,transcrib]'s ,note ,due to limitations ( ?is =mat1 "s typographical features are n possible4 ,italic & bold text is repres5t$ 9 ?is text z italic & bold4 ,f9ally1 ! few sup]script$ *>act]s are giv5 9-l9e1 e4g4 ',ltd' or ',a#a'4 ,! color$ plates & o!r illu/rations _c be giv5 "h4 ,! approximate positions ( ea*1 includ+ any caption text1 is %[n z ,illu/ration3 caption4 ,^? :i* are %[n 9 ! middle ( p>agraphs are position$ at ! ne>e/ p>agraph break4 ,please consult ! detail$ note at ! end ( ?is text = any corrections made1 & = any o!r obs]vations ab\t ! text4 ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,! ,,out-,,door ,,_w ,,s]ies4 ,,! ,,out-,,door ,,_w2 or1 ! ,"y ,collector's ,h&book4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) #ah ,plates 7#af ( :i* are ,col\r$71 & #edi ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,field ,,& ,,woodl& ,,plants4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) #h ,plates 9 ,col\r1 & num]\s o!r ,illu/rations by ,,patt5 ,,wilson1 & f ,photographs4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,briti% ,,butt]flies ,,& ,,mo?s4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) #ab ,col\r$ ,plates & #bda ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,life ,,9 ,,ponds ,,& ,,/reams4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) #h ,col\r$ ,plates & #cca ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) #h ,col\r$ ,plates & ov] #cjj ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,briti% ,,birds4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson4 ,) a ,*apt] on ,/ructure & ,classification by ,,frank ,e4 ,,b$d>d1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #af ,plates 7#h ( :i* are ,col\r$71 & #ajc ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,longmans1 ,,gre5 ,,co41 #ci ,pat]no/] ,r[1 ,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,new ,york1 ,toronto1 ,bombay1 ,calcutta & ,madras4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,i1 ,a ,,rock-,,pool ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore ,,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux ,,au?or ,,( #8,,! ,,outdoor ,,_w' #8,,briti% ,,butt]flies ,,& ,,mo?s' #8,,life ,,9 ,,ponds ,,& ,,/reams' ,,etc4 ,illu/ration ,,) ,,eight ,,plates ,,9 ,,col\r ,,& ,,ov] ,,?ree ,,hundr$ ,,illu/rations ,,9 ,,! ,,text ,,new ,,impression ,,longmans1 ,,gre5 ,,& ,,co4 #ci ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,,new ,,york1 ,,toronto ,,bombay1 ,,calcutta ,,& ,,madras #aibb ,all rights res]v$ ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,fir/ publi%$ 9 ,septemb]1 #aijc4 ,re-issue at ,*eap] ,price1 ,july1 #aiaa4 ,new ,impression1 ,novemb]1 #aibb4 ,made 9 ,great ,brita9 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,preface ,to sea-side naturali/s x mu/ be a matt] ( great surprise t ( ! inhabitants ( our coa/ t[ns & villages1 & ( ! pleasure-seek]s t sw>m on v>i\s p>ts ( ! coa/ dur+ ! holiday season1 s few take a real int]e/ 9 ! natural hi/ory ( ! %ore4 ,! tide fl[s & ebbs & ! re/less waves incessantly roll on ! bea* )\t ar\s+ a ?\ght z to ! nature & cause ( _! movem5ts4 ,! bea* itself teems ) peculi> =ms ( life t are sc>cely notic$ except :5 !y di/urb ! peace ( ! re/+ visitor4 ,! *>m+ vegetation ( ! tranquil rock-pool receives b a pass+ glance1 & ! little _w ( busy creatures t p x are sc>cely obs]v$2 :ile ! wond]ful =ms ( life t inhabit ! %elt]$ nooks ( ! rugg$ rocks betwe5 ! tide-m>ks are almo/ entirely unkn[n except to ! comp>atively few /ud5ts ( ,nature4 ,s g5]al is ?is app>5t lack ( int]e/ 9 ! ?+s ( ! %ore t he :o delights 9 ! /udy ( littoral life & sc5es b seldom meets ) a k9dr$ _s :ile foll[+ 8 pursuits1 ev5 ?\gh ! cr[d$ bea* ( a popul> resort be situat$ 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( 8 hunt+ gr\nd4 ,! sea-side cottag] is too accu/om$ to ! %ore to suppose t he has any?+ to le>n conc]n+ x1 & ?is famili>ity leads1 if n to contempt1 mo/ c]ta9ly to a dis9cl9ation to obs]ve closely2 & ! visitor f t[n (t5 consid]s himself to be too mu* 9 ne$ ( 8 h>d-e>n$ re/ to und]take any?+ t may seem to require en]gy ( ei!r m9d or body4 ,let bo?1 h[ev]1 ca/ aside any pr$isposition to look ^u ! naturali/'s employm5t z ardu\s & toilsome1 & make up _! m9ds to look enquir+ly into ! liv+ _w ar\nd !m1 & !y w soon f9d t !y are l$ onw>d f ! /udy ( "o object to ano!r1 ! employm5t becom+ m & m fasc9at+ z !y proce$4 ,our aim 9 writ+ ! foll[+ pages is to enc\rage ! obs]vation ( ! nature & life ( ! sea %ore2 to give su* assi/ance to ! beg9n] z w %[ him :]e ! mo/ int]e/+ objects are to be f\nd1 & h[ he %\ld set to "w to obta9 !m4 ,practical h9ts are also furni%$ to enable ! read] to successfully e/abli% & ma9ta9 a salt-wat] aqu>ium = ! obs]vation ( m>9e life at home1 & to pres]ve v>i\s m>9e objects = ! purpose ( =m+ a /udy-collection ( ! common objects ( ! %ore4 ,to h giv5 a detail$ description ( all su* objects w\ld h be5 impossible 9 a "w ( ?is size1 b a l>ge numb] h be5 describ$ & figur$1 & ! broad pr9ciples ( ! classification ( m>9e animals & plants h be5 giv5 su* prom95ce t1 x is hop$1 ev5 ! y\ng] read]s w f9d b little difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! approximate positions1 9 ! scale ( life1 ( ! v>i\s liv+ ?+s t come )9 _! rea*4 ,( ! _m illu/rations1 :i* mu/ necess>ily greatly assi/ ! read] 9 und]/&+ ! /ructure ( ! select$ types & 9 ! id5tification ( ! diff]5t species1 a l>ge numb] h be5 prep>$ especially = ?is "w4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,naturali/ #ba ,,iii4 ,,sea ,,angl+ #cd ,,iv4 ,,! ,,m>9e ,,aqu>ium #ea ,v4 ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,m>9e ,,objects #ga ,,vi4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,m>9e ,,objects--,,dissection #ia ,,vii4 ,,! ,,protozoa ,,( ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore #ajb ,,viii4 ,,briti% ,,sponges #aae ,,ix4 ,,! ,,coel5t]ates--,,jelly-,,fi%es1 ,,anemones1 ,,& ,,_! ,,allies #abg ,x4 ,,/>fi%es1 ,,sea ,,ur*9s1 ,,etc4 #aeg ,,xi4 ,,m>9e ,,worms #agb ,,xii4 ,,m>9e ,,molluscs #aij ,,xiii4 ,,m>9e ,,ar?ropods #bef ,,xiv4 ,,m>9e ,,v]tebrates #cjf ,,xv4 ,,sea ,,we$s #cdc ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,fl[]+ ,,plants ,,( ,,! ,,sea-,,side #cia ,,index #dbe ,,li/ ,,( ,,col\r$ ,,plates ,drawn by ,,mr4 ,,rob]t ,,lillie & reproduc$ by ,,messrs4 ,,&r ,,sleigh1 ,,ltd41 ,bu%ey4 ,,plate ,i--,a ,,rock-,,pool ,frontispiece ,,plate ,,ii--,,sea ,,anemones ,to face p4 #adb #a1 #b1 #c4 ,act9ia mesembryan!mum4 #d4 ,c>yophyllia ,smi?ii4 #e4 ,tealia crassicornis4 #f4 ,sag>tia bellis4 #g4 ,balanophyllia regia4 #h4 ,act9oloba dian?us4 ,,plate ,,iii--,,sea ,,anemones ,to face p4 #aej #a4 ,sag>tia troglodytes4 #b4 0 v5u/a4 #c4 ,act9ia glauca4 #d4 0 *iococca4 #e4 ,bunodes ,ballii4 #f4 0 gemmacea4 #g4 ,an!a c]eus4 #h4 ,sag>tia rosea4 ,,plate ,,iv--,,e*9od]ms ,to face p4 #afh #a4 ,a/]ias rub5s4 #b4 ,gonia/] eque/ris4 #c4 ,ophio?rix fragilis4 #d4 ,e*9oc>dium cordatum4 #e4 ,e*9us mili>is4 #f4 0 escul5tus4 ,,plate ,v--,,molluscs ,to face p4 #bbb #a4 ,sol5 ensis4 #b4 ,trivia europa4 #c4 ,tro*us umbilicatus4 #d4 0 magnus4 #e4 ,littor9a littorea4 #f4 0 rudis4 #g4 ,ham9ea 7,bulla7 hydatis4 #h4 ,tell9a4 #i4 ,capulus 7,pileopsis7 hung>icus4 #aj4 ,*rysodomus 7,fusus7 antiquus4 #aa4 ,bucc9um undatum4 #ab1 #ac4 ,scal>ia communis4 #ad4 ,pect5 op]cul>is4 #ae4 v>ius4 #af4 maximus4 ,,plate ,,vi--,,cru/acea4 ,to face p4 #bij #a4 ,gonoplax angulata4 #b4 ,xan?o florida4 #c4 ,portunus pub]4 #d4 ,polybius ,h5sl[ii4 #e4 ,porcellana platy*eles4 ,,plate ,,vii--,,seawe$s ,to face p4 #ced #a4 ,fucus nodosus4 #b4 ,nitophyllum lac]atum4 #c4 ,codium tom5tosum4 #d4 ,pad9a pavonia4 #e4 ,porphyra lac9iata 7vulg>is74 ,,plate ,,viii--,,seawe$s ,to face p4 #chd #a4 ,*orda filum4 #b4 ,fucus vesiculosus4 #c4 0 canaliculatus4 #d4 ,deless]ia 7,maug]ia7 sangu9ea4 #e4 ,rhodym5ia palmata4 #f4 ,*ondrus crispus4 #g4 ,ulva lactuca4 ,,o!r ,,illu/rations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,*alk ,,cliff #c #b4 ,,:itecliff 7,,*alk71 ,,dorset #d #c4 ,,p5lee ,,po9t1 ,,cornwall #e #d4 ,,balanus ,,%ells #f #e4 ,a ,,clu/] ,,( ,,mussels #g #f4 ,,break]s #h #g4 ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,tide-,,produc+ ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,moon #aj #h4 ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,tides #aa #i4 ,,spr+ ,,tides ,,at ,,full ,,moon #ab #aj4 ,,spr+ ,,tides ,,at ,,new ,,moon #ab #aa4 ,,neap ,,tides #ac #ab4 ,,*>t ,,%[+ ,,! ,,relative ,,times ,,( ,,high ,,tide ,,on ,,diff]5t ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,briti% ,,coa/ #af #ac4 ,,! ,,vasculum #bb #ad4 ,,wire ,,r+ ,,= ,,net #bd #ae4 ,,net ,,frame ,,) ,,curv$ ,,po9t #bd #af4 ,,rhomboidal ,,frame ,,= ,,net #bd #ag4 ,,rhomboidal ,,net #be #ah4 ,,semicircul> ,,net #be #ai4 ,,! ,,dr$ge #be #bj4 ,,! ,,crab-,,pot #bf #ba4 ,,an ,,old ,,bird-,,cage ,,us$ ,,z ,a ,,crab-,,pot #bg #bb4 ,a ,,"y ,,naturali/ ,,at ,,"w #cb #bc4 ,a ,,good ,,hunt+-,,gr\nd ,,on ,,! ,,corni% ,,coa/ #cc #bd4 ,,r\nd ,,b5d ,,hook ,,) ,,flatt5$ ,,end #cg #be4 ,,lim]ick ,,hook1 ,,ey$ #cg #bf4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,atta*+ ,,snood ,,to ,,flatt5$ ,,hook #ch #bg4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,atta*+ ,,snood ,,to ,,ey$ ,,hook #ch #bh4 ,,! ,,lugworm #ci #bi4 ,,! ,,ragworm #dj #cj4 ,,digg+ ,,= ,,bait #da #ca4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,op5+ ,a ,,mussel #db #cb4 ,,fi%+ ,,f ,,! ,,rocks #df #cc4 ,,! ,,pat]no/] #dh #cd4 ,,section ,,( ,,an ,,aqu>ium ,,con/ruct$ ,,) ,a ,,mixture ,,( ,,cem5t ,,& ,,s& #ed #ce4 ,,cem5t ,,aqu>ium ,,) ,a ,,glass ,,plate ,,9 ,,front #ee #cf4 ,,aqu>ium ,,( ,,wood ,,) ,,glass ,,front #ef #cg4 ,,hexagonal ,,aqu>ium ,,con/ruct$ ,,( ,,angle ,,z9c1 ,,) ,,glass ,,sides #eg #ch4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,a]at+ ,,! ,,wat] ,,( ,,an ,,aqu>ium #fe #ci4 ,,aqu>ium ,,fitt$ ,,) ,,app>atus ,,= ,,p]iodic ,,outfl[ #fg #dj4 ,,j>s ,,= ,,pres]v+ ,,anatomical ,,& ,,biological ,,specim5s #gf #da4 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,/ages ,,9 ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,a ,,small ,,specim5 ,,tube #gg #db4 ,,small ,,specim5 ,,tube ,,m\nt$ ,,on ,a ,,c>d #gh #dc4 ,,small ,,crab ,,m\nt$ ,,on ,a ,,c>d #hb #dd4 ,,spr+ ,,= ,,hold+ ,,toge!r ,,small ,,bivalve ,,%ells #hd #de4 ,,! ,,triplet ,,magnifi] #ib #df4 ,a ,,small ,,dissect+ ,,tr\gh #ic #dg4 ,,cell ,,= ,,small ,,liv+ ,,objects #ie #dh4 ,,%eet ,,( ,,cork ,,on ,,?9 ,,%eet ,,lead #ii #di4 ,,weight$ ,,cork ,,= ,,dissect+ ,,tr\gh #ii #ej4 ,,! ,,amoeba1 ,,highly ,,magnifi$ #ajb #ea4 ,,%[+ ,,*anges ,,( ,,=m #ajc #eb4 ,,fe$+ #ajc #ec4 ,,divid+ #ajd #ed4 ,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,=am9if]s1 ,,magnifi$ #aje #ee4 ,a ,,spiral ,,=am9if] ,,%ell #ajf #ef4 ,a ,,=am9if] ,,out ,,( ,,its ,,%ell #ajf #eg4 ,,! ,,same ,,=am9if] 7,,fig4 #ef7 ,,z ,,se5 ,,:5 ,,alive #ajg #eh4 ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,%ell ,,( ,a ,,comp\nd ,,=am9if] #ajg #ei4 ,,section ,,( ,a ,,nummulite ,,%ell #ajh #fj4 ,globig]9a bulloides1 ,,z ,,se5 ,,:5 ,,alive1 ,,magnifi$ #ajh #fa4 ,,section ,,( ,a ,,piece ,,( ,,nummulitic ,,lime/one #aji #fb4 ,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,radiol>ian ,,%ells1 ,,magnifi$ #aaa #fc4 ,,?ree ,,infusorians1 ,,magnifi$ #aac #fd4 ,a ,,phosphoresc5t ,,m>9e ,,infusorian 7,noctiluca71 ,,magnifi$ #aad #fe4 ,,section ,,( ,a ,,simple ,,sponge #aaf #ff4 ,,diagrammatic ,,section ,,( ,a ,,portion ,,( ,a ,,complex ,,sponge #aag #fg4 ,,horny ,,network ,,( ,a ,,sponge1 ,,magnifi$ #aah #fh4 ,grantia compressa #abj #fi4 ,,spicules ,,( ,grantia1 ,,magnifi$ #abj #gj4 ,sycon ciliatum #aba #ga4 ,leucosol5ia botryoides1 ,,) ,,portion ,,magnifi$ #aba #gb4 ,*al9a oculata #abb #gc4 ,hali*ondria panicea #abc #gd4 ,,spicules ,,( ,hali*ondria1 ,,magnifi$ #abd #ge4 ,,an ,,oy/] ,,%ell1 ,,bor$ ,,by ,cliona #abd #gf4 ,,spicules ,,( ,cliona #abe #gg4 ,,?read ,,cells ,,( ,a ,,coel5t]ate1 ,,magnifi$ #abg #gh4 ,,! ,,squirrel',s-,,tail ,,sea ,,fir 7,s]tul>ia arg5tea71 ,,) ,a ,,portion ,,enl>g$ #abh #gi4 ,s]tul>ia filicula #abi #hj4 cupress9a #acj #ha4 ,,! ,,h]r+-,,bone ,,polype 7,halecium halec9um7 #aca #hb4 ,tubul>ia indivisa #acb #hc4 ,,! ,,bottle ,,bru% 7,?ui>ia ?uja7 #acb #hd4 ,ant5nul>ia ant5nia #acc #he4 ,aurelia aurita #ace #hf4 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,/ages ,,( ,aurelia #acf #hg4 ,rhizo/oma #acf #hh4 ,*rysaora #acf #hi4 ,cydippe pileus #acg #ij4 ,,section ,,( ,,an ,,anemone #aci #ia4 ,,/++ ,,cells ,,( ,,anemone1 ,,highly ,,magnifi$ #adj #ib4 ,,diagrammatic ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,an ,,anemone #adj #ic4 ,,l>va ,,( ,,anemone #adj #id4 ,,! ,,trumpet ,,anemone 7,aiptasia ,c\*ii71 ,,cornwall2 ,,deep ,,wat] #add #ie4 ,pea*ia ha/ata1 ,s4 ,,devon #ade #if4 ,sag>tia pallida1 ,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall #adf #ig4 ,sag>tia nivea1 ,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall #adg #ih4 ,corynactus viridis1 ,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall #adh #ii4 ,bunodes ?allia1 ,,we/ ,,coa/ #aej #ajj4 ,bunodes gemmacea1 ,,) ,,t5tacles ,,retract$ #aea #aja4 ,c>yophyllia cya?us #aeb #ajb4 ,sag>tia p>asitica #aec #ajc4 ,,! ,,cloak ,,anemone 7,adamsia palliata7 ,,on ,a ,,:elk ,,%ell1 ,,) ,,h]mit ,,crab #aed #ajd4 ,,l>va ,,( ,,! ,,brittle ,,/>fi% #aeh #aje4 ,,l>va ,,( ,,! ,,fea!r ,,/> #afj #ajf4 ,,! ,,rosy ,,fea!r ,,/> #afj #ajg4 ,,! ,,common ,,brittle ,,/> #afb #ajh4 ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,sp9e ,,( ,a ,,sea ,,ur*9 #afe #aji4 ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,,) ,,sp9es ,,remov$ ,,on ,,"o ,,side #aff #aaj4 ,,apex ,,( ,,%ell ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 #aff #aaa4 ,,%ell ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,,) ,,tee? ,,protrud+ #afg #aab4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,%ell ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 #afg #aac4 ,,ma/icatory ,,app>atus ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 #afg #aad4 ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,,dissect$1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,dige/ive ,,tube #afh #aae4 ,,! ,,sea ,,cucumb] #agj #aaf4 ,a ,,turbell>ian1 ,,magnifi$ #age #aag4 ,ar5icola piscatorum #agh #aah4 ,,! ,,sea ,,m\se #agi #aai4 ,,tube-,,build+ ,,worms3 ,t]ebella1 ,s]pula1 ,sabella #ahb #abj4 ,t]ebella ,,remov$ ,,f ,,its ,,tube #ahc #aba4 ,a ,,tube ,,( ,s]pula ,,atta*$ ,,to ,a ,,%ell #ahe #abb4 ,s]pula ,,remov$ ,,f ,,its ,,tube #ahf #abc4 ,,! ,,sea ,,mat 7,flu/ra7 #ahg #abd4 ,flu/ra ,,9 ,,its ,,cell1 ,,magnifi$ #ahh #abe4 ,,sea ,,squirt #ahi #abf4 ,,l>v ,,( ,,molluscs #aia #abg4 ,,%ell ,,( ,,! ,,prickly ,,cockle 7,c>dium aculeatum7 ,,%[+ ,,umbo ,,& ,,h+e2 ,,also ,,! ,,int]ior ,,%[+ ,,! ,,tee? #aib #abh4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,bivalve ,,%ell1 ,,%[+ ,,muscul> ,,sc>s ,,& ,,pallial ,,l9e #aic #abi4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,a ,,lamellibran* #aid #acj4 ,mytilus edulis1 ,,) ,,byssus #aie #aca4 ,a ,,bivalve ,,%ell 7,tapes virg9eana7 #aif #acb4 ,pholas dactylus #aii #acc4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,valve2 ,,& ,pholadidea ,,) ,,animal #bja #acd4 ,,! ,,%ip ,,worm #bjb #ace4 #a4 ,t]$o navalis4 #b4 ,t]$o norvegica #bjb #acf4 ,ga/ro*na modiol9a #bjc #acg4 #a4 ,?racia phaseol9a4 #b4 ,?racia pubesc5s1 ,,%[+ ,,palliall9e #bjd #ach4 #a4 ,mya truncata4 #b4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,%ell4 #c4 ,mya ar5>ia4#d4 ,corbula nucleus #bje #aci4 ,sol5 siliqua #bjf #adj4 #a4 ,sol5 ensis4 #b4 ,c]ati-sol5 legum54 #c4 ,solecurtus c&idus #bjg #ada4 ,tell9id #bjh #adb4 #a4 ,lutr>ia elliptica4 #b4 ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,h+e ,,( ,lutr>ia1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,c>tilage ,,pit4 #c4 ,macra /ultorum4 #d4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,same ,,%[+ ,,pallial ,,l9e #baj #adc4 ,v5]id #baa #add4 ,cypr9id #bac #ade4 ,galeomma ,turtoni #bad #adf4 #a4 ,c>dium pygmum4 #b4 ,c>dium fasciatum4 #c4 ,c>dium ru/icum #bae #adg4 ,c>dium aculeatum #bae #adh4 ,pectunculus glycim]is1 ,,) ,,portion ,,( ,,valve ,,%[+ ,,tee?1 ,,& ,arca tetragona #baf #adi4 ,mytilus edulis #bag #aej4 #a4 ,modiola modiolus4 #b4 ,modiola tulipa4 #c4 ,cr5ella discors #bah #aea4 ,dreiss5a polymorpha #bai #aeb4 ,avicula1 ,,& ,p9na pect9ata #bbj #aec4 #a4 ,anomia ephippium4 #b4 ,pect5 tigris4 #c4 ,pect51 ,,animal ,,9 ,,%ell #bbb #aed4 ,t]ebratul9a4 ,,! ,,upp] ,,figure ,,repres5ts ,,! ,,int]ior ,,( ,,! ,,dorsal ,,valve #bbd #aee4 ,,"u ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,%ell ,,( ,natica cat5a1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,umbilicus2 ,,& ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,%ell1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,"r-,,h&$ ,,spiral #bbe #aef4 ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,%ell ,,( ,,! ,,:elk1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,columella #bbf #aeg4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,:elk1 ,,! ,,%ell ,,be+ ,,remov$ #bbh #aeh4 ,a ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,l+ual ,,ribbon ,,( ,,! ,,:elk1 ,,magnifi$2 ,,& ,a ,,s+le ,,r[ ,,( ,,tee? ,,on ,a ,,mu* ,,l>g] ,,scale #bbi #aei4 ,,egg ,,cases ,,( ,,! ,,:elk #bcj #afj4 ,,pt]opods #bca #afa4 ,,nudibran*s #bcd #afb4 #bce #afc4 ,,%ells ,,( ,,tectibran*s #bcf #afd4 ,,*iton ,,%ells #bch #afe4 ,,%ells ,,( ,d5talium #bch #aff4 ,patellid #bci #afg4 ,calyptra s95sis #bda #afh4 ,fissurellid #bda #afi4 ,haliotis #bdb #agj4 ,ian?9a fragilis #bdb #aga4 ,tro*us zizyph9us4 #b4 ,,"u ,,side ,,( ,,%ell4 #c4 ,tro*us magnus4 #d4 ,adeorbis subc>9atus #bdd #agb4 ,rissoa labiosa ,,& ,lacuna pallidula #bdd #agc4 ,,section ,,( ,,%ell ,,( ,turritella #bde #agd4 ,turritella communis ,,& ,ccum tra*ea #bde #age4 ,c]i?ium reticulatum ,,& ,aporrhais pes-pelicani #bde #agf4 ,aporrhais pes-pelicani1 ,,%[+ ,,bo? ,,%ell ,,& ,,animal #bdf #agg4 #a4 ,odo/omia plicata4 #b4 ,eulima polita4 #c4 ,aclis supranitida #bdf #agh4 ,cypra 7,trivia7 europa #bdg #agi4 #a4 ,ovulum patulum4 #b4 ,erato lvis #bdh #ahj4 ,mangelia septangul>is ,,& ,mangelia turricula #bdh #aha4 #a4 ,purpura lapillus4 #b4 ,,egg ,,cases ,,( ,purpura4 #c4 ,nassa reticulata #bdi #ahb4 ,murex er9aceus #bdi #ahc4 ,,octopus #bea #ahd4 ,loligo vulg>is ,,& ,,its ,,p5 #beb #ahe4 ,sepiola atlantica #beb #ahf4 ,sepia (fic9alis ,,& ,,its ',,bone' #bec #ahg4 ,,eggs ,,( ,sepia #bed #ahh4 ,,! ,,n]ve-,,*a9 ,,( ,,an ,,ar?ropod 7,,lob/]7 #beg #ahi4 ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,comp\nd ,,eye ,,( ,,an ,,ar?ropod #bfj #aij4 ,,f\r ,,/ages ,,9 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,%ore ,,crab #bfa #aia4 ,,! ,,b>nacle #bfa #aib4 ,,f\r ,,/ages ,,9 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,acorn ,,b>nacle #bfb #aic4 ,a ,,clu/] ,,( ,,acorn ,,%ells #bfc #aid4 ,,%ell ,,( ,,acorn ,,b>nacle 7,balanus7 #bfc #aie4 ,,! ,,acorn ,,b>nacle 7,balanus porcatus7 ,,) ,,app5dages ,,protrud$ #bfd #aif4 ,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,m>9e ,,copepods1 ,,magnifi$ #bfe #aig4 ,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,o/racode ,,%ells #bfe #aih4 ,evadne #bff #aii4 ,,m>9e ,,isopods #bfg #bjj4 ,,m>9e ,,amphipods #bfh #bja4 ,,! ,,mantis ,,%rimp 7,squilla ,mantis7 #bgj #bjb4 ,,! ,,opossum ,,%rimp 7,mysis *amleon7 #bga #bjc4 ,,p>ts ,,( ,,lob/]',s ,,%ell1 ,,sep>at$1 ,,& ,,view$ ,,f ,,above #bgb #bjd4 ,a ,,segm5t ,,( ,,! ,,abdom5 ,,( ,a ,,lob/] #bgb #bje4 ,,app5dages ,,( ,a ,,lob/] #bgc #bjf4 ,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,lob/] #bgd #bjg4 ,,! ,,sp9y ,,lob/] 7,pal9urus vulg>is7 #bge #bjh4 ,,! ,,norway ,,lob/] 7,nephrops norvegicus7 #bgf #bji4 #a4 ,,! ,,mud-,,bor] 7,gebia /ellata74 #b4 ,,! ,,mud-,,borr[] 7,callianassa subt]ranea7 #bgg #baj4 ,,! ,,common ,,%rimp 7,crangon vulg>is7 #bgh #baa4 ,,! ,,prawn 7,palmon s]ratus7 #bgi #bab4 ,dromia vulg>is #bhb #bac4 ,,! ,,h]mit ,,crab ,,9 ,a ,,:elk ,,%ell #bhb #bad4 ,,! ,,long-,,arm$ ,,crab 7,cory/es ,cassivelaunus7 #bhg #bae4 ,,spid] ,,crabs ,,at ,,home #bhh #baf4 ,,! ,,?ornback ,,crab 7,maia ,squ9ado7 #bij #bag4 ,,! ,,pea ,,crab 7,p9no!res pisum7 #bij #bah4 ,,! ,,common ,,%ore ,,crab 7,c>c9us mnas7 #bia #bai4 ,,! ,,%ore ,,spid] #bid #bbj4 ,,! ,,leg ,,( ,,an ,,insect #bie #bba4 ,,tra*ea ,,( ,,an ,,insect1 ,,magnifi$ #bif #bbb4 ,,sea-,,%ore ,,insects #bih #bbc4 ,,m>9e ,,beetles ,,( ,,! ,,g5us ,bembidium #cjb #bbd4 ,,m>9e ,,beetles #cjc #bbe4 ,,transv]se ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,bony ,,framework ,,( ,a ,,typical ,,v]tebrate ,,animal #cjf #bbf4 ,,! ,,sea ,,lamprey #cji #bbg4 ,,! ,,pil*>d #caj #bbh4 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,fi% 7,,p]*7 #cae #bbi4 ,,! ,,int]nal ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,h]r+ #caf #bcj4 ,,! ,,egg-,,case ,,( ,,! ,,dogfi% #cai #bca4 ,,! ,,smoo? ,,h\nd #cbj #bcb4 ,,! ,,common ,,eel #cbc #bcc4 ,,! ,,less] ,,s& ,,eel #cbf #bcd4 ,,! ,,?ree-,,be>d$ ,,rockl+ #cbg #bce4 ,,! ,,snake ,,pipe-,,fi% #cbh #bcf4 ,,! ,,ra9b[ ,,wrass 7,labrus julis7 #ccj #bcg4 ,,! ,,corni% ,,suck] #ccj #bch4 ,,! ,,fifte5-,,sp9$ ,,/ickleback ,,& ,,ne/ #cca #bci4 ,,! ,,smoo? ,,bl5ny #ccc #bdj4 ,,! ,,butt]fi% #ccd #bda4 ,,! ,,black ,,goby #cce #bdb4 ,,! ,,fa!r ,,la%] #cce #bdc4 ,,! ,,less] ,,weav] #ccg #bdd4 ,,! ,,common ,,porpoise #cda #bde4 ,calli?amnion roseum #cei #bdf4 ,calli?amnion tetricum #cei #bdg4 ,griffi?sia corall9a #cfa #bdh4 ,halurus equisetifolius #cfa #bdi4 ,pilota plumosa #cfa #bej4 ,c]amium diaphanum #cfc #bea4 ,plocamium #cff #beb4 ,deless]ia alata #cfh #bec4 ,deless]ia hypoglossum #cfh #bed4 ,laur5cia p9natifida #cga #bee4 ,laur5cia obtusa #cga #bef4 ,polysiphonia fa/igiata #cgc #beg4 ,polysiphonia p>asitica #cgd #beh4 ,polysiphonia ,brodii #cgd #bei4 ,polysiphonia nigresc5s #cgd #bfj4 ,ectoc>pus granulosus #cgh #bfa4 ,ectoc>pus siliculosus #cgh #bfb4 ,ectoc>pus ,m]t5sii #cgh #bfc4 ,sphacel>ia cirrhosa #cgi #bfd4 ,sphacel>ia plumosa #cgi #bfe4 ,sphacel>ia radicans #chj #bff4 ,clado/ephus spongiosus #chj #bfg4 ,*ord>ia flagelli=mis #chj #bfh4 ,lam9>ia bulbosa #chd #bfi4 ,lam9>ia sac*>9a #chd #bgj4 ,al>ia escul5ta #che #bga4 ,sporo*nus p$unculatus #che #bgb4 ,desm>e/ia ligulata #chf #bgc4 ,himan?alia lorea #chg #bgd4 ,cy/oseira ericoides #chh #bge4 ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,/em ,,( ,a ,,monocotyl$on #cia #bgf4 ,,leaf ,,( ,a ,,monocotyl$on #cib #bgg4 ,,exp&$ ,,spikelet ,,( ,,! ,,oat #cic #bgh4 ,,! ,,sea ,,lyme ,,grass #cie #bgi4 ,knappia agro/idea #cig #bhj4 ,,! ,,dog',s-,,too? ,,grass #cig #bha4 ,,! ,,re$ ,,can>y ,,grass #cig #bhb4 ,,male ,,& ,,female ,,fl[]s ,,( ,,c>ex1 ,,magnifi$ #cii #bhc4 ,,! ,,sea ,,s$ge #djj #bhd4 ,,! ,,curv$ ,,s$ge #djj #bhe4 ,,! ,,great ,,sea ,,ru% #djj #bhf4 ,,! ,,broad-,,leav$ ,,grass ,,wrack #dja #bhg4 ,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,arr[ ,,grass #dja #bhh4 ,,! ,,common ,,asp>agus #dja #bhi4 ,,! ,,sea ,,spurge #djc #bij4 ,,! ,,purple ,,spurge #djd #bia4 ,,! ,,sea ,,buck?orn #djd #bib4 ,*5opodium botryoides #dje #bic4 ,,! ,,fro/$ ,,sea ,,ora*e #djf #bid4 ,,! ,,prickly ,,salt ,,wort #djf #bie4 ,,! ,,creep+ ,,glass ,,wort #djg #bif4 ,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,planta9 #djh #big4 ,,! ,,sea ,,lav5d] #djh #bih4 ,,! ,,dw>f ,,c5taury #daj #bii4 ,,! ,,sea ,,samphire #dab #cjj4 ,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,ev]la/+ ,,pea #dac #cja4 ,,! ,,sea ,,/ork',s-,,bill #dad #cjb4 ,,! ,,sea ,,campion #daf #cjc4 ,,! ,,sea ,,pe>l ,,wort #dag #cjd4 ,,! ,,%rubby ,,mignonette #dag #cje4 ,,! ,,wild ,,cabbage #dah #cjf4 ,,! ,,isle ,,( ,,man ,,cabbage #dah #cjg4 ,,! ,,great ,,sea ,,/ock #dai #cjh4 ,,! ,,ho>y ,,%rubby ,,/ock #dai #cji4 ,,! ,,scurvy ,,grass #dai #caj4 ,,! ,,sea ,,radi% #dai #caa4 ,,! ,,sea ,,rocket #dbj #cab4 ,,! ,,sea ,,kale #dba #cac4 ,,! ,,horn$ ,,poppy #dbb ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,g5]al ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore ,:at are ! attractions :i* s (t5 entice u to ! sea %ore1 :i* give su* *>m to a ramble along ! cliffs or ! bea*1 & :i* w s frequ5tly con/ra9 ! mo/ active w&]] to re/ & admire ! sc5e be=e him8 ,! *ief ( ^! attractions is und\bt$ly ! incessant motion ( ! wat] & ! con/ant *ange ( sc5e pres5t$ to 8 view4 ,z we ramble along a beat5 track at ! edge ( ! cliff1 new & v>i$ features ( ! coa/ are con/antly op5+ up be=e u4 ,ea* little headl& pass$ reveals a %elt]$ picturesque cove or a g5tle bay ) its l9e ( yell[ s&s back$ by ! cliffs & wa%$ by ! foam+ waves2 :ile n[ & aga9 our pa? slopes d[n to a peaceful valley ) its clu/] ( pretty cottages1 & ! rippl+ /ream w9d+ its way t[>ds ! sea4 ,on ! "o h& is ! blue sea1 full ( life & motion z f> z ! eye c rea*1 & on ! o!r ! cultivat$ fields or ! wild & rugg$ d[ns4 ,! v>iety ( ^! sc5es is fur!r increas$ by ! frequ5t *anges 9 ! "* ( ! cliffs !mselves4 ,:]e !y are compos$ ( s(t mat]ial we f9d ! coa/-l9e wa%$ into g5tle curves1 & ! bea* =m$ ( a cont9u\s /ret* ( f9e s&2 b :]e h>d] rocks exi/ ! sc5]y is wild & v>i$1 & ! bea* usually /rewn ) irregul> masses ( all sizes4 ,!n1 :5 we approa* ! wat]'s edge1 we f9d a delight 9 wat*+ ! approa*+ waves z !y roll ov] ! s&y or pebbly bea*1 or embrace an outly+ rock1 g5tly rais+ its olive cov]+ ( dangl+ we$s4 ,su* attractions w allure ! ord9>y lov] ( ,nature--! m]e seek] aft] ! picturesque--b to ! true naturali/ !re are _m o!rs4 ,! latt] loves to read 9 ! cliffs _! pa/ hi/ory1 to obs]ve to :at ext5t ! g5]al sc5]y ( ! coa/ is due to ! nature ( ! rocks1 & to le>n ! action ( ! waves f ! "* ( ! cliffs & bea*1 & f ! *anges :i* are kn[n to h tak5 place 9 ! cont\r ( ! l& 9 pa/ ye>s4 ,he also delights to /udy ^? plants & fl[]s :i* are peculi> to ! coa/1 & to obs]ve h[ ! influ5ces ( ! sea h produc$ int]e/+ modifications 9 c]ta9 ( our fl[]+ plants1 z may be se5 by comp>+ !m ) ! same species f inl& di/ricts4 ,! sea birds1 too1 diff]+ s mu* z !y d f our o!r fea!r$ fri5ds 9 /ructure & habit1 provide a new field = /udy2 :ile ! rem>kably v>i$ "* ( ! =ms ( life met ) on ! bea* & 9 ! %all[ wat]s fr++ ! l& is 9 itself suffici5t to supply ! mo/ active naturali/ ) mat]ial = prolong$ & con/ant "w4 ,let u fir/ obs]ve "s ( ! g5]al features ( ! coa/ itself1 & see h[ f> we c acc\nt = ! great div]sity ( "* pres5t$ to u1 & = ! cont9ual *anges & incessant motions t add su* a *>m to ! sea-side ramble4 ,"h we /& on ! top ( a cliff compos$ ( a s(t calc>e\s rock--on ! expos$ edge ( a b$ ( *alk t ext5ds f> inl&4 ,all ! c\ntry r\nd is g5tly undulat+1 & devoid ( any ( ! features t make up a wild & romantic sc5e4 ,! coa/-l9e1 too1 is wr\ght into a s]ies ( g5tle bays1 sep>at$ by inconspicu\s promontories :]e ! rock1 be+ slightly h>d]1 has bett] )/ood ! erod+ action ( ! sea2 or :]e a curr5t1 wa%+ ! neighb\r+ %ore1 has be5 by "s =ce deflect$ seaw>d4 ,! cliff1 ?\gh n high1 rises almo/ p]p5dicul>ly f ! bea*1 & pres5ts to ! sea a face :i* is b little brok51 & :i* 9 itself %[s no /rong evid5ce ( ! action ( rag+1 tempe/u\s seas2 its *ief div]sity be+ its gradual rise & fall ) ea* successive undulation ( ! l&4 ,! same s(t & g5tle nature *>act]ises ! bea* bel[4 ,beyond a few small blocks ( fre%ly-loos5$ *alk1 ) "h & !re a lib]at$ nodule ( fl9t1 we f9d no?+ b a cont9u\s1 f9e1 silice\s s&1 ! surface ( :i* is b seldom brok5 by ! protrusion ( masses f bel[4 ,su* cliffs & bea*es d n 9 !mselves sugge/ any viol5t action on ! "p ( ! sea1 & yet x is "h t ! ocean is enabl$ to make its de/ructive ef=ts ) ! greate/ effect4 ,! s(t rock is gradually b surely r$uc$1 p>tly by ! me*anical action ( ! waves & p>tly by ! *emical action ( ! sea-wat]4 ,! rock be+ almo/ uni=mly s(t1 x is uni=mly worn away1 ?us pres5t+ a comp>atively unbrok5 face4 ,its mat]ial is gradually dissolv$ 9 ! sea2 & ! calc>e\s matt] be+ ?us remov$1 we h a bea* compos$ ( ! rema9s ( ! fl9ts :i* h be5 pulv]is$ by ! action ( ! waves4 ,?us sl[ly b surely ! sea ga9s ^u ! l&4 ,?us x is t _m a fam\s l&m>k1 once hundr$s ( y>ds f ! coa/1 n[ /&s s ne> ! edge ( ! cliff z to be ?reat5$ by e /orm2 or "s anci5t ca/le1 once miles f ! %ore1 lies entirely buri$ by ! encroa*+ sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,*alk ,,cliff ,! coa/ we h describ$ is mo/ c]ta9ly n ! "o ) ! fulle/ attractions = ! naturali/1 = ! cliffs lack ^? nooks t provide s mu* %elt] = bird & bea/1 & ! rugg$ coves & rock pools 9 :i* we f9d su* a wond]ful v>iety ( m>9e life are n[h]e to be se54 ,b1 al?\gh x repres5ts a typical %ore = a *alky di/rict1 yet we may f9d o!rs ( a v diff]5t nature ev5 :]e ! same rock exi/s4 ,?us1 at ,flambor\gh 9 ,york%ire1 & ,/4 ,alban's ,head 9 ,dorset1 we f9d ! h>d5$1 expos$ edge ( ! *alk =mation t]m9at+ 9 bold & maje/ic promontories1 :ile ! inn] edge surr\nd+ ! ,weald gives rise to ! fam\s cliffs ( ,dov] & ! dizzy heights ( ,bea*y ,head4 ,! h>d *alk ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 too1 :i* has s well )/ood ! repeat$ attacks ( ! ,atlantic waves1 pres5ts a bold b>ri] to ! sea on ! s\? & ea/ coa/s1 & t]m9ates 9 ! we/ ) ! maje/ic /acks ( ! ,ne$les4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,:itecliff 7,,*alk71 ,,dorset ,:]e ?is h>d] *alk exi/s ! coa/ is rugg$ & irregul>4 ,sea birds f9d a home 9 ! %elt]$ l$ges & 9 ! protect$ nooks ( its s]rat$ edge2 & ! c\ntless wave-resi/+ blocks ( wea!r$ *alk t h be5 hurl$ f ! heights above1 toge!r ) ! _m remnants ( =m] cliffs t h at la/ succumb$ to ! attacks ( ! boi/]\s sea1 all =m abundant %elt] = a v>iety ( m>9e plants & animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,p5lee ,,po9t1 ,,cornwall ,b x is 9 ! we/ & s\?-we/ ( our isl& t we f9d bo? ! mo/ furi\s waves & ! rocks t are be/ able to resi/ _! attacks4 ,"h we are expos$ to ! full =ce ( ! frontal attacks ( ! ,atlantic1 & x is "h t ! da%+ break]s seek out ! weak] portions ( ! upturn$ & contort$ /rata1 eat+ out deep inlets1 & (t5 loos5+ enorm\s blocks ( ! h>de/ mat]ial1 hurl+ !m on ! rugg$ bea*1 :]e !y are ev5tually to be r$uc$ to small fragm5ts by ! cont9ual cla%+ & gr9d+ action ( ! small] masses z !y are ?r[n up by ! angry sea4 ,"h x is t we f9d ! mo/ rugg$ & precipit\s cliffs1 bord]+ a m or less wild & desolate c\ntry1 n[ brok5 by a deep & n>r[ *asm :]e ! resonant ro> ( ! sea asc5ds to ! dizzy heights above1 & anon /ret*+ seaw>d into a rocky headl&1 ^: =m] greatness is m>k$ by a cont9uation ( fanta/ic outli]s & small] wave-worn masses ( ! h>d] /rata4 ,"h1 too1 we f9d t ! unyield+ rocks give a p]man5t atta*m5t to ! r$ & olive we$s :i* clo! !m1 & :i* provide a home = s _m inhabitants ( our %all[ wat]s4 ,x is "h1 also1 t we see ^? picturesque rock pools ( all sizes1 =m$ by ! removal ( ! s(t] mat]ial ( ! rocks1 & conv]t$ into s _m m9iature seas by ! rec$+ ( ! tide4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,balanus ,,%ells ,a m lovely sight ?an ! typical rock pool ( ! ,we/ coa/ "o c h>dly imag9e4 ,ar\nd lies ! rugg$ b sea-worn rock1 p>tly hidd5 by d5se pat*es ( ! conical %ells ( ! ,balanus1 ) "h & !re a snug clu/] ( "y mussels held toge!r by _! int]tw9+ silk5 byssi4 ,! surface is fur!r reliev$ by ! cl++ limpet1 ! beautifully b&$ %ells ( ! v>iable dog-p]iw9kle1 ! pretty top %ells1 & a v>iety ( o!r common b int]e/+ molluscs4 ,clu/]s ( ! common bladd]y we$s are also susp5d$ f ! dry rock1 & hang gracefully into ! /ill wat] bel[1 :]e ! mantl$ c[ry may be se5 sl[ly glid+ ov] ! olive fronds4 ,subm]g$ 9 ! peaceful pool are beautiful tufts ( :ite & p9k corall9es1 among :i* a numb] ( small & sl5d] />fi%es may climb unnotic$ by ! casual obs]v]2 :ile ! sc5e is bright5$ by ! num]\s pat*es ( sl5d] gre5 & r$ alg1 ! ?read-l fronds ( :i* are occasionally di/urb$ z ! lively little bl5ny d>ts among !m to evade ! intrud]'s glance4 ,dott$ "h & !re are ! beautiful anemones--! v>i\sly-hu$ animal fl[]s ( ! sea1 ) exp&$ t5tacles g5tly & gracefully sway+1 ready to grasp & p>alyse any small liv+ be+ t may w&] )9 _! rea*4 ,"h1 "u a project+ l$ge ( ! rock1 p>tly hidd5 by pale gre5 ?reads1 are ! gl>+ eyes ( ! voraci\s bullhead1 eag] to p\nce on almo/ any mov+ object2 :ile above x ! five-f+]$ />fi% sl[ly climbs among ! dangl+ we$s by means ( its innum]able suck]s4 ,9 yond] %ady corn]1 :]e ! ov]hang+ rock cuts (f all direct rays ( ! sun f ! deep] wat] ( ! pool1 are ! p9k & yell[ incru/ations ( little sponges1 "s ( ! latt] col\r resembl+ a gr\p ( m9iature inv]t$ volcanic cones1 :ile on ! s&y floor ( ! pool itself may be se5 ! transp>5t phantom-l prawn1 ) its rapidly mov+ sp9n]ets & g5tly-wav+ ant5n1 sudd5ly d>t+ backw>d :5 di/urb$ by ! incauti\s approa* ( ! obs]v]2 & ! spott$ s&-crab1 entirely buri$ ) ! exception ( its upp] surface1 & s closely imitat+ its surr\nd+s z to be q invisible except on ! close/ inspection4 ,f9ally1 ! sc5e is greatly enliv5$ by ! active movem5ts ( ! h]mit-crab1 t appropriates to its own use ! %ell :i* once cov]$ ! body ( a mollusc1 & by ! erratic excursions ( its c\s9 crabs z !y climb ov] ! we$y banks ( ! pool 9 se>* ( food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,,clu/] ,,( ,,mussels ,?us we may f9d mu* to admire & /udy on ! sea %ore at all times1 b !re are attractions ( q ano!r nature t call = notice on a /ormy day1 especially on ! wild] & m desolate we/]n coa/s4 ,at su* times we delight to wat* ! di/ant waves z !y approa* ! %ore1 to see h[ !y become gradually conv]t$ into ! foam+ break]s t da% aga9/ ! /&+ rocks & wa% ! rattl+ pebbles high on ! bea*4 ,! p[]ful effects ( ! sea 9 we>+ away ! cliffs are n[ app>5t1 & we c well und]/& t ev5 ! mo/ obdurate ( rocks mu/ soon] or lat] break away b5ea? its mighty waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,break]s ,! extreme mobility ( ! sea is display$ n only by ! /orm waves1 & by ! s(t ripples ( ! calm day1 b is se5 9 ! g5tle curr5ts t almo/ imp]ceptibly wa% our %ores1 & m manife/ly 9 ! p]petual motions ( ! tides4 ,?is la/-nam$ ph5om5on is "o ( extreme int]e/ to ! sea-side rambl]1 & also "o ( su* great importance to ! naturali/ t we _c d bett] ?an sp5d a few mom5ts 9 try+ to und]/& h[ ! sway+ ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean is br\ght ab\t1 & to see :at det]m9es ! p]iod & int5sity ( its pulsations1 z well z "s ( ! v>iations 9 ! daily motions :i* are to be obs]v$ on our own %ores4 ,9 do+ ?is we %all1 ( c\rse1 n ent] fully into ! te*nical !ories ( ! tides1 = :i* ! read] %\ld ref] to au?oritative works on ! subject1 b m]ely endeav\r to briefly expla9 ! obs]v$ oscillations ( ! sea & ! g5]al laws :i* gov]n !m4 ,! mo/ casual obs]v] mu/ h notic$ ! close connection betwe5 ! movem5ts ( ! ocean & ! position ( ! moon1 :ile ^? :o h giv5 clos] att5tion to ! subject w h se5 t ! relative heights ( ! tides v>y regul>ly ) ! relative positions ( ! sun1 moon1 & e>?4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !n1 we notice t ! "t ( high tide 9 any giv5 place is always ! same at ! same p]iod ( ! cycle ( ! moon2 t is1 x is always ! same at ! "t ( new moon1 full moon1 c4 ,h5ce x becomes evid5t t ! moon is ! prime mov] 9 ! =mation ( tides4 ,n[1 x is a fact t ! sun1 ?\gh ab\t n9ety-?ree millions ( miles f ! e>?1 has a mu* great] attractive influ5ce on ! e>? & its oceans ?an ! moon has1 al?\gh ! di/ance ( ! latt] is only ab\t a qu>t] ( a million miles3 b ?is is due to ! va/ly sup]ior mass ( ! sun1 :i* is ab\t tw5ty-six million times ! mass ( ! moon4 ,h[ is x1 !n1 t we f9d ! tides app>5tly regulat$ by ! moon r ?an by ! sun8 ,! reason is t ! tide-produc+ influ5ce is due n to ! actual attractive =ce ex]t$ on ! e>? z a :ole1 b to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! attraction = "o side ( ! globe & t = ! opposite side4 ,n[1 x w be se5 t ! diamet] ( ! e>?--ab\t eight ?\s& miles--is an appreciable fraction ( ! moon's di/ance1 & ?us ! attractive influ5ce ( ! moon = ! side ( ! e>? ne>e/ to x w be appreciably great] ?an t = ! opposite side2 :ile 9 ! case ( ! sun1 ! e>?'s diamet] is su* a small fraction ( ! di/ance f ! sun t ! diff]5ce 9 ! attractive =ce = ! two opposite sides ( ! e>? is comp>atively small4 ,omitt+1 !n1 = ! pres5t ! m9or tide-produc+ influ5ce ( ! sun1 let u see h[ ! incessant ris+ & fall+ ( ! wat] ( ! ocean are br\ght ab\t2 &1 to simplify our explanation1 we w imag9e ! e>? to be a globe entirely cov]$ ) wat] ( uni=m dep?4 ,! moon attracts ! wat] on ! side ne>e/ to x ) a great] =ce ?an t ex]t$ on ! e>? itself2 h5ce ! wat] is caus$ to bulge out slightly on t side4 ,aga91 s9ce ! attractive =ce ( ! moon = ! e>? z a :ole is great] ?an t = ! wat] on ! opposite side1 ! e>? is pull$ away1 z x 71 f ! wat] on t side1 caus+ x to bulge out !re also4 ,h5ce high tides are produc$ on two opposite sides ( ! e>? at ! same "t1 :ile ! level ( ! wat] is correspond+ly r$uc$ at two o!r p>ts at "r angles ) ^! sides4 ,?is be+ ! case1 h[ are we to acc\nt = ! obs]v$ *anges 9 ! level ( ! sea t occur e day on our %ores8 ,let u fir/ see ! exact nature ( ^! *anges3--,at a c]ta9 "t we f9d ! wat] high on ! bea*2 &1 soon aft] rea*+ its highe/ limit1 a gradual desc5t takes place1 g5]ally ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( a little m ?an six h\rs4 ,?is is !n foll[$ by ano!r rise1 occupy+ ab\t ! same "t1 & ! oscillations are repeat$ indef9itely ) rem>kable regul>ity z to "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,tide-,,produc+ ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,moon ,n[1 f :at has be5 previ\sly said ) reg>d to ! tidal influ5ce ( ! moon1 we see t ! tide mu/ necess>ily be high "u ! moon1 z well z on ! side ( ! e>? directly opposite ?is body1 & t ! high tides mu/ foll[ ! moon 9 its regul> motion4 ,b we mu/ n =get t ! e>? itself is cont9ually turn+ on its axis1 mak+ a complete rotation 9 ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 :ile ! moon1 :i* revolves r\nd ! e>? 9 ab\t tw5ty-eight days1 describes only a small portion ( its orbit 9 ! same "t2 ?us1 :ile ! tidal wave sl[ly foll[s ! moon z x travels 9 its orbit1 ! e>? slips r\nd1 z x 71 "u ! tidal wave1 caus+ f\r *anges ( tide 9 approximately ! p]iod ( "o rotation4 ,suppose1 = example1 ! e>? to be p]=m+ its daily rotation 9 ! direction indicat$ by ! arr[ 7fig4 #h71 & ! tide high at ! place m>k$ ,a1 j "u ! moon1 !n1 9 ab\t six h\rs1 ?is place w h be5 c>ri$ r\nd to ,a1 :]e ! tide is l[2 &1 aft] simil> int]vals1 to ,a & ,a successively1 :]e ! tide is high & l[ respectively4 ,h5ce ! daily *anges are to a great ext5t det]m9$ by ! rotation ( ! e>?4 ,b we h already obs]v$ t ea* *ange ( tide occupies a little m ?an six h\rs1 ! av]age "t be+ ne>ly six h\rs & a qu>t]1 & s we f9d t ! high & l[ tides occur ne>ly an h\r lat] e day4 ,?is is due to ! fact t1 ow+ to ! revolution ( ! moon r\nd ! e>? 9 ! same direction z t ( ! rotation ( ! e>? itself1 ! day z measur$ by ! moon is ne>ly an h\r long] ?an ! av]age sol> day z giv5 by ! clock4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,tides ,!re is yet ano!r po9t wor? not+ ) reg>d to ! relation betwe5 ! moon & ! tidal movem5ts ( ! wat]1 :i* is t ! high tides are nev] exactly "u ! moon1 b always occur "s "t aft] ! moon has pass$ ! m]idian4 ,?is is due to ! in]tia ( ! ocean1 & to ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! l& to its movem5ts4 ,n[1 9 addition to ^! diurnal *anges ( ! tide1 !re are o!rs1 ext5d+ ov] long] p]iods1 & :i* mu/ be m or less famili> to ev]yone :o has sp5t "s "t on ! coa/4 ,on a c]ta9 day1 = in/ance1 we obs]ve t ! high tide fl[s v f> up ! bea*1 & t ?is is foll[$1 a few h\rs lat]1 by an unusually l[ ebb1 expos+ rocks or s&-banks t are n frequ5tly visible4 ,c>eful obs]vations ( ! motions ( ! wat] = "s days aft] w %[ t ?is great diff]5ce betwe5 ! levels ( high & l[-wat] gradually decreases until1 ab\t a week lat]1 x is consid]ably r$uc$1 ! high tide n fl[+ s f> inl& & ! l[-wat] m>k n ext5d+ s f> seaw>d4 ,!n1 f ?is "t1 ! diff]5ce increases aga91 till1 aft] ab\t two weeks f ! comm5cem5t ( our obs]vations1 we f9d x at ! maximum aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,spr+ ,,tides ,,at ,,full ,,moon ,"h aga9 we f9d t ! *anges exactly co9cide ) *anges 9 ! position ( ! moon ) reg>d to ! sun & ! e>?4 ,?us1 ! spr+ tides--^? :i* rise v high & fall v l[--always occur :5 ! moon is full or new2 :ile ! less vigor\s neap tides occur :5 ! moon is 9 h] qu>t]s & pres5ts only "o-half ( h] illum9at$ disc to ! e>?4 ,&1 z ! moon passes ?r\gh a complete cycle ( *anges f new to fir/-qu>t]1 full1 la/-qu>t]1 & !n to new aga9 9 ab\t tw5ty-n9e days1 s ! tides run ?r\gh f\r *anges f spr+ to neap1 spr+1 neap1 & !n to spr+ aga9 9 ! same p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,spr+ ,,tides ,,at ,,new ,,moon ,! reason = ?is is n f> to seek1 = we h already se5 t bo? sun & moon ex]t a tide-produc+ influ5ce on ! e>?1 ?\gh t ( ! moon is consid]ably great] ?an t ( ! sun2 h5ce1 if ! sun1 e>?1 & moon are 9 a /raight l9e1 z !y are :5 ! moon is full1 at :i* "t %e & ! sun are on opposite sides ( ! e>?1 & also :5 new1 at :i* "t %e is betwe5 ! e>? & sun1 ! sun's tide is add$ to ! moon's tide1 ?us produc+ ! well-m>k$ spr+ tides2 :ile1 :5 ! moon is 9 h] qu>t]s1 occupy+ a position at "r angles f ! sun z view$ f ! e>?1 ! two bodies t5d to produce high tides on diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>? at ! same "t1 & ?us we h ! moon's great] tides r$uc$ by ! am\nt ( ! less] tides ( ! sun1 ) ! result t ! diff]5ce betwe5 high & l[ tides is mu* less5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,neap ,,tides ,aga91 ! diff]5ce betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>ks is n always exactly ! same = ! same k9d ( tide--! spr+ tide = a c]ta9 p]iod1 = example1 n hav+ ! same limits z ! same tide ( ano!r "t4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! moon revolves r\nd ! sun 9 an elliptical orbit1 :ile ! e>?1 at ! same "t1 revolves r\nd ! sun 9 a simil> pa?1 s t ! di/ances ( bo? moon & sun f ! e>? v>y at diff]5t times4 ,&1 s9ce ! tide-produc+ influ5ces ( bo? ^! bodies mu/ increase z _! di/ance f ! e>? dim9i%es1 x foll[s t !re mu/ be occasional appreciable v>iations 9 ! vig\r ( ! tidal movem5ts ( ! ocean4 ,z ! e>? rotates on its axis1 :ile at ! same "t ! tidal wave mu/ necess>ily keep its position "u ! moon1 ?is wave appe>s to sweep r\nd ! e>? ) consid]able velocity4 ,! diff]5ces 9 ! level ( ! ocean ?us produc$ w\ld h>dly be appreciable if ! e>? 7 entirely cov]$ ) wat]2 b1 ow+ to ! v irregul> di/ribution ( ! l&1 ! movem5ts ( ! tidal wave become exce$+ly complex2 &1 :5 x breaks an entrance into a gradually n>r[+ *annel1 ! wat] is compress$ lat]ally1 & correspond+ly increas$ 9 height4 ,x is ?us t we f9d a mu* great] diff]5ce betwe5 ! levels ( high & l[ tides 9 cont95tal seas ?an are to be obs]v$ on ! %ores ( oceanic isl&s4 ,we h occupi$ s mu* ( our "t & space 9 explanation ( ! movem5ts ( ! tides n only because we ?9k x desirable t all :o delight 9 sea-side rambles %\ld und]/& some?+ ( ! v>i$ motions :i* help to give su* a *>m to ! sea1 b also because1 z we %all obs]ve lat]1 ^! motions are a matt] ( great importance to ^? :o are int]e/$ 9 ! obs]vation & /udy ( m>9e life4 ,&1 see+ t we are writ+ m p>ticul>ly = ! "y naturali/s ( our own isl&1 we mu/ devote a little space to ! /udy ( ! movem5ts ( ! tidal wave r\nd ,great ,brita91 9 ord] t we may und]/& ! great div]sity 9 ! "t ( high tide on any "o day on diff]5t p>ts ( ! coa/1 & see h[ ! "t ( high tide = "o "p may be calculat$ f t ( any o!r locality4 ,7 x n = ! in]tia ( ! ocean & ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! irregul> cont95ts1 high tide w\ld always exi/ exactly "u ! moon1 & we %\ld h high wat] at any place j at ! "t :5 ! moon is 9 ! s\? & cross+ ! m]idian ( t place4 ,b :ile ! in]tia ( ! wat] t5ds to make all tides late1 ! irregul> di/ribution ( ! l& breaks up ! tidal wave into s _m wave-cre/s & greatly ret>ds _! progress4 ,?us1 ! tidal wave ent]+ ! ,atlantic r\nd ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope m+les ) ano!r wave t fl[s r\nd ,cape ,horn1 & ! comb9$ wave travels nor?w>d at ! rate ( sev]al hundr$ miles an h\r4 ,on rea*+ ! ,briti% ,isles x is brok5 up1 "o wave-cre/ travell+ up ! ,engli% ,*annel1 :ile ano!r fl[s r\nd ,scotl& & !n s\?w>ds into ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,! =m] bran*1 tak+ ! %ort] c\rse1 det]m9es ! "t ( high tide along ! ,*annel coa/4 ,pass+ ! ,l&'s ,end1 x rea*es ,plym\? 9 ab\t an h\r1 ,torquay 9 ab\t an h\r & a half1 ! ,isle ( ,portl& 9 two h\rs & a half1 ,brighton 9 ab\t sev5 h\rs1 & ,london 9 ab\t n9e h\rs & a half4 ,! o!r bran*1 tak+ a mu* long] c\rse1 makes its arrival 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,nor? ,sea ab\t twelve h\rs lat]1 ?us m+l+ at t po9t ) ! ,*annel wave ( ! next tide4 ,x takes ab\t tw5ty h\rs to travel f ! s\?-we/ coa/ ( ,irel&1 r\nd ,scotl&1 & !n to ! m\? ( ! ,?ames4 ,:]e ! two waves meet1 ! height ( ! tides is consid]ably increas$2 & x w be und]/ood t1 at c]ta9 po9ts1 :]e ! ris+ ( "o tide co9cides ) ! fall+ ( ano!r1 ! two may p>tially or entirely neutralise ea* o!r4 ,fur!r1 ! fl[ & ! ebb ( ! tide are subject to num]\s v>iations & complications 9 places :]e two di/9ct tidal wave-cre/s arrive at diff]5t times4 ,?us1 ! ebb+ ( ! tide may be ret>d$ by ! approa* ( a second cre/ a few h\rs aft] ! fir/1 s t ! ebb & ! fl[ d n occupy equal times4 ,at ,ea/b\rne1 = example1 ! wat] fl[s = ab\t five h\rs1 & ebbs = ab\t sev5 & a half4 ,or1 ! approa* ( ! second wave may ev5 arre/ ! ebb+ wat]s1 & produce a second high tide dur+ ! c\rse ( six h\rs1 z is ! case at "s places along ! ,hamp%ire & ,dorset coa/s4 ,^? :o visit v>i\s places on our own coa/s w probably be int]e/$ 9 trac+ ! c\rse ( ! tidal cre/s by ! aid ( ! accompany+ map ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 on :i* ! "t ( high tide at sev]al ports = ! same "t ( day is m>k$4 ,x w be se5 f ?is t ! ma9 tidal wave f ! ,atlantic approa*es our isl&s f ! s\?-we/1 & divides into less] waves1 "o ( :i* passes up ! ,*annel1 & ano!r r\nd ,scotl& & into ! ,nor? ,sea1 z previ\sly m5tion$1 :ile m9or wave-cre/s fl[ nor?w>d into ! ,iri% ,sea & ! ,bri/ol ,*annel4 ,! *>t ?us supplies ! data by means ( :i* we c calculate ! approximate "t ( high tide = any "o port f t ( ano!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,*>t ,,%[+ ,,! ,,relative ,,times ,,( ,,high ,,tide ,,on ,,diff]5t ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,briti% ,,coa/ ,george ,philip ,son4 ,ltd4 ,! ,london ,geographical ,in/itute4 ,al?\gh ! "t ( high wat] v>ies s greatly on ! same day ov] su* a small area ( c\ntry1 yet t "t = any "o place is always approximately ! same dur+ ! same relative positions ( ! sun1 e>?1 & moon2 t is1 = ! same #8age' ( ! moon2 s t x is possible to det]m9e ! "t ( high wat] at any port f ! moon's age4 ,! "t ( high tide is g5]ally giv5 = ! curr5t ye> 9 ! local cal5d>s ( our pr9cipal seaports1 & _m guide-books supply a table f :i* ! "t may be calculat$ f ! age ( ! moon4 ,at e port ! obs]v$ high wat] foll[s ! m]idional passage ( ! moon by a fix$ int]val ( "t1 :i*1 z we h se51 v>ies consid]ably 9 places )9 a small area ( ! globe4 ,?is int]val is kn[n z ! e/abli%m5t ( ! port1 & provides a means by :i* ! "t ( high wat] may be calculat$4 ,be=e clos+ ?is %ort *apt] on ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! sea %ore we ought to make a few obs]vations on ! nature ( ! wat] ( ! sea4 ,almo/ ev]yone is acqua9t$ ) ! saltness :ile _m ba!rs h notic$ ! sup]ior buoyancy ( salt wat] z comp>$ ) ! fre% wat] ( our riv]s & lakes4 ,! dissolv$ salts conta9$ 9 sea wat] give x a great] d5sity ?an t ( pure wat]2 &1 s9ce all float+ bodies displace _! own weight ( ! liquid 9 :i* !y float1 x is cle> t !y w n s9k s f> 9 ! d5s] wat] ( ! sea z !y w\ld 9 fre% wat]4 ,if we evaporate a kn[n weight ( sea wat] to dryness & weigh ! solid residue ( sea salt t rema9s1 we f9d t ?is residue =ms ab\t ?ree & a half p] c5t4 ( ! orig9al weight4 ,!n1 suppos+ t ! evaporation has be5 conduct$ v sl[ly1 ! residue is cry/all9e 9 /ructure1 & a c>eful exam9ation ) ! aid ( a l5s w reveal cry/als ( v>i\s %apes1 b by f> ! l>g] numb] ( !m cubical 9 =m4 ,^! cubical cry/als consi/ ( common salt 7sodium *loride71 :i* con/itutes ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! entire residue1 :ile ! rema9d] ( ! ?ree & a half p] c5t4 consi/s pr9cipally ( v>i\s salts ( magnesium1 calcium1 & sodium4 ,sea salt may be obta9$ ready prep>$ 9 any quantity1 z x is manufactur$ = ! conv5i5ce ( ^? :o desire a sea ba? at home2 & x w be se5 f :at has be5 said t ! artificial sea-wat] may be prep>$1 to correspond almo/ exactly ) t ( ! sea1 by ! addition ( ?ree & a half p\nds ( sea salt to ab\t n9ety-six & a half p\nds ( wat]4 ,?is is (t5 a matt] ( no little importance to ! sea-side naturali/1 :o may require to keep m>9e animals alive = "s "t at consid]able di/ance f ! sea %ore1 :ile _! gr[? & habits are obs]v$4 ,h5ce we %all ref] to ?is subject aga9 :5 deal+ ) ! managem5t ( ! salt-wat] aqu>ium4 ,! attractions ( ! sea coa/ are und\bt$ly great] by day ?an at night1 especially 9 ! summ] season1 :5 ! excessive heat ( ! l& is temp]$ by ! cool sea breezes1 & :5 life1 bo? on ! cliffs & among ! rocks1 is at its maximum4 ,b ! sea is gr& at night1 :5 its g5tle ripples flick] 9 ! silv]y light ( ! full moon4 ,no ph5om5on ( ! sea1 h[ev]1 is m int]e/+ ?an ! beautiful phosphoresc5ce to be obs]v$ on a d>k summ]'s night4 ,at times ! break+ ripples fla% ) a s(t blui% light1 & ! wat] 9 ! wake ( a boat is illum9at$ by :at appe>s to be liquid fire4 ,! advanc+ ripples1 z !y embrace a /&+ rock1 surr\nd x ) a r+ ( flame2 :ile /reaks & fla%es alt]nately appe> & disappe> 9 ! op5 wat] :]e !re is app>5tly no di/urbance ( any k9d4 ,^! effects are all produc$ by ! ag5cy ( c]ta9 m>9e animals1 "s ( :i* display a phosphoresc5t light ov] ! :ole surface ( _! bodies1 :ile 9 o!rs ! light-giv+ p[] is re/rict$ to c]ta9 organs or to c]ta9 well-def9$ areas ( ! body2 & 9 "s cases x ev5 appe>s z if ! creatures conc]n$ h ! p[] ( eject+ f _! bodies a phosphoresc5t fluid4 ,x 0 once suppos$ t ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! sea 0 produc$ by only a few ( ! l[] =ms ( life1 b x is well kn[n n[ t q a l>ge numb] ( animals1 belong+ to widely diff]5t classes1 play a "p 9 ?is ph5om5on4 ,_m ( ^! are m9ute creatures1 h>dly to be se5 )\t ! aid ( "s magnify+ p[]1 :ile o!rs are ( consid]able size4 ,among ! peculi> features ( ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! sea are ! sudd5ness ) :i* x sometimes appe>s & disappe>s1 & its v irregul> v>iations bo? at diff]5t seasons & at diff]5t h\rs ( ! same night4 ,on c]ta9 nights ! sea is app>5tly full ( liv+ fire :51 almo/ sudd5ly ! light vani%es & h>dly a trace ( phosphoresc5ce rema9s2 :ile1 on o!r occasions1 ! ph5om5on is obs]v$ only on c]ta9 pat*es ( wat]1 ! areas ( :i* are s well def9$ t "o passes sudd5ly f or into a lum9\s sea4 ,! actual nature ( ! light & ! mann] 9 :i* x is produc$ are b ill und]/ood1 b ! v>iations & fitfulness ( its appe>ances c be to a c]ta9 ext5t conjectur$ f our k ( "s ( ! animals t produce x4 ,9 our own seas ! lum9osity is und\bt$ly caus$ pr9cipally by ! pres5ce ( myriads ( m9ute float+ or free-swimm+ organisms t inhabit ! surface wat]s4 ,( ^! ea* "o has its own season1 9 :i* x appe>s 9 va/ numb]s4 ,"s appe> to live entirely at or ne> ! surface1 b o!rs app>5tly rema9 ne> ! surface only dur+ ! night1 or only :ile c]ta9 conditions fav\rable to _! mode ( life prevail4 ,& fur!r1 x is possible t ^! m9ute creatures1 produc$ z !y g5]ally are 9 va/ numb]s at ab\t ! same "t1 & be+ m or less local1 are greatly influ5c$ by *anges ( temp]ature1 *anges 9 ! nature ( ! w9d1 & ! p]iodic *anges 9 ! tides2 & x is probable t we are to look to ^! circum/ances = ! explanations ( ! sudd5 *anges s frequ5tly obs]v$4 ,9 w>m] seas ! ph5om5on ( phosphoresc5ce is mu* m /rik+ ?an 9 our own1 ! brilliancy ( ! light be+ mu* /rong]1 & also produc$ by a great] v>iety ( liv+ be+s1 "s ( :i* are ( great size1 & embrace species belong+ to ! v]tebrates & ! high] inv]tebrate animals4 ,^? int]e/$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ?is subject %\ld make x a rule to collect ! =ms ( life t inhabit ! wat] at a "t :5 ! sea is unusually lum9\s4 ,a sample ( ! wat] may be tak5 away = ! purpose ( exam9ation1 & ?is %\ld be view$ 9 a good light1 bo? ) & )\t a magnify+ l5s4 ,x is probable1 too1 t a v productive haul may be obta9$ by draw+ a f9e musl9 net v sl[ly ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,aft] "s "t ! net %\ld be empti$ & g5tly wa%$ 9 a small quantity ( sea wat] to remove ! small] =ms ( life conta9$1 & ! wat] !n exam9$ at leisure4 ,( c\rse x mu/ n be assum$ t all ! species s obta9$ are conc]n$ 9 any way ) ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! sea1 b any "o =m turn+ up 9 abundance :5 collect$ "u ! conditions nam$ w probably h "s connection ) ! ph5om5on4 ,"o may well ask #8,:at is ! use ( ?is light-emitt+ p[] to ! animals :o possess x8' b ?is "q is n easily answ]$4 ,! light produc$ by ! gl[-worm & o!r lum9\s insects is evid5tly a signal by means ( :i* !y call _! mates1 & ?is may be ! case ) _m ( ! m>9e lum9\s animals1 b x is evid5tly n s ) ^? :i* live 9 su* imm5se numb]s t !y are simply cr[d$ toge!r2 nor c x be s ) ! _m lum9\s creatures t are h]maphrodite4 ,x is a fact1 h[ev]1 t numb]s ( deep-sea species possess ! p[] ( emitt+ light to a /rik+ ext5t2 & ! use ( ?is p[] is 9 su* cases obvi\s1 = s9ce ! rays ( ! sun d n p5etrate to great dep?s 9 ! ocean1 ^! lum9\s species are enabl$ to illum9ate _! own surr\nd+s :ile 9 se>* ( food1 &1 9 _m cases at lea/1 to qu5* _! lights sudd5ly at su* times z !y !mselves are 9 dang]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,naturali/ ,,outdoor ,,"w ,assum+ t ! read] is "o :o desires to become intimately acqua9t$ ) ! wond]ful & v>i$ =ms ( life to be met ) on ! sea %ore1 or1 hop+ t he may be lur$ into ! int]e/+ & pr(itable pa/imes ( ! sea-side naturali/1 we %all n[ devote a *apt] to ! consid]ation ( ! appliances requir$ = ! collection & exam9ation ( m>9e life1 & to g5]al in/ructions z to ! me?ods by :i* we may be/ se>* out ! pr9cipal & mo/ int]e/+ objects ( ! %ore4 ,fir/1 !n1 we %all describe ! equipm5t ( an en?usia/ic & all-r\nd admir] ( ,nature--he :o is int]e/$ 9 plant =ms f ! fl[]+ species d[n to ! #8meane/ we$ t gr[s1' & is always ready to le>n some?+ ( any memb] ( ! animal _w t may happ5 to come )9 8 rea*4 ,& ?is1 n because we hope1 or ev5 desire1 t e read] may develop into an all-r\nd naturali/1 b s t ea* may be able to select f ! v>i\s appliances nam$ j ^? :i* w\ld be useful = ! collection & obs]vation ( ! objects :i* are to =m 8 pet /udy4 ,! mo/ g5]ally useful ( all ^! appliances is und\bt$ly "s k9d ( case ( ! #8hold-all' type1 a case into :i* specim5s 9 g5]al may be plac$ = transmission f ! hunt+-gr\nd 9 ord] t !y may be /udi$ at leisure1 & we "k ( no?+ m satisfactory ?an ! botani/'s #8vasculum4' ,?is is an oblong box ( japann$ t91 fitt$ ) a h+$ front1 & hav+ bo? h&le & /rap1 s t x c be ei!r c>ri$ 9 ! h& or slung ov] ! %\ld]4 ,( c\rse almo/ any k9d ( non-collapsible box or basket w answ] ! purpose1 b we "k ( no ut5sils s conv5i5t z ! "o we h nam$4 ,x is p]fectly satisfactory = ! tempor>y /orage ( ! wild fl[]s ga!r$ on ! cliffs1 z x w keep !m moi/ & fre% = "s consid]able "t2 & = ! reception ( sea we$s ( all k9ds x is all t c\ld be desir$1 = x w pres]ve !m 9 spl5did condition1 & is s con/ruct$ t !re is no possibility ( ! inconv5i5ce aris+ f ! dripp+ ( salt wat] on ! l[] g>m5ts4 ,!n1 z reg>ds m>9e animal-life 9 g5]al--/>fi%es1 ur*9s1 anemones1 molluscs1 cru/aceans1 fi%es1 c4--^! may be convey$ away 9 x ) a lib]al pack+ ( moi/ we$s n only )\t injury1 b 9 su* a satisfactory condition t ne>ly all may be turn$ out alive at ! end ( a day's "w2 & ?is mu/ be look$ ^u z a v important matt] to him :o aims at becom+ a naturali/ r ?an a m]e collector1 = :ile ! latt] is cont5t ) a museum ( empty %ells & dri$ specim5s1 ! =m] w endeav\r to keep _m ( ! creatures alive = a "t 9 "s k9d ( artificial rock pool 9 ord] t he may h ! opportunity ( /udy+ _! developm5t & _! habits at times :5 he has n ! *ance ( visit+ ! sea %ore = ! purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,! ,,vasculum ,b al?\gh ! vasculum is s g5]ally useful = ! tempor>y /orage & ! transmission ( ! objects collect$1 yet x is n 9 itself suffici5t = all purposes4 ,!re are _m m>9e animals s small--b none ! less int]e/+ because !y are small--t !y w\ld probably be lo/ 9 a case conta9+ a mass ( sea we$s ) v>i\s l>g] creatures4 ,^! %\ld be plac$ 9 small well-cork$ bottles1 & tempor>ily pres]v$ 9 a little sea-wat]1 or1 pref]ably1 a tuft ( "o ( ! delicate we$s s common 9 our rock pools4 ,o!rs1 aga91 ?\gh !y may be l>g]1 are ( s fragile a nature t !y %\ld be isolat$ f ! g5]al /ock on t acc\nt alone4 ,in/ead ( bottles or tubes1 small t9 boxes may be us$1 & ^! h ! advantage ( be+ unbreakable1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 !y w n hold wat]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is ( no consequ5ce1 z mo/ m>9e animals may be kept alive = "s "t 9 moi/ sea-we$ q z well z 9 wat]4 ,:5 small animals are requir$ = /ructural exam9ation only1 !y may be put into me?ylat$ _s z !y are tak51 & :5 /or$ 9 ?is way a mu* l>g] numb] may be put into ! same receptacle2 h5ce ! collector w (t5 f9d x conv5i5t to h a small supply ( ?is liquid :ile at 8 "w4 ,a /rong pocket-knife is ess5tial = sea-side "w4 ,x s]ves to remove ^? molluscs t adh]e firmly to ! rocks by suction1 & also o!rs t fix !mselves by means ( a byssus ( silk5 fibres1 z is ! case ) mussels4 ,x w also be employ$ 9 ! removal ( acorn b>nacles1 anemones1 & small tufts ( alg1 & may be useful 9 cutt+ ?r\gh ! /\t] we$s4 ,small sponges & o!r l[ =ms ( life (t5 =m incru/ations on ! solid rock1 & may be peel$ (f ) ! aid ( a knife4 ,9 ! case ( ! la/-nam$1 h[ev]1 z well z ) ! anemones & o!r fix$ animals1 x is (t5 f> m satisfactory to remove a small portion ( ! rock itself ) ! animal atta*$1 & = ?is purpose a small hamm] w be ( great s]vice4 ,a /rong net ( "s k9d is necess>y 9 se>*+ ! rock pools1 & z suitable nets are1 we believe1 n to be obta9$ ( ! deal]s 9 naturali/s' appliances1 x devolves on "o to manufacture a net accord+ to 8 requirem5ts4 ,! simple/ =m ( net may be made by b5d+ a piece ( /\t galvanis$ iron wire into ! =m "h %[n 7fig4 #ad71 & firmly w$g+ ! two /raight ends 9 a %ort piece ( /rong metal tube :i* w also s]ve z a f]rule = ! atta*m5t ( a t\gh h&le4 ,su* a circul> frame al?\gh satisfactory = a net to be us$ 9 fre%-wat] ponds & /reams1 is n ne>ly s suitable = ! irregul> rocky pools to be met ) on ! sea coa/1 = x w n enable "o to se>* ! num]\s corn]s & crevices into :i* _m m>9e creatures w retire on be+ di/urb$1 b x may be greatly improv$ by b5d+ ! side opposite ! f]rule into a mod]ately %>p angle & !n turn+ ! angle slightly upw>d1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,wire ,,r+ ,,= ,,net ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,net ,,frame ,,) ,,curv$ ,,po9t ,ano!r v conv5i5t net frame may be made by b5d+ ! wire into a rhomboidal =m 7fig4 #af71 ! f]rule be+ atta*$ by means ( two %ort1 /raight ends at "o ( ! angles4 ,! opposite angle w s]ve ! purpose ( se>*+ into ! crannies ( ! rocks1 :ile ! /raight sides w prove v useful 9 remov+ ! objects t lie on ! s&y bottoms s commonly se5 9 rock pools4 ,! semicircul> net %[n 9 fig4 #ah w also prove useful = work+ on s&s or = scrap+ ! flatt] surfaces ( we$-cov]$ rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,rhomboidal ,,frame ,,= ,,net ,! mat]ial ( ! net %\ld be "s k9d ( /rong gauze1 or a loosely-wov5 canvas4 ,l5o answ]s v well1 b is some:at easily torn1 & w h to be frequ5tly r5ew$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 may be avoid$ to a great ext5t if1 in/ead ( sew+ ! gauze directly r\nd ! wire1 a /rip ( /rong calico be fir/ atta*$ to ! frame1 & ! gauze !n sewn to ! calico2 = x w be und]/ood t any fragile mat]ial plac$ r\nd ! wire w soon be worn ?r\gh by friction aga9/ ! rugg$ surfaces ( ! rocks & /ones4 ,! net itself %\ld n be v deep1 & %\ld h no corn]s2 & z to ! l5g? ( ! h&le1 t w be det]m9$ by ! fancy ( ! collector1 or by ! "* ( ! ponds to be se>*$1 b a t\gh walk+-/ick ) a crook h&le w g5]ally answ] all purposes1 ! crook be+ itself frequ5tly useful = remov+ ! l>g] we$s & o!r ob/ructions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,rhomboidal ,,net ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,semicircul> ,,net ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,! ,,dr$ge ,al?\gh ! net1 z above describ$1 w answ] ! requirem5ts ( ne>ly all "y collectors1 yet !re may be "s1 :o1 n satisfi$ ) ! exploration ( ! rocks & pools expos$ :5 ! tide is out1 desire to "k some?+ ( ! creatures t live entirely beyond l[-wat] m>k1 :]e ! wat] is g5]ally too deep = "w ) a h& net4 ,to su* we recomm5d a small dr$ge t may be l[]$ f a boat & !n drawn along ! bottom4 ,a good =m ( dr$ge is %[n 9 fig4 #ai1 & a little skill & +5uity w enable anyone to con/ruct "o ) ! help ( our illu/ration2 b1 see+ t ! be/ "w is to be done on r\gh bottoms1 x is absolutely necess>y t bo? frame & net %\ld be made ( ! /\te/ mat]ials t c be conv5i5tly employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,! ,,crab-,,pot ,^? :o h ev] accompani$ a fi%]man :ile tak+ a pull r\nd to exam9e ! cont5ts ( 8 crab or lob/] pots w probably h notic$ :at /range creatures1 9 addition to ! edible crabs & lob/]s1 sometimes f9d _! way into ! trap4 ,^! creatures are (t5 ( great int]e/ to a "y naturali/1 & x w repay him to take an occasional trip ) a fi%]man 9 ord] to obta9 !m2 or1 /ill bett]1 to h a crab-pot ( 8 own4 ,! writ] has obta9$ _m good specim5s by means ( an inexp5sive trap1 on ! same pr9ciple z ! ord9>y crab-pot1 made f an old metal bird-cage ( r small size4 ,! bottom 0 remov$1 & a v %all[ bag ( ?ick canvas fix$ 9 its place2 & "s ( ! wires 7 cut1 & b5t inw>ds s z to all[ ! easy entrance ( mod]ately l>ge cru/aceans & o!r creatures1 :ile at ! same "t !y s]v$ z a b>ri] to _! escape4 ,su* a trap1 bait$ ) pieces ( fi%1 & let d[n to a rocky bottom1 w enable ! "y naturali/ to secure specim5s t are seldom se5 betwe5 ! tide-m>ks2 & ! animals ?us obta9$ w include n only ^? l>g] ones = :i* ! op5+ 0 made1 b also a v>iety ( small] creatures t may ent] betwe5 ! wires ( ! cage4 ,"s ( ! latt] may1 ( c\rse1 escape by ! same way z ! trap is be+ haul$ up = exam9ation1 b ?is is n s likely to occur if ! canvas bottom is ( a mat]ial s loosely wov5 t wat] c pass ?r\gh x v freely4 ,x w1 ( c\rse1 occur to ! read] t ! ins]tion ( a /one or o!r weight w assi/ 9 s9k+ ! trap2 also t ! ord9>y door ( ! cage =ms a ready means by :i* ! captives may be remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,an ,,old ,,bird-,,cage ,,us$ ,,z ,a ,,crab-,,pot ,"o ?+ m3 make x a rule nev] to g out collect+ natural objects ( any k9d )\t a note-book & p5cil4 ,?is1 to ! beg9n] :o is anxi\s to get to 8 "w1 ) ! idea only too preval5t ) ! amateur t ! success ( 8 lab\rs is to be measur$ only by ! numb] ( specim5s obta9$1 may seem q an unnecess>y "p ( ! equipm5t4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t !re is mu* to obs]ve z well z mu* to collect on a well-select$ coa/2 & t )\t ! aid ( ! book & p5cil a great _m ( ! obs]vations made w be =gott51 & ?us mu* int]e/ t w\ld o!rwise be atta*$ to ! objects p]man5tly pres]v$ w be lack+4 ,! above appliances include ! only necess>y equipm5t ( ! sea-side naturali/1 ) ! exception ( a few requir$ = occasional use 9 connection ) ! species ( a some:at re/rict$ habitat1 & ! outfit ( ! sea angl]4 ,! =m] w be dealt ) 9 ! *apt]s :]e ! species conc]n$ are describ$1 :ile ! subject ( sea angl+ is ( su* g5]al int]e/ t we propose to devote a %ort *apt] exclusively to x4 ,x may seem h>dly necess>y to disc\rse on ! nature ( ! attire mo/ suitable = sea-side "w1 s9ce ! majority w readily =m _! own op9ions on ?is matt]1 b p]haps a few words ( advice to ! inexp]i5c$ may n be altoge!r out ( place4 ,fir/1 !n1 make x a rule to we> no clo?+ ( any value4 ,! "w w lead ! en?usia/ ov] slipp]y we$s1 on trea*]\s b\ld]s1 ov] rocks cov]$ ) %>p acorn %ells1 & among slimy & muddy /ones1 & _m a slip may occur 9 ! c\rse ( a day's "w4 ,l>ge pockets specially b simply made by sew+ squ>e pieces ( l9+ on ! inside ( an old jacket are a great conv5i5ce2 a cap r ?an a brimm$ hat %\ld be worn unless ! latt] be consid]$ ess5tial = protection f a burn+ summ]'s sun2 & a pair ( old %oes1 pref]ably ) rubb] soles1 are j ! ?+ = bo? r\gh & slipp]y rocks1 z well z = wad+ ?r\gh %all[ wat]s4 ,o!r details we c safely leave to ! fancy ( ! read] himself4 ,n[ comes ! mo/ important "q #8,:]e %all we g8' ,=tunately we are fav\r$ ) a great ext5t ( coa/-l9e consid]+ ! area ( our c\ntry1 b ! "* ( ! coa/ is s div]sifi$1 bo? ) reg>d to its sc5]y & its life1 t ! naturali/ w d well to c>efully select 8 locality accord+ to ! objects he desires to /udy4 ,! ea/ coa/ ( ,engl& is n g5]ally not$ ei!r = v>iety or abundance ( m>9e life1 & ! same is true bo? ( ! s\?-ea/ & a l>ge portion ( ! s\? coa/4 ,9 "s places ! bea* is =m$ ( an unbrok5 /ret* ( s& on :i* "o may walk = miles )\t see+ any sign ( life1 ) ! exception ( an occasional empty %ell & a few fragm5ts ( dri$ sea-we$ wa%$ 9 by ! break]s dur+ a rec5t /orm2 :ile at ! same "t ! cliffs1 if su* exi/ at all1 are n v g5]\s 9 _! production ( ! fauna & flora t are *>act]i/ic ( ! %ore4 ,b ev5 on ! coa/s ref]r$ to !re are1 "h & !re1 isolat$ spots :]e ! upl&s jut into ! sea1 giv+ rise to bold promontories1 at ! foot ( :i* are ! fall5 masses ( rock t af=d protection to a mod]ate v>iety ( truly m>9e life1 :ile ! r\gh bottoms beyond yield num]\s int]e/+ =ms t may be secur$ by means ( ! dr$ge or suitable traps4 ,su* spots are to be f\nd :]e ! *alk hills abut on ! sea1 z at ,flambor\gh & ,bea*y ,head1 b x is 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,weym\? t ! ,engli% coa/ really beg9s to be ( great int]e/ to ! naturali/4 ,f "h to ! ,l&'s ,end almo/ e "p ( ! %ore w yield a great v>iety ( life 9 abundance1 & ! same is true ( ! rocky coa/s ( ! we/1 & also ( ! m rugg$ %ores ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,z an ideal hunt+-gr\nd "o _c d bett] ?an to select "o ( ! small fi%+ t[ns or villages on ! rocky coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall4 ,) su* a spot z 8 headqu>t]s ! mo/ en?usia/ic sea-side naturali/ w f9d ample employm5t4 ,! expos$ rocks & rock pools yield abundance ( life2 & if ^! be se>*$ :5 ! tide is out1 !re w rema9 pl5ty ( sea angl+ & o!r employm5ts to occupy him at o!r times4 ,we w n[ describe ! actual "w ( ! sea-side naturali/1 giv+ ! necess>y in/ructions = ! obs]vation & collection ( ! v>i\s liv+ ?+s he w meet )4 ,fir/1 !n1 ) reg>d to "w on ! cliffs1 a v few words w suffice2 =1 see+ t ! objects ( int]e/ to be met ) "h w consi/ pr9cipally ( ! v>i\s fl[]s t are peculi> to or *>act]i/ic ( ! sea %ore1 & c]ta9 insects & o!r creatures m or less p>tial to a life on ! cliffs1 we may reg>d ^! z com+ )9 ! range ( ! g5]al "w ( ! botani/1 entomologi/1 c42 & s9ce in/ructions = ! collection & pres]vation ( su* objects h already be5 giv5 9 =m] works ( ?is s]ies1 we may pass !m ov] at once 9 ord] to deal ) ^? objects :i* are ess5tially m>9e4 ,x has already be5 h9t$ t ! "r "t = collect+ on ! %ore is :5 ! tide is at its l[e/2 & 9 ord] t ! be/ "w may be done ! collector %\ld consult ! local tide-tables1 or calculate1 if necess>y1 ! "t ( high tide f ! e/abli%m5t ( ! port2 &1 ( c\rse1 ! p]iod ( spr+ tides %\ld be select$ if possible4 ,! "t dur+ :i* "w %\ld cont9ue mu/ be regulat$ accord+ to ! en?usiasm ( ! collector or ! "t at 8 disposal1 b1 z a rule1 x is advisable to be on ! sc5e ( action ab\t ?ree h\rs be=e ! "t ( l[ tide1 ) a det]m9ation to "w cont9u\sly until ! l[e/ ebb ( ! wat]4 ,on rea*+ ! bea* x is always advisable to />t by exam9+ ! l9e ( miscellane\s mat]ial at high-wat] m>k1 along :i* may be f\nd q a v>iety ( objects1 m or less int]e/+1 :i* h be5 wa%$ 9 by ! break]s1 especially j aft] a /orm1 toge!r ) num]\s scav5g]s ( ! %ore t p]=m a mo/ useful "w 9 dev\r+ ! decompos+ organic matt] t w\ld o!rwise t5d to pollute ! air4 ,"h we may f9d _m useful & int]e/+ objects ( bo? ! animal & vegetable worlds4 ,among ! =m] are ! empty %ells ( bo? univalve & bivalve molluscs1 "s ( :i* are m or less worn by ! action ( ! waves1 :ile o!rs are 9 spl5did condition = exam9ation & /udy4 ,"h1 too1 are v>i\s species ( sea firs & ! skeletons ( sponges2 ! %ell ( ! cuttle-fi%1 & occasionally a clu/] ( ! eggs ( ?is creature--! sea-grapes ( ! fi%]m52 also ! egg-cases ( ! skate & ! dog-fi%--usually empty1 b sometimes enclos+ ! "y animal /ill alive2 &1 la/ly1 we frequ5tly meet ) portions ( ! skeletons ( fi%es 9 a p]fect /ate ( pres]vation1 ! animal matt] hav+ be5 cle>$ away by ! comb9$ action ( ! scav5g]s previ\sly ref]r$ to4 ,!n1 z reg>ds ! vegetable _w1 we (t5 f9d beautiful specim5s ( sea-we$s along ! high-wat] m>k1 "s ( :i* are r>ely met ) 9 ! rock pools1 s9ce !y are species t h be5 deta*$ f beyond ! l9e ( l[ wat]1 & wa%$ up by ! break]s4 ,on turn+ ov] ! debris ?us ?r[n on ! bea* we intrude on ! privacy ( num]\s liv+ creatures :i* imm$iately scamp] away to f9d a new hid+-place4 ,^! consi/ pr9cipally ( s&-hopp]s1 b occasionally we f9d memb]s ( ! insect _w engag$ 9 ! same useful "w 9 addition to ! num]\s flies t p]=m _! (fice ( scav5g]s 9 ! bright sun%9e on ! top ( ! matt] t supplies !m ) food4 ,x w be int]e/+ to capture a few ( ^! scav5g]s1 & to comp>e !m ) o!rs ( ! same ord] obta9$ f diff]5t localities4 ,?us1 ! flies may be comp>$ ) ! m famili> h\se fly1 & ! s&-hopp]s ( high-wat] m>k ) simil> cru/aceans to be aft]w>ds obta9$ l[] on ! bea*4 ,att5tion %\ld n[ be giv5 to ! rocks left expos$ by ! retreat+ tide1 & x is "h t ! real "w beg9s4 ,exam9e ea* rock pool z soon z possible aft] x is no long] di/urb$ by ! waves4 ,remove any tufts ( corall9es or o!r we$s requir$ = /udy or pres]vation1 & simply place !m1 pro tem41 9 ! vasculum or o!r receptacle provid$ = ! purpose4 ,^! w =m a useful protective pack+ = o!r objects t are to be c>ri$ away1 s t x w be advisable to secure a mod]ate am\nt r e>ly1 ev5 ?\gh !y may n be requir$ = any o!r purpose4 ,live molluscs1 crabs1 small fi%es1 c41 may all be put 9 ! receptacle ) ?is we$1 & all w probably be /ill alive aft] ! collect+ & ! homew>d j\rney h be5 complet$4 ,probe ! corn]s ( ! pool ) ! po9t ( ! net1 & also sweep ! net upw>d among ! we$s to remove any creatures t seek %elt] among ! fronds4 ,tufts ( corall9es & o!r we$s %\ld be se>*$ = ! small & delicate />fi%es t live among !m1 & any /ones t may cov] ! bottom ( ! pool %\ld be lift$4 ,anemones may be remov$ f ! rocks by means ( a r blunt knife2 b1 if possible1 x w be bett] to *ip (f a small piece ( ! rock ) ! anemone atta*$ to x1 & wrap x lightly r\nd ) a tuft ( s(t we$ previ\s to plac+ x 9 ! collect+ case4 ,a numb] ( rock pools %\ld be se>*$ 9 ?is mann]1 b ^? *os5 %\ld v>y z mu* z possible 9 g5]al "*4 ,all v small & delicate objects %\ld be isolat$ f ! g5]al /ock1 & plac$1 ) ! usual pack+ mat]ial1 ei!r 9 t9 boxes or small wide-m\!d bottles2 & if any animals tak5 are n requir$ alive1 b only = pres]vation1 !y %\ld be pref]ably kill$ at once & !n /or$ 9 a sep>ate case4 ,"s creatures are easily kill$ by simply dropp+ !m into a bottle ( fre% wat]1 b o!rs %\ld be cov]$ ) me?ylat$ _s4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$1 h[ev]1 t ! natural appe>ance ( "s ( ! cru/aceans is q de/roy$ by /rong _s1 :i* soon makes !m look z if !y _h be5 boil$4 ,"s species are *ang$ 9 ?is way mu* m readily ?an o!rs2 &1 until suffici5t exp]i5ce has be5 ga9$ to enable ! "y collector to di/+ui% betwe5 !m1 x w be advisable to kill & tempor>ily pres]ve cru/aceans 9 _s t has be5 consid]ably dilut$ ) wat]--ab\t two p>ts ( wat] to "o ( _s1 = example4 ,fur!r1 !re are c]ta9 fragile />fi%es t h a way ( break+ !mselves into pieces :5 dropp$ into _s1 or ev5 :5 sudd5ly di/urb$ 9 almo/ any o!r mann]4 ,^! mu/ always be h&l$ g5tly1 & if x is requir$ to kill !m = pres]vation1 ! be/ way w be to put !m 9 a little salt wat]1 & !n gradually add fre% wat] until ! desir$ result is obta9$4 ,p]haps ! mo/ productive ( all sea-%ore "w is ! turn+ ov] ( ! /ones ( v>i\s sizes ne> ! l[-tide m>k1 & ! exam9ation ( ! *9ks & %elt]$ holl[s ( ! rocks t are left uncov]$ = b a %ort p]iod4 ,?is "w %\ld be c>ri$ on z ne> ! wat]'s edge z possible1 closely foll[+ ! rec$+ tide2 & ! collector mu/ n[ be prep>$ ) a numb] ( small bottles or t9s = ! isolation ( small & delicate specim5s4 ,he mu/ also be on ! al]t = num]\s examples ( protective resemblance1 9 :i* ! animals conc]n$ s closely resemble _! surr\nd+s 9 col\r & g5]al "* ( surface t !y are detect$ only by c>eful obs]vation1 :ile ! difficulty ( id5tification is /ill fur!r increas$ 9 in/ances :]e ! creatures rema9 p]fectly /ill ev5 :5 di/urb$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,a ,,"y ,,naturali/ ,,at ,,"w ,"u ! /ones all mann] ( animals--fi%es1 cru/aceans1 worms1 molluscs1 />fi%es1 anemones1 c4--w be hid+ until cov]$ by ! next tide4 ,"s ( ^! w be f\nd on ! gr\nd b5ea? ! /ones1 & o!rs atta*$ to ! "u surfaces ( ! /ones !mselves2 !re=e bo? %\ld be c>efully exam9$1 att5tion be+ giv5 at fir/ to ! m active species t hurry away ) all spe$ t[>ds a new %elt] z soon z !y f9d !mselves expos$ to ! light2 ! less active creatures may !n be secur$ at leisure4 ,! tide w n all[ ! collector a great deal ( "t 9 :i* to turn ov] ! mo/ productive /ones--^? close to ! l[-wat] m>k1 s !re is b little opportunity ( obs]v+ ! movem5ts & o!r int]e/+ habits ( _m ( ! animals f\nd2 h5ce x is advisable to secure a good v>iety ( liv+ specim5s1 especially ( ! less famili> species1 9 ord] t !y may be plac$ 9 "s k9d ( aqu>ium1 tempor>y or o!rwise1 = obs]vation at home4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,a ,,good ,,hunt+-,,gr\nd ,,on ,,! ,,corni% ,,coa/ ,"o ?+ m rema9s to be done :ile ! tide is well out1 & t is to exam9e ! we$-cov]$ rocks ne> ! wat]'s edge4 ,lift ! dangl+ we$s & c>efully se>* ! rocks = ^? l[ =ms ( animal life t =m incru/ations on ! surface1 z well z = new species ( anemones1 sea firs1 c4 ,la/ly1 look well into ! d>k & n>r[ *9ks ( ! rocks1 = "h sev]al species ( l[ly animals t are h>dly met ) else:]e may be f\nd1 & also c]ta9 cru/aceans t delight to squeeze _! bodies into ! remote/ corn] ( a %elt]$ ni*e4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,sea ,,angl+ ,we d n propose deal+ ) ?is subject f ! po9t ( view ( ! angl]1 b r t ( ! naturali/4 ,! =m] is actuat$ pr9cipally1 if n entirely1 by ! m]e love ( sport2 or1 x may be1 to a great ext5t by ! desire to obta9 a supply ( fi% = food2 & he g5]ally e/imates ! success ( 8 exp$itions n by ! numb] ( species captur$1 b by ! total weight ( 8 cat*1 no reg>d be+ paid1 z a rule1 to ! in$ible specim5s4 ,! naturali/1 h[ev]1 does n desire weight1 or sweetness ( fle%4 ,he works ! greate/ possible v>iety ( habitats1 ) ! object ( det]m9+ ! numb] ( species inhabit+ ! locality & ( le>n+ z mu* z possible ( _! g5]al =m1 habits1 & adaptations ( /ructure to habits4 ,8 success is measur$ by ! numb] & v>iety ( species caught1 & he pays b little att5tion to sup]iority ( size or weight1 or to ! e/imat$ m>ket value ( 8 haul4 ,! elem5t ( sport may ent] m or less l>gely into ! pleasure ( 8 occupation1 b ! ma9 end 9 view is to le>n z mu* z possible ( all ! species obta9able4 ,fur!r1 our rem>ks w n include ! subject ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( fi%+ usually resort$ to by sea angl]s1 b w be conf9$ almo/ exclusively to ! simple means ( cat*+ ! common species t frequ5t ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! %ore4 ,if ! read] w foll[ ! g5]al in/ructions giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 on ! outdoor "w ( ! m>9e naturali/1 he w und\bt$ly make ! acqua9tance ( a consid]able v>iety ( int]e/+ species :i* may be captur$ 9 ! rock pools1 f\nd "u /ones at l[ tide1 or obta9$ by means ( a small dr$ge2 b 8 k ( our littoral fi%es may be appreciably ext5d$ by ! occasional employm5t ( rod & l9e f rocks & pi]s1 or f a small boat 9 close proximity to ! %ore4 ,! appliances requir$ are ( a v simple nature1 & n at all co/ly4 ,! long1 heavy rod & /rong tackle ( ! sea angl] & pr(essional fi%]man are n at all ess5tial to our purpose1 = our "w w be conf9$ almo/ exclusively to %all[ wat]1 & ! fi% to be caught w be *iefly ( small size4 ,true x is t "o may occasionally f9d 8 light tackle snapp$ & c>ri$ away by ! unexpect$ run ( a l>ge fi%1 = cod & o!r l>ge species (t5 approa* close to ! %ore1 & bite at baits int5d$ = ! small] fi% t make _! home among ! p>tly subm]g$ rocks ( ! coa/2 b su* surprises w n frequ5tly occur1 & ! "y naturali/ may le>n all he wants to "k ( ! fi%es ( our %all[ wat]s ) ! aid ( a light rod ( ab\t n9e or t5 feet & "o or two light l9es ( no great l5g?4 ,x mu/ n be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t we assume ! read]'s dis9cl9ation to "k any?+ ( ! inhabitants ( deep wat]1 b r t we consid] ! :ole subject ( deep-sea fi%+ q beyond ! scope ( ?is "w4 ,x is a fact t q a l>ge numb] ( species1 ! =ms & habits ( :i* are extremely int]e/+1 live exclusively on deep bottoms4 ,^! %\ld und\bt$ly be /udi$ by all :o are int]e/$ 9 ! v>i\s phases ( m>9e life2 b unless ! read] is prep>$ to practise sea fi%+ 9 all its bran*es--to put 8 tru/ 9 ! re/less sea1 suppli$ ) all ! necess>y heavy ge>1 & to risk ^? int]nal qualms t arise f ! incessant sway+ ( ! boat on op5 wat]s1 he %\ld make arrangem5ts ) ! pr(essional deep-sea fi%]--pref]ably a trawl]--= ! supply ( ^? disreputable species t inv>iably =m "p ( ! haul1 :ile ! bett]-kn[n food fi%es c always be obta9$ f deal]s = purposes ( /udy4 ,on "o occasion we _h a r unique & v successful int]view ) a fri5dly trawl]4 ,%e 0 sail+ sl[ly t[>ds h] /ation 9 a s\?-we/]n fi%+ port1 :ile two ( h] crew 7 cle>+ h] nets1 & ?r[+ all refuse into ! sea4 ,we r[$ beh9d h] 9 ord] to see ! nature ( ! reject$ portion ( ! haul1 & f9d+ t x includ$ specim5s ( int]e/+ fi%es ( ill repute1 dead b p]fectly fre%1 we foll[$ h] track1 & collect$ a few = future exam9ation4 ,pres5tly our movem5ts 7 wat*$ f abo>d1 & we 7 invit$ to pull up to l>bo>d1 :]e a %ort explanation z to our wants l$ to ! acquisition ( q a v>iety ( deep-sea life1 includ+ sev]al species ( fi%es n (t5 se5 on l&1 crabs1 %ell$ & %ell-less molluscs1 worms1 />-fi%es1 & v>i\s l[ly organis$ be+s1 _m alive & 9 good condition1 toge!r ) sev]al good food fi%es ?r[n 9 by way ( sympa?y4 ,!re is no d\bt t a naturali/ c obta9 mu* m deep-sea life ) ! aid ( a fri5dly trawl] ?an by any am\nt ( #8fi%+' ) ord9>y tackle f a boat2 & ?is )\t ! necessity ( go+ to sea at all1 if he w only take ! opportunity ( exam9+ ! nets z ! boats are /r&$ on _! return4 ,b n[ to return to our angl+3--,we h to provide a light rod1 ab\t t5 feet long1 ) a w9*1 & a l9e ( twi/$ silk or o!r ?9 b /rong mat]ial2 also a light h& l9e1 & a supply ( gut1 leads1 %ot1 & hooks1 toge!r ) "o or two small floats1 & a few bait boxes4 ,we d n1 z a rule1 recomm5d ! amateur angl] to use bo? rod & h& l9e at ! same "t1 = ! attempt to d ?is leads to ! neglect ( bo?4 ,9 ! end x is n likely to lead to any ga91 s _m fi% be+ lo/ ?r\gh ! inability to /rike at ! mom5t a bite is giv51 & s mu* "t hav+ to be devot$ to ! bait+ ( hooks r ?an to ! direct managem5t ( ! l9es4 ,9 mo/ cases ! rod is mu* m conv5i5t ?an ! h& l9e4 ,! "y collector w meet ) ! greate/ v>iety ( species 9 rocky & we$y places1 :]e abundant %elt] exi/s = ^? fi%es t pref] to keep well "u cov]1 & any attempt ) a h& l9e 9 su* spots w c]ta9ly lead to frequ5t loss ( hooks1 & (t5 ( lead1 l9e1 & temp]4 ,su* a l9e mu/ be res]v$ = fi%+ on s&y bottoms1 :ile ! t5-foot rod recomm5d$ w enable ! angl] to d good "w 9 ! rockie/ p>ts )\t mu* dang] ( f\l+2 &1 9 fact1 to fi% any:]e along ! coa/4 ,! arrangem5t ( hooks & lead mu/ necess>ily dep5d on ! "* ( ! place to be work$1 b 9 all cases we /rongly recomm5d no su* multiplicity ( hooks z is made use ( by fi%]m5 & o!rs :o fi% = food4 ,9 _! case ! use ( s _m hooks (t5 pays !m well2 b1 z we h previ\sly h9t$1 ! naturali/ does n desire quantity ( fi% s mu* z v>iety ( species4 ,fur!r1 !re is no necessity to make 8 "w heavy & ardu\s4 ,8 desire is n to sp5d an undue proportion ( 8 "t 9 bait+ hooks1 b to h 8 l9e s "u control t he is ready to /rike at any mom5t1 & to be able to alt] ! conditions ( 8 "w z (t5 z 8 ideas or ! conditions *ange4 ,9 rugg$ & we$y places ! hooks mu/ be kept free f rocks & we$s4 ,?is may be done by lett+ d[n ! rod l9e ) a lead at ! bottom1 & "o or two hooks fa/5$ to gut at su* a level z to keep q cle> ( we$s4 ,a mu* bett] arrangem5t1 & "o :i* we ourselves almo/ inv>iably employ1 consi/s ( a light lead1 z a rule n exce$+ an ounce 9 weight1 fa/5$ at ! end ( ! l9e1 & bel[ x a few feet ( gut t]m9at+ 9 a s+le hook4 ,) su* tackle x is ( c\rse necess>y to det]m9e previ\sly ! dep? ( ! wat]1 9 ord] to adju/ ! l9e to su* a l5g? t ! hook keeps cle> ( rocks & we$s1 & a float may be us$ if desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,r\nd ,,b5d ,,hook ,,) ,,flatt5$ ,,end ,we d n recomm5d a float = ! g5]al "w ( ! m>9e collector1 = x is a decid$ advantage to be prep>$ to br+ ! bait to any level f bottom to surface1 especially :5 ! wat] is s cle> t ! fi% may be se5 swimm+1 9 :i* case "o is (t5 impress$ ) ! desire to capture a specim5 9 ord] to e/abli% its id5tity1 & = su* "w z ?is a float is sup]flu\s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a float is us$1 x %\ld be a slid+ "o1 s t x may be adapt$ to ! ris+ & fall+ ( ! tide4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,lim]ick ,,hook1 ,,ey$ ,( hooks !re is a great v>iety to *oose f1 diff]+ 9 ! =m bo? ( ! curve & ( ! end ( ! %ank4 ,z to ! curve1 ^? ) a decid$ twi/ are be/ adapt$ to our purpose1 *iefly on acc\nt ( ! fact t sea fi%es g5]ally h l>g] m\?s ?an fre%-wat] species ( ! same size1 & are consequ5tly bett] held ) a twi/$ hook4 ,! %anks ( sea hooks are ei!r flatt5$ or ey$1 & ea* is z good z ! o!r provid+ ! snood is firmly atta*$2 b "s amateurs f9d a great] difficulty 9 atta*+ ! snood to ! =m] ?an to ! latt]4 ,gut snoods are recomm5d$ = our purpose1 & fig4 #bf %[s "o me?od by :i* !y may be fa/5$ to a flatt5$ %ank1 :ile fig4 #bg illu/rates ! figure-(-eight knot by means ( :i* ! ey$ %ank may be firmly secur$4 ,! gut %\ld be soak$ = "s h\rs 9 cold wat] previ\s to ty+1 & x may be kept s(t = "s consid]able "t by giv+ x a few h\rs' imm]sion 9 a solution ( glyc]9e--ab\t "o "p ( glyc]9e to f\r or five p>ts ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,me?od ,,( ,,atta*+ ,,snood ,,to ,,flatt5$ ,,hook ,small hooks w be mo/ suitable = our purpose2 & if ! read] f9ds any difficulty 9 atta*+ ! snood firmly1 he may pur*ase suitable hooks ready m\nt$ on gut1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ^! are m exp5sive ?an ! flatt5$ or ey$ hooks g5]ally us$ = sea-fi%+4 ,su* small & fragile hooks may be occasionally snapp$ (f by ! run ( a vigor\s fi% ( mod]ate size1 !re=e x is advisable to h a supply ( l>g] hooks1 ready fix$ on /rong snoods1 to be us$ :5 x is f\nd t ! %ore is frequ5t$ by l>g] fi%es ?an ^? g5]ally caught close to l&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,me?od ,,( ,,atta*+ ,,snood ,,to ,,ey$ ,,hook ,:5 fi%+ ) a rod & l9e f rocks1 or f pi]s1 ! f\ndations ( :i* are cov]$ ) l>ge we$s1 ! bait w frequ5tly be c>ri$ by curr5ts among ! we$s & snapp$ (f :5 endeav\rs are made to release ! hook4 ,?is w especially be ! case :5 ! hook is a few feet bel[ ! lead1 z we h already sugge/$ x %\ld be4 ,to r$uce ! frequ5cy ( su* mi%aps1 x w be a good plan to weight ! gut bel[ ! lead by means ( a few split %ot4 ,9 fact1 9 %elt]$ places1 :]e ! wat] is n di/urb$1 ^! %ot may take ! place ( ! lead1 b little weight be+ necess>y = rod fi%+ 9 su* localities4 ,! amateur sea angl] is (t5 9 great d\bt z to ! be/ bait to use2 &1 believ+ t a c]ta9 k9d ( bait is absolutely necess>y = 8 "w 9 "s p>ticul> spot1 is (t5 at a loss to obta9 x4 ,?is bait difficulty is evid5tly a prevail+ "o among amateur sea fi%]s1 if "o may judge f ! frequ5t que/ions ask$ z to ! be/ or prop] bait to use1 & f ! v common #8,c y oblige me ) a little bait8' ,?is latt] "q1 we believe1 is frequ5tly ! outcome ( c>elessness or laz9ess on ! "p ( ! ask]4 ,he has n ! =e?\ght1 born ( en?usiasm1 t w\ld lead him to procure a suitable bait1 at a conv5i5t "t1 previ\s to />t+ (f on 8 angl+ exp$ition1 b r dep5ds on ! possibility ( be+ able to beg or o!rwise secure suffici5t = 8 purpose at ! "t2 yet !re are s _m good baits t are easily secur$ at ! prop] "t & place t ! en?usia/ic angl] ne$ nev] be at a loss4 ,"s ( ^! may be collect$ by himself at l[ tide1 o!rs may be obta9$ f local fi%]m51 or f ! tradesm5 ( ! t[n or village4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,! ,,lugworm ,"s angl]s seldom collect _! own bait1 ei!r pur*as+ x or employ+ "s "o to collect x = !m2 b we are ( op9ion t ! pleasure ( a day's fi%+ beg9s "h1 & especially s :5 ! angl] is ( ! naturali/ type1 = he w frequ5tly le>n m ( ! nature & habits ( liv+ creatures dur+ "o h\r's bait-collect+ ?an dur+ ?ree or f\r h\rs' angl+4 ,x is true t ! "w 9 "q is (t5 a bit labori\s1 p>ticul>ly on a w>m day1 & t x may be frequ5tly describ$ z dirty & odor\s2 b :at is t to "o :o is int]e/$ 9 8 employm5t1 & :o d]ives pleasure 9 do+ 8 own "w8 ,fi%]m5 (t5 use lugworms = bait1 & al?\gh ^! con/itute "o ( ! be/ baits = _! own fi%+1 !y are n s suitable = ! purposes ( ! amateur angl]1 fi%+ ) small hooks close to %ore4 ,!y may be dug out ( ! s& :5 ! tide is out1 & are mo/ abundant :]e ! s& is mix$ ) mud4 ,a spade %\ld be us$1 & ?is %\ld be ?ru/ deep into ! s&1 select+ ^? spots :]e ! holes or burr[s ( ! worms mo/ ab\nd4 ,lugworms %\ld be us$ :ole2 & be+ ( l>ge size1 are suitable = bait+ l>ge hooks only4 ,!y may be kept alive 9 wet s& or sea-we$1 pref]ably ! latt] = conv5i5ce1 & /or$ till requir$ 9 a wood5 box4 ,ragworms also af=d good bait1 & are p>ticul>ly adapt$ = %ore angl+ ) small hooks4 ,almo/ all ! fi%es t frequ5t our %ores take !m readily1 b !y are n to be f\nd 9 all localities4 ,!y are to be tak51 ?\gh n usually 9 l>ge numb]s1 on rocky %ores :]e num]\s /ones lie among ! some:at muddy deposits ( ! m %elt]$ nooks1 :]e !y may be se5 on turn+ ov] ! /ones4 ,! be/ situation = ragworms1 h[ev]1 is ! m or less odorif]\s mud s frequ5tly deposit$ 9 ! e/u>ies ( riv]s & 9 l&lock$ h>b\rs4 ,"h !y maybe dug out 9 enorm\s numb]s ) a spade1 att5tion be+ direct$ to ^? spots :]e _! burr[s are mo/ num]\s4 ,!y are be/ /or$ ) a little ( ! mud 9 a %all[ wood5 box provid$ ) a slid+1 p]=at$ lid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,! ,,ragworm ,fail+ a supply ( ! m>9e worms j m5tion$1 ! common e>?worm may be us$ z a sub/itute1 b x is decid$ly less attractive to ! fi%es2 & ! same may be said ( g5tles--! l>v or grubs ( flies4 ,! latt] may be br$ 9 l>ge numb]s by simply plac+ a piece ( liv] 9 ! soil ) only a small portion expos$4 ,if ?is is done 9 ! summ] "t1 hundr$s ( eggs w soon be deposit$ on x1 & 9 ab\t a week or s x w be f\nd to be a liv+ mass ( fat :ite grubs1 p]haps m useful to ! fre%-wat] angl] ?an to 8 m>9e c\nt]p>t4 ,among ! s-call$ %ell fi% ( ! class mollusca1 mussels1 limpets1 cockles1 & :elks are all l>gely us$ = bait4 ,! la/ ( ^! are too l>ge = our purpose1 b =m a spl5did bait = deep-sea fi%+1 :ile ! o!r ?ree1 & especially ! mussels1 are well suit$ = %ore "w4 ,mussels1 9 fact1 provide "o ( ! be/ possible baits = almo/ all k9ds ( %ore fi%+1 ! only drawback be+ ! excessive s(tness ( _! bodies1 :i* enables !m to be easily torn f ! hook4 ,:5 small hooks are us$1 mussels ( a small size may be us$ :ole1 or ! l>g] ones may be divid$ into portions ( suitable size2 & 9 any case x w be f\nd a good plan to tie ! bait to ! hook ) a %ort piece ( cotton ?read4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,digg+ ,,= ,,bait ,mussels are n easily op5$ )\t injury1 & consequ5tly "s angl]s give !m a %ort imm]sion 9 hot wat]1 to kill ! animal & ?us cause ! %ell to gape4 ,z f> z our own exp]i5ce goes1 ! value ( ! bait is n det]iorat$ by ?is treatm5t1 ?\gh "s are ( op9ion t x is n s attractive aft] scald+4 ,mussels are op5$1 :5 alive1 mu* 9 ! same way z oy/]s1 b ! valves ( ! %ell fit toge!r s closely t x seems at fir/ almo/ impossible to ins]t a knife betwe5 !m4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c be done ) ease if "o valve is fir/ made to slide a little way ov] ! o!r by press+ x ) ! ?umb4 ,?is be+ accompli%$1 ! two valves %\ld n be sep>at$ by ! m]e =ce ( ! knife1 = ?is w\ld te> ! animal )91 & r5d] x m or less unfit = its purpose2 b fir/ direct ! edge ( ! knife t[>ds ! adductor muscle1 by means ( :i* ! animal pulls its valves s firmly toge!r1 & !n cut ?r\gh ?is close to ! inn] surface ( ! upp] valve4 ,?is valve c !n be lift$ )\t injury to ! s(t p>ts1 & ! :ole animal remov$ f ! o!r valve by cutt+ ?r\gh ! same muscle close to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,me?od ,,( ,,op5+ ,a ,,mussel ,betwe5 ! two lobes ( ! mantle--! s(t cov]+ on bo? sides ( ! animal t previ\sly l9$ ! %ell--w be se5 a br[n1 fle%y1 tongue-l body4 ,?is is ! #8foot' ( ! mussel4 ,! po9t ( ! hook %\ld fir/ be run ?r\gh ?is1 & !n f side to side ?r\gh ! mantle1 & f9ally ?r\gh ! adductor muscle previ\sly describ$4 ,if ?is is c>efully done1 !re w be little fe> ( ! bait becom+ deta*$ unless x is subject$ to r\gh usage1 & /ill less if x is ti$ r\nd ! %ank ( ! hook by means ( a %ort piece ( cotton ?read4 ,x is probably sup]flu\s to m5tion to ! read] ! fact t mussels are to be f\nd on almo/ e rocky coa/1 :]e !y may be se5 atta*$ to ! rocks by means ( a bun* ( silky fibres call$ ! byssus2 & t1 fail+ ?is1 !y are to be obta9$ f almo/ e fi%]man & fi%-deal]2 if1 h[ev]1 ^! molluscs are n to be obta9$1 cockles may be us$ z a sub/itute1 ?\gh x w probably be f\nd t !y are appreciably inf]ior1 except :5 fi%+ = dabs & plaice on s&y %ores1 9 :i* case !y are highly satisfactory4 ,cockles ab\nd on mo/ s&y coa/s1 :]e !y live a little bel[ ! surface2 & are usually obta9$ by means ( an ord9>y g>d5 rake4 ,sometimes we meet ) !m 9 l>ge numb]s 9 ! e/u>ies ( riv]s1 :]e !y lie buri$ 9 ! banks ( mix$ s& & mud t are left expos$ at l[ tide4 ,limpets are ext5sively us$ = bait 9 "s places1 especially by amateur angl]s2 & (t5 ) good results4 ,!y %\ld always be remov$ f ! rocks )\t injury1 & ?is is no easy matt] to ^? :o d n "k h[ to deal ) !m4 ,if tak5 completely by surprise1 "o %>p1 b light tap on ! side ( ! conical %ell w successfully deta* !m f _! hold2 or !y may be rais$ by means ( ! blade ( a /rong pocket-knife t has be5 ?ru/ b5ea? ! cone4 ,= our "w small limpets w prove f> m satisfactory ?an l>ge ones1 & ^! may be us$ :ole2 b if ! limpets are too l>ge = ! hooks employ$1 ! s(t1 upp] "p ( ! body only ne$ be us$4 ,x is n an easy matt] to remove fre% limpets f _! %ells )\t de/roy+ ?is s(t portion ( ! animal1 b if plac$ = a m9ute or s 9 hot wat] !y come out q easily1 & are app>5tly none ! less attractive z bait4 ,"s fi%]m5 on ! ,corni% coa/ always collect ! l>ge/ limpets = bait1 remove !m f _! %ells by means ( hot wat]1 & arrange !m on ! rocks to become p>tly dry4 ,:5 requir$ = bait1 ! s(t p>ts only are us$1 b ^!1 hav+ be5 m or less h>d5$ by ! dry+ process1 hold mu* bett] on ! hook ?an :5 fre%4 ,& n[1 aft] m5tion+ ! fact t l& snails are occasionally us$1 ?\gh1 we believe1 ) no v consid]able success1 = sea fi%+1 we w note a few baits d]iv$ f ! high] head-foot$ molluscs--! squid1 cuttle-fi%1 c4 ,!re are sev]al species ( ^! peculi> molluscs1 b ! common squid & ! common cuttle ( our seas1 & especially ! =m]1 is highly priz$ z bait4 ,x may be obta9$ f fi%]m51 :o frequ5tly haul x 9 _! nets2 b if suppli$ alive & fre% f ! sea x mu/ be h&l$ v cauti\sly1 o!rwise x may dis*>ge ! cont5ts ( its ink-bag ov] "o ) ! mo/ unpleasant results4 ,x is c]ta9ly be/ us$ :ile fre%1 ?\gh "s susp5d x until dry1 & !n /ore x = future use1 9 :i* case x w require soak+ 9 wat] :5 requir$4 ,! ?9 t5tacles or arms are v conv5i5t = bait+ small hooks1 ?\gh o!r p>ts ( ! body1 cut into n>r[ /rips1 w s]ve ! purpose ( ! angl] equally well4 ,( ! cru/aceans1 %rimps & prawns1 & v>i\s species ( crabs are us$ z bait4 ,%rimps & prawns are us$ :ole = cat*+ flat-fi%1 b small pieces are bett] :5 fi%+ = smelt & o!r small species ( fi% t swim close to %ore4 ,little pieces ( ! fle% ( ! crab are also well adapt$ = bait+ hooks ( small size1 & w prove v attractive to almo/ all k9ds ( fi%4 ,small crabs1 h[ev]1 may be us$ :ole1 b are ( little use except :5 s(t--t is1 j aft] ! %$d+ ( _! %ells1 & be=e ! new sk9 has _h "t to h>d54 ,su* crabs may be f\nd "u /ones & 9 o!r hid+-places at l[ tide1 = at su* times !y keep well seclud$ f _! num]\s enemies by :om !y are gre$ily dev\r$ :ile 9 ?is helpless & unprotect$ condition4 ,! h]mit-crab1 :i* selects ! empty %ell ( a :elk or w9kle = its home1 is probably well kn[n to our read]s4 ,! protection af=d$ by su* a home is absolutely necess>y to its exi/5ce1 s9ce its abdom5 has no o!r cov]+ ?an a s(t1 membran\s sk94 ,?is s(t abdom5 is frequ5tly us$ z a bait ) great success1 z well z ! fle% ( ! l>g] claws4 ,if ! %ell f :i* ! h]mit-crab is tak5 be brok51 a worm1 some?+ ( ! nature ( ! common ragworm1 w almo/ always be f\nd1 & ?is also is v s]viceable z bait4 ,9 addition to all ! baits previ\sly nam$ !re are sev]al o!r good ones1 _m ( :i* are to be obta9$ almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ /rips cut f ! mack]el1 h]r+1 or pil*>d1 pref]ably ) a portion ( ! silv]y sk9 atta*$2 also ?9 /rips ( tripe4 ,s&-eels1 :i* may be dug out ( ! s& ne> ! wat]'s edge1 are v useful1 & may be cut into pieces = bait+ small hooks4 ,fur!r1 a l>ge numb] ( artificial baits are employ$ 9 v>i\s k9ds ( sea fi%+1 b z ^! are n ess5tial = ! "w we h 9 h& we d n propose describ+ !m 9 detail4 ,n[ let u suppose t we are ab\t to try our luck at sea angl+1 on "s rocky coa/1 su* z t ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 our object be+ to det]m9e1 z f> z possible1 :at species ( fi%es frequ5t ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! %ore4 ,& ?is is n all2 =1 :5 fi%+ ) rod & l9e on su* a coa/1 x frequ5tly happ5s t we l& "s species ( crab t has be5 attract$ to our bait4 ,! ord9>y angl] w\ld reg>d su* crab z an intrud]1 &1 we are sorry to say1 w\ld (t5 consid] x 8 duty to cru% ! un=tunate cru/acean b5ea? 8 foot4 ,b x is f> diff]5t ) ! naturali/4 ,he fav\rably reg>ds all creatures f :i* some?+ may be le>nt1 & is z anxi\s1 z a rule1 to ga!r in=mation conc]n+ ! habitats ( "o class z ( ano!r4 ,9 fact1 we may g /ill fur!r1 & comb9e crab fi%+ ) ord9>y angl+1 bo? 9 "o & ! same exp$ition1 by lett+ a small crab-pot d[n into deep wat] among ! rocks1 & all[+ x to rema9 :ile ! angl+ is proce$+4 ,we select a spot :]e !re are sev]al feet ( wat] close to a p]p5dicul> rock1 v>i$ & brok5 by num]\s holes & crevices1 9 :i* v>i\s species ( fi%es & cru/aceans habitually hide4 ,su* a situation is an ideal "o = a "y naturali/1 = n only does he obta9 ! greate/ v>iety ( species "h1 b ! tak+s w surely include "s ( ^? rem>kably int]e/+ rock-dwell+ fi%es t diff] f our ord9>y food fi%es 9 s _m po9ts ( /ructure1 all ( :i*1 h[ev]1 display "s int]e/+ adaptation to ! habits & habitats ( ! species conc]n$4 ,our app>atus consi/s ( no?+ m ?an rod & l9e1 "o or two small leads1 a supply ( hooks on gut snoods1 a box ( bait1 & a wat]pro( bag 9 :i* to pack ! specim5s we desire to pres]ve4 ,we fir/ det]m9e ! dep? ( ! wat] by means ( a lead on ! end ( ! l9e1 & !n tie ! hook on ! end ) a small lead a few feet above x1 & fi% 9 su* a mann] t ! hook is j on ! bottom1 or1 if ! bottom is cov]$ ) we$s1 ! hook %\ld be kept j cle> ( f\l+ !m4 ,! peculi> rock fi%es s common on su* a coa/ z ?is on :i* we are engag$ ne$ special treatm5t at ! h&s ( ! angl]4 ,!y hide 9 _! holes1 wat*+ = ! unw>y creatures on :i* !y fe$1 &1 p\nc+ ^u !m sudd5ly1 ru% back to _! snug little nooks 9 :i* !y c secure !mselves firmly by means ( ! %>p1 h>d sp9es ) :i* _! bodies are furni%$4 ,:5 ^! fi%es seize ! bait (f]$ !m--& !y are n at all fa/idi\s 9 ! *oice ( _! vi&s--!y %\ld be hook$ & pull$ up ) "o vigor\s sweep ( ! rod1 or !y w d>t into _! homes1 f :i* x is almo/ impossible to dislodge !