,,consumers  ,,and                      
,,wage-,,earners                        
,,consumers                             
,,and ,,wage-,,earners                  
,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,buying            
,,cheap                                 
,,by                           ,j4      
,,elliot ,,ross1 ,ph4,d4                
,,new ,,york                            
,,the ,,devin-,,adair ,,company         
#aiab                                   
,copyright1 #aiab1 by                   
,,the ,,devin-,,adair ,,company         
,,note      ,j4 ,,elliot ,,ross is a    
member of an old and prominent ,southern
 family4 ,he  has long been an ardent   
student of economics1 of sociology1 and 
of the  enslaved condition of the       
,wage-,earner1--and who1 save the idle  
rich  and the social drone1 is not a    
wage-earner8 ,dr4 ,ross is a graduate   
of ,george ,washington ,university4 ,the
 ,catholic ,university of ,america      
conferred upon him the degree of ,doctor
 of ,philosophy for this1 his  excellent

 work in behalf of the ,consumer1 the   
,wage-,earner1 and the  ,oppressed4     
,,table ,,of ,,contents        ,,chapter
 ,i      ,,the ,,point ,,at ,,issue     
#c      ,,chapter ,,ii                  
,,obligations ,,of ,,the ,,consuming    
,,class             #h      ,,chapter   
,,iii      ,,what ,,is ,a ,,just        
,,employer8                      #ch    
,,chapter ,,iv      ,,theory ,,of       
,,industrial ,,organization             
#dg      ,,chapter ,v      ,,industrial 
,,conditions3 ,,wages                   
#ff      ,,chapter ,,vi                 
,,industrial ,,conditions3 ,,health     
#gg      ,,chapter ,,vii                
,,industrial ,,conditions3 ,,morals     
#ie      ,,chapter ,,viii      ,,what   
,,should ,,the ,,individual ,,consumer  
,,do8      #ajg        ,,appendix       
#acc        ,,bibliography              
#ace                                    
,,chapter ,,one                         
,,the ,,point ,,at ,,issue      ,have   
you ever stood in a country store and   

from the superior heights of  mature    
wisdom watched a chubby-faced1          
bright-eyed boy invest a penny in  a    
prize-bag8 ,to you it is simply a paper 
enclosing a few nuts1 a piece  of candy1
 and a variable quantity in the shape of
 a tin flag1 an  imitation ring1 etc4   
,but to the child there is an excitement
 in getting  one knows not what4 ,all   
the gambling instincts of the race that 
squanders thousands upon the turf1 all  
the love of adventure that  peopled our 
continent1 are summed up in that one    
act4 ,the child has1  perhaps1          
contentedly endured the routine of the  
farm for weeks in the  anticipation of  
this one moment of blissful joy when his
 anxious fingers  nervously reveal the  
delight or the disappointment4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,years have brought wisdom 7or is it    
disillusionment87 and imitation  rings  
no longer have the same importance in   
our eyes4 ,no matter how  wistfully we  
may look back1 those days will never    

return4 ,yet prize-bags  may once again 
loom large in our intellectual horizon1 
though with a  difference4 ,this time we
 look beyond the rosy-cheeked1 healthy  
country  lad1 bred amid the beauties of 
,god's fields and nourished with        
unadulterated home products1 to the     
pale1 nervous1 over-worked girls who    
spend their days filling these bags4 ,in
 an ill-lighted1 ill-ventilated  room1  
in a great dusty1 dirty city they work  
feverishly for ten hours at  the rate of
 four cents a hundred bags4 ,they stand 
at a table with boxes  before them1 from
 which they take peanuts1 candy and     
prizes with quick  automatic motion4    
,they turn down the corners of each bag1
 and string the  bags when full in long 
bulky curls of seventy-two4#a           
,speeding to the utmost they cannot make
 enough to live on4 ,a room in a  cheap 
boarding-house1 morally and physically  
dirty1 insufficient food1  and no chance
 for legitimate pleasures--this is the  
prize-bag life holds  for them4 ,what   

wonder if the temptation to supplement  
these wages in the  way always possible 
for women prove too strong8 ,who is to  
blame8    ,is the little chap hundreds  
of miles away in the country1 happily   
unconscious of their existence1 in any  
way responsible8 ,this is the  question 
with which we are going to busy         
ourselves4    ,our little boy and       
over-worked girl are not1 probably1     
typical ,consumers  and ,producers4     
,still they represent large numbers of  
the economic world1  and the solidarity 
of industry is such that one could not  
exist without  the other4 ,in a way1 the
 country lad is a shadow of ,president  
,taft  pressing a button to start the   
machinery of a world's fair4 ,the child1
  with wonderful effect on others1      
furnishes a portion of the nation's     
industrial mechanism4 ,in the           
satisfaction of his own desires1 he is  
all  unconscious of this1 and           
unconscious1 too of the responsibilities
 of  power that modern social workers   

would thrust upon him4    ,it was once1 
indeed1 the object of reformers to      
excite a sense of wrong  in the         
oppressed4 ,the fashion found expression
 in ,thomas ,paine's ,rights  of ,man4  
,now their purpose is also to arouse a  
sense of obligation in  the powerful1   
and the change of front is indicated by 
,mazzini's ,duties  of ,man4 ,one duty  
after another has been forced upon the  
race's  conscience1 and to-day the      
attempt is made to compel the final1 and
  some say the most powerful1 element of
 the industrial world1--the             
,consumer1--to shoulder his share of    
responsibility4    ,briefly1 the line of
 argument is this3 ,laborers have a     
right to a fair  wage for a fair day's  
work4 ,if employers fail in their duty  
of meeting  this right1 then the        
obligation neglected by the employers   
must be  assumed by those who also      
benefit by the laborers' work1--by the  
,consuming ,class4 ,at first1 the       
obligation is made abstract and         

hypothetical in this way because of     
difficulties in establishing the        
concrete content of the workman's right 
to a fair wage1 and just what  line of  
conduct is incumbent upon the individual
 ,consumer confronted by  this          
situation4 ,persons who readily agree   
that the laborer has a right  to a fair 
wage1 and that if this right is violated
 the ,consumer ought to  do something1  
will wrangle unendingly as to just what 
is a fair wage and  just what a         
,consumer ought to do4    ,after fixing 
this general obligation upon the        
,consuming ,class1 however1  the other  
question as to whether the employers are
 actually neglecting  their duties      
towards their employees1 and what the   
individual ,consumer  can and should do1
 will be considered4    ,the fixing of  
an abstract1 hypothetical obligation for
 a whole class1  rather than a concrete 
duty for a particular individual1 is not
 useless4  ,if it is proved1 that1      
provided employers neglect their duties 

and the  ,consuming ,class can do       
anything to fulfill them1 there is an   
obligation  upon the ,consuming ,class  
to carry out these duties--if this is   
established1 it is only necessary when a
 particular case presents itself  to    
ask3 ,have the men through whose labor  
this ,consumer is benefiting  been      
unjustly treated by their employers1 and
 can this ,consumer1 without  a         
disproportionately grave inconvenience1 
do anything to help them8    ,unless    
both questions are answered in the      
affirmative1 this particular  individual
 ,consumer can have no duty of          
fulfilling the abstract  obligation4    
,this is much easier than working out   
the principle anew for  each case4 ,it  
is the difference between blowing       
bottles and molding  them4              
,,footnotes3    #a ,women and the       
,trades1 ,the ,pittsburgh ,surrey1 by   
,elizabeth  ,beardsley ,butler3 ,n4 ,y41
 #aiji3 p4 #dg4                         
,,chapter ,,two                         

,,obligations ,,of ,,the ,,consuming    
,,class      ,practically all are agreed
 on the fundamental point that laborers 
have a  right to a fair wage for a fair 
day's work4 ,leo ,,xiii has said1 that  
though contracts between laborers and   
employers are free1 nevertheless1  there
 is a dictate of natural justice        
underlying them more imperious  than any
 bargain between man and man1 that      
remuneration ought to be  sufficient to 
support a frugal and well-behaved       
wage-earner4#b ,later  in the same      
encyclical1 he indicates that this wage 
should be large  enough to enable a     
workman to maintain himself1 his wife   
and his  children in reasonable comfort 
7p4 #bcg71 and allow a margin for saving
  against a rainy day4    ,the present  
,pope1 ,pius ,x1 has quoted these words 
of his predecessor and  agreed that     
workmen have a strict right in justice  
to a fair wage1 time  to fulfill their  
religious duties1 and freedom from work 
unsuited to  their age1 strength1 or    

sex4#c ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,kelleher1 one of 
the most  recent and respected writers  
on the question1 goes even further4 ,the
  right to work1 he says1 or some other 
right that will secure an  opportunity  
of providing for reasonable living to   
the less fortunate  members of the      
social body who do not happen to be     
possessed of  property1 is an essential 
condition of any equitable economic     
system4#d    ,cardinal ,capecelatro has 
said that each one has a right to raise 
himself towards the infinite1 a right to
 the intellectual nourishment of        
religion1 and1 therefore1 a right to the
 time necessary for the worship  of     
,god1 a right to repose1 a right to     
honest enjoyment1 a right to love  in   
marriage1 and the life of the home4 ,in 
woman ,christianity recognizes  with her
 function of child-bearing in ,christian
 marriage1 a right to the  time for the 
nurture of her children4 ,in children it
 recognizes a right  to the supreme     
benefit of health1 given them by ,god1  

but endangered by  overmuch work4 ,in   
young girls it recognizes a right to    
such moderation  in their duties as may 
assure them health and strength4 ,in    
all1  finally1 it acknowledges the      
immortal soul1 with its rights to       
education1 to salvation1 to the time    
that these things need4#e    ,now when  
,pope ,leo and the other authorities    
quoted used the words  right1 just1     
duty1 what did they mean8 ,these words  
are often  employed vaguely and         
carelessly1 but we may be sure that here
 they were  taken in a strict and       
well-defined sense1 such as usually     
found among  ,catholic ethicists4    ,a 
right1 as it is thus ordinarily defined1
 is a legitimate power of  doing or     
acquiring something for one's own       
good4#f    ,the word power is not taken 
here in the sense of physical ability4  
,it  means that moral potency or        
capacity without which nothing can be   
acquired or recovered3 for a person may 
have a right to do what he has  not the 

physical power to perform4 ,legitimate  
means granted by or  conformable to law3
 hence we have not a right to do        
everything for which  we have the       
physical power4    ,once we get this    
idea of right firmly fixed in our minds1
 the  concepts of justice1 injustice1   
and duty easily follow4 ,for  justice1  
in a definition of ,ulpian that has been
 accepted all down the  ages since1 is  
simply the constant and perpetual will  
of giving to each  one his right4#g ,and
 injustice1 naturally1 is merely a      
voluntary  violation of another's right4
    ,a duty is simply the obverse of a  
right1 it is the obligation             
corresponding to a right4 ,or as        
,bouquillon put it1 it is something     
reasonably due from one person to       
another because of a necessary          
connection between the end to be        
attained and the means used4#h ,as the  
end varies between justice and charity1 
so does the duty4 ,in the one  case1 our
 object is to fulfill the precept1 love 

thy neighbor as  thyself2 in the other1 
to give to each man what he has a right 
to have4    ,the fundamental concept of 
a right may be looked at from four      
points  of view3 7a7 the subject1 or who
 has the right2 7b7 the matter1 or      
content of the right2 7c7 the title or  
reason for the right2 7d7 and  finally1 
the term1 or who has to respect the     
right4    ,asking these questions about 
the right at present under              
consideration1  we find that the subject
 of the right is each individual who    
contributes to the production or        
distribution of the articles purchased  
by the ,consumer4 ,the content of this  
right we have already given in the      
words of ,leo ,,xiii and others4        
,briefly1 it may be summarized as the   
right  to a decent living4    ,on what  
grounds have employees these rights8 ,by
 the very fact that they  are men2 that 
is1 intelligent beings destined for a   
supernatural end4  ,therefore these     
rights are connatural1 as belonging to  

them by their  nature2 inalienable1     
because they cannot be renounced2       
perfect1  because so strict that the    
duties corresponding to them are matters
 of  commutative justice4    ,and who   
has the duties corresponding to the     
workman's right to a decent  living8    
,primarily1 the direct employer4 ,he has
 a strict duty of justice  in the       
matter4 ,if he fulfill it1 then no one  
else is bound4 ,but in the  case before 
us1 we assume that the direct employer  
has failed to do his  strict duty of    
commutative justice to his employees4   
,it makes no  difference whether the    
direct employer be formally guilty or   
not4 ,he may  be unable to perform his  
duty1 or he may wilfully neglect it4    
,that does  not matter4 ,de facto1 he   
does neglect it4 ,what then is the duty 
of  the ,consuming ,class8    ,we think 
that the ,consuming ,class is bound to  
assume the obligations  that the direct 
employers have neglected4 ,and we are   
going to support  this contention by    

four arguments4 ,these arguments are3   
,i4 ,the devolution of duty argument3   
the direct employer has failed to       
fulfill his duty1 and this duty         
thereupon devolves upon the indirect    
employer1 the ,consuming ,class4        
,,ii4 ,the value argument3 ideally1 the 
buyer of an article is bound to  pay its
 value1 and1 as a general rule1 if      
proper economy has been  exercised in   
its production1 this must be sufficient 
to pay a living  wage to the men engaged
 in producing and distributing that     
article4    ,,iii4 ,the co-operation    
argument3 the direct employer is guilty 
of an  injustice in which the ,consuming
 ,class is bound not to co-operate4     
,,iv4 ,the social argument3 it is for   
the common good that the average        
employee should be paid a living wage4  
,and since the ,consuming ,class is     
merely the body politic1 from one point 
of view1 it is bound to  sacrifice the  
advantage of cheap buying for the sake  
of the rounded  advantage of the whole4 

,i4 ,we have explained briefly to what  
every employee has a right--that is  to 
say1 what every employer must give his  
workmen1 or commit injustice4  ,we have 
assumed1 further1 that the employee     
often does not get what he  has a right 
to have4    ,now1 this is not always the
 employer's fault4 ,often an employer   
would be  glad to raise wages1 to       
improve sanitary conditions1 to shorten 
hours1  but the stress of competition   
prevents him4    ,but the employer being
 unable or unwilling to pay a proper    
wage1 etc41  what becomes of the        
employee's right8 ,does it cease8 ,has  
he no claim  upon anyone else8    ,those
 who would fix an obligation on the     
,consuming ,class say that the          
employee's right does not cease4 ,he has
 a claim1 they contend1 upon all  who in
 any way benefit by his labor1 the      
strength of the claim depending  upon   
the closeness of the relationship1 the  
importance of the benefit  derived1 and 
the injustice suffered4    ,first of    

all1 they point out1 there is the       
rent-taker4 ,but for the labor  of these
 men 7assumed to be underpaid1 etc471   
there would be no return  out of which  
to pay rent4 ,for the mere fact of      
ownership1 which in  itself may not     
stand for any addition to the ground's  
productive  capacity1 these men are     
allowed to take a part at least of what 
would be  necessary to raise the        
condition of the men producing the      
wealth to a  just standard4 ,therefore1 
because the rent-taker seems to receive 
the  most gratuitous benefit from the   
employee1 the duty of the employer      
devolves first upon him4 ,if the        
employer fail1 wilfully or not1 to      
fulfill his duties to his men1 then they
 become binding upon the  rent-taker4   
,should he1 too1 fail1 the laborer still
 has a claim4 ,there is another  very   
important sharer in distribution--the   
interest-taker4 ,it is true  that the   
product is the joint result of labor and
 capital4 ,but when  there is the case  

of anonymous1 impersonal capital        
receiving interest1  and living1        
breathing1 human machines being         
under-fed and unprotected1  then        
humanity's claims supersede those of    
capital4#i ,the inalienable  rights of  
the laborer1 which ,cardinal            
,capecelatro has so excellently         
summarized1 replace the alienable rights
 of the individual capitalists  based   
upon the mere possession of property4   
,the interest-taker is bound  to give   
even the whole of his share to maintain 
a just standard of  wages1 etc4 ,and    
this principle is admitted in civil law 
by making wages  a first lien upon the  
product and exempting wages from legal  
action4#aj    ,but if the               
interest-taker1 also1 be unwilling to   
fulfill his duties1  there is still an  
economic element upon which the laborer 
has a  claim--the ,consuming ,class4    
,production on a huge scale1 the        
interposition of wholesalers and        
middlemen of all sorts1 shopping by     

mail or telephone1 should not disguise  
the fact that the ,consuming ,class  are
 really employers4 ,it is only in an    
indirect way1 it is true1 but  still a  
real way for all that4 ,if the direct   
employer1 the rent-and  interest-taker  
refuse or are unable to perform their   
duties1 then  7leaving aside the        
legislature for the present7 these      
devolve upon the  ,consuming ,class in  
so far as they benefit by the laborer's 
work4    ,this argument for the         
obligation of the ,consuming ,class is  
based upon  the devolution of duties4   
,here it may appear new and strange1    
because  applied to a new field1 but it 
is admitted elsewhere as beyond         
contradiction4 ,if1 for instance1       
parents will not or cannot support      
their children1 then the grandparents   
have just as real a duty towards  them  
as if they were their own immediate     
children4 ,and if they1 too1  neglect   
this duty1 then it devolves upon        
collateral relatives until  finally it  

falls on mere neighbors4    ,likewise1  
the ,consuming ,class1 it is claimed1 if
 those whose duty is  prior to theirs   
refuse to perform it1 must fulfill the  
duty that has  devolved upon them4 ,the 
rent-and interest-taker may be unjust to
 the  employee and to them1 but that is 
not a valid excuse4    ,the same        
principle1 though arrived at by a       
different process of  reasoning1        
underlies the dictum1 coming to be more 
and more recognized  by legislators and 
economists1 that the costs of production
 should be  borne by the ,consumers4    
,that is to say1 that the risks of      
professional  hazard and accidents due  
to the carelessness of fellow-servants  
have  been transferred from the employee
 to the employer4 ,naturally then1 the  
employer compensates himself out of the 
price4    ,,ii4 ,this question of the   
duty of the ,consuming ,class towards   
the men who  make or sell the goods they
 buy1 may be viewed from another angle  
than  that of the devolution of duties  

or the obligation of indirect           
employers4 ,leaving out of consideration
 the idea of indirect employer1  it is  
further contended that the ,consuming   
,class1 simply as purchasers1  may be   
guilty of injustice in another sense4   
,for what are the duties of the buyer8  
,to pay the true value of an            
article4#aa ,and what determines the    
true value of an article8 ,not          
necessarily the price4    ,this may be  
fixed by law1 as is the case with bread 
in many large  cities4 ,a loaf of a     
certain weight must be sold for five    
cents4 ,or we  may have the natural or  
market price1 which is determined by    
common  consent4 ,this is nothing more  
than the price resulting from the       
interaction of supply and demand4       
,but although ordinarily1 justice is    
fulfilled if a person pay either the    
legal or market price1 neither is really
 based on justice4 ,the price  fixed by 
law will come closer to being a just    
price4 ,in a self-governing  community1 

it probably will not do a great         
injustice to either party for  any      
length of time4 ,in this country its    
field is so limited1 that it may  be    
disregarded in the present discussion4  
,the market price1 however1 makes no    
pretense of being determined by         
justice4 ,it is the shrewdness of one   
man pitted against the shrewdness  of   
another1 or even the greed of one       
against the other's need4 ,one wants  to
 sell for as high a price while the     
other wants to buy for as low a  price  
as he can4 ,when there are numerous     
buyers and numerous sellers1  all       
knowing their business pretty well1 the 
result will be a close  approximation to
 what would be a just price1 if the cost
 to the  entrepreneur producing the     
commodities or the person managing the  
distributing agency were all that should
 be taken into consideration4 ,in  a    
society where the actual producer sells 
directly to the ,consumer1  where there 
is no production on an enormous scale   

employing hundreds and  thousands of    
hands who have no voice in fixing the   
price of the product1  then the price   
reached by the higgling of the market is
 likely to be  just4    ,under the      
medieval system of craftsmen and one or 
two journeymen or  apprentices who      
formed part of the household it was     
possible 7by lack of  competition7 to   
maintain the rate of reward by limiting 
the supply4 ,no  serious attempt was    
made to push trade or develop business1 
but only to  carry on each trade        
according to the habitual rate of       
reward4 ,according  to this policy1 the 
conditions of the producer were allowed 
to be the  first consideration1 and the 
consumer had to pay a price at which    
these  conditions could be              
maintained4#ab    ,but conditions of    
business have changed immensely since   
the ,middle ,ages4  ,the ,industrial    
,revolution has brought big scale       
production1 driving out  of existence   
the small producer ministering directly 

and immediately to  the wants of the    
community4 ,department stores have      
supplied the same  principle in the     
distributing end of industry1 and very  
largely replaced  the small retailer4   
,the employees of the big producer and  
distributor1  the ones most concerned1  
have no voice in fixing the price of the
  article made or distributed by their  
labor4 ,as a consequence competition    
will often depress the price below the  
point where it will yield a  living wage
 to them4 ,not their rights determine   
this point1 but what  crude irresistible
 hunger will force them to accept4 ,many
 times it is  only a difference between 
starving rapidly or slowly4 ,but        
competition is  inexorable4    ,it is   
true1 that sometimes the actual         
producers or distributors may not  be   
getting living wages because the        
entrepreneurs or the rent-or the        
interest-takers are absorbing too much4 
,but ordinarily it is probable  that    
stress of competition between           

capitalists and between managers will   
keep their shares within fairly moderate
 bounds4 ,capital competes with  capital
 for a share in production just as one  
firm competes with another  to secure a 
market for its product4 ,hence it may be
 reasonably presumed  in any given case1
 when nothing is known to the contrary1 
that where the  laborers are            
insufficiently remunerated1 it is       
because the price  obtained for their   
product will not cover just wages4 ,nor 
are  appearances always a safe guide4 ,a
 man who owns and manages a factory     
7thus drawing by himself alone wages of 
management1 rent1 and interest7  may    
seem able easily to afford higher wages4
 ,yet to divide his whole  income among 
all his employees might give only an    
inappreciable increase  to each4        
,therefore1 it would seem that the      
principle of the market price being     
just1 cannot be applied strictly to-day4
 ,on the contrary1 many persons  are    
claiming that the market price fixed by 

