart4 ,the holy place was still #dj by #bj cubits1 but was now made #dj instead of #cj cubits high4#bij ,its furniture was the same as in the second temple3 the table of show-bread1 the altar of incense1 and the lamp with seven branches2 7,fig4 #bej74 ,the entrance to the holy place1 #ae cubits wide and #gj cubits high1 was not closed by doors4 ,josephus declares that it was left open to set forth the 8unobstructed openness of heaven40#bia ,on the top of the temple1 spikes with sharp points were arranged to prevent birds from lighting upon it and defiling it4 ,twelve broad steps led down from the temple to the court of the priests4#bib ,these steps occupied nearly all the #bb cubits of space between the porch and the altar4 ,not far from the steps at the south stood the great laver1 which had replaced the brazen sea of ,solomon's temple4 ,the altar of unhewn stones rose upon the sacred rock--sacred since the days of the ,jebusites 7and possibly since the stone age71 to which it was fitted by masonry4 ,the base of the altar was #cb cubits square and #a high4 ,on this rose a structure #cj cubits square and #e cubits high4 ,on this was a ledge #a cubit broad1 to which the horns of the altar were attached4 ,not far above was another ledge1 also a cubit broad1 on which the officiating priests might stand4 ,above this was the altar hearth itself1 which was #bd cubits square4 ,south of the altar was a structure of masonry on which priests could stand2 north of it1 the place for the slaughter of the victims4 ,here the victims to be slain were tied to rings in the pavement4 ,there were tables of marble on which they could be washed and flayed4 ,beams supported by pillars also contained hooks on which they could be hung for quartering4 ,herod1 as noted above1#bic probably constructed the ,low ,level ,aqueduct4 ,by means of this he brought a larger supply of water into the temple area1 so that there was an abundance of water with which to flush the holy place1 and wash away the blood and refuse with which the place must often have reeked1 especially on festal days4 ,a low wall a cubit in height marked off the court of the priests from the court of ,israel4 ,accounts differ as to whether this wall was on the east only or whether it ran around the whole temple4 ,the court of ,israel lay to the east of the court of the priests4 ,again our sources of information differ as to its exact size4 ,here the 8congregation of ,israel0 could assemble to witness the sacred sacrifices4 ,to the east of the court of ,israel lay the court of the women4 ,these were separated by a wall1 but1 owing to the downward slope of the hill1 the court of the women was fifteen steps lower than that of ,israel4 ,indeed1 the level of the court of ,israel was only maintained by a series of arches which supported a pavement4 ,perhaps the idea of a court for the women had been a gradual development of the post-exilic time1 in which they had been permitted to watch the sacrifices from a definitely defined position in the rear of the men4 ,at all events1 this court became a prominent feature in the temple of ,herod1 and from elevated seats on its eastern side women could still watch the sacred ceremonies of the temple4 ,with the exception of this gallery1 the court of the women was open to men4 ,it was #ace cubits square and so was relatively large4 ,apparently the temple treasury was situated in this court1 together with the money boxes1 for women had access to these4 ,here probably ,christ was sitting when he saw the poor widow cast into the treasury her two mites 7,mark #ab3da1 f42 ,luke #ba3a1 f74 ,around these courts ran a wall #dc feet high4 ,this wall was pierced by nine gates1 four on the north1 four on the south1 and one on the east4 ,a gate also separated the court of the women from the court of ,israel4 ,either the gate that opened out of the court of the women to the eastward1 or the one between the court of the women and the court of ,israel 7it is uncertain which one7 had been given by one ,nicanor and was of fine ,corinthian bronze4 ,it was sometimes called 8the gate beautiful0 and sometimes 8,nicanor's gate40 ,it was by this gate1 and so near the treasury where people were devoting their money to religion1 that ,peter and ,john found the lame man begging 7,acts #c3b1 f474 ,outside all these courts lay the court of the ,gentiles4 ,this was separated from the courts described above by a ,soreg or ritual wall1 which no ,gentile might pass4 ,herod placed inscriptions in ,greek at the various gates in this ritual wall1 which warned ,gentiles on pain of death not to enter4 ,the court of the ,gentiles surrounded the other courts on the north1 east1 and south2 it was1 however1 most extensive on the east and south2 7,fig4 #beg74 ,to obtain a greater area for this court on the south1 ,herod extended the level of the hill by erecting great arches which supported a pavement4 ,this structure still remains2 it is now called 8,solomon's stables02 7,fig4 #beh74 ,in the ,crusading period horses were stabled there4 ,around the court thus enlarged ran a beautiful colonnade4 ,the pillars for this and for ,herod's palace were quarried from the rock around ,jerusalem4 ,one pillar which had a defect and was accordingly never moved from the quarry was found a few years since in front of the ,russian cathedral north of the city4 ,although the temple has passed away and other sacred buildings have since the second century been erected in succession near its site1 the expanse of the court of the ,gentiles remains1 and as the devout ,christian visits it he seems almost to hear the footfalls of ,christ and of ,paul6 #ah4 ,the ,pool of ,bethesda4--,another spot connected with the life of ,christ lay not far from the temple on the north2 it was the ,pool of ,bethesda4 ,it was situated near the ,sheep ,gate1 which was just northeast of the temple4 ,since the thirteenth century the ,birket ,israin#bid which lies between the temple area and the modern ,st4 ,stephen's ,gate has been identified by some with ,bethesda4 ,since #ahhi it has been thought by many that two pools discovered in that year1 now far under ground1 in the land of the ,church of ,st4 ,anne1 just north of ,st4 ,stephen's ,gate1 constituted the ,pool of ,bethesda2 7see ,fig4 #bei74 ,it is really impossible to decide between the two possibilities on the evidence we have4 ,both are in the region where we should look for the ,pool of ,bethesda4 #ai4 ,gethsemane4--,two other spots near ,jerusalem are of the deepest interest to the ,christian student--the ,garden of ,gethsemane and ,golgotha4 ,the fact is certain that the ,garden of ,gethsemane lay on the western slope of the ,mount of ,olives4 7,see ,luke #bb3ci2 ,john #ah3a2 ,mark #ad3bf1 #cb47 ,since the sixteenth century the ,roman ,catholics have shown a little garden1 which lies just above the ,kidron1 as the ,garden of ,gethsemane4 ,more recently the ,russian ,church has walled in the space next above it as the real garden4 ,there is no certainty that the garden was on either site4 ,to the ,jews of the first century a garden was not a place for flower-beds1 but an olive orchard1 and such an orchard may have extended widely over the hillside4 ,we cannot now identify the spot made sacred by the ,master's agony1 but we know as we look at this hillside that it was somewhere on it4 #bj4 ,calvary4--,the site of ,calvary or ,golgotha is not so easily discerned4 ,since the year #cbf ,a4 ,d41 when ,helena1 the mother of the ,emperor ,constantine1 visited ,jerusalem1 there has been a continuous tradition in favor of the site on which the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher stands4 ,we know from ,hebrews #ac3ab that the crucifixion took place outside the city walls4 ,unfortunately1 we cannot tell whether the second wall of this period ran north or south of the spot on which the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher stands1 for the whole region lies under the modern city1 where excavation has been impossible4 ,if the second wall turned eastward before it had gone as far north as this spot1 it may well be that the crucifixion occurred where the church now stands4 ,pilate condemned ,jesus at the palace of ,herod near the gate ,gennath at the northwest corner of the city of that day4 ,doubtless the mob swept along with ,jesus through the gate ,gennath to the spot called ,golgotha4 ,if the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher was on that spot1 the walk was not a long one2 7see ,fig4 #bfj74 ,in #ahdi ,otto ,thenius suggested that the hill north of the modern ,damascus ,gate above 8,jeremiah's ,grotto0 was the real ,golgotha2 7,figs4 #bfa1 #bfb74 ,this was also suggested by ,fisher ,howe in #ahga1 and advocated by ,gen4 ,c4 ,e4 ,gordon in #ahha4 ,near it is a garden in which is a rock-hewn tomb2 7,figs4 #bfc1 #bfd74 ,since the days of ,gordon a kind of ,protestant tradition and cult has grown up about this spot that in certain quarters evokes some of the devotion called forth among ,catholics and ,oriental ,christians by the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulcher4 ,it must be said that the tomb in the garden is1 like many similar tombs in the neighborhood1 probably not earlier than the third or fourth century ,a4 ,d41 and there is really no more reason for regarding this spot as ,golgotha than any other hill-top near the city4 ,the exact spot where our ,lord suffered is not certainly known4 ,ecclesiastical tradition has fixed upon many other spots in ,jerusalem as the places where certain events in the life of ,christ occurred1 but none of these has a sufficient degree of probability in its favor to merit a mention in an archological work4 #ba4 ,agrippa ,i and the ,third ,wall4--,in the reign of ,herod ,agrippa ,i 7#da-dd ,a4 ,d471 ,jerusalem was again enlarged4 ,agrippa built a third wall on the north4 ,its course is described by ,josephus1#bie but as most of the landmarks mentioned by him are unknown1 opinions differ as to its course4 ,it is certain that it started at the tower ,hippacus and went northward to the tower ,psephinus1 that it enclosed the hill ,bezetha1 and that it ran along the edge of the ,kidron valley to join the old wall4 ,some scholars suppose that it ran about on the line of the present northern ,turkish wall of the city2 others1 as ,robinson and ,merrill1 thought it ran much further north so that its northeastern corner was near the 8,tombs of the ,kings40 ,while there is not decisive evidence in the matter1 the first view1 that the third wall ran near the line of the modern wall1 seems the more probable4 ,this wall was begun by ,agrippa1 who did not dare to finish it lest ,claudius should suspect him of an intention to rebel4 ,it was1 however1 completed by the ,jews before the last tragic struggle of the years #ff-gj1 and formed one of the features of ,jerusalem when ,paul made his later visits to the city4 ,we have not space to follow the fortunes of ,jerusalem further4 ,the history of the 8,virgin ,daughter of ,zion0 since #gj ,a4 ,d41 when the walls were broken down and the temple destroyed never to be rebuilt1 has been no less checkered and tragic than in the centuries that preceded1#bif but the hearts of all ,christians as well as of ,jews and ,mohammedans turn to her with sympathy and affection1 because of their debt to the holy men who at various times1 from ,david to ,paul1 lived in her and walked her streets1 and because of her tragic associations with the life and death of ,one who was more than man4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,decapolis ,,origin4 ,,damascus4 ,,scythopolis4 ,,cities ,,east ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,galilee4 ,,gadara4 ,,pella ,,and ,,dion4 ,,gerasa4 ,,philadelphia4 ,,jesus ,,in ,,the ,,decapolis4 #a4 ,origin4--,three times in the ,gospels the ,decapolis is mentioned3 ,matt4 #d3be2 ,mark #e3bj and #g3ca4 ,decapolis is a ,greek name and means 8the ten city0 7region74 ,the ancient writers who mention it agree that it originally consisted of ten cities in which ,greek population was dominant and which were federated together4 ,pliny#big gives the ten cities as ,damascus1 ,philadelphia1 ,raphana1 ,scythopolis1 ,gadara1 ,hippos1 ,dion1 ,pella1 ,gerasa1 and ,kanatha4 ,ptolemy1 the astronomer and geographer1 in the second century ,a4 ,d4 enumerated eighteen cities as belonging to it4 ,in the time of ,christ it probably consisted of but ten4 ,the ,decapolis apparently was created by the ,roman ,general ,pompey1 when he conquered this region for ,rome in #fe-fc ,b4 ,c4 ,these cities with ,greek populations appear to have appealed to him and he granted them certain privileges1 including a degree of autonomy4 ,they were1 however1 subject to the ,legate of ,syria4 ,hippos1 ,scythopolis1 and ,pella were released by him at this time from the ,jewish yoke4#bih ,josephus1 at the end of the first century ,a4 ,d41 does not reckon ,damascus in the ,decapolis1 but before the time of ,paul1 ,damascus had been captured by the ,nabathans or ,arabians1 and may not1 when retaken by ,rome1 have been again accorded the privileges of the cities of the ,decapolis4 #b4 ,damascus1 which is mentioned in the annals of ,thothmes ,,iii before #addg ,b4 ,c41 and in the accounts of ,abraham 7,gen4 #ad3ae2 #ae3b71 has been continuously in existence as a city ever since1 and is one of the most flourishing cities of ,syria at the present time4 ,it was occupied in the thirteenth or fourteenth century ,b4 ,c4 by ,aramans who held it all through the ,old ,testament period4 ,kings of ,damascus frequently fought with ,israel4 ,from the time of ,alexander the ,great it came under ,hellenic influences4 ,after his death it was first possessed by the ,ptolemies of ,egypt1 but was taken by the ,seleucid kings of ,antioch before #bfa ,b4 ,c4 ,it is situated in one of the most fertile oases of the world--an oasis that ,arabian poets delighted to compare to ,paradise4 ,probably ,alexander's successors1 who1 as we shall see1 built many ,hellenic cities1 beautified this oasis with one of them1 but as the site has been occupied continuously1 no buildings from this time remain4 ,one feature at ,damascus that still recalls ,biblical times is the street called ,straight1 which runs westward from the eastern gate into the heart of the city4 ,it was in a house on the ancient forerunner of this street that ,paul first lodged at the time of his conversion 7,acts #i3aa72 7see ,fig4 #bfe74 ,one other part of ,damascus recalls a ,biblical narrative4 ,this is the river ,barada which still runs through the heart of the city4 ,it is the river called ,abana in #b ,kings #e3ab1 and was said by ,naaman to be 8better than all the waters of ,israel02 7see ,fig4 #bff74 #c4 ,scythopolis was the only one of the cities of the ,decapolis west of the ,jordan4 ,it was on the site of the ,beth-shean of the ,old ,testament 7,josh4 #ag3aa2 #a ,sam4 #ca3aj1 #ab2 #b ,sam4 #ba3ab2 #a ,kings #d3ab74 ,beth-shean was already a city at the time ,palestine was conquered by ,thothmes ,,iii#bii and there has apparently been a town near this spot ever since4 ,it seems to have been called ,scythopolis by the successors of ,alexander the ,great1 probably because a group of ,scythians had taken the city and settled there4 ,when it came into the possession of ,scythians we can only conjecture1 but it was probably at the time of the great ,scythian invasion of ,palestine1 about #fbe-fae ,b4 ,c4 ,this invasion called forth the dark prophecies of the book of ,zephaniah4 ,scythopolis appears from certain coins#cjj to have become a ,hellenic city in the time of ,alexander the ,great4 ,in the time of ,ptolemy ,euergetes ,i1 #bdg-bbb ,b4 ,c41 it was subject to ,egypt1#cja but it passed to the dominions of the ,seleucid of ,antioch in #aih ,b4 ,c4 ,upon the break-up of the ,syrian empire in #fe-fc ,b4 ,c41 ,pompey made it one of the cities of the ,decapolis4 ,the remains of the ,hellenic city have now entirely disappeared with the exception of the great stone amphitheater4 ,this may still be seen#cjb in the valley on the south side of the mound which covers the ruins of the ancient ,beth-shean1 where it is overgrown with briers4 ,the name ,scythopolis has long since disappeared1 and the old ,hebrew name for the place still survives in the name of the modern town ,beisan4 ,this modern town is situated on the south side of the valley mentioned above1 a little distance from the mound which covers the ancient city4 ,scythopolis was situated at the point where the plain of ,jezreel or ,esdraelon joins the ,jordan valley4 ,in the time of ,christ the ,jews from ,nazareth and its vicinity1 when going to the three annual festivals at ,jerusalem1 came down the plain and then followed the ,jordan valley down to ,jericho 7see ,luke #ai3a71 in order to avoid going through ,samaria4 ,from the time that ,jesus was twelve years old he must1 therefore1 have often passed by ,scythopolis on his way to ,jerusalem4 ,as it was a ,gentile town1 however1 neither he nor his companions would enter it on such occasions1 as they would thereby be rendered unclean4 #d4 ,cities ,east of the ,sea of ,galilee4--,to the east of the ,sea of ,galilee lay three of the cities of the ,decapolis4 ,hippos was comparatively near the sea1 where ,susiye now lies4 ,the ,jews of the ,talmudic period called the place ,susitha4#cjc ,hippos is the ,greek for horse4 ,susitha is a ,hebrew translation of this and ,susiye is an ,arabic corruption of the ,hebrew4 ,all traces of the ancient ,hippos except the name have disappeared4 ,where ,raphana was situated has not yet been definitely determined4 ,it is probably the same as ,raphon mentioned in #a ,macc4 #e3cg1 which was near to ,ashteroth-karnaim#cjd 7,gen4 #ad3e74 ,ashteroth-karnaim was situated either at ,tell ,ashtara or at ,tell ,ashary1 both of which are between twenty and twenty-five miles east of the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,raphana1 then1 probably lay about twenty miles due east from ,hippos4 ,still eastward of this lay the city of ,kanatha1 though scholars are divided in opinion as to whether its site is to be identified with ,el-,kerak or with ,kanawat4 ,if its site was at ,el-,kerak it was about forty miles east of the ,sea of ,galilee2 if at ,kanawat it was about fifty-five miles distant from the sea4 ,as there are at ,kanawat abundant ruins of a beautiful ,hellenic city1#cje ,kanatha was probably situated here rather than at ,el-,kerak4 ,this was the ,kenath of ,num4 #cb3db4 #e4 ,gadara4--,a little to the south of the southern end of the ,sea of ,galilee on the east of the ,jordan and south of the ,yarmuk lay the city of ,gadara1 another member of the ,decapolis4 ,its site is now marked by the ruins of ,umm ,keis or ,muks4 ,here ruins of the ,hellenic city are still to be seen1 including a great theater cut out of the black basaltic rock4 ,gadara was a strong fortress as early as the time of ,antiochus the ,great in #bah ,b4 ,c41#cjf and was afterward besieged by ,alexander ,jannus1#cjg #ajd-gi ,b4 ,c4 #f4 ,pella and ,dion4--,on the east of the ,jordan1 a little further south than ,scythopolis or ,beth-shean1 but in the deep depression of the river valley1 ,pella1 another city of the ,decapolis1 was situated4 ,the site now bears the name ,fahl4 ,the city is mentioned in the list of ,thothmes ,,iii1 #aejc-addg ,b4 ,c41 as ,pahul4 ,pella is a ,greek form of this name4 ,the ,greek city of ,pella is said by ,stephen of ,byzantium#cjh to have been founded by ,alexander the ,great4 ,in the ,talmud it is called ,pahal1#cji and the modern name ,fahl is an ,arabian form of this4 ,extensive ruins of the ,hellenic city are still visible at ,fahl4#caj ,dion is also said to have been founded by ,alexander the ,great and was apparently not far from ,pella4 ,it is thought by ,merrill#caa and ,g4 ,a4 ,smith to have been situated on the site of the modern ,eidun1 about twenty miles east of ,pella1 though this is doubted by others4#cab ,if ,dion was at this point few1 if any1 antiquities remain to bear witness to the fact4 #g4 ,gerasa1 the modern ,jerash1 lay on one of the tributaries of the ,jabbok about fifty miles southeast of ,pella4 ,we do not know what the name of the place was in ,old ,testament times4 ,it is first mentioned in the time of ,alexander ,jannus 7#ajd-gi ,b4 ,c474#cac ,it was then called ,gerasa and was probably already at that time a ,hellenic city4 ,by whom it was built1 we do not know1 but it was probably one of the early ,ptolemies of ,egypt4 ,from #ajj ,b4 ,c4 till the ,mohammedan conquest in #fcg ,a4 ,d41 it flourished as a beautiful city1 and later it was a city of some importance4 ,it probably was overtaken by some calamity and the site of the ,hellenic city abandoned soon after the year #fcg1 as there are no ,arabic remains above the ,grco-,roman material4 ,in the year #aaba ,baldwin ,,ii1 of the ,latin kingdom of ,jerusalem1 made a campaign against ,gerasa1 where the ruler of ,damascus had caused a castle to be built4 ,in the next century the ,arabian geographer1 ,yakut1 describes it as deserted4 ,it appears to have been ruined by an earthquake4 ,apparently the ,hellenic city at ,gerasa lasted longer than any of the other cities of the ,decapolis unless it be ,kanatha4 ,one can1 accordingly1 gain from the ruins of ,gerasa an excellent idea of the general appearance of one of these cities4#cad ,the writer has never seen more beautiful ruins than those at ,jerash except the ruins at ,athens4 ,as one approached the site from the south he faced a beautiful arched gateway4 ,after passing this gateway one looked northward down a long colonnaded street1 which at a little distance from the gate broadened out into a circular forum4 ,at distances approximately equal from one another this main street was crossed by other colonnaded streets4 ,a number of these columns are standing in different parts of the town4 ,the remains of two imposing temples1 of two theaters1 of a large ,christian basilica1 and of various other buildings1 impress one with the former glory of the city4 ,a number of the buildings at ,gerasa were built in the second century ,a4 ,d4 in the reign of the ,antonines2 7see ,figs4 #bfh1 #bfi74 #h4 ,philadelphia1 the most southerly of the cities of the ,decapolis1 was on the site of ,rabbah ,ammon 7,deut4 #c3aa2 ,josh4 #ac3be2 #b ,sam4 #aa3a1 etc474 ,this was situated on the upper ,jabbok about twenty miles east of the ,jordan valley1 where ,amman now lies4 ,the ,hellenic city here was built by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus of ,egypt1 who reigned from #bhc-bdg ,b4 ,c4 ,it was named ,philadelphia from him4 ,in #bah ,b4 ,c4 the city was taken by ,antiochus ,,iii1 who captured the cistern to which in time of siege the ,philadelphians went for water by an underground passage1#cae after which thirst compelled them to surrender4 ,joab centuries before had captured the city for ,david by the same method1#caf and in #cj ,b4 ,c4 ,herod the ,great again took it in the same way4#cag ,the remains of the ,hellenic temple1 of the theater1 and of other buildings1 including a ,christian basilica1 are still to be seen at ,amman4#cah ,in the fourth century ,a4 ,d4 ,philadelphia was one of the prominent cities of the ,roman province of ,arabia2 7see ,figs4 #bgj1 #bga74 ,these cities of the ,decapolis appear to have been built on a similar plan4 ,each had a colonnaded street through the center of the town1 each had at least one temple and one theater1 and some of them more4 ,all were architecturally beautiful4 ,they all possessed a similar government also1 and each appears to have controlled the villages in its district4 #i4 ,jesus in the ,decapolis4--,the prevailing influences in the ,decapolis were pagan1 and yet there were ,jews living in it1 for multitudes of them from the ,decapolis followed ,jesus 7,matt4 #d3be74 ,on at least two occasions our ,lord himself went into the territory of the ,decapolis4 ,we read in ,mark #e3a that ,jesus and his disciples 8came to the other side of the sea to the country of the ,gerasenes40 ,the ,authorized ,version reads 8to the country of the ,gadarenes40 ,the country to which ,jesus came at this time cannot have been that of the ,decapolitan city ,gerasa1 for1 as we have seen1 that lay far to the south4 ,it was in a direct line nearly fifty miles from the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,neither can it have been to the region of ,gadara that he came1 for ,gadara lay at least five miles to the south across the deep valley of the ,yarmuk4 ,there was1 however1 on the east shore of the ,sea of ,galilee a town called ,gergesa1 the modern ,kursi4 ,this place was near the city of ,hippos1 and possibly one of the towns subordinate to ,hippos4 ,as ,jesus and the disciples walked back from the sea they met the demoniac1 whom ,jesus healed4 ,it was in connection with this healing that the herd of swine was destroyed--an incident that could happen in no part of ,palestine except ,decapolis or ,philistia1 for swine were unclean to ,jews and they never kept them4 ,the demoniac1 when cured1 went and preached ,jesus in the ,decapolis 7,mark #e3bj74 ,again1 toward the end of the ministry of ,jesus1 after he had withdrawn for a time to ,phnicia1 he returned by crossing the high lands of northern ,galilee and coming down east of the ,jordan 8through the midst of the borders of ,decapolis0 7,mark #g3ca74 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,athens1 ,,corinth1 ,,and ,,the ,,churches ,,of ,,asia ,,athens4 ,,corinth4 ,,the ,,churches ,,of ,,asia3 ,ephesus4 ,pergamum4 ,thyatira4 ,sardis4 ,philadelphia4 ,smyrna4 ,laodicea4 ,the greater part of ,biblical history was enacted in ,palestine and the great valleys of ,mesopotamia and the ,nile4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 however1 broke the ,jewish bonds of primitive ,christianity and carried the ,gospel to the coasts of the gean ,sea4 ,in cities of this region he spent years of his active missionary life2 to churches of this region most of his epistles were sent1 and to churches of this part of the world the seven messages to the churches were addressed4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 conclude this sketch of what archology has done to throw light upon the ,bible without saying a few words concerning exploration and excavations in certain parts of ,greece and ,asia ,minor4 ,it will be impossible for lack of space to go thoroughly into the history of this region1 but as these lands were not1 like ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 and ,palestine1 closely connected with ,biblical history for a long period1 detailed history of them before the ,apostolic age will not be missed by the student of the ,bible4 ,the results of scattered discoveries at ,thessalonica and elsewhere will be presented in ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,at this point attention will be directed to a few important cities4 #a4 ,athens1 the chief city of ,attica1 one of the least productive parts of ,greece1 is the far-famed mistress of the world's culture and art4 ,emerging from obscurity in the seventh century before ,christ1 gaining a position of leadership in the ,persian wars after #ejj ,b4 ,c41 ,athens established a considerable empire4 ,in this period fell the age of ,pericles1 #dfj-dbi ,b4 ,c41 when the artistic and literary genius of ,athens reached a height never equaled in human history4 ,socrates was born here in #dfi and lived till #cii ,b4 ,c4 ,here ,plato1 who was born about #dbh1 became a pupil of ,socrates and afterward taught4 ,hither came ,aristotle1 after the year #cfg1 to sit at ,plato's feet4 ,here from the age of ,pericles the acropolis was crowned with those architectural creations that are at once the admiration and the despair of the world2 7see ,fig4 #bgg74 ,it stirs the imagination to think of ,paul in such a city4 ,in the time of ,paul1 ,athens was a ,roman city1 though still one of the great artistic and philosophical centers of the world4 ,at a little distance from the acropolis on its northern side1 a forum of the ,roman period was laid bare in #ahia2 7see ,fig4 #bgb74 ,possibly this is the market-place in which ,paul1 during his stay there1 reasoned every day with them that met him 7,acts #ag3ag71 though of this we cannot be certain1 for1 while this was a market-place in the ,roman period1 the older market of the ,athenian people lay to the westward of it4 ,to the west of the acropolis lies the old ,areopagus1 or ,mars' ,hill 7,fig4 #bgc71 from which it was long supposed that ,paul made the address recorded in ,acts #ag3bb-ca4 ,ramsay1#cai following ,curtius1 has made it probable that the address was delivered to the city-fathers of ,athens1 not because they were putting ,paul to a judicial trial1 but because they wished to see whether he was to be allowed to teach ,christianity1 which they took for a new philosophy1 in the university of ,athens--for ,athens itself was a kind of university4 ,it seems probable that the meetings of the city-fathers1 who were collectively called the ,areopagus 7,acts #ag3bb71 were held not on the top of the rock1 but in the market-place4 ,the ,athenian altar 8to an unknown god0 is treated in ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xxvii1 #b4 #b4 ,corinth4--,from ,athens1 ,paul went to ,corinth1 where he spent a year and a half 7,acts #ah3a1 #aa74 ,corinth was one of the old cities of ,greece4 ,in ,homeric and earlier times it appears to have been subject to ,argos4 ,situated on the isthmus between northern ,greece and the ,peloponnesus1 the sea-trade of ,corinth made it an important city4 ,it rose to prominence in the seventh century before ,christ4 ,at some early time foreigners from the east1 probably ,phnicians1 had settled in ,corinth and established the worship of the ,semitic goddess ,astarte on ,acro-,corinthus1 a hill that rises some five hundred feet above the city4 ,the goddess was here known as ,aphrodite1#cbj and the debasing character of her worship tended to foster that lack of sensitiveness in matters of social morality with which ,paul deals in his ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,the trade of ,corinth made it rich and its riches excited the enmity of ,rome4 ,it was accordingly destroyed by the ,romans in #adf ,b4 ,c41 but a century later was rebuilt by ,julius ,csar4 ,ancient ,corinth has now entirely vanished4 ,excavations were begun at ,corinth by the ,american ,school of ,classical ,studies at ,athens in #ahif under the direction of the late ,prof4 ,rufus ,b4 ,richardson4 ,the work has been carried forward season by season ever since4#cba ,although there were no topographical indications to help the excavators at the start1 the theater1 the ,agora or market-place1 a ,roman street1 the road to ,lechum1 and the temple of ,apollo have been discovered2 7,figs4 #bgd1 #bgf74 ,of greatest interest to the student of the ,bible is a stone discovered in #ahih on the ,lechum road near the propyla1 or gateway leading to the market-place4 ,this stone once formed the lintel of a door and bore an inscription in ,greek letters4 ,although the beginning and the end of the two words written on it are broken away1 it is clear that the inscription was 8,synagogue of the ,hebrews40#cbb ,the cutting of the letters was poorly done1 and the block was a second-hand one1 adapted from some other use4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that the ,jewish community at ,corinth was not wealthy4 ,the block was of considerable size and so was probably found not far from where the synagogue stood4 ,if so1 this synagogue1 which is probably identical with the one in which ,paul preached 7,acts #ah3d71 stood on the ,lechum road not far from the market-place4 ,other discoveries in the neighborhood indicate that this was a residence quarter of the city1 and we learn from ,acts #ah3g that the house of ,titus ,justus1 where apparently ,paul organized the first church in ,corinth1 8joined hard to the synagogue40 ,the house of ,justus must1 then1 have been here1 and the ,lechum road often echoed to the footsteps of ,paul4 ,probably the judgment-seat to which the ,jews dragged ,paul for the hearing before ,gallio 7,acts #ah3ab7 was in the market-place1 so that the excavations have revealed to us the parts of ,corinth of special interest to a reader of the ,bible4 #c4 ,the ,churches of ,asia4 7#a7 ,ephesus was situated on the ,cayster river in western ,asia ,minor1 about three miles from the sea1 but in ancient times the sea was navigable up as far as the city4 ,cities which form the point of contact between land and sea traffic become in most countries populous and wealthy4 ,in western ,asia ,minor four cities1 situated at the mouths of the four river valleys through which caravans could proceed into the interior1 became populous and important4 ,these were ,miletus 7see ,acts #bj3ae1 #ag1 f47 at the mouth of the ,mander1 ,ephesus at the mouth of the ,cayster1 ,smyrna at the mouth of the ,hermus1 and ,pergamum on the ,caicus4 ,in the earliest times known to us ,ephesus was eclipsed in importance by ,miletus1 but before the beginning of the ,christian era ,ephesus had outstripped her rival4 ,this was due to several causes1 one of which was the partial silting up of the harbor of ,miletus4 ,in ,roman times ,ephesus lay on the great line of communication between ,rome and the ,east in general4#cbc ,in later centuries the harbor of ,ephesus was in its turn silted up1 and the site is now deserted except for a neighboring wretched ,turkish village4 ,in ,homer's ,iliad#cbd the ,carians are called the 8barbarous-speaking ,carians40 ,this would indicate that they were not ,greek1 and it is thought by some that they may at this time have been of ,hittite stock4 ,miletus was in ,caria1 and at that time ,ephesus also4 ,it is certain that the earliest inhabitants of ,ephesus were not ,greek1 but of ,asiatic origin4 ,they established here1 either on a mountain top about five miles from the sea1 just above the modern railway station of ,ayassuluk1 or on a mountain a little to the south1 the worship of an ,asiatic goddess1 probably ,hittite4 ,later1 in the seventh century before ,christ1 the ,ionian ,greeks came and settled among the ,asiatics4 ,they identified the goddess with their own ,artemis 7,authorized ,version1 ,diana71 and moved her temple down into the plain1#cbe where it continued to stand far into ,christian times4 ,in the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 ,ephesus was conquered by the ,lydians1 and then by the ,persians4 ,in later centuries it passed under the control of ,alexander the ,great1 of the ,seleucid of ,syria1 and of the kings of ,pergamum4 ,in #acc ,b4 ,c4 it passed with the rest of the kingdom of ,pergamum into the hands of ,rome and became a part of the ,roman ,province of ,asia4 ,because of its situation it quickly became the most important city of the province4 ,it was noted for its wealth and its commerce4 ,rome became the patron of ,hellenic culture in the ,east1 so ,ephesus was1 of course1 made an architecturally beautiful city4 ,at first ,pergamum was the capital of the ,province of ,asia4 ,in the second and third centuries of the ,christian era ,ephesus had become the capital4 ,buchner#cbf thinks that this transfer was made in the reign of ,claudius1 #da-ed ,a4 ,d4 ,if this were true1 ,ephesus was the capital of the province at the time of ,paul's residence there1 but there is considerable doubt about the facts1 and in the beginning of the second century ,a4 ,d4 ,pergamum still ranked as the official capital4#cbg ,the temple of ,artemis lay about two miles to the northeast of the ancient city4 ,its site was determined in #ahfi by the ,english explorer1 ,j4 ,t4 ,wood1 who partially excavated it 7#ahfi-ahgd74cbh ,wood brought to light various marble fragments which are preserved in the ,british ,museum1 but he was more interested in making conjectural restorations of the temple than in telling what he found4 ,as he was not an expert in ancient architecture his work is1 accordingly1 unsatisfactory4 ,in #aijd-aije1 the ,british ,museum employed ,mr4 ,hogarth to complete the excavation of the site4 ,hogarth carried the excavation down to the virgin soil1 and1 being a skilled archologist1 he was able to reconstruct the history of the building4#cbi ,there seems to have been a small tree shrine on the site of the temple before the ,ionians came4 ,between the seventh century and the fifth1 three different structures were erected on the spot4 ,the last of these was called the temple of ,crsus1 because this king of ,lydia presented some beautiful columns to it1 though the structure was not completed till a century after his time1 or #dcj ,b4 ,c4 ,this structure was burned in #cef ,b4 ,c4 on the night that ,alexander the ,great was born4 ,later a larger temple1 #dbe by #bbj feet1 was built on the site1 with the help of contributions from the whole of ,asia4 ,this was standing until long after ,paul's time4 ,it was very beautiful4 ,some of the porphyry columns now in ,santa ,sophia at ,constantinople are said to have been taken from it4 ,it has been thought by some that this beautiful temple suggested to ,paul his figure in #a ,cor4 #c3aj-ag1 since the words were written from ,ephesus4 ,this temple was venerated over all of western ,asia ,minor4 ,to it came many pilgrims every year1 to whom ,ephesian silversmiths sold little replicas of the temple4 ,it was because ,christianity became so popular through the preaching of ,paul that the profitable sale of these shrines was interfered with1 that the riot in ,ephesus occurred as described in ,acts #ai3bc-da4 ,before ,mr4 ,wood had discovered the site of the temple he had discovered the theater within the limits of the ancient city4 ,this has been examined more thoroughly by the ,austrian1 ,dr4 ,wiberg1 who1 beginning in #ahid1 conducted excavations at ,ephesus for many years4 ,all the lower parts of this theater still remain 7see ,figs4 #bhj1 #bha7 and bring vividly to the imagination the assembly held in it on the occasion of the riot just referred to4 7,see ,acts #ai3bi-da47 ,the ,austrians have also laid bare a considerable part of the central street of the ,ephesus of ,roman times2 7see ,fig4 #bgh74 ,a little to the north of the theater is the ancient stadium4 ,some scholars think that when ,paul says in #a ,cor4 #ae3cb1 8,if after the manner of men ,i fought with beasts at ,ephesus10 he is speaking of an incident that literally occurred1 and suppose that he was actually condemned to be thrown to the beasts in the stadium1 to make a spectacle for the ,ephesian populace1 and that in some way he escaped alive4 ,it is possible that this may be true4 ,if so1 this stadium 7see ,fig4 #bhb7 presents to the eye a spot which is of great interest to every ,christian4 ,ephesus1 as the mother-church of the churches of ,asia1 is the first one to which in the book of ,revelation a letter is addressed4 ,by the time ,revelation was written the first glow of ,christian enthusiasm had worn off1 gnostic heresy had found a place in the ,church1 and its 8first love0 was gone4 7#b7 ,pergamum1 the modern ,bergama1 lay in the valley of the ,caicus in ,mysia1 about fifteen miles from the sea4 ,the city was built on a hill about three miles north of the river4 ,it was apparently a place of some importance at a comparatively early date1 but its chief importance began with the reign of ,philetrus1 who made it an independent kingdom and ruled it from #bhd-bfc ,b4 ,c4 ,philetrus had been a trusted servant of ,lysimachus1 ,king of ,thrace1 one of the trusted generals of ,alexander the ,great4 ,under the dynasty founded by ,philetrus1 ,pergamum became one of the chief seats of ,hellenic culture4 ,eumenes ,i 7#bfc-bda ,b4 ,c47 endeavored to make ,pergamum a rival of ,alexandria as a literary center1 and when the king of ,egypt forbade the exportation of papyrus in order to check the literary aspirations of ,pergamum1 the servants of ,eumenes invented a prepared kind of skin on which to write4 ,it was called pergamena1 but time has corrupted it to 8parchment40 ,in the course of the second century before ,christ the kingdom of ,pergamum included all of western ,asia ,minor north of the ,taurus4 ,when in #acc ,b4 ,c4 ,attalus ,,iii1 the last of the kings of ,pergamum1 died1 he left his kingdom by will to the ,roman republic1 with which ,pergamum had long been in alliance4 ,rome thus came into possession of her ,province of ,asia1 the first of her ,oriental provinces4 ,pergamum was its capital1 certainly until the reign of ,claudius1 and probably until the second century ,a4 ,d4 ,the ,romans regarded themselves as the patrons of ,hellenic culture in the ,east and for centuries kept ,pergamum the beautiful city which the ,pergamene kings had made it4 ,bergama1 the squalid modern ,turkish city1 lies apart from the splendid ruins of the ancient town2 7see ,fig4 #bhc74 ,more than thirty years ago the ,germans began to explore and to excavate at ,pergamum1#ccj and the ,museum at ,berlin is enriched with many beautiful objects found there4 ,the visitor to ,pergamum may still see1 however1 the great gymnasium with many graceful columns still standing4 ,above it1 on a higher slope1 are the sites of theaters and temples1 and the great altar of ,zeus4 ,farther up the hill stood the temple of ,athen ,polias1 which was also a library1 and above this the temple of ,rome and of ,augustus4 ,in ,rev4 #b3ac the church at ,pergamum is said to dwell where 8,satan's throne is40 ,interpreters have been divided in opinion as to whether this is a reference to the worship of sculapius1 or to the presence of the great throne-like altar of ,zeus1 or to the fact that ,pergamum was the seat of the worship of the ,roman emperor4#cca ,on the whole1 it seems probable that 8,satan's throne0 is a reference to the fact that ,pergamum was the seat of the government and of the worship of the emperor of ,rome4 ,when ,augustus inaugurated emperor-worship in order to give the empire a bond of common sentiment1 the first temple of the cult was erected at ,pergamum4 ,this was in #bi ,b4 ,c4 ,under ,vespasian and his successors it became a test of one's ,christianity whether he would or would not#ccb offer incense to the statue of the emperor1 and ,christians were often persecuted because they would not4 ,it is probable that in the remains of the temple to the emperor archologists have brought to light ,satan's throne4 ,if1 however1 that throne were the altar of ,zeus1 it has nevertheless been brought to light4 7#c7 ,thyatira1 the modern ,ak-,hissar1 lay in a valley which joined the valley of the ,hermus to the valley of the ,caicus4 ,the general direction of this valley was north and south4 ,it was made an important city by ,seleucus ,i of ,syria 7#cab-bhb ,b4 ,c47 in the latter part of his reign4 ,before this it had been an obscure village4 ,josephus declares#ccc that ,seleucus made ,jews citizens of the cities which he founded in ,asia1 and apparently ,thyatira was one of these1 for there appears to have been a flourishing ,jewish colony there4 ,a little later than ,seleucus1 ,thyatira became a city of ,pergamum1 and passed in #acc ,b4 ,c4 with the territories of that realm under the dominion of ,rome4 ,thyatira was noted for its dyeing4 ,madder root1 with which they dyed a ,turkey-red1 grows abundantly in the neighborhood4#ccd ,as the ancients employed the names of colors with great laxity1 this was often termed purple4 ,lydia1 an enterprising seller of this purple1 a ,jewess from ,thyatira1 was present at ,philippi when ,paul and ,silas preached there 7,acts #af3ad74 ,lydia was converted1 and perhaps it was she who carried the ,gospel back to ,thyatira4 ,nothing has been discovered at ,thyatira that throws light on the message to its church in ,rev4 #b3ah-bi4 7#d7 ,sardis was one of the oldest cities of western ,asia4 ,it is situated on the south side of the great valley of the ,hermus1 just at the point where the river ,pactolus issues from the ,tmolus mountains4 ,pottery found in the course of excavations there carries its history back to sub-,mycenan1 if not to ,mycenan1 times4#cce ,it was the seat of the worship of ,atys or ,cybele1 a goddess that seems to have been kindred to the mother-goddess of the ,hittites4 ,it is probable that1 could we penetrate back far enough1 we should find that the place was once occupied by ,hittites4 ,herodotus traces the descent of the first dynasty that ruled over the country to the goddess just mentioned4#ccf ,following this dynasty was1 he says1 another of twenty-one kings who ruled before the dynasty founded by ,gyges4 ,the ,lydian kingdom of which we know began with ,gyges in #fig ,b4 ,c4 and ended with ,crsus in #edf ,b4 ,c4 ,lydian inscriptions found at ,sardis are written in the same alphabet as ,etruscan inscriptions found in ,italy4 ,this indicates that the ,lydians and ,etruscans were closely akin1 but1 as the inscriptions have not yet been deciphered1 they do not throw much light on either people4#ccg ,it is possible that both peoples were related to the ,hittites1 but that is at present only a hypothesis4 ,the mountains to the south of ,sardis are composed largely of gravel deposits left there by the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last glacial period4 ,from these gravels the ,pactolus brought down gold in ancient times4 ,this was one of the sources of the wealth of the ,lydian kings1 and contributed to those riches which are still celebrated in the saying3 8,as rich as ,crsus40 ,the ,lydian kingdom fell when ,cyrus captured ,sardis in #edf ,b4 ,c4 ,with the fall of the ,persian empire the city passed into the hands of ,alexander the ,great1 and subsequently into the hands of his general1 ,antigonous1 then to the ,seleucid of ,syria1 then to the kings of ,pergamum1 and so to the dominion of ,rome4 ,in #ag ,a4 ,d4 ,sardis was shaken by a great earthquake which nearly destroyed the city4 ,a mass of gravel and conglomerate rock was then hurled from the hill of the ,acropolis of ,sardis down into the city toward the temple1 where the work of the excavator shows that it still lies4#cch ,a part of the city must have been buried under it4 ,the city recovered from this disaster and by the end of the first century a ,christian church existed there 7,rev4 #c3a-f74 ,sardis continued to be a city of importance until #adjj-adjc ,a4 ,d41 when the ,tartar conqueror1 ,timur or ,tamerlane1 swept over the country destroying everything before him4 ,from this destruction ,sardis never recovered4 ,two or three tiny wretched ,turkish villages are now all that occupy the spot4#cci ,the ,acropolis of ,sardis was composed of gravel and a comparatively soft conglomerate rock4 ,it looks imposing and in ancient times looked far more imposing than now4 ,it has been gradually crumbling away through the centuries4 ,ramsay thinks that this instability on the part of the city itself is alluded to in the words1 8thou hast a name that thou livest1 and thou art dead0 and in the exhortation to be watchful and to strengthen the things that remain1 which follows it 7,rev4 #c3a1 #b72 7see ,fig4 #bhd74 ,excavations were begun at ,sardis by ,princeton ,university under the direction of ,prof4 ,howard ,crosby ,butler in #aiji1 and the digging continued for five seasons until interrupted by the great war4#cdj ,the work began at the point where two columns of the ancient temple of ,cybele were still protruding from the soil4 ,the temple has been cleared and a considerable area around it has been examined4 ,it appears that the temple was built in the fourth century ,b4 ,c41 that it suffered greatly in the earthquake of #ag ,a4 ,d41 and never was as splendid afterwards1 though it was still in use in the second century ,a4 ,d4#cda ,many objects have been discovered which throw light upon the history and art of ,lydia1 and two bi-lingual inscriptions1 one ,lydian and ,aramaic1 the other ,lydian and ,greek1 were found4 ,these may afford the key to the decipherment of both ,lydian and ,etruscan4 ,jewelry resembling ,etruscan jewelry found in ,italy was also discovered4#cdb ,to the student of the ,bible the most interesting discovery at ,sardis was a little ,christian church built at the southeast corner of the temple4#cdc ,the entrance to this church was from the temple platform itself4 ,the structure was entirely of brick and was in a remarkably good state of preservation4 ,the building had apparently lost only its wooden roof4 ,the apse of the church was toward the east1 and still contained its primitive altar4 ,it is uncertain at what date altars became a part of ,christian worship4 ,origen in the third century ,a4 ,d4 admits the charge of ,celsus that the ,christians had no visible altar1#cdd but ,eusebius#cde in the next century speaks as though altars existed throughout the ,christian world4 ,this church at ,sardis was built after the temple of ,cybele had fallen into disuse1 and even if not earlier than the fourth century of our era1 this little structure is evidence that the name of the church had not been blotted out of the book of life 7,rev4 #c3e71 but that it had rather appropriated to itself the once splendid precincts of the ancient heathen goddess4 7#e7 ,philadelphia was situated twenty-eight miles east of ,sardis1 and lay in the valley of the ,cogamis1 a tributary of the ,hermus4 ,it is still a flourishing city of about #ae1jjj inhabitants4 ,it is now called ,ala-,sheher4#cdf ,it is not to be confounded with the ,philadelphia of the ,decapolis in ,palestine4#cdg ,philadelphia was founded by ,attalus ,,ii1 ,king of ,pergamum1 #aei-ach ,b4 ,c41 who was called ,philadelphus because of his devotion to his predecessor and brother1 ,eumenes ,,ii4 ,hence the city was named ,philadelphia4 ,it was founded for the purpose of spreading ,hellenism in the eastern part of ,lydia1 and so was a missionary city from the first4 ,with the other ,pergamene territories it became a dependency of ,rome in #acc ,b4 ,c4 ,in #ag ,a4 ,d4 it suffered severely from the same earthquake that destroyed ,sardis4 ,indeed1 at ,philadelphia the quakings were even more severe4 ,the trembling of the earth lasted for a long time4 ,when ,strabo wrote in #bj ,a4 ,d4 earthquake shocks at ,philadelphia were an every-day occurrence4 ,few people lived in the city2 most of the inhabitants spent their time outside4#cdh ,allusion to this is1 perhaps1 made in ,rev4 #c3ab3 8he shall go out thence no more40 ,after the earthquake the city appealed to ,rome for help4 ,tiberius granted it and also permitted the city to change its name to ,neocsarea1 or the city of the young ,csar4#cdi ,this1 too1 seems to be alluded to in ,rev4 #c3ab1 where another new name is to be conferred4 ,at ,ala-,sheher a part of the city wall of ,philadelphia may still be traced1 and the sites of the acropolis1 the theater1 and the stadium may also be seen1 as well as the ruins of an old ,christian church4#cej 7#f7 ,smyrna1 at the mouth of the ,hermus1 is one of the very old cities of ,asia ,minor4 ,a colony of olian ,greeks founded a city here more than a thousand years before ,christ4 ,a little later the place was captured by ,ionian ,greeks1 who held it till about #fjj ,b4 ,c41 when it was conquered by the kings of ,lydia and destroyed4#cea ,for three hundred years the name designated a district rather than a city4 ,lysimachus1 the general of ,alexander the ,great who became king of ,thrace 7#cja-bhb ,b4 ,c471 refounded ,smyrna as a ,greek city about three miles southwest of the old site1 and it has continued ever since to be an important seaport of ,asia ,minor4 ,it passed with the other cities of the region successively under the sway of the kings of ,syria1 the kings of ,pergamum1 and of ,rome4 ,smyrna is today one of the largest cities of the ,east with a population of between two and three hundred thousand4 ,smyrna claimed to be the birthplace of ,homer4 lius ,aristides 7born #aag ,a4 ,d471 who lived at ,smyrna1 several times likens the city to a crown1 and apparently the crown was in some way associated with ,smyrna2 7see ,fig4 #bhg74 ,the goddess of the place1 who was a kind of ,cybele1 is pictured as wearing a crown4#ceb ,this is1 no doubt1 the reason why in ,rev4 #b3aj a crown of life is promised to the church of ,smyrna if she is faithful4 ,no excavations have been made at ,smyrna1 but above the city the tomb of ,polycarp1#cec said in tradition to have been a disciple of the ,apostle ,john1 is shown4 ,polycarp was martyred in #aee ,a4 ,d4 in one of those times of tribulation predicted in ,rev4 #b3aj4 7#g7 ,laodicea is situated a hundred miles east of ,ephesus1 in the valley of the ,lycus1 where the ,lycus empties into the ,mander4 ,it was founded by ,antiochus ,,ii of ,syria1 #bfa-bdf ,b4 ,c41#ced and named for his wife4 ,like ,philadelphia1 it was designed to be a missionary of ,hellenism to the country of the region4 ,like the other ,hellenic cities it was beautified with temples1 theaters1 and colonnaded streets4 ,later ,laodicea passed under the control of ,pergamum1 and with that kingdom fell to ,rome in #acc ,b4 ,c4 ,an influential element in its population was ,jewish1 and before ,paul's imprisonment in ,rome a ,christian church had been founded there 7,col4 #d3ac74 ,the city of ,laodicea appears to have been devoted to commerce and to material things4 ,in ,rev4 #c3ae its church is said to have been lukewarm4 ,except that its lukewarmness may have come from its commercial spirit1 there is nothing in the history or archology of the city that illustrates the letter#cee to it in ,rev4 #c3ad-bb4 ,the site of ,laodicea is now almost deserted4 ,only the wretched ,turkish village of ,eski ,hissar represents habitation1 but hundreds of acres are covered with the ruins of the once splendid city4 ,for hundreds of years the villagers of neighboring hamlets have used the place as a quarry1 but nevertheless its ruins are impressive4 ,two theaters are in a fairly good state of preservation2 the seats are still in place4#cef ,the stadium is in a similar condition of preservation4 ,its aqueduct and its gates are still imposing in their dilapidation1 but the desolation of ,laodicea recalls the words3 8,i will spew thee out of my mouth0 7,rev4 #c3af72 7see ,fig4 #bhh74 ,,part ,,ii ,,translations ,,of ,,ancient ,,documents ,,which ,,confirm ,,or ,,illuminate ,,the ,,bible ,,foreword ,as noted in the ,preface1 the inferences drawn by different scholars1 when they compare the ,bible with the records brought to light by exploration1 diverge according as their critical and theological views differ4 ,in the comments made throughout ,part ,,ii1 as in ,part ,i1 the writer has endeavored to maintain a neutral attitude and impartially to report in each case the principal inferences drawn by the most important groups of scholars1 that the reader may know something of the latitude of opinion that prevails4 ,to have recorded every opinion would have expanded the work far beyond the limits prescribed1 and would have burdened the reader with many views that are mere vagaries4 ,the temptation is always strong to declare that the interpretation of an ancient record which accords with one's own views must be right1 but unfortunately problems in ancient history that are thus dogmatically settled do not remain settled4 ,a deeper faith1 confident in the ultimate triumph of truth1 patiently awaits further light4 ,,chapter ,i ,,an ,,epic ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,which ,,circulated ,,in ,,babylon ,,and ,,assyria ,,in ,,the ,,seventh ,,century ,,before ,,christ#ceg ,,text ,,of ,,the ,,epic4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,epic ,,with ,,the ,,first ,,chapter ,,of ,,genesis4 ,,the ,,epic ,,and ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,bible4 ,i4 ,text of the ,epic4 ,tablet ,i #a4 ,time was when above heaven was not named #b4 ,below to the earth no name was given4 #c4 ,then the primeval ,abyss their begetter1 #d4 ,the roaring ,sea who bore them1-- #e4 ,their waters together were mingled2 #f4 ,no field had been formed1 no marshland seen4 #g4 ,time was when gods had not been made1 #h4 ,no name was named1 no destiny determined2 #i4 ,then were created the gods in the midst of heaven4 #aj4 ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu were formed together4 #aa4 ,ages multiplied1 44444444444444444444444 #ab4 ,anshar and ,kishar were created1 and over them 444444 #ac4 ,days were prolonged1 there came forth 444444 #ad4 ,anu1 their son 44444444444444444444444444444444444 #ae4 ,anshar and ,anu 44444444444444444444444444444444444 #af4 ,and the god ,anu 4444444444444444444444444444444444 #ag4 ,nudimmud whose fathers1 his begetters 44444444444444444444 #ah4 ,abounding in wisdom1 understanding 444444444444444 #ai4 ,he was strong exceedingly 44444444444444444444444444444444 #bj4 ,and he had no rival 44444444444444444444444444444444444444 #ba4 ,they were established and 44444444444444444444444444444444 #bb4 ,in confusion were ,timat and ,apsu#ceh 4444444444444444444 #bc4 ,they were troubled 444444444444444444444444444444444 #bd4 ,in sin 787 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 #be4 ,apsu was not diminished 4444444444444444444444444444 #bf4 ,timat roared 44444444444444444444444444444444444444 #bg4 ,she smote and their deeds 44444444444444444444444444 #bh4 ,their way was not good2 they themselves prospered4 #bi4 ,then ,apsu1 the begetter of the great gods1 #cj4 ,cried to ,mummu1 his minister1 and said1 #ca4 ,o ,mummu1 my minister1 who delightest my heart1 #cb4 ,come1 unto ,timat let us go4 #cc4 ,they went1 before ,timat they lay down1 #cd4 ,a plan they formed against the gods their offspring4 #ce4 ,apsu opened his mouth1 he said to her1 #cf4 ,unto ,timat1 the brilliant1 a word he spoke3 #cg4 8,intolerable to me is their advancement1 #ch4 ,by day ,i have no rest1 at night1 no peace4 #ci4 ,but ,i will destroy their way1 an end will ,i make4 #dj4 ,let there be a cry1 then we may be at peace60 #da4 ,when ,timat heard these words1 #db4 ,she was angry and spoke against them a curse2 #dc4 ,she was grievously pained she raged 44444444444444444444 #dd4 ,a curse she let fall1 unto ,apsu she spoke3 #de4 8,what are we that we should perish6 #df4 ,let their way become difficult40 444444444444444444444444444 #dg4 ,mummu answered1 ,apsu he counseled #dh4 4444 not favorable was the counsel of the ,roarer3 #di4 8,their way is strong1 but do thou confound it1 #ej4 ,by day thou shalt be calm1 by night thou shalt lie down40 #ea4 ,apsu heard and his face brightened1 #eb4 ,since he planned evil against the gods1 his sons1 #ec4 444444444444444 clasped his neck1 #ed4 ,he took him on his knees and kissed him4 #ee4 ,they undertook the evil which together they had planned4 #ef4 4444444444444444444444444444444444 they 44444444444444444444 #eg4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444 #eh4 ,a cry2 a cry 44444444 in stillness they sat #ei4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444 #fj4 ,ea the wise went up1 he saw their horrors 7871 7,more than thirty lines here are too broken for connected translation47 #ic4 44444444444444444444444 thy 444444444 they subjugated1 #id4 44444444444444444444444 weeps 787 and sits wailing4 #ie4 4444444444444444444444444444444444 of fear1 #if4 444444444444444444444 not shall we ourselves rest4 #ig4 4444444444444444444444444 ,apsu laid waste1 #ih4 ,he and ,mummu who were bound in 444444444444 #ii4 444444444444444444 quickly thou shalt go #ajj4 44444444444444444444444 we ourselves may rest4 #aja4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444444 #ajb4 444444444444444444444 we ourselves may rest4 #ajc4 444444444444444444444 their mercy avenge6 #ajd4 44444444444444444444444444444444 to the storm 4444444444444 #aje4 444444444444444444444 the word of the bright god1 #ajf4 444444444444444444 what thou givest1 we will indeed do6 #ajg4 444444444444444444444 the gods in 4444444444444444444444444 #ajh4 4444444444444444444444444444444 the gods she created4 #aji4 ,they separated themselves1 to the side of ,timat they came2 #aaj4 ,they raged1 they planned1 they rested not night or day4 #aaa4 ,they prepared for battle1 fuming1 raging2 #aab4 ,their assemblage was formed and they began war4 #aac4 ,mother ,khubur1 who formed all things1 #aad4 ,made unrivaled weapons1 spawned great serpents1 #aae4 ,sharp of tooth1 unsparing of fang2 #aaf4 ,with poison instead of blood their bodies she filled4 #aag4 ,fierce dragons with terror she clothed1 #aah4 ,luster she made abundant1 to loftiness made them equal4 #aai4 ,whoever beheld them1 terror 787 overcame him2 #abj4 ,their bodies they reared up without turning their breast4 #aba4 ,she established vipers1 serpents1 and ,lakhami1#cei #abb4 ,hurricanes1 raging hounds1 scorpion-men1 #abc4 ,mighty storms1 fish-men1 and rams 7872 #abd4 ,they bore merciless weapons1 fearless of battle4 #abe4 ,her behests were mighty2 without rival were they4 #abf4 ,moreover eleven such as these she created4 #abg4 ,among the gods1 her firstborn1 who at her side gathered1 #abh4 ,she exalted ,kingu1 made him great in their midst1 #abi4 ,to march before the forces1 to lead the host1 #acj4 ,to raise the conquering weapon1 to lead the attack1 #aca4 ,to direct the battle1 as commander-in-chief2 #acb4 ,to him she entrusted it1 made him sit in purple 7873 #acc4 8,thy spell ,i have uttered2 in the assembly of gods ,i have made thee great4 #acd4 ,the sovereignty of all the gods1 ,i have placed in thy hand #ace4 ,surely thou art exalted1 my only spouse6 #acf4 ,may they magnify thy name over all the ,anunnaki40 #acg4 ,she gave him the tablets of destiny1 on his breast she laid them3 #ach4 8,thy command shall be unalterable1 established1 thy word40 #aci4 ,now ,kingu was exalted1 he received the highest rank1 #adj4 ,among the gods1 his sons1 he fixed fate3 #ada4 8,the opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god2 #adb4 ,who so is exalted in excellence1 let him increase in might40 ,tablet ,,ii #a4 ,timat made mighty her work #b4 ,evil she cherished against the gods1 her offspring4 #c4 ,to avenge ,apsu1 ,timat planned evil4 #d4 ,her forces how she joined1 to ,ea was divulged4 #e4 ,ea hearkened to this thing1 #f4 ,he was thrown into great straits1 he sat in silence4 #g4 ,the days went by2 his anger was appeased1 #h4 ,to the place of ,anshar1 his father1 he proceeded4 #i4 ,he went before the father who begat him1 ,anshar1 #aj4 ,all that ,timat had planned he repeated unto him4 #aa4 8,timat1 our mother1 has come to hate us2 #ab4 ,her assembly is set2 with rage she is hot2 #ac4 ,turned unto her are the gods1 all of them1 #ad4 ,with those ye created1 they walk at her side4 #ae4 ,they have separated themselves2 at the side of ,timat they go2 #af4 ,they rage1 they plan2 they rest not day or night40 7,lines #ag-dh continue the literal repetition of lines #aji-adb of the first tablet which was begun in lines #ae1 #af4 ,after this the narrative continues37 #di4 ,when ,anshar heard how ,timat was greatly in disorder1 #ej4 ,he smote his breast1 he bit his lip1 #ea4 ,his mind was disturbed1 his heart was not at rest1 #eb4 44444444444444444444444444444444 his cry was wrung from him4 #ec4 ,away ,ea1 my son1 go forth to battle6 #ed4 4444444444444444444444444444 my work 787 thou shalt establish6 #ee4 ,mummu and ,apsu thou hast already struck down4 #ef4 ,kill also ,kingu who comes up before her #eg4 44444444444444444444444444444444 deliberation4 #eh4 4444444444444444444444444444 gods ,nudimmud4 7,a break of ten or twelve lines occurs at this point in the tablet47 #gb4 ,anshar spoke to his son a word3 #gc4 8,thou1 this son of mine1 my warrior1 #gd4 ,whose strength is mighty1 whose attack irresistible1 #ge4 ,go1 stand before ,timat1 #gf4 ,that her wrath may be appeased1 her heart softened1 #gg4 ,but if she will not hearken to thy word1 #gh4 ,our word shalt thou speak to her1 that she may be appeased40 #gi4 ,he heard the utterance of his father ,anshar1 #hj4 ,he took the straight path to her1 he entered the way4 #ha4 ,anu drew near1 he beheld the terror 787 of ,timat1 #hb4 ,he did not ascend to her presence1 but turned back1 #hc4 ,then turned he to ,ea and called him1 he1 ,anshar1 #hd4 ,opened his mouth and spoke to him1 #he4 8,hateful are the ways of ,timat to me40 7,some twenty lines here are too fragmentary for translation47 #ajh4 ,ea opened his mouth 787 and spoke to him3 #aji4 8,marduk1 my son1 hear the word of thy father4 #aaj4 ,thou art he1 my son1 who canst enlarge his heart4 #aaa4 44444444444444444444444444444444 to the battle draw nigh1 #aab4 4444444444444444444444444444 to ,emarukka#cfj give peace40 #aac4 ,then the lord rejoiced at the words of his father2 #aad4 ,he drew near and stood before ,anshar4 #aae4 ,anshar beheld him and his heart was filled with joy1 #aaf4 ,he kissed his lips and his fear departed from him4 #aag4 444444444444 is not hidden2 open thy lips4 #aah4 ,verily ,i will go1 ,i will attain the wish of thy heart4 #aai4 4444444444 is not concealed2 open thy lips4 #abj4 ,verily ,i will go1 ,i will attain the wish of thy heart4 #aba4 ,who is the man1 who would bring thee out to his battle8 #abb4 ,and now shall ,timat1 a woman1 come against thee with weapons8 #abc4 44444444444444444444444444444444 rejoice and exult2 #abd4 ,on the neck of ,timat thou shalt shortly tread4 #abe4 44444444444444444444444444444444 rejoice and exult2 #abf4 ,on the neck of ,timat thou shalt shortly tread40 #abg4 8,my son1 who knows all wisdom1 #abh4 ,timat pacify with thy pure incantation4 #abi4 ,thy way speedily take2 #acj4 4444444444 thou shalt not fear1 thou shalt use a spell afterward40 #aca4 ,then the lord rejoiced at the word of his father1 #acb4 ,his heart exulted and to his father he spoke3 #acc4 8,o ,lord of the gods1 fate of the great gods1 #acd4 ,if ,i accomplish your preservation1 #ace4 ,take ,timat captive and save your lives1 #acf4 ,appoint an assembly1 make my fate strong1 let it come in4 #acg4 ,in ,upshukkunnaku seat yourselves joyfully together1 #ach4 ,the word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you4 #aci4 ,let there not be changed whatever ,i create1 #adj4 ,may the command of my lips not be altered or opposed40 ,tablet ,,iii #a4 ,anshar opened his mouth and said1 #b4 ,to ,gaga his messenger a word he spoke3 #c4 8,o ,gaga1 thou messenger1 thou rejoicest my heart4 #d4 ,to ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu will ,i send thee2 #e4 ,the desire of my heart mayest thou attain4 #f4 44444444444444444444444444444444 bring 787 before me4 #g4 ,may there come the gods1 all of them1 #h4 ,let them prepare for converse1 at banquets let them sit1 #i4 ,bread may they eat1 wine may they prepare1 #aj4 ,for ,marduk1 their avenger1 let them decree the fate4 #aa4 ,go1 ,gaga1 before them stand1 #ab4 ,and all that ,i tell thee repeat unto them #ac4 ,anshar1 your son1 hath sent me1 #ad4 ,the purpose of his heart he hath disclosed to me1 #ae4 ,saying3 ,timat1 who bore us1 hates us1 #af4 ,an assemblage is appointed1 angrily she rages1 #ag4 ,turned to her are the gods1 all of them1 #ah4 ,with those whom ye created1 they march at her side1 #ai4 ,they are rebellious1 at ,timat's side they come1 #bj4 ,they rage1 they plot1 they rest not day nor night1 #ba4 ,they prepare for battle1 fuming and raging1 #bb4 ,an assembly is made1 they start a revolt4 #bc4 ,mother ,khubur1 who formed all things1 #bd4 ,has made weapons without rival1 has spawned monster-serpents1 #be4 ,sharp of tooth1 unsparing of fang1 #bf4 ,with poison like blood their bodies she has filled2 #bg4 ,fierce dragons with terror she has clothed1 #bh4 ,luster has made abundant1 to loftiness made equal4 #bi4 ,whoever beholds them1 terror 787 overcomes him4 #cj4 ,their bodies they raise up without turning their breasts4 #ca4 ,she has established vipers1 serpents1 ,lakhami1 #cb4 ,hurricanes1 raging hounds1 scorpion-men1 #cc4 ,mighty storms1 fish-men1 and rams2 #cd4 ,they bear merciless weapons1 fearless of battle4 #ce4 ,her behests are mighty1 without rival are they4 #cf4 ,moreover eleven such as these she has created4 #cg4 ,among the gods1 her firstborn1 who are gathered at her side1 #ch4 ,she has exalted ,kingu1 made him great in their midst1 #ci4 ,to march before the forces1 to lead the host1 #dj4 ,to raise the conquering weapon1 to lead the attack1 #da4 ,to direct the battle as commander-in-chief2 #db4 ,to him she has entrusted it1 made him sit in purple1 saying1 #dc4 #8,thy spell ,i have uttered1 in the assembly of gods ,i have made thee great1 #dd4 ,the sovereignty of all the gods ,i have placed in thy hand1 #de4 ,surely thou art exalted1 ,o my spouse6 #df4 ,may they magnify thy name over all the ,anunnaki4' #dg4 ,she has given him the tablets of destiny1 on his breast has laid them1 saying1 #dh4 #8,thy command shall be unalterable1 established be thy word4' #di4 ,now ,kingu has been exalted1 has received highest rank1 #ej4 ,among the gods1 her sons1 he fixes fate1 saying3 #ea4 #8,the opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god1 #eb4 ,whoso is exalted in excellence1 let him increase in might4' #ec4 ,i sent ,anu2 he had no power before her1 #ed4 ,nudimmud feared and turned back1 #ee4 ,marduk has set forth1 the leader of the gods1 your son1 #ef4 ,as a foe of ,timat his heart prompts him to go4 #eg4 ,he opened his mouth and spake to me1 saying3 #eh4 #8,if ,i accomplish your preservation1 #ei4 ,take ,timat captive1 and save your lives1 #fj4 ,appoint an assembly1 make my fate strong1 let it come in4 #fa4 ,in ,upshukkunaku seat yourselves joyfully together1 #fb4 ,the word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you4 #fc4 ,let there not be changed whatever ,i create1 #fd4 ,may there not be altered or opposed the command of my lips4' #fe4 ,hasten1 therefore1 and quickly decree your fate1 #ff4 ,that he may go and fight your strong enemy40 #fg4 ,then ,gaga went1 his way he pursued1 #fh4 ,to the place of ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu1 the gods1 his fathers2 #fi4 ,he kissed the ground at their feet1 #gj4 ,he bowed himself2 he stood up1 he addressed them1 saying3 #ga4 8,anshar1 your son1 hath sent me1 #gb4 ,the purpose of his heart he has disclosed to me #gc4 ,saying3 ,timat1 who bore us1 hates us2 #gd4 ,an assemblage is appointed1 angrily she rages1 #ge4 ,turned to her are the gods1 all of them1 #gf4 ,with those whom you created1 they march at her side1 #gg4 ,they are rebellious1 at ,timat's side they come4 #gh4 ,they rage1 they plot1 they rest not day nor night1 #gi4 ,they prepare for battle1 fuming and raging1 #hj4 ,an assembly is made1 they start a revolt4 #ha4 ,mother ,khubur1 who formed all things1 #hb4 ,has made weapons without rival1 has spawned monster-serpents1 #hc4 ,sharp of tooth1 unsparing of fang1 #hd4 ,with poison like blood their bodies she has filled2 #he4 ,fierce dragons with terror she has clothed2 #hf4 ,luster has been made abundant1 to loftiness made equal4 #hg4 ,whoever beholds them1 terror 787 overcomes him4 #hh4 ,their bodies they raise up without turning their breasts4 #hi4 ,she has established vipers1 serpents1 ,lakhami1 #ij4 ,hurricanes1 raging hounds1 scorpion-men1 #ia4 ,mighty storms1 fish-men1 rams2 #ib4 ,they bear merciless weapons1 fearless of battle4 #ic4 ,her behests are mighty1 without rival are they4 #id4 ,moreover eleven such as these she has created4 #ie4 ,among the gods1 her firstborn1 who are gathered at her side1 #if4 ,she has exalted ,kingu1 made him great in their midst1 #ig4 ,to march before the forces1 to lead the host1 #ih4 ,to raise the conquering weapon1 to lead the attack1 #ii4 ,to direct the battle as commander-in-chief2 #ajj4 ,to him she has entrusted it1 made him sit in purple1 saying3 #aja4 #8,thy spell ,i have uttered1 in the assembly of the gods ,i have made thee great2 #ajb4 ,the sovereignty of all the gods ,i have placed in thy hand #ajc4 ,surely thou art exalted1 ,o my spouse6 #ajd4 ,may they magnify thy name over all the ,anunnaki4' #aje4 ,she has given him the tablets of destiny1 on his breast has laid them1 saying3 #ajf4 #8,thy command shall be unalterable1 established be thy word4' #ajg4 ,now ,kingu has been exalted1 has received highest rank1 #ajh4 ,among the gods1 her sons1 he fixes fate1 saying3 #aji4 #8,the opening of your mouth shall quench the fire-god1 #aaj4 ,whoso is exalted in excellence1 let him increase in might4' #aaa4 ,i sent ,anu1 he had no power before her1 #aab4 ,nudimmud feared and turned back1 #aac4 ,marduk has set forth1 the leader of the gods1 your son1 #aad4 ,as a foe of ,timat his heart prompts him to go4 #aae4 ,he opened his mouth and spake to me1 saying3 #aaf4 #8,if ,i accomplish your preservation1 #aag4 ,take ,timat captive and save your lives1 #aah4 ,appoint an assembly1 make my fate strong1 let it come in4 #aai4 ,in ,upshukkunaku seat yourselves joyfully together1 #abj4 ,the word of my mouth shall determine fate instead of you1 #aba4 ,let there not be changed whatever ,i create1 #abb4 ,may there not be altered or opposed the command of my lips4' #abc4 ,hasten1 therefore1 and quickly decree your fate1 #abd4 ,that he may go and fight your strong enemy40 #abe4 ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu heard1 they cried aloud2 #abf4 ,the ,igigi1 all of them1 wailed bitterly1 saying3 #abg4 8,what has changed that they should desire to take us 787 #abh4 ,we do not understand what ,timat has done40 #abi4 ,then they massed themselves together1 they went1 #acj4 ,the great gods1 all of them1 who decree fate4 #aca4 ,they entered in before ,anshar1 they filled1 ,upshukkunaku4 #acb4 ,brother kissed brother in the assembly 44444444444444444 #acc4 ,they prepared for converse1 sat down to the banquet1 #acd4 ,bread they ate2 wine they prepared4 #ace4 ,the sweet drink confused their minds 7871 #acf4 ,drunk were they with drink1 their bodies were filled 7871 #acg4 ,they became very unsteady1 their hearts were exalted1 #ach4 ,for ,marduk1 their deliverer1 they decreed the fate4 ,tablet ,,iv #a4 ,they prepared for him a princely chamber3 #b4 ,in the presence of his fathers for sovereignty he became mighty4 ,they said3 #c4 8,thou art most honored among the great gods1 #d4 ,thy destiny is without rival1 thy command is ,anu's6 #e4 ,o ,marduk1 thou art most honored among the great gods1 #f4 ,thy destiny is without rival1 thy command is ,anu's6 #g4 ,from today without opposition shall be thy command2 #h4 ,to exalt and to abase is verily in thy power2 #i4 ,established is thy utterance1 irresistible thy command4 #aj4 ,none among the gods shall invade thy province4 #aa4 ,sustenance1 the desire of shrines of the gods1 #ab4 ,while they are in need1 shall be certain in thy sanctuary6 #ac4 ,o ,marduk1 thou art the preserver of our lives6 #ad4 ,we give thee sovereignty over the totality of all the world4 #ae4 ,sit thou in the assembly1 thy word shall be exalted6 #af4 ,thy weapon shall never be o'ercome1 may it destroy 787 thy foe6 #ag4 ,o lord1 he who trusts thee--his life save6 #ah4 ,but the god that is wed to evil1 its life pour out60 #ai4 ,then they placed in the midst a garment1 #bj4 ,and unto ,marduk1 their firstborn1 they spoke1 #ba4 8,thy fate1 ,o ,lord1 let it be first among the gods6 #bb4 ,to destroy and to create--speak1 let it be established6 #bc4 ,at thy command let a garment perish6 #bd4 ,again at thy command let the garment re-appear60 #be4 ,then he spake with his mouth1 the garment perished2 #bf4 ,again he commanded and the garment was recreated4 #bg4 ,as the utterance of his mouth the gods1 his fathers1 saw1 #bh4 ,they rejoiced1 they uttered blessing3 8,marduk is king60 #bi4 ,they bestowed upon him the scepter1 the throne1 and the battle-axe2 #cj4 ,they gave him an unrivaled weapon1 which turns back 787 the foe4 #ca4 8,go1 ,timat's life cut off2 #cb4 ,may the winds bear her blood to secret places60 #cc4 ,when the gods1 his fathers had fixed ,bel's fate1 #cd4 ,the way of prosperity and success they caused him to take4 #ce4 ,his bow he prepared1 his weapon he chose1 #cf4 ,a spear he bound on him at his waist1 #cg4 ,he raised the heavenly weapon1 with his right hand grasped it1 #ch4 ,his bow and quiver at his side he hung1 #ci4 ,he placed the lightning before his face1 #dj4 ,with quivering flame his body he filled4 #da4 ,he made a net to enclose ,timat's body1 #db4 ,he caused the four winds to seize so that nothing of her could escape2 #dc4 ,the south wind1 the north wind1 the east wind1 the west wind1 #dd4 ,he brought to the side of the net1 the gift of his father ,anu1 #de4 ,he made the evil wind1 the bad wind1 the tempest and the hurricane1 #df4 ,the four winds1 the seven winds1 the whirlwind 7871 the unhealthy wind2 #dg4 ,he brought forth the winds which he had made1 the seven of them1 #dh4 ,to trouble the inward parts of ,timat1 they came after him4 #di4 ,the lord raised up the tornado1 his mighty weapon1 #ej4 ,as a chariot1 a storm unrivaled for terror he mounted1 #ea4 ,he harnessed for himself and attached to it four steeds1 #eb4 8,destroyer10 8,unmerciful10 8,overwhelmer10 8,fleet-footed40 #ec4 ,foam-covered 787 were their teeth1 filled with poison1 #ed4 ,skilled were they to run down1 taught to destroy4 #ee4 44444444444444444444444444444444444 mighty in battle1 #ef4 ,left and right they opened 787 444444444444444 #eg4 ,his garment was rage1 with terror was he clad1 #eh4 ,with his overpowering brightness his head was crowned4 #ei4 ,he made straight the way1 he took his path1 #fj4 ,to the place of ,timat1 the raging 7871 his face he set4 #fa4 ,with his lip 444444444444444444444444444444 he cursed 7871 #fb4 ,a plant of magical power 787--he seized with his hand4 #fc4 ,on that day they exalted 787 him1 the gods exalted 787 him2 #fd4 ,the gods1 his fathers1 exalted 787 him1 the gods exalted 787 him4 #fe4 ,the lord approached1 the waist of ,timat he scanned1 #ff4 ,of ,kingu1 her spouse--he beheld his terrifying-glance 7874 #fg4 ,as ,marduk gazed1 ,kingu's progress was impeded1 #fh4 ,destroyed was his purpose1 frustrated his deed1 #fi4 ,and the gods his helpers1 who marched at his side1 #gj4 ,saw the warrior and leader2 their look 787 was troubled4 #ga4 ,timat perceived it 7872 she did not turn her neck4 #gb4 ,with proud 787 lips she uttered words of defiance3 #gc4 8,who decreed 787 that thou shouldst come as lord of the gods8 #gd4 ,have they assembled from their places1 are they to serve thee80 #ge4 ,the lord raised the tornado1 his mighty weapon1 #gf4 ,against ,timat who was raging1 thus he spoke3 #gg4 8,why hast thou made thyself great8 ,exalted thyself on high8 #gh4 ,why does thy heart prompt thee to battle 787 #gi4 ,how can thy helpers defy 787 the gods1 their fathers8 #hj4 ,why dost thou hate their command1 their rule despise8 #ha4 ,why hast thou exalted ,kingu to be thy spouse8 #hb4 ,hast given him the functions of deity8 #hc4 ,how canst thou seek after evil8 #hd4 ,and against the gods1 my fathers1 thy evil plan devise8 #he4 ,let thy forces be joined1 girded on thy weapons6 #hf4 ,stand6 ,i and thou--come let us fight60 #hg4 ,timat1 when she heard this1 #hh4 ,was like one possessed2 she lost her reason4 #hi4 ,timat cried out vehemently with high voice1 #ij4 ,like roots divided in twain her legs trembled4 #ia4 ,she uttered an incantation1 she cast a charm1 #ib4 ,and the gods of battle demanded their weapons4 #ic4 ,then took their stand ,timat and the leader of the gods1 ,marduk2 #id4 ,for the fight they approached1 for the battle they drew near4 #ie4 ,the lord spread out his net and enclosed her1 #if4 ,the evil wind from behind he thrust into her face4 #ig4 ,as ,timat opened her mouth to its full extent1 #ih4 ,the evil wind he drove in1 so that her lips could not close4 #ii4 ,with the mighty winds he filled her belly2 #ajj4 ,her courage was taken away1 and she opened her mouth4 #aja4 ,he let fall the spear1 he burst open her belly1 #ajb4 ,he cut through her inward parts1 he pierced her heart1 #ajc4 ,he bound her and her life destroyed2 #ajd4 ,her body he cast down1 upon it he stood4 #aje4 ,after ,timat1 the leader1 he had slain1 #ajf4 ,her army he broke1 her host was scattered1 #ajg4 ,and the gods1 her helpers1 who marched by her side1 #ajh4 ,trembled1 feared1 they turned their backs2 #aji4 ,they sought an exit1 to save their lives2 #aaj4 ,with a cordon they were encompassed2 escape was not possible4 #aaa4 ,he caught them1 their weapons he broke1 #aab4 ,into the net they fell1 in the snare they remained4 #aac4 ,all quarters of the world they filled with lamentation4 #aad4 ,his wrath they endured2 they were held in bondage4 #aae4 ,and the eleven creatures1 whom she had filled with terribleness1 #aaf4 ,the troop of demons who marched as her helpers 7871 #aag4 ,he threw into fetters1 their power he broke2 #aah4 ,along with their opposition he trampled them under his feet4 #aai4 ,and ,kingu who had been exalted over them1 #abj4 ,he took captive1 as the god ,dugga he counted him4 #aba4 ,he took from him the tablets of destiny1 not rightly his1 #abb4 ,he sealed them with a seal1 in his own breast he laid them4 #abc4 ,after his enemies he had seized and destroyed1 #abd4 ,his arrogant foe had completely humiliated 7871 #abe4 ,the triumph of ,anshar over the foe had fully established1 #abf4 ,the wish of ,nudimmud had accomplished1 ,marduk1 the warrior #abg4 ,over the bound gods strengthened his hold1 #abh4 ,unto ,timat1 whom he had bound1 he turned back4 #abi4 ,the lord trod upon ,timat's feet #acj4 ,and with his unsparing weapon crushed her head4 #aca4 ,he cut through the veins of her blood1 #acb4 ,he caused the north wind to bear it to secret places4 #acc4 ,his fathers saw it2 they rejoiced1 they exulted1 #acd4 ,gifts and presents they brought unto him4 #ace4 ,then the lord rested2 he gazed upon her body1 #acf4 ,the flesh of the monster he divided2 he formed a cunning plan4 #acg4 ,he split her open like a flat fish into two halves1 #ach4 ,one half of her he established and made a covering of the heavens1 #aci4 ,he drew a bolt1 he established a guard1 #adj4 ,and not to let her waters come out1 he commanded4 #ada4 ,he passed through the heavens1 he surveyed the regions1 #adb4 ,over against the deep he set the dwelling of ,nudimmud4 #adc4 ,the structures of the deep the lord measured1 #add4 ,as a palace like unto it he founded ,esharra4 #ade4 ,in the palace ,esharra which he built in the heavens1 #adf4 ,he caused ,anu1 ,ellil1 and ,ea at their stations to dwell4 ,tablet ,v #a4 ,he ,marduk ordained the stations of the great gods2 #b4 ,as stars their likenesses as constellations of the zodiac he placed4 #c4 ,he ordained the year1 into parts he divided it1 #d4 ,for the twelve months he established three stars4 #e4 ,after the days of the year he had fashioned as images1 #f4 ,he founded the station of ,jupiter1 to determine their bounds2 #g4 ,that none might go wrong or err1 #h4 ,the station of ,bel he established1 and ,ea by his side4 #i4 ,he opened gates on both sides4 #aj4 ,a lock he made strong on the left and the right1 #aa4 ,in the midst thereof he placed the zenith2 #ab4 ,the moon-god he caused to shine2 the night he entrusted to him4 #ac4 ,he appointed him a being of the night1 to determine the days2 #ad4 ,monthly1 without ceasing1 into a crown he made him1 saying3 #ae4 8,at the beginning of the month shine upon the lands1 #af4 ,horns exhibit1 to determine six days2 #ag4 ,on the seventh day let the tiara disappear2 #ah4 ,on the fourteenth day thou shalt stand over against the two halves4 #ai4 ,when the sun-god on the horizon 44444444444 thee1 #bj4 ,thou 444444444 to be resplendent1 and thou shalt turn 787 backward 787 #ba4 ,fourteen days unto the path of the sun-god thou shalt approach1 #bb4 ,on the #bhth day thou shalt approach the sun-god 44444444444 #bc4 444444444444444444444444444444 signs 7871 seek 787 her way6 #bd4 4444444444444444 approach ye and judge justice6 #be4 444444444444444444444444444444444444 to destroy1 #bf4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444 me40 7,some lines are lost at this point4 ,it is estimated that forty of them are lacking47 #fg4 ,after 444444444444444444444444444444444 #fh4 ,in ,esagila#cfa 444444444444444444444444444444444 #fi4 ,to establish 44444444444444444444444444444444 #gj4 ,the station of 44444444444444444444444444444 #ga4 ,the great gods 44444444444444444444444444444444 #gb4 ,the gods 444444444444444444444444444 #gc4 ,he received 4444444444444444444444444 #gd4 ,the net which he had made the great gods saw1 #ge4 ,saw the bow1 how skillful its workmanship2 #gf4 ,the work which he had done1 they loudly praised4 #gg4 ,then arose ,anu in the assembly of the great gods1 #gh4 ,the bow he kissed it 44444444444444444444444444444 #gi4 8,long-wood shall be one name1 and a second 44444444444444444 #hj4 ,its third name shall be ,bow-star in the heavens40 #ha4 ,he fixed its position unto distant days4 #hb4 ,after the destiny of 444444444444444444444444444444 #hc4 ,he set a throne 44444444444444444444444444444444444444 #hd4 4444444444444444444444444 in the heavens 4444444444444444444 7,practically all the remainder of ,tablet ,v is as yet undiscovered4 ,from a very broken fragment1 preserved in the ,british ,museum1 it appears that when the gods saw the work of ,marduk in adorning the heavens with constellations1 they broke into rapturous praise of him4 ,it is these words to which reference is made at the beginning of ,tablet ,,vi47 ,tablet ,,vi #a4 ,marduk1 the word of the gods1 when he heard it1 #b4 ,his heart was stirred1 he formed a brilliant plan4 #c4 ,he opened his mouth1 to ,ea he spoke1 #d4 ,what in his heart he had conceived he made known to him3 #e4 8,my blood will ,i divide1 bone will ,i fashion1 #f4 ,i will make man1 yes1 man 4444444444444444444 #g4 ,i will create man who shall dwell on the earth2 #h4 ,truly shall the service of the gods be established--of them and their shrines4 #i4 ,i will alter the ways of the gods1 and will change their paths1 #aj4 ,together shall they be honored1 and unto evil shall they0 444444 #aa4 ,then ,ea answered him and said3 #ab4 44444444 the 444444444 of the gods have ,i changed1 #ac4 4444444444444444444 one 444444444444444444444 #ad4 44444444 shall be destroyed1 and people will ,i 4444444444444 #ae4 4444444444444 and the gods 4444444444444444 #af4 44444444444 give and they 44444444444444 #ag4 444444444 shall assemble 787 and the gods 4444444444444 #ah4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444 #ai4 44444444444444 the gods 44444444444444444444444444444444 #bj4 444444444444444444 the ,anunnaki 444444444444444444 7,the rest of ,tablet ,,vi is still unrecovered1 except a few lines at the end47 #adj4 ,when 44444444444444444444444444444444444444 #ada4 ,they rejoiced 444444444444444444444444444444444444 #adb4 ,in ,upshukkunnaku they set their assembly4 #adc4 ,of their heroic son1 their savior they cried3 #add4 8,we whom he succored40 444444444444444444 #ade4 ,they seated themselves1 in the assembly they named him 44444444 #adf4 ,they all cried aloud 7871 they exalted him 4444444444 ,tablet ,,vii #a4 8,o ,asharu1 bestower of harvests1 founder of agriculture1 #b4 ,creator of grain and plants1 who made green herbs to grow1 #c4 ,o honored ,asharu1 revered in the house of counsel1 rich in counsel1 #d4 ,whom the gods honor1 fearing laid hold upon them #e4 ,o honored ,asharu1 powerful prince1 the light of the fathers who begat him1 #f4 ,who directs the decrees of ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,ea4 #g4 ,he was their preserver1 who ordained 4444444444 #h4 ,he whose provision is abundance1 he goeth forth 4444444444 #i4 ,tutu1 the creator of their renewal is he4 #aj4 ,if their want be pure1 then are they satisfied2 #aa4 ,if he make an incantation1 then are the gods appeased2 #ab4 ,should they attack him in anger1 he will repulse their array2 #ac4 ,let him therefore be exalted in the assembly of the gods4 #ad4 ,none among the gods is like unto him6 #ae4 ,tutu-,ziukinna is the life of the host of the gods4 #af4 ,who established for the gods the bright heavens4 #ag4 ,their way he received1 their path ordained4 #ah4 ,never forgotten among men shall be his mighty deeds4 #ai4 ,tutu as ,zi-azag thirdly they named1 bringer of purification1 #bj4 ,god of the favoring breeze1 the lord who hears and is merciful1 #ba4 ,who creates fulness and plenty1 who establishes abundance1 #bb4 ,who turns whatever is small into something great4 #bc4 8,in sore distress we caught his favoring breeze10 #bd4 ,let them honor him1 praise him1 bow humbly before him4 #be4 ,tutu as ,aga-azag may the mighty ones praise1 #bf4 ,the lord of the pure incantation1 who makes the dead to live1 #bg4 ,who to the captive gods showed abundant compassion1 #bh4 ,the oppressive yoke he laid upon the gods1 his enemies1 #bi4 ,for their#cfb release he created mankind1 #cj4 ,the merciful one1 with whom is life6 #ca4 ,established and never forgotten be his word #cb4 ,in the mouth of the black-headed race1#cfc whom his hand created4 #cc4 ,tutu as ,mu-azag1 fifthly1 his pure incantation may their mouth proclaim1 #cd4 ,who through his pure incantation destroys all evil ones1 #ce4 ,shagzu1 who knows the hearts of the gods1 who sees through the innermost parts4 #cf4 ,the evil doer he permits not to go out with him 7874 #cg4 ,founder of the assembly of the gods who gladdens their heart4 #ch4 ,who subdues the disobedient 4444444444 #ci4 ,director of righteousness 444444 7,the tablet is too broken for connected translation1 until nearly the end1 where it continues37 #ajg4 ,truly he holds their beginning and ending 4444444444 #ajh4 ,saying1 8,he who passed through the midst of ,timat without resting1 #aji4 ,let his name be ,neberu1 who seizes the midst1 #aaj4 ,who the stars of heaven--their ways he upholds2 #aaa4 ,as a flock verily the gods pasture1 all of them40 #aab4 ,he bound ,timat1 her life he apportioned1 he ended4 #aac4 ,in the future1 people1 old in years1 #aad4 ,shall renew unceasingly1 8let him be lord forever60 #aae4 ,because he created the places and fashioned the fastnesses #aaf4 8,lord of countries0 ,bel1 his father1 named him4 #aag4 ,the names the ,igigi named1 all of them1 #aah4 ,ea heard1 and his heart rejoiced3 #aai4 8,he whose name his fathers have magnified #abj4 ,he1 even like me1 shall be named ,ea4 #aba4 ,the binding of all my commands shall he control1 #abb4 ,all my decrees shall he proclaim60 #abc4 ,by the name 8,fifty0 did the great gods #abd4 ,his fifty names make known1 they made his path pre-eminent4 #abe4 ,may they be held fast and the first men reveal them1 #abf4 ,the wise1 the understanding shall consider them together2 #abg4 ,may the father repeat them and the son lay hold upon them1 #abh4 ,so that shepherd and herdsman may open their ears1 #abi4 ,and may rejoice in ,marduk1 the lord of the gods1 #acj4 ,that his land may be fertile1 that he may have prosperity4 #aca4 ,his word is established1 his command unfailing1 #acb4 ,the word of his mouth1 no god hath annulled4 #acc4 ,he casts his glance without turning his neck1 #acd4 ,when he roars1 no god can face his anger4 #ace4 ,wide is his heart1 great his goodness2 #acf4 ,the sinner and transgressor in his presence 4444444444 #acg4 ,they received instruction1 they spake before him4 7,the concluding lines are too broken for connected translation47 #b4 ,the ,first ,chapter of ,genesis and the ,foregoing ,creation ,epic4 ,the ,babylonian ,creation ,epic1 in the form in which we know it1 took shape in the city of ,babylon4 ,naturally1 therefore1 the god ,marduk is made the central figure4 ,it is he only who was sufficiently powerful to overcome the primeval dragon1 it was he who created the heavens and the earth1 it was he whom at the end gods and men adored4 ,a ,babylonian priest1 ,berossos1 in a work composed after the time of ,alexander the ,great1 gives an account of ,babylonian ideas of the creation of the world1 which is but the tradition of the epic in a slightly different form4 ,a neoplatonic philosopher1 ,damascius1 who lived about #efj ,a4 ,d41 has also preserved a part of the tradition in a form almost identical with that of the epic4 ,scholars of all shades of opinion agree that there is some connection between this ,babylonian tradition and the first chapter of ,genesis1 though they differ as to whether the ,biblical writer was acquainted with the ,babylonian tradition as we have it in the epic1 or whether he knew an earlier form of the story4 ,the points of similarity which have been urged between ,genesis and the ,babylonian epic are the following3 #a4 ,they begin somewhat similarly1 ,genesis with the words 8,in the beginning10 the epic with the words3 8,time was when above heaven was not named2 ,below to the earth no name was given40 #b4 ,both accounts assume that primeval chaos consisted of a mass of waters1 and to this mass of waters they give the same name4 ,the ,hebrews called it tehm1 8deep02 the ,babylonians1 ,timat4 ,these are really the same word in the two closely related languages1 just as day and ,tag are the same word in an ,english and a ,german form4 ,in ,genesis we are told that 8,the ,spirit of ,god moved 7,r4 ,v4 margin1 was brooding7 upon the face of the waters02 in the ,babylonian epic1 the waters1 which were thought to be of two genders1 were embosomed4 ,in both the result is the beginning of the creative process4 ,the two accounts agree that the heavens and the earth were created by the division of the primeval ocean by a firmament 7the ,babylonian calls it a covering71 which held up a part of the waters1 so that the earth could be formed beneath4 ,they accordingly agree in the conception that there is a super-celestial ocean1 i4 e41 8the waters which are above the firmament0 7,gen4 #a3g74 ,another striking similarity is found in the arrangement by sevens3 the ,babylonian epic is arranged in seven tablets1 or cantos1 the ,hebrew account1 in seven days4 ,the ,babylonian series culminates in the praise of ,marduk by all the gods2 the ,hebrew1 in the institution of the sabbath4 ,the two series agree in connecting the heavens with the fourth epoch of creation1 and the creation of man with the sixth4 ,in other respects the order differs4 ,in the ,babylonian account the moon and stars are created on the fifth day1 instead of on the fourth4 ,as ,marduk is identified with the sun1 that orb is assumed2 its creation is not described4 ,the creation of animals is not described in any text which we can attach to a definite tablet of the ,babylonian series4 ,it is1 however1 given in a fragment which reads as follows3 #a4 ,when the gods in their assembly had made the heavens1 #b4 ,the firmament had established and bound fast1 #c4 ,living things of all kinds had created1 #d4 ,cattle of the field1 beasts of the field1 and moving things of the city4 #e4 ,after 4444444444 unto all kinds of living things 4444444444 #f4 ,between beasts of the field and moving things of the city had divided444 #g4 4444444444 all creatures1 the whole creation 4444444444 #h4 444444444444 that which in the whole of my family 4444444444 #i4 ,then arose ,nin-igi-azag1 two small creatures he created1 #aj4 ,in the assembly of the beasts he made their form brilliant1 #aa4 4444444444 the goddess ,gula 4444444444 #ab4 4444444444444444 one white and one black 4444444444 #ac4 444444444444 one white and one black 4444444444 ,the ,babylonian account1 then1 contained somewhere the story of the creation of the animals1 though1 like the other parts of the ,babylonian account1 its order and atmosphere differ widely from the ,biblical narrative4 ,some of these resemblances are of no great significance4 ,the fact that the two accounts are arranged by sevens may be due simply to the fact that that number was sacred among both peoples4 ,it is thought by some scholars that its use in ,genesis was consciously adopted in order to lead up to the sabbath and glorify it4 ,this might be true1 even if the writer of the chapter knew of the ,babylonian arrangement by sevens4 ,the features of the two narratives1 which have convinced some scholars of all shades of opinion that there is a real kinship between the two accounts1 are their agreement as to the nature of primeval chaos1 and the division of the primeval ocean by a firmament for the creation of the heavens and the earth4 ,both writers had1 so to speak1 the same raw material of objective conceptions4 ,the differences between the accounts are1 however1 most marked4 ,to speak first of that which is least important1 the ,hebrew order is in many respects different from the ,babylonian4 ,in the ,babylonian the gods are generated in the first tablet1 the world is not created till the fourth1 and the creation of all other things is told in tablets four1 five1 and six4 ,in other words1 creation is divided into two parts1 each of which is told in three tablets4 ,the first three tablets deal with gods1 the second three with the world and living things4 ,this twofold division is found in the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,here the creative process is divided into two stages1 each embracing four works1 and occupying three days4 ,the distribution of these works is strikingly different from the ,babylonian4 ,on the first day1 light and darkness were created2 on the second1 the firmament2 on the third1 the earth and vegetation2 on the fourth1 the heavenly bodies2 on the fifth1 fishes and birds2 on the sixth1 animals and men4 ,the first series of three days prepared the heavens and the earth2 the second series studded the sky with orbs and the earth with living beings4 ,there is a striking parallelism between the two series4 ,the first begins with the creation of light2 the second1 with light-giving bodies4 ,to the third and sixth days two creative acts each are assigned4 ,on the second day the seas are isolated2 on the fifth they are stocked with fishes4 ,on the third day dry land emerges1 on the sixth terrestrial animals are made4 ,on the third also herbs began to grow2 on the sixth they are assigned to animals and men for food4 ,the classification of the acts of creation in ,genesis is clear and consistent1 and thoroughly independent of that in the ,babylonian account4 ,a more important difference lies in the religious conceptions of the two4 ,the ,babylonian poem is mythological and polytheistic4 ,its conception of deity is by no means exalted4 ,its gods love and hate1 they scheme and plot1 fight and destroy4 ,marduk1 the champion1 conquers only after a fierce struggle1 which taxes his powers to the utmost4 ,genesis1 on the other hand1 reflects the most exalted monotheism4 ,god is so thoroughly the master of all the elements of the universe1 that they obey his slightest word4 ,he controls all without effort4 ,he speaks and it is done4 ,granting1 as most scholars do1 that there is a connection between the two narratives1 there is no better measure of the inspiration of the ,biblical account than to put it side by side with the ,babylonian4 ,as we read the chapter in ,genesis today1 it still reveals to us the majesty and power of the one ,god1 and creates in the modern man1 as it did in the ancient ,hebrew1 a worshipful attitude toward the ,creator4 #c4 ,the ,babylonian ,creation ,epic and ,other ,parts of the ,bible4 ,the ,babylonian poem1 crude though it seems to us1 had a powerful fascination for the imagination4 ,with more or less distinctness parts of it seem to have been known to various ,hebrew writers1 who1 attributing to their own ,god1 ,jehovah1 the rle ascribed in the epic to ,marduk1 used these stories as poetic illustrations4 ,at least this is the view of a considerable group of scholars4 ,some object that1 if this were true1 it would degrade ,jehovah to the level of ,marduk1 but the objection does not seem well founded4 ,the ,hebrews might well have been such ardent monotheists as to believe that each and every mighty manifestation of power had been the work of ,jehovah1 without in any way lowering ,jehovah to the level of a heathen god4 ,the most important parallels which have been cited are here given1 so that the reader may judge for himself as to which view is the more probable4 ,in ,job #i3ac1 #ad we read3 ,god will not withdraw his anger2 ,the helpers of ,rahab do stoop under him4 ,how much less shall ,i answer him1 ,and choose out my words to reason with him8 ,rahab is believed by many to be here an epithet of ,timat4 ,it means 8the one who acts boisterously0 or 8proudly40 ,those who thus think believe the lines in ,job to refer to the overcoming of ,timat's helpers in ,tablet ,,iv1 lines #aje-aah1 of the ,babylonian creation epic1 which read as follows3 ,after ,timat the leader he had slain1 ,her army he broke1 her host was scattered1 ,and the gods1 her helpers1 who marched at her side1 ,trembled1 feared1 they turned their backs2 ,they sought an exit1 to save their lives2 ,with a cordon they were encompassed1 escape was not possible4 ,he caught them1 their weapons he broke1 ,into the net they fell1 in the snare they remained4 ,all the quarters of the world they filled with their lamentation4 ,his wrath they endured1 they were held in bondage4 ,and the eleven creatures1 whom she had filled with terribleness1 ,the troop of demons who marched as her helpers1 ,he threw into fetters1 their power he broke2 ,along with their opposition he trampled them under his feet4 ,this would seem to suit the reference in ,job1 and to give point to ,job's words4 ,as our ,saviour used stories in his parables1 so this poet may have used this well-known story to illustrate his point4 ,again ,job #bf3ab1 #ac reads3 ,he stirreth up the sea with his power1 ,and by his understanding he smiteth through ,rahab4 ,by his ,spirit the heavens are garnished2 ,his hand hath pierced the swift serpent4 ,four of the ancient versions of the ,old ,testament1 with a very slight change in the ,hebrew letters1 read ,job #bf3ac3 ,the bars of heaven fear him2 ,his hand hath pierced the swift serpent4 ,into comparison with v4 #ab and the last line of #ac1 scholars have brought ,tablet ,,iv1 line #ic1 ff41 which runs3 ,then took their stand1 ,timat and the leader of the gods1 ,marduk2 ,for the fight they approached1 for the battle drew near4 ,the lord spread out his net and enclosed her1 ,the evil wind from behind he thrust into her face4 ,as ,timat opened her mouth to its full extent1 ,the evil wind he drove in1 so that her lips could not close4 ,with the mighty winds he filled her belly4 ,her courage was taken away1 and she opened her mouth4 ,he let fall the spear1 he burst open her belly1 ,he cut through her inward parts1 he pierced her heart1 ,he bound her and her life destroyed2 ,her body he cast down and stood upon it4 ,into comparison with the first line of v4 #ac1 as the versions give it1 scholars have brought line #ace1 and ff41 of the same tablet3 ,then the lord rested1 he gazed upon her body1 ,the flesh of the monster he divided2 he formed a cunning plan4 ,he split her open like a flat fish into two halves2 ,one half of her he established and made a covering of the heavens4 ,he drew a bolt1 he established a guard1 ,and not to let her waters come out1 he commanded4 ,with the passages quoted above ,psa4 #gd3ac1 #ad has also been compared3 ,thou didst divide the sea by thy strength3 ,thou brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters4 ,thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces2 ,thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabiting the wilderness4 ,verses #af1 #ag of the same ,psalm continue the theme with the words3 ,the day is thine1 the night also is thine3 ,thou hast prepared the light and the sun4 ,thou hast set all the borders of the earth3 ,thou hast made summer and winter4 ,the theme is the same as that of the epic1 viz43 the creation of the world4 ,it would appear from v4 #ad that as the ,hebrews called ,timat ,rahab1 so they called ,kingu leviathan4 ,those who so think find another reference to the ,babylonian creation epic in ,job #c3h3 ,let them curse it that curse the day1 ,who are ready to rouse up leviathan4 ,apparently there were magicians who professed to be able to arouse such a monster4 ,other references to leviathan are thought to employ the same illustrative material4 ,thus in ,isa4 #bg3a we read3 ,in that day ,jehovah with his hard and great and strong sword will punish leviathan the swift serpent1 and leviathan the crooked serpent2 and he will slay the monster that is in the sea4 ,in ,job #da there is a long description of the crocodile under the name leviathan4 ,in verses #ai-ba some things are said of him that do not suit a real crocodile1 and some scholars have thought that the language was influenced by the ,babylonian material4 ,these verses are3 ,out of his mouth go burning torches1 ,and sparks of fire leap forth4 ,out of his nostrils a smoke goeth1 ,as of a boiling pot and burning rushes4 ,his breath kindleth coals1 ,and a flame goeth forth from his mouth4 ,other references to ,rahab1 which have been thought to use the same illustration1 are ,psalm #hi3aj3 ,thou hast broken ,rahab in pieces as one that is slain2 ,thou hast scattered thine enemies with the arm of thy strength4 ,also1 ,isaiah #ea3i3 ,is it not thou that didst cut ,rahab in pieces1 ,that didst pierce the monster8 ,as to whether these sacred writers really employed the material of the ,babylonian epic to give force to their illustrations1 the judgments of men will differ in accordance with their views of what is possible for an inspired writer4 ,in the following passages ,rahab is used to denote ,egypt as a proud and imperious country4 ,these uses are clearly figurative and metaphorical4 ,isa4 #cj3g3 ,for ,egypt helpeth in vain and to no purpose3 ,therefore have ,i called her ,rahab that sitteth still4 ,psa4 #hg3d3 ,rahab and ,babylon ,i proclaim my votaries4 ,a fragmentary account of an ,assyrian version of the creation epic has been found4 ,it agrees with the ,babylonian account in beginning with ,timat1 though the course of creation appears to have been different4 ,the tablets known to us present it1 however1 in a form too fragmentary for us to follow the course of the narrative4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,another ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,found ,,at ,,babylon4#cfd ,,text ,,of ,,the ,,account4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,it ,,with ,,genesis #b4 #a4 ,text of the ,account4 #a4 ,a holy house1 a house of the gods1 in a holy place had not been made2 #b4 ,no reed had sprung up1 no tree had been created4 #c4 ,no brick had been made1 no foundation had been built1 #d4 ,no house had been constructed1 no city had been built2 #e4 ,no city had been built1 thrones had not been established2 #f4 ,nippur had not been constructed1 ,ekur had not been built2 #g4 ,erech had not been constructed1 ,eanna had not been built2 #h4 ,the deep had not been formed1 ,eridu had not been built2 #i4 ,the holy house1 the house of the gods1 the dwelling had not been made1-- #aj4 ,all lands were sea1-- #aa4 ,then in the midst of the sea was a water-course2 #ab4 ,in those days ,eridu was constructed1 ,esagila was built1 #ac4 ,esagila where1 in the midst of the deep1 the god ,lugal-dul-azaga abode1 #ad4 7,babylon was made1 ,esagila was completed74 #ae4 ,the gods and the ,anunaki he made at one time4 #af4 7,the holy city1 the dwelling of their hearts' desire1 they named as first71 #ag4 ,marduk bound a structure of reeds upon the face of the waters1 #ah4 ,he formed dust1 he poured it out beside the reed-structure4 #ai4 ,to cause the gods to dwell in the habitation of their hearts' desire1 #bj4 ,he formed mankind4 #ba4 ,the goddess ,aruru with him created mankind1 #bb4 ,cattle of the field1 in whom is breath of life1 he created4 #bc4 ,he formed the ,tigris and ,euphrates and set them in their places1 #bd4 ,their names he did well declare4 #be4 ,the grass1 marsh-grass1 the reed and brushwood 787 he created1 #bf4 ,the green grass of the field he created1 #bg4 ,the land1 the marshes1 and the swamps2 #bh4 ,the wild cow and her young1 the wild calf2 the ewe and her young1 the lamb of the fold2 #bi4 ,gardens and forests2 #cj4 ,the wild goat1 the mountain goat1 7who7 cares for himself 7874 #ca4 ,the lord ,marduk filled a terrace by the seaside1 #cb4 444444444444 a marsh1 reeds he set1 #cc4 444444444444444444 he caused to exist4 #cd4 ,reeds he created2 trees he created2 #ce4 ,in their 44444444444 in their place he made2 #cf4 ,bricks he laid1 a foundation he constructed2 #cg4 ,houses he made1 a city he built2 #ch4 ,a city he built1 a throne he established2 #ci4 ,nuppur he constructed1 ,ekur he built2 #dj4 ,erech he constructed1 ,eanna he built4 7,at this point the tablet is broken4 ,when it again becomes legible1 it is in the midst of an incantation47 #b4 ,comparison with ,genesis #b4 ,this account of the creation has sometimes been compared with ,genesis #b3d1 ff41 which describes a time when there was no grass or vegetation on the earth1 and then goes on to describe the creation of man and animals1 speaking of the ,tigris and ,euphrates rivers4 ,in this account of the creation it is stated 7line #ba7 that the goddess ,aruru with ,marduk created mankind4 ,in another ,babylonian poem1 the ,gilgamesh epic1 which contains the ,babylonian story of the flood1 there is an account of the creation of man which accords much more closely with ,gen4 #b3g than that which we are considering4 ,it runs3 ,the goddess ,aruru1 when she heard this1 ,a man like ,anu she formed in her heart4 ,aruru washed her hands2 ,clay she pinched off and spat upon it2 ,eabani1 a hero she created1 ,an exalted offspring1 with the might of ,ninib4 ,here is clearly a tradition1 similar to ,genesis1 that ,god formed man from the dust of the ground4 ,the allusion to ,aruru indicates that this formed a part of the early ,babylonian tradition4 ,there is considerable evidence that in an earlier form of the ,babylonian account ,marduk had no place4 ,he was introduced into it later by the priests of ,babylon4 ,aruru was in that earlier form the creator of man1 and probably was said to have formed him from clay1 as in the ,gilgamesh epic4 ,while these points of likeness are evident1 there are great differences between the two narratives4 ,the ,babylonian account speaks not only of grass and reeds as non-existent1 but of cities and temples also1 which1 it tells us1 were created later4 ,it has no picture of ,eden2 its thought centers in well-known ,babylonian cities4 ,while ,marduk appears as supreme in the ,babylonian poem1 the gods and ,anunaki1 or spirits of earth1 are recognized1 so that the polytheistic view is not entirely absent4 ,in the ,biblical picture1 on the other hand1 ,jehovah is supreme4 ,opinions of scholars differ as to whether there was any real connection between the two narratives4 ,whatever opinion one may hold on this point1 there can be no question but that the second chapter of ,genesis is dominated by those religious conceptions which were so uniquely manifested in ,israel1 while they are absent from the ,babylonian narrative4 7,for a new ,babylonian account of the creation of man1 see ,appendix47 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,babylonian ,,sabbath ,,feast ,,of ,,marduk ,,and ,,zarpanit4 ,a ,,day ,,called ,,shabatum4 ,a ,,day ,,in ,,some ,,tablets ,,at ,,yale4 #a4 ,feast of ,marduk and ,zarpanit4 ,the seventh day is the feast of ,marduk and ,zarpanit4 ,it is an evil day4 ,the shepherd of the great people shall not eat flesh cooked on the coals which is smoked4 ,the garment of his body he shall not change2 a clean one he shall not put on4 ,a sacrifice he shall not offer4 ,the king in a chariot shall not ride4 ,in triumph he shall not speak4 ,in the secret place a seer shall not give an oracle4 ,the physician shall not lay his hand on the sick4 ,it is not fitting to utter a malediction4 ,at night before ,marduk and ,ishtar the king shall bring his offering2 a libation he shall pour out4 ,the lifting up of his hands shall then be pleasing to the gods4#cfe ,this passage occurs in a tablet which describes the nature of all the days of a month4 ,the same prohibitions are recorded for the fourteenth1 nineteenth1 twenty-first1 and twenty-eighth days4 ,the tablet has often been brought into comparison with the ,hebrew sabbath1 partly because the seventh1 fourteenth1 twenty-first1 and twenty-eighth days are involved1 partly because the prohibitions remind the reader of ,exodus #bj3h-aa and ,deut4 #e3ab-ae4 ,exod4 #bj3h-aa4 ,remember the sabbath day1 to keep it holy4 ,six days shalt thou labor1 and do all thy work3 but the seventh day is a sabbath unto the ,lord thy ,god3 in it thou shalt not do any work1 thou1 nor thy son1 nor thy daughter1 thy manservant1 nor thy maidservant1 nor thy cattle1 nor thy stranger that is within thy gates3 for in six days the ,lord made heaven and earth1 the sea1 and all that in them is1 and rested the seventh day3 wherefore the ,lord blessed the sabbath day1 and hallowed it4 ,deut4 #e3ab-ae4 ,observe the sabbath day1 to keep it holy1 as the ,lord thy ,god commanded thee4 ,six days shalt thou labor1 and do all thy work3 but the seventh day is a sabbath unto the ,lord thy ,god3 in it thou shalt not do any work1 thou1 nor thy son1 nor thy daughter1 nor thy manservant1 nor thy maidservant1 nor thine ox1 nor thine ass1 nor any of thy cattle1 nor thy stranger that is within thy gates2 that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou4 ,and thou shalt remember that thou wast a servant in the land of ,egypt1 and the ,lord thy ,god brought thee out thence by a mighty hand and by a stretched out arm3 therefore the ,lord thy ,god commanded thee to keep the sabbath day4 ,in reality the ,babylonian prohibitions apply to certain classes of people only1 and not to the whole population4 ,a study of the contract literature shows that there was no cessation of business upon these days of the month1 so that resemblance to the ,hebrew sabbath is really quite slight4 #b4 ,a ,day ,called ,shabatum4 ,these days were not1 so far as we know1 called shabatum1 but another tablet#cff tells us that the fifteenth day of each month was so called4 ,shabatum is etymologically the same as the ,hebrew sabbath4 ,as the ,babylonian months were lunar1 the fifteenth was the time of the full moon1 so that in ,babylonian the day denoted the completion of the moon's growth4 ,in the ,old ,testament 8sabbath0 is sometimes coupled with 8new moon10 as though it may also have designated a similar day4 7,see #b ,kings #d3bc2 ,amos #h3e2 ,hosea #b3aa2 ,isa4 #a3ac2 #ff3bc1 and ,ezek4 #df3c47 ,this ,babylonian shabatum can1 in any event1 have no direct relationship to the ,hebrew sabbath as a day of rest once a week4 #c4 ,a ,day in ,some ,tablets at ,yale4 ,a series of tablets in the ,yale ,babylonian ,collection1 a portion of which has been published by ,prof4 ,clay1#cfg shows that special sacrifices were offered on the seventh1 fourteenth1 twenty-first1 and twenty-eighth of each month4 ,these sacrifices show that these days were thought to have some peculiar significance1 but1 whatever that significance may have been1 the evidence cited shows that it was not the same as that of the ,hebrew sabbath4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,adapa ,,and ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,man ,,comparison ,,with ,,genesis #c4 ,,the ,,adapa ,,myth4 ,four fragments of the ,adapa myth have been found4 ,they really present but three parts of the story1 as two of them cover the same ground4 ,these three parts of the story are translated in this chapter4 ,it will be noted that the fragments do not present the entire story4 ,between fragments ,i and ,,ii1 as well as between fragments ,,ii and ,,iii1 some lines have fallen out1 and the last fragment is broken away before the end of the account is reached4 ,nevertheless1 from the parts which we have it is clear that the ,babylonians shared with the ,hebrews some of the traditions recorded in the third chapter of ,genesis4 #a4 ,comparison with ,genesis #c4 ,in the first place1 ,adapa1 like ,adam1 had gained knowledge4 ,this knowledge carried with it a power hitherto regarded as an attribute of divinity4 ,it enabled ,adapa to break the wing of the south wind2 it tempted ,adam and ,eve 8to become like ,god1 knowing good and evil0 7,gen4 #c3e74 ,as in ,genesis1 knowledge did not carry with it immortality4 ,ea1 the god who had permitted ,adapa to become wise1 feared that he might gain immortality1 as ,jehovah thought that ,adam might 8put forth his hand and take of the tree of life and eat and live forever0 7,gen4 #c3bb74 7,for ,babylonian and ,assyrian conceptions of the tree of life1 see ,figs4 #bia1 #bic47 ,ea accordingly told ,adapa a falsehood when he was about to go into the presence of the supreme god1 ,anu1 in order to prevent him from eating the food that would make him immortal2 ,jehovah drove man from the garden where the tree of life grew4 ,the two accounts agree in the thought that immortality could be obtained by eating a certain kind of food4 ,the lines at the end of the ,adapa story are much broken1 but they make it clear that as a punishment for what he had done1 ,adapa was subjected to sickness1 disease1 and restlessness4 ,this corresponds to the toil inflicted upon man 7,gen4 #c3ag-ai71 and the pangs of childbirth imposed upon woman 7,gen4 #c3af74 ,it appears also that as ,adam and ,eve were clothed with skins in consequence of their deed 7,gen4 #c3ba71 so ,adapa was clothed by ,anu in a special clothing4 ,these similarities indicate that the ,babylonians possessed the same general ideas of the connection of increasing knowledge1 with the attributes of divinity on the one hand1 and with suffering and clothing on the other1 which are presented in ,genesis4 ,an increasing number of modern scholars regard the ,babylonian story as an earlier form of a narrative which the ,hebrew writer took and purified4 ,others hold that it is a somewhat degenerate form of the ,biblical narrative4 ,in any event1 the ,babylonian story proves the ,biblical conceptions to be very ancient1 and1 by its contrasts to that of ,genesis1 it exhibits the dignity and religious value of the ,biblical narrative4 ,in the ,babylonian myth1 the gods1 ,ea and ,anu1 are divided and work at cross purposes2 ,ea tells a falsehood to accomplish his end4 ,genesis1 while it represents ,jehovah as feeling and acting in a much more human way than some parts of the ,bible do1 still portrays him as a consistently righteous1 omnipotent ,god1 who demands obedience1 and whose punishments are the reasonable recompense for transgressions4 ,the superiority of the ,old ,testament stands out in striking contrast4 #b4 ,the ,adapa ,myth4#cfh ,i #a4 ,he possessed intelligence 4444444444 #b4 ,his command like the command of ,anu 4444444444 #c4 ,wide intelligence he 7,ea7 made perfect for him1 the destiny of the country to reveal4 #d4 ,unto him wisdom he gave2 eternal life he did not grant him4 #e4 ,in those days1 in those years the wise man of ,eridu1-- #f4 ,ea as a chief 787 among men had created him1-- #g4 ,a wise man whose command no one could restrain1 #h4 ,the prudent1 the most wise among the ,anunnaki was he1 #i4 ,blameless1 clean of hands1 anointed1 the observer of divine commands1 #aj4 ,with the bakers he made bread1 #aa4 ,with the bakers of ,eridu he made bread1 #ab4 ,the food and water of ,eridu he prepared daily1 #ac4 ,with his clean hands he prepared the table1 #ad4 ,and without him the table was not cleared4 #ae4 ,the ship he steered2 fishing and hunting for ,eridu he did4 #af4 ,then ,adapa of ,eridu1 #ag4 ,while ,ea lay upon a bed in a chamber 7871 #ah4 ,daily the closing of ,eridu he made right4 #ai4 ,at the pure quay1 the quay of the new-moon1 he embarked upon the ship1 #bj4 ,the wind blew1 his ship sailed1 #ba4 ,with the rudder he steered the ship #bb4 ,upon the broad sea4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444 ,,ii #a4 444444444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,the south wind blew and capsized him1 #c4 ,to the house of the fishes it made him sink1 #d4 8,o south wind increase thy rage as much as thou art able1 #e4 ,thy wing ,i will break40 ,as he spoke with his mouth1 #f4 ,the wing of the south wind was broken1 seven days #g4 ,the south wind blew not on the land4 ,anu #h4 ,to his messenger1 ,ilabrat1 said3 #i4 8,why has the south wind not blown upon the land for seven days80 #aj4 ,his messenger ,ilabrat answered him1 8,my lord #aa4 ,adapa1 the son of ,ea1 the wing of the south wind #ab4 ,has broken40 ,anu1 when he heard this1 #ac4 ,cried 8,help60 ,he ascended his throne3 8,let some one bring him to me4 #ad4 ,likewise ,ea1 who knows the heavens1 summon him1 #ad;a4 ,to ,king ,ea to come40#cfi #ad;b4 ,to him he caused word to be borne1 #ad;c4 4444444444 ,to him1 to ,king ,ea1 #ad;d4 ,he sent a messenger4 #ad;e4 ,he is of great understanding1 he knows the hearts of the great gods1 #ad;f4 4444444444 of the heavens1 he establishes it4 #ae4 ,a soiled garment he made him wear2 with a mourning garment clad him1 #af4 ,he clothed him and gave him counsel1 #ag4 ,saying3 8,adapa1 into the presence of ,anu1 the king1 thou art going1 #ah4 ,fail not the order1 my word keep1 #ai4 ,when thou goest up to heaven and approachest the gate of ,anu1 #bj4 ,at the gate of ,anu1 ,tammuz and ,gishzida #ba4 ,stand1 they will see thee1 they will ask3 #8,lord1 #bb4 ,for whose sake art thou thus1 ,adapa8 ,for whom #bc4 ,art thou clad in a mourning garment8' #8,in our country two gods have vanished1 therefore #bd4 ,am ,i thus4' #8,who are the two gods who in the land #be4 ,have vanished8' #8,tammuz and ,gishzida4' ,they will look at one another and #bf4 ,be astonished4 ,favorable words #bg4 ,to ,anu they will speak4 ,a joyful countenance of ,anu #bh4 ,they will reveal to thee4 ,when thou standest in the presence of ,anu1 #bi4 ,food of death they will offer thee to eat2 #cj4 ,thou shalt not eat4 ,water of death they will offer thee to drink2 #ca4 ,thou shalt not drink4 ,a garment will they show thee2 #cb4 ,put it on4 ,oil they will set before thee2 anoint thyself4 #cc4 ,the command which ,i give thee1 forget not4 ,the word #cd4 ,which ,i have spoken hold fast40 ,the messenger #ce4 ,of ,anu came3 8,adapa of the south wind #cf4 ,the wing has broken4 ,into my presence bring him40 #cg4 ,the road to heaven he made him take and to heaven he ascended4 #ch4 ,when to heaven he ascended1 when he approached the gate of ,anu1 #ci4 ,at the gate of ,anu1 ,tammuz and ,gishzida were standing4 #dj4 ,when they saw him they cried3 8,adapa1 help6 #da4 ,lord1 for whose sake art thou thus8 #db4 ,for whom art thou clad in a mourning garment8 #dc4 ,in the country two gods have vanished2 therefore in a mourning garment #dd4 ,am ,i clad4 ,who are the two gods who from the land have vanished80 #de4 8,tammuz and ,gishzida40 ,they looked at one another and #df4 ,were astonished4 ,when ,adapa before ,anu the king1 #dg4 ,approached1 ,anu saw him and cried3 #dh4 8,come1 ,adapa1 why of the south wind the wing #di4 ,hast thou broken80 ,adapa answered3 8,anu1 my lord1 #ej4 ,for the house of my lord in the midst of the sea #ea4 ,i was catching fish4 ,as ,i was midway of the voyage #eb4 ,the south wind blew and capsized me2 #ec4 ,to the house of the fishes it made me sink4 ,in the anger of my heart #ed4 ,the south wind ,i cursed4 ,at my side answered ,tammuz #ee4 ,and ,gishzida3 #8,the heart should be toward ,anu4' #ef4 ,they spoke1 he was appeased1 his heart was won 7874 #eg4 8,why has ,ea1 to impure man1 of the heavens #eh4 ,and the earth revealed the heart8 #ei4 ,strong 787 has he made him 7,adapa72 a name he has given him4 #fj4 ,we--what can we do to him8 ,food of life #fa4 ,bring him1 that he may eat40 ,food of life #fb4 ,they brought him2 he ate it not4 ,water of life #fc4 ,they brought him2 he drank it not4 ,a garment #fd4 ,they brought him2 he clothed himself4 ,oil #fe4 ,they brought him2 he anointed himself4 #ff4 ,anu looked at him2 he wondered 787 at him4 #fg4 8,come1 ,adapa1 why dost thou not eat nor drink8 #fh4 ,now thou shalt not live2 men are mortal 78740 8,ea my lord #fi4 ,said3 ,thou shalt not eat1 thou shalt not drink40 #gj4 ,take him and bring him back to earth4 #ga4 444444444444 looked upon him4 ,,iii #a4 444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,he commanded him and he 44444444444 #c4 ,the garment1 he commanded him and he clothed himself4 #d4 444444 ,anu wondered greatly at the deed of ,ea4 #e4 ,the gods of heaven and earth1 as many as there are3 8,who is thus mighty 7878 #f4 ,his command is the command of ,anu4 ,who can surpass him80 #g4 ,as now ,adapa from the horizon to the zenith of the heavens #h4 444444 looked1 he saw his terror 444444 7i4 e41 the terror he inspired7 #i4 ,which ,anu concerning ,adapa upon him 444444 had placed4 #aj4 ,the service 787 of ,ea he made his satisfaction4 #aa4 ,anu fixed as his lot his lordship in brilliance to the distant future4 #ab4 4444444444 ,adapa1 the seed of mankind1 #ac4 ,who victoriously broke the wing of the south wind1 #ad4 ,and to heaven he ascended4 8,thus let it be60 #ae4 444444 that which he in evil ways imposed on the people1 #af4 4444444444 sickness which he placed in the bodies of people4 #ag4 44444444 ,ninkarrak appeased4 #ah4 ,sickness shall come1 his disease be violent1 #ai4 4444444444 destruction shall fall upon him1 #bj4 ,in good sleep he shall not rest1 #ba4 4444 shall overturn 787 the joy of people's hearts4 7,the remainder is broken away47 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,patriarchs ,,before ,,the ,,flood ,,babylonian ,,long-,,lived ,,kings4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,genesis #e4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,genesis #d4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,list ,,of ,,berossos4 ,a ,biblical narrative that challenges attention is that in ,genesis #e1 which contains the list of long-lived patriarchs who flourished before the flood4 ,this narrative finds a striking parallel in the following tablet which tells of long-lived kings who are said to have ruled in ancient ,babylonia4 ,the beginnings of all the columns of the tablet are broken away4#cgj #a4 ,babylonian ,long-lived ,kings ,column ,i #b4 444444 ruled #ijj 787 years2 4444444444444444444444 #g4 ,galumum #h4 ruled #ijj 787 years2 #i4 ,zugagib #aj4 ruled #hdj 787 years2 #aa4 ,a-ri-pi1 son of ,mashgag1 #ab4 ruled #gbj years2 #ac4 ,etana1 the shepherd1 #ad4 who ascended to heaven1 #ae4 who subdued all lands1 #af4 ruled #fce years2 #ag4 ,pilikam1 #ah4 son of ,etana1 #ai4 ruled #cej years2 #bj4 ,enmenunna #ba4 reigned #faa years2 #bb4 ,melam-,kish1 #bc4 son of ,enmenunna1 #bd4 ruled #ijj years2 #be4 ,barsalnunna1 #bf4 son of ,enmenunna1 #bg4 ruled #abjj years2 #bh4 ,mes 787 zamu1 son of ,barsalnunna1 #bi4 ruled 444444 years2 #cj4 444444 son of ,barsalnunna2 ,column ,,ii 4444444444444444444444444 #a4 from ,kish #b4 the kingdom #c4 passed to ,eanna4 #d4 ,in ,eanna #e4 ,meskingashir1 #f4 son of ,shamash1#cga #g4 as lord1 #h4 as king1 #i4 ruled #cbe years4 #aj4 ,meskingashir #aa4 entered into #ab4 and went out from 444444 #ac4 ,enmeirgan1 #ad1 #ae4 son of ,meskingashir1 #af4 king of ,erech1 #ag4 the people of ,erech #ah4 strengthened1 #ai4 as king #bj4 ruled #dbj years4 #ba4 ,lugalbanda1 the shepherd1 #bb4 ruled #abjj years4 #bc4 ,dumuzi1 the hunter#cgb 7871 #bd4 ,whose city is among fishes1 #be4 ruled #ajj years4 #bf4 ,gilgamesh1 #bg4 whose father #bh4 was lord of ,kullab1 #bi4 ruled #abf years4 ,column ,,iii 7,the kingdom7 #a4 of ,erech #b4 passed to ,ur4 #c4 ,in ,ur #d4 ,mesannipada #e4 was king2 #f4 he ruled #hj years4 #g4 ,meskiagnunna1 #h4 son of ,mesannipada1 #i4 ruled #cj years4 #aj4 ,elu 44444444 #aa4 ruled #be years4 #ab4 ,balu 4444444 #ac4 #cf years4 #ad4 #d kings #ae4 ruled #aga years4 #af4 ,as to ,ur #ag4 the kingdom #ah4 passed to ,awan4#cgc ,column ,,iv#cgd #a4 ruled #ba years4 #b4 ,ishme-,dagan1 #c4 son of ,idin-,dagan1 #d4 ruled #ba years4 #e4 ,libit-,ishtar1 #f4 son of ,idin-,dagan1 #g4 ruled #aa years4 #h4 ,ur-,ninib1 #i4 son of ,im 44444441 44444444444444444444 ,column ,v #a4 ,total #ea kings-- #b4 their years were #ahjjj 444 #c4 #i years 4444444 months 4444444 #d4 ,four times #e4 in ,kish3 #f4 total #bb kings-- #g4 their years were #bfaj #h4 #f months1 #ae days4 #i4 ,five times #aj4 in ,erech3 #aa4 total #ac kings-- #ab4 their years were #cif-- #ac4 ruled4 #ad4 ,three times #ae4 in ,ur3 #af4 total #c kings-- #ag4 their years were #cef-- #ah4 ruled4 #ai4 ,once #bj4 in ,awan3 #ba4 total #a king-- #bb4 his rule was #g years4 #bc4 ,once #bd4 in#cge 4444444 ,column ,,vi #a4 7total 44444447 kings-- #b4 7their years7 were #aif-- #c4 ruled4 #d4 ,twice in ,agade3 #e4 total #ba kings-- #f4 their years were #abe years #g4 #dj days--ruled4 #h4 ,once #i4 in the people #aj4 of ,gutium3 #aa4 total #aa kings-- #ab4 their years were #aei years-- #ac4 ruled #ad4 in ,isin 7874 #ae4 ,eleven #af4 royal cities #ag4 ruled4 #ah4 ,total #acd kings4 #ai4 ,grand total #bhhgf #bj4 years1 #ba4 444444 months4#cge ,this interesting document does not stand alone4 ,three other tablets published in the same volume#cgf contain similar material1 though all that would have a bearing on our present topic is too broken for connected translation4 ,it is clear from the translation here given that the ,babylonians ascribed to some early kings reigns as long1 and even longer in some cases1 than those ascribed to the antediluvian patriarchs in ,genesis #e4 ,the peculiar spelling of ,galumum and ,zugagib in the ,babylonian characters1 together with the meaning of the words1 shows that they are animal names4 ,zugagib means 8scorpion0 and ,galumum1 8lamb40 ,in the lines which preceded1 probably similar animal names were recorded4 ,perhaps this expresses the idea that animals were made before men1 as is stated in ,gen4 #a3bd-bf4 #b4 ,comparison with ,genesis #e4--,the next name1 ,aripi1#cgg may also have been read ,adim1 and perhaps was so read by the ,sumerians themselves4 ,if it came to the ,hebrews in this form they would naturally equate it with the ,hebrew ,adam1 which means 8man40 ,etana1 the shepherd1 is said in this list to have gone to heaven4 ,this at once suggests the fate of ,enoch1 who 8was not2 for ,god took him0 7,gen4 #e3bd74 ,in the ,sumerian the words 8to heaven0 are ,,an-,u1 which may also be read ,,an-,,ku4 ,if these words were not fully understood by the ,hebrews1 to whom ,sumerian was not only a foreign language but a dead language1 they might easily be mistaken for a proper name1 and would in ,hebrew give us ,enoch4#cgh ,another suggestion as to the method of borrowing is also possible4 ,later traditions cherished the name of a king1 ,enmeduranki1 whom they called a king of ,sippar or ,agade4#cgi ,enmeduranki means 8the hero who binds together heaven and earth40 ,etana is in our list of kings called a king of ,kish1 but in later times kings of ,kish were also called kings of ,agade4 ,it is altogether probable1 therefore1 that the 8hero who binds together heaven and earth0 is simply another designation of ,etana who went to heaven4 ,the last two syllables of ,enmeduranki1 i4 e41 ,,an-,,ki1 8heaven and earth10 would1 if taken over into ,hebrew1 also give ,enoch4 ,if we assume that ,etana and ,enoch are the same1 we may at a later point be able to determine by which of these processes the name is most likely to have come into ,hebrew4 ,in an old poem1 fragments of which have been found on some broken tablets from ,nineveh1 the fortunes of ,etana were given in detail4 ,he is said to have been carried to heaven on the back of an eagle4 ,if he be really the prototype of ,enoch1 this lends a touch of realism to the narrative4 ,the ,sumerian name ,enmenunna means 8exalted hero0 or 8exalted man40 ,a natural translation of this into ,semitic ,babylonian about #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 would be ,mutu-elu1#chj or1 in one word1 amelu1 and an equally natural translation of this into ,hebrew would give us ,enosh4 ,pilikam1#cha the next name1 means in ,sumerian 8with intelligence to build40 ,in ,babylonian ,semitic it would be literally ,ina-uzni-eru1 or1 rendered in one word1 ummanu1 8artificer40 ,the ,hebrew translation of this is ,kenan1 which means 8artificer40 ,melamkish gives us the ,hebrew ,lamech by the simple elision of the first and last consonants4 ,all people are lazy and words sometimes wear away both at the beginning and at the end4#chb ,barsalnunna1 translated into ,semitic ,babylonian1 becomes ,shitu-elu4#chc ,seth may well be a transfer of a part of this name to ,hebrew4 ,the final radical of the first part of the name may have worn away or have been accidentally omitted4 ,meskingashir is resolvable into four elements1 ,,mes-,,ki-,,inga#chd-,,shir1#che 8the hero0 or 8man who is great0 or 8exalted40 ,translate this into ,semitic ,babylonian and it becomes ,mutu-a-elu1 which is almost exactly ,methuselah4 ,enmeirgan becomes when translated into ,semitic ,mutu-alal-eqla1#chf and ,mahalalel is a much closer transfer of the first two elements of this to ,hebrew than are ,sennacherib1 ,esar-haddon1 ,merodach-baladan1 and ,evil-merodach of the names ,sin-akhi-irba1 ,ashur-akhi-iddina1 ,marduk-apal-iddin1 and ,amel-,marduk4 ,finally ,dumuzi means 8son of life10 or 8living son10 and ,jared#chg means 8descendant40 ,the equivalent of ,noah does not appear in this list1 but there is no doubt that he was ,ziugiddu1 otherwise called ,ut-napishtim1 of the ,babylonian accounts of the flood4 ,we have then the following equivalents1 four of which are ,hebrew translations of ,sumerian names2 three1 transfers into ,hebrew of the whole or of parts of ,semitic ,babylonian equivalents of these ,sumerian names1 two of which are transfers to ,hebrew of portions of a ,sumerian original1 and one of which1 ,noah1 is still unexplained4 ,sumerian ,semitic ,babylonian ,hebrew ,adim ,adam ,barsalnunna ,shitu-elu ,seth ,enmenunna ,mutu-elu 7or amelu7 ,enosh ,pelikam ,ina-uzni-ereshu 7or ummanu7 ,kenan ,enmeirgan ,mutu-alal-gan ,mahalalel ,dumuzi ,apal-napiti ,jared ,etana ,enoch ,meskingashir ,mutu-a-elu ,methuselah ,melamkish ,lamech ,ziugiddu ,noah ,of course1 it may be objected that our list of kings did not furnish the originals of these patriarchs1 since there are more kings than patriarchs1 even though some of the names of kings have been lost by the breaking of the tablet4 ,in this connection1 however1 one should remember that in #a ,chron4 #a-i1 many names which appear in the earlier books of the ,bible are omitted1 and that in ,matt4 #a3h1 three kings--,ahaziah1 ,joash1 and ,amaziah--are omitted from the genealogy of ,christ4 7,compare #b ,kings #aa-ae47 ,it appears1 then1 that ,biblical writers did not always copy a full list4 ,it thus seems that the tablet translated above may be related to the text of ,genesis #e in the names of the patriarchs as well as in the matter of their ages4 ,when we recall that the tablet was apparently written in the year #bagj ,b4 ,c41 it seems probable that it may be a source from which the ,biblical names came4 #c4 ,comparison with ,genesis #d4 ,but our examination of the matter cannot stop here4 ,in ,gen4 #d3af-bc there is a list of the descendants of ,cain strikingly similar to the list of the descendants of ,seth in ,genesis #e4 ,if the names of ,adam and ,abel be supplied from ,gen4 #d3a1b1 the two lists appear as follows3 ,genesis #d ,genesis #e ,adam ,adam ---------- ,abel ,seth ,seth ,enosh ,enosh ,cain 7,hebrew 7 ,kenan 7,hebrew 7 ,enoch ,mahalalel ,irad 7,hebrew 7 ,jared 7,hebrew 7 ,mehujael ,enoch ,methushael ,methuselah ,lamech ,lamech ,noah ,the close parallelism of these two lists of names is really greater than it appears to the ,english reader to be4 ,cain1 which means 8artificer10 is in ,hebrew the same word as ,kenan1 lacking only one formative letter at the end4 ,irad and ,jared differ in ,hebrew only by the wearing away of one consonant4 ,mehujael is as much like ,mahalalel1 and ,methushael as much like ,methuselah as the ,assyrian name of ,tiglath-pileser1 ,tukultu-apal-esharra1 is like ,tiglath-pileser1 while ,enoch and ,lamech are the same4 ,the importance of this likeness arises from the fact that the so-called critical scholars claim that these two lists of names are in reality the same original list as it came through two lines of tradition and was worked up differently by two writers4 ,this view has been vigorously opposed by some conservative scholars1 notably by the late ,professor ,green1 of ,princeton4#chh ,between rival critical hypotheses it is not the function of archology to decide4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that the names of the descendants of ,genesis #d can be equated with those of our ,babylonian kings1 as well as those of ,gen4 #e4 ,adam1 ,seth1 ,enosh1 ,cain1 ,enoch1 ,mehujael1 and ,methushael would be derived exactly as it has been explained that the corresponding names of ,genesis #e could be derived4 ,it only remains to explain the names ,abel and ,irad4 ,it will be noticed that ,abel occupies in the list a position next to ,adam and ,cain2 ,abel is also said to have been a shepherd4 ,in the list of ,babylonian kings ,etana the shepherd comes in between ,adim 7,aripi7 and ,pilikam1 the equivalent of ,cain4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that ,etana is the king that corresponds to ,abel4 ,etana is described in the ,sumerian as 8the shepherd who went to heaven10 ,,siba ,l ,,an-,u ,,ni-,,ib-,e-,,da4 ,if the two words ,,siba ,l became detached and misunderstood as a proper name1 the s at the beginning1 according to a well known phonetic law1 could become h and give us the ,hebrew ,abel4 ,irad may also be ir-tu1 a corruption of ,,zi-,,ir-,,tu1 a name of the mother of ,dumuzi1 who may at times have been referred to as the son of ,,zi-,,ir-,,tu4#chi ,these possibilities are not proof that the names arose as suggested1 but are not without weight4 ,if ,abel arose from the traditions of ,etana and ,enoch did also1 and if the names of ,genesis #d are derived from the list of ,babylonian kings1 then ,etana figures twice in the fourth chapter of ,genesis4 ,if ,enoch is a fragment of the name ,enmeduranki1 a possibility already recognized1 it is not difficult to understand how ,etana came into the tradition twice4 #d4 ,comparison with the ,list of ,berossos4 ,another list of names awaits comparison4 ,berossos1 a ,babylonian priest who died about #bfj ,b4 ,c41 compiled a list of kings who lived before the flood1 and attributed to them incredibly long reigns4 ,his work has not survived1 but his list is quoted by two early ,christian writers1 ,eusebius and ,syncellus1 and ,hommel#cij and ,sayce#cia have claimed that his names are1 many of them1 identical with the patriarchs of ,genesis #e4 ,the list of ,berossos is as follows3 ,kings ,length of reign ,alorus #cf1jjj years ,alaparos #aj1hjj ,amlon #df1hjj ,ammenon #dc1bjj ,megalaros #fd1hjj ,daonos or ,daos #cf1jjj ,euedorachos #fd1hjj ,amempsinos #cf1jjj ,otiartes #bh1hjj ,xisouthros #fd1hjj -------------- ,total #dcb1jjj years4 ,it has long been recognized that ,amlon is the ,semitic ,babylonian word amelu1 8man40 ,it is a ,babylonian synonym of ,mutu-elu1 the equivalent of ,enosh1 and is also a translation of ,enmenunna4 ,ammenon has also been recognized as the ,semitic ,babylonian ummanu1 8artisan40 ,it is a translation in one word of the ,sumerian ,pilikam4 ,daonos or ,daos has1 too1 been seen to be the phonetic transliteration into ,greek letters of the ,sumerian ,dumu1 the first part of the name ,dumuzi4 ,euedorachos has also been thought to be the ,sumerian ,enmeduranki1 whom we have recognized as another name for ,etana4 ,four of the names of ,berossos are thus easily connected with names in the new list of kings4 ,the fifth one1 ,megalaros1 might be a corruption either of ,mutu-shalal or of ,mutu-a-elu1 and so go back ultimately either to ,enmeirgan or to ,meskingashir4 ,xisouthros is clearly the same person as ,ziugiddu4 ,he had no connection with this list of kings1 but is1 like ,noah in ,genesis #e1 attached to it on account of the flood4 ,hommel long ago saw that ,otiartes is the same as ,ubara-tutu1 who is said in the account of the deluge which was found at ,nineveh to have been the father of ,utnapishtim1 the hero of the deluge4#cib ,berossos has1 accordingly1 not only added the hero of the deluge1 but has displaced one of the names from the king list in order to find a place for the father of ,xisouthros4 ,the other names are puzzling4 ,poebel has suggested#cic that ,alorus may be a ,greek corruption of the ,sumerian name ,laluralim1 who is said to have been a king of ,nippur4 ,an old text which contains this name#cid is accompanied by a gloss zugagib1 8scorpion10#cie and the first king in the list translated above is ,zugagib4 ,if1 therefore1 this suggestion is true1 the name may go back to the same source as the others1 after all4 ,amempsinos has been thought by some to be a corruption of the well known ,babylonian name ,amil-,sin4 ,there was an ,amil-,sin in the first dynasty of ,babylon1 but why the name should be inserted here cannot at present be explained2 nor has a satisfactory explanation been suggested for ,alaparos4 ,the above discussion may be summed up in a few words4 ,the ,babylonian list of kings with which this chapter begins makes no reference to the flood1 neither does the fourth chapter of ,genesis4 ,all the names in ,genesis #d may be found in the ,babylonian list1 though ,etana seems to have been inserted twice under different names4 ,as ,genesis #e omits ,abel1 it has ,etana only once4 ,all the other names of ,genesis #e1 except ,noah1 are found in the ,babylonian list4 ,noah has been added to connect the list with the flood4 ,the ages of the patriarchs in ,genesis #e correspond approximately to the general lengths of the reigns assigned to the kings in the tablet4 ,berossos seems to have exercised much greater freedom1 inserting several names1 the origin of some of which cannot now be made out4 ,he also greatly exaggerated the lengths of the kings' reigns4 ,these correspondences are simply noted4 ,it is but a few months since the writer discovered them1 and he was the first to do so4 ,it is too early to correctly estimate their ultimate significance4 ,it should1 however1 be observed that the ,biblical numbers 7,gen4 #e7 lack the gross exaggerations of ,berossos1 and that1 if the correspondences here pointed out are real1 the tradition embodied in ,genesis is carried back to a time from #hjj to #ajjj years earlier than ,moses4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,a ,,babylonian ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,flood1 ,,from ,a ,,tablet ,,written ,,at ,,nineveh ,,in ,,the ,,seventh ,,century ,b4 ,c4#cif ,,translation ,,of ,,the ,,text4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,genesis #f-i4 ,,another ,,babylonian ,,version4 #a4 ,translation of the ,text4 #a4 ,gilgamesh said to him1 to ,utnapishtim1 the far-away3 #b4 8,i look upon thee1 ,o ,utnapishtim1 #c4 ,thy appearance is unchanged2 thou are like me2 #d4 ,thou art not at all different1 thou art like me4 #e4 ,thy courage is unbroken1 to make combat1 #f4 ,on thy side thou liest down--on thy back4 #g4 ,tell me how hast thou advanced and in the assembly of the gods hast found life80 #h4 ,utnapishtim spoke to him1 to ,gilgamesh3 #i4 ,i will reveal to thee1 ,o ,gilgamesh1 the secret story1 #aj4 ,and the decision of the gods to thee will ,i relate4 #aa4 ,shurippak1 a city which thou knowest1 #ab4 ,is situated on the bank of the ,euphrates4 #ac4 ,that city was old and the gods in it-- #ad4 ,their hearts prompted them--the great gods--to make a deluge4 #ae4 ,there drew near their father ,anu1 #af4 ,their councillor1 the warrior ,ellil1 #ag4 ,their herald1 ,enmashtu1 #ah4 ,their hero1 ,ennugi4 #ai4 ,the lord of wisdom1 ,ea1 counselled with them2 #bj4 ,their words he repeated to the reed-hut3 #ba4 8,o reed-hut1 reed-hut1 ,o wall1 wall1 #bb4 ,o reed-hut1 hearken2 ,o wall1 give heed6 #bc4 ,o man of ,shurippak1 son of ,ubaratutu1 #bd4 ,pull down thy house1 build a ship1 #be4 ,leave thy possessions1 take thought for thy life1 #bf4 ,leave thy gods1 thy life save6 #bg4 ,embark seed of life of all kinds on a ship6 #bh4 ,the ship which thou shalt build1 #bi4 ,measure well its dimensions1 #cj4 ,make to correspond its breadth and its length2 #ca4 ,upon the ocean thou shalt launch it40 #cb4 ,i understood and spoke to ,ea1 my lord3 #cc4 8,i understand1 my lord2 what thou hast thus commanded #cd4 ,i will honor and will do4 #ce4 ,but what shall ,i say to the city1 the people1 and the elders80 #cf4 ,ea opened his mouth and spake1 #cg4 ,he said unto me1 his servant3 #ch4 8,thus shalt thou say unto them3 #ci4 ,know that me--,ellil hates me4 #dj4 ,i may not dwell in your city1 #da4 ,on ,ellil's soil ,i may not lift my face4 #db4 ,i must go down to the ocean with ,ea1 my lord1 to dwell4 #dc4 ,upon you will he 7,ellil7 then rain abundance-- #dd4 ,a catch of birds1 a catch of fishes1 #de4 4444444444444444 a rich 787 harvest4 #df4 ,a time ,shamash#cig appointed1 at evening the senders of rain #dg4 ,shall rain upon you a mighty rainstorm4 #dh4 ,when the grey of dawn brightens1 7,lines #di-ee are broken away47 #ef4 ,the strong 444444 brought what was needed4 #eg4 ,on the fifth day ,i raised its frame4 #eh4 ,according to its plan 787 its walls were #abj cubits high2 #ei4 #abj cubits correspondingly was the extent of its roof4 #fj4 ,i laid down its hull2 ,i enclosed it4 #fa4 ,i constructed it in storys1 up to six2 #fb4 ,i divided it without 787 into seven parts4 #fc4 ,its interior ,i divided into nine parts4 #fd4 4444444444 ,i fastened in its midst4 #fe4 ,i looked out a rudder1 and prepared what was necessary4 #ff4 #f sars of bitumen ,i poured over its outside 7872 #fg4 #c sars of bitumen ,i poured over its interior4 #fh4 #c sars of oil the people who carry jars brought4 #fi4 ,besides a sar of oil which was used as a libation1 #gj4 #b sars of oil the ship's captain stowed away4 #ga4 ,for the people ,i slaughtered bullocks4 #gb4 ,i slaughtered lambs daily4 #gc4 ,must1 beer1 oil1 and wine1 #gd4 ,i gave the people to drink like river-water4 #ge4 ,i made a feast1 like a new year's festival4 #gf4 ,i opened 787 a box of ointment2 ,i put ointment in my hand4 #gg4 ,by the setting of great ,shamash1 the ship was finished4 #gh4 ,to move it from the stocks was difficult4 #gi4 ,the men cleared the ship's ways above and below4 #hj4 444444444444444444444444444444 two-thirds of it4 #ha4 ,with all that ,i had ,i laded it 7the ship72 #hb4 ,with all the silver ,i had ,i laded it4 #hc4 ,with all the gold ,i had ,i laded it4 #hd4 ,with all the living things ,i had ,i laded it4 #he4 ,i embarked on the ship all my family and kindred4 #hf4 ,cattle of the field1 beasts of the field1 craftsmen1 all1 ,i embarked4 #hg4 ,a fixed time ,shamash had appointed1 saying3 #hh4 8,when the senders of rain shall rain upon you a mighty rainstorm at evening1 #hi4 ,embark upon the ship and close thy door40 #ij4 ,the appointed time approached1 #ia4 ,the senders of rain sent at evening a heavy rainstorm4 #ib4 ,i observed the appearance of the day1 #ic4 ,the day was terrible to look upon4 #id4 ,i embarked upon the ship1 ,i closed my door4 #ie4 ,to the master of the ship1 to ,puzur-,amurru1 the sailor1 #if4 ,i entrusted the structure together with its contents4 #ig4 ,when dew-dawn began to brighten1 #ih4 ,there arose from the horizon a black cloud2 #ii4 ,the god ,adad thundered in its midst1 #ajj4 ,while ,nebo and ,sharru marched before2 #aja4 ,they went as heralds over mountain and country4 #ajb4 ,nergal tore away the anchor1 #ajc4 ,enmashtu advanced1 the floods he poured down2 #ajd4 ,the ,anunnaki raised their torches1 #aje4 ,at their brightness the land trembled4 #ajf4 ,the raging of ,adad reached to heaven2 #ajg4 ,all light was turned to darkness #ajh4 4444444444 the land like 444444444444444 #aji4 ,one day raged the storm 787 #aaj4 ,swiftly it raged and the waters covered the mountains1 #aaa4 ,like a battle array over the people it swept4 #aab4 ,no one could see his fellow2 #aac4 ,no more were people recognized in heaven2 #aad4 ,the gods were frightened at the deluge1 #aae4 ,they fled1 they climbed to the highest heaven2 #aaf4 ,the gods crouched like dogs1 they lay down by the walls4 #aag4 ,ishtar cried like a woman in travail1 #aah4 ,wailed the queen of the gods with her beautiful voice3 #aai4 8,those creatures are turned to clay1 #abj4 ,since ,i commanded evil in the assembly of the gods2 #aba4 ,because ,i commanded evil in the assembly of the gods1 #abb4 ,for the destruction of my people ,i commanded battle4 #abc4 ,i alone bore my people2 #abd4 ,like spawn of fishes they fill the sea40 #abe4 ,the gods along with the ,anunnaki wept with her1 #abf4 ,the gods bowed1 sat as they wept2 #abg4 ,closed were their lips2 silent their assembly4 #abh4 ,six days and seven nights #abi4 ,blew the wind1 the deluge the flood overpowered4 #acj4 ,when the seventh day approached1 the deluge was prolonging the battle #aca4 ,which1 like an army1 it had waged4 #acb4 ,the sea calmed1 the destruction abated1 the flood ceased4 #acc4 ,i looked upon the sea1 the roaring was stilled #acd4 ,and all mankind was turned to clay2 #ace4 ,like logs all were floating about4 #acf4 ,i opened the window1 the light fell on my cheek2 #acg4 ,i was overcome1 ,i sat down1 ,i wept2 #ach4 ,over my cheek streamed the tears4 #aci4 ,i looked in all directions--a fearful sea6 #adj4 ,after twelve days an island appeared2 #ada4 ,toward mount ,nizir the ship stood off2 #adb4 ,mount ,nizir held it fast1 that it moved not4 #adc4 ,one day1 two days1 mount ,nizir held it that it moved not1 #add4 ,three days1 four days1 mount ,nizir held it that it moved not1 #ade4 ,five days1 six days1 mount ,nizir held it that it moved not1 #adf4 ,when the seventh day approached1 #adg4 ,i brought out a dove and let her go2 #adh4 ,the dove went out and returned2 #adi4 ,there was no resting-place and she came back4 #aej4 ,i brought out a swallow and let it go2 #aea4 ,the swallow went out and returned4 #aeb4 ,there was no resting-place and it came back4 #aec4 ,i brought out a raven and let it go2 #aed4 ,the raven went out1 the diminution of the waters it saw2 #aee4 ,it alighted1 it waded about1 it croaked1 it did not come back4 #aef4 ,i disembarked all2 to the four winds ,i poured a libation4 #aeg4 ,i appointed a sacrifice on the top of the mountain peak2 #aeh4 ,seven by seven ,i arranged the sacrificial vessels2 #aei4 ,beneath them ,i piled reeds1 cedar wood1 and myrtle4 #afj4 ,the gods smelled the savor1 #afa4 ,the gods smelled the sweet savor1 #afb4 ,the gods above the sacrificer collected like flies4 #afc4 ,when at length the queen of the gods drew near1 #afd4 ,she raised the great bows 787 which ,anu at her wish had made4 #afe4 8,o ye gods1 as ,i shall not forget the jewel of my neck #aff4 ,these days ,i shall not forget--to eternity ,i shall remember6 #afg4 ,let the gods come to the sacrifice1 #afh4 ,but let ,ellil not come to the sacrifice1 #afi4 ,for he was not wise2 he sent the deluge1 #agj4 ,and numbered my people for destruction40 #aga4 ,when at last ,ellil drew near1 #agb4 ,he saw the ship1 ,ellil was angry1 #agc4 ,his heart was filled against the gods and the ,igigi4#cih #agd4 8,who then has come out alive8 #age4 ,no man must escape from destruction40 #agf4 ,then ,enmashtu opened his mouth and spake1 #agg4 ,he said to the warrior ,ellil3 #agh4 8,who but ,ea accomplished the thing8 #agi4 ,even ,ea knows every undertaking40 #ahj4 ,ea opened his mouth and spake1 #aha4 ,he said to the warrior ,ellil3 #ahb4 8,o thou1 leader of the gods1 warrior1 #ahc4 ,how1 how couldst thou without thought send a deluge8 #ahd4 ,on the sinner let his sin rest1 #ahe4 ,on the wrongdoer rest his misdeed4 #ahf4 ,forbear1 let it not be done1 have mercy1 that men perish not4 #ahg4 ,instead of thy sending a deluge #ahh4 ,had the lion come and diminished the people6 #ahi4 ,instead of thy sending a deluge #aij4 ,had a wolf come and diminished the people6 #aia4 ,instead of thy sending a deluge #aib4 ,had a famine come and the land depopulated6 #aic4 ,instead of thy sending a deluge #aid4 ,had a pestilence come and the land depopulated6 #aie4 ,i have not divulged the decisions of the great gods4 #aif4 ,i caused ,adrakhasis to see a dream and the decisions of the gods he heard4 #aig4 ,now take counsel concerning him40 #aih4 ,then went ,ea on board the ship1 #aii4 ,he took my hand and brought me forth1 #bjj4 ,he brought forth my wife and made her kneel at my side2 #bja4 ,he turned us toward each other and stood between us2 he blessed us3 #bjb4 8,in former time ,utnapishtim was a man2 #bjc4 ,now let ,utnapishtim and his wife be like gods--even like us2 #bjd4 ,let ,utnapishtim dwell afar off at the mouth of the rivers60 #bje4 ,he took me and caused me to dwell afar off at the mouth of the rivers4 #b4 ,comparison with ,genesis #f-i4 ,the above account of the deluge so closely resembles that in the ,bible 7,gen4 #f3i-i3ai71 that nearly all scholars recognize that they are two versions of the same narrative4#cii ,in each case there is a divine revelation to the hero of the deluge that a catastrophe is coming of which every one else is ignorant4 ,they both relate the building of the vessel1 the 8pitching it within and without with pitch10 the embarkation1 the flood in which other men are destroyed1 the resting of the ship on a mountain1 the sending out of the birds1 the disembarkation1 the sacrifice1 and the intimation that in future a deluge shall not be4 ,when the ,babylonian account is compared with the ,biblical1 there are two striking differences4 #a4 ,the ,babylonian story makes the flood local2 the ,biblical1 general4 #b4 ,the ,babylonian story1 fascinating poetry though it is1 has a conception of deity in strong contrast with the dignity of the ,biblical monotheism4 ,the ,babylonian gods disagree2 they blame each other2 they crouch with fear like dogs2 they come swarming about the sacrifice like hungry flies6 ,nothing could more strikingly illustrate the inspiration of the ,biblical story than to measure it against the background of this ,babylonian poem1 which is clearly a variant version of it4 #c4 ,another ,babylonian ,version4 ,from the library of ,ashurbanipal there has come another version of the deluge1 which represents the purpose of its coming as different4 ,according to this version1 men had sinned and had been afflicted with famine1 after which they reformed for a time4 ,the famine was removed1 but soon1 apparently1 they sinned again4 ,pestilence was then sent upon them4 ,an appeal brought mitigation of their sufferings1 but soon they plunged into sin again4 ,this time they were punished with unfruitfulness of the land and of their race1 but soon sinned as before4 ,when all other punishments had failed1 as a last resort the flood was sent4 ,as this account does not so closely resemble that in ,genesis1 it is not translated here4 ,those who wish to read it are referred to ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 ,new ,york1 #aiab1 p4 #aad1 ff4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,and ,,flood1 ,,from ,a ,,tablet ,,written ,,at ,,nippur ,,before #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,,translation4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,other ,,version4 #a4 ,translation4 ,this tablet was published by ,dr4 ,arno ,poebel1 of ,breslau4 ,it was apparently written in the time of the dynasty of ,nisin1 but at any rate not later than the period of the first dynasty of ,babylon4 ,only a part of the tablet has been found1 so that the narrative is incomplete both at the beginning and at the end4 ,possibly the remaining portion may some time be found in the museum at ,constantinople4 ,the tablet is inscribed on both sides1 and there are three columns to the side4 ,the portions that are still extant read as follows3#djj ,column ,i 7about three-fourths of the column missing7 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 8,my human-kind from its destruction ,i will raise up2 ,with the aid of ,nintu my creation 4444444444 ,i will raise up2 ,the people in their settlements ,i will establish2 ,the city1 wherever man creates one--indeed its protection--therein ,i will give him rest4 ,our house--its brick may he cast in a clean spot6 ,our places in a clean place may he establish60 ,its brilliant splendor1 the temple platform1 he made straight1 ,the exalted regulations he completed for it2 ,the land he divided2 a favorable plan he established4 ,after ,anu1 ,enlil1#dja ,enki1#djb and ,ninkharsag ,the black-headed#djc race had created1 ,all that is from the earth1 from the earth they caused to spring1 ,cattle and beasts of the field suitably they brought into being4 ,here the first column ends4 ,the passage opens in the midst of the speech of some deity--perhaps ,ninkharsag 7a ,sumerian name of ,ishtar7 or possibly ,enlil1 the god of ,nippur4 ,first the deity tells how mankind1 which has been overthrown1 shall be raised up again4 ,then we are told how he perfected plans for the accomplishment of this purpose1 and lastly how four deities called into being men and animals4 ,column ,,ii 7about three-fifths of the text is missing7 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444 44444444444444444 ,i will 4444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444 ,i will turn my eye upon him 4444444444444 ,the 444444444 creator of the land 4444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444 of royalty 4444444444444444444444 4444444444444444 of royalty by him was determined2 ,the exalted palace of the royal throne was by him set apart1 ,the exalted precepts 4444444444 he made perfect1 ,in clean places 4444444444 cities 4444444444 he founded1 ,their names were named1 they were allotted to guardian-spirits 787 ,of these cities ,eridu--the chief command to ,nudimmud he gave1 ,unto the second the nisag-priests of ,umma 787 he gave1 ,thirdly1 ,larak to ,pabilkharsag he gave1 ,fourthly1 ,sippar as the dwelling of ,shamash he gave1 ,fifthly1 ,shurippak unto ,lamkurru he gave4 ,their names were assigned2 to guardian-spirits 787 they were allotted2 ,its rampart 7871 a wall 787 he raised up1 he established2 ,small rivers1 canals 7871 and water-courses 787 he established4 ,the last part of this column relates how five cities were established by some deity4 ,of what the first part treated we cannot make out from the few fragments of lines that are still legible4 ,column ,,iii 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 ,the land the sway of ,anu 444444444444444444 ,the people 44444444444444444444 ,a deluge 444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 ,their land 787 it entered 44444444444444444444 ,then ,nintu cried out like a woman in travail 4444444444 ,the brilliant ,ishtar uttered a groan on account of her people4 ,enki with himself held communion in his wisdom2 ,anu1 ,enlil1 ,enki1 and ,ninkharsag1 ,the gods of heaven and earth1 invoked the names of ,anu and ,enlil1 ,at that time ,ziugiddu was king1 the priest of 4444444444 ,the chief deity he made of wood 4444444444 ,in humility prostrating himself1 in reverence 4444444444 ,daily at all times was he present in person 4444444444 ,increasing dreams which had not come before1 ,conjuring by the name of heaven and earth 4444444444 ,in this column the narrative has passed to the story of the deluge4 ,the gods have determined to send a deluge2 ,ziugiddu in consequence constructed an idol from wood 7compare ,isa4 #dj3bj71 and earnestly worshiped it1 seeking oracles for his guidance4 ,column ,,iv ,for the settlement 787 the gods a wall 787 4444444444 ,ziugiddu stood by its side1 he heard 4444444444 8,at the wall at my left side stand 4444444444 ,at the wall ,i will speak a word to thee ,o my brilliant one1 let there enter thy ear 4444444444 ,by our hand a deluge 4444444444 will be sent4 ,the seed of mankind to destroy 4444444444 ,is the momentous decision of the assembly 7of the gods72 ,the words of ,anu and ,enlil 4444444444 ,their kingdom1 their rule 4444444444 ,to them 444444444444444444440 ,it is clear from these fragmentary lines that ,ziugiddu is being informed of the approaching deluge4 ,it is also clear that some of the elements of the narrative are identical with some of the elements of the one discussed in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,ziugiddu is commanded to stand by a wall1 where some deity will speak to him4 ,this appears in the other version in the form3 8,o reed-hut1 reed-hut1 ,o wall1 wall1#djd ,o reed-hut1 hearken2 ,o wall1 give heed6 ,o man of ,shurippak1 son of ,ubartutu1 ,pull down thy house1 build a ship10 etc4 ,in that account1 too1 the assembly of the gods is also referred to in line #abj1 ff4 ,these are examples of the way the same theme1 differently treated1 turns up in different forms4 ,column ,v ,the evil winds1 the wind that is hostile1 came2 all of them descended1 ,the deluge 4444444444 came on with them ,seven days and seven nights ,the deluge swept over the land1 ,the evil wind made the huge boat tremble4 ,shamash#dje came forth1 on heaven and earth he shone2 ,ziugiddu the ship at the top uncovered1 ,the peace of ,shamash1 his light1 entered into the boat4 ,ziugiddu1 the king ,before ,shamash bowed his face to the earth4 ,the king--an ox he sacrificed1 a sheep offered as oblation4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 ,in this column we have a fragment which relates some details similar to those told in lines #abh1 #abi1 and #acf-ach of the account given in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,column ,,vi ,by the life of heaven and the life of earth ye shall conjure him1 ,that he may raise up from you2 ,anu and ,enlil by the soul of heaven and the soul of earth ye shall conjure1 ,that they may raise up from you ,the curse that has come upon the land1 that they may remove it4 ,ziugiddu the king ,before ,anu and ,enlil bowed his face to the earth4 ,life like a god's he gave to him1 ,an immortal spirit like a god's he brought to him4 ,then ,ziugiddu the king1 ,of the seed that was cursed1 lord of mankind he made2 ,in the fruitful land1 the land of ,dilmun 4444444444 they made him dwell 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 ,at this point the last column is hopelessly broken4 ,it is clear1 however1 from the part which remains that ,ziugiddu is in this narrative translated to the ,isle of the ,blest as was ,utnapishtim in the account translated in ,chapter ,,vi1 lines #bjb-bje4djf ,indeed there is reason to believe that the two accounts of the flood are divergent versions of the same story4 ,in addition to the likenesses already mentioned1 the names of the two heroes1 though they appear so different1 are the same in meaning4 ,utnapishtim 7or ,unapishtim7 means 8day of life10 or 8day-life10 while ,ziugiddu means 8,life-day prolonged40 #b4 ,comparison with the ,other ,version4 ,although this tablet is much broken1 so that we have not the whole of the story1 it is clear from the parts that we have that in this version preserved at ,nippur the story was much shorter than in the form translated in ,chapter ,,vi1 which was preserved in the library of ,ashurbanipal4 ,it was also combined with a briefer account of the creation than that translated in ,chapter ,i from ,ashurbanipal's library4 ,of this ,nippurian version of the creation story we have in this tablet only the small fragments preserved in ,columns ,i and ,,ii4 ,it is1 however1 probable that the ,nippurian version of the creation was in its main features similar to that preserved in the library at ,nineveh1 only more brief4 ,if this be so1 the conquest of the dragon ,timat is here attributed to ,enlil of ,nippur1 as in the other version it is attributed to ,marduk of ,babylon1 and as in ,psa4 #gd3ac1 #ad1 it is attributed to ,jehovah4 ,this older account from ,nippur agrees in one respect more nearly with the ,biblical account than the one from the library at ,nineveh does1 for it represents ,ziugiddu as a very pious man1 who was apparently saved from destruction on account of his piety1 and in blessing him ,god removed the curse as ,jehovah did in ,gen4 #h3ba4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,a ,,city ,,and ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,from ,a ,,tablet ,,written ,,at ,,nippur ,,before #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,,translation4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,biblical ,,material4 ,this tablet begins with a description of a place the name of which is not identified2 it is1 accordingly1 indicated in the translation by ,x4 ,possibly it was ,eridu2 possibly ,dilmun4 #a4 ,translation4 ,column ,i#djg #a4 ,they that are lofty1 they that are lofty are ye1 #b4 ,o ,x1 pure2 #c4 ,they that are holy1 they that are lofty are ye4 #d4 ,o ,x1 pure1 #e4 ,x is pure1 ,x is bright1 #f4 ,x is splendid1 ,x is resplendent4 #g4 ,alone were they in ,x2 they lay down4 #h4 ,where ,enki and his consort lay1 #i4 ,that place is splendid1 that place is pure4 #aj4 ,alone in ,x they lay down4 #aa4 ,where ,enki with ,ninella lay down1 #ab4 ,that place is splendid1 that place is pure4 #ac4 ,in ,x the raven cried not1 #ad4 ,the kite gave not his kite-call1 #ae4 ,the deadly lion destroyed not1 #af4 ,the wolf a lamb seized not1 #ag4 ,the dog the weak kid worried not1 #ah4 ,the ewes the food-grain destroyed not1 #ai4 ,offspring increased not 4444444444 #bj4 ,the birds of heaven their offspring 44444 not2 #ba4 ,the doves were not put to flight 7874 #bb4 ,of eye-disease1 8it is eye-disease10 one said not2 #bc4 ,of headache1 8it is headache10 one said not4 #bd4 ,to a mother1 8mother10 one said not1 #be4 ,to a father1 8father10 one said not4 #bf4 ,in the holy place a libation was poured not2 in the city one drank not2 #bg4 ,the river-man 8cross it80 said not2 #bh4 ,fear one's couch troubled not2 #bi4 ,the musician 8sing10 said not2 #cj4 ,the prince of the city spoke not4 #ca4 ,ninella to her father ,enki said3 #cb4 8,a city thou hast founded1 a city thou hast founded1 its destiny thou hast fixed2 #cc4 ,in ,x a city thou hast founded1 #cd4 4444444444 thou hast founded a city1 #ce4 444444444444 a canal there is not #cf4 44444444444444 thou hast founded a city40 ,the rest of the first column is broken away2 probably about nine lines are missing4 ,all the first column is descriptive of a place inhabited only by a god and goddess4 ,many activities are absent1 because there is no one there to carry them on4 ,lines #af-ba remind one a little of ,isa4 #aa3f-i4 ,after the break the text continues3 ,column ,,ii #a4 8,from the bright covering of thy great heaven may the waters flow1 #b4 ,may thy city be refreshed with water1 may it drink1 #c4 ,may ,x be refreshed with water1 may it drink1 #d4 ,may thy well of bitter water flow as a well of sweet water4 #e4 ,may thy city be a resting1 an abode of the people1 #f4 ,may ,x be a resting1 an abode of the people4 #g4 ,now1 ,o sun-god1 shine forth1 #h4 ,o sun-god1 stand in heaven2 #i4 ,bring the festal-grain from its place #aj4 ,and fish1 ,o moon-god1 from the water4 #aa4 ,along the face of the earth on the road with earth's sweet water come40 #ab4 ,from the bright covering of the great heavens the waters flowed1 #ac4 ,his city was refreshed with water1 it drank2 #ad4 ,x was refreshed with water1 it drank1 #ae4 ,his well of bitter water became a well of sweet water4 #af4 ,the fields and meadows with moisture caused grain to sprout 7872 #ag4 ,his city was a resting1 an abode of the people2 #ah4 ,x was a resting1 an abode of the people4 #ai4 ,then the sun-god shone forth2 this verily was so1 #bj4 ,the brilliant one1 creator of intelligence4 #ba4 ,to ,nintu1 the mother of the people 7,lines #bb-cj describe with a frankness common among primitive people a marital union of the god and goddess4 ,in many parts of the world it has been thought that acts of creation proceed from such unions47 #ca4 ,enki1 the father of ,damgalnunna1 his word spoke4 #cb4 ,ninkharsag flooded the fields1 #cc4 ,the fields received the waters of ,enki4 #cd4 ,it was the first day whose month is first2 #ce4 ,it was the second day whose month is second2 #cf4 ,it was the third day whose month is third2 #cg4 ,it was the fourth day whose month is fourth2 #ch4 ,it was the fifth day whose month is fifth2 #ci4 ,it was the sixth day whose month is sixth2 #dj4 ,it was the seventh day whose month is seventh2 #da4 ,it was the eighth day whose month is eighth2 #db4 ,it was the ninth day whose month is ninth1 the month of fertility4 #dc4 ,like fat1 like fat1 like abundant sweet oil1 #dd4 ,nintu1 mother of the land1 #de4 4444444444 had brought them forth4 ,in the first part of the above column the description of the city is continued4 ,as a consequence of the union of the gods1 water flowed to irrigate the land4 ,lines #cd-db tell in a quaint way how the waters continued to come for nine months and nine days4 ,column ,,iii #a4 ,ninshar on the bank of the river cried 7873 #b4 8,o ,enki1 for me are they filled6 they are filled60 #c4 ,his messenger1 ,usmu himself the word repeated4 #d4 ,the sons of men his favor did not understand1 #e4 ,ninshar his favor did not understand4 #f4 ,his messenger1 ,usmu himself1 answered2 #g4 ,the sons of men his favor did not understand1 #h4 ,ninshar his favor did not understand4 #i4 8,my king1 a storm-cloud6 ,a storm-cloud60 #aj4 ,with his foot on the boat he stepped1 #aa4 ,two strong men as watchers he stationed1 #ab4 ,the command they received1 they took4 #ac4 ,enki flooded the fields1 #ad4 ,the fields received the waters of ,enki4 #ae4 ,it was the first day whose month is first2 #af4 ,it was the second day whose month is second2 #ag4 ,it was the ninth day whose month is ninth1 the month of the height of the waters4 #ah4 ,like fat1 like fat1 like abundant sweet oil1 #ai4 ,ninshar like fat1 #bj4 ,ninshar had brought them forth4 #ba4 ,ninkurra#djh on the bank of the river cried 787 #bb4 8,o ,enki1 for me they are filled6 they are filled60 #bc4 ,his messenger1 ,usmu1 the word repeated4 #bd4 ,the sons of men his favor did not understand1 #be4 ,ninkurra his favor did not understand4 #bf4 ,his messenger1 ,usmu himself answered2 #bg4 ,the sons of men did not understand1 #bh4 ,ninkurra did not understand4 #bi4 8,my king1 a storm-cloud6 ,a storm-cloud60 #cj4 ,with his foot on the boat he stepped1 #ca4 ,two strong men as watchers he stationed2 #cb4 ,the command they received1 they took4 #cc4 ,enki flooded the fields #cd4 ,the fields received the waters of ,enki4 #ce4 ,it was the first day whose month is first2 #cf4 ,it was the ninth day whose month is ninth1 the month of the height of the waters4 #cg4 ,like fat1 like fat1 like abundant sweet oil1 #ch4 ,ninkurra like fat had brought them forth4 #ci4 ,the god ,tagtug and his wife she received2 #dj4 ,ninkurra to ,tagtug and his wife spoke3 #da4 8,verily ,i will help 787 thee1 my upright one1 4444444444 #db4 ,with favorable words ,i speak 4444444444 #dc4 ,one man for me shall be counted 4444444444 #dd4 ,enki for me shall 4444444444 ,the rest of the column1 consisting of two or three lines1 is missing4 ,the repetition in this column is characteristic of early poetry4 ,primitive peoples are fond of iteration1 and in the description of the way the waters came it was to them very effective4 ,column ,,iv 7about twelve lines are broken from the tablet at the beginning7 #ac4 ,to ,tagtug and his wife spoke 4444444444 #ad4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 #ae4 44444444444444444444444444444444444444 #af4 4444444444444444 in the garden 44444444444444444444 #ag4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 #ah4 ,ebaraguldu let him found1 #ai4 ,erabgaran let him found1 #bj4 ,at the temple let my fettered oxen stand1 #ba4 ,for ,enki let my fettered oxen be sacrificed1 #bb4 ,let two strong men pour out water1 #bc4 ,abundant water let them pour out1 #bd4 ,reservoir-water let them pour out1 #be4 ,the barren land let them irrigate1 #bf4 ,as gardeners for the little plants let them go forth1 #bg4 ,on the bank1 along the bank let them 7i4 e41 the plants7 extend4 #bh4 ,who art thou8 ,the garden 44444444444444444444 #bi4 ,for ,enki the gardener 4444444444444444444444444444 7,five lines are here broken away47 #ce4 ,ebaraguldu he founded1 #cf4 ,erabgaran he founded1 on its foundation he set it4 #cg4 ,enki turned his eyes unto him2 his scepter he lifted up2 #ch4 ,enki to ,tagtug directed the way4 #ci4 ,at the temple he cried3 8,open the door1 open the door20 #dj4 8,who is it that thou art80 #da4 8,i am a gardener1 with gladness 4444444444 #db4 ,with 4444444444 the price 787 of milk will ,i present thee40 #dc4 ,tagtug with joyful heart at the temple opened the door1 #dd4 ,enki spoke to ,tagtug and his wife1 #de4 ,with joy his possessions he gave to him2 #df4 ,that ,ebaraguldu he gave him2 #dg4 ,that ,erabgaran he gave him4 #dh4 ,tagtug and his wife bowed down2 with the left hand they covered the mouth2 with the right they did obeisance4 ,from the parts of ,column ,,iv1 which are still legible1 it appears that the messenger was revealing to ,tagtug the secrets of agriculture4 ,this corresponds to the statement in ,gen4 #i3bj1 that 8,noah began to be a husbandman40 ,at the beginning of ,column ,v some seven lines have crumbled away1 and the beginnings of eight more have also become illegible4 ,column ,v 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444 #h4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green1 #i4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green1 #aj4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green1 #aa4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green1 #ab4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green1 #ac4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green1 #ad4 ,the 4444444444 plant was green4 #ae4 8,o ,enki1 for me they are counted10 #af4 ,his messenger1 ,usmu himself1 the word repeated2 #ag4 8,plants ,i have called forth1 their abundance ordained1 #ah4 ,the water shall make them bright1 the water shall make them bright20 #ai4 ,his messenger1 ,usmu himself1 answered3 #bj4 8,my king1 as to the woody plants10 he said1 #ba4 8,he shall prune1 he shall eat40 #bb4 8,as to the tall plants10 he said1 #bc4 8,he shall pluck1 he shall eat40 #bd4 8,my king1 as to the 4444444444 plants10 he said1 #be4 8,he shall prune1 he shall eat40 #bf4 8,as to the plants of the watered garden 78710 he said1 #bg4 8,he shall pluck1 he shall eat40 #bh4 8,my king1 as to the 4444444444 plants10 he said1 #bi4 8,he shall prune1 he shall eat40 #cj4 8,my king1 as to the 4444444444 plants10 he said1 #ca4 8,he shall pluck1 he shall eat40 #cb4 8,my king1 as to the 4444444444 plants01 he said1 #cc4 8,he shall prune1 he shall eat40 #cd4 8,my king1 as to the cassia plant10 he said1 #ce4 8,he shall pluck 44444444 he shall eat40 #cf4 8,enki for me the plant of his wisdom has plucked1 his heart has spoken40 #cg4 ,of ,ninkharsag the name ,enki uttered in curse3 #ch4 8,the face of life when he dies he shall not see40 #ci4 ,then ,anunnaki in the dust sat down4 #dj4 ,the rebellious one to ,enlil said3 #da4 8,i1 ,ninkharsag1 brought forth for thee people2 what is my reward80 #db4 ,enlil1 the begetter1 answered the rebellious one3 #dc4 8,thou1 ,ninkharsag1 hast brought forth people10 #dd4 8#8,in my city let two creatures be made1' shall thy name be called40 #de4 ,as a dignitary his head alone he exalted1 #df4 ,his heart 787 alone he made impetuous1 #dg4 ,his eye alone he filled with fire 7874 ,langdon takes the portion of the narrative which we find in this column to be an account of the fall of man1 since line #cf1 as he rendered it1 speaks of ,tagtug's plucking and eating1 and the next line speaks of the uttering of a curse4 ,this view the writer does not share4 ,if the above translation is correct1 there is no allusion to anything of the kind4 ,column ,,vi 7perhaps five lines are broken away7 #f4 4444444444 the lord ,enlil 4444444444 #g4 44444444 the lord of life 4444444444 #h4 ,to 4444444444 they went1 4444444444 #i4 ,to 4444444444 they went1 the lord of the gods 4444444444 #aj4 ,spoke to him1 the water of life 4444444444 #aa4 444444444444444444444444444444 #ab4 ,ninkharsag 44444444444444444444 #ac4 444444444444444444444444444444 #ad4 4444444444444444444444444444444444 #ae4 444444444444444444444444444444 #af4 44444444444444444444444444 #ag4 4444444444444444444444444444 #ah4 ,ninkharsag 44444444444444444444 #ai4 ,enlil 444444 his 4444444444 they founded1 #bj4 ,priests 787 they ordained1 #ba4 ,fate they determined1 #bb4 ,with power established it4 #bc4 ,ninkharsag in her temple granted his life to him3 #bd4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 #be4 8,my herd 787 is ill40 #bf4 8,the god ,absham have ,i brought forth for thee40 #bg4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 #bh4 8,my herd is ill40 #bi4 8,the goddess #8,queen of the herd'#dji have ,i brought forth for thee40 #cj4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 