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,fi%+ ,,f ,,! ,,rocks ,9 addition to ^!1 !re w be v>i\s o!r species t require g5tl] treatm5t1 & may be hook$ & l&$ mu* 9 ! same mann] z fre%-wat] fi%es1 s9ce !y are free swimm]s1 usually keep+ well cle> ( ! rocks & we$s4 ,if ! day is calm1 & ! wat] cle>1 ! sea angl] w (t5 be able to wat* v>i\s fi%es z !y swim1 & to br+ ! bait g5tly )9 _! rea*2 & "h we f9d ! advantage ( ! rod z comp>$ ) ! h& l9e4 ,sometimes q a %oal ( small fi%es may be se5 sport+ ne> ! surface1 &1 z a rule1 !re w be no difficulty 9 obta9+ "o = id5tification & /udy4 ,^! are g5]ally be/ secur$ by means ( small hooks1 ) b v little bait1 & w (t5 bite freely at ! t9ie/ fragm5t ( worm on an almo/ nak$ hook4 ,aft] ! wat] has be5 se>*$ at all dep?s1 x w be well to all[ ! bait to re/ q on ! bottom1 ev5 at ! risk ( los+ a hook or two 9 ! we$s & rocks4 ,?is may enable "o to take "s fre% species ( fi% or to secure a cru/acean or o!r creature t is n (t5 f\nd betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,c>e %\ld be always tak51 h[ev]1 to keep ! hook well cle> ( ! we$s t gr[ on ! sides ( ! rock1 & sway to & fro ) e movem5t ( ! re/less wat]s4 ,angl+ f pi]s may be pursu$ mu* 9 ! same mann] z describ$ above 9 ^? places :]e ! bottom is rocky1 b s9ce ! *ances ( hook+ l>ge fi% are great] "h ?an close to %ore1 x is necess>y to be provid$ ) /rong] tackle & l>g] hooks4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! bottom is s&y1 ! rod tackle may be modifi$ by plac+ ! lead at ! bottom1 & arrang+ two or ?ree hooks above x1 ab\t "o or two feet ap>t1 ! l[e/ "o be+ ne> ! lead4 ,) su* an arrangem5t ! l9e may be ca/ "s di/ance out1 b = angl+ close to ! pi] itself !re is1 p]haps1 no?+ bett] ?an ! s+le-hook arrangem5t sugge/$ above1 = ) ?is "o may fi% on ! bottom & at all dep?s )\t any alt]ation 9 ! tackle be+ necess>y4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! rod l9e is to be ca/ z sugge/$ above1 or if a h& l9e is to be simil>ly us$1 ! foll[+ h9ts may be useful z reg>ds ! arrangem5t ( hooks & lead4 ,! l9e itself may be ( twi/$ silk or hemp1 t]m9at$ ) ab\t a y>d ( /rong gut4 ,! lead1 pref]ably ( a conical or pe>-%ap$ =m1 %\ld be plac$ at ! extreme end1 & its weight regulat$ accord+ to ! necessities ( ! occasion4 ,a few ounces ( lead are q suffici5t :]e !re are no /rong curr5ts1 b x is well to be suppli$ ) l>g] sizes1 to be sub/itut$ if circum/ances require x4 ,two hooks w be ample4 ,"o ( ^! %\ld be only a few in*es f ! lead1 & ! o!r ab\t eighte5 or tw5ty in*es high]4 ,! :ole arrangem5t1 kn[n z a ,pat]no/]1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cc1 9 :i* ! me?od ( fix+ ! lead & ! hook l9ks is also illu/rat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,! ,,pat]no/] ,x w be se5 t a swivel has be5 introduc$ 9 connection ) ! bottom hook1 ! object be+ to %[ ! mann] 9 :i* ?is useful piece ( tackle is fitt$4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t swivels are always necess>y4 ,x is (t5 useful to ins]t a swivel on ! l9e itself1 above ! ,pat]no/]1 :5 x is ( twi/$ mat]ial1 9 ord] to prev5t x f k9k+2 b its use is m frequ5tly s]viceable on ! hook l9ks1 especially :5 fi%+ :]e ! curr5ts are /rong4 ,:5 ! bait us$ is "o t pres5ts two flat surfaces to ! wat]1 z w\ld be ! case ) a /rip ( mack]el1 a /rong curr5t w set x sp9n+ r\nd & r\nd1 ?us caus+ ! hook l9k to k9k if x has n be5 fitt$ ) a swivel1 & ! same effect is (t5 produc$ by ! sp9n+ ( a fi% on ! hook4 ,! employm5t ( a suitable gr\nd bait w (t5 make a wond]ful diff]5ce 9 ! angl]'s haul4 ,x frequ5tly attracts l>ge numb]s1 keep+ !m ne> at h& = "s consid]able "t1 & app>5tly %>p5s _! appetite4 ,x may be (t5 obs]v$1 too1 t a fi% w bite freely at ! angl]'s bait :5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! gr\nd bait1 :ile ! =m] is view$ ) suspicion 9 ! abs5ce ( ! latt]4 ,:5 fi%+ on ! bottom only1 ! gr\nd bait %\ld be weight$ if x is ( su* a nature t x does n s9k readily or if x is liable to be c>ri$ away by curr5ts2 b x w (t5 be f\nd m conv5i5t to secure x on ! end ( a /r+1 ti$ up 9 a musl9 bag if necess>y1 s t x may be adju/$ to any desir$ dep?4 ,among ! attractive vi&s suitable = ?is purpose we may m5tion mussels1 cru%$ crabs1 p\nd$ liv]1 ! guts ( any oily fi%1 & ! (fal ( almo/ any animal4 ,along ! ea/ coa/1 & 9 "s ( ! s&y bays ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 fi%+ f ! bea* is practis$1 b we c h>dly recomm5d ?is z ( mu* value to ! amateur ^: object is to obta9 z great a v>iety z possible ( fi%es = /udy4 ,"s good food fi%es are (t5 caught by ?is means1 b ! me?ods employ$ are (t5 v primitive1 & w\ld lack all int]e/ to ^? :o love good sport4 ,on ! ea/ coa/ a long l9e1 fitt$ ) _m hooks1 is slung out z f> z possible by means ( a pole1 & ! home end ei!r held 9 ! h& ( ! fi%] or fa/5$ to ! top ( a flexible /ick driv5 into ! s&4 ,! latt] plan becomes necess>y :5 m ?an "o l9e is own$ by ! same individual1 & he is made aw>e ( ! bite ( a l>ge fi%--& a l>ge fi% only1 s9ce ! hooks are plac$ beyond a heavy lead--by ! b5d+ ( ! /ick4 ,! naturali/1 h[ev]1 is z mu* int]e/$ 9 ! small fi% z ! l>ge ones1 &1 ev5 = bea* fi%+1 a rod & l9e1 fitt$ ) "o or two hooks only1 & a lead no heavi] ?an is absolutely ess5tial1 w be pref]able4 ,a little practice w ( c\rse be necess>y 9 ord] t "o may become exp]t 9 ! ca/+ ( ! rod l9e1 b ) l>ge r+s on ! rod1 & a reel )\t a *eck1 or a *eck t c be ?r[n (f :5 desir$1 ! necess>y pr(ici5cy 9 ca/+ ought to be acquir$ )\t mu* difficulty4 ,9 "s ( ! s&y bays ( ! s\?-we/1 long l9es ) a heavy lead at bo? ends & bait$ hooks at %ort int]vals ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g?1 are plac$ on ! s& at l[ tide close to ! wat]'s edge1 & left unwat*$ until ! next tide is out4 ,z f> z our obs]vations g ?is primitive mode ( fi%+ is usually any?+ b successful1 ! rec$+ ( ! tide g5]ally reveal+ a long r[ ( clean hooks1 )1 p]haps1 "o or two dead or half-dead fi%2 & x is probable t mo/ ( ! bait is dev\r$ by crabs & o!r cru/aceans be=e ! wat] becomes suffici5tly deep to all[ ! desir$ fi%es to rea* x4 ,!re is "o o!r me?od ( fi%+ on :i* we may make a few rem>ks1 al?\gh x h>dly comes "u ! head+ ( %ore fi%+4 ,we ref] to a me?od ( cat*+ surface fi%es f a mov+ boat1 :i* me?od is kn[n z :iff+4 ,! l9e is weight$ ) a lead :i* mu/ be regulat$ accord+ to ! spe$ ( ! boat4 ,if ! boat is an ord9>y r[+-boat1 kept go+ at only a mod]ate spe$1 a few ounces ( lead w be suffici5t1 b a :iff+ l9e trail+ beh9d a sail+ boat travell+ 9 a good breeze w require a p\nd or two ( lead to keep ! bait only a little bel[ ! surface4 ,beyond ! lead we h ?ree or f\r y>ds ( gimp or /rong gut1 at ! end ( :i* is a s+le hook fitt$ ) a sp9n]1 or bait$ ) "s attractive natural or artificial bait4 ,:atev] be ! bait us$1 !re w c]ta9ly be m or less sp9n+ caus$ by ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! wat]1 h5ce x w be necess>y to h a swivel beyond ! lead4 ,:5 :iff+ ne> ! %ore1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid outly+ rocks t approa* ! surface ( ! wat]1 or a sudd5 snapp+ ( ! l9e w give y an unwelcome w>n+ ( _! exi/5ce4 ,fur!r1 we %\ld note t ! fi%es :i* are to be caught :5 :iff+ d n always swim at ! same dep?1 ?us x w be advisable to fi% at diff]5t di/ances f ! surface by v>y+ ei!r ! weight ( ! lead or ! spe$ ( ! boat4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,m>9e ,,aqu>ium ,we h already advis$ our read]s to take home _! specim5s alive = ! purpose ( /udy+ _! gr[? & habits4 ,n[1 al?\gh !re may be "s difficulties 9 ! way ( keep+ m>9e animals & plants alive = any consid]able "t1 yet we are incl9$ to emphasise ! importance ( ?is matt]1 kn[+ t ! pleasure & in/ruction t may be obta9$ f ev5 a mod]ately successful attempt to c>ry ?is out w f> m ?an comp5sate = ! am\nt ( tr\ble entail$4 ,!re are v _m m>9e objects t are exce$+ly pretty & also v in/ructive1 ev5 :5 /udi$ ap>t f ! life ) :i* !y 7 associat$ 9 ! sea4 ,?us1 a well-pres]v$ sea-we$ may reta9 mu* ( its orig9al beauty ( =m & col\r1 ! %ells ( num]\s molluscs & cru/aceans exhibit a mo/ int]e/+ v>iety ( features well wor?y ( /udy1 & a numb] ( ! s(t-bodi$ animals may be pres]v$ 9 su* a mann] z to closely resemble _! liv+ =ms4 ,?is be+ ! case1 we c h>dly say any?+ to disc\rage ^? :o ga!r sea-side objects m]ely = ! purpose ( mak+ a collection ( pretty & int]e/+ ?+s to be obs]v$ & admir$4 ,su* objects mu/ necess>ily af=d mu* pleasure & in/ruction1 & ! "t sp5t 9 ! collection & prep>ation w c]ta9ly cause ! collector to /ray to ! haunts ( ! liv+ ?+s1 :]e he is c]ta9 to acquire1 ?\gh x may be to a great ext5t unconsci\sly1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( k conc]n+ _! habits & mode ( life4 ,moreov]1 sea-side collect+ is "o ( ! mo/ heal?y & invigorat+ ( all out-door occupations1 & = ?is reason alone %\ld be enc\rag$4 ,yet x mu/ be obs]v$ t he ^: sea-side occupation is m]ely t ( a collector1 & ^: "w at home is simply ! m\nt+ & arrang+ ( ! objects obta9$1 c h>dly be consid]$ a naturali/4 ,natural hi/ory is a liv+ /udy1 & its devotee is "o :o delights 9 obs]v+ ! gr[? & developm5t ( liv+ ?+s1 wat*+ _! habits1 & not+ _! wond]ful adaptation to _! environm5ts2 & x is to enc\rage su* obs]vation t we s /rongly recomm5d ! "y collector to keep 8 creatures alive z f> z x is possible to d s4 ,! fir/ ?+ to settle1 !n1 is ! nature ( ! vessel or vessels t are to s]ve ! purpose ( aqu>ia = ! "w ( ! "y naturali/4 ,z long z ! outdoor "w is 9 progress tempor>y aqu>ia w be v useful z a means by :i* ! objects collect$ may be sort$ & /or$ until a f9al selection is made = ! p]man5t tank4 ,^! tempor>y aqu>ia may consi/ ( j>s or e>!nw>e pans ( any k9d1 ea* conta9+ a few small tufts ( we$1 pref]ably atta*$ to pieces ( rock1 & a lay] ( s& or gravel f ! bea*4 ,z su* tempor>y aqu>ia w1 z a rule1 be )9 a conv5i5t di/ance f ! sea-side :]e ! collect+ is be+ done1 !re w be1 we presume1 no great difficulty 9 ! way ( obta9+ ! frequ5t *anges ( wat] necess>y to keep ! animals & plants 9 a heal?y condition1 s t we ne$ d no m n[ ?an urge ! importance ( avoid+ ov]cr[d+1 & ( r5ew+ ! wat] frequ5tly = ! purpose ( supply+ ! air requir$ = ! respiration ( ! inmates4 ,:5 x is desir$ to isolate small species 9 su* a mann] t _! movem5ts may be conv5i5tly obs]v$1 glass j>s answ] well2 b :atev] be ! =m or size ( ! vessels us$1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid excess ( bo? light & heat4 ,!y %\ld be kept 9 a cool place1 q out ( ! way ( direct sun%9e1 & ! glass vessels us$ %\ld be provid$ ) a movable cas+ ( br[n pap] to exclude all light except t :i* p5etrates f above4 ,ev5 tempor>y aqu>ia1 us$ m]ely = ! purpose sugge/$ above1 %\ld be c>efully wat*$1 = a s+le day's neglect w sometimes result 9 ! loss ( sev]al valuable captives4 ,a dead animal %\ld be remov$ z soon z x is discov]$ to avoid ! unpleasant results aris+ f ! putrefaction ( its body4 ,! appe>ance ( a scum or film on ! surface ( ! wat] %\ld always be reg>d$ ) suspicion4 ,su* a scum %\ld be remov$ ) ! aid ( absorb5t pap]1 s9ce x t5ds to prev5t ! absorption ( oxyg5 f ! air2 &1 %\ld ! wat] be ta9t$ 9 ! slighte/ degree1 x %\ld be *ang$ at once1 or1 if ?is is n practicable1 air %\ld be driv5 into x = "s "t by means ( a syr+e ) a v f9e nozzle4 ,su* precautions1 h[ev]1 are n s urg5tly ne$$ :5 ! aqu>ium conta9s cru/aceans only1 = ! majority ( ^! creatures suff] less ?an o!rs 9 ! ta9t$ sea wat]1 "s ev5 be+ app>5tly q z com=table 9 ?is z 9 a supply fre% f ! sea4 ,sea-we$s exhibit+ ! slighte/ t5d5cy to decay mu/ be remov$ at once2 &1 z reg>ds ! fe$+ ( ! animals1 "o mu/ be c>eful to introduce only z mu* food z is requir$ = imm$iate use1 s t !re be no excess ( dead organic matt] left to putrefy4 ,"s ( ! m>9e animals obta9$ f our %ores fe$ entirely on ! m9ute & invisible organisms t are always pres5t 9 ! sea wat]1 & o!rs subsi/ pr9cipally on c]ta9 ( ! we$s4 ,_m1 h[ev]1 ( a m pr$ace\s disposition1 capture & dev\r liv+ prey1 :ile "s1 & m especially ! cru/aceans1 are p>tial to c>rion4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! obs]v] desires to /udy ! ways 9 :i* ! v>i\s creatures secure & dev\r _! food1 he %\ld introduce into 8 aqu>ia live m>9e worms & o!r small animals1 & also small pieces ( fi% or fle%4 ,we w n[ pass on to ! m s]i\s und]tak+ ( ! con/ruction & managem5t ( a p]man5t salt-wat] aqu>ium4 ,! fir/ po9t to decide is1 p]haps1 ! size ( ! propos$ vessel1 & ?is w 9 _m cases be det]m9$ p>tly by a consid]ation ( ! space at "o's disposal1 & ( ! ap>tm5t x is int5d$ to occupy4 ,if x is to be plac$ 9 a draw+-room or o!r ord9>y ap>tm5t ( a dwell+-h\se1 pref]5ce %\ld be giv5 to a w9d[ fac+ ! nor? 9 ord] to avoid ! direct rays ( ! sun1 b p]haps no situation is m suitable ?an a cool cons]vatory 9 ! %ady "p ( a g>d52 & 9 ei!r case a /rong table or o!r support %\ld be provid$1 ( a =m & size adapt$ to ^? ( ! aqu>ium to be con/ruct$4 ,v>i\s mat]ials may be us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( su* an indoor aqu>ium1 & we %all deal ) two or ?ree diff]5t types1 s t ! read] may make 8 selection accord+ to 8 fancy1 or to 8 me*anical ability1 if he int5ds t x %all be ( 8 own con/ruction4 ,we w beg9 ) an aqu>ium con/ruct$ entirely ( a mixture ( cem5t & f9e s&1 ?is be+ ! mo/ inexp5sive & c]ta9ly ! easie/ to make2 & al?\gh x may n be reg>d$ z ! mo/ ornam5tal--b op9ions w diff] on ?is po9t--yet x has ! decid$ advantage ( be+ ! ne>e/ approa* to ! natural rock pool4 ,?\gh some:at heavy & cumb]some1 ev5 :5 empty1 ! am\nt ( mat]ial us$ 9 its con/ruction may be v>i$ accord+ to ! ta/e & conv5i5ce ( ! mak]4 ,fur!r1 ?is =m ( aqu>ium is "o t w readily admit ( /ructural alt]ations at any future p]iod4 ,x may be deep5$ at any "t2 lat]al additions or ext5sions may be made1 or a portion may at any "t be %ut (f = ! purpose ( isolat+ c]ta9 ( ! animals procur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,section ,,( ,,an ,,aqu>ium ,,con/ruct$ ,,) ,a ,,mixture ,,( ,,cem5t ,,& ,,s& ,! fir/ ?+ to d is to prep>e a flat1 /rong slab ( h>d wood or /one1 ! exact %ape & size ( ! desir$ artificial pool1 & !n cov] ?is1 if ( wood1 ) a mixture ( f9e s& & cem5t1 mix$ to a conv5i5t consi/5cy ) wat]1 to ! dep? ( ab\t "o in*4 ,! banks or walls ( ! pool mu/ !n be built up on all sides1 & ?is is be/ done by ! gradual addition ( s(t pellets ( cem5t1 appli$ 9 su* a mann] z to produce an irregul> surface4 ,unless ! walls ( ! aqu>ium be v ?ick & massive ! cem5t w soon %[ a t5d5cy to fall f its place z ! height increases1 b ?is may be avoid$ by do+ ! "w 9 in/alm5ts1 all[+ ea* portion to set be=e fur!r additions are made to ! /ructure4 ,s9ce "s m>9e animals l to occupy snug & %ady ni*es 9 deep wat] :ile o!rs pref] full exposure to ! light 9 %all[s1 arrangem5ts %\ld be made = all by v>y+ ! dep? ( ! b$1 & provid+ sev]al little tunnels & cav]ns4 ,?is may be accompli%$ ei!r by work+ ! cem5t itself into suitable =m1 or by means ( pil$ /ones obta9$ f ! sea bea*2 & if ! latt] plan is adopt$1 ! /ones %\ld n be obta9$ until ! aqu>ium is q ready = its liv+ cont5ts2 = !n a selection ( /ones & rock fragm5ts ) we$s1 anemones1 sponges1 & o!r fix$ =ms ( life atta*$ to !m1 may be made4 ,! natural appe>ance ( a rock pool is ?us m ne>ly approa*$1 & 9 a %ort] "t ?an if ! s$5t>y life 7 requir$ to develop on an artificial gr\nd4 ,objection may be rais$ to ! =m ( aqu>ium j describ$ on ! gr\nd t no life )9 x is visible except :5 view$ f above4 ,b is n ?is also ! case ) a rock pool on ! sea %ore8 ,& has any admir] ( nature ev] be5 he>d to compla9 ( ! beauties ( su* a pool because he 0 unable to look at !m ?r\gh ! sides8 ,fur!r1 x may be urg$ t ! inmates ( our aqu>ium w be liv+ "u m natural conditions ?an ^? ( ! m popul> glass-sid$ aqu>ia1 because !y receive light f above only4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,cem5t ,,aqu>ium ,,) ,a ,,glass ,,plate ,,9 ,,front ,h[ev]1 %\ld ! read] require a glass front to 8 cem5t tank1 ! matt] is easily accompli%$4 ,?ree sides are built up z be=e describ$4 ,a %eet ( ?ick glass--plate glass by pref]5ce--is !n cut to ! size & %ape ( ! rema9+ space1 & ?is is fix$ by means ( cem5t press$ well aga9/ its edges1 bo? inside & outside4 ,wat] %\ld n be put into ! tank until x is q dry2 &1 if "o side is made ( glass1 n until ! cem5t surr\nd+ ! edge ( ! glass has be5 lib]ally pa9t$ ) m>9e glue1 hot pit*1 or "s o!r suitable wat]pro( mat]ial4 ,if any pipes are requir$ 9 connection ) ! wat] supply ( ! aqu>ium1 accord+ to ei!r ( ! sugge/ions 9 a lat] portion ( ?is *apt]1 su* pipes may be fix$ 9 _! prop] places z ! cem5t sides are be+ built up4 ,! next type ( aqu>ium we h to describe is ( l[ co/ z f> z ! mat]ials are conc]n$1 & "o t may be made by any "o :o has _h a little exp]i5ce 9 woodwork2 & al?\gh ! tank itself is ( a simple rectangul> =m1 yet x may be made to look v pretty ) a suitable adju/m5t ( rocks & we$s4 ,x consi/s ( a rectangul> box1 ! bottom1 ends1 & back ( :i* are ( h>d wood1 firmly dovetail$ toge!r1 & ! front ( plate glass let into grooves 9 ! bottom & ends4 ,all ! jo9ts & grooves are caulk$ ) m>9e glue1 b no pa9t %\ld be us$ 9 ! int]ior4 ,?is =m ( tank may be va/ly improv$ by ! sub/itution ( slabs ( slate = ! wood1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ?is *ange entails a mu* great] exp5diture ( bo? "t & ca%2 b suppos+ ! "w to be well done1 ! result is ev]y?+ t c\ld be desir$ z f> z /r5g? & durability are conc]n$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,aqu>ium ,,( ,,wood ,,) ,,glass ,,front ,9 ei!r ( ! rectangul> tanks j describ$ glass may be us$ = two sides in/ead ( "o only2 & s9ce ?is is n a matt] ( v great importance1 ! *oice may well be left to ! fancy ( ! "o :o con/ructs x4 ,"s pref] an aqu>ium ) glass on all sides1 & :]e ?is is ! case ! framework may be made ( angle z9c ) all ! jo9ts /rongly sold]$4 ,su* an aqu>ium may be made 9 ! =m ( any regul> polygon1 = x is no m difficult to con/ruct "o ( six or eight sides ?an ( f\r4 ,x is m difficult1 h[ev]1 to make su* an aqu>ium p]fectly wat]tight1 = ! glass1 in/ead ( be+ 9 grooves1 has to be securely fa/5$ to ! metal frame by means ( a cem5t on "o side only1 & ?is cem5t has to s]ve ! d\ble purpose ( hold+ ! glass & keep+ 9 ! wat]4 ,v>i\s mixtures h be5 sugge/$ = ?is purpose1 & among !m ! foll[+ are p]fectly satisfactory3-- #a4 ,li?>ge #b p>ts ,f9e s& #b ,pla/] ( ,p>is #b ,p[d]$ res9 #a "p ,mix into a v ?ick pa/e ) boil$ l9se$ oil & a little dri]s4 #b4 ,r$ lead #c p>ts ,f9e s& #c 0 ,p[d]$ res9 #a "p ,mix ) boil$ l9se$ oil z above4 ,bo? ^! cem5ts %\ld be appli$ v lib]ally1 & ! aqu>ium !n all[$ to rema9 q undi/urb$ = at lea/ two weeks be=e any wat] is introduc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,hexagonal ,,aqu>ium ,,con/ruct$ ,,( ,,angle ,,z9c1 ,,) ,,glass ,,sides ,:5 ready = ! wat]1 ! bottom ( ! aqu>ium %\ld be cov]$ ) a mod]ately ?ick lay] ( f9e s& f ! sea %ore1 & /ones !n pil$ 9 su* a mann] z to =m little tunnels & caves to s]ve z hid+-places = ^? creatures t pref] to be "u cov]4 ,z to ! selection ( /ones1 we h already sugge/$ t "s may h we$s root$ to !m1 & t pieces ( rock ) anemones1 sponges1 & o!r =ms ( life atta*$ may be *ipp$ (f4 ,fur!r1 on _m ( our rocky coa/s we may f9d1 ne> l[-wat] m>k1 a numb] ( /ones cov]$ ) a lay] ( vegetable gr[?1 among/ :i* _m small animals live1 (t5 m or less conceal$ by _! protective col\r+4 ,"s ( ^! /ones plac$ on ! b$ ( ! salt-wat] aqu>ium w\ld add greatly to ! natural appe>ance1 z well z give great] v>iety to ! liv+ objects4 ,%ells be>+ ! calc>e\s1 snakelike tubes ( ! common s]pula 7p4 #aba71 pref]ably ) ! liv+ animals enclos$1 w also enhance ! g5]al appe>ance & int]e/ ( ! aqu>ium4 ,9 mak+ prep>ations previ\s to ! introduction ( animal life1 due reg>d %\ld be paid to ! peculi> requirem5ts ( ! creatures x is int5d$ to obta94 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! advisability ( arrang+ ! b$ ( ! tank 9 su* a mann] t ! wat] may v>y consid]ably 9 dep?1 s t bo? deep & %all[ wat] may be f\nd by ! animals z requir$1 & to ! provision ( d>k holes = cru/aceans & o!r creatures t %un ! light4 ,v f9e s& %\ld be provid$ = %rimps1 prawns1 & o!r animals t l to lie on x2 & ?is s& mu/ be deep 9 places if x is int5d$ to introduce any ( ! burr[+ molluscs & m>9e worms4 ,! wat] us$ may be tak5 f ! sea or be artificially prep>$4 ,! =m] is c]ta9ly to be pref]r$ :5ev] x c be conv5i5tly obta9$1 & at ! pres5t "t few w f9d mu* difficulty 9 secur+ a supply1 = n only are we fav\r$ ) ! means ( obta9+ any desir$ quantity by rail at a *eap rate f almo/ any seaport1 b !re are companies 9 v>i\s ports :o und]take ! supply ( sea wat] to any "p ( ! k+dom4 ,if ! wat] is to be convey$ f ! coa/ )\t ! aid ( ! regul> deal]s 9 ?is commodity1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 to see t ! b>rel or o!r receptacle us$ = ! purpose is p]fectly clean4 ,no?+ is m conv5i5t ?an an ord9>y be] or w9e b>rel1 b x %\ld be previ\sly cleans$ by fill+ x sev]al times ) wat]--n necess>ily sea wat]--& all[+ ea* refill to rema9 9 x "s "t be=e empty+4 ,?is mu/ be repeat$ z long z ! wat] %[s ! slighte/ col\ration aft] /&+ = "s "t 9 ! b>rel4 ,%\ld any difficulty arise 9 ! way ( gett+ ! salt wat] direct f ! sea1 x may be made artificially by dissolv+ #8sea salt' 9 ! prop] proportion ( fre% wat]1 or ev5 by pur*as+ ! diff]5t salts conta9$ 9 ! sea sep>ately1 & !n add+ !m to fre% wat] 9 proportionate quantities4 ,! composition ( sea wat] is z foll[s3-- ,wat] #ifdg p] c5t4 ,sodium *loride #bgj 0 ,magnesium *loride #cf 0 ,magnesium sulphate 7,epsom salts7 #bc 0 ,calcium sulphate #ad 0 ,potassium *loride #jg 0 ,traces ( o!r sub/ances #jc 0 #ajjjj & x w be se5 f ?is table t artificial sea wat] may be made by add+ ab\t ?ree & a half p\nds ( sea salt1 obta9$ f ! sea by ! simple process ( evaporation1 to e n9ety-six & a half p\nds ( fre% wat] us$4 ,9 mak+ x !re may be "s difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! weight ( ! l>ge volume ( wat] requir$ to fill an aqu>ium ( mod]ate dim5sions1 b ?is w probably disappe> if x be rememb]$ t "o gallon ( wat] weighs j t5 p\nds1 &1 !re=e1 "o p9t weighs tw5ty ounces4 ,if ! sea salt _c be readily obta9$1 ! foll[+ mixture may be made1 ! diff]5t salts be+ pur*as$ sep>ately3-- ,wat] #if-a_/b lbs4 ,sodium *loride 7common salt7 #dc-a_/d ozs4 ,magnesium *loride #e-c_/d 0 ,epsom salts #c-c_/d 0 ,p[d]$ gypsum 7calcium sulphate7 #b-a_/d 0 ,al?\gh 9 ?is mixture ! sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! sea 9 v small quantities h be5 entirely omitt$1 yet x w answ] its purpose app>5tly z well z ! artificial sea wat] prep>$ f ! true sea salt1 & may !re=e be us$ :5ev] nei!r sea salt nor ! natural sea wat] is procurable4 ,assum+1 n[1 t ! aqu>ium has be5 fill$ ) sea wat]1 x rema9s to introduce ! animal & vegetable life = :i* x is int5d$2 & "h x w be necess>y to say some?+ ) reg>d to ! am\nt ( life t may be safely in/all$1 & ! ma9 conditions t det]m9e ! proportion 9 :i* ! animal & vegetable life %\ld be pres5t 9 ord] to insure ! greate/ success4 ,conc]n+ ! fir/ ( ^! we mu/ caution ! read] aga9/ ! common error ( ov]cr[d+ ! aqu>ium ) animals4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t almo/ all m>9e animals obta9 ! oxyg5 gas requir$ = purposes ( respiration f ! air dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,n[1 atmosph]ic air is only v slightly soluble 9 wat]1 & h5ce we c nev] h an abundant supply 9 ! wat] ( an aqu>ium at any "o "t4 ,if a numb] ( animals be plac$ 9 any ord9>y indoor aqu>ium1 !y v soon use up ! dissolv$ oxyg52 &1 if no means h be5 tak5 to replace ! loss1 ! animals die1 & _! dead bodies soon beg9 to putrefy & saturate ! wat] ) ! poison\s products ( decomposition4 ,x is probably well kn[n to ! read] t a l>ge proportion ( ! oxyg5 absorb$ by ! respiratory organs ( animals is conv]t$ by comb9ation ( c>bon into c>bonic acid gas )9 _! bodies1 & t ?is gas is giv5 back into ! wat] :]e x dissolves1 ?us tak+ ! place ( ! oxyg5 us$ 9 its =mation4 ,if1 !n1 an aqu>ium ( any k9d is to be a success1 "s means mu/ be tak5 to keep ! wat] con/antly suppli$ ) fre% oxyg5 q z rapidly z x is consum$1 & ?is c be done satisfactorily by ! introduction ( a proportionate quantity ( suitable liv+ we$s1 provid+ !re is n too mu* animal life pres5t4 ,! majority ( liv+ plants require c>bonic acid gas z a food1 &1 "u ! influ5ce ( light1 decompose ?is gas1 lib]at+ ! oxyg5 x conta9$4 ,?is is true ( _m ( our common sea-we$s1 & ?us x is possible to e/abli% 9 a salt-wat] aqu>ium su* a balance ( animal & vegetable life t ! wat] is ma9ta9$ 9 its normal condition1 ! c>bonic acid gas be+ absorb$ by ! plants z fa/ z x is excret$ by animals1 & oxyg5 suppli$ by ! plants z rapidly z x is consum$ by ! animals4 ,?is condition1 h[ev]1 is m difficult to obta9 9 a salt-wat] aqu>ium ?an 9 "o conta9+ fre%-wat] life1 p>tly because1 g5]ally speak+1 ! sea-we$s d n supply oxyg5 to ! wat] z rapidly z d ! plants ( our ponds & /reams1 & p>tly because ( ! difficulties att5d+ ! successful gr[? ( sea-we$s 9 artificial aqu>ia4 ,?us x is usually necess>y to adopt "s means ( me*anically arat+ ! wat]2 b1 = ! pres5t1 we %all consid] ! sea-we$s only1 leav+ ! me*anical me?ods ( arat+ ! wat] = a lat] portion ( ?is *apt]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 let u advise ! amateur to conf9e 8 att5tion to ! small] species ( we$s t are commonly f\nd 9 small & %all[ rock pools1 = ! successful gr[? ( ! l>g] purple & olive we$s w probably be beyond 8 p[]1 ev5 ?\gh 8 tank be "o ( consid]able capacity4 ,! be/ plan is t we h already sugge/$--namely1 to *ip (f small pieces ( rock ) tufts ( we$ atta*$1 & to fix !m among/ ! rock]y ( ! aqu>ium1 be+ c>eful to place ^? t grew 9 %all[ wat] ) full exposure to ! light1 & ^? :i* occupi$ %elt]$ & %ady places 9 ! rock pool1 respectively1 9 simil> situations 9 ! artificial pool4 ,= ! purposes ( aration we h to rely pr9cipally on ! bright gre5 we$s1 & pref]5ce %\ld be giv5 to any ( ^! t exhibit1 9 _! natural habitat1 a multitude ( m9ute air-bubbles on ! surface ( _! fronds1 = ! bubbles consi/ pr9cipally ( oxyg5 t is be+ lib]at$ by ! plant1 & d5ote t ! species 9 "q are ^? t are mo/ valuable = ma9ta9+ ! desir$ condition ( ! wat] 9 an aqu>ium4 ,any small sea-we$ may be tri$ at fir/1 b exp]i5ce w soon %[ t "s are mu* m easily kept alive ?an o!rs4 ,9 ?is exp]im5tal /age1 h[ev]1 a con/ant wat* %\ld be ma9ta9$ = ! purpose ( detect+ signs ( decay 9 ! m>9e g>d54 ,a plant %\ld always be remov$ z soon z x pres5ts any *ange f ! natural col\r1 or exhibits ! smalle/ am\nt ( slimy gr[?s on ! surface1 = decompos+ plants1 z well z decay+ animals1 w soon conv]t an aqu>ium into a vessel ( putrid & poison\s wat]4 ,x seems almo/ unnecess>y to "n a selection ( sea-we$s = small aqu>ia1 see+ t our rock pools produce s _m extremely beautiful species1 mo/ ( :i* may be successfully kept alive 9 a well-manag$ tank2 b ! common ,sea ,grass 7,ent]omorpha compressa71 & ! ,sea ,lettuce 7,ulva latissima71 also kn[n locally z ! ,gre5 ,lav] or ,sloke1 are p>ticul>ly useful = ! aration ( ! wat]2 :ile ! ,common ,corall9e 7,corall9a (fic9alis71 ! ,dulse 7,s*izym5ia edulis71 ! ,peacock's tail 7,pad9a pavonia71 ! ,iri% or ,c>rage5 ,moss 7,*ondrus crispus71 ,calli?amnion1 ,griffi?sia setacea1 ,plocamium plumosium1 ,rhodym5ia palmata1 ,rhodophyllis bifida1 & ,c]amium rubrum are all beautiful plants t ought to give no tr\ble to ! aqu>ium-keep]4 ,x is n advisable to introduce animal life into ! aqu>ium imm$iately x is fill$1 on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( ! wat] be+ contam9at$ by contact ) ! cem5t t has be5 us$ to make x wat]-tight4 ,x is saf] to all[ ! fir/ wat] to /& = a few weeks1 ! we$s & all o!r objects be+ 9 situ1 & ! necess>y means employ$ = p]fect aration dur+ ?is int]val1 & !n1 imm$iately be=e ! animals are plac$ 9 _! new home1 to syphon (f ! :ole ( ! wat]1 & refill ) a fre% supply4 ,9 ! selection ( animals due reg>d %\ld be paid to two important po9ts--fir/1 ! dang] ( ov]cr[d+1 &1 secondly1 ! de/ructive habits ( "s ( ! m pr$ace\s species4 ,no m ?an two or ?ree animals %\ld1 z a rule1 be reckon$ = ea* gallon ( wat]2 & ! proportion ( animals %\ld be ev5 less ?an ?is :5 any ( !m are ( consid]able size4 ,z reg>ds ! de/ructive species1 ^! are int5d$ to include bo? ^? t are voraci\s vegetable fe$]s & also ^? ^: habit x is to kill & prey on o!r creatures4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t ! we$s are to s]ve two di/9ct purposes3--,!y are to supply at lea/ "s ( ! oxyg5 requir$ = ! respiration ( ! animal inmates1 & also to s]ve z food = !m4 ,"s m>9e fi%es & molluscs fe$ on ! fronds ( ! we$s1 & among ^! ! common p]iw9kle may be m5tion$ z "o ( ! mo/ voraci\s4 ,if _m su* animals are h\s$ 9 ! aqu>ium1 x w be necess>y to replace at int]vals ^? species ( we$s t suff] mo/ f _! ravages4 ,! zoospores ?r[n (f by ! we$s1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! autumn1 are also valuable z food = "s ( ! animals4 ,not)/&+ ! de/ructive "* ( ! p]iw9kle j ref]r$ to1 x has "o r$eem+ feature1 = x is c]ta9ly useful 9 ! aqu>ium z a scav5g]1 z x gre$ily dev\rs ! l[ =ms ( vegetable life t cov] ! glass & rocks1 ?us help+ to keep !m clean2 & ! same is true ( ! common limpet & o!r creep+ molluscs4 ,"s ( ^! are ev5 m to be valu$ on acc\nt ( _! p>tiality = decay+ vegetable matt]1 by dev\r+ :i* !y r$uce ! am\nt ( ! products ( decomposition pass+ into ! wat]4 ,o!r details conc]n+ ! selection ( animal & vegetable life = ! indoor aqu>ium mu/ be left to ! discretion & exp]i5ce ( ! keep]1 = x is impossible by writt5 in/ructions & advice to cov] all ! v>i\s s\rces ( loss & tr\ble t may f "t to "t arise4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! g5]al h9ts = ! managem5t ( ! m>9e aqu>ium "h giv5 be fai?fully foll[$1 !re ought to be no fur!r losses ?an mu/ accrue f ! injudici\s selection ( animal species1 & ^! w decrease z exp]i5ce has be5 acquir$ respect+ ! habits ( ! creatures introduc$4 ,we mu/ n[ pass on to matt]s p]ta9+ to ! ma9t5ance ( ! heal?y condition ( an aqu>ium :i*1 we w suppose1 has be5 e/abli%$ ) due reg>d to sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,"u ?is head we %all consid]1 7#a7 ! aration ( ! wat]1 7#b7 ! repair ( loss due to evaporation1 & 7#c7 ! regulation ( light & temp]ature4 ,x has already be5 %[n t ! m>9e aqu>ium c h>dly be ma9ta9$ 9 a satisfactory condition z reg>ds its air supply by leav+ ! aration ( ! wat] entirely to ! action ( plant life2 & h]e9 ?is =m ( aqu>ium diff]s f t employ$ = ! animal & vegetable life d]iv$ f ponds & /reams4 ,fre%-wat] we$s develop & multiply ) su* rapidity1 & are su* ready g5]ators ( oxyg5 gas t x is a v easy matt] to e/abli% a fre%-wat] aqu>ium t w rema9 9 good condition = ye>s ) b little att5tion2 x is !re=e important t we %\ld po9t out ! diff]5ce 9 treatm5t necess>y to ^? ( our read]s :o are already acqua9t$ ) ! comp>ative ease ) :i* ! fre%-wat] aqu>ium may be kept 9 good ord]1 le/ !y expect ! same self-arat+ condition 9 ! m>9e tank4 ,x is nev] a good plan to leave ! r5ovation ( ! wat] ( ! aqu>ium until !re are visible signs )9 t some?+ is go+ wrong4 ,x is true t an unsatisfactory condition ( ! wat]1 reveal$ by a slight ta9t 9 ! od\r1 or a g5]al turbidity1 or ! =mation ( a slight scum on ! surface1 may sometimes be rectifi$ by ! prompt application ( "s me?od ( artificial aration1 b ! aim ( ! aqu>ium-keep] %\ld be n ! rectification ( unsatisfactory conditions1 b ! e/abli%m5t ( su* a me?od ( aration t ! unsatisfactory condition becomes an impossibility4 ,we d n wi% to disc\rage anyone :o has ! slighte/ desire to />t a m>9e aqu>ium4 ,our aim is to po9t out any difficulties t lie 9 ! way 9 ord] t ! aqu>ium may be a success2 & ?us1 hav+ /at$ t ! difficulties att5d+ x are some:at great] ?an ^? connect$ ) ! managem5t ( a fre%-wat] aqu>ium1 we %\ld l to add t ^! practically disappe> :5 "o is prep>$ to devote a %ort "t at regul> int]vals 9 ord] to see t ! process ( aration is prop]ly c>ri$ out4 ,"s recomm5d ! occasional injection ( air by a syr+e z "o means ( arat+ ! wat]2 b1 al?\gh ?is may be all v well z a tempor>y purifi] ( ! slightly ta9t$ aqu>ium1 x is h>dly suitable z a means ( ma9ta9+ a good1 heal?y condition4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t oxyg5 gas--! gas ( ! atmosph]e s ess5tial to animal life--is only v slightly soluble 9 wat]4 ,by ?is we mean n only t wat] dissolves oxyg5 v sl[ly1 b also t x c nev] hold a l>ge supply ( ! gas at any "o "t4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x is cle> t ! use ( a syr+e = a %ort "t1 ?\gh x dis*>ges an enorm\s total volume ( air into ! wat]1 w result 9 ! actual solution ( only a small quantity4 ,no me?od ( aration is p]fect t all[s ! admission ( air = a %ort "t only at comp>atively long int]vals2 ! mo/ p]fect sy/em is t 9 :i* air is sl[ly b cont9u\sly pass$ into solution4 ,s9ce air is slightly soluble 9 wat]1 x is cle> t x mu/ be cont9u\sly pass+ into any body ( wat] t has its surface freely expos$ to x2 h5ce a wide & %all[ aqu>ium is mu* m likely to keep 9 good ord] ?an "o t is n>r[] & deep]4 ,b1 ) m>9e aqu>ia1 ! simple absorption f ! air at ! surface is n 9 itself suffici5t1 z a rule1 to ma9ta9 a heal?y condition4 ,yet x w be advisable to rememb] ?is matt] :5 con/ruct+ a tank = m>9e life4 ,"o ( ! prettie/1 & c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ effectual1 me?ods ( supply+ air to an aqu>ium is by means ( a small f\nta9 ) a v f9e spray4 ,! wat] ne$ seldom be *ang$1 b ! f\nta9 may be f$ by wat] f ! aqu>ium1 & z ! f9e spray passes ?r\gh ! air x w absorb oxyg5 & c>ry x 9 solution to ! tank4 ,! accompany+ diagram illu/rates ! mann] 9 :i* ?is c be accompli%$4 ,! aqu>ium 7,a7 is suppli$ ) an outlet 7,o7 ab\t an in* f ! top by means ( :i* ! wat] is prev5t$ f ov]fl[+1 & ! outlet pipe leads to a vessel 7,v7 ( consid]able capacity :i*1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce & appe>ance1 may be conceal$ b5ea? ! table on :i* ! aqu>ium /&s4 ,"s feet above ! level ( ! aqu>ium is ano!r vessel 7,c71 support$ on a %elf1 hav+ ab\t ! same capacity z ,v1 & suppli$ ) a small compo pipe t passes d[n into ! aqu>ium1 & !n1 hidd5 z mu* z possible by ! rock]y1 t]m9ates 9 a v f9e jet j above ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! c5tre4 ,! upp] vessel %\ld also be provid$ at ! top ) a loose cov]+ ( musl9 to s]ve z a /ra9]1 & ?is %\ld be replac$ at int]vals z x becomes clogg$ ) s$im5t>y matt]4 ,9 ord] t ?is arrangem5t may give p]fect satisfaction ! two vessels 7,c & ,v7 mu/ ea* be ( at lea/ half ! capacity ( ! aqu>ium itself1 & ! total quantity ( salt wat] suffici5t to fill ! aqu>ium toge!r ) "o ( !m4 ,x %\ld also be rememb]$ t s9ce ! pressure ( wat] dep5ds n on its quantity1 b on its height measur$ p]p5dicul>ly1 x foll[s t ! height to :i* ! f\nta9 w play is det]m9$ by ! height ( ! vessel ,c above ! level ( ! jet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,me?od ,,( ,a,,rat+ ,,! ,,wat] ,,( ,,an ,,aqu>ium ,a1 aqu>ium ) f\nta92 ,c1 ci/]n to supply ! f\nta92 ,o1 pipe = ov]fl[2 ,v1 vessel = ov]fl[ ,let u n[ suppose t ! aqu>ium & ! upp] vessel h bo? be5 fill$ ) sea wat]4 ,! f9e jet f ! pipe plays into ! air & returns ) a supply ( oxyg5 to ! aqu>ium1 :ile ! excess above ! level ( ,o passes into ! conceal$ vessel bel[ ! table4 ,if ! two vessels are z l>ge z we recomm5d1 & ! jet a v f9e "o1 ! f\nta9 may cont9ue to play = h\rs be=e ,c is empty1 ! animals ( ! tank be+ fav\r$ all ?is "t ) a cont9u\s supply ( air4 ,& :5 ! supply f above is exhau/$1 ! cont5ts ( ! bottom vessel are transf]r$ to ! top "o1 & at ! same "t s effectually /ra9$ by ! lay] ( musl9 t no s$im5t>y matt] passes d[n to *oke ! f9e jet ( ! f\nta94 ,"o great advantage ?is me?od possesses is t ! liv+ creatures d]ive ! b5efit ( a mu* l>g] quantity ( wat] ?an ! aqu>ium alone c\ld conta92 & ?us1 ap>t f ! arat+ effects ( ! f\nta91 ! result is ! same z if a mu* l>g] tank 7 employ$4 ,9 our next illu/ration 7fig4 #ci7 we give a modifi$ arrangem5t bas$ on ! same pr9ciple :i* may comm5d itself by pref]5ce to "s ( our read]s4 ,"h ! supply pipe to ! f\nta9 passes ?r\gh a hole 9 ! bottom ( ! aqu>ium in/ead ( into ! top1 & ! outlet pipe is b5t d[nw>d )9 s z to =m a syphon4 ,^? :o are acqua9t$ ) ! pr9ciple ( ! syphon w und]/& at once ! work+ ( su* an arrangem5t z ?is4 ,let u suppose ! vessel c to be full ( wat]1 & ! f\nta9 />t$1 :ile ! wat] 9 ! aqu>ium /&s no high] ?an ! level l4 ,! wat] sl[ly rises until ! level h ( ! b5d ( ! outlet tube has be5 rea*$1 & dur+ ! :ole ( ?is "t no wat] escapes ?r\gh ! exit4 ,z soon1 h[ev]1 z ! latt] level has be5 atta9$1 ! wat] fl[s away into ! l[] vessel1 into :i* x cont9ues to run until ! l[] level is rea*$1 & !n ! outfl[ ceases1 n to comm5ce aga9 until ! f\nta9 causes ! wat] to rise to ! upp] level4 ,f :at has be5 said ! read] w see t ! total quantity ( wat] requir$ 9 ?is in/ance ne$ n exce$ ! capacity ( ! aqu>ium2 also t ea* ( ! vessels connect$ ) wat] supply & wa/e %\ld h a capacity equival5t to ! volume ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! aqu>ium betwe5 ! two levels h & l4 ,! alt]nate ris+ & fall+ ( ! wat] produc$ 9 ! mann] j describ$ repres5ts 9 m9iature ! fl[ & ebb ( ! tides1 b p]haps ?is is 9 itself ( no great advantage 9 ! aqu>ium except f ! fact t x all[s ^? creatures t pref] to be occasionally out ( ! wat] = a "t a bett] opportunity ( indulg+ 9 su* a habit4 ,& fur!r1 ) reg>d to bo? ! arrangem5ts = aration above describ$1 x %\ld be not$ t e>!nw>e vessels are mu* to be pref]r$ to ^? made ( metal = ! hold+ ( sea wat]1 s9ce ! dissolv$ salts corrode metallic sub/ances r rapidly1 & (t5 produce1 by _! *emical action1 soluble products t r5d] ! wat] m or less poison\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,aqu>ium ,,fitt$ ,,) ,,app>atus ,,= ,,p]iodic ,,outfl[ ,o!r me?ods ( arat+ ! wat] ( aqu>ia are practis$1 b ^!1 z a rule1 are only practicable 9 ! case ( ! l>ge tanks ( public aqu>ia & biological laboratories1 z ! me*anical appliances necess>y to c>ry !m out successfully are beyond ! means ( an ord9>y amateur4 ,9 su* l>ge tanks z ^? ref]r$ to x is common to =ce a f9e jet ( air into ! wat] by ma*9]y4 ,sometimes ?is air is driv5 d[nw>d f a jet j bel[ ! surface1 & ) su* =ce t a multitude ( m9ute bubbles p5etrate to a consid]able dep? be=e !y comm5ce to rise1 b 9 o!rs ! air is made to ent] at ! bottom & mu/ !re=e pass "r ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,( c\rse ! amateur aqu>ium-keep] may c>ry out ?is me?od ( aration ) e hope ( success provid+ he has "s self-act+ app>atus = ! purpose1 or c dep5d on be+ able himself to att5d to a non-automatic arrangem5t at fairly regul> int]vals1 always rememb]+ t a s+le day's neglect1 especially 9 ! case ( a small tank ) a proportionately l>ge am\nt ( animal life1 may lead to a loss ( valuable specim5s4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! use ( a syr+e z a means by :i* an aqu>ium may be tempor>ily re/or$ to a satisfactory condition provid+ x has n be5 neglect$ too long1 & "s recomm5d =c+ air1 or1 /ill bett]1 pure oxyg5 gas1 f an india-rubb] bag into ! wat]4 ,we h us$1 = ! same purpose1 a /ream ( oxyg5 f a /eel cyl9d] ( ! compress$ gas ) v satisfactory results2 & s9ce oxyg5 may be n[ obta9$1 ready compress$1 at a v l[ price--ab\t twop5ce a cubic foot--!re is mu* to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is me?od z an auxili>y 9 ! h&s ( ! own] ( a small tank1 ?\gh we h>dly recomm5d x z a prime means ( aration to take ! place ( ! f\nta94 ,9 any case1 :]e a /ream ( air or oxyg5 is employ$1 an exce$+ly f9e jet %\ld be us$1 9 ord] t ! expell$ gas may take ! =m ( a /ream ( m9ute bubbles2 =1 z previ\sly /at$1 ! wat] c absorb ! gas only v sl[ly1 s t !re mu/ necess>ily be a consid]able wa/e :5 ! gas issues rapidly4 ,fur!r1 ! small] ! bubbles pass+ ?r\gh ! wat]1 ! great] is ! total surface ( gas 9 contact ) ! liquid1 ! volume ( ! supply be+ ! same1 & h5ce ! m effectually w ! solution ( ! gas proce$4 ,aga91 ano!r advantage ( ! f9e /ream ( m9ute bubbles lies 9 ! fact t ! small] ^! bubbles are ! m sl[ly !y rise to ! surface ( ! wat]1 & ?us ! long] is ! "t 9 :i* ! gas may be absorb$ dur+ its asc5t4 ,a f9e jet1 well suit$ to ! purpose "h def9$1 may be made v easily by hold+ ! middle ( a piece ( glass tub+ 9 a gas flame until x is v s(t1 & !n1 imm$iately on remov+ x1 pull+ x out r quickly4 ,a slight cut made ) a small triangul> file w !n enable ! op]ator to sev] ! tube at any desir$ po9t4 ,yet ano!r me?od ( ma9ta9+ ! air supply ( aqu>ia is adopt$ 9 ! case ( "s ( ! l>ge tanks ( public aqu>ia & biological laboratories situat$ close to ! sea1 & ?is consi/s 9 r5ew+ ! wat] at e high tide by means ( pumps4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t an indoor aqu>ium1 ev5 :5 well e/abli%$1 & suppli$ ) ! be/ possible sy/em ( aration1 requires no fur!r c>e & att5tion4 ,9 ! fir/ place !re is a cont9ual loss ( wat] by evaporation1 especially 9 w>m & dry wea!r1 & ?is mu/ be rectifi$ occasionally4 ,n[1 :5 wat] conta9+ salts 9 solution evaporates1 ! wat] pass+ away into ! air is p]fectly free f ! sal9e matt]1 & ?us ! p]c5tage ( salt 9 ! residue becomes high] ?an be=e4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! loss by evaporation 9 a m>9e aqu>ium mu/ be replac$ by ! addition ( fre% wat]1 :i* %\ld ei!r be di/ill$1 or f ! dome/ic supply1 provid+ x is s(t & mod]ately free f dissolv$ mat]ial4 ,b ! "q may be ask$1 #8,d n ! m>9e animals & plants utilise a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! sal9e matt] conta9$ 9 ! salt wat]8' ,! answ] to ?is is c]ta9ly 9 ! affirmative1 = all sea-we$s require & ab/ract small proportions ( c]ta9 salts1 ! nature ( :i* v>ies consid]ably 9 ! case ( diff]5t species2 &1 fur!r1 all ! %ell$ cru/aceans & molluscs require ! salts ( lime = ! developm5t ( _! ext]nal cov]+s1 & fi%es = ! gr[? ( _! bony skeletons4 ,h5ce ! above sugge/ion z to ! repl5i%m5t ( loss by evaporation ) pure wat] is n p]fectly satisfactory4 ,x w answ] q satisfactorily1 h[ev]1 provid+ ! sea wat] is occasionally *ang$ = an entirely new supply4 ,aga91 s9ce c>bonate ( lime is remov$ f sea wat] m ?an any o!r salt1 be+ su* an ess5tial con/itu5t ( bo? ! ext]nal & int]nal skeletons ( s _m m>9e animals1 z well z ( ! calc>e\s framework ( ! corall9e we$s1 we sugge/ t ! aqu>ium may always conta9 a clean piece ( "s v>iety ( c>bonate ( lime1 su* z *alk1 lime/one1 or m>ble1 :i* w sl[ly dissolve & replace t :i* has be5 absorb$4 ,wat] is r5d]$ d5s]1 & consequ5tly m buoyant1 by ! pres5ce ( dissolv$ salts2 &1 s9ce ! d5sity increases ) ! proportion ( dissolv$ mat]ial1 we are enabl$ to det]m9e ! degree ( sal9ity by f9d+ ! d5sity ( ! solution4 ,we c apply ?is pr9ciple to ! aqu>ium1 z a means ( det]m9+ :e!r ! wat] conta9s ! correct am\nt ( sea salt1 also = te/+ any artificial salt wat] t has be5 prep>$ = ! aqu>ium4 ,probably "s ( our read]s are acqua9t$ ) "s =m ( hydromet]--an in/rum5t us$ = f9d+ ! d5sity ( any liquid2 b we w describe a simple sub/itute t may be ( use to ! own] ( a m>9e aqu>ium1 especially if ! salt wat] = ! same is artificially prep>$4 ,melt a little bees-wax1 & mix x ) f9e1 clean s&4 ,!n1 rememb]+ t ! wax is light] ?an wat]1 & consequ5tly floats1 :ile s& is consid]ably heavi]1 & s9ks1 adju/ ! above mixture until a solid ball ( x is j heavy en\gh to s9k v sl[ly 9 sea wat]4 ,n[ make two su* balls1 & !n cov] "o ( !m ) a light coat+ ( pure wax4 ,we h n[ two balls1 "o ( :i* w float 9 sea wat]1 & ! o!r s9k1 & ^! may be us$ at any "t to te/ ! d5sity ( ! wat] 91 or prep>$ =1 ! aqu>ium4 ,if ! wat] is only a little too salt1 bo? balls w float2 :ile1 if n suffici5tly ri* 9 sal9e matt]1 bo? w s9k4 ,we mu/ conclude ?is *apt] by mak+ a few rem>ks on ! important matt] ( ! regulation ( light & temp]ature4 ,direct sunlight %\ld always be avoid$1 except = %ort & occasional int]vals1 n only because x is liable to raise ! temp]ature to a high] degree ?an is suitable = ! inmates ( ! aqu>ium1 b also because an excess ( light & heat t5ds to produce a rapid decomposition ( organic matt]1 & a consequ5t putrid condition ( ! wat]1 & ?is dang]\s /ate is mo/ likely to occur :5 bo? light & temp]ature are high at ! same "t4 ,! wat] %\ld always be cold2 & z x is n always easy to e/imate ! temp]ature1 ev5 approximately1 by ! s5sation produc$ on imm]s+ ! f+]s1 x is a good plan to h a small !rmomet] always at h&1 or plac$ p]man5tly 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,9 ! summ] "t ! wat] %\ld be kept d[n to fifty-five degrees or l[]1 & 9 w9t] %\ld nev] be all[$ to cool mu* bel[ =ty4 ,!re may be "s difficulty 9 ma9ta9+ a temp]ature suffici5tly l[ 9 summ]1 b a small piece ( ice ?r[n 9 occasionally to replace ! loss due to evaporation1 especially on v hot days1 w help to keep x d[n4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,m>9e ,,objects ,! sea-side naturali/1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 rambl+s & se>*+s on ! coa/1 w c]ta9ly come across _m objects1 dead or alive1 t he w desire to set aside = future /udy or id5tification 9 8 leisure mom5ts at home4 ,"s ( ^! w be requir$ = tempor>y purposes only1 :ile1 mo/ probably1 a l>ge proportion w be reta9$ p]man5tly = ! e/abli%m5t ( a private museum1 t %all s]ve n only z a pleasant rem9d] ( ! _m enjoyable h\rs sp5t on ! %ore1 b also z a means ( ref]5ce = ! /udy ( ! classification ( natural objects & ( _! di/ribution & habitats4 ,we w fir/ deal ) ^? specim5s t are requir$ = tempor>y purposes only--^? ( :i* ! collector desires to /udy ! g5]al *>act]s1 z well z1 p]haps1 some?+ ( ! int]nal /ructure2 b be=e do+ s we _c refra9 f impress+ on ! read] ! advisability ( le>n+ z mu* z possible ( ! ext]nal features & mode ( gr[? ( ! diff]5t liv+ creatures :ile /ill alive1 = x mu/ be rememb]$ t x is impossible to pres]ve _m ( !m )\t m or less de/ruction ( _! natural col\r+ & di/ortion ( _! *>act]i/ic =ms4 ,9 ^? cases :]e x is possible to keep ! creatures alive = a %ort "t only1 x is a good plan to make notes ( _! movem5ts & all obs]v$ *anges 9 =m1 & _! me?ods ( fe$+1 & also to illu/rate ^! notes by sket*es drawn f life4 ,?is may seem q an unnecess>y proc$ure to _m beg9n]s 9 ! /udy ( natural objects1 & may ev51 z f> z ! sket*es are conc]n$1 pres5t difficulties t at fir/ appe> to be insurm\ntable2 b ! p[] to sket* f nature w surely be acquir$ to a great] or less degree by con/ant practice1 & illu/rat$ notes prep>$ = ! purpose we sugge/ w und\bt$ly be ( great value to ! /ud5t4 ,fur!r1 ?\gh x may (t5 be necess>y to set specim5s aside 9 a pres]vative fluid until "o has ! leisure to exam9e _! /ructure1 x %\ld always be rememb]$ t !y nev] improve by keep+1 also t !y are r>ely 9 su* good condition = dissection aft] saturation ) ! pres]vative z :5 p]fectly fre%4 ,"o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t pres]vatives = g5]al use is und\bt$ly me?ylat$ _s4 ,?is is alcohol t has be5 adult]at$ 9 ord] to r5d] x undr9kable1 s t x may be sold free f duty = use 9 ! v>i\s arts & manufactures )\t any dang] ( its be+ employ$ = ! concoction ( bev]ages4 ,x may be us$ j z pur*as$--t is1 9 its /ronge/ condition--= _m purposes1 b 9 ?is /ate x has a p[]ful aff9ity = wat]1 & w rapidly ab/ract wat] f animal & vegetable objects1 caus+ ! s(t] ones to become h>d1 %runk51 & %rivell$1 (t5 to su* an ext5t t !y are almo/ beyond recognition4 ,by dilut+ ! _s1 h[ev]1 we satisfy to a great ext5t its aff9ity = wat]1 & ?us prev5t1 or1 at lea/1 r$uce ! action j m5tion$4 ,a mixture ( equal quantities ( _s & wat] is q /rong en\gh4 ,un=tunately ! common me?ylat$ _s ( ! %ops produces a f9e :ite precipitate1 t gives ! :ole mass a milky appe>ance1 :5 x is dilut$4 ,?is is due to ! pres5ce ( m9]al naph?a1 :i* is add$ 9 a c]ta9 fix$ proportion 9 accordance ) ! ,gov]nm5t regulations4 ,b x is possible1 by special application1 to obta9 ! #8non-m9]alis$' or #8ord9>y' me?ylat$ _s ( =m] ye>s1 ?\gh n 9 small quantities1 & ?is liquid dissolves 9 wat] )\t ! =mation ( a precipitate4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! use ( ! _s z a pres]vative is 9 no way int]f]$ ) by ! pres5ce ( ! m9]al naph?a1 ! only disadvantage ( ?is impurity ly+ 9 ! fact t ! milk9ess consequ5t on dilution prev5ts ! objects 9 a specim5 j> f be+ obs]v$ )\t removal4 ,we h j ref]r$ to ! h>d5+ action ( /rong _s z a disadvantage1 & s x is :5 x is requir$ to pres]ve s(t /ructures ) z little z possible ( *ange 9 g5]al =m & appe>ance2 b !re are times :5 x becomes necess>y to h>d5 ^! s(t /ructures 9 ord] t sections may be made = ! purpose ( exam9+ int]nal /ructure ) or )\t ! aid ( ! microscope1 & = su* purposes /rong _s is "o ( ! be/ h>d5+ ag5ts t c be employ$4 ,=maldehyde is ano!r v good pres]vative4 ,x is a col\rless liquid1 & %\ld be consid]ably dilut$ = use1 a two p] c5t4 solution be+ q /rong en\gh = all ord9>y purposes4 ,x possesses "s di/9ct advantages z comp>$ ) _s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x does n de/roy ! natural col\rs ( objects to ! ext5t t _s does2 &1 al?\gh a h>d5+ ag5t z well z a pres]vative1 x does n h>d5 s(t /ructures by ! extraction ( ! wat] !y conta91 & !re=e does n cause !m to become %rivell$ or o!rwise di/ort$4 ,x w also occur to ! read] t1 s9ce a small bulk ( =mal9e repres5ts a l>ge volume ( ! dilut$ pres]vative1 x is v conv5i5tly /or$1 & a v small bottle ( x tak5 = outdoor "w may1 on dilution ) wat]1 be made to yield all t is requir$ = ! pres]vation ( ! tak+s ( a successful day1 or ev5 ( a long] p]iod4 ,=maldehyde is usually sold 9 solution ( ab\t =ty p] c5t4 /r5g?1 & = ! prep>ation ( a two p] c5t4 solution x w be f\nd conv5i5t to provide a glass measure graduat$ ei!r into cubic c5timetres or fluid ounces & drams4 ,"o hundr$ volumes ( ! orig9al solution conta9 =ty ( pure =maldehyde1 & if wat] be add$ to make ?is up to two ?\s& volumes1 a two p] c5t4 solution is obta9$4 ,?us1 "o hundr$ cubic c5timetres ( ! orig9al solution is suffici5t to prep>e two litres 7?ree & a half p9ts7 ( suitable pres]vative4 ,a v good pres]vative liquid may be made by dissolv+ two ounces ( common salt1 "o ounce ( alum1 & two or ?ree gra9s ( corrosive sublimate 7a deadly poison7 9 "o qu>t ( wat]1 & !n1 aft] all[+ all s$im5t>y matt] to settle to ! bottom1 decant+ (f ! cle> solution4 ,?is mixture is kn[n z i,goadby's fluid_/i1 & is well adapt$ = ! pres]vation ( bo? animal & vegetable /ructures4 ,x does n cause any undue contraction ( s(t tissues1 &1 z a rule1 does n de/roy ! natural col\rs ( ! objects kept 9 x4 ,glyc]9e is valuable z a pres]vative = bo? animal & vegetable objects1 & especially = ! s(t-bodi$ m>9e animals t =m su* a l>ge p]c5tage ( ! fauna ( our %ores4 ,x ma9ta9s ! tissues 9 a s(t condition1 & pres]ves ! natural t9ts z well z any liquid4 ,an inexp5sive pres]vative may also be made by dissolv+ *loride ( z9c--ab\t "o ounce to ! p9t ( wat]4 ,?is is consid]$ by "s to be "o ( ! be/ fluids = keep+ animal /ructures 9 good condition4 ,n[1 al?\gh ! diff]5t fluids "h m5tion$ are describ$ 9 connection ) ! tempor>y pres]vation ( natural objects1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t !y are equally adapt$ = ! p]man5t pres]vation ( ! animals & plants t are to figure 9 ! museum ( ! sea-side naturali/2 &1 al?\gh "s m>9e objects may be pres]v$ 9 a dry /ate 9 a mann] to be h]eaft] describ$1 yet !re are _m species ( animals1 & also "s plants1 t c be satisfactorily pres]v$ only by imm]sion 9 a suitable fluid4 ,?is me?od may be appli$ to all s(t-bodi$ animals1 su* z anemones1 jelly-fi%es1 m>9e worms1 %ell-less molluscs 7sea slugs1 cephalopods1 c471 ! s(t p>ts ( %ell$ molluscs1 fi%es1 c42 & mo/ sponges reta9 _! natural appe>ance mu* bett] 9 a pres]vative fluid ?an 9 a dry condition4 ,_m sea-we$s also1 :i* are practically de/roy$ by ! mo/ c>eful dry+ process1 are mo/ p]fectly pres]v$ 9 fluid4 ,b ! puzzl$ amateur w probably be incl9$ to ask3 #8,:i* is ! be/ pres]vative liquid = ?is or t specim58' ,no satisfactory g5]al rule c be giv5 9 answ] to su* a "q1 & a great deal w h to be det]m9$ by 8 own exp]im5ts & obs]vations4 ,:5ev] he has two or ?ree specim5s ( ! same object1 z _m diff]5t fluids %\ld be employ$1 & ! results comp>$ & not$4 ,9 ?is way a v great deal ( useful in=mation w be obta9$ & by ! be/ possible means4 ,h[ev]1 x may be m5tion$ t all ! fluids allud$ to above may be safely us$ = almo/ e animal or vegetable specim5 ) ! foll[+ res]vations3 /rong _s %\ld n be employ$ = any v s(t animal1 nor %\ld x be us$ = delicate gre5 plants1 s9ce x w dissolve out ! gre5 col\r+ matt] 7*lorophyll71 leav+ !m :ite or almo/ col\rless4 ,fur!r1 ! greate/ c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 deal+ ) sea anemones & jelly-fi%es4 ,if _s is us$ = pres]v+ ^! creatures1 x %\ld be v dilute1 at lea/ at fir/1 b may ) advantage be increas$ 9 /r5g? aft]w>ds1 ?\gh ?is %\ld be done gradually4 ,:atev] be ! pres]vative us$1 x is sure to be m or less *>g$ ) s$im5t>y & col\r$ matt] extract$ f ! object imm]s$ 9 x2 h5ce1 if ! specim5 conc]n$ is to =m "p ( a museum collection1 x w be necess>y to transf] x to a fre% solution aft] a "t1 & a second1 & ev5 fur!r *anges may be necess>y be=e ! object ceases to discol\r ! fluid or r5d] x turbid4 ,consid]able difficulty w sometimes be f\nd 9 ! attempts to pres]ve a s(t-bodi$ animal 9 its natural attitude4 ,?us1 :5 a sea anemone is remov$ f its native elem5t1 x g5]ally )draws its t5tacles1 &1 contract+ ! upp] "p ( its cyl9drical body1 entirely conceals ^! app5dages1 toge!r ) ! m\? !y surr\nd2 & a mollusc simil>ly treat$ w g5]ally pull itself toge!r )9 its %ell1 leav+ little or no trace ( ! liv+ body inhabit+ ! lifeless case4 ,!n1 if ^! animals are transf]r$ to any fluid o!r ?an sea wat]1 or plac$ any:]e "u unnatural conditions1 !y usually rema9 9 _! clos$ or unexp&$ =m4 ,?us1 almo/ e attempt to kill !m = pres]vation deprives !m ( j ! *>act]i/ics !y %\ld reta9 z museum specim5s4 ,"s su* animals may be dealt ) satisfactorily z foll[s3 ,transf] !m to a vessel ( fre% sea wat]1 & leave !m p]fectly undi/urb$ until !y assume ! desir$ =m or attitude4 ,!n add a solution ( corrosive sublimate v gradually--a drop or two at int]vals ( "s m9utes4 ,9 ?is way ! bodies ( anemones may be obta9$ ready = pres]vation ) exp&$ t5tacles1 tube-secret+ worms ) _! heads & sl5d] processes protrud+ f _! limy or s&y cases1 molluscs ) _! #8feet' or _! mantles & gills protrud+ f _! %ells1 & b>nacles ) _! plume-l app5dages project+ beyond ! op5+ ( _! conical %ells4 ,! specim5s ?us prep>$ may be plac$ at fir/ 9 v dilute _s1 & !n1 aft] a "t1 f9ally /or$ 9 a /rong] solution ( _s 9 wat]2 or !y may be transf]r$ to "o ( ! o!r pres]vative solutions previ\sly m5tion$4 ,all specim5s p]man5tly pres]v$ 9 fluid = a museum %\ld be plac$ 9 j>s1 bottles1 or tubes ( suitable size1 ea* vessel conta9+1 z a rule1 only "o4 ,:]e exp5se is no object1 /opp]$ j>s made expressly = biological & anatomical specim5s may be us$ = all b ! smalle/ objects2 or1 fail+ ?is1 ord9>y wide-m\!d bottles ( :ite glass1 fitt$ ) good corks or glass /opp]s4 ,= v small specim5s no?+ is m suitable ?an glass tubes1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t :]ev] corks are us$1 ev5 if !y are ( ! be/ quality procurable1 x w be necess>y to look ov] ! specim5s occasionally to see if ! pres]v+ fluid has disappe>$ to any ext5t ei!r by leakage or evaporation2 = su* loss is always liable to occur1 al?\gh x may be v sl[1 & especially :5 me?ylat$ _s is ! liquid employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,j>s ,,= ,,pres]v+ ,,anatomical ,,& ,,biological ,,specim5s ,! writ] has pres]v$ _m hundr$s ( small m>9e & o!r objects 9 glass tubes ( dilute _s t h be5 h]metically seal$1 ?us r5d]+ ! slighte/ loss absolutely impossible1 :ile ! p]fect exclusion ( air prev5ts ! developm5t ( fungoid gr[?s t sometimes make _! appe>ance 9 imp]fectly pres]v$ specim5s4 ,! mak+ & clos+ ( su* tubes1 ?\gh a m or less difficult op]ation at fir/ to ^? :o h _h no previ\s exp]i5ce 9 glass-work+1 become exce$+ly simple aft] a little practice2 & believ+ x probable t _m ( our read]s w\ld l to try _! h& at ?is mo/ p]fect me?od ( pres]v+ & protect+ small objects1 we w give a description ( ! mann] 9 :i* x is done4 ,! app>atus & mat]ials requir$ = ?is "w are3--,l5g?s ( #8s(t' glass tub+1 v>y+ f ab\t "o qu>t] to a little ov] half an in* 9 int]nal diamet]2 a supply ( dilut$ _s--ab\t half _s & half wat]2 a ,h]apa? bl[pipe1 pref]ably ) foot-bell[s2 & a small triangul> file4 ,! glass tub+ may be cut into conv5i5t l5g?s by giv+ a s+le %>p /roke ) ! file1 & !n pull+ x ap>t )1 at ! same "t1 a slight b5d+ f ! cut made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,%[+ ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,/ages ,,9 ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,a ,,small ,,specim5 ,,tube ,cut a piece ( tub+ ab\t eight or n9e in*es long1 heat x 9 ! bl[pipe flame1 turn+ x r\nd & r\nd all ! "t1 until x is q s(t1 !n remove x f ! flame & imm$iately pull x out sl[ly until ! diamet] 9 ! middle is r$uc$ to ab\t a sixte5? ( an in* 7fig4 #da1 #b74 ,make a slight scrat* ) ! file at ! n>r[e/ "p1 & divide ! tube at ?is po9t 7fig4 #da1 #c74 ,n[ heat "o ( ^! pieces ( tub+ z be=e j at ! po9t :]e ! diamet] ( ! drawn "p beg9s to decrease2 &1 :5 v s(t1 pull x out r quickly :ile x is /ill 9 ! flame4 ,! "p pull$ n[ becomes completely sep>at$1 & ! tube is clos$1 b po9t$4 ,cont9ue to heat ! clos$ end1 direct+ ! flame to ! po9t r ?an to ! sides1 until ! melt$ glass =ms a r ?ick & flatt5$ end2 & !n1 imm$iately on remov+ x f ! flame1 bl[ g5tly into ! op5 end until ! melt$ glass is nicely r\nd$ l ! bottom ( a te/-tube 7fig4 #da1 #d74 ,:5 ! tube is cold1 ! specim5 t x is to conta91 & :i* has already be5 /or$ = a "t 9 dilute _s1 is dropp$ into x4 ,! tube is n[ heat$ ab\t an in* above ! top ( ! specim51 drawn out z %[n 9 fig4 #da1 #e1 & aga9 all[$ to cool4 ,:5 cold1 ! fre% _s is p\r$ into ! op5 end ( ! tube1 b ! middle "p is s n>r[ t ! _s w n run d[n freely4 ,if1 h[ev]1 suction be appli$ to ! op5 end1 air f ! bottom w bubble ?r\gh ! _s1 & !n1 on ! cessation ( ! suction1 ! _s w pass d[n to take ! place ( ! air t 0 )drawn4 ,?is may be repeat$ if necess>y to entirely cov] ! specim5 ) ! fluid4 ,any excess ( _s is !n ?r[n f ! upp] "p ( ! tube1 & ! latt] cut (f4 ,no?+ is n[ left b to close ! tube h]metically4 ,?is is done by heat+ ! l[] "p ( ! n>r[ neck1 & !n draw+ x out 9 ! flame1 tak+ great c>e t ! tube is )drawn f ! flame ! mom5t x is clos$4 ,! tube mu/ also be kept 9 an upright position until x has cool$4 ,! appe>ance ( ! f9i%$ tube is %[n 9 fig4 #da1 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,small ,,specim5 ,,tube ,,m\nt$ ,,on ,a ,,c>d ,all pres]v$ specim5s %\ld h a label atta*$ on :i* is writt5 ! "n ( ! specim51 ! class & ord] to :i* x belongs1 ! locality 9 :i* x 0 f\nd1 toge!r ) any brief rem>ks t ! own] desires to rememb] conc]n+ its habits c4 ,! bottles or tubes t are too small to h a label atta*$ to !m 9 ! ord9>y way may be m\nt$ on a c>d1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #db1 & ! desir$ p>ticul>s !n writt5 on ! c>d4 ,:5 s(t or delicate specim5s are pres]v$ 9 a bottle ( fluid !y frequ5tly require "s k9d ( support to keep !m 9 prop] =m & to display !m bett] = obs]vation4 ,p]haps ! be/ way to support !m is to fa/5 !m to a v ?9 plate ( mica ( suitable size by means ( a ne$le & v f9e ?read4 ,! mica is s transp>5t t x is invisible 9 ! fluid1 & ! few /it*es are also h>dly p]ceptible1 ?us mak+ x appe> z if ! specim5 floats freely 9 ! fluid4 ,we w n[ pass on to consid] ^? objects ( ! %ore t are usually pres]v$ 9 a dry condition1 comm5c+ ) ,,/>fi%es ,,& ,,sea ,,ur*9s ,/>fi%es are commonly pres]v$ by simply all[+ !m to dry 9 an airy place1 ) or )\t direct exposure to ! sun's rays1 & ?is me?od is fairly satisfactory :5 ! dry+ proce$s rapidly2 b c>e %\ld be tak5 to ma9ta9 ! natural r\ghness ( ! ext]ior z well z to h ! num]\s suck]s ( ! "u surface z prom95t z possible4 ,if ! />fi% is simply laid out on "s surface to dry1 ! side on :i* x re/s is (t5 m or less flatt5$ by ! weight ( ! specim5 itself1 :i* !re=e becomes adapt$ = ! future exam9ation ( "o surface only2 b a bett] result1 z reg>ds bo? ! rapidity ( dry+ & ! aft] appe>ance ( ! specim51 may be obta9$ by susp5d+ x on a piece ( f9e net or by ?reads4 ,a /ill bett] plan is to put ! dead />fi% into /rong _s1 :i* w rapidly extract ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure t its body conta9$4 ,aft] all[+ x to rema9 9 ?is = a day or two to h>d5 x1 put x out to dry z be=e m5tion$4 ,! _s1 be+ v volatile1 w soon evaporate1 s t ! specim5 w %ortly be ready = /or+ away4 ,x is mo/ important to obs]ve t dri$ specim5s--n />fi%es only1 b all animal & vegetable objects--%\ld nev] be plac$ 9 ! cab9et or o!r /ore-case until p]fectly dry1 = a v small am\nt ( moi/ure left 9 !m w (t5 enc\rage ! developm5t ( m\lds1 n only on !mselves1 b on o!r specim5s /or$ ) !m4 ,v small & delicate />fi%es1 :5 pres]v$ 9 a dry condition1 may be protect$ f injury by fa/5+ !m on a c>d by means ( a little gum1 or by keep+ !m p]man5tly /or$ on cotton wool 9 glass-topp$ boxes4 ,sea ur*9s1 or sea eggs1 z !y are commonly call$1 may be pres]v$ exactly 9 ! same way z />fi%es1 ?\gh x is m ess5tial 9 ! case ( ^! to soak !m 9 /rong _s previ\s to dry+1 o!rwise ! s(t animal matt] )9 ! %ell w decompose be=e ! dry+ is complete4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x is possible to remove ! :ole int]ior ) ! aid ( a piece ( b5t wire1 & to ?or\ghly clean ! inn] surface ( ! %ell be=e dry+ x4 ,"s ( ! %ells %\ld be pres]v$ ) ! sp9es all intact1 & o!rs ) ^! remov$ 9 ord] to %[ ! arrangem5t ( ! plates :i* compose ! %ell1 z well z ! p]=ations1 & ! r\nd$ processes to :i* ! sp9es are articulat$4 ,! majority ( sea ur*9s are provid$ ) a mo/ complicat$ & beautiful arrangem5t ( tee? :i* are well wor?y ( /udy4 ,^! %\ld be remov$ f a mod]ately l>ge specim51 ! s(t surr\nd+ /ructures c>efully dissect$ away1 & !n clean$ by means ( an old too?-bru% )\t dis>rang+ !m4 ,x w be f\nd t dri$ sea ur*9s w require c>e :5 pres]v$ ) sp9es atta*$1 = ^! app5dages are usually v brittle & are easily dislocat$ at _! bases :]e !y are unit$ to ! %ell by ball-&-socket jo9ts4 ,x may be m5tion$ "h t corrosive sublimate is v valuable = prev5t+ ! developm5t ( m\ld on ! surfaces ( />fi%es1 sea ur*9s1 & museum specim5s g5]ally4 ,x is be/ suppli$ 9 ! =m ( an alcoholic solution made by dissolv+ a few gra9s 9 ab\t half a p9t ( me?ylat$ _s2 ! advantage ( ?is ov] an aque\s solution be+ ! rapidity ) :i* x dries4 ,9 mo/ cases x is simply necess>y to apply ! solution to ! object by means ( a s(t bru%1 b1 z reg>ds />fi%es & ur*9s x is f> bett] to dissolve a few gra9s ( ! corrosive sublimate 9 ! _s 9 :i* ! objects are plac$ previ\s to dry+4 ,,cru/aceans ,! pres]vation ( cru/aceans by ! dry me?od (t5 requires "s c>e & dem&s a c]ta9 am\nt ( "t2 b ! process is nev] really difficult1 & ! satisfaction ( hav+ produc$ a good specim5 = a p]man5t collection well repays "o = ! tr\ble tak5 & "t sp5t4 ,"s ( our cru/aceans are only p>tially protect$ by a firm out] cov]+1 & almo/ e attempt to pres]ve ^! z dry objects results 9 su* a %rivell+ ( ! s(t tissues t ! natural appe>ance is q de/roy$4 ,?is is ! case ) "s ( ! b>nacles1 & ! abdom9al portion ( ! bodies ( h]mit crabs1 :i* are1 !re=e1 f> bett] pres]v$ 9 fluid4 ,dilute _s is q satisfactory = mo/ ( ^! z f> z ! pres]vation ( ! s(t /ructures is conc]n$1 b x has ! disadvantage t x turns ! %ells ( "s cru/aceans r$1 mak+ !m appe> z if !y _h be5 boil$4 ,o!r cru/aceans are s small1 or are h>d5$ ext]nally to su* a slight ext5t1 t !y also are n adapt$ = ! dry me?od ( pres]vation4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 su* cru/aceans z %rimps & s&-hopp]s are be/ pres]v$ 9 fluid1 :ile ! diff]5t species ( crabs & lob/]s are m conv5i5tly pres]v$ dry unless x is desir$ to /udy any ( _! s(t /ructures4 ,x is q impossible to remove ! s(t p>ts f small crabs & lob/]s previ\s to dry+ !m1 h5ce ! dry+ %\ld be conduct$ z rapidly z possible1 s t no decomposition may set 94 ,:]e ! process goes on v sl[ly1 z is ! case :5 ! air is damp1 or :5 ! specim5s are n set out 9 an airy spot1 a decay ( ! s(t /ructures soon proce$s1 & ! products ( ?is decay w g5]ally saturate ! :ole specim51 giv+ rise to mo/ objectionable od\rs1 & de/roy+ ! natural col\r ( ! %ell4 ,if x has be5 f\nd t ! species 9 "q are n r$d5$ by ! action ( me?ylat$ _s1 !y %\ld be all[$ to rema9 9 ?is fluid1 ) a few gra9s ( dissolv$ corrosive sublimate1 = at lea/ a few h\rs1 & !n !y w dry rapidly )\t any signs ( putrefaction2 & ev5 ^? species t are r$d5$ by _s may be treat$ to a %ort] imm]sion 9 ?is fluid ) advantage4 ,! specim5s %\ld always be set out 9 "s natural attitude to dry1 unless x is desir$ to spread out ! v>i\s app5dages 9 "s mann] t is m conv5i5t = ! /udy ( _! /ructure4 ,a %eet ( blott+-pap] may be plac$ on cork or s(t wood1 ! specim5s plac$ on ?is1 & ! app5dages kept 9 ! desir$ positions :5 necess>y by means ( p9s plac$ beside1 b n ?ru/ ?r\gh !m4 ,:5 m ?an "o specim5 ( ! same species has be5 collect$1 "o %\ld be set 9 su* a mann] z to exhibit ! "u side2 &1 fur!r1 9 in/ances :]e ! male & female ( ! same cru/acean diff] 9 /ructure1 z is commonly ! case1 two ( ea* %\ld be pres]v$1 "o display+ ! upp]1 & ! o!r ! "u surface4 ,:5 p]fectly dry1 all small cru/aceans %\ld be m\nt$ on c>ds ) ! aid ( a little gum1 & ! "n & o!r p>ticul>s to be rememb]$ !n writt5 on ! c>d4 ,! "q may well be ask$3 #8,:i* is ! be/ gum to use8' ,9 answ] to ?is we may say t gum tragacan? is c]ta9ly z good z any4 ,x holds well1 & leaves no visible /a9 on a :ite c>d4 ,a small quantity ( ! solid gum %\ld be put into a bottle ) wat] 9 :i* a gra9 or s ( corrosive sublimate has be5 dissolv$4 ,x absorbs mu* wat]1 becom+ a v s(t1 jelly-l mass4 ,any excess ( wat] may be p\r$ (f1 & ! gum is !n ready = use4 ,! l>g] crabs & lob/]s conta9 su* an am\nt ( s(t tissue )9 t x becomes absolutely necess>y to cle> !m 9 ord] to avoid ! unpleasant & de/ructive effects ( decomposition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,small ,,crab ,,m\nt$ ,,on ,a ,,c>d ,9 ! case ( lob/]s ! abdom5 %\ld be remov$ f ! l>ge cephalo-?orax by cutt+ ?r\gh ! connect+ membrane ) a %>p knife4 ,! s(t portions ( bo? halves ( ! body are !n rak$ out by means ( a piece ( wire flatt5$ & b5t at "o end1 & ! int]ior clean$ ) ! aid ( a r /iff bottle-bru%4 ,! l>ge claws are !n remov$ by cutt+ ?r\gh ! membrane t unites !m ) ! legs1 & ^! are cle>$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,! diff]5t p>ts are next laid out to dry on blott+-pap]1 ) ! v>i\s app5dages atta*$ to ! body arrang$ j z 9 life2 &1 f9ally1 :5 all p>ts are q dry1 bo? )9 & )\t1 ! sep>at$ p>ts are reatta*$ by means ( "s k9d ( cem5t4 ,= ?is purpose a solution ( gelat9e 9 acetic acid is mu* bett] ?an gum tragacan?1 z x has a f> great] hold+ p[]1 & ?is is necess>y :5 we require to unite r l>ge /ructures ) b small surfaces 9 contact4 ,l>ge crabs are to be dealt ) mu* 9 ! same mann]1 b1 in/ead ( remov+ ! abdom5 only1 :i*1 9 ! crab1 is usually v small & d\bl$ "u ! ?orax1 ! :ole c>apace--! l>ge %ell t cov]s ! entire upp] surface ( ! body--%\ld be lift$ (f1 & replac$ aga9 aft] ! specim5 has be5 clean$ & dri$4 ,,m>9e ,,%ells ,c4 ,we h previ\sly dealt ) ! pres]vation ( ! %ell-less molluscs1 & ! s(t bodies ( ! %ell$ species :5 su* are requir$1 s we w n[ see :at %\ld be done ) ! %ells4 ,num]\s %ells are (t5 to be f\nd on ! sea bea*--%ells t h be5 wa%$ 9 by ! break]s1 & f :i* ! animal cont5ts h disappe>$1 ei!r by ! natural process ( decay1 aid$ by ! action ( ! waves1 or by ! ravages ( ! voraci\s or c>rion-eat+ d5iz5s ( ! sea2 & al?\gh ^! %ells are r>ely p]fect1 hav+ be5 toss$ ab\t among ! o!r mat]ial ( ! bea*1 yet we occasionally f9d "h ! mo/ p]fect specim5s ( bo? univalve & bivalve %ells 9 su* a condition t !y are ready = ! cab9et1 & ^! (t5 include species t are seldom f\nd betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 or t are o!rwise difficult to obta94 ,h[ev]1 ! %ell-collector mu/ n rely on su* specim5s z ^! = ! purpose ( mak+ up 8 /ock1 b mu/ se>* out ! liv+ molluscs 9 _! habitats & prep>e ! %ells z requir$4 ,! molluscs collect$ = ?is purpose are imm]s$ 9 boil+ wat] = a %ort "t1 & ! animal !n remov$ f ! %ell4 ,9 ! case ( bivalves x w g5]ally be f\nd t ! hot wat] has caus$ ! muscles ( ! animal to sep>ate f ! valves to :i* !y 7 atta*$1 or1 if n1 !y h be5 s f> s(t5$ t !y are easily deta*$1 :ile x does n de/roy ! ligam5t by means ( :i* ! valves are held toge!r at ! h+e2 b ! univalve molluscs mu/ be remov$ f _! %ells by means ( a b5t p9 or wire4 ,9 ! latt] in/ance c>e mu/ be tak5 to extract ! :ole ( ! body ( ! animal1 o!rwise ! rema9+ portion w decompose )9 ! %ell1 giv+ rise to ! noxi\s products ( natural decay4 ,! univalves h n[ simply to be plac$ m\? d[nw>ds on blott+-pap] to dra9 & dry1 :5 !y are ready = ! cab9et4 ,if1 h[ev]1 !y include ^? species1 l ! p]iw9kles & :elks1 t close _! %ells by means ( a horny lid 7op]culum7 :5 !y draw 9 _! bodies1 ^! lids %\ld be remov$ f ! animal & atta*$ to _! prop] places 9 ! m\? ( ! %ell4 ,! be/ way to accompli% ?is is to pack ! dry %ells ) cotton wool1 & !n fa/5 ! op]cula to ! wool by means ( a little gum tragacan? or acetic glue4 ,bivalve %ells %\ld1 z a rule1 be clos$ :ile ! ligam5t is /ill supple1 & kept clos$ until x is q dry1 :5 ! valves w rema9 toge!r j 9 ! position !y assume :5 pull$ toge!r by ! liv+ animal4 ,! %ells ( ! l>g] species may be conv5i5tly kept clos$ dur+ ! dry+ ( ! ligam5t by means ( ?read ti$ r\nd !m1 b ! v small ones are be/ held toge!r by means ( a delicate spr+ made by b5d+ f9e brass wire into ! =m %[n 9 fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,spr+ ,,= ,,hold+ ,,toge!r ,,small ,,bivalve ,,%ells ,!re are _m features connect$ ) ! int]nal /ructure & surface ( ! %ells ( molluscs t are q z int]e/+ & in/ructive z ^? exhibit$ ext]nally2 h5ce a collection ( ! %ells int5d$ = future /udy %\ld display int]nal z well z ext]nal *>act]i/ics4 ,?us1 "s ( ! spiral univalve %ells may be gr\nd d[n on an ord9>y gr9d/one 9 ord] to display ! c5tral pill> 7! columella7 & ! w9d+ cavity t surr\nds x1 :ile o!rs1 su* z ! c[ries1 may be gr\nd transv]sely to %[ ! widely diff]5t "* ( ! int]ior4 ,bivalve %ells1 too1 may be arrang$ ) ! valves wide op5 = ! /udy ( ! pe>ly lay]1 ! l9es ( gr[?1 ! sc>s :i* m>k ! positions ( ! muscles t 7 atta*$ to ! %ell1 & ! tee? :i* are s wond]fully =m$ 9 "s species4 ,"s collectors make x a rule to ?or\ghly clean all ! %ells 9 _! collection1 b ?is1 we ?9k1 is a great mi/ake2 = :5 ?is is done _m ( ! specim5s display an aspect t is b seldom obs]v$ 9 nature4 ,_m %ells1 & especially ^? usually obta9$ 9 deep wat]1 are almo/ always cov]$ ) v>i\s =ms ( bo? animal & vegetable gr[?1 & x is advisable to display ^! 9 a collection1 n only because !y det]m9e ! g5]al natural appe>ance1 b also because ^! gr[?s are 9 !mselves v int]e/+ objects4 ,fur!r1 x is a mo/ int]e/+ /udy to inquire into ! possible advantages ( ^! ext]nal gr[?s to ! inhabitants ( ! %ells1 & vice v]s--a /udy to :i* we %all ref] aga9 9 c]ta9 *apt]s devot$ to ! description ( ! animals conc]n$4 ,b !re is no reason :atev] :y "s ( ! duplicate specim5s %\ld n be clean$ by means ( a suitable bru%1 ) or )\t ! use ( dilute hydro*loric acid 7spirits ( salt71 or ev5 poli%$1 9 "s few cases1 to %[ ! beautiful col\rs s (t5 exhibit$ :5 ! surface lay] has be5 remov$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 %\ld be done some:at sp>+ly1 ?us giv+ ! great] prom95ce to ! exhibition ( ^? appe>ances mo/ commonly display$ by ! %ells z we f9d !m on ! bea* or dr$ge !m f ! sea4 ,v small & delicate %ells may be m\nt$ on c>ds1 z sugge/$ = o!r objects2 b1 z a rule1 ! specim5s are be/ display$ by simply plac+ !m on a lay] ( cotton wool 9 %all[ boxes ( conv5i5t size4 ,! numb] ( insects t may be describ$ z truly m>9e is s small t _! pres]vation is n likely to =m an important "p ( ! "w ( ! sea-side naturali/2 & ev5 ?\gh a consid]able numb] ( species exhibit a decid$ p>tiality = ! coa/1 liv+ ei!r on ! bea* or ! cliffs1 ! /udy ( ^! is m g5]ally ! "w ( ! entomologi/4 ,= ?is reason1 & p>tly because we h already giv5 full in/ructions = ! sett+ & m\nt+ ( insects 9 a =m] "w ( ?is s]ies1 we consid] a repetition inadmissible "h4 ,! subject ( ! pres]vation ( fi%es1 also1 w require b few words4 ,!re is no satisfactory me?od ( pres]v+ ^! 9 a dry /ate1 ?\gh we (t5 meet ) c]ta9 ?9-bodi$ species1 su* z ! pipe-fi%1 t h be5 pres]v$ by simply dry+ !m 9 ! sun4 ,fi%es %\ld be plac$ 9 dilute _s1 or 9 "o ( ! o!r liquids recomm5d$1 b a *ange ( fluid w always be necess>y aft] a "t1 & also frequ5tly ! g5tle application ( a bru% to remove coagulat$ slime f ! surface ( ! scales4 ,! great drawbacks 9 ! way ( pres]v+ a collection ( fi%es are ! exp5se ( ! specim5 j>s1 & ! l>ge am\nt ( space requir$ = /or+ ! specim5s4 ,( c\rse ! =m] difficulty c be ov]come by sub/itut+ ord9>y wide-m\!d bottles 9 ! place ( ! anatomical j>s1 :ile ! latt] c be avoid$ to a consid]able ext5t by limit+ ! collection to small species1 & to small specim5s ( ! l>g] species4 ,if ?is is done1 x is surpris+ :at a l>ge numb] ( fi%es c be satisfactorily /or$ 9 bottles ( only a few ounces' capacity4 ,,fl[]s ,,& ,,sea ,,we$s ,! app>atus requir$ = ! pres]vation ( ! wild fl[]s ( our cliffs1 & ! sea we$s1 consi/s ( a quantity ( blott+ pap] or o!r ?ick absorb5t pap] cut to a conv5i5t size1 a few ?9 bo>ds & a few pieces ( calico ( ! same size1 "s heavy weights1 & sev]al %eets ( draw+ pap]4 ,! wild fl[]s are arrang$ on ! %eets ( absorb5t pap] :ile /ill fre%1 c>e be+ tak5 to display ! pr9cipal p>ts to ! be/ advantage4 ,!y are !n plac$ 9 a s+le pile1 ) a few extra %eets ( absorb5t pap] betwe5 ea* two specim5s to facilitate ! dry+1 bo>ds at ! bottom & top z well z at equal di/ances 9 ! mid/ ( ! pile1 & ! weights on ! top ( ! :ole4 ,! natural col\rs ( leaves & fl[]s are n v (t5 pres]v$ satisfactorily1 b ! be/ results are obta9$ :5 ! dry+ process proce$s mo/ rapidly4 ,h5ce1 if ! press conta9s any specim5s ( a succul5t or sappy nature1 !y %\ld be tak5 out aft] ! fir/ day or two1 & !n replac$ ) a fre% supply ( dry pap]4 ,! fl[]s mu/ be left 9 ! press until q dry1 & !y may !n be m\nt$ on %eets ( draw+ pap]1 by fix+ !m ) a little gum tragacan?1 or by n>r[ /rips ( gumm$ pap] pass+ ov] _! /ems4 ,"s collectors pref] simply plac+ _! botanical specim5s inside d\ble %eets ( draw+ pap]1 n fa/5+ !m at all1 & !re is mu* to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is1 especially z x all[s ! specim5s to be exam9$ on bo? sides2 & ev5 :5 !y are fa/5$ to ! pap] d\ble %eets are mu* to be pref]r$1 = ! specim5s are n !n s liable to be damag$ by friction :5 be+ turn$ ov]1 especially :5 ! names are writt5 on ! outside ( ea* %eet4 ,! l>g] sea-we$s may be dri$ 9 ! same mann]1 ?\gh x is a good plan to absorb ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure !y conta9 by press+ !m betwe5 pieces ( calico previ\s to plac+ !m 9 ! ord9>y press4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t _m sea-we$s exude a c]ta9 am\nt ( glut9\s sub/ance t makes !m adh]e to ! pap] betwe5 :i* !y are dri$1 :ile !y d n s freely adh]e to calico4 ,^! %\ld be p>tially dri$ 9 ! calico press1 & !n laid on ! pap] on :i* !y are to be f9ally m\nt$1 & re-press$ ) a piece ( dry calico on ! top ( ea* specim54 ,_m ( ! small] we$s may be treat$ 9 ! mann] j describ$1 b ! m delicate species require to be dealt ) z foll[s3--,place ea* 9 a l>ge1 %all[ vessel ( wat]1 & move x ab\t1 if necess>y1 to cause its delicate fronds to assume t graceful =m s *>act]i/ic ( ! alg ( our rock pools4 ,!n imm]se ! %eet ( pap] on :i* ! we$ is to be f9ally m\nt$1 & sl[ly raise ! specim5 out ( ! wat]1 on ! pap]1 )\t di/urb+ ! arrangem5t ( ! fronds4 ,if x is f\nd necess>y to re>range any ( ! fronds1 x may be done by means ( a wet camel-hair bru%4 ,n[ lay ! specim5 on calico or absorb5t pap]1 plac$ on a slop+ bo>d1 to dra92 &1 aft] ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure has disappe>$ by dra9+ & evaporation1 transf] ! specim5 to ! press ) a piece ( dry calico imm$iately ov] x4 ,all are dealt ) 9 turn 9 ! mann] describ$1 & all[$ to rema9 9 ! press until p]fectly dry1 :5 x w be f\nd t ! majority ( !m h become firmly atta*$ to ! m\nt1 & require no?+ b ! label to fit !m = ! h]b>ium4 ,sea-we$ collectors (t5 make ! great mi/ake ( press+ tufts t are f> too d5se to admit ( ! /ructural *>act]s be+ satisfactorily exam9$4 ,to avoid ?is fault1 x w (t5 be necess>y to divide ! clu/]s collect$ s t ! =ms ( _! fronds may be m readily obs]v$4 ,! calc>e\s corall9es may be press$ 9 ! same way z ! o!r alg1 b v pretty tufts ( ^!1 hav+ mu* ! appe>ance ( ! liv+ plant1 may be obta9$ by simply susp5d+ !m until ?or\ghly dry2 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 specim5s s prep>$ mu/ n be submitt$ to pressure aft] !y are dry1 be+ !n s brittle t !y are easily brok5 to pieces4 ,! h>d framework ( ^! int]e/+ corall9es is compos$ pr9cipally ( c>bonate ( lime1 a m9]al sub/ance t dissolves freely 9 hydro*loric acid 7spirits ( salt74 ,?us1 if we place a tuft ( corall9e 9 ?is acid1 :i* %\ld be consid]ably dilut$ ) wat]1 ! calc>e\s skeleton imm$iately beg9s to dissolve1 ) ! evolution ( m9ute bubbles ( c>bonic acid gas2 & aft] a %ort "t1 ! end ( :i* is d5ot$ by ! abs5ce ( any fur!r bubbl+1 no?+ rema9s b ! vegetable matt]1 n[ r5d]$ s(t & pliant4 ,a decalcifi$ specim5 ( corall9e may be press$ & dri$1 & !n m\nt$ beside ! plant 9 its natural condition = comp>ison2 & ! true appe>ance ( ! vegetable /ructure may also be reta9$1 & 9 a f> m satisfactory mann]1 by pres]v+ a portion ( ! specim5 9 dilute _s4 ,f9ally1 x may be obs]v$ t _m sea-we$s1 l wild fl[]s1 d n reta9 _! natural =ms & col\rs :5 pres]v$ dry4 ,!y are spoilt by ! pressure appli$1 or become s %rivell$ & discol\r$ 9 ! dry+ z to be b sorry repres5tatives ( ! beautifully t9t$ & graceful clo?+ ( ! rocks ( ! coa/4 ,b _m ( ^? t suff] mo/ 9 appe>ance :5 dri$ may be made to reta9 all _! natural beauty by pres]v+ !m 9 a fluid2 & x is mo/ important t ?is %\ld be rememb]$ by all :o desire to /udy ! we$s at home1 & p>ticul>ly by ^? :o possess a microscope1 & wi% to se>* into ! m9ute /ructure ( m>9e alg4 ,our own plan is to keep n only ! dri$ specim5s = ! purpose ( /udy+ ! g5]al *>act]s & classification ( ! alg1 b also to keep a few l>ge bottles--/ock bottles--fill$ ) we$s ( all k9ds 9 a pres]vative fluid4 ,^! latt] are exce$+ly useful at times1 & are frequ5tly br\ght into requisition = close inspection1 ) or )\t ! microscope4 ,small pieces may be deta*$ = microscopic exam9ation :5 requir$1 & sections may be cut ei!r = tempor>y or p]man5t m\nt+ j z well z f liv+ specim5s1 su* sections %[+ all ! details ( /ructure exhibit$ by ! liv+ plant4 ,,! ,,museum ,"o ( ! greate/ difficulties besett+ ! "y collector lies 9 ! *oice & con/ruction ( ! cab9et or o!r /ore-h\se = ! accommodation ( ! specim5s t accumulate z "t advances4 ,( c\rse1 :5 exp5se is a matt] ( no great consid]ation1 a visit to ! ne>e/ public or private museum to see ! mann] 9 :i* ! specim5s are h\s$1 foll[$ by an ord] to a cab9et-mak]1 w set ! matt] "r 9 a %ort "t2 b x is probable t ! majority ( our read]s are unable to fit up _! museum 9 ?is luxuri\s /yle1 & w ei!r h to con/ruct _! own cab9ets & /ore-boxes or to pur*ase *eap sub/itutes = !m4 ,:]e "o has ! me*anical ability1 & ! "t to sp>e1 ! con/ruction ( a cab9et ) ! requir$ numb] ( draw]s may be und]tak51 & !re is no bett] =m ( /ore ?an ?is4 ,! :ole %\ld be made ( well-season$ wood1 & ! draw]s %\ld v>y 9 dep? accord+ to ! size ( ! specim5s !y are to conta94 ,"s ( ^! draw]s may be l9$ ) %eet cork1 & ! cork cov]$ ) :ite pap] or a ?9 lay] ( cotton wool4 ,?is w enable "s ( ! specim5s to be fix$ 9 _! places by means ( p9s4 ,z a rule1 h[ev]1 no p9s w be requir$1 & ! specim5s w be mo/ conv5i5tly arrang$ 9 %all[ c>dbo>d boxes1 plac$ 9 r[s 9 ! draw]1 a little cotton wool cov]+ ! bottom ( ea*4 ,fail+ ! usual cab9et1 ! specim5s may be /or$ 9 %all[ trays or boxes1 or ev5 9 ! little c>dbo>d cab9ets s (t5 sold = /or+ /ation]y c4 ,! be/ & *eape/ ?+s ( ?is k9d we h ev] met ) are ! little cab9ets1 ea* conta9+ ei!r six or twelve draw]s1 made by ,macdonald ,co41 ( ,temple ,r[1 ,birm+ham4 ,by ! use ( su* z ^! ! specim5s may be neatly /or$ away1 & additions to mat* may always be made z ! collection increases 9 magnitude4 ,! specim5s %\ld all be classifi$ accord+ to _! positions 9 ! animal or vegetable _w1 & accompani$ by labels giv+ ! "n ( species & g5us1 toge!r ) localities1 habitats1 c4 ,! outl9es ( classification may be /udi$ f ! lat] *apt]s ( ?is "w1 9 :i* ! common objects ( ! sea %ore are describ$ 9 _! sci5tific ord]1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/ sub-k+doms & classes2 & fur!r1 x w be obs]v$ t ! sub-k+doms are divid$ into classes1 ! classes into ord]s1 ord]s into families1 families into g5]a1 & t ! g5]a conta9 a small] or l>g] numb] ( closely alli$ species4 ,! collection mu/ be kept 9 a p]fectly dry place1 o!rwise _m ( ! specim5s w be liable to develop m\lds1 & ?is w1 ( c\rse1 q spoil _! appe>ance4 ,x is almo/ sure to be attack$ by mites & o!r animal pe/s unless "s means be tak5 to prev5t _! intrusion4 ,z reg>ds ! latt]1 x is well to "k t x is f> easi] to prev5t ! intrusion ( small animal pe/s ?an x is to ext]m9ate !m aft] !y h once f\nd an entrance2 & s1 f ! v comm5cem5t ( ! =mation ( ! collection1 all draw]s & boxes %\ld be *>g$ ) "s sub/ance t is objectionable1 if n fatal1 to !m4 ,small lumps ( naph?al9e 7albo-c>bon7 put into ! v>i\s comp>tm5ts1 & r5ew$ occasionally z !y disappe> by evaporation1 w g5]ally suffice to prev5t ! entrance ( all pe/s1 b ?is sub/ance is n effectual z an insecticide = ! purpose ( kill+ !m aft] !y are 94 ,p]haps ! be/ ( all insecticides is ! corrosive sublimate already m5tion$1 & ?is may be appli$ to any animal or vegetable object t is capable ( provid+ food = museum pe/s1 & x is difficult to f9d su* an object on :i* !y w n fe$4 ,_m ( ! specim5s t f9d a place 9 a museum h be5 tempor>ily pres]v$ 9 _s previ\s to be+ dri$1 & if a little corrosive sublimate 0 dissolv$ 9 ?is _s1 ! specim5s w h be5 r5d]$ p]fectly free f all attacks ( m>aud]s1 s9ce ! _s w h saturat$ ! :ole object1 c>ry+ ) x ! dissolv$ poison4 ,mo/ ( ! specim5s t h n be5 treat$ by ! above me?od w\ld n suff] f a %ort imm]sion 9 _s conta9+ ! corrosive sublimate2 b 9 cases :]e x is consid]$ inexp$i5t to d ?is1 ! same liquid may be appli$ to !m by means ( a s(t bru%4 ,9 ?is way ev5 ! dri$ botanical specim5s may be r5d]$ p]fectly secure f attacks4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,m>9e ,,objects--,,dissection ,an en?usia/ic obs]v] ( nature w le>n mu* conc]n+ ! /ructure ( natural objects ) ! unaid$ eye1 b !re are times :5 he w desire "s k9d ( magnifi] to reveal m p]fectly ! /ructure ( m9ute p>ts1 or to enable him to obs]ve ! small creatures t are invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,fur!r1 "o may le>n _m int]e/+ & in/ructive facts relat+ to animal & plant life by cutt+ sections = close exam9ation1 or by mak+ su* simple dissections z w enable "o to obs]ve ! m sali5t features ( int]nal /ructure2 we !re=e propose 9 ! pres5t *apt] to make a few rem>ks & sugge/ions reg>d+ "w ( ?is k9d4 ,a pocket magnifi] is ( great value to ! "y naturali/1 bo? = ! inspection ( natural objects :ile engag$ 9 out-door "w1 & = ! subsequ5t exam9ation ( ! specim5s collect$ = /udy4 ,x is (t5 necess>y to enable "o to id5tify & classify small animals & plants1 & w be 9 con/ant dem& = ! purpose ( /udy+ ! less conspicu\s ext]nal features4 ,su* an in/rum5t %\ld be reg>d$ z an ess5tial companion ( ! naturali/1 & %\ld accompany him on e ramble4 ,!re are sev]al diff]5t =ms ( pocket l5ses1 b = g5]al "w !re is1 p]haps1 no?+ m conv5i5t & s]viceable ?an ! #8triplet' magnifi]4 ,x is a comb9ation ( ?ree l5ses1 enclos$ 9 a pocket case1 & s arrang$ t !y may be us$ sep>ately or 9 comb9ation1 ?us supply+ a v>iety ( p[]s4 ,! ?ree l5ses ( ! triplet are !mselves ( diff]5t magnify+ p[]s1 & ^! p[]s may be increas$ by comb9+ two or all ( !m4 ,= "w at home a #8dissect+ microscope' is v useful4 ,?is consi/s ( a magnify+ l5s1 m\nt$ on a support ov] a surface on :i* small objects may be exam9$ & dissect$1 ! height ( ! l5s be+1 ( c\rse1 adju/$ accord+ to its focal di/ance4 ,l5ses ready m\nt$ on adju/able /&s may be pur*as$ = ?is purpose1 b no "o ought to exp]i5ce mu* difficulty 9 design+ & con/ruct+ "s simple /& t w give e satisfaction4 ,! arrangem5t j describ$ is1 ( c\rse1 suitable = ! dissection ( only small objects1 & ^! are plac$ on a mat]ial adapt$ to ! nature ( ! "w to be done4 ,?us x is sometimes conv5i5t to place ! object to be exam9$ on a small %eet ( cork1 9 ord] t x may be secur$ by means ( p9s :ile ! dissection proce$s1 :ile at o!r times x is ess5tial t x be laid on a h>d & unyield+ surface1 su* z t ( a slip ( glass4 ,b :atev] be ! nature ( ! sub/ance on :i* ! dissection is made1 its col\r may be regulat$ accord+ to t ( ! object4 ,if1 = example1 we are dissect+ a small :ite fl[] on a piece ( cork1 we %\ld naturally black5 ! cork1 or cov] x ) a piece ( dead black pap]2 or1 if we are to dissect a small1 light-col\r$ object on a glass surface1 we lay ! glass on black pap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de--,,! ,,triplet ,,magnifi] ,! advantage ( dissect+ objects "u wat] does n seem to be g5]ally appreciat$ by beg9n]s1 :o (t5 all[ _! specim5s to become dry & %rivell$1 almo/ beyond recognition1 dur+ ! progress ( _! exam9ation4 ,?is mode ( dissection is c]ta9ly n necess>y ) all objects1 b may be g5]ally recomm5d$ = s(t & succul5t vegetable /ructures1 z well z = almo/ all animal dissections4 ,?is be+ ! case1 arrangem5ts %\ld c]ta9ly be made to provide a m9iature dissect+ tr\gh z an accessory to ! dissect+ microscope1 & ! foll[+ in/ructions w enable ! read] to con/ruct a highly satisfactory & inexp5sive "o3-- ,procure ! flat lid ( a cyl9drical t9 box1 or ! lid ( a glass or porcela9 pomade pot1 su* lid to be ab\t two in*es 9 diamet] & ab\t half an in* 9 dep?4 ,cem5t ! flat side ( ?is lid to a small slab ( h>d wood1 or to a squ>e piece ( %eet lead1 by means ( acetic glue--ord9>y glue or gelat9e dissolv$ 9 glacial acetic acid--to give x ! necess>y /ead9ess dur+ ! dissection4 ,:5 ! cem5t is q h>d1 p\r into ! lid "s melt$ p>aff9 7p>aff9 wax7 :i* has be5 black5$ by ! admixture ( a small quantity ( lamp-black 9 ! =m ( a f9e p[d]4 ,! p>aff9 %\ld be melt$ by putt+ x into a beak] or wide-m\!d bottle1 & /&+ x 9 hot wat]1 & ! lamp-black %\ld be add$1 ) /irr+1 z soon z x is entirely liquefi$4 ,! quantity ( ! mixture us$ mu/ be suffici5t to half fill ! lid1 ?us leav+ a space to conta9 wat] to ! dep? ( ab\t a qu>t] ( an in*4 ,! black5$ wax provides a good backgr\nd on :i* to "w1 & provides a hold = p9s :5 ^! are necess>y 9 ord] to fix ! object "u exam9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a ,,small ,,dissect+ ,,tr\gh ,! complete tr\gh is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #df2 & w be f\nd to answ] its purpose admirably1 except t x occasionally displays "o fault1 b "o t is easily rem$i$4 ,! wax contracts on cool+1 & may1 !re=e1 deta* itself f ! tr\gh2 &1 be+ light] ?an wat]1 w float in/ead ( rema9+ subm]g$4 ,?is may be prev5t$ by secur+ ! disc ( wax 9 its place by means ( a r+ ( brass wire1 or by weight+ ! wax ) two or ?ree small pieces ( lead pu%$ d[n into x :ile x is yet s(t4 ,) su* a dissect+ microscope & tr\gh z we h describ$ "o may d a great deal ( exce$+ly useful "w1 bo? h&s be+ q free to manipulate ! object "u exam9ation4 ,! dissection may be conduct$ ) ! aid ( a small scalpel or o!r v %>p knife1 ! p>ts be+ arrang$ or adju/$ by means ( a ne$le1 m\nt$ 9 a h&le1 & held 9 ! left h&4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! object to be dissect$ is s m9ute t ev5 a small scalpel is too l>ge = ! purpose1 & 9 su* cases no?+ is bett] ?an little dissect+ in/rum5ts made by m\nt+ l>ge sew+ ne$les 9 suitable h&les1 & !n gr9d+ d[n ! po9ts ( ! ne$les on two opposite sides1 on a hone1 s z to produce little po9t$1 two-edg$ blades4 ,b5t ne$les are (t5 useful1 too1 & ^! may be prep>$ by heat+ ! po9ts to r$ness 9 a gas-flame1 b5d+ !m z desir$ :ile hot1 & !n h>d5+ !m by sudd5ly ?ru/+ !m1 at a r$ heat1 into cold wat]4 ,! comp\nd microscope w (t5 prove useful = ! exam9ation ( v m9ute objects1 z well z = ! /udy ( ! /ructure ( ! pr9cipal tissues ( ! l>g] species2 b s9ce detail$ in/ructions = ! managem5t ( ! microscope1 & = ! prep>ation ( objects = microscopic exam9ation w\ld occupy mu* m space ?an we c sp>e1 we %all cont5t ourselves ) no?+ m ?an a few g5]al h9ts on ?is portion ( ! "y naturali/'s "w1 deal+ m p>ticul>ly ) ^? po9ts :i* commonly pres5t difficulties to ! amateur4 ,if x is desir$ to exam9e "s m9ute liv+ object1 su* z a protozoon1 place ! object 9 a drop ( ! wat] 9 :i* x liv$ j 9 ! middle ( a clean glass slip1 & cov] x ) a cov]-glass4 ,! quantity ( wat] %\ld be j suffici5t to fill ! space betwe5 ! two glasses4 ,if less ?an ?is has be5 us$1 a little m appli$ to ! edge ( ! cov] by means ( a glass rod w imm$iately run 9 betwe5 ! glasses2 :ile if an excessive am\nt 0 employ$1 ! surplus may be remov$ by ! application ( a /rip ( blott+ pap]4 ,place ! glass slip on ! /age ( ! microscope1 & reflect light ?r\gh x f ! mirror bel[4 ,exam9e x fir/ ) a l[ p[]2 &1 aft] hav+ obs]v$ z mu* z possible ( ! creature's movem5ts & /ructure ) ?is aid1 repeat ) a high] p[]4 ,?is rule applies n only to su* small objects z we h n[ "u consid]ation1 b to all objects1 & p>ts ( !m1 9 :i* m9ute details are to be obs]v$4 ,beg9n]s ) ! microscope (t5 f9d prolong$ exam9ation v tir+ to ! eyes1 b ?is1 we believe1 w\ld seldom be ! case if "r me?ods 7 foll[$4 ,bo? eyes %\ld always be op51 & ! microscopi/ %\ld tra9 himself to use bo? eyes equally = ! actual obs]vation4 ,! high] ! magnify+ p[] us$1 ! ne>] mu/ ! objective 7! l[] comb9ation ( l5ses7 be br\ght to ! object itself1 & x is no uncommon ?+ = ! amateur1 9 8 attempts to focus 8 object1 to l[] ! body ( ! microscope beyond its prop] position1 caus+ ! objective to cru% ! object1 break ! ?9 cov]-glass1 & become wett$ ) ! liquid1 if any1 9 :i* ! object 0 be+ exam9$4 ,all ?is may be avoid$ by l[]+ ! body ( ! microscope until x ne>ly t\*es ! cov]-glass be=e attempt+ to view ! object ?r\gh x1 & !n1 ) ! eye above ! object-glass1 to gradually raise ! body until ! object is 9 focus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,cell ,,= ,,small ,,liv+ ,,objects ,! top ( ! cov]-glass %\ld always be p]fectly dry2 & if by any *ance ! objective becomes wet x %\ld be wip$ p]fectly dry ) a piece ( old silk or ) *amois lea!r4 ,also1 if p]man5t m\nt+ is attempt$1 & ! pres]vative liquid is all[$ to come 9 contact ) ! objective1 su* liquid mu/1 ( c\rse1 be wa%$ (f ) "s suitable solv5t be=e any attempt is made to wipe ! l5s dry4 ,if ! object "u exam9ation is ( su* dim5sions t ! cov]-glass has a t5d5cy to rock on x1 or if x is a liv+ object ( su* a size t x is unable to move freely 9 ! exce$+ly ?9 film ( wat] betwe5 ! cov] & ! slip1 x %\ld be plac$ 9 a cell4 ,! cell may be made by cem5t+ a r+ ( glass or vulcanite to ! middle ( a slip1 or x may be a little circul> cavity prep>$ 9 ! slip itself4 ,9 ei!r case ! cell mu/ be q full ( wat] be=e ! cov]-glass is appli$1 s t no air-bubbles are includ$4 ,hi!rto we h spok5 only ( m\nt+ small objects 9 wat]1 & ?is is advisable :5 ! object is moi/1 :e!r x be animal or vegetable1 alive or dead4 ,b dry objects may be exam9$ 9 ! dry /ate1 9 :i* case !y ne$ n be cov]$4 ,if !y are compos$ ( transp>5t mat]ial !y are to be dealt ) 9 ! mann] recomm5d$ be=e1 z f> z ! managem5t ( ! light is consid]$2 t is1 a mod]ately /rong light is s5t ?r\gh !m by ! reflector bel[ ! /age2 b opaque objects are be/ exam9$ on a dead black gr\nd1 ! light be+ direct$ on to !m by means ( a cond5s+ l5s plac$ betwe5 !m & ! s\rce ( light4 ,a collector :o has done only a few days' "w on ! sea %ore w probably f9d himself ! possessor ( a ho/ ( int]e/+ objects t w af=d mu* pleasure & in/ruction :5 plac$ "u ! microscope--objects1 _m ( :i* h be5 some:at ha/ily deposit$ 9 a bottle ( _s or o!r pres]vative = /udy 9 8 future leisure mom5ts4 ,^! objects1 if small1 may be exam9$ z above describ$1 simply plac+ !m "u a cov]-glass1 or 9 a cell1 ) a cle> drop ( ! same liquid 9 :i* !y h be5 kept4 ,! g5]al *>act]s ( ! l>g] objects may also be obs]v$ by means ( "s k9d ( h& l5s1 b ev5 ^! are g5]ally be/ exam9$ "u wat] or o!r suitable liquid4 ,a great deal may be le>nt ( natural objects by prep>+ v ?9 sections = microscopic exam9ation2 & al?\gh special works %\ld be consult$ if "o desires to become pr(ici5t 9 ! diff]5t me?ods ( cutt+ & prep>+ su* sections1 yet a great am\nt ( good "w may be done ) ! aid ( a %>p razor1 manipulat$ ) no?+ m ?an ord9>y skill4 ,"s objects1 especially c]ta9 ( ^? ( ! vegetable _w1 are ( su* a nature t suitable sections may be cut1 ei!r f ! fre% or pres]v$ specim51 )\t any prelim9>y prep>ation4 ,all t is requir$ is to hold ! object firmly betwe5 ! f+] & ?umb ( ! left h&1 previ\sly secur+ x 9 "s k9d ( hold] if necess>y1 & p>e (f ! ?9ne/ possible slices ) a horizontal movem5t ( ! razor1 bo? razor & object be+ kept v wet dur+ ! process4 ,z ! sections are cut !y may be all[$ to drop into a %all[ vessel ( wat]2 &1 ! ?9ne/ !n select$ = exam9ation 9 wat] z previ\sly describ$4 ,o!r objects are s s(t t ! cutt+ ( sections becomes impossible )\t previ\sly h>d5+ !m4 ,me?ylat$ _s is a good h>d5+ reag5t1 & _m ( ! s(t /ructures t h be5 pres]v$ 9 ?is fluid1 especially if x has be5 us$ undilut$1 w be f\nd suffici5tly h>d = cutt+ ?9 sections4 ,among ! o!r h>d5+ reag5ts us$ by microscopi/s may be m5tion$ a solution ( *romic acid--"o "p by weight ( ! solid acid dissolv$ 9 f "o hundr$ to two hundr$ p>ts ( wat]1 & a solution ( bi*romate ( pota%--"o "p ( ! bi*romate to ab\t =ty p>ts ( wat]4 ,9 ei!r case ! h>d5+ ( ! object takes place sl[ly1 & x %\ld be exam9$ f day to day until ! necess>y consi/5ce has be5 obta9$4 ,! /ructures ( _m s(t animals c nev] be satisfactorily h>d5$ = section-cutt+ by ei!r ( ! above reag5ts1 & ?us x becomes necess>y ei!r to freeze or to imb$ !m4 ,9 ! =m] case ! object is fir/ soak$ 9 gum wat]--a ?9 solution ( gum arabic--& !n froz5 by an e!r spray or by a mixture ( ice & salt4 ,! sections %\ld be cut ) a razor j z ! object is beg9n+ to ?aw1 & !y may !n be exam9$ "u a cov]-glass1 9 a drop ( ! gum wat]4 ,! o!r me?od is conduct$ z foll[s3--,! s(t object is fir/ soak$ 9 absolute alcohol to extract all ! wat] x conta9s1 & is !n transf]r$ to p>aff9 t has be5 heat$ j to its melt+-po9t by /&+ x 9 w>m wat]4 ,aft] ! object is ?or\ghly p]meat$ ) ! p>aff91 ! :ole is cool$ quickly by imm]sion 9 cold wat]4 ,sections are n[ cut1 ! p>aff9 be+ slic$ away ) ! sub/ance x conta9s4 ,^! sections are plac$ 9 w>m turp5t9e1 :]e !y are all[$ to rema9 until ! :ole ( ! wax has dissolv$1 & !y may !n be m\nt$ 9 a drop ( turp5t9e1 & cov]$ ) a cov]-glass4 ,we h giv5 brief in/ructions = tempor>y m\nt+ only1 b mo/ amateur microscopi/s w\ld und\bt$ly pref] m\nt+ _! objects p]man5tly1 s t !y may be set aside = /udy at any future p]iod4 ,h5ce we app5d a few directions to ?is end1 advis+ ! read]1 h[ev]1 to consult a "w deal+ especially ) ?is subject if he desires to become pr(ici5t 9 ! prep>ation ( microscopic slides4 ,moi/ objects1 includ+ ^? :i* h be5 pres]v$ 9 dilute _s1 may be soak$ 9 wat]1 !n transf]r$ direct to ! glass slip1 & cov]$ ) a drop ( glyc]9e4 ,any excess ( ! glyc]9e %\ld !n be absorb$ f ar\nd ! cov]-glass by means ( a /rip ( blott+-pap]1 & ! edge ( ! cov] cem5t$ by gold size appli$ ) a small camel-hair bru%4 ,glyc]9e jelly is also a valuable m\ntant = p]man5t "w4 ,:5 ?is is us$ ! object %\ld fir/ be soak$ 9 glyc]9e1 & !n 9 ! melt$ jelly4 ,x is !n transf]r$ to a drop ( melt$ jelly :i* has be5 plac$ on a w>m slide1 & cov]$ z be=e4 ,! jelly soon solidifies1 s t a r+ ( cem5t is n absolutely necess>y1 ?\gh x is advisable1 z a rule1 to cem5t ! cov]-glass all r\nd ) gold size or black v>ni%4 ,sections cut :ile froz5 are be/ m\nt$ 9 glyc]9e1 to :i* !y may be transf]r$ direct4 ,canada balsam is "o ( ! be/ m$ia = p]man5t m\nt+2 &1 z x becomes v h>d aft] a "t1 x s]ves ! purposes ( bo? pres]vative & cem5t4 ,:5 ?is is us$ ! object mu/ be entirely fre$ f wat] by soak+ x 9 absolute alcohol4 ,x is !n put into turp5t9e = a m9ute or two1 transf]r$ to a w>m slide1 & cov]$ ) a drop ( ! prep>$ balsam4 ,sections t h be5 imb$d$ 9 p>aff9 may be m\nt$ 9 ?is way1 ! turp5t9e act+ z a solv5t = ! p>aff9 9 :i* x 0 cut4 ,al?\gh ! comp\nd microscope is absolutely necess>y = ! /udy ( ! m9ute/ =ms ( life & ( ! m9ute /ructure ( ! v>i\s tissues ( l>g] be+s1 yet ! "y naturali/ w f9d t a va/ am\nt ( good "w may be done )\t its aid4 ,?us ! g5]al /ructure ( ! l>g] species may be made out by means ( simple dissections requir+ no extraord9>y skill on ! "p ( ! work]1 & ) appliances t may be obta9$ at a l[ co/4 ,c]ta9 ( ! m>9e animals1 h[ev]1 require special treatm5t t c h>dly be describ$ 9 a %ort *apt] devot$ to g5]al in/ructions only1 b h9ts ) reg>ds to ^! w be giv5 9 future *apt]s 9 :i* ! animals ref]r$ to are describ$4 ,! appliances ref]r$ to above include no?