competition is usually  unjust4 ,a      
better principle1 a more fundamental    
principle1 one that  really strikes its 
roots down into justice itself1 would be
 to say that  a just price is one that  
will yield a just return to all         
concerned--the  actual laborers who     
produce the commodities1 the clerks in  
the stores  that distribute them1 wages 
of management to the entrepreneurs      
concerned1 and interest on the capital  
invested4    ,certainly if this be not  
done1 the equality between the value of 
the  article and the price is not       
preserved4 ,and as ,ballerini says1 when
 the  equality is not preserved1 so that
 the seller sells for more than the     
highest price or the buyer buys for less
 than the lowest 444 injustice  is      
committed4#ac    ,but even though the   
price asked were sufficient to pay the  
employees  just wages and the           
entrepreneur simply refused to do it1   
would the  ,consuming ,class be         
justified in buying the article8 ,it is 

contended that  they would not4 ,for one
 of the duties of the seller is to give 
a just  title4 ,and it would seem clear 
that one who hires a person to make a   
certain article1 playing upon his       
necessity to avoid paying what his      
labor is worth1 has not acquired a just 
title to the object produced4  ,there is
 something in that article for which he 
has not paid4 ,human  flesh and blood   
that has not been compensated for have  
gone into its  making4 ,the seller not  
having a good title himself1 cannot     
transfer such  to another4 ,persons who 
buy from him do not1 therefore1 secure a
 just  title1 and hence1 it is argued1  
commit a grave injustice by buying such 
an article4#ad    ,,iii4 ,the third     
argument adduced in favor of an         
obligation on the part of  the          
,consuming ,class is1 that the purchase 
of articles made under unjust           
conditions is co-operation in the       
injustice4 ,it makes no difference      
whether or not the employers are        

formally guilty of injustice4 ,they may 
be forced by the competitive system1 as 
many contend1 to underpay their         
workmen4 ,nevertheless1 material        
injustice at least is committed1 and the
  ,consuming ,class have no right to    
co-operate formally in what may be      
merely material injustice for another4  
,yet the ,consuming ,class by buying    
goods made under unjust conditions does 
co-operate1 it is alleged1 in  three    
ways3 7,a7 as the recipient of the      
result of the injustice2 7,b7 by        
furnishing the means for the act2 7,c7  
and by counselling the action4  ,for a  
co-operator is one who at the same time 
with another is the  cause of the       
injury1 whether secondary or equally    
principal1 whether  positive or         
negative4 ,for there is not the same    
manner of co-operation  in all cases1   
but this is common to all1 that one     
person should concur  with another to   
commit an injury4#ae    7,a7 ,one of the
 ways of positively co-operating with an

 injustice1 is by  receiving the results
 of the injustice4 ,thus a thief will   
not steal a  bulky piece of silver      
unless he has a fence to receive it1 and
 the fence  becomes guilty of the theft 
by receiving the article4 ,so a business
 man  will not manufacture an article   
and thus commit an injustice against the
  laborers whom he underpays1 unless he 
is reasonably sure some one will        
receive this article after it is made4  
,the persons who receive it1 then1  or  
the purchasers1 it is argued1 are in the
 position of the thief's  fence3 ,they  
are receiving an article that was       
obtained by injustice2 and  it matters  
not whether the article was stolen      
outright or the injustice  committed in 
a more gentlemanly way4 ,nor does the   
fact of the  manufacturer committing the
 injustice to increase his profits1     
rather  than 7as has been shown         
elsewhere7 to meet a demand for         
cheapness on the  part of the ,consuming
 ,class1 alter the situation4 ,for a    

thief steals  for his own enrichment1   
not for the advantage of the recipient  
of the  stolen goods4#af    7,b7 ,one   
can co-operate in an injustice not only 
by receiving the  results1 but by       
furnishing the means for committing the 
injustice1 and  it is contended that the
 ,consuming ,class co-operate also in   
this way4  ,nor is this simply a        
different name for the co-operation just
  considered4 ,for in the previous case1
 the ,consuming ,class co-operated  with
 an act already performed in            
anticipation of this co-operation4      
,whereas in the phase now under         
discussion they co-operate with an act  
to  be done in the future4 ,a concrete  
example will make this clear4 ,mr4 ---- 
invests #ej1jjj in the shoe business4   
,after paying for his plant1 raw        
material1 and the wages of his men until
 he has produced marketable  articles1  
he has practically nothing left4 ,his   
continuance in business  depends upon   
his selling these articles to gain money

 for current  expenses4 ,the purchasers 
of these goods co-operate 7by receiving 
the  articles7 in the injustice under   
which they are assumed to have been     
manufactured1 and also1 by furnishing   
the necessary means1 in the  injustice  
he will commit by manufacturing more    
under the same  conditions4    7,c7 ,nor
 is the ,consuming ,class's co-operation
 yet exhausted4 ,for they  may be looked
 upon as truly counselling1 voting for  
this injustice on  the part of the      
manufacturer4 ,the ,consumers do not go 
personally to the  manufacturer and urge
 him to produce a certain article at a  
certain  price1 nor do they vote as     
specifically as an alderman for a       
contract  with a factory1 but their     
action amounts to practically the same  
thing4  ,they go from one store to      
another seeking the cheapest price1 and 
the  manufacturer knows this4 ,to meet  
this demand 7a very real1 though to     
some extent impersonal7 demand for      
cheapness1 the manufacturer commits  the

 injustice of underpaying his employees4
 ,it makes no difference  whether you   
call this demand1 or counsel1 or voting1
 it is the  real cause of the injustice1
 and hence the ,consuming ,class are    
guilty of  co-operation4#ag    ,it makes
 no difference if the ,consumer knows   
that the injustice will  continue       
whether he purchase or not4#ah ,in      
purchasing he is guilty of  a moral     
wrong4 ,for as a man who buys a ticket  
for an obscene show1  co-operates in    
this obscenity even though his money be 
not necessary for  its production1 so do
 they participate in the manufacturer's 
injustice4#ai ,or1 to give ,ballerini's 
illustration1 if ten men suffice  to    
launch a ship and an eleventh helps1    
certainly he is truly said to be        
helpful4#bj ,in the same way1 ,consumers
 who buy an article that was made  under
 unjust conditions co-operate in this   
injustice even though it  would have    
taken place without the money received  
from their purchase4    ,for these      

reasons1 it is contended1 the ,consuming
 ,class1 in buying goods  made under    
unjust terms1 co-operate in this        
injustice by receiving the  goods1 by   
furnishing the means for committing the 
injustice1 and by  urging such          
production by practical financial       
support4    ,,iv4 ,we now come to the   
social argument1 that is especially     
popular  to-day1 though it is by no     
means new4 ,it was familiar to the      
,scholastics1 and it was pithily        
formulated by ,suarez as1 ,public is to 
be preferred to private good4#ba        
,aquinas expresses it more at length3   
,for any individual in respect to what  
he is and has is related to the         
multitude1 just as a part is related to 
the whole3 whence nature  sometimes     
injures a part to save the whole4#bb    
,elsewhere1 ,suarez  confers upon the   
civil law the power of binding in       
conscience because  this power is       
necessary for the good government of the
 republic4#bc    ,various extremely     

important and far-reaching rights and   
obligations are  fixed by this argument4
 ,it is lawful1 for instance1 for the   
state to  kill criminals if they are    
dangerous and injurious to the          
community4#bd ,ballerini says it is     
lawful to kill a criminal in so far  as 
it is ordained for the safety of the    
whole society4#be ,but only the         
properly appointed persons have this    
right1 because greater evils would      
befall the state if each one were the   
judge in his own case4 7,l4 c47  ,and   
not only may the state directly kill a  
guilty person1 it may also1  when       
necessary for the common good indirectly
 kill an innocent  person4#bf ,wholesale
 organized slaughter1 called war1 is    
right and  proper when the good of the  
state requires it4#bg ,whereas sedition 
is  wrong1 because it violates the good 
of public quiet and civil  concord4#bh  
,again1 while suicide is unlawful1      
because1 for one reason1 a man is part  
of the community and whoever kills      

himself does an injury to the           
community1 a man may yet lawfully expose
 himself to certain death for  the good 
of the community4 ,similarly1 though it 
is illicit to cut off  a member of the  
body1 because it is a part of the whole 
and cannot be  removed without injuring 
the whole 7,aquinas1 l4 c41 ,q4 #fe1 ,a4
 #a71  ,liguori approves of at least one
 form of serious mutilation for the good
  of the community4#bi    ,private      
property is justified because it tends  
to the peace of the  state4#cj ,lehmkuhl
 determines the gravity of an injustice 
not only from  the injury done to the   
individual1 but also1 from the injury   
and danger  which the public good and   
security would suffer1 if it were       
allowed with  impunity4#ca    ,social   
necessity1 then1 is widely recognized as
 a valid proof for a  right or duty4    
,the binding force of civil law1 the    
wickedness of suicide  and              
self-mutilation1 the morality of        
executing guilty and innocent1 the      

righteousness of private property1 are  
all settled by this norm4  ,therefore1  
since the social necessity of the       
average workman getting a  living wage  
is beyond contradiction1 the ,consuming 
,class1 who benefit  especially by the  
labor of these workmen1 are especially  
bound to see  that these rights are     
obtained4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,we have now      
considered the arguments advanced to    
prove that justice  binds the ,consuming
 ,class to see to it that goods are made
 under fair  terms4 ,these arguments may
 be summarized as follows3    ,i4       
,because as indirect employers the      
,consuming ,class are bound to  maintain
 just conditions for those whom they    
indirectly employ4    ,,ii4 ,because as 
buyers the ,consuming ,class are first  
bound to pay the  full value of the     
article1 which must include sufficient  
to give the  persons employed in its    
manufacture and distribution a living   
wage1  etc42 and secondly1 because the  

,consuming ,class are bound not to buy  
an  article to which the seller has not 
a just title1 the seller of an  article 
made under unjust conditions not having 
a just title since there  is work in the
 object for which he has not paid4      
,,iii4 ,because the ,consuming ,class   
would co-operate in an injustice in     
three ways3 7,a7 by receiving the goods 
made under unjust conditions2 7,b7  by  
furnishing the means for committing the 
injustice2 7,c7 by urging such          
production by this practical financial  
support4    ,,iv4 ,because the          
,consuming ,class are bound to seek the 
social good1 and  that demands the      
payment of fair wages4                  
,,ii    ,so far we have considered only 
the arguments for an obligation of      
justice on the part of the ,consuming   
,class4 ,but may there not also be a    
duty of charity8    ,certain general    
considerations relating to this second  
of the two  greatest commandments1 ,thou
 shalt love thy neighbor as thyself1    

must  be referred to before answering   
that question4    ,the precept of       
charity requires us to love our neighbor
 as ourselves4  ,and by the term        
neighbor we mean everyone4 ,no religion1
 race1 color1  or previous condition of 
servitude removes a man from the        
category of  our neighbor4 ,a           
,christian's love must be all embracing4
 ,t4 ,h4 ,green has  well said that     
progress in civilization has been an    
enlargement of the  meaning of neighbor 
and neighborliness4 ,the meaning of     
these terms1 once  confined to one's    
relatives1 then extended to one's city1 
tribe1 nation1  has now widened out     
until it embraces the world4    ,but    
while we must look upon everyone as our 
neighbor1 and love him as  ourselves1   
this does not mean that we must love    
each one in the same  degree4 ,we must  
love him as ourselves1 but not          
necessarily as much as  ourselves4 ,we  
must have a universal internal love by  
which we wish our  neighbor well in his 

spiritual1 corporal1 and material goods 
and succor  him in necessity4    ,yet   
the amount of good we wish him1 and the 
strength of the obligation  to effect   
it1 vary both with the special          
relationship existing between  us and   
our mutual conditions4 ,by mutual       
conditions1 is meant his state  of      
indigency and ours of prosperity4       
,almost innumerable grades of  necessity
 may be distinguished1 but for present  
purposes four will be  sufficient3 7#a7 
extreme necessity1 in which a person is 
in danger of  death1 or will be very    
shortly2 7#b7 quasi-extreme necessity1  
in which  one is in danger of falling   
into extreme necessity or a grave evil1 
either perpetual or lasting for a long  
time2 7#c7 grave necessity1 where  one  
suffers a serious evil1 but not for so  
long a period1 or not so  great2 7#d7   
common necessity1 when one experiences  
some inconvenience1  but not grievous   
inconvenience4    ,the obligation       
varies1 too1 with the conditions        

existing on our part4  ,for if the duty 
of succoring our neighbor from our own  
goods is to bind1  we must be in        
possession of superfluous goods4        
,otherwise our own need  would have a   
prior claim4 ,material possessions may  
be superfluous to  life1 that is1 just  
more than enough to keep body and soul  
together2  superfluous to our state in  
life1 or goods without which we should  
have  to sink to a lower social plane2  
or superfluous to the decency of our    
state1 those over and above what are    
required even for the proper  support of
 our family in accordance with the usual
 custom of those in  the same position1 
the education and starting of our       
children in life1  the giving of        
charity1 gifts1 entertainment of guests1
 etc4 ,this last  class of goods may be 
called absolutely superfluous4    ,now1 
it would not seem rigoristic 7especially
 in these days when the  right to any   
private property is seriously           
questioned7 to say1 that a  person in   

extreme or quasi-extreme necessity is to
 be succored from  goods that are       
necessary to the decent support of our  
station in life4  ,one merely in grave  
or common necessity need be helped only 
out of  absolutely superfluous goods4   
,this would certainly be the minimum    
that  any ,christian would require4     
,but this obligation also varies        
directly according to the closeness of  
our relationship with the person in     
want4 ,a connection of blood1 whether   
direct as between father and son1 or    
collateral as between uncle and  nephew1
 evidently produces stronger reciprocal 
obligations of charity  than simple     
kinship through ,adam4 ,so1 too1 there  
is a stronger bond  between those who   
have assumed artificial relationships1  
such as a  pastor to his people1 or     
those of the same religious faith1 or   
those in  the same social class1 or     
those who have acquired1 whether        
voluntarily  or not1 associational or   
economic ties4 ,a captain1 for example1 

has  greater obligations of charity     
towards a man in his own company than   
towards one in another company1 towards 
one in his regiment than towards  one in
 another regiment1 and so on4           
,certainly not least strong among these 
artificial relationships of  society is 
that of employer and employee4 ,there   
was a time in social  organization1 when
 the permanent subjection of ,gurth to  
,cedric brought  out more clearly the   
mutual obligations4 ,the ties of the    
relationship  seemed stronger because   
more lasting4 ,fortunately or           
unfortunately1 the  right of free       
contract has abolished this permanency4 
,men wander from  one employer to       
another1 from one city to another1 from 
one country to  another4 ,but no        
transitoriness of employment1 no        
mobility of labor1  should obscure the  
fact that while the relationship of     
employer and  employee lasts1 there also
 exist special and stronger obligations 
of  charity between the two4    ,not as 

strong1 probably1 as between master and 
serf1 yet nevertheless  too strong to be
 entirely fulfilled by the simple       
payment of the current  wage4 ,as       
,carlyle says1 ,never on this ,earth was
 the relation of man to  man long       
carried on by ,cash-payment alone4444   
,cash-payment never was1 or  could      
except for a few years be1 the          
union-bond of man to man4 ,cash  never  
yet paid one man fully his deserts to   
another3 nor could it nor  can it1 now  
or henceforth to the end of the         
world4444 ,in brief1 we shall  have to  
dismiss the ,cash-,gospel rigorously    
into its own place3 we shall  have to   
know1 on the threshold1 that either     
there is some infinitely  deeper        
,gospel1 subsidiary1 explanatory1 and   
daily and hourly corrective  to the     
,cash one3 or else that the ,cash one   
itself and all others are  fast         
travelling4#cb    ,that infinitely      
deeper ,gospel is the teaching of       
,christian charity4 ,this  tells us that

 there is another bond between employer 
and employee than a  mere cash-nexus4   
,the needy employee has a claim upon his
 employer in  preference to others1 and 
the employer must discharge it before   
dispensing charity to those in no       
greater necessity who stand in no such  
relation to him4 ,charity begins at     
home1 and the employee is closer home   
than one related simply by the tie of a 
common nature4    ,of course1 the       
relation between the direct employer and
 his workmen is  more obvious than that 
between the ,consuming ,class 7which we 
have called  the indirect employer7 and 
these same men4 ,but the relation of the
  latter is none the less real and      
important for being obscure4            
,ordinarily it will probably be less    
close than that of the direct  employer1
 but circumstances are conceivable in   
which the situation would  be reversed4 
,and certainly it would seem that the   
benefit which the laboring class        
confers upon the ,consuming ,class is   

such that there is some special  claim  
arising upon their charity4 ,not labor  
in itself but consumption is  the object
 of work1 and this terminus of all      
activity1 the ,consuming  ,class1 would 
seem to be bound both in justice and    
charity to see that  their own          
satisfaction is not attained at the cost
 of the comfort and  happiness of those 
who minister to it4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,we may
 conclude1 then1 that if the direct     
employers fail to fulfill  their duties 
towards their employees1 that the       
,consuming ,class1 as being  a          
beneficiary of the work done1 are bound 
to assume these duties4 ,as  yet1       
however1 the obligation is abstract as  
being fixed upon a class and  not some  
particular individual about to purchase 
an article2 and it is  hypothetical as  
simply assuming that employers neglect  
their duties4    ,the further question  
now presents itself3 ,do employers      
actually neglect  their duties1 and what

 can and should the ,consumer do8       
,,footnotes3    #b ,great ,encyclicals  
of ,leo ,,xiii1 ,on the ,condition of   
,labor1 p4 #bcf3  ,n4 ,y41 #aijc4    #c 
,pope ,pius ,x on ,social ,reform1      
,london1 #aiaj3 p4 #h4    #d ,kelleher1 
,private ,ownership1 ,dublin1 #aiaa3 p4 
#agd2 cf4 also p4  #agi4 ,italics added4
    #e ,christ1 the ,church1 and ,man1  
p4 #gd3 ,st ,louis1 #aiji4    #f ,gury3 
,compendium theologi moralis1 n4 #egi3  
,de just4 et jure3  ,ratisbon1 #ahgd4   
#g ,see ,appendix1 #a4    #h ,see       
,appendix1 #b4    #i ,cf4 ,john ,a4     
,ryan1 ,the ,church and                 
,interest-,taking1 p4 #ca3 ,st4  ,louis1
 #aiaj4    #aj ,cf4 ,bull4 ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4
 ,lab41 ,jan4 #a1 #aiaa1 pp4 #hgf1 #hgh1
 #hha4    #aa ,cf4 ,st4 ,thomas1 ,summa1
 #b;a #b;ae1 ,q4 #gg1 ,a4 #a-b2 ,st4    
,alphonsus1 ,lib4  ,,iv1 ,tr4 ,v1 n4    
#gic4    #ab ,w4 ,cunningham1           
,christianity and ,social ,questions1 p4
 #aad3 ,london1  #aiaj4    #ac ,see     
,appendix1 #c4    #ad ,cf4 ,liguori1 l4 

c4    #ae ,see ,appendix1 #d4    #af    
,cf4 ,de ,lugo1 ,,xix1 ,,ii1 #d-e4      
#ag ,cf4 ,de ,lugo1 ,l4 c41 ,,xvii1     
,,ii1 n4 #cg4    #ah ,l4 c41 n4 #af1 n4 
#ai4    #ai ,liguori1 ,lib4 ,,iv1 ,tr4  
,,iv1 n4 #dbg4    #bj ,ballerini1 op4   
cit41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fif-g4    #ba    
,see ,appendix1 #e4    #bb ,see         
,appendix1 #f4    #bc ,see ,appendix1   
#g4    #bd ,aquinas1 l4 c41 ,q4#fd1     
,a4#b4    #be ,l4 c41 ,pt4 ,i1 ,tr4     
,,vi1 ,sec4 ,v1 n4 #di4    #bf ,liguori1
 l4 c41 ,lib4 ,,iv1 ,tr4 ,,iv1 n4 #cic2 
,ballerini1 l4 c1 n4 #fb4    #bg        
,liguori1 l4 c41 n4 #djb4    #bh        
,ballerini1 l4 c41 n4 #abf4    #bi      
,liguori1 l4 c41 n4 #cgd4    #cj        
,aquinas1 l4 c41 ,q4#ff1 ,a4#b2 ,noldin1
 l4 c41 ,de ,sept4 ,praec41 n4 #cfh1    
ed4 #h;a4    #ca ,see ,appendix1 #h4    
#cb ,past and ,present1 ,bk4 ,,iii1 ,ch4
 ,x4                                    
,,chapter ,,three                       
,,what ,,is ,a ,,just ,,employer8       
,the terms fair wages1 reasonable       

comfort1 living wage have often  been   
used in the previous discussion4 ,no    
attempt was made to make them  more     
definite because it was not necessary at
 the time4 ,employers were  simply      
assumed to violate the standard         
represented by these expressions4  ,but 
if we are going to decide de facto that 
employers are actually  neglecting their
 duties1 we must manifestly have some   
norm by which to  judge them4    ,what  
is this standard8    ,at first sight1   
this may seem easy to define4 ,but its  
apparent ease is  an illusion4 ,even the
 simplest and least questionable        
standard1 that of  bare subsistence 7and
 to simplify it still further1 restrict 
the  consideration entirely to the      
question of food71 is extremely elusive4
  ,of course a man needs some clothing1 
a certain amount of fresh air1 and  a   
shelter from the weather4 ,but we shall 
have a sufficiently  complicated problem
 without introducing these factors4     
,how much food1 then1 does a man need to

 repair the daily waste and keep  him in
 good physical condition8 ,this depends 
to some extent upon the  character of   
the work he does4 ,a stevedore needs    
more food than a clerk4  ,it will       
depend1 too1 upon the climate4 ,those in
 northern latitudes  require more food1 
and usually of a more expensive kind1   
than those  living in the tropics1 and  
they ought to have more in winter than  
in  summer4 ,again1 racial              
characteristics must be taken into      
account4 ,a  ,chinese coolie may get fat
 on fish and rice1 or an ,italian may do
 well  on cheese and macaroni1 while an 
,anglo-,saxon would starve on such a    
diet4    ,in addition to all these      
points1 there is an individuality about 
the  digestive organs that must be      
weighed4 ,with our exact chemical       
science  it looks simple enough to      
calculate how much muscle and blood and 
nervous force are lost in doing a       
certain amount of work1 and just how    
much food would be required in a given  