8,my face is ill40 #ca4 8,the goddess ,ninkautu have ,i brought forth for thee40 #cb4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 8,my mouth is ill40 #cc4 8,the goddess #8,queen who fills the mouth'#daj have ,i brought forth for thee40 #cd4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 8,my 444444 is ill04 #ce4 8,the goddess ,nazi have ,i brought forth for thee40 #cf4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 8,my hand is ill40 #cg4 8,my goddess #8,living hand'#daa have ,i brought forth for thee40 #ch4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 8,my health is ill40 #ci4 8,the goddess #8,queen of health'#dab have ,i brought forth for thee40 #dj4 8,my brother1 what of thee is ill80 8,my intelligence is ill40 #da4 8,the god who makes the intelligence clear#dac have ,i brought forth for thee40 #db4 8,grandly are they brought forth1 they are created4 #dc4 ,let ,absham be lord of vegetation1 #dd4 ,let ,nintulla be lord of ,magan1 #de4 ,let ,ninkautu choose ,ninazu as a spouse1 #df4 ,may ,ninkasi be the full heart's possession1 #dg4 ,may ,nazi become mistress of weaving 7871 #dh4 ,may ,dazima the house of strong life take1 #di4 ,may ,nintil become mistress of the month1 #ej4 ,may ,enshagme become lord of ,x4 #ea4 ,glory60 #b4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,here the tablet concludes4 ,this last column1 which tells how the goddess ,ninkharsag came to favor the hero and to create a number of divine helpers for him1 has no parallel in the ,biblical account4 ,as ,tagtug received the especial protection of ,ninkharsag who created for him all these divine helpers1 it seems certain that this tablet had no reference to the fall of man1 as ,langdon supposes4 ,it appears rather to be a mythical account of the beginnings of agriculture and the medicinal use of plants in ,babylonia4 ,agriculture implies irrigation4 8,from the first day whose month is first0 to the ninth month1 is the period when ,babylonia is watered4 ,the ,tigris begins to rise in ,march1 the first month1 the overflow of the ,euphrates does not subside till the sixth month1 and the winter rains are at their height in the ninth month4 ,as ,adam was driven from ,eden to eat of the fruits of the earth 7,gen4 #c3ah1 #bd2 compare ,gen4 #a3bi71 and ,noah became a husbandman 7,gen4 #i3bj71 the story of ,tagtug presents a remote similarity to both of them4 ,langdon#dad compares the list of divine beings with which the tablet ends with the antediluvian patriarchs of ,gen4 #d and #e1 and suggests the possibility that here we have the original names of those patriarchs4 ,beyond the fact that ,absham somewhat resembles the name ,abel and was1 like ,abel1 an agriculturist1 there is no apparent connection4 ,the names in no way correspond4 ,it is more probable that we have the names of those patriarchs in the list of kings translated in ,chapter ,v4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,abraham ,,and ,,arch,,ology ,,abraham ,,hired ,,an ,,ox4 ,,abraham ,,leased ,a ,,farm4 ,,abraham ,,paid ,,his ,,rent4 ,,who ,,was ,,this ,,abraham8 ,,travel ,,between ,,babylonia ,,and ,,palestine4 ,,hammurapi1 ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,westland4 ,,kudur-,,mabug4 ,,kings ,,supposed ,,by ,,some ,,to ,,be ,,those ,,of ,,genesis #ad4 ,archological investigation has brought to light a number of texts believed by scholars to illumine the ,biblical accounts of ,abraham4 ,it is the purpose of this chapter to translate and discuss these4 ,the documents which naturally attract us first are some contracts from ,babylonia in which an ,abraham was one of the contracting parties4 ,they are as follows3 #a4 ,abraham ,hired an ,ox4#dae #a4 ,one ox broken to the yoke1 #b4 an ox from ,ibni-,sin1 son of ,sin-imgurani1 #c4 from ,ibni-,sin #d4 through the agency of ,kishti-,nabium1 #e4 son of ,eteru1 #f4 ,abarama1 son of ,awel-,ishtar1 #g4 for one month has hired4 #h4 ,for one month #i4 one shekel of silver #aj4 he will pay4 #aa4 ,of it shekel of silver #ab4 from the hand of #ac4 ,abarama #ad4 ,kishti-,nabium #ae4 has received4 #af4 ,in the presence of ,idin-,urash1 son of ,idin-,labibaal1 #ag4 in the presence of ,awl1 son of ,urri-bani1 #ah4 in the presence of ,beliyatum1 scribe4 #ai4 ,month of the mission of ,ishtar 7i4 e41 ,ulul71 day #bjth1 #bj4 ,the year ,ammizadugga1 the king 7built7 #ba4 the wall of ,ammizadugga1 7i4 e41 ,ammizadugga's #aath year74 #bb4 ,tablet of ,kishti-,nabium4 ,this tablet shows how ,abarama 7,abraham71 a farmer1 hired an ox for a month4 ,the tablet1 as the last line shows1 is the copy made for ,kishti-,nabium1 the agent4 ,in such business transactions three copies were often made1 one for each of the contracting parties and one for the scribe4 ,the date of this tablet is #aife ,b4 ,c4 ,ammizadugga was the tenth king of that first dynasty of ,babylon1 of which ,hammurapi was the sixth4 #b4 ,abraham ,leased a ,farm4#daf #a4 ,to the patrician #b4 speak1 #c4 saying1 ,gimil-,marduk 7wishes that7 #d4 ,shamash and ,marduk may give thee health6 #e4 ,mayest thou have peace1 mayest thou have health6 #f4 ,may the god who protects thee thy head in luck #g4 hold6 #h4 7,to enquire7 concerning thy health ,i am sending4 #i4 ,may thy welfare before ,shamash and ,marduk #aj4 be eternal6 #aa4 ,concerning the #djj shars of land1 the field of ,sin-idinam1 #ab4 which to ,abamrama #ac4 to lease1 thou hast sent2 #ad4 the land-steward 787 and scribe #ae4 appeared and #af4 on behalf of ,sin-idinam #ag4 ,i took that up4 #ah4 ,the #djj shars of land to ,abamrama #ai4 as thou hast directed #bj4 ,i have leased4 #ba4 ,concerning thy dispatches ,i shall not be negligent4 ,it appears from this document that ,abamrama1 who is none other than a ,babylonian ,abraham1 was a small farmer1 who leased a small tract of land4 #c4 ,abraham ,paid ,his ,rent4#dag #a4 #a shekel of silver #b4 of the rent 787 of his field1 #c4 for the year ,ammizadugga1 the king1 #d4 a lordly1 splendid statue 7set up71 #e4 brought #f4 ,abamrama1 #g4 received #h4 ,sin-idinam #i4 and ,iddatum4 #aj4 ,month ,siman1 #bhth day1 #aa4 ,the year ,ammizadugga1 the king1 #ab4 a lordly1 splendid statue 7set up74 7,this was ,ammizadugga's #acth year47 ,this document1 dated two years after that in which the ox was hired1 shows how ,abamrama 7,abraham7 paid a part of his rent4 ,the name ,abamrama 7,abraham7 occurs in two other documents published in the same volume 7no4 #aja1 and no4 #ajb71 where1 in defining the boundaries of other fields of ,sin-idinam1 they are said to be bounded on one side by the field of ,abamrama4 ,as these documents mention the name of ,abamrama only incidentally1 they are not translated here4 #d4 ,who ,was ,this ,abraham8 ,these documents1 which relate to the business of a ,babylonian ,abraham1 come from ,dilbat1 about eight miles south of ,borsippa1 which was just across the ,euphrates from ,babylon4 ,it is clear that this ,abraham was a small farmer1 who hired a tract of land from a larger land-owner4 ,he also hired an ox wherewith to work his land1 and paid the rent of the land and the hire of the ox as a good citizen should4 ,this ,abraham was not the ,biblical patriarch4 ,the patriarch's father was ,terah and his brother ,nahor2 the father of this ,babylonian ,abraham was ,awel-,ishtar1 and his brother ,iddatum 7ibid41 no4 #aja1 #i74 ,the ,abraham of the ,bible was a monotheist according to ,genesis2 the ancestors of the ,babylonian ,abraham worshiped the goddess ,ishtar1 who corresponded to the ,canaanitish ,ashtoreth4 ,the ,bible connects the patriarch with ,ur and ,haran2 this ,abraham lived about half-way between these two cities4 ,up to the present time this ,babylonian ,abraham is the only person known to us other than the ,biblical patriarch1 who1 in that period of history1 bore the name4 ,he is the only one known to us outside the ,biblical record4#dah ,the only other occurrence of the name outside the ,bible is in the name of a place in ,palestine1 probably near ,hebron1 which ,sheshonk ,i1 the ,biblical ,shishak1 calls 8,the ,field of ,abram40#dai ,as ,shishak lived much later 7#ide-ibd ,b4 ,c471 being a contemporary of ,rehoboam the son of ,solomon1 this ,egyptian place name is not so significant4 ,the ,babylonian ,abraham mentioned in the documents just translated is welcome proof that ,abraham was a personal name in ,babylonia near the time in which the ,bible places the patriarch4 ,with these documents ,gen4 #aa3bg-be3aj should be compared4 ,another ,babylonian contract is of interest in connection with the migration of ,abraham4 #e4 ,travel between ,babylonia and ,palestine4 #a4 ,a wagon#dbj #b4 from ,mannum-balum-,shamash1 #c4 son of ,shelibia1 #d4 ,khabilkinum1 #e4 son of ,appanibi1 #f4 on a lease #g4 for #a year #h4 has hired4 #i4 ,as a yearly rental #aj4 of a shekel of silver #aa4 he will pay4 #ab4 ,as the first of the rent #ac4 of a shekel of silver #ad4 he has received4 #ae4 ,unto the land of ,kittim #af4 he shall not drive it4 #ag4 ,in the presence of ,ibku-,adad1 #ah4 son of ,abiatum2 #ai4 in the presence of ,ilukasha1 #bj4 son of ,arad-ilishu2 #ba4 in the presence of ,ilishu 4444444444 #bb4 ,month ,ululu1 day #be1 #bc4 the year the king ,erech from the flood #bd4 of the river as a friend protected4 ,the date of the above interesting document has not been identified with certainty4 ,it is thought by some to belong to the reign of ,shamsu-iluna1 the successor of ,hammurapi4 ,the writing clearly shows that at any rate it comes from the period of this dynasty4 ,that is1 it comes from the period to which ,gen4 #ad assigns the migration of ,abraham4 ,kittim in the contract is the word used in the ,hebrew of ,jer4 #b3aj and ,ezek4 #bg3f for the coast lands of the ,mediterranean4 ,it undoubtedly has that meaning here4 ,this contract was written in ,sippar1 the ,agade of earlier times1 a town on the ,euphrates a little to the north of ,babylon4 ,it reveals the fact that at the time the document was written there was so much travel between ,babylonia and the ,mediterranean coast that a man could not lease a wagon for a year without danger that it might be driven over the long route to ,syria or ,palestine4 ,against such wear upon his vehicle the particular wagon-owner of our document protected himself4 ,when1 therefore1 ,abraham went out from his land and his kindred1 he was going to no unknown land4 ,the tide of commerce and of emigration had opened the way4 ,apparently it was no more remarkable for him to do it than for an ,irishman to come to ,america half a century ago1 or for a south ,european to come today4 #f4 ,hammurapi1 ,king of the ,westland4 ,it is thought by many scholars that ,hammurapi was the ,amraphel of ,genesis #ad4 ,the following inscription#dba relates to this king3 #a4 ,to ,sharratum1 #b4 the bride of ,anu #c4 who has come to lordship1 #d4 lady of strength and abundance1 #e4 of the mountain-temple1 #f4 faithful lady1 of exalted counsel1 #g4 lady who binds the heart1 #h4 who for her spouse #i4 makes favorable her open oracle2 #aj4 to his lady1 #aa4 for the life of ,hammurapi1 #ab4 king of the ,westland 7,,mar-,,tu71 #ac4 ,ibirum 4444444444 #ad4 governor of the river-district 4444444444 #ae4 son of ,shuban 444444444441 #af4 a guardian-deity appropriate to her divinity1 #ag4 in the land which she loves1 #ah4 for her service 787 #ai4 before her beloved temple has set up4 ,this inscription is quoted here for two reasons3 #a4 ,it was erected 8for the life of ,hammurapi10 who is supposed by many to be the ,amraphel of ,gen4 #ad3a4 ,amraphel is supposed to be a corruption of ,hammurapi1 thus ,amrapi4 ,the final l of ,amraphel is a difficulty4 ,while many ,assyriologists1 from ,schrader onward1 have recognized the equivalence1 it is now seriously questioned by ,jensen and ,eduard ,meyer1 and absolutely rejected by ,bezold4 ,it must be said that1 if ,amraphel is intended for ,hammurapi1 the name had undergone corruption before it was placed in the ,biblical record4#dbb #b4 ,in this inscription ,hammurapi is called 8king of ,,mar-,,tu10 or the ,westland1 a name by which the ,babylonians often designated ,syria and ,palestine4 ,,mar-,,tu simply means 8sunset10 but was used like the ,arabic magrib as the designation of a region4 ,there is no reason to doubt that here it designates ,syria and ,palestine1 so that1 if ,amraphel is ,hammurapi1 this is confirmatory of his connection with the ,west4 #g4 ,kudur-,mabug4 ,the following inscription#dbc has also often been brought into the discussion of ,genesis #ad3 #a4 ,to ,nannar1 #b4 his king1 #c4 ,kudur-,mabug1 #d4 8,father0 of the ,westland 7,,mar-,,tu71 #e4 son of ,simti-shilkhak1 #f4 when ,nannar #g4 his prayer #h4 had heard1 #i4 ,enunmakh1 #aj4 belonging to ,nannar1 #aa4 for his life #ab4 and the life #ac4 of ,arad-,sin1 his son1 #ad4 king of ,larsa1 #ae4 he built4 ,this inscription has often been brought into connection with ,abraham1 partly because some have seen in ,kudur-,mabug the ,chedorlaomer of ,gen4 #ad3a1 and partly because ,kudur-,mabug in it calls himself 8,father0 or governor of the ,westland4 ,if1 however1 ,kudur-,mabug was intended by the name ,chedorlaomer1 the name had been corrupted beyond all recognition in the ,biblical tradition before ,gen4 #ad was written4 ,in reality there is no reason to suppose that ,kudur-,mabug and ,chedorlaomer are the same4 ,as to the term 8,westland10 it probably does not here designate ,palestine1 but either the western part of ,elam or the southern part of ,babylonia4 ,babylonia lay to the west of ,elam1 and ,kudur-,mabug placed on the throne of ,larsa1 a city of ,south ,babylonia1 first his son1 ,arad-,sin1 and then his son1 ,rim-,sin1 and apparently maintained an over-lordship over both of them4 8,westland0 accordingly means in his inscription1 not ,palestine1 but ,babylonia4 ,one of ,kudur-,mabug's sons calls his father 8,father0 7or governor7 of ,emutbal1 a region of ,elam4 ,it is a mistake1 therefore1 to bring ,kudur-,mabug into connection with ,abraham and ,gen4 #ad4dbd #h4 ,kings ,supposed by ,some to be ,those ,mentioned in ,gen4 #ad4 ,some fragmentary tablets from the ,persian period1 not earlier than the fourth century ,b4 ,c41 contain references which have been brought by some scholars into connection with ,abraham and the fourteenth of ,genesis4 ,the texts read as follows3 ,i#dbe #a4 44444444444444444444 #b4 444444444444444444444444444444 #c4 44444444444444444444 his work not 4444444444 #d4 444444444444444444 su-a-am-mu 4444444444 #e4 4444444444444444 before the gods the creation of 4444444444 #f4 444444444444 day 4444444444 ,shamash1 who illumines 4444444444 #g4 4444444444 the lord of the gods1 ,marduk1 in the satisfaction of his heart1 #h4 4444444444 his servant1 the region1 all of it1 a counsel not fulfilled1 #i4 4444444444 by force of arms he overthrew4 ,dursirilani1 son of ,arad-,malaku 7,eri8-44aku7 #aj4 444444444444 goods 787 he carried off1 took as spoil1 waters over ,babylon and ,esagil #aa4 44444444 his with the weapon of his hand like a lamb he killed him1 #ab4 4444444444 spoke to her1 father1 and son2 with the weapon #ac4 ,great and small he cut off1 ,tudkhula1 son of ,gazza 4444444444 #ad4 444444 goods he took as spoil1 waters over ,babylon and ,esagil #ae4 444444 his son with the weapon of his hands upon him fell4 #af4 44444444 of his dominion before the temple of ,annunit 4444444444 #ag4 44444444 ,elam1 the city ,akhkhi to 787 the city ,rabbatu he spoiled4 #ah4 444444 like a deluge1 he made the cities of ,akkad1 all of ,borsippa 787 #ai4 444444 ended4#dbf ,kukukumal1 his son pierced his heart with a girdle-dagger of iron4 #bj4 44444444 the enemy took and the destruction of these kings1 participators in wrong 7871 #ba4 4444444444 bondage for which the king of the gods1 ,marduk1 was angry with them #bb4 4444444444 with sickness their breast was oppressed 44444444 #bc4 44444444 unto ruins were reduced 7874 ,all of them to the king1 our lord #bd4 444444 knowing 787 the hearts of the gods1 the gracious ,marduk1 for the commemoration of his name #be4 44444444 and named ,esagil--to his place may he return4 #bf4 4444444444 thy 444444 may he make4 ,this1 ,o king1 my lord we 444444 #bg4 4444444444 his evil his heart the gods1 his fathers 4444444444 #bh4 444444444444 a participator in sin shall not be 7874 ,,ii #a4 444444444444444444444 gods 787 4444444444 #b4 4444444444 in the city feared day 787 and night 787 #c4 4444444444 ,larsa 7871 the bond of heaven which unto the four winds 4444 #d4 he decreed them the park 787 which is in ,babylon1 the city of his majesty 7872 #e4 he decreed them the possessions of ,babylon1 small and great4 #f4 ,in their faithful counsel unto ,kukukumal1 ,king of ,elam1 #g4 they established the fixed advance which to them seemed good4 #h4 ,in ,babylon1 the city of ,karduniash1 kingship he assumed 4444444444 #i4 ,in ,babylon1 the city of the gods1 ,marduk set his throne 7871 #aj4 ,all1 even the ,sodomites of the plundered temples1 obeyed him4 #aa4 ,ravens build nests2 birds dwell therein2 #ab4 ,the ravens croak 7871 shrieking they hatch their young in it4 #ac4 ,to the dog crunching the bone the lady 4444444444 is favorable4 #ad4 ,the snake hisses 7871 the evil one who spits poison4 #ae4 ,who is the king of ,elam who the great building of ,esagil destroyed1 #af4 which the ,babylonians made1 and their work was 44444444448 #ag4 ,this is what thou hast written1 saying3 8,i am a king1 the son of a king0 4444 #ah4 ,who is the son of a daughter of a king1 who on the royal throne will sit8 444 #ai4 ,he is ,dursil-ilni1 son of ,arad-,malkua1 who the throne 4444444444 #bj4 on the royal throne he sat and before his warriors he marched4 #ba4 ,now let the king march who from ancient days 444444444 #bb4 has been proclaimed lord of ,babylon2 the work of 44444444 shall not endure4 #bc4 ,in the month ,siman and the month ,tammuz in ,babylon there was done 4444444444 #bd4 the work of the son of the magician4 ,the bull 7i4 e41 warrior7 who devastates the land 4444444444 #be4 ,the elders in their faithful counsel 4444444444 #bf4 gave the son of the magician the place instead of his father #bg4 44444444444444444 #a maid 44444444444444444444 ,two other similar fragmentary texts belonging to the series are published as noted above1 but it is unnecessary to quote them here4 ,the two fragments which we have translated contain the most important references1 and are sufficient to enable the reader to make up his mind as to the bearing of these texts upon the fourteenth of ,genesis4 ,pinches and ,sayce read the name of the ,elamite king1 ,kukukumal1 ,kudurlakhmal1 and identify it with ,chedorlaomer4 ,pinches so reads it1 hesitatingly2 ,sayce1 confidently4 ,there is no reason for so reading it1 except the desire to discover ,chedorlaomer4 ,the first three syllables are represented in the cuneiform by the same sign--a sign the most frequent value of which is ku4 ,it does sometimes have the value dur1 but never lakh4 ,king reads it ,kukukumal1 and there is really no reason for reading it otherwise4 ,another name which occurs twice is written in the two places with a slight difference of spelling4 ,it is according to the most natural reading of the signs1 ,arad-,malkua1 or ,arad-,malaku4 ,sayce and ,pinches read ,eri-eaku and identified him with 8,arioch1 king of ,elassar10 7,gen4 #ad3a74 ,while this is a possible reading1 it is only secured by giving to the signs their ,sumerian1 instead of their ,semitic values1 and1 as the documents are in ,semitic1 this is probably wrong4 ,the name is to be read ,arad-,malkua4 ,another name1 ,tudkhula1 which occurs in the first document1 has been identified by the same scholars with 8,tidal1 king of the nations0 7,gen4 #ad3a71 but in this text there is no evidence that ,tudkhula was a king at all1 and the identification is purely fanciful4 ,it should be noted also that ,arad-,malkua1 the supposed ,eri-eaku1 does not himself take any part in the wars here recorded2 it is his son1 ,dursil-ilni1 who is represented as a contemporary of ,kukukumal1 the supposed ,chedorlaomer4 ,it should be further noted that these documents represent a complete conquest of ,babylon by ,elam--a conquest in which ,babylon itself is laid desolate4 ,it is not certain just what part ,dursil-ilni played in the story4 ,he may have been a vassal king under ,kukukumal1 or the ,babylonian upon whom the hopes of the people centered1 to free them from the yoke of ,elam4 ,it is clear1 however1 that the events mentioned in these documents are not in harmony with the supposition that these monarchs acted as allies of ,hammurapi in the invasion of ,palestine4 ,hammurapi is excluded from the account4 ,kukukumal conquered and desolated the very city in which ,hammurapi had his throne4 ,kukukumal must1 accordingly1 have lived at some other period of the history1 and the supposed confirmation of the account of the fourteenth chapter of ,genesis has not yet been found4 ,as already stated1 these tablets are not earlier than the fourth century ,b4 ,c4 ,the events which they record were probably much later than the time of ,abraham4 ,babylon is called by its ,cassite name1 ,kar-duniash1 a name which it did not bear until some hundreds of years after the time of ,hammurapi4 ,many times in the course of ,babylonian history was the country overrun by ,elam1 and there is no real reason to suppose that the war here referred to belongs to the age of ,hammurapi4 ,,chapter ,x ,,jacob ,,and ,,joseph ,,appearances ,,of ,,these ,,names ,,in ,,babylonian ,,and ,,egyptian ,,records4 8,,the ,,tale ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,brothers02 ,,its ,,bearing ,,on ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,joseph ,,in ,,genesis4 ,,letters ,,to ,a ,,ruler ,,like ,,joseph4 ,,the ,,seven ,,years ,,of ,,famine4 ,,inscription ,,showing ,,preparation ,,for ,,famine4 #a4 ,jacob4 ,three different men in ,babylonia at the time of the ,hammurapi dynasty bore the name ,jacob-el4 ,thus1 in the reign of ,apil-,sin1 the fourth king of the dynasty 7#bafa to #badd ,b4 ,c471 two witnesses1 ,shubna-ilu and ,yadakh-ilu gave their father's name as ,yakub-ilu1 or ,jacob-el4#dbg ,in the same reign a witness to another document1 one ,lamaz1 had a ,jacob-el as his father4#dbh ,in the reign of ,sin-muballit1 the next king1 a witness named ,nur-,shamash was also the son of a ,jacob-el4#dbi ,in the reign of the great ,hammurapi1 the next king1 a witness named ,sin-erbiam gave his father's name simply as ,yakub1#dcj or ,jacob4 ,this last is clearly a shortening of ,jacob-el4 ,these men all lived from #ge to #aij years before the ,babylonian ,abraham1 whose documents are discussed in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,in connection with these names it should be noted that ,thothmes ,,iii of ,egypt1 who made extensive conquests in ,asia between #adgh and #addf ,b4 ,c41 records the name of a city which he captured in ,palestine as ,ya-#8-k-b'-ra1 the ,egyptian equivalent of ,jacob-el4#dca ,it does not seem a rash guess to suppose that in the period when intercourse between ,babylonia and ,palestine was frequent and immigration from the former country to the latter was in progress1 some ,babylonian bearing this name migrated to ,palestine1 settled there and that a city was named after him4 ,many parallels to this may be found in the names of places in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,that this place name in ,canaan had some connection with the name of the ,patriarch ,jacob is probable1 though just what that connection was it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge to say4 #b4 ,joseph4 ,a ,babylonian business document of the time of the first dynasty of ,babylon has among its witnesses a man named ,yashub-ilu1 or ,joseph-el4#dcb ,in the list of places which ,thothmes ,,iii of ,egypt conquered in ,palestine there is one ,ya-sha-p'-ra1 which many scholars have taken to be ,joseph-el1 though ,prof4 ,w4 ,max ,mller#dcc thinks it rather is equivalent to ,yesheb-el1 meaning 8where ,god dwells40 ,in view of the clear ,babylonian equivalence1 however1 it seems probable that it is ,joseph-el4 ,if so1 it probably became a place-name in ,palestine because some important ,babylonian who bore the name settled there1 just as we have supposed ,jacob-el did4 ,some scholars hold that it is connected with the name of the ,patriarch ,joseph in some way1 but what that connection was1 we cannot now say4 #c4 ,the ,tale of the ,two ,brothers4#dcd ,once there were two brethren1 of one mother and one father2 ,anpu was the name of the elder1 and ,bata was the name of the younger4 ,now1 as for ,anpu1 he had a house1 and he had a wife4 ,but his little brother was to him1 as it were1 a son2 he it was who made for him his clothes2 he it was who followed behind his oxen to the fields2 he it was who did the plowing2 he it was who harvested the corn2 he it was who did for him all the matters which were in the field4 ,behold his younger brother grew to be an excellent worker2 there was not his equal in the whole land2 behold the spirit of a god was in him4 ,now after this the younger brother followed his oxen in the daily manner2 and every evening he turned again to the house1 laden with all the herbs of the field1 with milk and with wood1 and with all things of the field4 ,and he put them down before his elder brother who was sitting with his wife2 and he drank and ate1 and he lay down in his stable with the cattle4 ,and at the dawn of day he took bread which he had baked1 and laid it before his elder brother2 and he took with him his bread to the field1 and he drave his cattle to pasture in the fields4 ,and as he walked behind his cattle1 they said to him1 8,good is the herbage which is in that place02 and he listened to all that they said1 and he took them to the good place which they desired4 ,and the cattle which were before him were exceeding excellent1 and they multiplied greatly4 ,now at the time of plowing his elder brother said unto him1 8,let us make ready for ourselves a goodly yoke of oxen for plowing1 for the land has come out from the water2 it is fit for plowing4 ,moreover1 do thou come to the field with corn1 for we will begin the plowing in the morrow morning40 ,thus said he to him2 and his younger brother did all things as his elder brother had spoken unto him to do them4 ,and when the morn was come1 they went to the fields with their things2 and their hearts were pleased exceedingly with their task in the beginning of their work4 ,and it came to pass after this that as they were in the field they stopped for corn1 and he sent his younger brother1 saying1 8,haste thou1 bring to us corn from the farm40 ,and the younger brother found the wife of his elder brother1 as she was sitting tiring her hair4 ,he said to her1 8,get up1 and give to me corn1 that ,i may run to the field1 for my elder brother hastened me2 do not delay40 ,she said to him1 8,go open the bin1 and thou shalt take to thyself according to thy will1 that ,i may not drop my locks of hair while ,i dress them40 ,the youth went to the stable2 he took a large measure1 for he desired to take much corn2 he loaded it with wheat and barley2 and he went out carrying it4 ,she said to him1 8,how much of the corn that is wanted1 is that which is on thy shoulder80 ,he said to her1 8,three bushels of barley1 and two of wheat1 in all five2 these are what are upon my shoulder30 thus said he to her4 ,and she conversed with him1 saying1 8,there is great strength in thee1 for ,i see thy might every day40 ,and her heart knew him with the knowledge of youth4 ,and she arose and came to him1 and conversed with him1 saying1 8,come stay with me1 and it shall be well for thee1 and ,i will make for thee beautiful garments40 ,then the youth became like a panther of the south with fury at the evil speech which she had made to him2 and she feared greatly4 ,and he spake unto her1 saying1 8,behold thou art to me as a mother1 thy husband is to me as a father1 for he who is elder than ,i brought me up4 ,what is this wickedness that thou hast said to me8 ,say it not to me again4 ,for ,i will not tell it to any man1 for ,i will not let it be uttered by the mouth of any man40 ,he lifted up his burden1 and he went to the field and came to his elder brother2 and they took up their work1 to labor at their task4 ,now afterward1 at eventime1 his elder brother was returning to his house2 and the younger brother was following after his oxen1 and he loaded himself with all the things of the field2 and he brought his oxen before him1 to make them lie down in their stable which was in the farm4 ,and behold the wife of the elder brother was afraid for the words which she had said4 ,she took a parcel of fat1 she became like one who is evilly beaten1 desiring to say to her husband1 8,it is thy younger brother who has done this wrong40 ,her husband returned in the even as was his wont of every day3 he came unto his house2 he found his wife ill of violence2 she did not give him water upon his hands as he used to have1 she did not make a light before him1 his house was in darkness1 and she was lying very sick4 ,her husband said to her1 8,who has spoken with thee80 ,behold she said1 8,no one has spoken with me except thy younger brother4 ,when he came to take for thee corn he found me sitting alone2 he said to me1 #8,come1 let us stay together1 tie up thy hair'3 thus spoke he to me4 ,i did not listen to him1 but thus spake ,i to him3 #8,behold1 am ,i not thy mother1 is not thy elder brother to thee as a father8' ,and he feared1 and he beat me to stop me from making report to thee1 and if thou lettest him live ,i shall die4 ,now behold he is coming in the evening2 and ,i complain of these wicked words1 for he would have done this even in daylight40 ,and the elder brother became as a panther of the south2 he sharpened his knife2 he took it in his hand2 he stood behind the door of the stable to slay his younger brother as he came in the evening to bring his cattle into the stable4 ,now the sun went down1 and he loaded himself with herbs in his daily manner4 ,he came1 and his foremost cow entered the stable1 and she said to her keeper1 8,behold thy elder brother standing before thee with his knife to slay thee2 flee from before him40 ,he heard what his first cow had said2 and the next entering1 she also said likewise4 ,he looked beneath the door of the stable2 he saw the feet of his elder brother2 he was standing behind the door1 and his knife was in his hand4 ,he cast down his load to the ground1 and betook himself to flee swiftly2 and his elder brother pursued after him with his knife4 ,then the younger brother cried out unto ,r ,harakhti1#dce saying1 8,my good lord6 thou art he who divides the evil from the good40 ,and ,r stood and heard his cry2 and ,r made a wide water between him and his elder brother1 and it was full of crocodiles2 and the one brother was on one bank1 and the other on the other bank2 and the elder brother smote twice on his hands at not slaying him4 ,thus did he4 ,and the younger brother called to the elder brother on the bank1 saying1 8,stand still until the dawn of the day2 and when ,r ariseth1 ,i shall judge with thee before him1 and he discerneth between the good and the evil4 ,for ,i shall not be with thee any more forever2 ,i shall not be in the place in which thou art2 ,i shall go to the valley of the acacia40 ,we need not follow the story further4 ,those who wish to do so are referred to ,petrie's ,egyptian ,tales4 ,from this point onward1 it contains many mythological features4 ,this story1 in the form in which we have it1 was written for ,seti ,,ii 7#abji-abje ,b4 ,c47 of the nineteenth ,egyptian dynasty1 while that monarch was still crown prince4 ,scholars of all shades of opinion have recognized in it a striking parallel to the story of ,joseph in the house of ,potiphar1 in ,genesis #ci3a-bj4 ,joseph1 like the younger brother of this tale1 was trusted with everything about his master's place2 ,potiphar's wife1 like the sister-in-law of the tale1 tempted ,joseph2 ,joseph1 like the younger brother1 resisted temptation2 and ,potiphar's wife1 like the sister-in-law1 charged him with the crime which he had been unwilling to commit4 ,scholars of the critical school regard this as the original of the story in ,genesis4 ,while they recognize that it is a theme which is not confined to ,egyptians and ,hebrews 7compare for other parallels ,lang1 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 ,,ii1 #cjc1 ff471 the fact that the theme of the ,biblical story is laid in ,egypt leads them to think it extremely probable that there is a connection between the two4 ,conservative scholars on the other hand hold that in all probability there was more than one such scandal in ,egypt1 and account for the likeness by the similarity which would naturally present itself in such cases1 holding that the ,egyptian tale has no bearing on the credibility of that in ,genesis4 #d4 ,letters to a ,ruler ,like ,joseph4 ,among the letters in the ,babylonian language and script found at ,el-,amarna in ,egypt in the winter of #ahhg-ahhh1dcf many of which were written to ,amenophis ,,iii and ,amenophis ,,iv1 ,kings of ,egypt1 #adaa-aceg ,b4 ,c41 by ,egyptian vassals in ,palestine and ,syria1 there are two which were written to a ,semite named ,ddu 7,david71 which show that this ,semite held at the ,egyptian court a position analogous to that which ,joseph1 as ruler of ,egypt1 is said to have held 7,gen4 #da3ci1 f42 #ej3bf74 ,these letters are as follows3 ,i#dcg #a4 ,to ,ddu1 my lord1 my father1 #b4 speaks ,aziru1 thy son1 thy servant3 #c4 at the feet of my father ,i fall4 #d4 ,unto my father may there be health6 #e4 ,o ,ddu1 truly ,i have given 7i4 e41 done7 #f4 the wish of the king1 my lord1 #g4 and whatever is the wish #h4 of the king1 my lord1 let him send #i4 and ,i will give 7do7 it4 #aj4 ,further3 see1 thou art there1 #aa4 my father1 and whatever is the wish #ab4 of ,ddu1 my father1 send it #ac4 and ,i will indeed give 7do7 it4 #ad4 ,behold1 thou art my father and my lord #ae4 and ,i am thy son4 ,the lands of the ,amorites #af4 are thy lands1 and my house is thy house1 #ag4 and whatever thy wish is1 #ah4 send1 and ,i #ai4 shall behold1 and verily will give 7do7 it4 #bj4 ,and see1 thou in the presence of #ba4 the king1 my lord1 sittest4 #bb4 444444444444 enemies #bc4 words of slander #bd4 before my father1 before #be4 the king1 my lord1 have spoken1 #bf4 but do thou not count them just6 #bg4 ,and behold thou in the presence #bh4 of the king1 my lord1 as a dignitary 787 #bi4 sittest 44444444444444444444 #cj4 and the words of slander #ca4 against me do not count true4 #cb4 ,also ,i am a servant of the king1 my lord1 #cc4 and from the words of the king1 my lord1 #cd4 and from the words of ,ddu1 my father1 #ce4 ,i shall not depart forever4 #cf4 ,but when the king1 my lord1 does not love me1 #cg4 but hates me1 #ch4 then ,i--what shall ,i say8 ,,ii#dch #a4 ,to ,ddu1 my lord1 my father1 #b4 speaks ,aziru1 thy servant3 #c4 at the feet of my lord ,i fall4 #d4 ,khatib has come #e4 and has brought the words #f4 of the king1 my lord1 important and good1 #g4 and ,i am very1 very glad1 #h4 and my land and my brethren1 #i4 the servants of the king1 my lord1 #aj4 and the servants of ,ddu1 my lord1 #aa4 are very1 very glad1 #ab4 when there comes #ac4 the breath of the king1 my lord1 #ad4 unto me4 ,from the words #ae4 of my lord1 my god1 my sun-god1 #af4 and from the words of ,ddu1 #ag4 my lord1 ,i shall not depart4 #ah4 ,my lord1 truly ,khatib #ai4 stands with me4 #bj4 ,i and he will come4 #ba4 ,my lord1 the king of the ,hittites #bb4 has come into ,nukhashshi1 #bc4 so that ,i cannot come4 #bd4 ,would that the king of the ,hittites would depart6 #be4 ,then truly ,i would come1 #bf4 ,i and ,khatib4 #bg4 ,may the king1 my lord1 my words #bh4 hear6 ,my lord1 ,i fear #bi4 on account of the face of the king1 my lord1 #cj4 and on account of the face of ,ddu4 #ca4 ,and now by my gods #cb4 and my angels verily ,i have sworn1 #cc4 ,o ,ddu and nobles #cd4 of the king1 my lord1 that truly ,i will come4 #ce4 ,and so1 ,ddu #cf4 and the king1 my lord1 and the nobles1 #cg4 8,truly we will not conceive anything #ch4 against ,aziru that is unfavorable10-- #ci4 even thus may ye swear #dj4 by my gods and the god ,a6 #da4 ,and truly ,i #db4 and ,khatib are faithful servants of the king4 #dc4 ,o ,ddu1 thou shalt truly know #dd4 that ,i will come to thee4 ,the ,aziru of these letters was the chieftain or petty king of the ,amorites1 who were living at the time to the eastward of ,phnicia1 between the ,lebanon and ,anti-,lebanon mountains4 ,the way in which he addresses ,ddu is significant4 ,ddu is classed continually with the king4 ,aziru fears to offend ,ddu as he fears to offend the king2 the words of ,ddu are of equal importance with those of the king4 ,ddu clearly occupied a position of power with the king of ,egypt similar to that ascribed to ,joseph in ,genesis #da4 ,moreover1 ,ddu is a ,semitic name2 vocalized a little differently1 it becomes ,david4 ,the king to whom this letter was written was ,amenophis ,,iii or ,amenophis ,,iv1 in whose reigns ,semitic influence was especially strong in ,egypt4 ,amenophis ,,iii took as his favorite wife a woman named ,tiy1 daughter of ,yuaa and ,tuau1 whose mummies1 discovered a few years ago1 show1 some think1 that they were ,semitic4 ,queen ,tiy was very influential during the reign of her son1 ,amenophis ,,iv1 and was in part the cause of the remarkable religious reform which he undertook 7,part ,i1 ,chapter ,i1 #f 7vii774 ,it is not1 accordingly1 strange to find that the chief minister of one of these kings was a ,semite4 ,of course1 ,ddu cannot be identified with ,joseph1 but his career shows that such careers as that of ,joseph were not impossible at this period of ,egyptian history4 #e4 ,the ,seven ,years of ,famine4 ,the following inscription was found cut on a rock between the island of ,elephantine and the ,first ,cataract1 and was first published by ,brugsch in #ahia4 ,it is written in hieroglyphic characters1 and was apparently inscribed in the reign of ,ptolemy ,x1 #aag-hi ,b4 ,c4 ,it relates how ,king ,zoser1 of the third dynasty1 who began to reign about #bihj ,b4 ,c41 nearly #b1hjj years before the inscription was written1 appealed to ,khnum1 the god of ,elephantine1 because of a famine4 ,the part of the text which interests us is as follows3#dci 8,i am very anxious on account of those who are in the palace4 ,my heart is in great anxiety on account of misfortune1 for in my time the ,nile has not overflowed for a period of seven years4 ,there is scarcely any produce of the field2 herbage fails2 eatables are wanting4 ,every man robs his neighbor4 ,men move 787 with nowhere to go4 ,the children cry1 the young people creep along 7874 ,the aged heart is bowed down2 their limbs are crippled2 they sit 787 on the earth4 ,their arms are 44444444 ,the people of the court are at their wits' end4 ,the store-houses 787 were built1 but 4444444444 and all that was in them has been consumed40 ,as ,brugsch#ddj saw1 this inscription gives a graphic account of the suffering caused by seven such years of famine as are said to have occurred in the time of ,joseph 7,gen4 #da3cj1 #ed1 ff474 ,it cannot be the same seven-year famine as that referred to in ,genesis1 as it is placed several centuries too early to coincide with the time of ,joseph4 ,as the inscription is about #b1hjj years later than the event it describes1 its historical accuracy might be questioned1 but it is probable that it was a renewal of an earlier inscription4 ,but even if its historical accuracy be impugned1 it witnesses to a native ,egyptian tradition that such famines were possible4 #f4 ,inscription ,showing ,preparation for ,famine4 ,inscription of ,baba of ,el-,kab#dda 8,the chief at the table of the sovereign1 ,baba1 the risen again1 speaks thus3 ,i loved my father2 ,i honored my mother2 my brothers and sisters loved me4 ,i went out of the door of my house with a benevolent heart2 ,i stood there with refreshing hand2 splendid were my preparations of what ,i collected for the festal day4 ,mild was 7my7 heart1 free from violent anger4 ,the gods bestowed upon me abundant prosperity upon earth4 ,the city wished me health and a life of full enjoyment4 ,i punished the evil-doers4 ,the children who stood before me in the town during the days which ,i fulfilled were--great and small--#fj2 just as many beds were provided for them1 just as many chairs 7871 just as many tables 7874 ,they all consumed #abj ephahs of durra1 the milk of #c cows1 #eb goats1 and #i she-asses1 a hin of balsam1 and #b jars of oil4 8,my words may seem a jest to the gainsayer1 but ,i call the god ,mut to witness that what ,i say is true4 ,i had all this prepared in my house2 in addition ,i put cream in the store-chamber and beer in the cellar in a more than sufficient number of hin-measures4 8,i collected corn as a friend of the harvest-god4 ,i was watchful in time of sowing4 ,and when a famine arose1 lasting many years1 ,i distributed corn to the city each year of famine40 ,the ,baba who wrote this inscription lived under the eighteenth ,egyptian dynasty1 about #aejj ,b4 ,c41 or a little before4 ,brugsch pointed out many years ago that ,baba's concluding statement forms an interesting parallel to the conduct of ,joseph as told in ,gen4 #da3dg-eg4 ,baba claims to have done for his city1 ,el-,kab1 what ,joseph is said to have done for all ,egypt4 ,his statement affords striking evidence of the historical reality of famines in ,egypt1 and of such economic preparation for them4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,palestine ,,in ,,the ,,patriarchal ,,age ,,the ,,tale ,,of ,,sinuhe4 ,,communication ,,between ,,egypt ,,and ,,palestine4 #a4 ,the ,tale of ,sinuhe4 ,in the year #aigj ,b4 ,c41 when ,amenemhet ,i died and was succeeded by ,sesostris ,i1 an ,egyptian of high rank1 named ,sinuhe1 for some reason now unknown to us1 fled from ,egypt to ,asia4 ,the details of his escape from ,egypt are not of interest to the ,biblical student1 but his description of the hardships encountered in the desert and of his experiences in eastern ,palestine are of great value1 as they afford us our earliest description of that country outside the ,bible4 ,the following extract begins just after ,sinuhe had told how he escaped the guards in the fort which stood at the eastern frontier of ,egypt4#ddb ,i went on at the time of evening1 ,as the earth brightened1 ,i arrived at ,peten4 ,when ,i had reached the lake of ,kemwer1#ddc ,i fell down for thirst1 fast came my breath1 ,my throat was hot1 ,i said3 8,this is the taste of death40 ,i upheld my heart1 ,i drew my limbs together1 ,as ,i heard the sound of lowing cattle1 ,i beheld the ,bedawin4 ,that chief among them1 who had been in ,egypt1 recognized me4 ,he gave me water1 he cooked for me milk4 ,i went with him to his tribe1 ,good was that which they did 7for me74 ,one land sent me on to another1 ,i loosed for ,suan1#ddd ,i arrived at ,kedem2#dde ,i spent a year and a half there4 ,emuienshe1#ddf that sheik of ,upper ,rutenu1#ddg brought me forth saying to me3 8,happy art thou with me1 7for7 thou hearest the speech of ,egypt40 ,he said this 7for7 he knew my character1 ,he had heard of my wisdom2 ,the ,egyptians1 who were there with him1 bare witness of me4 ,the ,amorite chieftain then questioned ,sinuhe concerning his flight4 ,he gave evasive answers1 merging with his reply a long hymn in praise of the king4 ,after this ,emuienshe said to him3 8,behold1 thou shalt now abide with me2 ,good is that which ,i shall do for thee40 ,he put me at the head of his children1 ,he married me to his eldest daughter1 ,he made me select for myself of his land1 ,of the choicest of that which he had1 ,on his boundary with another land4 ,it was a goodly land1 named ,yaa2#ddh ,there were figs in it and vines1 ,more plentiful than water was its wine1 ,copious was its honey1 plenteous its oil2 ,all fruits were upon its trees4 ,barley was there and spelt1 ,without end all cattle4 ,moreover1 great was that which came to me1 ,which came for love of me1 ,when he appointed me sheik of the tribe1 ,from the choicest of his land4 ,i portioned the daily bread1 ,and wine for every day1 ,cooked flesh and fowl in roast2 ,besides the mid goats of the hills1 ,which were trapped for me1 and brought to me2 ,besides that which my dogs captured for me4 ,there was much--made for me1 ,and milk in every sort of cooked dish4 ,i spent many years1 ,my children became strong1 ,each the mighty man of his tribe4 ,the messenger going north1 ,or passing southward to the court1 ,he turned in to me4 ,for ,i had all men turn in 7to me74 ,the tale goes on concerning the personal prowess of ,sinuhe1 who1 in his old age1 returned to ,egypt and made his peace with the king4 #b4 ,communication between ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,this document from the early patriarchal age reveals a close relationship between ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,there was frequent communication between ,kedem and ,egypt2 messengers went to and fro4 ,the ,egyptian language was understood at the court of the ,amorite chieftain4 ,these conditions throw light on the narratives of the descent of ,abraham and ,jacob to ,egypt4 ,sinuhe's description of his life necessarily reminds one of the description of ,palestine so often met with in the ,pentateuch1 ,joshua1 and the prophets1 8a land flowing with milk and honey40 7,see1 for example1 ,exod4 #c3h1 #ag47 7,for an addition to this chapter1 see ,appendix47 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,moses ,,and ,,the ,,exodus ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,sargon ,,of ,,agade2 ,,its ,,resemblance ,,to ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,moses4 ,,the ,,pillar ,,of ,,merneptah2 ,,the ,,only ,,appearance ,,of ,,the ,,name 8,,israel0 ,,outside ,,of ,,the ,,bible4 #a4 ,the ,legend of ,sargon of ,agade4 ,the following legend#ddi contains a story of the exposure of an infant on a river1 strikingly like that told of ,moses4 #a4 ,sargon1 the mighty king1 king of ,agade am ,i1 #b4 ,my mother was lowly2 my father ,i did not know2#dej #c4 ,the brother of my father dwelt in the mountain4 #d4 ,my city is ,azupiranu1 which is situated on the bank of the ,euphrates4 #e4 ,my lowly mother conceived me1 in secret she brought me forth4 #f4 ,she placed me in a basket of reeds1 she closed my entrance with bitumen1 #g4 ,she cast me upon the river1 which did not overflow me4 #h4 ,the river carried me1 it brought me to ,akki1 the irrigator4 #i4 ,akki1 the irrigator1 in the goodness of his heart lifted me out1 #aj4 ,akki1 the irrigator1 as his own son 444444 brought me up2 #aa4 ,akki1 the irrigator1 as his gardener appointed me4 #ab4 ,when ,i was a gardener the goddess ,ishtar loved me1 #ac4 ,and for four years ,i ruled the kingdom4 #ad4 ,the black-headed#dea peoples ,i ruled1 ,i governed2 #ae4 ,mighty mountains with axes of bronze ,i destroyed 7874 #af4 ,i ascended the upper mountains2 #ag4 ,i burst through the lower mountains4 #ah4 ,the country of the sea ,i besieged three times2 #ai4 ,dilmun#deb ,i captured 7874 #bj4 ,unto the great ,dur-ilu ,i went up1 ,i 4444444444 #ba4 4444444444 ,i altered 4444444444 #bb4 ,whatsoever king shall be exalted after me1 #bc4 444444444444444444444444444444 #bd4 ,let him rule1 let him govern the black-headed peoples2 #be4 ,mighty mountains with axes of bronze let him destroy2 #bf4 ,let him ascend the upper mountains1 #bg4 ,let him break through the lower mountains2 #bh4 ,the country of the sea let him besiege three times2 #bi4 ,dilmun let him capture2 #cj4 ,to great ,dur-ilu let him go up4 ,the rest is too broken for connected translation4 ,it is thought by some scholars of the critical school that the parallelism between the secret birth1 the exposure1 the rescue and adoption of ,sargon1 and the account of the secret birth1 exposure1 rescue1 and adoption of ,moses in ,exod4 #b3a-aj is too close to be accidental4 ,conservative scholars1 on the other hand1 hold that1 if the legend of ,sargon is historical1 it merely affords an example of a striking coincidence of events in two independent lives4 #b4 ,the ,pillar of ,merneptah4 ,in the fifth year of ,king ,merneptah1 who ruled from #abbe-abae ,b4 ,c41 and who is thought to be the ,pharaoh of the exodus1 he inscribed on a pillar an account of his wars and victories4 ,the inscription concludes with the following poetic strophe3#dec ,the kings are overthrown1 saying3 8salaam60 ,not one holds up his head among the nine bows4#ded ,wasted is ,tehenu1#dee ,kheta#def is pacified1 ,plundered is the ,canaan#deg with every evil1 ,carried off is ,askelon1 ,seized upon is ,gezer1 ,yenoam#deh is made as a thing not existing4 ,israel is desolated1 his seed is not2 ,palestine has become a widow for ,egypt4 ,all lands are united1 they are pacified2 ,every one that is turbulent is bound by ,king ,merneptah1 who gives life like ,r every day4 ,this inscription contains the only mention of ,israel in a document of this age outside the ,bible4 ,it is1 for that reason1 of great importance4 ,it should be noted that ,israel is mentioned along with peoples and places in ,palestine and ,phnicia4 ,the ,israel here referred to was not1 accordingly1 in ,egypt4 ,israel1 on the other hand1 may not have been more than a nomadic people4 ,the ,egyptians used a certain 8determinative0 in connection with the names of settled peoples4 ,that sign is here used with ,tehenu1 ,kheta1 ,askelon1 ,gezer1 and ,yenoam1 but not with ,israel4 ,as ,merneptah has been supposed by many to be the ,pharaoh in whose reign the exodus occurred1 the mention of ,israel here has somewhat puzzled scholars1 and different explanations of the fact have arisen4 ,at least one scholar holds that the exodus occurred in ,merneptah's third year1 and that he afterward attacked the ,hebrews4 ,others have supposed that not all the ,hebrews had been in ,egypt1 but only the ,joseph tribes4 ,still others have thought that the ,leah tribes had made their exodus during the eighteenth dynasty1 and that it was these with whom ,merneptah fought1 while the ,rachel tribes made their exodus under the nineteenth dynasty4 ,opinions vary according to the critical views of different writers4 ,all scholars would welcome more information on these problems4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,code ,,of ,,hammurapi ,,and ,,the ,,pentateuch ,,the ,,text ,,of ,,the ,,code2 ,,resemblance ,,to ,,and ,,contrast ,,with ,,the ,,mosaic ,,code4 ,,the ,,mosaic ,,code ,,not ,,borrowed ,,from ,,the ,,babylonian2 ,,different ,,underlying ,,conceptions4 #a4 ,the ,text of the ,code2 ,comparison with the ,mosaic ,code4 ,the following code of laws was inscribed by order of ,hammurapi1 of the first dynasty of ,babylon 7#bajd-bjfa ,b4 ,c471 on a block of black diorite nearly eight feet in height and set up in ,esagila1 the temple of ,marduk1 in ,babylon1 so that the people might have the laws in the mother-tongue4 ,as this last statement implies1 the laws are written in ,semitic ,babylonian2 before the time of ,hammurapi the laws had been written in ,sumerian4 ,at some later time an ,elamite conqueror1 who was overrunning ,babylonia1 took this pillar away to ,susa as a trophy4 ,in course of time the pillar was broken into three parts1 which were found by the ,french expedition under de ,morgan in ,december1 #aija1 and ,january1 #aijb1 while excavating at ,susa4 ,as the code is the oldest known code of laws in the world1 being a thousand years older than ,moses1 and as it affords some interesting peculiarities as well as some striking parallels to the laws in ,exodus #ba-bc and in ,deuteronomy1 a translation of it1 with some comparison of ,exodus and ,deuteronomy1 is here given3 ,against ,witches #a4 ,if a man brings an accusation against a man1 that he has laid a death-spell upon him1 and has not proved it1 the accuser shall be put to death4#dei #b4 ,if a man accuses another of practising sorcery upon him1 but has not proved it1 he against whom the charge of sorcery is made shall go to the sacred river2 into the sacred river he shall plunge1 and if the sacred river overpowers him1 his accuser shall take possession of his house4 ,if the sacred river shows that man to be innocent1 and he is unharmed1 he who charged him with sorcery shall be killed4 ,he who plunged into the sacred river shall take the house of his accuser4 ,with these laws we should compare ,exod4 #bb3ah1 which imposes the death penalty upon witches1 and ,deut4 #ah3aj1 ff41 which declares that there shall be no sorcerer1 diviner1 magician1 or charmer in ,israel and promises a line of prophets to render these unnecessary4 ,magic is banished from ,israel2 its presence in ,babylonia is taken for granted1 and only some of its exercises1 which were supposed to be especially deadly1 were forbidden4 ,in #b the man accused of sorcery is to be tried by ordeal4 ,he is to plunge into the river and if he can swim in its current1 he is innocent4 ,trial by ordeal is found but once in the ,hebrew laws 7,num4 #e3aa-bh74 ,there both the crime and the ordeal are very different from this4 ,note that in these sections the false accuser suffers in just the way he has tried to bring suffering to the other4 ,this is the law of retaliation1 which appears in ,deut4 #ai3af-ba1 where it is applied to false witnesses in the same way as here4 ,it will be found underlying many of the penalties of this code4 ,laws ,concerning ,false ,witness #c4 ,if in a case a man has borne false witness1 or accused a man without proving it1 if that case is a capital case1 that man shall be put to death4 #d4 ,if he has borne witness in a case of grain or money1 the penalty of that case he shall himself bear4 ,hebrew law was similar2 a false witness was to be visited with the penalty which he had purposed to bring upon his brother 7,deut4 #ai3ah1 #ai74 ,against ,reversing a ,judicial ,decision #e4 ,if a judge has pronounced a judgment1 made a decision1 caused it to be sealed1 and afterward has altered his judgment1 that judge they shall convict on account of the case which he decided and altered2 the penalty which in that case he imposed he shall pay twelvefold1 and in the assembly from the seat of his judgment they shall expel him2 he shall not return2 with the judges in a case he shall not sit4 ,hebrew law presents no parallel to this4 ,against ,theft #f4 ,if a man steals the goods of a god 7temple7 or of a palace1 that man shall be put to death1 and he by whose hand the stolen goods were received shall be put to death4 #g4 ,if a man purchases or receives on deposit either silver1 gold1 man-servant1 maid-servant1 ox1 sheep1 ass1 or anything whatever from the hand of a minor or a slave without witnesses or contracts1 that man is a thief2 he shall be put to death4 #h4 ,if a man has stolen ox1 or sheep1 or ass1 or pig1 or a boat1 either from a god 7temple7 or a palace1 he shall pay thirtyfold4 ,if he is a poor man1 he shall restore tenfold4 ,if the thief has nothing to pay1 he shall be put to death4 #i4 ,if a man1 who has lost anything1 finds that which was lost in a man's hand1 7and7 the man in whose hand the lost thing was found says3 8,a seller sold it2 ,i bought it before witnesses02 and the owner of the lost thing says3 8,i will bring witnesses who know that the lost thing is mine02 if the purchaser brings the seller who sold it to him and the witnesses in whose presence it was bought1 and the owner of the lost thing brings the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his1 the judges shall examine their testimony4 ,the witnesses before whom the purchaser purchased it1 and the witnesses who know the lost thing1 shall give their testimony in the presence of a god4 ,the seller is a thief2 he shall be put to death4 ,the owner of the lost thing shall take that which was lost4 ,the purchaser shall take from the house of the seller the money which he had paid4 #aj4 ,if the purchaser does not produce the seller who sold it to him and the witnesses before whom he bought it1 and the owner of the lost thing produces the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his1 the purchaser is the thief2 he shall be put to death4 ,the owner of the lost thing shall take that which he lost4 #aa4 ,if the owner of the lost thing does not bring the witnesses who know that the lost thing is his1 he is one who has attempted fraud2 he shall be put to death4 #ab4 ,if the seller has died1 the purchaser shall recover from the house of the seller the damages of that case fivefold4 #ac4 ,if that man has not his witnesses near1 the judges shall set an appointed time within six months2 and if1 within six months1 his witnesses he does not produce1 that man is a liar2 the penalty of that case he shall himself bear4 ,the ,hebrew laws comparable to these are found in ,exod4 #bb3a-d1 #i1 and ,lev4 #f3c-e4 ,exodus directs 7v4 #a7 that1 if a man steals an ox or a sheep and kills it or sells it1 he shall restore live oxen for an ox and four sheep for a sheep4 ,in case it is not sold he shall restore double 7v4 #i74 ,no highly organized courts appear in the ,biblical codes4 ,the thief was brought before ,god and his guilt determined by some religious test4 ,the law of ,leviticus required a man guilty of theft to restore the lost property1 adding to it a fifth more1 and to offer a ram in sacrifice4 7,see ,exod4 #ah3ac-bf4 ,cf4 #b ,chron4 #ai3e-g with #a ,chron4 #bc3d and ,deut4 #af3ah-bj47 ,the ,babylonian laws presuppose a much more highly organized social community than the ,hebrew4 ,against ,stealing ,children and ,slaves #ad4 ,if a man steals the son of a man who is a minor1 he shall be put to death4 #ae4 ,if a man causes a male or female slave of a palace1 or the male or female slave of a workingman to escape from the city gate1 he shall be put to death4 #af4 ,if a man harbors in his house either a male or a female slave who has escaped from a palace or from a workingman1 and does not bring him out at the summons of the officer1 the owner of that house shall be put to death4 #ag4 ,if a man finds in a field a male or a female slave who has escaped and restores him to his owner1 the owner of the slave shall pay him #b shekels of silver4 #ah4 ,if that slave will not name his owner1 he shall bring him unto the palace and they shall investigate his record and restore him unto his owner4 #ai4 ,if he shall detain that slave in his house and afterward the slave is found1 that man shall be put to death4 #bj4 ,if the slave escapes from the hand of his captor1 that man shall declare it on oath to the owner of the slave and shall be innocent4 ,these laws are analogous to ,exod4 #ba3af and ,deut4 #bc3ae4 ,the former inflicts the death penalty for stealing a man and selling him1 and the latter prohibits one in whose house a fugitive slave has taken refuge from returning the slave to his master4 ,slavery was not in ,israel such a firmly established institution as in ,babylonia4 7,see ,exod4 #ba3b-f2 ,deut4 #ae3ab-ah2 ,lev4 #be3be-df47 ,housebreaking and ,brigandage #ba4 ,if a man breaks into a house1 before that breach he shall be put to death and thrown into it4 #bb4 ,if a man practices brigandage and is caught1 that man shall be put to death4 #bc4 ,if the robber is not caught1 the man who is robbed shall declare his loss1 whatever it is1 in the presence of a god1 and the city and governor in whose territory and jurisdiction the robbery was committed shall compensate him for whatever was lost4 #bd4 ,if it is a life1 that city and governor shall pay to his relatives #a mana of silver4#dfj ,hebrew law presents an analogy to the last of these sections in ,deut4 #ba3a-i1 though in ,israel no compensation was offered to the heirs of the man who was slain1 but a sacrifice was performed by the elders of the nearest city1 to purge it of innocent blood4 ,stealing at a ,fire #be4 ,if a fire breaks out in a man's house1 and a man who has come to extinguish it shall cast his eye upon the furniture of the owner of the house1 and the furniture of the owner of the house shall take1 that man shall be thrown into that fire4 ,the ,duties and ,privileges of ,soldiers1 ,constables1 and ,tax-collectors #bf4 ,if a soldier or a constable#dfa who is ordered to go on a journey for the king does not go1 but hires a substitute and dispatches him instead1 that soldier or constable shall be put to death2 his hired substitute shall appropriate his house4 #bg4 ,if a soldier or a constable is detained in a royal fortress and after him they give his field or garden to another and he takes it and carries it on1 if the first one returns and reaches his city1 they shall restore to him his field and garden1 and he shall take it and carry it on4 #bh4 ,if a soldier or a constable who is detained in a royal fortress has a son who is able to carry on his business1 they shall give to him his field and garden and he shall carry on the business of his father4 #bi4 ,if his son is small and not able to carry on the business of his father1 they shall give one-third of his field and garden to his mother and she shall rear him4 #cj4 ,if a soldier or a constable from the beginning of his appointment neglects his field1 garden1 and house and leaves them uncared for1 another after him shall take his field1 garden1 and house1 and carry on his business for three years4 ,if he returns and desires his field1 garden1 and house1 they shall not give them to him4 ,he who has taken them and carried on the business shall carry it on4 #ca4 ,if he leaves it uncared for but one year and returns1 they shall give him his field1 garden1 and house1 and he shall carry on his own business4 #cb4 ,if a merchant ransoms a soldier 787 or a constable who1 on a journey of the king1 was detained1 and brings him back1 to his city1 if in his house there is sufficient ransom1 he shall ransom himself4 ,if in his house there is not sufficient to ransom him1 by the temple of his city he shall be ransomed4 ,if in the temple of his city there is not a sufficient ransom1 he shall be ransomed by the palace4 ,his field1 garden1 and house shall not be given for ransom4 #cc4 ,if a governor or a magistrate harbors a deserting soldier or accepts and sends a hired substitute on an errand of the king1 that governor or magistrate shall be put to death4 #cd4 ,if a governor or a magistrate takes the property of a soldier1 plunders a soldier1 or hires out a soldier1 has defrauded a soldier in a suit before a sheik1 or takes the present which the king has given to a soldier1 that governor or magistrate shall be put to death4 #ce4 ,if a man buys the cattle or sheep which the king has given to a soldier1 he shall forfeit his money4 #cf4 ,one shall not sell the field1 garden1 or house of a soldier1 constable1 or tax-collector4 #cg4 ,if a man has bought the field1 garden1 or house of a soldier1 constable1 or tax-collector1 his tablet shall be broken1 he shall forfeit his money2 the field1 house1 or garden shall return to its owner4 #ch4 ,a soldier1 constable1 or tax-collector shall not deed to his wife or daughter the field1 house1 or garden1 which is his perquisite1 nor shall he assign them for debt4 #ci4 ,a field1 garden1 or house which he has purchased and possesses he may deed to his wife or daughter1 or may assign for debt4 #dj4 ,a priestess1 merchant1 or other creditor may purchase his field1 garden1 or house4 ,the purchaser shall conduct the business of the field1 garden1 or house which he has purchased4 #da4 ,if a man has bargained for the field1 garden1 or house of a soldier1 constable1 or tax-collector and has given sureties1 the soldier1 constable1 or tax-collector shall return to the field1 house1 or garden1 and the sureties which were given him he shall keep4 ,no such officers as these are mentioned in the laws of the ,old ,testament1 though some of them appear in earlier times in the records of ,babylonia4 ,the tax-collectors mentioned here remind us of ,solomon's tax-collectors mentioned in #a ,kings #d3g1 ff4 ,laws of ,agriculture #db4 ,if a man rents a field for cultivation and produces no grain in that field1 they shall call him to account for doing no work in that field1 and he shall give to the owner of the field grain similar to that of adjacent fields4 #dc4 ,if he does not cultivate that field and neglects it1 he shall give the owner of the field grain similar to that of adjacent fields1 and the field which he neglected he shall break up with mattocks1 he shall harrow1 and return it to the owner of the field4 #dd4 ,if a man rents an uncultivated field for three years for improvement and neglects its surface and does not develop the field1 in the fourth year he shall break up the field with mattocks1 he shall hoe and harrow it1 and return it unto the owner of the field1 and for every ,gan of land he shall measure out #aj ,gur of grain4 #de4 ,if a man lets his field for pay on shares to a farmer and receives his rent1 and afterward the storm-god inundates the field and carries off the produce1 the loss is the farmer's4 #df4 ,if the rent of his field he has not received1 and he has let the field for one-half or one-third 7of the crop71 the farmer and the owner of the field shall divide the grain which is in the field according to agreement4 #dg4 ,if the farmer1 because he has not in a former year received a maintenance1 entrusts the field to another farmer1 the owner of the field shall not interfere4 ,he would cultivate it1 and his field has been cultivated4 ,at the time of harvest he shall take grain according to his contracts4 #dh4 ,if a man has a debt against him and the storm-god inundates his field and carries away the produce1 or if through lack of water grain has not grown in the field1 in that year he shall not make a return of grain to his creditor2 his contract he shall change1 and the interest of that year he shall not pay4 #di4 ,if a man borrows money from a merchant1 and has given to the merchant a field planted with grain or sesame1 and says to him3 8,cultivate the field and harvest and take the grain or sesame which it produces02 if the tenant produces grain or sesame in the field1 at the time of harvest the owner of the field shall take the grain or sesame which was produced by the field1 and shall give to the merchant grain for the money which he borrowed from the merchant with its interest1 and for the maintenance of the farmer4 #ej4 ,if the field was already planted with grain or sesame1 the owner of the field shall receive the grain or the sesame which is produced in the field1 and the money and its interest he shall return to the merchant4 #ea4 ,if there is not money to return1 he shall give to the merchant the grain or sesame for the money and its interest which he had received from the merchant1 according to the scale of prices fixed by the king4 #eb4 ,if the farmer does not produce grain or sesame in his field1 he shall not alter his contract4 #ec4 ,if a man the side of his strong dyke has neglected and has not strengthened it1 and in his dyke a break occurs1 and the water destroys the farm-land1 the man in whose dyke the break occurred shall restore the grain which was destroyed4 #ed4 ,if he is not able to restore the grain1 they shall sell him and his possessions for money1 and the owners of the fields whose grain was destroyed shall share it4 #ee4 ,if a man has opened his sluice for watering and has left it open and the water destroys the field of his neighbor1 he shall measure out grain to him on the basis of that produced by neighboring fields4 #ef4 ,if a man opens the water and the water destroys the work#dfb of a neighboring field1 he shall measure out #aj ,gur of grain for each ,bur of land4 #eg4 ,if a shepherd causes his sheep to eat vegetation and has not made an agreement with the owner of the field1 and without the consent of the owner of the field has pastured his sheep1 the owner of the field shall harvest that field1 and the shepherd who without the consent of the owner of the field caused his sheep to eat the field1 shall pay the owner of the field in addition #bj ,gur of grain for each ,bur of land4 #eh4 ,if1 after the sheep have come up out of the fields and are turned loose on the public common by the city gate1 a shepherd turns his sheep into a field and causes the sheep to eat the field1 the shepherd shall oversee the field which he caused to be eaten1 and at harvest-time he shall measure to the owner of the field #fj ,gur of grain for each ,bur of land4 ,the ,hebrew land laws are found in ,exod4 #bb3e1 #f2 #bc3aj1 #aa2 ,lev4 #ai3i1 and ,deut4 #bd3ai-bb2 #bc3bd1 #be4 ,an examination of these passages reveals a wide difference between ,babylonia and ,israel4 ,in ,babylonia it seems to have often been the rule that a landlord let out the fields to tenants to work2 among the ,hebrews the law presupposes that each man shall work his own land4 ,many of the ,babylonian laws are designed to secure the respective rights of landlord and tenant4 ,naturally1 there is nothing in the ,old ,testament to correspond to these4 ,hebrew law 7,exod4 #bb3e71 like the ,babylonian1 provides that one who causes a neighbor's crop to be eaten shall make restitution1 but the regulations are of the most general character4 ,in ,babylonia a larger social experience had made much more specific regulations necessary4 ,the characters of the respective countries are reflected in the dangers from which crops might be threatened4 ,in waterless ,palestine a fire started by a careless man might burn his neighbor's crop 7,exod4 #bb3f72 in ,babylonia1 where irrigation from canals was conducted to fields lower than the surface of the water1 one might flood his neighbor's field and destroy his crop by carelessly leaving his sluice open4 ,the ,hebrew legislation presupposes a poorer community4 ,it provides that the land shall lie fallow1 and whatever it produces shall belong to the poor 7,exod4 #bc3aj1 #aa74 ,at harvest-time1 too1 one must not reap the corners of his field2 that was left to the poor 7,lev4 #ai3i74 ,if one forgot a sheaf in his field1 he must not return to take it2 that should be left to the poor 7,deut4 #bd3ai74 ,rich ,babylonia made no such provision for the poor2 it felt no such social sympathy4 ,again1 even these agricultural laws show that commerce was highly developed in ,babylonia1 with its necessary concomitant1 the right to charge interest for money4 ,the uncommercial ,hebrews regarded interest as unlawful 7,exod4 #bb3be71 and it was ,hillel1 the contemporary of ,herod the ,great1 who invented an interpretation known as the ,prosbl1 which practically did away with this law and permitted ,jews to take interest4 ,horticultural ,laws #ei4 ,if a man shall cut down a tree in a man's orchard without the consent of the owner1 he shall pay mana of silver4 #fj4 ,if a man gives a field to a gardener to plant as an orchard1 the gardener shall plant the orchard and cultivate it for #d years4 ,in the fifth year the owner of the orchard and the gardener shall share it together4 ,the owner of the orchard shall mark off his share and take it4 #fa4 ,if the gardener in planting does not complete it1 but leaves a part of it waste1 unto his portion they shall count it4 #fb4 ,if the field which is given to a gardener he does not plant1 if vegetation is the produce of the field for the years during which it is neglected1 the gardener shall measure out to the owner of the field on the basis of the adjacent fields1 and shall perform the work on the field and restore it to the owner of the field4 #fc4 ,if the field is left waste land1 he shall perform the work on the field and shall restore it to its owner1 and #aj ,gur of grain for each ,bur of land he shall measure out4 #fd4 ,if a man lets his orchard to a gardener to manage1 as long as the gardener is in possession of the garden he shall give to the owner of the garden two-thirds of the produce2 one-third he shall take himself4 #fe4 ,if the gardener does not manage the garden and diminishes its produce1 the gardener shall measure out the produce of the orchard on the basis of adjacent orchards4#dfc #ff4 ,if a man has received money from a merchant1 and his merchant puts him under bonds and he has nothing to give1 and he gives his orchard for management unto the merchant and says3 8,the dates as many as are in my orchard take for thy money10 that merchant shall not consent2 the owner of the orchard shall take the dates that are in the orchard and the money and its interest according to the tenor of his agreement he shall bring to the merchant4 ,the remaining dates from the orchard shall belong to the owner of the orchard4 ,as in ,palestine1 there was no system of rental2 the ,bible contains almost no horticultural laws4 8,orchards0 in ,babylonia were1 as the last section shows1 date orchards4 ,the corresponding fruit in ,palestine was the grape4 ,hebrew laws deal with vineyards as with fields4 ,if a man destroys the crop in another's vineyard1 he is to give the best of his own 7,exod4 #bb3e74 ,he is to leave his crop unpicked every seventh year for the poor 7,exod4 #bc3aa74 ,he is not1 when he gathers it1 to glean it carefully1 but leave some for the poor 7,lev4 #ai3aj74 ,when one goes into his neighbor's vineyard1 he may pick what he wishes to eat1 but must carry nothing away4 ,horticulture among the ,hebrews was not so highly developed as in ,babylonia4 ,five columns of writing have been erased after #fe from the column on which the laws are written4 ,this erasure was probably made by the ,elamite conqueror1 who carried the column as a trophy to ,susa1 in order to inscribe his own name on it1 but unfortunately1 if that was the intention1 it was never carried out4 ,we are accordingly in ignorance of his name4 ,it is estimated that #ce sections of laws were thus lost4 ,as already noted1 one can be supplied from a fragment found at ,susa1 and from other tablets fragments of two or three other sections can be made out4 ,one of these incomplete fragments refers to the rights of tenants of houses4 ,it reads3 ,if a man rents a house for money1 and pays the whole rent for a year to the owner of the house1 and the owner of the house orders that man to vacate before the expiration of his lease1 the owner of the house from the money that he received shall 444444444444 ,unfortunately1 the tablet is broken and the penalty for breaking the lease is unknown4 ,it is interesting to know that ,babylonian tenants were protected from avaricious landlords1 even though no parallel law exists in the ,old ,testament4 ,two other sections of laws that once stood in this lacuna can now be supplied from a considerably defaced tablet from ,nippur in the ,university ,museum in ,philadelphia1 which once contained a part or all of the code of ,hammurapi4 ,these sections are as follows3 ,a ,bankrupt ,law#dfd ,if a man borrows grain or money from a merchant and for the payment has no grain or money1 whatever is in his hand he shall in the presence of the elders give to the merchant in place of the debt2 the merchant shall not refuse it2 he shall receive it4 ,a ,partnership ,law#dfe ,if a man gives money to a man for a partnership1 the gain and profit that accrue are before the gods2 together they shall do business4 ,the phrase 8before the gods0 means that the division shall be made on oath4 ,commercial life was not sufficiently developed among the ,hebrews so that they needed such a law1 consequently the ,pentateuch contains no parallel to this4 ,after the erasure of five columns the laws have to do with agents or traveling salesmen4 ,agents and ,merchants #ajj4 ,if an agent has received money from a merchant1 he shall write down the amount and the amount of the interest on the money1 and1 when the time has expired1 he shall repay the merchant as much as he has received4 #aja4 ,if where he goes he does not meet with success1 the agent shall double the amount of the money he received and return it to the merchant4 #ajb4 ,if a merchant gives money to an agent as a favor1 and where he goes he meets with misfortune1 he shall restore the principal unto the merchant4 #ajc4 ,if on the road as he travels an enemy robs him of anything he carries1 the agent shall give an account of it under oath and shall be innocent4 #ajd4 ,if a merchant has given to an agent grain1 wool1 or oil1 or anything whatever to sell1 the agent shall write down the price and shall return the money to the merchant4 ,the agent shall take a receipt for the money which he gives to the merchant4 #aje4 ,if the agent is careless and does not take a receipt for the money he gave the merchant1 money not receipted for shall not be placed to his account4 #ajf4 ,if an agent receives money from a merchant and has a dispute with his merchant about it1 that merchant shall put the agent on trial on oath before the elders concerning the money he received and the agent shall pay the merchant three times as much as he received4 #ajg4 ,if a merchant lends to an agent and the agent returns to the merchant whatever the merchant had given him1 if the merchant has a dispute with him about it1 that agent shall put the merchant on trial on oath in the presence of the elders1 and the merchant1 because he had a dispute with his agent1 whatever he received he shall give to the agent six times as much4 ,the ,hebrews of the ,old ,testament time were not a commercial people and had no such laws4 ,men today are inclined to think that the drummer1 or traveling salesman1 is a modern invention1 but these laws show that he was an old institution in ,babylonia four thousand years ago4 ,wine ,merchants #ajh4 ,if a woman who keeps a wine-shop does not receive grain as the price of drink1 but takes money of greater value1 or makes the measure of drink smaller than the measure of grain1 that mistress of a wine-shop they shall put on trial and into the water shall throw her4 #aji4 ,if the mistress of a wine-shop collects criminals in her house1 and does not seize these criminals and conduct them to the palace1 that mistress of a wine-shop shall be put to death4 #aaj4 ,if the wife of a god 7i4 e41 a consecrated temple-woman71 who is not living in the house appointed1 opens a wine-shop or enters a wine-shop for a drink1 they shall burn that woman4 #aaa4 ,if the mistress of a wine-shop gives #fj ,qa of sakani-plant drink on credit at the time of harvest1 she shall receive #ej ,qa of grain4 ,the ,old ,testament affords no parallel4 ,there were no wine-shops in ,israel so far as we know1 and such consecrated women were prohibited by ,deut4 #bc3ag4 ,deposits and ,distraints #aab4 ,if a man continually traveling has given silver1 gold1 precious stones1 or property to a man and has brought them to him for transportation1 and that man does not deliver that which was for transportation at the place to which it was to be transported1 but has appropriated it1 the owner of the transported goods shall put that man on trial concerning that which was to be transported and was not delivered1 and that man shall deliver unto the owner of the transported goods five times as much as was entrusted to him4 #aac4 ,if a man has grain or money deposited with a man and without the consent of the owner he takes grain from the heap or the granary1 they shall prosecute that man because he took grain from the heap or the granary without the consent of the owner1 and the grain as much as he took he shall return1 and whatever it was he shall forfeit an equal amount4 #aad4 ,if a man does not have against a man a claim for grain or money and secures a warrant against him for debt1 for each warrant he shall pay of a mana of money4 #aae4 ,if a man holds against a man a claim for grain or money and secures a warrant against him for debt and the debtor dies through his fate in the house of the creditor1 that case has no penalty4 #aaf4 ,if the debtor dies through violence or lack of care1 the owner of the debtor shall prosecute the merchant2 if it was the son of a man1 his son shall be put to death2 if the slave of a man1 he shall pay of a mana of money1 and whatever the debt was1 he shall forfeit as much4 ,among the ,hebrews1 as among other ancient peoples1 the poor at times deposited their valuables with the more powerful for safekeeping4 ,this was natural before the invention of banks and safe deposit vaults4 ,the ,hebrew law in ,exod4 #bb3g-aj provides that if goods are given to another man to keep and are stolen out of his house1 the thief should1 if found1 restore double the amount taken4 ,if the thief was not found1 the owner of the house should be brought to ,god 7so ,american ,r4 ,v47#dff1 i4 e41 to the temple1 where in some way 7probably by lot7 it was determined whether he was guilty4 ,if guilty1 the owner of the house had to restore twofold4 ,somewhat parallel to the ,babylonian laws which permit the imprisonment of a debtor in one's house is the ,hebrew law that a poor debtor might become a slave for six years 7,exod4 #ba3b-f2 ,deut4 #ae3g-ah74 ,the ,old ,testament laws are not quite uniform4 ,in reality it is only that of ,deuteronomy which contemplates slavery in consequence of indebtedness2 ,exodus speaks as though the slave might not be bought in any way4 ,the important point is that in ,babylonia a man might be imprisoned for debt2 in ,israel he might become a temporary slave4 ,as to the deposit of valuable property with a creditor for security1 the ,hebrew law1 while it shows that there were other kinds of pledges 7,deut4 #bd3aj1 ff471 mentions but one kind4 ,this was in the case of a man so poor that he had to give his outer garment as security4 ,the law provided that this should be returned to him at night1 since the poor peasants had no other blankets than these garments4 ,a hard-hearted creditor might1 by keeping the garment at night1 risk the life of the debtor 7,exod4 #bb3bf1 #bg2 ,deut4 #bd3aa-ac74 ,debts #aag4 ,if a man is subjected to an attachment for debt and sells his wife1 son1 or daughter1 or they are given over to service1 for three years they shall work in the house of their purchaser or temporary master2 in the fourth year they shall be set free4 #aah4 ,if he binds to service a male or a female slave1 and the merchant transfers or sells him1 he can establish no claim4 #aai4 ,if a man is subjected to an attachment for debt and sells a maid-servant who has borne him children1 the owner of the maid-servant shall pay and shall release his maid-servant4 ,these laws are quite similar to ,exod4 #ba3b-aa and ,deut4 #ae3ab-ah4 ,the main differences are that the ,hebrew law contemplates that a man may enter slavery himself2 the ,babylonian only that he shall permit his wife1 son1 or daughter to do it4 ,the ,hebrews released such slaves at the end of six years2#dfg the ,babylonians at the end of three4 ,hebrew law recognized1 too1 that a man might sell his daughter into slavery 7,exod4 #ba3g-aa71 but it stipulated that her treatment should be different from that of men4 ,it recognizes that either her master or his son would be likely to make her a real or a secondary wife4 ,she was not to be released at the end of seven years1 but in case her master did not deal with her in certain specified ways she regained her freedom regardless of her period of service4 ,storage of ,grain #abj4 ,if a man has stored his grain in heaps in the building of another and an accident happens in the granary1 or the owner of the building has disturbed the heap and taken grain1 or has disputed the amount of grain that was stored in his building1 the owner of the grain shall give an account of his grain under oath1 the owner of the building shall double the amount of grain which he took and restore it to the owner of the grain4 #aba4 ,if a man stores grain in a man's building1 he shall pay each year #e ,qa of grain for each ,gur of grain4 ,these laws have no ,biblical parallel4 ,deposits and ,losses #abb4 ,if a man gives to another on deposit silver or gold or anything whatever1 anything as much as he deposits he shall recount to witnesses and shall institute contracts and make the deposit4 #abc4 ,if without witnesses and contracts he has placed anything on deposit and at the place of deposit they dispute it1 that case has no penalty4 #abd4 ,if a man gives to another on deposit silver or gold or anything whatever in the presence of witnesses and he disputes it1 he shall prosecute that man and he shall double whatever he disputed and shall repay it4 #abe4 ,if a man places anything on deposit and at the place of deposit either through burglary or pillage anything of his is lost1 together with anything belonging to the owner of the building1 the owner of the building who was negligent and lost what was given him on deposit shall make it good and restore it to the owner of the goods4 ,the owner of the house shall institute a search for whatever was lost and take it from the thief4 #abf4 ,if a man has not lost anything1 but says he has lost something1 or files a claim as though he had lost something1 he shall give account of his claim on oath1 and whatever he brought suit for he shall double and shall give for his claim4 ,there is no mention in the laws of the ,old ,testament of this kind of deposit1 though1 as already noted1 it probably was sometimes practised4 ,against ,slandering ,women #abg4 ,if a man causes the finger to be pointed at the woman of a god or the wife of a man and cannot prove it1 they shall bring him before the judges and they shall brand his forehead4 ,the nearest parallel to this in the ,old ,testament is in ,deut4 #bb3ac-ba1 which is really quite a different law1 for it applies only to cases where men1 when just married1 slander their wives by charging them with previous impurity4 ,the ,hebrew law provides a method of trial1 a punishment for the man1 if guilty1 and a much severer one for the woman1 if the charge is true4 ,the two codes belong to quite a different legal development1 as is shown by the fact that the ,babylonian law refers to 8a woman of a god10 i4 e41 one of the temple-women who1 under certain religious rules1 represented in a concrete way the procreative power of the god4 ,this code recognizes several classes of these1 as will appear later1 but ,hebrew law forbade the existence of such women in ,israel 7,deut4 #bc3ag74 ,chastity1 ,marriage1 and ,divorce #abh4 ,if a man takes a wife and does not execute contracts for her1 that woman is no wife4 #abi4 ,if the wife of a man is caught lying with another man1 they shall bind them and throw them into the water4 ,if the husband of the woman would let her live1 or the king would let his subject live1 he may do so4 #acj4 ,if a man forces the betrothed wife of another who is living in her father's house and has not known a man1 and lies in her loins and they catch him1 that man shall be put to death and that woman shall go free4 #aca4 ,if the wife of a man is accused by her husband1 and she has not been caught lying with another man1 she shall swear her innocence and return to her house4 #acb4 ,if the finger has been pointed at the wife of a man because of another man and she has not been caught lying with the other man1 for her husband's sake she shall plunge into the sacred river4 #acc4 ,if a man is taken captive and there is food in his house1 his wife shall not go out from his house1 her body she shall guard1 into the house of another she shall not enter4 ,if that woman does not guard her body and enters into the house of another1 that woman they shall prosecute and throw her into the water4 #acd4 ,if a man is taken captive and in his house there is no food1 and his wife enters into the house of another1 that woman is not to blame4 #ace4 ,if a man is taken captive and there is no food in his house and his wife has openly entered into the house of another and borne children1 and afterwards her husband returns and reaches his city1 that woman shall return to her husband and the children shall follow their father4 #acf4 ,if a man deserts his city and flees and after it his wife enters into the house of another1 if that man returns and would take his wife1 because he deserted his city and fled1 the wife of the fugitive shall not return to the house of her husband4 #acg4 ,if a man sets his face against a concubine who has borne him children or a wife that has presented him with children1 to put her away1 he shall return to that woman her marriage portion1 and shall give her the income of field1 garden1 and house1 and she shall bring up her children4 ,from the time that