+ m ?an a simple =m ( dissect+ tr\gh1 a few dissect+ in/rum5ts1 & "o or two m9or accessories t may always be f\nd at h& z requir$4 ,! dissection ( animals is always be/ p]=m$ "u wat]1 = by ?is me?od ! object exam9$ may n only be kept clean z ! "w proce$s1 b ! p>ts1 hav+ a t5d5cy to float1 readily sep>ate f "o ano!r & !re=e become m di/9ctly visible :5 subm]g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,%eet ,,( ,,cork ,,on ,,?9 ,,%eet ,,lead ,a v conv5i5t =m ( tr\gh may be made by tak+ any k9d ( rectangul>1 flat-bottom$ di%1 "o made ( z9c be+1 p]haps1 ! be/ ( all1 & cov]+ ! bottom ) a slab ( good cork c>pet :i* has be5 weight$ ) suffici5t lead to prev5t x f float+4 ,or1 in/ead ( cork c>pet1 a %eet ( cork may be us$4 ,9 ei!r case1 a piece ( ?9 %eet lead1 a little l>g] ?an ! slab1 %\ld be cut1 ! corn]s ( :i* are !n snipp$ (f z %[n 9 fig4 #dh1 & ! edges f9ally turn$ ov] z repres5t$ 9 ! next illu/ration4 ,! size ( ! tr\gh mu/ be regulat$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! "w to be done1 b "o measur+ t5 in*es long1 sev5 wide1 & two in*es deep w answ] mo/ purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,weight$ ,,cork ,,= ,,dissect+ ,,tr\gh ,! object to be dissect$ is plac$ 9 ! tr\gh1 secur$ 9 position by means ( a few ord9>y p9s1 & !n completely cov]$ ) wat]4 ,we ne$ h>dly impress ^u ! read] ! great importance ( ?or\ghly exam9+ all ext]nal *>act]s--all ^? /ructures t are visible )\t actual dissection--be=e attempt+ to remove any?+2 & we h already insi/$ on ! importance ( c>efully exam9+ all creatures :ile alive be=e any?+ else is done4 ,! value ( ?is latt] /ipulation c h>dly be ov]e/imat$1 = 9 _m in/ances x is almo/ impossible to detect ! use ( an organ unless x has be5 obs]v$ 9 action2 & ! en?usia/ic /ud5t w g ev5 fur!r ?an ?is1 = he w make x an inv>iable rule to sket* ev]y?+ he sees1 & to make full notes on all 8 obs]vations4 ,:5 p9s are us$ to fix ! object "u exam9ation--& x is g5]ally ess5tial t ! object be fix$--_! heads %\ld be turn$ outw>ds2 = !n ! object w n slip f its position1 nor w ! p9s t5d to get 9 ! way ( ! "w4 ,"s objects are ( su* a nature t !y are n easily secur$ by means ( p9s1 & yet require to be fix$ 9 "s way or o!r4 ,?us1 "o may desire to exam9e ! /ructure & app5dages ( a prawn or small crab1 or to inve/igate ! nature ( a *iton4 ,9 su* in/ances z ^! x is a good plan to make a cake ( p>aff9 wax ( suitable size by p\r+ ! melt$ sub/ance into a m\ld1 !n secure ! object 9 prop] position 9 ! wax :ile /ill fluid1 & p9 ! latt] to ! cork ( ! dissect+ tr\gh4 ,x is (t5 necess>y to trace ! c\rses ( int]nal passages t op5 on ! surface ( ! body1 or ( tubes t are reveal$ dur+ ! progress ( dissection1 & ?is may be done by means ( a little in/rum5t call$ a seek]4 ,x is simply a blunt$ ne$le1 b5t into a l>ge angle1 & m\nt$ 9 a h&le2 or1 x may consi/ ( no?+ b a mod]ately long & /iff bri/le1 r5d]$ blunt at "o end by tipp+ x ) melt$ seal+ wax4 ,?is is n always suffici5t1 h[ev]1 = x frequ5tly happ5s t c]ta9 tubes & passages 9 animal =ms are dispos$ 9 su* a complicat$ mann] t x is impossible to s5d ev5 ! mo/ flexible seek] ?r\gh !m4 ,= in/ance1 suppose "o desires to trace ! c\rse ( ! dige/ive tube ( "s l>ge bivalve mollusc ) its _m reflections1 ! seek] is useless except t x w p5etrate to ! fir/ %>p b5d4 ,! arrangem5t ( su* a tube mu/ be trac$ by dissect+ along its c\rse1 b ?is may be aid$ consid]ably by fir/ fill+ x ) "s col\r$ sub/ance to enable its direction to be m easily foll[$4 ,9 fact1 ! injection ( "s brightly col\r$ fluid1 =c$ ?r\gh ! tube by means ( a f9e-nozzl$ glass syr+e w (t5 enable ! c\rse ( su* a tube to be se5 )\t any dissection at all1 ! col\r ( ! fluid us$ be+ detect$ ?r\gh ! semi-transp>5t tissues surr\nd+ x4 ,a mixture ( ,b]l9 blue & wat]1 or a mixture ( pla/] ( ,p>is & wat] col\r$ ) c>m9e is well adapt$ to ?is purpose2 & if ! latt] is employ$ x may be all[$ to set1 & ?us produce a p]man5t ca/ f ! tube t is be+ dissect$4 ,p]haps x %\ld be m5tion$ t if ei!r ( ! injection mixtures be us$ = ?is purpose x mu/ be previ\sly /ra9$ ?r\gh musl91 & t1 9 ! case ( ! pla/]1 ! mix+ & /ra9+ %\ld occupy z little "t z possible1 or x may beg9 to set be=e ! injection has be5 complet$4 ,a v consid]able insight into ! /ructure ( animals may be frequ5tly obta9$ by cutt+ sections ?r\gh ! body ) all its organs 9 situ1 b1 g5]ally speak+1 !y are too s(t to all[ ( ?is )\t dang] ( ! displacem5t ( ^? v p>ts1 ! relations ( :i* we desire to det]m9e4 ,to avoid ?is ! body %\ld be previ\sly h>d5$ by a some:at prolong$ soak+ 9 me?ylat$ _s1 or 9 a solution ( *romic acid prep>$ z be=e direct$4 ,!n1 ) ! aid ( a good razor1 v int]e/+ sections may be prep>$ ) ! greate/ ( ease1 & ! true relations ( ! v>i\s organs ?r\gh\t ! body may be exactly det]m9$ by cutt+ a succession ( slices1 n necess>ily v ?91 f end to end1 or1 transv]sely1 f side to side4 ,ev5 ^? cru/aceans t are protect$ by a h>d1 calc>e\s exo-skeleton1 & ! molluscs t _c be remov$ f _! /ony %ells )\t injury to _! s(t /ructures1 may be /udi$ 9 ! mann] j describ$1 & ?is may be done by fir/ soak+ !m 9 dilute hydro*loric acid1 r5ew$ z (t5 z may be necess>y1 until all ! m9]al matt] has be5 dissolv$ completely1 & !n h>d5+ ! s(t] tissues 9 "o ( ! reag5ts m5tion$ above4 ,hydro*loric acid may also be us$ to dissolve ! calc>e\s %ells ( =am9if]s1 ! vegetable corall9es1 & o!r small =ms ( life1 previ\s to microscopic exam9ation ( ! s(t p>ts4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,protozoa ,,( ,,! ,,sea ,,%ore ,we %all n[ /udy ! pr9cipal =ms ( animal life to be f\nd on ! sea %ore2 &1 9 ord] t ! read] may ?or\ghly und]/& ! broad] pr9ciples ( classification1 s z to be able to locate ea* creature obs]v$ 9 its approximate position 9 ! scale ( life1 we %all consid] ea* gr\p 9 its zoological ord]1 comm5c+ ) ! l[e/ =ms1 & not+1 z we proce$1 ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( ea* division4 ,! pres5t *apt] w be devot$ to ! ,protozoa--! sub-k+dom t includes ! simple/ ( all animal be+s4 ,ea* animal 9 ?is division consi/s ( a m9ute mass ( a jelly-l sub/ance call$ protoplasm1 exhibit+ little or no diff]5tiation 9 /ructure4 ,!re is no true body-cavity1 no special organs = ! p]=mance ( di/9ct functions1 & no n]v\s sy/em4 ,p]haps we c be/ und]/& ! nature ( a protozoon by select+ & exam9+ a typical example3 ,remove a small quantity ( ! gre5 ?read-l alg\s we$ s commonly se5 atta*$ to ! banks ( bo? fre% & salt wat] pools1 or surr\nd+ float+ objects1 & place x 9 a glass ) a little ( ! wat] 9 :i* x grew4 ,?is we$ probably %elt]s num]\s protozoons1 among :i* we are almo/ sure to f9d "s amb if we exam9e a drop ( ! wat] "u ! high p[] ( a microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,! ,,am,,ba1 ,,highly ,,magnifi$ ,! amba is obs]v$ to be a m9ute mass ( protoplasm ) an av]age diamet] ( ab\t "o-hundr$? ( an in*1 end[$ ) a p[] ( motion & locomotion4 ,its body is n uni=mly cle>1 = ! int]ior portion is se5 to conta9 a numb] ( m9ute granules1 repres5t+ ! undige/$ portions ( ! animal's food4 ,!re is a small mass ( d5s] protoplasm ne> ! c5tre1 t]m$ ! nucleus1 & also a cle> space fill$ ) fluid4 ,?is latt] is call$ ! vacuole1 & is probably connect$ ) ! processes ( respiration & excretion1 = x may be se5 to contract at irregul> int]vals1 & occasionally to collapse & expel its cont5ts4 ,z we wat* ! amba we see t x is cont9ually *ang+ its %ape1 s5d+ out tempor>y prolongations 7pseudopodia7 ( its gelat9\s sub/ance f any "p1 & sometimes us+ ^! ext5d$ portions = ! purpose ( dragg+ itself along4 ,its me?od ( fe$+ is z rem>kable z x is simple4 ,on com+ 9 contact ) any desir$ morsel1 x s5ds out two pseudopods1 "o on ea* side ( ! food4 ,^! two pseudopods gradually ext5d r\nd ! food1 till1 at la/1 !y meet & coalesce on ! opposite side ( x1 ?us completely enclos+ x )9 ! body4 ,any "p ( ! body ( ! amba may ?us be conv]t$ into a tempor>y m\?2 &1 !re be+ no special cavity to s]ve ! purpose ( a /oma*1 ! process ( dige/ion w proce$ equally well 9 any "p ( ! body except 9 ! sup]ficial lay]1 :]e ! protoplasm is ( a slightly firm] consi/5ce ?an t ( ! int]ior4 ,fur!r1 ! process ( dige/ion be+ ov]1 any portion ( ! sup]ficial lay] may be conv]t$ into a tempor>y op5+ to admit ( ! dis*>ge ( indige/ible matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,! ,,am,,ba1 ,,%[+ ,,*anges ,,( ,,=m ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,! ,,am,,ba1 ,,fe$+ ,! amba is an omnivor\s fe$]1 b subsi/s ma9ly on vegetable organisms1 especially on diatoms & o!r m9ute alg2 & ! silice\s skeletons ( ! =m] may (t5 be se5 )9 ! body ( ! animal1 "u ! high p[] ( a microscope4 ,! multiplication ( ! amba is br\ght ab\t by a process ( fission or division4 ,at fir/ ! nucleus divides into two1 & !n ! s(t] protoplasm contracts 9 ! middle1 & f9ally divides into two portions1 ea* ( :i* conta9s "o ( ! nuclei4 ,! two di/9ct animals ?us produc$ bo? gr[ until !y rea* ! dim5sions ( _! common prog5itor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,! ,,am,,ba1 ,,divid+ ,all ! protozoons resemble ! amba 9 g5]al /ructure & function2 b :ile "s are ev5 simpl] 9 organisation1 o!rs are m highly specialis$4 ,"s1 l ! amba1 are unicellul> animals2 t is1 !y consi/ ( a s+le1 simple speck ( protoplasm2 b o!rs live 9 colonies1 ea* newly =m$ cell rema9+ atta*$ to its p>5t cell1 until at la/ a comp>atively l>ge comp\nd protozoon is =m$4 ,! sub-k+dom is divid$ into sev]al classes1 ! pr9cipal ( :i*1 toge!r ) _! lead+ *>act]i/ics1 are %[n 9 ! foll[+ table3-- #a4 ,rhizopods3--,body uni=m 9 consi/5ce4 ,pseudopods protrud$ f any po9t4 #b4 ,protopla/a3--,out] protoplasm slightly firm] 9 consi/5ce4 ,pseudopods protrud$ f any po9t4 7,(t5 gr\p$ ) ! ,rhizopods47 #c4 ,radiol>ia3--,possess+ a c5tral membran\s capsule4 ,usually support$ by a fl9ty skeleton4 #d4 ,infusoria3--,out] protoplasm firm] & d5s]2 !re=e ( m def9ite %ape4 ,possess p]man5t ?readlike ext5sions ( protoplasm in/ead ( pseudopods4 ,we %all n[ obs]ve ! pr9cipal m>9e memb]s ( ! protozoa1 comm5c+ ) ! l[e/ =ms1 & deal+ ) ea* 9 its prop] zoological ord] z express$ 9 ! above table4 ,,m>9e ,,rhizopods ,:5 we /& on a bea* ( f9e s& on a v calm day wat*+ ! progress ( ! ripples ov] ! s& z ! tide rec$es we frequ5tly obs]ve :iti% l9es m>k+ ! limits rea*$ by ! successive ripples z !y advance t[>d ! %ore4 ,if1 n[1 we scrape up a little ( ! surface s&1 foll[+ ! exact c\rse ( "o ( ^! :iti% /reaks1 & exam9e ! mat]ial obta9$ by ! aid ( a good l5s1 we %all 9 all probability discov] a numb] ( m9ute %ells among ! gra9s ( s&4 ,^! %ells are ( v>i\s %apes--little sph]es1 discs1 rods1 spirals1 c42 b all resemble ea* o!r 9 t !y are p]=at$ ) a numb] ( m9ute holes or =am9a4 ,!y are ! skeletons ( protozoons1 belong+ to ! class ,rhizopoda1 & !y exi/ 9 enorm\s quantities on ! b$s ( c]ta9 seas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,=am9if]s1 ,,magnifi$ ,we w fir/ exam9e ! %ells1 & !n /udy ! nature ( ! little animals t inhabit !m4 ,! %ells v>y v mu* 9 g5]al appe>ance z well z 9 %ape4 ,"s are ( an opaque1 dead :ite1 ! surface some:at resembl+ t ( a piece ( unglaz$ porcela92 o!rs m ne>ly resemble glaz$ porcela91 :ile "s pres5t q a vitre\s appe>ance1 mu* aft] ! nature ( opal4 ,9 all cases1 h[ev]1 ! mat]ial is ! same1 all ! %ells consi/+ ( c>bonate ( lime1 hav+ ?us ! same *emical composition z *alk1 lime/ones1 & m>ble4 ,if hydro*loric acid be add$ to "s ( ^! %ells1 !y are imm$iately attack$ by ! acid & are dissolv$ 9 a v %ort "t1 ! solution be+ accompani$ by an eff]vesc5ce due to ! escape ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,! %ells v>y 9 size f ab\t "o-twelf? to "o ?ree-hundr$? ( an in*1 & consi/ ei!r ( a s+le *amb]1 or ( _m *amb]s sep>at$ f ea* o!r by p]=at$ p>titions ( ! same mat]ial4 ,sometimes ^! *amb]s are arrang$ 9 a /raight l9e1 b m frequ5tly 9 ! =m ( a s+le or d\ble spiral4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! arrangem5t ( *amb]s is v complex4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! fact t ! %ells pres5t a numb] ( p]=ations on ! ext]ior1 9 addition to ^? :i* pi]ce ! p>titions )91 & x is ?is *>act]i/ic :i* has l$ to ! application ( ! "n ,=am9if]a 7hole-be>+7 to ! little be+s we are consid]+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,a ,,spiral ,,=am9if] ,,%ell ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,a ,,=am9if] ,,out ,,( ,,its ,,%ell ,! animal inhabit+ ! %ell is exce$+ly simple 9 /ructure1 ev5 m s ?an ! amba4 ,x is m]ely a speck ( protoplasm1 exhibit+ h>dly any diff]5tiation--no?+1 9 fact1 save a contractile cavity 7! vacuole71 & num]\s granules t probably repres5t ! indige/ible fragm5ts ( its food4 ,! protoplasm fills ! %ell1 & also =ms a complete gelat9\s cov]+ on ! outside1 :5 ! animal is alive2 & ! vacuole & granules circulate some:at freely )9 ! semi-solid mass4 ,fur!r1 ! protoplasm itself is highly contractile1 z may be prov$ by witness+ ! rapidity ) :i* ! animal c *ange its =m4 ,:5 ! =am9if] is alive1 x floats freely 9 ! sea1 ) a comp>atively long & sl5d] ?read ( its sub/ance protrud$ ?r\gh ea* hole 9 ! %ell4 ,^! ?reads correspond exactly 9 function ) ! blunt pseudopodia ( ! amba4 ,%\ld !y come 9 contact ) a p>ticle ( suitable food-mat]ial1 !y imm$iately surr\nd x1 & rapidly retract+1 draw ! p>ticle to ! surface ( ! body4 ,! ?reads !n completely envelop ! food1 coalesc+ z soon z !y t\*1 ?us br++ x )9 ! animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,! ,,same ,,=am9if] 7,,fig4 #ef7 ,,z ,,se5 ,,:5 ,,alive ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,section ,,( ,,! ,,%ell ,,( ,a ,,comp\nd ,,=am9if] ,! =am9if] multiplies by fission1 or by a process ( budd+4 ,9 "s species ! division ( ! protoplasm is complete1 z 9 ! case ( amb1 s t ea* animal has its own %ell :i* encloses a s+le *amb]1 b 9 mo/ cases ! #8bud' rema9s atta*$ to a p>5t cell1 & develops a %ell t is also fix$ to ! %ell ( its prog5itor4 ,! y\ng] animal ?us produc$ f ! bud gives rise to ano!r1 :i* develops 9 ! same mann]2 & ?is process cont9ues1 ! new bud be+ always produc$ on ! newe/ end1 till1 at la/1 a k9d ( colony ( protozoons is =m$1 _! %ells rema9+ atta*$ to "o ano!r1 ?us produc+ a comp\nd %ell1 compos$ ( sev]al *amb]s1 arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a l9e or spiral1 & communicat+ by means ( _! p]=at$ p>titions4 ,x w n[ be se5 t ea* #8cell' ( ! comp\nd protozoon fe$s n only = itself1 b = all ! memb]s ( its colony1 s9ce ! n\ri%m5t imbib$ by any "o is capable ( diffusion into ! surr\nd+ *amb]s1 ! protoplasm ( ! :ole =m+ "o cont9u\s mass by means ( ! p]=at$ p>titions ( ! complex skeleton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,section ,,( ,a ,,nummulite ,,%ell ,"s ( ! simple/ =am9if]s possess only "o hole 9 ! %ell1 &1 consequ5tly1 are enabl$ to ?r[ (f pseudopods f "o side ( ! body only4 ,9 o!rs1 ( a mu* m complex nature1 ! new *amb]s =m a spiral 9 su* a mann] t !y ov]lap & entirely conceal ^? previ\sly built2 & ! developm5t may proce$ until a comp>atively l>ge discoid %ell is ! result4 ,?is is ! case ) ,nummulites1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! fanci$ resemblance to co9s4 ,fur!r1 "s species ( =am9if]a produce a skeleton t is horny 9 "*1 in/ead ( be+ calc>e\s1 :ile o!rs are protect$ m]ely by gra9s ( s& or p>ticles ( o!r solid matt] t adh]e to ! surface ( _! glut9\s bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,globig]9a bulloides1 ,,z ,,se5 ,,:5 ,,alive1 ,,magnifi$ ,we h spok5 ( =am9if]a z float+ freely ab\t 9 ! sea wat]1 b :ile x is c]ta9 t _m ( !m live at or ne> ! surface1 "s are kn[n to ?rive at consid]able dep?s2 & ^? :o desire to /udy ! v>i\s =ms ( ^! int]e/+ creatures %\ld se>* among dr$g+s :5ev] an opportunity occurs4 ,liv+ specim5s1 :5ev] obta9$1 %\ld be exam9$ 9 sea wat]1 9 ord] t ! motions ( _! pseudopods may be se54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,section ,,( ,a ,,piece ,,( ,,nummulitic ,,lime/one ,if we bru% (f fragm5ts f ! surface ( a fre%ly brok5 piece ( *alk1 & all[ !m to fall into a vessel ( wat]1 & !n exam9e ! s$im5t "u ! microscope1 we %all obs]ve t ?is s$im5t consi/s ( m9ute %ells1 & fragm5ts ( %ells1 ( =am9if]s4 ,9 fact1 our *alk b$s1 z well z ! b$s ( c]ta9 lime/ones1 consi/ ma9ly ( va/ deposits ( ! %ells ( ext9ct =am9if]a t at "o "t cov]$ ! floor ( ! sea4 ,su* deposits are /ill be+ =m$1 notably t :i* n[ cov]s a va/ area ( ! b$ ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean at a dep? v>y+ f ab\t #cjj to #c1jjj fa?oms4 ,?is deposit consi/s ma9ly ( ! %ells ( a =am9if] call$ ,globig]9a bulloides1 a figure ( :i* is giv5 on ! opposite page4 ,! /ructure ( *alk may be beautifully reveal$ by soak+ a small piece ( ! rock = "s "t 9 a solution ( ,canada balsam1 all[+ x to become ?or\ghly dry1 & !n gr9d+ x d[n till a v ?9 section is obta9$4 ,su* a section1 :5 view$ "u ! l[ p[] ( a comp\nd microscope1 w be se5 to consi/ v l>gely ( m9ute %ells2 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! %ells !mselves w be se5 9 section only4 ,! ext5sive b$s ( nummulitic lime/ones f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,s\? ,europe & ,nor? ,africa are also compos$ l>gely ( =am9if] %ells1 ! mo/ conspicu\s ( :i* are ^? already ref]r$ to z nummulites--disc-%ap$ %ells ( a spiral =m1 9 :i* ! old] *amb]s ov]lap & hide ^? t enclose ! e>li] portion ( ! colony4 ,be=e conclud+ our brief acc\nt ( ^! int]e/+ m>9e protozoons1 x may be well to po9t out t1 al?\gh ! =am9if]a belong to ! l[e/ class ( ! l[e/ sub-k+dom ( animals1 yet !re are "s rhizopods--! ,mon]a1 :i* are ev5 simpl] 9 /ructure4 ,^! are m]e specks ( undiff]5tiat$ protoplasm1 n protect$ by any %ell1 & n ev5 possess+ a nucleus1 & are ! simple/ ( all animal be+s4 ,! second division ( ! ,protozoa--! class ,protopla/a--has already receiv$ a small %>e ( att5tion1 inasmu* z ! amba1 :i* 0 briefly describ$ z a type ( ! :ole sub-k+dom1 belongs to x4 ,! /udy ( ! amba is usually pursu$ by means ( specim5s obta9$ f fre%-wat] pools1 & ref]5ce has be5 made to x 9 a =m] "w deal+ p>ticul>ly ) ! life ( ponds & /reams2 b x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! amba inhabits salt wat] also1 & w be frequ5tly met ) by ^? :o se>* = ! microscopic life ( ! sea1 especially :5 ! wat] exam9$ has be5 tak5 f ^? %elt]$ nooks ( a rocky coa/ t are protect$ f ! direct action ( ! waves1 or f ! little pools t are s f> f ! rea* ( ! tides z to be only occasionally di/urb$4 ,"h ! amba may be se5 creep+ sl[ly ov] ! sl5d] gre5 ?reads ( ! conf]v t surr\nd ! m>g9 ( ! pool4 ,! ?ird class--,radiol>ia--is ( great int]e/ to ! /ud5t ( m>9e life1 on acc\nt ( ! great beauty ( ! %ells2 b1 z ) ! o!r memb]s ( ?is sub-k+dom1 a comp\nd microscope is necess>y = ! /udy ( !m4 ,! animals ( ?is gr\p resemble ! =am9if]s 9 t !y ?r[ out f9e ?read-l pseudopods1 b !y are di/+ui%$ f !m by ! possession ( a membran\s capsule 9 ! c5tre ( ! body1 surr\nd+ ! nucleus1 & p]=at$ 9 ord] to pres]ve ! cont9uity ( ! deep] ) ! surr\nd+ protoplasm4 ,!y h (t5 a c5tral contractile cavity1 & fur!r %[ _! claim to a high] position 9 ! animal scale ?an ! prec$+ classes by ! possession ( little masses ( cells & a c]ta9 am\nt ( fatty & col\r+ matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,radiol>ian ,,%ells1 ,,magnifi$ ,"s ( ! radiol>ians live at or ne> ! surface ( ! ocean1 :ile o!rs ?rive only at ! bottom4 ,! =m]1 9 "s cases1 appe> to avoid ! light1 ris+ to ! surface aft] sunset2 & x is suppos$ t ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! sea is due 9 "p to ! pres5ce ( ^! animals4 ,! latt] may be obta9$ f all dep?s1 d[n to sev]al ?\s& fa?oms4 ,! beauty ( ! radiol>ians z a class lies 9 ! wond]ful %ells t protect ! great majority ( !m4 ,^! %ells are compos$ n ( c>bonate ( lime1 z is ! case ) =am9if]s1 b ( silex or silica1 a sub/ance t is n act$ on by ! /ronge/ m9]al acids4 ,!y are ( ! mo/ exquisite %apes1 & exhibit a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,"s resemble beautifully sculptur$ sph]es1 boxes1 bells1 cups1 c42 :ile o!rs may be lik5$ to baskets ( v>i\s ornam5tal design4 ,9 e case ! silice\s framework consi/s ( a numb] ( clu/]s ( radiat+ rods1 all unit$ by sl5d] int]tw9+ ?reads4 ,x is n all ! radiol>ians1 h[ev]1 t produce ^! beautiful silice\s %ells4 ,a few h no skeleton ( any k9d1 :ile o!rs are support$ by a framework compos$ ( a horny mat]ial1 b yet transp>5t & glassy 9 appe>ance4 ,! sizes ( ! %ells v>y f ab\t "o five-hundr$? to "o half ( an in*2 b1 ( c\rse1 ! l>g] %ells are ^? ( colonies ( radiol>ians1 & n ( s+le individuals1 j z we obs]v$ 0 ! case ) ! =am9if]s4 ,^? 9 se>* ( radiol>ia = exam9ation & /udy %\ld1 :5ev] possible1 obta9 small quantities ( ! dr$g+s f deep wat]4 ,mat]ial br\ght up by ! trawl w (t5 af=d specim5s2 b1 fail+ ^! s\rces ( supply1 ! muddy deposit f deep ni*es betwe5 ! rocks at l[-wat] m>k w (t5 provide a v int]e/+ v>iety4 ,place ! mud 9 a glass vessel1 & p\r on x "s nitric acid 7aqua-=tis74 ,?is w soon dissolve all calc>e\s matt] pres5t1 & also de/roy any organic mat]ial4 ,a process ( v c>eful wa%+ is n[ necess>y4 ,fill up ! vessel ) wat]1 & all[ "s "t = s$im5t>y matt] to settle4 ,n[ decant (f ! great] "p ( ! wat]1 & repeat ! process sev]al times4 ,by ?is means we get rid ( ! great] "p ( ! organic mat]ial1 z well z ( ! m9]al matt] t has be5 attack$ by ! acid2 & if we exam9e ! f9al s$im5t "u ! microscope1 pref]ably 9 a drop ( wat]1 & cov]$ ) a cov]-glass1 any radiol>ians pres5t w soon reveal !mselves4 ,x is (t5 possible to obta9 radiol>ian %ells1 z well z o!r silice\s skeletons1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( c]ta9 m>9e animals4 ,! bivalve molluscs1 = example1 fe$ almo/ entirely on microscopic organisms2 &1 by remov+ su* animals f _! %ells1 & !n de/roy+ _! bodies ) aqua-=tis1 we may frequ5tly obta9 a s$im5t compos$ p>tly ( ! skeletons ref]r$ to4 ,!re rema9s "o o!r class ( protozoons to be consid]$1 viz4 ! ,infusorians--! highe/ class ( ! sub-k+dom4 ,9 ?is gr\p we obs]ve a di/9ct advance 9 organisation2 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! infusorians are enclos$ 9 a firm cuticle or sk91 :i* =ms an almo/ complete protective lay]4 ,)9 ?is is a lay] ( mod]ately firm protoplasm1 conta9+ "o or m cavities t contract at int]vals l a he>t4 ,!n1 9 ! int]ior1 !re is a mass ( s(t] mat]ial ) cavities fill$ ) fluid1 two solid bodies1 & num]\s granules4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,?ree ,,infusorians ,,magnifi$ ,9 ^! creatures we f9d1 too1 a di/9ct & p]man5t m\?1 usually funnel-%ap$1 lead+ to ! s(t1 int]ior sub/ance1 9 :i* ! food mat]ial becomes emb$d$ :ile ! process ( dige/ion proce$s4 ,"h1 !n1 = ! fir/ "t1 we meet ) a special portion ( ! body set ap>t = ! p]=mance ( ! "w ( a /oma*2 &1 fur!r1 ! process ( dige/ion be+ ov]1 ! indige/ible matt] is eject$ ?r\gh a second p]man5t op5+ 9 ! ext]ior cuticle4 ,aga91 ! infusorian does n move by means ( tempor>y pseudopods1 z is ! case ) ! l[] protozoons1 b by means ( m9ute hair-l processes :i* p]man5tly cov] ei!r ! :ole ( ! body1 or are re/rict$ to c]ta9 portions only4 ,^! little processes1 :i* are call$ cilia1 move to & fro ) su* rapidity t !y are h>dly visible2 &1 by means ( !m ! little infusorian is enabl$ to move ab\t 9 its wat]y home ) consid]able spe$4 ,9 "s species a few ( ! cilia are mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 & =m$ ( a firm] mat]ial4 ,^! (t5 s]ve ! purpose ( feet1 & are also us$ z a means by :i* ! little animal c an*or itself to solid sub/ances4 ,z ) ! l[] protozoons1 ! infusoria multiply by division2 b1 9 addition to ?is1 ! nucleus may sometimes be se5 to divide up into a numb] ( m9ute egg-l bodies1 ea* ( :i*1 :5 set free1 is capable ( develop+ into a new animal4 ,%\ld ! wat] 9 :i* infusorians h be5 liv+ evaporate to dryness1 ! little bodies j m5tion$ become s _m du/ p>ticles t may be c>ri$ away by air curr5ts2 b1 al?\gh dry1 !y reta9 _! vitality1 & develop almo/ imm$iately on be+ c>ri$ into a suitable environm5t4 ,infusorians are s call$ because !y develop rapidly 9 infusions ( v>i\s vegetable sub/ances2 & ^? :o desire to /udy _! /ructure & movem5ts ) ! aid ( a microscope _c d mu* bett] ?an make an infusion by p\r+ boil+ wat] on fragm5ts ( dri$ grass1 & leav+ x expos$ = a few days to ! w>m summ] atmosph]e4 ,! num]\s g]ms float+ 9 ! air w soon give rise to abundance ( life1 includ+ sev]al diff]5t species ( infusoria1 v>y+ f #a_/cj to #a_/bjjj ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,fre%-wat] pools & m>%es provide su* an abundance ( infusoria t ! animals are g5]ally obta9$ = /udy f ^! s\rces1 & a few ( ! common & mo/ int]e/+ species inhabit+ fre% wat] h already be5 describ$ 9 a =m] "w4 ,nev]!less1 ! sea is abundantly suppli$ ) repres5tatives ( ! class1 & x is c]ta9 t ! beautiful phosphoresc5ce sometimes obs]v$ 9 ! sea at night is 9 "p due to ! pres5ce ( lum9\s infusoria1 "s ( :i* appe> to h an av]sion to sunlight1 retir+ to a dep? dur+ ! day1 b ris+ to ! surface aga9 aft] sunset4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,a ,,phosphoresc5t ,,m>9e ,,infusorian 7,noctiluca71 ,,magnifi$ ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,briti% ,,sponges ,x seems to be ! popul> op9ion t sponges are ess5tially natives ( ! w>m] seas1 & x w probably be a surprise to _m "y amateur naturali/s to le>n t !re are ab\t ?ree hundr$ species ( ?is sub-k+dom ( ! animal _w to be f\nd on our own %ores4 ,x mu/ n be ?\ght1 h[ev]1 t !y are all comp>able ) ! well-kn[n toilet sponges 9 reg>d to ei!r size or g5]al =m & /ructure1 = "s ( !m are v small objects1 no l>g] ?an ab\t "o-tw5tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & "s =m m]e incru/ations ( v>i\s dim5sions on ! surfaces ( rocks & we$s1 (t5 ( su* g5]al appe>ance t !y w\ld h>dly be reg>d$ z animal /ructures by ^? :o h n /udi$ ! peculi>ities ( ! gr\p4 ,sponges are kn[n collectively z ! ,porif]a or ,poly/omata1 & con/itute a sep>ate sub-k+dom ( animals ( su* di/9ct features t !y are n readily confus$ ) ! creatures ( any o!r gr\p4 ,_! pr9cipal *>act]i/ic is express$ by bo? ! gr\p names j giv51 ! =m] ( :i* signifies #8hole-be>+1' & ! latt] #8_m op5+s'2 = 9 all ! memb]s ( ! sub-k+dom !re are a numb] ( holes or pores provid+ a means ( communication betwe5 ! body cavity or cavities & ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,mo/ ( ^! holes are v small1 b !re is always at lea/ "o op5+ ( a l>g] size at ! ant]ior end4 ,x w be se5 f :at we h j /at$ t sponges exhibit a di/9ctly high] organisation ?an ! protozoa describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 inasmu* z !y possess a p]man5t body-cavity t communicates ) ! ext]ior2 b 9 addition to ?is !re are _m po9ts ( diff]5tiation ( /ructure t d5ote a sup]ior position 9 ! scale ( life4 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! g5]al features ( a sponge we _c d bett] ?an select "o ( ! simple/ =ms f our own %ores4 ,if we place ! live animal 9 a glass vessel ( sea wat]1 & exam9e x ) a suitable magnify+ p[]1 we obs]ve a numb] ( m9ute pores scatt]$ ov] its :ole surface2 & a mu* l>g] op5+ at ! free end4 ,! animal is motionless1 & exhibits no signs ( life except t x may contract slightly :5 t\*$4 ,! wat] surr\nd+ ! sponge also appe>s to be p]fectly /ill1 b if we introduce "s f9e insoluble p[d]1 su* z precipitat$ *alk1 or a drop ( a soluble dye1 ! motion ( ! susp5d$ or soluble mat]ial w %[ t ! wat] is pass+ into ! sponge ?r\gh all ! small pores1 & t x is eject$ ?r\gh ! l>g] op5+4 ,on t\*+ ! sponge we obs]ve t x is ( a s(t1 gelat9\s consi/5ce ?r\gh\t1 or if1 z is (t5 ! case1 ! body is support$ by a skeleton ( great] or less firmness1 a g5tle application ( ! f+] w /ill %[ t ?is framework is surr\nd$ by mat]ial ( a jelly-l nature4 ,?is gelat9\s sub/ance is ! animal itself1 & a microscopic exam9ation w %[ t its body-wall is made up ( two di/9ct lay]s1 ! inn] consi/+ ( cells1 _m ( :i* possess a cilium or :ip-l filam5t t protrudes f a k9d ( coll>1 its free extremity ext5d+ into ! body-cavity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,section ,,( ,a ,,simple ,,sponge ,^! m9ute cilia are ! means by :i* ! wat] curr5ts j describ$ are set up4 ,by a con/ant la%+ movem5t !y urge ! fluid conta9$ 9 ! body-cavity t[>ds ! l>g] hole1 ?us caus+ ! wat] to fl[ 9 ?r\gh ! num]\s small pores4 ,?is circulation ( sea wat] ?r\gh ! body-cavity ( ! sponge is ! means by :i* ! animal is suppli$ ) air & food4 ,air is1 ( c\rse1 absorb$ f ! wat] by ! s(t mat]ial ( ! ext]nal lay] ( ! body1 b ! con/ant fl[ ( fre% wat] ?r\gh ! body-cavity enables ?is process ( respiration to g on ) equal fre$om 9 ! int]ior4 ,! mode ( fe$+ ( ! sponge is v simil> to t ( ! protozoa4 ,organic p>ticles t are c>ri$ into ! body-cavity1 on com+ 9 contact ) ! cells ( ! int]nal lay]1 are absorb$ into _! protoplasm by :i* !y are dige/$4 ,?us ! sponge may be comp>$ to a mass ( protozoon cells1 all unit$ into a common colony by a m or less p]fect coalesc+ ( ! cell-sub/ance1 "s ( ! units be+ modifi$ 9 /ructure = ! p]=mance ( def9ite functions4 ,! air & food absorb$ by any "o cell may pass readily into ! surr\nd+ cells1 & ?us ea* "o may be said to "w = ! common weal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,diagrammatic ,,section ,,( ,a ,,portion ,,( ,a ,,complex ,,sponge ,! description j giv5 applies only to ! simple/ ( ! sponges1 & we h n[ to le>n t 9 ! high] memb]s ( ! gr\p ! /ructure is mu* m complicat$4 ,9 ^! ! surface-pores are ! extremities ( v n>r[ tubes :i* p]=ate bo? lay]s ( ! body-wall & !n communicate ) wid] tubes or spaces )91 "s ( :i* are l9$ ) ! ciliat$ cells above describ$4 ,^! spaces1 :i* are sometimes ne>ly globul> 9 =m1 & (t5 arrang$ 9 gr\ps ) a common cavity1 communicate ) wid] tubes :i* jo9 toge!r until1 f9ally1 !y t]m9ate 9 a l>ge op5+ se5 on ! ext]ior ( ! sponge4 ,h5ce x w be se5 t ! wat] ent]+ ! m9ute pores ( ! surface has to circulate ?r\gh a complicat$ sy/em ( *annels & spaces1 "s ( :i* are l9$ ) ! ciliat$ cells t urge ! curr5t onw>ds be=e x is expell$ ?r\gh ! l>ge hole4 ,fur!r1 imag9e a numb] ( su* /ructures z we h describ$ gr[+ side by side1 _! masses coalesc+ into "o :ole1 _! inn] tubes & spaces unit$ into "o complex sy/em by num]\s int]-communications1 & hav+ sev]al l>ge holes = ! exit ( ! circulat+ wat]1 & y !n h "s idea ( ! g5]al nature ( _m ( ! m complex sponges to be f\nd on our %ores 7see fig4 #ff74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,horny ,,network ,,( ,a ,,sponge1 ,,magnifi$ ,b ev5 ?is is n all1 = z yet we h be5 reg>d+ ! sponges z consi/+ ( animal matt] only1 :]eas ne>ly all ( !m possess "s k9d ( int]nal skeleton = ! support ( ! s(t1 gelat9\s animal sub/ance4 ,! skeleton consi/s ( matt] secret$ by c]ta9 cells f mat]ial 9 ! wat] & food1 & is ei!r horny1 calc>e\s1 or silice\s4 ,! horny skeleton is =m$ ( a network ( fibres ( a some:at silky "*1 & (t51 z 9 ! case ( ! toilet sponges1 highly ela/ic2 b x is sometimes s brittle t ! sponge mass is easily brok5 :5 b5t4 ,! fibres ( ?is framework support n only ! out] wall ( ! sponge1 b also ! walls ( all ! int]nal tubes & spaces1 :i* are (t5 ( s s(t a nature t !y w\ld collapse )\t its aid4 ,! o!r =ms ( skeletons consi/ ( m9ute bodies ( c>bonate ( lime or ( silica1 respectively1 :i* assume c]ta9 def9ite %apes1 resembl+ />s1 an*ors1 hooks1 p9s1 sp9dles1 c41 & are kn[n z spicules4 ,su* spicules are usually pres5t 9 ^? sponges t h horny skeletons1 b 9 o!rs !y =m ! entire skeleton4 ,sponges sometimes increase by division1 a "p be+ sep>at$ f ! p>5t mass & !n develop+ into a complete colony2 & !y may be reproduc$ artificially to almo/ any ext5t by ?is me?od1 ea* piece cut (f1 h[ev] small1 produc+ a new sponge4 ,!y also increase by a process ( #8budd+1' ! buds produc$ sometimes rema9+ atta*$ to ! orig9al colony1 ?us increas+ its size1 b on o!r occasions becom+ deta*$ = ! =mation ( new colonies on a diff]5t site4 ,9 addition to ^! me?ods ( reproduction !re are special cells 9 a sponge t possess ! function ( produc+ eggs :i* are eject$ ?r\gh ! l>g] holes4 ,! eggs are usually develop$ 9 ! autumn1 &1 aft] be+ eject$1 swim ab\t freely = a "t1 aft] :i* !y become fix$ to rocks or we$s1 & produce sponges 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! eggs may (t5 be se5 t[>ds ! end ( ! summ] by cutt+ ?r\gh a sponge1 or by c>efully pull+ x asund]4 ,!y are little r\nd$ or oval bodies1 ( a yell[i% or br[ni% col\r1 di/9ctly visible to ! nak$ eye1 occupy+ cavities 9 ! int]ior4 ,sponges are classifi$ accord+ to ! composition ( ! skeleton & ! =ms ( ! spicules1 ! *ief divisions be+3-- #a4 ,! ,,calc>e\s ,sponges 7,calc>ea74 ,skeleton consi/+ ( spicules ( c>bonate ( lime 9 ! =m ( ne$les & ?ree-or f\r-ray$ />s4 #b4 ,! ,,six-,,ray$ ,,sponges 7,hexact9ellida74 ,skeleton ( six-ray$ glassy spicules4 #c4 ,,common ,,sponges 7,demospongia74 ,skeleton horny1 fl9ty1 or entirely abs5t4 ,! fir/ ( ^! divisions conta9s ab\t a doz5 kn[n ,briti% species1 :i* are to be f\nd on ! rockie/ %ores1 atta*$ to /ones1 we$s1 or %ells1 g5]ally hidd5 9 v seclud$ holes or crevices1 or %elt]$ f ! light by ! p5dul\s we$s4 ,!y %\ld be se>*$ = at ! l[e/ spr+ tide1 p>ticul> att5tion be+ giv5 to ! "u surfaces ( l>ge /ones1 n>r[1 d>k crevices1 & ! ro(s ( small1 %elt]$ caves4 ,!y may be readily recognis$ z sponges by ! num]\s pores on ! surface1 ?\gh ^! are (t5 h>dly visible )\t a l5s1 & ! calc>e\s nature ( ! skeleton may be prov$ by dropp+ a specim5 into dilute hydro*loric acid1 :5 ! c>bonate ( lime w spe$ily dissolve1 ! action be+ accompani$ by ! evolution ( bubbles ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,if calc>e\s sponges are to be pres]v$ = future ref]5ce1 !y may be plac$ 9 dilut$ _s1 9 :i* case ! animal matt]1 z well z ! m9]al sub/ance1 w be pres]v$ ) b little alt]ation 9 ! natural appe>ance & /ructure4 ,a specim5 :i* has be5 decalcifi$ by means ( acid1 z above describ$1 may also be pres]v$ 9 ! same mann]2 & small portions ( ?is w s]ve = ! microscopic /udy ( ! animal portion ( ! sponge4 ,if ! skeleton only is requir$1 ! sponge is simply all[$ to dry1 :5 ! s(t animal sub/ance1 on los+ its conta9$ wat]1 w leave h>dly any residue2 or1 bett]1 all[ ! calc>e\s sponge to mac]ate 9 wat] = "s days = ! animal sub/ance to decompose1 & !n1 aft] a few m9utes 9 runn+ wat]1 set x aside to dry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,grantia compressa ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,spicules ,,( ,grantia1 ,,magnifi$ ,small portions ( ! skeleton1 exam9$ "u ! microscope1 w %[ ! nature ( ! calc>e\s spicules ( :i* x is compos$4 ,^! consi/ ( m9ute ne$les & />s1 ! latt] hav+ g5]ally ei!r ?ree or f\r rays4 ,we give figures ( ?ree ( ! calc>e\s sponges ( our %ores1 ! fir/ ( :i* 7,grantia compressa7 resembles little oval1 flatt5$ bags1 :i* hang p5dul\s f rocks & we$s1 sometimes solit>y1 b (t5 9 clu/]s4 ,! small] op5+s are ?ickly scatt]$ ov] ! flat sides ( ! bag1 & ! l>g] ones1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is expell$1 ar\nd ! m>g94 ,:5 ! sponge is out ( ! wat] & inactive1 ! two opposite sides ( ! bag are practically 9 contact1 b1 :5 active1 ! cavity is fill$ ) wat] by means ( ! :ip-cells t l9e x1 & ! sides ( ! sponge are !n m or less convex4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,sycon ciliatum ,! ciliat$ sycon 7,sycon ciliatum71 fig4 #gj1 ?\gh ( a v diff]5t appe>ance ext]nally1 is simil> 9 /ructure to ,grantia4 ,x is also f\nd 9 simil> situations1 & is n uncommon on _m p>ts ( ! ,s\? ,coa/1 f ,weym\? we/w>ds4 ,! o!r example1 ,leucosol5ia botryoides1 %[n 9 fig4 #ga1 is a bran*+ calc>e\s sponge1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( tubes1 all unit$ to =m "o common cavity :i* is l9$ ?r\gh\t ) :ip-cells4 ,x is usually f\nd atta*$ to we$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,leucosol5ia botryoides1 ,,) ,,portion ,,magnifi$ ,ne>ly all our ,briti% sponges belong to ! gr\p ,demospongia--common sponges2 b ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p pres5t a great v>iety ( =m & /ructure4 ,mo/ ( !m h a skeleton consi/+ ( silice\s spicules1 b "s h a horny skeleton1 some:at aft] ! nature ( t ( ! toilet sponges2 & o!rs1 aga91 h fle%y bodies entirely1 or almo/ entirely1 unsupport$ by h>d] /ructures4 ,!y are sometimes kn[n collectively z ! ,silicia1 = ! great] numb] ( !m h skeletons consi/+ exclusively ( silice\s matt]1 :ile ! s-call$ horny sponges usually h spicules ( silica int]m+l$ ) ! horny sub/ance1 & ev5 ^? :i* are describ$ z hav+ no skeleton at all sometimes conta9 scatt]$ spicules ( silex4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,*al9a oculata ,z ! spicules ( sponges are 9 !mselves beautiful objects1 & are important to ! naturali/1 inasmu* z !y =m a basis = ! classification ( sponges1 x is well to "k by :at means !y may be sep>at$ f ! animal = microscopic exam9ation4 ,! sep>ation is bas$ on ! fact t nitric acid 7aqua-=tis7 w de/roy organic matt] :ile x has n ! slighte/ action on silica4 ,9 "s ( our common horny sponges ! fibres are s transp>5t t1 :5 teas$ out & plac$ "u ! microscope1 ! silice\s spicules may be se5 emb$d$ )9 !m1 b ! spicules1 bo? 9 ^! & ! fle%y sponges1 may be sep>at$ completely f ! animal matt] by putt+ a fragm5t ( ! sponge 9 a te/-tube1 cov]+ x ) nitric acid1 & boil+ x = a %ort "t4 ,! tube %\ld !n be fill$ up ) wat] & all[$ to /& undi/urb$ = a "t1 aft] :i* ! liquid is p\r$ (f g5tly f ! s$im5t4 ,if ! s$im5t is !n put "u ! microscope on a slip ( glass1 x w be se5 to consi/ ( gra9s ( s&1 ( :i* !re is always a consid]able am\nt 9 ! pores & cavities ( a sponge1 & ! silice\s spicules4 ,among ! common objects ( ! sea %ore is ! horny skeleton ( ! sponge ,*al9a oculata1 :i* is frequ5tly wa%$ on ! bea* by ! waves1 especially aft] /orms4 ,?is sponge is n likely to be se5 betwe5 ! tide-m>ks except at ! l[e/ spr+ tide1 :5 x may be f\nd susp5d$ 9 a %elt]$ crevice or cave4 ,! skeleton consi/s ( a f9e network ( horny fibres1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* lie ! spicules1 imb$d$ 9 ! horny mat]ial4 ,! spicules are %ort & /raight1 tap]+ at bo? ends4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,hali*ondria panicea ,! ,bread-crumb sponge 7,hali*ondria panicea7 is ev5 m common1 = x is to be f\nd on e rocky coa/1 encru/+ we$s & rocks1 (t5 consid]ably above l[-wat] m>k4 ,x is ( a yell[i% or pale gre5i% col\r1 & =ms an incru/ation v>y+ 9 ?ickness f "o-tw5tie? ( an in* to half an in* or m2 &1 l mo/ sponges1 %\ld be look$ = 9 n>r[ crevices1 "u heavy gr[?s ( we$s1 or 9 o!r situations :]e x is protect$ f ! light4 ,sometimes its free surface is unbrok51 except1 ( c\rse1 by ! m9ute pores1 &1 "h & !re1 ! l>g] op5+s t s]ve = ! outgo+ curr5ts2 b :5 x is f\nd encru/+ a rock 9 pat*es ( consid]able size1 ! l>g] holes all occupy ! summit ( a little cone resembl+ a m9iature volcano ) its crat]4 ,?is sponge is easily remov$ f ! rock ) ! aid ( a blunt broad-blad$ knife1 & reta9s its natural appe>ance to p]fection if pres]v$ 9 me?ylat$ _s4 ,its horny skeleton is ( a v compact nature1 & ! spicules are m9ute silice\s ne$les po9t$ at bo? ends4 ,rambl+ on ! sea bea* we frequ5tly meet ) old oy/] & o!r %ells p]=at$ by a numb] ( circul> holes ab\t ! size ( a p9's head or less1 & *alk & lime/one rocks also are se5 simil>ly bor$4 ,on break+ into or gr9d+ d[n ! sub/ance we f9d t ! op5+s are ! ends ( *annels t =m a network ( canals & *amb]s1 "s ( :i* are s ne> ! surface t !y are cov]$ by an exce$+ly ?9 lay] ( ! calc>e\s sub/ance4 ,^! canals & *amb]s =m ! home ( ! ,bor+ ,sponge 7,cliona71 :i*1 al?\gh a v s(t-bodi$ animal1 has itself excavat$ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,spicules ,,( ,hali*ondria1 ,,magnifi$ ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,an ,,oy/] ,,%ell ,,bor$ ,,by ,cliona ,! mann] 9 :i* ! ,cliona excavates su* a complicat$ sy/em ( passages 9 s h>d a mat]ial has naturally rais$ a consid]able am\nt ( curiosity1 & ^? :o h /udi$ ! matt] are divid$ 9 op9ion z to :e!r ! "w is done by *emical or by me*anical action4 ,"s ( ^? :o advocate ! *emical !ory suppose t an acid fluid is secret$ by ! sponge1 & t ! c>bonate ( lime =m+ ! %ell or /one is !reby dissolv$2 b su* advocates h1 z yet1 fail$ to detect ! pres5ce ( any acid sub/ance 9 ! body ( ! animal4 ,o!rs ascribe ! action to ! solv5t p[] ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,?is gas c]ta9ly has ! p[] ( dissolv+ c>bonate ( lime1 z may be prov$ by a v simple exp]im5t3 ,p\r a little lime wat] into a glass1 & bl[ into x ?r\gh a glass tube4 ,! lime wat] spe$ily becomes milky 9 appe>ance1 ! lime hav+ be5 conv]t$ into p>ticles ( *alk or c>bonate ( lime by union ) ! c>bonic acid gas f ! lungs4 ,cont9ue to bl[ into ! liquid = "s "t1 & ! c>bonate ( lime w sl[ly disappe>1 be+ gradually dissolv$ by ! excess ( ! gas--! gas ov] & above t requir$ = ! =mation ( ! c>bonate4 ,?us1 x has be5 said1 ! c>bonic acid gas evolv$ z a product ( ! respiration ( ! sponge is ! ag5t by :i* ! *annels are excavat$4 ,:atev] be ! acid to :i* ?is p[] is ascrib$1 :e!r x be ! c>bonic acid or a special acid fluid secret$ = ! purpose1 !re is /ill ?is difficulty 9 ! way ( accept+ ! !ory1 namely1 t an acid1 ?\gh x has ! p[] ( dissolv+ ! m9]al matt] ( a %ell--! c>bonate ( lime--has no action on ! lam9 ( animal sub/ance t =m "p ( ! /ructure4 ,if we put ! %ell ( a mollusc 9 hydro*loric or dilute nitric acid1 we obta91 aft] ! complete solution ( ! c>bonate ( lime1 a sub/antial residue ( animal matt] :i* ! acid does n t\*1 b 9 ! case ( ,cliona bo? animal & m9]al sub/ances yield to its p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,spicules ,,( ,cliona ,^? :o fav\r ! me*anical !ory ass]t t ! mat]ial is worn away by silice\s p>ticles develop$ by ! sponge1 & kept 9 con/ant motion z long z ! animal lives2 & ! !ory is support$ by ! /atem5t t1 9 addition to ! spicules ( silica1 :i* are p9-%ap$1 & occupy ! int]ior ( ! animal1 !re are little silice\s granules scatt]$ on ! surface ( ! sponge :i* are kept 9 con/ant motion resembl+ t ( cilia2 & ! m9ute p>ticles ( c>bonate ( lime t =m a du/y deposit )9 ! gall]ies are suppos$ to be ! product ( ! rasp+ or drill+ action ( ^! granules4 ,! p9-%ap$ spicules ( ,cliona may be obta9$ = microscopic exam9ation by break+ any old oy/] %ell t has =m$ its home1 & bru%+ out ! du/ f ! gall]ies2 or1 a "p ( ! %ell may be dissolv$ 9 acid1 & ! s$im5t exam9$ = spicules on a slip ( glass4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,c,,l5t]ates--,,jelly-,,fi%es1 ,,anemones1 ,,& ,,_! ,,allies ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ gr\ps ( m>9e life is t includ+ jelly-fi%es & anemones4 ,9 x are ! pretty little sea firs1 s (t5 mi/ak5 = sea-we$s by ! y\?ful admir]s ( ^! plants1 :o almo/ always include !m 9 _! collection ( m>9e alg2 ! transp>5t1 bell-%ap$ jelly-fi%es1 :i* may (t5 be se5 9 ?\s&s dur+ ! summ]1 c>ri$ by ! tides1 & swimm+ g5tly by graceful contractions ( _! bells2 &1 mo/ beautiful ( all1 ! lovely anemones--! #8sea fl[]s' ( ! old] naturali/s1 by :om !y 7 reg>d$ z =ms ( vegetable life4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,?read ,,cells ,,( ,a ,c,,l5t]ate1 ,,magnifi$ #a4 ,?read retract$ #b4 ,?read protrud$ ,! simple/ animals ( ?is gr\p are m9ute jelly-l creatures1 ( a m or less cyl9drical =m1 usually fix$ at "o end1 & hav+ a m\? at ! o!r4 ,! body is a simple holl[ cyl9d]1 ! wall ( :i* is made up ( two di/9ct lay]s1 :ile ! cavity )9 s]ves ! purpose ( a /oma*4 ,! m\? is surr\nd$ by a circle ( arms or t5tacles by means ( :i* ! creature is enabl$ to capture its prey4 ,^! arms are capable ( free movem5t 9 e direction1 & c be readily retract$ :5 ! animal is di/urb$4 ,!y are also arm$ ) m9ute oval1 holl[ cells1 ea* ( :i* has a sl5d] filam5t coil$ up into a spiral )9 its cavity4 ,ea* filam5t is capable ( be+ sudd5ly protrud$1 ?us becom+ a free :ip-l app5dage1 & ^! are s num]\s z to be v effectual 9 seiz+ & hold+ ! liv+ be+s on :i* ! animal fe$s4 ,?is w\ld und\bt$ly be ! case ev5 if !y 7 capable ( me*anical action only1 b1 9 _m in/ances at lea/1 !y seem to be aid$ by ! pres5ce ( "s viol5t irritant1 judg+ f ! rapidity ) :i* ! /ruggl+ prey is p>alys$ :5 seiz$1 especially 9 ! case ( "s ( ! l>g] memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,! simple =ms ref]r$ to increase by a process ( budd+1 ! buds appe>+ fir/ z simple swell+s on ! side ( ! p>5t creature1 & aft]w>ds develop+ a m\? & t5tacles1 ?us becom+ exactly l ! adult =m4 ,clu/]s ( eggs also are develop$ 9 ! out] lay] ( ! body-wall1 & ^! are set free at int]vals1 & produce new individuals4 ,^! animals possess no blood sy/em ( any k9d1 & h no special organs = respiration1 b ! nutri5t matt] absorb$ f ! body-cavity p]meates ! s(t /ructures ( ! fl[]-l body1 & ! oxyg5 requir$ = respiratory purposes is readily absorb$ f ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,! ,,squirrel',s-,,tail ,,sea ,,fir 7,s]tul>ia arg5tea71 ,,) ,a ,,portion ,,enl>g$ ,! high] cl5t]ates diff] 9 c]ta9 p>ticul>s f ! l[] =ms j ref]r$ to4 ,?us1 !y frequ5tly h a l>ge numb] ( t5tacles ar\nd ! m\?1 (t5 arrang$ 9 sev]al di/9ct :orls4 ,!y h also a /oma* sep>ate f ! g5]al body-cavity1 b communicat+ ) ! latt] bel[2 & ! body-cavity is divid$ into comp>tm5ts by a numb] ( radiat+ p>titions4 ,"s1 also1 develop a h>d1 /ony skeleton by secret+ c>bonate ( lime obta9$ f ! wat] 9 :i* !y live4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,s]tul>ia filicula ,we (t5 see1 :5 collect+ on ! bea*es ( rocky coa/s1 & especially aft] /orms1 a numb] ( vegetable-l gr[?s1 ( a greyi% or br[ni% col\r1 ea* consi/+ ( "o or m ma9 /alks be>+ a numb] ( delicate bran*es4 ,"s ( !m1 by _! peculi> mode ( gr[?1 h sugge/$ ! "n ( sea firs1 & a few ( ^!1 toge!r ) o!r animals ( ! same gr\p1 may readily be recognis$ by ! accompany+ illu/rations4 ,!y are ! objects already ref]r$ to z be+ commonly includ$ 9 collections ( sea-we$s by "y naturali/s1 b !y are 9 reality ! horny skeletons ( colonies ( cl5t]ates ( ! simple/ type1 belong+ to ! division ,hydrozoa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,s]tul>ia cupress9a ,if we exam9e !m ) a l5s we f9d t !re are little cup-l bodies project+ f ea* portion or bran* ( ! /em-l /ructure1 & t ! /em itself is holl[1 ) a communicat+ pore at ! base ( ea* cup4 ,?is con/itutes ! skeleton only ( ! colony--! dead matt]1 s to speak1 :i* p]si/s aft] ! liv+ creatures h p]i%$2 b if ! specim5s collect$ h be5 obta9$ fre% f ! sea1 plac$ 9 a glass ( sea wat]1 & !n exam9$ ) ! aid ( a l5s1 little jelly-l hydroids or polypites w be se5 to protrude f ! cups1 & ext5d _! %ort arms 9 se>* ( food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,! ,,h]r+-,,bone ,,polype 7,halecium halec9um7 ,ea* ( ! little creatures has a tubul> /alk :i* passes ?r\gh ! hole at ! base ( ! cup1 & is cont9u\s ) a tube ( gelat9\s mat]ial 9 ! int]ior ( ! horny /em1 & ?us ea* memb] ( ! colony is directly connect$ ) all ! o!rs1 s t any nutri5t matt] collect$ & dige/$ by "o memb] may be absorb$ into ! c5tral tube = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! entire company ( little sociali/s1 ! activity ( ! "o be+ ?us made to comp5sate = ! laz9ess or incompet5cy ( o!rs4 ,& ?is provision seems to be absolutely necess>y = ! well-be+ ( ! colony z a :ole1 = a close exam9ation w (t5 %[ t a k9d ( division ( lab\r has be5 e/abli%$1 s9ce x includes two or ?ree di/9ct k9ds ( polypites1 ea* adapt$ = ! p]=mance ( a c]ta9 function4 ,?us1 9 addition to ! fe$+ or nutritive memb]s ( ! community1 !re are "s m\?less individuals ^: sole function seems to be ! production ( eggs = ! propagation ( ! species1 :ile o!rs1 also m\?less1 develop an enorm\s numb] ( /++ cells1 probably = ! protection ( ! :ole community aga9/ its enemies1 & ^! mu/ !re=e be provid$1 z we h se5 !y are1 ) a means by :i* !y may d]ive n\ri%m5t ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! fe$+ polypites4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,tubul>ia indivisa ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,! ,,bottle ,,bru% 7,?ui>ia ?uja7 ,:5 ! eggs are lib]at$ f :at we may call ! reproductive memb]s1 !y are c>ri$ away by ! curr5ts or tides1 & soon develop into little l>v :i* are v unlike ! p>5t1 s9ce !y are cov]$ ) m9ute vibratile cilia by means ( :i* !y c swim freely4 ,?is !y d = a p]iod1 & !n settle d[n1 lose _! cilia1 become /alk$1 & ?us con/itute ! f\ndation ( a new colony4 ,a tubul> /alk gr[s upw>d f its root1 new memb]s are add$ z outgr[?s or buds f _! prog5itor1 & s ! gr[? proce$s until an ext5sive colony ( hundr$s ( individuals has be5 =m$4 ,we h spok5 ( ! hydroid communities z be+ wa%$ up on ! bea*es ( our rocky coa/s1 b ! collector ( ^! int]e/+ objects %\ld n dep5d on su* specim5s = purposes ( /udy4 ,x is und\bt$ly true t spl5did examples ( ! sea firs & _! allies are frequ5tly wa%$ up by ! waves1 includ+ "s species t inhabit deep wat]1 & :i* are1 consequ5tly1 n to be f\nd by ! ord9>y collector 9 _! prop] habitat1 & t ^! may (t5 be secur$ ) ! polypites /ill alive2 b sev]al species are to be obta9$ betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 especially at extreme l[ wat]1 gr[+ on rocks1 we$s1 & %ells2 & we h (t5 met ) good specim5s1 /ill alive1 atta*$ to ! %ells ( :elks1 scallops1 c41 9 fi%mong]s' /ores1 ev5 9 inl& t[ns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,ant5nul>ia ant5nia ,sometimes individual polypites become deta*$ f a colony1 & develop into little umbrella-%ap$ jelly-fi%es1 ab\t a fif? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 & ^! float ab\t freely1 keep+ !mselves ne> ! surface by rhy?mic contractions ( _! #8bells1' ! m>g9s ( :i* are fr+$ by num]\s f9e t5tacles4 ,! m\? is situat$ c5trally on ! "u side1 & is surr\nd$ by a circul> canal f :i* proce$ radiat+ tubes2 & pigm5t$ spots1 suppos$ to be rudim5t>y eyes1 are =m$ r\nd ! edge4 ,^! little bodies are call$ ,m$usoids1 & may frequ5tly be se5 float+ r\nd our coa/s t[>ds ! end ( ! summ]4 ,9 ! wat] !y are almo/ invisible on acc\nt ( ! extreme transp>5cy ( _! bodies2 b if a musl9 net be drawn ?r\gh ! wat] f ! /]n ( a boat1 & ! net !n g5tly turn$ inside out 9 a vessel ( sea wat]1 a numb] ( m$usoids may be obta9$ = exam9ation4 ,^! creatures produce eggs :i* yield small ciliat$ l>v t swim ab\t freely = a "t1 & !n settle d[n & e/abli% /alk$ colonies z previ\sly describ$4 ,! l>g] jelly-fi%es or ,m$us s frequ5tly se5 float+ 9 enorm\s numb]s ne> ! surface ( ! sea dur+ ! summ] mon?s are alli$ to ! m$usoids4 ,_! bodies are s s(t t x is a difficult matt] to remove !m f ! wat] )\t injury1 & :5 remov$ _! graceful =ms are completely de/roy$ by ! pressure ( _! own weight4 ,:5 left /r&$ on ! bea*1 z is (t5 ! case1 !y seem to dissolve almo/ completely away1 s readily does ! s(t animal tissue dis9tegrate 9 ! l>ge proportion ( wat]1 :i* =ms ab\t #ie p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! :ole body4 ,^? :o desire to exam9e ! nature & movem5ts ( ! m$us w f9d x necess>y to obs]ve !m 9 wat]4 ,! creatures may be lift$ out ( ! sea 9 a vessel plac$ bel[ !m1 & !n transf]r$ to a glass tank or a /ill rock pool by subm]g+ ! vessel & all[+ !m to float out4 ,x w !n be obs]v$ t ! m\? is situat$ at ! summit ( a tube t projects f ! middle ( ! "u side ( ! #8bell1' & is surr\nd$ by lob$ or frill$ lips4 ,m>g9al t5tacles also g5]ally fr+e ! edge ( ! bell1 project+ d[nw>ds into ! wat]4 ,r\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! body may be se5 a circul> canal1 f :i* sev]al tubes conv]ge t[>ds1 & communicate )1 ! cavity ( ! /oma*4 ,:5 a m$usa is inactive1 its body gradually s9ks to ! bottom1 be+ usually slightly heavi] ?an ! wat] 9 :i* x lives2 b x is enabl$ to keep afloat by ^? rhy?mic contractions ( ! bell ) :i* we are s famili>4 ,x seems t ! m$us are v s5sitive to v>i\s ext]nal conditions1 = !y frequ5tly disappe> simultane\sly f ! surface wat]1 & z sudd5ly reappe> 9 %oals :5 ! conditions are m fav\rable2 b x is difficult to und]/& ! causes :i* give rise to ^! rem>kable movem5ts4 ,! m$us are (t5 t]m$ ! ,acaleph--a ^w :i* signifies #8nettles1' & !y are popul>ly kn[n z sea nettles4 ,!y all possess /++ cells1 :i* are di/ribut$ mo/ ?ickly 9 ! t5tacles1 & "s ( ! l>g] species are und\bt$ly able to produce an impression on ! bodies ( unw>y ba!rs1 :ile almo/ all h ! p[] ( p>alys+ ! liv+ prey on :i* !y fe$4 ,by f> ! commone/ ( ! jelly-fi%es ( our seas is ! beautiful blue m$usa--,aurelia aurita4 ,?is species appe>s 9 enorm\s %oals dur+ ! summ]1 & l>ge numb]s are wa%$ ^u flat1 s&y bea*es4 ,!y v>y 9 size f two or ?ree in*es to ne>ly a foot 9 diamet]1 & may be recognis$ f our illu/ration4 ,! #8bell' is umbrella-%ap$1 & is s transp>5t t ! /oma* ) its radiat+ canals may be se5 ?r\gh its sub/ance4 ,ar\nd ! m>g9 !re are little pigm5t spots :i* are suppos$ to be rudim5t>y eyes1 & little cavities1 conta9+ a cle> fluid1 t are ?\ght to s]ve ! purpose ( e>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,aurelia aurita ,on ! "u surface may be se5 ! squ>e m\?1 furni%$ ) f\r long & graceful frill$ lips1 :i* are ri*ly suppli$ ) /++ cells2 also ! f\r ov>ies or egg-produc+ organs1 r5d]$ conspicu\s by _! violet col\r+4 ,! life hi/ory ( ,aurelia is mo/ int]e/+4 ,! eggs are produc$ 9 p\*es t communicate directly ) ! /oma*-cavity1 & ^! give rise to little ciliat$ l>v t are eject$ ?r\gh ! m\?1 & !n swim ab\t freely 9 ! wat] = a "t4 ,aft] ?is !y settle at ! bottom1 lose _! cilia1 & become little cyl9drical jelly-fi%es1 fix$ by a %ort /alk-l foot to rocks or we$s4 ,num]\s t5tacles develop z ! creatures increase 9 size1 & a numb] ( transv]se furr[s appe> at ! surface4 ,! furr[s gradually increase 9 dep? until1 at la/1 ! body is brok5 up into sev]al />-l discs1 ea* ( :i* floats away & develops into a new m$usa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,! ,,e>ly ,,/ages ,,( ,aurelia ,o!r jelly-fi%es1 "s ( :i* are consid]ably l>g] ?an ,aurelia1 frequ5t our seas1 & are (t5 to be se5 /r&$ on ! bea*4 ,two ( ^!--,rhizo/oma & ,*rysaora--are figur$4 ,al?\gh !y diff] consid]ably 9 =m f ! blue aurelia1 !y closely resemble x 9 g5]al /ructure & habits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,rhizo/oma ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,*rysaora ,:5 /roll+ on flat1 s&y bea*es1 especially 9 ! spr+ & e>ly summ]1 we commonly see :at appe> to be little balls ( exce$+ly transp>5t & glassy jelly1 no l>g] ?an an ord9>y m>ble4 ,if pick$ up & exam9$1 we obs]ve t !y are n q sph]ical1 b oval 9 =m1 ) a little tub]cle at "o end1 & eight equidi/ant b&s runn+ f ?is to ! opposite end1 l ! m]idians on a globe4 ,?is extremely beautiful little creature is "o ( ! cl5t]ates1 belong+ to ! division ,ct5ophora1 or comb-be>+ jelly-fi%es1 s call$ because !y possess comb-l ciliat$ plates1 & is call$ ! ,globul> ,b]oe 7,cydippe pileus74 ,! ct5ophores are v active creatures1 swimm+ freely 9 ! op5 seas by means ( _! num]\s cilia2 &1 al?\gh ( su* delicate /ructure1 are v pr$ace\s1 dev\r+ small cru/aceans & o!r m>9e animals4 ,!y are usually globul> 9 =m1 b "s are l long ribbons1 & almo/ all are rem>kable = _! wond]ful transp>5cy1 :i* r5d]s !m ne>ly invisible :5 float+ 9 wat]4 ,!y h n ! p[] ( /++ or p>alys+ _! prey1 z ! m$us h1 b _! fr+$ arms are provid$ ) adhesive cells by :i* !y hold _! prey t5aci\sly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,cydippe pileus ,9 ord] to obs]ve ! =m & habits ( ! ,b]oe we transf] x to a vessel ( sea wat]1 :5 x imm$iately displays its regul> sph]oid =m1 & its eight r[s ( comb-l plates :i* =m ! m]idians be=e allud$ to4 ,its m\? is situat$ on ! little tub]cle at :at we may call ! l[] pole1 = x is ! habit ( ! ,b]oe to swim 9 an inv]t$ position1 & ! dige/ive cavity may be se5 ?r\gh its glassy body4 ,at fir/ no app5dages ( any k9d are visible1 b soon ! animal protrudes two long & exce$+ly sl5d] arms1 fr+$ ) sl5d] gelat9\s ?reads1 f two cavities1 at opposite sides ( ! body1 into :i* !y c be )drawn4 ,a close exam9ation w also reveal ! rapid movem5ts ( ! cilia ( its combs1 & x is rem>kable t ^! d n always "w toge!r1 ! animal be+ able to move any ( its plates indep5d5tly1 & to rev]se _! motion :5 occasion requires4 ,x has no t5tacles correspond+ ) ^? ( jelly-fi%es & anemones1 b is assi/$ 9 ! capture ( its prey by its two long arms1 ! *ief use ( :i*1 h[ev]1 seems to be t ( a rudd] = /e]+4 ,if ! ,b]oe is left out ( wat] = "s "t1 ! wat] :i* =ms su* a l>ge proportion ( its body evaporates1 leav+ an almo/ imp]ceptible residue ( solid matt]2 & if left 9 wat] aft] x is dead1 its sub/ance rapidly dissolves away1 leav+ n ! slighte/ trace ( its pres5ce4 ,!re seems to be no satisfactory way ( pres]v+ ?is beautiful =m ( animal life4 ,if plac$ 9 /rong _s ! wat] is rapidly extract$ f its body1 & its animal sub/ance %rivell$ to a m9ute1 %apeless mass2 :ile 9 weak _s & 9 o!r fluid pres]vatives x becomes m or less di/ort$1 & depriv$ ( its beautiful transp>5cy1 or else x disappe>s altoge!r4 ,we n[ come to ! great fav\rites among ! cl5t]ates--! beautiful anemones-! animat$ fl[]s ( ! ocean1 rem>kable n only = _! lovely fl[]-l =ms1 b also = ! great v>iety ( col\r & ( habits :i* !y display4 ,^!1 toge!r ) ! corals1 =m ! division ( ! cl5t]ates kn[n z ! ,zoan?>ia1 *>act]is$ by ! possession ( simple t5tacles1 ! numb] ( :i* is a multiple ( ei!r five or six4 ,! latt] diff] f ! =m] ma9ly 9 ! p[] ( secret+ a calc>e\s skeleton :i* rema9s atta*$ by its base aft] ! animal sub/ance has decay$4 ,! exp&$ anemone exhibits a m or less cyl9drical body1 atta*$ by a suctorial base to a rock or "s o!r object1 & a broad circul> disc above4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is disc is ! m\?1 surr\nd$ by ! t5tacles1 (t5 v num]\s1 & arrang$ 9 "o or m :orls4 ,:5 ! animal is inactive ! t5tacles are usually completely )drawn1 & ! body contract$ into a semiglobul> or pe>-%ap$ mass :i* is v firm to ! t\*4 ,! g5]al int]nal /ructure ( an anemone may be made out by simple dissections1 & ! exam9ation conduct$ ) ! specim5 subm]g$ 9 wat]4 ,a longitud9al section w %[ t ! body is a d\ble tube1 ! out] be+ =m$ by ! body-wall1 & ! inn] by ! wall ( ! /oma*4 ,?us !re is a body-cavity di/9ct f t ( ! /oma*1 b ! two w be se5 to communicate bel[1 s9ce ! /oma*-wall does n ext5d z f> d[n z ! base4 ,x w be se51 too1 t ! body-wall is made up ( two di/9ct lay]s--an out] "o1 t is cont9u$ inw>d at ! m\? to =m ! inn] wall ( ! /oma*1 & an inn] "o t l9es ! :ole ( ! body-cavity4 ,! latt] conta9s ! muscul> elem5ts t enable ! anemone to contract its body4 ,:5 ! animal is exp&$1 ! :ole int]ior is fill$ ) sea wat]1 z are also ! t5tacles1 :i* are holl[ tubes1 really ext5sions ( ! body-cavity1 & =m$ by prolongations ( ! same two lay]s t con/itute ! body-wall4 ,z x contracts ?is wat] is expell$1 p>tly ?r\gh ! m\?1 & p>tly ?r\gh small op5+s t exi/ at ! tips ( ! t5tacles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,section ,,( ,,an ,,anemone t1 t5tacles2 m1 m\?2 s1 /oma*2 b c1 body-cavity p1 mes5t]y2 o1 egg-produc+ organ ,! out] lay] ( ! body-wall is provid$ ) /++ cells :i* s]ve n only to protect ! anemone f its enemies1 b also to aid x 9 ! capture ( its prey1 = :i* latt] purpose !y are di/ribut$ 9 mu* great] abundance 9 ! t5tacles4 ,! body-cavity is divid$ into a numb] ( communicat+ comp>tm5ts by means ( v]tical p>titions runn+ f ! body-wall & conv]g+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! cavity4 ,^! are call$ mes5t]ies1 & are ext5sions ( ! inn] lay] ( ! body-wall4 ,five or six ( ^! are l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 ext5d+ f disc to base1 & are call$ prim>y mes5t]ies4 ,betwe5 ^! are an equal numb] ( small] second>y mes5t]ies2 &1 sometimes1 a ?ird set ( /ill small] t]ti>y mes5t]ies4 ,^! int]nal p>titions are be/ display$ 9 a transv]se section ( ! body1 :i* %[s ! d\ble tube =m$ by ! walls ( ! body & ! /oma*1 toge!r ) ! :eel-l arrangem5t ( ! mes5t]ies4 ,at "o "t all animals t _h a radial symmetry--! regul> arrangem5t ( p>ts r\nd a common c5tre--7 gr\p$ toge!r "u ! title ( ,radiata2 b x has s9ce be5 recognis$ t ! creatures ( ?is gr\p exhibit$ su* a great div]sity ( /ructure t !y h be5 re-classifi$ into two ma9 divisions1 "o ( :i* con/itutes ! cl5t]ates :i* we are at pres5t consid]+1 & ! o!r conta9+ su* creatures z /> fi%es & sea ur*9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,/++ ,,cells ,,( ,,anemone1 ,,highly ,,magnifi$ a & c1 ) ?read protrud$2 b1 ) cell retract$ ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,,diagrammatic ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,an ,,anemone ,s1 /oma*2 bc1 body-cavity2 m1 m1 m1 prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y mes5t]ies ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,l>va ,,( ,,anemone ,on ! surface ( ! mes5t]ies ( ! anemone may be se5 ! ov>ies or egg-produc+ organs4 ,^! dis*>ge ! ova into ! g5]al body-cavity1 aft] :i* !y are eject$ ?r\gh ! m\?4 ,! embryos are m9ute jelly-l creatures t h an active exi/5ce1 swimm+ ab\t freely 9 ! ocean by means ( vibrat+ cilia1 b aft] ?is p]iod ( activity !y settle d[n & fix !mselves1 gradually assum+ ! adult =m common to ! species4 ,! habits ( sea anemones are p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 & x w well repay anyone to make a /udy ( ^! animals 9 _! natural haunts z well z 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,! g5tle sw++ ( ! t5tacles :5 se>*+ = food1 ! capture & disposal ( ! prey1 ! peculi> modes ( locomotion1 & ! developm5t ( ! "y1 are among ! *ief po9ts ( int]e/4 ,z reg>ds locomotion1 ! usual me?od ( mov+ f place to place is by an exce$+ly sl[ glid+ ( ! base or #8foot'2 & :ile "s anemones are almo/ con/antly on ! move1 o!rs h>dly ev] /ir f ! seclud$ ni*e 9 :i* !y h tak5 up _! abode4 ,sometimes an anemone w deta* itself f ! rock1 & drag itself along1 b v sl[ly1 by means ( its t5tacles1 sometimes inv]t+ its body & walk+ on its head1 z x 71 & ?\gh "o may nev] h ! opportunity ( witness+ ?is manuvre on ! %ore1 we h f\nd x f> f an uncommon occurr5ce 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,! natural food ( anemones consi/s ( small cru/aceans1 su* z %rimps1 & crabs1 molluscs1 small fi%es1 & 9 fact almo/ e k9d ( animal diet1 & !re ne$ nev] be any difficulty 9 f9d+ suitable vi&s = species kept 9 captivity4 ,x is really a/oni%+ to see :at l>ge morsels !y c dispose ( ) ! assi/ance ( _! ext5sile m\?s & /oma*s4 ,x is n ev5 necess>y1 inde$1 t ! morsel be s small z to be entirely enclos$ by ! walls ( its dige/ive cavity1 = ! anemone w dige/ "o portion :ile ! o!r rema9s project+ beyond its m\?4 ,fur!r1 x w ev5 attack bodies :i* x _c swall[ at all1 by protrud+ its /oma* s z to p>tially envelope !m1 & !n dige/+ ! portion enclos$4 ,indige/ible portions ( its food1 su* z ! %ells ( small molluscs1 are eject$ ?r\gh ! m\? aft] ! process ( dige/ion has be5 complet$4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! reproduction ( sea anemones by means ( eggs1 b x is int]e/+ to note t !y may also increase by a division ( ! body into two or m p>ts1 & t ?is division may be ei!r natural or artificial4 ,if an anemone be cut into halves longitud9ally1 ea* half w develop into a complete animal4 ,if cut transv]sely1 ! upp] portion w almo/ always develop a new suctorial disc1 & produce a new individual complete 9 e respect2 & x has be5 /at$ t ! basal portion ( ! divid$ animal w also1 occasionally1 produce a new disc & t5tacles4 ,! natural division ( ! anemone has frequ5tly be5 spok5 ( z by no means an uncommon occurr5ce1 b1 z f> z our exp]i5ce ( captive anemones g1 ?is mode ( multiplication does n seem to take place except z ! result ( "s me*anical =ce appli$1 or z a means by :i* ! animal may relieve itself ( a solid body t x is unable to eject4 ,?us1 on "o occasion1 :5 a /one _h slipp$ s t its n>r[ edge re/$ across ! middle ( ! disc ( a l>ge ,mesembryan!mum1 ! animal1 app>5tly unable to free itself f ! burd51 simply )drew its t5tacles & await$ results4 ,9 a few days two individuals 7 to be se51 "o on ei!r side ( ! /one1 bo? und\bt$ly produc$ z ! result ( ! pressure appli$4 ,?is in/ance seems to be exactly ak9 to artificial division1 = x is f> m likely t ! animal 0 sev]$ by ! simple pressure ( ! /one ?an t x divid$ itself to be reliev$ ( its burd54 ,on ano!r occasion an anemone t _h almo/ entirely surr\nd$ a mussel on :i* x _h be5 fe$+1 gradually releas$ itself ( ! %ell by a longitud9al division ( its body2 b "h1 aga91 x is probable t ! fission 0 ! result ( pressure appli$ r ?an ( any p[] on ! "p ( ! animal4 ,a few ( ! ,briti% sea anemones are %[n on ,plates ,,ii4 & ,,iii41 & al?\gh ! col\r$ illu/rations w probably suffice = purposes ( id5tification1 yet a %ort description ( ea* "o repres5t$ may be acceptable4 ,! mo/ common & mo/ widely di/ribut$ species is und\bt$ly ! famili> ,beadlet 7,act9ia mesembryan!mum--,plate ,,ii41 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c71 :i* is to be f\nd on e bit ( rocky coa/ ar\nd ! ,briti% ,isles1 & ev5 on "s /ony bea*es :]e !re are no /&+ rocks betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,! col\r ( ?is species is exce$+ly v>iable1 b ! mo/ abundant v>iety is ( a liv]-br[n col\r1 ) crimson disc & t5tacles1 brilliant blue spots r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! disc1 & a l9e ( bright blue ar\nd ! base4 ,9 o!rs ! prevail+ col\r is deep crimson1 orange1 yell[i% br[n1 or gre54 ,fig4 #a repres5ts a v>iety commonly kn[n z ! ,/rawb]ry ,beadlet 7,fragacea71 :i* is di/+ui%$ by its sup]ior size1 & 9 :i* ! d>k-r$ gr\nd is (t5 conspicu\sly spott$ ) gre54 ,two memb]s ( ! same g5us are also %[n on ,plate ,,iii4 ,"o ( ^!--,a4 glauca 7fig4 #c7--;is ( a blui%-gre5 col\r2 :ile ! o!r--,a4 *iococca 7fig4 #d7--;is bright sc>let1 ) deep crimson disc & :ite spots r\nd ! disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,sea ,,anemones #a1 #b1 #c1 ,act9ia mesembryan!mum4 #d4 ,c>yophyllia ,smi?ii4 #e4 ,tealia crassicornis4 #f4 ,sag>tia bellis4 #g4 ,balanophyllia regia4 #h4 ,act9oloba dian?us4 ,! g5]al =m ( ?is g5us is t ( an exp&$ fl[] on a %ort column2 ! "n ,beadlet is appli$ on acc\nt ( ! little bead-l projections on ! m>g9 ( ! disc4 ,! t5tacles numb] ne>ly two hundr$ 9 a fully gr[n individual1 & are arrang$ 9 sev]al r[s2 b :5 ! animal is di/urb$ & ! t5tacles retract$1 its =m is almo/ hemisph]ical4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,a4 mesembryan!mum n only exi/s 9 v>ieties di/+ui%$ by di/9ct col\rs1 b t ! same individual w sometimes *ange its t9t1 z may be obs]v$ :5 x is kept 9 ! aqu>ium2 & x may be m5tion$1 by ! way1 t x is v easily re>$ 9 captivity1 ei!r 9 ! natural or ! artificial salt wat]1 = n only may ! same individuals be kept alive = ye>s ) only a mod]ate am\nt ( att5tion1 b _! (fspr+ may be re>$ )\t difficulty4 ,on ,plate ,,ii4 7fig4 #h7 are two illu/rations ( ! beautiful ,act9oloba dian?us1 :i* gr[s to a l5g? ( five or six in*es1 & is easily di/+ui%$ by its exp&$ & frill$ disc1 its v num]\s %ort & sl5d] t5tacles1 & its tall1 pill>-l body4 ,its col\r is some:at v>iable1 be+ ei!r salmon1 fle%-col\r1 cream1 :ite1 r$1 orange1 or br[ni%2 b :atev] be ! t9t ( ! body & t5tacles1 ! m>g9 ( ! m\? is always r$ or orange4 ,:5 "y x may easily be mi/ak5 = ano!r species1 z its disc is n !n frill$1 & ! t5tacles are mu* few] 9 numb]4 ,?is pretty anemone usually inhabits deep wat]1 & is frequ5tly br\ght 91 atta*$ to %ells & /ones1 by trawl]s1 b x may be commonly obs]v$ 9 ! d>k crevices ( rocks1 a little above l[-wat] m>k1 :]e x is usually se5 contract$ into a ball1 or ev5 s mu* flatt5$ t x looks l a m]e pulpy incru/ation ( ! rock4 ,x is v common on ! rocky coa/s ( ,dorset1 ,devon1 & ,cornwall1 z well z 9 _m p>ts ( ,scotl& & ,irel&4 ,l ! ,beadlet1 x is easily kept alive 9 ! aqu>ium1 :]e x commonly multiplies by natural division2 b z x does n g5]ally exp& 9 full daylight1 its beauty is (t5 bett] obs]v$ at night by artificial light4 ,on ,plate ,,ii4 7fig4 #e7 we h an illu/ration ( ! beautiful ,dahlia ,w>tlet 7,tealia crassicornis71 :i* may be readily recognis$ by its ?ick1 b&$1 horn-l t5tacles1 & ! num]\s little adhesive w>ts t almo/ cov] ! surface ( its body4 ,?is species is z abundant z x is beautiful1 = x is to be f\nd 9 pl5ty on almo/ e rocky coa/1 :]e x may be se5 9 ! rock pools & 9 ! crevices ( rocks ne> l[-wat] m>k4 ,! diamet] ( its cyl9drical body (t5 rea*es two or ?ree in*es1 :ile ! exp&$ t5tacles embrace a circle ( f\r or five in*es4 ,specim5s ev5 mu* l>g] ?an ?is are sometimes obta9$ by dr$g+ 9 deep wat]4 div classfigc5t] /ylewid?3 #ejjpx2 a "nfig#id idfig#id_/;a img srcimages_/i#afg4;jpg wid?#ejj height#efg alt _/ ,,fig4 #id4--,,! ,,trumpet ,,anemone 7,aiptasia ,c\*ii71 ,,cornwall2 ,,deep ,,wat] _/div ,! #8,dahlia' is n s frequ5tly se5 by sea-side collectors z its abundance w\ld lead "o to expect1 & ?is is pr9cipally due to ! fact t x n only conceals itself 9 n>r[ & out-(-!-way crevices & angles ( rocks1 b also t1 on ! retreat ( ! tide1 x g5]ally cov]s itself ) small /ones1 fragm5ts ( %ells1 c41 held fa/ to its body by means ( its num]\s suck]s4 ,9 ?is mann] x conceals its beauty s well t ! s5se ( t\*1 z well z t ( sight1 is necess>y 9 det]m9+ its :]eab\ts4 ,z a rule1 h[ev]1 x does n resort to ?is me?od ( concealm5t :5 x inhabits deep wat]1 or ev5 a p]man5t rock pool betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & ?us x is 9 ! latt] home :]e "o may expect to see ?is sea fl[] 9 all its glory1 = :5 p]man5tly cov]$ ) wat] x w seldom hide its cr[n1 except :5 al>m$1 or :5 9 ! act ( swall[+ its food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,pea*ia ha/ata1 ,s4 ,,devon ,x %\ld be not$1 too1 t ! rock pool is ! "r place 9 :i* to /udy ! habits ( ?is anemone1 = x is n ne>ly s easy to re> 9 ! artificial aqu>ium z ! species previ\sly describ$1 &1 moreov]1 x requires a great deal ( food4 ,we h f\nd x live longe/ 9 runn+ wat]1 kept cool1 & frequ5tly r5ew$ by supplies fre% f ! sea4 ,x may be f$ on almo/ any1 if n e1 =m ( animal life inhabit+ a rock pool4 ,a small fi% or a prawn is p]fectly helpless :5 once x is seiz$ by ! creature's t5tacles4 ,mussels1 w9kles1 limpets1 c41 are eag]ly swall[$1 & ! indige/ible %ells disgorg$ aft] ! animal sub/ance has be5 dissolv$ by ! dige/ive fluid4 ,ev5 ! active %ore crab1 arm$ z x is ) a coat ( mail & p[]ful p9c]s1 is no mat* = its p[]fully adhesive t5tacles2 nor d ! %>p sp9es ( ! prickly ur*9 pres]ve x f s voraci\s a creature4 ,! rocky coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall are ! *ief haunts ( ! pretty #8,daisy ,anemone' 7,sag>tia bellis71 & "h x is v abundant 9 places4 ,?is species lives 9 holes & crevices ( ! rocks1 its body usually entirely hidd5 f view1 b its d>k br[n disc1 int]sect$ by bright r$ radiat+ l9es1 & fr+$ ) num]\s small t5tacles1 fully expos$ to view z long z x is subm]g$4 ,! l5g? ( its body is always adapt$ to ! dep? ( ! hole or crevice 9 :i* ! animal lives1 & may v>y f half an in* to two or ?ree in*es1 ! diamet] ( ! columns be+ greate/ :]e ! l5g? is lea/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,sag>tia pallida1 ,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall ,sometimes ! #8,daisy' may be se5 liv+ a solit>y life1 hav+ settl$ d[n 9 a hole j l>ge en\gh to accommodate x1 b m commonly x is se5 9 company ) sev]al o!rs ( its species1 occupy+ a crevice 9 a rock pool1 & (t5 s closely pack$ toge!r t ! t5tacles ( ea* individual are int]m+l$ ) ^? ( its neighb\rs1 ?us exhibit+ a m or less cont9u\s clu/] or l9e ( #8fl[]s1' ea* disc be+ f "o to two or ?ree in*es 9 diamet] :5 fully exp&$4 ,on acc\nt ( ! peculi> positions select$ by ?is species1 x is n easily remov$ )\t injury1 & hamm] & *isel are almo/ always necess>y = its removal2 b if x is obta9$ )\t injury1 & transf]r$ to ! indoor aqu>ium1 b little difficulty w be f\nd 9 keep+ x alive & 9 heal?4 ,x is also v prolific1 & a s+le specim5 plac$ 9 ! indoor tank w frequ5tly produce a l>ge numb] ( "y4 ,! col\r ( ,s4 bellis1 l t ( _m ( our anemones1 is v v>iable1 b ! species may easily be recognis$ by ! radiat+ l9es ( ! disc1 & ! num]\s small t5tacles4 ,"o v>iety1 h[ev]1 deviates consid]ably 9 =m1 col\r1 & habit f ! normal4 ,x 7,plate ,,ii41 fig4 #f7 is ( a dull yell[ col\r1 & has a mu* less graceful =m2 &1 in/ead ( liv+ 9 ! holes & crevices ( rocky coa/s1 :]e x w\ld be wa%$ by fre% sea wat] at e tide1 x inhabits ! muddy & ftid wat]s ( n>r[ inlets ( ! sea 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,weym\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,sag>tia nivea1 ,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall ,?ree o!r species ( ! same g5us are repres5t$ on ,plate ,,iii4 ,! fir/ ( ^!--,sag>tia troglodytes1 sometimes call$ ! ,cave-dwell] 7fig4 #a7--?\gh v v>iable 9 col\r1 may be kn[n by its b>r$ t5tacles1 ea* ) a black ,b-l m>k ne> its base4 ,x lives 9 %elt]$1 s&y1 or muddy holl[s betwe5 ! rocks on mo/ rugg$ coa/s1 (t5 ) its body entirely buri$ b5ea? ! s$im5t2 or1 if only p>tially buri$1 ! project+ portion ( ! column conceal$ by p>ticles t adh]e to its suck]s4 ,! column is usually ( an olive col\r1 /rip$ longitud9ally ) a pal] t9t1 & sometimes rea*es a l5g? ( two in*es1 :ile ! diamet] ( ! exp&$ #8fl[]' may ev5 exce$ ?is l5g?4 ,?is anemone is n a v conspicu\s object ( ! %ore1 s9ce ! expos$ portion ( its column is usually m or less cov]$ by s$im5t>y matt]1 & ! t5tacles are g5]ally ( a t9t closely resembl+ t ( ! surr\nd+ surface4 ,?us ! anemone is protect$ f its enemies by its peculi> habit & col\r+1 :ile at ! same "t ! spread+ t5tacles con/itute an unse5 b deadly sn>e = ! unw>y victims t come )9 _! range4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,corynactus viridis1 ,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall ,?is species is (t5 difficult to secure )\t injury on acc\nt ( its pref]5ce = n>r[ *9ks 9 awkw>d situations1 b we h f\nd t x is sometimes easily remov$ by fir/ cle>+ away ! surr\nd+ dbris1 & !n g5tly pu%+ x f its hold by means ( ! f+]-nail4 ,x seems1 9 fact1 t its base is occasionally q free f ! und]ly+ rock1 be+ simply imb$d$ 9 s& or mud4 ,9 o!r cases hamm] & *isel are necess>y to remove x f its snug hole4 ,if plac$ 9 ! aqu>ium x %\ld be all[$ to get a foot-hold 9 a suitable hole or crevice1 :i* %\ld be aft]w>ds p>tially fill$ ) s&4 ,x is n difficult to keep1 & al?\gh n a %[y species1 & hav+ a decid$ pref]5ce = %ady places1 yet its habits w be f\nd int]e/+4 ,! ,orange-disk$ ,anemone 7,sag>tia v5u/a7 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #b ( ! same plate4 ,x may be easily di/+ui%$ by its brilliant orange-col\r$ disc1 surr\nd$ by :ite t5tacles1 :i*1 :5 fully exp&$1 comm&s a circle ( f "o to "o & a half in*es4 ,s\?-we/ ,wales is said to be ! headqu>t]s ( ?is pretty sea fl[]1 b we h f\nd x abundant on p>ts ( ! nor? ,devon coa/1 especially 9 places betwe5 ,ilfracombe & ,lynton4 ,l ! la/ species1 x may be t]m$ a cave-dwell]1 = x delights to hide 9 corn]s & crevices t are s ov]hung ) rocks & we$s t ! light is nev] /rong4 ,yet ano!r species ( ?is g5us 7,s4 rosea7 is depict$ 9 ,plate ,,iii41 fig4 #h4 ,x has be5 t]m$ ! ,rosy ,anemone1 f ! brilliant rosy t9t ( its num]\s t5tacles4 ,! column is g5]ally ( a dull br[n col\r1 ) suck]s scatt]$ ov] ! upp] portion1 & ! fl[] rea*es a diamet] ( an in* or m4 ,?is anemone may be se5 at re/ on ov]hang+ rocks ne> l[-wat] m>k :5 ! tide is out1 its disc only p>tially hidd51 & ! tips ( its bright t5tacles j expos$4 ,x may be se5 on _m p>ts ( ! ,devon coa/1 & is1 or1 at lea/1 01 abundant 9 localities ne> ,brixham & ,%aldon4 ,on ! same plate is an illu/ration 7fig4 #g7 ( "o ( ! mo/ abundant & mo/ int]e/+ ( our anemones4 ,x is commonly kn[n z ! ,opelet1 & its sci5tific "n is ,an!a c]eus4 ,almo/ ev]yone :o has done a little collect+ on ! rocky %ores ( ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&1 or on ! %ores ( ,scotl& or ,irel&1 mu/ h se5 ?is species1 easily di/+ui%$ by its long1 sl5d]1 smoo? t5tacles1 all ( ab\t equal l5g?1 & pres5t+ a waxy appe>ance4 ,^! app5dages are usually gre5 & tipp$ ) p9k1 b sometimes pale yell[ or r$1 & are ( su* a l5g? t !y cov] a circle ( five or six in*es4 ,?is species is decid$ly ( social disposition1 = a numb] may g5]ally be se5 9 a clu/]1 cr[d$ closely toge!r2 & :5 we see !m1 z we (t5 d1 occupy+ a little tide pool t conta9s sc>cely suffici5t wat] to enable !m to give free play to _! t5tacles1 & expos$ = h\rs to ! full blaze ( ! summ] sun1 we naturally =m ! op9ion t !y ought to require no special c>e 9 ! indoor aqu>ium4 ,& ?is is actually ! case1 = !y ?rive well ) b little tr\ble4 ,p]haps ! *ief int]e/ atta*$ to ?is anemone is ! deadly nature ( its grip4 ,! num]\s long t5tacles h consid]able cl++ p[] ?r\gh\t _! l5g?1 & _! p>alys+ p[] is v consid]able comp>$ ) t ( _m o!r species ( ! same size4 ,ev5 ! human sk9 is m or less affect$ by ! irritat+ influ5ce ( ?is species1 a s5sation approa*+ to a /+ be+ sometimes produc$1 & ! sk9 %[+ visible signs ( ! injury done4 ,! grip1 too1 is s t5aci\s t t5tacles are sometimes torn (f :5 ! h& is quickly )drawn f _! hold4 ,our next example is ! ,r$-speck$ ,pimplet 7,bunodes ,ballii71 %[n 9 fig4 #e ( ,plate ,,iii41 :i* has receiv$ its popul> "n on acc\nt ( ! num]\s longitud9al r[s ( r$-speck$ w>ts t run d[n its %ort yell[ column1 & o!r r$ spots on ! column itself1 betwe5 ! r[s4 ,its t5tacles are usually pale yell[ or :ite1 b sometimes grey or gre5i%1 & (t5 t+$ ) p9k4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,bunodes ?allia1 ,,we/ ,,coa/ ,?is anemone is common on "s p>ts ( ! coa/s ( ,hamp%ire1 ,dorset1 ,devon1 & ,cornwall1 z well z on ! s\? coa/ ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & may be f\nd 9 seclud$ crevices ( ! rocks1 or "u ! l>ge /ones t are scatt]$ on ! bea*4 ,! ,gem ,pimplet 7,bunodes gemmacea7 is %[n on ! same plate 7fig4 #f74 ,x is easily di/+ui%$ by ! six conspicu\s longitud9al r[s ( l>ge :ite w>ts1 betwe5 :i* are sev]al o!r r[s ( small] ones4 ,! column is p9k or br[ni%1 & ! ?ick t5tacles are conspicu\sly m>k$ by light-col\r$ r\ndi% spots4 ,x is n uncommon on ! s\?-we/ coa/ ( ,engl&1 :]e x may be se5 9 ! rock pools & on ! surfaces ( rocks betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,bo? ( ! species ( ,bunodes above m5tion$ may be kept 9 ! aqu>ium )\t mu* tr\ble4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,sea ,,anemones #a4 ,sag>tia troglodytes #b4 ,sag>tia v5u/a #c4 ,act9ia glauca #d4 ,act9ia *iococca #e4 ,bunodes ,ballii #f4 ,bunodes gemmacea #g4 ,an!a c]eus #h4 ,sag>tia rosea ,all ! anemones s f> briefly describ$ are q devoid ( any k9d ( skeleton1 ! :ole body be+ ( a pulpy or lea!ry consi/5ce1 b "s ( our ,briti% species develop an int]nal calc>e\s skeleton1 consi/+ ( a holl[ cyl9d] ( c>bonate ( lime secret$ by ! body-wall1 & atta*$ to ! rock by means ( a simil> deposit =m$ 9 ! base1 & also1 )9 ! cyl9d]1 ( a numb] ( ?9 plates atta*$ to ! skeleton ( ! body-wall & project+ inw>ds t[>ds ! axis1 ?us resembl+1 9 fact1 ! skeletons ( a numb] ( ! tropical corals ) :i* we are famili>4 ,! animals 9 "q are (t5 collectively spok5 ( z ,briti% corals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,bunodes gemmacea1 ,,) ,,t5tacles ,,retract$ ,"o ( ! f9e/ ( ^! corals is ! ,devon ,cup-,coral 7,c>yophyllia ,smi?ii71 figur$ on ,plate ,,ii4 ,x may be f\nd 9 _m p>ts ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 atta*$ to ! rocks betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 (t5 9 v expos$ places1 b is mu* m abundant 9 deep wat]4 ,its skeleton is :ite or pale p9k1 & v h>d1 & is 9 itself a beautiful object4 ,! animal surr\nd+ ?is /ony /ructure is ( a pale fawn col\r1 ) a :ite disc reliev$ by a deep br[n circle r\nd ! m\?4 ,! t5tacles are conical1 almo/ col\rless & transp>5t1 ) ! exception ( ! deep-br[n w>ts scatt]$ irregul>ly ov] !m1 & are tipp$ by r\nd$ :ite heads4 ,( c\rse a hamm] & *isel are necess>y = ! removal ( ^! corals1 b !y are h>dy creatures1 & may be kept = a consid]able "t 9 captivity4 ,_! habits1 too1 are p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 & two or m may sometimes be f\nd ) skeletons atta*$1 sugge/+ t bran*$ arrangem5t s common 9 _m ( ! corals f w>m] seas4 ,ano!r ( ^! /ony corals 7,balanophyllia regia7 is %[n on ! same plate4 ,x is mu* small] ?an ! la/ species1 b exce$+ly pretty4 ,x is also mu* less abundant1 be+ conf9$ almo/ exclusively to ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,devon1 & is seldom se5 f> above ! l[e/ ebb ( ! tide4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,c>yophyllia cya?us ,our few brief descriptions ( ,briti% anemones & corals h be5 conf9$ to ^? species :i* appe> 9 our col\r$ plates1 b we h int]sp]s$ "h & !re betwe5 ! text a few illu/rations :i* w assi/ 9 ! id5tification ( o!r species & also help to %[ :at a ri* v>iety ( =m is exhibit$ by ^! beautiful creatures4 ,"s ( ^! inhabit deep wat] only & are consequ5tly beyond ! rea* ( mo/ sea-side obs]v]s dur+ ! ord9>y c\rse ( _! "w2 yet !y may (t5 be se5 9 fi%+ villages1 especially 9 ! s\?-we/1 :]e !y are frequ5tly br\ght 9 among ! haul ( ! trawl]s1 atta*$ ei!r to %ells or /ones2 & live specim5s ( ^! deep-sea anemones may ev5 be se5 on ! %ells ( :elks & bivalve molluscs 9 ! fi%deal]s' %ops ( ,london & o!r l>ge t[ns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,sag>tia p>asitica ,"o ( ! species 9 "q--! ,p>asitic ,anemone 7,sag>tia p>asitica7 is g5]ally f\nd on ! %ell ( ! :elk or "s o!r univalve2 &1 if remov$ f its *os5 spot1 x w aga9 transf] itself to a simil> %ell :5 an opportunity occurs4 ,?is int]e/+ anemone is usually se5 among ! dr$g+s ( ! trawl]1 b may be occasionally met ) on ! rocky coa/s ( ! s\?-we/1 at extreme l[-wat] m>k4 ,?\gh sometimes se5 atta*$ to /ones1 %ells may und\bt$ly be reg>d$ z con/itut+ ! natural home ( ! species1 & _m reg>d ! =m] position z accid5tal or m]ely tempor>y1 & d5ot+ t ! animal _h be5 di/urb$ & remov$ f its fav\rite spot1 or t circum/ances _h rec5tly r5d]$ a *ange ( lodg+s necess>y or desirable4 ,fur!r1 ! %ell select$ by ?is anemone is almo/ always "o t is inhabit$ by a h]mit crab2 & ?is is s g5]ally ! case t ! occasional exceptions to ! rule probably po9t to in/ances 9 :i* ! occupant ( ! %ell _h be5 r\ghly eject$ dur+ ! dr$g+ op]ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,! ,,cloak ,,anemone 7,adamsia palliata7 ,,on ,a ,,:elk ,,%ell1 ,,) ,,h]mit ,,crab ,! peculi> habit ( ! anemone j ref]r$ to makes x an int]e/+ pet = ! aqu>ium1 = if remov$ f its natural home1 & plac$ 9 ! aqu>ium ) a h]mit crab1 x w1 soon] or lat]1 z ! opportunity occurs1 glide f its hole on ! /one or rock1 & transf] itself to its fav\rite mov+ home4 ,x may be difficult at fir/ to see :at advantage c accrue to ! anemone by ! selection ( su* a situation2 &1 moreov]1 x becomes an int]e/+ "q z to :e!r ! advantage is a mutual "o4 ,close obs]vations may1 & already h1 ?r[n "s light on ?is matt]1 ?\gh x is probable t !re /ill rema9s some?+ to be le>nt conc]n+ ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! inside & outside occupants ( ! portable h\se4 ,x may be notic$ t ! anemone almo/ inv>iably takes up a position on ! same portion ( ! %ell1 & t1 :5 fully exp&$1 its m\? is usually turn$ t[>ds t ( ! crab4 ,?is seems to be a v fav\rable position = ! anemone1 s9ce x is "o t w enable x to cat* ! wa/e morsels f ! crab's jaws by its exp&$ t5tacles4 ,b x is1 p]haps1 n s easy to sugge/ a means by :i* ! anemone c make an adequate return = free bo>d ?us obta9$4 ,x is well to rememb]1 h[ev]1 t crabs are reg>d$ z su* delicate morsels by fi%es t we h already spok5 ( ! value ( ^! cru/aceans z bait2 :ile ! fact t sea anemones rema9 p]fectly unmole/$ 9 rock pools inhabit$ by mo/ voraci\s fi%es1 c\pl$ ) ! fi%]man's exp]i5ce z to ! absolute wor?lessness ( anemones z bait1 is suffici5t 9 itself to ju/ify ! conclusion t ^! creatures are v di/a/eful to fi%es4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x is possible t ! h]mit crab is amply repaid by ! anemone = its lib]al bo>d n only by p>tially hid+ ! crab f ! view ( its enemies1 & !reby r5d]+ x less conspicu\s1 b also by associat+ its own di/a/eful sub/ance ) t :i* w\ld o!rwise be eag]ly dev\r$4 ,:5 ! h]mit gr[s too l>ge to live com=tably 9 its %ell1 a *ange ( home becomes necess>y1 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t ! anemone liv+ on ! outside ( ! %ell transf]s itself at ! same "t2 & ?is is a matt] ( vital importance to ! crab1 s9ce x usually *anges its lodg+ at ! m\lt+ p]iod1 at :i* "t its body is cov]$ by a s(t sk91 & is !n ev5 m acceptable z prey to ! fi%es4 ,?us ! anemone accompanies its ho/1 af=d+ x cont9u$ protection dur+ ! p]iod ( its greate/ dang]4 ,be=e leav+ ! cl5t]ates we mu/ ref] to "o o!r =m :i*1 ?\gh n (t5 hav+ its habitat betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 is nev]!less a v common object 9 ! neighb\rhood ( fi%+ villages1 :]e ! refuse f ! nets us$ 9 deep wat] has be5 ?r[n on ! bea*4 ,we ref] to ! peculi> animal kn[n to fi%]m5 z #8,dead ,m5's ,f+]s1' & to ! naturali/ z ! ,alcyonium4 ,:5 se5 out ( wat] x is n by any means an invit+ object1 b is app>5tly a mass ( gri/ly matt]1 ( a dirty yell[i% or br[ni% col\r1 sometimes flatt5$ & %apeless1 & sometimes lob$ 9 su* a mann] z to sugge/ ! popul> "n s commonly appli$4 ,x is always atta*$ to "s h>d object1 su* z a /one or a %ell1 & is s frequ5tly associat$ ) oy/] %ells t x is by no means an uncommon object 9 ! fi%mong]'s %op1 f :i* we h (t5 obta9$ live specim5s = ! aqu>ium4 ,:5 plac$ 9 sea wat] x gradually imbibes ! fluid surr\nd+ x1 becom+ mu* swoll54 ,!n little />-l op5+s appe>1 ! circumf]5ce ( ea* ( :i* protrudes s z to =m a little project+ tube4 ,f9ally1 a cr[n ( eight little t5tacles is protrud$1 & ! mass1 s un9t]e/+ at fir/ sight1 reveals itself z a colony ( pretty polyps4 ,9 g5]al /ructure ! ,alcyonium resembles ! sea anemone1 b ! firm body-wall ( ! colony is support$ & protect$ to "s ext5t by ! pres5ce ( m9ute spicules ( c>bonate ( lime2 & x is int]e/+ to note t :ile ! t5tacles ( anemones & corals make up a numb] t is a multiple ( ei!r five or six1 ^? ( ! ,alcyon>ia & ! alli$ #8,sea p5s' are always 9 multiples ( f\r4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,/>fi%es1 ,,sea ,,ur*9s1 ,,etc4 ,/ill pass+ up ! scale ( animal life1 we n[ come to ! ,e*9od]mata--! o!r sub-k+dom :i* we h already ref]r$ to z =m+1 ) ! ,cl5t]ates1 ! old division ( ,radiata4 ,! t]m ,e*9od]m signifies #8h$gehog sk91' & is appli$ to ! gr\p on acc\nt ( ! fact t ! majority ( its species possess a sk9 t is ei!r di/9ctly sp9y1 or exhibits num]\s m or less def9$ prom95ces4 ,?is sk9 is also support$ & h>d5$ by ! deposit ( little plates or spicules ( c>bonate ( lime1 all jo9$ toge!r s z to =m a k9d ( scaffold+ or #8te/' = ! protection ( ! animal2 & ?is secretion ( c>bonate ( lime is n always conf9$ to ! out] sk91 =1 9 "s cases1 x occurs 9 ! walls ( ! int]nal organs z well4 ,mo/ ( ! animals ( ?is sub-k+dom display a regul> radiate symmetry2 t is1 ! p>ts ( _! bodies are arrang$ regul>ly r\nd a common axis1 & ! arrangem5t is usually a five-fold "o1 z may be obs]v$ 9 ! case ( ! common ,five-f+]$ ,/>fi% ( our coa/s 7see ,plate ,,iv471 & x is wor?y ( note t ?is radiate disposition ( p>ts is n m]ely ext]nal1 b t1 z 9 ! case ( anemones & jelly-fi%es1 x also obta9s )91 & det]m9es ! arrangem5t ( ! int]nal organs4 ,fur!r1 al?\gh ?is radiate symmetry *>act]ises ! adult animals ( ! gr\p we are consid]+1 yet "s %[ a t5d5cy t[>ds bilat]al symmetry 7p>ts arrang$ equally on two opposite sides ( a common axis71 :ile ?is is ! rule1 r ?an ! exception1 ) ! e>ly /ages or l>v ( ^! creatures4 ,obs]ve1 = in/ance1 ! l>va ( ! common ,brittle ,/>fi%1 ! adult ( :i* species exhibits an almo/ p]fect radiate symmetry1 & we see some?+ m ?an a m]e trace ( a two-sid$ disposition4 ,we h n to look f> into ! /ructure ( any typical e*9od]m to see t x is a di/9ct advance on ! anemones 9 ! matt] ( organisation4 ,to beg9 ) its dige/ive sy/em--?is consi/s ( a tube hav+ no communication ) ! g5]al body-cavity1 b rema9+ q di/9ct ?r\gh\t its l5g?1 ) bo? ends communicat+ directly ) ! ext]ior4 ,its n]v\s sy/em also is m highly develop$1 = x has a well-=m$ r+ ( n]ve matt] r\nd ! m\?1 f :i* pass two or ?ree sy/ems ( n]ve fibres1 ea* sy/em hav+ its own special function to p]=m4 ,! s5se organs1 h[ev]1 d n appe> to be well develop$1 ?\gh !re exi/ c]ta9 #8pigm5t spots1' 9 :i* n]ve fibres t]m9ate1 & :i* are suppos$ to s]ve ! purpose ( eyes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,l>va ,,( ,,! ,,brittle ,,/>fi% ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features 9 connection ) ! e*9od]ms is und\bt$ly ! /ructure & function ( ! app>atus = locomotion4 ,exam9e a live sea ur*91 or ! common five-ray$ />fi%1 9 a rock pool or aqu>ium1 & x w be se5 to possess a l>ge numb] ( s(t1 flexible1 & protrusible processes1 ea* ( :i* t]m9ates 9 a little suck+-disc t enables ! animal to obta9 a good #8foot-hold2' &1 hav+ fix$ itself on "o side by means ( a numb] ( ^! little #8feet1' x is enabl$1 by ! contraction ( c]ta9 muscles1 to pull itself along4 ,! little feet we are exam9+ are really tubes fill$ ) wat]1 & capable ( be+ inflat$ by ! injection ( wat] into !m f )9 ! body ( ! animal4 ,ea* "o communicates ) a wat] tube1 sev]al ( :i* 7usually five7 radiate f a circul> canal ( wat] t surr\nds ! m\?4 ,?is circul> canal does n communicate ) ! m\?1 b ) a tube1 kn[n z ! #8/one canal' because ( ! c>bonate ( lime deposit$ )9 its walls1 t op5s at ! surface ( ! body on ! opposite side1 & is gu>d$ at ! orifice by "o or m p]=at$ plates ?r\gh :i* wat] ga9s admission4 ,?us ! animal c fill its #8wat] sy/em' direct f ! sea1 &1 by ! contraction ( muscles t surr\nd ! ma9 canals1 =ce ?is wat] into ! little #8tube-feet1' caus+ !m to protrude & pres5t _! suck+-discs to any solid object ov] :i* x desires to creep4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t "s ( ! little protrusible tubes h no suck+-discs1 & probably s]ve ! purpose ( feel]s only2 also1 t :ile ^! tube-feet are ! pr9cipal means ( locomotion 9 c]ta9 species1 9 o!rs ! movem5ts ( ! body are p]=m$ almo/ exclusively by ! five or m rays t ext5d f ! c5tre ( ! animal1 & :i* are readily curv$ into any desir$ position by ! action ( well-develop$ muscles4 ,all ! e*9od]ms come )9 ! doma9 ( ! m>9e naturali/1 = no memb]s ( ! sub-k+dom are inhabitants ( fre% wat]2 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t1 unlike ! animals previ\sly describ$1 none ( !m live 9 colonies4 ,a g5]al exam9ation ( ! v>i\s />fi%es to be f\nd 9 our seas w %[ t !y may be divid$ into ?ree di/9ct gr\ps4 ,"o ( ^! conta9s ! pretty ,fea!r ,/>s1 :i* are di/+ui%$ by _! long & sl5d] #8arms1' usually t5 or m 9 numb]1 ea* ( :i* be>s a numb] ( p9nules t give x q a fea!r$ appe>ance4 ,! second includes ! ,brittle ,/>s1 possess+ five sl5d] arms t are jo9t$ to ! small1 flatt5$1 c5tral disc1 & :i* are s nam$ on acc\nt ( ! read9ess ) :i* ! animal falls to pieces :5 al>m$ or di/urb$2 & ! ?ird is =m$ by ! rema9+ five-ray$ />s1 ! arms ( :i*1 in/ead ( be+ jo9t$ to1 are cont9u\s )1 ! c5tre ( ! body4 ,all ^! />fi%es h a lea!ry sk91 support$ & h>d5$ by a framework ( calc>e\s plates1 & pres5t+ a numb] ( h>d ridges or sp9es4 ,9 addition to ! sy/em ( wat] tubes already m5tion$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! e*9od]ms1 !y also possess a second circul> vessel r\nd ! m\?1 f :i* a numb] ( vessels are di/ribut$ to ! walls ( ! dige/ive tube4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are bloodvessels1 & are directly conc]n$ ) ! nutrition ( ! body4 ,"s1 also1 h imp]fectly develop$ eyes at ! ends ( ! arms or rays4 ,contr>y to :at "o w\ld expect aft] wat*+ ! some:at sluggi% movem5ts ( />fi%es1 !y are really v voraci\s creatures1 attack+ & dev\r+ molluscs & small cru/aceans1 sometimes ev5 protrud+ _! /oma*s to surr\nd _! prey :5 too l>ge to be pass$ completely ?r\gh ! m\?2 & !y are also valuable z scav5g]s1 s9ce !y gre$ily dev\r dead fi%es & o!r decomposible animal matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,l>va ,,( ,,! ,,fea!r ,,/> ,fea!r ,/>s diff] f o!r />fi%es 9 t !y are /alk$ or root$ dur+ "o portion ( _! e>ly life4 ,at fir/ !y are little free-swimm+ creatures1 fe$+ on =am9if]s & o!r m9ute organisms t float ab\t 9 ! sea4 ,!n !y settle d[n & become root$ to ! bottom1 usually 9 deep wat]1 at :i* /age !y are l little /alk$ fl[]s1 & closely resemble ! fossil encr9ites or /one lilies s common 9 "s ( our rock b$s1 & to :i* !y are1 inde$1 v closely alli$4 ,aft] a p]iod ( ?is s$5t>y exi/5ce1 dur+ :i* !y h to subsi/ on :atev] food happ5s to come )9 _! rea*1 !y become free aga91 lose _! /alks1 & creep ab\t by means ( _! arms to hunt = _! prey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,! ,,rosy ,,fea!r ,,/> ,! commone/ ,briti% species ( ^! />fi%es is ! ,rosy ,fea!r ,/> 7,ant$on rosaceus72 & z ?is creature may be kept alive 9 an aqu>ium = "s consid]able "t )\t mu* difficulty1 x w repay "o to secure a specim5 = ! obs]vation ( its habits4 ,x is n (t51 h[ev]1 t ! ,fea!r ,/> is to be f\nd above l[-wat] m>k1 its home be+ ! rugg$ bottom "u a consid]able dep? ( wat]1 :]e a numb] usually live 9 company2 b !re is no difficulty 9 obta9+ ?is & _m o!r species ( int]e/+ />fi%es 9 fi%+ t[ns & villages :]e trawl]s are /ation$1 = !y are be+ cont9ually f\nd among ! cont5ts ( ! net4 ,al?\gh ! ,fea!r ,/> c h>dly be describ$ z an active creature1 yet x w cov] a consid]able am\nt ( gr\nd 9 ! c\rse ( a day1 creep+ ov] rocks & we$s by means ( its arms1 :i* are rais$1 ext5d$1 & aga9 depress$ 9 succession1 ea* "o ?us 9 turn s]v+ ! purpose ( a foot4 ,^! arms are capable ( be+ mov$ freely 9 any direction1 z are also ! little m or less rigid p9nules app5d$ to !m4 ,! latt] are b5t backw>ds on an ext5d$ arm t is be+ us$ to pull ! animal along1 s t !y =m s _m grappl+ hooks t hold on ! bottom2 & !n ! arm 9 "q is b5t into a curve by ! contraction ( its muscles1 ?us dragg+ ! body =w>d4 ,! arms on ! opposite side ( ! body are also us$ to assi/ ! movem5t by pu%+ x 9 ! same direction1 & ?is is accompli%$ by fir/ b5d+ ! arms1 & !n1 aft] curv+ ! p9nules 9 a direction f ! body1 aga9 ext5d+ !m4 ,o!r movem5ts ( ! fea!r /> are equally int]e/+4 ,?us1 ! mann] 9 :i* x w sudd5ly ext5d its arms & apply its p9nules to ! surface on :i* x re/s 9 ord] to obta9 a good hold :5 al>m$1 & ! way 9 :i* x app>5tly res5ts int]f]5ce :5 "o ( ! arms is t\*$1 are wor?y ( obs]vation4 ,! arms !mselves are readily brok51 & w cont9ue to move = "s "t aft] be+ sev]$ f ! body1 b ! loss to ! animal is only tempor>y1 = a new arm gr[s 9 ! place ( ea* "o t has be5 brok5 (f4 ,?is t5d5cy to break into pieces is mu* great] 9 ! ,brittle ,/>s1 z might be expect$ f _! popul> "n2 & is1 9 fact1 su* a m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ! gr\p t x is n by any means an easy matt] to obta9 a collection ( p]fect specim5s4 ,!y w (t5 snap (f all _! arms1 z if by _! own p[] ( w1 :5 di/urb$ or al>m$1 & ev5 :5 remov$ f _! hold )\t injury1 !y w frequ5tly break !mselves into pieces if dropp$ into _s or 9 any way subject$ to a sudd5 *ange ( conditions4 ,! tube-feet ( ,brittle ,/>s are v small & are n provid$ ) suck]s1 b are v s5sitive1 s]v+ ! purpose ( feel]s2 also1 hav+ ?91 p]meable walls1 !y probably play a l>ge "p 9 ! process ( respiration4 ,bo? arms & disc are h>d5$ by a d5se scaffold+ ( calc>e\s plates2 & n only are ! =m] atta*$ to ! latt] by a well-=m$ jo9t1 b ! arms !mselves are con/ruct$ ( a numb] ( segm5ts t are held toge!r by a k9d ( #8tongue & groove' jo9t4 ,r\nd ! m\? are a numb] ( t5tacles t are kept 9 con/ant motion ) ! object ( c>ry+ ! food t[>ds x1 & ( hold+ ! l>g] morsels :ile ! act ( swall[+ is progress+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,! ,,common ,,brittle ,,/> ,! v>i\s species ( ,brittle ,/>s live among ! rocks & we$s1 *iefly 9 deep wat]1 :]e !y move ab\t by means ( ! muscul> contraction ( _! arms1 ! disc be+ rais$ on ! curv$ arms z ! animal proce$s4 ,"s species are to be f\nd betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & especially abundant on ! s\?