time to make good that loss4 ,this      
would be easy if we could buy muscle and
 nervous force done up in neat  packages
 and simply apply them where needed just
 as we apply a coat of  paint to a      
weather-beaten house4 ,but1             
unfortunately1 we cannot do this4  ,the 
brawn and nerve must be bought in       
entirely different forms1 broken  up by 
certain interior organs1 and gradually  
sent by a long and  complicated         
assimilating process to the point       
requiring them4 ,and what  becomes of   
the subsistence standard if the organs  
of some people refuse  to assimilate    
what those of others heartily relish8 or
 if at different  periods1 and for no   
apparent reason1 the same man can get no
 strength or  satisfaction from what he 
formerly craved8    ,but if we cannot   
tell what mere subsistence requires are 
we not getting  even vaguer when we add 
an indefinite more to it8 ,when people  
talk of  frugal comfort1 decent         
livelihood1 living wage1 etc41 what do  

they  mean8 ,do these terms mean to-day 
just what they did fifty years ago or   
will mean half a century hence8    ,a   
little reflection will show us that they
 do not4 ,they are largely  relative4   
,when the gentry scorned to read and    
write1 farm hands could  hardly consider
 it an injustice not to have instruction
 in the three ,rs2  and when everybody  
went barefoot1 it would have been       
foolish to riot  for shoes4 ,as means of
 production are perfected1 as we get    
away from the  danger of starvation1    
always threatening primitive nomadic    
peoples1 the  standard of living of the 
more fortunate rises1 as does that      
standard  which they are willing to     
allow the lower classes1 and which the  
lower  classes demand4    ,as a         
consequence1 what is looked upon in one 
age as just and generous1  may in       
another be considered thoroughly unfair4
 ,concrete standards of  justice vary   
with the time and are soon superseded by
 others4 ,this is an  important fact1   

and it must be mastered before one can  
use the current  standard with honesty  
or intelligence4 ,the principle of      
justice upon  which the changing        
concrete standard is based1 the moral   
right of each  individual as a human    
being to the fullest development of all 
his  faculties consistent with such     
rights in others1 is doubtless          
unchanging4 ,but it is conditioned by   
the stage of production that  society   
has reached1 upon how much there is to  
go round2 and the wage  necessary to    
secure this standard is conditioned by  
governmental  supplement such as free   
education1 insurance1 etc4 ,it would    
seem  impossible1 therefore1 to         
determine the exact wage that a         
particular  individual is entitled to   
until we can determine the total net    
product  and this individual's          
contribution to it as compared with     
other  individuals4 ,we are not aware   
that this has been done4    ,the attempt
 has been made1 however1 to establish   

both the absolute  minimum standard and 
this relative standard4 ,in the         
sixteenth volume of  the report of the  
,united ,states ,bureau of ,labor on    
,woman and ,child  ,wage-,earners in the
 ,united ,states1 the former is fixed at
 #djj4jj4 ,but  have we an absolute     
minimum below which wages could not fall
 without  endangering existence when a  
girl of ten and a boy of six are allowed
  more money for clothing than their    
mother8    ,upon the relative living    
wage1 whole volumes have been written4  
,but they  would seem either to deal    
with the concrete expression of the     
standard  of a particular class1 or1 if 
they do attempt to establish the right  
of  individuals here and now to a       
particular remuneration in money1 they  
do  not quite prove their contention4   
,but there are people who believe that  
the right of the laborer to a  specific 
wage 7and hence the employer's          
obligation of paying it7 can be         
demonstrated4 ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,ryan1     

whose treatise on ,the ,living ,wage has
  attracted marked attention1 has made  
such a claim for an estimate of  #fjj4jj
 as a family living wage in cities of   
five hundred thousand or  over in the   
,united ,states4#cc    ,this was in     
#aijf and the cost of living has        
advanced considerably since  then4 ,dr4 
,ryan would probably1 therefore1 not    
consider too high the  estimate of the  
,bureau of ,labor 7l4 c47 of #fjj4jj for
 cotton mill  operatives in the ,south4 
,under this standard1 the father        
supports the  family1 the mother stays  
at home looking after the house1 and the
  children go to school4 ,it includes   
insurance4    ,now for the sake of      
argument let us assume that laborers    
have a strict  right in justice to a    
standard represented by #fjj4jj a year  
in a  ,southern mill town4 ,i must      
reluctantly admit that #fjj4jj cannot be
  proved conclusively to be the sum to  
which all laborers have a right4  ,but  
for the time being we shall take it for 

granted1 and from the  standpoint of    
this assumption judge the justice or    
injustice of  industrial conditions4    
,i have said that ,i do not think that  
this obligation can be proved           
conclusively1 that is1 as conclusively  
as a proposition in geometry4  ,but ,i  
do think that it is capable of the same 
proof that we have for  many other moral
 truths that pass unquestioned4 ,we must
 beware of  applying to new propositions
 that corrosive logic which1 if         
impartially  exercised on old and new   
alike1 would destroy the very basis of  
morality4    ,this principle1 that moral
 truths cannot be absolutely            
demonstrated1 is  generally admitted and
 many concrete examples could be given  
from  prominent ethicists3 thus ,de     
,lugo in speaking of so fundamental a   
question as the unlawfulness of suicide1
 does not hesitate to say3 ,the  whole  
difficulty consists in assigning a      
reason for this truth3 for  though its  
suicide's turpitude is immediately      

apparent1 it is not easy  to find the   
foundation of this judgment3 whence 7a  
thing that happens  in many other       
questions7 the conclusion is more       
certain than the  reason adduced by     
various authors for its proof4#cd       
,again1 ,ballerini1 in treating of the  
unlawfulness of one of the sins         
mentioned by ,st4 ,paul in the sixth    
chapter of his first ,epistle to the    
,corinthians1 remarks that it is most   
difficult to assign a reason for  this4 
,then1 after rejecting all the reasons  
usually brought forward1 he  adds3 ,it  
must be admitted that there are some    
practical truths  necessary for the     
right association of men with each      
other1 which men  feel and perceive by a
 sort of rational instinct1 whose       
reason1  nevertheless 7at least a       
demonstrative one71 when these same men 
seek it  analytically1 they find it hard
 to discover4 ,it would seem that       
nature1  or the ,author of our nature1  
wished to supply the defect of the      

exercise  of reason by an instinct or   
rational sense of this kind3 444 ,among 
the  truths of this nature1 the one of  
which we treat happens to be  found4#ce 
,if unquestioned authorities like       
,ballerini and ,de ,lugo admit their    
inability to prove such fundamental and 
important obligations 7it will  be noted
 that ,de ,lugo says there are many     
such7 as those of  refraining from the  
above mentioned sins1 it need not       
surprise us to  find that the           
obligations of ,consumers cannot be     
proved apodictically4  ,it would be     
foolish1 therefore1 to claim absolutely 
to demonstrate this  obligation4 ,all   
that can be done is to adduce the same  
proofs that  ,aquinas1 ,suarez1 and     
other master minds have used to fix     
other duties1  and show that they have  
equal force in the present discussion4  
,it is  simply the familiar argument a  
pari1 and the claim would seem          
reasonable1 that any objectors meeting  
these arguments on purely  rational     

grounds1 must show that they do not     
equally apply to this  obligation1 or   
else deny their force as proof for the  
other duties4    ,,footnotes3    #cc    
,others have approximated this estimate1
 though possibly without  giving it     
exactly the same ethical implications as
 ,dr4 ,ryan4 ,thus  ,chapin1 ,standard  
of ,living in ,new ,york ,city1 ,n4 ,y41
 p4 #bde1 claims  #hjj4jj as the minimum
 for ,new ,york ,city4 ,miss ,butler1   
,women and the  ,trades1 ,n4 ,y41 p4    
#cdf1 says #g4jj a week for a single    
woman in  ,pittsburgh4 ,the ,united     
,states ,bureau of ,labor in the third  
volume of its  report on ,woman and     
,child ,wage-,earners in the ,united    
,states1 p4 #efj1  declares for #b4jj a 
week per capita4    #cd ,see ,appendix1 
#i4    #ce ,see ,appendix1 #aj4         
,,chapter ,,four                        
,,theory ,,of ,,industrial              
,,organization      ,modern industrial  
conditions may be considered either a   
priori or a  posteriori1 either         

theoretically or de facto4 ,we may      
examine the  principles of economic     
organization1 and conclude that they    
will or will  not lead to low wages2 or 
we can go to the facts themselves1 and  
decide  from an examination of actual   
conditions whether or not wages are low1
  etc41 always remembering the standard 
we have adopted4    ,beginning with the 
first method1 we may1 speaking roughly  
and with  sufficient allowance for      
monopolies1 say that we live under a    
competitive system4 ,men compete with   
others for their share in the  product  
of industry4 ,goods are not put in one  
general fund and  distributed according 
to each one's needs4 ,nor are they      
awarded to suit  the whim of some ruler4
 ,undoubtedly our present industrial    
organization  is individualistic rather 
than socialistic1 and its chief         
characteristic  is probably a rivalry   
between its various members4 ,some      
assume that  competition is universal   
and unrestrained4 ,then they draw       

conclusions as  to the present system   
from what would happen if such          
competition  prevailed4 ,others forget  
that competition is as universal as it  
really  is1 and that it exists not only 
between laborer and laborer to get the  
job1 but between capitalist and         
capitalist to secure the laborer4    ,to
 subscribe to either of these errors    
will vitiate any conclusions as  to     
social policy4 ,for if unrestrained     
competition have certain evil           
tendencies1 we cannot therefore assume  
that the present restricted form  will  
have such results4 ,and the fact that   
competition exists between  capitalists 
as well as between laborers has very    
wide-reaching  implications4 ,it means  
no less than that competition may raise 
wages as  well as lower them4    ,the   
average person is apt to look upon an   
object as drawn only to the  earth by   
gravitation4 ,he forgets that the same  
force is also pulling at  it in an      
opposite direction4 ,and in the same way

 the average person is  likely to forget
 that competition is continually pulling
 wages both up  and down4 ,if we imagine
 some object suspended between the earth
 and the  moon1 and being constantly    
drawn towards each according to some    
power  inherent in them which varies    
from time to time so that the object now
  approaches one and now the other1 we  
shall have a rough illustration of  how 
competition affects wages4    ,we can   
look upon the amount of wages as the    
object of attraction between            
competition on the part of laborers and 
competition on the part of  capitalists4
 ,according as competition among        
capitalists is keen as  compared with   
that among laborers1 wages will rise1   
and vice versa2 just  as when1 in our   
illustration1 gravity was strong in the 
moon1 the object  rose towards it1 and  
when it was stronger in the earth the   
object fell  towards that body4 ,but in 
both cases the result is due to the same
  force1 though acting from different   

points4 ,it would be an error1          
therefore1 to attribute all the evils of
 our present system to  competition1 and
 all the good to some other agency4     
,competition has good  results as well  
as bad1 and this two-fold influence must
 always be  remembered4    ,doubtless   
absolutely unrestrained competition     
between laborers with no  corresponding 
rivalry between capitalists would       
depress wages4 ,but such  competition   
does not exist4 ,competition is not     
absolutely unrestricted4  ,it is limited
 by organization among the workmen1 by  
legislation1 by  natural ability1 and in
 various other ways4 ,as a result1 the  
effects are  limited in various ways4   
,if a bricklayers' union is strong      
enough  practically to eliminate        
competition between this class of       
laborers  while capitalists compete with
 each other to obtain their services1   
then  the working out of competition has
 been modified in such a way as to  have
 an upward effect upon wages4           

,competition1 then1 is not necessarily  
bad4 ,in many cases1 competition is  not
 only the life of trade1 but the builder
 of character as well4 ,as a  whole1    
those who have to earn their living amid
 keen business rivalry  are more        
energetic1 quickwitted and resourceful  
than those government  employees who    
live in a somewhat listless1            
non-competitive atmosphere4  ,and the   
superiority of ,western to ,eastern     
civilization and character may  be due  
to the fact that there competition has  
been too much limited by  caste systems1
 repressive legislation1 and unchanging 
custom4    ,under the restricted form of
 competition existing to-day1 many      
employers  pay living wages and treat   
their employees fairly in every way4    
,indeed1  the entrepreneur sometimes    
finds it to his advantage to give his   
employees even more than strict justice 
would demand4 ,when competition  for    
workmen is keen between employers1      
certain inducements may be  necessary to

 prevent experienced men leaving and to 
avoid the consequent  loss of breaking  
in new laborers4    ,at any rate we find
 that many employers do all that can    
reasonably be  expected4 ,for instance1 
in contrast with the conditions of the  
garment  trade prevailing in many       
places1 the ,pittsburgh ,survey found   
two  factories in that city to be run on
 excellent lines4 ,they were            
well-lighted by large windows1 the      
ventilation was good1 the walls newly   
whitewashed1 and the floors swept and   
scrubbed4 ,in one1 indeed1 the  upper   
windows were opened at intervals1 and   
the work-rooms had windows  on three    
sides4 7,butler1 l4 c41 p4 #aji47 ,nine 
others were good because  they were     
swept daily and exhibited a manifest    
standard as to a  work-room 7l4 c41 p4  
#ajg74 ,one firm1 too1 was found to     
allow its  employees to share in its    
progress4 ,thus when new buttonhole     
machines  were introduced a few years   
ago the girls could turn out a third    

more  work than formerly1 but they were 
paid at the same piece-rate 7l4 c41  pp4
 #aai-abj74    ,the variation between   
individual stores as regards wages will 
be shown  from the following table1     
adapted from page #aba of the first     
volume of  the ,pittsburgh ,survey3     
----------------------------------------
-------                                 
,weekly wages        ,article      ,no4 
of   -------------- ,average            
manufactured  operators   ,min4   ,max4 
----------------------------------------
------    ,shirts           #ae       #f
    #ab      #g    ,shirts            #a
       #aj     #aj       ,shirts        
#c        #h     #aj       #h    ,shirts
           #bd        #f      #h        
#h    ,shirts and                       
,overalls        #ci        #d     #ab  
#h    ,overalls         #bf        #f   
#aj       #h    ,overalls         #ge   
#f     #aj4e     #g    ,shirts          
#e        #g     #aa       ,shirts      
#ah        #g     #ad      #aj          

,shirts           #ea        #e     #ae 
#h    ,shirts            #g        #f4e 
#ab       #h    ,pants           #aad   
#d     #ad       #i    ,pants           
#cg        #c     #ab       #h    ,pants
             #f        #c      #i       
#g    ,pants           #bhd        #d   
#i       #g    ,pants            #aj    
#d      #i       #h                     
----------------------------------------
------    ,such differences are         
reproduced in all the needle trades4#cf 
,similar distinctions are also found in 
laundries4 ,a very few have  properly   
constructed plants1 with wash-rooms on  
the upper floors and  some arrangement  
for carrying off the inevitable steam   
7,butler1 l4 c41  p4 #agj74 ,in one1    
however1 there are exhaust pipes over   
the mangles1 and  fans in the walls1 and
 there are windows along the side4 ,the 
feeders are  seated while handling small
 work1 and the folders have comfortable 
benches 7p4 #agd74 ,wages1 too1 are     
considerably higher here than in  other 

laundries4 ,four laundries in           
,pittsburgh have adopted an improved    
cuff-ironing machine which saves the    
operator from the extreme physical      
exertion of the old style 7p4 #ahb74 ,a 
,north ,side laundry has set aside a    
bright sunny section of the building for
 a lunch-room2 there are  attractive    
dishes1 tables covered with white       
cloths1 comfortable chairs4  ,the noon  
interval is an hour and a half 7p4      
#cab74    ,turning to mercantile houses 
we also find a great contrast4 ,some    
provide  only half a dozen chairs for   
five hundred girls1 while others do not 
allow chairs to be used at all4#cg ,many
 stores have a working week at          
,christmas of from seventy-two to       
eighty-four hours without extra pay     
7,butler1 l4 c41 p4 #cjc74 ,some        
employers are generally reputed among   
salesgirls to assume that their women   
employees secure financial backing  from
 outside relationships1 and knowingly   
pay wages that are  supplementary rather

 than wages large enough to cover the   
cost of a  girl's support4 7,l4 c41 p4  
#cjf47 ,indeed1 some employers frankly  
admit  this and advertise for           
sales-women1 preferably those living at 
home4#ch    ,compare with these stores  
the one that exemplifies a higher       
standard at  each point under           
discussion2 in the comprehensiveness of 
its ventilating  system2 in its         
observance of the spirit of the law in  
providing an  average of four seats to a
 counter for its employees2 in the fact 
that  it has no ,christmas overtime2 444
 and finally in its wage standard4444   
,seven hundred girls are paid #g4jj2 444
 one hundred girls are paid #h4jj  to   
#aj4jj1 and sometimes #ae4jj in the case
 of a head of stock4  7,butler1 l4 c41  
p4 #cjd47    ,some glass factories      
furnish shutters over the leer-mouths to
 protect  employees from heat2#ci       
prevent radiation from the melting tanks
 by  various devices 7l4 c41 p4 #gi72   
provide blue glass screens at the glory 

holes 7ib472 artificially cool the shops
 in summer 7l4 c41 p4 #hj72 work        
shorter hours 7p4 #ih72 eliminate       
night-work 7p4 #ajd72 provide hoods and 
exhausts for the etching baths 7p4 #cbb7
 and the sand blasts 7p4 #cag74 ,in  one
 woolen factory the milligrams of dust  
in a cubic centimeter of air  were      
reduced from twenty to seven by the     
installation of an  exhauster4#dj       
,the fact1 too1 that organizations such 
as trade unions and consumers'  leagues 
can allow the use of their labels to    
certify that an article has  been made  
under fair conditions1 is a striking    
confirmation of the fact  that some     
manufacturers do maintain proper        
factories and treat their  employees    
justly4    ,nevertheless1 competition   
has a black as well as a silver lining4 
,it is  self-evident that for any length
 of time laborers cannot get more than  
the total product of their work coupled 
with the necessary capital4 ,nor  will  
it be denied that capitalists will      

always be in a position to  appropriate 
a part of this joint product1 how much  
depending very  largely upon the        
relative supply of capital and labor and
 the keenness  of competition between   
them4 ,the share that is left and which 
goes to  the laborers is not divided    
equally4 ,it is distributed             
competitively4  ,those who are          
economically strongest seize what they  
can1 and the  weaklings must be content 
with the remainder4 ,frequently this is 
not  sufficient to afford them the      
standard we are considering1 but they   
are  helpless to remedy matters4    ,and
 there are some things that tend to keep
 this share at a minimum4  ,industrial  
organization is not simply a case of    
competition between  capital and labor1 
but capitalists are competing with      
capitalists as  well as with laborers1  
and laborers with each other as well as 
with  capitalists4 ,the result is that  
the weakest parties to this fray get hit
  hardest1 and their only hope would    

seem to be the addition of some other   
check to competition that will prevent  
the present distressful  consequences4  
,this is not to say1 as ,socialists     
argue1 that competition  is to be       
abolished entirely1 for we have seen    
that it may really have  excellent      
effects for the workman4 ,rather it is  
to be harnessed and  guided into        
beneficent channels1 as a miller directs
 a stream to turn a  wheel4 ,he does not
 destroy the stream but makes it do his 
will4    ,an analysis of industrial     
society will show1 ,i think1 that       
despite the  good work the stream of    
competition is doing1 there is a little 
eddy  undermining the bank and working  
havoc in some places4 ,the description  
of one phase of competition1 even though
 it be isolated from the rest1  will    
probably give a correct enough idea of  
how this force while working  out to the
 advantage of some1 is resulting in harm
 to others4 ,the  considerations that   
must be omitted in a short sketch do not

 change the  matter essentially4 ,they  
limit the hardship wrought1 but they do 
not  prevent a considerable number of   
workmen from being mercilessly ground   
down4    ,modern industry1 then1 is     
organized for sale1 not use4 ,business  
men care  nothing about what they       
manufacture so long as they can find a  
profitable sale for the article4 ,the   
typical employer makes shoes not        
because he likes to1 as an artist may   
paint a picture4 ,he does it  because he
 thinks a sufficient number of          
purchasers will want this  commodity at 
a price paying him for his trouble4     
,but to get these purchasers he must    
7unless he have some sort of  monopoly7 
offer his product at a price no higher  
than other  manufacturers are willing to
 take for the same article4 ,if he      
deviate  only a few cents1 the expert   
buyers of retail stores will know it and
 go  elsewhere4 ,there is a constant    
demand for cheapness1 a universal       
eagerness to get your money's worth2 and

 factories and retail firms  must meet  
it1 or see their trade taken away by    
competitors4 ,the intense  desire of    
individual buyers for minute savings of 
a cent here or a  fraction of a cent    
there1 becomes1 in the aggregate1 an    
irresistible  ,demand with a capital ,d1
 a blood-power stronger than steam1     
compelling  the retailer 7who in his    
turn reacts upon the manufacturer7 to   
sell  cheap4 ,the phenomena of sweating 
are a standing warning against the      
dangers that are inherent in unregulated
 competition4444 ,the underlying  cause 
of the evil1 affirms a noted ,english   
economist1 is certainly to  be found in 
the indiscriminate preference of the    
public for that which  is low-priced4#da
    ,the seller1 then1 must meet the    
,consumer's demands2 and since these are
  for cheapness1 he must sell cheap4    
,but how can cheapness be obtained8     
,only by cutting down the expenses of   
production4 ,other manufacturers        
possess the same machinery1 about the   

same advantages of location1 and        
approximately the same talent4 ,given a 
system of unrestrained  competition1    
each firm will have to count costs to   
within a fraction of  a cent and reduce 
expenses to the lowest possible amount4 
,to this end  wages are often cut1      
workmen speeded1 and the health of      
employees  endangered4    ,no one of us1
 says the manager of a big department   
store in ,st4 ,louis1  has any          
particular consideration in the purchase
 price of goods2 the  ease of           
communication and the large amount of   
advertising make it  impossible for us  
to have any serious advantage over      
others in point of  selling price4 ,the 
women can go from one store to another1 
effectually  preventing one store from  
being materially higher priced on the   
same  goods than another4    ,the great 
struggle is over the expense account4   
,this brings up the  whole question of  
salaries1 the amount that can be paid to
 employees  directly1 the amount that is