her children are grown1 from whatever is given to her children1 a portion like that of a son shall be given to her1 and the husband of her choice she may marry4 #ach4 ,if a man would put away his spouse who has not borne him children1 he shall give her silver equal to her marriage gift1 and the dowry which she brought from her father's house he shall restore to her and may put her away4 #aci4 ,if she had no dowry1 he shall give her one mana of silver for a divorce4 #adj4 ,if he belongs to the laboring class1 he shall give her one-third of a mana of silver4 #ada4 ,if the wife of a man who is living in the house of her husband sets her face to go out and act the fool1 her house neglects and her husband belittles1 they shall prosecute that woman4 ,if her husband says3 8,i divorce her10 he may divorce her4 ,on her departure nothing shall be given her for her divorce4 ,if her husband does not say3 8,i divorce her10 her husband may take another wife2 that woman shall dwell as a slave in the house of her husband4 #adb4 ,if a woman hates her husband and says3 8,thou shalt not hold me10 they shall make investigation concerning her into her defects4 ,if she has been discreet and there is no fault1 and her husband has gone out and greatly belittled her1 that woman has no blame2 she may take her marriage-portion and go to her father's house4 #adc4 ,if she has not been discreet1 and has gone out and neglected her house and belittled her husband1 they shall throw that woman into the water4 #add4 ,if a man takes a priestess and that priestess gives a female slave to her husband1 and she has children2 if that man sets his face to take a concubine1 they shall not favor that man4 ,he may not take a concubine4 #ade4 ,if a man takes a priestess and she does not present him with children and he sets his face to take a concubine1 that man may take a concubine and bring her into his house4 ,that concubine shall not rank with the wife4 #adf4 ,if a man takes a priestess and she gives to her husband a maid-servant and she bears children1 and afterward that maid-servant would take rank with her mistress2 because she has borne children her mistress may not sell her for money1 but she may reduce her to bondage and count her among the female slaves4 #adg4 ,if she has not borne children1 her mistress may sell her for money4 #adh4 ,if a man takes a wife and she is attacked by disease1 and he sets his face to take another1 he may do it4 ,his wife who was attacked by disease he may not divorce4 ,she shall live in the house he has built and he shall support her as long as she lives4 #adi4 ,if that woman does not choose to live in the house of her husband1 he shall make good to her the dowry which she brought from her father's house and she may go away4 #aej4 ,if a man presents his wife with field1 garden1 house1 or goods1 and gives to her sealed deeds1 after her husband's death her children shall not press a claim against her4 ,the mother after her death may leave it to her child whom she loves1 but to a brother she may not leave it4 #aea4 ,if a wife who is living in the house of a husband has persuaded her husband and he has bound himself that she shall not be taken by a creditor of her husband2 if that man had a debt against him before he took that woman1 the creditor may not hold that woman1 and if that woman had a debt against her before she entered the house of her husband1 her creditor may not hold her husband4 #aeb4 ,if they become indebted after the woman enters the man's house1 both of them are liable to the merchant4 #aec4 ,if a woman causes the death of her husband on account of another man1 that woman they shall impale4 #aed4 ,if a man has known his daughter1 the city shall drive out that man4 #aee4 ,if a man has betrothed a bride to his son and his son has known her and he afterward lies in her loins and they catch him1 they shall bind that man and throw him into the water4 #aef4 ,if a man has betrothed a bride to his son and his son has not known her and he lies in her loins1 he shall pay her half a mana of silver and restore to her whatever she brought from the house of her father1 and the man of her choice may marry her4 #aeg4 ,if a man after his father's death lies in the loins of his mother1 they shall burn both of them4 #aeh4 ,if a man after his father's death is admitted to the loins of his chief wife who has borne children1 that man shall be expelled from the house of his father4 #aei4 ,if a man who has brought a present unto the house of his father-in-law and has given a bride-price looks with longing upon another woman1 and says to his father-in-law3 8,thy daughter ,i will not take10 the father of the daughter shall keep whatever was brought to him4 #afj4 ,if a man brings a present to the house of a father-in-law and gives a bride-price1 and the father of the daughter says3 8,i will not give thee my daughter10 whatever was brought him he shall double and restore it4 #afa4 ,if a man brings a present to the house of his father-in-law and gives a bride-price1 and his neighbor slanders him1 and the father says to the groom3 8,thou shalt not take my daughter10 whatever was brought he shall double and restore to him4 ,these ,babylonian laws present numerous points of contact and of divergence1 when compared with the ,biblical laws on the same subject4 ,there is no ,biblical parallel to #abh4 ,the law 7 #abi7 which imposes the death penalty upon a man who commits adultery with another man's wife and upon the woman1 finds an exact parallel in ,lev4 #bj3aj and ,deut4 #bb3bb1 though the ,biblical law1 unlike the ,babylonian1 provides no way in which clemency could be extended to the offenders4 ,the laws in #acj1 #aef1 concerning the violation of betrothed virgins1 are in a general way paralleled by ,lev4 #ai3bj-bb and ,deut4 #bb3bc-bf1 though there are such differences that1 while the underlying principles are the same1 it is clear that there was entire independence of development4 ,a religious element enters into ,leviticus that is entirely absent from the ,babylonian code4 ,the ,bible contains two laws on this subject that are without parallel in the ,babylonian code4 ,these are found in ,exod4 #bb3af1 #ag and ,deut4 #bb3bh1 #bi1 and impose penalties for the violation of virgins who were not betrothed4 ,in both codes the principle is manifest that the loss of a girl's honor was to be compensated by money1 though ,deut4 #bb3bh1 #bi recognizes that it has a value that money cannot buy4 ,the laws relating to a wife whose fidelity is suspected 7 #aca1 #acb7 find a general parallel in ,num4 #e3aa-bh4 ,the provision at the end of #acb that the wife should plunge into the sacred river is in the nature of trial by ordeal4 ,the law in ,numbers imposes on such a woman trial by ordeal1 though it is of a different sort4 ,she must drink water in which dust from the floor of the sanctuary is mingled--dust surcharged with divine potency--and if she does not swell up and die1 she is counted innocent4 ,the laws which provide that a wife may present her husband with a slave-girl as a concubine 7 #acg1 #add-adg7 are without parallel in the ,biblical codes1 but are strikingly illustrated by the patriarchal narratives4 ,sarah gave ,hagar to ,abraham 7,gen4 #af72 ,rachel and ,leah gave ,bilhah and ,zilpah to ,jacob 7,gen4 #cj3a-ac74 ,the law 7 #adf7 which deals with such a slave-girl who would rank with her mistress is closely parallel to the story of the treatment of ,hagar in ,gen4 #af3e-g and #ba3i1 #aj4 ,the laws on divorce 7 #ach-ada7 are really in advance of the one ,biblical law on the subject 7,deut4 #bd3a-d74 ,the law in ,deuteronomy permits a husband to put away a wife1 who in any way does not please him1 without alimony1 while to the wife no privilege of initiating divorce proceedings is granted at all4 ,the ,babylonian laws secure to the divorced woman a maintenance1 and1 while by no means according her equal rights with the man1 provide 7 #adb7 that she may herself initiate the proceedings for divorce4 ,the ordeal must have been an unpleasant one1 but in ,israel's law a woman had no such rights4#dfh ,the law concerning adultery with a daughter-in-law 7 #aee7 is identical in purpose and severity with ,lev4 #bj3ab4 ,the laws in #aeg1 #aeh1 which prohibit immorality with one's mother or the chief wife of one's father1 just touch upon the great subject of incest and the prohibited degrees of marriage which are treated at considerable length in ,lev4 #ah3f-ah2 #bj3aa1 #ai-ba1 and ,deut4 #bb3cj4 ,the ,babylonian laws touch but two specific cases1 which may be said to be covered by ,deut4 #bb3cj1 while the laws of ,leviticus treat the whole subject of the prohibited degrees of marriage in a broad and comprehensive way4 ,the main idea pervading ,leviticus is holiness4 ,israel is to be kept free from the pollution of incest in any form4 ,the religious motive exhibited here is foreign to the ,babylonian code4 ,inheritance #afb4 ,it a man takes a wife and she bears him children and that woman dies1 her father may not lay claim to her dowry4 ,her dowry belongs to her children4 #afc4 ,if a man takes a wife and she does not present him with children and that woman dies2 if his father-in-law returns unto him the marriage-settlement1 which that man brought to the house of the father-in-law1 unto the dowry of that woman her husband may not lay claim4 ,her dowry belongs to the house of her father4 #afd4 ,but if his father-in-law does not return the marriage-settlement unto him1 he shall deduct from her dowry the amount of the marriage-settlement1 and then return the dowry to the house of her father4 #afe4 ,if a man has presented to his son1 the first in his eyes1 field1 garden1 or house1 and written for him a sealed deed1 and afterward the father dies2 when the brothers divide1 he shall take the present which his father gave him1 and over and above they shall divide the goods of the father's house equally4 #aff4 ,if a man takes wives for the sons which he possesses1 but has not taken a wife for his youngest son1 and afterward the father dies2 when the brothers divide1 for their younger brother who does not have a wife they shall present over and above his portion money for a marriage-settlement1 and shall enable him to take a wife4 #afg4 ,if a man takes a wife and she bears him children and that woman dies1 and after her he takes a second and she bears him children1 after the father dies1 the children shall not share according to their mothers4 ,they shall receive the dowries of their respective mothers1 and the goods of their father's house they shall share equally4 #afh4 ,if a man has set his face to cut off his son1 and says to the judges3 8,i will cut off my son10 the judges shall make investigation concerning him2 if the son has not committed a grave crime which cuts off from sonship1 the father may not cut off his son from sonship4 #afi4 ,if he has committed against his father a grave crime which cuts off from sonship1 he shall pardon him for the first offense4 ,if he commits a grave crime the second time1 the father may cut off his son from sonship4 #agj4 ,if a man's wife bears him children and a slave-girl bears him children1 and the father during his lifetime says to the children which the slave-girl bore him3 8,my children10 and counts them with the children of the wife1 after the father dies the children of the wife and the children of the slave-girl shall divide equally the goods of their father's house4 ,the sons that are sons of the wife shall at the sharing divide and take4 #aga4 ,but if the father during his lifetime has not said unto the children which the slave-girl bore him3 8,my children10 after the father dies the children of the slave-girl shall not share with the children of the wife4 ,the slave-girl and her children shall be given their freedom2 the children of the wife may not put a claim upon the children of the slave-girl for service4 ,the wife shall receive her dowry and a gift which her husband gave her and wrote upon a tablet and may dwell in the dwelling of her husband as long as she lives and eat4 ,she may not sell it4 ,after her it belongs to her children4 #agb4 ,if her husband has not given her a gift1 they shall restore to her her dowry and she shall receive from the goods of the house of her husband the portion of one son4 ,if the children abuse her in order to drive her from the house1 the judges shall investigate concerning her and if they find the children in the wrong1 that woman shall not go from the house of her husband4 ,if that woman sets her face to go out1 she shall leave with her children the gift which her husband gave her2 the dowry from the house of her father she shall receive and the husband of her choice may take her4 #agc4 ,if that woman1 where she has entered1 bears children to her later husband1 after that woman dies the children of her first and her later husband shall share her dowry4 #agd4 ,if she did not bear children to her later husband1 the children of her first husband shall receive her dowry4 #age4 ,if a slave of the palace or the slave of a workingman takes the daughter of a patrician and she bears children1 the owner of the slave shall have no claim for service on the children of the daughter of a patrician4 #agf4 ,but if a slave of the palace or the slave of a workingman takes the daughter of a patrician1 and when he takes her she enters together with the dowry from her father's house into the house of the slave of the palace or the slave of the workingman2 if after they are united they build a house and acquire property and afterward the slave of the palace or the slave of the workingman dies1 the daughter of the patrician shall receive her dowry and they shall divide into two parts whatever her husband and herself had acquired after their union4 ,half the owner of the slave shall take1 and the daughter of the patrician shall receive half for her children4 ,if the daughter of the patrician had no dowry1 whatever her husband and herself had acquired after their union they shall divide into two parts4 ,the owner of the slave shall take half and the daughter of the patrician shall receive half for her children4 #agg4 ,if a widow whose children are minors sets her face to enter the house of a second husband1 she shall not do it without the consent of the judges4 ,when she enters the house of a second husband1 the judges shall inquire into the estate of her former husband1 and the estate of the former husband they shall entrust to the second husband and to that woman1 and shall cause them to leave a tablet 7receipt74 ,the estate they shall guard and rear the minors4 ,the household goods they may not sell4 ,the purchaser of household goods belonging to the children of a widow shall forfeit his money4 ,the goods shall revert to their owners4 #agh4 ,if there is a wife of a god1 priestess1 or sacred harlot1 whose father has given her a dowry and written her a record of gift1 and in the record of gift he has not written1 8after her she may give it to whomsoever she pleases10 and has not given her full discretion2 after her father dies her brothers shall take her field and garden1 and according to the value of her share they shall give her grain1 oil1 and wool1 and shall content her heart4 ,if her brothers shall not give her grain1 oil1 and wool1 according to the value of her share1 and shall not content her heart1 she may let her field and garden unto any tenant she pleases and her tenant shall maintain her4 ,her field1 garden1 or whatever her father gave her she may enjoy as long as she lives4 ,she may not sell it for money or transfer it to another4 ,her heritage belongs to her brothers4 #agi4 ,if there is a wife of a god1 priestess1 or sacred harlot1 whose father has given her a dowry and written a record of gift2 and in the record of gift he has written1 8after her she may give it to whomsoever she pleases10 and has granted her full discretion2 after her father dies she may give it after her to whomsoever she pleases4 ,her brothers have no claim upon her4 #ahj4 ,if a father does not give a dowry to his daughter1 a priestess living in the appointed house1 or a sacred harlot1 after the father dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house the same share as one son1 and as long as she lives she shall enjoy it4 ,after her it belongs to her brothers4 #aha4 ,if the father of a priestess1 sacred harlot1 or temple maiden gives her to a god and does not give her a dowry1 after the father dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house a third of the portion of a son and shall enjoy it as long as she lives4 ,after her it belongs to her brothers4 #ahb4 ,if a father does not give a dowry to his daughter1 a priestess of ,marduk of ,babylon1 and does not write a record of gift for her2 after her father dies she shall receive from the goods of her father's house one-third of the portion of a son1 and shall pay no tax4 ,a priestess of ,marduk after her death may leave it to whomsoever she pleases4 #ahc4 ,if a father presents a dowry to his daughter who is a concubine1 and gives her to a husband and writes a record of gift2 after the father dies she shall not share in the goods of her father's house4 #ahd4 ,if a father does not present a dowry to his daughter who is a concubine and does not give her to a husband2 after her father's death her brothers shall give her a dowry according to the value of the father's estate and shall give her to a husband4 ,in comparison with these ,babylonian laws of inheritance those in the ,old ,testament are comparatively simple4 ,we learn from ,deut4 #ba3ae-ag1 that a man's firstborn son received a 8double portion0 of his father's estate1 i4 e41 twice as much as any other son4 ,the inference is that the other sons shared equally4 ,this law also provides that1 when a man has two wives1 the sons of the favorite wife shall have no advantage as to inheritance over the sons of the less loved wife4 ,in ,num4 #bg3h-aa it is provided that if a man has no son1 his estate 7i4 e41 real estate7 may go to his daughter2 if he has no daughter1 it may go to his brothers2 if no brothers1 it goes to his father's brothers4 ,if his father has no brothers1 the estate is to go to the next of kin4 ,in ,num4 #cf3b-ab the law that a daughter may inherit her father's estate is supplemented by the provision that such a daughter must marry within the tribe1 so that the landed property may not in the next generation pass out of the tribe4 ,such were the ,hebrew laws of inheritance4 ,they apply to a much less complexly organized society than the ,babylonian4 #afh1 #afi of ,hammurapi's code deal with the cutting off of a son4 ,this is paralleled in ,deut4 #ba3ah-ba1 though punishment inflicted by the law in ,deuteronomy is quite different from the ,babylonian1 since the ,hebrew boy1 whose parents have proved him before the elders to be unworthy of sonship1 was not cast out and sent away1 but stoned to death4 ,another form of this law appears in ,exod4 #ba3ag4 ,adoption #ahe4 ,if a man takes a young child in his name unto sonship and brings him up1 one may not bring a claim for that adopted son4 #ahf4 ,if a man takes a young child unto sonship1 and when he has taken him he rebels against his adopted father and mother1 that foster-child shall return to his father's house4 #ahg4 ,one may not bring claim for the son of a temple-servant1 a palace guard1 or of a sacred harlot4 #ahh4 ,if an artisan takes a son to sonship and teaches him his handicraft1 one may not bring claim for him4 #ahi4 ,if he does not teach him his handicraft1 that foster-son may return to the house of his father4 #aij4 ,if a man does not count among his sons a young child whom he has taken to sonship and reared1 that foster-child may return to his father's house4 #aia4 ,if a man who takes a young child to sonship and rears him and establishes a house and acquires children1 afterward sets his face to cut off that foster-son1 that son shall not go his way4 ,the father who reared him shall give him from his goods one-third the share of a son and he shall go4 ,from field1 garden1 or house1 he shall not give him4 ,in the codes of the ,old ,testament there are no laws of adoption4 ,the story of the adoption of ,ephraim and ,manasseh by ,jacob in ,gen4 #dh shows that the idea was not unknown to the ,hebrews1 among whom the ceremony of adoption would seem to have consisted of the act of acknowledging the children as one's own by placing one's hands on their heads and giving them a paternal blessing4 ,renunciation of ,sonship #aib4 ,if the son of a temple-servant or the son of a sacred harlot says to the father that brought him up or to the mother that brought him up1 8,thou art not my father10 or1 8,thou art not my mother10 they shall cut out his tongue4 #aic4 ,if the son of a temple-servant or the son of a sacred harlot has identified his father's house and hated the father who brought him up or the mother who brought him up and goes back to his father's house1 they shall pluck out his eye4 ,the ,old ,testament has no laws with which to compare these4 ,the two classes of persons whose children are mentioned were banished from ,israel by ,deut4 #bc3ag1 #ah4 ,wet-nurses or ,foster-mothers #aid4 ,if a man gives his son unto a nurse and his son dies in the hands of the nurse and the nurse substitutes another child without the consent of the father or the mother1 they shall prosecute her2 because she substituted another child without the consent of his father or his mother they shall cut off her breast4 ,this law also is without ,biblical parallel4 ,assault and ,battery #aie4 ,if a son strikes his father1 they shall cut off his hand4 #aif4 ,if a man destroys the eye of the son of a patrician1 they shall destroy his eye4 #aig4 ,if he breaks a man's bone1 they shall break his bone4 #aih4 ,if one destroys the eye of a workingman or breaks the bone of a workingman1 he shall pay #a mana of silver4 #aii4 ,if one destroys the eye of a man's slave or breaks the bone of a man's slave1 he shall pay half his value4 #bjj4 ,if a man knocks out the tooth of a man of his own rank1 they shall knock his tooth out4 #bja4 ,if one knocks out the tooth of a workingman1 he shall pay of a mana of silver4 #bjb4 ,if a man shall strike the private-parts of a man who is of higher rank than he1 he shall receive sixty blows with an ox-hide scourge in the assembly4 #bjc4 ,if a patrician strikes the private-parts of a patrician of his own rank1 he shall pay #a mana of silver4 #bjd4 ,if a workingman strikes the private-parts of a workingman1 he shall pay #aj shekels of silver4 #bje4 ,if the slave of a patrician strikes the private-parts of the son of a patrician1 they shall cut off his ear4 #bjf4 ,if a man strikes a man in a quarrel and wounds him1 he shall swear1 8,i did not strike with intent10 and shall pay for the physician4 #bjg4 ,if from the stroke he dies1 he shall swear as above1 and if it was a patrician1 he shall pay mana of silver4 #bjh4 ,if it was a workingman1 he shall pay of a mana of silver4 #bji4 ,if a man strikes a man's daughter and causes a miscarriage1 he shall pay #aj shekels of silver for her miscarriage4 #baj4 ,if that woman dies1 they shall put his daughter to death4 #baa4 ,if through a stroke one causes a miscarriage of the daughter of a workingman1 he shall pay #e shekels of silver4 #bab4 ,if that woman dies1 he shall pay mana of silver4 #bac4 ,if one strikes the slave-girl of a man and causes a miscarriage1 he shall pay #b shekels of silver4 #bad4 ,if that slave-girl dies1 he shall pay of a mana of silver4 ,these laws are strikingly parallel to ,exod4 #ba3ah-bg1 to which ,exod4 #ba3ab-ad should be prefixed4 ,the ,babylonian code1 like the ,hebrew1 imposes the death penalty for wilful murder4 ,both codes provide that one who is an accidental homicide shall escape the penalty1 but they do it in different ways4 ,hammurapi provides that the killer may take an oath that he did it without intent to kill4 ,exod4 #ba3ac1 #ad provides that the homicide may find sanctuary at the altar of ,god4 ,in place of this ,deut4 #ai3d1 ff41 provides that he may flee to a city of refuge4 ,if a man injures another in a fight1 the ,bible 7,exod4 #ba3ah1 #ai7 provides that he shall pay for the lost time and1 as does ,hammurapi1 the cost of healing the injured man4 ,exod4 #ba3bb provides1 as does ,hammurapi1 for the payment of a fine for causing a woman to miscarry1 but ,exodus does not1 like the ,babylonian code1 fix the amount of the damage2 that is left to the judges4 ,in the laws concerning the injury of slaves the two codes differ4 ,exodus provides 7#ba3bj1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg7 for cases in which owners injure or kill their own slaves2 ,hammurapi1 for cases in which the injury is done by others4 ,a mere reading of the penalties imposed by the parts of the ,babylonian code translated above impresses vividly upon the mind the fact that underlying many of them is the principle so forcibly expressed in ,exod4 #ba3ba-be3 8life for life1 eye for eye1 tooth for tooth1 hand for hand1 foot for foot1 burning for burning1 wound for wound1 stripe for stripe40 ,the details of application are different1 but the principle is the same4 ,many of the differences were caused by the more complex nature of ,babylonian society1 in which three classes1 patricians1 workingmen 7or semi-serfs71 and slaves1 existed4 ,hebrew law recognizes but two classes--freemen and slaves4 ,physicians #bae4 ,if a physician operates upon a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and saves the man's life1 or if he operates for cataract with a bronze lancet and saves the man's eye1 he shall receive #aj shekels of silver4 #baf4 ,if it is a workingman1 he shall receive #e shekels of silver4 #bag4 ,if it is a man's slave1 the owner of the slave shall give the physician #b shekels of silver4 #bah4 ,if a physician operates upon a man with a bronze lancet for a severe wound1 and the man dies2 or operates upon a man with a bronze lancet for cataract and the man's eye is destroyed1 they shall cut off his hand4 #bai4 ,if a physician operates with a bronze lancet upon the slave of a workingman and causes his death1 he shall restore a slave of equal value4 #bbj4 ,if he operates for cataract with a bronze lancet and destroys his eye1 he shall pay his price4 #bba4 ,if a physician sets a broken bone for a man or has cured of sickness inflamed flesh1 the patient shall pay #e shekels of silver to the physician4 #bbb4 ,if he is a workingman1 he shall give #c shekels of silver4 #bbc4 ,if he is the slave of a patrician1 the owner of the slave shall give #c shekels of silver to the physician4 #bbd4 ,if an ox-doctor or an ass-doctor treats an ox or an ass for a severe wound and saves its life1 the owner of the ox or the ass shall pay to the physician of a shekel of silver as his fee4 #bbe4 ,if he operates upon an ox or an ass for a severe wound and it dies1 he shall give unto the owner of the ox or the ass of its value4 ,these laws about physicians have no parallel in the ,old ,testament1 the laws of which did not take account of the existence of doctors4 ,they are of interest1 since they show the antiquity of physicians in ,babylonia1 not only for men1 but for animals4 ,they also reveal the fact that the practice of medicine in ,babylonia was attended by some risks6 ,herodotus 7,i1 #aig7 declares that the ,babylonians had no physicians1 but brought their sick out into the streets and asked of each passer-by whether he had had a like sickness and what he had done for it4 ,possibly1 as among ourselves1 there were many who did not wish to incur the expense of a doctor1 and who did as ,herodotus reports1 but these laws1 and the existence of physicians at ,nineveh at the time of the later ,assyrian kings1 make it probable that ,herodotus was wrong as to their non-existence at ,babylon in his day4 ,laws of ,branding #bbf4 ,if a brander without the consent of the owner of a slave cuts a mark on a slave1 making him unsalable1 they shall cut off the hands of that brander4 #bbg4 ,if a man deceives a brander and he brands a slave with a mark1 making him unsalable1 they shall put that man to death and cause him to perish in the gate of his house4 ,the brander shall swear3 8,i did not brand him knowingly0 and shall go free4 ,these laws have no parallel in the ,old ,testament4 ,evidently the simpler organization of ,hebrew society made them unnecessary4 ,responsibility of ,house-builders #bbh4 ,if a builder builds a house for a man and completes it1 he shall give him as his wages #b shekels of silver for each ,shar of house4 #bbi4 ,if a builder builds a house for a man and does not make its work strong and the house which he made falls and causes the death of the owner of the house1 that builder shall be put to death4 #bcj4 ,if it causes the death of the son of the owner1 the son of that builder shall be put to death4 #bca4 ,if it causes the death of a slave of the owner of the house1 a slave like the slave he shall give to the owner of the house4 #bcb4 ,if it destroys property1 he shall restore whatever was destroyed1 and because he did not build the house strong and it fell1 he shall rebuild the house that fell from his own property4 #bcc4 ,if a builder builds a house for a man and does not make his work strong and a wall falls1 that builder shall strengthen that wall at his own expense4 ,these laws have no parallel in the ,bible4 ,among the agricultural population of ,palestine builders were not a separate class4 ,the penalties inflicted by the ,babylonian code were severe1 and yet1 if modern legislators would put upon the house-builders of our time a similar responsibility for good work1 fewer lives would be sacrificed by falling buildings4 ,responsibility of ,boatmen #bcd4 ,if a boatman builds a boat of #fj ,gur for a man1 he shall give him #b shekels of silver as his wages4 #bce4 ,if a boatman builds a boat for a man and does not make his work sound and in that year the boat is sent on a voyage and meets with disaster1 that boatman shall repair that boat and from his own goods shall make it strong and shall give the boat in sound condition to the owner of the boat4 #bcf4 ,if a man gives his boat to a boatman for hire and the boatman is careless and sinks or wrecks the boat1 the boatman shall restore a boat to the owner of the boat4 #bcg4 ,if a man hires a boatman and a boat and loads it with grain1 wool1 oil1 dates1 or any other kind of freight1 and that boatman is careless and sinks the boat or destroys its freight1 the boatman shall replace the boat and whatever there was in it which he destroyed4 #bch4 ,if a boatman sinks a man's boat and re-floats it1 he shall give money for its value4 #bci4 ,if a man hires a boatman1 he shall give him #f ,gur of grain a year4 ,the ,hebrews were not a maritime people1 and had no such laws as these or the following4 ,the ,collision of ,ships #bdj4 ,if a boat that is floating downstream strikes a boat that is being towed and sinks it1 the owner of the boat that was sunk shall declare in the presence of a god everything that was in that boat and the owner of the boat floating downstream1 which sunk the boat that was being towed1 shall replace the boat and whatever was lost4 ,there is1 naturally1 nothing similar to this in the ,old ,testament4 ,laws ,concerning ,cattle #bda4 ,if a man levies a distraint upon an ox as security for debt1 he shall pay of a mana of silver4 #bdb4 ,if a man hires for a year1 the wages of a working ox is #d ,gur of grain4 #bdc4 ,the hire of a milch cow1 #c ,gur of grain for a year he shall give4 #bdd4 ,if a man hires an ox or an ass and a lion kills it in the field1 the loss falls on the owner4 #bde4 ,if a man hires an ox and causes its death through neglect or blows1 he shall restore to the owner an ox of equal value4 #bdf4 ,if a man hires an ox and crushes its foot or cuts the cord of its neck1 he shall restore to the owner an ox of like value4 #bdg4 ,if a man hires an ox and destroys its eye1 he shall pay to the owner of the ox money to its value4 #bdh4 ,if a man hires an ox and breaks off its horn1 or cuts off its tail or injures the flesh which holds the ring1 money to of its value he shall pay4 #bdi4 ,if a man hires an ox and a god strikes it and it dies1 the man who hires the ox shall take an oath in the presence of a god and shall go free4 #bej4 ,if an ox when passing along the street gores a man and causes his death1 there is no penalty in that case4 #bea4 ,if the ox of a man has the habit of goring and they have informed him of his fault and his horns he has not protected nor kept his ox in1 and that ox gores a man and causes his death1 the owner of the ox shall pay mana of money4 #beb4 ,if it is the slave of a man1 he shall pay of a mana of money4 #bec4 ,if a man hires a man and puts him over his field and furnishes him with seed-grain and intrusts him with oxen and contracts with him to cultivate the field1 if that man steals the seed-grain or the crop and it is found in his possession1 they shall cut off his hands4 #bed4 ,if he takes the seed-grain1 but enfeebles the cattle1 from the grain which he has cultivated he shall make restoration4 #bee4 ,if he shall let the cattle to a man for hire1 or steal the seed-grain so that there is no crop1 they shall prosecute that man1 and he shall pay #fj ,gur of grain for each ,gan4 #bef4 ,if he is not able to meet his obligation1 they shall tear him in pieces in that field by means of the oxen4 ,the ,biblical legislation corresponding to this is found in ,exod4 #ba3bh-ce1 but it covers only a portion of the cases of which the ,babylonian law treats4 ,it provides that1 if an ox gores a man or a woman to death1 the ox shall be stoned4 ,if the ox was wont to gore and the owner had not kept it in1 but it had been permitted to kill a man or a woman1 the owner as well as the ox should be stoned4 ,at the discretion of the tribunal a fine or ransom might be laid on the owner4 ,in case the ox gored a slave1 the owner of the ox was to pay #cj shekels of silver and the ox was to be stoned4 ,if a man opened a pit and a neighbor's ox or ass fell into it1 the digger of the pit must make good the loss to the owner of the animal1 and the dead beast became the property of the digger of the pit4 ,if one man's ox killed the ox of another man1 the two men were to sell the live ox and divide the price4 ,if it were known that the ox was wont to gore in the past1 and its owner had not kept it in1 he was to pay ox for ox1 and the dead animal should be his4 ,it thus appears that the exigencies of ,hebrew agricultural life were different from those of ,babylonia1 and were naturally met in different ways4 ,wages of ,laborers #beg4 ,if a man hires a field-laborer1 he shall pay him #h ,gur of grain per year4 #beh4 ,if a man hires a herdsman1 he shall pay him #f ,gur of grain per year4 ,hebrew law did not regulate wages4 ,on ,stealing ,farming-tools #bei4 ,if a man steals a watering-machine from a field1 he shall pay to the owner of the watering-machine #e shekels of silver4 #bfj4 ,if a man steals a watering-bucket or a plow1 he shall pay #c shekels of silver4 ,as the ,hebrews did not systematically irrigate their land1 the ,old ,testament contains no similar laws4 ,laws ,concerning ,shepherds #bfa4 ,if a man hires a herdsman to tend cattle or sheep1 he shall pay him #h ,gur of grain per year4 #bfb4 ,if a man1 oxen1 or sheep 44444444444444 7,the rest is broken away47 #bfc4 ,if he loses an ox or a sheep that is intrusted to him1 he shall restore ox for ox and sheep for sheep4 #bfd4 ,if a herdsman who has had cattle or sheep intrusted to him receives his full pay and is satisfied1 and he causes the cattle or the sheep to diminish in number or lessens the birth-rate1 he shall give increase and produce according to his contracts4 #bfe4 ,if a shepherd to whom cattle or sheep have been given to tend is dishonest and alters the price or sells them1 they shall prosecute him1 and he shall restore to their owner #aj times the oxen or sheep which he stole4 #bff4 ,if in a fold there is a pestilence of a god1 or a lion has slain1 the shepherd shall before a god declare himself innocent1 and the owner of the fold shall bear the loss of the fold4 #bfg4 ,if the shepherd is careless and causes a loss in the fold1 the shepherd shall make good in cattle or sheep the loss which he caused in the fold and shall give them to the owner4 ,the nearest approach in the ,old ,testament to laws of this character is in ,exod4 #bb3aj-ac1 which provides that1 if a man deliver to his neighbor an ox1 or ass1 or sheep1 or any beast to keep1 and it dies1 or is injured or is carried off when no one sees the deed1 the oath of ,jehovah shall be between them that the keeper has not put his hand to his neighbor's goods4 ,the owner was to accept this1 and no restitution was necessary4 ,if the animals were stolen from the keeper1 he must make restitution4 ,if they were torn in pieces by beasts of prey1 he must bring the pieces for witness1 and need not make restitution4 ,the same general principles of the limits of responsibility underlay the two codes in these cases1 though they differ in details4 ,in ,israel the shepherding of the flocks and herds of other people was not1 as in ,babylonia1 a distinct occupation4 ,on ,wages of ,animals and ,men #bfh4 ,if a man hires an ox for threshing1 #bj ,qa of grain is its hire4 #bfi4 ,if he hires an ass for threshing1 #aj ,qa of grain is its hire4 #bgj4 ,if he hires a kid for threshing1 #a ,qa of grain is its hire4 #bga4 ,if he hires cattle1 a wagon and a driver1 he shall pay #ahj ,qa of grain per day4 #bgb4 ,if a man hires a wagon only1 he shall pay #dj ,qa of grain per day4 #bgc4 ,if a man hires a field-laborer from the beginning of the year until the fifth month1 he shall pay him #f ,she of silver per day2 from the sixth month to the end of the year1 #e ,she of silver per day he shall pay4 #bgd4 ,if a man hires an artisan1 he shall give per day as the wages of a 44444 #e ,she2 as the wages of a brick-maker1 #e ,she of money2 as the wages of a tailor1 #e ,she of silver2 as the wages of a stone-cutter1 444444 ,she of silver2 444444444444 ,she of silver2 444444444444 ,she of silver2 444444444444 of a carpenter1 #d ,she of silver2 as the wages of a 444444 #d ,she of silver2 as the wages of a 444444 ,she of silver2 the wages of a builder1 444444 ,she of silver4 #bge4 ,if a man hires a boat 787 to go upstream 7871 its hire is #c ,she of silver per day4 #bgf4 ,if he hires a boat to float downstream1 he shall pay as its hire #b ,she of silver per day4 #bgg4 ,if a man hires a boat of #fj ,gur burden1 he shall pay of a shekel of money per day4 ,there are no parallels to these laws in the ,bible1 as the ,old ,testament does not attempt to regulate prices4 ,when one considers the customs of trade all over the ,orient1 and the time fruitlessly consumed in making bargains1 one does not wonder that the practical sovereign of a great commercial people1 such as the ,babylonians were1 should regulate prices by law4 ,as a rule1 to this day1 a purchaser begins by offering only a fraction of what he is willing to give1 and the seller by asking at least twice as much as he is willing to take4 ,a long psychological battle follows1 during which there are many victories and capitulations on each side4 ,this law was designed to put an end to this time-consuming custom4 ,when the ,sales of ,slaves are ,void #bgh4 ,if a man buys a male or a female slave and before a month is past he has an attack of rheumatism 7871 he shall return to the seller1 and the purchaser shall receive back the money that was paid4 #bgi4 ,if a man buys a male or a female slave1 and another has a legal claim upon him1 the seller shall be responsible for that claim4 #bhj4 ,if a man1 while in a foreign country1 purchases a male or a female slave of a man1 and1 when he returns home1 the former owner of the male or the female slave recognizes his slave1 if that male or female slave is a native of the land1 he shall give it its freedom without recompense4 #bha4 ,if they are natives of another country1 the purchaser shall declare in the presence of a god the price that he paid1 and the former owner of the male or female slave shall pay the price to the merchant1 and shall receive back his slave4 ,no laws similar to these are found in the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,penalty for ,renouncing a ,master #bhb4 ,if a slave shall say to his owner3 8,thou art not my owner10 they shall make him submit as his slave1 and shall cut off his ear4 ,this penalty reminds one of the boring of a slave's ear 7,exod4 #ba3f2 ,deut4 #ae3ag7 in token of perpetual slavery4 #b4 ,the ,mosaic ,code not ,borrowed from the ,babylonian2 ,different ,underlying ,conceptions4 ,a comparison of the code of ,hammurapi as a whole with the ,pentateuchal laws as a whole1 while it reveals certain similarities1 convinces the student that the laws of the ,old ,testament are in no essential way dependent upon the ,babylonian laws4 ,such resemblances as there are arose1 it seems clear1 from a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook2 the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing4 ,the primitive ,semitic custom of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth 7,exod4 #ba3bd2 ,lev4 #bd3bj2 ,deut4 #ai3ba7 is made the basis of many penalties in the ,babylonian code4 7,see #aif1 #aig1 #bjj1 #bbi1 #bcj1 etc47 ,the principle underlying it is found also in many other sections4 ,these similarities only show that ,babylonia had a large ,semitic element in its population4 ,again1 ,hammurapi pictured himself at the top of the pillar on which these laws are written as receiving them from the sun-god 7,fig4 #bib74 ,the ,bible tells us that ,moses received the laws of the ,pentateuch from ,jehovah4 ,the whole attitude of the two documents is1 however1 different4 ,hammurapi1 in spite of the picture1 takes credit1 both in the prologue and in the epilogue of his code1 for the laws4 ,he1 not ,shamash1 established justice in the land4 ,moses1 on the other hand1 was only the instrument2 the legislation stands as that of ,jehovah himself4 ,this difference appears also in the contents of the two codes4 ,the ,pentateuch contains many ritual regulations and purely religious laws1 while the code of ,hammurapi is purely civil4 ,as has been already pointed out1 the code of ,hammurapi is adapted to the land of the rivers1 and to a highly civilized commercial people1 while the ,biblical laws are intended for a dry land like ,palestine1 and for an agricultural community that was at a far less advanced stage of commercial and social development4 ,religion is1 however1 not a matter of social advancement only4 ,in all that pertains to religious insight the ,pentateuch is far in advance of ,hammurapi's laws4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,an ,,alleged ,,parallel ,,to ,,leviticus--,a ,,carthaginian ,,law ,,concerning ,,sacrifices#dfi ,,the ,,text ,,of ,,the ,,carthaginian ,,law4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,levitical ,,law4 #a4 ,the ,text of the ,carthaginian ,law4 ,temple of ,baalzephon1 ,tariff of dues1 which the superintendents of dues fixed in the time of our rulers1 ,khalasbaal1 the judge1 son of ,bodtanith1 son of ,bodeshmun1 and of ,khalasbaal1 the judge1 son of ,bodeshmun1 son of ,khalasbaal1 and their colleagues4 ,for an ox as a whole burnt-offering#dgj or a prayer-offering1 or a whole peace-offering1#dga the priests shall have #aj 7shekels7 of silver for each2 and in case of a whole burnt-offering1 they shall have in addition to this fee #cjj shekels of flesh2 and1 in case of a prayer-offering1 the trimmings1 the joints2 but the skin and the fit of the inwards#dgb and the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner of the sacrifice shall have4 ,for a calf whose horns are wanting1 in case of one not castrated 7871 or in case of a ram as a whole burnt-offering1 the priests shall have #e shekels of silver for each2 and in case of a whole burnt-offering they shall have in addition to this fee #aej shekels of flesh2 and1 in case of a prayer-offering1 the trimmings and the joints2 but the skin and the fat of the inwards and the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner of the sacrifice shall have4 ,in case of a ram or a goat as a whole burnt-offering1 or a prayer-offering1 or a whole peace-offering1 the priests shall have #a shekel of silver and #b zars for each2 and1 in case of a prayer-offering1 they shall have in addition to this fee the trimmings and the joints2 but the skin and the fat of the inwards and the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner of the sacrifice shall have4 ,for a lamb1 or a kid1 or the young 787 of a hart1 as a whole burnt-offering1 or a prayer-offering1 or a whole peace-offering1 the priests shall have 7of a shekel7 and 444444 zars of silver for each2 and1 in case of a prayer-offering1 they shall have in addition to this fee the trimmings and the joints2 but the skin and the fat of the inwards and the feet and the rest of the flesh the owner of the sacrifice shall have4 ,for a bird1 domestic or wild1 as a whole peace-offering1 or a sacrifice-to-avert-calamity 787 or an oracular 787 sacrifice1 the priests shall have 7of a shekel7 of silver and #b zars for each2 but the flesh shall belong to the owner of the sacrifice4 ,for a bird1 or sacred first-fruits1 or a sacrifice of game1 or a sacrifice of oil1 the priests shall have #aj gerahs for each2 but 4444444444444444444444 ,in case of every prayer-offering that is presented before the gods1 the priests shall have the trimmings and the joints2 and in the case of a prayer-offering 4444 ,for a cake1 and for milk1 and for every sacrifice which a man may offer1 for a meal-offering#dgc 4444444444 ,for every sacrifice which a man may offer who is poor in cattle1 or poor in birds1 the priests shall not have anything 4444444444 ,every freeman and every slave and every dependent#dgd of the gods and all men who may sacrifice 44444444441 these men shall give for the sacrifice at the rate prescribed in the regulations 4444444444 ,every payment which is not prescribed in this table shall be made according to the regulations which the superintendents of the dues fixed in the time of ,khalasbaal1 son of ,bodtanith1 and ,khalasbaal1 son of ,bodeshmun1 and their colleagues4 ,every priest who shall accept payment beyond what is prescribed in this table shall be fined 444444444444 ,every person who sacrifices1 who shall not give 444444444444 for the fee which 44444444444444 #b4 ,comparison with the ,levitical ,law4 ,this document is not earlier than the fourth or fifth century ,b4 ,c4 ,the ,carthaginians1 from whom it comes1 were an offshoot of the ,phnicians1 who were1 in turn1 descended from the ,canaanites4 ,they were accordingly of kindred race to the ,hebrews4 ,one can1 therefore1 see from this document something of how the ,levitical institutions of ,israel resembled and how they differed from those of their kinsmen4 ,it will be seen that the main sacrifices bore the same names among both peoples4 ,we find the 8whole burnt-offering10 the 8peace-offering10 and the 8meal-offering40 ,the ,carthaginians had no 8sin-offering10 while among the ,hebrews we find no 8prayer-offering40 ,the ways of rewarding the priests also differed with the two peoples4 ,the ,hebrews had no such regular tariff of priests' dues as the ,carthaginians1 but parts of certain offerings and all of others belonged to them4 ,leviticus assigns from the peace-offering the 8heave-thigh0 and the 8wave-breast0 to the priests 7,lev4 #g3ad1 #cd2 ,num4 #e3i1 #aj2 #ca3bi1 #da74 ,meal- or flour-offerings belonged to the priests 7,lev4 #e3ac2 #g3i1 #aj71 as did the sin- and trespass-offerings 7,lev4 #f3ah1 #bi2 #g3i1 #aj74 ,of the burnt-offerings the priests had the skin 7,lev4 #g3h74 ,the interesting thing is that in the ritual1 as in the social laws1 we find that the heathen ,semites had a considerable number of regulations similar to those of the ,hebrews4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,some ,,letters ,,from ,,palestine ,,letters ,,of ,,rib-,,adda ,,of ,,gebal4 ,,of ,,ebed-,,hepa ,,of ,,jerusalem4 ,,their ,,light ,,on ,,conditions ,,in ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,egyptian ,,domination ,,of ,,palestine4 ,many of the ,el-,amarna#dge ,letters were written from ,palestine and ,phnicia4 ,some scholars think these letters come from the ,patriarchal period2 others hold that they are contemporary with the ,hebrew conquest1 and give us additional information concerning it4 ,some of those who hold this last view believe that the conquest of ,palestine by the ,hebrews was not made all at once4 ,they think that the tribes descended from ,leah entered the land before those descended from ,rachel4 ,such scholars hold that these letters give us contemporary evidence of the wars of the ,leah tribes4 ,whichever view one takes1 the letters are most interesting1 as they open to us a previously unknown chapter in the history of ,jerusalem4 #a4 ,some ,letters of ,rib-,adda of ,gebal4#dgf ,i#dgg ,to the king1 my lord1 the king of the countries1 speak1 saying1 ,rib-,adda1 thy servant1 the footstool of thy feet2 at the feet of the sun1 my lord1 eight times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,again1 there is clear to the king1 my lord1 the deed of ,ebed-,ashera1 the dog1 when all the lands of the king1 my lord1 are made over unto him and are subservient to his land4 ,and now behold the city of ,sumur has been won over--a fold of my lord and a temple of his shrine--to him1 and he has encamped in the temple of my shrine and has opened the place of the curse of my lord and won it4 ,what is he1 a man 444444444 and dog that he should judge8 ,again1 when men say in the presence of the king1 my lord3 8,learn that ,gebal is 444444444410 then know that he has not taken ,gebal 444444444444444 and it is difficult for the lands of the king1 my lord4 ,again1 let the king1 my lord1 send his inspector who may judge 4444444444444444 and may protect the city of the king1 my lord4 ,and ,i 44444444 and will serve my lord1 the king of the lands4 ,and may my lord send people and let them bring whatever belongs to my 44444444444444 into the presence of the king1 my lord1 and let not that dog take anything that belongs to thy gods4 ,and is it clear now that he would take ,gebal8 ,see1 ,gebal is like ,memphis1 loyal to the king4 ,a second time1 see ,ebed-,ninib1 the man whom ,i sent with ,buhiya1 is a 4444444444 ,so send unto thy servant4 ,again see1 ,ummahnu is a maid-servant of the ,baal-goddess of ,gebal2 her husband is ,ishkur 4444444444 send6 4444444444 7,the tablet is broken off at this point47 ,,ii#dgh ,to the king1 my lord1 my sun1 say3 ,rib-,adda1 thy servant2 at the feet of my lord1 my sun-god1 seven times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,may the king1 my lord1 listen to the words of his faithful servant6 ,it is going very hard for me6 ,the hostility has become strong4 ,the sons of ,ebed-,ashera have become great in ,amurru2 theirs is the whole land4 ,the city of ,sumur and the city of ,irkata are left to the princes4 ,and behold in ,sumur ,i am strong4 ,when it was difficult for the princes on account of the enmity1 ,i left ,gebal and 44444444 ,zimridda and 4444444444 ,yapa-,addi 44444444 with me4 ,behold1 then wrote the prince unto them2 but they did not hearken unto him4 ,and may the king1 my lord1 hearken to the words of his faithful servant6 ,send aid very quickly unto the city ,sumur for its protection until the arrival of the mercenaries of the king1 the sun4 ,and may the king1 the sun1 drive out the enemy from his land4 ,again may the king1 my lord1 hearken to the word of his servant and send men as guards to the city of ,sumur and to the city of ,irkata1 in case that all the guards flee from ,sumur4 ,and may it seem good to my lord1 the sun of the countries1 to give to me #bj pairs of horses4 ,and may he send help very quickly to the city of ,sumur to guard it4 ,all the guards who remain are in straits and few are the men in the city4 ,if mercenaries thou dost not send1 then there will be no city remaining to thee4 ,if there are mercenaries1 we will take all the lands for the king4 ,these letters mention a certain ,ebed-,ashera and claim that his sons are gaining possession of all the land of ,amurru4 ,if the 8,ebed0 were dropped out of the phrase1 8sons of ,ebed-,ashera10#dgi there would remain 8sons of ,ashera10 or1 8sons of ,asher40 ,the 8land of ,amurru10 or1 8land of the ,amorites10 lay1 at the time these letters were written1 in the later home of the tribe of ,asher1 and a little to the north of it1 between the ,lebanon and ,anti-,lebanon mountains4 ,some scholars hold that we have in these letters references to the coming of the 8sons of ,asher10 or the tribe of ,asher into this region1 but it is a theory which in the present state of our knowledge we can neither prove nor disprove4 ,if it should prove to be true1 these tablets would reflect a part of the ,hebrew conquest of this region4 #b4 ,letters of ,ebed-,hepa of ,jerusalem4 ,i#dhj ,to the king1 my lord1 speak1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa thy servant--at the feet of the king1 my lord1 seven times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,behold ,i am not a prefect2 a vassal am ,i unto the king1 my lord4 ,why did not the king1 my lord1 send a messenger quickly8 ,in similar circumstances sent ,ienhamu 444444444444444444 ,i4 ,may the king hearken unto ,ebed-,hepa1 his servant4 ,behold there are no mercenaries4 ,may the king1 my lord1 send a governor and let him take the prefects with him 4444444444 lands of the king 444444444 and people 4444444444 who are 4444444444 and ,addaya1 the governor of the king has their house 4444444444 ,so may the king care for them and send a messenger quickly4 ,when 4444444444 ,,ii#dha ,to the king1 my lord1 speak1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant--at the feet of my lord1 the king1 seven times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,what have ,i done to the king1 my lord8 ,they slander and misrepresent me before the king1 my lord1 saying3 ,ebed-,hepa is disloyal to the king1 his lord4 ,behold ,i--neither my father nor my mother set me in this place2 the arm of the mighty king caused me to enter into the house of my father4 ,why should ,i commit rebellion against the king1 my lord8 ,as long as the king1 my lord1 lives ,i will say unto the governor of the king1 my lord3 8,why dost thou love the ,habiri and hate the prefects80 ,but thus he misrepresents me before the king1 my lord4 ,now ,i say1 8,lost are the lands of the king1 my lord40 ,so he misrepresents me to the king1 my lord4 ,but let the king1 my lord1 know 7that7 after the king1 my lord1 set guards1 ,ienhamu took them all 44444444444444444444 ,egypt 4444444444 of the king1 my lord2 there are no guards there4 ,then may the king care for his land6 ,may the king care for his land6 ,separated are all the lands from the king4 ,ilimilku has destroyed all the country of the king2 so may the king1 my lord1 care for his land6 ,i say3 8,i will enter the presence of the king1 my lord1 and ,i will behold the eye of the king1 my lord10 but the enemy is more mighty than ,i1 and ,i am not able to enter into the presence of the king1 my lord4 ,so may it seem right to the king 4444444444 may he send guards1 and ,i will enter in and will behold the eyes of the king1 my lord6 ,and so long as the king1 my lord1 lives1 so long as the governors are withdrawn1 ,i will say3 8,perished are the lands of the king40 ,thou dost not hearken to me6 ,all the prefects have perished2 there is left no prefect to the king1 my lord6 ,may the king turn his face toward mercenaries1 so that there may come forth mercenaries of the king1 my lord4 ,there are no lands left to the king1 my lord4 ,the ,habiri plunder all the countries of the king4 ,if there are mercenaries in this year1 then there will be left countries of the king1 my lord4 ,if there are no mercenaries1 the countries of the king will be lost4 ,unto the scribe of the king1 my lord1 saying3 8,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,take beautiful words to the king1 my lord6 ,lost are all the lands of the king1 my lord40 ,,iii#dhb ,to the king1 my lord1 speak1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,unto the feet of my lord seven times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,i have heard all the words which the king1 my lord1 has sent to me 4444444444 ,behold the deed which 4444444444 has done 4444444444 ,copper 4444444444 word 44444444 ,he has brought into the city ,keilah4 ,cf4 ,josh4 #ae3dd4 ,may the king know that all the lands are gone and there is enmity against me4 ,so may the king care for his land6 ,behold the land of the city ,gezer1 the land of the city ,askelon and the city of ,lakish have given them food1 oil1 and all kinds of herbs4 ,so may the king give attention to the mercenaries6 ,may he send mercenaries against the people who commit outrages against the king1 my lord6 ,if there are in this year mercenaries1 then there will remain lands and prefects to the king1 my lord4 ,but if there are no mercenaries1 there will be no lands and prefects to the king4 ,behold this land of the city of ,jerusalem--neither my father nor my mother gave it to me2 the mighty hand1 the arm of the king gave it to me4 ,behold this deed2 it is the deed of ,malkiel and the deed of the sons of ,labaya1 who have given the land of the king to the ,habiri4 ,behold1 ,o king1 my lord1 right is on my side as regards the ,kashi-people4 ,let the king ask the governors whether that house is very mighty and they have committed a grievous1 a great sin2 they have taken their weapons and have cut off the horsemen 787 4444444444 ,and may he send into that land 4444444444 who 4444444444 with 4444444444 servants4 ,may the king care for them 4444444444444444 the lands in their hands and may the king provide for them much food1 much oil1 much clothing until ,paru1 the governor of the king1 comes up to the country of the city of ,jerusalem4 ,gone is ,addaya1 together with the guards of the vassals whom the king appointed4 ,let the king know that ,addaya said to me3 8,behold1 ,i am going away2 do not thou abandon it0 7the city74 ,this year send me men as guards and a governor1 ,o king6 ,send us 4444444444 ,i have sent to the king1 my lord 44444444441 people1 five thousand 4444444444 three hundred and eighteen porters for the caravans of the king4 ,they were indeed captured in the fields near the city ,aijalon4 7,cf4 ,josh4 #aj3ab47 ,let the king1 my lord1 know that ,i am not able to send a caravan to the king1 my lord4 ,indeed thou knowest it4 ,behold the king has set his name in the country of the city of ,jerusalem forever and he ought not to abandon the lands of the city of ,jerusalem4 ,to the scribe of the king1 my lord1 has ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant spoken1 saying3 ,at the feet ,i1 thy servant1 prostrate myself4 ,take beautiful words to the king1 my lord6 ,a vassal of the king am ,i1 exceedingly loyal 787 as regards thee4 ,also an evil deed has been done against me by the men of ,kashi4 ,i was all but killed by the men of ,kashi in my house4 ,may the king make investigation concerning them4 ,seven times and seven times1 ,o king1 justice is on my side4 ,,iv#dhc ,to the king1 my lord1 my sun-god1 speak1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,at the feet of the king1 my lord1 seven times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,behold the king1 my lord1 has set his name at the rising of the sun and the setting of the sun4 ,it is slander which they have multiplied against me4 ,behold ,i am not a prefect2 a vassal of the king1 my lord1 am ,i4 ,behold ,i am a shepherd of the king and one who brings tribute to the king1 am ,i4 ,neither my father nor my mother1 but the arm of the mighty king set me in the house of my father 44444444 ,there came unto me 4444444 ,i gave #aj slaves into his hand4 ,shuta1 the governor of the king1 came unto me4 ,twenty-one female slaves and eighty prisoners ,i gave into the hand of ,shuta as a present to the king1 my lord4 ,let the king take counsel for his land6 ,lost is the land of the king4 ,all of it is taken from me4 ,enmity is against me4 ,as far as the lands of ,seir and as far as ,gath-,carmel there is peace among all the prefects1 but enmity against me is practised4 ,when ,i sent a man1 then he said3 8,i do not see the eyes of the king1 my lord1 for hostility is against me40 ,i set once a ship on the sea when the mighty arm of the king took ,naharina and ,kapasi1 but1 behold the ,habiri take the cities of the king4 ,there is no prefect to the king1 my lord2 all are lost4 ,behold ,turbazu was killed in the city gate of ,zil and the king is inactive6 ,behold ,zimridda of ,lakish2 his servants were enraged at him2 he adhered to the ,habiri4 ,yapti-,adda was killed in the city gate of ,zil and there is no action6 ,concerning it the king makes no inquiry6 ,let the king care for his land and let the king turn his face to mercenaries for the land of tribute6 ,for if there are no mercenaries in this year1 lost1 perished are all the lands of the king1 my lord4 ,let not one say in the presence of the king1 my lord1 that the land of the king1 my lord1 is lost and all the prefects are lost4 ,if there are no mercenaries in this year1 then let the king send a governor to bring me and my brothers unto thee and we will die with the king1 our lord4 ,to the scribe of the king1 my lord1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,at thy feet ,i prostrate myself4 ,bring beautiful words to the king4 ,emphatically thy servant and thy son am ,i4 ,v#dhd ,to the king1 my lord1 speak1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,at the feet of my lord ,i prostrate myself seven times and seven times4 ,behold ,malkiel1 he has not separated himself from the sons of ,labaya and from the sons of ,arzaya that they may seek the hand of the king for themselves4 ,a prefect who has done this deed--why does not the king call him to account8 ,behold ,malkiel and ,tagi--the deed which they have done is this3 formerly they took ,rabuda and now they seek ,jerusalem4 ,if this land belongs to the king1 why is it oppressed8 ,gaza has sided with the king4 ,behold the land of ,gath-,carmel belongs to ,tagi and the people of ,gath are on guard in ,beth-shean1 and verily it will happen to us when ,labaya and the land of ,shechem have been given to the ,habiri4 ,malkiel has written to ,tagi and his sons3 8,let our two forces grant all their desire to the people of ,keilah40 ,shall we indeed throw open ,jerusalem8 ,the guards1 whom thou didst send by the hand of ,haya1 son of ,miare1 ,addaya took1 stationing them in his house in ,gaza and twenty men has he sent to ,egypt4 ,let the king know that there are no royal guards with me6 ,it is so as the king lives6 ,verily ,puru is beaten4 ,he has gone from me and is in ,gaza4 ,may the king remember it and may the king send fifty men as guards to protect the land6 ,all the lands of the king are in revolt4 ,send ,yinhenhame and let him care for the land of the king4 ,to the scribe of the king1 my lord1 say3 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,beautiful words give to the king4 ,ever emphatically am ,i thy servant4 ,,vi#dhe ,to the king1 my lord1 speak1 saying1 ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant4 ,at the feet of the king1 my lord1 seven times and seven times ,i prostrate myself4 ,behold the deed which ,malkiel and ,shuardatu have done against the country of the king1 my lord6 ,they have won over the soldiers of ,gezer1 the soldiers of ,gath1 and the soldiers of ,keilah2 they have seized the country of the city of ,rubute4 ,the country of the king is fallen away to the ,habiri4 ,and now also a city of the country of ,jerusalem 7its name is ,beth-shemesh71#dhf a city of the king1 has gone over to the men of ,keilah4 ,may the king hearken unto ,ebed-,hepa1 thy servant1 and send mercenaries that the land of the king may remain unto the king4 ,if there are no mercenaries1 lost is the land of the king to the ,habiri4 ,this is the deed which ,malkiel and ,shuardatu have done 4444444444 ,may the king care for his land6 #c4 ,their ,light upon ,conditions in the ,period of the ,egyptian ,domination of ,palestine4 ,these letters are among the most interesting of the many fascinating documents which have come to us from ancient times4 ,they give us our first historical glimpse of ,jerusalem1 giving us a view of it #cej years before its capture by ,david4 ,at this time its ruler was one ,ebed-,hepa1 a vassal of ,amenophis ,,iv1 ,king of ,egypt4 ,jerusalem was at the time the capital of a considerable territory4 ,if the places mentioned have been rightly identified by scholars1 its dominion extended to ,mount ,carmel on the northwest and as far as ,rabbith in ,issachar on the north4 ,at the time these letters were written1 ,jerusalem was hard pressed by some invaders called ,habiri1 and ,ebed-,hepa again and again appeals to the ,egyptian king to send mercenaries in that year or all the territories of the king would be lost4 ,already the ,egyptian army was composed in part of hired soldiers4 ,we know from ,egyptian sources that ,amenophis was much more interested in religious reform than in statecraft4 ,the desired troops were not sent1 and apparently ,ebed-,hepa was overcome1 for his letters cease4 ,the condition of ,palestine1 as revealed by these letters1 is the same as that of ,phnicia as revealed by the letters of ,rib-,adda4 ,egyptian authority was breaking up2 each ruler was doing his best to look after his own interests2 while invaders were overrunning the country4 ,who was ,ebed-,hepa8 ,all that we know of him is told in these letters4 ,hepa was1 however1 the name of a ,hittite and ,mitannian goddess4 ,it has1 accordingly1 been inferred that ,ebed-,hepa belonged to that race4 ,ezekiel long afterward in speaking to ,jerusalem said3 8,the ,amorite was thy father and thy mother was a ,hittite0 7,ezek4 #af3c1 #de74 ,if this first ruler of ,jerusalem known to us was a ,hittite1 as seems probable1 it would be a striking confirmation of ,ezekiel's statement4 ,another interesting question is3 ,who were the ,habiri who were invading ,palestine when these letters were written8 ,the answer to this question is not certain4 ,four different views have been held3 #a4 ,they have been thought to be the same as the clan ,heber which was afterward a part of the tribe of ,asher1 and which is also mentioned in connection with ,malkiel in ,gen4 #df3ag2 ,num4 #bf3de1 and #a ,chron4 #g3ca4 ,the objection to this view is that the ,habiri seem far too powerful in these letters to be simply the ancestors of such a clan4 #b4 ,it has been held that the ,habiri were a branch of the ,hittites4 ,this view is based upon the fact that among the tablets found by ,winckler at ,boghaz ,koi a list of ,hittite gods was headed 8gods of the ,habiri40 ,this is1 however1 not decisive1 as the gods may have been ,semitic gods1 whom1 after the fashion of antiquity1 the ,hittite scribe had identified with the deities of his own country4 #c4 ,it has been held that the ,habiri were ,hebrews1 and that we have here contemporary records of their wars of conquest4 #d4 ,some scholars maintain that it is impossible to tell who the ,habiri were4 ,the writer is inclined to hold that the ,habiri were ,hebrews1 though this view is not without difficulty4 ,the indications of the book of ,exodus point to ,ramses ,,ii as the ,pharaoh of the oppression and to ,merneptah as the ,pharaoh of the ,exodus4 ,these kings belonged to the nineteenth dynasty1 while ,amenophis ,,iv1 to whom ,ebed-,hepa wrote his letters1 belonged to the eighteenth4 ,how then could ,hebrews be already in ,palestine struggling to conquer it8 ,the view has been held by a number of scholars that the ,hebrew conquest took place in two parts1 one of which was under the eighteenth and the other under the nineteenth dynasty4 ,the view is not without its difficulties1 but it may prove to be true4 ,if the ,habiri were ,hebrews1 it seems necessary to suppose that it is true4 ,perhaps further discovery will throw more light upon it4 ,the following letter1 found in #ahib at ,tell el-,hesy 7,lachish7 in ,palestine1 belongs to the same period as the preceding letters4#dhg ,to the chief officer speak1 saying3 ,pabi--at thy feet ,i prostrate myself4 ,thou shouldst know that ,shiptibaal and ,zimrida are conspiring together and ,shiptibaal has said to ,zimrida3 8,my father of the city ,yarami has written to me3 #8,give me six bows and three daggers and three swords4 ,if ,i go out against the land of the king and thou wilt be the breath of life to me1 then ,i shall surely 787 be superior to it and shall subdue it4' ,he who makes this plan is ,pabu1 so send him to me40 ,now ,i have sent thee ,raphiel4 ,he will bring to the chief officer news of this matter4 ,another letter from ,taanach belongs to the same general period4 ,it is one of four found by ,sellin in #aijc4 ,it is as follows3#dhh ,to ,ishtarwashur speak1 saying1 ,ahijah#dhi--may the lord of the gods protect thy life6 ,thou art my brother and love is in thy bowels and in my heart4 ,when ,i was detained in ,gurra a workman gave to me two knives and a lance and two baskets 787 for nothing4 ,as the lance was broken1 he will repair it and send it by the hand of ,buritpi4 ,again3 is there lamentation over thy cities1 or hast thou indeed put thyself in possession of them8 ,over my head is one who is over the cities4 ,now let us see whether he will do good to thee4 ,if his countenance is favorable there will be great destruction4 ,further3 let ,ilurabi enter ,rahab and either send my man to thy presence or give him protection4 ,this letter is chiefly interesting for the name ,ai-ya-mi1 which is probably the ,babylonian equivalent of ,ahijah or ,ahi-,yahweh4 ,if this is so1 and1 while not certain1 there is considerable collateral evidence in its favor1#dij the divine name1 ,yahweh 7,jehovah71 was already known in ,palestine4 ,another phrase in this letter which has recalled to some a ,biblical phrase is 8the lord of the gods40 ,this has been compared with ,baal-berith 7i4 e41 lord of the covenant71 ,judges #i3d1 who is later called ,el-berith 7god of the covenant71 ,judges #i3df4 ,such a comparison is1 however1 somewhat fanciful4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,documents ,,from ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,israel',s ,,judges ,,report ,,of ,,wenamon4 ,,its ,,illustration ,,of ,,certain ,,points ,,of ,,biblical ,,history ,,about ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,deborah ,,or ,,gideon4 ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,philistines4 ,the following vivid story of adventure dates from about #aajj ,b4 ,c4 and throws a vivid light on the condition of the coast-lands of ,palestine and ,phnicia about the middle of the period of the ,judges4 #a4 ,report of ,wenamon4#dia ,year five1 third month of the third season 7eleventh month71 day #af1 day of departure of the 8eldest of the hall10 of the house of ,amon1 the lord of the lands1 ,wenamon1 to bring the timber for the great and august barge of ,amon-,re1 king of the gods1 which is on the river 4444444444 called3 8,userhet0 of ,amon4 ,on the day of my arrival at ,tanis at the palace of ,nesubenebded and ,tentamon1 ,i gave to them the writings of ,amon-,re1 king of the gods1 which they caused to be read in their presence2 and they said3 8,i will do it1 ,i will do it according to that which ,amon-,re1 king of our gods1 our lord1 saith40 ,i abode until the fourth month of the third season1 being in ,tanis4 ,nesubenebded and ,tentamon sent me with the ship-captain1 ,mengebet1 and ,i descended into the great ,syrian sea1 in the fourth month of the third season1 on the first day4 ,i arrived at ,dor1 a city of ,thekel a people kindred to the ,philistines1 and ,bedel1 its king1 caused to be brought for me much bread1 a jar of wine1 and a joint of beef4 ,then a man of my ship fled1 having stolen3 44 vessels of gold1 amounting to #e deben #d vessels of silver1 amounting to #bj deben a sack of silver #aa deben -- ,total of what he stole #e deben of gold4 #ca deben of silver4 ,in the morning then ,i rose and went to the abode of the prince1 and said to him3 8,i have been robbed in thy harbor4 ,since thou art the king of this land1 thou art therefore its investigator1 who should search for my money4 ,for the money belongs to ,amon-,re1 king of the gods1 lord of the lands2 it belongs to ,nesubenebded1 and it belongs to ,hrihor1 my lord1 and the other magnates of ,egypt2 it belongs also to ,weret1 and to ,mekmel1 and to ,zakar-,baal1 the prince of ,byblos0 ,gebal4 ,he said to me3 8,to thy honor and thy excellence6 but1 behold1 ,i know nothing of this complaint which thou hast lodged with me4 ,if the thief belonged to my land1 he who went on board thy ship1 that he might steal thy treasure1 ,i would repay it to thee from my treasury till they find thy thief by name2 but the thief who robbed thee belongs to thy ship4 ,tarry a few days here with me1 and ,i will seek him40 ,when ,i had spent nine days moored in his harbor1 ,i went to him and said to him3 8,behold1 thou hast not found my money1 therefore let me depart with the ship-captain1 and with those who go 4444444444 the sea4 ,he said to me3 8,be silent 444444444444440 4444444444 the harbor 4444444444444444 ,i arrived at ,tyre4 ,i went forth from ,tyre at early dawn 4444444444 ,zakar-,baal1 the prince of ,byblos ,gebal4 4444444444 the 4444444444 ,i found #cj deben of silver therein4 ,i seized it1 saying to them3 8,i will take your money1 and it shall remain with me until ye find my money4 ,was it not a man of ,thekel who stole it1 and no thief of ours8 ,i will take it 4444444444 ,they went away1 while ,i 444444444444444444 ,i arrived 4444444444 the harbor of ,byblos ,gebal4 ,i made a place of concealment1 ,i hid 8,amon-the-way10 and ,i placed his things in it4 ,the prince of ,byblos sent to me1 saying3 8,betake thyself from my harbor40 ,i sent to him1 saying1 84444444444444444 if they sail1 let them take me to ,egypt40 4444444444 ,i spent nineteen days in his harbor and he continually sent to me daily1 saying3 8,betake thyself from my harbor40 ,now1 when he sacrificed to his gods 44444441 the god seized one of his noble youths1 making him frenzied1 so that he said3 8,bring the god hither6 ,bring the messenger of ,amon who hath him4 ,send him and let him go40 ,now1 while the frenzied youth continued in frenzy during this night1 ,i found a ship bound for ,egypt1 and ,i loaded all my belongings into it4 ,i waited for the darkness1 saying3 8,when it descends1 ,i will embark the god also1 in order that no other eye may see him40 ,the harbor-master came to me1 saying3 8,remain until morning by the prince40 ,i said to him3 8,art not thou he who continually came to me daily1 saying1 #8,betake thyself away from my harbor'8 ,dost thou not say1 #8,remain in the land'1 in order to let depart the ship that ,i have found8 thou that mayest come and say again1 #8,away'8 ,he went and told it to the prince1 and the prince sent to the captain of the ship1 saying3 #8,remain until morning by the king4'0 ,when morning came he sent and had me brought up1 when the divine offering occurred in the fortress where he was1 on the shore of the sea4 ,i found him sitting in his upper chamber1 leaning his back against a window1 while the waves of the great ,syrian sea beat against the 44444444 behind him4 ,i said to him3 8,kindness of ,amon60 ,he said to me3 8,how long is it until this day since thou camest away from the abode of ,amon80 ,i said3 8,five months and one day until now40 ,he said to me3 8,behold thou art true1 where is the writing of ,amon1 which is in thy hand8 ,where is the letter of the ,high ,priest of ,amon1 which is in thy hand80 ,i said to him3 8,i gave them to ,nesubenebded and ,tentamon40 ,then he was very wroth1 and he said to me3 8,now1 behold1 the writing and the letter are not in thy hand6 ,where is the ship of cedar which ,nesubenebded gave to thee8 ,where is its ,syrian crew8 ,he would not deliver thy business to this ship-captain 44444444 to have thee killed1 that they might cast thee into the sea4 ,from whom would they have sought the god then8 ,and thee1 from whom would they have sought thee then80 ,so he spake to me4 ,i said to him3 8,there are indeed ,egyptian ships and ,egyptian crews who sail under ,nesubenebded1 7but7 he hath no ,syrian crews40 ,he said to me3 8,there are surely twenty ships here in my harbor1 which are in connection with ,nesubenebded2 and at ,sidon1 whither thou wouldst go1 there are indeed #aj1jjj ships also which are in connection with ,berket-el and sail to his house40 ,then ,i was silent in this great hour4 ,he answered and said to me3 8,on what business hast thou come hither80 ,i said to him3 8,i have come after the timber of the great and august barge of ,amon-,re1 king of gods4 ,thy father did it1 thy grandfather did it1 and thou wilt also do it40 ,so spake ,i to him4 ,he said to me3 8,they did it1 truly4 ,if thou give me 7something7 for doing it1 ,i will do it4 ,indeed my agents transacted the business2 the ,pharaoh1 444444 sent six ships1 laden with the products of ,egypt1 and they were unloaded in their storehouses4 ,and thou also shalt bring something for me40 ,he had the journal of his fathers brought in1 and he had them read it before me4 ,they found #a1jjj deben of every 7kind of7 silver1 which was in his book4 ,he said to me3 8,if the ruler of ,egypt were the owner of my property1 and ,i were also his servant1 he would not send silver and gold1 saying3 #8,do the command of ,amon4' ,it was not the payment of tribute which they exacted of my father4 ,as for me1 ,i am myself neither thy servant nor am ,i the servant of him that sent thee4 ,if ,i cry out to the ,lebanon1 the heavens open1 and the logs lie here on the shore of the sea40 ,a long speech of ,wenamon follows1 in which he claims ,egypt as the home of civilization1 and claims ,lebanon for ,amon4 ,he then continues3 8,let my scribe be brought to me1 that ,i may send him to ,nesubenebded and ,tentamon1 the rulers whom ,amon hath given to the north of his land1 and they will send all that of which ,i shall write unto them1 saying3 #8,let it be brought1' until ,i return to the south and send thee all thy trifles again40 ,so spake ,i to him4 ,he gave my letter into the hand of his messenger4 ,he loaded in the keel1 the head of the bow and the head of the stern1 with four other hewn timbers1 together seven2 and he had them taken to ,egypt4 ,his messenger went to ,egypt1 and returned to me1 to ,syria in the first month of the second season4 ,nesubenebded and ,tentamon sent3 ,gold3 #d ,tb-vessels1 #a ,k'k-mn-vessel2 ,silver3 #e ,tb-vessels2 ,royal linen3 #aj garments1 #aj m-rd2 ,papyrus3 #ejj rolls2 ,ox-hides3 #ejj2 ,rope3 #ejj 7coils72 ,lentils3 #bj measures2 ,fish3 #cj measures2 ,she#dib sent me3 ,linen #e 4444441 #e m-rd2 ,lentils3 #a measure2 ,fish3 #e measures4 ,the prince rejoiced1 and detailed #cjj men and #cjj oxen1 placing overseers over them1 to have the trees felled4 ,they spent the second season therewith 4444 ,in the third month of the second season 7seventh month7 they dragged them to the shore of the sea4 ,the prince came forth and stood by them4 ,he sent to me1 saying3 8,come40 ,now1 when ,i had presented myself before him1 the shadow of his sunshade fell upon me4 ,penamon1 a butler1 he stepped between us1 saying3 8,the shadow of ,pharaoh 444444441 thy lord1 falls upon thee40 ,he was angry with him1 saying3 8,let him alone60 ,i presented myself before him1 and he answered and said unto me3 8,behold the command which my fathers formerly executed1 ,i have executed1 although thou for thy part hast not done for me that which thy fathers did for me4 ,behold there has arrived the last of thy timber1 and there it lies4 ,do according to my desire and come to load it1 for they will indeed give it to thee40 8,come not to contemplate the terror of the sea1 7but7 if thou dost contemplate the terror of the sea1 thou shalt 7also7 contemplate mine own4 ,indeed ,i have not done to thee that which they did to the messengers of ,khamwese1 when they spent seventeen years in this land4 ,they died in their place40 ,he said to his butler2 8,take him1 and let him see their tomb1 wherein they sleep40 ,i said to him3 8,let me not see it6 ,as for ,khamwese1 7mere7 people were the messengers whom he sent unto thee2 but people 444444444 there was no god among his messengers4 ,and yet thou sayest1 #8,go and see thy companions4' ,lo1 art thou not glad8 and dost thou not have made for thee a tablet1 whereon thou sayest3 #8,amon-,re1 king of gods1 sent to me 8,amon-the-way10 his divine messenger1 and ,wenamon1 his human messenger1 after the timber for the great and august barge of ,amon-,re1 king of gods8 ,i felled it1 ,i loaded it1 ,i supplied him 7with7 my ships and my crews1 ,i brought them to ,egypt1 to beseech for me #aj1jjj years of life from ,amon1 more than my ordained 7life71 and it came to pass4' ,then in future days when a messenger comes from the land of ,egypt1 who is able to write1 and reads thy name upon the stela1 thou shalt receive water in the west1 like the gods who are there40 ,he said to me3 8,it is a great testimony which thou tellest me40 ,i said to him3 8,as for the many things which thou hast said to me1 when ,i reach the place of the abode of the ,high ,priest of ,amon1 and he shall see thy command in thy command1 he will have something delivered to thee40 ,i went to the shore of the sea1 to the place where the timbers lay2 ,i spied eleven ships1 coming from the sea1 belonging to the ,thekel1 saying3 8,arrest him6 ,let not a ship of his pass to ,egypt60 ,i sat down and began to weep4 ,the letter-scribe of the prince came out to me1 and said to me3 8,what is the matter with thee80 ,i said to him3 8,surely thou seest these birds which twice descend upon ,egypt4 ,behold them6 ,they come to the pool1 and how long shall ,i be here1 forsaken8 ,for thou seest surely those who come to arrest me again40 ,he went and told it to the prince4 ,the prince began to weep at the evil words which they spoke to him4 ,he sent out his letter-scribe to me and brought me two jars of wine and a ram4 ,he sent to me ,tento1 an ,egyptian singer 7feminine71 who was with him1 saying3 8,sing for him2 let not his heart feel apprehension40 ,he sent to me1 saying3 8,eat1 drink1 and let not thy heart feel apprehension4 ,thou shalt hear all that ,i have to say unto thee in the morning40 ,morning came1 he had 7the ,thekel7 called into his 44444441 he stood in their midst and said to the ,thekel3 8,why have ye come80 ,they said to him3 8,we have come after the stove-up ships which thou sendest to ,egypt with our 444444 comrades40 ,he said to them3 8,i cannot arrest the messenger of ,amon in my land4 ,let me send him away1 and ye shall pursue him1 to arrest him40 ,he loaded me on board1 he sent me away 44444 to the harbor of the sea4 ,the wind drove me to the land of ,alasa ,cyprus2 those of the city came forth to me to slay me4 ,i was brought among them to the abode of ,heteb1 the queen of the city4 ,i found her as she was going forth from her houses and entering into her other house4 ,i saluted her1 ,i asked the people who stood about her3 8,there is surely one among you who understands ,egyptian80 ,one among them said3 8,i understand 7it740 ,i said to him3 8,say to my mistress3 #8,i have heard as far as ,thebes1 the abode of ,amon1 that in every city injustice is done1 but that justice is done in the land of ,alasa2 7but71 lo1 injustice is done every day here4'0 ,she said3 8,indeed6 what is this that thou sayest80 ,i said to her3 8,if the sea raged and the wind drove me to land where ,i am1 thou wilt not let them take advantage of me to slay me1 ,i being a messenger of ,amon4 ,i am one whom they will seek unceasingly4 ,as for the crew of the prince of ,byblos whom they sought to kill1 their lord will surely find ten crews of thine1 and he will slay them on his part40 ,she had the people called and stationed 7before her72 she said to me3 8,pass the night 44444444440 ,here the papyrus1 which contains this vivid personal narrative of travel1 is broken off and the rest of the story is lost4 ,we may be sure that ,wenamon escaped from ,cyprus and succeeded in reaching ,egypt again1 or the story would never have been told4 #b4 ,its ,illustration of ,certain ,points of ,biblical ,history4 ,the story illustrates well a number of points in ,biblical history4 ,this adventure was approximately contemporary with the career of ,deborah or of ,gideon4 ,it shows that the city of ,dor1 which was situated on the coast just south of ,mount ,carmel1 was in the possession of a tribe kindred to the ,philistines1 who soon afterward appear in ,biblical history4 ,we also learn from it that ,egyptian authority in ,palestine and ,phnicia1 which was at the time of the ,el-,amarna letters so rapidly decaying1 had entirely disappeared4 ,zakar-,baal stoutly asserts his independence1 while the king of the ,thekel is evidently quite independent of ,egypt4 ,the way in which these petty kingdoms deal with one another is quite after the manner of the international relations reflected in the book of ,judges4 ,the expedition of ,wenamon to the ,lebanon for cedar wood illustrates the way ,solomon obtained cedar for the temple4 ,lastly1 the way one of the noble youths became frenzied and prophesied1 is quite parallel to the way in which ,saul 8stripped off his clothes and prophesied 444444 and lay down naked all that day and all that night0 7#a ,sam4 #ai3bd74 ,the heed which ,zakar-,baal gave to this youth shows that at ,gebal1 as in ,israel1 such ecstatic or frenzied utterances were thought to be of divine origin4 ,later in ,israel this sort of prophecy became a kind of profession1 or trade4 ,the members of these prophetic guilds were called 8sons of the prophets40 ,the great literary prophets of ,israel had nothing to do with them4 ,amos is careful to say that he is not a 8son of a prophet0 7,amos #g3ad74 #c4 ,reference to the ,philistines4 ,ramses ,,iii in his inscriptions makes the following statements3#dic 8,the northern countries are unquiet in their limbs1 even the ,peleset ,philistines1 the ,thekel1 who devastate their land 4444444444444444444 ,o my august father i4 e41 the god ,amon come to take them1 being3 the ,peleset1 the ,denyen ,dardanians1 and the ,shekelesh ,sicilians 444444444444 ,utterance of the vanquished ,peleset3 8,give to us the breath for our nostrils1 ,o king1 son of ,amon40 ,the ,peleset are undoubtedly the same people who appear in the ,bible as the ,philistines4 ,ramses ,,iii1 of the twentieth dynasty1 from whose inscriptions the above quotations are taken1 reigned from #aaih-aafg ,b4 ,c4 ,in his reign the ,philistines were coming over the sea and invading northern ,egypt along with other wanderers from different parts of the ,mediterranean1 the ,thekel1 the ,danaoi1 and the ,sicilians4 ,upon being repelled from ,egypt by ,ramses1 they passed on and invaded ,palestine4 ,as the report of ,wenamon shows1 the ,thekel were in possession of ,dor by the year #aajj1 and no doubt the ,philistines had gained a foothold also in the cities farther to the south1 where we find them in the ,biblical records 7,judges #ac-af2 #a ,sam4 #d-g2 #ac1 #ad2 #ag1 #ah1 etc474 ,amos says the ,philistines came from ,caphtor 7,amos #i3g74 ,this has long been supposed to be ,crete4 ,eduard ,meyer thinks that confirmation of this has now been found4 ,a disc inscribed in a peculiar writing1 which has not yet been deciphered1 was found in ,july1 #aijh1 at ,phstos in ,crete in strata of the third middle ,minoan period1 i4 e41 about #afjj ,b4 ,c4#did ,this writing is pictographic1 and although not yet translated1 appears to be a contract4#die ,one of the frequently recurring signs represents a human head surmounted by a shock of hair 7see ,fig4 #ch71 almost exactly like the hair of the ,philistines as they are pictured by the artists of ,ramses ,,iii on the walls of his palace at ,medinet ,habu 7see ,fig4 #cf74 ,this sign was probably the determinative for man4 ,this likeness would make the proof of the ,cretan origin of the ,philistines complete1 were it not that some scholars think that the disc exhumed at ,phstos had been brought thither from across the sea4 ,this is possible1 but does not seem very probable4 ,the doubt will1 perhaps1 be resolved when we learn to read the inscription4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,arch,,ological ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,kings ,,gudea ,,and ,,cedar-,,wood ,,for ,,his ,,palace4 ,,the ,,eponym ,,canon4 ,,the ,,seal ,,of ,,shema4 ,,shishak',s ,,list ,,of ,,conquered ,,asiatic ,,cities4 ,,ashurnasirpal',s ,,description ,,of ,,his ,,expedition ,,to ,,mediterranean ,,lands4 ,,shalmaneser ,,iii',s ,,claims ,,regarding ,,tribute ,,from ,,the ,,kings ,,of ,,israel4 ,,the ,,moabite ,,stone4 ,,adadnirari ,,iv',s ,,mention ,,of ,,the 8,,land ,,of ,,omri40 ,,inscription ,,describing ,,tiglathpileser ,,iv',s ,,campaign4 ,,sargon',s ,,conquests4 ,,sennacherib',s ,,western ,,campaigns4 ,,the ,,siloam ,,inscription4 ,,esarhaddon',s ,,list ,,of ,,conquered ,,kings4 ,,ashurbanipal',s ,,assyrian ,,campaign4 ,,necho ,,of ,,egypt4 ,,nebuchadrezzar ,,ii4 ,,evil-,,merodach4 ,,discoveries ,,in ,,sheba4 #a4 ,gudea and ,cedar-,wood for ,his ,palace4 ,gudea1 a ruler of ,lagash in ,babylonia 7the modern ,telloh2 see p4 #de71 who lived about #bdej ,b4 ,c41 rebuilt ,eninn1 the temple of ,ningirsu1 at ,lagash4 ,in his account of the work he makes the following statement3#dif ,from ,amanus1 the mountain of cedar1 cedar wood1 the length of which was #fj cubits1 cedar-wood1 the length of which was #ej cubits1 ukarinnu-wood1 the length of which was #be cubits1 for the dwelling he made2 7from7 their mountain they were brought4 ,the ,amanus mountains lay along the ,mediterranean to the north of the river ,orontes4 ,they belong to the same general range as the ,lebanons4 ,again1 in the same inscription1 ,gudea says3#dig ,from ,umanu1 the mountain of ,menua1 from ,basalla1 the mountain of the ,amorites1 great cut stones he brought2 into pillars he made them and in the court of ,eninn he erected them4 ,from ,tidanu1 the mountain of the ,amorites1 marble in fragments 787 he brought4 ,this passage shows that a ruler of ,babylonia came to this region for cedar-wood and stones for his temple1 as ,solomon is said to have done 7#a ,kings #e1 especially vs4 #f and #ag2 #b ,chron4 #b3h1 ff474 ,that ,egyptian rulers did the same is clearly shown by the report of ,wenamon4 7,see p4 #ceb1 ff47 #b4 ,the ,eponym ,canon4 ,the ,assyrians kept chronological lists called by scholars 8,eponym ,canons10 which are of great importance in determining the chronology of ,hebrew history at a number of obscure points4 ,a translation of them has not been included in this work1 since so few ,biblical names occur in them that they would be of little use except to experts4 ,any who wish to consult them will find them translated in ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 pp4 #bai-bch4 #c4 ,jeroboam4 ,during ,schumacher's excavation at ,megiddo 7see p4 #if71 a seal was found in the palace2 it is shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,its inscription reads3 ,belonging to ,shema1 servant of ,jeroboam4 ,we have no means of knowing whether the ,jeroboam referred to was ,jeroboam ,i 7#a ,kings #ab3ab1 ff471 or ,jeroboam ,,ii 7#b ,kings #ad3bc1 ff474 #d4 ,shishak4 ,sheshonk ,i 7#ied-ibd ,b4 ,c471 the founder of the twenty-second ,egyptian dynasty1 the ,shishak of the ,bible 7#a ,kings #ad3be-bh71 has left on the walls of a pylon which he erected at the temple of ,karnak a relief picturing his victory4 ,the pictures are of the conventional type1 but they are accompanied by a list of conquered ,asiatic cities4 ,of these the names of about one-hundred and twenty are legible1 though it is possible to identify but a small proportion of these with known localities4 ,as it would be of no interest to the general reader to place before him the ,egyptian spelling of unidentified place names1 only those are here given which have been identified or have some ,biblical interest4 ,the numbers before each name designate its distance from the beginning of ,sheshonk's list4 ,among his conquered towns1 then1 are the following3#dih #aa4 ,gimty ,gath4 #ac4 ,rub'ty ,rabbith 7,josh4 #ai3bj74 #ad4 ,t'#8nqy ,taanach 7,josh4 #ab3ba2 ,judges #e3ai74 #ae4 ,sh'nm#8y ,shunem 7,josh4 #ai3ah2 #b ,kings #d3h74 #af4 ,b'tysh'nry ,beth-shean 7,josh4 #ag3aa2 #a ,sam4 #ca3aj2 #a ,kings #d3ab74 #ag4 ,rwh'b'iy ,rehob 7,judges #a3ca74 #ah4 ,h'pwrwmy ,haphraim 7,josh4 #ai3ai74 #bb4 ,myh'nm#8 ,mahanaim 7,gen4 #cb3b2 ,josh4 #ac3bf2 #b ,sam4 #b3h2 #ag3bd74 ,q-b'-#8'-n' ,gibeon 7,josh4 #aj3a1 f474 #bd4 ,b'tyhwr'rwn ,beth-horon 7,josh4 #aj3aj2 #a ,sam4 #ac3ah74 #bf4 ,iywrwn ,aijalon 7,josh4 #aj3ab2 #ai3db74 #bg4 ,myqdyw ,megiddo 7,josh4 #ab3ba2 ,judges #a3bg74 #bh4 ,idyrw#8 ,edrei 7,num4 #ba3cc2 ,deut4 #a3d2 ,josh4 #ab3d74 #cb4 #8'rin' ,elon 7,josh4 #ai3dc74 #ch4 ,sh'wka ,soco 7#b ,chron4 #aa3g2 #bh3ah74 #ci4 ,b'tylpwh ,beth-tapuah 7,josh4 #ae3ec74 #eg4 ,dymrwm ,zemaraim 7,josh4 #ah3bb74 #eh4 ,mgdrw ,madgala 7,matt4 #ae3ci ,a4 ,v474 #ga1 #gb4 ,p'hwqrw' 'b'r'm ,the field of ,abram4 #ajj4 ,iwdri' ,addar 787 7,josh4 #ae3c74 #abd4 ,b'ty#8nt ,beth-anoth 787 7,josh4 #ae3ei74 ,according to #a ,kings #ad3be1 ff41 ,sheshonk's campaign was directed against ,judah1 and there is no hint that the northern kingdom suffered too4 ,this may be because the interest of the author of ,kings in the house of ,david and in ,jerusalem was greater than his interest in the north4 ,it is clear from the list of places just quoted that ,sheshonk conquered both kingdoms4 ,he either took or received tribute from ,megiddo1 ,taanach1 ,shunem1 and ,beth-shean1 cities in the great plain of ,jezreel1 but crossed the ,jordan and captured ,mahanaim and ,edrei4 #e4 ,ashurnasirpal4 ,ashurnasirpal1 ,king of ,assyria1 #hhd-hfj ,b4 ,c41 in describing his expedition to the ,mediterranean lands1 makes the following statement3#dii ,at that time ,i marched along ,mount ,lebanon1 unto the great sea of the land of the ,amorites ,i went up4 ,in the great sea ,i cleansed my weapons4 ,i made sacrifices to the gods4 ,the tribute of the kings by the side of the sea1 from the land of the ,tyrian1 the land of the ,sidonian1 the land of the ,gebalite1 the land of the ,maallatite1 the land of the ,maisite1 the land of the ,kaisite1 the land of the ,amorite1 and the city ,arvad1 which is in the midst of the sea2 silver1 gold1 lead1 copper1 copper vessels1 garments of bright colored stuffs1 cloth1 a great pagutu1 a small pagutu1 ushu-wood1 ukarinnu-wood1 teeth of a sperm-whale porpoise1 a creature of the sea1 as their tribute ,i received2 they embraced my feet4 ,to ,mount ,amanus ,i ascended2 beams of cedar1 cypress1 juniper1 pine1 ,i cut4 ,sacrifices to my gods ,i offered4 ,a pillar recording my warlike deeds ,i set up4 ,this inscription records the first approach of an ,assyrian king to ,hebrew territory4 ,he did not actually come into contact with the ,israelites1 though he took tribute from their neighbors1 the ,tyrians and ,sidonians4 ,the expedition of ,ashurnasirpal was1 however1 the precursor of many others which progressed further4 ,ashurnasirpal1 like ,gudea and ,hrihor1 secured wood from this region for his buildings1 thus affording another parallel to ,solomon's procedure4 #f4 ,shalmaneser ,,iii4 ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 the son and successor of ,ashurnasirpal1 reigned from #hei to #hbe ,b4 ,c4 ,he not only approached more closely to ,palestine1 but claims to have taken tribute from her kings4 ,in the case of ,king ,jehu the claim is no doubt true4 ,the following extracts give the accounts in ,shalmaneser's own words4#ejj ,in the eponym year of ,dan-,ashur 7i4 e41 #hed ,b4 ,c471 month ,aru1 #adth day1 ,i departed from the city of ,nineveh2 ,i crossed the river ,tigris 4444444 to the city ,qarqar ,i approached4 ,qarqar1 his royal city1 ,i destroyed1 ,i devastated1 ,i burned with fire4 #a1bjj chariots1 #a1bjj horsemen1 #bj1jjj men of ,hadadidri 7,benhadad7 of ,damascus2 #gjj chariots1 #gjj horsemen1 #aj1jjj men of ,irhulina1 the ,hamathite2 #b1jjj chariots1 #aj1jjj men of ,ahab1 the ,israelite2 #ejj men of the ,quan 7i4 e41 ,que1 in ,cilicia72 #a1jjj men of the ,musran2 #aj1jjj chariots1 #aj1jjj men of the ,irqantan2 #bjj men of ,matinu-ba'li1 the ,arvadite2 #bjj men of the ,usantan2 #cj chariots1 #aj1jjj men of ,adunu-ba'li1 the ,shianian2 #a1jjj camels of ,gindibu1 the ,arabian2 #a1jjj 787 men of ,basa1 son of ,ruhubi1 the ,ammonite--these #ab kings he took as his helpers and they came to make battle and war against me4 ,with the exalted power which ,ashur1 the lord1 had given me1 with powerful weapons1 which ,nergal1 who goes before me1 had presented me1 ,i fought with them2 from ,qarqar to ,gilzan ,i accomplished their defeat4 #ad1jjj of their troops ,i overthrew with arms1 like ,adad ,i poured out a flood upon them2 ,i flung afar their corpses1 ,i filled the plain with their mighty troops4 ,with weapons ,i made their blood to flow 4444444444 ,the field was too narrow for smiting 787 them1 the broad plain 787 was used 787 for burying their bodies4 ,with their corpses ,i dammed the ,orontes as with a dam 7874 ,in that battle their chariots1 their horsemen1 their horses1 harnesses1 and yokes ,i took4 ,it is of especial interest that ,ahab and ,benhadad1 two kings well known from the ,bible1 formed a part of the coalition that attempted to repel this first ,assyrian invasion4 ,shalmaneser's claim of victory is probably exaggerated1 for he retired without further effort to subdue the country4 ,had it been as sweeping a triumph as he would have us believe1 he would surely have pressed forward4 ,another of his inscriptions describes the battle of ,qarqar as follows3#eja ,in the #fth year of my reign from ,nineveh ,i set out 4444444444 unto ,qarqar ,i approached4 ,hadadidri of ,damascus1 ,irhulina1 the ,hamathite1 together with twelve kings of the sea-coast1 trusted in their own power and came to make war and fight with me4 ,with them ,i fought4 #be1jjj of their fighting men ,i destroyed with arms4 ,their chariots1 their horses1 their implements of war ,i took from them4 ,they fled to save their lives4 ,i embarked on a ship and went out to sea4 ,four years later ,shalmaneser records the subjugation of ,carchemish1 on the ,euphrates 7cf4 ,isa4 #aj3i2 ,jer4 #df3b74 ,his account of it is brief and runs thus3#ejb ,in the #ajth year of my reign 7#hej ,b4 ,c471 the river ,euphrates ,i crossed for the eighth time4 ,the cities of ,sangar1 the ,carchemishite1 ,i devastated1 ,i destroyed ,i burned with fire4 ,from the cities of ,carchemish ,i departed and approached the cities of ,arame4 ,the next year ,shalmaneser again tried conclusions with the kings of the west4 ,his longer account of this runs as follows3#ejc ,in the #aath year of my reign 7#hdi ,b4 ,c47 ,i set out from ,nineveh4 ,i crossed the river ,euphrates at high water for the ninth time 4444444444 ,at that time ,hadadidri of ,damascus1 ,irhulina the ,hamathite1 together with twelve kings of the sea-coast1 trusted to their own power and to make war and battle with me they came4 ,i fought with them1 ,i accomplished their defeat4 #aj1jjj of their fighting men ,i slew with arms4 ,their chariots1 horsemen1 and implements of war ,i took from them4 ,shalmaneser's third campaign against these kings is thus described3#ejd ,in the #adth year of my reign ,i mustered the broad land without number4 ,i crossed the ,euphrates at high water with #abj1jjj troops4 ,at that time ,hadadidri of ,damascus and ,irhulina1 the ,hamathite1 together with twelve kings of the sea-coast1 upper and lower1 mustered their numerous armies without number and into my presence came4 ,i fought with them1 ,i accomplished their defeat4 ,i brought away their chariots and horses1 their implements of war ,i took from them2 they fled to save their lives4 ,a fourth campaign another inscription describes thus3#eje ,in the #ahth year of my reign 7#hdb ,b4 ,c471 ,i crossed the river ,euphrates for the sixteenth time4 ,hazael of ,damascus 7cf4 #a ,kings #ai3ae1 #ag2 #b ,kings #h7 trusted to the great numbers of his forces and mustered his troops in large numbers4 ,saniru 7i4 e41 ,hermon1 see ,deut4 #c3i71 a mountain-peak at the side of ,mount ,lebanon1 he made his fortress4 ,i fought with him1 ,i accomplished his defeat4 #af1jjj of his fighting men ,i slew with arms4 #a1aba of his chariots1 #dgj of his horses with his camp ,i took from him4 ,he fled to save his life4 ,i pursued him and in ,damascus1 his capital city1 shut him up4 ,i cut down his parks4 ,i marched to the mountains of ,hauran4 ,cities innumerable ,i destroyed1 devastated1 ,i burned with fire2 their untold spoil ,i took as plunder4 ,to the mountain of ,bilirasi1#ejf a mountain at the head of the sea1 ,i marched4 ,my royal portrait in it ,i set up4 ,at that time the tribute of the ,tyrian1 the ,sidonian1 and of ,jehu1 son of ,omri1 ,i received4 ,the tribute of ,jehu of ,israel1 mentioned in the last line of this inscription1 is pictured on ,shalmaneser's black obelisk2 7see ,figs4 #bie1 #bif74 ,above its various panels is the following inscription3#ejg ,tribute of ,jehu1 son of ,omri3 silver1 gold1 a bowl 787 of gold1 a basin 787 of gold1 cups of gold1 pails 787 of gold1 bars of lead1 scepters 787 for the hand of the king and balsam wood ,i received from him4 ,a fifth expedition is thus briefly described3#ejh ,in the #bast year of my reign 7#hci ,b4 ,c471 the river ,euphrates ,i crossed1 against the cities of ,hazael of ,damascus ,i went4 ,four of his cities ,i captured4 ,the tribute of the ,tyrian1 of the ,sidonian1 and of the ,gebalite ,i received4 ,in still another inscription1 which gives a summary of his wars1 ,shalmaneser compresses the account of his various wars in the west as follows3#eji ,at that time ,hadadidri of the land of ,damascus1 together with #ab princes1 his helpers1--their defeat ,i accomplished4 #bi1jjj mighty warriors ,i prostrated like a simoom 7874 ,the rest of his soldiers ,i cast into the river ,orontes4 ,they fled to save their lives4 ,hadadidri forsook his land4 ,hazael1 son of a nobody1 seized the throne4 ,he summoned his numerous soldiers and came to make war and battle with me4 ,with him ,i fought1 ,i accomplished his defeat4 ,the wall of his camp ,i seized4 ,he fled to save his life4 ,i pursued him to ,damascus1 his capital city4 #g4 ,the ,moabite ,stone4 ,this stone1 which bears an inscription of ,mesha1 ,king of ,moab1 a contemporary of ,king ,ahab1 was erected at ,dibon 7the modern ,diban7 on the north shore of the ,arnon1 where it was found in the last century4 ,the upper portion of it was first seen by a ,prussian clergyman1 ,rev4 ,f4 ,a4 ,klein1 in the year #ahfh4 ,reports of its existence had previously reached the ,french scholar1 ,clermont-,ganneau1 who was then in ,jerusalem1 and a squeeze of it was afterward taken by an ,arab for this ,french scholar4 ,both the ,french and ,prussian governments were desirous of obtaining it1 and the ,arabs1 conceiving that they could obtain more money for it by selling it in parts1 broke it up1 thus greatly mutilating the inscription4 ,afterward the ,french obtained it1 putting the pieces together again1 and it may now be seen in the ,louvre at ,paris2 7see ,fig4 #cjj74 ,the inscription is as follows3#eaj ,i am ,mesha1 son of ,chemoshmelek1 ,king of ,moab1 the ,dibonite4 ,my father ruled over ,moab thirty years1 and ,i ruled after my father4 ,and ,i made this high place to ,chemosh in ,qarhah 787 because of the deliverance of ,mesha1 because he saved me from all the kings and because he caused me to see my desire upon all who hated me4 ,omri1 king of ,israel--he oppressed ,moab many days1 because ,chemosh was angry with his land4 ,and his son succeeded him1 and he also said ,i will oppress ,moab4 ,in my day he spoke according to this word1 but ,i saw my desire upon him and upon his house1 and ,israel utterly perished forever4 ,now ,omri had possessed all the land of ,medeba and dwelt in it his days and half the days of his son1 forty years1 but ,chemosh restored it in my day4 ,and ,i built ,baal-meon and ,i made in it the reservoir 7871 and ,i built ,kiryathaim4 ,and the men of ,gad had dwelt in the land of ,ataroth from of old and the king of ,israel had built for himself ,ataroth4 ,and ,i fought against the city and took it1 and ,i slew all the people of the city1 a sight pleasing to ,chemosh and to ,moab4 ,and ,i brought back from there the altar-hearth of ,duda and ,i dragged it before ,chemosh in ,kiryoth4 ,and ,i caused to dwell in it the men of ,sharon 787 and the men of ,meharoth 7874 ,and ,chemosh said to me3 8,go take ,nebo against ,israel02 and ,i went by night and fought against it from break of dawn till noon1 and ,i took it and slew all1 seven thousand men1 boys 7871 and women1 and girls1 for ,i had devoted it to ,ashtar-,chemosh4 ,and ,i took from there the altar-hearths of ,yahweh 7,jehovah71 and ,i dragged them before ,chemosh4 ,and the king of ,israel built ,jahaz and dwelt in it while he fought with me and ,chemosh drove him out from before me4 ,and ,i took from ,moab two hundred men1 all its chiefs1 and ,i led them against ,jahaz and took it to add unto ,dibon4 ,and ,i built ,qarhah 7871 the wall of the forests and the wall of the hill2 and ,i built its gates and ,i built its towers1 and ,i built the king's house1 and ,i made the sluices 787 for the reservoir of water in the midst of the city4 ,and there was no cistern in the midst of the city1 in ,qarhah 7872 and ,i said to all the people3 8,make you each a cistern in his house20 and ,i cut the cuttings for ,qarhah 787 with the help of the prisoners of ,israel4 ,i built ,aroer and ,i made the highway by the ,arnon4 ,and ,i built ,beth-bamoth1 for it had been destroyed4 ,and ,i built ,bezer1 for it was in ruins 4444444444 ,chiefs of ,dibon were fifty1 for all ,dibon was obedient4 ,and ,i ruled a hundred 44444444441 in the cities which ,i had added to the land4 ,and ,i built ,medeba and ,beth-diblathan4 ,and as for ,beth-baal-meon1 there ,i placed sheep-raisers 44444444444 sheep of the land4 ,and as for ,horonaim there dwelt in it 444444 and 4444444444 ,chemosh said unto me3 8,go down1 fight against ,horonaim10 and ,i went down and 44444444444 ,chemosh in my day1 and from there 44444444444444444444 and ,i 4444444444 ,the author of this inscription is the ,mesha mentioned in #b ,kings #c3d4 ,he is there said to have been a 8sheep-master0 7,hebrew1 nqdh74 ,mesha appears to say in line #cj 7the word is broken7 that he placed noqdhim1 8sheep-raisers10 or1 8sheep-masters10 in ,beth-baal-meon4 ,the nqdh was a raiser of a peculiar breed of sheep4 ,moab is excellent grazing land and raised a great many4 ,in general the inscription supplements the ,biblical narrative4 ,it mentions persons and places well known from the ,bible1 and gives us an account of a series of events of which the ,bible makes no mention4 ,the ,biblical account says nothing of ,mesha's revolt1 while ,mesha in his turn says nothing of the campaign described in #b ,kings #c4 ,neither document implies that the events described in the other did not occur2 the two are written from two different points of view and their authors selected the events which suited the purpose of the respective writers4 ,in spite of this consideration there are some differences of statement which are perplexing4 ,mesha says in substance that ,omri conquered ,medeba and occupied it during his reign1 half the reign of his son1 a period of forty years1 but ,chemosh restored it to ,moab in his 7,mesha's7 day4 ,it is said in #b ,kings #c3e1 on the other hand1 that 8when ,ahab was dead1 the king of ,moab rebelled against the king of ,israel40 ,according to #a ,kings #af3bc-bi1 ,omri reigned twelve years and ,ahab twenty-two years4 ,all the reign of ,omri1 and half of that of ,ahab would1 accordingly1 be but twenty-three years4 ,it is possible1 however1 as has been suggested by several scholars1 that ,mesha uses the word son to denote descendant1 and that he refers to the war with ,israel in the reign of ,jehoram1 son of ,ahab1 described in #b ,kings #c3f-bg4 ,another suggestion1 which seems more probable1 is that the recapture of ,medeba1 mentioned near the beginning of ,mesha's inscription1 occurred about the middle of the reign of ,ahab1 while the capture of ,ataroth may have belonged to the period of ,jehoram1 the whole time from ,omri to ,jehoram being forty years4 ,some scholars have supposed that the ,biblical chronology is in error and that ,omri and ,ahab together ruled some fifty years4 ,this supposition can hardly be correct1 since the general accuracy of the chronology of this part of ,kings is confirmed by the ,assyrian inscriptions4 ,mesha's inscription mentions a number of places which the ,bible also names1 the ,arnon 7,num4 #ba3ac1 etc42 ,deut4 #b3bd2 #c3af1 etc471 ,aroer 7,josh4 #ac3af71 ,ataroth 7,num4 #cb3cd71 ,baal-meon or ,beth-baal-meon 7,josh4 #ac3ag2 ,num4 #cb3ch71 ,beth-bamoth#eaa 7,josh4 #ac3ag71 ,beth-diblathaim 7,jer4 #dh3bb71 ,bezer 7,josh4 #bj3h71 ,dibon 7,num4 #cb3cd2 ,josh4 #ac3ag2 ,isa4 #ae3b71 ,horonaim 7,isa4 #ae3e71 ,jahaz 7,josh4 #ac3ah2 ,isa4 #ae3d71 ,kerioth 7,jer4 #dh3bd71 ,kirathaim 7,josh4 #ac3ai2 ,jer4 #dh3bc71 ,medeba 7,josh4 #ac3af2 ,isa4 #ae3b71 and ,nebo 7,num4 #cb3ch2 ,deut4 #cd3a2 ,isa4 #ae3b74 #h4 ,adadnirari ,,iv4 ,adadnirari ,,iv of ,assyria 7#haj-ghb ,b4 ,c47 has left an inscription which mentions ,syria and ,palestine4 ,it reads as follows3#eab ,palace of ,adadnirari1 the great king1 the mighty king1 the king of the world1 the king of ,assyria1 who conquered from the ,euphrates1 the ,hittite country1 the ,amorite land in its entirety2 ,tyre1 ,sidon1 the land of ,omri1 ,edom1 ,palastu1 to the coast of the great sea1 where the sun sets1 cast themselves at my feet2 ,i imposed tribute and imposts upon them4 ,to the land of ,damascus ,i marched4 ,mari1 ,king of ,damascus1 in ,damascus his royal city ,i besieged4 ,the fear of the luster of ,ashur my lord overwhelmed him and he seized my feet and became subject4 #b1cjj talents of silver1 #bj talents of gold1 #c1jjj talents of copper1 #e1jjj talents of iron1 variegated garments1 linen 7871 an ivory bed1 an ivory couch 787 with inlaid border1 his goods without measure ,i received in the palace in his royal city ,damascus4 8,the land of ,omri0 was the kingdom of ,israel4 ,omri had made such an impression on the ,east that the ,assyrians still so called it4 8,palastu0 is ,philistia4 ,edom is here mentioned for the first time as paying tribute to an ,assyrian king1 but ,judah is not mentioned2 she was still free4 ,adadnirari was a contemporary of ,jehoahaz and ,jehoash of ,israel1 and of ,joash and ,amaziah of ,judah4 #i4 ,tiglathpileser ,,iv4 ,tiglathpileser ,,iv1 one of the greatest of ,assyria's kings1 made several campaigns into the west and had a profound influence upon the fortunes of the ,hebrew people4 ,unfortunately1 his inscriptions have been greatly mutilated4 ,esarhaddon1 a later king1 determined to remodel ,tiglathpileser's palace for his own use4 ,apparently he intended to erase ,tiglathpileser's inscriptions from the wall-tablets which adorned the palace1 in order to inscribe these tablets with his own4 ,esarhaddon died before the work had progressed very far1 so that the inscriptions were not entirely ruined4 ,the beginnings and ends of many lines are1 however1 entirely destroyed1 and at some points deplorable gaps exist in the body of an inscription4 ,much that is of interest to the ,biblical student can still be made out1 as the following translation will show3#eac #a4 444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,in the progress of my expedition the tribute of kings 4444444444 #c4 444444 ,azariah1 the ,yaudan1 like 4444444444 #d4 444444 ,azariah of ,yaudi in 4444444444 #e4 44444444 without number exalted to heaven 4444444444 #f4 444444 in the eyes1 when that which from heaven 4444444444 #g4 44444444 by the onset of infantry 4444444444 #h4 the advance of my powerful troops they heard and their hearts feared 4444444444 #i4 4444444444 ,i destroyed1 devastated1 burned with fire 4444444444 #aj4 444444 who had joined with ,azariah and had strengthened him4 #aa4 44444444444 like vines 44444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444 #bc4 44444444444 ,azariah1 the ,yaudan 4444444444 my royal palace 44444444444 #bd4 444444444444444 tribute like the ,assyrian ,i laid upon them4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #cj4 444444444444444444444 the city ,bumame1#ead #ai districts #ca4 of the city of ,hamath1 together with the cities of their environs on the shore of the western sea1 which sinfully and wrongfully they had seized for ,azariah1 #cb4 unto the territory of ,assyria ,i added4 ,i set my officers over them as governors4 #cj1jjj men ,i carried away captive #cc4 4444444 from their cities1 in the city of ,ku 444444 ,i settled them4 #a1bbc people ,i settled in the province of ,ullubu4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #ej4 4444444 ,tribute of ,kushtashpi1 the ,kummukhite1 ,rezin1 the ,damascene1 ,menahem1 the ,samaritan1 #ea4 ,hiram1 the ,tyrian1 ,sibitti-baal1 the ,gebalite1 ,urikke1 the ,queite1 ,pisiris of ,carchemish1 ,eniel #eb4 the ,hamathite1 ,panammu1 the ,samalite1 ,tarhulara1 the ,gamgumalite1 ,sulumal1 the ,melidite1 ,dadilu1 #ec4 the ,kaskite1 ,ussurmi1 the ,tabalite1 ,ushkitti1 the ,tunite1 ,urballa1 the ,tuhanite1 ,tuhammi1 the ,ishtundite1 #ed4 ,urimme1 the ,hushimnite1 ,zabibe1 ,queen of ,arabia1 gold1 silver1 lead1 iron1 elephant-hide1 ivory1 #ee4 variegated garments1 linen cloths1 purple and red wool1 ushu-wood1 ukarinu-wood1 costly things1 a royal treasure1 fat sheep whose wool #ef4 was dyed red1 winged birds of heaven whose wings were dyed purple1 horses1 mules1 oxen and sheep1 camels1 #eg4 she-camels1 together with their foals1 ,i received4 ,this account relates to the campaign of #gch ,b4 ,c4 ,the ,azariah referred to has been thought to be ,king ,uzziah of ,judah1 who is called ,azariah in #b ,kings #ad3ba and #ae3a-bg4 ,it is probable that he was an ,azariah of ,yadi1 of northern ,syria1 mentioned in an inscription of ,panammu1 to whom ,tiglathpileser refers above1 since the kings mentioned with him ruled in the north4 ,manahem of ,israel 7#b ,kings #ae3ad-bc7 yielded to ,tiglathpileser1 as did ,rezin1 of ,damascus 7#b ,kings #ae3cg and #af3e-i71 but for some reason ,azariah and ,judah escaped4 ,this inscription1 fragmentary though it is1 tells us that ,tiglathpileser now practised upon others the system of deportation from which ,israel herself afterward suffered4 ,he forcibly removed thousands from their homes to distant parts of the empire4 ,this was an administrative measure1 to prevent future rebellion4 ,persons who had been influential at home among their own people would be powerless to foment trouble in the midst of strange surroundings and neighbors of an unfriendly race4 ,the following relates to the campaign of #gcc-gcb3eae #a4 4444444444444444444 his warriors ,i captured 4444444444 ,i overthrew with my weapons4 #b4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 before him4 #c4 the charioteers and 44444444444444444444 their weapons ,i broke4 #d4 their chariots and horses ,i seized 4444444444 his bowmen 4444444444 #e4 4444444444444 who carried shields and spears my hands overthrew1 their battle #f4 444444444444 to save his life he fled alone and #g4 44444444444444 like a mouse 787 entered the gate of his city4 ,his captains alive #h4 my hands captured and on stakes ,i hung them and exhibited them to his land4 #de people 787 from his camp #i4 444444 ,i brought together before his city1 and ,i shut him in like a bird in a cage4 ,his parks #aj4 44444444 his orchards1 which were without number1 ,i cut down and did not leave one4 #aa4 4444444444 ,hadara1 the home of the father of ,rezin of ,damascus1 #ab4 the place where he was born1 ,i besieged1 ,i captured4 #hjj people1 together with their possessions1 #ac4 444444 their cattle1 and sheep ,i took as spoil4 #gej prisoners of the city ,kurussa1 #ad4 444444 prisoners of the city ,irma1 #eej prisoners of the city ,mituna1 ,i captured4 #eia cities 4444444444 #ae4 444444 of #af districts of ,damascus like a deluge heap ,i destroyed4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #ai4 44444444444444444444 ,hanno of ,gaza#eaf #bj4 fled before my weapons and escaped to ,egypt4 ,the city1 ,gaza1 #ba4 ,i captured4 ,his goods1 his possessions1 his gods ,i took as spoil 444444 my royal image #bb4 44444444444444444444 in the palace of ,hanno ,i set up4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #bg4 ,the country of the house of ,omri 4444444444 all its people1 #bh4 and their possessions ,i carried away unto ,assyria4 ,pekah1 their king1 they had overthrown4 ,hoshea #bi4 as king over them ,i placed4 #aj talents of gold 444444 talents of silver ,i received as tribute from them4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #eg4 ,tribute#eag of ,kushtashpi1 the ,kummuchite1 ,urikki1 the ,queite1 ,sibittibaal1 the ,gebalite1 ,pisiris1 the ,carchemishite1 #eh4 ,eni-el1 the ,hamathite1 ,panammu1 the ,samalite1 ,tarhulara1 the ,gurgumite1 ,sulumal1 the ,melidite1 ,dadilu1 the ,kaskite1 #ei4 ,ussurmi1 the ,tabalite1 ,urassurme1 the ,tabalite1 ,ushhitti1 the ,tunite1 ,urballa1 the ,turhanite1 ,tuhamme1 the ,ishtundite1 ,urimme1 the ,hushimnite1 #fj4 ,matanbaal1 the ,arvadite1 ,sanipu1 the ,beth-,ammonite1 ,salamanu1 the ,moabite1 4444444444444 #fa4 ,mitinti1 the ,askelonite1 ,jehoahaz ,ahaz1 the ,judan1 ,kaushmalaka1 the ,edomite1 ,mus 444444444444 #fb4 ,hanno1 the ,gazaite1 gold1 silver1 lead1 iron1 tin1 variegated garments1 linen1 red cloths of their lands1 #fc4 every costly thing1 products of sea and dry land produced by their countries1 royal treasures1 horses1 mules1 harnesses 44444444 ,i received4 ,the record of this campaign1 fragmentary as it is1 shows how completely ,tiglathpileser conquered the west4 ,he accomplished the overthrow of ,damascus1 which his predecessors had been trying in vain to do for more than a hundred years4 ,his invasion of northern ,israel led to the overthrow of ,pekah1 and the deportation as captives to other parts of the empire of numerous ,israelites4 ,this confirms #b ,kings #ae3bi1 #cj4 ,it was this conquest of ,damascus and ,israel that fulfilled ,isaiah's prophecy given in #gce ,b4 ,c4 7,isa4 #g3af74 ,it was while ,tiglathpileser was at ,damascus1 receiving the tribute1 that ,ahaz1 whose full name was ,jehoahaz1 went to ,damascus to carry his tribute1--an act which prevented the invasion of ,judah by ,assyria at this time4 ,while ,ahaz was in ,damascus1 he saw the altar of which a copy was made for the temple in ,jerusalem 7#b ,kings #af3aj1 ff474 ,the list of kings from whom ,tiglathpileser received tribute contains many ,biblical names4 ,not only ,israel and ,judah1 but the ,philistine cities1 ,edom1 ,moab1 ,ammon1 ,damascus1 ,hamath1 the ,phnician cities of ,gebal and ,arvad1 ,samal in the extreme north of ,syria1 ,que in ,cilicia1 and ,carchemish on the ,euphrates1 were all drawn into his net4 #aj4 ,sargon1 #gbb-gje ,b4 ,c4 ,tiglathpileser ,,iv was succeeded by ,shalmaneser ,v1 who ruled1 as the eponym canon shows1 from #gbg to #gbb ,b4 ,c4 ,on account of a rebellion of ,hoshea1 ,king of ,israel1 ,shalmaneser overran his kingdom and besieged ,samaria for three years1 as recorded in #b ,kings #ag3c-e4 ,before the city fell1 however1 ,shalmaneser had passed away and ,sargon1 the founder of a new dynasty1 was on the throne of ,assyria4 ,in ,sargon's first year ,samaria fell into the hands of the ,assyrian army2 ,sargon counted this as his own victory and tells of it in the following words3#eah ,at the beginning of my reign1 in my first year 444444 ,samaria ,i besieged1 ,i captured4 #bg1bij people from its midst ,i carried captive4 #ej chariots ,i took there as an addition to my royal force 4444444444 ,i returned and made more than formerly to dwell4 ,people from lands which my hands had captured ,i settled in the midst4 ,my officers over them as governors ,i appointed4 ,tribute and taxes ,i imposed upon them after the ,assyrian manner4 ,in another inscription the following summary account occurs3#eai ,from the beginning of my reign to my #aeth year1 the defeat of ,humbanigash1 the ,elamite1 in the environs of ,durilu ,i accomplished4 ,samaria ,i besieged1 ,i captured2 ,i carried captive #bg1bij people who dwelt in it2 #ej chariots ,i took from them1 and permitted the rest to keep their possessions 7871 and placed my governor over them and imposed on them the tribute of the former king4 ,these statements confirm #b ,kings #ag3f and #bd1 ff4 ,in one respect they throw an interesting light upon the captivity of ,israel4 ,only #bg1bij people were transported at this time4 ,true1 ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv had previously transported the inhabitants of several towns of ,galilee4 7,see #b ,kings #ae3bi1 and his inscriptions translated above47 ,when we put together all those who were deported1 however1 they were but a fraction of the population4 ,as ,sargon distinctly says1 the others remained there4 ,they intermarried with the settlers whom he brought in and became the ancestors of the sect of ,samaritans4 ,the 8ten lost tribes0 were not 8lost10 as is often popularly supposed to have been the case4 ,the first of the inscriptions quoted above contains also the following passage3#ebj ,in the second year of my reign ,ilubidi1 the ,hamathite 444444 collected his numerous troops at ,qarqar4 ,the oath of ,ashur he despised4 ,arpad1 ,simirra1 ,damascus1 ,samaria1 he made rebellious against me 444444444444444444444 ,sib'u1 his ,tartan1 he summoned to his aid1 and to give fight and battle came into my presence4 ,in the name of ,ashur1 my lord1 ,i accomplished his defeat4 ,sib'u fled like a shepherd whose sheep are stolen and escaped4 ,hanno ,i caught in my hand and took him bound unto my city ,ashur4 ,the city ,raphia ,i devastated1 destroyed1 burned with fire4 ,i took captive #i1jcc people1 together with their numerous possessions4 ,the ,sib'u of this inscription is probably the same as ,so1 ,king of ,egypt1 in #b ,kings #ag3d4 ,he cannot be identified with any known ,egyptian king4 ,he was probably a prince of a nome of the ,delta4 ,the above is ,sargon's description of the battle of ,raphia1 which occurred in the year #gbj ,b4 ,c4 ,this campaign was an aftermath of the fall of ,samaria4 #gag ,b4 ,c4 ,sargon1#eba the exalted prince1 who came upon ,hummanigash1 the ,king of ,elam1 in the environs of ,durilu and accomplished his overthrow1 who reduced to submission ,yaudi1 the place of which was distant1 who destroyed ,hamath1 whose hands captured ,yaubidi4 ,this ,yaudi has been taken by some scholars for ,judah1 but it was probably the kingdom in northern ,syria mentioned by ,tiglathpileser ,,iv and in the inscription of ,panammu1 of ,samal1 the modern ,zendjirli4 ,we know of no ,assyrian invasion of ,judah at this time4 ,the tribute of ,pharaoh1 ,king of ,egypt1 of ,samsi1 the ,queen of ,arabia1 ,ithamara1 the ,saban1 gold1 the 444444 of the mountain1 horses1 and camels1 ,i received 444444444444#ebb ,yaubidi1 the ,hamathite1 a soldier 7871 with no right to the throne1 a bad ,hittite1 had set his heart on the kingdom of ,hamath2 he caused ,arpad1 ,simirra1 ,damascus1 and ,samaria to rebel against me1 made them of one intent and collected for battle4 ,the whole army of ,ashur ,i mustered and in ,qarqar1 his favorite city1 ,i besieged him together with his soldiers4 ,i captured ,qarqar1 ,i burned it with fire4 ,his skin ,i flayed and the partakers of his sin ,i killed in their cities2 ,i established peace4 #bjj chariots and #bjj horsemen ,i collected from the people of ,hamath1 and added to my royal force4 ,this passage records the overthrow of ,hamath and ,arpad 7,isa4 #aj3i71 and mentions the tribute of a king of ,sheba1 the account of the coming of whose queen to ,solomon is found in ,i ,kings #aj3a1 ff4 #gaa ,b4 ,c4 ,azuri1 ,king of ,ashdod1 planned in his heart not to pay tribute1 and among the kings of his neighborhood disseminated hatred of ,assyria4 ,on account of the evil he had done ,i cut off his lordship over the people of his land4 ,i appointed ,ahimiti1 his younger 787 brother to the kingship over them4 ,but the ,hittites1 planning evil1 hated him and exalted over them ,yamani1 who had no claim to the throne1 and who1 like them1 knew no fear of authority4 ,in the anger of my heart the mass of my army ,i did not muster1 ,i did not assemble my camp4 ,with my usual bodyguard ,i marched against ,ashdod4 ,yamani heard of the progress of my expedition from afar and fled to the borders of ,egypt1 which lies by the side of ,melucha1 and was seen no more4 ,ashdod1 ,gath1 ,ashdudimmu1 ,i besieged1 ,i conquered4 ,i took as spoil his gods1 his wife1 his sons1 his daughters1 his possessions1 the treasures of his palace1 together with the people of his land4 ,i seized those cities anew1 and settled in them peoples of lands ,i had captured from among the lands of the east 4444444444 ,with the people of ,assyria ,i numbered them1 and they bore my yoke4 ,the king of ,melucha1 who among 444444 an inaccessible place1 a road 444444 whose fathers from ancient days as far back as the moon-god1 his father1 had sent no messengers to my fathers to pay their respects1 heard from afar of the might of ,ashur1 ,nabu1 and ,marduk2 the fear of the luster of my royalty covered him and fright was poured over him4 ,he cast him ,yamani into bonds1 fetters of iron1 and brought him before me into ,assyria1--a long journey4#ebc ,another fragmentary account runs thus3#ebd ,in the #ith error for #aath year of my reign ,i marched 4444444444 to the coast of the great sea 444444 ,azuri1 ,king of ,ashdod1 4444444444 ,ahimiti 4444444444 his younger 787 brother 4444444444 ,i exalted over them 4444444444 tribute and taxes of my lordship 444444 like those of 444444 kings1 ,i imposed upon them 444444 ,the evil in 4444444444 in order not to pay tribute 4444444444 their princes 4444444444 they drove him away 4444444444 ,yamani1 a soldier1 they appointed to kingship over them4 ,their city 4444444444 in its environs a moat 4444444444 cubits in depth they dug1 they reached the water-level 4444444444 ,to punish ,philistia1 ,judah1 ,edom1 ,moab1 who inhabit the sea-coast1 payers of tribute1 and taxes to ,ashur1 my lord4 ,planning rebellion and untold evil against me1 they bore their pledges to ,pharaoh1 ,king of ,egypt1 a prince who could not help them1 and sought his aid4 ,i1 ,sargon1 the faithful prince1 who honors the oath of ,nabu and ,marduk1 who guards the name of ,ashur1 caused my trusty troops to cross the ,tigris and ,euphrates at high water4 ,as for him1 ,yamani1 their king1 who had trusted to his own power1 and had not submitted to my lordship1 he heard of the advance of my army4 ,the fear of ,ashur1 my lord1 cast him down1 and to 444444 which is on the bank of the river 444444 waters 444444 his land 444444 far away 444444 he fled 444444 ,ashdod 444444 ,the two passages just translated are ,sargon's accounts of the events alluded to in ,isa4 #bj3a4 ,these events were the occasion of the prophecy there recorded4 ,until the discovery of the palace of ,sargon by ,botta in #ahde1 this passage in ,isaiah1 was the only place in extant literature where the name of ,sargon had been preserved4 ,in the last of the passages just quoted1 ,sargon speaks as though he had also punished ,judah on this expedition4 ,there is no direct allusion to this in the ,bible unless it be the vivid description in ,isa4 #aj3bh-cb1 where an approach of an ,assyrian army to ,jerusalem from the north is described4 ,it is difficult to date those verses unless they also refer to this expedition of #gaa ,b4 ,c4 7,see ,appendix47 #aa4 ,sennacherib1 #gje-fha ,b4 ,c4 ,campaign of #gjaebe ,in my third expedition ,i went to the land of the ,hittites4 ,the fear of my lordship overthrew ,luli1 ,king of ,sidon1 and he fled to a distance in the midst of the sea4 ,his land ,i subdued4 ,great ,sidon1 little ,sidon4 ,beth-zt1 ,zareptah1 ,mahalliba1 ,ushu1 ,achzib1 ,accho1 his strongholds1 his fortresses1 the places of his food and drink1 the forts in which he trusted1 the might of the weapons of ,ashur1 my lord1 overthrew them and they submitted to my feet4 ,i caused ,tubal to sit on the royal throne over them1 and imposed upon him the yearly payment of tribute as the tax of my lordship4 ,minhimmu1 the ,shamsimurunian1 ,tubalu1 the ,sidonian1 ,abdiliti1 the ,arvadite1 ,urumilke1 the ,gebalite1 ,mitinti1 the ,ashdodite1 ,puduilu1 the ,beth-,ammonite1 ,kammusunadbi1 the ,moabite1 ,milkirammu1 the ,edomite1 kings of the ,westland1 all of them1 an extensive district1 brought their heavy tribute together with their possessions into my presence and kissed my feet4 ,and ,sidqa1 the ,king of ,askelon1 who had not submitted to my yoke1 the gods of the house of his father1 himself1 his wife1 his sons1 his daughters1 his brothers1 the seed of the house of his father ,i took away and brought him to ,assyria4 ,sharruludari1 the son of ,rukibti1 their former king1 ,i placed over the people of ,askelon1 and imposed upon him the payment of tribute as an aid to my rule1 and he bore my yoke4 ,in the progress of my expedition ,beth-,dagon1 ,joppa1 ,banabarka1 ,azuru1 the cities of ,sidqa1 who had not with alacrity submitted to my feet1 ,i besieged1 ,i captured1 ,i took their spoil4 ,the governors1 princes1 and people of ,ekron1 who had cast into fetters of iron ,padi1 their king1 my ally1 bound by ,ashur's oath1 and had delivered him to ,hezekiah1 the ,judan1 who as an enemy imprisoned him1--their hearts feared4 ,the kings of ,egypt1 the soldiers1 bows1 chariots1 and horses of the king of ,meluhu1 an unnumbered force1 they summoned1 and they came to their aid4 ,in the environs of ,elteke the battle array was drawn up before me2 they asked for their weapons4 ,in the might of ,ashur1 my lord1 ,i fought with them and accomplished their defeat4 ,my hands took alive in the midst of the battle the commander of the chariots and the sons of the ,egyptian king1 together with the commander of the chariots of the king of ,meluhu4 ,elteke and ,timnath ,i besieged1 captured and took their spoil4 ,i approached ,ekron4 ,the governors and princes who had committed sin ,i killed and on stakes round about the city ,i hung their bodies4 ,the citizens who had committed wickedness and rebellion ,i counted as spoil4 ,i declared the righteousness of the rest of them1 who had committed no sin and rebellion and in whom was no wickedness4 ,i brought ,padi1 their king1 out of the midst of ,jerusalem1 and on the throne of dominion over them ,i placed1 and imposed the tribute of my over-lordship upon him4 ,and as to ,hezekiah1 the ,judan1 who had not submitted to my yoke1 #df of his strongholds1 fortified cities1 and smaller cities of their environs without number1 with the onset of battering rams and the attack of engines1 mines1 breaches1 and axes 7871 ,i besieged1 ,i captured4 #bjj1aej people1 small and great1 male and female1 horses1 mules1 asses1 camels1 oxen1 and sheep without number ,i brought out of their midst and counted as booty4 ,he himself ,i shut up like a caged bird in ,jerusalem1 his capital city2 ,i erected beleaguering works against him1 and turned back by command every one who came out of his city gate4 ,the cities1 which ,i had captured1 from his country ,i cut off and gave them to ,mitinti1 ,king of ,ashdod1 ,padi1 ,king of ,ekron1 and ,sillibaal1 ,king of ,gaza1 and diminished his land4 ,in addition to the former tribute1 their yearly tax1 ,i added a tax as the impost of my over-lordship and laid it upon them4 ,as to ,hezekiah himself1 the fear of the luster of my lordship overcame him and the ,urbi and his favorite soldiers1 whom he had brought in to strengthen ,jerusalem1 his capital city1 deserted4 ,with #cj talents of gold1 #hjj talents of silver1 precious stones1 rouge1 dakkasi1 lapis lazuli1 great angugmi-stones1 beds of ivory1 stationary ivory thrones1 elephants' hide1 ivory1 ushu-wood1 ukarinnu-wood1 all sorts of objects1 a heavy treasure2 also his daughters1 the women of his palace1 male and female musicians he sent after me to ,nineveh1 my capital city1 and sent his messenger to present the gift and to do homage4 ,inscription under ,lachish-picture1 #gja ,b4 ,c4 ,sennacherib1 king of the world1 ,king of ,assyria1 sat on his throne1 and the spoil of the city of ,lachish passed before him2#ebf 7see ,fig4 #bih74 ,expedition against ,merodachbaladan1 #gjc ,b4 ,c4 ,in my first expedition ,i accomplished the defeat of ,merodachbaladan1 ,king of ,babylon1 together with the forces of ,elam1 his ally1 in the environs of the city of ,kish4 ,in the midst of that battle he left his camp and fled alone2 he saved his life4 ,the chariots1 horses1 wagons1 and mules1 which at the onset of battle he had left1 my hands captured4 ,i entered joyfully into his palace which was in ,babylon4 ,i opened his treasure-house2 gold1 silver1 gold and silver utensils1 precious stones of all kinds1 his untold treasured possessions1 a great booty2 the women of his palace1 princes1 his body-guards1 male and female musicians1 the rest of his troops as many as there were1 and the servants of his palace ,i brought out and counted as spoil4#ebg ,campaign against ,arabia 7between #fhh and #fhb7 ,telhunu1 the ,queen of ,arabia1 in the midst of the desert--from her ,i took 444 camels4 ,the luster of my lordship overthrew her and ,hazael4 ,they left their tents and fled to ,adummatu1 which is situated in the desert1 444444 a thirsty place1 where there is neither food nor drink4#ebh ,the material contained in the first two passages just quoted from ,sennacherib is parallel in a general way to #b ,kings #ah1 #ai and ,isa4 #cf1 #cg4 ,all ,biblical students recognize that these two chapters in ,isaiah are practically identical with the two in ,kings4 ,in discussing the parallelism1 therefore1 we shall refer to #b ,kings #ah1 #ai only4 ,with reference to the bearing of this ,assyrian material upon the ,biblical narrative there are three different views which have been entertained by three groups of scholars4 #a4 ,one view1 which was first expressed by the late ,prof4 ,schrader1#ebi of ,berlin1 is that the inscription of ,sennacherib1 while differing from the ,biblical account in some particulars1 really confirms it at nearly every point4 ,sennacherib1 though he claims to have diminished ,hezekiah's territory1 and to have received from him a heavy tribute1 does not claim to have taken ,jerusalem4 ,according to #b ,kings #ah3ad1 ff41 ,hezekiah submitted to ,sennacherib1 sending his messenger to ,lachish for the purpose1 and paid him a heavy tribute2 according to #b ,kings #ai3ce1 ff41 a great disaster so weakened ,sennacherib's army that he was obliged to withdraw4 ,schrader called attention to the close correspondence between #b ,kings #ah3ad and ,sennacherib4 ,both state that ,hezekiah paid #cj talents of gold1 though they differ as to the amount of silver1 ,kings making it #cjj talents1 while ,sennacherib makes it #hjj4 ,it was supposed that the numbers in the case of the silver were really equivalent to one another1 the present divergence being due to textual corruption4 ,assyrian kings never record their failures1 but ,sennacherib's admission that he did not take the city was held to be confirmation of #b ,kings #ai3ce1 ff41 which describes a great destruction of the ,assyrian army and a signal deliverance of ,jerusalem4 #b4 ,a second view1 of which ,prof4 ,meinhold1#ecj of ,bonn1 may be taken as the chief exponent1 starts from the fact that there seem to be two accounts in #b ,kings #ah and #ai4 ,in #ah3ac-af there is a statement of how ,hezekiah sent to ,sennacherib1 while ,sennacherib was besieging ,lachish1 and admitted that he had done wrong and promised to bear whatever ,sennacherib might choose to put upon him4 ,sennacherib thereupon imposed a heavy tribute upon him1 which he paid4 ,the whole transaction seems to be concluded1 when at v4 #ag the ,tartan1 or ,rabsaris 7,rabshakeh71 appears upon the scene and taunts ,hezekiah for his obstinacy and he submits again4 ,possibly this might be considered the details of the transaction that was described in mere outline in #ah3ac-af4 ,when1 however1 it has all been described again1 and the ,rabshakeh has returned to ,sennacherib at ,lachish1 ,sennacherib again sends messengers 7chapter #ai3i71 again demanding a surrender4 ,these messengers are said to have been sent when ,sennacherib heard that ,tirhakah1 ,king of ,ethiopia1 was marching against him4 ,this narrative goes on to tell how ,hezekiah1 acting under the advice of ,isaiah1 delayed his surrender1 and how the camp of the ,assyrians was decimated by the angel of the ,lord1 and ,jerusalem escaped4 ,meinhold and his followers hold that there are here two inconsistent accounts4 ,according to the first1 ,hezekiah surrendered2 according to the second1 he did not4 ,according to the first1 ,hezekiah paid tribute2 according to the second1 ,sennacherib's army was destroyed4 ,the first of these accounts is confirmed by ,sennacherib's inscription2 the second is1 so ,meinhold holds1 shown by it to be unhistorical3 first1 by the fact that ,sennacherib gives no hint that his army was harmed1 and1 secondly1 by the mention of ,tirhakah1 who did not come to the throne until #fhh ,b4 ,c41 and could not1 therefore1 have been a factor in the war of #gja ,b4 ,c4 ,a third view was suggested by ,winckler#eca and is held by ,praek1#ecb ,fullerton1#ecc and ,rogers4#ecd ,according to this view1 ,sennacherib made two expeditions against ,jerusalem1 and #b ,kings #ah3ac-ai3h is an account of the first of these 7the expedition of #gja71 while #b ,kings #ai3i-cf is the account of the second1--an expedition which did not occur until after the accession of ,tirhakah1 eight or ten years later4 ,the inscription of ,sennacherib1 already quoted1 refers to the first of these expeditions only4 ,we have no inscription of ,sennacherib referring to the later disastrous campaign1 but that is not surprising1 for unless the account of his expedition against the queen of ,arabia1 already quoted above1 belongs to this period1 we have no inscriptions referring to the last eight years of his reign4 ,it is thought by the scholars who believe that there were two expeditions1 that ,sennacherib would approach the queen of ,arabia only from the west1 so that that inscription is regarded as an incidental confirmation of this view4 ,of course1 an ,assyrian king would not record a disaster4 ,the account in #b ,kings #ai3i-cf receives confirmation from an interesting passage in ,herodotus1 the ,greek 8father of history40 ,he says 7,book ,,ii1 #ada73 ,and after this the next king of ,egypt was a priest of ,hephaistos1 called ,seths4 ,he held the warrior class of the ,egyptians in contempt as though he had no need of them4 ,he did them dishonor and deprived them of the arable lands which had been granted them by previous kings1 twelve acres to each soldier4 ,and afterward ,sennacherib1 ,king of the ,arabians and ,assyrians1 marched a great army into ,egypt4 ,then the soldiers of ,egypt would not help him2 whereupon the priest went into the inner sanctuary to the image of the god and bewailed the things which he was in danger of suffering4 ,as he wept he fell asleep1 and there appeared to him in a vision the god standing over him to encourage him1 saying that1 when he went forth to meet the ,arabian army he would suffer no harm1 for he himself would send him helpers4 ,trusting to this dream he collected those ,egyptians who were willing to follow him and marched to ,pelusium1 where the entrance to his country was4 ,none of the warriors followed him1 but traders1 artisans1 and market men4 ,there1 as the two armies lay opposite to each other1 there came in the night a multitude of field mice1 which ate up all the quivers and bowstrings of the enemy1 and the thongs of their shields4 ,in consequence1 on the next day they fled1 and1 being deprived of their arms1 many of them fell4 ,and there stands now in the temple of ,hephaistos a stone statue of this king holding a mouse in his hand1 bearing an inscription which says3 8,let any who look on me reverence the gods40 ,george ,adam ,smith#ece pointed out several years ago that1 when this passage is compared with #b ,kings #ai3cf1 it points clearly to the conclusion that ,sennacherib's army was attacked by bubonic plague4 ,in modern times this plague first attacks rats and mice1 which in their suffering swarm the dwellings of men and spread the disease4 ,the ,hebrews regarded the attack of such a plague as a smiting by the angel of ,god4 ,this is shown by #b ,sam4 #bd3af1 #ag2 ,acts #ab3bc2 #b ,kings #ai3cf4 ,such a pestilence would render the ,assyrian army helpless1 and would be regarded by the ,hebrews as a divine intervention on their behalf4 ,as it is supported by both the book of ,kings and ,herodotus1 it probably affords us a clue to what really happened to ,sennacherib's army4 ,we hold1 then1 that the last of the three views concerning the campaigns of ,sennacherib to ,palestine is probably correct4 ,the ,elteke mentioned in the inscription of ,sennacherib is the city referred to in ,josh4 #ai3dd and #ba3bc4 ,the ,merodachbaladan referred to is mentioned in ,isa4 #ci3a1 where it is said that he sent to congratulate ,hezekiah upon his recovery from sickness4 ,it is clear from what the ,assyrian accounts tell us that his real motive in sending to ,hezekiah was to induce him to rebel against ,assyria4 #ab4 ,the ,siloam ,inscription4 ,the following inscription was discovered in #ahhj on the right wall of the tunnel which connects the ,virgin's ,well 7,ain ,sitti ,maryam7 at ,jerusalem with the ,pool of ,siloam 7,birket ,silwn74 ,the boring through is completed4 ,and this is the story of the boring through3 while yet they plied the drill1 each toward his fellow1 and while yet there were three cubits to be bored through1 there was heard the voice of one calling unto another1 for there was a crevice in the rock on the right hand4 ,and on the day of the boring through the stone-cutters struck1 each to meet his fellow1 drill upon drill2 and the waters flowed from the source to the pool for a thousand and two hundred cubits1 and a hundred cubits was the height of the rock above the heads of the stone-cutters2#ecf 7see ,fig4 #big74 ,this inscription1 though not dated1 is believed to come from the time of ,hezekiah4 ,hezekiah is said in #b ,kings #bj3bj to have built a conduit and to have brought the water into the city4 ,this inscription was found in a remarkable conduit which still runs under the hill at ,jerusalem1 cut through the solid rock4 ,it is about #a1gjj feet long4 ,it was cleared of silt by the ,parker expedition of #aiji-aiaa1 and the tunnel is about #f feet in height throughout its entire length4 ,when it was cut the wall of ,jerusalem crossed the ,tyropon ,valley just below it1 so that1 while the ,virgin's ,spring 7the ,biblical ,gihon7 lay outside the walls1 this aqueduct brought the water to a pool within the walls1 so that the inhabitants of the city could1 in case of siege1 fill their water-jars without exposing themselves to the enemy4 ,the inscription is now in the ,imperial ,ottoman ,museum at ,constantinople4 #ac4 ,esarhaddon1 #fha-ffh ,b4 ,c4 ,i overthrew the kings of the ,hittite country and those beyond the sea2 ,baal1 ,king of ,tyre1 ,manassah1 ,king of ,judah1 ,kaushgabri1 ,king of ,edom1 ,musuri1 ,king of ,moab1 ,silbaal1 ,king of ,gaza1 ,mitinti1 ,king of ,askelon1 ,ikausu1 ,king of ,ekron1 ,milkiashapa1 ,king of ,gebal1 ,matanbaal1 ,king of ,arvad1 ,abibaal1 ,king of ,shamsimuruna1 ,puduel1 ,king of ,beth-,ammon1 ,ahi-milku1 ,king of ,ashdod1 #ab kings of the sea-coast2 ,ekishtura1 ,king of ,idalion1 ,pilagura1 ,king of ,kiti1 ,kisu1 ,king of ,sillua1 ,ituander1 ,king of ,paphos1 ,erisu1 ,king of ,sillu1 ,damasu1 ,king of ,kuri1 ,atmizu1 ,king of ,tamesu1 ,damusi1 ,king of ,kartihadasti1 ,unasagusu1 ,king of ,lidir1 ,bususu1 ,king of ,nurenu2 #aj kings of ,cyprus in the midst of the sea--altogether #bb kings of the ,hittite land1 of the sea-coast and the midst of the sea--,i sent to them and great cedar beams1 etc4 444444444 they sent4#ecg ,esarhaddon1 the author of the inscription from which this extract is taken1 is mentioned in #b ,kings #ai3cg and ,isa4 #cg3ch as ,sennacherib's successor1 a statement which the inscriptions abundantly confirm4 ,the above quotation from his inscription shows that ,manasseh1 ,king of ,judah1 #b ,kings #bj3ba and chapter #ba1 was a vassal of ,esarhaddon4 ,esarhaddon is also alluded to in ,ezra #d3b4 #ad4 ,ashurbanipal of ,assyria1 #ffh-fbf ,b4 ,c4 ,in my third campaign ,i marched against ,baal1 ,king of ,tyre1 who dwelt in the midst of the sea4 ,because he had not kept the word of my lordship nor heeded the utterance of my lips1 ,i erected against him siege-works and cut off his exit both by land and sea2 their lives ,i made narrow and straitened2 ,i caused them to submit to my yoke4 ,they brought the daughters that came forth from his loins and the daughters of his brothers into my presence to become concubines4 ,yahimilki1 his son1 who had never crossed the sea1 they brought at the same time to do me service4 ,his daughter and the daughters of his brothers with an abundant dowry ,i received from him4 ,i granted him favor and returned to him the son that came forth from his loins4#ech ,yakinlu1 ,king of ,arvad1 who dwells in the midst of the sea1 who had not submitted to the kings1 my fathers1 ,i brought under my yoke4 ,he brought his daughter to ,nineveh with an abundant dowry and kissed my feet 4444444444 ,on my return ,i captured ,ushu1 which is situated on the coast of the sea4 ,the inhabitants of ,ushu1 who had not been obedient to their governors1 who had not paid their tribute1 ,i killed as the tribute of their land4 ,among the rebellious peoples ,i set my staff4 ,their gods and their peoples ,i carried as booty to ,assyria4 ,the people of ,accho who had not submitted ,i subdued4 ,i hung their bodies on stakes around the city4 ,the rest ,i took to ,assyria2 ,i preserved them and added them to the numerous army which ,ashur had given unto me4#eci ,these extracts from the inscriptions of ,ashurbanipal show that during the reign of ,manasseh he was active in reducing the rebellions of ,phnician cities1 some of which1 as ,tyre and ,accho1 were at the doors of ,palestine4 ,no doubt ,manasseh continued to pay him tribute and so was not molested4 ,the name of ,ashurbanipal is preserved in ,ezra #d3aj in the corrupt form of ,osnappar4 #ae4 ,necho of ,egypt1 #fji-eic ,b4 ,c4 ,year #af1 fourth month of the first season1 day #af1 under the majesty of ,horus3 ,wise-hearted2 king of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt2 ,favorite of the two goddesses3 ,triumphant2 ,golden ,horus3 ,beloved-of-the-,gods2 ,uhemibre2 ,son of ,ra1 of his body1 his beloved3 ,necho1 living forever1 beloved of ,apis1 son of ,osiris4#edj 7,an account of the interment of an ,apis bull then follows47 ,the above is the beginning of an inscription of ,pharaoh ,necho1 whose defeat of ,king ,josiah1 of ,judah1 is recorded in #b ,kings #bc3bi1 f4 ,he became over-lord of ,judah for four years and placed ,jehoiakim on the ,judan throne 7#b ,kings #bc3cd74 ,necho was himself defeated at ,carchemish on the ,euphrates by ,nebuchadrezzar1 of ,babylon1 in #fjd ,b4 ,c41 and as he retreated to ,egypt ,nebuchadrezzar pursued him through ,palestine4 ,the book of ,jeremiah speaks of this defeat and vividly describes the pursuit which followed4 7,cf4 ,jer4 #df3b1 f47 #af4 ,nebuchadrezzar ,,ii1 #fjd-efb ,b4 ,c4 ,many inscriptions of ,nebuchadrezzar are known1 but most of them relate to buildings4 ,the following extracts are those which best illustrate the ,bible4 ,in exalted trust in him 7,marduk7 distant countries1 remote mountains from the upper sea 7,mediterranean7 to the lower sea 7,persian ,gulf71 steep paths1 blockaded roads1 where the step is impeded1 where was no footing1 difficult roads1 desert paths1 ,i traversed1 and the disobedient ,i destroyed2 ,i captured the enemies1 established justice in the lands2 the people ,i exalted2 the bad and evil ,i separated from the people4#eda ,reference to the ,lebanon ,from the upper sea to the lower sea1 4444444444 which ,marduk1 my lord1 had entrusted to me1 in all lands1 the totality of dwelling-places ,i exalted the city of ,babylon to the first place4 ,i caused his name to be reverenced among the cities2 the shrines of ,nabu and ,marduk1 my lords1 ,i made them recognize1 continually 4444444444 ,at that time the ,lebanon mountain1 the mountain of cedar1 the proud forest of ,marduk1 the odor of whose cedars is good 4444444444 of another god 44444444444 no other king had 44444444444 my god1 ,marduk1 the king to the palace of the princes 4444444444 of heaven and earth shone as adornment 4444444444 ,as a foreign enemy had taken possession of 7the mountain7 and seized its riches1 its people had fled and taken refuge at a distance4 ,in the power of ,nabu and ,marduk1 my lords1 ,i drew up my soldiers1 for battle in mount ,lebanon4 ,its enemy ,i dislodged above and below and made glad the heart of the land4 ,i collected its scattered people and returned them to their place4 ,i did what no former king had done2 ,i cleft high mountains1 stones of the mountain ,i quarried1 ,i opened passes4 ,i made a straight road for the cedars4 ,mighty cedars they were1 tall and strong1 of wonderful beauty1 whose dark appearance was remarkable1--the mighty products of mount ,lebanon 4444444444 ,i made the people of mount ,lebanon to lie down in abundance2 ,i permitted no adversary to possess it4 ,that none might do harm ,i set up my royal image forever4#edb ,a ,building ,inscription ,nebuchadrezzar1 ,king of ,babylon1 the restorer of ,esagila and ,ezida1 son of ,nabopolassar am ,i4 ,as a protection to ,esagila1 that no powerful enemy and destroyer might take ,babylon1 that the line of battle might not approach ,imgur-,bel1 the wall of ,babylon1 that which no former king had done ,i did2 at the enclosure of ,babylon ,i made an enclosure of a strong wall on the east side4 ,i dug a moat1 ,i reached the level of the water4 ,i then saw that the wall which my father had prepared was too small in its construction4 ,i built with bitumen and brick a mighty wall which1 like a mountain1 could not be moved and connected it with the wall of my father2 ,i laid its foundations on the breast of the under-world2 its top ,i raised up like a mountain4 ,along this wall to strengthen it ,i constructed a third and as the base of a protecting wall ,i laid a foundation of bricks and built it on the breast of the under-world and laid its foundation4 ,the fortifications of ,esagila and ,babylon ,i strengthened and established the name of my reign forever4 ,o ,marduk1 lord of the gods1 my divine creator1 may my deeds find favor before thee2 may they endure forever6 ,eternal life1 satisfied with posterity1 a secure throne1 and a long reign grant as thy gift4 ,thou art indeed my deliverer and my help1 ,o ,marduk1 ,i by thy faithful word which does not change--may my weapons advance1 be sharp and be stronger than the weapon of the foe6#edc ,nebuchadrezzar was the king who destroyed ,jerusalem and carried the more prominent of the people of ,judah captive4 7,see #b ,kings #bd and #be47 ,his inscriptions give no account of these events4 ,in the first of the quotations made above he covers all his conquests by one general reference4 ,in the second quotation he gives a more detailed account of his conquest of the ,lebanon1 because that inscription was carved on the rocks at the side of one of the deep valleys of the ,lebanon4 ,the third inscription1 relating to the building of ,babylon1 has been strikingly confirmed by ,koldewey's excavation of ,babylon1 by which the massive walls and extensive temples were uncovered4#edd ,it also gives us a background for ,daniel #d3bi1 where ,nebuchadrezzar is said to have walked upon#ede the royal palace and said3 8,is not this great ,babylon which ,i have built80 #ag4 ,evil-,merodach1 #efb-efj ,b4 ,c4 ,nebuchadrezzar was succeeded by his son1 ,amil-,marduk1 whom the ,bible 7#b ,kings #be3bg7 calls ,evil-,merodach4 ,the only inscription of his that has been found is the following1 inscribed on an alabaster vase found at ,susa1 whither the ,elamites had at some time carried it as booty3#edf ,palace of ,amil-,marduk1 ,king of ,babylon1 son of ,nebuchadrezzar1 ,king of ,babylon4 ,this is the king who released ,jehoiachin1 ,king of ,judah1 from prison after his thirty-six years in confinement and treated him kindly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,sheba4--,this region1 which lay in ,south ,arabia1 was explored during the nineteenth century by a number of travelers4 ,three of these1 ,thomas ,j4 ,arnaud in #ahdc1 ,joseph ,halvy in #ahfi1 and ,eduard ,glaser who made four expeditions between #ahhb and #ahid1 brought back from ,south ,arabia many inscriptions1 several of which were made by rulers of ,saba1 the ,biblical ,sheba1 whose queen is said to have visited ,solomon 7#a ,kings #aj3a-ac74 ,as none of these relate to that queen1 it has not seemed fitting to include one of them4 ,the inscriptions1 however1 show that two important kingdoms existed there1 ,saba and ,main4 ,main is thought by some to be related to the ,biblical ,midianites4 ,the ,greek version of ,job makes ,job's friend1 ,zophar1 king of ,main4 ,the kingdom of ,saba lasted until #aae ,b4 ,c4 ,it established strong colonies in ,africa4 ,in #aae ,b4 ,c4 one colony overthrew the mother-country and established the kingdom of ,saba and ,raidhan1 which lasted till about #cjj ,a4 ,d4 ,after that ,saba became apparently unimportant1 but various ,semitic kingdoms succeeded one another in ,africa1 including the present-day ,abyssinian kingdom4 ,the ,abyssinian king claims descent from ,solomon and the ,queen of ,sheba4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,babylonian ,,exile ,,inscriptions ,,of ,,nabuna',,id2 ,,their ,,bearing ,,on ,,biblical ,,statements ,,regarding ,,belshazzar4 ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,capture ,,of ,,babylon ,,bearing ,,on ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,daniel4 ,,inscription ,,of ,,cyrus ,,bearing ,,on ,,the ,,capture ,,of ,,babylon4 ,,cyrus' ,,permission ,,for ,,the ,,return ,,to ,,jerusalem4 #a4 ,inscriptions of ,nabuna'id4 ,several inscriptions of this king1 who ruled #eee-ech ,b4 ,c41 are known1 but only a brief extract of one of them is given here1 as the major part of the material has no bearing on the ,bible4 ,nabuna'id1 ,king of ,babylon1 the restorer of ,esagila and ,ezida1 the worshiper of the great gods am ,i 4444444444 ,o ,sin1 lord of the gods of heaven and earth1 god of the gods1 4444444444 as for me1 ,nabuna'id1 ,king of ,babylon1 save me from sinning against thy great divinity4 ,a life of many days grant as thy gift4 ,as for ,belshazzar1 the firstborn son1 proceeding from my loins1 place in his heart fear of thy great divinity2 let him not turn to sinning2 let him be satisfied with fulness of life6#edg ,belshazzar is here said to be the son of ,nabuna'id1 whereas in ,dan4 #e3aa1 #ah ,nebuchadrezzar is called his father4 ,nabuna'id1 as the ,babylonian documents show1 was not a descendant of ,nebuchadrezzar1 but a usurper of another family4 ,some scholars hold that this shows the book of ,daniel to be in error1 while others hold that 8father0 in ,dan4 #e3aa1 #ah is equivalent to 8ancestor10 and think ,belshazzar may have been descended from ,nebuchadrezzar on his mother's side4 ,the ,nabuna'id-,cyrus ,chronicle ,this chronicle is known only from a tablet which is somewhat broken4 ,the following extract will show the nature of its contents3 ,in the #ith year ,nabuna'id was at ,tema4 ,the son of the king1 the princes1 and soldiers were in ,akkad4 ,the king did not come to ,babylon in ,nisan1 ,nebo did not go to ,babylon4 ,bel did not go out4 ,the festival sacrifice was omitted4 ,they offered sacrifices in ,esagila and ,ezida on account of ,babylon and ,borsippa1 that the land might prosper4 ,on the #eth of the month1 ,nisan the mother of the king1 died in ,dur-karashu on the bank of the ,euphrates above ,sippar4 ,the son of the king and the soldiers mourned three days4 ,in the month ,sivan there was mourning for the king's mother in ,akkad4 ,in the month ,nisan ,cyrus1 ,king of ,persia1 mustered his soldiers1 and crossed the ,tigris below ,arbela and in the month ,iyyar went to the land of 4444444444 its king he killed1 he took his possessions4 ,his own governor 787 he placed in it 444444444 afterward his governor 787 and a king 787 were there4#edh #b4 ,bearing on ,biblical ,statements ,regarding ,belshazzar4 ,similar chronicles are given by the tablet for other years4 ,it is stated each time what ,nabuna'id was doing2 where the king's son 7,belshazzar7 was1 and what ,cyrus was doing4 ,cyrus1 who overthrew the ,median king in #eec ,b4 ,c41 was occupied for several years in subjugating other lands before he attacked ,babylon4 ,he overthrew ,crsus1 ,king of ,lydia1 in #edf4 ,it would seem that it was well known in ,babylonia what he was doing each year4 ,those scholars who believe that ,isaiah #dj-ee is the work of a prophet who lived during the ,babylonian ,exile1 claim that this chronicle explains how that prophet could refer in ,isa4 #dd3bh2 #de3a to ,cyrus as a well-known figure4 ,they see the exercise of the prophetic gift of the prophet in the faith which he had that ,cyrus would release ,israel from captivity4 ,those who believe that the whole of the book of ,isaiah is the work of the son of ,amoz1 see in these verses pure prediction of the rise of ,cyrus as well as of the release of the ,jews4 #c4 ,account of the ,capture of ,babylon4 ,from the chronicle just quoted we have the following statement for the #agth year of the reign of ,nabuna'id3 444444 ,nebo to go forth from ,borsippa 4444444444 the king entered the temple of ,edurkalama4 ,in the month 4444444444 in the lower sea a revolt 44444444 ,bel came out2 the feast of ,akiti 7,sept4-,oct471 according to the custom 4444444444 the gods of ,marad1 ,zagaga1 and the gods of ,kish1 ,bltis1 and the gods of ,harsagkalama entered ,babylon4 ,unto the end of ,elul 7,aug4-,sept47 the gods of ,borsippa1 ,cutha1 and ,sippar did not enter4 ,in the month ,tammuz 7,june-,july7 ,cyrus1 when he made battle in ,opis1 on the banks of the river ,zalzallat1 with the soldiers of ,akkad1 conquered the inhabitants of ,akkad4 ,when they assembled the people were killed4 ,on the #adth ,sippar was taken without a battle4 ,nabuna'id fled4 ,on the #afth ,gobryas1 governor of the land of ,gutium1 and the soldiers of ,cyrus entered ,babylon without a battle4 ,later ,nabuna'id was captured because he remained in ,babylon4 ,to the end of the month the shield-bearers of the land of ,gutium assembled at the gates of ,esagila4 ,no weapon of any kind was taken into ,esagila or the temples2 nor was the standard raised4 ,on the third day of ,marcheswan 7,oct4-,nov47 ,cyrus entered ,babylon4 ,the walls 787 were broken down before him4 ,cyrus proclaimed peace to all of ,babylon4 ,he appointed ,gobryas his satrap1 and also prefects in ,babylon4 ,from ,kisleu 7,nov4-,dec47 unto ,adar 7,feb4-,march71 the gods of ,akkad1 whom ,nabuna'id had brought to ,babylon1 returned to their cities4 ,in the month ,marcheswan1 on the night of the #aath1 ,gobryas unto 4444444444 the son of the king was killed4 ,from the #bgth of ,adar to the #crd of ,nisan there was lamentation in ,akkad4 ,all the people bowed their heads4 ,on the #dth day ,cambyses1 the son of ,cyrus1 went to ,eshapakalama4#edi #d4 ,bearing of ,this ,account on the ,book of ,daniel4 ,this interesting text here becomes too broken for connected translation4 ,it is clear that the document means to state that ,nabuna'id was king of ,babylon when it was captured1 and not ,belshazzar1 as stated in ,daniel #e3cj4 ,it states1 also1 that ,cyrus captured ,babylon and not ,darius the ,mede1 as in ,dan4 #e3ca4 ,it is true that ,gobryas took ,babylon first1 and occupied it about two weeks before ,cyrus arrived4 ,he was1 however1 ,cyrus's officer and was acting in his name4 ,critical scholars1 who believe that ,daniel was written #afh-afe ,b4 ,c41 find in these statements a confirmation of their views4 ,they think its author lived so far from the events that he confused their exact order4 ,those who defend the traditional date of ,daniel think that ,gobryas is meant by ,darius the ,mede1 and see in the exalted position which ,belshazzar held1 as crown prince and commander of the army1 sufficient ground for the ,biblical statement that he was king4 ,by such interpretations they harmonize this chronicle with the ,bible4 ,dr4 ,theophilus ,g4 ,pinches has recently published#eej some extracts from two tablets from ,erech which are in the possession of an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,harding ,smith1 which throw some additional light on these points4 ,it was customary for ,babylonians in confirming a contract to swear by the name of the reigning king1 and one of these tablets contains a contract1 dated in the #abth year of ,nabuna'id1 in which a man bound himself by the oath of ,nabuna'id1 ,king of ,babylon1 and of ,belshazzar1 the king's son4 ,as ,belshazzar is here associated with the king1 he must have been but slightly lower in rank and power than the king himself4 ,this is confirmed by a tablet at ,yale1 recently published by ,prof4 ,clay4#eea ,the text contains the interpretation of a dream for the ,king ,nabuna'id and for his son ,belshazzar4 ,it is dated in the seventh year of the reign of ,nabuna'id4 ,the other tablet quoted by ,pinches shows that in the fourth year of ,cambyses 7i4 e41 #ebd ,b4 ,c471 ,gobryas was still governor of ,babylon4 ,if he is the man who in ,daniel is called ,darius the ,mede1 he exercised the powers of governor in ,babylon for a considerable number of years4 #e4 ,inscription of ,cyrus4 ,the following is an inscription of ,cyrus4 ,the lines are much broken at the beginning1 but it reads as follows3#eeb 44444444444444444444444444 begat 787 him 444444444444444444444 the four regions of the world 4444444444444 great coward was established as ruler over the land 4444444444444 a similar one he set over them2 like ,esagila he made 4444444444 to ,ur and the rest of the cities a rule not suitable for them 4444444 he planned daily and in enmity he caused the established sacrifice to cease4 ,he appointed 4444444444 he established within the city4 ,the worship of ,marduk1 king of the gods 44444444444 he wrought hostility against his city daily 44444444444 his people all of them he destroyed through servitude1 without rest4 ,on account of their lamentation the lord of the gods was exceedingly angry and left their territory2 the gods who dwelt among them left their dwellings4 ,in anger because he brought them into ,babylon1 ,marduk 44444444444 to return to all the dwellings1 their habitations1 which were overthrown4 ,the people of ,sumer and ,akkad1 who were like corpses1 he brought back and 444444444444 granted them a return4 ,through all lands he made his way1 he looked1 he sought a righteous prince1 a being whom he loved1 whom he took by the hand4 ,cyrus1 ,king of ,anshan1 he called by name and designated him to rule over all the lands4 ,the land of ,qutu1 all the ,scythian hordes1 he made to submit to his feet4 ,the black-headed people 7i4 e41 the ,babylonians71 whom he caused his hand to capture1 in faithfulness and righteousness he sought4 ,marduk1 the great lord1 looked joyfully upon the return of his people1 his kindly deeds and upright heart4 ,to his city1 ,babylon1 he commanded him to go2 he caused him to take the road to ,babylon1 going as a friend and companion at his side4 ,his numerous army1 the number of which was1 like the waters of a river1 unknown1 marched at his side girded with their weapons4 ,he caused him to enter ,babylon without war or battle4 ,he preserved his city1 ,babylon1 from tribulation2 he filled his 7,cyrus's7 hand with ,nabuna'id1 the king who did not fear him4 ,all the people of ,babylon1 all of ,sumer and ,akkad1 the princes and governors1 prostrated themselves under him and kissed his feet4 ,they rejoiced in his sovereignty2 their faces shone4 ,the lord1 who by his power makes the dead to live1 who from destruction and injustice had saved them1 altogether they blessed him in joy2 they revered his name4 ,i am ,cyrus1 king of the world1 the great king1 the mighty king1 king of ,babylon1 king of ,sumer and ,akkad1 king of the four quarters of the world1 son of ,cambyses1 the great king1 king of ,anshan1 grandson of ,cyrus1 the great king1 king of ,anshan1 great-grandson of ,tespes1 the great king1 king of ,anshan2 an everlasting seed of royalty1 whose government ,bel and ,nabu love1 whose reign in the goodness of their hearts they desire4 ,when ,i entered in peace into ,babylon1 with joy and rejoicing ,i took up my lordly dwelling in the royal palace1 ,marduk1 the great lord1 moved the understanding heart of the people of ,babylon to me1 while ,i daily sought his worship4 ,my numerous troops dwelt peacefully in ,babylon2 in all ,sumer and ,akkad no terrorizer did ,i permit4 ,in ,babylon and all its cities in peace ,i looked about4 ,the people of ,babylon ,i released from an unsuitable yoke4 ,their dwellings--their decay ,i repaired2 their ruins ,i cleared away4 ,marduk1 the great lord1 rejoiced at these deeds and graciously blessed me1 ,cyrus1 the king who worships him1 and ,cambyses1 my son1 and all my troops1 while we in peace joyfully praised before him his exalted divinity4 ,all the kings who dwell in palaces1 from all quarters of the world1 from the upper sea to the lower sea1 who live in palaces1 all the kings of the ,westland who live in tents1 brought me their heavy tribute in ,babylon and kissed my feet4 ,from 4444444444 to ,ashur and ,susa1 ,agade1 ,eshnunak1 ,zamban1 ,meturnu1 ,deri1 to the border of ,gutium1 the cities beyond the ,tigris1 whose sites had been founded of old1--the gods who dwelt in them ,i returned to their places1 and caused them to settle in their eternal shrines4 ,all their people ,i assembled and returned them to their dwellings4 ,and the gods of ,sumer and ,akkad1 whom ,nabuna'id1 to the anger of the lord of the gods1 had brought into ,babylon1 at the command of ,marduk1 the great lord1 ,i caused in peace to dwell in their abodes1 the dwellings in which their hearts delighted4 ,may all the gods1 whom ,i have returned to their cities1 pray before ,marduk and ,nabu for the prolonging of my days1 may they speak a kind word for me and say to ,marduk1 lord of the gods1 8,may ,cyrus the king1 who fears thee1 and ,cambyses1 his son1 their 4444444444 caused all to dwell in peace0 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 #f4 ,bearing on the ,capture of ,babylon and the ,return of the ,jews4 ,this inscription confirms the statement of the chronicle already quoted that ,cyrus conquered the city of ,babylon without a blow4 ,the most important feature of it for the student of the ,bible is1 however1 its revelation of the reversal of the ,assyrian policy of transportation4 ,that policy had been inaugurated by ,tiglathpileser ,,iv more than two hundred years before4 ,in accordance with it the kingdom of ,israel had first been stripped of its more prominent inhabitants who had been carried captive to distant lands1 and then the kingdom of ,judah4 ,cyrus determined to attach his subjects to himself by gratitude instead of terror1 so he permitted1 as he says here1 those who had been transported to return to their several countries and rebuild their temples4 ,it was in consequence of this general policy that the ,jews were permitted to return from ,babylonia and rebuild the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,this is referred to in ,ezra1 chapter #a4 ,it is there implied that ,cyrus made a special proclamation concerning the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,some scholars infer from the above inscription of ,cyrus1 that the book of ,ezra 7chapter #a7 has freely interpreted the general policy of ,cyrus as a special permission granted to the ,jews4 ,it may be1 however1 as others have held1 that a special edict was issued in favor of each individual nation in order that this general policy might be carried out without opposition4 ,in any event1 the inscription confirms the statement of ,ezra that ,cyrus permitted the ,jews to return4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,a ,,jewish ,,colony ,,in ,,egypt ,,during ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,nehemiah ,,papyri ,,witness ,,to ,,the ,,existence ,,of ,a ,,colony ,,at ,,elephantine4 ,,translation ,,of ,a ,,petition ,,relating ,,to ,,their ,,temple4 ,,reply ,,of ,,persian ,,governor4 ,,historical ,,bearings ,,of ,,these ,,documents4 ,a ,,letter ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,passover4 ,a ,,letter ,,showing ,,that ,,the ,,jews ,,were ,,unpopular ,,at ,,elephantine4 ,numerous papyri found since #ahie at ,elephantine1 an island at the ,first ,cataract of the ,nile1 reveal the existence of a ,jewish community there4 ,the documents are dated from the year #did ,b4 ,c4 to the year #djj ,b4 ,c4 ,they show that this ,jewish community had at ,elephantine a temple to ,jehovah1 that they were soldiers1 and that some of them were engaged in trade4 ,one document declares that when ,cambyses conquered ,egypt 7#ebe ,b4 ,c47 he then found the temple of ,jehovah in existence there1 and that it had been built under native ,egyptian kings4 ,how came such a community of ,jews to be established there8 ,it is thought that they were a garrison placed there by ,psammetik ,,ii1 ,king of ,egypt1 #eic-ehh ,b4 ,c4 ,this ,psammetik endeavored to conquer ,nubia1#eec and according to a confused statement in ,josephus 7,contra ,apion1 ,i1 #bf1 #bg7 ,rhampses 7perhaps a corruption of ,psammetik71 employed some ,jews in an expedition to that country4#eed ,however1 these ,jews came to dwell at this point1 and whensoever the settlement was made1 the documents#eee are most interesting1 and open to us a hitherto wholly unknown vista in the history of the ,jews4 #a4 ,temple ,papyrus from ,elephantine4 ,unto our lord1 ,bagohi1 governor of ,judah1 thy servants ,jedoniah and his associates1 the priests who are in ,yeb1 the fortress1 health6 ,may our ,lord1 the ,god of heaven1 abundantly grant unto thee at all times1 and for favors may he appoint thee before ,darius1 the king1 and the princes of the palace more than at present a thousand times1 and long life may he grant to thee1 and joy and strength1 at all times6 ,now thy servant1 ,jedoniah1 and his associates thus speak3 ,in the month ,tammuz1 year #ad of ,darius1 the king1 when ,arsames departed and went unto the king1 the priests of the god ,khnub1 who were in ,yeb1 the fortress1 made an agreement with ,waidrang who was acting governor here2 it was as follows3 ,the temple of ,yahu 7,jehovah71 the ,god1 which is in ,yeb1 the fortress they would remove from there4 ,afterward this ,waidrang wickedly sent a letter unto ,nephayan1 his son1 who was commander of the army at ,syene1 the fortress1 saying3 8,the temple which is in ,yeb1 the fortress they shall destroy40 ,afterward ,nephayan1 mustering ,egyptians with the other forces1 came to the fortress ,yeb with their quivers 7872 they entered into this temple1 they destroyed it to the ground1 and the pillars of stone which were there they brake4 ,also it came to pass 7that7 five gates of stone1 constructed of cut stone1 which were in this temple1 they destroyed1 and their swinging doors and the bronze hinges of these doors4 ,and the roof which was of cedar wood1 all of it1 together with the rest of the furnishings and the other things which were there1 the whole they burned with fire4 ,and the vessels of gold and silver and the things which were in this temple1 the whole was taken1 and they made it their own4 ,now from the days of the kings of ,egypt1 our fathers built this temple in ,yeb1 the fortress1 and when ,cambyses came to ,egypt1 this temple was found built1 and the temples of the gods of ,egypt were overthrown1 but not a thing in this temple was harmed4 ,and after they 7i4 e41 ,waidrang and the priests of ,khnub7 had done this1 we and our wives and sons were clothed in sackcloth and were fasting and praying to ,yahu1 ,god of heaven1 that he would show us this ,waidrang1 the cur1 with the anklets torn from his feet1 that all the goods which he possesses might perish1 and all the men who desired the pollution of this temple--all might be killed1 and we might see 7our desire7 upon them4 ,also formerly1 at the time this shameful deed was done to us we sent a letter to our lord1 and unto ,jehohanan1 the high priest1 and his associates1 the priests who are in ,jerusalem1 and unto ,ostan1 the brother of ,anani and the elders of ,judah1 but a letter they have not sent unto us4 ,also from the month ,tammuz of the #adth year of ,darius the king even unto this day we have worn sackcloth and fasted1 our wives have been made like widows1 we have not anointed ourselves with oil1 wine we have not drunk2 also from then unto the #agth year of ,darius the king a meal-offering and incense and a burnt-offering they have not offered in this temple4 ,now thy servants ,jedoniah and his associates and the ,jews1 all who are citizens of ,yeb1 thus speak3 ,if unto our lord it seems good to think on this temple to rebuild it1 because they will not permit us to rebuild it1 look upon those who share thy favor and kindnesses who are here in ,egypt--let a letter be sent unto them concerning the temple of ,yahu ,god1 to build it in ,yeb1 the fortress1 in the way it was built formerly1 and meal-offerings and incense and burnt-offerings let them offer upon the altar of ,yahu ,god in thy name1 and we will pray for thee at all times1 we and our wives and our sons and the ,jews1 all who are here4 ,if thus they do until this temple is built1 then merit 7righteousness7 shall be thine before ,yahu1 ,god of heaven1 more than 7that of7 the man who offers to him burnt-offerings and sacrifices of the value of a thousand pieces of silver4 ,and concerning gold for this we have sent information4 ,also the whole is told in a letter we sent in our name to ,dalajah and ,shelemjah1 sons of ,sanballat1 governor of ,samaria4 ,also concerning this which is done to us1 all of it ,arsames does not know4 ,on the #bjth of ,marcheswan1 year #ag of ,darius the king4 ,to this letter ,bagohi 7,bagoas7 sent the following reply3 ,memorandum of ,bagohi and ,dalajah4 ,they spoke to me a memorandum for them3 ,it shall be thine to say among the ,egyptians before ,arsames concerning the place of sacrifice of the god 444444 of heaven1 which was built in ,yeb the fortress formerly before ,cambyses1 which this wicked ,waidrang destroyed in the year fourteen of ,darius the king1 to build it in its place like as it was before1 and meal-offerings and incense let them offer upon this altar in the manner it formerly was done4 ,the first of these documents is dated in the #agth year of ,darius ,,ii1 i4 e41 the year #djg ,b4 ,c4 ,it states that the temple at ,elephantine 7,yeb7 had been destroyed by ,waidrang and had lain in ruins for three years4 ,the community which worshiped in the temple had previously written to ,jehohanan1 high priest at ,jerusalem1 probably to ask that he intercede with the ,persian governor ,bagohi 7,bagoses71 but had written in vain4 ,they now write to ,bagohi himself1 and also to the two sons of ,sanballat1 governor of ,samaria 7cf4 ,neh4 #b3aj1 #ai1 etc471 with the result that the request is granted1 and authority is given to rebuild the temple4 ,the fact that there was a temple at ,elephantine at all is new and startling4 ,its significance is differently interpreted by different scholars4 ,more conservative scholars claim that it is opposed to the date which the critical school assign to the date of ,deuteronomy1 viz43 #fba ,b4 ,c41 because1 if the law against more altars than one had been introduced then1 ,jews would not have so soon violated it by building this shrine4 ,critics1 on the other hand1 hold that