-we/ coa/ are two small species t live among ! tufts ( corall9e we$s1 sometimes s cr[d$ toge!r t doz5s may be tak5 f a little pat* ( corall9e only two or ?ree in*es squ>e4 ,^! h su* small discs1 & su* sl5d] arms1 & are1 moreov]1 s well conceal$ by _! col\r+1 :i* closely resembles t ( ! we$-tuft !y inhabit1 t !y are only to be detect$ by close inspection4 ,! rema9+ division ( ! />fi%es1 sometimes di/+ui%$ by ! "n ( ,common ,/>s1 possess five arms or rays1 :i* may be ei!r long or %ort1 & :i* are n jo9t$ ) ! c5tral disc1 b cont9u\s ) x2 t is1 !re is no %>p l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 arm & disc4 ,"o or two species are well kn[n to all frequ5t]s ( ! sea-side1 b ! majority ( !m inhabit deep wat]1 :]e !y creep ab\t ov] ! rocks & we$s1 obta9+ _! food f ! b$ bel[ !m4 ,if we exam9e ! common five-f+] /> t is s (t5 /r&$ on ! bea*1 & s frequ5tly f\nd 9 rock pools betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 we see t ea* arm has a l>ge & conspicu\s groove runn+ along its c5tre on ! "u side1 & on ea* side ( ^! are ! r[s ( tube-feet1 arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t !y h sugge/$ ! appe>ance ( an av5ue ( trees on ea* side ( a g>d5 walk1 & h consequ5tly e>n$ ! "n ( ambulacrum4 ,^! tube-feet may be protrud$ = "s di/ance2 &1 be+ provid$ ) suck]s t possess consid]able cl++ p[]1 !y =m ! pr9cipal means ( locomotion4 ,put ! />fi% 9 ! aqu>ium1 or 9 a tidepool by ! sea1 & y w f9d x v int]e/+ to obs]ve h[ ! animal progresses1 :ile "s idea ( ! cl++ p[] ( ! tube-feet may be asc]ta9$ by all[+ ! animal to creep ov] ! subm]g$ h&4 ,! movem5ts ( ! tube-feet may also be se5 to advantage :5 ! />fi% is laid upside d[n 9 a pool1 &1 :at is /ill m int]e/+1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! animal turns itself ov]4 ,to d ?is x w fir/ b5d ! tips ( "o or two ( its arms s z to br+ ! suck]s aga9/ ! gr\nd2 & !n1 aid$ by ! pull+ action ( ^!1 x w gradually br+ o!r suck]s into a simil> position till1 at la/1 ! :ole body has be5 turn$ ov]4 ,"s ( our common />fi%es h rays s %ort t !y may be t]m$ angles r ?an arms1 & ^! are unable to turn _! inv]t$ bodies by ! gradual me?od j describ$4 ,!y g5]ally raise _! bodies on ! tips ( ?ree or f\r ( ! rays1 assum+ some:at ! =m ( a ?ree-or f\r-legg$ /ool1 & !n1 b5d+ ! rema9+ "o or two arms ov] ! body1 !y alt] ! position ( ! c5tre ( gravity till ev5tually ! body topples ov] to ! desir$ position4 ,"s ( ! common five-ray$ />s h no suck]s on _! tube-feet1 & consequ5tly h to creep by means ( ! muscul> contractions ( _! arms2 & sev]al ( !m are l ! brittle />s 9 break+ up _! bodies :5 irritat$ or seiz$4 ,?is latt] peculi>ity w acc\nt = ! frequ5cy ) :i* we come across animals ) "o or m rays small] ?an ! o!rs1 ! small] rays be+ new ones t h be5 produc$ 9 ! place ( ^? lo/4 ,aga91 we sometimes meet ) su* mon/rosities z a five-ray$ /> ) six or m rays1 "s small] ?an o!rs1 ! small] ones repres5t+ two or m t h gr[n 9 ! place ( "o t has be5 lo/2 or a />fi% ) bran*$ or =k$ arm1 illu/rat+ ! t5d5cy to produce a new arm ev5 :5 ! orig9al "o has be5 only p>tially sev]$4 ,a close obs]vation ( a />fi% 9 wat] may enable u to detect a numb] ( little transp>5t processes /&+ out betwe5 ! prom95ces ( ! r\gh sk9 ( ! upp] surface4 ,^! are little bags fill$ ) fluid1 =m$ ( su* ?9 walls t gases c readily pass ?r\gh !m1 & are und\bt$ly connect$ ) ! process ( respiration4 ,also1 on ! upturn$ extremity ( ea* arm a r$ spot may be se52 & ?is f ! nature ( its /ructure1 & f its association ) ! n]v\s sy/em1 has be5 reg>d$ z a rudim5t>y eye4 ,on ! upp] side ( ! disc "o may also obs]ve a m or less conspicu\s spot ( v>iable col\r1 on "o side ( ! c5tre4 ,x is a plate1 f9ely p]=at$1 cov]+ ! out] extremity ( a %ort canal :i* communicates ) ! sy/em ( wat] tubes t 7 describ$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( ?is *apt]4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! entrance ?r\gh :i* wat] is admitt$ into ! c5tral r+ r\nd ! m\?1 & f ?is into ! radial wat] tubes t run ?r\gh ea* arm ( ! />fi% to supply ! tube-feet4 ,! %ort tube ref]r$ to is always fill$ ) s&1 & ?us ! wat] t ent]s into ! wat]-vascul> sy/em is filt]$ be=e x rea*es ! circul> vessel4 ,x is int]e/+ to note1 9 ?is connection1 t "h is "o respect 9 :i* ! radiate symmetry ( ! />fi% is brok51 !re be+ only "o entrance1 & t n a c5tral "o1 by :i* wat] is di/ribut$ into ! five rays4 ,( c\rse1 :5 ! ray ( a />fi% has be5 brok5 (f ! wat] vessel or vessels t x conta9$ are de/roy$1 z is also ! prolongation ( ! /oma*1 9 ! =m ( a long1 bl9d tube1 t ext5d$ into x4 ,b no inconv5i5ce atta*es itself to ?is loss1 = ! />fi% has ! p[] ( reproduc+ ev5 its lo/ visc]a1 z well z any ( ! five rays ( ! body t may be brok5 (f4 ,we mu/ briefly ref] to "o o!r feature ( ! common />1 viz4 ! possession ( small preh5sile organs ar\nd ! m\?4 ,^! are little sp9es1 ! extremities ( :i* are movable1 & take ! =m ( little p9c]s by means ( :i* ! animal c hold its prey4 ,:5 x is desir$ to pres]ve />fi%es = future /udy1 imm]sion 9 dilut$ _s or a solution ( =maldehyde w answ] all purposes1 ! s(t p>ts be+ ?us pres]v$ z well z ! h>d] /ructures2 b x is usual to pres]ve !m 9 a dry /ate :5 !y are requir$ m]ely = purposes ( id5tification1 z is usually ! case ) ! specim5s 9 an ord9>y museum collection4 ,9 ! latt] case x is advisable to put ! />fi%es 9 /rong _s = a few days1 *ang+ ! _s if sev]al specim5s are put toge!r1 & !n dry+ !m z quickly z possible 9 ! op5 air4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,section ,,( ,,! ,,sp9e ,,( ,a ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,we h n[ to consid] ! ,sea ,ur*9s or ,sea ,eggs1 :i* are readily kn[n by ! h$gehog-l cov]+ ( h>d sp9es4 ,ext]nally !y appe> z globul> or he>t-%ap$ bodies1 ! surface entirely hidd5 by sp9es except1 p]haps1 ! m\? on ! "u side1 :i* is provid$ ) an app>atus = ma/ication4 ,if alive1 & 9 ! wat]1 "o may notice t ! animal creeps along ! bottom1 m\? d[nw>ds1 mov+ itself ei!r by means ( its moveable sp9es1 or by s(t tube-feet resembl+ ^? ( />fi%es1 t are protrud$ betwe5 ! sp9es1 or by bo? comb9$2 & ! movem5ts ( its ma/icat+ organ may be se5 by obs]v+ ! animal ?r\gh ! side or bottom ( a glass vessel ( sea wat]4 ,! la/-nam$ organ is surr\nd$ by an area ( s(t sk91 & is n pres5t 9 all species4 ,a clos] exam9ation ( ! common globul> ur*9 w %[ t x is wond]fully con/ruct$4 ,ev5 ! sp9es1 :i* are 9 !mselves un9t]e/+ objects to ! nak$ eye1 are mo/ beautifully =m$1 a transv]se section reveal+ a radiate or reticulat$ /ructure :5 view$ ?r\gh ! microscope4 ,ea* sp9e has a concave base :i* fits on a little tub]cle ( ! calc>e\s %ell or te/ t cov]s ! body ( ! animal1 =m+ a p]fect ball-&-socket jo9t1 & is capable ( be+ mov$ 9 any direction by means ( small muscul> b&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,sea ,,ur*9 ,,) ,,sp9es ,,remov$ ,,on ,,"o ,,side ,on remov+ ! sp9es ! %ell is se5 to completely enclose ! animal ) ! exception ( ! m\?1 ) its ma/icatory app>atus1 & ! small area ar\nd x :i* is cov]$ by ! uncalcifi$ sk9 j ref]r$ to4 ,at ! v top ( ! %ell1 exactly opposite ! m\?1 !re is a small plate p]=at$ by ! extremity ( ! dige/ive tube4 ,r\nd ?is are five angul> plates1 ea* p]=at$ by ! ducts ( ! ov>ies or egg-produc+ gl&s1 b "o ( ^! is enl>g$ & fur!r p]=at$1 t x may s]ve ! second purpose ( all[+ wat] to ent] ! sy/em ( wat] tubes t supply ! tube-feet1 & ?us corresponds exactly ) ! plate already notic$ on ! upp] surface ( ! />fi%4 ,betwe5 ^! are five small] plates1 ea* ) a rudim5t>y eye t receives a f9e n]ve-?read4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,,apex ,,( ,,%ell ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,! rema9+ & great] portion ( ! %ell ( ! ur*9 is compos$ ( t5 radiat+ segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* is made up ( two r[s ( flat angul> plates unit$ at _! edges4 ,five ( ^! segm5ts1 arrang$ alt]nately ) ! o!rs1 are p]=at$ by num]\s holes1 ?r\gh :i* ! tube-feet ( ! ur*9 are protrud$1 :ile ! rema9d] are imp]=ate2 & all t5 plates be> ! little hemisph]ical processes to :i* ! sp9es are jo9t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,%ell ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,,) ,,tee? ,,protrud+ ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features ( ?is ur*9 is und\bt$ly its complex & wond]ful ma/icat+ sy/em4 ,!re are five tee?1 symmetrically arrang$1 & all po9t+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! m\?4 ,ea* is atta*$ to a w$ge-%ape jaw1 made up ( sev]al pieces1 & ! :ole app>atus is atta*$ by ligam5ts to loops 9 ! int]ior ( ! %ell1 & is mov$ by no less ?an ?irty di/9ct muscles4 ,! complete sy/em may be readily dissect$ out1 & is well wor?y ( /udy & pres]vation4 7,! h>d] portions ( ! sy/em may (t5 be f\nd 9 ! int]ior ( ! empty %ell ( an ur*9 aft] ! s(t] /ructures ( ! body h decay$ away47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,int]ior ,,( ,,%ell ,,or ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,ma/icatory ,,app>atus ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,an int]e/+ dissection ( ! globul> ur*9 may also be made by cutt+ completely r\nd ! %ell ) a pair ( %>p-po9t$ scissors midway betwe5 ! m\? & ! apex1 & !n sep>at+ ! upp] & l[] halves1 z %[n 9 fig4 #aad4 ,9 ?is way ! :ole ( ! dige/ive tube1 ) its num]\s curves1 may be trac$ f ! m\? to ! anus at ! opposite pole4 ,! wat]-vessels t supply ! tube-feet 9 ! regions ( ! five p]=at$ plates may also be se51 z well z ! ov>ies or egg-produc+ organs & ! bases ( ! five jaws ) _! complicat$ sy/em ( muscles4 ,a little acqua9tance ) ! commone/ ( ! ,briti% sea ur*9s w %[ t !y may be divid$ into two well-def9$ gr\ps1 "o conta9+ ! globul> or subglobul> =ms1 ( :i* ! common sea ur*9 or sea egg 7,e*9us sphra7 above describ$1 is a type1 z well z ! pretty little ,gre5 ,pea ,ur*9 7,e*9ocyamus pusillus71 & ! little ,purple-tipp$ ,ur*9 7,e*9us mili>is71 :i* is f\nd pr9cipally on ! we/ coa/ ( ,scotl&2 :ile ! second gr\p is =m$ by ! less symmetrical ,he>t ,ur*9s1 :i* diff] f ! o!rs 9 sev]al int]e/+ p>ticul>s ( /ructure & habit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,sea ,,ur*9 ,,dissect$1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,dige/ive ,,tube ,^! he>t ur*9s 7,plate ,,iv41 fig4 #d7 are cov]$ ) %ort1 delicate sp9es :i* are n mu* us$ = purposes ( locomotion1 ! animals mov+ f place to place almo/ entirely by means ( _! tube-feet1 :ile ! globul> ur*9s travel pr9cipally by _! sp9es1 :i* are /\t] & m freely mov$ on well-=m$ ball-&-socket jo9ts4 ,also1 :ile 9 ! globul> species ! p]=at$ plates t admit ( ! protrusion ( ! feet are arrang$ ) a p]fect radiate symmetry1 ^? ( ! he>t ur*9s are conf9$ to "o side ( ! %ell2 & ! dige/ive tube1 :i* 9 ! =m] t]m9ates 9 ! pole opposite ! m\?1 9 ! latt] ends close to ! m\? itself4 ,fur!r1 ! he>t ur*9s d n possess any k9d ( d5tal app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,,e*9od]ms #a4 ,a/]ias rub5s #b4 ,gonia/] eque/ris #c4 ,ophio?rix fragilis #d4 ,e*9oc>dium cordatum #e4 ,e*9us mili>is #f4 ,e*9us escul5tus ,! habits ( sea ur*9s are int]e/+1 & may be wat*$ 9 ! aqu>ium1 :]e ! movem5ts ( ! sp9es & ( ! tube-feet may be se5 p]fectly4 ,"s species are v inactive1 liv+ 9 holes & crevices1 or "u /ones1 & seldom move f _! hid+-places1 :ile o!rs travel consid]able di/ances4 ,! =m] h g5]ally no eyes1 &1 in/ead ( seek+ _! food1 simply dep5d = _! subsi/5ce on ! mat]ial c>ri$ to !m by ! movem5ts ( ! wat]2 :ile ! latt] possess visual organs simil> to ^? obs]v$ 9 c]ta9 />fi%es4 ,"s species also protect !mselves f _! enemies :5 9 ! op5 by cov]+ _! bodies ) s&1 small /ones1 %ells1 or we$s1 & ?us s p]fectly imitate _! surr\nd+s t !y are n easily detect$4 ,! feet t are us$ = purposes ( locomotion t]m9ate 9 suck]s resembl+ ^? ( ! common five-f+]$ />fi%1 & h consid]able cl++ p[]1 b "s h ei!r v imp]fectly develop$ suck]s or none at all1 & are probably us$ z feel]s only4 ,sea ur*9s1 l _! allies ! />fi%es1 g5]ally inhabit deep wat] beyond l[-wat] m>k1 :]e !y (t5 exi/ 9 enorm\s numb]s1 fe$+ on bo? animal & vegetable sub/ances2 b "s species are (t5 to be met ) betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 :]e !y may be se5 "u /ones1 & frequ5tly half hidd5 9 mud4 ,! globul> species occur pr9cipally on rocky coa/s1 b ! he>t ur*9s are m commonly dr$g$ f banks ( s& or mud t are always subm]g$4 ,! life-hi/ory ( ur*9s closely resembles t ( />fi%es1 = ! "y are free-swimm+ creatures ( an easel-l =m1 & dur+ ?is e>ly l>val exi/5ce _! bodies are support$ by a calc>e\s skeleton4 ,we w conclude our %ort acc\nt ( ! ,briti% e*9od]ms ) a description ( ! peculi> ,sea ,cucumb]s1 :i* belong to ! division ,holo?uroidea4 ,^! creatures are s unlike />fi%es & ur*9s 9 g5]al appe>ance t ! un9itiat$ w\ld h>dly reg>d !m z close relatives4 ,! body is1 z ! popul> "n implies1 cucumb]-%ap$1 ) ! m\? at "o end1 & ! g5]al aspect is wormlike4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a radiate symmetry--a five-fold arrangem5t ( p>ts1 ?\gh n s regul> z 9 mo/ e*9od]ms4 ,runn+ l5g?wise along ! body are five r[s ( tube-feet1 b only two ( ^! are well develop$ & t]m9ate 9 functional suck]s2 &1 z might be expect$1 ! animal crawls ) ^! two r[s b5ea? x4 ,! feet are outgr[?s ( a sy/em ( wat] tubes simil> to t ( ! ur*91 !re be+ a circul> tube r\nd ! m\?1 f :i* bran* five radial tubes1 "o = ea* r[4 ,! m\? ( ! sea cucumb] is surr\nd$ by plum$ t5tacles :i* c be retract$ at w1 & :i* are us$ 9 captur+ ! small] liv+ ?+s t =m its food4 ,l ! e>?worm1 x w (t5 swall[ l>ge quantities ( s&1 f :i* x dige/s ! organic matt] conta9$4 ,! body-wall ( ! ,holo?uroidea is /rong & muscul>1 & is /r5g!n$ by ! pres5ce ( num]\s spicules ( c>bonate ( lime1 (t5 9 ! =m ( little an*ors1 :eels1 & crosses1 :ile ! out] surface is r\gh & slimy1 & (t5 ( a col\r s closely resembl+ ! surr\nd+s ( ^! animals t !y are n easily obs]v$4 ,?is feature is "o ( great value to ! creatures1 s9ce !y h no means ( def5ce f _! enemies1 & seem to owe _! safety entirely to _! protective col\r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,! ,,sea ,,cucumb] ,!re are sev]al species ( sea cucumb]s on our coa/s1 b all inhabit deep wat] & are seldom to be se5 above l[-wat] level4 ,!y are1 z a rule1 easily obta9$ f fi%]m51 :o w br+ !m 9 :5 reque/$ to d s4 ,live specim5s may be kept = a consid]able "t 9 ! indoor aqu>ium1 & seem to pref] a rocky bottom on :i* !y c hide "u /ones at times1 & a b$ ( s& on :i* !y w occasionally crawl4 ,!y w readily dev\r small molluscs & cru/aceans1 & w p>take ( dead organic matt] 9 a p>tially decompos$ /ate4 ,! foll[+ tabul> summ>y ( ! classification ( ,e*9od]ms may possibly be ( use = ref]5ce3-- ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,e*9od]mata ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,body />-%ap$4 ,body glob- ,body ---------------------------------------- -- ul>1 sub- elongat$1 ,body ,body n /alk$4 globul>1 & cov]$ /alk$1 ,tube-feet us$ = locomotion4 or he>t- ) a at lea/ ,class3 ,/ell]id4 %ap$1 s(t sk9 dur+ ----------------------------- & cov- conta9+ e>ly ,arms jo9t$ ,arms cont9- er$ ) calc>e\s /age4 to disc1 & u\s a con- spicules4 ,feet n n conta9- ) disc1 t9u\s us$ = + prolong- & conta9- %ell4 ,class3 loco- -tions ( ! + processes ,holo?u- motion4 int]nal ( ! ,class3 roidea organs visc]a4 ,e*9oidea 7,sea ,class3 7,sea ,ur- ,cucumb]s74 ,cr9oidea,ord]3 ,ord]3 *9s74 7,fea!r ,ophiuroidea ,a/]oidea ,/>74 7,brittle 7,common ,/>s74 ,/>s74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,m>9e ,,worms ,"s gr\ps ( animals are s well def9$ t ! individual species conta9$ 9 !m c be assign$ _! prop] place )\t any difficulty1 ! ma9 *>act]i/ics by :i* ! gr\p is di/+ui%$ runn+ ) m or less precision ?r\gh\t ! s]ies2 b1 un=tunately ?is is n ! case ) ! #8worms1' :i* con/itute ! sub-k+dom ,v]mes4 ,"h we h a mo/ het]og5e\s assemblage ( animals1 collectively exhibit+ exce$+ly wide v>iations 9 bo? =m & /ructure4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! sea cucumb] z wormlike 9 =m1 & ?is creature is only "o ( a l>ge numb] ( wormlike animals t are n worms2 & x is also a fact t a consid]able numb] ( ! worms are n wormlike4 ,x appe>s z if ! sub-k+dom ,v]mes 7 a k9d ( receptacle into :i* we may ?r[ almo/ any inv]tebrate animal t does n readily fall 9 l9e ) ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! o!r important gr\ps2 = 9 x we h su* a v>i$ assemblage ( creatures t1 speak+ ( !m collectively z worms1 x becomes mo/ difficult1 if n absolutely impossible1 to say exactly :at a worm is2 & x is a "q :e!r ! sub-k+dom ought n to be divid$ into at lea/ two or ?ree gr\ps ( ! same /&+4 ,?is be+ ! case we c h>dly give a satisfactory summ>y ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p1 & !re=e x mu/ be und]/ood t 9 our attempt to d s we unavoidably exclude "s =ms t belong to x accord+ to our pres5t sy/em ( classification4 ,?is be+ rememb]$1 we w def9e worms z s(t-bodi$ & elongat$ animals1 exhibit+ a bilat]al symmetry 7t is1 hav+ app5dages & organs arrang$ symmetrically on ea* side ( a plane ext5d+ f ! dorsal to ! v5tral surface ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! body71 & ) ! body usually divid$ into a succession ( segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* resembles ! "o prec$+ & foll[+ x4 ,?\gh _m ( ! worms are g5]ally look$ ^u z un9t]e/+ creatures1 ( su* an unattractive appe>ance & ) su* deprav$ habits t !y are b5ea? respect1 yet a /udy ( ! sub-k+dom w prove t n only does x include a numb] ( wond]ful =ms ) ! mo/ m>vell\s life hi/ories1 b t "s ( !m are v beautiful objects2 & ?is la/ rem>k ref]s m p>ticul>ly to _m ( ! m>9e worms1 :i* come directly )9 ! scope ( our "w4 ,be=e pass+ on to ! special /udy & classification ( ! m>9e species1 h[ev]1 we mu/ say a few words conc]n+ ! worms 9 g5]al1 rem9d+ ! read] t all our /atem5ts reg>d+ ! anatomy ( ! creatures may be readily v]ifi$ by simple dissections ( "o or two typical species1 su* z ! common e>?worm1 ! fi%]man's lugworm1 ! sea m\se1 or ! common horse-lee* ( our fre%-wat] ponds4 ,) ?is object 9 view1 ! animal may be kill$ by imm]sion 9 _s1 !n p9n$ out 9 ! dissect+ tray "u wat]1 & ! body-wall op5$ by means ( a pair ( %>p-po9t$ scissors4 ,! dige/ive tube ( a worm runs completely ?r\gh ! l5g? ( ! body1 & ?\gh !re is no di/9ct head1 !re is always a m\?1 & ?is is (t5 provid$ ) horny jaws1 & sometimes also ) horny tee?1 ) :i* ! animal is enabl$ to inflict w\nds on its prey4 ,l ! prec$+ sub-k+dom--! ,e*9od]mata--worms possess a sy/em ( wat] tubes2 ?is sy/em1 h[ev]1 is n 9 any way connect$ ) ! function ( locomotion1 b is1 9 _m cases at lea/1 if n 9 all1 intimately associat$ ) ! process ( respiration4 ,x consi/s ( a s]ies ( tubes1 arrang$ 9 pairs 9 ! successive segm5ts1 communicat+ ) ! body-cavity int]nally1 & op5+ at ! ext]ior by means ( pores 9 ! cuticle4 ,9 "s !re is a highly organis$ sy/em ( bloodvessels1 conta9+ blood t is usually ei!r col\rless1 r$1 or gre51 b ! col\r ( ! blood is nev] due to ! pres5ce ( corpuscles1 z is ! case ) high] animals1 ! t9t be+ due to ! plasma or fluid portion ( ! blood2 & ?\gh worms _c be said to possess a true he>t1 yet !y (t5 h "o or m contractile bloodvessels :i* s]ve ! purpose ( propell+ ! blood4 ,mo/ worms possess a n]v\s sy/em1 &1 :]e ?is is pres5t1 x consi/s ( a *a9 ( ganglia1 plac$ along ! v5tral side ( ! body1 b5ea? ! dige/ive tube1 all unit$ by means ( a n]ve cord1 & di/ribut+ n]ves 9 pairs to v>i\s p>ts ( ! body2 & x may be well to note "h "o v important po9t ( di/9ction betwe5 ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! c5tral portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em 9 ! worms & high] inv]tebrates1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! correspond+ /ructure 9 ! v]tebrates3--,9 ! =m] ! ma9 axis ( ! sy/em1 consi/+1 z we h se51 ( a *a9 ( ganglia connect$ by a n]ve cord1 is inv>iably plac$ along ! v5tral portion ( ! body-cavity--! surface on :i* ! animal crawls2 :ile 9 ! v]tebrates ! axis ( ! n]v\s sy/em lies along ! upp] or dorsal "p ( ! body2 &1 in/ead ( ly+ 9 ! g5]al body-cavity1 9 company ) ! organs ( dige/ion & circulation1 is enclos$ 9 ! bony canal =m$ by ! v]tebral column4 ,x w be se5 f ?is t :5 x is desir$ to exam9e ! n]v\s sy/em ( ! inv]tebrate animal1 ! body-wall %\ld be op5$ along ! middle ( ! v5tral surface1 :ile1 9 ! v]tebrate1 ! c5tral axis %\ld be expos$ f above4 ,_m ( ! v]mes are p>asitic1 ei!r atta*+ !mselves to ! ext]ior ( o!r animals1 & d]iv+ n\ri%m5t by suck+ _! blood1 or !y are int]nal p>asites1 liv+ 9 ! dige/ive canal ( _! ho/s & p>tak+ ( ! dige/$ food ) :i* !y are almo/ p]petually surr\nd$1 or burr[+ into ! tissues & imbib+ ! nutritive fluids :i* !y conta92 & x is int]e/+ to /udy ev5 ^! degrad$ memb]s ( ! gr\p1 if only to obs]ve h[ _! physical organisation deg5]ates 9 accordance ) _! deprav$ mode ( liv+4 ,9 !m we f9d no dige/ive sy/em ) ! exception ( ! simple/ sac f :i* ! fluids !y swall[ may be absorb$1 = _! food is tak5 9 a condition ready = direct assimilation2 & ! food s obta9$ be+ readily absorb$ into all p>ts ( _! s(t bodies1 & be+ suffici5tly *>g$ ) oxyg5 gas by ! respiration ( _! ho/s1 !y require no special organs = circulation or respiration1 nor1 inde$1 d we f9d any4 ,fur!r1 we f9d t ! n]v\s sy/em is (t5 undevelop$2 = s9ce ! p>asites1 & especially ! int]nal ones1 are s pl5tifully surr\nd$ ) all ! necess>ies ( exi/5ce1 _! bodies are s simple 9 con/ruction t no complex n]v\s sy/em is requir$ to promote or control ei!r locomotion or int]nal functions4 ,ev5 ! g5]al body-cavity (t5 disappe>s 9 ^! degrad$ creatures1 ! int]nal organisation be+ ( su* a l[ type t !re is no necessity = x2 & all ! abundant n\ri%m5t absorb$ ov] & above t requir$ = ! su/5ance ( _! simple bodies is utilis$ 9 ! reproduction ( ! species2 consequ5tly we f9d1 z a rule1 ! reproductive organs well repres5t$1 & ! species conc]n$ v prolific4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact1 too1 t ^! p>asites1 9 _! e>lie/ /age1 possess organs :i* are pres5t 9 ! high] worms1 b :i* deg5]ate z !y approa* ! adult =m1 ?us indicat+ t !y h desc5d$ f m respectable memb]s ( ! animal _w1 & t ! l[ physical developm5t :i* !y ultimately atta9 is ! natural result ( _! base mode ( liv+4 ,! "y m>9e naturali/1 work+ on our coa/s1 w n be br\ght into intimate contact ) p>asitic worms to any l>ge ext5t1 yet we h said ?is little on p>asitism to %[ t ^! deg5]ate creatures are n really devoid ( int]e/1 & t !y w repay /udy :5ev] !y are f\nd4 ,!y w be m frequ5tly met ) dur+ ! exam9ation ( ! animals--usually high] types--t become _! ho/s1 & ?us !y h>dly come )9 ! scope ( ?is "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,a ,,turbell>ian1 ,,magnifi$ a1 m\?2 b1 cavity ( m\?2 c1 gullet2 d1 /oma*2 e1 bran*es ( /oma*2 f1 n]ve ganglion2 g to m1 reproductive organs4 ,! simple/ ( ! worms are ^? =m+ ! class ,turbell>ia1 s designat$ on acc\nt ( ! commotion !y produce 9 ! wat] surr\nd+ !m by means ( ! vibratile cilia t fr+e _! bodies--a *>act]i/ic t is also express$ by _! popul> "n ( ,:irl ,worms4 ,!y are usually small creatures1 ) s(t1 flatt5$1 unsegm5t$ bodies1 ?\gh "s ( ! l>g] species are really wormlike 9 =m1 & are m or less di/9ctly divid$ into a *a9 ( segm5ts4 ,_m ( !m are m>9e1 & may be se5 glid+ ov] /ones left uncov]$ by ! rec$+ tide ) a smoo? slug-l motion1 & :5 di/urb$ 9 a rock pool1 occasionally swimm+ ) a simil> smoo? motion by ! aid ( _! cilia4 ,!y avoid bright light1 & are consequ5tly g5]ally f\nd on ! "u surfaces ( /ones1 especially 9 r muddy situations1 & :]e ! /ones are cov]$ ) a slimy deposit ( l[ =ms ( life4 ,9 ^! turbell>ians ! m\? is situat$ on ! "u surface1 ?us enabl+ ! animal to obta9 its n\ri%m5t f ! slimy surface ov] :i* x moves1 & x is also provid$ ) an ext5sile proboscis t aids x 9 ! collection ( its food4 ,! dige/ive tube is g5]ally v complex 9 =m1 ext5d+ its bran*es into e "p ( ! s(t body2 &1 !re be+ no special organs ( respiration1 ! animal d]ives all ! oxyg5 requir$ by direct absorption f ! wat] ?r\gh ! s(t integum5t4 ,:5 se>*+ = turbell>ians on ! sea %ore "o mu/ be prep>$ to meet ) int]e/+ examples ( protective col\r+ t w r5d] a close exam9ation ( rocks & /ones absolutely necess>y4 ,"s ( ^! worms are ( a dull greyi% or br[ni% col\r1 s closely resembl+ t ( ! surface ov] :i* !y glide t !y are n easily di/+ui%$2 & ! ?9 bodies ( o!rs are s transp>5t t ! col\r ( ! /one b5ea? is visible ?r\gh !m1 ?us prev5t+ !m f be+ cle>ly obs]v$4 ,ov]turn$ /ones %\ld be exam9$ = _! flatt5$ bodies glid+ along rapidly 9 close contact ) ! surface4 ,!y may be remov$ )\t injury by plac+ a wet frond ( a sea we$ close to ! /one1 9 front ( "o end ( ! body1 & !n urg+ !m to glide on to x by g5tly t\*+ ! opposite end4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! turbell>ians rema9 p]fectly /ill :5 expos$ to ! light1 9 :i* case !y are ev5 m difficult to detect1 b a little practice w soon enable "o to di/+ui% !m ) read9ess4 ,alli$ to ! turbell>ians are ! ,spoon ,worms or ,squirt ,worms1 "s species ( :i* inhabit deep wat] r\nd our %ores1 :]e !y burr[ into ! s& or mud ( ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,^! =m ! class ,gephyrea1 & consi/ ( creatures ) sac-l or cyl9drical & elongat$ bodies1 & a protrusible proboscis1 :i* is (t5 ( great l5g?4 ,_! bodies are n di/9ctly segm5t$1 nor d !y be> any app5dages4 ,! sk9 is t\gh & horny1 & ! body-wall1 :i* is v ?ick & muscul>1 is (t5 contract$ :5 ! animal is di/urb$1 ?us caus+ a jet ( wat] to be =cibly eject$4 ,all ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! m>9e worms belong to ! ,annelida or ,*topoda1 popul>ly kn[n z ! ,bri/le-foot$ worms1 because _! locomotion is aid$ m or less by ! pres5ce ( /iff bri/les t project beyond ! surface ( ! sk94 ,^! are all highly organis$ worms1 mo/ly ) v elongat$ bodies t are di/9ctly segm5t$ ext]iorly by a numb] ( transv]se grooves1 :ile ! int]ior is correspond+ly divid$ into a numb] ( comp>tm5ts by means ( a s]ies ( septa4 ,9 addition to ! bri/les already m5tion$1 !re are (t5 num]\s app5dages1 b ^! mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! m p]fect app5dages ( ! ar?ropods1 to be h]eaft] describ$2 = :ile ! latt] are di/9ctly jo9t$ to ! body1 & are !mselves made up ( p>ts t are jo9t$ toge!r1 ! =m] are m]e outgr[?s ( ! body-wall4 ,! dige/ive & circulatory sy/ems are well develop$1 z is also ! sy/em ( wat] tubes t connect ! body-cavity ) ! ext]ior1 :ile ! body-cavity itself is full ( fluid4 ,?is gr\p ( worms is subdivid$ into two divisions1 ! _m bri/l$ 7,poly*ta7 & ! sp>sely bri/l$ 7,oligo*ta7 worms4 ,! latt] conta9 ! common e>?worms & "s less kn[n species1 :ile ! =m] include a numb] ( int]e/+ & ev5 beautiful worms1 all ( :i* are m>9e1 & _m ( !m among ! commone/ objects ( ! sea %ore4 ,^! ,poly*tes exhibit a great v>iety ( habit z well z ( appe>ance4 ,"s live 9 crevices ( ! rocks or "u /ones & we$s1 or make burr[s 9 ! s& or mud ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 & roam ab\t freely at times 9 se>* ( food4 ,!y are cont9ually com+ )9 ! k5 ( ! sea-side collector1 be+ reveal$ by almo/ e ov]turn$ /one ne> ! l[-wat] m>k1 & are (t5 se5 crawl+ ov] ! wet rocks j left uncov]$ by ! rec$+ tide2 :ile _! burr[s are (t5 s num]\s t hundr$s may be c\nt$ 9 e few squ>e feet4 ,b _m are s$5t>y species1 & ^! are n s g5]ally kn[n to "y sea-side naturali/s1 :o frequ5tly obs]ve1 & ev5 pres]ve1 ! int]e/+ homes !y con/ruct1 :ile less att5tion is giv5 to ! ar*itects t build !m4 ,x is v int]e/+ to obs]ve "s ( ! g5]al diff]5ces betwe5 ! rov+ & ! s$5t>y species--diff]5ces :i* illu/rate ! pr9ciple ( adaptation ( /ructure to habit4 ,! rov+ species are provid$ ) a lobe t ov]hangs ! m\?1 be>+ feel]s & eyes1 & are ?us enabl$ to seek out any desir$ pa? & to se>* = _! food4 ,!y are provid$ ) bri/les & o!r app5dages by means ( :i* !y c travel freely ov] ! surfaces ( solid objects1 & are able to swim well ei!r by undulations ( ! body1 or by fr+$ app5dages1 or bo?4 ,! c>nivor\s species1 too1 are provid$ ) /rong1 horny jaws1 & %>p1 curv$ tee?1 by means ( :i* !y c capture & hold _! prey4 ,! s$5t>y species1 on ! o!r h&1 unable to move ab\t 9 se>* ( food1 are suppli$ ) a numb] ( app5dages by means ( :i* !y c set up wat] curr5ts t[>ds _! m\?s1 & :i* also s]ve ! purpose ( special brea?+ organs1 &1 hav+ no means ( pursu+ & dev\r+ animals ( any size1 !y d n possess ! horny jaws & curv$ tee? s common 9 ! rov]s4 ,_! eyes1 too1 are less p]fectly develop$1 & ! tactile proboscis ( _! free-mov+ relatives is abs5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,ar5icola piscatorum ,( ! rov+ worms1 p]haps1 ! ,lugworm or ,s&worm 7,ar5icola piscatorum7 is ! be/ kn[n4 ,its burr[s may be se5 on almo/ e l[ s&y or muddy %ore1 &1 be+ s highly valu$ z a bait1 its g5]al appe>ance is well kn[n to all pr(essional & amateur sea fi%]s4 ,x rea*es a l5g? ( eight in*es or m1 & v>ies 9 col\r accord+ to ! s& or mud 9 :i* x lives4 ,! segm5ts ( ?is worm are v diff]5t 9 /ructure 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,^? 9 ! front ( ! body h a few tufts ( bri/les arrang$ 9 pairs1 :ile ! middle portion ( ! body has l>ge bru%-l tufts ( filam5t\s gills plac$ r close toge!r2 & ! h9dmo/ "p has no bri/les or app5dages ( any k9d1 & is s well fill$ ) ! s& or mud t x is q h>d & firm to ! t\*4 ,z is ! case ) our common e>?worms1 ! s& or mud is swall[$ 9 enorm\s quantities1 & ?is is n only ! means by :i* ! lugworm d]ives its food1 b also assi/s x consid]ably 9 mak+ its burr[s2 ! ext5t to :i* ?is creature c>ries on its "w ( excavation may be e/imat$ by ! ?\s&s ( little contort$1 worm-l heaps ( s& t lie on ! surface at e p]iod ( l[ wat]4 ,^! little heaps are kn[n z #8ca/+s1' & consi/ ( ! s& t pass$ ?r\gh ! worm's body z ! burr[+ proce$$4 ,! ,ragworm is ano!r species t is highly valu$ z bait4 ,x burr[s into ! odor\s mud t is s commonly deposit$ 9 h>b\rs & ! m\?s ( sluggi% riv]s4 ,9 ?is species ! segm5ts are simil> ?r\gh\t ! l5g? ( ! body1 & ! num]\s flatt5$ app5dages give x ! ragg$ appe>ance t has sugge/$ its popul> "n4 ,q a numb] ( m>9e worms closely alli$ to ! common ragworm1 & resembl+ x 9 g5]al =m1 are to be f\nd on our %ores4 ,_m ( ^! may be se5 by turn+ ov] /ones t are left expos$ at l[ tide1 :ile o!rs hide !mselves 9 snug little crevices ( ! rock1 or 9 ! empty %ells ( ! acorn b>nacle & v>i\s molluscs2 & "s species1 includ+ "o ( a bright-gre5 col\r1 creep freely ov] ! wet rocks 9 se>* ( food or home1 (t5 expos+ !mselves to ! rays ( a fi]ce summ] sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,! ,,sea ,,m\se ,! ,sea ,m\se 7,aphrodita aculeata7 is c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! rov+ m>9e worms1 &1 ?\gh seldom se5 above l[-wat] l9e1 may (t5 be obta9$ by ! sea-side collector ) ! aid ( fri5dly fi%]m51 :o sometimes f9d x pl5tifully among ! cont5ts ( _! trawl nets4 ,fail+ su* aid1 x may be look$ = among ! encru/$ /ones t are expos$ only at ! l[e/ spr+ tides1 especially 9 places :]e a c]ta9 am\nt ( mud has be5 deposit$ "u ! %elt] ( outly+ rocks2 & ! *ances ( success are mu* great] if ! se>* is made imm$iately aft] a /orm1 = at su* times mu* ( ! life t exi/s 9 deep wat] w h be5 driv5 %orew>d by ! =ce ( ! waves4 ,at fir/ sight ! sea m\se w\ld h>dly be associat$ ) ! worms2 =1 in/ead ( hav+ ! elongat$ & cyl9drical =m t is usually reg>d$ z *>act]i/ic ( ^! creatures1 x is broad & slug-l 9 %ape1 ! "u surface1 on :i* x crawls1 be+ flat1 :ile ! upp] side is convex4 ,! segm5tation ( ! body1 too1 is n readily se5 9 ! upp] surface on acc\nt ( ! ?ick felt-l cov]+ ( hairs1 b is at once app>5t :5 ! creature has be5 turn$ ov] to expose ! v5tral side4 ,:5 se5 = ! fir/ "t 9 its natural haunt "o naturally wond]s :at ! mov+ mass may be4 ,crawl+ sluggi%ly ov] incru/$ /ones1 or rema9+ p]fectly /ill 9 a muddy puddle t has be5 expos$ by ov]turn+ a /one1 x looks l a little m\nd ( mud itself1 ab\t f\r or five in*es long1 & its g5]al col\r & surface s closely resembles t ( its surr\nd+s t an inexp]i5c$ collector may nev] ev5 suspect t ! mass is a liv+ animal =m4 ,b take ! creature & wa% x 9 ! ne>e/ rock pool1 & x w be recognis$ z a broad segm5tal worm1 ?ickly cov]$ ) f9e hairs above1 & its sides adorn$ by bri/les t display a mo/ beautiful iridesc5ce4 ,x is n easy to see ! value ( ?is gorge\s col\r+ to ! animal1 & x is d\btful :e!r1 on acc\nt ( ! muddy nature ( ! creature's home1 su* col\r+ is (t5 display$ to ! view ( o!r inhabitants ( ! sea2 b x is well kn[n1 on ! o!r h&1 t sea mice are readily dev\r$ by fi%es1 ev5 ?\gh !y possess an armature ( /iff & %>p sp9es1 & t !y mu/ !re=e be (t5 pres]v$ f de/ruction by ! close resemblance ( ! g5]al col\r to t ( _! surr\nd+s4 ,! gills ( ! sea m\se are n prom95t app5dages1 z ) mo/ m>9e worms1 b are s(t fle%y /ructures situat$ b5ea? ! ov]lapp+ scales t lie hidd5 bel[ ! ?ick hair ( ! upp] surface4 ,z x is mo/ probable t ! read] may desire to pres]ve a sea m\se at "s "t or o!r1 a few words conc]n+ ! be/ me?ods ( do+ ?is may be ( value4 ,if x is to be pres]v$ 9 fluid1 x %\ld be ?or\ghly wa%$ to remove all ! mud t normally cov]s its body1 & !n plac$ 9 _s or =maldehyde1 bo? ( :i* fluids h no de/ructive effects on ! iridesc5t col\r+ ( ! bri/les4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x is desir$ to keep ! specim5 9 a dry /ate1 x %\ld fir/ be put into /rong _s conta9+ a few gra9s ( corrosive sublimate1 = a few days4 ,x %\ld !n be put "u consid]able pressure betwe5 sev]al ?icknesses ( absorb5t pap] to expel ! fluid x conta9s1 z well z all ! s(t] int]nal /ructures4 ,by ?is means x w h be5 squeez$ q flat1 s t x pres5ts any?+ b a natural appe>ance2 b ! sk9 may be bl[n out to ! normal %ape by means ( a glass tube ins]t$ into ! m\?1 & !n set aside to dry4 ,z ! wat] x orig9ally conta9$ has be5 extract$ by ! /rong _s1 ! dry+ takes place v quickly2 & ! small am\nt ( corrosive sublimate t has p5etrat$ into its sub/ance w be suffici5t to protect x f ! invasion ( ^? pe/s t commonly attack our museum specim5s4 ,pass+ n[ to ! s$5t>y or fix$ worms1 we meet ) "s t are v int]e/+ & beautiful creatures1 ev5 :5 consid]$ ap>t f ! wond]ful homes !y con/ruct4 ,! sev]al species ( ! g5us ,t]ebella =m a s(t & flexible tube by b9d+ toge!r p>ticles ( s&1 %ells1 or mud ) a /icky sub/ance t exudes f _! own bodies4 ,^! tubes are to be f\nd 9 abundance betwe5 ! tide-m>ks on almo/ e l[1 s&y %ore1 ! nature ( ! tubes v>y+1 ( c\rse1 ) ! "* ( ! mat]ials at ! disposal ( ! build]4 ,9 "s cases ! tubes are expos$ ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( _! l5g?1 b v frequ5tly !y are m or less buri$ 9 ! s& or o!r mat]ial ( ! bea*1 s t "o has to dig to a mod]ate dep? 9 ord] to extricate !m4 ,9 ei!r case1 h[ev]1 ! tube ( ,t]ebella may be kn[n by ! free tufts ( s&y ?reads t =m a deep fr+e ar\nd its m\?4 ,^! worms almo/ inv>iably select a %elt]$ situation = _! abode1 & %\ld be se>*$ = at ! foot ( rocks1 or "u /ones1 & x is no easy matt] to move ! buri$ tube ) its occupant intact4 ,:5 turn+ ov] ! /ones ( a s&y or muddy bea* "o frequ5tly discov]s ! sl5d]1 ?read-l t5tacles ( ! ,t]ebella1 toge!r ) ! s&y filam5ts t surr\nd ! m\? ( ! tube1 ! rema9d] ( ! tube & its occupant be+ b5ea? ! surface1 & ! gr\nd is (t5 s h>d & /ony t a /rong tool is necess>y to dig x out2 b ! "w entail$ w be amply repaid if a p]fect specim5 be obta9$ & plac$ = obs]vation 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,tube-,,build+ ,,worms3 ,t]ebella 7,,left71 ,s]pula 7,,middle71 ,sabella 7,,"r7 ,! read] may possibly be acqua9t$ ) ! tubes or cases t are con/ruct$ by ! l>v ( caddis flies 9 fre%-wat] ponds & /reams1 & p]haps has notic$ ! ease ) :i* ^! creatures may be made to con/ruct new homes aft] hav+ be5 turn$ out ( doors4 ,simil> exp]im5ts may be p]=m$ ) ,t]ebella2 = :5 ! worm has be5 extricat$ f its tube )\t injury--a "w t requires great c>e on acc\nt ( ! s(t & sl5d] nature ( ! creature's body--& plac$ 9 ! aqu>ium ) a b$ ( suitable mat]ial1 x w build itself a new dwell+4 ,z ) ! caddis l>v1 ! diff]5t species may be kn[n by ! mat]ials !y select to con/ruct _! tubes1 b 9 captivity !y may be compell$ to employ o!r ?an _! fav\rite sub/ance = ?is purpose4 ,x is un=tunate1 h[ev]1 t ,t]ebella is a nocturnal build]1 & ?us its movem5ts are n s easily obs]v$4 ,:5 remov$ f its tube its fir/ movem5ts sugge/ a res5tm5t at ! untimely ejection4 ,?is be+ ov]1 x seeks a %elt]$ situation b5ea? ! edge ( a /one1 &1 at nightfall1 comm5ces ! sl[ process ( ! con/ruction ( a fre% home4 ,! p>ticles ( mat]ial at h& are seiz$ by ! t5tacles1 plac$ 9 position r\nd ! body1 :]e !y are held toge!r by ! /icky secretion already m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,t]ebella ,,remov$ ,,f ,,its ,,tube ,! t5tacles are employ$ 9 two di/9ct ways3--,!y may be flatt5$ into sl5d] ribbon-l /ructures1 :i*1 by be+ fold$ longitud9ally at any po9t1 may be made to grasp a p>ticle ( s&2 &1 9 addition to ?is1 ! tip ( ! t5tacle may be conv]t$ into a m9ute cup-%ap$ suck] by ! )drawal ( ! fluid x conta9s into ! body4 ,"s species ( ,t]ebella build _! tubes ( ord9>y s&1 :ile o!rs select fragm5ts ( %ells4 ,"s employ mud only1 & occasionally we meet ) tubes con/ruct$ ( ! silky secretion ( ! body ) h>dly any =eign matt]4 ,we sometimes see edges ( rocks1 on l[1 s&y %ores1 cov]$ ) :at appe>s to be l>ge masses ( consolidat$ s&1 full ( holes a little m ?an an eigh? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 & ^! masses are (t5 s ext5sive & s firm t !y seem to =m ! great] "p ( ! rock itself4 ,su* masses are p>ticul>ly abundant on ! s\? coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 b are m or less pl5tiful on mo/ s&y %ores ( ,great ,brita94 ,!y consi/ ( ! tubes ( a species ( ! m>9e worm ,sabella1 :i* h be5 built up mu* 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ,t]ebella1 b usually exi/ 9 su* numb]s 9 ! same spot t1 toge!r ) ! s& t has be5 wa%$ betwe5 !m1 !y =m ! d5se masses j describ$4 ,a clu/] ( "s doz5s ( ^! tubes may be deta*$ ) ! aid ( a hamm] & *isel2 or1 9 "s in/ances1 :]e ! mass ( tubes is n held s firmly toge!r1 by ! m]e pressure ( ! h&2 & x w !n be obs]v$ t ea* tube consi/s ( a flexible membrane1 ( a some:at lea!ry nature1 =m$ by a /icky secretion f ! body ( ! worm1 ) its out] surface cov]$ ) gra9s ( s&4 ,! tubes may be easily op5$1 & ! occupants extract$ = exam9ation1 :5 x w be obs]v$ t ! front or upp] portion ( ! worm is %ort & ?ick1 :ile ! h9dmo/ portion is mu* ?9n]1 & is d\bl$ =w>ds 9 ! tube4 ,! body is also provid$ ) num]\s bri/les1 by means ( :i* ! worm is enabl$ to grasp ! membran\s l9+ ( ! tube1 & ?us secure a firm hold )9 its home4 ,a clu/] ( ^! tubes %\ld be plac$ 9 a rock pool1 or 9 ! m>9e aqu>ium1 :5 ! worms may be se5 to protrude gradually1 & expose a l>ge numb] ( fea!r$ t5tacles1 :i*1 by _! incessant motion1 keep up ! con/ant circulation ( ! wat] = ! purpose ( respiration z well z to br+ food p>ticles t[>ds ! m\?s ( ! worms4 ,x is possible to keep ^! worms alive = "s "t 9 ! aqu>ium1 b special c>e is requir$ = ! reason t x is a v difficult matt] to secure a clu/] ( tubes )\t injury to a c]ta9 numb] :i* are sure to be brok5 or o!rwise damag$2 & ^!1 dy+ & decompos+ )9 _! homes1 spe$ily pollute ! wat]4 ,h5ce x is necess>y to keep a %>p wat* = dead specim5s1 :i* %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be remov$ at once4 ,! pres5ce ( a putrefy+ worm may (t5 be detect$ by ! appe>ance ( a :iti% fungoid gr[? r\nd ! m\? ( :at appe>s to be an empty tube2 & if1 ?r\gh neglect1 ! wat] ( ! aqu>ium has be5 all[$ to become contam9at$ by ! products ( decomposition1 x w (t5 happ5 t "s ( ! liv+ worms w come entirely out f _! tubes1 z if to seek a m sanit>y situation4 ,?us1 ! exit ( worms f _! homes may always be look$ ^u z po9t+ to a suspici\s condition ( ! wat] :i*1 if n correct$ imm$iately1 may lead to ! dea? ( all4 ,! species we h briefly describ$ is by f> ! commone/ ( ! g5us ,sabella1 b !re are sev]al o!rs to be f\nd on our %ores4 ,"s are ( a solit>y nature1 & con/ruct a s&y tube s mu* l t ( a c]ta9 species ( ,t]ebella t !y may be mi/ak5 = t g5us4 ,ano!r solit>y species builds a h>d /ony tube ( c>bonate ( lime t has be5 extract$ f ! sea wat]2 & al?\gh x is h>dly possible to take ! live worm f ?is calc>e\s tube )\t injury1 ! animal may be obta9$ intact = exam9ation or pres]vation by dissolv+ away ! tube 9 dilute hydro*loric acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,a ,,tube ,,( ,s]pula ,,atta*$ ,,to ,a ,,%ell ,:ile engag$ 9 collect+ specim5s on ! sea %ore we are cont9ually meet+ ) /ones & %ells t are m or less cov]$ ) :ite1 limy tubes twi/$ into all mann] ( s]p5t9e =ms4 ,^! are ! tubes ( o!r m>9e worms kn[n z ! ,s]pul1 :i*1 l ! species previ\sly m5tion$1 are int]e/+ objects = ! aqu>ium4 ,! tubes !mselves are wor?y ( /udy & pres]vation1 m especially z !y v>y 9 =m1 & may1 to "s ext5t1 provide a means by :i* ! diff]5t species may be id5tifi$4 ,!y are compos$ ( f9e lay]s ( calc>e\s matt] secret$ by ! body ( ! worm )91 & l9$ by a ?9 lea!ry membrane :i* may be easily expos$ by dissolv+ away ! m9]al matt] z j describ$4 ,"s are triangul> 9 section1 & (t5 di/9ctly keel$1 :ile o!rs are cyl9drical1 & flatt5$ m or less on ! l[] side4 ,! triangul> tubes are atta*$ to /ones or %ells ?r\gh\t _! l5g?1 b ! cyl9drical ones are (t5 elevat$ above ! surface 9 ! wid] & new] "p4 ,if a clu/] ( ^! tubes1 fre%ly ga!r$ f betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 be plac$ 9 ! aqu>ium1 ! worms w soon protrude ! =emo/ portion ( _! bodies1 expos+ beautiful fan-l gills1 (t5 brilliantly col\r$ 9 %ades ( sc>let1 blue1 or purple1 :i* are kept 9 motion 9 su* a mann] z to convey wat]1 & consequ5tly also food1 t[>ds ! m\?4 ,! gills are ( c\rse1 ri*ly suppli$ ) blood1 = _! ma9 function is to arate t liquid by expos+ x to ! wat] 9 ord] to absorb oxyg5 gas4 ,! body ( ! worm is provid$ also ) little cilia1 :i*1 by _! con/ant vibratory motion1 keep up a circulation ( wat] ?r\gh ! tube2 & ?is n only keeps ! tubul> home free f excrem5t & o!r s$im5t>y matt]1 b also probably assi/s 9 ! function ( respiration by br++ fre% supplies ( wat] 9 contact ) ! animal's s(t & absorb5t sk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,s]pula ,,remov$ ,,f ,,its ,,tube ,:5 ! worms are di/urb$ !y imm$iately )draw !mselves )9 ! tubes1 ?is be+ done by ! aid ( ! num]\s m9ute hooklets on ! surface ( ! body t enable ! worms to cl+ firmly to ! membran\s l9+s ( _! homes2 & x w !n be obs]v$ t ! m\? ( ea* tube is clos$ by a lid 7op]culum71 :i* hangs z by a h+e :5 n 9 use4 ,^! op]culi v>y mu* 9 "*1 & supply ano!r aid 9 ! id5tification ( ! v>i\s species4 ,!y diff] mu* 9 %ape1 & may be ei!r membran\s1 horny1 or calc>e\s4 ,little calc>e\s tubes1 some:at simil> to ^? ( ! ,s]pul1 b always 9 ! =m ( a spiral1 may (t5 be se5 on /ones & %ells1 & ! fronds ( sea we$s1 sometimes s closely pack$ toge!r z to almo/ entirely cov] ! surface4 ,! av]age diamet] ( ^! spirals is only ab\t a sixte5? ( an in*1 & _m are s small t a l5s is necess>y to disc]n _! %ape4 ,9 g5]al =m !y closely resemble "s ( ! small species ( ,planorbis %ells t are s common 9 our ponds & /reams1 b ^! latt] are ! %ells ( freely mov+ molluscs1 & are g5]ally ( a br[ni% col\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,! ,,sea ,,mat 7,flu/ra7 ,! m9ute worms t live )9 ! tubes 9 "q belong to ! g5us ,spirorbis1 & are v simil> to ^? ( ! ,s]pul1 & _! pretty plum$ gills may be se5 ) a l5s :5 a clu/] ( ! tubes is plac$ 9 a %all[ vessel ( sea wat]4 ,a %>p tap on ! table on :i* ! vessel re/s w cause ! little creatures to sudd5ly retire into _! homes1 ! entrances to :i* may !n be se5 to be clos$ by an op]culum4 ,!re is an int]e/+ gr\p ( animals kn[n collectively z ! ,bryozoa or ,polyzoa1 or1 popul>ly1 z ! ,moss ,polyps1 t are (t5 class$ ) ! worms1 ?\gh !y are n1 accord+ to ! g5]al idea1 wormlike 9 appe>ance4 ,!y live 9 pretty colonies1 _m ( :i* are c]ta9ly famili> objects to all :o ramble along ! sea %ore4 ,"s =m pretty lacelike pat*es on ! fronds ( sea we$s1 :ile o!rs are built up into flat1 frond-l1 bran*+ objects t are (t5 mi/ak5 = sea we$s by "y collectors4 ,among ! latt] is ! ,sea ,mat 7,flu/ra71 t is s commonly wa%$ up on ! %ore 9 great abundance4 ,an exam9ation ) a l5s w %[ t1 9 bo? in/ances1 ! mass consi/s ( v _m m9ute cells1 ) horny or calc>e\s walls1 ! m\? ( ea* cell be+ close by an op]culum4 ,on plac+ ! colony 9 sea wat]1 h[ev]1 we f9d t ea* little cell is ! home ( a small animal1 t protrudes f ! cell1 expos+ a m\? t is surr\nd$ by a cr[n ( t5tacles4 ,a mod]ately high magnify+ p[] w also %[ t ! t5tacles are cov]$ ) m9ute vibratile cilia1 by means ( :i* curr5ts ( wat] are set 9 motion t[>ds ! m\? to supply ! animal ) food4 ,"s1 too1 h a lip by means ( :i* ! m\? may be clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,flu/ra ,,9 ,,its ,,cell1 ,,magnifi$ ,9 addition to ! colonies j briefly describ$1 !re are o!r moss polyps t build up little1 bran*+1 tree-l clu/]s :i* closely resemble "s ( ! sea firs1 & _m ( ^! are to be f\nd 9 ! %elt]$ crevices ( rocks1 or atta*$ to ! "u sides ( /ones betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,:ile se>*+ ! surfaces ( rocks & we$s at l[ tide1 "o's f+]s w be con/antly com+ 9 contact ) fix$1 s(t-bodi$ animals t sudd5ly eject a f9e /ream ( wat] z !y are t\*$4 ,^! are ! ,sea ,squirts1 sometimes spok5 ( z ! ,tunicate ,worms4 ,!y are semi-transp>5t creatures ( oval or elongat$ =m1 & usually ( a pale yell[1 br[n1 or p9k col\r2 & d]ive _! popul> "n f ! fact t !y are cov]$ ext]nally by a cont9u\s tunic or wall ( t\gh /ructure4 ,al?\gh ! tunicates resemble worms 9 _m po9ts ( /ructure1 x is int]e/+ to note t 9 _! "y or l>val /ate ! body consi/s ( two cavities1 "o ( :i* conta9s ! int]nal organs1 :ile 9 ! o!r ! c5tral portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em is develop$1 9 :i* respects !y resemble ! v]tebrate or back-bon$ animals--fi%es1 amphibians1 reptiles1 birds1 & mammals4 ,at ?is /age1 too1 ! creatures possess a tail t is support$ by a rod ( gri/le simil> to t :i* gives place to ! backbone 9 ! develop+ v]tebrate4 ,^! features1 ?\gh only transitory1 are reg>d$ z a m>k ( relation%ip to ! high] =ms ( animal life1 & ?us ! tunicates h be5 sep>at$ f ! sub-k+dom ,v]mes by "s zoologi/s1 & giv5 an exalt$ place at ! top ( ! inv]tebrate scale1 :]e !y =m a sub-k+dom ( _! own1 & are look$ ^u z a l9k connect+ ! inv]tebrates ) ! v]tebrates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,sea ,,squirt ,be=e pass+ on to ! next sub-k+dom1 we %\ld obs]ve t ! int]e/+ ,rotif]s or ,:eel ,animals also belong to ! ,v]mes2 b al?\gh _m ( ^! m9ute creatures are to be f\nd 9 sea wat]1 _! pr9cipal home is ! /agnant wat] ( fre%-wat] ponds & dit*es1 & ?us we may be excus$ = neglect+ !m "h4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,m>9e ,,molluscs ,! sub-k+dom ,mollusca includes a great v>iety ( s(t-bodi$ animals :i* diff] f ! memb]s ( ! la/ division 9 ! fact t !y are nev] segm5t$1 & 9 ! possession ( a ?ick out] cov]+1 ( a lea!ry nature1 :i* completely envelops ! body1 & :i* usually secretes a calc>e\s %ell ( "o or m p>ts4 ,a g5]al idea ( ! ext5t ( ! gr\p may be =m$ :5 we /ate t x conta9s ! ,octopus & ! ,cuttlefi%2 all ,snails & ,slugs1 & animals ( a simil> nature2 & all ^? num]\s #8bivalves' :i* are repres5t$ by ! well-kn[n ,oy/]s1 ,mussels1 ,scallops1 c4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( ! molluscs are aquatic 9 habit2 & ( ^! su* a l>ge proportion are m>9e t ! gr\p provides pl5ty ( occupation = ! sea-side naturali/4 ,?is be+ ! case1 we %all devote ! pres5t *apt] to a description ( ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ^! animals1 & to ! pr9ciples ( _! classification1 illu/rat+ our rem>ks by a few selections f all ! *ief divisions4 ,al?\gh1 z we h already h9t$1 ! body ( a mollusc g5]ally be>s b little resemblance to t ( ! typical elongat$ & segm5t$ worm1 yet ! /udy ( ! e>lie/ /ages ( ! =m] %[s t a c]ta9 relation%ip exi/s betwe5 ! two sub-k+doms1 ! newly hat*$ mollusc be+ (t5 a m9ute free-swimm+ creature ) exp&$ lobes fr+$ ) cilia1 & be>+ a resemblance to c]ta9 ( ! ,rotif]s1 ,moss ,polyps1 & o!r animals t are includ$ among ! ,v]mes4 ,b 9 ! adult molluscs ?is resemblance is lo/1 ^! creatures be+ g5]ally easily di/+ui%$ f all o!rs by c]ta9 well-m>k$ ext]nal features1 z well z by int]nal *>act]s t are peculi> to !m & fairly con/ant ?r\gh\t ! gr\p4 ,! ext]nal %ell1 :]e x exi/s1 is usually compos$ ( "o or ( two p>ts1 & !re=e we speak ( univalve & bivalve molluscs2 & no int]nal skeleton ( any k9d is to be f\nd except 9 ! division conta9+ ! ,cuttlefi%es1 ! #8bone' ( :i* is "o ( ! common objects wa%$ up on our %ores by ! break]s4 ,9 all ! molluscs !re is a well-=m$ dige/ive tube1 & (t5 a complex arrangem5t ( small tee? :i* sev] ! food by a rasp-l action4 ,!re is also a well-=m$ he>t1 consi/+ ( two or m cavities1 by means ( :i* ! blood is =c$ ?r\gh ! body2 b1 z a rule1 blood vessels are ei!r few or abs5t1 ! blood be+ driv5 ?r\gh spaces betwe5 ! tissues t s]ve ! same purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,l>v ,,( ,,molluscs v1 ciliat$ #8velum'2 f1 rudim5tal foot ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a few masses ( n]ve sub/ance 7ganglia71 connect$ by n]ve cords1 & s5d+ (f fibres to v>i\s p>ts ( ! body1 ! pr9cipal ganglion be+ "o situat$ close to ! m\?1 & (t5 surr\nd+ ! fir/ portion ( ! dige/ive tube4 ,! animals ( ?is sub-k+dom are gr\p$ into ?ree pr9cipal & well-m>k$ divisions--! ,lamellibran*s1 or ,plate-gill$ molluscs1 ! gills ( :i* are compos$ ( plate-l lay]s1 & ! headless bodies enclos$ 9 a bivalve %ell2 ! ,cephalophora1 or head-be>+ molluscs1 protect$ by a univalve %ell2 & ! ,cephalopoda1 or ,head-foot$ molluscs1 s call$ because ! m\? is surr\nd$ by t5tacles or arms by :i* ! animal c cl+ to objects or seize its prey4 ,we %all deal ) ^! ?ree divisions 9 ! above ord]1 tak+ fir/ ! bivalves1 ! %ells ( :i* are f\nd 9 great v>iety along our %ores4 ,! g5]al nature ( a lamellibran* is easily made out by ! exam9ation ( "o ( ! common species t may be obta9$ alive on any "p ( ! coa/1 su* z ! ,edible ,mussel1 ! ,cockle1 or ! ,oy/]1 & ! read] w d well to secure a few specim5s & exam9e !m ) ! aid ( ! foll[+ description ( ! pr9cipal di/+ui%+ features4 ,! %ell is =m$ ( two valves1 unit$ by a h+e :i* is sometimes ( ! simple/ possible description1 b :i* (t5 exhibits a beautiful arrangem5t ( int]lock+ tee?4 ,a ligam5t ( flexible & ela/ic sub/ance (t5 holds ! two valves toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,%ell ,,( ,,! ,,prickly ,,cockle 7,c>dium aculeatum7 ,,%[+ ,,umbo ,,& ,,h+e2 ,,also ,,! ,,int]ior ,,%[+ ,,! ,,tee? ,! read] has probably obs]v$ t ! valves ( a dead lamellibran* usually gape4 ,?is is due ei!r to ! pull ex]t$ by a ligam5t t is atta*$ to ! valves outside ! h+e1 or to ! pressure ( an int]nal c>tilage :i* unites ! valves )91 & :i* is compress$ :5 ! %ell is clos$4 ,:5 ! animal is alive1 x has ! p[] ( clos+ its %ell by ! contraction ( ! adductor muscles1 to be pres5tly describ$1 & :5 ! valves are br\ght toge!r by ?is means ! ext]nal ligam5t is m or less /ret*$1 or ! c>tilage )91 :i* is also an ela/ic mat]ial1 is compress$4 ,exam9+ ! %ell f ! ext]ior we obs]ve t ea* valve has a nucleus 7! umbo7 close to ! h+e1 r\nd :i* are usually a numb] ( m or less di/9ct conc5tric l9es1 ext5d+ to ! l[] or v5tral m>g94 ,?is nucleus repres5ts ! :ole %ell ( ! "y mollusc1 & ! l9es are ! l9es ( gr[?1 ea* "o m>k+ ! extreme limit ( ! valve at a p>ticul> p]iod ( ! animal's exi/5ce4 ,fur!r x w be obs]v$ t ! l9es ( gr[? are (t5 wid] ap>t 9 "s directions ?an 9 o!rs1 ?us d5ot+ ! unequal rate ( gr[? t det]m9$ ! =m ( ! adult %ell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,int]ior ,,( ,,bivalve ,,%ell1 ,,%[+ ,,muscul> ,,sc>s ,,& ,,pallial ,,l9e ,! %ell ( a bivalve is (t5 made up ( two v di/9ct lay]s1 ! out] "o call$ ! prismatic lay] because1 :5 exam9$ microscopically1 x is se5 to consi/ ( m9ute v]tical prisms ( calc>e\s matt]2 & ! inn] "o pres5t+ a beautiful pe>ly iridesc5ce1 due to ! fact t x is made up ( a numb] ( extremely ?9 & f9ely wav$ lay]s ( calc>e\s sub/ance t h ! p[] ( decompos+ light4 ,?is latt] lay] is secret$ by ! :ole surface ( ! mantle t lies 9 contact ) x1 :ile ! out]1 prismatic portion ( ! %ell is =m$ only by ! free edge ( ! mantle2 & we (t5 f9d a di/9ct l9e 7! pallial l9e71 "s little di/ance f ! v5tral m>g9 t m>ks ! junction ( ! muscle ( ! mantle ) ! %ell4 ,! %ape ( ?is l9e is a v important feature ( ! %ell1 s9ce x is ( great value 9 ! det]m9ation ( relation%ips4 ,fur!r1 ! inn] surface ( ea* valve is m>k$ by ! impressions or sc>s ( o!r muscles1 ! numb] & position ( :i* v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t species4 ,!y include ! adductor muscle or muscles 7"o or two 9 numb]7 t pull ! valve toge!r2 ! muscle or muscles t )draw ! foot1 call$ ! retractor p$is1 & ! protractor p$is t pulls ! foot out4 ,n only are ^! sc>s (t5 v di/9ct 9 !mselves1 b we may frequ5tly obs]ve l9es runn+ tang5tially f _! circumf]5ces t[>ds ! umbo1 to :i* !y all conv]ge4 ,^! l9es enclose ! areas previ\sly occupi$ by ! muscul> impressions2 9 o!r words1 !y %[ ! directions 9 :i* ! muscles nam$ above %ift$ _! positions z ! animal grew4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,a ,,lamellibran* f1 m\?1 ) labial palps2 g1 /oma*2 i1 inte/9e1 surr\nd$ by ! liv]2 a1 anus2 r1 po/]ior adductor muscle2 e1 ant]ior adductor muscle2 c1 he>t2 d1 n]ve ganglion2 m1 mantle 7! "r lobe has be5 remov$72 s1 siphons2 h1 gills2 ft1 foot ,n[ let u obta9 a few species ( live lamellibran*s1 put !m 9 a vessel ( sea wat]1 & obs]ve !m aft] !y h be5 left undi/urb$ = a "t4 ,! %ell w be se5 to gape slightly1 expos+ ! edges ( ! two lobes ( ! mantle :i* lie closely on ! inn] surface ( ! valves1 ?us completely envelop+ ! body ( ! animal2 & at "o end1 usually ! n>r[] end 9 ! case ( irregul> %ells1 we %all obs]ve two op5+s--! siphons1 sometimes enclos$ )9 a tube =m$ by a prolongation ( ! unit$ mantle lobes1 & protrud+ f betwe5 ! valves1 & sometimes =m$ by ! m]e contact ( ! mantle lobes at two adjac5t po9ts4 ,if n[ we introduce a little c>m9e or o!r col\r+ matt] by means ( a glass tube1 sett+ x free ne> ! l[] siphon--! "o m remote f ! umbo ( ! %ell1 we obs]ve t x ent]s ! body ( ! mollusc ?r\gh ?is op5+1 & reappe>s %ortly aft]w>ds ?r\gh ! upp] or dorsal siphon4 ,?us we see t wat] curr5ts are incessantly circulat+ 9 ! body ( ! animal1 ent]+ by ! inhal5t or v5tral siphon1 & leav+ by ! exhal5t or dorsal siphon4 ,^! curr5ts are ma9ta9$ by ! vibratile action ( ?\s&s ( m9ute cilia belong+ to cells t l9e ! cavities ( ! body1 & s]ve to supply ! animal ) bo? air & food2 = lamellibran*s1 be+ gill-brea!rs1 d]ive ! oxyg5 necess>y = respiration f ! air held 9 solution by ! wat]1 & _! food consi/s entirely ( ! m9ute liv+ creatures t always ab\nd 9 natural wat]s4 ,aga91 we %all f9d t "s ( our live bivalves h protrud$ a ?ick1 conical1 fle%y mass--! foot1 f ! opposite end ( ! body4 ,?is organ is ! means ( locomotion 9 ! case ( ! burr[+ & o!r free-mov+ bivalves1 b is develop$ to a less ext5t 9 ^? species t lead a s$5t>y life4 ,?us1 ! common ,edible ,mussel secretes a tuft ( /rong silky fibres 7byssus7 by means ( :i* x fixes itself to a rock or o!r body1 & !re=e does n ne$ ! assi/ance ( a muscul> foot2 & an exam9ation ( its body w %[ t ! foot is v small 9 proportion to ! size ( ! animal1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! w&]+ & burr[+ species4 ,! same is true ( ! oy/]1 :i* lies fix$ on its side1 ! l[] valve be+ atta*$ to ! surface on :i* x re/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,mytilus edulis1 ,,) ,,byssus ,we h made use ( ! t]ms dorsal & v5tral 9 speak+ ( ! %ell ( a bivalve1 & x is important t ^! & a few o!r simil> t]ms be well und]/ood by ^? :o are ab\t to read ! descriptions ( ! animals1 or :o may desire to describe !m !mselves4 ,to d ?is1 take a bivalve 9 y\r h&1 & hold x be=e y 9 su* a position t ! h+e is upp]mo/1 & ! siphons turn$ t[>ds y4 ,! foot ( ! animal is n[ po9t+ 9 ! direction y are look+1 & ! m\?1 situat$ at ! base ( ! foot1 is also direct$ ! same way4 ,y h n[ plac$ ! %ell1 &1 ( c\rse1 also ! animal1 9 su* a position t its dorsal side is upp]mo/1 ! v5tral side bel[1 ! ant]ior end turn$ f y1 ! po/]ior 7(t5 n>r[]7 end t[>ds y1 ! "r valve on y\r "r1 & ! left valve on y\r left4 ,kn[+ ! exact uses ( ^! few t]ms y are 9 a bett] position to und]/& ! descriptions ( bivalves1 & to locate ! exact situations ( ! v>i\s int]nal organs nam$ 9 su* descriptions4 ,a great deal ( ! int]nal anatomy ( a bivalve mollusc may be made out by easy dissections1 & al?\gh ! /ructure ( ! diff]5t species v>ies 9 sev]al details1 ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p are practically ! same 9 all & may be ga!r$ by ! exam9ation ( a few specim5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,a ,,bivalve ,,%ell 7,tapes virg9eana7 a1 ant]ior2 p1 po/]ior2 l1 left valve2 r1 "r valve2 u1 umbo1 on dorsal side ,= ?is purpose ! %ell %\ld be pris$ op5 by means ( "s flatt5$ b blunt implem5t1 su* z ! h&le ( a scalpel1 & !n1 aft] ins]t+ a piece ( cork to keep ! valves ap>t1 g5tly remove ! mantle lobe f ! valve :i* is held upp]mo/ ) ! same implem5t1 be+ c>eful to sep>ate x f ! %ell )\t do+ any damage to ! s(t /ructures4 ,sep>at+ ! mantle f ! %ell 9 ?is way we meet ) "o or m h>d masses ( muscle t are jo9$ v firmly to ! latt]4 ,^! are ! adductor muscles t pass directly f valve to valve1 & on cutt+ !m ?r\gh close to ! upp]mo/ valve1 ! latt] c be rais$ s z to expose ! body ( ! animal1 mo/ly hidd5 by ! ov]ly+ mantle lobe4 ,be=e rais+ ! upp] mantle lobe we obs]ve ! he>t1 on ! dorsal m>g9 ( ! body1 ne> ! h+e ( ! %ell1 situat$ 9 a transp>5t cavity 7! p]ic>dium7 conta9+ a col\rless fluid4 ,x consi/s ( at lea/ two cavities--a ?ick-wall$ v5tricle & a ?9-wall$ auricle1 & its sl[ pulsations may be wat*$ ) or )\t ! use ( a h& l5s4 ,on op5+ ! p]ic>dium ! he>t is /ill bett] se51 & if we c>efully cut into ! ?ick-wall$ v5tricle we f9d a tube runn+ completely ?r\gh its cavity4 ,?is is ! rectum--! la/ "p ( ! dige/ive tube1 t comm5ces at ! m\?1 & t]m9ates 9 a cavity at ! po/]ior end communicat+ ) ! exhal5t siphon4 ,aft] not+ ! nature & position ( ! "o or two adductor muscles previ\sly cut ?r\gh1 we turn ! upp] mantle lobe upw>ds1 lay+ x back ov] ! h+e ( ! %ell1 cutt+ x ?r\gh at ! bases ( ! siphons if we f9d x is unit$ ) ! opposite lobe at ^? po9ts2 or1 if n unit$1 we obs]ve two po9ts at :i* ! lobes t\* ea* o!r 9 ord] to =m ! siphonal op5+s4 ,sev]al organs are n[ expos$ to view4 ,! l[] mantle lobe is se5 9 close contact ) ! valve bel[ x1 & if we t\* its edge we %all probably obs]ve t x is retract$ slightly by ! contraction ( its own muscul> fibres4 ,! tip ( ! foot is also se5 project+ t[>ds ! ant]ior end1 its base be+ hidd5 betwe5 ! two sets ( plate-l gills t ext5d along ! l5g? ( ! body4 ,on t\*+ ! tip ( ! foot we f9d x retract by ! contraction ( ! muscul> fibres ( :i* x is compos$1 aid$1 p]haps1 by ! action ( "o or m retractor p$is muscles ) :i* x is suppli$4 ,on rais+ ! upp] gill-plates we may obs]ve ! d>k col\r ( ! dige/ive gl& 7liv]7 at ! base ( ! foot1 & also see two or m t5tacles or labial palpi on ! ant]ior side ( ! same4 ,betwe5 ! labial palpi is ! m\?1 :i* leads into ! /oma* by a %ort1 wide tube1 & !n into a convolut$ tube :i* f9ally passes ?r\gh ! he>t1 & t]m9ates ne> ! exhal5t siphon z above describ$4 ,! :ole l5g? ( ?is tube may be foll[$ by c>eful dissection1 its direction be+ det]m9$ at %ort int]vals by prob+ x ) a bri/le t has be5 tipp$ ) a little melt$ seal+ wax4 ,x w be se5 to w9d ?r\gh ! base ( ! foot1 surr\nd$ ?r\gh ! great] "p ( its c\rse by ! dige/ive gl&1 f :i* a dige/ive fluid ent]s x ?r\gh small ducts4 ,! diagram on p4 #aid %[s ! g5]al int]nal anatomy ( a lamellibran*1 p>ts ( :i* h be5 remov$ to reveal ! und]ly+ /ructures4 ,! animal lies 9 its left valve1 ! "r valve1 ! "r mantle lobe1 & ! "r set ( gill-plates hav+ be5 completely dissect$ away4 ,! :ole c\rse ( ! dige/ive tube has also be5 expos$1 & ! positions ( ! ?ree n]ve ganglia1 ) _! connect+ n]ve cords1 con/itut+ ! c5tral portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 are also indicat$4 ,x w be int]e/+1 f9ally1 to le>n ! direction tak5 by ! wat] curr5ts :i* supply ! animal ) air & food 9 _! c\rse ?r\gh ! sy/em4 ,pass+ 9 ?r\gh ! inhal5t siphon1 ! wat] imm$iately ent]s a l>ge cavity betwe5 ! mantle lobes4 ,?is cavity 7! bran*ial cavity7 conta9s gills1 z we h already se51 & also ext5ds to ! m\?4 ,! wat]1 urg$ on by ! motion ( myriads ( m9ute ciliat$ cells 9 ! walls ( ! cavity1 passes 9 "p ?r\gh ! dige/ive tube1 & 9 "p ar\nd1 betwe51 & ?r\gh ! gill plates1 :i* are p]=at$ by num]\s holes4 ,aft] ?us completely ba?+ ! gills1 & supply+ ! oxyg5 necess>y = respiration1 ?is latt] curr5t passes into a second cavity above ! gills1 & !nce into ! exhal5t siphon1 :]e x m+les ) ! fluid f ! dige/ive tube z well z ) o!r excretory matt]4 ,lamellibran*s are1 z a rule1 exce$+ly prolific1 a s+le individual ( "s species dis*>g+ m ?an a million ova 9 "o season4 ,! l>v swim freely 9 ! wat]1 & are provid$ ) eyes t enable !m to se>* = _! food1 b ! eyes always disappe> :5 ! "y settle d[n to a m s$5t>y life4 ,x is true t adult bivalves sometimes possess visual organs1 (t5 9 ! =m ( conspicu\s col\r$ spots on ! edge ( ! mantle1 ^!1 h[ev]1 are n ! same t exi/$ dur+ ! l>val /age1 b are ( a m rec5t developm5t4 ,lamellibran*s are classifi$ 9 v>i\s ways by diff]5t au?orities1 ! arrangem5t be+ bas$ pr9cipally on ! numb] & position ( ! adductor muscles1 or on ! nature ( ! gills4 ,= our pres5t purpose we %all look ^u !m z consi/+ ( two ma9 divisions--! ,asiphonida & ! ,siphonida1 ! =m] includ+ ^? species :i* d n possess true tubul> siphons1 ! inhal5t & exhal5t op5+s be+ =m$ m]ely by ! t\*+ ( ! mantle lobes2 & ! latt] ^? 9 :i* ! mantle lobes are m or less unit$ & tubul> siphons =m$4 ,ea* ( ^! divisions conta9s a numb] ( families1 mo/ ( :i* h repres5tatives t inhabit ! sea2 & we %all n[ note ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics by :i* ! m important families are di/+ui%$1 & take a few examples ( ea*1 />t+ ) ! ,siphonida4 ,exam9+ ! rocks t are left expos$ at l[ tide we frequ5tly f9d !m drill$ ) holes t run v]tically f ! surface1 seldom communicat+ ) ea* o!r )91 & v>y+ 9 diamet] f less ?an a qu>t] ( an in* to half an in* or m4 ,"s ( ^! holes are ! empty burr[s ( a bor+ mollusc1 :ile o!rs /ill conta9 ! liv+ animal 9 situ4 ,! molluscs 9 "q belong to ! family ,pholadid1 :i* conta9s a numb] ( species t exhibit v rem>kable features bo? z reg>ds /ructure & habit4 ,! %ell is v ?9 & fragile1 b yet compos$ ( h>d mat]ial1 & its surface is reliev$ by a s]ies ( prom95t conc5tric ridges t be> a numb] ( little rasp-l tee?4 ,x gapes at bo? ends1 has nei!r true h+e nor ligam5t1 & is (t5 /r5g!n$ ext]nally by two or m extra or accessory valves4 ,! h+e-plate is a v peculi> /ructure1 = x is reflect$ ov] ! ext]ior ( ! umbones1 above :i* !y are support$ by ab\t t5 ?9 %elly plates1 ! :ole ?us =m+ a s]ies ( *amb]s4 ,! accessory valves are support$ by ^! bridg$ /ructures1 & a long1 /raight1 calc>e\s plate also fills ! space along ! dorsal side ( ! %ell 9 "s species4 ,! muscul> sc>s & ! pallial l9e are di/9ctly se5 on ! inn] surface1 & a peculi> curv$ %elly plate projects f "u ! umbo ( ea* valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,pholas dactylus #a1 v5tral aspect1 ) animal2 #b1 dorsal side ( %ell %[+ accessory valves ,! animal inhabit+ ! %ell is some:at wormlike 9 g5]al =m1 & ! mantle lobes are unit$ 9 front--t is at ! l[] end ( ! %ell z x lies 9 ! burr[--except t an op5+ is left = ! protrusion ( ! %ort foot4 ,! siphons are unit$ & mu* elongat$1 s t !y protrude beyond ! m\? ( ! burr[ :5 ! animal is active2 ! gills are n>r[1 & ext5d into ! exhal5t siphon2 & ! ant]ior adductor muscle1 be+ v ne> ! umbones1 s]ves ! d\ble purpose ( adductor & ligam5t4 ,su* are ! g5]al di/+ui%+ features ( ?is family1 all ! species ( :i* burr[ into /one or o!r mat]ial4 ,^? m commonly met ) on our coa/s belong pr9cipally to ! g5us ,pholas1 & are popul>ly kn[n z ,piddocks4 ,x 0 long a puzzle z to h[ ! fragile piddocks c\ld excavate ! tubul> burr[s 9 :i* !y live1 &1 s9ce _! %ells are s ?9 t x seem$ almo/ impossible = h>d /ones to be gr\nd away by !m1 x 0 sugge/$ t ! rocks 7 excavat$ by ! action ( an acid secretion4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld n acc\nt = ! =mation ( holes 9 s&/one & o!r mat]ials :i* are insoluble 9 acids2 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 no su* acid secretion has ev] be5 discov]$4 ,! bor+ is und\bt$ly done by ! me*anical action ( ! rasp-l %ell1 :i* is rotat$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 some:at aft] ! mann] ( a brad-awl1 ?\gh v sl[ly1 by ! muscul> action ( ! foot ( ! animal4 ,piddocks are f\nd pr9cipally 9 *alk & lime/ones1 ?\gh1 z be=e h9t$1 !y are to be se5 9 s&/ones & o!r rocks1 ! mat]ial 9 any case be+1 ( c\rse1 s(t] ?an ! %ell t bores x4 ,! l>ge/ holes & ! l>ge/ specim5s are to be f\nd 9 *alk & o!r s(t rocks2 :ile ! piddocks t burr[ into h>d] mat]ial are unable to excavate to ! same ext5t & are1 z a consequ5ce1 m /unt$ 9 _! gr[?4 ,! burr[+ is cont9u$ z long z ! animal gr[s1 ! hole be+ always kept at su* a dep? t ! %ell is completely enclos$2 & n only ?is1 = :5 ! rock is s(t1 & ! surface is worn d[n by ! sea1 ! piddock has to keep pace ) ?is action1 z well z to all[ = its increase 9 size4 ,z a result ( ! rasp+ action ( ! pholas %ell on ! surr\nd+ rock ! space holl[$ out becomes m or less clogg$ ) dbris4 ,?is is eject$ at int]vals by ! sudd5 contraction ( ! foot ( ! animal1 :i* br+s ! %ell q to ! bottom ( ! burr[1 ?us caus+ ! wat] ) its s$im5t to %oot upw>ds1 ,x is n usually an easy matt] to obta9 p]fect specim5s ( ! pholas by simply pull+ !m f _! burr[s1 ! %ells be+ s ?9 & fragile1 & ! m\? ( ! burr[ be+ (t5 n>r[] ?an ! wide/ "p ( ! %ell4 ,! be/ plan is to *ip away ! rock ) ! aid ( a mallet & *isel1 or to break x into pieces ) a hamm]1 ?us lay+ op5 ! burr[s s t ! molluscs fall f _! places4 ,! ,common ,piddock 7,pholas dactylus7 may be id5tifi$ by ! illu/rations1 & ! o!r memb]s ( ! family may be recognis$ at once by ! simil>ity 9 /ructure & habit4 ,! pr9cipal species are ! ,little ,piddock 7,p4 p>va71 ! %ell ( :i* is wid] 9 proportion to ! l5g?1 ) only "o accessory valve2 & ! ,:ite ,piddock 7,p4 c&ida71 also ) a s+le accessory4 ,9 all ! above ! foot is rem>kable = its ice-l transp>5cy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--,pholas dactylus1 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,valve2 ,,& ,pholadidea ,,) ,,animal ,!re is ano!r g5us--! ,pholadidea--! species ( :i* are v simil> to pholas bo? 9 /ructure & habit4 ,! %ells are1 h[ev]1 m globul> 9 =m1 & are m>k$ by a transv]se furr[4 ,! gape at ! ant]ior 7l[]7 end is also v wide1 & cov]$ ov] ) a h>d5$ plate 9 ! adult4 ,also1 at ! po/]ior 7upp]7 end ( ! %ell is a horny cup ?r\gh :i* ! siphons protrude1 & ! latt]1 :i* are comb9$ ?r\gh\t _! l5g?1 t]m9ate 9 a disc t is surr\nd$ by a fr+e ( little radiat+ app5dages4 ,9 ! same family are ! molluscs popul>ly kn[n z %ip worms1 :i* are s de/ructive to ! woodwork ( pi]s & jetties1 or :i* burr[ into masses ( float+ timb]4 ,"s ( ^!1 belong+ to ! g5us ,xylophaga--a ^w t signifies #8wood eat]s'--h globul> %ells ) a wide gape 9 front1 & burr[ into float+ wood1 ne>ly always 9 a direction across ! gra94 ,! burr[s are ab\t an in* deep1 & are l9$ ) a calc>e\s deposit4 ,! siphons1 comb9$ except at ! ends1 are sl5d] & retractile2 & ! foot1 :i* is ?ick1 is capable ( consid]able ext5sion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,! ,,%ip ,,worm ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--a4 ,t]$o navalis4 #b4 ,t]$o norvegica ,o!r %ip worms belong to ! g5us ,t]$o1 & are v simil> 9 g5]al *>act]s4 ,! %ell is small & globul>1 ) a wide gape at bo? ends1 & consi/s ( two ?ree-lob$ valves ) conc5tric furr[s4 ,x is s small 9 proportion to ! size ( ! animal t x encloses b a small portion ( ! body1 & lies at ! bottom ( ! burr[1 :i* is ( consid]able l5g?--(t5 f "o to two feet4 ,! animal is v wormlike 9 =m2 & al?\gh ! %ell is s small1 yet all ! int]nal organs are enclos$ by x4 ,! mantle lobes are unit$ 9 front1 except :]e ! suck]-l foot passes ?r\gh !m2 ! gills are long & n>r[1 & ext5d into ! siphonal tube2 & ! two v long siphons are unit$ almo/ ?r\gh\t _! l5g?4 ,x is also int]e/+ to note t 9 ^! animals ! rectum does n pass ?r\gh ! he>t1 z x does 9 ne>ly all molluscs1 & t a pair ( horny or calc>e\s '/yles' or 'pallets' project f ! place :]e ! two siphonal tubes beg9 to div]ge4 ,sev]al species ( ,t]$o are to be met ) on our coa/s1 b !y are s simil> 9 g5]al /ructure t ! above brief description applies almo/ equally well to all4 ,o!r bor+ molluscs frequ5t ! ,briti% %ores1 b !y belong to q a di/9ct family call$ ! ,ga/ro*nid because _! %ells gape widely on ! v5tral side4 ,_! valves are equal 9 size & v ?91 ! h+e has no tee? & ! pallial l9e is s9uat$4 ,! m>g9s ( ! mantle lobes are ?ick5$ & unit$ except :]e a small ap]ture is left = ! protrusion ( ! f+]-l foot4 ,! siphons are v long & retractile1 & ! gills ext5d into ! inhal5t tube4 ,^! animals burr[ into mud1 %ells1 or /one1 (t5 dwell+ toge!r 9 su* numb]s t _! gall]ies cross "o ano!r & =m a mo/ intricate network1 & ! diff]5t species are to be f\nd f l[-wat] m>k to a dep? ( a hundr$ fa?oms or m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,ga/ro*na modiol9a #a1 ,animal 9 %ell2 #b1 %ell2 #c1 cell ,! ,briti% species belong to two g5]a--! typical g5us ,ga/ro*na1 & ! ,saxicava or /one-bor]s4 ,! =m] conta9s ! ,common ,flask %ell 7,g4 modiol9a7 :i* burr[s into lime/one & %ells1 9 ! latt] case pass+ g5]ally ?r\gh ! %ells into ! gr\nd bel[1 & complet+ its home by cem5t+ toge!r any fragm5ts ( h>d mat]ial t come 9 its way into a flask-%ap$ cell4 ,! op5+ ( ! burr[ is %ap$ l an h\r-glass1 ! two expansions s]v+ = ! protrusion ( ! siphonal tubes1 & ! neck ( ! flask-%ap$ abode is usually l9$ ) a calc>e\s lay] t projects slightly to af=d fur!r protection to ! ext5d$ siphons4 ,al?\gh ?is species is v common on "s p>ts ( our coa/1 x is seldom obta9$ )\t ! aid ( a dr$ge1 = x usually lives at a dep? ( f five to t5 fa?oms2 & :5 f\nd x is g5]ally no easy matt] to extricate !m f _! holes1 to ! sides ( :i* !y (t5 cem5t _! %ells4 ,! g5us ,saxicava conta9s a few species t drill holes1 (t5 sev]al in*es deep1 9 %ells & /one1 & frequ5tly d great damage to breakwat]s & o!r artificial /ructures4 ,! foot is usually provid$ ) a byssus by :i* ! animal fixes itself to a little projection on ! side ( its burr[4 ,! species are to be f\nd f l[-wat] m>k to a dep? ( "o hundr$ fa?oms or m4 ,! next family1 nam$ ,anat9id1 conta9s a numb] ( molluscs t burr[ 9 mud or s& or live 9 seclusion 9 ! crevices ( rocks4 ,_! %ells are ?91 ) a granulat$ out] surface1 & ! valves are unit$ by a ?9 ext]nal ligam5t4 ,! inn] surface is pe>ly1 ! pallial l9e usually s9uat$1 & bo? valves are pitt$ = ! reception ( ! some:at /\t int]nal c>tilage4 ,! mantle lobes are unit$1 z are also ! siphons to a great] or less] ext5t2 & !re is only "o gill on ea* side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--a4 ,?racia phaseol9a4 #b4 ,?racia pubesc5s1 ,,%[+ ,,pallial ,,l9e ,"s ( ! common species ( ?is family are popul>ly kn[n z ,lant]n %ells1 & p]haps ! mo/ famili> ( ^! is ,?racia phaseol9a1 ! specific "n ( :i* is giv5 on acc\nt ( a fanci$ resemblance ( ! %ell to a bean4 ,! %ell is v fragile1 & al?\gh l>ge numb]s may (t5 be se5 /r&$ on s&y bea*es1 b few ( !m are p]fect specim5s4 ,! family ,myacid may be recognis$ by ! ?ick1 /rong1 opaque %ells1 usually gap+ at ! po/]ior end2 ! wr9kl$ epid]mis :i* cov]s ! :ole or "p ( ! %ell2 & ! unit$ siphons1 :i* are m or less retractile4 ,! mantle cavity is also clos$ ) ! exception ( a small hole left = ! protrusion ( ! small foot4 ,! pallial l9e ( ! %ell is s9uat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--a4 ,mya truncata4 #b4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,%ell4 #c4 ,mya ar5>ia4 #d4 ,corbula nucleus ,9 ! above illu/ration we repres5t ! ,common ,gap] 7,mya ar5>ia71 :i* burr[s to a consid]able dep? 9 ! s& or mud1 especially 9 ! e/u>ies ( riv]s1 f betwe5 ! tide-m>ks to a dep? ( tw5ty fa?oms or m4 ,x may be readily di/+ui%$1 9 common ) ! o!r species ( ! same g5us1 by ! *>act]i/ic wr9kl$1 membran\s tube t encloses its fr+$ siphons1 ! membrane be+ a cont9uation ( ! epid]mis t ext5ds ov] ! %ell4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic feature ( ! g5us is ! l>ge1 flat process inside ! left valve = ! atta*m5t ( ! int]nal c>tilage4 ,an alli$ species1 ,mya truncata1 is (t5 f\nd abundantly 9 company ) ! above1 & may be kn[n by ! abruptly squ>$ po/]ior end4 ,o!r species ( ! ,myacid inhabit our %ores1 includ+ ! little ,basket %ell 7,corbula nucleus71 ! left valve ( :i* is mu* small] ?an ! "r1 :i* ov]laps x4 ,! latt]1 also1 is cov]$ ) epid]mis1 :ile ! =m]1 :i* is flat1 is q nak$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,sol5 siliqua ,! valves h be5 sep>at$ & ! mantle divid$ to expose ! l>ge foot ,we n[ come to ! int]e/+ family ( ,razor %ells 7,sol5id71 specim5s ( :i* are wa%$ up on almo/ e s&y bea*1 :ile ! liv+ molluscs may be dug out ( _! burr[s at l[-wat] m>k4 ,! %ells are elongat$1 gap+ at bo? ends ) an ext]nal ligam5t2 & ! h+e has usually two tee? 9 "o valve & ?ree 9 ! o!r4 ,! foot ( ! animal is cyl9drical1 l>ge & p[]ful2 & ! siphons are %ort & unit$ 9 ! long species1 b long] & only p>tially unit$ 9 ! %ort] ones4 ,! gills are long & n>r[1 & are prolong$ into ! inhal5t siphon4 ,^! molluscs lie v]tically 9 _! deep burr[s at l[-wat] m>k1 ! op5+ ( ! burr[ hav+ a =m resembl+ t ( a keyhole4 ,:ile cov]$ ) wat] !y occupy ! upp] portion ( _! abode1 b s9k to a dep? ( a foot or m :5 ! tide goes out4 ,z we walk along ! wat]'s edge at extreme l[ tide we may obs]ve jets ( wat] t are %ot into ! air be=e u4 ,^! are produc$ by ! sudd5 retreat ( ! #8,razor-fi%' to ! bottom ( its burr[ :5 al>m$ by ! approa*+ foot/eps4 ,ow+ to ?is w>9ess on ! "p ( ! mollusc1 & to ! consid]able dep? ( its burr[1 specim5s _c be obta9$ by digg+ )\t mu* lab\r2 b if a little salt or "s o!r irritant be dropp$ into ! hole1 ! animal w soon rise to eject x1 & may !n be %ut out f ! l[] "p ( ! burr[ by %>ply driv+ a spade bel[ x4 ,?is is und\bt$ly ! be/ me?od ( secur+ p]fect specim5s = /udy or pres]vation1 b fi%]m5 (t5 obta9 l>ge numb]s1 ei!r = food or = bait1 by sudd5ly ?ru/+ a long hook d[n into ! gap+ %ells1 & !n pull+ !m out4 ,?is me?od always does injury to ! s(t body ( ! animal1 & (t5 damages ! %ell1 b answ]s ! fi%]man's purpose exactly4 ,we give illu/rations ( two %ells belong+ to ! typical g5us 7,sol571 includ+ "o on ,plate ,v42 also a ,briti% repres5tative ( ea* ( two o!r g5]a ( ! family--,c]ati-sol5 & ,solecurtus1 ! latt] ( :i*1 z ! "n implies1 conta9s %ort] species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--a4 ,sol5 ensis4 #b4 ,c]ati-sol5 legum54 #c4 ,solecurtus c&idus ,! next family--! ,tell9id--conta9s a numb] ( well-kn[n molluscs t burr[ into s& or mud1 & are enclos$ 9 %ells t are (t5 v prettily m>k$2 & al?\gh ! family includes sev]al g5]a1 all may be recognis$ by ! foll[+ g5]al features4 ,! %ell is compress$1 compos$ ( two equal valves1 ) little or no gape1 & ! ligam5t situat$ on ! %orte/ side4 ,! c5tral or c>d9al tee? nev] exce$ two 9 numb] 9 ea* valve1 & ! adductor impressions are r\nd & poli%$4 ,! mantle is q op5 at ! ant]ior end1 & its m>g9s are fr+$2 ! foot is flatt5$ & tongue-%ap$2 & ! siphons1 :i* are q sep>ate1 are g5]ally long & sl5d]4 ,9 ! typical g5us 7,tell9a71 ( :i* we repres5t two v common ,briti% species1 ! ligam5t is v prom95t1 & ! sl5d] siphons are (t5 mu* long] ?an ! %ell4 ,! memb]s ( ?is gr\p move v freely1 travell+ ab\t by means ( a broad1 flatt5$ foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,tell9id #a4 ,psammobia f]ro5sis4 #b4 ,donax anat9us4 #c4 ,tell9a crassa4 #d4 ,tell9a t5uis4 #e4 ,donax politus ,! %ells ( ! g5us ,psammobia are popul>ly kn[n z ,sunset %ells1 be+ prettily m>k$ ) radiat+ b&s ( p9k or o!r t9t1 rem9d+ "o ( ! beams ( ! sun :5 sett+ 9 a cl\dy sky4 ,9 ^!1 too1 ! ligam5t is v prom95t1 & ! %ell gapes slightly at bo? ends4 ,! same family conta9s ! pretty little ,w$ge %ells1 :i* are s call$ on acc\nt ( _! triangul> =m1 & con/itute ! g5us ,donax4 ,^! %ells1 :i* are seldom mu* ov] an in* long1 are v common on "s ( our s&y bea*es1 be+ wa%$ up 9 consid]able numb]s aft] ! animals h di$1 b ! specim5s are seldom p]fect4 ,! molluscs !mselves are burr[]s1 & live 9 ! s&1 at & j bel[ l[-wat] m>k2 &1 z !y usually burr[ to a dep? ( only a few in*es1 are easily obta9$ alive4 ,! %ells are r ?91 clos$ at bo? ends1 blunt & r\nd$ at ! ant]ior end1 b /raight & m po9t$ at ! %ort] po/]ior end2 & ! m>g9s ( ! valves are v f9ely groov$ 9 su* a mann] z to resemble ! mill+ ( a co94 ,ea* valve has two c5tral h+e tee?1 ) "o long lat]al too? on ea* side2 & ! ligam5t is ext]nal & prom95t4 ,! lobes ( ! mantle are fr+$2 ! siphons are sep>ate & div]g+1 b %ort] & ?ick] ?an 9 mo/ ( ! o!r ,tell9id1 & ! foot is comp>atively l>ge1 flatt5$1 & po9t$4 ,! g5us conta9s _m species1 ! commone/ be+1 p]haps1 ,d4 anat9us1 ! col\r ( :i* is yell[i%1 b&$ ) br[n1 & m>k$ by a numb] ( radiat+ :ite l9es4 ,?is col\r1 h[ev]1 is due entirely to ! ?91 %9+ epid]mis t completely cov]s ! valves2 & if ?is is rubb$ (f ! %ell itself w exhibit a pale p9ki% t9t4 ,ano!r common species 7,d4 politus7 may be recognis$ by ! broad pat* ( :ite runn+ f ! h+e to ! m>g91 on ! po/]ior side ( ! middle ( ea* valve4 ,! family ,mactrid conta9s "s ,briti% %ells popul>ly kn[n z ,tr\gh %ells1 & ! family "n itself is d]iv$ f ! ^w mactra1 :i* signifies a knead+ tr\gh4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! %ells are all m or less triangul> 9 =m1 ) ! valves equal1 & are ei!r clos$ or v slightly gap+4 ,! ligam5t1 p]haps m correctly designat$ ! c>tilage1 is g5]ally int]nal1 & conta9$ 9 a deep triangul> holl[2 & ! %ell is cov]$ ) epid]mis4 ,! mantle ( ! animal is op5 9 front1 & ! siphonal tubes are unit$ & fr+$4 ,! foot is usually l>ge & flatt5$4 ,! typical g5us1 ,mactra1 conta9s "s common molluscs t bury !mselves j b5ea? ! surface ( s&y bea*es2 & ^! are s abundant 9 "s p>ts ( ,great ,brita9 t !y are us$ l>gely = fe$+ pigs4 ,"s ( ! mactras are rem>kable = ! great p[] & ext5sibility ( ! foot1 :i*1 9 "s cases1 is us$ s vigor\sly t ! animal turns itself quickly ov]1 or ev5 leaps on ! gr\nd4 ,our example ( ?is g5us is ,m4 /ultorum1 :i* is a v common object ( ! %ore4 ,its col\r is v v>iable1 usually "s %ade ( grey or br[n1 & m>k$ by radiat+ :ite l9es4 ,! ,ott] %ells 7,lutr>ia71 ( :i* we figure "o species1 are mu* l ! ,mactr 9 /ructure1 & are usually includ$ 9 ! same family1 b 9 "s respects !y resemble ! ,myacid or ,gap]s4 ,! %ell is oblong r ?an triangul>1 & gapes at bo? ends2 & ! animal buries itself deep 9 s& or mud1 pr9cipally 9 ! e/u>ies ( riv]s1 f l[-wat] m>k to a dep? ( ab\t t5 fa?oms4 ,! %ells are n v common objects ( ! %ore1 = !y are f\nd only 9 muddy places1 & ^? ( ! commone/ species 7,l4 elliptica7 are too l>ge & heavy to be wa%$ a%ore 9 ! %elt]$ e/u>ies :]e !y ab\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--a4 ,lutr>ia elliptica4 #b4 ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,h+e ,,( ,lutr>ia1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,c>tilage ,,pit4 #c4 ,macra /ultorum4 #d4 ,,int]ior ,,( ,,same ,,%[+ ,,pallial ,,l9e ,we n[ leave ! burr[]s1 to consid] a family ( molluscs t move ab\t some:at freely by means ( a flatt5$ tongue-%ap$ foot1 & :i* only r>ely fix !mselves 9 any way4 ,! %ells ( ! gr\p are popul>ly kn[n z ,v5us %ells1 probably on acc\nt ( ! beauty ( "s ( ! species1 & ! family 9 "q z ! ,v5]id4 ,! %ells ( ! v>i\s species are usually ( a graceful oval or oblong =m1 frequ5tly m>k$ by *evron-%ap$ l9es 9 pretty col\rs1 & di/9ctly groov$ along ! l9es ( gr[?4 ,! ligam5t is ext]nal1 ! h+e has usually ?ree div]g+ tee? 9 ea* valve1 & ! pallial l9e is s9uat$4 ,! pr9cipal g5us is ,v5us1 9 :i* ! %ells are ovate 9 =m1 ?ick1 & smoo?1 & ! m>g9s ( ! valves are m9utely cr5ulat$4 ,! g5us is a v l>ge "o1 & conta9s sev]al ,briti% species1 two ( :i* we repres5t 9 ! accompany+ illu/rations4 ,alli$ to ^! is ! l>g] b pretty %ell ,cy!rea *ione1 :i* inhabits deep wat] (f ! s\!rn coa/s1 to ab\t "o hundr$ & fifty fa?oms4 ,x is mu* l ! ,v5us %ells 9 =m1 b ! m>g9s are n cr5ulat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,v5]id #a4 ,v5us fasciata4 #b4 ,v5us /riatula4 #c4 ,tapes virg9eana4 #d4 ,tapes aurea ,! same family 7,v5]id7 conta9s ! l>ge g5us ,tapes1 s call$ because _m ( its %ells are m>k$ 9 su* a mann] z to recall ! patt]ns ( tape/ry4 ,! g5]al =m ( ^! %ells is oblong1 & ! m>g9s are q smoo?4 ,!y are frequ5tly wa%$ up on ! bea*1 especially dur+ /orms1 b ! animals may be f\nd alive at l[ wat]1 buri$ 9 s&1 or hid+ 9 ! crevices ( rocks or among ! roots ( ! l>g] sea we$s4 ,! mantle is op5 at ! ant]ior end1 & ! siphons are ei!r q di/9ct or only p>tly unit$4 ,"s ( ! %ells are v prettily col\r$4 ,"o 7,t4 aurea7 receives its "n f ! yell[ gr\nd1 :i* is v>i\sly m>k$ by deep] t9ts2 ano!r 7,t4 decussata7 is s call$ on acc\nt ( ! cross grooves ) :i* ! %ell is sculptur$2 & a ?ird 7,t4 virg9eana71 :i* inhabits ! muddy bottoms ( deep wat]1 is prettily m>k$ by radiat+ b&s t run f ! umbones to ! v5tral m>g9s4 ,we n[ come to ! family ,cypr9id1 9 :i* ! %ell is regul> 9 =m1 oval or elongat$2 & ! valves1 :i* are equal 9 size1 are ?ick & solid1 & fit closely4 ,! tee? are beautifully =m$1 ! c5tral ones numb]+ f "o to ?ree 9 ea* valve1 & ! pallial l9e is n s9uat$4 ,! mantle lobes are unit$ on ! po/]ior side by means ( a k9d ( curta9 t is pi]c$ by two siphonal op5+s4 ,!re are two gills on ea* side1 unit$ po/]iorly1 & ! foot is tongue-%ap$ & ?ick4 ,! typical g5us--,cypr9a--conta9s a l>ge mollusc 7,c4 isl&ica71 :i* is mod]ately common r\nd our %ores1 especially 9 ! nor?1 b is n (t5 se5 above l[-wat] m>k1 except :5 wa%$ up by /orms4 ,! %ell is oval & ?ick1 ) ! umbones prom95t & turn$ t[>ds ! po/]ior side1 & ! ligam5t is /rong & prom95t4 ,x is entirely cov]$ ) a ?ick epid]mis1 ( a ri* br[n col\r1 (t5 exhibit+ a f9e silky gloss1 especially ne> ! m>g9s4 ,! int]ior ( ! %ell is :ite1 & ! adductor impressions oval & poli%$4 ,! same family includes "s small] %ells t inhabit deep wat]1 & are !re=e n commonly se5 on ! bea*4 ,among ^! are two species ( ! g5us ,a/>te1 "o ( :i* is deeply furr[$ 9 a direction p>allel ) ! m>g9s2 also ,circe m9ima1 :i* seldom exce$s half an in* 9 l5g?4 ,al?\gh s small comp>$ ) ,cypr9a1 ^! %ells may be id5tifi$ by _! clo?+ ( epid]mis1 toge!r ) ! family *>act]i/ics giv5 above4 ,! ,cypr9id also conta9s ! int]e/+ ,he>t ,cockle 7,isoc>dia cor71 ! =m ( :i* is s *>act]i/ic t id5tification is easy4 ,! he>t-%ap$ %ell is ?ick & /rong1 & is swoll5 out 9 su* a mann] t ! umbones are wide ap>t4 ,^! latt] are also curv$ into a spiral =m1 & ! ligam5t betwe5 !m is prom95t4 ,! col\r ( ! %ell is v>iable1 ! epid]mis be+ ( any %ade f a yell[ to a d>k br[n4 ,! foot is small & po9t$1 & ! siphons fr+$4 ,! ,he>t ,cockle burr[s 9 s& by means ( its foot1 go+ d[n j f> en\gh to bury ! :ole ( its %ell1 & always leav+ its siphons expos$ at ! surface4 ,x inhabits deep wat]1 & is n likely to be obta9$ )\t ! use ( ! dr$ge or trawl4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,cypr9id #a4 ,cypr9a isl&ica4 #b4 ,tee? ( ,cypr9a4 #c4 ,a/>te compressa4 #d4 ,circe m9ima4 #e4 ,isoc>dia cor ,! molluscs ( ! family ,luc9id are f\nd pr9cipally 9 tropical & sub-tropical seas1 rang+ f ! %ore to a v great dep?1 b a few are mod]ately common 9 our own wat]s4 ,!y are closely alli$ to ! ,cypr9id1 b ! %ell is r\nd r ?an oval1 & is obliquely groov$ inside4 ,! mantle lobes ( ! animal are n unit$ on ! v5tral side1 b at ! po/]ior end !y are cont9u\s1 except :]e !y =m "o or two siphonal op5+s4 ,! foot is long & ( almo/ ! same ?ickness ?r\gh\t :5 ext5d$2 & ! gills1 numb]+ ei!r "o or two on ea* side1 are l>ge & ?ick4 ,9 all ! memb]s ( ?is family1 z 9 ! la/1 ! pallial l9e ( ! %ell is simple4 ,none ( ! %ells are really common objects ( our %ores1 s9ce ! animals inhabit deep wat]1 "s ( !m mov+ ab\t freely on ! bottom1 :ile o!rs moor !mselves by means ( a byssus4 ,we %all take only "o example ( ! family--,galeomma ,turtoni--! g5]ic "n ( :i* means #8weasel eye4' ,?is pretty little mollusc may be f\nd on our s\!rn coa/s1 :]e x (t5 moors itself to ! rocks or we$s by means ( its silk5 byssus2 or1 hav+ brok5 itself away f its tempor>y place ( re/1 creeps freely on ! bottom by a long1 flatt5$ foot1 appli$ closely to ! surface ov] :i* x travels1 & us$ mu* 9 ! same way z ! broad foot ( a snail or :elk1 its valves be+ all ! "t spread out ne>ly 9 ! same plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,galeomma ,turtoni ,! %ell itself is oval1 ) c5tral umbones1 & is cov]$ ) a ?ick epid]mis4 ,! mantle lobes are unit$ beh9d1 :]e !y =m a s+le siphonal op5+2 & ! m>g9s are d\ble1 ) a r[ ( eye-l spots on ! inn] edge ( ea*4 ,! true ,cockles1 "s few species ( :i* are kn[n to almo/ e "o1 con/itute ! family ,c>diad1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! cordate or he>t-%ap$ =m ( ! %ell z view$ f ! ant]ior or po/]ior side4 ,! %ell is regul>1 or ne>ly s1 & ! valves1 :i* are equal1 are ornam5t$ ) prom95t rays t run f ! umbones to ! m>g94 ,! ligam5t is %ort1 /rong & prom95t1 & ! valves fit closely by ! int]lock+ ( _! cr5ulat$ m>g9s1 or gape slightly on ! po/]ior side4 ,!re are two c5tral tee? 9 ea* valve1 & a long lat]al too? bo? on ! ant]ior & po/]ior sides4 ,! mantle lobes are op5 9 front1 ) ! m>g9s plait$1 & ! siphons1 :i* are usually %ort1 are provid$ ) a numb] ( little t5tacles4 ,! foot is l>ge & p[]ful1 & is usually curv$ into ! =m ( a sickle4 ,al?\gh ! g5]al nature ( ! common edible cockle 7,c>dium edule7 is s well kn[n ev5 to ! inhabitants ( inl& t[ns t a description may seem out ( place "h1 yet x is possible t b few ( our read]s h ev] tak5 ! tr\ble to place ! animal 9 a vessel ( sea wat]1 ei!r obta9$ direct f ! sea or artificially prep>$1 = ! purpose ( /udy+ its movem5ts or o!r habits2 & x w be well to rememb] t ?is & sev]al o!r species ( edible molluscs :i* rea* our t[ns alive may be v conv5i5tly /udi$ at home1 & (t5 at times & seasons :5 "w at ! sea-side is undesirable or impossible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--a4 ,c>dium pygmum4 #b4 ,c>dium fasciatum4 #c4 ,c>dium ru/icum ,! edible species ref]r$ to lives 9 banks ( s& or mud1 buri$ j bel[ ! surface1 & frequ5tly 9 spots t are expos$ = sev]al h\rs betwe5 ! tides4 ,!y are usually obta9$ by means ( a rake simil> to t us$ 9 our g>d5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--;,c>dium aculeatum ,on ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall we f9d a mu* l>g] species1 also valu$ z an article ( diet1 & kn[n locally z ! ,prickly ,cockle 7,c4 aculeatum74 ,its %ell is beautifully =m$1 ! rays be+ v prom95t1 ea* be>+ a numb] ( calc>e\s sp9es arrang$ 9 a s+le r[4 ,we give an illu/ration ( ?is species1 toge!r ) two sket*es to %[ ! nature ( ! tee? ( ! %ell4 ,9 addition to ! two species nam$1 we h ! r$-foot$1 ,c4 ru/icum1 :i* c sudd5ly turn itself ov] by ! action ( its p[]ful p$al organ2 ! ,b&$ ,cockle 7,c4 fasciatum71 a v small species di/+ui%$ by ! br[n b&s ( ! %ell2 & a /ill small] "o 7,c4 pygmum71 ) a triangul> %ell1 occurr+ on ! ,dorset & ,devon coa/s 7fig4 #adf74 ,pass+ n[ to ! ,asiphonida1 we deal fir/ ) ! family ,arcad4 ,^! include a numb] ( %ells :i*1 ?\gh v v>iable 9 g5]al =m & appe>ance1 may all be recognis$ by ! long r[ ( simil> comb-l tee? t =m ! h+e4 ,! %ells ( ?is gr\p are regul> 9 =m1 ) equal valves1 & are cov]$ ) epid]mis4 ,! mantle ( ! animal is op51 ! gills are unit$ by a membrane beh9d1 & ! foot is l>ge1 curv$1 & groov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,pectunculus glycim]is1 ,,) ,,portion ,,( ,,valve ,,%[+ ,,tee?1 ,,& ,arca tetragona ,"o ( ! prettie/ %ells 9 ! family is ,pectunculus glycim]is1 :i* rea*es a l5g? ( ab\t two in*es4 ,! %ell is groov$ 9 ! direction ( ! l9es ( gr[?1 & !re are also v delicate /riations runn+ radially f umbones to m>g92 & ! gr\nd col\r ( :ite or pale yell[i% is beautifully mottl$ ) r$di% br[n4 ,we give a figure ( ?is species1 toge!r ) a draw+ ( ! peculi> & *>act]i/ic tee?1 b a m typical %ell ( ?is family may be se5 9 ! ,noah's ,ark 7,arca tetragona74 ,?is %ell is almo/ quadrate 9 =m1 swoll51 & /rongly ribb$4 ,! h+e is /raight1 ) _m comb-l tee?--increas+ 9 numb] ) ! age ( ! %ell2 & ! umbones are sep>at$ by a diamond-%ap$ ligam5t4 ,! foot ( ! animal is heel$--t is1 x has a creep+ surface t ext5ds backw>ds z well z =w>ds2 ! mantle is furni%$ ) m9ute eyes 7ocelli71 & ! animal has two di/9ct he>ts4 ,we give a figure ( ?is peculi> %ell1 & ! o!r ,briti% memb]s ( ! same g5us1 ?\gh v>y+ m or less 9 =m1 may be recognis$ at once by ! same g5]al *>act]i/ics4 ,9 ! same family we h ! small nut%ells 7g5us ,nucula71 :i* are (t5 dr$g$ up f deep wat] 9 l>ge numb]s2 & ! elongat$ %ells ( ! g5us ,l$a1 also inhabitants ( deep wat]2 &1 z be=e /at$1 ! aff9ities ( all may be readily e/abli%$ by ! *>act]i/ic nature ( ! tee?4 ,we n[ pass on to ! family ( ,mussels 7,mytilid71 ( :i* ! common ,edible ,mussel 7,mytilus edulis7 is a typical species4 ,9 ?is int]e/+ gr\p ! %ell is oval or elongat$1 ) equal valves1 & is cov]$ ) a d>k-col\r$ epid]mis :i* is (t5 di/9ctly fibr\s 9 /ructure4 ,! umbones are at ! ant]ior end ( ! %ell1 :i* end is usually v n>r[ & po9t$1 :ile ! po/]ior is broad & r\nd$4 ,! h+e has small tee? or none1 & ! ligam5t1 :i* is long1 is int]nal4 ,! %ells ( mussels consi/ ( two di/9ct lay]s2 on ! inn]1 :i* is (t5 ( a mo/ beautiful pe>ly lu/re1 may be trac$ ! simple pallial l9e & ! impressions ( ! small ant]ior & ! l>ge po/]ior muscles4 ,! mantle lobes ( ! animal are unit$ only at a po9t betwe5 ! two siphonal op5+s4 ,!re are two elongat$ gills on ei!r side1 & ! foot is ?ick & m or less groov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,mytilus edulis ,mussels inhabit salt1 bracki%1 & fre% wat]s1 g5]ally atta*+ !mselves by means ( a silk5 byssus1 b sometimes conceal+ !mselves 9 ready-made holes1 or 9 burr[s ( _! own2 & "s ev5 hide !mselves 9 a ne/ :i* !y prep>e by b9d+ toge!r fragm5ts ( %ells or s&4 ,! edible mussel1 :i* =ms su* an important article ( diet1 especially among ! poor] classes 9 our l>ge t[ns1 may be easily di/+ui%$ f simil> species ( ano!r g5us by ! v po9t$ umbones1 & ! co>se & /rong fibr\s byssus by :i* x cl+s to any solid object4 ,x is f\nd mo/ abundantly on muddy coa/s1 & on mud banks 9 ! e/u>ies ( riv]s1 g5]ally 9 su* situations z are uncov]$ at l[ tide4 ,! fry ab\nd j bel[ l[-wat] level1 & gr[ s rapidly t !y rea* _! full size 9 a s+le ye>4 ,x is well kn[n t a diet ( mussels occasionally produces v unpleasant & ev5 dang]\s symptoms 9 ! consum]1 & ?is result has be5 attribut$ to ! action ( a p>ticul> organ ( ! animal :i* has n be5 c>efully remov$ be=e eat+4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case1 z prov$ by ! fact t ! eat+ ( ^! edibles is usually p]fectly safe :5 no su* precautions h be5 tak54 ,x is highly probable t ! delet]i\s "* ref]r$ to is due to a disease :i* sometimes attacks ! mussels !mselves1 b ! exact nature ( ?is has n be5 ?or\ghly made out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--a4 ,modiola modiolus4 #b4 ,modiola tulipa4 #c4 ,cr5ella discors ,!re is ano!r g5us 7,modiola7 conta9+ sev]al species commonly kn[n z ,horse ,mussels1 & ^! may be di/+ui%$ f ,mytilus by _! habit ( burr[+1 or ( con/ruct+ a ne/ by sp9n+ toge!r v>i\s fragm5ts4 ,! %ell1 also1 is m oblong 9 =m1 & mu* swoll5 ne> ! ant]ior end2 & ! umbones are n s po9t$4 ,! epid]mis cov]+ ! %ell is ( fibr\s /ructure1 & (t5 ext5ds beyond ! edges ( ! valves 9 ! =m ( a fr+e4 ,sev]al species ( ,horse ,mussels inhabit our %ores1 f l[-wat] m>k to a dep? ( fifty fa?oms1 b none ( !m is us$ = food4 ,! commone/ species is ,modiola modiolus1 :i* has a p>ticul>ly /rong byssus1 & its fibres g5]ally b9d toge!r su* a numb] ( /ones c4 t ! %ell is completely hidd5 9 ! entangl$ mass4 ,o!r ,briti% species include ,m4 b>bata1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! peculi> fr+$ ?reads ( ! epid]mis2 ,m4 phaseol9a1 9 :i* ! epid]mis ?reads are n fr+$2 & ,m4 tulipa1 nam$ f ! /reaks ( crimson or purple t radiate f ! umbones ( ! %ell & rem9d u ( ! col\r+ ( ! tulip fl[]4 ,an alli$ sub-g5us 7,cr5ella7 includes a few small ,briti% molluscs ! %ells ( :i* are cr5ulat$ on ! dorsal m>g9 beh9d ! ligam5t4 ,! %ells are %ort & swoll51 & l9$ by a brilliant pe>ly lay]4 ,"o species 7,c4 discors7 is pale gre51 ) radiat+ l9es f umbo to m>g94 ,x is common on _m ( our %ores1 b is n easily f\nd1 z x hides at or bel[ l[ wat] m>k1 9 a ne/ =m$ by b9d+ toge!r small /ones4 ,o!r species1 "o ( :i* is black1 are less abundant1 & are n readily obta9$ except by ! use ( ! dr$ge4 ,be=e leav+ ?is family we mu/ ref] to ! rem>kable ,dreiss5a polymorpha1 sometimes call$ ! ,*amb]$ ,mussel1 on acc\nt ( ! *amb] :i* is =m$ 9 ! beak ( ! %ell by means ( a pe>ly plate t /ret*es across x4 ,?is animal is n indig5\s to ,brita91 b 0 introduc$ f ! ,ea/ by trad+ vessels1 ei!r atta*$ by its silk5 byssus to timb] t _h be5 left float+ 9 wat] previ\s to be+ %ipp$1 or to ! bottoms ( ! %ips4 ,x seems to ?rive almo/ equally well 9 salt1 bracki%1 & fre% wat]s1 & has spread v rapidly s9ce its introduction4 ,x is m commonly f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 docks1 canals1 & riv]s1 & is on t acc\nt usually describ$ ) ! fre%-wat] species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,dreiss5a polymorpha ,! =m ( ! %ell is v simil> to t ( ,mytilus1 b has no int]nal pe>ly lay]1 & ! valves are bluntly keel$4 ,! mantle is clos$1 ! siphons %ort1 & ! foot small4 ,our next family--! ,aviculid--conta9s ^? %ells t are di/+ui%$ by peculi> flat processes on ea* side ( ! umbones1 "o ( :i*1 ! po/]ior1 is g5]ally w+-l 9 =m4 ,!y are popul>ly kn[n z ,w+ ,%ells1 & ! family includes ! s-call$ ,pe>l ,oy/]s4 ,mo/ ( ! species are natives ( tropical seas1 b sev]al are common on our own %ores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--;,avicula1 ,,& ,p9na pect9ata ,"o species ( ! typical g5us is sometimes f\nd (f ! coa/s ( ,cornwall & ,devon4 ,! %ell is v oblique1 & ! valves are unequal1 ! "r "o1 on :i* ! animal re/s1 be+ some:at small] ?an ! left2 & ! epid]mis is v scanty4 ,! h+e is long & /raight1 )\t tee?1 & ! c>tilage is conta9$ 9 grooves4 ,! int]ior ( ! %ell is pe>ly4 ,! po/]ior adductor impression is l>ge1 & n f> f ! middle ( ! %ell1 :ile ! ant]ior1 :i* is small1 is close to ! umbones4 ,! mantle ( ! animal is op51 & ! m>g9s ( ! lobes fr+$2 & ! small foot sp9s a p[]ful byssus4 ,mo/ ( ! ,briti% species ( ! family belong to ! g5us ,p9na1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! f9s or w+s on ! dorsal side ( ! %ell4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! %ell is m or less w$ge-%ap$1 ) equal valves1 & ! umbones are q at ! ant]ior end1 :ile x is blunt$ & gap+ at ! o!r end4 ,! h+e has no tee?4 ,! m>g9s ( ! mantle are d\bly fr+$1 & ! byssus is extremely p[]ful4 ,! ,common ,p9na 7,p4 pect9ata7 is a v l>ge mollusc1 sometimes measur+ a foot 9 l5g?1 & is v abundant (f ! s\?-we/ coa/1 :]e x moors itself v]tically at ! bottom ( ! wat] ) ! po9t$ end buri$1 & ! broad end gap+ widely s z to expose its body4 ,x has be5 /at$ t fi%es are frequ5tly tempt$ to intrude into ! op5 %ell = ! purpose ( dev\r+ ! animal )91 & t !y are imm$iately cru%$ by ! sudd5 clos+ ( ! valves1 :i* are pull$ toge!r by two l>ge & p[]ful adductors4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! little ,pea ,crab t inh]its ! %ell ( ! ,p9na1 liv+ p]man5tly 9 ! mantle cavity ( ! animal4 ,! la/ family ( ! ,lamellibran*s is ! ,o/reid or ,oy/]s1 ( :i* ! edible oy/] may be tak5 z a type4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! %ells are frequ5tly unequal1 & !y lie on "o side ei!r free or adh]5t to ! surface bel[ !m2 ! h+e is usually )\t tee?4 ,! mantle is q op51 ! gills numb] two on ea* side1 & ! foot is ei!r small or abs5t4 ,! ,edible ,oy/] is a type ( ! typical g5us ,o/rea1 its sci5tific "n be+ ,o/rea edulis2 & z ?is mollusc may be readily obta9$ at any "t1 x is a conv5i5t species = ! /udy ( ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( its family4 ,its %ell is irregul> 9 =m1 & ! animal always re/s on its left valve1 :i* is convex1 :ile ! upp] or "r valve is ei!r flat or concave4 ,! l[] valve is also ?ick] & lam9at$ 9 /ructure1 & is atta*$ to ! surface on :i* x re/s4 ,on exam9+ ! int]ior we f9d t ! %ell is some:at pe>ly 9 appe>ance1 & t ! edges ( ! mantle lobes are f9ely fr+$4 ,! gills1 too1 are unit$ ) ea* o!r & ) ! mantle on ! po/]ior side1 ?us =m+ a di/9ct bran*ial *amb]4 ,oy/]s are f\nd on banks at ! dep? ( sev]al fa?oms1 :]e !y spawn 9 e>ly summ]1 & ! fry or spats are collect$ 9 l>ge numb]s & transf]r$ to artificial b$s or tanks1 :]e !y are kept 9 v %all[ wat] s z to be easily obta9able :5 requir$ = food4 ,x is int]e/+ to note1 h[ev]1 t _! gr[? is sl[ on ^! artificial gr\nds1 ! full size be+ atta9$ 9 ab\t sev5 ye>s1 :ile1 9 ! natural b$s1 !y are full gr[n 9 a little m ?an half t "t4 ,native oy/]s--^? t are re>$ on artificial b$s--are ( c\rse remov$ z soon z !y are ready = ! m>ket1 b ^? t live on natural banks are (t5 left undi/urb$ till _! %ells are ?ick ) age4 ,! latt]1 too1 are (t5 de/roy$ 9 l>ge numb]s by ! bor+ sponge 7p4 #abd71 :i* s completely und]m9es ! sub/ance ( ! %ell t x f9ally breaks to pieces4 ,9 ! g5us ,anomia ! l[] valve is concave1 & p]=at$ ) a l>ge oval hole v ne> ! h+e1 :ile ! upp] "o is v convex1 b ! %ell is v v>iable 9 %ape1 s9ce ! animal sometimes cl+s p]man5tly to an object1 & ! %ell1 dur+ its gr[?1 accommodates itself to ! surface ( t object4 ,! use ( ! hole is to all[ ( ! protrusion ( a set ( muscles :i* proce$ f ! upp] valve1 & give atta*m5t to a plug or button1 m or less calcifi$1 by :i* ! animal cl+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--a4 ,anomia ephippium4 #b4 ,pect5 tigris4 #c4 ,pect51 ,,animal ,,9 ,,%ell ,"o species 7,a4 ephippium71 kn[n z ! ,saddle ,oy/]1 is common on "s p>ts ( our coa/4 ,x is seldom f\nd on ! bea* at l[ wat]1 b ! empty %ells are (t5 wa%$ up by ! waves4 ,! same family includes ! ,scallops1 :i* con/itute ! g5us ,pect54 ,9 ^! ! %ell is ne>ly r\nd1 ) e>s on ea* side ( ! umbones1 ^? on ! ant]ior side be+ g5]ally mu* m prom95t ?an ! o!rs1 & bo? valves are ornam5t$ by prom95t radiat+ ribs4 ,! %ell is (t5 v prettily col\r$1 & ! animal re/s on ! "r valve1 :i* may be di/+ui%$ f ! left by its great] convexity1 & by ! pres5ce ( a not* "u ! ant]ior e>4 ,! h+e is /raight1 ) a v n>r[ ligam5t1 & ! int]nal c>tilage is situat$ 9 a c5tral pit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,molluscs #a4 ,sol5 ensis #b4 ,trivia ,europa #c4 ,tro*us umbilicatus #d4 ,tro*us magnus #e4 ,littor9a littorea #f4 ,littor9a rudis #g4 ,ham9ea 7,bulla7 hydatis #h4 ,tell9a #i4 ,capulus hung>icus #aj4 ,*rysodomus antiquus #aa4 ,bucc9um undatum #ab #ac ,scal>ia communis #ad4 ,pect5 op]cul>is #ae4 ,pect5 v>ius #af4 ,pect5 maximus ,! mantle ( ! animal is free1 ) d\ble m>g9s1 ! inn] ( :i* =ms a f9ely fr+$ curta9 all r\nd1 & on ?is curta9 are a numb] ( black eyes surr\nd$ by v f9e t5tacles4 ,! gills are 9 ! =m ( v ?9 cresc5ts1 & ! foot is %ap$ l a f+]4 ,al?