 spent by us in caring for them1        
compensation for length of service4444  
,all these have to be handled from  the 
expense account1 and it is on this point
 that some of the most  delicate        
questions of morals arise1 and they     
involve both the employer  and the      
customer in the treatment of the        
employee4#db    ,it is true that some   
economists have maintained that the     
price of an  article must cover its cost
 of production4#dc ,but as ,professor   
,carver  says1 such an opinion is       
probably the source of more error and   
confusion in economic discussions than  
any other mistake4 7,loc4 cit47  ,it may
 be granted1 indeed1 that the price will
 never be much below the  expenses of   
production1 understanding by expenses of
 production what  the entrepreneur must 
pay out in wages1 interest1 etc4 ,yet   
even this is  not because the expenses  
of production directly govern prices4   
,they  affect the price only indirectly 
by limiting the supply4 ,for no         

entrepreneur will long continue in      
business if he be not able to sell  his 
product at a profit1 and his going out  
of business will decrease the  supply   
and so raise the price by the well-known
 law of supply and  demand4    ,but     
costs of production1 being the sum of   
the efforts and sacrifices  of all      
concerned in making an article1 are very
 different from expenses  of            
production4#dd ,it is by no means true1 
as ,professor ,sidgwick  pointed out    
twenty-five years ago1 that the amount  
necessary to enable a  laborer to keep  
himself in good physical condition and  
reproduce himself  forms a minimum below
 which the self-interest of an employer 
will not  allow wages to fall4#de       
,for in the first place1 there is no    
assurance that a laborer is going to    
spend his wages for this purpose4 ,how1 
then1 can it be to his employer's       
advantage to pay him more than he is    
willing to take1 when the surplus  may  
be squandered in drink8 ,and even       

assuming that the generality of         
laborers must receive such an amount in 
order to meet the demand for  workmen1  
still they need not all receive it from 
their employers4 ,an  industry1 such as 
the department stores1 may try to get   
girls who obtain  part of their support 
from fathers or brothers employed in    
other  businesses4#df ,or wages of large
 classes may be supplemented by public  
or private alms4 ,this was long the case
 under the ,english ,poor ,law4 ,as  the
 land-occupiers paid the greater portion
 of the rates1 it was to the            
,manufacturers' advantage to have wages 
really come partly from the  parish4    
,and the numbers of laborers can be kept
 stationary without each workman1  or   
even every class1 receiving enough to   
perpetuate himself4 ,for their  ranks   
can easily be recruited from an         
over-supply of some higher class4       
,there is a constant pressure upon the  
upper strata1 forcing down the  unfit1  
and it is readily conceivable that these

 failures should take the  places of    
still greater failures below4    ,there 
is1 then1 no physical or economic       
necessity forcing employers to  pay fair
 wages to each individual worker1 in the
 sense in which we are  using the word  
fair for the sake of argument4 ,the     
effort to organize  business with a view
 to cheap production1 may be carried on 
in such  fashion as to press unduly on  
those who work for wages2 employers are 
in  a position in which they may be able
 to drive hard bargains as to hours  of 
work and rates of pay1 and to pass on   
the risk of loss1 which arises  from    
fluctuations of business1 to be borne by
 those who are thrown out  of           
employment4#dg ,and not only may this1  
but there is every inducement  and      
almost necessity urging that it should1 
be done except where the  workmen are   
organized4 ,no employer can afford to   
pay a workman more than  his surplus    
over and above what would be produced   
without him1 and it  will be to his     

advantage to pay less4 ,he is a         
purchaser of labor1 and  like every     
other purchaser wants to get that       
commodity at the lowest  figure4 ,and   
there are several differences between   
him and the purchaser  of any other     
commodity that give him a distinct      
advantage in the  bargain4    ,in the   
first place1 not merely increased       
profits1 what would be  represented by a
 housewife's saving in shopping1 urge   
him to buy cheap  labor1 but his own    
industrial existence1 which will be lost
 if he does  not get his workmen as     
cheap as his competitors4 ,having a     
greater prize  at stake1 he develops a  
greater skill4 ,he has a wider view of  
economic  conditions1 a better knowledge
 of the state of trade elsewhere1 and so
  he can outbargain the unorganized     
laborer4    ,again1 the laborer is in a 
worse position than the seller of almost
 any  other commodity4 ,for what he does
 not sell to-day disappears absolutely4 
,if he does not dispose of it now he    

cannot to-morrow4 ,a fruiterer can  keep
 his oranges until the next day1 if he  
is not satisfied with the  current      
price4 ,but to-day's labor can be sold  
only to-day4 ,and if it be  not sold1 it
 is probable that the workman will be   
physically less fit  to-morrow4 ,yet    
even if he does accept the wage offered1
 and it is less  than enough to repair  
the daily waste of force1 the same      
result will be  brought about gradually4
 ,he is1 therefore1 confronted by the   
dilemma of  taking what the idle are    
willing to accept1 or becoming idle     
himself4    ,it needs only the imagining
 of one's self in the position of the   
unemployed to see that there is hardly  
any limit below which the wages  of the 
weakest may not fall4 ,a man without    
special skill and without  savings1 with
 not only himself but others to look out
 for1 will be glad  to get even what he 
knows will not completely support him4  
,without organization and by means of   
individual bargaining1 wages are  drawn 

downward toward the level set by what   
idle men will accept1 which  may be less
 than they will produce after they      
receive employment and  will surely be  
less than they will produce after they  
have developed  their full efficiency4  
,when labor makes its bargains with     
employers  without organization on its  
side1 the parties in the transaction are
 not  on equal terms and wages are      
unduly depressed4 ,the individual       
laborer  offers what he is forced to    
sell1 and the employer is not forced to 
buy4  ,delay may mean privation for the 
one party and no great inconvenience or 
loss for the other4 ,if there are within
 reach a body of necessitous men  out of
 employment and available for filling   
the positions for which  individual     
laborers are applying1 the applicants   
are at a fatal  disadvantage4#dh ,such  
is the opinion of a conservative        
economist with  an especially kindly    
feeling towards the competitive system4 
,it would seem1 therefore1 that the     

competitive organization of industry    
has a tendency to crush out the         
weaklings4 ,how numerous are these      
weaklings1 we shall now discuss4        
,,footnotes3    #cf ,l4 c41 pp4 #aba1   
#abb1 #acd1 #aeb2 ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41  
,men's ,ready-,made  ,clothing1 p4 #cjc4
    #cg ,butler1 p4 #cja2 ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 
,lab41 ,women ,wage-,earners in ,stores 
and  ,factories1 pp4 #aji1 #agh4    #ch 
,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 l4 c41 p4 #bb2     
,report ,minneapolis ,vice ,commission1 
#aiaa1 p4 #abg4    #ci ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4    
,lab41 ,glass ,industry1 p4 #ed4    #dj 
,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 ,industrial        
,hygiene1 #aijh1 p4 #gi4    #da ,w4     
,cunningham1 ,christianity and ,social  
,questions1 pp4 #abb-abc3  ,london1     
#aiaj4    #db ,the ,socialised ,church1 
p4 #abj1 address on ,the ,relation of   
the  ,church to ,employees in           
,department ,stores1 by ,hanford        
,crawford1 ,b4,s43  ,st4 ,louis1 ,n4    
,y41 #aiji4    #dc ,cf4 ,t4 ,n4 ,carver1
 ,distribution of ,wealth1 p4 #ca3 ,n4  

,y41 #aijh4    #dd ,cf4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1
 ,introduction to ,political ,economy1  
pp4 #ec-ed3  ,n4 ,y41 #aijh4    #de ,h4 
,sidgwick1 ,principles of ,political    
,economy1 p4 #big3 ,london1  #ahhg4     
#df ,cf4 ,wage-,earning ,women in       
,stores and ,factories1 p4 #bb3 ,u4 ,s4 
,bureau of ,labor1 #aiaa4    #dg ,w4    
,cunningham1 ,christianity and ,social  
,questions1 p4 #aah3 ,london1  #aiaj4   
#dh ,j4 ,b4 ,clark1 ,essentials of      
,economic ,theory1 pp4 #dec and #def3   
,n4  ,y41 #aijg4                        
,,chapter ,,five                        
,,industrial ,,conditions3 ,,wages      
,what has been said regarding industrial
 conditions is not mere  theorizing4    
,private1 state and federal             
investigations into actual  conditions  
confirm the contention that there is a  
large margin of  unemployed1 and that a 
considerable portion of those who do    
find  employment are overworked and     
underpaid regardless of life and limb4  
,anyone who studies the various official

 reports on this subject1 must  conclude
 that ,dr4 ,devine's summary of the     
,pittsburgh ,survey was well  within the
 truth and is applicable to practically 
the whole country3         ,low wages   
for the great majority of the laborers  
employed by the       mills1 not lower  
than in other large cities1 but low     
compared with       the prices--so low  
as to be inadequate to the maintenance  
of a       normal ,american standard of 
living2 wages adjusted to the single    
man in the lodging house1 not the       
responsible head of a family4           
,still lower wages for women1 who       
receive1 for example1 in one of         
the metal trades1 in which the          
proportion of women is great enough     
to be menacing1 one-half as much as     
unorganized men in the same       shops 
and one-third as much as men in the     
union4         ,the destruction of      
family life2 not in any imaginary or    
mystical       sense1 but by the demands
 of the day's work1 and by the very     

demonstrable and material method of     
typhoid fever and industrial            
accidents2 both preventable1 but both   
costing in single years in              
,pittsburgh considerably more than a    
thousand lives1 and       irretrievably 
shattering nearly as many homes4#di     
,assuming1 throughout this discussion1  
that #f4jj a week 7#a4jj a week  less   
than ,miss ,butler's estimate71 or      
#cab4jj a year is the lowest fair       
individual wage2 and #aa4jj a week1 or  
#egb4jj a year is the lowest fair       
family living wage3#ej it is easy to    
show from reliable reports that  scores 
of thousands of individuals and heads of
 families fall below this  standard4    
,but in considering any figures quoted  
here1 or to be found  elsewhere1 it     
should always be remembered that the    
actual wage may be  much below the rate 
of wage4 ,one employed at the rate of   
#f4jj a week  may not make anything like
 that because of loss of time4    ,how  
much is lost through unemployment1 it is

 hard to say4 ,the ,united  ,states     
,industrial ,commission was of the      
opinion1 that it is impossible  to      
collect statistics of any value whatever
 relative to the unemployment  of       
unorganized labor1 among whom lack of   
employment is a much more  serious thing
 than it is with skilled or organized   
labor4#ea ,it would  seem1 however1 that
 in the clothing trades1 the employees  
lose at least  one day in every six4#eb 
,according to a ,federal report issued  
in #aiaa1  in ,baltimore one-fifth of   
the force worked between five days and  
full  time2 one-tenth between four and  
five days2 one-seventh between two and  
three1 and five per cent1 two days or   
less4#ec ,a report of the ,new ,york    
,state ,bureau of ,labor for #aijfed    
contains the following suggestive  table
 regarding the unemployment of certain  
classes of organized  labor4 ,it may    
rightly be assumed that among           
unorganized workmen  conditions are     
worse4                                  

,,table ,i4                   ,,no4     
,,and ,,proportion ,,of ,,unemployed    
,,wage-,,earners                        
----------------------------------------
---------------------------         ,no4
 of  ,no4 of ,no4 idle,per              
,per cent idle    ,mon4 unions  memb'rs 
at end cent                             
------------------------------          
report'greport'gof monthidle  #aije     
#aijd  #aijc  #aijb #aijb-e             
----------------------------------------
-----------------------    ,jan4   #aia 
#hd1eci  #ab1fhb #ae4   #bb4e  #be4h    
#bj4e  #bj4i  #bb4d    ,feb4   #aij     
#he1aee  #ac1jca #ae4c  #ai4d  #ba4f    
#ag4h  #ah4g  #ai4d    ,mch4   #aib     
#be1ief   #b1ieb #aa4f  #ai4b  #bg4a    
#ag4f  #ag4c  #bj4c    ,apr4   #aib     
#ij1ceb   #f1ehc  #g4c  #aa4h  #ag4j    
#ag4c  #ae4c  #ae4d    ,may    #aib     
#ia1afc   #f1cfd  #g4j   #h4c  #ae4i    
#bj4b  #ad4j  #ad4f    ,june   #aib     
#ib1ajj   #e1hja  #f4c   #i4a  #ac4g    
#bc4a  #ad4e  #ae4a    ,july   #aie     

#id1ega   #g1bbi  #g4f   #h4j  #ad4h    
#ag4h  #ae4f  #ad4a    ,aug4   #aie     
#id1bbj   #e1dfb  #e4h   #g4b  #ac4g    
#ae4d   #g4a  #aj4i    ,sep4   #aie     
#id1bij   #e1beb  #f4c   #e4i  #ab4j    
#i4d   #f4c   #h4d    ,oct4   #aie      
#ib1jeb   #f1chc  #f4i   #e4f  #aj4h    
#aa4g   #d4b   #i4h    ,nov4   #aie     
#ic1jdb   #g1jeb  #g4f   #f4a  #aa4a    
#af4d  #ad4c  #ab4j    ,dec4   #aie     
#ic1cah  #ad1ceb #ae4d  #aa4a  #ai4f    
#bc4a  #bb4b  #ai4j                     
----------------------------------------
-----------------------    ,mean for    
year                 #i4c  #aa4b  #af4i 
#ag4e  #ad4h  #ae4a                     
----------------------------------------
------------------------    ,other      
deductions that must be made from the   
apparent wage are the  withholding of   
pay for long periods1 exorbitant prices 
and rents  obtained through company     
stores and houses1 fines1 and increases 
in the  cost of living4    ,therefore1  
it is not unreasonable to conclude that 

the per diem or  weekly wage rate as    
given by the ,bureau of ,labor and other
 reports1  affords1 by itself1 an       
accurate statement only of the maximum  
yearly  wage4 ,this should always be    
remembered in judging any facts         
hereafter  adduced4    ,in the fifteenth
 volume of the bulletins of the ,bureau 
of ,labor will be  found many           
interesting tables bearing on this      
question of wages4 ,but as  it is       
impracticable to quote them at any      
length here1 a few of the more  salient 
facts must suffice4 ,laborers in the    
flour mills of the ,south  were working 
twelve hours a day for #aa;c4 an        
hour4#ee ,women in the  carpet factories
 of the ,north were getting no more4#ef 
,in the factory  product of the clothing
 trade great numbers received less than 
#aj;c41  #aa;c41 and #ab;c4 an hour 7p4 
#ce71 and the compensation in sweatshops
 was  much less4 ,male boarders in the  
knit-goods factories of the             
,north-,central section were averaging  

less than #chg4jj per annum4 ,women  in 
the same factories were getting much    
less1 some even as low as #g;c4  and    
#h;c4 an hour 7p4 #dc74 ,silk-spinners  
in the ,north-,atlantic section  were   
making only #e4jj a week1 or less than  
#bfj4jj a year1 for a nine  and one-half
 hour day 7p4 #eh74 ,male cigar-stemmers
 in the same section  were making #f4jj 
a week 7p4 #ei74 ,in ,michigan1 in      
#aije1 there were #cdad  boys between   
fourteen and sixteen earning on an      
average #gg;c4 a day1 and  #agbe girls  
making #fd;c4 a day4 ,in #aijd1 the     
average yearly earnings in  the food    
preparations industry was #dda4jj2 in   
salt production1 #dea4jj2  on tobacco   
and cigars1 #cic4jj 7p4 #ccd74    ,in   
,new ,jersey1 in #aijd-e1 the average   
earnings in the cigar industry  were    
#caf4gj2 silk-weaving1 #dhj4aa2 woolen  
and worsted goods1 #cgc4dc4  ,in the    
same ,state in #aijc-d1 there were #aihe
 adult males receiving less  than #c4jj 
a week2 #cbcd between #c4jj and #d4jj2  

#eeie between #d4jj and  #e4jj2 #fjcg   
between #e4jj and #f4jj2 #ab1djf between
 #g4jj and #h4jj2  #ad1cjj between #h4jj
 and #i4jj1 though #i4jj1 working full  
time every  week1 would be only #dfh4jj 
a year4    ,the very latest reports     
available confirm these figures4 ,in the
 cotton  textile industry alone1 #bi1igd
 employees1 or #ec4gg of the total      
number  investigated 7#aa1dhd men and   
#ah1dij women7 were being paid at a rate
  less than #f4jj a week4#eg ,if we take
 the #aa4jj rate1 or family living      
wage1 we find that #ai1chb men 7#hi of  
the total7 fall below it 7l4 c474  ,and 
as only #ee of the men employed in this 
industry were single 7l4 c41  p4 #acb71 
at least #gbhe of these men must have   
been married1 and hence  receiving less 
than the normal family living wage4 ,it 
must be  remembered1 too1 that these    
figures are based upon the assumption   
that  full time is made4 ,could we get  
the actual wages1 these groups would be 
much larger4 ,this is shown by the table

 on page #cbi of this report1  where    
actual wages average #a4cb less than    
computed full time earnings4    ,if we  
turn to the clothing industry1 we find  
conditions even worse4 ,in  the five    
cities investigated 7,new ,york1        
,chicago1 ,baltimore1 ,rochester1  and  
,philadelphia71 #fghh employees1 or #cg 
of the total 7#abag men and  #eega      
women7 were being paid at a rate less   
than the individual living  wage of     
#f4jj4 ,taking the family living wage of
 #aa4jj as our standard1  #cdii men1 or 
#fb of the total1 fail to reach it4#eh  
,again it must be repeated1 that the    
actual wages are from #g-a_/b to        
#bj-a_/b lower than these figures 7l4   
c41 p4 #afa74 ,in one ,new ,york        
special order shop1 the earnings for    
,december fall to #ee of the  average   
7l4 c41 p4 #agh74    ,these figures1    
however1 are for shop-workers only4 ,the
 average wages  for home-workers are3   
,chicago1 #d4ce2 ,rochester1 #d4ad2 ,new
 ,york1 #c4fa2  ,philadelphia1 #b4hh2   

and ,baltimore1 #b4bd4 ,here again the  
caution must  be borne in mind that     
home-workers' wages1 low as they are1   
often stand  for the earnings of more   
than one worker4 ,sometimes1 as reported
 on the  books of the firm1 it          
represents the earnings of more than one
 week 7l4  c41 p4 #aci74 ,ninety-eight  
per cent4 of the married shop-finishers1
 and  practically all of the            
home-finishers1 too1 earned less than   
#cej4jj a  year 7l4 c41 p4 #bbf74 ,the  
average yearly earnings of home-workers 
are  given as varying from #abj4jj in   
,new ,york to #aif4jj in ,rochester4    
,from  page #bce to #bci inclusive1 the 
details of the earnings1 size of        
families1 and number of those working is
 gone into at great length4 ,it  must   
suffice here to say that families of    
five are recorded whose total  yearly   
earnings are less than #ajj4jj4 ,one    
family of eleven is  chronicled whose   
yearly income was #dde4jj1 sixty-five   
dollars of which  was earned by         

home-work4 ,working six days a week for 
ten hours a day1  the home-worker cannot
 hope to make more than #aef4jj a       
year4#ei    ,seventy-six per cent4 of   
the women employed in the glass industry
 earned  less than six dollars a        
week4#fj ,their average annual earnings1
 in  fact1 are stated as ranging from   
#afc4jj for those sixteen years old to  
#bib4jj for those from twenty-five to   
twenty-nine 7l4 c41 p4 #edd74  ,nearly  
one-third of the female department-store
 employees receive less  than #f4jj a   
week4#fa ,yet many of them had other    
persons depending upon  them 7l4 c41 p4 
#ee74 ,one family1 consisting of a      
mother1  seventeen-year-old daughter1   
and three younger children1 was         
supported  by the daughter's #e4jj a    
week4 ,they managed it by living in two 
rooms  and eating practically nothing   
besides bread and tea or coffee 7l4 c41 
p4 #ef74    ,in ,new ,york ,state in    
#aijf1fb it was found that even among   
organized  laborers reporting to the    

,bureau of ,labor1 #fjgh men and #bjaa  
women were  earning less than the lowest
 individual living wage 7#cjj4jj71 and  
#ei1bbf men and #hhha women 7#ag4f and  
#fc4h respectively7 were earning  less  
than the lowest family living wage      
7#fjj4jj74 ,if conditions were so  bad  
among union men1 they were probably much
 worse among unorganized  workers4      
,in ,pittsburgh1 in the canneries1 #ei  
of the girls make only #f4jj a  week1 or
 less 7,butler1 l4 c41 p4 #ch74 ,of     
those employed in the  confectionery    
trades1 only twenty-one earn as much as 
seven dollars 7l4  c41 p4 #ej74 ,and    
these two trades have inevitable dull   
seasons that cut  wages much below these
 figures4 ,seven hundred out of nine    
hundred girls  in the cracker business  
receive less than #f4jj a week 7l4 c41  
p4 #gj74  ,laundries are amongst the    
worst paying establishments1 and there  
is  practically no chance of            
advancement4 ,the shakers-out never earn
 more  than #d4jj a week1 and usually   

only #c4jj or #c4ej 7l4 c41 p4 #agj74   
,no  mangle girl makes more than #f4jj  
and most between #c4jj and #e4jj 7p4    
#agc74 ,broom-making often gives only   
#b4ej a week1 and the highest is  #e4jj 
7p4 #beb74 ,many box-makers earn only   
#fj;c4 or #hj;c4 a day1 and #hj of  the 
girls are being paid less than #f4jj a  
week 7p4 #bfa74 ,packing  soap-powder in
 stifling rooms pays #d4ej 7p4 #bgj74   
,nearly #ej of the  girls in the        
printing trades are below the #f4jj     
standard4    ,these1 then1 are the facts
 concerning wages4 ,but no social fact  
can be  entirely isolated4 ,it is always
 intimately connected with many others1 
and no treatment of wages can be at all 
satisfactory without going to  some     
extent into the ramifications of this   
subject along other lines4 ,a  chapter1 
therefore1 will be devoted to the       
question of health and of  morals as    
affected by industrial conditions and   
low wages4    ,,footnotes3    #di       
,report of annual convention of the     