it fits well with their views1 since they believe that ,deuteronomy was accepted by ,jews as a whole only gradually1 and after considerable struggle4 ,one thing is clear3 at the time the temple at ,elephantine was overthrown1 the ,jews at ,jerusalem looked upon it with disfavor4#eef ,they took no steps to lay the matter before the ,persian governor4 ,it was not till the aggrieved ,egyptian ,jews wrote to the heretical ,samaritans1 ,dalajah and ,shelemjah1 sons of ,sanballat1 who would naturally be glad to encourage another rival to the temple at ,jerusalem1 that the matter was pushed and permission given to rebuild the temple4 ,this appeal to ,sanballat's family throws interesting light on the progress of the schism between the ,jews and the ,samaritans4#eeg 7,compare ,nehemiah #d3a1 ff2 #f3a1 ff42 and #ac3bh47 ,the existence of this temple has an interesting bearing upon the date of ,isa4 #ai4 ,some scholars have held that that prophecy1 which refers to a temple of ,jehovah in the land of ,egypt1 is late and must refer to the temple built by ,onias ,,iii1 about #agj ,b4 ,c4 7,cf4 ,josephus1 ,antiquities1 xiii1 #c3a1 #f47 ,it is now possible to suppose that the reference may well have been to this hitherto unsuspected temple at ,elephantine4 #b4 ,hananiah's ,passover ,letter4 ,to my brethren1 ,jedoniah and his associates1 the ,jewish garrison1 your brother ,hananiah4 ,the peace of my brethren may ,god 444444 ,and now this year1 the year #e of ,darius the king1 there was sent from the king unto ,arsames 4444444444 ,now ye thus shall count fourteen 4444444444 and from the #aeth day unto the #bast day of ,nisan 4444444444 be ye clean and guard yourselves4 ,work ye shall not do 4444444444 ye shall not drink1 and all which is leavened ye shall not eat 4444444444 from the going down of the sun unto the #bast day of ,nisan 4444444444 take into your rooms and seal between the days of 4444444444 ,this letter is from some ,hananiah who seems to have stood high in authority among ,jewish communities4 ,several ,hananiahs are mentioned in the post-exilic literature4 ,one of them was a military commander in ,jerusalem in the time of ,nehemiah 7,neh4 #g3b71 but as that was at least twenty-five years before the date of our letter1 it would be precarious to assert that that ,hananiah was the writer of this letter1 though it is possible that he was4 ,from the letter it is clear that the writer is informing the ,jewish garrison at ,elephantine concerning the details of the provisions for the observance of the ,jewish ,passover1 as they are laid down in ,exod4 #ab and ,lev4 #bc4 ,it seems strange that these ,jews at ,elephantine who were faithful enough to ,jehovah to have a temple in his honor1 should have needed to be informed of such details1 if they had copies of the ,pentateuch4 ,adherents of the modern school of criticism see in this fact a confirmation of their view1 that the ,levitical law had been introduced into the ,jewish community at ,jerusalem only in the time of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 for1 they urge1 this letter shows that it was unknown to the garrison at ,elephantine until the reign of ,darius ,,ii4 ,to this1 conservative scholars reply that it was customary among the ,jews to make yearly proclamation of the approach of the festival1 and that this may be simply such a proclamation4 ,they also urge that ignorance of the law on the part of some ,jews is no proof that it did not exist4 #c4 ,letter ,showing that the ,jews of ,egypt were ,unpopular4 ,to my lords1 ,jedoniah1 ,uriah1 and the priests of the ,god1 ,jehovah1 ,mattan1 son of ,joshibiah and ,neriah son of 444444 thy servant ,mauziyah2 the peace of my lords 4444444444 and be favored before the ,god of heaven4 ,and now1 when ,waidrang1 the chief of the garrison1 came to ,abydos1 he imprisoned me on account of a certain precious stone which they found stolen in the hands of the traders4 ,at last ,seha and ,hor1 who were known to ,anani1 exerted themselves with ,waidrang and ,hornufi1 under the protection of the ,god of heaven1 until they secured my release4 ,now behold they are coming thither to you4 ,do you attend to them whatever they may desire4 ,and whatever thing ,seha and ,hor may desire of you1 stand ye before them so that no cause of blame may they find in you4 ,with you is the chastisement which without cause has rested upon us1 from the time ,hananiah was in ,egypt until now4 ,and whatever you do for ,hor you do for yourselves4 ,hor is known to ,anani4 ,do you sell cheaply from our houses any goods that are at hand2 whether we lose or do not lose1 is one to you4 ,this is why ,i am sending to you3 he said to me3 8,send a letter before us40 ,even if we should lose1 credit will be established because of him in the house of ,anani4 ,what you do for him will not be hidden from ,anani4 ,to my lords1 ,jedoniah1 ,uriah1 and the priests and the ,jews4 ,this is a letter sent by a member of the ,jewish colony of ,elephantine to his ,jewish brethren there1 highly recommending to them two men4 ,he was especially anxious to make a good impression upon these because they were acquaintances of a certain ,anani4 ,this ,anani apparently was a man of influence at the ,persian court4 ,his name may be the same as ,hanani1 ,nehemiah's brother 7,neh4 #g3b74 ,it has been pointed out that the existence of two men of the same name who could have influence at the ,persian court would be improbable4 ,this letter shows that since ,hananiah came to ,egypt1 the ,jews have been in affliction1 and the writer of this letter is anxious to make a good impression upon the friends of ,anani1 so that this affliction may be removed4 ,scholars of the critical school see in this letter a confirmation of their view that the ,levitical law had but just been introduced into the ,egyptian community4 ,the reference to the 8chastisement0 or 8affliction0 which had rested on the community is thought by them to be1 probably1 the friction between ,jews and ,egyptians caused by the less friendly relations toward foreigners1 which the ,levitical law imposed on its devotees4 ,it is1 of course1 possible that the 8chastisement0 may have been due to something quite different4 ,it should be said1 too1 that the papyrus is torn somewhat just where the word rendered chastisement occurs1 so that the word itself is not certain4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,a ,,babylonian ,,job ,,translation ,,of ,a ,,poem ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,afflictions ,,of ,a ,,good ,,man4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,a ,,fragment ,,of ,,another ,,similar ,,poem4 #a4 ,babylonian ,poem ,relating to ,affliction4 ,the following ,babylonian poem treats of a mysterious affliction which overtook a righteous man of ,babylonia1 and has been compared with the book of ,job4#eeh #a4 ,i advanced in life1 ,i attained to the allotted span2 ,wherever ,i turned there was evil1 evil-- ,oppression is increased1 uprightness ,i see not4 ,i cried unto god1 but he showed not his face4 #e4 ,i prayed to my goddess1 but she raised not her head4 ,the seer by his oracle did not discern the future2 ,nor did the enchanter with a libation illuminate my case2 ,i consulted the necromancer1 but he opened not my understanding4 ,the conjurer with his charms did not remove my ban4 #aj4 ,how deeds are reversed in the world6 ,i look behind1 oppression encloses me ,like one who the sacrifice to god did not bring1 ,and at meal-time did not invoke the goddess1 ,did not bow down his face1 his offering was not seen2 #ae4 7,like one7 in whose mouth prayers and supplications were locked1 7,for whom7 god's day had ceased1 a feast day become rare1 7,one who7 has thrown down his fire-pan1 gone away from their images1 ,god's fear and veneration has not taught his people1 ,who invoked not his god1 when he ate god's food2 #bj4 7,who7 abandoned his goddess1 and brought not what is prescribed1 7,who7 oppresses the weak1 forgets his god1 ,who takes in vain the mighty name of his god2 he says1 ,i am like him4 ,but ,i myself thought of prayers and supplications2 ,prayer was my wisdom1 sacrifice1 my dignity2 #be4 ,the day of honoring the gods was the joy of my heart1 ,the day of following the goddess was my acquisition of wealth2 ,the prayer of the king1--that was my delight1 ,and his music1--for my pleasure was its sound4 ,i gave directions to my land to revere the names of god1 #cj4 ,to honor the name of the goddess ,i taught my people4 ,reverence for the king ,i greatly exalted1 ,and respect for the palace ,i taught the people2 ,for ,i knew that with god these things are in favor4 ,what is innocent of itself1 to god is evil6 #ce4 ,what in one's heart is contemptible1 to one's god is good6 ,who can understand the thoughts of the gods in heaven8 ,the counsel of god is full of destruction2 who can understand8 ,where may human beings learn the ways of god8 ,he who lives at evening is dead in the morning2 #dj4 ,quickly he is troubled2 all at once he is oppressed2 ,at one moment he sings and plays2 ,in the twinkling of an eye he howls like a funeral-mourner4 ,like sunshine and cloud#eei their thoughts change2 ,they are hungry and like a corpse2 #de4 ,they are filled and rival their god6 ,in prosperity they speak of climbing to ,heaven2 ,trouble overtakes them and they speak of going down to ,sheol4 7,at this point the tablet is broken4 ,we do not know how many lines are wanting before the narrative is resumed on the back of the tablet47 ,reverse ,into my prison my house is turned4 ,into the bonds of my flesh are my hands thrown2 ,into the fetters of myself my feet have stumbled4 444444444444444444444444444444444444 #e4 ,with a whip he has beaten me2 there is no protection2 ,with a staff he has transfixed me2 the stench was terrible6 ,all day long the pursuer pursues me1 ,in the night watches he lets me breathe not a moment2 ,through torture my joints are torn asunder2 #aj4 ,my limbs are destroyed1 loathing covers me2 ,on my couch ,i welter like an ox1 ,i am covered1 like a sheep1 with my excrement4 ,my sickness baffled the conjurers1 ,and the seer left dark my omens4 #ae4 ,the diviner has not improved the condition of my sickness2 ,the duration of my illness the seer could not state2 ,the god helped me not1 my hand he took not2 ,the goddess pitied me not1 she came not to my side2 ,the coffin yawned2 they the heirs took my possessions2 #bj4 ,while ,i was not yet dead1 the death wail was ready4 ,my whole land cried out3 8,how is he destroyed60 ,my enemy heard2 his face gladdened2 ,they brought as good news the glad tidings1 his heart rejoiced4 ,but ,i knew the time of all my family1 #be4 ,when among the protecting spirits their divinity is exalted4 ,the above is from a tablet called the 8,second0 of the series ,ludlul bl nimeqi1 i4 e41 8,i will serve the lord of wisdom40 ,the 8,third0 tablet of the series has been published by ,r4 ,campbell ,thompson in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,xxxii1 p4 #ah1 f4 ,it is considerably broken1 but the parts which are legible are as follows3 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 ,let thy hand grasp the javelin ,tabu-utul-,bl1 who lives at ,nippur1 #e4 ,has sent me to consult thee1 ,has laid his 4444444444 upon me4 ,in life 4444444444 has cast1 he has found4 ,he says3 8,i lay down and a dream ,i beheld2 ,this is the dream which ,i saw by night3-- #aj4 ,he who made woman and created man1 ,marduk1 has ordained 787 that he be encompassed with sickness 78740 #ae4 ,and 4444444444 in whatever 4444444444 ,he said3 8,how long will he be in such great affliction and distress8 ,what is it that he saw in his vision of the night80 8,in the dream ,ur-,bau appeared1 ,a mighty hero wearing his crown1 #bj4 ,a conjurer1 too1 clad in strength1 ,marduk indeed sent me2 ,unto ,shubshi-meshri-,nergal he brought abundance2 ,in his pure hands he brought abundance4 ,by my guardian-spirit 787 he stopped 78710 #be4 ,by the seer he sent a message3 8,a favorable omen ,i show to my people40 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 444444 he quickly finished2 the 444444 was broken 44444444 of my lord1 his heart was satisfied2 #cj4 4444444444 his spirit was appeased 444444444444 my lamentation 44444444444444444 4444444444444444 good 4444 4444444444 ,reverse 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 4444444444444444 like 4444444444444444 ,he approached 787 and the spell which he had pronounced 7871 #e4 ,he sent a storm wind to the horizon2 ,to the breast of the earth it bore a blast1 ,into the depth of his ocean the disembodied spirit vanished 7872 ,unnumbered spirits he sent back to the under-world4 ,the 444444 of the hag-demons he sent straight to the mountain4 #aj4 ,the sea-flood he spread with ice2 ,the roots of the disease he tore out like a plant4 ,the horrible slumber that settled on my rest ,like smoke filled the sky 4444444444 ,with the woe he had brought1 unrepulsed and bitter1 he filled the earth like a storm4 #ae4 ,the unrelieved headache which had overwhelmed the heavens ,he took away and sent down on me the evening dew4 ,my eyelids1 which he had veiled with the veil of night4 ,he blew upon with a rushing wind and made clear their sight4 ,my ears1 which were stopped1 were deaf as a deaf man's-- #bj4 ,he removed their deafness and restored their hearing4 ,my nose1 whose nostril had been stopped from my mother's womb-- ,he eased its deformity so that ,i could breathe4 ,my lips1 which were closed--he had taken their strength-- ,he removed their trembling and loosed their bond4 #be4 ,my mouth1 which was closed so that ,i could not be understood-- ,he cleansed it like a dish1 he healed its disease4 ,my eyes1 which had been attacked so that they rolled together-- ,he loosed their bond and their balls were set right4 ,the tongue1 which had stiffened so that it could not be raised-- #cj4 ,he relieved its thickness1 so its words could be understood4 ,the gullet which was compressed1 stopped as with a plug-- ,he healed its contraction1 it worked like a flute4 ,my spittle which was stopped so that it was not secreted-- ,he removed its fetter1 he opened its lock4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #b4 ,comparison with the ,book of ,job4 ,a commentary on this text1 which has been preserved on a tablet1 informs us that ,tabu-utul-,bl was an official of ,nippur in ,babylonia4#efj ,this story has some striking similarities to the book of ,job4 ,it presents also some striking dissimilarities4 ,tabu-utul-,bl1 like ,job1 had been a just man4 ,he had been also a religious man4 7,see lines #bc1 ff41 p4 #cib47 ,the virtues which he claims are similar to those of ,job 7see ,job #bi and #ca72 there is1 however1 this difference3 ,job's virtues are social2 those of ,tabu-utul-,bl consist of acts of worship and loyalty4 ,tabu-utul-,bl is smitten1 like ,job1 with a sore disease4 ,to him1 as to ,job1 the providence is inexplicable4 ,he1 like ,job1 charges his god with inscrutable injustice4 ,the chasm which often yawns between experience and moral deserts was as keenly felt by the ,babylonian as by the ,hebrew4 ,here the parallelism with the book of ,job ends4 ,the two works belong to widely different religious worlds4 ,job gains relief by a vision of ,god--an experience which made him able to believe that1 though he could not understand the reason for the pain of life or its contradictions and tragedy1 ,god could1 and ,job now knew ,god4 7,see ,job #db3d-f47 ,tabu-utul-,bl1 on the other hand1 is said to have gained his relief through a magician4 ,we are apparently told by the fragmentary text that at last he found a conjurer who brought a messenger from the god ,marduk1 who drove away the evil spirits which caused the disease1 and so ,tabu-utul-,bl was relieved4 ,this difference sets vividly before us the greater religious value and inspiration of the book of ,job4 ,it treats the same problem that the ,babylonian poet took for his theme1 but between the outlook of the poet who composed ,job and that of the ,babylonian poet there is all the difference between a real experience of ,god and faith in the black art4 #c4 ,another ,similar ,lament4 ,another fragment of a lament of a somewhat similar character1 written in the ,sumerian language1 comes to us on a tablet from ,nippur1 the very city with which ,tabu-utul-,bl is said to have been connected4 ,it reads as follows3#efa ,column ,i #a4 444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 4444444444444444444444444444444444 #c4 44444444444444444444 he carried away1 #d4 44444444444444444444 he destroyed1 #e4 444444444444444444 spoke to 4444444444 #f4 444444444444444444 was destroyed1 #g4 4444444444 completely from on high was destroyed4 #h4 ,i1 even ,i1 am a man of destruction4 #i4 ,with might from below he destroyed1 #aj4 ,i1 even ,i1 am a man of destruction4 #aa4 ,nippur 787--its temple verily is destroyed1 #ab4 ,my city verily is destroyed4 #ac4 ,o ,enlil1 from the height descend1 #ad4 ,may ,ububul destroy them6 ,column ,,ii #a4 444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 444444444444444444444444444444 #c4 44444444444444 my food 787 is not1 #d4 ,the ground grain is removed1 with the hand he seized it2 #e4 ,my eyes fail4 #f4 ,the shrine of the mother which the silver-smith cast1 #g4 ,to earth he has ground1 #h4 ,its contents on the earth verily he flung-- #i4 ,i am a man of destruction6-- #aj4 ,its contents on the earth verily he destroyed2 #aa4 ,i am a man of destruction6 #ab4 ,the man from above is wise2 #ac4 ,on earth he dwells4 #ad4 ,the man who went before1 #ae4 ,hides in the rear4 #af4 ,namtar my maiden 7he snatched away72 #ag4 ,who shall bring the maiden back8 ,column ,,iii #a4 ,namtar verily is smitten1 yea verily1 #b4 ,who shall bring back strength8 #c4 ,the smiter has smitten1 #d4 ,who shall strike him down8 #e4 ,the hero bearing the dagger #f4 ,he has cast down1 #g4 ,who shall drag him off8 #h4 ,at the gate of my palace no protector stands1 #i4 ,a man of desolation am ,i6 #aj4 ,the land is completely overthrown1 ,i have no defender1 #aa4 ,a man of desolation am ,i6 #ab4 ,the flood fills not the marsh land2 #ac4 ,my eye thereon ,i lift not4 #ad4 ,to man's plantations water reaches not1 #ae4 ,my hand stretches not out to it4 #af4 ,to the marsh land which the flood filled #ag4 ,truly the foot walks upon it6 ,from this point on the tablet is too broken for connected translation4 ,dr4 ,langdon calls this the lament of a ,sumerian ,job1 but his woes1 in so far as this fragment recounts them1 are due to the conquest of his land by an enemy1 and to famine due to a failure of the rivers to overflow4 ,the parallelism to ,tabu-utul-,bl and to ,job might be closer1 if we had the whole tablet4 ,as this tablet is in the script of the first dynasty of ,babylon1 it is evident that this kind of lamentation was as early as #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,psalms ,,from ,,babylonia ,,and ,,egypt ,,character ,,of ,,their ,,psalms4 ,,babylonian ,,prayers ,,to ,,the ,,goddess ,,ishtar4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,psalter4 ,a ,,babylonian ,,hymn ,,to ,,the ,,moon-,,god4 ,a ,,babylonian ,,hymn ,,to ,,bel4 ,,an ,,egyptian ,,hymn ,,to ,,the ,,sun-,,god4 ,,is ,,the ,,hymn ,,monotheistic8 ,,an ,,egyptian ,,hymn ,,in ,,praise ,,of ,,aton4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,psalter4 ,both from ,babylonia and from ,egypt a large number of hymns and prayers have been recovered4 ,some of these are beautiful on account of their form of expression1 the poetical nature of their thoughts1 and the sense of sin which they reveal4 ,most of them are clearly polytheistic1 and it is rare that they rise in the expression of religious emotion to the simple sublimity of the ,old ,testament ,psalms4 ,such likenesses to the ,psalms as they possess only serve to set off in greater relief the rich religious heritage which we have in our ,psalter4 ,a few examples only of the many known hymns are here given4 #a4 ,a ,babylonian ,prayer to the ,goddess ,ishtar4#efb ,o fulfiller of the commands of ,bel 4444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 ,mother of the gods1 fulfiller of the commands of ,bel1 ,thou bringer-forth of verdure1 thou lady of mankind1-- #e4 ,begetress of all1 who makest all offspring thrive1 ,mother ,ishtar1 whose might no god approaches1 ,majestic lady1 whose commands are powerful1 ,a request ,i will proffer1 which--may it bring good to me6 ,o lady1 from my childhood ,i have been exceedingly hemmed in by trouble6 #aj4 ,food ,i did not eat1 ,i was bathed in tears6 ,water ,i did not quaff1 tears were my drink6 ,my heart is not glad1 my soul is not cheerful2 44444444444444444444444 ,i do not walk like a man4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444 ,reverse 444444444444444444444 painfully ,i wail6 ,my sighs are many1 my sickness is great6 ,o my lady1 teach me what to do1 appoint me a resting-place6 ,my sin forgive1 lift up my countenance6 #e4 ,my god1 who is lord of prayer1--may he present my prayer to thee6 ,my goddess1 who is mistress of supplication1--may she present my prayer to thee6 ,god of the deluge1 lord of ,harsaga1--may he present my prayer to thee1-- ,the god of pity1 the lord of the fields1--may he present my prayer to thee6 ,god of heaven and earth1 the lord of ,eridu1--may he present my prayer to thee6 #aj4 ,the mother of the great water1 the dwelling of ,damkina1--may she present my prayer to thee6 ,marduk1 lord of ,babylon1--may he present my prayer to thee6 ,his spouse1 the exalted offspring 787 of heaven and earth1--may she present my prayer to thee6 ,the exalted servant1 the god who announces the good name1--may he present my prayer to thee6 #ae4 ,the bride1 the firstborn of ,ninib1--may she present my prayer to thee6 ,the lady who checks hostile speech1--may she present my prayer to thee6 ,the great1 exalted one1 my lady ,nana1--may she present my prayer to thee6 #b4 ,a ,babylonian ,prayer to ,ishtar4#efc 444444444444444444444444444 ,he raises to thee a wail2 444444444444444444444444444 ,he raises to thee a wail2 ,on account of his face which for tears is not raised1 he raises to thee a wail2 ,on account of his feet on which fetters are laid1 he raises to thee a wail2 #e4 ,on account of his hand1 which is powerless through oppression1 he raises to thee a wail2 ,on account of his breast1 which wheezes like a bellows1 he raises to thee a wail2 ,o lady1 in sadness of heart ,i raise to thee my piteous cry1 8,how long80 ,o lady1 to thy servant--speak pardon to him1 let thy heart be appeased6 ,to thy servant who suffers pain--favor grant him6 #aj4 ,turn thy gaze upon him1 receive his entreaty6 ,to thy servant with whom thou art angry--be favorable unto him6 ,o lady1 my hands are bound1 ,i turn to thee6 ,for the sake of the exalted warrior1 ,shamash1 thy beloved husband1 take away my bonds6 #ae4 ,through a long life let me walk before thee6 ,my god brings before thee a lamentation2 let thy heart be appeased6 ,my goddess utters to thee a prayer1 let thy anger be quieted6 ,the exalted warrior1 ,anu1 thy beloved spouse1--may he present my prayer to thee6 ,shamash1 god of justice1--may he present my prayer to thee6 #bj4 4444444444 the exalted servant1--may he present my prayer to thee6 4444444444 the mighty one of ,ebarbar1--may he present my tears to thee6 8,thine eye turn truly to me10 may he say to thee6 8,thy face turn truly to me10 may he say to thee6 8,let thy heart be at rest01 may he say to thee6 #be4 8,let thy anger be pacified01 may he say to thee6 ,thy heart like the heart of a mother who has brought forth1 may it rejoice6 ,like a father who has begotten a child1 may it be glad6 #c4 ,comparison of ,these ,prayers with the ,psalter4 ,the writers of these lamentations1 like the ,hebrew ,psalmist 7see ,psa4 #ag3a2 #ah3f71 cried unto a deity for help4 ,they were both in great distress1 and naturally inferred that their deity was angry1 as do ,psalms #he3e2 #ij3g4 ,there is1 however1 no great consciousness of sin in these ,babylonian complaints4 ,they simply express distress4 ,unlike the ,biblical ,psalms these are polytheistic and their authors call upon other deities to intercede for them with the goddess1 to whom the prayer is addressed and whom1 for the time being1 they regard as supreme4 ,the author of this last penitential psalm asks 8,how long80 as does ,psa4 #f3c2 #gd3aj2 #ij3ac4 ,the idea seems to be that the suffering of the penitent will either atone for sin or touch the heart of the deity so that the suffering shall be abated4 #d4 ,a ,babylonian ,hymn to ,sin1 the ,moon-god4#efd ,o brilliant barque of the heavens1 ruler in thy own right1 ,father ,nannar1 lord of ,ur1 ,father ,nannar1 lord of ,ekishshirgal1 ,father ,nannar1 lord of the brilliant rising1 #e4 ,o lord1 ,nannar1 firstborn son of ,bel1 ,thou standest1 thou standest ,before thy father ,bel4 ,thou art ruler1 ,father ,nannar2 thou art ruler1 thou art guide4 ,o barque1 when standing in the midst of heaven1 thou art ruler4 #aj4 ,father ,nannar1 thou thyself ridest to the brilliant temple4 ,father ,nannar1 when1 like a ship1 thou goest in the midst of the deep1 ,thou goest1 thou goest1 thou goest1 ,thou goest1 thou shinest anew1 thou goest1 ,thou shinest anew1 thou livest again1 thou goest4 #ae4 ,father ,nannar1 the herd thou restorest4 ,when thy father looketh on thee with joy1 he commandeth thy waxing1 ,then with the glory of a king brilliantly thou risest4 ,bel a scepter for distant days for thy hands has completed4 ,in ,ur as the brilliant barque thou ridest1 #bj4 ,as the lord1 ,nudimmud1 thou art established2 ,in ,ur as the brilliant boat thou ridest4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444 ,reverse 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 ,the river of ,bel 787 ,nannar fills with water4 ,the brilliant 787 river ,nannar fills with water4 ,the river ,tigris ,nannar fills with water4 #e4 ,the brilliance of the ,euphrates ,nannar fills with water4 ,the canal with its gate ,lukhe1 ,nannar fills with water4 ,the great marsh and the little marsh ,nannar fills with water4 ,the preceding hymn is made up of a description of the movements and changes of the moon1 together with the expression of a superstition1 which is still widely prevalent1 that the moon's changes control the rainfall4 ,it is a fair example of a ,babylonian nature-psalm4 ,it lacks the inspired and inspiring power of such ,hebrew nature-psalms as ,psalms #h1 #ai1 #adf1 #adg1 and #adh4 #e4 ,a ,babylonian ,hymn to ,bel4#efe ,o lord of wisdom 4444444444444444 ruler in thy own right1 ,o ,bel1 lord of wisdom 4444444444 ruler in thy own right1 ,o father ,bel1 lord of the lands1 ,o father ,bel1 lord of truthful speech1 #e4 ,o father ,bel1 shepherd of the black-headed ones1#eff ,o father ,bel1 who thyself openest the eyes1 ,o father ,bel1 the warrior1 prince among soldiers1 ,o father ,bel1 supreme power of the land1 ,bull of the corral1 warrior who leadest captive all the land4 #aj4 ,o ,bel1 proprietor of the broad land1 ,lord of creation1 thou art chief of the land1 ,the lord whose shining oil is food for an extensive offspring1 ,the lord whose edicts bind together the city1 ,the edict of whose dwelling place strikes down the great prince #ae4 ,from the land of the rising to the land of the setting sun4 ,o mountain1 lord of life1 thou art indeed lord6 ,o ,bel of the lands1 lord of life1 thou thyself art lord of life4 ,o mighty one1 terrible one of heaven1 thou art guardian indeed6 ,o ,bel1 thou art lord of the gods indeed6 #bj4 ,thou art father1 ,bel1 who causest the plants of the gardens to grow6 ,o ,bel1 thy great glory may they fear6 ,the birds of heaven and the fish of the deep are filled with fear of thee4 ,o father ,bel1 in great strength thou goest1 prince of life1 shepherd of the stars6 ,o lord1 the secret of production thou openest1 the feast of fatness establishest1 to work thou callest6 #be4 ,father ,bel1 faithful prince1 mighty prince1 thou createst the strength of life6 ,a line at the end states that the hymn consisted of #be lines4 ,it is a hymn to ,bel of ,nippur1 whose ,sumerian name was ,enlil4 ,it reveals an exalted conception of ,bel as supreme ruler1 as a god who gives life1 as a god of justice whose rule holds society together1 but it lacks both the poetical sublimity and the religious depth and fire of the ,hebrew psalms4 #f4 ,an ,egyptian ,hymn to the ,sun-god 7about #adjj ,b4 ,c474#efg ,hail to thee1 beautiful god of every day6 ,rising in the morning without ceasing1 ,not wearied in labor4 ,when thy rays are visible1 #e4 ,gold is not considered1 ,it is not like thy brilliance4 ,thou art a craftsman shaping thy own limbs2 ,fashioner without being fashioned2 ,unique in his qualities1 traversing eternity2 #aj4 ,over ways with millions under his guidance4 ,thy brilliance is like the brilliance of the sky1 ,thy colors gleam more than the hues of it4 ,when thou sailest across the sky all men behold thee1 7,though7 thy going is hidden from their sight4 #ae4 ,when thou showest thyself at morning every day1 444444 under thy majesty1 though the day be brief1 ,thou traversest a journey of leagues1 ,even millions and hundred-thousands of time4 ,every day is under thee4 #bj4 ,when thy setting comes1 ,the hours of the night hearken to thee likewise4 ,when thou hast traversed it ,there comes no ending to thy labors4 ,all men--they see by means of thee4 #be4 ,nor do they finish when thy majesty sets1 ,for thou wakest to rise in the morning1 ,and thy radiance1 it opens the eyes 7again74 ,when thou settest in ,manu1#efh ,then they sleep like the dead4 #cj4 ,hail to thee6 ,o disc of day1 ,creator of all and giver of their sustenance1 ,great ,falcon1 brilliantly plumaged1 ,brought forth to raise himself on high of himself1 ,self-generator1 without being born4 #ce4 ,firstborn ,falcon in the midst of the sky1 ,to whom jubilation is made at the rising and the setting likewise4 ,fashioner of the produce of the soil1 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 ,taking possession of the ,two ,lands 7,egypt71 from great to small-- #dj4 ,a mother profitable to gods and men1 ,a craftsman of experience1 4444444444 ,valiant herdsman who drives cattle1 ,their refuge and the giver of their sustenance1 ,who passes by1 running the course of the sun-god1 #de4 ,who determines his own birth1 ,exalting his beauty in the body of ,nut1 ,illuminating the ,two ,lands 7,egypt7 with his disc1 ,the primordial being1 who himself made himself2 ,who beholds that which he has made1 #ej4 ,sole lord taking captive all lands every day1 ,as one beholding them that walk therein2 ,shining in the sky a being as the sun4 ,he makes the seasons by the months1 ,heat when he desires1 #ee4 ,cold when he desires4 ,he makes the limbs to languish ,when he enfolds them1 ,every land is in rejoicing ,at his rising every day1 in order to praise him4 ,this hymn is1 so far as its expressions go1 monotheistic4 ,one would not dream from it that there was any god but the sun-god4 ,nevertheless1 other gods were worshiped4 ,the monotheism here expressed was not of the intolerant kind which prevailed in ,israel1 and which ultimately put down the worship of all rival deities4 ,such an intolerant monotheism was introduced into ,egypt by ,amenophis ,,iv 7see ,part ,i1 p4 #bi71 who took an old name for the sun disc1 ,aton1 as the name of the one god1 and who tried to suppress the worship of all other gods4 ,the movement failed1 but while it lasted it produced the following beautiful hymn4 #g4 ,an ,egyptian ,hymn in ,praise of ,aton4#efi ,thy dawning is beautiful in the horizon of the sky1 ,o loving ,aton1 ,beginning of life6 ,when thou risest in the eastern horizon1 ,thou fillest every land with thy beauty4 #e4 ,thou art beautiful1 great1 glittering1 high above every land1 ,thy rays1 they encompass the lands1 even all that thou hast made1 ,thou art ,re1#egj and thou carriest them all away captive2 ,thou bindest them by thy love4 ,though thou art far away1 thy rays are upon the earth2 #aj4 ,though thou art on high1 thy footprints are the day4 ,when thou settest in the western horizon of the sky1 ,the earth is in darkness like the dead2 ,they sleep in their chambers1 ,their heads are wrapped up1 #ae4 ,their nostrils are stopped1 ,and none seeth the other1 ,while all their things are stolen ,which are under their heads1 ,and they know it not4 #bj4 ,every lion cometh forth from his den1 ,all serpents1 they sting4 ,darkness 4444444444444444 ,the world is in silence2 ,he that made them resteth in his horizon4 #be4 ,bright is the earth when thou risest in the horizon4 ,when thou shinest as ,aton by day ,thou drivest away the darkness4 ,when thou sendest forth thy rays1 ,the ,two ,lands 7,egypt7 are in daily festivity1 #cj4 ,awake and standing upon their feet ,when thou hast raised them up4 ,their limbs bathed1 they take their clothing1 ,their arms uplifted in adoration to thy dawning4 7,then7 in all the world they do their work4 #ce4 ,all cattle rest upon their pasturage1 ,the trees and the plants flourish1 ,the birds flutter in their marshes1 ,their wings uplifted in adoration to thee4 ,all the sheep dance upon their feet1 #dj4 ,all wingd things fly1 ,they live when thou hast shone upon them4 ,the barques sail upstream and downstream alike4 ,every highway is open because thou dawnest4 #de4 ,the fish in the river leap up before thee4 ,the rays are in the midst of the great green sea4 ,creator of the germ in woman1 ,maker of seed in man1 ,giving life to the son in the body of his mother1 #ej4 ,soothing him that he may not weep1 ,nurse 7even7 in the womb1 ,giver of breath to animate every one that he maketh6 ,when he cometh forth from the body 444444 on the day of his birth1 ,thou openest his mouth in speech1 #ee4 ,thou suppliest his necessities4 ,when the fledgling in the egg chirps in the shell1 ,thou givest him breath therein to preserve him alive4 ,when thou hast brought him together1 ,to 7the point of7 bursting it in the egg1 #fj4 ,he cometh forth from the egg ,to chirp with all his might4 ,he goeth about on his two feet ,when he hath come forth therefrom4 ,how manifold are thy works6#ega #fe4 ,they are hidden from before 7us71 ,o sole ,god1 whose powers no other possesseth4 ,thou didst create the earth according to thy heart ,while thou wast alone3 ,men1 all cattle large and small1 #gj4 ,all that are upon the earth1 ,that go about upon their feet2 ,all that are on high1 ,that fly with their wings4 ,the foreign countries1 ,syria and ,kush1 #ge4 ,the land of ,egypt2 ,thou settest every man into his place1 ,thou suppliest their necessities4 ,every one has his possessions1 ,and his days are reckoned4 #hj4 ,the tongues are divers in speech1 ,their forms likewise and their skins are distinguished4 7,for7 thou makest different the strangers4 ,thou makest the ,nile in the ,nether ,world1 ,thou bringest it as thou desirest1 #he4 ,to preserve alive the people4 ,for thou hast made them for thyself1 ,the lord of them all1 resting among them2 ,thou lord of every land1 who risest for them1 ,thou ,sun of day1 great in majesty4 #ij4 ,all the distant countries1 ,thou makest 7also7 their life1 ,thou hast set a ,nile in the sky2 ,when it falleth for them1 #ie4 ,it maketh waves upon the mountains1 ,like the great green sea1 ,watering their fields in their towns4 ,how excellent are thy designs1 ,o lord of eternity6 ,there is a ,nile in the sky for the strangers #ajj4 ,and for the cattle of every country that go upon their feet4 7,but7 the ,nile1 it cometh from the ,nether ,world for ,egypt4 ,thy rays nourish every garden2 ,when thou risest they live1 ,they grow by thee4 #aje4 ,thou makest the seasons ,in order to create all thy work3 ,winter to bring them coolness1 ,and heat that they may taste thee4 ,thou didst make the distant sky to rise therein1 #aaj4 ,in order to behold all that thou hast made1 ,thou alone1 shining in thy form as living ,aton1 ,dawning1 glittering1 going afar and returning4 ,thou makest millions of forms ,through thyself alone2 #aae4 ,cities1 towns1 and tribes1 highways and rivers4 ,all eyes see before them1 ,for thou art ,aton of the day over the earth4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444 ,thou art in my heart1 #abj4 ,there is no other that knoweth thee ,save thy son ,ikhnaton4#egb ,thou hast made him wise ,in thy designs and in thy might4 ,the world is in thy hand1 #abe4 ,even as thou hast made them4 ,when thou hast risen they live1 ,when thou settest they die2 ,for thou art length of life of thyself1 ,men live through thee1 #acj4 ,while 7their7 eyes are upon thy beauty ,until thou settest4 ,all labor is put away ,when thou settest in the west4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #ace4 ,thou didst establish the world1 ,and raise them1 up for thy son1 ,who came forth from thy limbs1 ,the king of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 ,living in ,truth1 ,lord of the ,two ,lands1 #adj4 ,nefer-khepru-,re1 ,wan-,re 7,ikhnaton71 ,son of ,re1 living in ,truth1 lord of diadems1 ,ikhnaton1 whose life is long2 ,and for the chief royal wife1 his beloved1 ,mistress of the ,two ,lands1 ,nefer-nefru-,aton1 ,nofretete1 #ade4 ,living and flourishing for ever and ever4 #h4 ,comparison with the ,psalter4 ,this long hymn contains many beautiful passages1 and1 in addition to the line 8,how manifold are thy works60 often reminds one of ,psa4 #ajd1 though in religious feeling it falls well below that psalm4 ,ikhnaton speaks of himself toward the end of his hymn as the one 8whose life is long10 but the poor fellow died before he was thirty years old4#egc ,his mummy was found a few years ago1 and it is that of a young man4 ,vain were his hopes1 unless his words refer to the immortal life4 ,these ,egyptian hymns1 like the ,babylonian1 exhibit a high degree of poetic and intellectual power1 and much deep religious feeling1 but the men who wrote them somehow lacked that deep religious insight and simple power of emotional expression that were given to the ,hebrews4 ,their compositions but set in clearer relief the beauty1 depth1 and inspirational power of the ,hebrew ,psalms4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,parallels ,,to ,,proverbs ,,and ,,ecclesiastes ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,proverbs ,,and ,,the ,,parallels4 ,,babylonian ,,proverbs ,,from ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,ashurbanipal4 ,,precepts ,,from ,,the ,,library ,,of ,,ashurbanipal4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,bible4 ,,egyptian ,,precepts ,,of ,,ptahhotep4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,bible4 ,,parallel ,,to ,,ecclesiastes ,,from ,,the ,,gilgamesh ,,epic4 ,both ,egypt and ,babylon furnish parallels to the book of ,proverbs4 ,the ,biblical book of ,proverbs contains a long connected discourse of advice 7,prov4 #a-i7 and various collections of disconnected proverbs 7,prov4 #aj-bi74 ,parallels to both are found in ,egypt and in ,babylonia4 ,the library of ,ashurbanipal contained a collection of proverbs in two languages1 arranged as reading lessons for students4 ,a few examples are here given4 #a4 ,some ,babylonian ,proverbs from the ,library of ,ashurbanipal4#egd #a4 ,a hostile act thou shalt not perform1 that fear of vengeance 787 shall not consume thee4 #b4 ,thou shalt not do evil1 that life 787 eternal thou mayest obtain4 #c4 ,does a woman conceive when a virgin1 or grow great without eating8 #d4 ,if ,i put anything down it is snatched away2 if ,i do more than is expected1 who will repay me8 #e4 ,he has dug a well where no water is2 he has raised a husk without kernel4 #f4 ,does a marsh receive the price of its reeds1 or fields the price of their vegetation8 #g4 ,the strong live by their own wages2 the weak by the wages of their children4 #h4 ,he is altogether good1 but he is clothed with darkness4 #i4 ,the face of a toiling ox thou shalt not strike with a goad4 #aj4 ,my knees go1 my feet are unwearied2 but a fool has cut into my course4 #aa4 ,his ass ,i am2 ,i am harnessed to a mule2 a wagon ,i draw2 to seek reeds and fodder ,i go forth4 #ab4 ,the life of day before yesterday has departed today4 #ac4 ,if the husk is not right1 the kernel is not right2 it will not produce seed4 #ad4 ,the tall grain thrives1 but what do we understand of it8 ,the meager grain thrives1 but what do we understand of it8 #ae4 ,the city whose weapons are not strong--the enemy before its gates shall not be thrust through4 #af4 ,if thou goest and takest the field of an enemy1 the enemy will come and take thy field4 #ag4 ,upon a glad heart oil is poured out of which no one knows4 #ah4 ,friendship is for the day of trouble2 posterity for the future4 #ai4 ,an ass in another city becomes its head4 ,the idea is similar to ,matt4 #ac3eg3 8,a prophet is not without honor1 save in his own country1 and in his own house40 #bj4 ,writing is the mother of eloquence and the father of artists4 #ba4 ,be gentle to thy enemy as to an old oven4#ege #bb4 ,the gift of the king is the nobility of the exalted2 the gift of the king is the favor of governors4 #bc4 ,friendship in days of prosperity is servitude forever4 #bd4 ,there is strife where servants are2 slander where anointers anoint4 #be4 ,when thou seest the gain of the fear of god1 exalt god and bless the king4#egf #b4 ,precepts from the ,library of ,ashurbanipal4#egg ,thou shalt not slander1 7but7 speak kindly2 ,thou shalt not speak evil1 7but7 show mercy4 ,him who slanders 7and7 speaks evil1 ,with its recompense will ,shamash#egh visit 787 his head4 ,thou shalt not make large thy mouth1 but guard thy lip2 ,in the time of anger thou shalt not speak at once4 ,if thou speakest quickly1 thou wilt repent 787 afterward1 ,and in silence wilt thou sadden thy mind4 ,daily present to thy god ,offering and prayer1 appropriate to incense4 ,before thy god mayest thou have a pure heart1 ,for that is appropriate to deity4 ,prayer1 petition1 and prostration ,early in the morning shalt thou render him2 he will judge thy burdens 7871 ,and with the help of ,god thou wilt be abundantly prosperous4 ,in thy wisdom learn of the tablet2 ,the fear 7of ,god7 begets favor1 ,offering enriches life1 ,and prayer brings forgiveness of sins4 7,the text of the rest is too broken for connected translation47 #c4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,none of the sentiments expressed in these proverbs is identical with any in the ,bible4 ,no4 #ba is on the same subject as ,prov4 #bd3ag2 ,no4 #bb reminds one slightly of the first clause of ,prov4 #ad3ce2 ,no4 #bc has the same sentiment as ,prov4 #ah3bd3 8,he that maketh many friends doeth it to his own destruction02 while ,no4 #f is somewhat similar to ,prov4 #bd3ba4 ,among the 8precepts10 that on guarding the lips recalls to one's mind ,prov4 #aj3ai2 #ac3c2 #ad3c2 #ag3bh4 ,reference is made to the 8gain of the fear of ,god0 and it is declared to 8beget favor40 ,job #bh3bh declares 8the fear of the ,lord1 that is wisdom40 #d4 ,the ,precepts of ,ptahhotep4 ,these precepts are attributed to a man who lived in the time of the fifth ,egyptian dynasty1 about #bfej ,b4 ,c41 and are at least as old as #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the text is very difficult4 ,the examples given below are taken from ,breasted's#egi condensation of the moral precepts which the treatise contains4 #a4 ,if thou findest a wise man in his time1 a leader of understanding more excellent than thou1 bend thy arms and bow thy back4 #b4 ,if thou findest a wise man in his time1 thy equal1 4444444444 be not silent when he speaks evil4 ,great is the approval by those who hear1 and thy name will be good in the knowledge of the princes4 #c4 ,if thou findest a wise man in his time1 a poor man and not thy equal1 be not overbearing against him when he is unfortunate4 #d4 ,if thou art a leader 7or administrator7 issuing ordinances for the multitude1 seek for thee very excellent matter1 that thy ordinance may endure without evil therein4 ,great is righteousness 7truth1 right1 justice71 enduring 44444444442 it has not been disturbed since the time of ,osiris4 #e4 ,put no fear 7of thee87 among the people 4444444444 ,what the god commands is that which happens4 ,therefore live in the midst of quiet4 ,what they 7the gods87 give comes of itself4 #f4 ,if thou art a man of those who sit by the seat of a man greater than thou1 take what 7food7 he gives1 444444 look at what is before thee1 and bombard him not with many glances 7don't stare at him7 444444 ,speak not to him until he calls4 ,one knows not what is unpleasant to 7his7 heart4 ,speak thou when he greets thee1 and what thou sayest will be agreeable to 7his7 heart4 #g4 ,if thou art a man of those who enter1 whom 7one7 prince sends to 7another7 prince1 444444 execute for him the commission according as he saith4 ,beware of altering a word which 7one7 prince speaks to 7another7 prince1 by displaying the truth with the like of it4 #h4 ,if thou plowest and there is growth in the field1 the god gives it 7as7 increase in thy hand4 ,satisfy not thy own mouth beside thy kin4 #i4 ,if thou art insignificant1 follow an able man and all thy proceedings shall be good before the god4 #aj4 ,follow thy desire as long as thou livest4 ,do not more than is told 7thee74 ,shorten not the time of following desire4 ,it is an abomination to encroach upon the time thereof4 ,take no care daily beyond the maintenance of thy house4 ,when possessions come1 follow desire1 7for7 possessions are not complete when he 7the owner7 is harassed4 ,compare with this precept ,eccles4 #aa3i and #g3ae-ag4 #aa4 ,if thou art an able man1 7give attention to the conduct of thy son74 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444 #af4 ,if thou art a leader 7or administrator71 hear quietly the speech of the petitioner4 ,he who is suffering wrong desires that his heart be cheered to do that on account of which he hath come 4444444 ,it is an ornament of the heart to hear kindly4 #ag4 ,if thou desirest to establish friendship in a house1 into which thou enterest as lord1 as brother1 or as friend1 wheresoever thou enterest in1 beware of approaching the women 444444 ,a thousand men are undone for the enjoyment of a brief moment like a dream4 ,men gain 7only7 death for knowing them4 ,compare ,prov4 #e3c1 f4 #ah4 ,if thou desirest that thy procedure be good1 withhold thee from all evil1 beware of occasion of avarice 444444 ,he who enters therein does not get on4 ,it corrupts fathers1 mothers1 and mothers' brothers4 ,it divides wife and man2 it is plunder 7made up7 of everything evil2 it is a bundle of everything base4 ,established is the man whose standard is righteousness1 who walks in its way4 ,he is used to make his fortune thereby1 7but7 the avaricious is houseless4 #ai4 ,be not avaricious in dividing 444444 ,be not avaricious towards thy kin4 ,greater is the fame of the gentle than 7that of7 the harsh4 #bj4 ,if thou art successful1 establish thy house4 ,love thy wife in husbandly embrace1 fill her body1 clothe her back4 ,the recipe for her limbs is ointment4 ,gladden her heart as long as thou livest4 ,she is a profitable field for her lord4 ,compare ,eccles4 #i3i4 #ba4 ,satisfy those who enter to thee 7come into thy office7 with that which thou hast4 #bb4 ,repeat not a word of hearsay4 #bc4 ,if thou art an able man who sits in the council of his lord1 summon thy understanding to excellent things4 ,be silent4 #bd4 ,if thou art a strong man1 establish the respect of thee by wisdom and by quietness of speech4 #be4 ,approach not a prince in his time4 ,apparently an idiom for some particular mood4 #bf4 ,instruct a prince 7or official7 in that which is profitable for him4 #bg4 ,if thou art the son of a man of the council1 commissioned to content the multitude1 444444 be not partial4 ,beware lest he 7the man of the multitude87 say1 8,his plan is that of the princes4 ,he utters the words in partiality40 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #bi4 ,if thou becomest great after thou wert little1 and gettest possessions after thou wert formerly poor in the city1 444444 be not proud-hearted because of thy wealth4 ,it has come to thee as a gift of the god4 #cj4 ,bend thy back to thy superior1 thy overseer of the king's house1 and thy house shall endure because of his 7or its7 possessions and thy reward shall be in the place thereof4 ,it is evil to show disobedience to a superior4 ,one lives as long as he is gentle4 #ca4 ,do not practise corruption of children4 #cb4 ,if thou searchest the character of a friend1 444444 transact the matter with him when he is alone4 #cc4 ,let thy face be bright as long as thou livest4 ,as for what goes out of the storehouse1 it comes not in again2 and as for loaves 7already7 distributed1 he who is concerned therefor has still an empty stomach4 8,there is no use in crying over spilt milk40 #cd4 ,know thy merchants when thy fortunes are evil4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 #cg4 ,if thou hearkenest to these things which ,i have said to thee1 all thy plans will progress4 ,as for the matter of the righteousness thereof1 it is their worth4 ,the memory thereof shall circulate in the mouths of men1 because of the beauty of their utterances4 ,every word will be carried on and not perish in this land forever 4444444 ,he who understands discretion is profitable in establishing that through which he succeeds on earth4 ,a wise man is satisfied by reason of that which he knows4 ,as for a prince of good qualities1 they are in his heart and tongue4 ,his lips are right when he speaks1 his eyes see1 and his ears together hear what is profitable for his son4 ,do right 7righteousness1 justice1 truth71 free from lying4 #ch4 ,profitable is hearkening for a son that hearkens 444444 ,how good is it when a son receives that which his father says4 ,he shall reach advanced age thereby4 ,a hearkener is one whom the god loves4 ,who hearkens not is one whom the god hates4 ,it is the heart 7 understanding7 which makes its possessor a hearkener or one not hearkening4 ,the life1 health1 and prosperity of a man is his heart4 ,the hearkener is one who hears and speaks4 ,he who does what is said is one who loves to hearken4 ,how good it is when a son hearkens to his father6 ,how happy is he to whom these things are said6 444444 ,his memory is in the mouth of the living who are on the earth and those who shall be4 #ci4 ,if the son of a man receives what his father says1 none of his plans will miscarry4 ,instruct as thy son one who hearkens1 who shall be successful in the judgment of the princes1 who directs his mouth according to that which is said to him 444444 ,how many mishaps befall him who hearkens not6 ,the wise man rises early to establish himself1 while the fool is scourged4 ,with the first of this section compare ,exod4 #bj3ab2 ,deut4 #e3af4 ,with the end of it1 ,prov4 #f3i-aa2 #aj3bf2 #ac3d4 #dj4 ,as for the fool who hearkens not1 he accomplishes nothing4 ,he regards wisdom as ignorance1 and what is profitable as diseased 4444444 ,his life is death thereby1 4444444 he dies1 living every day4 ,men pass by 7avoid87 his qualities1 because of the multitude of evils upon him every day4 #da4 ,a son who hearkens is a follower of ,horus4 ,he prospers after he hearkens4 ,he reaches old age1 he attains reverence4 ,he speaks likewise to his 7own7 children1 renewing the instruction of his father4 ,every man who instructs is like his sire4 ,he speaks with his children2 then they speak to their children4 ,attain character1 444444 make righteousness to flourish and thy children shall live4 #db4 4444444444 ,let thy attention be steadfast as long as thou speakest1 whither thou directest thy speech4 ,may the princes who shall hear say1 8,how good is that which comes out of his mouth60 #dc4 ,so do that thy lord shall say to thee1 8,how good is the instruction of his father from whose limbs he came forth6 ,he has spoken to him2 it is in 7his7 body throughout4 ,greater is that which he hath done than that which was said to him40 ,behold1 a good son1 whom the god gives1 renders more than his lord says to him4 ,he does right 7righteousness1 etc471 his heart acts according to his way4 ,according as thou attainest me 78what ,i have attained071 thy limbs shall be healthy1 the king shall be satisfied with all that occurs1 and thou shalt attain years of life not less than ,i have passed on the earth4 ,i have attained one hundred and ten years of life compare ,gen4 #ej3bf1 while the king gave to me praise above 7that of7 the ancestors 7in the vizierial office7 because ,i did righteousness for the king even unto the place of reverence 7the grave74 #e4 ,comparison with the ,bible4 ,these precepts1 which were written before #ahjj ,b4 ,c41 like most of those in the book of ,proverbs1 embody much worldly wisdom4 ,they are based on experience1 and while1 like ,proverbs1 they sometimes urge a religious motive as a reason for right conduct1 they frankly advocate it1 as ,proverbs often does1 on the ground of expediency4 ,the points where the text is closely parallel to that of ,proverbs are few1 and these have been sufficiently pointed out4 ,some of the passages1 as already noted1 are closely parallel to parts of the book of ,ecclesiastes4 ,the religious appeal of the precepts is to ,egyptian polytheism1 while that of ,proverbs is to ,hebrew monotheism4 #f4 ,a ,parallel to ,ecclesiastes4 ,the following striking parallel to a passage in ,ecclesiastes is taken from a tablet of the ,gilgamesh ,epic1#ehj written in the script of the time of ,hammurapi1 about #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,since the gods created man1#eha ,death they ordained for man1 ,life in their hands they hold4 ,thou1 ,o ,gilgamesh1 fill indeed thy belly1 ,day and night be thou joyful1 ,daily ordain gladness1 ,day and night rage and make merry1 ,let thy garments be bright1 ,thy head purify1 wash with water1 ,desire thy children which thy hand possesses1 ,a wife enjoy in thy bosom1 ,peaceably thy work 787 4444444444 ,this is not only in sentiment strikingly like ,eccles4 #i3f-i1 but in part closely approaches its language4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,egyptian ,,parallels ,,to ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,songs ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,songs4 ,,translation ,,of ,,some ,,egyptian ,,love-,,poems4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,biblical ,,passages4 ,for many centuries the ,song of ,songs has been interpreted allegorically1 but even those who give it an allegorical meaning must admit that its sentiments are couched in the terms of earthly love4 ,love poems1 which sometimes express sentiments that remind us of the ,song of ,songs1 have been discovered on some ,egyptian papyri and ostraca4 ,the documents in which they are written range in their dates from #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 to about #aajj ,b4 ,c4 ,selections from these follow3#ehb ,i#ehc ,thy love has penetrated all within me ,like honey8 plunged into water1 ,like an odor which penetrates spices1 ,as when one mixes juice in 4444444444 ,nevertheless thou runnest to seek thy sister1 ,like the steed upon the battlefield1 ,as the warrior rolls along on the spokes of his wheels4 ,for heaven makes thy love ,like the advance of flames in straw1 ,and its longing like the downward swoop of a hawk4 ,,ii#ehd ,disturbed is the condition 787 of my pool4 ,the mouth of my sister is a rosebud4 ,her breast is a perfume4 ,her arm is a 444444 bough8 ,which offers a delusive seat4 ,her forehead is a snare of meryu-wood4 ,i am a wild goose1 a hunted one 7871 ,my gaze is at thy hair1 ,at a bait under the trap ,that is to catch 787 me4 8,brother0 and 8sister0 are terms frequently applied to lovers in these poems4 ,perhaps it arose from an ancient custom of marriages between brothers and sisters1 which was perpetuated in the royal families of ,egypt down to ,roman times4 ,the description of the physical attractions of the loved one reminds one of ,cant4 #d3a-g4 ,,iii#ehe ,is my heart not softened by thy love-longing for me8 ,my dogfoot-7fruit7 which excites thy passion1-- ,not will ,i allow it ,to depart from me4 ,although cudgeled even to the 8,guard of the overflow10#ehf ,to ,syria1 with shebd-rods and clubs1 ,to ,ethiopia1 with palm-rods1 ,to the highlands1 with switches1 ,to the lowlands1 with twigs1 ,never will ,i listen to their counsel1 ,to abandon longing4 ,,iv#ehg ,the voice of the wild goose cries1 7,where7 she has seized their bait1 7,but7 thy love holds me back1 ,i am unable to liberate her4 ,i must1 then1 take home my net6 ,what shall ,i say to my mother1 ,to whom formerly ,i came each day ,loaded down with fowls8 ,i shall not set the snares today ,for thy love has caught me4 ,this is a vivid description of the power of the tender passion4 ,v#ehh ,the wild goose flies up and soars1 ,she sinks down upon the net4 ,the birds cry in flocks1 ,but ,i hasten homeward1 ,since ,i care for thy love alone4 ,my heart yearns for thy breast1 ,i cannot sunder myself from thy attractions4 ,this is a continuation of the preceding4 ,,vi#ehi ,thou beautiful one6 ,my heart's desire is ,to procure for thee thy food as thy husband1 ,my arm resting upon thy arm4#eij ,thou hast changed me by thy love4 ,thus say ,i in my heart1 ,in my soul1 at my prayers3 8,i lack my commander tonight1 ,i am as one dwelling in a tomb40 ,be thou but in health and strength1#eia ,then the nearness of thy countenance ,sheds delight1 by reason of thy well-being1 ,over a heart1 which seeks thee 7with longing74 ,this poem expresses on the part of the man a longing similar to that expressed by the woman in ,cant4 #h3a-c4 ,,vii#eib ,the voice of the dove calls1 ,it says3 8,the earth is bright40 ,what have ,i to do outside8 ,stop1 thou birdling6 ,thou chidest me6 ,i have found my brother in his bed1 ,my heart is glad beyond all measure4 ,we each say3 8,i will not tear myself away40 ,my hand is in his hand4 ,i wander together with him ,to every beautiful place4 ,he makes me the first of maidens1 ,nor does he grieve my heart4 ,in this poem the loved woman speaks1 as in ,cant4 #h3a-c4 ,,viii#eic ,sa#8am-plants are in it1 ,in the presence of which one feels oneself uplifted6 ,i am thy darling sister1 ,i am to thee like a bit of land1 ,with each shrub of grateful fragrance4 ,lovely is the water-conduit in it1 ,which thy hand has dug4 ,while the north wind cooled us4 ,a beautiful place to wander1 ,thy hand in my hand1 ,my soul inspired1 ,my heart in bliss1 ,because we go together4 ,new wine it is1 to hear thy voice2 ,i live for hearing it4 ,to see thee with each look1 ,is better than eating and drinking4 ,the figure of the garden1 with which this poem begins1 is also used in ,cant4 #e3a and #f3b1 #c4 ,,ix#eid ,ta-'a-ti-plants are in it6 ,i take thy garlands away1 ,when thou comest home drunken1 ,and when thou art lying in thy bed ,when ,i touch thy feet1 7,and7 children are 787 in thy 4444444444 444444444444444444444444 ,i rise up rejoicing in the morning ,thy nearness means to me health and strength4 ,in ancient as in modern times wives loved fondly1 while husbands gave way to drunkenness4 ,the poems as a whole make it clear that in ,egypt love1 which lies at the basis of all home life1 and is in the ,new ,testament made a figure of the relation of ,christ to the ,church 7see ,john #c3bi2 ,rev4 #ba3b1 #i71 was as warmly felt as in ,israel1 and was likewise poetically and passionately expressed4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,illustrations ,,of ,,passages ,,in ,,the ,,prophets ,,uniqueness ,,of ,,the ,,prophetic ,,books4 ,,an ,,assyrian ,,prophetic ,,vision4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,bible4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,social ,,conscience4 ,,tale ,,of ,,the ,,eloquent ,,peasant4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,bible4 ,,an ,,ideal ,,king2 ,,extract ,,from ,,the ,,admonitions ,,of ,,ipuwer4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,messianic ,,expectations4 ,,sheol4 ,,ishtar',s ,,descent ,,to ,,the ,,under-,,world4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,prophetic ,,passages4 ,a ,,lamentation ,,for ,,tammuz4 ,there is no other body of literature which closely corresponds to the books of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,the depth of their social passion and the power of their moral and religious insight form a unique combination4 ,nevertheless1 texts which have come from ,babylonia and ,egypt do show that certain phases of prophetic thought were not without parallels elsewhere4 ,at times they also illustrate for us thoughts and practices which the prophets abhorred4 ,a few such texts are here translated4 #a4 ,a ,prophetic ,vision4 ,the following statement is taken from the annals of ,ashurbanipal1 ,king of ,assyria1 #ffh-fbf ,b4 ,c4 ,it is the conclusion of a passage in which the king is relating his strenuous struggle with ,tiuman1 ,king of ,elam4 ,ashurbanipal tells how he poured out a libation to ,ishtar of ,arbela and offered to her a long prayer against the ,elamite king4 ,the narrative then continues3#eie ,in an hour of that night when ,i prayed to her1 a seer lay down2 he saw a prophetic dream4 ,ishtar caused him to see a vision of the night1 and he announced it to me1 saying3 8,ishtar who dwells at ,arbela entered1 and on her right and left she was behung with quivers1 she was holding a bow in her left hand1 she brandished a heavy sword to make war4 ,thou wast sitting before her4 ,she1 like the mother who bore thee1 was speaking to thee and talking to thee4 ,ishtar1 the exalted one of the gods1 was appointing thee a message3 #8,thou shalt expect to accomplish that#eif at the place which is situated before thee4 ,i am coming4' ,thou wast answering her1 saying3 #8,where thou goest ,i will go with thee1 ,o lady of ladies4' ,she repeated to thee1 saying3 #8,thou 444444 indeed dwellest in the place of ,nebo4 ,eat food1 drink wine1 appoint rejoicing1 exalt my divinity until ,i go and accomplish this undertaking 444444 ,i will cause thee to accomplish the wish of thy heart4 ,thy face he shall not harm1 thy feet he shall not resist2 thy cry shall not come to nought4' ,in the midst of battle she arms thee with the desolation of her goodness4 ,she will protect thy whole body4 ,before her a fire is blown to capture thy foes40 ,the night vision of this seer reminds one a little of ,isaiah's vision of ,jehovah in the temple 7,isa4 #f7 and of ,zechariah's vision of ,joshua and ,satan 7,zech4 #c3a74 ,the ,hebrew prophets as late as the time of ,jeremiah often received their divine messages in dreams4 7,see ,jer4 #bc3bg47 ,assyria had something of the same ideas as ,israel as to the revelations of deity to a prophet1 but she lacked ,israel's ethical deity4 #b4 ,the ,egyptian ,social ,conscience4 ,a remarkable appreciation of the rights of the common people is revealed in an ,egyptian story called the 8,tale of the ,eloquent ,peasant10--a story which has come down to us in copies made before #ahjj ,b4 ,c4 ,it has been claimed that this tale indicates the existence of a social conscience in ,egypt analogous to that of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,the principal part of the story is1 accordingly1 given here4 ,the ,eloquent ,peasant#eig ,there was a man1 ,hunanup by name1 a peasant of ,sechet-hemat1 and he had a wife1 4444444444 by name4 ,then said this peasant to his wife3 8,behold1 ,i am going down to ,egypt to bring back bread for my children4 ,go in and measure the corn that we still have in our storehouse1 44444444 bushel40 ,then he measured for her #h 787 bushels of corn4 ,then this peasant said to his wife3 8,behold1 #b bushels of corn shall be left for bread for thee and the children4 ,but make for me the #f bushels into bread and beer for each of the days that ,i shall be on the road40 ,then this peasant went down to ,egypt after he had loaded his asses with all the good products#eih of ,sechet-hemat4 ,this peasant set out and journeyed southward to ,ehnas4 ,he came to a point opposite ,per-fefi1 north of ,medenit1 and found there a man standing on the bank1 ,dehuti-necht by name1 who was the son of a man named ,iseri1 who was one of the serfs of the chief steward1 ,meruitensi4 ,then said this ,dehuti-necht1 when he saw the asses of this peasant which appealed to his covetousness3 8,oh that some good god would help me to rob this peasant of his goods60 ,the house of ,dehuti-necht stood close to the side of the path1 which was narrow1 not wide4 ,it was about the width of a 444444-cloth1 and upon one side of it was the water and upon the other side was growing grain4 ,then said ,dehuti-necht to his servant3 8,hasten and bring me a shawl from the house60 ,and it was brought at once4 ,then he spread this shawl upon the middle of the road1 and it extended1 one edge to the water1 and the other to the corn4 ,the peasant came along the path which was the common highway4 ,then said ,dehuti-necht3 8,look out1 peasant1 do not trample on my clothes60 ,the peasant answered3 8,i will do as thou wishest2 ,i will go in the right way60 ,as he was turning to the upper side1 ,dehuti-necht said3 8,does my corn serve you as a road80 ,then said the peasant3 8,i am going in the right way4 ,the bank is steep and the path lies near the corn and you have stopped up the road ahead with your clothes4 ,will you1 then1 not let me go by80 ,upon that one of the asses took a mouthful of corn4 ,then said ,dehuti-necht3 8,see1 ,i will take away thy ass because it has eaten my corn 44444444440 ,then the peasant said3 8,i am going in the right way4 ,as one side was made impassable ,i have led my ass along the other1 and will you seize it because it has taken a mouthful of corn8 ,but ,i know the lord of this property2 it belongs to the chief steward1 ,meruitensi4 ,it is he who punishes every robber in this whole land4 ,shall ,i1 then1 be robbed in his domain80 ,then said ,dehuti-necht3 8,is it not a proverb which the people employ3 #8,the name of the poor is only known on account of his lord8' ,it is ,i who speak to you1 but the chief steward of whom you think40#eii ,then he took a rod from a green tamarisk and beat all his limbs with it1 and seized his asses and drove them into his compound4 ,thereupon the peasant wept loudly on account of the pain of what had been done to him4 ,dehuti-necht said to him3 8,don't cry so loud1 peasant1 or thou shalt go to the city of the ,silence-maker0 7a name of the god of the underworld74 ,the peasant said3 8,thou beatest me and stealest my goods1 and wilt thou also take the wail away from my mouth8 ,o ,silence-maker6 give me my goods again6 ,may ,i never cease to cry out1 if thou fearest60 ,the peasant consumed four days1 during which he besought ,dehuti-necht1 but he did not grant him his rights4 ,then this peasant went to the south1 to ,ehnas1 to implore the chief steward1 ,meruitensi4 ,he met him as he was coming out of the canal-door of his compound to embark in his boat4 ,thereupon the peasant said3 8,oh let me lay before thee this affair4 ,permit one of thy trusted servants to come to me1 that ,i may send him to thee concerning it40 ,then the steward1 ,meruitensi1 sent one of his servants to him1 and he sent back by him an account of the whole affair4 ,then the chief steward1 ,meruitensi1 laid the case of ,dehuti-necht before his attendant officials1 and they said to him3 8,lord1 it is presumably a case of one of your peasants who has gone against another peasant near him4 ,behold1 it is customary with peasants to so conduct themselves toward others who are near them4 ,shall we beat ,dehuti-necht for a little natron and a little salt8 ,command him to restore it and he will restore it40 ,the chief steward1 ,meruitensi1 remained silent2 he answered neither the officials nor the peasant4 ,the peasant then came to entreat the chief steward1 ,meruitensi1 for the first time1 and said3 8,chief steward1 my lord1 thou art greatest of the great1 thou art guide of all that which is not and which is4 ,when thou embarkest on the sea of truth1 that thou mayest go sailing upon it1 then shall not the 4444444444 strip away thy sail1 then thy ship shall not remain fast1 then shall no misfortune happen to thy mast1 then shall thy spars 787 not be broken1 then shalt thou not be stranded2 if thou runnest fast aground1 the waves shall not break upon thee1 then thou shalt not taste the impurities of the river1 then thou shalt not behold the face of fear2 the shyest 787 fish shall come to thee1 and thou shalt capture the fat birds4 ,for thou art the father of the orphan1 the husband of the widow1 the brother of the desolate1 the garment of the motherless4 ,let me place thy name in this land higher than all good laws3 thou guide without avarice1 thou great one free from meanness1 who destroyest deceit1 who createst truthfulness4 ,throw the evil to the ground4 ,i will speak2 hear me4 ,do justice1 ,o thou praised one1 whom the praised ones praise4 ,remove my oppression3 behold1 ,i have a heavy 4444444 to carry2 behold1 ,i am troubled of soul2 examine me1 ,i am in sorrow40 ,the reference in this address to the orphan and the widow touches a chord which runs through much of the ,old ,testament and is especially prominent in the prophets1 as the following references will indicate3 ,isa4 #a3ag1 #bc2 #i3ag2 #aj3b2 #dg3h2 ,jer4 #g3f2 #ae3h2 #ah3ba2 #bb3c2 #di3aa2 ,ezek4 #bb3g1 #be2 ,zech4 #g3aj2 ,mal4 #c3e2 ,deut4 #aj3ah2 #ad3bi2 ,job #bi3ac1 and ,psa4 #fh3e4 ,in the ,egyptian story ,meruitensi was so pleased with the eloquence of the peasant that he passed him on to another officer and he to still another until he came before the king4 ,altogether the peasant made nine addresses4 ,for lack of space we can reproduce but one more4 ,for this purpose we select his eighth address4 ,this peasant came to implore him for the eighth time1 and said3 8,chief steward1 my lord1 man falls on account of 444444 ,greed is absent from a good merchant4 ,his good commerce is 44444444 8,thy heart is greedy2 it does not become thee4 ,thou despoilest3 this is not praiseworthy for thee 444444 ,thy daily rations are in thy house2 thy body is well filled 444444 ,the officers1 who are set as a protection against injustice1--a curse to the shameless are these officers1 who are set as a bulwark against lies4 8,fear of thee has not deterred me from supplicating thee2 7if thou thinkest so71 thou hast not known my heart4 ,the silent one1 who turns to report to thee his difficulties1 is not afraid to present them to thee 4444444 ,thy real estate is in the country2 thy bread is on thy estate2 thy food is in the storehouse4 ,thy officials give to thee and thou takest it4 ,art thou1 then1 not a robber8 ,they drag for thee 444444 for thee to the plots of arable land4 ,do the truth for the sake of the lord of truth 4444444 ,thou reed of a scribe1 thou roll of a book1 thou palette1 thou god ,thoth1 thou oughtest to keep thyself far removed from injustice4 ,thou virtuous one1 thou shouldst be virtuous2 thou virtuous one1 thou shouldst be really virtuous4 ,further1 truth is true to eternity4 ,she goes with those who perform her to the region of the dead4 ,he will be laid in the coffin and committed to the earth2 his name will not perish from the earth1 but men will remember him on account of his property3 so runs the right interpretation of the divine word4 8,does it then happen that the scales stand aslant8 ,or is it thinkable that the scales incline to one side8 8,behold1 if ,i come not1 if another comes1 then thou hast opportunity to speak as one who answers1 as one who addresses the silent1 as one who responds to him who has not spoken to thee4 ,thou hast not been 4444442 thou hast not been sick4 ,thou hast not fled2 thou hast not departed4 ,but thou hast not yet granted me any reply to this beautiful word which comes from the mouth of the sun-god himself3 #8,speak the truth2 do the truth3 for it is great1 it is mighty1 it is everlasting4 ,it will obtain for thee merit1 and will lead thee to veneration4' 8,for does the scale stand aslant8 ,it is their scale-pans that bear the objects1 and in just scales there is no 444444 wanting40 ,the beauty of the sentiments about truth is obvious4 ,the references to scales are to those that were supposed to weigh the deeds of the dead in the under-world4 ,after a ninth speech on the part of the peasant1 the tale concludes as follows3 ,then the chief steward1 ,meruitensi1 sent two servants to bring him back4 ,thereupon the peasant feared that he would suffer thirst1 as a punishment imposed upon him for what he had said4 ,then the peasant said 444444 7,the ,egyptian of this address contains difficulties which have never been solved47 ,then said the chief steward1 ,meruitensi3 8,fear not1 peasant6 ,see1 thou shalt remain with me40 ,then said the peasant3 8,i live because ,i eat of thy bread and drink thy beer forever40 ,then said the chief steward1 ,meruitensi3 8,come out here 444444440 ,then he caused them to bring1 written on a new roll1 all the addresses of these days4 ,the chief steward sent them to his majesty1 the king of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 ,neb-kau-re1 the blessed1 and they were more agreeable to the heart of his majesty than all that was in his land4 ,his majesty said1 8,pass sentence thyself1 my beloved son60 ,then the chief steward1 ,meruitensi1 caused two servants to go and bring a list of the household 7of ,dehuti-necht7 from the government office1 and his possessions were six persons1 with a selection from his 4444441 from his barley1 from his spelt1 from his asses1 from his swine1 from his 4444444444 ,from this point on only a few words of the tale can be made out1 but it appears from these that the goods selected from the estate of ,dehuti-necht were given to the peasant and he was sent home rejoicing4 #c4 ,an ,ideal ,king4 ,in the wisdom literature of ,egypt appear the admonitions of an ,egyptian sage called ,ipuwer4 ,in these admonitions a time of dire distress is pictured1 in view of which the sage longs for the presence of an ideal king4 ,some scholars have compared the description of this ideal king with the prophetic conception of the ,messiah4 ,it is unnecessary to quote the whole work1 which is fragmentary and difficult of translation4 ,a few passages will answer our purpose4 ,from the ,admonitions of ,ipuwer#fjj 4444444444 ,the door-keepers say3 ,let us go and plunder4 ,the confectioners 4444444444 ,the washerman refuses to carry his load 4444444444 ,the bird-catchers have drawn up in line of battle 4444444444 ,the inhabitants of the ,marshes carry shields4 ,the brewers 4444444444 sad4 ,a man looks upon his son as his enemy2 44444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444444444 ,noble ladies suffer like slave girls4 ,musicians are in the chambers within the halls4 ,what they sing to the goddess ,mert is dirges 44444444444 ,forsooth1 all female slaves are free with their tongues4 ,when the mistress speaks it is irksome to the servants4 ,forsooth1 princes are hungry and in distress4 ,servants are served 4444444444 by reason of mourning4 ,forsooth1 the hot-headed 787 man says3 8,if ,i knew where ,god is1 then would ,i make offerings unto him40 ,forsooth1 right is throughout the land in this its name4 ,what men do in appealing to it is wrong4 ,forsooth1 all animals1 their hearts weep4 ,cattle moan because of the state of the land 44444444444444444444 ,forsooth1 the ways are 4444444444 ,the roads are guarded4 ,men sit over the bushes until the benighted traveler comes1 in order to plunder his burden4 ,what is upon him is taken away4 ,he is belabored with blows of the stick and slain wrongfully4 ,forsooth1 that has perished which yesterday was seen 7874 ,the land is left over to its weariness 787 like the cutting of flax4 ,poor men are in affliction 4444444444 ,would that there might be an end of men1 no conception1 no birth6 ,o that the earth would cease from noise1 and tumult be no more6 4444444444 ,forsooth1 grain has perished on every side4 ,people are stripped of clothes1 spices 787 and oil4 ,everybody says there is none4 ,the storehouse is ruined4 ,its keeper is stretched on the ground4 ,it is no happy thing for my heart 787 4444444444 ,would that ,i had made my voice heard at that moment1 that it might save me from the pain in which ,i am 787 4444444444 ,behold1 the powerful of the land1 the condition of the people is not reported to them4 ,all is ruin6 ,behold1 no craftsmen work4 ,the enemies of the land have spoilt its crafts4 ,similar descriptions of the disorganized state of society might be quoted at much greater length4 ,the passage in which ,ipuwer mentions the ideal king is as follows3 4444444444 lack of people 44444444444444444444 ,re2 command 787 4444444444 the ,west to diminish 787 4444444444 by the gods84 ,behold ye1 wherefore does he seek to fashion mankind1 4444444444 without distinguishing the timid man from him whose nature is violent4 ,he bringeth coolness upon that which is hot4 ,it is said3 he is the herdsman of mankind4 ,no evil is in his heart4 ,when his herds are few1 he passes the day to gather them together1 their hearts being on fire4 ,would that he had perceived their nature in the first generation of men2 then would he have repressed evils1 he would have stretched forth his arm against it1 he would have destroyed their seed and their inheritance 4444444444 ,where is he today8 ,is he sleeping8 ,behold1 his might is not seen4 ,vogelsang held this to be a picture of a kind of ideal king1 comparable in some respects to the prophetic conception of the ,messiah in such passages as ,isa4 #i3a-f2 #aa3a-h4 ,to this view ,gardiner has objected that the parallelism is not real1 in that there seems to have been in the mind of the ,egyptian sage no expectation that such a king would actually rise1 but rather the belief that he once existed as the god ,re and has now vanished from earth4 ,to this ,breasted and ,gressmann reply that the kingly figure is a purely ideal one1 and that ,ipuwer feels strongly that1 if he were on earth all wrongs would be set right1 and that in some degree the picture is parallel to the conceptions of the ,messiah4 ,the description of disorganized society which is here reflected is patterned on conditions which existed in ,egypt before #bjjj ,b4 ,c41 and the conception of the ideal king is equally old4 #d4 ,sheol4 ,in ,isa4 #ad3i-aa and ,ezek4 #cb3ba-ca we find descriptions of ,sheol or the under-world4 ,these descriptions are closely parallel to the following ,babylonian poem4 ,ishtar's ,descent to the ,under-world#fja ,unto the land of ,no-return1 the land of darkness1 ,ishtar1 the daughter of ,sin1 determined to go1 ,the daughter of ,sin determined to go1 ,unto the house of darkness1 the dwelling of ,irkalla1 #e4 ,unto the house whose enterer never comes out1 ,along the way whose going has no return1 ,unto the house whose enterer is deprived of light1 ,where dust is their food1 their sustenance1 clay1 ,light they do not see1 in darkness they dwell2 #aj4 ,they are clothed1 like birds1 with a covering of wings4 ,over door and bolt the dust is spread4 ,ishtar1 when she arrived at the gate of the land of ,no-return ,to the keeper of the gate addressed a word3 8,keeper of the waters1 open thy gate6 #ae4 ,open thy gate6 ,let me enter6 ,if thou dost not open thy gate1 that ,i may enter1 ,i will shatter the door1 ,i will break the bolt1 ,i will shiver the threshold1 break down the doors2 ,i will bring up the dead to devour the living60 #bj4 ,the keeper opened his mouth and spake1 ,he said to ,ishtar1 the great3 8,stay1 my lady1 do not destroy it1 ,let me go1 let me announce thy name to ,queen ,allat40 ,the keeper went in1 he spake to ,allat3 #be4 8,this water thy sister1 ,ishtar1 has crossed ,as a servant of great powers she comes40 ,when ,allat heard this1 ,like the cutting of the tamarisk was her laugh1 #cj4 ,like the crackling of reeds4 ,she cried3 8,what has turned her mind to me8 4444444444 ,these waters ,i with 4444444444 ,for food ,i will eat clay1 for drink ,i will drink 4444444444 ,i will weep for men who have abandoned their wives1 #ce4 ,i will weep for maidens torn from their husbands' bosoms1 ,i will weep for children snatched away before their time4 ,go1 keeper1 open thy gate to her2 ,do to her according to the ancient custom40 ,the keeper went and opened to her his gate3 #dj4 8,enter1 my lady2 the under-world is glad1 ,the palace of the land of ,no-return rejoices at thy coming40 ,he brought her through the first gate1 made it wide1 he took the great crown from her head4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the great crown from my head80 8,enter1 my lady1 such are the commands of ,allat40 #de4 ,he brought her through the second gate1 he made it wide1 he took the ornaments from her ears4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the ornaments from my ears80 8,enter1 my lady1 for such are the commands of ,allat40 ,he brought her through the third gate1 he made it wide1 he took the necklace from her neck4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the necklace from my neck80 #ej4 8,enter1 ,o lady1 for such are the commands of ,allat40 ,he brought her through the fourth gate1 he made it wide1 he took the ornaments from her breasts4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the ornaments from my breast80 8,enter1 my lady1 for such are the commands of ,allat40 ,he brought her through the fifth gate1 he made it wide1 he took the girdle with birth-stones from her waist4 #ee4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the girdle with birth-stones from my waist80 8,enter1 my lady1 for such are the commands of ,allat40 ,he brought her through the sixth gate1 he made it wide1 he took the bracelets from her hands and feet4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the bracelets from my hands and feet80 8,enter1 my lady1 for such are the commands of ,allat40 #fj4 ,he brought her through the seventh gate1 he made it wide1 he took the breech-cloth from her body4 8,why1 ,o keeper1 hast thou taken the breech-cloth from my body80 8,enter1 my lady1 for such are the commands of ,allat40 ,when ,ishtar had gone down to the land of ,no-return1 ,allat saw her and became enraged at her4 #fe4 ,ishtar took no heed2 she sat down above her4 ,allat opened her mouth and spake1 ,to ,namtar1 her messenger1 she addressed a word3 8,go1 ,namtar1 lock her in my palace1 ,bring out against her sixty diseases 4444444444 ,ishtar1 #gj4 ,disease of the eyes against her eyes1 ,disease of the side against her sides1 ,disease of the feet against her feet1 ,disease of the heart against her heart1 ,disease of the head against her head1 #ge4 ,against her altogether 44444444440 ,after ,ishtar1 the lady1 went down to the land of ,no-return ,the bull with the cow did not unite1 nor the ass approach the she-ass2 ,the man in the street no more approached the maid2 ,the man slept in his chamber1 #hj4 ,the maid slept by her oven4 ,papsukal1 messenger of the great gods1 was sad of countenance before ,shamash1 ,clad in mourning1 wearing foul garments4 ,then went ,shamash into the presence of ,sin1 his father2 he wept1 ,before ,ea1 the king1 his tears flowed3 #he4 8,ishtar has gone down into the earth2 she has not come up4 ,since ,ishtar went down to the land of ,no-return1 ,the bull with the cow does not unite1 nor the ass approach the she-ass2 ,the man no more approaches the maid in the street2 ,the man sleeps in his chamber1 #ij4 ,the maid sleeps by her oven4 ,then ,ea in the wisdom of his heart created a man1 ,he created ,asushunamir1 the priest4 8,go1 ,asushunamir1 to the gate of the land without return set thy face1 ,the seven gates of the land without return shall be opened before thee1 #ie4 ,allat shall behold thee1 and shall rejoice in thy presence4 ,when her heart has been appeased1 and her soul revived1 ,conjure her also by the name of the great gods4 ,turn thy thoughts to the skin which pours forth life3 #8,o lady1 give me the skin which pours forth life1 that ,i may drink water from it4'0 #ajj4 ,when ,allat heard this1 ,she beat upon her thigh1 she bit her finger3 8,thou hast uttered a wish not to be wished4 ,go1 ,asushunamir2 ,i curse thee with a great curse4 ,the sewage of the gutters of the city shall be thy food1 #aje4 ,the cesspools of the city shall be thy drink1 ,the shadow of the walls shall be thy dwelling1 ,the thresholds shall be thy habitation1 ,confinement and privation shall shatter thy strength40 ,allat opened her mouth and spoke1 #aaj4 ,to ,namtar1 her messenger1 she addressed the word3 8,go1 ,namtar1 knock at the palace of justice1 ,tap at the thresholds of gleaming 787 stones1 ,bring out the ,annunaki1#fjb seat them on golden thrones1 ,sprinkle ,ishtar with the water of life and bring her before me40 #aae4 ,namtar went1 he knocked at the palace of justice1 ,he tapped at the thresholds of gleaming 787 stones1 ,he brought forth the ,annunaki1 he seated them on golden thrones1 ,he sprinkled ,ishtar with the water of life1 he brought her forth4 ,he brought her out of the first gate1 he restored to her the breech-cloth of her body2 #abj4 ,he brought her through the second gate1 he restored to her the bracelets of her hands and feet2 ,he brought her through the third gate1 he restored to her the girdle with birth-stones for her waist2 ,he brought her through the fourth gate1 he restored to her the ornaments of her breasts2 ,he brought her through the fifth gate1 he restored to her the necklace of her neck2 ,he brought her through the sixth gate1 he restored to her the ornaments of her ears2 #abe4 ,he brought her through the seventh gate1 he restored to her the crown of her head4 7,end of legend4 ,the priest begins37 8,if she does not grant to thee her release1 turn to her again2 ,to ,tammuz1 the beloved of her youth1 ,pour out water1 offer good oil1 ,with red clothing clothe him1 let him play a flute of lapis lazuli4 #acj4 ,let the joyful maidens turn1 444444444444444444444 ,when ,belili has established her ritual1 ,with precious stones her bosom is filled40 ,the wailing for her brother she heard2 ,belili interrupted the ritual of 4444 ,with precious stones she filled the front of 4444444444 7,voice from the dead47 #ace4 8,my only brother1 harm me not2 ,on the day of ,tammuz1 play for me the lapis lazuli flute1 play the ,santu-flute with it1 ,when the wailing men and women play with it1 ,let the dead return1 let them smell incense40 ,the description of the darkness of the under-world and the sad conditions of life with which this poem begins1 shows that the ,babylonians shared the gloomy views of ,sheol which ,isa4 #ad3i-aa and ,ezek4 #cb3ba-ca express4 ,the middle of the poem expresses the view of the ancient ,semites1 that the goddess of love once went down to the under-world1 and that as a result all propagation of life ceased on the earth4 ,the end of it alludes to the later belief that the goddess went down every year for her beloved ,tammuz who had died1 and the wailing alluded to is that spoken of by ,ezekiel in ,ezek4 #h3ad1 where the prophet says he saw women wailing for ,tammuz4 ,the kind of sentiment uttered in this wailing the next extract will illustrate4 #e4 ,a ,lamentation for ,tammuz4#fjc ,the lord of destiny 787 lives no more1 the lord of destiny 787 lives no more4 ,tammuz the 444444 lives no more1 444444 lives no more4 ,the bewailed one 787 lives no more1 the lord of destiny 787 lives no more4 ,i am queen1 my husband lives no more4 #e4 ,my son lives no more4 ,dagalushumgalanna lives no more4 ,the lord of ,arallu lives no more4 ,the lord of ,durgurgurru lives no more4 ,the shepherd1 the lord ,tammuz lives no more4 #aj4 ,the lord1 the shepherd of the folds lives no more4 ,the consort of the queen of heaven lives no more4 ,the lord of the folds lives no more4 ,the brother of the mother of wine lives no more4 ,he who creates the fruit of the land lives no more4 #ae4 ,the powerful lord of the land lives no more4 ,when he slumbers the sheep and lambs slumber also4 ,when he slumbers the goats and kids slumber also4 ,as for me1 to the abode of the deep will ,i turn my thoughts1 ,to the abode of the great ones ,i turn my thoughts4 #bj4 8,o hero1 my lord1 ah me10 ,i will say1 8,food ,i eat not10 ,i will say1 8,water ,i drink not10 ,i will say1 8,my good maiden10 ,i will say1 8,my good husbandman10 ,i will say1 #be4 8,thy lord1 the exalted one1 to the nether world has