\gh ! majority ( scallops are inhabitants ( tropical seas1 sev]al species are to be f\nd (f our coa/s1 :]e !y range f dep?s ( ab\t f\r to =ty fa?oms1 & ! empty %ells1 (t5 9 ! mo/ p]fect condition1 are frequ5tly f\nd on ! bea*4 ,! ,common ,scallop 7,p4 maximus7 is l>gely us$ z food1 & is !re=e a common object 9 ! fi%mong]'s %op4 ,its col\r is v v>iable1 & ! %ell has equal e>s & ab\t tw5ty radiat+ ribs4 ,! ,qu9 7,p4 op]cul>is7 is also an important article ( diet 9 "s p>ts4 ,p]haps ! prettie/ ( ! ,briti% species is ! ,v>iable ,scallop 7,p4 v>ius71 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! v v>iable col\r ( ! %ell1 ! gr\nd t9t ( :i* may be almo/ any?+ betwe5 a v pale yell[ & a d>k r$di% br[n1 & ?is is irregul>ly pat*$ ) "s light] col\r4 ,! *ief di/+ui%+ features ( ! species are ! sp9y projections ( ! num]\s ribs1 mo/ prom95t ne> ! m>g9 ( ! valves1 & ! pres5ce ( a p]man5t byssus1 :i*1 9 o!r species1 occurs only 9 ! "y4 ,?ree ( ! species nam$ above are %[n on ,plate ,v4 ,we may also m5tion ! ,tig] ,scallop 7,p4 tigr9us71 ! radiat+ ribs ( :i* are sometimes slightly =m$1 & :i* has only "o e> 9 ea* valve2 & ,p4 pusio1 9 :i* ! adult %ell is (t5 greatly alt]$ 9 =m4 ,x may be not$1 9 conclusion1 t all ! species ( ?is g5us h ! p[] ( swimm+ rapidly by flapp+ _! valves--a mode ( locomotion v common among ! bivalves especially dur+ an e>ly /age ( _! exi/5ce4 ,be=e pass+ on to ! univalve molluscs1 we mu/ ref] briefly to a gr\p ( animals t are enclos$ 9 bivalve %ells1 & :i* 7 once includ$ ) ! ,mollusca1 b are n[ made to =m q a di/9ct gr\p by !mselves4 ,we ref] to ! ,bra*iopods1 at "o "t v abundant1 z prov$ by ! imm5se numb] ( fossil %ells emb$d$ 9 v>i\s /ratifi$ rocks1 b n[ repres5t$ by only a few liv+ species4 ,! %ells ( ^! animals are commonly kn[n z ,lamp ,%ells1 on acc\nt ( _! resemblance to an antique lamp2 & al?\gh at fir/ sight !y be> a g5]al lik5ess to c]ta9 bivalve %ells ( lamellibran*s1 a close exam9ation w %[ t n only ! %ell1 b also ! animal resid+ )9 x1 are bo? ( a nature v diff]5t f t ( ! molluscs ) :i* !y 7 at "o "t suppos$ to be closely relat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,t]ebratul9a4 ,,! ,,upp] ,,figure ,,repres5ts ,,! ,,int]ior ,,( ,,! ,,dorsal ,,valve ,! valves ( ! %ell are unequal1 & are n plac$ respectively on ! "r & left sides ( ! body ( ! animal1 b r on ! dorsal & v5tral or upp] & l[] sides4 ,! v5tral %ell is ! l>g]1 & is produc$ into a beak :i* sometimes has a r\nd hole correspond+ 9 position ) ! hole = ! wick ( an antique lamp1 & ! dorsal or small] valve is always imp]=ate4 ,! h+e is a p]fect "o1 ! junction ( ! two valves be+ s well secur$ by x t x is impossible to sep>ate !m )\t injury4 ,x is =m$ by two curv$ tee? on ! m>g9 ( ! v5tral valve t fit into correspond+ sockets on ! dorsal4 ,a few bra*iopods1 h[ev]1 h no h+e1 ! valves be+ secur$ by means ( num]\s muscles4 ,! hole 9 ! %ell s]ves = ! protrusion ( a p$icel or foot by means ( :i* ! animal is enabl$ to atta* itself4 ,two long arms1 cov]$ ) vibratile cilia1 & capable ( be+ fold$ or coil$1 are atta*$ at ! sides ( ! m\?4 ,!y are practically processes ( ! lips1 m\nt$ on muscul> /alks1 & atta*$ to a delicate calc>e\s loop on ! dorsal valve2 & s]ve n only to produce wat] curr5ts = ! conveyance ( food to ! m\?1 b also answ] ! purpose ( gills4 ,! dige/ive sy/em ( a bra*iopod includes an sophagus t leads into a simply =m$ /oma* r\nd :i* is a l>ge dige/ive gl&4 ,! he>t has only "o cavity1 b ! animal is provid$ ) two small] & sep>ate organs t assi/ 9 ! propulsion ( ! blood1 :i* circulates ?r\gh num]\s blood spaces 9 ! bri/ly mantle4 ,ab\t two ?\s& fossil species ( bra*iopods are kn[n1 ext5d+ ov] a va/ range ( "t2 & ! liv+ species1 numb]+ less ?an a hundr$1 are f\nd f %all[ wat] to ! greate/ habitable dep?s4 ,s9ce ! read] is h>dly likely to =m any ext5sive acqua9tance ) ! ,bra*iopods1 we %all illu/rate our rem>ks by ! introduction ( only "o species--! ,s]p5t's ,head ,t]ebratula 7,t]ebratul9a caput-s]p5tis71 :i* is f\nd 9 deep wat] 9 ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,! int]ior ( ! dorsal valve1 %[+ ! calc>e\s loop above ref]r$ to1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aed1 z is also ! ext]ior ( ! %ell1 :i* is f9ely /riat$4 ,! latt] repres5ts ! dorsal aspect ( ! %ell 9 ord] to %[ ! hole 9 ! upturn$ beak ( ! v5tral valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,"u ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,%ell ,,( ,natica cat5a1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,umbilicus2 ,,& ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,%ell1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,"r ,,h&$ ,,spiral ,we h n[ to consid] ! l>ge gr\p ( head-be>+ molluscs 7,cephalophora71 ! /udy ( :i* =ms a v important "p ( ! "w ( ! sea-side naturali/2 & :ile we deal ) ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ?is gr\p1 ! read] w d well to h be=e him a few liv+ typical species 9 ord] t he may be able to v]ify z _m z possible ( ! descriptions "h giv5 by actual obs]vation4 ,^! types may include su* creatures z ! :elk1 p]iw9kle1 & limpet2 or if m>9e species are n at h& at ! "t1 ! g>d5 snail1 fre%-wat] snail1 & slug w s]ve ! purpose fairly well4 ,by f> ! l>ge majority ( ,cephalopods are enclos$ 9 a s+le %ell1 ?\gh a few h a rudim5t>y %ell or none at all4 ,z is ! case ) ! lamellibran*s1 ! %ell is compos$ ( bo? animal & m9]al sub/ance1 ! latt] be+ a calc>e\s deposit secret$ by ! mantle ( ! animal4 ,! %ell is usually spiral 9 =m1 z 9 ! :elk1 b sometimes conical 7limpet7 or tubul>4 ,spiral %ells are ne>ly always dextral or "r-h&$2 t is1 if we trace ! direction ( ! spiral f ! apex to ! m\?1 we f9d t its turns or :orls run 9 ! same direction z ! h&s ( a wat*4 ,a few1 h[ev]1 are s9i/ral1 or left-h&$1 & occasionally we meet ) left-h&$ v>ieties ( ^? species t are normally ( ! "r-h&$ type4 ,! cavity ( ! %ell is a s+le spiral *amb] :i* w9ds r\nd a c5tral pill>1 & ea* :orl ( ! %ell g5]ally ov]laps ! prec$+ "o1 ! two be+ sep>at$ ext]nally by a spiral depression call$ ! suture4 ,sometimes ! coils ( a %ell are n close toge!r int]nally1 s t ! c5tral column ( ! spiral is holl[1 & op5s to ! ext]ior at ! base ( ! %ell4 ,9 ?is case ! %ell is said to be umbilicat$1 & ! op5+ ref]r$ to is ! umbilicus4 ,9 o!rs ! spiral w9ds r\nd a solid c5tral pill> :i* is spok5 ( z ! columella4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,,section ,,( ,,! ,,%ell ,,( ,,! ,,:elk1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,columella ,! apex ( ! %ell1 sometimes call$ ! nucleus1 is ! olde/ "p1 & repres5ts :at 0 once ! :ole4 ,x is g5]ally direct$ backw>ds z ! animal crawls1 & 9 adult %ells is (t5 m or less worn away by con/ant friction4 ,we speak ( ! :orls z fir/1 second1 ?ird1 c41 tak+ !m 9 ! ord] ( _! gr[?1 & x w g5]ally be f\nd t ! la/ :orl is mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 s mu* s t x conta9s ! great] "p ( ! body ( ! animal2 h5ce ?is "o is commonly spok5 ( z ! body-:orl1 & ! o!rs make up ! spire ( ! %ell4 ,! m\? ( ! %ell is ( diff]5t =ms 9 diff]5t species1 b 9 ! h]bivor\s k9ds x is usually simple1 :ile 9 ! c>nivor\s species x is not*$ or produc$4 ,! edge ( ! m\? 7p]i/ome7 is =m$ by an out] lip :i* is usually %>p 9 "y %ells & ei!r ?ick5$1 reflect$ 7turn$ outw>d71 or inflect$ 7turn$ inw>d7 9 adults2 also x may be consid]ably exp&$1 or ornam5t$ by a fr+$ m>g94 ,! inn] lip is t side ( ! p]i/ome adjac5t to ! c5tral pill> ( ! %ell4 ,if we exam9e ! ext]nal surface ( sev]al diff]5t %ells1 we f9d t !y are usually m or less di/9ctly furr[$ or sculptur$1 & t !y are (t5 m>k$ by l9es or b&s ( a col\r diff]5t f t ( ! gr\nd t9t4 ,^! furr[s1 l9es1 or b&s sometimes pass directly f ! apex1 across ! v>i\s :orls1 to ! base ( ! %ell1 9 :i* case !y are said to be longitud9al4 ,if !y foll[ ! c\rse ( ! :orls1 !y are describ$ z spiral2 & if p>allel ) ! p]i/ome1 s t !y m>k ! =m] positions ( ! m\? ( ! %ell1 ?us d5ot+ ! l9es ( gr[?1 !y are said to be transv]se4 ,mo/ univalve %ells are cov]$ ) epid]mis1 b 9 "s in/ances ! animal1 :5 ext5d$1 surr\nds ! ext]ior ( ! %ell ) its mantle1 z d ! c[ries1 & !n ! outside ( ! %ell is always glaz$4 ,o!r species keep _! %ells cov]$ ) ! mantle1 & 9 ^! ! %ell is always col\rless4 ,! body ( ! head-be>+ mollusc is atta*$ to ! %ell int]nally by "o or m muscles1 & if we exam9e ! int]ior surface we are g5]ally able to di/+ui% ! impressions or sc>s d5ot+ ! po9ts ( atta*m5t4 ,! read] w h obs]v$ t ! p]iw9kle1 :elk1 & o!r univalves close _! %ells by a k9d ( lid :5 !y retract _! bodies4 ,?is lid is call$ ! op]culum1 & is con/ruct$ ( a horny mat]ial1 (t5 m or less calcifi$ on ! ext]ior1 & is atta*$ to ! h9d] "p ( ! foot4 ,x sometimes fits accurately into ! m\? ( ! %ell1 b 9 "s species x only p>tially closes ! ap]ture4 ,! op]culum1 l ! %ell itself1 (t5 exhibits di/9ct l9es ( gr[? :i* display ! mann] 9 :i* x 0 built up4 ,if ^! l9es are conc5tric we "k t ! op]culum grew by additions on all sides2 b if its nucleus is at "o edge1 & ! l9es ( gr[? wide/ ap>t at ! opposite side1 ! gr[? mu/ h tak5 place on "o side only4 ,"s1 ev51 are ( a spiral =m1 d5ot+ t ! additions 7 made cont9u\sly at "o edge1 & su* op]cula may be "r-h&$ or left-h&$ spirals4 ,x w be notic$ t 9 ! above g5]al description ( univalve %ells we h introduc$ a numb] ( te*nical t]ms :i* are pr9t$ 9 italics1 & ?is we h done advis$ly1 = ! employm5t ( ^! t]ms is a v great conv5i5ce :5 giv+ descriptions ( individual %ells1 & we %all use !m some:at lib]ally 9 not+ ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( ! families & g5]a2 b be=e ent]+ into ?is portion ( our "w we mu/ briefly note ! g5]al features ( ! bodies ( ! ,cephalophora4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,:elk1 ,,! ,,%ell ,,be+ ,,remov$ c1 /oma*2 e1 end ( inte/9e2 g1 gills2 h1 v5tricle ( ! he>t2 a1 auricle2 f1 n]ve ganglia2 b1 dige/ive gl&2 ft1 foot2 o1 op]culum2 d1 liv] ,sometimes ^! bodies are bilat]ally symmetrical1 z we h obs]v$ is ! case ) ! worms1 b m commonly ! organs on "o side are abort$1 :ile ! gr[? proce$s apace on ! opposite side4 ,?us ! animal assumes a spiral =m1 be+ coil$ t[>ds ! abort$ side1 ) ! gills & o!r organs develop$ on t side only4 ,z a rule ?is curvature is su* t ! body takes ! =m ( a "r-h&$ or dextral spiral1 z we h already obs]v$ 9 ! %ells :i* cov] !m1 ! m\? be+ ?us ?r[n to ! "r1 b sometimes x takes ! opposite direction4 ,:5 "o ( ^! animals is ext5d$ & creep+1 we obs]ve t x has a di/9ct head1 furni%$ ) a m\? bel[1 & t5tacles & eyes above2 also1 if an aquatic species1 ! gills are m or less prom95t4 ,fur!r1 ! expos$ portion ( ! body is cov]$ ) a lea!ry mantle1 & ! animal creeps on a broad1 flatt5$ surface :i* is call$ ! foot4 ,! t5tacles or feel]s are usually retractile1 &1 :5 retract$1 are turn$ outside-94 ,ea* "o is provid$ ) a muscle t runs f ! body int]nally to ! tip2 &1 by ! contraction ( ?is muscle ! t5tacle is involut$ j 9 ! same way z ! f+] ( a glove c\ld be by pull+ a /r+ atta*$ to ! tip inside4 ,9 addition to ^! t5tacles1 & ! eyes & m\? previ\sly m5tion$1 ! head is furni%$ ) e>-sacs1 :i* are little cavities1 fill$ ) fluid conta9+ solid p>ticles1 ) n]ve filam5ts di/ribut$ 9 ! walls4 ,on ! floor ( ! m\? !re is a ribbon1 support$ on a base ( gri/le1 & cov]$ ) num]\s m9ute tee? arrang$ regul>ly 9 r[s4 ,! gri/le is mov$ backw>ds & =w>ds by means ( muscles 9 su* a mann] t ?is 'l+ual ribbon' acts l a rasp1 & is employ$ 9 scrap+ or te>+ away portions ( ! sub/ance on :i* ! animal is fe$+4 ,by ?is action ! tee? are gradually worn away 9 front1 b ?is is ( no consequ5ce1 = ! l+ual ribbon is always gr[+ =w>ds1 ! worn mat]ial be+ replac$ by new gr[? beh9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,a ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,l+ual ,,ribbon ,,( ,,! ,,:elk1 ,,magnifi$2 ,,& ,a ,,s+le ,,r[ ,,( ,,tee? ,,on ,a ,,mu* ,,l>g] ,,scale b1 m$ial tee?2 a & c1 lat]al tee? ,! arrangem5t & =m ( ! tee? are *>act]i/ic & important2 & s9ce !y af=d "o ( ! means by :i* we may trace ! natural aff9ities ( simil> species1 !y w be frequ5tly ref]r$ to :5 deal+ ) ! pr9ciples ( classification4 ,= ?is reason ! /ud5t %\ld be prep>$ to exam9e ! l+ual ribbons ( molluscs ) ! aid ( a comp\nd microscope z occasion requires4 ,z a rule ! ribbon is easily /ripp$ away f ! floor ( ! m\?2 &1 if plac$ 9 a drop ( wat] & cov]$ ) a cov]-glass1 ! tee? are readily obs]v$4 ,until a little exp]i5ce has be5 ga9$ ! obs]vations may be conf9$ to "s ( ! l>g] species1 9 :i* ! ribbon is bo? l>ge & easily obta9$4 ,9 ! common :elk1 = example1 x (t5 measures m ?an an in* 9 l5g?4 ,x is difficult to und]/& h[ ! univalve mollusc manages to glide along s rapidly & gracefully on its exp&$ foot :5 we obs]ve x f above1 b ! difficulty is cle>$ away :5 we see x creep+ on ! side ( a glass aqu>ium1 or :5 we place x on a %eet ( glass & obs]ve its movem5ts f ! o!r side4 ,we !n see t ! foot is 9 complete contact ) ! glass1 & t a /eady b rapid undulatory movem5t is produc$ by ! successive expansions & contractions ( ! disc1 br\ght ab\t1 ( c\rse1 by ! action ( muscul> fibres4 ,a few ( ! univalves are vivip>\s--t is1 !y produce _! "y alive2 b ! majority lay eggs4 ,! eggs are (t5 enclos$ 9 horny cases1 "s ( :i* may be commonly se5 wa%$ up on ! bea*1 or atta*$ to rocks & we$s betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,! l>v are always enclos$ 9 a %ell1 ?\gh !y are sometimes :olly or p>tially conceal$ by ! mantle4 ,! %ell is usually clos$ by an op]culum2 b z ! animal advances 9 age ! %ell sometimes disappe>s altoge!r1 or is r$uc$ to a m]e %elly plate1 z is ! case ) ! l& & m>9e slugs & sea lemons4 ,! "y ( ! wat]-brea!rs always swim ab\t freely by means ( a pair ( ciliat$ lobes or f9s1 b ^! rema9 only = a brief p]iod1 aft] :i* ! animal settles to ! bottom = a m or less s$5t>y exi/5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,,egg ,,cases ,,( ,,! ,,:elk ,! ,cephalophora fall naturally into two fairly well-def9$ gr\ps1 :i* we may describe z ! air-brea!rs & ! wat]-brea!rs4 ,! =m] brea! air direct f ! atmosph]e ?r\gh an ap]ture on ! "r side ( ! body1 ! air pass+ into a pulmon>y organ or lung1 9 ! walls ( :i* ! bloodvessels ramify1 & !y include all ! l& snails & slugs4 ,! latt] brea! by gills :i* are m or less prom95t on ! sides ( ! body1 & include all ! fre%-wat] snails1 z well z ! m>9e species :i* fall )9 our special prov9ce4 ,we %all fir/ consid] ! class ,pt]opoda or ,w+-foot$ ,molluscs1 s call$ f ! w+-l app5dages t are atta*$ to ! side ( ! m\?1 or to ! upp] side ( ! foot1 :i* is ei!r v small or altoge!r want+4 ,^! ,pt]opods are 9 _m respects l[ly organis$ z comp>$ ) ! high] molluscs2 & z !y sp5d ! :ole ( _! exi/5ce 9 ! op5 sea1 !y c h>dly be consid]$ z fall+ )9 ! scope ( ! sea-side naturali/'s "w4 ,yet s9ce _! %ells are occasionally drift$ on to ! %ore1 & because a k ( !m is ess5tial to ! /ud5t ( ! mollusca1 we %all briefly note _! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics4 ,! pt]opods are extremely abundant 9 "s seas1 occurr+ 9 su* va/ numb]s t !y discol\r ! wat] = miles4 ,!y swim ab\t by flapp+ ! pair ( w+s already ref]r$ to4 ,!y are kn[n to =m an important article ( ! diet ( ! :ale1 & are also dev\r$ 9 enorm\s numb]s by v>i\s sea birds2 & !y are !mselves c>nivor\s1 fe$+ on v>i\s small] creatures t inhabit ! op5 wat]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--,,pt]opods ,9 appe>ance !y mu* resemble ! "y ( high] species ( molluscs4 ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a s+le ganglion situat$ bel[ ! gullet1 & ! eyes & t5tacles are ei!r rudim5t>y or abs5t4 ,! dige/ive sy/em includes a muscul> gizz>d provid$ ) tee? = ! ma/ication ( food1 & a dige/ive gl& or liv] = ! prep>ation ( a dige/ive fluid4 ,! he>t has two cavities1 & respiration is effect$ by a surface cov]$ ) m9ute cilia4 ,?is surface is ei!r q ext]nal or is enclos$ 9 a *amb] ?r\gh :i* wat] freely circulates4 ,! %ell is v diff]5t f t ( a typical head-be>+ mollusc1 = x g5]ally consi/s ( two glassy1 semitransp>5t plates1 situat$ dorsally & v5trally respectively on ! body ( ! animal1 ) an op5+ = ! protrusion ( ! body1 & o!rs at ! sides = processes ( ! mantle2 & x t]m9ates beh9d 9 "o or ?ree po9t$ processes4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 its =m is conical or spiral1 ) or )\t an op]culum4 ,we app5d illu/rations ( a few pt]opods1 select+ = our purpose species t h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,x w h be5 notic$ f ! above %ort description t ! pt]opod is v unlike ! typical ,cephalophore z outl9$ 9 our g5]al rem>ks on ! gr\p1 especially 9 ! symmetrical =m ( bo? body & %ell & 9 ! total or almo/ total abs5ce ( ! foot2 & ?is di/9ction is s m>k$ t ! pt]opods are (t5 sep>at$ f all ! o!r ,cephalophora into a class by !mselves1 :ile all ! rema9d] are plac$ 9 a sep>ate ext5sive class call$ ! ,ga/]opoda1 because !y creep on ! v5tral surface ( ! body1 ! t]m signify+ /oma*-foot$4 ,^! ga/]opods are divid$ into f\r ord]s3 ! ,nucleobran*iata1 9 :i* ! respiratory & dige/ive organs =m a nucleus on ! po/]ior "p ( ! back2 ! ,opi/hobran*iata1 ) gills m or less expos$ t[>ds ! re> ( ! body2 ! ,pulmonif]a1 or lung-brea?+ ord]2 & ! ,prosobran*iata1 9 :i* ! gills are situat$ 9 advance ( ! he>t4 ,! ?ird ord] includes all ! l& snails & slugs1 & does n !re=e fall )9 ! scope ( our "w2 b ! rema9+ ?ree consi/ ei!r exclusively or pr9cipally ( m>9e species1 & w be dealt ) 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are nam$4 ,! ,nucleobran*s are n really ga/]opods 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! t]m1 = !y d n creep along by means ( _! foot1 b all swim freely 9 ! op5 ocean1 always at ! surface1 & sometimes adh]e to float+ we$ by means ( a suck]4 ,9 fact1 ! foot ( ^! creatures is greatly modifi$ 9 accordance ) _! habits1 "o "p be+ (t5 exp&$ into a v5tral swimm+ f91 & provid$ ) a suck+-disc = adhesion1 & ano!r produc$ into a po/]ior f9 = locomotion4 ,l ! pt]opods1 ! nucleobran*s are purely pelagic1 s t we c h>dly expect to meet ) a specim5 on or ne> ! %ore2 & ?us we %all cont5t ourselves ) a brief notice ( _! g5]al *>act]s4 ,! %ell is v v>iable 9 size & =m1 & sometimes ev5 entirely abs5t4 ,l>ge-bodi$ species (t5 possess b a v small %ell1 :ile "s are able to entirely retract !mselves & close ! m\? ( ! %ell by an op]culum4 ,^! animals are g5]ally provid$ ) a l>ge cyl9drical proboscis1 & ! tongue has recurv$ tee?4 ,! body is usually v transp>5t1 (t5 s mu* s t ! blood may be se5 circulat+ )9 x1 & ! n]v\s sy/em is mu* m p]fectly develop$ ?an 9 ! pt]opods4 ,! eyes1 too1 are p]fectly =m$4 ,! pres5ce ( special brea?+ organs may seem to be sup]flu\s 9 su* delicate & s(t-bodi$ creatures z ^!1 = x may be suppos$ t all ! oxyg5 requir$ c\ld be absorb$ directly f ! wat] ?r\gh _! s(t /ructures1 z is really ! case ) _m aquatic creatures2 & z a matt] ( fact "s ( ! nucleobran*s possess no gills1 b o!rs h ^! organs fully =m$4 ,pass+ n[ to ! true ga/]opods1 we %all fir/ consid] ! ,opi/hobran*s1 :i* are commonly kn[n z ,sea ,slugs & ,sea ,lemons4 ,"s ( ^! h no %ell at all1 & ev5 :]e "o exi/s x is v rudim5t>y1 usually v small & ?91 & conceal$ )9 ! mantle4 ,! gills are ei!r bran*$ & tree-l1 or are compos$ ( tufts or bundles ( filam5ts2 &1 z ! "n ( ! ord] implies1 are situat$ t[>ds ! po/]ior "p ( ! body4 ,!y are also retractile1 & :5 ! animal is al>m$ x w conceal its gills1 ?us r$uc+ its body to a %apeless1 slimy mass1 invit+ nei!r to sight nor to t\*4 ,! sea slugs are pr9cipally animal fe$]s1 subsi/+ on small cru/aceans1 o!r molluscs1 c42 ! food be+ fir/ r$uc$ by ! rasp+ action ( ! tee?1 & !n ma/icat$ 9 a gizz>d :i* is provid$ int]nally ) horny sp9es or h>d1 %elly plates4 ,x w n be necess>y to enum]ate all ! diff]5t families ( ?is ord]1 especially z ! species are mo/ly to be f\nd beyond ! tide-m>ks1 & are !re=e obta9$ only ) ! aid ( ! dr$ge2 b we %all describe a few ( ! ,briti% species ) a view ( %[+ ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! animals4 ,!y are usually divid$ into two sections1 ^? ) expos$ or nak$ gills 7,nudibran*iata7 =m+ ! fir/1 & ^? 9 :i* ! gills are cov]$ ei!r by ! %ell or ! mantle 7,tectibran*iata7 compris+ ! second4 ,9 ! ,nudibran*s ! %ell exi/s only dur+ ! embryonic /age1 & ! ext]nal gills are arrang$ on ! back or along ! sides4 ,! t5tacles are n employ$ z organs ( t\*1 b are probably connect$ only ) ! s5sation ( smell1 be+ provid$ ) filam5ts ( ! olfactory n]ve2 ! eyes are small d>k-col\r$ spots emb$d$ 9 ! sk9 beh9d ! t5tacles4 ,v>i\s species are to be f\nd on all rocky coa/s1 :]e !y range f l[-wat] m>k to a dep? ( fifty or sixty fa?oms1 b a few are pelagic1 liv+ on ! surface ( float+ sea we$s4 ,x is almo/ impossible to id5tify ! species ( nudibran*s f dead specim5s1 = ! classification ( ! section is bas$ l>gely on ! arrangem5t ( ! gills1 :i* are almo/ always retract$ 9 ! dead animals4 ,?is is also ! case ev5 ) liv+ specim5s :5 di/urb$ or remov$ f ! wat]2 h5ce !y %\ld always be exam9$ alive 9 sea wat]1 :ile ! animals are ext5d$ & mov+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,nudibran*s #a4 ,doto coronata4 #b4 ,elysia viridis4 #c4 ,proctonotus mucronif]us4 #d4 ,embletonia pul*ra ,x w be und]/ood f ! above /atem5ts t special me?ods w be necess>y :5 x is requir$ to pres]ve specim5s = future /udy1 ! gills be+ always retract$ :5 ! animal is kill$ = ?is purpose by any rapid process4 ,we h f\nd two me?ods1 h[ev]1 t are fairly satisfactory 9 ! majority ( in/ances4--,place ! liv+ animals 9 a suitable vessel ( sea wat]1 & leave !m q undi/urb$ till !y are fully ext5d$1 & !n ei!r gradually raise ! temp]ature till !y are dead1 or introduce into ! wat]1 cauti\sly1 a solution ( corrosive sublimate4 ,9 ! latt] case a mu* l>g] proportion ( ! sublimate w be requir$ ?an :5 us$ = a simil> purpose ) fre%wat] molluscs4 ,:5 ! animals are dead x w be f\nd t _! gills are m or less ext5d$1 sometimes fully s1 & !y may !n be transf]r$ to dilut$ _s or a two p] c5t4 solution ( =maldehyde4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,,nudibran*s #a4 ,d5dronotus arboresc5s4 #b4 ,tritonia plebeia4 #c4 ,triopa clavig]4 #d4 girus punctiluc5s ,9 fig4 #afb we repres5t f\r species4 ,two ( ^!--,triopa clavig] & girus punctiluc5s--belong to ! family ,dorid1 ! memb]s ( :i* are popul>ly kn[n z ,sea ,lemons1 & are di/+ui%$ by ! pres5ce ( plume-l gills situat$ on ! middle ( ! back4 ,ano!r family 7,tritoniad71 *>act]is$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! gills along ! sides ( ! back1 & by t5tacles t c be retract$ into %ea?s1 is repres5t$ by ,tritonia plebeia & ,d5dronotus arboresc5s 9 ! same figure1 & by ,doto coronata 9 fig4 #afa4 ,! family olid also h _! gills arrang$ along ! sides ( ! back1 b !y diff] f ! la/ 9 t _! t5tacles are n retractile4 ,!y include ! two species numb]$ #c & #d on fig4 #afa4 ,! rema9+ "o on fig4 #afa--;,elysia viridis--is a memb] ( ! family ,phillirhoid1 *>act]is$ by a pair ( t5tacles on ! dorsal side ( ! head & by ! foot be+ ei!r v n>r[ or abs5t1 ! latt] feature d5ot+ t ! animals are n adapt$ = creep+ on ! bottom4 ,9 fact1 sev]al ( ! species ( ?is family swim freely by means ( flatt5$ tails4 ,! ,tectibran*s are simil> 9 g5]al /ructure1 b are v diff]5t 9 appe>ance1 inasmu* z ! gills1 s prom95t 9 ! la/ division1 are "h cov]$ by ! mantle1 or by ! %ell1 :i* is (t5 well develop$4 ,! latt] is v v>iable 9 =m1 be+ ( a globul>1 twi/$1 spiral1 or o!r %ape1 b is sometimes abs5t 9 ! adult4 ,9 fig4 #afc we give a few examples ( ! %ells ( ,briti% species2 & "o 7,bulla hydatis7 is %[n on ,plate ,v4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,,%ells ,,( ,,tectibran*s ,we n[ pass on to ! l>ge/ & la/ ord] ( ga/]opods--! ,prosobran*iata--s call$ because ! gills are situat$ 9 front ( ! he>t4 ,?is gr\p is an important "o to ! sea-side naturali/1 s9ce x conta9s ne>ly all ! univalve molluscs t are common betwe5 ! tide-m>ks ( our %ores1 z well z "s abundant species t are protect$ by a %ell ( sev]al di/9ct p>ts4 ,9 ne>ly all ( !m ! abdom5 is well develop$1 & ! %ell is suffici5tly l>ge to cov] ! :ole animal :5 ! latt] is retract$2 & ! gills1 :i* are ei!r pect9at$ 7comb-%ap$7 or plum$1 are lodg$ 9 ! *amb] =m$ ov] ! head ( ! animal by ! mantle4 ,! ord] is (t5 divid$ into two sections--! ,holo/omata or ,sea ,snails1 9 :i* ! m>g9 ( ! ap]ture ( ! %ell is entire1 & ! ,siphono/omata1 9 :i* ! m>g9 ( ! mantle is prolong$ into a siphon by :i* wat] passes into ! gill *amb]4 ,?is division does n seem to be v satisfactory1 z ! sections are n sep>at$ by v prom95t natural *>act]i/ics1 b x becomes conv5i5t on acc\nt ( ! great ext5t ( ! ord]4 ,9 ! ,holo/omata ! %ell is ei!r spiral1 conical1 tubul>1 or compos$ ( sev]al valves1 & ! spiral =ms are usually clos$ by a horny or %elly op]culum ( ! spiral k9d4 ,! head is provid$ ) a proboscis t is g5]ally non-retractile1 & ! gills usually ext5d obliquely across ! back1 or are atta*$ to ! "r side beh9d ! head4 ,we %all fir/ consid] ! l[] =ms1 />t+ ) ! family ,*itonid1 ! animals ( :i*1 z ! "n implies1 are cov]$ ) a %ell t resembles a coat ( mail4 ,"s ( ^! creatures are v common on our rocky coa/s1 & yet _! nature is su* t !y are liable to be ov]look$ by ^? :o are n acqua9t$ ) _! appe>ance & habits4 ,! %ell is oval or oblong1 (t5 s col\r$ z to closely resemble ! rocks & /ones ov] :i* !y crawl2 & ! animal is s inactive :5 left expos$ by ! rec$+ tide1 & its flat "u surface s closely appli$ to t on :i* x re/s1 t x looks m]ely l a little convexity ( ! rock4 ,b aft] a few h be5 discov]$ ! eye becomes accu/om$ to _! appe>ance1 & l>ge numb]s may be obta9$ 9 a %ort space ( "t4 ,! %ell w be se5 to consi/ ( eight transv]se1 curv$ plates1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r at _! edges1 & all enclos$ 9 a lea!ry mantle1 :i* also =ms a project+ m>g9 all r\nd4 ,! middle six plates are diff]5t f ! fir/ & la/ 9 t !y are groov$ 9 su* a mann] t ea* "o displays a dorsal & two lat]al areas4 ,! animal holds on tightly to ! rocks by its l>ge creep+ disc-l foot1 b may be remov$ )\t injury by =c+ a knife-blade "u ! m>g9 ( its %ell4 ,:5 exam9$ x w be f\nd t x has n a well-=m$ head l ! majority ( ! ga/]opods1 & bo? eyes & t5tacles are want+4 ,! gills =m a s]ies ( lamell r\nd ! po/]ior end ( ! body1 betwe5 ! edge ( ! foot & ! mantle2 & x is int]e/+ to note t ! ,*itons fur!r ju/ify ! l[ position assign$ to !m among ! ga/]opods by _! possession ( a simple1 c5tral1 tubul> he>t1 simil> to t ( worms4 ,p]haps ! commone/ ( ! ,briti% species is ,*iton c9]eus4 ,its col\r is a dull grey1 b ! gr\nd is v>i\sly mottl$1 (t5 9 su* a mann] z to give x a protective resemblance to its surr\nd+s4 ,c4 rub] is ! l>ge/ ( our species3 its %ell is v>i\sly mottl$ ) %ades ( yell[ & br[n2 ,c4 fascicul>is is bri/l$4 ,ano!r r common species 7,c4 lvis7 is di/+ui%$ by ! glossy appe>ance ( ! dorsal portion ( ! %ell4 ,x w h be5 obs]v$ t ! *itons diff] f ! majority ( ga/]opods 9 t _! %ells & bodies are bo? bilat]ally symmetrical1 & ! same is true ( ! next family--,d5taliad1 :i* d]ive _! "n f ! too?-l =m ( _! conical %ells4 ,!y are popul>ly kn[n z ! ,too? ,%ells1 & al?\gh !y g5]ally live beyond l[-wat] level1 !y may sometimes be se5 alive on ! bea*1 & ! empty %ells are (t5 wa%$ up by ! waves4 ,! %ells 7fig4 #afe7 are curv$1 & op5 at bo? ends1 ! n>r[] extremity be+ ! po/]ior4 ,! m\? is circul>1 & ! out] surface is q smoo? or groov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--;,,*iton ,,%ells ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,,%ells ,,( ,d5talium ,9 ^! animals1 too1 ! head is imp]fectly =m$1 )\t eyes or t5tacles4 ,! foot is conical & po9t$1 ) two symmetrical side lobes2 & ! gills1 also two 9 numb]1 are symmetrically dispos$4 ,! m>g9 ( ! m\? is fr+$1 & ! animal is atta*$ to ! %ell ne> ! po/]ior end4 ,! ,d5taliad are c>nivor\s1 subsi/+ on m9ute molluscs1 =am9if]a1 c41 & g5]ally live on s&y or muddy bottoms1 9 :i* !y sometimes bury !mselves4 ,our next family includes ! famili> ,limpets1 & is designat$ ,patellid on acc\nt ( ! resemblance ( ! conical %ell to a little di%4 ,9 ^! ! apex ( ! cone is n c5tral1 b situat$ m or less t[>ds ! ant]ior2 & ! muscul> impression )9 is %ap$ l a horse%oe1 ) its op5 end turn$ to ! front4 ,unlike ! memb]s ( ! prec$+ families1 ! limpets h a well-=m$ head furni%$ ) bo? eyes & t5tacles1 ! =m] situat$ at ! bases ( ! latt]4 ,!y h a horny upp] jaw1 & ! tongue1 :i* is v long1 is suppli$ ) num]\s hook$ tee?4 ,! foot is a v l>ge disc1 z l>ge z ! %ell1 & ! gills consi/ ei!r ( "o or two bran*$ plumes1 or ( a s]ies ( lamell almo/ or entirely surr\nd+ ! animal betwe5 ! %ell & ! m>g9 ( ! mantle4 ,! read] has probably exp]i5c$ ! difficulty ( deta*+ a limpet f its hold on ! rocks4 ,! t5acity ( ! grip is n due to ! m]e adhesive p[] ( ! foot itself1 b to atmosph]ic pressure1 ! effect ( :i* is complete on acc\nt ( ! total exclusion ( air f "u ! disc ( ! foot2 & :5 we rememb] t ?is pressure am\nts to fifte5 p\nds on e squ>e in* ( surface1 we c readily und]/& ! =ce requir$ to raise a l>ge limpet f its position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,patellid #a4 ,patella vulgata4 #b4 ,p4 pellucida4 #c4 ,p4 a?letica4 #d4 ,acma te/ud9alis ,! ,common ,limpet 7,patella vulgata7 is f\nd on all our rocky coa/s betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 (t5 at su* a level t x is left expos$ to ! air = eight or n9e h\rs at a "t4 ,! apex ( ! %ell ( ?is species is ne>ly c5tral1 & ! ext]ior is sometimes ne>ly smoo?1 b m commonly reliev$ by radiat+ ribs4 ,al?\gh ! %ell itself is n a p>ticul>ly pretty object1 x is (t5 r5d]$ v beautiful & int]e/+ by ! v>i\s animal & vegetable organisms t settle on x4 ,^? %ells t are left dry = h\rs toge!r are commonly adorn$ ) clu/]s ( small acorn b>nacles1 :ile ! limpets t h f\nd a home 9 a rock pool & are p]petually cov]$ ) wat]1 (t5 resemble little mov+ g>d5s 9 :i* gr[ beautiful tufts ( corall9es or o!r we$s1 z well z polyzoa & o!r animal =ms4 ,x appe>s t limpets are n great travell]s1 ! appe>ance ( ! rock f :i* !y h be5 remov$ be+ su* z to po9t to a v long p]iod ( re/4 ,^? on h>d rocks are g5]ally situat$ on a smoo? surface j ! size ( ! %ell & g5]ally worn slightly bel[ ! surr\nd+ level by ! con/ant friction ( ! %ell2 :ile o!rs t h settl$ on v rugg$ spots h _! cones adapt$ to ! irregul> surface4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! animals make occasional %ort excursions f _! *os5 spot1 b return aga9 to x2 & :e!r or n ?is is ! case1 x is evid5t t !y frequ5tly keep to "o small spot = a consid]able l5g? ( "t4 ,limpets on *alk & o!r s(t rocks are sometimes 9 circul> pits s deep t ev5 ! apex ( ! %ell is bel[ ! g5]al level ar\nd2 & ?\gh x is possible t ! abrasion is produc$ entirely by ! friction ( ! %ell z ! animal turns1 yet1 9 ! case ( *alk1 ! action may be p>tly due to ! c>bonic acid gas giv5 (f by ! animal z a product ( respiration1 = x is a well-kn[n *emical fact t ?is gas1 9 solution1 has ! p[] ( dissolv+ calc>e\s mat]ial4 ,! o!r ,briti% ,limpets include ,p4 pellucida1 :i* lives on ! fronds & /alks ( ! tangle1 ! =m ( ! %ell v>y+ accord+ to t ( ! surface on :i* x re/s2 also ! ,horse ,limpet 7,p4 a?letica71 ! bold radiat+ ribs ( :i* are irregul>ly not*$2 & ,acma te/ud9alis--! ,tortoise%ell ,limpet1 ) r$di%-br[n mottl+s on ! ext]ior1 & a d>k-br[n pat* at ! apex )94 ,! la/-nam$ species lives pr9cipally on sea we$s1 & has a s+le pect9at$ gill 9 ! cavity betwe5 foot & mantle1 :i* is protrud$ on ! "r side :5 ! animal is ext5d$4 ,?is latt] feature is int]e/+ s9ce x %[s a t5d5cy to t "o-sid$ developm5t already ref]r$ to z *>act]i/ic ( ! typical ga/]opod1 result+ 9 ! spiral =m ( ! adult4 ,9 ! limpets ! l+ual ribbon is proportionately long1 & is easily remov$ = exam9ation4 ,9 ,p4 vulgata x may exce$ an in* 9 l5g?1 & ! tee? are arrang$ 9 r[s ea* ( :i* conta9s f\r c5tral1 ) lat]als on ei!r side1 :ile 9 ,acma !re are only ?ree lat]als on ea* side ( ! c5tral l9e4 ,o!r s-call$ limpets belong to sep>ate families4 ,?us we h ! ,cup-&-,sauc] ,limpet & ! ,bonnet ,limpet 9 ! ,calyptrid4 ,bo? ^! diff] f ,patella 9 t ! apices ( _! %ells %[ a t5d5cy to assume a spiral =m1 ?us d5ot+ a some:at clos] relation%ip to ! m advanc$ univalves4 ,!y h di/9ct heads1 ) prolong$ muzzles1 & well-=m$ ant5n & eyes4 ,! tee? ( ! l+ual ribbon are s+le1 ) d5tat$ lat]als on ei!r side4 ,! ,cup-&-sauc] ,limpet 7,calyptra s95sis7 is s call$ on acc\nt ( a curv$ plate t projects f ! int]ior ( ! %ell1 at ! apex2 & ?\gh ?is plate takes ! =m ( a half-cup r ?an ( a cup1 ! :ole %ell has sugge/$ ! popul> "n1 :ile ! g5]ic "n is d]iv$ f calyptra1 :i* signifies a cap4 ,?is mollusc is occasionally f\nd among /ones at l[ tide1 b usually lives beyond ?is l9e1 ?us necessitat+ ! use ( a dr$ge4 ,! ,bonnet ,limpet 7,pileopsis hung>icus7 is ( simil> /ructure & habit1 b ! nucleus ( ! %ell is a m decid$ spiral 7see ,plate ,v474 ,bo? ^! animals adh]e to /ones & rocks1 &1 l ! common limpet1 seldom or nev] move f _! select$ sites2 h5ce _! %ells are v>iable 9 =m1 be+ adapt$ to ! rock bel[1 & ! movem5ts ( ! %ell (t5 cause a little holl[ to be scoop$ out ( ! s(t] mat]ials4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,calyptra s95sis ,yet o!r limpets belong to ! next family ,fissurellid1 :i* is *>act]is$ by a p]=ation or a not* 9 ! %ell4 ,9 ^!1 too1 ! %ell is conical1 ) a t5d5cy to assume ! spiral =m1 b ! curve ( ! nucleus1 :i* is always app>5t 9 ! "y %ell1 frequ5tly disappe>s z ! gr[? proce$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,fissurellid #a4 ,puncturella noa*9a4 #b4 ,em>g9ula reticulata4 #c4 ,fissurella reticulata ,9 ! ,keyhole ,limpet 7,fissurella reticulata7 :i* is f\nd *iefly on our s\!rn %ores1 ! p]=ation is at ! summit ( ! %ell2 b z ! animal gr[s ! hole increases 9 size1 encroa*+ on ! curv$ nucleus until ! latt] q disappe>s4 ,9 ! g5us ,puncturella ! p]=ation is j 9 front ( ! recurv$ apex1 & is surr\nd$ by a rim int]nally2 :ile 9 ! ,not*$ ,limpets 7g5us ,em>g9ula7 x is repres5t$ by a fissure on ! ant]ior m>g9 ( ! cone4 ,9 all1 h[ev]1 ! hole or not* s]ves ! same purpose1 = x is ! means by :i* wat] ent]s ! siphon4 ,x is d\btful :e!r we ought to claim ! beautiful ,e> %ell 7,haliotis tub]culata7 z "o ( our own1 b x is g5]ally includ$ among ! ,briti% molluscs on ! gr\nd t x is abundant on ! coa/ ( ! ,*annel ,isl&s1 :]e x is call$ ! ,om>2 & x is c]ta9ly too beautiful an object to be exclud$ f ! ,briti% species )\t ample cause4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,haliotis ,x belongs to ! family ,haliotid1 & our illu/ration w %[ t ! %ell is less elevat$ ?an t ( limpets1 & t ! spire1 ?\gh n prom95t1 is a fairly well-=m$ spiral4 ,all along ! out] lip ( ! v l>ge ap]ture is a s]ies ( p]=ations1 occupy+ ! summit ( a prom95t1 spiral ridge1 & becom+ gradually small] & small] t[>ds ! spire4 ,! :ole %ell is pe>ly 9 /ructure1 & displays a great v>iety ( ri* col\r+4 ,x is us$ l>gely = inlay+ & o!r ornam5tal purposes1 & = mak+ ! s-call$ pe>l buttons4 ,! animal is us$ l>gely z an article ( food 9 ! ,*annel ,isl&s1 b x is ( s t\gh a nature t x requires a vigor\s beat+ previ\sly to be+ cook$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--;,ian?9a fragilis ,! same family conta9s ! beautiful violet ,ian?9a1 :i* also is n a ,briti% species1 b a free-swimm+ oceanic snail4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 occasionally drift$ to our %ores1 ?\gh g5]ally 9 an imp]fect condition4 ,9 ! ,atlantic & ! ,m$it]ranean x sometimes ab\nds 9 su* multitudes z to di/9ctly col\r ! surface ( ! sea4 ,x w be se5 t ! %ell is r\nd1 ) a well-=m$ spiral4 ,! spire is :ite1 b ! base is ( a deep violet col\r4 ,! animal is v rem>kable 9 "s respects4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?\gh x has p$icels simil> to ^? on :i* ! eyes ( ! high] univalves are plac$1 yet x has no eyes4 ,!n ! foot1 :i* is 9 itself small1 secretes a float or raft s l>ge t x _c be retract$ into ! %ell1 ) num]\s air vesicles to r5d] x light1 & ! egg-capsules ( ! animal are atta*$ to ! und]side ( ?is4 ,! animal has no p[] ( s9k+1 b lives exclusively at ! surface2 &1 :5 di/urb$1 x exudes a violet fluid t col\rs ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,x is app>5tly ! only ga/]opod t lives 9 ! op5 sea & has a l>ge & well-=m$ spiral %ell4 ,pass+ n[ to ! family ,turb9id we meet ) turb9at$ or pyramidal %ells t are ( a brilliant pe>ly lu/re )91 & frequ5tly )\t also :5 ! epid]mis is remov$4 ,! animals inhabit+ !m h well-=m$ heads ) a %ort muzzle1 long & sl5d] t5tacles1 & eyes m\nt$ on p$uncles4 ,! sides are ornam5t$ ) fr+$ lobes & sev]al t5tacle-l filam5ts1 & ! ap]ture ( ! %ell is clos$1 :5 ! animal is retract$1 by a spiral op]culum4 ,!y are all vegetable fe$]s2 &1 z is usual ) ! plant-eat+ molluscs1 ! tee? on ! lat]al portions ( ! l+ual ribbon are v num]\s4 ,we h a few common species belong+ to ?is gr\p1 mo/ly memb]s ( ! typical g5us ,tro*us & commonly kn[n z ,top ,%ells4 ,9 ^! ! %ell is a pyramid =m$ ( num]\s flat :orls1 ) an oblique & rhomboidal ap]ture4 ,( ! ?ree species figur$ 7includ+ two on ,plate ,v47 ,t4 umbilicatus & ! ,l>ge ,top 7,t4 magnus7 are umbilicat$1 ! umbilicus be+ v l>ge 9 ! latt]2 & ! =m] is *>act]is$ by ! zigzag greyi% or r$di% m>k+s t run radially across ! :orls4 ,! o!r 7,t4 zizyph9us7 is usually ( a yell[i% or p9k col\r & has no umbilicus4 ,! same family conta9s ! pretty little ,pheasant ,%ell 7,phasianella pullas71 :i* is ri*ly col\r$ ) r$1 br[n1 & yell[ on a light gr\nd2 & ,adeorbis subc>9atus1 %[n 9 ! same gr\p4 ,! well-kn[n ,p]iw9kle 7,littor9a littorea7 & ! species to ! "r ( x on ,plate ,v41 belong to ! family ,littor9id1 ! memb]s ( :i* are simil> 9 /ructure & habit to ,tro*us1 b ! %ell is usually m depress$1 & is nev] pe>ly4 ,! %ell ( ! ,p]iw9kle is ?ick1 hav+ b few :orls1 & is n umbilicat$2 & ! l+ual ribbon1 :i* is coil$ up on ! gullet1 conta9s no less ?an ab\t five hundr$ r[s ( tee?2 b only a little m ?an tw5ty ( ^! r[s are 9 action at any "o "t1 ! rema9d] be+ a res]ve /ock to come into active s]vice z ! ribbon gr[s =w>d4 ,9 ! g5us ,lacuna !re is a n>r[ umbilicus1 & ! ap]ture ( ! %ell is semilun> 9 =m2 & ! species ( ,rissoa are v small1 ) :ite or horny %ells1 mu* m po9t$ & hav+ m :orls ?an ^? ( ! ,littor9a4 div classfigleft /ylewid?3 #agepx2 a "nfig#agb idfig#agb_/;a img srcimages_/i#bgc;b4jpg wid?#age height#bjb alt _/ ,,fig4 #agb4--,rissoa labiosa ,,& ,lacuna pallidula _/div ,our next illu/ration %[s ?ree %ells ( ! family ,turritellid1 s nam$ f ! resemblance ( ! %ells to a t[] or spire4 ,! =m inde$ is s *>act]i/ic t !y c h>dly be mi/ak54 ,x w be se5 t ,turritella communis is /riat$ spirally1 :ile ! surface ( ,scal>ia communis 7,plate ,v47 is reliev$ by /rongly m>k$ transv]se ribs4 ,bo? ^! species are v common1 & ! latt] is peculi> = its p[] ( eject+ a d>k purple fluid :5 mole/$4 ,! o!r repres5tative ( ! family--,ccum tra*ea--has a %ell some?+ l t ( ,d5talium 7p4 #bch71 be+ cyl9drical & tubul>1 b x diff]s 9 be+ clos$ at "o end4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,,section ,,( ,,%ell ,,( ,turritella ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,turritella communis ,,& ,ccum tra*ea ,9 ! succe$+ %ells1 ( ! family ,c]i?iad1 ! spire is also consid]ably produc$1 s mu* s t "s ( ! species closely resemble ! ,turret %ells1 b !y are di/+ui%$ by usually hav+ an exp&$ lip1 at lea/ 9 ! adult =m2 & ! m\? is *annell$ 9 front1 & sometimes also beh9d4 ,! animals ( ! gr\p h %ort muzzles t are n retractile1 ! t5tacles are wide ap>t1 & ! eyes are m\nt$ on %ort p$icels4 ,! m$ian tee? are arrang$ 9 a s+le r[1 ) ?ree lat]als on ei!r side ( ea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4--;,c]i?ium reticulatum ,,& ,aporrhais pes-pelicani ,c]i?ium reticulatum receives its g5]ic "n f its appe>ance to a small horn1 & ! specific "n ref]s to ! nett$ appe>ance ( its surface due to ! pres5ce ( num]\s little tub]cles arrang$ 9 r[s--a feature t s]ves to di/+ui% x f ! small ,turret %ells4 ,x is a common %ell1 z is also ! o!r repres5tative ( ! family illu/rat$1 b ! latt] is r5d]$ conspicu\s by ! enorm\sly exp&$ lip t has e>n$ = x ! popul> "n ( ,sp\t ,%ell4 ,its sci5tific "n is ,aporrhais pes-pelicani1 & ! application ( ! specific t]m w be und]/ood :5 ! %ell is view$ f above1 = ! exp&$ lip is drawn out into long f+]-l lobes t sugge/ ! foot ( a bird4 ,?is is a v solid %ell1 sometimes rea*+ a l5g? ( two in*es2 & ! animal inhabit+ x is c>nivor\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--;,aporrhais pes-pelicani1 ,,%[+ ,,bo? ,,%ell ,,& ,,animal ,we h yet "s turret$ %ells to deal )1 belong+ to ! family ,pyramidellid1 b !y ne$ n be confus$ ) ! prec$+ gr\ps if c>efully exam9$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ap]ture ( ! %ell is v small2 & ! op]culum1 in/ead ( be+ spiral1 z 9 ! turret$ %ells be=e m5tion$1 is imbricat$ or made up ( p>allel lay]s d5ot+ t ! gr[? took place on "o side only4 ,ano!r di/+ui%+ feature is se5 9 ! nucleus--t small portion ( ! spire t 0 develop$ )9 ! egg--:i* is s9i/ral or left-h&$4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! animal has broad1 e>-l t5tacles1 a retractile proboscis1 & a l+ual ribbon )\t tee?4 ,! ,briti% species ( ?is family belong pr9cipally to ! g5]a ,odo/omia1 *>act]is$ by a too?-l fold ( ! columella2 ,eulima1 conta9+ small1 :ite1 poli%$ %ells ) num]\s level :orls2 & ,aclis1 ) little poli%$ %ells n unlike ,turritella4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--a4 ,odo/omia plicata4#b4 ,eulima polita4 #c4 ,aclis supranitida ,! la/ family ( ! ,holo/omata is ! ,naticid1 ! %ells ( :i* are almo/ globul>1 ) only a few :orls1 & a small1 blunt spire4 ,! m\? is semilun> 9 =m1 & ! lip %>p4 ,! proboscis ( ! animal is long & retractile1 & ! foot l>ge2 b p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature is ! pres5ce ( l>ge mantle lobes :i* hide "s ( ! %ell :5 ! animal is crawl+4 ,9 ,natica 7fig4 #aee71 ! typical g5us1 ! %ells are some:at ?ick & smoo?1 ) a l>ge umbilicus4 ,z ! animal crawls a l>ge fold ( ! mantle is reflect$ back ov] ! head1 completely cov]+ x1 & app>5tly ob/ruct+ its view2 b ?is is n ! case1 = ! creature has no eyes4 ,natica is v abundant on "s s&y bea*es1 :]e x dev\rs small bivalves & o!r animals2 & x is frequ5tly wa%$ up alive by ! waves4 ,its %ell is also a fav\rite "o ) h]mit crabs4 ,its eggs1 all connect$ toge!r 9 a spiral b&1 may (t5 be se5 /r&$ on s&y coa/s4 ,sev]al species ( ,natica are f\nd on our %ores4 ,an alli$ mollusc--,velut9a lvigata1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! velvety epid]mis t clo!s ! %ell1 completely surr\nds ! %ell by its mantle folds :5 creep+4 ,! ,siphono/omata =m a mu* small] section ?an ! la/1 & its memb]s are di/+ui%$ ma9ly by ! pres5ce ( a true siphon1 =m$ by ! prolongation ( ! mantle m>g91 & s]v+ to convey wat] into ! gill *amb]4 ,9 all ^! ! %ell is spiral1 usually )\t an umbilical op5+1 & ! m>g9 ( ! m\? is prolong$ into a canal or di/9ctly not*$4 ,! op]culum is horny1 & lamell> or imbricat$4 ,! animal has a retractile proboscis1 & ! eyes or eye-p$icels are jo9$ to ! t5tacles4 ,all ! species ( ?is division are m>9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--;,cypra 7,trivia7 europa ,we w fir/ take ! family ,cyprid1 :i* conta9s ! famili> ,c[ries1 ^! =m+ ! l[e/ gr\p ( ! division4 ,an exam9ation ( ! %ells may at fir/ seem r puzzl+1 = ! spire is conceal$1 & ! :ole is convolut$ 9 su* a mann] z to make ! m\? long & n>r[1 ) a *annel at ei!r end4 ,! out] lip is also ?ick5$ & b5t inw>d1 & !re is no op]culum4 ,! animal itself is p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 =1 z x creeps along on its broad foot1 abruptly %ort5$ 9 ! front1 ! mantle lobes b5d ov] ! top1 meet+ along ! middle l9e1 :]e !y are usually fr+$ ) little t5tacle-l processes2 &1 z a result1 ! :ole %ell is beautifully enamell$ on ! out] surface4 ,9 all ! ,c[ries ! c5tral tee? are s+le1 & ! lat]als are arrang$ ei!r 9 twos or ?rees4 ,p]haps ! commone/ repres5tative ( ?is family is ! pretty little ,cypra 7,trivia7 europa 7,plate ,v471 ! %ells ( :i* are sometimes wa%$ up 9 l>ge numb]s on s&y bea*es4 ,! animal lives ma9ly bel[ l[-wat] level1 b x may (t5 be f\nd 9 ! l>g] rock pools1 creep+ rapidly ov] ! tangles1 & may be easily secur$ ) ! aid ( a net4 ,9 ! same family we h ! little ,erato 7,m>g9ella7 lvis1 ! :ite %ell ( :i* is m9utely furr[$ along ! lips2 & also ,ovulum patulum 7,calpurna patula71 s call$ on acc\nt ( its fanci$ resemblance to a poa*$ egg4 ,we h also sev]al species ( ,cone %ells 7family ,conid7 on our coa/s1 readily recognis$ by _! =m1 :i* is a cone1 ) a long1 n>r[ ap]ture1 p>tially clos$ by a m9ute op]culum4 ,z 9 ! la/ family1 ! foot is abruptly %ort5$ 9 front4 ,! head is v prom95t1 ) eyes situat$ on ! t5tacles4 ,!re are two gills1 & ! tee? are arrang$ 9 pairs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--a4 ,ovulum patulum4 #b4 ,erato lvis ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--,mangelia septangul>is ,,& ,mangelia turricula ,! ,conid are pr9cipally inhabitants ( tropical seas1 :]e "s v l>ge species exi/4 ,two ( ! ,briti% repres5tatives1 bo? common %ells1 are %[n 9 fig4 #ahj4 ,our next family 7,bucc9id7 is s well di/ribut$ on our coa/s1 t x w\ld be difficult1 we imag9e1 to f9d a spot q free f its famili> =ms4 ,x conta9s all ^? creatures commonly kn[n z ,:elks1 ,dog ,:elks1 & ,dog ,w9kles1 rang+ f deep wat] almo/ to high-wat] m>k4 ,9 all ^! ! %ell is not*$ 9 front1 or ! canal is turn$ abruptly upw>d4 ,! foot ( ! animal is broad1 ! eyes are situat$ ei!r on ! t5tacles or at _! bases1 & !re are two gill plumes4 ,all ! species are c>nivor\s1 & "s are said to be v de/ructive to mussels & "y oy/]s4 ,! ,common ,:elk 7,bucc9um undatum1 ,plate ,v47 lives 9 deep wat]1 :5ce x is dr$g$ up l>gely = ! m>ket4 ,its clu/]s ( egg cases are wa%$ up 9 l>ge numb]s on ! bea*1 :]e !y =m "o ( ! commone/ mat]ials among ! refuse at high-wat] m>k4 ,x is n uncommon1 also1 especially aft] /orms1 to f9d ! unhat*$ eggs /r&$ by ! waves1 & ^! are s transp>5t t ! embryos1 sev]al 9 ea* capsule1 may be se5 )94 ,! hole ?r\gh :i* ! "y escape may also be se5 on ! inn] side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--a4 ,purpura lapillus4 #b4 ,,egg ,,cases ,,( ,purpura4 #c4 ,nassa reticulata ,! ,dog ,p]iw9kle 7,purpura lapillus7 ab\nds on all our coa/s & is rem>kable = ! production ( a dull crimson or purple fluid t may be obta9$ f x by press+ on ! op]culum4 ,?is fluid turns to a bright] col\r on exposure to air1 & is said to h be5 us$ l>gely 9 =m] times z a dye4 ,x w be se5 f our figure t ! spire ( ?is %ell is %ort] 9 proportion ?an t ( ,bucc9um2 b bo? are alike 9 t ! op]culum is made up ( lay]s ) a nucleus on ! ext]nal edge4 ,! o!r species figur$ is ,nassa reticulata1 popul>ly kn[n z ! ,dog ,:elk1 & *>act]is$ by a too?-l projection ( ! inn] lip close to ! ant]ior canal4 ,x is v common ne> l[-wat] m>k1 :]e x may be se5 crawl+ ov] ! rocks on its broad foot1 f :i* project two hornlike app5dages 9 front & two n>r[ tails beh9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,murex er9aceus ,f ! la/ family ( ! ga/]opods 7! ,muricid7 we select two common species--,murex er9aceus & ,fusus antiquus 7,plate ,v474 ,9 bo? ^! ! ant]ior canal ( ! %ell is /raight & ! po/]ior want+4 ,! eyes are on ! t5tacles1 & !re are two plum$ gills4 ,bo? are c>nivor\s species1 fe$+ on o!r molluscs2 & ! =m] is said to bore ?r\gh ! %ells ( its prey ) ! prom95t beak ( its %ell4 ,murex may be readily di/+ui%$ by ! prom95t longitud9al ridges ( ! ?ick %ell1 its r\nd$ ap]ture1 & by ! p>tly clos$ canal runn+ ?r\gh ! beak4 ,x is kn[n to fi%]m5 z ! ,/+ ,w9kle2 ! o!r species is call$ ! ,r$ ,:elk 9 "s p>ts1 & 9 ,scotl& is kn[n z ! ,buckie4 ,l ! common :elk1 x is dr$g$ l>gely = ! m>ket1 & is said to be f> m e/eem$ ?an ! =m]1 f :i* x may be di/+ui%$ by ! fusi=m %ape ( ! %ell & ! long /raight canal4 ,we n[ pass to ! la/ & highe/ class ( ! mollusca1 call$ ! ,cephalopoda because !y h a numb] ( arms atta*$ to ! head1 r\nd ! m\?4 ,unlike ! majority ( molluscs !y are bilat]ally symmetrical3 & are mu* m highly organis$1 9 "s respects ev5 mak+ an approa* to ! v]tebrates4 ,?us !y g5]ally h an int]nal h>d /ructure1 ei!r horny or calc>e\s 9 /ructure1 repres5t+ ! v]tebral column1 & ! circulatory sy/em consi/s ( art]ies & ve9s1 connect$ by m9ute capill>ies4 ,! corpuscles ( ! blood are also simil> 9 =m to ^? ( ! v]tebrates4 ,ext]nally !y are all nak$1 ) ! exception ( ! nautilus & argonaut ( ! w>m] seas4 ,! arms1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! class1 are eight or t5 9 numb]1 long & muscul>1 & provid$ ) num]\s suck]s by :i* ! animal c cl+ ) rem>kable t5acity4 ,^! suck]s are situat$ on ! inn] surface ( ! arms1 & ! disc ( ea* "o displays a s]ies ( muscul> fibres1 all conv]g+ f ! circumf]5ce t[>ds ! c5tre1 :i* is occupi$ by a s(t] /ructure t works inw>ds & outw>ds l ! pi/on ( a pump4 ,?us ! suck]s =m a sy/em ( exhau/+ air-pumps by :i* a vacuum c be produc$1 & ! t5acity ( ! grip1 ma9ta9$ by atmosph]ic pressure1 is s great t ! arms1 /rong z !y are1 may be torn asund] by attempt+ to pull !m f _! hold2 & yet ! animal c release its grip ) ! greate/ ( ease by simply releas+ ! pi/ons ( its pumps4 ,! cephalopods are fur!r di/+ui%$ by _! v l>ge1 gl>+ eyes1 situat$ on ! sides ( ! well-=m$ head1 & by p[]ful jaws t "w 9 a v]tical plane1 l ^? ( ! v]tebrates1 b some:at resembl+ ! beaks ( c]ta9 birds4 ,! tongue is also v l>ge & fle%y1 & 9 "p arm$ ) num]\s hook$ sp9es or tee?4 ,! class is usually divid$ into two ord]s1 "o *>act]is$ by ! possession ( two gills1 & ! o!r ( f\r2 b ! ,briti% species belong to ! =m]1 kn[n te*nically z ! ,dibran*iata4 ,?is ord] is subdivid$ into two sections accord+ to ! numb] ( arms2 & ! divisions are call$ ! ,octopoda & ,decapoda respectively4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--,,octopus ,! =m] section includes ! ,octopods1 ( :i* "s species inhabit our seas4 ,!y all h eight arms1 ( unequal size1 ) ! suck]s arrang$ 9 two r[s1 & _! r\nd or oval bodies seldom h any f9s1 locomotion be+ effect$ by means ( ! arms1 & by ! sudd5 expulsion ( wat] f ! siphon4 ,! %ell is rudim5t>y1 be+ repres5t$ m]ely by two %ort #8/yles' )9 ! mantle4 ,! species v>y consid]ably 9 size1 "s be+ only ab\t an in* long :5 fully gr[n1 :ile o!rs measure two feet or m1 & are look$ ^u z =midable creatures by man4 ,sometimes !y are wa%$ up on our bea*es1 b ! be/ way to make _! acqua9tance is to exam9e ! cont5ts ( ! fi%]m5's drag nets z !y are haul$ on ! bea*4 ,9 ! same mann] we may secure v>i\s species ( ! ,decapods or ,t5-foot$ ,cephalopods1 :i* comprise ! ,calam>ies1 ,squids1 & ,cuttlefi%es4 ,^!1 too1 prop]ly speak+1 h b eight arms1 ! o!r two app5dages be+ really t5tacles1 :i* are usually long] ?an ! arms1 & m or less retractile2 !y are also exp&$ at ! ends4 ,! decapods are also to be di/+ui%$ f ! octopods by _! elongat$ bodies1 & a flatt5$1 f9-l app5dage on ei!r side4 ,_! eyes1 also1 are capable ( be+ rotat$ )9 ! orbits1 :ile ^? ( ! octopods are fix$2 & ! %ell consi/s ( "o or m horny #8p5s1' or ( a calc>e\s #8bone1' conta9$ 9 a cavity s loosely t x drops out ( its place :5 ! cavity is op5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,loligo vulg>is ,,& ,,its ,,p5 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--,sepiola atlantica ,! ,common ,calam>y 7,loligo vulg>is7 may be recognis$ by ! accompany+ illu/ration1 f :i* x w be obs]v$ t ! body tap]s beh9d1 be>+ two rhomboidal f9s 9 ! re>4 ,! suck]s are arrang$ 9 two r[s on ! arms1 b 9 f\rs on ! exp&$ tips ( ! t5tacles4 ,! animal is a good swimm]1 & sometimes crawls1 head d[nw>ds1 on ! disc surr\nd+ ! m\?1 pull+ itself along by means ( its arms4 ,its %ell is a horny p51 lanceolate 9 =m1 b x divides z ! age ( ! animal advances1 s t two or m may be f\nd 9 ! same specim54 ,belong+ to ! same family we h ! ,common ,squid 7,sepiola atlantica71 also a v abundant species4 ,"h ! body is %ort] & purse-l1 & ! f9s are dorsal & r\nd$4 ,x seldom exce$s f\r or five in*es 9 l5g?1 &1 l ! ,calam>y1 is us$ l>gely z a bait by fi%]m54 ,ano!r family--! ,sepiad--conta9s ! ,cuttlefi% 7,sepia (fic9alis71 ! #8bone' ( :i* is su* a common object on ! bea*4 ,?is latt] is a broad1 curv$ plate ( c>bonate ( lime1 made up ( a numb] ( regul> lay]s1 & hav+ a cavity holl[$ out at ! po/]ior end4 ,x is exce$+ly light & por\s 9 /ructure1 & at "o "t 0 us$ l>gely z an antacid z well z a d5tifrice4 ,x is also proportionately l>ge1 be+ bo? z long & z broad z ! body ( ! animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--,sepia (fic9alis ,,& ,,its #8,,bone' ,cuttlefi%es live pr9cipally 9 ! %all[ wat] close to %ore1 :]e !y swim backw>ds by ! sudd5 propulsion ( wat] f _! siphons2 & _! eggs1 :i* look l clu/]s ( black grapes1 are frequ5tly ?r[n up on ! bea*1 g5]ally atta*$ to ! /ems & fronds ( sea we$s4 ,z a rule ! cephalopods swim sl[ly by ! aid ( _! f9s or by a rhy?mic contraction by :i* wat] is expell$ f _! siphons1 b :5 9 dang] ! muscul> contraction is s viol5t t !y d>t ?r\gh ! wat] ) great spe$1 & ev5 leap into ! air to avoid _! enemies4 ,b !y h ano!r & mu* m rem>kable way ( escap+ f _! foes3--,!y possess a gl&1 ! duct ( :i* op5s into ! base ( ! funnel or siphon1 t prep>es an inky fluid2 & :5 ! animal is di/urb$ x sudd5ly ejects ?is fluid1 r5d]+ ! surr\nd+ wat] s cl\dy t x is (t5 enabl$ to retreat unobs]v$4 ,! 'ink' ( ! ,sepia 0 us$ = writ+ 9 =m] times1 & is /ill employ$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! arti/'s pigm5t t be>s ! same "n4 ,fi%]m5 are well acqua9t$ ) ?is peculi> *>act]i/ic ( ! animal1 = !y are frequ5tly bespatt]$ ) ! cont5ts ( ! ink bag ( ! ,sepia :5 ! creature is includ$ 9 ! cont5ts ( _! draw-nets1 & h le>nt to h&le x cauti\sly until ! objectionable fluid has be5 all dis*>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--;,,eggs ,,( ,sepia ,we w conclude ?is *apt] by giv+ a tabul> summ>y ( ! classification ( ! molluscs :i* w probably be useful to ! collector ( m>9e objects4 ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,mollusca ,class ,,lamellibran*iata--,plate-gill$4 ,headless1 usually enclos$ 9 bivalve %ell4 ,section ,,siphonida--,mantle lobes m or less unit$ to =m tubul> siphons4 ,families--,pholadid1 ,ga/ro*nid1 ,anat9id1 ,myacid1 ,sol5id1 ,tell9id1 ,mactrid1 ,v5]id1 ,cypr9id1 ,luc9id1 ,c>diad1 c4 ,section ,,asiphonida--,mantle lobes free or ne>ly s4 ,no true siphons4 ,families--,arcad1 ,mytilid1 ,aviculid1 ,o/reid1 c4 ,class ,,cephalophora--,head-be>+4 ,usually enclos$ 9 a univalve %ell4 ,section ,,pt]opoda--,w+-foot$ molluscs4 ,section ,,ga/]opoda--,/oma*-foot$ molluscs4 ,ord] ,nucleobran*iata--,visc]a =m a nucleus on ! back4 ,ord] ,opi/hobran*iata--,%ell g5]ally abs5t4 ,gills m or less expos$4 ,section ,,nudibran*iata--,nak$ gills4 ,section ,,tectibran*iata--,gills cov]$ by %ell or mantle4 ,ord] ,pulmonif]a--,lung-brea!rs4 ,t]re/rial4 ,ord] ,prosobran*iata4 ,section ,,holo/omata--,ap]ture ( %ell entire 7sea snails74 ,families--,*itonid1 ,d5taliad1 ,patellid1 ,calyptrid1 ,fissurellid1 ,haliotid1 ,turb9id1 ,littor9id1 ,turritellid1 ,c]i?iad1 ,pyramidellid1 ,naticid1 c4 ,section ,,siphono/omata--,possess a true siphon4 ,c>nivor\s4 ,families--,cyprid1 ,conid1 ,bucc9id1 ,muricid1 c4 ,class ,,cephalopoda--,suck]-be>+ arms r\nd ! m\?4 ,ord] ,dibran*iata--,two gills4 ,section ,,octopoda--,eight arms4 ,families--,argonautid1 ,octopodid4 ,section ,,decapoda4 ,families--,teu?id 7,calam>ies1 ,squids71 ,sepiad1 c4 ,ord] ,tetrabran*iata--,f\r gills 7conta9+ ,nautilid74 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,m>9e ,,ar?ropods ,! sub-k+dom ,ar?ropoda conta9s a va/ assemblage ( animals1 all ( :i*1 z ! "n implies1 possess jo9t$ app5dages4 ,_! bodies are cov]$ ) a sk9 t is h>d5$ by a horny sub/ance 7*it971 & frequ5tly1 also1 by ! deposit ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! body ( ,ar?ropods is made up ( a *a9 ( segm5ts1 all ( :i* are built up on "o common patt]n1 & ea* "o is surr\nd$ by a r+ ( ! h>d5$ sk9 or exo-skeleton t gives atta*m5t to a pair ( app5dages4 ,commonly1 h[ev]1 two or m ( ! segm5ts become fus$ toge!r1 be+ cov]$ by a cont9u\s plate or %ield1 9 :i* ! b\nd>ies ( ! r+s are almo/ or completely oblit]at$2 b 9 su* cases ! app5dages !y be> always rema9 di/9ct1 s t ! true numb] ( segm5ts is always app>5t4 ,! sk9 betwe5 ^? segm5ts t are n s fus$ toge!r rema9s s(t & flexible1 ?us all[+ ! body to be freely b5t4 ,! app5dages exhibit a great v>iety ( /ructure1 & are z v>i$ 9 _! functions4 ,"s are us$ z feel]s1 & o!rs z jaws = seiz+ or ma/icat+ food4 ,"s are develop$ into p[]ful seiz+ organs = purposes ( def5ce or attack1 "s into paddles = swimm+1 :ile o!rs are legs adapt$ = walk+4 ,all ^! app5dages are made up ( segm5ts1 ea* ( :i*1 l ^? ( ! body itself1 is surr\nd$ by a r+ ( h>d5$ sk91 & connect$ ) its neighb\rs by a flexible integum5t t all[s p]fect fre$om ( movem5t2 :ile )9 are ! muscles1 (t5 v p[]ful1 by :i* ! app5dage is mov$4 ,9 ! ar?ropods we h a sub-k+dom ( highly organis$ animals1 ) di/9ct1 & (t5 v complicat$1 sy/ems ( organs = dige/ion1 circulation1 & respiration2 & ! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a well-develop$ *a9 ( ganglia1 connect$ by n]ve cords1 & f :i* n]ve fibres are di/ribut$ to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t "s memb]s ( ! gr\p h deg5]at$ into p>asites1 & 9 ^!1 z ) all su* degrad$ creatures1 _m ( ! organs h retrogress$ to su* an ext5t t !y are q functionless1 or h ev5 disappe>$ entirely4 ,^! p>asitic =ms1 :5 v "y1 are really highly organis$ creatures1 n unlike ! "y ( _! indu/ri\s & m noble relatives2 b1 z ! natural result ( _! degrad$ mode ( liv+1 9 :i* !y f9d no use = _! organs ( locomotion1 dige/ion1 circulation & respiration1 ^! ev5tually disappe>1 ) ! result t ! organs ( reproduction pr$om9ate to su* an ext5t t !y (t5 fill ! great] "p ( ! cavity ( ! body4 ,x %\ld be not$1 too1 t ! s5se organs ( ar?ropods are well develop$1 mo/ ( !m be+ suppli$ ) complex eyes1 he>+ organs1 & highly s5sitive feel]s4 ,?is sub-k+dom consi/s ( f\r classes--! ,cru/acea1 includ+ lob/]s1 crabs1 %rimps1 prawns1 c42 ,ara*noidea1 conta9+ spid]s1 mites1 & scorpions2 ,myriopoda--c5tip$es & millep$es2 & ,insecta4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--,,! ,,n]ve-,,*a9 ,,( ,,an ,,ar?ropod 7,,lob/]7 o1 optic n]ve2 c1 c]ebral ganglion2 i1 l>ge ganglion beh9d ! sophagus2 ?1 ganglia ( ! ?orax2 ab1 ganglia ( ! abdom5 ,! fir/ ( ^! classes consi/s ma9ly ( m>9e animals1 & w !re=e occupy mu* ( our att5tion1 b ! memb]s ( ! o!r ?ree are mo/ly t]re/rial & arial creatures t d n fall )9 ! scope ( ?is "w1 except 9 ! case ( a few species t are m or less decid$ly m>9e 9 _! t5d5cies4 ,! aquatic memb]s are g5]ally provid$ ) well-=m$ gills by means ( :i* !y are enabl$ to extract ! dissolv$ oxyg5 f ! wat] 9 :i* !y live1 :ile ^? ( t]re/rial & arial habits brea! by means ( a sy/em ( tra*e or air-tubes t are op5 to ! air & supply bran*es to all p>ts ( ! body4 ,! ,cru/aceans are mo/ly gill-brea!rs1 ?\gh "s ( ! aquatic species h no special organs = respiration1 b obta9 ! oxyg5 necess>y = respiration by absorption ?r\gh _! ?91 s(t sk91 :ile ! t]re/rial species brea! by means ( tra*e1 z we h j obs]v$4 ,mo/ ( !m are cov]$ ) a calcifi$ sk91 z 9 ! case ( crabs & lob/]s2 b _m are protect$ ) a *it9\s or horny cov]+ su* z we obs]ve 9 %rimps & prawns4 ,9 ei!r in/ance ! h>d5$ integum5t con/itutes :at is kn[n z ! exo-skeleton4 ,none ( ! cru/aceans h an int]nal skeleton ( any k9d1 ?\gh "s ( ! inn] p>ts are support$ by ext5sions ( ! h>d sk9 t p5etrate into ! body4 ,x w be readily und]/ood f ! nature ( ! exo-skeleton ( ! cru/acean1 & especially ( ! m or less rigid calc>e\s cov]+ ( ! crab & ! lob/]1 t a uni=m gr[? ( ! body is absolutely impossible1 &1 9 fact1 t an increase 9 size _c take place )\t an occasional ca/+ ( ! h>d coat ( mail4 ,h5ce we f9d mo/ cru/aceans ?r[+ (f _! cov]+s at int]vals1 & gr[+ by fits & />ts dur+ ! p]iods betwe5 ! #8m\lt+s' & ! h>d5+ ( ! newly expos$ sk94 ,:5 a crab or a lob/] is ab\t to und]go ! process ( m\lt+1 x retires to a seclud$ ni*e 9 ! rock1 :]e x is n s easily f\nd by its num]\s enemies--a necess>y precaution1 s9ce ! creature 9 its s(t or un>m\r$ condition is eag]ly dev\r$ by fi%es & o!r m>9e animals--& !re awaits ! fir/ /age ( ! ordeal4 ,pres5tly ! sk9 splits2 &1 aft] a "t1 ! cru/acean succe$s 9 extricat+ itself f its %ell1 :i* is ca/ (f 9 a p]fect condition1 e jo9t be+ entire1 ev5 to ! cov]+s ( ! ant5n1 ! /alk$ eyes1 & o!r delicate app5dages4 ,& n only ?is1 = ! portions ( ! %ell t p5etrate inw>d into ! body are also disc>d$1 z well z ! l9+s ( ! /oma* & ! gills2 & ^! ca/-(f coats ( crabs & lob/]s--especially ! =m]--may (t5 be f\nd 9 ! mo/ p]fect condition on ! sea %ore1 be+ wa%$ up )\t injury on ! s&y bea*1 or f\nd 9 ! v ni*e 9 :i* ! creature *ang$ its attire4 ,if "o exam9es ! p[]ful p9c]s ( a crab or lob/]1 a ?9 plate ( consid]able size w be se5 to ext5d )9 f ! movable #8jaw' to give atta*m5t to ! muscles by :i* x is mov$1 & x seems impossible t ?is c be remov$ ) ! ca/ sk9 )\t consid]able injury to ! new claw t is already =m$1 ?\gh z yet 9 a s(t condition1 )9 ! old & h>d "o4 ,b x has be5 obs]v$ t ?is plate actually cuts ?r\gh ! new claw1 & t ! claw ?us divid$ almo/ imm$iately closes up & unites aga94 ,! m\lt+ process be+ ov]1 ! cru/acean's body ext5ds itself )9 ! new1 yield+ sk92 &1 ! latt] becom+ gradually h>d by ! deposition ( c>bonate ( lime1 ! creature is able1 aft] a p]iod ( re/1 to roam at l>ge aga91 )\t mu* fe> ( injury1 until ! "t = ! next m\lt+ has arriv$4 ,^? :o h made b a slight acqua9tance ) ! common cru/aceans ( our %ores mu/ h not$ ! frequ5cy ) :i* imp]fect specim5s occur--specim5s ) miss+ app5dages1 or ) a well-=m$ limb on "o side ( ! body oppos$ to a puny & almo/ useless fell[ on ! opposite side4 ,z to ! loss ( app5dages1 ?is matt] w be readily und]/ood by ^? :o h wat*$ cru/aceans1 & especially crabs & lob/]s1 9 _! native elem5t1 s (t5 d ^! pugnaci\s creatures become engag$ 9 furi\s broils ) _! neighb\rs4 ,&1 :5 we are at "w at ! collection ( v>i\s species on ! sea %ore1 h[ (t5 d we f9d t a creature escapes f our grip by leav+ u 9 possession ( a sev]$ limb1 :ile ! own] retreats rapidly among ! /ones & we$s app>5tly none ! worse = its trifl+ loss6 ,?is is1 9 fact1 a v common me?od ( secur+ its escape f an enemy2 & x appe>s t _m cru/aceans h ! p[] ( ?us r5d]+ a seiz$ limb s brittle t x may be snapp$ (f ) ! greate/ ( ease4 ,we h spok5 ( ! loss ?us su/a9$ z a trifl+ "o2 & s x is1 = cru/aceans h ! faculty ( reproduc+ lo/ app5dages2 & ?\gh ! loss may be "o ( consid]able inconv5i5ce at fir/1 a new limb ev5tually appe>s 9 ! place ( ea* "o s will+ly disc>d$4 ,:5 su* mutilations occur1 x w be obs]v$ t ! sev]$ limb inv>iably breaks away at ! end ( ! fir/ or basal jo9t--a po9t :]e ! bloodvessels are s n>r[ & contractile t b little loss ( blood takes place :5 ! rupture is made--& x has be5 said t ! animal w\ld soon ble$ to dea? if ! fracture 7 to take place at any o!r po9t4 ,z x is1 ! w\nd soon heals1 b no trace ( a new limb is to be se51 at lea/ )\t dissection1 until ! "t ( ! next m\lt4 ,! "p is develop+1 h[ev]1 b5ea? ! cov] ( ! basal jo9t2 & :5 ! m\lt+ p]iod arrives1 ! new limb1 /ill v small1 is expos$ to view4 ,x !n rapidly enl>ges1 ?\gh n to any?+ l its prop] size1 & its surr\nd+ sk9 becomes h>d5$ by ! deposit ( ! calc>e\s secretion simultane\sly ) t ( ! re/ ( ! body4 ,fur!r enl>gem5ts ( ! new app5dage take place at subsequ5t m\lts1 ) ! f9al result t x is b slightly inf]ior to its fell[ ei!r 9 size or 9 p[]4 ,! eye ( a cru/acean is a v complicat$ /ructure1 commonly describ$ z a comp\nd eye4 ,x consi/s ( a l>ge numb] ( conical1 radiat+1 cry/all9e rods1 collect$ toge!r into a mass t pres5ts a convex out] surface4 ,?is surface is cov]$ ) a transp>5t lay] ( *it9 :i* naturally pres5ts a m or less di/9ct nett$ appe>ance1 ! bases ( ! rods be+ 9 contact ) its inn] surface1 & visible ?r\gh x4 ,ea* rod is surr\nd$ by a lay] ( pigm5t t prev5ts light f pass+ f "o to ano!r1 & ! optic n]ve pass+ into ! base ( ! comp\nd /ructure s5ds a s5sitive filam5t into ea* "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--,,section ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,comp\nd ,,eye ,,( ,,an ,,ar?ropod ,9 _m cru/aceans ?is comp\nd eye is situat$ on ! end ( a movable /alk t g5]ally all[s x to be protrud$ or drawn "u cov] z occasion requires1 b 9 o!rs ! organ does n project beyond ! g5]al surface ( ! body4 ,?us we he> ( ! animals ( ?is class be+ divid$ into ! /alk-ey$ & ! sessile-ey$ gr\ps2 ! =m] be+ repres5t$ by crabs1 lob/]s1 %rimps1 c42 & ! latt] by s&hopp]s & s&bor]s4 ,cru/aceans und]go metamorphoses :ile v "y1 ! body be+ alt]$ consid]ably 9 =m at sev]al successive m\lts4 ,"s1 9 _! e>lie/ /age1 consi/ ( a little oval body t %[s no signs ( a division into segm5ts4 ,x swims ab\t by means ( ?ree pairs ( app5dages1 & has only "o eye4 ,o!rs />t life ) f\r pairs ( limbs1 atta*$ to ! front portion ( ! body1 a segm5t$ abdom51 z yet p]fectly limbless1 & a pair ( comp\nd eyes4 ,!n z ! successive m\lt+s take place1 new segm5ts & new app5dages are develop$1 until1 at la/1 ! =m ( ! adult is assum$4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration %[s f\r /ages 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,common ,%ore ,crab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--;,,f\r ,,/ages ,,9 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,%ore ,,crab ,! l[e/ division ( ! cru/aceans conta9s ! ,cirrip$ia or ,curl-foot$ cru/aceans1 :i* includes ! ,b>nacles t are s frequ5tly se5 atta*$ to ! bottom ( %ips & ( float+ timb]1 & ! ,acorn ,b>nacles1 ! conical %ells ( :i* (t5 completely cov] l>ge masses ( rock on our %ores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,,! ,,b>nacle ,= "s "t naturali/s c\ld n agree z to ! prop] place ( ^! animals 9 ! scale ( life1 b ! matt] 0 f9ally settl$ :5 "s m9ute creatures only ab\t a twelf? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & closely resembl+ ! e>ly /ages ( c]ta9 cru/aceans1 7 se5 to und]go metamorphoses1 & f9ally develop into acorn b>nacles4 ,_! position 9 ! animal k+dom 0 ?us det]m9$ by _! e>ly /ages2 b ^!1 in/ead ( *ang+ into a segm5t$ & highly organis$ creature l ! typical cru/acean1 lose "s ( _! app5dages1 cease to be free-mov+ animals1 & atta* !mselves to float+ bodies by :i* !y are c>ri$ ab\t4 ,?us !y are enabl$ to f9d ! food !y c no long] seek )\t su* aid4 ,9 _! "y /ate !y possess n only ! means ( freely mov+ 9 se>* ( _! food1 b h organs ( vision to aid !m 9 ! capture ( _! prey4 ,z !y gr[1 h[ev]1 ! =emo/ app5dages are trans=m$ into a suck+-disc1 & ! eyes1 no long] necess>y1 disappe>4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! deg5]at$ adult--! product ( a retrograde developm5t--is atta*$ by :at 0 orig9ally ! front ( its body1 :ile ! abdom5 is undevelop$1 & ! ?orax1 ) its app5dages1 =ms ! summit ( ! free extremity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--;,,f\r ,,/ages ,,9 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,acorn ,,b>nacle ,a1 newly hat*$ l>va2 ,b1 l>va aft] second m\lt2 ,c1 side view ( same2 ,d1 /age imm$iately prec$+ loss ( activity2 a1 /oma*2 b1 base ( future atta*m5t4 ,all magnifi$ ,"s ( ! ,cirrip$es atta* !mselves to ! bodies ( :ales & o!r m>9e animals4 ,! majority ( ^! are pseudo-p>asites--creatures t live on ! bodies ( o!r animals1 b d n d]ive _! food at ! exp5se ( _! ho/s2 o!rs1 h[ev]1 are true p>asites1 subsi/+ on ! n\ri%+ juices !y extract f ! animals to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--;,a ,,clu/] ,,( ,,acorn ,,%ells ,! ,acorn ,b>nacles1 s num]\s on our %ores1 are good types ( ! ,cirrip$ia1 & !y are s easily kept alive 9 ! indoor aqu>ium t _! int]e/+ movem5ts may be well obs]v$4 ,a clu/] ( ^! animals may be obta9$ by *ipp+ (f a piece ( ! rock on :i* !y gr[2 or1 in/ead ( ?is1 a few m9utes' se>*+ on a rocky coa/ at l[ tide w c]ta9ly provide u ) a /one ( suitable size1 or ! %ell ( a mollusc1 on :i* ! creatures h f\nd a home4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,,%ell ,,( ,,acorn ,,b>nacle 7,balanus7 ,place !m 9 ! indoor aqu>ium1 or 9 any %all[ vessel conta9+ j suffici5t sea-wat] to cov] !m1 & c>ry out y\r obs]vations ) ! aid ( a h& l5s4 ,!y w soon op5 ! inn] cone ( _! _m-valv$ %ell1 & sl[ly protrude six pairs ( gracefully curv$ & delicately-fea!r$ app5dages :i*1 z previ\sly /at$1 are atta*$ to ! ?oracic portion ( ! body4 ,!n1 ) a mu* m rapid movem5t1 ! app5dages w be )drawn1 & ! %ell clos$4 ,^! alt]nate movem5ts are cont9u$ incessantly1 & are ! means by :i* ! animals provide !mselves ) bo? food & air4 ,! read] %\ld also obta9 "s specim5s ( ! l>g] species = ! exam9ation ( ! %ell1 ! /ructure ( :i* is int]e/+ &1 ( c\rse1 peculi> to ?is ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--,,! ,,acorn ,,b>nacle 7,balanus porcatus7 ,,) ,,app5dages ,,protrud$ ,9 g5]al /ructure & habits ,b>nacles are v simil> to ! acorn b>nacles1 except t ! body is support$ on a t\gh /alk1 :i*1 z we h already /at$1 is ! modifi$ ant]ior portion ( ! animal4 ,^! animals also may be easily kept alive & exam9$ 9 ! indoor aqu>ium4 ,!y are n creatures ( ! sea %ore1 b may (t5 be obta9$ on masses ( timb] t h be5 wa%$ a%ore1 or f ! bottoms ( %ips t h be5 plac$ 9 ! dry dock = repairs4 ,ano!r ord] ( ! cru/aceans--! ,copepoda1 or o>-foot$ gr\p--is s call$ on acc\nt ( ! bri/l$ feet t are employ$ aft] ! mann] ( o>s :5 ! creatures are swimm+4 ,^! ,copepods are small animals1 s small inde$ t ! comp\nd microscope is g5]ally necess>y m]ely = ! exam9ation ( _! ext]nal *>act]s4 ,_m species inhabit fre% wat]1 & ! /udy ( ! gr\p is m commonly pursu$ by ! inve/igator ( fre%-wat] pond life ?an by ! sea-side naturali/4 ,h[ev]1 m>9e species are abundant1 & may be captur$ 9 ! op5 wat] or 9 rock pools by means ( a musl9 net4 ,z ) ! la/ ord]1 "s deg5]ate f ! comp>atively complicat$ free-swimm+ & ey$ l>val /ate to bl9d & limbless p>asites t fe$ on ! bodies ( fi%es & are kn[n z fi% lice4 ,! body ( ! typical copepod is di/9ctly segm5t$1 & ! head & ?orax are bo? enclos$ 9 a h>d5$ buckl]4 ,x has two pairs ( ant5n1 two pairs ( foot jaws by :i* x captures its prey1 & f\r or five pairs ( bri/l$ feet = swimm+4 ,! jo9t$ abdom5 has also a tuft ( bri/les at its extremity4 ,! annex$ illu/ration repres5ts "s m>9e species1 & w s]ve to %[ ! g5]al features ( ! ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--;,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,m>9e ,,copepods1 ,,magnifi$ ,! sea-side naturali/1 int5t on ! collection ( small life1 may possibly meet ) repres5tatives ( two o!r ord]s ( cru/aceans--! ,o/racoda or %ell$ cru/aceans1 ! bodies ( :i* are enclos$ 9 a bivalve1 h+$ %ell2 & ! ,bran*iopoda1 s call$ because ! bran*i or gills are atta*$ to ! feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--;,a ,,gr\p ,,( ,,o/racode ,,%ells ,! ,o/racodes h two or ?ree pairs ( feet :i* subs]ve locomotion1 b are n adapt$ = swimm+2 & two pairs ( ant5n1 "o ( :i* assi/s 9 locomotion4 ,! m\? is provid$ ) organs ( ma/ication1 ! bran*i are atta*$ to ! h9d jaws1 & ! animals h b "o eye4 ,"s ( ^! cru/aceans inhabit deep wat] only1 :ile o!rs live 9 s& betwe5 ! tide-m>ks2 b sev]al species1 belong+ *iefly to ! g5us ,cy!re1 ab\nd 9 rock pools1 :]e !y may be readily obta9$ by scrap+ ! conf]v & corall9es ) a small musl9 net4 ,! bran*iopods are free swimm]s1 & are protect$ by a buckl]-l envelope4 ,mo/ ( !m are inhabitants ( fre% wat]1 & are popul>ly kn[n z wat] fleas4 ,we h figur$ "o m>9e species1 belong+ to ! g5us ,evadne1 :i* has a col\rless body1 & a s+le conspicu\s black eye1 & is int]e/+ z be+ ! food ( ! h]r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--;,evadne ,! f\r ord]s ( cru/aceans t h be5 briefly describ$ belong to ! division ,entomo/raca1 :i* signifies #8%ell$ insects4' ,?is t]m is n a happy "o :5 judg$ f ! /&po9t ( our pres5t k ( animal life1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 at ! "t x 0 appli$ 7#aghe71 spid]s & cru/aceans 7 all includ$ 9 ! same class z ! insects2 & ?is is h>dly surpris+ :5 we obs]ve ! close relation%ip ( ^! animals1 z %[n 9 _! segm5t$ bodies & jo9t$ app5dages2 =1 z we h already %[n1 ! l[ly organis$ p>asitic cru/aceans :i*1 9 ! adult /ate1 lose mo/ ( _! app5dages & cease to be di/9ctly segm5t$1 are m or less insect-l 9 _! l>val & free-swimm+ /age4 ,all ! o!r cru/aceans are includ$ "u ! t]m ,malaco/raca1 or s(t %ell$1 s9ce1 al?\gh _m ( !m are protect$ by an exo-skeleton t is h>d5$ by ! deposit ( c>bonate ( lime1 yet1 g5]ally speak+1 _! cov]+s are s(t] ?an ^? ( ! molluscs2 & !re=e ! t]m ,malaco/raca 0 orig9ally appli$ by ,ari/otle 9 ord] to di/+ui% !m f ! animals t are cov]$ by h>d] & ?ick] %ells4 ,?is division ( ! cru/aceans conta9s wood lice1 s&hopp]s1 lob/]s1 %rimps1 crabs1 c41 & consi/s ( two ma9 gr\ps--! ,sessile-ey$ 7,edrioph?almata7 & ! ,/alk-ey$ 7,podoph?almata7 cru/aceans4 ,we %all n[ consid] ! ,sessile-ey$ gr\p1 deal+ fir/ ) ! ord] ,isopoda or equal legg$1 & !n ! ,amphipoda1 :i* h app5dages adapt$ bo? = walk+ & swimm+4 ,! g5]al nature ( an ,isopod may be readily und]/ood by ! exam9ation ( ! common woodl\se t ab\nds 9 g>d5s & damp places almo/ ev]y:]e1 & ! read] w probably rememb] hav+ se5 simil> creatures crawl+ ov] ! rocks on ! sea %ore4 ,! body is g5]ally depress$ or flatt5$1 b convex above1 & is compos$ ( sev5 segm5ts1 ea* segm5t be>+ a pair ( legs :i* t]m9ate 9 a po9t$ claw1 :ile ! po/]ior app5dages are modifi$ into flat1 leaf-l organs ( respiration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,,m>9e ,,isopod #a4 ,sphroma s]ratum4 #b4 ,limnoria lignorum4 #c4 ,ligia oceanica4 #d4 ,nesa bid5tata4 #e4 ,oniscoda maculosa ,:5 engag$ 9 #8%rimp+' "o frequ5tly meets ) %rimps or prawns t are disfigur$ by a tum\r\s swell+ on ! side ( ! body1 & if ! swell+ be op5$ a little p>asite w be dislodg$4 ,?is p>asite is an ,isopod 7,bopyrus71 ! app5dages ( :i* are imp]fectly develop$4 ,! female is v mu* l>g] ?an ! male1 &1 z is usual ) p>asitic creatures1 ! great] "p ( ! body-cavity is occupi$ by ! well-develop$ organs ( reproduction4 ,!re are sev]al o!r p>asitic isopods1 "s ( :i* live on ! bodies ( fi%es1 & are popul>ly kn[n z fi%-lice1 b ^! are n s likely to come 9 ! way ( ! sea-side naturali/ z ! m typical =ms t crawl ab\t on ! rocks & among ! we$s ( ! coa/4 ,a few ( ! latt] are %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration1 includ+ ! ,sea ,pill-ball 7,nesa bid5tata71 common on ! rocky coa/s ( ! s\?-we/1 & di/+ui%$ by ! two %>p projections on ! la/ segm5t2 ! ,s]rat$ ,pill-ball 7,sphroma s]ratum71 v common on mo/ rocky %ores1 & *>act]is$ by ! f9e sawlike tee? on ! out] edge ( ! out] plates ( ! #8tail'2 ! ,great ,sea-slat] 7,ligia oceanica71 also an abundant species2 ! ,spott$ ,hog ,l\se 7,oniscoda maculosa7 t lives among ! tuft$ sea we$s2 & ! ,bor+ ,pill-ball 7,limnoria lignorum7 t bores into ! woodwork ( pi]s & jetties1 (t5 do+ consid]able damage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--,,m>9e ,,amphipods #a4 ,! sp9$ sea screw 7,dexam9e sp9osa74 #b4 ,we/woodia ccula4 #c4 ,tetromatus typicus4 #d4 ,! s&hopp] 7,or*e/ia littorea74 #e4 ,montagua monoculoides4 #f4 ,iphim$ia obesa4 ,all enl>g$ ,! above & o!r isopods fe$ on v>i\s animal & vegetable sub/ances1 "s species be+ q omnivor\s 9 habit4 ,mo/ ( !m are eag]ly dev\r$ by birds & fi%es4 ,! ,amphipods1 six species ( :i* are %[n 9 ! above illu/ration1 include ! ,s&hopp]s or ,bea* ,fleas1 s num]\s on our coa/s t x is almo/ impossible to g any di/ance )\t mak+ _! acqua9tance4 ,!y are invaluable z scav5g]s1 z !y rapidly dev\r decay+ sea we$s1 & w spe$ily r$uce ! body ( any animal wa%$ on ! bea* to a clean skeleton4 ,al?\gh !y are all small creatures1 !y make up 9 numb]s = any defici5cy 9 size2 & ?\gh dev\r$ 9 enorm\s quantities by ! v>i\s %ore birds1 !y multiply s prodigi\sly t !y are nev] lack+ :]ev] !re is decompos+ organic matt] to be consum$4 ,! bodies ( ^! animals are usually flatt5$ f side to side1 v di/9ctly segm5t$1 & h a well-develop$ abdom54 ,! head is furni%$ ) two pairs ( ant5n & a pair ( sessile eyes1 ?\gh "s species possess only "o pair ( ant5n1 :ile o!rs h f\r eyes4 ,! limbs ( ! ?orax are us$ ei!r = walk+ or = swimm+1 & give atta*m5t to ! gills4 ,! abdom5 has g5]ally six pairs ( app5dages1 ! =emo/ ?ree pairs ( :i* are usually small1 & employ$ 9 swimm+1 :ile ! o!rs are /rong] & direct$ backw>ds1 & are (t5 adapt$ = jump+4 ,x is v int]e/+ to obs]ve ! habits ( ! ,s&hopp]s & o!r ,amphipods bo? on ! s&y bea* & 9 ! wat]1 & ! /ud5t w f9d t c]ta9 species burr[ into ! s& ) consid]able agility1 & live pr9cipally at ! extreme high-wat] m>k1 :]e !y fe$ on ! organic matt] wa%$ 9 by ! break]s at ea* high tide1 :ile o!rs dwell almo/ exclusively 9 ! wat]1 among we$s & /ones1 & %\ld be se>*$ = at l[ wat]4 ,! latt] may be kept alive = "s "t 9 ! aqu>ium provid+ !y are ! only occupants1 b a little exp]i5ce w %[ t ^! & all o!r ,amphipods are readily dev\r$ by _m m>9e creatures1 & consequ5tly !y are ( real value to ! aqu>ium keep] z food = o!r animals4 ,we n[ come to ! ,/alk-ey$ ,cru/aceans 7,podoph?almata71 :i* conta9 ^? memb]s ( ! class mo/ g5]ally kn[n1 su* z crabs1 lob/]s1 %rimps1 & prawns4 ,9 ^! ! eyes are m\nt$ on movable p$icels1 ! head & ?orax are g5]ally cov]$ by a l>ge %ield call$ ! c>apace1 & ! app5dages are adapt$ p>tly = seiz+ & ma/icat+1 & p>tly = locomotion4 ,! gr\p includes two ord]s--! ,/omapoda or ,m\?-foot$ cru/aceans1 s call$ because "s ( ! limbs are cr[d$ r\nd ! region ( ! m\?2 & ! ,decapoda1 or ,t5-foot$ cru/aceans4 ,! ,/omapods1 ?\gh v abundant 9 tropical seas1 are n (t5 met ) on our own %ores4 ,h[ev]1 s9ce a few int]e/+ species are inhabitants ( our seas we w briefly describe ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p4 ,we h j m5tion$ ! fact t ! head & ?orax ( a decapod is usually cov]$ by a l>ge %ield--! c>apace4 ,n[1 ! g5]al "* ( ?is c>apace may be se5 at once 9 ei!r ! %rimp or ! lob/]4 ,9 ^! animals ! segm5ts t =m ! head & ! ?orax are all fus$ toge!r1 & are completely cov]$ by ! protective buckl] ( h>d5$ sk92 b 9 ! ,/omapoda ! c>apace is mu* small] 9 proportion1 & a few ( ! segm5ts ( ! ?orax1 in/ead ( be+ fus$ into ! g5]al mass ( ! cephalo-?orax1 are q di/9ct f x4 ,! abdom51 also1 is l>ge & /rongly =m$ 9 ^! animals4 ,five pairs ( ! ?oracic limbs are direct$ =w>ds1 & are adapt$ bo? = cat*+ food & = climb+1 :ile o!rs are us$ 9 walk+4 ,! limbs ( ! abdom5 g5]ally numb] six pairs1 ( :i* ! fir/ five be> fea!ry gills4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--,,! ,,mantis ,,%rimp 7,squilla ,mantis7 ,two species ( ,mantis ,%rimps1 "o ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bja1 h be5 f\nd (f ! s\? & s\?-we/ coa/s1 b ^! are n likely to be se5 on ! %ore1 s9ce !y inhabit deep wat]4 ,alli$ to ^!1 & sometimes includ$ ) ! ,/omapods1 are ! ,opossum %rimps1 s call$ because ! females ( "s species c>ry _! eggs 9 a k9d ( p\*1 ?us rem9d+ u ( ! m>supial quadrup$s ( ! same "n4 ,!y are ( v sl5d] build comp>$ ) ! mantis %rimps1 & diff] f !m 9 t ! c>apace completely cov]s ! ?orax2 b ?\gh ?is is ! case1 ! fusion ( ! ?oracic segm5ts is n complete1 s9ce ! po/]ior ones h /ill a c]ta9 am\nt ( fre$om ( movem5t4 ,"s species ( opossum %rimps are abundant 9 ! rock pools ( our coa/s1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! s\?-we/1 b _! bodies be+ (t5 s transp>5t z to be almo/ invisible1 !y are consequ5tly easily ov]look$4 ,_! g5]al appe>ance may be ga!r$ f our illu/ration ( ,mysis *amleon1 :i* is probably ! mo/ common species inhabit+ our coa/4 ,! highe/ cru/aceans--! ,decapods--are divid$ into two sub-ord]s--! ,macrura1 or ,great-tail$1 includ+ lob/]s1 %rimps1 c42 & ! ,bra*yura 7,%ort-tail$71 conta9+ ! crabs2 b ! numb] ( ,briti% species is s l>ge t x is impossible to give1 9 our limit$ space1 a detail$ description ( all ! commone/ ev54 ,all we c d is to note a few ( ! m int]e/+ features ( c]ta9 species1 to introduce su* illu/rations z w enable ! "y naturali/ to id5tify a numb] ( ! common] ones1 & to give ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! ma9 divisions s t ! /ud5t may be able to classify 8 specim5s intellig5tly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--,,! ,,opossum ,,%rimp 7,mysis *amleon7 ,9 ! ,macrura1 z ) o!r divisions ( ! cru/aceans1 we meet ) v int]e/+ modifications ( ! app5dages1 adapt$ to q a v>iety ( uses2 & if ! read] is unacqua9t$ ) ^! adaptations ( /ructure to habit he _c d bett] ?an secure a lob/] or crayfi% = /udy4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! body may be divid$ into two ma9 portions--! cephalo?orax1 consi/+ ( head & ?orax comb9$1 & ! abdom54 ,! =m] is compos$ ( f\rte5 segm5ts1 s ?or\ghly fus$ toge!r t !y are d5ot$ only by ! f\rte5 pairs ( app5dages to :i* !y give atta*m5t1 :ile ! calcifi$ sk9 =ms "o cont9u\s %ield surr\nd+ ! :ole4 ,! abdom51 on ! o!r h&1 consi/s ( six di/9ct segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* is surr\nd$ by its own r+ ( ! h>d5$ integum5t1 & is connect$ ) its neighb\rs by means ( a portion ( uncalcifi$ sk9 t r5d]s ! :ole v flexible4 ,a groove 9 ! front portion ( ! great %ield 7c>apace7 m>ks ! division betwe5 ! head & ! ?orax1 ! =m] compos$ ( six1 & ! latt] ( eight unit$ segm5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--,,p>ts ,,( ,,lob/]',s ,,%ell1 ,,sep>at$1 ,,& ,,view$ ,,f ,,above ,! calc>e\s cov]+ ( ea* segm5t consi/s ( an upp] portion1 call$ ! t]gum1 & a l[]1 nam$ ! /]num1 unit$ at ! sides2 ! /]nal portion ( ! cephalo?orax1 :i* gives atta*m5t to ! walk+ limbs1 is a mo/ complicat$ & beautifully =m$ /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--;,a ,,segm5t ,,( ,,! ,,abdom5 ,,( ,a ,,lob/] t1 t]gum2 s1 /]num1 be>+ a pair ( swimm]ets2 h1 bloodvessel2 d1 dige/ive tube2 n1 n]ve *a9 ,! six pairs ( app5dages belong+ to ! head are easily made out ) a little c>e4 ,! fir/ are ! jo9t$ eye-/alks t be> ! comp\nd eyes previ\sly describ$2 & ^! are foll[$ by two pairs ( ant5n1 or feel]s1 ! fir/ be+ %ort] & d\ble1 :ile ! second are v long4 ,! =m] conta9 ! organs ( he>+4 ,!n1 9 front ( ! m\?1 & completely hid+ x1 are a pair ( /rong m&ibles or jaws t move horizontally1 & ! two pairs ( maxill t are also employ$ 9 r$uc+ ! food4 ,foll[+ ^!1 b belong+ to ! ?orax1 are ?ree pairs ( app5dages t are kn[n z foot-jaws2 =1 al?\gh !y assi/ ! prec$+ organs 9 break+ up ! food1 !y be> a resemblance 9 "s respects to ! long] limbs beh9d !m4 ,( ! latt] !re are five pairs 7h5ce ! t]m decapoda71 ! fir/ be+ a v p[]ful pair ( seiz]s or p9c]s1 & ! rema9+ f\r1 :i* are well adapt$ = walk+1 t]m9at+ 9 ei!r d\ble or s+le claws4 ,all ! app5dages above m5tion$ are n only atta*$ to ! body by movable jo9ts1 b are !mselves made up ( jo9t$ p>ts1 sometimes a consid]able numb]1 ea* ( :i*1 l ! segm5ts ( ! body itself1 is surr\nd$ by a r+ ( h>d5$ sk91 & connect$ ) ^? above & bel[ x by a portion ( s(t & flexible sk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--;,,app5dages ,,( ,a ,,lob/] #a4 ,second maxilla4 #b4 ,?ird foot-jaw4 #c4 ,?ird walk+ leg4 #d4 ,fif? walk+ leg ,la/ly1 b5ea? ! abdom51 are pair$ limbs call$ swimm]ets1 :i* are us$ z paddles1 & probably assi/ ! animal m or less 9 its progress ?r\gh ! wat]2 b ! pr9cipal organ ( locomotion 9 ! macrura is und\bt$ly ! p[]ful muscul> abdom51 aid$ by ! broad & fanlike tail =m$ by ! app5dages ( ! la/ segm5t4 ,to demon/rate ?is fact1 put a live lob/]1 or ev5 a %rimp1 9 a /ill rock pool1 & ?reat5 x f be=e1 :5 x w rapidly retreat backw>ds by a s]ies ( p[]ful j]ks1 produc$ by sudd5ly d\bl+ its abdom5 =w>ds b5ea? its body4 ,9 addition to ! ext]nal *>act]s above m5tion$1 !re are _m int]e/+ features connect$ ) ! int]nal /ructure ( ! lob/] t may be /udi$ on mak+ easy dissections4 ,?us1 ! gills1 :i* are atta*$ to ! bases ( ! ?oracic limbs1 may be expos$ by cutt+ away ! side ( ! c>apace1 & at ! same "t we may discov] ! bail+ organ by means ( :i* a curr5t ( wat] is kept fl[+ =w>ds ?r\gh ! gill-cavity to keep up ! necess>y supply ( oxyg5 = respiration4 ,! removal ( ! upp] portion ( ! c>apace w expose ! he>t & "s ( ! pr9cipal bloodvessels1 & also ! /oma* ) its p[]ful & complicat$ #8ga/ric mill1' =m$ by ! h>d5+ ( portions ( ! wall ( ! latt] organ = ! purpose ( cru%+ & ma/icat+ ! food4 ,!n1 if ^! organs be c>efully remov$ f above1 toge!r ) ! o!rs we h n space to describe1 & ! p[]ful muscles t fill up ! segm5ts ( ! abdom51 ! *a9 ( ganglia & _! connect+ n]ve cords t =m ! c5tral "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em may be se5 ext5d+ along ! c5tral portion ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,lob/] a1 ant5na2 r1 ro/rum or beak2 o1 eye2 m1 m\?2 s1 /oma*2 91 inte/9e2 l1 liv]2 gl1 gills2 h1 he>t2 g1 g5ital organ2 ar1 art]y2 n1 n]ve ganglia ,sev]al species ( lob/]s inhabit our seas1 b !y are g5]ally to be f\nd beyond ! tide-m>ks1 & are1 !re=e1 n (t5 caught by sea-side collectors )\t ! aid ( "s k9d ( trap or ! assi/ance ( fi%]m54 ,! common lob/] 7,hom>us vulg>is71 h[ev]1 is (t5 left beh9d by ! rec$+ tide on our rocky coa/s1 & may be se5 & caught if "o kn[s :]e to look & h[ to capture4 ,on cauti\sly approa*+ a deep rock pool "o may (t5 see a lob/] rapidly retreat 9 its usual backw>d fa%ion1 & snugly h\se itself 9 a n>r[ *9k f :i* x is impossible to remove x4 ,&1 :5 once surpris$1 x is n likely to %[ itself aga9 z long z ! intrud] is 9 view4 ,if "o rema9s p]fectly /ill = a "t1 a pair ( wav+ ant5n may be se5 gradually protrud+ f ! safe retreat2 b1 z soon z ! /alk$ eyes h advanc$ suffici5tly to detect ! figure ( a /rang]1 ! lob/] sil5tly )draws itself till q out ( sight4 ,lob/]s1 usually ( r small size1 may (t5 be se5 q out ( ! wat] at l[ tide1 9 ! n>r[ *9ks ( ! rock1 or "u l>ge /ones1 b x is no easy matt]1 z a rule1 to get !m out4 ,x is ( little use pok+ a /ick into ! entrance ( _! hid+-places1 ?\gh occasionally !y w grasp ! /ick s t5aci\sly ) _! =ceps t !y may be pull$ )9 rea*4 ,y may be able to haul !m out by _! long ant5n1 b if y c f9d a second way into _! home su* t y c di/urb !m f beh9d y are pretty sure ( y\r victim4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,,! ,,sp9y ,,lob/] 7,pal9urus vulg>is7 ,x w be unnecess>y to describe o!r species ( lob/]s individually1 b we h introduc$ figures ( a few = id5tification4 ,! ,norway ,lob/] 7,nephrops norvegicus7 is (t5 l&$ 9 l>ge numb]s by ! fi%]m5 ( ! ea/ & s\?-ea/ coa/s & sold at a %ill+ or s a doz5 "u ! "n ( ,norway ,prawns4 ,!y are pretty & int]e/+ creatures1 & may be easily kept alive 9 ! indoor aqu>ium1 :]e !y may be f$ on any k9d ( fi%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--,,! ,,norway ,,lob/] 7,nephrops norvegicus7 ,fig4 #bji repres5ts ! two alli$ creatures t may sometimes be dug out ( ! s&y bea*1 or f ! mud 9 ! e/u>y ( a riv]4 ,! "o on ! left is ! mud-bor] 7,gebia /ellata71 :i* is ( a dull yell[i% col\r1 m>k$ m or less di/9ctly by p9ki% />like spots--a feature t has sugge/$ ! specific "n4 ,! beak 9 front ( ! c>apace is v prom95t & sp9y1 & ! long abdom5 is n>r[] 9 front ?an 9 ! middle4 ,?is creature hides 9 ! holes t h be5 excavat$ by bor+ molluscs1 & seems also to ext5d ! cavities x inhabits by its own lab\rs4 ,! o!r is v simil> 9 g5]al =m1 b has no sp9y beak & ! abdom5 is mu* broad] 9 ! middle ?an at ! base4 ,x is also to be di/+ui%$ by ! v unequal size ( its front legs1 "o ( :i* is mu* m develop$ ?an ! o!r4 ,x is kn[n z ! mud-burr[] 7,callianassa subt]ranea71 & is said to burr[ v deeply into mud-banks1 scoop+ out its retreat pr9cipally by means ( ! second & ?ird pairs ( legs4 ,al?\gh f\nd at times betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 its pr9cipal habitat is probably 9 ! mud t is cov]$ by deep wat]1 = x is n uncommonly to be f\nd 9 ! /oma*s ( fi%es t habitually fe$ 9 su* localities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--,,! ,,mud-,,bor] 7,gebia /ellata7 7#a7 ,,& ,,! ,,mud-,,burr[] 7,callianassa subt]ranea7 7#b7 ,lob/]s ( all k9ds1 &1 inde$1 ! m>9e cru/aceans g5]ally1 are ess5tially ! scav5g]s ( ! sea1 = !y are c>rion-fe$]s1 gre$ily dev\r+ fle% 9 all /ages ( decomposition4 ,h5ce ! value ( _! "w on ! sea %ore is v consid]able4 ,an exam9ation ( %rimps & prawns w at once %[ _! close relation%ip ) lob/]s4 ,! g5]al build ( _! bodies is practically ! same1 & _! app5dages1 ?\gh (t5 diff]5t 9 =m f ! correspond+ limbs ( ! lob/]1 w be se5 to resemble !m closely 9 arrangem5t & /ructure4 ,! exo-skeletons ( ^! creatures are1 h[ev]1 g5]ally h>d5$ by a horny sub/ance 7*it97 in/ead ( a /ony deposit ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! %rimps & prawns sold = food 9 our m>kets are v simil> 9 appe>ance :5 alive1 ! lead+ di/+ui%+ feature be+1 p]haps1 ! pres5ce ( a %>p1 s]rat$ beak project+ =w>d f ! front portion ( ! c>apace ( ! latt]4 ,! read] is probably acqua9t$ ) ! fact t ! %rimps & prawns us$ z food h q a diff]5t appe>ance :5 alive & 9 _! native elem5t to t display$ by ! correspond+ w>es 9 ! fi%mong]'s %op--a fact t applies equally well to ! edible crabs & lob/]s4 ,mo/ cru/aceans *ange to a bright r$ col\r :5 boil$1 &1 z /at$ 9 a previ\s *apt]1 ! same result is produc$ by ! action ( /rong _s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--,,! ,,common ,,%rimp 7,crangon vulg>is7 ,! ,common ,%rimp 7,crangon vulg>is7 is an exception1 h[ev]1 = x may be di/+ui%$ :5 boil$ by its dull greyi% br[n col\r4 ,:5 alive ?is species is ( a v pale gre5i% or greyi% t9t1 lightly spott$ ) br[n2 & its habits are s int]e/+ t x w well repay "o to wat* x ei!r 9 ! aqu>ium or 9 a rock pool4 ,x frequ5ts s&y coa/s1 & c hide itself v quickly by bury+ its body 9 ! s&1 us+ = ?is purpose bo? its legs & its ant5n4 ,! ,prawn frequ5ts rocky coa/s1 :]e x may (t5 be obta9$ 9 l>ge numb]s by sweep+ ) a suitable net "u ! cov] ( we$s & /ones4 ,its body is ( an exce$+ly pale gre5i% col\r1 & s transp>5t t x is q inconspicu\s :5 9 ! wat]4 ,prawns are turn$ to a rose-r$ col\r by boil+1 & !y are captur$ 9 l>ge numb]s :5 "y & sold z #8r$ %rimps4' div classfigc5t] /ylewid?3 #ejjpx2 a "nfig#baa idfig#baa_/;a img srcimages_/i#cjh4;jpg wid?#ejj height#bhb alt _/ ,,fig4 #baa4--,,! ,,prawn 7,palmon s]ratus7 _/div ,9 addition to ! common species m5tion$ !re are q a numb] ( %rimps & prawns to be f\nd 9 our seas1 b "s ( !m inhabit deep wat] & are r>ely to be f\nd betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,all1 h[ev]1 are eag]ly dev\r$ by fi%es1 &1 on t acc\nt1 are (t5 to be obta9$ 9 good condition by exam9+ ! cont5ts ( ! /oma*s ( fre%ly caught fi%es4 ,9 fact1 ?is mode ( se>* = ! small] species ( deep-sea life is n to be despis$1 = x is a means by :i* we c obta9 specim5s t are n (t5 secur$ by ! me?ods com+ )9 ! ord9>y range ( ! amateur's "w4 ,x w be rememb]$ t we spoke ( ! ,decapods z consi/+ ( two ma9 gr\ps--! ,great-tail$ 7,macrura7 & ! ,%ort-tail$ 7,bra*yura74 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 we f9d ! ord] divid$ into ?ree sub-ord]s z foll[s3-- #a4 ,macrura 7,great-tail$71 #b4 ,anomura 7,peculi>-tail$71 #c4 ,bra*yura 7,%ort-tail$72 ! fir/ conta9+ lob/]s1 %rimps1 c42 ! ?ird ! typical crabs1 su* z ! %ore crab & ! edible crab2 :ile 9 ! second are plac$ ^? species ( crabs :i* h be5 reg>d$ z int]m$iate 9 "*4 ,?us1 9 ! ,anomura we f9d decapods 9 :i* ! abdom51 ?\gh n s well develop$ z 9 ! ,macrura1 is ei!r p]man5tly ext5d$ or is capable ( be+ ext5d$ & us$ = swimm+ z occasion requires4 ,! h9dmo/ legs1 also1 are n well develop$ & adapt$ = walk+1 b are employ$ only z organs ( preh5sion2 &1 z is ! case ) ! fir/ sub-ord]1 !re are (t5 two pairs ( well-develop$ ant5n4 ,9 ?is sub-ord] ( #8que] tails' we f9d ! ,soldi] or ,h]mit ,crabs1 & ^? flat-bodi$ crabs t live almo/ exclusively on ! surface ( /ones1 & are h5ce kn[n z ,/one ,crabs2 b z op9ion n[ seems incl9$ aga9/ ! =mation ( a special subord] = ^! creatures1 we %all briefly deal ) !m z a fir/ section ( ! ,bra*yura4 ,! ,/one ,crabs are extremely int]e/+ creatures1 & ! obs]vation ( _! habits1 bo? 9 & out ( ! wat]1 is p>ticul>ly ent]ta9+ & in/ructive4 ,"o species--! ,broad-,claw$ ,porcela9 ,crab 7,porcellana platy*eles71 %[n on ,plate ,,vi4--is v abundant on all our rocky coa/s1 & may be f\nd 9 imm5se numb]s ne> l[-wat] m>k4 ,turn ov] "s ( ! l>ge encru/$ /ones t /rew ! bea* among ! rocks1 & y are almo/ sure to f9d numb]s ( ^! little crabs cl++ to ! fre%ly expos$ surface4 ,a few ( !m may rema9 p]fectly /ill1 & exhibit no sign ( surprise on _! untimely exposure to ! light2 & ^!1 on acc\nt ( _! small size1 ! clos5ess ) :i* !y apply _! flatt5$ bodies to ! encru/$ /one1 & m ?an all to ! protective col\r+ ( _! d+y bodies1 :i* s closely resembles t ( ! surface to :i* !y cl+1 may well be ov]look$ by ! inexp]i5c$ collector4 ,b ! majority ( !m w imm$iately scamp] away 9 _! own peculi> fa%ion t[>ds ! edge ( ! /one1 & rapidly make _! way to :at is n[ ! "u side4 ,z !y progress ) a ha/y1 slid+ movem5t !y nev] = "o mom5t loos5 _! firm hold on ! r\gh surface ( ! /one1 b keep bo? body & limbs 9 close contact ) x1 cl++ h>d by means ( _! po9t$ claws z well z by ! num]\s hairs & bri/les ) :i* _! app5dages are lib]ally fr+$4 ,attempt to pull "o f its hold1 or ev5 take o!r ?an ! g5tle/ means to arre/ its progress1 & y w probably f9d t x sudd5ly p>ts company ) "o ( its broad claws 9 its endeav\r to escape2 &1 unless "s special precautions be tak5 to remove ^! crabs1 x is possible t q half ! specim5s tak5 w h be5 damag$ 9 ?is way dur+ _! /ruggles to escape4 ,if1 h[ev]1 y g5tly ?ru/ ! po9t ( a p5knife b5ea? ! body1 & !n apply ! ?umb above1 y may lift !m f a /one )\t injury4 ,ano!r plan is to press a frond ( smoo? sea we$ z closely z possible to ! surface ( ! /one 9 ! front ( ! crabs1 & !n all[ !m to crawl on to x1 or cause !m to d s if necess>y4 ,! piece ( we$1 ) crab or crabs atta*$1 may !n be bagg$ = future exam9ation4 ,on turn+ ov] ! ,broad-claw$ ,crab its "u surface w be se5 to be p]fectly smoo?1 ) an appe>ance closely resembl+ t ( :ite porcela94 ,its foot-jaws1 also1 are proportionately l>ge1 & closely fr+$ ) hairs2 & ! la/ pair ( legs1 :i* are v sl5d] 9 build1 are fold$ closely b5ea? ! body4 ,fur!r1 ! abdom5 is wide1 compos$ ( six di/9ct movable segm5ts1 & t]m9at+ 9 a tail-f9 compos$ ( five fr+$ plates4 ,drop ! crab into wat]1 & x w imm$iately ext5d its abdom51 :i* x w flap %>ply "u its body some:at aft] ! mann] ( lob/]s & %rimps1 & ?us swim backw>d by a s]ies ( j]ks z x s9ks to ! bottom4 ,on rea*+ ! bottom x in/antly grasps ! solid mat]ial1 applies itself closely to ! surface1 & glides away into ! ne>e/ *9k x c f9d4 ,z "o obs]ves ! nature & movem5ts ( ^! int]e/+ little crabs "o _c fail to see h[ beautifully _! =m & /ructure are adapt$ to _! habits4 ,!y are peculi>ly con/ruct$ = abode 9 n>r[ *9ks & crannies1 & = fe$+ on ! small =ms ( life t inhabit su* %elt]$ places4 ,_! legs move 9 ! plane ( _! flatt5$ bodies1 & z !y glide among ! conf]v & o!r l[ =ms ( life t encru/ ! /ones ( ! bea* !y feel _! way by1 & are possibly also guid$ by ! s5se ( smell locat$ 91 _! long out] ant5n1 :ile ! close fr+es ( _! claws & foot-jaws =m admirable sweep-nets by means ( :i* ! little animals t =m _! food are swept t[>ds ! m\?4 ,we h o!r species ( /one crabs1 "o or two ( :i* resemble ! la/ species1 & belong to ! same g5us1 b ! o!rs are v diff]5t 9 g5]al appe>ance4 ,! ,nor!rn ,/one ,crab 7,li?odes71 f\nd pr9cipally on & (f ! coa/s ( ,scotl& & ,irel&1 has a sp9y cov]+ ) a long beak4 ,ano!r species--,dromia vulg>is--is some:at simil> 9 habit1 ?