,american ,sociological ,society1       
#aijh1 or ,charities and the ,commons1  
now the ,survey1 ,march #f1 #aiji4      
#ej ,cf4 p4 #cf;f for discussion of fair
 wage4    #ea ,vol4 ,,xix1 p4 #ged4     
#eb ,loc4 cit41 p4 #gee4    #ec ,u4 ,s4 
,bureau of ,labor1 ,men's ,ready-,made  
,clothing1 p4 #aac4    #ed ,p4 ,,xi4    
#ee ,loc4 cit41 p4 #cg4    #ef ,p4 #ca4 
#eg ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,labor1 ,cotton  
,textile ,industry1 p4 #cje1 #aiaj4     
#eh ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,labor1 ,men's   
,ready-,made ,clothing1 p4 #abi4    #ei 
,l4 c41 p4 #cja2 cf4 also #bjth ,annual 
,report ,bureau of ,labor  ,statistics  
of ,n4 ,y41 pp4 #ff-fg1 here quoted4    
#fj ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,labor1 ,glass   
,industry1 p4 #dje1 #aiaa4    #fa ,u4   
,s4 ,bureau ,lab41 ,wage-,earning ,women
 in ,stores and ,factories1 p4  #df1    
#aiaa4    #fb ,report of ,bureau of     
,labor ,statistics of ,new ,york for    
#aijf1 p4 ,,xxxi4                       
,,chapter ,,six                         
,,industrial ,,conditions3 ,,health     

,the inevitable result of low wages is  
poor health4 ,bad housing  conditions   
and insufficient food must follow upon  
the heels of scanty  pay1 unless the    
wages are supplemented in some other    
way2 and that means  anemia1            
tuberculosis1 typhoid1 and general      
physical debility4 ,in the  ,new ,york  
block bounded by ,e4 ,houston1 ,mott1   
,prince1 and ,elizabeth ,sts41  one of  
every nine children born dies before it 
attains the age of five  years4 ,the    
death and disease rates are abnormal4   
,the death rates for all  ages in the   
,city of ,new ,york in #aije-f was      
#ah4ce per thousand1 and for  those     
under five years it was #ea4e2 but in   
this block it was #bd4j for  all ages   
and for those under five years it was   
#ib4b4fc ,nothing could  be added to or 
taken away from these homes to add to   
their squalor4 7,p4  #bif47    ,the     
conditions of many workers' homes can be
 learned in detail from  pages #bed-bei 
of the ,federal report just quoted4     

,here only a few of the  leading facts  
can be mentioned4 ,thus in ,pittsburgh  
#ea4a of the families  investigated had 
as many as three persons per sleeping   
room4#fd ,eleven  per cent4 of female   
factory and miscellaneous employees and 
nine per  cent4 of store girls are rated
 as having bad housing conditions and   
bad food4#fe ,very few girls doing light
 housekeeping get proper  breakfasts 7l4
 c41 p4 #ah71 or1 indeed1 any other     
meals4 ,it is not  because they can't   
cook1 but because they have to keep food
 expenses to  a minimum in order to buy 
clothes1 pay room-rent1 doctors1 etc4   
',you see ,i'm dieting1' said a frail   
slip of a department-store girl as  she 
held out her tray upon which the        
cafeteria cashier1 in the presence  of  
the ,bureau's agent1 put a two-cent     
check1 covering the cost of the  girl's 
lunch--a small dish of tapioca4 ,she may
 have been dieting1 but  the evidences  
were pathetically against the need      
thereof1 and there were  some things    

telling other tales to a thoughtful     
observer4 ,the girl's  shoes and waist  
and skirt were plainly getting weary of 
well-doing1 and  to hold her position as
 sales-woman they must soon be replaced 
7l4 c41  p4 #ag74    ,the tables on     
pages #hj and #ha1 to one who practises 
the great  transmigratory art 7as       
,charles ,reade calls it7 of putting    
yourself in  another's place1 tell      
pitiful stories of making ends meet 7l4 
c41 pp4  #ed-ee74                       
,,number ,,of ,,women ,,wage-,,earners  
,,keeping ,,house                       
,,classified ,,by ,,cost ,,of ,,living  
,,and ,,wage ,,groups                   
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
---                          ,no4 of    
women with average weekly cost of living
 77                                     
7food1 shelter1 heat1 light1 laundry7   
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,average  ,un-                          

#a4jja4ejb4jjb4ejc4jjc4ejd4jjd4eje4jje4e
jf4jjf4ej       weekly   der  to  to  to
  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to and    
,total      earnings                    
#a4jja4dia4iib4dib4iic4dic4iid4did4iie4d
ie4iif4diover                           
----------------------------------------
------------------------------    #a4jj3
 #a4di 44  44   #a  44  44  44   #a   #a
  44  44  44  44  44   #c     #a4ej3    
#a4ii 44  44  44   #a  44  44  44  44   
44  44  44  44  44   #a     #b4jj3      
#b4di 44   #a   #a   #a   #b   #a  44   
44  44  44  44  44  44   #f     #b4ej3  
#b4ii 44   #a  44   #b   #a  44  44  44 
44  44  44  44  44   #d     #c4jj3      
#c4di 44  44   #b   #b   #b   #a  44  44
  44  44  44  44  44   #g     #c4ej3    
#c4ii  #a  44   #a   #b   #a  44   #c   
44  44  44   #a  44  44   #i     #d4jj3 
#d4di  #b   #b   #b   #b   #a   #c   #a 
44  44  44  44  44  44  #ac     #d4ej3  
#d4ii  #a   #e   #d   #f  44   #e   #c  
44   #b  44   #a  44  44  #bg     #e4jj3
  #e4di  #b  44   #c   #b   #b   #c   #c

   #a   #b  44   #a  44  44  #ai        
#e4ej3  #e4ii 44   #b   #b   #b   #b    
#b   #a   #c   #a  44   #b  44  44  #ag 
#f4jj3  #f4di 44   #c   #b   #e   #c    
#c   #b   #a  44  44  44   #a  44  #bj  
#f4ej3  #f4ii 44  44  44   #b   #a  44  
#a   #b   #b  44  44  44   #a   #i      
#g4jj3  #g4di 44   #a   #d   #a   #d    
#d   #b  44  44  44  44  44  44  #af    
#g4ej3  #g4ii  #a  44   #c   #c   #a    
#b   #c   #e  44  44   #b   #a   #a  #bb
     #h4jj3  #h4di 44   #a   #c   #a    
#c   #e   #e   #b   #b  44   #a  44  44 
#bc     #h4ej3  #h4ii 44  44  44  44    
#a   #a   #a   #a   #a  44  44  44  44  
#e     #i4jj3  #i4di 44   #a  44  44  44
   #b  44   #b   #b   #a   #a  44   #a  
#aj     #i4ej3  #i4ii 44  44  44  44    
#a  44   #a   #a   #a  44  44   #a  44  
#e    #aj4jj3 #aj4di 44  44  44  44  44 
#b  44  44  44  44  44  44   #b   #d    
#aj4ej3 #aj4ii 44  44  44  44  44  44   
44  44   #a  44  44  44  44   #a        
#aa4jj3 #aa4di 44  44   #a  44  44  44  
44  44  44  44   #a  44   #a   #c       

#aa4ej3 #aa4ii 44  44  44  44  44   #a  
44  44  44   #a  44  44  44   #b        
#ab4jj3 #ab4ii 44  44  44  44  44   #a  
44  44   #b  44   #a   #a  44   #e      
#ac4jj3 #ac4ii 44  44  44  44  44  44   
#a  44  44  44  44  44  44   #a         
#ad4jj3 #ad4ii 44  44  44  44   #a  44  
44  44  44  44   #a  44  44   #b        
#ae4jj  over 44  44  44  44  44  44   #a
  44  44  44  44  44   #a   #b          
----------------------------------------
------------------------------    ,total
         #g  #ag  #bi  #cb  #bf  #cf    
#bi  #ai  #af   #b  #ab   #d   #g       
#bcf;,a                                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------------    ,a    
#af4f of those for whom the information 
necessary was secured4 ,in  the cities  
investigated 7,new ,york1 ,chicago1     
,philadelphia1 ,st4 ,louis1  ,boston1   
,minneapolis1 and ,st4 ,paul7 there     
were1 in #aije1 #djj1jjj women  employed
 in stores1 mills1 factories1 and other 
similar establishments4                 

----------------------------------------
----------------------------------      
,,number ,,of ,,women ,,wage-,,earners  
,,keeping ,,house ,,who ,,have          
,,specified                ,,number ,,of
 ,,persons ,,wholly ,,or ,,partially    
,,dependent                     ,,on    
,,them ,,for ,,support1 ,,by ,,wage     
,,groups                                
----------------------------------------
-------------------------------         
,no4 of women having          ,no4 of   
women having                            
wholly dependent           partially    
dependent                             on
 them                      on them      
----------------------------------------
-----------------       ,average      #a
    #b    #c    #d         #a    #b     
#c    #d          ,weekly     per- per- 
per- per-      per- per- per- per-      
,earnings    son  sons sons sons ,tot4  
son  sons sons sons,tot4                
----------------------------------------
-----------------------     #a4jj3      

#a4di 44   44   44   44   44   44   44  
44   44   44      #a4ej3   #a4ii 44   44
   44   44   44   44   44   44   44   44
      #b4jj3   #b4di 44   44   44    #a 
#a    #a    #c   44   44    #d          
#b4ej3   #b4ii 44   44   44   44   44   
#a   44    #a   44    #b      #c4jj3    
#c4di  #a   44    #a   44    #b    #b   
#a   44   44    #c      #c4ej3   #c4ii  
#a   44   44   44    #a    #a    #b   44
    #a    #d      #d4jj3   #d4di  #b    
44    #a   44    #c    #b    #c    #c   
#a    #i      #d4ej3   #d4ii  #a   44   
#b    #b    #e    #d    #b    #c    #b  
#aa      #e4jj3   #e4di 44   44    #a   
#a    #b    #g    #a   44    #b   #aj   
#e4ej3   #e4ii  #b    #a   44   44    #c
    #d    #a   44   44    #e      #f4jj3
   #f4di 44    #a    #a   44    #b    #e
    #c    #a    #a   #aj      #f4ej3    
#f4ii 44   44   44   44   44    #d    #a
    #a   44    #f      #g4jj3   #g4di   
#c    #a   44   44    #d    #a    #a    
44    #a    #c      #g4ej3   #g4ii 44   
#c    #b   44    #e   #aj   44   44     

#a   #aa      #h4jj3   #h4di  #f   44   
#a   44    #g    #d   44    #b    #a    
#g      #h4ej3   #h4ii  #b    #a   44   
44    #c    #b   44   44   44    #b     
#i4jj3   #i4di 44   44   44   44   44   
#b    #b    #a   44    #e      #i4ej3   
#i4ii  #a   44   44   44    #a   44   44
    #a   44    #a     #aj4jj3  #aj4di 44
   44   44   44   44    #b   44   44    
44    #b     #aj4ej3  #aj4ii 44    #a   
44   44    #a   44   44   44   44   44  
#aa4jj3  #aa4di  #a   44   44   44    #a
    #a   44   44    #a    #b     #aa4ej3
  #aa4ii  #a   44   44   44    #a   44  
44    #a   44    #a     #ab4jj3  #ab4ii 
#a   44   44   44    #a    #a   44    #a
   44    #b     #ac4jj3  #ac4ii 44   44 
44   44   44   44   44   44   44   44   
#ad4jj3  #ad4ii  #a   44   44   44    #a
   44   44   44   44   44     #ae4jj3   
over   #a   44    #a   44    #b   44    
#a   44   44    #a                      
----------------------------------------
-----------------------        ,total   
#bd    #h   #aj    #d   #df   #ed   #ba 

#ae   #aa   #aja                        
----------------------------------------
-----------------------    ,but bad food
 and bad housing are not the only       
enemies of the workman's  health4 ,the  
nature of his daily toil and the        
conditions under which it  is performed 
are often against him4 ,even ventilation
 becomes important  when one has to     
spend ten1 eleven1 or twelve hours a day
 in one room1  and yet this is almost   
entirely neglected4    ,in #aijh a      
special officer was appointed in ,new   
,york ,state to make tests  of the      
atmospheric conditions in places of     
business4 ,one hundred and  thirty-six  
factories were examined1 and in some    
printing establishments  as many as     
forty parts of carbonic-acid gas        
7,,co#b7 in ten thousand  volumes of air
 were found1 though a legal limit of    
twelve is  recommended4 ,one cigar      
factory1 with windows partly open1 had  
eighty  such parts4 ,the following table
 will exhibit the results of this       

investigation4#ff                       
----------------------------------------
-----------------    ,parts of ,,co#b in
                                        
#aj1jjj vols4 air                       
#e-abac-bjba-bebf-cjca-djdb-fjfe-gjge-hj
                                        
----------------------------------------
-----------------       ,factories in   
each class     #hb  #aff   #hj   #fg    
#cj   #h    #c    #c                    
----------------------------------------
-----------------    ,sometimes the     
exigencies of the trade require that    
there should be no  draft1 as in the    
handling of carbon filaments for        
incandescent lamps1  and then the       
conditions of the atmosphere become     
acutely unhealthy4 ,in  addition1 in    
some of the rooms numerous bunsen       
burners are always  lighted and all     
currents of air carefully excluded to   
prevent their  flickering4#fg           
,elsewhere1 the process of manufacture  
often vitiates the air1 as the          

blow-over in bottle shops4 ,in some     
factories1 at times the air is so  full 
of this floating glass that the hair is 
whitened by merely passing  through the 
room4 ,it sticks to the perspiration on 
the face and arms of  the boys and men  
and becomes a source of considerable    
irritation4  ,getting into the eyes it  
is especially troublesome 7l4 c41 p4    
#ff74  ,something similar occurs in     
etching glass by a sand-blast4 ,unless a
  hood and exhaust are provided1 a      
pressure of from fifty to ninety pounds 
scatters fine sand and glass dust       
through the air and is breathed in by   
the operator 7l4 c41 p4 #ddj74 ,even    
worse1 however1 is the acid etching1  as
 the fumes of hydrochloric acid cause   
severe irritation to the throat  and    
lungs 7l4 c41 p4 #ddb74    ,even when   
there is no such irritant in the air as 
just mentioned1  extreme differences in 
temperature between the work-room and   
the  outside1 or between various parts  
of the shop1 may be a source of  serious

 danger to health4 ,in the glass        
industry1 many persons have to  work in 
temperatures ranging from ninety to one 
hundred and forty  degrees1 and as high 
as fifty degrees above the outside air  
7l4 c41 p4  #ge74 ,industries where an  
artificial humidity is required1 such as
 silk1  cotton and flax spinning1 are   
likely to induce rheumatism1 pleurisy1  
etc4 ,after working ten hours in a room 
filled with live steam to prevent       
breaking of threads1 to pass into a ,new
 ,england blizzard is apt to  produce   
serious results4 ,the boys in           
bottle-making shops are obliged to  pass
 continually from a temperature of #adj 
degrees at the glory-hole  to one of #ij
 degrees or less in other parts 7l4 c41 
pp4 #di;ff474    ,and even if conditions
 of atmosphere and ventilation are good1
 the mere  fact of continuing work for  
thirteen hours seven days a week tells  
seriously upon the physical endurance of
 the strongest4#fh ,when night  work is 
required in addition to the day's labor1

 as in the glass  industry1 the         
consequences are likely to be worse1    
especially where  children are          
concerned4#fi ,night work frequently    
means a presence in  the factory of at  
least twenty hours out of the           
twenty-four4 ,during the  course of the 
investigation there were found two cases
 of recent death1  both children1 which 
could be directly attributed to         
exhaustion due to  double-shift work in 
the furnace room 7l4 c41 p4 #abb74      
,in the clothing trade1 some piece and  
task-workers reported that they         
commonly worked seventy-two and even    
seventy-eight hours a week during  busy 
periods 7l4 c41 p4 #aae74 ,there were   
instances where women said  they worked 
from #f or #g o'clock in the morning to 
#i1 #aj1 or #aa o'clock  at night 7l4   
c41 p4 #bda74 ,for store girls1 thirteen
 and one-half hours  on ,saturday is not
 only excessive but works considerable  
hardship4#gj  ,one girl worked #bd-a_/b 
hours at one stretch with but two       

half-hour  intermissions for meals4444  
,four girls working in one establishment
 on  the 'night force' one day for each 
week reported their 'longest day's'     
labor as #af-c_/d1 #bj-a_/d1 #bb-a_/b1  
#bd-a_/d hours 7l4 c41 p4 #bje74 ,on the
  elevated railways in ,chicago1 at the 
time of the investigation1 #aijg-jh1    
women worked for #hj-a_/b hours a week  
7l4 c41 p4 #bjh74    ,when the business 
requires the maintaining of practically 
one position  all day1 whether standing 
or sitting1 such long hours are bound to
 have  a bad physical effect4 ,this is  
the case1 for example1 in department    
stores 7l4 c41 p4 #agh72 in the glass   
industry where many growing boys  are   
cramped before the furnace holes all day
 long2#ga in many processes  in the     
manufacture of incandescent lamps 7l4   
c41 p4 #dhb-dhc72 and  numerous other   
occupations4    ,but there is frequently
 added to mere length of hours a        
feverish haste  in working induced by   
starvation piece-rates or by the        

necessity of  keeping up with a machine4
 ,when a woman perforates #cajj bulbs a 
day and  welds tubes to them1 there must
 be a constant nervous tension to attain
  such rapidity 7l4 c41 p4 #dfi74 ,the  
even more complex operation of          
stem-making for these bulbs proceeds at 
a rate varying from #bfjj to #cejj  a   
day 7l4 c41 p4 #dfg74 ,three thousand   
stems and bulbs are assembled each  day 
7p4 #dgj71 while in one day1 an expert  
will test the candle-power of  #ejjj    
lamps 7p4 #dgb74 ,the operation of      
mounting ,tungsten filaments in  small  
copper wire is very much like threading 
an exceedingly small  needle4 ,if one   
imagines this repeated #cjjj times a    
day1 with thread that  has to be handled
 with the greatest care to prevent      
breaking1 he will  have some idea of the
 strain on eyes and nerves 7p4 #dgh74   
,twenty  thousand completed lamps are   
tested daily at a piece rate of #f;c4   
per  thousand lamps 7pp4 #dhf-dhg74     
,very frequently1 too1 these long hours 

at an intense strain must be  spent at  
work positively dangerous on account of 
the process1 such as  matchmaking#gb or 
painting lamps4#gc ,chemical poisoning  
is frequent in  hatters' and furriers'  
work1 and plumbism1 which is very       
similar to  phosphorous poisoning1      
besets any trade in which lead is used4 
,this is  the case1 in the production of
 white1 red1 or yellow lead1 industries 
in  which goods dyed with them undergo  
the process of building1 winding1       
weaving1 etc41 and such an apparently   
innocuous occupation as the  manufacture
 of earthenware and pottery4 ,one of the
 first symptoms of  plumbism is a blue  
gum1 followed by loosening and dropping 
out of the  teeth4 ,blindness1          
paralysis1 and death in convulsions     
frequently follow4  ,besides plumbism   
there are serious indirect results from 
lead-poisoning  in a number of          
industries4#gd ,readers of ,george      
,bernard ,shaw will  remember that ,mrs4
 ,warren adopted her profession through 

fear of  contracting this disease4 ,her 
sister had fallen a victim to it and the
  frightful ravages made among her      
friends drove her to this course4 ,in   
other industries such as wool sorting1  
blanket stoving and tentering1  and warp
 dressing1 lock-jaw is an incident4     
,closely allied to a question already   
discussed1 that of ventilations1 is  the
 insidious injury wrought by dust in the
 air4 ,some trades in which  this       
condition is pronounced1 seem materially
 to shorten life1 as shown  by a        
bulletin of the ,united ,states ,bureau 
of ,labor for ,may1 #aiji1 on           
,mortality from ,consumption in ,certain
 ,occupations4 ,the proportion of  those
 reaching the age of #fe and over among 
tobacco and cigar factory  operatives   
was #a4h2 glove-makers1 #b4c2 bakers1   
#b4d2 leather curriers  and tanners1    
#b4i2 and confectioners1 #c4a3 as       
against #d4g1 the average  expected     
normal on the basis of all occupied     
males in the ,united ,states  7l4 c41 p4