taken his way1 ,thy lord1 the exalted one1 to the nether world has taken his way40 ,on account of the exalted one of the nether world1 him of the radiant face1 yea1 radiant1 ,on account of the exalted one of the nether world1 him of the dovelike voice1 yea1 dovelike1 ,on account of the exalted one1 the lord1 on account of the lord1 #cj4 ,food ,i eat not on account of the lord1 ,water ,i drink not1 on account of the lord4 8,my good maiden1 because of the lord1 ,my good husbandman1 on account of the lord1 ,the hero1 your lord has been destroyed1 #ce4 ,the god of grain1 the child1 your lord1 has been destroyed40 ,his kindly look gives peace no more1 ,his kindly voice imparts cheer 787 no more2 4444444444 in his place1 like a dog he sleeps2 ,my lord in his 4444444444 slumbers like a raven #dj4 ,alone is he1 himself1 ,my lord1 for whom the wail is raised4 7,forty-one lines--a psalm on the flute to ,tammuz47 ,this poem illustrates what ,ezekiel may have heard in vision1 when in spirit he was brought to the northern gate of the temple1 and heard women wailing for ,tammuz 7,ezek4 #h3ad74 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,reputed ,,sayings ,,of ,,jesus ,,found ,,in ,,egypt ,,early ,,collections ,,of ,,the ,,words ,,of ,,jesus4 ,,translation ,,of ,,sayings ,,found ,,in #ahig4 ,,comments4 ,,translation ,,of ,a ,,leaf ,,found ,,in #aijd4 ,,comments4 ,,opinions ,,as ,,to ,,these ,,sayings4 ,the ,gospel of ,luke begins with the words3 8,forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among us10--words which imply that there were in the early ,church many attempts at ,gospel writing4 ,some of these attempts apparently took the form of collecting the sayings of ,jesus4 ,at ,oxyrhynchus in ,egypt two different leaves of papyrus have been found on which such sayings are written4 ,the first of these was found by ,grenfell and ,hunt in #ahig2 7,fig4 #cja74 ,it begins in the middle of a sentence1 but it is a sentence the beginning of which can be supplied from ,matt4 #g3e4 ,when complete the sentence runs thus3#fjd ,jesus saith1 ,cast out first the beam from thine own eye1 and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is in thy brother's eye4 ,on this saying compare ,matt4 #g3e2 ,luke #f3db4 ,the second one runs3 ,jesus saith1 ,except ye fast to the world1 ye shall in no wise find the kingdom of ,god2 and except ye keep the sabbath1 ye shall not see the ,father4 ,this saying does not occur in the ,gospels1 and has given rise to wide discussion among scholars4 ,the third is as follows3 ,jesus saith1 ,i stood in the midst of the world1 and in the flesh was ,i seen of them1 and ,i found all men drunken1 and none found ,i athirst among them1 and my soul grieveth over the sons of men1 because they are blind in their heart and see not1 poor1 and know not their poverty4 ,this saying also is not found in the ,gospels4 ,it is difficult to tell whether it was thought to have been spoken by ,jesus before or after the resurrection4 ,the fourth saying is difficult of translation and interpretation1 since the text is not at all clear4 ,as emended by ,harnack and ,swete1 it would run3 ,jesus saith1 ,wherever there are two they are not without ,god1 and if one is alone anywhere1 ,i say ,i am with him4 ,raise the stone1 there thou shalt find me2 cleave the wood1 and there ,i am4 ,this saying has given rise to much discussion and to a large literature1 but reference can here be made only to ,henry van ,dyke's poem ,felix4 ,with the last part of the saying ,matt4 #ah3bj should be compared4 ,the fifth saying is as follows3 ,jesus saith1 ,a prophet is not acceptable in his own country1 neither doth a physician work cures upon them that know him4 ,the first part of this is akin to ,luke #d3bd2 ,mark #f3d2 ,matt4 #ac3eg1 and ,john #d3dd4 ,the last part of it is not in the ,gospels4 ,the sixth one reads3 ,jesus saith1 ,a city built on the top of a high hill and firmly established can neither fall nor be hid4 ,in this saying the thought of ,matt4 #e3ad is combined with that of ,matt4 #g3bd1 #be1 but there is no necessary literary dependence upon ,matthew4 ,the seventh and last saying on this leaf is3 ,jesus saith1 ,thou hearest with one ear1 but the other thou hast closed4 ,this1 too1 is not found in our ,gospels4 ,in #aijd another leaf of sayings of ,jesus was found at the same place4 ,it begins with a general introduction1 thus3#fje ,these are the wonderful8#fjf words which ,jesus the living ,lord spake to the disciples and to ,thomas1 and he said to them3 ,every one that hearkens to these words shall never taste of death4 ,these words formed the general introduction to a collection of sayings of ,jesus1 similar to that from which the sayings already quoted were taken4 ,the leaf also contained a few of the sayings which stood in the collection4 ,they are as follows3 ,jesus saith1 ,let not him who seeks 444444 cease until he finds1 and when he finds he shall be astonished2 astonished he shall reach the kingdom1 and having reached the kingdom he shall rest4 ,the ,gospels contain parallels to parts of this saying4 7,see ,matt4 #f3cc2 #g3g2 #ac3dd2 ,luke #e3i47 ,the second of these sayings is longer3 ,jesus saith1 ,ye ask 787 who are those that draw us to the kingdom1 if the kingdom is in heaven8 444444 the fowls of the air1 and all the beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth1 and the fishes of the sea1 these are they which draw you1 and the kingdom of heaven is within you2 and whosoever shall know himself shall find it4 ,strive therefore 787 to know yourselves1 and ye shall be aware that ye are the sons of the ,almighty 787 ,father2 and 787 ye shall know that ye are in the city of ,god 787 and ye are the city 7874 ,the first part of this saying attributes to ,christ a saying evidently based on the thought of ,job #ab3g1 #h4 ,other parts of the saying recall ,luke #ag3ba and ,luke #bj3cf1 though the phrases which remind us of these passages form but a small part of the saying and appear here in quite a different connection4 ,the third saying runs3 ,jesus saith1 ,a man shall not hesitate 444444 to ask 444444 concerning his place in the kingdom4 ,ye shall know that many that are first shall be last and the last first and they shall have eternal life 7874 ,a part of this saying follows ,mark #aj3ca and ,matt4 #ai3cj2 cf4 also ,luke #ac3cj4 ,the last clause is conjectural1 but1 if correct1 is similar to ,john #c3af1 #cf2 #e3bd4 ,the fourth3 ,jesus saith1 ,everything that is not before thy face and that which is hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee4 ,for there is nothing hidden which shall not be made manifest1 nor buried which shall not be raised4 ,the last part of this saying is parallel to ,matt4 #aj3bf2 ,luke #ab3b2 see also ,mark #d3bb4 ,the fifth3 ,his disciples question him and say1 ,how shall we fast and how shall we pray 787 444444 and what commandment shall we keep8 444444 ,jesus saith1 444444 do not 444444 of truth 444444 blessed is he 44444444 ,the papyrus is so broken that we cannot hope to recover this saying in its entirety1 but it is clear that it differed from the others in having an introductory clause which gave the occasion when it was uttered4 ,judgments have differed as to whether all these sayings are really sayings of ,jesus4 ,that there were sayings of his known in ancient times that are not recorded in our ,gospels is shown by ,acts #bj3ce4 ,some1 at least1 of these sayings are so like those of ,jesus that it is not difficult to believe them his4 ,but whether they are his or not1 these papyri make clear to us what ,luke meant when he said 8many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative40 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,arch,,ological ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,enrolment ,,of ,,quirinius ,,translation ,,of ,a ,,papyrus ,,showing ,,that ,,in ,,the ,,second ,,century ,,enrolment ,,was ,,made ,,every ,,fourteen ,,years4 ,,comments4 ,,translation ,,referring ,,to ,,an ,,enrolment ,,in ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,nero4 ,,fragment ,,from ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,tiberius4 ,,enrolments ,,probably ,,inaugurated ,,by ,,augustus4 ,,document ,,showing ,,that ,,people ,,went ,,to ,,their ,,own ,,towns ,,for ,,enrolment4 ,,inscription ,,supposed ,,to ,,refer ,,to ,,quirinius4 ,,inscription ,,from ,,asia ,,minor ,,referring ,,to ,,quirinius4 ,,discussion4 ,,conclusions4 ,archological research has recently thrown much light upon the census of ,quirinius mentioned in ,luke #b3a-e4 ,the evidence has come in part from ancient records on papyri which have been dug up in ,egypt1 some of which are herewith translated4 ,the following extract from a large papyrus establishes the fact that a census or an assessment-list was made in the ,roman empire every fourteen years4 #a4 ,papyrus ,showing ,enrolment ,every ,fourteen ,years4#fjg ,after the death of my wife ,aphrodite1 or1 as she was called by some1 ,aphroditoute1 having departed from the district of ,herakles and ,sabinos1 ,i enrolled the other children who dwell with ,mysthes who is called ,ninnos1 who was #cc years old1 and after the others1 the wife of my son ,mysthes who is called ,ninnos1 viz43--,zozime1 freed-woman of ,ptolemaios ,ammoniarios1 daughter of ,marion ,geomytha1 and was #bb years old1 7who was living with her mistress1 in the enrolment of the #ith year2 at the time of the enrolment she ,zozime was living in the ,greek quarter1 but has now moved into the neighboring quarter of ,apolloneios ,hierax7 and the children of these two1 ,ammonios1 aged #e1 and ,didymos1 aged #d1 and ,aut 444444441 were not otherwise enrolled in the enrolment in the first year of the ,emperor ,csar ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus ,augustus and the ,emperor ,csar ,lucius ,aurelius ,verus ,augustus1 on the thirtieth of ,payni i4 e41 ,june #bd1 #afa ,a4 ,d44 ,to ,potomon1 governor of the ,arsinoite district of ,herakles1 and ,asclepiades1 the royal census-taker1 and ,agathos ,daimon and ,dioskoros1 census-takers of the metropolis1 on behalf of ,mysthes who is called ,ninnos1 ,mysthes1 son of ,philo1 whose mother is ,herais1 daughter of ,ammoniosone1 of the citizens of the metropolis1 who are enrolled from the quarter of ,apolloneios ,hierax3 there belongs to me in the district of ,ammonios #a_/ab part of the place called ,nekpherotios1 in which ,i enroll myself and my household for the current enrolment of the #adth year according to the household enrolment1 as also ,i enrolled myself according to the household enrolment in the #bcrd year of ,antoninus 7i4 e41 #afj-afa ,a4 ,d472 ,i am also ,mysthes who is also called ,ninnos2 the one enrolled is #ei years old1 and his wife1 ,zozime1 the freed-woman of ,ammoniarios1 daughter of ,marion1 who was enrolled in the household enrolment of the #bcrd year in the same quarter1 is #ch years old1 and the children of those two1 44444444 not enrolled in the enrolments1 #aa years old1 and likewise ,dioskoros #aj 787 years old1 and likewise 444444441 #i years old1 and a daughter1 ,isidora1 #h years old3 thus ,i make my deposition4 #aeth year of the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus ,csar1 the lord4 ,intercalary ,mesore3 7i4 e41 the end of ,august1 #age ,a4 ,d474 ,this papyrus1 dated in the year #age ,a4 ,d41 is very important as it proves that the census came every fourteen years4 ,the enrolment mentioned at the end of it was made in connection with the census of #agd-age ,a4 ,d41 since the document is dated in ,august of the year #age4 ,the enrolment mentioned about the middle of the document was the enrolment of #afj-afa ,a4 ,d4 ,that was dated in the summer of #afa4 ,the one mentioned near the beginning of the quotation as having been made in the #ith year must refer to the census of the year #adf-adg1 and the #ith year of ,antoninus ,pius1 which was the year #adg4 ,the proof that the census was taken every fourteen years#fjh is of the greatest importance to our subject1 as will appear below4 ,this enrolment was made by one ,mysthes ,ninnos on behalf of his son1 who was also called ,mysthes ,ninnos1 the wife of the son who was a freed-woman1 called ,zozime1 and their children1 who were the grandchildren of the man making the enrolment4 ,mysthes ,ninnos1 the grandfather1 had been married twice4 ,his first wife was named ,aphrodite2 after her death he married ,herais1 the mother of the son1 ,mysthes ,ninnos4 #b4 ,translation ,referring to an ,enrolment in the ,reign of ,nero4#fji ,copy of an enrolment of ,ammonios and 444444 ios1 the gymnasiarch and librarian of the public library in the city of ,arsinoe1 in the presence of ,pa 444444 xineos 444444 ,paesios1 son of ,myo1 priest of those who are from ,karanis of the district of ,heracles4 ,according to the commands through the most excellent governor1 ,lucius ,julius ,vestinus1 ,i have enrolled today my goods which are free from debt and mortgage and lien2 in the neighboring village1 a third part of my father's house and courtyard1 and places cleared of abodes1 two lots of a half acre each1 which were bought from ,mesoereus1 son of ,nekphers1 in the fifth year of ,nero ,claudius ,csar ,augustus ,germanicus1 ,emperor1 and a house in the village1 which was bought from ,onnophreus1 son of ,peteorpeus1 in the sixth year of ,nero ,claudius ,csar ,augustus ,germanicus1 ,emperor4 ,whatever ,i make from these or buy in addition ,i will first report as it shall occur4 ,the date of this document1 which is only a copy1 is not given1 but as it refers to two transactions in real estate1 which were dated respectively in the #eth and #fth years of ,nero1 and as that monarch's reign began in ,october of the year #ed ,a4 ,d41 it is probable that this is a copy of an enrolment made in connection with the census of #fb-fc ,a4 ,d4 ,this proves that the system of taking the census once in fourteen years was in operation as early as the reign of ,nero4 #c4 ,fragment from the ,reign of ,tiberius4#faj ,to ,eutychides and ,theon1 local census-takers and village census-takers1 from ,horion and ,petosiris1 priest of ,isis1 the most great goddess1 of the temple called the ,two ,brothers in the city of ,oxyrhynchus on the street ,myrobalanos1 near the ,serapeum4 ,those who live in the house which belongs to me and my wife ,tasis and to ,taurius1 son of ,harbichis1 and to ,papontos1 son of ,nechthesorios1 and to ,thchemere1 in the house which is near the aforesaid temple of the ,two ,brothers are as follows3 ,the papyrus at this point becomes too mutilated for further translation4 ,the importance of this document is revealed by an examination of the names of the officers1 ,eutychides and ,theon4 ,another papyrus from the same place1 which contains a notice of a removal1 is dated in the #fth year of the ,emperor ,tiberius4#faa ,as these officers were still in office when this census was taken1 this must be the census of the year #bj-ba ,a4 ,d4 #d4 ,enrolments ,probably ,inaugurated by ,augustus4 ,another papyrus contains a list of people who were exempt from poll-tax in the #dast year of the reign of ,augustus4#fab ,as the poll-tax was intimately connected with the census1 it is altogether probable that the census was inaugurated by ,augustus4 ,as he became emperor in #bg ,b4 ,c4 and at once proceeded to organize his empire1 the census may have begun early in his reign4 ,if there was one in #bj ,a4 ,d4 there would be one in #f ,a4 ,d41 #i-h ,b4 ,c41 and possibly in #bc-bb ,b4 ,c4 ,if there was not one in #bc-bb1 that in #i-h ,b4 ,c4 would be the first4 ,this is the one to which reference is made in ,luke #b3b4 ,if the birth of ,jesus occurred at the time of this census1 it must have been earlier than we usually suppose4 ,ramsay thinks that the taking of the census in ,judah may have been delayed till #g or #f ,b4 ,c41 on account of ,jewish prejudices4 #e4 ,document ,showing that ,people ,went to ,their ,own ,towns for ,enrolment4 ,in connection with the census of ,quirinius it is stated in ,luke #b3c3 8,all went to enroll themselves1 every one to his own city40 ,this has been felt by many scholars to be an improbable statement1 and has been cited as an evidence of the unhistorical character of the whole story of the census in ,luke4 ,in this connection part of a papyrus discovered in ,egypt1 which is dated in the #gth year of the ,emperor ,trajan1 #ajc-ajd ,a4 ,d41 is of great interest4 ,this document contains three letters4 ,the third of the letters is the one which relates to our subject4 ,it is as follows3#fac ,gaius ,vibius1 chief prefect of ,egypt4 ,because of the approaching census it is necessary that all those residing for any cause away from their own homes1 should at once prepare to return to their own governments1 in order that they may complete the family administration of the enrolment1 and that the tilled lands may retain those belonging to them4 ,knowing that your city has need of provisions from the country1 ,i wish 4444444444 7,at this point the papyrus becomes too fragmentary for connected translation47 ,it is perfectly clear that in ,egypt the enrolment was done on the basis of kinship4 ,the word rendered 8family0 above means 8kindred0 in the larger sense4 ,the phrase rendered 8belonging to0 them1 i4 e41 the tilled lands also means 8kindred40 ,it appears1 then1 that in ,egypt the enrolment of each district was intended to include all the kinsmen belonging to that district1 and that1 lest those residing elsewhere should forget to return home for the census1 proclamations were issued directing them to do so4 ,it is well known that in many respects the customs of administration in ,syria and ,egypt were similar4 ,luke's statement1 that ,joseph went up from ,nazareth to ,bethlehem1 because he was of the house and lineage of ,david1 to enroll himself with ,mary 7,luke #b3d1 #e71 turns out to be in exact accord with the governmental regulations as we now know them from the papyri4 #f4 ,inscription ,supposed to ,refer to ,quirinius4 ,a fragmentary inscription found at ,rome in #ahbh is thought by ,mommsen and others to prove that ,quirinius was governor of ,syria twice1 and that the governorship to which ,josephus refers 7,antiquities1 ,,xvii1 i1 #a71 which was coincident with the deposition of ,archelaus in #f ,a4 ,d41 was his second appointment4 ,the inscription as filled out by ,mommsen and others reads3#fad ,p4 ,sulpicius ,quirinius1 consul 44444444442 as proconsul obtained ,crete and ,cyrene as a province 44444444442 as legate of the divine ,augustus1 obtaining ,syria and ,phnicia he waged war with the tribe of ,homonadenses who had killed ,amyntas the king2 when he returned into the dominion of the ,emperor ,csar ,augustus and the ,roman people1 the senate decreed thanksgivings to the immortal gods on account of the two successful accomplishments and triumphal ornaments to him2 as proconsul he obtained ,asia as a province2 as the legate of the divine ,augustus he obtained again ,syria and ,phnicia4 ,if this inscription were intact its evidence would be decisive1 but unfortunately it is only a fragment1 and the name of ,quirinius is just that which has to be supplied from other inscriptions4 ,that so eminent a scholar as ,mommsen thought that this name was the one which once began the inscription is of weight1 but it does not compensate for the loss of the name4 #g4 ,inscription from ,asia ,minor ,referring to ,quirinius4#fae ,the following inscription1 discovered by ,prof4 ,ramsay and ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,c4 ,anderson1 of ,oxford1 is believed by ,ramsay to prove that ,quirinius was governor of ,syria between #aj and #g ,b4 ,c4 ,to ,gaius ,caristanius 7son of ,gaius of the ,sergian tribe7 ,fronto ,caesianus ,julius1 ,chief of engineers1 pontifex1 priest1 prefect of ,p4 ,sulpicius ,quirinius duumvir1 prefect of ,m4 ,servilius4 ,to him first of all men at public expense by decree of the decuriones1 a statue was erected4 ,this inscription was found at ,antioch1 a fortified colony in southeastern ,phrygia or southern ,galatia1 in the year #aiab4 ,the name ,caristanius connects its erection with the time of the ,hamonadian war1 #aj-g ,b4 ,c4 ,that ,quirinius received the honor of an election to the office of honorary duumvir of the colony at this time1 is held by ,ramsay to prove that he had been sent to ,syria as governor1 and had been military commander in the war against the ,hamonades4 ,it was the benefits which accrued to the little colony of ,antioch from his victories in this war1 which led to the election and the erection of this statue4 ,ramsay1 accordingly1 holds that this inscription proves ,quirinius to have been governor of ,syria about #aa-g ,b4 ,c41 and this confirms the statement of ,luke #b3b1 that the census at the time when ,jesus was born was the first enrolment1 when ,quirinius was governor of ,syria4 ,one objection to this theory is that from other sources 7,josephus1 ,antiquities1 ,,xvi1 x1 #h2 xi1 #c71 it appears that ,sentius ,saturninus was governor of ,syria at this time1 i4 e41 from #i-g ,b4 ,c41 just at the time when1 according to the papyri1 the census should occur4 ,this is supported by a statement of ,tertullian1 that ,jesus was born when ,saturninus was governor of ,syria4 ,to meet this objection1 ,ramsay supposes either that the authority of ,quirinius and of ,saturninus overlapped1 the former being military commander and the latter civil governor1 or that ,quirinius ruled until about ,july #ast of the year #h1 the census year1 and ,saturninus then took office4 ,these are1 however1 mere possibilities4 ,we have not yet clear information concerning these points4 ,later1 in #f ,a4 ,d41 ,quirinius was sent out to ,syria again 7see ,tacitus1 ,annales1 ,,iii1 #dh71 and took over as governor of ,syria the kingdom of ,judah on the deposition of ,archelaus1 and conducted the census there of #f-g ,a4 ,d4 7,see ,josephus1 ,antiquities1 ,,xviii1 i47 ,many scholars have held that ,luke confused this governorship with earlier events and was accordingly in error as to his chronology by at least ten years1 but the archological facts here collected tend to corroborate ,luke's accuracy on this point4 ,it should be added that ,luke knew that ,quirinius had charge of the census in ,palestine in #f ,a4 ,d41 as ,josephus states1 for he says3 8,this was the first enrolment made when ,quirinius was governor of ,syria40 #h4 ,conclusions4 ,it should in all candor be noted just what archology has proved concerning this matter1 and what points are still1 from the archological side1 outstanding4 ,it has proved that the census was a periodic occurrence once in fourteen years1 that this system was in operation as early as #bj ,a4 ,d41 and that it was customary for people to go to their ancestral abodes for enrolment4 ,it has made it probable that the census system was established by ,augustus1 and that ,quirinius was governor of ,syria twice1 though these last two points are not yet fully established by archological evidence4 ,so far as the new material goes1 however1 it confirms the narrative of ,luke4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,arch,,ological ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,acts ,,and ,,epistles ,,the ,,politarchs ,,of ,,thessalonica4 ,,an ,,altar ,,to ,,unknown ,,gods4 ,,an ,,inscription ,,from ,,delphi ,,and ,,the ,,date ,,of ,,paul',s ,,contact ,,with ,,gallio4 ,,some ,,epistles ,,from ,,egypt4 ,,inscriptions ,,mentioning ,,aretas1 ,,king ,,of ,,arabia4 #a4 ,the ,politarchs of ,thessalonica4 ,in ,acts #ag3f the rulers of ,thessalonica are called in the ,greek 8politarchs40 ,it is a unique term1 and its accuracy had been called in question by some scholars4 ,within the past hundred years no less than nineteen inscriptions have come to light which prove its accuracy1 by referring to the rulers of ,thessalonica as 8politarchs40 ,one of the most important of these is from an arch in ,thessalonica4 ,it runs in part as follows1 the beginning being illegible3#faf ,in the time of the ,politarchs1 ,sosipatros1 son of ,cleopatra1 and ,lucius ,pontius ,secundus ,publius ,flavius ,sabinus1 ,demetrius1 son of ,faustus1 ,demetrius of ,nicopolis1 ,zoilos1 son of ,parmenio1 and ,meniscus ,gaius ,agilleius ,poteitus 444444 ,another fragmentary inscription shows that the rulers of the city bore this title as early as the time of ,augustus4 ,it is in part3#fag ,bosa1 proconsul1 made a stone-quarry for the temple of ,csar1 in the time of the priest and judge1 the ,emperor ,csar1 the divine son ,augustus 44444444441 the politarchs remaining faithful1 viz43--,diogenes1 the son of ,kleon1 the 44441 etc4 ,it is not clear from the inscriptions whether the number of politarchs was five or six4 #b4 ,an ,altar to ,unknown ,gods4 ,in ,acts #ag3bc it is stated that ,paul saw in ,athens an altar with this inscription3 ,,to ,,an ,,unknown ,,god4 ,in the year #aiji an altar was discovered in the sacred precinct and temple of ,demeter at ,pergamos in ,asia ,minor1 the home of one of the seven churches of the book of ,revelation 7,rev4 #b3ab1 f471 which bore a mutilated inscription2 7see ,fig4 #bii74 ,this inscription in the judgment of several impartial epigraphists should be restored as follows3#fah ,to unknown gods1 ,capito1 torch-bearer4 ,this is not only a confirmation of the statement of ,acts #ag3bc1 but of ,pausanias#fai 7second century ,a4 ,d47 and ,philostratus#fbj 7third century ,a4 ,d47 that altars to unknown gods existed4 #c4 ,the ,date of ,paul's ,contact with ,gallio4 ,the chronology of the life of ,paul cannot be fully determined from the ,bible itself4 ,such chronological data as the ,new ,testament affords help us only to a relative chronology4 ,could the year of one of the dates given by the ,new ,testament be determined by a date of the ,roman empire1 it would enable scholars to fix with approximate certainty the other dates4 ,hitherto the endeavor to do this has centered about the recall of ,felix from ,palestine and the coming of ,festus 7,acts #bd3bg71 but there has been so much uncertainty about the date of this recall1 that systems of chronology1 differing from one another by from four to five years1 have been constructed4 ,a fragmentary inscription has come to light from ,delphi1 which seems to give us the desired aid for our ,pauline chronology in that it fixes the date of the coming of ,gallio to ,corinth 7,acts #ah3ab74 ,this inscription1 as its lacun are supplied by ,deissmann1 is as follows3 ,tiberius ,claudius ,csar ,augustus ,germanicus1 ,pontifex ,maximus1 of tribunican authority for the #abth time1 imperator the #bfth time1 father of the country1 consul for the #eth time1 honorable1 greets the city of the ,delphians4 ,having long been well disposed to the city of the ,delphians 4444444444 ,i have had success4 ,i have observed the religious ceremonies of the ,pythian ,apollo 44444444444444444444 now it is said also of the citizens 44444444444444444444 as ,lucius ,junius ,gallio1 my friend1 and the proconsul of ,achaia1 wrote 4444444444 on this account ,i accede to you still to have the first#fba 4444444444 ,at this point the inscription is too broken for translation1 although the beginnings of several lines can be made out4 ,the importance of the inscription lies 7#a7 in the fact that it mentions ,gallio as proconsul of ,achaia1 and 7#b7 in the reference to the #abth tribunican year and the #bfth imperatorship of ,claudius4 ,it can be deduced from these1 in comparison with other inscriptions of his1 that this letter was written between ,january and ,august of the year #eb ,a4 ,d4#fbb ,if ,gallio was then in office1 and had been in office long enough to give information to ,claudius of material importance to the purpose of the emperor's letter to the ,delphians1 ,gallio must have arrived in ,corinth not later than the year #ea4 ,according to ,dio ,cassius1 ,claudius had decreed that new officials should start for their provinces not later than the new moon of the month of ,june4#fbc ,gallio must1 therefore1 have arrived in ,corinth not later than ,july4 ,paul's stay in ,corinth extended over eighteen months 7,acts #ah3aa71 and the narrative in ,acts implies that a large part of it had passed before ,gallio went there4 ,paul must1 then1 have arrived in ,corinth not later than the end of the summer of the year #ej4 ,as the journey described in ,acts #af must have occupied some months1 the council at ,jerusalem1 described in ,acts #ae1 cannot have taken place later than the year #di ,a4 ,d4 ,in ,gal4 #b3a ,paul says that this visit occurred fourteen years after the visit which followed his return from ,damascus4 ,as the ,jews in counting time usually reckoned the two extremes as a part of the number1 even if a part of them only should really have been included1 the visit of ,paul to ,jerusalem1 mentioned in ,gal4 #a3ah must have occurred not later than #cf ,a4 ,d41 nor earlier than #ce ,a4 ,d4 ,as this visit occurred 8three0 years after his conversion1 we find1 if we make similar allowance for the possibilities of ,jewish reckoning1 that his conversion occurred not later than #cd ,a4 ,d41 and possibly as early as #ca ,a4 ,d4#fbd #d4 ,the ,epistles4 ,the ,epistles of the ,new ,testament1 especially those of ,paul1 are cast in the form of ancient letter-writing4 ,this form in its more stately aspects has long been known through the letters of ,aristotle1 ,epicurus1 ,cicero1 ,seneca1 ,pliny1 etc41 but the papyri discovered in ,egypt afford us many examples of the more familiar and affectionate style of informal letter-writing1 and frequently1 at the beginning1 afford parallels to expressions which are found in the introductions of ,paul's ,epistles4 ,the following examples will illustrate this3 ,isias to her brother1 greeting3 ,if you are well and other things happen as you wish1 it would be in accordance with my constant prayer to the gods4 ,i too am in good health1 and so is the boy2 and all at home make constant remembrance of you4 ,when ,i got the letter through ,horus1 in which you explain that you are in sanctuary at the ,serapeum in ,memphis1 ,i straightway gave thanks to the gods for your being in good health1 but as for your not coming to us when the evils that threatened you there have passed away1 ,i am disconsolate because such a long time ,i have been keeping myself and the child1 and am come to the lowest point on account of the price of bread1 and ,i did think that now you were coming ,i should find a little relief1 but you seem to have no idea of coming to us1 nor to have an eye to our circumstances1 as you would if you were still here4 ,we are in need of everything1 not only because such a long time and so many seasons have passed since you were here1 but because you have not sent us anything4 ,and besides that1 ,horus1 who brought your letter1 tells me further that you are released from sanctuary1 and ,i am perfectly miserable4 ,no1 indeed6 and your mother1 too1 takes it very hard1 and you will do well to come for her sake as well as ours to the city1 unless some more pressing need draws you elsewhere4 ,farewell1 then1 and have a care for your body so as to be in health4 ,good-bye4 ,epephi #cjth1 of the #ith year4#fbe ,this letter was written in the year #agb ,b4 ,c4 8,brother0 in it probably means husband4 ,the husband had gone on a religious mission and has left the wife without support4 ,he at last sent her a letter1 and this is her reply4 ,she wishes to persuade him to return1 and writes with great tact4 ,what she says about remembering her husband in her prayers1 and her thanks to the gods for his health1 reminds one of the language of ,paul in #a ,thess4 #a3b2 #c3i2 #b ,thess4 #a3c1 #aa2 #b3ac2 #a ,cor4 #a3d2 #b ,cor4 #a3d-f2 ,phil4 #a3c1 #i2 ,col4 #a3c2 ,philemon #d4 ,another letter which illustrates the same points is this3 ,ammonios to his sister ,tachnumi1 much greeting3 ,before all things ,i pray that you may be in health1 and each day ,i make the act of worship for you4 ,i salute heartily my goodest little boy ,leo4 ,i am jolly and so is the horse and ,melas4 ,don't neglect my son4 ,i salute ,senchris1 and ,i salute your mother4 ,i likewise salute ,pachnumi and ,pachnumi junior4 ,i salute 444444 and ,amenothis4 ,hurry up about the boy until we go to my place4 ,if ,i come to the place and see the place1 ,i will send for you and you shall come to ,pelusium1 and ,i will come to you at ,pelusium4 ,i salute ,steches1 the son of ,pancrates4 ,i salute ,psemmouthis and ,plato4 ,if your brothers dispute with you1 come to my house and stay there until we see what to do4 ,don't neglect it4 ,write me of your own welfare and of my boy's4 ,hurry up over the matter of the farm4 ,i wrote this letter in ,themuis on the fifth of the month ,phamenoth4 ,we have two days more1 and then we will arrive at ,pelusium4 ,melas greets you all by name4 ,i salute ,psenchnumi1 the son of ,psentermout4 ,i pray that you may be well and strong4#fbf ,the sentence of this letter which follows the greeting is couched in almost the same language as #c ,john #b1 and the number of people saluted in it and the manner of their salutation reminds one strongly of ,rom4 #af3c-af4 ,clearly the ,new ,testament ,epistles conform in their affectionate expressions to the forms that were often employed by other letter-writers of that period of history4 #e4 ,paul and ,aretas1 ,king of ,arabia4 ,paul says3 8,in ,damascus the governor under ,aretas the king guarded the city of the ,damascenes in order to take me40#fbg ,aretas is called by ,josephus king of ,arabia4 ,he was ,haretat ,,iv1 ,king of the ,nabathan ,arabs4 ,these ,nabathans were found in ,arabia by the ,assyrian ,king ,ashurbanipal 7#ffh-fbf ,b4 ,c472 they conquered ,edom about #djj ,b4 ,c41 driving the ,edomites over into southern ,judah2 they helped one of the successors of ,alexander the ,great at the battle of ,gaza in #cab ,b4 ,c41 and founded a dynasty of kings that lasted until overthrown by the ,roman ,emperor ,trajan in #ajf ,a4 ,d4 ,haretat ,,iv belonged to this line4 ,the following ,aramaic inscription1 dated in his reign1 affords monumental confirmation of his existence3 ,this is the tomb which ,halafu1 son of ,kosnatan1 made for himself and for ,shaidu1 his son1 and his brothers1 whatever males are born from this ,halifu1 both their sons and descendants by right of inheritance forever4 ,and those who may be buried in this sepulcher and in this structure are this ,shaidu and ,manuath1 ,kenushath1 and ,ribamath1 and ,umaiyath and ,shalimath1 daughters of this ,halifu4 ,also no descendant of ,shaidu has authority1 and no man after him of their sons or descendants1 to sell this sepulcher1 or to inscribe an epitaph or an emblem for anyone1 except for the wife of one of them1 or for his daughters1 or kinsman1 or relative by marriage he may inscribe the tomb4 ,if any one shall do contrary to this1 then the fine of ,dushara1 the god1 our lord1 shall be imposed upon him to the extent of five hundred silver shekels of ,haretat1 and in accordance with this inscription shall be deposited in the temple of ,kaisha4 ,month ,nisan1 year fortieth of ,haretat1 ,king of the ,nabathans1 who loves his people4 ,rauma and ,abdobodat1 stone-cutters4#fbh ,as ,haretat ruled from #i ,b4 ,c4 to #dj ,a4 ,d41 this inscription was written in #ca ,a4 ,d41 just a few years before ,paul escaped from the officers of ,haretat at ,damascus4 ,there are many other inscriptions dated in the reign of this king4 ,another reads as follows3 ,this is the sepulcher and two monuments over it1 which ,abdobodat1 the general1 made for ,aitebel1 the general1 his father1 and for ,aitebel1 the commander of the two camps which are in ,luhitu and ,abarta1 the son of ,abdobodat4 ,this is in the district of their command1 which they exercised in the two places for thirty-six years in the reign of ,haretat1 ,king of the ,nabathans1 who loves his people4 ,the above-mentioned 7monument7 was constructed in the forty-sixth year of his reign4#fbi ,the forty-sixth year of ,haretat was the year #cg ,a4 ,d4 ,the monument here translated was found at ,medeba east of the ,jordan 7see ,num4 #ba3cj2 ,josh4 #ac3i71 and the two places mentioned in it are believed to be ,nabathan names for ,medeba and ,rabbah ,ammon 7#b ,sam4 #aa3a1 etc474 ,it is evidence that ,haretat had held this territory for a long time4 ,paul's escape from ,damascus 7#b ,cor4 #aa3cb7 occurred between the date of the preceding inscription and this one4 ,,appendix 7,appearing first in ,second ,edition47 ,i ,addition to ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,,iii1 #b1 7#c71 p4 #gj4 ,the discoveries at ,carchemish included ,hittite inscriptions1 one of which is said to be longer than any ,hittite writing yet discovered4 ,a number of stone deities were also found1 one of which is a bearded god of the eighth century ,b4 ,c4 seated on a heavy base supported by two lions4 ,three large gateways were found4 ,on the inside of the court of one of these were dadoes from five to six feet high1 8with sculptured slabs of alternating black diorite and white limestone adorned with carved figures of bulls1 horses1 and chariots40 ,the acropolis was surmounted by the ruins of a palace of ,king ,sargon of ,assyria1 who conquered ,carchemish1 and by the ruins of a ,roman palace4 ,an avenue of broad steps1 more than a hundred feet long1 led up to these4 ,,ii ,addition to ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,,iii1 #c1 to be read after 7#g7 on p4 #gd4 7#h7 ,hrozny1 a ,hungarian scholar1 published in the ,mitteilungen der deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft zu ,berlin1 ,no4 #ef 7,december1 #aiae71 a new study of the problem of ,hittite decipherment4 ,owing to the war the publication has not reached the writer4 ,an excellent rsum of it has1 however1 been published by ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton in the ,expository ,times1 xxviii1 #ajf ff4 7,december1 #aiaf74 ,it appears that in ,april1 #aiad1 ,professor ,hrozny and ,doctor ,figulla went to ,constantinople and copied cuneiform inscriptions from ,boghaz ,koi until the war recalled them4 ,hrozny's study is based on this cuneiform material4 ,he reaches the conclusion that ,hittite is not only an ,indo-,european language1 but that it also belongs to the western half of the ,indo-,european family4 ,in other words1 he finds it more closely related to ,greek1 ,latin1 ,keltic1 and the ,teutonic tongues than to the ,slavonic1 ,lithuanian1 ,armenian1 and ,persian languages1 or to ,sanscrit and its daughters4 ,according to ,hrozny1 then1 the ,hittites came from western ,europe1 or the center from which the western ,european peoples radiated4 ,he thinks they crossed into ,asia by way of the ,bosphorus4 ,he supports his contention by some most interesting philological analogies4 ,the ,mitanni1 on the other hand1 belonged1 he thinks1 to the eastern half of the ,indo-,european family4 ,they were closely related to the ,slavs1 ,lithuanians1 ,armenians1 ,persians1 etc4 ,the indications seem to be that they entered ,asia by way of the ,caucasus4 ,we await further evidence with great interest4 ,,iii ,addition to ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,,iii1 #i1 p4 #ajb4 ,professor ,george ,l4 ,robinson1 who was in ,jerusalem in the spring of #aiad as ,director of the ,american ,school1 has published in the ,american ,journal of ,archology1 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 p4 #hd 7,january-,march1 #aiag71 a brief statement of the discoveries on ,ophel and at ,balata4 ,he mentions the finding on ,ophel of a tower with rock-cut foundations1 certain cave-tombs with oval roofs1 a cistern with ,roman baths1 an inn1 a ,greek inscription 7which tells of a synagogue71 and an underground1 rock-cut aqueduct1 running parallel to and probably older than that of ,hezekiah1 which conducts the water of ,gihon to the ,pool of ,siloam4 ,at ,balata the foundations of old ,hebrew houses were discovered1 together with a portion of the ,amorite city-wall1 which was thick and oblique4 ,the ruins of a palace were also found and a great triple gateway1 the longest yet excavated in ,palestine4 ,this gate was on the west of the city4 ,near the tell an ,egyptian sarcophagus was found1 which some have thought might be the coffin of ,joseph4 ,,iv ,a ,,new ,,babylonian ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,man ,to supplement ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #beg4 ,since the first edition of this book went to press1 the writer has had the good fortune to discover among the tablets from ,nippur in the ,university ,museum in ,philadelphia a new ,babylonian account of the creation of man4 ,the text is written in the ,sumerian language1 and the script is of the mixed cursive variety that was employed during the time of the first dynasty of ,babylon and the ,kassite dynasty4 ,the text is accordingly older than #abjj ,b4 ,c41 and may have been written before #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,it reads as follows3 #a4 ,the mountain of heaven and earth #b4 ,the assembly of heaven1 the great gods1 entered4 ,afterwards1 #c4 ,because ,ashnan had not come forth1 they conversed together4 #d4 ,the land ,tikku had not created2 #e4 ,for ,tikku a temple-platform had not been filled in2 #f4 ,a lofty dwelling had not been built2 #g4 ,the arable land was without any seed2 #h4 ,a well and a canal 787 had not been dug2 #i4 ,horses and cattle had not been brought forth1 #aj4 ,so that ,ashnan could shepherd herd and corral4 #aa4 ,the ,anunna1 the great gods1 had made no plan2 #ab4 ,there was no es-grain of thirty-fold2 #ac4 ,there was no es-grain of fifty-fold2 #ad4 ,small grain1 mountain-grain1 and great sal-grain there were not2 #ae4 ,a possession and houses there were not2 #af4 ,tikku had neither entered a gate nor gone out2 #ag4 ,together with the lady ,nintu the lord had not brought forth men4 #ah4 ,the god ,ug came2 as leader he came to plan2 #ai4 ,mankind he planned2 many men were brought forth4 #bj4 ,food and sleep he planned for them2 #ba4 ,clothing and dwellings he did not plan for them4 #bb4 ,the people with rushes and rope came1 #bc4 ,by making a dwelling a kindred was formed4 #bd4 ,to the gardens 444444 they gave drink4 #be4 ,on that day their gardens sprouted 787 4444 #bf4 ,their lands covered 787 444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444444 ,reverse #a4 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,father ,enlil 787 44444444444444444444444444444 #c4 44444444 standing grain 44444444444444444444 #d4 ,for mankind 4444444444444444444444444444 #e4 444444444444444444 creation of ,entu 44444444444444444444 #f4 ,father ,enlil 44444444444444444444444444444444 #g4 ,duazagga1 the way of the gods 444444444444 #h4 ,duazagga1 the brilliant1 for my god ,i guard 7874 #i4 ,entu and ,enlil to ,duazagga 444444444444 #aj4 ,a dwelling for ,ashnan from out of ,duazagga ,i will make8 for thee4 #aa4 ,two-thirds of the fold perished 7872 #ab4 ,his plants for food he created for them2 #ac4 ,ashnan rained on the field for them2 #ad4 ,the moist 787 wind and the fiery storm-cloud he created for them4 #ae4 ,two-thirds of the fold stood4 #af4 ,for the shepherd of the fold joy was overthrown2 #ag4 ,the house of rushes did not stand2 #ah4 ,from ,duazagga joy departed4 #ai4 ,from his dwelling1 a lofty height1 his boat #bj4 ,descended2 from heaven he came #ba4 ,to the dwelling of ,ashnan2 the scepter he brought forth to them2 #bb4 ,his brilliant city he raised up1 he appointed for them2 #bc4 ,the reed-country he planted1 he appointed for them2 #bd4 ,the falling rain the hollows caught for them2 #be4 ,a dwelling-place was their land2 food made men multiply2 #bf4 ,prosperity entered the land2 it caused them to become a multitude4 #bg4 ,he brought to the hand of man the scepter of command4 #bh4 ,the lord caused them to be1 and they came into existence4 #bi4 ,companions calling them1 a man with his wife he made them dwell4 #cj4 ,at night as fitting companions they are together4 ,a colophon states that the tablet contained sixty lines4 ,only five lines are entirely broken away4 ,ashnan was a god of vegetation4 ,tikku1 who had not created the land1 was a personified river-bank4 ,the story begins1 therefore1 before the beginning of vegetation and before the creation of dykes in ,babylonia4 ,as in the text translated in ,chapter ,,viii1 ,part ,,ii1 considerable space is occupied with the things that were non-existent when the process of creation began4 ,the last sentence of this section asserts that the lord and ,nintu had not brought forth men4 ,nintu is the goddess who in the creation story translated in ,chapter ,,vii1 ,part ,,ii1 appears as the mother of mankind 7see p4 #bgi74 ,the new tablet then states that ,ug1 the lion god1 identified by a later text with ,shamash1 the sun god1 first came forth to plan4 8,mankind he planned2 many men were brought forth40 ,the word rendered 8planned0 has also the meaning 8know10 as in ,gen4 #d3a1 where ,adam is said to have known ,eve4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that the text indicates that men were born from a natural union of ,ug and ,nintu1 just as it is said on p4 #bhd1 in another text from ,nippur1 that irrigation resulted from a similar union of the sun-god and ,nintu4 ,this shows that among the ,sumerians there were different conceptions of the way mankind was made4 ,a ,babylonian story of the making of a man which is much more like the narrative of ,gen4 #b than that contained in this new tablet is given on p4 #bef4 ,after telling how men were brought forth1 and how they were left to provide houses and clothing for themselves1 the new tablet tells how reed huts1 similar to those still seen in the ,babylonian marshes1 were made4 ,clans were formed and irrigation begun4 ,here the obverse becomes too broken for connected translation4 ,at the beginning of the reverse several lines are fragmentary4 ,from what can be made out1 some god seems to be addressing ,enlil4 ,reference is made to ,duazagga1 the heavenly abyss1 which is described as 8the way of the gods10 probably an allusion to the ,milky ,way4 ,it is implied that the gods live along this way4 ,it seems that all was not going well with men on the earth1 so this deity proposed to make a dwelling for ,ashnan1 the god of agriculture1 outside of ,duazagga1 presumably on the earth4 ,two-thirds of the fold perished2 ,ashnan accordingly created plants as food for men4 ,this reminds us of how plants and fruits were given to man as food in ,gen4 #a3bi4 ,ashnan also caused it to rain in order to promote the growth of vegetation4 ,this1 however1 created a new evil4 ,the reed huts were washed away1 together with a third of the fold4 ,some god1 probably ,enlil1 accordingly came down from heaven1 and built a city4 ,this gave to human society the required stability4 ,in this stable society the god gave the scepter of command into man's hand just as in ,gen4 #a3bh man is given dominion over all the lower orders of life4 ,in this connection we find the statement3 8,the lord caused them to be and they came into existence10 the form of which reminds one of the statement in ,gen4 #a3c1 8,god said1 ,let there be light3 and there was light40 ,the next line3 8,companions calling them1 a man with his wife he made them dwell10 recalls ,gen4 #b3ah and #bd4 ,the last line of the text is the ,babylonian equivalent of the last clause of ,gen4 #b3bd4 ,this text as a whole describes the creation of man1 sketches the vicissitudes of pastoral life1 and ends with a statement of the greater security and prosperity of urban life4 ,it attributes the origin of everything to the gods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,addition to ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xi1 p4 #cji4 ,the entrance of ,abraham and later of ,jacob and his sons into ,egypt in time of famine 7,gen4 #ab3aj and #dg3e-ab7 is strikingly illuminated by the following reports of officials stationed at fortresses on the ,egyptian border4 ,the first of these texts was inscribed in the tomb of ,harmhab1 the founder of the nineteenth dynasty1 though there is reason to believe that it was written during the reign of ,amenophis ,,iv of the eighteenth dynasty 7#acge-aceg ,b4 ,c474 ,some of the lines are broken4 ,it reads as follows3 4444444 ,asiatics2 others have been placed in their abodes 444444 they have been destroyed1 and their town laid waste1 and fire has been thrown 444444444 they have come to entreat the ,great in ,strength to send his mighty sword before 4444444 ,their countries are starving1 they live like goats of the mountain1 their children 4444444 saying3 8,a few of the ,asiatics1 who knew not how they should live1 have come begging a home in the domain of ,pharaoh 444441 after the manner of your fathers' fathers since the beginning under1 444444444 ,now1 the ,pharaoh 4444 gives them into your hand1 to protect their borders40#fcj ,the second text comes from the reign of ,merneptah 7#abbe-abae ,b4 ,c474 ,it reads as follows3 ,another matter for the satisfaction of my lord's heart to wit3 ,we have finished passing the tribes of the ,shasu of ,edom through the fortress of ,merneptah-,hotephirma 444 in ,theku1 to the pools of ,pithom1 of ,merneptah-,hotephirma in ,theku1 in order to sustain them and their herds in the domain of ,pharaoh 4441 the good sun of every land 444444444 ,i have caused them to be brought 44444444 other names of days when the fortress of ,merneptah-,hotephirma may be passed1 4444#fca ,these texts make it evident that at different periods of ,egyptian history ,asiatic tribes in time of famine and stress sought and found refuge in ,egypt as the ,israelites are said to have done4 ,,vi ,,alleged ,,traces ,,of ,,the 8,,ten ,,tribes0 ,,in ,,exile ,to supplement ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xvii1 at the end of #aj1 p4 #cgb4 ,in #b ,kings #ae3bi it is said that ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv captured certain cities in ,galilee1 and carried their inhabitants captive to ,assyria4 ,in #b ,kings #ag3f it is said that when ,samaria was destroyed by the ,assyrian king ,sargon1 in #gbb ,b4 ,c41 ,israelites were carried captive to ,halah and ,gozan1 which were situated on the ,khabur ,river in ,mesopotamia4 ,two groups of cuneiform tablets1 one in the museum at ,berlin1 the other in the ,british ,museum1 are thought to confirm these statements by the evidence they give that ,hebrews who reverenced ,jehovah were living in that region4#fcb ,the evidence consists chiefly of a divine name ,a-u1 employed as a component part of proper names just as ,jo- and ,jeho-1 abbreviations of the name of ,jehovah1 are employed in ,hebrew proper names in the ,old ,testament4 ,indeed1 ,a-u is the form that ,jo- or ,jeho- would take1 if expressed in ,assyrian characters4 ,the names in question occur in a series of documents which record the transfer of slaves4 ,if the men in question were ,hebrews they would seem to have been interested in the business of buying and selling slaves4 ,the documents are much alike4 ,it will suffice to translate one of them3 #a4 ,seal of ,atarkhasis1 #b4 son of ,aushezib1 #c4 the ,kannuean1 #d4 owner of the slave-girl4 ,a transfer #e4 of ,kabili1 his slave-girl he #f4 has made1 and ,nabushallimshunu #g4 for the price of #a manas of silver #h4 has taken her4 ,the money in full #i4 is paid4 ,that slave #aj4 is purchased and delivered4 ,whoever in the future #aa4 at any time shall rise up and #ab4 lay claim1 whether ,atarkhasis #ac4 or his sons1--whoever against #ad4 ,nabushallimshunu or his sons #ae4 legal process #af4 shall begin1 #aj manas of silver #ag4 shall pay4 ,against an attack of rheumatism for #ajj days #ah4 and legal claim for all time 7he is guaranteed74 #ai4 ,month ,airu1 #agth day1 #bj4 eponym of ,ashurrimani1 rabshekeh4 #ba4 ,in the presence of ,padi1 #bb4 ,in the presence of ,khani1 #bc4 ,in the presence of ,ashurnadinakhi1 #bd4 ,in the presence of ,tubusu1 #be4 ,in the presence of ,belbelshaduni1 #bf4 ,in the presence of ,ilumia4 #bg4 ,in the presence of ,ashurikhtamusur #bh4 ,in the presence of ,bariku1 #bi4 ,in the presence of ,kennusharruni4 ,the significant name here is ,aushezib1 meaning1 8,au saves40 ,if ,au is a translation of ,jeho-1 the name1 in its entirety1 would be a translation of one of the ,hebrew forms of the name ,joshua4 ,other names1 into which the name of the god ,au enters1 appear sometimes in the body of a contract and sometimes among the witnesses4 ,they are il,a-u-salim1 8the god ,au gives peace02 ,a-u-iddina1 8,au gives10 equivalent to the ,hebrew ,jonathan2 ,a-u-akhiddin1 8,au has increased the brothers02 ,a-u-daninani1 8,au is our mighty-one02 ,a-u-e-ballitani1 8,o ,au1 make us live02 il,a-u-dn787-ilani1 8,au is judge of the gods02 ,a-u-sabi1 8,au satisfies40#fcc ,the tablets were written at ,kannu1 the ,canneh of ,ezek4 #bg3bc1 which was near ,haran in ,mesopotamia4 ,one text states that if the seller of the slave ever brings legal action1 he shall pay ten silver manas and one gold mana 8at the sanctuary of the god ,a-u1 who dwells in ,kannu40 ,if the god ,a-u be really the ,hebrew ,jehovah1 the captives from ,samaria and ,galilee had built for him a temple in ,kannu1 as the ,jews at ,elephantine afterward did on the island in the ,nile4 7,see p4 #chg1 f47 ,the documents in which these names occur appear to be dated between #fff and #fjf ,b4 ,c4 ,they are dated according to the ,assyrian method of dating1 which shows that they were written under the ,assyrian monarchy1 but the eponyms in which they are dated are not found in the extant portions of the ,assyrian ,eponymlist4 ,they were therefore written after the year #fff4fcd ,this fixes the dates of these documents in the seventh century--the century after ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv and ,sargon transported to this region parts of the ten 8lost tribes10 and1 if ,a-u really is a form of the name ,jehovah1 these tablets afford us a little glimpse of some of these ,hebrews in exile4 ,,index ,,of ,,scripture ,,passages ,,genesis-- #a #bdg #a3g #bdh #a3bd-bf #bff #b #bef #c #bfj #c3ah1 #bd #bhi #d3a1 #b1 #af-bc #bfi #e #bfd #e3bd #bff #f1 #g1 #h1 #i #bgg #i3bj #bhg1 #bhi #aj3aj #dd1 #dg1 #eh #aj3aa #dc1 #dg1 #fj #aj3bc #aaf #aa3b #eh #aa3i #db #aa3bg #aji #aa3ca #gg #aa3ca1 ff4 #aab #ab3d #gg1 #aji #ad3a #eh1 #bid1 #bie1 #big1 #bih #ad3e #bae #ad3f #ajf1 #aaf #ad3ae #bac #ae3b #bac #af3e-g #cbi #af3g #ie #ai3a #abi #ba #aaa #ba3i1 #aj #cbi #bb #agb #bb3b #afh #bb3f1 #aj #aeb #bb3i #afi #bc #gf #bc3aj #fh #bd3bb #afa #bd3cj #aef #be3ae #cjg #be3cd #acd #bf3cd #fh #bi3a #ajh #cj3a-ac #cbh #cd3bj #abi #cf3bj #ajf1 #cjh #cf3bj-bb #aji #cf3ba #ajf #cf3bd #cjh #cf3bi #ajf1 #aji #cg3ag #acc #dj3aa #acf #da3cj #cje #da3ci #cjc #da3db #aeg #da3de #cd #da3dg-eg #cjf #da3ed #cje #df3ag #cdi #ej3ac #ahj #ej3bf #cjc1 #daa ,,exodus-- #a3aa #ce #b3a-aj #caa #c3h1 #ag #aci1 #cji #d3be #aeb #e3g-ah #cf #aa3e #ace #ab #cij #ab3cg #cf #ac3bj #cf #ad3bc-bh #cg #af3cf #aeh #ah3ac-bf #cae #bj3h-aa #beh #bj3ab #daa #bj3bd #agb #bj3bd-bf #aih #ba3b-f #caf1 #cbc #ba3b-aa #cbd #ba3f #cdj #ba3ab-ad1 #ah-bg #ccd #ba3af #caf #ba3ag #ccb #ba3bd #cdj #ba3bh-ce #ccg #bb3a-d1 #i #cae #bb3e #cai1 #cbj #bb3e1 #f #cai #bb3g-aj #cbc #bb3aj-ac #cci #bb3aa1 #be #cbj #bb3af1 #ag #cbh #bb3ah #cad #bb3bf1 #bg #cbd #bc3aj1 #aa #cai #bi3dj #aeh #cd3bj #agb #ce3bb #aef #ch3bf #afa ,,leviticus-- #e3ac #cdc #f3c-e #cae #f3ah1 #bi #cdc #g3h-aj1 #ad1 #cd #cdc #aa3ce #adi #ah3f-ah #cbi #ai3i #cai #ai3bj-bb #cbh #bj3aj #cbh #bj3aa1 #ab1 #ai-ba #cbi #bb3cj #cbi #bc #cij #bd3bj #cdj #be3e #acg #be3be-df #caf #bf3bf #adi ,,numbers-- #e3i1 #aj #cdc #e3aa-bh #cad1 #cbh #ac3bc #acf #ad3h #aci #af3ac1 #ad #aci #ba3ac #cfe #ba3ae1 #af #aaf #ba3ba #aaf1 #cjh #ba3cj #ddc #bf3de #cdi #bg3h-aa #ccb #ca3bi1 #da #cdc #ca3ej #aeg #cb3h #ie #cb3cd #aab1 #cfe #cb3ch #cfe #cb3db #bae #cc3e1 #f #cf #cf3b-ab #ccb ,,deuteronomy-- #a3d #aaa1 #aab1 #aaf1 #cjh #b3ab1 #bb #ajf #b3bd #cfe #b3bf #cjg #c3i #aaf #c3aa #bag #e3ab-ae #beh #e3af #daa #f3c #aci #g3e #ia #aj3ah #dbj #aa3aj #hd #ab3c #ia #ad3bi #dbj #ae1 #af1 #ag #cdj #ae3g-ah #cbc #ae3ab-ah #caf1 #cbd #af3i #ace #af3ah-bj #cae #ah3aj #cad #ai3d #ccd #ai3e #aeb #ai3af-ba #cad #ai3ba #cdj #ba3a-i #caf #ba3ae-ba #ccb #bb3f #aci #bb3ac-ba #cbe #bb3bb-bi #cbh #bb3cj #cbi #bc3ae #caf #bc3ag #cbc1 #cbf #bc3ag1 #ah #ccc #bc3bd #acg #bc3bd1 #be #cai #bd3a-d #cbi #bd3f #acf #bd3aj-ac #cbd #bd3ai-bb #cai #be3d #ace #bf3b1 #d #aec #bh3e1 #ag #aec #cd3a #cfe ,,joshua-- #b3f #ach #e3b1 #c #aeb #f3bj #abe #i3ag1 #bj #aaa #aj3c #hi1 #aab #aj3cc #ib1 #aab1 #aaf1 #aag #aa3a1 #b #aaa #aa3bb #ia #ab3d #aaa #ab3ba #if1 #ig #ab3bb #acc #ac3i #ddc #ac3af-ai #cfe #ac3be #bag #ae3aj #id1 #aab #ae3cg #aad1 #aaf #ae3da #aaa1 #aaf #ae3dd #cdf #ae3ei #aaa #ae3fc #ahh #ag3aa #aaa1 #aad1 #acc1 #bad #ah3bd #aaa #ai3f #aaj #ai3ah-bj1 #be1 #bh #aaa #ai3ce1 #cg #aaa1 #aad #ai3dd #cgg #bj3g #acc #bj3h #cfe #ba3ai #aaa #ba3bc #cgg ,,judges-- #a3e1 #bg-cf #aaf #a3ag #aaa #a3ba #ahh #a3bg #ib1 #aaa #a3bi #aag #d1 #e1 #f #acc #d3b #aaa #d3ba #aec #e3ai #ig #e3bf #aec #f3c #ajh1 #cjg #f3aa #aaa1 #aic #f3ai #aec #f3cc #ajh #g3ab #ajh1 #cjg #g3bb #aaa #h3aj #ajh1 #cjg #i3d1 #df #cea #i3ec #acf #aa3c1 #e #aaa #ac3b #aab #ac3ai #aic #af3bc-cj #ic1 #agf #ah3g1 #ah #aaa #ah3bi #acc #ai3aj1 #aa #ahh #a ,,samuel-- #b3ac1 #ad #aea #d3a #aaa #e3h #ia #i3ab #afi #aj3e #aee #aj3bf #acc #aa3d #acc #ac3bj1 #ba #afa #ag3a #aaa #ag3d #ia #ag3dc #aci #ai3bd #cef #bc3a #aab1 #ahh #be3b #ahh #bh3da #aaa #ca3e #aed #ca3aj #acc #ca3aj1 #ab #bad #b ,,samuel-- #a3aj #aef #b3af #aed #c3bg #abi #e3f-h #ahh #e3i #ahi #e3be #ib #g3b #agf #h3i1 ff4 #ha #aa3a #bag1 #ddc #ab3bg #acj #ab3ca #aeb #ae3b #aij #af3i #aci #ag3bh #acd #bj3ad #aaa #ba3ab #bad #bc3aa #acd #bd #aij1 #aib #bd3af #aic #bd3af1 #ag #cgg #bd3ah1 #bb #ace #a ,,kings-- #a3cc #aja #a3dj #aee #c3a #aij #c3a1 ff4 #cj #c3b #afi #d3g #cag #d3ab #bad #e3f1 #ag #ceh #f3d #aid1 #aie #f3bi1 #cb1 #ce #aid #f3cf #aie #g3b1 #f #aif #g3h1 #ab1 #bc-cg1 #ci #aie #g3i #aeb #g3di #aid #i3ae #aab1 #aij #i3ae-ai #id #i3af #cj #i3bd #ahi #aj3a #cga #aj3a-ac #cha #aj3e1 #ah-bj #aic #aa3ad-be #aah #aa3bg #aij #aa3dj #cj #ab3ab #cei #ad3be #cg1 #aah1 #cfj #ad3be-bh #cj1 #bei #ae3bj #aaa #af3bc-bi #cfe #af3bd #abg #af3cd #ii1 #ajj1 #abe1 #abh #af3cf #abh #ag3aj #acc #ai3af1 #ag #abd #ai3ai #acd1 #ace #ba3h #aee #bb3ci #ajj1 #abg #b ,,kings-- #b3ai-bb #ih #c3d #cfd #c3d-ab #aig #c3e-bg #cfe #d3h #aaa #d3bc #bei #e3ab #bad #f3e #aeb #f3ac #acc #f3be #aeh #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae #bfh #aa3ab1 #ac #aie #ab3ag #ia #ab3bj #ahi #ac3bj1 #ba #ahc #ad3g #agc #ad3h-ad #id1 #ie #ad3ac #aif #ad3ai #hi #ad3ba #cfg #ad3bc #bei #ae3a-bg #cfg #ae3ai #fa1 #fb #ae3bi #cgj #ae3bi1 #cj #fb1 #cfi #ae3cg #cfg #af3e-i #cfg #af3aj #cfi #af3aj-af #aih #af3ad #aie #ag3c-e #cfi #ag3d #cgj #ag3e #fb1 #abc #ag3af #cgj #ag3bd #abd1 #abe1 #cgj #ag3bd-cd #ajj1 #aah #ah #cgd1 #cge #ah3a-f1 #i #aih #ah3d #aga #ah3ac #dd #ah3ac-af #cge #ah3ac--ai3h #cgf #ah3ad #hi #ah3ad1 ff4 #cgd #ah3ag #cge #ah3cb #aci #ai #cgd1 #cge #ai3i #ca1 #cge #ai3i-cf #cgf #ai3ce #cgd #ai3cf #cgg #ai3cg #dd1 #fd1 #cgh #bj3ab #fc #bj3bj #aih1 #cgg #bj3ba #cgh #ba #cgh #ba3f #agb #bb3ad #aii #bc3e1 #h #afi #bc3aj #agb1 #aii #bc3bi #cb1 #if #bc3bi1 ff4 #cgi #bc3cd #cb1 #cgi #bd1 #be #dd1 #fe1 #chj #be3i1 #aj #bjj #be3bg4 #cha #be3bg-cj #ff #a ,,chronicles-- #a3cj #cjg #a3ch #aji #a3dj #cjh #b3ah #aaf #d3h #aaf #g3ca #cdi #h3ab #aaa #ah3i1 ff4 #hb #ba3bc #ace #bc3d #cae #bd #aag #bi3g #afc #b ,,chronicles-- #a3e1 #f #aie #b3h #ceh #c3a #afh #e3b #ahi #aa3e-aj #ij #ai3e-g #cae #cc #fd ,,ezra-- #a #chf #b3fi #afc #c3ab #bja #d3b #cgh #d3aj #cgi #e3af #bjj #h3bg #afc ,,nehemiah-- #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g #aah #a3a #dg #a3c #bjj #b3aj1 #ai #chi #c1 #d1 #e1 #f #ij #c3ac1 #bh #bjb #d3a1 ff4 #chi #f3a1 ff4 #chi #g3b #cij1 #cia #g3cg #aaa #g3gj-gb #afc #aa3be #aaa #ab3ca-dj #bjb #ac3bh #chi ,,esther-- #a3b #dg #c3aj1 #ab #aeg ,,job-- #a3c #ajh #c3h #bec #i3ac1 #ad #bea #ab3g1 #h #dcj #bf3ab1 #ac #bea1 #beb #bh3bh #dji #bi #cie #bi3ac #dbj #ca #cie #ch3ad #aed #ci3ac #aci #da #bec #da3bd #acf #db3d-f #cie ,,psalms-- #f3c #djj #h #dja #ag3a #djj #ah3f #djj #ai #dja #ba3i #adi #fh3d #adg #fh3e #dbj #gd3aj #djj #gd3ac1 #ad #bhb #gd3ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag #beb #he3e #djj #hg3d #bed #hi3aj #bec #ij3g1 #ac #djj #ajd #djf #ajd3bd #djd #acg #bjj #adf1 #adg1 #adh #dja ,,proverbs-- #a3i #aef #e3c #daj #f3i-aa #daa #aj3ai #dji #aj3bf #daa #aa3a #afb #ac3c #dji #ac3d #daa #ad3c #dji #ad3ce #djh #ag3bh #dji #ah3bd #dji #bj3bc #afb #bd3ag #djh #bd3ba #dji #ca3ac #ach #ca3ca #abi ,,ecclesiastes-- #g3ae-ag #dji #i3f-i #dab #i3i #daj #aa3i #dji ,,canticles-- #a3aj #aef #b3ac #acf #c3f #aef #d3a-g #dad #e3a #daf #f3b1 #c #daf #h3a-c #dae ,,isaiah-- #a3ac #bei #a3ag1 #bc #dbj #c3ah #aeg #c3ai1 #bj #aef #e3a-h #acg #e3ab #aee #f #dah #g3a #aig #g3a1 ff4 #fb #g3c #aih #g3af #cfi #h3a #aed #h3f #aih #i3a-f #dbb #i3ag #dbj #aj3b #dbj #aj3i #fc1 #ha1 #aaf1 #cfa1 #cga #aj3ad #aci #aj3bh-cb #cgb #aa3a-h #dbb #aa3f-i #bhd #ad3i-aa #ahj1 #dbb1 #dbf #ae3a #aaf #ae3b1 #d1 #e #cfe #ai #chi #ai3ac #bg #ai3ai-bb #ch #bj3a #dc1 #cgb #bb3bb #aea #bg3a #bec #cj3g #bed #ca3e #fd #cf #dd #cf1 #cg #fc1 #cgd #cg3i #ca #cg3ch #cgh #ci3a #cgg #dj3ab #aeh #da3ae #ace #dd3bh #chc #de3a #chc #dg3h #dbj #ea3i #bec #eg3c #agb #ff3bc #bei ,,jeremiah-- #b3aj #bic #b3af #bg #g3f #dbj #g3ca #agb1 #aii #ae3h #dbj #ah3ba #dbj #bb3c #dbj #bc3bg #dah #bc3bi #aec #cb3ce #agb #cf #cb #da3d1 #e #bjj #dc3g1 #h #cg #dc3h #ch #dd3a #bg1 #cg #df #cb1 #fe #df3b #cfa #df3b1 ff4 #cgi #df3ad1 #ai #bg #dh3bb-bd #cfe #di3aa #dbj #ej3af #ace ,,lamentations-- #d3c #aci #e3aj #aej ,,ezekiel-- #a3a #fe1 #ff #d3i #acd #d3ab-ae #adi #e3a1 #b #aeb #h3ad #dbf1 #dbg #h3af #aid #af3c #gg1 #cdi #af3aa #aef #af3de #cdi #bb3g1 #be #dbj #bc3dj #aef #bg3f #bic #bg3h1 #i #aab #cj3ac1 #af #bg #cj3ag #ca #cb3ba-ca #dbb1 #dbf #cb3bb-cb #ahj #dc3ac-ag #aih #de3aa1 #ad #aeh #df3c #bei ,,daniel-- #c3e1 #ae #aee #d3bi #chj #e3aa1 #ah #chb #e3be #afj #e3cj1 #ca #chd #h3b #dg ,,hosea-- #b3e1 #i #ach #b3aa #bei #g3d1 #f1 #g #aej #i3f #bg ,,joel-- #c3ac #ace ,,amos-- #e3ai #abf #f3b #aaf #g3ad #cef #h3a1 #b #aec #h3e #afb1 #bei #i3g #aaf1 #ceg ,,micah-- #a3ad #ib1 #adj #f3ae #acf ,,nahum-- #c3h #ca1 #fd ,,zephaniah-- #a3aj1 #aa #aii ,,zechariah-- #c3a #dah #d #bja #g3aj #dbj ,,malachi-- #c3e #dbj ,,ecclesiasticus-- #ej3a-d #bjc #a ,,maccabees-- #a3ba1 #bb #bja #a3cc #bjd #e3cg #bae #g3cb1 #cc #bjd #i3eb #abd #ac3dh #abh #ad3cd #id #ad3cf #bjd ,,matthew-- #a3h #bfh #c3ab #ace #d3be #bac1 #bah #e3ad #abc1 #dbi #e3ae #aea #e3bf #afe #e3bi #aii #f3cj #adi #f3cc #dcj #g3e #dbh #g3g #dcj #g3bd1 #be #dbi #aj3bf #dca #aj3bh #aii #aj3bi #afe #aa3bg #dje #ab3a #acb #ac3d #acb #ac3eg #djh1 #dbi #ad3c #afe #af3ac #acc #ai3bd #aea #ai3cj #dca #bb3ai #afe #bc3cg #adj #bd3da #ace1 #acf #be3a-ab #adh #bf3cd1 #gd #adj #bf3cf #acg #bf3eg #aja #bh3b #ahd ,,mark-- #b3bc #acb #d3d #acb #d3bc #dca #e3a #bah #e3bj #bac1 #bah #f3d #dbi #f3ag #afe #g3aa #aei #g3ca #bac1 #bah #h3bg #acc #aj3ab #cbi #aj3be #aea #aj3ca #dca #ab3ae-ag #afe #ab3da #bji #ab3db #afe #ac3ce #adj #ac3dd #dcj #ad3bf #baa #ad3cj1 #fh1 #gb #adj #ad3cb #acg1 #baa #af3c1 #d #ahd ,,luke-- #b3a-e #dcb #b3b #dcd1 #dcg #b3c-e #dce #c3ag #ace #c3ai #afe #d3bd #dbi #d3bf #acc #e3i #dcj #f3a #acb #f3db #dbh #g3e #ih #h3e #acb #i3ea-ed #aai #aa3dg1 #dh #ahc #ab3b #dca #ab3f #afe #ab3bh #adi #ac3cj #dca #ae3h #afe #ae3bb #aeg #ag3ba #dcj #ah3be #aea #bj3cf #dcj #ba3a #bji #ba3b #afe #bb3cd1 #fj #adj #bb3ci #baa #bc3ah1 #ba #bjf #bd3b #ahd ,,john-- #b3bj #bjh #c3af1 #cf #dca #c3bi #daf #d3e #acc #d3i1 #bj #aai #d3dd #dbi #e3d #ahg #e3bd #dca #ac3ch #adj #ah3a #baa #ah3bd #aja #ah3bg #adj #bj3a #ahd ,,acts-- #c3b #baj #h3bg #ci #h3bg-ci #cc #i3aa #bad #i3cb #aaa #ab3bc #cgg #ae1 #af #ddj #af3ad #bbf #ag3f #dch #ag3bb-ca #bbj #ag3bc #dch1 #dci #ag3bg #agh #ah3a #bbj #ah3d1 #g #bba #ah3aa #bbj1 #ddj #ah3ab #bba1 #dci #ai3bc-da #bbd #bj3ae1 #ag #bbb #bj3ce #dca #bc3bc1 #bd #acc #bd3bg #dci #bf3ad #ace ,,romans-- #af3c-af #dda #a ,,corinthians-- #a3d #dda #c3aj-ag #bbc #ad3g #aee #ae3cb #bbd #b ,,corinthians-- #a3df #dda #c3ad #aid #aa3cb #agd1 #ddb1 #ddc ,,galatians-- #a3ah #ddj #b3a #ddj ,,philippians-- #a3c1 #i #dda ,,colossians-- #a3c #dda #d3ac #bcj #a ,,thessalonians-- #a3b #dda #c3i #dda #b ,,thessalonians-- #a3c1 #aa #dda #b3ac #dda ,,philemon-- #d #dda ,,hebrews-- #ac3ab #baa #c ,,john-- #b #dda ,,revelation-- #b3aj #bcj #b3ab #dch #b3ac #bbe #b3ah-bi #bbf #c3a-f #bbg #c3e #bbh #c3ab #bbi #c3ae1 #af #bcj #f3ac #acf #ba3b1 #i #daf ,,index ,abana1 #bad ,abbi-,teshub1 makes treaty with ,mursil1 #hj ,abdi-,hepa1 vassal of ,amenophis ,,iv1 #gf ,abi-,adda1 #hj ,abraham1 sojourn in ,egypt1 #ce2 purchase of the cave of ,machpelah1 #gf2 home in ,mesopotamia1 #aab2 sacrifice of ,isaac1 #agb ,abraham1 ,babylonian account of farmer of this name1 #ajh1 #bij 8,absalom's ,pillar10 #ahc ,abu ,haba1 ,turkish exploration of1 #df ,abu ,shusheh 7,gezer71 #ic ,abydos1 chief town of ,this1 #be ,acts1 archological light on the book of1 #dch ,adab 7,bismya71 #dg1 #eg ,adad-nirari ,,iii1 ,king of ,assyria1 #ec ,adad-nirari ,,iv1 inscription regarding ,syria and ,palestine1 #fa1 #cfe ,adam1 ,biblical account of1 #bhi2 ,babylonian forms of the name1 #bff ,adapa and the fall of man1 legend of1 #bfj ,adime1 #bff 8,admonitions of ,ipuwer1 ,the10 #bh ,adzes1 #aec lia ,capitolina1 #abb1 #bab ,africanus1 ,julius ,sextus1 ,chronigraphiai of1 #ba ,agade 7,sippar71 #ed1 #eg1 #bff ,agricultural implements1 #acd2 calendar1 #ach ,agriculture1 #acd ,ahab1 in confederacy against ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 #fa2 palace of1 #ajj2 pays tribute to ,tiglathpileser ,,iv1 #cfi ,ahaz1 vassal to ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv1 #fb2 altar of1 #aih ,ahmose ,i1 siege of ,sharuhen1 #aaj ,ain es-,sultan 7,elisha's ,fountain71 #ih ,ain ,kades1 #ie ,ain ,shems 7,beth-shemesh71 #id ,ain ,sitti ,miriam1 see ,gihon4 ,akkad1 derivation of1 #eh ,akra1 #bjc ,alaparos1 #bga ,alexander ,jannus1 #abj1 #bja1 #bje ,alexander the ,great1 empire of1 #cc2 conquests of1 #ff2 death of1 #aai ,alexandra1 ,asmonan queen1 #abj ,alorus1 #bga ,altar of incense1 #agc ,amanus1 source of cedar1 #eh1 #ceh ,amlon1 #bga ,amelu1 #bfg1 #bga ,amempsinos1 #bga ,amenemhet ,i1 #gf ,amenemhet ,,iii1 #bh ,amenophis ,i1 #bc1 #aaj ,amenophis ,,iii1 #fj1 #cjd ,amenophis ,,iii and ,,iv1 #bi ,american ,exploration ,society1 #hf ,american ,palestine ,exploration ,society1 #hf ,american ,school of ,oriental ,research in ,palestine1 #ii ,american ,school of ,classical ,studies at ,athens1 #bba ,amil-,marduk 7,evil-,merodach71 #ff2 inscription of1 #cha ,amman1 #bah ,ammenon1 #bga ,ammienshi1 ,amorite chieftain1 #ajh1 #aji 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,dudkhalia1 #ha ,arpad1 overthrow of1 #cga ,arrows1 #aec ,artatama ,i1 ,king of the ,mitanni1 #gg2 alliance with ,thothmes ,,iv1 #gg ,artatama ,,ii1 ,king of the ,harri1 #gh ,artaxerxes1 inscriptions of1 #dh ,artaxerxes ,,iii1 ,jews rebel against1 #ff ,asarjik1 ,hittite remains at1 #gj ,asenath1 wife of ,joseph1 #cc ,asherim1 at ,tell es-,safi1 #afi ,ashmolean ,museum1 #ai ,ashteroth-,karnaim1 #bae ,ashtoreth1 figures of1 at ,taanach1 #agc ,ashur1 #dg1 #fj ,ashurbanipal1 succeeds ,esarhaddon1 #fd2 his account of his campaign against ,tyre1 #cgh2 proverbs from library of1 #djg ,ashur-dan1 #eb ,ashur-nasirpal ,,ii1 records of1 referred to1 #fj2 military exploits of1 #fa2 advance toward ,hebrew territory1 #cfj ,ashur-rim-nishishu1 ,king of ,assyria1 #ec1 #fj ,ashur-uballit1 ,king of ,assyria1 #fj ,asia1 churches of1 #bba ,asmonan coins1 #afd ,asmonans1 #abj ,assumptionist ,fathers1 excavations at ,jerusalem1 #aja2 collection of flint implements1 #ajc ,assurbanipal1 invasion of ,egypt1 #ca ,assyria1 wars with ,egypt1 #ca2 the land1 #dj2 explorations in1 #dg2 relations to ,babylonia1 #ei2 early period of1 #fj2 second period of1 #fa ,atbara1 #ah ,athen ,polias1 temple of1 #bbe ,athens1 #bai ,aton1 ,egyptian hymn in praise of1 #djc ,atys1 worship of1 #bbf ,augustus1 temple to1 at ,samaria1 #agh ,awls1 #aeb ,axes1 #aeb ,azariah 7,uzziah71 #cfg ,azekah1 excavation at1 #ij ,aziru1 ,amorite king1 #gi1 #aac1 #cjd ,babylon1 capture of1 #chc ,babylonia1 the land1 #dj2 exploration by ,harper and ,banks1 #dg2 historical periods1 #ee2 early period1 #ei2 ,persian period1 #ff2 psalms from1 #cih2 proverbs from1 #djg ,babylonian column1 #ej ,babylonian creation epic1 #bce1 #bdg2 account of the flood1 #bgc ,babylonian exile1 #fe2 termination of1 #aah ,bacchides1 ,syrian general1 #abd ,bactria1 secedes from the empire of the ,seleucid1 #fg ,bagoses1 general of ,artaxerxes ,,iii1 #ff ,baking-trays1 #aej ,balata1 #ajb ,ball1 ,c4 ,j41 decipherment of ,hittite inscriptions1 #ga ,banks1 ,edgar 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,gadara1 #baf ,gallio1 #dci ,galumum1 #bff ,gate1 see descriptive name4 ,gateways1 #abi ,gath 7,tell es-,safi71 #ia2 walls of1 #abd ,gebal1 excavations at1 #aag ,gebel ,fureidis1 #aba1 #aca ,gennath1 gate of1 #baa ,genouillac1 ,h4 de1 exploration at ,ukhaimir1 #dh ,gerasa1 topography of1 #abc1 #baf ,gerizim1 ,mount1 #aai ,germer-,durand1 ,pre1 #aei ,gethsemane1 ,garden of1 #acg1 #baj ,gezer1 excavations at1 #ib2 caves at1 #ajd2 walls of1 #aji1 #abd2 besieged by ,merneptah1 #aae2 captured by the ,hebrews1 #aag2 gates of1 #abi2 pottery at1 #adb1 #ade2 weights found at1 #afj2 sanctuary at1 #afg2 high place of1 #afi2 temple at1 #age2 tombs at1 #agi ,giaour-,kalesi1 ,hittite remains at1 #gj ,gibeon1 water supply of1 #acj ,gihon1 springs at1 #hg1 #ahf2 caves at1 #aja1 #ajf ,gilgal 7menhirs set in a circle71 #ajd2 burial in1 #ahj ,gilgamesh1 epic1 #bef ,glassware1 #aej ,gobryas1 #chd ,golgotha1 site of1 #baa ,gordon1 ,gen4 ,c4 ,e41 suggestion regarding ,golgotha1 #baa ,granaries1 #acd ,green1 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of1 #cij ,haran1 possibly a ,hittite capital1 #gg ,haretat ,,iv1 ,nabathan king1 #agd2 besieges ,jerusalem1 #bje2 inscription regarding1 #ddb ,harper1 ,robert1 exploration in ,babylonia1 #dg ,harps1 #aee ,harri1 become part of ,subbiluliuma's kingdom1 #gh ,hasmonans1 see ,asmonans4 ,hattusil ,i1 ,king of ,boghaz ,koi1 #gh ,hattusil ,,ii1 successor of ,mutallu1 #fi1 #hj ,hawara1 #bh ,haynes1 ,john ,h41 ,babylonian explorations of1 #df ,head1 ,b4 ,v41 date of ancient coins1 #afb ,hebrews1 migration of1 #aaf ,hebron1 possessed by the ,hittites1 #gf ,helena1 mother of ,constantine1 #baa ,helena of ,adiabene1 tomb of1 #ahc ,heliopolis1 #ce ,hens1 #aci ,herod ,agrippa ,i1 #aba ,herod the ,great1 rebuilds the ,jewish temple1 #aba2 capture of ,rabbah ,ammon1 #acj2 coinage of1 #afe2 building in ,jerusalem1 #bje ,herodotus1 on early navigation1 #cb2 on wars between ,egypt and ,assyria1 #cb2 comparison with #b ,kings1 #cgf ,hezekiah1 threatened by ,sennacherib1 #fc1 #cgd2 improvements made by1 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#di ,ilu-bidi 7,yau-bidi71 #hb ,ilumailu1 founder of the second dynasty of ,babylon1 #ei ,ilu-shumma1 ,king of ,assyria1 #eb ,ina-uzni-ersu1 #bfg ,ipuwer1 ,egyptian sage1 #dba ,irad1 #bgj ,irhulina1 ,king of ,hamath1 #hb ,ishmi-,dagan1 #eb ,ishtar1 on coins1 #afc2 ,babylonian prayer to1 #cii ,israel1 the northern kingdom1 #aah ,ivriz1 ,hittite remains at1 #gj ,jacob1 historical study of the name1 #bii ,jacobel1 #aaa1 #aab ,jars1 #adb ,jebus1 #ahh ,jehoahaz1 deposed by ,necho1 #cb ,jehoash1 breaks wall of ,jerusalem1 #aif ,jehoiachin1 imprisoned by ,nebuchadrezzar1 #ff ,jehoiakim1 rebellion of1 #fe ,jehu1 pays tribute to ,shalmaneser ,,iii1 #fa ,jensen1 ,peter1 studies in the ,hittite and the ,mitanni languages1 #ga ,jerabis1 site of ancient ,carchemish1 ,hamath1 etc41 #ga1 #gb ,jerash1 temple at1 #agh2 ruins at1 #bag ,jericho1 excavations at1 #ih2 walls of1 #aji2 capture of1 #aag2 topography of1 #abc2 area of1 #abe2 remains of buildings1 #abg ,jeroboam1 #cj2 name on seal1 #cei ,jerome1 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#bbf ,ti1 tomb of1 #bf ,timat1 #bdh1 #bea ,tiberius1 coinage of1 #afe ,tiglath-pileser ,i1 #ea1 #fj ,tiglath-pileser ,,iv1 conquests of1 #fa1 #cff ,tigris river1 #dj ,timur 7,tamerlane71 #bbg ,tirhakah1 #ca1 #fd ,titus1 destroys ,jerusalem1 #aba ,tiuman1 ,king of ,elam1 #dag ,tobler1 ,titus1 explorations in ,palestine1 #hf ,toi1 ,king of ,hamath1 #ha ,tombs1 #aha 8,tombs of the ,judges10 #ahb 8,tombs of the ,kings10 #ahc1 #bab ,topheth1 #aii ,tou1 see ,toi4 ,towers1 #bjb ,toys1 #aee ,trajan1 #acc2 organizes province of ,arabia1 #agd ,travel1 between ,babylonia and ,palestine1 #bic ,trumbull1 ,henry ,clay1 identification of ,kadesh-,barnea1 #ie ,tukulti-,ninib ,i1 #eb1 #fj 8,turin ,papyrus10 #bb ,two ,brothers1 ,tale of the1 #cjj ,tyana1 ,hittite capital1 #hb ,tyropon valley1 #aii ,ukhaimir1 exploration at1 #dh ,umm ,keis1 #baf ,ummanu1 #bfg ,uni1 officer of ,pepi ,i1 #ajg ,university ,museum1 ,philadelphia1 #ec1 #ed ,upper ,retenu1 #aji ,ur1 founding of1 #ee2 kings of1 #ec1 #ed1 #eh ,urkagina1 ,king of ,lagash1 #eg ,ur-,nina founds dynasty at ,lagash1 #ef ,utensils1 #adi ,uzziah1 #aif1 #cfg ,valley ,gate1 #bjb ,van ,dyke1 ,henry1 reference to ,felix1 #dbi ,vincent1 ,hughes1 #ii1 #aja ,vineyards1 #acg ,wady ,maghara1 turquoise mines in1 #be ,walls of ,palestinian cities1 #aji1 #abc1 #abe1 #bjb ,ward1 ,william ,hayes1 ,babylonian explorations of1 #de ,warka1 exploration at1 #dg ,warren1 ,gen4 ,sir ,charles1 excavations at ,jerusalem1 #hg2 at ,gihon1 #aja ,water ,gate1 #bjb ,water supply in ,palestine1 #abi ,weidner1 ,ernst1 #gd ,weights1 #afj ,weil1 ,captain1 excavations on ,ophel1 #ajb ,wenamon1 report of1 #aag1 #ceb ,whetstones1 #aec ,white ,wall1 #bg ,wilderness of ,zin1 explorations in1 #ie ,winckler1 ,hugo1 excavations at ,boghaz ,koi1 #fi1 #gi2 first instalment of the ,el-,amarna letters1 #ga ,winckler und ,abel1 ,thoutafelnfund von ,el-,amarna1 #cjc ,wine-vats1 #acg ,winnowing1 #ace ,wisdom of ,jesus1 the ,son of ,sirach1 #bjc ,wood1 ,j4 ,t41 discoveries in ,ephesus1 #bbc ,woolley1 ,c4 ,leonard1 #ge1 #ie ,wrench1 ,j4 ,e41 explorations in ,asia ,minor1 #gj ,wright1 ,william1 ,the ,empire of the ,hittites1 #fh ,xerxes1 inscriptions of1 #dh ,xisouthros1 #bga ,xystus1 #bjc ,yadi1 kingdom of1 #ha ,yaila1 ,hittite remains at1 #gj ,yakut1 ,arabian geographer1 #bag ,yau-bidi1 ,king of ,hamath1 #hb ,yaudi1 identity of1 #cga ,year1 divisions of1 #ach ,zamama1 temple of1 #dh ,zaphenath-,paneah1 #cd ,zechariah1 assists in rebuilding the temple1 #aah1 #bjj ,zedekiah1 rebellion against ,babylon1 #cb1 #fe ,ziggurat of ,zamama temple1 #dh ,zin1 explorations in the wilderness of1 #ie ,zion1 site of ,jebus1 #ahh ,ziugiddu1 #bhj ,zoser1 first king of third dynasty1 #be1 #cje ,zugagib1 #bff ,,plates ,,plate #a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,syrian ,,traders ,,in ,,egypt1 ,,from ,a ,,tomb ,,at ,,beni ,,hasan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,crown ,,of ,,lower ,,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,crown ,,of ,,upper ,,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,crown ,,of ,,united ,,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,sphinx ,,and ,,pyramid ,,of ,,khafre4 ,,plate #b ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,pyramids ,,of ,,khufu ,,and ,,khafre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,step ,,pyramid ,,of ,,zoser4 ,,plate #c ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,body ,,from ,a ,,pre-,,dynastic ,,tomb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,mummy ,,of ,,ramses ,,ii4 ,,plate #d ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,a ,,store-,,chamber ,,at ,,pithom 7after ,naville74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,brick-,,making 7after ,petrie74 ,,plate #e ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,plan ,,of ,,city ,,and ,,temple ,,of ,,leontopolis 7after ,petrie74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,a ,,passover-,,oven 7after ,petrie74 ,,plate #f ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,the ,,rosetta ,,stone4 ,by permission of ,thomas ,nelson ,sons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,the 8,,israel0 ,,inscription ,,of ,,merneptah4 ,,plate #g ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,mounds ,,of ,,nuffar 7after ,clay74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,excavation ,,at ,,nuffar 7after ,clay74 ,,plate #h ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,gate ,,of ,,ishtar1 ,,babylon 7after ,koldeway74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,phalanx ,,of ,,soldiers ,,from ,,eannatum',s 8,,stele ,,of ,,vultures40 ,,plate #i ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,inscribed ,,column ,,from ,,persepolis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,silver ,,vase ,,of ,,entemena4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,mound ,,of ,,birs ,,nimr,d 7after ,peters74 ,,plate #aj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,hittite ,,gates ,,at ,,boghaz ,,koi 7after ,puchstein74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,hittite ,,types ,,from ,,egyptian ,,monuments 7after ,garstang74 ,,plate #aa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,a ,,hittite ,,king 7after ,puchstein74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,the ,,boss ,,of ,,tarkondemos4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,the ,,seal ,,of ,,shema1 ,,servant ,,of ,,jeroboam4 ,,plate #ab ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,tell ,,el-,,hesy ,,after ,,excavation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,the ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,jericho4 ,,plate #ac ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,excavation ,,of ,,gezer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,,remains ,,of ,a ,,colonnaded ,,street ,,at ,,samaria4 ,,plate #ad ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,excavation ,,at ,,tell ,,hum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,egyptians ,,attacking ,a ,,palestinian ,,city 7after ,perrot and ,chipiez74 ,,plate #ae ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,israelitish ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,israelitish ,,houses ,,at ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,,plate #af ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,philistines ,,from ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,ramses ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,canaanitish ,,fortress ,,at ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,,plate #ag ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,inscribed ,,disc ,,from ,,ph,,stos 7,,one-,,fourth ,,actual ,,size74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,gebel ,,fureidis4 ,,plate #ah ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,bastion ,,for ,,the ,,protection ,,of ,,an ,,inserted ,,tower 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,remains ,,of ,,walls ,,of ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #ai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,walls ,,of ,,buildings ,,at ,,samaria 7after ,reisner74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,specimens ,,of ,,stone-,,work ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,,building-,,bricks ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #bj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,,plan ,,of ,,palace ,,at ,,taanach 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,,the ,,great ,,city ,,wall ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ba ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,israelitish ,,houses ,,at ,,gezer4 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,,specimens ,,of ,,mosaic ,,floors 7after ,macalister74 ,by ,permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #bb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,a ,,doorway ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,,door-,,sockets ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #bc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,,supposed ,,house ,,of ,,hiel1 ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,omri1 ,,samaria 7after ,reisner74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,,hebrew ,,palace ,,at ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #bd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,maccab,,an ,,castle ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,stone-,,work ,,of ,,the ,,maccab,,an ,,castle 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,a ,,foundation-,,deposit1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #be ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,a ,,city ,,gate ,,at ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,,the ,,south ,,gate ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,,the ,,south ,,gate ,,at ,,bethshemesh 7after ,mackenzie74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #bf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,underground ,,tunnel ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,the ,,north ,,gate ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #bg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,plans ,,of ,,the ,,underground ,,tunnel ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #bh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,,plan ,,of ,,underground ,,tunnel ,,at ,,gibeon 7after ,abel74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,,one ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,pools4 ,,plate #bi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,,post ,,of ,,city ,,gate1 ,,samaria 7after ,reisner74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,,part ,,of ,,city ,,wall ,,and ,,gate1 ,,samaria 7after ,reisner74 ,,plate #cj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,,road ,,south ,,of ,,gerizim4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,,lines ,,of ,,roman ,,roads ,,at ,,tell ,,el-,,ful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,,roman ,,road ,,north ,,of ,,amman4 ,,plate #ca ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,a ,,granary ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,,some ,,roman ,,mile-,,stones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,granary ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #cb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,a ,,hoe 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,,an ,,egyptian ,,reaping 7after ,wreszinski74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,a ,,sickle 7after ,wreszinski74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,,plowshares ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #cc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,,egyptian ,,plowing 7after ,wilkinson74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,a ,,modern ,,threshing-,,floor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,,egyptians ,,threshing ,,and ,,winnowing 7after ,wilkinson74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,,egyptian ,,threshing-,,sledge 7after ,wilkinson74 ,,plate #cd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,a ,,saddle-,,quern ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,a ,,rotary-,,quern 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,a ,,mortar ,,and ,,pestle 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,,two ,,women ,,grinding ,,at ,a ,,mill 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #ce ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,,an ,,ancient ,,olive-,,press 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,a ,,modern ,,olive-,,press 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #cf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,a ,,wine ,,vat 7after ,macalister74 ,by ,permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,,an ,,olive-,,press ,,at ,,work 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #cg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,,cows' ,,horns ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,,animals' ,,heads ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,a ,,horse',s ,,bit ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,,drawings ,,of ,,horses ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ch ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,a ,,clay ,,bird ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,a ,,cock ,,from ,,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,a ,,bee-,,hive ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ci ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,,pre-,,semitic ,,jars 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,,pre-,,semitic ,,pottery 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,,four ,,pitchers ,,from ,,the ,,first ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,,three ,,pitchers ,,from ,,the ,,first ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,a ,,jar ,,from ,,the ,,first ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #dj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,,jugs ,,from ,,the ,,second ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,a ,,jug ,,from ,,the ,,second ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,a ,,jar ,,from ,,the ,,second ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #da ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,,some ,,fine ,,pottery ,,from ,,the ,,first ,,semitic ,,stratum 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 8,,ear0 ,,and 8,,button0 ,,jar-,,handles 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,a 8,,pillar0 ,,handle 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,a ,,flat-,,bottomed ,,jug 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #db ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,a ,,painted ,,philistine ,,vase ,,from ,,beth-,,shemesh 7after ,mackenzie74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,,war-,,scene ,,on ,,potsherd ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,,jars ,,of ,,third ,,semitic ,,stratum ,,from ,,beth-,,shemesh 7after ,mackenzie74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,,hebrew ,,pottery ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #dc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,,hebrew ,,jars ,,and ,,pitchers ,,from ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,,hebrew ,,pitchers ,,and ,,bowls ,,from ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,,plate #dd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,a ,,funnel ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,a ,,potter',s ,,seal ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,,an ,,inscribed ,,hebrew ,,jar-,,stamp ,,from ,,the ,,shephelah 7after ,bliss and ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,,hebrew ,,pottery ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #de ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,a ,,scarab ,,used ,,as ,a ,,jar-,,stamp 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,a ,,jar-,,handle ,,stamped ,,with ,a ,,scarab 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,a ,,jar ,,with ,,tapering ,,base ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,,hellenistic ,,filter ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,,hellenistic ,,pottery ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #df ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,,hellenistic ,,strainer ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,,roman ,,pots ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,,hellenistic ,,jar ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,a ,,lamp ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,semitic ,,period1 ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #dg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,,lamps ,,from ,,the ,,second ,,semitic ,,period1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,,lamps ,,from ,,the ,,israelitish ,,period1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,a ,,byzantine ,,lamp ,,from ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,a ,,lamp ,,bearing ,a ,,christian ,,legend 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #dh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,,hellenistic ,,lamps ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,,hebrew ,,lamps ,,from ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,,plate #di ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,,ovens ,,found ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,a ,,baking-,,tray ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,,bronze ,,dishes ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,,shell ,,spoons ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ej ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,,silver ,,dishes ,,from ,a ,,philistine ,,grave ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,,glass ,,ointment ,,vessels ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ea ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,,feeding-,,bottles 7874 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,,forks ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,,philistine ,,silver ,,ladle4 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,,bronze ,,needles ,,and ,,pins ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #eb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,,bone ,,needles ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,,modern ,,woman ,,spinning4 ,by permission of ,mrs4 ,grant ,williams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,,spindle ,,whorls ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,a ,,large ,,key ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,a ,,smaller ,,key ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ec ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,,lamp ,,stands ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,,flint ,,knives ,,from ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,,plate #ed ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,,iron ,,knives ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,,bronze ,,knives ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ee ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,a ,,chisel ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,a ,,file ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,a ,,cone ,,of ,,flint ,,for ,,making ,,knives1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,a ,,bronze ,,hammer-,,head1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,a ,,fish-,,hook1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,a ,,bone ,,awl-,,handle ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,,whetstones ,,from ,,jericho 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,,nails ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ef ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,,axe-,,heads ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,,carpenters' ,,tools ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #eg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,a ,,scimitar ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,,impression ,,of ,a ,,basket ,,on ,,mud1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,,flint ,,arrow-,,heads ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,,bronze ,,arrow-,,heads ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #eh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,,bronze ,,swords ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,,bronze ,,spear-,,heads1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ei ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,a ,,pipe ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,,an ,,egyptian ,,harp 7after ,haupt74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,,an ,,assyrian ,,upright ,,harp 7after ,haupt74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,,an ,,assyrian ,,horizontal ,,harp 7after ,haupt74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,a ,,babylonian ,,harp 7after ,haupt74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,,jewish ,,harps ,,on ,,coins ,,of ,,bar ,,cocheba1 #acb-ace ,a4 ,d4 7after ,madden74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,,assyrian ,,dulcimer 7after ,haupt74 ,,plate #fj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,,seals ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,a ,,comb ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,,toys ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,,styli ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,,children',s ,,rattles ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #fa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,a ,,perfume-,,box1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,a ,,necklace ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,,bracelets ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,,spatul ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,,rings ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #fb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,,supposed ,,hebrew ,,measures ,,from ,,jerusalem 7after ,germer-,durand74 ,,plate #fc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,a ,neseph ,,weight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,a ,payim ,,weight ,,belonging ,,to ,,haverford ,,college4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,a ,beqa ,,weight 7after ,torrey74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,a 8,,daric0 ,,of ,,darius 7after ,benzinger74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,a ,,tetradrachma ,,of ,,alexander ,,the ,,great 7after ,benzinger74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,a ,,coin ,,of ,,ptolemy ,,lagi 7after ,benzinger74 ,,plate #fd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,,half-,,shekel ,,of ,,simon ,,the ,,maccabee 7after ,benzinger74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4 ,a ,,coin ,,of ,,john ,,hyrcanus 7after ,madden74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,,tetradrachma ,,of ,,lysimachus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,a ,,coin ,,of ,,augustus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,a ,,denarius ,,of ,,tiberius4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,a ,,coin ,,of ,,claudius4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,a ,,coin ,,of ,,herod ,,the ,,great4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,a ,,roman ,,quadrans 7874 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,a ,,coin ,,of ,,herod ,,agrippa ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,a ,,shekel ,,of ,,the ,,revolt ,,of ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 ,,plate #fe ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,,cave-,,dwellers' ,,place ,,of ,,sacrifice1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,,plan ,,of ,,caves ,,at ,,semitic ,,high ,,place1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 8,,pillars0 ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,place ,,at ,,gezer4 ,,plate #ff ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,,rock-,,altar ,,at ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,,the 8,,beth-,,el0 ,,of ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,,the ,,supposed ,,serpent-,,pen ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #fg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,,the ,,rock-,,altar ,,at ,,jerusalem 7after ,dalman74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,,the ,,laver ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #fh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,,the ,,terra-,,cotta ,,altar ,,from ,,taanach 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,,supposed ,,high ,,place ,,at ,,taanach 7after ,sellin74 ,,plate #fi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,,high ,,place ,,at ,,tell ,,es-,,safi 7after ,bliss and ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,,libation ,,bowl ,,from ,,taanach 7after ,sellin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,,an ,,astarte ,,plaque ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #gj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,place ,,at ,,petra 7after ,brnnow74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,,plan ,,of ,,herod',s ,,temple ,,at ,,samaria 7after ,lyon74 ,,plate #ga ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,,the ,,altar ,,at ,,petra 7after ,brnnow74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,,the 8,,round ,,altar0 ,,at ,,petra 7after ,brnnow74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,,supposed 8,,pillars0 ,,at ,,petra 7after ,brnnow74 ,,plate #gb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai;a4 ,a ,,brazen ,,serpent ,,from ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,,plan ,,of ,,supposed ,,semitic ,,temple ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,,walls ,,of ,,herod',s ,,temple1 ,,samaria 7after ,reisner74 ,,plate #gc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 8,,pillars0 ,,of ,a ,,supposed ,,temple1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,palace ,,at ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #gd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,,voluted ,,capital 7,,probably ,,philistine7 ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,,incense-,,burner ,,from ,,megiddo 7after ,schumacher74 ,,plate #ge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,,philistine ,,graves1 ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,a ,,rock-,,hewn ,,tomb ,,at ,,siloam 7after ,benzinger74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,a ,,shaft-,,tomb 7after ,bliss and ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,a ,,cistern-,,burial ,,at ,,gezer 7after ,macalister74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #gf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,a ,,columbarium ,,at ,,petra 7after ,dalman74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,judges4 ,,plate #gg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,a ,,sunken-,,door ,,tomb 7after ,mitt4 u4 ,nach4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,palstina-,vereins74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,kokim ,,in ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,judges4 ,,plate #gh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,hellenistic ,,tomb ,,at ,,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 ,a ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,judges4 ,,plate #gi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,,architectural ,,decoration ,,of ,a ,,hellenistic ,,tomb ,,at ,,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,floor ,,of ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,judges4 ,,plate #hj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,a ,,tomb ,,with ,a ,,rolling-,,stone ,,at ,,beit ,,jibrin 7after ,moulton74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,hellenistic ,,tomb ,,at ,,marissa 7after ,peters and ,thiersch74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #ha ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,,the ,,hills ,,and ,,valleys ,,of ,,jerusalem 7after ,vincent74 ,,plate #hb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,,underground ,,jebusite ,,tunnel ,,at ,,gihon1 ,,jerusalem 7after ,vincent74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,,maudsley',s ,,scarp1 ,,jerusalem4 ,,plate #hc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 ,,plan ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,buildings1 ,,jerusalem 7after ,stade74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,,ph,,nician ,,quarry-,,marks1 ,,jerusalem 7after ,warren74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #hd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 ,,shaft ,,at ,,the ,,southeast ,,corner ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,area 7after ,warren74 ,by permission of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4 ,,examining ,,ancient ,,walls ,,in ,,an ,,underground ,,tunnel 7after ,warren74 ,by permission of ,palatine ,exploration ,fund4 ,,plate #he ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,,front ,,views ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,temple 7after ,stade74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4 ,,side ,,views ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,temple 7after ,stade74 ,,plate #hf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4 ,,plan ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,temple 7after ,stade74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej4 ,,the ,,seven-,,branched ,,lamp-,,stand ,,from ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,titus4 ,,plate #hg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bea4 ,,the ,,brazen ,,laver ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,temple 7after ,stade74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb4 ,a ,,portable ,,laver ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,temple 7after ,stade74 ,,plate #hh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec4 ,,stone-,,work ,,of ,a ,,wall ,,of ,,jerusalem ,,built ,,in ,,the ,,fifth ,,century ,a4 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed4 ,,stone-,,work ,,in ,,nehemiah',s ,,wall1 ,,jerusalem4 ,,plate #hi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee4 ,,restoration ,,of ,,the ,,asmon,,an ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,tyrop,,on ,,valley 7after ,hanauer74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4 ,,front ,,of 8,,david',s ,,tower0 7,,herod',s ,,palace7 ,,today 7after ,breen74 ,,plate #ij ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4 ,,reconstruction ,,of ,,herod',s ,,temple 7after ,caldecott74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4 8,,solomon',s ,,stables40 ,,plate #ia ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,supposed ,,pools ,,of ,,bethesda 7after ,hanauer74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4 ,,front ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,sepulcher4 ,,plate #ib ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4 8,,gordon',s ,,calvary10 ,,looking ,,toward ,,jerusalem 7after ,breen74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4 8,,gordon',s ,,calvary10 ,,from ,,the ,,city ,,wall 7after ,breen74 ,,plate #ic ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4 ,,outside ,,of 8,,gordon',s ,,holy ,,sepulcher0 7after ,breen74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4 ,,inside ,,of 8,,gordon',s ,,holy ,,sepulcher0 7after ,breen74 ,,plate #id ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4 ,,the ,,barada 7,,abana71 ,,damascus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4 ,,the ,,street ,,called ,,straight1 ,,damascus4 ,,plate #ie ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4 ,,palace ,,at ,,kanatha 7after ,brnnow74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4 ,,circular ,,forum ,,and ,,colonnaded ,,street1 ,,gerasa4 ,,plate #if ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4 ,,temple ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,gerasa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4 ,,site ,,of ,,rabbah ,,ammon4 ,,plate #ig ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga4 ,,theater ,,at ,,amman 7,,palestinian ,,philadelphia74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4 ,,roman ,,forum ,,at ,,athens4 ,,plate #ih ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4 ,,mars' ,,hill1 ,,athens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4 ,,fountain ,,in ,,the ,,agora1 ,,corinth4 ,,plate #ii ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge4 ,,lintel ,,of ,,jewish ,,synagogue1 ,,corinth 7after ,richardson74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4 ,,lech,,um ,,road1 ,,corinth 7after ,richardson74 ,,plate #ajj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4 ,,parthenon1 ,,athens1 ,,from ,,the ,,east4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4 ,,main ,,street ,,at ,,ephesus4 ,,plate #aja ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4 ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,diana1 ,,ephesus1 ,,in #aijb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4 ,,the ,,theater1 ,,ephesus4 ,,plate #ajb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bha4 ,,the ,,amphitheater1 ,,ephesus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4 ,,the ,,stadium1 ,,ephesus4 ,,plate #ajc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4 ,,pergamum 7after ,ramsay74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4 ,,the ,,acropolis ,,and ,,partly ,,excavated ,,temple1 ,,sardis 7after ,butler74 ,,plate #ajd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4 ,,excavated ,,temple1 ,,sardis1 ,,looking ,,toward ,,the ,,hermus ,,valley 7after ,butler74 ,,plate #aje ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4 ,a ,,christian ,,church ,,at ,,sardis 7after ,butler74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4 ,,smyrna 7after ,ramsay74 ,,plate #ajf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4 ,a ,,ruin ,,at ,,laodicea 7after ,ramsay74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4 ,a ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,jordan ,,on ,,the ,,line ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,road4 ,,plate #ajg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bij4 ,,fragment ,,of ,a ,,creation-,,tablet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bia4 ,,assyrian ,,sacred ,,tree ,,conventionalized4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bib4 ,,hammurapi ,,receiving ,,the ,,laws ,,from ,,the ,,sun-,,god4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bic4 ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,adam ,,and ,,eve ,,seal4 ,,plate #ajh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bid4 ,a ,,tablet ,,from ,,nippur4 ,,relating ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,irrigation ,,and ,,agriculture 7after ,langdon74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bie4 ,,top ,,of ,,the ,,black ,,obelisk ,,of ,,shalmaneser4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bif4 ,,jehu ,,of ,,israel ,,doing ,,homage ,,to ,,shalmaneser4 ,,plate #aji ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #big4 ,,the ,,siloam ,,inscription4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bih4 ,,sennacherib ,,receiving ,,tribute ,,at ,,lachish 7after ,ball74 ,,plate #aaj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bii4 ,,an ,,altar ,,to ,,unknown ,,gods 7after ,deissmann74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4 ,,the ,,moabite ,,stone4 ,,plate #aaa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cja4 ,,papyrus ,,containing ,,sayings ,,of ,,jesus 7after ,grenfell and ,hunt74 ,,plate #aab ,illustration3 ,jerusalem of ,solomon ,illustration3 ,early ,jerusalem ,,plate #aac ,illustration3 ,jerusalem from ,uzziah to the ,exile ,illustration3 ,jerusalem of ,nehemiah ,,plate #aad ,illustration3 ,asmonan ,jerusalem ,illustration3 ,jerusalem of ,herod and of ,christ ,,footnotes3 #a ,century ,dictionary1 edition of #aijc1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bic4 #b ,the chronology of ,archbishop ,usher1 printed in the margin of many ,bibles1 is not a part of the ,biblical text1 but a collection of seventeenth century calculations and guesses4 #c ,for fuller accounts of the history of ,egypt1 see ,breasted's ,history of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ,new ,york1 ,scribner's1 #aijh2 or ,breasted's ,history of ,egypt1 second edition1 #aiji1 ,new ,york1 ,scribner's4 #d ,see ,petrie1 ,hyksos and the ,israelite ,cities1 ,london1 #aijf4 #e ,see ,naville1 ,the ,store-,city of ,pithom and the ,route of the ,exodus1 #dth ed41 ,london1 #aijc4 #f ,see ,petrie1 ,hyksos and the ,israelite ,cities1 p4 #bh1 f4 #g ,see ,petrie1 ,the ,palace of ,apries1 ,london1 #aiji4 #h ,see ,petrie1 ,hyksos and the ,israelite ,cities1 p4 #aia1 ff4 #i ,see ,annals of ,archology and ,anthropology1 ,,vii1 ,liverpool1 #aiad1 pp4 #a-aj4 #aj ,so called from the name of the mountain on which it is written4 #aa ,first published by ,hilprecht1 ,babylonian ,expedition of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 ,no4 #dg2 cf4 p4 #df4 #ab ,see ,poebel1 ,historical and ,grammatical ,texts1 ,philadelphia1 #aiad1 ,nos4 #b-e1 and ,historical ,texts1 ,philadelphia1 #aiad1 pp4 #gc-adj4 #ac ,it is the prevailing view of scholars that ,arabia was the cradle-land of the ,semites4 ,the reasons for this view as well as a rsum of other views will be found in ,g4 ,a4 ,barton's ,sketch of ,semitic ,origins1 ,social and ,religious1 ,new ,york1 #aijb1 ,chapter ,i4 #ad ,in ,gen4 #aj3aa it is by implication said that the city was founded by ,nimrod4 #ae ,for a discussion of the reasons for the view here stated1 and a presentation of other views1 see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cgd1 ff4 #af ,the ,chaldans were a ,semitic people who came into the marsh-lands of southern ,babylonia from ,arabia4 ,we can first detect their presence in ,babylonia about #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 #ag ,those who desire fuller accounts of the history should read ,l4 ,w4 ,king's ,history of ,sumer and ,akkad1 ,london1 #aiaj1 and ,r4 ,w4 ,rogers' ,history of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 #b;d ed41 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #ah ,in the ,mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahii1 ,heft4 #d4 #ai ,in the ,mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijj1 ,hefte #d and #e4 #bj ,see ,pumpelly1 ,explorations in ,turkestan1 ,washington1 #aijh1 ,i1 p4 #ej1 f4 #ba ,see ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,chronicles ,concerning ,early ,babylonian ,kings1 ,london1 #aijg1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bb4 #bb ,history of ,egypt1 ,,ii4 #djd1 #dje4 #bc ,expository ,times1 ,november1 #aiad1 p4 #ia4 #bd ,asien und ,europa nach altgyptischen ,denkmlern1 #cai1 note #c4 #be ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,i1 #bbg1 #bbh4 #bf ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,ii1 #ggc4 #bg ,winckler in ,mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aiac1 ,heft #d1 p4 #ha4 #bh ,itinraire de ,paris a ,jrusalem1 ,paris1 #ahaa4 #bi ,travels in ,syria1 #ahba4 #cj ,souvenirs1 impressions1 el paysages1 pendant un voyage en ,orient1 ,paris1 #ahce4 #ca ,for a more complete account see ,f4 ,j4 ,bliss1 ,the ,development of ,palestine ,exploration1 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 #cb ,see ,official ,report of the ,united ,states ,expedition to ,explore the ,dead ,sea and the ,river ,jordan1 ,baltimore1 #aheb4 #cc ,see his 8,identification of ,pisgah0 in the third ,statement of the ,american ,exploration ,society1 #ahgj4 #cd ,see his ,east of the ,jordan1 ,new ,york1 #ahhc4 #ce ,warren's results were first published in ,the ,recovery of ,jerusalem1 ,london1 #ahgj1 and more fully in ,jerusalem1 ,london1 #ahhi1 one of the ,memoirs of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,the arch mentioned is called 8,robinson's ,arch10 because its significance was first perceived by ,robinson4 #cf ,across the ,jordan1 ,london1 #ahhf2 ,jaulan1 ,london1 #ahhf1 and ,abila1 ,pella1 and ,northern ,aijlun1 ,london1 #ahhi4 #cg ,die ,provincia ,arabia1 ,strassburg1 #aijd-aiji 7#c volumes74 #ch ,petra1 ,leipzig1 #aijh1 and ,neu-,petra ,forschung1 ,leipzig1 #aiab4 #ci ,archological ,researches in ,palestine1 ,london1 #ahif-ahii4 #dj ,geology of ,palestine and ,arabia ,petra1 ,london1 #ahhf4 #da ,see ,petrie1 ,tell el-,hesy 7,lachish71 ,london1 #ahia4 #db ,see his ,mound of ,many ,cities1 ,london1 #ahid4 #dc ,see ,bliss1 ,excavations at ,jerusalem1 ,london1 #ahih4 #dd ,an artificially made precipice on which a fortress once stood4 ,it is named from an ,englishman1 ,maudsley1 who first perceived its true nature4 #de ,bliss and ,macalister1 ,excavations in ,palestine during the ,years #ahih-aijj1 ,london1 #aijb4 #df ,see his ,archological ,researches in ,palestine1 ,,ii1 p4 #bea1 f4 #dg ,this is the period called by ,petrie and ,bliss 8,seleucid40 #dh ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,london1 #aiab1 ,,ii1 #cha-djc4 #di ,ibid41 #djf-djh4 #ej ,ibid41 ,i1 #bef-bfh4 #ea ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,london1 #aiab1 ,,ii1 #bjj-bbc4 #eb ,ibid41 #bcf-bff4 #ec ,see the ,annual of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 ,vols4 ,i and ,,ii1 for the details here given1 and for many others4 #ed ,zeitschrift des deutschen ,palstina-,vereins4 #ee ,see ,zeitschrift des deutschen ,palstina-,vereins1 ,v1 pp4 #g-bjd4 #ef ,see ,schumacher und ,steuernagel1 ,tell el-,mutesellim1 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 #eg ,sellin1 ,tell ,taanek1 ,wien1 #aijd4 #eh ,see ,mitteilungen der deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft1 ,no4 #bi1 ,berlin1 #aije1 p4 #ad1 f4 #ei ,see ,sellin und ,watzinger1 ,jericho1 ,leipzig1 #aiac4 #fj ,see ,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 ,boston1 #aijc1 pp4 #afd-ahb2 ,,xxiv1 #aif-bbj2 ,,xxv1 #hb-ie4 #fa ,see ,harvard ,theological ,review1 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 ,i1 #aijh1 p4 #ib4 #fb ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #ajb-aac2 ,,iii1 #acf-ach1 #bdh-bfc4 #fc ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 xiii1 #aj1 #b and #c2 ,wars of the ,jews1 i1 #b1 #g4 #fd ,revue biblique1 #aiab 7,paris71 pp4 #hf-aaf4 #fe ,biblical ,world1 ,vol4 ,,xxxix1 ,chicago1 #aiab1 pp4 #bie-cjf4 #ff ,see ,germer-,durand in ,revue biblique1 #aiad1 pp4 #ga-id1 and ,frontispiece4 #fg ,see ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 ,october1 #aiad1 p4 #afg1 f4 ,additional material on ,ophel and ,balata is given in the ,appendix1 p4 #ddf4 #fh ,first noticed by ,prof4 ,george ,l4 ,robinson1 of ,mc,cormick ,seminary1 ,chicago1 and afterward by ,prof4 ,samuel ,ives ,curtis1 of the ,chicago ,theological ,seminary2 see ,chapter ,,xi1 p4 #agc1 f4 #fi ,discovered in #aijb by ,dr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,peters and ,dr4 ,thiersch2 see their ,painted ,tombs of ,marissa1 ,london1 #aije4 #gj ,reference should also be made to the expedition from ,princeton ,university1 referred to on p4 #ajg1 led by ,prof4 ,h4 ,c4 ,butler1 which went out in #ahii-aijj1 in #aijd-aije1 and in #aiji1 and examined the ruins in the ,hauran 7or region east of the ,sea of ,galilee71 in the ,lebanon ,mountains1 and in that part of ,syria to the east of ,lebanon4 ,the expedition gathered many inscriptions1 most of which belong to the ,christian period4 ,the results of this exploration are published in ,the ,publications of an ,archological ,expedition to ,syria in #ahii-aijj1 ,new ,york1 #aijd1 and ,publications of the ,princeton ,archological ,expeditions to ,syria in #aijd-aije and #aiji1 ,leyden1 #aijh-aiad4 #ga ,see ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,macalister1 ,history of ,civilization in ,palestine1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aiab1 pp4 #aj1 #aa4 #gb ,see ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 ,philadelphia1 #aijd1 p4 #adc4 #gc ,see ,barton1 in the ,biblical ,world1 ,chicago1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 p4 #agg4 #gd ,see ,conder1 ,survey of ,eastern ,palestine1 ,i1 pp4 #abe-bgg1 and ,mackenzie in the ,annual of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 ,i1 pp4 #e-aa4 #ge ,see ,gen4 #ad3e2 #ae3bj4 #gf ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,cowper1 ,the ,hill of the ,graces1 a ,record of ,investigation among the ,trilithons and ,megalithic ,sites of ,tripoli1 ,london1 #ahig1 and ,brandenburg1 ber ,felsarchitektur im ,mittelmeergebiet in ,mitteilungen der ,vorderasiatischen ,gesellchaft1 #aiad4 #gg ,see the ,annals of ,archology and ,anthropology1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,liverpool1 #aiac1 pp4 #aab-abh4 #gh ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #gb-aeb4 #gi ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #ade-aeb4 #hj ,ibid41 #bcf1 ff4 #ha ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,macalister1 ,bible ,side-lights from the ,mound of ,gezer1 ,london1 #aijf1 ,chapter ,,ii4 #hb ,see ,p4 ,e4 ,mader in ,zeitschrift des deutschen ,palstina-,vereins1 ,vol4 ,,xxxvii1 #aiad1 pp4 #bj-dd4 #hc ,see ,amos #d3d2 #e3e4 #hd ,see ,dr4 ,masterman1 in ,biblical ,world1 ,,xxxix1 #cja1 f4 #he ,see the legend concerning him translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #caj1 f4 #hf ,see ,clay1 ,amurru1 ,philadelphia1 #aiji1 pp4 #ajb1 #ajc4 #hg ,see ,recueil de travaux relatifs phil4 et arch4 egpt4 et assyr41 ,,xxxiv1 #aje-ajh4 #hh ,see ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chicago1 #aijf1 #cae4 #hi ,see ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #ei4 #ij ,translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cac1 f4 #ia ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bic4 #ib ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bij1 ff4 #ic ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bii1 ff4 #id ,see ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,i1 p4 #bcc1 f4 #ie ,see ,barton1 ,commentary on ,job1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa1 pp4 #e-g1 and ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,i1 p4 #bch1 note a4 #if ,see ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 #fhj1 and ,barton in ,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 p4 #bi4 #ig ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #bch-bdc and #bec4 #ih ,tell el-,mutesellim1 ,tafeln1 vii-xi4 #ii ,see ,chapter ,,iv1 p4 #if4 #ajj ,see ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #ei1 f4 #aja ,see ,chapter ,i1 p4 #bh4 #ajb ,see ,chapter ,,iii1 p4 #ge1 f4 #ajc ,see ,chapter ,,iv1 pp4 #hi1 #ia4 #ajd ,see ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iii1 #faf4 #aje ,translated from ,w4 ,max ,mller's publication in the ,mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijg1 ,heft #g4 #ajf ,hammath means 8hot40 #ajg ,see ,chapter ,i1 p4 #bi4 #ajh ,see pp4 #gi1 #hj1 and #cde4 #aji ,see the letters of its king translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cde1 f4 #aaj ,chapter ,,xiii4 #aaa ,see ,chapter ,,iii1 p4 #gh1 f4 #aab ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cdi1 f4 #aac ,see ,breasted's ,history of ,egypt1 ,new ,york1 #aiji1 p4 #dad4 #aad ,see ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iii4 #ha and #adj4 #aae ,translated from ,w4 ,max ,mller's ,egyptological ,researches1 ,washington1 #aijf1 pl4 #ei1 ff4 #aaf ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #caa4 #aag ,see ,sir ,arthur ,evans4 ,scripta ,minoa1 ,oxford1 #aiji1 pp4 #bhj1 #bhb1 and ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,macalister in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 ,vol4 ,,xxx1 ,c1 p4 #cdb2 also his ,philistines1 ,their ,history and ,civilization1 ,london1 #aiac1 pp4 #hd1 #he4 #aah ,see ,sitzungsberichte of the ,berlin ,academy1 #aiji1 p4 #ajbb1 f4 #aai ,caphtor is the same as ,keftiu of the ,egyptian inscriptions1 but it is uncertain whether ,keftiu refers to ,crete or ,asia ,minor4 #abj ,translated from ,w4 ,max ,mller's ,egyptological ,researches1 ,i1 pl4 #fd1 f4 #aba ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 p4 #ba4 #abb ,see p4 #ii4 #abc ,see p4 #ie4 #abd ,see the books of ,i and ,,ii ,samuel4 #abe ,see ,chapters ,,vi1 ,,ix1 and ,,xi4 #abf ,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xvii4 #abg ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #che1 f4 #abh ,see ,j4 ,a4 ,montgomery1 ,the ,samaritans1 the ,earliest ,jewish ,sect1 ,their ,history1 ,theology1 and ,literature1 ,philadelphia1 #aijg4 #abi ,for the narrative of the struggle1 see the book of ,i ,maccabees1 and ,s4 ,mathews1 ,history of the ,new ,testament ,times in ,palestine1 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 #acj ,see ,i ,macc4 #ad3da4 #aca ,for details see ,guy ,le ,strange1 ,palestine ,under the ,moslems1 ,london1 #ahij4 #acb ,for details see ,c4 ,r4 ,conder1 ,the ,latin ,kingdom of ,jerusalem1 ,london1 #ahig4 #acc ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 #acd ,see p4 #id4 #ace ,on these walls1 see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #bcf-bef4 #acf ,petrie1 ,tell el-,hesy1 p4 #ag and ,plates #b and #c4 #acg ,see his ,tell ,taanek1 p4 #ac4 #ach ,see p4 #if and ,fig4 #da4 #aci ,see p4 #ia4 #adj ,harvard ,theological ,review1 ,,iii1 #acg4 #ada ,palestine ,exploration ,fund's ,annual1 ,,ii1 #ag1 f4 #adb ,sellin and ,watzinger's ,jericho1 p4 #bi1 f4 and ,tafel ,i4 #adc ,ibid41 #ed1 ff4 #add ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #bdd4 #ade ,see ,dickie1 in ,quarterly ,statement of ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 #ahig1 #fa-fg4 #adf ,these remarks about the house are based on the excavation at ,gezer4 ,the excavators of other sites have not given as much attention to the construction of houses as ,mr4 ,macalister did4 #adg ,sellin1 ,tell ,taanek1 p4 #ba4 #adh ,one of these is translated in ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cej4 #adi ,see the writer's article1 8,corners10 in ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,,iv #aai1 ff4 #aej ,sellin1 ,tell ,taanek1 p4 #fa4 #aea ,schumacher1 ,tell el-,mulesellim1 pp4 #de1 #ed4 #aeb ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #bdj4 #aec ,in #b ,sam4 #ab3bg we should read 8pool of waters0 instead of 8city of waters02 see ,barton in ,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 ,,xxvii1 #adg-aeb4 #aed ,see ,polybius1 ,v1 #ga4 #aee ,josephus1 ,jewish ,wars1 ,i1 xix1 #e1 ff4 #aef ,for the conflicting evidence and theories1 see ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,i1 #abd-aca4 #aeg ,josephus1 ,antiquities1 ,,xviii1 iii1 #b4 #aeh ,see p4 #he4 #aei ,see ,thomsen in ,zeitschrift des deutschen ,palstina-,vereins1 ,,xxvi1 #agj1 ff4 #afj ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 #afa ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #aii1 f2 ,,ii1 #bb1 ff4 #afb ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #bb1 f4 #afc ,the reader who cares to pursue the subject is referred to ,macalister's ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #dh1 ff41 and ,sellin's ,tell ,taanek1 #fa1 f41 and ,bliss and ,macalister's ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj1 pp4 #aic1 #aif1 f41 #bjh1 #bbg1 and #bdh4 #afd ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #a-ae4 #afe ,see ,pumpelly1 ,excavations in ,turkestan1 ,washington1 #aijh1 p4 #chd1 f4 #aff ,see ,schumacher1 ,mutesellim1 p4 #hi4 #afg ,ward1 ,seal ,cylinders of ,western ,asia1 p4 #dbb1 and ,nos4 #eed1 #eef1 #aabf1 and #abed4 #afh ,see ,dr4 ,john ,p4 ,peters' article 8,the ,cock0 in the ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii1 pp4 #cfc-cif4 #afi ,see ,peters and ,thiersch1 ,the ,painted ,tombs of ,marissa1 ,london1 #aije4 #agj ,see ,sellin1 ,tell ,taanek1 #fa1 f4 #aga ,especial mention may be made of the following3 ,petrie1 ,tell el-,hesy2 ,bliss and ,macalister1 ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj1 ,part ,,ii2 ,vincent1 ,canaan d'aprs l'exploration rcente1 ,paris1 #aijg1 ,chapter ,v1 and ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #abh-bca4 #agb ,a 8button0 handle is a 8ledge0 handle made into a round knob4 #agc ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #aeh4 #agd ,see ,chapter ,v1 p4 #aae1 f41 and ,figs4 #ajh1 #aji4 #age ,for discussions of the subject1 see ,bliss and ,macalister1 ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj1 #ajf-abc2 ,macalister in the ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 #aije1 #bdc and #cbh2 also ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #bji1 ff41 and ,vincent1 ,canaan d'aprs l'exploration rcente1 pp4 #ceg-cfj4 #agf ,see ,sellin1 ,jericho1 p4 #aef4 #agg ,for a fuller discussion of children's toys1 see ,rice1 ,orientalisms in ,bible ,lands1 pp4 #di-eh4 #agh ,an early ,christian writer1 born in #cae1 died in #djc ,a4 ,d41 who was bishop of ,salamis in ,cyprus4 #agi ,from this equivalence the reader can easily compute the value which the intermediate measures would have according to this theory4 ,the multiples of the ,log which formed the ,cab1 etc41 are given above4 #ahj ,see ,pre ,germer-,durand1 8,mesures de capacit des ,hebreux au temps de l'vangile0 in ,conferences de ,saint-tienne1 ,paris1 #aiaj1 pp4 #hi-aje1 and ,fig4 #ahe4 #aha ,the ,jewish name for an offering to ,god4 7,see ,mark #g3aa47 #ahb 8,mana0 is both the ,babylonian and the ,hebrew term4 ,in ,english it has usually been corrupted to 8,mina40 #ahc ,some scholars understand ,,mene to be such a reference4 #ahd ,the weight is now in the library of ,haverford ,college1 near ,philadelphia4 #ahe ,the words rendered 8the price was a pim0 are translated in the ,authorized ,version1 8they had a file10 margin1 8a file with mouths02 in the ,revised ,version1 8they had a file10 margin1 or 8when the edges 444 were blunt40 ,the ,revisers add1 8,the ,hebrew text is obscure40 ,the ,hebrew word rendered 8file0 and 8blunt0 comes from a root that means 8to prescribe0 or 8appoint40 ,it could easily mean the 8established price10 but can mean neither 8file0 nor 8blunt40 ,pim means 8mouths0 and is employed figuratively for 8edges10 but neither of those meanings fits the passage4 ,the discovery of these weights has cleared up the whole obscurity4 ,this interpretation was suggested by ,pilcher in the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund ,quarterly ,statement1 #aiad1 p4 #ii4 #ahf ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #bgi4 #ahg ,see ,macalister1 ibid41 pp4 #bgh-bic4 #ahh ,see ,bliss and ,macalister1 ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj1 p4 #fa4 #ahi ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #bia4 #aij ,see ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,ii1 #dcf1 #dhi1 #dij1 #eah1 and ,history of ,egypt1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #bgg1 #cjg4 #aia ,see ,schrader's ,keilinschriftliche ,bibliothek1 ,i1 #aje 7cl4 ,,iii1 #fb74 #aib ,see ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns1 ,assyrian ,deeds and ,documents1 ,i1 ,nos4 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #ej1 and #ajh2 cf4 also ,,iii1 #h4 #aic ,see ,hill1 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,coins of ,palestine1 ,london1 #aiad1 p4 xciii1 ff4 #aid ,cf4 ,luke #ba3b4 #aie ,the temples of ,solomon1 ,zerubbabel1 and ,herod are treated in ,chapter ,,xiii1 on ,jerusalem4 #aif ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #ajb2 ,,ii1 #cgh1 ff4 #aig ,see ,schumacher1 ,tell el-,mutesellim1 #aef1 ff4 #aih ,in ,gen4 #bb3i ,abraham1 we are told1 built the altar4 ,he did not1 therefore1 intend to use the rock-altar4 ,the analogy of this altar with the other two is not quite complete4 ,it appears to have no cup-marks on its surface4 #aii ,see ,bliss and ,macalister1 ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj1 p4 #ca1 ff4 #bjj ,see ,macalister1 ,the ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #ea1 #aje-ajg2 ,,ii1 #cha-djd4 #bja ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cfd4 #bjb ,see ,c4 ,h4 ,toy1 ,introduction to the ,history of ,religions1 ,boston1 #aiac1 #bej1 #beg4 #bjc ,tell ,taanek1 p4 #fh1 ff4 #bjd ,see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ddb4 #bje ,for descriptions of this high place1 see the article by its discoverer1 ,george ,l4 ,robinson1 in the ,biblical ,world1 ,,xvii1 #f-af2 by ,s4 ,i4 ,curtis in the ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 ,october1 #aijj1 pp4 #cej-cee2 ,savignac in ,rvue biblique1 #aijc1 #bhj-bhd2 ,libby and ,hoskins1 ,the ,jordan ,valley and ,petra1 ,new ,york1 #aije1 ,,ii1 #agb1 ff42 ,brnnow and ,domaszewski1 ,provincia ,arabia1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,strassburg1 #aijd1 #bci-bde2 ,dalman1 ,petra1 ,leipzig1 #aijh1 #ef-eh4 #bjf ,see the writer's ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 ,philadelphia1 #aijd1 pp4 #aic1 #aid4 #bjg ,those interested in them will find them described in ,brnnow and ,domaszewski's ,provincia ,arabia1 ,i1 #bdf1 ff41 and in ,dalman's ,petra1 #adb1 #bbe1 #bgb1 etc4 #bjh ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #dje1 ff4 #bji ,schumacher1 ,tell el-,mutesellim1 #aaj-abd4 #baj ,schumacher1 ,tell el-,mutesellim1 #aje-aaj4 #baa ,ibid41 #abe-acj4 #bab ,see ,harvard ,theological ,review1 ,,ii1 #ajb-aac2 ,,iii1 #bdh-bfc4 #bac ,see ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xv1 viii1 #e1 and ,wars of the ,jews1 ,i1 xxi1 #b4 #bad ,see especially ,fig4 #bfi4 #bae ,see ,chapter ,v1 p4 #aje4 #baf ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #bhf4 #bag ,ibid41 p4 #abb1 f4 #bah ,palestine ,exploration ,fund's ,annual1 ,,ii1 #db1 ff4 #bai ,for a ,babylonian parallel1 see ,part ,,ii1 p4 #dbc1 ff4 #bbj ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,,ii1 #dbi1 f4 #bba ,see ,biblical ,world1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 p4 #agg4 #bbb ,see ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer1 ,i1 #bhh1 f4 #bbc ,ibid41 #bhi1 ff4 #bbd ,see ,bliss and ,macalister1 ,excavations in ,palestine1 #ahih-aijj1 p4 #i1 ff4 #bbe ,so called because of a tradition that the members of the ,sanhedrin were buried there4 ,the tradition probably arose because the kkim and shelves make provision for seventy bodies4 #bbf ,see ,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 ,,xxii1 #aijc1 p4 #afd1 ff4 #bbg ,see ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xx1 ii1 #a2 iv1 #c4 #bbh ,see ,peters and ,thiersch1 ,painted ,tombs at ,marissa1 ,london1 #aije4 #bbi ,all who can do so should read ,george ,adam ,smith's ,jerusalem from the ,earliest ,times to ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 ,new ,york1 #aijh1 and ,hughes ,vincent's ,jerusalem1 ,paris1 #aiab4 ,or1 if this is not possible1 ,l4 ,b4 ,paton's ,jerusalem in ,bible ,times1 ,chicago1 #aije4 #bcj ,see ,dr4 ,masterman in the ,biblical ,world1 ,vol4 ,,xxxix1 p4 #bie1 f4 #bca ,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xv1 ,letter ,v1 and the writer's note in the ,biblical ,world1 ,,xxii1 p4 #aa1 n4 #e4 #bcb ,see ,biblical ,world1 ,,xxxix1 #cjf4 #bcc ,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xv4 #bcd ,see ,chapter ,,vi1 #h4 #bce ,some scholars think the words are a distorted repetition of 8in ,millo10 which was accidentally repeated by a scribe4 #bcf ,bliss and ,dickie1 ,excavations at ,jerusalem1 #ahid-ahig1 passim1 and p4 #cai1 ff4 #bcg ,for 8,bethso10 see ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,v1 iv1 #b4 #bch ,see ,j4 ,e4 ,hanauer1 ,walks about ,jerusalem1 ,london1 #aiaj1 #hh1 #hi4 #bci ,the writer is well aware that the name ,moriah for this part of the hill rests on slender evidence1 but he employs it nevertheless as a convenient term1 since it is well understood by readers of the ,bible4 #bdj ,warren and ,conder1 ,jerusalem1 pp4 #adh-aeh4 #bda ,see ,chapter ,,xi1 p4 #afh4 #bdb ,wars of the ,jews1 ,v1 v1 #a4 #bdc ,so ,stade1 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israels1 ,berlin1 #ahhi1 ,i1 #cad1 and ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,,ii1 #fj4 #bdd ,in giving the dimensions of the various temples1 the writer has followed the calculations of ,george ,adam ,smith in his ,jerusalem4 ,w4 ,shaw ,caldecott has published four volumes1 one on the ,tabernacle1 one on ,solomon's ,temple1 one on the ,second ,temple1 and one on ,herod's ,temple1 in which he claims to have discovered a key that harmonizes all the ,biblical statements as to the measurements of these structures4 ,his supposed key is his belief that the ,babylonians had three different cubits which they used side by side1 that these cubits were known to ,moses1 and that their use was perpetuated in the temple4 ,should these pages be read by one who has accepted that claim as true1 it is but fair that he be informed that ,caldecott's whole system is based upon a misinterpretation of a ,babylonian tablet that was published in ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cg4 7,see ,tabernacle1 pp4 #ajg-aci1 and ,solomon's ,temple1 pp4 #bae1 #baf47 ,this tablet contains a table of time and of distances4 ,the unit of time in ,babylonia was a kaskal-gid4 ,an astronomical tablet published thirty years ago in the book most widely used by beginners in ,assyrian says that at the equinox 8six kaskal-gid was the day1 six kaskal-gid the night40 ,the kaskal-gid was1 then1 a period of two hours' duration4 ,just as in many countries the word for 8hour0 is used for distance1 and a place is said to be so many 8hours0 away1 so in ,babylonia and ,assyria kaskal-gid was used as a measure of distance4 ,the tablet referred to gives a table of the ways of writing fractions of kaskal-gid and its other divisions in the simplest of the two ,babylonian numerical systems4 ,the ,assyriologist learns from this tablet that #a kaskal-gid 7the distance of two hours7 equalled #cj ush1 that #a ush equalled #fj gar1 that #a gar equalled #ab u or cubits1 and that #a u equalled #fj shu or 8fingers40 ,caldecott1 however1 mistook the sign gid for a numeral five1 the sign kaskal for a word meaning 8ell10 and the word u meaning 8cubit0 for a sign signifying 8plus06 ,he accordingly makes gar a 8palm02 shu1 a 8three-palm ell02 ush1 a 8four-palm ell10 and kaskal-gid1 a 8five-palm ell06 ,his whole system is without foundation4 ,tables similar to the one published by ,rawlinson were compiled in the scribal school at ,nippur4 ,one was published without translation by ,hilprecht in #aijf in the ,babylonian ,expedition of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 and interpreted by the present writer in #aiji in ,the ,haverford ,library ,collection of ,cuneiform ,tablets1 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #ac-ah4 ,the writer has examined other similar tablets in the ,university ,museum1 ,philadelphia4 #bde ,see ,chapter ,,ix1 p4 #aea4 ,according to ,i ,kings #g3dh1 there was a 8golden altar0 here also1 but as this is not mentioned in chapter #f many scholars think that it is a post-exilic gloss1 introducing a feature from the second temple4 #bdf ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,viii1 v1 #b4 #bdg ,see translation1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #cgg4 #bdh ,see ,bliss1 ,excavations at ,jerusalem1 pp4 #if-aji4 #bdi ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,i1 #bbf4 ,for another view1 see ,paton1 ,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 ,,xxv1 #a-ac4 #bej ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,,ii1 ,chapters ,x and ,,xi4 #bea ,see ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #ff2 also ,part ,,ii1 p4 #che1 f4 #beb ,ezra #e3af states that ,sheshbazzar laid the foundations of the house in the reign of ,cyrus1 but as ,haggai and ,zechariah give no hint of this1 many scholars think there must be some error in the text4 #bec ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xiii1 xiii1 #e4 #bed ,see the ,mishnah1 ,middoth #c3f4 #bee ,excavations at ,jerusalem1 #af1 ff4 #bef ,see ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xi1 vii1 #a2 cf4 also ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,,ii1 #ceh-cfa4 #beg ,see ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xii1 i4 #beh ,see ,ecclesiasticus iii-v1 vii1 ix1 xxiii1 xxv1 ff41 and xxviii4 #bei ,see ,eccles4 #ej3a-d4 #bfj ,cf4 ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xii1 v1 #a4 #bfa ,see ,selah ,merrill1 ,ancient ,jerusalem1 ,new ,york1 #aijh1 pp4 #hc-hh4 #bfb ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,,ii1 #ddg-deb4 #bfc ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xii1 v1 #a4 #bfd ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xiii1 vi1 #g4 #bfe ,see ,chapter ,v1 p4 #aai4 #bff ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xv1 xi1 #d2 ,,xviii1 iv1 #c4 #bfg ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xx1 viii1 #aa2 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,,ii1 xvi1 #c4 #bfh ,merrill1 ,ancient ,jerusalem1 p4 #hh4 #bfi ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xiv1 iv1 #b1 and ,fig4 #bee4 #bgj ,because its identity as a part of this bridge was first perceived by ,prof4 ,edward ,robinson1 of ,union ,seminary1 ,new ,york4 #bga ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,i1 vii1 #b4 #bgb ,warren and ,conder1 ,jerusalem1 #agh1 f4 #bgc ,see ,chapter ,,vi1 p4 #aca4 #bgd ,quoted by ,alexander ,polyhistor and ,eusebius2 see ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,,ii1 #dfb4 #bge ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xiii1 xiii1 #e4 #bgf ,ibid41 ,,xiv1 ii1 #a4 #bgg ,ibid41 ,,xiv1 iv1 #b4 #bgh ,ibid41 ,,xiv1 xiii1 #c1 #d1 #e4 #bgi ,ibid41 ,,xiv1 xv1 #b2 xvi4 #bhj ,ibid41 ,,xv1 viii1 #e4 #bha ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,v1 iv1 #c4 #bhb ,ibid41 ,v1 iv1 #d4 7,see ,fig4 #bef47 #bhc ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xvii1 ix1 #c2 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,,ii1 ii1 #b2 xiv1 #h4 #bhd ,colonel ,conder1 the late ,dr4 ,merrill1 ,georg ,gatt1 ,dr4 ,rckert1 and ,dr4 ,mommert4 #bhe ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xv1 viii1 #a4 #bhf ,see ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 #ahhg1 p4 #afa1 ff4 ,dr4 ,schick calls it an amphitheater1 but it is simply a theater of the ,greek type4 #bhg ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xv1 xi1 #b4 #bhh ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xx1 ix1 #g4 #bhi ,ibid41 ,,xv1 xi1 #c4 #bij ,above it was a chamber #cj cubits high4 #bia ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,v1 v1 #f4 #bib ,see ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,v1 v1 and the ,mishna tract ,middoth for the authority for this description4 ,for a fuller description1 see ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,jerusalem1 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xviii4 #bic ,see ,chapter ,,vi1 p4 #aca4 #bid ,that is1 the 8,pool of ,israel40 #bie ,wars of the ,jews1 ,v1 iv1 #b4 #bif ,the city1 restored under the heathen name of lia ,capitolina by the ,emperor ,hadrian in #ace ,a4 ,d41 made ,christian by ,constantine in #cbe1 sacked by the ,persian ,chosroes in #fad1 taken by the ,arabs in #fcf1 captured after many vicissitudes in #ajgb by the ,seljuk ,turks1 made by the ,first ,crusade the seat of the ,latin kingdom of ,jerusalem from #ajii to #aahg1 when ,saladin took it1 was once more after many other vicissitudes captured by the ,ottoman ,turks in #aeag4 #big ,historia ,naturalis1 ,v1 xviii1 #gd4 #bih ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,i1 vii1 #g4 #bii ,see ,chapter ,v1 p4 #aaa4 #cjj ,see ,schrer1 ,geschichte des ,jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 ,,ii1 #agb1 and note #cba4 #cja ,see ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xii1 iv1 #e4 #cjb ,see ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 ,philadelphia1 #aijd1 p4 #agf4 #cjc ,see ,neubauer1 ,gographie du ,talmud1 ,paris1 #ahfh1 #bch-bdj4 #cjd ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xii1 viii1 #d4 #cje ,brnnow and ,domaszewski1 ,provincia ,arabia1 ,,iii1 #ajg-add1 and ,fig4 #bfg4 #cjf ,see ,polybius1 ,v1 #ga4 #cjg ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xiii1 xiii1 #c4 #cjh ,schrer1 ,geschichte des ,jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi1 #dth ed41 ,,ii1 #aijg1 p4 #age4 #cji ,neubauer1 ,gographie du ,talmud1 #bgd4 #caj ,see ,merrill1 ,east of the ,jordan1 ,new ,york1 #ahhc1 #ahd1 ff4 and #ddb1 f42 also ,schumacher1 ,across the ,jordan1 ,london1 #ahhf1 p4 #bgb1 f4 #caa ,merrill1 ibid41 #bih1 and ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land1 map4 #cab ,so ,brnnow and ,domaszewski1 ,provincia ,arabia1 ,,iii1 #bfd4 #cac ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,i1 iv1 #h4 #cad ,see ,merrill1 ,east of the ,jordan1 #bha-bhd2 ,schumacher in ,zeitschrift des deutschen ,palstina-,vereins1 ,,xxv1 #aiab1 #aaa-agg2 ,brnnow and ,domaszewski1 ,provincia ,arabia1 ,,ii1 #bcd-aci2 ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 #aeh1 f4 #cae ,see ,polybius1 ,v1 #ga4 #caf ,see #b ,sam4 #ab3bg and ,barton in the ,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 ,,xxvii1 #adg-aeb4 #cag ,see ,josephus1 ,wars of the ,jews1 ,i1 xix1 #e4 #cah ,see ,merrill1 ,east of the ,jordan1 #cii1 ff42 ,schumacher1 ,across the ,jordan1 #cjh2 ,brnnow and ,domaszewski1 ,provincia ,arabia1 ,,ii1 #baf-bbj1 and ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 #aee1 f4 #cai ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and ,roman ,citizen1 ,new ,york1 #ahif1 #bdc1 ff4 #cbj ,see ,farnell1 ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 ,,ii1 ,oxford1 #ahif1 #fah-fii4 #cba ,see ,american ,journal of ,archology1 #b;d series1 ,,ii1 #acc1 f42 ,,iii1 #bjd1 f42 ,,iv1 #cjf1 f42 ,,vi1 #cjf1 f1 #dci1 f42 ,x1 #ag1 f41 and ,,xiv1 #ai1 f4 #cbb ,see ,benjamin ,powell in ,american ,journal of ,archology1 #b;d series1 ,,vii1 #fj1 f41 and ,fig4 #bge4 #cbc ,see ,ramsay's article 8,ephesus0 in ,hastings' ,dictionary of the ,bible1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gba1 f41 for further details4 #cbd ,book ,,ii1 #a4 #hfh4 #cbe ,see ,hogarth's ,ionia and the ,east1 ,oxford1 #aiji1 p4 #de1 f4 #cbf ,see ,de ,neocoria1 p4 #ch4 #cbg ,see ,ramsay in ,hastings' ,dictionary of the ,bible1 ,,iii1 #gej4 #cbh ,wood1 ,discoveries at ,ephesus1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,see ,fig4 #bgi4 #cbi ,hogarth1 ,excavations at ,ephesus1 ,london1 #aijh4 #ccj ,see ,couze 7and others71 ,ausgrabungen zu ,pergamos1 ,berlin1 #ahhj1 and ,thrmer1 ,pergamos1 ,leipzig1 #ahhh2 also ,f4 ,e4 ,clark1 ,the ,holy ,land of ,asia ,minor1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 p4 #fg1 f4 #cca ,see ,bousset1 ,die ,offenbarung des ,johannes1 ,gttingen1 #ahif1 p4 #bde1 ff42 ,ramsay1 ,the ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 ,new ,york1 #aije1 #bhc1 ff41 and ,moffat in ,the ,expositor's ,greek ,testament1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #cee1 f4 #ccb ,see ,ramsay1 ,the ,church and the ,roman ,empire1 ,new ,york1 #ahic1 p4 #beb1 f4 #ccc ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 ,,xii1 iii1 #a4 #ccd ,see ,ramsay1 ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 p4 #cbe1 ff4 #cce ,see ,butler in ,american ,journal of ,archology1 #b;d series1 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 #aiad1 p4 #dbh4 #ccf ,book1 ,i1 #g4 #ccg ,see ,herbig's article1 8,etruscan ,religion10 in ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,new ,york1 #aiab1 p4 #ecb1 ff4 #cch ,american ,journal of ,archology1 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 #aiab1 p4 #dgd4 #cci ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 #gf-gi4 #cdj ,see ,american ,journal of ,archology1 ,vols4 ,,xiv-,,xviii1 and ,fig4 #bhe4 #cda ,ibid41 ,,xv1 #deb4 #cdb ,ibid41 ,,xv1 #deg4 #cdc ,ibid41 ,,xvi1 #dge1 ff41 and ,fig4 #bhf4 #cdd ,see 8,altar 7,christian70 in ,hastings' ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cch1 f4 #cde ,ecclesiastical ,history1 ,x1 #d4 #cdf ,see ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 p4 #ga4 #cdg ,see ,chapter ,,xiv1 p4 #bag1 f4 #cdh ,ramsay1 ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 #djg1 ff4 #cdi ,ibid41 #daj1 ff4 #cej ,see ,curtius1 ,philadelphia1 ,berlin1 #ahgc1 and ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 #gi1 ff4 #cea ,ramsay1 ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 #be1 #a4 #ceb ,see ,ramsay1 ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 #beg and #bgd1 ff4 #cec ,see ,barton1 ,a ,year's ,wandering in ,bible ,lands1 p4 #hb4 #ced ,see ,ramsay1 ,the ,cities and ,bishoprics of ,phrygia1 ,oxford1 #ahie1 p4 #cb1 f4 #cee ,see ,ramsay1 ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 #dbd1 ff4 #cef ,see ,f4 ,e4 ,clark1 ,the ,holy ,land of ,asia ,minor1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 p4 #ade1 f4 #ceg ,other translations of this epic have been made4 ,the most important are as follows3 ,zimmern1 in ,gunkel's ,schpfung und ,chaos1 pp4 #dja1 ff42 ,delitzsch1 ,das ,babylonische ,weltschpfungsepos 7,abhandlungen der schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 ,bd4 ,,xvii1 #ahif72 ,muss-,arnolt1 in ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,literature1 ,aldine ed41 edited by ,r4 ,f4 ,harper2 ,jensen in ,schrader's ,keilinschriftliche ,bibliothek1 ,bd4 ,,vi2 ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,seven ,tablets of ,creation2 ,dhorme1 ,choix de textes religieux assyrobabyloniens2 ,ungnad1 in ,gressman's ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder zum ,alten ,testament2 ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament4 ,a fragment of this tablet is shown in ,fig4 #bij4 #ceh ,that is1 ,sea and ,abyss1 mentioned in lines #c and #d4 ,apsu was the waters underneath the dry land and ,timat the salt sea4 #cei ,i4 e41 the spirits of earth4 #cfj ,another name for ,timat4 #cfa ,marduk's temple in ,babylonia4 #cfb ,i4 e41 the captive gods of line #bg4 #cfc ,the name which the ,babylonians gave themselves4 #cfd ,translated from ,cuneiform ,texts from ,babylonian ,tablets in the ,british ,museum1 ,part ,,xiii1 p4 #ce1 ff4 #cfe ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,,iv1 #b;d4 ed41 pl4 #cb1 lines #bh-ch4 #cff ,see ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,vol4 ,,xxvi1 pp4 #ea-ef4 #cfg ,miscellaneous ,inscriptions in the ,yale ,babylonian ,collection1 ,new ,haven1 #aiaf1 ,nos4 #df-ea4 #cfh ,translated from ,recueil de ,traveaux4 ,,xx1 #abg1 ff42 ,winckler and ,abel's ,thontafelnfund von ,el-,amarna1 ,no4 #bdj1 ,keilinschriftliche ,bibliothek1 ,,vi1 p4 xvii1 f41 and ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,xvi1 #bid1 f4 #cfi ,the lines #ad;a1 etc41 are supplied from a parallel tablet4 #cgj ,translated from ,poebel1 ,historical and ,grammatical ,texts1 ,philadelphia1 #aiad1 ,no4 #b4 ,from the beginning of each column #af to #ah lines are broken away4 #cga ,the sun-god4 #cgb ,perhaps 8palm-tree-fertilizer0 instead of hunter4 ,it is not the usual ideogram for hunter1 but one element stands for 8hand0 and the other for 8female flower of the date palm40 7,see ,barton1 ,the ,origin and ,development of ,babylonian ,writing1 ,nos4 #caa7ab7 and #cjc7f747 #cgc ,seven lines are broken away from the end of the column4 #cgd ,the subject-matter shows that several columns are entirely broken away4 ,dr4 ,poebel estimates that ,column ,,iv was originally ,column ,x4 ,if this is true1 six columns are entirely lost4 ,of ,column ,,iv1 only a few lines out of the middle remain4 #cge ,a number of lines are lost at the end of the column4 #cgf ,numbers #c1 #d1 and #e4 #cgg ,poebel reads the name ,arpi1 apparently because in another fragmentary tablet he thinks the name is ,arbum1 but both ,poebel's copy and the photograph of the tablet indicate that the reading was ,a-ri-pi4 ,the writer has endeavored to settle the matter by collating both tablets1 but both have unfortunately crumbled too much to make collation decisive4 #cgh ,sumerian words which begin with a vowel1 when they are taken over into ,hebrew1 assume a guttural at the beginning4 ,thus the ,sumerian ,a-,,tan1 8one10 which became in ,semitic ,babylonian itin1 comes into ,hebrew as #8et with an ,ayin at the beginning4 7,see ,jer4 #a3c and elsewhere47 ,ayin in ,semitic phonetics frequently changes to ,heth4 7,see ,brockelmann's ,vergleichende ,grammatik der ,semitischen ,sprachen1 ,i1 #ee1 b1 47 ,in accordance with these facts ,,an-,,ku came into ,hebrew as enok4 #cgi ,he is mentioned in ,zimmern's ,ritualtafeln fr den ,wahrsager1 ,leipzig1 #aija1 ,no4 #bd3a1 ff41 as the discoverer of the art of forecasting events by pouring oil on water4 #chj ,poebel has shown1 ,historical ,texts1 #aad1 that ,,en-,,me designates a hero or special kind of priest4 ,mutu in ,semitic means both 8man0 and 8a kind of priest02 cf4 ,muss-,arnolt1 ,assyrisch-,englisch-,deutsches ,handwrterbuch1 #fai1 #fbj1 and ,knudtzon1 ,el-,amarna ,tafeln1 ,no4 #ee1 #dc4 ,mutu was a popular element in ,semitic proper names about #bjjj ,b4 ,c41 but later ceased to be employed4 #cha ,the sign kam ,poebel failed to recognize4 ,it is ,no4 #cfd of ,barton's ,origin and ,development of ,babylonian ,writing4 ,it is sometimes employed in early texts instead of other signs which had the values ka or kam4 ,here it is used for sign ,no4 #ceg of the work referred to4 #chb ,langdon makes the suggestion 7,sumerian ,epic of ,paradise1 the ,flood1 and the ,fall of ,man1 ,philadelphia1 #aiae1 p4 #ef1 note #g7 that ,lamech is the ,sumerian ,,lum,a1 an epithet of the ,babylonian god ,ea as the patron of music4 ,a more plausible theory would be that ,lamech is a corruption of a king's name1 as suggested above1 and after it was corrupted it was confused with the name of the ,sumerian god ,,lamga1 the constructive god1 whose emblem was the sign for carpenter4 7,see ,barton1 work cited1 ,no4 #ejc47 #chc ,see ,meissner1 ,seltene assyrische ,ideogramme1 ,no4 #aaci4 #chd ,see ,barton1 work cited1 ,no4 #bge7e74 ,,in is the ,sumerian verb preformative4 #che ,see ,delitzsch1 ,sumerisches ,glossar1 p4 #bfb1 f4 #chf ,see ,barton1 work cited1 ,no4 #bbi7ah74 #chg ,jared might1 of course1 be a corruption of ,irad 7see p4 #bgj74 ,it could have arisen by the wearing away of the ,hebrew letter ,ayin4 #chh ,see his ,unity of the ,book of ,genesis1 ,new ,york1 #ahie1 ,chapter ,,ii4 #chi ,see ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,,ii1 #ei1 rev4 #i1 and ,zimmern's ,babylonischer ,gott ,tamz1 p4 #ac4 #cij ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,xv1 #bdc-bdf4 #cia ,expository ,times1 ,x1 #bec4 #cib ,see ,chapter ,,vi1 p4 #bgc4 #cic ,historical ,texts1 p4 #db4 #cid ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,v1 #dd1 #ag;b4 ,the ,semitic name of this king is also said to have been ,tabu-utul-bel4 ,he is the one whose fortunes correspond so closely to those of ,job4 7,see ,chapter ,,xx47 #cie ,see ,meissner1 ,seltene assyrische ,ideogramme1 ,no4 #fide4 #cif ,translated from ,haupt's ,das ,babylonische ,nimrodepos1 p4 #acd1 f4 #cig ,the sun4 #cih ,the spirits of heaven4 #cii ,or two accounts of the same event4 #djj ,translated from ,a4 ,poebel's ,historical and ,grammatical ,texts in the ,university of ,pennsylvania's 8,university ,museum's publications of the ,babylonian ,section10 ,vol4 ,v1 ,philadelphia1 #aiad1 ,no4 #a4 #dja ,often called ,bel4 #djb ,called ,ea1 p4 #bgc4 #djc ,a term by which the ,semites of ,babylonia designated themselves4 ,the ,sumerians shaved their heads4 #djd ,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,vi1 line #ba1 ff4 #dje ,i4 e41 the sun4 #djf ,see p4 #bgg4 #djg ,translated from ,langdon1 ,the ,sumerian ,epic of ,paradise1 the ,flood1 and the ,fall of ,man1 ,philadelphia1 #aiae1 ,plates ,i and ,,ii4 ,langdon1 as his title shows1 regards the text as a description of ,paradise1 the flood1 and the fall of man1--a view that the present writer cannot share4 ,dilmun is the name of the ,babylonian ,paradise1 but the signs rendered ,dilmun are not the ones employed to express that name4 ,for the rest the text seems to describe the coming of rains1 the beginnings of irrigation and agriculture1 and the revelation of the medicinal qualities of certain plants4 ,see ,the ,nation1 ,new ,york1 ,november #ah1 #aiae1 pp4 #eig1 ff4 7,for the tablet1 see ,fig4 #bid47 #djh ,apparently another name of ,ninshar4 #dji ,in ,sumerian the goddess ,nintulla4 #daj ,in ,sumerian the goddess ,ninkasi4 #daa ,in ,sumerian the goddess ,dazima4 #dab ,in ,sumerian1 ,nintil4 #dac ,in ,sumerian1 ,enshagme4 #dad ,see his ,sumerian ,epic of ,paradise1 the ,flood1 and the ,fall of ,man1 p4 #ef4 #dae ,translated from ,vorderasiatische ,schriftdenkmler der kniglichen ,museen zu ,berlin1 ,,vii4 ,no4 #ib4 #daf ,vorderasiatische ,schriftdenkmler der kniglichen ,museen zu ,berlin1 ,,vii1 ,no4 #aih4 #dag ,ibid41 ,,vii1 ,no4 #ig4 #dah ,since this manuscript was sent to the printer1 another ,abraham has been found in some tablets in the ,yale ,university ,collection4 #dai ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iv1 pp4 #ceb1 #cec4 7,see p4 #cfj47 #dbj ,see ,beitrge zur ,assyriologie1 ,v1 p4 #dih1 no4 #bc2 cf4 p4 #dbi1 ff4 #dba ,king1 ,letters and ,inscriptions of ,hammurabi1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #ff4 #dbb ,some scholars suppose that the writer of the account in ,genesis had before him a source in the cuneiform writing in which the 8pi0 at the end of ,hammurapi's name was spelled with a sign that could be read either 8pi0 or 8pil0 7see ,barton1 ,origin and ,development of ,babylonian ,writing1 ,leipzig1 #aiac1 ,no4 #ahe71 and that the l was attached in consequence of a misreading of this sign4 ,that1 however1 admits corruption1 though it attempts to explain its cause4 #dbc ,cuneiform ,texts1 c41 in the ,british ,museum1 ,,xxi1 #cc4 #dbd ,it was until recently not known that ,arad-,sin and ,rim-,sin were different persons1 and some thought the king might be called either ,rim-,sin or ,eri-aku 7,arioch1 ,gen4 #ad3a74 ,it is possible that ,arad-,sin may have been called ,ari-aku in ,sumerian1 but it is improbable4 ,it is now known that ,arad-,sin died #cj years before ,hammurapi came to the throne4 ,with our present knowledge it is difficult to see how ,arioch could be the name of ,rim-,sin unless ,rim-,sin be read partly as ,semitic and partly as ,sumerian and then considerably corrupted4 #dbe ,the text was published by ,pinches in the ,journal of ,transactions of the ,victoria ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,xxix1 #hb1 #hc2 cf4 emendations by ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,letters and ,inscriptions of ,hammurabi1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 li1 ff4 ,sayce has also translated them1 filling out the lacun by freely exercising the imagination1 in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,xxviii1 #bjc-bah1 #bda-bea1 and ,,xxix1 #g-ag4 #dbf ,this could be read ,kudurkumal4 #dbg ,cuneiform ,texts1 c41 in ,british ,museum1 ,,iv1 #cc1 #bb;b4 #dbh ,meissner1 ,altbabylonisches ,privatrecht1 #cf1 #be4 #dbi ,cuneiform ,texts1 ,,viii1 #be1 #bb4 #dcj ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #i1 #bf4 #dca ,cf4 ,mittheilungen der ,vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijg1 p4 #bg4 #dcb ,cuneiform ,texts1 c41 in the ,british ,museum1 ,,ii1 #bc1 #ae4 #dcc ,mittheilungen der vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijg1 p4 #bc4 #dcd ,taken from ,griffith's translation in ,petrie's ,egyptian ,tales1 second series1 ,london1 #ahie1 p4 #cf1 ff4 #dce ,the sun-god4 #dcf ,cf4 ,part ,i1 p4 #ce4 #dcg ,winckler und ,abel1 ,thontafelnfund von ,el-,amarna1 ,no4 #dj4 ,cf4 ,knudtzon1 ,die ,el-,amarna ,tafeln1 ,no4 #aeh4 #dch ,winckler und ,abel1 ,thontafelnfund von ,el-,amarna1 ,no4 #ch4 ,see also ,knudtzon1 ,die ,el-,amarna ,tafeln1 ,no4 #afd4 #dci ,translated from the ,german rendering of ,ranke in ,gressmann's ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder zum ,allen ,testament1 ,tbingen1 #aiji1 p4 #bbc4 #ddj ,see his ,sieben ,jahre der ,hungersnot1 #ahia4 #dda ,from ,brugsch's ,egypt under the ,pharaohs1 ,london1 #ahha1 ,i1 #cjc1 ff4 #ddb ,from ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,i1 p4 #bcg1 ff4 #ddc ,an ,egyptian name of the northern extension of the ,gulf of ,suez4 #ddd ,some ,egyptian trading-post in ,asia4 #dde ,an early name for the region east of the ,jordan and the ,dead ,sea4 ,it is called ,kedemah in ,gen4 #be3ae and #a ,chron4 #a3cj2 ,kedemoth in ,deut4 #b3bf1 and translated 8,east0 in ,judges #f3c1 #cc2 #g3ab2 #h3aj1 #aa4 ,in ,gen4 and ,chron4 the name is applied to a person4 #ddf ,this is an ,amorite name1 ,ammi-anshi4 ,it shows that the ,amorites were already in this region4 ,later the ,hebrews found ,sihon1 the ,amorite here2 see ,num4 #ba3ba1 ff4 and ,deut4 #a3d1 ff4 #ddg ,the ,egyptian name for the higher parts of ,palestine and ,syria4 ,the ,egyptians had no l2 they always used r instead4 ,the name is identical with the ,hebrew ,lotan1 ,gen4 #cf3bj1 of which ,lot is a shorter form4 #ddh ,perhaps the same name as ,aiah 7,ajah7 of ,gen4 #cf3bd and #a ,chron4 #a3dj4 #ddi ,from ,cuneiform ,texts1 c41 in the ,british ,museum1 ,,xiii1 #db2 cf4 also ,king1 ,chronicles of ,early ,babylonian ,kings1 ,,ii1 #hg1 ff4 #dej ,another tablet reads 8a father ,i had not40 #dea ,a name for the ,semitic peoples of ,babylonia4 #deb ,an island in the ,persian ,gulf4 #dec ,taken from ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iii1 p4 #bfd1 ff4 #ded ,that is1 the foreign nations4 #dee ,that is1 ,lybia1 which lay to the west of the ,egyptian ,delta4 #def ,that is1 the ,hittites4 #deg 8,the ,canaan0 refers to the land of ,canaan1 probably here ,phnicia4 #deh ,yenoam was a town situated at the extreme north of ,galilee1 just at the end of the valley between the two ranges of the ,lebanon mountains4 #dei ,translated from the cuneiform text in ,harper's ,code of ,hammurabi1 and ,ungnad's ,keilschrifttexte der ,gesetze ,hammurabis4 #dfj ,the mana consisted of sixty shekels4 ,tn ,english it is corrupted to mina4 #dfa ,the nature of these officials is in doubt4 ,scheil and others think the first a recruiting-officer2 ,delitzsch and ,ungnad1 a soldier4 ,the name of the second officer is literally fish-catcher1 but it is certain that here he was some kind of a fisher of men4 #dfb ,such as plowing1 or the young plants early in the season4 #dfc ,at this point five columns of the pillar are erased4 ,it is estimated that #ce sections of the laws are thus lost4 #ff is added from a fragment found at ,susa4 #dfd ,translated from ,poebel1 ,historical and ,grammatical ,texts1 ,philadelphia1 #aiad1 ,no4 #ic1 col4 ii4 #dfe ,translated from ibid41 col4 iii4 #dff ,the translation1 8be brought to the judges10 has no warrant in the ,hebrew4 #dfg ,since ,deut4 #ae3ah says that such a slave has served 8double the hire of a hireling10 ,dr4 ,johns thinks that it betrays a knowledge of the ,babylonian three-year regulation4 ,this seems1 however1 quite problematical4 #dfh ,in a marriage contract on a papyrus from the ,jewish colony at ,elephantine in ,egypt1 written in the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 it is provided that the wife may institute divorce proceedings on an equality with the husband4 ,some ,jewish women thus secured by contract that which the law did not grant them4 ,christ assumed such cases among ,palestinian women2 see ,mark #aj3ab4 #dfi ,from the ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,semiticarum1 ,i1 ,no4 #afe4 #dgj ,it is the word so translated in ,deut4 #cc3aj4 #dga ,so rendered in ,lev4 #g3ac2 #aj3ad4 ,many scholars would render it 8thank-offering40 #dgb ,compare ,exod4 #bi3ac1 #ad4 ,the ,hebrew law differed from the ,carthaginian4 #dgc ,this is the rendering of the ,revised ,version for this word4 ,the ,authorized ,version rendered it less accurately 8meat-offering40 #dgd ,each temple had a number of officials connected with it besides the priests1 such as carpenters1 gate-keepers1 slaughterers1 barbers1 ,sodomites1 and female slaves4 ,another ,phnician inscription mentions these4 #dge ,see ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,i4 #g 7#c74 #dgf ,from ,winckler und ,abel's ,thontafelnfund von ,el-,amarna1 ,no4 #gc4 ,cf4 ,knudtzon1 ,die ,el-,amarna ,tafeln1 ,no4 #hd4 #dgg ,the letter takes up assertions made by ,rib-,adda in previous letters4 #dgh ,winckler und ,abel1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #gg1 ,knudtzon1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #ajc4 #dgi ,these 8sons of ,ebed-,ashera0 are mentioned in many other letters4 #dhj ,winckler und ,abel1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #agd1 and ,knudtzon1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #bhf4 #dha ,winckler und ,abel1 ,no4 #ajb2 ,knudtzon1 #bhf4 #dhb ,winckler und ,abel1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #ajc2 ,knudtzon1 op4 cit41 ,no4 #bhg4 #dhc ,winckler und ,abel1 ,no4 #ajd2 ,knudtzon1 ,no4 #bhh4 #dhd ,winckler und ,abel1 ,no4 #aje plus ,no4 #aii2 ,knudtzon1 ,no4 #bhi4 #dhe ,winckler und ,abel1 ,no4 #ajf2 ,knudtzon1 ,no4 #bij4 #dhf ,the tablet reads ,beth-,ninib1 but scholars are agreed that it refers to ,beth-shemesh4 #dhg ,for the text cf4 ,hilprecht1 ,old ,babylonian ,inscriptions1 ,no4 #ag4 ,see also ,knudtzon1 ,el-,amarna ,tafeln1 ,no4 #ccc4 #dhh ,published by ,hrozny in ,sellin's ,tell-,taanek1 pp4 #aae and #aba4 #dhi ,in the ,babylonian script1 ,ai-ya-mi4 #dij ,see the writer's article1 8,yahweh before ,moses10 in ,studies in the ,history of ,religions ,presented to ,c4 ,h4 ,toy1 especially pp4 #ahh-aia4 #dia ,taken from ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iv1 pp4 #bgh1 ff4 #dib 8,she0 refers to ,tentamon1 the queen4 #dic ,these statements are taken from ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iv4 #dd1 #ha1 and #hb4 #did ,see ,evans1 ,scripta ,minoa1 ,oxford1 #aiji1 pp4 #bb1 ff41 #bgc1 ff4 #die ,see ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,macalister1 ,the ,philistines1 ,their ,history and ,civilization1 ,london1 #aiac1 p4 #hc1 ff4 #dif ,see ,sarzec1 ,dcouvertes en ,chalde1 p4 ix1 col4 v1 #bh1 ff4 ,see also ,thureau-,dangin1 ,les inscriptions de ,sumer et d' ,akkad1 ,paris1 #aije1 p4 #aji1 and his ,sumerischen und akkadischen ,knigsinschriften1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 p4 #fh1 f4 #dig ,ibid41 col4 vi1 #c1 ff4 #dih ,translated from ,w4 ,max ,mller's ,egyptological ,researches1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #aijf1 ,plates #ge-hg1 with a comparison of ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,,iv1 pp4 #cej-ced4 #dii ,see ,le ,gac1 ,les ,inscriptions d' ,aur-nasir-aplu ,,iii1 ,paris1 #aijh1 p4 #aaa1 line #hd1 ff42 cf4 also ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 ,new ,york1 #aiab1 p4 #bgg1 ff4 #ejj ,the text is published in ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,,iii1 #g1 #h4 ,these lines are at the bottom of p4 #h4 ,cf4 also ,craig1 ,hebraica1 ,,iii1 #bbj1 ff41 and ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 #bie1 ff4 #eja ,from ,layard's ,inscriptions in the ,cuneiform ,character from the ,assyrian ,monuments1 ,london1 #ahea1 p4 #ae4 ,cf4 ,delitzsch in ,beitrge zur ,assyriologie1 ,,vi1 #adf4 #ejb ,layard1 op4 cit41 line #hd1 ff4 #ejc ,layard1 op4 cit41 line #ij1 ff4 #ejd ,ibid41 line #ii1 ff4 #eje ,from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,,iii1 #e1 ,no4 #f4 ,the text is also published in ,delitzsch's ,assyrische ,lesestcke1 #dth ed41 p4 #ea1 ff4 #ejf ,the cliff at the mouth of the ,dog river1 a short distance north of ,beirt4 ,this portrait1 with that of ,ramses ,,ii and other kings1 may still be seen carved in the cliff4 #ejg ,from ,abel und ,winckler's ,keilschrifttexte1 ,berlin1 #ahij1 p4 #ab4 #ejh ,layard4 op4 cit41 p4 #aj1 line #ajb1 ff4 #eji ,messerschmidt1 ,keilschrifttexte aus ,assur historischen ,inhalts1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa1 ,no4 #cj1 line #ac1 ff4 ,cf4 ,langdon's translation ,expository ,times1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 #aiaa1 p4 #fi2 also ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels1 p4 #bih1 ff4 #eaj ,translated from ,smend and ,socin's ,die ,inschrift ,mesa von ,moab1 ,freiburg ,i4 ,b41 #ahhf4 ,cf4 also ,lidzbarski1 ,nordsemitische ,epigraphik1 ,weimar1 #ahih1 ,tafel ,i2 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke1 ,north ,semitic ,inscriptions1 ,oxford1 #aijc1 p4 #a1 ff42 ,davis1 in ,hebraica1 ,,vii 7#ahia71 #agh-ahb2 ,bennett1 ,the ,moabite ,stone1 ,edinburgh1 #aiaa2 and ,hastings1 ,dict4 of the ,bible1 ,,iii1 #djf1 ff4 #eaa ,in ,joshua the name appears as ,bamoth-baal4 #eab ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ce1 ,no4 #a4 ,cf4 also ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 p4 #cje1 ff41 and the references there given to other translations4 #eac ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,,iii1 #i1 ,no4 #b1 with a comparison of ,rost1 ,die ,keilschrifttexte ,tiglathpilesers ,,iii4 #ead ,translated from ,rawlinson1 ibid41 ,no4 #c4 #eae ,translated from ,layard1 ,inscriptions in the ,cuneiform ,character1 with a comparison of ,rost1 op4 cit4 #eaf ,from ,rawlinson1 op4 cit41 #aj1 ,no4 #b1 with a comparison of ,rost1 op4 cit4 #eag ,from ,rawlinson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fg4 #eah ,from ,winckler's ,keilschrifttexte ,sargons1 p4 #a1 line #aj1 f4 #eai ,translated from ,winckler4 op4 cit41 p4 #cj1 ,no4 #fd1 #bc1 f4 #ebj ,ibid41 pp4 #a1 #b1 beginning at p4 #a1 ,no4 #b1 line #aj4 #eba ,ibid41 p4 #dh1 line #h1 ff4 #ebb ,from ,winckler1 op4 cit41 p4 #ca1 lines #bg1 ff4 and #cc1 ff4 #ebc ,ibid41 p4 #cc1 line #ij1 ff4 #ebd ,from ,winckler's work previously cited1 p4 #dd4 #ebe ,from ,abel und ,winckler's ,keilschrifttexte1 p4 #ah1 col4 ii1 #cd1 ff4 #ebf ,from ,winckler's ,keilschrifttextbuch1 #ahib1 p4 #cf4 #ebg ,from ,abel und ,winckler's ,keilschrifttexte1 p4 #ag1 line #i1 ff4 #ebh ,from ,vorderasiatische ,schriftdenkmler der kniglichen ,museen zu ,berlin1 ,i1 #ge4 #ebi ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1 #ahgb1 #afh1 ff4 #ecj ,meinhold1 ,die ,jesaiaerzhlungen1 ,jes4 #cf-ci1 #ahih4 #eca ,winckler1 ,alttestamentliche ,untersuchungen1 #ahib1 pp4 #bg-ej4 #ecb ,praek1 ,sanheribs ,feldzge gegen ,juda1 #aijc4 #ecc ,in ,bibliotheca ,sacra1 ,,lxiii 7#aijf71 #egg-fcd4 #ecd ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 #aiab1 #ccb-cdj4 #ece ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land1 #aeh1 ff4 #ecf ,translated from a facsimile in the ,kautzsch-,gesenius1 ,hebraische ,grammatik1 #aijb4 #ecg ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #af1 col4 v1 line #ab1 ff4 #ech ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,v1 #b1 #di1 f4 #eci ,ibid41 #i1 #aae1 f4 #edj ,from ,breasted's ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iv1 #dih4 #eda ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,i1 #cc1 col4 ii1 line #ab1 ff4 #edb ,translated from ,pognon1 ,les inscriptions babyloniennes du ,wadi ,brissa1 ,pl4 xiii1 f41 and ,recueil de traveaux relatifs la philologie et l'archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes1 ,,xxviii1 #eg4 ,see also ,langdon1 ,neubabylonischen ,knigsinschriften1 #agd1 ff4 #edc ,translated from the ,zeitschrift fr ,assyriologie1 ,i1 #ccg1 f4 #edd ,see ,part ,i1 ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #df1 f4 #ede ,this is the reading of the margin in ,r4 ,v41 and correctly translates the original4 ,he was not walking 8in0 the palace1 but upon its flat roof1 from which he could see the great city4 #edf ,from de ,morgan's ,dlgation en ,perse1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 p4 #fj4 #edg ,from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,v1 #fh1 ,no4 #a4 #edh ,from ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,vii1 #aeg1 f4 #edi ,from ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,vii1 #afb1 f41 and ,clay1 ,light on the ,old ,testament from ,babel1 #cgd1 f4 #eej ,see ,expository ,times4 ,vol4 ,,xxvi1 #big-bii 7,april1 #aiae74 #eea ,babylonian ,texts from the ,yale ,collection1 ,no4 #ci4 #eeb ,from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,v1 #ce4 #eec ,herodotus1 ,book ,,ii1 #afa4 #eed ,josephus professes to be quoting ,manetho1 and puts the incident in the time of ,ramses4 ,perhaps ,aristeas in his letter refers to this colony1 when he speaks of ,jewish soldiers4 7,see ,kautzsch1 ,apokryphen und ,pseudepigraphen1 ,,ii1 #g47 #eee ,the documents have been published by ,sayce and ,cowley1 ,aramaic ,papyri ,discovered at ,assuan1 ,london1 #aijf1 and ,sachau4 ,aramische ,papyrus und ,ostraka aus ,elephantine1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa4 ,those translated here are ,nos4 #a1 #d1 #f1 and #aa of ,sachau's publication4 #eef ,perhaps this disfavor arose in part from the fact that1 as a papyrus not translated here shows1 two other deities were worshiped along with ,jehovah4 #eeg ,it is possible that the ,elephantine colony were taken from northern ,israel4 #eeh ,translated from the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,x1 #dgh1 f41 and ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions1 ,,iv1 #fj994 #eei ,literally1 8like opening and shutting40 #efj ,perhaps one of the antediluvian ,babylonian kings4 7,see ,part ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,iv47 ,the ,sumerian form of his name was ,laluralim and in ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #dd1 #ag;b1 is glossed as ,zugagib or 8scorpion40 ,zugagib is one of the early kings of ,babylonia1 who is said to have ruled #hdj years4 #efa ,translated from ,s4 ,langdon's ,historical and ,religious ,texts from the ,temple ,library of ,nippur1 ,munich1 #aiad1 ,no4 #af4 #efb ,translated from ,haupt's ,akkadische und sumerische ,keilschrifttexte1 #aaf1 ff41 with comparison of ,zimmern's ,babylonische ,busspsalmen1 #cc1 f4 #efc ,translated from ,haupt's ,akkadische und ,sumerische ,keilschrifttexte1 p4 #abb1 f4 #efd ,translated from ,cuneiform ,texts from ,babylonian ,tablets1 c41 in the ,british ,museum1 ,part ,,xv1 pp4 #af1 #ag4 #efe ,translated from ,cuneiform ,texts from ,babylonian ,tablets1 c4 in the ,british ,museum1 ,,xv1 #aj4 #eff ,an epithet of the inhabitants of ,babylonia4 #efg ,taken from ,breasted's ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #cae1 f4 #efh ,a fabulous mountain beyond the western horizon1 over which the sun was believed to pass at evening4 #efi ,taken from ,breasted's ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #cbd1 f4 #egj ,there is a pun on the word ,re2 it is the same as 8all40 ,such puns are frequent in the ,hebrew of the ,old ,testament prophets4 #ega ,compare ,psa4 #ajd3bd4 #egb ,ikhnaton is the name adopted by ,amenophis ,,iv in connection with his reform4 ,it means 8,aton's man40 ,his old name meant 8,amon is gracious0 and had heathen associations4 ,on the sentiment of lines #abj1 #aba1 compare ,matt4 #aa3bg4 #egc ,see ,weigall1 ,the ,treasury of ,ancient ,egypt1 ,london1 #aiaa1 p4 #bjf4 #egd ,the first twenty are culled from a tablet in the ,british ,museum1 published by ,langdon in the ,american ,journal of ,semitic ,languages1 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 #bag-bdc1 under the title 8,babylonian ,proverbs40 ,for convenience those quoted are numbered consecutively without reference to the parts omitted4 #ege ,translated from ,delitzsch's ,assyrische ,lesestcke1 #dth ed41 p4 #aah1 f4 #egf ,translated from ,meissner's ,beitrge zum ,altbabylonischen ,privatrecht1 p4 #ajh4 #egg ,taken from ,macmillan's translation1 ,beitrge zur ,assyriologie1 ,v1 #eeg1 ff4 #egh ,the sun-god1 the god of justice4 #egi ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #bca1 f4 ,breasted's references to the sections of the original text are here omitted4 #ehj ,the ,gilgamesh ,epic is an early ,babylonian poem in twelve tablets or cantos4 ,it is a collection of early legends and myths4 ,the ,babylonian account of the flood1 translated in ,chapter ,,vi 7,part ,,ii71 forms the eleventh canto of it4 #eha ,translated from the ,mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft1 #aijb1 ,heft #a1 p4 #h4 #ehb ,these are translated from the ,german rendering in ,w4 ,max ,mller's ,liebpoesie der alten gypter1 ,leipzig1 #ahii4 #ehc ,from ,mller1 p4 #ae4 #ehd ,ibid41 p4 #af4 #ehe ,from ,mller1 ibid41 p4 #ag4 #ehf ,perhaps the name of a ,nileometer station in the vicinity of ,memphis4 #ehg ,mller1 ibid41 p4 #bb4 #ehh ,mller1 ibid41 p4 #bb4 #ehi ,mller1 ibid41 p4 #bc4 #eij ,married couples are usually so represented in ,egyptian pictures4 #eia ,the ,egyptian is here followed1 rather than the ,german4 #eib ,mller1 p4 #bd4 #eic ,ibid41 p4 #bg4 ,it describes a walk in a garden4 #eid ,the garden again4 #eie ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,,iii1 #cb1 #af1 f4 #eif ,i4 e41 the thing thou hast prayed for4 #eig ,translated from the ,german of ,vogelsang und ,gardiner1 ,klagen des ,bauern1 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 #eih ,the original contains a list of plants1 stones1 birds1 etc41 the modern equivalents of which are not known4 #eii ,see ,gardiner in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,,xxxv1 #bfi4 #fjj ,taken from ,a4 ,h4 ,gardiner's ,admonitions of an ,egyptian ,sage1 ,leipzig1 #aiji1 pp4 #ai and #ci1 f41 pp4 #fi and #gh4 #fja ,translated from ,rawlinson's ,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,western ,asia1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ca4 #fjb ,the spirits of earth4 #fjc ,translated from ,cuneiform ,texts from ,babylonian ,tablets1 c41 in the ,british ,museum1 ,part ,,xv1 #ah4 #fjd ,these sayings are translated from ,grenfell and ,hunt's ,sayings of ,our ,lord1 #ahig1 with a comparison of ,lock and ,sanday's ,two ,lectures on the ,sayings of ,jesus ,recently ,discovered at ,oxyrhynchus1 #ahig4 #fje ,translated from ,grenfell and ,hunt's ,new ,sayings of ,jesus and ,fragment of a ,lost ,gospel from ,oxyrhynchus1 #aijd4 #fjf ,compare ,john #ba3bd1 #be4 #fjg ,translated from ,viereck's publication of the text in ,philologus1 ,vol4 ,,lii1 #bcd1 f4 #fjh ,these assessments1 then1 occurred in the following years3 #agd-e2 #afj-a2 #adf-g2 #acb-c2 #aah-i2 #ajd-e2 #ij-a2 #gf-g2 #fb-c2 #dh-i2 #cd-e2 #bj-a2 #f-g2 #i-h ,b4 ,c4 #fji ,from ,hermes1 ,,xxviii1 #ahic1 p4 #bcc4 #faj ,translated from ,grenfell and ,hunt's ,oxyrhynchus ,papyri1 ,,ii1 #ahih1 p4 #bad4 ,kenyon1 ,greek ,papyri in the ,british ,museum1 ,,ii1 #ai1 thinks that this cannot refer to a census because the term by which it is described is different1 but1 as ,grenfell and ,hunt remark1 the simpler term in the papyri earlier than the year #fa ,a4 ,d41 indicates that we are nearer the beginning of the institution of the census4 #faa ,ibid41 p4 #bje2 cf4 p4 #bjf4 #fab ,ibid41 p4 #bhb4 #fac ,translated from ,kenyon and ,bell's ,greek ,papyri in the ,british ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #aijg1 p4 #abe4 #fad ,translated from the ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum1 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #cfac4 #fae ,translated after ,ramsay1 ,expositor1 series #h4 ,vol4 ,,iv1 #aiab1 p4 #dja4 ,for ,ramsay's opinions1 see the article of which the inscription forms a part4 #faf ,translated from ,burton's publication in the ,american ,journal of ,theology1 ,,ii1 #fjj4 #fag ,translated from ibid41 p4 #fjd4 #fah ,taken from ,deissmann's ,st4 ,paul1 p4 #bfa1 f4 #fai ,pausanias1 i1 #a3d1 and v4 #ad3h4 #fbj ,philostratus1 ,vita ,apollonii1 vi1 #c4 #fba ,translated from ,deissmann's ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #bdf1 #bdg4 #fbb ,see ,deissmann's ,st4 ,paul1 p4 #bdh1 ff4 #fbc ,dio ,cassius1 lvii1 #ad1 #e4 #fbd ,the most reliable chronologies of the life of ,christ now place his crucifixion not later than #cj ,a4 ,d4 #fbe ,the original is in ,berlin and the publication is not accessible to the writer4 ,the above translation is taken from that of ,j4 ,rendel ,harris in the ,expositor1 #eth series1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #afd4 #fbf ,translated by ,j4 ,rendel ,harris1 ibid41 p4 #aff4 #fbg #b ,cor4 #aa3cb4 #fbh ,translated from the ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,semiticarum1 ,pars ,,ii1 ,tom4 ,i1 ,fasc4 ii1 ,no4 #bji4 #fbi ,ibid41 ,pars ,,ii1 ,tom4 ,i1 ,fasc4 ii4 ,no4 #aif4 #fcj ,taken from ,breasted1 ,ancient ,records1 ,egypt1 ,,iii1 p4 #g4 #fca ,taken from ,breasted1 ibid41 p4 #bgc4 #fcb ,see ,s4 ,schiffer1 ,keilschriftliche ,spuren in der zweiten ,hlfte des #hten ,jahrhunderts von den ,assyrern nach ,mesopotamien deportierten ,samarier1 ,berlin1 #aijg4 ,the text of the ,berlin tablets was published by ,ungnad in ,vorderasiatische ,schriftdenkmler1 ,i1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 ,nos4 #hd-id1 #aja1 #ajd4 ,those in the ,british ,museum1 by ,johns1 in ,assyrian ,deeds and ,documents1 ,i1 ,cambridge1 #ahih1 ,nos4 #bb1 #fi1 #gc1 #gd1 #ih1 #aec1 #aed1 #agj1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bde1 #cab4 #fcc ,vorderasiatische ,schriftdenkmler1 ,i1 ,no4 #hh4 #ae4 #fcd ,see ,rogers1 ,cuneiform ,parallels to the ,old ,testament1 ,new ,york1 #aiab1 p4 #bbf4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4 ,superscripted characters are indicated by superscript4