\gh x c h>dly be t]m$ a /one crab1 s9ce x inhabits deep wat]1 & app>5tly lives among ! sponges1 sea firs1 & we$s t cov] ! bottom4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--;,dromia vulg>is ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--,,! ,,h]mit ,,crab ,,9 ,a ,,:elk ,,%ell ,! rema9d] ( ! ,peculi>-tail$ ,decapods belong to ! ,soldi] or ,h]mit ,crabs1 & con/itute ! g5us ,pagurus4 ,e "o :o has se>*$ a few rock pools w h se5 ! famili> ,h]mits1 & w probably h be5 int]e/$ 9 _! v>i$ antics4 ,fir/ y obs]ve ! %ell ( a mollusc--a ,tro*us1 ,p]iw9kle1 or a ,:elk--travell+ at an abnormal rate = a memb] ( its class4 ,y approa* closely to make an inquiry into ! matt]1 :5 ! motion sudd5ly ceases1 & ! %ell in/antly drops into position ) its m\? close to ! surface bel[4 ,if left undi/urb$ = only a %ort "t1 ! rapid & some:at j]ky motion is resum$1 only to cease z sudd5ly z be=e z soon z ! inhabitant is aga9 ?reat5$4 ,on exam9+ ! %ell we f9d t x is ! home ( a species ( crab1 & t ! animal )9 x is completely hidd5 ) ! exception ( its head1 /alk$ eyes & long1 sl5d] ant5n1 "o v l>ge claw1 & a few walk+ legs4 ,to remove ! creature f its home is no easy matt] z a rule4 ,to pull x out by means ( its legs or its ant5n w\ld probably be to sev] "s portion ( its body2 b if y ?ru/ ! creature1 %ell & all1 among ! spread+ t5tacles ( a l>ge anemone1 x w at once grasp ! p]il ( ! situation2 &1 if ! %ell has already be5 secur$ by ! cl++ petals ( ?is dang]\s m>9e fl[]1 ! h]mit w spe$ily quit its home & endeav\r to ru% f ! _m sn>es 9 ord] to secure its fre$om4 ,or1 x n infrequ5tly happ5s t ! occupi$ %ell is "o t has )/ood _m a /orm1 b n )\t ! loss ( ! apex ( its cone4 ,9 ?is case ! ins]tion ( a v flexible fibre into ! op5+ ?us made w cause ! h]mit to leave its home 9 ! possession ( ! enemy4 ,hav+1 by "s means or o!r1 manag$ to drive ! crab f its %ell1 we place x 9 a %all[ rock pool1 or 9 a vessel ( sea wat]1 & obs]ve ! *ief features ( its /ructure4 ,! fir/ ?+ t /rikes "o is ! abs5ce ( a calcifi$ sk9 on ! ext5d$ abdom51 :i* is s s(t t1 rememb]+ ) :at eag]ness fi%es w attack & dev\r crabs ( all k9ds1 we c at once und]/& ! necessity ( su* a home z ! creature selects4 ,aga91 we obs]ve ! pres5ce ( app5dages at ! tip ( ! abdom5 by means ( :i* ! crab is enabl$ to hold itself securely 9 ! %ell4 ,also1 :5 we note ! g5]al =m ( ! arm\r$ portion ( ! body1 & ! position ( ! s(t-sk9n$ abdom51 we c see h[ well adapt$ ! :ole is to fit snugly into ! spiral %ell ( a :elk or w9kle4 ,we also obs]ve t "o ( ! p9c]s is mu* l>g] ?an ! o!r1 & ! value ( su* an arrangem5t may be e/imat$ :5 we see ! animal at home4 ,! small] claw1 toge!r ) ! o!r app5dages us$ = walk+ or preh5sion1 c be retract$ )9 ! %ell1 b ! l>ge claw1 :i* con/itutes a =midable weapon ( attack & def5ce1 is n only 9 su* a position z to be ready = imm$iate use2 b1 ly+ z x does 9 front ( ! body1 ) o!r portions hidd5 m or less beh9d x1 x s]ves ! purpose ( a %ield :5 ! animal retires4 ,if we place a homeless h]mit crab 9 a rock pool1 ! behavi\r ( ! creature imm$iately sugge/s a feel+ ( uneas9ess--a s5se ( dang]--= x moves ab\t 9 a v erratic fa%ion t is q diff]5t f ! /raight=w>d & delib]ate action ( ! same animal :5 prop]ly protect$2 & v amus+ results may be obta9$ by mak+ x ! subject ( a few h>mless exp]im5ts4 ,= in/ance1 drop d[n be=e x an empty :elk-%ell t is mu* too l>ge to prop]ly accommodate its body4 ,x w imm$iately approa* ! unt5ant$ h\se1 se>* & probe x well ) its ant5n & o!r app5dages1 & !n1 f9d+ x un9habit$1 & hav+ no ap>tm5t ( m suitable size at h&1 w abruptly gives its body a turn & ha/ily ?ru/ itself backw>ds into x4 ,if at ! "t ( ?is exp]im5t ! advanc+ tide di/urbs ! wat] ( ! pool1 ! result is some:at ludicr\s1 = ! %ell1 too cumb]some to be controll$ by ! creature )91 is1 reg>dless ( its attempts to ma9ta9 a normal position1 turn$ ov] & ov] z ea* wave advances & retreats4 ,aga91 suppos+ ! %ell suppli$ to be too small = ! int5d$ occupant1 x w1 aft] ! usual exam9ation ( ! int]ior1 ?ru/ its s(t abdom5 z f> 9 z possible1 & make ! be/ ( ! unsatisfactory circum/ances until a m suitable home c be f\nd4 ,& if1 at ?is di/ress+ p]iod1 we drop be=e x a %ell ( j ! "r size--! "o f :i* ! creature 0 orig9ally expell$ = in/ance1 x is a/oni%+ h[ quickly ! *ange ( h\ses w be accompli%$4 ,aft] a brief exam9ation ( ! %ell ) ! object ( det]m9+ :e!r all is "r )91 dur+ :i* ! crab cont9ues to avail itself ( ! imp]fect accommodation af=d$ by ! previ\s %ell1 x rapidly extracts its body f ! "o & ?ru/s itself backw>ds into ! o!r4 ,its normal habits are at once resum$1 all its movem5ts be+ n[ sugge/ive ( confid5ce & cont5tm5t4 ,we h already ref]r$ 7p4 #aec7 to ! fact t a l>ge anemone 7,sag>tia p>asitica7 is commonly f\nd atta*$ to a :elk %ell1 :i* at ! same "t =ms ! home ( ! h]mit crab1 & 7p4 #dd7 t a m>9e worm 7,n]eis7 is also a common associate ( ! h]mit1 tak+ up its abode 9 ! int]ior ( ! same %ell2 & we also briefly discuss$ ! mutual advantage ( su* an arrangem5t to ! p>ties conc]n$4 ,^! triple comb9ations are n s frequ5tly met ) on ! %ore betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 b are dr$g$ 9 consid]able numb]s by ! trawl]2 & ! read] w f9d x repay him to secure "o 9 ord] t he may be able to wat* ! int]e/+ habits ( ! associates4 ,! movem5ts ( ! h]mit crab are always pleas+1 p>ticul>ly ! mann] 9 :i* x seizes & manipulates its food2 & /ill m s is ! occasional appe>ance ( ! head ( ! worm1 always 9 exactly ! same place1 = ! purpose ( delib]ately /eal+ ! food f ! v jaws ( ! crab4 ,h]mit crabs are easily kept 9 captivity1 & may be f$ on any k9d ( animal food1 b c>e %\ld be tak5 n to all[ an excess ( food to rema9 9 ! wat] & r5d] x putrid by decomposition4 ,z long z ! crabs are active & rema9 )9 _! %ells y may assume t ! conditions are fav\rable2 b :5 !y become sluggi% 9 _! movem5ts1 & leave _! homes1 ! sanit>y condition ( ! aqu>ium %\ld be reg>d$ ) suspicion2 = h]mit crabs1 l _m ( ! m>9e tube worms1 g5]ally quit _! homes :5 ! conditions are unfav\rable1 z if !y pref]r$ to die outside4 ,! ,common ,h]mit ,crab 7,pagurus ,b]nh>dus71 also kn[n z ! ,soldi] ,crab1 on acc\nt ( its v pugnaci\s habits1 is common almo/ ev]y:]e on our coa/s1 & may be di/+ui%$ by ! num]\s little tub]cles on ! claws & on ! upp] edge ( ! front legs2 & !re are sev]al o!r species1 belong+ to ! same g5us1 di/ribut$ m or less locally on ! v>i\s %ores4 ,all are simil> 9 g5]al /ructure & habits1 ! v>i\s species be+ id5tifi$ pr9cipally by means ( _! col\r1 ! v>iations 9 ! =m ( ! app5dages1 & ! g5]al "*--smoo?1 tub]cul>1 sp9y1 c4--( ! exo-skeleton4 ,"o species1 f\nd 9 ! s&y bays ( ,cornwall1 burr[s rapidly 9 ! s&4 ,com+ n[ to ! true crabs--! ,bra*yura1 or ,%ort-tail$ cru/aceans1 z sometimes di/+ui%$ f ! ,anomura--we f9d q a v>iety ( int]e/+ creatures1 _m species ( :i* are always )9 ! rea* ( ! collector at "w betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,9 all ^! ! abdom5 is only slightly develop$1 & is nev] us$ 9 swimm+1 be+ p]man5tly fold$ b5ea? ! ?orax4 ,?is portion ( ! body1 h[ev]1 is usually v di/9ctly segm5t$1 & if x be lift$ f its position x w be f\nd t "s ( ! segm5ts be> app5dages correspond+ ) ! swimm]ets ( ! lob/]4 ,x is also wid] 9 ! female ?an 9 ! male1 & crabs ( ! =m] sex may (t5 be f\nd dur+ ! summ] ) ! abdom5 m or less depress$1 & ! space b5ea? x q fill$ ) eggs4 ,! upp] surface ( ! c>apace ( crabs is (t5 v di/9ctly groov$1 & x is int]e/+ to note t ^! features ( ! exo-skeleton are n m]ely ( ext]nal significance1 = !y usually correspond 9 position ) v>i\s int]nal /ructures1 "s ( !m d5ot+ ! areas ( ! ins]tions ( important muscles1 & o!rs enclos+ ! regions ( c]ta9 ( ! int]nal organs4 ,x w be notic$1 too1 t ! c>apace1 :i* 9 lob/]s is (t5 less ?an half ! l5g? ( ! body1 cov]s ! entire body ( ! crab1 except1 p]haps1 a v small l9e> portion betwe5 ! bases ( ! la/ pair ( legs1 :]e ! fir/ "p ( ! segm5t$ abdom5 is visible f above4 ,! true crabs ( our seas may be divid$ into f\r gr\ps1 z foll[3 #a4 ,oxy/omata1 or ,po9t$-m\!d ,crabs2 #b4 ,oxyrhyn*a1 or ,po9t$-beak$ ,crabs2 #c4 ,catometopa1 ) =ehead turn$ d[nw>ds2 & #d4 ,cyclometopa1 or ,r\nd-head$ ,crabs2 & we %all briefly obs]ve "s ( ! m conspicu\s & int]e/+ species 9 ! ord] ( ! tribes z j giv54 ,! fir/ division is n well repres5t$ 9 our seas1 ! pr9cipal species be+ ! ,nut ,crabs & ! ,long-arm$ ,crab1 all ( :i* may be di/+ui%$ by ! peculi> arrangem5t ( ! foot-jaws1 :i*1 :5 clos$1 =m a triangle ) an acute angle turn$ t[>ds ! front4 ,! ,nut ,crabs are mo/ly small2 &1 s9ce !y g5]ally inhabit deep wat]1 are n commonly se5 on ! %ore2 b p]fect specim5s may sometimes be f\nd among ! cont5ts ( fi%es' /oma*s4 ,!y d]ive _! "n f ! nature ( ! c>apace1 :i* is ( a r\nd$ =m & v h>d & /rong4 ,p5nant's ,long-arm$ ,crab 7,cory/es ,cassivelaunus7 may commonly be se5 entangl$ among fi%]m5's nets1 b is n (t5 se5 on ! %ore at l[ tide4 ,its c>apace is v convex above1 ) ?ree %>p sp9es on ea* side1 & ! grooves are s arrang$ z to sugge/ ! appe>ance ( a face4 ,our illu/ration repres5ts ! female1 b ! #8arms' ( ! male are v mu* long] ?an ^? ( ?is sex4 ,! ,%>p-beak$ ,crabs 7,oxyrhyn*a7 include all ^? long-legg$ creatures t are kn[n collectively z ! ,spid] ,crabs2 & "h1 aga91 we h to d ) species t almo/ exclusively inhabit deep wat]4 ,al?\gh ?is is ! case1 b little difficulty is exp]i5c$1 z a rule1 9 obta9+ specim5s4 ,if y are unable to take a trip 9 a trawl] = ! purpose ( exam9+ ! #8rubbi%' t is dr$g$ f deep wat]1 simply obta9 p]mission to se>* ! nets & ! boats z !y arrive 9 port4 ,9 ! latt] case y are almo/ c]ta9 to f9d ! crabs y require1 ?\gh x is probable t "s ( ! species w h be5 damag$ by ! haul+ & %ak+ ( ! nets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,,! ,,long-,,arm$ ,,crab 7,cory/es ,cassivelaunus7 ,^! int]e/+ crabs h be5 spok5 ( z ! monkeys ( ! sea1 & ! comp>ison w c]ta9ly be tol]at$ by anyone :o has wat*$ ! creatures z !y climb among ! corall9es & sea firs 9 an aqu>ium4 ,among su* gr[?s !y are q at home2 & al?\gh _! movem5ts d n (t5 sugge/ ! extreme agility ( ! monkey tribe1 yet ! ease ) :i* !y seize ! bran*es ( ! subm>9e =e/ ) _! long #8arms' & pull _! bodies f "o tree-l /ructure to ano!r is decid$ly monkey-l4 ,_! comp>ison ) ! long-legg$ spid]s is also a happy "o z f> z _! g5]al =m & movem5ts are conc]n$1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t !y h n ! same reputation = cruel1 pr$ace\s habits1 = !y are m truly ! scav5g]s ( ! deep1 subsi/+ ma9ly on ! decompos+ bodies ( _! dead associates4 ,! movem5ts ( mo/ spid] crabs are s sl[ & delib]ate t "o c h>dly imag9e !m capable ( any?+ ( ! nature ( viol5t action2 yet1 :5 occasion requires x1 !y w sometimes /rike at ! object ( _! wra? ) a mo/ vigor\s snap ( _! claws4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--,,spid] ,,crabs ,,at ,,home ,9 ^! crabs1 too1 we f9d mo/ int]e/+ in/ances ( protective resemblance to _! surr\nd+s4 ,"s ( ! small1 sl5d]-legg$ species are n to be recognis$ )\t a c>eful se>* :5 !y are at re/ among clu/]s ( sea firs1 _! ?9 app5dages & small bodies be+ h>dly disc]nible 9 ! mid/ ( ! sl5d]1 encru/$ bran*es1 & _! peculi> =ms are /ill m conceal$ by _! col\r+1 :i* g5]ally closely resembles t ( ! gr[?s among :i* !y live4 ,fur!r1 ! c>apace ( spid] crabs is 9 itself a g>d5 on :i* ?rive l[ =ms ( bo? animal & vegetable life4 ,m9ute ,alg1 & occasionally "s ( mod]ate size1 are root$ to ! %ell1 (t5 securely held by ! aid ( ! r\gh hairs & tub]cles t are s *>act]i/ic ( ! exo-skeletons ( ^! creatures2 & pat*es & tufts ( animal colonies t h f\nd a conv5i5t settlem5t on ! mov+ b$ /ill fur!r s]ve to obscure ! nature ( ! liv+ mass bel[--a mass t is always 9 dang] ( becom+ ! prey ( ! fi%es :i* inhabit deep wat]4 ,x is probable1 !re=e1 t ?is association is "o t is b5eficial to bo? sides z f> z ! animal life is conc]n$1 ! l[] species s]v+ to disguise ! true nature ( ! crab1 ?us protect+ x f its num]\s enemies1 :ile !y 9 return are convey$1 c>riage paid1 to ! fe$+-gr\nds1 :]e !y c freely p>take ( ! fragm5ts t become diffus$ 9 ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,our illu/ration on p4 #bhh %[s ?ree species ( spid] crabs1 all ( :i* are common on p>ts ( our %ores4 ,! ,scorpion ,spid] ,crab 7,ina*us dorset5sis7 d]ives its specific "n f ! fact t x 0 fir/ f\nd (f ! coa/ ( ,dorset2 b x is abundant (f _m ( our %ores1 bo? 9 ! s\? & nor?1 & may frequ5tly be se5 entangl$ among ! fi%]m5's nets4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ f o!r & simil> species by ! f\r sp9es arrang$ 9 a l9e across ! front portion ( ! c>apace1 & ! five l>ge1 po9t$ tub]cles beh9d !m4 ,?is species is und\bt$ly a fav\rite food ( ! cod1 = sev]al specim5s may (t5 be tak5 f ! /oma* ( a s+le fi%4 ,! next species--,! ,sl5d]-beak$ ,spid] ,crab 7,/5orhyn*us t5uiro/ris7--is seldom miss+ f ! dr$g+s haul$ 9 (f ! s\?-we/ coa/1 & is fairly common 9 o!r p>ts4 ,its legs are extremely sl5d]1 & be> sp9es on ! inn] side1 & its body1 :]e free f ! incru/ations s (t5 cov]+ ! c>apace ( spid] crabs1 is ( a fre% p9k col\r4 ,! o!r "o %[n 9 ! same illu/ration is ,arctopsis lanata1 sometimes kn[n z ,gibb's ,crab1 ! c>apace ( :i* is po9t$ beh9d1 be>s a l>ge po9t$ tub]cle on ea* side1 & is completely cov]$ ) a ?ick clo?+ ( /iff hairs4 ,x is also common on _m p>ts ( our coa/s1 m especially ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall4 ,closely alli$ to ! la/-nam$1 & belong+ to ! same family1 is ! well-kn[n ,?ornback ,crab 7,maia ,squ9ado71 also a v common crab1 ( :i* we give a sep>ate illu/ration4 ,! tribe ,catametopa does n conta9 _m ,briti% species1 ! pr9cipal be+ ! ,pea ,crabs2 ! ,float+ ,crab1 :i* is occasionally wa%$ on ! s\?-we/ coa/2 & ! beautiful ,angul> ,crab4 ,9 ^! ! front ( ! c>apace is turn$ d[nw>ds--a feature t has sugge/$ ! "n ( ! tribe4 ,! pea crabs are all small1 & !y are p>asites1 liv+ )9 ! %ells ( bivalve molluscs4 ,"o species--! ,common ,pea ,crab 7,p9no!res pisum7 is frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! ,edible ,mussel2 ! female1 :i* is mu* l>g] ?an ! male1 be+ mu* m commonly f\nd4 ,ano!r species--! ,p9na ,pea ,crab 7,p4 vet]um71 infe/s ! ,p9na & ,modiolus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--,,! ,,?ornback ,,crab 7,maia ,squ9ado7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--,,! ,,pea ,,crab 7,p9no!res pisum7 ,on ,plate ,,vi4 is a draw+ ( ! ,angul> ,crab 7,gonoplax angulata7 m5tion$ above1 ! /rik+ =m & delicate col\r+ ( :i* c nev] be mi/ak54 ,we w\ld1 h[ev]1 call p>ticul> att5tion to ! broad & squ>e front ( ! cephalo?orax1 ) its two %>p sp9es1 & to ! l5g? ( ! eye-/alks4 ,un=tunately = ! amateur1 ?is pretty crab is only to be f\nd 9 deep wat]1 (f ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 s t "h1 aga91 ! aid ( ! fi%]man is valuable2 b1 z obs]v$ 9 ! case ( o!r deep-sea dwell]s1 may also be look$ = 9 ! /oma*s ( cod & o!r bottom fi%es4 ,! sex figur$ is ! male1 9 :i*1 :5 fully gr[n1 ! front legs are mu* long] ?an 9 ! female4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,cru/acea #a4 ,gonoplax angulata #b4 ,xan?o florida #c4 ,portunus pub] #d4 ,polybius ,h5sl[ii #e4 ,porcellana platy*eles ,! rema9+ division ( ! crabs--! ,cyclometopa or ,r\nd-front$ ,crabs1 conta9s ! l>g] numb] ( species t may truly be describ$ z common objects ( ! %ore1 = :ile "s ( !m are well adapt$ = swimm+1 & live 9 ! op5 wat]1 ! majority inhabit ! %ore1 ei!r betwe5 or j beyond ! tide-m>ks1 roam+ ab\t m or less freely :5 9 ! wat]1 b usually hid+ "u /ones or we$s1 or burr[+ into ! s&1 :5 left beh9d by ! rec$+ tide4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,,! ,,common ,,%ore ,,crab 7,c>c9us mnas7 ,! memb]s ( ?is tribe may be kn[n at sight by ! =m ( ! c>apace1 :i* is wide & r\nd$ 9 front1 & n>r[$ beh9d4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration repres5ts ! commone/ ( ! gr\p--! ,common ,%ore ,crab 7,c>c9us mnas71 :i* is f\nd pl5tifully on all our coa/s1 & ev5 9 bracki% wat] f> up ! e/u>ies ( riv]s4 ,x is a v voraci\s & pugnaci\s creature1 probably ! mo/ active ( all our crabs1 & its movem5ts1 :e!r connect$ ) its fe$+1 its sports1 or its w>f>e1 are always v int]e/+ :5 obs]v$ ?r\gh cle> wat]4 ,?is crab v>ies consid]ably 9 col\r1 b is usually ( ! gre5i% t+e %[n 9 ! frontispiece4 ,ano!r abundant & well-kn[n species is ! ,edible ,crab 7,canc] pagurus71 :i* is z famili> an object 9 t[n z on ! sea coa/4 ,unlike ! common lob/]1 its natural col\r is n consid]ably *ang$ by boil+1 be+ only turn$ f a dull to a bright] r$4 ,! f9e/ specim5s ( ?is crab are to be caught beyond l[-wat] m>k1 ! usual sn>e be+ ! basket or pot1 bait$ ) fi% refuse1 b l>ge numb]s live among ! /ones & rocks left expos$ at l[ tide1 & sometimes include specim5s ( consid]able size4 ,!y %\ld be look$ = "u l>ge /ones t are loosely pil$ toge!r1 or 9 ! n>r[ *9ks ( rocks4 ,x is v int]e/+ to comp>e ! habits ( ! two common crabs j m5tion$4 ,! =m]1 :5 mole/$1 w run (f 9 great ha/e1 b always retreat ) its front to ! enemy1 & its %>p & p[]ful p9c]s f> ap>t & wide op51 ready = imm$iate use 9 its own def5ce if necess>y4 ,! latt] species1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh /rongly built & provid$ ) =midable claws1 seldom runs f>1 & h>dly ev] attacks "o 9 ! act ( pull+ x out ( its hid+-place2 b1 on ! contr>y1 d\bles all its t5 legs "u its body z if endeav\r+ to approa*1 z ne>ly z possible1 ! =m ( a ball1 & w all[ itself to be roll$ ab\t )\t %[+ any signs ( life4 ,! g5us ,xan?o conta9s two or ?ree species t are common on ! ,corni% & ,devon coa/s1 & :i* may be kn[n by _! depress$ & deeply-groov$ c>apace & ! pres5ce ( ?ree or f\r prom95t tub]cles on ! lat]o-ant]ior m>g9s4 ,! abdom5 ( ! female has sev5 jo9ts1 :ile t ( ! male has only five4 ,"o ( ^! 7,xan?o florida71 %[n on ,plate ,,vi41 is a p[]fully built crab1 z may be se5 :51 aft] be+ di/urb$1 x pu%es its way among ! loose /ones ( ! bea*1 (t5 lift+ masses _m times its own weight4 ,on ! same plate is also a figure ( ! pretty ,velvet ,crab 7,portunus pub]71 also kn[n z ! ,lady ,crab & ! ,violet ,fiddl]4 ,! fir/ ( ^! popul> names has its orig9 9 ! d5se cov]+ ( close hairs t clo! ! c>apace1 & ! la/ ref]s to ! beautiful violet col\r+ ( p>ts ( ! front legs1 &1 to a less] ext5t1 ( ! rema9+ legs4 ,?is is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ f]oci\s ( all our %ore crabs1 & its attacks1 :5 di/urb$1 are ( su* a det]m9$ nature t ! cat*+ ( ! l>g] specim5s is q a lively sport4 ,?\gh x c h>dly be describ$ z an abundant species1 yet x sometimes occurs locally 9 su* numb]s t x may be f\nd "u ne>ly e /one ( any size4 ,9 fact1 we h se>*$ two or ?ree localities on ! s\?-we/ coa/ :]e ?is crab is n only extremely num]\s1 b is at ! same "t almo/ ! only species to be f\nd2 & x seems n unlikely t ! pugnaci\s ,lady has be5 ! means ( driv+ ! less =midable species f its fav\rite haunts4 ,:5 y di/urb a ,velvet ,crab x w imm$iately raise itself 9 a m5ac+ attitude1 /ret*+ its brightly col\r$ p9c]s z wide ap>t z possible1 & !n x w ei!r retreat backw>ds1 or ev5 make a firm /&1 ready to /rike z soon z x is ?reat5$ ) an attempt$ t\*4 ,try to grasp x1 & its two p[]ful weapons ( def5ce are br\ght toge!r ) lightn+-l rapidity giv+ "o a decid$ly sm>t bl[1 possibly foll[$ by a grip ( great t5acity = a creature ( its size2 b1 %\ld x miss its aim1 its p9c]s /rike toge!r ) a %>p click1 only1 h[ev]1 to ext5d at once 9 prep>ation = ! next attempt4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! walk+ legs ( ?is crab are all flatt5$1 & t :ile ! fir/ ?ree pairs t]m9ate 9 %>p1 lance-l claws1 ! la/ pair are broad & fr+$ ) hairs1 ?us %[+ _! close relation%ip to ! swimm+ crabs4 ,9 fact1 ! same g5us conta9s ,briti% species :i* are popul>ly kn[n z ,swimm+ ,crabs4 ,"o ( ! swimm]s is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #d ( ,plate ,,vi4 ,x is g5]ally kn[n z ,h5sl['s ,swimm+ ,crab or ! ,nipp]1 ! sci5tific "n be+ ,polybius ,h5sl[ii4 ,! c>apace ( ?is species is q smoo?1 ?us enabl+ ! crab to move ?r\gh ! wat] ) less resi/ance1 & ! walk+ legs1 p>ticul>ly ! la/ pair1 are flatt5$ & fr+$ = use z paddles4 ,x is said t ?is crab c raise itself f ! bottom to ! surface ( mod]ately deep wat] by means ( ! swimm+ feet1 & t x preys on fi%es :i* x pursues ) "s vig\r4 ,o!r crabs ?an ^? briefly describ$ w reveal !mselves to ! sea-side collector1 b we h n ! space to introduce !m "h4 ,suffici5t in=mation has be5 giv51 h[ev]1 to enable ! read] to broadly classify 8 specim5s--a matt] ( m importance to ! "y naturali/ ?an ! m]e nam+ ( species4 ,leav+ ! cru/aceans n[1 & pass+ = a mom5t to ! ,ara*noidea--! second great division ( ! ar?ropods--we %all briefly describe ! ,%ore ,spid] 7,pycnogonum littorale71 :i* is ! only repres5tative ( ! class likely to be met ) by ! sea-%ore collector4 ,x w be se5 by our illu/ration t ?is creature by no means resembles a typical spid]4 ,! p[]ful jaws1 really modifi$ ant5n1 t are su* =midable weapons 9 ! latt]1 toge!r ) o!r app5dages ( ! head1 are undevelop$ 9 ! %ore spid]1 & ! head is prolong$ =w>d to =m a rigid beak ) ! m\? at ! summit1 & ! head & ?orax toge!r =m a cephalo?orax ( f\r di/9ct segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* be>s a pair ( legs4 ,fur!r1 ! cephalo?orax =ms almo/ ! :ole ( ! body1 = ! abdom51 usually s l>ge 9 spid]s1 is "h repres5t$ by a m]e tub]cle4 ,! %ore spid] is unable to swim1 b crawls ab\t among ! we$s & /ones ( ! bottom1 cl++ firmly by means ( ! curv$ claws ( its eight ?ick legs1 & is protect$ by its dull grey col\r :i* closely resembles t ( ! encru/$ /ones among :i* x sp5ds ! great] portion ( its exi/5ce4 ,x may sometimes be f\nd hid+ "u /ones ne> l[-wat] m>k1 b is f> m commonly se5 among ! #8rubbi%' haul$ 9 by ! trawl4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--,,! ,,%ore ,,spid] ,we %all conclude our brief survey ( ! m>9e ar?ropods by a %ort acc\nt ( ! insect life ( ! sea %ore1 ref]r+ to a few ( ! m prom95t =ms & obs]v+ "s ( _! habits2 b s9ce x is probable t "s ( our read]s are n well acqua9t$ ) ! g5]al *>act]s ( ?is int]e/+ class ( animal life1 x w be advisable to prec$e our rem>ks by a %ort summ>y ( _! pr9cipal di/+ui%+ features1 m p>ticul>ly ^? 9 :i* !y diff] f ! o!r ar?ropods4 ,insects1 !n1 may be def9$ z ^? ar?ropods 9 :i* ! body is divid$ into ?ree di/9ct p>ts--! head1 compos$ ( f f\r to six fus$ segm5ts1 & be>+ z _m pairs ( app5dages2 ! ?orax1 =m$ ( ?ree segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* gives atta*m5t to a pair ( legs2 & ! abdom51 compos$ ( eight segm5ts t be> no app5dages4 ,! head ( an insect is furni%$ ) a pair ( comp\nd eyes1 v simil> 9 /ructure to ^? ( a cru/acean1 & (t51 9 addition1 a clu/] ( simple eyes2 also a pair ( ant5n1 usually compos$ ( _m jo9ts4 ,^! ant5n are important organs ( t\*1 & are employ$1 at lea/ by _m =ms1 z a means ( communication betwe5 "o insect & ano!r4 ,9 !m are also locat$ ! organs ( he>+1 &1 possibly1 ^? ( o!r s5ses4 ,! m\? v>ies v consid]ably 9 diff]5t insects1 b is (t5 suppli$ ) a pair ( m&ibles or bit+ jaws1 &1 bel[ !m1 a pair ( maxill or *ew+ jaws1 bo? pairs be+ jo9t$ to ! head 9 su* a mann] z to be capable only ( horizontal movem5ts4 ,above & bel[ ^! jaws are1 respectively1 ! upp] lip or labrum1 & ! l[] lip or labium1 ! latt] hav+ app5d$ to x a pair ( jo9t$ feel]s call$ ! labial palpi1 & an additional pair ( palpi are also frequ5tly atta*$ to ! maxill1 & !re=e call$ ! maxill>y palpi4 ,^! organs ( ! m\? ( an insect are modifi$ 9 v>i\s ways accord+ to ! functions !y are call$ ^u to p]=m4 ,?us1 9 bees1 ! upp] lip1 z well z ! m&ibles1 are adapt$ = *ew+1 :ile ! maxill & ! labium are groov$ 9 su* a mann] t :5 br\ght toge!r !y =m a tube ?r\gh :i* fluids may be suck$ into ! m\?4 ,also1 9 ! butt]fly & ! mo?1 ! maxill are n con/ruct$ = *ew+1 b consi/ ( two *annell$ rods :i*1 :5 approximat$1 =m a long tube or proboscis employ$ = suction2 & 9 ^! insects ! labial palps are l>ge = ! protection ( ! proboscis1 :i* is retract$ & closely coil$ betwe5 !m :5 n 9 use4 ,fur!r1 9 ! bugs1 ! labium is long & tubul>1 :ile ! m&ibles & maxill are (t5 modifi$ into %>p1 /iff bri/les t "w )9 ! tube1 ! :ole ?us =m+ a comb9$ pi]c+ & suck+ arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--,,! ,,leg ,,( ,,an ,,insect ,! leg ( an insect is built up mu* 9 ! same mann] z t ( ! typical cru/acean4 ,x consi/s ( a basal hip jo9t or coxa1 a r+ segm5t or tro*ant]1 a ?igh 7femur71 a %9 7tibia71 & ! t>sus or foot ( sev]al jo9ts :i* t]m9ates 9 a claw or claws1 & is (t5 provid$ ) suck+-pads4 ,! w+s1 :5 pres5t1 are atta*$ to ! second & ?ird segm5ts ( ! ?orax1 if two pairs1 b if1 z 9 ! case ( ! h\se fly1 ! insect has only "o pair ( w+s1 ^! are always app5d$ to ! second segm5t4 ,insects are develop$ f eggs1 b 9 _! "y /ate !y are segm5t$ l>v1 ) /rong jaws1 ant5n1 simple eyes1 & usually ?ree pairs ( legs atta*$ to ! fir/ ?ree segm5ts next to ! head4 ,z reg>ds int]nal /ructure1 we ne$ only m5tion "h t ! body is trav]s$ by num]\s bran*+ tubes 7tra*e7 t op5 at ! ext]ior & con/itute ! respiratory app>atus2 t ! insect is provid$ ) a contractile1 tubul> he>t by means ( :i* ! blood is propell$ ?r\gh a sy/em ( blood-vessels2 t ! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a *a9 ( ganglia1 connect$ by a n]ve cord1 s5d+ n]ve filam5ts to all p>ts ( ! body2 & t ! dige/ive tube is (t5 a complicat$ /ructure1 especially 9 ! case ( ^? insects t fe$ on h]bivor\s matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--,,tra*ea ,,( ,,an ,,insect1 ,,magnifi$ ,! above outl9e w be suffici5t to %[ t insects are n v unlike ! cru/aceans 9 _! g5]al *>act]i/ics2 &1 inde$1 :5 we exam9e c]ta9 =ms1 not+ ! di/9ct segm5tation ( ! body1 ! h>d5$ exo-skeleton ( *it9\s mat]ial1 & ! unh>d5$ sk9 betwe5 ! segm5ts to admit ( fre$om ( movem5t1 we see a /rik+ resemblance 9 ext]nal appe>ance to "s ( ! typical cru/aceans4 ,insects are divid$ into sev]al ord]s1 & "s ( ^! are fairly well repres5t$ on ! sea coa/s1 ?\gh x mu/ be und]/ood t b few species are /rictly aquatic & m>9e 9 _! habits4 ,fre%-wat] pools & /reams teem ) insect life1 & q a l>ge numb] ( ! insects t live 9 ^! situations are peculi>ly adapt$ = a life ( subm]sion1 _! g5]al =m be+ (t5 su* z to all[ ( rapid progress ?r\gh ! wat]1 _! app5dages modifi$ into admirable swimm+ organs1 &1 9 _m cases1 _! brea?+ app>atus adapt$ = ! direct absorption ( oxyg5 dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,h[ev]1 "o w\ld h>dly expect to f9d simil> =ms ( life abundant 9 ! wat] t wa%es our %ores1 ! di/urb+ action ( ! waves1 ev5 9 calm wea!r1 be+ m ?an su* fragile creatures c\ld )/&4 ,& ?is is really ! case1 = !re are b few insects t may be describ$ z m>9e 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w2 & ( ^! ! species t h be5 obs]v$ are mo/ly inhabitants ( w>m] seas4 ,x is notewor?y t all ! insects :i* exhibit m>9e t5d5cies are small1 & !y seldom1 if ev]1 live p]man5tly bel[ ! surface4 ,b few ( !m c swim4 ,a few run on ! surface ( ! wat]1 support+ !mselves on ! surface film aft] ! mann] ( wat]-gnats1 :irligig beetles1 c41 )\t ev] be+ wett$2 & ^! are said to fe$ on diff]5t k9ds ( float+ matt]1 & occasionally to dive bel[ ! surface4 ,a rambl] on ! sea %ore 9 ! summ] "t w always meet ) pl5ty ( insect life1 b ! numb] ( species obs]v$ may n be l>ge3 & omitt+ all ^? :i* %[ no decid$ pref]5ce = ! coa/1 b are f\nd 9 inl& di/ricts z well1 we f9d t by f> ! l>g] proportion live at or ne> ! high-wat] m>k1 :]e !y fe$ on ! refuse wa%$ up by ! waves4 ,"s species1 h[ev]1 live among ! /ones1 or burr[ into ! s&1 betwe5 ! tide-m>ks2 & ^!1 z a rule1 are n driv5 inl& by ea* advanc+ tide1 b all[ ! sea to wa% ov] !m1 hav+ at fir/ protect$ !mselves f di/urbance by burr[+ or seek+ o!r suitable %elt]4 ,^! latt]1 l _m ( ! insects t inhabit fre% wat]1 are well adapt$ to )/& prolong$ imm]sion4 ,_! bodies are n capable ( be+ wett$1 a cov]+ ( %ort hairs effectually prev5t+ ! wat] f com+ into actual contact ) ! body4 ,! op5+s ( ! brea?+ tubes 7spiracles7 are also gu>d$ by closely set hairs :i* prev5t ! wat] f ent]+2 &1 9 "s cases1 ! creatures are provid$ ) special air-sacs 9 :i* a supply ( air is /or$ = use :ile ! insect is %ut (f f ! ext]nal atmosph]e4 ,! l[e/ ord] ( insects includes ! s-call$ ,bugs 7,rhyn*ota71 :i* are p>asitic on plants or animals4 ,q a numb] ( ^! are to be f\nd inhabit+ fre% wat]1 b only "o is truly m>9e 9 its t5d5cies4 ,?is "o is a small insect1 only ab\t an eigh? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & nam$ pophilus 7fig4 #bbb74 ,x has nev] be5 se5 except betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & occurs s ne> l[-wat] level t x is subm]g$ dur+ ! great] "p ( its exi/5ce4 ,b little is kn[n ( ?is peculi> creature4 ,ev5 its food has n be5 asc]ta9$4 ,z ) ! o!r ,rhyn*ota1 b little *ange ( =m takes place dur+ gr[?1 ! "y be+ v mu* l ! adult 9 appe>ance4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t ! l>v live cr[d$ toge!r "u ! protection ( /ones4 ,! read] is probably acqua9t$ ) ^? fre%-wat] bugs t are popul>ly kn[n z #8boatm5' on acc\nt ( ! o>-l action ( _! long1 fr+$ h9d legs2 & al?\gh none ( ^! may be describ$ z m>9e1 yet c]ta9 species may (t5 be se5 9 salt & bracki% wat]1 liv+ 9 company ) creatures t are decid$ly inhabitants ( ! sea4 div classfigc5t] /ylewid?3 #ejjpx2 a "nfig#bbb idfig#bbb_/;a img srcimages_/i#cbi4;jpg wid?#ejj height#cbj alt _/ ,,fig4 #bbb4--,,sea ,,%ore ,,insects #a4 pophilus4 #b4 ,ma*ilis m>itima4 #c4 ,isotoma m>itima4 #d4 ,clopa _/div ,we frequ5tly meet ) a pretty1 sl5d]-bodi$ insect1 measur+ ab\t half an in* 9 l5g? )\t app5dages1 creep+ ov] ! rocks 9 ! sun%9e1 g5]ally v ne> ! crevices 9 :i* !y hide1 & leap+ f place to place :5 di/urb$4 ,^! are ! ,bri/le-tails 7,ma*ilis71 belong+ to ! ord] ,?ysanura1 ! memb]s ( :i*1 l ! bugs1 sc>cely und]go any metamorphoses4 ,?is insect 7fig4 #bbb7 has long ant5n1 & also a long1 /iff1 & ela/ic bri/le ext5d+ backw>ds f ! tip ( ! abdom52 & ?is bri/le is ! means by :i* ! creature leaps4 ,occasionally ! ma*ilis may be f\nd re/+ on ! surface ( ! /ill wat] ( a rock pool1 9 :i* case its body is n wett$1 its weight n be+ suffici5t to break ! surface film ( ! wat]2 &1 9 fact1 ! film is ev5 suffici5tly firm to enable ! insect to leap on ! surface j z x w\ld on a solid body4 ,alli$ to ! bri/le-tails1 & usually gr\p$ ) !m 9 ! same ord]1 are ! little ,spr+-tails1 "s species ( :i* may (t5 be se5 huddl$ toge!r on ! surface ( ! wat] ( a rock pool4 ,!y are s small t1 unless closely exam9$1 !y may be mi/ak5 = p>ticles ( float+ inorganic matt] :i* h be5 bl[n into a %elt]$ corn] ( ! pool1 & ?is idea may be /r5g!n$ by ! fact t ^! m9ute creatures are driv5 by ! w9d into su* %elt]$ spots4 ,b :5 we di/urb !m _! true nature imm$iately becomes app>5t1 = !y may !n be se5 to move ab\t on ! surface ( ! wat]1 sometimes creep+ on ! surface film1 & clamb]+ on ! adjac5t rock or we$1 or leap+ m or less vigor\sly1 9 :i* latt] case _! bodies d n become wett$1 ! surface film rema9+ unbrok5 by _! ex]tions4 ,& ev5 :5 ! ris+ tide drives ! spr+-tails into crevices :]e !y rema9 subm]g$1 p]haps = h\rs toge!r1 _! bodies /ill rema9 dry1 ! wat] be+ kept (f by num]\s %ort bri/les & prom95ces ) :i* !y are furni%$4 ,:5 we exam9e a spr+-tail by means ( a l5s we obs]ve t x has no traces ( w+s1 b t ea* ( ! ?ree segm5ts repres5t+ ! ?orax be>s a pair ( %ort legs1 & t ! abdom5 consi/s ( only five or six segm5ts4 ,! head is furni%$ ) a pair ( jaws1 & ! ant5n1 :i* are %ort & ?ick1 are compos$ ( b few jo9ts--nev] m ?an six 9 numb]4 ,"s spr+-tails live among ! refuse wa%$ up on ! bea*1 :]e !y may be se5 jump+ ab\t 9 company ) ! s&hopp]s :5 ! mat]ial is di/urb$4 ,su* is ! case ) ,isotoma m>itima1 ! illu/ration ( :i* %[s ! =k$ tail t enables ! little animal to jump ab\t s vigor\sly4 ,b "s ( ! m>9e spr+-tails are n s true to _! "n1 s9ce !y are n provid$ ) ?is *>act]i/ic jump+ organ1 & h to cont5t !mselves by creep+ ab\t sl[ly ) ! aid ( _! %ort legs4 ,"o ( ^! spr+less spr+-tails 7,anurida m>itima7 is "o ( ! commone/ ( ! gr\p1 & is di/ribut$ ov] almo/ e "p ( our coa/4 ,pass+ ov] sev]al ord]s ( insects :i* d n seem to h any m>9e repres5tatives1 we come to ! ,dipt]a or two-w+$ insects1 ( :i* ! famili> h\se-fly is a type1 & "h we h to deal ) ^? tr\blesome creatures t lit]ally sw>m 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! matt] wa%$ up to ! highe/ level ( ! tide dur+ ! :ole ( ! summ] mon?s4 ,b al?\gh ^! insects are s v num]\s1 we d n f9d among !m a p>ticul>ly l>ge numb] ( species1 _! abundance be+ due m to ! extreme prolificacy ( ^? t occur4 ,9 ?is ord]1 :i* includes all gnat-l creatures1 z well z ^? insects t are g5]ally kn[n z flies1 ! fir/ pair ( w+s are well develop$1 :ile ! second pair are rudim5t>y1 & repres5t$ m]ely by a pair ( scales1 or by two little p9-l bodies call$ ! balanc]s or halt]es4 ,"s are provid$ ) pi]c+ organs by means ( :i* !y c inflict a small w\nd & !n extract ! juices ( _! victim1 z does ! female gnat1 b ! majority h a proboscis adapt$ = suction only4 ,! l>v ( ! ,dipt]a are g5]ally limbless maggots1 gift$ ) a pair ( jaws1 & !y are usually v voraci\s fe$]s1 dev\r+ decompos+ animal or vegetable matt] 9 enorm\s quantities4 ,if we turn ov] a f]m5t+ mass ( ! miscellane\s matt] ?r[n up on ! bea* q beyond ! rea* ( ! tides1 we may obs]ve a multitude ( little maggots :i* fe$ on ! moi/1 odor\s portion t 0 protect$ f ! direct rays ( ! sun1 toge!r ) a numb] ( d>k-col\r$ pup t lie at ! v bottom ( ! heap or buri$ 9 ! s& bel[4 ,^! are two /ages ( ! black fly 7,clopa frigida7 t is s att5tive to u :5 we re/ on ! dry s& above high-wat] m>k4 ,?is fly is v l ! common h\se-fly 9 g5]al appe>ance1 ?\gh its body is r small]4 ,o!r species ( ! same g5us (t5 accompany !m1 all be+ v simil> 9 g5]al appe>ance & habits1 & none ( ! l>v seem adapt$ to a life 9 ! wat]4 ,!y are always f\nd beyond ! rea* ( ! tide1 & are dr[n$ if subm]g$ = any l5g? ( "t4 ,ano!r species belong+ to ! g5us ,actora w (t5 be se5 9 ! same company1 & ?is is readily di/+ui%$ by _! light] greyi% col\r & its sup]ior size4 ,also1 along ! wat]-l9e1 we (t5 meet ) species ( ! family ,doli*opodid1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! l5g? ( _! legs1 & not$ = ! beautiful metallic col\rs :i* adorn _! bodies4 ,^! flies are c>nivor\s 9 habit1 d]iv+ _! food f liv+ z well z f fre%ly kill$ animals1 & _! %ort1 fle%y proboscis conta9s a pi]c+ bri/le by :i* !y c puncture ! sk9s ( ! animals t provide !m ) food4 ,mo/ ( ! flies ( ?is gr\p live on trees1 walls1 f5ces1 c41 :]e !y pursue & attack _! prey1 b c]ta9 species foll[ ! l9e ( break]s on ! sea %ore1 z be=e indicat$1 & obta9 _! food f ! v>i\s m>9e animals t are /r&$ on ! bea*4 ,a peculi> feature ( ! family is ! nature ( ! abdom5 ( ! males1 :i* is b5t "u ! body & furni%$ ) a numb] ( app5dages4 ,ano!r m>9e dipt]\s insect is a gnat-l fly closely alli$ to ,*ironomus1 :i* we h describ$ 9 a =m] "w,a ( ?is s]ies deal+ ) fre%-wat] life2 & x w be suffici5t to m5tion "h t ,*ironomus is commonly kn[n z ! w9d[-gnat on acc\nt ( ! frequ5cy ) :i* x may be se5 fly+ on ! w9d[s ( our dwell+s2 also t ! l>va1 kn[n popul>ly z ! bloodworm1 is truly aquatic 9 habit1 be+ able to swim by rapidly loop+ its body 9 opposite directions1 & be+ provid$ ) a brea?+ app>atus adapt$ = ! absorption ( ! oxyg5 gas conta9$ 9 solution 9 wat]4 ,! l>va ( ! m>9e species ref]r$ to above may sometimes be se5 9 rock pools1 :]e x %elt]s itself among ! s$im5t at ! bottom4 ,x is mu* l ! bloodworm 9 appe>ance & /ructure1 b its body is gre5i% in/ead ( r$4 ,! la/ ord] ( insects call+ = notice "h is ! ,coleopt]a or %ea?-w+$ insects1 popul>ly kn[n z beetles1 & *>act]is$ by ! h>d & horny nature ( ! front pair ( w+s 7elytra71 :i* are modifi$ into %ea?s & s]ve to protect ! second pair2 ! latt] are ?9 & membran\s1 usually adapt$ = flight1 & lie fold$ b5ea? ! =m] :5 n 9 use4 ,"o l>ge section ( beetles is kn[n z ! ,geodephaga or ,gr\nd ,beetles--a gr\p ( v pr$ace\s insects t burr[ into ! soil & attack almo/ e liv+ ?+ t comes 9 _! way1 & well repres5t$ by num]\s species t may be f\nd 9 our g>d5s1 &1 9 fact1 almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,a consid]able numb] ( ^! insects %[ a decid$ pref]5ce = salt m>%es & ! sea %ore1 :]e !y hide "u /ones1 or burr[ into ! s& or mud 9 se>* ( _! prey4 ,!y are n m>9e 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w1 = !y are n adapt$ = a life ( subm]sion 9 wat]1 ei!r 9 ! l>val or 9 ! p]fect condition2 yet !y are (t5 f\nd bel[ high-wat] level1 & "s species burr[ into ! s& ( ! bea* z ! tide advances1 all[+ ! wat] to cov] !m = h\rs toge!r4 ,"o int]e/+ family ( ! gr\nd beetles 7! ,bembidiid7 includes sev]al small species1 all ( :i* frequ5t salt & wet places1 su* z salt m>%es1 ! m\?s ( riv]s1 & ! sea %ore4 ,we give enl>g$ illu/rations ( a few ( ^!1 ! actual size be+ d5ot$ at ! side ( ea*4 ,footnote ,a3 ,life 9 ,ponds & ,/reams4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--,,m>9e ,,beetles ,,( ,,! ,,g5us ,bembidium #a4 ,b4 biguttatum4 #b4 ,b4 pallidip5ne4 #c4 ,b4 fumigatum4 #d4 ,b4 quadriguttatum ,bembidium biguttatum may be id5tifi$ by its brilliant bronze-gre5 col\r1 & ! two di/9ct impressions on ! elytra :i* h sugge/$ ! specific "n4 ,b4 pallidip5ne is1 z its "n implies1 a pale-w+$ species1 ! elytra be+ ( a light yell[i% col\r4 ,b4 fumigatum is s call$ on acc\nt ( ! smoky t9t ( ! elytra2 & ! la/ species ( ! same g5us figur$ 7,b4 quadriguttatum7 may be kn[n by ! f\r conspicu\s spots on ! deep violet-col\r$ out] w+s4 ,! same family conta9s an int]e/+ little beetle--,cill5ium lat]ale--only ab\t "o-six? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 t lives among ! refuse wa%$ on ! bea*1 :]e x fe$s on ! s&hopp]s2 & al?\gh ! latt] are s mu* sup]ior 9 size1 ! beetle has no difficulty 9 hold+ & kill+ its prey1 always seiz+ x on ! v5tral side ( ! body1 :i* is less protect$ by ! h>d5$ sk94 ,?is species1 :i* is ( a copp] col\r1 does n conf9e its ravages to t portion ( ! bea* :i* is above high-wat] m>k1 b (t5 all[s itself to be cov]$ by ! advanc+ tide1 rema9+ subm]g$ = a consid]able "t4 ,ano!r species--,apus 7pys7 m>9us--is ev5 m aquatic 9 its habits1 = x se>*es out its prey among /ones1 *iefly at ! m\?s ( riv]s1 bel[ high-wat] level1 & is (t5 subm]g$ = h\rs toge!r4 ,x is ev5 provid$ ) air-sacs to enable x to )/& su* prolong$ subm]sions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--,,m>9e ,,beetles #a4 pys m>9us4 #b4 ,micralymma brevip5ne ,!re is ano!r section ( beetles :i* has elytra s %ort t !y cov] only a small portion ( ! abdom52 b al?\gh s %ort1 ^! elytra completely cov] ! long membran\s w+s1 :i* are fold$ up b5ea? !m 9 a wond]fully compact mann]4 ,! section ref]r$ to is t]m$ ,bra*elytra1 f ! feature j m5tion$1 & includes a few species t are m or less m>9e 9 _! habits4 ,"o ( !m--,micralymma brevip5ne--lives "u /ones bel[ high-wat] level1 & app>5tly passes ?r\gh all its /ages )9 rea* ( ! waves4 ,ano!r ( ! ,bra*elytra 7,bl$ius7 burr[s into ! s& or mud ne> high-wat] m>k1 ?r[+ up ! dbris z x proce$s4 ,bo? ^! beetles are c>nivor\s1 & ! latt] is 9 turn prey$ ^u by a gr\nd beetle ( ! g5us ,dys*irius1 :i* hunts & dev\rs x )9 its own home4 ,! read] w h obs]v$ t ! sub-k+dom ,ar?ropoda is n only a v ext5sive "o 9 ! s5se t x conta9s a va/ numb] ( animal =ms1 b also t its memb]s exhibit a v great v>iety ( =m & /ructure2 & ! beg9n] w probably f9d no little difficulty 9 locat+ 8 specim5s 9 _! correct position 9 ! scale ( life4 ,! foll[+ table1 h[ev]1 w s]ve to %[ ! g5]al classification ( ! gr\p at a glance1 & ?us =m a basis = a m detail$ /udy at any future "t3-- ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,ar?ropoda ,,classification ,class ,,cru/acea4 ,sub-class ,,entomo/raca4 ,ord] ,a/racoda--,free4 ,body enclos$ 9 a bivalve %ell4 ,ord] ,copepoda--,free4 ,five pairs ( feet adapt$ = swimm+4 ,ord] ,cirrip$ia--,sessile4 ,enclos$ 9 a %ell ( _m valves4 ,ord] ,bran*iopoda--,free4 ,gills atta*$ to feet4 ,sub-class ,,malaco/raca4 ,division ,,edrioph?almata1 or ,sessile-ey$ ,cru/aceans4 ,ord] ,isopoda--,body flatt5$4 ,sev5 pairs ( legs--equal4 ,ord] ,amphipoda--,body flatt5$ lat]ally4 ,legs adapt$ = bo? walk+ & swimm+4 ,division ,,podoph?almata1 or ,/alk-ey$ ,cru/aceans4 ,ord] ,/omapoda--,ant]ior app5dages direct$ t[>ds ! m\?4 ,ord] ,s*izopoda--,cleft-foot$ ,cru/aceans4 ,ord] ,decapoda--,t5-foot$ ,cru/aceans4 ,sub-ord] ,macrura--,great-tail$4 ,lob/]s1 c4 ,sub-ord] ,bra*yura--,%ort-tail$4 ,crabs4 ,class ,,ara*noidea4 ,ord] ,scorpionid--,scorpions4 ,ord] ,araneid--,spid]s4 ,ord] ,ac>9a--,mites4 ,class ,,myriopoda4 ,ord] ,*ilopoda--,c5tip$es4 ,ord] ,*ilogna?a--,millep$es4 ,class ,,insecta4 ,ord] ,rhyn*ota--,imp]fect metamorphoses1 suctorial m\?4 ,bugs4 ,ord] ,?ysanura--,imp]fect metamorphoses4 ,no w+s4 ,divid$ tail4 ,spr+-tails4 ,ord] ,euplexopt]a--,abdom5 ) t]m9al =ceps4 ,e>wigs4 ,ord] ,?ysanopt]a--,f\r equal membran\s w+s4 ,?rips4 ,ord] ,or?opt]a--,ant]ior w+s usually %ort] & firm]4 ,gras%opp]s1 c4 ,ord] ,neuropt]a--,two pairs ( glassy w+s--equal4 ,ord] ,tri*opt]a--,w+s unequal1 clad ) hairs or scales4 ,caddis flies4 ,ord] ,aphanipt]a--,no w+s1 no comp\nd eyes4 ,fleas4 ,ord] ,dipt]a--,two membran\s w+s4 ,flies4 ,ord] ,lepidopt]a--,w+s clad ) scales4 ,butt]flies & ,mo?s4 ,ord] ,coleopt]a--,=e w+s h>d & horny4 ,beetles4 ,ord] ,hym5opt]a--,f\r membran\s w+s4 ,l>v1 footless grubs4 ,ants1 ,bees1 c4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,m>9e ,,v]tebrates ,! v]tebrates =m ! highe/ sub-k+dom ( animal life--! sub-k+dom to :i* we ourselves belong1 ! *ief di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ! gr\p be+ ! pres5ce ( an int]nal skeleton1 ! pr9cipal "p ( :i* consi/s ( a rod or column ( c>tilag9\s or bony mat]ial runn+ along ! dorsal side ( ! body1 kn[n z ! v]tebral column4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--,,transv]se ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,bony ,,framework ,,( ,a ,,typical ,,v]tebrate ,,animal #a4 ,sp9\s process ( ! v]tebra4 #b4 ,neural ar*4 #c4 ,transv]se process4 #e4 ,body ( ! v]tebra4 #f4 ,brea/-bone4 #g4 ,rib4 ,! space betwe5 #b & #e is ! neural cavity2 & t betwe5 #e & #f is ! visc]al cavity ,?is column is usually compos$ ( a numb] ( elem5ts call$ v]tebr1 ea* ( :i* gives (f two processes t unite & =m an ar* on its dorsal side1 :ile all ! ar*es =m a tube ?r\gh :i* passes ! c5tral portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,bel[1 or on ! v5tral side ( ! column1 is ! body-cavity conta9+ ! organs ( dige/ion & circulation2 s t if we make a transv]se section ( a v]tebrate animal we f9d t !re are two di/9ct tubes or cavities--a neural or c]ebro-sp9al cavity on ! dorsal side ( ! v]tebral column1 =m$ by ext5sions f ! sub/ance ( ! latt]1 & enclos+ ! *ief portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em2 & a body-cavity on ! v5tral side conta9+ ! visc]a or int]nal organs4 ,! above features are highly important1 & w always prove q suffici5t to enable u to decide :e!r any p>ticul> animal is a v]tebrate or an inv]tebrate1 = x w be rememb]$ t ! body ( ! latt] has only "o cavity1 conta9+ ! n]v\s sy/em z well z ! visc]a1 & t ! n]v\s sy/em is commonly plac$ along ! v5tral side1 b nev] along ! dorsal4 ,9 addition to ?is ! v]tebrates nev] h m ?an two pairs ( limbs1 & ^! are always direct$ f ! n]v\s sy/em2 & ! jaws1 :i* are app5dages t move 9 ! horizontal plane 9 inv]tebrates1 are1 9 ! high] animals1 portions ( ! framework ( ! head & move v]tically4 ,9 v]tebrates1 too1 !re is always a complete blood sy/em1 consi/+ ( a he>t ) two1 ?ree1 or f\r cavities1 a sy/em ( art]ies to convey ! blood to ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 ve9s to return ! blood to ! he>t1 & networks ( f9e capill>ies connect+ ! =m] ) ! latt]4 ,all v]tebrates1 at an e>ly /age ( _! exi/5ce1 h a c>tilag9\s rod runn+ ?r\gh ! dorsal portion ( ! body1 call$ ! notocord4 ,9 "s ( ! l[e/ animals ( ! division ?is rod p]si/s )\t any important alt]ations 9 /ructure1 :ile 9 ! high] =ms x gives place to ! s]ies ( c>tilag9\s or bony elem5ts above ref]r$ to z ! v]tebr2 & ! arrangem5t ( ! v]tebrates into _! relative positions 9 ! scale ( life is bas$ l>gely on ! degree ( developm5t ( ! v]tebral column f ! notocord4 ,ano!r int]e/+ feature 9 ! developm5t ( a v]tebrate is ! =mation ( five or m transv]se1 ar*like ?ick5+s on ea* side ( ! dige/ive tube1 j beh9d ! head2 &1 9 ! spaces betwe5 !m1 ( a s]ies ( slits =m+ a communication betwe5 ! ph>ynx & ! ext]ior4 ,^! ar*es & clefts h b a brief exi/5ce 9 _m v]tebrates1 :ile 9 o!rs !y p]si/ ?r\gh\t life2 &1 l o!r po9ts ref]r$ to1 !y assi/ u 9 recognis+ ! relations ( ! v]tebrates to "o ano!r4 ,! v]tebrates are divid$ into ! foll[+ classes3-- #a4 ,cyclo/omata--,lampreys4 #b4 ,pisces--,fi%es4 #c4 ,amphibia--,frogs1 ,toads1 ,newts1 c4 #d4 ,reptilia--,snakes1 ,liz>ds1 ,tortoises1 c4 #e4 ,aves--,birds4 #f4 ,mammalia--,mammals4 ,! fir/ ( ^! includes only a few species1 "o ( :i* is f\nd 9 our seas1 & w receive a %ort notice "h4 ,! fi%es w1 ( c\rse1 dem& a fair %>e ( our att5tion4 ,amphibians & reptiles h no ,briti% m>9e repres5tatives1 & are !re=e q exclud$ f ?is "w4 ,z to ! birds1 al?\gh !re are s _m t live entirely on ! sea & 9 its imm$iate neighb\rhood1 ^! h be5 s ably dealt ) by ,mr4 ,hudson 9 "o ( ! books ( ?is s]ies t x w\ld be sup]flu\s to m5tion !m4 ,! mammals include a consid]able numb] ( m>9e species1 b z only "o ( ^!--! ,porpoise--is really commonly obs]v$ r\nd our coa/s1 x alone w be select$ = description4 ,lampreys & _! few allies 7 =m]ly classifi$ ) fi%es1 b are n[ made to =m a small class by !mselves2 & !re is abundant reason = ! sep>ation4 ,x w be rememb]$ t v]tebrates1 9 ! e>ly /ages ( _! developm5t1 are *>act]is$ by a c>tilag9\s rod runn+ ?r\gh ! dorsal region ( ! body1 bel[ ! c5tral cord ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & t !y possess a s]ies ( slits op5+ into ! sides ( ! ph>ynx4 ,n[1 :ile ^! *>act]i/ics are usually only transitory 9 ! v]tebrates1 ! ,lampreys & _! relatives are ! only animals 9 :i* !y p]si/ ?r\gh\t life1 & x is = ?is reason t !y are exalt$ to ! dignity ( a class "u ! title ,cyclo/omata4 ,?is "n signifies #8r\nd-m\!d1' :ile ! ,lampreys !mselves =m ! /ill small] division ,m>sipobran*ii1 :i* means #8p\*-gill$1' ^! two be+ among ! mo/ evid5t *>act]s ( ! creatures conc]n$4 ,!y h no true jaws1 ! circul> m\? be+ support$ by a r+ ( c>tilage1 & provid$ ) a rasp-l tongue t enables !m to divide _! food4 ,!y h no true bone 9 _! bodies1 ! simple skeleton1 )\t limbs & ribs1 be+ entirely c>tilag9\s1 & ! rudim5t>y skull is n movable on ! dorsal c>tilage4 ,_! bodies are elongat$ & eel-l1 ) a s+le m$ial f91 support$ by f9e c>tilag9\s rays1 & ) sev5 little slits on ea* side ( ! neck1 communicat+ ) z _m gills 9 ! =m ( little p\*es4 ,! m\? is suctorial1 pres5t+1 :5 op51 a circul> adhesive disc1 by :i* ! animals c atta* !mselves to any solid object1 b assumes ! =m ( a m]e slit :5 clos$4 ,! "y diff] f ! adult 9 a few po9ts ( /ructure4 ,?us !y h no eyes1 & ! long f91 divid$ 9 ! adult1 is cont9u\s4 ,) ! above *>act]i/ics 9 m9d1 !re w be no dang] ( confus+ ! lampreys ) ! eels & o!r simil> fi%es4 ,!re are ?ree or f\r ,briti% lampreys1 two or ?ree ( :i* inhabit fre% wat]4 ,_! habits d n seem to be well und]/ood1 b x appe>s c]ta9 t ! ,sea ,lamprey 7,petromyzum m>9us71 :i* rea*es a l5g? ( f "o to two feet1 asc5ds riv]s to spawn1 :ile ! small] ,riv] ,lamprey 7,p4 fluviatilis7 has be5 caught 9 ! sea2 & x is probable t ! migrations ( bo?1 toge!r ) ! soj\rn ( ! "y ( ! =m] = a long] or %ort] p]iod 9 fre% wat]s1 h be5 ! cause ( ! widespread confusion betwe5 species4 ,lampreys are c>nivor\s creatures1 & atta* !mselves to fi%es by _! suctorial m\?s1 & rasp away ! fle%4 ,!y h also be5 kn[n to attack ba!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--,,! ,,sea ,,lamprey ,pass+ n[ to ! true fi%es1 we mu/ fir/ /udy ! g5]al features ( ! gr\p by :i* !y are to be di/+ui%$ f o!r animals4 ,s9ce !re are s _m creatures outside ?is class t are m or less fi%like 9 "s respects1 x becomes no easy matt] to give a concise def9ition ( a fi%1 & ! %orte/ satisfactory description mu/ necess>ily include sev]al po9ts ( /ructure4 ,?us1 we may def9e a fi% z a cold-blood$ v]tebrate t does n und]go metamorphoses1 ) limbs modifi$ into f9s1 possess+ also m$ian f9s on ! dorsal & v5tral surfaces1 hav+ di/9ct jaws1 a he>t ) two *amb]s1 & brea?+ by gills4 ,to ?is we may add t ! "y are g5]ally produc$ f eggs1 & t ! sk9 is cov]$ ) scales or bony plates1 or is nak$4 ,b let u n[ look m closely into ! /ructure ( fi%es1 s t we may be enabl$ to see h[ m>vell\sly !y are adapt$ to _! aquatic life1 & 9 ord] t we may become acqua9t$ ) ! few te*nical t]ms :i* w1 z a matt] ( conv5i5ce1 be us$ 9 ! descriptions ( species4 ,tak+ fir/ ! ext]nal features1 we note t ! body is g5]ally cov]$ ) scales1 sometimes v l>ge & di/9ct1 b (t5 s small & closely set t !y are n visible )\t c>eful exam9ation2 inde$ !y are (t5 s small1 & s ?or\ghly emb$d$ 9 ! slimy sk9 z n to be discov]$ )\t ! aid ( a microscope4 ,:5 ! scales h unbrok5 edges & ov]lap "o ano!r !y are said to be cycloid1 b :5 ! project+ edges are too!d or s]rat$1 giv+ a r\ghness to ! t\*1 !y are describ$ z ct5oid4 ,sometimes ! scales are modifi$ into bony plates or little isolat$ bony granules1 & 9 ei!r case !y are practically id5tical 9 /ructure ) tee?1 consi/+ z !y d ( d5t9e1 capp$ ) a little h>d] sub/ance resembl+ enamel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,,! ,,pil*>d #a4 ,dorsal f94 #b4 ,pectoral f94 #c4 ,pelvic f94 #d4 ,v5tral or anal f94 #e4 ,caudal f94 ,we (t5 obs]ve a r[ ( scales1 ( a diff]5t nature f ^? cov]+ ! body g5]ally1 runn+ along ea* side ( a fi% f ne> ! eye to ! end ( ! tail2 & ^! con/itute :at is call$ ! lat]al l9e4 ,if we exam9e ^! scales closely1 we obs]ve t ea* "o is pi]c$ by a hole t communicates ) a little sac b5ea? conta9+ a gelat9\s mat]ial1 & 9 :i* a n]ve t5dril t]m9ates4 ,! pres5ce ( ! n]ve filam5t evid5tly d5otes t ! scales 9 "q1 ) ! little sacs b5ea? !m1 are organs connect$ ) s5sation1 & x is also believ$ t !y h some?+ to d ) ! secretion ( ! slimy mucus t cov]s ! scales ( ! body4 ,! m\? ( a fi% is g5]ally situat$ on ! extreme front ( ! head1 b occasionally1 z 9 ! %>ks & rays1 q on ! "u side4 ,if x conta9s a tongue at all1 ?is organ is ( small size & simple /ructure2 ?us x is highly probable t ! s5se ( ta/e is v feeble 9 ^! animals1 & ?is is j :at "o might expect :5 "o rememb]s t fi%es nev] reta9 _! food 9 ! m\? = any l5g? ( "t1 b simply bolt x )\t any attempt at ma/ication4 ,! arrangem5t & nature ( ! tee? are v v>iable4 ,(t5 !y are develop$ on ! membrane ( ! m\? only1 9 :i* case !y are g5]ally r5ew$ z fa/ z !y are worn d[n1 b sometimes !y are p]si/5t /ructures m or less emb$d$ 9 ! bone ( ! jaws4 ,9 "s cases tee? are altoge!r want+1 b 9 o!rs !y are situat$ n only on ! jaws1 b also on ! tongue1 ! ro( ( ! m\?1 & ev5 on ! bony ar*es t support ! gills4 ,a glance at ! f9s ( a typical fi% w suffice to %[ t !y may be divid$ into two gr\ps--! pair$ f9s1 repres5t+ ! two pairs ( limbs 9 mo/ ( ! high] animals1 & ! m$ian f9s occupy+ ! middle l9e ( ! body4 ,! =m] comprise ! two pectoral f9s t correspond ) our arms1 & are atta*$ to ! bones ( ! pectoral or %\ld] girdle2 & ! pelvic f9s1 correspond+ ) ! l[] extremities4 ,! pectorals1 too1 are pres5t 9 ne>ly all fi%es1 :ile ! pelvic pair are r m frequ5tly abs5t ?an ! pectorals4 ,! m$ial f9s comprise ! dorsal1 ! v5tral1 & ! caudal or tail-f91 & are n to be reg>d$ z limbs1 b r m]e outgr[?s ( ! sk94 ,!y are n directly connect$ ) any "p ( ! ma9 bony framework ( ! body1 ?\gh !y are g5]ally jo9t$ ) a s]ies ( bones 7int]sp9al bones7 t run betwe5 processes ( ! v]tebral column4 ,! dorsal & v5tral f9s are (t5 divid$ into two or m p>ts1 & ! tail f9 is commonly di/9ctly =k$4 ,al?\gh ! sev5 f9s above m5tion$ diff] consid]ably 9 g5]al =m1 "s be+ fanlike1 :ile o!rs =m fr+e-l expansions1 yet !y g5]ally agree 9 t !y consi/ ( bony or c>tilag9\s rays1 betwe5 :i* is a s(t membrane4 ,! rays1 h[ev]1 v>y mu* 9 "*1 be+ sometimes develop$ into v h>d & %>p sp9es1 & sometimes q s(t & flexible4 ,! f9s also diff] 9 function1 z w be se5 :5 we obs]ve ! movem5ts ( a fi% z x swims4 ,x w !n be notic$ t ! caudal f91 :i* is spread 9 ! v]tical plane & mov$ %>ply f side to side by ! p[]ful muscles ( ! tail1 is ! *ief propell+ organ1 :ile ! o!rs are conc]n$ pr9cipally 9 ma9ta9+ ! balance ( ! body4 ,?is latt] po9t becomes mu* m evid5t :5 we obs]ve ! movem5ts ( a fi% 9 :i* "o or m ( ! f9s h be5 injur$ or lo/1 z we %all see pres5tly4 ,x is true t ! pectoral f9s are sometimes us$ to propel1 b =w>d movem5t is br\ght ab\t almo/ entirely by ! caudal f91 :i* acts mu* 9 ! same way z ! blade ( ! propell+ #8screw' ( a /eam-vessel1 ! pectorals be+ us$ at ! same "t = /e]+4 ,occasionally1 too1 ! latt] are bo? spread out at "r angles to ! body :5 ! fi% desires to /op sudd5ly1 & are ev5 employ$ at times 9 swimm+ backw>ds4 ,:5 a fi% wants to turn to "o side1 x w be se5 to give ! tail a %>p motion to ! opposite side4 ,! pectoral ( ! latt] side is also br\ght into play1 :ile ! o!r is kept close aga9/ ! body4 ,if ! pectoral or pelvic f9 ( "o side is injur$1 ! body ( ! fi% w incl9e to ! opposite side2 & if all ! pair$ f9s are functionless ! fi% swims ) its head incl9$ d[nw>ds4 ,obs]vations ( fi%es 9 :i* ! dorsal or v5tral f9s are injur$ w also %[ t ^! organs are necess>y to ma9ta9 a /eady motion 9 ! wat]4 ,9 addition to ! above facts1 x may be m5tion$ "h t ! pair$ f9s are (t5 modifi$ into long f+]-l processes t s]ve z organs ( t\*1 & ev5 z means by :i* ! fi% c creep along ! bottom4 ,?is is notably ! case ) gurn>ds & a few ( ! o!r fi%es t sp5d _! "t almo/ exclusively on ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,fi%es are ess5tially gill-brea!rs1 ! gills be+ g5]ally fr+e-l organs1 support$ on bony ar*es 7! gill ar*es71 numb]+ f\r on ea* side1 ! cavity conta9+ !m be+ cov]$ by a gill-cov] 7op]culum7 t op5s beh9d4 ,wat] is tak5 9 at ! m\?1 :5ce x passes into ! gill-*amb]2 & aft] pass+ betwe5 & ar\nd ! gills1 x escapes "u ! op]cula4 ,! gills !mselves are ri*ly suppli$ ) bloodvessels t are di/ribut$ close to ! surface1 & an ex*ange ( gases takes place ?r\gh _! exce$+ly ?9 walls1 c>bonic acid gas pass+ f ! blood to ! surr\nd+ wat]1 & oxyg51 held 9 solution 9 ! wat]1 pass+ f ! wat] to ! blood4 ,:5 fi%es are 9 f\l wat]1 conta9+ b little oxyg5 9 solution1 !y rise to ! surface 9 ord] to make up ! defici5cy by tak+ oxyg5 direct f ! air4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is an unnatural proce$+ ) ! majority ( fi%es2 b !re are "s t are provid$ ) accessory brea?+ organs specially adapt$ to ! extraction ( oxyg5 direct f ! air1 & ^! are s dep5d5t on ! supply f ?is s\rce t !y are suffocat$ if prev5t$ f rea*+ ! surface4 ,9 o!r fi%es1 su* z ! %>ks & rays1 ! gills are ( an entirely diff]5t "* f ^? describ$ above1 = !y are p\*-l & five 9 numb] on ea* side1 ea* p\* communicat+ ) ! ph>ynx z well z ) ! ext]ior by a slit-l op5+4 ,be=e leav+ ! ext]nal *>act]s ( fi%es we mu/ say a ^w or two ab\t _! =ms & col\rs4 ,z reg>ds ! =m]1 x is well kn[n t fi%es are well adapt$ = rapid progression ?r\gh wat]1 b !re are _m exceptions to ?is rule4 ,^! exceptions1 h[ev]1 apply pr9cipally to ^? species t h no ne$ to swim rapidly1 & a /udy ( _! habits w %[ t _! =m is j z p]fectly adapt$ to _! mode ( life4 ,!y are (t5 species t live on ! bottom1 or hide 9 ! crevices & holes ( rocks1 & examples w be giv5 9 our future descriptions4 ,v>iations 9 col\r are ev5 m int]e/+1 especially z !y are s commonly connect$ ) ! nature ( ! surr\nd+s & ! protection ( ! animals4 ,9 ne>ly all cases ! col\r is d>k] on ! upp] surface ?an on ! l[]1 ?us mak+ x appe> t ! influ5ce ( light has some?+ to d ) ! =mation ( ! pigm5ts ( ! sk91 & exp]im5t proves t ?is is1 at lea/ to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! case2 = :5 fi%es h be5 kept = "s "t 9 an aqu>ium into :i* light is admitt$ ?r\gh ! bottom only1 pigm5t spots h =m$ 9 ! sk9 on ! l[] surface4 ,fi%es t swim at ! surface are g5]ally t9t$ on ! dorsal side ) "s %ade t closely resembles ! col\r ( ! wat] z view$ f above1 & are :ite & silv]y bel[4 ,su* col\r+ is ( c\rse highly protective1 = !y are n readily di/+ui%$ by ! sea birds & o!r enemies t w\ld p\nce on !m f above1 & are almo/ invisible aga9/ ! sky to eyes bel[4 ,?is =m ( protective resemblance is beautifully illu/rat$ 9 ! mack]el1 :i* is b>r$ on ! back ) black & gre51 closely imitat+ ! ripples on ! surface ( ! deep gre5 sea1 :ile ! "u side is ( a silv]y :it5ess t is h>dly visible f bel[ ) ! bright sky z a backgr\nd4 ,! flat fi% af=d o!r int]e/+ examples1 = ^! live on ! bottom1 & are col\r$ above s z to resemble ! b$ on :i* !y live2 ! t9ts be+ ^? ( mud1 s&1 or gravel4 ,b :at are we to say ( ! gaudy col\rs ( ! gurn>ds1 rock fi%es1 c48 ,^! are c]ta9ly n protective 9 all cases1 = we sometimes f9d brightly col\r$ species conspicu\s among dull] surr\nd+s4 ,su* in/ances1 h[ev]1 are comp>atively r>e1 ! gaudy species liv+ pr9cipally among ! v>i\sly col\r$ rocks1 we$s1 & corals2 & :5 !y d occur x is probable t !y s]ve pr9cipally z a means by :i* ! brightly col\r$ sex--usually ! male--attracts its mate4 ,we say #8usually ! male1' b :y s8 ,because ! female requires ! protection ( a m sombre col\r 9 ord] t %e may ) safety deposit h] spawn = ! p]petuation ( h] species4 ,aga91 ! male ref]r$ to ne$s ! assi/ance ( 8 gaudy coat only dur+ ! bre$+ season1 h5ce we f9d t he assumes ! bright col\rs z a w$d+ g>m5t1 to be ca/ (f :5 ! bre$+ season is ov]4 ,?is leads u to ! subject ( *angeability ( col\rs 9 ! same individual4 ,t su* *anges d occur is well kn[n1 & x is /ill m rem>kable t !y are produc$ 9 rapid succession1 app>5tly at ! w ( ! fi% conc]n$2 = its t9ts w v>y z x moves f place to place s z to always h>monise ) ! surr\nd+s1 & also 9 response to o!r conditions4 ,! me*anism by :i* su* v>iations are produc$ has also be5 /udi$ & expla9$3--,! col\r+ matt] is held 9 little vesicles b5ea? ! sk91 & ^! vesicles are capable ( be+ compress$ by muscles q "u ! control ( ! fi%4 ,:5 !y are globul> 9 =m ! conta9$ pigm5t appe>s d>k1 b :5 !y are flatt5$ by muscul> compression1 ! pigm5t is spread ov] a mu* l>g] area1 & ?us greatly r$uc$ 9 dep? ( t9t4 ,z ) all v]tebrates1 ! c5tral axis ( ! int]nal skeleton ( a fi% consi/s ( ! backbone & ! skull4 ,! /ructure ( ! latt] is s complicat$1 & its description s full ( te*nicalities1 t we deem x advisable to pass x ov] 9 a "w l ?is :]e ! scope is s l>ge 9 proportion to ! space available2 & ?is we d ) reluctance1 because ! detail$ /udy ( ! skull is ( real importance to ^? :o w\ld ?or\ghly und]/& ! pr9ciples ( classification4 ,! backbone consi/s ( a v>iable numb] ( cyl9drical v]tebr1 unit$ end to end to =m a cont9u\s column1 bo? ! ant]ior & po/]ior faces ( ea* be+ concave4 ,on ! dorsal surface ( ea* v]tebra !re is a ,v-%ap$ ar*1 surm\nt$ by a sp9e1 ! =m] s]v+ to protect ! sp9al cord1 & ! latt] giv+ atta*m5t to ! muscles ( ! back4 ,"s ( ! v]tebr are also provid$ ) processes = ! atta*m5t ( ! ribs1 & ^? ( ! tail possess an ar* & a sp9e on ! v5tral z well z on ! dorsal side4 ,x has already be5 %[n t ! pectoral f9s are jo9t$ to a girdle4 ,?is girdle corresponds ) ! %\ld]-blade ( high] animals1 & gives direct atta*m5t to ! rays ( ! f91 :i* may be reg>d$ z ! equival5t ( ! f+]s1 & ?us !re is no "p ( ! limb correspond+ ) ! arm4 ,! pelvic f9s also are frequ5tly jo9t$ to a pelvic girdle or hip1 b ?is is a v rudim5tal /ructure1 or is ev5 entirely abs5t 9 "s species4 ,! rays ( ! caudal f9 articulate ) ! extremity ( ! backbone1 b ?is portion ( ! fi%'s anatomy und]goes su* rem>kable *anges t we mu/ devote a few words to x4 ,x is probably well kn[n to our read]s t ! tails ( fi%es exhibit ?ree di/9ct =ms4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is a simple fr+e =m$ by ! union ( unalt]$ dorsal & v5tral f9s2 ! second is ! unsymmetrical or unequally lob$ tail s *>act]i/ic ( %>ks1 dogfi%es1 & rays2 & ! ?ird is ! broad symmetrical tail f91 (t5 di/9ctly =k$ or bi-lob$1 su* z we meet ) 9 ! majority ( our bony fi%es4 ,^! ?ree k9ds are kn[n respectively z ! diphyc]cal1 het]oc]cal1 & ! homoc]cal tails4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,a ,,fi% 7,,p]*7 d1 dorsal f92 p1 pectoral f92 v1 pelvic f92 t1 tail f92 a1 anal f9 ,n[1 x is an int]e/+ fact t ! mo/ anci5t fi%es ( our globe possess$ tails ( ! fir/ type2 & t ^! gradually gave place to ! het]oc]cal =m2 :ile ! high] fi%es ( ! pres5t day ne>ly all possess ! homoc]cal tail4 ,?us z "t advanc$ ! het]oc]cal tail 0 gradually evolv$ f ! diphyc]cal1 & ! homoc]cal f ! het]oc]cal4 ,fur!r1 if we wat* ! developm5t ( "o ( ! highe/ fi%es ( ! pres5t day f its embryo1 we f9d t simil> *anges take place 9 ! individual4 ,at fir/ its tail is a simple fr+e r\nd ! extremity ( ! backbone1 ! latt] be+ /raight1 or ne>ly s1 to ! end1 s t ! embryo fi%1 z yet /ill 9 ! egg1 reflects a *>act]i/ic ( its v e>ly ance/ors4 ,!n ! end ( ! v]tebral column turns upw>d1 & /rong f9-rays are develop$ on its v5tral side1 s t ! tail becomes a het]oc]cal "o l t ( ! less remote ance/ors ( a lat] geological p]iod4 ,next1 ! upw>d-b5d+ portion ( ! v]tebral column is sl[ly absorb$1 till no?+ ( x rema9s except a small upturn$ bony sp9e1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! v5tral lobe exp&s on ! upp] side until ! tail f9 is once m ( a symmetrical =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--,,! ,,int]nal ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,h]r+ a1 sophagus2 bc1 /oma*2 e1 inte/9e2 l1 duct ( swimm+ bladd]2 k1 air-bladd]2 h1 ov>y ,foll[+ ^! int]e/+ *anges1 x becomes evid5t t ! symmetry ( ! tail f9 ( ! bony fi%es is really a false "o1 ! :ole ( x hav+ be5 =m$ f ! v5tral lobe ( a het]oc]cal tail2 & al?\gh ! backbone seems to t]m9ate abruptly exactly opposite ! middle ( ! f91 x /ill conta9s ! remnant ( ! rais$ extremity ( ! backbone t ran to ! tip ( ! dorsal lobe :5 ! tail 0 ( ! het]oc]cal type4 ,! fle% or muscle ( fi%es is usually :ite1 b x (t5 assumes a p9k col\r 9 ! case ( ^? fi%es t fe$ l>gely on cru/aceans4 ,?is is due to ! pres5ce ( a sub/ance 9 ! horny or calc>e\s sk9s ( ! cru/aceans t is turn$ r$ by ! action ( ! dige/ive fluids--! same sub/ance t is turn$ r$ :5 ! cru/aceans are boil$4 ,?is is notably ! case ) ! salmon2 b ! r$ pigm5t ?us d]iv$ orig9ally f ! cru/aceans frequ5tly %[s itself m 9 ! sk9 ( ! fi% ?an 9 ! fle%1 z obs]v$ 9 ! common r$ gurn>d4 ,mo/ fi%es possess a membran\s bag conta9+ air1 situat$ j bel[ ! backbone1 & kn[n z ! air-bladd]2 b ?is organ does n exi/ 9 %>ks & rays & 9 "s ( ! heavi] bony fi%es t live on ! bottom4 ,! air-bladd] is capable ( be+ compress$ by ! action ( c]ta9 muscles1 & its pr9cipal use seems to be ! adju/m5t ( ! specific gravity ( ! fi% to t ( ! surr\nd+ wat]2 b x is int]e/+ to note t ! developm5t ( ?is air-bladd] is precisely ! same z t ( ! lungs ( air-brea?+ animals1 & t 9 "s fi%es :i* live 9 f\l muddy wat]s x is really a functional lung by means ( :i* ! fi%es c brea! direct f ! atmosph]e4 ,we c f9d space to ref] only to "o o!r int]nal /ructure ( ! fi%1 namely1 ! roe ( ! female4 ,?is usually consi/s ( a v l>ge numb] ( eggs ( small size1 sometimes numb]+ _m ?\s&s1 & ev5 millions1 9 a s+le individual4 ,s num]\s1 inde$1 are ! eggs1 t 7 x n = ! multitudes ( c>nivor\s animals t dev\r bo? eggs & fry1 ! sea & fre%-wat] lakes & riv]s w\ld soon become s ?ickly populat$ t ! fi% w\ld die 9 millions = lack ( food & air4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! eggs are mu* l>g] & few] 9 numb]1 b ^! are g5]ally protect$ f ! ravages ( pr$ace\s species by a h>d cov]+1 z we %all obs]ve 9 ! %>ks & rays4 ,f9ally1 a ^w or two mu/ be said ab\t ! di/ribution ( fi%es4 ,we h already ref]r$ briefly to species t live pr9cipally at ! surface1 & o!rs t make ! bottom _! home3 b "s ( ! =m] g to ! bottom = food or to deposit _! spawn1 :ile "s ( ! latt] occasionally rise to ! surface & swim 9 %oals4 ,we h notic$1 too1 t ! pair$ f9s ( bottom fi%es are sometimes modifi$ into feel]s1 or into f+]like processes adapt$ = creep+4 ,simil> organs1 employ$ und\bt$ly z organs ( t\*1 & call$ b>bels or b>bules1 are (t5 develop$ on ! *9s or jaws ( ^! fi%es4 ,al?\gh we h to deal pr9cipally ) ! species t belong m or less to ! %ore--! littoral fi%es--we %\ld l to ref] briefly to "o or two int]e/+ features ( ^? t live at great dep?s4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t mu* light is lo/ z ! rays p5etrate into deep wat]1 s t ! bottoms ( deep seas mu/ be m or less d>k5$4 ,to all[ = ?is loss1 we f9d t ! species liv+ at mod]ate dep?s are provid$ ) l>g] eyes to enable !m to see _! prey & _! mates2 b at /ill great] dep?s1 :]e ! sun's light _c p5etrate1 ! fi%es are ei!r bl9d1 or are possess$ ( lum9\s organs :i* enable !m to see _! way4 ,aga91 z ! sea is s ?9ly populat$ at su* great dep?s1 ! c>nivor\s species d n f9d abundant food always at h&1 h5ce !y are (t5 provid$ ) su* m\?s & /oma*s z w all[ !m to make ! be/ ( fav\rable opportunities1 "s be+ capable ( swall[+ a fi% q z l>ge z !mselves4 ,we (t5 f9d fi%es r\ghly classifi$ into fre%-wat] & salt-wat] species1 & al?\gh su* a division is at times conv5i5t1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t "s ( ! =m] migrate into bracki% & ev5 into salt wat]1 :ile "s ( ! latt] asc5d e/u>ies & riv]s ei!r = ! purpose ( obta9+ suitable food1 or = ! deposition ( _! eggs4 ,! fi%es t frequ5t our coa/s may be classifi$ into two ma9 gr\ps1 ^? ) c>tilag9\s skeletons 7,elasmobran*ii71 & ! bony fi%es 7,teleo/omi74 ,bo? ^! are divid$ into family gr\ps1 & we %all deal m or less briefly ) all ! important families t include common ,briti% m>9e fi%es1 b giv+ m att5tion to ^? species t are truly littoral 9 habit--species t may be f\nd 9 ! rock pools or "u /ones at l[ tide1 & :i* may be obta9$ by ! amateur angl] work+ f rocks1 pi]s1 c4 ,! c>tilag9\s fi%es include ! ,%>ks1 ,dogfi%es1 & ,rays4 ,!y h p\*like gills1 five or m on ea* side1 ea* "o op5+ to ! ext]ior by a sep>ate slit4 ,! sk9 g5]ally conta9s bony elem5ts t are too?like 9 /ructure & (t5 9 =m2 ! m\? is usually on ! "u side ( ! head1 & ! tail is ne>ly always ( ! het]oc]cal k9d4 ,!y are all c>nivor\s creatures1 & (t5 exce$+ly voraci\s2 & are repres5t$ 9 our seas by ! ,rays & ,dogfi%es4 ,rays or ,skates 7family ,raiid71 ( :i* !re are six or sev5 ,briti% species1 are readily kn[n by _! broad flatt5$ rhomboidal bodies1 ) ! m\? on ! "u side ( ! head1 a longitud9al fold on ea* side ( ! tail1 & pectoral f9s ext5d+ q or ne>ly to ! front po9t ( ! head4 ,two ( ^! fi%es are v common 9 our m>kets1 "o be+ ! ,?ornback ,skate 7,raia clavata71 di/+ui%$ by ! clawlike sp9es d[n ! middle ( ! back z well z on o!r p>ts ( ! body2 & ! ,common ,skate 7,r4 vulg>is71 a v voraci\s species1 f two to f\r feet long1 ) a v %>p muzzle4 ,all ! memb]s ( ?is family are bottom fi%1 )\t air-bladd]s2 & _! eggs1 :i* are l>ge & deta*$1 are enclos$ 9 horn capsules :i* are s commonly wa%$ up on ! bea* t !y are well kn[n to frequ5t]s ( ! sea-side1 :o call !m ,skates' ,b>r[s or ,%eph]ds' ,purses4 ,^! cases are oblong 9 =m1 ) a process at ea* corn]1 & ! mat]ial ( :i* !y are compos$ looks v mu* l t ( "s ( ! co>s] sea we$s aft] !y h be5 dri$ 9 ! sun4 ,z a rule only ! empty cases are ca/ a%ore by ! waves1 op5 at ! end :]e ! little skate made its escape2 b occasionally we meet ) ! complete egg1 & ! case1 :ile /ill wet1 is sometimes suffici5tly transp>5t to %[ ! =m ( ! embryo )94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--,,! ,,egg-,,case ,,( ,,dogfi% ,dogfi%es are also fairly well kn[n to sea-side rambl]s1 = n only are "s species us$ z food 9 _m places1 b !y are also frequ5tly to be se5 ca/ aside ) ! refuse f ! fi%]m5's nets4 ,! common ,sp9y ,dogfi% 7,acan?ias vulg>is71 belong+ to ! family ,sp9acid1 frequ5ts all p>ts ( our coa/s4 ,x rea*es a l5g? ( ?ree or f\r feet1 & is ( a slate-blue col\r above & v pale yell[ bel[4 ,! pectoral f9s are v l>ge1 ! v5tral f9 abs5t1 & !re is a v %>p sp9e 9 front ( ea* dorsal4 ,! creature is ovo-vivip>\s2 t is1 ! eggs are hat*$ :ile /ill )9 ! body ( ! p>5t4 ,ano!r family 7,scylliid7 conta9s two ,briti% species )\t sp9es1 & is also *>act]is$ by hav+ ! fir/ dorsal f9 f> beh9d4 ,!y are ! ,l>g] ,spott$ ,dogfi% 7,scyllium canicula7 also kn[n z ! ,nurse ,dog & ! ,bull ,huss2 & ! ,less] ,spott$ ,dogfi% 7,s4 catulus71 call$ also ! ,huss & ! ,r\gh ,h\nd4 ,! egg capsules ( bo? ^! are occasionally wa%$ on ! bea*1 & ^? ( ! latt] species may be kn[n by ! yell[i% col\r & ! long t5drils by :i* !y are an*or$ to sea we$s4 ,9 addition to ^! we may briefly ref] to two ( ! ,blue ,%>ks 7family ,c>*>iid7 t frequ5t our %ores1 di/+ui%$ by _! long & prom95t muzzle1 & ! cresc5t-%ap$ m\?4 ,!y may be reg>d$ z high] 9 ! scale ( fi% life1 z comp>$ ) ! %>ks & rays previ\sly nam$1 because ! v]tebr are m or less h>d5$ by ! deposit ( calc>e\s matt]1 &1 !re=e1 make a ne>] approa* to ! "* ( true bone4 ,! species ref]r$ to are ! ,common ,blue ,%>k 7,c>*>ius glaucus71 & ! ,smoo? ,h\nd 7,mu/elus lvis74 ,! =m] (t5 exce$s twelve feet 9 l5g?1 & is commonly se5 (f our s\? & we/ coa/s dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,x is a nocturnal m>aud]1 & is said to sleep at ! surface by day ) its tail expos$ above ! wat]4 ,! ,smoo? ,h\nd is a bottom fe$]1 subsi/+ on molluscs & cru/aceans1 ! %ells ( :i* are easily cru%$ by its flat & blunt tee?4 ,x is a small %>k1 measur+ only ?ree or f\r feet 9 l5g?1 & br+s =? its "y alive4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--,,! ,,smoo? ,,h\nd ,! next division 7,teleo/omi7 conta9s all ! bony fi%es1 :i* may be di/+ui%$ g5]ally f ! c>tilag9\s gr\p by ! foll[+ features3--,! skeleton is m or less h>d5$ by ! deposit ( calc>e\s matt]1 & ! tail is g5]ally n ( ! het]oc]cal type4 ,! pair$ f9s are fan-l1 & ! pectoral girdle is atta*$ to ! h9d] "p ( ! skull4 ,^! fi%es g5]ally h an air-bladd]1 & ! gills lie close toge!r 9 a cavity cov]$ by an op]culum4 ,! eggs1 too1 are g5]ally v small & num]\s1 & mass$ toge!r4 ,( ^! we w take fir/ ! family ,salmonid1 ( :i* ! ,salmon 7,salmo sal>71 & ! ,smelt 7,osm]us ep]lanus7 are well-kn[n examples4 ,sev]al species ( ! family are rem>kable = _! p]iodical migrations f fre% to salt wat] or vice v]sa1 & we _c d bett] ?an briefly relate ! int]e/+ life-hi/ory ( ! salmon z a /rik+ in/ance ( ^! peculi> w&]+s4 ,?is fi% quits ! sea at ! close ( ! summ]1 & asc5ds ! riv]s = ! purpose ( deposit+ its spawn1 ! cold] wat] ( ! riv]s be+ necess>y = ! developm5t ( ! "y4 ,its upw>d j\rney is beset ) _m difficulties1 = x has to %oot ! v>i\s rapids & leap ! cascades1 ! latt] (t5 dem&+ ! mo/ prodigi\s ef=ts on ! "p ( ! fi%1 :i* frequ5tly leaps sev]al feet out ( ! wat]1 & ev5 !n has sometimes to r5ew its attempts ov] & ov] aga9 be=e x f9ally succe$s4 ,inde$1 ! difficulties to be ov]come are s num]\s t ! fi% (t5 rea*es ! goal 9 su* an exhau/$ condition t x w\ld h>dly be recognis$ z ! salmon by ^? :o h only se5 x 9 ! prime condition 9 :i* x is captur$ dur+ its return to ! sea 9 ! foll[+ spr+ or summ]4 ,! male1 at ?is p]iod call$ ! kipp]1 is ( a dull r$ col\r1 irregul>ly blot*$ ) yell[ & light br[n1 & its sk9 is cov]$ ) a slimy secretion4 ,its body is lean1 & ! head1 n[ l>ge & out ( all proportion1 is r5d]$ /ill m unsightly by ! protrusion ( ! l[] jaw1 :i* at ?is season1 :5 ! males are p>ticul>ly pugnaci\s1 becomes a =midable weapon ( (f5ce4 ,! condition ( ! female1 n[ call$ ! baggit1 is equally poor1 & ! sk9 has *ang$ its bright silv]y col\r = d>k & d+y %ades4 ,! female digs a ne/ 9 ! =m ( a deep tr5* by wriggl+ h] body 9 ! gravel ( ! b$ ( ! /ream1 & !re deposits h] eggs1 _m ?\s&s 9 numb]1 small quantities at a "t4 ,z ea* bat* is deposit$ ! eggs are fecundat$ by ! kipp]1 & !n cov]$ ov] lightly ) gravel by ! baggit2 & ?is "w hav+ be5 accompli%$1 bo? male & female re/ & fe$1 ) ! result t _! condition is rapidly improv$4 ,aft] ab\t eighte5 weeks ! eggs beg9 to hat*1 & ! fry wriggle out ( ! ne/ & seek %elt] "u /ones 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood4 ,!y are n[ peculi> little creatures1 z mu* l tadpoles z fi%es1 ) big heads & n>r[ bodies1 & a bag ( album9\s yolk-matt] atta*$ to ! v5tral side4 ,! "y subsi/ on ?is /ore ( food = f twelve to tw5ty days1 dur+ ! :ole ( :i* "t !y rema9 "u %elt]1 hav+1 ( c\rse1 no ne$ to expose !mselves to ! num]\s enemies ) :i* !y are surr\nd$1 & !y !n leave _! hid+-place 9 se>* ( food1 be+ n[ ab\t an in* 9 l5g?4 ,!y fe$ on aquatic & o!r insects1 :i* are n[ becom+ pl5tiful on ! approa* ( ! w>m wea!r2 &1 gr[+ rapidly1 rea* a l5g? ( f\r in*es 9 a mon? or two4 ,!y are n[ call$ p>r1 & are di/+ui%$ by ! d>k b>s t cross _! bodies transv]sely--a feature t p]si/s = a ye> or m f ?is "t4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ,may ! p>r migrate seaw>ds1 accompani$ by ! adult salmon1 b z _! enemies include ! voraci\s fi%es1 wad+ birds1 & ev5 ! adults ( _! own species1 x is probable t only a small proportion ( ! orig9al numb] ev] ent] salt wat]4 ,9 ! sea !y fe$ on cru/aceans1 molluscs1 & small fi%es1 ! "y /ill gr[+ rapidly1 & atta9+ a weight ( ab\t five p\nds 9 ! foll[+ autumn1 :5 bo? "y 7n[ call$ grilse7 & old aga9 asc5d ! riv]s to sp5d ! cold] half ( ! ye>2 ! =m] w h rea*$ a weight ( t5 p\nds or m on _! return to ! sea 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! ,smelt may be se5 9 ?\s&s 9 our e/u>ies dur+ ! spr+1 = at t "t !y come up to spawn 9 ! bracki% wat]4 ,9 ! summ] !y swim ab\t 9 %oals along ! coa/1 & are caught l>gely 9 nets = ! m>ket4 ,9 "s p>ts !y are tak5 9 l>ge %all[ circul> nets susp5d$ on a l9e4 ,?is is l[]$ into ! wat]1 & haul$ up :5 ! fi% are se5 swimm+ above x4 ,_m amateurs secure numb]s ( smelt by means ( rod & l9e1 fi%+ f pi]s1 jetties1 c4 ,!y bite freely at almo/ any k9d ( bait1 & w snap at an almo/ b>e hook1 ) ! t9ie/ fragm5t ( ! bait at its po9t4 ,! ,h]r+ family 7,clupeid7 conta9s "s well-kn[n food-fi%es to :i* we ne$ only casually ref]4 ,!y are mo/ly littoral species1 none inhabit+ deep wat]1 & none /ray+ into ! op5 ocean4 ,_! bodies are cov]$ ) silv]y scales1 & are lat]ally compress$1 s mu* s on ! v5tral side t !re is a mod]ately %>p ridge along ! middle l9e4 ,! pr9cipal fi%es ( ! family are ! ,h]r+ 7,clupea h>5gus71 ! ,sprat 7,c4 sprattus71 & ! ,pil*>d 7,c4 pil*>dus74 ,^! fi%es are p>ticul>ly int]e/+ on acc\nt ( _! greg>i\s habits & ! enorm\s size ( ! %oals !y =m1 a s+le %oal (t5 conta9+ millions ( individuals2 & !y are (t5 captur$ 9 su* quantities t l>ge numb]s are sold to f>m]s z manure to enri* ! soil4 ,! %oals are foll[$ closely by _m l>g] c>nivor\s species t dev\r !m 9 great numb]s1 z well z by flocks ( sea birds t prey on !m1 & yet _! numb]s are n appreciably r$uc$ by su* ravages4 ,!y spawn 9 %all[ wat]s ne> ! coa/1 & fe$ pr9cipally on ! cru/aceans & worms ( ! littoral zone4 ,sprats 7 once consid]$ to be ! "y ( ! ,h]r+1 b x is n[ univ]sally ackn[l$g$ t !y are a di/9ct species1 & q a numb] ( *>act]i/ics h be5 giv5 z a means ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! two4 ,! "y ( ! h]r+ are1 h[ev]1 us$ l>gely z food1 = t miscellane\s mixture ( fry & small species kn[n z ,:itebait consi/s l>gely ( ^! & ! "y ( ! sprat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--,,! ,,common ,,eel ,h]r+s are captur$ pr9cipally (f ! nor? & ea/ coa/s1 b ! pil*>ds1 :i* are (t5 confus$ ) !m1 & ev5 at times sold "u ! same "n1 are caught *iefly (f ! coa/ ( ,cornwall4 ,al?\gh ! ,eels 7,anguillid7 are s readily di/+ui%$ by _! g5]al =m & appe>ance1 yet x may be advisable to call att5tion to "o or two ( ! lead+ *>act]s t w\ld possibly be ov]look$ by an ord9>y obs]v]1 & 9 do+ ?is we ask ! read] to note t our rem>ks apply to ! true eels only1 & n to ! s& eels & o!r fi% t may be confus$ ) !m4 ,! elongat$ bodies ( ! ,anguillid are cov]$ ) a slimy sk9 t is app>5tly scaleless1 b an exam9ation ) ! microscope w %[ t !re are small scales emb$d$ 9 x4 ,! dorsal & v5tral f9s ext5d to ! tail1 & ! pelvics are abs5t2 ! gill-slits1 :i* are v n>r[1 are at ! base ( ! pectorals4 ,x might well be expect$ t eels w\ld be possess$ ( "s =m ( accessory brea?+ app>atus1 see+ t !y c live s long out ( wat]1 b ?is is n ! case4 ,!y h1 h[ev]1 a p\*-l gill-cavity :i* c be inflat$ & fill$ ) wat] by ! fi%1 ?us keep+ ! gills moi/ & functional4 ,9 mo/ o!r fi%es ! gill-*amb] is n capable ( hold+ wat]1 & ?us ! gills soon become dry & /icky1 s t !y adh]e toge!r & fail to absorb ! necess>y oxyg5 :5 ! fi% is out ( wat]4 ,?us ! ,eel 7,anguilla vulg>is71 9 ! rem>kable migrations = :i* x is not$1 is capable ( travell+ ov] dry l& = consid]able di/ances 9 se>* ( suitable homes4 ,if an eel be tak5 out ( ! wat]1 ^! gill-p\*es w be se5 to swell out almo/ imm$iately1 & rema9 fill$ ) wat] z long z ! fi% is kept on l&2 b :5 x is return$ to its natural elem5t1 x w at once dis*>ge ! wat] t kept its gills moi/1 & :i* has become f\l ) ! products ( respiration1 &1 ) a few vigor\s gulps1 r5ew ! supply4 ,eels sp5d _! bre$+ season1 :i* ext5ds f ,july to ,septemb]1 9 salt or bracki% wat]s2 & e>ly 9 ! foll[+ summ]1 ! "y1 :i* are n[ call$ elv]s1 & measure f ?ree to five in*es 9 l5g?1 asc5d ! riv]s1 travell+ enorm\s di/ances & ov]com+ ob/acles t we might well expect to be insurm\ntable4 ,?us !y p]=m two migrations annually1 ?\gh x is ?\ght by "s obs]v]s t ! adult nev] returns to ! sea1 b dies soon aft] x has deposit$ its spawn4 ,! family ( ,flat-fi%es 7,pleuronectid7 pres5t _m int]e/+ po9ts ( /ructure & habit 9 :i* !y /& alone1 ! v>iations 9 /ructure z comp>$ ) o!r fi%es be+ due1 ( c\rse1 to ! habits :i* !y h acquir$4 ,"o ( ! fir/ features t /rike ! obs]v] on look+ at a flat-fi% is ! unsymmetrical =m ( ! body4 ,x is v mu* compress$1 & ! fi% hav+ acquir$ ! habit ( ly+ on ! b$ ( ! sea1 sometimes on ! left & sometimes on ! "r side1 ! l[] surface has become flatt5$ m1 & is ( an almo/ pure :ite col\r1 :ile ! upp] convex side is m or less col\r$ ) pigm5t produc$ by exposure to light4 ,! dorsal & v5tral f9s are bo? v long2 &1 z is usual ) bottom fi%es1 ! swimm+ or air bladd] is abs5t4 ,"y flat-fi% are at fir/ p]fectly symmetrical 9 =m1 ) "o eye on ea* side ( ! head1 & !y swim freely 9 ! wat] ) _! bodies 9 a v]tical plane2 b !y v soon acquire ! habit ( swimm+ on "o side1 & ! eye ( t side sl[ly passes r\nd to ! o!r side ( ! skull1 rotat+ 9 its orbit z x moves1 till at la/ bo? are on ! upp]mo/ surface4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is accompani$ by a consid]able di/ortion ( ! bones ( ! skull1 :i* is v evid5t 9 ! skeleton ( ! adult4 ,! "y fi% !n takes to ! bottom1 ) ! result t its "u-surface is flatt5$1 :ile ! upp] becomes /rongly pigm5t$4 ,^! fi% sp5d almo/ ! :ole ( _! "t on ! bottom1 only occasionally ris+ = %ort int]vals1 :5 !y swim by undulatory movem5ts ( _! bodies & f9s2 _! food consi/s ( cru/aceans1 worms1 & o!r small m>9e animals4 ,!y furni% v int]e/+ illu/rations ( protective col\r+1 ! upp] surface always closely resembl+ ! gr\nd on :i* !y re/ & fe$2 & ?us !y are n only protect$ f _! own enemies1 b are enabl$ to lie unse5 by ! animals t =m _! prey4 ,^? :i* live on s&y %ores are f9ely spott$ ) col\rs t closely imitate ! s&1 :ile ^? t lie on mud are ( d>k & d+y hues4 ,o!rs1 aga91 are irregul>ly m>k$ ) spots ( v>i\s sizes & col\rs t resemble a gravelly bottom2 & mo/ species are /ill fur!r protect$ by _! habit ( ?r[+ s& or mud on ! top ( _! bodies by means ( _! dorsal & v5tral f9s4 ,small flat-fi%es1 especially "y ,plaice & ,fl\nd]s1 live s close to ! %ore t !y are (t5 left beh9d 9 rock pools & s&y holl[s by ! rec$+ tide1 & x is v int]e/+ to obs]ve ! habits ( ^! 9 _! natural conditions4 ,x w g5]ally be notic$ t x is mo/ difficult to detect !m :ile !y are at re/2 & :5 di/urb$1 !y usually swim b a %ort di/ance1 settl+ d[n v abruptly1 & imm$iately ?r[+ a little s& ov] _! bodies by a few vibrations ( _! f9s4 ,ano!r peculi>ity ( "s ( ! flat-fi%es is _! indiff]5ce to ! nature ( ! wat] 9 :i* !y live4 ,fl\nd]s may n only be caught 9 ! e/u>ies ( our riv]s1 b !y ev5 asc5d to1 & app>5tly live p]petually 91 p]fectly fre% wat]4 ,9 _m in/ances !y may be se5 miles f ! sea1 & ev5 fl\ri%+ 9 little fre%-wat] /reams only a few feet 9 wid?4 ,?us !y may be f\nd 9 numb]s 9 ! upp] wat]s ( ! small riv]s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight & ( _m /reams ( ! ma9l&4 ,! pr9cipal ,briti% flat-fi%es are ! ,plaice 7,pleuronectes platessa7 & ,fl\nd] 7,p4 flexus7 above m5tion$1 & also ! ,sole 7,solea vulg>is71 ! ,lemon ,sole 7,s4 aurantiaca71 ! ,turbot 7,rhombus maximus71 & ! ,halibut 7,hippoglossus vulg>is72 & z all ^! are well-kn[n food-fi%es x is h>dly necess>y to describe !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--,,! ,,less] ,,s& ,,eel ,s& ,eels 7family ,ophidiid7 resemble ! true eels 9 ! g5]al =m ( _! elongat$ bodies1 b may be readily di/+ui%$ by _! bright silv]y col\r1 ! l>ge gill-op5+s1 & ! m /rongly develop$ dorsal & v5tral f9s1 ! =m] ( :i* ext5ds almo/ along ! :ole l5g? ( ! back4 ,! l[] jaw is also long] ?an ! upp]4 ,two species are to be f\nd on our %ores--! ,less] ,s& ,eel 7,ammodytes tobianus71 & ! ,great] ,s& ,eel 7,a4 lanceolatus71 ! =m] atta9+ a l5g? ( six or sev5 in*es1 & ! latt] ne>ly ?ree times ?is size4 ,!y may be se5 (f ! s\? coa/1 swimm+ 9 %oals ov] s&y bottoms1 & :5 di/urb$ !y desc5d & burr[ into ! s& ) rem>kable agility4 ,!y approa* ! %ore s closely t !y are (t5 wa%$ up by ! waves1 b imm$iately disappe> into ! s&2 & l>ge numb]s commonly rema9 beh9d z ! tide rec$es1 bury+ !mselves to ! dep? ( a few in*es1 & are dug out by fi%]m5 = bait4 ,! small] species is by f> ! m common1 & is tak5 9 l>ge numb]s by means ( ! draw net to be sold z food4 ,x is p>ticul>ly abundant at ,teignm\?1 :]e x is kn[n z ! ,s& ,sprat1 & =ms an important article ( diet4 ,q a numb] ( our important food-fi%es belong to ! ,cod family 7,gadiad71 & al?\gh "s ( ^! are caught almo/ entirely 9 deep wat] "s di/ance f %ore1 o!rs give employm5t to ! angl] fi%+ f rocks1 pi]s1 & jetties4 ,9 all1 ! gill-op5+s are v wide1 & ! body is cov]$ ) small ov]lapp+ scales4 ,! caudal f9 is q free1 ! dorsal is g5]ally divid$ into ?ree di/9ct p>ts :i* ext5d ov] ! great] "p ( ! back1 & ! v5tral f9 is also frequ5tly divid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--,,! ,,?ree-,,be>d$ ,,rockl+ ,! typical species--! ,cod 7,gadus morrhua7--is too well kn[n to ne$ a description1 & al?\gh x is a l>ge fi%1 (t5 measur+ f\r feet & m1 x approa*es s close to ! %ore t x may be caught ) a h& l9e ?r[n out f rocks or pi]s4 ,! b>bel project+ f ! *9 d5otes t x is a bottom fe$]4 ,on ! rocky coa/ ( ! s\? ! ,pollack or ,pollock 7,g4 polla*ius7 is v abundant1 & may be tak5 ) rod & l9e f ! %ore4 ,x also ent]s e/u>ies 9 l>ge numb]s1 & may be caught close to quays & jetties4 ,?is species is a v free bit]1 & w take almo/ any ( ! baits us$ = sea fi%+4 ,x has no b>bel4 ,! same g5us includes ! ,:it+ 7,g4 m]langus71 di/+ui%$ by a black spot at ! base ( ! pectoral f9 & ! abs5ce ( b>bels2 ! ,:it+ ,p\t 7,g4 luscus71 ) a simil> black spot at ! base ( ! pectorals1 also d>k1 transv]se b&s1 & a b>bel2 & ! ,haddock 7,g4 glef9us71 ) a black pat* on ei!r side above ! pectorals1 & a d>k lat]al l9e4 ,! family also includes ! ,l+ 7,molva vulg>is7 & ! ,hake 7,m]luccius vulg>is71 bo? ( :i* are caught 9 deep wat]2 & ! ,rockl+s 7g5us ,motella71 ?ree species ( :i* frequ5t our rocky %ores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--,,! ,,snake ,,pipe-,,fi% ,! la/ m5tion$ are int]e/+ little fi%es t may be f\nd on /ony bea*es at l[ tide1 = !y (t5 rema9 "u cov] betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & may be se5 on turn+ ov] /ones & we$s4 ,p]haps ! commone/ ( !m is ! ,five-be>d$ ,rockl+ 7,m4 mu/ela71 :i* has f\r b>bels on ! upp] lip & "o on ! l[]4 ,x is ( a d>k-br[n col\r above1 & light bel[1 & makes ne/s ( corall9es 9 rock cavities4 ,! ,?ree-be>d$ ,rockl+ 7,m4 tricirrhata71 kn[n also z ! ,sea ,loa* & ! ,:i/le-fi%1 is a l>g] species1 sometimes rea*+ a l5g? ( a foot or m4 ,its col\r is light br[n1 m>k$ ) d>k] spots1 &1 l ! o!r species1 x lives 9 ! %all[ wat] ( rocky & we$y places4 ,ano!r species--! ,f\r-be>d$ ,rockl+ 7,m4 cimbria71 kn[n by ! ?ree b>bels on ! upp] lip & "o on ! l[]1 is ab\t eight in*es long :5 full gr[n1 & is f\nd pr9cipally on ! nor!rn %ores4 ,our next family 7,syngna?id7 conta9s "s peculi> creatures call$ ,pipe-fi%es because _! jaws are unit$ into a tube4 ,!y h long & sl5d] bodies t are cov]$ ) bony plates :i* =m a k9d ( coat ( mail & give !m an angul> =m4 ,!y h v small gill-op5+s1 a s+le dorsal f91 & no pelvics4 ,pipe-fi%es are v sluggi% 9 habit1 swimm+ b little1 & liv+ 9 ! %elt] ( we$s & /ones on rocky coa/s4 ,9 fact1 !y are n adapt$ = swimm+1 & _! attempts at ?is mode ( locomotion are awkw>d 9 ! extreme1 = _! bodies are rigid & ! tail v small4 ,:5 remov$ f _! hid+-places !y move b little1 & look z mu* l pieces ( br[n or gre5i% wood z fi%es2 & _! rigid bodies are s completely encas$ 9 ! bony plates t !y alt] b little 9 appe>ance :5 dri$1 & consequ5tly ! dri$ specim5s are (t5 se5 9 museum collections4 ,all ! ,briti% species1 f\r 9 numb]1 are small fi%es1 inhabit+ ! %all[ wat] ( rocky %ores1 & are (t5 f\nd hid+ "u /ones ne> l[-wat] m>k4 ,! l>ge/ is ! great ,pipe-fi% or ,ne$le-fi% 7,syngna?us acus71 :i* gr[s to a l5g? ( ab\t fifte5 in*es2 & ! smalle/ is ! ,worm ,pipe-fi% 7,s4 lumbrici=mis71 :i* is ( an olive-gre5 col\r1 & has a %ort1 upturn$ sn\t4 ,! ,less] ,pipe-fi% 7,s4 typhle71 also kn[n z ! ,deep-nos$ ,pipe-fi%1 is v abundant on ne>ly all rocky coa/s1 & may be di/+ui%$ f ! o!rs by hav+ ! ridge on ! tail cont9u\s ) ! lat]al l9e & n ) ! dorsal angle4 ,! o!r species is ! ,sl5d]-nos$ ,pipe-fi% or ,snake ,pipe-fi% 7,n]ophis ophidium71 ! body ( :i* is extremely sl5d]1 & ! tail long & n>r[4 ,! male is provid$ ) a s]ies ( small1 cup-l cells1 9 ea* ( :i* he c>ries an egg4 ,9 all ! bony fi%es previ\sly m5tion$ ! f9 rays are s(t & flexible1 & 9 ?is respect !y diff] f ^? t are to foll[1 = ! rema9+ families are all *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce ( "o or m %>p rigid sp9es on ! dorsal f91 & (t5 by simil> sp9es on o!r f9s4 ,!y con/itute ! gr\p ( ,sp9y-f9n$ fi%es4 ,( ^! we %all fir/ take ! prettily col\r$ ,wrasses 7family ,labrid71 :i* live 9 ! holes ( rocks & "u ! cov] ( we$s on rugg$ coa/s4 ,^! fi%es are v voraci\s 9 habit1 & ! sea angl] w f9d t !y are ready to seize almo/ any bait t may be (f]$ !m1 & ev5 to attack almo/ ev]y?+ t moves )9 sight2 b !y are likely to give mu* tr\ble s9ce !y w ru% into ! crevices ( rocks or among l>ge we$s :5 hook$1 & ?us frequ5tly lead to ! break+ ( ! l9e4 ,wrasses fe$ pr9cipally on molluscs & cru/aceans1 & are provid$ ) ext5sile telescopic lips t enable !m to pull ! =m] f ! rocks on :i* !y creep1 & ! latt] f _! hid+-places among ! rocks4 ,!y h also /rong tee? 9 ! gullet1 by :i* !y c cru% ! %ells ( _! prey4 ,!re are sev]al ,briti% species ( ,wrasses1 "o ( :i* is %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration4 ,! common] ones are kn[n to fi%]m5 & juv5ile angl]s by q a v>iety ( local names4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4--,,! ,,ra9b[ ,,wrass 7,labrus julis7 ,! family ,gobioesocid conta9s "s small & v prettily col\r$ fi%es ( v peculi> habits1 kn[n popul>ly z ,suck]-fi%es4 ,!y h "o or two adhesive suck]s betwe5 ! pelvic f9s by :i* !y atta* !mselves to rocks1 /ones1 & %ells4 ,"s are littoral species1 & may be se>*$ = at l[ tide2 b o!rs inhabit deep] wat]1 & are seldom obta9$ )\t a dr$ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,,! ,,corni% ,,suck] ,"o ( ! =m] is ! ,corni% ,suck] 7,lepadoga/] cornubi5sis71 :i* may sometimes be tak5 9 a h& net by scrap+ ! rocks & we$s at l[ tide on ! s\?-we/ coa/4 ,x has two suck]s1 ea* circul> 9 =m1 surr\nd$ by a firm m>g91 )9 :i* is a s(t retractile c5tre4 ,?is c5tral portion is atta*$ to muscles by :i* x c be )drawn2 & a vacuum is ?us produc$1 s t ! suck] adh]es by atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! /ructure ( ! suck+ organs c be se5 to p]fection :5 ! fi% atta*es itself to ! side ( a glass aqu>ium1 & if x be tak5 9 ! h& x w cl+ q firmly to ! sk94 ,?is peculi> little fi% is only ab\t ?ree in*es long1 & its broad head is m>k$ ) two conspicu\s purple spots1 ) a blue dot 9 ! c5tre1 & surr\nd$ by a yell[i% r+4 ,! alli$ species include ! v small ,two-spott$ ,suck] 7,l4 bimaculatus71 :i* is ( a bright r$ col\r1 & adh]es to /ones & %ells 9 deep wat]2 ! ,sea ,snail 7,cyclopt]us lip>is71 ab\t f\r or five in*es long1 ) a s(t & slimy semi-transp>5t body2 & ,montagu's suck] 7,c4 ,montagui71 :i* is usually "u ?ree in*es 9 l5g?1 & may be di/+ui%$ by its peculi> habit ( curl+ ! body lat]ally :5 at re/4 ,equally int]e/+ are ! little ,/icklebacks 7family ,ga/ro/eid71 ! fre%-wat] repres5tatives ( :i* are kn[n to almo/ ev]yone4 ,_! pugnaci\s habits1 ! bright col\rs assum$ dur+ ! bre$+ season1 & ! wond]ful ne/s :i* !y build = ! protection ( _! eggs & "y1 h all s]v$ to make !m popul> ) ^? :o take int]e/ 9 ! =ms & ways ( animals4 ,!y are1 moreov]1 su* h>dy creatures t !y may be kept alive = a consid]able "t 9 any well-manag$ aqu>ium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bch4--,,! ,,fifte5-,,sp9$ ,,/ickleback ,,& ,,ne/ ,9 ?is family ! h9dmo/ portion ( ! dorsal f9 is s(t-ray$1 b ! front portion is repres5t$ by a r[ ( /rong1 %>p1 erectile sp9es1 :i* con/itute a =midable weapon ( (f5ce & def5ce4 ,mo/ ( ! species live 9 fre% wat]1 b all ! memb]s ( ! family seem to be able to live almo/ equally well 9 bo? salt & fre% wat]4 ,we h "o m>9e species--! ,sea ,/ickleback or ,fifte5-sp9$ ,/ickleback 7,ga/ro/eus sp9a*ia71 :i* may be caught on rocky & we$y coa/s4 ,x d]ives "o ( its popul> names f ! pres5ce ( fifte5 sp9es along ! middle ( ! back4 ,its tail is long & n>r[1 & its sn\t elongat$1 ) ! "u jaw project+ beyond ! upp]4 ,! ne/ ( ?is species is a pe>-%ap$ mass ( s(t sea we$s & corall9es1 all b\nd toge!r by a silky secretion1 & susp5d$ to ! rock 9 a %elt]$ spot4 ,)9 ?is ! female deposits h] eggs 9 little clu/]s1 all ( :i* are b\nd toge!r & to ! ne/ itself by ! silk4 ,if ! ne/ is damag$ :ile occupi$1 x is imm$iately repair$1 ! male1 x is said1 tak+ ^u himself ! responsibility ( ?is task4 ,s& ,smelts 7family ,a!r9id7 resemble ! true smelts previ\sly describ$1 b may be readily di/+ui%$ by ! ant]ior dorsal f91 :i* is small & sp9\s4 ,we h two species ( ?is family1 ( :i* ,a!r9a presbyt] is by f> ! m common4 ,x is a v pretty fi%1 ab\t five in*es long1 ) a broad silv]y /ripe along ea* side4 ,x is v common on ! s&y coa/s ( ! s\?1 :]e x also ent]s ! bracki% wat]s ( e/u>ies4 ,"y angl]s cat* !m 9 consid]able numb]s by means ( rod & l9e2 b ! pr(essional fi%]man1 tak+ advantage ( ! fact t s& smelts swim 9 %oals1 captures !m 9 l>ge1 r\nd1 %all[ nets4 ,! net is bait$ ) bread1 cru%$ mussels1 or (fal ( almo/ any k9d1 & is !n l[]$ sev]al feet bel[ ! surface by means ( a long pole1 to ! end ( :i* x is susp5d$4 ,x is rais$ to ! surface at %ort int]vals1 & w (t5 enclose doz5s ( fi% 9 a s+le haul4 ,! %all[ wat]s ( our s\!rn coa/s1 includ+ ! e/u>ies & h>b\rs1 are also frequ5t$ by ! ,grey ,mullet 7,mugil capito71 ( ! family ,mugilid4 ,?is fi% may be di/+ui%$ f o!r simil> species by ! f\r /iff sp9es ( ! front dorsal f91 & by ! abs5ce ( a lat]al l9e4 ,! m\? is small1 & )\t tee?1 & ! mode ( fe$+ is some:at peculi>4 ,! food consi/s ( worms1 molluscs1 & v>i\s organic matt] conta9$ 9 ! s& or mud ( ! bottom4 ,x is suck$ into ! m\?1 toge!r ) m or less ( ! mud & s&1 & ! =m] is /ra9$ ?r\gh a special /ra9+ app>atus situat$ 9 ! ph>ynx4 ,! ,grey ,mullet may be tak5 ) rod & l9e1 & bites freely :5 ! rag-worm is employ$ z bait4 ,x is (t5 tak5 9 ! fi%]man's drag net2 b1 be+ a spl5did jump]1 x frequ5tly makes its escape z ! net is drawn on ! bea*4 ,few ( our littoral fi%es are s well kn[n z ! ,little ,bl5nies 7family ,bl5niid71 :i* are to be f\nd hid+ among/ ! we$s 9 almo/ e rock pool1 & "u /ones z !y await ! return ( ! tide4 ,_! bodies are g5]ally cyl9drical1 & are ei!r nak$ or cov]$ ) v m9ute scales4 ,! dorsal f9 runs along ! :ole l5g? ( ! back1 & ea* pelvic has "o sp9e & two s(t rays4 ,:5 tak5 out ( ! wat] ! gill-cavities wid5 consid]ably1 & ! eyeballs w be se5 to move indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 l ^? ( ! *amleon4 ,mo/ ( ! bl5nies are v active & voraci\s fi%es1 (t5 giv+ consid]able tr\ble to ! angl] :5 fi%+ ) a rod among ! rocks4 ,!y w bite at almo/ any?+ t moves1 &1 completely swall[+ ! angl]'s hook1 w imm$iately ru% into a crevice f :i* x is (t5 difficult to remove !m4 ,mo/ ( !m h t5tacles on ! head by :i* !y assi/ _! movem5ts among ! rocks & /ones2 & "s actually creep up ! rugg$ surfaces ( rocks by means ( _! v5tral f9s4 ,!y c all live = a long "t out ( ! wat]1 be+ able to reta9 a supply ( wat] 9 _! exp&$ gill-*amb]s to keep ! gills moi/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bci4--,,! ,,smoo? ,,bl5ny ,! ,smoo? ,bl5ny or ,%anny 7,bl5nius pholis7 is "o ( ! commone/ species4 ,x rea*es a l5g? ( f\r or five in*es1 & has no t5tacles on ! head4 ,! ,ey$ ,bl5ny or ,butt]fly ,bl5ny 7,b4 ocellatus7 may be di/+ui%$ by ! conspicu\s spot on ! sp9\s portion ( ! dorsal f94 ,! ,l>ge ,bl5ny 7,b4 gattorug9e7 inhabits deep] wat]1 *iefly (f ! s\?-we/ coa/1 & rea*es a l5g? ( a foot or m4 ,! ,cre/$ ,bl5ny 7,b4 cri/atus7 is nam$ f ! small cre/ on ! head :i* c be rais$ & depress$2 & ! ,vivip>\s ,bl5ny 7,zo>ces vivip>us71 z its "n implies1 br+s =? its "y alive4 ,! la/ species (t5 exce$s a foot 9 l5g?1 & is f\nd pr9cipally on ! nor? & ea/ coa/s4 ,! newly-born "y are s transp>5t t ! circulation ( ! blood )9 ! body may be se5 "u ! microscope q z easily z 9 ! web ( ! frog's foot & 9 ! tail ( ! tadpole4 ,"o v common species ( ! ,bl5niid diff]s consid]ably 9 g5]al =m f ! o!rs1 its body be+ elongat$ & eel-l1 b mu* compress$ lat]ally4 ,we ref] to ! ,butt]fi% or ,butt] ,gunnel 7,bl5nius gunellus71 :i* is (t5 mi/ak5 = a small eel by "y sea-side naturali/s4 ,x is exce$+ly common "u /ones at l[ tide1 & may be recognis$ at once by ! light rectangul> spots along ! flatt5$ sides ( ! body4 ,x is q z slipp]y & z difficult to hold z ! eel itself4 ,x w be int]e/+ to note t ! ugly ,sea ,cat or ,wolf-fi% 7,an>rhi*as lupus71 :i* is sometimes sold = food 9 our l>ge t[ns1 is also a memb] ( ! bl5ny family4 ,x is a p[]ful1 rapaci\s fi%--a v]itable wolf ( ! sea1 always ready to attack any?+4 ,x fe$s on molluscs & cru/aceans1 ! %ells ( :i* are easily r$uc$ betwe5 ! p[]ful cru%+ tee? t l9e ! jaws beh9d ! =midable can9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--,,! ,,butt]fi% ,! ,gobies 7,gobiid7 =m ano!r int]e/+ family ( small littoral fi%es1 easily di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! v5tral f9s are unit$ 9 su* a mann] t !y enclose a conical cavity4 ,! fir/ portion ( ! dorsal f9 has also six flexible sp9es4 ,! ,spott$ ,goby 7,gobius m9utus7 is commonly to be f\nd on s&-banks1 :]e x is well protect$ by ! col\r+ ( its upp] surface1 :i* closely resembles t ( ! s& on :i* x re/s4 ,x is said to make a ne/ by cem5t+ fragm5ts toge!r r\nd "s little natural holl[1 or to utilise an empty %ell = a simil> purpose1 fix+ ! %ell to ! surr\nd+ b$1 & con/ruct+ a tunnel by :i* x c ent] or leave4 ,! eggs are deposit$ 9 ?is ne/1 & ! male keeps gu>d ov] ! home4 ,! ,black or ,rock ,goby 7,g4 nig]7 inhabits rocky coa/s1 cl++ to ! rocks by means ( a suck] =m$ ( ! modifi$ pelvic f9s4 ,a brightly col\r$ fi% kn[n z ! ,dragonet 7,callionymus lyra7 is sometimes class$ ) ! ,gobies1 ?\gh its pelvic f9s are n unit$4 ,x is n a well-kn[n species1 & is seldom obta9$ except ) ! dr$ge1 z x inhabits deep wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bda4--,,! ,,black ,,goby ,a peculi> little fi% call$ ! ,pogge or ,hook-nose 7,agonus cataphractus71 also kn[n z ! ,arm$ ,bull-head1 is commonly tak5 9 %rimp]s' nets on ! s\? & ea/ coa/s4 ,its head & body are v angul>1 & are cov]$ ) an arm\r ( keel$ scales4 ,x seldom exce$s six in*es 9 l5g?1 & is class$ ) ! ,fly+ ,gurn>ds 9 ! family ,dactylopt]id4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4--,,! ,,fa!r ,,la%] ,! true ,gurn>ds & ! ,sea ,bullheads =m ! family ,cottid4 ,sev]al species ( ! =m] are includ$ among our food-fi%es1 & are !re=e m or less famili> to our read]s4 ,!y are *>act]is$ by _! l>ge1 squ>e1 bony heads1 & by ! f+]-l rays ( ! pectoral f9s :i* are us$ z organs ( t\* & = creep+ along ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! ,bullheads are repres5t$ by ! peculi> ,fa!r ,la%] or ,/+ ,fi% 7,cottus bubalis71 :i* is v common on our rocky coa/s & is frequ5tly captur$ 9 %rimp nets4 ,its head & *eeks are arm$ ) %>p sp9es :i* con/itute =midable weapons ( (f5ce4 ,:5 tak5 out ( ! wat] x di/5ds its gills enorm\sly2 &1 unless v cauti\sly h&l$1 its %>p sp9es may be ?ru/ deeply into ! fle%4 ,"y specim5s1 ) imp]fectly develop$ sp9es1 may be se5 9 almo/ e rock pool1 & ! full-gr[n fi% is easily tak5 ) rod & l9e by fi%+ 9 ! deep gulleys betwe5 ! rocks4 ,! rem>kable ,angl] ,fi% 7,lophius piscatorius71 kn[n also z ! ,fi%+ ,frog & ! ,sea ,devil 7family ,lophiid7 is sometimes tak5 (f ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall2 & al?