 #fbc74    ,eighty-nine per cent4 of the
 clergymen who died in #aijj were over  
#dd1  and #ee over #fe years of age2 #gf
 of the lawyers dying in this year were 
over #dd1 and #da over #fe2 #gc and #da 
of the physicians had passed these      
respective ages2 #hj and #cg of the     
bankers1 officials of companies1  etc41 
were over #dd and #fe3 yet more than    
half of the compositors dying  in the   
,united ,states for the year were under 
#di years of age4 ,about  one-half of   
these died of pulmonary tuberculosis4   
,only #ah were over  #fj4ge ,between    
#ahib and #ahih1 #cb of the deaths of   
glass bottle-blowers  were due to       
tuberculosis1 largely induced1 probably1
 by the strain on  the lungs1 the       
blow-over1 and conditions of            
temperature4#gf    ,industrial mortality
 insurance statistics show that #bc of  
the deaths of  those employed in trades 
exposed to organic dust are from        
consumption  and #ad from other         
respiratory diseases1 as against #ad4h  

and #aa4g1 the  expected respective     
averages for the ,united ,states4#gg    
,the following  table taken from the    
bulletin just quoted will probably      
exhibit the  results more strikingly 7p4
 #fbf73                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------                       
,per cent4 of deaths due to consumption 
among3    ,age at death                 
----------------------------------------
---                  ,occupations       
exposed  ,males in registration         
to organic dust       area1 #aijj-aijf  
----------------------------------------
----------------    #ae-bd years        
#dj4a                  #bg4h    #be-cd  
years          #di4j                    
#ca4c    #ce-dd years          #ce4c    
#bc4f    #de-ed years          #ba4f    
#ae4j    #ee-fd years          #aa4j    
#h4a    #fe and over           #d4e     
#b4g                                    
----------------------------------------
----------------    ,it will be seen    

from this table1 that deaths from       
consumption in these  trades exposed to 
organic dust were more than half again  
as much as  might reasonably have been  
expected4 ,and it must be remembered    
that  statistics indicate1 that general 
organic dust is less serious in its     
fatal effects than mineral or metallic  
dust1 and as a result the  proportionate
 mortality from consumption and other   
respiratory diseases  in this group is  
more favorable than in the groups of    
occupations with  exposure to mineral   
and metallic dusts 7l4 c41 p4 #fbg74    
,more evident dangers of occupation1    
because more directly traceable to      
their causes1 are industrial accidents4 
,manufacturers and employers  sometimes 
wantonly1 sometimes through ignorance1  
neglect the precautions  and appliances 
necessary properly to safeguard their   
workmen4 ,the  introduction of          
complicated machinery1 the use of       
high-power explosives1  the strenuous   
conduct of production1 without          

corresponding efforts to  offset the    
natural tendencies of these conditions  
and tools1 has made  peace more horrible
 and dangerous than war4    ,of all such
 sources of accident1 mines are probably
 the most prolific4  ,the percentage of 
miners killed in this country is greater
 than in any  other1 being from two to  
four times as large as in any ,european 
country4#gh ,every year of the past     
decade1 #ahij-aijj1 has seen from  #ejj 
to #gjj ,pennsylvania miners killed and 
from #abjj to #afej injured4 ,by        
comparing these figures with the total  
number employed1 it will be found  that 
on the average about one man in every   
#djj employed in the mines is  killed   
yearly and about one out of every #aej  
injured4#gi    ,in #cg ,new ,england    
cotton mills in #aijg1 #adbh employees  
were injured4#hj  ,the ,bethlehem ,steel
 ,works alone had a record of #ibg      
accidents in  #aiji4ha ,in ,new ,york   
,state1 during a year of industrial     
depression1  #aijg1 there were #ad1ede  

accidents recorded1#hb and we know that 
they  are more numerous in prosperous   
years4    ,time and again we find in the
 succinct official reports such terse   
statements as3 ,while working on top of 
boiler was overcome by gas3 dead  when  
found1 struck by pieces thrown from     
bursting emery wheel1 died  from        
injuries ten days later1 heavy piece of 
machinery was being moved  by crane     
which broke1 allowing machinery to fall 
against tank1 which in  turn fell       
against deceased1 crushing his legs and 
injuring him  internally3 death occurred
 one hour later1 caught in belt and     
whirled  around shafting2 death occurred
 before machinery could be stopped1     
struck in face by broken belt2 eyeball  
broken3 death ensued two days  later at 
hospital from effects of ansthetic1     
broken elevator shaft  caused elevator  
to fall with operator2 skull fractured  
and ear  lacerated3 death ensued later  
at hospital 7l4 c41 pt4 ,i1 pp4         
#aji-aac74    ,such are the official    

reports4 ,they give no idea of the      
suffering of the  families1 the         
struggles of widows and orphans when the
 head of the  family has been struck    
down2 they do not show the carelessness 
or greed  that subjects men to the      
danger of working with worn-out cranes1 
or  defective emery wheels1 or weak     
belting2 but they do show1 in connection
  with the other data quoted1 in a cold 
official way1 that hundreds of          
thousands of men and women in this      
country are working for excessive       
hours1 amid unsanitary surroundings1 and
 without proper protection from  the    
dangers of their work3 judging by the   
standard which for the time  being has  
been accepted as just4    ,such         
conditions are hard enough for grown men
 and women to face1 they  are harder    
still for children4 ,and by taking      
children away from school  and putting  
them at work1 frequently beyond their   
capacity1 they are  handicapped mentally
 and physically for making enough later 

on to  support a family4 ,the percentage
 of children so injured cannot be       
definitely arrived at1 but they are     
employed in considerable numbers in  a  
large variety of occupations4           
,sweatshops1 glass factories1 the making
  of neckties1 cigars1 paper and wooden 
boxes1 picture frames1 furniture1  and  
shoes are a few of the widely different 
trades that take their  quota4 ,in the  
,southern cotton mills1 twelve appears  
to be the age at  which children are    
ordinarily expected to begin work2 but  
some of the  mills employ children under
 that age1 now and then1 in fact1 as    
young as  nine1 eight1 and even six     
years4#hc    ,probably the most serious 
and far-reaching effect of child-labor  
is the  prevention of normal            
development1 physical and mental4       
,besides being  deprived of the         
schooling they would otherwise get1     
children are injured  by confinement and
 sometimes worn out by work4 ,in other  
cases the work  is demoralizing because 

it does not call out the best faculties 
of the  children1 or leaves them        
altogether idle for a part of the year4 
,it has been found that children are    
much more liable to accidents in        
factories than adults4 ,thus a recent   
report of the ,minnesota ,bureau of     
,labor shows that boys under sixteen    
have twice as great probability of      
accident as adults1 while girls under   
sixteen have thirty-three sic  times as 
great a probability of being hurt as    
women over sixteen4444 ,it  has also    
been found that overstrain of the       
muscular or nervous system is  much more
 serious in children than in adults1 and
 that children are also  more           
susceptible to the poisons and injurious
 dusts arising in certain  processes    
than grown persons4#hd    ,,footnotes3  
#fc ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,labor1 ,men's   
,ready-,made ,clothing1 p4 #big4    #fd 
,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,labor1 ,glass       
,industry1 p4 #fjg4    #fe ,u4 ,s4      
,bureau of ,labor1 ,wage-,earning ,women

 in ,stores and  ,factories1 p4 #acd4   
#ff ,cf4 ,report of ,commissioner of    
,labor of ,new ,york for #aijh ,vol4 ,i1
  pp4 #gf-ic4    #fg ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of 
,labor1 ,glass ,industry1 p4 #ejj4      
#fh ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of ,labor1    
,strike at ,bethlehem ,steel ,works1 p4 
#aj1 #aiaj4    #fi ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 
,glass ,industry1 p4 #aah4    #gj ,u4   
,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 ,women ,wage-,earners  
in ,stores and ,factories1 p4  #abg4    
#ga ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 ,glass         
,industry1 p4 #dh4    #gb ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 
,lab41 ,bulletin ,no4 #fh1 ,jan41 #aiaj3
 ,phosphorus ,poisoning  in the ,match  
,industry4    #gc ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41  
,glass ,industry1 pp4 #dhe-dhf4    #gd  
,u4 ,s4 ,indus4 ,comm41 ,vol4 ,,xix1 p4 
#ija;f4    #ge ,rep4 ,n4 ,y4 ,state     
,bur4 ,lab41 #aijf1 pp4 ,,cvii-,,cxxxv4 
#gf ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 ,glass         
,industry1 p4 #bdj4    #gg ,bull4 ,u4   
,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 ,may1 #aiji1 p4 #fbf4  
#gh ,monthly ,catalogue ,u4 ,s4 ,public 
,documents1 ,nov41 #aiji1 p4 #ahd4      

#gi ,u4 ,s4 ,indus4 ,com41 ,vol4 ,,xix1 
p4 #ijf4    #hj ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41    
,cotton ,textile ,industry1 p4 #chc4    
#ha ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of ,labor1    
,report on ,strike at ,bethlehem ,steel 
,works1 p4 #aba4    #hb ,report of      
,commissioner of ,labor of ,n4 ,y41     
#aijh1 pt4 ,i1 p4 #fb4    #hc ,l4 c41   
pp4 #de1 #fe1 #hc1 #he1 #hf3 ,u4 ,s4    
,bur4 ,lab41 ,cotton ,textile           
,industry4    #hd ,u4 ,s4 ,industrial   
,commission1 ,vol4 ,,xix1 p4 #iag;f2 cf4
 also ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4  ,lab41 ,cotton     
,textile ,industry1 p4 #che;f4          
,,chapter ,,seven                       
,,industrial ,,conditions3 ,,morals     
,industrial conditions1 as at present   
constituted1 not only injure the  health
 of the body2 they also endanger the    
soul4 ,the ,chicago ,vice  ,commission  
has thus summarized these influences3   
,among the economic  conditions         
contributory to the social evil are low 
wages1 unsanitary  conditions1          
demoralizing relationships in stores1   

shops1 domestic  service1 restaurants   
and hotels3 the street vending of       
children in  selling papers and gums1   
collecting coupons and refuse2 the      
messenger  service of boys1 especially  
in the vicinity of disorderly houses1   
vicious saloons1 dance halls and other  
demoralizing resorts2 employment        
agencies which send servants to immoral 
places2 the rest rooms or  waiting      
places where applicants for work resort2
 too long hours and the  high pressure  
of work2 the overcrowding of houses upon
 lots1 and of  persons in single rooms  
7,report1 #aiaa3 p4 #bcj74    ,when     
inability to secure decent lodging      
forces men and women to occupy  the same
 sleeping rooms1 there must be an       
inevitable lowering of moral  standards4
 ,one case is recorded in ,packingtown1 
where eight  persons--men and           
women--were sleeping in a room          
approximately ten by  fifteen feet4#he  
,when a woman pays less than #a4ej a    
week for board and  lodging1 as many are

 forced to do 7see page #ga;f7 she can  
have no  privacy4 ,if there are men     
lodgers in the house1 the entrance to   
their  room is sometimes through the    
girl's room1 or vice versa4 ,in one     
house  visited1 the women received the  
agent about nine ,p4,m4 in the room of a
  man lodger who had already gone to    
bed4 ,this seemed to be the only        
available sitting room and disconcerted 
no one save the agent 7l4 c41  p4 #fb74 
,the girl who lives away from home in a 
cheap boarding house is no myth4  ,in   
,pittsburgh1 in the garment trades she  
numbers #ch of the total  force2 in the 
wholesale millinery trade #aj2 in the   
mercantile houses  #bj4 ,on the lowest  
estimate1 there are #bcjj of her kind in
  ,pittsburgh4#hf    ,it is not only low
 wages1 as leading to a lack of decent  
housing1 that  has a bad moral effect4  
,all are born with a natural craving for
  happiness1 and long hours of work     
under a nervous strain intensify this   
desire4 ,economic conditions have kept  

most of those in the grip of such  a    
situation from developing the higher    
side of their nature until they  can    
find pleasure and recreation in a       
symphony concert or an epic poem4  ,the 
jaded nerves need a stronger stimulus to
 cause pleasure4 ,the desire  for       
ecstasy1 says ,algar ,thorold1 a keen   
psychological observer1 is at  the very 
root and heart of our nature4 ,this     
craving1 when bound down by  the animal 
instincts1 meets us on every side in    
those hateful  contortions of the social
 organism called the dram-shop and the  
brothel4#hg    ,as a consequence of this
 insatiable longing for pleasure and the
  inability to pay for it1 thousands of 
young women in our big cities  patronize
 public dance halls and other           
questionable places of amusement4  ,the 
code of their social set has come to    
sanction accepting tickets for  such    
places1 refreshments1 etc41 from men met
 haphazard at these  resorts4#hh        
,dance halls are such a serious menace  

to public morals that legislation  has  
become necessary4 ,elizabeth1 ,paterson1
 ,newark and ,hoboken1 ,new  ,jersey1   
,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,st4 ,louis1    
,indianapolis1 ,louisville1             
,minneapolis1 ,seattle1 ,san ,francisco1
 ,kansas ,city1 and ,cleveland are all  
agitating the question of their         
regulation 7,survey1 ,june #c1 #aiaa1 p4
  #cde74 ,a4 ,b4 ,williams1 general     
secretary of the ,humane ,society of    
this  last city1 is quoted as declaring 
that one out of every ten children in   
,cleveland is born out of wedlock4 ,in  
nine out of every ten cases that we     
handle1 the mothers tell us1 ',i met him
 at a public dance' 7l4 c41 p4  #cdf74  
,in ,chicago alone there are about #cjf 
licensed dance halls and nearly #ajj    
unlicensed4 ,among these1 one condition 
is general3 most of the dance  halls    
exist for the sale of liquor1 not for   
the purpose of dancing1  which is only  
of secondary importance4 ,a saloon      
opened into each of #aij  halls1 and    

liquor was sold in #bdj out of #cbh4 ,in
 the others--except in  rare            
instances--return checks were given to  
facilitate the use of  neighboring      
saloons4 ,at the halls where liquor was 
sold practically all  the boys showed   
signs of intoxication by one o'clock 7l4
 c41 p4 #che3  ,louise de ,koven        
,bowen74    ,and just as women who have 
toiled hard all day long1 crave some    
strong  excitement such as can only be  
afforded by the dance hall or a similar 
place1 so men in the same circumstances 
naturally turn to the saloon4 ,it  is in
 the cheerfully lighted1 comfortably    
heated gin-shop1 in the  temporary      
stimulus of liquor1 that insufficient   
food1 unhealthful  surroundings at home 
and at work1 a cold1 uninviting house   
are  forgotten4 ,it is often said that  
workmen would have enough to live on    
comfortably if they did not squander    
their wages in drink1 and that to  raise
 their pay would only be to increase the
 profits of saloon-keepers4  ,in some   

cases this may be true4 ,but in the vast
 majority1 it is probable  that to      
increase their power of getting the     
comforts at home that they  find in the 
saloon would be to lessen the drink     
evil1 rather than  increase it4 ,the    
marvel is not that laborers who come    
home day after day  from hard1 long toil
 to poor food1 cold rooms1 a generally  
comfortless  home should seek out the   
gin-palace1 but that they drink as      
little as  they do4    ,these are some  
of the indirect1 though important1 moral
 results of  economic conditions4       
,oftentimes the direct influences of a  
person's  occupation also make for evil4
 ,the messenger boy1 for instance1 on   
the  streets at all hours and in all    
sections1 can hardly fail to see and    
hear much that no parent would want a   
child of fourteen1 sixteen1 or  eighteen
 to know4 ,indeed1 a great part of his  
employment at night comes  from those   
indulging in debauchery1 and it is his  
most profitable source  of tips4#hi     

,from the nature of the case1 women are 
probably more exposed in their  work    
than men4 ,such occupations as will     
occur to every one1 are manicure        
parlors where girls are peculiarly      
exposed to danger and insults4 ,but     
most important1 because employing the   
largest numbers1 are the  department    
stores4 ,it has been charged over and   
over again1 that many  employers        
knowingly pay wages that are            
insufficient to support a girl in  the  
expectation that she will be subsidized 
by some gentleman friend4    ,how far   
this is true is hard to say2 and it is  
just as difficult to  determine how many
 department-store employees are really  
immoral4 ,the  report of the ,united    
,states ,bureau of ,labor on            
,wage-,earning ,women and  ,children    
combats the idea that immorality among  
them is widespread4  ,nevertheless1     
there is a strong opinion that store    
girls are not all  they should be1 and  
many careful observers have enumerated  

quite a  startling array of individual  
instances where a girl's fall can be    
largely traced to her employment as a   
sales-woman4    ,an investigator for the
 ,chicago ,vice ,commission1 for        
instance1 gives in  the report of that  
body quite a number of cases which are  
said to be  typical4 ,violet works in a 
department store1 salary #e4jj per week4
 ,was  seduced and left home4 ,baby died
 and she solicits on the side to support
  herself4444 ,mag #ah years old4 ,works
 in department store4 ,salary #e4ej  per
 week4 ,tells parents she receives more4
 ,helps support parents and  'solicits' 
at dances for spending money4 ,father is
 sickly4444 ,marcella  7,x#iac71 alias  
,tantine 7,x#ijd74 ,came to 7,x#ije7    
about three years ago1 and  started to  
work in the 7,x#iaf7 department store4  
,one of the managers  insisted on taking
 her out1 which she finally had to do   
'to hold her  job1' as she asserts 7pp4 
#ahg1 #aie74    ,miss ,elizabeth        
,butler1 investigating for the          

,pittsburgh ,survey1  reports the same  
thing in that city4 ,vera ---- she says1
 is twenty  years old4 ,four years ago  
she was employed as a salesgirl at #c4ej
 a  week4 ,after a year she left for    
another store where she was employed as 
a cashier at a salary of #aj4jj a week1 
for making concessions to her  employer4
 ,after two years she left the store for
 a house of  prostitution4444 ,jennie   
---- came to ,pittsburgh from ,akron1   
,ohio4 ,she  had no friends in the city 
and was obliged to be self-supporting4  
,she  obtained a position at #f4jj a    
week as a sales-woman4 ,after five      
months  in the store she consented to be
 kept in an apartment in the ,east ,end4
  ,she still keeps her position in the  
store4444 ,a girl whose father was      
killed by an electric crane was the only
 one of the family old enough to  work4 
,forced by financial needs to accept a  
wage fixed by custom at a  point below  
her own cost of subsistence1 much more  
below the cost of  helping to maintain a

 family of dependents1 she drifted into 
occasional  prostitution4#ij    ,these  
are only particular instances1 it is    
true1 and one must not  generalize too  
widely4 ,but there is undoubtedly       
considerable foundation  for the charge 
so often made and so firmly fixed in the
 public mind4 ,and  if many of the girls
 exposed to such dangers have hitherto  
remained  pure1 we must thank the       
sterling characters inherited from those
 raised  under different conditions1 not
 conclude that the system needs no      
improvement4    ,all these and certain  
less tangible economic influences making
 for evil  have been well summarized by 
the ,minneapolis ,vice ,commission4 ,it 
points  out that the advent of great    
numbers of young girls into industry has
  produced conditions that lead to the  
blasting of thousands of lives  yearly4 
,the chance for the making of           
promiscuous male acquaintances1  the    
close association of the sexes in       
employment1 the necessary contact  with 

the general public1 the new and         
distorted view of life which such  an   
environment compels1 taken with the low 
wage scale prevailing in so  many       
callings and affecting so many          
individuals1 combine to create a        
situation that must inevitably weaken   
the moral stamina and lead to the       
undoing of many4 ,the fault is plainly  
not so much in the individual2 it  is   
rather the results of the industrial    
system4 ,the remedy lies in large  part 
in the reforming of the system 7,report1
 #aiaa1 p4 #abf74    ,some of the       
remedies suggested by this commission   
are higher wages1  better sanitary      
conditions1 and the education of public 
opinion in  this field to the point     
where it will demand a living wage and  
proper  working conditions and social   
conditions for those who serve them in  
industry4#ia    ,nor is this commission 
alone in attributing a great moral      
influence to  economic conditions and in
 looking to the public for a large part 

of the  remedy4 ,in fact1 it was simply 
following in the steps of the ,new ,york
  and ,chicago ,vice ,commissions4#ib   
,and all merely voiced a widespread     
conviction among social workers and the 
public generally4    ,are flesh and     
blood so cheap1 asks the ,chicago       
,commission1 mental  qualifications so  
common1 and honesty of so little value1 
that the  manager of one of our big     
department stores feels justified in    
paying a  high school girl1 who has     
served nearly one year as an inspector  
of  sales1 the beggarly wage of #d4jj   
per week8 ,what is the natural result   
of such an industrial condition8        
,dishonesty and immorality1 not from    
choice1 but necessity--in order to live4
 ,we can forgive the human  frailty that
 yields to temptation under such        
conditions--but we cannot  forgive the  
soulless corporation1 which arrests and 
prosecutes this  girl--a first          
offender--when she takes some little    
articles for personal  adornment4444    

,prostitution demands youth for its     
perpetration4 ,on the  public rests the 
mighty responsibility of seeing to it   
that the demand  is not supplied through
 the breaking down of the early         
education of the  young girl or her     
exploitation in the business world      
7,report1 pp4  #dc-dd74    ,this        
insistence upon the public as being     
really responsible for these  economic  
and moral conditions is significant4    
,for the ,consumers are the  public4    
,each individual of which the public is 
composed is1 in one  aspect1 a          
,consumer1 and it is important to notice
 how widespread is an  insistence upon  
his responsibility in the matter4       
,from this discussion it may be         
reasonably concluded3 7#a7 that many    
persons in many industries are receiving
 less than a living wage1 in the        
present acceptation of that term2 7#b7  
that many persons are being  injured in 
health and limb by long hours1          
unsanitary workshops1 and  improperly   

guarded machinery2 7#c7 that the        
conditions of work often tend  to       
produce vice4    ,the treatment has been
 largely statistical4 ,no matter how    
thorough1  therefore1 it is subject to  
the limitations of this method4 ,sissy  
,jupe  long ago called statistics       
stutterings1 and newer editions of      
,gradgrind have not perfected their     
articulation4 ,statistics are           
necessarily quantitative4 ,they do well 
enough for computing rainfall1 or       
something of the sort1 but human life   
with its pleasures and pains1 its  joys 
and tragedies1 refuses to be labeled and
 ticketed4 ,it is intangible  to such   
gross systems of classification4        
,all the world's coarse thumb      ,and 
finger fail to plumb    the depths of   
happiness and suffering in the least of 
human creatures4    ,,footnotes3    #he 
,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab41 ,women             
,wage-,earners in ,stores and           
,factories1 p4  #aai4    #hf ,e4 ,b4    
,butler1 ,women and the ,trades1 pp4    

#cbj-a4    #hg ,preface to ,dialogue of 
,st ,catherine of ,siena1 p4 #ac3       
,london1  ,kegan ,paul1 #ahif4    #hh   
,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,labor1 ,women            
,wage-,earners in ,stores and           
,factories1 p4  #ge4    #hi ,cf4 ,report
 of ,chicago ,vice ,commission1 p4      
#bdb;f1 and unpublished  reports of the 
,national ,child ,labor ,committee1     
,washington1 ,d4 ,c4    #ij ,women and  
the ,trades1 pp4 #cje-cjf1 #cdh4    #ia 
,italics added4 ,cf4 pp4 #aad1 #aae1    
#abf4    #ib ,survey1 ,apr4 #ae1 #aiaa1 
p4 #ii2 ,may #f1 #aiaa1 p4 #bae4        
,,chapter ,,eight                       
,,what ,,should ,,the ,,individual      
,,consumer ,,do8      ,the question now 
arises1 even supposing the conditions   
are bad and that  a duty of improving   
them rests upon the ,consuming ,class2  
what is the  individual ,consumer bound 
to do8 ,making all due allowances for   
the fact  that we have assumed what is a
 just or unjust wage1 and without any   
intention of forcing this standard upon 

the conscience of individuals1  there   
will be times when a particular         
,consumer is convinced1 e4g4 that  those
 employed at stores he patronizes are   
not being paid anything like  what they 
have a right to receive4 ,what should he
 do8 ,does any  obligation devolve upon 
him8    ,in answering this question1 the
 general principle must be kept in mind1
  that a ,consumer is not bound to act  
under a disproportionately grave        
inconvenience4 ,he is not bound to      
sacrifice considerable personal good  to
 do a very little good to the laborers  
making the articles he buys2  nor is he 
obliged to put himself to any           
inconvenience if no good  whatever is   
going to follow4    ,but if he can      
conveniently buy goods made under just  
conditions rather  than under bad1 and  
the price is no higher1 then he is bound
 to do so4  ,and if he is well off and  
can easily afford to pay a little more  
for the  justly made goods1 he ought to 
buy them1 provided he can be reasonably 

sure that the increase in price will go 
to maintain good working  conditions and
 not simply to swell the manufacturer's 
profits4    ,as ,father ,cuthbert1 a    
,capuchin1 says1 not the employers only 
are  responsible for the oppression of  
workingmen1 but all who patronize  such 
labor contribute to the sin4 ,the       
insatiable yearning to buy cheap        
without any thought as to how cheapness 
is obtained1 this is the  incentive     
which tempts men to buy cheap labor and 
to underpay workmen4  ,were people in   
general not willing accomplices1 there  
would be no  sweating system1 no unfair 
competition4 ,the sin falls not on the  
few  manufacturers but on the many      
patrons who too readily condone the  sin
 of the few for the sake of the         
resultant advantage to themselves4      
,they pay half a penny less for a pound 
of sugar or a shilling or two  less on a
 ton of coal3 what does the public care 
that the shop  assistant or the miner is
 unable to get a human wage8#ic    ,the 

purely individual action of ,consumers1 
however1 can have but little  effect for
 good4 ,for only comparatively few have 
sufficiently developed  social          
consciences to realize the desirability 
of such action2 and even  if more had1  
their means of discovering which goods  
are justly made are  so limited as      
seriously to hamper their activity4     
,the remedy for this difficulty would   
seem to be organization among           
,consumers4 ,there can be little doubt  
that if they united in sufficient       
numbers in patronizing only those shops 
that maintained good working  conditions
 their action would exert considerable  
pressure4 ,the labor  unions have shown 
that the boycott is a powerful weapon4  
,how efficient  it can be1 may be       
guessed from the sums spent by employers
 in opposing  it4 ,astute business men  
do not tilt at windmills1 and if they   
have  fought the legality of the boycott
 in every tribunal in the land1         
including the ,supreme ,court1 it was   

only because they realized the          
compelling power it placed in labor's   
hands4    ,but some greater animus than 
pure philanthropy seems necessary to    
make  ,consumers band together in this  
way on a large enough scale4 ,they need 
the class spirit1 the enthusiasm of     
industrial warfare afforded by the      
trade unions4 ,for though an            
organization of ,consumers has been in  
existence now for more than twenty      
years1 it is forced sorrowfully to      
admit that the good accomplished simply 
through the economic pressure of  its   
members has been but slight4    ,but if 
it had been possible so to unite        
,consumers in a powerful society  for   
the collection of information and the   
distribution of patronage1 it  has been 
asked3 ,would it not have become wofully
 corrupt8 ,can we safely  trust an      
irresponsible club with such power8     
,and1 therefore1 is it wise  for        
conscientious individuals now to join   
this league8 ,for either it  will remain

 practically powerless1 or else it will 
become so strong as  to be a menace4    
,the answer must be that if the         
,consumers' ,league ever does become    
strong  enough to exercise a great      
influence in the industrial world1 it   
will  probably abuse and sell its power4
 ,rich unfair firms may be able to      
bribe those in control to give them a   
recommendation they do not  deserve1 and
 various other kinds of corruption will 
most likely creep  in4 ,but such an     
argument proves too much4 ,if we are to 
give no authority  where it will not be 
misused1 we shall come to anarchy at    
once4 ,for have  not political parties1 
and states and employers and trade      
unions--all1  at one time or another1   
abused power4 ,seldom have men enjoyed  
power for  long without using it for    
selfish ends4    ,but we must not1      
therefore1 destroy all authority and    
power4 ,rather we  should embrace the   
dictum of de ,maistre1 that power must  
be balanced  against power1 one         

organization set to watch another4 ,and 
if it should  happen that a league of   
,consumers became too strong and abused 
its  strength1 it would be time enough  
then to set about checking it by        
building up power somewhere else4    ,so
 far1 however1 there has been no danger 
of such a contingency4 ,the  ,consumers'
 ,league has been active1 earnest1 and  
honest--and sufficient  for the day is  
the evil thereof4 ,the ,league has      
embraced all work that  came to hand    
whether strictly within the economic    
field first marked out  for it1 or      
extending to other preserves4 ,its      
activity in the ,legislative  domain has
 not been inconsiderable1 and it is     
probable that the  influence of         
,consumers will be most marked here in  
the future4    ,there is much talk now  
of minimum wage legislation to guarantee
 laborers  a certain standard4 ,if we   
look upon compulsory arbitration as     
practically the same thing1 we can say  
that it has already been  extensively   

tried4 ,canada1 ,england1 ,australia1   
and ,new ,zealand have  shown that it is
 possible in some fields but the        
controversy always  aroused by a new    
project has not yet subsided            
sufficiently to enable one  to speak    
definitely concerning its success4 ,the 
elaborate system of  state insurance    
against sickness1 accident1 old age1 and
 unemployment1  now in operation in     
,england and ,germany is another        
governmental attempt  to secure a       
certain standard of living for all4 ,and
 the public-schools1  in which rich and 
poor are put on a plane of equality     
regarding  elementary education1 are so 
familiar that we are apt to lose sight  
of  the fact that they are really only  
one link in this chain of state         
intervention to provide the means for   
everybody enjoying certain  advantages  
that have come to be looked upon as     
necessities in our  civilization4    ,in
 our own country during #aiaa1 there was
 much discussion1 some action1  and     

every prospect for still further        
activity along these lines4 ,a          
conspicuous feature was the movement to 
introduce a more equitable  system of   
compensation or insurance for industrial
 accidents4#id ,there  was a            
non-compulsory minimum wage law passed  
recently in ,massachusetts1  and several
 ,states prescribed the rate of pay for 
public work done by  contract4 ,an      
amendment to the ,charter of ,san       
,francisco fixes the minimum  of        
employees on street railways at #c4jj   
per day1 with one and one-half  pay for 
overtime4 ,vermont1 ,wisconsin and      
,south ,dakota have given wages a       
preference over other debts 7l4 c41 pp4 
#hgf1 #hgh1 #hha74    ,it would seem    
then that the legislative field is the  
one in which most  success is to be     
expected4 ,and since the ,consumers are 
the beneficiaries  of labor's exertion1 
they are especially bound to effort in  
this  direction4 ,those who have        
influence and leisure are more bound    

than  those who have but little power or
 opportunity1 but all are obliged to  do
 something4    ,the results of our      
examination of this question may be     
summed up in the  following conclusion3 
,i4 ,assuming that employers are        
violating the rights of their laborers  
then there is a duty incumbent upon the 
,consuming ,class to do what  they can  
to secure these rights4    ,,ii4        
,employers are violating the rights of  
their employees to such an  extent as to
 create a serious social problem4       
,,iii4 ,the individual ,consumer is     
bound to do what he can without serious 
inconvenience to remedy these           
conditions4 ,he can act individually1 by
  joining an organization1 and through  
legislation4    ,should it be asked     
which is the most effective way1 the    
answer would  certainly incline towards 
legislation4 ,if we survey the          
industrial  history of the last quarter 
century1 we can see gain after gain by  
this  method2#ie while the ,consumers'  

,league1 in its strict capacity of an   
organization of purchasers has done but 
little4 ,what it has  accomplished has  
been largely through the advocacy of    
legislation1  rather than by merely     
economic pressure4 ,and so1 while       
,consumers could  doubtless effect      
tremendous changes if they wished1 it   
seems impossible  to get them to        
co-operate in sufficient numbers4       
,nevertheless1 the ,consumers' ,league  
is founded on a great and noble         
principle1 and for the moment ,i want to
 put aside the judicial attitude  and   
enthusiastically chronicle what it has  
done1 and what could be done  along the 
same lines4 ,the ,consumers' ,league is 
unique in the field of  philanthropy as 
affording an opportunity to everyone no 
matter how big  or how little4 ,for by  
its original principle of buying only   
goods made  under fair conditions1 it   
gives a chance to the unimportant       
individual  to share in a great         
philanthropic movement1 somewhat as a   

private does  in an imperial army2 and  
by its activity in the legislative      
field1 it  opens up an opportunity for  
those who have the time1 and talent1 and
  position necessary for effectiveness  
there4    ,and whether or not we look   
upon the dictates of charity and justice
 as  clearly indicating a duty1 whether 
or not one's moral resonance  responds  
to what has been said1 surely we cannot 
deny that here is a  splendid           
opportunity4 ,here is a practical way   
for each and everyone to  play the ,good
 ,samaritan4 ,not all of us can meet men
 along a road who  have been set upon by
 thieves1 bundle them into an           
automobile1 and carry  them to a        
hospital4 ,we cannot all give thousands 
in charity4 ,we cannot  all engage in   
publicly urging reforms by legislation1 
nor give  generously of time in         
philanthropic ministration to the poor4 
,but we can  see to it in the way       
already outlined that some at least of  
our  expenditures go to ward off misery 

rather than foster it4 ,we can see to   
it that we prevent misery from spreading
 at least in one little sphere4         
#if,this is no mere theory4 ,reforms    
have actually been accomplished in  some
 places by the ,consumers' ,league4     
,realizing that to be effective  they   
must be organized1 it is the object of  
members of this ,league to  act as a    
sort of inverted megaphone gathering up 
the weak whisperings of  each individual
 purchaser and blending them with       
thousands of others  until they all     
become one mighty concerted shout that  
must be heard4    ,laborers have known  
the strength of combination in fighting 
industrial  conditions for more than a  
generation2 the aggregations of capital 
have  been growing larger and larger2   
why should not the most powerful of all 
the elements of industrial society1 the 
,consumer himself1 learn by their       
experience8    ,organized in #ahia in   
,new ,york ,city1 the ,consumers'       
,league now has almost  a hundred       

branches in eighteen of the ,united     
,states1 in ,france1  ,switzerland1     
,germany1 and ,belgium4 ,to ,mrs4       
,josephine ,shaw ,lowell is due  the    
credit of its inception4 ,an            
investigation during #ahhi-ij into the  
conditions of work among sales-women and
 cash-children1 which she  directed for 
the ,working ,women's ,society1 forced  
upon her the futility  of starting      
reform from the producing end4 ,the     
competitive system of  industry ties the
 hands of the employer1 while it seems  
impossible  successfully to organize a  
union among women4 ,there was but one   
element  of the economic world left to  
work with--the ,consumer4    ,therefore1
 in ,may1 #ahij1 a public meeting was   
called in ,chickering ,hall1  ,new      
,york1 to discuss the organization of   
this all-powerful factor of  industry4  
,it was decided to found the ,consumers'
 ,league upon the  following platform3  
,i4 ,that the interest of the community 
demands that all workers should         

receive1 not the lowest1 but fair living
 wages4    ,,ii4 ,that the              
responsibility for some of the worst    
evils from which  wage-earners suffer1  
rests with the ,consumers1 who persist  
in buying in  the cheapest markets1     
regardless of how cheapness is brought  
about4    ,,iii4 ,that it is therefore1 
the duty of ,consumers to find out under
 what  conditions the articles they     
purchased are produced1 and to insist   
that  these conditions shall be1 at     
least1 decent and consistent with a     
respectable existence on the part of the
 workers4    ,,iv4 ,that this duty is   
especially incumbent upon ,consumers in 
relation  to the product of women's work
 since there is no limit beyond which   
the  wages of women may be pressed down1
 unless artificially maintained at a    
living rate by combinations1 either of  
the workers themselves or of the        
,consumers4#ig    ,the first step taken 
to carry out these objects was to       
prepare a white  list of stores coming  

up to a certain standard4 ,since it is  
illegal to  boycott1 or to urge persons 
not to deal with stores placed on a     
,black  ,list1 the ,consumers' ,league  
accomplishes the same results by        
persuading persons to buy from firms on 
a white list4 ,once published1          
merchants feel the effects of such a    
list1 and1 to get the patronage of  the 
,league1 volunteer all the good points  
about themselves1 not to  mention the   
bad ones about their competitors4 ,the  
list itself thus  becomes an invaluable 
means of getting information not        
otherwise  obtainable4    ,necessarily  
this list had to be somewhat elastic and
 considerably below  the ideal4 ,the    
people at the head of the ,consumers'   
,league were  practical persons of wide 
experience and they went on the         
principle that  half a loaf is better   
than none at all--that every little bit 
helps4  ,after consultations with the   
employers and the ,working ,women's     
,society1  a standard was adopted from  

which no retreat has been made4         
,whatever  changes have been made1 have 
been on the side of greater strictness4 
,to-day it stands as follows3           
,,wages    ,a ,fair ,house is one in    
which equal pay is given for work of    
equal value1  irrespective of sex1 and  
in which no sales-woman who is eighteen 
years  or over--and who has had one     
year's experience as sales-woman        
receives  less than six dollars a week4 
,in which wages are paid by the week4   
,in which the minimum wages for         
cash-children are three dollars and a   
half per week1 with the same conditions 
regarding weekly payments4              
,,hours    ,a ,fair ,house is one in    
which the number of working hours       
constituting a  normal working day does 
not exceed nine4 ,at least              
three-quarters of an  hour is given for 
luncheon4 ,a general half-holiday is    
given on one day  of each week during at
 least two summer months4    ,a         
,vacation of not less than one week is  

given with pay during the summer        
season4    ,all overtime is compensated 
for4    ,wages are paid1 and the        
premises closed for the seven principal 
legal  holidays1 viz41 ,thanksgiving    
,day1 ,christmas and ,new ,year's ,day1 
,washington's ,birthday1 the ,fourth of 
,july1 ,decoration ,day1 and ,labor     
,day4                                   
,,physical ,,conditions    ,a ,fair     
,house is one in which work1 lunch and  
retiring rooms are apart  from each     
other1 and conform in all respects to   
the present ,sanitary  ,laws4    ,in    
which the present law regarding the     
providing of seats for  sales-women is  
observed1 and the use of seats          
permitted4                              
,,other ,,conditions    ,a ,fair ,house 
is one in which humane and considerate  
behavior towards the  employees is the  
rule4    ,in which fidelity and length  
of service meet with the consideration  
which is their due4    ,in which no     
children under fourteen years of age are

 employed4    ,in which no child under  
the age of sixteen years works for more 
than  nine hours a day4    ,in which no 
child works1 unless an employment       
certificate issued by the  ,board of    
,health has been first filed with the   
employer1 and the name1  etc41 of the   
child has been entered on a register    
kept by the employer4    ,in which the  
ordinances of the city and the laws of  
the ,state are obeyed  in all           
particulars4    ,when it is remembered  
that in #ahia only eight stores in ,new 
,york were  eligible for the standard   
7then less strict71 while to-day there  
are  more than fifty2 that then overtime
 was never paid for1 and fines often    
reduced the pay to almost half1 while   
to-day fines go to a benefit fund1  and 
overtime is paid for1 or a corresponding
 time off is given2 that  then the      
child-labor law was openly violated1 and
 many grown women  received less than   
four dollars-and-a-half1 sometimes less 
than two  dollars1 a week1 while the    

standard now is six2 that the chair law1
  providing one seat for every three    
girls1 was disregarded1 or the girls    
never allowed to use them1 while to-day 
inspectors of the ,state ,labor  ,bureau
 strictly enforce its regulations2 that 
the year after the  influence of the    
,consumers' ,league passed the          
,mercantile ,employers' ,bill  providing
 for the essentials of the above        
standard1 there were twelve  hundred    
infractions reported1 and nine hundred  
under-age children  released from       
drudgery as shipping clerks1 etc43 when 
this advance  towards a decent standard 
of living1 and the considerable part of 
the  ,consumers' ,league in bringing it 
about1 is kept in mind1 the power of    
the purchaser is seen to be no day-dream
 of an idealist1 no mere pretty  theory 
of an arm chair economist4    ,as one   
reform after another was accomplished1  
the ,league turned itself  to new       
labors4 ,to-day it is agitating strongly
 against the cruelties of  such seasons 

as ,christmas1 that should mean peace   
and joy to all4 ,glad  tidings of great 
joy sounds like a hollow mockery to the 
sales-women  and children who work from 
eight in the morning until midnight4    
,therefore the ,league sends out        
thousands of post-cards1 and advertises 
in newspapers1 magazines1 and           
street-cars1 urging persons to shop     
early  out of consideration for the     
employees of stores4 ,the first large   
success from this movement came in #aiaj
 when the leading department  stores of 
,philadelphia1 employing #ce1jjj        
persons1 decided to close at  six       
o'clock during the entire ,christmas    
season4 ,late on the evening of         
,december #a1 the head of one of the    
largest retail firms in the city  called
 up the ,consumers' ,league to say that 
he had good news4 ,i thought  that you  
should certainly be the first to hear   
that we are going to  close early1 he   
said4 ,i congratulate you and the women 
you represent  on what you have enabled 

us to do4#ih    ,all this activity1     
however1 is concerned with the retailer2
 in the  meantime manufacture was not   
neglected4 ,the ,league early saw the   
evils  prevailing in many factories1 and
 therefore decided to carry the         
white-list idea under a slightly        
different form into this field4 ,after a
  thorough investigation by its own     
representatives and consultation with   
the ,state factory inspectors1 the      
,league1 where the situation is         
satisfactory1 allows the use of its     
label guaranteeing that the goods  are  
made under clean and healthful          
surroundings4 ,the conditions under     
which the label is issued are3    #a4   
,the ,state factory law is obeyed4      
#b4 ,no children under the age of       
sixteen are employed4    #c4 ,work at   
night is not required1 and the working  
day does not exceed  ten hours4    #d4  
,no goods are given out to be made away 
from the factory4    ,similar to the    
,consumers' ,league label are the labels

 of various trade  unions4 ,these       
latter1 indeed1 were in the field many  
years before the  ,consumers' ,league   
was even organized4 ,they are based upon
 exactly the  same principle4 ,when a   
factory maintains the conditions        
demanded by the  union1 it is allowed to
 use the label on its goods4 ,anyone1   
therefore1  who buys union-made goods at
 a store where the employees are        
protected  by the retail-clerks union   
can be sure that those engaged in both  
the  production and distribution of     
these articles have obtained their just 
rights so far as this is possible4      
,by having firms on the white list      
handle labeled goods and1 recently1 by  
establishing a store of its own in ,new 
,york1 a market is created for  them    
among the members of the ,league4 ,the  
practicalness underlying the  whole     
management of the ,league is very       
clearly shown here both in the          
dove-tailing of its activities in       
manufacture and distribution and in  the

 appeal made to the self-interest of    
purchasers to buy white goods1          
wrappers1 etc41 made in clean factories 
rather than germ-carrying  sweatshops   
goods4 ,it has been the aim of the      
,league all along to make it  to the    
,consumer's personal advantage to buy   
labeled goods at white-list  stores4    
,the idea is to give him a better       
article and better service for  the same
 money1 the increased cost to the       
manufacturer and retailer to  come out  
of the increased sales4    ,in #ahih the
 various local ,leagues that had sprung 
up in different  sections were united   
into one national organization and the  
activities  became even more important4 
,the sweatshop1 child-labor1 excessive  
hours  for women1 were attacked with    
considerable effect4 ,in many ,states   
the  public conscience was sufficiently 
aroused by reform agencies with which   
the ,league zealously co-operated to    
pass stringent laws1 and the  ,league's 
representatives1 either as private      

individuals or as honorary  inspectors  
of the ,state tried to see that they    
were carried out4 ,if ,new  ,york to-day
 has the strictest child-labor law in   
the ,united ,states1 a  good share of   
the honor is due to the untiring labors 
of an enlightened  ,consumers' ,league4 
,here one concrete instance of these    
activities must suffice4 ,england had   
as early as #ahdd enacted laws          
protecting women1 but1 owing to the     
,constitution of the ,united ,states    
various ,state ,supreme ,courts had held
  that any restriction of the right of  
free contract of adult women was        
unconstitutional4 ,therefore when the   
,state of ,oregon proceeded against a   
laundryman for violation of a ,state    
,law by working women longer than       
allowed by that ,law1 the laundryman    
promptly appealed from the ,state       
,court to the ,united ,states ,supreme  
,court4 ,the local ,consumers' ,league  
thereupon notified the ,national        
,league1 with headquarters in ,new ,york