\gh x _c be truly describ$ z a littoral species1 its /ructure & habits are s peculi> t x des]ves a pass+ notice4 ,x is an ugly fi%1 ) an enorm\s head1 a %ort nak$ body1 & a comp>atively sl5d] tail4 ,! m\? is v capaci\s1 sometimes measur+ ov] a foot f angle to angle1 & is direct$ upw>ds4 ,! scaleless body is furni%$ ) num]\s sl5d] filam5ts t resemble c]ta9 filam5t\s sea we$s1 & ^! toge!r ) ! dull col\r+ ( ! body g5]ally enable ! fi% to re/ unobs]v$ on ! bottom4 ,! front portion ( ! dorsal f9 is on ! head & =e "p ( ! body1 & consi/s ( a s]ies ( six t5tacles1 ?ree long ones on ! top ( ! head & ?ree %ort] j beh9d !m2 & ! =emo/ ( ^!1 :i* is ! longe/1 t]m9ates 9 a little expansion :i* is kept 9 con/ant movem5t by ! fi%4 ,! m\? is arm$ ) rasplike tee? :i* c be rais$ or depress$ at w1 & :5 rais$ !y are always direct$ backw>d2 ! eyes are direct$ upw>d1 & ! gill-op5+s are v small4 ,?is /range creature habitually re/s on ! bottom ( ! sea1 disguis$ by its filam5t\s app5dages & adaptive col\r+1 dangl+ ! exp&$ extremity ( its fir/ dorsal filam5t j ov] its upturn$ cav]n\s m\?4 ,x does n swim mu*1 inde$ x is at ! be/ b a bad swimm]2 & :5 x moves x simply %uffles its heavy body along ! bottom1 glid+ betwe5 ! /ones & rocks1 :]e x may rema9 unobs]v$1 its movem5ts be+ produc$ by ! action ( ! tail1 & ( ! pair$ f9s1 :i* are bett] adapt$ = walk+ ?an = swimm+4 ,unw>y fi%es1 attract$ by ! dangl+ ( ! angl]'s bait1 approa* ! wat*ful mon/]1 & :ile speculat+ on ! nature ( ! bait1 are sudd5ly engulf$ 9 ! capaci\s m\?1 f :i* !re is no escape on acc\nt ( ! backw>d direction ( ! tee?4 ,! family ,tra*9id conta9s ! fi%es kn[n popul>ly z ! ,/>gaz]s & ! ,weav]s4 ,^! are small1 c>nivor\s species1 ) r elongat$ bodies1 t]m9at+ 9 tail f9s t are n =k$4 ,! fir/ dorsal f9 is di/9ct & sp9\s1 & ! sp9es1 z well z o!rs t are develop$ on ! gill-cov]s1 are groov$ = ! passage ( a poison\s fluid t is secret$ at _! bases4 ,our littoral species include two well-kn[n fi%es 7! ,great] & ,less] ,weav]s7 t are dread$ by fi%]m5 on acc\nt ( ! v pa9ful w\nds !y are capable ( inflict+1 & ! small] ( ! two is also a consid]able annoyance to ba!rs on c]ta9 s&y coa/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4--,,! ,,less] ,,weav] ,! ,great] ,weav] 7,tra*9us draco7 lives at ! bottom ( deep wat]1 & is (t5 dr$g$ up 9 ! trawl4 ,"s fi%]m5 call x ! ,/+ ,bull1 & always take ! precaution ( cutt+ (f ! poison\s sp9es be=e dispos+ ( ! fi%4 ,x lives on ! bottom ) its m\? & eyes direct$ upw>d1 always 9 read9ess to seize its unw>y prey1 & ! %>p sp9es ( ! dorsal f9s are kept erect = ! purpose ( promptly attack+ approa*+ foes4 ,its m\? & palate are arm$ ) %>p tee? :i* r5d] ! escape ( its prey almo/ impossible4 ,! small] species 7,t4 vip]a7 seldom exce$s six in*es 9 l5g?4 ,x lives 9 %all[ wat] on s&y coa/s1 ) dorsal sp9es erect2 & ! w\nds x produces on ! unprotect$ feet ( ba!rs are (t5 exce$+ly pa9ful on acc\nt ( ! inject$ poison1 :i* also causes ! "p to swell & turn to a d>k purple col\r4 ,! rema9+ important families1 al?\gh !y conta9 well-kn[n ,briti% food-fi%es1 d n include littoral species1 & = ?is reason we %all pass !m ov] ) b brief notice4 ,! ,mack]el 7,scomb] v]nalis7 belongs to ! family ,scomb]id1 & is s well kn[n t no description ne$ be giv5 = ! purposes ( id5tification4 ,we h already ref]r$ to x z a beautiful illu/ration ( protective col\r+1 its upp] surface resembl+ ! ripples ( a deep gre5 sea & ! l[] ! brightness ( ! sky4 ,mack]el swim 9 %oals 9 ! op5 sea1 pursu+ & dev\r+ ! fry ( h]r+s & o!r fi%2 & 9 ord] t !y may be enabl$ to cov] enorm\s di/ances _! muscles are ri*ly suppli$ ) blood4 ,?is n only gives a p9ki% col\r to ! fle%1 b results 9 a great] am\nt ( oxidation & ! ma9t5ance !reby ( a body temp]ature sev]al degrees high] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,we w\ld also call att5tion to ! five or six small f9s beh9d ! dorsal & anal f9s z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,scomb]id4 ,our next family 7! ,cyttid7 conta9s ! ,john ,dory 7,zeus-fab]71 conc]n+ :i* "s sup]/itions are /ill preval5t 9 p>ts4 ,x is brightly col\r$1 b n graceful 9 =m1 & is (t5 caught 9 l>ge numb]s (f ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall4 ,"s fi%]m5 call x ! ,cock1 on acc\nt ( ! cre/ on ! back2 :ile o!rs "k x z ,/4 ,pet]'s ,fi%1 & w po9t out ! impression ( ! ,apo/le's f+] on ea* side--a black spot surr\nd$ by a light r+4 ,! ,horse ,mack]el 7,c>anx tra*urus7 is f\nd pr9cipally 9 ! same p>ts1 :]e x dev\rs ! fry ( o!r fi%es4 ,x is n a v close relative ( ! common mack]el1 b belongs to a di/9ct family 7,c>angid71 ( :i* x is ! only ,briti% repres5tative4 ,x is a c>nivor\s fi%1 easily di/+ui%$ f ,scomb] by its conical tee?1 z well z by ! bony plates ( ! lat]al l9e1 ! po/]ior ( :i* are keel$ or sp9$4 ,:ile ! la/-m5tion$ families conta9 only fi%es ( truly pelagic habits1 ! next 7,sp>id71 =m$ by ! ,sea ,breams1 g5]ally keep ne> ! coa/1 & (t5 ent] fre% wat]s4 ,9 ^! ! body is mu* compress$ lat]ally1 & is cov]$ ) l>ge scales2 ! fir/ half ( ! dorsal f9 is also sp9\s4 ,! ,common ,sea ,bream 7,sp>us auratus71 *>act]is$ by its r$ col\r ) brilliant gold5 reflections1 & by a d>k spot on ! %\ld]1 may (t5 be angl$ f rocks & pi]s4 ,! "y1 9 :i* ! d>k spots h n yet appe>$1 are kn[n z ,*ads1 & are (t5 reg>d$ z a di/9ct species4 ,! ,black ,bream 7,can?>us l9eatus7 is an omnivor\s fe$]1 & w take bo? animal & vegetable baits4 ,! ,r$ ,mullets 7family ,mullid7 may be di/+ui%$ f ! grey mullets previ\sly describ$ by ! two long erectile b>bules on ! l[] jaw4 ,! scales are l>ge & ?91 ) s]rat$ edges1 & ! front portion ( ! dorsal f9 has weak sp9es4 ,! common ,briti% species 7,mullus b>batus7 frequ5ts our s\? & ea/ coa/s1 be+ specially abundant r\nd ,devon & ,cornwall1 :]e !y (t5 occur 9 va/ %oals1 & ! "y are (t5 to be caught 9 e/u>ies & h>b\rs4 ,our la/ example is ! ,common ,bass or ,sea ,p]* 7,morone abrax71 ( ! family ,s]ranid4 ,x is also kn[n locally z ! ,:ite ,salmon & ! ,salmon ,dace4 ,?is fi% may be tak5 ) rod & l9e on rocky coa/s & at ! m\?s ( riv]s4 ,! s&-eel1 or an artificial imitation ( x1 is commonly us$ z bait1 b ! ,corni% fi%]m5 m frequ5tly employ a piece ( h]r+ or pil*>d = ! purpose4 ,! fir/ dorsal f9 ( ?is fi% has v /rong sp9es :i* may inflict sev]e w\nds :5 ! live creature is c>elessly h&l$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,omitt+ all m5tion ( sea birds1 = ! reason previ\sly giv51 we n[ pass to ! highe/ division ( v]tebrates--! ,mammals--( :i* we %all describe b "o species--! ,common ,porpoise1 ?is be+ ! only m>9e mammal t c be reg>d$ z a frequ5t visitor to ! ,briti% coa/s 9 g5]al4 ,x may be well at ! outset to und]/& exactly :y ! porpoise is class$ ) ! mammals & n ) ! fi%es--to see h[ its /ructure & functions correspond ) ^? ( our own bodies r ?an ) ^? ( ! animals dealt ) 9 ! prec$+ portion ( ! pres5t *apt]4 ,fir/1 !n1 :ile ! "y ( fi%es are almo/ inv>iably produc$ f eggs & are n n\ri%$ by ! p>5ts1 ! "y ( ! porpoise are produc$ alive1 & are n\ri%$ ) milk secret$ by ! mamm>y gl&s ( ! "m4 ,?is is an all-important feature1 & is ! "o impli$ 9 ! t]m mammal4 ,! porpoise also diff]s f ne>ly all fi%es 9 t x brea!s by lungs in/ead ( gills1 obta9+ its air direct f ! atmosph]e1 & n f ! wat]4 ,h5ce we f9d x com+ to ! surface at frequ5t int]vals to dis*>ge its vitiat$ air & to inhale a fre% supply4 ,! body-cavity ( a mammal is divid$ into two p>ts by a muscul> diaphragm1 ! =emo/ division1 call$ ! ?orax1 conta9+ ! he>t & lungs1 & ! o!r 7! abdom57 ! rema9d] ( ! int]nal organs1 :ile ! diaphragm itself plays an important "p 9 ! respiratory movem5t by :i* air is drawn into ! lungs4 ,! body ( ! porpoise is s divid$1 b no su* division ev] occurs 9 any ( ! fi%es4 ,la/ly1 ! he>t ( ! porpoise1 9 common ) ! re/ ( ! mammals1 is divid$ into f\r cavities1 & ! blood is w>m1 :ile ! he>t ( a fi% has g5]ally only two divisions1 & ! blood propell$ by x is ( ab\t ! same temp]ature z t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,sev]al o!r important diff]5ces betwe5 ! porpoise & ! fi% might be giv51 b ! above w be q suffici5t to %[ :y !y are plac$ 9 diff]5t classes4 ,mammals are divid$ into sev]al classes1 & "o ( ^! 7,cetacea7 includes ! fi%-l ,:ales1 ,porpoises1 & ,dolph9s1 all ( :i* are peculi>ly adapt$ to a purely aquatic life4 ,l mo/ ( ! fi%es1 _! upp] surfaces are ( a d>k col\r1 & ! l[] v light4 ,_! =e limbs are con/ruct$ on ! same plan z ^? ( ! high] mammals1 ! bones ( ! arm be+ atta*$ to a l>ge %\ld]-blade1 & ! h& =m$ ( f\r or five well-develop$ f+]s :i* are enclos$ 9 sk91 s t !y con/itute a paddle or flipp] well adapt$ = propulsion ?r\gh wat]4 ,!re is no coll>-bone1 h[ev]1 & ! f+]s h no nails or claws4 ,!re are no h9d limbs visible ext]nally1 b a rudim5t>y pelvic girdle =ms a "p ( ! int]nal skeleton4 ,a dorsal f9 exi/s1 b ?is is m]ely an ext5sion ( ! sk9 ( ! back1 & is n support$ by ei!r bones or rays4 ,! sk9 itself has no scales1 l t ( mo/ fi%es1 b is smoo? & nak$2 & bel[ x lies a l>ge am\nt ( fat1 :i*1 be+ a v bad conductor ( heat1 s]ves to prev5t ! escape ( heat f ! body4 ,! tails ( cetaceans are also m]e folds ( ! sk91 support$ 9 ! c5tre by ! extremity ( ! v]tebral column2 b unlike ! tail f9s ( fi%es1 !y are exp&$ horizontally in/ead ( 9 ! v]tical plane4 ,?is latt] is an important adaptive feature ( ! cetaceans1 s9ce ! v]tical movem5t ( a tail s dispos$ is exactly :at is requir$ to assi/ ! animals z !y alt]nately rise to ! surface = air & aga9 desc5d into ! sea 9 se>* ( _! food4 ,among ! o!r ext]nal *>act]s ( ! cetacean we may note ! no/rils1 :i* are always situat$ on ! highe/ po9t ( ! head1 & are ?us ! fir/ "p expos$ :5 ! creature rises to r5ew its supply ( air2 also ! e>s1 :i* are two small ap]tures beh9d ! eye1 )\t any =m ( ext]nal app5dages4 ,! skeleton ( ! cetacean is =m$ ( light spongy bones1 saturat$ ) oily matt]2 & al?\gh ! animal has no true neck1 visible z su* ext]nally1 x is int]e/+ to note t1 9 common ) all o!r mammals1 ev5 ) ! long-neck$ giraffe1 x possesses its sev5 c]vical or neck v]tebr4 ,porpoises & ,dolph9s toge!r =m ! family ,delph9id1 *>act]is$ by hav+ ! bl[-hole 9 ! =m ( a cresc5t ) its convexity turn$ t[>ds ! front1 & ( ^! ! ,porpoises con/itute ! g5us ,phocna4 ,! ,common ,porpoise 7,p4 communis7 is ! species t is s (t5 se5 close to our %ores & 9 ! h>b\rs & e/u>ies1 swimm+ 9 %oals ) a graceful undulatory movem5t4 ,porpoises move =w>d entirely by ! v]tical action ( _! p[]ful horizontal tails1 & ext5d _! flipp]s only to *ange _! c\rse or to arre/ _! progress4 ,at %ort int]vals !y rise to ! surface1 expos+ _! slate-col\r$ backs & dorsal f9s = a mom5t1 & !n imm$iately dive d[nw>ds 9 su* a mann] z to appe> to turn a s]ies ( som]saults4 ,occasionally !y w leap q out ( ! wat]1 exhibit+ _! :ite "u surfaces1 :i* %9e ) a sudd5 fla% :5 illum9at$ by ! rays ( a bright sun4 ,! bl[-hole is ! fir/ "p expos$1 & if "o is suffici5tly ne> ! %oal a f\nta9 ( spray may be se5 to %oot into ! air1 & ! outru% ( ! expir$ air may be he>d z ea* "o makes its appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4--,,! ,,common ,,porpoise ,! true nature ( ! sp\t+ ( a cetacean seems to be v g5]ally misund]/ood1 ! f\nta9 ( spray produc$ at ea* exhalation giv+ ! idea t ! animal is expell+ a quantity ( wat] f its no/rils4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is n ! case2 = ! cetacean1 be+ an air-brea!r1 has no ne$ to take 9 a supply ( wat]1 z ! gill-brea?+ fi%es h4 ,air only is expell$ ?r\gh ! no/rils2 b z ! expiration sometimes comm5ces be=e ^! ap]tures are br\ght q to ! surface1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] is %ot upw>ds ) ! expir$ air2 & ev5 if ! expiration comm5ces aft] ! no/rils are expos$1 ! small quantity ( wat] !y conta9 is bl[n into a jet ( spray2 & 9 a cool atmosph]e1 ! d5sity ( ?is is increas$ by ! cond5sation ( vap\r conta9$ 9 ! w>m & saturat$ air f ! lungs ( ! animal4 ,x w be notic$1 too1 t ! creature does n *eck its c\rse 9 ! lea/ = ! purpose ( respiration1 ! f\l air be+ expell$ & a fre% supply tak5 9 ex*ange dur+ ! %ort "t t ! bl[-hole rema9s above ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! ,common ,porpoise measures five or six feet 9 l5g?1 & subsi/s on pil*>ds1 h]r+s1 mack]el1 & o!r fi%1 ! %oals or #8s*ools' ( :i* x pursues s closely t x is (t5 tak5 9 ! fi%]m5's nets4 ,its fle% 0 =m]ly eat5 9 our own c\ntry1 b x is n[ seldom hunt$ except = its oil & its hide4 ,ab\t ?ree or f\r gallons ( ! =m] may be obta9$ f ea* animal2 & ! latt] is highly valu$ on acc\nt ( its durability1 ?\gh x %\ld be kn[n t mu* ( ! s-call$ porpoise-hide manufactur$ is really ! product ( ! ,:ite ,:ale4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,sea ,,we$s ,we n[ pass f ! animal to ! vegetable k+dom1 our object be+ to give a g5]al outl9e ( ! nature & di/ribution ( ! pr9cipal m>9e alg or sea we$s t gr[ on our %ores2 & to supply a brief acc\nt ( ^? fl[]+ plants t ei!r exhibit a p>tiality = ! neighb\rhood ( ! sea1 or t gr[ exclusively on ! rocks & cliffs ( ! coa/4 ,! pres5t *apt] w be devot$ to ! sea we$s !mselves1 b we consid] x advisable to prec$e our acc\nt ( ^! beautiful & int]e/+ plants by a brief outl9e ( ! g5]al classification ( plant-life1 9 ord] t ! read] may be able to und]/& ! true position ( bo? ^! & ! fl[]+ plants 9 ! scale ( vegetable life4 ,plants are divid$ into two great gr\ps1 ! ,cryptogams or ,fl[]less ,plants & ! ,phan]ogams or ,fl[]+ ,plants4 ,9 ! =m] ! reproductive organs are n true se$s conta9+ an embryo ( ! future plant1 b m]e cells or spores1 :i* give rise directly to a ?read or mass ( ?reads1 to a cellul> membrane1 or to a cellul> body ( m or less complexity ( =m f :i* ! fl[]less plant is aft]w>ds develop$2 :ile 9 ! latt] ! reproductive organs are fl[]s t give rise to true se$s1 ea* ( :i* conta9s ! embryo plant4 ,! ,cryptogams are subdivid$ into f\r gr\ps--! ,?allophytes1 ! ,*>ales1 ! ,musc9e1 & ! ,vascul> ,cryptogams4 ,! fir/ ( ^! includes all ! v l[ =ms ( vegetable life1 ! simple/ ( :i* 7,protophyta7 are m9ute plants1 ea* consi/+ ( a s+le microscopic cell t multiplies by a process ( budd+1 no sexual organs ( any k9d be+ produc$4 ,"s ( ^! m9ute unicellul> organisms conta9 *lorophyll--! gre5 col\r+ matt] ( plants1 by ! action ( :i*1 "u ! influ5ce ( light1 ! plant is enabl$ to decompose ! c>bonic acid gas ( ! atmosph]e1 us+ ! c>bon = ! purpose ( build+ up its own sub/ance1 & sett+ free ! oxyg5 into ! air aga94 ,o!rs conta9 no *lorophyll2 & ^!1 hav+ no p[] ( fe$+ on c>bonic acid gas1 are m or less dep5d5t on organic matt] = _! supplies ( c>bon4 ,only v slightly remov$ f ^! m9ute plants are ! ,alg ( fre% & salt wat]1 v>y+ 9 size f microscopic dim5sions to enorm\s plants1 ! l5g?s ( :i* may rea* _m y>ds & ! weight sev]al /one4 ,!y conta9 *lorophyll1 & c !re=e avail !mselves ( inorganic food mat]ial2 & al?\gh "s multiply only by repeat$ subdivision ( _! cells1 o!rs develop sexual organs by ! union ( :i* f]tilis$ spores are =m$4 ,! nature ( ^! ,alg w be m fully describ$ pres5tly2 & we w g no fur!r n[ ?an to ju/ify ! location ( su* l>ge & conspicu\s plants 7z _m are7 s l[ 9 ! scale ( vegetable life by /at+ t !y are entirely cellul> 9 /ructure1 nev] produc+ true vessels su* z we see 9 high] plants2 & t ?\gh "s ( !m develop p>ts :i* m or less resemble ! leaves & roots ( high] =ms1 ! =m] are f> m simple 9 /ructure & function ?an true leaves & ! latt] are nev] engag$ 9 ! absorption ( food f ! soil to :i* !y are fix$4 ,ano!r important gr\p ( ! ,?allophytes is =m$ by ! ,fungi1 :i* include ! famili> mu%rooms1 toad/ools1 & ! sap-balls s commonly se5 on decay+ trees2 also ! small] =ms kn[n z m\lds1 mildew1 & smut4 ,^!1 also1 are entirely cellul> 9 /ructure2 &1 s9ce !y develop no *lorophyll1 are compell$ to live z p>asites on liv+ be+s or to d]ive _! food f decay+ organic matt]4 ,?us !y are ! creatures ( corruption1 _! pres5ce always d5ot+ ! break+ d[n ( liv+ matt] or ( matt] t has previ\sly liv$4 ,n[ leav+ ! ,?allophytes1 & pass+ ov] ! small gr\p ( aquatic plants kn[n z ! ,*>ales1 we come to ! ,musc9e1 :i* conta9s ! ,liv]worts 7,hepatic7 & ! ,mosses 7,musci74 ,! plants ( bo? ^! gr\ps require mu* moi/ure1 & are f\nd pr9cipally 9 damp1 %ady situations4 ,l ! prec$+ gr\ps !y are cellul> 9 /ructure1 nev] produc+ true vascul> bundles su* z ! high] plants possess2 & _! life hi/ories are r5d]$ int]e/+ by ! #8alt]nation ( g5]ations' :i* !y exhibit4 ,! fir/ g5]ation is a sexual "o produc$ f ! spores1 & consi/s ei!r ( a mass ( delicate ?reads f :i* a plant ) a leafy axis is develop$ by a process ( budd+1 or ( a little gre5 frond 7! ?allus74 ,^! be> ! male & female elem5ts1 call$ respectively ! an!ridia & ! ar*egonia2 & :5 ! c5tral cells ( ! latt] are f]tilis$ by ! =m]1 !y give rise to a case1 ) or )\t a /alk1 conta9+ a numb] ( spores4 ,:5 ! case is ripe1 x op5s horizontally by means ( a lid1 ?us lib]at+ ! spores4 ,foll[+ ^! 9 ! asc5d+ scale are ! ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 9 :i* "s ( ! cells become modifi$ into true vessels4 ,"h1 too1 ! plants exhibit a di/9ct alt]nation ( g5]ations1 ! spore fir/ giv+ rise to a small1 leafless body1 ! pro?allium1 :i* be>s ! sexual organs2 & !n ! female elem5ts1 aft] f]tilisation1 produce ! spore-be>+ plant4 ,?is gr\p conta9s q a v>iety ( beautiful & int]e/+ plants1 includ+ ! ,f]ns 7,filicales71 ,horsetails 7,equisetales71 ,club-mosses 7,lycopodiales71 ,wat] ,f]ns 7,rhizoc>pe71 & ,selag9ellales4 ,f]ns usually produce _! little gre5 pro?allia above gr\nd1 & ! p]fect plant g5]ally has a creep+ rhizome or und]gr\nd /em4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 h /rong1 erect1 woody /ems1 su* z we see 9 ! tree f]ns ( tropical & sub-tropical c\ntries4 ,! horsetails & ! club-mosses are also produc$ f pro?allia t are =m$ above gr\nd4 ,! p]fect plants ( ! =m] h bran*+ und]gr\nd /ems :i* give (f num]\s roots1 & s5d up annually gre51 jo9t$1 arial /ems t be> :orls ( f9e leaves1 ea* :orl =m+ a too!d1 r+-l %ea?4 ,! f]tile %oots t]m9ate 9 cones1 on ! modifi$ leaves ( :i* ! sporangia are produc$4 ,! /ems ( ! club-mosses are clo!d ) small ov]lapp+ leaves1 9 ! axes ( :i* ! sporangia are produc$2 & ! spores1 :i* are =m$ 9 abundance1 con/itute ! lycopodium p[d] ) :i* druggi/s (t5 coat _! pills4 ,wat] f]ns ei!r float on ! surface ( wat] or creep along ! bottom1 & produce _! fruit ei!r at ! bases ( ! leaves or betwe5 ! fibres ( subm]g$ leaves4 ,! ,selag9ellas are *>act]is$ by a procumb5t /em t bran*es 9 "o plane only1 produc+ small1 sessile leaves1 ) a s+le c5tral ve94 ,a numb] ( roots gr[ d[nw>d f ! "u side ( ! /em1 & ! fruit is develop$ 9 ! axils ( ! leaves t =m ! t]m9al cones ( ! f]tile bran*es4 ,! above are all ! pr9cipal divisions ( ! fl[]less plants1 & we h n[ to note ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! ,phan]ogams4 ,! *ief ( ^! is1 ( c\rse1 ! possession ( fl[]s z reproductive organs2 & al?\gh x is n conv5i5t to give a full description ( ! fl[] at ! pres5t "t1 x w be necess>y to say a little conc]n+ x 9 ord] t we may be able to grasp ! broad pr9ciples ( classification4 ,a fl[]1 9 its mo/ complex =m1 consi/s ( p>ts arrang$ 9 f\r :orls arrang$ conc5trically4 ,! fir/ & second :orls1 comm5c+ f ! outside1 usually consi/ ( leaf-l bodies1 unit$ or di/9ct1 & are call$ respectively ! calyx & ! corolla4 ,! ?ird :orl consi/s ( /am5s1 :i* are ! male reproductive organs ( ! plant1 & ea* /am5 consi/s ess5tially ( a case--! an!r--9 :i* are =m$ a numb] ( little poll5 cells4 ,:5 ! an!r is ripe x op5s1 ?us lib]at+ ! poll51 s t x may be disp]s$ by insects1 by ! w9d1 or by o!r me*anical means4 ,! rema9+ :orl con/itutes ! pi/il1 :i* is g5]ally made up ( p>ts 7c>pels7 arrang$ r\nd a common c5tre1 & ea* surm\nt$ by a /igma adapt$ = ! reception ( ! poll5 cells4 ,?is portion ( ! fl[] conta9s ! ovules1 enclos$ 9 a case call$ ! ov>y1 & is1 !re=e1 ! female organ ( ! plant4 ,:5 ! ovules h be5 f]tilis$ by ! poll51 !y develop into se$s1 ea* "o ( :i* conta9s an embryo plant2 & ! ov>y itself1 rip5+ at ! same "t1 develops into ! fruit4 ,su* is ! g5]al description ( a fl[] 9 its mo/ complex =m1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t "o or m ( ! :orls nam$ above may (t5 be abs5t4 ,?us1 calyx or corolla1 or bo?1 may n exi/2 & ! male & female organs may be develop$ on sep>ate fl[]s ( ! same plant1 or ev51 z is frequ5tly ! case1 on diff]5t plants ( ! same species4 ,9 ! latt] in/ance ! fl[]s are spok5 ( z unisexual1 ^? be>+ ! /am5s be+ ! /am9ate or male fl[]s1 & ^? be>+ ! pi/il ! pi/illate or female fl[]s4 ,! ,phan]ogams are divid$ into two ma9 gr\ps1 ! ,gymnosp]ms & ! ,angiosp]ms4 ,9 ! =m] ! ovules are nak$1 no ov>y or se$-case be+ develop$4 ,! poll51 c>ri$ by ! w9d1 falls directly on ! ovule1 & !n develops a tube :i* p5etrates to ! nucleus ( ! ovule1 ?us f]tilis+ x4 ,9 ! ,angiosp]ms ! ovules are always enclos$ 9 an ov>y1 & ! poll5 gra9s1 alight+ on ! /igma1 are held by a gummy secretion4 ,! tubes !y produce !n p5etrate ?r\gh ! und]ly+ tissues1 & ?us come into contact ) ! ovules4 ,! ,gymnosp]ms include a gr\p ( small palm-l trees & %rubs 7! ,cycade71 ( :i* ! s-call$ ,sago ,palm is a repres5tative2 & ! ,conif] or cone-be>+ %rubs & trees1 :i* may be spok5 ( collectively z ! ,p9es4 ,9 ! latt] ! leaves are ei!r /iff1 l9e>1 & ne$le-l1 or %ort & scale-l1 or are divid$ into n>r[ lobes2 & ! plants are not$ = _! res9\s secretions4 ,! fl[]s are always unisexual1 & are g5]ally arrang$ 9 cyl9drical or %ort catk9s1 :]e !y are protect$ by closely pack$ scales2 b ! female fl[]s may be solit>y4 ,!re is no calyx or corolla1 b ! nak$ ovules & se$s are sometimes m or less enclos$ 9 ! scales 7bracts7 or 9 a fle%y disc4 ,! ,angiosp]ms =m ! highe/ division ( ! fl[]+ plants2 & are subdivid$ into two ext5sive gr\ps--! ,monocotyl$ons & ! ,dicotyl$ons4 ,! *ief di/+ui%+ feature ( ^! is t impli$ 9 ! above names1 ! embryo ( ! =m] conta9+ b "o rudim5t>y leaf 7cotyl$on71 :ile t ( ! latt] conta9s two4 ,! ,monocotyl$ons are also *>act]is$ by hav+ ! bundles ( vessels 7vascul> bundles7 ( ! /ems disp]s$2 ! ve9s ( ! leaves are also usually p>allel1 & ! p>ts ( ! fl[] are arrang$ 9 :orls ( ?ree or six4 ,9 ! ,dicotyl$ons ! vascul> bundles ( ! /em are unit$ into a r+ :i* surr\nds a c5tral pi?2 ! ve9s ( ! leaves =m a network1 & ! p>ts ( ! fl[] are arrang$ 9 :orls ( f\r or five4 ,we are n[ enabl$ to und]/& ! relative positions ( ! pr9cipal gr\ps ( plants 9 ! scale ( vegetable life1 & to locate approximately ! =ms ) :i* we h to deal2 & to aid ! read] 9 ?is portion ( 8 "w we pres5t a brief summ>y ( ! classification ( plants 9 ! =m ( a table = ref]5ce3-- ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,plants ,i4 ,,cryptogamia--,fl[]less plants4 7a7 ,,?allophytes--,leafless1 cellul> plants4 #a4 ,protophyta--,unicellul> plants4 #b4 ,alg--,sea we$s1 c4 #c4 ,fungi--,mu%rooms1 c4 7b7 ,,*>ales4 7c7 ,,musc9e4 #a4 ,hepatic--,liv]worts4 #b4 ,musci--,mosses4 7d7 ,,vascul> ,,cryptogams4 #a4 ,filicales--,f]ns4 #b4 ,equisetales--,horsetails4 #c4 ,lycopodiales--,club-mosses4 #d4 ,rhizoc>pe--,wat] f]ns4 #e4 ,selag9ellales4 ,,ii4 ,,phan]ogamia4 7a7 ,,gymnosp]mia4 #a4 ,cycade--,cycads4 #b4 ,conif]--,cone-be>+ trees4 7b7 ,,angiosp]ms4 #a4 ,monocotyl$ons4 #b4 ,dicotyl$ons4 ,we h n[ to deal m p>ticul>ly ) ^? m>9e ,alg t are commonly kn[n z ,sea ,we$s1 & :i* add s mu* to ! beauty ( our rocky coa/s4 ,^! exhibit su* a v>iety ( graceful =ms1 & su* *>m+ col\rs1 t !y are admir$ & treasur$ by ?\s&s ( sea-side rambl]s1 :o are attract$ by !m m]ely on acc\nt ( _! pleas+ g5]al appe>ance2 b ! naturali/ has all ?is & a great deal m to int]e/ & in/ruct him1 = ! sea we$s possess q a numb] ( peculi> & *>act]i/ic features t r5d] !m well wor?y ( a detail$ /udy1 especially :5 !y are comp>$ & contra/$ ) ! bett]-kn[n fl[]+ plants ( our fields1 woods1 & h$g][s4 ,x has already be5 obs]v$ t sea we$s diff] f ! majority ( fl[]+ plants 9 t !y h no true roots or leaves1 ?\gh !y are (t5 atta*$ to rocks & o!r sub/ances by a root-l disc1 & sometimes h leaf-l expansions t are support$ by /em-l rods4 ,! root-l /ructures1 h[ev]1 s]ve simply = ! atta*m5t ( ! plant1 & are nev] conc]n$ 9 ! absorption ( n\ri%m5t l ! true roots ( high] plants2 & ! leaf-l expansions1 ?\gh !y are sometimes symmetrical 9 =m1 nev] exhibit ! spiral arrangem5t t obta9s 9 ! leaves ( high] plants1 f :i* !y also diff] 9 function4 ,! plant-body ( a sea we$ is call$ a ?allus1 & diff]s consid]ably 9 ! v>i\s species4 ,sometimes x has no exp&$ portion :atev]1 b is m or less cyl9drical 9 all p>ts1 & may be ei!r bran*$ or simple2 & 9 "s species x =ms a simple cru/ or a s(t jelly-l cov]+ on a rock4 ,all portions ( a sea we$ are made up ( cells1 & ^! are nev] modifi$ into vessels su* z we see 9 ! /ems1 leaves1 & roots ( high] =ms ( vegetable life2 & "o :o is comm5c+ ! /udy ( ! alg w f9d mu* int]e/+ "w 9 ! exam9ation ( _! microscopic /ructure4 ,?9 sections ( v>i\s p>ts ( ! l>g] we$s1 cut ) a %>p knife or a razor1 & exam9$ 9 a drop ( wat] "u a cov]-glass1 w %[ ! cellul> /ructure p]fectly2 :ile m9ute fragm5ts ( ! small & sl5d] species are suffici5tly ?9 & transp>5t to display ! =m & arrangem5t ( _! cells )\t any previ\s prep>ation4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal *>ms ( ! m>9e alg lies 9 ! great v>iety ( col\r t !y display4 ,!y all conta9 *lorophyll--t rem>kable gre5 col\r+ matt] :i* enables a plant1 "u ! influ5ce ( light1 to fe$ on ! c>bonic acid gas exi/+ 9 ! atmosph]e1 or held 9 solution 9 wat]2 & ) its aid ! sea we$s c utilise ?is product ( decay & animal respiration t w\ld o!rwise accumulate 9 ! wat] ( ! sea4 ,b1 9 addition to ?is bright gre5 *lorophyll1 _m ( ! sea we$s conta9 a second col\r+ sub/ance1 & 9 ^! ! great v>iety ( t9t is dep5d5t on ! nature ( ! latt] & on ! proportion 9 :i* x is pres5t z comp>$ ) ! *lorophyll itself4 ,! diff]5t means by :i* ! alg reproduce _! k9d =ms a mo/ engross+ subject1 & to ! botani/ a mo/ important "o1 = x has mu* to d ) ! classification ( ! species4 ,! aff9ities ( plants may be bett] det]m9$ by ! nature ( _! reproductive processes ?an by any o!r features1 b un=tunately ?is is n s well und]/ood ) reg>d to ! alg g5]ally z comp>$ ) _m o!r divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom2 &1 z a consequ5ce1 !re is /ill a consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion1 n only z to ! ext5t ( ! :ole gr\p1 b also z to its divisions & subdivisions4 ,! reason = ?is is cle>2 = :ile x is q an easy matt] to trace a fl[]+ plant ?r\gh its complete cycle f se$ to se$1 x requires a mu* m c>eful exam9ation1 comb9$ ) mu* microscopic "w1 to trace a l[ly organis$ plant f spore to spore4 ,"s ( ! alg may be reproduc$ )\t ! ag5cy ( any sexual elem5ts2 t is1 )\t ! aid ( p>ts t correspond ) ! ovules & ! f]tilis+ poll5 ( a fl[]+ plant4 ,"s ( ^! are reproduc$ by a repeat$ subdivision1 or by ! sep>ation ( a portion ( ! plant t is capable ( indep5d5t gr[?2 :ile o!rs produce spores t d n result f ! fusion ( two diff]5t cells4 ,9 mo/1 h[ev]1 sexual diff]5ces are to be obs]v$1 "s cells be+ modifi$ into female organs1 conta9+ "o or two m m9ute bodies t are capable ( develop+ into new plants aft] !y h be5 f]tilis$1 & o!r cells produce ! male elem5ts by means ( :i* ! f]tilisation is accompli%$4 ,! f]tilis$ cells are spores1 b are nam$ diff]5tly accord+ to ! nature ( _! developm5t4 ,!y all diff] f true se$s 9 t !y nev] conta9 an embryo plant1 b g]m9ate by ! elongation ( "s p>ticul> "p1 :i* subsequ5tly gr[s by a cont9u\s process ( cell-division2 or ! cell-division may orig9ate directly 9 ! spore )\t any previ\s elongation or expansion4 ,! sea we$s are usually classifi$ accord+ to ! col\r ( _! spores2 b1 s9ce ?is col\r g5]ally corresponds ) t ( ! plant itself1 we may almo/ say t !y are gr\p$ accord+ to _! g5]al t9ts4 ,!re are ?ree ma9 divisions3-- ,! ,*lorosp]me1 or ,gre5-spor$2 ,! ,rhodosp]me1 or ,r$-spor$2 & ,! ,melanosp]me1 or ,br[n-spor$4 ,! ,*lorosp]me conta9 no col\r+ matt] o!r ?an ! *lorophyll4 ,!y are mo/ly small we$s1 ( a delicate gre5 col\r2 &1 al?\gh !y are n p>ticul>ly conspicu\s on our %ores1 !y contribute v consid]ably to ! beauty ( ! rock pools1 :]e _! delicate gre5 fronds contra/ ri*ly ) ! olive ,melanosp]ms & ! p9k & :ite corall9es4 ,! ?allus or plant-body is v v>i$ 9 =m1 sometimes consi/+ ( a broad membrane1 b m commonly ( tufts ( sl5d] gre5 filam5ts or ( n>r[1 flatt5$ fronds4 ,^! we$s are mo/ beautiful objects = ! microscope1 & !y are g5]ally s ?9 & transp>5t t no section-cutt+ is necess>y1 no?+ be+ requir$ except to m\nt v small portions 9 a drop ( wat]4 ,9 ?is simple mann] we may /udy ! beautiful arrangem5t & ! v>i\s =ms ( ! cells ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,! m delicate species w be f\nd to consi/ ( a s+le lay] ( cells only1 :ile 9 ! l>g] =ms--! ,ulvace1 = example--! ?allus may be =m$ ( two or ?ree di/9ct lay]s1 & "s ( ! cells may be elongat$ into tubes4 ,a rem>kable feature ( ! gre5-spor$ we$s is ! l>ge size ( ! *lorophyll granules z comp>$ ) ^? ( ! o!r gr\ps1 & also ! great v>iety ( =ms :i* ^! granules assume4 ,!y may be easily se5 "u a l[ p[]1 & ! exam9ation ( ! we$s w %[ t ! ?alli are n uni=mly gre51 b t ! col\r ( ! plants is due entirely to ! *lorophyll granules1 ! rema9d] ( ! plant sub/ance be+ q col\rless4 ,if a gre5 sea we$ be plac$ 9 alcohol = a %ort "t1 x w be f\nd t ! liquid assumes a gre5 col\r1 :ile ! plant itself becomes col\rless4 ,! explanation is1 ( c\rse1 t *lorophyll is soluble 9 alcohol4 ,! pres5ce ( />* also 9 ! we$ may be prov$ 9 a v simple mann]1 z foll[s3--,m\nt a small piece 9 wat]1 & !n put a drop ( iod9e solution by ! edge ( ! cov]-glass4 ,! solution w gradually diffuse itself ar\nd ! object1 turn+ ! />*-gra9s to a deep blue col\r1 & s r5d]+ !m v conspicu\s "u a mod]ately high p[]4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! gre5 we$s are reproduc$ is v int]e/+ also4 ,9 "s cases ! fragm5ts ( a ?allus t h be5 deta*$ by /orms or o!r me*anical means possess ! p[] ( indep5d5t gr[?1 & develop into plants2 & ?is mode ( reproduction may (t5 be wat*$ 9 ! indoor aqu>ium4 ,ano!r me?od is by ! ag5cy ( little spores 7zoospores7 t are produc$ at ! edges or extremities ( ! ?allus4 ,c]ta9 ( ! cells become modifi$ into :at are call$ zoosporangia1 & ! m9ute zoospores are =m$ )9 !m4 ,! walls ( ! cells ei!r gradually deg5]ate1 or are fractur$1 & ! zoospores are ?us set free4 ,! latt] are provid$ ) little vibratile cilia1 by :i* !y move ab\t freely 9 ! wat]4 ,"s ev5tually settle d[n & g]m9ate )\t any fur!r aid1 b o!rs are unable to develop until !y h be5 f]tilis$ by fusion ) ano!r cell4 ,! =m] is !re=e an asexual developm5t1 :ile ! latt] is sexual4 ,"s ( ! delicate1 filam5t\s gre5 alg are reproduc$ by ano!r process t]m$ conjugation4 ,9 ?is case two adjac5t ?reads t lie close toge!r become lightly unit$ by a cov]+ ( gelat9\s sub/ance1 & a cell ( ea* ?r[s out a process4 ,! processes are direct$ t[>ds ea* o!r1 & unite to =m a tube 9 :i* ! cont5ts ( ! two cells become fus$ toge!r1 ) ! result t zoospores are produc$4 ,among ! l[e/ ( ! gre5 sea we$s are ! plants kn[n collectively z ! ,conf]vace1 :i* consi/ ( delicate gre5 filam5ts1 usually atta*$ to rocks 9 d5se masses1 b (t5 f\nd float+ freely 9 ! rock pools4 ,! filam5ts are compos$ ( cells jo9$ toge!r at _! ends1 & are always unbran*$4 ,conf]v are f\nd pr9cipally 9 ! tide pools1 especially ne> high-wat] m>k1 & (t5 ab\nd 9 holl[s 9 ! rock ev5 above high-wat] m>k1 :]e ! spray ( ! waves is m+l$ ) ra9-wat] or ! dra9age f ! l&4 ,!y exi/ 9 bo? fre% & salt wat]1 & "s species seem capable ( ?riv+ 9 bracki% wat] ( any degree ( sal9ity4 ,alli$ to ! conf]v is a gr\p ( m>9e alg call$ ,cladophora1 v simil> to ! =m] 9 g5]al appe>ance1 & f\nd 9 simil> situations1 b readily di/+ui%$ by ! bran*+ ( _! jo9t$ filam5ts4 ,! v>i\s species ( ?is gr\p are v beautiful we$s1 _! delicate filam5ts look+ v pretty z !y float & sway 9 ! wat] ( ! pools4 ,!y are also exquisite objects = ! microscope2 b1 un=tunately1 (t5 lose _! natural col\r :5 pres]v$ dry4 ,!y v>y 9 col\r1 "s few be+ ( a dull gre5 t9t1 :ile o!rs are bright gre51 sometimes ) a beautiful silky gloss4 ,"o species 7,c4 pellucida7 is m rigid ?an mo/ ( ! o!rs2 its fronds /& out erect & firm1 & are repeat$ly =k$ ne> ! tips4 ,x is a mod]ately common we$1 f\nd 9 ! l[] rock pools1 & may be readily recognis$ by ! long "o-cell$ jo9ts1 f ! tops ( :i* ! bran*es proce$4 ,ano!r species 7,c4 diffusa7 is also v firm 9 /ructure1 s mu* s t its bri/ly tufts reta9 _! =m :5 remov$ f ! wat]1 in/ead ( becom+ matt$ toge!r 9 a %apeless mass4 ,its bran*es are r long1 & be> a few simple bran*lets t[>ds _! extremities4 ,x is f\nd 9 rock pools betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,c4 lanosa is a v pretty little we$1 gr[+ 9 d5se globul> woolly tufts1 an in* or m 9 diamet]1 on ! olive tangles betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,x is ( a pale yell[i%-gre5 col\r1 :i* becomes mu* pal]1 or is ev5 altoge!r lo/1 :5 ! plant is pres]v$ 9 a dry /ate1 &1 at ! same "t its f9e glossy appe>ance is lo/4 ,its fronds h /raight bran*es1 all mak+ v acute angles1 & !y h also small root-l filam5ts4 ,x mu* resembles ano!r species 7,c4 arcta71 :i* gr[s 9 d5se tufts on rocks1 b ! latt] is l>g]1 n s sl5d]1 & m freely bran*$4 ,! cells1 too1 ( ,c4 arcta are long]1 be+ ab\t t5 times ! l5g? ( ! diamet]1 & ! fronds are silv]y at ! tips4 ,ne>ly ?irty species ( ,cladophora h be5 describ$1 b x is impossible to give "h a detail$ description ( all4 ,we add1 h[ev]1 a brief summ>y ( ! di/+ui%+ features ( a few o!r species t are common on our coa/s4 ,c4 rupe/ris is common ev]y:]e1 & easily recognis$ by its rigid1 bran*+1 tuft$ fronds1 ( a d>k greyi%-gre5 col\r2 its bran*es1 :i* are opposite1 be> awl-%ap$ bran*lets4 ,x is f\nd 9 rock pools f half-tide d[nw>ds1 & 9 deep wat] beyond ! tide-m>ks1 ! plants gr[+ 9 ! latt] situations be+ g5]ally ( a f9e d>k-gre5 col\r4 ,c4 ltevir5s is also v common on rocks betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,its fronds are tuft$ & freely bran*$1 ( a pale-gre5 col\r & s(t flexible texture1 & ab\t six in*es long4 ,! bran*lets are usually slightly curv$4 ,c4 gracilis is a beautiful plant t gr[s on l>ge we$s1 especially ! ,sea ,grass 7,zo/]a7 9 deep wat]2 & al?\gh n v common1 x is sometimes f\nd on ! bea* aft] /orms4 ,x is *>act]is$ by its sl5d] silky fronds1 f a few in*es to a foot 9 l5g?1 ( a yell[i%-gre5 col\r4 ,x may always be kn[n by ! comb-l bran*lets gr[+ only on "o side ( ea* bran*4 ,c4 refracta gr[s 9 d5se tufts1 two or ?ree in*es long1 9 rock pools ne> l[-wat] m>k4 ,its fronds consi/ ( rigid /ems 9 rope-l bundles t are v freely bran*$1 ! :ole tuft be+ ( a yell[-gre5 col\r & silky texture4 ,c4 albida closely resembles x 9 /ructure & habit1 b may be di/+ui%$ by its pal] col\r1 :i* disappe>s :5 ! we$ is dri$1 & by its long] & m delicate bran*es4 ,9 ano!r ord] ( ! gre5-spor$ alg 7! ,siphone or ,siphonace7 ! frond is =m$ ( s+le bran*+ cells1 & _m ( ^! are (t5 int]wov5 into a spongy mass1 & sometimes coat$ ) a deposit ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,9 ! g5us ,codium ! fronds are ( a sponge-l texture1 compos$ ( int]wov5 bran*+ fibres1 & are ( a globul>1 cyl9drical1 or flatt5$ =m4 ,! commone/ species is ,c4 tom5tosum 7,plate ,,vii471 :i* consi/s ( sponge-l1 d>k-gre5 cyl9drical fronds1 :i* are =k$ & cov]$ ) %ort hairs t give x a woolly appe>ance :5 9 ! wat]4 ,ea* frond is compos$ ( sl5d] int]wov5 fibres ) club-%ap$ filam5ts pass+ v]tically to ! surface4 ,x gr[s on rocks 9 ! pools betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & is abundant on ne>ly all our coa/s4 ,! ,purse ,codium 7,c4 bursa7 has spongy holl[ fronds ( a globul> =m1 v>y+ f a qu>t] ( an in* to five or six in*es 9 diamet]4 ,x is a r>e species1 be+ f\nd only at a few places on ! s\? coa/4 ,ano!r species 7,c4 adhr5s7 adh]es to rocks1 ov] :i* ! fronds spread 9 irregul> s(t pat*es1 ! club-%ap$ v]tical filam5ts ( its int]wov5 fibres giv+ x ! appe>ance ( ri* gre5 velvet4 ,an alli$ we$ 7,bryopsis71 nam$ f its moss-l appe>ance1 gr[s 9 erect tufts1 ea* frond consi/+ ( a bran*$ "o-cell$ filam5t4 ,!re are two species ( ! g5us1 "o 7,b4 plumosa7 *>act]is$ by ! light fea!ry nature ( its fronds1 ! /ems ( :i* are bran*$ only ne> ! top4 ,x is f\nd 9 rock pools on mo/ ( our coa/s4 ,! o!r 7,b4 hypnoides7 is m freely bran*$1 & ! bran*es are long1 & issue f all sides ( ! /em4 ,l ! la/ species1 x has bran*es on ! out] "p ( ! /em only1 b x is ( a s(t] texture4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ! gre5-spor$ we$s are c]ta9ly ^? belong+ to ! ,ulvace1 *>act]is$ by _! flat or tubul> fronds1 sometimes ( a purpli% col\r1 ! cells ( :i* multiply bo? horizontally & v]tically z ! plants gr[4 ,9 ! typical g5us1 ,ulva1 ! frond is sometimes 9 two di/9ct lay]s1 & becomes m or less inflat$ by ! accumulation ( ei!r wat] or oxyg5 betwe5 !m4 ,! commone/ species are ,u4 lactuca & ,u4 latissima1 bo? ( :i* are eat5 by ! dwell]s on "s ( our coa/s4 ,! =m]1 commonly kn[n z ! ,lettuce ,ulva1 has a frond ( a s+le lay] ( cells1 & gr[s on rocks & we$s betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,x is common on _m oy/] b$s1 & is employ$ by ! fi%]m5 to cov] ! oy/]s :5 s5t to m>ket2 !y call x #8oy/] gre54' ,?is species is %[n on ,plate ,,viii4 ,u4 latissima or ! ,broad ,ulva sometimes rea*es a l5g? ( two feet1 & a bread? ( ne>ly a foot4 ,! fronds are compos$ ( two lay]s ( cells1 are ( an irregul> %ape1 ) a v wavy1 brok5 m>g91 & ( a blui%-gre5 col\r1 ,x is kn[n z ! ,gre5 ,lav]1 & is us$ z food 9 di/ricts :]e ! true lav] 7,porphyra7 is n to be obta9$4 ,a ?ird species--! ,n>r[ ,ulva 7,u4 ,l9za7--has small] & n>r[] fronds1 ( a m regul> %ape & ( a bright-gre5 col\r4 ,! fronds are compos$ ( two lay]s ( cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,,sea-,,we$s #a4 ,fucus nodosus #b4 ,nitophyllum lac]atum #c4 ,codium tom5tosum #d4 ,pad9a pavonia #e4 ,porphyra lac9iata ,! ,ulv reta9 _! col\r p]fectly :5 dri$1 &1 ) ! exception ( ,u4 latissima1 are ( a mucilag9\s nature1 & adh]e well to pap]1 b1 un=tunately1 ! graceful wavy outl9e ( ! fronds is lo/ 9 press$ specim5s4 ,! #8true lav]' m5tion$ above1 :i* is also popul>ly kn[n z ,sloke1 is closely alli$ to ,ulva1 b may be di/+ui%$ f x by ! col\r ( its membran\s fronds1 :i* v>y f a light rose to a deep purple or violet1 occasionally incl9+ to olive1 b nev] gre54 ,its sci5tific "n is ,porphyra lac9iata 7,plate ,,vii471 & x diff]s f ! majority ( ! *lorosp]me 9 hav+ d>k-purple spores1 :i* are arrang$ 9 gr\ps ( f\r 9 all p>ts ( ! frond4 ,! fronds are v v>iable 9 =m & size1 be+ sometimes ribbon-l1 & sometimes spread+ into an irregul> %eet ( deeply-divid$ segm5ts2 & ! rem>kable v>iety ( =m & col\r has l$ to a division into sev]al species4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 m]ge into "o ano!r s gradually t ! sep>ation seems to be h>dly necess>y4 ,! same rem>k conc]n+ ! multiplicity ( species applies to ano!r alli$ g5us call$ ,ent]omorpha1 9 :i* ! fronds are gre5 & tubul>1 & (t5 m or less bran*$4 ,9 ^! ! col\r v>ies f a pale to a d>k gre51 & ! cells are arrang$ 9 su* a mann] z to give a reticulat$ appe>ance4 ,! commone/ & be/-def9$ species are ,e4 inte/9alis1 ! tubul> fronds ( :i* are con/rict$ at int]vals 9 su* a mann] z to resemble ! inte/9es ( an animal1 & ,e4 compressa1 ) bran*$ fronds ( v>iable =m & size4 ,! =m] is common on all our coa/s1 & may ev5 be f\nd 9 riv]s & dit*es "s di/ance f ! sea4 ,x ?rives equally well 9 fre% & salt wat]1 & appe>s to gr[ mo/ luxuriantly 9 ! bracki% wat]s ( tidal riv]s4 ,! latt] species also ?rives be/ 9 simil> situations4 ,com+ n[ to ! r$-spor$ sea we$s 7,rhodosp]me71 we h to deal ) "s ( ! mo/ *>m+ ( ! m>9e alg t inv>iably attract ! sea-side rambl]1 & provide _m ( ! mo/ delightful objects 9 ! album ( ! "y collector4 ,_! brilliant col\rs1 v>y+ f a light r$ to d>k purple & violet1 are suffici5t 9 !mselves to r5d] !m popul> ) ! collector1 b 9 addition to ?is /rik+ feature !y are *>act]is$ by extreme elegance ( =m & delicacy ( texture4 ,!y are to be f\nd 9 mo/ rock pools1 f ne> high-wat] m>k d[nw>ds1 ! small] & m delicate =ms add+ mu* to ! beauty ( ^! m9iature seas2 b ! l>ge/ & _m ( ! prettie/ species exi/ only at or beyond ! l[e/ ebb ( ! tide1 & h5ce ! algologi/1 9 que/ ( ^! beautiful plants1 w f9d x necess>y to "w at ! v l[e/ spr+ tides1 ) ! occasional aid ( a small boat drift$ into ! n>r[ *annels among outly+ rocks1 & a long hook ) :i* to haul up subm]g$ specim5s2 & x w also be advisable to se>* ! l9e ( dbris at high-wat] m>k aft] /ormy wea!r = r>e we$s t may h be5 deta*$ & wa%$ a%ore by ! angry waves4 ,:ile engag$ 9 ! =m] ( ^! employm5ts--! se>*+ ( outly+ rocks ) ! boat--& also :5 exam9+ ! out] rock pools :i* are di/urb$ by ! waves t wa% ov] _! banks1 ! simple in/rum5t kn[n z ! wat]-telescope w prove invaluable4 ,ev]yone mu/ h notic$ h[ difficult x is to obs]ve objects 9 wat]1 ! surface ( :i* is di/urb$ by ! w9d or "s o!r cause2 b ! simple appliance nam$1 consi/+ only ( a long tube ( metal1 a few in*es 9 diamet]1 & pa9t$ a dead black inside1 w enable ! obs]v] to see all subm]g$ objects ) ! greate/ ( ease :5 ! wat] is itself cle>4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! wat]-telescope is z simple z its con/ruction2 = ! tube1 protect+ ! surface ( ! wat] )9 x f ! di/urbances outside1 prev5ts ! light f be+ refract$ successively 9 diff]5t directions1 :ile ! dead-black surface ( ! int]ior prev5ts ^? int]nal reflections t w\ld o!rwise cause ! vision to be indi/9ct4 ,a few h\rs sp5t ) ! rhodosp]ms at ! sea-side w be suffici5t to %[ n only ! great v>iety ( _! =m & col\r+1 b also t ! same species may v>y accord+ to ! position 9 :i* x gr[s4 ,mo/ ( ! small] =ms are delicate & filam5t\s1 b o!rs h exp&$ fronds :i* are v leaf-l4 ,! brighte/ col\rs are usually to be f\nd at or beyond l[-wat] m>k1 :]e ! we$s are cov]$ ) a consid]able height ( wat] = h\rs toge!r1 & also 9 %ady situations at high] levels1 :ile "s ( ! species t gr[ 9 ! upp] rock pools are (t5 ( su* a deep col\r1 ) s mu* admixture ( br[n1 t !y may be easily mi/ak5 = ! olive melanospores to be pres5tly describ$4 ,mo/ ( ! rhodosp]ms are atta*$ directly to ! rocks1 & ! l>g] species h (t5 a root-l disc by :i* !y are v firmly held2 b "s ( ! small] species gr[ atta*$ to l>g] we$s1 into ! sub/ance ( :i* !y frequ5tly p5etrate2 & x is possible t ^! d]ive "s am\nt ( n\ri%m5t f ! sap ( _! support]s4 ,"s are ( a recumb5t nature1 be+ atta*$ to ! rock ?r\gh\t _! :ole l5g?1 :ile o!rs are s incru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime :i* has be5 extract$ f ! wat] t !y resemble corals r ?an =ms ( vegetable life4 ,ne>ly all ( !m conta9 a bright-r$ col\r+ matt] 9 addition to ! *lorophyll by :i* !y are enabl$ to fe$ on c>bonic acid gas4 ,none ( ! rhodosp]ms are ( really microscopic dim5sions1 & !y all gr[ by ! repeat$ division ( ! cells ( ! apex1 :ile ! bran*es are d]iv$ by ! simil> division ( new cells at ! sides4 ,all plants are p>ticul>ly int]e/+ dur+ ! p]iod ( fruit+1 & ?is is rem>kably ! case ) _m ( our r$-spor$ sea we$s1 :i* are bright] & pretti] :ile lad5 ) _! spore-produc+ cells2 & ! collector ( m>9e alg %\ld always endeav\r to obta9 z _m species z possible 9 fruit1 n only on acc\nt ( ! bright] appe>ance t may *>act]ise !m at ?is "t1 b ma9ly because ! opportunity ( /udy+ ! mode ( reproduction %\ld n be miss$4 ,9 ! rhodosp]ms ! reproduction may be ei!r asexual or sexual4 ,9 ! =m] case f]tile spores are produc$ )\t ! necessity = any outside f]tilis+ elem5t1 & f\r are usually produc$ 9 ea* "o ( ! sporangia1 h5ce !y are g5]ally kn[n z tetraspores4 ,:]e ! reproduction is ( ! sexual type1 ! male cells are produc$ s+ly 9 ! t]m9al cells ( ! fronds1 & s9ce !y are usually cr[d$ toge!r 9 consid]able numb]s1 & conta9 none ( ! r$ col\r+ matt] t exi/s 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! plant1 _! pres5ce is easily obs]v$4 ,! female cells 7c>pogonia7 are also produc$ on ! tips ( ! bran*es1 & :5 ! male elem5ts escape f _! cells1 !y are convey$ passively by ! movem5ts ( ! wat]1 = !y h no vibratile cilia by :i* !y are propell$1 & on com+ into contact ) ! female cell !y adh]e closely4 ,an op5+ is !n =m$ 9 ! latt]1 & ! male elem5t ent]s ! c>pogonium1 :i* g]m9ates1 d]iv+ its n\ri%m5t f ! p>5t plant1 & ! spores are ?us =m$4 ,la/ly1 x is int]e/+ to note t ! asexual spores1 ! male cells1 & ! female cells are g5]ally produc$ on diff]5t plants ( ! same species4 ,we w n[ proce$ to exam9e "s ( ! be/ kn[n & mo/ int]e/+ ( ! rhodosp]ms1 beg9n+ ) ! ord] ,c]amiace1 :i* conta9s a numb] ( r$ or r$di%-br[n we$s ) jo9t$1 ?read-l fronds t enclose a s+le tube1 & :i* are g5]ally surr\nd$ by a cuticle ( polygonal cells4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 transp>5t b]ry-l sacs :i* are nak$2 & ! f\r-p>t$ spores 7tetraspores7 are =m$ 9 ! cells ( ! cuticle or at ! tips ( ! fronds4 ,ov] tw5ty ,briti% species belong to ! g5us ,calli?amnion1 & ne>ly all ( !m are pretty r$ or rose-col\r$1 fea!ry plants t are conspicu\s = _! beauty4 ,ne>ly all are ( small size1 ! l>ge/ measur+ only sev5 or eight in*es1 :ile "s are s small t !y w\ld sc>cely be notic$ except by ^? :o se>* dilig5tly = !m4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ! g5us are1 9 addition to ^? m5tion$ above z common to ! ord]1 t ! spores are angul>1 & clu/]$ )9 a transp>5t sac1 & ! tetraspores are nak$ & di/ribut$ on ! bran*es4 ,9 "s species ! fronds h no /em1 & ^! are v small1 g5]ally only ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* 9 height or less1 & !y gr[ on rocks or we$s1 sometimes clo?+ ! surfaces ) a velvet-l cov]+4 ,c4 floridulum =ms a k9d ( r$di% d[n on ! rocks1 sometimes 9 little r\nd$ pat*es1 b sometimes completely cov]+ ! surface4 ,x occurs on sev]al p>ts ( ! ,engli% coa/1 b is s abundant on ! we/ coa/ ( ,irel& t ! bea* is /rewn ) x aft] /ormy wea!r4 ,o!r alli$ species gr[ 9 m9ute tufts on rocks1 or are p>asitic on o!r we$s1 & are s inconspicu\s t !y are b little kn[n4 ,ano!r section ( ! g5us is *>act]is$ by p9nate fronds ) opposite segm5ts1 & ! species are v pretty plants ) fronds g5]ally a few in*es 9 l5g?4 ,"o ( ! commone/ ( ^! is ! ,fea!r$ ,calli?amnion 7,c4 plumula71 a great fav\rite ) collectors ( sea we$s1 & a mo/ int]e/+ object = ! microscope4 ,its s(t & flexible fronds gr[ 9 tufts f two to five in*es long4 ,! bran*es are regul>ly arrang$1 & ! comb-l bran*lets be> ! tetraspores on ! tips ( ! plumules4 ,?is beautiful we$ gr[s ne> l[-wat] m>k1 & 9 deep wat]1 & is (t5 v abundant on ! bea* aft] /orms4 ,c4 ,turn]i is ano!r common species1 easily kn[n by its creep+ fibres1 atta*$ by little discs to "s l>g] we$1 & f :i* ! tufts ( bran*$ fronds /& out erect4 ,on ! we/ & s\?-we/ coa/s ( ,brita9 we may (t5 meet ) ! alli$ ,cross$ ,calli?amnion 7,c4 cruciatum71 :i* gr[s on rocks1 close to l[-wat] m>k1 t are cov]$ ) a muddy deposit4 ,x gr[s 9 tufts1 some:at resembl+ ^? ( ,c4 plumula1 b its plumules are arrang$ two1 ?ree1 or f\r at a level1 & are v cr[d$ at ! tips ( ! bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bde4--;,calli?amnion roseum ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4--;,calli?amnion tetricum ,/ill ano!r section ( ?is l>ge g5us conta9s we$s ( a m %rubby gr[?1 ) ve9$ /em & bran*es jo9t$ obscurely4 ,( ^! ! ,rosy ,calli?amnion 7,c4 roseum7 is n uncommonly f\nd on muddy %ores1 & especially 9 & ne> ! e/u>ies ( riv]s4 ,x gr[s 9 d5se d>k-col\r$ tufts1 two or ?ree in*es long1 ) alt]nate bran*es mu* divid$4 ,! tetraspores occur s+ly1 "o at ! top ( ea* ( ! l[] jo9ts ( ! p9nules ( ! plumes4 ,c4 byssoideum gr[s on l>g] we$s 9 ! rock pools1 & especially on ,codium tom5tosum 7p4 #cec71 9 d5se tufts ( exce$+ly f9e filam5ts1 jo9t$1 & bran*$ irregul>ly4 ,! upp] bran*es are plum$1 & _! tips be> v f9e col\rless filam5ts4 ,! spore-clu/]s are arrang$ 9 pairs1 & ! tetraspores are ?9ly scatt]$ on ! p9nules ( ! plumes4 ,?is species is s v delicate 9 /ructure t a l5s is absolutely necess>y to make out its /ructure4 ,x is1 9 fact1 impossible to di/+ui% betwe5 ! v>i\s species ( ,calli?amnion )\t su* aid2 & _m ( !m1 p>ticul>ly ! species la/ describ$1 require ! l[ p[] ( a comp\nd microscope4 ,among ! o!r common species1 belong+ to ! same section1 we may m5tion ,c4 corymbosum1 di/+ui%$ by its v sl5d]1 rosy1 jo9t$ fronds1 ) ! ultimate divisions ( ! bran*es dispos$ 9 a level-topp$ 7corymbose7 mann]1 gr[+ on rocks & we$s ne> l[-wat] m>k2 ,c4 polysp]mum1 gr[+ 9 globul> tufts on ,fucus s]ratus & ,f4 vesiculosus1 ) %ort awl-%ap$ p9nules1 & closely-pack$ clu/]s ( spores2 ,c4 ,hook]i1 ) opaque /em & bran*es1 & spread+ bran*lets t are !mselves bran*$1 & be> spread+ plumules at _! tips2 & ,c4 arbuscula1 f\nd on ! we/ coa/s1 ) a /\t /em1 nak$ bel[1 & hav+ a v bu%y habit4 ,x is (t5 by no means an easy matt] to di/+ui% betwe5 ! diff]5t species 9 su* a l>ge g5us z ,calli?amnion1 & we /rongly recomm5d ! beg9n] to fir/ /udy ! *>act]i/ics on :i* ! classification ( ! ,alg is bas$1 & to arrange 8 specim5s accord+ to ! ord]s & g5]a to :i* !y belong2 & !n1 aft] ma/]+ ! pr9ciples ( classification1 he %\ld ref] to "o ( ^? l>g] works 9 :i* all kn[n ,briti% species are describ$1 & make himself acqua9t$ ) ! features ( ea* individual species 9 8 collection4 ,be=e leav+ ! pres5t g5us we ought also to m5tion ! fact t _m ( ! species lose _! natural col\r rapidly :5 plac$ 9 fre% wat]2 h5ce :5 !y are be+ cleans$ = m\nt+ salt wat] %\ld be employ$4 ,fur!r1 ev5 aft] !y h be5 satisfactorily m\nt$1 !y are liable to be spoil$ if left expos$ to moi/ air4 ,! salt wat] us$ ne$ n be ! natural sea wat]2 a solution ( common table salt1 made up to approximately ! same /r5g? z sea wat]1 w answ] ! purpose j z well4 ,! g5us ,griffi?sia includes "s v beautiful we$s ( delicate ?readlike /ructure & ( a f9e rose col\r4 ,! frond conta9s a s+le tube1 & is jo9t$ & =k$1 ! jo9ts be+ usually transp>5t4 ,! spore clu/]s are enclos$ 9 a gelat9\s sac surr\nd$ by a :orl ( little bran*lets1 ! spores !mselves be+ m9ute & angul>4 ,! tetraspores are atta*$ to ! inn] side ( :orl$ bran*lets4 ,! commone/ species is ,g4 setacea1 :i* is ( a bright-r$ col\r & slightly bran*$4 ,x is also ( a some:at firm /ructure1 b soon loses bo? firmness & col\r :5 remov$ f salt wat]2 &1 l ,calli?amnion1 rapidly fades if put into fre% wat]1 :i* is readily absorb$ ?r\gh its membranes1 caus+ !m to bur/ & dis*>ge _! col\r+ matt]4 ,x receives its specific "n f its bri/le-l =k$ fronds4 ,g4 secundiflora is some:at l ,setacea1 b is l>g]1 & ! tips ( its bran*es are obtuse4 ,its fronds gr[ 9 fan-%ap$ tufts five or six in*es long4 ,x is n a common we$1 b may (t5 be met ) on ! coa/ ( ,devon & ,cornwall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4--;,griffi?sia corall9a ,g4 b>bata1 or ! ,be>d$ ,griffi?sia1 receives its "n f its v delicate fibres1 :i* be> sph]ical1 p9k tetraspores4 ,x seems to occur only on ! s\? & s\?-we/ coa/s1 :]e x gr[s on /ones or atta*$ to o!r we$s4 ,our la/ example ( ! g5us is ,g4 corall9a1 :i* is ( a deep-crimson col\r1 & is s jo9t$ z to h ! appe>ance ( a corall9e4 ,its fronds are f ?ree to eight in*es long1 regul>ly =k$1 & ( a gelat9\s nature4 ,! jo9ts are some:at pe>-%ap$1 & ! spore clu/]s are atta*$ to _! upp] ends4 ,x soon fades1 & ev5 if its col\r is satisfactorily pres]v$1 ! pressure ( ! dry+ press de/roys ! beautiful r\nd$ =m ( its bead-l jo9ts4 ,x =ms a lovely p]man5t specim51 h[ev]1 :5 pres]v$ 9 a bottle ( salt wat]1 ) ! addition ( a s+le gra9 ( corrosive sublimate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4--;,halurus equisetifolius ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4--,pilota plumosa ,our next g5us 7,halurus7 conta9s a common we$ ( ! s\? coa/ :i* 0 once includ$ 9 ,griffi?sia4 ,x is ! ,equisetum-leav$ ,halurus 7,h4 equisetifolius71 s call$ because its bran*es are regul>ly :orl$ r\nd ! nodes ( ! jo9t$ bran*es1 ?us resembl+ ! semi-aquatic ,m>e's ,tail4 ,its frond is tubul>1 & ! spore-clu/]s are situat$ on ! tips ( ! bran*es1 surr\nd$ by a :orl ( small bran*lets4 ,! g5us ,pilota has a slightly flatt5$ c>tilag9\s frond1 divid$ p9nately1 & ! axis surr\nd$ by a cuticle ( two lay]s ( cells4 ,! spore-clu/]s1 at ! tips ( ! bran*es1 are surr\nd$ by a :orl ( bran*lets4 ,x conta9s only two ,briti% species1 "o ( :i* 7,p4 plumosa7 is a v fea!ry species1 ) comb-l bran*lets1 gr[+ on ! /ems & fronds ( o!r we$s f\nd on our nor!rn %ores4 ,! o!r 7,p4 elegans71 ) n>r[] fronds1 9 long flaccid tufts1 is f\nd all r\nd our coa/s4 ,our la/ g5us ( ! ,c]amiace is ! l>ge & typical "o ,c]amium1 :i* conta9s ab\t a doz5 ,briti% species 9 :i* ! frond is ?readlike1 jo9t$1 bran*$ or =k$ repeat$ly1 ) ! tips ( ! bran*lets usually curl$4 ,! spore-clu/]s are enclos$ 9 transp>5t sessile sacs1 surr\nd$ by a :orl ( v %ort bran*lets2 & ! tetraspores are emb$d$ 9 ! cortex1 b di/9ctly visible4 ,z a rule ! fronds are v symmetrical1 & ! bran*es radiate 9 a regul> fan-l mann]4 ,9 "o species ( ! g5us ! frond is completely cov]$ ) cortex cells1 & at ea* node ( ! frond !re is a s+le sp9e :i*1 al?\gh s small z to be invisible )\t a l5s1 s effectually locks ! ?reads toge!r t !y =m an entangl$ mass t is n easily arrang$ to ! satisfaction ( ! collector4 ,! species ref]r$ to is ,c4 flabellig]um--! ,fan-be>+ ,c]amium--& is v r>e except 9 ! ,*annel ,isl&s4 ,o!r species are arm$ ) "o or m sp9es at ! nodes1 b ! nodes only are cov]$ ) cortex cells1 :i* r5d] !m opaque1 :ile ! int]nodes or jo9ts are transp>5t4 ,9 ?is gr\p we h ,c4 ciliatum--! ,hairy ,c]amium1 ) r$di%-purple segm5ts1 & a regul> :orl ( hairs1 direct$ upw>ds1 r\nd ea* node2 ea* hair or sp9e consi/s ( ?ree segm5ts4 ,?is plant is common dur+ ! summ] & autumn1 & may be f\nd 9 ! tide pools at all levels1 ei!r atta*$ to ! rocks or p>asitic on o!r we$s4 ,! same section conta9s ,c4 e*9otum1 ) rigid1 =k$ fronds1 & irregul>ly-scatt]$ "o-jo9t$ sp9es2 x is common on ! s\? coa/1 :]e x may be f\nd on ! rocks & we$s ( ! upp] tide pools2 & ,c4 acan?onotum1 also common 9 ! rock pools1 ) a s+le /rong ?ree-jo9t$ sp9e on ! out] side ( ea* filam5t4 ,! la/-nam$ we$ is f\nd pr9cipally on ! nor!rn %ores1 especially on rocks cov]$ ) ! fry ( ! common mussel4 ,o!r species are *>act]is$ by transp>5t int]nodes z above describ$1 b h no sp9es at ! jo9ts1 & may ?us be easily float$ on to a %eet ( pap] )\t ! tr\blesome matt+ ( _! fronds4 ,^! include ! ,/raight ,c]amium 7,c4 /rictum71 ) erect & /raight bran*es gr[+ 9 d5se tufts1 & conspicu\s tetraspores arrang$ r\nd ! nodes ( ! upp] bran*lets1 ,c4 gracillimum1 ( ! l[] rock pools1 ) v sl5d] gelat9\s fronds1 swoll5 nodes & small fan-%ap$ bran*lets2 ,c4 t5uissimum1 closely resembl+ ,c4 /rictum 9 g5]al appe>ance1 b di/+ui%$ by hav+ its tetraspores only on ! out] side ( ! nodes2 & ! ,transp>5t ,c]amium 7,c4 diaphanum71 :i* may be f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ye> on rocks & we$s 9 ! rock pools4 ,! la/ species is ! l>ge/ & mo/ beautiful ( ! g5us1 & may be readily recognis$ by its light-col\r$1 transp>5t /em ) swoll5 purple nodes1 & its conspicu\s spore-clu/]s ne> ! tips ( ! filam5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--;,c]amium diaphanum ,our la/ example ( ! g5us is ! ,common ,r$ ,c]amium 7,c4 rubrum71 :i* may be f\nd 9 ! rock pools at all levels4 ,x is v v>iable 9 =m1 b may be kn[n by its contract$ nodes1 9 :i* ! r$ tetraspores are lodg$1 & its spore-clu/]s surr\nd$ by ?ree or f\r %ort bran*lets4 ,x diff]s f mo/ ( ! o!r species 9 hav+ bo? nodes & int]nodes cov]$ ) cortex-cells1 & h5ce ! latt] are n transp>5t4 ,! ord] ,spyridiace has a s+le ,briti% repres5tative :i* may be f\nd 9 v>i\s localities on ! s\? coa/4 ,x is ,spyridia filam5tosa1 a dull-r$ we$ ) ?read-l1 tubul>1 jo9t$ fronds1 f f\r in*es to a foot 9 l5g?4 ,! ma9 /em is =k$1 & d5sely clo!d ) %ort & sl5d] bran*lets4 ,! frond is cov]$ ) a cortex ( small cells4 ,! spore-clu/]s are gr\p$ toge!r1 sev]al be+ enclos$ 9 a membran\s cell 9 conceptacles1 or ext]nal sacs1 at ! ends ( ! bran*lets2 & ! tetraspores are arrang$ s+ly along ! jo9t$ bran*lets4 ,! next family 7,cryptonemiace7 is an ext5sive "o1 conta9+ ne>ly tw5ty ,briti% g5]a ( r$ or purple we$s1 ) unjo9t$1 c>tilag9\s1 gelat9\s1 & sometimes membran\s fronds4 ,! spores are irregul>ly di/ribut$1 & are conta9$ ei!r 9 sunk5 cells or 9 conceptacles4 ,! tetraspores are ei!r 9 cells at ! edges ( ! frond or collect$ toge!r 9 compact gr\ps4 ,( ! g5us ,dumontia we h only "o species 7,d4 fili=mis71 ! frond ( :i* is a simple or bran*$ tube1 f an in* to m ?an a foot 9 l5g?1 conta9+ a loose network ( filam5ts :5 "y1 & only a gelat9\s fluid :5 ! plant is mature4 ,! spores exi/ 9 r\nd$ clu/]s among ! cells ( ! tube1 & ! tetraspores are simil>ly situat$4 ,a v>iety ) wide wavy fronds is sometimes f\nd 9 ! bracki% wat] ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s4 ,gloiosiphonia capill>is is a v delicate & beautiful we$ f\nd 9 ! l[e/ tide pools ( ! s\? coa/4 ,its frond is a v sl5d] bran*$ tube1 fill$ ) a gelat9\s fluid1 & compos$ ( delicate filam5ts emb$d$ 9 transp>5t gelat9e4 ,x is a beautiful object = ! microscope4 ,s*izym5ia 7,irida7 edulis has flat1 oval1 d>k-r$ fronds t gr[ 9 clu/]s2 &1 be+ eat5 by v>i\s m>9e animals1 is (t5 f\nd imp]fect & full ( holes4 ,! fronds are sometimes a foot or m 9 l5g?1 & five or six in*es wide4 ,!y are ?ick & lea!ry1 & ea* is support$ on a %ort1 cyl9drical /em4 ,9 ! l[] tide pools we commonly meet ) ,furcell>ia fa/igiata1 ) br[ni%-r$1 cyl9drical fronds1 solid1 =k$1 & d5sely tuft$4 ,! bran*es are all ( ! same height1 ) %>p tips2 & ! spore-clu/]s are conta9$ 9 t]m9al lanceolate pods4 ,?is we$ is v mu* l ,polyides1 ( ano!r ord]1 b may be di/+ui%$ by its fibr\s1 creep+ root1 :ile t ( ,polyides is a disc4 ,! g5us ,*ylocladia is *>act]is$ by a tubul> r\nd$ frond compos$ ( two lay]s1 ! inn] consi/+ ( bran*+ filam5ts1 & ! out] cellul>4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 ext]nal cones ) a pore at ! apex1 & ! tetraspores are among ! sup]ficial cells ( ! bran*es4 ,!re are two common ,briti% species ( ! g5us1 "o ( !m--,c4 articulata--) long1 tubul> fronds1 con/rict$ at int]vals1 ! l[] bran*es =k$ & ! upp] :orl$ & tuft$2 & ,c4 clavellosa1 ) freely bran*$ fronds be>+ %ort sp9dle-%ap$ bran*lets4 ,"o ( ! be/-kn[n alg ( ! pres5t family is ! ,iri% ,moss or ,c>rage5 7,*ondrus crispus71 :i* w be at once recognis$ by its repres5tation on ,plate ,,viii4 ,its fronds are c>tilag9\s1 =k$ & fan-%ap$2 &1 :5 gr[+ 9 deep1 %elt]$ pools1 its bran*es are (t5 broad & mu* curl$4 ,?is we$ is an important article ( comm]ce1 be+ /ill us$ z a food = invalids4 ,:5 boil$ x yields a col\rless gelat9e4 ,9 ! g5us ,gig>t9a ! frond is c>tilag9\s1 flat1 or ?readlike1 irregul>ly bran*$1 & ( a purpli%-r$ col\r4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 ext]nal tub]cles1 & ! tetraspores are arrang$ 9 masses b5ea? ! surface4 ,! only common species is ,g4 mamillosa1 :i* has a l9e>1 furr[$ /em1 ) fan-%ap$1 deeply-cleft fronds4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 mamilli=m tub]cles scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! frond4 ,callophyllis 7,rhodym5ia7 lac9iata is f\nd on mo/ rocky coa/s4 ,x has bright-r$1 fle%y fronds t are deeply cleft into w$ge-%ap$ segm5ts1 ! f]tile specim5s ) wav$ edges & small m>g9al leaflets4 ,x is f\nd on rocks & ,lam9>ia /ems beyond ! tide-m>ks1 b is commonly wa%$ up on ! bea* dur+ /orms4 ,x is a beautiful we$1 & reta9s its col\r well :5 dri$4 ,cy/oclonium 7,hypna7 purpurasc5s is a v common we$1 gr[+ on o!r alg betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & sometimes rea*+ a l5g? ( two feet4 ,its c>tilag9\s1 purple fronds are mu* bran*$1 & become almo/ black :5 dri$4 ,! spores are emb$d$ 9 ! smalle/ bran*es1 & ! tetraspores are arrang$ among ! sup]ficial cells4 ,! g5us ,phyllophora conta9s a few ,briti% we$s ) a /iff1 membran\s frond1 be>+ leaf-l app5dages1 & support$ on a /alk4 ,! tetraspores are conta9$ 9 ext]nal w>t-l swell+s4 ,! commone/ species is ,p4 membranifolia1 ! fronds ( :i* are divid$ into w$ge-%ap$ segm5ts1 & gr[ 9 tufts f an exp&+ root4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 /alk$ sporangia1 & ! tetraspores are ne> ! c5tres ( ! segm5ts4 ,ano!r species--,p4 rub5s--has a %ort] /em1 & gr[s 9 deep & %ady rock pools4 ,its fronds are d5sely tuft$2 &1 z ! plant gr[s1 new s]ies ( segm5ts are =m$ at ! tips ( ! old] ones4 ,a ?ird species 7,p4 palmettoides7 has a v bright-r$ frond & an exp&$ root4 ,! ord] ,rhodym5iace includes a numb] ( r$ or purple sea we$s ) flat or ?read-l unjo9t$1 cellul> fronds1 ! surface cells =m+ a cont9u\s coat+4 ,! spores are lodg$ 9 ext]nal conceptacles1 & are at fir/ arrang$ 9 bead$ ?reads4 ,! tetraspores are ei!r di/ribut$ among ! surface cells1 collect$ 9 clu/]s1 or situat$ 9 special leaflets4 ,! typical g5us 7,rhodym5ia7 conta9s two r$1 membran\s we$s1 ! common] ( :i* is ,r4 palmata 7,plate ,,viii471 s common on ! ,scotti% & ,iri% coa/s1 :]e x =ms an important article ( diet1 & is kn[n z ! ,dulse or ,dillisk4 ,x is also widely di/ribut$ ov] ! ,engli% coa/s4 ,its broad1 fle%y fronds are divid$ into f+]-l lobes1 & are ei!r sessile or support$ on a /alk t proce$s f a small discoid root4 ,! frond is v v>iable 9 =m1 be+ sometimes divid$ into v n>r[ segm5ts1 & sometimes q undivid$4 ,"o v>iety has a numb] ( small /alk$ leaflets on its m>g9 7see ,plate ,,viii472 & ano!r is v n>r[1 ) w$ge-%ap$ irregul> lobes4 ,r4 palmetta is a small] & less common species t gr[s on rocks & l>ge we$s 9 deep wat]4 ,! tetraspores =m crimson pat*es on ! tips ( ! lobes4 ,maug]ia 7,deless]ia7 sangu9ea 7,plate ,,viii47 is a l>ge & beautiful we$1 ( a blood-r$ col\r1 t gr[s 9 ! l[] rock pools or beyond l[-wat] m>k1 "u ! %ade ( high rocks or hidd5 by ! olive tangles4 ,its frond is ?9 & membran\s1 ) a well-def9$ midrib4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 globul> /alk$ conceptacles1 usually on "o side ( ! midrib2 & ! tetraspores may be se5 9 pod-l leaflets atta*$ to ! b>e midrib dur+ ! w9t]4 ,pass+ ov] "s ( ! r>] membranace\s ,rhodym5iace1 we come to ! beautiful ,plocamium1 di/+ui%$ by its l9e> compress$ crimson fronds1 :i* are p9nate1 ) comb-l tee?1 ! bran*lets be+ alt]nately arrang$ on ei!r side 9 ?rees & f\rs4 ,! spores are on radiat+ ?reads1 9 globul> conceptacles2 & ! tetraspores are 9 ! out] divisions ( ! frond4 ,we h only "o species ( ?is beautiful g5us1 & t is ,p4 cocc9eum1 :i* is ( su* a brilliant col\r t x is always a fav\rite ) collectors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #bea44--,plocamium ,our la/ example ( ! ord] is ,cordylecladia 7,gracil>ia7 erecta1 ) ?readlike1 c>tilag9\s frond1 irregul>ly bran*$ & cellul> 9 /ructure4 ,! fronds arise f a disc-l root2 & be> spores 9 ?ickly-clu/]$ sph]ical conceptacles1 & tetraspores 9 lanceolate pods at ! tips ( ! bran*es1 bo? 9 ! w9t]4 ,x is a small we$1 & gr[s pr9cipally on s&-cov]$ rocks ne> l[-wat] m>k4 ,! ord] ,sphrococcoide conta9s r$ or purple sea we$s ) unjo9t$ c>tilag9\s or membranace\s fronds1 compos$ ( _m-sid$1 elongat$ cells1 ) spores 9 necklace-l /r+s1 lodg$ 9 ext]nal conceptacles4 ,! typical g5us 7,sphrococcus7 conta9s ! ,buck's-horn sea we$ :i* gr[s at & beyond l[-wat] m>k on ! s\? & we/ coa/s1 :]e x is sometimes wa%$ up on ! bea* dur+ /orms4 ,its fronds are flatt5$ & two-edg$1 freely bran*$1 & ! upp] bran*es are repeat$ly =k$1 & t]m9ate 9 fan-%ap$1 cleft bran*lets4 ,bo? bran*es & bran*lets are fr+$ ) sl5d] cilia1 9 :i* ! spores are emb$d$4 ,x is a h&some we$1 ( a bright-r$ col\r & a some:at coral-l =m4 ,alli$ to ?is is ,gelidium corneum1 ) flatt5$1 horny fronds1 repeat$ly p9nate1 ) ! smalle/ bran*lets obtuse & n>r[] at ! base4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 conceptacles ne> ! extremities ( ! bran*lets1 & ! tetraspores are imb$d$ 9 club-%ap$ bran*lets4 ,!re are a l>ge numb] ( v>ieties ( ?is species1 diff]+ 9 =m1 size1 & ! mode ( bran*+ ( ! fronds4 ,! size v>ies f "o to five or six in*es1 & ! col\r is r$ or r$di% gre54 ,9 ! g5us ,gracil>ia ! frond is ?ick & horny1 & ! surface cells are v small1 :ile ! c5tral ones are l>ge4 ,! spores1 =m$ on necklace-l ?reads1 are enclos$ 9 sessile conceptacles along ! bran*es1 & ! tetraspores are imb$d$ among ! surface cells ( ! fronds4 ,! only common species is ,g4 conf]voides1 ) cyl9drical c>tilag9\s fronds be>+ long ?read-l bran*es1 sometimes rea*+ a l5g? ( two feet4 ,! spore conceptacles are situat$ on ! sl5d] bran*es1 giv+ !m a knott$ or bead$ appe>ance4 ,! col\r is a d>k purple1 :i* rapidly fades :5 ! we$ is plac$ 9 fre% wat] or left expos$ to ! air4 ,two o!r species--,g4 multip>tita & ,g4 compressa--are r>e4 ,callibleph>is ciliata1 p]haps m commonly kn[n z ,rhodym5ia ciliata1 has a bran*+ root1 %ort r\nd /em1 & a broad1 crisp frond t is g5]ally ciliat$4 ,sometimes ! frond is simple & lanceolate1 ) small leaf-l app5dages on its edge2 & sometimes x is deeply cleft4 ,! spores are arrang$ 9 bead$ ?reads 9 sessile conceptacles on ! m>g9al leaflets4 ,ano!r species ( ! same g5us 7,c4 jubata7 is v simil> 9 /ructure1 b is ( a dull]-r$ col\r1 gradually *ang+ to olive gre5 at ! tips2 & x has its tetraspores 9 ! cilia only1 :ile 9 ,c4 ciliata !y are collect$ 9 pat*es 9 all p>ts ( ! frond4 ,bo? species gr[ 9 deep wat]1 & are frequ5tly wa%$ up dur+ /orms4 ,! l>ge g5us ,nitophyllum conta9s "s beautiful rose-r$ sea we$s1 ) irregul>ly cleft membranace\s fronds1 ei!r ve9less1 or ) a few indi/9ctly visible ve9s only at ! base4 ,! spores are 9 r\nd$ sessile conceptacles scatt]$ on ! surface ( ! frond2 & ! tetraspores occur 9 clu/]s simil>ly scatt]$4 ,"o ( ! species--,n4 lac]atum--s call$ f ! torn & jagg$ appe>ance ( ! frond1 is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,vii4 ,! fronds are atta*$ to a disc-l root1 & are v v>iable 9 =m1 be+ sometimes s n>r[ z to appe> almo/ ?readlike4 ,! plant gr[s on rocks & l>ge we$s 9 ! l[] rock pools & 9 deep wat]4 ,9 ! same g5us we h ,n4 punctatum1 ) broad p9k fronds1 dott$ all ov] ) spore-conceptacles & d>k-r$ clu/]s ( tetraspores2 also a few o!r less common species t are seldom se5 except aft] /orms1 z !y gr[ almo/ exclusively 9 deep wat]4 ,! g5us ,deless]ia conta9s "s beautiful rose-col\r$ & r$di%-br[n we$s ) delicate1 leaf-l1 symmetrical fronds1 ea* ( :i* has a d>k] midrib f :i* issue transv]se ve9s4 ,! spores are arrang$ l m9ute necklaces1 & are conta9$ 9 sessile conceptacles ei!r on ! midrib ( ! frond or on leaflets t gr[ f ! midrib4 ,! tetraspores are 9 clu/]s :i* are scatt]$ ov] ! frond or on its leaflets4 ,! alg ( ?is g5us are seldom f\nd gr[+ betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 z !y g5]ally ?rive 9 deep wat]1 b spl5did specim5s are (t5 wa%$ up on ! bea* dur+ /orms1 especially on ! s\? & s\?-we/ coa/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--;,deless]ia alata ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec4--;,deless]ia hypoglossum ,among ^! we may specially m5tion ,d4 alata1 kn[n popul>ly z ! ,w+$ ,deless]ia1 ) a d>k-r$1 =k$ frond1 consi/+ ( a /rong midrib1 bord]$ by a w+-l lam9a ( v v>iable wid?1 support$ by opposite ve9s4 ,9 ?is species ! clu/]s ( tetraspores are arrang$ on ea* side ( ! midrib or special leaflets ne> ! tips ( ! frond4 ,d4 s9uosa is a less common we$1 ) a disc-l root & an oblong1 cleft & too!d frond1 & tetraspores 9 leaflets gr[+ f its m>g94 ,ano!r species--,d4 hypoglossum--is *>act]is$ by ! leaflets ( ! midrib be>+ /ill small] leaflets 9 ! same mann]4 ,we h already ref]r$ 7p4 #cff7 to a sea we$ commonly kn[n z ! ,dock-leav$ ,deless]ia1 ! sci5tific "n ( :i* is ,maug]ia 7,deless]ia7 sangu9ea4 ,?is plant 0 once includ$ 9 ! pres5t ord]1 b has be5 remov$ on acc\nt ( ! diff]5t /ructure ( its fruit4 ,our next ord] is ! int]e/+ "o conta9+ ! coral-l we$s1 "s ( :i* are s common & s conspicu\s 9 ! rock pools4 ,! ord] is kn[n z ! ,corall9ace1 & all its species secrete c>bonate ( lime1 :i* hides _! vegetable /ructure & gives !m m ! appe>ance ( /ony corals4 ,! typical g5us 7,corall9a7 includes two we$s ) jo9t$ p9nate fronds1 & spore-conceptacles at ! tips ( ! bran*es ) a t]m9al pore4 ,^! & ! alli$ sea we$s are v unlike plants 9 _! g5]al nature1 _! /ony cov]+ ( c>bonate ( lime hid+ all traces ( ! delicate cellul> /ructure s *>act]i/ic ( ! v>i\s =ms ( vegetable life1 & especially ^? ( aquatic or m>9e habit4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! we$ is put into dilute hydro*loric 7muriatic7 acid ! calc>e\s matt] w be completely dissolv$ 9 a m9ute or two1 ) evolution ( bubbles ( c>bonic acid gas2 & if a portion ( ! frond be !n exam9$ 9 a drop ( wat] "u ! microscope1 ! cellul> /ructure ref]r$ to w be se5 z well z 9 any o!r we$4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ( ! plant1 or r ( ! c>bonate ( lime :i* x secretes1 is its prop]ty ( becom+ int5sely lum9\s :5 held 9 a v hot flame4 ,?us if a tuft ( corall9e be held 9 ! flame ( a ,buns5 burn]1 x w gl[ s brilliantly z to rem9d u ( ! lime light4 ,fur!r1 if we exam9e ! plant 9 its natural /ate1 we f9d t ! c>bonate ( lime is n secret$ uni=mly 9 all p>ts1 b t ! nodes ( ! jo9t$ frond are free f ! /ony deposit1 & are !re=e flexible4 ,our commone/ species--,c4 (fic9alis--may be f\nd 9 almo/ e rock pool betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 gr[+ on rocks1 %ells1 & o!r we$s4 ,! jo9ts ( ! /em & bran*es are cyl9drical or some:at w$ge-%ap$1 :ile ^? ( ! bran*lets are l9e>2 & ! col\r v>ies f a d>k purple to :ite1 ! =m] prevail+ 9 ! deep & %ady pools & ! dep? ( t9t decreas+ accord+ to ! am\nt ( exposure to ! blea*+ action ( ! sun4 ,a second species 7,c4 squamata7 is v simil> 9 gr[? & habit1 b is mu* less common1 & is conf9$ to ! neighb\rhood ( l[-wat] m>k4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ f ! la/ by ! =m ( ! segm5ts1 :i* are %ort & globose 9 ! l[] portions ( ! /em1 & become broad] & m flatt5$ t[>ds ! tips ( ! bran*es4 ,ano!r g5us--,jania--conta9s a few corall9e we$s t are some:at l ,corall9a1 b are ( a m sl5d] habit & small]1 & h a moss-l appe>ance4 ,!y may be di/+ui%$ by ! =k$ bran*+ ( ! sl5d] frond1 & by ! position ( ! conceptacles 9 ! axils ( ! bran*es1 & n at ! tips4 ,j4 rub5s is a v common r$ species t gr[s 9 tufts on o!r we$s4 ,x has cyl9drical segm5ts1 long] t[>ds ! tips ( ! bran*es2 :ile ano!r & less common "o 7,j4 corniculata71 f\nd pr9cipally on ! s\? coa/s1 has flatt5$ segm5ts except 9 ! bran*lets4 ,a ?ird g5us ( ! ord]--,melobesia--conta9s a v peculi> gr\p ( alg t w\ld c]ta9ly nev] be reg>d$ z plants by ^? :o did n "k !m4 ,!y are app>5tly m]e solid incru/ations ( calc>e\s matt]1 )\t any jo9t$ /ructure1 & (t5 ( v irregul> =m1 cov]+ ! surfaces ( rocks1 %ells1 or we$s4 ,!y are ( v>y+ col\rs1 "s prevail+ t9ts be+ d>k purple1 lilac1 rose1 & yell[2 & !y are equally v>iable 9 =m1 "s be+ decid$ly li*5-l1 "s resembl+ fungoid masses1 & o!rs consi/+ ( sup]impos$ leaf-l lay]s4 ,!y are n we$s to be press$ = ! collector's album1 b require /or+ 9 boxes or trays l sea %ells4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! bran*$ corall9es1 ! hidd5 vegetable /ructure may be reveal$ by dissolv+ away ! c>bonate ( lime2 & ! spore-conceptacles1 ) t]m9al pores1 may be se5 scatt]$ irregul>ly ov] ! surface4 ,! ord] ,laur5ciace conta9s "s beautiful p9k1 r$1 & purple we$s ) r\nd or flatt5$ bran*+ fronds4 ,!y may be kn[n by ! disposition ( ! tetraspores1 :i* are irregul>ly scatt]$ ov] ! bran*es2 & by ! pe>-%ap$ spores 9 r\nd$ capsules4 ,! typical g5us 7,laur5cia7 includes an abundant we$ 7,l4 p9natifida7 :i* 0 =m]ly eat5 9 p>ts ( ,scotl&1 :]e x is kn[n z ! ,pepp] ,dulse on acc\nt ( its pepp]y ta/e4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! tide pools on _m p>ts ( ! coa/1 & v>ies mu* 9 size1 =m1 & col\r accord+ to ! situation 9 :i* x gr[s4 ,! plants :i* are expos$ to ! air at l[ tide are usually small1 & ( a pale br[n col\r1 :ile ^? f\nd 9 ! p]man5t rock pools at or ne> l[-wat] m>k are l>g] & d>k br[n or purple4 ,! fronds are flat & c>tilag9\s1 ) /\t bran*es be>+ alt]nate divid$ bran*lets1 :i* are blunt at ! tips4 ,! /em itself is unbran*$4 ,! spores are pe>-%ap$1 9 oval cells2 & ! tetraspores are irregul>ly di/ribut$ ne> ! tips ( ! bran*es4 ,ano!r common species1 kn[n z ! ,tuft$ ,laur5cia 7,l4 cspitosa71 is v simil> to ! la/ m5tion$1 & is n easily di/+ui%$ f x4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( a bu%y habit1 :ile ,l4 p9natifida is flat1 & its fronds are less firm4 ,?is species gr[s on rocks & /ones betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 & is v>iegat$ 9 col\r f a pale gre5 to a purple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--,laur5cia p9natifida ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--,laur5cia obtusa ,a ?ird species--! ,obtuse ,laur5cia 7,l4 obtusa7--is widely di/ribut$ on our coa/s1 & may be kn[n by its ?read-l bip9nate fronds ) %ort blunt bran*lets1 cup-%ap$ at ! tips4 ,x is p>asitic on v>i\s o!r we$s4 ,! g5us ,lom5t>ia includes a few we$s ) tubul> fronds t are con/rict$ at int]vals1 & divid$ int]nally by transv]se membran\s septa4 ,! spores are pe>-%ap$ & lodg$ 9 sph]ical cells2 & ! tetraspores are scatt]$ on ! surface ( ! bran*es4 ,"o species call$ ! salt-wort 7,l4 kali=mis7 is widely di/ribut$4 ,its col\r is p9k1 sometimes yell[i%1 & x gr[s on rocks or /ones1 & sometimes on o!r we$s4 ,x may always be kn[n by its sph]ical fruit1 )\t any visible op5+1 conta9+ crimson pe>-%ap$ spores4 ,ano!r species 7,l4 ovalis71 f\nd on ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 may be recognis$ by its solid bran*$ frond & little oval leaf-l bran*lets1 :i* are holl[1 jo9t$1 & divid$ by p>titions int]nally4 ,! "o rema9+ ord] ( ! r$-spor$ sea we$s is ! ,rhodomelace1 :i* has ei!r a jo9t$ or a _m-tub$ axis1 & ! surface divid$ up into little def9ite areas4 ,! fronds are ei!r leafy or ?read-l1 & ! prevail+ col\rs are r$1 r$di% br[n1 & purple4 ,! spores are pe>-%ap$1 & occupy ! t]m9al cells ( tuft$ ?reads 9 ext]nal1 globul>1 or r\nd$ conceptacles2 & ! tetraspores are lodg$ 9 special receptacles1 or 9 special modifi$ bran*lets4 ,! ord] conta9s "s ( our mo/ beautiful we$s1 :ile "s ( its memb]s are ( a v d>k col\r & unattractive =m4 ,! typical g5us--,rhodomela--conta9s two ,briti% species ) d>k-r$1 c>tilag9\s fronds1 cyl9drical1 unjo9t$1 & irregul>ly bran*$2 & ! tetraspores imb$d$ 9 ! tips ( ! sl5d] bran*lets4 ,! "n ( ! g5us signifies #8r$-black1' & is appli$ on acc\nt ( ! t5d5cy ( ! d>k-r$ fronds to turn black :5 dri$4 ,r4 subfusca is v common on all our coa/s4 ,x has rigid fronds1 irregul>ly bran*$2 & is 9 its be/ condition dur+ ! summ]4 ,! o!r species--,r4 lycopodioides--has long undivid$ bran*es ) ?ickly-set & freely-divid$ bran*lets4 ,:5 turn+ ov] ! fronds ( diff]5t species ( ! l>g] olive we$s we commonly f9d !m m or less clo!d ) tufts ( filam5t\s plants1 sometimes small & delicate1 & sometimes l>g] & ( m robu/ gr[?1 v>y+ 9 col\r f a purpli% br[n to a d>k violet1 & ! articulat$ filam5ts m or less di/9ctly /riat$ ) p>allel l9es4 ,^! we$s belong to ! g5us ,polysiphonia1 & d]ive _! g5]ic "n f ! fact t ! ?readlike fronds are compos$ ( sev]al p>allel tubes4 ,! surface cells are also arrang$ 9 regul> transv]se r[s1 & x is ?is :i* gives rise to ! /riat$ appe>ance above ref]r$ to4 ,ov] tw5ty species ( ,polysiphonia are to be f\nd on our %ores1 :]e !y exi/ at all levels betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r p>tly by _! g5]al =m & mode ( gr[?1 & also by ! numb] ( tubes 9 _! ?readlike fronds4 ,al?\gh !y w\ld n always be consid]$ z lovely we$s & are (t5 any?+ b beautiful :5 dri$ & m\nt$1 yet 9 _! fre% condition !y are g5]ally pretty objects1 & _! microscopic /ructure is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ on acc\nt ( ! beautiful & symmetrical arrangem5t ( _! siphons & tubes4 ,if ! read] is ! =tunate possessor ( a comp\nd microscope1 x w amply repay him to make transv]se sections ( ! fronds = exam9ation4 ,a %ort l5g? ( ! frond %\ld be ins]t$ into a slit cut 9 a piece ( c>rot or eld] pi?2 &1 :ile ?us support$1 v ?9 transv]se sections may be easily cut ) a %>p razor1 c>e be+ tak5 to keep bo? razor & object v wet dur+ ! process4 ,all[ ! sections to fall into a vessel ( wat] z !y are cut1 & !n select ! ?9ne/ = exam9ation1 m\nt+ !m 9 a drop ( wat] 9 ! usual way4 ,specim5s 9 fruit %\ld always be obta9$ :5 possible1 s t ! nature ( ! fructification may be obs]v$4 ,two k9ds ( spores may be se5 9 ea* species1 b1 z is usually ! case ) ! r$ sea we$s1 on diff]5t plants4 ,"s are small pe>-%ap$ bodies1 enclos$ 9 oval cells at ! tips ( ! fronds2 & ! o!rs are arrang$ 9 clu/]s ( f\r 9 swoll5 p>ts ( ! ?reads4 ,! commone/ species is ,p4 fa/igiata1 :i* may be f\nd 9 abundance z bu%y br[ni% tufts on ! fronds ( ,fucus nodosus 7p4 #chf74 ,a transv]se section ( ?is we$ is a v beautiful microscopic object4 ,x resembles a :eel1 ) a d>k c5tre to ! nave1 & sev]al spokes enclos+ ab\t sixte5 regul>ly arrang$ tubes4 ,! swoll5 tips ( fronds %\ld also be exam9$ = ! urn-%ap$ cells conta9+ ! spores2 & if a g5tle pressure be appli$ to ! cov]-glass ) a ne$le1 ! little pe>-%ap$ spores may be expell$4 ,! o!r k9d ( spores may be f\nd ne> ! bases ( ! bran*es on diff]5t plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--,polysiphonia fa/igiata ,among o!r species we may briefly m5tion--,p4 p>asitica1 sometimes f\nd ne> l[-wat] m>k1 gr[+ 9 little fea!ry tufts ( a bright-r$ col\r1 on ! li*5-l ,melobesia or on corall9es4 ,x has sev5 or eight p>allel siphons 9 its fronds1 all regul>ly arrang$ r\nd a small c5tral space4 ,p4 ,brodii is mod]ately common on our coa/s4 ,?is is a l>ge br[n species1 ) sev5 siphons surr\nd$ by a ?ick cellul> lay] :i* conceals ! articulations & is too opaque to all[ ! siphons to be se5 )\t dissection4 ,its bran*es1 :i* are alt]nate1 be> %ort tufts ( delicate bran*lets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--,polysiphonia p>asitica ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--,polysiphonia ,brodii ,p4 byssoides1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! p9k filam5ts t fr+e ! fronds1 has also sev5 siphons4 ,x is a l>ge & beautiful we$1 mod]ately common on our coa/s1 ( a bright-r$ col\r1 ) conspicu\s fructification4 ,! bran*es are alt]nate1 & ! bran*lets are clo!d ) ! byssoid filam5ts above ref]r$ to4 ,p4 violacea is ( a r$di%-br[n col\r1 ) long silky alt]nate bran*es1 & f\r siphons4 ,x receives its specific "n f ! fact t x turns to a violet col\r :5 dri$4 ,p4 nigresc5s has1 z ! specific "n implies1 blacki% fronds1 & ^! are freely bran*$4 ,! tubes1 ab\t tw5ty 9 numb]1 are flat1 & are arrang$ r\nd a l>ge c5tral space4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--,polysiphonia nigresc5s ,our la/ example--,p4 atro-rubesc5s--is ( a d>k r$di%-br[n col\r1 ) rigid & d5sely-tuft$ fronds4 ,x has twelve tubes1 arrang$ spirally r\nd a c5tral cavity4 ,x is common 9 ! l[] rock pools ( "s coa/s4 ,9 ! same ord] we h ! g5us ,*ondria1 s call$ on acc\nt ( ! c>tilag9\s nature ( its ?read-l fronds4 ,^! are p9nately bran*$1 & ! club-%ap$ bran*lets tap] bel[4 ,! ma9 /em is jo9t$ & conta9s _m siphons4 ,! g5us includes a common species 7,c4 dasyphylla71 ) ?ick fronds1 t is f\nd 9 %all[ s&y pools1 :]e x gr[s on pebbles1 %ells1 or on o!r we$s1 ! col\r v>y+ f p9k to a d>k purple4 ,c4 t5uissima is a v simil> we$1 b may be di/+ui%$ by its m sl5d] gr[?1 & by its long1 rod-l simple bran*es1 clo!d ) sl5d]1 bri/le-l bran*lets t tap] f ! middle t[>ds bo? ends4 ,on ! nor!rn coa/s ( ,brita9 we may meet ) ,odon?alia d5tata1 ! blood-r$ fronds ( :i* are tuft$1 & arise f a h>d1 disc-l root4 ,ea* frond projects f ! axil ( a too?-l projection ( ! ma9 /em1 & is deeply p9natifid1 ) a di/9ct midrib 9 ! l[] "p1 & ?9 & membranace\s t[>ds ! tip4 ,! p9na are d5tate1 & ! spores are 9 /alk$1 oval conceptacles 9 ! axils ( ! p9n4 ,! tetraspores are simil>ly situat$ 9 /alk$1 lanceolate leaflets4 ,! we$s ( ! g5us ,rytiphla are v simil> to "s ( ! ,polysiphonia1 ! axis ( ! frond be+ jo9t$ & transv]sely /rip$1 b ! nodes are less di/9ct & are n con/rict$4 ,!y are %rub-l we$s1 ) tuft$ spores 9 oval1 sessile conceptacles2 & tetraspores 9 sp9dle-%ap$ bran*lets or 9 little pod-l leaflets4 ,! pr9cipal ,briti% species are3-- ,r4 p9a/roides1 a mu*-bran*$ & %rub-l we$1 ( a dull-r$ col\r1 :i* turns black :5 ! plant is dri$4 ,! bran*es h rigid1 hook$ bran*lets arrang$ 9 su* a mann] z to give a comb$ appe>ance4 ,?is species occurs on ! s\? coa/1 & is 9 its prime 9 v e>ly spr+4 ,x is (t5 r5d]$ peculi>ly int]e/+ by ! colonies ( zoophytes & ! pat*es ( ,melobesia ) :i* x is m or less cov]$4 ,r4 fruticulosa is ano!r %rubby species1 ) irregul>ly bran*$1 int]lac+ /ems4 ,x is to be f\nd 9 ! rock pools ( ! s\? & we/ coa/s1 & is ( a deep-purple col\r 9 ! deep] %ady pools1 b v>y+ to a yell[i% t9t :]e expos$ to ! full light ( ! sun4 ,! :ole ( ! frond is cov]$ ) hook$ bran*lets1 & ! we$ is peculi> = ! fact t1 :5 remov$ f ! rock pool1 little gli/5+ beads ( wat] rema9 atta*$ to ! tips ( ! t]m9al bran*es4 ,! tetraspores are situat$ 9 di/ort$ bran*lets4 ,r4 ?uyoides has creep+1 fibr\s roots1 f :i* arise ! erect /ems ( purple-br[n1 bran*$ fronds ) %ort sp9e-l bran*lets4 ,x occurs 9 ! %all[] rock pools1 :]e x gr[s atta*$ to rocks or to o!r we$s4 ,x is 9 its be/ condition dur+ ! summ]1 :5 we may see its oval spore-conceptacles & ! tetraspores 9 di/ort$ bran*lets4 ,! la/ g5us ( ! ,rhodomelace is ,dasya1 :i* conta9s "s v graceful & brightly-col\r$ we$s t are f\nd pr9cipally on our s\? & we/ coa/s4 ,9 ^! ! fronds are ?read-l or flatt5$1 bran*$1 & )\t visible jo9ts4 ,! ma9 /em conta9s _m tubes1 b ! tubul> /ructure is hidd5 by ! out] lay] ( cells2 & ! bran*lets1 :i* are sl5d]1 "o-tub$1 & jo9t$1 be> little lanceolate pods t conta9 ! tetraspores4 ,d4 ocellata has small tuft$ fronds1 ab\t two or ?ree in*es long1 atta*$ to a small discoid root4 ,! ma9 /ems are d5sely cov]$ ) sl5d]1 =k$ bran*lets1 ^? at ! tips be+ clu/]$ 9 su* a mann] z to recall ! eye-l m>ks ( ! peacock's tail4 ,x gr[s pr9cipally on ! mud-cov]$ rocks beyond l[-wat] m>k1 & is n by any means a common we$4 ,ano!r species--,d4 arbuscula--is some:at pl5tiful on p>ts ( ! ,scotti% & ,iri% coa/s1 b comp>atively r>e 9 ,s\? ,brita94 ,x has a small disc-l root1 & /ems ?ickly clo!d ) %ort bran*lets4 ,! spore-conceptacles are tap]+1 on %ort /alks1 & ! tetraspores are conta9$ 9 po9t$ pods on ! bran*lets4 ,! sc>let ,dasya 7,d4 cocc9ea7 may be commonly se5 at & beyond l[-wat] m>k dur+ late summ]1 at :i* "t spl5did specim5s may also be f\nd on ! bea* aft] /orms4 ,its /em is ?ick1 proce$+ f a discoid root1 & is clo!d ) hair-l filam5ts2 & ! bran*es be> %ort1 sl5d] bran*lets t give !m a fea!ry appe>ance4 ,! tetraspores are conta9$ 9 elongat$1 po9t$1 & /alk$ pods4 ,!re are ?ree o!r species on ! ,briti% li/1 b !y are n common we$s4 ,! la/ ( ! ?ree great gr\ps into :i* ! sea we$s are divid$ is ! ,melanosp]me1 or olive-spor$ alg1 ! diff]5t species ( :i* are g5]ally v readily di/+ui%$ by _! olive-gre5 or olive-br[n col\r1 = ! :ole plant1 z well z ! spores1 conta9s a d>k olive col\r+ matt]1 9 addition to ! *lorophyll :i* is always pres5t4 ,^! we$s are (t5 v l>ge1 frequ5tly atta9+ a l5g? ( tw5ty feet or m 9 our seas1 & f eighty to a hundr$ feet 9 w>m] p>ts2 &1 be+ also extremely abundant almo/ ev]y:]e1 !y =m a mo/ conspicu\s feature ( ! %ore4 ,!y usually gr[ on rocks & /ones1 f high-wat] m>k to mod]ately deep wat]1 b "s ( ! small] species are pseudo-p>asitic on o!r alg4 ,_! =m is mo/ v>i$4 ,"s are m9ute filam5t\s plants1 consi/+ only ( sl5d] jo9t$ ?reads1 & o!rs are m]e %apeless masses2 b _m ( ! l>g] species exhibit a great diff]5tiation ( =m1 hav+ root-l & /em-l /ructures1 & expansions t resemble leaves4 ,! latt]1 too1 (t5 h l>ge vesicles t conta9 air1 sometimes arrang$ s+ly along ! m$ian l9e ( ! frond1 or 9 lat]al pairs1 or a s+le vesicle at ! base ( ea* segm5t ( ! ?allus4 ,! air vesicles1 ( c\rse1 s]ve to buoy up ! plant :5 x is subm]g$1 ?us enabl+ ! light to p5etrate betwe5 its fronds to l[] portions2 & :5 ! plants h be5 wr5*$ f _! moor+s by ! =ce ( ! waves1 !y imm$iately rise to ! surface & are drift$ on to ! %ore or accumulate 9 ! eddies ( ! surface curr5ts4 ,9 ?is way imm5se masses ( float+ we$s are =m$1 ! mo/ rem>kable be+ t ( ! ,s>gasso ,sea 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,l o!r alg1 ! melanospores gr[ by a cont9u$ process ( cell-division1 & :5 portions ( ! ?allus are worn away dur+ /ormy wea!r1 !y are r5ew$ by ! same process4 ,! cell-walls ( _m species are v mucilag9\s1 ! gelat9\s cov]+ be+ ei!r ! result ( ! deg5]ation ( ! cell-walls !mselves1 or ! secretion ( special gl&s4 ,z ) ! la/ division1 ! reproduction ( ! melanospores may be asexual or sexual4 ,! asexual spores1 :i* are n motile1 are =m$ 9 "s ( ! surface cells ( ! ?allus4 ,! male & female sexual organs1 call$ respectively ! an!ridia & ! oogonia1 are produc$ 9 cavities on special portions ( ! ?allus1 bo? k9ds be+ (t5 =m$ 9 ! same cavity or depression4 ,! latt] conta9s f "o to eight little bodies call$ oosph]es4 ,^! escape & float passively away :5 ! wall ( ! oogonia ruptures4 ,! an!ridia are also dis*>g$ :ole1 b ! m9ute f]tilis+ elem5ts 7an!rozoids71 :i* are ev5tually set free f !m1 sw>m r\nd ! oosph]es1 be+ attract$ by ! latt]4 ,soon "o ( ! an!rozoids ent]s ! oosph]e1 & f t mom5t all attraction ceases1 ! rema9d] ( ! an!rozoids float+ passively away2 & ! oosph]e1 previ\sly nak$ & b>r51 n[ develops a cell-wall1 & becomes ! f]tile prog5itor ( a new plant4 ,/>t+ ) ! l[e/ ( ! melanospores1 we fir/ deal ) ! ord] ,ectoc>pace1 :i* is *>act]is$ by olive1 ?read-l1 jo9t$ fronds1 ) spores on ! bran*lets or emb$d$ 9 _! sub/ance2 two k9ds ( spores (t5 exi/+ 9 ! same plant4 ,! typical g5us 7,ectoc>pus7 conta9s _m ,briti% species1 ?\gh sev]al ( !m are r>e4 ,!y are s(t & flexible we$s1 g5]ally ( a dull olive col\r1 ) slimy1 tubul> fronds1 & gr[ 9 tufts on o!r we$s or on mud-cov]$ rocks4 ,spores ( v>i\s %apes are scatt]$ ov] ! fronds1 & are also conta9$ 9 pod-l bodies =m$ ( ! bran*lets4 ,?is latt] feature is1 p]haps1 ! be/ di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ! g5us1 b x is n an easy matt] to id5tify ! sev]al species x conta9s4 ,e4 tom5tosus is v commonly f\nd on ,fucus & o!r we$s1 :]e x =ms matt$ tufts ( sl5d] ?reads ( a yell[i%-br[n col\r4 ,! ?reads are clo!d ) transp>5t cilia1 & toge!r =m a d5se1 spongy mass4 ,! spores are conta9$ 9 n>r[ pods support$ on %ort /alks4 ,e4 littoralis is ano!r common species1 ( a v unattractive appe>ance4 ,x gr[s 9 matt$ tufts on o!r we$s1 on rocks1 mud1 or any subm]g$ object1 & its spores are conta9$ 9 l9e> swell+s ( ! bran*es4 ,?is species ?rives well 9 bracki% wat]1 & may be se5 f> up c]ta9 tidal riv]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--;,ectoc>pus granulosus ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--;,ectoc>pus siliculosus ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--;,ectoc>pus ,m]t5sii ,among ! o!r species we may briefly m5tion ,e4 granulosus1 an abundant & beautiful we$ t gr[s 9 fea!ry tufts on rocks & we$s1 ) elliptical1 /alkless pods1 q visible to ! nak$ eye1 freely di/ribut$ ov] ! opposite bran*lets2 ,e4 siliculosus1 a pale olive1 p>asitic species ) lanceolate /alk$ pods1 po9t$ & /rip$2 ,e4 sphrophorus1 a small1 s(t1 br[ni%-yell[ species1 ) d5se matt$ bran*es & sph]ical pods arrang$ ei!r opposite to "o ano!r or to a bran*let2 & ,e4 ,m]t5sii1 a pretty species t gr[s on muddy rocks1 freely bran*$ b n matt$1 & hav+ pods enclos$ by ! bran*lets4 ,! la/ species is r>e1 b may be f\nd 9 ,caws& ,bay & a few o!r localities ab\t ,plym\? ,s\nd4 ,! g5us includes sev]al o!r species1 b all ^! are m or less r>e4 ,9 ! g5us ,myriotri*ia we h two p>asitic species ) fragile1 hair-l1 jo9t$ fronds be>+ simple /raight bran*es t are cov]$ ) transp>5t fibres4 ,9 ^! ! spore-cases are r\nd$ & transp>5t1 & arrang$ along ! ma9 ?reads2 & ! d>k olive spores are readily visible )94 ,9 ,m4 fili=mis ! bran*lets are %ort1 & clu/]$ at int]vals1 ?us giv+ a some:at knott$ appe>ance to ! ?reads1 & bo? bran*es & bran*lets are cov]$ ) long fibres4 ,! o!r species--,m4 clav=mis--is v simil>1 b may be di/+ui%$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! bran*lets1 :i* are n clu/]$ at int]vals1 b are di/ribut$ regul>ly1 & are long] t[>ds ! tip ( ! frond1 giv+ ! appe>ance ( m9ute fox-bru%es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--,sphacel>ia cirrhosa ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--,sphacel>ia plumosa ,! g5us ,sphacel>ia conta9s sev]al ,briti% we$s ) rigid bran*$ & jo9t$ fronds1 mo/ easily di/+ui%$ by ! tips ( ! bran*es1 :i* are flatt5$1 conta9 a granul> mass1 & h a )]$ appe>ance4 ,s4 cirrhosa =ms hair-l tufts ( sl5d] fibres ) closely-set bran*es on small we$s1 ! tufts v>y+ f a qu>t] ( an in* to ov] an in* 9 l5g?4 ,! fronds are nak$ at ! base1 & ! spore-cases1 :i* are globul>1 are arrang$ on ! bran*es4 ,s4 filic9a is1 z its "n implies1 ( a f]n-l appe>ance1 b is v v>iable 9 =m4 ,its fronds v>y f "o to ?ree in*es 9 l5g?1 & ! spores are arrang$ s+ly 9 ! axils ( ! bran*lets4 ,exclud+ "s r>] species we m5tion "o o!r example--! broom-l ,s4 scop>ia1 ! frond ( :i* is co>se & v rigid1 ( a d>k-br[n col\r1 two or ?ree in*es long1 ) ! l[] portion clo!d by woolly fibres4 ,its spores are arrang$ 9 clu/]s 9 ! axils ( ! bran*lets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--,sphacel>ia radicans ,! la/ g5us ( ! ,ectoc>pace is ,clado/ephus1 :i* gr[s 9 d>k-gre5 tufts1 usually five or six in*es long1 9 ! deep] tide pools4 ,! fronds are cyl9drical1 bran*$1 in>ticulate1 & rigid2 & ! bran*lets1 :i* are %ort & jo9t$1 are arrang$ 9 :orls4 ,! spores are situat$ 9 %ort accessory bran*lets1 or 9 masses at ! tips ( ! ord9>y bran*lets4 ,c4 v]ticillatus is a v common species1 ! :orl$ bran*lets ( :i* are decidu\s 9 w9t]1 :5 ! accessory bran*lets t be> spores beg9 to develop4 ,c4 spongiosus is d5sely clo!d ) bran*lets1 & is ( a bu%y habit1 ) a v spongy feel+4 ,x is by "s reg>d$ z a v>iety ( ,c4 v]ticillatus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--;,clado/ephus spongiosus ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--;,*ord>ia flagelli=mis ,! ord] ,*ord>iace is *>act]is$ by a comp\nd gelat9\s or c>tilag9\s frond1 consi/+ ( int]lac+ horizontal & v]tical ?reads4 ,! spores are n ext]nal z 9 ! ,ectoc>pace1 b conta9$ 9 cells 9 ! sub/ance ( ! frond4 ,9 ! typical g5us ! frond has a cyl9drical1 bran*$1 c>tilag9\s axis1 surr\nd$ by :orls ( club-%ap$ ?reads & sl5d] gelat9\s fibres4 ,we h only "o common species--,*ord>ia flagelli=mis1 ! fronds ( :i* are f f\r to tw5ty in*es long1 ( uni=m ?ickness ?r\gh\t1 ) long1 gli/5+1 s(t & slimy bran*es among :i* ! spores are dispos$4 ,x may be f\nd 9 rock pools at almo/ all levels4 ,9 ! g5us ,ela*i/a !re are "s v small & peculi> we$s t are almo/ sure to be ov]look$ by inexp]i5c$ collectors4 ,!y are p>asitic1 & are compos$ ( two k9ds ( jo9t$ ?reads1 ! inn] ( :i* are =k$ & comb9$ into a tub]cle1 :ile ! out] are simple & radiate f ! tub]cle4 ,! spores are atta*$ to ! inn] ?reads4 ,! l>ge/ species 7,e4 fucicola7 is p>asitic on ,fucus1 gr[+ 9 bru%-l tufts ab\t an in* long4 ,"s ( ! small] ones are m]e />-l tufts ( no attractive appe>ance1 & w\ld be disreg>d$ z tr\blesome p>asites by mo/ "y collectors1 b all ( !m are v int]e/+ objects = ! microscope4 ,! memb]s ( ! g5us ,myrionema are simil>ly liable to be neglect$1 = !y are m9ute p>asites appe>+ only z decay+ spots on l>g] we$s1 b nev]!less =m int]e/+ /udies = ! microscope4 ,l ! la/ gr\p1 !y h two sets ( jo9t$ fibres1 ! inn] be+ bran*$1 & spread ov] ! surface ( ! plant on :i* x gr[s1 :ile ! out] are simple & /& out at "r angles1 b all are unit$ into a r\nd$ mass by a gelat9\s sub/ance4 ,p]haps ! be/ kn[n is ,m4 /rangulans1 :i* infe/s ,ulva & ,ent]omorpha1 produc+ ! appe>ance ( small decay+ spots4 ,9 ! g5us ,lea!sia we h o!r unattractive we$s1 ! jo9t$ & =k$ ?reads ( :i* are all unit$ toge!r into tub]-l fronds t are common on rocks & we$s betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,!re are ?ree or f\r species1 all simil> 9 g5]al appe>ance1 ) ! spores di/ribut$ among ! out] ?reads4 ,^! we$s _c be satisfactorily press$ & dri$ 9 ! usual way1 & %\ld be pres]v$ 9 =maldehyde or dilute _s1 :5 !y w always be available = microscopic exam9ation4 ,! la/ g5us ( ! ,*ord>iace is ,mesogloia1 s call$ because ! c5tral axis ( loosely-pack$1 int]lac+ ?reads is cov]$ ) gelat9\s sub/ance4 ,ar\nd ?is axis !re are radiat+1 =k$ ?reads :i* are tipp$ ) clubb$ & bead$ fibres among :i* ! spores are di/ribut$4 ,"o species 7,m4 v]micul>is71 common 9 mo/ rock pools1 is ( a wormlike =m1 ( a dirty olive or yell[ col\r1 ) s(t1 ela/ic fronds gr[+ 9 tufts f "o to two feet long4 ,m4 viresc5s1 also a common species1 is ( a pale gre5i% or olive col\r1 & v s(t & slimy4 ,its /em is r\nd & sl5d]1 freely bran*$1 ) %ort1 simple bran*lets4 ,! ord] ,dictyotace conta9s ! olive we$s ) in>ticulate fronds1 & sup]ficial spores dispos$ 9 def9ite l9es or spots4 ,9 ! typical g5us 7,dictyota7 ! frond is flat & =k$1 some:at ulva-l & ribless1 & ! spores are produc$ 9 little sup]ficial discs j b5ea? ! cuticle4 ,!re is only "o ,briti% species--,d4 di*otoma--b t is a v common "o1 & x assumes a great v>iety ( =ms z reg>ds ! %ape & division ( its fronds accord+ to ! situation 9 :i* x gr[s1 ! fronds be+ broade/ & /ronge/ 9 ! deepe/ wat]4 ,! root is cov]$ ) woolly fibres1 & ! frond is regul>ly =k$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ alg ( ?is ord] is ! ,turkey-fea!r ,lav] 7,pad9a pavonia71 :i* is ! only ,briti% repres5tative ( its g5us 7see ,plate ,,vii474 ,its v pretty fan-%ap$ fronds are ( a lea!ry nature1 curv$1 fr+$ along ! upp] m>g91 & m>k$ ) conc5tric l9es4 ,!y (t5 be> small leaflets1 & are p>tially cov]$ ) a p[d]y sub/ance :i* r5d]s !m beautifully iridesc5t :5 9 ! wat]4 ,! root has woolly fibres1 & ! spores are arrang$ 9 l9es along ! upp] m>g94 ,?is we$ seems to be conf9$ to ! s\? coa/1 :]e x may (t5 be se5 9 ! deep] tide pools2 ?\gh 9 "s ( ! s&y bays ( ! ,isle ( ,wight x may be se5 9 %all[ pools1 & ev5 9 places left expos$ to ! air at l[ tide4 ,! g5us ,zon>ia conta9s a ,briti% species 7,z4 p>vula7 t cov]s ! rocks 9 r\nd pat*es2 & ?\gh mod]ately common is n v frequ5tly se5 by collectors on acc\nt ( ! fact t x gr[s 9 ! deep crevices ( rocks at or ne> l[-wat] m>k4 ,its frond is flat & membranace\s1 m or less divid$ into lobes1 )\t ve9s1 & r obscurely divid$ into conc5tric zones4 ,x is atta*$ to ! rock by fibres t proce$ f ! "u surface ( ! frond1 & ! spores are arrang$ 9 clu/]s b5ea? ! sup]ficial cells4 ,cutl]ia multifida1 ?\gh n v abundant1 is to be f\nd on mo/ ( our coa/s2 b s9ce x gr[s almo/ exclusively beyond l[-wat] m>k1 x %\ld be look$ = on ! bea* aft] /orms1 or 9 ! fi%]m5's nets4 ,! frond is olive-gre51 fan-%ap$1 r ?ick1 & irregul>ly divid$ into =k$ bran*es2 & x has a beautifully nett$ surface4 ,! spore-cases may be se5 scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! frond z s _m black dots1 & ! an!ridia are elongat$1 cyl9drical bodies atta*$ to tuft$ filam5ts on all p>ts ( ! frond4 ,9 ! g5us ,/ilophora ! root is discoid2 ! frond cyl9drical1 holl[1 & bran*$2 & ! spores arrang$ 9 clu/]s ov] ! surface4 ,"o species 7,s4 rhizodes7 is occasionally to be se5 on ! s\? coa/4 ,x is ( a yell[i% col\r1 f six to tw5ty in*es long1 & may be kn[n by its long ?read-l bran*es1 ) scatt]$1 =k$ bran*lets1 & by ! w>t-l projections ( ! /em :i* conta9 ! spores4 ,?is we$ is (t5 ! s\rce ( "s disappo9tm5t to ! collector1 = x soon turns to a jelly-l mass :5 remov$ f ! wat]1 & %\ld !re=e be m\nt$ z soon z possible aft] x has be5 collect$4 ,! f5nel-l ,dictyosiphon fniculaceus is abundant 9 tide pools1 :]e x may be se5 9 its be/ condition dur+ spr+ & e>ly summ]4 ,its root is a small disc1 ! frond is tubul>1 ?read-l & bran*$1 & ! bran*es be> hook$ bran*lets4 ,! spores are nak$1 & di/ribut$ ei!r s+ly or 9 clu/]s ov] ! surface ( ! frond4 ,our next g5us--,punct>ia--conta9s a few ,briti% species ) a %ield-%ap$ root1 & a flat1 membran\s1 undivid$ frond1 )\t a midrib1 & hav+ ! spores dispos$ z m9ute dots ov] ! surface4 ,a planta9-l species 7,p4 plantag9ea7 has broad1 lea!ry1 lanceolate fronds1 ( a d>k olive-br[n col\r1 usually f six in*es to a foot 9 l5g?4 ,two o!r we$s--! broad-leav$ ,p4 latifolia ( ! tide pools1 & ! sl5d]1 tuft$ ,p4 t5uissima1 :i* is p>asitic on ,zo/]a & soe alg1 are sometimes reg>d$ z m]e v>ieties ( ,p4 plantag9ea4 ,9 ! g5us ,asp]ococcus ! root is %ield-%ap$1 & ! frond is a membran\s tubul> sac ( two di/9ct lay]s4 ,! col\r is pale gre51 & ! g5]al appe>ance v simil> to t ( ,ulva4 ,! spores are arrang$ 9 small oblong clu/]s :i* appe> z d>k dots on ! surface ( ! frond4 ,a4 compressus has slightly swoll5 flat fronds ( a l9e> lanceolate =m1 tap]+ bel[4 ,x gr[s 9 deep wat]1 b is (t5 wa%$ up dur+ /orms4 ,a second species--,a4 ,turn]i--has l>ge1 puffy1 gre5 fronds1 contract$ at int]vals1 & gr[s 9 tufts on rocks betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 be+ specially p>tial to muddy %ores4 ,! g5us also includes ! prickly ,a4 e*9atus1 ! long1 ?9 fronds ( :i* gr[ 9 d5se tufts 9 deep wat]4 ,! la/ g5us ( ! ord] is ,litosiphon1 a p>asitic gr\p *>act]is$ by a cyl9drical1 c>tilag9\s1 unbran*$ frond1 ) scatt]$1 nak$ spores4 ,a v small species 7,l4 pusillus7 ) tuft$ gre5 fronds gr[s p>asitic on ! fronds ( ,*orda & ! /ems ( ,lam9>ia4 ,x is only two or ?ree in*es long1 has a reticulat$ surface1 & is cov]$ ) m9ute jo9t$ fibres4 ,a /ill small] species 7,l4 lam9>i71 seldom exce$+ half an in* 9 l5g?1 =ms br[n tufts on ,al>ia1 & ! r\nd$ apex ( its frond is cov]$ ) m9ute fibres4 ,! ord] ,lam9>iace conta9s olive1 in>ticulate alg1 mo/ly ( l>ge size1 & g5]ally gr[+ 9 deep wat] beyond ! tide-m>ks4 ,_! spores are sup]ficial1 ei!r cov]+ ! :ole surface ( ! frond or collect$ into indef9ite cl\dy pat*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--,lam9>ia bulbosa ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--,lam9>ia sac*>9a ,! typical g5us 7,lam9>ia7 is *>act]is$ by flat lea!ry1 ribless fronds1 ei!r simple or cleft1 & support$ on a /em :i* is (t5 v ?ick & /rong4 ,! old lam9 fall (f e ye>1 & are replac$ by new fronds4 ,! well-kn[n ,tangle or ,sea ,girdle 7,l4 digitata71 is a v common species on ! rocks j beyond l[-wat] m>k4 ,x has a v ?ick1 solid1 cyl9drical /em1 & an oblong lea!ry frond :i* is entire :5 "y b deeply cleft lat]4 ,small specim5s may be f\nd j above l[-wat] m>k1 b f9e l>ge ones are commonly wa%$ up on ! bea*4 ,al?