  ,city1 that information concerning the
 effect of work upon women was          
necessary to win the case before the    
highest tribunal of the ,united         
,states4 ,expert counsel was obtained1  
and ,miss ,josephine ,goldmark1 of the  
,league1 was detailed to collect the    
information4 ,she employed ten  readers1
 some of them medical students1 and     
special privileges were  granted her at 
,columbia ,university ,library1 the     
,astor ,library of ,new  ,york ,city1   
and the ,library of ,congress in        
,washington4 ,the result was a  sweeping
 verdict sustaining the ,state4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,there are two great classes of the     
poor--those who for some reason or      
other do not work1 and those who1 while 
working1 do not receive enough  to      
support themselves and their families4  
,to the former the ,church has  been a  
staunch friend4 ,it is one of her       
glories that her enemies accuse  her of 
fostering pauperism by too lavish       

charity4 ,her hospitals and  orphanages1
 her homes for the fallen and aged1 her 
refuges for the sick  of soul and body  
are dotted over the whole land1 and are 
administered  with a devotion and       
self-sacrificing heroism compelling the 
admiration  of all4 ,as ,john ,boyle    
,o',reilly said1 hers is not            
,organized charity scrimped and iced    
,in the name of a cautious1 statistical 
,christ4    ,but what are we doing for  
that other great class of poor1 those   
who work  but do not receive a just     
compensation8 ,what are we doing in the 
way of  preventive philanthropy1 to keep
 these men from becoming utterly        
destitute8 ,it is for the sublime       
struggle of the underpaid workman that  
our sympathies need now to be aroused4  
,no ,crusader ever fought for the       
,sepulcher with more heroism than many a
 poverty-stricken laborer to  support   
himself and family4 ,day after day he   
takes up the hopeless task1  while      
nearer and nearer yawns the slough of   

pauperism where four million  human     
beings who were once self-respecting    
workmen like himself1 now  crawl in     
lethargic content4#ii ,no waving pennons
 and blare of trumpets1  but a factory  
whistle at #f ,a4,m4 and a chimney      
puffing black smoke summon  him to      
battle with powers stronger than        
,saladin in his might4 ,what  ,robert   
,southwell wrote of himself during      
imprisonment might to-day be  applied to
 millions of wage-slaves3        ,i     
live1 but such a life as ever dies1     
,i die1 but such a death as never ends2 
,my death to end my dying life denies1  
,and life my living death no whit       
amends4    ,yet notwithstanding the     
workman's almost superhuman efforts to  
avoid  pauperism1 once he reaches that  
abyss he loses all desire to rise from  
it4 ,you cannot drive him back into that
 industrial war which is daily  crushing
 better and stronger natures4    ,such  
being the situation1 is it not an       
inspiration to the ,consumer who  longs 

to do something for humanity to feel    
that he is contributing his  mite to    
keep some workmen from becoming paupers8
 ,there are persons1 ,i  know1 to whom  
their utter helplessness in the face of 
all the social  evils oppressing us     
to-day1 has been the keenest suffering4 
,to them this  doctrine of the          
responsibility of ,consumers and the    
plans of fulfilling  it have come as a  
gospel of good news4 ,they have felt    
that they could  now find rest from     
their tortures of conscience3 they have 
felt that  they could now have a purpose
 in life worth living for4    ,and what 
if in our sober moments we must admit1  
that the good we  individually          
accomplish as regards the workman be    
small8 ,what if we are  tempted to look 
upon it as useless8 ,let us take courage
 from the fact  that we are members of  
an organization1 that everything that   
the group  accomplishes is in some way  
attributable to us4 ,one hundred men    
associated together can accomplish much 

more than those same men  working       
separately for the same ends4 ,this fact
 is evident in the case  of a religious 
community4 ,if the members of these     
communities were  scattered as          
individuals over the earth1 how paltry  
would be the results  of all their      
self-sacrifice and devotion compared    
with what it is  to-day4 ,and so each   
individual ,consumer1 banded with others
 in an  organization1 can feel that all 
the work of the whole body is to some   
extent his4 ,his powers of doing good   
are multiplied1 and the mere fact  of   
his association with others multiplies  
their capacities too4    ,but even if   
this were not so1 the mere fact of      
realizing this principle  and           
co-operating with other noble-minded    
persons in its fulfillment will  be an  
immense gain to ourselves and will      
finally result in unexpected  good to   
society4 ,simply to know that we are    
accomplishing some little  mite in the  
field of preventive philanthropy will be

 an inspiration in  our lives4    ,to   
ask ourselves1 not whether a hat be     
exactly the latest style1 not  whether  
it be absolutely the cheapest we can    
get1 but how it was made1  what effect  
is our buying it going to have upon the 
workers and society  in general1 will   
beget an invaluable spirit of           
self-effacement4 ,a  social conscience  
will be generated and grow until it     
becomes a dominant  note in our lives4  
,and from us this gospel of charity and 
justice1 this  good news to men of good 
will1 will spread until it becomes a    
mighty  force for social amelioration4  
,we have passed through ages of         
autocratic tyranny2 the individualistic 
democracy of the last century is waning2
 there is approaching an era of  social 
effort1 social morality1 a recognition  
of social interdependence4  ,the quick  
and sensitive ear1 to quote ,miss       
,scudder1 hears the beat of  a new      
music1 to which men begin to rally4#ajj 
,it is a concerted  harmony1 no mere    

solitary bugle call2 and those who march
 to it are more  or less consciously    
swayed by a new rhythm4 ,for it is      
notable that the  rhythms of life are   
coming more and more to connote harmony 
rather than  melody1 or rather to weave 
many melodic phrasings into one complex 
whole4 ,association--or to use the      
fairer word1 fellowship--becomes a  term
 of increasing modern cogency4    ,what 
matter1 that to any but the superficial 
observer1 the situation  looks dark4 ,it
 may be that the more we study it1 the  
blacker it grows4  ,as we look back upon
 the history of man's strivings for some
 better  social organization1 the       
conflict may seem hopeless4 ,we may be  
tempted  to reflect with ,william       
,morris1 ,how men fight and lose the    
battle1 and  the thing they fought for  
comes about in spite of their defeat1   
and when  it comes it turns out not to  
be what they meant1 and other men have  
to  fight for what they meant under     
another name4    ,but it is nobler to   

say with ,mrs4 ,browning3          ,we  
will trust ,god4 ,the blank interstices 
,men take for ruins1 ,he will build into
        ,with pillared marbles rare1 or 
knit across      ,with generous arches1 
till the fane's complete4        ,this  
world has no perdition if some loss4    
,,footnotes3    #ic ,father ,cuthbert1  
,o4,s4,f4,c41 ,catholic ,ideals in      
,social ,life1 p4  #baa3 ,n4 ,y41 #aijd4
    #id ,bulletin of ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 of   
,lab41 ,jan4 #a1 #aiaa1 p4 #hfi4    #ie 
,cf4 ,mrs4 ,florence ,kelly1 ,some      
,ethical ,gains through ,legislation1   
,n4 ,y41 ,macmillan1 #aije2 ,bulletins  
of ,u4 ,s4 ,bur4 ,lab4 giving resum of  
labor legislation4    #if ,the next few 
pages appeared substantially as here    
given in ,the  ,month1 ,march1 #aiaa1   
under the title ,the ,consumer's        
,opportunity4 ,the  author thanks the   
editor of this magazine for kind        
permission to  reproduce this matter4   
#ig ,historical ,sketch of the ,pioneer 
,consumers' ,league1 p4 ii1  ,consumers'

 ,league of ,new ,york ,city1 #aijh4    
,for further information  address ,mr4  
,v4 ,p4 ,kellogg1 #aje ,e4 #bbnd ,st1   
,new ,york ,city4    #ih ,cf4 ,the      
,survey1 ,dec4 #ag1 #aiaj4    #ii ,cf4  
,hunter1 ,poverty1 ,new ,york1 #aijf4   
#ajj ,hibbert ,journal1 ,apr41 #aiji4   
,,appendix         #a ,constans et      
perpetua voluntas jus suum unicuique    
tribuendi2       voluntaria laesio et   
violatio juris alieni3 ,de ,lugo1 ,de   
just4 et       jure1 ,disp4 ,,viii1     
,sec4 ,i1 n4 #a4       #b ,debitum      
rationale ex necessaria connectione     
mediorum cum fine       necessario      
resultans3 ,theologia moralis           
fundamentalis1 ed4 #b;a1       ,bruges1 
#ahij1 p4 #ahh4       #c ,quoties       
aequalitas non servatur ut venditor     
ultra supremum       pretium1 vel emptor
 emat infra infimum 444 injustitia      
commititur4       ,l4 c41 ,tr4 ,,vii1 n4
 #chj4       #d ,in hac re cooperator   
est1 qui simul cum alio est causa damni1
       sive immediata sive positiva sive

 negativa4 ,non enim in omnibus         
eadem est ratio cooperationis1 sed hoc  
est omnibus commune1 quod       cum alio
 concurrant ad damnum seu injuriam      
damnosam4       ,ballerini ,l4 c41 ,tr4 
,,vii1 n4 #abh3 cf4 ,de ,lugo1 ,l4 c4   
,,xvii1 ,,ii1 #cg4       #e             
,praeferendum est enim commune bonum    
privato4 ,pt4 ,i1 ,tr4 ,,iii1 ,tom4     
,,ix1 ,sec4 ,,iv1 p4 #aaga4       #f    
,cum enim unus homo sit pars            
multitudinis1 quilibet homo hoc ipsum   
quod est1 et quod habet1 est sicut et   
quaelibet pars id quod est1       est   
totius2 unde et natura aliquod          
detrimentum infert parti1 ut            
salvet totum3 #b;a #b;ae1 ,q4#if1 ,a4#d4
       #g ,haec potestas est necessaria 
ad bonam rei publicae humanae           
gubernationem4       ,op4 cit41 ,pt4 ,i1
 ,tom4 ,v1 ,lib4 ,,iii1 ,cap4 #ba4      
#h ,ex damno et periculo1 quod bono     
publico publicaeque securitati          
inferretur si impune id agere liceret4  
,theol4 ,mor41 ,pt4 ,i1 ,lib4 ,i1 ,div4 

,,ii1 ,par4 #d1 n4 #gfa4       #i ,tota 
difficultas consistit in assignanda     
ratione hujus veritatis3       nam licet
 turpitudo haec statim appareat1 non    
tamen facile est ejus       fundamentum 
invenire3 unde 7quod in aliis multis    
quaestionibus       contingit7 magis    
certa est conclusio1 quam rationes1 quae
 variae a       diversis afferuntur ad  
ejus probationem4 ,de ,just4 et ,jure1  
,disp4 ,x1       ,sec4 ,i1 ,num4 #b4    
#aj ,fatendum est esse aliquas practicas
 vertitates humano convictui            
necessarias1 quas homines instinctu     
quodam rationali percipiunt et          
sentiunt1 quarum tamen rationem prorsus 
demonstrativam1 cum eam       iidem     
analytice quaerunt1 difficulter         
inveniunt4 ,videtur voluisse            
natura sive auctor naturae hujusmodi    
instinctu aut sensu rationali           
supplere defectum rationis se           
exercentis3 444 ,inter hujusmodi        
veritates haec quoque forte1 qua de     
agimus1 invenitur4 ,theologia           

,moralis1 ,tr4 ,,vi1 ,sec4 ,,vi1 ,num4  
#aai1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gbg-gbh4         
,,bibliography           ,j4 ,kelleher1 
,private ,ownership1 ,dublin1 #aiaa4    
,capecelatro1 ,cardinal1 ,christ1 the   
,church1 and ,man4 ,st4 ,louis1         
#aiji4         ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,summa 
,theologica1 secunda secundae4          
,de ,lugo1 ,cardinal ,john1 ,de         
,justitia et ,jure4         ,bouquillon1
 ,theologia ,moralis ,fundamentalis1 ed4
 #b;a1 ,bruges1 #ahij4         ,liguori1
 ,alphonsus1 ,theologia moralis4        
,noldin1 ,h41 ,theologia ,moralis1 #c   
vols41 #hth ed41 ,n4 ,y41 #aiaa4        
,ballerini1 ,antonio1 ,theologia        
,moralis4         ,cuthbert1 ,o4 ,f4 ,m4
 ,cap41 ,catholic ,ideals in ,social    
,life1 ,n4 ,y41         #aijd4          
,cunningham1 ,w41 ,christianity  ,social
 ,questions3 ,london1 #aiaj4            
,clark1 ,j4 ,b41 ,essentials of         
,economic ,theory1 #aijg4               
,united ,states ,bureau of ,labor3      
,report on the ,condition of ,woman     

,child ,wage-,earners in the ,united    
,states1 #ai vols41 #aiaj-aiab4         
,charities ,publication ,committee1 ,the
 ,pittsburgh ,survey4                   
,minneapolis ,vice ,commission1 ,report1
 #aiaa4         ,chicago ,vice          
,commission1 ,report1 #aiaa4            
,seligman1 ,e4 ,r4 ,a41 ,the ,social    
,evil1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiab4         ,united  
,states ,bureau of ,labor1 ,industrial  
,hygiene1 #aijh4         ,kelly1        
,florence1 ,some ,ethical ,gains through
 ,legislation1 ,n4 ,y41         #aije4  
,hunter1 ,robert1 ,poverty1 ,n4 ,y41    
#aije4         ,le ,play1 ,f41 ,la      
,reforme ,sociale1 ,tours1 #ahgh1 #c    
vols4         ,missiaen1 ,berthold1 ,o4 
,m4 ,cap41 ,l',appauvrissement des      
,masses1         ,louvain1 #aiaa4       
,clark1 ,j4 ,b41 ,the ,distribution of  
,wealth1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhi4         ,woods1
 ,robert ,a41 ed41 ,americans in        
,process1 ,boston1 #aijc4               
,bliss1 ,wm4 ,d4 ,p41 ed41 ,new         
,encyclopedia of ,social ,reform1 ,n4   

,y41         #aijh4         ,clark1 ,sue
 ,ainslie1  ,edith ,wyatt1 ,making ,both
 ,ends ,meet1 ,n4 ,y41         #aiaa4   
,streightoff1 ,frank ,hatch1 ,the       
,standard of ,living among the          
,industrial ,people of ,america1        
,boston1 #aiaa4         ,butler1 ,eliz4 
,beardsley1 ,saleswomen in ,mercantile  
,stores1 ,n4 ,y41         #aiab4        
,ryan1 ,john ,a41 ,a ,living ,wage1 ,n4 
,y41 #aijf4         ,devine1 ,edw4 ,t41 
,principles of ,relief1 ,n4 ,y41 #aijd4 
,bousanquet1 ,helen1 ,the ,standard of  
,life1 ,london1 #aijh4         ,chapin1 
,coit1 ,the ,standard of ,living among  
,workingmen's ,families in         ,new 
,york ,city1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiji4            
,journal of ,political ,economy4        
,economic ,journal4         ,quarterly  
,journal of ,economics4         ,journal
 of the ,american ,sociological         
,society4         ,annals of the        
,american ,academy of ,political        
,social ,science4         ,the ,survey4 
,international ,journal of ,ethics4     

,,index          ,accidents3 #ij;ff4    
,alphonsus1 ,saint3 ,see ,liguori       
,aquinas3 #aa1 #ah1 #bh1 #bi1 #df       
,ballerini1 ,antonio3 #bb1 #bg1 #bh1    
#bi1 #de        ,bouquillon1 ,thomas3   
#aa        ,bowen1 ,louise de ,koven3   
#ih        ,browning1 ,eliz4 ,b43 #acb  
,butler1 ,eliz4 ,b43 #d1 #dc1 #ea;ff1   
#fg1 #if1 #aja1 #ajb                    
,capecelatro1 ,card43 #i        ,capital
 punishment3 #bh        ,carlyle1       
,thomas3 #ce;f4        ,carver1 ,t4 ,n43
 #fj        ,chapin1 ,coit3 #dc         
,charity3        ,consumers' obligations
 of1 #ca;ff2        duties of1 #aa      
,cheapness3 demand for1 #eh;ff4         
,chicago ,vice ,commission3 #ie1 #ajj1  
#aja1 #ajd        ,child-,labor3 #ic;f4 
,child-,labor ,committee1 ,national3    
#ajj        ,clark1 ,j4 ,b43 #fe        
,common good3 ,scholastic conception of1
 #bh;ff4        ,competition3 #ai;ff1   
#dg;ff1 #ee;f4        ,compulsory       
,arbitration3 #aab        ,conscience1  
,social3 #aca        ,consumers3        

,duties of1 #ac;ff1 #af;f1 #abi;ff2     
individual action1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aad2    
organization among1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acj2   
responsibility of1 #e;ff4               
,consumers' ,league3 #aaj1 #aaa1        
#aad;ff4        ,consumption 7disease73 
#hh;ff4        ,co-operation in evil3   
#ac1 #bc        ,costs of production3   
#fj;ff4        ,crawford1 ,hanford3 #fj 
,cunningham1 ,w43 #bj1 #eh1 #fc         
,cuthbert1 ,father3 #ajh          ,dance
 ,halls3 #ig;f4        ,dangerous       
occupations3 #hf;ff4        ,de ,lugo1  
,card4 ,john1 ,s4 ,j43 #be1 #bf1 #dd    
,department ,stores3 #ajj1 #ajc         
,devine1 ,edward ,t43 #ff;f4            
,dust3 #hg;f4        ,duty3             
definition of1 #aa2        devolution   
of1 #ac;ff4          ,employers3        
duties of direct1 #ab2        liability 
of1 #ag        ,english ,poor ,law3 #fb 
,expenses of production3 #ei;ff4        
,food1 ,insufficient3 #gh;ff4           
,goldmark1 ,josephine3 #abg             
,green1 ,t4 ,h43 #cb        ,gury1 ,j4  

,p43 #aj          ,hibbert ,journal3    
#aca        ,hours of work3 #d1 #hd;f4  
,housing conditions3 #gg;ff1 #ie;f4     
,hunter1 ,robert3 #abh                  
,industrial ,commission1 ,u4 ,s43 #fh1  
#hg1 #id        ,injustice1 definition  
of3 #aa        ,innocent3 indirect      
killing of1 lawful1 #bh                 
,interest3 #ae        ,interest-takers1 
duties of3 #ae          ,justice3       
,consumers' obligations of1 #ac;ff2     
definition of1 #aa2        duties of1   
#aa          ,kelleher1 ,rev4 ,j43 #i   
,kelley1 ,florence3 #aad                
,label3 ,see ,white ,list        ,labor1
 ,n4 ,y4 ,s4 ,bureau of3 #fh;f1 #gd;ff1 
#hh        ,labor1 ,n4 ,y4 ,s4          
,commissioner of3 #hb1 #ia              
,labor1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of3 #af1 #db1   
#dc1 #eb;ff1 #fa1 #fh1 #gj;ff1 #gg;ff1  
#hi;ff1 #if1 #ig1 #aac        ,labor1   
,u4 ,s4 ,commission of3 #hd        ,law3
 binding force of civil3 #bh            
,lehmkuhl1 ,aug43 #bi        ,leo       
,,xiii3 #h        ,liguori1 ,saint      

,alphonsus3 #ah1 #bc1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi     
,living1 ,standard of3 #i1 #ch;ff1 #ff  
,lowell1 ,josephine ,shaw3 #aag         
,maistre1 de3 #aaa        ,mazzini1     
,giuseppe3 #e        ,mercantile        
,employers' ,bill3 #abb        ,middle  
,ages1 ,medieval system3 #ai;f4         
,minneapolis ,vice ,commission3 #ed1    
#ajc        ,morris1 ,william3 #acb     
,mouth1 ,the3 #aaf          ,necessity3 
definition of1 #cc        ,neighbor3    
meaning of1 #ca        ,night work3     
#hd;f4        ,noldin1 ,h43 #bi         
,o',reilly1 ,john ,boyle3 #abg          
,packingtown3 #if        ,paine1        
,thomas3 #e        ,pittsburgh ,survey3 
#ea1 #eb1 #ff        ,pius ,x3 #h       
,poisoning3 #hf;f4        ,poverty3     
#abg;ff4        ,price3 #ah;ff1 #eg;f1  
#fj        ,property3                   
justification of private1 #bi2          
superfluous1 #a1 #cc                    
,prostitution3 #ie1 #aja;ff4            
,rent-takers3 duties of1 #ad            
,right3 definition of1 #aj;ff4          

,ryan1 ,john ,a43 #ae1 #db;f4           
,saloon1 ,the3 #ii        ,scudder1     
,vida3 #aca        ,seager1 ,h4 ,r43 #fa
        ,sidgwick1 ,h43 #fa             
,social argument3 #ac1 #bg;ff4          
,southwell1 ,robert3 #aje1 #abh         
,speeding-up3 #he;f4        ,state3     
authority of1 #bh                       
,state-,insurance3 #aab        ,suarez1 
,francisco1 ,s4 ,j43 #bg1 #bh1 #df      
,subsistence standard3 #ci              
,suicide3 #bi;f4        ,survey3 #fg1   
#ih1 #aja1 #ajd1 #abc          ,thomas1 
,saint3 ,see ,aquinas        ,thorold1  
,algar3 #ig        ,title1 just3 #bb;f4 
,tuberculosis3 #hh;ff4          ,ulpian3
 #aa        ,unemployed3 #ff            
,unemployment3 #fh;f4          ,value3  
#ac1 #ag;ff4        ,ventilation3       
#gi;ff4          ,wage1 ,minimum3 #db1  
#df1 #aab1 #aac        ,wages3 #d1      
#dh;ff1 #fb;ff1 #ff;ff1 #gj;ff2         
right to living1 #i2        standard of 
living1 #h1 #i        ,war3 #bi         
,white ,list3 #ee1 #aah1 #abd1 #abe     

,williams1 ,a4 ,b43 #ih        ,women3  
conditions of work1 #d2        hours of 
work1 #d2        wages1 #d1 #fg         
,work3        conditions of1 #d1 #ea;ff2
        right to1 #i        ,working    
,women's ,society3 #aag1 #aai           
99       99       99       99       99  
,just ,published                        
,my ,unknown ,chum                      
,,aguecheek                             
,foreword by ,henry ,garrity            
,what critical book-lovers say of this  
book3      ,the best book in the        
,english language4      ,a treat for    
those who are regretting that graceful1 
delightful    ,english is a lost art4   
,rev4 ,,charles ,a4 ,,cassidy1 ,world   
,traveler and ,lecturer on ,art and     
,literature3      ,i have read it with  
the greatest of pleasure1 and have      
turned to it    often4 ,i could read it 
a hundred times4 ,it is a great book4   
,its fine    humor1 its depth1 its      
simplicity and high ideals commend it to
 all1    especially the highly          

educated--the scholar4    ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4  
,,monaghan1 the well-known ,lecturer and
 ,educator2 for many years  ,u4 ,s4     
,consul in ,germany3      ,it is one of 
the best1 one of the most wholesome1 one
 of the most    fascinating books ,i    
have ever had in my hands4 ,when ,i get 
a good book    ,i read it more than     
once1 and this is one of the books that 
,i want to    read again and again4     
,members of my household are also       
reading it4                             
,,more ,,criticisms                     
,,on                              ,my   
,unknown ,chum    ,justice ,,cowen3     
,a remarkably interesting book4 ,my     
daughter liked it so much that    ,i    
read it1 too1 and urged her to take a   
copy to ,europe with her4    ,,john ,m4 
,,walker3      ,nothing as yet written  
equals in charm the story of the        
supernal    character and beauty of the 
,english girl and woman--the writer's   
ideal    of girlhood and womanhood--who 
might well have inspired the poet's     

',a perfect woman1 nobly planned1       
,to warn1 to comfort1 and command2      
,and yet a spirit still and bright      
,with something of an angel light4'     
,,joseph ,i4 ,,breen3      ,a splendid  
book2 the only one ,i know that ,i can  
read often or at    random and always   
find therein some new charm4 ,is there  
anything more    delightful than the    
author's description of ,behind the     
,scenes1 of    ,theatre ,alley1 and of  
,napoleon's room at the ,louvre8        
,mrs4 ,,woodrow3      ,a delightful     
book4 ,i liked it so much ,i read my    
borrowed copy twice4            ,at your
 bookseller's1 or sent postpaid to any  
address1 #a4fe                          
,,the ,,devin-,,adair ,,company         
#dcg ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york