\gh ?is we$ may n be reg>d$ z an acquisition f ! collector's po9t ( view1 x w g5]ally repay a c>eful exam9ation1 z x frequ5tly be>s r>e p>asitic species4 ,! o!r common species are ! ,furbel[s 7,l4 bulbosa71 kn[n by its flat /em ) wav$ m>g91 oblong frond cleft into n>r[ /rips1 & ! holl[ bulb or tub] j above ! root2 & ! ,sug>$ ,lam9>ia 7,l4 sac*>9a7 *>act]is$ by a r\nd solid /em1 & a lanceolate1 entire1 membran\s frond4 ,! la/ species is ! "o mo/ commonly us$ by ! sea-side cottag] z a wea!r indicator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,sea-,,we$s #a4 ,*orda filum #b4 ,fucus vesiculosus #c4 ,fucus canaliculatus #d4 ,deless]ia 7,maug]ia7 sangu9ea #e4 ,rhodym5ia palmata #f4 ,*ondrus crispus #g4 ,ulva lactuca ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--;,al>ia escul5ta ,al>ia escul5ta is an edible species kn[n z ! ,badd]locks 9 ,scotl&1 & also locally z ! ,h5w>e1 ,honeyw>e1 & ! ,murl9s4 ,x has a fibr\s root1 & a /alk$1 lanceolate1 entire frond ) a di/9ct midrib ?r\gh\t4 ,! /em is w+$ ) f+]-l leaflets1 9 :i* ! spores are arrang$ 9 oblong clu/]s4 ,9 ! g5us ,*orda ! frond is a simple1 cyl9drical tube1 divid$ int]nally by num]\s transv]se membranes1 & ! spores are di/ribut$ ov] ! surface4 ,! commone/ species is ,c4 filum 7see ,plate ,,viii471 ! frond ( :i* is v slimy1 & (t5 f t5 to tw5ty feet 9 l5g?4 ,9 its "y /ate x is cov]$ ) gelat9\s hairs1 b ^! are worn (f z ! plant develops4 ,a small] species 7,c4 lom5t>ia7 is sometimes f\nd on our %ores4 ,its fronds are con/rict$ at int]vals1 tap] at ! tip1 & gr[ 9 tufts4 ,x is seldom m ?an a foot long1 & is n ( a slimy nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,sporo*nus p$unculatus ,! ,sporo*nace h in>ticulate1 ?read-l fronds1 & ! spores are conta9$ 9 oblong1 /alk$ receptacles1 ea* ( :i* is cr[n$ ) a tuft ( sl5d] jo9t$ filam5ts4 ,! typical g5us conta9s only "o ,briti% species--,sporo*nus p$unculatus--& ev5 t is by no means common4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a v pretty we$ ( a delicate texture & pale olive-gre5 col\r4 ,its /em is long & sl5d]1 p9nately bran*$1 & ! bran*es be> num]\s small ?read-l tufts4 ,! same ord] conta9s ! g5us ,desm>e/ia1 9 :i* ! frond is long & n>r[1 ?read-l or flatt5$1 ) a tubul> jo9t$ ?read runn+ ?r\gh x4 ,"y specim5s h m>g9al tufts ( bran*+ filam5ts4 ,! species decay v rapidly aft] removal f ! wat]1 & %\ld !re=e be dri$ & m\nt$ z quickly z possible4 ,d4 ligulata1 s nam$ f ! flat1 /rap-l frond1 is common on all our coa/s4 ,x is p9nately bran*$1 & all ! bran*es & bran*lets tap] t[>ds bo? ends4 ,d4 viridis has a cyl9drical1 ?read-l & freely-divid$ frond1 ) opposite bran*es & bran*lets4 ,x occurs m commonly on ! nor!rn %ores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--;,desm>e/ia ligulata ,! la/ ord] ( olive-spor$ we$s is ! ,fucace1 "s species ( :i* are s abundant betwe5 ! tide-m>ks1 f high-wat] to l[-wat] levels1 t !y =m a v important *>act]i/ic ( our %ores4 ,!y are mo/ly l>ge1 t\gh1 & lea!ry we$s1 )\t jo9ts1 & ! spores are conta9$ 9 sph]ical receptacles emb$d$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! frond4 ,9 ! typical g5us--,fucus--! root is a conical disc1 & ! frond flat or compress$ & =k$4 ,mo/ ( ! species are furni%$ ) "o-cell$ air-vessels 9 ! sub/ance ( ! frond1 & ^! s]ve to buoy up ! plants & keep !m m or less erect :5 subm]g$4 ,! spore-receptacles are usually emb$d$ ne> ! tips ( ! bran*es1 b are sometimes borne on special bran*es or %oots4 ,!y are fill$ ) a slimy mucus & conta9 a network ( jo9t$ filam5ts4 ,! we$s are v h>dy1 capable ( )/&+ long exposures to air & sun1 & are sometimes to be f\nd above high-wat] m>k1 :]e !y are wat]$ only by ! spray ( ! waves = a brief p]iod at int]vals ( ab\t twelve h\rs4 ,al?\gh !y are n usually look$ ^u z ornam5ts 9 ! collector's h]b>ium1 !y w repay exam9ation = ! tufts ( small] & m beautiful we$s to :i* !y (t5 give atta*m5t & %elt]4 ,f\r species are common on our coa/s1 & ^! may be readily di/+ui%$ by ! mo/ cursory exam9ation4 ,! ,s]rat$ ,wrack 7,f4 s]ratus7 has a flat1 =k$ frond ) too!d edges & a /rong midrib1 rang+ f "o to f\r feet long1 & no air-vessels4 ,! ,knott$ ,wrack 7,f4 nodosus--,plate ,,vii47 may be kn[n by its flatt5$1 ?ick & n>r[ frond1 )\t a di/9ct rib1 f "o to five feet long4 ,! bran*es are n>r[ at ! base1 po9t$ at ! tip1 & are jo9t$ to %ort projections on ! ma9 /em2 & bo? ^! & ! ma9 /em h v l>ge oval air-vessels4 ,! spore-receptacles are m\nt$ on sl5d] /alks :i* arise f projections on ! bran*es1 & are ( a bright yell[ col\r :5 mature4 ,?is species does n gr[ s ne> to high-wat] m>k z d ! o!rs4 ,ano!r species1 ! ,tw9-,bladd] ,wrack 7,f4 vesiculosus--,plate ,,viii47--is abundant ev]y:]e along ! coa/1 & is l>gely us$ by agriculturi/s bo? z manure & z fodd] = cattle4 ,! frond is flat1 ) a di/9ct midrib1 & a non-s]rat$ edge4 ,air-vessels are n always pres5t1 b :5 !y are !y usually occur 9 pairs1 "o on ea* side ( ! midrib1 & are globul> 9 =m4 ,! spore-receptacles are situat$ at ! tips ( ! bran*es1 are full ( mucus1 & are frequ5tly =k$4 ,! la/ ( ! common species is ! ,*annell$ ,wrack 7,f4 canaliculatus--,plate ,,viii471 di/+ui%$ by a n>r[ frond1 r\nd$ on "o side & *annell$ on ! o!r4 ,x has no midrib or air-vessels1 & ! fruit is conta9$ 9 =k$ receptacles at ! tips ( ! bran*es4 ,?is is ! smalle/ ( ! g5us1 & may be f\nd at all levels betwe5 ! tide-m>ks4 ,/unt$ specim5s may also be se5 9 situations :]e !y are nev] subm]g$1 b wat]$ only by ! spray ( ! highe/ tides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4--;,himan?alia lorea ,! g5us ,himan?alia provides u ) a s+le species 7,h4 lorea7 :i* is v peculi> on acc\nt ( ! small size ( ! frond z comp>$ ) ! enorm\s dim5sions ( ! spore-receptacles4 ,! "y frond is a pe>-%ap$ sac :i* soon becomes flatt5$ into a holl[ disc4 ,?is disc !n becomes solid1 & concave above1 & f its c5tre !re arises a bi-=k$1 /rap-l receptacle t (t5 rea*es a l5g? ( ?ree or f\r feet1 & may be mi/ak5 = ! frond ( ! we$ by ^? :o d n take ! tr\ble to exam9e x4 ,?is we$ is commonly kn[n z ! ,sea ,?ong4 ,belong+ to ! g5us ,cy/oseira we h a few well-kn[n we$s ) conical disc-roots1 & %rubby fronds ) woody /em & alt]nate bran*es4 ,! air-cells are 9 ! sub/ance ( ! frond1 & ! spore-receptacles at ! tips ( ! bran*es4 ,"o ( ! species 7,c4 ericoides7 is ( a hea?-l habit1 ) a %ort1 woody /em1 & sl5d] bran*es be>+ hook$1 leaf-l bran*lets4 ,its air-cells are small1 & are arrang$ s+ly ne> ! tips ( ! bran*es2 & ! spore-receptacles are cyl9drical1 ) hook$ po9ts4 ,?is we$ is common on ! s\? & we/ coa/s1 & may be readily di/+ui%$ by ! beautiful iridesc5ce x displays :5 9 ! wat]4 ,c4 fibrosa is v simil> 9 g5]al =m1 b is l>g]1 & ! air-vesicles are m conspicu\s4 ,x is n iridesc5t :5 9 ! wat]4 ,a ?ird species is nam$ ,c4 granulata f ! r\gh & knobby appe>ance ( ! /em1 due to num]\s oval projections1 f "s ( :i* spr+ ! sl5d]1 mu*-divid$ bran*es4 ,! air-vesicles are arrang$ 9 gr\ps ( two or ?ree1 & ! spore-receptacles are at ! ends ( ! bran*lets4 ,our la/ example is ,c4 fniculacea1 f\nd on ! s\? coa/ only1 & readily di/+ui%$ by ! num]\s blunt sp9es t cov] its long bran*es4 ,! air-vesicles are n>r[ & po9t$1 & situat$ j bel[ ! =k+s ( ! bran*lets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4--;,cy/oseira ericoides ,we conclude our rsum ( ! ,briti% sea we$s ) a %ort description ( ! ,podd$ ,sea ,oak 7,halidrys siliquosa71 :i* gr[s 9 ! tide pools f high-wat] to l[-wat] m>k1 ! specim5s inhabit+ ! %all[ pools be+ only a few in*es long1 :ile ^? t gr[ 9 deep wat] (t5 rea* a l5g? ( ?ree or f\r feet4 ,x is an olive1 %rub-l we$1 ) a conical1 disc-l root t adh]es v firmly to ! rock1 & a p9nately-bran*$ frond ) leaf-l bran*lets4 ,! air-vesicles are cyl9drical & pod-l1 divid$ int]nally into ab\t t5 cells1 & ! spores are conta9$ 9 globul> receptacles at ! tips ( ! bran*lets4 ,! "y algologi/ w probably meet ) _m difficulties 9 8 attempts to classify 8 sea we$s & "n ! v>i\s species 9 8 collection4 ,9 deal+ ) an unkn[n we$ we /rongly recomm5d him to fir/ det]m9e ! ord] to :i* x belongs4 ,! g5us %\ld next be settl$2 & !n1 if possible1 ! species4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t he :o has made himself acqua9t$ ) ! pr9ciples ( classification has done good "w1 & t x is f> bett] to be able to arrange ! we$s into prop]ly-classifi$ gr\ps ?an to m]ely le>n ! names ( ! diff]5t species )\t reg>d to ! relations :i* !y be> to "o ano!r4 ,! foll[+ table w probably assi/ ! read] 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! ord]s1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t a microscope w (t5 be necess>y = ! exam9ation ( ! spores & ! m9ute /ructure ( fronds4 ,,classification ,,( ,,sea ,,we$s ,a4 ,*lorosp]me--,gre5-spor$ we$s4 ,fronds usually grass-gre51 & filam5t\s or membran\s4 #a4 ,conf]vace--,frond ?read-l1 compos$ ( cyl9drical cells plac$ end to end4 ,spores v m9ute1 =m$ )9 ! cells4 #b4 ,ulvace--,frond grass-gre5 or purple1 flat or tubul>4 ,spores m9ute1 ciliat$1 =m$ 9 ! cells ( ! frond4 #c4 ,siphonace--,frond a s+le1 ?read-l1 bran*+ cell1 or a spongy mass ( _m su* cells4 ,b4 ,rhodosp]me--,r$-spor$ we$s4 ,spores 9 globul> conceptacles4 ,tetraspores 7f\r-clu/]$ spores7 9 globul> or cyl9drical cells4 ,frond r$1 r$di% br[n1 or purple4 #d4 ,c]amiace--,frond ?read-l1 jo9t$1 "o-siphon$1 & m or less cov]$ ) a lay] ( cortical cells4 ,spores gr\p$ 9 transp>5t1 membran\s sacs1 sometimes surr\nd$ by a :orl ( %ort bran*lets4 #e4 ,spyridiace--,frond ?read-l1 jo9t$1 "o-siphon$1 m or less cov]$ ) small cells4 ,spores =m$ 9 ! upp] cells ( bran*$1 jo9t$1 radiat+ ?reads1 enclos$ 9 a cellul> membrane 9 ext]nal conceptacles4 #f4 ,cryptonemiace--,frond m or less c>tilag9\s1 compos$ ( num]\s jo9t$ ?reads compact$ by gelat9e4 ,spores gr\p$ )\t ord] 9 int]nal cells or 9 ext]nal conceptacles4 #g4 ,rhodym5iace--,frond in>ticulate1 membranace\s1 compos$ ( polygonal cells1 ! surface cells =m+ a cont9u\s lay]4 ,spores 9 bead$ ?reads 9 ext]nal conceptacles4 #h4 ,wrangeliace--,frond in>ticulate1 ?read-l1 trav]s$ by a jo9t$ tubul> axis4 ,spores =m$ 9 ! t]m9al cells ( clu/]$1 bran*+1 nak$ ?reads4 #i4 ,helm9?ocladi--,frond cyl9drical1 gelat9\s1 compos$ ( filam5ts imb$d$ 9 gelat9e4 ,spores =m$ on bran*+1 radiat+ ?reads t are enclos$ 9 ! frond )\t conceptacles4 #aj4 ,squam>i--,frond li*5-l1 root$ by "u surface1 compos$ ( v]tical filam5ts imb$d$ 9 firm gelat9e4 ,spores 9 bead$ ?reads 9 w>t-l projections4 #aa4 ,spongioc>pe--,frond cyl9drical1 bran*+1 c>tilag9\s1 compos$ ( nett$ filam5ts imb$d$ 9 firm gelat9e4 ,spores l>ge1 9 radiat+ clu/]s 9 w>t-l excresc5ces4 #ab4 ,gelidiace--,frond c>tilag9\s1 in>ticulate1 compos$ ( hair-l filam5ts4 ,spores atta*$ to sl5d] ?reads 9 int]nal conceptacles4 #ac4 ,sphrococcoide--,frond leaf-l or ?read-l1 in>ticulate1 cellul>4 ,spores =m$ 9 bead$ ?reads 9 ext]nal conceptacles4 #ad4 ,hapalidiace--,frond m9ute1 calc>e\s1 compos$ ( a s+le lay] ( cells4 #ae4 ,corall9ace--,frond calc>e\s4 ,spores 9 tuft$ ?reads at ! bases ( ! conceptacles4 #af4 ,laur5ciace--,frond r\nd$ or flatt5$1 bran*+1 in>ticulate1 cellul>4 ,spores 9 ext]nal oval or globul> conceptacles4 ,tetraspores irregul>ly scatt]$ ov] ! bran*es4 #ag4 ,rhodomelace--,frond leafy1 ?read-l1 or jo9t$1 compos$ ( polygonal cells4 ,spores 9 ext]nal conceptacles4 ,tetraspores 9 di/ort$ bran*lets or 9 receptacles4 ,c4 ,melanosp]me--,olive-spor$ we$s4 ,frond t\gh1 lea!ry4 ,spores 9 globul> cavities 9 sub/ance ( frond4 #ah4 ,ectoc>pace--,frond jo9t$1 ?read-l4 ,spores atta*$ to or imb$d$ 9 bran*lets4 #ai4 ,*ord>iace--,frond gelat9\s or c>tilag9\s1 compos$ ( int]lac+ v]tical & horizontal filam5ts4 ,spores int]nal1 atta*$ to ! filam5ts4 #bj4 ,dictyotace--,frond in>ticulate4 ,spores sup]ficial1 arrang$ 9 def9ite spots or l9es4 #ba4 ,lam9>iace--,frond in>ticulate4 ,spores cov]+ ! :ole frond or 9 cl\d-l pat*es4 #bb4 ,sporo*nace--,frond in>ticulate4 ,spores atta*$ to jo9t$ filam5ts :i* are ei!r free or compact$4 #bc4 ,fucace--,frond in>ticulate1 l>ge & t\gh4 ,spores 9 globul> cavities4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,fl[]+ ,,plants ,,( ,,! ,,sea-,,side ,a consid]able numb] ( our fl[]+ plants exhibit a decid$ p>tiality = ! neighb\rhood ( ! sea1 & _m are to be f\nd only on ! sea cliffs or 9 salt m>%es n f> f ! %ore4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! w be n[ briefly describ$1 deal+ fir/ ) ! monocotyl$ons1 & !n ) ! m highly organis$ dicotyl$ons4 ,! *ief di/+ui%+ features ( ^! two gr\ps h already be5 ref]r$ to1 b x w be advisable "h to give !m 9 some:at full] detail4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bge4--,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,/em ,,( ,a ,,monocotyl$on ,! monocotyl$on\s plants1 !n1 are ^? 9 :i* ! /em is m or less woody & cyl9drical1 )\t ei!r true b>k or pi?2 & ! woody tissue is n arrang$ 9 conc5tric r+s1 b 9 isolat$ bundles1 :i* fir/ b5d inw>ds1 z !y rise1 t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! /em1 & !n curve outw>ds t[>ds ! surface1 :i* is h>d5$ by ! =mation ( a lay] ( h>d woody matt]4 ,z a rule ! /em is unbran*$1 & its gr[? takes place by a s+le bud at ! summit4 ,9 ne>ly all ( !m ! leaves are long & n>r[1 ) ve9s runn+ p>allel ?r\gh\t _! l5g?2 & ! p>ts ( ! fl[] are arrang$ 9 :orls ( ?ree or six4 ,! out] :orl ( ! fl[] is (t5 a conspicu\s :ite or col\r$ p]ian? 7t portion ( ! fl[] :i* lies outside ! an!rs71 b 9 "s ! p]ian? is abs5t1 ! fl[] be+ protect$ by scaly bracts4 ,! se$s are produc$ 9 a case call$ ! ov>y1 & are f]tilis$ by poll5 gra9s :i* are develop$ 9 ! an!rs4 ,:5 ! poll5 gra9s are set free !y alight on ! adhesive /igma1 & gr[1 s5d+ _! tubes d[n into ! ov>y4 ,! t]m monocotyl$on is appli$ to ^! plants because ! embryo has only "o cotyl$on or se$-leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4--,,leaf ,,( ,a ,,monocotyl$on ,! pr9cipal divisions ( ?is gr\p are ! ,glumace\s ,monocotyl$ons1 9 :i* ! fl[] has no p]ian?1 b is enclos$ 9 scaly bracts or husks call$ glumes2 & ! ,petaloid ,monocotyl$ons1 di/+ui%$ g5]ally by ! pres5ce ( a m or less conspicu\s :ite or col\r$ p]ian?4 ,! fir/ ( ^! includes ! ru%es1 s$ges1 & grasses2 & ! o!r conta9s ! lilies & or*ids1 ) _! allies1 toge!r ) c]ta9 aquatic & semi-aquatic plants4 ,among ! ,grasses !re are sev]al species t %[ a pref]5ce = ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! sea1 "s gr[+ luxuriantly at ! bases ( ! cliffs :]e ! bea* is s&y1 & o!rs ?riv+ be/ 9 salt m>%es2 b be=e deal+ ) ^! individually we %all note ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! ord] 7,gram9e7 to :i* !y belong4 ,grasses are di/+ui%$ by _! jo9t$ /ems1 :i* are usually holl[1 ) a split %ea?1 & be>+ alt]nately arrang$ n>r[ leaves4 ,! fl[]s1 :i* are dispos$ ei!r 9 spikes 7sessile fl[]s arrang$ along a common axis7 or 9 panicles 7fl[]s /alk$ & arrang$ z 9 fig4 #bha71 consi/ ( scale-l bracts enclos+ ! /am5s & ! pi/il4 ,! bracts are 9 two s]ies1 ! out] usually consi/+ ( two glumes1 & ! inn] ( two pales2 ! upp] pale1 h[ev]1 has two ribs runn+ ?r\gh x1 & is !re=e usually look$ ^u z a comb9ation ( two4 ,9 "s species bo? glumes & pales are abs5t2 b ! =m]1 :5 pres5t1 enclose "o or m fl[]s1 among :i* may be "s t are abortive4 ,! /am5s are g5]ally ?ree 9 numb]1 atta*$ to ! base ( ! fl[]2 & ! ov>y is sup]ior or free1 t is1 x gr[s above ! o!r p>ts ( ! fl[]1 & conta9s b "o se$4 ,x w be conv5i5t at ?is /age to ref] briefly to ! two pr9cipal me?ods by :i* ! poll5 ( fl[]s is transf]r$ to ! /igmas = ! purposes ( f]tilisation1 & to see h[ v>i\s species are /ructurally adapt$ to ! means by :i* ! transf] is br\ght ab\t4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 we may classify fl[]s into ^? :i* are f]tilis$ by ! w9d 7anemophil\s fl[]s7 & ^? 9 :i* ! poll5 is transf]r$ by insects 7entomophil\s fl[]s74 ,! =m] (f] no attractions to allure ! v>i\s =ms ( insect life4 ,!y are1 g5]ally speak+1 v inconspicu\s1 be+ ( small size & hav+ no bright corollas4 ,none ( !m are sc5t$1 nor d !y produce ! sweet nect> t =ms ! pr9cipal food ( s _m insects4 ,_! an!rs are borne on long filam5ts1 s t !y are expos$ freely to ! w9d2 & !y produce abundance ( poll5 to comp5sate = ! v wa/eful me?od ( w9d-disp]sion4 ,! poll51 too1 is n v adh]5t1 s t x may be readily c>ri$ away by ! breeze2 & ! plants conc]n$ (t5 produce _! fl[]s e>ly 9 ! spr+1 be=e ! leaves h appe>$1 ?us giv+ ! w9d v free play4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4--;,,exp&$ ,,spikelet ,,( ,,! ,,oat ,g4 glumes2 ,p4e1 out] pale2 ,p4i1 inn] pale2 ,a1 awn2 ,f4,s1 a /]ile fl[]4 ,! /am5s & ! fea!ry /igmas ( ! f]tile fl[] are also %[n ,insect-f]tilis$ fl[]s1 on ! o!r h&1 are usually ( attractive appe>ance2 &1 ?\gh (t5 small & inconspicu\s individually1 !y are 9 su* cases gr\p$ toge!r 9 m or less %[y clu/]s4 ,!y are also usually sc5t$1 & supply nect> & poll5 to ! insects :i* !y allure4 ,"s are f]tilis$ by insects t fly by day1 & ^! (t5 close _! petals on ! approa* ( night1 ?us protect+ _! poll5 dur+ ! p]iod 9 :i* _! f]tilis]s sleep4 ,o!rs1 f]tilis$ by nocturnal insects1 always spread _! petals dur+ ! night1 & g5]ally protect _! poll5 f wa/e by sleep+ ?r\gh\t ! day4 ,z a rule1 too1 ^! night-bloom]s h l>ge & pale-col\r$ petals t are m easily se5 by night2 !y also evolve a p[]ful sc5t to aid ! insects 9 se>*+ !m out4 ,x w be se5 t ! economic relation%ip exi/+ betwe5 fl[]s & insects is a mutual "o1 ! latt] visit+ ! =m] 9 ord] to obta9 food1 :ile ! =m] d]ive 9 return ! advantage ( a direct transf] ( poll5 f fl[] to fl[]4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t ! self-f]tilisation ( a fl[] (t5 results 9 ! developm5t ( v weak se$l+s z comp>$ ) ^? t are produc$ by cross+2 & x (t5 happ5s t ! poll5 ( a fl[] is incapable ( produc+ ! lea/ effect :5 deposit$ on ! /igma ( ! same bloom4 ,9 "s cases ! contact ( ! poll5 ( a fl[] ) its own /igma w ev5 act z a poison1 caus+ ! :ole to %rivel & die2 & truly wond]ful are ! v>i$ means by :i* fl[]s contrive to secure a cross-f]tilisation4 ,x is "h t ! "w ( ! w9d & insects proves s valuable to fl[]s2 b1 9 addition to ?is1 a v l>ge numb] ( fl[]s are absolutely incapable ( self-f]tilisation1 = ! an!rs & ! /igma are n mature at ! same "t1 or !y exi/ 9 sep>ate fl[]s1 ei!r on ! same plant or on di/9ct plants ( ! same species4 ,x is mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive to /udy ! _m contrivances by :i* fl[]s compel c]ta9 insects to convey ! poll5 exactly 9 ! way t be/ s]ves _! purpose1 sometimes ev5 entrapp+ !m aft] !y h be5 allur$1 & n all[+ !m to escape until !y are ?or\ghly du/$ ) ! poll5 :i* !y are requir$ to convey2 b x is h>dly our prov9ce to ent] m fully into ?is matt] 9 ^! pages4 ,an exam9ation ( ! grasses w %[ at once t !y are adapt$ = f]tilisation by ! w9d4 ,! fl[]s produce no nect>2 &1 consi/5tly1 develop no bright petals & evolve no od\rs to attract insects4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _! an!rs produce abundance ( lightly-adh]+ poll51 & are m\nt$ on long filam5ts :i* hold !m well expos$ to ! w9d2 & ! /igmas are well adapt$ = cat*+ ! scatt]$ gra9s1 be+ long & protrud+1 & (t5 cov]$ ) /icky hairy or fea!ry app5dages4 ,al?\gh ! fl[]s ( grasses are g5]ally want+ 9 attractive col\rs1 ! clu/]s ( blossoms are (t5 v graceful & pretty1 especially :5 ! l>ge an!rs1 cov]$ ) bright-yell[ poll51 dangle 9 ! breeze4 ,we w n[ briefly describe ! pr9cipal ,briti% grasses t gr[ *iefly or exclusively 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! sea4 ,! ,sea ,h>d ,grass 7,lepturus fili=mis7 is a p]5nial species1 usually ab\t six in*es 9 height1 v common on "s s&y coa/s1 & f\nd 9 fl[] dur+ ! hotte/ mon?s ( ! summ]4 ,! fl[]s are arrang$ 9 simple spikes1 on sl5d] erect /ems2 & ! glumes1 :i* are unit$ at _! bases1 enclose a s+le bloom4 ,9 simil> situations we may f9d ! ,sea ,lyme ,grass 7,elymus ar5>ius71 a tall species1 (t5 rea*+ a height ( f\r feet1 ) glauc\s rigid leaves4 ,! fl[]s are arrang$ 9 a simple spike1 b ! spikelets are clu/]$ two or ?ree toge!r4 ,?is species fl[]s 9 ,augu/4 ,( ! well-kn[n ,b>ley ,grasses !re is "o species 7,hordeum m>itimum7 t has its habitat along ! coa/4 ,l ! o!rs ( its g5us1 ! spikelets are arrang$ 9 ?rees1 ea* be>+ a s+le fl[]1 & ! pales h long sl5d] processes 7awns7 :i* con/itute ! s-call$ be>d4 ,x also resembles ! common ,mead[ ,b>ley ,grass 9 hav+ ! middle fl[] ( ea* ?ree p]fect1 :ile ! two lat]als are abortive1 b may be di/+ui%$ by its r\gh & bri/ly glumes1 & ! semi-oval =m ( ! pales ( ! lat]al fl[]s4 ,x is a some:at /unt$ species1 sometimes only five or six in*es 9 height1 & may be f\nd 9 fl[] ab\t ,midsumm]4 ,! ,brome ,grasses h also a repres5tative ( a sea-lov+ nature1 :i* is to be f\nd 9 fields ne> ! cliffs4 ,x is ! ,field ,brome ,grass 7,bromus arv5sis71 an annual grass t gr[s to a height ( two or ?ree feet4 ,brome grasses g5]ally are kn[n by _! loose panicles ( fl[]s1 lanceolate & compress$ spikelets1 & awn$ florets enclos$ 9 unequal glumes2 & ,b4 arv5sis may be di/+ui%$ by its hairy leaves & /em-%ea?1 & ! droop+ panicle ) ! l[] p$uncle bran*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4--,,! ,,sea ,,lyme ,,grass ,among ! ,mead[ ,grasses we h ?ree or f\r coa/ species4 ,9 ^! ! florets are 9 panicles & are n awn$4 ,! out] glumes are keel$ & trav]s$ by sev]al ve9s2 & ! l[] pales are also keel$1 ) five or m n]ves4 ,! ,sea ,mead[ ,grass 7,poa m>itima7 gr[s 9 salt m>%es ne> ! sea1 its erect rigid panicles rea*+ a height ( ab\t eight or t5 in*es4 ,x has a creep+ root1 & its leaves are curv$ inw>d at ! m>g9s4 ,! ,procumb5t ,mead[ ,grass 7,p4 procumb5s7 & a v>iety ( ! ,reflex$ ,mead[ ,grass 7,p4 di/ans7 are also pl5tiful 9 salt m>%es4 ,! =m] may be kn[n by ! %ort rigid bran*es ( its panicle & ! five ribs ( ! l[] pales2 & ! latt] is mu* l ,p4 m>itima1 b gr[s tall]1 & its spikelets are cr[d$4 ,! ,:eat ,mead[ ,grass 7,p4 loliacea7 gr[s on s&y %ores4 ,its spikelets are arrang$ s+ly & alt]nately along ! c5tral axis1 & ! upp] glume rea*es to ! base ( ! f\r? floret4 ,?is species fl[]s 9 ,june1 b ! o!r ?ree ( ! same g5us bloom f ,july to ,septemb]4 ,! read] is probably acqua9t$ ) ! ,fescue ,grass1 ) its awn$ fl[]s arrang$ 9 "o-sid$ panicles4 ,!re are no less ?an sev5 species1 "o ( :i*--! ,s+le-husk$ ,fescue 7,fe/uca uniglumis7--gr[s on s&y %ores1 fl[]+ 9 ,june & ,july1 & rea*+ a height ( f n9e to twelve in*es4 ,! panicles are upright & unbran*$1 & ! species may be readily kn[n by ! fl[]s1 :i* are compress$1 ) long awns1 & ) ! l[] glumes want+4 ,knappia agro/idea is a dw>f species1 r>ely exce$+ f\r in*es 9 height1 t is f\nd on c]ta9 s&y %ores1 b is v local4 ,its fl[]s are arrang$ 9 a simple spike1 ! spikelets be+ solit>y & unilat]al1 ) only a s+le fl[]1 & ! pales are %aggy4 ,! plant has sev]al /ems :i* be> %ort1 r\gh leaves4 ,! ,mat ,grass or ,sea ,re$ 7,ammophila arund9acea7 is common on _m s&y coa/s1 :]e x gr[s to a height ( ?ree or f\r feet1 & fl[]s 9 ,july4 ,! :ite fl[]s are clu/]$ 9 d5se cyl9drical1 po9t$ spikes2 & ! leaves are ( a glauc\s gre5 col\r1 rigid1 & curv$ inw>d at ! edges4 ,dog's-too? ,grass 7,cynodon dactylon74 ,?is species has a creep+ root1 & ! leaves are d[ny on ! "u side4 ,! fl[]s are arrang$ 9 a comp\nd spread+ spike1 ( ?ree to five p>ts1 & ! spikelets are ( a purpli% col\r1 ovate 9 =m1 & arrang$ 9 pairs4 ,! glumes are equal 9 size4 ,x is f\nd on s&y %ores1 gr[s to a height ( ab\t six in*es1 & fl[]s 9 ,july4 ,a species ( ,can>y ,grass 7,phal>is arund9acea7 is also to be se5 on s&y coa/s4 ,unlike ! o!r species ( ! same g5us1 its fl[]s =m an erect spread+ panicle1 & ! glumes are n keel$4 ,x is also tall] ?an ! common can>y grass ( wa/e places1 (t5 rea*+ a height ( ?ree feet1 & is commonly kn[n z ! ,re$ ,can>y ,grass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4--,knappia agro/idea ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4--,,! ,,dog',s-,,too? ,,grass ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bha4--,,! ,,re$ ,,can>y ,,grass ,! ,sea ,cat's-tail ,grass 7,phleum ar5>ium7 is common on _m coa/s4 ,x is mu* small] ?an ! common species ( ,cat's-tail1 be+ g5]ally less ?an a foot high4 ,! spike is ( an elongat$ oval =m1 blunt at ! tip & n>r[ at ! base2 & ! glumes are n>r[1 po9t$ at bo? ends1 & fr+$4 ,ea* spikelet has b "o fl[]4 ,9 salt m>%es we occasionally meet ) ! ,p]5nial ,be>d ,grass 7,polypogon littoralis71 b x is some:at r>e4 ,x has a creep+ root1 & ! fl[]s =m a some:at d5se spike-l panicle4 ,! glumes h a sl5d] awn4 ,x gr[s to a height ( "o to two feet1 & fl[]s 9 ,july4 ,! ,tub]\s ,fox-tail ,grass 7,alopecurus bulbosus7 is ano!r r>e grass ( ! salt m>%es1 :]e x gr[s to ! height ( twelve to sixte5 in*es1 fl[]+ 9 ,may & ,june4 ,! g5us to :i* x belongs is v closely alli$ to ,phleum1 b may be di/+ui%$ by hav+ only "o pale to ea* fl[]1 & ?is species has a long awn atta*$ to ! back portion4 ,! panicle1 too1 is cyl9drical & sl5d]1 ! glumes q free & abruptly po9t$1 & ! awns long] ?an ! pales4 ,! la/ ( ! sea-side grasses are two r>e species ( ,cord ,grass 7,sp>t9a71 bo? ( :i* are f\nd 9 salt m>%es4 ,9 ^! ! infloresc5ce is a comp\nd spike1 ) "o-sid$ spikelets ins]t$ 9 a d\ble r[4 ,! glumes are keel$ & po9t$2 ! pales cleft1 po9t$ & )\t awns2 & ! /yles two 9 numb]1 v long4 ,! only ,briti% species ( ! g5us are ! two 7,s4 /ricta & ,s4 alt]nifolia7 ref]r$ to above4 ,!y bo? gr[ to a height ( ab\t eighte5 in*es1 & fl[] 9 late summ]4 ,9 ! =m] ! spikes numb] two or ?ree1 & are long] ?an ! leaves2 & ! out] glume is hairy1 ) a s+le n]ve4 ,! latt]1 :i* is ! r>] ( ! two1 be>s sev]al spikes1 %ort] ?an ! leaves2 & ! out] glume has five n]ves4 ,c]ta9 ( ! s$ges 7ord] ,cyp]ace7 are also m or less famili> to ! sea-side naturali/1 & mu/ !re=e receive a small %>e ( our att5tion4 ,9 g5]al t]ms ^! are grasslike1 monocotyl$on\s plants1 ! /ems ( :i* are solid1 jo9t$1 & frequ5tly angul>4 ,! leaves are v simil> to ^? ( grasses1 except t ! %ea?s1 :i* surr\nd ! /em1 are n split4 ,! fl[]s are g5]ally arrang$ 9 a spike1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r1 & ea* "o support$ on a scale-l bract4 ,9 "s s$ges ! fl[]s are p]fect1 ea* "o possess+ bo? /am5s & pi/il2 b 9 "s species ! fl[]s are unisexual1 "s be>+ /am5s & no pi/il1 & o!rs pi/il only4 ,! /am5s are g5]ally ?ree 9 numb]1 ! ov>y is sup]ior1 & ! /igmas ei!r two or ?ree4 ,s$ges ab\nd 9 moi/ places1 "s be+ peculi> to salt m>%es1 :ile o!rs gr[s on s&y %ores2 & a few ( ! ,briti% species ( ! latt] habitat are (t5 s abundant t _! creep+ roots b9d ! s& toge!r1 effectually hold+ x 9 place :ile ! surr\nd+ portions ( ! bea* are m]cilessly driv5 by ! w9d4 ,a few ( ! sea-side s$ges belong to ! g5us ,c>ex1 9 :i* ! fl[]s are imp]fect1 & ! fruit is enclos$ 9 ! out] p>ts ( ! fl[]4 ,c4 ext5sa ?rives 9 salt m>%es1 gr[+ to a height ( a foot or m1 & fl[]+ ab\t midsumm]4 ,its f]tile fl[]s =m oblong erect spikelets1 :ile ! b>r5 spikelets are solit>y4 ,! bracts are long & leafy1 ) %ort %ea?s surr\nd+ ! /em4 ,! leaves are curv$ 9 at ! edges1 & ! fruit is oval & ribb$1 ) a %ort /raight beak4 ,on s&y %ores ! ,sea ,s$ge 7,c4 ar5>ia7 is (t5 common1 & its und]gr\nd /ems are us$ = s>sap>illa4 ,x is a p]5nial species1 gr[+ to a height ( ab\t n9e in*es1 & fl[]+ 9 ,june & ,july4 ,! fl[]s gr[ 9 an oblong int]rupt$ spike1 ! upp] spikelets be+ b>r51 & ! int]m$iate ones b>r5 at ! tip4 ,! fruit is oval1 ve9$1 & w+$4 ,ano!r species ( ?is g5us--! ,curv$ ,s$ge 7,c4 incurva7--is sometimes to be se5 on s&y %ores1 b x is r>e1 & is also a v small s$ge1 gr[+ only to a height ( ab\t ?ree in*es4 ,x d]ives its specific "n f its curv$ /em1 & may be fur!r di/+ui%$ by its *annell$ leaves & ! globul> mass ( spikelets :i* are b>r5 on ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4--,,male ,,& ,,female ,,fl[]s ,,( ,c>ex1 ,,magnifi$ ,"s ( ! s-call$ ru%es belong to ! same ord] z ! s$ges1 & a few ( ^! are m or less re/rict$ to ! neighb\rhood ( ! sea4 ,! ,salt-m>% ,club ,ru% 7,scirpus m>itimus71 z its "n implies1 is to be f\nd 9 m>%es ne> ! sea4 ,x is v v>iable 9 height1 rang+ f "o to ?ree feet1 & displays its d5se t]m9al clu/] ( spikelets 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,9 ?is g5us all ! fl[]s are p]fect1 ! glumes imbricat$ & bri/l$2 & ! pres5t species may be di/+ui%$ by ! glumes be+ divid$ into two %>ply po9t$ lobes4 ,a v>iety ( ,s4 lacu/ris may also be f\nd on ! sea %ore1 b x is some:at r>e4 ,x has a leafless glauc\s /em1 & fl[]s arrang$ 9 comp\nd spikes4 ,! glumes are r\gh1 & conta9 a compress$ fruit4 ,a v small species ( ! ,spike ,ru% 7,eleo*>is p>vula71 gr[+ only "o or two in*es high1 is sometimes f\nd on ! muddy %ores ( ,irel&4 ,x has p]fect fl[]s1 9 a s+le t]m9al spikelet4 ,! leaves are v n>r[1 gr[+ f ! base ( ! plant2 & ! r\nd /em is enclos$ 9 a s+le leafless %ea?4 ,! true ru%es belong to ! ord] ,juncace4 ,^! h fibr\s roots & n>r[ leaves1 & be> clu/]s ( br[n fl[]s4 ,! p]ian? consi/s ( six p>ts1 & ! /am5s are usually six 9 numb]4 ,! ov>y is g5]ally ?ree-cell$1 develop+ into a ?ree-valv$ capsule4 ,! ,less] ,sea ,ru% 7,juncus m>itimus7 is common 9 salt m>%es1 gr[+ to a height ( two or ?ree feet1 & fl[]+ 9 ,july4 ,x has a rigid leafless /em1 be>+ lat]al clu/]s ( fl[]s4 ,! segm5ts ( ! p]ian? are v n>r[ & %>p1 & ! se$s are enclos$ 9 a loose te/a4 ,closely alli$ to ?is species is ! ,great ,sea ,ru% 7,j4 acutus71 :i* gr[s ?ree or f\r feet high on s&y %ores4 ,9 g5]al *>act]i/ics x resembles ,j4 m>itimus1 b ! segm5ts ( ! p]ian? are oval & h ?9 transp>5t m>g9s2 & x is a mu* r>] species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4--,,! ,,sea ,,s$ge ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4--,,! ,,curv$ ,,s$ge ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4--,,! ,,great ,,sea ,,ru% ,we n[ pass to ! peculi> ,sea ,grasses or ,grass ,wracks 7,zo/]a7 :i* gr[ 9 salt wat]4 ,!y belong to ! ord] ,naiadace1 & are *>act]is$ by cellul> leaves ) p>allel ve9s1 & inconspicu\s unisexual or bisexual fl[]s4 ,! p]ian?1 :5 pres5t at all1 consi/s ( two or f\r scale-l p>ts1 & ! /am5s correspond 9 numb] ) ^!4 ,! ov>y is free1 & ! c>pels1 "o or m 9 numb]1 conta9 ea* a s+le ovule4 ,9 ,zo/]a ! fl[]s are imp]fect1 & seem to gr[ 9 ! slit ( ! leaf4 ,!re are two species1 bo? ( :i* gr[ 9 %all[ wat] close to ! %ore1 (t5 9 su* d5se masses t !y imp$e ! progress ( boats4 ,!y h long creep+ /ems t lie buri$ 9 ! s&1 giv+ (f num]\s root-fibres1 & s5d up to ! surface sl5d] bran*es t be> grass-l leaves4 ,! fl[]s are unisexual1 & are arrang$ 9 two r[s on ! same side ( a flatt5$ /alk t is enclos$ 9 a %ea? =m$ by %ort leaves4 ,!y h no p]ian?1 ! male fl[]s be+ compos$ ( a s+le an!r1 & ! female ( a "o-cell$ ov>y conta9+ a s+le ovule1 & surm\nt$ by a /yle ) two long /igmas4 ,!re are two species--! ,broad-leav$ ,grass ,wrack 7,z4 m>9a7 ) leaves "o to ?ree feet long & trav]s$ by ?ree or m p>allel ve9s1 & ! ,dw>f ,grass ,wrack 7,z4 nana71 ! leaves ( :i* are less ?an a foot long1 ) ve9s numb]+ "o to ?ree4 ,!re is a v>iety ( ! =m]1 h[ev]1 nam$ ,angu/ifolia1 9 :i* ! leaves are mu* n>r[] ?an usual1 & ! ve9s few] 9 numb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4--,,! ,,broad-,,leav$ ,,grass ,,:ack ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4--,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,arr[ ,,grass ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4--,,! ,,common ,,asp>agus ,! ord] ,alismace1 :i* conta9s ! wat] planta9s1 arr[-heads1 & o!r semi-aquatic plants1 has a repres5tative ( m>9e t5d5cies 9 ! ,sea-side ,arr[ ,grass 7,triglo*9 m>itimum74 ,! fl[]s ( ?is ord] are bisexual1 ) six /am5s & a six-p>t$ p]ian?4 ,! fruit consi/s ( _m c>pels2 &1 al?\gh ! plants are monocotyl$ons1 _! leaves h nett$ ve9s2 & altoge!r !y some:at resemble ! ranunculace\s exog5s4 ,! ,sea-side ,arr[ ,grass is abundant 9 "s salt m>%es1 gr[+ to a height ( ab\t a foot1 & produces loose simple spikes ( gre5 fl[]s all ?r\gh ! summ]4 ,! leaves are radical1 n>r[ & fle%y2 & ! ov>y consi/s ( six c>pels4 ,( ! int]e/+ ord] ,liliace we h only "o plant ( ! coa/1 & ev5 t--! ,asp>agus--is n by any means g5]ally common4 ,x is ! same plant t is s l>gely cultivat$ z an article ( diet1 & :i* is s highly valu$ on acc\nt ( its diuretic prop]ties4 ,x is mod]ately common on p>ts ( ! s\? coa/1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,isle ( ,portl& & 9 ,we/ ,cornwall1 & its g5]al appe>ance is s graceful t x is l>gely employ$ z an ornam5tal g>d5 plant4 ,! /em is erect & freely bran*$1 be>+ fea!ry bun*es ( bri/l$ leaves & pale-yell[ axill>y fl[]s4 ,z is ! case ) ! ,liliace g5]ally1 ! fl[]s are bisexual1 ) a six-p>t$ p]ian?1 six /am5s1 & a ?ree-cell$ sup]ior ov>y2 & ! la/ nam$1 9 ! ,asp>agus1 =ms a bright-r$ b]ry 9 ! autumn4 ,we h n[ to leave ! monocotyl$on\s plants & pass on to ! dicotyl$ons1 :i* =m ! mo/ highly develop$ ( ! prim>y divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,a few ( ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ?is gr\p h already be5 giv51 b we mu/ n[ look r m closely into ! nature ( ! plants includ$4 ,! class receives its "n f ! pres5ce ( two cotyl$ons or se$-leaves 9 ! embryo plant1 & is also kn[n z ! ,exog5 because ! /ems increase 9 ?ickness by ! addition ( zones ( woody tissue at ! ext]ior4 ,:5 ! "y dicotyl$on\s plant fir/ appe>s above ! gr\nd1 ! two cotyl$ons1 :i* =m]ly s]v$ to %elt] ! immature bud1 usually appe> z t9y fle%y leaves2 b ^! soon )] away1 :ile ! bud produces ! m p]man5t leaves t are ( a v diff]5t /ructure4 ,a section ( ! /em w reveal di/9ct pi?1 wood1 & b>k1 ! wood be+ m or less di/9ctly divid$ into w$ge-%ap$ masses by rays f ! pi?2 &1 9 ! case ( p]5nial /ems1 ! wood is arrang$ 9 conc5tric r+s1 ! numb] ( :i* correspond approximately ) ! ye>s ( gr[?4 ,! leaves ( exog5s h _! ve9s 9 ! =m ( a network1 & ! p>ts ( ! fl[] are g5]ally arrang$ 9 :orls ( two or five or ( "s multiple ( ^! numb]s4 ,! fl[]s always h /am5s & pi/il1 b 9 "s ^! organs exi/ 9 sep>ate fl[]s1 ei!r on ! same plant1 or on diff]5t plants ( ! same species1 & ! ovules are ne>ly always conta9$ 9 a case call$ ! ov>y4 ,dicotyl$ons are divid$ into ?ree ma9 gr\ps1 ! division be+ bas$ on ! /ructure ( ! fl[]s4 ,!y are ! ,apetal 9 :i* ! petals are abs5t1 b ! p]ian? is frequ5tly petaloid1 ?\gh x is occasionally also abs5t2 ! ,gamopetal1 9 :i* ! petals are unit$2 & ! ,polypetal1 9 :i* ! petals are always di/9ct4 ,deal+ ) ^! divisions 9 ! above ord] we come fir/ to ! ,spurges1 ?ree species ( :i* occur on s&y %ores4 ,!y belong to ! ord] ,euphorbiace1 :i* includes1 9 addition to ! spurges1 a numb] ( h]bs1 trees1 & %rubs ) entire leaves (t5 a milky juice1 & small fl[]s1 sometimes enclos$ 9 calyx-l bracts4 ,! fl[]s may h "o or sev]al /am5s1 & ! p]ian?1 if pres5t1 consi/s ( ?ree or f\r p>ts2 b p]haps ! be/ di/+ui%+ feature ( ! ord] is ! nature ( ! fruit1 :i* sep>ates ela/ically into ?ree c>pels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4--,,! ,,sea ,,spurge ,! ,sea ,spurge 7,euphorbia ,p>alias7 is commonly se5 on s&y %ores1 :]e its yell[ fl[]s bloom 9 late summ] & 9 autumn4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ among ! num]\s species ( ! g5us by its n>r[ oblong imbricat$ leaves1 ( a t\gh lea!ry nature1 ! broad he>t-%ap$ bracts1 & ! wr9kl$ capsules conta9+ smoo? se$s4 ,! ,portl& ,spurge 7,e4 portl&ica7 is a simil> plant1 f\nd 9 simil> situations1 & fl[]+ f ,may to ,septemb]4 ,its leaves are oval & n>r[1 obtuse1 & ( a glauc\s col\r1 & ! bracts are m triangul> ?an ^? ( ! la/ species4 ,! capsules are slightly r\gh1 z are also ! se$s4 ,!re is yet ano!r sea-side spurge--! ,purple ,spurge 7,e4 peplis7--a some:at r>e plant1 f\nd on "s ( ! s&y %ores ( ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,x gr[s to ab\t eight or n9e in*es 9 l5g?1 & blooms 9 late summ]1 ! fl[]s1 l ^? ( mo/ ( ! spurges1 be+ yell[4 ,! /em is ( a glauc\s col\r1 & trails along ! gr\nd2 ! leaves are opposite & some:at he>t-%ap$1 & ! fl[]s solit>y4 ,?is species may be di/+ui%$ f o!r spurges by its /ipul$ leaves4 ,on s&y cliffs we sometimes meet ) ! ,sea ,buck?orn 7,hippopha rhamnoides7--a sp9y %rub1 rang+ f ab\t two to sev5 feet 9 height1 ! b>k ( :i* is cov]$ ) a silv]y scaly scurf t =ms a beautiful object = ! microscope4 ,x is ! ,briti% repres5tative ( ! ,olea/]s 7ord] ,eleagnace74 ,! leaves are alt]nate1 lanceolate1 ) a silv]y surface2 & ! fl[]s are small1 gre5 & unisexual4 ,! male fl[]s gr[ 9 catk9s1 ea* aris+ f a scaly bract1 & h a gre5 p]ian?4 ,! female fl[]s h a tubul> p]ian?1 & a free "o-cell$ ov>y4 ,! latt] =ms a h>d nut-l fruit1 :i* is surr\nd$ by a succul5t mass =m$ by ! =m]4 ,?is %rub fl[]s 9 ! spr+1 :ile ! leaves are /ill v small4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bij4--,,! ,,purple ,,spurge ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bia4--,,! ,,sea ,,buck?orn ,( ! ord] ,polygonace1 :i* includes ! docks1 knot grasses1 buck:eats1 & sorrels1 we h two sea-side repres5tatives1 bo? belong+ to ! typical g5us ,polygonum4 ,^! are ! sea-side ,knot ,grass 7,p4 m>itimum7 & ,ray's ,knot ,grass 7,p4 ,raii74 ,! plants ( ?is ord] are h]bs1 *>act]is$ by _! alt]nate leaves ) %ea?+ /ipules2 & small fl[]s1 usually bisexual1 (t5 ) a col\r$ p]ian?4 ,mo/ ( ! species are rem>kable = _! a/r+5t & acid prop]ties4 ,9 ! g5us ,polygonum ! fl[]s are usually 9 spikes or racemes2 ! p]ian? funnel-%ap$1 regul>1 & five-cleft4 ,! /am5s v>y f five to eight 9 numb]1 & ! /yles numb] two or ?ree4 ,! fruit is a small angul> nut1 usually enclos$ 9 ! p]ian?4 ,! sea-side ,knot ,grass is v common on "s p>ts ( ! %ore1 :]e x gr[s f "o to ?ree feet long1 & fl[]s 9 ,augu/4 ,! /em is recumb5t1 t\gh & woody1 be>+ fle%y glauc\s leaves ) curl$ edges4 ,x may be fur!r di/+ui%$ f ! o!r knot grasses by its long /ipules1 ) freely-bran*+ ve9s1 & by ! l5g? ( ! fruit exce$+ t ( ! p]ian?4 ,z 9 ! o!r knot grasses1 ! fl[]s arise f ! axils ( ! leaves4 ,ray's ,knot ,grass is v mu* l ! common knot grass s abundant 9 all wa/e places1 ! leaves be+ flat2 & ! /ipules1 %ort] ?an 9 ! la/ species1 hav+ b few ve9s2 b :ile 9 ! latt] ! fruit is %ort] ?an ! calyx1 9 ,p4 ,raii x is long]4 ,?is species is f\nd on _m s&y %ores1 & fl[]s 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,! ord] ,*5opodiace is p>ticul>ly ri* 9 sea-side plants1 m ?an a doz5 ( ! ,briti% species gr[+ almo/ exclusively ne> ! %ore4 ,!y are mo/ly inconspicu\s plants1 ) small fl[]s :i* are sometimes unisexual4 ,! p]ian? is deeply divid$1 & ! /am5s are ins]t$ 9 its base1 opposite ! divisions4 ,! ov>y is free1 conta9+ a s+le ovule4 ,! typical g5us 7,*5opodium7 conta9s ! we$s designat$ by ! "n ( ,goosefoot1 all *>act]is$ by _! /raggl+ /ems & small flat leaves4 ,"o species 7,c4 botryoides7 is common on "s s&y %ores4 ,x is a small we$1 its pro/rate /em measur+ only a few in*es 9 l5g?4 ,! leaves are triangul> & fle%y1 & ! fl[]s are arrang$ 9 d5se leafy clu/]s4 ,a v>iety ( ! ,r$ ,goosefoot 7,c4 rubrum7 is also f\nd on ! coa/4 ,x is ( a r$di% col\r1 ) rhomboid leaves & %ort cr[d$ spikes ( fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bib4--;,*5opodium botryoides ,on muddy %ores we meet ) ! ,common ,beet 7,beta m>itima71 ! leaves ( :i* are (t5 cook$ & eat5 :]e ! plant is abundant2 & x is ?is species f :i* ! diff]5t v>ieties ( g>d5 beet & mangold wurzel h be5 produc$ by cultivation4 ,!re are two di/9ct v>ieties ( ! wild plant4 ,9 "o ! root & leaves are ( a purple col\r1 :ile 9 ! o!r !y are ( a yell[i% gre54 ,! =m] has be5 cultivat$ = its root1 :ile ! latt] is sometimes gr[n = ! leaves4 ,9 ! wild /ate x has _m /ems1 ! l[] p>ts be+ m or less procumb5t1 & ! leaves are fle%y1 gradually n>r[+ d[n into ! /alk4 ,! fl[]s1 :i* are arrang$ 9 long1 simple1 leafy spikes1 are bisexual1 ) a five-p>t$ p]ian?1 five /am5s ins]t$ opposite ea* segm5t1 9 a fle%y r+ & a flatt5$ "o-cell$ ov>y :i* develops into a "o-se$$ utricle4 ,9 simil> situations we meet ) two species ( ,sea ,purslane 7,obione71 9 :i* ! fl[]s are unisexual1 bo? male & female fl[]s be+ on ! same plant4 ,!y are also di/+ui%$ f mo/ o!r ,*5opods by ! p]ian? adh]+ to ! wall ( ! ov>y4 ,! ,%rubby ,sea ,purslane 7,o4 portulacoides7 is1 z its "n implies1 a %rubby plant4 ,x gr[s to a height ( eighte5 in*es or two feet1 be>+ silv]y oval lanceolate leaves & sessile fruit4 ,! o!r species ref]r$ to--! ,/alk$ ,sea ,purslane 7,o4 p$unculata7--is h]bace\s1 ) oval1 mealy leaves1 & /alk$ fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bic4--,,! ,,fro/$ ,,sea ,,ora*e ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bid4--,,! ,,prickly ,,salt ,,wort ,! ,ora*es 7g5us ,atriplex7 resemble ! ,purslanes 9 ! granul> meal9ess ( ! foliage1 & ! two are s closely alli$ t !y are (t5 plac$ 9 ! same g5us4 ,ora*es are mo/ readily di/+ui%$ among ! ,*5opods by ! two bracts :i* enclose ! fruit & enl>ge aft] fl[]+2 &1 l ! ,purslanes1 !y h unisexual fl[]s1 bo? male & female be+ on ! same plant4 ,?ree ( our five ,briti% species are sea-side plants4 ,! ,fro/$ ,sea ,ora*e 7,a4 ar5>ia7 gr[s on s&y %ores1 ab\t six or eight in*es 9 height1 & fl[]s dur+ late summ] & autumn4 ,x may be kn[n by its buff-col\r$ /em1 ) triangul> or rhomboidal1 jagg$1 silv]y leaves1 & clu/]s ( sessile fl[]s 9 ! axils ( ! leaves4 ,ano!r species 7,a4 ,bab+tonii7 may be se5 on bo? rocky & s&y %ores1 usually f "o to two feet 9 height1 & fl[]+ f ,july to ,septemb]4 ,its /em is procumb5t1 gre5 ) r$di% /ripes2 leaves oval-triangul>1 lanceolate t[>ds ! top1 ?ree-lob$ at ! base ( ! /em1 light gre51 ) a mealy surface2 fl[]s 9 t]m9al clu/]s z well z 9 ! axils ( ! leaves4 ,a ?ird species--! ,grass-leav$ ,ora*e 7,a4 littoralis7 gr[s 9 salt m>%es4 ,all its leaves are grass-l & entire1 & ! /em is g5]ally m>k$ ) r$di% /ripes z 9 ,a4 ,bab+tonii4 ,! fl[]s1 too1 are 9 sessile axill>y clu/]s only4 ,?is plant rea*es a height ( f "o to two feet1 & fl[]s 9 ! late summ]4 ,! ,prickly ,salt ,wort 7,salsola kali7 is a v common sea-side plant on "s ( our coa/s1 & may be recognis$ at a glance by its g5]al =m & habit4 ,! /em is v mu* bran*$ & pro/rate1 =m+ a v bu%y plant ab\t a foot 9 height4 ,x is also v brittle & succul5t1 furr[$ & bri/ly1 & ( a blui%-gre5 col\r4 ,! leaves are fle%y1 awl-%ap$1 ne>ly cyl9drical1 ) a sp9y po9t1 & little prickles at ! base4 ,! fl[]s are axill>y & solit>y4 ,?is plant & its exotic allies are v ri* 9 alkal9e salts1 p>ticul>ly c>bonate ( soda1 & 7 =m]ly ! pr9cipal s\rce f :i* ?is comp\nd 0 obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bie4--,,! ,,creep+ ,,glass ,,wort ,our la/ example ( ! sea-side *5opods is ! ,glass ,wort 7,salicornia71 :i* ?rives 9 salt m>%es4 ,9 ?is g5us ! /em is jo9t$ & ! fl[]s bisexual4 ,! ,jo9t$ ,glass ,wort 7,s4 h]bacea7 is common 9 mo/ salt m>%es1 :]e its erect1 h]bace\s1 leafless /em may be se5 gr[+ to a height ( a foot or m4 ,! jo9ts are ?ick5$ upw>ds1 & %r9k to su* an ext5t :5 dry t ! upp] "p ( ea* segm5t ( ! /em =ms a membran\s socket into :i* fits ! base ( ! next segm5t above4 ,! fl[]s are arrang$ 9 d5se tap]+ spikes1 also jo9t$1 ) a clu/] ( ?ree fl[]s on ! two opposite sides ( ! base ( ea* segm5t4 ,ea* fl[] is compos$ ( a p]ian?1 clos$ ) ! exception ( a small ap]ture ?r\gh :i* ! /igma &1 lat]1 ! /am5s protrude4 ,! ,creep+ ,glass ,wort 7,s4 radicans7 has a woody procumb5t /em1 ) ! jo9ts only slightly ?ick5$1 & ! spikes d n tap] s mu* z 9 ,s4 h]bacea4 ,bo? ^! plants yield consid]able quantities ( soda1 & !y are nam$ #8,glass ,wort' because !y =m]ly con/itut$ "o ( ! s\rces f :i* soda 0 obta9$ = ! manufacture ( glass4 ,we n[ come to ^? fl[]s 9 :i* bo? calyx & corolla exi/1 & %all deal fir/ ) ! division ,gamopetal or ,monopetal1 9 :i* ! petals are unit$4 ,our fir/ example ( ?is division is ! ,seaside ,planta9 7,plantago m>itima71 ( ! ord] ,plantag9ace4 ,?is is a /em-less h]bace\s plant1 ) ribb$ leaves & small gre5 fl[]s1 common on _m p>ts ( ! coa/1 & also f\nd on ! m\nta9s ( ,scotl&1 fl[]+ ?r\gh\t ! summ]4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ f ! o!r planta9s by its n>r[ fle%y leaves4 ,z 9 ! o!r species1 ! fl[]s =m a cyl9drical spike4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bif4--,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,planta9 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #big4--,,! ,,sea ,,lav5d] ,! ord] ,plumbag9ace conta9s sev]al sea-side plants1 includ+ ! ,sea ,p9k or ,?rift 7,arm]ia m>itima7 & ! v>i\s species ( ,sea ,lav5d] 7g5us ,/atice74 ,!y are *>act]is$ by a tubul> membran\s calyx1 p]si/5t & (t5 col\r$1 a regul> corolla ( five petals unit$ at _! bases1 five /am5s opposite ! petals & atta*$ at ! base ( ! ov>y1 & a free "o-cell$ & "o-se$$ ov>y4 ,! well-kn[n ,sea ,p9k1 ) its compact head ( rose-col\r$ fl[]s1 9 bloom ?r\gh\t ! spr+ & summ]1 & l9e> "o-ve9$ leaves1 may be se5 on mo/ ( our coa/s1 z well z on high gr\nd 9 inl& di/ricts4 ,! ,sea ,lav5d]1 ( :i* !re are f\r ,briti% species1 h _! fl[]s arrang$ 9 spikes4 ,! commone/ species 7,/atice limonium7 may be f\nd pr9cipally on muddy %ores4 ,its leaves are n>r[ & "o-ribb$1 & ! blui%-purple fl[]s arrang$ 9 %ort d5se spikes1 ! fl[] /alk be+ bran*$ only above ! middle4 ,"o v>iety ( x has its fl[]s 9 a loose pyramidal clu/]1 :ile ano!r be>s its spikes 9 a compact level-topp$ corymb ) %ort firm bran*es4 ,ano!r species 7,s4 bahusi5sis7 is *>act]is$ by long spikes ( di/ant fl[]s1 ! /alk be+ bran*$ f ne> ! base4 ,! ,upright ,sea ,lav5d] 7,s4 b9]vosa7 ( rocky %ores has ! /alk bran*$ f ! middle1 )1 usually1 ne>ly all ! bran*es fl[]+1 ?\gh !re are v>ieties 9 :i* ! fl[]s are diff]5tly arrang$4 ,! ,matt$ ,sea ,lav5d] 7,s4 caspia7 gr[s 9 salt m>%es on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&4 ,its fl[] /alk is bran*$ f ! base1 b ! l[] bran*es are b>r5 & tangl$1 :ile ! upp] be> small cr[d$ lilac fl[]s4 ,! leaves ( ! la/ two species are spatulate 9 =m4 ,! ,bitt]sweet or ,woody ,night%ade 7,solanum ,dulcam>a7 ( ! ord] ,solanace is common 9 h$g][s & wa/e places almo/ ev]y:]e1 b a v>iety ( x 7m>9um7 has its habitat along ! coa/4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ f ! normal =m by its pro/rate bran*$ & non-climb+ /em1 & by its fle%y leaves4 ,! latt] are all cordate1 :ile 9 ! normal ! upp] leaves are auricul>4 ,! ord] to :i* ,solanum belongs is *>act]is$ by a regul> five-cleft calyx & corolla1 f\r or five /am5s atta*$ to ! corolla1 & a sup]ior two-cell$ ov>y4 ,! fl[]s are 9 axill>y cymes1 & ! fruit is a b]ry4 ,convolvulace is repres5t$ on s&y %ores by ! ,sea-side ,b9dwe$ 7,convolvulus ,soldanella71 a small species1 ) p9ki% purple fl[]s1 ! pro/rate /em ( :i* r>ely measures m ?an a foot 9 l5g?4 ,! plants ( ?is ord] are g5]ally climb+ plants ) alt]nate leaves & regul> %[y fl[]s4 ,! calyx is compos$ ( five sepals1 ! corolla ( f\r or five lobes1 & ! /am5s are atta*$ to ! corolla4 ,! ov>y is sup]ior1 two- or f\r-cell$1 & ! fruit a capsule4 ,! above species may be recognis$ by its r5i=m leaves 7sagittate 9 ! o!rs71 :i* are also fle%y4 ,to ! ord] ,g5tianace belong ! ,c5taury 7,ery?ra71 ?ree out ( ! f\r ,briti% species ( :i* gr[ on s&y %ores4 ,9 ! fl[]s ( ?is ord] ! calyx has f f\r to t5 lobes2 ! /am5s also numb] f\r to t51 & are alt]nate ) ! lobes ( ! corolla4 ,! ov>y is "o- or two-cell$1 & ! fruit is a b]ry ) _m se$s4 ,! leaves are usually opposite & entire1 & ! fl[]s are g5]ally %[y1 regul>1 & solit>y4 ,ery?ra has a funnel-%ap$ corolla1 five /am5s1 & two /igmas1 on a decidu\s /yle2 & 9 all our species ! fl[] is rose-col\r$4 ,! ,dw>f ,c5taury 7,e4 pul*ella71 :i* is common on "s s&y %ores1 is mu* small] ?an ! species t ?rives 9 pa/ures1 be+ only two or ?ree in*es 9 height4 ,its /em is also m freely bran*$1 & its fl[]s are axill>y & t]m9al4 ,! ,tuft$ ,c5taury 7,e4 littoralis7 & ! ,broad-leav$ ,c5taury 7,e4 latifolia7 occur 9 simil> situations1 b are comp>atively r>e4 ,!y are bo? small species1 ! =m] ) an unbran*$ /em1 n>r[ leaves1 & corymbose infloresc5ce2 & ! latt] ) bran*$ /em1 broad elliptical leaves1 & fl[]s 9 d5se =k$ tufts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bih4--,,! ,,dw>f ,,c5taury ,! ext5sive ord] ,composit conta9s comp>atively few sea-side plants1 &1 9 deal+ ) ^!1 we pass to ano!r division ( ! monopetal\s fl[]s1 9 :i* ! ov>y is inf]ior & ! /am5s are on ! corolla4 ,! ord] includes ^? h]bace\s plants 9 :i* sessile fl[]s are collect$ toge!r into comp\nd heads 7capitula7 surr\nd$ by a :orl ( bracts4 ,! corolla is ei!r tubul> or /rap-%ap$ 7ligulate71 ! /am5s f\r or five 9 numb]1 & ! fruit "o-se$$1 usually cr[n$ ) ! limb ( ! calyx 9 ! =m ( a scaly fea!ry or hairy pappus4 ,! ,little ,lettuce 7,lactuca saligna7 is f\nd 9 *alky pa/ures ne> ! ea/ & s\?-ea/ coa/s1 gr[+ to a height ( ab\t a foot1 & be>+ heads ( yell[ fl[]s 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,all ! fl[]s are ligulate & p]fect1 ! pappus is compos$ ( silv]y hairs1 & ! fruit is compress$ & beak$1 ! beak be+ twice z long z ! fruit4 ,! leaves are smoo?1 l9e>1 & sagittate1 t]m9at+ 9 a %>p po9t4 ,! ,sea-side ,cotton ,we$ 7,diotis m>itima7 is occasionally met ) on s&y %ores1 & may be recognis$ by its d5se coat+ ( d[ny hair1 its sessile obtuse leaves1 & heads ( yell[ fl[]s =m+ a corymb4 ,! heads are discoid1 & ! fruit has no pappus4 ,! ,sea ,wormwood 7,artemisia m>itima7 is a common sea-%ore composite1 be>+ droop+ heads ( r$di%-:ite fl[]s 9 ,augu/4 ,?is is ano!r ( ! d[ny species1 its p9natifid leaves hav+ q a woolly appe>ance4 ,! capitulum conta9s b few fl[]s1 all ( :i* are p]fect2 & ! fruit has no pappus4 ,a v>iety ( ?is plant is sometimes se51 ) d5se erect capitula4 ,! ,sea ,a/] or ,mi*aelmas ,daisy 7,a/] tripolium7 ( salt m>%es may be kn[n by ! yell[ discs & purple rays ( its fl[] heads1 :i* are arrang$ 9 a corymb4 ,! florets ( ! ray =m a s+le r[1 & ! fruit has a hairy pappus4 ,! leaves ( ?is plant are spatulate & fle%y4 ,a v>iety occurs 9 :i* ! purple florets ( ! ray are abs5t4 ,! ,gold5 ,samphire 7,inula cri?moides7 is a v local sea-side plant1 be+ f\nd pr9cipally on ! s\?-we/ coa/4 ,its leafy /ems gr[ to a height ( a foot or m1 & be> yell[ heads ( fl[]s t radiate 9 all directions4 ,! leaves are l9e>1 acute1 & fle%y1 & ! bracts are l9e> & imbricat$4 ,our la/ example ( ! sea-side composites is ! ,sea-side ,corn ,fev]few or ,sc5tless ,maywe$1 :i* is a v>iety ( ,matric>ia inodora ( wa/e places4 ,! leaves are sessile & p9natifid1 ) v n>r[ segm5ts1 & ! :ite fl[]s gr[ 9 solit>y heads4 ,! m>itime v>iety diff]s f ! normal =m 9 hav+ fle%y leaves4 ,we next deal ) ano!r v ext5sive ord] 7! ,umbellif]71 :i*1 h[ev]1 has only ?ree or f\r repres5tatives on ! %ore1 & ^! introduce u to ! la/ great division ( ! fl[]+ plants1 namely1 ! ,polypetal\s ,dicotyl$ons1 9 :i* ! petals are n unit$4 ,( ^! we %all fir/ deal ) t subdivision 9 :i* ! /am5s are atta*$ at ! side ( or ^u ! ov>y4 ,! mo/ obvi\s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,umbellif] is t impli$ 9 ! "n--! arrangem5t ( ! fl[]s 9 t =m ( infloresc5ce1 call$ ! umbel1 9 :i* ! p$icels all bran* f "o po9t 9 ! ma9 /alk1 & are su* t ! fl[]s are all approximately on a level4 ,! fl[]s are mo/ly small & :ite1 ) five sepals 7:5 pres5t71 five petals1 & five /am5s4 ,! inf]ior ov>y is two-cell$1 be>+ two /yles2 & ! fruit sep>ates into two dry "o-se$$ c>pels t are ribb$ longitud9ally4 ,our fir/ example ( ?is gr\p is ! ,sea ,c>rot1 a v>iety ( ! ,wild ,c>rot 7,daucus c>ota74 ,9 ! ord9>y =m1 :i* is s common 9 fields1 ! leaflets are p9natifid1 ) acute segm5ts2 & ! c5tral fl[]s ( ea* umbel are purple1 :ile ! out] ones are :ite4 ,! umbel1 :5 9 fruit1 is concave above4 ,! m>itime v>iety diff]s f ?is 9 hav+ fle%y leaves1 & ! umbel convex above :5 9 fruit4 ,! ,sea ,samphire 7,cri?mum m>itimum7 gr[s on ! rocks close to ! sea1 & ?rives well :]e !re is h>dly a ve/ige ( soil4 ,x usually gr[s to a height ( sev5 or eight in*es1 be>+ gre5i%-:ite fl[]s surr\nd$ by a :orl ( v n>r[ leaves4 ,! o!r leaves are glauc\s & bi-t]nate1 ! leaflets be+ n>r[1 fle%y1 & tap]+ t[>ds bo? ends4 ,on cliffs ne> ! sea1 especially 9 *alky di/ricts1 we meet ) ! ,f5nel1 ) its f9ely-divid$ leaves1 split up into num]\s capill>y leaflets1 & its small yell[ fl[]s )\t bracts4 ,x may be di/+ui%$ f o!r closely-alli$ plants by ! =m ( ! fruit1 :i* is flatt5$ at ! sides4 ,x is gr[n 9 "s p>ts = use z a po!rb1 & an aromatic oil is also obta9$ f ! se$s4 ,! plant gr[s to a height ( f\r or five feet1 b !re is a small] v>iety kn[n z ! ,sweet ,f5nel1 & di/+ui%$ by ! /em be+ compress$ at ! base4 ,our next example ( ! ,umbellif] is ! ,sea ,holly 7,eryngium m>itimum71 easily di/+ui%$ f ! o!r umbellif]s by its sp9y glauc\s leaves1 & ! ?i/le-l heads ( blue fl[]s surr\nd$ by a :orl ( sp9y bracts4 ,its fle%y creep+ roots 7 =m]ly ga!r$ l>gely = ! purpose ( conv]t+ !m into ! once-priz$ #8c&i$ eryngo root1' :i* is /ill prep>$ 9 a few ( ! fi%+ villages ( our coa/4 ,! l[] leaves ( ?is plant are sp9\s & v glauc\s1 & ! upp] ones palmate4 ,! v5ation is p>ticul>ly /rong & durable1 s t ! leaves & fl[]s are us$ l>gely by ! sea-side cottag]s 9 ! con/ruction ( skeleton b\quets & wrea?s4 ,ano!r plant ( ! same g5us--,! ,field ,eryngo 7,e4 campe/re7--is occasionally se5 on s&y %ores4 ,x diff]s f ! la/ 9 hav+ t]nate radical leaves ) p9natifid lobes1 & ! upp] leaves1 bi-p9natifid4 ,our la/ example ( ! sea-side umbellif]s is ! ,wild ,cel]y 7,apium graveol5s7 ( salt m>%es & dit*es4 ,?is is ! plant f :i* our highly-valu$ g>d5 cel]y has be5 produc$1 & x is rem>kable t ?is sweet crisp & :olesome vegetable has be5 d]iv$ f a wild plant ( co>se ta/e & od\r1 ! acrid sap ( :i* is highly irritat+ if n dang]\s4 ,! plant may be kn[n by its furr[$ /em1 & t]nate leaves1 ! leaflets ( ! l[] leaves be+ r\nd & lob$1 :ile ^? ( ! upp] ones are not*$4 ,! umbels are sessile or ne>ly s1 ! fl[]s h no calyx1 & ! fruit has five prom95t ridges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bii4--,,! ,,sea ,,samphire ,on ! s&y %ores ( ! s\?-we/]n c\nties we may meet ) ! v local ,f\r-leav$ ,allse$ 7,polyc>pon tetraphyllum7 ( ! ord] ,illecebrace4 ,x is a small plant1 only f\r or five in*es 9 height1 ) ! l[] leaves 9 :orls ( f\r & ! upp] ones 9 opposite pairs4 ,! fl[]s are m9ute1 & are dispos$ 9 small d5se clu/]s4 ,ano!r r>e species is ! %rub kn[n z ! ,engli% ,tam>isk 7,tam>ix anglica71 :i* is our only repres5tative ( ! ord] ,tam>iscace4 ,!re is "s d\bt1 h[ev]1 :e!r ev5 ?is is indig5\s to ,brita91 ?\gh x occurs 9 a wild /ate on ! coa/4 ,x is a v twiggy %rub gr[+ f six to t5 feet 9 height1 ) m9ute scale-l1 acute leaves1 & sl5d] spikes ( small p9ki%-:ite fl[]s4 ,we n[ pass to ! l>ge ord] ( ,legum9\s plants1 *>act]is$ by _! /ipul$ leaves1 & irregul> papilionace\s fl[]s4 ,! latt] usually h five unit$ sepals1 five petals =m+ an irregul>1 butt]fly-l corolla1 t5 /am5s1 & a sup]ior ov>y t develops into a pod4 ,( ^! ! ,/>ry-head$ ,trefoil 7,trifolium /ellatum7 is v p>tial to ! sea %ore1 ?\gh x is sometimes f\nd "s di/ance inl&4 ,! g5us to :i* x belongs is s call$ on acc\nt ( its trifoliate leaves :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! clov]s1 trefoils1 & vet*es1 & :i* h /ipules adh]+ to ! petioles4 ,! species "u notice receives its "n f ! />-l arrangem5t ( ! long tee? ( ! hairy calyx4 ,! /em ( ! plant is procumb5t1 usually ab\t six or eight in*es long1 ) cyl9drical & t]m9al heads ( yell[i%-grey fl[]s4 ,! ,r\gh-podd$ ,yell[ ,vet* 7,vicia lutea7 is some:at r>e1 & occurs pr9cipally on v rocky coa/s4 ,9 common ) ! o!r vet*es x has p9nate1 t5drill$ leaves1 )\t a t]m9al leaflet1 "o /am5 free & ! re/ unit$ into a bundle1 & a long1 sl5d]1 hairy /yle4 ,its /em is tuft$ & pro/rate1 av]ag+ ab\t a foot 9 l5g?1 ! leaflets long & n>r[1 & ! yell[ fl[]s sessile & solit>y4 ,! tee? ( ! calyx are unequal1 & ! pods hairy & curv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4--,,! ,,sea-,,side ,,ev]la/+ ,,pea ,! ,sea-,side ,ev]la/+ ,pea 7,la?yrus m>itimus7 is a mu* common] plant ( ! coa/1 & may be readily recognis$ by its g5]al resemblance to ! g>d5 sweet-pea4 ,! g5us to :i* x belongs is closely alli$ to ! vet*es1 b may be di/+ui%$ by ! /yle1 :i* is flatt5$ bel[ ! /igma1 hairy on ! inn] or upp] side1 b q smoo? on ! out] side4 ,! sea-side species has an angl$ 7b n w+$7 /em1 f "o to ?ree feet long1 comp\nd t5drill$ leaves ) _m oval leaflets1 & l>ge oval or cordate /ipules4 ,its purple fl[]s are 9 bloom dur+ ,july & ,augu/4 ,a v>iety ( ?is plant 7acutifolius71 ) a sl5d] /raggl+ /em & n>r[ acute leaflets1 occurs on "s p>ts ( ! ,scotti% coa/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cja4--,,! ,,sea ,,/ork',s-,,bill ,! ,g]aniace is repres5t$ at ! sea-side by ! ,sea ,/ork's-bill 7,erodium m>itimum71 :i*1 h[ev]1 is by no means a v common fl[]4 ,its relation%ip to ! o!r /ork's-bills & ! crane's-bills may be readily prov$ by ! five p]si/5t sepals1 five di/9ct claw$ petals1 ! five to t5 /am5s atta*$ "u ! ov>y 7= we h n[ rea*$ t division ( ! polypetal\s exog5s di/+ui%$ by ?is mode ( ins]tion ( ! /am5s71 & ! five c>pels surr\nd+ a long beak resembl+ t ( ! /ork & ! crane4 ,! plant may sometimes be se5 on s&y %ores1 av]ag+ a foot 9 height1 ?\gh v v>iable 9 ?is respect1 & display+ its pretty p9k fl[]s dur+ ! :ole ( ! summ]4 ,! pr9cipal features by :i* x is to be di/+ui%$ f ! two o!r ,briti% plants ( ! same species are its ovate or cordate leaves ) v %ort petioles1 & ! pres5ce ( only "o or two fl[]s on ea* p$uncle4 ,pass+ n[ to ! ,sea ,mall[ 7,lavat]a arborea71 we are deal+ ) ano!r r r>e plant1 ( ! ord] ,malvace1 sometimes met ) on rocky coa/s1 *iefly1 x appe>s1 on ! nor? coa/ ( ,cornwall & ,devon4 ,?is is a v %rubby plant1 z its specific "n implies1 & x is sometimes popul>ly kn[n z ! ,tree ,mall[ on t acc\nt4 ,x has a v woody /em1 gr[+ to a height ( f\r or five feet1 & be>+ sev5-po9t$1 d[ny leaves1 & solit>y1 axill>y1 purple fl[]s4 ,z 9 ! o!r mall[s1 ! fl[]s h five petals1 :i* are curi\sly twi/$ :5 9 ! bud1 five sepals1 a l>ge numb] ( /am5s unit$ into a tube1 & an ov>y ( _m cells1 b x may be di/+ui%$ f ! o!r species ( ! ord] by its ?ree-lob$ bracts4 ,! plant is f\nd pr9cipally 9 wild1 uncultivat$ spots1 b is commonly gr[n z a g>d5 plant by ! cottag]s ( villages 9 ! s\?-we/1 & "u cultivation x frequ5tly gr[s to a height ( n9e or t5 feet1 ) a tree-l /em ?ree or f\r in*es 9 ?ickness2 & x produces su* a quantity ( fibre t its cultivation = manufactur+ purposes has be5 sugge/$4 ,we n[ come to ano!r ( ! v ext5sive ord]s1 at lea/ z f> z ,briti% plants are conc]n$1 al?\gh x conta9s only a few sea-side species4 ,we ref] to ! ,c>yophyllace1 conta9+ ! p9ks1 campions1 cat*flies1 *ickwe$s1 c4 ,! *ief features ( ! ord] are jo9t$1 h]bace\s /ems1 opposite leaves1 & regul> :ite or r$ fl[]s ) f\r or five sepals & petals1 eight or t5 /am5s1 & a capsul> fruit op5+ at ! top ) tee?4 ,"o ( ! commone/ species we h to consid] is ! ,sea ,campion 7,sil5e m>itima71 common on ne>ly all coa/s1 & (t5 gr[+ 9 small crevices ( ! b>e rocks q )9 ! rea* ( ! spray ( /orm-waves4 ,9 common ) ! o!r memb]s ( its g5us x is *>act]is$ by a tubul> calyx ( unit$ sepals1 t5 /am5s1 & a ?ree-cell$ capsule op5+ at ! top ) six tee?2 b x may be kn[n at once by its small size1 be+ only a few in*es 9 height1 & its solit>y fl[]s ) calyx mu* inflat$ & ! corolla only %ortly cleft4 ,! ,sea ,s& ,wort 7,sp]gul>ia m>9a7 is ano!r common plant ( ! coa/1 recognis$ by its sl5d]1 creep+ /ems2 l9e>1 /ipul$1 fle%y leaves1 convex bel[ & blunt at ! apex2 & its p9ki%-:ite fl[]s4 ,! ,sea ,purslane 7,honck5ya peploides71 belong+ to ! same ord]1 is also a creep+ plant1 ) ovate1 acute fle%y leaves1 fl[]+ f ,may to ,augu/4 ,x is ! only ,briti% plant ( its g5us1 & may be di/+ui%$ f o!rs by ! abs5ce ( /ipules1 di/9ct sepals1 petals entire1 t5 /am5s1 & f ?ree to five /yles4 ,! fl[]s are :ite1 solit>y1 & sessile4 ,! "o rema9+ species ( ! sea-side ,c>yophyllace is ! ,sea ,pe>l ,wort 7,sag9a m>itima74 ,?is plant is closely alli$ to ! la/1 be+ a creep] ) ex/ipulate leaves & di/9ct sepals1 b its fl[]s are r$di% :ite1 on erect p$uncles1 ) v small petals4 ,! leaves1 too1 are l9e>1 fle%y1 & obtuse4 ,!re are ?ree di/9ct v>ieties ( ?is plant1 two ( :i* h erect /ems ) %ort int]nodes1 :ile ! ?ird is procumb5t ) long int]nodes2 & 9 all ?ree ! capsules are %ort] ?an ! sepals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4--,,! ,,sea ,,campion ,a v>iety ( ! ,common ,milk ,wort 7,polygala vulg>is7--ord] ,polygalace--is mod]ately common on s&y %ores4 ,! ord9>y =m ( ! species1 :i* is s common on hea?s1 is a small plant ) a woody /em1 small ovate leaves cr[d$ bel[1 & opposite lanceolate leaves above4 ,! fl[]s are irregul> ) five p]si/5t sepals1 two l>g] ?an ! o!rs2 ?ree to five petals1 ! l[e/ keel$1 & all unit$ to ! tube =m$ by ! eight /am5s1 :i* are divid$ above into two bundles2 & ! fruit is a flat capsule ) two "o-se$$ cells4 ,! fl[]s are v v>iable 9 col\r1 be+ :ite1 p9k1 lilac1 or blue2 & ! se$s are d[ny4 ,! sea-side v>iety 7oxypt]a7 has small] fl[]s ?an ! normal =m1 & ! w+s ( ! calyx are n>r[]4 ,"o species ( ,pansy 7,viola ,curtisii7 is occasionally to be met ) on s&y %ores1 & may be at once recognis$ z "o ( ! ,violace by its irregul> spurr$ corolla1 its five p]si/5t sepals1 & ! ?ree-p>t$1 "o-cell$ ov>y4 ,! fl[]s are v>iable 9 col\r & size1 ! prevail+ t9ts be+ blue & yell[1 & ! diamet] ( ! corolla occasionally rea*+ to "o in*4 ,x has a creep+ woody root/ock1 & a r\gh angul> /em2 & ! petals are g5]ally b little long] ?an ! sepals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4--,,! ,,sea ,,pe>l ,,wort ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4--,,! ,,%rubby ,,mignonette ,! ,%rubby ,mignonette 7,res$a suffruticulosa71 ( ! ord] ,res$ace1 is a common sea-side plant t gr[s to a height ( "o or two feet on s&y %ores1 be>+ spikes ( :ite fl[]s 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,! ord] is *>act]is$ by alt]nate ex/ipulate leaves1 p]si/5t calyx ) f\r or five sepals1 corolla ( f f\r to sev5 petals1 _m /am5s1 & a ?ree-lob$1 "o-cell$ ov>y4 ,! sea-side species is v mu* l ! wild mignonette s common 9 *alky di/ricts1 b diff]s 9 hav+ all its leaves p9nate1 wav$1 & glauc\s1 ) l9e> segm5ts2 & 9 hav+ five equal sepals & petals4 ,9 a v>iety ( ! species1 h[ev]1 ! sepals & petals are six 9 numb]4 ,! ,crucif]s are fairly well repres5t$ by coa/ plants1 !re be+ sev]al m>itime species ( ! ord]4 ,! ,crucif] are nam$ f ! nature ( ! corolla1 ! limbs ( ! f\r petals ( :i* are arrang$ s z to resemble ! ,maltese cross4 ,! fl[]s h also f\r sepals1 six /am5s1 two ( :i* are %ort] ?an ! o!r f\r1 & ! fruit takes ! =m ( a two-cell$ pod or p\* :i* op5s by ! sep>ation ( its two valves f ! c5tral p>tition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cje4--,,! ,,wild ,,cabbage ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjf4--,,! ,,isle ,,( ,,man ,,cabbage ,our fir/ example is ! ,wild ,cabbage 7,brassica ol]acea71 :i*1 al?\gh s unlike ! cabbage ( our g>d5s1 is really ! p>5t ( all ! cultivat$ v>ieties1 includ+ ! caulifl[]1 broccoli1 ,brussels spr\ts1 c4 ,x is a bi5nial plant1 ) fle%y lob$ wavy leaves t are cov]$ ) blui% bloom1 & a fle%y cyl9drical root4 ,x gr[s erect to a height ( "o or two feet1 be>+ yell[ fl[]s dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,an alli$ species 7,b4 mon5sis71 ) a pro/rate /em & deeply-divid$ leaves1 occurs locally on ! s&y %ores ( ! ,isle ( ,man4 ,two species ( ,/ock 7,mat?iola7 are to be f\nd on ! coa/1 bo? be+ *>act]is$ by purple fl[]s4 ,! ,great ,sea ,/ock 7,m4 s9uata7 is a r>e plant gr[+ on ! %ores ( ,wales & ,cornwall1 & may be kn[n by its h]bace\s /em & n>r[ d[ny leaves2 & ! o!r species--! ,ho>y ,%rubby ,/ock 7,m4 incana7--is also a r>e plant1 f\nd pr9cipally on ! cliffs ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & is ! p>5t ( ! ,brompton ,/ocks ( our g>d5s4 ,! latt] has a bran*$ woody /em & n>r[ leaves4 ,bo? species gr[ to a height ( ab\t eighte5 in*es1 & ! latt] fl[]s 9 ,may & ,june1 :ile ! =m] is 9 bloom dur+ ! hotte/ summ] mon?s4 ,! ,h>e's-e> ,treacle ,mu/>d 7,erysimum ori5tale7 is a r>e crucif]1 frequ5t+ ! cliffs ( ! s\!rn & ea/]n c\nties4 ,x gr[s to a height ( "o to two feet1 & be>s its :ite fl[]s ab\t midsumm]4 ,x has glauc\s leaves1 & ! fruit-pods are quadrangul> 9 =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjg4--,,! ,,great ,,sea ,,/ock ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjh4--,,! ,,ho>y ,,%rubby ,,/ock ,! ,common ,scurvy ,grass 7,co*le>ia (fic9alis7 is abundant on _m %ores1 & its fle%y leaves1 once highly valu$ z an antiscorbutic1 are /ill us$ = salad by ! cottag]s ne> ! sea4 ,x g5]ally gr[s to a height ( six or sev5 in*es1 & displays its :ite fl[]s dur+ late spr+ & e>ly summ]4 ,! root-leaves are cordate 9 =m1 & ! upp] ones are sessile & angl$1 half embrac+ ! /em4 ,! fruit is a r\nd$ p\*4 ,a v>iety 7danica7 ) /alk$1 deltoid leaves & an oval ve9y pod1 is pl5tiful 9 "s places4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cji4--,,! ,,scurvy ,,grass ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #caj4--,,! ,,sea ,,radi% ,on "s coa/s we f9d ! ,sweet ,alyssum 7,koniga m>itima7--a naturalis$ plant ) procumb5t /em1 n>r[ lanceolate1 acute leaves1 & :ite fl[]s4 ,x may be recognis$ by its compress$1 po9t$ p\* ) "o-se$$ cells4 ,?is species fl[]s t[>ds ! end ( ! summ]4 ,! ,sea ,radi% 7,raphanus m>itimus7 is a mu* l>g] plant1 gr[+ ?ree or f\r feet 9 height4 ,9 common ) ! ,wild ,radi% ( our corn-fields1 x has a tap]+ pod divid$ into "o-se$$ jo9ts1 b x may be di/+ui%$ f ! latt] by its sup]ior height & ! deeply-divid$ radical leaves4 ,its fl[]s are always yell[1 :ile 9 ! field species !y may be ei!r yell[ or :ite2 & ! /yle is also %ort]1 be+ ab\t ! same l5g? z ! la/ jo9t ( ! pod4 ,on s&y %ores ! ,sea ,rocket 7,cakile m>itima7 is commonly se51 & is readily di/+ui%$ by its zigzag bran*es1 deeply-lob$1 smoo?1 fle%y leaves ( a glauc\s col\r1 & its succul5t pod1 :i* is divid$ into two "o-se$$ cells by a horizontal p>tition4 ,x gr[s f "o to two feet high1 & be>s pretty lilac fl[]s ab\t midsumm]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #caa4--,,! ,,sea ,,rocket ,our la/ example ( ! crucif]s is ! ,sea ,kale 7,crambe m>itima71 a h>dy p]5nial1 commonly se5 gr[+ among ! s& & %+le ( ! %ore1 :i* is ! p>5t ( ! sea kale n[ s commonly cultivat$ 9 our m>ket g>d5s4 ,x may be readily recognis$ by ! f9e glauc\s bloom ( its /em1 & its broad wavy too!d leaves ( a glauc\s grey col\r4 ,x gr[s to a height ( ab\t eighte5 in*es1 & be>s :ite fl[]s 9 ,june4 ,! fruit is a two-jo9t$ p\*1 ! upp] be+ r\nd$ & "o-se$$1 :ile ! l[] is /alk-l & b>r54 ,?is plant is p>ticul>ly common 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&1 :]e ! leaves are sometimes blan*$ = food by bury+ !m 9 ! s&4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ plants ( ! coa/ is ! ,yell[ ,horn$ ,poppy 7,glaucium luteum7 ( ! ord] ,papav]ace1 :i* conta9s ! well-kn[n poppies ( corn-fields4 ,! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! ord] are two decidu\s sepals1 f\r petals1 _m /am5s ins]t$ bel[ ! ov>y1 & ! ov>y "o-cell$ ) membran\s divisions4 ,! plants ( ?is species usually conta9 a milky juice1 h alt]nate leaves )\t /ipules1 & ! fl[]s1 :i* are regul>1 g5]ally nod :5 9 bud4 ,! ,horn$ ,poppy is a v conspicu\s plant1 usually gr[+ q alone on "s inaccessible portion ( ! cliff1 or among ! pebbles or %+le n f> f high-wat] m>k4 ,its /em is glauc\s & bran*$1 & ! l>ge wav$ & deeply-cut leaves1 :i* clasp ! /em1 are also ( a glauc\s hue4 ,! fl[]s are r5d]$ conspicu\s by _! l>ge yell[ petals1 :i*1 h[ev]1 la/ only = a day1 & are succe$$ by ! hornlike se$-pods t sometimes rea* a foot 9 l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cab4--,,! ,,sea ,,kale ,we w conclude our li/ ( sea-side fl[]s by a brief m5tion ( ! ,less] ,mead[ ,rue 7,?alictrum m9us71 a v>iety ( :i* 7m>itimum7 gr[s on s&y %ores4 ,! ,mead[ ,rue belongs to ! ,ranunculace1 z may be se5 f ! fruit ( sev]al di/9ct c>pels1 ea* conta9+ a s+le se$1 ! corolla ( di/9ct petals1 & ! num]\s /am5s ins]t$ bel[ ! c>pels4 ,! normal =m ( ! ,less] ,mead[ ,rue1 :i* gr[s freely 9 "s *alky pa/ures & ?ickets1 has leaves ?ree or f\r times p9nate1 & lax panicles ( droop+ fl[]s )\t any petals4 ,! sea-side v>iety diff]s f ?is 9 hav+ ! /em leafless at ! base1 & ! panicles leafless & broad4 ,! fl[]s are gre5i% :ite1 & bloom 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cac4--,,! ,,horn$ ,,poppy ,to assi/ ! read] 9 ! id5tification ( sea-side fl[]s we app5d a li/ ( ! ord]s to :i* !y belong1 toge!r ) ! pr9cipal di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( ea*4 ,,synopsis ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,ord]s ,,:i* ,,conta9 ,,our ,,pr9cipal ,,sea-,,side ,,fl[]+ ,,plants ,i4 ,,monocotyl$ons ,a4 ,,glumif] ,,fl[]s ,,)\t ,a ,,p]ian?1 ,,enclos$ ,,9 ,,glumes #a4 ,gram9e--,grassy plants ) holl[ /ems enclos$ 9 split %ea?s4 ,fl[]s g5]ally bisexual ) 7usually7 ?ree /am5s4 #b4 ,cyp]ace--,grassy plants ) solid /ems & entire %ea?s4 ,fl[]s arrang$ 9 spikelets1 unisexual or bisexual1 ) f "o to ?ree /am5s4 ,b4 ,,petaloid ,,p]ian? ,,petaloid #c4 ,juncace--,ru%es1 ) n>r[ leaves & small br[n fl[]s4 ,p]ian? #f-p>tite1 ) sc>i\s segm5ts4 ,/am5s usually #f2 ov>y sup]ior2 fruit a #c-valv$ capsule4 #d4 ,naiadace--,aquatic h]bs ) inconspicu\s1 unisexual or bisexual fl[]s4 ,p]ian? abs5t or scale-l4 ,/am5s z _m z ! segm5ts ( ! p]ian?4 ,fruit ( f "o to f\r c>pels--sup]ior4 #e4 ,alismace--,aquatic plants ) radical net-ve9$ leaves1 & 7g5]ally7 conspicu\s1 :ite1 bisexual fl[]s4 ,p]ian? #f-p>tite4 ,/am5s #f4 ,fruit ( _m c>pels--sup]ior4 #f4 ,liliace--,h]bs ) n>r[ leaves & %[y1 bisexual fl[]s4 ,p]ian? #f-p>tite4 ,/am5s #f4 ,ov>y sup]ior1 #c-;cell$4 ,fruit a b]ry or capsule4 ,,ii4 ,,dicotyl$ons ,a4 ,,calyx1 ,,or ,,corolla1 ,,or ,,bo? ,,abs5t #g4 ,euphorbiace--,h]bs ) entire leaves & 7g5]ally7 a milky juice4 ,fl[]s small1 unisexual1 dici\s 7male & female fl[]s on sep>ate plants71 sometimes enclos$ 9 calyx-l bracts4 ,p]ian? #c- or #d-p>tite or abs5t4 ,/am5s "o or m4 ,ov>y inf]ior4 ,fruit sep>at+ into c>pels ela/ically4 #h4 ,eleagnace--,%rub ) silv]y scales1 alt]nate1 entire leaves1 & small1 unisexual fl[]s--! /am9ate fl[]s 9 catk9s4 ,sepals ( male fl[]s #c or #d4 ,/am5s #d to #h4 ,ov>y sup]ior4 ,fruit indehisc5t 7n splitt+74 #i4 ,polygonace--,h]bs ) %ea?+ /ipules1 alt]nate leaves1 & small 7g5]ally7 bisexual fl[]s4 ,/am5s #e to #h4 ,ov>y sup]ior4 ,fruit indehisc5t4 #aj4 ,*5opodiace--,h]bs ) jo9t$ /ems & small unisexual or bisexual fl[]s4 ,/am5s usually #e1 sometimes #a or #b1 opposite ! sepals4 ,ov>y sup]ior4 ,fruit indehisc5t4 ,b4 ,,plants ,,) ,,bo? ,,calyx ,,& ,,corolla a4 ,,corolla ,,monopetal\s #a4 ,ov>y ,sup]ior & ,/am5s g5]ally on ! ,corolla #aa4 ,plantag9ace--,h]bs ) radical entire leaves1 & spikes ( small1 gre5 fl[]s4 ,calyx #d-;cleft4 ,corolla #d-lob$1 sc>i\s4 ,/am5s #d4 ,ov>y #b- to #d-;cell$4 ,fruit _m-se$$4 #ab4 ,plumbag9ace--,h]bs ) radical or alt]nate leaves1 & 7g5]ally7 regul>1 blue fl[]s4 ,calyx tubul>1 sc>i\s4 ,corolla ( #e petals1 unit$ bel[4 ,/am5s #e1 opposite ! petals1 atta*$ bel[ ! ov>y4 ,ov>y #a-;cell$ & #a-se$$4 #ac4 ,primulace--,h]bs ) 7g5]ally7 radical leaves & conspicu\s1 regul> fl[]s4 ,calyx #d- to #g-;cleft4 ,corolla #d- to #g-;cleft4 ,/am5s #d to #g1 g5]ally opposite ! petals4 ,ov>y #a-;cell$4 ,fruit a capsule ) _m se$s4 #ad4 ,solanace--,h]bs ) alt]nate leaves & axill>y clu/]s ( regul> fl[]s4 ,calyx #e-;cleft4 ,corolla #e-;cleft4 ,/am5s #d or #e4 ,ov>y #b-;cell$4 ,fruit a b]ry4 #ae4 ,convolvulace--,climb+ h]bs ) alt]nate leaves & %[y1 regul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #e4 ,corolla #d- or #e-lob$4 ,/am5s #d or #e4 ,ov>y #b- to #d-;cell$4 ,fruit a capsule4 #af4 ,g5tianace--,h]bs ) opposite entire leaves & solit>y regul> fl[]s4 ,calyx #d- to #aj-lob$4 ,corolla #d- to #aj-lob$4 ,/am5s #d to #aj1 alt]nate ) ! lobes ( ! corolla4 ,ov>y #a- or #b-;cell$4 ,fruit a capsule4 #b4 ,ov>y ,inf]ior & ,/am5s on ! ,corolla #ag4 ,composit--,h]bs ) fl[]s 7g5]ally yell[ or :ite7 collect$ into compact heads4 ,calyx abs5t or repres5t$ by a pappus4 ,corolla tubul> or ligulate4 ,/am5s #d or #e4 b4 ,,corolla ,,polypetal\s #a4 ,/am5s ,p]igyn\s 7ar\nd ! ,ov>y71 or ,epigyn\s 7^u ! ,ov>y7 #ah4 ,umbellif]--,h]bs ) 7g5]ally7 comp\nd leaves1 & small1 :ite1 umbell$ fl[]s4 ,sepals 7if pres5t7 #e4 ,petals #e4 ,/am5s #e4 ,ov>y inf]ior4 ,fruit ( two adh]+ c>pels4 #ai4 ,illecebrace--,small h]bs ) sessile1 entire leaves1 & small fl[]s4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d or #e or abs5t4 ,/am5s #a to #e4 ,ov>y sup]ior4 #bj4 ,tam>iscace--,%rub ) small1 scale-l leaves1 & lat]al spikes ( small regul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d or #e4 ,/am5s #d or m4 #ba4 ,legum9os--,h]bs or %rubs ) alt]nate1 /ipul$1 p9nate or t]nate leaves1 sometimes t5drill$1 & irregul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,corolla ( #e petals1 papilionace\s 7butt]fly-l74 ,/am5s usually #aj4 ,ov>y sup]ior4 ,fruit a pod4 #b4 ,/am5s ,hypogyn\s 7atta*$ bel[ ! ,ov>y7 #bb4 ,g]aniace--,h]bs ) /ipul$1 lob$ leaves1 & %[y regul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #e4 ,petals #e4 ,/am5s #e or #aj4 ,fruit ( #e c>pels surr\nd+ a long beak4 #bc4 ,malvace--,h]bs ) alt]nate1 /ipul$ leaves1 & axill>y1 r$1 or purple fl[]s4 ,sepals #e4 ,petals #e1 twi/$ 9 ! bud4 ,/am5s num]\s1 unit$ into a tube4 ,ov>y ( _m cells4 #bd4 ,c>yophyllace--,h]bs ) 7g5]ally7 jo9t$ /ems1 opposite leaves1 & regul> :ite or r$ fl[]s4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d or #e4 ,/am5s #h or #aj4 ,fruit a #a-;cell$ capsule op5+ at ! top ) tee?4 #be4 ,polygalace--,h]bs ) alt]nate1 simple leaves 7)\t /ipules71 & irregul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #e1 ! inn] petal-l4 ,petals #c to #e1 unequal4 ,/am5s #h1 9 two clu/]s4 ,fruit a #b-;cell$ capsule4 #bf4 ,violace--,h]bs ) alt]nate1 /ipul$ leaves & irregul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #e4 ,petals #e1 unequal1 ! l[] "o spurr$4 ,/am5s #e4 ,ov>y #c-p>tite1 b #a-;cell$4 #bg4 ,res$ace--,h]bs or %rubs ) alt]nate1 ex/ipulate leaves1 & spikes ( irregul>1 gre5 fl[]s4 ,sepals #d or #e4 ,petals #d to #g1 unequal4 ,/am5s m ?an #aj4 ,ov>y #c-lob$1 & #a-;cell$4 #bh4 ,crucif]--,h]bs ) alt]nate1 ex/ipulate leaves1 & regul> fl[]s4 ,sepals #d4 ,petals #d1 cruciate4 ,/am5s #f--d long] & #b %ort]4 ,ov>y #a- or #b-;cell$4 ,fruit a siliqua or a silicula4 #bi4 ,papav]ace--,h]bs ) alt]nate1 ex/ipulate leaves1 a milky juice1 & regul>1 %[y fl[]s4 ,sepals #b1 decidu\s4 ,petals #d4 ,/am5s num]\s4 ,ov>y #a-;cell$ ) membran\s p>titions4 #cj4 ,ranunculace--,h]bs ) 7g5]ally7 alt]nate leaves & regul> fl[]s4 ,sepals g5]ally #e1 di/9ct4 ,petals #e or m4 ,/am5s num]\s4 ,fruit ( _m1 di/9ct c>pels4 ,,index ,acaleph1 #acd ,acan?ias1 #cai ,ac>9a1 #cjd ,aclis1 #bdf ,acma1 #bdj ,acorn ,b>nacles1 #bfc ,act9ia1 #adb ,act9oloba1 #adc ,actora1 #cjj ,adamsia1 #aed ,adeorbis1 #bdc girus1 #bce olid1 #bce pophilus1 #big ,apus1 #cjc ,agonus1 #cce ,aiptasia1 #add ,al>ia1 #che ,alcyonium1 #aee ,alg1 #cdd1 #cdg -- reproduction1 #cea ,alismace1 #dja1 #dbc ,allse$1 #dac ,alopecurus1 #cig ,ambulacrum1 #afc ,ammodytes1 #cbf ,ammophila1 #cif ,amba1 #ajb ,amphibia1 #cjg ,amphipoda1 #bfg1 #cjd ,an>rhi*as1 #ccd ,anat9id1 #bjd1 #bee ,anemones1 #abg1 #ach ,angiosp]ms1 #cdf1 #cdh ,angl] ,fi%1 #ccf ,angl+1 #cd ,anguilla1 #cbd ,anguillid1 #cbc ,angul> ,crab1 #bhi ,annelida1 #agg ,anomia1 #bbb ,anomura1 #bgi ,ant$on1 #afj ,an!a1 #adi ,anurida1 #bii ,apetal1 #djb ,aphanipt]a1 #cje ,aphrodita1 #agi ,apium1 #dab ,aporrhais1 #bde ,aqu>ium1 #ea -- a]ation (1 #fa1 #fc -- cem5t =1 #ed1 #eg -- con/ruction (1 #ec -- f\nta91 #fd -- tempor>y1 #eb -- we$s =1 #fa ,ara*noidea1 #beg1 #bic1 #cjd ,araneid1 #cjd ,arca1 #baf ,arcad1 #baf1 #bee ,arctopsis1 #bhi ,ar5icola1 #agh ,arm]ia1 #djh ,artemisia1 #daj ,ar?ropoda1 #bee -- classification1 #cjd ,asiphonida1 #aih1 #baf1 #bee ,asp>agus1 #djb ,asp]ococcus1 #chc ,a/>te1 #bab ,a/]1 #daj ,a/]oidea1 #aga ,a!r9a1 #ccb ,a!r9id1 #ccb ,atriplex1 #djf ,aurelia1 #ace ,aviculid1 #bai1 #bee ,badd]locks1 #che ,baits1 #ci ,balanophyllia1 #aeb ,balanus1 #f1 #bfc ,b&$ ,cockle1 #baf ,b>ley ,grasses1 #cie ,b>nacles1 #bfa ,bass1 #cch ,bea* ,fleas1 #bfc ,beadlet1 #adb ,be>d ,grass1 #cig ,beet1 #dje ,bembidiid1 #cja ,bembidium1 #cjb ,b]oe1 #acg ,bitt]sweet1 #dji ,bl$ius1 #cjd ,bl5nies1 #ccb ,bl5niid1 #ccb ,bl5nius1 #ccd ,blue ,%>k1 #cbj ,bonnet ,limpet1 #bdj ,bopyrus1 #bfg ,bor+ ,pill-ball1 #bfh ,bor+ ,sponge1 #abd ,bottle-bru%1 #acb ,bra*elytra1 #cjc ,bra*iopods1 #bbd ,bra*yura1 #bga1 #bgi1 #bhe1 #cjd ,bran*iopoda1 #bfe1 #cjd ,brassica1 #dah ,bread-crumb ,sponge1 #abc ,bri/le-tails1 #bih ,brittle ,/>fi%1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afa ,broad-claw$ ,crab1 #bhj ,brome ,grasses1 #cie ,bromus1 #cie ,bryopsis1 #ced ,bryozoa1 #ahh ,bucc9id1 #bdh1 #bee ,bucc9um1 #bdh ,bugs1 #big ,bulla1 #bcf ,bull-heads1 #cce ,bull ,huss1 #cbj ,bunodes1 #aej ,butt] ,gunnel1 #ccd ,byssus1 #dc1 #aie ,cab9ets1 #hi ,ccum1 #bde ,cakile1 #dbj ,calam>y1 #beb ,calc>ea1 #aai ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 #aai ,callianassa1 #bgg ,callibleph>is1 #cfg ,callionymus1 #cce ,calli?amnion1 #fa1 #ceh ,callophyllis1 #cfe ,calpurna1 #bdh ,calyptra1 #bda ,calyptrid1 #bdj1 #bee ,can>y ,grass1 #cif ,canc]1 #bib ,c>angid1 #cch ,c>anx1 #cch ,c>apace1 #bgb ,c>*>iid1 #cbj ,c>*>ius1 #cbj ,c>c9us1 #bia ,c>diad1 #bad1 #bee ,c>dium1 #bad ,c>ex1 #cih ,c>rage5 ,moss1 #fa1 #cfd ,c>yophyllace1 #dae1 #dbe ,c>yophyllia1 #aea ,catometopa1 #bhf1 #bhi ,cave-dwell]1 #adg ,cell = live objects1 #ie ,cem5t = aqu>ium1 #eg ,c5taury1 #dji ,c5tip$es1 #cje ,cephalophora1 #aia1 #bbe1 #bee ,cephalopoda1 #aia1 #bej1 #bee ,c]amiace1 #ceh1 #chi ,c]amium1 #fa1 #cfb ,c]ati-sol51 #bjg ,c]i?iad1 #bde1 #bee ,c]i?ium1 #bde ,cetacea1 #cdj ,*topoda1 #agg ,*al9a1 #abb ,*alk1 #aji ,*amb]$ ,mussel1 #bai ,*annell$ ,wrack1 #chg ,*>ales1 #cdc1 #cdh ,*5opodiace1 #dje1 #dbd ,*5opodium1 #dje ,*ilogna?a1 #cje ,*ilopoda1 #cje ,*ironomus1 #cja ,*iton1 #bcg ,*itonid1 #bcg1 #bee ,*lorophyll1 #gd ,*lorosp]me1 #cej1 #chi ,*ondria1 #cgd ,*ondrus1 #fa1 #cfd ,*orda1 #che ,*ord>ia1 #cha ,*ord>iace1 #chj1 #cij ,*rysaora1 #acf ,*ylocladia1 #cfd ,cill5ium1 #cjc ,circe1 #bab ,cirrip$ia1 #bfa1 #cjd ,cladophora1 #ceb ,clado/ephus1 #chj ,cliffs1 #b ,cliona1 #abd ,cloak ,anemone1 #aed ,club-mosses1 #cde ,club ,ru%1 #cii ,clupea1 #cbb ,clupeid1 #cbb ,coa/--g5]al *>act]s (1 #a ,co*le>ia1 #dai ,cockles1 #bad ,cod1 #cbg ,codium1 #cec ,cl5t]ates1 #abg ,clopa1 #cjj ,coleopt]a1 #cja1 #cje ,columella1 #bbf ,common sponges1 #aai ,composit1 #daj1 #dbe ,cone ,%ells1 #bdh ,conid1 #bdh1 #bee ,conif]1 #cdg1 #cdh ,conf]vace1 #ceb1 #chi ,convolvulace1 #dji1 #dbe ,convolvulus1 #dji ,copepoda1 #bfd1 #cjd ,corall9a1 #fa1 #cfi ,corall9ace1 #cfi1 #cij ,corall9es--pres]v+ #hg ,corals1 #aea ,corbula1 #bjf ,cord ,grass1 #cih ,cordylecladia1 #cff ,corni% ,suck]1 #ccj ,corrosive sublimate1 #ge ,cory/es1 #bhf ,cottid1 #cce ,cottus1 #cce ,c[ries1 #bdg ,crab-pots1 #bf ,crabs--z bait1 #dd -- pres]v+1 #ha ,crambe1 #dbj ,crangon1 #bgh ,cr5ella1 #bai ,cr9oidea1 #aga ,cri?mum1 #daa ,crucif]1 #dag1 #dbf ,cru/acea1 #beg1 #cjd ,cru/aceans--pres]v+1 #hj ,cryptogams1 #cdc1 #cdg ,cryptonemiace1 #cfc1 #chi ,ct5ophora1 #acg ,cup ,coral1 #aea ,cup-&-sauc] ,limpet1 #bdj ,cutl]ia1 #chb ,cuttlefi%es1 #aia1 #bea1 #bec ,cycade1 #cdg1 #cdh ,cyclometopa1 #bhf1 #bia ,cyclo/omata1 #cjg1 #cjh ,cydippe1 #acg ,cynodon1 #cif ,cyp]ace1 #cih1 #dbc ,cypra1 #bdh ,cyprid1 #bdg1 #bee ,cypr9a1 #bab ,cypr9id1 #bab1 #bee ,cy/oclonium1 #cfe ,cy/oseira1 #chg ,cy!re1 #bff ,cy!ria1 #baa ,cyttid #cch ,dactylopt]id1 #cce ,dahlia ,w>tlet1 #adc ,daisy ,anemone1 #adf ,danica1 #dai ,dasya1 #cgf ,daucus1 #daa ,dead ,m5's ,f+]s1 #aee ,decapoda 7,decapods71 #bea1 #bee1 #bfi1 #bga1 #bgi1 #cjd ,deless]ia1 #cff1 #cfh ,delph9id1 #cdj ,demospongia1 #aai ,d5dronotus1 #bce ,d5taliad1 #bch1 #bee ,desm>e/ia1 #che ,devon ,cup-coral1 #aea ,dibran*iata1 #bea1 #bee ,dicotyl$ons1 #cdg1 #djc1 #dbd ,dictyosiphon1 #chc ,dictyotace1 #chb1 #cij ,dillisk1 #cfe ,diotis1 #daj ,dipt]a1 #bii1 #cje ,dissect+ microscope1 #ia ,dissect+ tr\gh1 #ih ,dissection1 #ia ,dog-fi%es1 #cah ,dog ,:elks1 #bdh ,dog ,w9kles1 #bdh ,dog's-too? ,grass1 #cif ,doli*opodid1 #cjj ,dolph91 #cdj ,donax1 #bjh ,dorid1 #bce ,doto1 #bce ,dragonet1 #cce ,dr$ge1 #bf ,dreiss9a1 #bai ,dromia1 #bhb ,dulse1 #fa1 #cfe ,dumontia1 #cfc ,dys*irius1 #cjd ,e>-%ell1 #bdb ,e*9ocyamus1 #afh ,e*9od]ms1 #aeg ,e*9oidea1 #aga ,e*9us1 #afh ,ectoc>pace1 #cgh1 #cij ,ectoc>pus1 #cgh ,edible ,cockle1 #bad ,edible ,crab1 #bib ,edible ,mussel1 #bag ,edrioph?almata1 #bff1 #cjd ,eel1 #cbc ,ela*i/a1 #cha ,elasmobran*ii1 #cah ,eleagnace1 #djc1 #dbd ,eleo*>is1 #cii ,elymus1 #cie ,elysia1 #bce ,em>g9ula1 #bdb ,ent]omorpha1 #fa1 #cee ,entomo/raca1 #bff1 #cjd ,equisetales1 #cde1 #cdh ,erato1 #bdh ,erodium1 #dad ,eryngium1 #dab ,eryngo1 #dab ,erysimum1 #dah ,ery?ra1 #dji ,e/abli%m5t ( port1 #ag ,eulima1 #bdf ,euphorbia1 #djc ,euphorbiace1 #djc1 #dbd ,euplexopt]a1 #cje ,exog51 #djb ,fa!r ,la%]1 #cce ,fea!r ,/>fi%1 #aei1 #afj ,f]ns1 #cde ,fescue ,grass1 #cif ,fe/uca1 #cif ,filicales1 #cde1 #cdh ,fi%es1 #cjg -- classification1 #cah -- col\r (1 #cac -- di/ribution1 #cag -- f9s (1 #caa -- gills1 #cab -- pres]v+1 #he -- scales (1 #cji -- skeleton1 #cad -- tails1 #cae ,fi%+1 #cd ,fi%+ ,frog1 #ccf ,fissurella1 #bda ,fissurellid1 #bda1 #bee ,five-f+]$ ,/>fi%1 #aeg ,flat-fi%es1 #cbd ,float+ ,crab1 #bhi ,fl\nd]s1 #cbe ,fl[]+ ,plants--classification1 #dbc ,fl[]s--f]tilisation1 #cic -- pres]v+1 #hf -- /ructure1 #cdf ,flu/ra1 #ahh ,fly+ ,gurn>ds1 #cce ,=am9if]a1 #ajf ,=maldehyde1 #gc ,fox-tail ,grass1 #cih ,fragacea1 #adb ,fucace1 #chf1 #cij ,fucus1 #chf ,fungi1 #cdd1 #cdg ,furbel[s1 #chd ,furcell>ia1 #cfd ,fusus1 #bdi ,gadiad1 #cbg ,gadus1 #cbg ,galeomma1 #bad ,gamopetal1 #djc ,gap] %ell1 #bje ,ga/]opoda1 #bcb1 #bee ,ga/ro*na1 #bjc ,ga/ro*nid1 #bjc1 #bee ,ga/ro/eid1 #cca ,ga/ro/eus1 #cca ,gebia1 #bgf ,gelidiace1 #cij ,gelidium1 #cfg ,gem ,pimplet1 #aej ,g5tianace1 #dji1 #dbe ,geodephaga1 #cja ,gephyrea1 #agf ,g]aniace1 #dad1 #dbe ,gibb's ,crab1 #bhi ,gig>t9a1 #cfd ,glass-wort1 #djg ,glaucium1 #dbj ,globig]9a1 #aji ,globul> ,b]oe1 #acg ,gloisiphonia1 #cfd ,glumif]1 #dbc ,glyc]9e1 #gc ,goadby's fluid1 #gc ,gobies1 #ccd ,gobiid1 #ccd ,gobioesocid1 #ccj ,gobius1 #ccd ,gold5 ,samphire1 #daa ,gonoplax1 #bij ,goosefoot1 #dje ,gracil>ia1 #cff ,gram9e1 #cib1 #dbc ,grantia1 #abj ,grass-wracks1 #djj ,gre5 ,lav]1 #fa ,gre5 ,pea-ur*91 #afh ,grey ,mullet1 #ccb ,griffi?sia1 #fa1 #cfj ,gr\nd bait1 #di ,gurn>ds1 #cce ,gymnosp]ms1 #cdf1 #cdh ,haddock1 #cbg ,hake1 #cbh ,halecium1 #aca ,halibut1 #cbf ,hali*ondria1 #abc ,halidrys1 #chh ,haliotid1 #bdb1 #bee ,haliotis1 #bdb ,halurus1 #cfa ,hapalidiace1 #cij ,h>e's ,e>1 #dah ,he>t ,cockle1 #bab ,he>t ,ur*91 #afh ,helm9?ocladi1 #chi ,h5sl['s ,crab1 #bic ,h5w>e1 #che ,hepatic1 #cdd1 #cdh ,h]mit ,crab1 #dd1 #aed1 #bhj1 #bcb ,h]r+1 #cbb ,h]r+-bone ,polype1 #aca ,hexact9ellida1 #aai ,himan?alia1 #chg ,hippoglossus1 #cbf ,hippopha1 #djc ,hog-l\se1 #bfh ,holo/omata1 #bcf1 #bee ,holo?uroidea1 #afi ,hom>us1 #bgd ,honck5ya1 #daf ,honeyw>e1 #che ,hook-nose1 #cce ,hooks--fi%+1 #cg ,hordeum1 #cie ,horn$ ,poppy1 #dbj ,horse ,limpet1 #bdj ,horse ,mack]el1 #cch ,horse ,mussels1 #bah ,horsetails1 #cde ,hydrozoa1 #acj ,hym5opt]a1 #cje ,hypna1 #cfe ,ian?9a1 #bdb ,illecebrace1 #dab1 #dbe ,ina*us1 #bhi ,infusoria1 #ajd1 #aab ,insecta 7,insects71 #beg1 #bid1 #cje ,inula1 #daa ,irida1 #cfd ,iri% ,moss1 #fa1 #cfd ,isoc>dia1 #bab ,isopoda1 #bfg1 #cjd ,isotoma1 #bii ,jania1 #cgj ,jelly-fi%es1 #abg1 #acd ,john ,dory1 #cch ,juncace1 #djj1 #dbc ,juncus1 #djj ,keyhole ,limpet1 #bda ,knappia1 #cig ,knot-grasses1 #djd ,knott$ ,wrack1 #chf ,koniga1 #dai ,labial palpi1 #aig ,labrid1 #cbi ,lactuca1 #daj ,lacuna1 #bdd ,lady ,crab1 #bib ,lamellibran*iata 7,lamellibran*s71 #aia1 #aib1 #bee ,lam9>ia1 #chd ,lam9>iace1 #chd1 #cij ,lampreys1 #cjh ,la?yrus1 #dac ,laur5cia1 #cgj ,laur5ciace1 #cgj1 #cij ,lavat]a1 #dae ,lav]1 #fa1 #ced ,lea!sia1 #cha ,l$a1 #bag ,legum9os1 #dac1 #dbe ,lemon ,sole1 #cbf ,l5ses1 #ia ,lepadoga/]1 #ccj ,lepidopt]a1 #cje ,lepturus1 #cie ,less] ,rue1 #dbb ,leucosol5ia1 #aba ,ligia1 #bfh ,liliace1 #djb1 #dbc ,limnoria1 #bfh ,limpets1 #dc1 #bch ,l+1 #cbh ,li?odes1 #bhb ,litosiphon1 #chc ,little ,lettuce1 #daj ,littor9a1 #bdc ,littor9id1 #bdd1 #bee ,liv]worts1 #cdd ,lob/] pots1 #bf ,lob/]s1 #bgd pres]v+1 #ha ,loligo1 #beb ,lom5t>ia1 #cga ,long-arm$ ,crab1 #bhf ,lophius1 #ccf ,luc9id1 #bac1 #bee ,lugworm1 #ci1 #agh ,lutr>ia1 #bji ,lycopodiales1 #cde1 #cdh ,ma*ilis1 #bih ,mack]el1 #ccg ,macrura1 #bga1 #bgi1 #cjd ,mactra1 #bji ,mactrid1 #bji1 #bee ,maia1 #bhi ,malaco/raca1 #bff1 #cjd ,malvace1 #dae1 #dbe ,mammals1 #cjg1 #cci ,mantis ,%rimps1 #bgj ,m>g9ella1 #bdh ,m>9e aqu>ium1 #ea ,m>sipobran*ii1 #cjh ,mat-grass1 #cif ,matric>ia1 #daa ,mat?iola1 #dah ,maug]ia1 #cff ,mead[ ,grasses1 #cie ,mead[ ,rue1 #dba ,m$us1 #acd ,m$usoids1 #acc ,melanosp]me1 #cej1 #cgf1 #bij ,melobesia1 #cgj ,m]luccius1 #cbh ,mesembryan!mum1 #adb ,mes5t]ies1 #aci ,mesogloia1 #cha ,me?ylat$ _s1 #gb ,mi*aelmas ,daisy1 #daj ,micralymma1 #cjc ,milkwort1 #daf ,millep$es1 #cje ,modiola1 #bah ,molluscs1 #aij -- bivalve1 #aib -- classification1 #bee ,molva1 #cbh ,mon]a1 #aaj ,monocotyl$ons1 #cdg1 #cia1 #dbc ,montagu's ,suck]1 #cca ,morone1 #cch ,moss ,polyps1 #ahh ,mosses1 #cdd ,motella1 #cbh ,mud-burr[]1 #bgg ,mugil1 #ccb ,mugilid1 #ccb ,mullid1 #cch ,mullus1 #cch ,murex1 #bdi ,muricid1 #bdi1 #bee ,murl9s1 #che ,musci1 #cdd1 #cdh ,musc9e1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cdh ,museum1 #hh ,mussels1 #db1 #bag ,mu/elus1 #cbj ,mya1 #bje ,myacid1 #bje1 #bee ,myrionema1 #cha ,myriopoda1 #beg1 #cje ,myriotri*ia1 #cgi ,mytilid1 #bag1 #bee ,mytilus1 #bag ,naiadace1 #djj1 #dbc ,nassa1 #bdi ,natica1 #bdf ,naticid1 #bdf1 #bee ,nautilid1 #bee ,ne$le-fi%1 #cbi ,nephrops1 #bge ,n]eis1 #bhd ,n]ophis1 #cbi ,nesa1 #bfh ,nets1 ,collect+1 #bc ,neuropt]a1 #cje ,nitophyllum1 #cfg ,noctiluca1 #aad ,norway ,lob/]1 #bge ,not*$ ,limpets1 #bdb ,nucleobran*iata1 #bcb1 #bee ,nucula1 #bag ,nudibran*iata1 #bcc1 #bee ,nummulites1 #ajh ,nummulitic lime/one1 #aaj ,nurse ,dog1 #cbj ,nut ,crabs1 #bhf ,obione1 #dje ,octopoda1 #bea1 #bee ,octopus1 #bea ,odon?alia1 #cge ,odo/omia1 #bdf ,olea/]s1 #djc ,oligo*ta1 #agg ,om>1 #bdb ,oniscoda1 #bfh ,opelet1 #adi ,op]culum1 #hc1 #bbg ,ophidiid1 #cbf ,ophiuroidea1 #aga ,opi/hobran*iata1 #bcb1 #bee ,opossum ,%rimps1 #bgj ,ora*es1 #djf ,orange-disk$ ,anemone1 #adh ,or?opt]a1 #cje ,osm]us1 #cba ,o/racoda1 #bfe1 #cjd ,o/rea1 #bba ,o/reid1 #bba1 #bee ,outdoor "w1 #ba ,ovulum1 #bdh ,oxypt]a1 #daf ,oxyrhyn*a1 #bhf ,oxy/omata1 #bhf ,oy/]s1 #bba ,pad9a1 #chb ,pagurus1 #bhb1 #bhe ,pallial l9e1 #aic ,pansy1 #dag ,papav]ace1 #dbj1 #dbf ,p>asitic ,anemone1 #aec ,patella1 #bci ,patellid1 #bee ,pat]no/]1 #dh ,pea ,crabs1 #bhi ,pea ,ur*91 #afh ,pea*ia1 #ade ,pe>l ,oy/]s1 #bai ,pect51 #bbb ,pectunculus1 #baf ,p5nant's ,crab1 #bhf ,pepp] ,dulse1 #cgj ,p]ic>dium1 #aif ,p]i/ome1 #bbf ,p]iw9kle1 #fb1 #bdc ,petaloid1 #dbc ,phal>is1 #cif ,phan]ogams1 #cdc1 #cdf1 #cdh ,phasianella1 #bdc ,pheasant ,%ell1 #bdc ,phleum1 #cig ,phocna1 #cdj ,pholadid1 #aii1 #bee ,pholadidea1 #bja ,pholas1 #bjj ,phosphoresc5ce1 #ah1 #aaa ,phyllirhoid1 #bhf ,phyllophora1 #cfe ,piddocks1 #bjj ,pil*>d1 #cbb ,pileopsis1 #bda ,pilota1 #cfa ,pimplet1 #aej ,p9na1 #bba ,p9na ,pea-crab1 #bij ,p9no!res1 #bij ,pipe-fi%es1 #cbh ,plaice1 #cbe ,plantag9ace1 #djh1 #dbd ,plantago1 #djh ,plants1 classification1 #cdc1 #cdg ,plate-gill$ ,molluscs1 #aia ,pleuronectes1 #cbf ,pleuronectid1 #cbd ,plocamium1 #fa1 #cff ,plumbag9ace1 #djh1 #dbd ,poa1 #cif ,podd$ ,sea-oak1 #chh ,podoph?almata1 #bff1 #bfi1 #cjd ,pogge1 #cce ,pollack1 #cbg ,polybius1 #bic ,polyc>pon1 #dac ,poly*ta1 #agg ,polygala1 #daf ,polygalace1 #daf1 #dbf ,polygonace1 #djd1 #dbd ,polygonum1 #djd ,polypetal1 #djc ,polypogon1 #cig ,polysiphonia1 #cgb ,poly/omata1 #aae ,polyzoa1 #ahh ,porcela9 ,crab1 #bhj ,porcellana1 #bhj ,porif]a1 #aae ,porphyra1 #cee ,porpoise1 #cci ,portl& ,spurge1 #djc ,portunus1 #bib ,prawn1 #dd1 #bgh ,pres]vation ( m>9e objects1 #ga ,pres]vatives1 #gb ,prickly ,cockle1 #bae ,prickly ,salt-wort1 #djg ,primulace1 #dbd ,prosobran*iata1 #bcb1 #bcf ,protophyta1 #cdc1 #cdg ,protoplasm1 #ajb ,protopla/a1 #ajd1 #aaj ,protozoa1 #ajb -- classification1 #ajd ,psammobia1 #bjh ,pt]opoda1 #bcj1 #bee ,pulmonif]a1 #bee ,punct>ia1 #chc ,puncturella1 #bda ,purple ,spurge1 #djc ,purple-tipp$ ,ur*91 #afh ,purpura1 #bdi ,pycnogonum1 #bic ,pyramidellid1 #bdf1 #bee ,radiata1 #adj ,radiol>ia1 #ajd1 #aaj ,ragworm1 #dj1 #agi ,raiid1 #cah ,ranunculace1 #dbb1 #dbf ,raphanus1 #dbj ,rays1 #cah ,r$ ,mullets1 #cch ,r$-speck$ ,pimplet1 #aej ,reptilia1 #cjg ,res$a1 #dag ,res$ace1 #dag1 #dbf ,rhizoc>pe1 #cde1 #cdh ,rhizopods1 #ajd ,rhizo/oma1 #acf ,rhodomela1 #cgb ,rhodomelace1 #cgb1 #cij ,rhodophyllis1 #fa ,rhodosp]me1 #cej1 #cee1 #chi ,rhodym5ia1 #fa1 #cfe1 #cfg ,rhodym5iace1 #cfe1 #chi ,rhombus1 #cbf ,rhyn*ota1 #big1 #cje ,rissoa1 #bdd ,rock-fi%es1 #df ,rockl+s1 #cbh ,rock-pools1 #f1 #ca ,rosy ,anemone1 #adi ,rosy ,fea!r ,/>1 #afj ,rotif]s1 #ahi ,ru%es1 #djj ,rytiphla1 #cge ,sabella1 #ahd ,saddle ,oy/]1 #bbb ,sag>tia1 #adf ,sag9a1 #daf ,salicornia1 #djg ,salmo1 #cba ,salmon1 #cba ,salmon ,dace1 #cci ,salmonid1 #cba ,salsola1 #djg ,salt-wort1 #djg ,s& ,eels1 #cbf ,s&hopp]s1 #bfh -- pres]v+1 #ha ,s& ,smelts1 #ccb ,s&worm1 #agh ,saxicava1 #bjc ,scal>ia1 #bdd ,scallops1 #bbb ,sc5tless ,maywe$1 #daa ,s*izopoda1 #cjd ,s*izym5ia1 #fa1 #cfd ,scirpus1 #cii ,scomb]1 #ccg ,scomb]id1 #ccg ,scorpionid1 #cjd ,scorpion ,spid]-crab1 #bhi ,scurvy ,grass1 #dai ,scylliid1 #cai ,scyllium1 #cai ,sea angl+1 #cd -- ,a/]1 #daj -- ,buck?orn1 #djc -- ,bullheads1 #cce -- ,bream1 #cch -- ,campion1 #dae -- ,c>rot1 #daa -- ,cat1 #ccd -- ,cat's-tail ,grass1 #cig -- ,cucumb]s1 #afi -- ,devil1 #ccf -- ,eggs1 #afe -- -- pres]v+1 #gi -- ,girdles1 #chd -- ,grass1 #fa1 #cec1 #djj -- ,h>d-grass1 #cie -- ,holly1 #dab -- ,kale1 #dbj -- ,lav5d]1 #dji -- ,lemons1 #bcc -- ,lettuce1 #fa -- ,loa*1 #cbh -- ,lyme-grass1 #cie -- ,mall[1 #dae -- ,mat1 #ahh -- ,mead[ ,grass1 #cif -- ,m\se1 #agi -- ,pe>l-wort1 #daf -- ,p]*1 #cch -- ,pill-ball1 #bfh -- ,p9k1 #djh -- ,purslane1 #djf1 #daf -- ,radi%1 #dbj -- ,re$1 #cif -- ,rocket1 #dbj -- ,ru%es1 #djj -- ,salt1 #ag1 #ei -- ,saltness (1 #ag -- ,samphire1 #daa -- ,s&-wort1 #dae -- ,s$ge1 #cih -- ,slat]1 #bfh -- ,slugs1 #bcc -- ,snails1 #cca -- ,spurge1 #djc -- ,squirts1 #ahh -- ,/ock1 #dah -- ,/ork's-bill1 #dad -- ,ur*9s1 #aeg1 #afe -- -- pres]v+1 #gi -- -- %ell (1 #aff -- tee?1 #afg -- wat]1 artificial1 #ei -- composition1 #ei -- we$s1 #cdc -- -- classification1 #chi -- -- pres]v+1 #hf -- ,wormwood1 #daj ,seaside ,arr[ ,grass1 #dja -- ,b9dwe$1 #dji -- ,cottonwe$1 #daj -- ,fev]few1 #daa -- ,grasses1 #cib -- ,knot ,grass1 #djd -- ,planta91 #djh -- plants1 #cia -- classification1 #dbc ,section cutt+1 #if ,s$ges1 #cih ,selag9ellales1 #cde1 #cdh ,sepia1 #bec ,sepiad1 #bec1 #bee ,sepiola1 #beb ,s]pula1 #ahe ,s]ranid1 #cch ,s]rat$ ,pill-ball1 #bfh ,s]rat$ ,wrack1 #chf ,s]tul>ia1 #abh ,sessile-ey$ cru/aceans1 #bff ,%anny1 #ccc ,%>ks1 #cah ,%ells1 pres]v+1 #hc ,%ore ,crab1 #bfa1 #bia -- ,spid]1 #bic ,%rimps1 #bgh -- pres]v+1 #ha ,%rubby ,mignonette1 #dag ,sil5e1 #dae ,silicia1 #abb ,siphonace1 #ceh1 #chi ,siphonida1 #aih1 #bee ,siphono/omata1 #bcf1 #bdg1 #bee ,six-ray$ ,sponges1 #aai ,skates1 #cah ,sl5d]-beak$ ,crab1 #bhi ,sloke1 #fa1 #cee ,smelt1 #cba ,smoo? ,h\nd1 #cbj ,snoods1 #cg ,solanace1 #dji1 #dbd ,solanum1 #dji ,soldi] ,crab1 #bhj ,sole1 #cbf ,solea1 #cbf ,solecurtus1 #bjg ,sol5id1 #bee ,sp>id1 #cch ,sp>t9a1 #cig ,sp>us1 #cch ,sp]gul>ia1 #dae ,sphacel>ia1 #bgi ,sphrococcoide1 #cff1 #cij ,sphrococcus1 #cff ,sphroma1 #bfh ,spicules1 #aah ,spid] ,crabs1 #bhh ,spike ,ru%1 #cii ,sp9y-f9n$ fi%es1 #cbi ,spirorbis1 #ahg ,sponges1 #aae ,spongioc>pe1 #cij ,spoon ,worms1 #agf ,sporo*nace1 #che1 #cij ,sporo*nus1 #che ,spott$ ,dogfi%1 #cbj ,spott$ ,hog-l\se1 #bfh ,sp\t ,%ell1 #bde ,sprats1 #cbc ,spr+-tails1 #bii ,spurges1 #djc ,spyridia1 #cfc ,spyridiace1 #cfh1 #chi ,squam>i1 #cij ,squid1 #beb ,squirt ,worms1 #agf ,/alk-ey$ cru/aceans1 #bff1 #bfi ,/>fi%es1 #aeg -- pres]v+1 #gi ,/>gaz]s1 #ccf ,/atice1 #djh ,/5orhyn*us1 #bhi ,/icklebacks1 #cca ,/ilophora1 #chc ,/+ ,bull1 #ccg ,/+ ,fi%1 #cce ,/ock1 #dah ,/omopoda1 #bfi1 #cjd ,/one ,crab1 #bhj ,/rawb]ry ,beadlet1 #adb ,suck] ,fi%es1 #ccj ,sweet ,alyssum1 #dai ,swimm+ ,crab1 #bic ,sycon1 #aba ,syngna?id1 #cbh ,syngna?us1 #cbi ,tam>iscace1 #dac1 #dbe ,tam>isk1 #dac ,tangles1 #chd ,tapes1 #baa ,tealia1 #adc ,tectibran*iata1 #bch1 #bee ,tectibran*s1 #bcf ,teleo/omi1 #cah1 #cbj ,tell9a1 #bjh ,tell9id1 #bjg1 #bee ,t]ebella1 #aha ,t]ebratul9a1 #bbe ,t]$o1 #bja ,tetrabran*iata1 #bee ,?alictrum1 #dba ,?allophytes1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cdg ,tri*opt]a1 #cje ,?ornback ,crab1 #bhi ,?racia1 #bjd ,?rift1 #djh ,?ui>ia1 #acb ,?ysanopt]a1 #bih1 #cje ,tides1 #i ,too? %ells1 #bch ,top %ells1 #bdc ,tra*9id1 #ccf ,tra*9us1 #ccg ,treacle ,mu/>d1 #dah ,tree ,mall[1 #dae ,trefoil1 #dac ,trifolium1 #dac ,triglo*91 #dja ,triopa1 #bce ,tritonia1 #bce ,tritoniad1 #bce ,trivia1 #bdh ,tro*us1 #bdc ,trumpet ,anemone1 #ada ,tubul>ia1 #acb ,tunicates1 #ahh ,turbell>ia1 #age ,turb9id1 #bdc1 #bee ,turbot1 #cbf ,turkey-fea!r ,lav]1 #chb ,turret %ells1 #bde ,turritella1 #bdd ,turritellid1 #bdd1 #bee ,tw9-bladd] ,wrack1 #chg ,two-spott$ ,suck]1 #cca ,ulva1 #fa1 #ced ,ulvace1 #chi1 #ced ,umbellif]1 #daa1 #dbe ,umbilicus1 #bbf ,umbo1 #aic ,vascul> cryptogams1 #cde ,velut9a1 #bdg ,velvet ,crab1 #bib ,v5]id1 #baj1 #bee ,v5us1 #baj ,v]mes1 #agb ,v]tebrates1 #cjf ,vet*1 #dac ,vicia1 #dac ,viola1 #dag ,violace1 #dag1 #dbf ,violet ,fiddl]1 #bib ,wat] ,f]ns1 #cde ,weav]s1 #ccf ,w$ge %ells1 #bjh ,:ales1 #cdj ,:eel animals1 #ahi ,:elks1 #bdh ,:irl ,worms1 #age ,:i/le ,fi%1 #cbh ,:itebait1 #cbc ,:ite ,salmon1 #cci ,:it+1 #cbg ,wild ,cabbage1 #dah ,wild ,cel]y1 #dab ,w+ %ells1 #bai ,wolf ,fi%1 #ccd ,woody ,night%ade1 #dji ,worms1 #agb -- p>asitic1 #agd ,worm ,pipe-fi%1 #cbi ,wrangeliace1 #chi ,wrasses1 #cbi ,xan?o1 #bib ,xylophaga1 #bja ,yell[ ,poppy1 #dbj ,zeus1 #cch ,zoan?>ia1 #ach ,zo>ces1 #ccc ,zon>ia1 #chb ,zo/]a1 #cec1 #djj ,pr9t$ 9 ,engl& at ,,! ,,ballantyne ,,press ,,spottiswoode1 ,,ballantyne ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,col*e/]1 ,london ,eton ,transcrib]'s ,note ,m9or inconsi/5cies 9 ! punctuation ( tables or captions are sil5tly correct$4 ,hyph5ation is v>iable4 ,^? comp\nd words :i* are hyph5at$ only on l9e breaks are r5d]$ us+ mod]n usage4 ,! ^w 'movable' appe>s only once z 'moveable' 7#afe71 :i* is reta9$4 ,! index entry = 'pophilus' is consid]$ to be an error4 ,all in/ances ( ! ^w appe> 9 ! text z 'pophilus'4 ,?is has be5 correct$ & mov$ to ! appropriate alphabetic position4 ,! foll[+ corrections 7 made to obvi\s pr9t]'s errors1 devele_/op$ 7#ccf72 con_/mpos$ 7#cfd72 ,! foll[+ li/ conta9s punctuation corrections made3 p4 #fe "o ( !m4 ,add$4 p4 #bee ,class ,,lamellibran*iata ,add$ to mat* o!r entries4 p4 #beg _! t5d5cies1_/4 ,correct$4 p4 #bib l[-wat]-m>k ,unhyph5at$ else:]e4 p4 #cdj 7,cetacea7 ,add$4 p4 #cij 9 firm gelat9e1_/4 ,correct$4 p4 #djc by its /ipul$ leaves4 ,add$4 p4 #dcd ,rhodosp]me1 #cej1 #cee1 #chi ,add$4